-nzTT cy\i -vj^ o^Nj ^nyr ,y\^ ^-i^tK >m4>'^^^4>^ THE BRIT ^ # ^#S^# ^#^ # ^^S^^' S^"#^# ^#0^^ ^#^ ^^'^^"^^ SH EMPIRE cA» «■>? cA3 v!S! tA» 5!?/ cA» ^5 cA. vK" eAi ^35? cAj "iaS II THE ALL RED SERIES THE DOMINION OF CANADA The All Red Series is designed at once to quicken the interest of English- men in the extension and maintenance of the Empire, and to give an account of its constituent countries as they are to-day — their physical features, natural products, commerce, and social and political institutions. They are intended alike for the immediately practical use of emigrants or visitors, and for the study of those who stay at home. Uniform with this volume THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA BY The Hon. Bernhard R. Wise THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND Sir Arthur P. Douglas, Bt. Other volumes in preparation RT. HON. SIR WILFRID LAURIER, P.C, G.C.M.G., D.C.L., LL.D., K.C., PREMIER OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA THE DOMINION OF CANADA , BY ■V A W; L" GRIFFITH SECRETARY TO THE OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR CANADA BOSTON LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 1911 f' {^-H i G.'^ < In \ 'a TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I CHAP. I, EARLY HISTORY, 1497 . . II. CANADA UNDER FRANCE, 1663-1760 III. FRENCH AND ENGLISH, 1756-1763 IV. CANADA UNDER BRITISH RULE, 1760-1791 V. REPRESENTATIVE INSTITUTIONS, 1791-1814 VI. POLITICAL STRIFE, 1815-1840 VII. CONFEDERATION VIII. THE ERA OF CANADIAN RAILWAYS IX. THE Hudson's bay company X. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST XI. THE UNDEVELOPED NORTH . XII. BRITISH DIPLOMACY AND CANADA XIII. THE DESTINY OF CANADA 1 6 13 19 26 31 40 58 62 69 95 106 124 PART II PEOPLE AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS I. THE AMERICAN " INVASION " II. THE HABITANT . 132 . 137 VI • CONTENTS CHAP. pA(;r III. UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS . . . 141 IV. THE CANADIAN INDIANS . , . . 145 V. SOCIAL LIFE TO-DAY OF CANADA , . .152 VI. THE LABOUR ORGANISATIONS OF CANADA . . 162 VII. THE CHIEF CITIES OF CANADA , . . 178 VIII. THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL AND THE HIGH COM- MISSIONER ...... 189 PART III CONSTITUTIONAL PARLIAMENT, I. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY II. THE PARLIAMENT OF CANADA III. DEFENCE IV. BANKING AND CURRENCY IN BRITISH AMERICX .... V. CUSTOMS REVENUE AND TAXATION . VI. EDUCATION VII. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION . VIII. POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS IX. THE " ALL RED " ROUTE X. AREA AND PHYSICAL FEATURES XI. CLIMATE ..... XII. CANADIAN SCENERY XIII. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES ETC. NORTH 198 212 242 . 257 . 269 . 281 . 301 . 349 . 353 . 357 . 361 . 365 . 369 CONTENTS Vll PART IV PRODUCTION, ETC. CHAP. PAGE I. CANADIAN AGRICULTURE .... 377 II. ECONOMIC MINERALS OF CANADA . . . 405 III. Canada's manufactures .... 426 IV. fisheries . 434 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS THE RT. HON. SIR WILFRID LAURIER Frontispiece MAIN STREET, PRINCE RUPERT, BRITISH COLUMBIA THE PRINCE OF WALES, AFTERWARDS KING EDWARD VII, I CANADA ....... CHAMPLAIN MARKET, QUEBEC ..... A " STONY " SQUAW ...... REGATTA NORTH-WEST ARM, HALIFAX CHAMPLAIN MARKET, QUEBEC, ANOTHER VIEW . VICTORIA MONUMENT, OTTAWA .... THE RT. HON. LORD STRATHCONA .... AN OX-CART : AN OCCASIONAL SIGHT IN NOVA SCOTIA PARLIAMENTARY BUILDINGS, OTTAWA LEGISLATIVE BUILDINGS, VICTORIA, BRITISH COLUMBIA HAZELTON, BRITISH COLUMBIA ..... CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL GARDEN PLOTS, GUELPH, ONTARIO VICTORIA BRIDGE, MONTREAL ..... HIGH-ROAD BRIDGE, RICHMOND .... ON THE PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND RAILWAY THE BASILICA, QUEBEC ...... FORDING THE GRAND FORKS RIVER, B.C. CATTLE BRANDING, WESTERN CANADA LOOKING TOWARDS BANFF FROM THE PALLISER RANGE (LAKE MINNEWANKA, WEST END) .... BRAS d'oR LAKES, CAPE BRETON, NOVA SCOTIA . A CANADIAN HAYFIELD ...... PEACH ORCHARD, WESTERN ONTARIO FISH WHARF, ST. ANDREW'S ..... DRYING COD-FISH, ST. JOHN ..... FACING PAGE 54 108 132 146 160 180 182 190 202 212 220 230 288 308 312 316 320 346 350 364 368 380 398 434 436 [From " History of Britain," 1670.] Brutus thus addresses Diana in the country of Leogecia :— " Goddess of Shades, and Huntress, who at will Walk'st on the rowling Sphear and through the deep. On thy third Reign the Earth look now, and tell What land, what seat of rest thou bid'st me seek. What certain seat, where I may worship thee For aye, with Temples vow'd and Virgin quires." [To whom sleeping before the altar Diana, in a Vision that night thus answer'd : — ] " Brutus, far to the West, in th' Ocean wide. Beyond the Realm of Gaul, a land there lies. Sea girt it lies, where Giants dwelt of old, Now void, it fits fhy people ; thither bend Thy course, there shalt thou find a lasting seat, There to thy sons another Troy shall rise, And Kings be born of thee, whose dredded might Shall aw the World, and conquer nations bold." {Fragment from Milton.) Oxford Univ. Edition.. DOMINION OF CANADA PART I CHAPTER I Early History, 1497 From the day when Leif the Norseman sailed west in his Httle ship with the Dragon's head at the prow, the eyes of European adventurers had turned to the West for a solution of the mystery of the East. It remained for John Cabot, a cosmopolitan merchant, to bring to England the first definite news of that land we now call ■Canada. In searching for the origin of the Eastern spices in which he traded, he heard at Mecca of a series of caravans by which they came overland— a string which seemed to stretch out indefinitely towards the east : till the idea occurred to him that if their origin were so far to the eastward it might be quicker to seek them by sea from the west. So, in the Matthew, with eighteen sturdy hands he sailed in May, 1497, from Bristol, first north, and then, when Ireland was behind him, westward for a month. Passing Newfound- land to the starboard hand he first sighted land on St. John's Day, June 24th, 1497. This point (the Prima Vista) is popularly believed to have been the western extremity of Cape Breton, though Labrador and Newfoundland have also claimed the title. After a quick passage home to announce the discovery, and receive his reward— of £10 !— from Henry VII, John Cabot with his son Sebastian sailed in the following year with five ships ; but no record of results exists, and THE DOMINION OF CANADA he disappears unremarked from the pages of history. Other discoverers followed quickly, for in 1500 Juan de la Cosa's map showed flags with the cross of St. George extending from Cape Breton to a point which is probably intended for Cape Hatteras. In 1501 Gaspar Cortereal ranged over Labrador and Newfoundland, and the next landmark in exploration was the landing of Jacques Cartier of St. Malo at Blanc Sablon — the first landing on Canadian soil — in 1534. A year later he was back again, and on August 10th, anchored in a small bay opposite Anticosti, which he named St. Lawrence — a name which was afterwards extended to the whole of the gulf and the river. In the same year the explorer ascended the River, landing at the Indian to\vns of Stadacona (Quebec) and Hochelaga (Montreal). During the winter of 1542-3 the Sieur de Roberval wintered with a small garrison at Cap Rouge, near Quebec ; and then for a time the troubles in France which followed the death of Francis I put an end to active exploration on any large scale. With the return of peace a project for the colonisation of Canada was undertaken by the Marquis de la Roche ; but the expedition never reached its objective. Sixty convicts were landed on Sable Island and were left there without assistance for five years. Only twelve survived. All this time. Englishmen had not been idle. Fisher- men and traders had scoured the seas and eventually had made the port of St. John in Newfoundland. In 1576, Martin Frobisher was daring the ice in the Arctic seas for a realisation of his dream of the North-West Passage to Cathay. In 1579 Sir Francis Drake took possession of the Pacific Coast, and named the country New Albion. John Davis discovered the Davis Straits in 1585, and in the two following years made voyages to Arctic Canada. The fur-trade, too, had become an THE FIRST LANDING important one. Trappers and traders were meeting, and news from inland was borne by the ships back to their home ports. The new epoch — the epoch of colonisation — began with the year 1603 when Samuel Champlain, a native of Brouage, in the Bay of Biscay, sailed under Pontgrave, a rich Breton merchant, with two vessels on a voyage of commerce and settlement. The voyage extended up the St. Lawrence as far as the Lachine Rapids. On the return of the explorers to France, a new company was formed immediately, headed by Sieur de Monts and Pierre du Guast, the Governor of Pons. Its objective was to explore the indefinite region known in the King's com- mission to de Monts as " La Cadie."^ This is the first record of that Acadia which was to become for the next century a battle-ground where French and English were to fight long and bitterly for possession. The new expedition sailed in April, 1604. Two months later they sighted Nova Scotia, sailed up the Bay of Fundy to the harbour which we now know as Annapolis, but which de Monts called Port Royal, " the most commodious and pleasant place we have yet seen in this country." . At the head of the bay the expedition came to a river which falls into Passamaquoddy Bay — the river Sainte Croix — and on an islet in this stream was formed the first French settlement on the North East Coast of America. A very short stay proved the site to be impossible, and the adventurers removed to Annopolis, or Port Royal, where a permanent settlement was founded. In the story of Port Royal, of its abandonment, of its re- settlement, of its missionary enterprise, there is abundant romance. In spite of court intrigue, in spite of adverse influence of all kinds, the little colony struggled on. An expedition was even sent to extend the borders to the 1 Cadie : from the Micmac, Ahade, " a place of abundance." THE DOMINION OF CANADA other side of the Bay, when a stray Enghsh vessel dis- covered and destroyed it. This incident, the first breath of century-long strife — led to the discovery and des- truction of Port Royal by the orders of Sir Thomas Dale, the Governor of Virginia. While the little colony of Port Royal had been fighting for its life the restless spirit of Samuel Champlain drove him to lead another expedition of discovery up the St. Lawrence River where, in 1608, he founded Quebec, ^ the first city of New France. Twenty-eight settlers wintered there, and in the following year a garden of maize, wheat, barley and vegetables of all kinds was planted. In 1609, Champlain joined the Algonquin and Huron Indians in an expedition against the Iroquois, and in doing so alienated the most powerful race in the country ; but with this exception he conducted the affairs with sound judgment and a fine diplomacy. The record of the next twenty years is occupied in accounts of fights with Indians, of explorations among the lakes and inland waterways and of missionary enterprise, and though much quiet progress was made, no outstanding features call for notice. In 1627, Canada and Acadie were granted to " The Company of New France," or " The Hundred Associates," headed by the great Cardinal Richelieu ; and a modified form of feudal tenure was established in New France with the object of inducing men of good birth and means to enter and develop the country. The war between France and England hindered the project, and in the course of the operations Quebec was captured by the Enghsh, only to be returned to France at the end of hostilities, In 1635, Champlain — " the Father of New France," as he has been rightly called — died. Three years later, the Iroquois attacked the Huron Indians, and in the course of the war practically ^ Quebec : from the Indian Kebek, a strait. SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN exterminated them as a nation ; and between 1642 and 1667 there were frequent and serious wars between the French and the Iroquois Indians, who had never forgotten Champlain's expedition. Acadie was taken by the Enghsh and restored ; was transferred to the Enghsh and again, by the treaty of Breda (1667), given back to France. It was a period of great activity both in missionary enterprise and in exploration. Indeed, the two in many cases went hand-in-hand. The year 1663 is a landmark in early Canadian history. The trading companies were obviously unequal to the task of developing the country : the Iroquois Indians were virtually masters of the St. Lawrence valley : and the white population of the country was afraid to leave the protection of the forts. Moreover, they were dependent for supplies almost entirely upon the French ships. The fate of the country hung in the balance. The land groaned for peace. Appeals were made to the King of France and, acting on the advice of the great Colbert, the young Louis XIV assumed control of New France and made it a Royal Province. Soldiers were sent to aid .the distressed settlers ; and, led by the Mar- quis de Tracy, expeditions forced their way into Iroquois country with such good effect that peace was soon made between the French and the Five Nations, and the distressed colony was free to develop its resources and extend its limited borders. The population rose from less than 2,000 in 1663 to over 4,000 in 1665, and for the first time in its history we read of the immigration of young unmarried girls who were destined to be the mothers of the early Canadian people. It seemed as though the little ship of New France was at last safe in haven. 2— (2137) CHAPTER II Canada under France, 1663-1760 With the advent of Royal authority the company of New France collapsed and their successors, the French West Indian Company, formed in 1664, acquired many of their privileges and monopolies. No enterprise undertaken for private gain can ever hope to conduct its operations with the impartiality of a benevolent State ; and after a life of ten years, in which it did infinite harm, the French West Indian Company State-given monopoly ceased. One of the difficulties which faced the rulers of the new country was the difficulty they found in keeping the colonists within the settlements. Ensnared by the speU of the forests the young men would disappear into the unknown, blazing a trail, living a primitive life, and pushing ever further into the Beyond. Penalties were even instituted to check this efflux, but without avail. The coureur du Bois, revelling in his escape from civilisa- tion, happy in his solitude, remained the feature of the period. Among the most noteworthy pioneers of this time must be mentioned the men of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany. In 1670 a company of English Traders, known as " the Honourable Company of Adventurers from England trading into Hudson's Bay," received from Charles II a royal licence to trade in what was known as Prince Rupert's Land. Their first forts were built on the shores of the great Bay, and since they were only accessible to vessels from Europe during the summer months the story of the hardships encountered by the Traders is a record of the most stoical and heroic endur- ance. Naturally the French of the St. Lawrence Valley 6 EARLY STATE OF THE COUNTRY looked with indignation at these outposts of England, and many of the forts were destroyed by Le Moyne d'lberville. But the forts were rebuilt and remained for many years the centres of a thriving trade. Indian trappers came from great distances to barter furs for the excellent provisions and clothing supphed by the Company. In the north-west a company of French adventurers established themselves and explored westwards, it is said, as far as the outlying spurs of the Rocky Mountains ; but the wars between France and England came to end their enterprise, and the Hudson's Bay Company was left for a time supreme.. Later on, towards the end of the eighteenth century, a Canadian company of traders known as the North- West Company, established itself firmly, and the rivalry between the employes of the two companies often led to scenes of riot and bloodshed. In returning to the general story of Canadian history, we come to one of the most famous names in the story of New France — the Comte de Frontenac. Appointed Governor in 1672, he ruled with an iron hand the variety of men under him. So overbearing of all restraint was he that at the end of ten years, his enemies at court triumphed, and he was recalled to France. He was replaced by La Barre, a timid and vacillating governor, whose weak policy towards the Indians sacrificed most of the prestige which Frontenac 's boldness had gained for France. He was quickly replaced by the Marquis of Denonville, an officer of Dragoons, in whose administra- tion a successful expedition was despatched against the Hudson's Bay Company's fortified training posts. At this time practically the whole trade of the Cana- dians was in direct barter. Very httle money was in the country and the people were always poor. In 1685 and onwards a peculiar currency was introduced, called " card-money." Common playing-cards were used, which bore the Crown, the Fleur-de-lis, with the amount THE DOMINION OF CANADA of the value, and the signature of the official who issued them. In course of time the card-money became depreciated and worthless, though for nearly a hundred years no other currency existed. During the winter of 1687 the Governor of Fort Frontenac treacherously seized a number of friendly Indians who had settled in , neutral villages near by. Some he sent to mission-stations, others to the French galleys. This the Iroquois never forgave, and one dark August night of 1689 a large band descended upon the hapless village of Lachine. Two hundred men, women and children were butchered, and over a hundred were carried away as prisoners. Now, Lachine was on the Island of Montreal, under the very nose of the Governor, and it was evident that a stronger hand must take the reins. So Frontenac was recalled from his retirement and resumed with characteristic energy the difficult task of governing Canada. His problem was made doubly difficult by the growth of English power, both to the south of him in New England and to the north in Hudson's Bay. War had been declared between France and England, an'd one of the schemes he first undertook was an attack on New York and Albany by land and sea. This was unsuccessful, but in 1690 he organised three expedi- tions against the English Colonies which were carried out with all the attendant inhumanities which in those days were peculiar to frontier warfare with Indian auxiliaries. These raids naturally led to reprisals by the English, and in the same year Port Royal was taken and other ports in Acadia were sacked. An abortive and disastrous attempt was made by Sir William Phips to take by assault the fortress of Quebec, and the settle- ments round Montreal were constantly harassed by the English and their Indian aUies. In 1693 and the follow- ing years attacks and counter-attacks succeeded one another briskly, resulting on the whole in favour of the 8 THE TREATY OF UTRECHT French ; and so matters stood at the death of the great Frontenac in 1698. In 1701 his successor Calh^res brought about the earnestly desired peace with the Indians, thus opening the trade routes to the west by freeing them from the interference of the Iroquois. The war of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702, was mirrored in a fresh outbreak of border warfare between New England and Canada. After nine years of desultory lighting without tangible results on either side (unless the taking of the oft-captured Port Royal be counted), a powerful fleet was sent out to attempt the conquest of Canada under the command of Sir Hovenden Walker, one of the most incapable leaders in the pages of English history. After losing eight transports and nine hundred men in a storm at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, he decided to give up the project of besieging Quebec and returned to England without striking a blow. What was more important to Canada than all this warlike parade was the extension of French settlements inland into the valleys of the south and the west. A fort had been built opposite the French missionary station of St. Ignace on the Strait of Machillimackinac, and it was now proposed to make the French headquarters at Detroit. This gave the French the key of the great lakes and cried check to the English expansion to the north and west. Frenchmen were pushing far into the valleys of the Illinois and the Wabash. The Mississippi was well explored and settlements founded. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) was a sad blow to French aspirations by giving to the English possession of Acadia, Hudson's Bay and Newfoundland (subject to French fishing rights). A clause was included providing that the French should never molest the Five Nations under the sovereignty of Great Britain. During the years following on the Treaty of Utrecht the sovereignty of England was very lightly considered 9 THE DOMINION OF CANADA by the Home authorities. So hghtly, indeed, that Enghsh colonists coming out to settle in Nova Scotia, as Acadia will in future be called, had good cause for complaint. The only evidence of English possession was the dilapi- dated fort at Annapolis with an insignificant garrison, whilst emissaries went about amongst the French colonists telling of the eventual recovery of the country by the French, and fostering racial hatred among the Indians. English government was formally established in 1719. England, indeed, had her hands full. In 1739 she was fighting Spain, Then followed the war of the Austrian Succession, and neither of them brought either profit or glory to her. The French, on the other hand, were making a great parade of their strength in New France. In 1720 was begun the building of a huge fort at Louisburg on Cape Breton — the lie Royale, as it was called — to guard the eastern approach to the St. Lawrence. For those days it was an enormous undertaking, and even on the modified plan, which had to be adopted for the sake of economy, the work cost the equivalent of ^2,000,000 of modern money. The fortress occupied an area of over a hundred acres, and was finely planned for defensive purposes. Yet in the spring of 1745, an expedition of 4,000 English colonists from New England, under Colonel Pepperell, besieged, and after forty days captured Louisburg, with the assistance of a fleet of thirteen vessels under Captain Tyng. By the articles of capitulation the garrison and residents — about 2,000 persons — were deported to France. Colonel Pepperell received the first colonial baronetcy ever created by England. Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, suggested the following up of this success by attacks on Montreal and Quebec, but the projects were abandoned for want of support at home. Before the war ended, France made two attempts to acquire what she had lost at Cape Breton. In 1746 10 CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG a fine fleet left La Rochelle but, attacked by the twin furies of storm and pestilence, it was checked at Halifax, and returned to France with a loss of two or three thousand men from disease and other casualties. A second expedition sent in the following year was met off Cape Finisterre by a superior English fleet and defeated. In 1748 England, wearying of the struggle, made peace with France and, by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, gave back the hardly-won Island of Cape Breton in exchange for the commercial port of Madras which had been taken by the French in the West Indies. She retained, however, Nova Scotia. At this time the French explorers were pushing west and south with amazing persistence, and fortified places had sprung up far beyond the present limits of Canada. At Detroit, Sault St. Marie and Mackinac the French held possession of the Great Lakes. They claimed exclusive rights from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi, and hearing that enterprising Englishmen were pushing along the valley of the Ohio, Governor Galissonniere despatched an expedition under Captain Celoron to claim the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries. This he did by affixing the French arms to trees, by burying lead plates along his line of route. The English in Virginia were aghast at the French incursion into country which they had regarded as pecuharly theirs, and the building of an English fort was begun at the Fork of the Ohio. This the Frencli captured before it was built and completed ; so that by 1755 the French dominion was complete — so far as any dominion could be reckoned complete which is merely guarded by a line of scattered forts in a more or less hostile country — from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Valley of the Ohio to the Valley of the Ilhnois. In Louisiana they had a few towns which included New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi, and the settle- ment was managed by the Western Company, a huge 11 THE DOMINION OF CANADA speculative enterprise whose failure ruined thousands in France. Whilst French expansion had been going on ener- getically in the south and west, England had begun to wake up to the importance of her possessions in America. To remedy the diplomatic mistake that had been made in giving up Cape Breton, Governor Shirley recommended that immigration into Nova Scotia should, be encouraged so as to counteract the influence of the strong French settlement there. In 1749, therefore — the year in v/hich Louisburg was surrendered, — the city of Halifax was founded on the west side of the harbour known as Chebucto. In 1752 the Halifax Gazette, the first newspaper of Canada, was published. By the year 1755 the condition of affairs between France and England was again nearing one of the crises which periodically led to war, and in Nova Scotia the tension was particularly acute. The position of Nova Scotia, sandwiched between Cape Breton and French Canada, was precarious, and in view of the large and unfriendly majority of French inhabitants, a decisive step was decided on. The French Acadians generally had refused to subscribe to the oath of complete allegiance to Great Britain, and this was made the excuse for Governor Lawrence's action. Men, women and children to the number of about 6,000 were expelled from their homes and turned adrift in French Canada to find their way to food and shelter as best they could. It is quite a debatable point if it was the best method of attaining the end in view. The end, however, was attained and Nova Scotia and New Englanders slept the more peacefully when the expulsion was complete. Next year, the smouldering embers of war burst forth once more, and France began her fight to the death for Canada. 12 CHAPTER III French and English, 1756-1763 The position of the two nations in America has been outhned in the foregoing pages, and before passing on to the account of the great war, which was now at hand, it may be smumarised in a sentence. French Canadians, as we have seen, were pushing down the rivers even as far as the Gulf of Mexico ; England round about Hudson's Bay held her own ; the west and north-west was a no-man's-land where only Indians and fur-traders roamed. It must be remembered that France was a continental nation with ambitious designs in Europe. She gave only spasmodic attention to her colonial possessions in America, and at no time do the French diplomatists seem to have grasped the possibilities of a western empire. England, on the other hand, though her diplomacy blundered again and again in American affairs, was on the whole more alive to the possibilities, and if she neglec- ted Canada. her eye was constantly upon the southern half of North America. Thus it was that when war came, the thirteen English colonies numbered close upon one and a quarter million inhabitants exclusive of negroes, whilst the total number of French in Canada and Louis- iana amounted to no more than 80,000. The condition of the English settlers, too, was on the whole more prosperous than that of the French. Canadian commerce, never a plant of very sturdy growth, had not held up its head since the last war. The combined forces of Canadian regulars and militia, were generally numerically inferior to those of the British and Colonial forces, assisted by a powerful fleet. In two points only had France the advantage. The 13 THE DOMINION OF CANADA natural barriers between the English Colonies and French Canada and the admirably chosen defences erected around Quebec and Montreal, were an enormous asset ; and in the nature of things, the French were acting upon interior lines of communication, so greatly appreciated by the strategist. To these were to be added the personal asset — immeasurably important-r— that for the first part of the war, at all events, the French were led by a military genius in the person of Montcalm in Quebec, whilst the English were handled by incompetents. In 1756, then, there came to Quebec a man to whom France had entrusted the destinies of the Empire — Louis Joseph, Montcalm-Gozon de St. Veran — who became known to the world as Marquis de Montcalm. The English leader was Earl Loudoun of whom a wit of the period observed : " He is like St. George on the Signs : always on horseback, but never rides on." This incapable arranged a campaign against Lake Champlain and against Louisburg which ended in disaster. Montcalm acted promptly. The Forts at Oswego, facing the French Fort Frontenac in Lake Ontario, were attacked and' destroyed ; and a year later Fort William Henry was taken. One of those scenes almost insepar- able from a war where aborigines are employed marked the taking of Fort Wilham Henry, for in spite of Mont- calm's efforts numbers of men, women and children were butchered in cold blood by the Indian auxiliaries. In the same year (1757), a British expedition assembled in Halifax Bay, commanded by as fine a pair of bunglers as ever led brave men to destruction. Admiral Holburne, with fifteen ships of the line and three frigates, and Earl Loudoun, with 12,000 men, wasted valuable time, whilst Louisburg, their object of attack, was able to provide itself with men, food and ammunition. After a lapse of some months the English commanders decided not to risk an attack. Admiral Holburne, it is true, 14 LOUIS JOSEPH, MARQUIS DE MONTCALM sailed near to Louisburg in an endeavour to draw out the French fleet from beneath the guns of the fort. He succeeded only in losing several of his own vessels on rocks and shallows, and then set sail for England to report his failure. Earl Loudoun returned to New York too late to remedy the harm he had done by with- drawing so large a force of men from the frontiers of the northern provinces, and too late to avert the fall of Fort William Henry. So the year 1757 closed with the balance of advantage distinctly on the side of Montcalm. The necessities of the situation were found by William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham. The three principal instruments he chose to repair the harm which had been wrought in the past were General Amherst, Admiral Boscawen and Brigadier General Wolfe. General Aber- cromby he was forced by political pressure to retain in command of a triple scheme of operations by which General Forbes was to attack Fort Duquesne ; General Abercromby was to make for Crown Point and Ticon- deroga ; whilst General Amherst, with an army of 12,000 men, supported by Admiral Boscawen, with the fleet of fifty ships, .was to lay siege to Louisburg, the key of the St. Lawrence. On June 2nd, 1758, the British fleet anchored near Louisburg which, in addition to its garrison of 3,000 regular troops, was also defended by a fleet of fourteen men-of-war carrying over 500 guns and manned by nearly 3,000 men. With such energy were the operations conducted that on July 26th, 1726, the St. George's Cross was hoisted in the citadel. The taking of Louisburg was followed by the occupation of the Island of St. John (now Prince Edward Island), and the destruction of the French settlements round the bays of Gaspe, Miramichi, and Chaleurs, together with those in the valley of the St. John River. The eleven stands of colours won at 15 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Louisburg were sent to England and placed in St. Paul's Cathedral amid great rejoicings. Whilst this victory was being achieved the hapless Abercromby had invited disaster on the shores of Lake Champlain. With a force of over 14,000 men he had attacked recklessly a strongly entrenched position out- side the unfinished fort of Carillon defended by Montcalm and 3,000 men. But unprovided with artillery, the attack was foredoomed to failure, and Abercromby retired with heavy loss in the course of the fight. Lord Howe, " the best soldier in the British Army," as Wolfe described him, fell. Soon afterwards General Abercromby was superseded by General Amherst. Fort Duquesne, the key of the Ohio valley, was aban- doned by the French before the advance of Brigadier Forbes ; more important and even more disastrous to the French was the capture of Fort Frontenac which laid open the way to Montreal from Lake Ontario. When the spring of 1759 came to lift the curtain on the next act of the great drama the French were in a parlous state. The drain of the continuous wars had taken from the country most of the agricultural population, it was brought to the verge of ruin and, most significant of all, the men were losing heart. The main positions of defence remaining to them were Fort Niagara and the surrounding forts garrisoned by about 3,000 men ; a fort on the Ile-aux-Noix and some minor positions on Lake Champlain defended by 2,000 men ; and Quebec, the citadel, with Montcalm and 14,000 men entrenched for six miles along the northern bank of the St. Lawrence. The fortifications of Quebec had been improved, but supplies for the troops were deficient, and the Governor Vaudreuil was jealous of Montcalm. The English plan was that Amherst should advance against Montreal by way of Lake Champlain ; Brigadier Prideaux and Sir William Johnson were to advance 16 SIEGE OF QUEBEC against Niagara, and that General Wolfe supported by the fleet should attack Quebec, the last, of course, being the main objective. The EngHsh fleet arrived at Quebec on June 26th, and for eleven long weeks the siege was pressed without any- notable advantage on either side. Meanwhile Fort Niagara had fallen, and the forts on Lake Champlain had been abandoned by the French. Amherst, however, suffering from excess of caution, was wasting priceless time on Lake Champlain, and so driven, Wolfe decided to go on with a bold plan which he had formed. He managed to assemble without rousing suspicion a force of 4,000 men above the citadel of Quebec. On the night of September 12th he landed the force in small boats at a cove called Anse au Foulon (now Wolfe's Cove). From here, a narrow and a zig-zag path led up steep cliffs to the Plains of Abraham. So inaccessible were the cliffs regarded by the French that security bred carelessness, and the English were able to climb the almost perpendicular banks practically unopposed. The sentinels who challenged were lulled by replies in the French tongue, and at six o'clock in the morning the astonished .French discovered four thousand British soldiers on the heights arrayed in line of battle against them. Four hours later Montcalm with a slightly superior force was advancing to meet them. The story of the fateful battle is well known : the British fire reserved till the enemy were within forty yards : the flight of the French ; the mortal injury and death of Montcalm, and the death of General Wolfe in the moment of victory. In Quebec of to-day there stands a monument to the joint memory of these heroes. General Murray, afterwards the first Governor-General of Canada, was given command of the fortress, and spent the winter of 1759-60 there. Firewood was scarce, many of the buildings were in ruins, and the inhabitants 17 THE DOMINION OF CANADA suffered considerably from cold and disease. French hopes of recapturing Quebec were dashed to the ground by the arrival of a British fleet in the spring of 1760, and General de Levis, the Commander of the French, retreated on Montreal. Then the general British advance began. The forts on Lake Champlain were taken, and all the British forces converged upon Montreal, and there was no alternative for Vaudreuil, the commander, but to capitulate. vSo at last, mth the surrender of Montreal, Canada passed under British control, and for a time her people had peace to work out her own salvation. 18 CHAPTER IV Canada under British Rule, 1760-1791 Though Montreal surrendered in 1760, there was a delay of nearly three years before the Treaty between France and England was ratified. By the generous terms of the Treaty of Paris full free- dom was granted to the Roman Catholics to follow their religion, and the only restriction placed upon the priests was that they should abstain from meddling with civil affairs and devote themselves purely to their religious duties. Certain specified fraternities and all communities of religieuses were guaranteed possession of their goods and privileges ; but the Jesuits, the Franciscans and the Sulpicians were not so favoured. Canada, with all its dependencies. Cape Breton and the Laurentian Isles, was ceded to Great Britain, and the French claim to Acadia was renounced. All the country east of the Mississippi was ceded, except New Orleans, France retained the barren islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, and fishing rights on the coast of Newfound- land which, until the recent settlement by Arbitration, have proved so prolific a source of annoyance to the Newfoundlanders. Generally the terms of the treaty were loyally observed ; and if here and there a priest or a seignior hoped for the time when France should come to her own again, it was but human nature ; and since the bulk of the community was content but little harm resulted. Less than 300 persons — and these mostly officials, clergy and officers — left Canada. It is difficult to-day to realise that in 1760 there was more than a little doubt whether or no Canada was worth 19 THE DOMINION OF CANADA taking over ; and with the British Government it was for some time a question whether to take the httle island of Guadeloupe, which exported to England sugar and cotton to the exent of half a million sterling, or what was then deemed to be the barren waste of Canada, which then produced nothing but a few thousand pounds' worth of furs. There was also another view, the most notable exponent of which was Burke. The American colonies, while quite loyal, were not too fond of England ; and their adherence to the Motherland was largely due to the fact that their neighbours in Canada were of the then hated French nation. This, then, was the argument : " If we accept Canada, and so free the American colonies from anxiety, we loosen the ties which bind America to us." It was probably a perfectly sound view, and it is interest- ing to speculate on the probable course of North American history had it prevailed. However, in 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed and Canada became British territory. It is worth while to survey the boundaries of the Canada of l'/63 which Great Britain took over. To Nova Scotia, which had for half a century been British, was added Cape Breton and, temporarily, Prince Edward Island. For the rest, Canada proper was what we under- stand as Canada of to-day as far as Lake Superior ; the country to the westward being unexplored, and so inaccessible in those days as to be unconsidered. To this was added the country to the south between the Ohio and the Mississippi ; and here was fruitful ground for contention in later years. In due course the Province of Quebec was delimited with borders roughly corresponding to the outlines of Quebec and Ontario in modern times. The region to the south and west beyond lakes Huron and Eric was a wilderness inhabited largely by Indian tribes, garrisoned 20 THE RISING IN THE WEST by small parties of British soldiers, and administered by the British Commander-in-Chief at New York. The area it covered is roughly represented to-day by the states of Wisconsin, Ohio and Michigan. The civilisation of 1760 hugged the river as it does in Egypt to-day. Beginning about eighty miles below Quebec the settled population of about 70,000 people was strung out along the river bank for 170 miles as far as Montreal. West of Montreal were virgin forests, and unchartered rivers. A few scattered forts made pretence of keeping open the line of communication. Here and there pioneers and trappers lived out their solitary lives. But it was on the St. Lawrence that the hfe of Canada was lived. For some years Canada was under " the rule of the soldiers," as it was called. The province was divided into the three districts of Montreal, Quebec and Three Rivers, each administered by a military chief. General Gage, General Murray, and Colonel Page being the respective rulers. By their impartiality and their consideration for local prejudices the military won the confidence of the people in a surprising degree. Whilst affairs in the East looked smiling and prosperous, the Indians in the West, stirred up by French emissaries, suddenly rose, and in 1763 seized a number of forts built by the French on the lakes," the Ohio valley and in Illinois. Many tribes took part in the rising, though of the impor- tant Six Nations only one joined the rebels. But the figure which stands out foremost is that of the Chief Pontiac : and the war is generally known as Pontiac's war. The scattered fighting raged for three years until Virginia and Pennsylvania, whose borders had been ravaged, sent a strong force under General Bouquet, carried the war into the enemies' country, and caught the Indians between two fires. 21 3— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA In the autumn of 1763, George III issued a proclama- tion establishing in North America four new governments, Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and Grenada with Governors who had the power to summon general assemblies. General Murray was the Governor of Canada, but since the French population refused to take the prescribed oaths, no general assembly was ever called, and the country appears to have been managed successfully by an executive coimcil appointed by Murray. The difficulties of the situation lay, curiously enough, not in the 80,000 French subjects who worked contentedly enough under the new regime, but in two hundred British traders who clamoured incessantly for the most preposterous privileges. If their demands had been carried out they would have been masters of the rest of their fellow -subjects. For years a war of petitions and counter-petitions was waged, and in the end the English malcontents brought about, not the fall of Murray, but his recall to explain matters to the British Government — and General Carleton was appointed to fill his place. In 1768 Charlottetown, on Prince Edward Island, was founded, and a year later the Island was separated from Nova Scotia and made into a separate province with Walter Patterson as its first Governor. The next event of importance was the passing of the Quebec Act of 1774. The Ordinance annexed large territories of the Province of Quebec, and provided for the appointment by the CrowTi of a legislative council. It confirmed to the French residents the free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion, and the protection of their own civil laws and customs. Labrador, Anticosti, and the Magdalen Islands were made part of Quebec. The Province of Quebec, therefore, extended to the borders of New England, Pennsylvania, New York, 22 THE QUEBEC ACT, 1774 Ohio, and the left bank of the Mississippi, thus causing great annoyance in the Enghsh colonies, because it limited the expansion to which they felt by right of exploration they were entitled. That the act was popular amongst the British nation- ality in Canada cannot be said. There was a storm of protest from the little British colony, and even the Earl of Chatham in the House of Lords spoke of it as "a. most cruel and odious measure." In the years when Canada came under the operation of the Quebec Act the thirteen colonies of the south were in a state of great • unrest, and in the following year the American Revolution broke out. Good King George, safe at home, sent a message of cheer to Carleton, authorising him to raise an army of 6,000 men, and expressing his Majesty's confidence in the loyalty of his subjects. But the habitant had had his fill of war, and consistently refused to muster ; the British subject when he was not openly in league with the enemy was often enough in secret correspondence with him. In the end Carleton found himself at the head of 800 regulars and a handful of loyal French Seigniors and British loyalists. Montgomery, sweeping up from the south, had taken Montreal without a fight, and General Arnold, with a picked force of 1,100 men, was struggling through the trackless country to attack Quebec. Of these, nearly 400 men, after enduring the greatest hardships, turned back, the rest, braving the Canadian winter, struggled on, but only to find that Carleton was before them in Quebec and too strong to be assaulted. Quebec, the only unconquered stronghold in the whole country, entered again on siege conditions. Carleton was the life and soul of the defence, and on the last day of 1775, when General Montgomery and Arnold made a combined night attack, the defenders beat it off with ease. General Montgomery was killed, Arnold was 23 THE DOMINION OF CANADA wounded, and the army of invasion so demoralised that when in the spring reinforcements arrived from England it fled precipitately before the resistless Carleton. The country was rapidly cleared of invaders, and on October 11th of the same year Carleton fought and defeated Arnold in a naval engagement at Lake Champlain. Soon after this, the command of the troops was given to Burgoyne, a greatly inferior leader, but Carleton remained Governor-General until 1778, when he retired at his own request, and was succeeded by Admiral Haldimand. The war went badly for England in those days. Bur- goyne was defeated at Saratoga ; French men, money, and ships, assisted the Revolutionaries ; and the defeat sustained by Cornwallis at Yorktown, in 1781, was for all practical purposes the end of the war. In 1783 the thirteen states were recognised as independent, and the boundary line between them and Canada was delimited. With the exception of some absurd geographical blunders, which were with infinite trouble rectified later, the line between the United States and Canada was as it now is. Almost urfnoticed in the fog of war was the voyage of exploration by Captain Cook in 1778, and he arrived at Nootka Sound and claimed the North-West coast (British Columbia) as the property of the British Crown. Soon after the peace of 1783 a fresh element of great value was introduced into Canada in the coming of many thousands of people from the United States. They were known as the United Empire Loyalists — men who had sided with England and as a consequence had suffered great hardships and no little loss of property by confisca- tion during the war. Probably fifty thousand people emigrated to Canada in this fashion. Generous grants of land were given to many of them. Some settled in Nova Scotia, others in the St. John valley and founded 24 UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS the province of New Brunswick ; whilst others, going farther afield, helped to make Upper Canada. They became a valuable asset to the country, and their political influence, guided as it was by deep distrust of the United States, has been a factor of importance. 25 CHAPTER V Representative Institutions, 1791-1814 The time had now come for Canada to emerge from her pupilage and receive from the British Crown the con- cession of representative institutions for which she was prepared. By the Constitutional Act of 1791 Canada was divided into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. Lower Canada, the province of Quebec, had a population at this time of something like 140,000, of whom the vast majority were of French origin. Upper Canada, with a population of perhaps 25,000, was preponderatingly British and mostly of Empire Loyalist stock. British criminal law was to run in both Canadas, but French Civil Procedure was conceded to Lower Canada. Lord Dorchester, who as General Carleton had been notably successful in governing Canada, was installed as first Governor-General. In 1792 the first Assembly of Lower Canada met in the Bishops' Palace at Quebec, and of Upper Canada in the Navy Hall, Newark. Lower Canada was divided into twenty-one electoral districts, and Upper Canada into twenty-one provinces. Of the two houses that of Upper Canada was perhaps the more romantically interesting. The peoples' representatives were scattered over a huge area of uncultivated country, and had laboriously to find their way to Parliament by the river, lake and forest track. Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe, of Upper Canada, proved an able administrator, and devoted his energies to de- veloping the resources of the province to the utmost. Largely owing to his influence a goodly number of immigrants from the United States were attracted, who 26 FIRST GOVERNOR-GENERAL were, on the whole, good settlers, though they included in their ranks a certain number of " undesirables " who later were to become a source of trouble. Other immigrants of an undeniably useful stock were a number of Scottish Highlanders, who founded and settled the county of Glengarry. It was during this regime that the capital of the province was altered from Newark to Toronto (then called York) on account of the proximity of the former place to the American border. As time went on these representative institutions developed parties and much heat of party spirit. That of Lower Canada was the most restless and intolerant, because in Quebec the racial line was very sharply marked, and the French majority chafed constantly at their impotence in face of the official minority. They demanded the right of imposing their own taxes and customs duties ; they resented — with reason — the official attitude towards the French ; and the frequent interference of the Imperial Government in local concerns was a constant source of irritation. The Assembly of Upper Canada was in the nature of things more homogeneous and less antagonistic to the official class. In the course of a few years the effect of the United States immigration made itself felt in the presence of a somewhat antagonistic element, whilst in the maritime provinces there was some sparrmg between Governor and Assembly. There were in the situation the elements of considerable pohtical trouble, when danger on the border claimed the attention of the whole of Canada, and by setting up a keen anxiety provided that tonic influence of a national danger which the country needed to save it from internal dissension. In 1812 Great Britain was engaged in her great fight with Napoleon. British warships, supreme upon the 27 THE DOMINION OF CANADA seas, were ranging to and fro engaged in commerce destruction. In this business many neutral American vessels were condemned because their cargoes were not made up of home-grown produce, but had been brought from an enemy's colony. Furthermore, Britain claimed — and exercised — the right to stop American vessels in high seas and impress for the Navy any British subject found on board, even though he might have been naturahsed in the United States. Later came the order that forbade American trade with any country hostile to Great Britain. All this caused great loss and intense irritation in the United States, an irritation fanned to flame by the Democratic party. In the south and west the Democrats had the people with them ; in New England the peace party was in the majority. War was declared by the United States in June, 1812, and though the objectionable shipping orders had by this time been repealed by England, still the momentum gained by the war party carried the United States army over the border on July 12th into British territory. Ontario, then Upper Canada, with its small population of approximately 80,000, had to bear the full brunt of the war. Its defensive resources were small, but the rally of its men was magnificent. The material was of the finest ; frontiersmen and pioneers all, with a stiffening of veterans, who responded eagerly to the call to arms. Many had seen service, all were eager to repel an attack upon their homes. The legislature seconded the efforts of the settlers by voting supplies, and army bills were issued to a large amount. For the first year of the war Canada was almost uniformly successful. Several small engagements were followed by the surrender of Detroit, where the Canadians took 2,500 prisoners, 33 cannon, and 2,500 stands of arms, which together with large quantities of stores, were 28 AMERICAN WARS a very valuable addition to the Canadian war-chest. In October the American troops crossed the Niagara river to attack Queenstown ; but after a furious engage- ment they were beaten off with a loss of nearly 200 killed and wounded and 900 prisoners. In 1813 the Americans took York (now Toronto) and for a time occupied the Canadian shore of the lake. In 1814 the British army was reinforced with Peninsular veterans, who were a most valuable support for the Canadian volunteers. Other attacks of Americans were repulsed, though the Canadians were driven from Fort Erie. Then, in June, occurred the famous battle of Lundy's Lane, when 2,800 British repulsed 5,000 Ameri- cans. In the following month a British force under Major-General Ross defeated a far superior force, with the result that Washington was captured and burned in retaliation for the burning of York and other towns. Roused by the wanton destruction at Washington the American army advanced in overwhelming force, before which the British retreated. An attempt upon Baltimore failed, and the British were defeated at New Orleans with great loss. At sea there was nothing worthy of record. In the early part of the war, the American Navy won several small successes ; but the lesson was taken to heart, and the British Government sent out a more powerful force, till in 1813 and 1814 Enghsh squadrons invaded the American coast, the smaller vessels ascending the rivers and doing great damage. During the last year of the war practically the whole coast was blockaded, with the exception of the New England ports which were open to neutral vessels. When peace was declared by the Treaty of Ghent, on December 24th, 1814, both sides were heartily tired of war, though indeed it is doubtful if the sober heads on either side had ever desired it. Born of intolerance, 29 THE DOMINION OF CANADA nursed by southern and western politicians, war and its results were quickly forgotten. No definite result was arrived at in the Treaty except that the British claim to the right of search was practically abandoned, and certain privileges in the British North American coast granted to American fishermen by the Treaty of 1783 were withdrawn. The one useful result of the war was to draw together in a common bond of sympathy all parties in Canada. British and French Canadians shared in the honours and disasters ; racial differences were forgotten, and it was only with the conclusion of peace that politics once more regained their ascendency and racial antagonism reappeared. 30 CHAPTER VI Political Strife, 1815-1840 For twenty-five years after the peace of 1815 Canada was plunged in a maelstrom of political strife. The constant fight for supremacy between the legislative and executive authorities culminated towards the end of this period in a series of outbreaks, none of them seriously threatening the suzerainty of Britain, but all indicating the canker which was eating into the heart of the country. " / find," said Lord Durham in his historic report, " two nations warring in the bosom of a single state ; I find a struggle not of principles, but of races." This was particularly true of Lower Canada, where the French Canadian majority was supreme in the lower house, whilst the English-speaking minority had the ear of the government. In looking back on that period one may see that there was something to be said for and against both parties. It is perfectly true that the French Canadian majority was unfairly treated, was undoubtedly denied the rights which a majority should claim, and the arrogance of the British rulers was profoundly irritating to a free people. On the other hand, the French Canadian was not altogether blameless, and in several notable instances they appear to have niisused the power which their numbers gave them. Mr. Papineau, elected to be Speaker of the Assembly, was refused by the Governor-General because of his adverse criticism of the former's public work, and when the Assembly refused to elect another Speaker, Parliament was prorogued and did not meet again until the Governor- General was recalled. Lord Dalhousie, it must be said, like other Governor-Generals, was constantly thwarted and confused by varying and contradictory instructions 31 THE DOMINION OF CANADA from home, and he must have welcomed his appointment to India as a rehef from the constant strife and anxiety of Canada. This constant friction between legislative and executive culminated at last in absolute deadlock. Checked in its fight for complete independence and control of supply the Assembly refused to vote even, necessary expenditures, with the result that all sorts of shifts were resorted to by the government to raise money for its routine business. The. legislatures were dissolved, were re-elected, and were dissolved again with astounding frequency ; there was a constant war of appeals and counter-appeals to the home government, the public officials were obliged to side with one party or another, and even then were continually harassed by impeachments of their work. The situation was grievous enough, but was accentuated by the fact that the home government failed to grasp the gravity of the situation. In 1834 ninety-two resolutions were drawn up by the Papineau party setting forth their grievances, and in 1835 a commission was appointed to inquire into the nature of these grievances and their remedy. The Governor-General, Lord Gasford, was at the head of this commission, but Papineau and his party remained unappeased. In 1837 the deadlock of supply continued, and there were arrears of £150,000 sterling. It was with this deficit in his mind that Lord John Russell, in the House of Commons, carried his resolutions refusing the Canadian demand for an elective legislative council, and the other constitutional changes desired by the French Canadians. The resolutions empowered the executive government to pay the cost of public services out of such casual revenues as they might be able to lay their hands upon. It need hardly be said that the passing of these high-handed resolutions created a storm of anger in Lower Canada. Before passing to the disturbances which arose in 32 DISCORD IN THE ASSEMBLY Lower Canada it will be well to glance at the other parts of the country. In the maritime provinces there were the same disputes between the executive and legislative authorities, but in the end the pubhc needs prevailed, and the revenues were voted. In Upper Canada the class to which we have already referred, the " Family Compact," as it was called, still held control of the province. The professional and military classes formed, as it were, an offensive and defensive political alliance against the incursions of democracy. Governor after Governor, coming out with an open mind to the province, fell under the sway of the " Family Compact," and pubhc lands were freely bestowed upon the members. Towards 1820 the rays of discontent were focussed upon a cause sufficiently trivial in itself. Robert Gourlay, a land-agent, turned political champion, ex- posed some of the inequalities of the land monopoly. Declared by the government a dangerous person he was tried on two occasions for libelling them, but each time was acquitted. Failing in these attempts his enemies conspired to accuse him of sedition ; he was imprisoned for seven months, and when at last he was tried and sentenced to banishment the poor feUow was completely broken down by the hardships of prison life. The Clergy Reserves dispute between the Episco- pahans and the Dissenters was centred round large tracts of land which had been granted to the English Church by the Act of 1791, and the Dissenters banded themselves together to excite their followers by refusing the revenues demanded by the Church. It must be remembered that it was not until 1829 that Methodist ministers were officially recognised. Those of the Church of England only were allowed to solemnize marriage. Where all were in earnest and many were bigoted it is difficult to pick out the leaders of the movement, but among the " Family Compact " can 33 THE DOMINION OF CANADA be numbered John Strachan, first bishop of Upper Canada, Beverly Robinson, first Attorney-General and later Chief Justice, Jonas Jones, and many another whose name has long since been forgotten. On the other side was William Lyon Mackenzie, the journalist, who was expelled five times from the Assembly for libellous state- ments and re-elected five times by the people who resented his treatment ; Robert Baldwin and Egerton Ryerson were reformers of a more prudent type. Papineau has already been mentioned as a strenuous reformer. Dr. Wolfred Nelson, a descendant of Loyalists, left his class to fight on the side of the reformers, and, on the other hand, John Neilson, who had a strong sympathy with the French Canadians, was sufficiently cool-headed to see that the reign of the " Family Compact " was better than disruption. The, crisis came with the appointment of Sir Francis Bond Head, who, refusing all advice from the moderate party, sided openly with the reformers, and threw all the weight of His office on their side in the elections of 1836, with the result that all the leading men of the extreme reformers were rejected. The man of the hour in Lower Canada was Papineau. Hij-^ ; Public meetings and declamatory speeches in the Montreal and Richelieu districts were followed by strikes, and one finds in some of the speeches used at that day phrases reminiscent of the French Revolution. " Sons of Liberty " and " patriots " were the titles adopted. At meetings the reformers were " brothers," and they received " caps of liberty." But perhaps luckily for Lower Canada and for the whole Dominion the extreme reformers, though active, were few in numbers. The bishops of the Roman Catholic Church were against them, and the great body of French Canadians refused to do more than grumble. Sir John Colborne was taken from Upper Canada to command the British troops, and by prompt action he 34 IN LOWER AND UPPER CANADA nipped rebellion in the bud. A small body of rebels under Dr. Wolf red Nelson was defeated at St. Denis, and under Thomas Storrow Brown another small body at St. Charles met the same fate. Sporadic outbreaks occurred here and there, but before they gained any hold were stamped out — in many cases it is to be feared with considerable brutality. An occasion of this kind was too good to be missed by our neighbours on the Ameri- can border, and a good deal of purposeless fighting occurred along the frontier until the United States Government took the matter firmly in hand and arrested some of the leaders. Upper Canada, denuded of troops, was thus at the mercy of the rebels, but luckily they were more earnest than clever, and they were arrested. Such leaders as escaped left for the United States, and, secure in the protection of American unfriendliness to Canada, continued their agitation on the other side of the border. As a result an island just above Niagara Falls was seized as the basis of operations. A steamer, the Caroline, was plying between the island and the mainland with supplies, and a Canadian expedition was sent to seize her. She was found to be on the American shore, but the Canadians nevertheless seized, set fire to her, and sent her adrift over the Falls. This was only one typical instance of the petty annoy- ances which distracted the frontier for the next few years, and if so discouraging a thing as rebellion can be said to have a good result, it may be claimed that these outbreaks had this merit, that they broke up the " Family Compact" and brought about reforms which otherwise certainly would have been delayed for many years. A further good result was the awakening of the Imperial Govern- ment and the despatch of Lord Durham as Governor- General and High Commissioner of Canada to inquire into the condition of the country, and to report on the state of affairs. 35 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Very few people in 1837 realised that the type of autocratic statesmanship which had been used for governing British possessions was passing away, to give place to the diplomacy which encourages nations to govern themselves. Lord Durham, whose life had been spent in the fight for representive government in England, saw at once that the Canadian constitution was incapable of holding together a population held apart by long distances, divided by political strife, and harassed by the arrogance of an autocratic minority. Lord Durham's report on the state of Canada is without doubt one of the most important State Papers in existence, and it is not too much to say that its appearance advanced, as its subsequent effect has maintained, Canadian progress more than anything that had gone before in the history of the Dominion. The keynote of the report is to be found in the following passage : "I expected to find a contest between a government and a people. I found two nations warring in the bosom of a single state : I found the striaggle, not of principles, but of races, and I perceived that it would be idle to attempt any ameliora- tion of the laws or institutions until we could first succeed in terminating the deadly animosity that now separates the inhabitants of Lower Canada into the hostile divisions of French and English." Here was the true Imperial note. Another passage, quite as pregnant with wisdom, referred to the control exercised by ignorant Downing Street and the permanent officials there. At this system Lord Durham's report strikes hard, for it was not so much the figure-head of the administration who was to blame, though he was too often ignorant to the last degree of his responsibihties to the colonies, but the permanent officials, men of family, men of influence, but rarely men of keen and practical intelligence, who out of the depths of their ignorance dealt with the destines of a continent. 36 LORD DURHAM'S GOVERNMENT It is true that Lord Durham's government lasted only for little over five months, between the end of May and the beginning of November, 1838, and in that five months his ordinances sentencing certain British subjects to transportation without trial was extremely repugnant to the British sense of justice. On the other hand, his report was in the highest degree statesmanlike, and did much to clear away the cloud of misunderstanding which hung over the country. The offensive ordinance pronounced sentence of transportation on Wolfred Nelson, Bouchette, Viger and five others in prison, and Papineau, Cartier, and other refugees over the border were threatened with death if they ever re-entered the country. After the departure of Lord Durham, Sir John Colborne became Governor-General. Upon his advice the govern- ment decided to stiffen their policy with regard to rebels, and twelve were executed whilst others were driven across the border. As an immediate result of Lord Durham's report the Imperial Act of Union was passed, re-uniting the provinces into one with a legislature of two houses. The two provinces were given equal representation in one legisla- ture, a larger measure of self-government was granted, and an effort was made to bring together the two races so far as possible. A part of the Act which caused considerable heart- burning in the French portions of the community was the placing of the EngHsh language in a position of superiority in Parliamentary and official proceedings. With the Act of Union the drum and trumpet history of Canada ceases, and after 1840 the student of affairs must occupy himself with a more humdrum record ; humdrum only in the sense that the actual clash of arms does not sound, but vitally interesting in that it is a record of steady growth and progress, checked 37 4— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA it is true from time to time, but continuous, resistless, inevitable. With the stamping out of the rebellion there was, not only in Canada, but in the rest of the English-speaking world, a marked revival of confidence in the destiny of the Dominion. The population took firmer hold of their affairs, an ever-increasing flow of immigration began to come into the country, and the growth of cities and villages at this time became phenomenal. Lord Durham's report had not been without its effect ; for Her Majesty's commands to Mr. Poulett Thomson, on his appointment as Governor-General, were that he was to govern the young province " in accordance with the well-understood wishes of the people," adding a word of advice about the choice of his assistants, i.e., to choose " only those persons who have obtained the general confidence and esteem of the inhabitants of the province." Good as were the intentions of the home government it cannot be. said that the first few years were without their trials for both sides ; Mr, Poulett Thomson, who died in 1841 as Lord Sydenham, was succeeded by Lord Metcalfe who, with true autocratic spirit, tried to insist upon his right to appoint public servants without reference to his council. Sir Colin Campbell in Nova Scotia proved a better soldier than diplomatist, and he was recalled, to be succeeded by Lord Falkland, who, as an administrator was even less of a success. He in turn was replaced by Sir John Harvey, who was one of the most strenuous fighters for Parliamentary government. In 1847, Lord Elgin was appointed Governor-General with definite instructions to act upon the advice of his executive council, and so good was the spirit with which he carried out these views that within four years not only Canada as then defined, but Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island were fully self-governing. At the time of the passing of the Act the French 38 THE SEIGNIORAL LAND QUESTION Canadians of Lower Canada had feared that the Act of Union would be to their detriment. Their fears proved groundless, and the unpardonable mistake of attempting to substitute the English language for French in official and other proceedings was remedied by an alteration in the Act. The Seignioral land question, which at one time threatened to be a bar to progress, was settled by buying out the Seigniors, so relieving the population of the rather vexatious duties which some of the older Seigniors insisted upon as a right. The fierce controversy over the Clergy Reserves question came to an end when the land was sold for public purposes. Municipal institutions also showed a very large growth at this period, and local affairs, now that the country was quiet, absorbed a great deal of attention which previously had been devoted to party politics, A beginning was made with the magnificent educational system which now obtains throughout Canada, and the foundation was laid of a permanent public service on the hues of the EngUsh Civil Service. 39 CHAPTER VII Confederation In spite of apparent progress, there was an underlying feeling of dissatisfaction with the state of affairs, and the union of Upper and Lower Canada could at the best be regarded as no more than a temporary expedient. It was but a joint, and a weak one at that : there was no actual fusion between the two sections of the people. Upper Canada had grown out of all knowledge : the population, unlike that of Lower Canada, was increasing by leaps and bounds, and the politicians of the day were not slow in raising the cry " Rep. by pop,," and " Repre- sentation according to numbers " became a popular cry in Upper Canada, and, as might be expected, was fiercely resisted by the French Canadians, who saw in it an attempt to cut away their security, which had been guaranteed by the Act. This attitude caused in turn the greatest irritation in Upper Canada, and since by the Act of 1841 Upper and Lower Canada sent an equal number of members to the House, the Assembly was equally divided, and it became almost impossible to carry on the public business. There were other causes of controversy. The grievances of the British commercial population were considerable, and arose largely from the Imperial Free Trade Act of 1846, whereby the advantages which had accrued from Lord Stanley's Act of 1843 were lost. By the earlier statute Canadian wheat and flour were admitted into British ports at a nominal duty. This made it profitable for Canadians to import from the United States grain which was then ground into flour in Canada and shipped to the English market. For this trade large mills and storehouses had been built in Canada, and a very considerable trade had grown up. It was an advantage 40 IMPERIAL FREE TRADE ACT also to the provinces, since western produce gravitated to the St. Lawrence, with a corresponding increase in canal dues. At one stroke all these artificial advantages were cut away : many commercial men were ruined ; the capital sunk in the mills was threatened, and the merchandise resumed its natural channel. That portion of the United States trade hitherto diver- ted to Canada, the Canadian merchant realised could not be retained by the Canadian merchant without some artificial aid. It was generally said by these that the Mother country had treated them shabbily. A severe depression ensued.- Property in the towns fell 50 % in value, and most of the business men were insolvent. A strong feeling grew up in the towns in favour of annex- ation to the United States. There was only one feasible way of averting this, which was, as Lord Elgin saw, " to put the colonists in as good a position commercially as the citizens of the United States, in order to do which free navigation and reciprocal trade with the States were indispensable." This critical condition of affairs lasted for some six years, until in 1854 the Reciprocity Treaty, negotiated by Lord Elgin was concluded at Washington, by which the protective duties which had hitherto impeded com- merce with the States were lowered, and trade flowed in and out free and unfettered. This Treaty was to last for twelve years — years of memorable prosperity for Canada — and could be renewed at the wish of both parties. It is almost impossible to express the extent to which the Reciprocity Treaty contributed to the commercial advancement of the Dominion ; the more so because the United States became during its continuance Canada's chief market. So great a rush of prosperity followed that it turned the heads of the people, with the usual deplorable results. 41 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Fierce controversies swept the country from time to time. The Clergy Reserves was a burning question, and the Rebellion Losses Bill, which was to indemnify sufferers from the rebellion, aroused the bitterest passions, which culminated in an assault by the mob on the Governor- General, Lord Elgin, as he was leaving Parhament House. For weeks the country seethed with dissatisfaction, and local demonstrations were organised in many parts of the provinces. In 1849 legislation was put in hand, guaranteeing interest on loans raised by any railway company chartered by legislature for the construction of a line not less than seventy-five miles in length. So, as the years swept on and the buoyant hopes raised by the union of 1841 were still unfulfilled, a feehng of gloom, even of despair, settled down on the much troubled provinces. The credit of the country was at its lowest ebb; so low indeed, that Canadian 5%'s were selling in London at 75. The government, too, was involved in the breakdown, for the time being, of the Grand Trunk Railway, which was in a desperate condition, and apparently on the verge of absolute failure. Another point of importance to be remembered was the state of almost complete isolation in which were the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, both as regards England and as regards one another. In 1858, it is true, the Atlantic cable had been laid between Europe and America, but communication was interrupted almost immediately, and it was some years before the countries were linked up. Thus the only means of communication with England was by letter, and this meant a delay of several weeks, or it might be months, in any important negotiations which might be in progress. Communications with the maritime provinces were equally difficult, and in winter were practically at a standstill. British Columbia was sufficient unto itself, 42 COMMUNICATION IN 1858 and the way to it lay across the Isthmus of Central America and up the north-east of the United States, through trackless plains, forests, swamps, and impassable mountains. Again, as regards the rest of the provinces, convenience for the administration of local affairs helped in some degree to keep them apart. