SB U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 178. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief v/ Bureau. IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. Br HENRY F. BLANCHARD, Assistant Agronomist, Office of Grain Investigations. Issued June 1, 1910. WASHINGTON: government printing office. 1910. .in. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 178. B. T. GALLOWAY, ChUf of Hnrcau. IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. BY HENRY F. BLANCHARD, Assistant Agronomist, Office of Grain Investigations. Issued June 1, 1910. WASHINGTON: government printing office. 1910. w^ V .a' BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell. Editor. J. E. Rockwell. Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. Grain Investigations. SCIENTIFIC .STAFF. Mark Alfred Carleton, Cerealist in Charge. VV. M. Jardinc, C. R. Ball, II. B. Derr, and C. W. Warburton, Agronomists. E. C. JohBSon, Pathologist. C. E. Chambliss, Expert. John F. Ross, Farm Superintendent. H. F. Blanchard and II. J. C. Umberger, Assistant Agronomists. F. R. Babcock, V. L. Cory, F. D. Farrell, and W. G. Shellej-, Assistants. E. L. Adams, L. C. Burnett, Manley Champlin, J. M. Jenkins, A. A. Potter, and Cecil Salmon, Special Agents. 178 JUN 22 1910 LETTER OE TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washington , D. C, Fehruary 28, 1910. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled "Improvement of the Wheat Crop in Cahfornia," by Mr. Henry F. Bhmchard, Assistant Agronomist in the Office of Grain Investiga- tions, and recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 178 of the series of this Bureau. For many years there has been a steady deterioration in the wheat crop of Cahfornia, due to two general causes, (1) bad methods in farm practice and (2) a lack of varieties adapted to that region. The Office of Grain Investigations, of this Bureau, has investigated these conditions for about five years, during a part of which time the work has been in cooperation with the state experiment station at Berk- eley, Cal. Besides observations on many farms and other investiga- tions, experiments in methods of cultivation and adaptation of varieties have been conducted in detail at two points, Davis and Modesto. The accompanying paper gives briefly some of the results of investigations, to date, along these lines. Respectfully, G. H. Powell, Acting Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 178 . 3 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 7 Common methods of cnltivation unsatisfactory 8 ( )riii;inal methods of cultivation 8 ( 'hanges from original methods S Bad results <»f jiast and present methods 9 Soil low in humus and nitrates 9 Soil foul with weeds 10 Requirements for the production of profitable crops 10 Smaller farms and personal supervision by owners 10 Improved methods 11 Deep plowing 11 Addition of humus and nitrogen to the soil 12 Crops to be used as green manure 13 Time and method of handling 13 Effect of deep plowing and green manuring 15 Increased yields 15 Increased profits 17 Cleaning the land of weeds 18 Development of better varieties of wheat 19 Variety tests in California 19 Selecting varieties for California 20 Climate and soil 20 Habit of growth 21 Nonshattering habit 21 Milling quality 22 Other requisites 22 Seed improvement by the grower 23 Small compared with large seed - - 23 The seed plat 23 Two new varieties of wheat adapted 1o California conditions 24 The Chul variety 24 Origin and history ,. 24 Introduction into California 25 Description 25 Yields obtained 25 Milling quality 2G The Fretes variety 26 Origin and history 26 Description 27 Yields obtained 27 Milling quality 28 Pure seed of the Chul and Fretes varieties 29 Protein content as affected by lime of seeding 29 Summary 30 Index 33 178 5 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Fig. 1. Wheat plants from six plats treated differently, showing comparative development 12 2. Wheat growing on plat which has been continuously seeded to the same crop 1 ;5 3. Wheat growing on plat on which Canadian field peas were grown and plowed under in 1908 14 4. Wheat growing on plat on which rye and vetch were grown and plowed under in 1908 15 5. Wheat growing on plat on which rye was grown and plowed under in 1908 16 6. Representative plants of six varieties of wheat from uniform plats planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing their com- parative development on May 1 , 1909 21 7. Representative plants of six additional varieties of wheat from uniform plats planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing their comparative development on May 1, 1909 22 8. Chul wheat (G. I. No. 2227) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909 24 9. Fretes wheat (G. I. No. 1596) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909 27 10. AVhite Australian wheat (G. I. No. 3019) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909 28 178 6 B. P. 1.-^556. IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. INTRODUCTION. An impression exists among many California farmers that the soil will no longer produce profitable yields of good milling wheats. This impression is strengthened by two well-recognized facts: (1) That under past and present methods of wheat culture the soil is failing in many localities to produce as large crops as heretofore, and (2) that the Australian and Club varieties, the most widely grown California wheats, are extremely starchy. As only these very starchy varieties have been extensively grown, it has become necessary for the millei"s to import large quantities of Turkey wheat from the Middle West to blend with the California wheats. In order to discover varieties better adapted to California needs than those commonly grown, the Office of Grain Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry has for a number of years conducted ex- tensive tests of wheat varieties, including many of foreign origin. In this way it was hoped to improve the California wheat crop in both yield and milling quality. As improved methods of cultivation are necessary also to obtain profitable yields of nitrogenous wheats, an effort has been made to determine the effect of deep plowing and the addition of humus to the soil in the form of winter green-manure crops. The time of plowing, the conservation of moisture, and the eradication of weeds have also been considered. If the State is to continue the profitable use of its grain lands and derive from them the largest possible return, it is quite necessary that there be an im- provement in the general practices of cultivation and in the varieties grown. The investigations covered by this report are in general based upon results obtained and observations made during a number of years, a part of the time in cooperation with the California Agricul- tural Experiment Station. An effort has been made to so correlate the results and observations that they will be of benefit to the Cali- fornia grain grower in effecting improvement in soil fertility, in the 32912— Bui. 178—10 2 7 8 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. yield of wheat to the acre, and in the niiUing quahty of the grain produced. The investigations carried on thus far are simply the foundation for a more extensive work in the future. It is necessary in order to find a few desirable varieties that a large number be fii-st grown in small areas and compared with the commonly grown varieties. The results obtained in this way indicate which varieties may be submitted to practical tests directly with the farmers. COMMON METHODS OF CULTIVATION UNSATISFACTORY. The cultivation methods still commonly practiced by many of the farmers of California have been brought about by the conditions existing about 1860, when it was first discovered that wheat could be grown as a profitable crop. These conditions were as follows: Fertile virgin soil, large level valleys facilitating extensive cultiva- tion, a growing season extending from November to June, and a period of rainfall extending over the growing season, with com- paratively high temperatures during the winter months and low temperatures during the spring months. The methods are generally very simple and very crude. They consist in the continuous cropping of wheat and barley upon soil which receives only a very shallow cultivation. The farmer is removing the plant food from the soil without the addition of anything to take its place. This is resulting in many localities in a depleted condition of the soil, and profitable crops of wheat are no longer grown. ORIGINAL METHODS OF CULTIVATION. The first grain producers of California attempted to crop as large an acreage as possible at a minimum cost. In order to do this, at that time all that was necessary was very shallow plowing (3 or 4 inches in depth), broadcasting the seed, and harrowing it into the soil. This was continued from year to year and fairly good crops were produced for a while. The header and stationary thrasher were used in harvesting the grain. Very little attempt was made on the part of the producer to secure pure seed of the varieties grown or to practice the careful grading of wheat, using only the largest and best kernels for seed. In fact, very little attention was given to the seed used. In man}^ instances the farmer used the poorest grade of grain that he had grown the previous year. CHANGES FROM ORIGINAL METHODS. Since the earlier period of wheat production in California some changes have taken place or are now in progress. The most important of these are the replacing of the header and stationary thrasher by 178 COMMON METHODS OF CULTIVATION UNSATISFACTORY. 