I «SX' * 111 liii m mm® \ «ffl iiiii m ill Hi liffii lians if! ,'i!!- i I! liiPII i!i;;i! Illllil ! i!iliili ill ii!M« iiii I iiliii ■fni ];i I!! H«S .,! .^, ti#4w: / I Wmm 11UIU ■* lli .'ffiffijf BSiPi fli iiiii a liii Am i ;!! MHtt ,'** iiiji ■il sip © ! m Si ■ m lliiilipiiiii mm ffisffll an PP Mm! i? mm \rnrn 1 ±m ffisaHggisis il •: ; illHiy if Hil! '"Sr'S JiffilHHHH fMffi lapp J® s : I iHppH ■ pHiiipfiippp WSml HEEit35H 3 II I IffifiifiSW: 1 i 'A m\ ■111'.; Hi Hi w li SHI nip a j lima ! Sip IIS :i «f as II ill II till il ill •IMA' Class IS:. Book_ J: I Copigliffl? ©JEffilGHT DEPOSIT. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/universalsheetmeOOneub The Universal Sheet Metal Pattern Cutter A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON ALL BRANCHES OF SHEET METAL PATTERN DEVELOPMENT Volume II ARCHITECTURAL SHEET METAL WORK Including Drawing, (Full Size) Detailing and Lettering, Development and Construction of Sheet Metal Cornices and Skylights, Leaders, Roof Gutters and Conductor Offsets, Moldings, Miters, Pedi- ments, Copings, Finials, Circular Work, Dormer and Bay Windows, Sheet Metal Ornamentation, Electrically Il- luminated Signs, Hollow Metal Windows, Frames and Fire Doors, Metal Roofing, etc.; Reading Plans and Taking Off Sheet Metal Items and Quantities. BY WILLIAM NEUBECKER ILLUSTRATED BY MEANS OF 711 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS SHOWING ALL METHODS UNDER TREATMENT, AS WELL AS PERSPECTIVE VIEWS OF THE SUBJECTS OF THE PATTERN AND OTHER DEMONSTRATIONS, IN THEIR FINISHED STATE THE SHEET METAL PUBLICATION COMPANY Tribune Building, 154 Nassau Street NEW YORK, N. Y. 1922 u ** Copyright, 1922, by Thk Sheet Metal Publication Company .3 JAN -7 1922 IBLA653443 PREFACE — Of great assistance and encouragement in the publication of Volume Two has been the generous welcome and favorable criticism on the part of draftsmen and sheet metal workers, attending the appearance of Volume One of which reprint edi- tions were soon required to meet the general demand. The classification of the subject matter of the two volumes of this treatise brings to Volume Two, chapters that have to do principally with sheet metal work on the exteriors of buildings. The discussions are not confined exclusively to solutions of problems of pattern development and connected subjects, without regard for other phases of trade practice not coming specifically within the range of treatment suggested by the title chosen for this work. This would necessitate omitting impor- tant chapters which it is believed are highly desirable to include with the object of affording the sheet metal worker full access to various methods usually applied in his daily routine. Therefore, while adhering to the purpose of hav- ing the two volumes of the work present a very comprehensive series of pattern demonstrations em- bracing all prominently typical examples and for- mations of sheet metal work, the present volume aims to incorporate full information as to methods relating to each given branch of sheet metal work, including the procedure of manipulating the metal and executing the work at hand. Parts I to III of this volume were prepared with special regard for the requirements of the drafts- man and student sheet metal worker. Mainly, this material was prepared by the late George W. Kitt- redge. It treats : i — The terms and definitions of architecture and sheet metal work, with engravings of members, parts, constructional features and uses of sheet metal, comprising an illustrated dictionary. 2 — The principles of projection or, in other words, the mechanical representation of objects on the draw- ing board. 3 — Architectural design, methods of drafting, detailing and the groundwork instruction for qualifying the operative to design and propor- tion sheet metal work for the various ornamental and architectural purposes for which it is extensively applied in the equipment of buildings. Proceeding from the chapters designed for the preparation and training of the mechanic, this vol- ume takes up in Parts IV to XV the numerous and varied solutions and discussions of methods desig- nated in the general table of contents. These methods comprise the major portion of the contents of Volume Two. They form the basis of its appeal as a work of reference for the use of sheet metal workers in many branches of the calling who, it is hoped, will find it ever responsive and reliable as a source of help. Part XVI is designed as a concise treatise and key to assist the many who, through lack of opportunity or experience are unfamiliar with the reading, or interpretation, of architects' plans and the language of scale drawings. Part XVII, which concludes the work, is devoted to methods of taking off items and quantities from plans, a subject requiring the closest attention of those who aim to become proficient as estimators. We believe the reader will readily share in the opinion that the two volumes of this work are an impressive testimonial to the high standard of the diversified calling of the sheet metal worker, which vocation while presenting numerous and varied ex- actions upon the skill of the operative, also affords, exceptional opportunity to such as become compe- tent in its pursuit. In few industries will individual success be more largely achieved by the capacity to> study and utilize information on mechanical and technical procedure. Thus, it would seem that there is almost no limit to the advantages to be gained by frequent reference to and study of so great a range of methods as are presented in Volumes One and Two. William Neubecker. CONTENTS PART I PAGE Terms and Definitions . 7 Alphabetical List of Terms 21 PART II Principles of Projection in Architectural Drawing 23 PART III Architectural Design, Detailing and Lettering 30 PART IV Patterns for Sheet Metal Cornices, Return, Face, Bevel and Butt Miters, Panels, Moldings, Pediments, Dormer and Bay Windows 53 PART V Patterns for Leader Heads, Roof Gutters and Conductor Offsets 104 PART VI Raking Moldings and Brackets for Angular and Segmental Pediments 122 PART VII Reduced Miters for Horizontal and Inclined Moldings and Intersections of Molds of Dis- similar Profile 144 PART VIII Patterns for Roof Flanges, Collars, Ventilator Bases and Hoods 158 PART IX Patterns for Copings, Head Blocks, Hip Ridges, Finials and Spires 174 PART X Circular Sheet Metal Work: Patterns for Spheres, Louvres, Panels, Finials, Dormer and Bay Windows, Cornices and Segmental Pediments 192 PART XI Ornamental Sheet Metal Work: Patterns for Ornaments, Brackets, Chamfers, Panels, Molded Transitions, Gores, Keystones, Urns, Shields and Shafts 213 PART XII Construction of Electrically Illuminated Sheet Metal Signs; with Method of Securing the Receptacles for Wiring 241 PART XIII Construction of Hollow Metal Windows, Frames, Sashes, Fire Doors and Shutters . . 249 PART XIV Development and Construction of the Various Types of Sheet Metal Skylights ... . 263 PART XV Sheet Metal Roofing, Gutters and Siding . 312 PART XVI Plan Reading 33 8 PART XVII Estimating Items and Quantities of Sheet Metal in the Construction of Buildings . . 363 PART I TERMS AND DEFINITIONS I. What is termed an Order in architecture is one of the five principal methods of constructing and ornamenting a building (exemplified mainly in the portico). There are five orders of architecture, viz : Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Com- posite. An order con- sists of a pedestal, a col- umn and an entablature. Fig. i shows an outline drawing of the Ionic order. 2. A Pedestal is a structure consisting mainly of a block of stone (or the represen- tation of such) duly ornamented, whose use is to support a column, statue, vase or any orna- ment which requires be- ing placed in a conspicu- ous position. It consists of a base, a die and a cap or cornice. Designs for pedestals include one for each of the five orders. In modern architecture they may be of fanciful shapes to suit the char- acter of surrounding work. The lower part of Fig. i shows the ped- estal for the Ionic order, which does not differ much from that of the Corinthian order. 3. A Column is pri- marily a pillar or support for the roof or upper part of any superstruc- ture. In architecture it is cylindrical in shape and occupies a vertical position. A column is usually used in its entirety but may be united with a wall, when it is said to be an engaged column. In such Fig. I. — The Ionic Order case it projects from the wall one-half its diameter or more. There is one for each of the ancient orders, each being designed according to a prescribed set of proportions. It consists of a base, including a plinth, a shaft and a capital, all as shown in Fig. 1. While the designs of the bases do not differ greatly for the several orders, each order has a capital which is distinctively its own. 4. A Pilaster is a pillar or support but differs from a column in that it is square in plan instead of round. Although sometimes used in its entirety it is usually engaged, that is, projects from the face of the wall of which it forms a part. It may thus pro- ject very little or it may project as much as half or even three quarters of its diameter. A pilaster usu- ally has parallel sides while a column tapers, being smaller at the neck than its base as shown in Fig. 1. 5. A Capital is the head or upper member of a column or pilaster. Its design varies according to the order or style of architecture employed. It con- sists usually of a neck, mold, a bell and an abacus. The bell is usually decorated with foliage, though sometimes is entirely plain. The form and details vary perhaps more for capitals than for any other unit of design all of which can be learned only from an exhaustive work on architecture. 6. An Entablature , which signifies literally the putting on of boards, may be described as the finish of an order, as in a portico or at the top of a wall. It consists of three parts, the lintel or architrave, the frieze and the cornice. In Fig. 1 the different parts of an ancient entablature are shown and their names given. 7. The Architrave is the first or lower division of the entablature. It is an ornamented lintel, which is in reality a stone or timber placed across the space from one column to another and is designed to support that which is placed above it. 8. The Frieze is the second or middle division of the entablature and may be considered as a con- tinuation of the wall to add hight to the building (it being understood that the columns stand in the place of the wall). Its purpose in ancient buildings was the display of symbols, inscriptions or ornamen- 8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER tation, suitable to the purpose of the building. In modern work it is often ornamented by panels, but its principal use is that of displaying signs. 9. The Cornice is the uppermost projecting and must ornate part of the entablature. In the Tuscan order it is very plain, consisting of simple moldings, but in the other orders dentils or modillions, some- times both are introduced and most if not all of the moldings have their surfaces carved with enrich- ments. In modern times and especially by sheet metal contractors, the term cornice constitutes as it were, a unit of design and has come by common usage 'to be applied to the entire entablature or as much of it as is used as a finish upon a wall often ! T CROWN MOLD PLANCLER Fascia -MOOILIION-HEAO- 5 IDE OF MODULI ON MOD I L LI ON DENTILS DENTIL MOLD A STILL K PANEL MOLD — PANEL 1 /. >' FOOT MOLD Fasc/a Fig. -A Cornice and Its Parts of other material as brick, terra cotta or stone. A cornice of modern design as well as the names of the several parts and members are shown in Fig. 2. 10. Lintel Cornice is designed to form a finish above the first story, that is in connection with the lintel. 11. The term Deck Cornice is applied to the moldings forming the finish around or along the top of a mansard roof, or to finish the edge of any flat roof where it joins a steeper roof below. 12. A Pediment is a triangular or segmentally arched ornamental finish to the wall surface over the end of a building portico, formed by dividing and varying the pitch or inclination of the cornice. Pediments are termed Triangular, Segmental or Broken according to their form or design, several forms of which are shown in Fig. 3. 13. A Triangular Pediment is one in which the cornices above the wall surface are straight but in- clined, thus meeting at an apex above the middle of the design and forming a triangular space between the upper and lower or level cornices, known as the tympanum, as shown in diagram 3, Fig. 3. 14. A Segmental Pediment is one in which the upper cornice forms an arc of a circle thus leaving the tympanum segmental in shape, at the top, as in Fig. 3, diagram 2. 15. A Broken or Open Pediment may be either triangular or segmental in shape having the central portion of its cornice above the tympanum omitted to make room for an ornamental design, the upper cornice being terminated according to any one of several methods as in diagrams 4 and 5 in Fig. 3. 16. A Gable is that part of the end of a building contained between and below two sloping roofs, shown in diagram 3, Fig. 3. 17. An Arch is that which forms the top, usu- ally curved, of an opening in a wall. Its curve is usually a semicircle, an ellipse, or consists of two or more arcs of circles and is constructed to be self- supporting and to support also that part of a wall or structure which is above it. In a semi-circular arch a horizontal line drawn through the center is termed the springing line, Fig. 4, and if of masonry, the joints between the blocks radiate from the center of the circle at a in Fig. 4. The system of joints by which it is rendered self- supporting is sometimes applied to a number of stones placed so as to form a horizontal line in which it is known as a Flat Arch. Fig. 5. 18. A Modillion would be best understood if de- fined as a kind of bracket. In its original form it is used as a support under the Ionic and the Corin- thian Cornices. It differs from the usual form of bracket in that it has more projection than depth. It is sometimes called a cantilever. One form is shown in Fig. 2 and another in Fig. 6. 19. A Bracket in sheet metal is simply an orna- ment to the cornice and like the modillion simu- lates a support to the projecting part. Fig. 7. 20. A Dentil is also a cornice ornament of rect- angular shape and much smaller than a modillion. Dentils are placed less than their face width apart and thus form a course which is placed in the bed of a cornice below the modillions, when modillions are used. Fig. 2. 21. A Corbel is a form of bracket intended to appear as the support of window sills or caps, or of arches in the place of columns. Fig. 8. 22. A Head Block is a large bracket placed at the end of a main or lintel cornice and is of suffi- TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Fig. 3. — Various Forms of Pediments cient projection to receive all the moldings of the cornice, and thus form a finish to the same as shown in Fig. 9. 23. A Finial is an ornament designed to form the finish at the top of a spire, pinnacle, pediment, gable or roof. Fig. 10. 24. A Volute is an ornament consisting of a fillet or small flat member accompanied by a hollow mold, curved into a spiral and placed under the angles of the abacus in the Corinthian, Ionic and Composite capitals, as shown in Fig. II. 25. A Pinnacle is a slender turret rising higher than the main building, used usually about the base of a larger tower or steeple. It may be called a small spire. Fig. 12. 26. A Panel is a compartment usually sunken below but sometimes raised above any plane surface, as a frieze in a ceiling, a door, etc. The part or margin surrounding the panel usually of uniform width is called the Stile. Fig. 2. 27. A Baluster is a small column, usually of fanciful design, used to support the rail of a stair- case. In external sheet metal work the baluster in Fig. 13 usually stands upon a base rail and support an upper rail, when the whole combination consti- tutes a Balustrade, which is usually placed in sec- tions separated by pedestals. Sometimes the spaces between pedestals is filled by plain panels instead of balusters, in which case the combination is known as a Pedestal Course. 28. A Molding is a combination of parallel forms both angular and curved, projecting from a wall or other plane surface. 29. A Crown Mold is the upper and most pro- jecting member of a cornice. One is shown in Fig. 2. 30. A Plancecr is the lower or under side of the projecting part of a cornice. It represents the under side of the stone, called in stone architecture, the Corona. Fig. 2. 31. The Bed Moldings of a cornice comprise the IO THF UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER molding or group of moldings lying between the planceer and the frieze and include sometimes a course for modillions, or a course for dentils or both. See Fig. 2. 32. A Cap Mold is the upper mold or member of the group, if there are more than one. It is carried around the top of the brackets or modillions to form a head or cap. Fig. 2. 33. The Modillion Mold is that line of molding running below the modillions. The plain surface or band above the molding and back of the modillions is called the Modillion Band. Fig. 2. 34. The Dentil Mold is that line of molding run- ning below and back of the dentils. Fig. 2. 35. The Foot Mold is a term used to designate the lowest mold of the cornice. It is usually a simple mold of suitable design but is sometimes designed to represent an architrave which it replaces in ordinary cornice work and it is often so called. See Fig. 2. 36. Gable Mold is the name applied to the in- clined moldings forming the cornice or finish of a gable or pediment. $7. A Ridge Mold is the cap or mold, usually in the form of a roll, used as a finish and protection to the ridge of a roof. Fig. 14. 38. A Hip Mold is a mold of similar design to a ridge mold, and is similarly used upon the hips or angles of a roof. Fig. 14. 39. A Fascia is a surface or band, usually plain but sometimes enriched, just below a mold. Fig. 2. 40. A Fillet is a narrow member of a mold usually plain, placed above, between or below those which are curved in profile. Fig. 15. 41. A Drip is a downward extension of any pro- jecting member or fascia used to prevent the water from running back and thereby down over the parts below. Fig. 15. 42. The term Raking Mold signifies any mold placed in an inclined position as in a gable or pedi- ment, and therefore since it is necessary in order to effect a perfect miter at a horizontal angle that the profile of the mold forming one arm of the miter should be changed, the mold so treated is termed a Raked Mold and the miter made between the two arms is termed a rake miter. 43. A Raked Profile is the profile ot a mold which has been changed from the normal to make a miter. Raked profiles are shown in most of the problems relating to pediments. 44. A Normal Profile is the original or adopted profile for the main part of the cornice from which the raked profile is derived. 45. The Return of a mold is the part running at right angles in the plan to the part forming, or run- ning parallel with the front. 46. The term Soffit refers to the underside of any projecting member of a cornice as a mold or fillet. It is sometimes synonymous with "planceer." Fig. 2. _ 47. A Stay is a piece of sheet metal cut to the profile of a mold. Fig. 16. 48. A Hip is the angle formed when the two sloping sides of a roof meet to form an external angle. 49. A Valley is formed when the sloping roofs meet so as to form an internal angle. 50. A Sink is a depression of whatever shape in a plain surface, as in a panel, the side or in the face of a bracket. See a Fig. 7. 51. Incised Work is a form of ornamentation sunken into a plain surface, forming narrow sunken lines usually in the shape of scrolls. Terms used by draftsmen will be defined in con- nection with Architectural Drawing in Part II, to which the reader is referred. 52. The Enrichment of a mold is really the carv- ing of its surface into leaves, eggs, arrows or other designs which shall embellish it without materially changing its profile. Designs for the enriched molds are stamped in short length, placed in the profile in- stead of the regular formed mold. Fig. 17 shows three types of enrichments. 53. Miter. — This term signifies primarily a joint at any angle between two pieces of molding having the same profile. The ends of the two pieces are cut off at such an angle as will bisect the angle of junction. It is a term originally used in carpentry, hence in reading the definitions one must have in mind pieces of wooden molding sawed off at the same angle, one right and the other left, so that the angle of the finished miter made by matching the pieces together is twice that of either piece. The term has, however, been extended by sheet metal workers to signify a joint between dissimilar parts, as when a molding, cylinder, cone or any geometrical solid is joined to any geometrical surface or solid. Every miter therefore has two parts or arms. "When the arms are similar and both arms are in the same vertical plane it is spoken of as a face miter. When both arms are in the same horizontal plane it is termed a return miter in which, if the miter is made to fit or go around an exterior angle, it is called an outside miter and if to fit a reentrant or interior angle, it is called an inside miter. Miters made for the top or bottom of a gable or pediment, are spoken of as gable miters. Sometimes one end of a mold- TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ii Keystone Fig. 4. — Semi-circular Arch and Its Parts \Yvrr/77 Fig. 5.— Flat Arch Fig. 6. — Modillion wmiuv f 'iU'..i ; ', :;--.:.•: ■;'>.:V.w> ,t WfWU Fig. 7. — Brackets in Cornice Work - Corbels - Fig. 8. — Corbels on Window Cap Fig. o Head Block or End Truss Fig. 10. — Finial EBB Fig. 11. — Volute U eb H) Fig. 12. — Pinnacle Fig. 13. — Baluster m. Fig. 14.— Ridge of Hip Mold f//fet Fig. IS Fillet and Drip Stays or Profiles Fig. 16. — Stays 1 Fig. 17. — Enrichments 12 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER ing is made to fit against a surface, either plane or curved. In such case the miter has but one arm and is called a butt miter. 54. A Profile is a right section through a mold or combination of moldings. 55. Impost. — Any projecting block, bracket, cap or capital which serves as the support for the first stone of an arch, and thereby for the whole arch, as in Fig. 4. 56. Keystone. — The Top or middle stone of an arch. Fig. 4. It is usually made wider (higher) than the other stones of the arch and frequently has some device or emblem upon its face or is other- wise ornamented. The other stones of the arch are termed voussoirs. Fig. 4. Skylight Terms and Definitions 57. Skylight. — A type of window built into a roof, ceiling or ship's deck for the admission of light and ventilation. Various formations of sky- light are designed to meet different structural re- quirements of buildings. 58. Flat Skylight. — A type of skylight usually built upon roofs, where a curb flashing has been provided as in Fig. 18. Occasionally these skylights are set over flat roofs, when the pitch in the metal skylight frame occurs as at a, b, c, in Fig. 19. The construction may provide for ventilation, without impairing the light surface, by placing a ventilator along the elevated part of the skylight. See Fig. 20. 59. Double Pitched Skylight. — A skylight hav- ing a slope in two directions. Fig. 21. When this type of skylight does not exceed 4 ft. width, from a to b, Fig. 21, the ends a, b, c are constructed of metal. If of greater width the ends may be con- structed of material alike to that of the roof, after which the metal roof covering is applied. This type of skylight is occasionally provided with a ridge ^z±H±i±tap^ Fig. 19. — Flat Skylight with Pitch in Metal Frame, for Flat Roofs Fig. 20 Flat Skylight with Ventilator 'i // 1 tli /1 // Fig. 18 Flat Skylight on Pitched Roof Fig. 22. — Double Pitch Skylight with Ridge Ventilator Fig. 23. — Double Pitch Skylight with Tubular Ventilator 21.— Double Pitch Skylight Fig. 26. — Plain Hipped Skylight Fig. 24. — Double Pitch Sky- light with Stationary or Mov- able Louvres Fig. 25 Skylight over Ridge of Roof Fig. 27. — Hipped Skylight with Tubular Ventilators Fig. 28. — Hipped Skylight with Ridge Ventilator Fig. 29. — Movable or Stationary Louvres Under Skylight Semi-Hipped Skylight Fig. 31. — Movable Sashes under Extension Skylight Fig. 32. — Movable Sashes under Hipped Skylight TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 13 ventilator, as shown in Fig. 22. Another method is to set in tubular ventilators at the ends, as in Fig. 23 or stationary or movable slats or louvres may be placed at each end, as in Fig. 24. The term "double pitch" is also applicable to skylights set over the ridge of a roof as indicated in Fig. 25. A "ridge bar" or "ridge ventilator" is frequently constructed thereon. 60. Hipped Skylight. — A type of skylight on which the four sides are sloped. Fig. 26 illustrates a "plain hipped skylight without a ventilator." This skylight is sometimes equipped with a "tubular ventilator" as shown in Fig. 27 or with a "ridge ven- tilator" as in Fig. 28. 61. Louvres. — Sloping slats set under skylights to shed rain water outwardly and provide ventil- ation. Fig. 29. Louvres are constructed to be sta- tionarv or movable. They are operated with worm gearings which are hereinafter referred to. 62. Semi-Hipped Skylight. — A type of skylight designed for junction at one of its ends to a wall. Fig. 30 shows a semi-hipped skylight set lengthwise. 63. Movable or Operated Sash. — A framework of glass placed under various types of skylight to provide for light and ventilation. The operation is by means of "worm gearings," and the use of a "pole hook" or an "endless chain." Fig. 31 shows the movable sashes used in connection with an exten- sion skylight. Fig. 32 shows the sashes placed under one end of a hipped skylight over an attic roof. 64. Extension Skylight. — A term usually ap- plied to a flat skylight placed at the rear of a build- ing and forming an extension thereto. Fig. 31. 65. Gearings. — In skylight construction, mechan- ism employed to operate movable louvres and sashes. Fig- 33- — General View of Skylight Gearing A general view of skylight gearings is shown in Fig. 33. The names of the various parts of such gearings are considered under their several desig- nations. 66. Lifting Power. — In skylight gearing, a mechanical appliance utilized for raising a skylight. In Fig. 34 the pipe a-b is constructed to a re- quired length to be reached with the pole hook, thus operating the handle a in Fig. t,t,. 67. Pole Hook. — In skylight gearing, an iron hook for mounting upon a wooden pole, used to turn skylight gearing or sashes. Fig. 35. 68. Hand Wheel. — In skylight gearing, a wheel for operating pipe connection to lifting power for operating skylight gearings. Fig. 36. t> Fig. 35 Fig. 34. — Lifting Power Pole Hook Fig. 36 Hand Wheel 69. Extension. — In skylight gearing, a device of adjustable length to accommodate the projection of a lower skylight curb. Seee Fig. yj an d Fig. 33 at b. 70. Handle. — In skylight gearing, a connection to pole hook for reaching and operating by hand a small number of sashes. See Fig. 38 and Fig. 33 at a. 71. Ann. — In skylight gearing, an accessory employed in conjunction with a Strap to assist in opening and closing sashes. See Fig. 39 and Fig. 33 at c - Fig. 38 The Handle Fig. 40 The Hinge Fig. 37 The Extension Fig. 39. — The Arm •72. Strap.— In skylight gearing, a band iron skylight sash operating connection. This accessory is cut and adjusted to accord with the bight of sash. See d in Fig. ^t,. ■jt,. Hinge. — In skylight gearing, a pivotal fit- ting bolted to the foot of metal sash for holding the strap. See Fig. 40 and c in Fig. 33. 74. Bracket.— In skylight gearing, a horizontal pipe support to which "lifting power" and "arms" are fastened. Two brackets are shown in position at h and i in Fig. 33. 14 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER 75. Collar. — In skylight gearing, a flange at- tached to the ends of the horizontal gearing pipe to prevent its sliding. Collars are usually placed at each pipe end. See I and m in Fig. 33. 76. Universal Joint. — In skylight gearing, a hinge attachment for operating skylight "lifting Fig. 41 The Bracket Fig. 42 The Collar Fig. 4.3 U .iversal Joint Fig. 44. — Chain Lifting Power with the Various Parts power" in construction requiring non-vertical drop of the handle bar, as in passing beams or intervening- members. Fig. 43. yj. Chain Lifting Power. — In skylight gearing, a chain-operated wheel gearing for controlling long lengths of movable louvres or sashes by the medium of "endless chain," Fig. 44. Skylight Curbs and Bars 78. Curb. — The base or lower frame of a sky- light, resting upon the roof frame. See A B C D in Fig. 45- Fig. 45- — Plan of Hipped Skylight with Names of Bars 79. Ridge Bar. — The framework at the ridge of a skylight. The ridge bar is incident to the con- struction of skylights having no ventilators at their ridge. Fig. 45. 80. Hip Bar. — The corner bar of a hipped sky- light, set on an external or outside angle. Fig. 45. 81. Valley Bar. — The corner bar occurring in the corner of a pitched skylight on an internal or inside angle. 82. Common Bar. — Any skylight bar which runs from curb to ridge. See a in Figs. 18, 19, 20; or A in Figs. 21 to 31 ; also Fig. 45. 83. Jack Bar. — A term applied to the bar which makes an intersection with the hip bar, as in Fig. 45. Two variations of jack bar are referred to below. 84. Common Jack Bar. — A bar the half of which intersects a ridge bar (or a ventilator) as at a in Fig. 46 and the other half the hip bar at b. 85. Center Jack Bar. — A bar which intersects directly between the center of two intersecting hip bars, as indicated in Fig. 46. . 46.— Plan of Hipped Skylight with Names of Jack Bars 86. Cap Flange. — The lower part of a curb, covering the flashing around a roof curb. See A B in Fig. 47. 87. Curb Rest. — A section of a skylight curb resting upon a roof curb, as at B D, Fig. 47. 88. Condensation Gutter. — In a skylight curb, the part of the curb which receives condensation from skylight bars. See C D in Fig. 47. 89. Rabbet. — On a skylight curb, a curb section to receive skylight glass, sometimes designated "glass rest." See E F Fig. 47. 90. Weep Holes. — Small punched holes in sky- light curb between each light of glass, as indicated in Fig. 47. They are also known as condensation holes. Condensation or Weeo Holes Condensation C. Gofter Fig. 47 The Parts of a Curb Relnforclng\strlp Fig. 48.— The Parts of a Skylight Bar 91. Condensation Gutter. — In a skylight bar, the lower part of a bar formed to a gutter for receiving drippings (condensation) resulting from contact of warm air with the cold glass surface or for receiving rain leakage between the glass and metal bars. See Fig. 48. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 15 92. Rabbet. — On a skylight bar, an intake in a bar for receiving skylight glass which latter is usu- ally imbedded there in putty. Fig. 48. 93. Re-enforcing Strip. — A band for fastening together and re-enforcing the two walls of a sky- light bar. Fig. 48. 94. Cap. — A finish between skylight glass and bar employed to conceal the unfinished edges of glass or of glass and putty. The caps are usually se- cured with copper wire or cleats. Fig. 48. 95. Cleat. — In skylight construction, a metal strip for securing eap to bar. Fig. 49. Cleats are usually made of 14. oz. sheet copper, soldered or riveted at intervals, to the skylight bars, as indi- cated. Fig. 49 Cleat and Core Plate 96. Core Plate. — A central re-enforcement of a skylight bar for imparting rigidity and resistance to wind pressure and to the weight of snow or frozen matter. Fig. 49. On large skylights of great span the construction is usually of angle iron, erected by the iron workers. Specifications usually stipulate size of core plate. 97. Saw Tooth Skylight. — A combination of flat skylight placed at an angle to the roof, forming a series of "teeth" as in a saw. Fig. 50. 98. Theatre Stage Skylight. — Types of skylight designed for amusement houses and auditoriums. ■ Fig. SO — Sectional View of Saw Tooth Skylight Two types of the stage skylight are the counter bal- anced sash, having two sashes or skylights hinged to the outer edge of the curbing or frame, which latter, if properly constructed is of hip shape permit- ting the upper edges to come together when the sashes are closed and arranged in such manner that one side of the skylight is provided with an over- hanging lip or batten to exclude snow, sleet or rain ; and the rolling type consisting of two rolling sky- lights fitted with brass wheels which revolve on hard brass tracks and are held together by means of two cords secured with a fusible link, which melts at a low temperature, as on the occasion of a fire. Stage skylights thus made conform to the regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 99. Fusible Link. — A fusible metal connection in ,-Fuse that nieltd Fig. 50a Fusible Link and Hook a skylight support, intended *o melt in case of fire. Fig. 50 a. The fusible link, disintegrating in the heat generated by fire releases the cords which hold the skylight when, by means of rolling or counter-bal- ancing, the skylight is automatically opened and an otvtlet for smoke is provided. 100. Piittylcss Skylight. — A skylight on which the glass parts are set directly upon the metal rab- Fig. si.— Puttyless Skylight Bar bet of the metallic bar. In the construction of this skylight the necessary provision for arresting leak- age is effected by condensation gutters set in the rabbet and below the bar. Fi°-. ;i. Roofing Terms 101. Eavc Gutter. — A channel for drainage of a pitched roof, set at its lowest extremity. Fig. 52. 102. Roof Gutter. — A drainage channel set upon a roof above its eaves or outside the line of a wall. See a b in Fig. 53. 103. Box Lined Gutter. — A sheathed roof drain- i6 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER age channel, lined with metal. This gutter is usually sheathed to the required pitch by the carpenter, when it is lined by the roofer with tin, galvanized iron or sheet copper. Fig. 54. \Jj ^ggl \ 1 1 1 1 N. ' 1 1 _= — — _ b\J : .. ■--—-- _- ■ ._ \ V 1 1 * i O — A Fig. 52. — Eave Gutter 3 a i Fig. 53. — Roof Gutters 104. Gutter Brace. — A support for sustaining a gutter. The brace is fastened at one of its ends to the gutter and the other end is connected to the roof. 105. Plain Leader or Conductor. — A round, square or rectangular pipe connected to a roof gutter to conduct drainage to the building line. 106. Corrugated Leader. — A roof gutter drain- age discharge pipe of corrugated sheet metal. This material is given preference as providing a leader Fig. 54 Section of Box Lined Gutter Fig. 54a A Conductor Tube Fig. 55. — Plain and Corru- gated Leader Hooks that will expand when congested with ice in periods of low temperature, thus avoiding bursting of seams. 107. Tube. — A short pipe forming a connection between a gutter and a leader. The tube is of six inches approximate length and is soldered to the gutter. Fig. 54a. 108. Conductor Hook. — A metal fastener for attaching a leader or conductor to a wall. Two styles of conductor hook, the plain and the hinged, respectively, for the plain and the corrugated leader, are shown in Fig. 55. 109. Ornamental Leader Fastener. — An ornate metal clamp placed over the hooks. Several de- signs of O. L. Fastener are shown in Fig. 56. Such fasteners are soldered to the leaders. Fig- 57 Leader Head Fig. 56 Ornamental Leader Fasteners Fig. 58 Wire Strainer 1 10. — Leader Head. — A receiver of molded or of ornamental sheet metal construction for conveying roof drainage to leader pipe. Fig. 57. The connect- ing leader indicated at A continues to the grade line or sewer pipe. in. Strainer. — A round or square shield of copper or galvanized iron wire, used to prevent clogging of tubes or leader openings. A wire 59- — Base and Cap Flashing Against a Brick Wall strainer for protecting round leader pipe is shown in Fig. 58. To accommodate the angle of tube passing through walls, a hinged strainer is fre- quently employed. 112. Rain Water Cut-Off . — A Y-shaped fitting formed by the junction of two elbows and equipped TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 17 with a central pivoted damper for the control and direction of drainage to cistern or to sewer. 113. Expansion Joint. — A movable junction in the elevated part of a gutter to provide for the ex- pansion and contraction of the metal. 114. Base Flashing. — A lower metal strip mak- ing a watertight connection for roofs and walls, in- serted under the cap flashing. See c in Fig. 59. Fig. 60. — Flashing in Stone or Terra Cotta Reglet 115. Cap Flashing. — A metal strip which usually overlaps the base flashing. See a b Fig. 59. Cap flashing is usually built into the wall as the building construction progresses. An overlap from ^ l / 2 to 4 in. is customary. 116. Reglet. — A groove molded in terra cotta or cut in stone work to receive the cap flashing. X in Fig. 60 is the reglet, A the cap flashing and B the base flashing. II". Flat Scam Roofing. — Roofing laid with flat locks, which first are cleated, locked, closed and soldered. 118. Standing Scam Roofing. — A rooting laid Fig. 61. — Cleats and Butts 1 2 Fig. 62.— Three Operations in Securing Cleats with seams extended vertically from the roof. Standing seams usually extend upward about one inch and are clcatcd and double locked. Unlike cross seams they are not soldered. 119. Cleat. — In flat seam roofing. A metal strip for fastening roofing sheets without driving nails through the sheets, thus allowing for expansion and contraction of the metal. A B and C in Fig. 61 show Fig. 63. — Cleat for Standing Seam Roofing cleats in position on 10x14 m - sheets and 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 62, shows the three operations of securing the cleat. Cleats, in standing seam roofing are shown in Fig. 63 where two views indicate the method of fastening ; the laps a and & in A are used to lock over the standing edges shown in B. 120. Butt. — An intersection of short seams in metal roofing. See a in Fig. 61. 121. Roof Flange. — A plate or ring usually, of Fig. 64.— A Step Flashing sheet lead or copper, to fit around a soil pipe, vent pipe, or stack passing through a roof. 122. Step Flashing. — A watertight metal pro- tection to a wall, run along a steep incline. Fig. 64. The metal is stepped as indicated at aa. Fig. 65. — Shingle Flashings x8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER 123. Shingle Flashing. — A watertight protection for steep roofs, adjoining parapet walls or chimneys. Fig. 65. This flashing is usually cut to 2 l / 2 in. excess of length over that to which the tile or slate is laid to the weather and the step flashing overlaps. 124. Deck Roof. — An upper roof level sur- mounting the slope of a mansard- roof. Fig. 66. DecU Roof Fig. 66.— Deck and Mansard Roofs, Dormers, Eyebrows and Deck Molding 125. Mansard Roof. — A roof having two slopes on all sides ; or an inclined roof capped with a deck, as in Fig. 66 at A B C D. 126. Deck Molding.— A molded finish or cornice placed above a mansard roof or around a deck roof at its edge. See Fig. 66 at H J. 127. Dormer Window. — A vertical window set in a sloping roof, as a mansard or pitched roof. See Fig. 66 at E E E. 128. Evebroiv Dormer Window, — A small win- down having a curved upper outline, set on a man- sard or pitched roof. See Fig. 66 at F F. 129. Saddle in Roofing.— A metal lined incline usually placed behind chimneys to shed the water to either side and prevent forming of snow pockets. Fig. 67. Fig. 67.— Saddle Behind Chimney on Pitch Roof 130. Cant Strip. — 1\ metal lined incline placed behind roof bulkheads to shed water to leader out- lets. Fig. 68. Referring to the engraving, the cant prevents water from settling at O. Cants at A and B shed the water to outlet. 131. Bulkhead in Roofing. — A superstructure built on a roof, to cover stairs, elevators, ventilation pipes, etc. 132. Shingled Roof.- — In metallic and tiled roof- ing, a term customarily applied to roofs covered with either metal shingles or tile. Fig. 68. — Cant Strips on Flat Roof 133. Hip Tile. — A tile designed for placing along the hips of a roof. 134. Ridge Tile. — A tile designed for covering the ride:e of a roof. Corrugated Metal Roofing and Siding 135. Corrugated Iron Roofing. — Corrugated metal sheets for roof covering. This material is fastened to wood purlins by means of galvanized iron nails or is fastened to angle iron purlins by means of band iron clips which are riveted to the metal roofing and bent around the purlins. 136. Corrugated Iron Siding. — Corrugated metal sheets for protecting the sides of buildings. This material is fastened to the vertical sides of struc- tures in the manner referred to in connection with corrugated iron roofing. 137. End Wall Flashing. — A metal watertight protection applied to roofs which butt against walls at the top. Fig. 69. The vertical flashing A joins the wall and the corrugated flange B overlaps the corrugated sheets. Fig. 69. — Corrugated End Wall Flashing 138. Side Wall Flashing. — A corrugated metal watertight protection applied to pitched roofs inter- secting walls at the side. Fig. 70. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 19 139. Corrugated Ridge Roll. — A coping of cor- rugated metal set at the top or ridge of roof. Fig. 71. 140. Curb Flashing. — The metal protection around a skylight or curb projecting above the roof line. Fig. 70. — Corrugated Side Wall Flashing Fig. 71. — Corrugated Ridge Roll 141. Snow Guard. — A device to prevent the slid- ing of snow from pitched roofs. Snow guards are made in the form of small hooks of copper wire to be slated in with the courses of slate or shingle roof- Others are constructed of upright steel or mg Cap, FRONT VIEW COPPER WIRE SHOW GUARD PIPE RAIL SNOW GUARD Fig. 72. — Snow Guards of Copper Wire and Guard Rails copper standards which are placed about 6 feet apart and have adjustments for receiving two or three lines of iron pipe forming rails which serve as guards, thus confining the sliding snow within the roof's eaves. Fig. 72. Fig- 73- — Brick Siding ecin. V^'A?^ h&f£ Fig. 74. — Rock Face Siding 142. Brick Siding. — A metal covering for ver- tical walls, stamped in imitation of brick work. Fig- 73- 143. Rock Face Siding. — A metal side wall cov- ering stamped in imitation of stonework. Fig. 74. 144. Weather Board Siding. A metal side wall covering stamped to imitate wooden weather boards. Fig. 75- ! £H r — . ^9 F'g- 75- — Weatherboard Siding Single Carved for Awnings Single Curued double Curued Fig. 76 Curved Corrugated Roofing 145. Curved Corrugated Roofing. — A metal roofing stamped in curved formations to meet re- quirements of profile. Fig. 76. S sssi Fig. 77. — V Crimped Roofing 146. V -Crimped Roofing. — Stamped metal sheets of V shape. Fig. 77. These sheets reach 10 feet length and have as many as four V grooves to the sheet. Fig. 78.— Metal Lath Fig. 79 Corrugated Culvert 147. Metal Lath. — Stamped metal sheets for supporting plastering, in place of wood laths. Fig. 78. 148. Corrugated Culvert. — A corrugated iron waterway or drain. Fig. 79. 20 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Fig. 80. — Concrete Mold of Octagonal Column Cap 149. Concrete Mold. — A metal form for receiv- ing poured concrete in the construction of columns, walls, etc. The molds are most frequently assembled from number 10 gauge steel. Fig. 80 shows a mold for forming a concrete octagonal column cap. Doors, Window Frames and Sashes 150. Tin Clad Fire Doors and Shutters. — Fire- proof doors and shutters of wooden cores covered with tin sheets. For the purpose 14x20 in. tin is used, locked as shown in Fig. 81 at A and B. 151. Hollow Metal Fire Doors. — Hollow fire- proof doors provided with insulated stiles and rails. The construction is of at least 1^4 "">• thickness with insulated panels of 1 in. thickness and upward. Fig. 81 Locks Used in Covering Fire Doors 152. Hollow Metallic Windows. — Windows having fireproof exteriors of sheet metal. There are several types, namely : Sliding, Pivoted, Case- ment, Top Hinged, Stationary, and Tilting. 153. Sliding Window. — A window having two sashes usually designed to slide upward and down- ward. The motion of these sashes may be independ- ent and subject to control by weights, in which case the window is designated as double hung or the two sashes may counter balance, in which case the win- dow is known as counterbalanced. 154. Pivoted Window. — A window having one or more of its sashes mounted on pivots, permitting each movable sash to turn upon an axis. 155. Casement Window. — A window having its sashes attached to the frame by means of hinges at the vertical side and operated in the manner of a door. 156. Top Hinged Window. — A window whose sash is attached to the frame by means of hinges at the upper horizontal part. 157. Stationary Window.— A window whose sash has a permanent position. 158. Tilting Window. — A window whose sashes are attached to the frame as well as together, so as to permit an inclined or tilted position. 159. Twin Window. — A window whose sashes are mounted alongside in contrast to the more com- mon vertical construction. Fig. 82. -Vertical Division Member Fig. 82 — Twin Hinged Windows 160. Combination Window. — A window which combines the features of construction of a number of types. Thus one having a pivoted upper sash and a stationary lower sash, is called a pivoted upper, fixed lower sash window. One having two sashes, both of which are pivoted, is called a double pivoted window. One having a single pivoted sash, is called a single pivoted window, and one having a top hinged upper sash and double hung lower sash is usually designated a double hung window with top hinged transom. t6i. Rabbeted Frames. — Frames formed with offsets or shoulders to receive masonry, in connec- tion with hollow metallic window construction. 'ailing in Flange Head Jamb Upper Rail Stile Stop Transom Bar Vertical Muntin Horizontal Munttn Fig. 83 — Pivoted Window Before Installation Frames not provided with rabbets are usually formed with metal wings or flanges. 162. Walling-in Flanges. — Flanges designed to be built into the masonry. Fig. 83. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 21 Note: — The frames of all windows having a single sash and the frames of sliding sash windows having two sashes are composed of two horizontal members called the head and sill and two vertical members called the jambs, all as shown in Fig. 83. 163. Head. — The top part of a window frame. The lower surface of the head is the soffit and the upper surface of the top, the member. 164. Sill j — The horizontal piece forming the under part of a window frame. The uppermost part of the frame is the tread and the lowest the base. 165. Jamb. — The vertical side of a window. Hence the part which is in contact with the mason- ry is the back of the jamb and the part in contact with the sash, the front of the jamb. Projections on the front of the jambs, designed to confine the move- ment of a movable sash, are called stops. Fig. 83. Sliding sash windows are frequently equipped with stops which may be separated from the jamb and these separable parts are customarily referred to as sash guide strips, while a common designation of the strip dividing the two sashes is sash parting bead. The frame of a pivoted window having two sashes is composed of the same members as that of a slid- ing sash window. An additional horizontal member is the transom bar. Fig. 83. The frame of a twin window is composed of a head, sill, two jambs and a vertical division member which separate the sashes. Fig. 83. 166. Sash. — The framing in which the pieces of glass of a window are set. In case the sash is de- signed to be permanently attached to the frame it is called a fixed or stationary sash. If the construc- tion is such that its position is changeable, it is called a movable sash. Each sash is composed of hori- zontal and vertical members. The horizontal mem- bers at the top and bottom of the sash are called the rails. Fig. 83. The rails of sliding sash windows which join at the center of the window when the sashes are closed, are the meeting rails. The vertical members at the sides of the sash are the stiles. In casement windows the stiles to which the hinges are attached are called hinge stiles and the stiles to which the locking mechanism is connected are lock stiles. When casement windows are made in two parts which meet at the center, the stiles coming into contact are the meeting stiles. The intermediate members separating the glass panes are the muntins. Fig. 83. If a muntin be installed in a vertical posi- tion, it becomes a vertical muntin and correspond- ingly if in a horizontal position, a horizontal muntin. Muntins which are so designed that a part may be removed for purposes of glazing are separable type muntins, and such as are not constructed on this principle are designated non-separable type muntins. In the practice of the architect the term "muntin" is employed to designate vertical sash members which separate the lights, while the horizontal members are referred to as "bars." However, metal window manufacture in conjunction with trade parlance has given to these members the terms vertical and hori- zontal muntins, as recognized and set forth herein. Alphabetical List of Terms Paragraph No. Abacus 5 Arch 17 Architrave 7, 35 Arm 71 Baluster 27 Balustrade 27 Base 2 Base Flashing 114 Bed Moldings 31 Bell 5 Box Lined Gutter 103 Bracket 19. 74 Brick Siding 142 Broken or Open Pedi- ment 15 Bulkhead 131 Butt Miter 53 Butt 120 Cant Strip 130 Cap 2, 94 Cap Flange 86 Cap Flashing 115 Cap Mold 32 Capital 5 Casement Window .... 155 Center Jack Bar 85 Paragraph No. Chain Lifting Power.. 77 Cleat, Roofing 119 Cleat, Skylight 95 Collar 75 Column 3 Combination Window.. 160 Common Bar 82 Common Jack Bar 84 Composite Order I Concrete Mold 149 Condensation Gutter, of Curb . ._ 88 Condensation Gutter, of Bar 91 Condensation Holes ... 90 Conductor Hook 108 Corbel 21 Core Plate 96 Corinthian Order 1 Cornice 9 Corona 30 Corrugated Culvert . . . 148 Corrugated Iron Roof- ing - 135 Corrugated Iron Sid- ing 136 Paragraph No. Corrugated Leader .... 106 Corrugated Ridge Roll. 139 Counter Balanced Sash, 98, 153 Crown Mold 29 Culvert, Corrugated . . . 148 Curb 78 Curb Flashing 140 Curb Rest 87 Curved Corrugated Roofing 145 Cut-off 112 Deck Cornice 11 Deck Molding 126 Deck Roof 124 Dentil 20 Dentil Mold 34 Die 2 Doric Order 1 Dormer Window 127 Double Hung Window. 153 Double Locked 118 Double Pitched Sky- light 59 Drip 41 Eave Gutter 101 Paragraph No. End Wall Flashing.... 137 Engaged Column 3 Enrichment 52 Entablature 6 Expansion Joint 113 Extension 69 Extension Skylight ... 64 Eyebrow Dormer Win- dow 128 Face Miter 53 Fascia 39 Fillet 40 Finial 23 Fire Door 150, 151 Flashings, Base, Cap, End Wall, Side Wall, Curb 114, 115, 137, 138, 140 Flat Arch 17 Flat Seam Roofing 117 Flat Skylight 58 Foot Mold 35 Frames 161 Frieze 8 Fusible Link 99 Gable 16 Gable Miters 53 22 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Paragraph No. Gable Mold 36 Gearings 65 Gutter Braces 104 Gutters, Condensation, Eave, Roof, Box Lined . . .91, 101, 102, 103 Hand Wheel 68 Handle 70 Head 163 Head Block 22 Hinge 73 Hinge Stile 166 Hip 48 Hip Bar 80 Hip Mold 38 Hip Tile 133 Hipped Skylight 60 Hollow Metal Fire Door 151 Hollow Metallic Win- dows 152 Impost 55 Incised Work 51 Inside Miter 53 Ionic Order 1 Jack Bar 83 jamb 165 Keystone 56 Lath 147 Leader Head no Leader Hook 108 Leaders, Plain, Corru- gated, Ornamental 105, 106, 109 Lifting Power 66 Lintel Cornice 10 Paragraph No. Lock Stile 166 Louvres 61 Mansard Roof 125 Meeting Rail 166 Meeting Stile 166 Metal Doors 150, 151 Metal Lath 147 Metal Windows ..152 to 166 Miter 53 Modillion 18 Modillion Band 33 Modillion Mold 33 Molding or Mold 28 Movable Sash 63 Muntin 166 Neck Mold 5 Normal Profile 44 Open Pediment 15 Operated Sash 63 Order I Ornamental Leader Fastener 109 Outside Miter 53 Panel 26 Pedestal 2 Pedestal Course 27 Pediment 12 Pilaster 4 Pinnacle 25 Pivoted Window 154 Plain Leader 105 Plain Conductor 105 Planceer 30, 46 Pole Hook 67 Profile 54 Paragraph No. Puttyless Skylight .... 100 Rabbet (on Curb) 89 Rabbet (on Bar) 92 Rabbeted Frames 161 Rails 166 Rain Water Cut Off .. 112 Rake Miter 42 Raked Mold 42 Raked Profile 43 Raking Mold 42 Re-enforcing Strip .... 93 Reglet 116 Return 45 Return Miter 53 Ridge Bar 79 Ridge Mold 37 Ridge Tile 134 Rock Face Siding 143 Rolling Type of Sky- light 98 Roof Flange 121 Roof Gutter 102 Saddle 129 Sash 166 Saw Tooth Skylight... 97 Segmental Pediment . . 14 Semi-Hipped Skylight.. 62 Shingle Flashing 123 Shingled Roof 132 Side Wall Flashing ... 138 Sidings, Brick, Rock Face, Weather Board, 142, 143, 144 Sill 164 Sink 50 Paragraph No. Skylight 57 Sliding Window 153 Snow Guard 141 Soffit 46 Springing Line 17 Standing Seam Roofing. 118 Stationary Window . . 157 Stay 47 Step Flashing 122 Stile 26, 166 Stop 165 Strainer n 1 Strap 72 Theater Stage Skylight. 98 Tilting Window 158 Tin Clad Fire Door and Shutter 150 Top Hinged Window.. 156 Transom Bar 165 Triangular Pediment .. 13 Tube 107 Tuscan Order I Twin Window 159 Tympanum 13 Universal Joint 76 Valley 49 Valley Bar 81 Crimped Roofing 146 Vertical Division Mem- ber 165 Volute 24 Voussoirs 56 Walling-in Flanges . . . 162 Weather Board Siding. 144 Weep Holes 90 PART II PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTION IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 'T'HE first practical work on the drawing board which demands attention is that of the me- chanical representation of objects upon paper, and commonly designated as mechanical drawing. The methods and principles employed in these operations are essentially the same for all classes of construc- tive work, whether the subjects treated be ma- chinery or buildings of whatever material, as stone, wood or sheet metal, or of any part of a subject necessary to be represented. Involving as it does the principles of abstract geometry, the science which treats of this class of representation is properly termed descriptive geometry. Descriptive Geometry, therefore, as a science treats of the exact representation of forms upon planes, the planes employed being represented by the surface of the paper spread upon the drawing board ; and the method by which the representations are accomplished is termed orthographic or right line of projection. To assist in gaining a correct idea of the theory of representation, we may pause to note, first, that objects become visible through the action of light which moves in straight lines, called rays, from the object toward the eye. In the natural operations of vision, the rays proceed in straight lines from all parts of an object viewed, to- ward the eye, from which it will be seen that they must converge. If now a plane (represented, for instance, by a plate of glass) be interposed between the object and the eye, the point of intersection with the plane of a ray from any point of the object would properly be termed the projection of that point and the ray itself would be termed the line of projection or the projector. In like manner the pro- jections of all the points in the outline of the ob- ject, if they be marked upon the glass, which may be termed the plane of projection, would constitute an outline of the object upon that plane. It will be seen farther that since the rays or pro- jections converge toward the eye, the resulting out- line upon the glass plate will be larger or smaller according as the intervening plate is farther from or nearer to the eye, the point of convergence. Follow- ing this course of reasoning still farther, the greater the distance between the object and the eye, the more nearly parallel will the rays become, hence if the object be placed at as great a distance from the eye as possible and the plane of projection be placed as close to the object as possible, the resulting image, or projection of the object upon the plane, will be very little smaller than the object. In the operations of descriptive geometry the visual rays or projections are considered as being exactly parallel, with the result that the projection of any object upon a plane thus becomes the full size of the object and constitutes a view of the same upon which accurate measurements may be taken. We have spoken of a plane (Def. 19, volume one) as having two dimensions and of solids i,poly- hedrons Def. 69, volume one) as having three di- mensions ; the projection of a solid upon a plane, therefore, is a view of the same in which two of its dimensions only can be shown. Thus if the plane is supposed to have been placed in a vertical position in front of any subject the resulting projection may show the hight and the length of the subject, and may thus be termed a front view. If, now, another projection of the subject be made upon a plane placed at right angles to the first, as, for instance, in a horizontal position, either above or below it, the rays or projections being carried vertically to inter- sect the plane, the resulting view, termed a plan or top view, will show the length and the width. Thus two projections of any subject made upon planes at right angles to each other are sufficient to give its three, that is, all of its dimensions, and the relative position of every part of it will be shown. While this is true, yet in modern methods of mechanical drawing, a representation of the subject upon a third plane placed at right angles to the other two is con- sidered advantageous and desirable, if not always necessary. The idea of three planes placed at right angles to each other can most easily be grasped by standing a book or the covers of a portfolio upon any hori- zontal surface, as the top of a table, in such a posi- tion that its back shall be vertical. If now the covers be opened until they are at right angles to 24 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER each other, it will be seen that both are also at right angles to the table top because they are in a vertical position. Thus the three planes represented by the two covers of the book and the top of the table are all at right angles to each other. A projection made upon another vertical plane placed at right angles to the first mentioned, say parallel to a side or end of the subject, would thus show the hight and the width, and altogether, in the three views, each dimension would be given twice. Thus the hight would be shown on the front and the side views, the length would be shown on the front and the top views, while the width would be shown on the side and the top views. The methods of projection can of course be extended to the construction of any number of views, as for in- stance, a view of both sides or ends and the back of the subject, or to a view projected obliquely at any desired angle, as when the subject contains an oblique surface which it is desirable to show in detail, by placing the plane of projection at the desired angle. The general idea carried out in the operations of Fig. 84. — Theory of Orthographic Projection Illustrated by the Use of a Plane for Each Side of the Subject orthographic projections can best be fixed in the mind by reference to Fig. 84, in which the subject to be represented is, in imagination, placed within a rectangular prism or box having glass sides which represent the planes of the several views. The rays or projectors are partially shown by dotted lines carried from the principal points of the subject to intersect the planes of projection at right angles. In the illustration, projections may be supposed to have been made upon the front, both sides and the top of the box, although those upon the top and the left or farther side have been omitted to avoid confusion of lines. When these have been com- pleted, we may suppose the planes of the two sides and the top to be hinged to the plane of the front along the dihedral angles A B. C D and A D, and that the three planes mentioned are swung into one plane. All this having been done the several views would then appear as shown in Fig. 85, the lower part of which represents a plan of the glass box. The quarter circles, E E 1 and F F\ show the move- ment of the side planes. In mechanical drawing, any view is termed a "projection," the term being qualified when neces- sary by the position of the plane upon which the projection is made, as a "vertical" or a "horizontal projection." Projections made upon vertical planes are termed elevations, and projections made upon a horizontal plane are termed plans. It sometimes becomes necessary to show upon a drawing that which could only be seen if the sub- ject were cut by a plane passed through it in any desired position or direction. Such a view is termed a section and may be "longitudinal" if made by a ver- tical plane passed through the long way, or "transverse" if made upon a vertical plane pass- ing through it the shorter way. In the case of buildings or machinery a plan is often a section on a horizontal plane passed through the subject some distance above its base. The purpose of the idea il- lustrated and explained in Figs. 84 and 85 is to fix in mind the nature and relation which the several views that can be made of any given subject bear to each other, from which it ap- pears that the elevation of the right end or side of an object appears at the right of the front eleva- tion, while that of the left end appears at the left of the front and the top view, above. This seems to be the most logical system, inasmuch as, if the paper upon which the several views have been projected be folded along lines corresponding to A B and D C of Fig. 85 and then stood up on a level surface, in a manner to correspond with the sides of the glass box shown in Fig. 84, one in passing around the folded paper would thus see the several views of the subject in the same order or succession that PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTION IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 25 o LEFT SIDE ELEVATION / // / y ' / / / f/ / I // / ' '/ ' I l I I ! J LL_J c —\F FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION / ''A I / I I o> Plane of Front View Fig. 85. — Planes of the Several Views Brought into One Plane he would in passing around the subject itself. This system is now generally recognized in this country, and is so obvious in character that it should be ac- cepted without question, and yet there are other methods based upon a different supposition with re- gard to the positions of the planes of projection by which the view of the right end appears at the left, and that of the left at the right of the main elevation. It must be admitted that, in the varied operations of pattern drafting, it is not always convenient to strictly follow out this system, since for the pur- poses of convenience and efficiency it is often neces- sary to place the views otherwise, but a clear idea of these relations will be of great assistance to the pattern draftsman in obtaining many of the oblique views required in the course of some work. It is especially desirable that the hinging of the planes along their lines of intersection just de- scribed be understood, as by this means a view upon any oblique plane is brought into the plane of the general view. This idea or method applies par- ticularly in case of the intersection of pipes at vari- ous angles where a right section, or, in other words, a profile, of an oblique branch is necessarily upon an oblique plane, which, for use, must be brought into the plane of the view in proper relationship to the elevation. The one great elementary idea of descriptive ge- ometry is that of determining the position of a point in space by the measurement of its perpendicular 26 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER distances from three planes all at right angles to each other, all as explained above. Put into the form of a practical problem, this principle may be stated as follows : Given the position of a point in one view, required to find its position in the other two views. The position, for instance, of one point in a de- sired section or view having been thus determined, the remainder of the required points follow in logi- cal order. Having, we hope, conveyed a clear idea of the character and relationship of the several views to each other and of the general theory of projection, we shall take up the work on the drawing board. In the operations of mechanical drawing, it is of course understood that the several views of any subject are made before the subject is built, and therefore operations analogous to those illustrated in Fig. 84 are impossible, but since all of the views are to be constructed in one plane, as shown in Fig. 85, projections can be made from one view to an- other as the various points of the subject are lo- cated. Thus one view plays the part of a model, as it were, to all the other views. Especially is this true of the plan which is so drawn or placed upon the drawing board that its front or that side of which the principal elevation is desired is turned toward the draftsman, that is, toward the bottom of the board, as shown in Fig. 85. In proceeding with the work, then, projections are made from the front side of the plan to the elevation, that is, ver- tical lines are erected from all the angles in the out- line of the plan, upon which the hights of parts represented by each are set up from a base line, called the ground line, as C B. This line is continued to the right and left to form the ground line of the other elevations, as shown by B H and C L. In making projections from the plan to the side views one of two courses may be taken. In one case the plan must be turned one quarter around, so as to bring the side or end of which the eleva- tion is desired toward the bottom of the board, as in the case of the front elevation, when the lines can be erected as before. In the other case, pro- jectors can be carried to the right and left to cut the lines A 1 E and D 1 F, which represent respec- tively the planes of the right and the left side ele- vations, as shown. The points so obtained can then be swung around the points A 1 and D 1 as centers, to cut the horizontal lines A 1 E 1 and D 1 F 1 , as shown at the left only, whence projections can then be made up into the side elevations. The swinging around of the points described ac- complishes upon the board just what has been done in theory by the hinging of the side planes upon the front, as described in connection with Fig. 84. This feature is fully shown in Fig. 85, only at the left of the plan, the projections from F 1 D 1 to the left side elevation having been omitted from the drawing, but the application of a T square or other straight edge will show the correspondence between the lines of the elevation and the points on F 1 D 1 . In regard to the hights and all other matters of detail necessary to complete the elevation, these must be made to conform to the requirements of the case, or specifications, for the construction of elevations is usually a matter of design or conform- ity to requirements rather than merely making a drawing of something which already exists. In mechanical drawing the students should note that several kinds of lines are used for different purposes. The outlines of the subject represented should be a strong firm line, but not too heavy. Lines representing parts which are invisible, but which it is necessary to show, should be dotted, as the outline at the left of the tower in the left side elevation, or that of the walls which are beyond the tower in the front and right side elevations, Fig. 85. Projectors, when it is necessary to show them, should be represented by a series of short dashes, as in the plan of the same engraving. Center lines are usually shown by a line consist- ing of a dash and two dots, although sometimes by a dash and one dot. So far as the pattern drafts- man is concerned, either will do, but in drawings of machinery the latter is used to show the motion STRETCHOUT LINES OUTLINES INVISIBLE LINES CENTER LINES PROJECTORS . . Fig. 86. — Lines Used in Mechanical Drawing or travel of a moving point, or the line upon which a section is taken, as the line x y in Fig. 85. Stretchout lines, as well as measuring lines, are shown by a very fine continuous line, but not as heavy as those used for outlines. Dimension lines are made the same as projectors, but have an arrow head at the ends to indicate the points between which the dimensions are taken. Fisr. 86 shows how these lines should be drawn. PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTION IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING In the application of the principles of projection to the representation of geometrical forms, some general statements kept in mind will be of value, viz. : The end view of a line is a point. A point, there- fore, in one view may be the projection of a line in another view in which many points of importance are located. The edge or side view of a plane is a line. Of two planes at right angles to each other, one may appear as a line while the other appears in full in the form of a plane figure. A plane figure may be an elevation of a solid. The principles which have been explained will now be put into practical use in the representation of some simple and familiar object. For this pur- Fig. 87. — Plans and Profiles to be Used in Fig. 88 pose a chimney top provides an excellent subject. The first thing to know evidently is the breadth and thickness of the chimney. Knowing the dimensions of a brick to be 8 X 4 X 2 inches, let us suppose it to be 28 X 16 inches. The plan will therefore work out as shown in Fig. 87. Having placed the plan thus drawn near the bottom of the paper as in Fig. 88, we first erect perpendiculars from all its angles indefinitely as a beginning of the eleva- tion, as shown, drawing the lines at first lightly until it shall be determined just how much of them shall remain upon the paper. The next thing to be determined is the profiles of moldings to be used. These may be assumed to be those shown at A, B and C in Fig. 87, using that at A as a foot or neck mold, that at B as a cornice, and perhaps chamfering off the upper corner to form a finish, using a plain bevel or a small cove, as shown at C. Proceed therefore to place these in position at one side of the elevation, as shown at A and B of Fig. 88, when lines from their several angles or outer limits may be carried lightly across the elevation as shown, re- peating the profiles (in a reversed position, of course) at the opposite side as shown by A 1 and B 1 . Suppose now, that it should be decided to intro- duce a gable in the cornice mold on the two wider sides of the chimney, leaving the narrow or short sides plain. First find the center line of the eleva- tion by bisecting any one of the horizontal lines as at e, and through it drawing the vertical line a b. Allowing 18 inches as a suitable width for the gable set off 9 inches each way from c on the top line of the molding locating the points c and d, from which points draw lines at an angle of 45°, meeting upon the center line at b. Now, upon lines drawn at right angles across c b and b d at any convenient position, as at x and y, set off the several spaces in the width of the molding equal to the correspond- ing spaces on the line in n, as indicated by the small figures. Through these draw lines parallel to c b and b d, meeting in the- center on the line a b, and draw the miter lines through the intersection at the bottom as shown by c g and d h. The whole de- sign may now be completed by the addition of the small cove above referred to, just above the top point of the gable, as shown by profile C at the sides, the quarter circle being drawn from i as cen- ter. This completes the front elevation. The plan may now be completed by projections carried from the elevation back to the plan, as shown, drawing first those from the several angles in the profiles at B and B 1 , which will give the plan of that part of the molding which crosses the ends of the plan. Since the moldings are supposed to go entirely around the chimney, they must of course miter at the corners. We may therefore draw the miter lines from each corner of the plan by means of the 45 triangle and take the lines which rep- resent the molding across the front and back of the chimney from the intersections of the lines first drawn, with the miter lines. One other point demands careful attention. The roof on top of the profile B has been drawn slant- ing, as shown by m p, not as a matter of design, but as a wash, that is, to shed the water. As there is obviously no need of this on that part of the molding which forms the gable, one slant being enough, a peculiar shaped valley will thus be formed from q to c. This is shown on the plan by carrying projectors down from these points, re- membering that point q is on the wall line while point c is at the nose of the mold, thus producing the oblique line c 1 q 1 there shown, which is the miter 28 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER U \ TOP 1 VIEW 1 ! 1 1 1 ' 4- \ \ \ \ \ \ \ l N I \ j Fig. 88. — Practical Work in Mechanical Drawing or joint between the two slanting surfaces, while the ridge b is shown in the plan by a right line, at b". In constructing a side elevation, lines may be carried from the several points of the plan to any convenient vertical line as r s, as shown at the right, whence they may be carried through a quarter cir- cle to the horizontal line r t. Projectors from the several points on r t are carried up into the side ele- vation to be crossed by projectors from the front elevation, all as clearly shown, thus locating all the required points. Note that the line b 1 d 1 is the pro- jection of the oblique line b d, the space between it and the body of the chimney showing the roof of the gable. These may be followed by a projector drawn from / to meet those brought up from the corresponding points f 1 and f~ of the plan, as shown in the eleva- tion. The showing of this member upon the plan will make it a top view, which being the case will render the small members in the lower part of pro- file B invisible, as well as the smaller mold at A. The lines which represent these members will there- fore be drawn as invisible lines according to Fig. 86, as shown. After all views in Fig. 88 have been completed, all lines called for by the elevation may be strength- ened by using a somewhat softer pencil, as shown by the darker lines in the drawing and the remain- ing lines erased, as those shown between c d and g h, those drawn across the mold, as at m n and at similar places, and any others which in the pre- liminary work have been drawn farther than were required. To make the drawing really complete, invisible (dotted) lines should be projected up through the elevations from the angles of the flues in plan as shown. An inspection of the drawing will now show that PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTION IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 29 each and every point in any view is represented by a corresponding point in each of the other views, a matter which it is essential that the pupil should well understand since these operations are continu- ally required in subsequent work. In this figure the planes of the several views, though not indicated in the drawings, as in Fig. 85, are hinged upon the line of their intersection ; thus the front and the side elevations are projections upon vertical planes which intersect upon a line, necessarily vertical, somewhere in front of and be- tween the two views as indicated by the point r in the plan in Fig. 88, and the drawing of the quarter circles from the line r s to r t signifies the hinging or revolving of the plane of the side elevation to bring it in to the same plane with the front. A custom frequently employed in working draw- ings is to draw the profile of a part, as a mold within the lines of the elevation in places where the exact relation of parts might not be apparent or where its presence may be required. For instance, in the in- clined mold forming the small gables on the chim- ney above described (while it is of course under- stood that the profile here is the same as that shown at B) it becomes necessary to have the profile in position for use in the operations of laying out the pattern of that mold. The plane upon which a sec- tion of the mold would be taken can only be rep- resented by a line as x 4, since its edge is presented to view. The plane of the section can therefore be brought into view only by hinging it upon the line of intersection with the plane of the front ele- vation, which is the line x 4, it being turned in either direction, according to convenience, until it becomes parallel to the plane of the view and thus shows the sectional view or profile, as shown at the right of the line. Profiles so drawn are always in- dicated by the shade lines placed upon the inner side, as shown. Thus the hinging of the oblique planes follows the same law which governs the ver- tical planes, and if once understood, there need be no chance of error. PART III ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING r I ''HE department of constructive drawing which most demands the attention of the sheet metal worker lies in the field of architecture because his work involves to a great extent, the rendering of architectural subjects. Sheet metal as applied to buildings has to do entirely with their superficial or external form and appearance and thereby sim- ulates the form of designs which were originally made, for the greater part, in stone. For this rea- son it is the matter of design and detail and not the construction of a building that demands first at- tention. What is usually known as practical architectural drafting applies to general constructive work, such as to cottages, city dwellings, etc., in which wood, brick and concrete construction form the important parts of the work. This, of course, does not con- cern the pattern draftsman ; but the details of archi- tectural work in the sense of the several features, parts or units, which go to make up a design, should be made a study, so far as time and opportunity af- ford. In this field the classic and the gothic models will form the principal subjects to be studied. In the case of buildings where an architect is employed, the pattern draftsman will have little to do in the matter of design beyond the possible al- teration of minor details to facilitate construction or more particularly forming, as for instance, the slight alteration in the profiles of moldings to re- duce them to the nearest arcs of circles where they have been drawn as irregular curves, and such other changes necessary to adapt them to the machines used in the process of forming. It often happens, however, in the experience of the sheet metal contractor that a building is to be altered or.enlarged, when an additional cornice, belt course or window caps are required. No architect is employed other than the "boss" carpenter and mechanics necessary to do the work. In fact, the owner looks upon the sheet metal man in the light of an architect. Since his work embodies the em- bellishment of the building, he is therefore expected to furnish designs as may be required. For such occasions as this it is very desirable that the pro- prietors of a sheet metal establishment shall have in their employ a draftsman who can do something more than merely lay out patterns. In the interest, therefore, of those who aspire to the higher planes of the science, a short chapter on this subject is here introduced in which some of the elemental features of design which the pros- pective draftsman should become familiar with will be considered, as well as the methods of detailing the various designs. From this point the study of architecture may be pursued to any desired extent from such works as are at hand or can be obtained, remembering that public libraries usually contain reference books on this subject. An excellent work for this purpose is Ware's "American Vignola." Chambers' "Treatise on Architecture," is a reliable authority and other standard works will be found. History of Classical Architecture Following this course the features of what is termed "classical" design will be first taken up, the models for which are now to be found in Greece, Rome and other ancient countries. These are the ruins of temples and other buildings constructed in very ancient times, when a civilization, long since passed, made those countries the greatest centers of art and learning in the world. It is deduced from a study of these ancient examples that the archi- tecture of these fine examples reached its high de- gree of perfection through a long process of de- velopment or evolution from the more primitive methods of building. It will be of little use to repeat here what is termed "the story of architecture" beyond the state- ment of a few points, viz. : The modern portico finds it prototype in the rude hut, built by first set- ting up posts, as the trunks of trees, across the tops of which was placed a timber or "lintel" to form one side or wall of a prospective structure. From this lintel to another similar one other timbers or rafters were laid across to support a roof, somewhat as shown in the sketch in Fig. 89. Looking forward, in point of time, from this primitive structure, the 30 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 3i posts are the elementary columns, the lintel becomes the architrave, while ends of the rafters, which were allowed for safety to project somewhat out- side of the lintels, become the primitive modillions (or brackets) so frequently seen in modern designs. In the perfecting of such crude designs with the advance of civilization, the posts would be well rounded and dressed and receive capitals and bases Fig. 89. — Framework of Primitive Hut and thus become "columns," and in the further elaboration of the design would be placed upon pedestals. The projecting timbers would be cut to measure and the roof would be extended out to form extra shade and shelter, and thus, when mold- ings have been added for decoration, become the "cornice." Add to this the supposition that when a building is erected for a purpose, it is necessary to have a plain surface upon which to place an in- scription, and we have the "frieze," which is the plain surface placed between the lintel or "archi- trave" and the cornice. The frieze in modern building is designed to receive both inscriptions (signs) and ornamentation, usually indicative of the purpose of the building. The whole combina- tion of architrave, frieze and cornice is termed the entablature. Thus a building (or more properly a portico), from the ground to the roof, consists of three parts, the pedestal, the column and the entablature. The pedestal has three parts, a base, a central plain cu- bical block, called the die, and a projecting mold- ing at the top, called the cap. The column consists of three parts, a base, a shaft and a capital. Finally, the entablature consists also of three parts, the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. It should be remembered that these design? orig- inated in a warm climate, and that the protection from rain and the sun's rays came first and the wall afterward, which having been built between the columns gave rise to what is termed the engaged column, or to the pilaster, whose plan is square, in contrast with that of the column, which is round. li. order that the roof should form an efficient protection from water, it was necessary that it be somewhat higher along the middle than at the eaves ; thus the two ends of such a roof would form gables from which were evolved what are termed "pediments," a feature of ancient as well as modern design which provides an opportunity for the most elaborate ornamentation. Such, in brief, are the characteristics of Greek architecture, which, as elaborated in different parts of that country, became known as the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, all differing in their details and styles or ornamentation. The material used being stone, the spaces between columns was lim- ited to the length of stone obtainable to form the lintel or architrave which must span the distance from center to center of columns, and support also the frieze and cornice, the parts of which could then be cut from smaller blocks. °T ^ « V I -^~"~ ■ CAPITAL Fig. 90. — Corinthian Entablature Later the Romans, imitating their Greek ante- cedents, formed the Tuscan, the Roman Doric and the Composite orders, of which the Tuscan is the plainest, while the Composite is a sort of combina- tion of the Ionic with the Corinthian. The several orders are most easily distinguished by the capitals of their columns, although they also differ in nearly every detail of ornamentation and profile of mold- ings. Fig. 90 shows the profile of a Corinthian 3 2 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER entablature, in which the general proportions have been very carefully maintained, but from which all carving or enrichment has been omitted. In study- ing its proportions it should be noted that the architrave and the frieze are of the same depth, while the cornice has a depth which compares with either as four to three; or, in other words, if the hight of the entablature be divided into ten equal parts, three parts are taken for the architrave, three for the frieze and four for the cornice. It may be further noted that the projection of the cornice is equal to its hight. This set of proportions does not vary greatly throughout all of the work of the Corinthian and Composite orders. These propor- tions also bear a specified relation to the hight of the column and the pedestal, which questions are identified with the study of architecture, a subject treated in numerous volumes and need not be con- sidered here at any greater length. The profiles of the Greek moldings were usually irregular in character and were carefully designed to produce pleasing light and shade effects, while the Romans reduced their profiles usually to arcs and circles. But the one great distinctive charac- teristic of the Roman architecture is the invention of