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THE 
 
 BOOK OF ANALYSIS, 
 
 A NEW METHOD 
 
 OF 
 
 EXPERIENCE ; 
 
 WHEREBY THE INDUCTION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 NOVUM ORGANON 
 
 IS MADE EASY OF APPLICATION TO 
 
 MEDICINE, PHYSIOLOGY, METEOROLOGY, AND NATURAL HIS- 
 TORY ; TO STATISTICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, METAPHYSICS, 
 AND THE MORE COMPLEX DEPARTMENTS OF KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 Ut scilicet mens per artem fiat rebus par. 
 
 De Augmentu Scientiarum. 
 
 By TWEEDY JOHN TODD, M. D. 
 
 OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON, &C. &C 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBERMARLE STREET. 
 
 MDCCCXXXI. 
 
 if* 
 
fe 
 
 ^ 6 T1 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 Gaulter, Printer, Lovell's Court, Paternoster-Row. 
 
/ Si 
 
 w 
 
 TO 
 
 JAMES CLARK, M-D. 
 
 PHYSICIAN IN ORDINARY TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE 
 
 LEOPOLD OF SAXE COBURG, AND PHYSICIAN TO ST. 
 
 GEORGE'S INFIRMARY, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 My Dear Friend, 
 
 A work having for its object to 
 increase the certainty of Medicine, might, 
 with peculiar propriety, be inscribed to a 
 scientific and conscientious physician, the 
 whole tenour of whose life has been distin- 
 guished by an anxious solicitude for the 
 advancement of the art : But had I not so 
 
DEDICATION. 
 
 fair a reason for dedicating such a work to 
 you, I should still be desirous of seizing this 
 occasion to testify the deep sense I entertain 
 of the kind partiality, which, since our first 
 acquaintance, you have ever felt for me, and 
 the value I set upon the steady friendship 
 with which, you have continued to honor 
 me. 
 
 Your faithful 
 
 And obliged Friend, 
 
 TWEEDY JOHN TODD. 
 
 Brighton, July 10, 1831. 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 In venturing to submit to the eye of the 
 Public the following little work on the sub- 
 ject of Induction, I am not aware that I 
 could offer a better apology than the reasons 
 which are stated in the following passage 
 from the writings of the most sensible and 
 the most enlightened of the philosophers, who 
 have distinguished this age. "In the me- 
 chanical arts, it is well known, how much 
 time and ingenuity are misapplied, by those 
 who acquire their practical skill, by their own 
 trials, undirected by the precepts or examples 
 
11 PREFACE. 
 
 of others. What we call the rules of an art, 
 are merely a collection of general obser- 
 vations, suggested by long experience, with 
 respect to the most compendious and ef- 
 fectual means of performing every different 
 step of the processes which the art involves. 
 In consequence of such rules, the artist is 
 enabled to command the same success in all 
 his operations, for which the unskilled work- 
 man must trust to a happy combination of 
 accidental circumstances; the misapplications, 
 too, of the labours of one race are saved to 
 the next; and the acquisition of practical 
 address is facilitated, by confining its exertions 
 to one direction. — The analogy is perfect, in 
 those processes which are purely intellectual, 
 and to regulate which, is the great object of 
 logic. In the case of individuals, who have 
 no other guide to direct them in their in- 
 quiries than their own hatural sagacity, much 
 time and ingenuity must inevitably be thrown 
 away, in every exertion of the inventive 
 powers. In proportion, however, to the de- 
 
PREFACE. Ill 
 
 gree of their experience and observation, the 
 number of these misapplications will diminish; 
 and the power of invention will be enabled to 
 proceed with more certainty and steadiness to 
 its object. The misfortune is, that as the 
 aids, which the understanding derives from 
 experience, are seldom recorded in writing, 
 or even described in words, every succeeding 
 inquirer finds himself, at the commencement 
 of his philosophical pursuits, obliged to strug- 
 gle with the same disadvantages which had 
 retarded the progress of his predecessors. 
 If the more important practical rules, which 
 habits of investigation suggest to individuals, 
 were diligently preserved, each generation 
 would be placed in circumstances more fa- 
 vourable to invention than the preceding ; 
 and the progress of knowledge, instead of 
 cramping original genius, would assist and 
 direct its exertions."* 
 
 It is precisely one of these practical rules, 
 
 Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 suggested to me in the course of some ana- 
 lytical inquiries, which I now propose to 
 place upon record, not, however, unaccom- 
 panied by a confident hope, that, worked out 
 by more practised hands, it may be found 
 susceptible of ameliorations which may ulti- 
 mately tend very materially to improve our 
 Method of Experience. Nor can I help in- 
 dulging a wish, perhaps rather than an ex- 
 pectation, that even, as an example, this 
 publication may have this beneficial result, — 
 that it may call forth, from the portfolios of 
 the learned, many practical expedients which 
 their experience may have taught them, and 
 w r hich, I very much suspect, only remain un- 
 known from a notion of their unimportance. 
 
 Brighton, August 17, 1830. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Induction of the Ancients — The Induction of the Mo- 
 derns before Lord Bacon — The philosophers who made use of 
 Induction before Lord Bacon utterly ignorant of their instrument 
 — How Lord Bacon was probably led to his great discovery — The 
 present neglect of Induction — Different denominations of In- 
 ductive Philosophers, Synthesists, Specialists, Analysists — Causes 
 in which the neglect of Induction has originated — The mind 
 naturally averse to rules of art — A bias in favour of natural or 
 intuitive Induction — A regular method of Induction opposed to 
 Practical Tact — Excuse in the present imperfect state of 
 Induction — Was left unfinished by Lord Bacon — Different in- 
 fluence of the neglect of Induction upon the different depart- 
 ments of knowledge — Prejudicial consequences resulting from 
 the neglect of Induction, waste of experience, false facts, false 
 doctrines, p. 1 — 22. 
 