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were separated, and as a result of the Ashburton Treaty a great wedge of foreign territory had been driven up between Canada and New Brunswick. Cape Breton was a government by itself, and Newfoundland was a post-captain's command.. Each province had its own government, its own laws, its own parliamentary system, and each in its way was developing along lines of policy dictated by purely local considerations. Last, and most important, each had a tariff wall built up to a height which would keep out its neighbour's produce, and it treated and taxed produce of a neighbouring Canadian province exactly as it taxed the imports from a foreign country. Consider, also, the attitude of England. Short-sighted politicians regarded the rebellion of thirteen states as a warning. It was said that the confederation of the United States had come as a disruptive force in the Empire, and from this it was deduced that if England could keep her small colonies apart, so long as these could develop along their own lines in contentment and it peace with their neighbours, they were the more likely to look to the Motherland for that maternal care which England is always ready to bestow upon weak nations or weak states. England, by her Free Trade policy, by the repeal of the Com Laws and the preferential duties, had suddenly swept away the supports which had sustained the Canadian exporter, and was accepting tenders for supplies from the whole world on an equal basis. No one doubts 43 THE DOMINION OF CANADA that this was well within her competence, but she would have been well advised in exhibiting a greater solicitude, at this juncture, for her Canadian fellow-subjects. One is glad to think that a more considerate spirit prevails to-day. As in 1791, so in 1862, there was a party at home which did not believe in Canada, and was prepared to see Canada absorbed into the United States ; and these views were held by English statesmen on both sides of politics, who would have been quite content had Canada asked for independence. Side by side with this, the progress of public opinion in the Canadian provinces was tending towards a greater measure of self-government and independence from the harassing methods of the English colonial administrators, as well as from her own embarrassments. On the borders of Canada the great American Civil War was in progress, and it was only by the exercise of the most astute jiiplomacy that Canada avoided being drawn into the maelstrom. The danger of invasion was said to be a serious one common to the Canadian colonies. Such was the position of Canada in the years 1860-63 ; disorganised, rent by internal dissensions, the ugly scars of which still remain. She was both poor and isolated, and as a climax there came a hopeless Parliamentary deadlock. Her best statesmen despaired ; there seemed nothing for it but absolute dissolution of the Union, or annexation by the United States. Yet there was working a leaven which, within the next five years, was to change the whole face of the situation. That leaven was the idea of Confederation. This was no new idea : Lord Durham had recommended it in his great Report, and it had occurred to writers even before that. The politicians hoped by it to modify the antagonisms between British and French — the underlying cause of most of the trouble. During the clamour over the Rebellion Losses Bill we find that an organisation 44 POSITION IN 1860-63 called the British American League had among its propaganda the idea of a union of all the provinces of Canada. The railway legislation, again, of 1851 was another strong force tending towards the consolidation of the colonies. It is true that the complications which arose as to the apportionment of the expense retarded the movement considerably ; but by the years 1862-3 the negotiations had proceeded so far that an agreement was come to as to the relative amount which the provinces were prepared to bear, and laws were passed by the legislature of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia confirming the arrangement. The construction of the American railways was pro- ceeding rapidly, and tending more and more to divert, not only the carrying trade of the western states, but even that of Canada, and it was felt that unless the whole of Canada could combine in some fashion in the construc- tion of a railroad, that her dependence on the United States would grow. In 1858 Mr. Gait, an independent member, made a telling speech advocating the union of all the provinces, and he entered the Cartier-Macdonald government only on the understanding that it was a plank of their political platform. It was in this year that a tariff bill was introduced which imposed rates of 20 and 25 % on certain commodities, and a general rate of 15% on articles not specially enumerated. The tariff of 1859, generally spoken of as the beginnings of protection, merely amplified this tariff of 1858. To revert for a moment to the political situation, it must be said that on account of the even voting between Upper and Lower Canada the government of the day was dependent absolutely upon the vote of every sup- porter, and a small chque of faddists could change the pohcy of a ministry, or, if their demands were not complied with, wreck it, 45 THE DOMINION OF CANADA There was the peculiar, and indeed, unique situation then existent of a dual premiership ; that is to say, that no man from Upper or Lower Canada could be found acceptable to a ministry composed of representatives of the two provinces ; and for years it was necessary to have a combined ministry, which was known, not by the name of a premier, but by the name of two premiers as witness, the Cartier-Macdonald Government, the Brown-Dorrien Government, the Macdonald-Sicotte Government, and so forth. Another important condition besides that of dual premiership was that of a capital alternating between Toronto and Quebec, so causing great expense in many ways and great inconvenience to those whose business it was to deal with members of parhament. Added to all this inconvenience was the fact that in practice the life of a ministry was hardly more than six months. The Cartier-Macdonald ministry, for example, lived six months after its election in 1862 ; as did the Sandfield-Macdonald-Sicotte ministry. The deadlock was complete, and the longer it lasted the more difficult became the situation. With each successive ministry and its inevitable defeat the irritation of both parties grew. In the midst of all this chaos the suggestion of Con- federation was revived and was matured. It is difficult to understand even now how it ever became a concrete fact. This great movement, imposed by the circumstances of the day, was put into force by a number of great men, whose enthusiasm carried their cause over every prejudice and obstacle. One of these was George Brown of Ontario, another, Cartier of Quebec. Both were typical as well as strong men ; their views on politics were diametrically opposed ; and they had fought bitterly but honestly in the political arena for years. Yet in one thing they joined hands : it was in their intense devotion to the interests of the 46 A DUAL PREMIERSHIP country. Both feared and detested any sort of union with the United States whose pohcy they distrusted, and with some reason, for in 1866 the United States, which was then in the full career of her commercial boom, abrogated without warning the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854. The discussion of motives which control the actions of individuals or of states is rarely politic or profitable. The loss of the Reciprocity Treaty was due to the resent- ment felt by the U.S.A. against Canada and England, or to put it more precisely, against a party in England which lost Canada her great market to the South, as to which Treaty the Canadian Government formally declared " it would be impossible to express in figures the extent to which it had contributed to the wealth and prosperity of the country and the importance which the people of Canada attached to its continued enjoyment." This is one of those instances which goes to show that Canada's connection with Great Britain does not always make for her material prosperity. There are, we know, counterbalancing items, but it may be well to indicate that there have been sacrifices on the part of the Daughter State as well as of the Mother Country. Sir George Cartier, like all French Canadians, dreaded anything which would tend to merge the nationality of the French Canadians in that of another nation. Mr. George Brown, though his sympathies were all against the French Canadians, felt on the part of Upper Canada that the tie with Great Britain should be maintained at all costs. With these two men worked Sir Alexander Gait, whose name has already been mentioned as an advocate of federation. He threw himself heart and soul into the task of convincing the country, and it is largely to his influence that Sir George Cartier was persuaded to take part in the movement. Great efforts were necessary to win over the allegiance of Sir John Macdonald, but for a time without full success. A 47 THE DOMINION OF CANADA leading characteristic of Sir John's poHtical character was a conservatism and caution which dreaded any uncertain step into the unknown. This being so, Con- federation did not at the outset appeal to him as an immediately practical policy. It was slowly that he was persuaded to consent to the matter being forwarded, and, then, it is said, only under pressure from his supporters, who said openly that in the event of a dissolution they would not offer themselves again as candidates unless Confederation was to be included in his policy, and unless he consented to support some form of coalition govern- ment if it were necessary. Subsequently, however, he lent full and invaluable support in producing Confeder- ation, and it must be said a large body of opinion in Canada regards him as " The Father of Confederation." His judgment of men was so remarkable and accurate as to amount to genius, and his unerring choice of instru- ments during the great work of unifying the colonies was essential not only to its attainment, but still more to the early life of the Dominion. The outstanding character- istic of this great leader lay in his profound knowledge of human nature. Nor were the electors at all unanimous on the point ; indeed, had it not been for the indomitable perseverance of the three leaders it is quite likely that the matter would have been delayed indefinitely. What would then have been the future history of the Dominion it is not hard to imagine. In the autumn of 1864 a representative meeting of men of all shades of political opinion was held to consider the carrying out of the measure. After deliberating for several weeks the delegates unanimously adopted a set of some seventy-two resolutions which embodied the terms and conditions on which the provinces would agree to a federal union. These resolutions were laid before the various 48 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES legislatures, and adopted in the shape of addresses to the Crown : for, of course, the formal consent of England was necessary. This was freely given, and the Colonial Office extended invaluable assistance with some of the reluctant sections. In New Brunswick the legislature dissolved on the question, and came back with an adverse mandate from the electors. In the other provinces, however, the ques- tion was not put to the people at all, and the legislators voted upon it as they would upon an ordinary measure of minor importance. When the parliament met in 1865 the Governor's opening speech mentioned the subject of Confederation, and he spoke strongly in its favour. He announced that the home government approved of the project, and would introduce the necessary legislation into the Imperial Parliament as soon as the provincial legislators should have declared their adhesion. The matter was debated long and ardently, and eventually on the 10th of March, 1865, the motion was introduced by the Attorney- General., " That a humble address be presented to Her Majesty praying that she might be graciously pleased to allow the said measure to be submitted to the Imperial Parliament, for the purpose of uniting the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island in one government, with provisions based on certain resolutions which were adopted at the conference of delegates ^ of the said colonies, held at the city of Quebec on the 10th of October, 1864." The motion was carried by a majority of fifty-eight. A similar motion had been carried in the legislative council on February the 20th, by forty-five to fifteen. ^ The Delegates to the Quebec Conference Hon. Sir Etienne P. Tache, M.L.C. Premier. Hon. John A. Macdonald, M.P.P. Attorney-General of Upper Canada. 49 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Hon. George Etienne Cartier, M.P.P. Attorney-General of Lower Canada. Hon. George Brown, M.P.P. President of the Executive Council. Hon. Alexander T. Gait, M.P.P. Finance Minister. Hon. Alexander Campbell, M.L.C. Commissioner of Crown Lands. Hon. Jean C. Chapais, M.L.C. Commissioner of Public Works. Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee, M.P.P. Minister of Agriculture. Hon. Hector L. Langevin, M.P.P. Solictor-General for Lower Canada. Hon. William McDougall, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary. Hon. James Cockburn, M.P.P. Solicitor-General for Upper Canada. Hon. Oliver Mowat, M.P.P. Postmaster-General. Nova Scotia Hon. Charles Tupper, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary and Premier. Hon. William A. Henry, M.P.P. Attorney-General. Hon. Robert^ P. Dickey, M.L.C. Hon. Adam G. Archibald, M.P.P. Hon. Jonathan McCully, M.L.C. New Brunswick Hon. Samuel M. Tilley, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary and Premier. Hon. Peter Mitchell, M.L.C. Hon. Charles Fisher, M.P.P. Hon. William H. Steeves, M.L.C. Hon. John Hamilton Gray, M.P.P. Hon. Edward B. Chandler, M.L.C. Hon. John M. Johnson, M.P.P. Attorney-General. Prince Edward Island Hon. John Hamilton Gray, M.P.P. Premier. Hon. George Coles, M.P.P. Hon. Thomas Heath Haviland, M.P.P. Hon. Edward Palmer, M.P.P. Attorney-General. Hon. Andrew Archibald Macdonald, M.L.C. Hon. Edward Whelan, M.L.C. Hon. William H. Hope, M.P.P. Provincial Secretary. Newfoundland Hon. Frederick B. T. Carter, M.P.P. Speaker of the House of Assembly. Hon. Ambrose Shea, M.P.P. 50 END OF AMERICAN WAR In accordance with the resolution these addresses were prepared and presented to Lord Monck for transmission to the Crown, and in April a deputation of four members of the administration, Messieurs Cartier, Macdonald, Brown, and Gait, proceeded to England to confer with the Imperial Government to promote the scheme of federation. In the maritime provinces the project was received with reserve amounting to hostility. The general election in New Brunswick resulted in the return of a majority hostile to union. Nova Scotia also was shy about coming in, and Prince Edward Island not only passed resolutions antagonistic to Confederation but even repudiated the action of their provincial delegates at the Quebec Conference. Nevertheless the administra- tion steadily pushed forward their scheme. There was no question of coercing the maritime provinces, and it was recognised that they were free to come into the Union or not as they pleased. The four delegates to England received full assurances of the goodwill of the home government towards their plans, and an Imperial guarantee of a loan for the con- struction of an inter-colonial line of railway was obtained. On their part the delegates were able to say that Canada would devote all her resources for the maintenance of her connection with the Mother Country. The American War ended in the surrender of General Lee at Appomattox, and the assassination of President Lincoln followed almost "immediately. As was natural, a deep impression was created in Canada by these events, and faces turned with some anxiety towards the new President to see what his policy would be with regard to American-Canadian relations. The formal notice required for abrogating the Reciprocity Treaty had been already given by the States, and the existence of the Treaty would, in the ordinary course of events, end in the March of the following year. 51 THE DOMINION OF CANADA The new President refused to entertain any proposition whatever for the renewal of the Treaty. In comphance with a suggestion from the home gov- ernment a confederate council to deal with commercial treaties had been formed at Quebec, consisting of representatives of each province of the proposed con- federation. These recommended that a deputation should be sent to Washington to make a final attempt at the renewal of the Treaty. The government adopted the recommendation, and appomted delegates, but the terms which these delegates were allowed to negotiate were such that Mr, Brown, who had served his country so well in bringing about Confederation, made them the reasons for renouncing an always uncomfortable position in the Cabinet. He felt that the dignity of Canada should not have allowed her to send delegates to beg for a fresh Treaty, but that there should be a fair Treaty, and not one dictated by the American Government. The delegates who were sent to Washington in the beginning of 1866 met with absolute failure, and no further attempt to reopen the question was made for several years. Scenes of the most remarkable character occurred at this time on the Canadian railways, and the international ferries, and for several months before the Elgin Treaty expired waggons, ferries, and all forms of locomotion were crowded with outgoing cattle, horses, and farm produce purchased by Americans in Canada before the expiration of Reciprocity. The money received for all these things was a welcome addition to the farmer's store, but the effect of the repulse was felt throughout the country. It was seen that the old channels of commerce were unavailable and fresh ones must be sought, and a commission was appointed to seek fresh markets in South America and the West 52 THE DISLOCATION OF TRADE Indies, and generally to open up a new avenue of trade. Canada reeled under the dislocation of trade, and a lesser people might have succumbed ; as it was the unneighbourly action of the U.S.A. ruffled her pride. The effect produced was the reverse of that expected, and Canadians adapted themselves to the seriously altered circumstances with energy and intelligence, and with such success that, as is well known, Canadian products are in several directions largely replacing in the United Kingdom suppHes which formerly came from the Republic. On the 8th June the last session of the provincial parliament met at Ottawa. The opening speech an- nounced that the Governor-General expected that the measure of Confederation would shortly be carried into effect, and that the next assembly of Parliament would be attended not only by representatives of Canada but by those of all the colonies in British North America. From this it will be seen that the Confederation project had considerably advanced in the maritime provinces. In New Brunswick there had been a fresh appeal to the people, and advocates of the change had won the day. In Nova Scotia, after a fierce fight, the scheme powerfully advocated by Sir Charles Tupper had been passed by a large majority. Prince Edward Island though hostile, was a small province, and Newfoundland did nothing at all in the matter. It was therefore decided that Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick should proceed into Confederation, leaving British Columbia, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland to follow if they wished. In November, 1866, the Canadian deputation repaired to England to meet delegates from the other provinces, and a conference was organised at the Westminster Palace Hotel by the 4th of December, and sat until 53 5— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA the 24th of December, by which time all the important details were finally settled. Modifications, concessions on both sides, as was natural, were made in the resolutions of the Quebec conference of 1864, but in all essential respects the project remained unchanged. On the 29th of March, the Bill, having passed through all the stages in both Houses, received the Royal assent, and with it an Act authorising the oihcials of the Treasury to guarantee interest on a loan of not more than £3,000,000 sterling for the construction of the Inter-colonial Railway. With the passing of the British North America Act of 1867, Canada as a Dominion came into being. Within the next three years the province of Manitoba was formed, and the then North-West Territories acquired. Prince Edward Island and British Columbia also came into Confederation, and thus consolidated the Dominion. British Columbia and Confederation Until the last thirty years the Province of British Columbia has occupied a detached position, and it may be well to recall some of the facts of her history. In 1849, Vancouver Island was constituted a Crown Colony, and in 1858 what was formerly called New Caledonia was created a second Crown Colony, under the name of British Columbia, and included all that is now known as British Columbia, excepting Vancouver Island. Prior to its entry into Confederation, and indeed for some years after that event, the means of transportation in the province were altogether bad. Railways were con- spicuous by their absence, roads not good, and certainly not plentiful, and there was no postal or telegraphic communication with the country to the east. Vancouver and British Columbia were colonies merely in name, for although in the former there existed a legislative assembly its vote could not remove the executive officials, the 54 BRITISH COLUMBIA power to do this being vested in the Governor and his officers. A legislative council was organised in British Columbia in 1863, consisting of thirteen members, but only three of these were elected by the people, five being government officials, and the other five magistrates appointed by the government. The first meeting of this council was held in 1864, when the expenditure was given as £192,860, and the revenue as £110,000. At this time, the whole white population of the colony of British Columbia was but small, probably under 8,000, and the taxes were very high. In Vancouver Island in 1864, the white population was estimated at about 7,500, but as expenditure was much less, the taxes were corre- spondingly lower. But, taking the two colonies together, it has been estimated that the tax per capita amounted to £19. The excess of expenditure over revenue, and the constantly increasing debt, made loans for the colony of British Columbia difficult to float in the London market, and also made the rate of interest payable on such loans very high. The sister colony of Vancouver Island was, at the same time, passing through a period of severe financial depression, and it was decided by its legislature that expenditure must be curtailed. This was done, and when Captain Kennedy, a newly-appointed Governor of the province, landed at Victoria in 1864, he was met by the intelligence that his salary, and that of his officials, had been struck off the estimates. In this juncture, after several expedients to relieve the financial position had been suggested, it was decided, by the Government of Great Britain, to unite the two colonies, and this measure was passed in 1866. Although the British North America Act was passed by the home government in 1867, British Columbia did not join the Union until 1871. At the conference held in Quebec in 1864 the province was not represented in any way, and, as its admission seemed a remote 55 THE DOMINION OF CANADA contingency, all matters relative to it were deferred for future consideration. A resolution was, however, passed, providing that British Columbia and Vancouver Island should be admitted into the Union on such terms as were considered equitable by the Parliament of the federated provinces, and as might be agreed to by the legislature of the province. After the passage of the Act, the people of British Columbia were eager to be admitted into the Confederation, and the subject was brought up at a sitting of the legislature in 1868. This came to nothing. The matter, however, progressed, and in 1871 an address to Her Majesty the Queen was passed, praying for admission into the Union under the terms of the British North America Act. So in that year British Columbia became a portion of the Dominion of Canada. Some badly needed means of communication by sea were provided for, but undoubtedly the most important of the terms was the undertaking, by the Dominion Government, to construct a railway from the Pacific to the Rocky Mountains, to connect the seaboard of British Columbia with the railway system of Canada. This undertaking was naturally all-important to the province and its development ; which, in the past, owing to the want of facilities of the kind, had been exceedingly slow. But little could be done to utilise its immense natural resources, and great tracts of a country abounding in mineral and forest wealth, together with agricultural lands of the first order, were practically untrodden. The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, of which the projected line formed a part, was first authorised in 1870. Under the charter, the time for beginning expired in 1873 ; but in 1878 nothing had been done in British Columbia beyond exploratory surveys. The people of the province were much discontented at the non-realisation of the chief hope with which they entered 56 THE "CARNARVON TERMS" ' the union, and roundly charged the Federal Government with breach of faith. This discontent had been growing for some time, for in 1874 a delegate was sent to London for the purpose of laying the matter before the home government. A compromise was, however, arrived at, which was known as the " Carnarvon terms." The long and continued delay had caused a feeling of strong resentment in the province, and it was stated that, if the Canadian Government failed to carry into effect the terms accepted by them, withdrawal from the Confeder- ation would be the result. At last, in 1885, land was broken for the railway, and construction was then con- tinued practically without interruption, until completion in 1888. Much railway building has taken place in the province since then, but there can be no doubt that the opening of that first railway communication was the means of raising it out of the slough of despond into which it had fallen, and of bringing it to the high level of prosperity it enjoys to-day. 57 CHAPTER VIII The Era of Canadian Railways For a new country transportation is life. Without adequate transportation progress is impossible, and in a country of great distances, such as is Canada, this is more than ever true. Forests, mineral wealth beyond the dreams of avarice, land of amazing fertility, all are comparatively useless without the means to bring them within the human reach. Canada, it is true, possesses a fine system of waterways, rivers, and lakes, which within and about the Dominion are estimated to contain half the fresh water of the world. The St. Lawrence cuts deep into the heart of the continent. Hudson's, Bay, too, breaks in from the north. The great lakes provide transport in the south. Innumerable rivers, broad and navigable, are to be found. Amongst them the hand of man has been busy in the construction of canals, yet still they are inadequate for the traffic which is the life of the country. Besides, for some months of every year these waterways are closed by frost, and navigation must cease for months. There is, too, that enormous barrier, the Rocky Mountains, which bars the prairies from the Pacific. In England the first line of railway between Stockton and Darlington was opened in 1825, and in Canada the men who were at the head immediately grasped the possibiHties of steam. Between 1835-45 many charters for small lines were granted, but the country was unsettled, the rebellion of 1837 had sown suspicion in the minds even of Canadian well- wishers, and capital preferred some less speculative opening ; so that in 1850 there were but fifty-five miles of railway in the whole country. The last report of the Ministry of Railways shows that Canada now has 27,000 miles completed and under construction. 58 THE GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY The railway era may be said to have begun in 1850 with the turning of the first sod of the Northern Railway, and two years later the Grand Trunk Company was incorporated. Between 1853-58 the Great Western built and used 360 miles, so that up to the time of Con- federation in 1867 about 2,500 miles were in use. Practically all these systems have been absorbed in the Grand Trunk, the first railway organisation of Canada. The stimulus provided by these lines was amazing : Ontario leaped into prosperity, the sleepy cities of Montreal and Toronto woke from their lethargy and be- came living centres of industry. The lines were an inestimable boon to the country, but to the investors they must have cost some little heartburning. In 1846 Britain adopted the system of Free Trade, so abolishing the preference previously given to Canadian wheat and Canadian timber, and whilst the benefit or otherwise may be still a matter of political debate there can be no doubt that the abolition of preference preceded a severe crisis in Canada. The crisis was succeeded by a depression which did not lift until the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 was arranged with the United States. Again it must be remembered that the railways were built by English engineers, skilled in the linking up of crowded English towns but ignorant of the methods suitable to a thinly populated country, where transport of merchandise was of more value than transport of men. These early lines were of sound construction but their cost was prohibitive. The most striking example of this tendency is the Victoria bridge over the St. Lawrence, where the Grand Trunk Railway enters Montreal. It was built under the direction of Robert Stevenson and cost 6,300,000 dollars with interest charges accruing during the six years of its construction. A few miles up the river is the steel bridge built long after by the Canadian Pacific Railway performing exactly the same office, 59 THE DOMINION OF CANADA which was built in a year and cost less than 1,000,000 dollars. The example of Ontario and Quebec was followed by the little provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, who, working on the same lines, had the same objects — communication with Quebec so as to reach the upper provinces, and communication westward from the New England states. When, in 1867, Confederation came to bind together the whole country, the construction of the Inter-Colonial Railway was one of the main conditions of that great covenant. At that time the maritime provinces were cut off from the rest of Canada by a trackless wilderness, and so were completely out of touch entirely with the rest of their fellow-countrymen. Thus, there was some danger that the force of circumstances would fling them into the arms of the United States. England was almost as deeply interested in the construction of the line as was Canada. It was urged in favour of the construction of the railway that troops sent out in 1861-2 were cut off by the winter snows and had to be transported over hundreds of miles on sledges to reach the centre of the disturbance in the upper provinces. The Trent affair of 1861 and the Alabama trouble had created hostile feelings, and Canada would in all probability have been the battle-ground had war broken out between the two great branches of the British race. Ultimately, the Imperial Government guaranteed a loan of £3,000,000, required to defray the cost of con- struction, on the understanding that the line should take a strategic route, that is to say, one sufficiently remote from the American frontier to guarantee freedom from a sudden raid in the case of hostilities. This line, from a purely commercial point of view, and probably hampered by politics, has not at all times been an un- qualified success, but it must be remembered that it was built for and achieved a great national purpose, and it 60 THE GOVERNMENT LOAN has given the Dominion access through its own territory to its own ports, which are open all the year round. Thus on the east communication was established ; but it was equally necessary to bind the continent together from east to west, that there should be a railway linking up the open spaces between Lake Superior and the Rocky Mountains. Now, as has been told in a previous chapter, British Columbia still held out from the union, and if she was to be drawn in the only method was to provide her with a railway, and so the Canadian Pacific Railway, one of the great engineering works of modern times, came into being. 61 CHAPTER IX The Hudson's Bay Company It will have been noticed that in the earlier chapters dealing with the history of Canada very little mention has been made of the northern and the north-western parts. There is, in fact, very little history to tell of a kind which has any bearing on the evolution of the Canadian race. In the north and the north-west was savage, wooded country where the foot of man seldom trod, full of unchartered swamps and trackless forests, and, so far as the early dwellers could see, quite valueless from an agricultural point of view. There were, however, to be found wild animals with coveted skins, and in 1670 a company of merchant adventurers, brought together by Prince Rupert and seventeen noblemen and gentlemen, obtained a charter from the King to trade in furs and skins with the Indians of North America. The governors of the Hudson's Bay Company were " made, created, and constituted, the absolute lords and proprietors " of Rupert's Land, and held it " ^s of our manor at East Greenwich in our county of Kent, in free common soccage, and not in capite, or by knights service, yielding and paying yearly to us, our heirs and successors, for the same two elks and two black beavers, whensoever and so often as we, our heirs and successors, shall happen to enter into the said country, territory, and regions, hereby granted." We see, therefore, that the company was invested with absolute ownership and right of traffic for the defined territory, which, under the name of Rupert's Land com- prised all the land discovered and undiscovered within the entrance of Hudson's Strait. By the wording of the 62 STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY charter it was understood that this territory included, not only the territory around Hudson's Bay, but also all the lands that drained into the Bay and the Strait. For more than a century the traders had all their work to do to maintain themselves on the shores of the Strait, to beat off Indians and to secure themselves against the rigours of the climate, without indulging in exploration into the interior. The French of the St. Lawrence valley had no love for these Enghsh adventurers, and Lemoine DTbervile applied the torch to many of their trading posts, but the Hudson's Bay Company, hardy pioneers as tliey were, were not to be dismayed. They retired to their forts, imported fresh goods, and armed their ships against the attackers ; and when Canada passed from France to England in 1763 the adventurers pushed out south and west to the unknown in search of fresh trade and fresh country. It was about this time that French adventurers began to penetrate from the south, the region of the great lakes, and their discovery of the abundance of trade to be had in the north led, in 1783, to the formation of the North- West Company, a combine of merchants in furs. Served as it was by Englishmen and Scotchmen largely, the Hudson's Bay Company resented the advent of the French Canadian explorer, and the two companies fought bitterly for trade, and at times for very life, during the ensuing forty years. Two servants of each company have left their names on the map of Canada, for it was about this time that the Mackenzie River was discovered and explored to the Arctic Sea by Mackenzie of the North-West Company. Simon Eraser, again, explored the Eraser River, and David Thompson, of the North-West Company, dis- covered and named the Thompson River. Samuel Hearne, belonging to the Hudson's Bay Company, discov- ered the Coppermine River, and later established on the 63 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Saskatchewan River the fort which is still known as Cumberland House. In 1811 the company (the true and absolute lords of Rupert's Land) " granted, aliened, and feoffed, and con- firmed to the Right Honourable the Earl of Selkirk, his heirs and assigns," an enormous tract of territory comprising over 100,000 square miles of country, with an important reservation in favour of the grantors, saving and reserving to the governors of the company and their successors all rights of jurisdiction whatsoever granted to the said company by their charter. For this reason the governors of Assiniboia received their commissions from the com- pany, and not from Lord Selkirk. One tenth of this tract was to be set aside for the use of such servants as had been in the service of the company. The Ea'rl of Selkirk was an enterprising Scotch noble- man, who at an earlier date had made a settlement in Prince Edward Island, and in 1812 he formed on the banks of the Red River a fresh settlement, composed mainly of Scotchmen with a few Irishmen amongst them. The North-West Company did not appreciate this parcelling out of hunting-grounds, nor did it approve of Lord Selkirk's settlement. The settlement was grow- ing, and the prospects of the earlier members of the community were so improved that they wrote to England inviting their friends to join them. In 1816, therefore, the employees of the North-West Company suddenly attacked Fort Douglas, and retreated after destroying the Fort and murdering Governor Semple, who was in charge. Lord Selkirk gathered a band of mercenaries and came at full speed to the relief of his colony, and succeeded eventually in bringing to trial several of the employees of the North-West Company on charges of high treason, murder, robbery, conspiracy, and other capital offences. At that time the powers of the judiciary were not 64 THE RED RIVER SETTLEMENT entirely free from the charge of truckling to the great ones of the earth ; and the North-West Company, which possessed an enormous influence in that part of the country, secured a verdict against Lord Selkirk for conspiring to ruin the trade of the company. For this the Lord Selkirk was fined heavily and retired dis- gusted to France, where he died two years later. The settlement had cost the unfortunate nobleman from first to last, says Ross, not less than £85,000, an amount the colony would not have realised had it been sold by auction within twenty years after it was founded. By the year 1821 the Hudson's Bay Company had coalesced with the North-West Company, and a combined organisation swept the country from the Arctic Ocean to the American border, and from Cape Breton to Vancouver. This was perhaps the most prosperous time in the life of the Hudson's Bay Company, for they had absolute monopoly of trading, and would allow no rivals of any kind to interfere with their arrangements. The Red River settlement became the headquarters of the combined company, and in 1835 a system of local government was established, with a president, a council, and a court of law at Fort Garry, a high stone structure with walls ten or twelve feet high, and defended by cannon and musketry. In 1838 the Hudson's Bay Company acquired the sole right of trading in furs for a period of twenty-one years, but at the end of that time its monopoly expired, and the fur trade was opened to all comers without let or hindrance. Though the loss of its monopoly was no doubt a blow to the Hudson's Bay Company its organisation was so excellent that fresh comers had immense difficulties to contend with, and the loss to the company was more apparent than real for many years to come. Whilst the Company no longer retained its monopoly of fur trading it had still a large grant of land which it had 65 THE DOMINION OF CANADA acquired m its early days. From time to time mutterings were to be heard among advanced thinkers at the enor- mous Territories held by this commercial company, but it was not imtil 1856 that the public mind became fully aroused to the desirabihty of dealing with the matter finally and decisively. It was then only that Canadians began to think about these vast spaces in the north-west, and the desirabihty of linking them up with the rest of the country. It was not an easy task to move the Hudson's Bay Company, entrenched as it was in its fastnesses so far from the thoughts of the man in the street, and buttressed by quite a considerable section of the Canadian press, who for various motives desired the status quo to remain. It is only fair to add that whilst some of the opponents of change were in some way or another indebted to the Hudson's Bay Company, another section beheved honestly that the lands were valueless, or nearly so, and that they would be no more than a charge and a burden to the commimity, which could ill afford fresh handicaps to its prosperity. In the hght of oiu: knowledge of to-day one can read with amazement tempered \vith surprise a quotation from the Montreal Transcript of the fifties " that the climate of the North-West is altogether unfavourable to the growth of grain, and that the shortness of the summer made it difiicult even to mature a small potato or a cabbage." This of a country which produces its forty bushels to the acre to-day ! However, the balance of opinion was with the reformers, and the agitation was so well kept up that by the end of 1856 negotiations were opened up with the Hudson's Bay Company, and early in the following year Chief Justice Draper was sent on a mission to England to represent the provinces in the negotiations which were then in progress. WTien the Houses of Parliament met in the following year the Speech from the Throne contained the announcement that Her 66 INVESTIGATION OF RIGHTS Majesty's Government had determined to submit to the consideration of a committee certain questions connected with the Territories of the Hudson's Bay Company. The discussions pursued a slow and even course for the next few years, and it was not until the time of Confederation that the matter came up for final decision. The rights of the company were carefully investigated, and on December the 4th, 1862, a series of resolutions were introduced into the House by Mr. McDougall, with the object of bringing under the control of the Dominion Government Rupert's Land and the North-West Territories. In 1869 Sir" George Cartier and Mr. McDougall, who had been sent to England to arrange for the surrender of the Hudson's Bay Company, completed their negotia- tions, and the conditions of the surrender were that the company should receive from the Dominion Government the sum of ;^"300,000, and that all rights of the Company, with certain reservations, should be the property of the Imperial Government, by whom they were to be trans- ferred to the Dominion Government one month later. The reservations were considerable ; they included certain lands, amounting in all to about 50,000 acres, and in addition one-twentieth of all the land in the great belt south of the north branch of the Saskatchewan River. Truly a king's ransom. These terms being agreed upon they received the sanction of the Dominion Parliament, and an Act was passed providing a Territorial government for the country which was being ceded. The enormous tract thus brought into the Dominion was named the North-West Territories, and it was decided that its affairs should be administered by a Lieutenant-Governor appointed by the Govembr- General in Council. Provision was made for the formation of a Council to assist him in the carrying out of his duties, 67 THE DOMINION OF CANADA and certain other temporary provisions bringing the code of the North-West Territories into hne with the rest of the Dominion. All these were purely temporary measures, since it was understood that as soon as the population and importance of the new Territories demanded it, a permanent organisation for the new government was to be set up. So, with the passing of the Act, faded from the pages of Canadian history a powerful force, which had exercised royal powers over quite a considerable section of the Dominion. The Hudson's Bay Company still remains a prosperous trading concern, run upon sound business principles, and reaping its harvest from the trackless north. True, it has other rivals in the fur trade, but it remains a fine example of private enterprise, and as such receives the respect of all Canadians. The recent history of this honourable body is too well known to need recapitulation. The annual meeting of the shareholders in London, under the Presidency of its venerable Governor, Lord Strathcona, is one of the events of the commercial year. The Deputy-Governor is Mr. Thomas Skinner, and the Committee, six in number, are : — Mr. John Coles, Mr. L. D. Cunhffe, Mr. Vivian Hugh Smith, Mr. R. M. Kindersley, Mr. WilHam Mackenzie, and Mr. Richard Burbidge. The affairs of the company in Canada are under the control, subject to the Governor, Deputy-Governor and Committee, of a Commissioner, Mr. C. C. Chipman, with headquarters at Winnipeg. 68 CHAPTER X The Development of the West Western Canada of to-day, embracing the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, has been well called " The Land of Opportunity." That is to say, for those who are prepared to adapt themselves to existing conditions. It is a "hustling" place, in marked contrast with when the Hudson's Bay Company held sway. The Canadian Government " officially encourages to proceed to Western Canada those only who purpose going on the land, and for such the attractions of Western Canada, as well as of Ontario, are unexcelled. Manitoba is the most easterly of the three prairie provinces, and the smallest, having an area of 65,000 square miles, or a little more than the size of England and Wales. It is sometimes called " the postage-stamp province," owing to its square formation. A considerable part is made up of Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba and Winnipegosis, these being noble stretches of water on its northern boundaries. The eastern part has a broken surface, is heavily wooded and but sparsely settled. It is known to contain valuable minerals. It is computed that the province contains some twenty-seven million acres of arable land, only about one-sixth of which is now under the plough. These lands lie mainly in the western and southern portions. In the latter districts the prairie is, generally speaking, level, with clumps of timber following the courses of the rivers. In the west there is a more interesting country, of an undulating character, with frequent growths of poplar, elm and oak, and in the Riding and Duck Moun- tains there are timber reserves of an extensive character. 69 6— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA Much of the province is fuUy occupied, and has all the appearance of an established and well-developed agricul- tural country. The main lines of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway and the Canadian Northern Railway pass through it, and send out branches in all directions, giving admirable trans- portation facilities to practically all the province, or at any rate to all the settled parts of it. The railways push out their branches and connections sometimes in advance of the settlers, and give a remarkably good service having regard to the age of the country. With the assistance of the local government, telephones are installed not only in the towns but throughout the rural districts, whilst all the towns and many of the villages of the province are provided with electric light. The product for which the province is justly famous is its " hard wheat," which is known in all the chief markets of the world. The deep rich loam, lying very generally upon a heavy clay subsoil, appears to contain the exact elements making for the production of the wheat so much prized by the millers. The way in which this soil retains its fertiHty is remarkable, and with reason- ably good methods of farming it is practically inex- haustible. There are farms along the Red River in Manitoba that have been cropped for over a generation, and still produce heavy crops of " No. 1 Hard." The average yield of wheat per acre for the province in 1909 was about seventeen bushels, and the average price per bushel which it realised was eighty -seven cents. The cost of sowing, harvesting and marketing the grain has befen estimated at six dollars per acre, and even assuming eighty-seven cents per bushel, as in 1909, to be a higher price than might be ordinarily expected still, when it is remembered that land can be purchased freehold for from eight dollars an acre upwards, the possibilities of profitable farming in Manitoba are seen to be excellent. 70 MANITOBA Oats and barley thrive and yield amazingly. Oats frequently weigh from five to fifteen poimds per bushel more than the prescribed standard, and the ordinary crop yields from forty to eighty bushels an acre. Barley, both six-rowed and two-rowed, is of exceptionally fine quality, and flax (linseed) is produced in large quantities, but its injurious effect upon the land prevents it becoming a favourite crop with the farmers. In 1909 some five million acres were under plough in Manitoba. Upon this were raised 44,915,887 bushels of wheat, 54,947,320 bushels of oats, 15,626,208 bushels of barley, and 206,350. bushels of flax. The total grain crop for 1909 was 115,695,765 bushels. In addition there were large crops of roots, cultivated grasses, and natural prairie hay, Manitoba, however, must not be regarded as exclusively a wheat-growing country. Stock-raising and dairying are being profitably followed. Cattle-raising is especially profitable, and there is a splendid home market. Some eighty thousand head are required annually for home consumption. Realising the importance of this the Provincial Govern- ment has established in Winnipeg for many years a Dairy School, which is well attended in the winter by the sons and daughters of the farmers. It is admirably equipped, and here many of those now in charge of the creameries and butter factories throughout the West have received their training. Residents of Manitoba are eligible to attend this school without payment of fees. The pastures of Manitoba afford a variety and an abundance of suitable grasses, with ample and excellent watering facilities for the stock, and for use in the dairies, in many places streams of pure running water being at hand. Small fruits flourish in Manitoba. Currants (black, 71 THE DOMINION OF CANADA red and white), gooseberries, raspberries, cranberries, strawberries, blueberries, cherries, plums and wild plums yield abundantly, and most of these varieties, regularly. At the Convention of Manitoba market-gardeners, Dr. Thompson, a successful fruit-grower, contended that in no country could small fruits be grown with less trouble than in Manitoba. There, were few insect pests or diseases to interfere with their growth. The capability of the prairies to produce " hard wheat " is conceded everywhere, but the most optimistic Westerner would not have said that apples could have been grown there until recent years. However, " the proof of the pudding is in the eating," and Mr. Stevenson, of Nelson, Manitoba, had from his orchard there in 1909 about a hundred barrels of apples, which sold for $450, one tree producing no less than five barrels. That is an excellent yield in a district which people never looked to for fruit of this kind. Production it is true is only on a limited scale at present, and while nobody pretends that Manitoba is going to compare in this respect with British Columbia, Ontario, or Nova Scotia, the result of Mr, Stevenson's enterprise is very significant. An exhibit of fourteen different varieties of apples produced in Manitoba sent by this gentleman to the Show of the American Apple Society, won the silver medal given to each province displaying an exhibition of merit. Mr. Stevenson has also produced a good crop of plums and cherries. Apples in limited quantities are grown successfully in many parts of the province, and those who have carefully studied the question look forward to the time when the production will greatly increase and be an important factor in supplying local demands. Ornamental trees and shrubs also do well, and many of the farmers have their homesteads surrounded by beautiful plantations which not only beautify but afford shelter from the summer suns and the winter winds. 72 LUXURIANCE OF VEGETATION The Dominion Government supplies from the Experi- mental Farms fifteen hundred trees to each applicant owning a farm in Western Canada. These are delivered in good condition at the nearest station free of cost, the farmer on his part undertaking to care for the trees, which as a matter of fact grow very readily and require but little attention. The long summer days that ripen the crops in so short a time also make it possible for the bees to store freely quantities of honey. The luxuriance of the vegetation and the increasing cultivation of varieties of clover make bee culture both easy and profitable. An apiary of ten hives started four years ago has increased to one hundred and five, and produced nine thousand pounds of honey, and in the interval twenty-five hives have been sold. Within the province itself there is a large market for the honey, which is of excellent quality. Bee-keeping has passed beyond the experimental stage, and honey has become one of the notable products of the prairies. Little more than a generation ago Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba, was but a Hudson's Bay Post, known as Fort Garry. In 1870 its population was 215 ; in 1909, according to the local census, it had swollen to 130,000, and is steadily increasing and bids fair so to continue for long years to come. Winnipeg is not only the railway centre of Western Canada, but it also controls the whole- sale and jobbing trade of the Great West, and every branch of enterprise is represented there. It has most extensive stockyards and immense abattoirs which are necessary to enable cattle and meat shipments to Europe and to other markets to be dealt with. The yards of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company at Winnipeg are the largest in the world operated by one company, and contain one hundred and twenty miles of track. It is a most important railway point from which both East and West, and South and North may be 73 THE DOMINION OF CANADA reached. As has already been indicated, branch hnes run to every part of the province, and a branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway connects with the " Soo " Line at Emerson, thus affording a direct and easy route to St. Paul, Minneapolis and Chicago. The Canadian Northern Railway Company has a line running parallel to this, and connecting with the Northern Pacific Railway at Pembina. There is also a branch running south via Gretna, connecting with the Great Northern Railroad System of the United States. It is also an important centre for the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. Winnipeg is not only the commercial centre of Western Canada, but is the political and educational headquarters as w^ll. Here are to be found the Legislative and Departmental Buildings of the Manitoba Government ; the chief Immigration, Lands and Timber Offices for the West of the Dominion Government ; the Provincial University ; indeed all the principal institutions of the country of whatever character are to be found in the Metropolis of Manitoba. In addition to Winnipeg there are several towns of importance, such as Portage la Prairie and Brandon, both of which are important railway junctions and distributing points for large areas of imexcelled farming country. All over the country are towns and villages of more or less importance, with populations ranging from five hundred to five thousand. In these places will be found all that contributes to the amenities of life, and they constitute the homes of as happy and contented and as prosperous a people as is to be found anywhere. The superficial area of the Province of Saskatchewan is 229,229 square miles, or 91,691,600 acres. When early in the autumn of 1909 it was announced that the wheat crop of Saskatchewan would approximate to some 74 PROVINCE OF SASKATCHEWAN sixty million bushels it was regarded by many as gross exaggeration. Later on, however, it was officially confirmed that 3,912,499 acres cropped with wheat in that year in Saskatchewan produced seventy million bushels, an average of eighteen bushels to the acre, and this crop realised $61,269,703. Of the above 630,000 acres were virgin prairie a year before. Practically the whole of Central Saskatchewan is admirably suited to wheat-growing. This territory is principally drained by the Saskatchewan, North Saskatchewan and Qu' Appelle Riveirs. The northern part of the province, with an area of some 70,000 acres is very thinly settled. The south-eastern portion embraces the great wheat plains of Moose Jaw and Regina, and these of course lie contig- uous to Manitoba. South-western Saskatchewan is a magnificent cattle country, and the writer has often seen in this district beasts fit for the butcher's block grazing in a profusion of unrivalled pasturage in which the wild vetch and the wild pea vine were prominent. Although the Saskatchewan crop returns of 1909 caused astonishment, yet things in this respect are only at their very beginning. The provincial authorities have divided the province for statistical purposes into crop districts, and these districts comprise a total area of 73,171,780 acres. The total area of the grain crop in 1909 was but 6,888,000 acres. There can be no need to dwell upon this point, and the significance of the facts having regard to the future of this great Province will be conceded on all hands. Many of the general facts which have been set forth in respect of Manitoba apply equally to Saskatchewan. There is a similar richness of soil and of climate, making for the perfect and rapid ripening of the crops, and the severity of the winter gives to a large extent immunity from injurious insects. Naturally the older settled portions of Saskatchewan 75 THE DOMINION OF CANADA lie along the Canadian Pacific Railway, where is to be found the famous wheat district of Indian Head, and both here and in the Regina district may be found farms which have been under crop for a quarter of a century. The character of the buildings erected on many of these farms is the best evidence of the prosperity which has attended the efforts of the owners. There are to be seen beautiful homes, surrounded and adorned by attractive plantations, neat fences and many other signs of proud proprietorship and prosperity. All along the main line of the three railway systems to which reference has been made are towns and villages where are rows of high grain elevators (warehouses), which if somewhat ungainly are substantial evidences of the enormous grain production which is the feature of the country. Like her sister province of Manitoba, Saskatchewan is served by railway systems which cover what must be regarded as an extraordinary extent of the new country when it is borne in mind that a generation ago it was practically uninhabited. But the end of railway construction is not yet. Throughout the province branch lines are contemplated and actually under construction in many directions, and these will bring all the settled districts within reasonable reach of the railway. A recent and interesting feature of the development of this province is that not very long ago the plains west and south of Moose Jaw, which were considered to be fit only for ranching, are to-day being rapidly taken up by substantial farmers, many of them from^ the United States, who by the adoption of what is known as " dry farming " are transforming these plains into vast wheat fields. The districts of Weyburn, Yellow Cross, Estevan and others along the " Soo " Line were at one time regarded as the western limit to the wheat-growing area 76 "DRY FARMING" of Southern Saskatchewan. To-day these places are the centres of important grain-growing districts. There are still large areas where the " land hunter " may go and with ordinary industry and prudence repeat the prosperous experiences which have been cited. Stock-raising is general throughout the province. The animals require shelter during the winter. In many parts of the province natural conditions render it eminently suitable for mixed farming and dairying. There is a splendid market for butter, especially during the winter months, and in recent years the supply has not been equal to the" demand. Co-operative dairying is gradually progressing, and the creameries now in operation are being well supported. There are indica- tions that farmers are regarding this movement with more and more favour. Most of the creameries are under the direction of the Department of Agriculture of the Provincial Government at Regina. This Depart- ment supervises generally all business transactions relating to the operation of the creameries, with the assistance of local Boards of Directors. The butter is sold by the Department and twice monthly cash is ad- vanced on cream delivered by the farmers. Such advances are based upon the wholesale price of butter at the time, and are forwarded regularly even if the butter is not sold. This payment constitutes an advance only, and twice in each year the season's business is balanced up, only the actual cost of manufacturing being debited to the patrons. The establishment of the Province is of such a recent date that there has been no time for the growth of great industrial centres. Although this is the case there are already many towns of importance which seem destined to repeat the expansion which has taken place in older communities. Regina, the capital of the province, has a population of about 13,500. This town is growing rapidly, and will unquestionably become an important 77 THE DOMINION OF CANADA city. Those who preside over its destinies have done so with an efficiency which is much to be commended, and by their enterprise have done wonders on Regina's behalf. Prince Albert, with a population of some 8,000, is situated on the Saskatchewan River about the centre of the province. It is the centre of a charming district, well wooded and watered, and offering great attractions to the immigrant in search of a home. Moose Jaw is an important business centre on the Canadian Pacific Railway, and has a population of some 13,000. It is in one of the great wheat sections to which reference has already been made. Moose Jaw is a railway junction of importance. Saskatoon, the rival of Regina, has a population of about 13,000. It is a thriving town and the seat of the University of Saskatchewan. In addition to the above, the Province is dotted throughout with towns and villages, built up by people who are comparatively recent arrivals in the country, and find within them profitable occupation for their energies, and opportunities for themselves and their children not available elsewhere. We have seen that the size of Manitoba as at present con- stituted is a little more than that of England and Wales, but in approaching the most westerly of the prairie provinces Alberta we find that it has a superficial area equal to about twice the size of the British Isles, and larger than either France or Germany. Within its boundaries are diversified natural resources upon a noble scale. The two prairie provinces with which we have already dealt wiU in all human probability have to depend for any pre-eminence in a large measure upon their agricultural resources. Nature, however, has so bountifully endowed Alberta that as time goes on not only is she destined to become the home of millions of contented and prosperous 78 IRRIGATION OF SOUTHERN ALBERTA farmers, but it seems almost equally certain that her great coal and other resources will enable her to provide for a great industrial population. In the meantime, let it be borne in mind that this magnificent kingdom has at present a population of, approximately, only some three hundred thousand. In contemplating this one irresistibly speculates upon the future, and he would be indeed a mean-hearted British citizen not to be filled as he dwells upon the subject with glowing anticipation and pride of possession. Elsewhere under the heading, " The Undeveloped North," the more remote districts have been dealt with — that vast stretch from Athabaska Landing northward, embracing the noble valleys of the Athabaska and Peace Rivers. At the moment we shall dwell more particularly with that part of this province where closer settlement prevails. In common with the rest of the Canadian prairies the soil of Alberta is admittedly of the richest. In Southern Alberta, from the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, we find the land sloping away eastward into prairie of noble dimensions. At one time given up almost exclusively to ranching, particularly to horse-ranching, for it is a great horse country, we now find a rapid expansion of grain-growing, dairying and mixed farming. As the prairies to the eastward have become famous for their hard spring wheats, so Southern Alberta is become known as a great producer of winter wheat. Irrigation, making both for regularity and abundance of production, has been adopted with most gratifying results, notably in the Calgary and Lethbridge districts where the Canadian Pacific Railway Company owns three million acres of the rich Bow River valley lands, and has undertaken the largest irrigation system in the Western Hemisphere, and land which a comparatively few years ago possessed but a nominal prairie value is 79 THE DOMINION OF CANADA to-day in good demand at from twenty dollars an acre and upwards. In 1900 the area seeded for winter wheat in Southern Alberta was less than five hundred acres ; in 1909 it was 305,000 acres, and the increase still goes on. The yield of this wheat is extraordinary, frequently amounting to forty bushels- per acre, and in abnormal cases to sixty bushels per acre. Alberta red wheat ranks high in the world's markets. Not long ago no one dreamt that it could be grown in Southern Alberta, and yet an exhibit of this variety took the gold medal at the Portland (Oregon) Exhibition in competition with the best products of the United States. The great advantage of this crop to the grain-grower is that it ripens earlier than spring wheat, being usually harvested early in August, and in this way not only escaping climatic dangers, but also enabling it to be saved in the pink of condition. Speaking of these conditions Professor Thomas Shaw writes :— " When I passed over this road only a few years ago, only a few fields of grain were discernible along the entire road. At the present time one cannot look out of the car window, save in limited areas, without seeing excellent crops of grain on every hand. These crops consist very largely of winter wheat and oats, but spring wheat is also grown, as well as speltz and barley, both of the beardless and hull-less varieties. The wheat crop, however, is in the ascendant. " This marvellous development has been brought about mainly by the uncommon adaptation which it was found that the country possessed for growing winter wheat. The yields of some of these crops have been such as to seem almost beyond credibility, and the instances in which these yields have been obtained have been so many, that the statements made in regard to them cannot be challenged. Thirty bushels per acre is a very moderate yield. Forty bushels is quite common. Fifty bushels 80 CONDITION OF GRAIN-GROWING is not infrequent, and as high as sixty-five bushels an acre have been threshed from large fields. That there should have been a rush for these lands as soon as their producing powers became known is in no sense surprising. The rapidity of the increase of production along this line of road is probably without a parallel in the history of agricultural development in the entire West. In 1908 the shipment of wheat per mile of road was 60,000 bushels from Granum to High wood, fifty-four miles." In respect of the country further north, and roughly speaking tributary to those towns between Calgary and Edmonton, we find a park-like country which is proving ■greatly attractive to large bodies of new settlers, and especially those coming from the United States. Mr. John Arthur Fixon, a well-known American agricultural authority, and the editor of Home Life, who may be deemed to be an impartial critic, wrote after investigation in Central Alberta, as follows : — " An excellent country for farming and grazing is found in central Alberta between Calgary and Edmonton. It is park-like, with wide expanses of fertile soil between the wooded tracks. Grasses grow with luxuriance all through this district, and the grain yields are surprisingly large. I saw wheat which would go as high as 50 to 55 bushels per acre ; oats as high as 80 bushels per acre, and barley 60 to 70 bushels per acre. Root crops of all kinds do well. For stock raising this district is of unusual adaptability. There are plenty of ranges and sheltered woods for cattle and sheep. The hay product throughout all of central Alberta is large enough to support many times the number of cattle and other animals that are now raised there. At the experimental farm at Lacombe, I saw in an astounding measure what the soil will do. Alfalfa, the great restorer of fertility to the soil, made a remarkably good showing. Strawberries and other berries, small fruit and apples, were grown there in a 81 THE DOMINION OF CANADA manner that showed there is a great future along this Hue. Experiments were being made with various grains that will mean great additions to the wealth of the farmers of Alberta. One who seeks his fortune in central Alberta and uses the soil rightly cannot fail." In dealing with this subj-ect important mention must be made of the live stock industry. The Province of Alberta occupies a position in Canada equivalent to that of the State of Kentucky in the United States in regard to horse-breeding. Its high altitude, dry atmosphere, short and comparatively mild winters, nutritious and well-watered pastures, render it exceedingly well adapted for horse-breeding, and the Western horse is noted for its ejidurance and freedom from disease. We find all the well-known breeds of horses represented on the Alberta farm and ranch. Heavy draught horses find a ready sale at high prices ; horses weighing from twelve to fourteen hundredweight realise £80 per pair and some- times more, and even lighter horses of less quality fetcli £60 and upwards per pair. Altogether conditions and circumstances are such as to enable the Alberta farmer to raise horses most advantageously. The great agricultural expansion of the West is bound to continue to provide a certain market. The bunch grasses of the prairie, occurring as they do on the ranges, turn out beef cattle which almost compare with those stall-fed on grain. A train-load of four-year- old steers after being driven one hundred and forty miles and shipped by railway to Montreal, two thousand three hundred miles, weighed at the end of the journey on an average 1,385 lbs. each. For all suitable cattle that can be produced there is a good market. Alberta supplies the Province of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory, as well as a large export demand. Much attention has been devoted to securing the best breeds, with the result that the range cattle of Western 82 LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY Canada are the best procurable of their kind. At Calgary cattle sales take place annually in April, which attract stockmen from great distances. These men come to this centre from near and far afield to purchase their bulls. Shorthorns, Herefords, Polled Angus and Galloways are the chief beef breeds, while for dairying purposes Holsteins and Ayrshires are often to be seen. The rearing of sheep is also an increasingly important industry. There is a good market for both mutton and wool. It would seem certain that eventually woollen mills will become established in the West. At present, however, the production of sheep is quite inadequate to the demand. A year or two ago the demand from the Manitoba market completely absorbed the available supply in Alberta, and after that found it necessary to draw upon Ontario for a large number. The demand in British Columbia and the Yukon is bound to expand, so that it is reasonable to say that there is a great future for the sheep farmer in Alberta. The Honourable Sydney A, Fisher, the Canadian Minister of Agriculture, has had his attention drawn to the shortness of the sheep supply not only in Alberta but throughout Canada, and at the present time a Departmental investigation is taking place with a view to placing before the farmers of Canada facts which will bring home to them the profitable prospects that exist for sheep-breeding, and will advise as to the particular breeds which will best suit the different localities. Much might be said as to the attractive prospects which exist for the farmer in hog-raising, in tlie dairy and poultry industry and in other directions in this great country, but we must pass on and deal with the more general features. Edmonton is the capital of the province. It is situated on the Saskatchewan River, and has a popula- tion of about 28,000 or more. It is the distributing centre 83 THE DOMINION OF CANADA for the northern districts, and the centre for the fur trade of the North. The Provincial Legislative Buildings of Alberta will be found here. Edmonton controls all its public utilities, including the system of street railways. On the south bank of the river is the town of Strathcona, with a population of some ,4,000. It is the seat of the University of Alberta. One might suppose that sooner or later it will become incorporated with its near neighbour. Calgary is often regarded as the commercial mxCtropolis of the Middle West, and is a rapidly growing city of some 30,000 inhabitants. Calgary has many notable manu- facturing establishments with an output amounting to millions of dollars annually. The town operates its electric light and power plant, and its system of street railways. It is an important centre for the activities of the Canadian Pacific Railway, who have here the headquarters of their British Columbia Land Department and their Irrigation Department. Medicine Hat is another thriving town with a popula- tion of some 5,000, situated on the banks of the South Saskatchewan River. This town has a natural gas supply which is used to heat and light the business places as well as the private houses. The citizens of Medicine Hat look forward with assurance to its becoming an important manufacturing centre, owing, as has been indicated, to the exceptional advantage of a natural gas supply. Lethbridge is a town of nearly twelve thousand inhabitants in the extreme south of the province, in the centre of the magnificent Southern Alberta wheat-fields. The town has at the present time five large coal mines, two of which have a daily output of twelve hundred tons each. It is destined to be the centre of an important manu- facturing industry. Lethbridge owns its electric light and power plant, water and sewerage system. 