the arch, which may be described as a curved or semi-circular architrave whose two ends rise from the caps of smaller columns or pilasters placed against the sides of and between the larger ones, and whose summit helps to support the center of the main or level architrave above, thus allowing of a wider spacing of the principal columns ; as the dis- tance from center to center of columns could thus be the length of two stones, the intermediate points being supported by the arches. The moldings, mo- dillions, friezes and capitals of the ancient buildings were ornamented by elaborate carvings, which the stamped designs, called enrichments, leaves, rosettes, etc., now so much used in sheet metal work, are in- tended to imitate. The designs of enrichments, as may be seen by inspection of the catalogues of many prominent firms in the sheet metal trade, are in many cases only slight modifications of the carving still to be seen in the ancient ruins. Leaving these ancient monuments of art to crum- ble as they must, it is of importance to note that approximately four hundred years ago there sprang up in Italy a revival of the ancient styles, which ultimately spread throughout Europe and became known as the Italian, German or French Renais- sance, each of which partook of the characteristics respectively of the people and ideas of the coun- tries in which they were practised. In the treat- ment of these styles, more or less liberty has been taken with the original models, the result of which has been the erection of many fine edifices which have had a governing influence upon the archi- tecture of this country. The greatest freedom in the handling of this style has been employed by the French, with whom originated the so-called French or mansard roof, named after a French architect, Francois Mansard. Many of the public buildings of this country have been built in this style, notable among which may be mentioned the Capitol at Washington and the City Hall in New York City. A very fine and more ornate example is the new Hall of Records in this city, which bears the stamp of the French influence. We have thus far, as we intimated at the begin- ning, treated of the matter of design without refer- * ence to material. It has been shown in many fine buildings that sheet metal is admirably adapted to the rendering of such designs. Referring again to Fig. 2 on a foregoing page we find illustrated a cornice of Renaissance design suitable for sheet metal construction, upon which, for the benefit of the beginner, the names of the several parts and members were placed. A comparison of this with the design shown in Fig. 90 will show that the proportions of the former are greatly at variance with its classical prototype. Designed as a finish to the top of a building, as a store front or perhaps a school building, the heavy architrave shown in Fig. 90 is no longer a necessity, and is replaced by what is termed the foot mold. While the term "cornice" properly applies only to the uppermost division of an entablature, common usage now ap- plies it to the entire design, since it constitutes, as it were, a unit of design and is frequently used as a finish upon a wall of other material, as brick or stone. The Gothic Styles Besides the Renaissance styles of architecture, which have for their antecedents the classic models just referred to, those styles which follow the Gothic forms are next in importance to the sheet metal draftsman. In a comparison of these two great schools of architecture, the feature of first importance is that of proportions. The designs of ancient Greece and Rome were regulated by a very exacting system of proportions in which the unit of measure was a recognized fraction of the di- ameter of the column, called a -module. Thus the hight of the column, or of the entablature, or the dimensions of any of the details, was expressed ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 33 by a certain number of modules, in consequence of which it will be seen that whether a design were great or small, so far as its dimensions in feet were concerned, the proportion of one part to another, or to the whole, remained the same. With regard to the Gothic styles it must be un- derstood that they are, freely speaking, quite as much a matter of history as of form and fashion. Following the downfall of the Roman Empire came a period concerning which not much that is authen- tic is to be found, a period in which the principal occupation of mankind seems to have been war, in consequence of which the civilization and art of former ages were lost. During the slow process of recovery from this calamity the buildings erected were but a crude imitation of the ancient forms. Thus originated what was termed the Romanesque or Norman style, the principal feature of which was the round (semi-circular) arch, which had, how- ever, little resemblance to its Roman prototype. churches, although also applied to colleges, public buildings and other edifices, and sometimes to dwell- ings. Internally its chief characteristic is the groined ceiling, forming, in church work, a series of cross- ing or interlacing pointed arches rising to different hights and springing from the tops of the two rows of columns, to be found in all cathedrals, or from corbels placed against the walls at a greater alti- tude. The highest of the arches meet under the apex of the roof, along which runs a heavy rib molding. Over this rib carved bosses are placed at the intersections of the lesser arches or cross ribs. It will thus be seen that the construction of a ceil- ing in this style presents many interesting problems in mitering and the laying out of curved moldings of long radii, for groined ceilings are now often finished with sheet metal moldings and stamped work. Almost any catalogue of stamped ornaments will be found to contain a variety of finials, crockets, Bead Cavetto Ovolo Ogee or Reversed Ogee QutrXed Quirked Ovolo Scotia or Cove Cyma Recta or Cyma Reversa Ogee or Echinus Fig. 91. — Classical Profiles Ogee Base The columns were short, the arch stones heavy and often decorated with zigzag ornaments along the inner edge. Moldings were heavy and with little projection. These styles were followed throughout western Europe and were carried into England, to be followed there by what was termed the early English. In this style the pointed form of arch was adopted, a form which has since become the dis- tinguishing characteristic of Gothic architecture. As this was the style of mediaeval times, walls were finished at the top with parapets and battlements rather than projecting cornices. In some of the castles of England, France and Germany are to be found excellent examples of this style. After this came what is known as the "perpen- dicular," a style in which, as its name indicates, the perpendicular lines were dominant. Its leading ex- ternal characteristics are its buttressed walls with high peaked roof, its pinnacles and tall spires often studded with ornaments. Its window openings are pointed arches, finished with many mullions or di- visions, which combined to make often very elabo- rate traceries. It is a style particularly adapted to crestings, rosettes, leaves and capitals peculiar to this style. It may be said in general of Gothic architecture that it follows no system of set rules or symmetry of proportions, and much variety prevails in the capitals of the columns and other carvings. A thor- ough knowledge of its features can only be obtained from reading and from good illustrations and photo- graphs. Many fine examples in this style are to be found in England, Belgium and France, as well as in this country. Trinity Church, St. Patrick's Cathedral and the new Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, in New York City, are representative struc- tures of the perpendicular style. Later styles in England have been known as Elizabethan, Tudor, Queen Anne, etc., all of which may be called modi- fications of the Gothic style. In presenting to the sheet metal draftsman that which is useful in the matter of detail of the several styles to which we have referred, we note first that what is termed the pediment of the Renaissance styles is perhaps the most important feature or unit 34 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER which are applicable to either angular or segmental pediments. That shown at No. 4 re- quires a second raking or change of profile for the return at the top, while the design shown in No. 5 calls more particularly for skill in hammered zvork in carrying the tapering portion of the ogee around the curves of the scroll. As an example of a segmental broken pediment, which may be looked upon as a model of design, we have reproduced in Fig. 96 a photograph of the fin- ish over the Centre street entrance of the new Hall of Records at the corner of Chambers street, New York City. This work is executed in stone and shows a shield in the opening of the pediment, at each side of which elaborate carvings fill the entire space of the tympanum. The pediment has always been regarded as the place for the heaviest and most elaborate carvings of the building. Probably the most notable of the antique example of this is the Parthenon at Athens, Greece. Though now in a state of ruin some of the figures from the pediment are still preserved in European museums, and plaster casts of them are to be found in the art museums of this country. As a re- markable modern example of this, we have repro- duced in Fig. 97 a view of the Stock Exchange on Broad street, New York City. This building is executed in mar- ble and is a fine example of Ren- aissance architec- ture. Our illustration shows also a portion of the supporting columns. The design follows very closely the Corinthian order and affords a fine study to architectural draftsmen whether for sheet metal or other material in its columns, capitals, entablature, and particularly the pediment in which the details previously described are visible, to which have been Fig. 97. — Pediment with Figures added the carving on the crown mold and the frieze, also the pediment figures. Having considered the general outlines of classical designs, so far as origin is concerned, we can only offer as advice to the draftsman for his advancement that he seek out and study the best Renaissance de- signs ; in other words, the works of recognized good architects, both as seen in the buildings them- selves when opportunity occurs, as well as in the illustrations to be found in books and magazines published in this line. It is of course understood that the matter of de- tail concerns the draftsmen for sheet metal work rather more than that of the design as a whole. In continuance of this subject we shall take up the analysis of the '"portico" for the principal reason that, generally speaking, it includes in its design much as regards details that is applicable to the various parts of an entire structure. Architecture has two phases or purposes to be considered, viz. : construction and design. In re- spect to the first, it is a science which deals with the strength of the material used, its power to sup- port what is above it, or to hold to- gether the several parts of the struc- ture, in which case it is synonymous with building. In the second, it is art, more par- ticularly that of sculpture, than of any other classi- fied branch, but withal it is art in respect to all that has to do with the appearance of a building, as its size, shape, pro- portion of parts, color and, above all, its decoration, w h i c h includes sculpture first, of the conventional variety, as in the enrichment of the moldings, the carving of the friezes, the capitals, and of other ornaments used to embellish its pediment, roofs and other parts ; and second, of the natural and perhaps higher type, as when statues, groups or other figures are used. The motive of the art expressed in the decorations 38 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER L of a building lies in the fact that every part has an idea to express ; thus a foliated capital seems to say that the column has more strength than that just sufficient to carry what is placed above it, and that its surplus strength or energy has grown out at the top into a foliated embellishment, and further, that the leaves and scrolls seem to indicate the upward movement of growth, thereby assisting, figuratively, in the support of what is above. This is particu- larly marked in the case of the scrolls, called vo- lutes, which roll out under the projecting angle of the abacus. In studying the uses and forms of moldings, one must not lose sight of the fact that the existing and oft used designs were created in stone and for stone construction. In view of this, therefore, it will appear that when a stone is to support a pro- jecting stone above it, as an overhanging cornice, SQUARE CORINTHIAN ABACUS PROFILES FOOT MOLDINGS CAPITAL PEDESTAL CAPS COLUMN BASES PEDESTAL BASES Fig. 98. — Moldings Arranged According to Purpose its upper or supporting surface should be widened out or projected forward, so as to thereby assist in its work. A projecting molding upon the outer and upper edge of a frieze (as a bed molding) will throw the point of equilibrium of the stone above nearer to its outermost point and thus require less weight or balancing power at its inner end. For this reason a molding used as a support to a pro- jecting part should have a full or convex form, in- stead of being concave in profile, in which case it necessarily would have much less bulk of material, and thereby strength for supporting purposes, than a mold of convex profile. Ovolas, cyma reversas, and other forms of moldings which are full in the upper curves, are properly used in bed molds and below dentil and modillion courses, while coves and hollow forms may be used where no idea of sup- port is conveyed, as in the crown mold or the archi- trave or in the foot mold of a cornice. Thus each form has a meaning in its treatment. It is a princi- ple of art, however, that variety of form is also nec- essary in order to avoid sameness or monotony, thereby making the design uninteresting. In order the prospective designer may become ac- quainted with some of the primary facts of the case, let us refer to Fig. 1 which shows a pedestal, col- umn and entablature, all bearing the general pro- portions of the Ionic order. The reader will readily note the style and purposes of the several profiles. These we have supplemented, in Fig. 98, by a number of profiles in detail, adaptable to sheet metal work, which are arranged and classified with respect to the purposes and placed in which they may be used. In the necessarily limited space which can be devoted to this subject it will, of course, be impossible to give an exhaustive treatise, but a few of the more important facts will serve as a leader, which the interested draftsman can follow up as opportunity affords. As previously stated, an "order" (the portico from the ground or foundations to the roof) con- sists of three primary parts, viz. : the pedestal, the column and the entablature, each of which also consists of three subdivisions, thus making in all nine parts which require analysis as to profiles, proportions, etc. We have not given proportions in figures, for the reason that modern Renaissance de- sign follows the classical forms only in spirit or in the idea, varying proportions to suit the character or sentiment of the design under consideration. The designs shown, which are by no means exhaustive, are therefore capable of considerable variation in respect to minute detail and proportions. A glance ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 39 through the collection will show that all curves are composed of arcs of circles, usually quarters, the greater part being made up of the combination of the ovolo and the cove in different positions and proportion. Thus the second and the last of the crown molds are identical so far as the elements of design are concerned, the difference being in the relative proportion of the parts. The small crosses show the center from which the curves are struck. In this connection we should mention that, prop- erly speaking, the term crown mold applies only to the cyma, or to the moldings above a in the illustra- tions, but common usage in the sheet metal trade applies it to the entire design from the topmost mem- ber down to the drip. The bed mold of a cornice is usually carried around the modillions or brackets to form a "head." Sometimes, however, a heavy bed mold is required, when the bed mold is so designed that its upper members only are used to form the bracket head, the remainder being carried behind, or through, the bracket. In the illustration the parts used to form the heads are indicated by the horizontal lines drawn from the profile to the left. Coming now to capitals, that part termed the "abacus" is generally a square block laid upon the capital, which, like the column of which it is a part, is round. This is true in the case of all capitals except those termed Corinthian, the abacus of which is concave on the four sides, thus leaving the angles projecting and supported by the volutes, as will be illustrated later. Molded capitals and the bases of columns, being round, are usually of spun zinc or copper, thereby permitting the use of somewhat finer or smaller members than could conveniently be formed in the manner usual with straight moldings. The "plinth," like the abacus, is square, and of the same diameter as the die of the pedestal upon which it stands. The pedestal cap is simply a small cornice and, like that of the entablature, has a projection about equal to its depth, which is about one-fifth or one- sixth of the width of the die. As pointed out in connection with pediments, it is usually designed to represent the "corona" of a stone cornice with the crown mold left off; however, a small "cyma" is sometimes used. Pedestal bases usually have less projection than the caps. The pilaster, which, though it may be considered as another form of column, yet has certain charac- teristics which distinguish it from the column. The principal difference between the two is that the col- umn is round in plan, while the pilaster is square. In embodying them into a design either may be used whole or in part. The column, though most frequently used in its entirety, is yet often used as part of the wall, in which case it is known as an engaged column, and consists in that case of not less than one-half, and may consist of about three- quarters of the whole column as measured upon the diameter of the moldings of the base, while the projection of the pilaster may be reduced to a very slight amount and it is less often used in its en- tirety. This will be understood by reference to Fig. 99, which shows a plan of each, of which A B is the center line. Reference to the plan shows that the wall surface in the case of the column could not COLUMN PILASTER Fig. 99. — Comparison of Column and Pilaster be brought forward of the center line without de- creasing the diameter of the column. In the case of the pilaster, however, the wall surface could be placed as far forward as the line a b without alter- ing its character or contour. Another important difference is in the fact that the column is always made tapering in its shaft, the diameter at the neck being usually about five-sixths of that at the base, while the pilaster does not usually taper. The plan also shows that in an engaged column the wall sur- face can be moved back to the center a distance somewhat less than half the upper diameter, as shown by the line c d since, if the wall were placed anywhere between the lines c d and E F, it might cut into the shaft in such a manner as to either leave it detached from the wall in only the upper portion of its length, or if placed far enough back to entirely free the shaft, would then cut the base in an awkward manner. In regard to the tapering of a column, the sides are seldom drawn straight from bottom to top. The usual rule is to make the sides of the column plumb or vertical up to a point about one-third of the way to the top, from which point they are curved in for probably more than one-half the remaining dis- tance and made straight but tapering to the neck mold. In some of the ancient examples the shaft 4 o THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER is bellied, being larger at a point about one-third of the way up than at the base, the sides being curved throughout their entire length, this curve being known as the entasis. It is needless for our present purpose to go into exact details of the five orders, save in one or two points. Details can best be obtained when needed from some work on the subject. The orders are termed the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Composite and Corinthian, each of which has its distinctive char- acteristics. The names indicate their origins except in the case of the Composite, which by some authors is not considered as entitled to a place along with the other four, being by them regarded rather as a combination of the Ionic with the Corinthian, which in fact it seems to be. Fig. ioo. — Entablature and Capital of Temple of Jupiter Those who are interested in the study of ancient architecture, and who are within reaching distance of Central Park, New York City, will find much to interest them in a visit to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The architectural exhibits con- tained therein consist in part of scale models of the most illustrious examples of ancient temples, etc., and, in many cases, of plaster casts taken di- rectly from the objects which they represent, in which, therefore, the present condition of subjects created many centuries ago may be seen. Fig. ioo is reproduced from a photograph of what is termed a "restored" model of a Corinthian entablature and capital. Reference to the illustration will show a line passing down through the entabla- ture near its center. That portion to the right of this line is a plaster cast made directly from a fragment of the entablature of what was known as the Temple of Jupiter at Rome, and shows the effect of over 2,000 years of time upon its surface, which is par- ticularly noticeable on the facia of the cornice, the dentils and on the architrave. The part to the left of the line is a newly constructed model, representing the design in its original and perfect state. The capital is also "restored," that is, completed from such fragments of the originals as exist. This is considered by some authorities as one of the best examples of the Corinthian order. It dif- fers from other examples principally in respect to the interlacing scrolls seen at the middle of the capital, these scrolls in other examples usually com- ing together somewhat like the volutes at the angles, but without passing through one another. This subject besides giving a correct idea of rela- tive proportions of the several parts of an entabla- ture, is in itself an excellent study in the design, character and disposition of the enrichments, and shows how closely modern renaissance architecture follows the antique examples. As may be seen, some of the designs here shown have been almost exactly reproduced in stamped sheet metal. In the matter of details of the orders, above re- ferred to, the capital of the Ionic column possesses a distinguishing feature which will interest the sheet metal worker, and that is its volute or scroll. It is made proportionately larger in this order than in the Corinthian, and the method of drawing it is one of the problems which the draftsman should be familiar with, inasmuch as it can be applied to the Corinthian volute as well as to scrolls in all forms. Several methods for drawing it are given in differ- ent architectural works, but the method given here- with will render the problem in the most simple manner for general application. Theoretically, the curve is what is mechanically termed an involute, that is, a curve made with a constantly and regularly decreasing radius. Prac- tically, however, it is made up of quarter circles, each being drawn with a radius somewhat shorter than the preceding. The amount of decrease in the radius is determined by the amount of space be- ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 4i tween the starting point of the scroll and the end of its first revolution, that is, the space a b of Fig. 101, which must be determined by the number of revolutions required and purpose for which it is intended. First enclose the space in which the scroll is re- quired to turn by the lines A C, A B and B D and bisect A B, obtaining the point E. Then place Fig. 101. — Method of Drawing Ionic Volute the point c below E a distance equal to one-eighth of a b, and from c as center describe arcs from A and B, as shown by A 1 and B 2. This brings the distance from 1 to 2 in the eye of the scroll, equal to one-fourth of a b, hence the perimeter of a square constructed upon 1 2 as a base will be equal to the distance a b, and the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 may be used in numerical order as the centers respectively of the arcs a c, c d, d c and c b. If now the spiral just drawn were continued through another revo- lution from the same centers, it would necessarily be parallel to the curves of the first revolution. A feature of this design is that it is desirable to have the space between the lines of succeeding revolu- tions diminish regularly, and when the method is applied to the drawing of the Ionic volute, it is also necessary to have the width a x of the scroll or fillet diminish toward the eye of the volute. To provide for this, the centers of the four following quarter circles continuing the outer curve must be drawn from the angles of a smaller square constructed in- side the first. The method of constructing this square is more fully shown in the detail above and to the right in which the numbers correspond with those in the eye of the volute as far as given. The other figures in the detail show the succeeding cen- ters, which are used in numerical order. In con- structing the inner squares, first bisect the side 1 4, obtaining the point 9, and from 9 draw lines to 2 and 3 as shown. The point 5 is located at a dis- tance from point I, equal to one-fifth of the dis- tance 1 9, and point 6 is found by carrying a line from 5 parallel to 1 2, to cut the line 9 2, as shown at 6. The location of the remaining points will be understood by reference to the detail. The centers for the inner line of the scroll, starting at x, can be found by constructing squares just inside those used for the outer curve, as shown by the dotted lines. Should the fillet required be very narrow, the point V can be so located that the distance 1 1' is about one-third of 15. If a x be supposed to be equal to x b, then the point 1' may be located at the middle point between 1 and 5. The spiral lines are drawn from the centers thus fixed in numerical order, and continued till they meet to form the "eye" of the volute. In applying this method to the scroll on the side of a modillion or bracket, the inner curve is drawn parallel to the outer, when therefore only one set of centers will be required, which will sel- dom include more than 6 points. It is usually nec- essary to fix the position of the last center at will to suit the size of the scroll end or eye required, as for instance, the size of a stock rosette to be used thereon. In the drawing, point 10 is the center of the eye. In the erection of an order the face of the plinth is set flush with the die of the pedestal (when ped- estals are used), and the lower fascia of the archi- trave, as well as the frieze, are set flush with the column at the top. In the case of a cornice or entablature placed above a wall without columns, the frieze is always flush with the wall surface below it. It sometimes happens that a portico is formed in an opening or space in the wall, or that a colonade is finished with pilasters at the ends, the whole being sur- mounted by an entablature without breaks. In such cases the frieze is placed flush with the wall sur- face or with the face of the pilasters, with the re- sult that the frieze and architrave must project somewhat beyond the face columns at the top. In the treatment of window and door openings, either an arch or a lintel is the normal means of spanning the space. When the opening is rect- angular at the top the lintel takes the form of an architrave, which, for the sake of a finish, is carried 42 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER also down the sides of the opening; and when the opening is semicircular the same profile is used, since the arch of the Romans is what might be termed a curved lintel. When a more elaborate finish is required the arch is made to rest upon the caps of small pilasters or columns. Again, in the case of rectangular openings, that portion of the architrave which spans the opening may be sur- mounted by a frieze and cornice, ending with what are termed "self-returns" at the sides, thus form- ing a complete entablature. Modern renaissance methods use the cornice often without the frieze or architrave, which use is undoubtedly the origin of the window and door cap, many forms of which are constructed of sheet metal. Detail Drawing Having possessed himself of a knowledge of architectural drawing the sheet metal pattern drafts- man will find it advantageous to proceed with his exercises by laying out full size details, preparatory to the development of the patterns. There are a number of rules applicable to laying out details or working drawings from architect's scale drawings which when well understood make comparatively simple that which may at first appear complicated. In order that these rules or methods may be estab- lished in the mind of the reader, three examples in detailing are presented. Detail of Square Molded Leader Head The first exercise is that of a square molded leader head. Fig. 102 shows a one-inch scale draw- ing- such as is furnished to the sheet metal con- SQUARE MOULDED prr^ i-|-----i I LEADER HEAD w FRONT AND SIDE ELEVATION [ QCpp i Scale 1 Inch =7 Foot SECTION THROUGH A -3 Fig. 102. — One Inch Scale Drawing of Square Molded Leader Head tractor by the architect. From this is prepared a full size detail. Since the drawing is scaled one ince to the foot, the one-inch scale rule is required first for measuring the entire hight of the head and tube combined, which will be found to scale 12 in. Such measurements should be proved by the aid of memorandum slips. Thus we make a note of the 12 in. and by measuring or scaling each member separately they will be found to tally with the full size measurements shown at the right in Fig. 103. After placing sufficient paper on the drawing board, proceed to draw the detail by means of any vertical line, as A B, upon which place the various divi- sional measurements. Through these points draw horizontal lines indefinitely. Now we resort again to the inch scale rule to measure from the center line in Fig. 102 the various projections of the sev- eral members there shown, which are then placed on corresponding lines in the working detail in Fig. 103, as indicated. It will be noted that the extreme projection at the top measured from the center line, is 6 in. and, that the various projections are shown by full size measurements at the left, the tube being 3 in. in diameter, as shown. The quarter round or ovolo is struck from the center a while the cavetto or cove is struck from the center b. Trace the half elevation, just drawn, opposite the line A B as shown. Then will E F G H be the front elevation of the leader head. Referring to the scale drawing in Fig. 102, it will be seen that the head is orna- mented with raised discs and triangular dentils. The front of the head is designed to have three discs and four dentils, and the side of the head (repre- senting the distance to the left of the wall line), two discs and three dentils. These ornaments are spaced in the detail as shown in Fig. 103. Bisect the dis- tance c d on the center line and obtain the point e. Since the disc scales 13X in. as seen in the scale drawing in Fig. 102, set the compasses to ^4 m - radius, and using c in Fig. 103 as center, draw a circle of i l / 2 in. diameter as shown. Tangent to the circle on the left, draw the vertical line / g, form- ing a rectangle, shown by / g h i. From these corners draw two diagonal lines, partly shown, so that they will intersect at ; which use as a center and describe a circle of similar diameter. In like manner draw the circle to the right. The projec- tions of these discs are indicated in the scale draw- ing in Fig. 102. They measure % m - an d are so in- dicated in the detail in Fig. 103. Since the hight of the triangular dentils are equal to one half the width of the fascia on which they are placed as shown in the scale drawing in Fig. 102, draw a line in the ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 43 detail Fig ich, through the center of the fascia, as shown by 4 — 8. Now divide the upper line of the fascia in two parts as indicated by 1 — 2 — 3 and the center line, 4 — 8, in four parts as shown by the divisions 4 — 5 — 6 — 7 and 8. Proceed by drawing lines from 1 to 5 to 2 and 2 to 7 to 3 which operation forms the outlines of two dentils. Repeat this pro- cedure on the opposite side. The height or rise of these dentils are also l /\ in., as shown. As the leader head is to lie flat against the wall, a perpendicular line erected from G to J will represent the wall line, and J E H G will be the side elevation of the head on which are placed two discs and three dentils, as shown. In this manner the front and side elevations are drawn one over the other, a common practice in shop detailing where time and space are important con- siderations. It becomes necessary to construct be- low the elevation a hor- izontal section through the line C D, which is accomplished as follows : Extend the center line indefinitely, and at right angles thereto, draw the wall line L M cross- ing the center line EX Fig. 103. — Working Detail of Square Molded Leader Head at t. It is required to set the compasses to one-half the diameter of the tube, that is, i l / 2 in., when with t as center describe the arc, cutting the center line at I. Using the same radius, with / as center describe the circle shown, thus representing the plan view of the tube. Now from the edges of the cove r and r 1 in elevation, drop vertical lines below, indefinitely, as shown, and from / draw the horizontal line I m. Set off this distance I m as indicated by I n and com- plete the outline shown. From the corner draw a line at an angle of 45 degrees, intersecting the outer line dropped from r at s which becomes the miter line s and complete the opposite side, as shown. u s v w then represents the horizontal section on C D, and X X in elevation shows the flange of the tube. This completes the full size details from which the patterns are developed by the methods set forth in the following problems. 44 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Working Detail of Ornamental Window Cap The second exercise on making working details is that of an ornamental window cap with a pedi- ment, a one-inch scale drawing of which is shown in Fig. 104 where are seen a front elevation and a side view. As will be seen the cornice or cap is to be placed over a door or window opening and contains corbels, triangular dentils in the chamfer, brackets and raised panels in the bed mold with an orna- mental scroll in the tympanum of the pediment. In this case the normal profile of the ogee is placed in the horizontal return, so the ogee in the pediment mold will require to be raked or modified, all of which procedure we will show in the working detail. The first step, as in the detailing of the leader head, is to scale the entire hight of the cap, proving this measurement by scaling each member separately, the sum of all of which will equal the full measure- ment just obtained. The rule scaled an inch to the foot is next employed to take off the distance from the top of the pediment to the bottom of the corbel. The measurement is found to be 2 ft. 6 in. as in- dicated to the right of the wall line in the working detail in Fig. 105. Each member in the scale draw- ing in Fig. 104 may then be scaled separately and the result proved. After which place these hights on the wall line in Fig. 105 as shown by full size measurements. From these divisions draw horizon- tal lines throughout the sheet indefinitely. Next scale the projection of the horizontal return in the side view in Fig. 104 which is found to measure 8 in. and place it as indicated in the detail in Fig. 105, where the various projections are marked as of full size. It will be seen that the lower fascia in the front elevation in Fig. 104 is enriched by a molded chamfer, indicated in the side elevation in the work- ing detail in Fig. 105 from d' to C, the soffit of which returns and is nailed to the window frame at a 2 . The side view of the corbel indicated by S, is now drawn in position as well as the side view of the small bracket and cap shown by R. The dotted line R° indicates the sink in the face of the bracket. The heavy dots in the side elevation indicate the centers from which are struck the various molds. Having thus completed the side view, there remains only to draw the one-half front elevation proceed- ing as follows : Draw the center line, as shown, at right angles to which lay off a distance of the one- half width of the window opening. This distance is shown to be 1 ft. 63/ in. Scale the width of the corbel in the front elevation in Fig. 104 and place the distance of 53^2 in. as shown in the half front elevation in Fig. 105. Extend the outside of the corbel to point A, and make the profile A X B alike to A° X° B° in the side elevation. From B, draw the rake of the pediment B D and parallel to this line from points 2 and 7 in the profile B C draw lines as shown. Now take the hights of the various members between a and b in the half front eleva- tion, and place them at right angles to the raking line drawn from point 7 in the profile B C as shown from a' to b' . Through these points parallel to ORNAMENTAL WINDOW CAP FRONT ELEVATION Scale 1 lnch=1 Foot Fig. 104. — One Inch Sca'.e Drawing of an Ornamental Window Cap ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 45 -v9 46 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER B D draw lines intersecting the horizontal line C a, as shown. Again by means of the one inch scale rule, measure the distances in the front elevation in Fig. 104 from the corner, to the side of the bracket. Measure also the width of the bracket. These dis- tances will be found to measure 1)2 and 3 in. re- spectively. The sunk face in the center of the bracket is one inch wide. Transfer these measure- ments to the working detail in Fig. 105 as shown by corresponding measurements. Since the scale draw- ing in Fig. 104 calls for five brackets one directly in the center, lay off the half face of the bracket in Fig. 105 as shown by the i l /i in. division. Place an- other bracket between the end and center brackets thus locating the position of the raised panels. Ob- serve that the margin e between the panel or brackets is equal to either e' or e" which is i$ in. as shown in the side elevation. Again referring to the scale drawing in Fig. 104 it will be seen that twelve triangular dentils occur in the molded cham- fer and that the distance between the lowest line of the chamfer return and the inside of the corbel in the front elevation, scales 2 in. Set off this dis- tance of 2 in. in the half elevation in Fig. 105 as shown at c and make the profile c d to correspond to C d' in the side elevation. Space the half length of the chamfer in the front elevation in six parts as shown, and bisect one part, thus obtaining the point a", from which drop a perpendicular, intersecting the lower line at a". By means of the division cor- responding to that used for spacing the six dentils, step off from a"' to b"\ etc ; and draw lines con- necting the dentil faces as shown. The face line of these dentils is shown in the side elevation by the dotted line Y. Raking the Profile In some cases the architect will show a true sec- tion on the line L M at right angles to the pediment or gable mold, but usually the sheet metal draftsman is required to modify the profile from the normal or given profile shown from B to C at the foot of the pediment. The method of modification, commonly called "raking" is as follows : Space the normal profile of the ogee B C into an equal number of di- visions as shown by the small figures 1 to 7, from which points parallel to the rake B D draw lines a short distance above the profile as shown. Now take a tracing of the normal profile B C with the various intersections in same, and place it at pleasure, above the raking line B D, with care that the member 1 — 2 is at right angles to the line B D as shown at N 1 . From the divisions 1 to 7 in W, at right angles to B D, draw lines which intersect correspondingly numbered lines drawn from the normal profile B C. Trace a line through points thus obtained. Then will B v C v be the modified profile of the ogee. Next take a tracing of the mold shown from C to X and place it as shown in the rake from C v to X v . Take the depth of the return from B° to Z° (8 in.) in the side elevation and place it in the rake as indicated from B v to Z v . Then will the shaded line from Z v to B v to C v to X v be the true section on L M. From this true section is obtained the girth in de- veloping the pattern for the raking molding. It now becomes necessary to ascertain how far the top bend at a in the half front elevation will turn back to receive the miter cut at the foot of the gable or pedi- ment mold. This is determined by drawing a line from the corner X v in the true section on L M at right angles to the rake until it intersects the raking line drawn through C v at X 1 . C v — X 1 is then the required distance, which is set off in the side eleva- tion from C 2 to X 2 , shown shaded. A flange is turned up at X 2 to facilitate soldering. This com- pletes the architectural drafting of the window cap, preparatory to the development of the several pat- terns by the sheet metal draftsman. Detailing a Main Cornice We come to the third and final exercise in detail- ing, that of a cornice with panels, brackets, modil- lions and returns. In this connection is presented the simple procedure of figuring the various spac- ings of the modillions, brackets and the lengths of panels based upon the measurements obtained from mason's work as occurs in practice. Computing Divisions Fig. 106 shows a typical quarter-inch scale draw- ing such as is usually furnished by the architect. The measurements of the piers and windows are those presumed to have been taken at the building, while the front wall was in course of erection. We have the following sum : 2' — o" 3 — 2' — 8" 3' — 0" 2' — 8" 3' — 0" 2' — 8" 3' — 0" 2' -0" 24' — o" ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 47 3 10 H k-7'4^J e"j<-;'4^ 6"(<-?' 4 ^i Wi 1 ij\ e'WiVs* e '*i'iM Fig. 106.— Quarter Inch Scale Drawing of Main Cornice, Showing Method of Obtaining the Various Dimensions SECTION It will be observed that the cornice in this case is 4 ft. high with 2 ft. projection and that the end brackets are i ft. from the building line on either side, as shown. The three center brackets occur di- rectly over the center of the brick piers as shown. With the measurements just obtained from the piers and windows to serve as a basis, the various divi- sions to the centers of the three center piers are simply obtained as follows: 2 ft. -+- 3 ft. -J- { J / 2 of 2 ft. 8 in.) or 1 ft. 4 in. = 6 ft. 4 in. Continuing the simple calculations, we have 1 ft. 4 in. -\- 3 ft. -\- 1 ft. 4 in. = 5 ft. 8 in., as shown. Since the piers and windows possess symmetrical halves, the meas- urements of 6 ft. 4 in. and 5 ft. 8 in. naturally apply alike to either half. The measurements of 5 ft. 8 in. are seen to represent the distances from center to center of brackets for the center divisions. Now since the brackets are 8 in. wide simply deduct this measurement from 5 ft. 8 in., leaving 5 ft. as the distance between brackets for the two center divi- sions. The distance between the two brackets for the two end divisions is readily found by deducting the sum of 1 ft. -j- 8 in. -\- 4 in. = 2 ft. from the length of 6 ft. 4 in. leaving 4 ft. 4 in. as shown. Thus as a simple proving of these divisional meas- urements we have : 6' — 4" 5' — 8" 5' — 8" 6' — 4" 24' — 0" Summing tl e faces of the brackets and the spaces between them we have : 1' — 0" 8" 4' -4" 5 '-o" 8" 4' — 4" 8" 1' — 0" 24' — o" Proceeding in the same simple manner for the margin or stile between the panel and bracket which is to be 3 in. as shown, we have 2X3 = 6. Thus 6 in. deducted from 4 ft. 4 in. and 5 ft. leave re- spectively 3 ft. 10 in. and 4 ft. 6 in. as the length of the panels, two of each of which are required. 4 s THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Since two modillions occur between each two brackets, and each has 6-in. face, we simply deduct 2X6 from 4 ft. 4 in. and 5 ft. respectively and divide by 3. Thus, 4 ft. 4 in. = 52 in. and 52 in. — 12 in. = 40 in. Finally 40 in. divided by 3 = 3 spaces each of 13 1/3 in. Thus each of the spac- ings between the modillions in the 4ft. 4 in. division equal 1 ft. 1 1/3 in. Applying this simple method of figuring to the 5 ft. division we have 60 in. — 12 in. = 48 in. H- 3 = 16 in. or 1 ft. 4 in. for each space, as shown. Preparing the Working Details of Main Cornice A practiced sheet metal draftsman would readily be enabled to obtain full size measurements from a quarter-inch scale drawing such as is shown in Fig. 106, but we present in Fig. 107 a one-inch scale drawing from which the reader of less experience can obtain such measurements. With the proficiency acquired through experience he can obtain accurate measurements from the quarter inch scale draw- ing employing the quarter-inch scale rule. Pro- ceeding with the fact in mind that the hight of the cornice is 48 in. and the projection, 24 in. lay off these measurements on the detail drawing in Fig. 108, as shown. Now by means of the one in. scale rule, measure separately the hight of each member in the one in. scale drawing in Fig. 107, finding their total which correctly computed is 48 in., as shown to the right of the wall line in Fig. 108. From these divisions draw lines indefinitely to the left, upon which place the various projections as shown by the full size measurements all as ob- tained from the scale drawing in Fig. 107. Draw the outline of the entire cornice or entablature as shown. The ogee is drawn free-hand, while the various coves and quarter rounds are struck from centers indicated by the heavy dots. In a cor- responding manner obtaining the full size dimen- sions from the scale drawing in Fig. 107 and detail the side of the modillion and bracket as shown in Fig. 108, drawing the volutes free-hand as shown. In placing the cap mold over the sides of the mo- dillion and bracket as shown respectively by a b and a' b' , it is important that the mold be alike to the cap mold at A B. The preparation of these shop details does not involve the necessity of drawing Fig. 107. — One Inch Scale Drawing of Main Cornice front elevations of the bracket faces. It is required only that a section through the modil- lion and bracket faces be drawn roughly with full size widths of the face strips, t h e amount of sink in the face being in- dicated in the side views of the modil- lion and bracket as shown by the dot- ted lines. The band iron lookout or ''brace" as it is usually termed is next drawn in posi- tion. This pro- cedure is not sub- ject to any fixed rule except that the band iron shall fit compactly ' against the various parts of the cornice in order to receive stove bolts, indi- cated by the short dashes. The for- mation of the brace is indicated by the shaded line. The detail as shown in Fig. 108 serves all requirement in de- veloping the pat- terns for the cor- nice as called for in the quarter inch scale drawing in Fig. 106. In lay- ing out the girth of the several mold- ings in the detail in Fig. 108, it is well to exercise foresight in plac- ing or locating the seams with regard ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING ■2'0" ~T~ Fig. 108 Working Detail of Main Cornice, Showing Horizontal Joints and Band Iron Lookouts THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER for the width of metal carried in stock. In short, the seams should be so located that the least amount of waste of material will re- sult. When occasionally it occurs that the girth is such, that less than the stock width is required a width may be selected, with a view to a trim that may be used for some other purpose, as sky- light caps, dentils or other small items. Various types of seam are available for constructing the long seams of the cornice. The simplest and most common is the lapped and soldered or riveted seam, see X 1 ; a single lock seam may also be advantage- ously used, see X 2 or a locked seam may be em- ployed as indicated at X, Y and Z in the detail. Note carefully at X the formation of the seam. This seam is secured and made tight by turning over the material at X as indicated by the dotted line. Note the formation of the lock at Y which is turned down at Y°. This lock occurs also at Z, the solid line being turned under the wash as shown by the dotted lines. In the case of standing seams as shown at X, the seams are usually turned down at required intervals to receive the band iron braces ; or the braces may be turned V shape as shown by the dotted line over X. Soft steel is required for its working properties in bending these lookouts or braces, since it permits bending the work cold, re- quiring no heating at the forge. The patterns for the brackets and modillion sides may be pricked directly upon the metal from the detail drawing, when allowance is provided for laps for riveting to the parts of the cornice. Lettering Applied to Sign Boards and Electric Signs The extensive use of electric, frieze and panel signs renders a knowledge of lettering a valuable acquisition to the sheet metal draftsman. The method of proportioning the letters and figures is comparatively simple. In Figs. 109, 1 10 and 111 are shown respectively, the Block, the Roman and the Egyption forms of letters and figures. These formations constitute at least the basis of require- ment for constructing the letters and figures for the purpose under discussion. A rule of simple application is to divide the pro- posed hight of letters or figures into five equal spaces, taking the width of one space in the dividers and stepping off indefinitely as shown by the square divisions, when the proportions may be followed as shown in the engravings. In the preparation of such letters for electrical signs they are raised, "stripped" or sunk. In either k T i ■ & M I I, J ■ '« ■■ 1 M ■■ ■ w ^ m 1 ■: 1 ■■ ■ Bk 1 « ■■ ■■ : ibl ir mm if lr m 1 v i Wfi 1 1 1 WLI 1 1 IWJWH~ ■■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ ■■■■«.. "■■ ■■■■ «■ * ■■■ %» urn mw ■■■ ■■■■■'■• ■■ «■■■ «r ■ .•■■■ . *%- Itll ll llll l UJ II Fig. 109. — Block Letters and Figures ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, DETAILING AND LETTERING 5i \ I U hl l TI II.I LI M\ i f ii i iiiii f iiifiiiiiiiiii i iiii i i M i i i i i i i ll l llllllilll l lllllll iiilill I-n-ffl-IVV-\lAlI\Tn-lXX-XV-XX-XXXXL-LLX-LXX 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 LXXX XC C CXXV CL CC CD D DCC CM M MM. 80 90 100 125 150 200 400 500 700 90.0 1000 2000 Fig. no. — Roman Letters and Figures mam ■ *■ ■■ *+ m ma a ■■ ■ w-.sm m mi a m sh w ma a ma w ma ■ 4.1 «h~n ■■ ■■ ■■, mw M ■■■■■■ ' «■■ ■ ■■ li ■ ■■ ■ ■■■■■■■■■ BBBk. -i«« ■■ ■■ ■ Fig. ill. — Egyptian Letters and Figures 5 2 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER case holes are usually punched in the letters to re- ceive the bulbs as indicated in Fig. 112. According to common practice the punch- ing of the holes is done under the direction of the electrical worker, but full in- formation on the installing of electrically illuminated signs is presented elsewhere in this volume. Fig. 113 indicates the procedure of laying out any size of letter. As an example, the words SHEET METAL are shown. Let A-B represent the desired Fig. 112. — Letter Used in Electric Signs lay out the words "Sheet Metal," in Fig. 113, as shown. Of course, the punching of holes in letters or figures is performed according to requirement dic- tated by the use for which the electrically lighted sign is intended. In the case of large letters of copper, built into the courses of brick while the construction of the wall is in progress, copper lugs of about 6 in. long and 2 in. wide are riveted to the top and bottom of the letters which are built in with the brick courses. The letters are then of such hight as to meet the mortar joints at top and bottom. It is hoped that this brief consideration of letter Fig. 113. — Drawing Block Letters hight of the letter. Divide this space into five parts and step off one of the spaces on the line A-C into indefinite divisions as shown. For block letters the proportions shown in Fig. 109 may be followed and for purpose of practice the student may, if desired, design will furnish the necessary suggestion to the sheet metal worker who may refer to Part XII of this work for a discussion of the mechanical methods applied to the construction of illuminated signs. PART IV PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, RETURN, FACE, BEVEL AND BUTT MITERS, PANELS, MOLDINGS, PEDIMENTS, DORMER AND BAY WINDOWS rpHE treatment of miters most commonly required in cornice work, are now in order. In plain square miters results are obtained di- rectly from the given profile in the simplest manner possible. Plain miters may be divided into three classes, commonly termed return miters, face miters and butt miters. A butt miter may really belong to either of the other two classes, and differs from them only in having but one arm. A return miter is one in which the two arms lie in the same hori- zontal plane, whence it will be seen that if the angle be a right angle, as it usually it, one arm will ap- Fig. 114. — View of Square Return Miter pear in elevation while the other arm appears in profile. This constitutes what is usually termed a "square miter." Fig. 114 shows a perspective view of a square return miter of a crown mold. PATTERN FOR RETURN MITER AT A RIGHT ANGLE IN PLAN Solution 1 Return miters may be either "inside" or "out- side," according as they are made to fit an internal angle, or an external angle, as will be explained in succeeding solutions. A face miter is one in which the two arms lie in the same vertical plane and, like the return miter, may assume any angle, that at 90 degrees being termed a "square" face miter. Fig. 115 shows a view of a portion of a cornice having two face miters, the lower one, A B, being a "square" or right angle miter, while the other, C D, is oblique. What ever be the angle of the miter, whether its arms lie in a vertical or in a horizontal plane, the Fig. 115. — Face Miters method of developing its patterns follows much the same course of procedure, the difference being prin- cipally in the view from which the development is made. If the reader will turn for a moment to the carpenter and see him cut or saw a miter upon a piece of wooden molding, he may learn something that will be an unfailing help to him in making the necessary drawing which must always precede the development. Having placed the piece of molding in what he terms the miter-box, the carpenter places his saw into the proper grooves or slot and saws down through the wood, and in so doing pro- duces an olique plane surface, which may be termed the miter plane, that is, the plane on which the two arms of the miter meet when they have been brought together. The all important principle to be kept in mind is, therefore, that before the pattern can be devel- 53 54 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER oped such a view of the required molding must be made as will show an edge view or profile of the miter plane. The edge view of a plane is a line, consequently what is really the miter plane is com- monly termed the miter line. Thus when both arms Fig. 116. — A Square Return Miter and Method Usually Employed in Obtaining Pattern of the miter lie in a horizontal plane, the plan shows an edge view of the miter plane, as A B in the upper part of Fig. 116, and becomes the view from which the pattern is obtained ; while when both arms of the miter lie in a vertical plane, the elevation is the view which gives a profile of the miter plane, and is therefore the view to be em- ployed in developing the pattern. Having now drawn such a view as will show the miter plane in profile, placed at its proper angle, and at the same time a profile of the mold properly turned, the universal rule to be followed in all miter work is to first divide the profile of the mold into a convenient number of equal spaces, then to carry lines from each of the points thus obtained parallel to the lines of the view to intersect the miter line, and finally to carry lines from points of intersection thus obtained on the miter line, at right angles to the lines of the view, into the stretch- out. A square return miter is the only miter in the development of which a short and at the same time correct method is employed. This we have shown in the lower part of Fig. 116, to which we have added at the top a plan from which may be deduced the reasons why the short method is correct. The ele- vation in this view shows at the left, a profile, or in other words, an edge view of the return or re- ceding arm of the miter. According to the usual method, divide the curved portion of this profile into spaces, as explained above and as indicated by the figures, placing figures also at every angle or bend of the profile. On any line drawn convenient- ly near and at right angles to the lines of the mold- ing (that is vertically), as M N, called the stretch- out line, set off the length of the spaces upon the profile, placing them in successive order and num- bering them to correspond with the points on the profile. Through each of the numbered points on the line M N draw lines parallel to the lines of the elevation, extending them in this case to the left, thus bringing them under the profile, and from all the points on the profile carry vertical lines down to intersect lines of corresponding number in the stretchout, as shown by the dotted lines, called pro- jectors, at the left of the engraving. A line traced through the intersections thus obtained, as shown at i', 2', 3', etc., will give the outline or miter cut of the pattern. It must not be overlooked that, in- as much as the molding extends indefinitely to the right, some point in the pattern, as P Q, must be assumed at the right of the miter as the other end of the pattern. The elevation shows an outside miter. In a drawing for an "inside" miter the pro- file would appear reversed, turned over from right to left, with reference to the elevation, when the pattern would of course be also reversed. How- ever, if the line P Q were at the left of the miter cut, and the lines were continued to the left instead of to the right, the pattern would be that of an in- side miter, all as will be explained. According to the explanation given above, the plan is the view in which the edge view of the miter line is shown and should be the view em- PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 55 ployed in obtaining the miter, and, were the miter anything other than a square miter, the plan is the only view that could be employed. A plan of this miter is shown in the upper part of the draw- ing in which the profile represents a section on any line drawn at right angles across the mold, as x y, but is shown as though hinged upon that line and revolved into the plane of the view. If it be sup- posed to be a section on x' y' , of the other arm of the miter, and to be hinged upon that line instead of upon x y, its position when brought into the plane of the view would then be exactly the same as .hat shown at the left in the elevation. Conse- quently, projections made from the several points in it would cross the miter line coincident with those from the profile shown and would arrive at the same point in the stretchout as those already obtained. Allowances for laps may be made at the dis- cretion of the cutter, but lines indicating where bends are to be made in the brake in forming are shown and the prick marks indicated. CONSTRUCTIVE VIEW OF COR- NICE AND GUTTER COMBINED Solution 2 In the case of return miters, required for a corn- ice alike to that shown in the constructive view of Fig 117, the method of the preceding problem ap- plies except that the horizontal seams must first be located to conform to the width of the sheet iron carried in stock, when the patterns may be de- veloped. The method indicated in the figure is that of fire-proof construction. It will be noted that angle iron brackets made of 2 X 2 X J A m - angles are built into the wall. To this frame the cornice is secured by means of band iron cornice lookouts. To the top of these lookouts, angle iron is secured as shown, and the top gutter brace is secured thereto as indicated. Wood sheathing having the proper pitch toward the outlets, is then laid inside of the angle and band iron construction. To avoid the necessity of soldering along the top edge a special type of lock is inserted between the metal lining and cornice, as is more clearly shown in the detail in Fig. 118, in which the top of the mold is shown, 117. — Constructive View of Cornice and Gutter Combined, on Angle Iron Construction Fig. 118. — Method of Constructing Horizontal Seams without Soldering with the flange bent at A B. The gutter lining has an outward flange, placed in the position shown, after which A is locked over the gutter flange as shown at A 1 . It is then double seamed against the wood sheathing as at A 2 . Assuming that the girth of the crown mold from A to B to C may be made up from stock widths of iron, a single edge should be placed along the planceer and the lock at the top of the bed mold made as shown at D. The single edge of the planceer is then set inside of this groove and at D the metal is turned over as shown in diagram X at a. Where the egg and dart mold is attached to the metal cornice, the background or metal body is formed to receive the pressed egg 56 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER and dart, as shown from C to E. The dentils are set to the dentil course shown by F. G is the flange on the drip, built in as the construction of the wall progresses. The patterns for the returns are laid out in the usual manner, bringing into use the girth of the mold from A to C, and from D to G. The method of development is in conformity to that as explained in the next preceding problem. PATTERN FOR A BEVEL MITER Solution 3 Fig. 119 illustrates the development of bevel miters. The profile chosen is modeled after a Greek form in which that part of the profile between points 4 Fig. 119. — Bevel Miter in Crown Mold and 15 is primarily a portion of a parabolic curve. This has been simulated by constructing it of two arcs of circles. The upper part, that from 4 to the point c, is drawn from the center a, while the re- mainder, c to 15 is an arc whose center is at b. It should be noted that the two curves meet at a line drawn from b through a to meet the curve at c. Of course, two formers must be used in forming this part of the mold. As previously explained, the plan is the view in this case which shows an edge view of the miter plane A B. The view shown is called an inverted plan, that is, a view looking up instead of down. The profile is a section on any line as x y crossing the plan at right angles, upon which line the plane of the section is hinged or turned over to the left, to a position in the plane of the view as shown. Lines from the several points in the profile follow the direction of the mold till they intersect the miter line A B, whence they are carried at right angles into the measuring lines of corresponding number of the stretchout, which has been previously set off on M N, all as explained in a previous problem. It is easily seen that this miter does not differ in any respect from a butt miter, if we remove or erase that part of the plan to the left of the miter line and extend A B so that it may represent any plane in an oblique position, as the side of a tower or some surface against which the molding is re- quired to abut. DEVELOPING INSIDE AND OUT- SIDE MITERS AT ONE OPERATION Solution 4 In Fig. 120 is shown a perspective view of an outside and inside miter. A indicates the exterior I II i 1 1 1 1 III II 1 1 II II II 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 111 Fig. 120 Perspective View Showing Outside and Inside Miters or outside angle, while B shows an interior or inside angle. A method of developing these inside and outside miters directly upon the sheet metal at one PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 57 operation is shown in Fig. 121. In this case we will assume that the angles are right angles or of 90 degree. If it be a gutter miter that is sought, first draw the profile, as shown, from 1 to 10. Ex- tend the eave line 2-3 as A B and divide the cove mold into equal spaces, as shown. From the various C 1 / Inside Miter > 2 ' Outside < Miter For B For A 3 4 ! X 5 5 7 8 9 10 D 11 t Fig. 121. — Quick Method of Obtaining Inside and Outside Miters at One Operation points i to 11, draw horizontal lines to meet the vertical line A B, as shown. To obtain the pattern, draw any line as A" B°, directly upon the sheet metal, and on the metal place the girth of the gutter profile, as shown by corresponding numbers. Through these small figures, at right angle to A° B° draw lines indefinitely, right and left, as shown. Then measuring in each instance from the line A B take the various projections, right and left, to points 1 to 1 1 and place them right and left to the line A" B° on lines of like numbers, measuring in each instance from the line A° B°. Trace through the points so obtained, the miter cut C D. Draw parallel to A° B° the lines E F and H G. Then will C D E F be the pattern for the outside miter A in Fig. 120 and C D H G in Fig. 121 the pattern for the inside miter shown by B in Fig. 120. If the length of the gutter is to be measured along the eave line indicated by the arrow on the line A B in Fig. 121, it will be necessary in laying out the patterns to take the measurement at arrow points indicated, for the outside and the inside miters. DEVELOPING OUTSIDE AND IN- SIDE BEVEL MITERS AT ONE OPERATION Solution 5 If the angles shown at A and B in the perspective in Fig. 120 were bevel miters, or miters others than 90 degree, the development of the exterior and in- terior angles at one operation may be effected as Fig 122.— Quick Method of Laying Out Directly on the Metal at One Operation shown in Fig. 122. Here A shows the profile of an ogee gutter or molding or cornice, as the case may be. Below the profile A, draw the plan of the bevel 58 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER as shown by BCD, exercising care to place this bevel so that the perpendicular arm B C is in line with the extreme projection of the profile A at 2-3, as shown. Obtain the miter line for this bevel as follows : With C as center, with any desired radius, draw a short arc cutting the arms of the bevel at a and a. Using a and a as centers, with the same or any other radius, describe arcs cutting each other at b. Draw the miter line C c. Now, divide the profile A into any number of spaces as shown by the small figures I to 1 1 from which points parallel to the bevel arm B C, draw lines cutting the miter line C c from 1 to 11, as shown. Through the extreme point II, at right angles to B C, draw the line d c. At pleasure directly on the metal, draw any line as F E, on which place the girth of the profile A. Through the small figures 1 to 1 1 at right angles to F E, draw lines indefinitely, as shown. Next, measuring from the line e d in plan, take the various projections with the dividers to points I to 11 on the miter line C c and place them on similarly numbered lines in the pattern, measur- ing each instance from the line F E. Trace a line through points so obtained, 1 1 H will be the de- sired miter cut; H J K 11, the miter cut for the exterior angle and H 11 L M the miter cut for the interior angle. If measurements are taken along the eave line as at 9-10 in profile A, it will then be necessary to take measurements along the cor- responding eave line, as shown by the arrow points in the patterns. FACE MITERS AT DIFFERENT ANGLES Solution 6 Fig. 123 shows the elevation of a cornice pedi- ment on which face miters are required and dem- onstrates that the elevation is the required view from which to obtain the patterns. Fig. 124, here- with given, is a view similar to that illustrated in Fig. 123. The design shows two face miters, the Fig. 123. — Cornice Pediment Requiring Face Miters lower of which is a square face miter, while the angle of the upper miter is greater than a right angle. In constructing the view in Fig. 124, first draw the profile as shown at the left and from the several Fig. 124. — Face Miters at Different Angles PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 59 angles project lines indefinitely to the right, to be- gin the elevation. From A erect the perpendicular A C according to requirements. On x y, drawn horizontally, set off the spaces found on the per- pendicular a b, and through the points thus obtained on x y, draw other perpendiculars to cut the lines first drawn, as shown from A to B. As a verification of these intersections, it should be noticed that the line A B must be at an angle of 45 degrees and that all the intersections must fall on this line. From C, draw C E at the required angle and draw v w at right angles to C E, upon which repeat the spac- ings on a b as before. Through the points thus fixed, draw lines parallel to C E to intersect with the vertical line just drawn, thus establishing the position and angle of the miter line C D. Since both arms of either one of the miters shown are alike, we can economize labor by devel- oping the pattern for the middle piece, duplicating the other arm of the oblique miter from the upper end of the pattern when obtained and that of the square miter from the lower end of the same pat- tern. The profile of the mold is shown at the left, but it will be necessary to place it in the middle section as shown, so that lines can be projected to both miter lines at the same operation. This profile rep- resents a section on the line x y, the edge view of the section plane, which section is brought into the plane of the view by being hinged or revolved upon the line x y through a quarter circle. Therefore divide each of the curved portions of the profile into an)- convenient number of equal spaces, numbering the points of division as shown by the small figures, and set off a stretchout of the entire profile on a line drawn at right angles to the lines of the elevation of the piece being developed, as shown by M N. Draw the measuring lines through the points thus obtained as shown, which must be numbered to correspond respectively with the points on the profile. Project lines from the several points of division on the profile, parallel to the lines of the mold, to intersect the miter lines A B and C D, as shown, and, finally, project lines from each of the points of intersection just obtained on the two miter lines to cut measuring lines of corresponding number in the stretchout, when lines traced through the points of intersection thus ob- tained, as shown from A 1 to B 1 , and from C 1 to D 1 will, with the line A 1 C 1 and B 1 D\ constitute the pattern. One of the principal sources of failure to get cor- rect results in miter cutting is carelessness in the numbering of points. The profile should in all cases of miter work first be divided into spaces and num- bered consecutively from one end to the other. Then each point on the stretchout line (M N) should bear the same number as the point which it represents on the profile. If any difficulty then arises, each point on the miter line can also be num- bered to correspond with the point from which it was obtained on the profile, as indicated by 1', 2', 3', etc., on either miter line. After this there should be no trouble in projecting the several points on the miter line into the proper measuring line of the stretchout. SQUARE PANEL MITER Solution 7 In this problem and in others following in regu- lar sequence, various exercises are given in the de- velopment of the patterns for face miters in panels, as well as in angular and curved pediments. The first problem considered is that of a square panel miter, occurring in panel shown in the finished Fig. 125. — View of Panel with Square Miters view in Fig. 125, the development of which is shown in detail in Fig. 126. Let A B C D represent part of the panel with its section drawn in its proper position as shown. Divide the lower mold X into an equal number of spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 10. From these points draw lines parallel to D C until they cut the miter line C E. In the elevation the lines are carried around the panel, to intersect the upper mould in section 10'. This, however, is not necessary in the development of the pattern. The pattern may now be laid out as follows : At right angles to C D draw the line D H upon which place the girth of the mold X in the section as well as the distance from 10 to 10', as shown by cor- responding numbers from 1 to 10 to 10' on D H. Below 10', reproduce the girth of the mold X, as shown from 10' to 1'. Through these small figures, at right angles to D H, draw lines as shown which 6o THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Fig. 126 Obtaining Patterns for Face Miters in Square Panel intersect lines drawn parallel to D H from similar intersections on the miter line E C in elevation. A line traced through points so obtained, as shown from J to K, will be the full miter cut for one end, which is reproduced at the opposite end,- when the proper length is known. The pattern for the molded miter head shown by B C E F, in elevation is de- veloped as follows: Take the distance from B to C and set it off on the full pattern, as indicated from K to L. In the same manner take the distance from E to F in elevation and place it on the pattern from N M. Reproduce the cut K N, as shown from L to M. K L M N then becomes the desired pattern. The lap along M N is soldered at N a in the full pattern. Allow laps on the miter cuts of the head as shown. A TRIANGULAR PANEL Solution 8 In cornice or sign work, panels are made up in various shapes and, while the application of princi- ples is alike in all face miters, the method of draw- ing the miter lines in elevation requires to be care- fully followed. Fig. 127 shows a finished view of a triangular panel, also its mold section. Fig. 128 shows how this work is laid out. First draw the Fig. 127. — View of Triangular Panel center line A C and then draw the outline of one half of the panel, as the halves are symmetrical in this case, as shown by A B C. At right angles to A B draw the profile or section of the panel mold, shown at D. The method of the next step, to ob- tain the miter line F B in elevation, is as follows : Using B as center, with any radius, describe arcs cutting the line A B at a, and B C at b. Again, TTERU SHAPES HALF FRONT ELEVATION Fig. 128. — Obtaining Pattern Shapes for Triangular Panel with any desired radius, using a and b as centers draw arcs intersecting each other at c. Draw the miter line c B. Space up the section D as shown from 1 to 8. Through these figures draw lines parallel to A B until they intersect the center line A C as shown, also the miter line c B at the bottom. If it be desired the elevation of the horizontal mold F G at the bottom may be completed, as shown. The pattern may now be laid out as follows : Take PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 61 the girth from i to 8 of the section D, and place it on the line H J, which is drawn at right angles to A B. At right angles to H J, through the small figures i to 8, draw lines, as shown, intersecting lines, drawn parallel to H J, from similar intersec- tions on the miter lines A E and F B in elevation. A line traced through points so obtained, as shown by K L M N, will be the pattern for the two oblique molds forming the panel. The pattern for the one half horizontal mold B C in elevation, is obtained by taking this distance and placing it in the pattern from L to P. From P draw the perpendicular line P R. Then P R K L becomes the half pattern, shown by C G F B in elevation. If the panel is of such size that the triangular piece E F G in eleva- tion may be added, take F G as radius, with K in the pattern as center, and describe the arc O, in- tersecting another arc, struck from N as center, with radius equal to E G in elevation. Draw lines in the pattern from N to O and O to K. A lap is shown added along R K in the half pattern for bottom mold. This lap would require to be soldered along K O in the triangular addition. PATTERNS FOR AN IRREGULAR PANEL Solution 9 Fig. 129 presents a view of an irregular panel whose right end has broken right angular corners, while at the left end the run of the molds is oblique. The profile of the mold is an ogee and square fillet as shown. Four patterns are required, namely, two 129. — View of Irregular Panel of A ; two of B ; four of C ; and one of D, the pieces being formed right and left. Fig. 130 shows how these four patterns can be laid out after the pattern for one side of the mold has been developed. First, draw the profile of the panel indicated by A, which gives the dimensions. Then construct the outline shown by B C D E F G H J K B. Obtain the miter lines at B and J, as explained in the preceding problem. The corners at C D E F G H and K being right angles, the miter lines form angles of 45 degrees, as shown. The elevation of the panel may be completed, but if desired, in practice only the miter lines at J and H are necessary so far as concerns the miter cuts. For successfully drawing a complete elevation of the panel, it is essential that the distance K a and K b are perpendicular to the outline and equal to the vertical mold through 9-1 in the profile. Space the lower profile into equal divisions as indicated by the small figures 1 to 9. Through these points, parallel to J H, draw lines until they intersect the miter lines from the corners H and J. If the panel be of such size that the flat surface FRONT ELEVATION Fig. 130. — The Various Patterns in an Irregular Panel between 9 and 9' can be added to the pattern, the full pattern is laid out, by drawing the girth line L M at right angles to J H and on this girth line laying off the girth of the profile 1 to 9 in elevation as well as the flat surface 9 to 9', as shown by cor- responding numbers 1 to 9 to 9' to 1 on L M. Through these small figures, draw at right angles to L M, lines intersecting lines drawn parallel to L M from corresponding intersections on the miter (»_ THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER lines from J and H in elevation. A line traced through points so obtained, as indicated by N O P R S T U V N, will be the desired miter cuts. Be- tween the points U and V and P and R, reproduce the flat surface of the panel in elevation, as shown in the pattern by U W V and P X Y Z & R, re- spectively. The entire flat pattern outline marked I represents the full pattern for the flat panel proper marked I in elevation. To obtain the pattern for the panel molds marked II in elevation proceed as follows: The angle at K in elevation requires an inside miter cut. There- fore take the distance from J to K and place it as shown from T to /' in the pattern. Then obtain the distance from U to W in the pattern and set it off from U to h. Since R S in the pattern rep- resents the miter cut for an outside miter, take the reverse cut of R S or R / m S, reverse and place it from h to i. T U h i then becomes the pattern for mold II in elevation. To obtain the patterns for the molds marked III, use R in the pattern as center and with R & as radius describe an arc which cuts the line U R at c. Set the dividers to equal R c and step off this distance on each line in the pattern, through which trace the miter cut c d. S R c d then completes the pattern for the sides marked III. Obtain the pattern for side IV in elevation by taking the distance from E to F and placing it in the pattern as shown from d to c. Take the dis- tance from Y to Z in the pattern, and set it off from c to /. Then draw the miter line from / to e , which is a duplicate of R S reversed, c f e d is then the desired pattern. In this way are laid out all the patterns to which laps must be allowed. PANEL WITH CIRCULAR END Solution 10 Fig. 131 is a finished view of a panel with a circular end. The method of obtaining the true miter line between the circular end and horizontal mold as well as the pattern for the intersection is shown in detail in Fig. 132. Here A indicates the section of the panel mold and B C D E shows the outline of the panel, the curve B E being struck from the center c. The first step is to divide the lower part of the mold into equal spaces as shown by the small figures 1 to 8. Through these points draw lines indefinitely, parallel to E D, as shown. Complete the miter lines H D and G C, which are angles of 45 degrees. Draw the perpendicular line a b crossing the lines previously drawn, as shown by the heavy dots. Take a reproduction of the di- visions on a b and place them on the radial line, FRONT ELEVATION Fig. 131. — View of Panel with Circular End Fig. 132. — Pattern for Panel Having Circular End drawn from the center c, as a'- b' , taking care that dot d on the line b a is placed on the intersection between the curve B E and line a' b' indicated by d' ■ Then, using c as center, with the dots on a' V as the various radii, describe arcs, cutting the lines drawn through points I to 8 in the section, resulting in the points of intersections shown along the miter line J e. Note that this miter line J c is not straight, but effects a curvature because the radii of the arcs are of differing lengths. The pattern is now in order. The girth of the entire panel section is PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 63 placed on the line L M, which is placed at right angles to E D. Draw lines at right angles to L M, through the small figures 1 to 1 , and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to L M from similar points on the miter lines E J and H D in elevation. Trace a line through these points, when N O P R will be the desired pattern cuts. With c-8' in elevation as radius and S and T in the pattern as centers describe arcs which cut each other at U. Using the same radius, with U as center, describe the arc T S. The pattern for the molded head C D H G in elevation is found as by the method illustrated in Fig. 126. The method of obtaining the various patterns for the circular head indicated by B E J F in elevation in Fig. 132 is taken up in the part treating of radial line developments. Allow laps on all patterns for soldering purposes. METHOD OF TREATING VASES IN ANY NUMBER OF PIECES Solution 11 Classed along with cornice work is the vase or pedestal in any number of pieces. Vases as orig- inally designed have usually been circular in plan, though sometimes elliptical, and have at times been cut in stone of polygonal form in any number of sides. As constructed of sheet metal, they may of course be spun in copper or zinc, and are thus round in plan. When made in pieces the plan is a poly- gon of any number of sides, and the greater the number of sides the more nearly is the circle ap- proached or simulated. Those best suited to archi- tectural purposes are made with four, eight, twelve or sixteen sides, as, when thus made, a side of the vase is then parallel to each of the four sides of a pedestal upon which it may and usually does stand. This fact is further shown in the plan of the twelve- sided object shown in Fig. 133 at the right. Pedestals, so far as their construction in sheet metal is concerned, are included in the same class as PATTERN Fig. 134. — Pattern for Octagonal Vase 64 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER vases. In plan they are usually square throughout or square at the base and cap, and octagon in the shaft or die. Since the making of a vase is, with the sheet metal worker, more or less a matter of design, we may pause here to say a few words in respect to that feature. In the majority of cases the design is provided by the architect of the building or cornice on which it is intended to be used as a decoration. But in some cases the cornice maker may be re- quired to provide the design to the best of his abil- ity. In making the design, therefore, he must take into consideration that a vase is, in a majority of cases, to be viewed from a point below its level, un- less perchance it is to be placed upon a lawn or a porch, when it is, of course, below the eye. The designer must therefore consider how a molding or any part will appear as seen from a chosen point of view, or, in other words, what parts will be seen and what will not. For this reason it would be useless, if to be viewed from below, to introduce many members or an extra amount of ornamenta- tion between points A and B or from C to the top in the design shown at the left in Fig. 134. For instance, the molding shown at A may be made according to the profile there given, or it may be made as shown at D to the right, and the difference will not be apparent. On the contrary, the molding shown above B will come into full view, and there- fore may be elaborated to any advisable extent ; and the same is true of all parts up to point C. In designing the profile of a vase it is not neces- sary to adhere to the use of arcs of circles to the same extent that it is in profiling a molding, for the reason that the strips or patterns are narrow and the curves usually large and are thus easily formed. In the study of shapes or profiles of vases