t ■N .« — ru '^■^ - U'^W t i !W: mm u m ■,ift- K- if. ■i: ■|j;rf;^fe. I! LIBRARY STATES BUREAU OF DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. iN, Entry Catalogue Number aass_ LB if) 5 1 Book .B \^a Intwinitional €timcitmx Btxm EDITED BY WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D. VoLUJfi: VI, INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. Edited by W. T. Harris. IT is proposed to publish, under the above title, a library for teachers and school managers, and text-books for normal classes. The aim will be to provide works of a useful practical character in the broadest sense. The following conspectus will show the ground to be covered by the series: I.— History of JEclucation. (a.) Original systems as ex- pounded by their founders, (b.) Critical histories which set forth the customs of the past and point out their advantages and defects, explain ing the grounds of their adoption, and also of their final disuse. II. — Educational Criticisnio (a.) The noteworthy arraign ments which educational reformers have put forth against existing syc terns : these compose the classics of pedagogy, (b.) The critical histories above mentioned. III.— Systematic Treatises on the Theory of Edu- cation, (a.) Works written from the historical standpoint; these, for the most part, show a tendency to justify the traditional course of study and to defend the prevailing methods of instruction, (b.) Works written from critical standpoints, and to a greater or less degree revolu- tionary in their tendency. IV.— The Art of Education. (a.) Works on instruction and discipline, and the practical details of the school-room, (b.) Works on the organization and supervision of schools. Practical insight into the educational methods in vogue can not be attained without a knowledge of the process by which they have come to be established. For tliis reason it is proposed to give special prominence to the history of the systems that have prevailed. Again, since history is incompetent to furnish the ideal of the future, it is necessary to devote large space to works of educational criticism. Criticism is the purifying process by which ideals arc rendered clear and potent, so that progress becomes possible. History and criticism combined make possible a theory of the whole. For, with an ideal toward which the entire movement tends, and an ac- count of the phases that have appeared in time, the connected develop- ment of the whole can be shown, and all united into one system. Lastly, after the science, comes the practice. The art of education is treated in special works devoted to the devices and technical details use- ful in the school-room. It is believed that the teacher does not need authority so much as in sight in matters of education. When he understands the theory of edu- cation and the history of its growth, and has matured his own point of view by careful study of the critical literature of education, then he is competent to select or invent such practical devices as are best adapted to his own wants. The series will contain works from European as well as American authors, and will be under the editorship of W. T. Harris, A M., LL. D. Vol. I. The Philosophy of Education. By Johann Karl Fried- BIOH EOSENKRANZ. $1.50. Vol. II. A History of Education. By Professor F. V. N. Painter, of Eoanoke, Virginia. $1.50. Vol. III. The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities. With a Survey of Mediaeval Education. By S. S. Laurie, LL. D., Professor of the Institutes and History of Education in the University of Edinburgh. $1.50. Vol. IV. The Ventilation and Warming of School Buildings. By Gilbert B. Morrison, Teacher of Physics and Chemistry in Kan- sas City High School. 75 cents. Vol. V. The Education of Man. By Fkiedrich Froebel. Trans- lated from the German and annotated by Vi. N. Hailmann, Superin- tendent of Public Schools at La Porte, Indiana. $1.50. Vol. VI. Elementary Psychology and Education. By Joseph Baldwin, Principal of the Sam Houston State Normal School, Hunts- ville, Texas. $1.50. Vol. VII. The Senses and the Will. Observations concerning the Mental Development of the Human Being in the First Years of Life. By W. Preyer, Professor of Physiology in Jena. Translated from the original German, by H. W. Brown, Teacher in the State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. Part I of The Mind of the Child. $1.50. Vol. VIII. Memory. What it is and how to improve it. By David Kay, F. E. G. S. $1.50. Vol. IX. The Development of the Intellect. Observations con- cerning the Mental Development of the Human Being in the First Years of Life. By W. Preyer, Professor of Physiology in Jena. Translated from the original German, by H. W. I3rown, Teacher in the State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. Part II of The Mind of the Child. $1.50. Vol. X. How to Study Geography. By Francis W. Parker. Prepared for the Professional Training Class of the Cook County Nor- mal School. $1.50. Vol. XL Education in the United States. Its History from the Earliest Settlements. By Eichard G. Boone, A. M., Professor of Pedagogy in Indiana University. $1.50. Vol. XII. European Schools. Or what I saw in the Schools of Ger- many, France, Austria, and Switzerland. By L. E. Klemm, Ph. D., Author of " Chips from a Teacher's Workshop," and numerous school- books. $2.00. Vol. XIIL Practical Hints for the Teachers of Public Schools. By George Howland, Superintendent of the Chicago Schools. $1.00. Vol. XIV. Pestalozzi : His Life and Work. By Eoger De Guimps. Authorized translation from the second French edition, by J. Eussell, B. A., Assistant Master in University College School, London. With an Introduction by Eev. E. H. Quick, M. A. Vol. XV. School Supervision. By J, L. Pickard, LL. D. New York: D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES ELEMEI^TARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION^ A TEXT-BOOK FOR HIGH SCHOOLS, NORMAL SCHOOLS, NORMAL INSTITUTES, AND READING CIRCLES, AND A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS y 3 BY JOSEPH BALDWIN PRINCIPAL OF THE SAM HOUSTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, HUNTSVILLE. TEXAS ; AUTHOR OF ''A RT OF SC HOOL MANAGEMENT" ;_u -i-" N\ NEW YORK D. APPLETONT AND COMPANY 1890. -2- Copyright, 1887, By D, APPLETON AND COBIPANY. By transfer JUL 13 wy DEDICATED TO THE GREAT BROTHERHOOD OF TEACHERS. p (72 O I— ( o o o Elebientary Psychology AND Education. Volume I. (Volume VI., I?it. Ed. Ser.) Applied Psychology AND Teaching. Volume III. (In prepara- tion.) The Art op School Management. Volume II. I. — Attention, Instinct, Sensation. II. — The Perceptive Powers. III. — Tlie Representative Powers. IV.— The Thought-Powers. v.— The Emotions. VI.— The Will-Powers. I. — Educational Instrumentalities. II. — School Organization. III. — School Government. IV. — Courses of Study and Programmes. V. — Study and Teaching. VI. — Class Management. VII, — Examinations, Records, and Gradua- tion. VIII. — Professional Education. IX. — System and Progress in Education. X. — Graded Schools. I. — Education of the Perceptive Powers. II. — Education of the Representative Pow- ers. Education of the Thought-Powers. \ III.— IV. V. I VI. -Education of the Emotions. -Education of the Will-Powers. -Art of Teaching. EDITOE'S PEEFACE. It is often said that the teacher needs to know psy- chology because it is his business to educate the mind. " He ought to understand the nature of the being that he is trying to unfold and perfect." This position seems so obvious that all assent to it, and yet it must be admitted that teachers, as a class, are not specially devoted to the study of psychology. It is true, however, that they are constantly occupied with a critical observation of the mind in a few of its aspects ; for this is necessary in order to manage a school successfully. The teacher must observe the pupil's grasp of the topic of his lesson. He must in- terpret the pupil's conduct by such knowledge as he can attain of his disposition and the spirit of his inten- tions. He must assign lessons of a length suited to the mental capacities which he knows his pupils to possess ; he must grade them in classes according to his knowl- edge of those capacities. He must arrange a course of study in accordance with the laws of mental development. If the teacher knows nothing of psychology as a science he must copy in detail the methods of others, and rely on his general knowledge of human nature viii ' EDITOR'S PREFACE. derived from experience. Like all uneducated work- men lie may succeed, after a sort, by following tradi- tion, unaided by science ; but he will not develop be- yond a narrow degree of perfection in details. He will have no insight into the general relations of his work. He can not safely deviate from routine, nor venture to criticise his own work or the work of others. If he has learned good models he may pass for a good teacher ; if he has learned bad ones he is unable to perceive their defects. Possessing no scientific knowledge of the mind, he can not lift himself above the details of his art to the principles which govern them, and become him- self an original source of directive energy. Some knowledge of the mind every successful teacher must have, although in so many cases it is unsystematic and consequently unscientific. Ordinary experience differs from science through its lack of com- pleteness and consistency. It is fragmentary and dis- connected. Science compensates the inequalities of individual experience by re-enforcing it with the aggre- gate of all other experience. Psychology aims to inventory the facts of mind and to arrange them systematically, so that each fact may help to explain all other facts, and in its turn be ex- plained by all. It is confessed that psychology has hitherto borne the reputation of being the dry est and least interesting of all the sciences. This is partly due to the circum- stance that an inventory of facts of consciousness con- tains only what is already familiar to us in the frag- mentary form of experience. It seems a waste of time to go over and collect with so much painstaking what EDITOR'S PREFACE. ix is already kIlO^VIl. Other sciences collect fresh and in- teresting facts. Psychology by introspection seems to the beginner to be a sterile occupation, deahng mth what is trite and stale. But this is not found to be so by the adept. Introspection begins with this dull process of in- ventorizing the already familiar facts of mind, but it forthwith proceeds to the second and higher process of reflecting on the general form of our mental processes. It then begins to enter a field of generalization entirely unknown to ordinary consciousness and full of astonish- ing results. By reflecting on the forms of mental ac- tivity we come, for the first time, to see the real nature of mind. We begin to discern those most important of all fruits of human knowledge — the truths that sit supreme as directive powers on the throne of life — the truths of God, Freedom, and Immortality. But we are met here by an objection. We are re- minded that there are two hostile schools of psychology. There is one founded upon physiology which attempts to explain mind as a function of the body. It con- demns introspection, and teaches that the soul has no subsistence apart from the body. All individuality is corporeal. The other school, founded on introspection, contends that true individuality is not corporeal by any possibiHty. The corporeal is moved by external forces, and is divisible, changeable, and perishable, while self- active energy which is the substance of mind is incor- poreal and the owner of all individuality. It denies, moreover, that any really psychical facts may be discov- ered by external observation — by taste, smell, touch, hearing, or seeing. X EDITOR'S PREFACE. Here we must take notice of the broad distinction that exists between external and internal observation. There are two distinct and strongly-marked attitudes of mind. The first is directed outward to the facts in space, and may be called objective perception or sense- perception. Its characteristic is found in the circum- stance that it always sees things as related to environ- ments : To it all things are dependent and relative. The other attitude of mind is directed within, and beholds the self -activities of the mind itself. Self -ac- tivity is essentially diUerent from relative and depend- ent being, because it does not receive its determinations from its environment, but originates them itself, in the form of feelings, volitions, and thoughts. All objects of introspection belong to one of these three classes, and every possible feeling, idea, or volition, is a deter- mination of an activity which is, so to speak, polarized into subject and object. Each feeling, idea, or volition, is the product of an energy which is both subject and object. It is said to be self-deteiTiained. While exter- nal observation sees its object as separated into thing and environment, or effect and cause, internal observa- tion sees its object as a unity containing both effect and cause in one. It is what Spinoza called causa sui. This is true individuality — called by Aristotle " entele- chy," and by Leibnitz the " Monad." Be this as it may, all must concede that no form of external experience applies or can apply to internal ex- perience ; our apparatus for observing material objects can not perceive feelings or thoughts. This being so, it is evident that physiological psychology can make no progress whatever without introspection. It is limited EDITOR'S PREFACE. xi to noting the relation of concomitance and succession between two orders of observation — the objects of tlie one being movements and changes of organic matter, and the objects of the other being feelings, ideas, and volitions. The progress of this science will be marked by a continually approximating accuracy in locating and defining physiological functions. There has been recognized from the first an intercon- nection between mind and the body. Decapitation has always been recognized as a means of disconnecting the mind from the body. Alcohol, tobacco, coffee, opium, and many other drugs have been used since prehistoric times for their supposed mental effects — effects nega- tive rather than positive, as they dull the action of the nerves of sensation, or dimmish the mental control over the nerves of motion, and thereby allay the pain of weari- ness, or the worry that arises from a vivid consciousness of the body and the outer world. Physiology is engaged in determining more precisely the location of these ef- fects and their extent. Although it will not discover how the corporeal becomes mental, or how the external becomes internal, for the reason that objective experience can never perceive thoughts and f eehngs ; yet it will yield rich results m all departments wherein the mind uses the body as an instrument to gain knowledge, or to execute its volitions. Insanity, idiocy, the use and abuse of the five