 CHAiyi. 
 
 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION, PERFORMED BY TABULiE 
 
 INVENIENDI. 
 
 Method of Tabular Analysis, by combining the use of Tables 
 and Signs — Translation of circumstances into signs — Manner of 
 
performing this process — Classification by affirmative circum- 
 stances — Form I. a. — nature of this operation — Classification by 
 negative circumstances — Form II. — manner of performing this 
 process — nature of this process — Modifications of the Signs — 
 Recapitulation — Synthesis — Form III. — facilities afforded by this 
 process — Method of extracting the Induction by Rectification of 
 the Signs — Nature of this operation — Recapitulation of the 
 Processes — Rules for performing the different Processes — Pre- 
 cautions necessary in performing the different Processes, p. 22 
 —57. 
 
 CHAP^II. 
 
 The method of Induction by Classification compared with the 
 Method of the NOVUM ORGANON. I. Lord Bacon's pre- 
 cepts for the discovery of forms — The great DICTUM of the 
 Inductive Logic — His method of performing the process of 
 Induction — His method compared with the method of classifica- 
 tion — II. Lord Bacon's views of completing the Philosophy of 
 Experience, p. 59 — 74. 
 
 CHAp/in. 
 
 of certain advantages peculiar to the Method of Induction 
 by Classification. 
 
 I. It places many branches of knowledge within the grasp of 
 Induction which the ordinary method cannot effect — It connects 
 general principles more intimately and correctly with individual 
 cases — Is saving of experience — Elicits prerogative instances — Is 
 capable of comprehending any number of instances — II. Affords 
 all the facility which arises from the operation being performed 
 by determined rules — Guards the mind from the influence of 
 idola — The advantage of signs instead of words. — HI. It answers 
 habits of close and accurate observation — And promotes those of 
 method, of clear and perspicuous arrangement — And represents 
 the natural operations of the mind. p. 75 — 85. 
 
Ill 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 METHODUS CONTABULANDI, or modifications of the 
 Tables of Analysis to suit different subjects of Investigation. 
 p. 86—104. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION 
 TO PARTICULAR SUBJECTS. 
 
 Sect. I. Medicine. — The right method of studying medicine 
 — Plan of an Analytical Hospital— THE BOOK OF MEDICAL 
 ANALYSIS, or Guide for studying faithfully from Nature. 
 105 — 154. Sect. II. Physiology — Its difficulties — Want of a 
 better mode of Analysis. 155 — 159. Sect. III. Phrenology, 
 Animal Magnetism, and Omoiopathic Medicine — Their claim to 
 an attentive consideration — Mode of examination by Tabular 
 Analysis. 160 — 161. Sect. IV. The Useful Arts, Chemistry, 
 and Meteorology. 164 — 168. Sect. V. Classifications of 
 Natural History — The Tabular Analysis likely to abbreviate and 
 facilitate the process of Systematic Arrangement. 169 — 171. 
 Sect. VI. Analysis of Testimony. 172 — 177. Sect. VII. 
 Statistics and Political Economy. 178 — 183. 
 
 Conclusion. 184 — 186. 
 

THE 
 
 BOOK OF ANALYSIS, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " Causa vero et radix fere omnium malorum in scientiis ea una est : quod 
 dum mentis humanae vires falsb miramur et extollimus, vera ejus auxilia non 
 quseramus." 
 
 THEY who have pleasure in searching for the 
 origin of modern science in the learning of the 
 ancients, might possibly discover many traces of 
 the philosophy of experience, and some examples 
 of the use of induction. They might find reason 
 to believe, that the earliest of their philosophers 
 felt and understood the full importance of the 
 great cardinal truth, afterwards announced in the 
 first aphorism of the Novum Organon. They 
 might find that Hippocrates, who by some is sup- 
 posed to have been of the number of their dis- 
 ciples, formally asserted it, that the empirical 
 physicians maintained it as the fundamental canon 
 of their doctrine, and, if they should think it 
 worth their pains to inquire with what instrument 
 the great founder of the art of physic constructed 
 
 B 
 
a THE INDUCTION OF THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 his more finished works, they might probably be 
 led to conclude that it could be no other than 
 a method of induction : for unquestionably the 
 fairest specimens of it known before the revival 
 of letters, are those which he has left us. But 
 pursuing their researches, they would also find, 
 that these germs of the true philosophy, and 
 probably many more which have merged in the 
 stream of time*, failed to open to the ancient world 
 the certain and the only road, which leads infallibly 
 to the knowledge of nature. 
 
 In the same manner, before the time of Lord 
 Bacon, some modern philosophers of our own, as 
 well as of foreign nations, insisted on the necessity 
 of an appeal to experience, and presented to the 
 world a few examples of the correct use of in- 
 duction. But it seems by no means a groundless 
 apprehension, that the same dark fate which 
 eclipsed the early dawn of the experimental philo- 
 sophy of antiquity, might also have extinguished 
 its first faint glimmerings in later times, had not 
 the greatest, because the truest of all philosophers, 
 appeared upon the horizon, who, from his vast and 
 comprehensive mind, shed those rays of clear and 
 steady light, which establishing exclusively the 
 principle of induction, laid open the path of science 
 to every inquirer. What might have been the 
 
 * Tempore ut fluvio leviora et magis inflata devehente, gravi- 
 ora et solida mergente. 
 