gen- erally, the student is referred to any of the many works on classical architecture. In drawing the design the elevation must, of course, be projected from the plan and the plan so placed upon the paper that the center line of one of the sides (the side from which the pattern is to be obtained) is in a horizontal position, as at E M. The correctness of the pattern, of course, depends entirely upon the angle made by the two lines E F and E G. The safest means of obtaining this angle is to construct the entire plan, that is, to divide a cir- cle into the required number of parts in such a man- ner that one-half of the angle F E G shall be on each side of the horizontal line E M. This having been done, it now remains to divide the entire pro- file of the vase or pedestal into spaces as shown by the small figures, and to then set off a stretchout of the same upon E M extended as shown by M N. Lines from every point of division may now be dropped vertically upon the lines E F and E G of the plan and then projected horizontally into the measuring lines of corresponding number in the stretchout, all as shown. Line drawn through points thus obtained will then constitute the pattern for one piece, which must be duplicated to make up the required number of pieces. We may here remark that it is not always neces- sary, as some are apt to think, that any portion of the profile, as, for instance, the part from o to 8, must be divided into equal spaces. In this case the spaces from o to 5 are equal, but larger than those from 5 to 8. This becomes necessary from the fact that the upper part of this line is more curved than the lower part. The same is true of the large curve above, in which, for the same reason, the spaces from 14 to 19 are larger than those from 19 to 23. It is, however, necessary that what ever spaces are assumed upon the profile must be reproduced upon the stretchout in the order taken. The gore pieces between o and the base will be treated in a subsequent problem. BEVEL AND BUTT MITER FOR AN OCTAGONAL BAY WINDOW RETURN Solution 12 If an octagonal bay window has but three sides and the octagonal sides butt obliquely against walls, as shown in the plan and elevation in Fig. 135, the octagonal sides or returns require two forms of 1 1 1 .. i_ FRONT ELEVATION 1 1 1 1 1 1 T^— H Flashinq /\ 1 ) 1 ' tl = . — r= i^E=F= 135. — Elevation and Plan Showing Miter Patterns Required on Octagonal Bay Window PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 65 miter, the one against the wall at A in plan being a butt miter, and the one at B an octagon or bevel miter. While, in this case, the angle B is octagonal the methods of development are alike whether or not the angle B is more or less than an octagon. The method of developing these patterns shapes is shown in detail in Fig. 136. First draw the plan of the wall line as A B and from this line place the tended. Note the formation of the drip at the bottom of the cornice, where it is bent as indicated by 19-20-21-22. In this groove is set the lower part of the cornice, as shown at a. Then the flange 21- 22 is locked around a as shown at b. This effects a rigid lock, and by means of an edge bent as at a, the buckles and wrinkles are removed from the lower part of the cornice, which would have a tendency BUTT MITER AGAINST WALL Fig. 136. — Obtaining Patterns for Octagonal Bay Window Return Miters angle C D E in its correct position, as shown. The line D E must be accurately parallel to A B. Bi- sect the angle C D E by means of the arcs c d and e, as previously described, and draw the miter line indefinitely as shown by c D F. Extend the line C D indefinitely, as shown by C D 19 and on this place the profile of the cornice, in its correct posi- tion, as shown, having the planceer of the cornice, 13-14, accurately perpendicular to the line C D ex- to buckle without the strengthening of the edge a. The profile is spaced into equal divisions and points and corners are numbered, as shown from 1 to 22. From these small figures, parallel to D C, lines are erected to intersect the miter line D F, as well as the wall line B A, as shown by the dotted lines. To obtain patterns proceed by drawing, at right angles to C D in plan, the stretchout line H J on which place the girth of the profile of the cornice, as shown 66 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER by like numbers i to 22 on the line H J. Through these small figures, at right angle to H J, draw lines, intersecting lines drawn parallel with H J from similar intersections on the wall line A B and miter line D F. Trace a line through points thus ob- tained. K L will be the miter cut tor the bevel miter F D and M N the miter cut for the butt miter against the wall G C. Allow laps for joining. BASE OF AN OCTAGONAL BAY WINDOW, MITERING OBLIQUE- LY AGAINST THE WALL, RE- QUIRING RAKED PROFILES Solution 13 The present example is that of an octagonal bay window whose design constitutes three sides of an octagon thus causing the octagonal sides to miter obliquely against the wall of the house of which it is a part, as shown in the perspective view in Fig. 137. The method of developing the base of a bay Fig. 137. — Octagonal Bay Win- dow in which Oblique Sides Miter Against the Wall of the House of this class is shown in Fig. 138. First draw the center line A — D. Then draw the half elevation of the base of the bay, as shown by A — 2 — 12 — 18. It should be understood that the profile shown in ele- vation from 1 to 18, represents the miter or joint line between the oblique return C — B in plan against the wall line. From this miter line 1 to 18 in eleva- tion must be found the true profiles of the base at right angles to B — C and C — D in plan, as follows : In line with the elevation, establish the outline of the base B — C — D in plan, and draw the miter line C — E. Divide the profile in elevation into an equal number of parts, as shown by the small figures 1 to 18, from which points drop perpendicular lines to meet the wall line in plan as shown (without num- bers), and from these divisions parallel to B — C in plan, draw lines to intersect the miter line C — E. From these intersections, parallel to C — D, draw lines to cross the center line as shown by similar numbers. At right angles to B — C, from the point E, draw indefinitely the line E — F, and intersect it by the lines in B — C — E extended (without num- bers). Now, take the various intersections on the line E — F in plan and place them to the right of the elevation on the horizontal line E 1 — F 1 where they are correctly numbered. In a similar manner take the various intersections on the line E — D in plan and place them on the horizontal line E° — D° to the right of the elevation as shown by similar num- bers. Next, at right angles to E 1 — F 1 , also to E° — D° draw lines, which intersect by horizontal lines drawn from like numbers in the profile in elevation. Trace a line through points so obtained. Then will the profile from 1' to 18' be the true profile through E — F in plan and the profile from i° to 18° the true profile through E — D in plan. The pattern for the oblique side C — B in plan, may now be de- veloped as follows : At right angles to C — B, draw any line, as H — J, on which place the girth of the profile 1' to 18' as shown by similar numbers on H — J. Through these small figures at right angles to H — J draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to H — J from similar intersections on the wall line E — B and on the miter line C — E. Trace a line through points so obtained. Then will K — L — M be the pattern for the side C — B. In a correspond- ing manner, take the girth of the profile from 1° to 18 and place it on the center line extended as N — O, as shown by like numbers. From these small figures, at right angles to N — O, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to N — O from sim- ilarly numbered intersections on the n^iter line C — E. Trace a line through points so obtained. Then will N — O — P be the half pattern for the front D — C in plan. The patterns shown are net, requiring allowance for flanges for riveting and soldering. PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 67 ONE HALF ELEVATION OF BASE TRUE PROFILE THROUGH E-F 138. — Patterns for Base of Octagonal Bay in Which Oblique Sides Miter Against Wall. 68 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER BASE OF A SQUARE BAY WINDOW, REQUIRING RAKED PROFILES Solution 14 The illustration presented in Fig. 139, shows a perspective view of a rectangular bay window, in which case the construction concerns only the soffit or under side of the projecting bay. The laying out of the surfaces forming this part, requires the de- velopment of new or raked profiles and is therefore Fig. 139. — Rectangular Bay Window more complicated geometrically than would be the development of the patterns for the upper parts shown in the perspective, which have been treated in preceding solutions. The method of raking the profiles and developing the patterns is shown in Fig. 140. First draw the center line A — D, and con- struct the half elevation of the bottom of the bay as shown by A — 2 — 18. Below the elevation in its proper position draw the outline of the plan B — C — D as shown. The profile in elevation from 1 to 18 represents the true section on T — B in plan. The only part of the profile to be raked, is that shown from 8 to 18 in elevation, as the upper portion 8 to 1 is a square miter, represented in plan by the miter line C — E, drawn at an angle of 45 degrees, while from E, which represents point 8 in elevation, a miter line is drawn from E to T. Space the given profile in elevation into equal divisions, as shown by the small figures 1 to 18, from which points draw perpendicular lines to intersect the miter line C — E — T in plan. From these intersections draw lines parallel to C — D to meet the center line T — D, as shown by numbers alike, to those in the elevation. The true profile on the line T — D in plan is ob- tained as follows : Take the various divisions on the line T — D and place them to the right of the elevation on the horizontal line T 1 — D 1 , as shown by corresponding numbers. From these points, draw perpendicular lines to intersect horizontal lines drawn from corresponding numbers in the profile in elevation. A line traced through points so ob- tained, as shown from 1' to 18', will be the profile sought. The patterns may now be developed, as follows: Extend the wall line T — B as F — G on which place the girth of the return profile 1 to 18 in elevation, as shown by corresponding numbers on F — G. From these small figures, at right angles to F- — G, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to F — G from similar intersections on the miter line T — E — C in plan. Trace a line through points so obtained. Then will F — H — G represent the pattern for the return molding C — B in plan. In like manner, take the girth of the true profile through T — D, and place it on the center line A — D extended as J — K, as shown by corresponding numbers 1' to 18'. Through these small figures, at right angles to J — K, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to J — K from similar intersec- tions on the miter line T — E — C in plan. A line traced through points so obtained, as shown by L — M — N — J, will be the one-half pattern for front D — C in plan. Allow flanges for soldering and rivet- ing, as the patterns shown are net. BASE OF AN IRREGULAR BAY WINDOW HAVING FIVE SIDES, REQUIRING TWO CHANGES OF PROFILES Solution 15 Fig. 141 shows the plan and elevation of the base of a bay window having five sides, the two outer sides being very narrow, constituting only short re- turns, the window meeting the wall line of the main building at right angles. The given profiles are shown in the short returns, X ; the changes or modi- fications of profiles take place in the front, A, and in the oblique sides, B, of the base. The method of finding these modified or raked profiles together with their patterns, is shown in detail in Fig. 142. In this figure the wall line in PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 69 ONE HALF ELEVATION OF BASE Fig. 140. — Pattern for Bay Window Base at Right Angles in Plan, Having Dissimilar Profiles plan is first drawn, as shown by B B°. Then draw the outline of the irregular bay window, as shown by B E F G H J, and from the corners, draw the miter lines to the center A, as shown, the center A being the bisection of B J. In practice it is not nec- essary to draw the full plan as the half shown by B D A serves the requirement. Through the center A in plan, draw the perpendicular line K L and above the plan draw the profile of the base as in- dicated by 1 — 17 — 1°. The profile shown from 1 to 17 then represents the true profile for the short returns shown in the plan through A B. Divide this profile into equal spaces as shown by the small fig- ure 1 to 17, and from these points at right angles to B J in plan, draw lines cutting the miter line E A, as shown by corresponding numbers. From these di- visions on E A, parallel to E F, draw lines cutting the miter line F A, from which points, parallel to F G, draw lines cutting the center line A D, as shown by the heavy dots and partly by numbers. ELEVATION OF BASE OF BAY PROFILE AT X //y////j////////W^^ SOFFIT PLAN Fig. 141.— Plan and Elevation of Bay Window Having Base of Five Sides THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER O bo c J3 U 3 cr E to CD ffl o -a c n 3 SO bo PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 7i Continue these lines until they intersect the miter line G A as shown. Continue the line E F in plan, until it intersects a line drawn from the center A at right angles to E F at C. By measurements it will be found that the distance A B is greater than that of A C, and of A C than of A D, so that a modified or changed profile must be found on the line A C as well as on line A D. These modified profiles can be taken from the plan or from the elevation. In order that the two methods may be understood, an ex- planation of each, will be given. To obtain the modified profile from the elevation, on the line A D in plan, proceed as follows : Take the various divisions on A D as indicated by the heavy dots, partly numbered from 1 to 7, and place them on the horizontal line A° D° to the right of the elevation, as shown. From these points at right angles to A D° draw lines, which intersect lines drawn parallel to B B°, from similarly numbered in- tersections in the true profile in elevation. Trace a line through points so obtained, as shown from D° to 17, which is the true profile for the front side of the bay window base. The true section of the oblique sides of the base on the line C A in plan can be obtained directly from the plan, as follows : From the various intersections 1 to 17 on the miter line E A in plan, draw lines indefinitely, parallel to F E, as shown to the left. At right angles to these lines draw the line a' b'. Then, measuring from the line a b in elevation, take the various hights to points 1 to 17 in the profile, and place them on similarly numbered lines, measuring in each instance from the line a' b'. Trace a line through points so obtained, as shown from 1" to 17", thus obtaining the desired profile. The modified profiles having been secured the patterns are in order of procedure. For obtaining the pattern of the short return, in- dicated by A B E in plan, take the girth of the pro- file shown in the front elevation and place it on the line A B extended as N M, as shown. Through these small figures at right angles to N M draw lines in- tersecting lines drawn parallel to N M from sim- ilarly numbered intersections on the miter line E A (partly shown). A line traced as indicated by N R M will be the desired pattern. For the pattern of the oblique side, draw any line, as O P, at right angles to E F in plan, and upon this line place the girth of the true profile through A C (measuring each space separately as they are all unequal), as shown by similar numbers on O P. Through these small figures, at right angles to O P, draw lines in- tersecting lines drawn parallel to O P, from similar intersections on the miter lines E A and A F in plan. Trace a line through points so obtained when E F S will be the oblique side pattern. The pattern for the front of the bay F G in plan is developed by taking the girth of the true profile through A D, and plac- ing it on the center line A L as shown by correspond- ing numbers. Through these small figures draw, parallel to F G, lines intersecting those drawn parallel to A L, from corresponding points on the miter lines F A and AG. T U 17 gives the desired pattern. Laps are provided on both cuts of the pattern for oblique sides, as shown by the dotted lines. The miter lines are not projected in the ele- vation, as they would afford no service in securing the patterns. CONSTRUCTION OF A COPPER BAY WINDOW Solution 16 It was thought that our readers who have to do with the construction of metal windows would be interested in and assisted by this presentation of Fig. 143. — View of Copper Bay Window 7^ THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER ■ <>% A SIDE ELEVATION Dlam- b l /n SccF.S.D. "D" ,SccF.S:D. "E" 3' = }i PLAN Scaled = 1 4PLAN OF SOFFIT Looking up Fig. 144 Scale Drawing of Bay, with Full Size Measurements the working drawings and description of methods of assembling and erecting a copper bay. The methods are descriptive of an actual example of successfully executed work, indicating the detail of procedure followed in this case. In the copper bay window under consideration is shown the method of construction upon the angle iron and terra cotta of a fireproof building. Special attention is given to preparing the details, locating the proper positions of the blockings, as well as se- curing the copper work to the building. In Fig. 143 is presented a photographic view of the win- dow. In Fig. 144 is shown a typical scale drawing of this bay, with full size measure- ments, as received from the architect. The one-half front elevation is shown as well as the side elevation and section, also the half plan and the half plan of the soffit. The draw- ings are made to a scale of l /4 in. to the foot. The ab- breviations throughout these scale drawings, as "F. S. D.," indicate full size details which are shown elsewhere, and cor- respond to the letters pre- sented. For instance, "See F. S. D. A." means see full size detail marked A, etc. The first step in working from the scale drawing is to study the various views, and ascertain where the joints had best be made and what parts can be completed in the shop. This is determined by the size of the various parts and the available means of transportation. As the hight of the base of the bay from A" to B° in the half front elevation is 4 ft. 6j4 in. and the length 12 ft. 6J4 m -> with a projec- tion of 12^4 in., this lower base can be finished complete in the shop, including the soffit panels, as shown in the half plan of the soffit. On all of the large flat surfaces crimped copper is employed, and where miters cannot be soldered on the inside, soldering is done on the outside, all joints are scraped clean and emery papered, as no bronzing occurs. The corner pilasters from B° to C° have a hight of 8 ft. 5^ in., with a 10 in. face and a I2j4 in. return. These may also be finished in the shop, coming out complete, smooth and clean. The mul- lions D° , E° , F° and the transom bars H° , E°, G° are made in pieces and mitered at the building, at D° , E° , F° and H°. The joints are carefully scraped so that no solder will show. The cornice from C° to J° being but 2 ft. 4 1 }i6 in- high with a 20^4" in. return, with an extreme length of 13 ft. 10% in., is also finished in the shop. The roof and flashings K° are of course laid at the job, in a manner which will be described. The details of the various parts, are SECTION PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 72, drawn to a scale of 2 in. to the foot, and attention is first given to the detail of the cornice shown in the section by A, in Fig. 145 which shows the working detail of the cornice. It will be noted that the hight and projection are shown. The profile of the Uok full size cornice is shown by the heavy out- line, which has a lock at the top edge to which the copper roofing is locked. The method of securing the blocking which sup- ports the roof is also shown. It will be seen that the panel is not shown in full, its meas- urement between the two molds being 6% in. The cornice is put together complete in the shop, with the soldering and riveting of the seams on the inside to prevent solder showing. On the inside of the cornice painted band iron braces are inserted. These are made from %6 XI m - band iron, three feet apart, the brace being bolted in position by means of flathead brass stove bolts sized 34 m - x Y\ m - The five dashes placed on the brace and indicated by C, C, etc., show the position of the bolts, and where holes are punched in the brace care is taken to countersink the holes on the outside, so that the brass bolt-head will lay on smooth and flat with the copper work. At the bottom of the cornice the copper is turned upward, as shown, to form a drip. This drip rests upon the bronze frame shown, which in turn is bolted to the 2x2 in. angle. To anchor the cornice securely at the bottom, a 34 x l i n - band iron anchor is bolted to the main brace and to the 3x4 in. angle, as shown. At the top, R, the cornice is secured to the 3 x 3 in. upright, as indicated. The peculiar construction at the bottom of the cornice is necessary because the window frames and sashes are of bronze metal and no nailing may be done, as usually is required when wood sashes are used. After the cornice is secured, the roof planks are laid on the blocking under the lock flange, as shown. During the erection of the building the copper cap flashing is built in the wall, as shown. This cap flashing permits the roof flashing to be slipped underneath the cap, and allows for expansion and contraction of the metal. The locks of the main cornice as well as the cross locks in the roof are laid flat seam, all locks being secured to the sheathing by means of copper cleats, as illustrated. Before the copper roofing is edged and laid the sheets are tinned ij4 in. around on both sides, so that when the roofing is edged, laid, cleated and the lock closed with the mallet the seam Cornice Lock Fastened with Copper Cleats 'A' x 1 Fig. 145. — Construction Drawing of Main Cornice can be well sweated with half and half solder, thus preventing leaks. The portion of the bay which is next placed in position is the paneled base shown in the half front elevation in Fig. 144 and in the section. The detail of this section of base is shown in Fig. 146 with the construction drawing for base C. As in the main cornice, the profile of the base molds and panels are indicated by the heavy lines, with full size measure- ments. A similar detail, furnished to the carpenter, will enable him to secure the blocking to the angle iron and brick work, as shown. The copper sill at the top is carried up as far as shown, while at the bottom the paneled soffit is flashed in the joint of the brickwork with a drip, bent in the position shown. If the bottom of the bay in diagram P should strike the center of the brick, as at X, the base flashing is extended down- 74 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Detail G" for Panels on Lower Part of Bay s ~\ . I Cooper turned In as shown Soffit of Boo Fig. 146. — Construction Drawing for Base of Bay ward so as to meet a joint, the drip being carefully attached as at Y. It will be well to note the manner in which the bronze sill is set on the top of the copper sill, also the construction of the bronze sash, this to obtain a storm-proof job. The method of flashing the ends of the base into the wall involves similar construction to that which shows the corner pilaster. After the base of the bay is secured the two corner pilasters shown from B° to C° in the half front elevation in Fig. 144 are next placed in position. The detail of the corner pilaster is shown in Fig. 147, where the heavy line shows the profile of the copper formation. The method of connection at the brick wall, involves a reglet cut as indicated at A, in which the copper work is placed. To hide the reglet, a projecting edge or doubled flange is bent at B, as shown. As the window frames are made of sheet bronze, on which no nailing can be done as on a wood frame, the copper is bent as indicated at C. Wood blocking is secured to the brick wall and angle iron as shown, which forms a solid back for the sheet copper work. Fig. 147. — Construction Detail of Corner of Bay Where these corner columns join the sill of the base and the bottom of the cornice all joints are sweated with solder, then scraped clean and smooth and emery papered. The diamond shaped panels in the columns shown in the front and side elevations in Fig. 144 are carefully mitered so as to show clean, sharp joints. The mullion shown from D° to E° in the front elevation is next placed in position, its construction being indicated in Fig. 148. The cop- per is turned inward against the bronze frame and the bottom of the mullion is soldered on to the sill of the base, as indicated in the half front elevation in Fig. 144. This same mullion, shown in Fig. 148, is also used for the upper part of the mullion shown in the scale drawing in Fig. 144 from E° to F° . The transom bar indicated from H° to G° in the half elevation is shown in detail in Fig. 149. The copper sill is bent to prevent the water from backing up, and is so arranged that the lower sash bar will fit over it. The lower part of the tran- som bar is turned up- ward against the sheet bronze frame at A, wood blocking being provided, as shown. The construc- BlochiDg for Tap Screws ffLJffl _ . Bronze Sash t3"« 3"i ItJt-gfef _____ L — Sb.1 in., the distance marked from the drip edge 23-24 in the pattern for foot mold in Fig. 152. A lap is allowed for soldering, as indicated above the line 16. Thus two sheets of foot mold will be required, each 4 ft. 6*/2 in. long, which will allow for a I in. lap. The pattern for the frieze or sign board is laid out di- rectly upon the crimped sheet, making the width equal to 15-16 in the normal profile, as indicated by 15-16 on the line J K. As the return is 6 in. on the wall line as shown in plan and the frieze projects 1 in. over the wall line, then make the distance to the left of J K, 7 in. and allow a lap as shown. As the projection to the left of the line H G in the foot mold pattern is ^4 in-, then 4 ft. 6j/> in. plus Y\ in. equals 4 ft. "34 in., the distance placed to the right of the line K J in the frieze pattern, two of which are also required. The main crown mold pattern is obtained by taking the girth from 15 to I in the normal profile and placing it on the vertical line L M, through which points, at right angles to L M, lines are drawn indefinitely. The various projec- tions are now taken from the line B D in plan to the miter line B E and placed on similar lines in the crown pattern, measuring from the line L M. A line traced through these intersected points gives the miter cut shown. As the length of the frieze is 4 ft. "jY\ in., then will the length of the crown mold from the point i- also be 4 ft. 7^ in. A lap is al- lowed below point 15, and a lock above the point 1, to which the roof covering can be locked and sol- dered. Two sheets of crown mold will be required as shown, making the extreme length, 5 ft. i~y 2 in., thus making a total length of 10 ft. 2 in. when set together, as called for in elevation in Fig. 150. The reduced return miters are now laid out as shown in Fig. 152. The girths from 1 to 15 and 16 to 25 in the reduced profile are now placed respec- tively on the vertical lines N O and P R, as shown by similar numbers, through which horizontal lines are drawn indefinitely as shown. Now, measuring from the line F B in plan, take the various projec- tions to intersections 1 to 15 and 16 to 25 on the miter or joint line E B, and place these projections on similarly numbered lines in the patterns, measur- ing in each instance from the lines N O and P R, re- spectively. A line traced through points thus ob- tained will give the pattern shapes for the return crown and foot molds. Lock and laps are allowed as indicated. As the return is 6 in. on the wall line, make the return foot mold 6 in. as shown. In a sim- ilar manner make the crown mold return 1 ft. 5 in. at its longest part, as indicated on the pattern, to correspond to its longest part w E in plan, or 1 ft. 5 in- After the various pieces of the moldings have been cut, the moldings are formed up in the cornice brake as described below. Forming the Frieze and Foot Molding on the Cornice Brake The forms in the frieze are simply square bends, made, as indicated in Fig. 153, with the flange a turned toward the inside. Fig. 154 shows a stay or profile of the foot mold which is pricked direct from a F | '/////////////////////mm,, Fig. 153 Forming the Frieze Fig. 154 Foot Mold Stay the detail drawing shown in Fig. 151, with a hole punched at a in Fig. 154 by which to hang it up for future use. The numbers 16 to 24 on the stay are the same as those on the detail drawing, and will help to make clear the various operations in forming. When starting to form the foot mold, begin with bend 24, and continue until bend 18 is reached, the PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 79 2Z 23 155. — Bending the Cove in the Foot Mold bends all being at right angles as shown from 24 to 18 in Fig. 155. After a square bend has been made on dot 18, place the proper size former B in posi- tion, fastening it to the bending leaf as shown, by means of the clamp A. When selecting the formers for the various molds, one that is a trifle smaller should be selected, because the metal will spring up again after being pressed over the former. Having the former in position, the hands are placed on top of the angle 21, then pressed down and the cove formed as shown, thus bringing bend 24 in the position shown by 24'. The former is now removed and the sheet drawn out to dot 17, as shown in Fig. 156, where the angle a b is ob- tained by raising the bending leaf A to suit the stay shown in Fig. 154, so that it will give the proper angle as shown by the dot- ted lines at B, Fig. 156. When bending angles, the stops on the cornice Drake can be used to advantage, setting them on the quadrant for _ , — — any desired angle. Using ^ the same stop, the sheet is y now reversed and a bend /? made on dot 16, which will ' \^ bring the angle in the posi- tion shown by the stay. ^ss ? Fie 156.— Bend for Which the Stop is Used Forming the Crown and Cap Molding Fig. 157 shows the profile of the crown and bed moldings from which stays are obtained, cut from scrap metal, as indicated by a and b. The corners or bends are numbered to corres- pond with those on the detail and also to form a guide in bending. In this case start the first bend on dot 3 or the top of the ogee and .make a square bend as indicated by A in Fig. 158. Place the proper size former i n position as ;hown, and firm- ly press down A until it has the position shown by B. Reverse the sheet in the brake and make a square ben d on dot 7, indi- cated by the po- sition 3 7 in Fig. 159. Again place the proper former in posi- tion, and press down 3, as shown by 3', being care- ful in pressing down on corner 3 that the cove 3 a Fig. 158. — First Operation in Bending the Ogee V, 1 , Fig. 159. — Finishing the Ogee Fig. 160. — First Operation in Bending the Bed Mold Fig. 161. — Completing the Cap Mold So THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER will not be pressed out of shape, always exerting the most pressure upon the metal below a or be- tween a and 7. Now following the stay in Fig. 157, make the necessary square bends on the sheet, until the bend 11 in Fig. 160 has been made. The sheet is now drawn out to dot 13 and a square bend made on this dot as shown. In making this square bend, the sheet will strike the top part of the brake at a, thus caus- ing the flat surface between 11' and 13 to bulge at a, which, however, is no disadvantage. The sheet remaining in this position as indicated by A in Fig. 161, the former B is fastened in position and the mold A pressed over the former B, until the posi- tion C is obtained. The last two square bends 14 and 15 in Fig. 157 are now made, which completes the forming and bending operations. The foregoing methods apply also to the reduced return molding shown by the reduced profile in Fig. 152. Setting the Foot Molding Together The molding being formed, the foot molding is set together first, as in Fig. 162 to 164 inclusive. The first operation is shown in Fig. 162. Drive a roofing nail in the bench at a, the required distance from the edge, on which fasten the end of a stout Fig. 162 First Operation in Setting the Foot Mold Together line or cord, chalking it well with lump chalk. Draw the line taut and fasten it at the opposite end of the bench at b. Now, hold the thumb on the center of the line, press down on the bench, and snap each side, thus obtaining a chalk line on the bench, after which the line and nails may be removed. The first sheet A is now laid on the bench, bring- ing the corner on the line as shown. It is fastened to the bench by the nails c and c. The second sheet B is now placed over A, giving the desired lap as shown by 0' and after the proper length has been measured off, sheet B is fastened, by nailing as shown. The sheet can also be nailed at the upper line or wash as indicated by e e and e' e' . The seam is now soldered along the flat surface at and o' only. Fig. 163. — Second Operation in Tacking the Mold The benches on which these moldings are set to- gether usually have sliding tops, that is, the upper boards can be moved outward if desired, as will be explained hereinafter. If, however, the top is sta- tionary, provision should be made to have a good projection as at Y. The nails are now removed from the sheets and the molding is turned over to the op- posite side of the bench as indicated by X, but to Fig. 164 Last Operation in Setting the Foot Mold Together more clearly show the second operation, the mold- ing has been turned around and placed on the chalk line A-B as indicated in Fig. 163, where the sheets are fastened by nails as shown, after which the joint or seam is dressed down well and tacked with solder and then soldered from a to b. If the sheets PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 81 were not thus turned and the molds were soldered in the position shown by X in Fig. 162, the drip would then be hung in the position shown by Y in Fig. 163 ; but as the molding lies in the position shown by a b, it is simply turned and hung on the bench as shown in Fig. 164, snapping a new line and straightening the line of the drip by means of the nails a a, etc. After this has been soldered and nails removed, the burrs caused by the nail holes are closed and soldered and all joints riveted with two pound tinned rivets. If these moldings should be of cop- per the joints could be made by using reverse wooden stays, cut from one inch thick spruce. Joining the Crown and Bed Molds The first operation in setting together the crown molding is shown in Fig. 165, where a new chalk line is made on the bench as indicated bv C. L. The Fig- 165 First Operation in Setting Together the Crown Mold Fig. 166.— Second Operation— Straightening the Cap Mold first sheet A is now nailed to the bench as indi- cated by a and b, with care to have the corner of the cap mold on the line as shown. The second sheet B is now lapped, the corner of the cap placed on the C. L. at d and nails put through the sheets at c and / and the seam soldered along b i. Leav- ing the molding in the position shown, it is now tipped up, so that the further corner of the cap mold at m will come on the chalk line as indicated by A-B in Fig. 166, tacking with nails as shown, and Fig. 167. — Third Operation — Straightening the Fillet using short wooden braces to hold up the molding as shown by X. After soldering the cap mold, a new chalk line is struck on the opposite side of the bench as indi- cated by C. L. in Fig. 167 and the cornice is turned over until it sets in the position shown, thus obtain- Fig. 168. — Fourth Operation — Straightening the Ogee ing a straight line along the fillet when the flat sur- face a is soldered. The upper edge of the crown mold can now be turned down on the bench in the position shown by Fig. 168, the corner tacked with nails to the line and the ogee soldered. Finally the molding is lifted off the bench and hung on its 82 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER upper edge in the position shown in Fig. 169. It is in this operation that the sliding bench becomes convenient. The detail of the standard and bench is shown by A and B in sketch C. The bench is now moved out to the required extent, as shown in the illustration, and the upper edge of the metal is tacked with roofing nails after the front edge is Detail of Sliding Bench 169, Straightening the Upper Edge and Completing the Crown Mold sighted along XY. In sighting sheets to obtain a straight line, the sheet D should be nailed first, then the second sheet nailed at a. The forward end of the sheet at b can then be moved in or out as required and nailed at b. The foregoing methods are ap- plicable to any length or number of sheets for cornices, Joining the Foot Mold, Frieze and Crown Mold Fig. 170 shows how the foot mold, frieze and crown are lap joined. The foot mold A is first set on the bench, then the frieze B ; after which the LOCKING THE SEAMS b' FLOOR LINE Fig. 170. — Joining the Foot Mold. Frieze and Crown Mold crown mold C is lapped under B as shown, and sup- ported by the wooden brace shown. The frieze is now soldered throughout at a and b. Although it has been crimped to avoid buckles, careful solder- ing is required to avoid buckles in the sheet, which may be best accomplished as follows : Upon starting to tack the sheet to the foot mold always begin at the center and work out to both ends. This flattens the sheet and prevents buckling. A mistake is often made by starting to tack with solder at the ends of the frieze or sheet, thus having the buckle in the center of the sheet. Sometimes the seams at a and b are only tacked with solder and then riveted every two inches with two pound tinned rivets. A locked seam can be made at a and b as indicated by a' and b', which is notched at inter- vals of 12 or 15 inches and slightly turned down with the pliers, to avoid the locks coming apart. An- Fig. 171. — Another Method of Locking the Seams other lock is shown in Fig. 171 where A and B in- dicate the position of the seams before the edges C and D are turned down. The cornice having been soldered, the wood brace is removed, and the foot mold raised, bringing the cornice in the position shown by C in Fig. 172, ready for the insertion of the lookouts or iron braces. Bending and Inserting the Band Iron Braces These braces are usually spaced 3 feet or more apart, and are bent in the brace bender or vise as indicated in diagram A, where the various holes for the bolts are shown. The hole at the bottom marked C. S. signifies that on the lower face the hole is to be PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL CORNICES, ETC. 83 c.s. Fig. 172. — Putting in the Braces counter-sunk, so that a smooth surface may be ob- tained where it rests on the wall, while the hole marked a is for fastening purpose, a matter to be described as we proceed. In bending the brace, which is usually made from soft steel 3 /{q inch thick by i}4 inches wide, sharp bends are not essential. They can be bent as in- dicated in diagram B. Having decided upon the number of braces required in the cornice and located their positions, the cornice is raised and the braces are put under as shown in the cut C, after which the bolts are placed as indicated at a a, etc. In order that the metal drip may not be damaged or pressed out of shape when the cornice is set on the floor, a piece of wood about 4 or 5 inches long, 3 inches Brace Fig. 173. — Completing the Insertion of the Brace wide and about I inch higher than the hight of the drip, as indicated in diagram D, should be nailed to the drip flange. After this the cornice is placed on the floor, as indicated by A in Fig. 173, and a wood brace set up against the fillet to balance the cornice, after which the remainder of the bolts a, b, etc., are inserted. The reduced miters or returns are now soldered in position when the cornice is ready to be placed on the wall. Securing the Cornice to Brick Wall and Covering Its Top When the brick wall has been carried up to its proper hight as at A in Fig. 174, the cornice B is set thereon, with the anchor C bent to the brace as shown. A wire, D, is now fastened to the brace at a and the wire drawn taut and nailed to the beam at ^ proceed as shown in Fig. 340. Draw the elevation of the ogee, and, in its proper position, draw the center line A B. Extend the flare 1-2 until it meets the center line at A. Using a as a center, with a-2 as radius, draw the quar- ter section 2-8 ; divide this into equal parts, as shown by the small figures. With A as center and with radii equal to A-i and A-2 draw the arcs shown. From any point on the outer arc, as 1', draw a Fig. 338-— Half Pattern for Portion of Shaft IV in Fig. 336 radial line to A, intersecting the inner arc at 2'. Starting from 2' lay off double the girth of the quarter section 2-8, as shown from 2' to 8 to 2° in the pattern. From A draw a radial line through 2 cutting the outer arc at 1°. i°-2°-2'-i' then becomes the half pattern for the flare. The pattern for the ogee, no matter what its FULL PATTERN FOR LOWER PART OF MOLD FULL PATTERN FOR UPPER PART OF MOLD Fig- 339- — Patterns for Lower Part of Cap position (reversed or otherwise), is developed as follows : Divide the curved part of the ogee into equal spaces, as shown by 9-10-11 and by 12-13-14-15. Through the flaring part 12-11 draw a line inter- secting the center line at B. From either point 11 or point 12, in this case from 11, draw a hori- CIRCULAR SHEET METAL WORK 20: Fig. 340. — Patterns for Upper Part of Cap zontal line intersecting the center line at b. With b as center and with b-11 as radius draw the quarter circle 11-20; space this at will. Take the girth of the mold from 11 to 9 and from 12 to 15 and place it on the averaged line from 11 to 9' and from 12 to 15', respectively. 9'- 15' then represents the amount of material required to form up the ogee. With radii equal to B-9', B-11, B-12 and 6-15' and using B° as center, draw arcs to any length, as shown by similar numbers. As the quarter section 11-20 in elevation is taken from point 11 in the profile, then starting from any point on the arc n° in the pattern, lay off four times the number of spaces contained in the quarter section 11-20 in elevation, as shown by similar numbers in the pat- tern. From B° draw radial lines through n° and n x , cutting the arcs shown. i5°-i5 x -9 x -9° is the full pattern for the ogee mold. That part of the pattern between g x and n x has to be raised, while the part between I2 X and 15" requires to be stretched, ii x -I2 x remaining stationary. Laps are to be al- lowed for riveting and soldering. Pattern for Spire The pattern for the spire, indicated by V in Fig. 333, is laid out as shown in the final pattern in Fig. 341. Through the center of the elevation of the spire draw the center line shown and at A intersect it by the taper 4 B extended. As the curved part at its base will be added to the tapering spire pattern and stretched, divide the lower curve from 4 to 1 into any de- sired number of parts, as shown by the small fig- ures. From 4 draw the horizontal line to intersect the center line at a. Use a as center and draw the quarter section on a-4, as shown ; space this as de- sired. Using A as center and with radii equal to A B and A 4, draw arcs as shown. From any point, as 4', on the lower arc, step off four times the number of spaces con- tained in the quarter section, as shown by similar numbers in the pattern. From A draw to any length radial lines through 4' and 4 , cutting the SPUN BALL ELEVATION Fig. 341. — Pattern for Spire 204 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER upper arc at B 1 B° as shown. Take the girth of the curve from 4 to i in elevation and place it on the lines extended in the pattern from 4' to 1' and from 4 to 1°. Using A as center and with A-i' as radius draw the outer arc i'-i . Allow laps for riveting and soldering. The ball shown at the top is usually spun. Cases which Arise in Laying Out Circular Moldings Made by Machine The method of averaging the profile of moldings made by machine differs from that just considered. Fig. 342.— A Molding Curved in Plan, as Required when a Horizontal Cornice Sets Over the Rounded Corner of a Building A circular molding may be concave or convex in plan, or it may be concave or convex in elevation. The significance of this is indicated in the four accompanying illustrations. In Fig. 342 is shown Fig- 343-— A Molding Curved in Plan, but in an Opposite Direction. the plan of a molding such as is required when a horizontal cornice sets over the rounded corner of a building, which is convex, while Fig. 343 shows the same molding curved in plan, but in an opposite direction, which is concave. The method of pro- ceeding with a development such as is shown in Fig. 342 is taken up in the course of this discussion. Corresponding principles would apply in the ex- ample of Fig. 343, simply reversing the averaged line. This statement applies also to curves made in Fig. 344. — A Molding Curved in Elevation, as in a Circular Pediment elevation. Fig. 344 shows a molding curved in eleva- tion, as in a circular pediment, while Fig. 345 shows a molding, also curved in elevation but in an oppo- Fig. 345.— A Molding Curved in Elevation but in an Opposite Direction site direction. Whatever the averaged line for the convex curve, in Fig. 344 may be, it should be re- versed in averaging the profile in a concave molding as represented by Fig. 345. AVERAGING PROFILE AND DE- TERMINING PATTERN IN THE CURVED MOLDING OF A DOR- MER WINDOW, MADE BY MACHINE Solution 96 Fig. 346 presents a view of a dormer window,. Fig. 346. — View of Dormer Window CIRCULAR SHEET METAL WORK 205 having a segmental top mitering to the horizontal moldings at a a. The window opening is to be ellip- tical, as indicated at b b. The method of averaging the profiles for this dormer is shown in Fig. 347, where a one-half front elevation is shown by A C D B. The center from which the segmental curve is struck is indicated by E, while the curves of the elliptical window opening are struck from the various centers E, P and O. As the profiles of the horizontal and curved molds are alike, take a A HALF FRONT ELEVATION of the profile, as shown by c d. Bisect the distance between the two lines, as at e and i, and draw the averaged line i e, as shown. The girth of the pro- file from b to a is now laid off on the line e i, starting invariably from a point nearest the lowest member b, as /. Assuming that this has been done in the profile F G, extend the averaged line J G until it meets the horizontal line drawn from the center E, at right angles to A B, at L. Take the girth of the mold from r to s F'g- 347-— Averaging Profiles and Developing Patterns of Molds Made By Machine tracing of the profile C, and place it in its proper position to the right of the center line A B, as shown by the dotted lines and as indicated from F to G. Below G draw the profile of the elliptical mold, as shown by G H. In averaging profiles for molds to be hammered by machine, the following method has afforded excellent service. Referring to the engraving, diagram A x gives an enlarged view of the ogee and fillet for the dormer in question: First, draw a line touching the extreme points inside of the profile, as shown by a b; then draw a line touching the extreme points of the outside and place it, as hitherto described, and allow a lap at top and bottom for joining, all as shown from G to J. With radii equal to L G and L J and using L° as center draw the arcs 1-6 and J 1 J°, respectively. Space the lower member of the curve in elevation, as shown from 1 to 6, and place these divisions on the lower curve in the pattern, also shown by similar numbers. ]°-y~i-6 is then the one-half pattern. In practice more material is added to the pattern as allowance for trimming the miters on the curved mold. The method of developing the pattern for the 206 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER horizontal mold C was previously explained. Let B x represent the profile of the mold to go around the elliptical window frame ; it is ham- mered up in one piece from g to r. In averaging this profile the method found in diagram A x is fol- lowed. Draw the inner and outer extreme lines in B x as g h and I m. Bisect the distance between these two lines, as n and o, through which the averaged line is drawn. In the same manner draw the averaged line M N through the profile u t in the elevation. As the half ellipse is struck from three centers, E, P and O, and as the radius E-7 is equal to O-16, take the distance of the radius x P and set it off on the center line, as shown from x' to R. From E and R and at right angles to A B draw to the right, lines of any length and intersect them by the averaged line M N extended at S and T respectively, which give the centers for striking the arcs in the pattern. Let N M represent the girth of the mold from t to u, obtained in the manner ex- plained in connection with diagram B x . Using S as a center and with S N and S M as radii, draw the arcs 7-10 and M° M v , respectively. Space the curves of the inner elliptical arcs in elevation, as shown from 7 to 10, 10 to 13 and 13 to 16, having the points start and end on the radial lines there shown. Take the divisions from 7 to 10 and place them on the inner arc of the pattern, as shown by similar num- bers. From the center S draw a line through 10, extending it to the right until it cuts the outer arc at M v , and to the left to any length. Take the length of the radius from M to T and set it off from M v to T° in the pattern; then, using T° as center and with T°-io and T° M v as radii, draw the arcs shown. Take the girth from 10 to 13 in eleva- tion and place it in the pattern, as shown by similar numbers, and draw a line from T° through 13 until it meets the outer arc at M x . Reproduce the pattern S M° M v , as shown by S 1 M x M\ the distance from 13 to 16 on the inner arc being equal to 13 to 16 in the elevation. y-i6-M 1 -M° then shows the half pat- tern for elliptical molding. PATTERNS FOR CURVED MOLD- INGS IN A CIRCULAR BAY WINDOW, MADE BY MACHINE Solution 97 Fig. 348 is a view of a circular bay window in which the molds were hammered by machine. In this case we will take up only the method by which the patterns for the crown mold B are developed, as the principles are alike for laying out any other profile. In the previous solution the moldings were curved in elevation, while in this example they are curved in plan. Fig. 349 illustrates the method of procedure. First, draw the wall line P-7 and at right angles thereto draw any line, as 12-D. On this line lay off the projection of the bay, as indicated from 1 to X, and, using the desired radius, as D 1, draw the arc 1-6. In its proper position above this plan draw the profile or sectional view ABC; project the points y'-a-e to the plan and describe the arc 12-7 for meas- uring purposes. From D, the center from which the arcs in plan have been struck, erect the vertical line Fig. 348. — View of Circular Bay Window D E. The mold ABC will be made up in three pieces, viz., the flare or wash A, the upper cove B and the lower cove C. These molds should be aver- aged in the way explained in connection with Fig. 347. When this procedure has been followed, refer to Fig. 349 and extend the flare A until it intersects the line D E at H. Using H as center and with radii equal to H b and H-7' draw the arcs to any length, as shown. Take the girth from 7 to 12 in plan and place it on the inner arc 7'- 12 in the pattern, as shown. Draw a line from H through 12, intersect- ing the outer arc at M. M-&-7'-i2 then shows the one-half pattern for the wash, to which laps are CIRCULAR SHEET METAL WORK 207 HALF PATTERN FOR FLARE A HALF PATTERN FOR MOLDB Fig. 349. — Patterns for Curved Molding in a Circula allowed. Draw the averaged line through mold B until it intersects the line D E at G. Take the girth of the mold a b and set it off on the aver- aged line, as shown. Then, using as radii G a and G b, draw the arcs shown. Starting at 7 on the inner arc, lay of the girth of 7-12 in plan, as shown by- similar numbers in the pattern. From G draw lines through 7 and 12 cutting the outer arc at L and K. 7-12-K-L then gives the one-half pattern for mold B in the sectional view. Allowance must be made at the ends of the pattern for trimming and fitting against the wall. J-H-6-1 shows the half pattern for the mold C and is ob- tained by using F as center, with radii equal to F d and F e, averaging the line through the mold C, and obtaining the girth in the usual manner, as described in connection with mold B. Allow laps on all pat- terns for trimming, riveting and soldering. MOLDED BASE IN A CIRCULAR BAY WINDOW Solution 98 If the base of a circular bay window be molded, as shown by A in Fig. 348, the usual method is to hammer it up in horizontal sections, thus requiring flaring strips at various angles, as shown in Fig. 350. - In this illustration A represents the center from which the arcs in plan are struck, while the distance from X to B shows the extreme projection of the base. Through X the ver- tical line C K is drawn, representing the wall line both in plan and sectional view. In its proper posi- tion, as shown, draw the outline or profile of the base, and locate at will the horizontal seams in same, as shown by D, E, F, H, J. The spaces between these seams should not be made so wide that they may not be hammered with ease. Through A, the center from which the arcs in plan were struck, erect the line L M. From the various seam lines D, E, F and H drop lines in the plan to intersect the center line B X at a, c, e and h. Using A as center draw the various arcs a b, c d, e f, and h i, which we will use in obtaining the lengths. of the several patterns. Extend the averaged lines through the profile until they intersect the line L M, as follows: Draw a line through D E until it inter- Bay Window Made by Machine, the 2o8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER sects L M at L; through E F to intersect at P; through F H to intersect at N ; and through H J to intersect at O. Using L as center, strike the pattern R, taking the girth of a & in plan and placing it along the outer arc in R. Using P as center, strike the pattern T, placing the girth of c d in plan along the outer arc in T. In like manner use N as center and strike the arc S, and take the girth along e f in plan and place it along the outer arc in S. O is used to strike the pattern M, taking the girth of h i in plan HALF PLAN Fig. 350. — Patterns of the Flaring Strips for Bay Window Base and placing it along the outer arc in M. When this has been accomplished net half patterns of the vari- ous flares are the result ; to these laps are to be added for joining. Patterns R and T will be raised ; pattern S remains flat, while pattern M must be slightly stretched. The lower ball is spun or ham- mered and the method of executing this work was previously given. SEGMENTAL PEDIMENT MADE BY HAND Solution 99 Fig. 351 is a view of a segmental pediment, in which the circular molded part is hammered by hand and the balance of the work is stripped. Fig. 352 represents the working drawing and the method of construction, as well as the methods used in de- veloping the various patterns. First, draw the one-half front elevation, the given profile of the horizontal return being shown from 1 to 28. Divide the molds in this profile into an equal number of parts, as shown by the small figures. Only the ogee mold, shown from 23' to 28, will re- quire to be raked or modified in the curved mold- ing. Using X as the center, draw arcs from points 24 to 28, cutting the center line, as shown. From the various intersections of the arcs on the center line draw horizontal lines indefinitely to the right. Take the horizontal projections between points 22 Fig. 351. — Front View of Segmental Pediment and 28 in the normal profile, as shown on the line r s, and place them in a reversed position, as shown by similar numbers on f s', to the right of the center line. From these points on r' s' draw lines parallel to the center line until they intersect lines obtained from similar numbers, as shown from L to P. The profile from P to H in the vertical section can be made similar to the given profile from 23' to 1 1 in the horizontal return. Care should be taken, in drawing the vertical section, that a vertical line, dropped from P, intersects a line drawn from 23' in the given profile, as shown by 23 ° . From 23 ° down to 3° the profile is similar to 23' to 3 in the half elevation. Lay off the projection of roof A B in the vertical section, and draw the wall line, shown by B a'. Draw the depth of the frame line, as a' 2'. The half pattern for the horizontal front mold and CIRCULAR SHEET METAL WORK 209 \ x>- *f k «ev — © © €\x¥ A' 23' / w / \ ONE HALF FRONT. ELEVATION \ / \ / \ \ < \ \ Ai£ $f tf $ i / .A -Raised "Raised ■ Stretched VERTICAL SECTION ON CENTER LINE m \ -+\4 1 , Lap/* ■27- 26— I- t+»" ^ 1 *i \ rzt =tts tf ^ J \ HALF PATTERN FOR FRONT t ,7 °fi,' 76 75 M (3 Fig. 352. — Working Drawing and Patterns for Segmental Pediment Made by Hand 2IO THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER the pattern for the horizontal returns are shown be- low the elevation ; they are obtained by means of parallel lines, as shown by reference to similar letters and figures. A 1 B 1 C 1 represents the pattern for the lower horizontal returns. In making up the segmental pediment the various faces are stripped as follows : The upper segment d e 2j, 28 in elevation is shown in the section by L, which has a lap at L, to which is soldered the roof A B, with a flange added at B. To the lower part of L the straight strip D is sol- dered. The next segment to be pricked from the eleva- tion is shown by c, g, o 23^27 and is indicated in section by P P° ; it is soldered at the top to the straight strip D and at the bottom, the strip equal in width to E is soldered. The segment, shown in ele- vation by g, h, n, o, is shown in section by R, which joins the strip E at the top and the strip F at the bottom. The next segment to be pricked from the eleva- tion is shown by h i m n and is indicated by the line X c in the section ; it is soldered to the straight strip F at the top and to G at the bottom. i j I m is the last segment, shown in section by H ; it is soldered to G at the top and to the strip, whose width is Z, at the bottom. The back ground shown by / k I in elevation completes the square angles in the segment. In these square angles at K, O and S the ogee, cove and quarter round, re- spectively, are soldered. The method of obtaining the radii with which these flares are struck is now to be considered. The ogee K will be taken up first. At right angles to the center line and from the center X, from which the arcs in the segment were struck, draw a line to the left, as shown. Average a line through the modi- fied profile of the ogee, as shown by L M in the ver- tical section, extending it downward until it meets the horizontal line drawn from X at J. Take the girth of the ogee in the sectional view and place it, as shown from L to M. Using J as center and with radii equal to J M and J L draw the arcs M 1 M 2 and L 1 L 2 , as shown in the part pattern. The true length of the ogee pattern is found by measuring along the arc 27-e in the half elevation and placing it along the outer arc L 1 L 2 in the pattern. When these molds are hammered by hand, they are usually cut about 3 ft. long from sheets 36 in. wide. The averaged line for the cove mold O in the vertical section is drawn, as indicated by the line P R ex- tended, until it meets the line at N. The girth of the mold O is now placed as shown from R to P. Using radii equal to N R and N P and from N 1 as center the arcs R 1 R 2 and P 1 P 2 are struck. Obtain the girth of the arc g in elevation and place it along the outer arc P 1 P 2 in the pattern to obtain its length. The quarter round S in the vertical section is averaged by drawing the line in the direction of T U and extending it until it meets the line X Y at V. The girth of the quarter round S is then placed, as shown by U T, and using V U and V T as radii and V 1 as center the arcs U 1 U 2 and T 1 T 2 are struck. Along the outer arc T 1 T 2 the girth of mi in elevation is placed. Laps are to be allowed on all patterns to provide for soldering. Work of this kind, made by hand, should be scraped clean on completion. CURVED DORMER WINDOW WITH CURVED ROOF AND ROOF FLANGE Solution 100 Fig. 353 presents a view of a curved dormer win- dow, usually designated as an "eye brow dormer." Since the roof of this dormer runs at an incline, the yM^\W'\w^ , M I l I I I I l/l I ' ^ SLATE OR TILE RQOfs Fig- 353- — View of Curved Dormer Window, Requiring a Raked Roof and Roof Flashings profile of the dormer roof requires a change of profile from that shown in the face. A roof flash- ing is also indicated by the dotted line, with an apron along the bottom of the dormer, as shown. The method of obtaining the patterns for the dormer roof and flange is illustrated in Fig. 354. First, draw the center line A B, and construct the one-half elevation of the dormer face, shown by 7-2-1 -V. In line with this half elevation, construct CIRCULAR SHEET METAL WORK 211 +&> % HALF PATTERN FOR FLASHING ONE HALF TRUE PROFILE ON 7'-1° Fig- 354- — Patterns for Raked Roof and Flashings on a Curved Dormer the side elevation, indicated by ~'-j"-\', D C repre- senting the pitch of the main roof and j'-j" the pitch of the dormer roof. Preparatory to laying out the roof pattern of the dormer, a true profile must first be found on the line j'-b, drawn at right angles to 7'~7". This is obtained as follows : Divide the half elevation into an equal number of parts, as shown by the small figures i to 7, from which points and at right angles to A B, draw lines, cut- ting the vertical line 1'-/' in the side elevation, as shown from l'-j'. From these intersections and parallel to the roof line J'-j" draw lines crossing the line 7' b from i° to 6°, and cutting the main roof line C D from 2" to 6". Take the various di- 212 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER visions from i° to 7' on the line 7' b and place them on the line A B extended as B E, all as shown by similar figures 7 to i°. From the small figures and at right angles to B E draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to B E from similar inter- sections in the half elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained ; the outline from i v to 2 V to 7° will be the half true profile on "f-i" in the side elevation. The pattern for the roof is next in order and may be developed as follows : At right angles to the dormer roof line j'-j" draw any line as F G, on which place the girth of the one-half true profile, as shown by similar numbers on F G. Through the small figures i v to 7 and at right angles to F G, draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to F G from similarly numbered intersections on the roof line V to 7" and on the face line 1' to 7'. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by H J K, will be the one-half pattern for raked roof. To obtain the pattern for the roof flange or flashing, indicated in Fig. 353, proceed as shown in Fig. 354. Parallel to the main roof line C D draw any line, as L M, and at right angles thereto, from the various divisions 1', 2", 3" to 7" on the main roof line, draw lines to any length, as shown. Meas- uring from the line A B in the half elevation, take the various projections to points 1 to 7 and place them on similarly numbered lines, measuring in each instance from the line L M in the flashing pattern, all as indicated by the heavy dots. Trace a line through these points, as shown by P O N, which rep- resents the outline or opening in roof. Set the di- viders to equal the desired width of flashing, as a, and describe a line parallel to P O N as shown by MRS. M R S N O P will be the one-half flashing pattern. The edge line along NOP will be equal in girth to the edge line J K in the raked roof pat- tern, while the edge line H J in the roof pattern will correspond to the outline 1-2-7 m tne one-half ele- vation. Allow on all patterns laps for joining and soldering. PART XI ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK PATTERNS FOR ORNAiMENTS, BRACKETS, CHAMFERS, PANELS, MOLDED TRANSITIONS, GORES, KEYSTONES, URNS, SHIELDS AND SHAFTS A TEN SIDED BALL Solution 101 "DALLS to be made of any number of sides, to represent a true circle in elevation but in the shape of a regular polygon in plan, involve the same principles as in developing bevel miters. As an ex- ELEVATION 7 PATTERN FOR ONE SIDE Pattern for Ten-Sided Ball ample, we will consider a ten sided ball. The per- spective of this ball, shown in Fig. 355, indicates a regular polygon when viewed in plan or, as so viewed, the geometrical figure known as the decagon. The number of sides possessed by the ball does not affect the application of the principles set forth in Fig. 356. The methods there shown are applicable to any regular polygon. Let A represent the elevation of the ball, through the center of which draw to any length the vertical line 1 /. On this vertical line establish any point as B ; using this point as a center draw a circle of any size, as shown. Since the ball is to have ten sides, divide one-half the circle into five spaces, as shown by the letters abed e and /. From c and d draw the miter lines to the center B as c B and d B. Divide the semi-circle in elevation into an equal number of parts, as shown by the small figures 1 to 5 to 1. From point 5 draw a line parallel to A B, crossing the miter lines c B and d B, as shown. I m B then represents the plan view of one side or one-tenth of the ball, constituting all that is neces- sary for developing the pattern. The pattern may now be laid out. At right angles to I m draw the line C D ; upon this place the girth of the semi-circle in elevation, as shown by similar numbers on C D, and through these points and perpendicular to C D, draw lines ; intersect these lines by lines drawn parallel to C D from sim- ilar intersections on the miter line / B, which points were obtained by drop- ping perpendicular lines from the small figures in elevation. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by 1 F 1, will be the miter cut. Trace this curve below the line C D, as indicated by 1 F° I, which completes the pattern for one side ; ten of these, with an edge on one side will be required to complete the ball. It will be understood that the more numerous the addition of sides in plan the 213 214 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER more nearly spherical will the ball become. Some- times these developed sides are raised with the rais- ing hammer ; in such cases a true sphere is the re- sult. This would require, however, a change in de- veloping the pattern, a subject already considered in a preceding solution in the part on Circular Work. TRIANGULAR MOLDED ORNA- MENT Solution 102 Molded ornaments required in cornice work, whose plans are regular polygons such as are shown in the perspectives in Figs. 357 and 358 are devel- oped as is illustrated in Fig. 359, where the same profile or section is used for both the triangular and hexagonal plan. In laying out the triangular plan, care must be taken in obtaining the miter line. First, locate the length of one side of the triangle, as shown by the horizontal line, A B. As the three sides are equal, use A and B as centers, and with A B as radius, describe arcs intersecting each other at C. Join B C and C A and obtain the miter lines and center D as follows : Bisect the angle CAB Fig. 357- — View of Triangular Ornament in the usual manner by means of the arcs a, b and c and draw a line from A to c, intersecting this line at D by a vertical line dropped from the apex C ; D is Fig. 358. — Shaded Elevation of Hexagonal Ornament the desired center of the triangle. Draw a line from D to B, completing the three miter lines. Parallel to PLAN F'g- 359- — Patterns for Triangular and Hexagonal Ornaments Having the Same Profile ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 215 C D draw any line, as d 10, and from the center D in plan and parallel to B A draw the line D 1 to any length, cutting d 10 at d. Establish the hight of the section as d 1 and draw the desired profile from 1 to 10, as shown. Divide the curves in this section into equal parts and number all points, as shown from 1 to 10. From these small figures and parallel to A B draw lines, intersecting the two miter lines A D and D B in plan, as indicated. Extend C D in plan as C F and upon this place the girth of the section, as shown by similar numbers on C F. Through these divisions and at right angles to C F draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to C F from similar intersections on the miter lines B D A in plan. Trace a line through these points of intersection. / 1 c will be the pattern for all three sides. Laps are to be allowed on one side as shown by the dotted lines and then all sides are formed one way. In other words, all laps must face toward the one side. This permits joining together. HEXAGONAL MOLDED ORNA- MENT Solution 103 To develop the pattern for the hexagonal molded ornament shown in the shaded elevation in Fig. 358, proceed as shown in Fig. 359. The hexagon plan, G H J K L M, is drawn and the six miter lines are drawn to the center N, although only two miter lines are necessary, as indicated by N M and N G. The profile, or section E, is placed in its proper position, as shown, spaced into equal divisions and from the small figures thereon lines are carried to the right, parallel to M G, intersecting the miter lines G N M, as shown. The girth of E is now placed on the girth line O P, as shown by the small figures 1' to 10'; through these and at right angles to O P lines are drawn and intersected by lines drawn parallel to O P from similar intersections on the miter lines, G N M in plan. Trace lines through points thus obtained, g h 1' will be the pattern for the six sides. Allow laps on one side of all six, as specified in the preceding problem. A FIVE-POINTED STAR Solution 104 Fig. 360 is a view of a five-pointed star, in the development of which triangulation is required. Fig. 361 illustrates the procedure involved, which may be applied to a star having any number of points or any hight at its apex. It is to be borne in mind that whatever the number of points the star may have, one of the points must lie on a horizontal line, as shown by A B in plan. To draw the plan of the star proceed as follows : Using A as center and with the desired radius draw the circle, as shown. From A draw the horizontal line A B intersecting the circle at B. From B divide the circle into parts, providing one for each of the five star points, as shown by B, C, D, E and F, from which, draw lines to the center A. Again using A as center and with the desired inner radius draw the circle shown, intersecting lines previously drawn at b, c, d, c and /. Bisect each of these spaces ob- PATTERN FOR ONE POINT Fig. 360. — View of Five-pointed Star ELEVATION A' 1' V 2' TRUE ANGLE ON 1-2 IN PLAN PLAN Fig. 361. — Pattern for Five-pointed Star taining points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, and connect these points by lines, as shown. Establish the hight of the star on its center line in elevation as a A 1 , and com- plete the elevation, as shown by the dotted construc- tion lines. As one of the points A B in plan lies on a horizontal line, then A 1 B 1 in elevation will show 2l6 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER its true length. B I in plan also shows its true length, while the true length of i A is found as follows : Since all lines from A i to A 5 are of cor- responding length and as A 4 lies on a horizontal line, simply project, point 4 to the base line in ele- vation at 4' and draw a line from 4' to A 1 , obtain- ing the true length sought. If 4 A in plan did not lie on a horizontal line, its distance would be meas- ured and set off, as from a to 4' in elevation. Hav- ing thus found the necessary true lengths the pattern may be laid out. Take the distance of A 1 B 1 and set it off on any line, as A° B°. Using B 1 in plan as radius and with B° in the pattern as center, describe the arcs 1' and 2'; intersect them by arcs struck from A° as center and with A 1 4' in elevation as radius. Con- nect points in the pattern by straight lines; A° 1' B° 2' will be the pattern for one point, five of which will be required. To obtain the true angle on the line 1-2 in plan, to be used in bending the points of the star on the line A° B°, extend the line 2-1 in plan until it meets the base of the star in elevation at i ; from this point and at right angles to A 1 B 1 draw the line i t. Set off the distance 1-2 in plan, as shown by 1/-2' in the true angle. Bisect i'-2' and obtain i', from which point erect the perpendicular i' t' equal to i t in ele- vation. 1/ t' 2' gives the true angle or stay, and the girth of 1' /' 2' will be equal to V t" 2' in the pattern. If desired, two or more points may be joined to avoid soldered seams. A MOLDED CHAMFER Solution 105 Fig. 362 illustrates a chamfer or broken corner. We will obtain the pattern for the molded chamfer A. The method of developing the gore or chamfer is shown in detail in Fig. 363. First, draw the profile of the mold as viewed from one side, shown by A, 1,7, B, C in the partial elevation. Be- low and in line with B C draw the plan D 7 E, rep- resenting a section on B C in elevation. Project 1 in elevation to cut the side 7 D in plan at 1, from PARTIAL ELEVATION A TRUE PROFILE OF CHAMFER ON LINE 7-a IN PLAN J PA TTERN FOR CHAMFER Fig. 362. — View of Chamfer on One Corner Fig. 363. — Method of Developing Chamfer Pattern which point and at an angle of 45 degrees draw the line 1-1°. Then D, 1, 1°, E in plan shows a section through the line 1 c in elevation. Divide the profile from 1 to 7 in elevation, into an equal number of parts ; from these points of division, drop lines per- pendicular to B C until they cut the line 7 D in plan, as shown by similar numbers. From these divisions on 7 D and parallel to 1-1 draw lines cutting the opposite side 7 E, as shown. From the corner 7 and at right angles to 1-1° draw the line 7-a crossing the lines previously drawn, as shown from 1' to 7. Take these various divisions on 7-a and place them on any line drawn parallel to B C in elevation, as shown by similar numbers on F G. At right angles to F G and from the small figures thereon erect lines and inter- ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK !I7 sect them by lines drawn parallel to B C from sim- ilarly numbered points in the profile in elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained ; this will give the true profile of the chamfer on the line j-a in plan. For the pattern, extend the line a 7 in plan as H J and on this place the girth of the true profile of the chamfer, measuring each space separately, since all are unequal, as shown by similar numbers on H J. Through these small figures and at right angles to J H draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to H J from similarly numbered points on the outline D 7 E in plan. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by L M H, will be the pattern for the molded chamfer. If the pattern has been accurately developed the girth along the miter cut L-7 in the pattern will be equal to the girth of 1-7 in the profile in elevation, to which it is soldered. Allow laps for soldering purposes. MOLDED BASE, FORMING A TRAN- SITION FROM SQUARE TO OCTAGON Solution 106 Taking up the subject of gore pieces on molded bases the illustration presented in Fig. 364 shows a design which may be used for a pedestal or base of a flagpole, cross or other ornament on the top of a building. The pedestal is made octagonal at the top Fig. 364.- -View of Molded Base. Forming a Transition from Square to Octagonal and square at the bottom, the transition between the two shapes being accomplished by the gore piece shown, which differs somewhat in shape, but not in principle, from that found at the base of the vase shown in a preceding solution. X in Fig. 364 is known as a gore piece, forming a transition from the square corner at a to the octagon at b. The patterns are shown developed in Fig. 365 which presents an elevation and half plan of the pedestal in which A D is the entire profile of one Fig. 365.— Method of Developing Pattern for a Gore Piece !l8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER of the four sides. The molding A B is carried around the top of the pedestal, forming a regular octagon, as shown by F G H J, etc., of the plan, while H J C 1 is the plan of the gore piece, shown in the elevation by E B C. In an analysis of the several parts it should be noted that since the mold- ing A B forms a regular octagon its miter lines for one piece are shown on the plan by J L and H P, while J C 1 and H C 1 are the miter lines for the gore piece, and that the base mold of which C D is the profile forms regular square miters at the corners, the miter line being C 1 D 1 of the plan. Therefore, to obtain the pattern for one of the four sides in one piece, divide the curved portions of the entire profile A D into any convenient num- ber of spaces, as shown by the figures, and set off a stretchout of the same on any line, as M N, drawn at right angles to the side in plan. Project lines from the points of division on pro- file A B to intersect the miter line J L, as shown, and carry them thence parallel with M N, to cut measuring lines of corresponding numbers, as shown from J 1 to-L 1 of the pattern. Lines from that part of the profile indicated by B C are pro- jected in a similar manner to cut the miter line J O, and from that part of the profile from C to D to cut the miter line C 1 D 1 , when all are carried as before to cut the measuring lines of corresponding number, as shown by L 1 C 2 D 2 . A line traced through these points, as shown from J 1 to D 2 , will, with the center line, form a half pattern of the side piece. Before laying out a pattern for the gore piece it will be necessary to construct a profile of the same or otherwise a section through the pedestal on the line K C 1 of the plan. This may be accom- plished in connection with the laying out of the pat- tern by first carrying the points on the line J C 1 across to cut the other miter lines H C 1 , cutting at the same time the center line K C of the gore. The points thus obtained on K C 1 will give the pro- jection of the points of the new profile, that is, their distances from the center toward C 1 , while the hights of the several points will be the same as those of the profile B C of the elevation. We may therefore transfer the line K O to a position at one side of the profile B C, as shown by K 1 C 3 , keep- ing the spaces thereon respectively equal to those on K C 1 , all as shown. Lines erected from the points on K 1 C 3 to intersect lines of corresponding number carried horizontally from the points on profile B C will give the required profile, as shown by B 2 C 3 . To obtain the pattern for the gore piece a stretch- out of the new profile must be set off on the line K C 1 , extended, as shown by M 1 N 1 . Care must be taken to transfer the spaces one at a time, in consecutive order, from B 2 C 3 to M 1 N 1 , since, in the construction of B 2 C 3 , the spaces have become unequal. This having been done, lines may now be carried from the points on the two miter lines, J C 1 and H O, to cut measuring lines of the stretch- out of corresponding number. It will be noticed that the stretchout of the pro- file A B has been added to that of B 2 C 3 , as shown by M 1 B 3 , and that the projections have been car- ried from the lines J L and H P to meet them, so as to have the pattern for the oblique side or gore in one piece, as mentioned above, thus making this part of the pattern exactly the same as the corre- sponding part of the pattern of the side, whose stretchout is M B 4 . Projections carried back into the elevation from the points on H C 1 to intersect lines of correspond- ing number, already drawn from profile B C, will give the correct elevation of the gore piece, as shown by E C B, and lines similarly drawn from points on H P to meet the lines from points on A B (not shown), will give the elevation of the octagon miter in the mold around the top of the pedestal, thus giving with the gore piece the correct elevation of the entire pedestal. In the illustration a number of the lines of pro- jection have been omitted in order to avoid con- fusion. MOLDED CAP, FORMING A TRAN- SITION FROM OCTAGON TO SQUARE Solution 107 Fig. 366.— View of Molded Ornament or Cap, Forming a Transition from Octagon to Square ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 219 FRONT ELEVATION X TRUE PROFILE THROUGH C-0 Fig. 367.— Patterns for an Ornamental Molded Cap Forming a Transition from Octagon to Square 220 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Fig. 366 presents a perspective view of a molded ornament or cap from octagon to square. It will be noted that the top diamond is a true square, while the base is a true octagon. The alternate sides of the octagon, marked A, form the gores, which in turn form the transition from octagon to square. The method of obtaining the pattern shapes is shown in Fig. 367. First, draw the center line X Y and, using A upon it as center, draw a regular octagon, as in- dicated by F G H J K L M N. From F and J erect perpendicular lines to meet the horizontal line drawn above the plan at E and 14. From E and 14 draw the profile of the cap. as shown from E to I and I to 14. Since the top portion of the cap, indicated by 1, 2, 3 in elevation, is to be treated as of square for- mation, drop a perpendicular line from 2-3 to the plan, as shown, and complete the square O P R S. From the corners H and J in plan draw lines to the corner O; from L and K to the corner C; from M and N to R ; and from F and G to S. In practice it would be necessary to draw only the half elevation X m 14 and the one-quarter plan B A B 1 , from which the patterns are obtainable as follows : Divide the cove and quarter round in elevation into equal parts and number the entire profile from 1 to 14. From these small figures and parallel to the center line X Y drop lines cutting the miter lines J O and P K in plan, as shown. From the intersec- tions on K P and parallel to K L draw lines cutting the miter line L C and from these intersections and parallel to L M draw lines cutting the miter line R M, all as shown. At right angles to K L from the corner P draw the line P D crossing the lines pre- viously drawn, shown by the numbers 1 to 14. From these intersections, I to 14, on P D erect lines to any night at right angles to P D, as shown. Draw the line m 14 parallel to P D. Measuring from the line m 14 in the front elevation take the various hights from 3 down to 14, and place them on lines drawn from similar numbers in plan, measuring in each instance from the line m'-l4. Trace a line through points thus obtained ; the shaded profile 3 to 14, will be the true profile for the gore piece on the line C D in plan. To obtain the pattern for the gore piece extend the line C D in plan as D W and upon this place the girth of the true profile through C D, measuring each space separately, as the spaces are all unequal, as shown by similar numbers on D W. Through these small figures and at right angles to D W, draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to D W from similar intersections on the miter line K C and C L. Trace a line through these intersec- tions ; A v , B v 3 is the pattern for the gore pieces. To obtain the pattern for the side marked B or B 1 in plan take the girth of the normal profile, 1 to 14, in the front elevation, and place it on the center line X Y, as shown from 1 to 14. Through these small figures and at right angles to X Y draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to X Y from similar intersections on the miter lines ACL and A R M in plan. Trace a line through points thus obtained ; V U 1 gives the desired pattern. That part of the pattern indicated by n 1 forms the square diamond shown by 1-2-3 in the front eleva- tion. The pattern could also have been obtained from the side A O J K P A in plan. Should it be desired to project the miter lines in elevation, the method would be as follows: From the various intersections previously obtained on the miter line O J in plan draw lines parallel to J H until they cut the miter line H O, as shown, and from these intersections erect vertical lines cutting horizontal lines drawn from similar numbers in ele- vation, as shown. Through these points of intersec- tion the miter line 3 T is traced, this if desired be- ing reproduced on the opposite side at T°. It is to be understood, of course, that these miter lines are not necessary in the development of the patterns ; they show, however, a completed elevation. PITCHED RECTANGULAR PANEL Solution 108 Fig. 368 is a view of a raised rectangular panel. The procedure of laying out the pattern by a quick and accurate method is shown in Fig. 369. Draw the plan of the rectangular panel 1-2-3-4, taking care that its corners will touch the circle struck from a, Fig. 368.