organs of sense, all that relates to the proper care of the body; the influence of age, sex, climate, race ; the phenomena of sleep, dreams, somnambulism, catalepsy; whatever relates to these and the hke im- portant topics, will receive elucidation. The negative conditions of mental unfolding will be defined. But xii EDITOR'S PREFACE. that which is an original energy can not be explained by its environment, because it is independent. Nor is it strictly speaking correlated to the body, although it uses it in sense-perception and in volition as an instru- ment of communication with the outer world. This work of Professor Baldwin is intended by its author expressly for elementary classes. It seeks to aid them, by many happy devices, in making an inven- tory of the mental processes and in arranging the items methodically. It aims to familiarize those commencing the study with the technical nomenclature and useful discriminations used by writers of our day in treating this theme. Above all, it expects to teach the pupil how to attain the second order of observation ; how to pass from the attitude of mind, which observes external things, to that attitude of mind which observes internal activities. To make this transition is to acquire a most important power of thought. To think things and en- vironments is to think the phenomenal, the transient, and variable ; to think self-activity is to think the noumenal, the true individuality, and what is divine in human nature. Although the author has purposely omitted from this work the subtle and profound discussions which arise in advanced psychology, he has done it in the interest of the beginners for whom the book is made. The author is well assured that, once drawn into the study of mind and well disciplined in the habit of internal observation, it is only a matter of time with the pupil when he shall arrive at all the precious arcana of psychology. W. T. Harkis. Concord, August^ 1887. AUTHOE^S PEEFACE. Subject-lessons, or mind-lessons, are as necessary as object-lessons. Object-lessons give a direct knowl- edge of the matter-world, while subject-lessons give a direct knowledge of the mind-world. A knowledge of self is more important than a knowledge of things. Youth is the time for siihject-lessons. A youth who can learn algebra and physiology and rhetoric is ready for Elementary Psychology. The third year of the high-school course and the second year of the nor- mal-school course are considered pre-eminently fitting periods for subject-lessons. A subject-lesson text-hooh is needed. Our literature is rich in psychologies adapted to colleges and to senior classes in our normal schools, but is destitute of a text- book suitable for our high- schools and for the lower classes in our normal schools. The want of such a text- book is widely felt. The author has given the best years of his life to the effort to prepare such a text- book, and thus meet this want. Each lesson here sub- mitted has been given scores of times to large classes, with highly satisfactory results. While it is true that subject-lessons, like object-lessons, must be largely oral, yet a suitable text-book is deemed indispensable. An Elementary Psychology deals with the jplain xiv AUTHOR'S PREFACE. facts of mind. The advanced student wishes to know what Locke and Keid thought, what Kant and Hamil- ton taught, and what McCosh and Wundt said ; but tlie discussion of these contlicting views, which constitutes so large a part of our text-books on psychology, only confuses and discourages beginners. An incomparably better plan, it is thought, is to lead the learner to look into his own mind, to analyze his own mental acts, to discover for himself the capabilities of the soul. The subject-lessons are thus made the counterpart of object- lessons. The author believes that the time has come when we can make our text-books for beginners in men- tal science just as we make our elementary arithmetics and chemistries, without reference to the history of the science or the peculiar views of authors. A simple and exhaustive nomenclature is a desidera- tum in m^ental science. The time has come, it is be- lieved, to reject the pedantic and misleading terms of a crude and antiquated psychology. Fortunately, few unfamiliar terms are now necessary. Every one has some knowledge of mind. However illiterate, each man has his own crude psychology. So far as correct, the language of the people is best. By using the language of literature and life. Sully, Hopkins, Porter, McCosh, and others have done much to popularize mental sci- ence. It seems fitting in an elementary work to still further popularize the subject. The constant effort has heen to present each point with sunlight clearness. Short sentences, in plain Anglo-Saxon, is the rule. Object-lessons, bold type, out- lines, study-hints, examples to work out, original analy- ses, original definitions, original applications, and helpful AUTHOR'S PREFACE. XV illustrations are called into constant requisition. Men- tal science, it is claimed, may be as fully illustrated as physical science. Tlie student is taught to observe and analyze the operations of his own mind ; to look within and describe what he sees going on. Thus he becomes an observer, an original investigator. He brings to the study of the soul the same methods that Agassiz apphed with such wonderful effect to the study of the natural sciences. When this is done the student is. interested, and the study of Psychology becomes as easy and fas- cinating as that of Botany or Zoology. Leading the learner to huild on his own exjperience is the fundamental idea in this wor'k. He is led to ob- serve the workings of his own mind, to analyze his own mental acts, and to compare the recorded or observed mental acts of others with his own. Thus he is enabled to make definitions, to discover laws, and to apply prin- ciples. The facts of mind are our common heritage. The ways of presenting these facts are individual. It gives the author special pleasure to acknowledge his indebt- edness to the many excellent works on mental science and education. Wherever possible, acknowledgment is made in the body of the work ; but, in numerous cases, this has been impracticable. For a third of a century the matter of the volume has been presented in lectures to normal classes and normal institutes. The endeavor to completely adapt the matter and the method to the wants of beginners, has led to many changes in the lan- guage, so that authors, even in direct quotations, must not be held strictly responsible for the form in which their thoughts here appear. xvi AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Applied Psychology and teaching. The original purpose was to combine Elementary and Applied Psy- chology, but it is now thought best to present A]Dplied Psychology in a separate volume. Two reasons led to this change : 1. The combined volume would have been inconveniently large. Brief outlines are excellent for reviews, but are useless for beginners. 2. Many students will wish to study Elementary Psychology who will not care to study Applied Psychology. Then, in normal schools, Elementary Psychology is studied during the second year, while Applied Psychology is not taken up before the third or fourth years. Besides, it became evident that the latter subject could be treated far more satisfactorily in a separate volume. The hest, rather than the original^ has heen the aim. Each true workman builds on the achievements of the race, and merely adds his mite. A science is the prod- uct of innumerable minds. The plan of these lessons, however, may be claimed as in some degree original ; in fact, a new departure, both in plan and execution, was found to be a necessity in order to adapt psychology to the wants of beginners. Subject-lessons prepare the student for advanced work. As object-lessons are needful to prepare the learner to study natural science, so subject-lessons are necessary to prepare the student to understand advanced psychologies, and to read with profit advanced educa- tional works. As an introductory work, this volume is submitted. The author earnestly hopes that these les- sons will prove a real help to many teachers, and an in- spiration to many young people. CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. CHAPTER I. — Attention .... II. — Instinct .... III. — Important Terms examined IV. — The Sensorium V. — Sensation .... PAGE 4 15 25 35 4A PART 11. THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. VI. — Sense-Perception, or Sense-Intuition . . 59 VII. — Conscious Perception, or Self-Consciousness . 71 VIII. — NouMENAL Perception, or Noumenal Intuition 85 IX. — Perceptive Knowing — General View , . 100 PART ni. THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. X. — Memory XI. — Phantasy XII. — Imagination XIII. — Representation — General View 108 124 133 146 XVUl CONTEXTS. PART IV. THE THOUGHT POWERS. CHAPTER ^ PAOK XIV. — CONCEPTIOX 155 XT. — JUDUME^'T 171 XVI. — Reason 180 XVII. — Thought-Kn'owing — General View . . . li)o PART V, THE FEELIXGS. XVIII.— The Instincts XIX. — The Physical Feelings — The Appetites XX. — The Emotions — Egoistic Emotions XXI. — The Emotions — Altruistic Emotions XXII. — The Emotions — Truth Emotions XXIII. — The Emotions — JEsthetic Emotions . XXIV. — The Emotions — Ethical Emotions XXV. — The Emotions — General View . 15, 206 44, 207 315 231 234 240 252 PART VI. THE WILL-POWERS. XXVI. — Attention 2G4 XXVII.— Action 2GG XXVIII.— Choice 273 XXIX. — The Will- Powers — General View . . . 285 SUGGESTIOXS TO THE PEIYATE STUDENT. Many young people, teachers of common schools and others, greatly desire to study the mind, but are compelled to struggle upward without the aid of the living teacher. Each line of this work w?s written in view of helping this large and deserving class. These hints, though given directly to teachers, apply equally to others. J. Loolc within. What object-lessons are to children, sub- ject-lessons are to you. Observe the workings of your own mind, and verify each statement by your own experience. 2. Study the child. You have the key, for the child knows, feels, and wills, just as you do. Put yourself in its place. Study intently child-effort. These subject- object lessons will be in- valuable to you as well as to your pupils. 3. Hasten leisurely. You can well afford to devote a week to each chapter. Gradually the wonders of the soul-world will open to you. Select some interested friend with whom you can talk the lesson over. 4. Worh out your own definitions and illustrations. This is essential. Build on your own experience. Work out everything for yourself, just as you do in arithmetic and algebra. 5. Write the letters. Select an appreciative friend who will respond. Try to make each subject clear to this friend. Above all, tell just how the subject looks to you. Writing these letters will greatly benefit you. 6. Ton will worlc in the light. You are painfully aware that you are now liable to blunder at every step because you are ignorant of child-mind and of the laws of child-growth. As you advance, all will become clear, and you will begin to feel the inspiration of the artist. To rightly direct the development of an immortal soul is the grandest of all work. TEACHING ELE3IENTARY PSYCHOLOGY. The experienced teacher needs no suggestions, but a page from the book of experience may assist one who teaches psychol- ogy for the first time : 1. Oral lessons. I have found it necessary to give one or more oral lessons on eacli subject to prepare the student to study the lesson in the book. Then, the text needs to be supplemented by much oral work. Illustrate from students' daily work. 2. Clearness. It is marvelous how crude and confused are the psychological and educational notions of most of the persons we meet. But our stupid methods of teaching this subject are largely to blame. Here and everywhere we must build on per- sonal experience, and manage to have the student grasp fully the elementary facts of mind. The suggestions to the private student may benefit all students. 3. Reviews. Each lesson should in some way involve all the previous lessons. No other branch requires such constant reitera- tion and review. All possible combinations of the facts of mind must be woven into the warp and woof of the learner's mental economy. 4. Troiiblesome questions. Psychology touches and to some extent underlies all other departments of knowledge. Questions involving philosophy and theology and sociology can not be ig- nored. I have found it best to frankly answer these questions as best I could, avoiding alike all semblance of either dogmatism or mysticism. But no time or energy must be wasted in discuss- ing these questions. Young people will understand that snch dis- cussions belong in the advanced work. 5. Short lessons. The student enters a new field of inquiry. The terms, as w^ell as the ideas, are new. Then the learner has to learn the new art of introspection. Usually it will be best to give about three pages for a lesson. The work can thus be completed in twenty weeks. I have not been able to secure satisfactory results in a shorter period. Short book-lessons and long oral lessons is the true policy. 6. Reference lool's. A few choice volumes are indispensable. PAKT I. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. CHAPTER I.— Attention. II. — Instinct. III. — Important Terms Examinbd, IV. — The Sensorium. V. — Sensation. WAYS OF STUDYING MIND. <^- ^^ o.^-ePs,e,,,^^ '<§> J> '- - - r -^/JO; 1' ^ <■ o 3^ >^ '?» .^" The tnie psychology gathers up from every source the estab- lished facts of mind. The old, or metaphysical psychology, inclined to ignore the body ; the new, or physiological psychology, inclines to ignore the soul ; the true psychology finds in the brain and nerves the bridge between mind and matter. The theories and metaphysi- cal speculations of both the old and the new psychology disappear ; but all the established facts of mind reappear in the true psy- chology. FIRST PAPvT. INTR OB UCTOR Y LESSOXS. MIXD-STUDY AXD EDUCATION". By this is meant becoming acquainted with our- selves and developing our powers. Self-knowledge is the most valuable. '' Know thyself " is the key to wis- dom and success. Our earlier years are largely devoted to the mastery of the material world. The study of Nature interests and educates the child, but does not satisfy the youth. He begins to realize that the mind- world is even more wonderful than the matter-world. What am I ? What can 1 do ? How can I make the most of mvself \ These questions now obtnide themselves, and must be an- swered. ''Elementary Psychology and Education" will seek answers to the?e questions, or, rather, will try to lead you to tind out the answers for yourself. In your study of physical science you began with physical phenomena and worked up to physical laws. Each step forward was based on your own experience. You thus gained the keys to the accumulated experi- ence of the race. To you physical science has become an open book. You can now read with delight the works of the great scientists. 