THE INDUCTION OF THE MODERNS. 3 
 
 history of induction had Lord Bacon never existed, 
 it may seem idle now to conjecture, but it is very 
 obvious there could have been no security for 
 it, at any time, unless founded firmly upon prin- 
 ciple, All that was known of it only by example, 
 might soon have been effaced by the dogma of 
 any splendid sophist, and, to bring the supposition 
 nearer to the fact, let us imagine that Descartes had 
 occupied the place of Bacon, we shall then under- 
 stand the peril which hung over the philosophy of 
 experience, and be better able to appreciate the obli- 
 gations we owe to its great discoverer. To institute, 
 therefore, any comparison between the merits of 
 Lord Bacon and Galileo or of any other experimental 
 philosopher who preceded him, as since the time of 
 Hume has occasionally been revived, is altogether 
 unwarrantable, and betrays a total misconception 
 of the nature of the services which both have ren- 
 dered to the cause of science. 
 
 The philosophers who made use of the method 
 of induction before Lord Bacon, were utterly 
 ignorant of the nature of the instrument which 
 they employed. Like travellers whom chance 
 may have led to an unknown country, but neither 
 knowing the road by which they went or by 
 which they returned, they could afford no help for 
 conducting others; and we ought not, therefore, to 
 be much surprized, that they did not always obtain 
 credence for the extraordinary things they report 
 to have seen. But Lord Bacon, like the scientific 
 
 b 2 
 
4 THE INDUCTION OF LORD BACON. 
 
 navigator, sailed by the chart, and returning with 
 a map of the country whither he had been, 
 gave every one the power of following his tract, 
 or of verifying his narrative. For being the first 
 who ever had a conception of the instrument of 
 induction, he explained its nature, showed its 
 powers, and gave a rule for using it, and by this 
 rule he placed within the reach of the meanest 
 capacity resources which theretofore had been at 
 the disposal only of minds highly gifted by nature. 
 If we consider for a moment the nature of this 
 instrument, the general use of which he may be 
 said to have bestowed upon mankind, it will be 
 easy to comprehend the magnitude and the im- 
 portance of the discovery ; for being no less than 
 the most powerful organ of human reason, the art 
 of invention, he has only explained its real cha- 
 racter in calling it the mother-art of all arts, the 
 mother-science of all sciences, — "ars artium, scientia 
 scientiarum." And, if he be the greatest bene- 
 factor of mankind who has taught the right use of 
 the greatest power with which it has pleased God 
 to endow human nature, Lord Bacon pre-emi- 
 nently deserves that title : for revealing to man 
 that the knowledge of nature was the power 
 of art, "interpretatio naturae, regnum hominis," he 
 disenthralled the human mind, and led it forth 
 from its "narrow house" of confinement, to exercise 
 and to enjoy the high privileges which have been 
 bountifully ordained for it. 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF INDUCTION. 5 
 
 How Lord Bacon was led to his great discovery, 
 the learned seem not to be well agreed. It is, 
 however, generally admitted, that it was not, a 
 priori, from any metaphysical analysis of his ideas 
 concerning the nature of the process, but rather 
 from reflecting upon the errors of his predecessors. 
 Speculating upon such a subject, we ought to keep 
 in mind what has been very properly observed 
 of the history of the mechanical arts, and what 
 may equally be said of every art connected with the 
 immediate wants of mankind, that men are familiar 
 with them long before the idea occurs of enume- 
 rating or describing them, or even of examining 
 very closely the nature and limits of the aid they 
 are capable of affording. And accordingly Lord 
 Bacon informs us, that although he was the first to 
 enter upon this career,* he did not invent any art 
 which had not existed before, but, on the contrary, 
 that his manner of philosophizing was a natural 
 operation of the mind,f which it follows of its own 
 accord, unless led astray by the feelings or biased 
 by pre-conceived opinions ; and that patient, sober, 
 and cautious understandings do sometimes of their 
 
 * Atque in hac re plane Protopirum, et vestigia nullius se- 
 cutum, neque haec ipsa cum ullo mortalium communicantem, 
 et tamen veram viam constanter ingressum, et ingenium rebus 
 submittentem, haec ipsa aliquatenus, (ut existimamus) provex- 
 isse. 
 
 •j" Est enim interpretatio, verum et naturale opus mentis, 
 demptis its quce obstante 
 
D THE DISCOVERY OF INDUCTION. 
 
 own natural suggestion, proceed upon it.* Now 
 Lord Bacon himself was eminently distinguished 
 by this character of mind, and possessing a strong 
 natural taste for physical researches, seems to have 
 very much exercised himself in them. This was 
 also probably very much encouraged by particular 
 circumstances. Amongst these may be mentioned 
 the state of his health habitually infirm, which, 
 rendering him in some degree his own physician, 
 had a tendency also to favour such pursuits. His ac- 
 curate knowledge of the works of the ancient writers 
 on medicine, would seem to give some support to this 
 opinion. But whether this be well founded or not, 
 he seems to have been at all times more or less 
 occupied with one inquiry or another, so that the 
 habits of his mind, contrary to the habits of his 
 profession, were necessarily inductive. It appears, 
 therefore, not improbable, that in making the 
 discovery of induction, he only detected the process 
 followed by his own reason, and by comparing this 
 with the method of the schools, he found it to be 
 the only true and correct one. In this way it 
 seems reasonable to conclude, that the discovery 
 of induction was the result of the method of ex- 
 perience ; nor does there seem any other possible 
 manner of generalizing and establishing a common 
 principle of natural reasoning. 
 