— View of Pitched Rectangular Panel the intersection of the two diagonal lines. At right angles to one of the miter lines, as a-2, erect the line a-A, equal to the desired hight of the panel, and draw a line, as A-2, showing the true length of the corner as also the radius with which to strike the pattern. Using A-2 as radius and from A° in the lower diagram as center, draw the circle X-Y. As- suming that a seam is desired along a-b in plan, take the distance of 4-1, 1-2 and 2-3 and, starting at any ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK point on the circle in pattern, as 4, step off 4-1, 1-2 and 2-3 ; from these points draw lines to the center A . Bisect the side 1-2 and obtain b. Using i-b as / At- f° r Pattern \ — — — \2 Fig. 369. — ■Pattern in One Piece radius and with 4 and 3 as centers, describe arcs at V and b" and intersect them by arcs struck from A° as center with radius equal to A°-b. Draw lines from 4 to b' to A° to b" to 3 ; the net pattern in one piece is thus completed. TRIANGULAR PYRAMID Solution iog In Fig. 370 is given a view of a triangular pyramid, such as is often used in the ornamental design of cornice work. The de- velopment of the pattern which is alike in principle to that found in the preceding problem, , is shown in Figf. ^71. The circle 370. — View of . . , - Triangular Pyramid in plan is struck from the S PLAN \ ^ Fig. 371. — Pattern for a Triangular Pyramid center and the equilateral triangle is inscribed in the same, as shown by 1-2-3. From these three corners the hip lines are drawn to the center a. The elevation is shown above, although this is not a necessary procedure in the development of the pat- tern. The hight of the pyramid is equal to 1 a', which is laid off at right angles to la in plan, as shown from a to A. Using A-i as radius and with A 1 as center describe the arc b c. Set the dividers apart to a distance equal to one of the spaces in plan, and, starting from any point on the arc b c, as I, step off three spaces, as shown by 1, 2, 3, 1. Connect lines as shown. These give the full pattern. HEXAGONAL PYRAMID Solution no Fig. 372 presents a finished view of a pyramid, whose base is hexagonal or six sided. The pattern is obtained as shown in Fig. ^"jt,. The outline or circle is first drawn, as shown in the plan, and the Fig. 372. — View of a Hexagonal Pyramid hexagon is inscribed as shown. From the corners, 1 to 6, the hip lines are drawn to the center a. The elevation is omitted here as unnecessary. The ver- tical rise of the pyramid a A is set off at right angles to a 2 as shown, when A 2 will be the radius with which to describe the pattern. Using A 2 as radius and with A° as center describe the dotted circle, as 222 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER shown. Take the width of 1-2 in plan, and, starting from any part of the circle in the pattern, as 1, step 0,-- -^7 Fig. 373. — Pattern for a Hexagonal Pyramid off six spaces, as shown from 1 to 6 to 1. Draw solid lines as shown, thus obtaining the full pattern. DEVELOPING PYRAMIDS RE- GARDLESS OF THE SHAPE OF POLYGON IN PLAN Solution in The methods of procedure contained in some of the preceding problems apply also to pyramids whose bases are irregular. Without respect to the forma- tion of the outline of the pyramid's base the pro- cedure indicated in Fig. 369 may be followed since there is no differing principle involved. It is re- quired only that all corners of the outline or base touch the circle and that all hip lines drawn from these corners come directly over the center from which the circle has been struck. Thus in Fig. 374, we have a base whose angles are octagonal, but whose long and short sides alternate. Note that all corners inscribe the circle and that lines drawn from those corners come directly to the apex A, the center of the circle. Let us assume that the rise of the pyramid is A C, which is laid off at right angles to A B, thus that C B is the radius with which the pattern can be developed in the usual manner. Another irregularly shaped base is shown in- Fig. 374. — Alternate Long and Short Sides of Corresponding Angles Fig- 375- — Irregular Pyramid Having Dissimilar Angles scribed in the circle in Fig. 375. Each side is of dif- ferent length but each corner meets the circle, while lines drawn from these corners meet the center of the circle A or the apex of the pyramid, and make every hip line, 1 to 6, of equal length. As previously described the desired hight A a is laid off at right angles to any line, as 6 A, when 6 a becomes the radius from which to describe the circle in develop- ing the pattern. TRIANGULAR DENTIL, INTER- SECTING COVE MOLDING Solution 112 Fig. 376 shows a partly finished front elevation of a window cap, in which triangular dentil enrich- ments are placed in the cove molding of the molded ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 223 chamfer, indicated in the sectional view at a. The principle, to be explained, applying to the develop- ment of the pattern, is applicable whether the dentil PART ELEVA TION SECTION Fig. 376. — Part Elevation and Section of Window Cap, Showing Triangular Dentils Intersecting Chamfer Cove has a triangular face or other shape, and whether it intersects a cove mold or mold of other shape. The method of developing the pattern shape is shown in Fig. 377, and comes under that class of develop- ments known as miters between dissimilar moldings. First, draw the profile of the chamfer, as indicated Fig. 377. — Pattern for Triangular Dentil Return on Chamfer Cove by A B. Draw the side view of the dentil where it intersects the cove, as shown by 104. In line with the side, draw the front of the triangular dentil, shown by i'-^'-i". Space the intersection upon the cove between 1 and 4, in the side, as shown by the small figures 1, 2, 3 and 4; from these points draw horizontal lines to the left, until they intersect the side of the dentil 1/-4' in the front, as shown by similar numbers. Take the girth of the unequal spaces between 1' and 4' in the front and place them on the line i-a extended in the side as a b, as shown by similar numbers 1' to 4' to 1'. Through these small figures and at right angles to a & draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to a b from similar points of intersection in the cove mold- ing. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown from 1' to C to i', will be the full pattern shape. The dots on the line 4' C show where the bend will be made at an angle indicated by 1' 4' 1" in the front. PATTERN FOR RETURN OF BRACKET DROP Solution 113 In Fig. 378 are presented the front and side ele- vations of a finished cornice bracket, on which a face drop. A, is introduced with a return, B, mitering FRONT SIDE Fig. 378. — Front and Side View of Cornice Bracket, Showing Face Drop and Return against the cove mold in the bracket, the pattern for which is to be developed. The molds or profiles marked C, D and E indicate the profiles of the cor- nice molds to which the bracket will be joined. The method of developing the return on the bracket drop is shown in detail in Fig. 379, where A B in- dicates the profile of the upper part of the bracket, and C D E F the front elevation of the upper part of the bracket. The face of the drop is shown by D, C, 1", 1, 5, 1", D; H represents the center from which the semi-circle of the face drop is struck. Divide one-half of the face into equal parts, as shown from 1 to 5, and from the small figures 2 to 5 draw horizontal lines to the right cutting the cove mold in the side elevation from 1/ to 5'. As the division between 1' and 2' is too great, bisect 22 4 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER this division and obtain the point a' and project this point back to the face in the front elevation and obtain point a between I and 2. Take double the number of spaces contained in the half face in the front elevation and place them on the line i' b extended as J K, as shown by similar numbers and letters, taking care to introduce the point a be- tween i and 2, as shown. Through these small FRONT SIDE ELEVATION Fig. 37g. — Patern for Return on Face Drop figures and at right angles to J K draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to J K from similar intersections on the cove line i'~5' in the side elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown by J L K; this represents the full pattern. ORNAMENTAL DROP RETURN, INTERSECTING NUMEROUS MOLDS Solution 114 Fig. 380 shows the front and side of an orna- mental face drop, A representing the face and B its return, mitering on a succession of molds as indicated in the side. The profiles cut out on the side of the bracket at a, b and c, indicate the pro- files of the cornice against which the bracket is to join. The method to be followed in obtaining the pattern for this ornamental return is indicated in Fig. 381. First, draw the upper part of the front elevation of the bracket or other object, as shown by A B C D, and upon this draw the face of the drop, indicated by A B X 13 Y A, the curves being struck FRONT SIDE Fig. 380. — An Ornamental Face Drop from the centers a, b and c. In line with the front elevation draw the side elevation of both the profile of the bracket and the return of the drop, as shown by B, 1' 13' and B F E, respectively. It will be noted that the bends 1, 4 and 5 in the front eleva- tion are in line with the bends I', 4', 4", 5' and 5" in the side elevation. As the bend 8' in the side does not run in line with any bend in the front, project 8' to the left horizontally, thus obtaining the intersecting point 8 in the cove in the front elevation. Divide the molds in the front elevation into any convenient number of spaces, as shown from 1 to 4, 5 to 9 and 9 to 13. From these di- visions draw horizontal lines to the right, cutting the profile of the bracket in the side from 1' to 4', from 5" to 8' and from 8' to 13'. Where the lines drawn from 4 and 5 in the front elevation intersect the profile of the bracket in the side, indicate these points as 4', 4" and 5'-5". As the distance between i' and 2' and that between 7' and 8' are too great, establish an extra point in each, as a' and V , re- spectively, and from these two points draw hori- zontal lines to the left, cutting the profiles at a and b, respectively. Having thus found the various points of intersections in both elevations, the pat- tern may now be developed. Extend the line B F, as shown by F J, on which place the girth of the semi-face 1 to 13 in the front elevation, taking care to include the points a and b, all as shown bv similar letters and figures on F J. ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 225 Through these small figures and at right angles to F J draw lines, as shown, and intersect these lines by lines drawn par- allel to F J from similarly numbered and lettered intersections on the profile l'-l3' in the side elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained ; 1 H G 13 is the half pattern shape, with a seam along 13 G. TAPERING DIAMOND IN A KEYSTONE Solution 115 Fig. 382 presents a view of the diamond in a tapering keystone, which requires triangulation in its development, shows how the various patterns are developed. First, draw the side view of the diamond, as shown by 1,2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and in its proper posi- tion draw the front view, as shown by 2'-2"-5"-5'. In practice it is necessary to draw only the one-half front view, the halves being alike. Through the center of the front view draw the center line 2>'A' to any length, as shown. The pattern for the top and bottom of the diamond may now be developed by parallel lines, as follows : Take the girth of 1-2-3 an d °f 4~5~6 in the side view and place it on the center line in front, as shown by 1-2-3 at the top and by 4-5-6 at the bottom. Through these small figures draw the usual measuring lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to the center line from similarly numbered intersections in the front view. Draw lines through points thus obtained ; 2 v -3-2° will be the pattern for the upper head and 5 v -4-5° the pat- tern for the lower head. The pattern for the two sides will be developed by triangulation, but, before doing so, the true length of 2"-5" and of the dotted line 3'-5' in the front view must first be found. To find the true length of 2"-5" draw a line, 5" a', at right angles to 2"-5", making 5" a' equal to the horizontal dis- tance between the corners 2 and 5 in the side view, as indicated by 5 a. Draw a line from a' to 2", the true length sought. In like manner take the horizontal distance between the corners 3 and 5 in the side view, indicated by 5 b, and place this dis- tance on a line drawn at right angles to 3'-5' in the front view, as shown from 5' to V . Draw a line from b' to 3', the true length sought. The pattern for the two sides in one piece may FRONT ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION o_f now be developed. Take the distance of 3-4 in the side view, which shows its true length, and place it, as shown by 3-4 in the face pat- tern. Using 4-5 in the pattern for the lower head as radius and 4 in the face pattern as center, describe the arc 5 and intersect this by an arc struck from 3 as center with the true length, 3'-fc' in the front view, as radius. With radius equal to 3-2 ° in the pattern for the upper head and with 3 in the face pattern as center describe the arc 2° ; inter- sect this by an arc struck from 5 as center and with the true length, a'-z" in the front view, as radius. Draw lines from 3 to 2° to 5 to 4 in the pattern and at right angles to 2°-$° from 2° and 5 draw the Fig. 381.— Pattern for Return on Ornamental Face Drop Fig. 382.— View of Triangular Diamond Panel on Keystone 226 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER PATTERN FOR SIDE VIEW Fig. 383. — Pattern for Keystone Diamond lines 2° c and 5° d, equal to 1-2 or 5-6 in the side view. Draw a line from c to d in the face pattern ; this completes the half pattern. Trace this half op- posite the center line 3-4, as shown by c' d' at the left, c d d' c' is then the full face pattern. MOLDED KEYSTONE IN A CIR- CULAR ARCH Solution 116 Fig. 384 shows the front elevation of a keystone, A, in a circular arch, the sides of the keystone being drawn radially from the center a, as shown. At the right of the front elevation is shown the section of the circular mold as well as the keystone. The method to be employed in laying out the patterns for the sides and front is shown in detail in Fig. 385- Here the center line A B is first drawn, and, using the desired radii with a as center, part of the cir- cular arch is drawn, as indicated by C D E F. Establish the height of the key as A d, also its width at the bottom as d b and d 8' ; and from the center point a draw radial lines through b and 8' ; intersecting them by a horizontal line drawn through A in the keystone. From the various intersections of the arcs of the mold on the center line A B, draw lines to the right, as shown, and draw a section of the circular mold on the line A B, as shown by e, f, 6, 8, 9. From the intersection of the keystone upon the center line A B in the front elevation, draw lines to the right, intersecting the section of the circular molding at 1 and 9. Be- tween these points 1 and 9 draw the desired pro- file of the keystone, as shown. Divide its curved part into an equal number of spaces, as shown from 1 to 8, and from these points draw horizontal lines to the left cutting the sides of the keystone in front elevation, as shown by similar numbers on the right side. For the pattern for the front proceed as follows : Take the girth of the profile of the keystone from 1 to 9 in the section and place it on the line B A extended, as shown by similar numbers ; through these and at right angles to 1 A draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to A B from Fig. 384. — Keystone in Circular Arch similarly numbered intersections on the side 1' 8', as partly shown by the dotted lines. Trace the miter cut through these points, as shown from J to K, and transfer this half pattern opposite the center line 1 A, as shown by G H. G K J H will be the full pattern for front. The pattern for the side to miter with the front, also to join the circular mold, is laid out on the same principle. Take the girth of the various di- visions on i'-8' in the front elevation and place ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 227 these divisions on any perpendicular line, as L M, as shown by similar numbers. Through these small figures and at right angles to L M draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to L M from similar numbers in the profile of the key- stone, thus obtaining the miter cut O P R V . As the sides of the keystone in front elevation run radially to the center point a, the section through the curved molding on this line will be the same as the section of the mold at the right and will con- stitute the shape to be cut in the pattern for sides. This is laid out as follows : Take the distance from the bottom of the keystone b in the front elevation to the lower line of the curved molding c and place PATTERN FOR FRONT it, as shown in the pattern for sides from b' to c'. Take a tracing of the section e, f, 6, 8, 9 and place it, as shown in the pattern by O T c', which com- pletes the pattern for the sides. Laps are to be allowed for joining the curved molding. RAISED KEYSTONE Solution 117 In the view of Fig. 386, A shows a raised dia- mond keystone, for which a pattern is required. This problem presents an interesting study in draw- ing and development, occurring frequently in re- lation to window work. The methods of procedure, which follow, are illustrated by means of the details given in Fig. 387. Draw the center line A B and construct a sectional view on this line, as indicated at the right, where the profile of the cornice is shown, and against which the various keys will miter. Complete the side of the keystone, from which the half elevation is drawn, all as indicated by the dotted lines. The pattern for the top of the keystone is the first subject for development. Extend the center I 1 SECTION OF e CIRCULAR MOLD ON LINE A-B PATTERN FOR SIDES 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8' Fig. 385. — Patterns for Molded Keystone 228 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER line A B in the two directions, shown by A C and B F. Take the girth of the top, numbered in the section from i to 5, and place it on the girth line A C, shown by 1-2-3-4 and 5. Through these small figures and at right angles to A C draw lines, and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to A C from intersections 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the half elevation. Trace a line through these points from D to 5 and transfer the half pattern opposite the center line A C, as shown from 5 to E. D E 5 shows the pattern for the top of the keystone. Take the girth of the bottom of the keystone in the section num- bered 5 to 9, taking care to introduce the inter- section at a between 8 and 9 ; place all these di- visions on the line B F below the half elevation, as shown by similar numbers 5, 6, 7, 8, a, 9. Through these small figures 5 to 9 and at right Fig. 386. — Raised Keystone in a Flat Arch angles to B F draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to B F from similar numbers 5, 6, 7, 8, a', a, 9, thus obtaining the miter cut, 5 to G in the pattern. Trace this half opposite the center line, as indicated from 5 to H. 5 G H will be the completed pattern of the lower part of the keystone. For that part of the tapering face of the key- stone, shown by 2, 3, 7, 8, in the half elevation, take the girth of 2, 3, 7, 8 in the section, and place it on the girth line A C, as shown by 2', 3', 7', 8'. Through these figures and at right angles to C A draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn par- allel to C A from the intersections 2, 3, 7 and 8 in the half elevation. Draw lines through points thus obtained, as shown by P R S T. For the pattern of the adjoining keystone, shown by b a a' b' in the half elevation, take the girth of b a in the section and place it, as shown by b a, on the vertical line J K. Through b and a and at right angles to J K draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to J K from the intersec- tions b V and a a' in the half elevation. Connect L M N O. To obtain the pattern for the strip, shown by 3, 4, 6, 7, in the section, take the girth of 3-4, 6-7 in the half elevation and place it on any vertical line, as shown by 3-4, 6-7 on the line c' d'. From these two points and at right angles to c' d' draw lines to any length, as shown. In the sectional view draw any vertical line, as shown by c d. Measuring from this line c d take the various projections to points 3, 4, 6 and 7 and place them on similarly numbered lines, measuring in each instance from the line c' d' , thus obtaining the points 3" 4" 6" and 7" ; this is the desired pattern. For the pattern of the return on the center key- stone on the line 1, 2, a', 8 in the half elevation, with its intersection against the fillet and adjoining key- stone, as shown in the section, take the girth of 1, 2, a!, 8, with its intermediate points, as indicated by the heavy dots, and place it, as shown by 1,2, a', 8 on the vertical line W X. Draw the usual meas- uring lines, as shown, and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to W X from similar points in the section, all as shown by the dotted lines. Connect points by lines, as shown ; D 1 E 1 F 1 will be the desired pattern. For the pattern of the return of the adjoining keystone on the line b a in the half elevation with its intersection against the horizontal molding, in- dicated in the section between b and 9, first divide the curves in the mold between b and 9 into equal parts, as shown ; from these points draw lines par- allel to lines of the molding, cutting the line b a in the half elevation, as shown by the heavy dots. Take the girth of & a in elevation with the various intersections thereon and place it on the vertical line U V, as shown by similar numbers and divisions. Through these points and at right angles to U V draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn paral- lel to U V from similar points in the section, all as shown by the dotted lines. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown by A 1 B 1 C 1 , the desired pattern. The pattern for the entire side of the keystone can now be joined into one, as shown in the full pattern for the sides. First, take a tracing of pat- tern marked I, to which add the pattern marked II. Add the patterns marked III, IV and V in the manner shown in the full pattern for sides. With ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 229 FULL PATTERN FOR SIDES Fig. 387. — The Various Patterns for Raised Keystone 230 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER radius equal to c 5 in the pattern for the top and with e' in the full pattern as center, describe the arc 5° ; intersect this by an arc struck from /' as center and with / 5 in the pattern for bottom as radius. Connect lines from c' to 5 to /' in the full pattern, as shown. Allow laps for solder- ing purposes on the sides only, providing no laps on the top or bottom patterns. In this way the keystone can be made in four pieces ; that is, the top, the bottom and two sides are formed right and left. ORNAMENTAL TRIMMINGS ON URNS Solution 118 When stripped ornamental trimmings are to be placed on urns, as indicated in Fig. 388 by that portion marked A, they can be developed by means of parallel lines, whether the rest of the urn be round, square or octagon. In this case, the base J.. -View of Round Ornamental Vase of the urn is square and the rest of it round, the trimmings intersecting the semi-sphere b. The pat- terns for the circular work were taken up in another part on Circular Work. Four semi-circles, like a, are placed around the circumference, with bands alternating. The semi- circles and bands are stripped, as indicated by c c, forming the intersection with the sphere. The method of developing the various patterns is shown in Fig. 389, where is found a part elevation of the urn ; this, however, is not essential, all requirement being served by the semi-circle, on which the orna- mental face and return strips miter. Therefore, first draw any horizontal lines, as c d, and with A on the same line as center, describe the semi-sphere of the required size shown by B C D. Below the elevation draw any horizontal line, E F, and intersect it at G by the vertical line drawn from A, in elevation. Establish the projection of the face strips over the sphere line, as indicated by B d and D c in elevation. Using G in plan as center and with radius equal to A c or A d in elevation, describe the semi-plan, as shown by H 4 X J. As there are to be but four semi-circular faces around the circumference of the sphere, draw two lines at 45 degrees from the center G in plan, as shown by G a and G b. This gives one full and two half spaces in the half plan. Should six semi-circles or other ornaments be desired to encircle the sphere in elevation, it will be necessary only to divide the half plan into two whole and two half spaces, thus finding the proper width of the semi-circle or ornament in elevation. This method applies to any number of face drops or ornaments. Having thus drawn the lines G a and G b in plan, to form an intersection with the face line H 4 X J in plan at c and /, erect from these two intersections vertical lines cutting the line c d in elevation at g and h. Establish the width of the band /; i and between i and r draw the drop or semi-circle 1-4-1 , using K as a center. In prac- tice it is necessary to draw only the one-half eleva- tion, as well as the one-quarter plan. Divide one- half of the semi-circle in elevation into equal parts, as shown from 1 to 4, and from these points and parallel to B D draw lines to the right cutting the outline of the sphere at i'-z'-t,' and 4'; from these intersections drop vertical lines in the half plan, cutting the center line E F at 1", 2", 3" and 4". Using G as center and with radii equal to G i'', G 2", G 3" and G 4", draw semi-circles as shown, and intersect them by vertical lines drawn from points 1 to 4 in the elevation, thus obtaining the intersections i v , 2 V , 3 V and 4 V and cutting the outer edge of the band in plan at i x , 2 X , 3 X and 4 X . From the miter line thus obtained in plan, the patterns can now be developed. For the face pattern of the drop, take double the girth of c, i x , 2 X , 3 X and 4 X in plan and place it on the line d c extended in elevation, as shown by similar letters and numbers from e to 4 X to e" ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 231 23- THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER From these small figures and at right angles to e e" draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to e c" from similar numbers in the drop in front elevation. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by e P R S T U e", will be the pattern for one face, or one-fourth the circum- ference around the sphere. The pattern for the return strip against the sphere is obtained by taking double the girth from i to 4 in the front elevation and placing it on the center line E F in plan, as shown by similar numbers, 1 to 4 to 1. From these small figures and at right angles to E F draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to E F from similarly num- bered intersections in plan, as i v to 4 V and i x to 4 X . Trace a line through points thus obtained ; L M N O will be the pattern shape. On O N add a duplicate of i x , l v , r, e in plan, as shown by N O r' c' to the right of the pattern and M L r" e" to the left of the pattern. The cut r" L O / will miter against the sphere and the cut e" M N c' will miter with P R S T U in the face pattern. To the right in the elevation has been demonstrated the way to project the various points, so as to show the intersection of the return strip mitering with the face drop and sphere ; while this is not necessary in the development of the patterns, it is shown here to make clear the various opera- tions, should this view be desired. The first step is to take a reproduction of the various points of intersection in plan, as 4 V , 3 V , 2 V , i v , i x , 2 X , 3 X , 4 X , and place them in their proper positions to the right in plan, as indicated by 4", 3 a , 2 a , i a , i b , 2 b , 3 b and 4 b . This can be best ac- complished by taking the various projections, meas- uring from the line 4 V 4 X to points 3 V , 2 V , i v , i x , 2 X and 3 X , and placing them below the line 4" 4 b on similar arcs, as there indicated. From the various intersections i b to 4 b and from i a to 4" erect ver- tical lines, cutting similarly numbered horizontal lines in elevation, thus obtaining intersections marked i e to 4 e and i l to 4', respectively; through these intersections the lines are drawn, as shown. These miter lines may be traced to the opposite side in both plan and elevation, as shown. THE VARIOUS FLARING STRIPS AROUND A BEVELED SHIELD Solution 119 Fig. 390 is a view of a beveled shield, the bevels or chamfers being: indicated in the shaded section a b. The principles demonstrated in preceding problems may here be applied. In working out the full size detail it is necessary to draw only the half elevation, as shown in Fig. 391. First, draw the center line A B, to the right of which design the half elevation of the shield, the various arcs being struck from the centers C, D, E, F and G. Where the outer and inner arcs inter- sect draw the miter lines a I, b 5, c 7 and d 18. Space the inner outline of the shield into an equal number of divisions, as indicated by the small fig- ures 1 to 18, and from the inner intersections at 1, 5, 7 and 18 draw lines to the centers from which the arcs were struck, at C, D, E and G, respect- ively. As the distance between points 10 and 11 in the shield is straight, draw a line from point 10 to the center E, and from point 11 to the center F. Since 15 represents the point of tangency be- tween the two arcs struck from F and G, respect- ively, draw a line from the center F to the center G. a° b° c° d° is a section drawn at right angles to io-n and gives the bevel of the chamfer around the entire shield. The inner outline of the shield having been spaced into equal divisions, measure- ments must be placed on the inner outline in the patterns. Three patterns will be required, as indicated by I, II and III in the half elevation. The first step Fig. 390. — View of Beveled Shield is to find the true radii for striking the various pat- terns. This is accomplished as follows : Take a tracing of the bevel a° b° c° d° and place it, as indicated by a' b' c' d'. Since the center F is on the inside of the curve 11-15 in the half ele- vation, take the distance from 11 to F and set it off on the line b' a' from V to F. Through F and at right angles to a' V draw the line X F°. Extend the flare c' V until it intersects the vertical line just drawn at F°. Extend the flare b' c' to any length towards C°, as shown. As the centers C, D, E and ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK >-tt G in the half elevation are on the outside of the outline of the shield and as the radii C i, E 7 and G 15 are alike, take the distance of any one, as C 1, also the distance of D 5 and place it on the line a' b' extended, as shown from b' to C, E, G and D, re- spectively, and from these points draw perpendic- ular lines to a' V intersecting the flaring line previ- ously extended at C° and at D°, as shown. This diagram, F° C°, then shows the various radii re- quired for developing the various flaring or chamfer strips. To obtain the pattern for the flare, marked I in elevation, proceed as follows : Using the radii CV and C° b' and with C 1 as center draw the arcs a b and 1-5. Take the girth from 1 to 5 in the half elevation and place the same number of divisions in the pattern for I, as shown by similar figures 1 to 5. From 1 and from 5 draw lines to the center C 1 , intersect- ing the inner arc at 1' and at 5'. Meas- ure the distance from 1' to a and from 5' to b in the half elevation and set it off on the inner arc of pattern for I, as indicated from 1' to a and from 5' to b, and draw the miter lines a 1 and b 5. a b 5-1 shows the pattern for flare I, with the miters attached. The pattern for flare II in the half elevation is obtained in like manner. Using the radii D° c' and D° b' and with D 1 in the upper diagram as center draw the arcs b c and 5-7. Take the girth from 5 to 7 in the half elevation and place the same number of divi- sions in the pattern for II as shown by similar figures, 5 to 7. From 5 and from 7 draw lines to the center D\ intersecting the inner arc at 5" and at 7". Measure the distance from 5" to b and from 7" to c in the half elevation and set it off on the inner arc of pat- tern for II, as indicated from 5" to b and from 7" to c, and draw the miter lines from 5 to & and from 7 to c. be 7-5 shows the patterns for flare marked II in elevation with miter cuts attached. The development of flare III. involves four dis- tinct patterns and is obtained as follows : Using the radii C° c' and C° b' and with C 2 in pattern for III as center draw the arcs c 10' and 7-10. Take the girth from 7 to 10 in the half elevation, and place an equal number of divisions in the pattern for III as are shown by corresponding figures 7 to 10 on the outer arc. From points 7 and 10 draw lines to the center C 2 , inter- secting the inner arc at 7' and at 10'. Measure the distance from 7' to c in the half elevation and place it as shown from 7' to c in pattern for III. Draw the miter line j-c. As the line 10-11 in the half elevation is drawn at right angles to the radial line 10-E take the distance from 10 to 11 C' A 5 6 7 PA TTERN FOR n FINDING TRUE RADII FOR PA TTERNS C . , E \b D G ■io° 8 I //•>•-. -. V 10 _.(/•>< 11 1--W n PATTERN 13, FOR in \c° Fig. 391.— Patterns for the Various Flaring Strips Around Shield and set it off at right angles to 10 C 2 in pattern for III, as shown from 10 to 11 and from 10' to 11', and draw a line from 11' through 1 1 indefinitely. As the radius for the flare between F n-15 in the half elevation is indicated by F° V in the true radii, take this distance and set it off in pattern for III. from 11 to F 1 ; using this same radius and with F 1 as center, draw the arc 11-15, equal in girth to 11-15 in the half elevation. From F 1 in the pattern for III. draw a line to any length through 15 towards C 3 , as shown. Using F 1 as center and with F 1 n' as radius describe an arc cutting the line F 1 C 3 at 15'. As C° b' in the true radii is the radius for the flare along 15-18 in the half elevation, use this radius and set off its length 2 34 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER from 15 to C 3 in pattern for III. Using the same radius and with C 3 as center draw the arc 15-18, equal in girth to 15-18 in the half elevation. Draw a line from 18 toward C 3 in pattern for III., cross- ing the inner arc drawn from 15', at 18'. Take the distance from 18' to d in half elevation and set it off on the inner arc in pattern for III from 18' to d. Draw a line from d to 18. 7-18-d c will be the de- sired pattern for flare III in the half elevation. This method of joining the various arcs or flares may be applied to an ornament of any shape. SQUARE SHAFT, INTERSECTING A SPHERE CENTRALLY Solution 120 In ornamental sheet metal work, as in the con- struction of finials, ornaments, crosses, etc., spheres or balls are used, and they may be interesected by various shaped shafts. Fig. 392.— View of Square Shaft Intersecting a Sphere Centrally Fig. 392 shows the square base of a finial inter- secting a sphere or ball. If this shaft sets directly over the center of the ball the pattern development is simple, being accomplished as shown in Fig. 393. Here A represents the center from which the ball is struck. Through the center A draw the center line A B and construct a section of the square shaft, indicated by C D E F, although this section may be dispensed with in actual practice. One side of the shaft, as C F, is extended until it intersects the ball at a. From a a line is drawn at right angles B 1 1 I SECTION OF square'* shaft I ELEVATION Fig- 393-— Pattern for Square Shaft Intersecting a Sphere to A B until it intersects the center line at b. Using A as center and with A b as radius draw the arc K L and intersect it at K and L by the sides of the shaft extended. Establish the hight of the square shaft as L H and complete the elevation of one side of the shaft, shown by H J K b L H, which also becomes the pattern for one side. If the shaft is small in size, four of these patterns are joined in one to effect the full pattern. ANOTHER METHOD OF DEVELOP- ING SQUARE SHAFT Solution 121 A quick and accurate rule for developing the pat- tern is shown in Fig. 394. Using any point, A, ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 235 as a center, describe the sphere of the desired size. Directly over A draw the plan of the square shaft, of the required dimensions, as shown by 1-2-3-4. Extend one of the sides, as 1-2, until it intersects the ball at a and b. Bisect a b and obtain c. c a PLAN ? c 2 \ \ / \ / \ / X /A \ / \ / \ \ 2 3 FULL PATTERN SHAPE X X e X X Fig. 394. — Short Method of Obtaining Pattern for Square Shaft Intersecting Sphere Centrally or c b is then the radius for striking the pattern, as follows : Take the girth of the square shaft 1 to 4 to 1 and place it, as shown in the pattern. Draw the hight 1-/1 and 1 i and complete the rectangle shown. With radius equal to c a in plan and with 1 and 2 in the pattern as centers describe short arc inter- secting at c. Repeat this operation, using 2 and 3, 3 and 4 and 4 and 1 as centers. Then using the same radius and with e as center draw the arcs shown ; this completes the pattern. OCTAGONAL SHAFT INTERSECT- ING SPHERE Solution 122 If a shaft be octagonal and intersects a sphere centrally, as shown in Fig. 395, the procedure found in the preceding problem is employed and applied as shown in Fig. 396. Using A as center draw the sphere and octagonal shaft, as shown in plan. Extend one of the sides of the shaft, as 1-2, cutting the sphere at a and b, bisect this extended side and ob- tain c. Take the girth of 8 times 1-2 in plan and set it off in the pattern, as shown. Make the hight i-S in the pattern, as required. Using c a or c b in plan as radius and with 1 and 2 in the pattern as centers describe arcs intersecting each other at i, i, etc. Fig- 395- — Octagonal Shaft Centrally over Sphere Using the same radius and with i as center, describe the arcs from 1 to 2 as shown, completing the pattern. PLAN X / i 2 12 1 FULL PATTERN SHAPE X X X X / / / i i X i Fig. 396.— Quick Rule for Obtaining Pattern of Octagonal Shaft, Intersecting Sphere Centrally ANOTHER METHOD OF DEVELOP- ING OCTAGONAL SHAFT Solution 123 Another method of development is shown in Fig. 397, where the octagon intersects the sphere directly 236 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER in the center as shown in plan. The pattern is developed as follows : A in plan represents the center from which the sphere is struck, as well as the octagonal section shown by the letters a. Through the center A draw the center line B C and using D upon it as a center describe a sphere of like size in elevation. From the left side of the octagon in plan drop a vertical line cutting the sphere in elevation at a' ; from this intersection draw a horizontal line to the right to any length, cutting the center line B C at a". Using D as center and with D a" as radius describe a short arc ; intersect this arc by perpendicular lines dropped from the corners a v a v in plan, thus obtaining the points of intersection, a v a v in elevation. Draw the horizontal line E F to the desired hight, thus com- pleting the elevation of the upper line of the shaft. ONE HALF FULL PATTERN x x x x D° D° D° D° Fig. 397. — Pattern for Octagonal Shaft, Intersecting a Sphere Centrally J L a v ay shows the true elevation and pattern for one side of the shaft. If the foreshortened elevation of the two oblique sides of the shaft be desired, as shown by a a v in plan, simply draw to the left from a v in elevation a horizontal line, intersecting it by the line E a' extended at a x . Bisect the line a' c, obtaining the point 2, and draw a symmetrical curve through the three points a x , 2, a v . In the same manner obtain the curve a v , 1, a x to the right. The one-half full pattern may be reproduced from J I o v a v in elevation as follows : Extend E F as E G and place thereon one-half of the girth of the octagonal section, as indicated by the five letters marked a on F G. Through these small letters and at right angles to F G draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn from a v in elevation, parallel to F G, thus obtaining the intersections marked a"'. With radius equal to D o" in eleva- tion and using all points a" in the pattern as centers draw arcs intersecting each other at D°. With the same radius and D° as centers, draw the various arcs marked a'" to a'", a'" a a a"' will be the half pattern sought. SQUARE SHAFT INTERSECTING A SPHERE OFF THE CENTER Solution 124 In the two last preceding problems the shafts intersect the spheres centrally. In the problem now under consideration, shown in Fig. 398, the square shaft intersects the sphere off the center, as shown in the plan, where A is the center from which the sphere is struck and 1, 2, 3 and 4 the position of the corners of the square shaft. Through the center A, the center line A B is drawn, and, with B as center, the same size sphere is struck in ele- vation as shown. It now becomes necessary to find the intersecting points in elevation of the cor- ners of the square shaft, marked 1 to 4 in plan. The procedure is as follows : With A as center and using the radii A 1, A 2, A 3 and A 4, arcs are struck until they intersect the center line a 3' in plan, at 1', 2', 3' and 4'. From these small fig- ures 1' to 4' vertical lines are drawn downward, until they intersect the outline of the sphere from 1" to 4", as shown ; from these intersections hori- zontal lines are drawn to the right indefinitely and intersected by vertical lines drawn downward from the corners of the square shaft 1 to 4 in plan, all as indicated by the dotted lines, resulting in the points of intersection i°, 2°, 3 and 4° in elevation. As already mentioned, these represent only the points of intersection of the four corners of the shaft. If the entire miter line were desired, showing the intersection between the full sides of the shaft and sphere, more numerous divisions would be placed in each side of the shaft and arcs drawn to the center line in precisely the manner described in Solution 125, Fig. 400, where a fluted shaft inter- sects a sphere. Upon finding the intersections of the corners ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 237 1° to 4° in elevations in Fig. 398, the pattern may be laid out as follows : Extend the line C D in elevation, previously drawn at will, as shown by D E ; upon this place the girth of the square shaft in plan, as shown by similar numbers, 1 to 4 to 1 on D E. Through these small figures and at right angles to D E, draw lines, as shown, and intersect these lines by lines drawn parallel to D E from the intersections 1°, 2°, 3 and 4° in the elevation, thus obtaining the inter- sections i a , 2 a , 3 a , 4 a and i b in the pattern. The next step is to find the radius for striking the various arcs in the pattern. Extend the several sides of the square shaft in plan as 1-2 until the outline of the sphere is intersected at b and c. Bisect b c and obtain d. Then d b or d c represents the radius of a circle, which would represent a section on the line b c. As this radius was obtained by a line drawn through 1-2 in plan, then using i a and 2 a in the pattern as centers and with the radius d b or d c in plan, draw arcs intersecting each other at d' in the pattern. With the same radius and using d' as center describe the arc i a 2 a . In like manner extend the line 3-2 in plan as ye ; bisect this line and obtain /. Using / c as radius and with 2 a and 3 a in the pattern as centers, intersect the arcs at /' ; use /' as a center and with the same radius describe the arc 2 a 3 a . Extend the line 3-4 in plan and obtain yh; bisect 3-/; and find i. Use i h or i 3 as radius and with 3 a and 4 a in the pattern as centers, de- scribe the arcs crossing each other at i '. Use i' as center and with the same radius draw the arc 3 a -4 a . Extend 4-1 in plan, cutting the sphere at n and 0. Bisect this and obtain /. Using I o or 7 n as radius and 4 a and i b in the pattern as centers, describe arcs cutting each other at /'. With the same radius and I' as center describe the arc 4 a i b . This completes the full pattern. In case the shaft were octagonal, as in Fig. 397, and were placed off the center on the sphere, there would be no change of principle involved than are found in the procedure of Fig. 398, the eight sides of the shaft being extended until they intersected the outline of the sphere, to find the true plane, as was done with the square shaft. FLUTED SHAFT INTERSECTING A SPHERE CENTRALLY Solution 125 Fig. 399 shows in perspective a view of a fluted shaft intersecting a sphere centrally. It is devel- oped as shown in detail in Fig. 400. Here A shows the center, from which the sphere is drawn as well as the plan view. Through A the diameters a b Fig. 398.— Pattern for Square Shaft Intersecting Sphere Off the Center 2 3 8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER and c d are drawn ; upon these lines the centers e, f, g and // are placed, from which the section of the fluted column is drawn. Extend the center line d c, as shown, and upon it use B as a center to draw the elevation of the sphere alike in size to that in plan. At a proper distance above B draw the hori- zontal line C D representing the top of the column or flute in elevation. Since the four flutes in plan are alike, divide into equal parts, as indicated by the small figures i to 3, placing the figures in the manner shown. Using A as center and with radii equal to A-2 and A-3 draw arcs cutting the center line at 2' and 3'. From these points 1, 2' and 3' drop vertical lines cutting the sphere in elevation at 1", 2" and 3"; from these points lines are drawn to the right, as shown, and intersected by vertical lines drawn from similarly numbered intersections shown in the fluted column in plan, resulting in the points of intersection 1° to 3 to 1" in elevation, through which a line is traced showing the miter line. The pattern is obtained b y ex- tending C D as E F, upon which the girth of two of the flutes are placed (for the half full pattern), as shown by similar numbers on E F. Through these small figures the usual measur- ing lines are drawn and intersected by ines drawn par- allel to E F from similar numbers in the elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained. E F G H J will be the desired pattern. In developing the pattern in practice more numerous spaces should be employed in dividufg the flutes. Fig. 399. — View of Fluted Shaft Intersecting a Sphere Centrally ELEVATION Fig. 400. — Pattern for Fluted Shaft Intersecting a Sphere Centrally MOLDING INTERSECTING A SPHERE OFF THE CENTER Solution 126 In the case of a sphere or ball, intersected outside of its center, as shown in the finished elevation in Fig. 401, the methods of the preceding problem are followed. In this finished view is shown a gable molding intersecting a sphere off the center. The same procedure applies, whether the molding in- ORNAMENTAL SHEET METAL WORK 239 tersects vertically, horizontally or at an oblique angle, as shown. If the mold intersects at an ob- lique angle, as indicated by a b, it is but necessary in developing the pattern to assume that a is a pivot and b is drawn over until the oblique line a b stands in a vertical position, as a c. Then the pattern can be developed as shown in Fig. 402. The sphere in plan is first drawn from the center A ; through this the vertical center line A B is drawn ; using B upon it as a center the elevation of the sphere is drawn, as shown, and of similar diameter, as in the plan. The section of the molding is now drawn in its desired position in plan, as shown, and the curved part is divided into equal spaces. As the halves of the molding are symmetrical, it is neces- sary to divide only one half into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures, 1 to 6. Using A as center and with the spaces in the upper half as radii draw the arcs from points 2, 3, 4 and 5 until they intersect the center line at 2', 3', 4' and 5', from which intersections carry vertical lines to the elevation, cutting the sphere in elevation at i°, 2°, 3 , 4 , 5° and 6°. From these points of intersec- tion, 1° to 6°, draw horizontal lines to the right and intersect them by vertical lines dropped from sim- ilar numbers in the profile in plan, as shown. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown from Fig. 401. — Finished Elevation of Gable Mold Intersecting Sphere Off the Center 2 V to 5 V in elevation. This will represent the miter line, between the ogee mold and sphere. It should be understood that, so far as the pattern is con- cerned, this miter line is not necessary, because the projecting points for the pattern could be taken as well from the intersections 1° to 6° on the sphere. To complete the elevation of the molding, draw the ELEVATION Fig. 402.— Pattern for Molding Intersecting a Sphere Off the Center line D C at the desired hight, as shown. The pattern is laid out as follows : Extend the line D C as E F and upon this place the girth of the full profile in plan, as shown by similar num- bers on E F. Through these small figures and at right angles to E F draw lines and intersect them 240 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER by lines drawn parallel to E F from similarly num- bered points in the elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained between 3, 6 and 3, as shown from G to H. To find the pattern cut for the members 1-2, and 2-3 of the molding in plan proceed as follows: Extend the lines 1-2 and 2-3 in the plan until they cut the outline of the sphere at a b and c d, respect- ively. Bisect the line a b and obtain the point e. Also bisect the line c d and obtain A. Using A c or A d as radius, and G and J, also H and K in the pattern, as centers, describe arcs intersecting each other at A°. With A° as centers, with the same radius, draw the arcs G J and H K. Using e a or e b in the plan as radius and from L and J, also K and M, in the pattern as centers, describe arcs intersecting each other at e' Using e' as cen- ters and with the same radius describe the arcs L J and K M. 1-L-J-K-M-1 then represents the full pattern shape. PART XII CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTRICALLY ILLUMINATED SHEET iMETAL SIGNS; WITH METHOD OF SECURING THE RECEPTACLES FOR WIRING A PROFITABLE field of endeavor available to sheet metal workers occurs in connection with electrically illuminated signs, the construction of the framework of which brings into exercise the mech- anical skill of the sheet metal worker as well as his equipment of material, tools and appliances. It will be seen that the construction of such signs is essentially simple and although it may sometimes be necessary to engage the electrician to give atten- tion to the wiring equipment the main function, that of the construction of the sign, involves chiefly the manipulation of sheet metal. In the case of orders for signs in quantity, it may prove the better part of economy to have the electrical contractor do his customary part of the work, preferably at the sheet metal shop in order that the sheet metal worker may put on the outside caps and turn in the laps properly so as to be assured of the best workmanship. In like manner if the painting is executed at his shop the sheet metal worker may be certain that the work is well done and frequently a saving of cartage will result. Storekeepers, merchants and competent adver- tisers are making extensive use of illuminated signs to draw attention to their wares or locations so that it is but fitting that a well equipped sheet metal shop should be prepared to furnish such signs as they are likely to be called upon to make. It may be well to mention that the laws of States and municipalities vary as to the conditions under which electric street signs may be hung and used. It is therefore wise to inquire of the local electric company regarding regulations and also concerning the laws and ordinances governing the character of sign that it is desired to erect, so as to avoid later difficulty, as it is unwise and costly to attempt the construction and erection of a sign that will meet some legal obstacle. BLOCK LETTER SIGNS Solution 127 While there are a number of types of illuminated signs of sheet metal we will take up the block letter sign as prominently typical of this class of work, proceeding with the word "HATS" as an example. The question of the suitable hight of the letters, a matter usually determined by the merchant, is gov- erned by the distance to which it is desired to make the sign effective. If it is required that the sign ma)' be read from a distance of 250 to 300 feet only, a letter 12 inches high is large enough. If it is to be read at a distance of 350 to 500 feet, it will be advisable to employ a letter at least 15 inches and preferably, 18 inches high. This letter will give the best results, and does not cost very much more. Therefore let us proceed on the basis of the 18 inch letter. The next step is to determine the size of background which is a simple matter. Letters 18 inches high will require a background at least 24 inches high, and as electrical letters should never be crowded closely together we may allow the same Fig, 403. — Frame and Background for Illuminated Sign distance for width, that is, 24 inches for each letter. This will allow for the space on either end of the sign, giving a background 8 feet long. The first step in the construction is the building of a frame, of \]/ 2 x iy 2 x % inch angle iron, 2 by 8 feet, as shown in Fig. 403. The ends are joined se- curely at a. After punching % i ncn holes for stove bolts about 4 inches apart on the face of the angle iron frame, a piece of 20 gauge galvanized iron is bolted on the inside of the frame, placed inside to 241 242 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER better protect it from damage. Upon this a draft of the letters is to be made. In this connection it is suggested that the reader refer to the chapter on Drawing and Lettering, where this branch of the subject is considered. In constructing the letters, first cut strips of No. 20 gauge galvanized iron 1 J4 inches wide and, after Fig. 404. — Strips for Forming Outlines of Letter notching them 34 inch deep, as shown in Fig. 404, bend them in the folder along the dotted lines. This is to allow the strips being bent into the shape of the letters, preparatory to being soldered to the background. Solder on first the strips, making the outside line of the letters and afterward filling in the Fig. 405. — Outlines Completed inside strip. This work when finished, will appear as shown in Fig. 405. On completing the bottom part of the letters (that part coming against the background), next drill two holes }i inch in diameter through the back- ground at a point near the bottom on the inside of each letter. These are for the wires to pass through when the sign is finished. The faces of the letters are next cut from metal of the same gauge iron as the strips, when we are ready for drilling the holes for the lamp receptacles. These can be punched, or drilled with an ex- pansion bit in an ordinary brace. The holes must be the size of the receptacle used. There are sev- eral good receptacles on the market which are espe- cially designed for electric signs. Different makes, however, differ slightly in size, so it will be impos- sible to state the exact size of hole to be drilled. It is approximately 1% inches in diameter. There should be at least four receptacles in each perpendicular bar of the letter, and not more than five. The number of receptacles in the other bars must be determined by the shape of the letter. A good example is shown in Fig. 406. Before placing the receptacles in the holes it will be necessary to cut additional i*4 mcn strips as be- fore, and solder them around the edge of the face of the letter on its under side, being careful that sufficient allowance is made for the top to slip over the outline strips of the letters already soldered to the background, just as a cover slips over the top of a can. When this is done we are ready for the electrical part of the work, which is very simple when one understands it. The receptacles are screwed into the holes in the face of the letter, from the back, when No. 14 B & S gauge double braided, rubber covered wire inch each. The method of constructing hangers in such a manner as to combine rigidity and permanence is shown in Fig. 422, where the various letters A, C, E and I correspond to similar letters in the vertical section through the center in Fig. 421. Care must be taken to prevent rust from weakening the hanger, or where it is attached. On a 5 ft. sign, two hangers, as shown in Fig. 422, should be used, one placed about 10 inches from each end. The hangers are made of y& in. by 1 in. galvanized band iron, which should be bent and fastened with bolts as shown. A % in. galvanized pipe will safely support the sign, and can be securely attached to a wooden part of the building with a floor flange, the street end being supported by gal- vanized iron chains as shown in Fig. 420. PART XIII CONSTRUCTION OF HOLLOW METAL WINDOW SASHES, FIRE DOORS AND SHUTTERS FRAMES, HOLLOW metallic windows may be divided into six general types, namely : The Sliding, the Pivoted, the Casement, the Top Hinged, the Stationary, and the Tilting Window. Sliding Windows are those having two sashes ordinarily designed to slide up and down. The motion of these sashes may be independent each of the other and be controlled by weights, in which case the type is designated the double hung window; or one sash may counter balance the other, in which case the window is called counterbalanced. Pivoted windows are those having one or more sashes mounted on pivots, allowing each movable sash to be turned on an axis. A Casement window is one having its sashes at- tached to the frame by hinges at a vertical edge, op- erated after the manner of a door. Top hinged win- dows are those which have the sash attached to the frame by hinges at the upper horizontal edge. A Stationary window is one having the sash in a fixed position. A Tilting window is one in which the sashes are attached to the frame and each to the other in such a manner that a sliding and tilting movement of the sashes is effected. A Twin window is one whose sashes are mounted alongside, instead of vertically. Some windows embody combinations of the fore- going types. For example, a window having a Pivoted upper sash and Stationary lower sasli is called a Pivoted upper, fixed lower sash, window. A window having two sashes, each of which is pivoted, is called a Double pivoted window. A window hav- ing a top hinged upper sash and a double hung lower sash is usually designated a Double hung window with top hinged transom. Frames and Frame Member Hollow metallic windows of any type consist of a frame and one or more sashes. Frames formed with offsets or shoulders to receive the masonry as at a in Fig. 423 are called rabbeted frames. Frames not provided with rabbets are generally formed with metal wings or flanges, which are designed to be built into the masonry, as shown in Fig. 424. These are called walling-in flanges. When the frame is installed in an old wall, the flange of the frame is spiked to the brick work, as shown in Fig. 425. The frames of all windows having a single sash and the frames of sliding sash windows having two Fig. 423. — Jamb with Rabbets or Offsets to Receive Masonry sashes are composed of two horizontal members called the head and sill and two vertical members called the jambs. The head is that portion of the frame which forms the top, the lower surface of the head being called the soffit and the upper surface the top of the members. The sill is that portion of the frame which forms the bottom. The upper surface is called the tread and the lower surface the base. The jambs form the sides of the frame, the part in contact with the 249 250 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER HOLLOW METAL WINDOW FRAMES, SASHES AND FIRE DOORS 251 masonry being called the back of the jamb and the part in contact with the sash the front of the jamb. Projections on the front of the jambs, designed to limit the movement of a movable sash, are called stops. Sliding sash windows are frequently Walling-ln flange Fig. 424. — Frame with Walling-in Flange equipped with stops which may be separated from the jamb ; these separable strips are commonly re- ferred to as sash guide strips, the strip dividing the two sashes being frequently designated sash parting bead. The frame of a pivoted window having two sashes is composed of the same members as the frame of Fig. 425.— Frame Installed in Old Wall Opening a sliding sash window and an additional horizontal member, which is called the transom bar. The frame of a twin window is composed of a head, sill, two jambs and a vertical division member which separates the sashes. That part of the wall structure between two win- dows is called the mullion. The mullion may be an integral part of the wall structure or it may be built in with the window. Sashes and Sash Members The sash is that part of the window construction which holds the glass. It may be permanently at- tached to the frame, in which case it is called a fixed or stationary sash; or it may be so constructed that its position can be changed, in which case it is called a movable sash. A sash is composed of horizontal and vertical sash members. The horizontal members at the top and bottom of the sash are called rails. In sliding sash windows the rails which join at the middle of the window when the sashes are closed, are called the meeting rails. The vertical members at the sides of the sash are called stiles. In casement windows the stiles to which the win- dows are attached are designated hinge stiles and the stiles to which the locking mechanism is at- tached are called lock stiles. When casement win- dows are made in two parts, meeting at the middle, the stiles in contact are called meeting stiles. The intermediate members separating the panes of glass are called muntins. If the muntin is in- stalled in a vertical position, it is called a vertical muntin, if in a horizontal position, a horizontal muntin. Muntins which are so designed that one part may be removed for glazing are called separ- able type muntins; muntins which cannot be taken apart for glazing purposes are designated non-sep- arable type muntins. In architecture, the word "muntin" is employed to designate the vertical sash members separating the lights from one another, while the horizontal members are called bars. The commonly accepted shop term is "vertical and hori- zontal muntin." CONSTRUCTIVE FEATURES OF REGULATION TYPE OF DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW As Approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters Solution 131 In Fig. 426 is shown the elevation of a single 252 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN I UTTER window, also the elevation of mullion windows, in- cluding a section. Detailed working sections are given through A, B, C, D, E and F. Attention is particularly called to the explanatory notes given with the detailed sections in the illustration. These details have been reduced from full size sections and may be relied upon for substantial construction. They have been used extensively in practice and have been approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. Hints on Glazing All glass must be at least % mcn thick at the thinnest area. The wire mesh in the glass must be not larger than J4 in., and the wire used for such mesh must be not less than No. 24 B. & S. gauge. The plane of the wire mesh shall be prac- tically midway between the two surfaces of the glass. The actual bearing of glass in grooves shall be at least JHi in. at all points. Since the maximum depth of the grooves is J4 in., a space of yfc in. is allowed between the bottom of the groove and the edge of the glass. Careful glazing is necessary to prevent an edge of glass resting on the bottom of the groove, thus decreasing the bearing- surface on Good Bad Joint not well filled with Putty Glass not centered in Groove Glass resting on bottom of K -Crooue Fig. 427. — Proper and Improper Glazing the opposite side, shown in Fig. 427. This figure also shows the correct and incorrect methods of glazing. In glazing it is required that the glass be set in putty and that all spaces between glass and metal forming the sides and bottom of grooves be well filled with the same material. The surface of putty should be flush with the top of the groove and \£7 Good Fig. 428.- -Another Example of Proper and Improper Glazing should be finished smooth. Fig. 428 shows the cor- rect and incorrect methods of glazing in connection with the stiles and muntins. COMBINATION PIVOT HUNG AND STATIONARY FIRE PROOF WINDOWS As Approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters Solution 131a In Fig. 429 is shown the constructional features of a combination pivot hung and stationary window. An elevation of a single window, as also of mullion windows, is shown, together with a section. De- tailed sections showing construction are given through A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and I, to which are appended explanatory notes : these should be read carefully. In sections C, D, E. and I the method of fastening the hardware is clearly shown. Section C shows where the fusible link is attached to the bottom lock. Note the construction of the mullion in section G, to the 5 in. I beam. VARIOUS TYPES OF AUTOMATIC CLOSING, TIN CLAD FIRE DOORS, SHUTTERS, ETC. Solution 132 To one not familiar with the various types of tin clad automatic closing fire doors and shutters some HOLLOW METAL WINDOW FRAMES, SASHES AND FIRE DOORS 253 ^ 1 . ; . ebi-fsLQ'mqzfDJCiz. ^S'egment-H'ead^^ NOTES IWutlions are required for Openings ouer 5-0"ln width. Transoms Bars are requir- ed for Openings ouer 9~0 in height, of similar con- struction as Mullione. The design of Bar will vary ding to style of Tran- som Sash used. Bach Glass Light must not be ouer 720 n Inches. SECTION G THROUGH MULLION Fig. 429. — Combination Pivot-Hung and Stationary Fire-Proof Window 254 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER p u z < w u "J 'C 3 < > I d HOLLOW METAL WINDOW FRAMES, SASHES AND FIRE D ow _^ ^55 difficulty may be involved in becoming conversant with the various constructions, unless information, such as is indicated in Fig. 430, is available. In this illustration ten types of doors and shutters are shown. Types I, 2, 3, 6, 7, and S are balanced by weights to facilitate and adjust opening and closing. They are also attached to fusible links, so that if the door be open in case of fire, the link will fuse or melt when the weight of the door will close it auto- matically. Types 4 and 5 show single and pair swinging doors. Type 9 shows double fire shutters, and type 10, a double fire door used to cover belt holes in walls, etc. The method of covering the doors or shutters with tin plate, the construction of the lock, and like information can be obtained from the Board of Fire Underwriters in any city. The Boards have as a rule special booklets con- taining just such information. In this connection it may be helpful to call attention to the methods of laying out the pattern for metal corners with the miter fold, the pattern for the right hand sheets, for the center sheets, for the left hand sheets and for the finishing course at the top. All of these methods can be used for a fire door or shutter of any size. PREPARING THE PATTERN SHAPE FOR CORNER MITER FOLD AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTING LOCK AND FOLD Solution 133 Perspective views of the corner miter fold are shown by A and B in Fig. 431. The method of lay- ing out this pattern is illustrated in the diagram of Fig. 432. In covering any door or shutter the four four corners and scribe a 5g in. edge around the entire sheet. Through the center of the 20 in. length draw the line A-B. The thicknesses of the door to be covered being known lay off this thickness on the All Edges Cut Off at -\ 45°Anqle \ 1 \ / K° A N ■^/ All Edges. 4b°/ 5 4' Wide > ■ / ~* u" ( sC 1 G / F / Thickness \ \ of Door ; ' D \ \ f \ \45° \ J" \v / y \ / B —? Fig. 431.— Method of Putting on Sheet Metal Corner with Miter-Fold corners are first laid on with a full 14 x 20 in. sheet, without any cutting, making a miter fold instead of a mitered seam, prepared as shown in Fig. 432. Ascertain that the sheet is perfectly square on all Fig. 432.— Pattern of Corner Miter Fold for Tin Clad Fire Doors and Shutters sheet, directly in the center of the sheet, as shown by C-D and E-F, crossing the center line A-B at G and H, from which points draw lines at angles of 45 de- grees, intersecting the scribed edge lines at K and J, respectively. Take the distances from A to K and from B to J and set them off from A to K° and from B to J° ; cut away the % in. edge between K and K°, also between J and J°, as shown. All edges on the entire sheet are notched off at 45 degree angles, as indicated. When a pattern is laid out as just described, it may be saved for future use, a change being made for the thickness of the door as required. The edges on the sheet are now bent all one way, Fig. 433- — The Corner Miter Fold, Edged and Creased, Ready for Bending as shown in Fig. 433. To facilitate the bending of the miter lock when these corners are made by hand, creases should be made along the top as shown, from a to b and from c to d ; while creases along th« bottom of the sheets should be made from e to /, 256 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER from i to j and from g to h. These creases can be made quickly by hand, by means of the rounded point of a three-cornered file, laying the sheet on a number of folded papers, thus providing a soft layer into which the crease is impressed. The file point should be rounded, not sharp, to avoid cutting the metal. After the creases have been made, two right angular bends are provided along the lines C-F and E-D ; then the creases a-b and f-c, also d-c and g-h, are turned right and left on the hatchet stake, the sheet being thus brought into the position, shown in Fig. 434. — Bending the Corner Miter Fold Fig. 434. When this sheet is slipped over the corner of the door it will appear as shown in diagram A in Fig. 431 ; after the miter fold is closed with the mallet it will have the appearance shown in diagram B in that illustration. The remainder of the sheets along the edges of the door are made of tin in 20 A A % II II II L-.M SECTION OF LOCK ON A-B J) Y B Fig. 435. — Bending and Edging the Stiles Fig. 436.— Method of Covering Around Edges of Door in. lengths, formed and edged as indicated in Fig. 435, all edges being locked into one another, as shown in Fig. 436. No nails are used in fastening the locks of the stiles. LAYING OUT PATTERNS FOR RIGHT HAND STARTING AND CENTER SHEETS AND THE METHOD OF APPLYING Solution 134 The pattern for the right hand starting sheet may be laid out as shown in Fig. 437. This pattern is used also for all center sheets. Care must be taken to have all locks made y% in. wide, for nailing under the seams ; all nails are placed in the center of the joints, in the manner to be described. The formation - Top of Sheets SECT/OH THROUGH HORIZONTAL EDGES A V /a m AH Edges Around Entire Sheet Must be B / s In. Wide /s Locks -7— Jv t 1 fJU Fig. 437-- -Pattern for Right-Hand Starting and Center Sheets of the locks through the horizontal edges is shown at the top of Fig. 437, while the formation of the vertical edges is shown at the right in the diagram. With the formation of the edges known, lay out the pattern for the right hand starters and center sheets for all courses as follows : On the one 20 in. side and the two 14 in. sides of the sheet scribe lines with the dividers y% in. apart, as shown. On the opposite side of the 20 in. sheet, scribe three widths of y$ in. each and notch the corners care- fully, as shown. To allow for the thickness of the metal, and to have the seams lie smooth, notch out the corners at A and A, according to the dimensions shown in the diagram. The required number of sheets are now cut from this pattern and the edges bent, as indicated in the sectional views at the top and to the right of the diagram. In forming the double lock at D, it is first bent on the line a-a in the pat- tern, thus giving it the appearance of diagram A in Fig. 438. Along the line 1-1 in A, which corresponds to 1-1 in the pattern in Fig. 437, a right angular bend is made, thus giving the formation shown in dia- gram B in Fig. 438. The operations just described are those required in edging the sheets by hand ; HOLLOW METAL WINDOW FRAMES, SASHES AND FIRE DOORS 257 Fig. 438. — Bending Double Edge on Right Hand Side of Sheet Fig. 439. — Finished Edged Sheet where large quantities are required, special dies are used. These save time and labor. The opposite three locks shown in Fig. 437 are bent as called for in the two sectional views, this completing the sheets, one of which is shown in Fig. 439- The method of applying the right hand starter is shown in Fig. 440 where a-b-c-d represents such starter. The sheet is first hooked along the edge d-c of the metal stile in the manner indicated to the right by diagram A, nailing through the three thick- nesses of metal as shown by a. The sheet is then turned down, as indicated by the dotted line B. APPLYING THE SHEET ALONG d-c Fig. 440.— Method of Applying the Right Hand Starting Sheet After the sheet has been so turned down the double lock a in Fig. 439 is sprung outward with the fingers, as shown in the diagram D in Fig. 440 ; the lower edge is sprung into the lock of the stile at i, as shown ; then the lock at is drawn tightly together and nailed through the four thicknesses of metal, as shown in diagram A in Fig. 441, and the standing lock e is turned down as shown in diagram B. The operations described must be carried out in applying the middle sheets, until the finishing sheet at the left side of the course is reached. This re- quires a different pattern, which will be described in the next solution. 258 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER LUJJJ. ' ' ' / i •'iLUL Fig. 441. — Final Operations in Closing the Lock PATTERN FOR LEFT HAND FIN- ISHING SHEET AND THE METHOD OF APPLYING Solution 135 Fig. 442 shows how the pattern for the left hand finishing sheet is laid out. The entire length of a 20 in. sheet is used, its width being determined by the requirements, that is, the distance between the stile and the next middle sheet. Note that double locks are placed on the two long sides of the sheet, as shown in the pattern, while two single edges are placed on the narrow ends, also shown. The method of turning these edges is like that previously de- s~ Top of Sheet -^ SECTION THROUGH HORIZONTAL EDGES as Required All Lock % In. Wide °r |L Fig. 442.— Pattern of Left-hand Finishing Sheet scribed; the formation of the locks is indicated in the two sectional views. When springing in the double locks a and b, shown in the section through the vertical edges, they are drawn outward with the fingers, as already explained, and as illustrated in Figs. 439, 440 and 441. When the second course is started, in fact all courses, invariably break joints as in tin roofing, taking care that the sheets lie close against the door, in order to avoid the occurrence of air spaces. When the top or last course is reached, new patterns must be developed for the top course right hand starting sheet, the top course center sheet and the top course left hand finishing sheet. LAYING OUT PATTERN FOR RIGHT HAND STARTING AND CENTER SHEETS FOR TOP OR FINISHING COURSE, AND METHOD OF APPLYING Solution 136 Fig. 443 illustrates the method of developing the pattern for the right hand starting and center sheets for the top course. Note that a double lock is pro- vided for along a-b and b-c, all corners being notched „-Top of Sheet -^ [1 SECTION THROUGH HORIZONTAL EDGES ^ Same as T As High as Required All Edges % In. # \AV N ^ ** ^ <--> IL All Angles 45° Fig. 443. — Pattern of Right-hand Starting and Center Sheets for Top Course out at angles of 45 degrees, as shown, so that they will miter when flattened. Notches of the dimen- sions noted are also made at the corner T, in this way the thicknesses of the metal are provided for. The forming of the locks of the vertical and hori- zontal edges or joints is done as previously de- scribed. In laying these upper course starters, the double locks must be sprung into the edges on the stiles, both at the side and top. The same pattern is used for the center sheets, springing the double lock into the edge of the sheet to the right and into the edge of the stile along the top. HOLLOW METAL WINDOW FRAMES, SASHES AND FIRE DOORS 259 PATTERN FOR LEFT HAND FIN- ISHING SHEET AT TOP COURSE AND METHOD OF APPLYING Solution 137 Fig. 444 shows how the pattern for the upper left hand finishing sheet is laid out. In this case the sheet is notched, as indicated. The lower edge is bent at right angles downward, while the three re- maining sides have double locks, as shown in each s~- Top ofSheet^ n \SECTION THROUGH HORIZONTAL EDGES '8 Ml' All Locks or Edges 5 /a In. Wide As High and — as Wide — as Required i 5/' " 1 7 X All Angles 45° CD Co * p a: "J r 45° > Angles IL Fig. 444. — Pattern of Left-hand Finishing Sheet for Top Course of the two sections, through horizontal and vertical edges. As stated in the preceding problem, these double locks must be sprung into the edge or lock of the center sheet at the right and into the lock at the stile both at the left side and at the top. This completes the full set of patterns for any size of fire door or shutter. Once developed, these patterns may be saved for future use, the thickness C-D of Fig. 432, being merely changed to conform to the thickness of the door under construction, or what is termed the wood core. COVERING SEGEMENTAL HEADS .IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF TIN- CLAD SHUTTERS Solution 138 Fig. 445 gives a general view of a tin clad shutter. The operations of covering such shutters do not differ from those applied to fire doors. If shutters are made in pairs, the edges coming together should be slightly beveled, not rabbetted. This method per- mits the shutter to be readily opened and closed and aids in making a close fit. If the shutters have seg- mental heads, as shown by a and b in the illustration, the heads should be covered, as indicated in the three views A, B and C in Fig. 446. In the first operation at A, the main sheets on both sides of the shutter are flanged out a half inch, as shown by a and a ; then they are nailed as shown by b and b. A cap covering 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 — Fig. 445. — Tin-clad Fire Shutters with Segmental Heads with a y% in. lock is now slipped over a-a, as shown in diagram B. The locked edges are then turned down with the mallet, as shown in diagram C. It '2 Flange Edges Turned Down Fig. 446. — Covering Segmental Heads will be understood that locks facing the weather must be laid so that rain will flow over the seam, not into it. 26o THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER FIREPROOFING WOODEN WIN- DOWS IN OLD BUILDINGS Suggested Methods Requiring Moderate Equipment Solution 139 Where it is necessary to fireproof windows, as is often called for by state and municipal ordinances designed for protection against fire, it is not always expedient for the owner of a building to rip out the entire frame and sash and replace it with a modern hollow metal frame and sash. To do so would un- doubtedly insure the best manner of fireproofing the window openings but the cost and the attendant in- convenience to tenants often prohibit such a sub- stitution. If some method could be evolved whereby these windows could be rapidly and economically fire- proofed a way out of the difficulty would be found. Some have tried to cover the old frames, that is, the fe ■ -A_ J i_ r r~ x — [ TZ ^^^^S- 1 i_ r Fig. 447- — General View of Typical Factory Window jambs, head and sill of the window, with light gal- vanized sheet iron such as in kalamein work. They have also tried to cover the sash in the same man- ner, replacing the usual thin window glass with heavy wired glass. This was a decidedly difficult procedure because of the poor condition of the woodwork and most of the work had to be done at the window, which involved unsatisfactory condi- tions for the tenant. The following is a plan adopted by many. While there are probably variations in the different jobs, this outline of the procedure will perhaps be of ser- vice. In Fig. 447 is given a general interior view of a typical factory window. In a majority of cases there is no interior trim or embellishment, but if there be such, it is not difficult to either leave it intact or cover it with sheet metal. In general the procedure is to make a sleeve casing to cover the eld wood sill, the two jambs and head ?.nd then to hang new sashes of hollow metal. A horizontal section of the right hand jamb (fac- ing the window while standing inside) is given in Fig. 448. — Section on Line A of Fig. 447 Fig. 448 with the stile of the lower sash. This is a section viewed on line A of Fig. 447. In Fig. 449 is given a horizontal section of the left hand jamb on line B of Fig. 447, and stile of upper sash. In Fig. 450 is a vertical section of the head and top rail of upper sash on line D of Fig. 447. Fig. 451 is a ver- tical section of the sill and bottom rail of lower sash on line C of Fig. 447. Fig. 452 is a vertical section of the meeting rails of the sashes on line E of Fig. 447. The horizontal section of the muntins on line F is given in Fig. 453. The pattern cutting requires more of a practical knowledge of construction than ability in scientific developing of surfaces of solids, because all patterns are simple, but the joints and miters must be de- signed to have positive strength, and the profiles alid the like designed with the equipment of the shop in mind. The profiles or shapes of the various HOLLOW METAL WINDOW FRAMES, SASHES AND FIRE DOORS 261 parts shown in the accompanying diagrams are de- signed with the limitations of the ordinary hand brake in mind, and cause no greater difficulties in bending than might be expected for such work. Of Fig. 449. — Section of Jamb on Line B, Fig. 447 course, with a modern power drop brake the bend- ing operations would be greatly simplified. From the diagrams it will be seen that the right hand jamb of sheet metal has the parting head and the inside stop parts integral to the general part of the jamb, those on the left hand jamb being re- movable. One who has observed a carpenter re- move and rehang sash has noticed that he only re- moves the stops on one side, usually on the left hand jamb. It is suggested to do the same with the sheet metal window, especially when it is desirable to conserve working time, material and the like. Fig. 450. — Vertical Section of Head on Line D of Fig. 447 Wood Sub Si 1 1 or Stool-'' Fig. 451. — Vertical Section of Sill on Line C, Fig. 447 The diagrams show that all the sash rails or stiles are in three parts. This is necessary if only a hand brake is available to form these parts. However, if a drop press is available, the rivet joint in the glass pockets can be done away with. The pockets of the top rails of both the lower and upper sashes are very deep. The idea is to allow for pushing the glass up far enough to pass over say point B, Fig. 45i, of the sash and then dropping it into that pocket. A piece of wood is placed on the bottom rail of the lower sash, as shown at A so that the hand sash lifts may be fastened on with ordinary wood screws. Likewise wood is placed in the top meeting rails for the catch lock, as may be seen in Fig 452. Note the band iron knee A, riveted to the bottom rail of the upper sash. The upper sash usually is fixed rigidly in place so that it is always closed. This method of supporting and securing the upper sash in place is adopted by many. The wood screw B driven through the jamb — there being a knee at each jamb — is the medium of support for the knee. There are devices almost without number patented, or on which patents have been applied for, that allow the upper sash to slide, and a fusible link attached to a chain or cable which in turn is 262 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER fastened to weights either in the sash itself or weight box of the frame parts in case of fire, and the upper sash immediately slides closed. That, however, is a matter for the individual shop or de- signer. So long as it is permissible to keep the upper sash fixed closed it seems that the knee method should be the most acceptable, as the more complicated the closing mechanism is the less will be opportunity for mishap and danger of the window not operating at a crucial moment. It is primarily essential that the lower sash be self-closing. The method usually employed is to fasten a chain by a heavy wire hook to the slide or filler piece B, Fig. 448, say 6 in. from the top rail. This hook is inserted in a hole punched into the band iron strip A, which, of course, is riveted to the slide piece. The chain passes over the new pulley shown in Fig. 450 and is fastened to the weight in the jamb box. This is done on one side only. The chain on the other side of the sash, instead of being fastened to the side of the sash, is extended down to the bottom of the sash and fastened to a fusible link secured to the wire hook on the band iron about midway on the slide piece of the bottom rail of the lower sash. The fusible link is placed here so that should the win- dow be open it is more accessible to the play of the flames than if it were placed, as many do, at the top rail of the lower sash and when but one weight is released the sash will not drop with force as it would if both weights were released. In Fig. 453 is shown the muntin or center vertical bar of the sash. Part A is riveted and soldered to the sash while part B is removable, the screw plate and muntin pin joining the two after the glass and putty is set in. Fig. 454 shows how a sheet metal case placed be- tween the muntin pins acts as a truss member and stiffens or reinforces the muntin. These muntins are somewhat wide and heavy. Should the sash be narrow they would appear clumsy. They should then be made as shown in Fig. 455. The method of fireproofing windows as here de- scribed comprehends making the sheet metal frame complete in the shop, riveting and soldering all joints or miters as strongly as possible, but leaving off the outside sheet metal casings. Also, the sash are made complete and glazed in the shop when all are shipped to the job. At the job the wood sashes are removed, then all the stops on the jambs, head and sill, also the old pulleys. The sheet metal frame is then forced into the window opening and nailed here and there. Outside casings are then put in position, the Pitts- burgh seam clinched over them and the new pulley screwed in place. It is to be understood that an opening for the pully has been previously cut in the sheet metal jamb, the old hole in the wood jamb doing service as before. And, again, open- ings are cut as at A', Fig. 447, for weight pockets. It is best to have the pockets here rather than in the old position or runway, in the jambs, for the lower sash. These pockets are covered with sheet metal suitably formed and held in place by two wood screws. If required, and as shown in the diagrams, the wood subsill and lintel are covered with sheet metal. The upper sash is now put in position, shored up ,] g- 45 Fig- 455 Fig. 454 Rails of Sashes on Fig. 452. — Vertical Section of Meeting Line E of Fig. 447 Fig. 453. — Horizontal Section of Muntins on Line F of Fig. 447 Fig. 454. — Core to Reinforce Muntin Fig. 455. — Attenuated Muntins for Narrow Sash tight to the head of the frame, and while held there the wood screws B, Fig. 452, are driven in. Then cover piece D, is put on and held by one or two wood screws as shown, and a tack of solder applied here and there on the pocket joints. The parting bead or stop of the left hand jamb in Fig. 449 is inserted in the pocket of the jamb and securely nailed. Note the wood reinforcing core in the stops to stiffen them and to give a body for driving the nails. The chains are hooked to the lower sash, passed over the pulley and hooked to the weights — or vice versa. The inside stop is now nailed on and the job completed by attaching the hardware. It very often occurs that the weight of the new lower sash equals the combined weight of the old upper and lower sashes, so that the four old weights will serve for the new sash. If not, they may be dis- posed of and new ones installed. PART XIV DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE TYPES OF SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS VARIOUS IN taking up the developments applied to the con- struction of metallic skylights, it may be well to offer suggestions to the reader as follows : All skylights should be constructed with the aim that they shall be watertight. For sash bars, curbs and ventilators, galvanized iron or sheet copper is required, the glazing to be of either hammered, ribbed or wire glass. Provision should be made for the escape of condensation, and consideration must be given to necessary allowances for expansion and contraction of the metal under the influence of changing temperature, to prevent breakage of glass. The curb or frame should be placed not less than five inches above the finished roof line. Flat sky- lights should have a pitch of at least three inches to the foot. Double pitch and hipped skylights should have a pitch of at least six inches to the foot or should be given the regulation pitch of eight inches to twelve inches, known as one-third pitch. In glazing skylights make with putty a bed on re- bate of the bar, to give the glass a level or even bearing, thus providing security against breakage. Allow a space of at least one-eighth inch on each side of the glass for expansion and contraction. The joints between the glass and metal bars should be covered with metallic caps and secured to the bar by- copper clips or brass bolts, as was explained in the chapter on Terms and Definitions and as is consid- ered further in the ensuing treatment. In spacing the skylight bars in a large skylight care should be taken that the glass panes are not over eighteen or twenty inches wide and that each pane does not exceed 720 square inches in area, re- gardless of the size of the skylight. This is one of the regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters for the construction and installation of skylights, and we suggest that it will be to the advantage of the sheet metal worker to procure a copy of these regulations, obtainable on application to the National Board. 