9 the combined harvester and the beginning of the practice of summer- fallowing the land. The change to the combined harvester, about 1880, was due largely to labor conditions existing at that time. It was difficult to secure enough men to properly handle the grain, and the methods of har- vesting were unsatisfactory. The climatic conditions, as well as the general contour of the land, were found to be favorable to the use of the combined harvester. This machine reduces to the mini- mum the number of men employed and at the same time utilizes the power of mules and traction engines. Proper methods of summer-fallowing the land are not yet generally practiced. Summer-fallowing became necessary on account of the foul condition of the soil which had been produced by continuous cropping to wheat. The use of the combined harvester, however, has partly offset the cleaning effect of the fallow. This method of tillage is beneficial, especially wdien it precedes a particularly dry season, as in this way a large amount of the rainfall for two year's is retained in the soil. At first it was found necessary to summer-fallow the land every third year only, but later, every second year. Other changes which have been taking place during recent years are the reduction in size of a few grain farms and an increase in the depth of plowing on the part of some farmers. These changes, how- ever, occur in individual instances only and are not general in their nature. BAD RESULTS OF PAST AND PRESENT METHODS. We now have in many sections of California, as a result of the com- mon methods of wheat culture, a soil which refuses to produce profit- able crops of the commonly grown varieties of wheat. The general practice of single cropping has depleted the soil in humus and nitrates and made it very foul with weeds. Soil Low in Humus and Nitrates. There are large sections of California which have been sown in wheat and barley under the commonly practiced methods for the past thirty or forty years. These crops rapidly deplete the soil in humus and nitrates. Humus is the decaying organic material which N gives body to the soil and is essential in retaining the soil moisture. It also affects the temperature of the soil, producing somewhat higher temperatures in winter and lower temperatures in summer, according to Wollny, as cited by Hilgard." The nitrates of the soil are very essential in the production of wheat, as they form an important part of the necessary plant food. A soil low in nitrates usually tends to aHilgard, E. W. Soils, 1906, p. 306. 178 10 IMPBOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. decrease the nitrogen content of wheat grown upon it. On soils low in humus and nitrates there is also a correspondingly low yield of \ wheat. * Soil Foul with Weeds. The weed problem is not of minor importance. In fact, when pass- ing through California grain fields and finding that large areas are badly infested with weeds one is impressed with the effect that they must have upon the yields of wheat. This weedy condition is due largely to the common methods of harvesting and cultivating. In many localities the soil has become so weedy that even with the best methods of summer fallowing commonly practiced by the farmer it is impossible to prevent large damage to the crops. The weeds in many instances crowd out the wheat plants by outgrowing them during the winter months. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF PROFITABLE CROPS. In order to produce profitable crops of wheat on the worn-out grain lands of California the past and even the present methods of produc- tion must in a large measure give way to methods which will produce better results in the future. This to a small degree has already taken place in some sections. There are also large areas of the State upon which wheat has not been grown for as long a period of time as on those sections first farmed. However, these are being rapidly reduced to the same depleted condition on account of the unscientific practices in use. In some localities where the soil now fails to produce profitable grain crops it has been possible to grow other crops on the same land. In general, such instances are confined to the areas upon which water can be applied. Alfalfa and fruit usually do well in such sections. There are, however, large areas to which water can not be readily applied, and these will no doubt be used for the production of grain for many years to come. In order to produce crops of grain on such lands it not only becomes necessary to introduce new varieties or improved forms of those now grown, but a change in the actual farming methods for grain as they now exist is absolutely essential. The present methods sufficed for a time, and temporary profits from the soil resulted. It has been comparatively easy to produce crops from a fertile soil without taking into account the effect of such methods upon the soil. It will require much more skill and effort to return the soil to a condition in which good crops of wheat may again be produced. SMALLER FARMS AND PERSONAL SUPERVISION BY OWNERS. In the pioneer days of California the interior valleys were not considered of much value for the production of crops on account of 178 REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 11 the small amount of rainfall. At that time certain companies were enabled to secure large tracts of this land at a nominal price. These companies discovered that this land would produce good yields of grain and it was cropped on a very large scale. Since that time there has been a gradual breaking up of these large farms into smaller ones. However, there are still too many large ones to make probable the general use of improved methods of grain production. Until the farms are so reduced in size that they may be properly handled we may look for continued low production and further depletion in the soil fertility of the wheat lands. Another feature of much of the grain production in California is the practice of renting the lands from year to year to men who are not interested in the building up of the soil. The desire of the tenant is to get all that is possible out of the land at the least expense to himself during the time which he holds it. As long as this condi- tion exists there will be a continued decrease in the value of the wheat lands. The remedy for this is the direct supervision by the owner of the methods of cultivation and cropping. He has a real interest in the future condition of his soil and will undoubtedly give it better attention than the tenant who is interested only in the crop he pro- duces each year. IMPROVED METHODS. Improvement in the methods of wheat culture is essential to tlie production of more profitable crops. These improvements include tlie practice of deeper plowing, the increase of soil lunnus and nitrates by turning under green-manure crops, and the cleaning of the land of weeds by better methods of cultivation. Deep Plowing. At the present time we can not place too much stress upon the importance of deep plowing. The few inches of soil at the surface have been skimmed for so long that they are practically devoid of plant food in available form. For this reason alone it becomes nec- essary to turn up fresh soil. This will necessitate cutting below that stratum of soil commonly known as the "plow pan," which has been formed by the practice of plowing year after year at the same depth. In many localities plowing at a depth of from 8 to 12 inches is advisable. Unless green-manure crops are to be turned under, this depth should be reached by a gradual increase in depth for two or three years. By this gradual increase in depth the subsoil will become properly mixed with the surface soil. Deep plowing requires more power than is needed for the ordinary method, and the first deep plowing is more difhcult than subsequent 178 12 IMPROVEMENT OP THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. plowings. This is due largely to a more or less packed condition of the subsoil. Deep })lowing sliould be done in the early spring while there is still sufficient moisture in the soil. It should not be done while the soil is either too wet or too dry. Wliile the benefits derived from deep plowing may not be so evident the first season, the results obtained are of permanent character. The subsoil is benefited by direct contact with the air and other climatic influences, and the effects of deep plow- ing will be more noticeable the sec- ond and succeeding 3^ears. Addition op Humus and Nitrogen to the Soil. As already stated the soil of California grain lands is low in humus. In order to add humus to the soil green - manure crops must be grown and plowed under. This is nec- essary not only in order that land very low in humus be again placed in good condition, but also that lands in wliich humus is now fairly plentiful be retained in good shape (fig. 1). Owing to a tendency of ver}" light sandy soil to shift during heavy winds, deep plowing may be det- rimental at first on such soils. This soil shifting may, however, be reduced to a minimum by the addition of humus, wliich will give it body and make ])ossible the practice of deep plowing without injury. 