84 "DAZZLING PROSPECTS" Although the foregoing pages dealing with Western Canada do so in by no means an exhaustive manner, still enough has been said to give some idea of the vast extent of the resources and the general conditions existing there. The three prairie Provinces together have a superficial area of 578,190 square miles, of which the prairie area is about 200,000 square miles. Of this up to the present there are under cultivation only some 18,750 square miles, or 12,000,000 acres. The population in 1909 was 1,081,000. The dazzling prospects which this country presents to the land worker who is prepared to commit himself to a life of continuous but not necessarily arduous toil, and what widespread effects will be broughtjabout by the certain expansion, have already to a partial extent been made evident ; and although to-day the country is only in its early infancy the manufacturers of Eastern Canada, who have for some years been increasing their facilities as rapidly as possible, find even so they are scarcely able to meet the demands made upon them by the West. In these three Provinces it is estimated that there are some 171,000,000 acres of land suitable for profit- able farming. As has been shown, but a fraction of this is under cultivation. There are vast tracts of fertile soil awaiting the coming of the suitable settler. Such a man locating on the virgin prairie at midsummer, will find that if he exercises ordinary industry, and if the season be an average one, that with one pair of horses or oxen it will be possible to prepare, say, forty acres ready for wheat during the first summer. Under average conditions there should be a yield in the following season of say a thousand bushels (125 quarters) of the finest milling wheat in the world. In addition to this, he will probably produce a sufficiency of grain and food for stock, to meet the needs of his homestead. Nine-tenths of his 85 7— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA wheat crops he will be in a position to sell. Placing the settler's capital at £100, the proceeds of the first year's wheat crop at an average price — say sixty cents a bushel — will enable him to realise an amount greater than his working capital. As the partial average result of one year's work on wild prairie land of a man with this small capital, the contiguous railway is furnished with some 54,000 pounds of wheat freight, and the Canadian manu- facturer is called upon to supply at least a plough, a wagon, a binder, and other tools costing about £70 ; that is, of course, in addition to the other products necessary for the settler's home. This is a striking result of the efforts of a single settler, with meagre capital, for only one year? Many of the new settlers from the United States bring with them several teams of horses, and instead of preparing forty acres during their first season in the country, we find them " ripping up " two and even three hundred acres in the same time. Nowhere else can wealth from the soil be produced so readily, and this is the foundation of the great expansion now proceeding in Canada. The enormous acreage of these Provinces, practically all arable, and most of it in point of fertility not to be excelled, points with certainty to Western Canada quickly becoming a great factor in world affairs. As has been indicated the wealth of these Territories lies mainly in their agricultural resources, the surest and most per- manent foundation upon which any nation can rest. Very wisely the Canadian Government invites to these estates only those who intend going on the land, they need not necessarily be experienced agriculturists, the development promoted by these will in turn bring the commercial and professional classes. Of the 171,000,000 acres of cultivable land only a little over fourteen million acres were in cultivation in 1910. To show how rapid the expansion is it may be mentioned 86 CULTIVABLE LAND that 1,254,000 acres were " broken " to the plough during the year 1909 alone. For many years wheat-growing within this area was regarded as more or less experimental. Since then the question has been put beyond doubt, and people have poured into the country in numbers that steadily increase from year to year, as the following figures relating to the immigration into the North-West will conclusively show : — Year ending June 30, 1901 49,149. 1905 146,266. Nine months 1906 189,064. ending March 31, 1907 124,667. Year ending March 31, 1908 264,908. 1909 146,908. 1910.. 208,794. The Dominion Census of 1901 showed that the popula- tion of the three prairie Provinces was then about 400,000, which figure rose to 808,863 at the North-West Census of 1906, and the population is now placed at 1,081,000. In 1896 the export of wheat was under eight million bushels ; in 1909 it was over sixty million bushels. Ontario The history of this Province dates back to the time when the country was first settled by the United Empire Loyalists who migrated from the States to the south at the close of the War of Independence. At that time. Upper Canada, as it was then called, was unbroken forest, but to-day it is the most populous Province of the Dominion of Canada with over two and a half millions of people. Ontario has an estimated area of two hundred thousand square miles exclusive of that portion of the Great Lakes lying within the international boundary. From east to west it is over a thousand miles in breadth stretch- ing from the Quebec boundary on the east as far as the 87 THE DOMINION OF CANADA eastern boundary of Manitoba, and its length from its southern boundary to the shores of James Bay on the north is 750 miles. This great Territory is irregular in shape, and may be roughly divided geographically into three sections — eastern, western and northern. The eastern portion of the province is that lying between the Ottawa River and Lake Ontario. Western Ontario is the populous and fertile section lying to the north of Lake Erie and the west shore of Lake Huron. North- ern Ontario, or as it is sometimes called, New Ontario, comprises the four great districts Nipissing, Algoma, Thunder Bay and Rainy River lying to the north of Lake Superior and extending to the eastern boundary of Manitoba. Eastern and western Ontario are well supplied with railways, and have abundant facilities for transportation by water. It is here that most of the large cities and towTis are situated, among them being Toronto, Hamilton, London, Kingston and Brantford. The southern portion has been described as the garden of the Province. It is of great fertility and suited by soil and climate to farming in all its branches. The chmate is tempered by the proximity of the Great Lakes, and the winter is shorter and milder compared with many other parts of the Dominion. The apple orchards are most productive, and peaches, grapes, pears, plums and various varieties of small fruits are grown in the open in abundance. Tobacco is also cultivated. Although the Province of Ontario has enormous sources of wealth in its lands, forests, mines, fisheries and manufactures, agriculture has always been and is likely to remain its most important industry. The returns of the Bureau of Industries for 1909 show that the Province had 24,676,883 acres of assessed land, of which 14,257,169 acres were cleared. The acreage under Fall Wheat was 663,375; Spring Wheat, 135,161; Barley, ONTARIO 695,262; Oats, 2,695,585; Peas, 381,609; Beans, 45,029; Rye, 94,661 ; Buckwheat, 176,630 ; Corn for husking, 322,789 ; Corn for Silo, 288,346 ; Potatoes, 169,695 ; Hay and Clover, 3,228,445. The acreage of orchard and small fruits was 324,978, and vineyards, 11,420. Of pasture (cleared land) there were in 1909, 3,160,780 acres. The number of horses on hand in the year 1909 was 728,308, valued at $87,682,689. ' In dairying, Ontario enjoys a well-deserved reputation for the high quality of the cheese, butter, milk and cream which have for years been produced in large quantities for export. The raising of hogs for bacon, pork packing, •fruit and vegetable canning are other branches in which great progress has been made. The greatest development in fruit growing has taken place in the Niagara Peninsula. There is here a ridge of high land running through the whole district between which and Lake Ontario grapes are grown as a field crop, and peach trees are planted out in orchards. In this section of the Province fruit-growing is carried on as a business by itself, not merely as an adjunct to farming. The large quantities of fruit — peaches, grapes, pears, plums, etc., despatched from the district each season are the best testimony to the fitness of the climate and soil for fruit cultivation notwithstanding that there are adjacent such extensive markets as cities like Toronto and Hamilton. Attempts are being successfully made to place Canadian peaches on the English markets where the apples of Ontario have for so long enjoyed a ready sale. The manufacturing industries of Canada are to a very large extent centred in Ontario, and by reason of the excellent position of the Province, the splendid railway and water transportation facilities, the almost unlimited supply of water-power and other advantages, it is safe to anticipate that they will continue to increase. Among the principal articles manufactured are furniture, 89 THE DOMINION OF CANADA sawn timber, wooden-ware of all kinds, iron and steel, engines and locomotives, hardware, agricultural imple- ments, sewing machines, cloth, linen, cotton and woollen goods, abrasive goods, boots and shoes, carriages and waggons, cement, food-stuffs, leather goods, paper, wood-pulp, etc. The commercial fisheries constitute a useful source of food supply and offer a livelihood to a considerable number of fishermen. White-fish, herring, trout, bass, pickerel, pike and sturgeon are among the fish to be found in the Great Lakes, while in many parts of the Province there are innumerable angling rivers where the best of sport is to be enjoyed. Wifh the progress of settlement, the forest land of southern Ontario has disappeared, but in the northern parts of the province there is what might be regarded as an " inexhaustible " quantity of timber, which furnishes material for many of the industries of the province, and supplies the large wood pulp mills which have been established. In view of the remarkable developments which have taken place since northern Ontario has been opened up, it is difficult to realise to-day that text-books of only a few years ago asserted that mining was not an industry of the province. The nickel-copper mines of the Sudbury region which lies to the north of Georgian Bay yielded in 1909 over 450,000 tons of ore, and it is estimated that its contents were 13,141 tons of metallic nickel and 7,873 tons of metallic copper. The total production of silver from the Cobalt mines beginning with 1904, when the first shipments were made, down to 1909 is valued at nearly thirty-three million dollars, and as showing the rapid and recent progress of the mineral industry of the province, it may be mentioned that while the total production in 1905 was valued at 17,854,296 dollars, in 1909 the value had grown to nearly thirty-three million 90 BRITISH COLUMBIA dollars for the year. Besides the valuable silver deposits at Cobalt and elsewhere, gold, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, iron pyrites, feldspar and Portland cement are among the mineral products of the Province, and as its resources become developed, with the opening up of new districts, it is certain that Ontario will occupy a leading position among the mineral producing countries of the world. For those possessing some means Ontario offers great attractions in all branches of industry, while " New Ontario " is full of opportunity for the poor man of the right character. British Columbia While it has in the past been customary to think and speak of British Columbia as a mountainous country, it is as well to bear in mind that since railway communication has been established the various resources of this western- most Province of Canada have been developed to a remarkable extent, and that when the projected railway extensions are completed, the country will occupy an even more prominent place in the public eye than it does at present. Its coast line on the Northern Pacific gives it a position of great commercial strategic importance. This Province, lying between the western prairie country and the Pacific Ocean, is the largest of the great divisions which make up the Dominion of Canada, its area being variously estimated at from 372,630 to 395,610 square miles. From north to south it extends some seven hundred miles, and it has an average width of about four hundred miles. Vancouver Island, the largest of the archipelago of islands lying off the coast, is 285 miles long and from 40 to 80 miles wide, covering an area of about 20,000 square miles. In a Province of such vast extent it will be readily 91 THE DOMINION OF CANADA understood that the climatic conditions are of a varied character, but taken as a whole the climate of the Province presents all the conditions met with in European countries lying within the temperate zone. Dr. Macoun, of the Dominion Geological Survey, has stated that British Columbia possesses a climate superior to that of England in every respect, both as regards heat and moisture. Along the Pacific littoral the rainfall is heavy as the result of the moisture-laden winds from the Pacific. Throughout the great inland plateau a much drier climate prevails, while in the northern interior the winter climate is more severe. In Vancouver Island and along the southern coast the climate corresponds very closely with that of England, and severe frost scarcely ever occurs in winj:er. The mining industry, by which the province is perhaps best known outside its borders, may be fairly said to be only in its infancy, although the mines have already produced over three hundred million dollars. Gold has been found since 1862, and silver, lead, iron, copper and other minerals are also found in abundance, and the well-known coal areas of Vancouver Island are, of course, of outstanding value. In timber the province of British Columbia is especially rich and the output of lumber is increasing rapidly. Apart from the Douglas fir, which attains immense proportions, especially in the coast regions, there are many other growths of great commercial value such as the hemlock, cypress, white spruce, red cedar, white pine, tamarac, balsam, yew, maple, cotton wood, etc. Great developments are certain to take place in the manufacture of wood pulp and paper, for the conditions will be favourable not only as regards the availability of raw material and power for the factories, but transportation facilities are rapidly improving. The fisheries of British Columbia, while important, are 92 A "SEA OF MOUNTAINS" still in a comparatively undeveloped state, although more attention is being drawn to their potentialities, and great developments will undoubtedly take place in the near future in connection with the deep sea fisheries. The remarkable salmon fisheries are well known, and are dealt with at length in another chapter. It is only in comparatively recent times that British Columbia has been looJs;ed upon as being in any sense a country suitable for settlement from an agricultural point of view, and although, compared with other Provinces of the Dominion, the area available might seem limited, yet it is now better understood than formerly that it has rich assets in its arable and pastoral lands. Those who know the province will resent the statement that it is a " sea of mountains," notwithstanding that a stranger who keeps to the present main railway line may be quite prepared to endorse it. Its beautiful valleys are becoming better known, and their fertility ascertained beyond question. Large numbers of settlers are profitably engaged in mixed farming and fruit-grow- ing, and the extent of the lands available for further cultivation, is considerable. Dairying and poultry- raising are found to pay well, and apart from the excellent markets in the cities and towns, the opening up of new mines and establishment of new industries provide splendid markets for such products. As regards oppor- tunities for the extension of fruit-growing, it has been estimated that there are at least a million acres south of the 52nd degree where aU the fruits of the temperate zone can be produced. Ten years ago there was not enough fruit grown to supply the local markets, but the industry is growing steadily, and is likely to become one of the most important in the Province. The subject has attracted much attention in Great Britain in recent years owing to the steps which have been taken to display the produce of the British Columbia orchards, and many 93 THE DOMINION OF CANADA prizes have been awarded to the official exhibits at the Royal Horticultural Society's shows and in the provinces since the annual displays were commenced in 1905. Besides apples, peaches and grapes are successfully grown, and more attention is being given to their cultivation as new areas suitable for the purpose are opened up. 9A CHAPTER XI The Undeveloped North We have seen in foregoing pages the civilisation of Canada, starting in the east in Acadia, moving quickly westward to Quebec,- thence more slowly onward to Ontario, through Manitoba to British Columbia. We see in the network of railways which surround Winnipeg, in the closely dotted townships throughout that great middle belt the story of prosperity and civilisation advancing by leaps and bounds to the amenities of civilised life, brought home to the settlers by the branch lines which run north and south of the main systems. Above this belt the branch lines of railway do not run, and there are fewer named rivers. In the territory on the east of Hudson's Bay there is a space which would accommodate the British Isles, which is to all intents and purposes unexplored. There is a vast expanse, 350 miles from north to south, the interior of which, even on the large scale maps, is shown by white paper. To the west of the Hudson's Bay, between it and the Great Bear Lake, there are vast stretches of country which have seldom been trodden by the foot of civilised man, only awaiting the influx of population and transport to awaken them to such productiveness as has hardly been dreamed of. Spasmodically, and from time to time, this great no- man's-land has been prospected, and from official inquiries and private prospectors we are able to form some idea of the possibilities. To the east of Hudson's Bay and to the north of Quebec lies the territory of Ungava. It is separated from the northern portion of Quebec by a line drawn from 95 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Hamilton Inlet on the coast of Labrador to the mouth of the Eastmaine River in Hudson's Bay, with slight deviations to follow the course of the Hamilton River and the Eastmaine River. The area of the district is about 355,000 square miles, and does not include the strip along the Atlantic coast which is under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. Ungava is a large rolling plateau, from 1,000 to 2,000 feet in height except in the north part where it becomes somewhat lower. The soil is generally sandy, except in the middle of the peninsula where it becomes much better, and is, in fact, possible for agriculture. Beyond the northern timber limit small shrubs and plants grow. Fairly good vegetables and potatoes can be grown along the Eastmaine River and at Hamilton Inlet, and here and there oats and barley can be produced ; but the coun- try will never be an agricultural country ; it is too cold, the soil is not suited to cereal crops, and there are no areas which could be called prairie land. Rocky, rough country is a fair description of Ungava. The climate is moderately cold even in summer time, the tree land stops short at a line drawn between Richmond gulf and the Leaf River which runs into Ungava Bay. White and black spruce, tamaracks and a few birch are to be found. Towards the head of Hamilton Inlet there is some good timber suitable for ships' masts. There is valuable timber in the valleys of all the rivers running into Hamilton Inlet. The strips of timber country are confined mainly to the streams in belts of half a mile to a mile on each side. There is some difference of opinion as to the value of the timber, but expert lumbermen say that if it is only properly preserved it will be very valuable, and that the Hamilton River country will in time be one of the most famous timber districts in Canada. Enormous areas of timber are burnt up by careless fishermen and settlers who light fires in the summer to dry fish for winter 96 UNGAVA use. These fires extend over large areas and many thou- sands of miles of valuable forest land have been burnt. In its present condition, Ungava is not a poor man's land, since means of communication are so bad, and the climate is not available for growing the necessities of life with any certainty, at all events on an economical scale. The country will probably have to await its awakening by some large concern which can take hold of the district in a wholesale fashion, providing its employees or settlers with supplies whilst they are carrying out the schemes of the company. The summers are short and the spring comes late. Even in the summer the climate is cold. In the interior during the summer time there are rain showers almost every day, and on the coast fogs are frequent. There are Hudson's Bay posts scattered about the territory, and the best skins in the world are obtained in Labrador. The marten is a cheap fur, but there are otter, fox, mink, black bear, and in the far north, white bear. The animals are trapped by the Indians and Esquimos and sold to the Hudson's Bay Company or to Revillon Freres, a French trading company which buys these furs from the trappers direct. The seal fisheries and the walrus fisheries in Hudson's Bay and Hudson's Strait occupy a good many adventurous fishermen, whilst the inland fisheries are a happy hunting-ground for the sportsmen, lake trout being caught there weighing as much as 50 or 60 lbs. White fish, pickerel, and the sucker are to be found in all the lakes, and salmon fisheries are also carried on in the district. The iron-bearing rock in Ungava is likely to prove a most important asset to this great northern territory. A large area of this extends from about the vicinity of the Hamilton River, northward to Ungava Bay direct in a straight line ; this belt is probably some 100 miles long and 200 or 300 miles wide south-east of the Bay. In 97 THE DOMINION OF CANADA addition, there are patches of iron ore on the west side of Ungava Bay and in other places. As a rule, these ores are not of a very high grade, but they run to 30 or 40%, while some of the Labrador ores run as high as 60%. It is highly probable that in the future these areas will come very much to the front: The only problem which confronts the pioneer is that of power and heat for his smelting works. There is neither coal, nor oil, nor natural gas in Ungava. There are, however, excellent water powers in the rivers. The falls at Hamilton Inlet are a good deal larger than Niagara Falls, and it is estimated that some 9.000,000 horse-power is running to waste daily, awaiting only the hand of man which shall tame it. It is quite possible that when this power has been harnessed the time \vi\\ have come for the development of the iron ore. At present the only means of communication is by canoe, following the waterways, and nothing weighty that can be of value in developing the district can at present be taken into or out of the country. West of Hudson's Bay To the west of Hudson's Bay another large area of the North- West territory is awaiting development. It is most convenient to consider this in two divisions. The first division includes the territory of Keewatin on the west of Hudson's Bay ; and the second is from the western boundary of Keewatin to the Rocky Mountains, including the northern portions of the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the triangular portion of British Columbia east of the Rocky Mountains and the Great Mackenzie Basin. There is to the north of Lake Winnipeg an area of from 5,000 to 10,000 square miles of country adapted to agriculture. It is by no means such good country as is to be found to the south, and a large portion of it NORTH OF LAKE WINNIPEG is wooded, rocky, and swampy. There are, however, considerable patches of arable and pasture land, which, with the valuable inland fisheries and the mineral deposits promise considerable development for this territory. In the section with which we are dealing, wheat, barley, and a small amount of fruit and vegetables have been grown as far north as Norway House, on the north shore of Lake Winnipeg. Potatoes and turnips have been grown as far north as Fort Churchill on Hudson's Bay, where also cattle are bred and excellent butter is made. This must be regarded as somewhat excep- tional, since the north line of cultivation of the potato passes some distance to the south of Fort Churchill. Huronion rocks occur at intervals, and as is usual with this geographical formation, many good minerals are to be found. Copper pyrites, and different sulphides are to be found. There is, too, a large area near Front Lake of norite rock similar to the formation in which the nickel deposits of Sudbury are to be found. A large patch of the country in the northern part of Saskatchewan was prospected in 1908 by Mr. Frank Crean, whose report says that although the country is not entirely suitable for agricultural settlement through- out in its present state, it is capable of producing cereals and farm produce. When the swamps caused by lack of drainage have been cleared away the country will become much more healthy and certainly much more fruitful. At Portage Laloche, in latitude 56 degrees north, oats and barley have been grown at an altitude of 1,600 feet, and there are great possibilities of ranching along the river, where water and shelter are all at hand. Game of all kinds abounds, and the Indians engaged in hunting for the Hudson's Bay Company are prosperous as the result of their year's labour. Poplar trees are to be found all over this tract, and, following the well-known rule of the western prairie country, their presence indicates 99 THE DOMINION OF CANADA good land. Near to Fort Churchill lies a district of great promise in mineral wealth. It is to the great region north of the Saskatchewan valley and west of Keewatin which may broadly be described as the great Mackenzie Basin that the eyes of Canadian statesmen are turned for the future development of Canada, The settlements here, in comparison with its area, are quite insignificant in number and in extent, but they have already shown the enormous possibilities of the territory as an agricultural and industrial country. It is claimed that there is in the Peace River section of this country as much good agricultural land lit for settle- ment, ^nd as yet unexploited as is to be found settled in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. A careful estimate of the agricultural lands in this territory of the Mackenzie Basin places the area at not less than 100,000,000 acres. To the average person it will be surprising that wheat, which is generally regarded as the valuable preserve of warm lands, can be grown quite near to the Arctic circle, where other conditions are favourable. It is a M'ell-known fact to all authorities that grain is produced more abun- dantly as it approaches its northern limit, and it is a fact too, that the human species, as well as the lower animals, are more fruitful in the north than they are in the south. This rule applies also to wheat ; and the nearer grain is growTi to its extreme north limit of production the better is the quality. Professor Saunders, twenty-five years ago, speaking before the Royal Geographical Society, showed his audience wheat grown in Kent and Surrey which contained an average of 4h grains to the fascicle, wheat grown at Ottawa which contained two to three grains, but wheat grown on the Peace River in 1875 contained five or six grains to the fascicle. Thus, if Ontario farmers, with their two or three grains to the fascicle can produce 100 SEVERE CLIMATE twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre, those of the Peace River should be able to produce over forty bushels to the acre, granted that the same acre produced the same number of stalks. The climate is undoubtedly severe. At the same time the intensity of the winter cold has no effect on the vegetation of the country. The winter may be taken to be about as severe as that of Manitoba, but since the country is not so exposed, the cold winds are not so trying to either vegetation or stock. Spring arrives with the most astonishing regu- larity, between the 15th and 20th of April without exception. It comes leaping across the country from the west at the rate of 250 miles a day, and once begun the warm weather continues, and the heat increases until the middle of August. Naturally the spring begins late and the winter sets in early, but owing to the great length of the day between latitudes 56 and 65 degrees vegetation is influenced by the sun on an average eighteen hours out of the twenty-four, thus in this north region at least two hours a day more summer sunlight than in Southern Canada is given to promote growth, with the result that vegetation shows the most extraordinary rapidity of growth, an earlier maturity, and a very high quality. It has been proved that the coolness of the nights in June and the early part of July has a good deal to do with the wonderful productiveness of vegetables and cereals in this part of the country. The larger lakes and rivers seem to exert some influence in keeping off early summer and autumn frosts. Lac la Biche, on the heights above Edmonton, is notorious for the absence of autumn frosts. Isle de la Crosse post is another instance, and the reason ascribed in each case is the proximity of a large lake. There is a record of excep- tional and severe frost all through Manitoba on August 18th which killed the potatoes, yet, on September 22nd of 101 S— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA the same season potatoes were still found at the Isle de la Crosse, in latitude 56, green and unspoiled. A great asset of the Mackenzie Basin is the existence of what are known as the Chinook winds, which extend from St. Paul on the coast north-westerly right down the Mackenzie Valley. This part of the country has been noted for the northward curve of the summer isothermals. The explanation of these winds is that the rain clouds of the American interior are drawn up by the sun in the southern Pacific. They are floated up on the north-east trade winds, and when these strike the coast of America to the south of California they are so hot that they have no power to give out their moisture, but go eastward and westward, and, as they pass over the land, raise the normal temperature of the whole region. Following up this course we find that the isothermal crosses over the Salt Lake valley, and, still going north, enters Canada in the valley of the Kootena}^ and on the east side of the Rocky Mountains about the 114th meridian. From the boundary of British Columbia this current passes up the Kootenay and the Simil Kameem through the Cache Creek country and the Babine Lake and enters the Mackenzie valley with its sixty thousand square miles of fruitful soil. In the middle of April the Peace River, in latitude 56, will have its banks covered with spring flowers, whilst 800 miles nearer the Equator no flowers are to be found. How far these Chinooks extend is still a matter for debate. They are mentioned by Sir John Richardson as existing near the Arctic circle, latitude 65, longitude about 115. They are to be found at Isle de la Crosse in latitude 56, and along the Peace and Smoky Rivers. What is certain is that the Chinook winds do not arise from local disturb- ances of barometric pressure, but a great indraft of moist, heated air in the nature of monsoons, drawn up, in the first place, from the south by the great American desert, and dispensed over the north during their course. 102 THE UNDEVELOPED NORTH Just as spring comes in from the west so winter comes racing westwards at the same rate of about 250 miles a day. Naturally the most serious drawback to this great North-West, at present, is its distance from the haunts of mankind, and the difficulty of transport. As soon, however, as merchandise in any quantity is produced there is for its conveyance an immense natural waterway in the Peace River, an enormous body of water which winds its slow way from 500 to 700 feet below the level of the surrounding country. Where it enters the Rocky Mountains it sinks a thousand feet in ten miles so neces- sitating a portage. For nearly 800 miles below the lower end of this portage the river is still navigable, varying between 500 and 1,000 yards in width, still 500 feet below the normal level of the surrounding country. At the lowest point, near the mouth, where mud-bars begin to take the place of the gravel bottom, the river becomes shallow, but might yet be fit for stern wheel or river steamers of six feet or less in draft. In November, the river is closed by ice, but reopens quickly with the advance of spring towards the end of April. The value of the Mackenzie as a mineral country is an ascertained fact, and many of the streams from the mountains northwards are auriferous. The Mackenzie also from its headwaters to the Arctic Ocean is navigable to suitable steamers. Already the Hudson's Bay Company's steamer from Fort Churchill has made its way down the Mackenzie River nearly to the mouth. There is no doubt that it could have got further to the Arctic Sea if it had had a pilot who under- stood the passage. According to Sir John Franklin the total length of the Mackenzie from its source to the Arctic Ocean is 1,037 miles. It is a large river, flowing from the Great Salt Lake, with an average width of over a mile, and it maintains that breadth practically from source to mouth. 103 THE DOMINION OF CANADA At Lac la Biche, where missionaries have set the example of cultivation, as they have nearly everywhere in the rest of the Mackenzie valley, there are excellent small farms round the lake, and Bishop Glut, in his evi- dence before a committee, considered that all the country round Lac la Biche and by the lesser Salt Lake, and all that on the Peace River and that on the Liard River was suitable for settlements. Lakes are innumerable in the basin of the great Mackenzie, and all of them abound in fish of different kinds and of great size. White fish, for example, weighing at least 31 lbs, small trout from 4 lbs. to 10 lbs., and large trout from 10 lbs. to 35 lbs have been taken. In Clear Lake pike have been caught weighing from 25 lbs. to 351bs. Musk ox of great size inhabit this region, the moose and the elk are found all over the forest region, while the beaver, and waterfowl of innumerable variety exist throughout the Mackenzie Basin and on the Arctic coast in the summer. An interesting comparison of this country may be made with the Russian province of Vologda. This province is in the same latitude as the Peace River country ; its area is about 155,000 square miles, it is chiefly drained from the north, and is 750 miles in length and 350 miles in width. The Dwina River, which drains it, carries its produce to Archangel and thence by the White Sea, in the same fashion as might be done by the Mackenzie and the Arctic Sea. The winters are severe and the summers are warm in precisely the same fashion as in the north-west of Canada. In the province of Vologda are raised oats, barley, hemp, flax, and pulse. How much of this land there is in Canada must necessarily be a matter of guesswork, but it has been estimated that on the Peace River there are 25,000 square miles, in the Mackenzie valley, let us say, 25,000 square miles, in the 104 THE MACKENZIE RIVER headwaters of the Mackenzie and the Yukon west mountains another 30,000 square miles. That is to say, there is agricultural land sufficient to support a popula- tion of, say, 1,500,000 persons, and adding to this a quotum of fur-traders, men engaged in transport, store-keeping, trading, and so forth, one might say with moderation that this particular part of the country could support not less than 3,000,000 persons altogether. Sooner or later the pressure of population in the more southern provinces will start a stream of emigration to the north-west. To meet the needs of this stream, or indeed to encourage it, the railways will run branch lines or even main lines through the Mackenzie Basin, and before long this territory will enter upon an era of development. 105 CHAPTER XII British Diplomacy and Canada It is perhaps only natural that Canada should sometimes chafe at the limitations imposed upon her by the Constitu- tion, Of these limitations perhaps the most obvious and the most irksome to many Canadians is that which prevents the representatives of the people from negotiat- ing directly with foreign powers. The Canadian says, and with some reason, that he is able to manage his own affairs, and he goes a step further and doubts if his diplomatic affairs have always been well handled by the English statesmen to whom in the past they were entrusted. There are two views diametrically opposed to one another on this subject, but since the one we have mentioned is held by a very large number of Canadians it may be permissible to state, if not to endorse the attitude generally adopted in Canada as to some of the occasions on which England has taken in hand the affairs of the Dominion. In most cases the disputes which have arisen have been with Canada's continental neighbour, and the first of these began when the thirteen colonies separated themselves from the Mother Country, and the Treaty of Independence was in preparation. In March, 1782, on the fall of Lord North's ministry, the Rockingham administration came into power. Its policy was the ending of the war in America and the recognition of the revolting colonies. Shortly before forming the new government. Lord Shelburne intimated to Dr. Franklin, who was then diplomatic representative of the Congress of the United States in Paris, that he was anxious to secure a satisfactory settlement, and 106 ■ TWO DIPLOMATISTS on Dr. Franklin's replying in friendly fashion, he des- patched, without informing his colleagues, a Mr. Richard Oswald to Paris with instructions to open informal negotiations for peace. Before entering upon a resume of the merits of the case let us glance at the map of North America as it was then. Bounded on the east b-y Nova Scotia we see the United States as they then were — a narrow strip of seaboard bounded on the west by the Alleghany Mountains. On the Western side of the North American Continent were the Spanish possessions which ran eastward as far as the Mississippi. This left a wedge some 400 miles wide driven down from the north between the Spanish possessions and the United States of America. Now Mr. Oswald, though apparently a most amiable gentleman, was entirely a novice in the diplomatic world. He had been a successful Scottish merchant of the City of London, but he was the last person in the world to match such able negotiators as Franklin, John Adams and Jay. To assist him was sent later an even less practised diplomatist in the person of a Mr. Vaughan. The American case was most ably prepared, and each of the negotiators made himself specially responsible for particular details. Dr. Franklin's project was no less than the cession of Nova Scotia and Canada to the United States. Mr. Jay desired the extension of the United States boundaries westward over the Alleghany Mountains to the Mississippi, so sweeping away the British Canadian territory which lay between the United States and the Spanish possessions. Mr. Adams represented the desires of the New Englanders for the Canadian fisheries ; and to meet these three skilled diplomatists went Mr. Oswald, whose chief recom- mendation was that he was introduced by Lord Shelburne to Dr. Franklin as " a pacifical man, conversant in those negotiations which are most interesting to mankind." 107 THE DOMINION OF CANADA At the outset Dr. Franklin handed to him a confidential memorandum which contained the proposition that Great Britain should volmitarily cede the whole of Nova Scotia and Canada to the United States. Had this memorandum been made public it would indeed have caused a storm, but it was not. On his return he reported to Lord Shelburne the result of his conversation, and handed to him Dr. Franklin's notes which later became known as the " Canadian paper." It is certain that Lord Shelburne, though he made no comment at the time, disapproved entirely of the pro- position ; but Mr. Oswald assumed his silence to be consent. At any rate, that appears to be the view conveyed to Dr. Franklin, who mentions in his diary that on his return to Paris Mr. Oswald reported his opinion that the affair of Canada would be settled to his entire satisfaction " towards the end of the treaty." The death of Lord Rockingham in England made Lord Shelburne prime minister, and this in turn led to the resignation of Mr. Fox. Thus Lord Shelburne was able to send his " pacifical man " as plenipotentiary, author- ising him to treat with the commissioners of the United States for the settlement of the questions at issue. France and Spain were both hostile to the extension of the United States to the Mississippi, and to the claims regarding the Canadian fisheries, and a confidential mission was sent to Lord Shelburne to amplify the French views. In April, 1782, the naval victory of Lord Rodney over the French fleet crippled the sea power of France and Spain, so eliminating one factor which had to be taken into consideration by the negotia- tors. British diplomacy was also assisted by a modified ultimatum agreed upon by the American Congress. The modified instructions said, " Although it is of the utmost importance to the peace and commerce of the LTnited States that Canada and Nova Scotia should be ceded, 108 AN UNCALLED-FOR SACRIFICE and more particularly that the equal common right of the United States to the fisheries should be guaranteed to them, yet a desire to terminate the war has induced us not to make the acquisition of these objects the ultimatum of the present occasion." The United States Commissioners, therefore, were quite aware before Mr. Oswald appeared that Congress had modified its instructions, but they did not exchange this knowledge for the confidences which he so readily poured into their ears. In the United States the outlook was extremely black, and there was no money in the treasury. The public credit was at its lowest ebb. Everything was in favour of a masterful pohcy on the part of the British, yet Britain had no man to pursue it. Mr. Oswald was supreme over Britain's greatest territorial possession. To-day it is amazing that such men should have been allowed such powers, the more so as we find Lord Shel- burne writing to Mr. Oswald a month before the Treaty was signed, saying, " I should act with great insincerity if I did not convey to you that I find it difficult to enter into the policy of all that you recommend upon the subject both of the fishery and of the boundaries." The negotia- tions were rendered even more favourable to the United States later on when Mr. Jay, whose particular business it was to gain control of the fisheries, persuaded Mr. Vaughan to return to England with the object of impres- sing Lord Shelburne with the strength of the American sentiment on this point. So disastrously successful was he that Lord Shelburne immediately consented to agree that the boundaries of Canada should be confined to the strip of territory along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers. Eventually a provisional Treaty was drawn up, to which Mr. Oswald agreed, and then sent it to the Shelburne ministry. Amongst the provisions were the following : — 109 THE DOMINION OF CANADA 1. Independence, and a settlement of the boundaries between the thirteen states and the King's colonies. 2. The cession to the thirteen states of that part of Canada which was added to it by the Quebec Act of 1774. These were considered as indispensable. Furthermore, Mr. Oswald reported that Dr. Franklin demanded half a million or more as indemnification to the sufferers of the United States for the destruction of their towns and property, and some sort of acknowledg- ment in an Act of Parliament that Britain sympathised with these misfortunes. 3. American ships to be on the same footing as English ships in Great Britain. 4. The surrender to Congress of every part of the remainder- of Canada, after the said reduction of territory to the limits preceding 1774. Great Britain to have full freedom of fishing and of imports and exports in general, free of duty. It was quite evident from Mr. Oswald's report that Dr. Franklin was putting on the screw, particularly in con- nection with the indemnity question. At first he had been content to reserve certain of the Canadian lands, and his proposal was that the land should be sold and the money applied for the relief of the sufferers on both sides. Later on, however, this demand had grown to one that " these backlands of Canada should be given up, and that a further sum of money, half a million or more, should be granted by Great Britain to Americans who had suffered from the war." This final exhibition of incapacity seems to have aroused even the sluggards of the English Cabinet. It was proposed that Oswald should be recalled, since they declared he was merely an additional negotiator on the American side. Lords Shelburne and Townshend , however, refused. Mr. Jay, with Oswald's consent, drafted the Treaty 110 BRITISH " CONCESSIONS " which was forwarded to London for submission to His Majesty. It provided for : — 1. The Independence of the thirteen united states. 2. The cession of nearly the whole of Canada, the boundary being from the Atlantic, on similar lines to those described in the final Treaty, as far as latitude 45° on the St. Lawrence. The line then crossed the river and ran westward to the south point of Lake Nipissing, thence directly to the source of the Mississippi. 3. The right of the people of the United States to take fish of every kind in the British-Canadian waters where the inhabitants of both countries had been accustomed to fish previously. 4. Free navigation of the Mississippi without, however, means of exit or entrance. The claims of the British Commissioners with regard to the payment of American debts to British merchants, compensation to the loyalists, reversal of compensation, etc., were refused by the - American negotiators and forthwith abandoned by the British Commissioners. The case of the British loyalists was particularly hard. They had been treated with the greatest severity, and in many cases with savage cruelty, by the American revolutionists for no crime except loyalty to Great Britain and a refusal to fight against her. So, born of prejudice and fostered in ignorance, the Treaty made its debut. When the terms were made known it is not too much to say that the whole of Europe was staggered by the generosity of the British concessions. Not content with losing thirteen colonies, Great Britain had given, quite gratuitously and unnecessarily, a piece of territory of about 280,000 square miles, endowing the United States with territories sufficient for the following states :— Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1843), and Minnesota (1858). Ill THE DOMINION OF CANADA It was at this time that the King wrote weakly to Lord Shelburne, " I am too much agitated with the fear of sacrificing the interests of my country . . . that I am unable to add anything on that subject, but most fre- quent prayers to Heaven to guide me so to act, that posterity may not lay the downfall of this once respectable Empire at my door ; and that if ruin should attend the measures that may be adopted I may not long survive them." Lord Shelburne evidently felt that matters had gone too far, and he warned Mr. Oswald that " the nation would rise to do itself justice and to recover its wounded honour," and as a sop to the national honour he des- patched Mr., afterwards Sir Henry, Strachey to Paris with instructions to insist on the compensation of the loyalists, the retention by Great Britain of the Indian territory, and of the original boundaries of Canada within the Ohio and the Mississippi. He was to obtain a boundary for Nova Scotia more favourable to Canada, and he was to refuse the cession of the Canadian fisheries. Had Mr. Strachey been sent to the scene of Conference at an earlier date it is evident that the Treaty would have had a very different complexion. Coming late, and single-handed, as he was, he fought step by step to save something from the wreck of British hopes. If only he had had more time ! If only he had been able to dis- cover that Congress had withdrawn her ultimatum as to the fisheries and the Mississippi boundaries ! We know now that M. de Vergennes would have used his influence with the American representatives to induce them to reduce their demands. We know now that their demands were no more than the bluff of practised poker players. But Mr. Strachey held no cards. Messrs. Oswald and Vaughan had presented to the American negotiators all the knowledge they required of the feeling of the British Cabinet. All he could do was to retain 112 WANTED— AN EXPERT the portion of the Canadian territory between Mr. Oswald's Hne and the lakes. He failed in his attempt in defining the boundaries of Nova Scotia, but he was able to recover the territory between the St. John and the St. Croix. What the King thought we know. What Lord Townshend said was, "Why could not some man from Canada well acquainted with the country have been thought of for the business which Mr. Oswald was sent to negotiate ? Dr. Franklin, Mr. Jay, Mr. Lawrence, and Mr. Adams have been too much for him." America was naturally delighted. The bargain, if bargain it can be called, had been struck entirely on an American basis. The Americans had shown an astute diplomacy, and England had given practically everything. What Mr. Strachey thought may be seen from a letter to a colleague, " The Treaty signed and sealed is now sent. I shall set off to-morrow hoping to arrive on Wednesday, if I am alive. God forbid that I should ever have hand in such another peace." During the years that followed the Treaty the diplo- matic correspondence amongst the State papers shows how bitter was the feeling between the United States and Great Britain. In the early years of the nineteenth century, when Great Britain was fighting for her life and for the peace of Europe, these strained relations were increased by Great Britain's retaliatory policy, forced upon her by Napoleon's Berlin decree which prohibited commerce to ports closed to British trade. Close upon this followed the war of 1812, which has been described elsewhere in this book. In this war the United States suffered far more severely than Canada. British forces captured and held part of Maine to the Penobscot River, including the disputed territory of the Maine boundary. Nearly all Michigan, including what is now Chicago, to the Prairie de Chien had been won 113 THE DOMINION OF CANADA back ; and there was not an inch of Canadian territory in American hands. Surely this, if ever, was the moment to settle the disputed Maine and Michigan boundaries ? The United States wanted peace. Napoleon was safe in Elba ; and Great Britain was free for the moment from all continental troubles. Yet, when the terms of the Treaty of Ghent (1814) were made known, it was seen that Great Britain had given back to the United States all the captured territory, yet not a word was said about the disputed boundaries. The fact of there being a state of war between the two countries had abrogated the fishery rights conceded to the United States, as well as the rights of navigation (such as they were) of the Mississippi River conceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of 1782-3. Yet, by the Treaty of 1818, Great Britain again gave fisher}^ privileges to the United States on certain coasts of Newfoundland, Labrador and Canada, and although the United States, under the Treaty, renounced the liberty to fish within three miles of any of the coasts, etc., not included in the schedule, there were constant squabbles as to the interpretation of the Treaty, which introduced much bitterness into the diplomatic dealings between the United States and Great Britain. The next important arrangement between the United States and Great Britain was the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, which was to continue in force for ten years or longer until terminated by a year's notice on either side. By it the United States were allowed to fish in the Canadian in-shore fisheries ; Canadians obtained the liberty of fishing in the American in-shore fisheries north of latitude 36°: the United States were allowed the navigation of the River St. Lawrence, and Canada to navigate Lake Michigan. Reciprocity in free importa- tion and free exportation of certain natural produce was also agreed upon, and this Treaty continued in force 114 WASHINGTON TREATY, 1871 to the satisfaction of both sides until, as we have told in the chapter on Confederation, the United States put an end to it in 1866. The Washington Treaty of 1871, which was made in the settlement of the Alabama claims, conceded the Canadian fishery question to the United States on the basis of compensation for ten years' purchase. The United States were allowed free navigation of the St. Lawrence up to latitude 45° for ever, while free navigation of Lake Michigan was conceded by the United States to Canada for ten years only. By this Treaty also Great Britain was given the right, which she already possessed under the Russian Treaty of 1825, of free navigation of the Yukon, Porcupine and Stickeen Rivers of Alaska. By the same Treaty it was agreed that each nation should, for ten years, be allowed the free importation of salt-water fish and fish oil, with freedom to use their respective canals — in fact, a reciprocal carrying-trade arrangement. When the Treaty was nearly completed it was sug- gested that the time had come for adjusting the claims of Canada against the United States for the Fenian raids in Canada. But the United States refused to consider the matter, and added " that the claims did not commend themselves to their favour." The British Commissioners submitted, and said politely that under these circum- stances they would not urge the inclusion of this matter in the Treaty, and the Colonial Secretary of the day, replying, said, " Canada cannot reasonably expect that this country should, for an indefinite period, incur the constant risk of a serious misunderstanding with the United States." As an example of one-sided reading of a Treaty the two following instances may be quoted : — Article 21 provided that fish and fish oil should be admitted free into the country. At the end of four years Congress 115 THE DOMINION OF CANADA passed a law imposing duty on " cans or packages made of tin, or material, containing fish of any kind," with the result that the export of fish from Canada was practically stopped. The article of the Treaty which allowed each nation reciprocal use of the other nation's canals was read by the United States in such a fashion that although American vessels with cargoes were allowed to pass through all the Canadian canals and the St. Lawrence River, Canadian vessels with cargo were stopped at the junction of the American canals with the waterway, and had either to return to Canada, or tranship their cargoes into American vessels. In 1874, in a further attempt to promote friendly relations with the United States, a draft Treaty was drawn up Conceding the fishery right for twenty-one years and abandoning the compensation clauses of the Treaty of 1871. There were certain other provisions of a reci- procal nature, for example, the entrance of natural pro- ducts and certain manufactured articles, the construction and enlargement of certain canals, reciprocal use of certain canals, and a joint commission to regulate fishing in the inland waters common to both countries. This Treaty, accepted by Great Britain and Canada, was rejected by the United States Senate. In 1888 yet another effort was made to settle the fishery question, and a draft Treaty was signed by the Rt. Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, Sir L. Sackville West, and Sir Charles Tupper, on behalf of Great Britain and Canada, and by the Hons. Thomas F. Bayard, William L. Putnam, and James B. Angell, on behalf of the United States. This provided that a joint commission should delimit the bays, creeks and harbours, etc., that certain definite rules should be laid down respecting the three miles limit, that the Strait of Canso should be free to the United States, and that on the removal of the duty on Canadian fish oils, fish, and packages for the same, 116 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY Canada should remove her duty on American imported fish. There were certain other regulations relating to the free entry of United States fishing vessels to the Canadian ports. An interim modus vivendi was agreed to, whilst the Treaty was in process of consideration by the respective countries. Canada agreed to the Treaty : the Senate of the United States rejected it. One of the most recent matters at issue between the United States and Canada has been the question of the Alaskan boundary. To trace the origin of the dispute one must go back to 1799, when the Russian- American Com- pany was granted trading privileges on the American coast up to 65° north latitude. These privileges extended also to the Russian islands in the Pacific Ocean and in the Behring Sea. A brisk trade was soon established with the natives, a good deal of which was carried on by barter of arms and ammunition ; and this gave annoyance to the Russians. Finally, in 1821, a ukase was promul- gated, by which Russia claimed exclusive sovereignty on all islands, ports, and gulfs, including the whole of the North-West coast of America, beginning from Behring Straits. Foreign vessels were forbidden, under penalty of confiscation, to approach within 100 Italian miles of Russian territory. This decree naturally could not be accepted, and in response to protests from Great Britain and the United States, Russia abandoned her claim to exclusive maritime jurisdiction, and her territorial claims were left an open question. In 1822 Britain was invited to formulate her claims as to the territory on the North-West coast of America, and negotiations were opened with the Russian minister by Sir Charles Bagot, the British minister at St. Peters- burg. After protracted negotiations an agreement was reached on February 16th, 1825, and the Treaty defining the Russian American boundary was signed. 117 9— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA How much of this territory belonged to Britain and how much to Russia depended upon the meaning of the second paragraph of Article 4, which says, " Whenever the summit of the mountains which extend in a direction parallel to the coast from the 56th degree north latitude to the point of inclusion of the 141st degree west longitude shall prove to be at a distance of more than ten marine leagues from the ocean, the limit between the British possessions and the line [lisiere] of coast which is to belong to Russia, as above mentioned, shall be formed by a line parellel to the windings [sinuosiiis) of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom." A glance at the map of Alaska will show that there are many waterways coming from Canada, which are called at random, canal, river, inlet, or channel ; and the crux of the dispute between the United States and Canada was as to whether the Lynn canal was an inlet, a territorial or littoral sea, a tidal river, or a high sea. In 1867 the United States made a Treaty with Russia, by which all Russian territory in North America became the possession of the United States, and the definition of the Russian boundary was that of the Treaty of 1875. It was not until British Columbia entered the Union that Great Britain's interest in the Alaskan boundary became vital. In 1872, on the initiative of the British Columbia Legislative Assembly, Great Britain pointed out the desirability of having a definite boundary. This proposition was enforced by President Grant in his message to Congress, but no action was taken. In 1884, Mr. Dall, of the United States Survey, pointed out that since there was no continuous range of mountains parallel to the coast the United States would contend for a line which followed the sinuosities of the coast, at a distance of ten marine leagues, and three years later an informal 118 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY conference was held between Dr. Dall and Dr. Dawson, of the Geological Survey of Canada, for the purpose of agreeing on certain conventional lines. In his report, Dr. Dawson claimed that the line should cross the inlets of the coast. Under a convention of 1892 a joint survey of the district near the boun-dary line was made by Dr. King and General Duffield. Five years later, the discovery of gold in the Yukon brought home to both parties the necessity of coming to some agreement. As a provisional boundary the watershed at the summit of the passage at the head of the Lynn canal was accepted without prejudice to the Treaty rights of either party. The joint commission held in 1898 endeavoured to come to some agreement as to the basis on which the boundary line could be defined. The British Commissioners proposed a reference to three jurists, one nominated by each party, and the third by the two selected jurists in case of disagreement by a friendly power. The United States would agree to this only on the impossible condition that the third arbitrator should be appointed by one of the independent states of South America. Great Britain's suggestion that the question be submitted to The Hague tribunal was rejected by the United States, and the United States Commissioner's suggestion of a tribunal of six impartial jurists, three to be chosen by each nation, was not satisfactory to Great Britain, since it gave no promise of a final settlement. Both parties, however, were really anxious that the question should be settled, and in Janu- ary, 1903, a draft convention based on the proposal of the United States was approved by the Canadian govern- ment, and the ratifications of the Treaty were exchanged two months later. In accordance with this convention the tribunal consisted of Lord Alverstone, Lord Chief Justice of England ; Sir Louis Jette, Lieutenant-Governor of 119 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Quebec ; and Mr. A. B. Aylesworth, K.C./ representing Great Britain ; and of the Hon. Elihu Root, Secretary of War of the United States ; the Hon. Senator Lodge of Massachusetts, and the Hon. Senator Turner of Wash- ington, representing the United States, assembled in London on September 3, 1903. To it were submitted for impartial consideration seven questions, based on Articles 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty of 1825. The history of the Alaskan Boundary Award is still too fresh in the minds of Canadians and Englishmen to permit of a definite historical treatment in this chapter. The passions which were aroused by the Award have not yet coinpletely cooled, most of the actors in it are still alive, and occupy high positions in their respective governments. All that can be done, therefore, is to set down plainly the questions which were put to the tribunal, and to outline the decisions arrived at in the case of each. The first question was, " What is intended as the point of the commencement of the line ? " Both countries agreed that the most southerly point of Prince of Wales Island was Cape Muzon and that from this point the boundary line should begin. The second question was, " What channel is the Portland channel ? " The British contended that this channel, which Vancouver named "Portland Canal," entering the sea between Tongass Island and Kannaghunut Island, leaving Sitclan, Wales, and Pearse Islands on the South -East, and extending North for eighty-two miles to its head. The United States, on the other hand, claimed that it was the body of water now known and described as Portland Canal, which, passing from the North between Ramsden Point on the mainland and Pearse Island, and thence south of the said Island and Wales Island, 1 Now Sir Alan Aylesworth, K.C., Minister of Justice, Canada. 120 ALASKAN BOUNDARY AWARD enters Dixson entrance between Wales Island and Compton Island. This question was the subject of furious argument, and reference was made to the Vancouver charts, the Russian map of 1802, and many other authorities and maps. The arbitrators decided against the Canadian view, and were supported in their decision by Lord Alverstone, against whom a great outcry was made for what was regarded in Canada as sacrifice of Canadian interests. The actual effect of this decision was to hand over to the United States the two barren islands of Sitclan and Kannaghunut, which, so far as one can judge, are never likely to be of very much value to either country. The third and fourth questions were upon relatively unimportant points as to how lines should be drawn connecting the points already decided upon. The fifth question was by far the most important of all those raised in the arbitration. " In extending the line of demarcation northward from said point on the parallel of the 56th degree of north latitude, following the crest of the mountains situated parallel to the coast until its intersection with the 141st degree of longitude west of Greenwich, subject to the conditions that if such a line should anywhere exceed the distance of ten marine leagues from the ocean, then the boundary between the British and the Russian territory should be formed by a line parallel to the sinuosities of the coast, and distant therefrom not more than ten marine leagues, was it the intention and meaning of the said Convention of 1825 that there should remain in the exclusive possession of Russia a continuous fringe, or strip, of coast on the mainland not exceeding ten marine leagues in width, separating the British possessions from the bays, ports, inlets, havens, and waters of the ocean, and extending from the said point where such a 121 THE DOMINION OF CANADA line of demarcation should intersect the 141st degree of longitude west of the meridian of Greenwich ? " In other words, it was practically a question as to who should own the heads of the inlets ; should the boundary line go right round the heads of the inlets, or should it cut across them leaving merely a ten mile strip from the general outline of the coast ? The arguments pro and con, learned and technical as they are, can be appreciated only by close reading of the historical and legal arguments which were advanced in the Convention. It was decided that the intention of the Convention was that there should remain in the exclusive possession of Russia a continuous fringe, or strip, on the mainland, not exceeding ten marine leagues in width, separating the British possession from the bays, ports, etc., and the waters of the ocean. The decision on this question was satisfactory to neither party, but was a compromise between the claims of Great Britain and the United States. The sixth question being dependent upon the negative answer to the fifth thus became superfluous. The seventh was, " What, if any, are the mountains referred to as situated parallel to the coast ? " The United States claimed that they did not exist. Britain, on the other hand, claimed that they existed, and her contention was supported by the tribunal, and, as far as possible, the mountains referred to were marked. And so, like most arbitration awards, and particularly boundary awards, the great Alaskan Award was more or less of a compromise between two incompatible claims. After the award some little criticism was directed by the Canadian Press to the composition of the tribunal, but it must be remembered that it was Canada herself who accepted the Convention, and agreed to the tribunal, and in doing so she became party to its award. 122 LORD ALVERSTONE ATTACKED Lord Alverstone was attacked both in Canada and in England for his decisions, but now that the warmth of the controversy is coohng, it will probably be admitted by his most sincere detractors that there was an element of doubt in the claim put forward by Great Britain, and that his judicial mind is at least as capable as those of his critics of interpreting fairly the meaning of an obscure treaty. 123 CHAPTER XIII The Destiny of Canada " Canada will be the country of the twentieth century." — Sir Wilfrid Laurier. In these days Canadians complacently observe that there is a very thorough awakening in all civilised coun- tries to the great part which the Dominion is destined to play in the world's history. Lord Strathcona's prediction that, by the end of the present century the Dominion of Canada shall have a population of eighty millions of people, has sometimes been questioned. In Great Britain the density of population is 344 to the square mile ; in Canada, but a little more than one to the square mile. Were the density equal to that of this country, the population of Canada would be over 1,200,000,000. That there is any expectation of this at any early date would not be claimed by even the most optimistic in the City of Winnipeg, but there still remains the assurance of an immense increase at no distant period. In 1840 the white population of the United States was 14,000,000, by the last census it had risen to 76,356,000. In 1840, and for a generation subsequent, the facilities for emigration as they are to-day did not exist. The emigrant of that period had to face, at the outset, a long and perilous journey, full of hardships and discomforts, to an almost unknown land. The modern steerage passenger is often better provided for than when in his home, and has provision made for him en voyage at least equal to that formerly given to the saloon passengers. In addition, the number and capacity of passenger vessels has enormously increased. The modern Press also exercises a great influence in peopling 124 CANADA A WORLD POWER new countries by circulating information among all classes in the older and more congested centres of popula- tion. To the land hungry of two continents, the attrac- tions of Canada, with her vast areas of fertile but unoccupied lands, and her healthy climate, must prove irresistible, and these attractions will remain for some time to come as great as those of the United States in 1840. There is, therefore, every reasonable ground for anticipating that the population of Canada will grow even more rapidly than was the case in the history of her neighbour to the south, whose expansion has consti- tuted a great feature in world affairs. There can be no object in labouring the point. The immense resources of Canada are admitted on all sides ; and, given an ade- quate population, her position must eventually become that of a great world power. What is the political destiny of Canada is a question often asked outside the Dominion. Canadians themselves are far too busy acquiring wealth by the development of the natural resources of their land to be much concerned about the matter. Everyone has seen it stated that Canada will become either : — 1. A part of the United States. 2. Independent. 3. Remain as at present. On these questions it is especially desirable to take short views. In respect of the first suggestion it is to be observed that there is no serious movement in that direction in the United States. In the great Republic the interests of party politics dominate most situations, and it may well be surmised that any proposal for union with Canada — involving, as it would, a decisive effect upon the balance of political parties in the United States, and presenting prospects as to which the only certainty that could be felt, would be that their influence would be extremely problematical — is not likely to come within 125 THE DOMINION OF CANADA the range of practical politics in the Republic. Other reasons might be assigned in support of the view set forth above, but this is unnecessary, the question of annexation, for the present at any rate — and who can speak otherwise — needs only to be mentioned to be dismissed. In Canada there has been no very serious movement in favour of annexation since Confederation. It is true that the case in its favour has been brilliantly stated by the late Mr. Gold win Smith, who, however, objected to the use of the word " annexation," describing it as an improper term, and urging that the union of Canada with the American Republic might be on equal and honourable terms, like that of Scotland with England. By entering this imion he contended Canada need not forfeit her peculiar character or her historical associations, and might render great services to England within the councils of the Union. The primary forces making for such union would, Mr. Goldwin Smith confidently predicted, in the end prevail. Near the end of his long and honourable career Mr. Smith confessed, so it is believed, that the union which he deemed as certain of consummation, looked further off than ever. This latter view is now shared by a great majority of the Canadian people. It is not permissible in this work to go very deeply into any controversial topic. At the same time, the sub- ject is one of surpassing interest, and it may serve a useful purpose to cite a number of authoritative expressions of opinion, from leaders of all sections of the Canadian people, which will give, as far as possible, a clear indication of the attitude of the people as reflected in the utterances quoted : — The Hon. George Brown, the Canadian Liberal Leader, in a speech delivered at Belleville in 1858, said : " WTio can look at the map of this continent and mark 126 AUTHORITATIVE DECLARATIONS the vast portion of it acknowledging British sovereignty, without feeling that union and not separation ought to be the foremost principle with British American states- men. Who that examines the condition of the several provinces which constitute British North America, can fail to feel that with the people of Canada must mainly rest the noble task at no distant date, of consolidating these provinces, and of redeeming to civilisation and peopling with new life the vast territories to our north. Who cannot see that Providence has entrusted to us the building up of a great northern people, fit to cope •with our neighbours of the United States, and to advance step by step with them in the march of civilisation ? " The Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, the first Liberal Premier of Canada from 1873 to 1878, in a speech delivered at Ottawa in 1875, said : — " At the same time he wished his hearers always to remember that Canada is our home ; that while we think with gratitude of the land of our birth, while our hearts are filled with the warmest patriotism when its history and its heroes are called to mind, we should not forget that we have great duties and responsibilities, not of a sectional, but of a national character, to discharge, and that we ought to devote ourselves faithfully and honestly to the task of creating and upholding a Canadian spirit, Canadian sentiment and Canadian enthusiasm ; in a word, a spirit of nationality always British, but still Canadian. The patriotism of the British people and Government will ever be with us, and we in turn hope always to reside under the shadow of the grand old flag of England, at once the symbol of power and of civilisation." Sir John A. Macdonald, Premier from 1867 to 1873, and from 1878 to 1891, in his last election address, said : — " For a century and a half this country has grown and 127 THE DOMINION OF CANADA flourished under the protecting aegis of the British Crown. The gallant race who first bore to our shores the blessings of civilisation, passed, by an easy transition, from French to English rule, and now form one of the most law-abiding portions of the community. These pioneers were speedily recruited by the advent of a loyal band of British subjects, who gave up everything that men most prize, and were content to begin life anew in the wilderness rather than forego allegiance to their Sovereign. To the descendants of these men, and of the multitude of Englishmen, Irishmen and Scotchmen who emigrated to Canada that they might build up new homes without ceasing to be British subjects — to you Canadians I appeal, and I ask you what have you to gain by surren- dering that which your fathers held most dear ? Under the broad folds of the Union Jack, we enjoy the most ample liberty to govern ourselves as we please, and at the same time we participate in the advantages which flow from association with the mightiest Empire the world has ever seen. Not only are we free to manage our domestic concerns, but, practically, we possess the privilege of making our own treaties with foreign countries, and, in our relations with the outside world, we enjoy the prestige inspired by a consciousness of the fact that behind us towers the majesty of England. ... As for myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was born — a British subject I will die." Sir John Thompson, Prime Minister from 1892 to 1894, speaking at Toronto, said : — " As one of the public men of this country, I assert that it is our duty to remove all possible causes of friction between the Mother Land and Canada, in order that we may, in these seven provinces and in the fertile prairies of the Dominion, truly establish British pohty and British institutions upon this continent. It is the interest of every true Canadian, if the time shall come, that we shall 128 LAURIER AND TUPPER make all the sacrifices we can make to see that the flag which floats over us shall float over our children as well as ourselves. And it is the first duty, I say, of a public man to help to sustain the greatness of the Empire as well as of the Dominion, knowing that the greatest achievements which the people of this Dominion can accomplish are to be gained under British rule, and in connection with the Empire of which we are proud to-day to form a part." Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who has been Premier, without a break, from 1896 until now, in a speech delivered in 1900, said :— " Three years ago, when visiting England at the Queen's Jubilee, I had the privilege of visiting one of those marvels of Gothic architecture which the hand of genius, guided by an unerring faith, had made a harmo- nious whole, in which granite, marble, oak and other materials were blended. This cathedral is the image of the nation that I hope to see Canada become. As long as I live, as long as I have the power to labour in the service of my country, I shall repel the idea of changing the nature of its different elements. I want the marble to remain the marble ; I want the granite to remain the granite ; I want the oak to remain the oak ; I want the sturdy Scotchman to remain the Scotchman ; I want the brainy Englishman to remain the Englishman ; I want the warm-hearted Irishman to remain the Irish- man ; I want to take all these elements and build a nation that will be foremost amongst the great powers of the world." Sir Charles Tupper, who has held many portfolios in the Dominion Cabinet, was Prime Minister in 1896, and represented Canada in London for many years as High Commissioner, in an article on " The National Evolution of Canada," stated : — " The Confederation of Canada has been followed by 129 THE DOMINION OF CANADA the Commonwealth of Australia, and I am rejoiced to see that the statesmen of the provinces of South Africa have succeeded in agreeing upon an admirable constitu- tion for a united Government. With the great Dominions of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa rapidly rising into important nations, and united to the Mother Country notably by devotion to a common Crown and British institutions, but bound to them, as I trust they will be at no distant day, by the potent tie of mutual preferential trade with each other, they will form an Empire which will excite the admiration of the world." Mr. R. L. Borden, leader of the Opposition in the Dominion Parliament, recently stated that " reciprocity within- the Empire, rather than with foreign countries, was to-day the aspiration of the Canadian people, and he was convinced that its early accomplishment was essential to the future of the Empire." He added : — " Within a few years the future destiny of the Empire will be determined. The problems that confront it are not easy of solution. Autonomy must be preserved, and the natural resources of each dependency must be de- veloped, but there must also be effective co-operation in trade and in defence. . . . Everyone realises that the people of the British Islands have the right and duty of determining their own fiscal policy ; to solve the larger problem of Imperial concern all the nations of the Empire must lend their united efforts. Reciprocity within the Empire rather than with foreign countries is to-day the aspiration of the Canadian people. It is my profound conviction that its early accomplishment is not only desirable, but is even essential to the future solidity and welfare of the Empire." Mr. Henri Bourassa, the well-knov/n French-Canadian politician, said : — " It has become fashionable in Canada to boast that 130 MR. HENRI BOURASSA we are a nation, and to resent the name of colonists. We should rather be called a self-governing colony, and as a self-governing colony enjoy all the rights and advantages, than claim the title of a nation and be deprived of one of the most essential perogatives of a nation. The unimpaired right of contracting our own treaties is the real essence of freedom. Anything short of it is a form of slavery or vassalage. Light and beneficent the bondage may be. Freely it may be accepted, and for a time only it may be safer than liberty. But, as it is, good or bad, as long as it stands, it is some- thing — call it the way you like — which proceeds from a principle directly antagonistic to the principle of liberty. Let us then, be sensible, let us frankly acknowledge that we are not yet prepared to be a nation, that, not being desirous of risking all the dangers of liberty, we renounce some of its rights. But whether we admit that we are still a colony, or whether we pride ourselves in the innocent delusion that we are a nation, I presume that we all agree upon one point — that we should be self-governing in everj^ respect, except in tliat which involves as its direct consequence the severance of British connection. That we cannot enjoy the sovereign right to make treaties for peace or war, for the cession or acquisition of territory, I readily admit. What I claim is, that as long as we do not possess the right to make our commercial treaties we are not even a self-governing colony in the true sense of the word." 131 PART II CHAPTER I People and Social Conditions The American "Invasion" One of the most remarkable features of recent Western Canadian history has been the large and increasing immigration from the United States. For many years past a stream of home-seekers has been flowing northward from the farming States of Kansas and the Dakotas, and the total figm-es relating to American immigration are given below in four-year periods : — 1896-7 2,412. 1900-1 17,987. 1904-5 43,652. 1908-9 59,832. During the year 1909-10, however, the " trek " north- ward of the United States agriculturists appears to have become a veritable stampede, and the prodigious figure of 103,798 was registered for that year. This is almost equal to the combined immigration from the United Kingdom and the Continent (59,790 and 45,206 respec- tively), and later figures for the summer of 1910 indicate that the movement is being continued without any sign of abatement. The material thus introduced is of the best possible quality, composed as it is of the most experienced tillers of the soil coming from a region where agricultural and climatic conditions are practically similar to those in the North- West provinces of Canada. Besides being men of splendid character, physically strong and of an 132 o w W H W ¥ WELCOME "INVADERS" integrity that comes from close connection with the surroundings of farm Hfe, the incoming American farmers have brought with them a substantial amount of capital. A settlers' train arriving from the United States is stated recently to have brought to Canada two hundred farmers with an aggregate capital of 2,000,000 dollars, and it has been calculated that the American immigrant possesses an average capital of at least 1,000 dollars, brought either in cash, stock, or household effects. Not only do these welcome " invaders " bring capital, but what is worth even more to the future of the North- West, they carry with them the ripe experience of years on the prairies of the Middle West of the United States. This experience has taught them methods of farming that are readily adaptable to the life they are destined to live in the Canadian North- West. Settlers from Great Britain and from the Continent require ordinarily some time in which to adapt themselves to the changed conditions and environment. The immigrant from the prairies of the Western States, however, finds conditions varying but slightly from those left behind him in the south. He finds that the manner of working the soil is similar, the methods of cultivation the same, and the crops usually grown the same. He finds a constitution certainly not less liberal than that to which he has been accustomed, and experiences that security which results from an impartial administration of the law. The opening up of the farm lands of Western Canada seems to have come to pass at a more or less critical period in the history of the United States. With the rapid growth of the population of the United States and the gradual industrialisation of the people, it was inevitable that at some time or another the energies of the American farmer would become increasingly taxed to raise sufficient food-stuffs at low prices to provide for the millions dependent on the land that had in earlier years been 133 10— (3137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA prolific in its yield of wheat, oats and barley, but had become denuded of the elements that supplied the gen- erating properties. The consequence was that j^ear by year the average production decreased, and fields were everywhere being thrown into Indian corn and coarser grains. The burdens laid upon the farmer by the general conditions in the U.S.A., and the lessened fertility of his farm have all tended to make him restless, and particularly amenable to the great attractions of the Canadian North-West. On examining the country he found it offered more and presented less disadvantages than he expected. Coming from the American Middle West, he " sized up " quickly the prairies of Saskatchewan or Alberta, and he became anxious to repeat his earlier experiences in the old home when virgin fields enabled him to raise bumper crops of wheat. Canada offered " free land for the asking," or, if he preferred it, he could buy land near to railways at comparatively low prices. He could use his machinery to great advantage, and the man with the steam plough came forward and demonstrated what work could be done. The steam plough is to-day one of the great factors satisfactorily applied to the Canadian prairies by the farmer. They are being operated in the three prairie provinces with splendid results to the yield of grain. This emigration to Canada has naturally aroused a heartburning in the United States, and efforts are said to have been made with a view if possible to stem the tide flowing northward. Allegations that railway com- panies, land companies, and other interested parties have subsidised the Press to publish systematic mis- representations of Western Canada and the conditions ruling there are also said to have been made. More practical are the efforts of the United States government, 134 RETURNED CANADIANS who have spent in the last few years many milhons of dollars in irrigating lands once considered to be barren, and in adapting other cultivable lands for settlement. Among the immigrants now coming into Canada from the United States are larger numbers of " Returned Canadians," persons who left their homeland in the " lean " years now happily past, and are responding to the home call since Canada has " come into her own." Special directions have been given to Canadian government agents in the United States to find out former Canadians who may be living there, devoted to agricultural pursuits, and to advise them of the oppor- tunities that the Canadian West affords as a field for farming, and great success has followed this line of work. Large numbers of French Canadians are to be found in the Eastern, Middle and Western states, and many of these have already decided to return to the Dominion. Some have gone back to the farms of Quebec, while others have taken up homesteads and purchased lands in the Canadian North- West. What they have accom- plished there is carefully watched and noted, and the reports sent back to their friends. This has stimulated the return movement to Canada. An investigation into the origin of the " Americans " who are crossing the border in such great numbers is said to reveal the fact that no less than 40 per cent, of them are " Returned Canadians," and that only 20 per cent, of them are natural-born citizens of the United States, the remainder consisting of Germans or Scandi- navians who had settled in the United States. This, however, must be put forward with some reserve. A considerable factor consequent upon the large and growing immigration of farmers into Canada from the United States is the concurrent removal of the merchant and the tradesman. Then the manufacturer, anxious to retain the trade of the people he has known for years, 135 THE DOMINION OF CANADA and at the same time to get a share of the prosperity which Canada promises, follows as opportunity offers. These settlers are helping to build up the towns and cities of Western Canada, becoming part of the life which causes the hamlet to grow into the town, and later on the town into a city. Great industries are growing up in Canada which are financed by American money, and managed by men who brought with them from Ohio, Nebraska and Indiana the capital and experience necessary. Arrived in Canada, the American farmer soon settles down. He knows his work, he has the business instinct to the tips of his fingers, and he is to the last degree adaptable. His sense of nationality is not strong, and he conies to the country because he thinks it offers him a better prospect ; and if he does not sing " Rule Britannia " with the fervour of a newly-arrived British immigrant, he is none the less valuable to the land of his adoption. Much interesting speculation as to the political effect of this movement might be indulged in, but it will be wiser to record the facts at a future date. 136 CHAPTER II The- Habitant The French Canadian of to-day is, in a measure, a race apart. Indeed, to enter the town of Quebec, which is the stronghold of French Canada, is to enter a French town. The people are mostly French, the language is French, the Roman Catholic Church is supreme. The buildings have the picturesqueness of the old French style ; the whole atmosphere of the place, as compared with the typical Canadian city, is redolent of the courteous, easy-going methods which obtained in old France. Two hundred years of life in a new country has not deprived the people of racial characteristics. The inhabitants of Quebec were mostly the product of the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV for a Colonial Empire. A few, it is true, were descended from the small exploring parties of Cartier and Champlain, but the incursion of the 4,000 peasants and others did nothing at all to alter the character of those already there, since all were of the same race, and had the same ideas in com- mon. The Frenchmen who came out were of the peasant class, led by a few of the petit noblesse of the seventeenth century. They were not ambitious, they were perhaps not progressive. They were simple-minded folk whose laudable desire in life was to till the soil, to live in well-swept comfort, and to rear their families in peace. The Aristocracy, or the Seigniors, were a manufactured aristocracy, to whom grants of land were given, and these in turn handed over to the habitants, portions of their 137 THE DOMINION OF CANADA estates to be cut up and cultivated. The tenure was semi-feudal and the influence was wholly ecclesiastical. Seigniors and priests worked hand-in-hand, and the system adapted itself to the needs of the population. The conditions of his tenure imposed upon the Seignior the necessity of opening up his estate, which was held in trust, so to speak, for the Crown. If these conditions of owTiership were ignored the Crown had the right to resume the land ; and this right was often exercised. The Seigniory had usually a frontage of three or four leagues along the river, with a varying depth of five leagues oi; more inland. On these Seigniories the peasantry settled, building their quaint gabled houses along the bank of the river, each holding having a frontage of two or three hundred yards and running inland for a mile or more. The tenant, or ccnsitaire, was secure in his holding so long as he paid the nominal rent to his lord, and per- formed such feudal duties as might be required of him. Subject to a fine of a twelfth part of the purchase -money he could sell his interest in his holding, such fine being paid to the Seignior who had placed him upon the land. The Seignior, in his turn, could sell his Seigniory on the payment of one-fifth of the value of the ground. It will easily be understood that with such conditions of holding there was little or no money to be made from a Seigniory, and whilst Seigniors remained aristocratic they also remained poor. Politically, this French aris- tocracy in the old days counted for nothing. Beyond a certain quasi-feudal power over his tenants, the Seignior had no voice in the government of the Colony, which was controlled by a Governor, Intendant, and the Clergy, who, in their turn, were entirely in the hands of the King and his council in France. The habitant, besides owing duty to his Seignior, was obliged to serve in the militia, and was liable to be called upon in war time. 138 THE HABITANT He was. nioreovor. liable to the gov(Mnnieiil for corvie or road-nuikinj;. His duty to his SiMgnior and his duty {o {\\c ("lown performed, lhen> was yrt his duty to the Church. The parish priest lu^ld in some ways a higher rank than the Seignior, anil his erfectly well that he is as happy, as prosperous, and more free to follow his 139 THE DOMINION OF CANADA inclinations under the Union Jack than he would be under any other regime. In short, the French Canadian minds his own business and wishes to be left at peace ; and any attempt to alter this condition of affairs would meet with the repulse it deserved. 140 CHAPTER III United Empire Loyalists One of the most interesting, if pathetic, incidents in the history of Canada and one which had a marked effect on the early settlement of Ontario and the Maritime provinces was the immigration of loyalists who sought refuge on British territory after the close of the American War of Independence, and who determined at all hazards to live under British laws and institutions. These loyalists consisted of those who served with the Canadian regiments, as well as those who were described as " unincorporated." History records that the movement from the States was rendered possible by the firm and courageous action of Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) as mentioned already, whose name is held in high esteem in Canada where he became Governor in 1786 in succession to Sir Frederick Haldimand. To Carleton was entrusted the duty at the close of the war of transporting stores belonging to the Crown, baggage, artillery and the royalist troops, and the manner in which, in the interests of the loyalists, he carried out his task, has always been held to be worthy of great praise from his fellow countrymen. Upper Canada, as the territory now comprising the province of Ontario was then called, was but sparsely settled, the population consisting of probably no more than a couple of thousand souls, dwelling for the most part in the neighbourhood of fortified posts on the St. Lawrence, Niagara and St. Clair Rivers. The loyalists who went there and made their homes were therefore practically the founders of the province. 141 THE DOMINION OF CANADA From the commencement of the war, numbers of those who remained loyal to the Crown found their way to Canada. In 1778, 192 souls were furnished with rations and sent to Machiche, to the north of Lake St. Peter. The number had increased to 853 in the following year and the immigrants were distributed as follows : — Montreal, 208 ; Machiche, 196; St. John, 209; Chambly, 27 ; Point Claire, 126 ; Sorel and Nouvelle Beauce, 87. In 1782-3 the numbers were greatly augmented, those receiving rations, etc., amounting to some 3,000 odd. A return in the Canadian Archives gives detailed particu- lars of 4,487 at the close of 1786, so that the influx was not by any means rapid, although the treatment accorded to these unfortunate people by Governor Haldimand, acting on behalf of the home government, was in every way considerate. It had been held that some hesitation was felt in coming to Canada from the belief that the government of the country was of a purely military character, but when its true nature was realised, many came to settle under the British flag as they ardently desired to do. Some came by way of Lake Champlain, ascending the River St. Lawrence in open boats, others came by way of Oswego. From North Carolina some came by waggons to the mouth of the Genesee River, beyond which there was no road. The towns of Hamilton and York (now Toronto) at this time attracted attention by reason of their favourable situation from the point of view of these early settlers. There are records to show that some 28,347 souls among these refugees went to Nova Scotia. Out of these 202 went to the Island of St. John (afterwards the province of Prince Edward Island). Others to the number of 4,131 went to the banks of the St. John River in New Brunswick, and 3,401 remained at Shelburne in Nova Scotia. These came late in the season of 1783 after peace had been established. 142 UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS How many loyalists actually crossed the border it is difficult to say with any amount of certainty, but a reliable historian states that we may approximately compute the total as : — Settlement on the St. Lawrence . . . . . . 4,487 Refugees reported in Nova Scotia (including St. John, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island 28,347 Cape Breton, 630 familes .. .. .. .. 3,150 Total number given as being settled about Montreal Chambly, St. John and the Bay of Chaleurs . . 5,628 41,612 Some writers have placed the numbers of those who left the United States at this time as 100,000, but it is practically impossible to offer any evidence of this, as giving a liberal allowance for those unenumerated in any returns, the first movement cannot be placed at more than about 45,000. It may here be mentioned that when the Treaty of Paris was completed orders were given for the various provincial regiments to be disbanded. The idea of Governor Haldimand was that these troops would usefully serve to settle the country from the shores of Lake Francis. He refused to accede to applications which were made for grants of land near Mississquoi Bay, as there was danger of bad feeling being aroused between the new settlers and those in the adjoining state to the south. He therefore regarded it as better pohcy to have lands surveyed at points near the Bay of Quinte on the north of Lake Ontario and on the Niagara and St. Clair River. One regiment (theRangers) was estabhshed near the Mohawk territory, the settlement consisting of 1,568 men, 626 women, 1,492 children and a number of servants, making in all some 3,776. Others were settled at Cataraqui, near Kingston. A free grant of two hundred acres of land was given 143 THE DOMINION OF CANADA to each settler and each child, even to those children born after immigration, on their coming of age. Assis- tance was also rendered in the shape of food, clothing, implements, many of those arriving having lost all their belongings. An axe, hoe and spade were granted to each settler ; a plough and a cow to every two families, and a whip saw and cross-cut saw to each group of four households. Tools of various kinds and other useful requisites were also given to enable these new settlers and pioneeis in a new and unknown country to make a start in their new environment. By the year 1806 the population amounted to between 70,000 and 80,000, the emigration from the United States having greatly increased and, though some may have come wit-h the idea of bettering their condition, it is fairly certain that large numbers were induced to join friends and i"elatives, having the same hopes and aspirations as those who had gone before them. The term United Empire Loyalist, or more correctly speaking, " U.E. Loyahst," is derived from an Order in Council dated November, 1789, which laid it down that daughters as well as sons should in each case receive a grant of 200 acres of land, the sons on attaining full age, the daughters on their marriage. It was further provided that all loyalists who had adhered to the British cause before the Treaty of 1783 and their children of both sexes, were to be distinguished in the records by the letters " U.E.," in this way preserving the memory of their adherence and devotion to a United Empire. Thus the title of " U.E. Loyalist " was proudly handed down to succeeding generations, and there are many Canadians to-day who can justifiably boast of being descended from those who sacrificed so much in former days to adhere to their principles and the cause of their fathers. 144 CHAPTER IV The Canadian Indians The question of the true aborigine is a fruitful subject for scientific discussion all the worid over, and it is well for the plain historian to evade the issue by plunging through the mists of antiquity to practical historic records of the people found in the country by early settlers. It is quite evident that the Indians of Cartier's time were mere wandering tribes, for when Champlain came seven years later to Stadcona and Hochelaga, the tribes which had been there in Cartier's time had vanished and in their place were bands of wandering Algonquin Indians. Cartier left behind him a short and primitive vocabulary of Indian words which seemed to show that his Indians were of the Iroquois stock. The Algonquins and the Huron-Iroquois were two great famihes of Canadian Indians, alike physically, but clearly separated from one another by essential differences in languages and customs. They occupied the country bounded, roughly, on the north by Hudson's Bay, on the west by the Mississippi, on the south by Virginia, and on the east by the Atlantic. The Algonquins were by far the most numerous and most widely distributed ; their language, or dialects of their language, were to be found scattered north, south, east, and west. In Nova Scotia and Cape Breton were to be found the Micmacs, famous in song and legend for their cruelty and ferocity, who were hunters and fishermen pure and simple, whereas the Algonquins made some pretence of tilling the soil. Practically the only crop of any importance was maize, and this only in New England or thereabouts where the climate was congenial. 145 THE DOMINION OF CANADA On the St. Lawrence were wandering Algonquin tribes, and at Georgian Bay were Hurons numbering in all some 20,000, living in villages stockaded and fenced, in the same fashion as was Hochelaga. The word Huron is said to have been derived from the exclamation of some Frenchmen, who, when they first saw the way in which some of the Indians wore their hair, cried " Quelle hures " {" What wild heads of hair "). The internal economy of the tribes is worth a passing notice. It appears that the Huron nation was a Confed- eracy of tribes, each of which was divided into two classes ; two Chiefs, one for peace and one for war, assisted by a general council constituted the government. Each .tribe was self-contained and largely self-governing, and the Council was the ruling factor in aU decisions taken. As in all other countries where the advance of civilisa- tion has spelt the gradual extinction of the aborigine, so the once wild and splendid Canadian Indian is dying out. In the outlying districts, where as yet the settle- ments have made little progress, the Indians continue to live their free life, trapping and hunting, and their mortality tables, although high, are not excessively so. Yet even in this comparatively natural state the visit of the Indian agent or inspector, paying to each man, woman, and child the annuities granted for the surrender of their lands, must be an ever-recurring reminder that the time is not very far distant when they will be driven into the idleness of a Reserve, which in a few generations means death to the individual and extinction to the tribe. Very few Indians of to-day dress in blanket or deerskin such as were worn by their forefathers. Feathers are very rarely seen, except on show-days or very high state occasions, and the traveller arriving at some inland trading-post is disappointed to find that the Indians are 146 A STONY SQUAW A SYMPATHETIC DEPARTMENT dressed in the comfortable but unpicturesque European garb of to-day. There is in Canada a Department of Indian Affairs which deals with the Indian question in a manner in which common sense and sympathy are happily blended with an intimate knowledge of the people under its charge. An endeavour has been made to advance the Indians as far as possible in the arts of civilisation. They are encouraged to till the soil or to engage in some other remunerative occupation to keep them healthy and happy. In connection with this it is indisputable that in Ontario many bands which fifty years ago gained their livelihood by hunting and fishing have settled down to till the soil, and now are able to compete quite success- fully with their white neighbours. This is particularly true of those bands residing in the middle of Ontario, where there are Indian agricultural societies which hold exhibitions and encourage agriculture. The reports received regarding these exhibitions say that the produce raised by Indians is equal to any in the district. A few of the Indians of Ontario have also entered into competition with their white neighbours in industry and commerce, a few have adopted the profession of law or medicine, some again have become missionaries to the very bands from which they sprang. In Quebec the status of the Indians has changed little in the last half-century, since Quebec being older and more closely settled the Indian naturally took his place in the essential economy of the province at an earlier date. The men are employed, as a rule, as hunters, guides, fishermen, or gun bearers. They are expert in the making of snow-shoes and lacrosse sticks, while the women are clever at basket-making and fancy work. In the maritime provinces the occupations are much the same as in Quebec. 147 THE DOMINION OF CANADA In British Columbia the Indians are chiefly occupied in fishing, fruit canning, hunting, as guides, or prospectors, or in the timber industry ; and many are highly prosper- ous. In Manitoba the great possibilities of wheat have attracted a few Indians to farming, but mainly they have held to their old occupations, and pass their lives as fishermen or woodsmen. An interesting and very striking change has taken place with regard to the mode of life of the Indians in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Up to about 1879 the Indians were purely and solely hunters, dependent both for food and clothing upon the buffalo and other animals which ranged through the provinces in vast numbers. The disappearance of the buffalo in about 1878 compelled the tribes to adopt at once some other means of earning a livelihood. In 1879 the govern- ment sent out farming instructors who were located in different districts, and from that date onwards the Indians have made a steady and most remarkable progress as agriculturists. Many of the bands have become self-supporting, and others are rapidly becoming so. The reports of the inspectors and agents of the Department of Indian Affairs are supremely interesting reading as showing the steady improvement of the race in occupations for which it has no hereditary inclination. The following typical report is from Inspector Graham on the Indians of the south district. " There has been a steady improvement in the manner in which the Indians are cultivating their lands. The system of summer fallowing one-third of the cultivated land every year is pretty generally prac- tised now. Last summer was a favourable one for breaking new land, and I am pleased to be able to report that a large area was brought under cultivation, and the land ready for crop this spring will exceed that of any previous years. The reserves of all the agencies in this Inspectorate are now pretty well surrounded by white 148 • A HUMANE POLICY settlers, and as the country is filling up the game is fast disappearing. As a result, the Indians realise that they have to earn a living from the soil and cattle raising. It was not long ago that the Indian was quite indifferent about farming, and if everything did not go well, for instance, a crop failure, this was sufficient to discourage him, and he would abandon his land and go hunting and roaming. This day has now passed, and he realises he has to do the same as his white brother, and keep at it in order to make a living. The cattle industry has been a very profitable one for the Indians during the -past year. Over 500 head were sold and shipped out of this Inspectorate, and the prices realised were from 38 dollars to 45 doUars per head. The Indians own some of the finest cattle in the province, and their beef cattle are much sought after by the buyers. In addition to the cattle sold, the Indians beefed for their own benefit several hundred head, and notwithstanding this the herds have not decreased." The inspector further reports that the Indians in his province have bought many implements, horses and harness, and that in the agencies there are complete steam-threshing outfits. Mr. R. N. Wilson, agent for the Blood Indians, number- ing 1,174, reports that at the last round-up of cattle the Indians at his agency branded 1,167 calves, and that the whole herd was carefully numbered and found to contain over 7,000 head. It is a striking fact that the Blood Indians have begun to grow wheat. In 1907 sixty acres each sown by fifteen of them produced 23,000 bushels. " At the conclusion of the threshing," con- tinues the Inspector's report, " the wheat was sold, hauled ten or twelve miles and shipped to Fort William, the twenty cars having been loaded in thirty days. Out of the proceeds of the crop each Indian paid back to the Trust fund all advances that had been made to him, 149 II— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA including cost of breaking the land, fencing, etc., and after aU settlements each had a very substantial balance to his credit at the bank, where much of it still is." In consequence of this advance in agricultural know- ledge, Mr, Wilson reports that a large number of the Indians under his charge are now self-supporting. The two main agencies which have contributed to the educational advancement of the Indians have been the labours of the Christian missionaries, and the schools supported by the government. The Roman Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, and the Presbyterian Churches have all done their share in helping to instruct the Indians, and the results of their labours may be judged by the fact that of 111,000 Indians about 77,000 are Christians or nominally so. The educational work among the Indians is mainly carried on in the provinces. In the unorganised districts where there are 15,000 Indians only a few missionary day schools are maintained. During the last thirty years enormous progress has been made in estabhshing schools for Indians. In the year 1878-9 the whole Indian appropriation by the Canadian govern- ment was 16,000 dollars, for 1910-11 the appropriation is 480,000 doUars. The Dominion government contributes to the aid of three classes of schools for Indians : — Day schools, boarding schools, and industrial schools. Most of these are conducted under the auspices of one or other of the Christian denominations. Of day schools there are 231 with 6,531 pupils on the roll, and an average atten- dance of 3,129. This small average is due to the fact that the Indians are away from their Reserves for several months in the year engaged in trapping and fishing. To overcome these difficulties, as well as to give the children as early as possible some industrial training, boarding schools have been established. There are now fifty-seven boarding schools in Canada with an attendance 150 A TRIUMPH OF CIVILISATION of 3,331, and there are industrial schools to the number of twenty with an attendance of 1,613. The boarding schools are naturally residential ; the pupils are fed and clothed, and in addition to instruction in the ordinary branches of an English primary education, the boys are trained in gardening, care of animals, primitive farming and odd jobs. In the industrial schools, which are also residential, the technical education is more advanced, and besides agriculture the boys are trained in carpentry, shoe-making, blacksmiths' work, baking, etc. In all schools the girls are taught a little housewifery, tidiness and neatness in their rooms, personal cleanliness, cooking, washing and dressmaking. General instruction is also imparted to the pupils, and is by no means the least part of the curriculum. The effect of these boarding schools on the pupils is very marked when the Indians return to live on their reservations. It is apparent at once on entering an Indian house whether the girl has been a graduate at school or not. The general tidiness and cleanliness, the cooking, and the arrangement of the household speak for themselves. The industrial school graduates are generally helped by the Department of Indian affairs when they return to the Reservation, such help taking the form of a loan of horses, oxen, and a few argicultural implements to begin with. In a satisfactorily large number of cases the boys settle down on the land, and become good and useful citizens. Of failures there are many, from a variety of causes, but when it is remembered that a generation ago these Indians were pure savages, the results are sufficiently encouraging for the Canadian government to go forward with the assistance of the Department of Indian Affairs animated as it is by the best traditions with full hope of success. 151 CHAPTER V Social Life to-day of Canada The last thirty or forty years has seen a great change, an inevitable change in the social life of Canada. In the history of all nations one may read in the social life of the people the history of their progress in the scale of nations, but in a young and quickly-growing country the transition becomes extremely rapid. Already in Canada one finds classes whose lives from the social point of view are as far apart as the poles. In an earlier chapter has been described the condition of Canada some forty years ago. Disorganised, her finances in parlous state, held almost in fief by the United States, the great prairie areas of the West regarded as the " great lone land," Canada was little more than a chain of small communities. The agricultural popula- tion was ill-organised and struggling, and the few small towns were dependent entirely upon the farming commu- nity for their existence. They were, indeed, little more than centres of exchange, where the farmer would obtain for his produce the necessities of life. Everybody had enough, no one had luxuries, and wealth as it is regarded to-day did not exist. In the social economy of early Canada the millionaire was unknown. The parliamentary representatives were recruited from the farming class or the storekeeper class, and parochial politics reigned supreme. In these small communities everybody knew everybody ; there was no extravagance in dress, and pleasures were of the simplest, and centred round the home and the Church. Active and indeed hard lives were passed by these early pioneers, and living as they did face to face with nature and the necessities 152 • THE SIMPLE LIFE of mutual support, a spirit of sympathy circulated strongly among them. Though the life they led was hard yet it was healthy. Though at times hunger may have been close to their doors, actual want did not exist ; and this kind of existence lived in the bracing climate of Canada, produced a fine race of men and women. On the whole, existence in these small communities was happy though restricted, comfortable, though luxuries were not ; contented, be- cause imbued with a stern sense of duty and possibly because the people knew no other life. ■ If the life of the small communities was hard, what of the life in the remoter districts peopled by the pioneers ? In the records of the early days we read of the feats of endurance performed by these hardy woodsmen, who, far from any civilised life, housed often in log " shanties " roofed with bark, were cut off from all outward compan- ionship, except on the rare occasions when they came into a little market town, carrying on. their shoulders sacks of wheat for the mill, and returning to their families laden with flour through the blazed forest trail, invisible to all but them. Not only are these things to be read, but there remain to-day representatives of this hardy race of pioneers, who will tell stirring tales of summer heats bravely endured, and of winter snows with howling wolves for company ; tales of torrent and of storm, and of woman's endurance to complete the story of man's heroic struggle for existence. Many of us have heard in Canadian homes from the children and grandchildren of those noble men and women who went forth into the forests and the plains of those vast territories now known as the Dominion of Canada. No monument stands erected to the memory of those pioneers, but the story of their long and insufficiently recorded fight with nature is precious to every Canadian. It is an irony of fate that while 153 THE DOMINION OF CANADA military achievement is always fully appreciated, and properly so, the pioneer waging his long-sustained battle, demanding qualities of the rarest strenuousness, and resulting in great and permanent benefits for mankind, should pass away unremembered, unwept and unmourned. The effect of these hard conditions is to be found to-day in the Canadian people. The conditions made for physical efficiency, and above all, for character. In the larger centres, though the effect undoubtedly remains on the temperament of the citizens, the accumulation of wealth is making a great change. Those Cana- dians, and they are many, who retain their love of the simpler forms of life, must regret the passing of these conditions and will shake dubious heads at the more artificial, though highly civilised surroundings which are considered necessary to-day outside the agricultural areas. It is to be hoped we shall not witness in the Canadian any access of vulnerable English characteristics. In 1878-9, as we have shown, a great rush began from the East to the West. In aU the eastern provinces was a surplus population of young men, sons of more or less struggling farmers, who, attracted by the glamour of the United States, had hitherto emigrated south of the border. But with the opening of the North-West the great movement began, and it is not hard to find the reason. Eastern Canada, generally speaking, was a heavily-wooded country, and the pioneer among the forests secured as the price of a life of toil and privation a clear farm of possibly fifty acres. Trees had to be cut and burnt and the roots left to rot. In these circum- stances two or three acres a year was a creditable per- formance for the strongest, and it was a process of years before the tree stumps rotted below the level of the soil. In the West the conditions were entirely different. The vigorous man, with the simplest of farm tools and a yoke of oxen could begin immediately ploughing or 154 TRANSFORMATION BY TELEPHONE breaking the fertile prairie land ; an acre a day would be easy work, and in one month of summer his yoke or pair of oxen would lay twenty-live acres under the plough. In two or three years the farmer would have under crop as much or more than his father had as a result of fifty years' work, and with far less arduous toil. In a few years more the young farmer would have one hundred, two hundred, or three hundred acres under the plough, and as his possibilities grew his ambition increased. To-day these same men, who in their early youth fought nature for, say, a five hundred bushel crop, now harvest yields varying from four to twenty thousand bushels on the rich prairie lands of the West. In these circumstances the Westerner becomes more than a farmer of the old type. Any man who has to deal with the labour, the outlay on implements, and the financial transactions connected with a large farm, must develop business qualities of no mean order. So the Western farmer has growii up a perfectly distinct type, a militant, self-reliant, well-to-do type of man, with the bronze of the sun on his face, and the marks of toil on his hands, yet a rounded man in every respect. True, he lives separated by considerable distances from what, until recently, we were wont to regard as the chief centres of civilisation, but development has been rapid, and to-day the farmers of the West have available all the advantages of applied science, none of which is more appreciated nor potent in its influence than the govern- ment telephone system, which links up East with West and town with country. It is one of the most useful public works ever under- taken by government, and the terms extended are so liberal that now even the farmers in remote districts can have the line brought up to their township line free of charge, and pay only the cost of the extension to their 155 THE DOMINION OF CANADA own farms. Beyond the social effect which the Hnking up of rural communities has produced there is also a very marked result both commercially and politically. In the quiet hours of the evening the farmer takes advantage of reduced telephone rates and rings up his broker to find out the latest market movements and the prospects of the season, and he is thus able intelli- gently to control at a distance the marketing of his goods. Politically, too, the effect must be great, for he is no longer an isolated unit ; he can discuss politics with his neighbour ; and he is altogether more in touch with the world, more alive to the everyday cycle of affairs. A first glance at the condition of Canada would no doubt incline the observer to imagine that since Eastern Canada is the older and more closely settled, and the West the more simple and rugged, that in trading, for example, the principle to be followed would be to send the finished product to the East, and the rougher commodity to the West. This, however, is entirely wrong. To a Westerner money comes easily, he demands the nice things of life just as much as his brother in the East, and he will have the best, whatever it may cost. In the East where the struggle for life has been keener, the rural population has not so much to spend, and is more frugal in the spending of it. But though the Westerner is prosperous he still remains the man of simple life. Those tastes and qualities which in the frugal East helped him to struggle against hardships sustain him in the more easy conditions of the West. He remains a rugged, healthy type. His life is frugal, but his wants are supplied the more easily for that, and his environment makes for a fuller type of man than had he been compelled to chop a clearing out of the " Bush." The pioneer of the West must yet handle an axe, he must yet be his own carpenter, and his wife must be, in the best sense of the word, a helpmate. If he is 156 POLITICS TAKEN SERIOUSLY to prosper he must have few household cares, he must be well fed, and he has no time to look after the "side- shows " of the farm, important though they are, such as the dairying and the chicken-raising, or even feeding the stock in his busy time. Another very potent influence which has gone to the making of this Western nation is the advent of the American settler, who came with his acquired experience and his up-to-date notions from the States. He is the outcome of a cosmopolitan population where the best ideas of agriculture have been evolved from the experience of many lands, and a long process of experiment under various conditions, and he has developed into one of the most effective workers known to any country. If one looks at the Western farmer as a whole one finds a considerable dash of the Scotsman in his composi- tion. The hard work of the summer keeps him physically very fit, and the large spaces of prairie involve that much of his life shall be spen,t in the open air ; so that when the long winter nights come he spends them contentedly in his home, bringing to bear upon the prob- lems of the day a refreshed mind. His great stand-by in literature is the weekly paper, where he may read full reports of parliamentary affairs, in addition to which his own member will probably send him full reports of his speeches. It is a well-known saying amongst all parliamentary candidates that an agricultural audience requires very careful handling, and this is perhaps especially true in the case of a western Canadian audience. The Canadian farmer has time and inclination to think things out, and if his mind moves slowly it is generally a precise mind. He loves a political meeting, which is usually kept up until the small hours of the morning, and he has the unpleasant Scotch fashion of putting questions with a directness which is staggering to a candidate not well posted on the public issues of the day. 157 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Where contact with his fellow-men is more rare than in the closely settled parts of Canada, it is natural that the farmer should be a good deal influenced by the Press, and on the whole there is much to be said for the provincial Press of Canada. Agriculture is life to the farmer, and the editor who wants to make his paper " go " gives him the best notions and ideas on agriculture suited to his particular conditions, and consequently a purely agricultural paper of a very good type has grown up, and has become well established in the provinces. Of late years, owing no doubt to the influx of immigrants from England, together with the reduced postal rates, there has been a great increase in English periodicals, and these, presenting as they do an entirely fresh point of view to the Canadian, must necessarily exercise an important influence upon public opinion. The town-dweller is often tempted to imagine that the life of these Western farmers is very dull, one without much relaxation. Hard it undoubtedly is, but it may be said without fear of contradiction that it is a life infinitely more full of real pleasure to the working man and the man of moderate means than any life that can be offered to him in his own society in the cities or in England. The church of the rural districts is the chief centre of social relaxation. In the small towns some one or other of the denominations, which are very well represented, holds almost every week a concert, tea- meeting, or a supper. Distance has no deterrent effect, for parties of young people will drive from one small town to another — ten miles or more — in search of enjoy- ment. " Surprise parties " are common, and dances to beguile the long winter evenings are frequently arranged. In the summer, between seeding and haying, picnics, some political, but mostly social, are the order of the day. Farmers from all around rendezvous in some 158 . CONDITIONS OF LIFE shady spot, each member of the party bearing baskets for the common benefit. Picnics, one supposes, are very much aUke all the world over, but to a Canadian the Canadian picnic seems to have a charm all its own, and above all others. There is an informality about the arrangements, and a hearty friendliness extended to all, which is missed at the more sophisticated picnics of the old country. By a natural process of thought in speaking of social conditions, the mind wanders from picnics to the question of marriage. In the older communities the taking of a wife becomes more and more a process complicated by irrelevant factors. Social conditions, luxuries, inherited prejudices, all play their part in the fight against natural selection. The young men of Canada take a healthier view, they do not want to start married life as big as their fathers, and as the bread and butter question does not exist in so serious a form as we know it, natural selection plays a greater part in the making of marriages. Marriage very frequently takes place at a much younger age, and the prejudices of parents do not show themselves to the extent that they are said to do in this country. The Canadian young man is not overwhelmed with female society, and the marriage question more nearly approaches the ideal than it does in some older countries. The proportion of men to women in Canada is as eight to one, and the "spinster of necessity" is unknown, though the spinster for choice may exist. The conditions of life have made the Canadian woman one of the most competent in the world, not only as a housekeeper, but as a complete woman. Even the Cana- dian girl, whose early advantages may not have been great, often exhibits in all society a sang-froid, an attrac- tiveness, and a vivacity free from restraint yet perfectly developed such as will certainly not be excelled. In short, she will bear herself in the true womanly manner 159 THE DOMINION OF CANADA which is above all passing fashions and beyond all petty criticisms. It is almost impossible for the traveller taking a hurried trip across Canada to realise how complete and how enjoyable are the social conditions found even in the most outlying districts. It is only in those rare cases when the settler is really far from the beaten track that the hardship of loneliness is felt. To the chance visitor the scenery of the prairies offers nothing but a series of monotonous curves with an unbroken horizon. Yet there is a love of the plains as there is a love of the mountains, and the man who remains on the prairies long enough to establish himself, and to become acquainted with the actual conditions, finds that a passion for those prairies develops full and strong enjoyment in their fruitfulness, and an ever-present wonder at the kaleidoscope of the year's growth, and an intense love for the wide horizon which leaves his imagination unfettered. " In the plains," he says, " one can breathe," the mountains oppress him, and he scoffs at the idea of monotony. " Monotony is only for those who do not think, who do not observe." •" Look at that field of wheat," he will say, " where is the monotony in that ? In a hundred days the country round is changed from a plain of green to a glowing carpet of gold." He scorns the mountains which can grow nothing, and the forest which hinders the hand of man. One of the first questions that the Englishman is apt to ask is, " What about sport ? " The Englishman is fond of his horses and his shooting, and quite rightly ; but the Canadian does most of his riding in a buggy or a buckboard, and the short seasons mean such close application to the work of the farm, that while game is plentiful his sport must be subordinated to the main chance. However, in the spring he will often find time for a little duck-shooting, and get a few shots at the 160 SPORT elusive goose, whilst in the fall there are prairie chickens and partridges to be walked up, to say nothing of moose, and deer, and cariboo, for those who can afford the long trek to their country ; but this kind of sport is chiefly confined to rich city dwellers and English tourists. 161 CHAPTER VI The Labour Organisations of Canada It is only when a country reaches a certain stage of development, when the pioneers and the backwoodsmen have done their work and industries assume a diversified form, calling for that division of labour essential to modern methods of production, and when a capitalist class grows up in the community, that the organisation of labour becomes necessary, to enable the labourers to secure that share of the results of their labour, to which they deem themselves justly entitled. As long ago as 1827 the Quebec printers had a local union whose functions were the regulation of wages, care of sick members and other benefits. This in 1852 was merged into the National Typographical Union, and seventeen years later became the International Typo- graphical Union. In 1834 shoemakers were organised in Montreal, where also in 1844 was to be found a Union of stone-cutters, which continues to this day. Looking to Upper Canada, we find the Knights of St. Crispin and the Union of printers existing in 1834. All these Unions, led by the printers of Toronto, became affiliated with the International Union. In 1868-9 stone-masons, bricklayers, and blacksmiths of Ottawa were organised, and from 1870 onwards the spread of Unionism was extraordinarily rapid in all parts of the country. Three years later, in 1873, labour became such a force in the country that a Trade Council was organised in Ottawa and the following year the president of it was elected as the representative of the capital in the Ontario legislature, where he sat as an independent member. In 1881 the first local assembly of the Knights of Labour in Canada was formed, the 162 THE UNION OF LABOUR first assembly of Painters being still in existence. In 1882, the telegraphists of Toronto were organised as a local assembly, and in the same year the factory and shoe workers also joined the Union. By 1886 there were six district assemblies of the Union of Labom" in Canada, and of this nmnber Toronto, No. 125, had representatives from some forty local assemblies. As has been the case elsewhere there have been numerous changes in the field of organised labour since the beginning of the movement, but the tendency has ever been to expansion in numbers and in strength till during the present year there are many powerful organisations of workmen in the country. In the case of a particular organised trade it will generally be found, both in Canada and the United States, that it takes its general policy from some International Union consisting of representatives of the Union of the particular trade. In the same fashion the local assemblies of the Knights of Labour look to the district assemblies, and these in turn are part of the international organisation of the Knights of Labour. The principal organisations from which local Labour Unions hold charters are the following : — 1. The Dominion Trades Congress, a body consist- ing of representatives of local labour organisations throughout Canada. 2. The International Unions belonging to many trades, headquarters of which are in the United States. 3. The General Assembly of Knights of Labour whose headquarters are in Washington. 4. The American Federation of Labour, which is the largest labour organisation in America. Its methods are not unlike those of the Dominion Trades Congress, and it has been instrumental in organising a great many trades in Canada. 5. The United Wage Earners of Canada, which is a general organisation. There are also two other local 163 THE DOMINION OF CANADA bodies which confine their activity to the upper provinces in which tliey are ; namely, tlie Provincial \\'orkmen's Association, composed largely of coal-miners in Nova Scotia, and the Western Federation of miners in British Columbia, which is very well organised, and is associated with an international organisation known as the Western Federation of Miners. The national labour movement in Canada began in 1873, the year the veteran agricultural labour organiser, Joseph Arch, visited the colony, and was a guest of the labour men of Toronto. In that year there assembled in Toronto what was then called the Canadian Labour Union composed of delegates from the following industrial centres : — Toronto, Ottawa, London, Hamilton, St. Catharines, Bowmanville, Cobourg, and Seaforth. Forty- four delegates attended this congress, which was presided over by J. W. Carter, house painter, an Englishman by birth and training. In his opening address the President said ; — " You meet to-day to inaugurate one of the grandest events in connection with the labour movement that has ever taken place in the Dominion of Canada. Its significance may be gathered from the fact that from all the centres of industry in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec the working classes have determined to centralize their energies to promote the adoption of those laws and regulations which must be established for the good and protection of the labourer. You do not meet to create an agitation for supremacy or power, nor to create hostiUties between capital and labour, but you do meet for the purpose of disseminating the true principles of unionism ; to foster a spirit of common brotiierliood throughout the Dominion ; to seek the promotion of those laws which shall make no distinction of man as man. To this end, and, with these objects, you are called upon, in the first place, to establish a Canadian 164 THE FIRST CANADIAN LABOUR CONGRESS Labour Union. Its necessity is beyond doubt." .... " I urge upon you the necessity of being wise and moderate in deliberations and enactments, and let those who are watching your movements at this, the first Canadian Labour Congress, be compelled to admit that we are honest, earnest and prudent workers." The object sought to be obtained by this Congress was to organise the artisans and manual labourers of Canada in one great national movement, for the purpose of mutual protection, and to obtain legislation in the interest of their class. This Congress passed resolutions asking Parliament for the repeal of the Criminal Law Amendment Act ; the abolition of the system of selling by contract the labour of prisoners in the Dominion penitentiaries and provincial prisons to private capitalists ; the enactment of more stringent apprenticeship laws ; a measure for the preven- tion of the employment of children under ten years of age in factories where machinery is used; the passing of an equitable lien law, to give the workers a lien upon property on which their labour had been employed, if they had not received their wages; and the creation of a Bureau of Labour and Statistics. The Congress also declared itself in favour of a reduction in the hours of labour from ten to nine hours a day, with a half-holiday weekly, and as opposed to working overtime. Several of these demands are now on the Statutes of the Dominion or the various provinces. This organisa- tion held four meetings, viz., in Toronto, Ottawa (where it is to be noted it met the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, in the Parliament Buildings, by permission of the Dominion Premier), St. Catharine's, and again in Toronto, when owing to the commercial depression which prevailed on the American Continent for seven years following " Black Friday " in New York City, in September, 1873, it ceased to exist for want of a quorum. 165 13— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA About the same time that the Canadian Labour Union ceased to exist, the Toronto Trades Assembly, which had always been, and is to-day (under the name of the Toronto District Labour Comicil), the most active and important local labour body in Canada, discontinued its meetings for lack of support from the local miions, which were all much depressed from the reason mentioned above, and reductions of wages naturally ensued in consequence. But the desire for representative bodies was still uppermost in the minds of the leaders, and when the International Typographical Union held its Annual Convention at Toronto in the year 1881, the labour leaders of Toronto took advantage of the event to make manifest that .desire by the calling of a meeting under its auspices for the purpose of establishing an organisation composed of representatives of the labour bodies of that city. This effort proved a great success. As a result of that meeting a Trades and Labour Council was formed, which is at present known as the Toronto District Labour Council, and is the most active local labour organisation in Canada. It was mainly due to the efforts of the Toronto Trades and Labour Council that the Canadian Labour Congress was revived and took its place among the permanent and important representative bodies of the world. On December 26th, 27th and 28th, 1883, the first meeting, which formed the basis of the present Trade and Labour Congress of Canada, was held in Toronto, as a result of a notice to the officers and members of the various trade and labour unions and assemblies of Knights of Labour throughout the Dominion sent out by the Toronto Trades and Labour Council. This notice provided that all unions or assemblies of Knights of Labour of 100 members or fractional part thereof, should be entitled to two delegates ; 200 members and upwards to be entitled to an additional delegate, but in no case was an organisation to be entitled to more than three delegates. No proxies 166 DEFENCE NOT DEFIANCE were permitted. In response to this call to arms forty- seven labour representativf;s assembled, and formed the first meeting of the present Trade and Labour Congress of Canada. The aims of the l;i.bour party in Canada are very similar to those of organised workers of the rest of the world, " Defence nf)t Defiance " being their motto. They seek to defend tli(!mselves against the aggressions of those unscrupulous capitalists, who, they state, n^gard the labourer as a mere chattel, existing for the sole purpose of enabling them to get rich quickly, even if at the (xpense of the life, limb, or home comfort of the workers. Fifty years ago there were no Factory Acts, mine regulations, workmen's compensation acts, f)r lien laws in Canada. The Federal government and the Ontario government gave assisted passages and bonuses to immigrants, out of public funds which were subscribed to by the mechanics and labourers in common with other classes of the community, which tended to overstock the labour market, increase competition among the workers, and keep down wages. The laws, the labour party urge, were made by capitalists for capitalists, and the workers were often defrauded of their wages, especially in the building trade, for want of a lien law. The franchise was limited and the voting was open. The hours of daily labf)ur were from ten to twelve and the wages were low. All the conditions that usually surround urban labour in the old world obtained in Canada at that time, without the paternal feeling that was often extended by the consider- ate employers in older countries. Consequently it was deemed that there was as much necessity for the labourers to organise in Canada as elsewhere. The chief advantage the Canadian workmen had over his old country confrere was his accessibility to the land, if he was dissatisfi(;d with urban conditions, but of this he seldom took advantage, mainly on account of his natural inaptitude 167 THE DOMINION OF CANADA and dislike to rural life. The workers reasonably wished to place themselves on a footing of equality before the law with other classes, and to put themselves in a position to make a fair bargain with their employer, which in their isolated condition they were unable to do. This made it imperative upon them to' organise themselves into Trade Unions. Their political power, being rather limited, and urforganised, there was no other way to accomplish their object. Canada could never have made the increase in population, attained the progress, and have occupied the position in the world she does to-day, if it could not have been shown that the standard of living among the people was higher than in the countries of th§ old world. The two principal factors in the recent rapid development of Canada, and the great increase of population, are first the opening up of the great Western prairie, and the increase of wages that has taken place during the last thirty years owing largely to the action of the labour organisations. Had they not been in existence the individual workman would have been powerless to bargain with his employer, and enabled to secure his share of the increase of wealth that has taken place from the cultivation of the " Great West " ; the system of bonuses to immigrants, and "assisted" pas- sages, would have continued, and the supply of labour would have been kept so much in excess of the demand that wages could have remained at a rate providing only bare subsistence. This is manifest from the fact that, at the present moment, wages are lowest and hours the longest in those parts of Canada where the men are the least organised. In these districts wages have not increased in anything like the same proportion to the increased cost of living during the last twelve years. The labour movement in Canada contains all the elements of the same party here, embracing, as it does, every phase of social reformer, 168 THE STUMBLING-BLOCK OF LABOUR from the Conservative Trade Unionist to the irrecon- cilable Socialist, who believes that nothing will save society but to destroy it. Socialism will never be brought about in Canada by Socialistic theories ; if it ever does come it will be because society deems it the only way to protect itself amongst- the " get rich quick " class. Signs of this are perhaps manifesting themselves, in the demands of the Western farmers upon their Provincial Governments to establish provincial abattoirs, and cement works, and the demand of the same class upon the Dominion Government for the national ownership and operation of all terminal elevators for the storage of grain. Radical changes in society are not brought about by theories, but by conditions. In common with the workers of most other civilised countries the working men of Canada desire to have their aspirations and interests represented in the Provin- cial and Dominion Parliaments. The labourers in the urban constituencies are numerous enough to accomplish their objects easily were they only as united on poUtical action as they are on questions of wages and the hours of labour. But there are fundamental difficulties in the way that are almost insurmountable in some districts. The labouring class, like all other classes in Canada, are a heterogeneous body, and are not only divided but strongly antagonistic to each other on questions of race and religion. A large number of members of trade unions, while loyal to their unions in trade matters, owe their first allegiance in politics to some national or religious society, such as the Orange Society, the Sons of England, the Ancient Order of Hibernians, etc., etc. This always has been, and, for some years to come, will be, the great stumbling-block in the path of labour repre- sentation in Canada. In parts of Canada where these 169 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Societies are not numerous enough to divide the labour party in pohtics, such as in Montreal, where the working men are largely composed of French Canadians, or in the mining districts of British Columbia, they have succeeded in electing a member to the Dominion Parha- ment. The city of Winnipeg was also represented at Ottawa by a labour member for several years. The first man to represent labour on the floor of any parliament in Canada, was the late D. J. O'Donoghue, who was elected to represent the city of Ottawa in 1874, to the Ontario Legislature, at a by-election. On that occasion the Conservative party did not put a candidate in the field but supported Mr. O'Donoghue, who was supposed at the time to have Conservative leanings. On taking his seat Mr. O'Donoghue gave the Liberal Government an independent support as the only means of obtaining any legislation in the interest of labour. At the sub- sequent general election in 1879 there were three candidates in the running for the Ottawa seat, and Mr. O'Donoghue was again elected over his Liberal and Conservative opponents by a good majority. He sat through the four years of the local parliament, but did not enter the legislature again. He accepted a position in the Labour Statistical Department of the Ontario Government, after which he was appointed Fair Wage Officer under the Ottawa Government when that position was created, which he held until his death three years ago. He stands out as the most prominent figure in labour matters in Canada during the more than thirty years that he was actively identified with the movement. Mr. O'Donoghue was the first to introduce a resolution in the Ontario legislature in favour of manhood suffrage, which many years ago became the franchise of that province. He also procured some important amendments to the Mechanics Lien Law, and rendered good service to the cause of labour during his parliamentary career. At the 170 LABOUR MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT general election of 1887, Mr. Andrew Ingram was nom- inated for the Dominion House by the Labour Party of the town of St. Thomas, and receiving the support of the Conservative party, was elected. He supported that party during the ensuing parliament, and at the next general election received their nomination, and was again elected, but before the expiration of that parliament he accepted a position on the Ontario Railway Commission. A. T. Lepine was also elected to the Federal Parliament as a Labour man, with Conservative support, for a division of Montreal, and during his term gave that party an ■independent support. The only men ever elected to the Dominion Parliament as straight Labour men were Ralph Smith for Nanaimo, B.C., who subsequently became a Liberal, A. W. Puttee for Winnipeg, and Alphonse Verville, for a division of Montreal. The first and the last of these are still members of the House. The two former are Englishmen and neither had been in Canada ten years at the time of their election. So much for the alleged prejudice against Englishmen that we hear such a great deal about. At the last election of members to the Ontario Legislature, Allen Studholme was elected to represent labour. About 1890 Mr. Joseph Beiand, President of the Montreal Trades and Labour Council, was elected to the Quebec legislature for a part of Montreal. A sketch on this branch of Canadian develop- ment would be incomplete without a detailed statement of the present demands of the Labour party in Canada. At the twenty-sixth Annual Convention of the " Trade and Labour Congress of Canada," held at Fort William from the 12th to the 17th September inclusive, this year, at which thirty-two International Unions and 173 local Labour bodies were represented, with a membership of 55,000, the following platform of principles was formulated : — I. Free compulsory education. 171 THE DOMINION OF CANADA 2. Legal working day of eight hours, and six days to a week. 3. Government inspection of all industries. 4. The abolition of the contract system on all pubhc works. 5. A minimum living wage, based on local conditions. 6. Public ownership of all franchises, such as railways, telegraphs, telephones, water- works, lighting, etc. 7. Tax reform, by lessening taxation on industry, and increasing it on land values. 8. Abolition of the Dominion Senate. 9. Exclusion of Chinese. 10. The Union Label to be placed on all manufactured goods, where practicable, and all government and municipal supplies. 11. Abolition of child labour by children under fourteen years of age ; and of female labour in all branches of industrial life, such as mines, workshops, factories, etc. 12. Abolition of property quahfication for all public offices. 13. Voluntary arbitration of labour disputes. 14. Proportional representation ^^dth grouped con- stituencies and abolition of municipal wards. 15. Direct legislation through the initiative and referendum. 