263 PATTERNS FOR A FLAT SKYLIGHT WHEN ROOF CURB HAS THE REQUIRED PITCH Solution 140 Fig. 456 shows a view of a flat skylight, set on a curb already in the roof at the required pitch. Note in the lower curb under the center of each pane of glass, that small condensation or weep holes are TOP :: uu^<^/^ -View of a Flat Skylight Set on a Pitched Curb in Roof punched, to allow the drip to flow to the outside. The method of laying out the patterns for flat sky- lights of this nature is shown in detail in Fig. 457, where the skylight has been laid out in a horizontal position to facilitate development. In laying out the patterns it is necessary to make a drawing about only twelve inches long, simply to obtain the vari- ous miter cuts. The full size patterns of the re- quired lengths can then be laid out directly on the sheet metal, employing the short miter cuts men- tioned. First, draw a sectional side view, as shown, mak- ing the formation of the top and two side curbs alike to the profile marked A. In line with this pro- file and at a distance of about twelve inches, draw the profile of the lower curb B. Note its formation and that the arrow indicates the position of the 264 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER PATTERN FOR BAR Fig. 457. — Patterns for Flat Skylight to be Set on a Pitched Curb PATTERN FOR FRONT OF CURB SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 265 weep holes and the hem edge, 2-3, represents the thickness of glass. In line with the curbs A and B draw the profile of the bar marked C. This small sec- tional view serves the requirements for laying out all patterns, including skylights of the largest size. A sectional front view is shown which, however, is not essential in the development of the pattern but is presented only to make each step clear to the reader. It will be understood that where the runs of the rafters or bars are very long, the bars and curbs must be re-enforced to give strength and rigidity against snow and wind pressure. The con- struction of re-enforced bars will be considered in the progress of our treatment. To obtain the pattern for the common bar C, num- ber the one-half profile, shown from 1 to 6, and through this draw lines intersecting the curbs A and B, as shown. Take twice the girth shown from 6 to 1 in the profile C and place it on the vertical line D E, as shown by corresponding numbers 6 to 1 to 6. Through these small figures and at right angles to D E draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to D E from the points where the bar C in- tersects the curbs A and B. By following the dotted lines in the pattern the points of intersection can readily be found. Trace a line through points thus obtained. F G H J K L will be the desired pattern. As the profile of the curb marked A is the profile for the top, as well as for the sides of the curbs, the pattern for the sides can be laid out as follows : Number the various corners in the profile A, shown from 1 to 10, and place this girth on the vertical line M N, as shown by like numbers. Through these small figures and at right angles to M N draw the usual measuring lines ; intersect them by lines drawn parallel to M N from similarly numbered intersec- tions in the profile A at the left and from the inter- sections in the profile B at the right, where lines drawn from 1 to 10 in A intersect the profile B ; all as shown by the dotted lines in the pattern. Trace a line through these points. O P R S T will be the pattern for the side curbs, T S being the miter cut at the top and R O the miter cut at the bottom. If the girth lines drawn through M N are extended to the right and lines are projected vertically from the profiles A 1 and A 2 in the front view, the pattern thus obtained, as shown by S 1 T 1 , and S 2 T 2 , will be alike to the miter cut, S T, already obtained in the side pattern. Therefore the miter cut S T can be used for the top as well as for the side curbs. The pattern for the front of the curb is obtained by numbering the corners in the profile B as shown by the small figures, 1 to 9, and placing this girth on the vertical line U V below the front view, as shown by the small figures, 1 to 9. Through these small figures and at right angles to U V, draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to U V from similar points in the profiles, A 1 and A 2 . A line traced through points thus obtained, as indi- cated by W X Y Z, will be the right and left miter cut for the lower curb. As previously stated, the sectional front view is not essential in the develop- ment of the front or back curb patterns, since the profiles A 1 and A 2 are similar to A in the side view, and the miter cut S T in the side pattern can be used instead of S 1 T 1 or S 2 T 2 in the back pattern. The pattern for the front of the curb may be ob- tained without the front view as follows : In the sectional side view, draw any line, as n 0, at right angles to the lines of the skylight ; then, after the stretchout lines have been drawn in the front curb pattern, draw any line, as n' 0', parallel to U V. Measuring from the line n o in the side view take the various projections to the proper points where the lines drawn from the profile B in- tersect the profile A and place them to the left of n' 0', thus obtaining the miter cut Y Z, which is sim- ilar to the cut X W. LAYING OUT FULL SIZE PAT- TERNS ON THE METAL The arrow points marked on all patterns indicate the points from which measurements should be taken in laying out the full size patterns on the metal. Assuming that the flat skylight is to be 7 ft. 9 in. wide by 6 ft. run of bar, as shown in Fig. 456, and that the skylight is to have seven lights of glass, the various patterns are laid out as follows : Using the pattern for the sides in Fig. 457, mark off upon the sheet the miter cut S T ; then measure 6 ft. from the arrow point T to O, move the pattern over to point O, and scribe the cut O P R. Allow laps on the side pattern, as shown. Care must be taken that T O always remain on a horizontal line. In like manner lay off the pattern for the front of the curb, measuring from the arrow points below Y and X a distance of 7 ft. 9 in. taking care to place the weep holes above line 5, as shown, in the center of each light of glass. The same measurement of 7 ft. 9 in. is laid off for the pattern of the back curb, measuring from T 1 to T 2 . The length of the six common bars is obtained as follows : Proceeding with the curb measurement as 7 ft. 9 in. and assuming that the shoulders 3-4 in A in 266 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER side view and 5-7 in B each measure one inch or a total of two inches, we have 7 ft. 9 in. less 2 in which equals 7 ft. 7 in. Assuming that the distance 4-3 in profile B is 1*4 in., then 7 ft. 7 in. plus i l 4 in. equals 7 ft. 8J4 in., the length of the bars from the arrow points K to G in the bar patterns. Allow laps where indicated by the dotted lines. As the condensation gutter of the bar C in the side view miters with the condensation gutter of the upper curb A, it will be necessary to obtain the miter pattern in the gutter of the curb A as follows: In the pattern for the back of the curb draw any vertical line, as i'-4', as shown. Measuring from the line 1-4 in the profile C in the side view take the horizontal projections to points 6 and 5 and place these distances on either side of the line i'-4' in the back curb pattern on similarly numbered lines, as shown, thus obtaining the miter cut A c , as indicated. To this miter cut laps are allowed ; they miter with the cuts L and J in the pattern for bar. The distance that the cut A° should be spaced in the pattern for the back is computed as follows : The width of the top is 7 ft. 9 in. less 2 in. for the shoulders r and r in front view, leaving 7 ft. 7 in. or 91 in. As the skylight is to have 7 lights, as shown in Fig. 456, 91 in. divided by / gives 13 in., the space between the bars a a, etc. This represents the distance sought from the corner t to the center i'-4' in the pattern for back in Fig. 457. The rule applies to a skylight of any size and to curbs of any shape. CONSTRUCTING LARGE SINGLE PITCH SKYLIGHT AND THE METHOD OF FRAMING AND RE-ENFORCING THE BARS Solution 141 For the development of large flat skylights the method of obtaining the various patterns is alike in principle to that considered in the preceding prob- lem. In this case we will assume that a single pitch skylight, whose size is 20 ft. x 20 ft., as is indicated in Fig. 458, is to be constructed. We will indicate methods by which the bars may be reinforced and a watertight joint obtained between the panes of glass. The dotted lines in the elevation, as indicated by a a and b b, show the rafters which should run through underneath the skylight, the width of the skylight being spaced in three equal parts, so that the beam will not come below a light of glass and thus throw a shadow. The skylight has been spaced for fifteen lights of glass, each 16 in. wide, thus bringing a skylight bar directly over the center of the beams b b as shown, but making the width of the end lights only 14^2 in. each, because the Fig. 459. — One-fourth Full-size Section shoulder C in Fig. 459 takes up ij^ in. of space. As the length of the glass required will be 20 feet, as shown in the section in Fig. 458, this space should be divided into three equal parts, as shown by c d, d d and d c, and cross beams placed in position, on which the cross bars can rest, as shown also by i i !k- -20'0- 16 k REQUIRES 1* BARS lo'^PART II !! ! !! !!s !!j ELEVATION Fig. 458.— Section and Elevation of Single Pitched Skylight Showing Framing Required SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 267 and j j of the front elevation, while on the curbs C and c, the frame of the skylight can rest. If the regulations of the Board of Fire Under- writers are followed, the spaces cd, dd and dc in the section will again be divided by a cross bar, to bring the area of each light of glass within the regulation area required, namely 720 sq. in. It is important that not less than two beams be placed lengthwise and two crosswise under the sky- light, which, in addition to the re-enforced core plates in the bars, will take care of the snow and ice load as well as the wind pressure. In giving the details of the skylight, one-fourth full size sections are shown, which will need to be enlarged four times to obtain the full size detail. Thus in Fig. 459 is shown a one-fourth full size sec- tion through the skylight bar and curb on the line A B of the elevation in Fig. 458. A in Fig 459 represents the wood curb, which is flashed before the skylight curb is set over it. The metal curb is formed up in one piece from B to C to D to E to F. This formation brings the half bar C D E F directly upon the center of the wooden curb, as shown. The skylight bar is formed as shown by H J K, in which the iron core plate is riveted as shown at a. When the core plate is in position, the bottom of the condensation gutters is re-enforced by the metal plate K L H, locked at K and H as shown. This makes a rigid bar, which is secured to the upper and lower metal curbs c and c in the section in Fig. 458, the bottom of the bar resting upon the two cross beams at d and d. Where the skylight bar rests on the rafters b b in the elevation, they are, if made of wood, chamfered on each side as indicated by a and a in construction as indicated by A in Fig. 461, the rafters shown by b b of Fig. 458 and the cross beams d d in the section being then of iron, I shaped, as shown by B in Fig. 461. A one-fourth full size section through C D of Fig. 458, showing the lower and upper curb as well as the cross bar or clip, is shown in Fig. 462, in which A and B show respectively the lower and Fig. 460. — Chamfering the Wood Beam Fig. 460. This makes a neat appearance from below and avoids shadows. If the framing of the building is of iron, then the side curbs are set on angle iron Fig. 461. — Setting Skylight on Iron Construction upper wooden curbs. The formation of the upper curb is indicated by C D E F G and the lower curb by H J N K L M, both being similar to the curb shown in Fig. 459. By making the four sides of the curb alike, only one miter pattern is required and all four sides are formed up similar, excepting the lower curb in Fig. 462, which is bent down at N, a distance equal to the thickness of the glass in use, as indicated, thus bringing K in the position shown by K 1 , which also answers "as a drip. In the lower curb, copper condensation tubes are placed in the center of each light as indicated by c ; these tubes are about % inch in diameter, soldered water tight at b and extending beyond J of the curb on the out- side. P, represents the section of the common bar shown also in Fig. 459, and is shown in Fig. 462 so as to in- dicate how the cross bar R miters to the common bar. Attention is called to the formation of this cross bar, which is as indicated by S T U V X. The groove between S and U is made wide enough to allow the glass to slip in, well bedded in putty, and the flange T S acts as a cap flashing over the glass. The upper glass sets against the edge T and the shoulder V, also well bedded in putty. Should a leak occur in the cross joint, the water will drip into the condensation gutter, /, then follow into the gutter of the bar P at a, and in turn, follow along the gutter of the bar P, into the gutter of the lower curb at b, then out on the roof through the copper tube c. j()8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER CROSS-BAR FOR MAKING WATER- TIGHT CONNECTION BETWEEN PANES OF GLASS Solution 142 The method of obtaining the pattern for the cross bar R in Fig. 462 is illustrated by the diagram in Fig. 463. Here A and A show the profiles of the two common bars, against which the cross bar B is to miter. The construction of this cross bar and its operation is alike to that already taken up and illus- trated in Fig. 462, the pattern is developed as shown in Fig. 463. used. Any leakage from the cross bar B will follow the gutter along a a, draining in the main bar at either side, as shown by the arrow. Glazing the Skylight and Securing the Caps to the Bar In glazing a skylight of the kind shown in Fig. 458, the rabbets of the bars should be laid with soft putty, then the glass well bedded in. The surplus putty on the inside is cut off with a putty knife, while FLOW OF WAT En COMMON BAR Fig. 462. — One-fourth Full-size Sections Draw any vertical line, as C D, upon this place the girth of the profile B, as shown by similar num- bers, 1 to 8. Through these small figures 1 to 8 draw lines at right angles to C D ; intersect them by lines drawn parallel to C D from similarly numbered in- tersections, 1 to 8, on the bar A, which were pre- viously obtained from the profile B of the cross bar. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by E F, will be the required cut ; this is also used for the opposite side. The method of laying out the cross bar is as follows : As the main bars are 16 in. apart, as shown in the elevation in Fig. 458, use the miter cut in Fig. 463 and make the distance from the arrow point E to the opposite side 15% in., using and reversing the same miter cut E F, allowing y & in. less in length, in this case, for the thickness of the bars or core plates Fig. 463. — Pattern for Cross Bar that on the outside is smoothed out and capped with metal capping, two styles of which are shown in Fig. 464. The first is by means of the copper clip„ Fig. 464. — Securing the Capping shown by A, which is soldered on each side at a. The cap is formed V shape, as indicated by B, in the top of which slots are cut, through which the- SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 269 copper clip passes, as shown by A 1 . The folded edge at A 1 is then cut off and the clip turned over, one right and the other left, as shown by A 2 . The cap can also be formed as shown by C. With this style of cap, holes are punched alternately with the rivet holes in the core plate and the cap fastened to the bar through these holes by means of brass bolts and nuts, indicated by b. By the use of brass bolts and nuts the nut can be easily removed if a new light is to be inserted, whereas an iron bolt would soon become tight from rust. Skylights of this size are constructed direct on the framing at the building, planks laid upon the cross beams being used to obtain a footing. ROLLING TOP THEATRE STAGE SKYLIGHT Details Showing Construction as Re- quired by the National Board of Fire Underwriters Solution 143 In the construction of the theater stage skylights the specifications given by the Board of Fire Under- writers must be followed by the sheet metal worker. There are two types of these skylights. The first is known as the counterbalanced sash. This has two sashes hinged to the outer edges of the curb- ing or frame, which should be hipped shape, allow- ing the upper edges to come together when the sashes are closed and arranged in such a manner that one side of the skylight is provided with an overhanging lip or batten to keep out the rain, snow and sleet. Each sash must have extension bars or angles at the lower hinged edge, projecting beyond the curb for a distance not less than the width of the sash, and to these bars weights not less than 50 per cent, heavier than the weight of the sash should be securely attached. The hinges must be of heavy brass bolted to the sash and curb and set well back from the edge of the frame. These weights at the bottom of the sashes permit the skylights to open when the cords which hold the skylights together at the ridge are loosened. The second type of skylight, which is illustrated in Fig. 465, and described herewith, consists of two rolling sashes, fitted with brass wheels not less than 2. 1 /? in. in diameter and set inside of the outer edges of the sash and well secured to the angle iron frame of the skylight sash. The wheels roll on hard brass tracks properly secured to the angle iron curb, ex- tending the full width of the skylight beyond the frame or curb and fastened to the roof. The frame is made preferably to pitch both ways and the slope should be sufficient for the sash to be inclined at an angle of not less than 30 degrees. The hight of the roof curb should be such that the lowest por- Fig. 465. — View of Two Rolling Type Stage Skylights 270 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER tion of the brass tracks will not be less than 12 in. above the roof, as indicated from W to E in Fig. 466. A one-half sectional view of the rolling sashes is shown here ; in this view A B represents the fin- ished roof line and G F B J the half opening over the theater stage, constructed of angle iron with fireproof block fillings. The bight of the uprights from F to G must be such that the distance from W to E is not less than 12 in. when the pitch has an angle of 30 degrees. The length of the angle iron track frame E X must equal the length of the sash H J so that the entire opening of the shaft over the stage will be uncovered when the sashes are run down. The skylight illustrated had a pitch length of 7 ft. 6 in. and was 13 ft. 6 in. wide, thus giving an approximate open- J? ing over the stage of 13 ft. 6 in. x 14 ft. A The four sides of the walls of the curb were flashed with copper 8 in. above the roof line and the side walls covered with 24-gauge crimped galvanized iron. The angle iron F of the upright track support W E was flashed its entire hight with copper to make a water-tight connection to the roof. The brass track was run down the full length of the track frame from b to E. The bronze rollers which roll down the track when the cords are released are indicated by a and b, E being the guard against which the lower angle of the sky- light X stops. Sometimes the angle E at the bottom is fitted with steel buffer springs to take up the shock and prevent breakage of glass when the sashes are opened by being allowed to run down in case of fire or for cleaning purposes. When the two sashes of the skylight are closed they join at the ridge at /, over which a stationary ventilating hood is placed. This is formed to correspond to the pitch of the sash as indicated by M L N, and is made with a stand- ing seam 2 in. high at L to give rigidity to the hood. This hood is fastened to the side walls and the heads come down a good distance at the side walls to se- cure rigidity. This hood also acts as a ventilator, as ventilation is possible between the two angles of the skylight at the ridge, the one angle being shown by /. By having the hood come down a good distance over the ridge leakage is avoided. To conform with the requirements of the Board of Fire Underwriters, the skylight should be made in sub-divisions approximately 18 in. wide, glazed with single thickness sheet glass, with weather laps not less than 2 in., and should be putty set. By weather laps is meant that the glass panes should overlap one another a distance of 2 in., thus dis- 30" Pitch-. Line of Finished Roof mzmtmzmmrfmzmzmqm L, Hatchwa- under zhway Skylight ilfo Hemp A Cord' ^ Fig. 466. — Half -sectional View through Rolling Skylight pensing with the cross bars. Each pane of glass should measure not less than 300 sq. in. and should not exceed 720 sq. in. in area. The operation of the skylight is as follows : A brass pulley, P, is fastened to the angle iron roof frame at 2. Through this pulley a brass chain is passed and secured to the lower angle of the sky- light curb c. The chains must be of sufficient length to allow the skylight to open to the full width and are joined to one ring at R, from which a ^ in. cotton or hemp rope is attached to a fusible link at T. A chain can be continued from C to hold the skylight in position. The brass chain from the opposite side Fig. 467.— Sectional Detail through Lower Curb — One-third Full-size Detail SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 271 of the skylight not shown is indicated by 5. In case of fire, the cord can be cut or the heat will melt the fusible link, which releases the two skylights, when they roll down the track to E, and open the entire hatchway. The details showing the construction of the vari- ous curbs, bars, storm cap, rollers, tracks, angle iron framing, etc., are shown one-third full size or to a scale of 4 in. to the foot. While the sectional view shown is drawn at an angle of 30 degrees, the de- tails are shown laid horizontally. A sectional detail through the lower curb is shown in Fig. 467, A in- dicating the $xt,x % in. angle iron over which the copper skylight curb is formed as shown by BCD E F. The angle iron of the side curb H is bolted to the lower angle A at X X. These bolts are loosened to admit the double flange of the metal curb D, after which they are fastened down again. Between each pane of glass a copper condensation tube is placed as indicated by /. This drains the condensation or leakage from the skylight bar gutter along b a. A good size rabbet or glass rest is pro- vided from E to F. The hem edge at F should never be higher than the thickness of the glass in use; if too high it holds the water. Fig. 468 presents a sectional detail through the upper curb, showing the ventilating hood, also the formation The angle iron of the ridge curb B C D E. of the side curb bolts to A of the top curb at a and b. After the glass has been putty set, the cap covering the putty joint is bent as in- dicated by F G H and is bolted through the angle iron as shown by the brass bolt /, holes being punch- ed into the angle before being covered with copper. By using brass bolts for this purpose the thread of the bolt will not rust through t h e Fig. 469.- -Sectional Detail through Common Bar action of the weather and the bolt can be released Brass Bolt- Fig. 468.— Section through Upper Curb- Full-size Detail -One-third ■-Wood Sheathing Fig 470.— Sectional Derail through Side Curb, Showing- Bronze Roller and Brass Track— One-third Full-size Detail breakage. The one-half ventilating hood is indicated by 1 2 3 4. the standing seam at 4 not being shown. Note the formation of the hood at 1 2 for stiffening purposes. Fig. 469 shows a sectional detail through the com- mon bar. It is formed in once piece as shown, being re-enforced with a metal band core A, 3/16 in. thick and 2,y 2 in. wide as shown. The condensation gutters of the bar are further strengthened by lock- ing on a separate metal strip indicated by a b. The copper capping B is secured through the core plates by the brass bolt c. These core plates are punched 272 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER at intervals of about 20 in. and through them the brass bolts are placed. Fig. 470 is a sectional detail through the side curb showing the construction of the bronze rollers and the hard brass tracks. After the wood sheathing has been secured to the hollow fireproof bricks it is covered with sheet metal, turned over at the top and nailed at X. The hard brass track D is now fastened to the angle iron roof curb at intervals of 18 in. with flat head machine screws shown bv E and F . The end and side views of the bronze rollers are shown riveted to the angle A of the skylight in its proper position at 5" and T and R. These rollers are cast 1 in. thick with a ]/ 2 in. diameter axle. Before the copper curb b c is fitted over the angle iron frame A, the storm cap B, made of 3/16 in. x 8 in. band iron or of a size wide enough to cover or form a cap over the curb, as shown, is riveted to the side angle at a and b at intervals of 2 ft. or less, holes having been previously punched for this purpose, and also to receive the brass bolt C to secure the capping as previously described. When the angle iron frame A and the storm cap B are being fitted, care must be taken to allow a play of y,\ in. at H to allow the rollers to work without any friction caused by the storm cap rub- bing against the metal siding. The band iron storm cap here described makes a first-class job. If a cheaper construction is desired, one can be had by using, instead of the band iron storm cap B, a rubber or canvas storm check, lead weighted at the lower edges and fastened as before at a and b. The Board of Fire Underwriters also requires that under the entire glass surface a protection of woven galvanized wire, 8 to 12 gauge, of diamond pattern mesh iy 2 x \y 2 in. be arranged in frames, to give protection against falling broken glass, and so that these protective screens can be taken out from below to give ac- cess to the glass for cleaning, Fig. 471 shows -he arrangements made to receive these pro- tective wire screens. Angle irons l /& x I x I in. in size were bolted at in- tervals to the angle in the side skylight curb at B B, and on these 1 in. angles the wire screen were laid as shown b C C. This type of construction has given satisfaction in practical work and may be recommended. The de- velopment of the various pattern shapes does not differ in method from those already described under the section on Flat Skylights. CONSTRUCTION OF A VENTI- LATED MARQUISE Structural Details of a Copper and Wire Glass Marquise Erected on an Apart- ment House Solution 144 The structural details of a marquise in which provision for ventilation has been made where it is attached to the wall of the building, are shown in the accompanying illustrations. The marquise, which is an example of construction that has taken place is 27 ft. 6 in. long, and was erected on an apartment building. In Fig. 472 is reproduced a photographic view of the marquise, and in Fig. 473 is given a scale drawing of it. In its construction an- gle iron, sheet copper and wire glass were employed. The arrangements for ventilation are shown in the construction details in Fig. 474. In this case the entire framing of angle iron was erected by the iron contractor and it remained for the sheet metal worker to construct the ventilating hood as well as the copper gutter and moldings under the sheet copper skylight. The glass was laid on inverted T bars. Particular attention is requested to the constructional details. It will be noted that the ridge curb is secured to the brick wall at the top by means of expansion Fig. 471. — Method of Securing Protective Wire Screens under Skylight — One-Third Full Size Detail SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 273 and covered the top by turning down from H to J before the gutter lining was set. To hide the ridge angle and make a neat finish at the top or under side of the mar- quise, a mold was placed from L to M, and flashing employed in the brick joint at M. To ventilate the under side of the mar- quise a three-inch opening was left along the entire' length as shown, with a glass pocket and copper catch formed in the shape shown by NOP. The copper was doubled over at and stiffened with a wire edge at P. To avoid leakage a copper hood was formed, as indicated by R S T. This hood was fastened as shown, and had a %-inch rod running throughout the front edge the length of the marquise. The top of the hood was placed under the stone sill, which had a drip cut in it to prevent the water from fol- lowing its bottom. Ventilation was thus secured as indicated by the arrow. Before the wire glass was put in position a sheet lead cap, F was set over the edge of the angle iron so that the glass had a snug rest. Fig. 472. — View of Marquise bolts. The lower support or channel is bolted to the ornamental uprights as shown. Around this iron construction sheet copper was placed. The outer cornice A was formed as shown, flashed under the channel at B and with a flange at X. Inside of this cornice a gutter was laid hollow and was formed to shed the water as shown by C D E. After the gutter was set the flange X was turned down, as indicated by the arrow. On the lower inner side of the marquise an ogee mold was placed to make a finish. This was flashed under the channel as at G, Fig. 474.— Structural Details of the Marquise 274 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER The skylight bars were of inverted T iron design, made of rolled steel. The clips used in fastening the lov/er angle curb or glass rest are shown in the illustration at V . From Fig. 472, it will be noted that an angle iron guard was erected to protect the glass in the mar- quise. The frame supporting the wire mesh was constructed of angles and tees I^xi^xj4 in- in size. The uprights were made of angles with in- verted tee cross bars placed at the top and in these inverted tee irons the wire was laid. This construction is equally suggestive and ap- plicable in that it is representative. CONSTRUCTION OF SKYLIGHT OVER PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIO Solution 145 Fig. 475 shows a type of skylight for erection over a photographic studio. It is an example taken from work successfully executed and is treated as from Fig. 475. — A Skylight for a Photographic Studio the original subject since its design and construction are representative of and applicable to studio sky- lights of any dimensions. It is essential in designing a studio skylight to give it the proper pitch or angle and if it be possible to have it facing to the north for securing the most favorable light. This type of skylight should have two pitches. Figure 476 shows the angles usually employed and those that have given good service in the past. The base of the skylight should start about 3 ft. above the floor line as shown from A to B and from B it should slant at an angle of 10 degrees to the per- pendicular, as shown from B to C. The bight of B C will depend upon the hight of the studio. In this case the hight of the studio was 10 ft., and the first pitch from B to C was made at 6 ft., or 9 ft. above the floor line, from A to C, thus bringing C, 1 ft. below the ceiling line of the studio. From C the upper skylight has a slope of 35 degrees, as Fig. 476. — General Layout of a Photographic Skylight indicated, and runs back 12 ft. from C to D, with a closed back placed at right angles to C D down to the roof line as shown at E. This brings the ex- treme hight of the skylight at D 15 ft. 6 in. above the floor line at X. The width of the skylight as well as the hight of the front light B C and the depth of the top light C D, is, of course, regulated according to the width, hight and depth of the studio, respectively. This skylight was made 126 in. wide, divided into seven lights of 18 in. each. After deciding on the size and pitches of the skylight, the constructive features are next in order. Thev are shown in Figs. 477 to 482 inclusive. These parts can be changed to suit conditions. It is seldom that two shops will use the same methods of construction, and the shapes of bars, curbs, etc., vary. The accompanying illustrations show one of the many styles of bars and curbs in use. Where the run of the rafters is long they are usually re- enforced and cross bars are inserted between them when the glass is put on in sections. SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 275 In Fig. 477 is shown the constructive section of the skylight at B in Fig. 476. Here we have a main cornice with a gutter, Fig. 477 the lining of which is locked in the main cornice at A to allow for ex- Metnod of cutting the slots t ''/3 Slots cot under ■ each ligh t of glass ■' to dro/n conden- sation See 'S " Fig. 477. — Constructive Section of Skylight at B, Fig. 476 pansion and contraction. The lining is carried up over the wood skylight frame at B. Over this frame B the lower metal curb of the skylight is placed. Note the formation of the curb from C to D to E. To allow for the escape of the condensation a gutter is bent below e, which catches the drip, and dis- charges it to the outside through ^4-in. semi-circular slots cut below each light of glass at the bottom of the condensation gutter indicated by the arrow. Diagram S shows how these slots are cut. A semi-circular cut is made with the small chisel or die, as shown at i, and this part is drawn down- ward as indicated at n, just enough to let the drip, if any, run out and keep the driving rain or snow from blowing in underneath. The common rafter F also has condensation gut- ters at b and c which come down in front of the guard D and discharge any drippings in the gutter at e. In mitering the bar or rafter F to the curb, the bar should not enter the gutter at e, but should miter across the gutter as shown by the dotted line at e. Care must be taken that the top of the main gutter A is always lower than the bottom of the condensation gutter, as indicated between the ar- rows at r, to avoid any water entering the build- ing should the main gutter overflow at any time. The glass should be well imbedded in white lead putty on the rabbets of the bars, as shown by in F, and then capped with a metal cap and cleat- ed as shown at a in this same illustration. After the curb is set the inside wall can be com- pleted as shown by A' Y, providing sufficient wood work on which the light and dark rolling shades can be secured. At the intersection between the two skylights at C in Fig. 476, a simple watertight curb can be con- 30°Pitch Horizontal Ime Fig. 478. — Constructive Section of Skylight at C. Fig. 476 structed as shown in Fig. 478. To support this curb an angle or channel iron must be run across the entire width of the skylight as indicated by A, the angle being placed at right angles to the upper or 35-degree pitch. Before this angle iron is encased with sheet metal a few holes should be punched in it to secure the wood blocking B by wood screws, as shown. Proper measurements of the angle iron are now taken and the curb formed, as shown from C to D to J to E to A to F. Note that the metal is turned downward at J, which hooks on to the angle iron and prevents the upper skylight trom sliding, and can be clinched around the angle iron, as shown by the dotted lines, while a solid bearing is obtained for the bars resting on the angle iron at D. Note the formation of the groove at A, into which the glass is placed, the overlapping cap E, making a weather tight joint. In forming the groove A it is so arranged that the left corner t lies against the angle iron and forms a rigid construction for the glass rest. At the bottom of the condensation gutter at D semi- 276 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER circular slots are cut, as previously explained, and as shown by a a in diagram X. The extent to which these slots are turned away from the body is shown by b — just enough to allow the drip to run through and still keep out the driving rain and fine snow. The profiles of the rafters at the bottom and top respectively, with their capping in place, are shown by G and L. The gutter of the bar L is notched off at D to allow the drip, if any, to flow into the curb gutter. Where the bar G miters with the curb E A F at E, the standing edge of the bar is cut off at an angle, as shown at H, which is capped and soldered watertight. To make a finish on the inside a wooden board covered with sheet metal is secured to the wood blocking B. This provides for securing pulleys for Horizontal line Fig. 479. — Constructive Section of Skylight at D in Fig. 476 rolling shades, etc. Fig. 479 shows the constructive section of the skylight at D in Fig. 476. The back of the skylight shaft being closed, it is covered with metal roofing, as shown in Fig. 479, and flashed up to the top and nailed at e. The formation of this half bar curb is indicated from A to B to C. It is locked together at A. This profile is used at the top, as well as along the sides of the skylight. The rafter D miters at A, thus conveying any condensa- tion to the lower gutter. The half bar is capped and cleated as indicated at C, and the lower cap flange B of the curb is se- cured to the back frame by means of brass screws and lead washers at a. Referring to the photograph in Fig. 475, it will Fig. 480. — Section of Cross Bars Shown at A in Fig. 475 be noted that the 12 ft. run of the top skylight was divided into three panes, and where the joints take place, special formed clips or cross bars were placed at A, A, etc. The method of constructing these cross bars is shown in Fig. 480. Here A and B represent the profiles of the common rafters and C the profile of the cross bar. Note its formation from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6, the line 2 3 being in line with the lower line of the glass. Note that the bottom of the cross bar comes slightly above the top edge of the condensation gutters of the common bars. The water running in the direction of the arrow will require the cross bar to be placed in the posi- ' tion shown, with the lower glass slipping into the groove between 1 and 2 and the upper light setting on rabbet 3. Should any leak occur at 3 it will drain into the gutter 6, then run out at a a into the gutters of the rafters A and B. Where the length of the rafter is over 6 ft. it is advisable to re-enforce the bars with core plates, as i^S Fig. 481. — Full-Size Section of Re-inforced Bars shown in Fig. 481, which give a greater sustaining power against wind pressure, snow, ice and sleet. A section of common rafter is shown at A, the core plate being made of 22-gauge galvanized iron. The walls of the bars are secured by the lower encasing B to C, and E E shows the glass imbedded in putty at a and a. The capping of the bar is a little different from that shown in other cuts. It is bent as indicated with a brass bolt and nut securing the five thick- nesses of metal. Another style of re-enforced bar is shown at F, wherein the core plate F is of band iron, J^-in. thick by 2 in. wide. The sizes of these cores are usually specified in the specifications of the architect, who as a rule, figures their sustaining power. When glazing studio skylights the best glass to use for this work is single thickness of clear ham- mered wire glass, which is also approved by the Board of Fire Underwriters. Fig. 482 gives an interior view of the studio sky- SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 277 light, showing the arrangement of the shades, also the position of the tungsten lamps for night work. The equipment consists of one set of dark opaque shades and one set of white linen shades, which Fig. 482. — Interior View Showing Shades and Electric Bulbs are used to regulate the lights and shadows. The electric lighting for night work consists of twenty- four 100-watt tungsten lamps placed in the position shown. SINGLE PITCH SKYLIGHT, WITH PITCH FORMED IN THE METAL CURB Solution 146 In Fig. 483 is shown what is designated a single pitch skylight, with the pitch or slope formed in the metal curb. As a rule, when the skylight is over Fig. 483.— View of Single Pitch Skylight, with Pitch Metal Curb 4 ft. wide from a to b, the side cheeks are made of wood, which is covered with metal, and over this framing the ordinary flat skylight is set. If the curb measurement from a to b is less than 4 ft., the side cheek can be formed directly on the lower curb and half bar at the side, which procedure will be taken up and illustrated in Fig. 484. Here the sectional view shows all requirements in the development of the patterns. A partial front elevation is also shown, in order to make each step clear. This front elevation indicates as well, one of the weep holes, but in practice no front elevation need be drawn. After ascertaining the pitch of the skylight or the rise it is to have from R° to W° in the sectional view, draw the profile of the rear curb, as shown from 1 to 10 in the profile A. Ascertain the width of the skylight from 2 to 2 and draw the profile of the lower or front curb, B. Note the for- mation of this curb from 1 to 10. Also note that this lower curb B differs from the lower curb B given in Fig. 457. Curbs of various shapes will be taken up as we proceed with skylight work. From these the mechanic may select and obtain an un- derstanding of curb formations. After drawing in its proper position, the curb B in Fig. 484, connect the glass line 6-7 in the curb A with the glass line 8-9 in the curb B. On this glass line draw the section or profile of the common bar, C; allow its condensation gutter to miter with the condensation gutter of the profile A, and lay over the condensation gutter of the lower curb B at 5-6, all as shown. The edge, 7-8, of the lower curb B should be no higher than the thickness of glass in use. At right angles to the pitch of the skylight draw the profile D, making D a one-half bar of the full bar C. At right angles to the curb line R° U° draw the pro- file of the side curb, indicated by E, taking care that the shoulder or rest, 3-4, in curbs A, B and E are equal, thus requiring only a square miter cut. The sectional view having been completed, the pat- terns may now be laid out. The pattern for the common bar C is laid out by taking the girth of the bar C and placing it on the line F G, drawn at right angles to the pitch of the skylight, as shown by the small figures, 1 to 6 to 1. Through these small figures and at right an- gles to F G draw lines ; intersect them by lines drawn parallel to F G from the various points where lines drawn through the profile C intersect the upper and lower curbs, A and B, respectively. Trace a line through points thus obtained. H J K represents the upper cut and L M N the lower cut. Where the glass rest, 8-9-10, in the lower curb B intersects 4-5 of the glass rest in the bar C, notches are to be made in the bar pattern to receive this glass rest, as indicated by the notches e and e in the bar pattern. These notches should be cut on the lines 5 in the pattern, then upward toward 6, about j;8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER MITER CUT FOR FRONT CURB RIDGE BAR /S PATTERN FOR SIDES MITER CUT FOR BACK CURB Fig. 4S4. — Patterns for Single Pitch Skylight with Pitch in Metal Curb SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS '■79 l /i in. wide or just enough to allow the thickness of the hem edge, e' in the sectional view, to slip in easily. The pattern for the side curb, cheek and half bar combined in one piece, is laid out as follows : Take the girth of the side curb E from I to 4 and place it on any vertical line, as O P, as shown by similar numbers. Through these small figures and at right angles to O P draw lines ; intersect them by lines drawn parallel to O P from simi- larly numbered spaces in the profiles A and B in the sectional view. Through the points thus ob- tained trace the miter cuts, R S T U in the pattern. Take a tracing of R° W° V° U° in the sectional view and place it, as shown by R W V U in the pattern. If the skylight is of such size that a tracing or reproduction cannot be taken, this side cheek in the sectional view can be joined to the pattern in the following manner : At right angles to U R in the pattern draw the line R W equal in length to R° W° in the sectional view. With W° V° as radius and W in the pattern as center, describe the arc V ; intersect this arc by an arc struck from U as center, with U° V° in the sectional view as radius. Connect lines from W to V to U in the pattern. Take a tracing of the half bar pattern J M N II and place it in the pat- tern for sides, as shown by W V N° H°. N° T S H° gives the combined side pattern. Take the girth from 1 to 10 in the back curb A in the sectional view and place it on any line, as A 1 B 1 , as shown by similar numbers. Through these small figures and at right angles to A 1 B l draw lines, as shown. Draw at pleasure the vertical line C 1 D 1 between lines drawn through points 1 and 3, as shown. Take the projection of the curb E in the sectional view and place it, as shown by E 1 in back curb pattern. From this point of intersection, t, erect the vertical line between lines drawn through figures 4 to 8, extend- ing the line indefinitely as shown by i'. Measuring from the line i in the profile D in the sectional view, take the projections to points / and / and place them to the right of the line i' t in the pattern, thus obtaining the points /' and /' on the lines drawn through 9 and 10. This gives the miter cut of the condensation gutter of the upper curb A, mitering with the condensation gutter of the side curb D. The girth of the front curb B from 1 to 10 is laid off on the vertical line C 2 D 2 , as shown. Here, as before, the projection E 2 is obtained from the curb E in the sectional view, the miter cut, of course, taking place in the space between lines 3 and 4 in the front curb pattern. Note that the weep hole X is placed below the line 6 in the pattern, that is from 6 towards 7. C 2 D 2 F 1 H 1 represents the pat- tern for the front curb. Allow laps on patterns, as shown by the dotted lines in the side pattern and the bars. Laying Out Full Size Patterns Let us assume that a skylight is to be made up to a size of, say, 3 ft. 2 in. by 7 ft. 2 in., as shown in Fig. 483, the method of development will be as follows : In the first place, the given curb distance of 3 ft. 2 in. will require to be laid out (in Fig. 484) in the sectional view from corner 3 in the curb A to cor- ner 3 in the curb B ; proceed then with the bar and side patterns, as already described. The distance of 7 ft. 2 in. in Fig. 483 will have to be laid out (in Fig. 484), measuring from the arrow point F 1 in the front curb pattern and the arrow point O in the back curb pattern, as shown by the arrows, and then reversing the miter cuts to the opposite sides. Weep holes will be placed under the center of each light of glass. As six panes of glass are required, Fig. 483, the spacing of the panes can be found as follows : 7 ft. 2 in. = 86 in. ; less 2 in. for shoul- der rest on curb, = 84 in. This result divided by 6 gives 14 in. as the space of the panes required. The first weep hole will therefore be 7 in. from the end. Follow with 5 spaces of 14 in. each, leav- ing 7 in. space on the opposite end. Where the gutter of the bars miters with the top curb, the miter cuts in the top curb to receive the bars will be spaced 14 in. on centers and obtained by the method which was applied to the miter cut, A°, in the back curb pattern in Fig. 457. In forming up the various bars care must be taken that they are bent true to the stay or profile. This will save time in assembling the skylight. A DOUBLE PITCHED SKYLIGHT Solution 147 With double pitched skylights to be constructed, as shown in Fig. 485, the principles given in the preceding problem are employed. The present ex- ample is that of a skylight whose curb measures 6 ft. 4 in. by 8 ft. 11 in. In laying out a skylight of this description it is but necessary to divide 6 ft. 4 in. by 2, when we obtain the center line, which would be represented by the line W° R° in Fig. 28o THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER 484. Under such conditions all patterns would be obtained as described in connection with that illus- tration (Fig. 484), with the exception that the line W R in the pattern for side would be extended to A\ Then W A* T N° H° would be the one-half side pattern for a double pitched skylight, shown in Fig. 485. — View of Double Pitch Skylight Fig. 485, with a seaming through the center. A ridge bar a b would be necessary. This would be made 8 ft. 9 in. long, after deducting two inches, required for the curb rests on each side, using the pattern shown by 5-5" I' -10 in the pattern for back curb in Fig. 484, measuring from the point 5 a . As this pattern would be the pattern cut for the half ridge bar, shown from 5 to 10 in the curb A in the sectional view, the pattern would require to be re- versed on the line 5-5' 1 in the miter cut for back curb, to complete the full ridge bar shown by A T in the upper left hand corner. If the patterns shown in Fig. 484 were laid out for a skylight, whose width was 3 ft. 2 in., as is indicated in Fig. 483, these same patterns, Fig. 484, with the modifications above referred to, would be available for the skylight shown in Fig. 485, since its width is twice 3 ft. 2 in., SECTIONAL VIEW Fig. 486. — Constructing the Cheek ia Two Pieces or 6 ft. 4 in. As the length is 8 ft. 11 in., or 107 in., the 7 panes would measure 107 in., less 2 in. for shoulder rests, or 105 in., which divided by 7 gives 15 in., the width of each pane. Without regard to the width from c to d, simply divide by two and pro- ceed according to the method given in connection with Fig. 484. Should it be desired to produce the side cheeks in two parts, make the joint as shown in Fig. 486, allowing to the half bar pattern an extra lap, as much as is shown at A. This can then be locked and riveted to the cheek, as shown. The construc- tion of the louvres shown in Fig. 485 are taken up in connection with subsequent procedure. Patterns for a Hipped Ventilating Sky- light The construction of a hipped ventilating skylight, such as is shown in the perspective in Fig. 487, re- quires five separate patterns, namely, the curb, ven- Fig. 487. — Hipped Ventilating Skylight tilator, common bar, hip bar and jack bar. In some skylights, in addition to the above there would be required the ridge bar, center jack bar, common jack bar and intersecting hip bar. All these pat- terns will be taken up in their order. In the illus- tration of Fig. 487, A is the ventilator, B is the curb, C the common bar, D the hip bar and E E E E E are jack bars. In the perspective in Fig. Fig. 488. — Plain Hipped Skylight with Ridge Bar 488, A is the ridge bar, C the center jack bar, D the common jack bar and B one of the intersecting hip bars. The method of drawing the sectional view and obtaining the patterns is shown in the detail in Fig. 489. In this connection it may be well to remark that in laying out these various patterns, the sec- tional view need not be more than 12 in. wide, SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 281 whatever be the pitch desired. In this case, a one-third pitch is drawn, that is, an 8 in. rise to a 12 in. base, since twice 12 represents 24, one-third of which is 8. Thus if a one-fourth pitch be required, 12 multiplied by 2 = 24 and one- fourth of 24 is 6. In other words, a 6 in. rise to a 12 in. base consti- tute a one-fourth pitch. In con- structing the sectional view and one-quarter plan, first draw the center line A B and from any point upon it, as b, draw the horizontal line b a equal to 12 in. On the center line A B, set off a distance of 8 in. from 6 to f and draw the one-third pitch c a. This tri- angle, whose hypothenuse has a one-third pitch, forms the basis for obtaining all the patterns for the hipped skylight. The line a c represents the glass line, at right angles to which the profile of the common and jack bars is placed, as indicated by A. In its proper position draw the profile of the ventilator frame B, whatever the shape desired, making the distance from the center line c to 1' as desired. Draw the profile of the ventilator body C, making the space indicated by the arrow n about one-quarter inch, and over C draw the profile of the hood D. E represents the profile of the brace to sustain the hood D. Draw the profile of the curb a, taking particular pains that a vertical line drawn from the outer edge of the glass rest at 2' will meet the curb line, as shown by the dotted line. When this lower edge of the glass rest 2' is made to be perpendicular above the curb flange, as shown, the length of the skylight bar will be also the true length of the glass, so that all glass can be cut, long before it is used, thus saving delay in finishing the work at the building. The arrow in the curb a indicates where the weep holes are to be cut. ONE QUARTER PLAN Fig. 489. — Patterns of the Curb, Common and Jack Bars THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER CURB IN HIPPED SKYLIGHTS Solution 148 The sectional view having been completed accord- ing to the method in the preceding solution, the pattern for the curb may be laid out. Parallel to the line A B draw any line, as F G, on which place the girth of the curb a. To avoid a confusion of numbers, the bends in the curb a are not numbered, but measurements with the dividers will show whence the spaces were taken, when placed on the line F G. From the various points on F G and at right angles to this line draw the usual measuring lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to F G from similar points in the profile a. Trace lines through points thus obtained. F H J K G will be the curb pattern. In using this pattern for the curb, all measurements must be taken from the arrow point K. Note that the weep holes are placed above the third bend marked 3, as called for in profile a. COMMON BAR IN HIPPED SKY- LIGHTS Solution 149 To obtain the pattern for the common bar, shown by C in Fig. 487, take the girth of the profile A in Fig. 489 and place it on a line drawn at right angles to a c in the sectional view, as shown by the small figures, 6 to 1 to 6 on the line L M. Through these small figures and at right angles to L M draw the usual measuring lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to L M from the several points where lines drawn through the profile A intersect the curb a at the bottom and the ventilator frame B at the top, all as shown by similar numbers, marked 1' to 6', in both profiles. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by N O P at the top and by R S at the bottom, will be the desired miter cuts. Since bend 2 in the bar profile A intersects the curb bend, which is perpendicular over the measuring point in the curb a, upon laying out the length of the common bars all measure- ments must be made on line 2 from the arrow points e to d. JACK BAR IN HIPPED SKY- LIGHTS Solution 150 Preparatory to developing the pattern for the jack bars, marked E in Fig. 487, a partial plan view must be drawn, Fig. 489, from which the miter line can be obtained in the sectional view. From this the miter pattern is obtained. It is customary to draw a one-quarter plan as follows : From any point on the center line A B draw the horizontal line W X. From W at an angle of 45 degrees (the skylight being a right angle, or of 90 degrees) draw the line, W 1 ; inter- sect this at 1 by a line dropped from 1' in the lower part of the sectional view. From 1 in plan draw the horizontal line 1 Y. Parallel to a c in the sec- tional view draw a short line above the profile A, as / g, and upon this obtain the projections of the bar A at right angles to a c, as shown by the small dashes having similar numbers. Take a trac- ing of these spaces on / g and place them at right angles to W 1 in plan, as shown by /' g', being care- ful to place the point marked 1-2-4 directly upon the line W-i in plan, as shown. Through these small figures 1 to 6 on /' g' and parallel to W 1, draw lines ; intersect these lines by lines drawn parallel to A B from similar numbers, 1' to 6', in the profiles a and B in the sectional view, thus ob- taining the points of intersection, 1 to 6, at the bottom a° and at the top B°, respectively, in plan. A line drawn through these points will show the miter lines, where the hip bar miters with the curb and ventilator frames, respectively. If desired, the opposite lower half of the hip bar in plan can be intersected, as shown by horizontal lines drawn parallel to W X, from intersections on the hip line W 1, thus obtaining intersections marked 1 to 6'. These miter lines are introduced in the development of the hip bar pattern in subsequent problem. From any desired point, as t, in plan, draw a line parallel to W X, meeting the hip line at 2. Again take the projection of the bar A in the sectional view, shown on the line / g and place it as indicated, at right angles to t 2 in plan, as shown by /" g" ; through the small figures thereon and parallel to t 2 draw lines, inter- secting lines previously drawn through the hip bar. Through the points of intersection thus obtained, draw the two miter lines, shown in S between 1 and 6 on both sides. This gives the intersections of the long and short cuts of the jack bar ; these points are projected vertically to the sectional view, intersecting similarly numbered lines, drawn through the profile of the bar A. Connect the points thus obtained. 1 to 6 in 5"° will be the miter line of the short cut and 1 to 6° the miter line of the long cut. The pattern for the jack bar may now be developed. From the various intersections 1 to 6 and 1 to 6° in S° draw lines at right angles to a c. SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 283 intersecting similarly numbered lines previously drawn for the common bar. Trace a line through points thus obtained. T U will be the miter pattern for the long cut and U V the miter pattern for the short cut of the jack bar. The measuring point for the jack bars will also occur on line 2, as shown by the arrow points from d to v. Laps should be allowed on all patterns, as shown by the dotted lines. RIDGE VENTILATOR IN HIPPED SKYLIGHTS Solution 151 The patterns required for the ventilator, illus- trated by A in Fig. 487, are shown developed in Fig. 490. Draw any perpendicular line as A B and on it place the girth of the profile of the ventilator frame B, in Fig. 489, as well as the girth of the profile of the ventilator body, C, the girth of the profile of the hood, D, and the girth of the brace, E, all as shown on the line A B in Fig. 490. In measuring the girth of the sev- eral profiles of the ventilator, numbers have been omitted to avoid a confusion of figures, in Fig. 489. At right angles to A B in Fig. 490, draw lines to the right as shown. Meas- uring in each instance from the line A B in Fig. 489, take the various horizontal projec- tions to the various corners in the profiles B, C and D of the ventilator, as shown by the dotted lines, and place them on their proper lines in Fig. 490, measuring invariably from the line A B. Trace a line through points thus pro- cured and obtain the miter pattern for the hood, ven- tilator body and ventilator frame. In laying out full size patterns, measurements are taken from a, c and d, in the hood, body and frame, respectively. The length of the brace is always made equal to the width of the hood, whatever that may be, as shown at b. The ven- PA TTERN FOR „ VENT. BODtO IN FIQ. 489 d PATTERN FOR VENT. FRAME B IN FIG. 489 B Fig. 490. — Various Patterns in Ven- tilator tilator patterns here shown represent the half pat- terns for a given half width of ventilator, as indi- cated in the sectional view in Fig. 489. Assuming that this semi-width in the sectional view is 2 in. from the center line A B to i, the patterns shown in Fig. 490 are half patterns for that width. If, however, a ventilator whose full width is 8 in., be required, simply measure from the arrow point d a distance of 8 in. and reverse the cut for the full pattern. The other two patterns would then be in- creased in the same proportion, and the miter cut h I of the hood extended until it met the opposite miter line h i, also extended, at its apex. The ac- ceptable rule for finding the accurate lengths of ventilators will be taken up in the course of this treatment. Laps should be allowed on the short sides of the vent patterns, as shown by the dotted lines. HIPPED BAR IN HIPPED SKY- LIGHTS Solution 152 The pattern for the hip or corner bar, indicated by D in Fig. 487, is shown developed in Fig. 491. W 1, the plan of the hip bar, is a reproduction of W 1, the plan of the hip bar previously obtained, as shown in Fig. 489. Because of the limits of space, the plan of hip bar with its various num- bered points of intersection has been traced to Fig. 491, where the hip bar is presented horizontally to facilitate the development of the pattern with the tee square. Parallel to and equal in length to W 2 draw the line b 2. At right angles to b 2 erect the line b c equal to 8 in., or equal to b c in the sectional view in Fig. 489. Draw a line from c to 2 in Fig 491 ; this is the true length of the hip bar on the line W 2 in plan. At right angles to W 1 in plan and from the various intersections, 1 to 6, at the curb X and vent frame Y erect lines to any hight, as shown. Measuring from the line a b in the sectional view in Fig. 489 take the various hights above and below this line to points 1' to 6' in the curb a, also to points 1' to 6' above the line a b in the vent frame B ; place these bights above and below the line a b in Fig. 491 on similarly numbered lines, previously erected from similar numbers in the miter lines in plan. Trace the miter lines in the elevation of hip bar, through points thus obtained, as shown from 1 to 6 at bottom and top. Connect these points in the miter lines by lines drawn from 1 to 1, 2 to 2, 284 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER etc., all of which will be parallel to line c 2 previously obtained. This gives the eleva- tion of the hip bar. Preparatory to lay- ing out the pattern, a true profile of the hip bar must first be found as follows : Take the various projections on the line / g in the sectional view in Fig. 489 and place it in Fig. 491, as indicated by / g drawn parallel to c 2. From the various in- tersections 1 to 6 on / g and at right angles to c 2 draw lines which will intersect similarly number ed lines in the elevation, as shown. Through these points trace the modified profile of the hip bar, A. Take the girth of A from 6 to 1 W^ and place it on the line B C drawn at right angles to c 2, as shown by the fig- ures 6 to 1 to 6. At Fig. 491. — Pattern of the Hip Bar right angles to B C and through these small figures draw lines and intersect them by lines drawn par- allel to B C from similar points of intersection in the miter lines in elevation, all as shown. Trace a line through points thus obtained. The miter D E F will be the cut against the curb at the cor- ner and G H J the cut against the vent frame at the top. As the glass line is the measuring line, all bars are measured on line 2, indicated by the arrows. OTHER BARS REQUIRED IN HIPPED SKYLIGHTS Solution 153 A requirement occurring in skylight construction is that of a skylight on which the four hip bars intersect, as seen in Fig. 492, forming what is known aj>~ intersecting hip bars, shown by the intersecting lines a b and c d. Reference to Fig. 491 shows also the method of developing this cut. Here the frame line of the ventilator, in plan, is extended, as shown Fig. 492. — Plan of Intersecting Hip Bars SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 285 by the line i h and where this line intersects the various lines of the hip bar in plan, as at 1, 2, 3 X , 4, 5 X and 6 X , lines are erected at right angles to W 1, thus cutting similarly numbered lines in the eleva- tion of the hipped bar indicated also by 1,2, 3 X , 4, 5 X , 6 X . From these points, 3 X , 5 X and 6 X , lines are drawn at right angles to c 2, cutting the lines in the pat- tern, also at 3 X , 5 X and 6 X , and dotted lines are connected, as shown. This cut has been projected to only one-half of the pattern. If a full pattern be desired for an intersecting hip bar, simply take a tracing of the cut n H 3* b x in the a k \3 X 1 1 ' n 1 Fig. 493. — Miter Cut for In- tersecting Hip Bars hip bar pattern and place it, as shown in Fig. 493, on either side of the line H, n, as shown by n H 3 X 6 X . The lower cut on this bar will be the same as in the hip bar pattern in Fig. 491. Fig. 494. — Intersecting Hip Bars, Joining to Ridge Bar When hip bars intersect, as shown in Fig. 494, that is, the two hips intersecting along a d on the one side, and intersecting with the ridge bar at d c and d b on the other, the pattern is laid out as shown in Fig. 495. Here n H 3* 6 X is a reproduc- tion of corresponding letters and figures in the hip bar pattern in Fig. 491. Take a tracing of the upper part of the hip bar pattern n H G and place it, as shown by n H G in Fig. 495. The cut H 6 X in the pattern will be the miter pattern for the in- tersection a d in Fig. 494, and the miter pattern for the intersection d b or d c is shown by the cut H G in Fig. 495. In the two patterns just developed, Figs. 493 and H Fig. 495.- -Miter Cut for Intersecting Hip Bar, One-half of which Joins the Ridge Bar 495, all measurements are laid out on line 2, indi- cated by the arrows. The pattern for the ridge bar, shown by B in Fig. 494, will be twice the girth of e d' in the pat- tern for the vent frame B in Fig. 490, cutting off the miter d t and turning over on the line d d'. This bar would be formed as indicated in Fig. 489 in the sectional view at c. If bars are to be spaced Fig. 496. — Plan of Common Center Jack and Center Jack Bar as shown in Fig. 496, the resulting formations will constitute center jack bars and common jack bars. The miter cut for the center jack bar is laid out as shown in Fig. 497. Take a tracing of the long cut in the jack bar pattern in Fig. 489, shown by X U T, and place it on either side of the line U V in Fig. 497, as shown by x\ U T on both sides. T U T is then the miter cut for the center jack bar, since the center jack bar, shown in Fig. 496, has a long miter cut on each side. The cut at the bottom 286 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER of the pattern, shown in Fig. 497, is, of course, the same as the lower cut of the jack bar pattern shown in Fig. 489. To obtain the miter cut for the common jack bar, which is so named for the reason that half of the Fig. 497. — Miter Cut Center Tack Bar for bar intersects the hip just as does a jack bar, while the other half intersects the ridge as does a common bar, Fig. 496, take a tracing of the cut x U T in the jack bar pattern in Fig. 489 and place it, as U Fig. 498. — Miter Cut for Common Jack Bar shown by x U T in Fig. 498. Take a tracing of the half upper cut of the common bar in Fig. 489, indicated by x O N, and place it on the line U x in Fig. 498, as shown by x O N. NOUT gives the miter cut for the common jack bar. FINDING THE TRUE LENGTHS OF THE VARIOUS CURBS, BARS AND VENTILATORS IN HIP- PED SKYLIGHTS Solution 154 There are three methods of finding the true lengths of the several bars, curbs and ventilators required in hipped skylight work, namely, by means of a scale drawing, by computation and by the aid of triangles. To one versed in figures computation is the readiest method ; to one not so apt the tri- angles will prove serviceable. As the use of the scaled drawing requires an expenditure of time to secure accuracy, the other two methods may be recommended and we will explain them by selected examples. Let us assume that patterns have all been laid out for one-third pitch and that a skylight is to be made whose curb measure is 6 ft. 6 in. by 10 ft. o in., as Fig. 499. — Example in Finding the True Lengths of Sky- light Bars shown in Fig. 499, with a ridge ventilator thereon whose width is 6 in., as indicated. The size of the curb and width of the ventilator determine the basis of the various lengths to be found by means of the triangles ; the construction is as follows : Take a tracing of the triangle ab cm the sectional view in Fig. 489 and place it as shown by a b c in Fig. 500. Since in obtaining the patterns this dis- tance, a b, was drawn to 12 in. length, divide that length into inches, half inches, etc. (as they would appear a rule), and erect perpendiculars until they cut the slant line c a, as shown. This slant line or hypothenuse may be employed in determining the SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 2 S 7 true lengths of the common and jack bars, its use, of course, being restricted to skylights whose pitch is represented in the sectional view, Fig. 489, from c 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 7 TRIANGLE FOR DETERMINING THE TRUE LENGTHS OF THE COMMON AND JACK BARS Fig. 500. — Constructing the Triangle used and Jack Bars for Common which the patterns were obtained, namely, a one- third pitch. Any other pitch would require a dif- ferent pattern and triangles to correspond. Fig. 10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 TRIANGLE FOR DETERMINING THE TRUE LENGTHS OF THE HIP BAR Fig. 501. — Constructing of Triangle Used for Hip Bar 501 shows the triangle required for determining the true length of the hip bar for one-third pitch; it is constructed by taking a tracing of 2 b' c in Fig. 491 and placing it, as shown by a b c in Fig. 501. Since we find that the distance, a b, represents the length of the diagonal or hip line in plan, whose sectional view is 12 in., as shown in Fig. 489, we divide the line (7 b in Fig. 501 into twelve equal parts and divide these again into halves, etc. From these divisions, I to 12, erect vertical lines, cutting the hypothenuse, c a, as shown. These triangles may be made on heavy cardboard and saved for repeated use for any size of skylight whose pitch is 8 to 12, or one-third. The first step in finding the true lengths is to pre- pare a rough diagram, reducing therein all meas- urements to inches, so that the curb will measure 78 in. by 120 in. as shown in Fig. 499. Always divide first the narrow side of the curb. In the present case there are six lights of 13 in. each. Space the long side so that the jack bars will meet, thus ob- taining six lights of 13 in. and 3 lights of 14 in. The rough sketch will show the number and kind of bars required and as well give the true dimen- sions for spacing the bars when the skylight is as- sembled. In this connection it may be well to remark that glass is to be obtained only in uniform widths, as io"-i2"-i4", thus graduating by multiples of two. While the size here given serves as an example for practice a skylight should be so spaced as not to occasion wastage of glass, and needless loss may be averted by careful preliminary attention to meas- urements and available stock sizes. Referring to the rough sketch, we find that 4 hip, 8 jack number 1, 8 jack number 2 and 10 common bars will be required, as well as the curb and ven- tilator. The length of the curb, shown on the sketch, is to be laid out bringing into use the curb pattern shown in Fig. 489, measuring from the arrow point K, with care to place a weep hole under the center of each light of glass. The length of the ventilator frame B is found as follows : Deduct the narrozv side of the curb from the long side and add the width of the vent frame. The narrow side of the curb is 78 in., as shown in Fig. 499, and the long side is 120 in. Thus, 120 in. less 78 in. leaves 42 in., which, plus 6 in. = 48 in. The inside vent frame will thus be computed as 6 in. by 48 in., measured from the arrow point d in Fig. 490. Measuring from the arrow point c in the pattern of the vent body, the lengths would be found to correspond to the inside vent frame, plus twice the projection of n in the sectional view, in Fig. 489. If this projection n were one-quarter inch, the vent body would measure 63/2 x 485/2 in. The hood pattern would be measured from the arrow a, in Fig. 490 indicating the same length as of the inside vent frame, plus twice the projection of v, in Fig. 489. If the projection v were two inches, the hood would 288 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER measure 10 x 52 in. The length of the brace pat- tern E in Fig. 490 would be equal to the width of the hood, or 10 in., measured from the arrow b. To find the true length of jack bar number 1 in Fig. 499, use the triangle shown in Fig. 500. As the width in Fig. 499 is 13 in. or 1 ft. I in., simply measure the distance of a c in Fig. 500 and add to it the true length of a d. Then 1 ft. on the horizontal equals c a on the slant plus 1 in. on the horizontal, which equals d a on the slant. With the two foot rule measure the length of c a plus da; this gives the true length of the jack bar, which is measured from the arrow points d to v in the jack bar pattern in Fig. 489. Whatever be the length of jack bar number 1 in Fig. 499, jack bar number 2 will be twice the length of number I, since the two divisions of glass are equal. Should it occur that the divisions between the jacks are unequal, as shown in the lower right hand corner of the sketch, where bar A is spaced 15 in. and bar B 17 in., the length of bar A would be found by measuring the distance c a in Fig. 500 plus e a, which represents the true length of the horizontal 3 inches. Since the second bar B in Fig. 499 is 17 in. from A, we find the true length of jack bar B by adding 15 in. and 17 in., resulting in ^2 in. or 2 ft. 8 in. Use the triangle in Fig. 500 and add c a plus c a plus / a, which is the desired length. To obtain the measuring lengths of the common and hip bars, the following method is used: Deduct the width of the ventilator from the short side of the curb and divide the result by tivo. The width of the vent in Fig. 499 is 6 in., the short side of curb is 78 in. Thus, 78 in. less 6 in. = J2 in., or 6 ft. ; divide this by 2 and we have 3 ft. As the length c a of the triangle, in Fig. 500, is the true length on the 12 in. horizontal, 3 ft. will represent 3 times c a, the true length of the common bar, measured from d to c in the pattern for common bar in Fig. 489. This 3 ft. is also used for finding the true length of the hip bar. Applying the triangle to the hip bar, in Fig. 501, multiply c a by 3, the true length of the bar, measuring from the arrow points on line 2 in the hip bar pattern in Fig. 491. Fig. 502 indicates another example in skylight computation by the aid of the triangles. Here we have a skylight 5 ft. by 10 ft. with a ridge bar. The glass is spaced 15 in. all around, as shown. The length of the ridge bar is found by deducting the short side of the curb from its long side, leaving 5 ft. as the length, measured from d in Fig. 490, where the miter is cut off at d t, reversing on the line d' d to obtain the full girth of the ridge bar. The cut is made along d t for the reason that the ridge bar is cut off square at the ends and requires no miter. Since the spacing between the jacks is 15 in., in Fig. 502, the true length is found by using the triangle, Fig. 500, and adding the sum of the distances c a and e a. To obtain the measuring lengths of the common, hip, center jack and com- mon jack bars, divide the short side of 5 ft. by 2, which gives 2 ft. 6 in. The true length of the common, common jack and center jack bars is found by the use of the tri- angle, Fig. 500, and finding the sum of c a plus c a plus h a; lay out this length full size, measuring from arrow points in the pattern for the common bar in Fig. 489 and the pattern for center jack bar in Fig. 497 and the pattern for the common jack bar in Fig. 498. The lower end cut for the two last mentioned patterns is alike to the cut against the curb, shown by R S in the bar pattern in Fig. 489. The true length of the hip bar shown in Fig. 502 is found by the triangle, Fig. 501, adding together the distances of c a plus c a plus d a, this repre- senting the true length on the 2 ft. 6 in. horizontal. On finding the true lengths of the several bars, the glass is usually ordered, considerably in advance of setting up the work to anticipate the ordinary delays of delivery. The width of the glass will be equal to the dimensions given in either Fig. Fig. f —JO '0-- — A \/5" 15" 15" 15" RIDGE 15" BAR 15" 15" 15'J/ CEN TER \ 44 - JACK BAR / / e O -3 >o / 5s 502. — Another Example in Skylight Computation 499 or Fig. 502 and the length will be equal to the true lengths of the bars, less for expansion one- quarter inch in length and in width. FINDING THE LENGTH OF THE BARS BY COMPUTATION Solution 155 Another method of finding the true length of bars without the aid of triangles, Figs. 500 and 501, SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS is to figure the various lengths, using factors which are found as follows : With the length of the line a c in the sectional view in Fig. 489 known to be 14^ in.,* as nearly as it can be measured with a two-foot rule, divide 14.5 by 12, which gives 1.2, the factor to be used for the common and jack bars. Also with the length of the line c 2, in the elevation of the hip bar in Fig. 491 known to be 18.75 in.,f as nearly as it can be measured with a two-foot rule, divide 18.75 by 12. This gives 1.56, the factor for the hip bars. If the patterns have been developed for skylights having a one-third pitch the lengths of the venti- lator, common, hip and jack bars may be obtained quickly by a little figuring, according to the follow- ing method, without using drawings, diagrams, scales, triangles, etc. The factors here given for obtaining the lengths of common, hip and jack bars are based on one- third pitch or 8 to 12. Should the reader be accus- tomed to employ some other pitch, it is an easy matter to find the factors. This subject will be taken up in due course. Assume that a skylight is to be made of one-third pitch, the curb of which measures 4 ft. x 6 ft. 8 in. ; the width of the ventilator to be 6 in., all as shown in Fig. 503. What must be the length of the ven- tilator? — S'-8-- * /.J.B. * I 19.2" ... s ^: ,. > Y 7 . <; ■f6 '-- *■ «—/*---•• «...-, ■£.'.. - C- ■~~/6 "-—>- Fig. 503 — Skylight, One-third Pitch, with Ventilator The rule is to deduct the short side of the curb from the long side and add the width of the venti- lator. Thus 6 ft. 8 in. less 4 f t. = 2 ft. 8 in. ; and 2 ft. 8 in. plus 6 in. (the width of the ventilator) = 3 ft. 2 in., as shown in Fig. 503. The factor to be used in obtaining the lengths of the common and jack bars on a one-third pitched skylight is 1.2, as already explained, and the follow- *The accurate of a c is 14.42. 4/l2 2 +8— 14.42. tThe accurate distance of a2 is 18.76. ■V / 12 2 +12 2 +8"— 18.76. ing rule applies to all skylights of one-third pitch : Deduct the width of the ventilator from the short side of the curb, then divide by 2, and multiply this by 1.2. The short side of the curb, 4 ft., less 6 in. (the width of the ventilator), leaves 3 ft. 6 in. Divide this by 2, thus obtaining 1 ft. 9 in., or 21 in. Now multiply 21 in. by 1.2, obtaining 25.2 in., the length of the 4 common bars in Fig. 503. Having found the width between the hips and jack bars to be 16 in., as shown, multiply 16 x 1.2, obtain- ing 19.2 in., which is the length of the eight jack bars. The factor used for the hip bar is 1.56 on one- third pitches only, as explained. Using the same number (21) as was used in getting the length of the common bars, 21 x 1.56 = 32.76 in., the length of the four hips. The same factors can be used when the skylight is smaller or larger providing, however, that one-third pitch be employed. Assume that a skylight is 3 ft. 3 in. x 5 ft. 5 in., * ... /j--. i.^...-/^ ''--=- < // ■>+< — fS- — «4< — /3"—v 4 X 5 i t /J.B I A /S.6" *, \ R 2-2" B / "•) > s Y <0 V 4 to 17, shown from B to D; this distance is found to be i8>4 in- Divide 18.25 by 12, obtaining 1.52, the factor for finding the true length of the hip bars. The foregoing method applies to hipped sky- lights of all pitch. With the factor for the common and jack bars known to be 1.14, and the factor for the hip bar to be 1.52, in skylights having 6J4 in. rise to 1 ft. of run, the true lengths may be found as explained in the two examples illustrated by Figs. 506 and 507. \ 1 k— 14--- *)< 14---»f«— 14— ~>]« 14" --*M — 14~-»j< — 14-- Fir;. 506. — Example of Problem for Skylight with Ven- tilator Fig. 506 is a skylight with a ventilator 8 in. wide, with a curb measuring 4 ft. 8 in. x 7 ft. The length of the ventilator is found by deducting 4 ft. 8 in. from 7 ft. and adding the width of the ventilator, thus : 84 in. less 56 in. = 28 in., plus 8 in. = 36 in., or 3 ft. To obtain the length of the common bars, deduct the width of the ventilator from the shortest side of the frame and divide by 2, thus : 56 in. less 8 in. = 48 in. divided by 2 = 24 in. Multiply 24 in. by 1. 14; this gives 27.36 in., which is the length of the common bar shown in Fig. 506. Multiply 24 in. by 1.52, which will give 36.48 in., or the length of the hip bars. As the space between the jack bars is 14 in., multiply 14 in. by 1. 