178 Fig. 1.— Wheat plants from six plats treated differently, showing com- parative development: A , From plat continuously seeded to wheat; B, from plat barefallowed in 1908; C, from plat upon which horse beans were grown and plowed under in 1908; D, from plat upon which Canadian field peas were grown and plowed under in 1908; i?, from plat upon which rye and vetch were grown and plowed under in 1908; F, from plat upon which rye was grown and plowed under in 1908. KEQUIEEMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 13 CHOPS TO HK USED AS (MJEEN MANUIIR. r^nnadian fieltl ])oas and Al)riizzes rye do very well as o^reen-maniire crops in the valley sections of the State. Under favoral)le conditions in the Sacramento Valley peas alone have given very good results when seeded at the rate of 80 pounds to the acre. On the lighter soils of the San Joaquin Valley peas do not make as rank a growth as in the Sacramento Valley. For this reason it is suggested that peas and rye be grown together, tlie rye to be so\\ti at the rate of 40 pounds and the peas 50 pounds to the acre. The rye and pea vines will adtl humus to the soil, while the nodules on the roots of Fig. '-'.—Wheat growing ou plat \viiii_-li has been uoutiuuuusly seudud to liiu buhio crop. (See figure 1 , .t .) the pea vines will transfer the nitrogen of the air to the soil in the form of nitrates. If rye and peas are to be grown separately, the rye should be sown at the rate of 70 pounds and the peas at the rate of 80 pounds to the acre. TIME AND METHOD OF HANDLING. Rye and peas for green manure must be grown as a winter crop. They should be planted as soon as it is possible to plow the land in the fall and should be turned under before the land is too dry for plowing in the spring. Usually there is sufficient moisture in the 178 14 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. soil to allow the planting of green-manure crops by December 1, though in some sections and in exceptional seasons the planting may be necessarily later. It is not advisable, however, to sow later than December 15, for unless the early spring rains are so delayed as to facilitate late plowing the green-manure crop will not be of much value. This crop should be turned under during early March before the soil is too dry for deep plowing. In other words, in order to give green-manure crops the maximum period of growth it is nec- essary to sow as early as the ground can be worked in the fall and to turn under as late as possible in the spring. The length of the growing period is regulated very largely by the Fig. 3.— Wheat growing ou plat on which Canadian field peas were grown and plowed under in 1908. (See figure 1, D.) length of the rainy season. The dry condition of the wheat fields in the fall permits a plowing of only 4 to 5 inches in depth when getting the stubble land in shape for the early planting of green- manure crops. The stubble should be double-disked, where possi- ble, immediately after the wheat crop is harvested. The disking prepares the land to retain the moisture already present and to receive the light precipitation coming during the fall months, thus putting it in shape for an early shallow plowing and a good seed bed. In the spring the land should be plowed deep in order to get 178 REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 15 the growing peas or rye well under, where they will readily decay, after which the soil should be well harrowed immediately. Effect of Deep Plowing and Green Manuring. The effect of deep plowing and green-manure crops upon the yield of wheat, as determined by observation and actual experiment (see figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5), is shown in Table I, these yields being ob- tained at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. INCREASED YIELDS. Wliile the results indicated are not entirely conclusive, for the reason that they are not based upon trials extending over a long Fig. 4.— Wheat growing on plat on which rye and vetch were grown and plowed under in 1908. (See figure 1, E.) series of years, they give an idea of what may be accomplished by the deep plowing under of green-manure crops. As indicated, horse beans used as green manure appear to give better results than peas. However, they have a very thick and heavy stalk, and an enormous quantity of seed is required on account of their habit of growing a single stalk from each seed. They are not recommended in the place of peas, which will give better results in combination with rye as a green-manure crop. 32912— Bui. 178—10 3 16 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. Table I. — Effect of deep plorving and green-manure crops on the yield of u'heat at Modesto, Cal., 1909. I'receding treatincnt or crop. Yield per Weisht per bushel. Fallow Horse beans (turned under) Canadian field peas (turned under) Wheat (2(i bushels) Rye and vetch (turned under) Rye (turned under) Bushels. 28.00 35.33 33.66 15.66 50.66 51.33 Pounds. 61 61 60 60 60 61 The cultivation of the plats indicated in the table was as follows: In the fall of 1907 all of the plats were laid out on summer-fallow Fig. 5. — Wheat growing on plat on which rye was grown and plowed under in (See figure I, F.) land and all were plowed to a depth of 6 inches and harrowed. Plat 1 was allowed to remain fallow. Plat 4 was sown to wheat. Plats 2, 3, 5, and 6 were sown, as indicated, to horse beans, Canadian field peas, rye and vetch, and rye alone. The vetch in plat 5 made a very poor stand, while the horse beans and peas made a fairly good stand. The stand of rye was excellent. In March, 1908, plats 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 were plowed 8 inches deep, harrowed, and kept clean throughout the summer and fall. Plat 4, 178 BEQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 17 which yielded at the rate of 26 bushels of wheat to the acre, was double-disked immediately after the wheat was taken off. The first of December, 1908, all plats were plowed to a depth of 5 inches and sown to wheat. The resulting yields are given in Table I. In two years' time the plat continuously seeded to wheat has pro- duced' 41 bushels of wheat. However, the first year's yield, 26 bushels, was produced after summer fallow and the second year's yield, 15.66 bushels, shows a decrease of nearly half. It is quite probable that the third year will give a very low yield and that in a series of five years the quantity of wheat produced from continuously seeded plats would be much smaller than from the other methods of cultivation. It follows, then, from this experiment, that deeply plowed summer fallow will give much better yields than shallow-plowed, continuously cropped land. Plats 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 were all plowed at the same depth, and the last four were fallowed also after turning under the^ green crops. The yields indicate that the addition of organic matter (humus) to the soil is beneficial in increasing the production of crops and that this increase is proportional to the quantity rather than the quality or kind of organic matter added. INCREASED PROFITS. The yields shown in Table I were obtained in plat work, where the varieties received the best possible attention, thus giving higher yields than would have been probable under field practice. In our estimate of the increase in profits brought about by thorough methods of cultivation, the yields are estimated at two-thirds the value given in the table. The estimate made of increase in net profits is based largely upon observation of the general cost of farm work in the State. It may not be absolutely accurate in every particular, but it serves well in bringing out a comparison of the common methods of cultivation employed with the more intensive methods suggested in this paper. Approximate cost of cultivation per acre by the common method. First plowing (5 inches deep) $1. 25 Second plowing (5 inches deep) 1. 25 Two harrowings 20 2.70 Approximate cost of cultivation per acre by the improved method. Double-disking stubble $0. 50 First plowing (5 inches deep) 1. 25 Second plowing (8 inches deep) 2. 00 Third plowing (4 inches deep) 1. 25 Three harrowings 30 Rye seed for green manure 2. 