4: ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. In your study of mental science you will begin with mental phenomena and work up to mental laws. Here, too, each step will be based on your own experience. You will thus gain the keys to the treasured wisdom of the race. Mental science will become to you an open book, and you will be able to commune with the great thinkers of all ages. As attention is the condition of knowledge, it is fitting that you should begin the study of mind with the examination of this capabihty. CHAPTER I. ATTENTION. The art of learning, as well as the art of teaching, is based on the power of attention. Few problems are too difficult for the student who can concentrate upon tliem all his energies. Eight study and ti-ue teaching develop the power and the habit of complete attention. Analysis of Acts of Attention. — Attention ! Examine these crystals. You tell me that each is a cube, that some have beveled corners, and that the mineral is lead, Now examine these. You turn away from the lead crys- tals, and fix your mind on these new forms. You tell me that each is a hexagon, and that the mineral is graphite. You find that you can direct your own efforts. You can place your mind on one object, can examine it for a time, and can turn to something else. The capability of self thus to direct his efforts is called Attention. ATTEXTIOX. 5 Office of Attention. — The special work of a capabil- ity of the niind is called its office ; as, the office of memory is recalling. Self-direction, or concentration, is the office of attention. Your analysis gives you three forms of attention : 1. Self, as attention, concentrates his efforts. Ex- amine the word attend {ad, to ; tendo, I stretch). You get the idea of turaing to something and fixing all your energies upon it. You throw your powers of body and mind into the work. As the burning-glass concentrates all tlie rays of the sun upon a single point, so you concentrate all your powers upon the matter in hand. 2. Self, as attention^ j^rolongs his efforts. The prob- lem can not be solved in a moment. You bend all your energies to its mastery ; you diive out other thoughts ; you refuse to be interrupted ; you hold yourself to the work. After hours of mighty effort, you exclaim, " I have found it ! " This is study. Dreamers do not learn. Truth opens her doors to those only who knock hard and long. 3. Self as attention, changes his efforts. Frequent change is a physical necessity. Great mental efforts exliaust the portion of the brain most used. After two hours devoted to mathematics, and a rest of twenty minutes, you torn with fresh vigor to natm-al science. Yersatility is as necessary as concentration. Were the mind a ship. Attention would be the captain ; were the mind an army, Attention would be the general; were the mind a school, Attention would be the teacher. In figures such as these the comparison must be limited to the capability of self to concen- trate, prolong, and change his efforts. Attention is one species of self-direction. Self-direction includes much more than attention. 6 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. Characteristics of Attention. — Attention is distin- guished from other mental powers bj two marked characteristics : 1. Attention is the jpower to concentrate effort. Take away this power and the soul would merely drift, and life would be one long revery. Man would be an idle dreamer. Attention is our ability to concenti-ate our efforts. We thus gain mastery. 2. Attention accompanies all mental activity. Like memory and consciousness, attention in some degree is present in all knowing and feeling and willing. It enters as an essential element into all effective mental operations. There can be no distinct thinking, no vivid feeling, no deliberate action, without attention. It en- ergizes and quickens mental effort. Attention defined. — You are now prejDared to define attention : 1. Attention is the capaVdity to concentrate^ prolong^ and change effort. Mind is both self-acting and self- directing. Thinking is self -activity ; but I also direct my thoughts. Attention is clearly a power of self- direction. 2. Original. Write a brief definition embodying your own conception of attention. The definitions given are suggestive. Your definition must be worked out and polished, then treasured in memory. Various Definitions. — 1. Porter : Attention is our power to concentrate effort. 2. Sully: Attention is the power of active self-direction. 3. Bascom : Attention is our capability to direct and handle our faculties. 4. Rosenkranz : Attention is the power to adjust self to the object. 5. Trumbull : Attention is the ener- getic application of the mind to any object. 6. Schuyler: Atten- tion is the concentration of the thoughts upon a given phenomenon. ATTENTIOX. ^ "Attention is self-activity. It is the will acting on the intellect. Attention selects one special tield and refuses to be diverted from it. It neglects all else, and returns again and again to the object of special atten- tion. Attention isolates one object from others, and concentrates effort upon it to the exclusion of aU other objects. Isaac Newton asciibed his superiority to other men in intellectual power simply to his greater power of attention." "^ Kinds of Attention. — I give attention to the rose. I observe its color, its odor, and its structure. I find that I can direct my energies to the mastery of the outer world. We may call this Outer Attention. 1. Outer attention is self attending to external things. Outer attention looks to the world of sense. When the teacher says " Attention ! " she usually means " Listen " or ''Look." Objective attention, external attention, and outer attention, are synonymous and simply mean self attending to the external world. As the outer world is called the objective world, the self-direction of the mind to outer things is called Objective Attention. 2. Inner attention is self attending to what is going on within. I concentrate my powers upon a problem, upon a composition, upon a desire, upon a choice. This is inner attention. We mean by inner attention, self attending to the inner world. As the inner world is called the subjective world, inner attention is called Subjective Attention. 3. Objective and subjective attention. We fix our minds upon the rainbow. We observe the primary and secondary colors. This is objective attention. Now we study the relations of colors, the * Dr. W. T. Harris. 8 ELEMEXTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. laws of combinations, etc. We fix our minds upon our acquisitions and try to discover relations. Self attends to his own products and processes. This is subjective attention. Physiology of Attention. — The brain and nerves are the plijsical organism in connection with which the soul works. Instinctively man and brute turn the sense- organ toward the object, the sound, the odor. Pro- longed attention exhausts the physical organism. It is physically impossible for children to give close atten- tion for a long period. As the years advance, attention may be prolonged more and more. Attracted and Purposed Attention. — A loud sound, a brilliant object, or a strong odor excites the sensor organs and attracts attention. Brute attention is chiefly of this nature. The teacher finds it necessary to attract the attention of her young pupils. She finds that new objects, sudden changes, and striking movements arrest attention. But the child soon develops the power of purposed attention. Attracted attention is merely the sensuous arrest of attention. Sensor affections occasion attention. Reflex and voluntary attention. Reflex action is destitute of will-power. Attention means power of self-direction. Clearly, the expressions, reflex attention and involuntary attention, are unmean- ing and misleading. Growth of Attention. — The idiot is incapable of self- direction. Because he can not attend, he can not learn. The attracted attention which he seems to give is not concentrated mental effort. Brutes can give a degree of attention, and hence can learn some things. The child begins to notice attractive objects. This is the germ of voluntary attention. We can not ^^ the period when ATTEXTIOX. the infant begins to attend. When a few weeks old, it recognizes its nurse. When a few months old, it recoo-- nizes many objects, but can hardly be said to attend be- fore the fifth or sixth month. The child learns slowly be- cause he attends feebly and but for a very short time. The boy can leara more rapidly, as he can attend more closely and for a longer time. The well- trained youth can throw his energies into his work for several hours, and hence can do much more than the boy. The educated man can do vastly more than the youth because he can con- centrate his entire energies for many hom*s. At twenty, attention is fully active, but may grow more and more vigorous up to the meridian of life. These familiar facts in- dicate the slow but gradual growth of attention, as well as its relation to achieve- ment. 10 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. Education of Attention.* — TeacMng is the art of pro- moting liuman growth. The mother lays the founda- tion on which the teacher builds. She supplies lier little Kindergarten with attractive objects. In a thous- and ingenious ways she manages to draw and hold the attention of her budding loved ones. The teacher con- tinues the same line of work. She will spare no effort to win the interested attention of her young pupils. Each exercise will be so conducted as to develop the power and the habit of attention. Well-directed effort in concentrating the mind upon j the work in hand develops the power of attention. You try to give your entire attention for a short time daily to some subject. In a few months you find that you' can attend more closely and for a longer time. When' you can attend completely, your power of attention is educated. Attention and Learning. — The drill will not pene- trate the granite unless kept to the work hour after hour. The mind will not penetrate the secrets of science unless held long and vigorously to the work in hand. Agassiz insisted on a radical reform in all our systems of education. His students came to him so deficient in the power of penetrating observation that they could not learn science until educated to observe. This great naturalist considered the development of attention as paramount in education. Dickens considered his power of attention the secret of all his achievements. Hard work fosters genius ; but only well-directed and persist- ent effort counts. The sun's rays burn only when con- centrated. Self achieves mastery only when he hurls all * See "Applied Psychology" ; also, Sully's "Psychology." ATTEXTION. H liis forces upon one point. '^ Scatter-brained " rough- ly characterizes the large class of lialf-idiots who can not learn because they can not give close and continued at- tention. Who has sinned — these stupid pupils, or their more stupid teachers ? Attention and Retention. — Good memory means close and continued attention. You become intensely interested in your history lesson ; you bend all your powers to its mastery. You close your eyes and thiuk it over. You fix your mind on the facts in their rela- tions. You in this way deeply impress the lesson upon your memory, and you will be able to recall it read- ily. When there is slight attention, as in revery or half-study, the slight impressions speedily fade away. Attending is work. Lazy persons have poor memo- ries because they are too indolent to give attention. As a rule, interested attention and good memory go together. Attention and Power.'- — Xo element of personal power is greater or more potent than specialization. No man can be so much of a man, in any one direction, as when he is a whole man in that direction. He who can concentrate his whole being, all his energies and all his capabilities, for the compassing of the one thing on which his mind is fixed for the time being, is obviously more potent in behalf of that object of his endeavor than would be possible were his energies di^dded, and were only a portion of himself given up to that for which he is striving. And this power of concentration it is. that makes the man of pre-eminent practical effi- ciency in any and every sphere of human endeavor — ^ * Trumbull. 12 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. material, mental, and spiritual — from the lowest plane to the highest. Educational Laws. — The great truths relating to human growth and development are called educational laws or principles. Thus early you have discovered some of these fundamental truths. Far- ther on these laws will be examined and applied. 1. Self-effort educates. The soul is self-acting. Spontaneously we put forth effort. All development comes from self-effort. 2. Strenuous effort, well directed, educates. This is the condi- tion of all improvement. Directed endeavor develops power. 3. Attention energizes mental effort. It gives vividness and vigor. The inattentive mind drifts but does not achieve. 4. Achievement is in the ratio of concentration. Effective effort is concentrated effort. The narrower the field of attention the greater is the penetrating power of the mind. "One thing at a time " ; " Concentrate all your energies " ; '' Give your entire atten- tion " ; " Do with all your might " ; are some of the excellent rules deduced from this law. 5. Pleasure sustains attention. Gentle pleasure, present and prospective, fixes and holds attention. Painful study repels and dissipates energy ; pleasurable study attracts and sustains attention. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. What do yon do when yon give attention ? Wi ite an analysis of an act of attention. What do you mean by the office of a faculty ? What is the office of the heart in the physical organism ? Of the memory in ths mental economy? What single word expresses the office of attention ? Give the etymology of attention. Give two examples of concentration. Give an exam- ple of prolonged attention. Give two examples of change of effort. How do you distinguish attention from memory? Give two characteristics of attention. Give examples. ATTENTION. 13 Give the author's definition of attention ; give yours ; give Porter's. Give the distinction between outer attention and inner attention. Illustrate. Give your reasons for using also the terms objective attention and subjective atten- tion. Give five examples of each. Why should prolonged attention not be required of children ? Why does forced attention fail to benefit the pupil ? Why can not an idiot learn? Why can the boy learn more than the child ? Tell what you know about the growth of attention. What do you mean by growth ? What is teaching ? Describe the work of the moth- er and of the primary teacher. Why did Agassiz find it so difficult to teach science to his students ? What do you mean by " scatter- brained " ? What did Dickens consider the secret of his success ? Is inattention the fault of the pupil or of the teacher ? Why have inattentive people poor memories ? What do you remember best? What do you do when you give attention ? Why can you readily recall the things to which you give great attention ? How can you culti- vate your power of attention ? Letter.