14, which will give 15.96 in., or the length of the jack bars. If a skylight is desired without a ventilator, as shown in Fig. 507, say 6 ft. 6 in. by 9 ft. 9 in., the length of the ridge bar would be found by sub- tracting the short from the long side, as 9 ft. 9 in. less 6 ft. 6 in. leaves 3 ft. 3 in., which is the length of the ridge bar in Fig. 507. In this skylight there are two jack bars, marked 1 and 2, a center jack bar marked Cen. J. B., also a common jack bar marked Com. J.'B. To find the true length of the common bars, simply divide the narrow side of the curb by 2, thus : 6 ft. 6 in. divided by 2 gives 3 ft. 3 in., or 39 in. As every inch in the run is increased 0.14 in. in the pitch, multiply 39 in. x 1.14, which will give 44.46 in., the true length of the common, center jack and common jack bars. Using the same number, 39. as was employed in obtaining the length of the SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 291 common bar, multiply 39 in. x 1.52, which will give 59.28 in., the length of the hip bars as shown in Fig- 5°7- As the jack bars are 13 in. apart, use the proper factor 1. 14 and multiply it by 13, resulting in 14.82 in., the length of jack bar No. I. As the bars are equally spaced, namely 13 in., then bar No. 2 will -- b a CO \ < -3'3- 1C" 13"/ /J.B. > 1. CO / 14.82 ■' / J.B. 4 CO I 29.64" Cen. J. B. ~C£ -} CO i v 03 R.B. s 5 44.46" q 4 CO 1- CO T /if V |<^13^-13^-13 : 4^13 : H^13 :i >j<-13->{^13 ! VJ<-13 I: >}<- 13^ Fig. 507. — Example of Problem for Skylight without Ventilator be twice 14.82 in., or 29.64 in. long. Should the bars be unequally spaced, as shown at a and b, the length of bar at a would be 13 times 1.14 in., and the length of jack bar b would be 13 plus 16, or 29 times 1. 14 in. The use of this simple method for obtaining meas- urements will upon practice demonstrate it to be the most effective means of saving time. HIPPED OCTAGONAL SKYLIGHT Solution 157 Fig. 508 presents a plan and elevation of an octa- gonal skylight of hip shape. The methods followed in developing these patterns are alike to those used in the hipped skylight discussed in the preceding pattern solutions. Hence the description given in connection with Fig. 509 is brief. Let G H be the center line, and, using any point upon it, as C, describe the one-quarter plan of the octagonal skylight on its curb line, as indicated by D E F G. Draw the hip lines, E C and F C. Above this quarter plan draw a sectional view of the sky- light on the line C D in plan, as follows : In line with the curb line E D in plan, draw the profile of the curb, indicated by A, from which the desired pitch of the skylight is drawn until it cuts the center line, G H, as shown. Draw the profile of the jack bar, indicated by B, and, parallel to the pitch of the skylight draw any short lines above the profile B. as X Y. From the various intersections or small figures, 1 to 6, in B, draw lines at right angles to the pitch of the skylight, intersecting the line X Y from 1 to 6, as shown. Parallel to the pitch of the skylight, from the intersections 1 to 6 in profile B, draw lines intersecting the curb A from 1' to 6', as shown. Take a tracing of the various numbered intersections, 1 to 6, on X Y in the sectional view, and place it at right angles to the hip line C E in plan, as indicated by X° Y", taking care that the points 1, 2, 4 come directly on the line C E. Through these small figures, 1 to 6, in the upper half of the PLAN Fig. 508. — Plan and Elevation of Octagonal Skylight Having Intersecting Hips bar, draw lines parallel to C E cutting the center line C D in plan from 1 to 6 and intersecting lines drawn vertically from similar numbers, 1' to 6', in the profile A, thus obtaining the miter line in plan, between the hip bar and curb, as shown from 1' to 6'. From the intersections, 1 to 6, on the center line C D in plan erect perpendicular lines cutting similarly numbered lines in the sectional view, as shown from i° to 6°. 292 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER 6 Fig. 509. — Patterns for Curb and Ears in an Octagonal Skylight These points of intersection are used in obtaining the pattern for the hip bar, as follows : Take a tracing of the upper half of the hip bar as shown by C, 6, 3', E and place it in a horizontal position, as shown by C°, 6, 3', E° at the right. From the various intersections, 1 to 6 in C° and 1' to 6' in E°, erect perpendicular lines ; intersect them by lines drawn parallel to C° E° from similarly numbered points, i° to 6° and 1' to 6' in the sectional view, thus obtaining the intersecting points i x to 6 X in both M and N in the elevation of the hip bar. Con- nect similar points in the miter lines M and N, as shown. Take a tracing of X° Y° in the plan view, with the various intersections thereon, and place it above the line i x i x in the hip bar elevation in the position shown by X v Y v . At right angles to X v Y v and from the small figures thereon draw lines cutting similar lines in the elevation of the hip. Trace a line through points thus obtained. The profile L will be the profile of the hip bar. The pattern for the hip bar may be laid out as follows : Take the girth of the hip bar L and place it on the line e f drawn at right angles to i x i x . Draw the usual measuring lines and intersect them by SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 293 lines drawn parallel to e f from similarly numbered intersections in the miter lines M and N, which will give the pattern for the hip bar, shown by A in plan and elevation in Fig. 508. To obtain the pattern for the jack bar, marked B in plan and elevation, proceed as follows : Take the divisions on the line X Y in the sec- tional view in Fig. 509 and place them, as indicated by the line X a Y a in plan, which is drawn at right angles to C D, taking pains to place the intersection 1, 2, 4 upon the line g l v , which may be drawn at will. Through the small figures on X a Y a , draw lines parallel to g i v , thus obtaining the miter line be- tween the hip and jack bars in plan, as shown from i v to 6 V . From the various intersections, i v to 6 V in plan, erect lines (partly shown) which should intersect similarly numbered lines in the sectional view in the same way that the miter line of the jack bar was obtained in the sectional view in Fig. 489. Then the pattern for the jack bar in Fig. 509 may be developed in the usual manner, laying off the girth of the profile B on the line a b drawn at right angles to the pitch of the skylight. To obtain the octagonal miter pattern for the curb A, take this girth and place it on the line c d, drawn at right angles to the curb line E F in plan. Draw the usual measuring lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to c d from similar intersections on the miter line Cl', all as shown by the dotted lines. J R then represents the miter cut, and all measure- ments must be taken from the curb line J in the pattern to the required length of one side of the curb, as indicated by the arrow points E to F in plan. A VALLEY BAR Solution 158 Fig. 510 gives a perspective view of a pitched skylight having an interior and an exterior angle. On the exterior angle a hip bar becomes necessary, while in the interior angle a valley bar is required. Note that in the hip, the jack bars intersect the hip bar from the bottom up, while in the valley bar the jacks intersect the valley from the top down. The method of constructing the valley bar and obtaining the pat- tern therefor is shown in detail in Fig. 51 1. The ridge line C F is first drawn. Then the sectional view is constructed to show the profiles of the curb A, the ridge bar B and the common and jack bars E. Above this sec- tional view is shown the plan of the interior angle of the skylight, H C representing the center line of the valley bar. On either side of this center line C H in plan lay off about 3 in., making the width of the metal valley about 6 in., indicated by the arrows. Number one-half of the profile E in the sectional view, as shown by the small figures, 1 to 6, and above the profile E draw the short line a b par- allel to the pitch of the skylight. Project the points 1 to 6 to the line a b, as shown. Transfer the spaces on a b to the line a' V in plan, which is drawn at right angles to C H, taking care to have the points 1, 2, 4 come directly on the line L, as shown. Through these small figures, 1 to 6, draw lines par- allel to C H, intersecting lines erected from similarly numbered intersections between the bar and curb and ridge in the sectional view. Through points thus obtained draw the miter lines in plan, as shown from 1' to 6' at top and bottom. It will be noted that only the lower part of the valley bar in plan appears in the engraving. It serves all requirement, as the opposite or upper side is alike. Since the jack bars intersect the valley bar from the ridge down, draw any line at right angles to C F in plan, as c 2 ; on either side of this line, lay off double the projection of the spaces on a b in the section view, shown by a" b" in plan, taking pains to have the points I, 2, 4 placed directly on the line e 2. Through Fig. 510. — View Showing Location of Valley Bar 294 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER MITER CUT FOR RIDGE BAR N K Fig. 511.— Obtaining Sectional View, Plan and Miter Lines for Jack, Common and Valley Bars these small figures, 1 to 6, and parallel to e 2, draw lines which intersect similarly numbered lines in the 4 5 6 valley bar, as shown by similar numbers. These points are now pro- jected to the sectional view at right angles to e 2, as partly shown by the dotted lines. Thus the heavy line drawn from 1 to 6 in X repre- sents the miter or short cut between the jack and valley and the heavy line from 1 to 6 in Y represents the miter or long cut between the jack and valley. In laying out the pattern for the jack bar, all that remains to be done is to take the girth of the profile E, set it off on the line m n drawn at right angles to the pitch of the skylight, draw the usual measuring lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to m n from similarly numbered intersections in B, Y and X. This operation is not shown in the drawing, as it is similar to the problems on jack bars already described. The pattern for the curb A is simply a miter cut of an inside angle and needs no description. The ridge bar B in the sectional view miters at an inside angle, as at C in plan, and the gutter of the ridge B miters with the gut- ter of the valley bar, as shown by the dotted lines 4', 5' and 6' in the miter line S in plan. SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 295 1-2-4 Fig. 512. — Pattern for Valley Bar To obtain these two cuts proceed as follows : Draw any line at right angles to F C in plan, as shown by it v; on this place the girth of the ridge bar B in the sectional view, as shown by similar letters and numbers on u v. Through these small figures and at right angles to u v draw lines and intersect these lines by lines drawn parallel to u v from similar points of intersection on the miter line O' T and S in plan. Trace a line through points thus obtained. N O P R will be the desired miter pattern. Referring to the upper part of the jack bar where it miters with the gutter of the ridge bar, this miter cut is obtained, as was explained in connection with Fig. 457. where was obtained the cut A" in the pattern for back of curb. The method of obtaining the pattern for the valley bar is shown in Fig. 512. Take a tracing of the 2<5t> THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER half valley bar C H in plan in Fig. 511, and place it in a horizontal position, as shown by C H in Fig. 512; from the various points of intersection, o to 6 in H and o to 6 in C, erect perpendicular lines to anv hight. Parallel to C H draw any line, as D d. Measuring from the line d D in the sec- tional view in Fig. 511 take the various distances to points o to 6 in the profile A, also to points o to 6 in the profile B, and place them in Fig. 512 upon lines drawn from similar numbers in plan, measur- ing in each instance from the line D d thus obtaining the points of intersection at the bottom or curb and at the top or ridge, both miter lines being indicated by the heavy lines drawn from o to 6. Connect these points by lines, as shown, thus obtaining the eleva- tion of the valley bar. The true profile of the valley bar must now be found, as follows : Extend the line a' V in plan in Fig. 511 as a' c' and transfer the divisions from o to 6 on this line, as shown from o to 6 on both sides on the line a' c' in Fig. 512, drawn parallel to the pitch of the valley bar. At right angles to a' c' and from the various figures thereon, erect lines, which will intersect lines having similar numbers in the elevation. The lines are indicated also by the small figures 6 to o to 6, through which points the profile of the valley bar is traced. Note the forma- tion of the bar and be careful to make the hight of the standing edge, 1-2 on either side, no more than the thickness of the glass to be used, thus allowing the water to flow off readily into the metal valley. The pattern may now be laid out. Take the girth of the profile W and place it on the line J K drawn at right angles to the pitch of the valley bar. Through these small figures and at right angles to J K draw lines and intersect them by lines, drawn parallel to J K from similarly numbered points of intersection in both miter lines in the elevation of the valley bar. Trace a line through points thus obtained. L M S O P R will be the desired pattern. The cut on the con- densation gutter at N S will miter with the cut on the condensa- tion gutter of the ridge bar, shown by P R in the ridge bar pattern in Fig. 511. CONSTRUCTION OF A RAISING SASH Solution 159 A perspective view of a raising sash is given in Fig- 513- A sash of this nature is used to provide for ventilation. When the sash is not too long, it is usually raised its entire length, as shown in the en- graving, and is operated by means of gearings as explained under Terms and Definitions. If the sash be of such length that it cannot be raised in its entirety the upper part is arranged to open, as from a to b' '. The method of developing the patterns for a sash of this nature is alike to that by which the patterns for a flat skylight are obtained, the consideration of main importance being the constructive features for avoiding leaks, to which relates the illustration of Fig. 514- Here is shown a constructive section through c b in Fig. 513. A in Fig. 514 indicates the formation of the upper curb, so arranged as to rest upon the flange of the I beam. B shows the profile of the half bar or side bar of the raising sash, inhering at the top with the upper sash bar, formed in one piece from a to b. The formation of the weather cap is indicated from c to d and so arranged that Fig. 513. — Perspective View of a Raising Sash SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 297 the cap enters the brick joint at d and with a hooked arrangement at c, so that when the sash is closed it locks at a and forms a weather- proof connection. Should fine snow or rain pene- trate at c, the dripping runs out through small weep holes cut at the lowest part of the cap sash bars at d and d. c c in- dicates the pivot shown by e in Fig. 514 and is made of hard brass wire 3/16 in. thick. A detailed working sec- tion through c f in Fig. 513 is shown in Fig. 516. A shows the main curb over which the sash curb B oper- ates. It is formed as shown from 1 to 2, with weep holes cut in the corner a of the sash curb, permitting the condensation to escape to the curb A, where it passes to the outside through the weep holes cut at b. This bottom curb, B miters with the side sash bar, indi- 514. — Constructive Section through a b in Fig. 513 hood, indicated by the arrow. The dotted lines and section in- dicate the appearance of the sash when open, swinging on the pivot c. A detailed section through c d in Fig. 513 is shown in Fig. 515. Here A and A show the two half bars, while B and B show the two sash bars, overlapping the glass laid in the half bars at b and b. On the bottom of the sash bars, gutters are formed, as shown by a a. c c shows the half caps, which are soldered to the 1 ^ Constructive Section through c d in Fig. 513 cated by C, which over- laps the half bar D, as described in connection with Fig. qi;. Fig. 516. — Sectional View through ( - / in Fig. 513 WATERTIGHT SKYLIGHT CONSTRUCTION INVOLVING RAISING SASHES Solution 160 To determine the methods to be followed in the construction of a watertight and storm proof sky- light with raising sashes, we may take for purpose of treatment an example of successfully executed work. The example is a skylight made of 18 oz. cold rolled copper, 6 ft. wide 14 ft. long, double pitched, of 30 degree slope, the two sides raised to the full 14 ft. length, see Fig. 517. 298 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER BOTH SIDES TO RAISE FULL LENGTH if "Ilk II '' , I 1 1 M p v ii. "Mi m fijii m m mi END VIEW H- — u' 4 inches at the bottom and 1 Y\ inches at the top. In conclusion, it may be well to state that the sheet metal used on work of this kind, is usually 18 oz. copper. The glass was l /\ inch plain ribbed and the entire skylight was covered with an extra heavy diagonal mesh screen, which is supported on angles independent of the skylight (not shown in the drawings. ) All of the methods here described are in accord- ance with underwriters' and building department regulations. CONSTRUCTION OF THE SAW TOOTH SKYLIGHT A Practical Description of this Form of Roof Light; with Helpful Hints Solution 165 In buildings of modern construction increas- ing attention is being given to light and ven- tilation. The so-called "saw-tooth" type of skylight is at present being used extensively in factory con- struction. One of these is illustrated in Fig. 540. The details as given herewith are for a method that the shape of the sheet metal work is such that no difficulty should be experienced in bending it on the brake. This is true indeed of all the shapes of this skylight. Furthermore, the shape is such that all condensation flowing into it from the bars will readily drain to the outside through the scup- pers. These scuppers can be of either square or round tubing, and one should be placed between all of the bars. The curb is carried through the entire length of the skylight, as is also the top rail, which is indi- cated as B in Fig. 541, and is a section on line B in Fig. 540. The part marked 2 is cut away over the raising sashes ; otherwise there is no change at these sashes. As a rule a crown mold like that shown in Fig. 540, caps these skylights. This can merely lap over the flange of the top rail, as shown in Fig. 541. Note the shoulders 3 and 4 in both the curb and the top rail. The purpose of these is to act as a glass rest and as a means of securing the bars without doing a lot of soldering, because in erecting these skylights the top rail and curb are set in place first and then the bars. The section of the bar is C of Fig. 541 ; that is, on line C of Fig. 540. This is an ideal shape of bar, inasmuch as the generously large condensation gut- ters 5 provide a sure means of catching the drip from the bars and conveying it to the curb. Also, Fig. 540.— General View of One Tooth of a Saw Tooth Roof or Skylight that is economical and still practical, weathertight and proof against condensation trouble. In Fig. 540 is a general view of one tooth. It is understood that usually there are more than one of these lights to a roof — a series like the teeth of an inverted saw. In Fig. 541 various details, or rather sections, are presented of the stationary parts of the skylight; A is the curb or section on line A of Fig. 540. Note the straight part 6 enables a better connection to be made with the cross clip. The customary T cap 7 covers the putty joint of the glass with the bar. This cap is secured to the bar by a small round head bolt, and the putty joint at the top rail is protected by a half T cap, 8, which is held in place only by the thrust of the cap 7. One of the essentials not to be forgotten in de- 3 o8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER signing these sky- lights is the demand for plenty of ventila- tion. For that reason it is generally speci- fied that a certain number and size of ventilators are to be set on the ridge of the saw-tooth, and that some of the lights are to be so arranged that they may be opened either their entire length or, more likely, their upper half. In Fig. 542, D is a section on line D of Fig. 540. The part 2 of Fig. 541 is removed so that the weather-cap. 2 of Fig. 542, may be in- serted in the resulting slot, this of course to be soldered water-tight at 3. Note the shape of the top rail, 4, of the raising sash and how its upper part moves within the weather-cap when being opened or closed. A 3/16 in. rod is the pivot about which this top rail revolves, this rod to be passed through holes in the bars on either side of the raising sash and through holes in the sides of the top rail of the lifting sash. This rod should be soldered to the top rail of the sash, so that it will not shift out of place and will turn on the side bars. The holes of the side bars are therefore reenforced by soldering small washes, 6 in E of Fig. 542. The E mentioned is a section on line E of Fig. 540 looking up toward the top rail. Note the shape of the bar on either side of the sash. The bar at this place is made in two parts — the shape of C in Fig. 541 from the curb up to the bottom rail of the sash, then the shape E of Fig. 542 up to the top rail. Also, the cap from the curb up to the bottom of the sash is like that in Fig. 541, then the upper half is as in Fig. 542. This cap is not bolted on, but tacked with solder at 7, in E Fig. 542. Note the shape of the sides of the lifting sash, and how part of it forms over the stationary bar to make a weathertight joint and still permits the sash to lift. Note also that the putty joint is capped by a simple half V cap, which is tacked with solder, at 9 to the side of the sash. A section on the line F in Fig. 540 is given by F in Fig. 542. The lower half or stationary part of the light is topped out by an ordinary cross-clip 10, the lower rail of the sash, 12, being shaped so that it rests on the cross-clip in a manner that assures the shedding of the water from the glass of the sash onto the glass of the lower or stationary part, a hole at 15 draining condensation in the gut- ters of the sash into the cross-clip, then into the gutter of the bars and thence into the scuppers. Should it be required that the entire light be movable, the lower rail of the sash would have the same shape, part 16 of Fig. 542 lapping onto part 16 of Fig- 541- Although the sheet metal worker may not be concerned with the method of framing these roofs, it should be remembered that struts are usually placed at the ends, whether Roof Flashing Fi K S4I —Details of the Parts of the Stationary Sections of the Skylight the end butts against a wall, as shown at one end in Fig. 540, or if a framed-in end as shown at the other end in Fig. 540, and again intermediate struts occur at intervals, as at G in Fig. 540. Consequently, in this method of making a skylight, a special bar is required like G in Fig. 543, which is a section on line G of Fig. 540. Part 2 of Fig. 543 for the ends is turned around the side to lap over or be connected to the tin, or to whatever other material covers the bulkhead and roof proper. At the wall end this part is bent out upon and stepped into the joints in the wall and cemented tightly with elastic cement. For the in- termediate struts part 2 simply caps the strut, and is the connecting medium of a bar G on both sides of the strut. SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 309 Various means and devices are employed to raise the sashes. However, should gear- ing be specified, it would be necessary to make a different side bar at the sashes, but al- most always a simple arc, 25 of Fig. 542, of band iron, riveted to the sash and actu- ated by the pull of a cord is the means of opening the sash. A band iron is riveted to the side bars, at 28. At the center of this band iron, knees 35, are riveted, to which the arc 25 is riveted. A heavy piece of band iron is riveted to the bars (not to the cross-clip, which would fail to provide sufficient strength), and to this band iron a damper-pully, 42, is riveted. Then a sash cord is tied to a ring in the arc, passed through the pulley and wrapped about an awning cleat, which is placed conveniently somewhere below. The ventilators shown in Fig. 540 may be of any type desired, but they should be provided with dampers, and a drip pan should be placed inside under the opening to catch the condensation, inas- much as these ventilators sweat excessively on this type of roof. CONSTRUCTION OF SKYLIGHT ON STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING Solution 166 When skylights are placed over large openings, having long spans, their frames are usually made of angle and tee irons by the structural steel contractor, and later made water and storm proof with either galvanized iron or copper by the sheet metal worker. Fi g- 544 gives a typical sectional view of a structural steel frame having stationary louvres at the sides, as usually placed over buildings of fireproof con- struction. The following description of the structural steel work, as well as of the concrete base and wood blocking over which the sheet metal worker is to place his metal, presents a typical job from which measurements must be taken by the skylight maker. A plan of the corner is shown in the lower part of the illustration, and illustrates the angle which sup- ports the upper tees, placed at intervals, between Fig. 543.— Section of the End Bar and One-half Section of the Bar at the Struts Fig. 542.— Details of the Raising Sash which stationary louvres (in this case) are to be set. Wood blockings are placed around the angle in plan forming panels as indicated. In this construc- tion the sheet metal worker should note that the metal covering is so constructed that three standing seam locks as placed at A, B and C can be locked with the least amount of labor. The locks A and B are so placed that they form a flange, against which the back of the louvres are set as indicated, while the standing lock at C comes directly on the corner at the outside. Where there are middle mullions the same construction is employed. The base of the curb above the roof line indicated by X in the section view is made of concrete around the angle. Over this a wood sill has been placed. At 3*° THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Scale 3 = J Fig. 544. — Sectional View of Structural Steel Frame Show- ing General Details of Construction the eave of the frame blocking has again been intro- duced. This is fastened around the angles and channel as shown. The ridge of the skylight is supported by an I-beam, over which the T is placed. The common bars are also made of T irons, as shown in the sec- tional view Fig. 545. The method of covering the blocking, tees, chan- nels, etc., will now be taken up in detail. Starting at the base flashing G of the roof, as seen in Fig. 544, it will be seen that this flashing, as well as the Condensation Gutters Fig. c;4s. — Section of Common Skylight Bar bottom of the sill, is secured by means of copper cleats about 1 J /> in. wide in the following manner : The cleat is first nailed to the concrete by means of the nails H, placing them at intervals of 12 in. or more, and bending them as shown in the diagram Fig. 546.- -Securing Flashings and Lower Parts of Sills by Means of Cleats marked 1 in Fig. 546. The base flashing shown by G in the sectional view Fig. 544 is now set in position as shown in diagram 2, Fig. 546, and the cleat turned down as indicated. The sill is next covered in sec- tional view, Fig. 544, and the back is formed as shown by D-E. The front and drip flange are made as indicated from D to F and an acute drip is made at /. The sill is locked at D, care being taken to have this lock come directly behind the lock B in plan. The lower flange of the drip of the sill at / is now set over the cleat as indicated in diagram 3, Fig. 546, and the cleat turned against this flange as shown. Thus it will be seen that this cleat secures the base flashing as well as the sill flashing and still allows for the expansion and contraction of the metal. The upper part of the blocking is covered with sheet metal as shown in Fig. 544 from a to b to c to d, making a double edge at b. This edge should be bent so that it will set on the outside of the lock shown by B in plan. The entire covering a-b-c-d can then be pressed up from below and fastened at a and d. If a gutter is desired at the eave, which is the proper construction, light band iron brackets in- SHEET METAL SKYLIGHTS 3" dicated by P are screwed at intervals of 24 in. on the wood blocking at i. The supporting bar is then bolted at h, the hole being countersunk on the in- ner side of the brace to receive the gutter as shown, after which the bar and brace are secured at /. The gutter with curb combined can next be set, but care should be taken to see that the iron worker has bolted the tees to the horizontal channel in the man- ner shown by the angle Y , allowing a space in which to slip up the condensation gutter flange t. The curb and gutter are bent in one piece from S to t to R. A wired edge is formed at the front and the distance at 5 should be equal to the thick- ness of glass in use. At the bottom of the con- densation gutter t, holes must be punched for the escape of any inside condensation, as indicated by the arrow. The common bar is indicated in Fig 545 and bent as shown from / to m to n, allowing the con- densation gutters at / and n and allowing for the thickness of the tee at 111. This method permits the metal covering to slip over the tee from the top, and the mitering of the bar to the curb at the bot- tom, to allow the escape of the condensation. The glass is now set in white lead putty, and care must be exercised to keep the putty from filling the condensation gutter on the inside. Over the glass, caps are placed, forming them as shown by r. Through holes, previously punched in the tee bars by the iron worker, 3/16 in. brass bolts with round heads are passed through the cap, sheet metal bar and tee bar and secured by nuts indicated by j. In a similar manner the ridge bar V in Fig. 544 is formed. The condensation gutters placed at u and v miter with gutters in the common bar. When the glass has been set the ridge cap W is bent as shown by w-x and secured with the brass bolt y. This method of construction is simple and effec- tive. When the span of the bar is long and the glass cannot be obtained in long lengths, instead of using a cross bar the glass is overlapped 3 in., using a twisted strand made of oakum, which allows for a soft rest and tight joint. The stationary louvres are indicated by L, M, N and 0. L and are false louvres, flanged out at e and /. Of course, these louvres are spaced as de- sired, according to the hight required between c and /. Sometimes the louvres are made movable, so that they can be closed or opened as desired. In that case a pivot will have to be placed through the center of each louvre and into the wood or iron work at the sides. Then by means of skylight gearings they can be operated by pole, wheel or chain as described in preceding solutions. PART XV SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING Constructive Features of the Various Forms of Metal Roofing in Flat Seam, Standing Seam and Batten Roofing, By the Medium of Tin Plate, Galvanized Sheet Iron, Copper or Zinc as Roof Covering; the Methods Employed in Allowing for the Expansion and Contraction of the Metal; Also the Method of Applying Corrugated Galvanized Iron or Copper Roofing and Siding and Obtaining Water-tight Joints at the Eave, Wall, Valley and Ridge. OHEET metal roofing may be laid on any surface, whether flat, inclined, curved or vertical. There are four forms of construction in which the sheet metal worker is interested. These are known as flat seam, standing seam, that form of roofing employ- ing wood battens and finally corrugated roofing and siding, chiefly used on piers and storage structures. Flat seam roofing is adaptable to all conditions, while standing and batten seams should be laid on roofs whose pitches are not less than four inches to the foot or in other words a one-sixth pitch. Pre- paratory to applying metal roofing it is important to select wood sheathing of well seasoned dry lum- ber, of even thickness and free from holes. The roof as well as the gutters should have sufficient slope to shed the water and thereby prevent gath- ering of dirt in shallow accumulations. If steam, fumes or gases are likely to reach the under side of the metal, water-proof sheathing paper is an effective protection for placing beneath the metal. Tar paper is not adapted to this purpose. LAYING FLAT SEAM ROOFING Solution 167 The following methods are applicable to laying both tin and copper flat seam roofing. While the ex- pansion of copper roofing varies in greater extent than that of tin plate, the methods of allowing for the expansion and contraction of the metal at the walls and in fastening the sheets, do not differ. Upon selecting the suitable size of sheets for use, the first step is to properly notch the corners of the sheet, as shown in Fig. 547. If, for example, a ;Hs-inch lock is desired simply set the dividers at % inch and scribe a line around the entire sheet, as partly shown in the upper right hand corner ; where the lines intersect at a draw a line at an angle of 45 degrees as shown by 1-2, in other words the dis- tances from b to 1 and b to 2 must be alike. On finding the amount required to be notched, as 1-2, the gauges on the tin plate notcher are set accord- ingly. The edges of the sheets are next folded, or edged, on the edging machine, as shown in Fig. 548, the long and short sides of the sheet being turned right and left, as indicated. The sheets are then ready for flat seam roofing. If a valley occurs in the roof, the sheets therefor are notched as in Fig. 547, but are edged as shown in Fig. 549, where the two narrow sides of the sheet are shown as turned one way and the long sides as turned right and left. If so required the two long sides may be turned one way, and the two narrow sides to the right and left. For wall flashings, to be laid, the sheets are notched /" ; b a s 3 J a 547 Fig. 547. — Proper Method of Notching the Sheet Pre- vious to Edging for Flat Seam Roofing 54-S TOP J Fig. 548. — Sheet Edged for Flat Seam Roofing 549 ropS Fig. 549. — Edged Valley Sheet for Flat Seam Roofing 312 550 Fig. 550. — Notching the Sheet for Wall Flashings for Flat Seam Roofing SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 313 on the narrow end, as shown in Fig. 550 and are edged as indicated in Fig. 551, the unedged end being placed under the cap flashing when the base flashing is laid. On beginning work upon a flat seam tin roof the wall flashings are first installed. The 55! ~™^~ Fig. 551.— Edged Sheet for Wall Flashing in Flat Seam Roofing sheets are locked together to the required length, with care to make them up right and left, that is, for each side of the roof, so that drainage will not flow against the seam. When the required number of sheets have been so locked they are turned up, under the cap flashing, as shown in Fig. 552, with care that part X is of equal width throughout the flashing. The cap flashing a should be given a sub- The back and bottom of the tin base flashing as well as the outside portion that underlaps the cap flash- ing should be coated with durable metallic paint or a layer of one ply oiled paper may be placed behind the base flashing to prevent the moisture in the wall or, lime in the mortar, from attacking and destroy- ing the tin plate. On fastening the lock of the base flashing, as well as of the edged sheets, cleats should be employed as shown in Fig. 553. Such cleats may be made about 2 1 /, in. long x l / 2 in. wide; they are locked and nailed as shown. The cleat is turned over the nail head as indicated in Fig. 554. This serves to pre- vent the nail from raising and consequent rusting of the underside of the upper sheet. Only the I in. tinned barbed wire nails are successfully used for this purpose. Over the cleat the next sheet is locked as shown in Fig. 555 when the seam is closed down with a smooth faced mallet. If the question of ex- pense is not of the first consideration and a superior class of work be desired, the roof boards are covered with a layer of oiled paper before the metal roofing is applied. Thus, moisture or fumes are prevented attacking the tin plate from underneath. Fig. 556 Fig. 552.— Method of Building in Cap Flashing and Setting Base Flashing Fig. 553-— Securing the Metal Sheets with Cleats stantial coat of metallic paint, and be permitted to dry before delivery of the flashing to the mason who builds it into the brick wall. These cap flash- ings are usually made up in the shop during slack season, the method being to lock together and solder five sheets of 14x20 in. tin and to edge the 14 in. sides of the sheets only. They are then cut through the center, each strip being 7 in. wide by five sheets long. They are next bent in the brake, through the center, thus providing 33^ in. on each side. Upon being well painted and thoroughly dried they are ready for delivery to the mason ; see a in Fig. 552. 555 Fig. 554-— Covering the Nail Head Fig. 555-— Locking the Adjoining Sheet and Closing the Seam illustrates the laying of a flat roof with the outlet in its center, at the wall. The outlet box a-b-c-d has locks on three sides ; it is cleated as shown and as previously described. The water flowing in the direction of the arrows, requires a valley, along I_2 -3-4 for which purpose, valley sheets are em- ployed, as shown in Fig. 549 ; they are cleated as in- dicated on the sheets 1-2-3 ar >d 4 in Fig. 556. Only by proper care in all cases to break joints in the tin plate, as indicated, may the work be successfully executed. Thus starting with the half sheet 5, con- tinue with 6 and 7, then with a full sheet at 8-9, 3 J 4 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Fig. 556.— Plan View of Roof Through Line of Cap Flashing in Wall, Showing Cap Flashing, Base Flashing, Outlet Box, Valley Sheets and Method of Laying and Cleating the Sheets etc. ; invariably use three cleats to the sheet, as in- dicated by the letters a-a, etc. Since the roof drain- age flows the two ways, the opposite side of the valley is also started with a half sheet, at 10, con- tinuing with full sheets 11-12, etc. The main con- pers," are brought into use. The soldering coppers should be given the proper heat and be permitted to rest over and upon the lock so that the seam may be sweated throughout, as indicated at b in Fig. 557. Haste in ap- plying the soldering copper over the edge of the lock, results in the solder sweating in only to a limited extent, as shown by the shaded part a, in Fig. 558. On frame buildings having shed roofs, the eave line of the roof is sometimes finished as shown in Fig. 559. A lower strip is formed as shown from C to A ; it is nailed at A and the lock is hammered flat to prevent the nails from drawing outward. Over this upper edge, the tin sheets are locked, at C, and the lock B is cleated, as at D. Should the roof. X, have but little pitch and there be danger of drainage penetrating between the lock, at C, the lock C may be turned down with a mallet as indicated in diagram Y, to the right. If no parapet wall runs above the line of the roof, a ledge strip may be used, as shown in Fig. 560; this is nailed below at a, with a drip at b, a standing ledge at c and the lock d which is cleated as has been described. After completion of the metal roofing, all rosin should be scraped off and the roof given three coats of metallic or red lead paint. Fig. 557- — A Thoroughly Soldered Seam Fig. 558. — Improper Method of Sold- ering Seam Fig. 559- — Finishing Metal Roof at Eave Fig. 560. — Finishing Roof at Sides sideration is, always to lay the roof from the outlet without regard to where the latter is situated, in order that water will flow over the seam and not against it. When the roof has been laid and the seams well malleted to effect a smooth surface, rosin is used as a flux and the seams are thoroughly "soaked with solder" ; for this purpose the 10 lb. to the pair soldering coppers, known as "roofing cop- LAYING METAL ROOFING OVER WOODEN STRIPS OR BATTENS Solution 168 When a tin or galvanized iron roof is to be laid over wooden strips to give a prominent ribbed ef- fect to the roof, something after the fashion of a copper roof, it can be accomplished as herein de- SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 315 scribed and illustrated. The first step is to prepare the tin in strips or the galvanized iron in sheets. Tor this purpose either 14 in. X 2 ° m - or 2 ° m - X Fig. 561. — Laying the Tin Sheets in Strips 28 in. tin, as shown in Fig. 561, can be used or sheets 8 or 10 feet long, of galvanized iron. The proper width of sheet to use is determined by the spacings between the wooden strips and the amount that the metal is to turn up on either side as will be shown. Having determined the required size of the sheets, they are laid in strips of the desired length, soldering the cross seams abed of Fig. 561. As will be noticed, only the long sides of the tin sheets, or the narrow sides of the galvanized iron are edged, right and left, to admit the locking of the sheets. Care should be taken to have the sides of the strip from A to B straight and true. This can best be accomplished be either striking a chalk line on the floor, to act as a guide, or a straight strip of wood can be nailed to the floor, against which the sheets are laid when they are being locked together. The required quantity of roofing is prepared, after which care should be taken that the wooden strips, known to the carpenter as "battens," are nailed in Fig. 562. — Spacing the Wooden Strips and Fastening the Cleats their proper positions as shown by B and C in Fig. 562. When nailing these strips the roofer and car- penter should consult, so that the proper dimen- sions are obtained, and to avoid error a wooden template should be used, as shown. The battens, which are usually about 2 inches high by 2 inches wide on top, taper toward the bottom, to allow for expansion of the metal, as will be explained. After the battens have all been nailed in position, cleats approximately 1 inch wide and of sufficient length are nailed at intervals of about 12 inches along the batten, as shown by a, b, d, e, and /, pressing them snugly against the slanting sides of the battens, as shown. The metal strips are now turned up square at either side at the required hight with the roofing tongs, after which they are placed between the battens, as shown in Fia 563. — Reason for Beveling the Wooden Strips and Method of Fastening the Metal Roofing Fig- 563- These strips having been bent up square, their width is thus made equal to the distance be- tween the upper part of the battens, and thereby provides a space on either side for expansion, as indicated at d and d. Without this the sheets would buckle upward when heated, there being no room for the metal to expand. The strips are now pressed down firmly and the cleats turned over, as shown at a and b. These cleats hold the roofing in position and nailing through the sheets is thus avoided. Under no cir- cumstances should a roof of this kind be nailed. Every strip should be allowed to contract and ex- pand freely by using the cleats, as just mentioned. If any objection should be raised to nailing the cleats to the roof surface, as at a and b in Fig. 562, it can be overcome by the use of two nails, each on the side of the battens, as indicated by x and x. After the strips have been fastened to the roof in this way, an edge must be turned thereon, to which the capping of the batten can be secured, in a man- Fig. 564. — Bending the Edges on the Standing Seam ner indicated in Fig. 564. A wooden strip B, about 3 feet long and as high as the batten, is placed on the inside of the tin strip, as shown, and by means of a mallet a half inch edge is turned over, as shown at C. Over these edges the capping is to be slipped. Measurements are now taken for this capping, 3 l6 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER which can be formed up in the brake in 8 feet lengths, as shown in Fig. 565, where the edge a is bent acute and b is bent at right angles. The bends Fig. 565. — Method of Bending the Cap are made in the manner shown, to allow them to slip easily over the edges of the metal roofing. Where no brake is at hand, the capping may be bent with a roofing tongs. The method of fastening the capping and obtain- Fig. 566. — The Three Operations in Fastening the Cap and Obtaining Watertight Joints over the Wooden Strips ing a watertight joint between the wooden strips and roofing is shown in three operations in Fig. 566. The first operation, A, shows the cap in position, the edge a, having the acute angle, being slipped in position first. B shows the cap with the edges pressed together with the tongs, while C shows the edges turned down with the mallet. Thus it will be seen that, by using this method of construction, no nail is driven through the tin plate, thereby giv- ing free movement for expansion caused by the heat of the sun, or contraction caused by snow or ice. At the eaves, heads must be soldered at the front of the battens, and the cross joints of the cap- ping are soldered where necessary. At the ridge of the roof a batten is also employed, making a finish Fig. 567.— Finishing the Battens at the Ridge along the ridge alike to the illustration in Fig. 567. Before the caps A and B are put in position, the upright corner of the sheet at a is soldered, and after the caps have been locked, a square piece of metal is soldered over the opening at X. Laying Sheet Copper Roofing and Gutters; with the Methods Employed in Pro- viding for the Expansion and Contraction of the Metal One of the main considerations arising in the ap- plication of all metal roofing sheets, whether of copper, tin, galvanized iron or zinc is that of allow- ing for the expansion and contraction of the metal. Of these metals zinc is subject to the greatest ex- pansion, under the influence of heat, copper is next and iron is the least influenced by changes of tem- perature. Familiarity with copper roofing indicates how it will readily expand with the heat from the sun's rays during the day, and will contract in the cool of the nights. Thus the variation in tempera- ture from the summer's heat to the winter's cold is so marked that construction of the various joints and seams to allow free movement of the metal is a positive essential. Results of failure to provide for the expansion and contraction of metal roofing causes the joints to burst or in the case of large sheets, cracking in their centers. The accompany- ing illustrations show how the joints and locks are prepared, cleats are fastened, and expansion joints in the gutters (where lies the chief source of trouble to the mechanic ) are made and placed, also how stone and terra cotta gutters may be lined. LINING GUTTERS WITH SHEET COPPER Solution 169 The first question to dispose of is the selection of the gauge of copper to be used for gutter linings. While gutters are frequently lined with 16 oz. soft copper, the requirements of reliable permanent work demand 20 oz. cold rolled copper, that is, hard rolled copper weighing 20 oz. to each square foot or 12 in. X I2 m - The content is 4 oz. more of weight to the square foot assuring a secure, durable job. On first class work the cornices are sometimes of stone or terra cotta, cut as in Fig. 568, in which A represents the stone or terra cotta cornice having a gutter with the proper pitch cut in it as shown. The top of the cornice A, slopes toward the gutter, to prevent the water dripping down the front. The SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 3U plate F and rafter H forms the rear part of the gutter after the sheathing is put on, as shown. In this case dovetailed holes as shown in detail X, l / 2 in. in diameter, are drilled in the stone work 1 in. deep, 9 in. apart, or are modeled in the terra cotta clay before it is baked hard. The holes are filled with molten lead, then a hole is punched in the center of the cooled lead about Y\ in. deep with a prick punch. This hole is used as a starter in screw- ing in the brass screw. A copper ledge of 20 oz. cold rolled copper of the shape indicated in the section A is bent in 8 foot half and half solder. Under no circumstances should the nails be driven through the sheets. Thus in the gutter described the entire lining is free to move in any direction. On very long gutters, expansion joints are placed in the cross seams as described hereinafter. On gutters having short runs architects sometimes specify that the lining at the front edge be caulked direct to the stone or terra cotta base. While the Fig. 568. — Fastening Copper Lining to Ledge Strip in a Stone or Terra Cotta Gutter Fig. 569. — Securing Copper Fig. Lining in Raggle 570. — Securing Lining to Metal Cornice and Wood Base lengths and these ledges are screwed to the lead plugs previously cast in the small holes, with flat head brass screws, as indicated by a. By placing the holes 9 in. apart the ledge is secured, and on to this ledge the gutter lining B is locked at b, and the lining is flashed on the roof as indicated by C. The back of the lining has a lock attached by which it is fastened to the roof with the cleat D. These cleats are made about i l / 2 in. wide by 3 in. long and are secured to the roof with a brass or copper nail. Note that the metal lining has sufficient play all around the back, bottom and front, so as to allow for expansion without buckling the metal. Failing to make a proper allowance in the lining will cause broken seams and cracks in the center of the sheet. Occasionally a mechanic will make the gutter fit snugly into the gutter proper which is not good practice. We have noted cases where the metal has been forced into the gutter proper with the aim of securing a tight fit but by this method the metal can- not "move." If there be expansion the metal buckles in the center of the sheet and eventually cracks. The cross seams in the gutter should be tinned iy 2 in. wide on each side; then a y 2 in. lock is turned on it and cleated as shown by D. The seams are then malleted flat and thoroughly sweated with method just explained is recommended, Fig. 569 was prepared to show how the specifications are followed. A raggle is cut in the stone or modeled in the clay as indicated at A, with a sloping top constructed from c to d to shed the water toward the gutter. In this raggle and gutter proper, the lining is laid as shown, with a lock B on the rear flange to be cleated, as before described. After the lining is set the raggle at a is either filled with molten lead or sulphur. Lead is usually employed on stone, because it can be caulked into the raggle with a hammer and caulking chisel, a method de- sirable in the case of cornices of stone. In respect to cornices of terra cotta, caulking is likely to split the terra cotta and therefore sulphur is used, be- cause it expands when cooling and fills the raggle. The cross seams are made as before explained. Cornices of sheet copper should be constructed so that the lining can be locked in as indicated in Fig. 570. In this case and in first class work, the inner braces or lookouts are made of angle iron, a, painted with red lead before insertion and bolted in five places indicated by the short dashes as b. The holes in the braces should be countersunk on the outer side and bolted to the copper cornice with flat head brass stove bolts. This angle iron brace 3i8 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER extends back the thickness of the wall as shown, with a reinforced angle riveted in the corner at o. When the wall has been carried as high as c the molding or cornice is set, being secured temporarily with wire to the wood beam or to the iron beam at X, until the balance of the wall has been carried up and the plate and rafters set. This will hold the cornice in position, when the wires may be removed from the beams. The f ramer now lines out the gutter to the proper pitch in connection with which procedure care is re- - Fig. 571. — Section of Wooden Gutter and Lining quired to have the front sheathing come directly under the angle iron, which is bolted to the front edge of the cornice as shown. The iron braces in work of this kind are usually spaced 30 in. apart, which insures a good solid base. The gutter lining is now locked to the projecting ledge of the upper member of the main cornice as shown by the beaded formation A. This bead can be formed on the gutter header, making a clean, neat finish, or if it be preferred an ordinary lock may be used. It is advisable, when the gutter linings require a large girth, to compute requirements before the job is ready and order the extra wide copper direct from the mill. While this extra width will cost a trifle more, it is less expensive than running a long seam in the bottom of the gutter as is usually done, which seam is likely to open and leak if not prop- erly laid. In fact it is always advantageous to order copper in correct widths so that there will be no un- necessary waste. A lock is placed at B, for securing the cleats and the cross seams are made as usual. With cornices of galvanized iron, it is not good practice to connect the copper lining to the cornice for it is well known that copper coming into con- tact with galvanized coating creates an electrical ac- tion, which, with the addition of moisture, starts corrosion of the iron or steel sheet. In some cases galvanized iron cornices are specified with copper linings, so that some form of construction must be devised to avoid this electrical action. This may best be done by insulating the galvanized iron with sheet rubber, as shown in detail T. Pure sheet rubber )/& in. thick is formed V-shape over the ledge of the cornice and is riveted at intervals to take a firm hold. Over this rubber the copper may be locked with safety. Some mechanics use oiled canvas, but this will rot with the action of the weather. With gutters and cornices made entirely of wood, the methods of securing the front ledge strips vary. Fig. 571 shows the section of a wooden gutter and the lining. Particular care should be taken that the top of the cornice at a is planked to shed the water to the rear as destruction of the paint on the outside of the cornice is often caused by the rain running down the front from the top of the cornice when the top is laid level. After the wooden linings are all in, a ledge strip of copper is nailed with copper or brass nails as indicated, at intervals of 9 or 10 in. This ledge strip is more clearly shown in dia- gram A. Over this ledge strip the copper lining is locked at b, with a lock on the back at c for cleating purposes. Note the allowance for expansion at d? which must not be overlooked in connection with the bending of the lining. In diagrams B and D two simple ledge strips are shown, while diagram C in- dicates the most substantial of the four. EXPANSION JOINTS IN COPPER LINED GUTTERS Solution 170 Copper lined gutters of great length, require ex- pansion joints, to be placed at the high ends of the gutter, as shown in Fig. 572. This device consists 1 Detailed . Section through b E * pa nsi on J01 nt Avy Water Spreader Fig. 572. — Expansion Joint in Gutter SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 319 simply of a lapped joint, with a flat head soldered to each end and covered with a locked sliding cap. The gutter is locked to the front ledge, as shown, and cleated at the rear lock, in the usual manner. The cross seam of the gutter at the expansion joint is made as shown in the detailed section indicated above the cut, where the joint is lapped 1% in; it is not nailed or soldered. Preparatory to soldering in position the expansion heads indicated by a and b it is necessary to compute the distance apart at which the heads are to be placed, first ascertaining the length of the gutter. Let us assume that the entire gutter will be 75 ft. in length, with a leader at each end, in which case expansion heads are soldered to the highest point of the gutter, in the center, or 7,7 ft. 6 in. from each end. The accepted coefficient of linear expansion or contraction for copper, per foot of length is .0000095 for each de- gree of temperature. Assuming zero to be the minimum of winter and 90 degrees the warmest weather of the summer, the expansion or contrac- tion is calculated by multiplying the number of feet in the length of the gutter by the variation in tem- perature and multiplying by the coefficient. Thus : 75 X 9° X .0000095 = 6750 X -0000095 = .0641250 ft. By referring to a table of decimal equivalents we find that .0641250 ft. equals — il — in. or say }% in. for practical work. In other words when the temperature is zero the 75 ft. length of copper gutter will contract so that the two heads a and b will stand f\ in. apart. If this gutter were lined in a temperature of 90 degrees the heads would require to meet. As gutter lining is seldom installed during either extremes of temperature, it is necessary to exercise judgment, to deciding ac- cording to the prevailing temperature, how much allowance should be made for expansion or for con- traction. Thus if a gutter were lined when the tem- perature was 45 degrees, equal provision for ex- pansion and for contraction would be made and in soldering the two heads, a and b in position, they would be placed Y% in. apart; this would give an al- lowance of }i in. for further expansion and y% in. for further contraction. Assuming that the heads are soldered in position, with the temperature at 45 degrees, the one head a is soldered flush with the edge of the sheet, while the head b is soldered so that there will be a ^ in. space between the two heads, which allows fully for expansion as above explained. These two heads a and b are partly shown by head a" in the perspective view. On the upper side of the heads a ^4 m - flange is bent out- ward as shown in the detailed section, over which a locked cap is placed as indicated by c, with about Yx in. play between the edges and locks as shown. The heads have laps for soldering purposes on both sides, as indicated by the numbers I, 2 and 3 in the perspective view. The front part of the expansion head is carried to the extreme line of 'the gutter indicated by the arrow at i while the rear part of the expansion head runs flush with the outer edge of the gutter lock at 4. When these heads have been soldered in posi- tion as indicated in the detailed section, the cap, in- dicated by c, is slipped over the projecting edges of the heads, and locked under the front edge of the gutter shown in the perspective view by C and D. To protect from leakage the ij4 in. lapped joint at the lock from 4 to 5, a gore piece indicated by e f is cut off diagonally so water will flow over with- out getting into the seam ; it is slipped under the flange lock as shown by the dotted lines and is soldered only along the top of the locked cap from x to .r. This combines the locked cap and gore in one but allows free movement of the main gutters. Sometimes when the roof is laid flat seam, this style of expansion joint shown in the detailed section is carried throughout the pitch of the roof, with the sides a and b bent direct on to the roofing sheets. To avoid the water running down the top of the expan- sion cap over the front edge of the cornice, there can be placed in the position shown by the arrow E a water spreader, as shown by E°. This throws the water to each side into the gutter where otherwise it would wash down over the front. These expansion heads serve in connection with any shaped gutter, and when placed in position as described relieve the metal of the strain caused by expansion and contraction. This, if carefully done, prevents the cracking of the soldered joints. PROVIDING FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF THE METAL IN BASE AND CAP FLASHINGS Solution 171 Copper base and cap flashings; usually occur against fire walls, chimneys, gables, curbs, dormer windows, etc., and the building materials are either of brick, stone, terra cotta, iron or wood. The fol- lowing methods are for providing for expansion and contraction when the flashings butt against various building materials. Thus, Fig. 573 shows the regulation base and cap flashings against a brick wall. The cap flashing a b, on a good job is }20 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER usually cut y]/ 2 in. wide or four strips from a 30 in. wide sheet, in 8 ft. lengths. In the process of form- ing, it is bent 4 and 35/ in. The 3j/£ in. side is built into the wall as the work progresses, as indicated fig. 573. — Base and Cap Flashing, Against a Brick Wall by b. while the 4 in. apron a forms a cap over the base flashing c. This method allows for the expan- sion and contraction of the metal as well as for the settlement of the beams, wall, etc. The flashing is used in flat as well as in standing seam roofing and is of the same construction that is used upon roofs covered with slag, tile or pitch. Occasionally there is trouble from leakage of the joints in the coping A thus making the walls damp on the inside. This is overcome by having the cap flashing extend through the wall, as indicated in F'g- 574- — Copper Cap Flashing Covering Entire Wall Fig. 574, where a b shows the cap flashing with up- right ridges at c c to meet the width of the bricks, so as to form a good bond. With parapet walls of stone or terra cotta, it is seldom that a mortar joint is in the proper position for the building in of the copper cap, the joint be- ing either too high or too low. For this reason a raggle is cut in the stone work, as indicated by A" in Fig- 575> or if the wau i s °f terra cotta this raggle is modeled in the terra cotta before the latter is baked. Then the cap A is formed the section at a and is secured in the of small lead plugs shown in diaj lead plugs are cast in tapering form 4 in. long and in thickness so that the copper cap firmly in the wall, placed about 12 in. apart and the as indicated in raggle by means ;ram X. These as shown, about they will wedge These plugs are spaces between Fig. 575. — Securing Flashing in Reglet Stone or Terra Cotta them are filled with roofers' cement to match the color of the wall. This roofing cement can be ob- tained to match any color. Under no circumstances should wooden plugs be used as is frequently done, for the wood will eventually rot away and a poor, insecure job is the result. The base flashing B is then passed under the cap A in the usual manner. Sometimes on a coping wall of a mansard roof the distance between a and b is so short (say 6 in. ), that the flashing may be put in in one piece, that is, without a cap. In this case the base flashing B would be secured direct to the raggle as before explained ; and since the amount of metal exposed would be so small, there would be no con- siderable expansion or contraction. On a large job, where a number of lead wedges are required, it is best to cast the wedges to the proper size. This is a much quicker method than pounding together sheet lead to the proper thick- ness, as is usually done, a procedure which does not give as good results as casting in the manner shown in Fig. 576. This figure shows an angle iron frame, over which a casting pan is hung at A B, made of 16-gauge black iron with heads rivetted in at a, b and c. By having the plugs cast in these pans, three plugs are made at one operation and they will be of the proper size for the raggle joint. Fig. 577 shows how the base flashing is laid to allow for expansion and contraction under slate, tile or shingle siding. A lock B, is bent to the flashing A and fastened with the cleat C of the same SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 321 Fig. 576.— Molds for Casting Lead Plugs material. There must be absolutely no nailing through the metal work. When the construction is of angles and tees, and the siding is of corrugated copper, the flashing un- der this siding is prepared as shown in Fig. 578. In indicated at a. This band iron is held in its proper position against the metal wall and the holes are marked on the wall, after which they are drilled and tapped to correspond with the thread of the round head machine screw in use. When all the holes have been tapped, the band iron, around which the copper cap has been bent, is screwed in position indicated by A. The base flashing is slipped under the cap, as shown. So that no leaks will occur between the copper cap and metal wall, soft roofers' cement is placed between the copper cap and wall before the screws A are drawn tight. Then when the cap flash- ing has been securely fastened, roofing cement is neatly set at an angle over the projecting ledge, as indicated by 0. This makes a compactly finished piece of work. The base flashing is then slipped under the cap as shown. Fig. 577. — Allowing for Expansion and Contraction of Copper Flash- ing Under Slate, Tile or Shingles Concrete Base Fig. 578. — Securing Flashing Under Metal Siding Fig. 579. — Secure Base and Cap Flashing to Metal Back this construction, under no consideration, should the bolts pass through the metal flashing which should be left free to "move" as shown at A, as the corrugated side will hold it in position when the siding is secured to the iron laths c c by the cleats b b. In roofs of this class which are constructed of iron and concrete, the roof covering is usually of slag or gravel, or sometimes tile. The constructive features, however, are alike whether the roof be of slag, gravel, tile or copper. When requirement demands a flashing, placed against a metal surface or wall, as shown in Fig. 579, an entirely different construction must be em- ployed in securing the cap flashing and making a water tight joint. The upper part of the copper cap flashing is bent around a J4 x 1 in. band iron, as shown in the illustration, and through this band at intervals of 8 or 9 in. holes of }4 in. diameter are punched, through which the screws are to pass, as Fig. 580.— Securing Base Flashing and Sill Cap with Cleat Where a projecting sheet metal sill is to serve for the cap flashing, as shown in Fig. 580 arrange- ment is made to secure the base as well as the cap 3 22 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER flashings with copper cleats constructed to allow for the expansion and contraction of the two flashings. This is accomplished by the peculiar bent cleat shown by a, secured and bent as follows : The cleats are made about 2 in. wide, first bent as shown in diagram X by i, 2 and 3. With the bight of the flashing known the cleats are nailed through flange 1, as indicated by A. The base flashing is placed in position, as indicated by B and 2 in diagram X turned down. This holds the base flashing B in position. The sill C is then set and the flange 3 in diagram X turned upward, as indicated by a, which holds the cap flange of the sill in position. These cleats are usually placed about 12 in. apart. METHODS EMPLOYED IN PROVID- ING FOR EXPANSION AND CON- TRACTION OF THE METAL IN LAYING FLAT-SEAM ROOFING Solution 172 For flat-seam copper roofing good sheathing boards are an important requisite. They should be of even thickness, thoroughly seasoned; if not dry, they will shrink after being laid and will strain and break the seams in the roofing, causing constant buckling of the metal. Nor should the boards be light or springy, because the locked seams can be pounded down more smoothly when the boards are laid solid. The size of the sheets to be used in copper roof- ing varies according to the specifications given. With the size of the roof and the size of sheets de- termined, the number of sheets required can be ordered direct from the copper mill, cut to the proper size, thus saving the labor of this work in the shop. It is best also to have the sheets tinned at the mill, with pure tin i]/ 2 in. wide, all around the edges on both sides. The tinning may be done more cheaply and cleanly at the mill than in the shop by means of dipping or with the soldering copper. Whatever size sheets may be used the following explanations will apply to notching, edging and soldering. A most important point often overlooked is the notching of the sheets. Fig. 581 shows how to determine the amount that should be notched off the corners of the sheet. Deter- la- mination upon the size of the lock to be used, which should neither be upward of ]/> in. nor less than Y & in. Set the dividers to the desired width of the edge and on a sheet of copper scribe a line around the entire area as indicated by the dotted lines. Where these lines meet at 1 at each corner, cut off at an angle of 45 degrees, slightly more in- side the corner 1, as shown from a to b. This notch- ing is sometimes done by hand, in the smaller shops, with a gauge made of sheet iron as a guide. It is preferable and less expensive to use a corner notch- Fig. 582. — Corner Notching Machine ing machine, as shown in Fig. 582. This machine is designed for notching several thicknesses of roofing sheets at one time. There is one fixed or stationary gauge and the other is adjustable to regu- late the size of the corner notches. After the sheets are properly notched and edged, the fold at the corner will have the appearance of A in Fig. 583, but where the corner of the sheet has been cut off too much, as at B in Fig. 584, the sheet when edged will show a large opening as indicated by C, and when the sheets are laid as shown in Fig. 585, instead of the "butt" being covered, it would show an opening which is exaggerated by A; this makes a poor job and requires a quantity of solder to close up the opening. On laying the sheets, cleats should be employed to take care of expansion or contraction. If the nail Figs. 581, 583, 584.- A \ -Diagrams to Illustrate Proper and Improper Notching SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 3 2 3 were driven directly through the sheet, the move- ment of the metal would be likely to cause a tear, but if the sheets are fastened by cleats as shown in Fig, 585. — Opening at "Butts" on Improperly Notched Sheets Fig. 586, the entire metal roof surface is free to move without breakage. The number of cleats shown in the cut is based on the use of a small sheet. Note that one cleat is placed near the "butt" Fig. 586. — Spacing the Cleats at A, and another midway between at B, while a cleat is placed in the center of the narrow side of the sheet at C. It frequently occurs that the nail with which the cleat is fastened rises from the heat of the sun, and footsteps on the nail head will show an impression on the upper sheet, and wear through. This can be avoided by cutting the cleat y 2 in. longer and turn- ing this J^-in. flange over the nail head, as indicated Fig. 587- — Three Operations in Securing Cleats in the diagrams 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 587. In the first diagram, the cleat is shown nailed at a. The surplus flange b is then turned up' as indicated by c in 2, and is then flattened down as shown by d in 3. When the roof has been laid the sheets are flat- tened to a smooth surface with a flat faced mallet, when with rosin as a flux, the seams are thoroughly sweated with half and half solder (50 new tin and 50 new lead) with 10-lb. soldering coppers. In soldering, it is desirable to solder the long seams first, then to slightly tap the "butts" a in Fig. 586 with the hammer, to smoothen same and then to solder the short seams. When the roof has been com- pletely soldered including the upright seams of the flashings, the seams should be gone over carefully to prevent possible leaks and at the same time to scrape off the surplus rosin. Then the roof is carefully swept and flashings paint-skinned ; and if the seams have been well sweated lasting results are assured. METHODS EMPLOYED IN PROVID- ING FOR EXPANSION AND CON- TRACTION OF THE METAL IN LAYING STANDING SEAM ROOFING Solution 173 The procedure on roof sheathing in the preceding solution applies also to standing seam roofing. In laying such roofing, of copper, the sheets can be bent up in 8 or 10-ft. lengths in the cornice brake, or of such length as the brake will permit. Usually sheets of 20x96 in. are employed, bent to the Fig. 588.— Vertical Heights of Standing Seam Fig. 589. — Cleat to Suit Lock in Fig. 588 dimensions indicated in Fig. 588, which gives a finished standing lock of 1 in. Occasionally instead of bending up 1*4 an d 1J/2 in. on the sheet, only 1 and 1% in. are turned up, thus giving a j4-in. fin- ished seam. The cross seams in standing lock roofing must have the edges tinned as in flat seam roofing; the edges are also cleated and soldered to make tight cross joints. The cleats used for standing lock roofing can be cut from scrap. For these 14-oz. copper is heavy enough. They are cut and formed as shown in Fig. 589, which gives full size measure- ments to work in connection with the seams shown in Fig. 588. 3 2 4 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER /YaAe X '//e" /n w/n/er ; c/ose //? summer- Fig. 591 Fig. 592 Fig. 590. Three Operations of Double Seaming in Laying Standing Seam Copper Roofing Copper standing seam should not be laid too snugly ; a slight space should be allowed, as in- dicated by the arrow A* in Fig. 590. This gives some slight play for expansion in connection with the use of the cleats. The cleats should be placed about 18 in. apart in a manner as follows : If the sheet A be laid first, the cleat B is set against A and nailed at a, and the upper j4-in. edge is turned down as indicated by B. The sheet E is now laid against the cleat and the %-in. edge is turned down as shown at D. Thus the turned down edges B and D hold both sheets in position ; this is the first operation. With the hand roofing double seamers and mallet, the quarter in. edge on sheet A is turned over as indicated in the second operation shown in Fig. 591, which shows part of the cleat exposed at C. Again with the hand double seamers and mallet the double seamed lock is completed as shown in Fig. 592, which covers the cleats entirely. When the lower end of the sheet join to an Fig. 593. — Locking the Strips to Eaves Gutter and Solder- ing the "Butts" eave gutter it is locked, as shown in Fig. 593, the sheet having been previously prepared as indicated in diagram X, where an edge occurs at h i, for locking to the gutter. This lock is bent with the roofing tongs and is locked to the gutter as shown at A. Then, after the standing lock has been tightly closed, the butt is soldered water tight along a b. It is sometimes seen in practice that this butt is turned along b c at an angle of 45 degrees, in the direction of the arrow, or that the double seam will show on the outside, where it must be soldered up to the line of bend b c. The method of joining the lock to the gutter also applies to connecting the standing lock roofing to the valley. Of course in the case of the valley the sheets must be cut to the proper bevel, with allowance for the lock made in a similar manner to that explained in connection with diagram X. Fig. 594. — Completed Comb Ridge Which Can be Applied to Finish Against Hips Fig. 594 shows how the roofing is finished at the ridge. In this case the finish is made with a comb ridge as indicated by A. This comb is pre- pared by means of a standing lock as shown, the doubled standing seam of the roofing proper being cut to miter against this comb ridge at a b, which must be carefully soldered. Preparatory to closing tightly, the standing lock A, red lead should be placed between the locks at A and then tightly malleted down. A rag dipped in turpentine is then used to wipe the red leaded seam clean, so that the copper will show clean. Sometimes the standing lock as indicated at A is substituted by turning this same lock over, as shown in diagram X, where the top ridge is finished SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 3^5 by double seaming. If this style of finish be utilized, the standing seams at b a are turned down flat a short distance and double seamed with the ridge finish as indicated in X, with the standing seams on both pitches of the roof breaking joints as shown Fig. 595- -Breatcing Joints when Double Seaming Ridge Lock in Fig. 595. If the double seams meet it will be im- possible to double seam the ridge because of the many thicknesses of metal. The foregoing method of procedure applies also to finishing the hip ridge with the exception that the sheets are cut at a bevel to conform to the angle of the hip. LAYING ZINC OR COPPER ROOF- ING ON WOOD BATTENS Solution 174 Battens are usually employed with zinc and cop- per roofing, and have a greater value in allowing for expansion of the sheets than can be obtained by any other method. This style consists of a series of battens nailed at proper intervals and covered with either sheet zinc or copper. Wood battens must be carefully spaced with a gauge so that the proper width may be maintained as shown in Fig. 596 by A A. Note the formation of the batten ; it is narrow on the roof line but wide at the top. The metal sheets can be bent in the brake in 8 or 10-ft. lengths, as shown by B B B, with a flange turned outward as shown at F. The sheets are se- cured by cleats, C, which are spaced 10 in. apart, nailed to the batten and locked to the sheets. Note that the sheets B are bent up square, which gives ample space between the sheet and batten to allow for expansion, as indicated by the arrows a, a, a, a. When the roof is not steep the cross seams are OPERATIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BATTENS Fig. 596. — (Top) Spacing Battens and Cleating Copper Sheets Fig- 597- — (Center) Capping the Battens. Fig. 598. — (Be- low). Double Seaming the Corners cleated, locked and soldered in batten roofing, the same as in flat seam roofing. If the roof is very steep, say one-half pitch, the cross seams need only be cleated and locked, with the lock about i/\ in. wide. In turning up the sides of the sheet X care must be taken not to close the lock so that the lower and upper sheets can be hooked together. The closing of the lock can be avoided by placing a piece of leather or sheet lead in the lock. When the long strips have all been laid, the caps are slipped into position from the bottom, as indicated in Fig. 597,. and then turned down and double seamed, as shown at the corners A in Fig. 59§- Where the com- mon battens meet the ridge batten X, as in Fig. 599, the wood battens are so cut that they run flush at e°. The metal sheets are then formed against the ridge P'g- 599- — Cleating Sheets at Ridge or at Hip 326 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER batten, as indicated in the cut, and the upright corner is soldered at A, with the corners at B notched out as indicated. Cleats, about 10 in. apart, are used to fasten the sheets at a, b and c. This allows free movement of the sheet at the side n as well as at the top e. The caps are then slipped over the common and Slipping on the Caps ridge battens as in Fig. 600 by A, B and B, with i-in. lap at a and b for soldering purposes. The notches at F and F are greatly exaggerated. The caps are then turned down and double-seamed at the sides as Ridqe. Batten Common Batten Fig. 601. — Double Seaming the Caps and Joining the Common and Ridge Batten Caps shown by A in Fig. 601 with the upright corner at x x soldered to prevent leakage. Then over the laps a, b and c the piece B is soldered. This soldering of the cap corners and top B in no way interferes with the free movement of the sheets, which are free to expand and contract. This method of finishing at the ridge also can be applied to the hip, with the exception that the common battens have to be cut at an angle against the hip batten. The finish at the eave, whether connected to an eave strip or gutter, is shown in connection with Fig. 602. Care must be taken that the top of the gutter is at least 2 in. below the lower edge of the eave edge as indicated at A, and that the eave edge is not less than 1^4 in. wide as shown. The wood battens should project over the back of the gutter a distance equal to the projection of the eave edge as shown in the reduced side view, and then cut at an angle shown from e to /, so that / will be in line with the back of the gutter. The batten will then look as shown by a' a. Over the bottom end of each batten a flashing cap is set View Fig. 602. — Applying Copper Flashing Cap at Eave as shown at B. This must fit snug and tight and be made to the dimensions shown in Fig. 602. A head is soldered at a a b b and the lower edge is locked to the ledge at c, and the cap nailed to the roof boards as shown. This flashing cap is to pre- vent any leaks from driving snow or rain, as no soldering must be done at the ends of the battens when the sheets are laid, as this would prevent the free movement of the sheets when expanding and contracting. Detai I of tj^.Eave Jlx Lock Rear of - Gutter Lining Fig. 603. — Laying Sheets Over Flashing Cap at Eave SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 327 After this flashing cap has been placed on all battens, either common or hip, the metal sheets are then laid as shown in Fig. 603, in which a b c shows the flashing cap and A and B the roofing sheets bent as before explained. These sheets are allowed to project below the battens sufficiently to allow the front ends to be turned over as indi- cated by the under lap 1 and the top lap 2. When making the lock along the eaves strip at C D, it should be formed as shown in the detail at x. This acts as a precautionary drip. The cap is then slipped over the edges and double- Fig. 604. — Completing the Locked Cap seamed, as shown in Fig. 604, with the cap pro- jecting sufficiently beyond a and b so that the lap 1 can be turned down over the side laps as indicated. No soldering must be done at the ends of the bat- tens, as this would prevent the free movement of the sheets. No leak will occur at this point because the flashing cap c d e will prevent any leakage. This method of finishing at the eaves is also used for finishing in the valleys. The sheet metal valley should turn up 14 in. on each side, with a 1 -in. lock, thus using a 30-in. sheet. The battens should be cut on this line. The same, shaped flashing cap should be used in the valley as at the eaves, and should hook in the lock of the valley, but should not be soldered. The sheets should be locked to the lock of the Fig. 605.