00 7.30 178 18 IMPBOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. The approximate cost of cultivation by the common method is $2.70 per acre, as compared with $7.30 per acre by the improved method suggested, which gives an increased cost of $4.60 per acre for better tillage. As shown in Table I, we have almost doubled the yield per acre by the improved methods. Suppose the yields given in the table were reduced to two-thirds their value, as previously suggested. We still have wheat, following ordinary methods of bare fallow, yielding at the rate of 19 bushels per acre, while wheat following deep plowing and rye as a green-manure crop yields at the rate of 34 bushels per acre. With wheat at $1 a bushel we have at a cost of $2.70 per acre produced $19 (not deducting cost of harvest, etc.). By better methods at a cost of $7.30 per acre we have produced $34 (not deducting cost of harvest, etc.). This gives an approximate increase of net profit of $10.40 per acre in favor of the better method of tillage. Cleaning the Land op Weeds. The problem of cleaning the land of weeds reduces itself to sys- tematic cultivation and the production of rapidly growing varieties, especially as concerns their early development. Where cultivated crops are grown it is readily understood that the problem of getting rid of weeds is not so difficult as with wheat crops. Results obtained lead us to suggest that the following method of cultivation, if rigidly enforced, will help in a large measure to reduce the weeds in wheat fields : (1) Thoroughly double-disk the land as soon as possible after har- vest, thus stirring the surface, breaking up the stubble, and covering the weed seeds. Then allow the land to stand until the weed seeds at the surface have had a chance to germinate after the first rains. (2) As soon as the weed seeds are well germinated, plow the land to a depth of 4 or 5 inches and harrow well. This should be done, if possible, not later than December 15. (3) Between March 1 and 15, plow to a depth of from 8 to 12 inches. This exposes the weed seeds not turned up by the first plowing. Harrow the surface thoroughly immediately after plowing. Whether a summer crop is grown or the land is allowed to lie fallow it should be kept well cultivated and free from weeds. (4) In November, plow to a depth of from 4 to 5 inches and sow the wheat about 2 inches deep. (5) Just before the grain appears through the surface the land should be thoroughly double-harrowed in order to kill all weeds which have germinated following the seeding of the wheat. (6) The variety of wheat grown should make a rapid, erect, early growth in order that it may keep ahead of and choke out all the young weeds which are not killed by the final harrowing. (Our 178 REQUIKEMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 19 investigations tend to prove that the flat-growing types of true winter wheat will not succeed in the valley soils of California, espe- cially in their present condition of weediness.) (7) The young grain should be thoroughly harrowed as soon as the ground is dry enough in the early spring, thus covering all of the young weeds which have started during the rainy season. DEVELOPMENT OF BETTER VARIETIES OF WHEAT. The proper cultivation of the soil is essential to the production of good yields of all varieties of wheat. It does not follow, however, that every variety of wheat will give good yields even on fertile soil properly cultivated. This erroneous idea prevails among certain grain growers. The United States Department of Agriculture has tested hundreds of varieties of wheat in different sections of the country and has found that comparatively few of these varieties are adapted to the prevailing climatic and soil conditions of each sec- tion. Varieties which produce good yields in one section of the country are found to be absolute failures in other sections. Variety Tests in California. Although a large number of varieties of wheat have been tested in California by this Department during the past five years, very few of these are adapted to the climatic and soil conditions of this State. California presents such a variety of climates that a type of wheat which may give excellent results in one section of the State does poorly in another. Our investigations thus far are not of long enough duration to enable us to state definitely the variety of wheat best adapted to any particular locality of the State. How- ever, the results indicate that for the localities in which tests have been made we have now varieties which are better adapted to the prevailing conditions than those commonly grown by the farmers. We are able, therefore, with a fair degree of certainty, to recommend varieties for a large portion of the State. Table II presents a list of some of the varieties of wheat which have been grown in California in connection with the investigations of the Department. The average yields to the acre, the number of days required to reach maturity, and the fruiting period (the number of days between the time of blossoming and the time of ripening) are based upon the plat experiments continued for three years in the San Joaquin Valley. The results obtained from the same varieties when grown in the Sacramento Valley compare very favorably with those indicated in this table. A few of these varieties are proving to be well adapted to both the localities in which they have been grown. 178 20 IMFEOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. Table II. — Results of variety tests of wheat in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Grain Investi- gations No. 1698 3019 2511-2 2921 2986 2210 2227 3018 1437 2988 1697 2397 1596 2398 1442 2246 1593 2235 1597 2989 2873 2888 1970 2991 29S4 2983 2235-1 2899 1743 1561 1558 2247 2985 2404 2096 2592 Variety. Allora Australian . Bl^Noir... Bolo Blanco California Gem. Cap Sheaf Chul Club Crimean Dietz Amber. Early Baart.. Erivan Fretes. Galgalos . . Kharkof. ., Kubanka. Marouani ....do Medeah Minnesota No. 66. Minnesota No. 163. Filipino Propo Purple Straw . . Saumur de Mars. Chiddam Selection from Marouani. Selection from Chul. Sonora Theiss Turkey Velvet Don. .. W a s h i n gton Bluestem. Yantagbay Yellow Ghar- novka. [Unnamed] . . . Manner of early growth. Aver- age number of days matur- ing. Erect Semi-erect ..do Erect Semi-erect Spreading. Erect ...do Spreading. -do Erect ..do Semi-erect Spreading. ..do Erect ..do ..do ..do Spreading. ..do Erect Semi-erect ..do ..do ..do.. Erect. .do. ..do Spreading. ..do Erect Semi-erect Erect -.do Spreading. 180 194 161 191 198 189 187 165 199 194 162 192 193 191 193 170 185 184 196 203 195 192 182 190 191 178 152 186 201 199 185 170 184 185 193 Aver- age number of days in fruiting period Quality of grain. 39 Starchy ...do Medium starchy. Starchy". ....do ....do Glutinous, spotted. Starchy ....do ....do ....do Glutinous, spotted. Medium starchy. do Starchy Glutinous, spotted. do do do Medium starchy. do Very starchy. Starchy ....do ....do ....do Glutinous, spotted. ....do 44 Starchy. 36 do. 39 38 do Glutinous spotted. Starchy 37 \ Glutinous, spotted. ..do Starchy . Nonshatter- ing character. Good Fairly good. ...do Good Fair . ...do.... Very good. Good Fairlv good Fair." Fairly good. Good Fairly good Good Fairly good Very good. . .do. .do. do. Fair. .do. Very good.. Fairly good Fair Poor ...do Very good. . ...do Fairly good. ...do ...do Very good... Fairly good. Very good... do Fairly good. Average Weight rate of per yield per bushel, acre. 1909. Bushels. 38.08 35.96 48.11 58.39 29.78 32.49 44.56 13.98 26.55 25.68 24.61 39.74 46.49 34.94 38.66 18.82 24.82 39.99 23.03 29.00 19.71 29.41 41.18 44.99 50.92 51.66 53.76 45.33 34.77 19.68 32.11 23.53 24.29 57.28 24.90 41.99 Pounds. 61 61 58 62 61 60 63 59 63 62 63 61 63 61 62 63 62 62 62 61 Selecting Varieties for California. In selecting a variety of wheat which is better adapted to Cali- fornia conditions than the commonly grown varieties a number of matters must be taken into consideration. climate and soil. The climate and soil of the locality in the State where the variety is to be tested are both important factors limiting the distribution of a variety. Some varieties will do well on light soils with a small amount of precipitation, while other varieties require a heavier soil with a larger amount of moisture. 178 REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 21 HABIT OF GROWTH. The effect of the character of the early growth of a variety on its struggle with weeds is very important. (Figs. 6 and 7.) In the valley sections of California, where the temperature does not fall much below freezing during the winter months, varieties of vigorous, upright growth are needed in order that they may keep ahead of and choke out the weeds that start at this time. Varieties with a spreading habit of early growth may be adapted to moun- tain sections of high elevation, where there is a good deal of snow during the av i n t e r months and the tem- perature falls consid- erably below the freezing point, thus preventing weed growth until spring. NONSHATTERING HABIT. The nonshattering character of the head of wheat is a very important factor m some sections of Cali- fornia, as heavy wind- storms often occur after the grain is ripe and before it is har- vested. These winds shatter out a great deal of grain from varieties chaff. Fig. 6.