16. Prohibition of prison labour in competition with free labour. The Knights of Labour The greatest passing Labour wave that ever struck Canada was the Knight of Labour movement in the early eighties. This institution was founded on the secret society principle, with signs and passwords, a working formula to open and close the Assemblies, as the local bodies were called, and signs of recognition, by which brother Knights who were strangers could recognise 172 THE KNIGHTS OF LABOUR each other. It also provided for District Assembhes, which are composed of representatives of the several local Assemblies of any given district, for the purpose of enabling the members to take concerted action on matters pertaining to their locality, and a General Assembly that met a,nnually in the city determined upon at the previous General Convention. This organisa- tion was eminently suited to a thinly-populated country like Canada, as it provided that where there were not enough workers of any particular trade to form a local Assembly, mixed Assemblies could be organised, com- posed of all classes, except lawyers, who were debarred membership in the Society. Several hundred local Assemblies were organised, and a not inconsiderable number of District Assemblies. The Knights of Labour, though originating in the United States, became so strong in Canada, that at one time they threatened to submerge the Trade Unions, and it was found necessary to give the Dominion a representative on the General Executive Board. But it proved a meteoric movement, reaching its height in 1887, during which year there was a general election, and the Labour party of Toronto called a convention to nominate candidates for the Dominion, at which there were about ten thousand organised workers and labour reformers represented. Messrs. E. E. Shepherd and A. F. Jury were nominated for West and East Toronto respectively, but they were both defeated, and from that time the movement began to decline in Canada, as it already had done in the United States, and to-day there are not a dozen Assemblies in the Dominion. Many of the Trade Assem- blies, that is those Assemblies that were composed entirely of one particular trade, reverted to their former form of organisation, viz.. Trade Unions, while the members of the mixed Assemblies who wished to retain their connection with the Labour movement, became 173 THE DOMINION OF CANADA either Socialists or Single Taxers. In spite of the spasmodic character of the Knights of Labour movement, it was a great educational factor, and helped in no small degree to create a healthy public opinion on the Labour question, which was one of its principal missions. Labour Legislation Though it cannot be said that Labour representation has been a great success in Canada, so far as numbers are concerned, the same cannot be truthfully said in regard to Labour legislation. The Statutes of the Dominion and Provincial Parliaments bear ample evidence of the activity of organised labour in this useful field of operation. Previous to 1837 the labourers stood naked before the law, so far as special legislation was concerned to protect them against the " get rich quick " exploiter of humanity. They were living under the old statute laws of the United Kingdom, without the benefits of the various modern Acts that had been passed here for the protection of the workers in mine, factory and workshop ; but with the inauguration of a national labour movement this state of things soon began to change, and to-day few countries are ahead of Canada in this respect, though she labours under the disadvantage of having to influence nine Parliaments instead of one, on account of some of the remedial legislation required having to be obtained from Provincial Parliaments and some from the Dominion. In spite of this drawback they have succeeded in getting the following Acts passed in the direct interest of Labour : — Mechanics' Lien Law, Workmen's Compensation Act. When this latter Act was first passed in the Province of Ontario, The Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific Railways were exempt from its provisions for twelve months, on the ground that these companies had mutual protection societies to which the companies subscribed, and which provided reUef 174 THE WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT in cases of accident, but it was provided that if at the end of that period it was found that the men in the employ of these companies wished to be afforded tiie protection of the Act, they would be so included in the following Session of the Legislature. At the expiration of the time mentioned the employees of the companies above referred to made it known to the Labour party of Toronto that they wished to be brought under the provisions of the Act, and a deputation composed of members of the legislative committees of the Toronto Trades and Labour Council, and District Assembly of Knights of Labour, "appeared before the Railway Committee of the Ontario legislature, of which the Hon. Christopher Eraser, one of the best men and brightest intellects ever in public life in Canada, was chairman. After a long drawn out battle with the lawyers of the Railway Companies, the labour men succeeded in having the question submitted to a vote of the men working for the two companies, and it was carried by a large majority that they should be included among those coming under the protection of the Workmen's Compensation Act. In several of the provinces, Labour has also obtained the passage of Factory Acts, which, like the Compensation Act, have since been amended and improved through its influence. Other Acts have been passed, such as the Shops Regulation Act of 1888, an Act to prevent the law of conspiracy being applied to labour disputes, unless a deed is committed punishable under the statutes, an amendment to the Seamen's Act, for the better protection- of sailors, an Aliens Labour Law, an Act for the collection of labour statistics, an Act providing for a fair wage clause in all government contracts. Acts for the protection of employees in manufactories, and an Act relating to the protection of persons employed in the construction of railways, were passed in the Province of Quebec. Ontario is the " banner province " of labour legislation 175 THE DOMINION OF CANADA in the east. In addition to the Acts already mentioned, the following measures have been obtained : — An Act to Facilitate Agreements between Masters and W^orkmen for the Participation in Profits, The Trades Arbitration Act, an Act to Amend the Law Relating to the Collection of Debts, an Act for the Establishment of Co-operative Societies, an Act to protect the Goods of Lodgers and Boarders against Distresses for Rent by the superior landlord, an Act respecting Wages in cases of Assignment, an Act respecting Exempting from Taxation Workmen's Wages that do not exceed $700.00 a year, an Act respect- ing Mines Regulations, and an Act placing a duty of $500.00 on every Chinaman entering Canada was passed at the request of organised Labour in the Province of Britisli Columbia. Most of the Acts have been amended several times at the instigation of the Labour party, and scores of minor Acts and Regulations have been passed. The province of British Columbia has been particularly prolific in labour legislation, and successful in obtaining representation in the local legislature. Another field in which organised Labour has exercised a beneficial influence has been in having clauses inserted in agreements between municipal bodies and private corporations, securing a minimum wage and maximum hours of labour for employees of such companies, and in cases of street car companies, reduced through tickets for workers travelling to and from their work. In this last respect Canada stands in the very front rank of the nations of the earth, and these benefits, like many others accruing from the actions of organised Labour, have been showered upon all workers unorganised as well as organised. Many of the municipalities have a minimum wage even for the scavengers that clean their streets and the men that dig their sewers. These various laws and regulations have saved many a life, brightened many a humble 176 MR. A. F. JURY home in the hour of accident, and fed and clothed many a child that otherwise might have had to suffer great hardship through the negligence of employers or the meanness of public bodies. In pressing effectively for these provisions the working people of Canada have been most ably championed by Mr. A. F. Jury, at present the Canadian Government Agent at Exeter, a man who embodies sterling integrity of character with an unrivalled grasp of political economy and what is still more rare, of the power of applying that knowledge. 177 CHAPTER VII The Chief Cities of Canada The census of 1910 showed that sixty-two cities and towns in Canada had each a population of 5,000 persons or more. Of these, twenty-four had a population of 10,000 or over, and of the twenty-four twelve had populations of 20,000 or more. Since 1901 a very large number of towns have come into the line of those containing 5,000 or more, and most of those of 5,000 inhabitants have grown to double their size. In the North-West Territories particularly the growth of the population has been very rapid, as was shown by the census of 1906 in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Montreal In point of size and commerce the importance of Mon- treal, with an estimated population of 456,000, stands easily first. Situated on the St. Lawrence, at the junction of that river with the Ottawa River, it occupies a most important strategical position from the point of view of commerce, and its surroundings are most picturesque. The town is situated upon an island some thirty miles long by eight or ten miles wide, formed of the two branches of the Ottawa River, and is built in a series of terraces which mark the former levels of the river. In size it is about four miles long by two miles broad. Behind it towers, 700 feet above the river level, the huge shape of Mount Royal, from which the city takes its name. Montreal is naturally the chief railway centre of Canada ; the Canadian Pacific and the Grand Tnmk Pacific Railways have headquarters in the city, and in all ten railway lines run through or have their terminus in Montreal. Montreal has all the characteristics of an Enghsh manufacturing town in times of brisk trade. 178 MONTREAL The wharves, where fourteen important lines of steamers have their port of call, are hives of energy, and the smoke from hundreds of factory chimneys obscures the air. The river is open for seven months in the year, and the quays can accommodate many of the largest modern liners. By a system of canals which ends at Montreal there is a continuous waterway during the open season from the ports of Lake Superior to the Atlantic. Montreal has been called the " City of Churches." Many of the buildings date back to the early days of French Canada. Dwarfing all the rest is the vast Roman Catholic cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the largest churches in the North American continent, which has accommodation for over 12,000 people. Of the public buildings at Montreal the most notable is that of the McGill University, which takes high place among the educational institutions of Canada. Not far from Montreal are the celebrated Lachine Rapids which run through the narrow gorge between the Canadian Pacific Railway bridge and the Victoria bridge. Steamers ply upon these dangerous waters, and to shoot the rushing rapids is one of the experiences which one seeks once in a lifetime and remembers ever afterwards. Undoubtedly one of the chief sights of Montreal is the Victoria Bridge which spans the river at a point where it is two miles wide. The present bridge, built about ten years ago, replaced the original tubular bridge designed by Robert Stevenson. Quebec Over-past in the race for wealth and commerce by its pushing neighbour, Montreal, the old city of Quebec stands apart and most deeply fascinating for the lover of the picturesque and the student of history. Quebec is purely French — French in its buildings, in its churches, in its people ; French in its whole atmosphere. The buildings nearly all convey to the mind the fact that one 179 THE DOMINION OF CANADA is in an old-fashioned French town. The people are more courteous and less hustling than their neighbours of Montreal. They have the air of men who say, " Enough is as good as a feast." Around the old city is a massive wall redolent of the stories of bygone years, for Quebec has stood five sieges, from the land, from the river, and has held at bay the savagery of the Indians. Raising one's eyes above the city one sees the height of Cape Diamond crowned by the vast citadel once called the key to Canada. Planned by a French Canadian, De Lery, and built by the order of the Duke of Wellington at a cost of $5,000,000, the citadel is a monument to the engineering skill of the time, though by no means suitable for a defensive work to-day. Toronto Enthroned upon the shores of Lake Ontario lies Toronto, in its way one of the finest cities of the continent. It is a city of large distances, of long streets and fine buildings ; tree-edged when the centre or business part is passed. Toronto was planned on a large scale and laid out without regard to space, unlike many Canadian cities which have grown up carelessly as it were. Yonge Street, for example which leads through the centre of the town, stretches for some miles. The residential districts are peculiarly attractive, even workmen's houses have well-kept gardens in front of them, and the green of grass and trees abounds everywhere to delight the eye. It is essentially a city of homes and one of its great charms is partly attributable to the University atmosphere. Yet, while the picturesque is prominent, it must not be forgotten Toronto has its commercial side, for within a circle of sixty miles from the centre are produced some two-thirds of Canada's manufactures. Toronto with its estimated population of 402,000 is the centre of British-Canadian influence, and the capital of the province of Ontario. Of the thirty-three Chartered 180 K"- r- It:, < -f^ CHAMPLAIN MARKET, QUEBEC, SHOWING THE HOTEL FRONTENAC THE CITY OF BEAUTIFUL HOMES banks operating in Canada, cleveni have their Head Offices in Toronto. The magnitude of the business carried on is shown by the Clearing-house returns which in 1909 were 1,437,700,477 dollars. Seventy-six insurance companies have offices in the city, twenty-four of which are head offices. For many years past there has been great activity in building, and whereas in 1904 the estimated value of the buildings erected was less than six million dollars, the value of those erected in 1909 was over 18,000,000 dollars. The city is well provided with open spaces, there being no fewer than thirty-nine parks and squares. Among these are High Park, covering 235 acres, Riverdale Park and Zoo (108 acres), the Island (178 acres), the Exhibition Park (233 acres), Hanlan Park, Queen's Park, and the Allan Gardens. There is a proposal to connect the city parks with wide boulevards and drives. Toronto is well served with railways, more especially by the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern, and the facilities of thes(^ are supplemented by the radial lines which serve as feeders to the city, as well as by the water-borne traffic. The city claims to be the chief centre of education in the Dominion of Canada. Within the University of Toronto there are four federated Arts Colleges, and the number of students registered in the University and its faculties is over 4,000. Besides the higher educational institutions, there are seventy-four Public Schools, seven High Schools and a Technical School. In addition to the Public Schools, which have nearly 40,000 registered pupils on their registers, there are nineteen Separate Schools with 6,474 pupils registered. Hamilton Hamilton, which is situated on the south shore of Hamilton Bay, the western extremity of Lake Ontario, 181 '3— a«37) THE DOMINION OF CANADA forty miles distant from Toronto, is an attractive city, and can not only boast of being one of the most important manufacturing centres of the Dominion, but to be the distributing centre of the fruit grown in the fertile Niagara Peninsula. The town has a magnificent water front and an excellent natural harbour. Its geographical position makes it a convenient railway centre, and the climate is most desirable. Founded in 1795 it was not until 1832 that anything of importance was done towards making Hamilton the busy manufacturing town which it has since become. Besides the many factories which have long been established there, Hamilton, by reason of the excellent inducements held out, has acquired a large number of branches of important United States industries. Electric power is available at low rates in addition to natural gas, and with its other natural advantages the city may be expected to forge ahead even more rapidly in the future than in the past. The present population, which at the Census of 1901 was 52,634, is estimated to be over 70,000. Ottawa Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion of Canada, is situated on the south bank of the river of the same name, and is about 120 miles distant from Montreal. Here are the magnificent Government buildings, Gothic in style, situated on a high bluff overlooking the river. The city is the political capital of the Dominion, and in addition to the Members of Parliament and Senators, there are, of course, a large number of Civil Servants resident there, which gives the place quite a distinct atmosphere as compared with Toronto and other towns in the province. Ottawa is a well-kept city, has fine parks, and large sums of money are spent annually in improvements by a Commission which will in time make the city one of the most attractive in Canada. 182 VICTORIA MONUMENT, OTTAWA THE CAPITAL OF NOVA SCOTIA Many important industries have been established in Ottawa and the neighbourhood, in addition to the great lumber mills for which the town has always been noted, and many developments are bound to take place, as Ottawa is favourably situated on the main line of several great " railways. Outside the city is to be found the Central Experimental Farm belonging to the Dominion government, which is not only a place of great interest in itself, by reason of the valuable work carried on, but is the headquarters of the staff which directs the similar work that is carried on at other experimental farms throughout the Dominion. Halifax Halifax, the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, occupies a commanding position as the most easterly seaport of Canada and rejoices in possessing one of the world's finest natural harbours. The city is the eastern terminus of the Inter-colonial Railway, by which it is connected up with the other great railway systems of the Dominion, and is otherwise well served by provincial lines. While, perhaps, no longer an Imperial naval and military station of the first importance, a garrison is still maintained by the Canadian government and the vessels of the newly-formed Canadian Naval Service will make this their principal Atlantic base. As a commercial port open all the year round, Halifax is bound to prosper by reason of its excellent geographical position, and there are already, in addition to regular steamship services with the United Kingdom, sailings to the West Indies, Newfound- land and eastern United States ports. Besides being the greatest entrepot of the fish trade of Canada, the city is a manufacturing centre of importance, while it also claims to be a desirable place of residence owing to the social and educational advantages it enjoys. The present population is about 45,000. 183 THE DOMINION OF CANADA , St. John St. John is a comparatively modem city with a popula- tion numbering some fifty-seven thousand inhabitants, and by far the most important business centre in New Brunswick, though Fredericton is the provincial seat of Government. Since the disastrous fire in 1877 a handsome town has sprung up and the splendid harbour affords every accommodation for a large number of vessels. As the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the city port has gained rapidly in importance with the increase in traffic that line has enjoyed, while it has also other railway connections, including the Inter-colonial. Its inhabitants are enterprising and progressive, and fully imbued with the opinion that their town has a great destiny before it. Many large industrial establishments of various kinds are located in St. John and its vicinity, and the city can boast of fine buildings, churches and streets. The Reversible Falls on the St. John River form a remarkable natural feature of great interest to visitors to the city. The river drops some fifteen feet into the harbour at low tide, but the rise of the tide in the Bay of Fundy is so great as not only to overcome to the fall, but to actually reverse the flow of water up stream. Winnipeg Winnipeg, now one of the best known cities in the Dominion, is spoken of as the Chicago of Canada. It has grown since 1870 from a small trading post with a population of some few hundreds to a fine modern city with some 130,000 (the local claim is 170,000) inhabitants. Situated at the junction of the Assiniboine and Red Rivers, forty miles south of Lake Winnipeg, the city has become the depot for the enormous trade of the Western provinces and is a business centre of the first importance. Its phenomenal growth is, of course, attributable to the agricultural development of the 184 THE CHICAGO OF CANADA prairie country of the West, and as showing the importance of its situation, it may be mentioned that as the head- quarters of the Manitoba Inspection Division, over seventy- three milhon bushels of wheat alone were inspected there in 1909. More wheat is handled annually at this point than even at St. Paul' or Minneapolis, in fact, the total wheat transactions at Winnipeg are the largest of any city in the world. The number of cattle received at the stock-yards in 1909 was 169,458, in addition to which 128,000 hogs and 24,200 sheep were also dealt with. The city is the seat of the Provincial Government of Manitoba, and is becoming an important educational centre, the University of Manitoba and the Provincial Board of Education being located there. Many of the largest manufacturers and mercantile houses in eastern Canada have found it necessary to establish branches in Winnipeg in order to cope with their Western trade, and the large factories, stores and other kinds of business premises which have been erected, have given the city an imposing aspect which was lacking but a few years since. Great improvements have been made in the direction of providing fine broad streets, avenues and boulevards, on the latter of which numbers of shade trees have been planted. There are nine parks tastefully laid out and cultivated under the control of the Public Parks Board and two other open spaces outside the city limits. The city is well lighted and served with street railways, and as steps have been taken to secure electric power generated on the river, rapid progress may be expected to take place in its industrial development. Edmonton Edmonton, the capital of the province of Alberta, was formerly best known as the " jumping-off place " for the fur-trade regions to the north. At the Census of 1906 it had a population of over 20,000, and the number 185 THE DOMINION OF CANADA of the inhabitants at the present time is estimated to be over 28,000. The rate of increase will probably be greater in the immediate future, as the city is a divisional point on the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, and the Canadian Northern Railway main line passes through it. There is also a connection from Calgary with the Canadian Pacific Railway. No finer situation could have been selected for the capital of the province. The city is situated on a plateau on the edge of the beautiful valley of the Saskatchewan, and is at the head of navigation on the river for all points north of the Peace River district. A handsome parliament building and a university (at Strathcona) is in course of erection. Opposite Edmonton is the. town of Strathcona, a thriving business centre with a rapidly growing population, destined, no doubt, to join its fortunes with its bigger neighbour. Calgary Calgary, a charmingly situated town, overlooked by the white peaks of the Rocky Mountains, on the Bow and Elbow Rivers, and on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, is the wholesale distributing point and financial centre for southern Alberta. It is connected with Edmonton by a branch line running through an important section of country which is becoming rapidly settled, and will undoubtedly develop into a town of much greater importance than it now is. Although comparatively new, Calgary has some very fine buildings and well planned avenues in its residential parts. As the centre of the ranching district and with an abundance of natural resources in the neighbourhood, such as coal, lumber and building materials, the city has many advantages, and is possessed of a most enterprising body of citizens who have shown their determination to make Calgary one of the most desirable places of residence in Western Canada. It claims a population of 50,000. 186 A GREAT PACIFIC PORT Vancouver To obtain some idea of the former appearance of the site of the present city of Vancouver, it is sufficient to pay a visit to Stanley Park, a magnificent pleasure resort in the vicinity. There may be seen groves of towering fir and cedar trees, such as were growing at the time when it was decided to make the terminus of the newly con- structed Canadian Pacific Railway on Burrard Inlet. The dense forest was cleared, and from the month of May until July, in the year 1886, a town began to grow with surprising rapidity, but was wiped out by a destruc- tive fire which spread from the surrounding forest. Since then Vancouver has grown by leaps and bounds, and now has a population of over 100,000. It has a picturesque and favourable situation on Burrard Inlet, and a superb harbour, which is always safely navigable. The trade of Vancouver is already large, and is steadily increasing. Steamships ply regularly from the port to China and Japan, and to Australia and New Zealand, in addition to which there are numerous other saihngs, thus rendering Vancouver one of the principal ports of the North American Continent. In addition to ex- tensive wharves and warehouses, Vancouver possesses many fine buildings, business premises, churches, schools, libraries, hotels, and clubs, and compares favourably with many other cities founded at a very much earlier date. There is a complete electric service, with exten- sions to New Westminster and Lulu Island, and telephone connections with Victoria and other towns on Vancouver Island, Seattle, and many other places of importance in the district. There is also an excellent service of steam- ships making daily trips between Vancouver, Victoria, and Seattle. A good water supply and sewage system have been provided, and the city is well lighted both by electricity and gas. Supplies of coal are obtained from Nanaimo on Vancouver Island, and a water-power 187 THE DOMINION OF CANADA sufficient to develop 300,000 h.p. has recently been made available. Victoria The approach by water to Victoria, the capital of British Columbia, has often been described as nearly, if not quite, equal in beauty to the approach to Stock- holm. The city is situated on a deep, narrow inlet opening from the Strait of Juan de Fuca into the south- eastern coast of Vancouver Island, and is eighty miles distant from the mainland. Added to the beauties of its immediate neighbourhood there are superb views of the Olympian chain and the snow-capped Mount Baker. The geniality of the climate, which may be compared to that of the south of England, renders the city a most desirable place of residence, and it boasts of being the most English town in Canada. There is hardly an English garden flower which is not to be found growing in its gardens, besides many indigenous flowering shrubs, and roses bloom on till Christmas time. The city is a thriving one, and there are many hand- some hotels, business blocks, and fine shops ; but the parliament building is an outstanding feature of its architecture, and ranks among the finest public buildings in North America. Like Vancouver, Victoria is a port of very consider- able importance, and is, moreover, the headquarters of the Canadian seal-fishing industry. A few miles distant is Esquimalt, which was until recently a British naval station, with a splendid land-locked harbour. It will henceforth be used as the Pacific headquarters of the newly-established Canadian Navy. Now that the immense resources of Vancouver Island in timber, minerals, and agricultural resources are beginning to be recognised at their true value, it is difficult to limit the extent to which the city of Victoria may be expected to develop in the near future. 188 CHAPTER VIII The Governor-General and the High Commissioner In Canada the Crown is represented by a Governor- General who holds office during the pleasure of the Sovereign of Great Britain. An administrator or other officer may be appointed by the Dominion Government on behalf of the Crown, and all provisions made in the Act of Confederation in reference to the Governor- General, apply to him. The Governor-General chooses and summons his Privy Councillors, and should the Government of Canada require it, removes them. At the time of Confederation, Lord Monck, then Governor-General, inserted the names of the Senators in the Queen's proclamation of the Union. Any additional Senators were thereafter to be summoned by the Governor- General, and, whenever there is a vacancy in the Senate, the Governor-General appoints a qualified person. He appoints the Speaker of the Senate, and can remove him. He also summons and calls together the Par- liament of Canada in His Majesty's name, and may dissolve it within a period of five years from its opening. He is empowered to assent, in the King's name, to Bills passed in both Houses ; or he may refuse the assent of the King, and even reserve bills for the expression of His Majesty's pleasure. The Governor-General, also, with certain exceptions, appoints Judges for the various Courts, and may remove Judges of the Superior Courts on an address of the Senate and House of Commons. An appeal will lie to the Governor-General in Council from any Act or decision of any provincial authority in regard to separate or dissentient schools in respect to Education, affecting the rights and privileges of 189 THE DOMINION OF CANADA supporters of such schools, and in case the law of the particular province seems to him requisite for this purpose ; or in case the provincial authorities do not duly execute the directions of the Governor-General in Council in any such appeal, the Parliament of Canada may legislate thereon. The Lieutenant-Governor of the provinces holds office during the pleasure of the Governor-General ; but no Lieutenant-Governor can be removed within five years from his appointment except for cause assigned. It is lawful for the King, if His Majesty think fit, to authorise the Governor-General to appoint any person or persons to be his deputies within any part or parts of Canada, an4, as such, to exercise during his pleasure such powers as he may assign to him or them. He must recommend to the House all Money Bills, but he originates no measures, and by himself has no legislative powers. The powers of the Governor-General in respect of the disallowance of Provincial Acts are as great as those of the King in respect of Dominion Acts. He is, however, expected to exercise sound discretion, and for the exercise of this discretion the Executive Coimcil for the time being is responsible. This power of veto is given to the Gover- nor-General in Council, and not to the Governor-General, and, as to the significance of this fact, it may be interesting to quote the words of Sir John Macdonald. Whether " in any case power is given to the Governor- General to act individually or with the aid of his Council, the Act, as one within the Canadian constitution, must be on the advice of a responsible Minister. The distinction drawn in the Statute between an Act of the Governor and an Act of the Governor-General in Council is a tech- nical one, and arose from the fact that, in Canada, for a long period before Confederation, certain acts of ad- ministration were required by law to be done under the sanction of an Order in Council while others did not 190 Photo by Lafayette THE RT. HON. LORD STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, G.C.M.G.,G.C.V.O.,LL.D., HIGH COMMISSIONER IN LONDON FOR THE DOMINION OF CANADA THE POWER OF DISALLOWANCE require that formality. In both cases, however, since responsible government has been conceded, such acts have always been performed under the advice of a responsible ministry or minister." In 1875 a resolution was moved in the House of Commons by the Hon. Edward Blake, then Minister of Justice of Canada. The resolution affirmed that, in the opinion of the House, the power of disallowance of Acts of a Local Legislature conferred by the British North America Act was vested in the Governor-General in Council, and that His Excellency's ministers were responsible to Parliament for the action of the Governor- General in exercising or abstaining from the exercise of this power. The matter arose in connection with certain New Brunswick Acts, which His Excellency's ministers advised him it was his duty to disallow. The Governor- General then stated that he was not prepared to comply with the terms of the resolution, and that he would submit the case to Her Majesty's Government for con- sideration. This was done, and an answer was received from the then Colonial Secretary, to the effect that the Acts of the New Brunswick Legislature were within the powers of that Legislature, and that the Canadian House of Commons could not constitutionally interfere with their operation. It was added that this was a matter on which the Governor-General must act on his own individual discretion, and could not be guided by the advice of his responsible ministers if the Dominion disallow. Mr. Blake observed that the doctrine that the Governor- General should act on his own individual discretion in cases of disallowance was one that could not be main- tained consistent with the letter and spirit of the Con- stitution. Under the powers of the B. N. A. Act, Mr. Blake maintained that that power was vested in 191 THE DOMINION OF CANADA the Governor-General in Council, and that he could not disallow except upon the advice of his ministers. He admitted that the Governor-General could say that he could not follow the advice of his ministers, but that, in that case, it was for the ministry to withdraw that advice or withdraw from his service, leaving the issue, which was right. But the gravest point was that there was an assertion that the power of disallowing local Acts was vested in the Governor-General individually, and in which he could not be guided by the advice of his responsible ministers. Mr. Blake maintained that there was no such power, and that the language which was contained in the instruction was such that, if it were acceded to by the Canadian Parliament, it would be destructive of the principle of responsible government. Sir John Macdonald spoke very much to the same effect, and said that the right of disallowance of any Act of a Colonial Legislature by the Queen herself, in her personal capacity and by virtue of her royal prerogative, separate from the advice of her advisers, had long since passed away ; that the American revolution had pretty well settled that question. The Premier informed Mr. Blake that the Executive had taken action, and the latter gentleman withdrew his motion, remarking that he had no doubt what the action of the Executive would be, yet, if it should be unsatis- factory the matter could be raised again. The principle laid do\NTi by Mr. Blake, has, however, been accepted ever since. The general powers of the Governor-General are defined by the British North America Act as follows : — All Powers, Authorities and Functions which under any Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, or of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or of the Legislature of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, Canada, Nova Scotia or 192 POPULARITY AND PEACE New Brunswick are at the Union vested in or exercisable by the respective Governors or Lieuten- ant-Governors of those Provinces, with the advice, or with the advice and consent of the respective Executive Councils thereof, or in conjunction with those Councils, or with any number of members thereof, or by those Governors or Lieutenant- Governors individually, shall, as far as the same continue in existence and capable of being exercised after the Union in relation to the Government of Canada, be vested in and exercised by the Governor- General, with the advice, or with the advice and consent of or in conjunction with the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, or any members thereof, or by the Governor-General individually, as the case requires, subject nevertheless (except with respect to such as exist under Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain or of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) to be abolished or altered by the Parliament of Canada. So much for the nominal position, but there is much truth in what the late Mr. Goldwin Smith remarked, namely, that " The practical aim of a Governor-General is social popularity combined with political peace." The High Commissioner for Canada During a visit to Great Britain in 1879 of the then Canadian Premier, Sir John A. Macdonald, with Sir Leonard Tilley and Sir Charles Tupper, a memorandum was presented by them urging the necessity of providing further means for constant and confidential communica- tion between Her Majesty's Government and the Dominion of Canada, and recommending that a representative of the Dominion should be appointed to reside permanently in London, and that he should be granted a quasi-diplo- matic position. It was pointed out that the policy of 193 THE DOMINION OF CANADA the Empire having placed upon Canada, the administra- tion of the whole of British North America with the attendant duties and responsibilities appertaining thereto, that daily experience was showing the absolute necessity of providing means of constant and confidential com- munication between Her Majesty's Government and her local advisers in Canada. It was remarked that the Dominion had ceased to occupy the position of an ordinary possession of the Crown, existing, as she did, in the form of a powerful central Government having, at that time, no less than seven subordinate local executive and legislative systems ; and that her central Government was becoming even more responsible than the Imperial Government for the maintenance of international relations with the United States, a subject requiring great prudence and c^ire, as the populations of the two countries extended along and mingled across the vast frontier line. It was urged that it was impossible that the questions constantly arising could be satisfactorily submitted for the considera- tion of Her Majesty's Government in any other mode than that of personal communication, and that such subjects at the time under consideration necessitated the presence in London of no less than three Canadian Ministers, which entailed serious inconvenience. It was further urged that the rapidly increasing commerce of Canada, and her growing trade with foreign nations, was proving the absolute need of direct negotiation ; that in Treaties of commerce entered into by England reference had only been made to their effect on the United King- dom ; and that the necessity had arisen for providing separate and distinct trade conventions with all foreign powers with whom Canada had distinct trade was -a necessity ; especially in view of the fact that the Parlia- ment of Canada held different views on tariff matters to those which were held by Her Majesty's Government. They, therefore, submitted that when such negotiations 194 AT THE COURT OF ST. JAMES were undertaken, Her Majesty's Government should advise the Monarch specially to accredit the representative of Canada to the foreign court, by association, for the special object, with the resident Minister or other Imperial negotiator. With a view to giving effect to the foregoing pohcy, it was suggested that Her Majesty's Government should consent to receive an official representative from Canada for the purpose of securing the most early and confidential communication of their views, and that, when so requested, the proposed Minister should be accredited to foreign courts in the manner above men- tioned ; also that such representative should be accorded a quasi-diplomatic position at the Court of St. James, with the social advantages appertaining thereto. The Canadian Government, it was stated, desired to surround the proposed appointment with all the impor- tance which should attach to an official charged with such high duties. He should, therefore, it was held, be selected from the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, and specially entrusted with the general supervision of all the political, material and financial interests of Canada in England, subject to instructions from his Government. It was suggested that the dignity of the office, and the advantage of its proper recognition, appeared to require a more expressive title than that of Agent-General ; it was therefore suggested that the designation should be Resident Minister, or such other name of equal import as Her Majesty's Government might suggest. The Colonial Secretary, in transmitting a copy of the memorandum to the Governor-General at Ottawa, stated that Her Majesty's Government were very sensible of the advantage which might result from the appointment of a gentleman who, residing in England, would be fully empowered to explain their views on important questions concerning Canada. He added that, looking to the position of Canada as an integral portion oi the Empire., 195 THE DOMINION OF CANADA the relations of such a representative with Her Majesty's Government would not be correctly defined as of a diplomatic character ; and that, while Her Majesty's Government would readily assign to him a status in every way worthy of his important functions, his position would necessarily be more analagous to that of an officer in the Home Service, than to that of a Minister of a foreign court. He would, therefore, primarily communicate with the Colonial Office on the various subjects which might be entrusted to him, and the Colonial Secretary stated that while Her Majesty's Government would readily avail itself of any information he might afford, and give the fullest consideration to any representations made by him, it would rest with the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to determine in what capacit}^ his services might best be rendered with a foreign court in the interests of the Dominion. The High Commissioner for Canada was appointed by Statute in 1880, which recited that he should : — Act as representative and resident Agent of Canada in the United Kingdom, and in that capacity execute the powers and perform such duties as were, from time to time, conferred upon him by the Governor in Council. It was also provided that he should take the charge, super- vision and control of the immigration offices and agencies in the United Kingdom, and generally, carry out such instructions as he might receive from the Governor in Council respecting the commercial, financial and general interests of Canada in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. When it was first established the High Commissioner's Office was not well known, and received but little attention from the powers that were. It has, however, as the years rolled on, steadily grown in importance, and, it can safely be said that, largely through its efforts, Canada has become, in Great Britain, the best known portion of the Empire. Canada has, as promised, given of her best 196 HIGH COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE to conduct the affairs of the Dominion in this country, and the three High Commissioners who have already served her here — Sir Alexander Gait, Sir Charles Tupper, and Lord Strathcona — are all names to conjure with. The High Commissioner's Office has performed most useful service, and has gained a widespread influence. It has not only brought the Dominion prominently to the front in the most important centre in the world, but at the same time it has helped to educate the public mind as to other parts of the Empire. The almost triumphal reception recently extended to the newly-appointed High Commissioner for Australia, at which Canadians rejoiced equally with their Australian cousins, was in vivid contrast to the indifference shown by the public, at least to the first High Commissioner for Canada ; and, at the same time, enables us to gauge the great change in national feeling towards the great British communities overseas. 197 14— (ais7) PART III CONSTITUTIONAL PARLIAMENT, ETC. CHAPTER I Constitutional History In considering the Constitutional history of Canada, it will be found that it divides itself naturally into four epochs. (1) The period of French rule between 1608 and 1760, (2) the period from 1760 to 1840 when repre- sentative institutions were slowly evolving to their full strength, (3) the period from 1840 to 1867 when repre- sentative government was fully established, and the Federal Union was accomplished, and (4) the period after Federation. For some sixty years after 1608 Canada was in the control of commercial companies to whom the King had granted exclusive trading rights, and practically delegated his authority. In 1664, however, the rule of the com- panies came to end and regular government was established in Canada, which became neither more nor less than a French province, and so subject to the absolute monarchy of the French King. The head of the province had only such powers as were given him by the King, and these were of the smallest. The government was conducted by a Governor who was, in fact, military Governor ; and an Intendant whose functions included legislative work, finance, and the administration of the law. These two officers were assisted by a council, of whom the Bishop of the Roman CathoUc Church was the most important member. 198 THE REPRESENTATIVE PRINCIPLE So long as Canada remained in the hands of France, this system-, based as it was on the French principles of government, admirably suited the needs of the people ; but when, in 1760, the French rule came to an end, and Canada became the possession of England, a procla- mation was issued by George III which established the first system of English government in the possession. The right was given to the people to elect representatives ; but, since the vast majority of the inhabitants were of French extraction and refused to take the prescribed oath, the concession of representative legislative bodies was withheld. In 1774 the Quebec Act gave the first constitution to the new province, the government was entrusted to a Governor and legislative council appointed by the King, while the proposed elected assembly was postponed until the country should be more fully prepared for it. The council by which the Governor was assisted in his work of ruling the country was called the Privy Council, and consisted of five persons chiefly members of the legislative council. On the whole, the Quebec Act gave great satisfaction to the French Canadians, who were quite content with a system which allowed one or more of their leading men a seat on the council. The fact which in their minds was of prime importance was that the Act placed the Roman Catholic population on the same footing as the English Protestants ; that it allowed their Church, as a corporate body, to retain its property ; and that it restored French civil law in respect of property and individual rights. With the advent of the United Empire Loyalists, as they were called, the situation was considerably changed. As we have shown in a previous chapter the immigration of this great party of English-speaking people had a great effect on the political outlook of Canada, With the Enghshman's ingrained behef in representative 199 THE DOMINION OF CANADA institutions they were inclined to be restive under the restrictions of an autocratic legislative council, in the election of which they had no voice. Constant differences, too, were arising between the English and French-speaking population, arising from the ignorance of each party concerning the civil law of the country. With the idea of separating these two incompatible forces of ideas the British Government once again inter- fered in the management of the country, and separated Canada into two provinces : Upper Canada, almost entirely composed of English-speaking Protestants, and Lower Canada of French-speaking Catholics. The object of the Constitutional Act of 1791 was to allow these two provinces to work out their salvation independent of one another. The people, for the first time, were to be represented in an assembly elected by themselves, a Governor-General was appointed for Lower Canada, and a Lieutenant-Governor for Upper Canada, both nominees of the Sovereign. In each province was an executive body chosen by the Governor, a legislative council also chosen by the Governor, and an assembly elected by the people on a restricted franchise. A seat in either house was dependent upon certain party qualifications. While the Act of 1791 was a great advance it had this serious drawback : the advisors of the executive were not the representatives of the people. This was particu- larly noticeable in the case of Lower Canada where the official class was English and the representative class was French. As a result, there was friction between the Council and an Assembly which agitated continually for the control of public expenditure in accordance with the custom of the Enghsh Parliament. In Upper Canada, where the race difficulty did not exist, the act worked much more smoothly. It is true that an official class known as the " Family Compact " 200 TWO OFFICIAL LANGUAGES held in its hands practically the Northern province, and the question of Clergy Reserves, which arose in consequence of large tracts of land granted to the Protestant Church of Canada, was fiercely debated for a long time. The Act of 1840 gave the Canadian legislators full control of taxation, supply, and expenditure, in accor- dance with English constitutional principles. The lands of the Clergy Reserves were held. The land question of Lower Canada, which raged around the existing Seigniorial tenure, was ended by buying up the claims of the Seigniors and so freeing the habitants from many vexatious restrictions which had been laid upon them. Municipal institutions were established, and local government, the affairs of counties, townships, cities and parishes was established ; and a beginning was made in the formation of a permanent civil service for the administration of public affairs. To say that the French Canadians looked upon the Act with no amount of sympathy would understate the case. The French language was no longer on the same footing as the English language, and the fact that Upper Canada had the same representation as Lower Canada in spite of the larger population of the latter section, was con- sidered an injustice to French Canadians. In practice it was found, however, that the Act eventually gave them the predominance in the councils of the country. By an amendment in the Union Act French became an official language, and the provision for equality of repre- sentation was a great source of strength to the French when the population of English Canada by leaps and bounds surpassed that of the lower province. Before completing the survey of the constitutional development of Canada one must notice the Maritime provinces, that is to say, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton, which came 201 THE DOMINION OF CANADA into the possession of England by the Treaty of Utrecht and the Treaty of Paris, 1763. A written constitution was never given by the Parhament of Great Britain to these provinces as in the case of Upper and Lower Canada, and the history of their poHtical development is only to be found in the various official documents of Colonial Secretaries of State, despatches, statutes, and other out-of-the-way sources. In Nova Scotia from 1713 to 1758 the provincial govern- ment consisted of a Governor or Lieutenant-Governor and a council, which was both legislative and executive. On October 2nd, 1758, thirty-four years before the repre- sentative assembly met in Upper Canada, the legislative assembly sat at Halifax for the first time. New Bruns- wick, founded by Loyalists, was created a distinct province in 1784 and was governed by a Lieutenant-Governor and a Council, with both legislative and executive functions, assisted by an assembly elected by the people. Though the existence of these irresponsible councils caused a certain amount of dissatisfaction in the Maritime provinces, there was less discontent than in Upper and Lower Canada, because there was less obstruction to the will of the people. In New Brunswick, especially, political feeling ran high, but this was restored by the grant of revenues to the Assembly. Before 1840 the dual function of controlling justice and executive ability was taken away from the Councils, and by 1848 responsible government was established formally as it was in the province of Canada. Cape Breton, known in French history as the " lie Roy ale," did not come into the power of England until 1763 when it was annexed to Nova Scotia. In 1784 it was given a special constitution with a government consisting of a Lieutenant-Governor and council, and this remained in force until, in 1820, it once more formed part of Nova Scotia. 202 ">* RIGHTS GRANTED CANADA Prince Edward Island was detached from Nova Scotia in 1769, and became a province ruled by a Lieutenant- Governor and a combined executive and Legislative Council. In 1773 the first assembly was elected. Re- sponsible government was not actually introduced until 1850-51, when, after a long fight with absentee landlords and an autocratic government, the Assembly obtained fuU control of its public revenues and its local affairs. In reviewing the period of English rule which followed on the absolute monarchy of France, we find at the close of the century 1763-1863, that the following political rights had been granted to Canada : — 1. The principles of religious equality and the preserva- tion to the French Canadians of their law and language. 2. The adoption of English criminal law in Lower as well as Upper Canada. 3. The establishment of representative institutions in every province. 4. Complete control granted to the provinces over all local revenues and expenditure, without Imperial interference. The establishment of municipal institutions. 5. The principle of the responsibility of the Executive Council of Ministers to the legislative assembly. The experience gained in self-government during the period 1840-60 proved that Canada needed some drastic change in her constitution in order to place her on a level with the other great powers of the world. In 1867 a council of thirty-three representative men was held and as a result a set of seventy-two resolutions was adopted in which the provinces agreed to Federal Union ; and in 1867, as we have shown, the Imperial Parliament passed the Constitution known as the British North America Act of 1867. The conditions of the Federal Union and the means by which it was attained have been dealt with in a chapter 203 THE DOMINION OF CANADA on the Dawn of Confederation, and we are here only concerned with the constitutional side of Federation. As regards Canada, the situation may be stated con- cisely : — It is a Federation of Provinces controlled by a central government which exercises general powers over all the members of the Union, There are, besides, a number of local Governors controlling affairs which naturally and conveniently come within their provinces. The Imperial Government has executive, legislative and judicial supremacy over the Dominion, and this power is vested in the Sovereign acting on the advice of the Cabinet, the judicial committee of the Privy Council, and the Parliament. The Dominion Government is the central authority of the Federation whose executive, legislative and judicial powers are exercised through a Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign, and acting under the advice of a responsible council, the Dominion parliament and a Supreme Court. The provincial Governments have executive, legislative, and judicial powers within their constitutional limits ; such powers being vested in a Lieutenant-Governor appointed by the Governor-General in council, the Executive Council, Legislature and Judiciary. The fundamental principle formulated in the British North America Act, that the Canadian Constitution had to be moulded on that of the British is shown very clearly in the Canadian rights of self-government. No people under British government can be taxed except Avith their own consent and through their representatives. This being so, since the complete system of self-govern- ment and control over taxation and expenditure has been granted to Canada, it is only by parliamentary action that taxes can be imposed or moneys expended. Power to make Treaties with foreign countries has so far been withheld from Canada, the principle being that as a Dependency she cannot of her own action enter into 204 CANADIAN TREATIES an arrangement with a Sovereign nation. While this is perfectly true, it should be said that in practice, when the question of Canadian policy is under consideration the King in council chooses and gives the necessary authority to Canadian representatives to arrange Treaties immediately affecting Canada, such Treaties being sub- sequently passed by the Canadian Parliament, and approved by the Imperial Government. It is a provision of the Canadian Constitution that every act passed by the parliament of Canada must be submitted by the Governor-General to the King in council. The nominal right is reserved to the Sovereign to disallow an Act which it is considered might be detri- mental to the best interests of the Empire as a whole, but it would be clearly unconstitutional for the Imperial Government to interfere in any matter which is purely the local or domestic concern of the Canadian people. At the head of the Dominion stands the Governor- General, representing the Sovereign. This functionary is generally chosen from the prominent men of England, and has the dual function of governing the Dominion whilst at the same time responsible for the interests of the Mother Country. As the head of the Executive it is the duty of the Governor-General to assemble, prorogue, and dissolve parliament, and to assent or reserve the bills passed by parliament in matters of imperial interest. He consults with his Council and submits their views to the Secretary of State in England. On Canadian questions he is bound by the advice of the Council, and should he differ from them on any vital question of policy or principle, he must either accept their views or exercise his dangerous power of dismissing the Ministry, which latter alternative it is certain would never be adopted. Representing the Sovereign, and being at the head of the Dominion of Canada, the Governor-General is expected 205 THE DOMINION OF CANADA to keep himself entirely aloof from all political contro- versies ; and, with no axe to grind, and no end in view but the good of the Dominion of Canada, he necessarily holds a position of some importance in the scheme of political affairs. With very obvious limitations he may perhaps be regarded as the constitutional Sovereign pro tern, of Canada. The council which advises the Governor-General of Canada is known as the " King's Privy Council for Canada." It occupies precisely the position of the English Privy Council, that is to say, that its members when not actually in the Cabinet retain their honorary rank but have no duties. Ministers nominated by the Governor-General are first of all appointed to the Privy Council and then hold certain public offices. Constitution and Parliamentary There are in Canada sixteen Departments of State, presided over by Ministers, viz.. Justice, Finance, Agri- culture, Secretary of State, External Affairs, Marine and Fisheries, Naval Service, Militia, Customs, Inland Revenue, Interior, Post Office, Public Works, Trade and Commerce, Customs, and Labour. To the Prime Minister is assigned no particular place ; and, in the past, various portfolios have been held by the several occupants of the office. The present Premier, the Right Hon. Sir Wilfrid Laurier, holds that of President of the Council. The Minister of Justice is by virtue of his office Attorney- General of Canada, and is entrusted with practically the same powers and charged with the same duties, which belong to the office of Attorney-General in this country, so far as these are applicable to Canada. He is charged with the duty of seeing that the administration of Public Affairs is in accordance with law, and has the control or superintendence of all matters concerning the 206 DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT administration of Justice in the Dominion falling within the jurisdiction of the Federal Government. He must advise upon Provincial legislation in case it has gone beyond the powers of the provinces, and he advises the Crown generally on all legal matters referred to him. He also has superintendence of Penitentiaries and the prison system generally. The Department of Finance, under the control of the Minister of Finance, has the supervision and control of all matters connected with Financial Affairs and Public accounts, revenue and expenditure of the Dominion, excepting such matters as may be assigned to other Departments. He is a member of the Treasury Board, which is a Committee of the Privy Council on all matters above mentioned. The Department has to deal with Banks and with the issue of Dominion notes and the currency generally. The Minister of Finance is also Receiver-General, and it is provided that all public moneys, from whatever source of revenue derived, shall be paid to his credit as such. The duties and powers of the Minister of Agriculture, extend, among other matters, to the administration of laws and Orders in Council, relating to the following matters, which are controlled by his Department. Agriculture ; Public Health and Quarantine, Arts and Manufactures ; The Census ; Patents, Copyright, etc. The Minister keeps a register of copyrights, in which entries are made imder the Copyright Act. A census is taken in every tenth year, and the Department prepares all forms and instructions necessary for the taking of the same, and lays before Parliament abstracts and returns showing the results of the Census. The Experimental Farms, established in various parts of the Dominion, come under the control of the Minister. All matters respecting Infectious or Contagious Diseases affecting animals are dealt with in his Department. 207 THE DOMINION OF CANADA The duties of the Secretary of State include the keep- ing of the State Correspondence, and the keeping of State records and papers. He is also the Registrar- General of Canada, and as such, registers all proclama- tions, commissions, letters patent, and other instruments and documents issued under the Great Seal, and all bonds, warrants of extradition, etc., etc. In 1909 a Department called the Department of External Affairs, was created by Statute. Over this Department it was provided that the Secretary of State for the time being should preside, and that he, as head of the department, should have the conduct of all official communications between the Government of Canada and the Government of any other country in connection with the external affairs of Canada. It was also provided that all matters relating to the foreign consular service in Canada should be transferred to it. The Minister of Marine and Fisheries has the manage- ment and direction of this public Department under his control. He also presides over the newly-formed " Department of the Naval Service," and is called the Minister of the Naval Service. The former Department has the control among other things of matters relating to pilots, the construction and maintenance of lighthouses, lightships, etc., piers, wharves, steamboat inspection, registering and measurement of shipping, hydrographic surveys, deck and load lines, and the management, regulation and protection of sea -coast and inland fisheries except the fisheries protection service. The Minister of the Naval Service has the control and management of all naval affairs, including the construction, purchase, etc., of naval estabhshments and of ships and other vessels. The Fisheries Protection Service is also under his control. The Minister of Militia and Defence is charged with and is responsible for the administration of Militia affairs, 208 DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT and of the fortifications, ordnance, arms, armouries, stores, etc., belonging to Canada, including the initiative in all matters involving the expenditure of money. The Department of Customs is presided over by the Minister of Customs. The Governor-General appoints a Commissioner of Customs. The department has control and management of the collection of the duties of Customs, and of matters incident thereto, and of the officers and servants employed in that service. The Department presided over by the Minister of Inland Revenue has the control and management of the collection of stamp duties, and the preparation and issue of stamps and stamp paper, except postage stamps ; of internal taxes ; standard weights and measures, and the collection of bridge and ferry tolls and rents. The Minister of the Interior has the management of the affairs of all Crown lands and all other public lands not specially under the control of other departments. All matters referring to the regulation and control of immigration, are also under the control of this Minister. The Postmaster-General may, subject to the Acts in force, establish and close Post Offices, appoint and suspend Postmasters, make mail contracts, and promul- gate regulations with regard to postal matters, make orders and regulations respecting the money-order system ; grant licences for the sale of stamps, etc., etc. The Minister of Public Works has the management, charge and direction of dams, construction and repair of harbours, piers and works for improving navigation, and vessels, tools, implements and machinery for the improve- ment of navigation. He also has control of the slides, dams and other works used for the transmission of timber, and the collection of fees incident thereto, roads and bridges, public buildings, and telegraph lines. He has under his direction all matters appertaining to the 209 THE DOMINION OF CANADA maintenance and repair of Government buildings at Ottawa, and all other property belonging to Canada acquired, constructed, enlarged, etc., at the expense of Canada, or for the acquisition, construction, etc., of which any public money is voted and appropriated by Parliament, except works for which money has been appropriated as a subsidy only. The duties and powers of the Minister of Trade and Commerce extend to the execution of laws enacted by the Parliament of Canada and orders of the Governor in Council, relating to such matters connected with trade and commerce generally not by law assigned to any other Department of the Government of Canada. The administration and execution of the following Acts are under his management and direction : The Cullers Act ; The Inspection and Sale Act, with the exception of certain parts ; and the Manitoba Grain Act. The Minister of Labour is charged with the administra- tion of the Conciliation and Labour Act and the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act, 1907, and with such other duties as may be assigned to him by the Governor in Council. Since the Cabinet depends for its existence upon the approval of the Lower House, the major part of the ministry is naturally drawn from the Legislative Assembly though always a small number of positions is given to members of the Senate. These never number more than four. The head of the Cabinet, as in England, is known as the Premier (because when the Governor-General wishes a new Cabinet to be formed he is the first man called upon to form it), and the Governor-General appoints his nominees. Every Minister has the right to communi- cate direct with the Governor-General on all departmental matters, but with general communications between the Cabinet and the Governor-General the Premier is the medium of communication. 210 THE CABINET The Cabinet, as in England, is bound by certain conventions : conventions not written down in the British North America Act or by any law other than parHamentary usage. On the death or resignation of the Premier the Cabinet is dissolved, and ministers hold office only until a new Premier is called. He may either ask them to continue in office, or accept their resignations, which are automatically offered. In the case of an adverse vote in the Lower House, the Premier must either resign or convince the Governor-General that a dissolution is necessary, on the grounds that the adverse vote does not represent the wishes of the people. Procla- mations resuming or dissolving parliament, writs of election, etc., are signed by the Governor-General, and countersigned by the Minister, or other proper officer. 211 CHAPTER II The Parliament of Canada As in the case of Great Britain, the Parliament is com- posed of two houses, the upper house, or Senate, and the lower house or House of Commons. Two houses always formed part of the provincial legislature from 1791 to 1867, when Ontario decided to confine her house of legislature to an elected assembly under the Lieutenant- Governor. In 1867 under the British North America Act the maritime provinces, Ontario and Quebec, were each given an equal representation of twenty-four Senators. Since that time the entrance of other provinces into the Federation has increased the number of Senators to seventy-eight. The maximum allowed by law is eighty-four in all, including the constitutional provision allowing an addition of three or six new members to meet the case of a deadlock in political matters. Senators are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of his Privy Council. They must be not less than thirty years of age and possess real or personal property of not less than 4,000 dollars beyond their liabilities. Subject to these provisions the Senator holds his place for life, though he may resign his place in the Senate. If any question should arise with regard to the qualifications of the Senator the matter is heard and determined by the Senate itself. Fifteen Senators, including the Speaker, constitute a quorum, and questions before the Senate are decided by a majority of voices, the Speaker in all cases having a vote, and if the voices are equal the decision is deemed to be in the negative. The Speaker, or President of the House is appointed 212 THE HOUSE OF COMMONS by the Governor-General in council. Like the British House of Lords the Senate possesses the same powers of introducing bills as the House of Commons, except with regard to money bills, measures imposing taxes, or spending public money received from the people. All such measures originate in the Lower House and the Senate cannot amend them. Those Senators appointed for the province of Quebec must live in the divisions which they represent, or have their property qualifications therein, but in the case of other provinces it is only necessary the members should reside within their province. Bankruptcy, absence during two sessions, crime, or naturalisation in another country debars a Senator from the privileges of the House. The House of Commons, as the direct representatives of the people, is naturally the ruling house of Canada : the Ministry is largely chosen from it, and without its support and confidence no ministry can exist. For some years after 1867 the number of members amounted to 215, but in 1903 (after the census of 1901) the representation was arranged as follows : — < \ Ontario . 86 Quebec . 65 New Brunswick 13 Nova Scotia 18 Prince Edward Island 4 Manitoba . 10 British Columbia 7 North-West Territories 10 Yukon Territory 1 214 After every decennial census (the last was taken in 1901) the representation is readjusted, in accordance with the movement of the population. The province of Quebec must always have a fixed number of sixty-five members^ 213 15— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA and each of the other provinces is assigned such a number of members as to bear the same proportion to its popu- lation as the number sixty-five bears to the population of Quebec. In the terms of Union it is provided that British Columbia shall not have her . representatives reduced below six. The Dominion Franchise The Dominion Franchise is a most liberal measure, which provides, generally speaking, that all male citizens over the age of twenty-one years, who are not, by Act or otherwise disqualified, are entitled to vote. The qualifications necessary to entitle any person to vote in a Dominion election are, except as otherwise provided, those established by the laws of each province as necessary to .entitle persons to vote in the provinces at a provincial election. But, as these laws differ somewhat in detail, it may be well to set out the qualifications imposed in some of them : — In the province of Ontario every man who is over the age of twenty-one years, or will be of that age within thirty days after the day fixed for hearing appeals to the judge under the Provincial Act ; is a British subject by birth or naturalisation ; is not disqualified under the Act or otherwise by law prohibited from voting ; has resided in Canada for the nine months preceding the day for commencing to prepare the list on which he is to be entered ; is a resident of and domiciled in the territory for which the list is being prepared, is entitled to be entered on the voters' list. In Quebec it is provided that the following persons, and no others, being males, and who at the time of the deposit of the list are of the full age of twenty-one years, subjects of His Majesty by birth or naturalisation and not other- wise legally disqualified, shall be entered on the list of electors : — 214 , THE FRANCHISE— QUEBEC 1. Owners or occupants of immovable property valued at a sum of at least three hundred dollars in real value in any city municipality entitled to return one or more members to the legislative Assembly, or two hundred dollars in real value or twenty dollars in annual value in any other municipality. 2. Tenants paying an annual rent for immovable property of at least thirty dollars in any city municipality entitled to return one or more members to the legislative Assembly, or at least twenty dollars in any other muni- cipality, provided that the real value of such immovable property be at least 300 dollars in such city municipality or 200 dollars in any other municipality. 3. Teachers engaged in an institution under the control of School Commissioners or Trustees. 4. Retired farmers or proprietors, commonly known as rentiers (annuitants), who, in virtue of a deed of gift, sale or otherwise, receive a rent in money or kind of a value of at least 100 dollars, including lodging and other things appreciable in money. 5. Farmers' sons who have been working for at least one year on their father's farm, if such farm is of sufficient value, if divided between the father and sons as co- proprietors, to qualify them as electors under this chapter, or who have been working on their mother's farm for the same time. If there are more sons than one they shall all be entered in so far as the value of the property permits, the eldest being entered first. These provisions equally apply in cases in which the father or the mother have farms in several municipalities. 6. Proprietors' sons residing with their father or mother, subject to the conditions set forth in paragraph 5, mutatis mutandis. 7. Navigators and fishermen residing in the electoral district and owners or occupants of real property and owners of boats, nets, fishing gear and tackle, within 215 THE DOMINION OP CANADA any such electoral district, or of a share or shares in a registered ship, which together are of the actual value of at least 150 dollars. 8. Farmers' sons shall exercise the above rights, even if the father or mother is only tenant or occupant of the farm. 9. Temporary absence from the farm or establishment of his father or mother, during six months of the year in all, or absence as a " student " shall not deprive the son of the exercise of the electoral franchise. 10. Priests, Rectors, Vicaires, Missionaries and Ministers of any religious denomination, domiciled for upwards of two months in the place for which the list is made. 11. Persons who are domiciled in the electoral district and who draw from their salary or wages, in money or in kind, or from some business, employment, trade or profession, a revenue of at least 300 dollars per annum, or persons who work by the piece in factories and who derive at least 300 dollars per annum therefrom. In Manitoba it is provided that every person shall be entitled to be registered as an elector, and to vote at elections of members if such person is of the male sex ; is of the full age of twenty-one years ; is a British subject by birth or naturalisation ; and has resided within the province for one year and within the electoral division for which he makes application to be registered as an elector, for the three months next preceding the date of the commencement of a registration of the electors. In the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta every male person, unless disqualified, shall be qualified to vote for the election of a member, who, not being an Indian, is a British subject and has resided in either of the said provinces for at least twelve months, and in the electoral district where he seeks to vote, for at least three months, immediately preceding the issue of the writ of election. 