* — I venture to ask you to write a letter to some friend, telling what you know about attention. Give your own thoughts in your own way. Nothing * In a long experience I have secured the most satisfactory results by having each pupil write a letter to some interested friend, giving his notions about the faculty discussed. As far as possible I have these letters read in class and criticised. 14 ELEMEXTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. will lielp you more. You may be called upon to read the letter. Send with your letter to your friend a top- ical outline showing your analysis of this chapter. Attracted and Purposed. Topical Aj^alysis of Chapter I.— Attentioit. L Acts of Attention analyzed. Objective Attention. Subjective Attention. IL Office of Attention. Concentration of effort. Change of effort. Prolongation of effort. IlL Characteristics of Attention. Power of self -concentration. Active self-direction energizes all mental action. IV. Attention defined. Author's definition. Sundry definitions. Original definition. V. Kinds of Attention. Objective and Subjective. VL Physiology of Attention. Physical limits of Attention. Vigorous health and Attention. Eest and Attention. VIL Growth of Attention. Attention in childhood. Attention in boyhood. VIIL Education of Attention. Teaching and Attention. Attention and Learning. IX. Educational Laws. Self-effort educates. Strenuous effort, well directed, educates. Attention energizes mental effort. Achievement is in the ratio of concentration. Pleasure sustains attention. Attention in youth. Attention in manhood. Attention and Retention. Attention and Power. INSTINCT. 15 CHAPTER 11. INSTINCT. By this is meant the capability of animals to do blindly the best for themselves. A mind is capable of knowing, feeling, and willing. What a mind can do is called a mental power. The simplest of the men- tal powers are the guiding impulses, called instincts. It is deemed best to begin the study of mental phenomena with the lowest and least complex manifestation of mind. Instinctive Acts analyzed. — We are wonderfully fa- miliar with brute-life. The cat, the dog, the bird, and the horse are our intimate companions. From infancy to age, brute-life interests us. Even Solomon and Aris- totle intently studied animal life. We see brutes doing bhndly what man, with ages of experience, can scarcely do. The bee builds a perfect cell without having stud- ied mathematics, and compounds delicious honey with- out having studied chemistry. Birds migrate thousands of miles by land and sea without chart or compass. The animal, without knowing why, does what is best for itself. The blind feelings which lead animals to act for their best interests are called instincts. Observe the sitting hen : at regular intervals she turns her eggs. TVTiy ? It took a thousand years for man to answer this question. The hen, without kno\\4ng why, does the right thing. The blind impulse which moves the hen to thus act is termed instinct. Office of Instinct. — Each organ of the body and each capability of the mind has a specific purpose, called its 16 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. office. The office of tlie stomacli is digestion. The office of attention is self-direction. The office of in- stinct is to move and guide animals to wise ends, where it is impossible that intellect should act. 1. Instincts tend to the physical ivell-heing of the individual. Spontaneously the young animal seeks its proper food. "Without kno^dng why, squirrels and bees lay up stores for the future. Without a knowledge of geography or climate, birds and beasts migrate with the season. Inborn feelings move and guide the animal to its own good. 2. Instincts tend to the well-heing of the race. The salmon leaves the sea and ascends the river to spa^vn safely in shallow water. The bird conceals her nest. Even lions and eagles mate. Strong impulses move animals to act so as to preserve the race. These blind impulses are termed instincts. 3. Instincts move hrutes to fulfill the jpurposes of their creation. Its instincts move the silk-worm to spin its cocoon. The bee is moved to sip sweets from every flower. Its instincts move the coral to build islands. Marvelous chapter, this, in the book of E^ature ! Characteristics of Instinct. — The pecuharities that distinguish one endowment from others are called its characteristics. How may we know instinct ? 1. Instincts are hlind hut guiding impulses. Bees and ants organize republics, build cities, and lay up stores. Without knowing the principles of government or architecture or political economy, they wisely adapt means to ends. Blind feelings, implanted by Infinite Wisdom, guide as well as move them. Instincts are the only guiding impulses. IXSTIXCT. 17 2. Instinct i^ a perfect guide. An instinct is in- nate and perfect from tlie first. Intellect hesitates and blunders ; instinct advances to its end with mechanical certainty. Intellect improves ; instinct is practically stationary. 3. Instinct is conscious activity. The bird is aware of its nest-building impulses. However dim in the lower orders of animals, consciousness may be safely inferred wherever instinct is manifested. Instincts, therefore, are now classed as mental ; wherever we find instinct we find mind. The plant has life, but not mind. The brute has life and mind, but not self-con- scious personality. 4. Instinct is liinited to physical activity. Instincts are mental impulses leading to physical acts and phys- ical ends. The mother-impulse in the bird to care for her young is mental ; the act of securing food and feed- ing her bird lings is physical. All instincts seem con- nected with the perpetuation of organic life. To speak of moral instincts or religious instincts is clearly in- correct. Intellect guides beings capable of moral acts. Instinct defined. — Instinct is feeling. Like aU feel- ings, instinct is blind ; but, unlike all other feelings, instinct guides. Instincts are blind feelings implanted by Infinite Wisdom to move and guide animals where intellect can not act. 1. Instinct is hlind impulse guiding to wise ends. Instincts are blind impulses to adapt means to ends without knowing why. "Without either knowledge or experience, the young bee constructs a perfect cell. In- stincts are bhnd feelings moving and guiding to mse ends. 18 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. . 2. Original. Write a delinition containing jour view of instinct. What does instinct mean to jou ? 3. Various Definitions. — 1. White : Instincts are impulses which prompt and direct appropriate action in the absence of intelligence. 2. Romanes : Instincts are adaptive impulses. 3. Hopkins : Instinct is regulative impulse. 4. Hamilton: Instinct is a blind tendency to intelligent ends. 5. Von Hartmann : An instinctive act is one conformed to an end of which the actor is not conscious. Reflex Action and Instinct. — The clock marks time, but its organism and action are wholly mechanical. The sensitive-plant responds to the touch, but its organism and action are wholly vegetable. The animal perspires and respires, but the organism and action are wholly vital. The order of the various forces is : mechan- ical forces, chemical forces, vital forces. Reflex action is a vital force. Like the sensitive-plant, the lower nerve-centers respond to stimuli and cause motion. Where the stimuli lie within the body, reflex action is called automatic action. 1. Reflex action is unconscious action. Bound up in the animal are forces which regulate nutrition, cir- culation, respiration, and non-voluntary motion. But mind is wanting in such acts. These actions are in- trusted to ganglia and nerves and tissues which re- spond to stimuli. Reflex action is devoid of will-power and is wholly physiccd. Animals of the lowest orders are little more than reflex machines — they are nearly destitute of instinct as well as of intellect. 2. Instinctive action is conscious action. Keflex action is the highest physical force ; instinct is the low- est mental energy. The action of the new-born infant in sucking is reflex action ; but the act of the young INSTINCT. 19 animal in seeking food is instinctive action. Instinct moves the spider to spin her web to capture her prey ; but the act of spinning is reflex. Below instinct, no indication of mind appears. To some degree the ani- mal seems to be aware of its instinctive acts, but is utterly unconscious of its reflex acts. Here we may- venture to draw the line between the physical and the mental. Keflex action and all the lower forces are wholly physical. Instinctive action appears to be spon- taneous as well as conscious action, and hence belongs to the realm of mind. Instinct and Intellect. — Instinct is blind impulse which directs animal action in a way beneficial to the individual and the race. Intellect adapts means to ends and guides the feelings. Brutes and men are en- dowed with intellect as well as with instinct. Intellect enables its possessor to find out and act from knowl- edge ; instinct moves the possessor to adapt means to ends without knowing why. Instinct guides the mi- grating bird ; intellect guides the mariner. Instinct guides the bee in constructing a cell ; but intellect guides the engineer in constructing a bridge. 1. As intellect increases^ instinct decreases. Mol- lusks and still lower forms of animal life exhibit in- stinct and even infinitesimal intellect. But they are little more than creatures of reflex action. In fact, many orders are scarcely more than automatons. The bee, the ant, and the spider seem most gifted with instinct. They also exhibit some intellect. In birds, beavers, dogs, and elephants we find instinct decreasing and intellect increasing. 2. As instinct increases, intellect decreases. The 20 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. INSTINCT elephant, the horse, and the dog manifest considerable intellect, but much less instinct than spiders, bees, and ants. As we go down the scale we find instinct increases just as intellect decreases. 3. Man stands alone. Intel- lect vastly predominates in man ; instinct in brutes. The gap here between the lowest man and the highest brute is immense. There appear to be many missing links. In the accompanying dia- gram the relations of instinct and intellect are roughly indi- cated. Man was created in the rational and moral image of God. Physically, he is separated, by a great gap, from all the animals nearest to him ; and, even if we admit the doctrine, as yet unproved, of the derivation of one species from another, in the case of the low- er animals, we are unable to supply the "missing liuks" which would be required to connect man with any group of inferior ani- mals. Mentally, the gap between man and the brute is practically infinite. Those who deny this must adopt one of two alternatives. Either they must refuse to admit the evidence in man of any nature higher than that of brutes — a conclusion which common sense, as well as mental science, must always refuse to admit — or they must attempt to bridge over the " chasm," as it has been called, which separates the instinctive nature of the animal from the rational and moral nature of man — an effort confessedly futile.* The Instincts. — Instinct is a simple mental energy, as gravity is a simple physical force. It is ever the * Principal Sir J. Wiiliara Dawson, C. M. G., LL. D., F.R. S., Presi- dent of the British Association. INTELLECT. INSTIXCT. 21 same blind impulse moving to wise ends, and notliing more. But the instincts — the promptings of the in- stinctive energy — are numerous. These may be classed as strictly brute instincts, as instincts common to brute and man, and as strictly human instincts. 1. The hrute instincts. The honey-making instinct of the bee, the web- weaving instinct of the spider, the nest-building instinct of the bird, the dam-building in- stinct of the beaver, the migratory instinct of many animals, are familiar examples of strictly brute instincts. The list of this class of instincts may be extended with- out limit. Are these speciiic brute instincts endow- ments or developments ? 2. Instincts common to hrute and man. These also are numerous. Sex-instincts, mother-instincts, danger- instincts, food-instincts, etc., are common to brute and man. 3. Human instincts. Instinct in man, as in the brute, is ever the same blind feeling, guiding actions to bene- ficial ends. In the domain of instinct, the brute stands vastly higher than man. The human infant is the most helpless and dependent of all young animals. It takes long years for us to learn to do intellectually what the brute does instinctively. Man is poor in instincts. Crying, smiling, frowning, etc., appear very early in in- fancy, and are strictly human instincts. The student is left here to find out other human instincts. Origin of the Instincts. — Few questions now engage more thought. The following conclusions are believed to be safe : 1. Each instinct is an original endowment. In- stincts are innate. Evolution modifies but does not 22 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. create. All organic forces, all vital forces, all mentaf energies, are inborn endowments. Instinct uniformly tends to wise ends ; bnt the wisdom is back of the law, back of the energy. The brute, without knowing why, adapts means to ends. Tliis blind impulse to w^ise ac- tion is implanted by Creative Wisdom. 2. Instincts are transmitted. However far back, the instinct-germ, in some degree, is regarded as an en- dowment. That instincts may be greatly modified, and that modified instincts may be transmitted, is now science. The pigeon is endowed with the homing in- stinct, but centuries of training were necessary to give us the carrier-pigeon. The pointer-dog is one of many good illustrations. The striking modifications in the instincts of domesticated animals is the most familiar proof. While it is an established law of heredity that like tends to produce like, we know that environment works striking modifications. Man trains animals on the line of native instincts. This is the only improve- ment of which brutes are capable. But no amount of training or change of environment can produce a honey- making quadruped ; something can not be evolved from nothing. Given instinct-germs as endowments, and the laws of heredity and evolution may account for all modi- fications of instincts and all phases of instinctive action. References. — For fuller accounts of instinct the reader is referred to " Instinct in Brute and Man," Chadboume ; " Mental Evolution in Animals," Bomanes ; " Mind in the Lower Animals," Lindsay. INSTINCT. 