— Representative plants of six varieties of wtieat from uniform plats planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing their comparative development on May 1, 1909: 1596, Fretes; 1698, AUora; 2397, Erivan; 3019, Australian; 2227, Chul; 1558, Turkey. which have not a very close-fitting The method of harvesting also has a tendency to shatter out much of the grain where it is not closely held by the chaff, owing to the fact that the crop is often allowed to stand for weeks after it is ripe. 178 22 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. MILLING QUALITY. The milling quality is perhaps the most important factor to be con- sidered in California. On account of the poor quality of the commonly grown varieties the California millers are unable to make good flour from these wheats when using them alone. Better milling wheat is imported from Kan- sas and other States of the Middle West to blend with California wheat in the produc- tion of flour. From one-third to one-half of the blended wheat is made up of the Turkey variety. It is desired to make unnecessary this im- portation by the pro- duction in California of varieties equally as good. The flour val- ue of wheat is judged by both the quantity and the quality of the . product. In order to produce wheat of su- perior miUing quality it is essential that varieties be grown which will give more and better protein to the acre. The qual-/ ity of the protein de^' pends on the quality of the gluten. OTHER REQUISITES. The ability of a Fig. 7. — RepresL'ulalive plants of six additional varieties of wheat from uniform plats planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing their comparative development on May 1, 1909: 1437, Crimean; 2984, Variety tO yield Well Saumur de Mars; 2511-2, Abyssinian; 3019, Australian; 1697, Early -iijiflpr DrODCr envi- Baart; 2921, Bolo Blanco; 2398, Galgalos. K ronment, the posses- sion of a stiff or a weak straw, and the presence or absence of beards are all factors that need no further explanation, but must all be con- sidered in the selection of a variety. Rust resistance is an important factor, especially in the coastal sections of California. Beardless varieties are often desired by the grower, as he may wish, on account of 178 REQUIREMENTS FOIt PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 23 occasional seasonal disadvantages, to cut the crop for hay instead of allowing it to stand for grain. In such a case beardless wheats may be of more value tlian bearded ones, though this is not an important matter. Seed Improvement by the Grower. It is very important that the grain growers of California practice better methods of seed selection. SMALL COMPARED WITH LARGE SEED. The idea which prevails among some growers that small, light seed will produce as 'good crops as large, heavy seed is erroneous. In some instances, under very favorable conditions and if sown at the same rate to the acre according to weight, the small, light grains produce as heavy yields as the large, heavy grains, but the grain is of an inferior grade. The reason for the equality in yield to the acre is largely due to the fact that in the case of the seeding of small, light grains there are many more plants to a given area than when it is seeded with an equal weight of large, heavy grains of the same variety. Heavy, plump grain produces stronger and more vigorous plants than light, shriveled grain. The reason for this is that the plump grain contains a larger amount of food for the very young plant. The light, shriveled grain produces weak plants. This is a fact well under- stood by all who are endeavoring to improve their cro])s by careful and practical selection of seed. It behooves the grain grower, then, to have at his disposal a good fanning mill with which he can grade his seed, blowing out all light, sliriveled grain and separating the large grains from the small. An- other advantage in the use of the fanning mill is the separation of the weed seed from the wheat. THE SEED PLAT. A practical method of improvement of seed, which should be used by every wheat producer in California, is wdiat is known as the seed plat. This method is simple and easily applied. First, select from the general field at ripening time a large quantity of good heads of a single desirable form. Only heads from the best plants should be selected, and they should be from places where the soil is uni- form with other parts of the field and not from an especially fertile spot or at the edge of the field. The heads should be thrashed by hand and the seed sown on well-prepared land free from volunteer grain. This crop should be harvested and thrashed separately from the main crop, care being taken that the machinery used is free from all other grains which might cause a mixture. The first por- tion thrashed should be rejected, as it is most likely to contain such a mixture. The grain from the seed plat should be used, as far as it will go, for the general crop the sycceeding year. If there is a considerable acreage it may be necessary to continue the seed plat for a second year in order to obtain sufficient seed for the main crop. In order to effect permanent improvement the grower should make these 24 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. selections of the best heads every yenr and sow them on the seed plat as sugorested. TWO NEW VARIETIES OF WHEAT ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS. Of the many new varieties of wheat tested for yield and nitrogen content, the Chul (G. I. No. 2227) and the Fretes (G. I. No. 1596) have proved superior to the White Australian and Club varieties grown in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys and are recommended for trial by farmers. THE CHUL VARIETY. Origin and History.« Chul wheat (fig. 8) was received by the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, December 1, 1902, from Dzhizak, a town about 100 Fig. 8.— Chul wheat (G. I. No. 2227) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. Yield to the acre, 53.33 bushels. miles north of Samarkand, Turkestan. It was obtained through the Samarkand representatives of Mr. H. W. Durrschmidt by Mr. E. A. Bessey, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, August 30, 1902. The following notes concerning it were secured by Mr. Bessey: Chul is grown on the steppes of Russia without irrigation. The grains are hard, but it is not a diu'um wheat. This variety yields two harvests a year, for it can be " Bulletin 6(5, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905, p. 250. 178 TWO NEW VARIETIES ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA, 25 sown as either a winter or spring wheat. If the former, the liarvest comes in July; if the latter, the harvest comes in September. If sown in the spring, it is sown just as soon as the snow melts. The spring sowing is most certain to yield a good crop, for the fall sowing must depend upon the rather uncertain snows. This seed, however, is from the fall-sown seed. It is selected from over 1,000 poods offered for sale, and is remarkably clean and free from foreign seeds for this region. Introduction into California. Seed of Chiil wheat was first distributed by the United States De- partment of Agriculture in 1903 to a few farmers in CaUfornia. Since 1903 small ciuantities have been sent out from time to time for the pur- pose of testing its adaptability. In 1904 and 1905 a variety test was commenced in Stanislaus and Sutter counties. This test was in direct charge of an officer of the Department, and has continued up to the present time. A limited distribution of improved seed of Cahfornia- grown Chul wheat has been made to reliable farmers who are desirous of improving the yield and quality of their crop. Description. The Chul is an early, erect, and vigorous variety which may be sown as late as February 15 and mature a good crop. It grows to a height of from 2^ to 4 feet and stools freely. The heads are medium long, tapering, and bearded. This variety has a very close-fitting chaff and does not shatter readily. As originally introduced it contained two forms, the one having white chafl^, while the other produces red chaff. The kernels are large, long, and translucent in character. They are harder and more glutinous than those of the White Australian wheat. As originally introduced there were also two types of kernels, the one type being amber in color, the other dark red or reddish amber. A separation of the red chaff form was made in 1905 at the De- partment's Plant Introduction Garden at Chico, Cal. Since that time the Department has separated the two forms represented by both colors in the original seed. This has been done by starting with single plants which were each characteristic of the form desired. Yields Obtained. Very promising results have been reported from California to this Department by farmers who have given Chul wheat a trial. In variety tests made by the Department it has made a very favorable showing, excelling the commonly grown varieties in yield to the acre in some sections of the State. The average yield to the acre of Chul wheat for 1907, 1908, and 1909, as compared with the White Australian, is as follows: Chul(G. I. No. 2227) 44.5 bushels. Australian (G. I. No. 3019) 35.9 bushels. 