216 THE OFFICERS OF PARLIAMENT In British Columbia, every male of the full age of twenty-one years, not being disqualified, being entitled within the province to the privileges of a natural born British subject, and being able to read the Act or any portion thereof on being required by the Registrar to do so, having resided in the province for six months and in the electoral district for which he claims to vote for one month immediately previous to sending in his claim, and being duly registered as an elector, shall be entitled to vote at any election. It is enacted that no Chinaman, Japanese or Indian shall have his name placed on the Register of Voters for any Electoral District, or be entitled to vote at any election. The effect of this law is to give one member to every 22,477 persons throughout the Dominion. Membership of the House of Commons, as in England, is dependent upon property qualifications, and the only stipulation is that a member should be a British subject by birth or naturalisation. The member need not reside in the district for which he is elected. Bankruptcy or convic- tion of a felony carries with it expulsion from the House, as is also the case with insanity. In each house the Clerk or Chief permanent officer is appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Another survival of English House of Commons tradi- tions is the Sergeant-at-Arms who is Chief executive officer of the House and carries the Mace before the Speaker on official occasions when parliament is sitting. There is, too, the " gentleman-usher of the black rod," who, as in England, summons the Commons to attend the Governor-General in the Senate Chamber at the beginning and end of parliament. Judges of superior or county courts are debarred from voting ; revising or returning officers, election clerks, agents, etc., who are paid for their services may not vote in the district for which they are engaged. Deputy 217 THE DOMINION OF CANADA returning officers, poll clerks, and unpaid agents may vote. The Returning Officer in the case of a tie is entitled to vote as in England. Electors may vote in more than one district when entitled to do so, but since general elections are held on the same day throughout Canada the plural voter is for that as well as other reasons — distances, for instance — not at so great an advantage as in England. The only exception to the case of simultaneous elections is made in a few of the remoter districts where returning officers fix a day which will allow the electors the full opportunity of recording their votes. When the Cabinet decides that a general election is necessary the Premier informs the Governor-General, and the latter agreeing, parliament is dissolved by pro- clamation in the name of the King. A further proclama- tion authorises the issue of writs and fixes the day for the nomination of candidates. Any twenty-five electors may nominate a candidate for the House of Commons by filling up a form required by law and depositing 200 dollars with the Returning Officer, which is forfeited unless the candidate receives half the number of votes obtained by the man elected. Elections, except in the remote districts, take place on the seventh day after nomination day ; all votes are by ballot and entirely secret. The method of voting is practically the same as that in England, the name of the candidates being printed on the election papers, and the elector placing a cross against the one for whom he wishes to vote. Ballot papers are put into locked boxes and opened only by the Returning Officer. Polling takes place by law from nine in the morning until five in the afternoon of election day, and six days afterwards the Returning Officer must send in his report to the clerk of the Crown in Chancery at Ottawa, and the names of the members elected are published in the Canada Gazette which is the equivalent of the Londoji Gazette. 218 ELECTIONS Before parliament can meet a further proclamation of the Governor-General is necessary. By the Act of 1867 there must be a Session of Parliament once at least every twelve months, that is to say, that there must not be a gap of more than twelve months between the close of one session and the beginning of another. Parliament is elected for five years, but the Crown may dissolve it at any time when it is considered expedient to appeal to the people ; this power naturally is never exercised except on the advice of the Cabinet. In the case of a by-election, the Speaker of the House of Commons or other authority issues a warrant to the clerk of the Crown in Chancery instructing him to issue the writ for an election ; this writ is given to a Returning Officer appointed by the Governor-General in council and thereafter the polling proceeds as in the case of a general election. All Senators and members of the House of Commons are required to take an oath of allegiance before they can sit ; the oath runs thus : — " I do swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty King George V." The laws for the prevention of bribery and corruption are very strict, and any infraction provides a case for the unseating of a member, equally where the law is broken by design or purely through carelessness. If a candidate be proved to be personally guilty of bribery or corruption he may be disqualified from sitting in the House of Commons, or voting, or holding any office for seven years, and the voter proved to have taken bribes may be also very severely punished. Since 1874 the House of Commons has handed to the provincial Courts its powers for the trial of disputed elections, and in so doing removed what must have remained a great tempta- tion for the committees of the House of Commons to be influenced by political feeling. The presence of at least 219 THE DOMINION OF CANADA twenty members of the House of Commons is necessary to constitute a quorum, for the exercise of its powers and for all purposes the Speaker may be reckoned as a member. Questions arising in the House are decided by a majority of voices. Provincial Legislatures For legislative purposes Canada is divided into the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, each of which enjoys by the British North America Act considerable powers of local government. The work of the provinces is carried on by a Lieutenant- Governor appointed by the Governor-General in council ; an Advisory Council, which is responsible to the Legislature ; and a Legislature consisting in all cases of elected representatives, assisted in the case of two provinces by an upper chamber appointed by the Crown. There is a complete system of local self-government in every municipality of a province to provide for the management of schools, etc., and a municipal system of councils composed of Mayors, Wardens, Reeves and Councillors to manage the local requirements of the cities, towns, counties, and parishes of every province. The judiciary consists of several courts in each province, presided over by judges who are appointed and paid by the Dominion Government. Each provincial government has its own Civil Service, with officers appointed by it. The pernicious system of removing Civil Servants with a change of government does not exist in Canada, and every civil servant holds office during good behaviour. The Lieutenant-Governor holds office for five years. He can be dismissed for some definite cause but the reason for his dismissal must be communicated to Parliament. 220 THE PROVINCIAL LEGISLATURES He is thus the officer of the Dominion Government as well as being the head of the Provincial Government ; and within his constitutional limits he possesses all the authority of a Governor-General. Under the British North America Act he it is who appoints the legislative council. He can summon, prorogue, and dissolve the legislature, and in fact perform any executive acts by the advice of his Council which may be necessary for governing the Province. The Advisory, or Executive Council, varies in number from five members in British Columbia to eight members in Ontario. Each member holds usually some provincial office as head of a department. In some cases the titles of these heads of departments vary, but there are certain officers who are to be found in all. The Attorney-General is the law adviser of the provincial government, and generally oversees the administration of justice in the province. There is also a Commissioner of Crown lands whose duty it is to supervise the sale of public lands or lease areas for timber cutting, or supervise mining lands, and since lands and forests belong, with the exception of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, to the provincial governments, this is a most important office. The provincial Treasurer administers the financial affairs of the province, with a provincial Secretary to carry on the correspondence of the government and keep in touch with the Dominion government, register Commissions under the provincial seal, and so forth. In Nova Scotia and British Columbia, where the mines are of great value, there is a special department for their management. In the purely agricultural provinces there is a Minister who supervises particularly the agricultural interests and encourages every movement which has for its object the improvement of agriculture or dairying. In Ontario, where is situated the University of Toronto, 221 THE DOMINION OF CANADA education is of sufficient importance to warrant the existence of a Minister of Education as elsewhere. The provincial legislature consists of a Lieutenant- Governor and a legislative assembly, except in the case of Quebec and Nova Scotia, which have in addition a Legislative Council. Prince Edward Island has another exception, which will be dealt with later. The Legislative assemblies are elected by the people of the provinces on a very full franchise. In Ontario, New Brunswick, Manitoba, and British Columbia, manhood suffrage is the rule, and this practically applies to Prince Edward Island. No property qualification is required, but voters must be British born or naturalised British subjects, and male citizens of the age of twenty-one years or over. The method of conducting elections is practically the same as that described in our chapter on the Dominion Parliament. The laws governing the conduct of provincial business, and preserving the integrity of the Dominion Parliaments is modelled upon the lines of that relating to the Dominion Government. In the case of disputed elections, provincial judges try the case, and the result has been found to be perfectly satisfactory. The life of a provincial legislature which is within its own jurisdiction is four years, or in Quebec five years, unless it is dissolved by the Lieutenant- Governor. In the popular assemblies the Speaker is elected by the majority, or in the case of an Upper Chamber is appointed by the Cro"WTi. The Lieutenant- Governor opens, prorogues, and dissolves the assembly. Members of the Council hold their position for life, unless they are convicted of a crime, or become bankrupt, or are otherwise disqualified by law. The Quebec Council consists of twenty-four members, and that of Nova Scotia of twenty. Their position is exactly analogous to that of the Senate of the Dominion. They can initiate 222 THE PAYMENT OF MEMBERS or amend all classes of bills except money or taxation, and though they may reject such bills as a whole they have no power to amend them. Sessional Indemnity The payment of Members of the Federal Parliament has been in vogue ever since Confederation. It has been found in practice to work well ; while not acting as a deterrent to men in a good financial position entering Parliament, it has enabled many, who would otherwise have been unable to do so, to use their talents in aiding in the government of their country. Changes have, from time to time, been made in the legislation on the subject, and a short summary of the parent Act, and the amendments thereto, may prove of interest : — An Act relating to the indemnity to members, and to the salaries of the Speakers of the House of Commons and of the Senate, was passed in the first session of Parliament after Confederation. This measure provided that the members of both Houses should receive remunera- tion at the rate of six dollars per day, if the session did not extend beyond thirty days ; if it extended beyond thirty days, an allowance of 600 dollars was made, and no more. In the case of non-attendance, both in this Act and subsequent amendments, deductions are provided for. To the Speakers of the House of Commons and the Senate, a salary of 3,200 dollars per annum was made payable. This Act was amended in the session of 1873, when it was laid down that the rate of the indemnity should be ten dollars for each day's attendance when the session did not exceed thirty days, and, if this period was ex:ceeded, a sessional allowance of 1,000 dollars was to be paid. The salaries of the Speakers of the House of Commons and the Senate were, by this Act, increased to 4,000 dollars per annum. In 1901 another amendment came into effect. The daily rate of remuneration 223 THE DOMINION OF CANADA remained the same, viz., ten dollars for each day of attendance ; but the amount payable to each member, in the event of the session extending beyond thirty days, was increased to 1,500 dollars. The Act was again amended in 1905, when the daily allowance was increased to twenty dollars for each day's attendance to thirty days ; and, in the event of the session extending over thirty-one days, a sessional indemnity of 2,500 dollars, and no more, was payable. In addition to the daily allowance or the sessional indemnity, it is provided that there shall, for each session of Parliament, be allowed to Members of both Houses their moving or transportation expenses, and reasonable living expenses while on the journey between their places of residence and Ottawa, once each way. Members residing at a greater distance than 400 miles from Ottawa are allowed to commute their travelling and living allowance, receiving in lieu, the sum of fifteen dollars per day. A novel feature in this measure was contained in a clause which provides that, to the member occupying the recognised position of leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, there shall be payable an additional sessional allowance of 7,000 dollars. A sessional indemnity is paid by all the Provinces to the members of their several legislatures. In Ontario the allowance is ten dollars a day if the session does not extend beyond thirty days, and if the session does extend beyond thirty days, then there shall be payable to each member attending a sessional allowance of such sum as may be appropriated for the purpose. In Quebec for every session which extends beyond thirty days there is payable to each Legislative Councillor and to each member of the Legislature an indemnity of 1,500 dollars and no more. In Manitoba the allowance is fixed at 400 dollars per session ; and in British Columbia there is an allowance of 600 dollars. 224 JURISDICTION The following are the powers conferred by the B. N. A. Act upon the Dominion Government : — 1. The pubHc debt and property. 2. The regulation of trade and commerce. 3. The raising of money by any mode or system of taxation. 4. The borrowing of money on the public credit. 5. Postal service. 6. The census and statistics. 7. Militia, military and naval service and defence. 8. The fixing of, and providing for the salaries and allowances of civil and other officers of the Government of Canada. 9. Beacons, buoys, lighthouses and Sable Island. 10. Navigation and shipping. 1 1 . Quarantine and the establishment and maintenance of marine hospitals. 12. Sea coast and inland fisheries. 13. Ferries between a province and any British or foreign country, or between two provinces. 14. Currency and coinage. 15. Banking, and the incorporation of banks and paper money. 16. Savings banks. 17. Weights and measures. 18. Bills of exchange and promissory notes. 19. Interest. 20. Legal tender. 21. Bankruptcy and insolvency. 22. Patents of invention and discovery. 23. Copyrights. 24. Indians and land reserved for the Indians. 25. Naturalisation and aliens. 26. Marriage and divorce. 27. The criminal law, except the constitution of the 225 THE DOMINION OF CANADA courts of criminal jurisdiction, but including the procedure in criminal matters. 28. The establishment, maintenance and management of penitentiaries. 29. Such classes of subjects as are expressly excepted in the enumeration of the classes of subject by this Act assigned exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces. The exclusive powers of Provincial Legislatures are as follows : — 1. The amendment from time to time, notwithstanding anything in this Act, of the constitution of the province, except as regards the office of the Lieutenant-Governor. 2. Direct taxation within the province for the raising of a revenue for provincial purposes. 3. The borrowing of money on the sole credit of the province. 4. The establishment and tenure of provincial offices, and the appointment of provincial officials. 5. The management and sale of the public lands belong- ing to the province, and of the timber and wood thereon. 6. The establishment, maintenance and management of public and reformatory prisons in and for the province. 7. The establishment, maintenance and management of hospitals, asylums, charities, and eleemosynary institu- tions in and for the province, other than marine hospitals. 8. Municipal institutions in the province. 9. Shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer, and other licences, for the raising of a revenue for provincial, local, or municipal purposes. 10. Local works and undertakings, other than such as are of the following classes : — (a) Lines of steam or other ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, and other works and undertakings connecting the province with any other or others of the provinces, or extending beyond the limits of the province. 226 PUBLIC LANDS {b) Lines of steamships between the province and any British or foreign country. (c) Such works as, although wholly situate within the province, are before or after their execution declared by the parliament of Canada to be for the general advantage of Canada or for the advantage of two or more of the provinces. IL The incorporation of companies with provincial objects. 12. Solemnization of marriage in the province. 13. Property and civil rights in the province. 14. The administration of justice in the province, in- cluding the constitution, maintenance and organisation of provincial courts both of civil and of criminal jurisdiction, and including procedure in civil matters in those courts. 15. The imposition of punishment by fine, penalty or imprisonment for enforcing any law of the province made in relation to any matter coming within any of the classes of subjects enumerated in this section. 16. Generally all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province. Public Lands The Public Lands in Canada are those which are administered by the Dominion Government and are called " Dominion Lands " and those which are at the disposal of the several Provincial Governments and are known as " Crown Lands." Dominion Lands are situated in Western Canada and what is known as the Railway Belt in British Columbia, and are dealt with under the provisions of the Dominion Lands Act. The system of survey which has been adopted is to lay out the lands in quadrilateral townships, each containing thirty-six sections of about a mile square or 640 acres ; the sections are situated and numbered as shown in the diagram given on the next page. 227 THE DOMINION OF CANADA The Townships are numbered in regular order northerly from the International boundary or 49th parallel of latitude and lie in Ranges numbered, in Manitoba, east and west, from a meridian Hne called the Principal Meridian, drawn northerly from the 49th parallel, and in Saskatchewan and Alberta, in Ranges numbered PLAN OF TOWNSHIP N SIX M1I.K8 SQUARE V/E J [ r T\ ' '■ — : — 1 ^_ I— 1 ^^ westerly from other initial meridians styled the Second, Third and Fourth Meridian and so on, according to their order westward from the Principal Meridian. Each section (640 acres) in a township is sub-divided into half-sections (320 acres) and quarter-sections of 160 acres. A quarter-section is again divided to quarter- sections called " legal sub-divisions." The thirty-six sections in a township are numbered from 1 to 36. All surveyed agricultural Dominion lands (excepting School Lands — sections 11 and 29, and Hudson's Bay Company's Lands — section 8 and three-quarters and sometimes the whole of 26) are open to entry for home- stead purposes by settlers if not disposed of and not reserved or occupied. Islands which are Dominion lands 228 FREE GRANTS OF LAND in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta are, however, reserved from entry and an entry does not include mineral or water rights. Moreover a quarter-section containing more than twenty-five acres of merchantable timber is not open to entry, PLAN OF SUB-DIVISION N. W 13 14 15 16 12 11 10 9 5 6 7 8 4 3 2 1 E S. Under the Homestead regulations every person who is the sole head of a family and every male who has attained the age of eighteen and is a British subject, or declares his intention to become one, is entitled to obtain entry for a homestead to the extent of one quarter-section (160 acres), on payment of an entry fee of ten dollars. A widow having minor children of her own dependent on her for support may make entry as the sole head of a family, but a widow who is remarried thereby ceases to be the sole head of a family, and is not eligible to make entry. Application may be either at the land agency for the district in which the land is situate, or at the office of a sub-agent authorised to transact business in the district, and must be made by the applicant in person, although in certain cases application by proxy is permitted. The entry entitles the holder to occupy and cultivate the land to the exclusion of any other person, the title remaining in the Crown until a patent 229 l6— <2I37) THE DOMINION OF CANADA is issued. The conditions to be complied with before a patent is issued comprise : — (1) At least six months' residence in each year during a term of three years. (2) The value of the entrant's house upon the home- stead shall be at least 300 dollars. Residence means actual and bona fide residence in a dwelling-house by the entrant in person upon the homestead, or in accordance with the vicinity provisions of the Act. A homesteader may, if he so desires, perform the required residence duties by living on a farm owned solely by him, not less than eighty acres in extent, in the vicinity of his home- stead. The term " vicinity " means not more than nine miles in a direct line. If a father, mother, son, daughter, brother or sister of a homesteader has permanent residence on a farm owned solely by him or her, not less than eighty acres in extent, in the vicinity of the home- stead, such homesteader may perform his own residence duties by living with such relative as the case may be. The practice of the Canadian Department of the Interior which administers the Act, has been to require a settler residing on his homestead to bring a total of at least fifteen acres under cultivation. A settler performing residence duties by living in the vicinity of his homestead, either with parents, or with son, daughter, brother, or sister, or on land owned by him must bring a total of at least thirty acres of the homestead imder cultivation, and a reasonable proportion of the cultivation must in all cases be done in each year. All entries made prior to June 1st, 1908, are governed by this practice, but the following change has come into force since that date : — A homesteader who resides on his homestead is required to break a total of at least thirty acres of the homestead (of which twenty must be cropped) before appl3ang for his patent, and a reasonable proportion of the cultivation 230 A GENEROUS LAW duties must be done during each year. If the duties are performed under the regulations permitting residence in the vicinity, the total required to be broken will be at least fifty acres of which thirty must be cropped. A homesteader is allowed six months from the date of entry in which to perfect the same by taking possession of the land and beginning his residence duties in connection therewith. In the event of the death of an entrant for a homestead before the completion of the requirements for the obtain- ing of letters patent therefor, his legal representative shall only be required to fulfil the conditions as to the erection of a habitable house and as to cultivation in order to entitle him to obtain letters patent, after the expiration of three years from the date of the entry for the homestead ; or the legal representative may assign the homestead to a person eligible to obtain a homestead entry ; and the assignee shall, after (1) the expiration of three years from the date of entry for the homestead ; (2) holding the homestead for his own exclusive use and benefit from the date of the assignment, and (3) completing the residence and cultivation require- ments in the same manner as the person who made the entry would have been required to complete them, be entitled to letters patent for homestead. The assignee does not thereby exhaust his homestead right. If a homesteader dies before perfecting entry by com- mencement of residence within six months, the entry becomes liable to cancellation. The Department may, however, on application, extend the time for the perform- ance of the duties if the legal representatives have taken out letters of administration or have them in course of preparation with the intention of performing the required duties ; but not in the case of a settler who has obtained a homestead entry by proxy unless he had personally 231 THE DOMINION OF CANADA appeared at the Agency or commenced actual residence on the homestead. In the event of any person who obtained entry for a homestead becoming insane or mentally incapable, and, •by reason of such insanity or mental incapacity, unable to complete the requirements necessary for the obtaining of letters patent therefor, the guardian or committee of the said person, or any person who, in the event of his death, would be entitled as his legal representative to do so, shall only be required to fulfil the conditions as to the erection of a habitable house, and as to cultiva- tion before the issue of letters patent ; but the letters patent shall not issue until the expiration of three years from the date of entry. If a homesteader becomes insane or mentally incapable before perfecting entry by commencement of residence within six months, the entry becomes liable to cancellation. The Department may, however, on application, extend the time for the performance of duties by the guardian or legal representative, but not in the case of a proxy entrant unless he had personally appeared at the Agency or commenced actual residence on the homestead. In addition to the privilege of homesteading which is granted, under the conditions stated, to settlers, Purchased Homesteads may be acquired under the conditions provided in the Dominion Lands Act within the area bounded on the south by the International Boundary line, on the north by the north line of the 44th township, on the east by the line of the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste Marie Railway from the International boundary to Canadian Pacific Railway main line to the 3rd Prin- cipal Meridian, then by the 3rd Principal Meridian to the north line of the 44th township ; on the east by the west line of Range 26, west of the fourth Meridian, and from the International Boundary to the Calgary and Edmonton Railway line, then by the Calgary and 232 PURCHASED HOMESTEADS Edmonton Railway line to the north line of the 44th township. Pre-emptions may be acquired within the same area except that, in townships in which any railway company has taken eight sections as part of its land grant, no pre-emption may be taken. A person is eligible to pre-empt any available quarter- section lying alongside the homestead, or separated therefrom only by a road allowance, on payment of a fee of ten dollars — if he obtains entry for a homestead under the Act of 1908 and continues to own and reside upon the land included therein, and does not hold, or has not assigned his right to, or has not received patent for a pre-emption under that or any previous Act ; or has obtained entry for a homestead under the provisions of Chapter 55 of the Revised Statutes, 1906, or any previous Act in that behalf, and continues to own the land included therein, and does not hold, or has not assigned his right to, or has not received patent for a pre-emption under the present or any previous Act. The homesteader becomes entitled to patent for his pre-emption by — (1) Residing for six months in each of six years on either his homestead or pre-emption. If the residence duties for the homestead and pre-emption are performed upon the pre-emption the entrant will not become entitled to a patent for his homestead until he becomes entitled to a patent for his pre-emption. (2) Erecting a dwelling-house on his homestead or pre-emption. In the case of entries granted on or after February 1st, 1909, it is required that the house shall be worth at least 300 dollars before application for patent is made. (3) Cultivating eighty acres of either the homestead or pre-emption, or both, a reasonable proportion of which must be done each year. 233 THE DOMINION OF CANADA (4) Paying for the pre-emption at the rate of three dollars an acre. One-third of the purchase money must be paid three years after date of entry, and the balance in five equal instalments. Interest at five per cent, is payable at the end of each year from the date of the pre-emption entry. A patent can be claimed at any time after completion of the duties on paying the price in full and unless claimed within eight years the pre-emption may be cancelled. The provision of the Dominion Lands Act permitting residence on land in the vicinity of the homestead does not apply to pre-emption. A homesteader in a township not available for pre- emption may apply for a pre-emption entry on an adjoining township, the lands of which are available for pre-emption entry, if his homestead joins, as provided, the land for which he desires to make such pre-emption entry. If application for pre-emption entry is made for a quarter-section of land lying within a land district other than the one in which the applicant's homestead is situated, the Agent of the district in which the pre-emption is situated shall receive the application, and file the same with such evidence as the applicant may be in a position to offer, and he shall withhold the issue of the receipt for entry until he has obtained from the Agent of the district in which the applicant's homestead is situated, satis- factory proof that the applicant is the entrant for the land so claimed for the homestead, and that the entry is in good standing so far as his records show. There is also, under the Dominion Lands Act, provision for Purchased Homesteads which may be acquired on any available lands on either odd or even numbered sections south of township 45, east of the Calgary and Edmonton Railway and the west line of Range 26, and west of the Third Meridian and the " Soo " Railway line. Anyone is eligible to obtain entry as a Purchased Homestead any available quarter- section open for entry, 234 PURCHASED HOMESTEADS on payment of a fee of ten dollars, who holds a homestead entry under the provisions of the Dominion Lands Act, 1908, or under any previous Act in that behalf, but owing to the absence of available land adjoining his homestead is prevented from exercising his right of pre-emption entry ; or has obtained entry for a homestead for which he has received or become entitled to letters patent or has otherwise exhausted his homestead right, but has not received entry or patent for a pre-emption or assigned his right thereto, and may, after the issue of patent for his homestead, or upon completing the requirements requisite to obtaining letters patent therefor to the satisfaction of the Agent of Dominion Lands for the district, as provided by the Act, or by regulation or order made thereunder, obtain entry as a Purchased Homestead for any available quarter section open for entry on payment of a fee of ten dollars. A widow who has secured homestead entry as the sole head of a family and has afterwards remarried is not eligible to make a Purchased Homestead entry. No person who has received a patent for a Purchased Home- stead may receive entry for another. The applicant for entry for a Purchased Homestead must make a statutory declaration as to his previous Homestead right and as to his present right to a Purchased Homestead on the form provided. If the applicant for a Purchased Homestead has not received patent for his Free Home- stead, the recommendation by the Land Agent of his application for patent will be considered sufficient evidence of completion of his duties on his Free Homestead to warrant his entry for a Purchased Homestead. An entrant for Purchased Homestead before the issue of patent for his Free Homestead who fails to secure patent for his Free Homestead, shall thereby forfeit his entry for a Purchased Homestead. Entry for a Purchased Homestead cannot be made by proxy. A person whose 335 THE DOMINION OF CANADA application for patent has been recommended by the Agent may be allowed to enter for a Purchased Home- stead, although there may be land alongside his Home- stead available for pre-emption entry. But if he so elects to enter for a Purchased Homestead he shall not, unless such entry is cancelled, be given entry for a pre-emption. The Homestead purchaser becomes entitled to patent by- (1) Residing for six months in each of three years upon the Purchased Homestead. (2) Erecting upon it a habitable house of a value of at least 300 dollars. (3) Cultivating fifty acres of the land, a reasonable proportion of which must be done in each of three years, during two of which the breaking must be in crop. (4) Paying for it at the rate of three dollars an acre. If the entrant for a Purchased Homestead resides upon his own farm of not less than eighty acres within nine miles 'of the Purchased Homestead, exclusive of the width of road allowance crossed in the measurement, residence upon such farm is accepted as residence upon his Purchased Homestead. Residence with relatives in the vicinity is not allowed. Payment must be made, one-third at the date of entry and the balance in five equal annual instalments with interest at five per cent, from the date of entry ; but pay- ment may be made in full at any time after completion of the duties and patent demanded. Default in payment of interest or of instalments when due renders the Pur- chased Homestead liable to cancellation. If patent is not applied for within five years from date of entry, the entry may be cancelled. If an entrant for a Purchased Homestead fails in any year to fulfil the requirements of the Act in respect thereto, the Minister may cancel the entry and in his discretion cause to be refunded any 236 VOLUNTEERS AND LAND GRANTS moneys paid on account thereof, but no refunds can be made before six months have elapsed from the date of entry. Refunds of interest or of entry fees cannot be made. Volunteers domiciled in. Canada at the time of enlist- ment, who served with the British forces in South Africa during 1899 to 1902, or who arrived there, but owing to the close of the war, were not on active service, are entitled to a land grant of two adjoining sections of Dominion lands available for homestead entry in Western Canada subject to certain conditions. Enlisted female nurses have the same rights as volunteers. The warrants in favour of those entitled to such grants of land are issued by the Department of Militia and Defence and forwarded for record purposes to the Department of the Interior from which quarter the grantees obtain them to enable them to make entry, the last date for which is December 31st, 1910. No entry or patent fees are chargeable, and the location of this scrip either by the volunteer or his substitute does not exhaust the right of homestead entry to which such volunteer, or his substitute may otherwise be entitled. South African Volunteer scrip is not applicable on Dominion land within the Railway Belt in British Columbia. In accordance with the terms of certain Acts of Parlia- ment, scrip is issued in settlement of the rights of half- breeds who, because of their Indian blood, are permitted to share in the Indian right to lands in Manitoba, Saskat- chewan and Alberta, which scrip may be either " money scrip " or " land scrip," as the half-breed may have chosen at the time of issue. A half-breed who is entitled to scrip in his or her own right and who chooses to take money scrip receives scrip having a face value 240 dollars in payment to the Government for Government land. 237 THE DOMINION OF CANADA When a half-breed entitled to scrip has died before the scrip was issued, the scrip to which he was entitled is divided amongst his heirs. Such scrip may therefore be for lesser amounts than 240 dollars. Money scrip is accepted from bearer for payment for Government land. There is no registration of transfer of right in money scrip. A half-breed who is entitled to scrip in his own right and who chooses to take " land scrip," receives two scrips, one for 160 acres and the other for eighty acres of land. No settlement duties are required in securing title to land upon which half-breed land scrip has been applied, and patent may issue forthwith to the half-breed who has applied the land scrip or to the person to whom his right to the land has afterwards been assigned. Under regulations which came into force in May, 1910, the petroleum and gas rights, which are the property of the Crown, in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, the North-West Territories, the Yukon Territory, and within ' the tract containing three and one-half million acres of land acquired by the Dominion Government from the province of British Columbia, and referred to in sub-section (6) of Section 3 of the Dominion Lands Act, may be leased to applicants at a rental of twenty-five cents an acre for the first year, and for each subsequent year a rental at the rate of fifty cents an acre, payable yearly in advance. The term of the lease shall be twenty-one years, renewable for a further term of twenty-one years, provided the lessee can furnish evidence satisfactory to the Minister of the Interior to show that during the term of the lease he has comphed fully with the conditions of such lease and with the provisions of the regulations in force from time to time during the currency of the lease. The term School Lands refers to those sections (11 and 29) in every township throughout the extent of the Dominion Lands which are set apart as an endowment 233 / PUBLIC LANDS in aid of education. These lands are administered by the Department of the Interior and are disposed of by sale at public auction, the sum realised being invested and the interest paid to the government of the province within which the lands are situated, towards the support of the schools. Hudson's Bay lands, which are also mentioned above, are those sections reserved to the Hudson's Bay Company under the terms and conditions of surrender from the Company to the Crown, by which the former is entitled to one-twentieth of the land within the " fertile belt." Public Lands in the Provinces Ontario public lands are under the control of the Crown Lands Department of the provincial government at Toronto. Agricultural lands can be obtained from the Crown by actual settlers subject to certain settlement conditions. Free grants are offered of not more than 100 to 160 acres for a single man, and 160 to 200 acres for the head of a family, in the districts of what is known as New Ontario, comprising Nipissing, Algoma, Rainy River, etc. The settlement conditions include the erection of a habitable house at least 16 feet by 20 feet in size, and the clearing and cropping of fifteen acres, of which at least two are to be cleared and cultivated annually. There are slight differences in the different localities as to the time allowed for the payment of the purchase money and the number of years' residence required on the land before the issue of the patent. In certain parts of the area in which the Free Grant system prevails, the head of a family locating is entitled in addition to a free grant of 160 acres to purchase an additional 100 acres, and while required to clear and cultivate fifteen acres within five years is not bound to erect 'a home or reside on the purchased lot where it is held in connection with a Free Grant. 239 THE DOMINION OF CANADA In the province of Quebec, Crown Lands are purchasable from the provincial Crown Lands Department on easy terms. One-fifth of the purchase money is required to be paid down, and the remainder in four equal annual in- stalments bearing interest at six per cent. The purchaser must take possession within six months and to occupy the land within two years. He must also clear and crop ten acres in the course of four years, out of every hundred held by him and erect a habitable house at least 16 feet by 20 feet. Crown Lands in Nova Scotia can be obtained for settlement for eighty cents per acre, but no grant can issue for a less sum than forty dollars. All minerals and ores are reserved to the Crown except limestone, plaster and building materials. New Brunswick Crown Lands may be acquired to the extent of 100 acres by any settler over eighteen, not own- ing other land, who pays twenty dollars in cash, or does work on the public roads, etc., equal to ten dollars per •annum for three years. A house 16 feet by 20 feet must be built within two years, and two acres of land cleared. Continuous residence of three years and the cultivation of ten acres in that time are required. There are no Free Grant lands in Prince Edward Island, but such unimproved Crown and forest land as remains may be purchased at from twenty-five cents to one dollar per acre, on condition of erecting buildings valued at sixty- five dollars within two years and clearing and cultivating an acre yearly for the first eight years. Purchase money is payable by instalments. As before stated. Crown land within twenty miles of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the province of British Columbia is administered by the Dominion Government, and may be purchased on terms which are fixed by Order in Council ; the present price is five dollars an acre. These lands are also open for homestead purposes by 240 UNOCCUPIED CROWN LANDS settlers on the same conditions as regards residence and cultivation as in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. There are, of course, in addition, the Crown Lands belonging to the province. Any British subject who is the head of a family, a- widow, or a single man over eighteen, may acquire for agricultural purposes not more than 160 acres of unoccupied Crown Lands in any part of the province, by payment of a recording fee of two dollars. The purchase price is one dollar per acre payable by instalments. The settlement conditions are personal residence for two years and improvements of the value of two and a half dollars an acre. 241 CHAPTER III Defence — Militia To seek the origin of the Canadian mihtia one must go back to the days when Canada was peopled by trappers and fighters who Hved in a constant state of warfare with Indians, and of necessity were able to use their arms in self-defence. The first military organisation took place in the province of Quebec in 1649, and in 1665 the militia was founded, and fought with the French Cavignon regiment against the Indians. Ten years later that great soldier diplomatist. Count Frontenac, re-organised the militia upon a basis which remained in force until 1760. After the conquest of Canada by the British the Canadian militia was disbanded, but on the rising of •Pontiac an urgent call was made which met with a most loyal response ; the militia under its French officers was the backbone of the British attack and defence in that celebrated rising. In 1792, King George III author- ised the raising of a regiment of militia in each province of Canada to be the permanent force and to carry the style of " Royal." Gradually the Royal regiment of Nova Scotia and the Royal New Brunswick regiment came into being, and two years later a regiment of Royal Canadian volunteers was recruited and officered by Canadians in Quebec and Upper Canada. In the war of 1812 against the United States, England, with her anxieties at home, was obliged to delegate the defence of Canada largely to the Canadian militia, and the story of their exploits may be found in the victories of Fort George, Queenstown, Lundy's Lane, and a dozen other hard-fought battles. During the risings of 1837-8 242 GARRISONS WITHDRAWN the militia was again called upon to support the regular army. With the union of Upper and Lower Canada the strength of the mihtia was increased from time to time at the request of the Imperial Government, and a new military law passed in 1835, the establishment to be raised and paid for by the government, was a practical step towards the local management of Canadian military affairs. By the Act of Confederation the administration passed from the provincial government to the central govern- ment, and since no great difference existed between the militia laws of the various provinces it was a comparatively easy task to reduce all the regiments to a uniform standard and group them in the form by means of a Dominion statute. A year later, in 1869, the militia of the Dominion became an army indeed. Since its last re-organisation in 1867 there has been little actual fighting for the militia to do, though in the form of police work it was put to a severe test in 1870 by the Fenian raid and the North- West rebellion, 1884, and by the Fenian raid of 1871. It is an interesting fact that the Prime Minister of Canada, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, earned a medal for services in the militia in the Fenian raid. It has been consistently a policy of the Imperial Government to hand over to Canada the responsibility of maintaining her own military force and defending her frontiers ; and with this end in view the British garrisons were withdrawn about the year 1870 from all stations except Halifax and Esquimalt. The culmination of the policy was reached when on 18th January, 1906, the remaining garrisons of Halifax and Esquimalt were handed over to Canadian control. There were many who had not hesitated to predict that the withdrawal of the British garrisons would be detrimental to Canada. Experience, however, has proved directly the opposite. In the Colonial Conference of 1902 a suggestion was 243 THE DOMINION OF CANADA made by the British Secretary of State for War, Mr. Brodrick, that a Canadian force should be trained, with the idea that they were part of the British army reserve, and that their services should be absolutely pledged to the British Government in the case of any serious emer- gency. This suggestion was not approved by the Canadian Ministers, for the vital reason that it would have involved a departure from the principle of self-government which Canada values as life itself. The Ministers, whilst dissenting from the proposed measures, fully realised the obligation of the Dominion to make expenditures for purposes of defence in proportion to the increasing population and wealth of the country. The militia force of to-day, as established by law, con- sists of three portions : the permanent force, the active militia, and the reserve militia. Section 10 of the Reserve Militia Act of Canada runs as follows : — " All the male inhabitants of Canada of the age of eighteen years and upwards, and under sixty, not exempt or disqualified by law, and being British subjects, shall be liable to service in the militia ; provided that the Governor-General may require all the male inhabitants of Canada capable of bearing arms to serve in the case of a ' levee en masse.' " A certain number of persons are exempt, amongst them members of the Privy Council, Judges, members of the Executive Council, Clergy, Telegraph Clerks, Revenue Clerks, Police and Fire Brigade, Professors in Universities, etc., together with persons who, from the doctrines of their religion are averse from bearing arms. The establishment permanent force, which up to 1904 had an authorised strength of 1,000, was increased to 5,000, and in 1910 the actual numbers were 277 officers and 4,677 N.C.O's. and men. The permanent force is distributed in depots, so that there may be, as far as possible, one military depot in 244 THE PERMANENT FORCE each district, and one or more in each of the larger provinces. Including Halifax there are two depots in the maritime provinces, three in Quebec, four in Ontario, one in Manitoba, and, counting Esquimalt, one in British Columbia. There is also a detachment of the Canadian Ordnance Corps at Calgary in Alberta, and another has been established in Montreal. The stations of the Permanent force of Canada are : — Quebec Quebec. Ottawa Ontario. St. Jean Quebec. Toronto Ontario. Winnipeg Manitoba. Kingston Ontario. Halifax Nova Scotia. London Ontario. Fredericton New Brunswick. The active militia numbers at present about 5,000 men, who drill only at schools of instruction or at regimental headquarters. The idea is that with a partially trained force of this kind there shall be an organisation which will allow of its expansion to 100,000 men should they be required for an emergency. The period of service in times of peace is three years or more. A steady increase is shown in the number of men trained in the militia of Canada. In 1895 19,000 men and 1,125 horses were trained. In 1908-9 no less than 47,000 officers and men with 8,500 horses went through a period of instruction. The reserve militia at present exists only in name, but it can be called up by the Gover- nor in Council at any time of emergency. There is in the Militia Act a provision as in England, that should a complete quota be required of men liable to serve, it can be provided by ballot ; so far this provision has not been necessary. 245 17— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA Naturally in the case of a half-trained force the most serious problem is the education and training of its officers. Officers of the militia are, as a rule, men of business, dependent for their livelihood upon their civilian occupation. It is impossible for such men to remain away for long from their business, and since Mahomet cannot go to the mountain the reverse process has been tried of bringing the schools to these officers at convenient points. The Royal Military College, estab- lished about thirty-five years ago for the training of young officers, was for many years something of a dis- appointment to Canadian military enthusiasts. That the education is excellent is proved by the fact that for many years past the college has been filled to its utmost capacity. A large number of graduates entered various professions, and particularly the engineering profession, and many others joined the Imperial army and proved the worth of their training. In recent years, however, many graduates have gone from the mihtary college to the permanent militia force, as was intended. A fact which must not be overlooked in the military education of Canada is the provision of the Strathcona Trust, founded by the High Commissioner of Canada. The object in view is twofold : 1. The improvement of the physical and intellectual capacities of the children while at school by a proper system of physical training, calcu- lated to improve their physical development, and at the same time to inculcate habits of orderliness, alertness, and prompt obedience. 2. The fostering of a spirit of patriotism in the boys, leading them to realise that the first duty of a free citizen is to be prepared to defend his country, to which end all boys should, as far, as possible, be given an opportunity of acquiring some acquaintance while at school with military drill and rifle-shooting. Before a province can participate in the benefits of the Trust it must pledge itself to include in tlie regular 246 THE STRATHCONA TRUST curriculum of its schools instruction in physical training for the children of both sexes. The provision as to military drill for boys has led to a certain amount of misapprehension of the object of the Trust ; but Lord Strathcona's object, far from being to use the Trust as a vehicle for introducing a system of compulsory military training, is, on the contrary, simply to inculcate a spirit of patriotism, which is a very different thing. For this reason the provinces accepting the benefits of the Strathcona Trust are not pledged to form cadet corps, but merely to encourage the formation of such corps. The militia department makes itself responsible for the instruction of the teachers, to enable them to become expert, under the same conditions as are already allowed to the officers of the active militia. Royal North- West Mounted Police From the year 1873 onwards there has been in existence a force of a military character operating in Western Canada, under the control of the Dominion Government, which has established for itself a reputation which is world wide. At the time the Hudson's Bay Company's Territory was taken over by the Government of Canada, the early settlers who went West required, it was thought, the protection that could only be afforded by a force of constabulary. Statutory power was granted to the Governor in Council under an Act passed in 1873 to constitute a Police Force in and for the North- West Territories. This Act provided that the number of the force should not exceed in the whole the number of 300 men, a portion of whom were to be mounted, and that the duty of the force should be (1) " To perform all duties assigned in relation to the preservation of the peace, the prevention of crime, and of offences against the laws and Ordinances in force in the North-West 247 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Territories ; (2) To attend upon any Judge, Stipendary Magistrate or Justice of the Peace, when required, and, subject to the Commissioner or Superintendent, all duties and services in relation thereto, which may, under this Act, or the laws or Ordinances in force in theNorth- West Territories, lawfully be performed by constables ; (3) To perform all duties which may be lawhilly performed by constables in relation to the escort and conveyance of convicts and other prisoners or lunatics, to or from any Courts, places of punishment or confinement, asylums or other places. The force was organised by Major-General Sir George Arthur French, who became its first Commissioner, and in (he following year commanded an expedition sent from the Red River to the Rocky Mountains by the Canadian Government. Subsequently the command was taken over by Lieutenant-Colonel A. G. Irvine, the Assistant Commissioner, who in turn was succeeded by Colonel L. W. Herchmer. The present Commissioner, Colonel A. B. Perry, was the first graduate of the Royal Military College, Kingston, Ontario, after its foundation, later becoming a Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. On retiring from the Army he was appointed Inspector in the Police and was promoted Superintendent in recognition of his services with the force during the North-West Rebellion in 1885. The force is administered, under the supervision of the Prime Minister, by a Comp- troller at Ottawa, whose office forms one of the Depart- ments of the Government at Ottawa, and who ranks as a Deputy Minister. The Commanding Officer, having the title of Commis- sioner, has his headquarters at Regina. There are also two assistant commissioners, eleven superintendents, thirty-one inspectors, five surgeons and assistant- surgeons, eleven staff-sergeants, forty-six sergeants, sixty-four corporals, three hundred and seventy-two 248 THE MOUNTED POLICE constables and eighty-five special constables, making a total of six hundred and fifty-one. The various detachments into which the force is divided cover an enormous stretch of territory, including the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, the Yukon Territory, and the districts of Mackenzie and K(;ewatin, which two latter form part of what are now known as the North-West Territories. One detachment in the Keewatin district is actually on the Arctic Ocean, no less than 2,500 miles from headquarters, involving a period of two months for the journey. The main strengtli of the force is, however, stationed in the southern portion, to the south of the two provinces first named. Candidates for enlistment as constables must be British subjects between the ages of twenty-two and thirty, intelligent, active, able-bodied men of thoroughly sound constitution, sober and steady, and must produce certifi- cates of exemplary character from reliable persons. They must be able to read and write either the English or French language, have some knowledge of the care and management of horses, and be able to ride. The term of engagement is five years, but the Commanding Officer has repeatedly recommended that it be reduced to three. A recruit of less tiian three months' service may claim his discharge on payment of fifty dollars, but after that period it is only granted as a special privilege and on payment of three dollars per month of the unexpired term of service, with a minimum payment of fifty dfjiiars. The rates of pay are as follows : — Sergeants-Major and Staff-Sergeants $1.50 to $2.00 per day. Sergeants $1.25 Corporals $1.10 ,, Constables, 9th year's service $1.00 8th ,, „ 95c. 7th ,, ,, 90c. 249 THE DOMINION OF CANADA per day. Constables, (itli 5(h 4tli liiid Isl yei irs ' service 85c. 80c. 75c. 70c. (S5c. (iOc. Extra pay is allowed lo a liinitecl number of blacksmiths, horseshoers, carpenters and other artisans. Members of the iorcc are snpphed with tree rations, free imiforms and necessaries on joining and periodical issues during service. The minimum height of recruits is 5 feet 8 inches, the minimum chest measurement 35 inches, and the maximum weight 175 pounds. Non-conmiissioned officers and constables on discharge, after completing twenty years' service, or, who have completed not less than fifteen years' service and are incapacitated, are entitled to receive a pension. The standard of require- ments is very high, and the medical examination of candidates a strict one. Unless intending recruits are convinced that they are thoroughly sound and lit for service it is unwise of them to incur the expense of preceeding to Regina, which is the only point at which enlistment takes place. The nature of the duties ptn-formed by the Royal North-West Mounted Police is most varied, and when it is realised that the annual number of convictions of various kinds within tht>ir jurisditlion during the past three years is almost G.OOO, it is obvious that they are kept fully employed. A list of general headings under which convictions were obtained, in itself indicates to a large extent the wide scope of the duties of the force : — offences against the person ; property ; public order ; religion and morals ; misleading justice ; corruption and disobedience ; Railway Act ; Customs Act ; Indian Act ; Animals' Contagious Diseases Act ; Fisheries Act ; Dominion Lands Act ; Election Act ; Rocky Mountain 250 VARIED DUTIES Park Regulations ; Militia Act ; Inland Revenue Act ; Penitentiary Act ; Lord's Day Act ; Manitoba Grain Act ; Trades Union Af:t ; Provincial Statutes and Ordinances. There are, besides, ilw.. duThe above figures refer only to trading exports of Canada. It must be remembered that, in regard to imports, she purchases in addition from London and elsewhere large quantities of skins, wool, and other Australian produce. Both Australia and Canada are growing countries, and their populations are increasing rapidly. In particular, British Columbia is becoming closely settled ; and the population demands a high standard of living. More- over, in British Columbia, again, the seasons differ from those of Australia, the winter season of Canada being the season of production in Australia, and these 354 AUSTRALIA AND CANADA conditions favour the exchange of trade. In these circumstances the home markets will very shortly be unable to absorb the production, and producers must look for markets outside to keep their capital in circula- tion. Furthermore, the sentiment of Canada is one of great friendliness to Australia, and she would welcome closer trade relations which would certainly be of benefit to both parties. Every state in the Commonwealth, with the exception of Western Austraha, has done its share in the exports of Canada. Even now the trade is limited by the lack of capacity and infrequency of the services on the Canadian- Australian line. Larger and speedier mail steamers, with a constant development of trade, would eventually lead to the placing of cargo steamers on the Canadian-Australian line, and also cause much more frequent intercourse between the travelling population of the two countries. It has been the experience of Canada that the tourist who returns to his home weU pleased with what he has seen, forms one of the finest immigration agents in the world, and this being so it is thought that the bringing nearer of Australia would eventually secure for her that growth of population which she needs before all other things. It is estimated that the cost, on the Pacific side, of the service would be somewhat over £600,000, and with this comparatively small expenditure it is thought that the closer association between the countries that go to make up the British Empire would be quickened and stimulated, and there would be an increase of communication between the countries. If the scheme goes through as intended the " All Red " service will bring Sydney within twenty-seven days of London, or four days nearer than it is at present, and it will give a gain of eight days on the land trip. What is of more importance it will bring Australia and Canada 355 THE DOMINION OF CANADA much closer than they are at present, and from an Imperial as well as a business standpoint would prove an enormous advantage to all countries concerned. It will be seen that this " All Red " scheme contemplates at present only services of fast mail steamers, which would carry but small amounts of cargo, They would, however, carry express parcels of valuable goods, and what is more, they would necessarily be followed by lines of cargo steamers to take the more bulky and less valuable articles. A study of the mail steamers between San Francisco and Sydney is highly instructive. Notwithstanding that the United States is a greatly producing country whose policy it is to sell to other nations all she can, and buy as little as possible, the trade between America and Australia amounts to several millions sterling, and developed on more generous lines would undoubtedly have reached a much larger total. It must be remembered that fast mail steamers do not carry this trade, but they carry commercial travellers, which have made the trade what it is. The New Zealand Government is so favourably impressed with the idea that she has expressed her intention of joining Canada in approaching the Imperial Government for the purpose of perfecting a scheme by which effect may be given to the resolutions passed at the Colonial Conference of 1907. 356 CHAPTER X Area and Physical Features Canada occupies the northern part of the North American continent, and is 3,745,574 square miles in area. To grasp the extent of a country of this size is most difficult to the European reader, and it may perhaps indicate more clearly the meaning of the figures if we say that it is eighteen times as large as Germany or France, thirty times the size of the United Kingdom, and approximately equals an area the size of the whole of Europe. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska, on the south by the United States, and on the east by Newfoundland and the Atlantic Ocean. Both on the western and on the eastern shores are innumerable bays and indentations, many of which, sheltered as they are, form excellent harbours and safe anchorage. From east to west Canada extends 3,000 miles, from north to south 1,500 miles. On the Atlantic, the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, notable for its extraordinary fast and high tide, which runs in various places from twelve to seventy feet at high water. Cutting into the heart of Canada on the north-east is Hudson's Bay, an enormous inland sea with an area of 350,000 square miles, capable of accommodating with ease the whole of the British Isles. There is also the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 80,000 square miles in extent, which leads to the magnificent St. Lawrence River. The St. Lawrence proper is 755 miles in length, and drains the eastern part of Canada. Its principal tribu- taries are the Saguenay, 112 miles long, which drains 357 J4— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA the Lake of St. John, the St. Maurice, 400 miles long ; the Ottawa, 750 miles long ; the Richelieu, 75 miles long, which drains Lake Champlain. There is, besides, an innumerable number of streams flowing from north and south, those on the north being the more important and the longer. The St. Lawrence also serves as the outlet for the chain of great lakes which divide part of Canada from the United States. Lake Superior is 420 miles long ; Lake Michigan 316 miles ; Lake Erie 239 miles ; Lake Huron 345 miles, and Lake Ontario 193 miles long. From the last named of these there is a navigable channel through the St. Lawrence to the sea. In all, these lakes have an area of 95,000 square miles. Beyond the great lakes there is a number of smaller lakes which yet surpass in size any of those to be found in Europe. The Great Bear Lake, for example, covers 11,200 square miles ; the Great Slave Lake, 10,100 square miles ; Lake Winnipeg, 9,400 square miles ; Lake Winnipegosis, 2,030 square miles ; Lake Manitoba, 1.900, and the Lake of the Woods 1,500 square miles. Other rivers of great size besides the St. Lawrence in the eastern part of Canada are the St. John, 500 miles long, which rises in the State of Maine, and flows through New Brunswick into the Bay of Fundy. It drains in its course some 26,000 square miles. Other great rivers of the Dominion are the Mackenzie River, in the north-west, 2,400 miles in length ; the Coppermine and Great Fish Rivers, which flow into the Arctic Ocean ; the Saskatchewan River, 1,500 miles in length ; the Red River and the Assiniboine, which flow into Lake Winnipeg, which discharges in turn of the Nelson River into Hudson's Bay. In British Columbia is the Eraser River and the Columbia, 1,200 miles in length ; in the Yukon district is the Yukon, which flows into the Pacific Ocean. Two great rivers, the Peace River 1,000 miles, and the Athabaska River, 40 miles in length, drain 358 PHYSICAL FEATURES through a chain of small lakes into the north-west of Hudson's Bay. On the west, running parallel with the Pacific Ocean, is a continuous belt of broad, high mountains, known as the Corderillas, or Rocky Mountains. These extend from far north in the Yukon, in an almost continuous belt through British Columbia into the United States of America. The parallel ranges are more than 400 miles in width, in other words, twice as broad as England at its greatest breadth. The coast range runs along the shore of the Pacific, and the Rockies proper lie on the eastward. Between them are the Selkirks, the Cariboo, and the Cassiar. These western mountains sink in the east to broad rolling plains, which extend from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. Two breaks occur in its surface, which elsewhere runs uniformly and gently to the east. The first of these occurs in the region west of Lake Superior, and so gives rise to the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, and the Red River. The second is the Ozark Mountains, which separates two of the tributaries of the Mississippi. In the east the central lowland gradually rises to the Atlantic highlands, which, with some breaks, can be traced from Hudson's Bay southward almost to the Gulf. North of the St. Lawrence they are known as the Labrador highlands, and south as the Appalachian highlands. These again slope steeply on the east to the Atlantic lowlands. From this arrangement of highland in the west and lowland in the east, with a slight rise towards the eastern coast, results the characteristic of Canadian rivers ; short in the west, flowing into the Pacific from the mountains ; long rivers from the eastern slopes flowing east or south, long rivers from the western slopes to the Appalachian, flowing west, and short Atlantic rivers on the east. Between the Rockies and Appalachian are the woodland belt and the Prairie belt, the woodland 359 THE DOMINION OF CANADA in the east extending over 2,700 square miles, including the whole of Ontario and Quebec and extending westward to Manitoba. The prairie belt is about 1,000 miles, extending from the east of Manitoba to the Rocky Mountains in the west. British Columbia is a high rugged plateau, bounded by the Rockies on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Westward beyond the Cascades there is a coastal range which appears in the islands which border the Pacific coast. Where the Canadian Pacific Railway crosses the Rockies there are the Summit, Selkirk, and the Gold ranges. These ranges, running parallel, are separated by long valleys in which are the tributaries of the rivers running west. The topmost range of the Rockies, namely, the Summit, rises sheer in towering heights, above the plains 3,000 to 5,000 feet high. The highest point. Mount Columbia, is 14,000 feet, and is the cradle of the Athabaska, which flows to the Mackenzie ; the Saskatch- ewan, which flows into Hudson's Bay, the Fraser and the Columbia, which flow into the Pacific. Many of the peaks in this range of the Rockies rise to 12,000 feet or more, and the vast glaciers and snowfields which feed innumerable rivers which flow in all directions. The Selkirks are lower and better wooded than the Rockies, and the Gold and Cascade ranges, lower still, are forested almost to their summits. In the central plain, beginning in the north within the Arctic circle, we find the Tundra region, bare, pitiless, covered with a network of lakes. Southward this becomes forest, and these in turn, as the climate becomes temperate, give way to the grass-lands. 360 CHAPTER XI Climate Some susceptible Canadian folk were much exercised when Rudyard Kipling coined the phrase — "Our Lady of the Snows " and exception was taken to the title by many writers who disclosed an amusing anxiety to show that even though the Canadian climate in winter was somewhat wintry, it also possessed features more approximating in character to the tropical. It is to be hoped, however, that when the poet subsequently put on record in speaking of Canada that " there is a fine hard, bracing climate, the climate that puts iron and grit into man's bones," he was fully and truly forgiven by the aggrieved ones. Sir Wilfrid Laurier, the Prime Minister, during a tour in Western Canada in the summer of 1910, said this of the climate of his country : " For my part I have no fault to find with the Canadian climate. Some few years ago Rudyard Kipling, the Imperial poet, referring to Canada as ' Our Lady of the Snows,' caused some critics to find fault with the title. I approve the appella- tion. The climate of Canada is the glory of Canada. It is the climate of Canada which makes the No. 1 hard wheat. It is the climate of Canada which puts the bloom upon the cheeks of the better half of the audience before me. When I rise on a winter morning and see the smoke rising in the atmosphere one hundred feet above the chimneys, perpendicularly in the clear, cold, still air, I know what it is that makes our men strong and our women beautiful. This country has not been made by God for the effete, for the timorous or for the laggard, but the strong and willing will find labour rewarded as in no other part of the world." 361 THE DOMINION OF CANADA It is superfluous to assert that in a country forming half the North American continent there must necessarily be not one but a great variety of climates, all of which are healthy, although in some parts great variations of heat and cold are met with. Throughout Canada the European thrives and multiplies. Taking the country by provinces and beginning with Nova Scotia on the Atlantic, the climate of this province is similar to that of the North Eastern States of the American Union, but without the excessive heat or extreme cold experienced there. The mean temperature of summer is 62°, and of winter 23°. When it is remem- bered that so many thousands of barrels of apples are annually forwarded to the markets of the United Kingdom and that the country generally is of a fertile character, it will be seen that in this province, the climate has little to be said against it, and the same remark applies to the neighbouring province of Prince Edward Island. In New Brunswick, which like the two provinces named is known as a Maritime province, the cHmate is healthy in winter and summer, although the former is somewhat severe, and in the latter a high tempera- ture prevails. The average rainfall is thirty inches, and the average snowfall eighty-eight inches, while the total precipitation of rain and melted snow averages forty-four inches. In the province of Quebec alone there is quite a variety of climate, and the longevity of its inhabitants is the best testimony to offer of its healthy character. Generally speaking, the features of the climate may be said to be cold winters, short springs, and long and sunny summers. Snow usually begins to disappear towards the latter end of March, and warm weather sets in during June continuing well into September. The mean summer temperature averages 58*3° and the mean winter tem- perature 15°. The winters are distinguished by a dry 362 HEALTHY FOR THE ROBUST bracing atmosphere which modifies the cold and renders them more agreeable than they otherwise would be. The province of Ontario, extending as it does further south than any of the other portions of the Dominion but with territory stretching to the north as far as James Bay, and the west to the border of Manitoba covering in all some 260,000 square miles, may be expected to offer within its own borders a diversity of climatic conditions. In the southern portion of the province the winter may be said to be only moderately cold as compared with other portions. The influence of the Great Lakes on the climate not only renders the winter less severe, but greatly tempers the heat of summer. In the northern portions of Ontario the winters are colder and the snowfall heavier, and this applies equally to the north-western district known as New Ontario. Where the climate is colder, however, the atmospheric conditions are dry and exhilarating, and everywhere of a healthy character. The Prairie region extending from the eastern boundary of Manitoba to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains may be taken as a whole, as generally speaking the climatic conditions are the same except in the western portion of Alberta. The winters, though long and cold are sunny and bracing, and the conditions are uniform throughout, the low temperatures not being nearly so unpleasant to experience as in districts where there is greater moisture. The writer has slept practically in the open during the greater part of a severe winter in Manitoba without experiencing iU-effects. The spring is an invigorating season, the summer warm and pleasant, and the autumn long and agreeable. In the western portions of Alberta the conditions are found to be somewhat different on account of the influence of the Chinook winds, the warm currents from the Pacific, the influence of which extends over the Rocky 363 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Mountains exercising a moderating effect on the climate of Alberta during the winter months. Of the climate of British Columbia, Professor Macoun, the Canadian Government Naturalist, has stated that it is superior to that of England in every respect, both as regards heat and moisture. The same authority says : " There can be no doubt that when the forest is cleared, by whatever cause, the soil will become drier and the climate will become considerably milder. Owing to the latitude, the sun's rays fall obliquely on the forest, and as a natural result there is little evaporation. As Germany was to the Romans, so much of the North West is to us — a land of marsh and swamp and rigorous winter. Germany has been cleared of her forest, and is now one of the finest and most progressive of European countries. May not the clearing of our north-western forests produce a smilar result in the future of British Columbia ? " The effect of the Japanese current in the Pacific, produces a similar effect on the climate of British Colum- bia as the Gulf Stream does on that of the United Kingdom. The conditions in Vancouver Island are for the most part similar to those in the south of England, but the summer heat is greater with less humidity. The main- land is, however, more humid, and especially to the north where the rainfall is heavy. Inland the climate is cold in the winter and warm in the summer. 