23 S UO GE STIVE STUD Y-HINT8. Eeview. — Give the three offices of attention. Give your defi- nition of attention. What distinction do you mokQ between outer attention and inner attention ? Why is it so difficult to teach inat- tentive pupils f Why can the youth do more than the child? Etc., etc. Give an example of instinct that you have observed. Why does the hen turn her eggs ? Analyze the nest-building instinct of the bird, and the dam-building instinct of the beaver. Give a distinction between the office of attention and the office of instinct. What do you mean by the office of a faculty ? Give the three special offices of instinct. Illustrate each by cases you have observed. What do you understand by the characteristics of a faculty? Give the four characteristics of instinct. Give examples. Give your definition of instinct. Why do you prefer it to the other definitions ? Wliat do you mean by reflex action % by automatic action ? Give distinctions between gravity and reflex action ; reflex action and instinct. Give examples of each. What do you understand by unconscious action % by conscious action % by self-conscious action ? How do instinct and intellect differ ? Give five examples. Ex- plain the diagram showing the relations of instinct and intellect. Why does man stand alone ? Name the three classes of instincts. Give five strictly brute instincts ; five common to man and brute ; five strictly human. Give the distinction between an endowment and an evolution. Is the honey-making instinct an endowment, or the hereditary ex- perience of the race ? May instincts be modified by experience ? Illustrate by domesticated animals. Are modified instincts trans- mitted'? Like tends to reproduce like, is the great law of heredity: does this law extend to mind ? letter. — You may now write a letter to your friend, telling him what you know about instinct. Try your best to make clear to him the nature of this wonderful endowment. Above all, give him your own thoughts and your own illustrations in your own way. Writing such a letter will lead you to study instinct with the greatest care. Inclose with your letter your analysis of this chapter. 24: ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. Topical Analysis of Chaptek II. — Instinct. I. Analysis of Instinctive Acts. Beaver building his dam. Hen turning her eggs. II. Office of Instinct. Individual good. Cosmic good. Race good. III. Characteristics of Instinct;, Guiding impulses. Conscious activity. Limited to physical activity. Unerring guide. IV. Definitions of Instinct. Author's definition. Various definitions. Original definition. V. Reflex Action and Instinct. Reflex action — physical. Instinct — mental. VI. Instinct and Intellect. Instinct decreases as Intellect increases. Intellect decreases as Instinct increases. Instinct predominates in the brute. Intellect predominates in man. VII. Classes of Instincts. Strictly brute Instincts. Strictly human Instincts, Common Instincts. VIII. Origin of Instincts. Not organized habits. Not inherited experiences. Instincts are endowments. Instinct is modified by experience and natural selection. Modified Instincts are transmitted. IMrORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 25 CHAPTEE III. mPOKTANT TEEMS EXAMINED. Science, in oiir times, must be presented in the lan- guage of the people. But new ideas need to be era- bodied in new terms. In your study of the matter- world, you Lave found it necessary to learn new terms to express your new acquisitions. As you explore the mind-world, you will at every step discover ideas new to you. For their expression some unfamiHar terms must be used. Easy and familiar terms, when they express the ideas exactly, are the best ; but precision must be secured, though at the cost of thoughtful re- search. The effort \\dll be to lead you to form clear-cut ideas, and to give, in your own words, clear-cut defini- tions. When quarried and polished, you will treasure your definitions. You will find them more precious than diamonds. In order that you may begin to build on the rock, you will find it best at the outset to master a few lead- ing terms. In each case, work up to the idea before attempting a definition. A good dictionary is indis- pensable. Study the etymology and history of the word. Notice its uses. Endeavor to grasp its full meaning. Write in your own language a brief defini- tion. Apply the definition by giving your own expla- nation and illustration. Consider as suggestive these brief hints. As in mathematics, work out eveiything for yourself. Mastery characterizes each successful educational step. Only weaklings cower and turn back 26 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. in the face of difficulties. Strenuous and persistent effort educates. ^ ^, ( Physical Phenomena, I. Phenomena. — 1 ivr ^ i x>i, ( Mental Phenomena. The word phenomenon means an appearance, and the plural, phenomena, appearances. The rose appears red, sweet-smelling, soft. I appear to myself cheerful, thankful, hopeful. Whatever appears to us is termed phenomena. 1. Physical Phenomena. — The apple appears white, soft, and delicious. The cube appears to have length, breadth, and thickness. Gold appears yellow, heavy, and malleable. All appearances coming to us through the senses are termed physical phenomena. Whatevei' of raatter appears is called physical phenomena. 2. Mental Phenomena. — Ipercewe the beautiful lily^ T remeniber the cheering song. I discern that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles. I grieve over the loved and lost. I deter- mine to study psychology. I perceive myself remem- bering, thinking, feeling, and choosing. I am aware of my various mental acts ; they appear to me, and hence are termed mental phenomena, or psychical phe- nomena. Whatever of mind appears is called mental phenomena. c ( Matter. Substances, | ^.^^^ II. Nonmena.*— \ and Necessary Pelations. " Time, Space, Causation, etc. See "Noumenal-Perception," chap. viii. IMPOHTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 27 "We mean bj noumena the enduring realities wliich underlie and make possible phenomena. Noumena condition phenomena. We class as noumena substances and necessary relations. Appearances are phenomena ; the realities of which we affirm phenomena, or which make phenomena ]30ssible, are noumena. 1. Substances. — The enduring entities which under- lie phenomena are called substances. As there are two kinds of phenomena, so there are two substances. (1.) Matter. Glass is brittle, hard, transparent. These properties of glass are termed physical phenom- ena. The material substance of which we affirm brittle, hard, transparent, is called matter. In the matter- world we find extension, weight, impenetrability. Mat- ter is the enduring noumenon of which we assert ex- tension, weight, impenetrability. The noumenon^ or reality of whkJi we assert jphysical phenomena^ is called matter. (2.) Mind. You remember the multiplication-table. You write essays. You hate lying. You choose truth. Whatever it is that" does these things is called a mind, a spirit, a soul. The enduring self, the Ego, the nou- menon that thinks, is called a mind. I am, therefore I think. The self of which we assert mental phenomena is called a mind. 2. Necessary Relations. — That substances and phe- nomena may be, time and space and causation must be. As these and such like relations are necessary and enduring realities, they are classed as noumena. ( Physical Energies, or Forces. III. Energies. — I Soul-Energies. ( Divine Energies. 28 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. We try to understand the dynamics of the universe. We learn to call the energies which produce changes, causes. " Force, energy, and cause are not identical or equivalent, though they are synonymous. Force is used to signify an energy that requires another energy outside of it to incite it to action, and still another to guide it. But the energies of the soul are self-incited and self-directed. Self-related force is not thought of v^^hen we speak of force, and hence force is a bad term to express soul-energies." PYRAMID OF ENERGIES. o 4/ / RENEWING. PRESERVING. CREATING. TriE WILL POWERS, THE EMOTIONS. THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. THE PHYSICAL FEELrNGS. THE INSTINCTS. CO-ORDINATING' FORCES — LIFE FORCES (VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL.) AGGREGATING FORCES— COHESION AND CHEMISM. ^ COSMIC FORCES— GRAVITATION, LIGHT, HEAT, ELECTRICITY, ETC. It is extremely difficult to arrang'e the soul-energies from the stand- point of cause. Self acts spontaneously. Strictly, no mental act is caused. Sensor excitations occasion sensations, sensations occasion perception, ideas occasion emotions, emotions occasion choice, choice occasions action ; but the series is of conditions and not causes. Each rational mental act is self- IMPORTANT TEKMS EXAMINED. 29 caused. Then the marvelous interaction of knowing, feeling, and willing makes the task doubly difficult. Feelings not illuminated by intellect are blind and brutal. Intellect not moved by feeling and directed by will is effortless and aimless. Choice not guided by intellect is irrational. At best the arrangement of our mental powers must be in the order of de- pendence ; and of this each one judges for himself and varies the arrange- ment accordingly. 1. Physical Forces. — Bound up in matter are the stu- pendous energies which cause perpetual change. We dwell amid whispering breezes, rippling brooks, heaving oceans, and revolving worlds. Tlie energies which cause physical changes are called ^physical forces. 2. Soul-Energies. — Minds are endowed wdth tlie mar- velous energies which change infant Newtons into phi- losophers, and savage tribes into enlightened nations. A mind is seK-acting and is a self-cause. Soul-energies are self -incited and self -directed. The energies which cause mental changes are called soul-energies, 3. Divine Energies. — Herbert Spencer, in his final summary, says : '' Amid all mysteries, there remains one absolute certainty: we are ever in the presence of the Infi- nite and Eternal Energy, from whom all things proceed." Unity of the Universe. — The pyramid of energies may help us to grasp the unity of the universe. Each lower energy is involved in the higher. The plant-unit in- volves cosmic and co-ordinating forces. The brute-unit involves vegetable life as well as the lower forces. The human unit involves the animal life-forces as well as all the lower forces. The matter- world is a unit. All the physical forces work in harmony and give us the reign of law. So, too, the mind-world is a unit. All the mental energies work in haiTQony and give us men and women, society, government. 30 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. In our times it is not difficult to complete the pyra- mid by adding Divine Energies. We thus reach abso- lute unity. All substances, all forces, all laws are but expressions of the Iniinite Will. The Divine includes all and unites all. The universe is a unit. { Physical Laws. lY. Laws. — \ Mental Laws. ( Moral Laws. The whole distance through which a body falls in a given time is equal to the space passed through during the first second multiplied by the square of the time. This is a uniform way in which the force of gravity acts, and is called a law of falling bodies. That well- directed effort promotes growth, is called a law of hu- man development. A uniform way in which an en- ergy acts is called a law. 1. Physical Laws. — We sjDeah of the reign of law in the matter-world. We mean that the physical forces act in certain fixed ways. We observe the fall of the apple. We find that all material bodies attract each other in proportion to the mass and inversely as the square of the distance. We have discovered a law of gravity, or a uniform way in w^hich the force of gravity acts. Law reigns in the matter-world. The modes or ways in which ])hysical forces uniformly act are called physical laws. 2. Mental Laws. — We notice that some incident enables us to recall long-forgotten events. We find that present ideas tend to suggest past ideas. We have discovered a law, or a uniform way in which the mem- ory acts. Law reigns in the mind-world. The uniform ways in which the mind acts are termed mental laws. IMPORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 31 I Physical Sciences, Y. Sciences. — ■< Mental Sciences, ( etc. Science is more than classified knowledge. Take botany : the central idea is plant-life ; the field of re- search is plant-phenomena. We group around the cen- tral idea the laws of plant- phenomena. Under these laws we arrange principles, facts, illustrations, applica- tions. We thus build up the science of botany. The systematic arrangement of the laws of jphenomena is called science. 1. Physical Sciences. — The sciences that treat of physical phenomena are called the physical sciences. Take zoology : the central idea is animal life ; the phe- nomena of animal life is the field of inquiry. Around the central idea we group the laws of animal phenom- ena. Under these laws we arrange principles, facts, illustrations, applications. We have created the science of zoology. The systematic arrancjeinent of the laws of jjhysical phenomena in a special field of research is called a physical science. 