— Locking Sheets to Valley valley as shown in Fig. 605. They should have rounded edges, and the lock on the lower sheet or valley B must be larger than the lock on the roof- ing sheet C, so that in case of any water soaking under the lock and filling the lock on the roofing sheet C, it will overflow and return to the roof without getting on the inside. This lock is also likely to be filled with water in a driving wind storm, the rain striking the upper part of the lock on B and filling the lock of the sheet C with water as high as X Y, when it overflows without entering the in- side. The valleys are cleated the same as in flat seam roofing. LAYING A STANDING SEAM CIRCU- LAR METAL ROOF Method of Laying Out the Work, Obtain- ing the Width and Length of Sheets and Cutting Them to Avoid Waste Solution 175 When circular towers are to be covered with standing seam metal roofing the method is alike to that of standing seam roofing, but the laying out of sheets requires special attention. Fig. 606 shows a plan and elevation of a circular roof over the rear of nave and altar of a church. That part of the straight double pitched roof between X Y 1 16 is laid in the manner previously described, but the semi-circular roof between 1, 7, 16 in plan is the subject under consideration. The semi-circular roof is divided into equal spaces of such dimensions that the metal sheets can be cut without waste. In copper or galvanized iron roofing of this kind sheets 8 or 10 ft. long are used. In tin roofing the sheets can be locked together any desired length. The spacings are indicated in the plan in Fig. 606, from 1 to 16. The next step is to obtain the length of the rafter from B to the apex C in elevation and then deduct the distance equal to C A, as the finial will set over same, thus allowing it to overlap the roofing to the extent indicated by A. Tack a piece of building paper or roofing felt on the roof or floor in the building and lay off on the line a b in Fig. 607 the distance from B to A to C in elevation in Fig. 606 as shown from B to A to C in Fig. 607. At right angles to A B, through A and B draw lines as shown. Now take the length of one of the spaces in plan in Fig. 606 as 1-2 and set off one-half of same on either side of the line A B in Fig. 607 as shown by 1 and 2. From 1 and 2 draw lines to the apex C, cutting the line drawn through A as shown. Allow 328 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Lock Ouflet 606 roof that the straight line from I to 2 is entirely practical to use. When the length of the rafter is such that two or more large sheets are required, the pattern is laid out as shown in Fig. 608. In this case we will as- sume that the distance on the center line A B from B to D is 14 ft., and that 8-ft. sheets or strips are Cr 035 Lock 607 PL/7/Y 60S Fig. 606. — Plan and Elevation of a Circular Roof Fig. 607. — Getting Pattern for Individual Sheets for the standing edges on both sides as indicated at X and Y. Then 1 2 A will be the pattern, of which 15 will be required as called for in plan in Fig. 606. If desired the paper pattern, Fig. 607, can be sent to the shop to be cut and formed or the pieces can be cut at the building and roofing tongs used for bending up the standing edges. Some may consider that as this pattern is laid out on the principle of developing a right cone, the bot- tom cut from 1 to 2 should be slightly curved. While this is true, the curvature is so small on a full sized Fig. 608. — Getting Pattern for In- dividual Sheets when One or More Long Sheets Are Required employed. The distance from B to C is figured 7 ft, 11 in., which allows y 2 in. lap at top and bottom for locking the sheets. So that the cross locks will not meet in double seaming the standing locks always break joints in the sheets ; therefore on the next layer the distance of 7 ft. 11 in. will be measured from D to E. This will break joints alternately. For a roof of this run of rafter we would require eight sheets from B to C and eight from C to D ; also seven sheets from D to E and seven sheets from E B breaking joints alternately. While the diagram SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING shown is net, cross locks must be allowed to the paper patterns for the cross seams. When the various tapering sheets are being cut the proper width of the sheet must be selected, from which there will be the least waste, as shown in method of development is given. First draw the center line A B, at right angles to which draw the line C D to equal the half diameter of the roof. Establish the hight of the roof at its apex, as shown by C E. Lay off the semi-width of the ventilator as shown at H. With E as a center, and E D as a radius, draw the arc D G. To provide for the di- vision of the roof into twenty sections, the one- quarter plan BCD struck from C as center, is di- vided into five spaces as indicated from I to V, and one of the spaces as I is laid off into equal divisions, as shown by the heavy dots. With this distance D D° divided into five spaces, we start from G in the pattern and set off five corresponding spaces, as shown from G to F, and draw the radial lines F E and G E. Refer to where the ventilator intersects the roof line at H, and proceeding to use E as center and E H as radius, intersect the radial lines previously drawn from G and F, as shown. Many of these bins Fig. 609. — Showing Minimum Waste on Sheets when Proper Width is Selected Fig. 609 where the only waste is indicated by the shaded portion. The heavy dashes at a and b in both sheets indicate notches at the lower end of the sheet, on which locks are turned to attach to the gutter lining. Where one or more sheets are to be locked together, edges are added to top and bottom. The sheets are cleated, locked and double seamed as already described. Where the finial sets over the apex of the roof as shown in Fig. 606, mechanics sometimes flatten down the standing lock, which destroys the archi- tectural effect of the standing seam. A better method is to notch out the lower flare of the finial at F wherever the standing seam occurs and then set this over the standing edges, which makes a first class finish. STANDING SEAM CONICAL ROOF OVER LARGE GRAIN BIN Solution 176 The perspective of Fig. 610 shows a roof laid out in 20 sections, alike to A, with standing seams indicated by B, B, C showing a plain ventilator at the apex. The ventilator at the top brings the roof to the formation of a frustum of a right cone, which is laid out as shown in Fig. 611, where the shortest 6/0 i'JtL. o/st6/e/r/t x i\\ \ \ owe Qi/#/?rfff Pt/jH 7Z~ ! ^ [B L Fig. 610, Fig. 611 JF~ m 6// D/i4Gtf4/1 r Perspective View of Conical Roof over Large Grain Bins Obtaining the Pattern for Conical Roof over Bins 33° THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER are of large size, and if we assume that the bin in question measures 6 ft. 6 in. diameter or a total of 78 in., it is not necessary to draw the quarter plan, since the circumference may be simply computed, as follows: 78 in. X 3- I 4 J 6 = 245 in. 245 in. divided by 20, the number of roof sections sought, equals 1234 in., the distance to be laid off along the line F G in the pattern. The standing seams are usually made as indicated in sketch X, with rivets at intervals, as at d, and we allow the single edge of 1 in. to the pattern at a and a double edge of 2 in. at b. The twenty sections are then bent on the brake, as shown at X, when they are locked together on the bin. Including the standing edge about 15% in. of material would be required along F G in the pattern; therefore, two sections may be obtained from a 20 in. wide sheet, on which the pattern is moved along as indicated in diagram Y the shaded portion represents the waste. LAYING CORRUGATED GALVAN- IZED IRON OR COPPER ROOF- ING AND SIDING With Methods of Obtaining Water-Tight Connections at Eave, Wall and Ridge Solution 177 Galvanized iron or copper corrugated sheets, usu- ally employed for roofing and siding, measure 2^2 in. from center to center and have y§ in. depth. The full width of sheet with corrugations is 26 in. and Fig. 612. — Corrugated Sheet Iron Roof Covering Fig. 613. — How the Corrugations are Measured the covering width is 24 in., Fig. 612. The sheets may be obtained in from 5 to 12 ft. lengths, and gauges from Nos. 16 to 28 inclusive. The meas- urement of the corrugations is indicated by A and a in Fig. 613, A representing 2% in. and a %& in. Fig. 614 indicates the lap recommended for roof- ing. The left edge a curves upward and the right edge downward, to the center of the corrugation. Thus in the use of the sheets of the standard width Fig. 614. — Lap Required for Roofing Fig. 615. — Lap Required for Siding of 26 in., alternate sheets are inverted when applied to the roof. A satisfactory siding with one corru- gation side lap is shown in Fig. 615. Referring to Figs. 614 and 615 the nail of galvanized iron is invariably driven through the highest point of the corrugation. The nails and lead washers employed Fig. 616. — Lead Washers and Galvanized Nails used on Wood Framing are shown in Fig. 616. The lead washers effect a water-tight joint, preventing leakage and rusting at the nail hole, thereby prolonging the life of the roof. The ends of the corrugated sheets, applied to roofs, should be lapped from three to six inches as re- quired by the pitch of the roof, but for siding two inches is sufficient. For corrugated roofing, the quickest method of fastening the sheets to iron purlins or iron frame work is by means of clinch nails, in addition to lead washers. The nails are of No, 9 galvanized wire, in lengths of from 3 to 14 Fig. 617. — Clinch Nails for Fastening Corrugated Sheets to Iron Purlins or Iron Framework inches, Fig. 617. Roofing or siding made from copper sheets requires to be secured with either brass or copper fastenings. In the procedure of applying metal corrugated roofing on wood sheathing or rafters, the roofer of experience begins by laying SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 33i the roofing from the side opposite to that from which the wind blows ; in other words, at the right of the building should the wind current come from the left, and vice versa. The purpose is to prevent the wind driving under the laps. If a finish at the eaves be desired, a molding may be formed, as in- dicated by A-B-C in Fig. 618; the upper flange is nailed on the rafters at X and allowance is made for a drip and pocket at B-C ; the flange C is nailed to the uprights, as shown. The sheets should pro- ject over the eaves from two to three inches, as indicated at a. An eave gutter may also be hung over the flange X and connected to the ground by conductor pipes. In all cases care should be taken to have all corrugations on the length of the rafter run in straight lines. If roofing be of light gauge metal, as numbers 28 or 26, the roof should be close sheathed ; for the heavier gauges, sheathing boards may be dispensed with and be substituted by purlins, whose distances from center to center equal the nailing distances of the sheets. The groove or pocket between B and C should be of accurate width to hold the corrugated sheet compactly. Where corrugated roofing abuts a brick wall, as in Fig. 619, sheets known as "corrugated side wall flashings" are employed, not less than 6 in. of which should be turned up against the wall as indicated at A. In this case the rafters B and C are spaced Fig. 618.— Finishing at the Eaves when the Framing is of Wood Fig. 619.— Finishing at Gable Walls when Framing is of Wood Fig. 62a— Finishing at Gable End when Framing is of Wood Fig. 621. — Finishing at the Ridge Fig. 622.— Corrugated V Ridge Capping to conform to the width of the sheets used; the sheets are nailed 12 in. apart at D and H, with galvanized iron or zinc nails with lead wash- ers. The flashing is then counter-flashed as indi- cated at E and F, allowance being made for a i 1 /- in. flange, a-b, to be securely fastened and paint- skinned into the joints of the brick work. When there are no brick walls present and the entire structure is of wood or iron framing, the finish at the gable end or elsewhere may be made as in- dicated in Fig. 620. Note that the formation of this gable end finish A, is to receive the corrugated sheet on the roof as well as at the sides. It is nailed at the side at a and has an upturned edge to meet the high point of the corrugation at e. The edge e is secured to the roof by means of cleats, shown in detail at X, nailed 12 in. apart. The roof- ing sheet slips in at e, and the siding should fit compactly into the side pocket at i. In the case of a roof having no sheathing, it is necessary to sheath its gable end sufficiently to receive the ledge cleats and form a solid foundation. If framing be of iron angles and tees, the flange of the gable finish A, may be extended to meet the second corrugation at r. The finish at the ridge can be made in three ways. The first method is illustrated by Fig. 621. The ridge is formed with a groove therein, as shown by A-B-C, and is nailed to the roof at a-b-c and d. The width of the groove at X is such that the corrugations will fit closely. Should there be exposure to leakage from driving storms, the groove may be filled with roofer's cement and the sheets 33- THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER pressed in. The second method of finishing at the ridge is by means of a corrugated V ridge capping, shown in Fig. 622. The corrugations of these cap- pings are pressed in and fit over the corrugated sheets ; they are nailed, riveted or bolted thereto. Another shape of ridge covering is shown in Fig. Fig. 623. — Corrugated Ridge Roll 623. This has pressed corrugation in addition to a ridge roll, as shown. In the use of this ridge roll it is desirable to fasten a ridge pole to the roof, as Fig. 624.— Wood Ridge Pole to Receive Metal Ridge Roll shown in Fig. 624. to receive the metal roll and prevent injury to the metal during the erection and use of scaffolding. A corrugated roof abutting a vertical wall or shaft is finished against the wall by means of a corru- Fig. 625. — Corrugated Flashing for Wall Abutment gated wall flashing, shown in Fig. 625. Such sheets are pressed in conformity with the standard requirements of corrugated material and have a flat upright metal surface which it is found in prac- tice should measure not less than 6 in. It will be understood that these flashings are to be cap flashed to make a tight joint with the wall abutment. When fastening the sheets to iron framing the side laps are riveted at intervals of from 12 to 15 in. or less ; the end laps on every alternate corru- gation. Four methods of fastening the corrugated sheets to the iron framing are illustrated in Figs. 626 to 629 inclusive. The first method, Fig. 626, is to pass a cleat of galvanized band iron, % in. wide and 1/16 in. thick, around the purlin or beam and to rivet each end to the sheet at a and b; by contracting or pressing this band iron cleat towards the web of the beam or purlins at ;', a com- pact and secure fastening is made which also allows for expansion and contraction of the sheet. Fig. 627 shows how galvanized band iron cleats are Fig. 628. — Using Clinch Nails Shown in Fig. 617 for Iron Framing Fig. 629. — Using Strap Iron Cleats for Iron Framing Fig. 626. — Using Strap Iron Cleat on Iron Framing Fig. 627. — Using Band Iron Cleat on Iron Framing firmly riveted to the sheet, at c, and bind against the flange of the Z bar or angle iron. Fig. 628 shows a galvanized clinch nail, d, driven through the corrugated sheet and bent around the angle iron. Another fastening is shown in Fig. 629, where the cleat is riveted to the sheet at c and clamped to the flange of the channel iron. When nailing the corrugated siding to wood framing without sheathing boards, the studding should be framed to measure 24 in. from center to center, unless it is preferred to place them farther apart and nail the sheets to furring or batten strips, placed approx- imately two feet apart, or the distance from nailing centers of the sheet. The vertical seams of the siding are invariably nailed through the tops of the cor- rugations, as indicated in Fig. 630 by 1-2-3 anc ^ 4 > the horizontal seams are nailed in the valleys of the corrugations, as indicated in the illustration by a-b-c, etc. In fastening the siding laps at the ends of the sheets, the nails or rivets should be placed about 2 in. above the upper edge of the lower sheets, thus providing latitude for movement should there be any settling. The use of heavy gauge corrugated sheets, dispensing with wood sheathing board, re- duces fire risk, favoring minimum insurance cost. The siding should be set clear off the ground, em- SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 333 A/S 20 Orf/U/J/V/ZFO /tfO/V BrtS£ Fig. 632. — Metal Corner Stile to Re- ceive Corrugated Siding Fig. 630. — Lapping and Nailing Vertical Seams of Corrugated Siding Fig. 631. — Sheet Metal Base to Re- ceive Corrugated Siding heavier galvan- the lower part ploying a base of No. 20 or ized iron, as shown in Fig. 631 should be covered with two coats of asphalt paint, thickly applied. Fig. 632 shows the method of employing a metal corner stile to receive corrugated siding. It is nailed or bolted to the framing, through the flanges a and i, the grooves b and / being of a size to admit and hold the corrugation compactly. The width of the stile c-d or d-e is de- termined by individual preference. On first class work, sheets and trimmings are usually painted on the two sides with red lead ; they must be thoroughly dry before being applied. COVERING DOMES WITH FLAT SEAM ROOFING : METHODS AP- PLICABLE TO ROOFS OF TIN, COPPER OR ZINC Solution 178 Fig. 633 shows a front elevation of a dome roof which we will assume is to be covered with flat seam roofing. The gutter, indicated in the cornice, requires to be carefully lined with a view to locating the first lock about 2 in. above the cornice top, as shown at a; thus overflowing drainage will be in- tercepted and run over the front edge of the cor- nice, without reaching the lock, since no locks on the roof are to be soldered, excepting the extreme top of the dome below the finial, or those locks occurring as far down as is indicated by AA. Great care is required in laying out the various patterns for the several courses ; the method illustrated by Fig. 634 applies to roofing of tin, sheet iron, zinc, and sheet copper. After the dome has been care- fully wood sheathed, find the exact center of its top and drive a wire nail therein, to which fasten some spool wire. The spool wire is drawn over the roof of the dome and to the bottom of the first course, indicated by X-X in Fig. 634, a circle Fig. 633. — Front Elevation of Dome Roof is drawn around the base of the dome, forming a guide line for giving the metal a straight and level start; this operation requires to be conducted with considerable care. The base line, X-X, around the entire dome is divided into an equal number of parts, when careful consideration of the diameter of the dome is re- quired in order that the spaces or parts are so 334 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER separated as to readily conform to the curve of the dome ; the sheets must not be of excess width, else they will buckle when the locks are closed ; they must be made to lie smoothly and compactly against the dome, so that, when the work is com- pleted the dome will present a true spherical surface. In this case, in which we have considered a dome of Fig. 634. — Obtaining Dimensions for Laying out Patterns of Sheets for Courses 33 ft. diameter, which is reduced to inches, as 12x33 or 396 in. We find the circumference of the base of the dome by multiplying 396 by 3.1416, the product being 1,244 m - We space this sum of distance into 56 parts or 14 parts to each quarter, as indicated in the one-quarter plan, making each space to slightly exceed 22.2 in. The reader should not over- look that the smaller the diameter of the dome, the smaller will be the required size of sheet. The 56 divisions in the first course form the basis for obtaining the pattern for each succeeding course. The sheets in the first course are triangular in shape, as shown in the one-half elevation, and they have the lock turned up and down, so that water will flow over the seam. Laying the sheets diago- nally as shown disposes of vertical seams and per- mits water to pass without the likelihood of leakage. The pattern for the first course, marked E in ele- #£& 637 Fig. 635. — Pattern for First Course Fig. 636. — Pattern for Second Course Fig. 637. — Operations in Turning the Cleat Fig. 638. — Soldered Cleat to Hold Down Butts of Sheet vation, is laid out as shown in Fig. 635. Take the length of one of the divisions previously obtained from the circumference of the first course or C-D in the quarter plan in Fig. 634 and lay it off on any line, as C-D in Fig. 635. From C and D, draw lines at angles of 45 degrees, meeting at a. Connect lines C-fl and a-D and allow half-inch locks on the three sides, as shown. E indicates the pattern for the sheets in the first course, of which 56 are re- quired. When these are cut, turn the lower lock downward and the two diagonal locks upward as indicated in diagram E c . The first course, E, in Fig. 634 is then laid ; the lock of the gutter lining is adjusted and each side lock secured with two cleats as indicated by i-i, etc., in the half elevation. When this first course has been laid, measurements may be taken for the second course, indicated by F. Take accurately the distance across from a to b, which must be the same between each sheet around the entire circumference, and place it on any line as a-b in diagram F, in Fig. 636. Proceed by taking accurately the equal distances from to a or from o to b in Fig. 634; using a and b in diagram F, Fig. 636, as centers, describe arcs intersecting each other at c and c' ; complete the outline a-c-b-c'. Allow half-inch locks on the four sides ; turn two locks downward and two locks upward as indicated in diagram F c . In like manner there will also be 56 sheets required for course F, Fig. 634, fastened with cleats, as shown. Note how the edges are SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING 335 notched in E, Fig. 635, and in F, Fig. 636; it will be seen that the notching is vertical at the sides and horizontal at top and bottom. In the manner described each succeeding pattern or course is meas- ured from the course previously laid. Thus the pattern for course G in Fig. 634 is found with the distance between the corners c and d and the lengths b-c and b-d, as radii. Course H is laid out by means of the distance c-f with the distances c-c and c-f, as radii. All sheets must be secured with cleats which are approximately 1 in. wide ; the cleats are turned as shown in the three operations in Fig. 637 ; the first diagram indicates the nail inserted ; the second shows the back of the cleat turned up and ready to close over the nail head which is shown in diagram 3. In cases of tendency on the part of the butts, at a, c and / in Fig. 634, to raise, a cleat is required to be soldered under the sheet, as indi- cated at a, in Fig. 638, and when the butt cleat is nailed to the roof the nail head requires to be cov- ered, as was explained heretofore. When the dome has thus been completely covered, the seams are carefully malleted down; at the top of the dome, the seams are soldered where it is necessary. If no soldering be undertaken, white lead is placed between the locks, with a small tool brush ; this is done before malleting down the locks and gives additional security. If the roof is of galvanized iron or tin, the white lead may remain, to be covered with the desired color of paint ; but the seams of roofs of copper should be cleaned promptly by the usual means of rags saturated with turpentine. Number of Sheets Required to Cover a Given Surface of Tin Roofing Flat Seam Stand ng 5 earn — Sing e Lock L ouble Lock Edged Edged H -In. 1- In. U -In. 1-In. 54 14 In. 20 H In. 14 20 S ;am Si am Seam Seam 14 20 14 20 14 20 14 20 Given X X X X X X X X X X X X Given Surface 20 28 20 28 20 28 20 28 20 28 20 2S Surface Sq. Ft . s S S S S S S S S S S S Sq. Ft. 40 24 12 24 12 26 13 26 13 26 13 27 13 40 41 24 12 25 12 26 13 27 13 27 13 28 13 41 42 25 12 25 12 27 13 28 14 28 13 28 14 42 43 26 13 26 13 28 13 28 14 28 14 29 14 43 44 26 13 27 13 28 14 29 14 29 14 30 14 44 45 27 13 27 13 29 14 30 14 30 14 30 15 45 46 27 13 28 14 29 14 30 15 30 15 31 15 46 47 28 14 28 14 30 15 31 15 31 15 32 15 47 48 28 14 29 14 31 15 32 15 31 15 32 16 48 49 29 14 30 14 31 15 32 16 32 15 33 16 49 50 30 15 30 15 32 16 33 16 33 16 34 16 50 51 30 15 31 15 33 16 34 16 33 16 34 17 51 52 31 15 31 15 33 16 34 17 34 16 35 17 52 53 31 15 32 16 34 16 35 17 35 17 36 17 53 54 32 16 32 16 35 17 36 17 35 17 36 17 54 55 33 16 33 16 35 17 36 18 36 17 37 18 55 56 33 16 34 16 36 17 37 18 37 IS 38 18 56 57 34 16 34 17 36 18 37 18 37 18 38 18 57 58 34 17 35 17 37 18 38 19 38 18 39 19 58 59 35 17 35 17 38 18 39 19 39 19 40 19 59 60 35 17 36 18 38 19 39 19 39 19 40 19 60 61 36 18 37 18 39 19 40 19 40 19 41 20 61 62 37 18 37 18 40 19 41 20 41 19 42 20 62 63 37 18 • 38 18 40 20 41 20 41 20 42 20 63 64 38 18 38 19 41 20 42 20 42 20 43 21 64 65 38 19 39 19 41 20 43 21 42 20 44 21 65 66 39 19 40 19 42 20 43 21 43 21 44 21 66 67 40 19 40 20 43 21 44 21 44 21 45 22 67 68 40 20 41 20 43 21 45 22 44 21 46 22 68 69 41 20 41 20 44 21 45 22 45 22 46 22 69 70 41 20 42 20 45 22 46 22 46 22 47 22 70 71 42 20 43 21 45 22 47 23 46 22 48 23 71 72 42 21 43 21 46 22 47 23 47 22 48 23 72 73 43 21 44 21 46 23 48 23 48 23 49 23 73 74 44 21 44 22 47 23 48 23 48 23 50 24 74 75 44 22 45 22 48 23 49 24 49 23 50 24 75 76 45 22 46 22 48 23 50 24 50 24 51 24 76 77 45 22 46 22 49 24 50 24 50 24 52 25 77 78 46 22 47 23 50 24 51 25 51 24 52 25 78 79 47 23 47 23 50 24 52 25 52 25 53 25 79 80 47 23 48 23 51 25 52 25 52 25 54 26 SO 81 48 23 48 23 52 25 53 26 53 25 54 26 81 82 48 24 49 24 52 25 54 26 53 26 55 26 82 83 49 24 50 24 53 26 54 .26 54 26 56 27 83 84 49 24 50 24 53 26 55 27 55 26 56 27 84 85 50 24 51 25 54 26 56 27 55 26 57 27 85 86 51 25 51 25 55 26 56 27 56 27 58 28 86 87 51 25 52 25 55 27 57 28 57 27 58 28 87 88 52 25 53 25 56 27 58 28 57 27 59 28 88 89 52 26 53 26 57 27 58 28 58 28 60 28 89 90 53 26 54 26 57 28 59 28 59 2S 60 29 90 91 54 26 54 26 58 28 60 29 59 28 61 29 91 92 54 26 55 27 58 28 60 29 60 29 62 29 92 93 55 27 56 27 59 29 61 29 61 29 62 30 93 94 55 27 56 27 60 29 61 30 61 29 63 30 94 95 56 27 57 27 60 29 62 30 62 30 64 30 95 96 56 27 57 28 61 29 63 30 62 30 64 31 96 97 57 28 58 28 62 30 63 31 63 30 65 31 97 98 58 28 59 28 62 30 64 31 64 30 66 31 98 99 58 2S 59 29 63 30 65 31 64 31 66 32 99 Flat Seam c ingl St 2 LOC anding S k D earn aubl ; Loc k Number of Boxes and Sheets Required to Cover Edged 14 In. Edged ¥s In. ii-Ln. Seam 1-ln. Seam -Vln. Seam 1-In. Seam Given Surface a Given Surface of T n Roofing 14 20 14 20 14 20 14 20 14 20 14 20 flat beam St andin g Seam Given Surface Given Surface X 20 X 2S X 20 X 28 X 20 X 28 X 20 X 28 X 20 X 28 X 20 X 28 Given Surface of Roof to be Edged 'A In. Edged Vs In. Single Lock ^'4-In. Seam 14x20 20x28 of Roof to be Sq. Ft 10 S 6 7 S 3 4 S 6 7 S 3 4 S 7 7 S 4 4 S 7 8 S 4 4 s 7 8 S 4 4 S 7 8 S 4 4 Sq. Ft. 10 11 Covere< — 14 x 20 20x28 14x 20 28 Covered 11 Sq. Ft. B. S. B. 'S. B. S. B. S. B. S. B. S. Sq. Ft. 12 7 4 8 4 S 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 12 100 59 29 60 29 64 31 100 13 8 4 8 4 9 4 9 5 9 4 9 5 13 200 1 5 57 1 7 57 1 15 61 200 14 9 4 9 4 9 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 14 300 1 63 85 1 66 86 1 78 91 300 15 9 5 9 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 15 400 2 10 1 1 2 14 1 2 2 29 1 9 400 16 10 5 10 5 11 5 11 5 11 5 11 6 16 500 2 68 1 29 2 73 1 30 2 92 1 39 500 17 10 5 11 5 11 6 12 6 12 6 12 6 17 600 3 14 1 57 3 20 1 59 3 43 1 70 600 18 11 6 11 6 12 6 12 6 12 6 12 6 18 700 3 73 1 85 3 79 1 87 3 106 1 100 700 19 12 6 12 6 12 6 13 6 13 6 13 6 19 800 4 19 2 1 4 27 2 3 4 57 2 18 800 20 12 6 12 6 13 7 13 7 13 7 14 7 20 900 4 77 2 29 4 86 2 32 5 8 2 48 900 21 13 6 13 6 14 7 14 7 14 7 14 7 21 1000 5 23 2 57 5 33 2 60 5 71 2 78 1000 22 13 7 14 7 14 7 15 7 15 7 15 7 22 1100 5 82 2 85 5 92 2 89 6 22 2 109 1100 23 14 7 14 7 15 7 15 8 15 8 16 8 23 1200 6 28 3 1 6 40 3 5 6 85 3 27 1200 24 14 7 15 7 16 8 16 8 16 8 16 8 24 1300 6 86 3 29 6 99 3 34 7 36 3 57 1300 25 15 8 15 8 16 8 17 8 17 8 17 8 25 1400 7 33 3 57 7 46 3 62 7 99 3 87 1400 26 16 8 16 8 17 8 17 9 17 8 18 9 26 1500 7 91 3 86 7 105 3 90 8 50 4 5 1500 27 16 8 16 8 18 9 18 9 IS 9 18 9 27 1600 8 37 4 2 8 53 4 7 9 1 4 35 1600 28 17 8 17 8 18 9 19 9 19 9 19 9 28 1700 8 96 4 30 9 4 35 9 64 4 66 1700 29 17 9 18 9 19 9 19 10 19 9 20 10 29 1800 9 42 4 58 9 59 4 63 10 15 4 96 1800 30 18 9 18 9 19 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 30 1900 9 100 4 86 10 6 4 92 10 78 5 14 1900 31 19 9 19 9 20 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 31 2000 10 46 5 2 10 66 5 8 11 29 5 44 2000 32 19 9 19 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 22 11 32 2100 10 105 5 30 11 13 5 37 11 92 5 74 2100 33 20 10 20 10 21 10 22 11 22 11 22 11 33 2200 11 52 5 58 11 72 5 65 12 43 5 105 2200 34 20 10 21 10 22 11 23 11 22 11 23 11 34 2300 11 110 5 86 12 19 5 93 12 106 6 23 2300 35 21 10 21 10 23 11 23 11 23 11 24 11 35 2400 12 36 6 2 12 79 6 10 13 57 6 53 2400 36 21 11 22 11 23 11 24 12 24 11 24 12 36 2500 13 2 6 30 13 26 6 38 14 8 6 83 2500 37 22 11 22 11 24 12 24 12 24 12 25 12 37 2600 13 60 6 58 13 85 6 67 14 71 7 1 2600 38 23 11 23 11 24 12 25 12 25 12 26 12 38 2700 14 7 6 86 14 32 6 95 15 22 7 32 2700 39 23 11 24 12 25 12 26 13 26 12 26 13 39 2800 14 65 7 2 14 92 7 11 15 85 7 62 2800 33 6 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Given Surfac of Roo Fl.it S'-am Standin Singh g Scam Lock Given Surface of Roof Nu mber of Sheets Required for Gutter-Strips Tin Rolls and t Edged Edged tO be •A In. «« In. 2 4-In. Seam to be (""nverprl Num Feet Der W -j . __ r_„ r 1 t„overe 14 x20 20 <28 14 j 20 20 x28 14 ^20 20x28 of sheeib icquneu pci dths Widths line.il 1UUI 1U1 C\t ttllU ^O-lllL'Il WILllUi Widths Widths Sq. Ft. 11. S. B. S. B. S. l: S. B. S. B. S. Sq. Ft. 20 28 reel 20 28 ? eet 20 28 reel 20 28 2900 15 1 ] 7 M 15 39 7 40 16 36 7 92 2900 3000 15 69 7 59 15 'IX 7 1,8 16 99 8 10 3000 1 1 1 35 16 23 69 31 44 200 89 128 3100 16 li. 7 87 li. 45 7 97 17 50 X 40 3100 2 1 2 36 16 23 70 32 45 300 134 192 3200 li. 74 8 3 16 105 x 13 1.x 1 8 70 3200 3 2 2 37 17 24 71 32 45 400 178 256 3300 17 20 8 31 17 52 8 41 IX 64 8 101 3300 4 2 3 38 17 24 72 32 46 500 223 320 3-100 17 78 8 59 17 1 1 1 8 70 19 15 9 19 3400 5 3 4 39 18 25 73 33 47 600 267 384 3500 18 25 8 87 1.x 58 8 [IX 19 78 ■i 44 3500 6 3 4 40 18 26 74 33 47 700 312 444 3600 18 83 9 3 19 6 '' 14 20 29 9 79 3600 7 4 5 41 19 27 75 34 48 800 356 512 3700 19 30 '' 31 19 65 9 43 20 92 9 109 3700 8 4 5 42 19 27 76 34 48 900 401 576 3800 19 88 > 59 2(1 12 9 71 21 43 10 28 3800 9 4 6 43 20 28 77 35 49 1,000 445 640 3900 20 35 9 S7 20 71 9 100 21 106 10 58 3900 10 5 7 44 20 28 78 35 50 1,100 495 704 4000 20 92 10 3 21 19 111 16 22 57 10 88 4000 11 5 7 45 20 29 79 36 50 1,200 540 768 4100 21 39 10 31 21 78 10 44 23 8 11 6 4100 12 6 8 46 21 29 80 36 51 1,300 585 832 4200 11 97 in 59 22 25 10 73 23 71 11 36 4200 13 6 9 47 21 30 81 36 52 1,400 630 896 4300 22 44 in 88 22 85 111 101 24 22 11 67 4300 14 7 9 48 22 31 82 37 52 1,500 675 960 4400 22 102 1 1 4 23 32 11 18 24 85 11 97 4400 15 7 10 49 22 31 83 37 53 1,600 720 1,024 4500 23 48 11 32 23 91 : i 46 25 36 12 15 4500 16 8 11 50 23 32 84 38 54 1,700 765 1,088 4600 23 107 1 1 60 24 38 1 1 74 25 99 12 45 4600 17 8 11 51 23 33 85 38 54 1,800 810 1,152 4700 24 53 11 85 24 98 li 103 26 50 12 75 4700 IS 8 12 52 24 33 86 39 55 1,900 855 1,216 4800 24 111 12 4 25 45 12 19 27 1 12 105 4800 19 9 12 53 24 34 87 39 55 2,000 900 1.280 4900 25 57 12 37 25 ID 1 12 48 27 64 13 24 4900 20 9 13 54 24 34 88 40 56 2,100 945 1,344 5000 26 4 12 60 26 51 12 76 28 15 13 54 5000 21 10 14 55 25 35 89 40 57 2,200 990 1,344 6000 31 27 15 5 31 84 15 24 33 85 16 20 6000 22 10 14 56 25 36 90 40 57 2,300 1,035 1.472 7000 36 50 17 62 37 4 17 84 39 43 18 98 7000 23 1 1 15 57 26 36 91 41 58 2,400 1,080 1,536 8000 41 73 20 7 42 37 20 32 45 1 21 63 8000 24 11 16 58 26 37 92 41 59 2,500 1,135 1,600 9000 46 95 ->2 65 47 70 22 "1 50 72 24 29 9000 25 12 16 59 27 38 93 42 59 2,600 1,170 1,664 10O00 52 6 25 8 52 102 25 39 56 30 26 107 10000 26 27 28 12 12 13 17 18 18 60 27 61 28 62 28 38 39 40 94 95 96 42 43 43 60 61 62 2,700 1,215 2,800 1,260 2,900 1,305 1,738 1,792 1,856 Number of Boxes and Sheets Required to Cover 29 30 13 14 19 19 63 28 64 29 40 41 97 98 44 44 62 63 3,000 1,350 3,100 1,395 1,920 1,984 a Given Surface of Tin Roofine 31 14 20 65 29 41 99 44 64 3,200 1,440 2,048 32 li 21 66 30 42 100 45 64 3,300 1.485 2,112 St mdini? Spam 33 15 21 67 30 43 3,400 1,530 2,170 Given 34 16 22 11 68 31 2 sheets 43 n 28- n. roll cover 1 75 3,500 1,575 lin. ft. 2,240 Given Surface /if I?,,,. S ngle Lock D mble Lock Surface of Roof 11 2 sheets n 20- n. roll cover 24$ lin. ft. ()| l\ • , j 1 12 : in 14- n. roll cover 35C lin. ft. to be 1-in. Seam J4-ln Seam 1-In. Seam to be ("rniprnd 11 2 sheets in 10- n. roll cover 49( lin. ft. 14 k 20 20 x 28 14 x 20 20 x28 14 ic 20 20x28 This to lock table enables tin roofers to tell how many together to cover any desired length. For sheets Sp. Ft. B S. B. S. B. S. B. S. B. S. B. S. Sp. F. exam- 100 200 1 65 18 32 63 1 65 18 31 62 1 67 21 32 63 100 200 pie : How many 20 x 28-in ch sheets shall be locked together 300 1 83 94 1 82 92 1 88 95 300 to " -cnock out" a gutter strip 72 feet long. 28 inches wide. 400 2 36 1 13 2 35 1 11 2 42 1 14 400 500 2 101 1 44 2 99 1 41 2 109 1 46 500 Now if tl e strip s to be 28 inches wide it means that 600 700 2 4 54 6 1 1 75 106 3 4 52 5 1 1 72 102 3 4 63 18 1 1 77 108 600 700 the sheets are to be edged on the 28-inch sides so that 800 900 4 5 71 24 2 2 25 56 4 5 69 22 2 2 21 51 4 5 84 39 2 2 28 59 800 900 from turned edge to turned edge will be approximately 1000 5 89 2 87 5 86 2 82 5 105 2 91 1000 19 inches and it will then take 46 times this dimension to 1100 1200 6 6 42 107 3 3 6 37 6 6 39 103 3 3 31 6 7 59 14 3 3 10 42 1100 1200 make 7 2 fee ; so referrin g tc first column locate 72 feet, 1300 7 59 3 68 7 56 3 62 7 80 3 73 1300 read across to column under 28-ii ch width and find a6. 1400 8 12 3 99 8 9 3 92 8 39 3 104 1400 1500 8 77 4 18 8 73 4 11 8 101 4 24 1500 meaning 46 sheets are required. Supposing the strip is 1600 1700 9 9 30 95 4 4 49 81 9 9 26 90 4 4 41 72 9 10 56 10 4 4 55 87 1600 1700 to be 20 inches wide, which would mean that the edges 1800 1900 10 11 48 5 5 31 10 10 43 108 4 5 102 21 10 11 77 31 5 5 6 38 1800 1900 are to be turned on the 20-inch s des, 30 that there will 2000 11 65 5 62 11 60 5 51 11 97 5 69 2000 be about 27 inches : rom turned edge tc turned edge and 2100 2200 12 12 18 83 5 6 93 12 12 12 13 77 5 6 82 12 13 52 6 5 6 100 20 2100 2200 the 20- inch wide col umn directs that 32 sheets be ocked 2300 2400 13 13 36 101 6 6 43 74 13 13 30 94 6 6 31 61 13 14 73 27 6 6 51 83 2300 2400 together for 72 feet ength . 2500 14 53 6 105 14 47 6 92 14 94 7 2 2500 2600 15 6 7 24 15 7 11 15 48 7 34 2600 2700 2800 15 16 71 24 7 7 55 86 15 16 64 17 7 7 41 72 16 16 3 69 7 7 65 96 2700 2800 Weig ht f Sheet Copper 2900 16 89 S 5 16 81 7 102 17 24 8 16 2900 3000 17 42 8 36 17 34 S 21 17 90 S 47 3000 Stubs ' Thickness Oz. Sheet Sheets Sheets Sheets Sheets 3100 17 106 8 67 17 98 8 51 IS 44 8 79 3100 Gauge in Decim al Per 4x48 , 24 x48, 30 x 60, 36 x 72, 48 x 72, 3200 18 59 8 98 18 51 8 82 18 111 8 110 3200 Nearest Parts f Sq. Ft. Weight W eight Weight Weight Weight 3300 19 12 9 18 19 4 9 19 65 9 30 3300 No. 1 Inch n Lbs ir Lbs. in Lb s. in Lbs. in Lbs. 3400 3500 19 77 9 49 19 68 9 31 20 20 9 61 3400 3500 20 30 9 80 20 21 9 61 20 86 9 92 35 00537 4 1.16 2 3.12 4.50 6 3600 20 95 9 111 20 85 9 92 21 41 10 12 3600 33 00806 6 1.75 3 4.68 6.75 9 3700 21 48 10 30 21 38 10 11 21 107 10 43 3700 31 .0107 8 2.03 4 6.2 5 9 12 3800 22 10 61 21 103 10 41 22 62 10 75 3800 29 0134 10 2.91 5 7.81 11.25 15 3900 22 65 10 92 22 55 10 72 23 16 10 106 3900 27 .0161 12 3.50 6 9.37 13.50 18 4000 23 18 11 11 23 8 10 102 23 82 11 26 4000 26 .0188 14 4.08 7 10.93 15.75 21 4100 23 83 11 42 23 72 11 21 24 37 11 57 4100 24 .0215 16 4.66 8 12.50 18 24 4200 24 36 11 73 24 25 11 51 24 103 11 88 4200 23 .0242 18 5.25 9 14.06 20.25 27 4300 24 101 11 104 24 89 11 82 25 58 12 8 4300 22 .0269 20 5.83 10 15.62 22.50 30 4400 25 53 12 23 25 42 12 26 12 12 39 4400 21 0322 24 7 12 18.75 27 36 4500 26 6 12 54 25 107 12 31 26 79 12 71 4500 19 0430 32 9.33 16 25 36 48 4600 26 71 12 85 26 59 12 61 27 33 12 102 4600 IS .053S 40 11.66 20 31.25 45 60 4700 27 24 13 4 27 12 12 92 27 100 13 22 4700 16 .0645 48 14 24 37.50 54 72 4800 27 89 13 35 27 76 13 10 28 54 13 53 4800 15 .0754 56 16.33 28 43.75 63 84 4900 28 42 13 67 28 29 13 41 29 9 13 84 4900 14 .0860 64 18.66 32 50 72 96 5000 28 106 13 98 28 93 13 72 29 75 14 4 5000 13 .095 70 35 55 79 105 6000 34 83 16 72 34 67 16 41 35 67 16 94 6000 12 .109 81 40^ 63 91 122 7000 40 59 19 47 40 41 19 10 41 60 19 72 7000 11 .120 89 4454 70 100 134 8000 46 36 22 21 46 15 21 92 47 52 22 51 8000 10 .134 100 50 78 112 150 9000 52 12 24 108 51 101 24 61 S3 45 25 29 9000 9 .148 110 55 86 124 165 10000 57 100 27 83 57 74 27 31 59 37 28 7 10000 8 .165 123 61 96 138 184 SHEET METAL ROOFING, GUTTERS AND SIDING \o7 Stubs' Thickness Oz. Sheets Sheets Sheets Sheets Sheets SSSLt-^^tfsJSt^SS Weft' '&& Sfiggg No. l I nc h in Lbs. in Lbs. m Lbs. in Lbs. in Lbs. 7 .180 134 6 .203 151 5 .220 164 4 .238 177 3 .259 193 2 .284 211 1 .300 223 .340 253 67 105 75>4 118 82 128 88;: 138 96 151 10554 165 11154 174 126/ m 151 201 170 227 184 246 199 266 217 289 238 317 251 335 2S5 380 Official table adopted by the Association of Copper Manufacturers 0f Ro. e .ed Un co e p d pe S r ta ha S s specific gravity of 8.93 . One* = foot weighs 558 12^1000 pounds. One square foot, of 1 inch thick, weighs 46 51 ,ioo pounds. Helps for Figuring Corrugated Sheets Number of Corrugated •Sheets in One Sq. Number of Sq. Ft. in One Corrugated Sheet Length 2. 2 ■/, and 3 inch 154 inch Length 2,2/2 and 3 inch 1/inch Sheet Corruga- Corruga- Sheet Corruga- Corruga. Feet tionstwidth tionslwidth Feet tlonsCwidth tionsCwidth 26 inches) 25 inches) 25 ,' n S es) 2S l ?^ e , s) c q it, 9.60 5 10.83 10.42 J 7.11 8.00 6 13.00 12.50 7 6" c 9 6.86 7 15.17 14.58 a 5 77 6.00 8 17.33 16.67 5 513 5 33 9 19-50 18.75 , HI Ho 10 21.67 20.83 ? 4 i3 4 37 11 23.85 22.88 !i 3 - 8S 4.00 12 26.00 25.00. Full width of Corrugated Sheets is charged for. No allowance is made for laps in these tables. Weights of Roofing Materials Table showing approximate weights in a square foot of various materials used for roofing. MATERIAL Average Weight Pounds to a Square Foot Asphalt on slabs ■ • • • ■ • ....... - • • • ■ • • 20 Corrugated Galvanized Metal Sheets, No. 20 unbearded 2J4 Copper, 16 oz. standing seam 1/4 F'elt and asphalt, without sheathing * Glass, 'A inch thick ,•■••.-,- i« Hemlock sheathing, 1 inch thick ^ Lead, about 'A inch thick I Paper, tarred ° Spruce sheathing, 1 inch thick 'A Slate, $'i6 inch thick, double lap °n Slate, 'A inch thick, 3-inch double lap 4/i Slate, on iron ] Shingles, 6 x 18— one-third to weather. « Skylight of glass, tym to / inch, including frame 4 toll) Slag roof, 4-ply. 4 Terne plate, 1C, without sheathing A Terne plate, IX., without sheathing Ya Tiles (plain) 10^x6/— 5J4 inches to weather ... 18 Tiles (Spanish) 14/ x 10/— 7/ inches to weather... White pine sheathing, 1 inch thick Yellow pine sheathing, 1 inch thick Zinc, sheet 2/ 4 8 Calculating Flat Seam Sheets One table is calculated on a basis of 4-inch edges on 14x20 and 20x28 sheets, consuming nearly I inch, cover- ing a space 13*4 x ioJ4 and IC.J4 x 274 inches and exposing a surface a trifle more than 247 and 513 square inches respectively. The other table is calculated on a basis of 34-inch edges on 14x20 nd 20x28 sheets, consuming I l /t inches, cov- ering a space 12% x 1874 and i&/% x 26^ inches and ex- posing a surface of 243 1/64 and 507 17/64 square inches respectively. Calculating Standing Seam, Single Lock Sheets The basis of calculation is for 34-inch single lock cross seams, consuming i/s inches of tin and covering 22817/32 square inches when edged 1 and i4 inches, giving a finished seam 34-inch high, and covering 2223/32 square inches when edged 1% and 1 4 inches and giving a finished seam 1 inch high, with 14x20 tin. With 20x28 tin edged in the same way with a 34-inch finished seam 477 1/32 square inches are covered, and with a 1-inch finished seam 463 19/32 square inches are covered. Calculating Standing Seam, Double Lock Sheets The basis of calculation is the quantity of tin consumed by double lock machines, which is 1 7/16 inches by measure- ment for cross seams and covering 222 63/64 square inches when edged I and i4 inches and giving a finished seam 34 inch high, and covering 21645/64 square inches when edged 1 4 and 1 4 inches, giving a finished seam 1 inch high, with 14x20 tin. With 20x28 tin edged in the same way with a J^-inch finished seam 471 3l/ 6 4 square inches are covered, and with a i-inch finished seam 45813/64 square inches are covered. How to Use the Tables Refer to the number of squares nearest the required surface. See the quantity of tin opposite in the column for the nature of the roof to be put on, whether of 4-inch or 34-inch Flat Seam or -4-inch or I -inch Standing Seam, Single Lock or Double Lock. Sot down the amount. In the same manner determine the quantity of tin for the odd feet and add this to the former amount. The sheets are reduced to boxes by dividing by 112. Example for Flat Seam Roof How much 14x20 tin edged '4-inch covering 134x194 will be required to cover a roof of 5,060 square feet Flat Seam? First look for 5,000 square feet (=50 squares) and set down the quantity opposite, thus : 26 boxes 4 sheets Then for 60 square feet and set down.. 35 sheets Making a total of 26 boxes 39 sheets Example for Single Lock Standing Seam Roof How much 14x20 tin will be required to cover a roof of 3,984 square feet with cross seams and i-inch single lock standing seams? First look for 3,900 square feet (=39 squares) and set down the quantity opposite, thus : 22 boxes 65 sheet's Then for 84 square feet and set down.. 55 sheets Making a total of 22 boxes 120 sheets which is equal to 23 boxes and 8 sheets, as there are 112 sheets to a box. Example for Double Lock Standing Seam Roof How much 20x28 tin will be required to cover a roof of 3,452 square feet with double lock cross seams and 34-inch standing seams? First look for 3,400 square feet (=34 squares) and set down the quantity opposite, thus: 9 boxes 3 1 sheets Then look for 52 square feet and set down l6 sheets Making a total of 9 boxes 47 sheets PART XVI PLAN READING T^HE most valuable acquirement by tbe student for obtaining ready familiarity with the reading or interpretation of architects' plans is a knowledge of that department of mechanical drafting known as projection drawing. Those who are thus quali- fied may, with the aid of a set of specifications, read plans and compute the items and quantities of material for construction purposes, without any difficulty. However, during the writer's contact with hun- dreds of mechanics and students, much inquiry on this subject has been raised and particular ques- tions asked. This has served to bring to his atten- tion the basis of requirement for a useful treat- ment. The aim is to place in the hands of the reader who is not versed in the art of plan reading a fund of practical information, providing the nec- essary aid and guidance in respect to the require- ments of sheet metal workers. The general term "set of plans" will be under- stood as having reference to plans, elevations, sec- tional and constructive views, etc. Plans are com- monly presented on blue print paper. They com- municate the architect's conceptions with the pre- cision necessary for realizing them in actual con- struction, through the medium of other hands. They express his thought in the shortest and most direct manner, without the usual detail of verbal commu- nication. Through them he indicates such infor- mation as is necessary to construct a given object, presenting the necessary data as to structure, de- tail, sizes and items. The method by which plans are prepared also assists sufficiently in visualizing the subjects to which they relate. In taking up the treatment of this subject, we will consider first the various technical terms which have to do with plan reading and the preparation of plans. Definitions Plan View. A view of an object when viewed directly from the top. Soffit Plan. The view of an object viewed from the bottom, or looking up. Front Elevation. The view of an object when looked at from the front. Rear Elevation. The view of an object as seen from the back or rear. Side Elevation. The view of an object looked at from the side. Horizontal Section. The section of an object taken on a horizontal plane. Vertical Section. The section of an object taken on a vertical plane. Constructive View. A view showing the methods of construction of an object to be made. To read a plan effectively it is very necessary first, to study its several views, until one possesses a faithful conception or pictural impression of the object to be constructed. One must be able to visualize the completed work, since the "flat" draw- ing before him is largely a language of lines, or "short hand" instruction from the architect. In the various solutions presented herewith the fore- going definitions are illustrated and exemplified. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF A BEVELED TUBE Solution 179 In Fig. 639 is presented a perspective view of a beveled tube. The two sides are flat and parallel Fig. 639. — Perspective View of Beveled Tube to each other and the angle at the top and bottom bevel toward the apex at 45 degrees. 338 PLAN READING 339 Fig. 640 illustrates how the end and side eleva- tions are drawn, as well as the plan. Here, as in general, it will be found that the ability to read the drawing is acquired in learning how to draw it. First, draw the shape of the object, as shown by A-B-C-D, placing it in its proper position, as shown. This becomes the end elevation of the object. From the various corners of the object, looking in the /V F S/DE eL£Mr/OM K 1 1 3° ! ! \b° J 1 1 y / n I / 6fO Pltf/V Fig. 640. — Plan and Elevations of Beveled Tube direction indicated by the arrow X, draw horizontal lines towards the left, as shown. Make the side elevation of the desired length, as G-H, and draw the vertical lines G-F and H-E; this completes the side elevation. Note that in the side elevation four lines are shown, since we look against the corners A-a-b and C, following in the direction of the arrow X. In drawing the plan of this object we look downward on it in the direction of the arrow A, and see only three lines, as indicated by the corners a-A and a'. The plan view, which is shown by K-L-M-O, is of length equal to the elevation F-E. It will be noted that projection lines are employed to obtain the lines in plan ; these are drawn from the intersections on a°-b° to the line K-L, with a° as center. This simple example, presents the principles of drawing in their proper relative positions, the vari- ous plans, elevations and other views to which fuller attention is devoted in exercises following. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF A TEE JOINT Solutions 180 Familiar to all sheet metal workers are the plans and elevations of a tee joint shown in Fig. 641. It will be seen that the diameters of both ver- tical and horizontal pipes are equal, thus giving the points of tangency a'-a in the end elevation, while the corresponding points are indicated by a in the side elevation and by a"-a" in plan. Projection lines are used to draw the plan where b is used as center and quadrants are drawn between c-b and b-a. The side elevation shows the outline of the tee, 69/ PlrtN Fig. 641. — Plan and Elevations of a Tee Joint with miter lines meeting at a. The end elevation shows the profile of the horizontal pipe, as well as the elevation of the vertical pipe. In the plan — that is, looking down on the object — is seen the profile of the vertical pipe and the plan view of the horizontal pipe. ELEVATIONS AND SOFFIT PLAN OF A LEADER HEAD Solution 181 The present example illustrated by Fig. 642 shows both a plan (as looked at from above) and a soffit plan (as looked at from beneath). The side eleva- tion is drawn off the wall line, as indicated, and ir> line therewith is drawn the front elevation. Note that both in the front and side elevations there is a projecting panel, indicated by A and B, whose projection is shown by a and b respectively, on the opposite elevations. Thus, the projection of the panel A in the front elevation would be indicated by a in the side elevation, while the projection of the panel B in the side elevation would be shown by b in the front elevation. The plan would be seen by looking downward on 340 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER WALL L/NE M/////I/////////////////. 3 _/-'. FRO/vr SLEWr/ON S/Df £L£l/#r/OM Plan and Elevations of Transition Piece AND ELEVATIONS TRANSITION PIECE WML 1//VLT — > i' 64 'Z Pi#/v #r rop of head Fig. 642. — Plans and Elevations of Leader Head the top of the leader head, where the projection l'-2' is made to equal 1-2 in the side elevation. Looking at either front or side elevation fads to indicate whether the tube X is designed to be round or square. The soffit plan (seen by looking up- ward) shows the tube to be round. Here, by means of projection lines introduced between the angle a-b-c, is drawn the soffit plan, showing the project- ing panels, already referred to. Note that the coves O and O in the front elevation show miter lines at O' and O' in the soffit plan. This drawing may be carefully studied with much advantage, as it exemplifies the principles of pro- jections, utilized in examples of a more compli- cated nature. Solution 182 Let us assume that there is received at the sheet metal shop a blue print for a transition piece, rec- tangular to square, of the dimensions given in plan in Fig. 643, and of the hight shown in the eleva- tion. In this case, the plan is first drawn and from it the front elevation is projected. Then, from both of these views the side elevation is drawn. In projecting this the right angle a-b-c is used. Observe that the base collar in both the front and the side elevation shows a flat surface, while the top collar in each elevation shows the corner lines 1 and 2 in plan, indicated respectively by 1' and 2' in either elevation. The lines drawn from the square collar at the top, to the base line, in the front and side elevations indicate slight bends, which are also shown in the plan. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF AN IR- REGULAR FITTING OR FRUST- UM OF A SCALENE CONE Solution 183 Fig. 644 represents a plan and elevation of an irregular fitting, round to round, tangent at one side, as shown in the plan. If the two pipes are PLAN READING 34i tangent at one side, the one view, found in the side elevation, shows a straight line at d and a taper at e, while the opposite view, shown in the front (SISEp^ - " Fig. 644. — Plan and Elevations of an Irregular Fitting elevation, has equal tapers at / and g. The front elevation has been projected from the plan and side elevation, shown by the dotted lines. PLAN, ELEVATION AND CON- STRUCTIVE VIEW OF A ROUND VENTILATOR Solution 184 Fig. 645 shows the plan and elevation of a plain round ventilator. In this case, but one elevation is required, as the diameter is the same, from which- ever direction the ventilator is viewed. 1-2-3 and 4 indicate by dotted lines the braces used to uphold the ventilator hood. Looking down on the venti- lator, for a plan, presents only one circle, as indi- cated. The smaller and dotted circle in plan indi- cates the diameter of the body, shown by A in elevation. A dotted line, shown on a drawing, al- ways indicates a hidden profile or some object below or behind the part we are viewing. Constructive View A section taken on the line a-b in plan will give a vertical constructive view, shown to the right of comrpacr/i/£ t//fiv Pi/m Pig. 6 4S . — Plan, Elevation and Constructive View of a Round Ventilator the elevation. This is the same in outline as the elevation, but comprehends the constructive fea- tures, as well as an inside elevation, behind the sectional lines, as shown by the horizontal lines drawn therein. PLANS, ELEVATIONS AND CON- STRUCTIVE VIEWS OF A TOOL BOX Solution 185 In Fig. 646 are presented eight views of a tool box, defining the various views, given under the heading Definitions, in this part. The constructive view, A, is first drawn. This shows the formation of the upper frame of the body, which receives the beaded edge of the bev- eled cover. The bottom is double-seamed toward the bottom of the box, as shown. From the con- structive view, A, the rear, side and front eleva- tions are drawn, the outline profiles being made alike to those in A. In the front elevation a clasp is indicated by a, while i-i in the rear elevation show the hinges. A plan view, looking downward on the box, is shown above the side elevation, the length c'-d' being made to equal c-d in the front elevation. Note that the corner miters, m-n in plan, show lines, indicating bevel or molded corners. The soffit plan is shown below the side eleva- 342 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER in Fig. 647, to which reference will be made in the explanation of the eight views shown in Fig. 648. The constructive view shown is first drawn. From this the other seven views are obtained. In the con- structive view, note that the back of the base is bent, as shown from 4 to 1, and the front is bent, as shown from 6 to 2. In the front elevation note that the returns, 3-5-7 and 8-9-10, miter on the inside at i and i, in Fig. 647, and on the outside at fROHT ELEUHT/O/Y /ftW/P £i£i/#r/0// s/oR/zo/vrsiL sect/o/v oa/ x-y J m 1/fRT/C/U SECE/OAf cw c/-y T b' sorr/r pia/v Fig. 646. — Various Views of a Tool Box tion ; this gives a view looking upward. The length of b-b' in the soffit plan is made to equal B in the front elevation. Take note that the corner, as o-s in the soffit plan, shows a line, indicating a beveled joint of the bevel 1 in the side elevation. If a vertical section on the line U-V in rear eleva- tion be desired, this would constitute a section alike to A, except that here a hinge is found at u in J and the clasp at w, in the vertical section on U-V. A horizontal section on X-Y in the side elevation, shown at L, is made of length corresponding to B, in the front elevation. It shows the double seaming of the corner t, as indicated by t'-t" in the hori- zontal section. The views here outlined are complete and should be studied carefully. PLANS, ELEVATIONS AND CON- STRUCTIVE VIEWS OF AN IR- REGULAR BASE Solution 186 A perspective view of an irregular base is given b and b; while in the back, these same returns butt against the surface 1, in the constructive view, in Fig. 648, also shown at o and o in Fig. 647, and This face <3 verf/ca/ fi/ane surface w/6ouf dei/e/ as on orher three sides Fig. 647.— Perspective View of an Irregular Base against the rear surface 4 in Fig. 648, at a and a in Fig. 647. The front elevation in Fig. 648 indicates the PLAN READING 343 D i I I III ^ 1 — :— i- >ii ! i SfOG, £l£f#r/0// i ON C-O f jor^/r ,0/rf// //OR/zowr/qi. sec now o/v /?-a Fig. 648. — Various Views of an Irregular Base length, correspondingly indicated in the rear eleva- tion ; the dotted lines in this figure represent the returns mentioned. The side elevation at the right is of correspond- ing size and shape to the constructive view, but is reversed, and in the side elevation, the elevation lines are shown, while the dotted lines indicate the inside returns. By means of projection lines, drawn from the constructive view on the planes, c-a and a-b, the plan view of the base is constructed, as shown above the front elevation. Observe that miter lines are shown at c-c, while / and / show the intersections with the flat back. As the surface, 5 and 9 in the front elevation, shows a flat surface, no miter line appears in plan for that part at h-h. In like manner, by using the projection lines from the constructive view to the planes d-c and c-f, the soffit plan is drawn, or a view looking into the base, from the bottom. Note the position of the miter lines, m and m, in the soffit plan, making com- parison with that in the plan. If this base were cut on the line A-B in the side elevation, it would give the horizontal section, shown below the side elevation. If the base were cut on the line C-D in the rear elevation, it would give a vertical section, shown below the rear elevation. Cutting through on the line C-D also brings to view those parts that are behind the plane C-D, these parts being shown in elevation between r and 5 in the vertical section. Thus this view is part elevation and part section. Careful consideration of the interesting study pre- sented in this solution is suggested. Plans and Elevations for Buildings In Figs. 649 to 672 inclusive are illustrated the relations of all parts, namely, front, rear, left side and right side elevations, with plan, obtained by projection lines. Although in architects' drawings the projection lines do not appear, their use here will give the student a better understanding of the various views. PLAN AND SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FLAT ROOF Solution 187 Fig. 649 is a plan view of a flat roof, in which a hipped ridge skylight is shown, as well as a chim- ney, E, and a scuttle, S. The roof pitches in the direction of the arrows to the leader outlet, shown in the gutter. Behind the skylight and scuttle, at C, and in the corner of the chimney, at D, saddles or cant boards are placed ; these are put on before 344 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER //5 oi e><=>9 Fig. 650.- -Showing Cant Strips or Saddles to Prevent Snow Pockets the roof is covered with metal, to shed the water to the roof proper and also to prevent the occur- rence of snow pockets. These saddles are formed, as shown in Fig. 650, where that illustrated by dia- gram C is the formation used behind the scuttle or skylight, and the saddle shown by diagram D is the formation used in the chimney corner. A section on A-B in Fig. 649 is given below the plan. This vertical section shows the profile of the gutter resting on the wall, also the pitch of the flat roof. A section, given on any line, as that of A-B, indi- cates that the portion in front of the line, A-B, has been removed and that we are therefore looking into the building from the line A-B, obtaining the view shown below the plan and in line with it. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH GABLE ROOF Solution 188 Fig. 651 presents the plan and elevations of a building with a gable roof. The end and side ele- vations and the plan are represented by means of projection lines. From a as a center the horizontal projections are carried to the plan, as shown, while the vertical projection lines are used in drawing the side elevation. Note that the side elevation shows but two lines in the roof, taken from 1 and 2 in the end elevation, while the plan shows three lines in the roof, taken from 1-2 and 3 in the end eleva- tion, and projected by the quadrants struck from a. -3 Fig. 649. — Plan and Sectional View of Flat Roof PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH HIPPED ROOF OF EQUAL PITCH Solution 189 A building having a hipped roof of equal pitch is shown in Fig. 652. In this case, the plan of the roof is square, making the front and side ele- vations alike, as shown. Where a roof thus inclines on four sides, a line is always introduced in eleva- tions, as at b and c ; while, in Fig. 651, where the roof inclines on only two sides, a line is shown only as represented at b. In the plan, in Fig. 652, the diagonal lines indicate the lines of the hip. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH HIPPED ROOF OF UNEQUAL PITCHES Solution 190 Fig. 653 gives the plan and elevations of a hipped roof having unequal pitches. Here the plan is in the shape of a rectangle, but the apex of the roof is directly in the center in plan or, at the intersec- tion of the two diagonal lines, at b. As the vertical hight, from 2 to 1, is alike in both elevations, un- equal pitches therein result. Note that the projec- tion lines from the plan and from side elevation s;ive the end elevation. PLAN READING 345 S/OE E/Et/rfE/O/Y mom £i£v#r/0tf s/de ftfuer/a/y Pltf/V 6-51 Fig. 651. — Plan and Elevations of Gable Roofs A\ -- A\ a 1 c a 1 / ; i 1 / 1 / / / / Plffff 6^5^ 5/DE E/fV/WM fm eieme/o// ^^T^\ /N ^2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J ! '< ^^<^^ ' 1 / 1 _ --- t ^^^\ / s PlEl/Y 6S3 Fig. 652. — Plan and Elevations of Hipped Roof of Equal Pitches Fig. 653. — Plan and Elevations of Hipped Roof of Unequal Pitches PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH HIPPED ROOF HAVING RIDGE AND HIPS Solution 191 In Fig. 654 is shown a plan with side and end elevations of a building with a hipped roof having ridge and hips. As the pitch of the four sides of the roof are the same, the hip lines in plan present angles of 45 degrees, as shown. The end elevation is obtained from the side elevation and plan by means of projection lines. The ridge line is indi- cated by the letter R, in both the plan and side elevation. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH FOUR GABLE ROOFS, HAVING EQUAL PITCHES Solution 192 A roof having four equal gables is illustrated in ■S/DE ELEVAT/Off E/l/O E/EMf/Ort Fig. 655. In this case, the plan of the building is square, so that the four gables are alike on the four sides ; hence the elevation shown represents the elevation for all sides. Note the lines in plan. The diagonals, marked V, form the valley lines where the returns of any of the two gables meet, while the lines, marked R, show the ridge lines in plan, the same ridge lines being marked R° in elevation. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH FOUR GABLE ROOFS HAVING UNEQUAL PITCHES Solution 193 Fig. 656 shows a plan of a building of rectangular shape, on each side of which is placed a gable of the vertical night, indicated bv H between the two R j\ S/DE ElEME/OW EffO ftfMW/Y EiEMr/o// o/v/Ju Eoe/fc j/gej 1 1 ' 1 1 1 .-- / >r / - /* i?~W^ R^^l/ 65*9- Fig. 654- -Plan and Elevations of Hipped Roof with Ridge CSS PLrf/V Fig. 655. — Plan and Ele- vation of Four Intersect- ing Gable Roofs Hav- ing Equal Pitches 6S6 Fig. 656. — Plan and Elevations of Four Intersecting Gable Roofs hav- ing Unequal Pitches 34^" eiei/^r/o/v wo etep/tr/o/y PIS7H G£>7 Fig. 657. — Plan and Elevations of Mansard and Deck Roofs /1\ . I / 1 / / / / / 1(1 1 / til \t/ l/f y / ,* / /u PL4N _„.- ,-'' 6v5S Fig. 658. — Plan and Elevations of Four Intersecting, Projecting Gable Roofs elevations, thus making the pitch of the gables in side and in end elevations unequal, as indicated. In the plan view the ridge lines are indicated by the letter R and the valley lines forming the junc- tion between the gables by the letter V. The end view is projected from the plan and side elevation, as shown. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH MANSARD AND DECK ROOFS Solution 194 Fig. 657 gives the plan and elevations of a build- ing having deck and mansard roofs. The deck roof is the flat part at the top, indicated by the letter D in the elevations, and the mansard is the inclined roof, marked M, in both plan and elevations. Dor- mer windows are usually placed in the mansard part of the roof, forming valleys and cheeks with the mansard roof. The deck roof is usually pitched to shed the water into a leader not shown in these diagrams. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH FOUR INTER- SECTING PROJECTING GABLE ROOFS Solution 195 Four intersecting, projecting gable roofs on a building, whose outline is shown in plan in Fig. 658, form the subject of this demonstration. Note that both ends and both sides are similar in plan, the two short wings intersecting the main building, thus forming the valleys, shown by V in plan. Observe the appearance of the side elevation and its relation to the plan view, as shown by the dotted lines. The end elevation is projected from the plan and side elevation, as shown by the projec- tion lines. Two elevations only are necessary in this case, as the opposite sides are alike, as shown in plan. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING HAVING HIPPED AND GABLE ROOFS WITH WING ON ONE SIDE Solution 196 In Fig. 659 are presented a plan, with front, rear, left side and right side elevations of a building with wing connected. As no two sides of the plan cor- respond, an elevation must be shown for each side. The plan view is marked front, rear, L-S (left side) and R-S (right side). Note that hipped roofs occur at A and B ; C-C indicate the valleys and D the right side with a gable. Referring to the eleva- tions, note that the left side of the front elevation shows the roof at an incline, while on the right side, at a, the vertical line indicates the gable d, PLAN READING 347 — )-■ f Fig. 659. — Projection Lines Showing the Relation of Plan and Elevations which is seen in the right side elevation. The left side elevation is drawn by means of projection lines, as well as the rear elevation, where i indicates the gable line in that view, shown in the right side ele- vation by d. The relation between the plan and elevations should be carefully studied ; the elevations should be turned back along the curved lines to their respective positions in plan. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING HAVING INTER- SECTING HIPPED ROOFS WITH RIDGE OF WING LOWER THAN THAT OF MAIN ROOF Solution 197 When a plan of a roof indicates an intersecting 1 1 PL /IN T" 1 \ ^ \ \ \ -• s \ \ N \ X \ \ ^ \ \ \ \ V \ \ \ \\ '. \ \ \ \ o- I I r--X<*" LEFT .SIDE ELEl/FIT/OrV FROA/r ELEl/AT/ON Fig. 660. — Plan and Elevations of Intersecting Hip Roofs R/C»r S/DE ELEV#r/OfV 34§ THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER fi&t/e £££t//rr/o# iffrs/o£fiftwr/0/Y f/zowr aev/rr/a/y Fig. 661. — Relation of the Various Elevations in a Complex Roof Plan #/ff//r s/of fiepwr/o/v roof, showing the intersecting lines in plan, as in Fig. 660 at a, we are to understand that the ridge at b is lower than the ridge at c. The intersection of the ridge line b in plan with the pitched roof at a is shown by means of projection lines by a' in the front elevation and by a" in the right side eleva- tion. The rear elevation would present the same appearance as the front elevation, but in a reversed position. The left side elevation, having no inter- secting wing, will show the view indicated. PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF BUILDING WITH COMPLEX ROOF INTERSECTIONS Solution 198 An interesting exercise in plan reading which should be carefully examined, is presented in Fig. 661, where is shown, by means of projection lines, the relation of the various elevations to the plan. First, note the outline of the building, shown in plan by A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H. Observe the ridge lines O-i, 1-2 and 3-4; also the hip lines H-O-a, E-2-3, C-4-B and b-i ; and the valley lines, D-3 and F-i. Follow the projection lines carefully and note the positions of the front, right side, left side and rear elevations, where each elevation is lettered and num- bered to correspond with similar letters and num- bers in plan. Note that where the hip lines, O-a and l-b in plan, meet the face of the wall at a and b, partial gable lines appear in the front and left side elevations, shown by G-a and A-b, respectively. ELEVATION AND SECTIONS OF A PANEL, SHOWING THE IM- PORTANCE OF SECTION LINES Solution 199 Section lines are used to indicate a section or profile of an object; they are usually introduced at an angle of 45 degrees and serve to show the inner side of the profile. A in Fig. 662 illustrates the partial elevation of a panel, in which are to be placed raised letters, a-b-c representing the profile of the panel molding. As no section lines have been marked on the pro- file a-b-c, we are at a loss to determine which is the inside and which the outside of the panel. By placing the section lines, as in diagram B, a sunk panel would result, the letters being placed on the outer surface indicated by the arrow. By using the same profile, but placing the section lines, as in diagram C, a raised panel is the result, the letters being placed on the outer surface indicated by the PLAN READING 349 A LJ*i /RAISED i£TT£/?5 Fig. 662. — Elevation and Sections of a Panel, Showing the Importance of Sectional Lines arrow. This will illustrate the importance of the section lines, the side having the section lines always indicating the inside and the side having no section lines always representing the outside. ELEVATION AND SECTIONAL VIEW OF CORNICE Solution 200 Fig. 663 exemplifies how the elevation and sec- tional view of a cornice are shown. Note the posi- tions of the dentils and 0; also that the dotted INCHES Mill sect/owl i//fiv , f/eoA/r ei£VLrfA/ 633 €35 Fig. 683. — View of Coping over Gable Wall Fig. 685. — Re-enforced Corners the copper coping is set. Allowance is made at the bottom of the brackets to receive the flange of the drip, and the two washes of the coping are seamed at A. Brass screws, i^> in. long, are placed as in- dicated at a; these hold the cove and drip tightly in position. As the section is drawn to a two-inch scale, set the dividers apart 1/12 of two inches, which repre- sents one inch on the two-inch scale ; starting from A take the girth on the right side to the end of the drip flange, obtaining measurement of 203/2 in. Since there is a lock on the opposite side of the coping, the left side will measure 2\ l / 2 in. giving a total girth of 42 in., or 3 ft. 6 in. As there is 48 ft. of coping in all, as shown in Fig. 683, and as the girth of the coping is 3 ft. 6 in., 48 ft. x 3.5 ft. = 168 sq. ft. of copper required. The 20-oz. cold rolled copper specified, indicating 20 oz. to the square foot = 20 x 168 = 3360 oz. Since there are 16 oz. to the lb., we have 3360 -H 16 — 210 lbs. of cold rolled copper required. As there will be three seams on each side of the copper coping 1 in. wide or 6 seams in all, we have 6 x 1 in = 6 in. or .5 ft. ; .5 ft. x 3.5 (the girth) = 1.75 sq. ft. The width of the lower head of the gable measures 1 ft. 6 in. and the girth of the head from 1 to 2 scales 9 in. Therefore .75 ft. x 1.5 ft. = 1. 125 x 2 = 2.25 sq. ft. Add 1.75 sq. ft. 65^ sser/OA/ r///?a & M F/6. G83 Scs/s : JS Fig. 684. — Obtaining Girth of Mold, and Method of Construction (for seams) -f- 2.25 sq. ft. (for heads) = 4 sq. ft. x 20 oz. = 80 oz. 80 oz. -4- 16 = 5 lbs. The main coping requires 210 lbs. plus 5; that is, 215 lbs. of 20-oz. cold rolled copper is required. As the brass 48 screws can be placed 12 in. apart, ■ — • = 48 brass 1 screws required for each side. 48 x 2 = 96, which is the quantity all told of brass screws ij4 in. long, that is necessary. All the material needed for the work may be summed up as follows : 215 lbs. of 20-oz. cold rolled copper. 96 brass screws — 1}4 in. long. 120 one-lb. copper rivets (rivets 2 in. apart on six seams). 5 lbs. solder (approximate). To these must be added time, labor, overhead expenses, etc., all of which vary in different parts of the country. Fi lower heads are re-enforced by soldering gusset pieces, shown shaded by X, in the corners of the mold, marked by the arrow O and O in Fig. 684. This strengthens the corners and prevents the miters from bursting in the procedure of erecting the work. 685 shows how the mitered corners of the ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OF SHEET METAL o u ;> COMPUTING QUANTITIES IN A CORNICE Solution 205 An elevation of a main cornice on the roof of a building is shown in Fig. 686 ; it is drawn to a scale of }i inch to the ft. The full length of the cornice is to be 26 ft., its hight 4 ft. 6 in., and its projec- tion 24 in. Of course, it is impossible to get the true girth from so small a drawing, and a scale de- tail, from which the quantities are determined, is furnished by the architect. Specifications "The main cornice is to be constructed from No. 24 galvanized iron, braced at intervals of four feet with band iron lookouts or braces, having thickness 34 in x 1 }4 in. The braces are to be bolted to the cornice. The seams of the cornice are to be riveted with 2-lb. tinned rivets and all well sweated with half inch scale, that is, 1/12 of one-half inch. Start- ing at i in the section take the full girth of the main cornice down to the end of the drip flange at m; it will be found to measure 90 in. or 7 ft. 6 in. As the extreme length of the crown mold in Fig. 686 is 26 ft. and that of the bed mold, panel course and foot mold 2 ft. less, we will, in computing the number of sq. ft., assume to have the full 26 ft. which will provide sufficient material for the two crown mold returns. The full girth of the cornice being 90 in. or, 7 ft. 6 in., we have 7.5 ft. x 26 ft. = 195 sq. ft. Again, setting the dividers apart one inch on the scale, take the girth from to r in the section of bracket in Fig. 687, and it will be found to have a girth of 66 in. or 5 ft. 6 in. As the face of the bracket is 9 in. or .75 ft., we have .75 ft. x 5.5 ft. = 4.125 sq. ft. As there are five brackets, 5 x 4.125 sq. ft. = 20.625 sq. ft. in bracket faces. The quantity of material for the bracket sides is obtained as follows: Extend the upper line of the bracket cap, as HWU l/H£ ■ ae- o ■ Sea sca/c c/ete'V in f/p '5<3/ r — — 636 Fig. 686, Scale Ys" = 1 Foot -Elevation of Main Cornice with Bracket solder. Before erection of the cornice it is required to be painted with one coat of red lead in raw linseed oil on both sides. This work to be executed in a first-class manner, erected plumb and true." Taking Off the Quantities Fig. 687 presents a one-half inch scale detail of the cornice shown in elevation in Fig. 686. A full section of the main cornice is shown in Fig. 687, as well as the outline of the band iron brace (shown dotted). The dashes indicate the position of the bolts. The side view and face of the bracket is also show-n. To determine the quantity of sheet metal required for the construction of the cornice is a very simple matter. Set the dividers apart one inch on the one- FACE OF 3F/*CKfr *5 3 7 Seals : y z /n Fig. 687. — Scale Detail of Cornice Shown in Fig. 686 a-d; then draw the diagonal, d c, to meet the hor- izontal line below r as c b. The line d c is averaged to a sufficient distance beyond the profile of the bracket, to allow the sink strips 1-2 to be cut from the waste in X Y. The distance from a to b scales 4 ft. 6 in. ; the distance from a to d scales 1 ft. 9 in., and the distance from b to c scales 3 in. Then 1 ft. 9 in. plus 3 in. equals 2 ft. 2 ft. x 4 ft. 6 in. equals 9 sq. ft., for two sides. As there are five brackets in all, we have 5 x 9 sq. ft. = 45 sq. ft., required for bracket sides. Ten flat discs shown in the bed molding in Fig. 3 66 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER 686 are each of 6 in. diameter, as shown by S in the scale detail in Fig. 687 ; thus 6 in. x 6 in. — 36 in. x 10 = 360 sq. in. for discs. The discs are to be stripped 2 in. wide ; therefore 3x6 in. = 18 in., the approximate girth; 18 x 2 = 36 sq. in.; 36 sq. in. x 10 = 360 sq. in. for strips. 360 sq. in. (discs) + 36° sq. in. (strips) = 720 sq. in. 720 sq. in. -=- 144 = 5 sq. ft. There will be five 5-in. half zinc balls required, also five 3-in. half zinc balls for brackets. Again set the dividers one inch apart, according to the one- half inch scale rule, and step off the girth of the braces from 11 to v ; this will measure 78 in. or 6 ft. 6 in. As the braces are to be spaced 4 ft. apart, seven braces will be required; 7 x 6.5 ft. = 45 ft. 6 in. of 34 in x ij4 in. band iron. Computing the dashes in the one-half inch scale drawing, which represent the bolts, we have 10 bolts to each brace ; 7 x 10 = 70 — 34 in. x -y\ in stove bolts that are required. In addition, there must be added approximately 100 — 2 lb. tinned rivets ; about 9 lbs. of solder ; acid, coal, etc. Time and labor for construction and erec- tion, expenses, cartage, overhead, etc., must be added ; all these will vary in different sections of the country. The entire quantity of galvanized sheet iron re- quired may now be summed up as follows : Main Cornice 195 sq. ft. Bracket Faces 21 " " Bracket Sides 45 Discs 5 " " Total 266 " " As No. 24 gauge iron is to be used and as No. 24 galvanized sheet iron weighs 16 oz. to the sq. ft., 266 lbs. will be required. Finding Quantities in Skylight Work The general rule in estimating skylight work is to measure the size of the roof frame, obtaining the number of square feet and to multiply the re- sult by the price per square foot. Many shops adopt a graded schedule of prices per square foot for sky- lights of different size in either the flat, double- pitched or hipped skylights, glazed with either rough, ribbed or wired glass and made in either galvanized iron or copper, of different gauges. It is our aim to explain how the quantities of metal and glass are computed, omitting the price, per square foot, which may be made according to prevailing conditions. Specifications The example under consideration is a flat sky- light, with the pitch in the roof frame. It is to be constructed of 16-oz. cold rolled copper, with con- densation gutters in both the rafters and curb, all condensation or leakage drained to the outside. The skylight is to be glazed with 34 ul - rough wired glass, well bedded in white lead putty. The rules and regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters are to be complied with in the con- struction and installation of the skylight. These rules and regulations are as follows : "All skylights, plane or inclined not over 45 degrees to be glazed with either standard wired glass not less than 34 in. thick or 34 in. thick glass, protected with approved wire screen. Glass panes to be not over 20 in. wide and not to exceed 720 sq. in. in area." In other words these rules require that if the area to be glazed over is greater than 18 x 40 in., that is, 720 sq. in., two lights of glass must be employed. COMPUTING QUANTITIES IN A FLAT SKYLIGHT Solution 206 In Fig. 688 is shown a plan and section of a flat skylight, whose frame measure is 6 ft. x 10 ft. 10 in., and in which the length has been spaced in eight 10'- 10 ■-is'ls- -k'A- Glass ..- v 1 •&'- -16/1- J -*!£- -'tfa- r 1 i lapped Joint P. 2 j PL rfN SFCT/O/i Fig. 68S.^Plan and Section of a Flat Skylight lights, each 163s in. wide, as follows: Total length 10 ft. 10 in. or 130 in., less 34 in.,, for the shoulder on each side of the curb shown by X in Fig. 690, 129 in. leaves 129 in., Fig. 688. = 1634 in. space. 8 As each light of glass would therefore contain more than 720 sq. in., the glass will be laid in two panes, with a two-inch over lap, as shown. In Fig. 689 is shown a full size section of the ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OF SHEET METAL 367 rafter and its cap. The rafter requires a girth of 554 m - an d its cap a girth of V/2. in., making a total of 634 in. There are seven rafters in the skylight in Fig:. 688 and the length of each bar with riveting; /y 2 0/rM 6/£ G/rM 5'/+ O/r/h G90 Fig. 6S0. — Obtaining: Girth of Common Bar and Cap Fig. 690. — Obtain- ing Girth of Curb laps included can be figured as 6 ft. or ~2 in. Thus J2 in. x 6.75 in. = 486 sq. in. for each bar, and 7 x 486 sq. in. = 3,402 sq. in. Fig. 690 presents the full size section of the curb frame. The curb itself requires a 63/2 in. girth and the cap a !]/> in. girth, making a total of 8 in. At the lower end of the skylight, the copper is turned downward at the arrow point a. The skylight under consideration in Fig. 688 measures 6 ft. by 10 ft. 10 in. Allowing for laps we may call it 6 ft. x 11 ft. Then 6 ft. -f- 11 ft. + 6 ft. + 11 ft. = 34 ft. or 408 in. Then we have 8 x 408 in. = 3,264 sq. in. in curb. We then have 3,402 sq. in. for sky- light bars and caps and 3,264 sq. in for skylight curb and caps making a total of 6,666 sq. in. Since 144 6,666 sq. in. equals one sq. ft., = 46^4 sq. ft. Since 144 our material is 16-oz. cold rolled copper, weighing 16 oz. or 1 lb., to the sq. ft., 46^4 lbs. of copper will be required. To this must be added approximately 1 lb. of copper for clips to fasten caps, about 50 I -lb. copper rivets, i l / 2 lb. of solder and about 15 iJ4 _m - round head brass wood screws to secure sky- light curb to frame. The quantity of glass and putty is computed as follows : All glass is made in even numbers, unless ordered direct from the mill. In other words, if we require glass 16% in. wide, it will be cut from panes 18 in. wide, and \Y\ inches of glass, which would have to be paid for, would be waste. It is, therefore, im- portant, that the width of the lights be so spaced that there will be no waste that is not absolutely necessary. In this case the lights will be i6j/£ in. wide, as indicated in Fig. 688, allowing l / & in. for expansion and contraction, they may be ordered in 16-in. widths, thus avoiding waste. The length of the rafter, J2 in., less 1 in. for curb shoulders, plus 2 in. for overlap, makes J^ in. of glass required for each light. 16 in. x jt, in. = 1,168 sq. in. x 8 lights = 9.344 sq- in. y.344 sq. in. = 65 sq. ft. of l /^-m. wired 144 glass. An approximately accurate rule for finding the amount of putty, is to allow 1 lb. for good imbed- ding for every 2 ft. of bar on both sides. Thus, we have in the skylight in Fig. 688 two runs of 11 ft. ; 2 runs of 6 ft., and 7 double runs of 6 ft. There- fore 22 ft. -)- 12 ft. -\- 84 ft. = 118 ft. of single im- 118 bedding. = 2914 lbs. of white lead putty re- 4 quired. To the quantities of materials here computed must be added the cost of labor, expenses, etc. With the cost of the skylight thus obtained, divide that cost by 65, the number of square feet in the skylight in this estimate, and obtain the cost or price per square foot. These prices may, with advantage, be kept for future reference ; in this way a graded schedule for the various sizes is available. Computing Double Pitched Skylights In computing double pitched skylights the method used in calculating flat skylights is followed, simply allowing twice the sum of a flat skylight and sub- stituting, in its center, a ridge bar in the place of two curbs, and adding the area of the two triangular sections in the ends. COMPUTING QUANTITIES IN A HIPPED SKYLIGHT Solution 207 The specifications used in connection with the preceding exercise in figuring a flat skylight may be 3 68 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER employed also in the present case of a hipped sky- light. Finding the quantities in a hipped skylight will prove somewhat more difficult, for the reason that the lengths of the various bars must be com- puted. Pip.m or p~ /appro SKrueftr ro f/Pi/e o/i/r m/po p/rc/t op p p/se or s//j. to /2/m wore: p/z/ighte r 6e /e> 's+'iv/Vo Fig. 691.— Obtaining True Lengths of Skylight Bars Fig. 691 gives the plan of a hipped skylight, which will have a one-third pitch or a rise of 8 in. to a 12-in. run. In this example the size of the frame is made to be 6 ft. 9*4 in. by 13 ft. 6]/ 2 in. ; the frame is to contain a ridge bar, without a ventilator. The full size section of the skylight curb is shown in Fig. 692; it requires a girth of 6*4 in. The amount of material in the curb is figured as follows : Referring to Fig. 691, the length of the curb is 13 ft. 6}4 in. and the width is 6 ft. 934 in. Adding these dimensions, we obtain 20 ft. 334 in. Multiply this sum by 2 and we get the total length of 40 ft. y l / 2 in. We add to this result 434 in. for seams and miter laps, making a total of 41 ft., or 492 in. As the girth of the curb, Fig. 692, is 6*4 in., we have 6.5 in. x 492 in. = 3,198 sq. in. Divide 3,198 sq. in. by 144 and get 22*4 sq. ft. The full size section of the ridge bar with its cap, shown in Fig. 693, has a total girth of 8 T / 2 in. The length of the ridge bar is found by deducting the width of the curb, in Fig. 691, from the length. Thus 13 ft. 6)A in. — 6 ft. 9% in. leaves 6 ft. g}i in. or 81 J4 m - Add % m - f° r l a P< making 82 in. 697 82 in. x 8.5 in. = 697 sq. in. and = 5 sq. ft. M4 Before the quantities in the common, jack and hip bars can be ascertained, the lengths of the vari- ous bars must first be found. As a rule, the regula- tion pitch for hipped skylights is one-third or 8 in. rise to a 12 in. base and the factors used for finding the true lengths of the common and jack bars for one-third pitch is 1.2, and for the hip bar, 1.56. The method of obtaining these factors has already ^ST/%. G/RTH 695 GIRTH OF ri/P 3flR f'feGIRTH G/f?TH OF SKYLIGHT CURB Fig. 692. — Obtaining Girth of Skylight Curb Fig. 693. — Obtaining Girth of Ridge Bar CO/YP70A/ o/s JPfC/T BPJR5 Fig. 694. — Obtaining Girth of Common and Jack Bars Fig. 695. — Obtaining Girth of Hip Bar ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OF SHEET METAL 369 been taken up in Solution 155, relative to hipped skylight work. Should the pitch be other than one- third, Solution 156 may be referred to for the method of finding the factors. The true length of the common bar is computed by the following method in consulting which refer also to Fig. 691. Always take the measurement of one-half of the narrow side of the frame and di- Curb Ridarc 22.25 S( l- ft- 5- " " 51. 2s in. vide it by 2, thus, = 40.625 in. 40.625 in. x 1.2 = 48.75 in., the length of the common bars. Using the same number, 40.625 in., multiply it by the hip bar factor, 1.56, and obtain 63.375 m - or 62>V& m -> the length of the hip bar. As the distance between all lights is 16.25 in., multiply this length by 1.2, to find the true length of the first jack bar. Thus 16.25 in. x 1.2 = 19.5 in. As the second jack bar, in Fig. 691, being equally spaced at 16.25 in., we double the length of the first jack 193/ in., which will give the true length of 39 in., all as shown in plan. If it be desired, the second jack bar may be computed by doubling the sum of the spaces as, 2 x 16*4 in = 2> 2 Y^ in. then multiplying this result by 1.2, obtaining, as before, 39 in. Fig. 694 presents the full size section of the com- mon and jack bars, whose girth, including the cap, measures 6^4 in. The true length of the common bar being 48% in., as indicated in Fig. 691, we have 48.75 in. x 6.75 in. = 329 sq. in., in each bar. Therefore the ten bars are computed thus : 10 x 329 sq. in. = 3,290 sq. in. This figure divided by 144, gives 23 sq. ft. The amount of material in the jack bars is ob- tained thus : The length of bar, 19.5 in. x 6.75 in. = 131.625 sq. in., x 8 bars = 1,053 sc l- m - 1° n k e manner the long jack bar is figured. 39 in. x 6.75 in. = 263.25 sq. in. x 8 bars = 2,106 sq. in. 2,106 sq. in. 3.159 sq. in. - 1 .053 sq. in. = = 22 sq. ft. The length 144 of hip bar is 63.375 in. x 7 in. girth, for the bar and cap, shown in Fig. 695, giving 443.625 sq. in. x 4 1774-5 sq- in. bars = 1774.5 sq. in. = I2}4 sq. ft. 144 The total quantity, in square feet, if copper is used in the hipped skylight, Fig. 691, can now be added, as follows : 10 Common bars 2^. 16 Jack bars 22. 4 Hip bars 12.5 Total 84.75 " " Thus the total of copper required, at 16 oz. per square foot, is 84^4 lbs. To this quantity must be added approximately 2 lbs. of copper clips for securing caps; about 150 copper rivets to rivet bars to ridge and curb ; about 2 lbs. of solder; and about 18 1% in. brass wood screws to secure skylight curb to frame. The glass and putty are figured as explained in connection with the flat skylight. The width of each of the panes of glass in Fig. 691 is 16% in.. for which 16 in. panes are to be installed. The re- quired quantity of wired glass may be computed accurately as follows : The width of panes is 16 in. The length of the common bars is 48% in. and that of the jack bars 19*^ in. and 39 in., as indicated on the plan. Deduct for expansion 54 i n - from the length of the common bar, and consider the two irregular lights marked X and X as full panes ; then will 14 rectangular lights, each 485/2 in. x 16 in., be required. 