 * Intellectus sibi permissus in ingenio sobrio et patienti et 
 gravi (prceserlim si a doctrinis receptis non impedialur) tentat 
 nonnihil illam alteram viam, quae recta est. 
 
NEGLECT OF INDUCTION. 7 
 
 The present state of the arts and sciences, which 
 are the fruits of the Baconian philosophy, so 
 fully declares the inestimable benefits which it has 
 conferred upon the human race, that it may appear 
 unreasonable not to rest contented with the pro- 
 gress which has already been made under its 
 auspices. Perhaps indeed the easy success which 
 has attended the use of the inductive method, may 
 afford a reason for explaining why the method 
 itself has not received those improvements of 
 which it is susceptible, and why consequently for 
 want of its correct application, many branches of 
 knowledge remain comparatively an uncultivated 
 waste. For it must certainly be admitted, that 
 although all who pretend to the study or to the 
 imitation of nature, profess their faith in the philo- 
 sophy of experience, only a few observe with 
 fidelity the rules and precepts of the inductive 
 logic. Indeed so great a latitude do those whose 
 pride it is to be called the followers of Bacon, 
 allow themselves in the use of his method, and so 
 great a diversity do they present in their manner of 
 philosophizing, that amongst his disciples many 
 various denominations might be distinguished, cer- 
 tainly not differing less from each other than 
 the Dogmatists, the Methodists, or the Empirics of 
 antiquity. Thus to the first might be compared 
 the Synthesists of the present day, known by 
 their overweening confidence in general principles 
 hastily deduced, who prefer attributing effects 
 
t 
 
 8 DIFFERENT SECTS OF INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 to causes already known, but are ever impatient in 
 the search of new ones. The epithet which Lord 
 Bacon applied to their ancient prototypes, still 
 fairly attaches to them, for, from very small ma- 
 terials of experience they, like the spider, spin 
 their webs of theory from their own entrails. In 
 the same manner the modern Specialists are 
 faithful representatives of the old Empirics. They 
 are equally distinguished by their cautious, if not ob- 
 stinate, adherence to particular facts, never venturing 
 to draw a conclusion or to follow out a principle. 
 They simply collect their store of single cases 
 which, like the ant, they use in their original crude 
 state, without the elaboration or refinement which 
 the mind has the power of imparting. Between 
 these two extremes, there are of course many 
 other denominations who deviate more or less 
 widely from the axioms of their master, but it 
 must be confessed that most men lean to the one 
 or the other, few in the spirit of true Analysists 
 pursuing the safe middle way. And it is indeed 
 worthy of remark, that these leading sects, under 
 one name or another, may be traced through all 
 the history of philosophy, a distinction which for 
 wise reasons, may have its foundation in the 
 original constitution of the human mind. But 
 however this may be, it must under all circum- 
 stances be allowed, that such palpable deviations 
 from the rules of philosophizing, ought not to 
 exist among disciples of the same master ; for, 
 
LATITUDE IN THE USE OF INDUCTION. 9 
 
 either the inductive philosophy is not a safe 
 guide, or its followers give themselves unautho- 
 rized license in the use of it. The Specialists, 
 indeed, if they strictly adhere to their dogma, 
 cannot in fact be said to employ the method of the 
 true experience, but rather the method of that art 
 which Lord Bacon has called the " experientia 
 literata," and which he significantly terms, " saga- 
 citas potius et odoratio quaedam venatica, quam 
 scientia." 
 
 However strange therefore it may seem, it is still 
 not the less true to say, that whilst it is the cha- 
 racter of the present age to appeal directly to ex- 
 perience, — to observe the spontaneous workings of 
 nature, and to ask questions of her when she is 
 silent, — it is also distinguished by a remarkable 
 latitude in the use of induction, and by a cul- 
 pable over-confidence in the powers of natural 
 reason. The answers of nature are hastily anti- 
 cipated instead of being patiently waited for, or 
 heard impatiently and interpreted falsely. But, as 
 a very philosophical physician has, with great nicety 
 of expression, observed, " la natura non vuol esser 
 sopraffatta, vuol, esser sentita; ama di esser conos- 
 ciuta, ma e gelosa di esser capita."* A confidence 
 in the analytical nature of experiment and the 
 success which has been already obtained by it, 
 have no doubt, in a great degree, promoted these 
 
 * Cotugno. Spirito della Medicina. 
 
10 CAUSES OF THE NEGLECT OF INDUCTION. 
 
 loose habits of philosophizing ; but this resource is 
 becoming every day more exhausted, and a faithful 
 analysis of facts every day more necessary, so 
 that it does not seem two much to say, that a 
 close and rigorous induction, is at the present 
 moment, more called for, to ensure and to advance 
 the progress of science, than the continued accu- 
 mulation of either observations or experiments. 
 