2. Mental Sciences. — The sciences that treat of men- tal phenomena are called mental sciences. A mental science is the systematic arrangement of the laws of mental phenomena in a special field of inquiry. Take psychology. Here mental phenomena is the field. The central idea is mind. We discover the mental powers and their modes of action. We arrange around the central idea the laws of mental phenomena. Under the laws we group principles, facts, illustrations, applica- tions. We thus form the science of psychology. The systematic classification of the laws of mental phenoin- 32 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. ena is called psychology. Take education. The cen- tral idea is human development. The iield is the phe- nomena of human growth and human culture. Around the central idea are grouped systematically the laws of growth and development. Under the laws are grouped the principles, the facts, the illustrations, and the ap- plications. Thus the science of education is created. The systematic arrangement of the laivs of the phe- nomena of mental growth and mental development is called the science of education. A Mind. A Soul. yi. Terms designating Self. — \ A Spirit. I An Ego. L A Self. We know and feel and will. The self that thinks, loves, and chooses is called a mind. Mental philoso- phy is a science of the mind. As a human mind is embodied, it is called a soul. Psychology {psyche, the soul ; logos, science) is a science of the soul. Psy- chical means pertaining to the soul. As the mind is a spirit entity capable of knowing, feeling, and willing, it is also called the spirit. A mind is sometimes called a spiritual organism. *• Is mind an organism 9 If it were, could it possibly be im- mortal? What is the true definition of organism? The body is an organism, but the mind is something above organism. In an organ- ism there are unity and variety of functions — this is probably the reason for calling mind an organism. But life and mind are dis- tinct ; a plant lives but does not possess mind. Mind includes all that life includes, and much more. In an organism each part is the means of realizing every other part, and it is likewise the end for which every other part exists. Each part is both means and end for IMPORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 33 every other part. But mind is ivhole in each part. It is an indivisi- ble unit in knowing, in willing, and in feeling." Mind, soul, and spirit are now nsed in literature and science as synonyms. Occasionally we find mind still used in the sense of intellect. Soul was formerly used to designate animal life and instincts. Spirit is some- times used vaguely to designate something, no one knows what, different from mind. But these distinc- tions are now practically obsolete. To the scholar as to the millions, the self that knows, feels, and wills, is the mind, the soul, the spirit. suaGEsnvE stuiw-hints. Review. — Give a distinction between attention and instinct. Give the office of attentiqn.; of instinct. Give th^- characteristics of attention and also of instinet. State the relation) 'between instinct and intellect, etc. ., . tj Why are somes^Har.d , words necessary^lK^'Sasv do you work out definitions ? Give the etynjdlp^'a^l meaHing of phenomena. Write a definition of physical phenomena"; mental phenomena. Illustrate each. Why is the unfamiliar word noumena used? Have we any fa- miliar word that expresses the idea? Write a definition of sub- stance ; of matter ; of mind. Give a distinction between phenom- ena and noumena; between mind and matter. Are you sure you grasp the distinction ? Give the synonyms of energy. Write a definition of energy in which all occur. Write a definition of physical force ; of soul- energy. What relation do you discover between the lower and the higher energies ? Is the universe a unit ? Write a definition of laws ; of physical laws ; of mental laws. Give a distinction between an energy and a law. What do you mean by laws of phenomena f Why is mere classified knowledge not science f Write a defini- tion of science ; of physical science ; of psychology ; of education. 34 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. Give the etymology and meaning of psychology, psychological, psy- chologist, and psychical. Define mind ; soul ; spirit ; ego ; self. What do you mean by a causa-sui 9 Show that a mind is not an organism. Give distinc- tions sometimes made between mind, soul, and spirit. Are these terms now generally used as synonyms % Topical Analysis of Chapter III. — Important Terms Examined. I. n. 2. Mental Phenomena. Mind. 3. Cause Relations, etc., etc. Phenomena. 1. Physical Phenomena. Xoumena. 1. Substances. Matter. 2. Necessary Relations. 1. Space Relations. ! 2. Time Relations. Energies. 1. Physical Energies, or Forces. 2. Soul-Energies. 3. Divine Energies. Laws. 1. Physical Laws. 2. Mental Laws. V. Sciences. 1. Physical Sciences. 1. Botany. 2. Mental Sciences. 1. Psychology. 3. Etc., etc. VI. A Nonmenon endowed with Soul-Energies is called — 1. A Mind. 4. A Self. 2. A Soul. 5. An Ego. 3. A Spirit. in. IV. 3. Moral Laws. 4. Etc., etc. 2. Zoology. 2. Education. THE SEXSORIUM. 35 CHAFTEE lY. THE SENSOEIUM. "We see the landscape, hear the song of birds, smell the rose, taste the orange, touch the paper, press the hand of friendship. Vibrations caused bj light and sound and odor and flavor and contact excite the organ- ism. The mind feels the excitation. These feelings are called sensations. The part of the organism thus excited is called the sensorium. The sensorium is here used to include sensor ganglia, sensor nerves, and sen- sor organs. You have diligently studied the body, the organism in which we live and work. You will now re-examine the brain and nerves from the stand-point of mind. Here you find the bridge that connects mind and matter. A Nerve-Cell is a micro- sccypic clot of granulated gray matter. Each cell is inclosed and has one or more connections. The cell- substance is granular and extremely mobile. An excitant, as odor-waves or light-waves, causes molec- ular changes in the cell- substance. The conscious feeling of the excitation of sensor nerve-cells is known as sensation. In a human brain there are estimated to be more than a bilKon of these nerve-cells.* * Bj permission the above cut is taken from Tracy's " Physiology." 3(3 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. A Ganglion is a group of nerve-cells connected hy nerve -fibers. Ganglia have nerve - connections with other ganglia. The gray matter of the brain is organ- ized into ganglionic groups. '' The mind uses the gray matter in some unknown way to affect the body, or to gain impressions through the body." Draw a group of nerve-cells ; connect the cells as you do the cells of a battery ; inclose by a membrane ; make nerve-connec- tions with similar groups. You will have a rude pict- ure of a ganglion, as in the above cut.* Reflex sensor ganglia are found in the roots of the spinal nerves and throughout the sympathetic system. A Nerve is a white connecting cord through which nerve-currents pass. These nerve-fibers permeate the system and form the white matter of the brain, the spinal cord, etc. 1. St7'ucture. A nerve consists of three parts : (1.) The external sheath, a transparent membrane ; (2.) The * Taken by permission from Bastian's " Brain the Organ of Mind." THE SENSORIUM. 37 medullary sheath, a white, fatty substance, isolating and protecting the nerve-axis; (3.) A thin thread of gray matter called the axis. The axis is composed of minute fibrils. Illustrate with a common lead-pencil — tlie paint representing the external sheath ; the wood, the medul- lary sheath ; the lead, the nerve-axis. 2. Ojjice, !N^erves transmit vibrations. Their sole office is to transmit sensor and motor molecular waves. As the nerve-axis conducts the vibrations, it may be con- sidered the essential part of the nerve. Like telegraph- wires, nerves simply carry messages. 3. Classes. Nerves that convey impressions from sensor organs to sensor ganglia are called sensor nerves ; as, the optic nerves are the sensor nerves that convey impressions from the eyes to the optic ganglia. Nerves that convey motor impulses from motor ganglia to mo- tor organs are called motor nerves. The following classification of the cerebro-spinal nerves, by Dr. S. S. Laws, is simple and complete : Cerebro-Spinal Nerves. — SENSORY NERVES IN PAIRS : 1. Cranial. — 1. Olfactory. 2. Optic. 3. Trifacial. 4. Gustatory. 5. Auditory. 6. Glossopharyngeal 7. Pneumogastric. 2. Spinal. — 31 pairs of posterior roots. 38 pairs of sensory nerves. MOTOR NERVES IN PAIRS : 1. Cranial. — 1. Oculomotorius. 2. Patheticus. 3. Small root of V. 4. Abducens. 5. Facial. 6. Spinal accessory. 7. Hypoglossal. 2. Spinal. — 31 pairs of anterior roots. 38 pairs of motor nerves. 38 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 4. Nerve-fibers are continuous. Sensor nerves ex- tend without break from sensor organs to sensor gan- glia. Motor nerves are continuous from motor ganglia to motor organs. Let silk threads represent sensor nerves and cotton threads motor nerves. Trace these threads through all their windings. You will find each continuous. Nerves do not divide or unite. Nerve - Currents. — Touch a w^arm surface. The stimulus in some unknown way starts nerve-currents which move through tactile nerves to tactile ganglia. You feel the dangerous warmth. You will the with- drawal of your hand, and thus start currents in the mo- tor ganglia. The motor currents move through motor nei ves to muscles. The muscles contract and thus with- draw your hand. The nature of the change produced in nerve-fiber by stimuhis is quite unknown. How matter affects mind or mind matter must be classed with the many unsolved problems of science. But sci- ence now claims to have demonstrated that (1) sensor nerve-currents move at the rate of 140 to 150 feet per second, and motor nerve-currents about 100 feet per second. (2) Stimuli excite vibratory nerve- currents. A wave of molecular movement passes through the nerve. These nerve-currents are the only media of communication between the mind and the outer world. (3) Sensation takes place only in the sensor ganglia found in the gray matter of the cerebrum. A Sensor Organ is a vital mechanism cajpaMe of re- ceiving and transmitting sensor vibrations. Each sen- sor organ is connected by sensor nerves with its sensor ganglia in the surface of the brain. Take, for example, the optic apparatus : THE SENSORIUM. 39 Obiective World - Q + j^^^ + ) ^, \ - Mind. Striking the retina of the eje, light-vibrations in some unknown way excite sensor vibrations, which move in molecular waves through the optic nerves to the optic ganglia. The nerve-currents agitate the optic ganglia, and the mind feels and interprets the vibratory signals — sees the rising sun. The ear does not change sound- waves into sensor waves, but in the ear sound-waves ex- cite sensor waves. A Special Sense receives extra organic messages. The world of color and form comes to us through the eye ; the world of sound through the ear ; the world of odor through the nose ; the world of flavor through the mouth ; the world of touch through the skin. As each of these senses opens to us a special world, they are called the five special senses. A General Sense transmits organic sensations. Con- ditions of the organs of the body come to us through the general senses. Sensations of indigestion are mes- sages from the stomach. Toothache is a message from a nerve. Pain and comfort, hunger and satisfaction, temperature, and so forth, are some of the messages re- ceived through the fifteen general senses. The Brain. — Organism reaches its climax in the hu- man brain. A human brain, it is estimated, embraces not less than one billion nerve-cells, nor less than five billion nerve-fibers. To produce an imperfect brain- map has required ages of toil. Much remains for other asres to discover. The brain and its connections must c^^ntinue to be the most absorbing field of scientific 40 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. research. The brain includes the lower, middle, and higher nerve-centers. The cuts on pages 40, 42, and 46 give different views of the brain. The lower nerve-centers are the medulla oblongata and the cerehellmn. Like the spinal cord, these are reflex and distributing centers. Some claim that the cerebellum is a relay -battery to enforce nerve-currents. Others claim that it is connected with the co-ordination of movements. The following cut represents a perpen- dicular section of the brain on the median line.* TTie middle nerve-centers are the pons Varolii^ the cerebral peduncles^ the corpora quadrigemina^ the optic thalamic the corpora striata, etc. These ganglia are geographically central, and, as all messages between the outer and inner worlds seem to pass through these cen- * The above cut is taken by permission from Bastian, p. 452. THE SENSORIUM. 41 ters, thej may be considered telegraphic headquarters. Who can tell what changes take place in these myste- rious centers ? Destroy these centers, and you render sensation as well as voluntary action impossible. Sever the nerve-connections between the tubercula quadri- gemina and the cerebrum, and vision is wholly reflex. The animal is utterly unconscious of seeing. Remarks. — The spinal cord, the lower nerve-centers, and the middle nerve-centers, with their nerve-connections, make a wonder- ful organism for reflex action ; but it is only a machine. When stimulus falls upon the appropriate sensor surface, a wave of molec- ular movement is sent up the attached sensor nerves to a nerve- center, w^hich thereupon issues another wave of molecular movement down a motor nerve to the group of muscles over whose action it presides. When the muscles receive this wave of nervous influence, they contract. This kind of response to stimuli is purely mechani- cal, or non-mental, and is termed reflex action. Thus far we fail to find mind. Remove the cerebrum : the animal may still show re- flex action, but ail traces of mind will have disappeared. All ac- tivity below the cerebrum is unconscious activity, is non-mental.* The higher nerve-centers are the cerehral hemi- spheres. Here is the border-land where mind and mat- ter meet. The soul is embodied ; it dwells in and works in connection with a physical organism. In man the cerebrum is so large that it completely fills the arch of the skull as far down as the level of the eyebrows. The two hemispheres of which it consists meet face to face in the middle line of the skull, which runs from the top of the nose backward. The cerebrum is com- posed of two conspicuously distinct parts, called re- spectively the gray matter and the white matter. The gray matter is external, enveloping the white matter * Ilolbrook. 42 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. like a skiill-cap, and is composed of a vast number of nerve-cells connected together bj nerve-fibers, and forming many ganglia. Under surface of the brain, showinof the great complexity of its structure. At the lower part of the cut is the cerebellum.* The Cerebral Ganglia. — Tbe locations of some of the ganglia are known, but the construction of a reliable cerebral map is the work of the future. A classification of cerebral ganglia with reference to oflice is all that * Taken by permission from "Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene," Tracy, Fig. 5S, p. 195. THE sensorium:. 43 is here attempted. Such a classification is considered suf- ficient both for psychological and educational purposes : 1. The sensor ganglia are the portions of the cere- brum agitated by sensor waves. In some unknown way the mind feels these excitations. These feelings are called sensations. 2. The intellective ganglia are the portions of the cerebrum connected with knowing ; as, when we per- ceive, remember, think. In some unknown way the mind uses these ganglia in perceiving, remembering, and reasoning. 3. The emotive ganglia are the portions of the cerebrum called into activity in feeling; as when we love or rejoice. 4. The motor ganglia are the portions of the cere- brum excited by volition. A mind is a creative first cause, and originates motion. Self, as will, starts motor nerve-cnrrents — in some unknown way excites motor ganglia and thus originates motion. Remarks. — 1. The cerebral hemispheres are duplicates. Each is complete in itself. In case one is paralyzed, the soul in all its powers works through the other. The right hemispliere is connected with the left half of the body, and the left hemisphere with the right half of the body. 2. The cerebral ganglia are interconnected by nerve-fibers so as to form an organic unit. Each ganglion supplements all other ganglia. Thus may be seen the unity and harmony of the brain and local brain-centers. 