16 in. x 48.5 in. = 776 sq. in. 776 in. x 14 in. = 10,864 sq- in. Eight irregular lights 16 in. wide, 39 in. on one side and 19.5 in. on the other side, will be required. The rule to follow, in find- ing this area, is to take one-half the sum of the sides and multiply it by the width, thus : 39 x 19-5 58-5 = = 29.25 ; 29.25 x 16 = 468 ; 2 2 468 x 8 = 3,744 sq. in. The eight triangular lights 19.5 x 16 have an area of = 156; 156 x 8 = 1,248 2 sq. in. The quantity of glass may now be summed up, as follows : 14 Rectangular lights 10,864 sq. in. 8 Irregular lights = 3,744 " " 8 Triangular lights 1,248 " " 15-856 144 1 5,856 " " no sq. ft. (of 34 in. thick wired glass). Figuring four linear ft. of putty to the pound, we have 40 ft. for curb, 14 ft. for ridge bar, 80 ft. for common bars, 40 ft. for hip bars, 80 ft. for jack 37° THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER 254 bars ; total, 254 ft. 64 lbs. of wbite lead putty. In this way are obtained quantities for hipped skylights ; to these must be added expense of time and labor, which differ in various districts. It is advisable to preserve all estimating blanks as they supply valuable information, which can be utilized when skylights of similar size are figured ; from them a schedule can also be made. Skylights to contain stationary or movable louvres and glazed-side sashes or ridge ventilators, involve also the foregoing methods for finding quan- tities. FINDING TRUE LENGTHS OF HIPS, VALLEYS AND RIDGES ON GABLE AND HIPPED ROOF Solution 208 In Fig. 696 is given a perspective view of a gable and hipped roof, showing clearly the hips, valleys Fig. 696. — View of Dwelling and ridges. We will take up the method of finding true lengths direct from the architect's plans. Re- ferring to Fig. 697 a roof plan and the four eleva- tions are shown, comprising the various views of the building, shown in Fig. 696. Fig. 697 compre- hends the roof plan showing the hips, ridges and valleys. In their proper positions are shown the front, rear, left side and right side views, although in practice the front elevation and roof plan serve requirements in finding the various true lengths, as shall be made clear. Finding True Lengths of Hips The vertical hight A in the front view, represents the hight of the hip ; place this at right angles to one of the hip lines in plan, as a 0, as shown by b. A line drawn from a to b gives the true length of the hip, of which there are three, indicated by I, 2 and 3. Another hip is indicated by 5, the true length of which is found by taking the vertical hight, marked C in the front view, and placing it at right angles to e r in plan, as shown from r to /. e f gives the true length of the hip, shown by e r in plan. Finding True Lengths of Valleys The lines, marked 3 , 4 and 6 in plan, represent valleys. As 3 and 4 are alike the true length of both will be the same. It is obtained by taking the vertical hight, B in the front view, and placing it at right angles to d fin plan, as shown from t to c. A line drawn from c to d shows the true length of the valley, two of which will be required. The true length of the valley, marked 6, is obtained in like manner. Take the vertical hight, D in the front view, and set it off at right angles to i r in plan, as indicated from r to h. A line drawn from h to i is the desired true length. True Ridge Lengths The true ridge lengths are found to be shown on the plan where they are indicated by the distances u t, e and r s. The foregoing procedure is em- ployed in finding the true length of any valley or hip. As the plan is drawn to correspond with the illus- tration in Fig. 696, comparison of the several views in Fig. 697 with Fig. 696 will make the various operations clear. Estimating Sheet Metal Quantities in Building Construction In the three examples to follow, the procedure for estimating sheet metal quantities from architect's scale drawings will be outlined. Fig. 698 is a photograph of a house taken as a subject for treatment. Architects' plans are, as already mentioned, usually drawn to a scale of one- quarter inch to the foot and from these the quanti- ties must be measured with a scale rule. The draw- ings here presented are reproductions of architect's plans and should be carefully followed in the course of the discussion. Specifications A flat seam tin roof is to be laid over the porch, also on the steep part of the roofs at the foot ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OF SHEET METAL 37i Fig. 697.— Finding the True Lengths of Hips, Valleys and Ridges on a Gable and Hipped Roof of the gables over main roof, shown in the front and right side elevations. The steep roofs over the main building to be covered with standing seam tin roofing. The tin roof over the porch to be fitted with a boxdined tin gutter, the pitched roof over the main building to have a galvanized iron eave gutter. All leaders to be of galvanized iron and have shoes at the base, or be connected to the pipes leading to the sewer or cesspool. All galvanized iron work to be of No. 24 gauge; all tin work to be of 40 lb. coating, laid with cleats ; all cleats and other tin and galvanized iron work to be nailed with Fig. 698— View of Dwelling 37 2 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER tinned roofing nails. All tin work to flash up under all siding not less than 6 in. ; flashings around brick chimney to turn up not less than 12 in. Wood col- umns supporting balustrade on porch roof to be flashed not less than 6 in. high and tin from the gutter lining turned down over the top member of the wooden cornice not less than one inch, and nailed along this edge with tinned roofing nails. Under all tin roofing put one-ply rosin sized paper, paint all tin roofing one coat on the underside before laying and two coats on the top. All galvanized iron work to be painted one coat before erection and a second coat after erection. All paint to be of metallic brown, ground in linseed oil. Gutter hangers, straps and leader fasteners to be gal- vanized. ESTIMATING QUANTITIES OF FLAT SEAM ROOFING Solution 209 We will first consider the flat seam tin roofing on the porch roof, the front elevation of which is shown in Fig. 699, and of which a plan view is found in Fig. 700. The length of the roof to the inner edges of the box gutter is 27 ft., as is indi- cated, and its width from the inner edge of the gutter to the building line is 9 ft. No deduction need be made for the bay window B, since extra materials are used at the returns at D and C, as well as for flashing up around the balustrade col- umns, a, b and c. As the flashing under the siding is to turn up 6 in., add this amount to the 9 ft. width, obtaining 9 ft. 6 in. Thus we have 9.5 ft. x 27 ft. = 256.5 sq. ft. The same quantity of one- ply rosin sized paper will be required. Referring to Fig. 701, which shows the detail of the porch roof gutter, note that the girth of the gutter lining scales I ft. 3 in. and that the total lengths of the gutters required, as found in Fig. 700, will be 2.5 ft. -f 12 ft. -)- 28 ft. + 12 ft. -j- 2.5 ft. = 57 ft. Thus we have 57 ft. X I - 2 5 ft. = 71.25 sq. ft. of gutter lining. As flat seam roofing is required at the foot of the gables, shown in Fig. 699 and Fig. 702, measure this quantity as follows : Referring to the extreme right of the front elevation in Fig. 699, the pitch of the lower wash of the gable scales 2 ft. 6 in., which plus 6 in. allowance for turning up under the siding, makes a total of 3 ft. girth. Find the average distance of this wash, that is, bisect the distance between the eaves line and top intersection with the siding; it scales 15 ft., as shown to the extreme edges of the gable molds, which allows for the flashings to turn up at the ends of the wash under the molds. Thus 3 ft. X I 5 ft- = 45 sc l- ft- ft> r tne ft° nt: gable wash. As there is a corresponding gable of like dimen- sions on the right side elevation, Fig. 702, we have 2 X 45 S T ft- = 9° sc l- ft-> calling, of course, also for 90 sq. ft. of rosin sized paper. The total of flat seam tin roofing required will be as follows : Porch Roof, 256.50 sq. ft. Porch Gutter, /i- 2 5 Two Gable Washes, 90. a tc Total, 4 I 7-75 or 418 sq. ft. of tin roofing, with the same amount of one-ply rosin sized paper, the tin to receive one coat of paint on the under side and two coats on the upper side. Assuming that the roof is to be laid with 14 in. x 20 in. sheets edged ^ in., each sheet will have an exposed surface of 12% in. X i8js in., or 243 1/64 sq. in. 418 sq. ft. contain 60,192 sq. in., each sheet containing 243 1/64 sq. in., therefore 60,- 192 -=- 243 1/64 results in 248 sheets of tin of 14 X 20 in. size, the quantity required. Refer to Tables on page 335. ESTIMATING QUANTITIES OF STANDING SEAM ROOFING Solution 210 To obtain the quantities of standing seam for the steep roofs, refer to Fig. 699, the front elevation of the pitched roof, Fig. 702 the right side elevation, Fig. 703 the rear elevation and Fig. 704 the left side elevation. Fig. 705 is the roof plan, showing the hips, valleys and ridges of the main roof. In estimating the quantities for this pitched roof, it is necessary to consult only the four elevations. In fact, an experienced estimator might dispense with the roof plan and obtain all quantities from these elevations. For the benefit of the less expe- rienced, the roof plan is presented, to make clear the procedure of computing all surfaces. In estimating irregular surfaces of pitched or hipped roofs, the various parts of the roof are divided into irregular geometrical figures ; this pro- cedure permits the area of the surfaces to be ascer- tained easily. Note that the roof plan is divided into various geometrical figures, marked A, A 1 , A 2 , indicating that the three surfaces with similar Let- ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OF SHEET METAL 373 374 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER FLASH 6" UNDER SIDING Y i LIVING ROOM COAT CLOSET 2'0" 't/2"G//?r/-/ AT/ A/US Fig. 706.— Detail of Main Roof Gutter a small pair of dividers set apart one inch of the scale in use, and then stepping off divi- sions, counting them as the stepping proceeds; in this case we have 12 steps or inches. The gutter flange has not been added, for the reason that the tin roofing was measured down to the eave line. The number of linear feet of gutter required is found to be as scaled and indicated in Fig. 705, which presents the plan of the gutters and the leaders. Beginning at the front, we have 19 ft. -f- 2.5 ft. + 10.5 ft. + 13.75 ^. + 2.5 ft. + 19 ft. + 2.5 ft. + 17.7S ft- + 19 f t. + 7 ft. + 10.5 ft. + 46 ft. = 170 ft. of gutter. Since the gutter less the roof flange has a 12 in. girth, 170 sq. ft. of No. 24 galvanized iron will be required. The square foot of No. 24 galvanized iron weighs one pound ; therefore the total of 170 square feet is 170 lbs. In the detail in Fig. 706, a note is made that the gutter hangers and straps are to be placed 24 in. apart. We have 170 ft. of gutter, thus 170 -=- 2 = 85, the number of hangers and of straps, all of galvanized malleable iron, that will be required. sca/e- of fee/- anc/ /nc/ies. the number of feet for each run. Thus we have 9 in. + 2 ft. 6 in. -f 18 ft. 6 in. + 9 in., giving 22 ft. 6 in. 4 X 22.5 ft. = 90 ft. of 3 in. No. 24 galvanized iron leader. Each run of leader will require 3 hinged galvanized iron fasteners, or 12 in all. Four 3-inch galvanized wire strainers over all outlets, as well as four leader tubes, will be re- quired. Galvanized iron leaders are required for the porch roof, as shown in the scaled front eleva- tion in Fig. 699; their full-size dimensions are marked at the right, as follows : 9 in. -f- 1 ft. 6 in. + I0 ft. 4- 9 in. = 13 ft. of 3-inch No. 24 galvanized iron leader. As there are two runs of leader from the porch roof, as indicated by A and A in Fig. 700, then 2 X 13 ft- = 26 ft. of leader required for that area. Each run of leader will require two 3-inch hinged galvanized iron leader hooks, or four hooks in all for the porch roofs, with two 3-inch galvanized wire baskets or strainers over leader outlets. Two galvanized iron leader tubes will also be needed. This completes the total quantities of materials used, except that, as above mentioned, 6 lbs. ot half-and-half solder should be figured for each square (10 ft. X IO ft-) of A at seam roofing. To this estimate of materials must be added the costs for cartage and labor, allowance for profit and overhead expenses, all to be figured, of course, according to the rates and conditions prevailing in the part of the country where the work is executed. 3 8o THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER ESTIMATING FURNACE HEATING MATERIALS Solution 212 In this final example is outlined the method of figuring the quantity of materials utilized for fur- nace heating. The structure accommodates two families. The method for calculating the expo- sures, the sizes of the furnaces, diameters of base- ment leaders, sizes of rectangular risers, register boxes, etc., are omitted, these sizes usually being indicated on the plans. The plans presented herewith are reproduced from architect's drawings ; they are the floor plans of the building shown in Fig. Specifications Each floor or family will have six rooms and a bath, heated by a separate furnace, as shown in the basement plan in Fig. 708. On this basement plan the locations of the furnaces are indicated, as are the runs and sizes of leader pipes and risers, also the sizes of the cold air pipes, which re-circulate the cold air from the rooms above. On the first and second story plans, shown in Fig. 709 and 710, re- spectively, are given the dimensions of the various registers and cold air faces. In this house the return system is employed, provision being made for galvanized iron ducts and pipes, which take the cold air off the floors and leads it down to the furnace and up again into the rooms above, air leak- age from the doors and windows being depended on for change of air. The furnaces, Fig. 708, are to be equipped with double galvanized iron casings of No. 22 galvanized iron, with pitched bonnets and an inverted cone top. The leaders, elbows, collars, boots, etc., are to be of No. 24 galvanized iron, covered with asbestos air cell covering, to prevent loss of heat. The risers are to be made of IX. bright charcoal tin, also covered with asbestos air cell covering. Register boxes are to be of the same material as the pipe with which they connect, and of proper size, as indicated on the various plans, shown in Figs. 708, 709 and 710. All registers are to be of the sizes indicated on the plans, to be fin- ished in white enamel, those connecting with the heat pipes to be equipped with movable valves and S£- Fig. 707. — Label to Each Furnace Pipe, as Called for in Specifications those connecting with the cold air returns to have open faces. Dampers are to be placed in all smoke, heat and cold air pipes and each pipe be distinctly marked, showing to which room it is connected, as shown in Fig. 707. Assuming that the sizes shown on the plans have been correctly calculated, the various quantities can be scaled from the architect's drawings, as follows: Computing the Quantities Referring to Fig. 708, take off the various items, beginning with the furnaces, one furnace being sup- plied to heat each floor. The plan indicates that the furnaces are to have a 40 in. double casing. The furnace for the first floor, which is shown in the vertical section in Fig. 711, will require two cold air shoes, with round collars, size 12 in. and 18 in., respectively, for inside air connections from the hall and dining room, as shown in Fig. 709. The bonnet of the first story furnace, shown in Fig. 711, will also require four collars, one 8 in. and three 12 in., for hot air connections. Four feet of 8-in. No. 22 galvanized iron smoke pipe will be required, as scaled from the sectional view, and two four- pieced 45 degree elbows of 8 in. diameter, with one 8-in. malleable iron damper. The furnace heating the second floor, shown in plan in Fig. 708, will require three cold air shoes, with round collars of 12 in. diameter for inside cold air connections from the hall, living and dining rooms, shown in the second story plan in Fig. 710. For hot air connections five collars will be required in the bonnet of the second story furnace, shown in the basement plan in Fig. 708, four of 12 in. diam- eter and one of 8 in. diameter. Fourteen feet of 8-in. smoke pipe will be required, with two four- pieced 45 degree adjustable elbows, of 8 in. diam- eter, including one 8-in. malleable iron damper. The total quantities of material required for the two furnaces, with their connections to the brick chimneys, may be summed up as follows : Two furnaces with 40 in. double casings of No. 22 galvanized iron. One cold air shoe with 18-in. round collar of No. 24 galvanized iron. Four cold air shoes with 12-in. round collar of No. 24 galvanized iron. Seven collars in bonnets of 12 in. diameter, 6 in. long, of No. 24 galvanized iron. Two collars in bonnets of 8 in. diameter, 6 in. long, of No. 24 galvanized iron. ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OE SHEET METAL 38i .__J_^ Fig. 708. — Basement Plan 3 82 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER Eighteen feet of 8-in. smoke pipe of No. 22 gal- vanized iron. Four four-pieced 45 degree adjustable elbows of 8 in. diameter of No. 22 galvanized iron. Two 8-in. malleable iron dampers. The next item for consideration is the quantities required of cold air pipes and fittings. Two cold air returns run from the first story, as is indicated in Fig. 709. Again referring to the section in Fig. 711, we scale the various cold air pipes, as follows: Six feet of 18-in. round pipe of No. 24 galvanized iron. Ten feet of 12-in. round pipe of No. 24 galvan- ized iron. Two 12-in. four-pieced 45 degree elbows of No. 24 galvanized iron. One cold air face box 1254 in. X l ^> l A m - X 12 in. deep, No. 24 galvanized iron. One cold air face box 16% in. X 2>° l A m - X I2 in. deep, No. 24 galvanized iron. One cold air duct under dining room (see Fig. 708) 36 in. X 60 in. X I2 m - deep, No. 24 gal- vanized iron, with one 12-in. round collar, 6 in. long. Lining 4 beams (see c, f, g and h in Fig. 711) 2 in. X 8 in. X 60 in. deep, of No. 24 galvanized iron. One cold air face 12 in. X l & m - with border, white enameled. See Fig. 709. One cold air face 16 in. X 3° m - with border, white enameled. See Fig. 709. One 12-in. malleable iron damper. One 18-in. malleable iron damper. Starting with the second story plan in Fig. 710, we find that cold air faces are placed in the living room, hall and dining room, and beginning here with our scale rule we obtain the following quantities. Three cold air faces with borders, 12 in. X l & m -> white enameled. Three cold air face boxes, 12% in- X l ^> l A in., of IX bright tin. Three 90-degree elbows, with circular heels, to connect with 6 in. X : 6 in. risers, of IX bright tin. Six ft. 6 in. of 6 in X l & in- horizontal pipe, of IX bright tin, under floor of dining room and hall. The hight of the first floor being 9 ft., from ceiling line to floor line (see Fig. 711), the three risers of cold air pipes will measure 3 X 9 ft- or 2j ft. of 6 in. X J 6 in. IX bright tin pipe. Where these three cold air returns connect with the 12 in. round pipe in basement, Fig. 708, 3 transi- tion boots will be required, to be placed between the beams of the basement ceiling, forming a transition from a 6 in. X 16 in. rectangle to a 12-in. round pipe of No. 24 galvanized iron, the transitions to be 12 in. high. The true lengths of the 12-in. diameter cold air returns, from the transition at the ceiling line to the bottom of the cold air furnace boot, is ob- tained as follows : The hight of the basement ceiling in Fig. 711 is 7 ft. ; from this deduct the hight of the cold air shoe and elbow of the cold air return, as well as the hight of the elbow below the transition piece at the ceiling line ; this leaves 5 ft. 6 in. net. Place this hight in Fig. 708, at right angles to the cold air pipe A, from a to b, when the distance of the slant line drawn from b to c will scale 10 ft. 3 in., the true length of the slant. Proceed likewise with the other two cold air pipes, where the true length of d to c and h to i will scale 11 ft. 3 in. and 8 ft. 6 in. respectively. The three lengths will make a total of 30 ft. of 12-inch round cold air pipe of No. 24 galvanized iron. For each run of pipe two elbows will be required, or a total of 6 three-pieced 45 degree adjustable 12-inch round elbows of No. 24 galvanized iron. Three 12-inch malleable iron dampers complete the items for the cold air pipes from the second story. In scaling the lengths of the hot air pipes in base- ment, they can be measured direct from this plan, as the pitch is so slight as to make but little varia- tion from the horizontal. We will take up all hot air pipes and fittings leading to the first story, start- ing from the collars in the furnace bonnet. Two 45 degree three-pieced adjustable elbows 8-inch round No. 24 galvanized iron. Seven 45 degree three-pieced adjustable elbows 12-inch round No. 24 galvanized iron. Twenty-six ft. 6 in. of 12-inch round hot air pipe of No. 24 galvanized iron. Eleven ft. of 8-inch round hot air pipe of No. 24 galvanized iron. Two transition boots from 6 in. X I( 5 in. risers to 12-inch round pipe, 12 in. high of No. 24 galvan- ized iron. One transition boot from 4 in. X I2 in- riser to 8-inch round pipe, 12 in. high of No. 24 galvanized iron. As the bottom of the registers set 12 inches above the first floor line, Fig. 711, and as there are two 6 in. X !6 in. risers to the first floor and one 4 in. X 12 in. riser, we will require 2 ft. of 6 in. X I 6 in. riser made of IX bright tin. One ft. of 4 in. X 12 in. riser made of IX bright tin. ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OF SHEET METAL 383 7TT ~K V v 10,6- -5'6" s-; -is'^ E . ICE BOX ENTRY CHAMBER A WALL REG. ^, 5'lCtf— BATH ROOM. 4^WALL 012345678 FEET SCALE I I 1 1 | , 1 1 I 1 I 1 I , I , ] Fig. 709. — First Story Plan 3§4 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER - • • ■ ~ n i 9wj N , B& I ^ CHAMBER C im? WALL REG. 6"X16' W^w' KITCHEN 10"X 12" LL REG. 12 3 4 6 6 FEET SCALE I I 1 I I I I I i 1 I I 1 Fig. 710. — Second Story Plan ESTIMATING ITEMS AND QUANTITIES OF SHEET METAL 335 RIDGE LINE NOTE- PUT DAMPERS IN ALL COLD AIR AND HOT AIR PIPES, AND MARK ON EACM PIPE WHERE IT LEADS TO Fig. 711. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SCALE I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I -Vertical Section on the Lines A-B on all Plans, Shown in Figs. 708, 709 and 710 Referring to Fig. 709 we find requirement for: One floor register box 12% in- X i6}4 m -» wrtn 12 in. round collar, the box to be 12 in. deep of IX bright tin. One single top register box 8j4 in. X io}4 i n -» for connection to 4 in. X 12 in. riser of IX bright tin. Two double top register boxes 10% in- X ^V\ in., for connection to 6 in. X l & m - riser, made of IX bright tin. One floor register, with border and valves, 12 in. X 16 in., white enameled. One wall register, with valves 8 in. X IO in -> white enameled. Four wall registers, with valves 10 in. X I2 m -> white enameled. One 8-in. and three 12-in. dampers for hot air pipes from first story furnace in basement in Fig. 708. To get the greatest benefit from this explana- tion, the reader should follow each item given and 3 86 THE UNIVERSAL SHEET METAL PATTERN CUTTER check it off carefully on the accompanying plans. The final items to be measured are for heating pipes to the second story. Here again the hot air pipes shown in the basement plan in Fig. 708 are scaled as if they lay horizontally, no account being taken of the slight pitch which these hot air pipes should have. Again starting from the collars in the bonnet of the second-story furnace, shown in Fig. 708, we will require the following materials : Two 45 degree three-pieced adjustable elbows, 8 in. round No. 24 galvanized iron. Eight 45 degree three-pieced adjustable elbows, 12 in. round No. 24 galvanized iron. On scaling the five runs of hot air pipes or leaders we have 5 ft. 6 in. of 8-in. round hot air pipe made of No. 24 galvanized iron. Thirty-four ft. 9 in. of 12-in. round hot air pipe made of No. 24 galvanized iron. One transition boot from 8-in. round pipe to 4 in. X I2 m - rectangular pipe, 12 in. high of No. 24 galvanized iron. Four transition boots from 12-in. round pipe to 6 in. X x 6 in. rectangular pipe, 12 in. high of No. 24 galvanized iron. All of these transition boots run nearly flush with the first story and, referring to Fig. 711, it is found that the hight of the first story from floor to ceiling line is 9 ft. ; from the ceiling line to the base of the register on the second floor is 2 ft., thus making a total of 11 ft. for each second-story riser. The total quantities of risers for the second story may now be summed up as follows : Referring to the basement plan, in Fig. 708, we find one 4 in. X 12 in. riser to the second story and four 6 in. X l & m - risers. We will require, there- fore, 11 ft. of 4 in. X 12 in. riser of IX bright tin and 44 ft. of 6 in. X l & m - risers of IX bright tin. Referring to Fig. 710. the second story plan, we find we will require one single top register box 8% in. X ioJ4 in., for connection to 4 in. X I2 m - riser of IX bright tin. Two single top register boxes, I2j4 in. X 16X4 in-, for connection to 6 in. X : 6 in. risers of IX bright tin. Two double top register boxes ioj4 in. X I2 /4 in., for connection to 6 in. X 16 in. risers of IX bright tin. One wall register, with valves, 8 in. X 10 in., white enameled. Two wall registers, with valves, 12 in. X T 6 in. white enameled. Four wall registers, with valves 10 in. X I2 ' n -> white enameled. One 8 in. and four 12 in. malleable iron dampers for hot air pipes leading to second story. With the quantities determined, net prices must be made, to include, of course, the cost of the mate- rials, expenses of cartage, labor, loss of time, allow- ance for profit and overhead expenses, all of which necessarily vary with localities and prevailing conditions. INDEX PAGE Abacus, Definition of 7 Allowing for Expansion and Contraction of Roofing Metal 31-2 Alphabetical List of Terms of Architecture and Sheet Metal Work 21 Angular and Segmental Pediments, Raking Moldings and Brackets for 122 Angular Pediment, Broken, Raking Molds in 124 Angular Pediment, Raking Crown Mold in 122 Angular Pediment Having Returns at Octagonal Angles 129 Applying Corrugated, Galvanized Iron or Copper Roof- ing and Siding 312 Arch. Circular, Molded Keystone in 226 Arch, Definition of 8 Architectural Design, Detailing and Lettering 30 Architectural Drawing 23-29 Architectural Work, Reading Plans, Elevations and Section 35° Architecture, Styles of 30-40 Architecture, Orders of 30-40 Architecture, Classical, History of 30 Architect's Plans Drawn to Scale, Reading a Com- plete Set of 3S4-362 Achitrave, Definitions of 7- I0 Arm, Definition of 13 Assembling a Paneled Illuminated Sign 246 Automatic Closing, Tin Clad Fire Doors, Shutters, etc., Construction of Various Types 252 Averaging Profile and Determining Pattern in Curved Molding of Dormer Window 204 Ball or Sphere Having Horizontal Zones 192 Baluster, Definition of 9 Balustrade. Definition of 9 Band Iron Braces of Lintel Cornice, Bending and In- serting 82 Bar, Common, of Skylight on Structural Steel Framing 310 Bar, Hipped, in Hipped Skylights 283 Bar, Jack, in Hipped Skylights 282 Bar. Ridge, for Plain Hipped Skylight 280 Bar, Valley, for a Pitched Skylight 293 Bar of Saw Tooth Skylight 307 Bars, Hipped, Skylight, Curb, Common and Jack ...281-282 Bars, Skylight, Finding Length of by Computation .... 288 Bars and Ventilators in Hipped Skylights. Finding True Lengths of 286 Bars for Skylights of any Pitch, Finding Length of .. 290 Bars in Hipped Skylights. Others Required 284 Bars in an Octagonal Skylight 292 Bars of Large Single Pitch Skylight, Framing and Re- inforcing 266 Bars of Photographic Studio Skylight, Reinforcing 276 Bars of Single Pitch Skylight Over Elevator and Stair Shafts 305-309 PAGE Bass, Definition of 7 Base Flashing, Definition of 17 Base, Irregular. Reading Plans, Elevations and Con- structive Views of 342 Base, Molded, Forming a Transition from Square to Octagonal 217 Base, Octagonal Tapering, Including Roof Flange, In- tersecting the Hips and Ridge of a Hipped Roof . . 167 Base, Tapering, Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof 173 Base and Cap Flashings, Providing for Expansion and Contraction of Metal in 319 Base and Roof Flange, Tapering, on the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof 171 Base in a Circular Bay Window, Molded 207 Base of Irregular Bay Window of Five Sides, Re- quiring Two Changes of Profiles 68 Base of Octagonal Bay Window Mitering Obliquely Against Wall, Requiring Raked Profiles 66 Base of Square Bay Window, Requiring Raked Profiles 68 Baseball, Construction of 193 Batten and Standing Seam Metal Roofing 312 Battens, Wood, Laying Metal Roofing Over 314 Battens, Wood, Laying Zinc or Copper Roofing on .... 325 Bay Window, Circular, Curved Moldings in 206 Bay Window, Circular, Molded Base in 207 Bay Window, Copper, Construction of 71 Bay Window, Irregular, of Five Sides, Base Requiring Two Changes of Profiles 68 Bay Window, Octagonal, Base of Mitering Obliquely Against Wall 66 Bay Window, Octagonal, Bevel and Butt Miter for ... . 64 Bay Window, Raking Bracket in Soffit of 136 Bay Window, Rectangular 68 Bay Window, Square, Base of Requiring Raked Profiles 68 Bay Windows 53, 64-74, '92 Bed and Crown Molds of Lintel Cornice, Joining . . 81 Bed Moldings, Definition of 9 Bell, Definition of 7 Bending and Inserting Band Iron Braces on Lintel Cornice 82 Bevel and Butt Miter for an Octagonal Bay Window . . 64 Bevel and Butt Miters 53 Bevel and Butt Miters in a Pediment Molding, Quick Method 101 Bevel Miters 53> 56 Beveled Shield, Flaring Strips Around 231 Beveled Tube, Reading Plan and Elevations of 338 Bin, Grain, Standing Seam of Conical Roof for 329 Block Letter Signs, Electrical. Constructing 241 Block Letters, Drawing 52 Box Lined Gutter, Definition of 15 Bracket, Corner, under the Soffit of a Hipped Roof . . 138 Bracket, Definitions of 8, 13 Bracket. Raking, Drawing Elevation 140 387 388 INDEX PACE Bracket, Raking, Face of 1+2 Bracket, Raking, in a Pediment 140 Bracket, Raking, in Apex of Pediment 142 Bracket, Raking in Plan, as in the Soffit of a Bay Window 136 Brackets, Raking, in Soffit of Bay Window 137 Bracket, Raking, Modified Side of 142 Bracket Drop, Return of 223 Brackets 122, 213 Brackets for Angular and Segmental Pediments 122 Brick Siding, Definition of 19 Broken Angular Pediment, Raking Molds in 124 Broken or Open Pediment, Definition of 8 Broken Segmental Pediment, Raking Molds in 126 Bulk Head, Definition of 18 Butt, Definition of 17 Butt and Bevel Miter for an Octagonal Bay Window . . 64 Butt and Bevel Miters in a Pediment Molding, Quick Method 101 Butt and Face Miters in a Plain Pediment 84 Butt Miter, Definition of 10 Butt Miter and Return Head Required by Ridge Capping 176 Butt Miter and Roof Flange on a Right Angle Return 91 Butt Miter on Square Dormer Return 90 Butt Miters Against Wall 130 Calculating Flat Seam Roofing Sheets 337 Calculating Standing Seam, Double Lock Roofing Sheets 337 Calculating Standing Scam, Single Lock Roofing Sheets 337 Cant trip, Definition of 18 Cap, Definitions of 7. 15 Cap, Molded, Forming a Transition from Octagonal to Square 218 Cap and Base Flashings of Roofing, Providing for Ex- pansion and Contraction of Metal in 319 Cap and Crown Molding of Lintel Cornice, Forming on Cornice Brake 79 Cap Flashing, Definition of 17 Cap Flashing and Base Flashing of Metal Roofing, Setting 313-326 Cap Mold, Definition of 10 Cap Mold, Raked 141 Capital, Definition of 7 Capping, Ridge, Requiring Return Head and Butt Miter 176 Caps Secured to Skylight Bar 268 Casement Window, Definition of 20 Casting Lead Plugs for Use in Metal Roofing 320 Center Jack Bar, Definition of 14 Center Lines 26 Central Intersection of Sphere by a Fluted Shaft . . 237 Chain Lifting Power, Definition of i4 Chamfer, Molded 216 Chamfering Wood Beam in Skylight Construction 267 Chamfers 213 Channel Letter Sign, Electrical, Construction of 245 Circular Arch, Molded Keystone in 226 Circular Bay Window, Curved Moldings in 206 Circular Bay Window, Molded Base in 207 Circular Louvres !95 Circular Metal Roof, Standing Seam, Laying 327 Circular Moldings Made by Machine 204 PAGE Circular Panel, Cove Mold in 196 Circular Panel, Quarter Round Mold in 197 Circular Panel, Reversed Ogee in 197 Circular Sheet Metal Work 192 Circular Spire Mitering on Four Gable Roofs 189 Circular Tower, Round Finial for 198 Classical Architecture. History of 30 Cleat, Band Iron, on Iron Framing 332 Cleat, Roofing, Definition of 17 Cleat, Strap Iron, on Iron Framing 332 Cleats for Metal Roofing 313, 315 Collar. Definition of 14 Collars, Flanges, Ventilator Bases and Hoods 158 Column, Definition of 7 Column, Molded, Gable Molding Mitering Against . . 102 Combination Pivot Hung and Stationary Fire Proof Windows, Construction of 252 Combination Window, Definition of 20 Combined Cornice and Gutter 55 Common Bar, Definition of 14 Common Bar in Hipped Skylights 282 Common Bar of Skylight on Structural Steel Framing 310 Common Jack Bar, Definition of 14 Composite Order, Definition of 7 Computing Divisions of a Main Cornice 46 Computing Items and Quantities of Sheet Metal ..363-386 Concrete Mold, Definition of 20 Condensation Gutter of Curb, Definition of 14 Condensation Gutter of Bar, Definition of 14 Condensation Holes, Definition of 14 Conductor Hook, Definition of 16 Conductor Offset, Paneled 118 Conductor Offsets 104 Cone, Scalene, Reading Plan and Elevations of 340 Conical Flange, Roof Plate and, on a Double Pitched Roof 170 Conical Roof Flange on Roof Having One Inclination.. 169 Conical Roof over Large Grain Bin 329 Constructive View of Cornice and Gutter Combined . . 55 Contraction of Metal in Flat Seam Roofing, Providing for 322 Contraction of Metal in Standing Seam Roofing, Pro- viding for 323 Contraction of Roofing Metal, Allowing for ....312, 319 Coping, Copper, over Wall on Pitched Roof, Computing Quantities of 363 Coping Pediment, Intersected by Molded Head Block.. 174 Coping, Securing to Brick Wall 176 Copings, Head Blocks, Hip Ridges, Finials and Spires 174 Copper and Wire Glass Ventilated Marquise, Con- struction of 272 Copper Bay Window, Construction of 71 Copper Coping over Wall on Pitched Roof, Computing Quantities of 363 Copper Lined Gutter Expansion Joints 318 Copper or Zinc Roofing, Laying on Wood Battens . . 325 Copper Roofing and Siding 312-337 Copper Sheets, Table of Weights of 336 Corbel, Definition of ° Core Plate, Definition of x 5 Corinthian Order, Definition of 7 Corner Bracket under the Soffit of a Hipped Roof 138 INDEX 389 PAGE Corner Miter Fold of Doors and Shutters, Preparing Pattern Shape for and Constructing Lock and Fold 255 Cornice, Definition of 8 Cornice, Estimating Quantities in 365 Cornice, Lintel, Details of Construction 75 Cornice, Lintel, Fastening to Iron Beams 84 Cornice, Lintel, Securing to Brick Wall and Covering its Top 83 Cornice, Main. Computing Divisions of 46 Cornice, Main, Detailing 46 Cornice, Main. Preparing Working Details of 48 Cornice Combined with Gutter, Construction of 55 Cornice Miter, Reduced, at Other than a Right Angle in Plan 149 Cornice on a Wood Base. Securing Lining to 317 Cornice Pediment Requiring Face Miters 58 Cornice Return, Right Angular, Reduced Miter on . . 148 Cornice View, Elevation and Sectional, Reading 349 Cornices, Construction of 53 Cornices and Segmental Pediments 192 Corona, Definition of 9 Corrugated Culvert, Definition of 19 Corrugated Galvanized Iron or Copper Roofing and Siding, Laying 330 Corrugated Iron Roofing, Definition of 18 Corrugated Iron Siding, Definition of 18 Corrugated Leader, Definition of 16 Corrugated Ridge Roll, Definition of 19 Corrugated Sheets. Table of Helps for Figuring .... 237 Counter-Balanced Sash, Definitions of 15, 20 Cove Mold in a Circular Panel 196 Cove Molding Intersected by Triangular Dentil 223 Covering Roof Domes with Flat Seam Roofing .... 333 Covering Segmental Heads in the Construction of Tin Clad Shutters 259 Cross-Bar for Making Water-Tight Connection be- tween Glass Panes in Skylight Construction 268 Crown, Foot and Frieze Molds of Lintel Cornice, Join- ing 82 Crown and Bed Molds of Lintel Cornice, Joining .... 81 Crown and Cap Molding of Lintel Cornice, Forming on Cornice Brake 79 Crown Mold, Definition of 9 Crown Mold, Raking, in Angular Pediment 122 Culvert, Corrugated, Definition of 19 Curb, Definition of 14 Curb and Bars in an Octagonal Skylight 292 Curb and Gutter of Skylight Over Elevator and Stair Shafts, Construction of 306 Curb, Common and Jack Bars of Hipped Skylight 281 Curb Flashing, Definition of 19 Curb Rest, Definition of 14 Curbs, Bars and Ventilators in Hipped Skylights, Find- ing True Lengths 286 Curbless Flat Skylight, Construction of 302 Curved Corrugated Roofing, Definition of 19 Curved Dormer Window with Curved Roof and Roof Flange 210 Curved Molding of Dormer Window, Averaging Profile and Determining Pattern in 204 Curved Moldings in a Circular Bay Window 206 Curved Roof Flange 95 PAGE Curved Shaft and Bead for Round Finial of Circular Tower ig9 Cut-off, Definition of 16 Cylinder, Roof Flange and, Intersecting a Double Pitched Roof 159 Cylinder, Roof Flange and, Intersecting Ridge and Hips of a Hipped Roof 160 Cylinder, Roof Flange and. Intersecting Single Pitched Roof 158 Deck Cornice Definition of 8 Deck Molding, Definition of 18 Deck Roof, Definition of 18 Deck Roofs, and Mansard, Reading Plan and Elevations of a Building with 346 Definitions in Plan Reading 338 Dentil, Definition of 8 Dentil, Triangular, Intersecting Cove Molding 222 Dentil Mold, Definition of 10 Descriptive Geometry, Definition of 23 Design, Architectural 30 Detail Drawing 42 Detail of Square Molded Leader Head 42 Detailing a Main Cornice 46 Detailing and Lettering 30 Diamond, Tapering, in a Keystone 225 Diamond Panel, Raised, Reduced Miters in 144 Die, Definition of 7 Dimension Lines 26 Dissimilar Moldings, Mitering at an Internal Right Angle in Plan 155 Dissimilar Moldings, Mitering at an Internal Angle in Plan, at Other than a Right Angle 155 Divisions of a Main Cornice, Computing 46 Dome, Covering with Flat Seam Roofing 333 Doors, Hollow Metal 249 Doors, Shutters, etc., Automatic Closing, Tin Clad. Fire Proof, Construction of 252 Doric Order, Definition of 7 Dormer and Bay Windows 64-74, 206-212 Dormer, Octagonal Return on, Against an Oblique Sur- face in Elevation 92 Dormer Return, Right Angular, Roof Flange on 91 Dormer Window, Definition of 18 Dormer Window, Averaging Profile and Determining Pattern in Curved Molding of 204 Dormer Window, Curved, with Curved Roof and Roof Flange 210 Double Hung Window, Definition of 20 Double Hung Window, Regulation Type of 251 Double Lock Standing Seam Roofing Sheets, Calculating 337 Double Locked, Definition of 17 Double Pitched Skylight 279 Double Pitched Skylight, Definition of 12 Double Pitched Skylights, Computing Quantities in . . $67 Drawing, Architectural and Mechanical 23-29 Drawing Block Letters 52 Drawing Ionic Volute, Method of 41 Drip, Definition of 10 Drop, Bracket, Return of 223 Drop, Ornamental, with Reduced Miters 146 39° INDEX PACE Drop Return, Ornamental, Intersecting Numerous Molds 224 Dentil, Triangular, Intersecting Cove Molding 222 Eave Gutter, Definition of 15 Eave Gutter Miters, Inside and Outside, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 107 Edging Metal Roofing Sheets 312 Egyptian Letters and Figures 51 Electric Signs and Sign Boards, Lettering Applied to.. 50 Electrically Illuminated Signs 241 Elevation and Sections ot a Panel, Showing the Im- portance of Section Lines, Reading 348 Elevations and Soffit Plan of a Leader Head, Reading. . 330 Elevation and Sectional View of Cornice, Reading . . . 349 Enameled Letter Signs, Construction of 244 End Wall Flashing, Definition of 18 Engaged Column, Definition of 7 Enlarged Inside Gutter, Miter for 108 Enrichment, Definition of 10 Entablature, Definition of 7 Estimating Furnace Heating Materials 380-386 Estimating Items and Quantities of Sheet Metal . .363-386 Estimating Quantities in Cornice 365 Estimating Quantities in Double Pitched Skylights... 367 Estimating Quantities in Flat Skylight 366 Estimating Quantities in Gutters and Leaders .... 379 Estimating Quantities in Hipped Skylight 367 Estimating Quantities in Skylight Work 366 Estimating Quantities of Copper Coping over Wall on Pitched Roof 363 Estimating Quantities of Flat Seam Roofing 372 Estimating Quantity of Standing Seam Roofing 372 Estimating True Lengths of Hips, Valleys and Ridges on Gable and Hipped Roof 370 Expansion and Contraction of Copper Roofing and Gutters 316 Expansion and Contraction of Metal in Base of Cap Flashing 319 Expansion and Contraction of Metal in Laying Flat Seam Roofing 322 Expansion and Contraction of Metal in Laying Standing Seam Roofing 323 Expansion and Contraction of Roofing Metal 312 Expansion Joint, Definition of 17 Expansion Joints in Copper Lined Gutters 318 Extension, Definition of 13 Extension Skylight, Definition of 13 Eyebrow Dormer Window, Definition of 18 Face and Butt Hiters in a Plain Pediment 84 Face Miter, Definition of 10 Face Miter between Curved and Horizontal Moldings . 87 Face Miters 53 Face Miters at Different Angles 58 Face Miters in Square Panel 60 Face of Raking Bracket 142 Fascia, Definition of 10 Fastening Copper Lining in Gutter Construction 317 Fastening Lintel Cornice to Iron Beams 84 Fillet, Definition of 10 PAGE Finial, Definition of 9 Finial, Hip and Ridge, when Roof Pitches are Unequal 183 Finial, Ridge and Hip, when all Roof Pitches are Equal 182 Finial, Round, for Circular Tower 198 Finials 174, 192 Finding Length of Bars for Skylights of any Pitch . . 290 Finding Length of Skylight Bars by Computation .... 288 Finding True Lengths of Curbs, Bars and Ventilators in Hipped Skylights 286 Finishing Sheet, Left Hand, at Top of Course for Door, and Method of Applying 258 Finishing Sheet for Door, Left Hand, and the Method of Applying 258 Fire Door, Definition of 20 Fire Doors, Hollow Metal, and Shutters 249 Fire Proof Windows, Doors, etc 249 Fire Proofing Wooden Windows in Old Buildings . . 260 Five Pointed Star 215 Flange. Conical, Roof Plate and, on a Double Pitched Roof 170 Flange. Roof, between Pitched Roof and Return Mold at Other than a Right Angle 93 Flange, Roof, Conical, on Roof Having One Inclination 169 Flange, Roof, Curved 95 Flange, Roof, Fitting around a Tapering Base Inter- secting the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof . . 173 Flange, Roof, Intersecting and Hips and Ridge of a Hipped Roof 167 Flange, Roof, of Curved Dormer Window with Curved Roof 210 Flange, Roof, on Right Angular Dormer Return .... 91 Flange, Roof, Square Tapering Shaft and. Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Roof 165 Flange. Roof, Tapering Base and, on the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof 171 Flange and Cylinder. Roof, Intersecting Double Pitched Roof 159 Flange and Cylinder, Roof, Intersecting Ridge and Hips of Hipped Roof 160 Flange and Cylinder, Roof, Intersecting Single Pitched Roof 158 Flange and Octagonal Shaft, Roof, Intersecting Double Pitched Roof 163 Flange and Octagonal Shaft, Roof, Intersecting Hips and Ridge of Hipped Roof 164 Flange and Octagonal Shaft, Roof, Intersecting Single Pitched Roof 162 Flanges, Roof 91-95,158-173 Flaring Strips around a Beveled Shield 231 Flashing, Base and Cap, against a Brick Wall 320 Flashing in Stone or Terra Cotta Reglet 320 Flashing Metal Roofing 312-326 Flashing, Face, Cap, end Wall. Side Wall, Curb, Defin- ition of 17, 18, 19 Flashings and Sills of Skylight on Structural Steel Framing, Securing 310 Flat Arch. Definition of 8 Flat Head at Oblique End of Molding 93 Flat Roof Plan and Sectional View, Reading 343 Flat Seam Metal Roofing 312 Flat Seam Roofing, Computing Quantities of 372 Flat Seam Roofing, Definition of 17 INDEX 59i PAGE Flat Seam Roofing, Expansion and Contraction 322 Flat Seam Roofing Sheets, Calculating 337 Flat Skylight, Computing Quantities in 366 Flat Skylight, Curbless 302 Flat Skylight, Definition of 12 Flat Skylight Set on Pitched Curb 264 Flat Skylight when Roof Curb has the Required Pitch 263 Flues, Ventilating, Reading Plans of 353 Fluted Shaft Intersecting a Sphere Centrally 237 Foot Mold, Definition of 10 Foot Mold, Frieze and Crown Mold of Lintel Cornice, Joining 82 Foot Molding of Lintel Cornice, Setting Together . . 80 Foot Molding and Frieze of Lintel Cornice, Forming on Cornice Brake 78 Forming and Seaming Paneled Pipe for Conductor Offset 121 Forming Crown and Cap Molding of Lintel Cornice on Cornice Brake 79 Forming Frieze and Foot Molding of Lintel Cornice on Cornice Brake 78 Frame for Electrical Panel Sign 243 Frames, Definition of 20 Frames, Hollow Metal 249 Framing and Reinforcing Bars of Large Single Pitch Skylight 266 Frieze, Definition of 7 Frieze, Foot and Crown Molds of Lintel Cornice, Joining 82 Frieze and Foot Molding of Lintel Cornice, Forming on Cornice Brake 78 Frustum of a Scalene Cone, Reading Plan and Eleva- tions of 340 Furnace Heating Materials, Computing 380 Furnace Piping, Reading Plans of 350 Fusible Link, Definition of 15 Gable. Definition of 8 Gale and Hipped Roof, Computing True Lengths of Hips. Valleys and Ridges on 370 Gable Miters, Definition of 10 Gable Mold, Definition of 10 Gable Mold Intersecting Sphere Off the Center 239 Gable Molding, Having a Return at Other than a Right Angle, Reduced Miters in 153 Gable Molding Mitering against a Molded Column . . 102 Gable Molding, Reduced Miters in, Having a Right Angular Return 151 Gable Roof, Plan and Elevations, Reading 344 Gable Roofs 174-191 Gable Roofs, and Hipped, with Wing on One Side, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with.... 346 Gable Roofs, Four. Having Unequal Pitches, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 345 Gable Roofs, Four, Intersecting and Projecting. Read- ing Plan and Elevations of Buildings with .... 346 Gable Roofs Having Equal Pitches, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 345 Gable Roofs, Spire and, when an Octagonal Spire Miters on Four Gables 186 Gable Roofs, Spire and, when an Octagonal Spire Miters on Eight Gables 187 Gables, Spire and, when a Square Spire Intersects Four Gables 184 Gables on an Octagonal Pinnacle 133 Gables on a Square Pinnacle 132 Galvanized Iron Roofing 312-337 Galvanized Iron or Copper Roofing and Siding, Cor- rugated, Laying 330 Gearings, Definition of ..* 13 Glazing Regulation Type of Double Hung Window . . 252 Glazing Skylight and Securing Caps to Bar 268 Gores 213 Gores of Sphere, Vertical 193 Grain Bin with Conical Roof 329 Gutter. Combined with Cornice 55 Gutter, Eave, Inside and Outside Miters for, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 107 Gutter, Enlarged Inside, Miter for 108 Gutter, Ogee, Inside and Outside Miters for, at Other than a Right Angle in Plan no Gutter Brace, Definition of 16 Gutter Strips and Tin Rolls, Table of Number of Sheets Required for 336 Gutter and Curb of Skylight Over Elevator and Stair Shafts 306 Gutter Miters, Raking, Mitering at Right Angles in Plan 115 Gutter Moldings, Roof, Inside and Outside Miters for, on Pitched Roofs, Forming a Right Angle in Plan in Gutters. Condensation, Eave, Roof, Box Lined, Defini- tions of 14, 15 Gutters, Copper, and Roofing, Laying and Providing for Expansion and Contraction 316 Gutters, Copper Lined, Expansion Joints in 318 Gutters, Lining of, with Sheet Copper 316 Gutters, Raking, on Pitched Roof, at Other than a Right Angle in Plan 116 Gutters, Roof, Inside and Outside Miters for, on Roofs of Dissimilar Pitch, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 112 Gutters, Roof 104-117, 312-318, 324 Gutters and Leaders, Computing Quantities in 379 Hand Wheel, Definition of 13 Handle, Definition of 13 Hanging Electrical Panel Sign 244,246 Head, Definitions of 21 Head, Flat, at Oblique End of Molding 93 Head Block, Molded, Intersecting Pediment Coping .... 174 Head Blocks 174 Heads. Segmental, in the Construction of Tin Clad Shutters 259 Hexagonal Molded Ornament 215 Hexagonal Pyramid 221 Hinge, Definition of 13 Hinge Stile, Definition of 21 Hip, Definition of 10 Hip and Ridge Finial when Roof Pitches are Unequal 183 Hip Bar, Definition of 14 Hip Finial, Ridge and, When all Roof Pitches are Equal 182 Hip Mold, Definition of 10 Hip Ridge Intersecting a Vertical Plane at Right Angles 180 39 2 INDEX PAGE Hip Ridge and Ridge Capping, Intersection between . . 177 Hip Ridges 174-185 Hip Tile. Definition of 18 Hipped and Gable Roofs with Wing on One Side, Read- ing Plan and Elevations of Building with 346 Hipped Bar in Hipped Skylights 283 Hipped Octagonal Skylight 291 Hipped Roof, Computing True Lengths of Hips, Valleys and Ridges on 370 Hipped Roof Having Ridge and Hips, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 345 Hipped Roof of Equal Pitch, Reading Plan and Ele- vations of Building with 344 Hipped Roof of Unequal Pitches, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 344 Hipped Skylight, Computing Quantities in 367 Hipped Skylight, Definition of 13 Hipped Skylight, Curbs, Bars and Ventilators, Finding True Lengths of 286 Hipped Skylight. Plain, with Ridged Bar 280 Hipped Skylight Bar, Common 282 Hipped Skylight Bars Required 284 Hipped Skylights, Ridge Ventilator in 283 Hipped Ventilating Skylight 2S0 History of Classical Architecture 30 Hollow Metal Fire Door, Definition of 20 Hollow Metallic Windows, Definition of 20 Hollow Metal Windows, Frames, Sashes, Fire Doors and Shutters 249-262 Hood over Ventilator 173 Horizontal and Inclined Moldings, Reduced Miters for 144 Horizontal Molding Intersecting a Curved Surface . . 96 Horizontal Molding Intersecting a Curved Surface in Elevation 93 Horizontal Molding Intersecting an Oblique Surface in Plan 93 Horizontal Molding Intersecting a Spherical Surface. 98 Illuminated Signs 241 Impost, Definition of 12 Incised Work, Definition of 10 Inclined and Horizontal Moldings, Reduced Miters for 144 Inclined Molding, Butting Against a Plane Surface at Other Than a Right Angle in Plan 99 Inclined Molding Butting Against a Plane Surface at Right Angles In Plan 98 Inclined Mold Mitering on a Wash 86 Inside Miter, Definition of 10 Intersecting Hipped Roofs with Ridge of Wing Lower than that of Main Roof, Reading Plan and Eleva- tions of Building with 347 Intersecting Miter between Curved and Horizontal Moldings 89 Intersecting Prejecting Gable Roofs, Four, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 346 Intersection of Fluted Shaft with a Sphere, Centrally 237 Intersection between Hip Ridge and Ridge Capping .... 177 Intersection of a Hip Ridge with a Vertical Plane at Right Angles 180 Intersection of Horizontal Molding with a Curved Sur- face 96 PAGE Intersection of Horizontal Molding with a Curved Sur- face in Elevation 93 Intersection of Horizontal Molding with an Oblique Surface in Plan 93 Intersection of Horizontal Molding with a Spherical Surface 98 Intersection of Molded Head Block with Pediment Cop- ing 174 Intersection of Ornamental Drop Return, with Numer- ous Molds 224 Intersection of Square Shaft with a Sphere, Centrally 234 Intersection of Molding with a Sphere, Off the Center 238 Intersection of Octagonal Shaft with a Sphere 235 Intersection of Roof Flange and Cylinder with Double Pitched Roof 159 Intersection of Roof Flange and Cylinder with Single Pitched Roof 158 Intersection of Roof Flange and Octagonal Shaft with Double Pitched Roof 163 Intersection of Roof Flange and Octagonal Shaft with Hips and Ridge of Hipped Roof 164 Intersection of Roof Flange with the Hips and Ridge of a Hipped Roof 167 Intersection of Square Shaft with a Sphere off the Center 236 Intersection of a Tapering Base with the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof 173 Intersection of Square Tapering Shaft and Roof Flange with the Ridge and Hips of a Roof 165 Intersection of Triangular Dentil with Cove Molding. . 222 Intersections of Molds of Dissimilar Profile 144 Ionic Order, Definition of 7 Ionic Volute, Method of Drawing 41 Inside and Outside Miters for Eave Gutter, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 107 Inside and Outside Miters for Ogee Gutter at Other than a Right Angle in Plan no Inside and Outside Miters for Roof Gutter Moldings on Pitched Roofs, Forming a Right Angle in Plan in Inside and Outside Miters for Roof Gutters on Roofs of Dissimilar Pitch, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 112 Inside and Outside Miters, Obtaining with at One Oper- ation 56 Inside Gutter, Enlarged Miter for 108 Irregular Base. Reading Plans, Elevations and Con- structive Views of 342 Irregular Bay Window, of Five Sides, Base of Re- quiring Two Changes of Profiles 68 Irregular Fitting or Frustum of a Scalene Cone, Reading Plan and Elevations of 340 Irregular Panel 61 Jack Bar, Definition of 14 Tack Bars of Various Skylights 263-311 Jamb, Definition of 21 Joining Foot Mold, Frieze and Crown Mold of Lintel Cornice 82 Joints, Expansion, in Copper Lined Gutters 318 Joints, Water-Tight, in Metal Roofing and Siding 312 Keystone, Definition of 12 INDEX 393 PAGE Keystone, Molded, in a Circular Arch 226 227 Keystone, Raised ~" v Keystone, Tapering Diamond in 22 5 Large Single Pitch Skylight; Construction and the Method of Framing and Reinforcing the Bars .... 266 Corrugated Galvanized Iron or Copper Roofing Louvres, Circular Louvres, Definition of Louvres, Stationary and Movable Laying 330 and Siding Laying Flat and Standing Seam Roofing 312-337 Laying Metal Roofing Over Wooden Strips or Battens 314 Laying Sheet Copper Roofing and Gutters 316 Laying Standing Seam Circular Metal Roof 327 325 321 16 339 Laying Zinc or Copper Roofing on Wood Battens ... Lead Plugs for Use in Metal Roofing, Molds for Cast ing Leader Head, Definition of Leader Head, Reading Elevations and Soffit Plan of Leader Head, Square Molded, Detail of 42 Leader Head of Dissimilar Profiles , I0 4 Leader Heads, Roof Gutters and Conductor Offsets 104-121 Leader Hook Covering, Ornamental 106 Leader Hook, Definition of l6 Leaders, Plain, Corrugated, Ornamental, Definitions of 16 Leaders' and Gutters, Computing Quantities in 379 Left Hand Finishing Sheet for Metal Door and Method of Applying • 25 Left Hand Finishing Sheet at Top Course of Door and Method of Applying 2 S 8 Length of Bars for Skylights of any Pitch, Finding 286-291 Lengths of Various Curbs, Bars and Ventilators in Hipped Skylights 286 Lengths, True, of Hips, Valleys and Ridges on Gable and Hipped Roof, Computing Lettering and Detailing Lettering Applied to Sign Boards and Electric S 370 30 5° PAGE • 195 • 13 • 299 46 .46 21 21 20 Main Cornice, Computing Divisions of Main Cornice, Detailing Main Cornice, Preparing Working Details of 4» Mansard and Deck Roofs, Reading Plan and Eleva- tions of a Building with 340 Mansard Roof, Definition of l8 Marquise, Ventilated, Structural Details of 272 Measuring Lines Mechanical Drawing Meeting Rail, Definition of Meeting Stile, Definition of Metal Doors, Definitions of Metal Lath, Definition of IQ Metal Roof, Circular, Laying Standing Seam of 327 Metal Roofing, Gutters and Siding 312-337 Metal Roofing Flashings 313, 319. 326 Metal Roofing, Notching and Edging 312 322 Metal Roofing Over Wooden Strips or Battens, Lay- ing 3I4 Metal Roofing Seams, Construction of 3I3> 323-327 Metal Windows, Definitions of 20. 21 Metal Windows, Frames, Sashes, Fire Doors and Shut- 249-262 91 Letters, Block, Drawing 5 2 Letters and Figures, Egyptian SI Letters and Figures, Roman 5 1 Lifting Power, Definition of J 3 Lifting Skylight Sash in Long Lengths, Construction of 298 Lines Used in Mechanical Drawing 26 Lining Gutters with Sheet Copper ■ 31° Lining of Metal Cornice on a Wood Base, Securing . . 3*7 Lintel Cornice, Definition of Lintel Cornice, Fastening to Iron Beams 84 Lintel Cornice, Obtaining Reduced Profile of ..... . 76 Lintel Cornice, Patterns for and Details of Construction 75 Lintel Cornice Band Iron Braces, Bending and Inserting 82 Lintel Cornice Frieze and Foot Molding, Forming on Cornice Brake ?8 Lintel Cornice Crown and Bed Molds. Joining 81 Lintel Cornice Crown and Cap Molding, Forming on Cornice Brake 79 Lintel Cornice Foot Mold, Frieze and Crown Mold. Joining °- Lintel Cornice Foot Molding, Setting together 80 Lintel Cornice Seams, Locking 82 Lintel Cornice Secured to Brick Wall 83 Lock Stile, Definition of 2I Locked Seams in Pediment Cornices, Construction of 143 Locking Seams of Lintel Cornice 82 ters Miter, Butt, and Roof Flange on a Right Angle Return Miter. Butt, on Square Dormer Return Miter, Butt, Return Head and, Required by Ridge Cap- 90 ping 176 108 87 Miter, Enlarged Inside Gutter Miter, Face, between Curved and Horizontal Moldings Miter! Gable Molding against a Molded Column 102 Miter, Intersecting, between Curved and Honzont: Moldings Miter, Cornice, Reduced, at Other than a Right Angle in Plan Miter. Definition of Miter, Reduced, of Lintel Cornice Miter, Return, at a Right Angle in Plan Miter, Square Panel 5 ° Miter, Square Return S3 Miter, Reduced, on Right Angular Return in Cornice.. 148 Miter Fold, Corner; Preparing Pattern Shape for and Constructing Lock and Fold Mitering of Circular Spire on Four Gable Roofs Mitering of Dissimilar Molding at an Internal Angle in Plan, Other than a Right Angle • • • ■ 155 Mitering of Dissimilar Moldings at an Internal Right Angle in Plan 1 3: > Mitering of Round Spire on Eight Gable Roofs in an Octagonal Turret IQ0 Mitering of Pediments Having Unequal Pitches 135 Miters. Bevel and Butt, in a Pediment Molding, Quick Method of Obtaining I01 Miters, Butt, Against Wall l 2° Miters, Face, at Different Angles 58 Miters, Face and Butt, in a Plain Pediment 84 Miters Inside and Outside, Developing at One Opera- ,;™ 56, 57 89 149 10 75 53 255 189 394 INDEX PAGE Miters, Inside and Outside, for Eave Gutter, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 107 Miters, Inside and Outside, for Ogee Gutter at Other than a Right Angle in Plan no Miters, Inside and Outside, for Roof Gutter Moldings on Pitched Roofs, Forming a Right Angle in Plan in Miters, Inside and Outside, for Roof Gutters on Roofs of Dissimilar Pitch, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 112 Miters, Raking Gutter, Mitering at Right Angles in Plan 115 Miters, Reduced, for Horizontal and Inclined Moldings 144 Miters, Reduced, in Raised Diamond Panel 144 Miters, Reduced, in a Molded Ornament 144 Miters, Reduced, on Ornamental Drop 146 Miters, Reduced, on a Gable Molding, Having a Return at Other than a Right Angle 153 Miters, Reduced, on a Gable Molding Having a Right Angular Return 151 Miters, Return, Face, Bevel and Butt 53-103 Modillion, Definition of 8 Modillion Band, Definition of 10 Modillion Mold, Definition of 10 Mold, Cove, in a Circular Panel 196 Mold, Inclined, Mitering on a Wash 86 Mold, Gable, Intersecting Sphere off the Center 239 Mold, Quarter Round in a Circular Panel 197 Mold Raked Cap 141 Mold, Raking Crown, in Angular Pediment 122 Molded Base Forming a Transition from Square to Octagonal 217 Molded Base in a Circular Bay Window 207 Molded Cap Forming a Transition from Octagonal to Square 218 Molded Chamber 216 Molded Column. Gable Mitering Against 102 Molded Head Block Intersecting Pediment Coping . . . 174 Molded Keystone in a Circular Arch 226 Molded Leader Head, Square. Detail of 42 Molded Ornament, Hexagonal 215 Molded Ornament, Reduced Miters in 144 Molded Ornament, Triangular 214 Molded Transitions 213 Molding, Cove, Intersected by Triangular Dentil .... 222 Molding, Definition of 9 Molding, Gable, Having a Return at Other than a Right Angle, Reduced Miters on 153 Molding, Gable, Reduced Miters in, Having a Right Angular Return 151 Molding, Pediment, Bevel and Butt Miters in 101 Molding. Gable, Mitering against a Molded Column. . . . 102 Molding, Horizontal, Intersecting a Curved Surface . . 96 Molding, Horizontal, Intersecting a Curved Surface in Elevation 93 Molding, Horizontal, Intersecting an Oblique Surface in Plan 93 Molding, Horizontal, Intersecting a Spherical Surface 98 Molding, Inclined, Butting against a Plane Surface at Other than a Right Angle in Plan 99 Molding, Inclined, Butting against a Plane Surface at Right Angles in Plan 98 Molding, Intersecting a Sphere off the Center 238 PAGE Molding of Dormer Window, Curved Averaging Profile and Determining Pattern in 2o4 Molding of Lintel Cornice, Frieze and Foot, Forming on Cornice Brake 78 Molding of Lintel Cornice, Crown and Cap, Forming on Cornice Brake 79 Moldings 53-103 Moldings Arranged According to Purpose 38 Moldings, Circular, Made by Machine 204 Moldings, Curved, in a Circular Bay Window 206 Moldings, Dissimilar, Mitering at an Internal Angle in Plan, at Other than a Right Angle 155 Moldings, Dissimilar, Mitering at an Internal Right Angle in Plan 155 Moldings, Horizontal and Inclined, Reduced Miters for 144 Moldings, Raking, for Angular and Segmental Pedi- ments 122 Molds, Intersections of, of Dissimilar Profile 144 Molds, Numerous, Intersected by Ornamental Drop Return 224 Molds, Raking, in Broken Angular Pediment 124 Molds, Raking, in Broken Segmental Pediment 126 Molds for Casting Lead Plugs for Use in Metal Roofing 321 Molds of Lintel Cornice, Bed and Crown, Joining . . 81 Molds of Lintel Cornice, Foot, Frieze and Crown, Join- ing 82 Movable Louvres 299 Movable Sash, Definition of 13 Movable Sashes in a Turret Skylight 300 Muntin, Definition of 21 Neck Mold, Definition of 7 Normal Profile, Definition of 10 Notching and Edging Metal Roofing 312, 322 Number of Sheets Required to Cover a Given Surface of Tin Roofing, Table of 335 Number of Boxes and Sheets Required to Cover a Given Surface of Tin Roofing, Tables of 335, 336 Number of Sheets Required for Tin Rolls and Gutter Strips, Table of 336 Octagonal Pinnacle, Gables on 133 Octagonal Return Against an oblique Surface in Ele- vation 91 Octagonal Shaft, Roof Flange, and Intersecting Double Pitched Roof 163 Octagonal Shaft, Roof Flange, and Intersecting Hips and Ridge of a Hipped Roof 164 Octagonal Shaft, Roof Flange, and Intersecting Single Pitched Roof 162 Octagonal Shaft Intersecting Sphere 235 Octagonal Skylight, Hipped 291 Octagonal Spire Mitering on Eight Gables 187 Octagonal Tapering Base, Including Roof Flange, In- tersecting the Hips and Ridge of a Hipped Roof.. 167 Offset, Paneled Conductor 118 Ogee Gutter, Inside and Outside Miters for, at Other than a Right Angle in Plan no Ogee, Reversed, in a Circular Panel 197 Open Pediment, Definition of 8 INDEX 395 PAGE Operated Sash, Definition of r 3 Order, Definition of 7 Ornament, Molded, Reduced Miters in 144 Ornament, Molded, Hexagonal 215 Ornament, Molded Triangular 214 Ornamental Drop Return Intersecting Numerous Molds 224 Ornamental Drop with Reduced Miters 146 Ornamental Leader Fastener, Definition of 16 Ornamental Leader Hook Covering 106 Ornamental Sheet Metal Work 213, 240 Ornamental Trimmings on Urns 230 Ornamental Window Cap, Working Detail of 44 Ornaments, Brackets, Chamfers, Panels, etc 213, 240 Orthographic Projection, Definition of 23 Outside and Inside Miters, Developing at One Opera- tion 56, 57 Outside and Inside Miters for Eave Gutter, Forming a Right Angle in Plan i°7 Outside and Inside Miters for Ogee Gutter at Other than a Right Angle in Plan no Outside and Inside Miters for Roof Gutter Moldings on Pitched Roofs, Forming a Right Angle in Plan. Ill Outside and Inside Miters for Roof Gutters on Roofs of Dissimilar Pitch. Forming a Right Angle in Plan II2 Outside Miter, Definition of I0 Panel, Circular, Cove Mold in 196 Panel, Circular, Quarter Round Mold in 197 Panel, Circular, Reversed Ogee in 197 Panel, Definition of 9 Panel, Elevations and Sections of, Showing the Impor- tance of Section Lines, Reading 348 Panel, Irregular OI Panel, Raised Diamond, Reduced Miters in 144 Panel, Rectangular, Pitched 220 Panel, Triangular 60 Panel, Miter, Square 59 Panel with Circular End 62 Paneled Conductor Offset 118 Paneled Electric Sign 246 Panels 59-62, 196-198, 220 Pedestal, Definition of 7 Pedestal Course. Definition of 9 Pediment, Angular, Raking Crown Mold in 122 Pediment, Broken, Used Over an Entrance 36 Pediment, Angular, Having Returns at Octagonal Angles 129 Pediment, Broken Angular, Raking Molds in 124 Pediment, Broken Segmental, Raking Molds in 126 Pediment Coping Intersected by Molded Head Block.. 174 Pediment, Cornice, Requiring Face Miters 58 Pediment, Definition of 8 Pediment, Raking Bracket in 140 Pediment, Segmental, Having Returns at Other than a Right Angle, Forming Butt Miters Against Wall.. 130 Pediment Molding, Bevel and Butt Miters in, Quick Method 101 Pediment Without Crown Mold 36 Pediments 35, 84, 101 PAGE Pediments, Angular and Segmental, Raking Moldings and Brackets for I22 Pediments, Segmental I 9 2 Pediment, Segmental, Made by Hand 208 Pediments Having Unequal Pitches, Mitering at Right Angles in Plan J 35 Photographic Studio Skylight 274 Pilaster, Definition of 7 Pinnacle, Definition of 9 Pinnacle, Octagonal, Gables on 133 Pinnacle, Square, Gables on 132 Piping, Furnace, Reading Plans of 35° Pitched Rectangular Panel 220 Pivoted Window, Definition of 20 Plain Conductor, Definition of 16 Plain Leader. Definition of ! 6 Plain Hipped Skylight with Ridge Bar 280 Planceer, Definitions of 9> 10 Plan Reading: Plan and Elevations of Beveled Tube 338 Plan and Elevations of a Tee Joint 339 Plan and Elevations of a Transition Piece 340 Plan and Elevations of Irregular Fitting or Frustum of a Scalene Cone 34° Plan, Elevation and Constructive View of a Round Ventilator 341 Plans, Elevations and Constructive Views of a Tool Box 341 Plans, Elevations and Constructive Views of an Irregular Base 342 Plan and Sectional View of a Flat Roof 343 Plan and Elevations of Building with Gable Roof 344 Plan and Elevations of Building with Hipped Roof, of Equal Pitch 344 Plan and Elevations of Building with Hipped Roof of Unequal Pitches 344 Plan and Elevations of Building with Hipped Roof Having Ridge and Hips 345 Plan and Elevations of Building with Four Gable Roofs Having Unequal Pitches 345 Plan and Elevations of Building with Four Gable Roofs, Having Equal Pitches 345 Plan and Elevations of Building Having Hipped and Gable Roof with Wing on One Side 346 Plan and Elevations of a Building with Four Inter- secting Projecting Gable Roofs 346 Plan and Elevations of a Building with Mansard and Deck Roofs 346 Plan and Elevations of Building Having Intersect- ing Hipped Roof with Ridge of Wing Lower than that of Main Roof 347 Plan and Elevations of Building with Complex Roof Intersections 348 Plans, Elevations and Section of Architectural Work. 350 Reading a Complete Set of Architect's Plans Drawn to Scale ....354-362 Planes. Definition of 25 Plans and Profiles in Projection Drawing 27 Plate, Roof, and Conical Flange on a Double Pitched Roof l 7° Pole Hook, Definition of ! 3 Preparing Working Details of a Main Cornice 48 39 6 INDEX PAGE Principles of Projection in Architectural Drawing. .. .23-29 Profile, Definition of 12 Profile, Raking of 46 Profile, Reduced, of Lintel Cornice 76 Profile in Pattern of Curved Molding of Dormer Win- dow, Averaging and Determining 204 Profiles, Various 27, 33, 34 Projection, Principles ot, in Architectural Drawing. . .23-29 Projectors 26 Puttyless Skylight, Definition of IS Pyramid, Hexagonal 221 Pyramid, Triangular 221 Pyramids Developed Regardless of Shape of Polygon in Plan 222 Quantities in Copper Coping over Wall on Pitched Roof, Computing 363 Quantities in a Cornice, Computing 363 Quantities in Flat Skylight, Computing 366 Quantities in Gutters and Leaders, Computing 379 Quantities in Hipped Skylight, Computing 367 Quantities in Skylight Work, Computing 366 Quantities of Flat Seam Roofing, Computing 372 Quantity of Sheets and Boxes of Tin Required to Cover a Given Surface of Tin Roofing, Table of 335, 336 Quantity of Sheets Required to Cover a Given Surface of Tin Roofing, Table of 335 Quantity of Standing Seam Roofing, Computing 372 Quarter Round Mold in a Circular Panel 197 Quick Method of Obtaining Inside and Outside Miters at One Operation 57 Rabbet (on Bar), Definition of 15 Rabbet (on Curb) , Definition of 14 Rabbeted Frames, Definition of 20 Rails, Definition of 21 Rain Water Cut-off, Definition of 16 Raised Diamond Panel, Reduced Miters in 144 Raised Keystone 227 Raising Sash 296 Raising Sashes in Water-Tight Skylight Construction.. 297 Raising Sash of Skylight on Structural Steel Framing, Details of 309 Rake Miter, Definition of 10 Raked Cap Mold 141 Raked Mold, Definition of 10 Raked Profile, Definition of 10 Raked Profiles at Base of Octagonal Bay Window 66 Raked Profiles at Base of Square Bay Window 68 Raking a Profile 46 Raking Bracket, Drawing Elevation of 140 Raking Bracket, Face of 142 Raking Bracket, Modified Side of 142 Raking Bracket in a Pediment 140 Raking Bracket in Apex of Pediment 142 Raking Bracket in Plan, as in the Soffit of a Bay Win- dow 136 Raking Crown Mold in Angular Pediment 122 Raking Gutter Miters, Mitering at Right Angles in Plan 115 Raking Gutters on Pitched Roof, at Other than a Right Angle in Plan 116 PAGE Raking Molds in a Broken Angular Pediment 124 Raking Molds in a Broken Segmental Pediment 126 Raking Moldings and Brackets for Angular and Seg- mental Pediments 122 Reading a Complete Set of Architect's Plans Drawn to Scale 354-362 Reading Plans, Elevations and Details of Building Con- struction, etc 338-362 Reading Plans of Furnace Piping 350 Reading Plans of Ventilating Flues 353 Receptacles for Wiring Electrical Signs, Method of Securing 241 Rectangular Bay Window 68 Rectangular Panel, Pitched 220 Regulation Type of Double Hung Window, Constructive Features of 251 Reduced Cornice Miter at Other than a Right Angle in Plan 149 Reduced Miter of Lintel Cornice 75 Reduced Profile of Lintel Cornice, Obtaining 76 Reduced Miters for Horizontal and Inclined Moldings and of Intersections of Molds of Dissimilar Profile. 144 Reduced Miters on a Gable Molding, Having a Return at Other than a Right Angle 153 Reduced Miters on a Gable Molding Having a Right Angular Return 151 Reduced Miters in a Molded Ornament 144 Reduced Miters in Raised Diamond Panel 144 Reduced Miters on Ornamental Drop 146 Reduced Miter on a Right Angular Return in Cornice.. 148 Reglet, Definition of 17 Reinforcing Bars and Framing Large Single Pitch Sky- light 266 Reinforcing Strip, Definition of 15 Return, Definition of 10 Return, Face, Bevel and Butt Miters 53 Return, Octagonal, Against an Oblique Surface in Ele- vation 91 Return Head and Butt Miter Required by Ridge Cap- ping 176 Return Miter, Definition of 10 Return Miter, Square 53 Return Miter at a Right Angle in Plan 53 Return of Bracket Drop 223 Return of Ornamental Drop Intersecting Numerous Molds 224 Reversed Ogee and Flare of Round Finial 202 Reversed Ogee in a Circular Panel 197 Ridge, Hip and Ridge Capping, Intersection between... 177 Ridge, Hip, Intersecting a Vertical Plane at Right Angles ' 180 Ridge and Hip Finial When All Roof Pitches are Equal 182 Ridge Bar, Definition of 14 Ridge Bar of Plain Hipped Skylight 280 Ridge Capping Requiring Return Head and Butt Miter. 176 Ridge Finial, Hip, and when Roof Pitches are Unequal 183 Ridge Mold, Definition of 10 Ridge Pole, Wood, to Receive Metal Ridge Roll 332 Ridge Roll, Corrugated 332 Ridge Tile, Definition of 18 Ridge Ventilator in Hipped Skylights 283 Ridges, Hip 174 INDEX 397 PAGE Right Angular Return in Cornice, Reduced Miter on.. 148 Right Hand Starting and Center Sheets for Doors and Method of Applying 256 Right Hand Starting and Center Sheets, for Top or Fin- ishing Course of Door, and Method of Applying.. 258 Rock Face Siding, Definition of 19 Rolling Top Theatre Stage Skylight; Details of Con- struction 269 Rolling Type of Skylight, Definition of 15 Roman Letters and Figures 51 Roof, Conical, Standing Seam of over Large Grain Bin 329 Roof, Flat, Reading Plan and Sectional View of .... 343 Roof, Hipped, Having Ridge and Hips, Reading Plans and Elevations of Building with 345 Roof Domes, Covering with Flat Seam Roofing 333 Roof Flange, Conical, One Roof Having One Inclination 169 Roof Flange, Curved 05 Roof Flange, Definition of 17 Roof Flange, Square Tapering Shaft, and Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Rcof 165 Roof Flange, Tapering Base, and on the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof 171 Roof Flange and Butt Miter on a Right Angle Return. 91 Roof Flange and Cylinder Intersecting a Double Pitched Roof 159 Roof Flange and Cylinder Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Hipped Roof 160 Roof Flange and Cylinder Intersecting Single Pitched Roof 158 Roof Flange and Octagonal Shaft Intersecting Double Pitched Roof 163 Roof Flange and Octagonal Shaft Intersecting Hips and Ridge of Hipped Roof 164 Roof Flange and Octagonal Shaft, Intersecting Single Pitched Roof 162 Roof Flange between Pitched Roof and Return Mold at Other than a Right Angle 93 Roof Flange Fitting Around Tapering Base Intersect- ing Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof 173 Roof Flange Intersecting the Hips and Ridge of Hipped Roof 167 Roof Flange of Curved Dormer Window with Curved Roof 210 Roof Flange on Right Angular Dormer Return 91 Roof Flanges, Collars, Ventilator Bases and Hoods. .158-173 Roof Gables 184—191 Roof Gutter, Definition of 15 Roof Gutter Moldings, Inside and Outside Miters for, on Pitched Roofs, Forming a Right Angle in Plan. 11 1 Roof Gutters 107-1 17 Roof Gutters on Roofs of Dissimilar Pitch, Inside and Outside Miters for, Forming a Right Angle in Plan 112 Roof Intersections, Complex, Reading Plan and Eleva- vations of Building with 348 Roof of Equal Pitch, Hipped, Reading Plan and Eleva- tions of Building with 344 Roof of Unequal Pitches, Hipped, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 344 Roof Plate and Conical Flange on a Double Pitched Roof 170 Roofing, Flat Seam, Computing Quantities of 372 Roofing, Flat Seam, Laying 312 PAGE Roofing, Gutters and Siding 312 Roofing, Standing Seam Computing Quantity of 372 Roofing, Metal, Flat, Standing Seam and Batten 312 Roofing, Zinc or Copper, Laying on Wooden Battens. . . 325 Roofing" and Gutters, Copper, Laying and Providing for Expansion and Contraction 316 Roofing and Siding of Corrugated Galvanized Iron or Copper, Laying 330 Roofing Expansion and Contraction, Flat Seam 322 Roofing Expansion and Contraction, Standing Seam.... 323 Roofing Materials, Table of Weights 337 Roofing Sheets, Copper, Table of Weight of 336 Roofing Sheets, Corrugated, Table of Helps for Fig- uring 337 Roofing Sheets, Flat Seam, Calculating 337 Roofing Sheets, Number Required for Tin Rolls and Gutter Strips, Table of 336 Roofing Sheets, Standing Seam Single Lock, Calcu- lating 337 Roofing Sheets, Standing Seam Double Lock, Calcul- ating 337 Roofing Sheets, Tin, Tables of Quantity Required to Cover a Given Surface 335, 336 Roofs, Gable, Four Intersecting and Projecting, Read- ing Plan and Elevations of Building with 346 Roofs. Gable, Having Unequal Pitches, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 345 Roofs, Hipped and Gable, with Wing on One Side, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with.... 346 Roofs, Hipped Intersecting, with Ridge of Wing Lower than that of Main Roof, Reading Plan and Eleva- tions of 347 Roofs, Mansard and Deck, Reading Plans of a Building with 346 Roofs, Spire and Gable, when an Octagonal Spire Miters on Four Gables 186 Roofs Having Equal Pitches, Gable, Reading Plan and Elevations of Building with 345 Round Finial for Circular Tower 198 Round Spire Mitering on Eight Gable Roofs in an Octa- gonal Turret 190 Round Ventilator, Reading Plan, Elevation and Con- structive View of 341 Rules, Scale, Employed in Measuring Drawings 349 Saddle, Definition of 18 Sash, Definition of 21 Sashes, Hollow Metal 249 Sashes, Movable, in a Turret Skylight, Construction of 300 Sashes, Raising, in Water-Tight Skylight Construction. 297 Sash for Skylight, Lifting, in Long Lengths, Construc- tion of 298 Sash, Raising, Construction of 296 Sash, Raising, of Skylight on Structural Steel Framing. 309 Saw Tooth Skylight, Construction of 307 Saw-Tooth Skylight, Definition of 15 Scalene Cone, Reading Plan and Elevations of 340 Scale Rules Employed in Measuring Drawings 349 Seams for Metal Roofing, Construction of. 313, 314, 323-329 Seams, Horizontal, for Combined Cornice and Gutter, Constructing without Soldering 55 393 INDEX PAGE Seams, Locked, in Pediment Cornices, Construction of 143 Seams of Lintel Cornice, Locking 82 Seam, Standing, of Conical Roof Over Large Grain Bin 329 Sectional View and IMan of a Flat Roof, Reading 343 Sectional View of Cornice, and Elevation, Reading 349 Section View, Definition of 24 Securing Lintel Cornice to Brick Wall and Covering Its Top 83 Securing Metal Coping to Brick Wall 176 Securing Skylight Caps to Bar 268 Segmental and Angular Pediments, Raking Moldings and Brackets for 122 Segmental Heads in the Construction of Tin Clad Shut- ters, Covering 259 Segmental Pediment, Broken, Raking Molds in 126 Segmental Pediment, Definition of 8 Segmental Pediment, Having Returns at Other than a Right Angle, Forming Butt Miters Against Wall. . 130 Segmental Pediment Made by Hand 208 Semi-Hipped Skylight, Definition of 13 Setting Skylight on Iron Construction 267 Setting Together the Foot Molding of Lintel Cornice.. 80 Shaft, Fluted, Intersecting Sphere Centrally 237 Shaft, Octagonal, Intersecting Sphere 235 Shaft, Ostagonal, Roof Flange and, Intersecting a Double Pitched Roof 163 Shaft, Octagonal, Roof Flange and, Intersecting a Single Pitched Roof 162 Shaft, Octagonal, Roof Flange and, Intersecting Hips and Ridge of a Hipped Roof 164 Shaft, Square, Intersecting a Sphere Centrally 234 Shaft, Square, Intersecting a Sphere off the Center.... 236 Shaft, Tapering Square, and Roof Flange, Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Roof 165 Sheet Copper, Table of Weight of 336 Sheets of Roofing Tin, Number Required to Cover a Given Surface, Tables of 335, 336 Sheets Required for Tin Rolls and Gutter Strips, Table of 336 Shield, Beveled, Flaring Strips Around 231 Shingled Roof, Definition of 18 Shingle Flashing, Definition of 18 Shutters, Automatic Closing, Tin Clad, Fireproof, Con- struction of 252 Shutters, Tin Clad, Covering Segmental Heads for.... 259 Side Wall Flashing, Definition of 18 Siding, Corrugated, of Galvanized Iron or Copper, Lay- ing 330 Siding, Roofing Gutters and 312 Sidings, Brick, Rock-Face, Weather-Board, Definitions of 19 Signboards and Electric Signs, Lettering Applied to.. 50 Signs, Block Letter Electrical 241 Signs, Electrical Panel, Construction of 243 Signs, Illuminated 241 Signs, Illuminated, Developing and Assembling 246 Signs, Wiring 241 Signs with Enameled Letters, Electrical, Construction of 244 Sill, Definition of 21 Single Lock Standing Seam Roofing Sheets, Calcu- PAGE lating 337 Single Pitch Skylight, Large; Construction and the Method of Framing and Reinforcing the Bars.... 266 Single Pitch Skylight, Over Elevator and Stair Shafts, Construction of 304 Single Pitch Skylight with Pitch Formed in the Metal Curb 277 Sink, Definition of 10 Skylight Bars, Curbed, Common and Jack, of Hipped Skylight 281, 282 Skylight Bars, Finding Length of by Computation.... 288 Skylight Bars, Finding the Length of for Skylights of any Pitch 290 Skylight Construction, Water-Tight, Involving Raising Sashes 297 Skylight Cross-Bar for Making Water-Tight Connec- tion between Glass Panes in Skylight Construction. 268 Skylight, Definition of 12 Skylight, Flat, Computing Quantities in 366 Skylight, Flat Curbless, Construction of 302 Skylight, Flat, to be Set on a Pitched Curb 264 Skylight, Flat, When Roof Curb has the Required Pitch 263 Skylight Glazing and Securing Caps to Bar 268 Skylight, Hipped, Computing Quantities in 367 Skylight, Hipped Octagonal 291 Skylight, Hipped Ventilating 280 Skylight, Large Single Pitch ; Construction and the Method of Framing and Reinforcing the Bars.... 266 Skylight Lifting Sash, in Long Lengths, Construction of 298 Skylight, Octagonal, Curb and Bars in 292 Skylight of Double Pitch 279 Skylight of Single Pitch, with Pitch Formed in the Metal Curb 277 Skylight on Iron Construction, Setting 267 Skylight on Structural Steel Framing 309 Skylight over a Photographic Studio, Construction of.. 274 Skylight over Theatre Stage, Rolling Top; Details of Construction 269 Skylight, Pitched, Valley Bar for 293 Skylight, Plain Hipped, with Ridge Bar 280 Skylight, Saw Tooth, Construction of 307 Skylights, Double Pitched, Computing Quantities in... 367 Skylights, Hipped, Curb in 282 Skylights, Hipped, Finding True Lengths of Curbed Bars and Ventilators in 286 Skylights, Hipped, Hipped Bar in 283 Skylights, Hipped, Jack Bar in 282 Skylights, Hipped, Other Bars Required in 284 Skylights, Hipped. Ridge Ventilator in 283 Skylight, Single Pitch, Over Elevator and Stair Shafts, Construction of 304 Skylights of the Various Types, Construction of 263 Skylight, Turret, Construction of Movable Sashes in.. 300 Skylight Work, Computing Quantities in 366 Sliding Window, Definition of 20 Snow Guard, Definition of 19 Soffit, Definition of 10 Soffit of a Hipped Roof 138 Soffit Plan of a Leader Head, Reading Elevations of.. 339 Sphere Intersected Off the Center by a Molding 238 Sphere Centrally Intersected by a Square Shaft 234 INDEX 399 236 193 192 98 1 S 7 186 184 190 174 8 59 132 PAGE Sphere Centrally Intersected by Fluted Shaft 237 Sphere Intersected by Octagonal Shaft Sphere Intersected Off the Center by Square Shaft Sphere Made Up in Vertical Gores Sphere or Ball Having Horizontal Zones 192 Spheres, Louvres, Panels, Finials, Dormer and Bay Windows, Cornices, and Segmental Pediments. Spherical Surface Intersected by a Horizontal Molding Spire and Gable Roofs When an Octagonal Spire Miters on Eight Gables Spire and Gable Roofs When an Octagonal Spire Miters on Four Gables Spire and Gables When a Square Spire Intersects Four Gables Spire, Circular, Mitering on Four Gable Roofs 189 Spire on Circular Tower 2 ° 3 Spire, Round, Mitering on Fight Gable Roofs in an Octagonal Turret Spires Springing Line, Definition of - Square Bay Window, Base of, Requiring Raked Pro files Square Panel Miter Square Pinnacle, Gables on Square Return Miter S3 Square Shaft Intersecting a Sphere Centrally 234 Square Shaft Intersecting a Sphere Off the Center... 236 Square Spire Intersecting Four Gables 184 " Square Tapering Shaft and Roof Flange Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Roof 165 Stage. Skylight, Rolling Top; Details of Construction.. 269 Standing Seam and Batten Metal Roofing 312 Standing Seam Circular Metal Roof, Laying 327 Standing Seam Double Lock Roofing Sheets, Calcu- lating 337 Standing Seam of Conical Roof Over Large Grain Bin. 329 Standing Seam Roofing, Computing Quantity of 37 ^ Standing Seam Roofing, Definition of ■ • • l 7 Standing Seam Roofing, Expansion and Contraction, Providing for 3 2 3 Standing Seam Single Lock Roofing Sheets, Calculating 337 Star, Five-Pointed 2I 5 Starting and Center Sheets for Doors, Right Hand, and the Method of Applying 2 5 6 Starting and Center Sheets, Right Hand, for top or Fin- ishing Course of Door, and Method of Applying.. 258 Stationary and Movable Louvres, Construction of 299 Stationary Fireproof Windows, Construction of 252 Stationary Window, Definition of 20 Stay, Definition of I0 Step Flashing, Definition of l 7 Stile, Definitions of 9. 21 Stop, Definition of 2I Strainer, Definition of J " Strap, Definition of I 3 Stretchout Lines a6 Strips, Flaring, Around a Beveled Shield 231 Structural Steel Framing Surmounted by Skylight 310 Studio Skylight, Construction of 2 74 PAGE Table of Number of Boxes and Sheets Required to Cover a Given Surface of Tin Roofing 235, 336 Table of Number of Sheets Required to Cover a Given Surface of Tin Roofing Table of Number of Sheets Required for Tin Rolls and Gutter Strips 335 336 Table of Weight of Sheet Copper 336 Tapering Base, Octagonal, Including Roof Flange, Inter- secting the Hips and Ridge of a Hipped Roof .... 167 Tapering Base and Roof Flange on the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof I71 Tapering Base Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Pitched Roof I73 Tapering Diamond in a Keystone 22 5 Tapering Shaft, Square, and Roof Flange, Intersecting the Ridge and Hips of a Roof l°5 Tee Joint, Reading Plan and Elevations of 339 Terms of Architecture and Sheet Metal Work 21 Theater Stage Skylight, Definition of IS Theater Stage Skylight, Rolling Top 269 Tilting Window, Definition of 20 Tin Clad Fire Door and Shutter, Definition of 20 Tin Clad Fire Doors, Shutters, etc.. Automatic Closing of 2 5 2 Tin Clad Shutter Segmental Heads, Covering 259 Tin Rolls and Gutter Strips, Table of Number of Sheets Required for 33° Tin Roofing 312-337 Tool Box, Reading Plans, Elevations and Constructive Views of 341 Top Hinged Window, Definition of 20 Top or Finishing Course of Door, Right Hand Starting and Center Sheets for, and Method of Applying.. 258 Tower, Circular, Round Finial for 198 Transition of Molded Base from Square to Octagonal. 217 Transition of Molded Cap from Octagonal to Square.. 218 Transition Piece, Reading Plan and Elevations of 34° Transitions, Molded 2I 3 Transom Bar, Definition of 21 Triangular Dentil Intersecting Cove Molding 222 Triangular Molded Ornament 214 Triangular Panel 6o Triangular Pediment, Definition of 8 Triangular Pyramid 221 Trimmings on Urns, Ornamental 230 True Lengths of Hips, Valleys and Ridges on Gable and Hipped Roof, Computing • ■ 370 True Lengths of Various Curbs, Bars and Ventilators in Hipped Skylights, Finding 286 Tube, Beveled, Reading Plan and Elevations of 338 Tube, Definition of l6 Turret, Octagonal, Round Spire Mitering on Eight Gable Roofs in J 90 Turret Skylight Sashes, Movable 300 Tuscan Order, Definition of 7 Twin Window, Definition of 20 Tympanum, Definition of ° Table of Helps for Figuring Corrugated Sheets 337 Universal Joint, Definition of : 4 Urns, Ornamental Trimmings on 2 3° Urns, Shields and Shafts 2I 3 400 INDEX PAGE Valley, Definition of 10 Valley Bar, Definition of 14 Valley Bar for a Pitched Skylight 293 Vases in Any Number of Pieces, Method of Treating.. 63 V-Criinped Roofing, Definition of 19 Ventilated Marquise, Structural Details of 272 Ventilating Flues, Reading Plans of 353 Ventilating Skylight, Hipped 280 Ventilator, Ridge, in Hipped Skylights 283 Ventilator, Round, Reading Plan, Elevation and Con- structive View of 341 Ventilator Bases 158 Ventilator Hood 173 Ventilators in Hipped Skylights, Finding True Lengths of Their Curbs and Bars 286 Vertical Division Member, Definition of 21 Vertical Gores of Sphere 193 Volute, Definition of 9 Volute, Ionic, Method of Drawing 41 Voussoirs, Definition of 12 Walling-In Flanges, Definition of 20 Water-Tight Connection at Eave, Wall and Ridge of Corrugated Copper Roofing and Siding 330 Water-Tight Connection Between Panes of Glass in Skylight Construction, Cross-Bar for Making. . . . 268 Water-Tight Joints in Metal Roofing and Siding 312 Water-Tight Skylight Construction Involving Raising Sashes 297 Weather Board Siding, Definition of 19 Weep Holes, Definition of 15 PAGE Weights of Roofing Materials, Table of 337 Window, Bay, Raking Bracket in Soffit of 136 Window, Circular Bay, Curved Moldings in 206 Window, Circular Bay, Molded Base in 207 Window, Copper Bay, Construction of 71 Window, Curved Dormer, with Curved Roof and Roof Flange 210 Window, Dormer, Averaging Profile and Determining Pattern in Curved Molding of 204 Window, Double Hung, Regulation Type of 251 Window, Irregular Bay, of Five Sides, Base Requiring Two Changes of Profiles 68 Window, Octagonal Bay; Bevel and Butt Miter for.... 64 Window, Octagonal Bay, Mitering Obliquely Against Wall 66 Window, Rectangular Bay 68 Window, Square Bay, Base of Requiring Raked Pro- files 68 Window Cap, Ornamental, Working Detail of 44 Windows, Combination Pivot Hung and Stationary, Construction of 252 Windows, Dormer and Bay 64-74, 206, 207 Windows, Hollow Metal 249 Windows, Wooden, Fireproofing in Old Buildings .... 260 Wiring Electrical Panel Sign 244 Wiring Electrical Signs 241 Wood Battens, Laying Zinc or Copper Roofing on.... 325 Wooden Windows in Old Buildings, Fireproofing 260 Working Details of a Main Cornice, Preparing 48 Working Detail of Ornamental Window Cap 44 Zinc or Copper Roofing on Wood Battens, Laying.... 325 Zinc Roofing 312-337