178 26 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. Milling Quality. The milling quality of Chiil wheat is superior to that of either the Club or the White Australian wheat, and for this reason this variety is of much value to the State of California. As previously shown, the common California wheats do not in themselves produce a high grade of flour. The Department has made milling and baking tests of Chul and White Australian wheats grown at Modesto, Cal., in 1908. The results of this test indicate that Chul wheat produces from 100 pounds of grain about 10 pounds more flour than the Australian, and that it mills very much like Turkey wheat. The flour from the^ \ Chul is darker than that from either Australian or Fretes wheat, I which in itself indicates that the Chul variety is stronger in gluten. / In the baking test Chul flour required more water to the loaf than ' that of the Australian variety and produced loaves of fair color and texture. In August, 1909, the Oakdale Milling Company, Oakdale, Cal.^ x made a milling test of Chul wheat, crop of 1909, grown at Modesto, \ Cal. This test gave 55 per cent wet gluten for the Chul, while similar \ tests showed only 10 to 38 per cent in the White Australian. Mr. Haslacher, manager of this company, was very enthusiastic over this variety and anxious that farmers should secure seed. THE FRETES VARIETY. Origin and History. « Seed of Fretes wheat (fig. 9) was received by the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction of the United States Department of Agri- culture on September 26, 1901, from El-Outaya, Constantine, Algeria. It was obtained by Messrs. D. G. Fairchild and C. S. Scofield, who make the following notes on it: This variety, sometimes called Freitiss, is one of the few soft wheats grown in Algeria. It is particularly noted for its early maturity and is often extensively planted in the Sahara Desert in seasons when the winter rains occur so late that the durum varieties usually grown would not have time to mature. When planted in November, as it is in Algeria, at the same time with durum varieties, it is said to ripen two months in advance of them. The seed obtained was grown on the rather salty deiSert sands in the vicinity of El-Outaya, north of Biskra, and watered with somewhat alkaline but still drinkable irrigation water. The variety is said to have originated from a shipment of Russian wheat which was made into Algeria at the time of a famine many years ago. Its early-maturing qualities attracted attention, and it has been cultivated in small quantities by the Arabs ever since. The seed obtained is from the farm of Mr. Charles B. des Places. J a Bulletin 66, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905, p. 151. 178 TWO NEW VAKIETIES ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA, 27 Description. Fretes wheat is an early, erect, vigorous variety and should be sown not later than December 15. It grows to a height of from 3 to 4| feet and stools well. The heads are of medium length, tapering, and bearded, with white chaff. The chaff of Fretes wheat does not inclose the grain as closely as tliat of the Chul variety, but still holds the seed fairly well. The kernels are medium large and plump, of medium length, and a reddish-amber color. They are softer than those of Fig. 9.— Fretes wheat (G. I. No. 159G) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. Yield to the acre, 5i) bushd . Chul wheat. Single-plant selections have been made which are very promising. Yields Obtained. Fretes wheat was distributed by the Department to a few farmers in California as early as 1902, and very good reports on its adaptability have been received. In 1904 and 1905 the Department commenced a variety test of this wheat on the experimental grounds in Sutter and Stanislaus counties. The observations made on the adaptability of this wheat to California conditions indicate that it will produce a larger yiekl to the acre than either the White Australian or Club wheats and that it is superior as a milling wheat. 178 28 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. The average yield to the acre of Fretes wheat at Modesto, Cal., for 1907, 1908, and 1909, as compared with the White Austrahan (fig. 10), is as follows : Fretes (G. I. No. 1596) 46.5 bushels. Australian (G. I. No. 3019) 35.9 bushels. Milling Quality. Milling tests of this variety have been made by the United States Department of Agriculture and by the Oakdale Milhng Company. As a result of the test of the grain grown in California during 1908, made by the Department's laboratory at Fargo, N. Dak., we find this variety superior to the Club as a flour producer. It is also slightly superior to the White Australian. In this test it was discovered that Fig. 10. -White Australian wheat (G. I. No. 3019) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. Yield to the acre, 44 bashels. there was a slight increase in the quantity of flour produced from 100 pounds of the Fretes over that produced from the same quantity of Australian wheat. It milled very much like the Australian. Ap- proximately the same quantity of water was required to produce a loaf of bread made from this flour as from the Australian. The loaves were slightly smaher but heavier than those baked from the Australian. The color and texture were fairly good. As with the Chul wheat, a 178 TWO NEW VARIETIES ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA. 29 milling test of the 1909 crop of the Fretes was made by the Oakdale Milling Company, Oakdale, Cal. This test indicated that the P'retes milled easily. It also possessed a 40 per cent wet-gluten content as compared with the Australian samples received and tested by the company, which contained from 10 to 38 per cent of wet gluten. PURE SEED OF THE CHUL AND FRETES VARIETIES. From the foregoing facts there can be little doubt that the improved types of the Chul and Fretes varieties are of great value to California. Much care, however, should be exercised by the growers in securing pure seed. It is reported that Chul wheat is being grown in quantity by a few farmers in the Sacramento Valley from seed introduced into California by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1903. It is also reported that this wheat is used to good effect in blending with the common wheats in the production of flour. Samples of the 1909 crop, which have been received, show that this wheat is mixed with other varieties. This is probably due to lack of care on the part of growers in keeping the variety pure. This mixture is an inferior grade of seed and is not desirable for the farmer wishing to start with pure seed of the Chul variety. The Office of Grain Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry can usually supply small quantities of pure seed of these and other varieties. PROTEIN CONTENT AS AFFECTED BY TIME OF SEEDING. Observations in California indicate that the length of the growing and fruiting periods of a variety of wheat controls, to a considerable degree, the percentage of protein contained. Long growing and fruitmg periods produce grains lower in protein content than short growing and fruiting periods. An effort was made during the past year to determine the eft'ect of the length of these periods upon the protein content of the Chul and Fretes varieties sown early and late. The results obtained are given in Table III. Table III. — Effect of the length of groiving and fruiting periods on the protein content of the Chul and Fretes wheat varieties. Grain Investigations No. Variety. Length of growing period. Length fruiting period. Protein.a Yield to the acre. 2227 Chul do Days. 171 151 177 152 Days. 46 41 45 40 Per cent. 11.06 12.43 10.94 14.08 Bushels. 53. 33 2227 52.89 1596 Fretes 56.00 1596 do 45. 53 o The percentages of protein were obtained by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen by 5.7. 178 30 IMPKOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. As indicated in Table III, a higher percentage of protein is pro- duced in a short growing and fruiting period than in a long period. The yields of Chul wheat are nearly equal, while there is some differ- ence in those of the Fretes. In order to shorten the periods and pro- duce grain rich in protein, the seeding should be done as late as possible in the fall. The Chul variety is especially adapted to late seeding for the reason that it is a vigorous grower and ripens early. Excellent results have been obtained from the Chul when sown as late as February 25, but usually the seeding should be done between November 15 and December 25. The Fretes seed should be in the ground by December 15. The above dates refer to the time of seed- ing in the San Joaquin Valley. These wheats may be sown a month later in the Sacramento Valley and still give good results under ordi- nary conditions. SUMMARY. Wheat yields in California are low and the quality poor. Experi- ments have been conducted to discover the causes and remedies. Two remedies are proposed in this bulletin, namely, better cultiva- tion methods and better varieties. The cultivation methods commonly practiced by the wheat farmers of California are unsatisfactory. They consist in the continuous cropping of wheat and barley upon soil which receives only a very shallow cultivation. The farmer removes the plant food from the soil without adding anything to take its place. This is residting in many localities in a depleted condition of the soil and in unprofitable crops. Wlien wheat was at first produced, good crops were secured by very shallow plowing, broadcasting the seed, and harrowing it into the soil. Very little attempt was made to secure pure seed or to practice the careful grading of wheat. Some important changes have taken place, among which are (1) the replacing of the header and stationary thrasher by the combined harvester and (2) the practice of summer-fallowing the land. A reduced size of farms and an increased depth of plowing occur in individual instances. In many sections of the State there has resulted from the original methods a soil depleted in humus and nitrates and foul with weeds, which fails to produce profitable crops. There are three chief requirements in restoring the production of profitable crops. These are (1) smaller farms, personally supervised; (2) improved methods, including deeper plowing, increasing the humus and nitrates of the soil, and cleaning the land of weeds; and (3) the development of better varieties, 178 SUMMARY. 