3. Specific mental activities occur in connectioti with specific ganglionic areas. Thus, just behind the forehead, on either side, we find the language ganglia. Injure these, and we are unable to ex- press ideas in words. The location of the special sensor ganglia by Ferrier and others seems to be now accepted. 4. The cerebrum dominates. Orders issued from headquarters 5 44 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. ■take precedence. Reflex action becomes the servant of volition. Walking is ordinarily reflex action ; but, when we meet obstructions, action becomes intelligent and voluntary. Mental life is connected with the action of the higher nerve-centers. Only when the cerebrum is called to take part is there any distinct mental accompaniment. The cerebrum thus stands in relation to the lower centers somewhat as the head of an office stands in relation to his subordinates. The mechanical routine of the office is carried on by them. He is called on to interfere only when some unusual action has to be carried out, and reflection and decision are needed. Moreover, just as the prin- cipal of an office is able to hand over work to his subordinates when it ceases to be unusual, and becomes methodized and reduced to rule, so we find that the brain, or certain portions of it, are able to with- draw from actions when they have grown thoroughly familiar. 5. Cerebration is merely brain-action in knowing, feeling, and ivilling. The mind perceives, thinks, acts ; but it works in connec- tion with the ganglia. The brain produces no thoughts. Uncon- scious cerebration means unconscious mental activity. The cere- bral ganglia are merely the instruments of mind. 6. Ganglia performing different offices may be near together, as in the spinal cord ; while ganglia performing similar offices may be far apart. The difficulty of constructing a cerebral map is apparent. 7. We do not understand the precise nature of the relation of the body and the soul. In some unknown way the mind uses the gray matter of the brain to affect the body, or to gain impressions through the body. CHAPTER Y. SENSATION. By this is meant tlie capability to feel sensor excita- tion, as in seeing, hearing, and smelUng. Luminous bodies cause vibrations of luminiferous ether. Light-waves strike against the retina of the eye, causing sensor waves; these sensor nerve-currents, in SENSATIOX. 45 molecular waves, flash tlirongli the optic nerves, passing through the optic thalamus, and the tuhercula quadri- gemina to the optic ganglia. The sensor light-waves excite, agitate, or affect the optic ganglia of the cere- brum. The mind feels the agitation and is aware of the feelino:. This conscious feelino: of sensor excitation is called sensation. Eeflex Sensor Action. — The mind in sensation is conscious of feeling the excitation. Sensor currents sent back from reflex centers are not felt — do not oc- casion sensation. Even agitations of the cerebral sen- sor ganglia do not necessarily occasion sensations. The clock struck ten, but I did not hear it, because I was absorbed in my work. " What sees is mind, What hears is mind ; The ear and eye Are deaf and blind." • SENSORIUM A^D MOTORIUM. 46 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. Diagram of the sensori-motor pi'ocesses of cerebral activity. 1, optic thalamus with its centers and ganglionic cells. 2, corpus striatum. S, course of the propagation of acoustic impressions : these arrive in the corresponding center (4), are radiated toward the sensorium (5), and reflected at 6 and 6' to tlie large cells of the corpus striatum, and thence at 7 and 7' toward the motor regions of the spinal axis. 8, course of tactile impressions: these are concentrated (at 9) in the corresponding center, radiated thence into the plexuses of the senso- riu7n (10), reflected to the large cortical cells (11), and thence propa- gated to the large cells of the corpus striatum, and linally to the dif- ferent segments of the spinal axis. 13, course of optic impressions : these are concentrated (at 14) in their corresponding center, then radiated toward the sensorium, (at 15) ; they are reflected toward the large cells of the corpus striatum, and afterward propagated to the dif- ferent segments of the spinal axis. — (Luys, " The Brain and its Func- tions," p. Gl. Inserted by permission.) SENSATION. 47 The Sensorium and the Motorium. — Self reigns in the cerebral ganglia. Here he receives messages and issues his mandates. Mind is the inner world, is self. All else, even the sensorium and motorium, is the outer world, is the not-self. 1. The sensorium is the. portion of the nervous or- ganism which conditions sensation, and in common use is limited to the cerebral hemispheres. It is here used, for the sake of brevity, to include the sensor organs, special and general, the sensor nerves, and the sensor ganglia. As sense-perception occurs only in connection with the cerebral sensor ganglia, these ganglia strictly constitute the sensorium. 2. The motorium is the portion of the nervous or- ganism through which self sends messages to the outer world. It includes the motor ganglia, the motor nerves, and the motor organs or muscles. As voluntary motion begins in the motor gangha, these strictly con- stitute the motorium. 3. Intellective and emotive ganglia are inserted to give completeness of outline. These are the cerebral ganglia, in connection with which knowing and feeling occur. It is important to note the nerve-connections between the various ganglia. Though composed of a billion nerve-cells and live billion nerve-fibers, the brain is an organic unit. Marvellous structure! Tnily onr bodies are fearfully and wonderfully made ! Cerebral Action — Sensor Motor. — The thoughtful stu- dent will linger over this inside view of brain-activity in sensation and volition. Place on the board the diagram on page 45 and the cut on page 46. Let each student trace sensor stimuli through each sensor line 48 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. to the mind ; also trace motor stimuli through the motor apparatus to the outer world. Here patient work will reward effort. The Five Special Sensor Lines convey impressions from the onter world to the inner world. They are called special, because each line opens np to ns a new world. Each sensor line is called a sensor apparatus. SENSATION. 49 1. TJie optic apparatus consists of the eyes, the optic nerves, and the optic ganglia. Luminous bodies produce vibrations in luminiferous ether. Light-waves strike the retina, causing sensor Hght-currents. Mo- lecular light-waves move through the optic nerves and agitate the optic ganglia. The mind feels the excita- tion, and knows that it feels it. The soul experiences the sensation of light. The mind, as intellect, inter- prets these sensations ; perceives colors, forms, sizes. 2. The atcditory apparatus embraces the ears, the auditory nerves, and the auditory ganglia. Vibrations of sonorous bodies produce sound-waves. Tlie clock strikes. The sound- vibrations start sensor sound-waves in the ear. The sensor waves vibrate through the audi- tory nerves and in the auditory ganglia. Self, as sensa- tion, feels the excitation — hears the strokes ; self, as in- tellect, interprets the sensations — perceives nine O'clock. 3. The olfactory appar^atiis includes the nose, the ol- factory nerves, and the olfactory ganglia. Odor-waves caused by odorous bodies start, in the nose, sensor odor- waves. These waves vibrate through the olfactory nerves, and ])rodnce changes in the olfactory ganglia. The soul feels the excitation — exjDeriences the sensa- tions of odor ; interprets the sensations — perceives sweet odors. 4. The gustatory apparatus consists of the mouth, the gustatory nerves, and the gustatory ganglia. Contact of the gustatory organs with articles possessing flavor excites gustatory nerve-currents. These currents pass in molecular waves through the gustatory nerves and affect the gustatory ganglia. The conscious affection of the gustatory ganglia is tlie sensation called taste. Self, as 50 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. intellect, interprets these sensations — perceives sugar as sweet and grapes as delicious. 5. The tactile apjparatus includes the skin, the tactile nerves, and the tactile ganglia. I touch the paper ; the contact starts tactile waves which vibrate through the tactile nerves and in the tactile ganglia. The soul is conscious of the excitation — experiences tactile sensa- tions. The soul interprets the sensations — perceives the paper as smooth. General Sensor Lines. —The fifteen general sensor lines carry messages from the organs and tissues of the body. The excitant is within the body. For illustra- tion we may take the M^iscular line. The muscular apparatus embraces muscles, muscular nerves, and muscular ganglia. Be- sides their contractile office, muscles seem to be sensi- tive to pressure or straining. The nerves which convey from the muscles to the muscular ganglia the sensor waves of pressure are called muscular nerves. We feel sensations of pressure or weight. It is still questioned whether the muscular should be classed as a special or a general sense. The student is left to study out and diagram the general sensor lines. Comparative Psychology. — You have taken a lively interest in the study of comparative anatomy and phys- iology. I trust that you will feel a still deeper inter- est in comparing human and brute mind. We have no sense which we do not find in some brute ; and the senses of brutes, so far as we can judge, are affected in the same way as ours are, by the same objects. They may have some of the senses more acute than ours are, but they differ from ours only in degree, as the senses SENSATION. 51 of men differ in strength and delicacy. Acuteness of sensation is a characteristic of the lower animals. So far as we know, no brute has a sense that differs from ours in kind. If we judge, as we do in every other case, it must be plain to every observer that brutes have the same kind of enjoyment and suffering, through the senses, that men have. To heat and cold, hunger and thirst, food and poison, sickness, pain, and death they have the same bodily relations in kind tliat we have.* Education of the Senses. — " The senses are all capable of being educated. Our tastes may become more delicate, and may keep us from using deleterious food. The sense of smell may be cultivated, and add to our enjoyments; and odors, especially by means of flowers, may be provided to gratify it. Hearing may be improved and made more sensitive and accurate. Music is a source of pleas- ure, which may be enhanced until it becomes elysian. Feeling may be made very delicate in its perceptions, and capable of distinguish- ing very nice differences of objects. The senses of pressure and of weight may be so traint^d as to give ns very accurate measurements. But the eye is the most intellectual of all our sense-organs, enabling us at a glance to take in the vast and the minute, the near and the distant. " All these should be cultivated by training in the family and at school. Children should be taught from their earliest years to use their senses intelligently and habitually. They should be encour- aged to observe carefully the oljjccts around them, and taught to describe and report them correctly. It has been said that there are more false facts than false theories, and this arises from persons not being trained to notice facts accurately, neither adding to them nor taking from them, nor gilding them by the fancy, nor detracting from them to serve an end. Pictures and models are used very ex- tensively in modern education, and serve a good purpose, as they call in the senses to minister to the intellect. But the things them- selves are vastly more instructive than any representation can be. So children should be taught to use their senses, especially their ears * " See Instinct in Animals and Men," Chadbourne. 52 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. and their eyes, in observing the objects around them, and the events that occur, and storing them up for future reflection. Plants and animals and stars, men and women and children, fall under our eyes at all times, and their nature, shapes, and actings should be dili- gently scanned for practical use and for scientific attainment." * Physiological Psychology. — Carpenter's " Mental Physiology," Wundt's "Physiological Psychology," and Pibot's " Empirical Psychology " are remarkable works. The latter gives an account of German investigation in this Held. These researches have, for the psychologist, an intense interest. They throw light upon the con- scious acts of the mind. They demonstrate the infinite importance of hygienic living. Even their failures are invaluable. The true psychology gathers up the facts of mind established by all schools of investigators. The investigations of physiologists have thrown much light on the manner in which material objects affect the different sense-or- gans, and also on the excitation and action of the sensorium, and especially of the brain ; but they necessarily stop with sensorial phe- nomena. It is impossible to cross the line that divides the physical and the psychical, and explain physiologically the action of the soul.f Body and Mind.:}: — '• A human being consists of two clearly dis- tinguishable parts — body and mind, or soul. . The body has its dis- tinctive capacities and powers, and so has the soul. To the body belong weight and extension ; to the soul, the powers of knowing, feeling, and willing. To the question. What is the soul in its es- sence! we may return the question, What is the body in its essence! The one question is as easy of solution as the other. The human mind is forced to assume a substance to which belong the known properties, or powers, of matter. In like manner it is compelled to assume a substance, or being, in which exist the powers of the soul. If, then, the question be returned, What is the soul ? we answer. It is the part of man that has the powers of knowing, feeling, and willing." * McCosh. t White. % Larkin Dunton. SENSATION. 