 It might be well to know something more parti- 
 cular of the causes in which this latitude, or rather 
 neglect of induction, has originated, and why men 
 prefer the rude undisciplined powers of the mind to 
 the strength and ease which is derived from their 
 cultivation. In the performance of any physical 
 operation, men most greedily seize upon any assist- 
 ance which the ingenuity of the arts can supply, but 
 cannot bear to conform to any rule, however much 
 it may contribute either certainty or facility to the 
 operations of the mind. The principal reason to be 
 assigned for this, must be sought for in the natural 
 constitution of the human mind. The wishes and 
 the feelings of man lead his understanding. " In- 
 tellects humanus luminis sicci non est. Quid 
 enim mavult homo verum esse, id potius credit 
 Rejecit itaque difficilia ob inquirendi impatientiam ; 
 sobria quia coarctant spem ; altiora naturae propter 
 superstitionem ; lumen experientiae propter arro- 
 gantiam, et fastum, ne videatur mens versari in vi- 
 libus et fluxis ; paradoxa propter opinionem vulgi." 
 In this aphorism Lord Bacon specifies nearly all 
 
 
OBJECTIONS TO A METHOD OF INDUCTION. 11 
 
 the motives why men prefer the vague and unde- 
 fined art of their own contrivance, which allows 
 them to shape their opinions to their feelings, 
 rather than the restraint of a fixed and certain 
 method, which checking their hasty assumptions 
 forbids them to outstep their data. 
 
 There are, however, many men grey in observa- 
 tion, who, though they would be ready to admit 
 most fully the prejudicial influence of these causes 
 upon the sober exercise of the judgment, would yet 
 be disposed to contend, that the natural art of in- 
 duction, which is the result of habits of personal 
 experience, is far preferable to any regular method 
 which either education or the experience of others 
 has the power of imparting. Now examining into 
 the soundness of this objection and considering 
 what it is really worth, it may seem almost unne- 
 cessary to remind those who are of this way of 
 thinking, that there is no difference of opinion as 
 regards the nature of the instrument which is 
 to be used, but only as regards the best way of 
 acquiring the use of it. The most consummate 
 practical tact, which has been beautifully ex- 
 plained to be the result of "the intuitive ha- 
 bits of silent induction," is precisely a self-taught 
 or natural method of experience, and, although 
 it must be allowed that there is an adroitness and 
 ease to be acquired by practice, in the use of even 
 the most perfect and finished instrument, which no 
 
12 OBJECTIONS TO A METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 instruction can convey, still it does seem unac- 
 countable for that reason alone to prefer the home- 
 made tool of one's own contrivance to the most 
 correct instrument which the ingenuity of man has 
 been capable of producing. It is the husbandman 
 who prefers his own rude flail to the convenient im- 
 plements of modern agriculture. And, were it pos- 
 sible that every man could prepare for himself a 
 method for making a right use of his experience, 
 sufficiently well adapted to his purpose, it must not 
 be forgotten, that it is only after many years of labour 
 and disappointment that he acquires it, through error 
 and failure as well as success, of all which his tact 
 may be considered the last result of the eliminating 
 , process of repeated inductions. Thus he only be- 
 comes sagacious and expert at the expense of much 
 toil and many sacrifices, and frequently, as in the 
 case of the statesman, the legislator, and the phy- 
 sician ,* at others cost as well as his own. Nor do 
 the disadvantages of preferring this home-spun me- 
 thod of a personal induction to one common prin- 
 ciple available to every one and applicable to all 
 circumstances, terminate here, for it is only at the 
 eve of life, that this talent has reached its full ma- 
 turity, and it must necessarily die with each indivi- 
 dual, without contributing to the common benefits 
 of his fellow creatures. 
 
 * Aliorum salute, aliorum interitu, perniciosa discernentem a 
 salutaribus. 
 
INDUCTION OPPOSED TO PRACTICAL TACT. 13 
 
 There are no doubt some, however, who may be in- 
 clined to argue on this side of the question from a 
 notion that a regular method of induction is oppo- 
 sed to the developement of practical tact. To a 
 certain extent perhaps this may be ^the case. As, 
 for sake of comparison, one who, in describing a 
 circle, has never accustomed himself to make use of 
 a pair of compasses, may describe it more accu- 
 rately with his naked hand, than the person who 
 has habituated himself to depend upon their assist- 
 ance. I am however disposed to think, that few 
 will be found to urge such a reason against the 
 use of compasses, or any other mechanical contri- 
 vance, which enables an operation to be performed 
 with safety or facility. But if there may be found 
 some who would push their opinion to this extreme 
 case, they would not be more inconsistent than 
 those who object to teaching and cultivating a re- 
 gular method of correct and careful induction by 
 which men may profit by their common experience, 
 but who willingly confide in individual resources, 
 which only a few possess, and of which a still 
 smaller number know how to avail themselves. 
 
 But though it be impossible to allege any good 
 reason for neglecting the cultivation of induction, 
 some excuse might be found in the imperfect state 
 in which we now possess it. It may reasonably be 
 pleaded that it is by no means adapted to the present 
 state of our knowledge, and that its application to 
 many subjects is a matter of the greatest difficulty. 
 
14 IMPERFECT STATE OF INDUCTION. 
 
 That the inductive philosophy was left by its 
 great expounder in an unfinished state,, must cer- 
 tainly be allowed. Since his time the greatest 
 changes have taken place in almost every depart- 
 ment of science and of art, but without any corres- 
 ponding modification in the process of induction. 
 Every one, therefore, in order to make a proper use 
 of it, is obliged to mould and adapt it to his own 
 case. It is also generally admitted, that Lord 
 Bacon had not a very accurate notion of the boun- 
 daries which confine philosophical investigations, 
 but, that directing his views to objects beyond the 
 reach of human knowledge, he encumbered his pre- 
 cepts with superfluous and embarrassing rules. In- 
 deed it cannot be denied that his rules are more 
 particularly intended for the discovery of those 
 things which philosophers of later times consider 
 impossible for the human mind to compass, than of 
 those which come within the bounds of rational 
 and attainable knowledge. Thus the discovery of 
 the essential forms of things and of their abstract 
 qualities, were the subjects to which he devoted 
 his more particular care, and although the principle 
 for conducting the discovery of these, does not 
 differ from that suited to the investigation of phy- 
 sical causes, yet this circumstance tended consi- 
 derably to embarrass the process with some obscure 
 terms and unnecessary distinctions which may no 
 doubt have raised an impediment to the general 
 use of his method. " If," as observes Mr. Du- 
 