364 CHAPTER XII Canadian Scenery To pretend to give a comprehensive idea of the varied scenery of Canada in the hmits of this chapter would be absurd, and the reader must therefore be content with what may appear to be somewhat casual references to scenes and places some of which have become world- renowned for their interest and beauty. The Rocky Mountains, or the scenery of the St. Lawrence from the Gulf to Montreal, would each require to be dealt with at great length before it would be possible to convey anything like an adequate idea of their majesty, splendour and beauty. It must, therefore, suffice if, in addition to these, a brief mention only is made of some of the many notable landscapes of the country. The Rocky Mountains proper, as we have already shown, lie to the east of the province of British Columbia, but the term is often used to describe the whole of the mountain ranges lying between Alberta and the Pacific coast. There are, in reality, a number of parallel ranges more than 400 miles in width, comprising the Cascade or Coast range, the Gold range, the Selkirks and the Rockies. The region has been happily described as " a score of Switzerlands, with loftier mountains, larger lakes, mightier glaciers and rivers, and with a magnificent seaboard in addition." Apart from the grandeur of the mountains themselves, mention must be made of the picturesque lakes high up in the mountains, the impressive canyons and beautiful valleys which go to make up scenery which for sublime beauty cannot be excelled. The National Park at Banff, a reservation of some 5,732 square miles embracing portions of the Bow, 365 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Cascade and Spray Rivers and the Yoho valley, is the largest park in the world, and forms a magnificent area of momitain, forest, lake and river in which tourists to this part of Canada are able to spend holidays under the most inspiring conditions. Thedomestic character of the scenery of the prairies, pleasantly varied by timbered views, requires no detailed description, but it has a charm which grows with acquain- tance even though the first impression suggests to the uninitiated monotony and lack of variety. One of the most wonderful scenes is presented by the prairies in harvest time, when mile upon mile of golden grain is seen waving and glistening in the bright summer sunlight. The mighty St. Lawrence River, from the Gulf up to Quebec, presents a series of panoramas varying in im- pressiveness and beauty. On entering the river from the gulf the scenery is stern and impressive, and many miles must be sailed before the banks of both shores can be seen, until at last the rocky coasts are left behind, and the picturesque settlements along the river margin come into view. Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, Cacouna, Riviere du Loup, Murray Bay and other pleasure resorts are passed, but the scenery becomes still more picturesque on entering the channel between the Isle d'Orleans and Bellechasse county on the south shore. A little nearer to Quebec are the Falls of Montmorency. This stupendous cascade presents a most superb spectacle, especially when the volume of water is increased by the floods of spring or the rains of autumn. The height of the Falls is 275 feet, much greater than those of Niagara, though, of course, the volume of water is not so huge. Some little distance from the Falls are the famous natural steps where the river falls in a series of cascades form- ing a scene of great beauty. But perhaps the region which remains longest in the memory, apart from the view of the city of Quebec when approached by 366 THE NIAGARA PENINSULA steamer, is that known as the Thousand Islands, the charm of which has so often been described by its count- less admirers. There are about 1,800 of these islands within a distance of forty miles, and the variety of effect they produce is truly astonishing. On many of them are picturesque houses, and the district is one which attracts tourists and pleasure-seekers in great numbers. The Falls of Niagara, on the Niagara River, which takes the overflow of the Great Lakes, the rapids and whirlpool, have been so often described that it is only necessary to mention them in passing, and to say that their winter aspect is possibly more beautiful than at other times. The Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park, consisting of some 734 acres, is maintained by the Ontario Government for the benefit of the public visiting the district. The Niagara Peninsula, so beautiful and fruitful, must be seen in all its glory in summer time to be properly appreciated as the " Garden of Canada." This delightful country with its numerous peach and apple orchards, its beautiful cities, towns and villages, must be regarded as one of the most favoured as well as most picturesque districts in the whole Dominion. The Muskoka district, some hundred miles north of Toronto, with its picturesque lakes and islands, Georgian Bay and the Thirty Thousand Islands, and the magnifi- cent upper reaches of the Ottawa River all afford scenery of the most attractive kind. Two other famous resorts in Ontario are the Algonquin National Park, a forest and game preserve about 2,000 square miles in extent, and the Rondeau Provincial Park, consisting of about 5,000 acres. In the east and in the Maritime provinces the Lake St. John country north of the St. Lawrence, the valleys of the Matapedia, the Restigouche, the Miramichi and St. John Rivers afford typical forest scenery in many places of surpassing beauty. The shores of the St. 367 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Lawrence, with picturesque bays and health resorts and the fishing stations on the many lakes and rivers, are well known to tourists who frequent them in large numbers. Better known perhaps by repute is the far famed Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia, the " Land of Evangeline," with which readers of Longfellow's poem are so familiar, but in a different sense this is surpassed by the charm of the Bras d'Or Lakes in Cape Breton Island to the north of the province, which for diversity of scenery are justly celebrated. No one can claim to judge of Canadian scenery unless he has visited the country and seen it in all its glorious autumn beauty when the foliage is changing colour, and the varied tints of the maple are a delight to the eye. It may convey some idea of the scene if one is asked to imagine the rich autumn colour of the county of Surrey transferred to a thickly-wooded country, but words would fail to describe truly that which delights the heart of the Canadian and prompts him to rapturous praise of the landscape in the glorious autumn season. 368 CHAPTER XIII Conservation of Natural Resources The question of the conservation of natural resources is one which has loomed large in the public eye for some time past, and it will be interesting to show wliat steps Canada has been taking with a view to promote the scientific development and conservation of the natural resources of the great Dominion. In October, 1907, the Inland Waterways Commission, which had been appointed by the President of the United States, suggested in a memorandum addressed to the President, that the time had arrived for the adoption of a national policy of conservation. As the result, a con- ference of State Governors was held in May of tlie following year and subsequently a National Commission was appointed to prepare an inventory of the natural resources. Later on, representatives of Canada and Mexico were invited to attend a joint North American Conference at Washington, it being clearly recognised that the principles of the conservation of resources had no international limitations. A declaration of principles was adopted, and the Canadian delegation having reported to the Dominion Government, the outcome was the constitution by Act of Parliament of a Commission to take into consideration " all questions which may be brought to its notice relating to the conservation and better utiliza- tion of the natural resources of Canada, to make such inventories, collect and disseminate such information, conduct such investigations inside and outside of Canada, and frame such recommendations as seem conducive to the accomphshment of that end." The Commission which has been appointed under the Act by Order in Council includes the Ministers of the 369 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Interior, Agriculture, and Mines in the Dominion Govern- ment and the member of each Provincial Government who is charged with the administration of the natural resources of his particular province. The other twenty members are all gentlemen who, by virtue of the positions they hold and their special attainments, are peculiarly fitted for membership. The Chairman appointed to preside over this important body is The Honourable Clifford Sifton, K.C., M.P., one of the leading public men in Canada, and some time Minister of the Interior, who in his striking inaugural address pointed out the exceptional nature of the Commission, and the duties with which it has been entrusted. Mr. Sifton has grouped the natural resources under the headings of the Minerals, the Fisheries, Public Health, Inland Waters, the Land and the Forests, and has outlined the directions the Com- mission might best strike out with the object of attaining what was desired. Evidence is not lacking that there is much to be done in saving the waste which now prevails to a large extent in connection with the production of minerals in Canada. To give a few instances only, — much valuable mineral is lost in certain districts for the reason that there is no effective method existing in Canada for the treatment of the ore. Coal which is difficult to mine is not taken out of the pit, and the shafts are blocked up. In other districts gold-bearing gravels have been covered up by tailings. Fisheries are recognised as one of the greatest natural resources of the Dominion, and a committee of the Commission on fisheries, game and fur-bearing animals will in due time report on the measure which can best be adopted to strengthen the hands of the various government departments concerned. The attention of the Commission will be devoted particularly to the necessity of preserving forest growth which furnishes the best possible water reservoir ; 370 TO PRESERVE THE FORESTS ascertaining what can be done by methods of agricultural treatment which will diminish the run-off and retain the proper quantity for absorption by the soil, and by pro- viding " catchment areas " which prevent the spring freshets thus obviating the destructive force which results in erosion, and making use of the water stored to supplement the flow in seasons of low water. The Chairman of the Commission, in detailing what has already been done in Ontario and Western Canada in regard to water powers and irrigation, stated that it was open to serious question if the time had not arrived when all water-power development should be under the control of the Governments concerned, requiring a licence for development, and subject to general laws making regulations in the public interest, and taking a share of the profits for the public treasury. The conservation of forests is a subject which perhaps to many minds would be the most important of all the matters in which the Commission could be concerned. There are many means which can be adopted to this end, and it is worthy of note that during a recent Session of the Canadian Parliament a Select Committee of forests and waterways investigated the question of the flow of water from the east slope of the Rocky Mountains through the plains of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Evi- dence given before that Committee showed that in order to preserve the water supply of these provinces it was necessary to prevent the destruction of timber upon the east slope. The Committee accordingly represented that the forest lands still under the control of the Dominion Government should be formed into a permanent forest reserve, a recommendation which has been since carried out. The prevention of forest fires arising from railways and from other causes is also a subject which will receive serious consideration. There are many other directions in which the Canadian 371 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Commission of Conservation will, it is expected, exercise a powerful influence in ensuring to the people of the countn- their full share of the wealth which is produced from the natural resources, and its operations will certainly be watched \nth the keenest interest at home and abroad. Water Powers It has been pointed out by experts that a check to the earlier and greater use of water power was given at the end of the eighteenth centiuy by the invention of the steam engine which revolutionised industrial conditions at that time. A greater revolution is taking place by the utihzation of water power to produce cheap electrical energy trans- missible long distances. To the Dominion of Canada, possessing as she does not only the greatest aggregate water power in the world, but also raw material necessary for the establishment of great industries, this is a factor of the utmost significance. In his inaugural address to the Commission of Con- servation, The Honourable Clifford Sifton, the Chairman, made the following striking observations concerning the water supply of the Dominion : — " The flowing waters of Canada are, at the moment, apart from the soil, our greatest and most valuable mideveloped natural resource. They are more valuable than all our minerals, because, properly conserved, they will never be exhausted ; on the contrary, they can be increased. In great areas of our countr^'^ they are capable, when fully developed, of supplying our entire urban population ^^'ith light, heat and power, operating our tramways and railways, and abolishing the present methods with their extravagance, waste and discomfort. The time when this dream will be realized need not be, and probably is not, far distant." At present nothing more than an approximate estimate can be given of the quantity of the water power existing 372 WONDERFUL WATER POWERS in the country, but the need of obtaining reliable data of the kind has been recognised, and a Committee of the Commission of Conservation has undertaken the task. In the meantime it is useful to take the estimate of Mr. T. C. Keefer, C.M.G., the eminent engineer, that Canada's share of the St. La\\Tence basin water power, from Lake Superior to Montreal is ten million horse-power. Mr. Sifton, in his address before-mentioned, also submitted the following figures, based on the best information to hand, as being approximately correct for the whole juniry : — Possible Developed H.P. H.P. Yukon 470.000 3,000 British Columbia 2,065,500 73,100 Alberta 1,144,000 1,333 Saskatchewan 500,000 — Manitoba 504,000 18,000 North-West Territories 600,000 none Ontario 4,308,479 331,157 Quebec (exclusive of Ungava) 6,900,000 about 75.000 New Brunswick 150,000 no records avail- able Nova Scotia 54,300 13,300 Total 16,696,279 504,890 It wiU thus be seen that the water powers of the country are numerous, and that they are distributed over a wide area so that the possibihties for their develop- ment for the good of the community are enormous, and calculated to have far-reaching effects, not only in the direction of increasing the manufacturing capacity of the Dominion, but in providing for lighting, transportation, electrical power and other public needs. Much has been done already to utilize the principal water powers in Eastern Canada. The Sha\%inigan Falls on the River St. Maurice are furnishing power to a number of industrial establishments in the immediate vicinity and even suppMng it to the city of Montreal 373 25— {2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA some eighty-five miles distant. This is but one of the many localities along the St. Lawrence below Quebec where power can be developed. The Falls of Mont- morency, near Quebec, are utilized to provide power for lighting and for the tramways. In New Bruns\nck the River St. John is being exploited for power purposes. The greatest development of all so far accomplished, however, is that of harnessing Niagara. In the peninsula there are four Canadian power companies, viz. : — the Canadian Niagara Com- pany, the Ontario Power Company, the Hamilton Cataract Company and the Electrical Development Company, and as the power to be obtained has been estimated at seven million hoi^se-power, the importance of the imdertakings to the province of Ontario is manifest. The Hydro Electric Power Commission, appointed by the Ontario Government, has constnicted transmission lines and distributes power piu"chased from the companies to various parts of the province. A transfonner station takes delivery at Niagara Falls of power at 12,000 volts. A sixty thousand H.P. double transmission line conveys the current to a controlling station at Dimdas. From that point the line is continued to Toronto. From Dundas also a double line of the same character is continued via Woodstock and London to St. Thomas ^^-ith local transformer stations at tliese points. A similar line goes north and west via Guelph, Preston, Berlin, Stratford, St. Marys and on to London. With local transformer stations at the various places named, the voltage is reduced in order to supply by means of additional local lines the various municipalities adjacent. Arrangements have already been made to supply the following municipalities with their power needs by a current of approximately 27,000 H.P. viz. : — Toronto, 10,000 ; London, 5.000 ; Guelph, 2,500 ; St. Thomas, 374 ELECTRICITY (GENERATED BY WATER POWER 1.500 ; Woodstock. 1,200; (ialt. 1.200 ; Hamilton, 1.000 ; Stratford. 1.000 ; Berlin, 1,000 ; Waterloo. 685 ; Preston. 600; St. Marys. 500; Ingersoll. 500; Hespeler, 800; New Hamburg. 250. Provision is also being made for the supply of larger quantities as they are required, and for the extension of the services to all the municipalities within the area which is to be fed from Niagara Falls. The following is the basis on which the numicip.dities have agreed to pay the Connnission for their supplies :— (1) The contract price of the Ontario Power Company at Niagara Falls, plus (2) 4% per annum upon that part of the construction cost which is properly applicable to each participating municipality, plus (3) an annual amomit sufficient to create a sinking fund which in thirty years, shall com- pletely pay for that portion of the construction cost which is applicable to each municipality, plus (4) that portion of the line loss and the general operating and maintenance charges which is properly applicable to each municipality. The inclusive rates, so computed, payable by each municipality, have been carefully estimated and reduced to the following H.P. scale viz. : — Toronto . . . . . . $18.10 per H.P. per annum. London 23.50 Guelph 24.00 St. Thomas 26.50 Woodstock 23.00 Gait 22.00 Stratford 24.50 Berlin 24.00 Hamilton 17.50 Waterloo 24.50 Preston 23.50 St. Marys 29.50 Hespeler 26.00 New Hamburg .. .. 29.50 375 THE DOMINION OF CANADA With the extensions contemplated, the system of distribution will cover the whole south-western portion of Ontario and the Commission holds that under its policy the benefits derived from the production of power at the Falls are being distributed throughout the province to large and small users alike, " thus contributing to a well balanced and general development rather than an abnormal expansion of one district at the expense of others." Another point at which valuable water power is utilized is Sault Ste Marie at the junction of Lakes Superior and Huron. Pulp and steel mills and other industries are here carried on by its use. Power is obtained by the towns of Port Arthur and Fort William, at the head of Lake Superior, from the Kakabeka Falls on the Kaministiquia River, which are some nineteen miles distant. Other great water powers available in Ontario are those of the Nipigon River and the Spanish River, while the region through which the Georgian Bay Canal would be constructed, as well as the Ottawa River basin com- prising some 56,000 square miles in area, offer innmnerable opportunities for obtaining water power. Further west, water powers are obtained for the city of Winnipeg from the rivers in the vicinity, and in British Columbia there is a large plant at Bonnington Falls on the Kootenay River, to mention one only of the many such water powers available in the province. The above, which must not by any means be taken for a complete survey of the water-power possibihties of Canada, is sufficient to show that the people of the country are fully alive to the importance of these valuable resources, and that there is scope for an enormous development in the future. 376 PART IV PRODUCTION. ETC. CHAPTER I Canadian Agriculture In 1900 the crop value of the agriculture of Canada was 195,000,000 dollars. In 1909 it was 533,000,000 dollars. In this bald fact is to be found a gauge of Canada's pros- pect. The Dominion, with her broad prairies, her virgin soil, her uncounted forests of timber, and her resources of other kinds must remain chiefly an agricultural nation ; and since all humanity depends upon bread for its exist- ence it is as a wheat-raising nation that she looks to become great. The three western prairie provinces, comprising as they do the great wheat belt of the country, are naturally the most important wheat producers. In 1900 the three provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta produced 23,000,000 bushels of wheat. In 1909 they raised 147,000,000 bushels. Of oats in 1900 they raised 16,000,000 bushels, in 1909, 185,000,000 bushels. In 1900 the crop of barley was 3,000,000 bushels, in 1909, 31,000,000 bushels. In other words, they are to-day producing nearly ten times as much as they produced nine years ago. Amongst new countries the wheat production of Canada stands pre-eminent in quantity as well as in quality per acre. In 1909 Canada had an average of hard winter wheat of twenty-four bushels to the acre, and spring wheat twenty-one bushels to the acre. The United States had an average of sixteen bushels to the acre of winter and summer wheat. Russia had fourteen bushels 377 THE DOMINION OF CANADA per acre of winter wheat and eleven one-twelfth bushels of spring wheat, and the Argentine had an average of eleven bushels to the acre. This fine average of produc- tion speaks volumes for the productivity of Canadian soil, and it is only when we tuni to the older nations using expensive fertilisers that we find higher average productions per acre. France produces twenty and a half bushels to the acre, Germany thirty bushels, England thirty-three bushels, Belgium thirty-five bushels, and Scotland forty-one bushels. While wheat is the principal crop grown on the prairie, in the more settled districts mixed farming is followed where wheat is succeeded by oats seeded down with grass. In the newer lands of the Far West, however, the most common system is to grow wheat for five or six years, then a year of fallow and back to wheat again. Either system exhausts the soil, and it is only because of the enormous store of fertility in the virgin soil that the average production per acre can be so high. As an example of what might be done in the way of production, Dr. Robertson, addressing the Seed-growers' Association and impressing upon them the importance of good seed and scientific cultivation, mentioned the fact that the farmers of the Province of Quebec received seventy-three million dollars from their crop, but if they had had a crop equal in yield to those at the Macdonald College they would have received 147 million dollars. On the prairie both autumn and spring wheat is sown : autumn wheat for the most part is confined to the dry region in southern Alberta, which some years ago was considered too dry for wheat-raising. The scientific farmer discovered, however, that there was sufficient moisture for the wheat, and that the mildness of the winter made it possible to grow autumn wheat. Experi- ment showed that the wheat known as " Alberta red " could be profitably grown. In 1902 about 3,500 acres 378 WHEAT PRODUCTION were sown, in 1908 the area under autumn wheat was 101,000 acres. Sowing begins in July, and during the autumn the wheat grows to a height of six or eight inches. It remains in the ground for a year, and, as is weU known, this longer life allows the roots to penetrate deep into the soil and so produce a heavier and earlier crop than does the spring wheat. The prairie farmer, however, mainly depends upon the spring wheat, and after much experiment the variety known as " Red Fife " has been found to suit most conditions. In breaking prairie-land the farmer prefers to begin between the beginning of May and the end of June, the reason being that if the land is broken up into a fine tilth all the available rain is conserved and there is a good supply of moisture for the first crop. During the winter the hard frost breaks up the soil, and by penetrating from three to six feet into the ground provides moisture to the growing roots during the heat of summer. In the following spring the seed is sown as soon as the weather permits, generally between the 10th of April and the 24th of May, at the rate of one and a quarter to two bushels per acre, and after being in the ground from 112 to 120 days the grain is usually ready to be reaped. Crops of wheat have matured in as little as ninety days. Practically all the reaping and threshing is done by mechanical power, and all threshers are licensed, one of the conditions of their licence being that they are obliged to return the number of bushels threshed and the acreage on which they were grown. Dependent as this country is upon wheat grown else- where for our sustenance, it is important to know to what extent we rely upon Canadian and other markets severally for our supplies. We need, to feed our popula- tion about 100,000,000 hundred-weight each year. The following table shows the percentage supplied by the different markets of the world. 379 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Cereal United Other Years. States. Canada. Russia. India. Argentina. Countries. Total. 1886-7 64-9 6-6 39 13-6 110 100 1887-8 49-8 46 200 82 174 100 1888-9 33-7 24 298 119 22-2 100 1889-90 451 3-4 233 116 166 100 1890-1 400 4-5 19-8 134 223 100 1891-2 59-2 5-2 64 158 27 107 100 1892-3 661 5-7 84 58 6 2 78 100 1893-4 49-8 46 172 66 122 96 100 1894-5 42-3 43 215 71 132 116 100 1895-6 50-2 6-4 189 50 63 132 100 1896-7 559 63 166 -5 14 193 100 1897-8 639 74 104 85 42 56 100 1898-9 645 99 33 88 74 61 100 1899-00 58-7 91 30 16 19 1 85 100 1900-1 64-4 7-9 36 13 111 117 100 1901-2 61-7 10-7 30 73 49 124 100 1902-3 486 12-6 123 107 10 6 52 100 1903-4 25-7 10-4 161 193 146 139 100 1904-5 8-3 4-4 240 242 207 18-4 100 1905-6 271 120 160 103 20 4 142 100 1906-7 29-3 11-9 114 129 197 14-8 100 1907-8 35-7 14-3 40 95 257 108 100 It is to be noted that the year 1911 will, it is expected, record a fifty per cent, increase in the grain acreage of Western Canada. A comparison of the wheat production of Canada to that of the rest of the world is interesting and instructive. In the whole of Canada 169.000,000 bushels of wheat were produced in 1909 : in the same year the United States produced 730,000,000 bushels, Russia 780,000,000 bushels, Argentina, a comparatively new-comer among wheat-growing nations, 172,000,000 bushels, and Australia 66,000,000 bushels. From these figures it will be seen that the United States is one of the great wheat-producing countries, but it is well to remember that there is a widely-held opinion that the United States in the future, so far from 380 WHEAT-PRODUCING CAPACITY keeping her place as a food exporting nation, will, because of her rapidly-increasing population, become in the next half-century a -food importing nation. The United States has not- for some years succeeded in increasing her wheat production to any great extent, and since it is estimated that in the next half-century she will have to provide for a population of 200,000,000 people, and they will require over 1,000,000,000 bushels of wheat for their home markets. This being so it is argued they will be driven for their food to Canada, Argentina, and other markets of the world, but principally to Canada. The Russian and Indian crops fluctuate in the most remark- able manner, and Argentina is subject to numerous pests in the form of locusts and seasons of drought. Therefore, though Canada has her own troubles, it is to her that we must look mainly for the increase for which the world will soon be wanting. But what, it is demanded, are her resources ? Taking the three North- West provinces we find that her total crops of 195,000,000 dollars are raised on 12,000,000 acres. 7,000,000 of these acres were in wheat and produced 147,000,000 bushels. About two years ago it was estimated that the land in the hands of settlers amounts to about 46,000,000 acres, of which 12,000,000 were cultivated : 7,000,000 being in wheat. Of these there are about 32,000,000 acres in the hands of railroads and other corporations (not settlers). There are, in addition, about 45,000,000 acres surveyed, and there are probably something like 90,000,000 acres of agricultural land unsurveyed. The total of these is 213,000,000 acres for the three provinces, of which 50,000,000 acres are probably suitable for wheat production with ordinary methods of farming — in other words, about seven times the area that was cultivated in 1909. If it were possible to keep up the average production per acre this would give a crop of 381 THE DOMINION OF CANADA about 1,000,000,000 bushels of wheat for the three prairie provinces. In dealing with the unsurveyed land north of the general surveys, criticism might be made that it is too far north to grow wheat. This is not so. In the northern country the conditions for producing the very finest kind of wheat are excellent. The long days of sunshine which nourish the com, and the rapid develop- ment of the crop, coupled with the store of nitrogen in the virgin soil all make for production of wheat con- taining the largest proportion of protein in the world. It is a striking fact that for many years now the Minnea- polis and St. Paul millers have bought Canadian wheat to mix with their own in order to keep up the standard grade of their flour. For several years back the very best quality of wheat has been grown in moderately large quantities as far north as 58^ latitude, and the same latitude as Sutherland and Caithness, in the north of Scotland. It is hardly to be expected that other branches of farming should be as popular as grain-growing ; never- theless, there has been quite a satisfactory increase in the number of live-stock in the country. The following table shows the number of cattle kept in Canada in the years 1901 and 1909. The 1901 figures are those of the census, and those of 1909 are taken from the Census and Statistics Monthly of the Department of Agriculture. Number of Cattle Kept 1901 Total number of Province 1909 cattle including nulch cows Canada 7,234,085 5.577.541 Prince Edward Island 1 1 1 ,928 112,779 Nova Scotia 338,570 316,174 New Brunswick 236,427 227,196 Quebec 1,193,230 1,365,869 Ontario 2.890,378 2,487,806 Manitoba 501,194 349,886 382 DAIRYING IN NOVA SCOTIA Number of Cattle Kept (conid.) I90i Total number of Provinck 1909 caUle including milch cows Saskatchewan .. .. 521,419 217,053 Alberta 1,126,918 375,686 British Columbia .. .. — 125,002 Mixed Farming Ontario has been called the provmce of mixed farming. Excellent beef breeds are found in many parts, and Shorthorns, Herefords, and Polled Aberdeen Angus are to be seen which would be no discredit to the old country. Prince Edward Island has large numbers of cattle used for dairying purposes, and some years ago every small farmer fattened three or four steers ; but of late the quality has deteriorated. In the last two or three years, however, some good bulls haVe been imported, and the industry is reviving. In Nova Scotia the conditions of dairy cattle-keeping are excellent, and there is a good demand for dairy produce. The dykelands, formed of mud brought up by the high tides of the Bay of Fiindy, is very fertile and produces splendid hay. Many farmers in this region are engaged in beef producing, and keep a moderately good class of cattle for this purpose. In the fruit districts, too, some little beef is produced since farmers require a class of animal that needs less attention than dairy cattle. The Provincial Government gives giants under an Act passed for the encouragement of agriculture, and a good deal of money has been expended on the purchase of bulls for the agricultural societies with a view to improving the breed. Quebec being a closely settled province devotes special attention to dairy produce, much of which is purchased by the cities of Montreal, Quebec and Ottawa. It is hardly to be expected that Manitoba and the two other prairie provinces should, while wheat prices remain high, produce a great amount of cattle, but their capacity in that line is very great. 383 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Curiously enough the cattle trade of British Columbia, where at one time cattle-raising was a chief industry, has almost completely died out, though there are good cattle to be seen in some districts. Much of the beef supply at present is imported from Alberta. With its moist climate, well situated to the production of grass and fruit, and its mild winter it would seem that as the province grows there must be a large expansion of the cattle industry. One cannot leave the cattle industry without a note on the embargo against the importation of Canadian cattle into Great Britain. As far as the ordinary infec- tious diseases are concerned, for example, pleuro-pneu- monia, foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, etc., there is practically no trace to be found in any part of the Dominion. The onus of reporting infectious diseases lies upon the owners of the cattle. Precautions have been adopted against the importation from the United States, Newfoundland and Mexico, and a chain of sixty-seven inspection stations have been installed on or near the frontier through which all live- stock must enter. A heavy fine and liability to confisca- tion of stock is incurred by any attempt to evade the customs duty or to cross the frontier without inspection. The Canadian farmers and ranchers would, of course, welcome the removal of the embargo, but there are those who, looking at the subject from the more enconomic point prefer the cattle should be fattened and killed in Canada, so using up the food-stuff which is available, and building up a dead meat trade by the formation of packing centres and chilling houses at suitable points. Horses. When the Spaniards invaded Mexico in the sixteenth century they brought over with them large numbers of Spanish horses, many of which were abandoned or escaped from their owners and spread over the American continent to become wild horses of a particularly good 384 HORSE-BREEDING type. The number of horses in Canada in the year 1901 was 1,577.493, and in 1909 2,132,489. About the two most popular breeds, Clydesdales and Percherons, there is considerable difference of opinion. It is claimed by many that the Percheron is more suitable to the country, but, on the other hand, the Clydesdale, with its greater weight of between 1,500 to 2,000 lbs. is the more powerful, the better boned, and makes the better waggon- horse. Considerable interest is being taken both by the provincial governments and the local horse-breeding societies in the question of breeding draft-horses, and in view of the continuously increasing demand and rising price it is probable that horse-breeding will revive to be a profitable business for many years to come. There is a growing demand for street draft horses of 1,500 to 1,800 lbs., and since these horses cost no more to raise than the ordinary nondescript horse, which is too common at present, the farmer may be expected to take up the matter much more systematically than heretofore. It has been estimated by a ranch owner in Calgary district that he can grow horses to four years old for £10 each ; in the east the estimate is £20. Prices for the best class of five-year old horses range from £60 to £80 each. £100 is not an unheard-of price for a first-class heavy draught horse. Sheep. It is a curious fact that although many parts of the climate of Canada are entirely suitable to the production of wool of good quality the sheep industry is falling off in almost every province. In 1881 the total number of sheep in the Dominion was over 3,000,000, whilst twenty years later, in 1901, it was not more than 2,500,000. In 1909 the total number was 2,705,000. There is this to be remembered that the Canadian farmer is very adaptable, and in bad sheep-keeping years the flocks were given up by many who found it more profit- able to adhere to agriculture pure and simple. Another 385 THE DOMINION OF CANADA fact must also be borne in mind, viz., that years ago, when the Eastern country was not in such a developed state and homespun was the rule, each farmer kept a small stock of sheep for clothing himself and his family. The Maritime provinces seem to be showing more enterprise in the matter of sheep-keeping than the others. The present Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Sydney Fisher, himself a scientific farmer, is fully seized of the importance of the Sheep industry, and during the autumn of 1910, arranged for two experts to visit Great Britain and carefully investigate conditions bearing on the whole question with a view to advising the Canadian farmer as to the breeds of sheep suitable for the particular localities and the characteristics affecting wool and meat production. Quite a large number of lambs is exported from these provinces to Boston or New York. They are much appreciated and bring high prices, bought on the farm, live weight, 5 or 5^ cents per lb. is quite a usual price. Of recent years a market for lambs has been opened by the starting of feeding stations at the various points where light and refuse grain can be successfully utilised as feeding stuff. The Department of Agriculture For a great measure of her success in producing and marketing her food stuffs, Canada has to thank her Department of Agriculture, presided over by the Honour- able Sydney Fisher. Created in 1851 as the " Bureau of Agriculture and Statistics of Upper and Lower Canada," it ultimately became a distinct department, and after various changes has now become one of the most im- portant departments in the Canadian Government. In addition to the central offices for general administration the Department is now divided into seven distinct branches dealing with practically all scientific agriculture, namely : — 386 THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1. Experimental farms. 2. Dairy and cold storage. 3. Seed. 4. Live stock. 5. Health of animals. 6. Census and statistics. 7. Tobacco. Beyond and above other wide functions comprised in this list is also the charge of five other miscellaneous sections, namely : — 1. Patents. 2. Copyright and trade-marks. 3. Archives. 4. Public health. 5. International exhibitions. The total sums spent in all departments of the agricul- tural administrations are derived from grants by the Federal government, secured by special annual appropria- tion acts, and appropriations by the various provincial governments. The Federal grants are chiefly supplied for maintaining experimental farms and developing large schemes of national importance. The appropriations by the various provincial governments are devoted chiefly to agricultural education and the maintenance of agricultural colleges and schools. Experimental Farms In 1884 the committee appointed by the Canadian House of Commons to inquire into the best means of developing the agricultural resources of Canada suggested the establishment of experimental farms. At the time of the report the committee stated that very little attention was paid by the Canadian farmer to the selection of seed and the proper cultivation of the soil. There was a great amount of ignorance as to the value of manures and their use in maintaining fertility, with the result that land 387 THE DOMINION OF CANADA cultivation was becoming less productive. As regards live-stock, little or no attention was given to breed, and owing to ignorance and the want of proper appliances the dairy products of Canada were of inferior quality. In short, the amazing fertiUty of the soil had led to a complete indifference as to scientific' methods, and the committee recommended the establishment of an experi- mental farm or farms to carry out investigations in all branches of agriculture and horticulture, and that the widest publicity should be given amongst the farmers of the Dominion to the results of the experiments carried out there. Two years later, after exhaustive inquiries as to experimental stations in Europe and America, an Act was passed providing for the establishment of a central experimental farm and four branch farms, the central farm to be located near the capital Ottawa, where it was to serve the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. The branch farms were to be distributed over the Dominion, the first for the Maritime provinces, the second for Manitoba, the third for the North- West Territories, and the fourth for British Columbia. Since that time the expansion of agriculture and the development of the West has outgrown the original arrangement, and now there are scattered through the country a large number of other branch farms which are doing excellent work in educating the residents as to the best means of grappling with the local conditions. In choosing sites for the various branch farms it has always been the object of the Department to establish them upon soil which is representative of the area with which they have to deal, so that their experiments will be for the greatest good of the greatest number. Thus it is that any farmer wanting information has at his ready disposal an encyclopaedia of the most up-to- date information it is possible to conceive. The advice 388 THE EXPERIMENTAL FARMS of a staff of trained scientists is available free, and the appreciation with which these farms are regarded may be gathered from the amount of correspondence carried on with farmers in all parts of the Dominion. A year after the farms were organised the niimber of letters received amounted to 5,000. Five years later over 25,000 were received and answered, and during the ten years between 1898 and 1907 the average number received annually averaged about 72,000. In addition to all this, over 300,000 copies of useful reports and circulars are sent out annually. The largest and most important experimental farm is at Ottawa. It extends over an area of 460 acres, of which 250 acres are devoted to experiments with crops in charge of the agriculturist. Cereals are allowed thirty-two acres, ten acres are set aside for horticultural experiments with fertilisers, orchards and vegetable grounds occupy forty-two acres. The Arboretum and Botanic Gardens extend over sixty-five acres and contain two specimens each of over 300,000 kinds of trees and shrubs, and about the same number of perennial plants. Forest belts take up twenty-one acres, grass and fodder plots two acres. There are thirty staff officials and about seventy labourers. The cost to the State is about 80,000 dollars a year, which, considering the untold value to the country in general, is a reasonable expenditure. In the agricultural department there are two main sections, dealing respectively with : — 1. The cultivation and manuring of the soil and the growing of farm crops. 2. The breeding, housing, and feeding of farm animals. As regards the former, experiments have been con- ducted to determine the best methods of growing various crops, the cost of production per acre, and so forth. For immigrants into Canada, some of them absolutely ignorant 389 26— <2i37) THE DOMINION OF CANADA of the conditions peculiar to the new country, information of the kind available should be of the utmost value. Experiments have been carried out to find the stock- bearing capacity of the land, and on a 200-acre plot the possibilities of farming such an area with a definite system of cropping are demonstrated. Of equal value to the agriculturist are the experiments made with live stock at the central and other farms, which are of the most searching kind. Experiments in cattle-breeding were begun in 1889 with a herd of forty-four head, and include such subjects as beef production, breeding, food values, housing, and so on. In the department of dairy cattle experiments were made in breeding, the economy of production of milk, food values and their influence on the quality and quantity of the milk, and there is also a large section devoted to pig-keeping. All the leading breeds are represented at the Ottawa farm and experiments are continually being made to determine the vexed question of the greatest profit with the smallest outlay. The horticultural division of the central farm was organised in 1887. The testing of varieties has been, perhaps, the most notable work accomplished, for it is only by obtaining the variety most suitable to the vary- ing conditions that satisfactory work can be done in horticulture. For example, one may mention that the horticultural division has been testing apples until the number of named varieties exceed 600. It was only by this means that the discovery was made that Russian apples were hardier than any apples of American origin, and it was through this discovery that apples were first introduced into Southern Manitoba. Interesting work has also been done in introducing new varieties, and people who have raised apples from seedlings are invited to send in specimens of the fruit for examination with the object of discovering a hardy native fruit. Though the 390 JUSTIFIABLE STATE ASSISTANCE work described applies particulariy to apples, it need hardly be said that other fruit and vegetable culture has been brought to a high degree of perfection. The experimental work in forestry has been of the utmost value, proving as it does that suitably planted belts of trees are of great assistance to the farmer on the plains. For the purpose of supplying these a great nursery has been established not far from the experi- mental farm at Indian Head, and it offers young trees and seeds free to all farmers who undertake to comply with the very simple regulations laid down for the establish- ment of shelter belts. This work, though it has not made as much headway as might be expected among the strugghng people of the plains, still is much appreciated and will in time, it is prefectly certain, add immensely to the amenities of life, and such shelter will be regarded as actually necessary when mixed farming supersedes the present extravagant methods. Perhaps the most fascinating of all the sections is the division organised only recently for the work of testing and improving the culture of cereals. By means of this division innumerable kinds of seeds have been brought together from aU parts of the world to determine their relative value in yielding, quality of grain, etc., when grown side by side under conditions as nearly uniform as it is possible to get. By this means the farmer has been shown the most suitable kinds for his particular part of the country, and so forcibly has this been demon- strated that the varieties of seed have been narrowed down to a very small number, and are practically stand- ardised. So carefully are the tests carried out that it has been found desirable to erect in recent years a small flour-mill and baking apparatus to test the milling and baking capacities of very small quantities of wheat. All the new varieties produced by the experimental farms are closely tested for milling and baking before being 391 THE DOMINION OF CANADA distributed to the farmers for trial. The chemical division deals with all questions relating to soils, manures, and fertilisers, cattle food, insect pests, dairy products, etc. One of its duties is to report upon all the samples of agricultural description forwarded to farmers from all parts of Canada. These samples include soils, natural fertilisers, water, dairy products and cattle food amongst an innumerable number of other matters. In the division of entomology and botany the work consists of making collections of plants and insects, mainly of an injurious character, and in helping farmers to exterminate them. There is also a section dealing with the breeding and all branches of poultry work, and largely owing to its labours in the last twenty years fowls are becoming increasingly popular with small farmers. Branch Experimental Farms. These farms vary considerably in size, and are of 160 acres to 680 acres in extent. Recently the tendency in making new ones has been to keep them the smaller size. The work under- taken on them is practically on the same lines as that carried on by the central organisations, with this vital difference : that their duty is to study the local condi- tions of the district in which they are situated, and to devote their attention mainly to that which will be of the most interest to the farmers for whom they are estab- lished. For example, in the prairie their business is to make investigations as to the best soil for grain-growing. In Southern Alberta the branch farm at Lethbridge deals particularly with irrigation and " dry farming " methods. In Northern Alberta mixed farming and the cultivation of forage crops are the principal items, and in British Columbia fruit-growing and crops suitable for food for live-stock are the characteristic experiments. Under the Inspection and Sale Act of 1906 the whole of agricultural Canada is divided into an eastern inspection 392 HOW THE HUGE GRAIN CROPS ARE HANDLED division and a western inspection division. The eastern division consists of Ontario and Port Arthur, and east of the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The western division contains Manitoba, west of Port Arthur, the prairie provinces and British Columbia. In the Manitoba division the wheat is graded as follows : — No. 1. Manitoba Hard. No. 1. Manitoba Northern. No. 2. Manitoba Northern, No. 3. Manitoba Northern. Commercial Grade No. 4. Commercial Grade No. 5. Commercial Grade No. 6. Commercial Grade Feed. " Standard " samples are selected by a board which meets annually to determine the character of the grades which, in accordance with the act shall guide the Government Inspectors in grading the crop. The freight charge depends naturally on the distance from the market. From Fort William, at the head of the great lakes, to Liverpool is roughly nineteen cents per 100 lbs., from Winnipeg twenty-nine cents, and from Regina thirty-seven cents. In order to deal with this huge volume of wheat, coming as it does from the country to great centres at the busiest time of the year, the wheat elevator has become a national institution. Let us take the case of Port Arthur, which is one of the great centres of the wheat-gathering industry. At the season of the wheat rush, from the farms near the railway comes an endless procession of waggons of all sizes carrying the season's crop. These in turn are emptied into the railway cars, specially contrived for the holding of their precious burden, each the size of an English pantechnicon. The farmer has probably sold to the wheat-buyer or middleman 393 THE DOMINION OF CANADA at so much per bushel, conditionally upon the wheat being up to sample, and he is so far secure that he knows he will receive a certain price should the Government Inspector of Winnipeg pass his wheat as being of the grade claimed. The inspector does his work with a long hollow tube, which he plunges into the car at several points. He mixes the samples which he has drawn, and issues his certificate, a copy of which goes to the farmer. After leaving Winnipeg, the identity of the wheat is lost, except for the fact that it is now officially graded. When the elevators at Fort William or Port Arthur are reached all the wheat of the same grade is shot into bins to be stored until it is wanted to supply the needs of a hungry world. The cars running into the elevator-siding are stopped in the shadow of the giant elevator. Nine cars at once, each containing about 1,000 bushels, can be unloaded in less than twenty minutes, and in the rush season elevators are kept working night and day unloading not less than 600 cars in the twenty-four hours, and dealing with 600,000 bushels of wheat. The wheat is run into huge sluices, and passed through whirling fans which suck the dirt from it. Chaff and the broken wheat are sucked along another tube and are used for making cattle food. The wheat is weighed and is carried to the top of the elevator, and it is thrown into the huge bin where it is stored. There it stays until the buyer claims it, the charge for storage being half a cent per bushel for the first fifteen days, and half a cent per bushel for each succeeding thirty days. At Port Arthur may be seen King's Elevator, a sort of wheat hospital for dealing with wheat that has been damaged by weather or other misfortune. It may be that the wheat is damp, and if it were stored in this condition it would heat and eventually catch fire, or a heavy rain-storm at an inopportune time may beat the crops to the ground and cover them with dirt, or it may 394 A WHEAT HOSPITAL be that wheat grown on ground which has formerly been used for oats may result in a mixed crop of wheat and oats which must be separated. The machinery in King's Elevator is most compHcated, and the wheat is run first through machinery which scours the grain and extracts the dirt, and also the oats and broken wheat go with it. No charge is made for this extracting, but the owner of the elevator takes the " screenings," as they are called, and grinds them up for cattle food. If wheat is damp a charge is made according to the degrees of moisture. For " tough " wheat the charge is one and a half cents per bushel, for damp wheat two and a half cents, and for wet wheat three and a half cents. The wheat runs into high wdre- sided chambers upon which impinge blasts of hot air. The time taken to dry wheat varies between two and six hours, and at this elevator 50,000 bushels of tough wheat can be dried in twenty-four hours. Damaged wheat may not be sold as graded wheat : it must be sold on its merits. The farmer may be paid in two ways. Either he may be paid after the grain is loaded on the car at his local station, when settlement will take place on the basis of the Winnipeg inspection, and the weight of the wheat at Fort William. This is termed " track price." On the other hand, he may be paid load by load as he dehvers grain to the elevator company, settlements being made on the company's grading weights and dockage. This is known as " street price," and is based on the Winnipeg price. The elevator industry has naturally taken a very large place in the social economy of the Western farmer, and from time to time bitter complaints have arisen as to the elevator companies' methods of doing business. In 1906 a grain commission considered the farmers' griev- ances, and came to the conclusion that the source of the 395 THE DOMINION OF CANADA difficulty was the question of railway transit, and that with an ample supply of cars there would be little difficulty. It is easy enough to speak of putting the grain on the railway, but it must be remembered that only compara- tively few farmers are close to the main lines or even near a branch line. On the main line the question of marketing wheat is simplicity itself, but in newly- settled regions, some way from the railway, he is often handicapped by the roads and insufficiency of horses, and too often the hard-worked farmer spends valuable time when he might be preparing for the next crop in getting into safety the crop he has reaped. The Dominion Government has realised, however, as the railways are realising, that co-operation between railways, farmer and government, is the only way out of this difficulty. As the outlying settlements push further and further away branch lines are run out to meet their necessities, and close upon the heels of the pioneer comes the railway surveyor. With regard to the supply of cars the Manitoba Grain Act was passed in order to place the farmer on the same level as the elevator company. Any farmer desirous of shipping his grain on his own car is entitled to be sup- phed with a car on a certain date. Railway rates, particularly in an agricultural country, are always a fertile source of grumbling. The Dominion of Canada, however, exercises a more paternal care over the farmer than does the Government of the United States, and the position of the Canadian farmer compares very favourably with that of his United States neighbour in North Dakota and Minnesota. Fruit Farming While it is true that fruit can be grown successfully 396 FAR FAMED NOVA SCOTIA FRUIT m a great many parts of Canada, practically nothing is done in the way of fruit farming in either of the prairie provinces. The industry is confined mainly to Nova Scota, Ontario, New Brunswick, and British Columbia. The fruit gardens of Canada at present are mainly con- fined to the Annapolis valley, in Nova Scotia, which extends along the Bay of Fundy from Windsor to Digby, the Niagara Peninsula in Ontario, and certain portions of British Columbia. The situation of the Annapolis valley is ideal for fruit-growing, since it is separated from the Bay by a range of mountains called the North Moun- tains, and protected from the east winds by another range known as the South Mountains, and the soil, generally speaking, is admirably adapted to the needs of the fruit- grower. The farms, as compared with those of the prairie provinces, are comparatively small, and are generally owned by the occupiers. They extend from twenty to 120 acres in area, and generally are composed of hay land in the valley, orchards round about the holdings, and perhaps a certain amomit of grazing and woodland on the lower slopes of the hills. They would be ideal for a system of mixed farming, particularly dairying and fruit-growing, but the fruit- growing has proved so profitable and so much better than dairying that many farmers have given up the latter to devote themselves entirely to fruit. There are some- thing like 50,000 acres of orchards in the valley, and a great variety of fruit is grown. Apples, blackberries, cherries, currants, gooseberries, pears, plums, rasp- berries, and strawberries are all to be found, but first in favour with the farmer comes the apple. While one cannot accept unreservedly the extravagant claims sometimes made for the Canadian apple, it is certain that the very highest quality can be grown, and that al- though fruit trees are somewhat slow in coming to maturity they remain in full bearing for many more years than in 397 THE DOMINION OF CANADA less suitable climates. About forty apple trees are planted to the acre, and they do not begin to bear until they are from four to five years old. The space between the trees is utilised for other crops, such as corn, potatoes, roots, or occasionally small fruit. When the trees cover the greater part of the ground the regular crops are not planted, and their place is taken by cover crops sown in July, at the time when the fruit trees cease to grow. The ground is sown with buckwheat, clover, or some smaller crop, which has the twofold advantage of absorbing the plant-food and so stopping the growth of the trees, whilst hastening the ripening of the fruit. In the winter it holds the snow and so protects the roots from the frost, and in the following spring it is ploughed up and gives warmth and nitrogen to the soil. In Canada, as in England, the farmer has innumerable pests to fight against, and the spraying of fruit trees is almost universal. A mixture of copper sulphate, quicklime, and Paris green is put on three times a year, and if done conscientiously it is generally successful in protecting the trees. The farmer picks his own fruit, and packs and grades it himself before sending it to an agent for sale on com- mission, or else more frequently he sells his fruit to buyers who grade and pack it at their own warehouses. In some districts the co-operative movement has taken root, and fruit is graded and packed by the co-operative store. It is not easy to arrive at an estimate of the profits to be derived from fruit-growing, but it may be said that in a favourable year the average orchard, well looked after, should yield 100 barrels (each containing 150 lbs.) per acre per year. Taking two dollars as the average price per barrel this would give a return of something like £40 gross per acre. A good many of the younger men are leaving the eastern fruit-growing provinces for the alluring romance 398 ATTRACTIONS OF ANNAPOLIS VALLEY of the West. Fortunes, it is true, come more easily to the pioneer, and the West of Canada is undoubtedly the place to which the ambitious man turns his eyes. At the same time, the Annapohs valley promises a good li\'ing and comparatively settled conditions of hfe to the immigrant, and it is possible that in a few years' time there will be a backwash of settlers from the West to this peaceful Maritime province. In Ontario there is more fruit culture than in any other province of the Dominion. For the most part the fruit-growing district is to be found in the Southern and Western parts of Ontario. Hardy fruit, such as apples, sour cherries, and plums, are gro\Mi on the east of Georgian Bay and Lake Huron, on the north and south shores of Lake Ontario, and the northern shore of Lake Erie. Grapes, sweet cherries, pears, peaches, and other soft fruits are gro\Mi south and west of Toronto, on the south of Georgian Bay and the east of Lake Huron. On the Niagara Peninsula, on the south shore of Lake Ontario, is a strip of land some forty miles long and var\'ing from one to five miles broad, bounded on one side by a range of hills, and on the south by Lake Ontario. Chmate tempered in this fashion by the hills and the waters of the lake is reputed to be the best in the province. At one time apples were gro\Mi at this particular part, but the warm climate was found to produce apples that would not keep for more than two or three weeks, and grape vines were consequently sub- stituted for apple trees. Grape vines begin to bear when about three years old, and in fuU bearing a good crop would be about four tons to the acre. Both edible and wine-making grapes are grown, but so far the grower does not seem to have discovered a \'ine which will give the bouquet of the continental grape. A strip of sandy loam in the peninsula is devoted 399 THE DOMINION OF CANADA almost entirely to the production of peaches. The trees are planted about twenty feet apart, and a very heavy outlay is incurred for cultivation until the end of the fifth or sixth year, when the orchard comes into full bearing. In a favourable season one might say that the gross return per acre would be something like 200 doUars, but quite half of this would have to be spent on culti- vation. Any immigrant who imagines that he can take up his 160 acres of free grant land in this favoured spot would find himself sadly mistaken. Unplanted land varies from 200 dollars to 300 dollars an acre. Land planted with peach trees brings 500 dollars an acre, and in the best positions it might even run up to 1,200 dollars or more an acre. This peninsula is most attractive to the man of means who is seeking a profitable living combined with a com- fortable civilisation. The houses are large and beautiful, and the gardens well cared for : whilst the electric railway keeps the residents in close touch with the town of Hamilton. It is less than a quarter of a century since the first fruit was sent out from British Columbia, and the following table shows the rapid advance made in fruit production. 1891 6,437 acres 1901 7,430 ., 1905 22,000 „ 1910 100,000 „ The two great fruit districts are the Kootenay district and the Okanagan valley. The pioneer of fruit-growing in the Kootenay district was a Mr. Johnstone, a Scotch- man, who settled in Nelson some years ago. Mining was at that time in a somewhat parlous state, and Mr. John- stone discovered in a forest near his house an orchard of fruit trees which had been planted many years before by a ranch settler and had been completely forgotten. Mr. Johnstone immediately turned his mind to the problems 400 FRUIT GROWING IN B. C. of fruit culture, and has done excellent work as propa- gandist and practical farmer for the fruit-growing industry. As a rule the holdings are small, ranging from a few acres, and rarely exceeding sixty acres. The soil is very favour- able, and the whole industry depends upon the extraor- dinarily fine climate of British Columbia which rarely fails the fruit farmer except in an occasionally dry season. The summer temperature never exceeds ninety-four degrees at Nelson, and for years no lower temperature has been known than six degrees below zero. In some places the rainfall is deficient and irrigation becomes necessary. In West Kootenay the rainfall is about nineteen inches, but there is a heavy snowfall, so that the annual precipitation is twenty-seven inches. Any kind of fruit suited to a temperate climate can be grown, but at present, owing to the fact that transport is not suffici- ently organised, only the hardier sorts are sent to the market. The British market and the Australian market are both supplied, and it is probable that with the intro- duction of closer relations with Australia a large propor- tion of the fruit at present sent to Great Britain will be diverted to the Antipodes. One of the curiosities of market demands is shown in the variation between the Australian and the English market. The Australian demands a much smaller apple than the British buyer, and with a view to pleasing him the Kootenay fruit- grower, when growing for the Australian market, never thins out his fruit. The result is that a much heavier crop of smaller apples is grown, and some of these un- thinned trees, at the time of ripening are marvellous examples of productiveness. In the Okanagan valley the climate is equally delightful but not quite so moist, eleven inches a year being the average rainfall. This necessitates irrigation. Lord Aberdeen has a celebrated ranch at Coldstream, 401 THE DOMINION OF CANADA about five miles from Vernon, comprising 13,000 acres. He bought it in 1891 as a cattle ranch, and transformed it into the finest fruit farm in British Columbia. In 1906 the ranch was turned into a limited company, and the orchard land now extends to about 350 acres, of which 160 acres are in full bearing. This company, in addition to fruit farming, has a colonisation branch, which sells to English, Scotch, and Canadian settlers small holdings of land at a price of about 200 dollars, including the right to water, for which besides he has to pay extra at a rate of about three dollars an acre. The fruit is packed for market in two styles. In Eastern Canada the custom is to pack in barrels, the size of which is regulated by the Inspection Sale Act, and the fruit is graded according to a well-known scale which tells the buyer at once the size and quality of the apple he is buying. The system of packing fruit in barrels, however, has its obvious disadvantages, and the British Columbian system of fruit boxes, each containing a single layer of fruit, gets the fruit to market in a much better condition. Since the appearance of the fruit has a good deal to do with its marketable properties the packer is naturally a highly-skiUed man, who can decide with lightning rapidity the class to which the fruit belongs. The apples are packed separately, the small ones being placed towards the ends and the larger ones near the middle, so that the unpractised eye, deceived by the per- spective, does not detect the variation in size. Infe- rior fruit, that is to say, fruit which while perfectly sound, has no great market value, is used for canning and pre- serving. Sometimes it is done in the homes of the farmer, but mainly the trade is in the hands of canning factories. Doubtless as time goes on the canning industry will become more extensive, but at present the farmer's desire is to extend the fresh fruit business as far as 402 CO-OPERATIVE FARMING possible, and only to use canning for inferior fruit. Profiting by the example of Belgium and Denmark the fruit farmer of Canada has already discovered the value of co-operation, and it is probable that in years to come co-operation will be a very large feature of the fruit-growing business. Live-Stock Records Until within comparatively recent years, there was no uniform Live-Stock Record in existence in Canada. Various associations were in existence in the provinces, and books of record established, but the greater number of such records, and the different standards set up, caused much confusion and inconvenience to breeders and farmers. To aid in remedying this state of affairs, an Act to facilitate the incorporation of Live-Stock Associations was passed in 1900. The provisions of this measure were taken advantage of, to a large extent, by the leading associations, many of which took out Dominion charters. This, as far as it went, was satisfactory, but, with the object of extending the good work, and making such records a national concern, a convention of live- stock breeders, from all parts of the Dominion, was held in 1904, when the problem of organising National Records was discussed. As a result, an agreement was entered into between the Department of Agriculture and the various societies represented at the Convention, and, in the following year, a National Records Board was estab- lished at Ottawa. With one exception, all Record Associations in Canada are worked under the National Records system. The Board is formed of representatives elected by the various associations, on a membership basis, and to these representatives is delegated the work of carrying on the office. The Board meets annually to discuss the more important questions that arise, and a Committee is formed from amongst its members 403 THE DOMINION OF CANADA comprising what is called the " Executive Committee " which looks after registration matters, the management of the office, etc. — each member of this Committee looking after one class of stock. The herds books previously main- tained by the provincial governments, were purchased by the Department of Agriculture, and handed over to the National Board, and the Department provides office accommodation, and other necessaries incidental to the work. A "Live-Stock Pedigree Act," passed in 1905, which is now in force, provides for the formation of new associations, and for the incorporation, on certain formalities being observed ; but it is provided that not more than one association for each distinct breed shall be incorporated. Severe penalties are imposed on any person signing false pedigrees for registration, or causing such false pedigrees to be presented. The Department of Agriculture takes the responsibility of guaranteeing the authenticity of certificates issued by the Records Office, and generally, gives much attention to all matters in connection with its work, which will tend to make, as nearly as possible, for absolute reliability. The system has, in practice, worked very well. It has done away with the possibility of the control of records by close corporations ; and, by the establishment of a Central Board, has done away with the complications inevitably arising through a number of different records being in existence in the Dominion. The work — as is the case with all matters taken in hand by this depart- ment — is done with accuracy and promptness, and to the satisfaction of all concerned, and the records are recognised as official, not only in the Dominion but in other countries. 404 CHAPTER II Economic Minerals of Canada In attempting even a brief description of the mineral resources of Canada, it wiU aid clearness of vision, and enable the reader to walk within known bounds and landmarks if we indicate at the outset the scope and limitations of our inquiry. We purpose dealing (1) with the more important ores of metals, and (2) with the non-metaUic minerals : the respective descriptions being arranged in geographical order from west to east, by way of provinces. The total area of Canada, as has been said, is about 3,750,000 square miles, two-thirds of which are practi- cally unexplored, except along a few main rivers and water routes in the north-land which have been followed by Indians and fur-traders. Hence, any account of the resources of the Dominion must necessarily be limited to the one-third of the country, and this only partially explored, investigated, and developed. For this reason it is impossible to estimate, even approximately, Canada's future mineral industry ; but judging by the extent and geological characteristics of the known mining areas, and considering the vast undeveloped regions known to exist in the north, the industrial possibilities of the country are manifestly enormous. This conclusion is driven home when it is remembered that, in 1886, the total mineral production of Canada was valued at 10,221,255 doUars ; whereas in 1908 it reached 87,323,849 dollars. The prospecting of promising mineral regions is constantly being undertaken ; and the development of new mining areas is adding to the already formidable list of shipping mines. In the last named connection it may be mentioned that the Dominion Government 405 27— (2137) THE DOMINION OF CANADA in 1907 established a Department of Mines, with a view of aiding the industrial development of the country, by systematic investigation of its mineral deposits and immense mineralized regions. And although this organ- isation is of recent origin, the Mines Branch of the Department has already rendered valuable service to the mining industry by the publication of technical reports and bulletins. Among those recently published by the Mines Branch — under the supervision of Dr. Eugene Haanel — is a comprehensive " Report on the Mining and Metallurgical Industries of Canada, 1907-8," This, and other important monographs and bulletins on mineral products of current economic interest, such as iron ores, asbestos, mica, graphite, peat, chromite, tungsten, etc., constitute a reference library of technical literature invaluable to every business man interested in the commercial and industrial progress of the Dominion. Alluvial Gold Alluvial Gold : Yukon. Placer gold mining began in the Yukon in 1881. The main district is the Klon- dike region, where mining began in 1896. This field has an area of about 1,000 square miles, and upwards of seventy or eighty miles of creeks have proved productive. In some parts, the sands worked yielded 2,000 dollars per running foot, with a pay streak varying from 150 to 300 feet wide. This was in the early days when the Klondike was an ideal field for the individual miner. That time, however, has passed, and the rich creeks have practically been exhausted from the standpoint of the individual miner. The placer miner is being replaced by powerful companies, with capital enough to establish hydraulic plants on a large scale for working the poorer sand and gravels. A typical example is the Yukon Gold Consolidated Company, Limited, who have constructed a ditch and pipe line forty-eight miles in 406 GOLD MINING length, and have estabUshed an hydraulic plant at the cost of several miUion dollars. Up to 1907 the two main fields of the Yukon — the Klondike and the Indian River — had produced some 120,000,000 dollars, and it is very conservatively esti- mated that by hydraulic mining some 95,000,000 to 100,000,000 dollars of gold could still be extracted from the present kno\\-n gold-bearing creeks. Another method which promises to yield good results in the near future in working auriferous gold-bearing gravels and sand is that of gold-dredging. Several attempts are at present being made in this line, and it is expected that this industry will soon be on a good working basis. A certain amount of success in gold- dredging has been achieved on the Stewart River, B.C. British Columbia. In British Columbia almost every stream and river has yielded more or less gold. The main fields in alluvial mining are the Cariboo and Atlin districts, where hydraulic mining operations on a large scale are being conducted. Moreover, some attempts are being made to dredge bottoms and bars of the Fraser, Thompson, and other rivers ; and if these prove successful it will materially contribute to the gold output of British Columbia. It is not easy to make a forecast as to the future of placer gold mining in British Columbia ; but it may be stated that the total gold produced by this province from alluvial sources, up to date, has been about 70,000,000 dollars : and that the present yearly output is in the vicinity of 1,000,000 doUars ; so that, if we even consider only the present known placer deposits, there is no reason why this rate of production should not be maintained for many years to come. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, gold has been found in the sands of the Saskatchewan, Peace, McLeod, Atha- baska, Bow, Old Man, and other rivers ; but the North Saskatchewan — for sixty miles above Edmonton, and 407 THE DOMINION OF CANADA a like distance below — has been the chief field of opera- tions. These operations are limited, because they are mainly carried on by individual miners, and the sands and gravels are not very rich. It is quite possible, however, that this industry may develop in the future. Quebec. Of the eastern provinces, Quebec is the only one in which workable alluvial deposits have been found. The most important field is the Beauce auriferous region, which embraces the valleys of the Chaudiere, and De Loup Rivers, and that of the Gilbert River. Some very large nuggets have been found — the heaviest weighing seventy-one ounces. Operations are being conducted on these alluvial deposits ; but they are on a small scale. Gold-bearing Quartz In the Yukon some gold-bearing lodes have been discovered, but so far they have not been worked to any extent. In British Columbia there are two distinct classes of gold-bearing ores, viz., the free-milling ores : from which gold is the only metal recovered by amalgamation ; and the sulphide ores, which, being gold-bearing copper ores, are treated by smelting. In this province, free-milling ores are produced in the Nelson division of West Kootenay, and in Mc Kinney and Fairview camps of the Yale district. The sulphide ores — from which copper, silver, and gold are extracted by smelting — are found and worked in the Rossland district, and in the Boundary country ; but they are low-grade ores, their total metallic contents varying in value between 10.00 and 15.00 dollars. But this is offset by the immense size of the ore bodies, and the low cost of mining. The gold content of these ores varies between one and three dollars. In Ontario, free gold is found in the older rocks in the northern and western parts of the province. Numerous 408 THE GOLD OF NOVA SCOTIA gold-bearing quartz veins have been worked in the following regions : Lake of the Woods, Shoal Lake, Rainy Lake, Seine River, and various parts of the north shore of Lake Superior, and other places. Several deposits have been worked in the older parts of Ontario, in the counties of Hastings and Frontenac. In Ontario the area occupied by rocks in which gold-bearing veins are liable to be found is enormous, and the possibilities are very great. In Nova Scotia, the gold-bearing rocks form a broad belt, varying in width from ten to seventy miles, and extending some 260 miles in length along the Atlantic coast. The gold is found in quartz veins, and is for the most part free-milling. Mining operations have been so far limited to veins outcropping on the surface ; but it is thought that the deposits attain great depths. There- fore, the gold industry in this province still offers great possibilities. At present, the yearly production is com- paratively small : but it is probable that by systematic development of its gold deposits, more especially at depth, the province of Nova Scotia would make good showing as a gold-producing province of Canada. Silver British Columbia. Gold and silver in British Columbia occur in diverse ways. In addition to the gold extracted from the alluvial deposits all over the province, there are a great many veins and other forms of deposits of auriferous and argentiferous minerals. In these, gold and silver are found associated in various combinations with the baser metals. For instance, there are ores from which gold, silver and copper are extracted ; then there are the silver-lead ores, silver- copper ores, as well as " dry ores," which are ores from which only silver is extracted. Deposits of native silver and of silver sulphides have 409 THE DOMINION OF CANADA been found in various places in British Coliunbia, particu- larly in the Omineca district ; but the main sources of silver are the silver-lead ores of the Slocan division, in West Kootenay, and those found in the Fort Steele division of East Kootenay. Silver is also produced from the copper-gold-silver ores of the Rossland and Boundary districts, where there are immense deposits of low-grade ores. Silver ores and silver-lead ores are also found and worked in the Lardeau and Trout Lake district. In Ontario, silver ores were first mined in north- western Ontario, near the west end of Lake Superior. At one time the Thunder Bay district produced large quantities of silver : one deposit alone — the Silver Islet Mine — having produced about 3,500,000 dollars. Very little work is at present being done in this district, although the deposits are far from being exhausted. The deposits of silver-cobalt-nickel-arsenic ores of the Cobalt region, which have been recently discovered, and have attracted the attention of the world, are situated in Ontario. The possibilities of this district, as well as of other areas to the north of it, as producers of silver and nickel, cannot at present be estimated. To realise the importance of these finds, it is sufficient to point out that the production in 1908 was about 17,000,000 ounces of silver. In the province of Quebec, silver is extracted from the pyritous ores, which are mined near Capelton, in the eastern townships. These ores are primarily mined as sulphur ores for use in acid manufacture ; but they contain small quantities of silver and gold, which are removed in the process of treatment. Copper Copper ores in Canada may be sub-divided into two classes, viz., ores containing copper in the native or 410 COPPER ORES metallic state, and those in which copper is found in the form of various sulphides. Deposits of native copper are not worked in Canada, although occurrences of such ore have been reported from northern regions in the basin of the Mackenzie River, and from places in the interior of British Columbia ; but nowhere in the west have they been worked, even in a preliminary way. In Ontario, on the Canadian side of Lake Superior, occur large areas of rocks — similar to those of Keweena Point, on the United States shores, in which are situated the celebrated deposits of native copper worked by the Calumet, Hecla, Tamarack, and other famous mines. Native copper has been found in these rocks in Canada at Mamainse Point, Michipicoten Island, Nipigon Bay ; and although they have not, hitherto, given rise to any weU-established mining industry, yet, it is possible they might do so at some future time, after exploratory work of a more thorough charatcer than that of the past has been undertaken. British Columbia is by far the largest copper producer of all the Canadian provinces. The production is derived from the sulphide ores mined in various districts : the Boundary district, the Rossland camp, and the Coast district being the most important. The Boundary and Rossland districts have been men- tioned in connection with gold also : for the ore is mined from immense deposits, containing copper and gold, valued at $8.00 to $15.00 dollars per ton. This low value of the ore is balanced by the fact that the deposits are very large, and can be worked very cheaply — as to cost of mining ; although it requires great outlay of capital to equip the mines and build the smelters. The copper ores of the Coast district come from two mines : the " Tyee," and the " Marble Bay." More- over, the copper smelter erected at Ladysmith, Vancouver 411 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Island, treats copper ore mined in the Queen Charlotte Islands, and in the Whitehouse district, Yukon territory, where important copper deposits are also found. In Ontario, the nickel-copper ores of the Sudbury district are the sole source of the output of these metals in that province. These large deposits have been worked continuously since 1886. The ore runs from 1^ to 3^ per cent, copper, and about the same of nickel. There are in Ontario numerous other occurrences of copper deposits, none of which are worked at present, although some were at one time extensively exploited. Among the best known ones are the deposits along the north shore of Lake Huron : at Bruce mines. Echo Bay Rock Lake, Massey, etc., which constitute a valuable reserve, and which could be worked to advantage, if conditions were favourable. In 1908 the total production of copper in Canada amounted to nearly 64,500,000 dollars ; whereas in 1886 it was only 3,500,000 dollars. In Quebec, copper is mined in the eastern townships, where there are large deposits of ore consisting of a mixture of iron and copper pyrites. This ore is primarily used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid ; but the copper is saved and adds materially to the value of the ore. These deposits have been worked for over fifty years, and are likely to last a long time yet. The rocks in this region are very widely mineralized, and it is pro- bable that by sjTstematic prospecting, and development work, other deposits will be worked, and become well established mines. In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick copper deposits have at various times attracted the attention of pros- pectors and miners. Occurrences are known at Cox- heath, in the trap rocks of the Bay of Fundy, in Antigonish county, in Cumberland county, and in Colchester county ; but none are being worked at the present time. 412 MINERAL RESOURCES Lead As already mentioned, lead occurs in British Columbia, mainly in the form of argentiferous galena or silver-lead ores. These occur, and are mined in many districts : the most important of which is known as the Slocan district, on Slocan Lake and River, in the interior of British Columbia. Other silver-lead deposits are found in the Ainsworth, Lardeau, Trout Lake, Revelstoke, lUicillewaet, and Goat River divisions, in West Kootenay; also in the Golden, Windermere, and Fort Steele divi- sions of East Kootenay. The famous St. Eugene Mine is situated in this last di\asion. Owing to unfavourable market conditions, and difficulties in transportation, many of the lead deposits of British Columbia have been abandoned for the present, but, as in other cases, they constitute reserves which could be drawn on at very short notice. In 1908 the total production of lead amounted to nearly 48,000,000 pounds, and was all derived from British Columbia. There are deposits of galena in Ontario and in Nova Scotia ; but they are not argenti- ferous, and the low price of lead did not warrant these being worked for the production of the base metal alone. Among the Ontario localities where lead ores occur, we may mention Garden River, near Sault Ste Marie; Gou- lais Bay, in Algoma district ; Madoc, and Lake townships, both in Hastings county. In Nova Scotia, lead ores, some of which are more or less argentiferous, are known to occur in Guysboro, Colchester, and Cape Breton county. Zinc Zinc ore, in the form of zinc blende, occurs widely distributed in British Columbia, and there are also several deposits in Ontario. In the first-named province, zinc ores are found in 413 THE DOMINION OF CANADA workable deposits in the Ainsworth division of East Kootenay, and in the Fort Steele division of East Koo- tenay. Until two or three years ago no attempt was made to work this ore beyond occasional shipments of blende to the United States ; mined usually in the course of working silver-lead deposits, with which the zinc blende occurrences are usually associated. Now, how- ever, the question of utilizing the zinc resources is being ver}^ seriously considered, and it is probable that in the near future zinc smelting will be an important industry in British Columbia. In addition to the above districts, occurrences of zinc ores have been reported from Vancouver Island, Texada Island, New Westminster division, Kamloops division, lUicillewaet division, and others. In Eastern Canada the presence of zinc in workable quantities has been recognised in various places, among which are the Zenith Mine in the Lake Superior region, and the deposits on Calumet Island in the Ottawa River. Nickel The province of Ontario is responsible for aU the nickel produced in Canada. The greater portion is extracted from the nickehferous-p^Trhotite of the Sudbury district, which was discovered during the construction of the main hne of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1886. It is now an established fact that Canadian nickel production, which is over 21,000,000 pounds per year, practically controls the market of the world ; for the Sudbury district alone produces more than one-half of the world's output. There are, at present, two large companies working the Sudbury deposits, viz., the Canadian Copper Company, and the Mond Nickel Company. An idea of the import- ance of this industry may be gathered from the fact that these two companies alone give employment to about 1,700 men, and that the nickel is extracted from about 414 THE NICKEL MINES 350,000 tons of ore mined per year. The deposits of nickeliferous-pyrrhotite of Sudbury are of great magni- tude, and promise a supply of ore for many years to come. Their only serious rival in the nickel market of the world is New Caledonia. The Sudbury ores are also copper-bearing, and, as previously mentioned, are responsible, at present, for the total production of copper from the province of Ontario. The ore is roasted and smelted, and the resulting product of matte treated in a Bessemer furnace, making a bessemerized matte containing about forty per cent, nickel, and a like percentage, or less, of copper. This is sent to the United States for the final extraction of the metals. Lately the Cobalt district has attracted attention as a nickel producer. The silver-bearing ores of this region contain a notable proportion of nickel, which is saved in the smelting of the ores. In 1907 the reported production of nickel metal from this source was 370 tons. Other places in Canada where the presence of nickel- bearing minerals has been reported: are Calumet Island, province of Quebec ; Bolton township, province of Quebec ; and St. Stephen, New Brunswick ; but it is doubtful if these occurrences will prove of commercial value. Cobalt The silver-bearing ores of the now famous Cobalt district contain a large proportion of cobalt ; but the buyers of ore practically allow nothing for this metal. Should new uses and new outlets be found for cobalt, this region could easily supply large quantities of this metal. Iron Ores of iron are widely distributed throughout Canada, in great variety. They are smelted in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia only ; but it is very 415 THE DOMINION OF CANADA probable that in the near future an iron-smelting industry will be established in British Columbia. In this latter province, large deposits of iron ore occur on Vancouver Island, and other islands on the Pacific coast. The deposits consist mainly of high-grade magne- tites, and these, in conjunction with the coal deposits of the Pacific seaboard, would supply blast furnaces under very favourable conditions. Owing to the com- paratively sparse population of this province, the market would not at present be very extensive ; but the estab- lishment of an iron industry in this western pro\nnce is only a question of time, since all the natural resources are present in abundance. In the interior of British Columbia, important deposits of iron ores are known at East Kootenay, and in the Kamloops district. In Alberta, should need arise, extensive deposits of clay iron-stone, which occur in the vicinity of the Red Deer River, could yield a fairly good supply of iron ore. In both the western and eastern parts of the province of Ontario, extensive deposits are known, and many are being worked. The Helen Mine, on the shore of Lake Superior, is being worked, and produces large quantities of hematite. The Atikokan iron range ; the Lake Nipigon iron deposits ; the large deposits of magnetic and hematite of Mosse mountain, north of Sudbur\' ; the magnetite deposits found along the line of the Kingston and Pembroke Railway ; and the magnetite deposits along the Central Ontario Railway, constitute reserves of iron ore, having great industrial possibilities. In Quebec, deposits of magnetite occur in the vaUey of the Gatineau, north of the Ottawa River. Bog iron ores are being worked in the district north of Three Rivers, and in some parts of the eastern townships, along the St. Francis River. Moreover, magnetites, 416 ELECTRO-THERMIC SMELTING containing titanic acid, are present in large quantities in various parts of the eastern townships, and in the Saguenaj- district. It may be noted here that Dr. Eugene Haanel, Director of Mines to the Dominion Government, has devoted special attention to the smelting of the refractory iron ores of Canada by electricit\-. Experiments of inter- national importance — now historic — ^were conducted at Sault Ste Marie, Ontario, in the winter of 1905-6 ; which demonstrated that the reduction of magnetic iron ores comparatively high in sulphur, but free from manganese, could be smelted by the electro-thermic process without the use of coal or coke ; but with charcoal only as a reducing agent. An official account of these preliminaiy experiments by Dr. Haanel was published by the Dominion Government in 1907 ; and a pamphlet describing the practical apphcation of these experiments on a commercial scale, by means of an Electric Shaft Furnace, at Dom- namet, Sweden, was issued in September, 1909, demon- strating that electric smelting has passed the experiment stage, and is now an assured commercial success. This pronouncement bj* the Dominion Government is of supreme importance to the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, where there are extensive deposits of refractory, magnetic iron ores, which can now be smelted economi- cally ; since they are mostiy in close proximity to water powers for the generation of electrical energy, and char- coal and peat as reducing agents can be obtained cheaply as substitutes for coal or coke fuels — ^which are conspicuously absent from the list of mineral resources of the two provinces. In Nova Scotia important deposits of hematite occur in Annapolis county ; at Nictaux and at Clementsport ; at Brookfield, south of Truro ; and at Londonderry ; besides nimierous other places from which the existence of more or less important deposits have been reported. 417 THE DOMINION OF CANADA Large deposits of iron ore, which are important from the standpoint of future supply, are known to occur on the east coast of Hudson's Bay and James Bay. Among these deposits may be mentioned those of the Nastapoka Islands, which appear to be the most important and consist of magnetite, hematite and jasper. Chromite The Canadian deposits of chromite, or chrome iron ore, occur in the serpentine belt of the eastern townships of the province of Quebec. It is only within compara- tively recent years that these deposits have been worked. The centre of production is Black Lake, in the township of Coleraine, on the line of the Quebec Central Railway. The annual production of chromite of this district is in the vicinity of 9,000 tons, containing a minimum of forty-five per cent, of chromic sesquioxide, this percentage constituting the standard. Manganese Although manganese is not extensively worked in Canada, very large deposits of manganese ores are known in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The ore occurs as crystalline pyrolusite and manganite in limestones, also as bog manganese. Important deposits of the first-mentioned ore occur in New Brunswick, at Markhamville, King's county, and Jordan Mountains, Sussex county ; also at Tenny Cape, Hants county ; New Ross, Lunenburg county ; East River, Picton county — all in Nova Scotia. Of the second class of ore the best known occurrence is that of Dawson Settlement, Albert county, New Brunswick. Antimony Antimony ores are known to occur in the province of Quebec, at South Ham, Wolfe county ; in New 418 PLATINUM, TIN, ETC. Brunswick, at Prince William, York county, and in Nova Scotia, at West Gore, Hants coiuity. In all of these cases antimony ore is present in workable quantities. In addition to all the above metallic ores, which have all been found in large quantities. Numerous other metals occur in Canada, some of which are obtained as secondary products in the treatment of complex ores, or the presence of which has not yet been recognised in large deposits. But on further investigation many of these latter may yet be found to be of workable size and materially add to our country's economic resources. Among these may be mentioned : — Mercury — ores of which have been found and worked to some extent near Kamloops, B.C. Platinum — found in numerous placer gold deposits in British Columbia. Besides this, a comparatively large quantity of platinum is also extracted from the nickehferous ores of Sudbury, where it occurs in the form of sperrylite. Tin, Tungsten — and other rare minerals are reported to be present in a complex ore deposit at New Ross, in Lunenburg county, in Nova Scotia. Alluvial tin has also been found in the sands and gravels of some of the Klondike creeks. Molybdenite is knowTi to occur in many places in British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec, but none of the deposits are worked. Among the principal occurrences may be mentioned : King Mine, Grand Prairie, B.C. ; Ross to\vnship, Renfrew county, Ontario ; Alleyn township, Pontiac, New Ross, Lmienburg county. Nova Scotia. Coal Coal is by far the most important product of the Cana- dian mines, as the value of the yearly output of coals 419 THE DOMINION OF CANADA and lignites reaches thirty-five per cent, of the total value of- the country's mineral production. Coal is abundant and extensively worked on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and its occurrence greatly facilitates over-sea trade and local traffic on both oceans. Canada's production of coal, in 1908 reached nearly 11,000,000 tons; whereas in 1886 it was only shghtly over 2,000,000 tons. This is a very significant fact, for, to a great extent, the consumption and production of coal furnishes a measure by which to judge of the develop- ment of a country. In this connection it must be remem- bered that Canada consumes about as much imported coal as it does of domestic product. In British Columbia extensive coalfields are found and worked on Vancouver Island, also in the interior of the province, in the Nicola valley, as well as in the Crow's Nest region. East Kootenay. All these coals are of high-grade bituminous quality. Unworked deposits are known in the Queen Charlotte Islands ; in the Skeena region ; and in the Similkameen district. These constitute valuable reserves. In Alberta there are also vast deposits of fossil fuels of all qualities, from anthracite — which is extensively worked near Banff — to lignites. High-grade bituminous coals occur along the lines of the Crow's Nest Railway ; along the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Good lignites are of very widespread occurrence ; and there are very extensive areas of yet untouched coalfields all along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. In the south-eastern part of Saskatchewan the deposits of lignite in the Souris River region are being actively worked. In the provinces of Ontario and Quebec there are no known coal-bearing rocks, and the greater part of the coal consumed in these provinces is imported from the United States. 420 THE NOVA SCOTIA COALFIELDS In New Brunswick a small coalfield is worked in the region of Grand Lake, mainly for local use. From the Nova Scotia fields is produced about three- fifths of Canada's total coal production. The main centres of production are in Cape Breton, in Cumberland, in Picton and in Inverness counties, in all of which are very extensive collieries. In 1908, to the total Canadian production of 11,000,000 tons. Nova Scotia contributed 6,540,000 tons. The Mines Branch of the Department of Mines is at present carrying on investigations and tests of the coals from the various coalfields of Canada, under the direc- tion of Dr. Eugene Haanel, Director of Mines. These tests will form the subject of an exhaustive report which will be issued shortly. Petroleum and Natural Gas In British Columbia there have been no discoveries of economic value of either gas or oil. In the south- eastern part of East Kootenay, in the region crossed by the South Kootenay Pass, some drilling operations were conducted two or three years ago on a large scale, but no satisfactory results were obtained. There are reports of finds in the Cariboo county, but so far nothing authenticated. In Alberta a little oil has been found near the United States boundary, just east of the summit of the Rocky Mountains, but the results of drilling operations have been rather discouraging. Medicine Hat is now famous as being in the centre of a natural gas-bearing region. The gas horizon is struck at a depth of 1,000 feet, and although an enormous quantity has been consumed in the last three years, the rock pressure of the gas wells has, practically, shown no decrease. This ideal fuel is used for lighting, heating, and power purposes. 421 ■^"—(ii-.y) THE DOMINION OF CANADA In the northern part of Alberta there are occurrences of tar sands, along the Athabasca River, which indicate the presence of petroleum in the underlying rocks. These extensive outcroppings of tar sands along the valley of the Athabasca would seem to indicate the possibility of these same beds carrying the lighter oils, if tapped in depth, in places where the cover of overlying rocks would be sufficiently thick to prevent the evaporation and the oxidation of which the heavy tarry materials are the result. There is little doubt that in the Athabasca valley there are great possibilities in gas and oil, and a great deal of drilling is being done in search for such deposits. The production of petroleum in Ontario dates back to 1860, and practically the total Canadian production of crude oil comes from that province. A large number of " oil pools " of more or less importance are exploited, the principal ones being at Petrolea, Oil Springs, and Moore, in Lambton county, also at Merlin and Romney, in Kent county. In Ontario several gas fields are being exploited, and a large quantity of gas is exported by pipe lines to cities in the United States. There are at present two main producing fields : the Welland and the Haldimand. In the province of Quebec it is probable that large areas are underlaid by gas-bearing horizons, as gas has been struck in many places in the course of boring opera- tions, but beyond being put to a few local uses this natural resource has not yet been worked to any great extent. A little oil is produced in New Brunswick from a small field situated at Memramcook. Salt and Brines Brine springs occur in many places in Canada, but the only salt -producing industry of any importance is that of Ontario. 422 ASBESTOS In Manitoba a little salt has at times been produced locally from some springs which occur around the shores of Lake Winnipegosis. In the Mackenzie River basin similar salt springs have been noted north of Athabaska Lake. The real salt industry of Canada is located in Ontario, where extensive areas are underlaid by very thick salt- beds, which are exploited by wells from which the brine is pumped. These salt deposits, which are situated along the south-eastern shores of Lake Huron and on the St. Clair River, are practically inexhaustible. In New Brunswick salt springs have been exploited in the vicinity of Sussex and are yet worked on a small scale for the local market. Asbestos The largest known deposits of asbestos occur in the eastern townships of the province of Quebec. In the production of this mineral Canada easily leads the world. The asbestos is largely of the long fibre textile variety, and is much prized. In 1908 the total product of the asbestos industry, including long fibre, short fibre, and asbestic, amounted to over 2,500,000 dollars. For a complete account of this important industry, the reader is referred to the report on " Asbestos ; its Occurrence, Exploitation and Uses," published by the Mines Branch of the Department of Mines of Canada. Although occurrences of this mineral are widely dis- tributed, there are only two fields which are being worked. One comprises parts of the townships of Thetford, Cole- raine, Ireland, and Wolfeston, and the other is at Danville, in Richmond county. Mica The principal deposits of mica are situated in the western part of the province of Quebec, and in the 423 THE DOMINION OF CANADA eastern part of Ontario. The mica produced is the " amber " variety, used mainly in the construction of electrical apparatus. Important mica mines are situated in the province of Ontario : in Templeton and Hull townships, both in Wright county ; in Portland and Villeneuve townships, in Labelle county ; aU in the province of Quebec ; in Loughborough township, Frontenac county. Occurrences of mica are also known in the Saguenay district, province of Quebec, and in the Tete Jeune Cache in British Columbia. Graphite In Labelle and Argenteuil counties in the province of Quebec are situated large areas of graphite-bearing limestones and gneisses, of which several deposits are worked. The main areas are in Buckingham township, and the graphite is of the disseminated variety. In Renfrew county there is a deposit of " vein graphite" which has been worked very extensively. A great many occurrences of graphite are also reported from Nova Scotia, but none are being worked now in that province. Corundum There are important deposits of corundum in the northern part of Hastings county in the province of Ontario, and these are worked extensively. The corun- dum is used in the manufacture of abrasive materials, such as emery and corundum wheels, whetstones, etc. Other Minerals It is only possible to mention the other minerals of economic importance, as it would take many pages to give even short descriptions of the deposits : — Iron Pyrites : Found and worked extensively in Ontario and Quebec. Occurrences reported from British Columbia, Nova Scotia and N^w Brunswick. 424 VARIOUS OTHER MINERALS Apatite : Found and once extensively worked in Ottawa, Labelle, Argenteuil counties, province of Quebec, and in Frontenac county, in Ontario. Building Materials : Granite, limestone, sandstone, marbles, brick-clays, etc., are present practically in inexhaustible quantities in all the provinces. Gypsum : Very large deposits of gypsum occur in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and many are worked on a large scale. In some cases the faces of these deposits show thicknesses of gypsum reaching 90 and 100 feet. The product is used for manufacture of plaster of Paris and land plaster. Magnesite : This mineral is used mainly in the manu- facture of wood-pulp for paper, as well as in the preparation of certain magnesium salts. It also constitutes a refractory material and can be used in the manufacture of fire-brick. A great many occurrences of magnesite are known in Canada, and at least two of these seem to be important. One in Atlin, B.C., and Pine Creek is very extensive, and another in Argenteuil county, in the province of Quebec, could also be worked, should need arise. 425 CHAPTER III Canada's Manufactures A COUNTRY so liberally endowed with natural resources as Canada, and possessing also the abundant water- power that exists at so many advantageous points, could not fail to become the home of a number of important industries. Canadians have all along been fully alive to the importance of utilizing the resources at hand, and it is only the fact of the need of further capital which has prevented a much more rapid industrial development. Many of the industries, however, have grown beyond the enthusiastic predictions of those who were in former days most firmly convinced of the great future which lay before the country. The agricultural development of Canada has attracted so much attention abroad that until comparatively recent times little notice has been devoted to the importance of the manufacturing industries. In 1905, when an inter- censal inquiry was officially undertaken in accordance with the provisions of the Census and Statistics Act of that year, it was found that there were no less than 15,796 industrial establishments with a total capital of 846,585,023 dollars. That these figures have increased in the meantime is beyond question, and an immense amount of capital has entered the Dominion for invest- ment in industrial enterprises of various kinds during the past years. The number of persons employed was 392,530, their salaries and wages amounted to 165,100,011 dollars, while the value of products was 718,352,603 dollars. Of the employees no fewer than 308,378, or seventy-eight per cent., were in Ontario and Quebec, 426 THE MILLING INDUSTRY which indicates very clearly the importance of these two provinces from the manufacturing point of view. Indeed, it may be said that the manufacturing industries of the country are largely centred in Eastern Canada, and that this is so is shown by the following table : — Statistics OF Manufactures of all Establishments in 1905. Estab- Em- ployees. Salaries Value Provinces. lish- Capital. and of ments. Wages. Products. No. $ No. S $ Ontario . . 7,996 397,484,705 189,370 82.415.520 367.850.002 Quebec . . 4,965 255,479,662 119,008 47.160.452 219,861.648 Nova Scotia 909 75,089,191 24,237 9,284,864 32,574,323 New Brunswick 628 26,792,698 19.426 6,581,411 22,133,951 British Columbia 459 53.022,033 23.748 11.413,315 38,288,378 Manitoba 354 27.517.297 10,333 5,909,791 28,155,732 Alberta . . 120 5.545,821 2,045 1,167,107 5,116,782 Prince Edward I. 285 1,680.541 2,919 445,676 1.851.615 Saskatchewan . . 80 3.973.075 1,444 721.875 2,520.172 Taking the various groups of industries, it will be found that the value of products under the heading of " food products " is highest, being 172,017,002 dollars in 1905, and the number of estabhshments is also the largest. Of the sum mentioned 56,703,269 dollars is represented by the flour and grist milling industry, which is a great and rapidly expanding one. A leading firm in the business claims to have a daily capacity of 17,500 barrels (196 lbs.) of flour with a total elevator capacity of 5,800,000 bushels. Another concern has a daily capacity of 21,000 bags. Other milhng companies which have been established more recently are prepared to operate on a large scale, while the number of similar concerns is increasing as the new agricultural areas are being opened up throughout Western Canada. Next in order of importance comes the making of cheese and butter. The pioneer cheese factory promoter was Mr, Harvey Farrington, who started in Oxford county, Ontario, in 1864. His example was soon copied in the central part of the province, and a little later on in 427 THE DOMINION OF CASADA the more eastern sections. In Quebec the first factory was started at Durham, ^lissisquoi county in about 1865, but httle progress was made in the industry in Quebec until after the year 1880. \\~hile the bulk of cheese and butter is produced in Ontario and Quebec, a good deal of attention is now being devoted to daiiying in the Maritime pro\"inces, and there has also been a gratifying development in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. The methods of manufacture adopted in the very- numerous cheese factories and creameries, and also by individual farmers have been vastly improved as the result of facihties pro\"ided by the Dominion and Pro- vincial govenunents for gi\'ing instruction in the most approved style of manufacture, storage and transpor- tation. The establishment of cream-gathering creameries, central establishments whose operations can be made to cover a large area, has enabled many districts to take up buttermaking when perhaps, owing to hmited milk production, a cheese factor\* could not be adequately supported. A trade of great importance, and to the province of British Columbia in particular, is the canning of salmon for export. The pack each year is enormous, and the introduction of machinery of late has been a marked feature. It has been said that one might visit a good many factories or similar institutions in any part of the world without finding such an array of machinery- as in the British Colimibian canneries. The salmon are taken from the boats by a huge conveyer to the inside of the building where they are placed in a machine fitted with an intricate arrangement of kiuves and cutters by which thousands of fish are dealt with hourly. The other machinery used in the process has been so perfected that it may now be claimed that after the fish leaves the boat all handling of it ends. 428 CANNING FACTORIES The business of canning lobsters is carried on princi- pally in Nova Scotia, where there are 236 licensed can- neries, Prince Edward Island, 203 ; New Brunswick, 190 ; and Quebec, 94. As a commercial commodity the lobster occupies the first place in the fisheries of the Maritime provinces ; in 1907 there were some 8,660,550 lbs. preserved. Many factories where the canning of fruits, vegetables and meat is extensively carried on have been established, the majority being in the province of Ontario. Large quantities of apples, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, pears and plums, as well as tomatoes, beans, Indian com and other vegetables are grown for packing purposes, and the goods are exported to many distant markets. Slaughtering and meat-packing, and sugar-refining, are other leading industries imder the same heading of " food products." The Canadian lumber industry ranks second as regards the value of products which amounted, in 1905, to 109,500,970 doUars, and it employs the largest number of wage-earners (77,968). The export of forest products at the time of Confederation amounted to about thirty- five per cent, of the total, and the industry has aU along been one of the greatest value and importance to the coimtry. Factories for the manufacture of household, school and office furniture, organs, pianos, mouldings, doors, sashes, blinds, woodenware, and many other classes of goods into which lumber enters, have been established in the different provinces, and the machinery employed is of a varied and ingenious character. For the pro- duction of wood pulp, chemical and mechanical, there are twenty-two factories with a total capital of 11,164,768. The manufacture of carriages and waggons, railway cars and other vehicles is carried on extensively and is an industry which is bound to assume greater importance in the immediate future. 429 : : Mixiox OF caxai - ^\>. 4oC' mess ^sst ssssL. rmils iiL ntmnfe j[^Rer us JL ^lovs. Scotia, as: nr QteSesr, G¥^pe or Omnrm. tmf Tirtf ^gyrfr nr ^?iew^ ^nnswids: anr '\tffmTT7 ns Ijte :nTiij. imnnTTr oad: or 'ocmints 3v" diu DmnunuiL (jtivraiuTtviTrT: nr jctt itht sess. im 'iig- IS88 ^vas E.9^.-2l^jJS TTrtTar*^ •yfnrrT "w^ -na»fe^ rm :^ ilikrws — il.ii^t.JSl^ !:^i-fw ^ :s rhfr rpmrfr if t&e rsiwaM amscniciimi oirw Jsamg: an, tiiEr TinMf ^iwlIl 31 aumuajzon imi iie: lanseaneur fariiffrng: ipsaatnms. sa ~na.r iiL ^siuinnias jaaimrT ir irnn mtf 3EeL rras: sCdL TH her M t ip n i- e ff- It TTTgT T rhtH-ffi rnTF!-. be ■a.ipiv issnned :iiar die Iran ami sesL jumsGrr it rher rfi;^ it nay; . i jnTTR^ itt rhtf tKSt. A. ftrrym-h ir die JUmST^ 11 wrnrrr Cmacaail TnticPTS^ &a2He WCUL TtTHrmt rrmTai -smfr is rhe •n^TniTrn '- n iT !- at: ■ifii iirniinmi mni^nems 'It vam ms kmcf^: Stav^ tmf hg-arrrrfT ipparanis JIB tl^tr rnrrmff mr in cnnaciEsame Br tiffie manntai^niTT*- tji: li^jile- rahni-.?^, therf v venir. in IHBE. nu iiewe: dmn 55.£II ' • -rs ^nnioved:. die 'vsdiiB or die gmrinris bssii^. -^-^u- . . - -1- .jilars. iil incr^Ese of Ifi.Siff.liBH TniTnT^ r\7ier die liear^f iir 1966. Huse ini6isniES jie 'n&I ^csbiisiiBi, tTni ruaducis or die tadi- tmiES eaiicnr x ngn jeguxarimL TTie iT^pTru esnniayed: nr die HnaTrmTHTmrer or levErher ami iis nmaied pratimns i&27,flK,3S<£QiIaES m SSL ^smhiismnKiES. Hlft oi which THE DOMINION OF CANADA are devoted to turning out boots and shoes and supplies for that branch of industry. There are in addition a number of factories where saddlery, harness, bags, etc., are manufactured. In the paper and printing trade there are over 600 establishments employing some 19,000 persons. The brewing and distiUing trades and the manufacture of tobacco are centred for the most part in Ontario and Quebec, and show a large increase in the value of their products in recent years. The production of Portland cement has grown very rapidly within the past few years, the figures for 1904 were 967,172 barrels of the value of 1,338,239 dollars, while those for 1908 were 2,666,333 barrels, valued at 3,709,954 dollars. The total consumption of Portland cement in 1908, including both Canadian and imported cement, was 3,134,338 barrels (of 350 lbs, net), and the demand wiW. be an increasing one. In the year mentioned there were twenty-three operating plants with a total daily capacity of 27,500 barrels, distributed as follows : — One in Nova Scotia using blast furnace slag, one in Mani- toba making only Portland cement, three in Quebec, two in Alberta and one in British Columbia, using lime- stone and clay, and fifteen in Ontario, in the majority of which marl is used. A good deal of capital has been invested in the cement industry and other plants are in course of erection. The manufacture of carbide of calcium, metallic roofing and flooring, abrasive goods, cooperage, rubber goods, etc., are successfully carried on and in some instances the trades have assumed considerable dimensions. No reference to the manufactures of Canada would be complete without mention being made of the Canadian Manufacturers' Association, an incorporated body having its head office at Toronto and branch offices at other 432 THE MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION great business centres throughout the county, viz. : Montreal, Quebec, Winnipeg, Vancouver and Hahfax. This body watches over the special interests of the various manufacturing industries and the proceedings at its Annual Congress attract wide attention. 433 CHAPTER IV Fisheries This is one of the most important natural resources of the Dominion, providing employment for a large popula- tion, and when it is said that the value of the catch of fish (including seals) during 1908 was over 25,000,000 dollars, and that the capital invested in the industry is 15,000,000 dollars, little more is needed to show that Canada has an enormous asset within her territorial waters. With a coastline on her Atlantic provinces of over five thousand miles, some on the deeply indented and island-studded Pacific coast, not to mention the 220,000 square miles of fresh water in her many great lakes, it may be surmised that the Dominion possesses perhaps the most extensive fisheries in the world. The fishing fleet during the year mentioned consisted of 1,414 vessels and nearly 40,000 boats, and the number of men engaged was over 70,000. There are, moreover, many persons engaged in canneries and the preparation of fish for the market, and including these it is estimated that the total of those directly employed is no less than 85,000, exclusive of the coopers, net and rope makers, boat builders and others indirectly identified with the industry. Nova Scotia stands first among the provinces in the fishing industry, followed by British Columbia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Quebec and Prince Edward Island, while the value of the catch in Manitoba and the district of Keewatin, as well as in Saskatchewan, is not by any means inconsiderable. Salmon, lobsters, cod, herring, mackerel, halibut and whitefish are the leading commercial fishes, but large quantities of many other varieties are obtained. No effort is spared by the Government to assist and 434 1; p!---' ■ -r»!' MAKINI-: AND I- 1 SI 1 1' K' 1 1- S DI'.I'AUTMICNT cm (iiii.Lf^c llif iiidiishy, .111(1 .IS cvidciKc ol lliis il may he nil-Ill lolled lli.il Mil- Idl.d (-xpclidll IIK- ol llic ( oiil i(illlii|; dcp.irlm.'iil was (tvcr aS(),(M)(» (L.llais in I^K>H llif last ycai lor whit h rij^uics aif availahlf ( )l Iliis smii 'i'l!i,(i(n dolLilS I f|)l fSciils I lie aiiiolinl dcvolcd lo llic l*lolc(lloil St'lA'lCf aloilt'. Ill wllli II llinlcril vessels ale eiii| iloy''''. six i)alrolliii/; llie AllaiilK and (lull ol Si. I.awience, live on III!' Tat ilh' eoasl . one on llie (licat Lakes and oiu' on L.ikc VVmnipef^. To cncoiiiiifj;!' Ilu' developineiil ol llie se;i lish(>ri('S .'ind i\\c |)uildin^' ol lishing vossols, boiinlies ure |);iid lo Hie exieni ol aboni I(S(),()()0 dolhiis, under 1 he ;iiilliorily ol llu> lK'e|) S(';i JMsiieries Ad. The bounly lor lf)()8 w;is distri- buled 11 1 )( til I lie I ol lowing basis: — Vessels: The owners o I Die vessels eiililled lo icccivt' bouiily shall be paid one dollar |)(M' r(>|.^uslered Ion, |M"ovided however thai Ihc payinenl lo llie owner ol any one vessel shall nol exceed ei/^dily dollars, and all vessel lishenuen enlilled lo receive bounly shall be paid Ihc sum ol seven dollais, Iwenlylivc ceuls each. Hoals : iMshcrnK-n eiif.;a}^M'(l in lishiug in boals, who shall also have complied wilh Ihc re|.^Milalion eiililliu|.,' Ihem lo receive bounly, shall be paid Ihc sum ol Ihree doll. LIS, ninety cents each, and Ihc owners ol fishing boats shall be paid one dollar per boal." The number of claims |)aid during Ihe year was 13,841, an increase ol tS48 ovi'r the previous year. The work j^erformed at Ihe various Marine HiologicaJ Stations at St. Andrews (New Hrunswick), Departure Ha.y (near Nanaimo, British Columbia), .and on (n;orgian Bay (the (ireat Lakes Station), is generally acknowledged by those in a j)osition lo judge to bi' of exccn-ding v.due .md the equipmi'nl in each case is of an elaborate character. An important jihase of the work carried on is that connected wilh Ihe Ihirly-seven fish-breeding establish- ments, the aggregate ou1|miI of which during \^)0H wa.s, 435 THE DOMINION OF CANADA 682 millions of fry of various kinds. Experts have also been engaged from time to time to advise and report upon oyster culture, deep sea drifting for herring, herring curing, steam trawling, and other subjects of similar importance to the development of the industry. Among the fishes interesting to sportsmen pecuhar to the country must be mentioned the ouananiche (wah-nah-nish, or winninish), the maskinonge, the speckled or brook trout, the black bass and Black Sea bass. The first named is a member of the salmon family and is commonly spoken of as land-locked salmon. It is found in Lake St. John and the numerous rivers in the Saguenay region which Hes on the north shore of the St. Lawrence. The game qualities of the fish have been well described by a writer in the Quebec Chronicle in the following terms : — " In proportion to their size, these ouananiche are the gamest fish that swim. They are peculiar to Lake St. John and its tributaries ; but hook a respectable ouananiche in the boiling waters of the Grand Discharge, and you have entered upon a fight as different in comparison with other fish, as is that with a dark- coloured trout hooked in the heaviest rapids, compared with the half-hearted struggle of a dainty fingerhng in a crystal lake. In proportion to his avoirdupois, he can do more tackle-smashing, pound for pound, than any fish that swims. His leaps are terrific ; he can give a black bass long odds, and then show him points in high jumping." The maskinonge, though in many respects superior to the pike, bears a resemblance to that fish and often attains a weight of seventy-pounds. It is popularly known in Canada as the " lunge," and is to be found in the rivers and lakes in the western portion of Quebec, among the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence and in some of the rivers and lakes of Ontario, 436 FISH OF THE PACIFIC Sass is found in abundance in the Maritime provinces and in portions of Ontario and Quebec, and is an object of the greatest interest to the sportsmen of Eastern Canada. If the salmon fishery in the river estuaries, and the seal fishery, which is carried on some distance from the shore, are excepted, the fishing industry of the Pacific coast may be said to have received but httle attention in times gone by, although undoubtedly it offers great scope for development. More attention is being devoted to it and ^^'ith the advent of capital it will certainly reach large proportions. Halibut, black cod, candle fish (oolachan), anchovy, smelt, herring and other marketable fishes are to be found in great numbers. The outstanding feature of the British Columbia fisheries is the remarkable run of salmon which takes place annually up the rivers. These salmon belong to seven different species, the four principal being the sockeye, quinnat. cohoe and steeDiead. The first named is of the greatest economic ifnportance and is the one on which the well-kno^vn canning industry largely depends. The fish swarm to the mouths of the rivers during the spawning season in incredible numbers, and in their efforts to get up stream many of them are forced on to the banks. The industry of canning salmon for export has attained great importance and, properly regulated, will continue to contribute greatly to the wealth of the province of British Columbia. 437 "O INDEX Abercromby, General, 15 Aberdeen, Lord, 402 Abraham, Plains of, 1 7 Acadia, 3 ; French claim aban- doned, 19 Adams, John, 107 Agriculture, Department of, 386, 387, 403, 404 , Minister of, his powers and duties, 207, 386 , Colleges for, 288 ; women's institutions for, 295 ; experi- mental farms, 387 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 11 Alabama, The, 60 Alaskan Boundary Question, 117, sqq. Alberta, 79, 80, 319, 322, 329, 365, 371, 373, 407, 416, 420, 428; grain exports of, 335 ; agricul- ture, production of, 377 Southern, described, 79 sqq. " Alberta Red " wheat, 378 Albion, New, 2 Algoma Central Railway, 352 Algonquin, Indians, 4, 145 ; National Park, 367 " All Red " Service, cost on Pacific side, 355 Alluvial Gold, 406 Alverstone, Lord, 119 American, Trade restricted, 27 ; Civil War, 44 ; Civil War ended, 51 ; Immigrants, 132 ; Federa- tion of Labour, 163 Amherst, General, 15 Angell, Hon. James B., 116 AnnapoUs, 3, 10, 368, 397, 399 Anticosti, 2, 22 Antimony ores, 418 Apatite, 425 Appalachian Highlands, The, 357 Arch, Joseph, 164 Arnold, General, 23 Asbestos Industry, 423 Ashburton Treaty, 43 Assiniboia Company founded, 64 Assiniboian River, 358 Associates, The Hundred, 4 Athabasca, Landing, 79 ; River, 358, 360, 422, 423 ; Valley, 422 Atlantic Cable, 42 ; and St. Lawrence Railway, 302 ; Low- lands, 359 Austraha, and the " All Red " Steamships, 353 ; exports from, 354 ; imports to, 354 ; friendly relations of with Canada, 354 Aylesworth, A. B., K.C., 120 Bagot, Sir Charles, 117 Baldwin, Robert, 34 Banking System, 257 ; legislation affecting, 259 ; Circulation Redemption Fund, 261 ; pro- gress of, 264 Bank Act, Amended, 258, 260, 261 ; Provisions of, 262, 263 Barge Canal Scheme abandoned, 342 Batiscan, 346 Bayard, Hon. Thomas F.. 116 Biloxi, 11 Blood Indians, 149 Bond Head, Sir Francis, 34 Bonnington Falls, 376 Borden, R. L., on reciprocity within the Empire, 130 Boscawen, Admiral, 15 Bouquet, General, 21 Bourassa, Henri, on Self- Govemment, 131 Bow River, 79 ; Cascade, 366 Branch Experimental Farms, 392 Brandon, 74 Bras d'Or Lakes, 341, 368 Breda, Treaty of, 5 Brine Springs, 422 439 INDEX British American League, 45 Columbia. 43, 54, 55, 312, 317, 324, 331, 348, 358, 393, 408. 413, 428, 432.434; pro- vince described, 9 1 sqq. ; Labour legislation. 176; franchise, 217 ; Sessional Indemnity, 224 ; growth of population. 353, 373, 393 ; cUmate. 364 ; yield of gold in rivers. 407 ; Copper ore. 411 ; Salmon Canneries Act, 428 ; Fishing industry, 437 British North America Act (1867), 54-56. 192. 220, 221 ; powers conferred on Dominion Govern- ment, 225-227 ; relating to banking, 257 ; declaration on taxation, 269 ; educational provisions, 281 ■ Preferential Tariff, 272 Brown, George, 46. 47. 52 Hon., on annexation, 126 T. S., Dr., 35 Buffalo and Lake Huron Railway, 304 sqq. Building materials, 425 Burgoyne. General. 24 Burke. Edmund, on Cemadian question, 20 Cables, mileage of, 352 Cabot, John and Sebastian, 1 Calgary, 79. 84 ; development of, 186 ; advantages of, 317 Calhdres, 9 Campbell, Sir Cohn, 38 Canada, boundaries of (in 1763), 20 ; Upper. 25 ; Lower, 26 ; annexation to America de- scribed, 126 ; area, 357, 405 ; boundaries, 357 ; wheat pro- duction, 377 ; metallic ores, 419 Canadian Atlantic Railway, early history of, 307 ; passenger in- crease, 308 Independence, English views on, 44 ; Indians. 145 ; Magazme rate. 350 ; Manufac- turers' Association, 432 ; Paper, the, 108 ; rivers, characteristic of. 359 Canadian Northern Railway, 319, 333 ; charters granted to, 320 ; construction of branch hnes, 321 ; transcontinental lines, 323 ; rapid development of, 323 ; further extensions, 324 ; trou- bles in Western Canada, 326 ; progress in 1909, 327 ; great prospects for, 329 Pacific Railway authorised, 56, 59, 342, 352, 414 ; terminus of, 184 ; early difficulties. 312, 313; subsidies for, 314; prosperous record of, 315 ; land grant to, 315 ; total mileage of, 316; great irrigation block, 317 ; advantages of, 319 ; elevators owned by, 335 Canal systems, importance of; 338 ; minor systems. 34 1 Government interest in. 343 The Canal Company. 343, 344 commercial advantages, 345 routes, 341 Canning industry. The, 428, 429 Cape Breton. 10, 20. 43, 202 ; exchanged for Madras, 1 1 Island, 341, 368 Levrard, 346 Card-money. 7 Cariboo. The. 359 Carleton, General. 22. 23. 141 " Carnarvon terms," The, 57 Caroline, The. 35 Cartier, Sir George, 47; Jacques. 2 Cassiar, 359 Cattle breeding, 390 Cascade or Coast Range, The. 365 Catchment areas, 370 C^loron, Captain, claims Ohio Valley, 11 Census (1910), 178 Central Vermont Railway, 307 Chaleurs, 15 Chamberlain, Rt. Hon. J.. 116 Champlain. Samuel. 3 ; death of. 14 Lake, 14, 16, 358 Charles II. 6 Charlottetown. 22 Chatham. Earl of. 15, 23 Cheese and Butter Industry, 427 Chinook winds, 102, 363 440 INDEX Chromite, deposits of, 418 Churchill, Fort, 99 Clergy Reserves Dispute, 33 Clut, Bishop, 104 Coal, 370, 419, 420 Cobalt district, 415 Colbert, 5 Colbome, Sir John, 34 Colonial Conference (1907), 356 Columbia, Mt., 360 ; river, 358, 360 Confederation, 46, 49, 50, 51 Conference, North American, 369 Conservation, Canadian Com- mission of, 369-372 Consolidated Elevators Co., 335 Constitutional Act, 26, 200 Constitutional History, four epochs of, 198 ; establishment of regular government, 198 ; United Empire Loyalists, 199 ; local government established, 201 ; poUtical rights granted, 203 ; experience of self-govern- ment, 203 Cook, Captain, claims N.W. Coast, 24 Copper Ores, 410 ; total pro- duction of, 412 Coppermine River, 63, 358 Comwallis, defeated at Yorktown, 24 Cortereal, Caspar, 2 Corundum, 424 Croix St., 3 Crown Lands, free grants of, 239 sqq. ; payment for, 240 ; terms for acquiring provincial, 24 1 Culture of Cerealc, 391 Cumberland House, 64 Currency, primitive methods of, 264 ; Acts for coin valuation, 265 ; issue of bank notes, 266 ; in the provinces, 267 ; New Currency Act, 268 ; branch of Royal Mint established, 268 Customs, Minister of, 209 ; powers of, 276 Tariff, Provisions of, 272, 276 Taxation. The Depart- ment of Customs, 269 ; duties on goods, 270 ; seizure of goods, 271 ; British Preferential Tariff, Customs — {cont. ) 272 ; entry of goods under, 327 ; Itermediate and General Tariffs, 274; goods exempt from duty, 276, 278, 279; Franco- Canadian conventions, 277 ; asaflfecting tourists, 280 Dairy produce, demand for, 383 Dale, Sir Thomas, 4 Dalhousie, Lord, 31 Dall, Mr., 118 Dauphin, 320, 323, 327 Davidson, Smith & Co., 335 Davis, John, 2 Dawson, Dr., 118 Deep Sea Fisheries Act, 435 Deep water navigation, 340 Defence. The militia, 242 ; Royal North-West Mounted Police, 247 De Lewis, General, 18 Demands of Labour Party, 171, 172 De Monts, Sieur, 3 Denonville, Marquis of, 7 Departments of State, 206 Departure Bay, 435 Detroit, 9, II, 27 Diamond Cape, 180 D'Iberville, Lemoine, 63 Diplomacy, British, 106 sqq. District Labour Council of Toronto, formed, 166 Dominion, The, created, 54 ; Trades Congress, 163 ; Lands Act, 234 ; Atlantic Railway, 318 Franchise, 214 ; quahfi- cations for, 215 ; in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, 216; in British Columbia, 217 Dominion Lands, situation of, 227 ; townships, 228 ; home- stead regulations, 229 ; appli- cation for, 234 ; term of lease, 238 ; School lands, 239 ; Hudson's Bay Lands, 239 Dorchester, Lord (seeCarleton), 26 Douglas, Fort, 64 Drake, Sir Francis, 2 Draper, Chief Justice, 66 Drummond, The Hon. Sir Geo.. 351 441 INDEX Dual Premiership, The, 46 Duck Mountains, 70 Duffield, General, 118 Du Guast, Pierre, 3 Duquesne, Fort, 15 Duluth, 340, 346 Dundas, 374 Durham, Lord, quoted, 31 ; appointed Governor-General, 35, report on Canada, 36. Duty on goods, 270 East Kootenay, 410, 420 Echo Bay, 412 Economic minerals, 405, 424 Edmonton, 83, 84, 322, 332, 407 ; population of, 185 ; its situation, 186 ; Canadian Pacific Railway in, 325 Education, compulsory, 281 ; stages of, 281 ; schools of Ontario, 282 ; grants to public schools, 282 ; realisation of value of, 283 ; rural education, 284 ; attempts to improve rural schools, 285 ; consolidated schools, 288 ; training children, 289; agricultural colleges, 291, 292 ; women's institutions, 295 ; Universities, 295 sqq. ; Toronto University, 296 Electrical Development Company, 374 Elevators, Wheat, 394 sqq. Elgin, Lord, Governor-General, 38 Emerson, 74 Empire Elevator Co., 335 English Government established, 10 Erie, Lake, 20, 358, 399 Estevan, 76 " Evangeline, Land of," 368 Experimental Farms, 73, 387 ; distribution of, 388 ; cattle breeding at, 390 ; most attrac- tive section of, 391, 392 ; Branch Farms, 392 Falkland, Lord, 38 Family Compact, " The," 33, 35 Farming, colleges for, 288 ; in- stitutes, 294 Farms, Branch, 292 ; Experi- mental, 387-392 " Father of Confederation," The, 48 Federation, constitutional side of, 202 Federal Union, The, 203 grants for agriculture, 387 Fenian raids, question of com- pensation for, 115 Finance, Department of, 207 ; Minister of, 207 Fisher, Hon. Sydney A.. 82, 386 Fisheries, Privileges, 114 ; 370 Question, 114 sqq. Fishing Industry, 434, 436 ; Government help for, 435 Fixon, John Arthur, quoted, 81 Florida, East, 22 ; West, 22 Forbes, General, 15, 16 Forest growth. Preservation of, 370, 371 Forests and Waterways, Select Committee of, 371 Fort WilHam, 333, 393, 395 ; grain exports, 335 ; elevators at, 394 Franciscans, treatment of, 19 Frankhn, Dr., 106, 107 Eraser, Hon. Christopher, 175 River, discovered, 63 ; 348, 358 Free letter carrier service. The, 351 Free Trade adopted in England, 59 French West India Co., 6 Major General, Sir George Arthur, 248 Frobisher, Martin, 2 Frontenac, Comte de, 7, 242 fort, 8 ; capture of, 16 Fruit farming, 396 ; ground for, 397 ; utilization of space, 398 ; rapid advance in, 400 British and Australian market, 401 ; packing for, 402 Fundy, Bay of, 3, 357, 358 Fur Trade opened to all comers (1859), 65 Fushimi, Prince, 251 Gage, General, 21 Galissonniere, Governor, 11 Gait, Mr. (afterwards Sir Alex- ander), 45 " Garden of Canada," The, 367 Garry, Fort, 65 442 INDEX Gasford, Lord, Governor-General, 32 Gaspe, 15 General Tariff, 272 sqq. George III, 22 Georgian Bay, 367 Canal, 342, 376 Ghent, Treaty of, 29, 114 Gilbert Plains, 327 Glengarry, county, settlement of, 27 Gold-bearing quartz, 408, 409 Mning, 370, 401, 407 Range, The, 360, 365 Goods duty free, 278, 279 Gourlay, Robert, 33 Governor-General, authority of, 189, 192 ; power of veto, 190 ; dispute regarding, 191, 192 Graham, Inspector, on Canadian Indians, 198 Grain, number of vessels carrying, 336 Grand Junction Railway, 306 Grand Trunk Arrangements Act (1862), 303 Georgian Bay Railway, 306 Pacific Railway, begin- nings of, 329 ; Government aid for construction, 330 ; terminus of, 331 ; bright prospects for, 333, 334, 352 ■ • Pacific Town and De- velopment Co., 332 Railway, 42, 59, 301, 331, 342 ; amalgamations, 303 ; formation of, 307 ; early his- tory of, 307 ; increase of passen- gers, 308 Grant, President, 118 Graphite, 429 Great Bear Lake, 95, 358 Fish River, The, 358 Lakes, The, shipping on, 334 ; tonnage of vessels on, 335 ; navigation on, 337 ; Government interest in, 338 North Western Telegraph Co., 352 Slave Lake, The, 358 Western Railway, Amal- gamation of, 305 ; Terms of, 306 Grenada, 22 Guadeloupe, Island of, 20 Guelph, 374 Agricultural College, 288 ; departments of, 288 ; The Macdonald Hall, 289 ; admis- sion into, 290 ; Husbandry department, 290 ; research work, 291 Gulf of St. Lawrence, The, 357 Haanel, Dr. Eugene, 417 Habitant, The, 137 sqq. Haldimand, Admiral, 24 Sir Frederick, 141 Halifax, city founded, 12 ; natural harbours of, 183 ; population, 183 Halifax Gazette, first newspaper, 12 Hamilton, 332, 375 ; situation of, 181 ; fruit distributing centre, 182 and North-Westem Rail- ways, 306 Cataract Co., 374 Inlet, 96 [432 Hardware goods, Manufacture of, Hard Wheat, 70 Harvey, Sir John, 38 Heame, Samuel, 63 Henry VII, 1 Hespeler, 375 High Commissioner, The, 193 ; appointment of, 194 ; dignity of title, 195 ; duties of, 196 — — Office of, widespread in- fluence of , 197 Hinks, Sir Francis, 259 Hochelaga (Montreal), 2 Hodges, James, 310 Holburne, Admiral, 14 Homesteads, appUcation for, 229 conditions for a patent, 229 privilege of homesteading, 231 acquisition of Purchased Homesteads 232 ; payment for, 236 Horses, breeding, 384, 385 Howe, Lord, death of, 161 Hudson's Bay, 357, 358, 359, 418 Company, founded, 6 ; Treaty rights acquired, 9 ; early history, 62 ; its charter. 443 INDEX Hudson's Bay Company (cont.) 62 ; combines with N.W. Com- pany, 65 ; discussed in English Parliament, 67 ; surrender completed, 67 Huron, Lake, 336, 358. 399. 412 Indians, 4, 145 Ile-aux-Noix, 16 lie Royale, 10 Imperial Act of Union, 37 ; Free Trade Act (1846), 41 Indians, Canadian, 145 sqq. Independence, Treaty of, 106 sqq, Industrial centres, 164 ; estab- lishments, number of, 426 Ingersoll, 375 Inland Waterways Commission, The, 369 Inspection and Sale Act (1906), The, 392, 402 Divisions, Eastern and Western, 392 Inter-colonial Railway, The, its construction, 60 Intermediate Tariff, 274 ; benefit of, 278 International Monetary Confer- ence, 267 Typographical Union, 162 ; Annual Convention of, 166 ; result of, 166 Iron, 415 418; output of, 430; Pyrites, 424 [366 Isle de la Crosse, 101 ; d'Orleans, Japan and the Pacific Ocean, 353 Jay, Mr., 107 Jesuits, treatment of, 19 Jette, Sir Louis, 119 Johnson, Sir William, 16 Mr., 400 Jones, Jonas, 34 Jury, A. F., 117 Kam LOOPS, 416 Keefer, T. C. 373 Keewatin, Territory of, 98 ; elevators at, 335 ; fishing in- dustry of, 434 Kennedy, Captain, 55 Kenora, elevators at, 335 Keweena Point, 411 Kannaghunut Island, 121 444 King, Dr., 118 Kiphng, Rudyard, 361 Klondike, 407 Knights of Labour, first assem- bly of, 162 ; foundation of, 172 ; provisions of, 173 sqq. Kootenay, fruit growing at, 401 River, 376 Labour, 169 ; Parliamentary representation of, 170 ; bene- ficial influence of organised, 176; Minister of, 210 Congress, resolutions passed at, 165 Legislation, Acts passed by, 174, 175 ; measures obtained by, 176 Movement, beginning of national, 164 Organisations, 162 ; Char- tered Unions, 163; Toronto Trades Assembly, 166 ; ne- cessity for organisation, 167 Party, Motto and Object of, 167 ; elections of, 171 ; present demands of, 171 Labrador, annexed to Quebec, 22 ; 97, 98 La Barre, 7 La Cadie, 3 Lac la Biche, 101 Lachine, Massacre of, 8 ; Canal, 339 Lake Huron, 336, 412 Manitoba Railway and Canal Co., 319, 320 Michigan, area of, 334 of the Woods, 409 Superior, 314, 320, 346, 409 ; area of, 334 Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, on annexa- tion, 129; 243, 344; on Cana- dian chmate, 361 Laval University, 219 Lawrence, Governor, 12 Lawrence, St., 2, 12, 21, 41, 301 334 ; means of crossing, 307 deepening of channel, 340 source of, 346 Lead, total production of, 43 Le Moyne d'Iberville, 7 Lee, General, 51 Lethbridge, 79, 84 INDEX Letters posted in 1910, 349 ; reduction of rate within Cana- dian borders, 350 Lieutenant-Governor, The, 190 Lincohi, President, assassinated, 51 Liverpool, 393 Lodge, Senator, 120 London, 374 Lord Stanley's Act (1843), 41 Loudoun, Earl of, 14 Louis XIV, 5 Louisberg, Fort at, 10 ; captain of, 15 Loyalist Immigration, 141 Lumber Industry, 429 Lundy's Lane, 29 Lynn Canal, 11 8, 119 Macdonald, Sir John, 47 ; Sir WilUam, 284, 298; as edu- cationalist, 285 sq. Machillimackinac, Strait of, 9 Mackenzie, William Lyon, 34 ; , Hon. A., on annexation, 127 , Sir Wilham, 322, 333 Mackinac, 1 1 Macoun, Dr.,^92, 364 Magdalen Island, 22 Magnesite, 425 Manganese, 418 Manufacturing Industries, 426 ; Associations, 432, 433 Marble Bay, 411 Marine Biological Stations, 435 ; Marine and Fisheries, Ministry of, 205 Maritime Provinces, The, 367 Manitoba, Province formed, 54 ; described, 69 sqq. ; Convention, 72 ; Provincial University, 74 ; Franchise in, 216; sessional indemnity, 324 ; Colleges affiih- ated to University of, 300 ; growing importance of, 300 ; agricultural products of, 377, 393; Grain Act, 396 ; 292. 319, 320, 323, 335, 393, 423 , Lake, 358 Matapedia, Valley of, 367 Matthew, The Ship, 1 McDougall, Mr., 67 McGill University, 297 sq. McMaster University, 299 Mechanics, Lien Law, 174 ; Institutes, 289 MedicineHat, 84. 317, 421 Mercury, 419 Metcalf, Lord, Governor-General, 38 Methodist Ministers, recognition of, 33 Mica, 423 ; Mines, 424 Michigan, Lake, 358, see Lake sup. Midland Railway, 306 Military College, Royal, 246 Militia and Defence, Minister of. 208 ; history of, 242 sqq. Mines, Department of, 406 Minimum Wage, 176 Ministry of Finance. 207 ; Jus- tice, 206 ; Marine, etc., 208 Militia, etc., 208; Interior, 209 Pubhc Works, 209 ; Trade. 210 Labour, 210 Miquelon, 19 Miramichi, 15, 367 Missions, Christian, 150 Mississippi, 9, 359 Mixed Farming, 383 Mobile, 11 Molybdenite, 419 Monck, Lord, 189 Moncton, 329 Mond Nickel Company. 414 Montcalm, 14, 17 Montgomery, General, 23 Montmorency, Falls of, 366, 373 Montreal, importance of, 178 ; railway centre, 178 ; churches. 179 ; interest of, 179 ; Bank of. 258. 301. 316, 332, 339, 373 Moose Jaw. 76. 78 Morden and N.W. Railway. 322 Mulock, Sir William, 350 Murray, General, 17, 21, 22 Bay, 366 Muskoka District, 367 Muzon, Cape, 120 National Records, 403 ; Trans- continental Railway, 346 Nations, The five, 5 Navigable Rivers, 345 Navigation, system of. 346 445 INDEX Navy, The, 254 ; Defence Bill, 255 sq. Neilson, John, 34 Nelson, Dr. Wolfred, 34, 35, 37 River, 358 New Brunswick, 24, 393, 412, 415, 418, 425 ; early government of, 202 ; Crown Lands in, 240 ; Currency in, 267 ; Southern Railway, 318 New Caledonia, 54 England, 22 France, 5 — — Hamburg, 375 Ontario, 91 — — Orleans, 29 Currency Act, 268 Zealand and " All Red " Steamships, 353, 356 Newfoundland, 9, 43 Nicola Valley, 420 Nickel, 412, 414, 415 Niagara, Fort, 16; Falls, 329, 366, 374, 393, 412, 417, 431 ; River, 367 Nipigon, River, 376 North American Telegraph Company, 352 North-West Company, 7 ; found- ing of, 63, 64 Territories 54, 67, 373, 374 Norway House, 99 Nova Scotia, 3, 10, 12 ; provincial government in 1713, 202 ; Crown Lands in, 240 ; currency, 267 ; education, 281 ; Mac- donald centres in, 286 ; agri- cultural college, 291 ; dairy products, 383 ; gold-bearing rocks, 409 ; Coal production, 421 ; fisheries, 434 Oat Crops, 378 O'Donoghue, D. J., first Labour representative, 170 Ogilvie Flour Mills Co., 335 Ohio, The, 11, 21 Okanagan Valley, 401 Omineca District, 410 Ontario. Lake, 14, 180, 181, 358, 359 ; Province described, 87 sqq. ; currency, 267 ; com- pulsory education, 281 ; Ontario — {cont.) agricultural college, 288 ; iron ore deposits, 328 ; fruit culture, 390 ; silver ores, 410 ; copper mines, 411 ; salt production, 423 ; fisheries, 434 ; chmate described, 362 ; other references to, 323, 326, 373, 376, 393, 408, 412, 417, 420, 422, 432 , New, 362 Power Company, The, 374 , sq. Oswald, Richard, 107 Oswego, Fort, 14 Ottawa, 53, 165, 182, 183 ; Royal Mint, 268 ; University, 299 ; River, 358, 367, 376 ; ex- perimental farming, 389 " Our Lady of the Snows," 361 Ozark Mountains, The, 359 Pacific Ocean and " All Red " Steamships, 353 Packing Fruit, Method of, 404 Page, General, 21 Paper Trade, 432 Papineau, Mr., 31, 34; sentenced to transportation, 37 Paris, Treaty of, 19, 20 Parliament, Labour representa- tives in, 171 ; Departments of State, 206 ; Prime Minister 206 ; Minister of Justice, 206 Department of Finance, 207 Minister of Agriculture, 207 Secretary of State, 208 ; other ministerial of&ces, 209, 210 ; The Cabinet, 210 ; conventions binding, 211 ; appointment of senators, 212 ; The Speaker, 213 ; House of Commons, 213 ; its membership, 213 ; The Dominion Franchise, 214 ; The Sergeant-at-Arms, 217 ; dissolution of, 218 ; method of voting, 218 ; Oath of Alle- giance, 219 ; strict laws for prevention of bribery, 219 ; powers of local government, 220 ; payment of members, 223 ; sessional indemnity, 224 Passamaquoddy Bay, 3 Patterson, Governor, 22 Peace River, The, 358 Territory, 100 sqq.; 103 446 INDEX Pennsylvania, 21 Pepperell, Colonel, besieges Louisburg, 10 Petroleum and natural gases, 421 Phips, Sir William, 8 Pig iron, output of, 430 Pitt, William. Earl of Chatham, 15,23 Platinum, 419 Pontgrave, 3 Pontiac's War, 21 Population, increase of, 168 Port Arthur, 320, 327 ; grain exports of, 335 ; wheat ele- vators, 393, 394 Hope, 307 Huron, 309. 311 Union, 307 Portage la Loche. 99 Prairie, 74 Portland Canal, 120 Cement, production of, 432 (Oregon) Exhibition, 80 Postal Service ; Offices, number of, 349 ; revenue and expenditure, 349 ; postal rates, 349 ; Savings Bank, 349 ; Canada admitted to Postal Union, 350; rate lowered, 350 ; rates between Canada and U.S.A., 351 ; improvements, 351 Prairie Provinces, The, described, 85 sqq., 359, 360; climate, 363; scenery, 365 Preston, 374 Prideaux, General, 16 Prince Albert, 78 ; C.P. Railway in, 325 Edward Island, 15 ; early administration of. 203 ; 241, 393 Rupert's Land, 6 Printing Trade, 432 Provincial Lands, 241 Legislature, 220 sqq. Workmen's Association, 164 PubUc Lands, Division of, 227 Works, Ministry of, 209 Purchased Homesteads, entry for. 235 ; payment for. 236 Putman, Hon. William, L., 116 Qu'Appelle River, 74 Quebec, founding of, 3 ; assault of, 8, 10. 16; siege, 17; province Quebec — {cont.) dehmited, 20 ; described, 137 sqq. ; Act, 22, 199 ; French characteristics, 179; Sessional indemnity in, 224 ; Crown Lands in, 240 ; currency in, 267 ; Macdonald College at, 292 ; climate of, 362 ; gold dredging in, 408 ; silver found in. 410 ; other references to, 328, 332, 366, 373, 393, 412, 415, 417. 420, 425, 428, 431 Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park, 367 Queen's College University, 298 Queenstown, defeat of Americans at, 29 Railway Era, The, 58-61 ; Railways, Act relating to, 301 anialgamations, 301, 305 Atlantic and St. Lawrence, 302 Grand Trunk Arrangements Act (1862), 303; consohdation of six lines, 306 ; Canadian Pacific, 312 ; Ministry of, 322 ; Grand Trunk Pacific, 329 Rainy Lake, 409 Rebellion Losses Bill, 42 Reciprocity Treatv (1854), 41 ; abrogated (1866), 47; 52, 114 " Red Fife " Wheat, 379 Red River Settlement, 64 5^. 347, 358, 359 Regina, Agricultural Department at, 77, 393 Renfrew, 424 Reserves, 146 Restigouche Valley, 367 " Returned Canadians," 135 Reversible Falls, The, 184 Richeheu, Cardinal, 4 ; River, 358 Rideau Canal, 341 Riding Mountains, 70 Riviere du Loup, 366 Robertson, Dr. J. W., 284 sq. Roberval, Sieur de, 2 Robinson, Beverley, Chief Justice, 34 Roche, Marquis de la, 2 Rock Lake, 412 Rocky Mountains, The, 58, 312, 314, 315, 358, 360, 365, 371 447 INDEX Rockingham Administration, The, 106 Rodney, Lord, defeats French Fleet, 108 Rondeau Provincial Park, 367 Root, Senator, 120 Ross, General, 29 Rossland, 411 Royal, Mount, 178 Military College, 246 ; N.W. Mounted Police, 247-254 Rural education, 284 sqq. Russell, Lord John, and Canadian politics, 32 Russian Treaty (1825), 115 Ryerson, Egerton, 34 Sable Island, 2 Saguenay River, 357, 366 St. Clair Tunnel, 311 sqq.; river, 423 — Croix, 3 — Eugene Lead Mine, 413 — John, Port of, 2, 184 ; River, 16, 307, 332, 347, 358. 374 ; Lake, 358 — Lawrence, see Lawrence, St., sup. — Mary, River, 336 — Maurice, River, 358, 373 — Peter's Canal, 341 — Pierre, 19 — Thomas, 374 Salmon, Canning industry, 428 ; fishing, 437 Salt industry, 422 San Francisco, 356 Saratoga, Burgoyne defeated at, 24 Samia, 311 Saskatchewan, 70, 216, 319, 323, 335, 37 1 . 373, 377, 407, 420, 428 ; River, fort on, 64 ; district described, 74 sqq. ; 347. 358, 360, 371 Saskatoon, 78 Sault Ste Marie, 11, 336, 376; Canal, 417 Secretary of State, duties of, 208 Seed-Growers' Association, 286 Seigniors, The, 39. 137 sqq. Selkirk, Lord, 64 ; Range, 359, 365 Semple, Governor, 64 School Lands, administration of, 238, sq. Schools for Indians, 150 Senators, appointment of, 212 Shawinigan Falls, The, 373 Sheep, total number of, 385 ; enterprise in farming, 386 " Sheet Price," 395 Shelbume, Lord, 106 Shirley, Governor, 10, 12 Shoal, Lake, 409 Sifton, The Hon. CUfiord, 370, 372 Silver, 409 Simcoe, Lieut.-Govemor, 26 Sitclan Island, 121 Smith, Goldwin, 126 Social Life, 152, sqq. Sociahsm, little likelihood of, 169 " Soo " Line, 74, 76 South Kootenay Pass, 421 Spanish River, 376 Succession, War of, 9 Sport, 160 Spray River, The, 366 Stadacona (Quebec), 2 Stanley Park, 187 State, Departments of, 206 Steel, total output, 430, 431 Stevenson, Robert, 59 Stewart River, 407 Strachan, John, first Bishop of Upper Canada, 34 Strachey, Sir Henry, 112 Stratford, 374 Strathcona, seat of Alberta University, 84 ; thriving busi- ness centre, 86 Trust, objects of, 246 Strathcona, Lord, Governor of Hudson's Bay Co., 68, 124, 298 Sulpician Order, treatment of, 19 Summit Range, The, 360 Superior, Lake, 20, 314, 320, 346, 358, 373, 409; dimensions of, 334 Sydney, 355, 356 Tadousac, 366 Tariff, The, 43, 45 448 INDEX Telegraph Sj'^stems, 352 Telephone System, Government, 155 Temiskaming and N. Ontario Railway, 352 Templeton, 424 Texada Island, 414 Thirty Thousand Islands, The, 367 Thompson, David, discovers and names Thompson River, 63 , Sir John, on annexation, 128 Thomson, Poulett, Lord Syden- ham, Governor-General, 38 Thousand Islands, The, 367 Three Rivers, District of, 21 Ticonderoga, 1 5 Tin, 419 Toronto, capital of Upper Canada, 27 ; captured by Americans, 29 ; Labour Assemblies, 164 ; Trades Assembly, 166 ; centre of British-Canadian influence, 180 building enterprise, 181 educational centre, 181 Canadian Pacific Railway, 325 88, 374 and Nipissing Railway, 306 - and Ottawa Railway, 306 , University of, 295-297 Townshend, Lord, 1 10 " Track Price," 395 Trade and Commerce, Ministry of, duties and powers of, 210 and Labour Congress, 167 Trades Assembly, failure of, 116 Transformer Stations, 374 Transmission Lines, 374 Transportation, question of, 346 Trent affair. The, 60 ; Canal, 341 Tundra region, The, 360 Tupper, Sir Charles, 53, 116; on annexation, 129 Turner, Senator, 120 Tyng, Captain, 10 Ungava, 96 sqq. Union Act, The, result of, 201 Unionism, spread of, 162 United Empire LoyaUsts, 25, 144, 199 States, Declaration of War, 27 ; importance of Pacific Ocean to, 353 United Wage Earners, 163 Universities, two principal, 295 Utrecht, Treaty of, 9 Vancouver, picturesqueness of, 187; developed trade, 187; 331 Island, 54-56 ; climate, 92 ; 414, 416, 420 Vaudreuil, Governor, 16, 18 Vergennes, M. de, 112 VermiUon, 327 Victoria, Bridge, 59. 309-311 City, its value as a port, 188 ; Railway, 306; University, 297 Virginia, II, 21 Vologda, Province, a comparison, 104 Wabash Railroad, 317 Wages for Labour, 168 Walker, Sir Hovenden, 9 Washington, taking of, 29 ; Treaty (1871), 115 Water, transport, 346 ; Ways, System of, 338 ; powers, 372- 376 Waterloo, 375 Welland Canal, 340 West Kootenay, 408, 410 Western, Company, 11 ; federa- tion of Miners, 164 ; Union Company, 352 Weybum, 76 Wheat, yield of, 70 ; cost of raising, 70 ; productiveness in, 377 ; " Alberta Red," 378 ; percentage of supply, 380 ; total crops, 381 ; elevators, 393 sq. ; inspection of, 394 ; Manitoba Grain Act, 394 Whitby, Port Perry and Lindsey Railway, 306 WilUam Henry, Fort, 14 Wilson, Inspector, on Blood Indians, 149 Winnipeg, Dairy School at, 7 development of, 73 sq., 184 as educational centre, 185 improvements in, 185 ; Mani- toba College at, 292 ; Great Northern Railway of, 320; 317, 322, 325, 329, 332, 358, 376. 393, 394 ; Lake, 69. 358 449 INDEX Winnipegosis, Lake, 69, 358 Wolfe, General, 15 ; takes Quebec, 17 Woman, The Canadian, 159 Woodland Belt, 359 Woods, Lake of the, 358 Woodstock, 374 Workman's Compensation Act, 174 Works, Ministry of, 344 Yellow Cross, 76 Yoho VaUey, The, 366 Yukon, Gold mining at, 406, 408; Gold ConsoUdated Company, 406 ; River, 358, 373 Zavitz, Professor, 291 Zinc. 413 sq. THE END Press of Isaac Pitman & Sons, Bath, England. (2H7) LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 017 299 553 6 ''-''"■''■ ■■''''■"■"