53 SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HIXTS. Eeview. — Give distinctions between phenomena and noumena ; force and law ; instinct and intellect. Define science, education, psychology, mind. Etc., etc. Draw and describe a nerve-cell ; a ganglion ; a nerve. Give the office of nerves ; of sensor nerves ; of motor nerves ; of afferent nerves ; of efferent nerves. Show that nerve-fibers are continuous ; compare to telegraph-wires. Explain the meaning of nerve-cur- rents. Give the meaning of sense-organs : of terminal organs. Show the office of sense-organs. Give the distinction between the special and the general senses. Give the estimated number of nerve-cells and nerve-fibers in a human brain. Name the lower nerve-centers of the brain ; the central nerve-centers ; the higher nerve-centers. Define sensorium ; what does it include ? Define motorium ; what does it include ? Give the office of sensor ganglia ; of intel- lective ganglia ; of emotive ganglia ; of motor ganglia. Place on the board a diagram of the sensorium and motorium, and also the cuts on pages 46 and 48. Trace impressions from the outer to the inner world through each of the special sensor lines. Describe, give office of, and illustrate the workings of the optic apparatus; of the auditory apparatus; of the olfactory apparatus ; of the gustatory apparatus ; of the tactile apparatus ; of the muscu- lar apparatus. Give examples. Define sensation. Do agitations of the sensorium of which you are not conscious produce sensation ? What is it that hears and sees ? What is reflex action ? automatic action ? Why should we spare no effort to keep our bodies in the best possible condition! Why is it criminal to violate hygienic laws? What is meant by comparative psychology ? How do brute and human sensations differ? Letter. — Tell your friend some things you know about the sen- sorium and sensation. Dwell upon the wonders of the organism in connection with which mind works. Explain in detail and fully how messages pass between the outer and the inner world. Inclose your outline of these chapters. 54 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. ropicAL Analysis of Chapters IV akd V. — Sensation^. L Nerve-Cells. Nerve-fluid. T. Ganglia. Reflex ganglia. Sensor ganglia. IIL Nerves. Structure. Office. V. Sense-Organs. . Special. V. The Brain. Lower nerve-centers. Middle nerve-centers. VL Cerebral Ganglia. Sensor ganglia. Intellective ganglia. VII. Definitions. Sensorium, Motorium. VIII. Reflex Sensor Action. Automatic action. IX. Sensorium and Motorinm. Explain sensation. X. Special Sensor Lines. Optic apparatus. Auditory apparatus. Olfactory apparatus. XI. General Sensor Lines. Muscular line. Hunger-line. Etc., etc. XIL Comparative Psychology. XIII. Hygiene and Education of Nerve-force. Motor ganglia. Classification. Nerve-currents. General. Hiffher nerve-centers. Emotive ganglia. Motor ganglia. Sensation. Reflex action. Explain motion. Gustatory apparatus. Tactile apparatus. Thirst-line. Ditrestive line. the Senses. PART II. THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. CHAPTER VI. — Sense-Perceptiox, or Sense-Ixtuitiox. VII. — Conscious Perception, or Self-Consciousness. VIII. — Noumenal Perception, or Noumenal Intuition. DC. — Presentation — General View. THE JILMAX SOUL. SECOND PART. PER CEPTIVE-KyO WIXG— THE PER CEPTI VE PO WERS. SOUL-EXERGIES. Before beginning the study of your capabilities in detail, it is important that you take a general view of Your powers. To aid you in this, the soul-energies are here represented by a tree. '* Like all graphic deyices, it represents the facts only approximately."'* It is earn- estly hoped, howcYer, that this deYice will help you to gain true conceptions of the human soul. Soul-Energi2s. Kjs'owixg. Perceptive knowing. 1. Sense-perception. 3. Xoumenal perception, 2. Conscious perception. Representative knowing. 4. Memory. 5. Phantasy. 6. Imagination. Thought-knowing. 7. Conception. 8. Judgment. 9. Reason. Feeling. Instincts. Strictly brute instincts. Strictly human instincts. Instincts common to brute and man. Physical feelings. Appetites. General senses. Special senses. Emotions. Egoistic emotions. Cosmic emotions. Altruistic emotions. Willing. Attention. Action. Choice. 58 ELEMEXTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION". The one soul is capable of acting in different ways. These distinct soul-energies are called capabilities, or powers, or faculties. Self is an indivisible unit in know- ing, in feeling, and in willing. A faculty is simply a method in which the mind can act. With the tree on the opposite page in view, you may examine carefully the outline of soul-energies. Keep constantly in mind the central fact that the mind is one and acts as a unit. Each capability supple- ments all other capabilities. '" The soul feels while it knows, and determines w^hile it feels." As you study your individual powders you will recur often to this connected outKne, and thus learn to view each of your energies in its relations to your other powers. You will learn to think of a mental powder as merely one of your capabilities. The Perceptive Powers. — By these we mean our powers to know immediately. We know at once that ice is cold, that we are glad, that things exist and oc- cupy space. We do not need to reason up to these ideas. We are endowed with capabilities to know some things directly. Our powers of direct insight are known by the following Names. — The Perceptive Powers. The Presentative Powers. The Intuitive Powers. The Simple Cognitive Powers. We behold immediately material things having qualities. We perceive the mountain as lofty and snow-- capped. We perceive ourselves recalling and reasoning. Our capabilities to make jyresent, or to know immediate- ly, are called owi jpresentative powers. As we know di- SENSE-PERCEPTION. 59 rectly, or intuitively, we call these faculties our iiituitive powers. As perceptive knowing is the simplest form of knowing, we term these capabilities the simple cog- nitive powers. Cognize^ to know, cognition^ the act of knowing, and cognitive^ the power to know, are valuable terms in mental science. ( Sense-Perception, or Sense-Intuition. The Perceptive Powers J Conscious Perception, or Consciousness. are — j Nouinenal-Perception, or Noumenal-Intu- ition. Thaf he may explore the matter-world, man is en- dowed with seiise-ferception. That he may gain self- knowledge, he is endowed with conscioics-perceptiofi. That he may cognize the world of necessary lealities and thus build on the rock, he is endowed with nou- menal-perception. CHAPTER YI. SENSE-PERCEPTION. By this is meant the power to perceive directly ma- terial objects. SeK as sense-perception stands face to face with physical phenomena. I know at once this tree as large, green, cone-bearing. This capability is designated by the following ( Sense-Perception, or Objective-Perception. Names. — •< Outer-Perception, or External-Perception. (. Sense-Intuition, or Perception. Each term embodies the same idea — self endowed with the capability to know immediately the outer 60 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. world. Sense-jpercej)tion, the power to gain knowledge tlirongh the senses, is most expressive, and is now uni- versally used. For brevity, perception is often used, but is indefinite. Sensation is the power to feel consciously sensor ex- citations. You speak. Sound-waves vibrate through the air, in my ears, through my auditory nerves, in my auditory ganglia. I feel the excitation ; I hear you speak. I interpret the sensations; your words are to me signs of ideas. Self, as sense-perception, interprets sensations — converts sensations into ideas. Sensation is the basis of all knowing. Without sensations there can be no sense-perceptions. Without particular notions there can be no general notions. In order that sense-perceptions may be, sen- sations must be. It is a curious fact that all our knowing begins with blind feelings. Out of these blind feelings we make our sense- ideas. Sense-perception includes sensation. • Acts of Sense-Perception analyzed. — Notice carefully yourself perceiving. What do you do when you per- ceive ? What are the steps in acts of sense-perception ? What are the products ? Take this object. You press it ; it is soft. You touch it ; it is smooth. You smell it; it is fragrant. You drop it; the sound is slight. You see it ; it is white. You interpret these sensations, and cognize the object as a rose. In this way you may profitably examine many acts of perception. You find in an act of sense-perception four distinct elements: sensation, recalling, perceiving, and self -perceiving. 1. Sensations are the stuff out of which sense-ideas are made. The blind see no colors ; the deaf hear no sounds. The blind gain no percepts of color ; the deaf gain no percepts of sound. SENSE-PERCEPTION. Ql 2. Recalling other experiences, you refer your sen- sations, immediate and revived, to the object. You perceive the fragrant white rose. 3. Perceiving. Fusing the sensations, immediate and recalled, you form an idea of the object. You in- terpret your sensations, and make out of them the no- tion, this soft, fragrant white rose. This is sense-per- ceiving. 4. Self -perceiving. You are aware that you perceive the rose. You stand face to face with material objects. You know directly self perceiving material things. From your analysis of many acts of sense-perception you discover the Office of Sense-Perception. — The soul is a unit, but is capable of acting in many ways. The distinct ways in which the soul can act are called soul-energies, mental powers, mental faculties, or mental capabilities. Office is used to designate the special work of a mental power in the mental economy. Self, as attention, concentrates effort ; concentration is the office of attention. Self, as memory, recalls ; recollection is the office of memory. Self, as sense-perception, interprets sensations, or con- verts sensations into ideas ; interpreting sensations is the office of sense-perception. The mind, as sense-per- ception, forms sense-ideas, or gains a direct knowledge of material objects. From your analysis of acts of sense-perception you discover the Characteristics of Sense-Perception. — This power of Belf is distinguished from all his other capabilities by marked peculiarities : 1. Self as sense-perception, knows intuitively physi- cal phenomena. I know the board is black because I 62 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. see it black. I know the sugar is sweet because I taste it sweet. So with all sense-knowing. I look directly on material phenomena. The soul, as sense-perception, stands face to face with the outer world. I know im- mediately objects as extended and resisting. I do not need to prove to myself that the rose smells sweet ; I know it intuitively. I know the wall is here, for I see it extended, and feel it resisting my efforts to pass through. 2. The mind^ as sense-percejotion^ is limited to physi- cal phenomena. A being endowed merely with sense- perception would forever remain ignorant of self. Self, as sense-perception, knows physical phenomena, and nothing more. 3. The 7ni}id^ as sense-perception.^ gains only con- crete individual notions of material objects. Beings not endowed with other powers are incapable of forming class-notions. The brute perceives individual trees, but is incapable of thinking the many trees into one class. Definitions of Sense-Perception. — SeK, as sense-per- ception, explores the outer world. Physical phenomena come to lis vibrating in our sensoriums. The soul is aware of its sensor excitations, and assimilates its sensa- tions, immediate and revived, into notions called sense- ideas. The capability to convert sensations into ideas is termed sense-perception. 1. Sense-perception is the power to hnoio immedi- ately material objects. Strictly, sense-perception is the power to know immediately physical phenomena. But sensations are signs of material things. The mind, as sense-perception, translates these signs into notions of things. These concrete individual notions of material SENSE-PERCEPTION. 63 tMngs are termed sense-ideas. Self stands face to face with the material world — hence knows immediately, knows intuitively material objects as having properties. We see the tall tree, not the abstract phenomena, tall. We perceive noumena as well as phenomena. We gain a knowledge of things, not of mere abstract impressions. 2. Original. Write your definition of sense-per- ception. What does it mean to you ? Kemember that what others have thought will prove beneficial to you only as it leads you to better and clearer thinking. 3. Various Definitions. — 1. Sully : Sense-perception is the power to integrate sense-impressions, immediate and revived, into percepts. 2. Porter : Sense-perception is the power to gain a knowledge of material objects through the sensorium. 3. Mahan : Sense-percep- tion is the faculty to apprehend the qualities of material substances. 4. McCosH : Sense-perception is the power to gain a knowledge of things affecting us, external to ourselves and extended. 5. White : Sense-perception is the power to know directly present and material objects. Some writers seem to teach that self as sense-perception knows directly the noumena as well as phenomena. To me it is clear that self as noumenal-intuition perceives substance underlying phenom- ena, while self as sense-intuition perceives physical phenomena and nothing more. Sense - Percepts. — The ideas we gain through the senses are called sense-ideas, or sense-percepts. A sense- percept is a product of sense-perception. I see, hear, touch, smell, and taste this orange. The idea, this orange, is a sense-perc8})t. Sense-percepts are our ideas of material things. 1. Sense-jpercepts are concrete notions. Concrete ideas are ideas of things with qualities. The notion, red, is abstract ; but the notion, this red rose, is a con- crete idea— is a sense-percept. (54 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 2. Sense-fercepts are particular notions. Fruit is a general notion, but this green apple is a particular notion — is a sense-percept. Sensations, immediate and remembered, are the materials of which sense-percepts are made. Sense-percepts are our concrete individual notions of material things. 3. Re-percepts are rememljered percepts. You ob- serve the ocean-steamer. The idea thus made present is a sense-percept. When you recall this idea and thus make it present again, it is called a re-percept. Bemark.—Some critical thinkers limit the use of sense-percept to the product of a single sense, and call our ideas of objects sense- concepts, or individual concepts. But Sully, McCosh, Porter, and others, term our concrete ideas of external objects sense-percepts. Percept is used in this sense in literature and life. A concept is always a class-notion, but a percept is a notion of an individual thing. Direct and Indirect Sense-Percepts. — I see, and hear, and feel, and smell, and taste this red, dull-sounding, mellow, fragrant, sweet apple. I thus gain a direct sense-percept. Ideas gained directly from sensations, immediate and revived, are direct sense-percepts. They are also called original sense-percepts. But my idea of the distance across the river involves judgment and experience, as well as sensation, and is an indirect sense- percept. I hear sounds in a distant room which I know are caused by a piano. The blind substitute touch and hearing for sight. We learn by experience to know the presence of musk by the peculiar odor. By expe- rience we learn to locate the sense of smell in the nose. Ideas thus gained indirectly from sensations are hidi- red sense-percepts. 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