EFFECTS OF NEGLECT OF INDUCTION. 15 
 
 gald Stewart, "he had perceived as clearly as 
 Barrow, Berkeley and Hume, and many others 
 have done since his time, that there is not a 
 single instance in which we are able to trace 
 a necessary connexion between two successive 
 events, or to explain in what manner the one 
 follows the other, as an indispensable consequence, 
 he would have been naturally led to state his 
 principles in a form far more concise and metho- 
 dical, and to lay aside much of that scholastic 
 jargon by which his meaning is occasionally ob- 
 scured." What form might have suggested itself to 
 his powerful and penetrating mind, impressed with 
 the conviction of our inability to remove the veil 
 which nature has thrown over the mysterious 
 union of cause and effect, we may not now conjec- 
 ture, but it must ever remain matter of deep and 
 serious regret, that the same mind which developed 
 and explained the great principles of the philo- 
 sophy, should not have also laid down the definite 
 rules of its application as an art. 
 
 Each of the foregoing causes have no doubt 
 had their full share in giving rise to a latitude 
 in the use of induction equally incompatible with 
 the interests of science and the usefulness of art. 
 It may, however, be worth while to consider the 
 particular manner in which this has operated, and 
 the different effects it has had upon the different 
 branches of knowledge. 
 
 It is very plain, that all the different branches of 
 
16 MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES. 
 
 knowledge do not stand equally in need of in- 
 duction. In those sciences which admit of the 
 application of the mathematics, if the adaption of 
 a formula be made correctly, the possibility of 
 error is removed. The method of the mathematics 
 is so strictly logical, that so soon as any class of 
 phenomena is represented by them, their relations 
 to each other are precisely determined, and the 
 consequences deduced are necessarily true ; so that 
 any fact predicted by the calculus is more certainly 
 true, than the same fact known either by ob- 
 servation or induction. <( Le calcul commande 
 pour ainsi dire a la nature " because, " il en de- 
 termine les phenomenes plus exactment que 
 l'observation ne peut les faire connoitre."* This 
 department of knowledge is therefore, in the main, 
 fortified against the false steps of induction, and 
 has consequently suffered comparatively little from 
 its abuse. 
 
 It is also the nature of experiment, although 
 in a different way, to render those branches of 
 science which proceed upon it, as also the arts 
 which are only a repetition of experiments, relatively 
 independent of the inductive process. For, in the 
 first place, by means of experiment, a kind of 
 practical induction is carried on, almost visibly 
 submitted to the perception of the senses, which 
 promotes and suggests conclusions as it were 
 
 * Cuvier. Regne Animal. 
 
EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES. 17 
 
 mechanically, and checks the errors to which the 
 abstract operations of the mind are constantly 
 exposed. And, in the second place, the great 
 and leading advantage of experiment, is the 
 power which it bestows of creating facts, as it were, 
 at pleasure, by which means the mind may select 
 only those luminous facts, called by Lord Bacon, 
 prerogative instances. A few of these, he tells us, 
 speak more plainly than a multitude of common 
 facts, so that a consequence may be deduced in- 
 ductively from the comparison of a few examples 
 by a simple intuitive act of the judgment.* Here, 
 therefore, there is little room for an abuse of induc- 
 tion, and it is, consequently, in this department of 
 knowledge that the greatest progress has been 
 made by the method of experience. 
 
 But when pure observation becomes exclusively the 
 purveyor of our knowledge, the case is far other- 
 wise. Here we must accept, without choice or 
 selection, whatever nature or accident may please 
 to present.f There is no power of varying their 
 
 * Sunt enim instantice prerogativis istis insignitae et donatae 
 animce instar inter vulgares instantias comparenti : et, ut ab initio 
 diximus, paucae illarum sunt vice multarum. 
 
 •j* Observationes fiunt spectando id quod natura per se ipsam 
 exhibet ; hujusmodi sunt observationes pertinentes ad astrono- 
 miam et historiam naturalem. 
 
 Experimenta fiunt ponendo naturam in eas circumstantias in 
 quibus debeat agere et nobis ostendere id quod quaerimus ; quod 
 pertinet ad physicam experimentalem. Porrd et ferro et igni 
 utimur, et dissolvimus per vim compagem corporum, potissimum 
 in chemia, et naturam quodammodo velut torquentes, cogimus 
 revelare sua secreta. — Boscovich. 
 