31 Soil humus antl nitrates are easily increased by turnino; under green-manure crops. Crops proving to be of value as green manure are Canadian field peas and Abruzzes rye. Green-manure crops should not be sown later than December f5. The stubble should be double-disked immediately after the wheat crop is harvested, fol- lowed by a shallow plowing as early as possible in the fall. These crops should be turned under during early March before the soil is too dry for deep plowing, which is necessary in order to get the growing peas and rye well under, after which the soil should be har- rowed immediately. The good effect of deep plowing and green manuring is proved in actual experiment by increased yields and profits. A method of cultivation whereby the land may be cleaned of weeds should be employetl. A large number of wheat varieties have been tested in California in an attempt to find better ones. Factors entering into the selection of varieties for California are the climate and soil of the locality where the variety is to be tested, the habit of growth of the variety, its nonshattering character, milling quality, yield, strength of straw, the presence or absence of beards, and rust resistance. It is important that grain growers practice better methods of seed selection. The seed should be graded with a fanning mill. A prac- tical method of improvement is the use of what is known as the "seed plat." The Chul and Fretes wheats are new varieties adapted to California conditions. In some sections of the State these wheats have excelled the commonly grown varieties in yield to the acre. Milling and baking tests of the Chul and Fretes varieties have been made which indicate that they are superior to Australian and Club wheats in these respects. Much care should be exercised by the growers in securing pure seed of these wheats. Observations indicate that the length of the growing and fruiting periods of a variety of wheat controls to a considerable degree the percentage of protein contained. Short growing and fruiting periods produce grain with a high percentage of protein. The Chul and Fretes varieties are adapted to comparatively late seeding, which is favorable to a high percentage of protein in the grain produced. 178 INDEX. Pago. Abruzzes rye. See Rye, Abruzzes. Algeria, original home of Fretes wheat 20 AUora wheat. See Wheat, Allora. Australian wheat. -S^e Wheat, Australian. Beans, horse, value as green-manure crop on wheat lands in California 15. 16 Beardless wheat. See Wheat, beardless. Bessey, E. A., importation of Chul wheat 24 Ble Noir. See Wheat, Ble Noir. Bolo Blanco wheat. See Wheat, Bolo Blanco. California Gem wheat. See Wheat, California Gem. wheat. -See Wheat, California. Canadian field peas. -See Peas, Canadian field. Cap Sheaf wheat. See Wheat, Cap Sheaf. Chiddam wheat. See Wheat, Chiddam. Chul wheat. See Wheat, Chul. Climate, importance in selecting wheat varieties for California 20 Club wheat. See Wheat, Club. Crimean wheat. See Wheat, Crimean. Dietz Amber wheat. See WTieat, Dietz Amber. Early Baart wheat. See Wheat, Early Baart. Eri van wheat. ^See Wheat, Eri van. Fairchild, D. G., importation of Fretes wheat seed 26 Fallow, summer, effect on wheat yield, experiments in California 9, 16, 17, 30 Fanning mill. See Mill, fanning. Farms, owners, personal supervision, remedy for faulty methods of wheat cul- ture in California 10-11 small, remedy for faulty methods of wheat culture in California 10-11 Filipino wheat. See Wheat, Filipino. Flour, Chul, Club, Fretes, and WTiite Australian wheats, baking tests 26, 28, 31 value of wheat, relation of protein content 22 Freitiss, name for Fretes wheat 26 Fretes wheat. See \Mieat, Fretes. Galgalos wheat. See Wheat, Galgalos. Gluten, content in wheat varieties, valye 22, 26, 29 relation to yield and quality of protein in wheat 22 Grain, production of crops, requirements in California 10-24, 30 Green manure. See Manure, green. Harvester, combined, replacing of header and stationary thrasher, effect on wheat crop in California 8-9, 30 Header, replacing by combined harvester, effect on wheat crop in California. . 8-9, 30 Heads, wheat, nonshattering, desirable quality in California 21, 31 Hilgard, E. W., citation of Wollny on the effect of humus on soil temperature. . 9 Horse beans. See Beans, horse. 178 33 34 IMPRCVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA, Page. Humus, addition to soil by green-manure crops 12-15 deficiency in wheat lands, California, causes 9-10 effects on soil 9, 12 improvement of sandy lands 12 Introduction to bulletin 7-8 Kharkof wheat. See Wheat, Kharkof. Kubanka wheat. See Wheat, Kubanka. Lands, wheat, ( 'alifornia, cleaning of weeds, directions 18-19 Legumes. See Manure, green, and nitrogen. Manure, green crops, California, effect on yield of wheat 15-18, 31 seeding and handling, directions 12-18, 31 time and method of handling 13-15 Marouani wheat. See Wheat, Marouani. Medeah wheat. See Wheat, Medeah. Mill, fanning, necessity for cleaning and grading wheat 23, 31 Minnesota No. 66 wheat. See Wheat, Minnesota No. 6G. 163 wheat. See Wheat, Minnesota No. 163. Modesto, Cal., experiments with deep plowing and green manuring 15-18 Nitrates, addition to soil by leguminous crops 13 deficiency in wheat lands of California 9 soil, necessity in wheat production 9-10 Nitrogen, addition to soil by green-manure crops 12-15 Oakdale Milling Company, milling tests of wheat varieties, 1909 2G, 28-29 Peas and rye, use as green-manure crops 13-15 ( 'anadian field, value as green-manure crop 13, 16, 31 seed , quantity per acre for green manure 13 Plowing, deep, effect on yield of wheat in California 15-18, 31 wheat lands, necessity, importance, and results 11-12, 15-18 Propo wheat. See Wheat, Propo. Protein, content in wheat, effect of time of seeding in California 29-30, 31 relation to flour value 22 production per acre in wheat, relation of quality of gluten 22 Purple Straw wheat. See WTieat, Purple Straw. Rust, resistance of wheat, important quality in California 22 Rye, Abruzzes, value as green-manure crop 13, 31 and peas, use as green-manure crops on wheat lands, California 13-15 vetch, use as green-manure crops on wheat lands, California 16 seed, quantity per acre for green manure 13 Sacramento Valley, California, green-manure crops adaptable 13 wheat variety tests 19 San Joaquin Valley, ( 'alifornia, green-manure crops adaptable 13 wheat variety tests 19 Saumur de Mars wheat. See Wheat, Saumur de Mars. Scofield, ('. S., importation of Fretes wheat seed 26 Seed, peas, quantity per acre for green manure 13 rye, quantity per acre for green manure 13 selection, wheat, importance in California 23-24 wheat, grading necessary in careful selection 23 improvement by better methods of selection 23 large and small, comparative value 23 plat, directions for planting and use 23-24 purity, importance to growers in California 29 178 INDEX. 35 I'ago. Seeding, peas and rye, for green-manure crop, directions 13-15 wheat, time, effect on protein content in California 29-30, 31 Soil, ( 'alifornia wheat lands, deficiency in humus and nitrates 9-10 importance in selecting wheat varieties for ( alifornia 20 improvement by addition of humus and nitrogen 12-15 temperature, effect of humus 9 Sonora wheat. See Wheat, Sonora. Summer-fallow. See Fallow, summer. Temperature, soil. See Soil, temperature. Tenants, cropping methods injurious to wheat i'arn.s in ( 'alifornia 11 Theiss wheat. See Wheat, Theiss. Thrasher, stationary, replacing by combined harvester, effect on wheat crop in California 8, 30 Turkestan, original home of Chul wheat 24 Turkey wheat. See Wheat, Turkey. Varieties, wheat, testing and selection for California 19-23 Velvet Don wheat. See Wheat, Velvet Don. Vetch and rye as green-manure crops for wheat lands, California IG Washington Bluestem wheat. See Wheat, Washington Bluestem. Weeds, bad effect on wheat crop in California 10 wheat lands, California, causes and remedies 10, 18-19 Wheat, AUora, test in California 20 Australian, test in California 20 beardless, desirable for hay 22 Ble Noir, test in California 20 Bolo Blanco, test in California 20, 22 California, damage by weeds 10, 18 Gem, test in California 20 requirements for profitable production 10-24 variety tests 19-20, 25-27 yields, decrease, causes and remedies 8-19 Cap Sheaf, test in California 2U Chiddam, test in California 20 Chul, description 25 flour, baking tests 26 introduction into California 25 milling quality 26 origin and history 24-25 seed, purity, importance to