 C 
 
18 SCIENCES OF OBSERVATION. 
 
 conditions, or of changing their combinations,— no 
 means of decomposing them practically, of adding 
 a circumstance, or of withdrawing a circumstance, 
 and observing the changes which follow. Yet, 
 unless our knowledge is to be limited to the simple 
 history of individual facts, all these operations 
 must be performed by the mind. By a kind of 
 intellectual chemistry, observations must be reduced 
 to their elementary constituents, and again formed 
 into new combinations, before they can give extent 
 or comprehensiveness to our knowledge. It is here, 
 therefore, that the aid of induction is so urgently 
 called for, and that the neglect, or abuse of it, 
 leads to consequences so baneful to the progress of 
 science. " In by far the greater number of in- 
 stances the appearances of nature are dependent 
 upon a variety of different laws, all of which are 
 often combined together in producing one single 
 event. And whenever such a combination hap- 
 pens, although each law may take place with the 
 most complete uniformity, it is likely that nothing 
 but confusion will strike the mere observer. A 
 collection of such results, therefore, would not 
 advance us one step in the knowledge of nature, 
 nor would it enable us to anticipate the issue of one 
 new experiment. In cases of this description, before 
 we can avail ourselves of our past experience, we 
 must employ our reasoning powers in comparing a 
 variety of instances together, in order to discover, 
 by a sort of analysis or decomposition, the simple 
 
WASTE OF EXPERIENCE. 19 
 
 laws which are concerned in the phenomena under 
 consideration ; after which, we may proceed safely 
 in determining, a priori, what the result will be of 
 any hypothetical combination of these, whether 
 total or partial."* 
 
 It is easy to understand the untoward influence 
 which the want of a severe method of induction 
 has had upon those departments of knowledge 
 which are almost exclusively fed by observations, 
 and the obstacles which it has opposed to their 
 progress. A comparison of the state of these 
 sciences before and since the discovery of induction, 
 with the state of the experimental sciences in the 
 same periods, would place this matter in the 
 clearest point of view, It is however time to 
 draw these introductory observations to a con- 
 clusion, and we must, therefore, content ourselves 
 with pointing out a few only of the more preju- 
 dicial consequences which have resulted from the 
 neglect of method. 
 
 The first of these which may be specified, is 
 the great waste of experience of which it has been 
 the cause. For want of a proper use of induc- 
 tion to extract the knowledge to be derived from the 
 particular facts, which time and occasion are con- 
 stantly producing, years of experience are cast 
 away, and man arrives at the end of his weary 
 labours with a burdensome load, which memory is 
 
 * Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 FALSE FACTS. 
 
 now ill able to carry, instead of a few well 
 assorted principles which would give strength 
 rather than heap incumbrance. What is true of 
 the life and experience of the individual, is true 
 of the common life and experience of mankind. 
 The world grows old in the accumulation of facts, 
 but not of experience. Observations are piled 
 upon observations without order or arrangement, 
 and the mind, wearied and exhausted with the con- 
 templation of the chaos, becomes indifferent by 
 disappointment, and they are at last thrown aside 
 or forgotten. 
 
 But the neglect of induction not only causes a 
 waste of experience, and in this way embarrasses 
 the progress of knowledge, it affords the oppor- 
 tunity of establishing positive errors, by giving a 
 currency to false facts, (as they are called,) and 
 to false doctrines. It is plain that if observations 
 were analyzed and examined by a sifting process of 
 the mind, the true and the false being compared 
 with each other, the incongruity of the latter would 
 soon betray their parentage. But, for want of some 
 method to place facts in their natural correspon- 
 dence with each other, there is no check upon the 
 insincerity of the observer, and, consequently, the 
 chance of reasoning upon false data is wonderfully 
 increased.* 
 
 * Ma v'ha di piu ; siccome contro ? 1 fatto, non si vuol replica, e 
 di nessun fatto si vuole Y analisi ; cosi 1' impostura, la menzogna, 
 
FALSE DOCTRINES. 21 
 
 The same neglect of induction which exposes 
 the mind to be misled by false data, exposes it also 
 to false doctrines from true facts, by allowing them 
 to be placed in false relations. Thus accidental 
 are assumed to be constant conjunctions, precursive 
 and consecutive events are erroneously connected 
 together, and on these false relations, principles are 
 established, from which flow errors in opinion and 
 errors in practice, as well in science as in art. 
 
 But what may perhaps be regarded as not the 
 least unhappy consequence which has sprung 
 from the careless manner in which inductions have 
 been conducted, is the neglect of the method 
 itself. For, like an instrument which has been 
 thrown aside, it has become stiff and rusty from 
 disuse, and the art of applying it having ceased to 
 be cultivated, it has lost all those improvements 
 which occasion and convenience are ever sug- 
 gesting. Enough, however, has already been said 
 to show what importance is attached to this parti- 
 cular consequence, and enough also, it is hoped, to 
 make obvious the necessity of directing more at- 
 tention than has of late been given to those ame- 
 liorations of which the method may be susceptible. 
 Nor can it be necessary to urge any further the 
 expediency of its constant and rigorous application 
 
 la mala fede entrano impunemente, oltra I'ignoranza, come prin- 
 cipali elementi nella composizione de' fatti medici. Rasori. This 
 censure is not more applicable to medicine than to the other 
 sciences of observation. 
 
22 CONCLUSION. 
 
 in all branches of knowledge, and in all operations 
 of art. For it is only by the general use of such 
 an instrument that we can expect to be able to 
 distinguish assertions from facts, to elicit the less 
 striking relations which bind the different phe- 
 nomena of nature, or to disentangle the thread 
 which connects them all together. It is only by 
 the universal use of such an instrument that know- 
 ledge can continue to procedein one even, unbroken, 
 course, that art can become science and science 
 generate art, and that the experience of every 
 individual, and of all ages, can concentrate their 
 combined force upon the one great; object, the disco- 
 very of Truth, — the entire revelation of Nature. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION, PERFORMED BY 
 
 TABULA INVENIENDI. 
 