growers in California 29 separation of variety into two forms 25 test in California 20, 21, 25-26 yields obtained in California 25 Club, test in California 20, 28 Crimean, test in California 20, 22 cultivation, California, changes from original methods 8-9 cost per acre, comparison of methods 17-18 directions for cleaning land of weeds 18-19 faulty methods and results 8-10 original methods 8 past and present methods, bad results 9-10 smaller farms and personal supervision by own- ers, importance 10-11 178 36 IMPKOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CEOP IN CALIFORNIA. Page. Wheat, culture, improved methods 11-19 development of better varieties for California 19-24 Dietz Amber, test in California 20 earliness, importance in checking weeds in California 21 Early Baart, test in California 20, 22 Erivan, test in California 20, 21 Filijiino, test in California 20 flour, value, relation of protein content 22 Fretes, description 27 flour, baking tests 28, 31 milling quality 28-29, 31 origin and history 26 seed, purity, importance to growers in California 29 test in California 20, 21, 27-29 yields obtained in California 27-28 Galgalos, test in California " 20, 22 gluten content, value 22, 26, 29 grading, necessity of fanning mill 23, 31 habits of growth desirable for California 21 heads, nonshattering, desirable character for California 21 Kharkof, test in California 20 Kubanka, test in California 20 lands, California, effect of deep plowing and green maiiuring 15-18 green-manure crops, time and method of handling... 13-15 improvement by green-manure crops 12-18 Marouani, test in California 20 Medeah, test in California 20 milling quality, importance in California 22 Minnesota No. 66, test in California 20 163, test in California 20 profits, effect of green -manure crops and deep plowing in California 17-18 Propo, test in California 20 protein content, effect of time of seeding in California 29-30, 31 relation to flour value 22 short season and late seeding favorable in Califor- nia 29-30, 31 Purple Straw, test in California 20 rust resistance, importance in California 22 Saumur de Mars, test in California 20, 22 seed selection, importance in California 23-24 See also Seed. Sonora, test in California 20 Theiss, test in California 20 Turkey, blending with California wheats in milling 7, 22 test in California 20, 21 varieties, new, adapted to California 24-30 selection for California 20-23 testing in California 19-20, 25, 27 Velvet Don, test in California 20 Washington Bluestem, test in California 20 White Australian, milling quality, comparison with Chul and Fretes wheats 26, 28 178 INDEX. 37 I'age. Wheat, White Auwtralian, yield, comparison with (liul and Fretea wheats in California 25, 27-28 Yantagbay, test in California 20 Yellow Gharnovka, test in California 20 yield, California, decrease, causes and remedies 8-19 effect of green-manure crops and deep plowing 15-18 White Australian wheat. See Wheat, ^^'hite Australian. W'ollny, statement of effect of humus on soil temperature 9 Yantagbay wheat. See Wheat, Yantagbay. Yellow Gharnovka wheat. See ^^'heat, Yellow Gharnovka. Yield, wheat. Sec Wheat, yield. 178 o [Continued from page 2 of cover.] No. 96. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 97. Seeds and Plants Imported. InventoryNo.il. 1907. Price, 15 cents 98. Soy Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 99. Quick Method for Determination of Moisture in Grain. 1907 Price 5 cents 101. Contents of and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. Price 15 cents 102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents ' 103. Dry Farming in the Great Basin. 1907. Price, 10 cents 104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price 5 cents 105. Relation of Leaf to Burning Qualities of Tobacco. 1907. Price, 10 cents 10b. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907 Price 15 cents 107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents. ' lOS. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price, 15 cents 109. American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents 110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents. Wl Suprarenal Glands in Physiological Testing of Drug Plants. 1907 Price 10 cents 113. Tolerance of Various Plants for Salts in Alkali Soils 1907. Price 5 cents' 114. Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 15 cents ilr' jD'smfection of Sewage for Protection of Public Water Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents, lib. The Tuna as Food for Man. 1907. Price, 25 cents , «!>. 117. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 1907. Price, 10 cents 118. Peruvian Alfalfa. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 119. The Mulberry and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents 120. Production of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United States. 190S. Price, 10 cents 121. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 15 cents IV.- ^^irly^Top, a Disease of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 123. The Decay of Oranges in Transit from California. 1908. Price 20 cents 124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop. 1908. Price, 10 cents 12d. Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 1908. Price, 10 cents 120. Nomenclature of the Pear. 1908. Price, 30 cents. 127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 1908. Price, 10 cents 128. Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price, 15 cents 129. Barium, a Cause of the Loco-Weed Disease. 1908. Price, 10 cents 130. Dry-Land Agriculture. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 133. Peach Kernels, etc., as By-Products of the Fruit Industry. 1908. Price, 5 cents 134. Influence of Soluble Salts upon Leaf Structure and Transpiration of Wheat, o'ats, and Barlev 1908. Price, 5 cents. }o^ P/^.t^'? ^'"'i'^'^ '"^ Virginia and the South Atlantic States. 1908. Price, 20 cents. lib. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents. • 137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1909. Price, 10 cents 138. Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco in Connecticut Valley. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 139. American Medicmal Barks. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 140. "Spineless" Prickly Pears. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 141. Miscellaneous Papers. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. 1909. Price, 10 cents 143. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents 144. Apple Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. ]909. Price 15 cents 145. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. 1939. Price, 15 cents 146. The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents }tV Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. 1909. Price, 5 cents. 143- Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 16. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price, 15 cents 150. Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 151. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents 152. Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 1909. Price, 15 cents. lo3. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventorv No. 17. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 154. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. lo5. Control of Black-Rot of the Grape. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 155. A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 157. The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 158. The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused by Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 159. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 160. Italian Lemons and Their By-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents 161. A New Type of Indian Corn from China. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 162. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 18. 1909. Price, 10 cents 163. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. 1910. Price, 25 cents. 164. Promising Root Crops for the South. 1910. Price, 10 cents. l^- Application of Principles of Heredity to Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 166. The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 167. New Methods of Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, 20 cents. 168. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 19. 1909. Price, 5 cents 169. Variegated Alfalfa. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 170. Traction Plowing. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 171. Some Fungous Diseases of Economic Importance. [In press.] 172. Grape Investigations in Vinifera Regions. [In press.! 173. Seasonal Nitrification as Influenced by Crops and Tillage. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 174. The Control of Peach Brown-Rot and Scab. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 175. The History and Distribution of Sorghvmi. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 176. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 20. 1910. Price, 5 cents. 177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. 1910. Price, 15 cents. 178