 " Venit ei itaque in mentem posse aliquid simplicius proponi ; quod in 
 vulgus non editum, saltern tamen ad rei tam salutaris abortum arcendum satis 
 fortasse esse possit. Atque diu et acriter, rem cogitanti, et perpendenti, ante 
 omnia visum est ei, tabulas inveniendi sive legitimcp. inquisitionis formulas^ 
 hoc est, materiem particularium ad opus intellectiis ordinatam, in aliquibus 
 subjectis proponi, tanquam ad exemplum, et operis descriptionem fere visi- 
 bilem" Cogitata et Visa. 
 
 Having been much accustomed to have recourse 
 to the common expedient of tables to assist me in 
 various researches, it frequently occurred to me, 
 that it might be possible by means of them to 
 carry on a complete process of induction ; but I 
 found, that, making use of them in the ordinary 
 way, any process of induction which could be 
 performed by them, was little better than a bare 
 enumeration of particulars ; for they afforded no 
 assistance either in discovering or in establishing the 
 relations which existed between the circumstances 
 of different facts. When, however, after repeated 
 disappointments, I combined with the plan of tables 
 the method of representing the circumstances or/ 
 particulars of facts by signs, T soon perceived that 
 the most accurate induction might be effected by 
 
24 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 them ; and with many facilities and advantages of 
 which the usual medium of words does not allow. 
 
 The plan which I adopted for combining both 
 these means together, and which I am now about 
 to explain, consisted in placing a number of columns 
 collaterally, corresponding to the number of in- 
 stances or individual facts, which were to be 
 examined ||, and a broader column f parallel to 
 these, in which was written down vertically all the 
 circumstances, or particulars of the different in- 
 stances. Having appropriated a column to each 
 instance, as the circumstances of the instances 
 were written down in the broad column, signs were 
 placed opposite to them, in the columns of the 
 instances in which they were found. This process, 
 the translation of circumstances into signs, (the 
 principle of which is founded on the conjunction 
 of circumstances,) was performed in the following 
 manner. Each instance being denoted by a letter 
 of the alphabet, taking A to represent the first, B, 
 the second, and so forth ; as the circumstances of 
 the first instance were written down in the broad 
 column,f or column of circumstances, (in the order 
 in which they presented themselves,) the sign A 
 was placed opposite to each, in the column of the 
 first instance. In the same manner, in the second 
 instance, for every circumstance which had already 
 
 || \ Vide Form I. a. Classification by Affirmative Circum- 
 stances. 
 
TABULA INVENIENDI. 25 
 
 been found in the first instance, A was placed in 
 the column of the second instance. Such circum- 
 stances as had not been found in the first instance, 
 were added to the column of circumstances, and 
 the sign B was placed against them, in the column 
 of the second instance. In like manner, in the 
 third instance, the circumstances, the same as 
 those of the two preceding instances, were de- 
 noted in the column of the third instance by 
 their signs, A or B, respectively ; and such circum- 
 stances of the third instance as were not found in 
 either of the preceding, being first noted down in 
 the column of circumstances, were denoted by a 
 new sign, viz., that of the instance C. And so on 
 in all succeeding instances, the same circumstances 
 recurring continued to be denoted by their original 
 sign, and every new circumstance, being first in- 
 serted in the column of circumstances, by the sign 
 of the instance which it first occurred. 
 
 The operation having been completed after this 
 manner, every circumstance being represented by its 
 sign, in its proper place, and in its proper instance, it 
 was obvious that the relations of the signs to each 
 other expressed the relations of the circumstances 
 to each other, and that all the circumstances 
 denoted by the same signs, were related to each 
 other, more or less closely, for they had all co- 
 existed in the particular instances, more or less fre- 
 quently. It was, therefore, only necessary to 
 ascertain the constancy of this relation, and the 
 
26 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 position of the circumstances, antecedent or conse- 
 cutive, in order to place them in their natural 
 correspondence to each other, either as cause or 
 effect, as effects of a common cause, or causes of 
 a common effect. Pursuing this idea, I proceeded 
 to collect together into another parallel column,^f, all 
 the signs from the columns of instances, arranging 
 all the same signs together, each in their proper 
 vertical line. On considering the nature of this 
 last operation I soon perceived that I was carrying 
 on a process of induction, differing, however, from 
 the ordinary process in this, — that not only were 
 the circumstances common to all the instances 
 brought in under their common sign, but the sub- 
 ordinate or special circumstances were also brought 
 together each under their signs. 
 
 As the affixing and assorting of the signs is 
 determined by the presence of circumstances, this 
 process has been called the classification by affirma- 
 tive circumstances. The manner of performing it 
 will be better understood by inspection of the 
 table. 
 
 If Vide Form I. a. 
 
TABULAE 1NVENIENDI. 
 
 27 
 
 Form I. a. CLASSIFICATION BY AFFIRMATIVE CIRCUMSTANCES. 
 
 * 
 
 11 
 
 Classification 
 
 
 " 
 
 of 
 the Signs. 
 
 - 
 
 1 _. 
 
 > 
 
 >' 
 
 — 1 
 > 
 
 _ 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 d 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 >< 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 X 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 < 
 — 1 
 
 *1 
 
 xi 
 X 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 A~ 
 
 B C 
 
 a~;a 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 a~ 
 
 F 
 A 
 
 G 
 A 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 Q 
 
 A~ 
 
 R 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 A 
 
 T 
 
 A 
 
 t 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 ~B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 B l 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 C~ 
 A 
 
 "c 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A~ 
 
 A 
 C~ 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 C~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 ~A 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A~ 
 
 A~ 
 
 C 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 K 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 c 
 
 M 
 
 "c 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~B 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 H 
 "M 
 
 
 B 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 |H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 B 
 
 •■ 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IF 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 * The subject of investigation may be inserted in this open space. 
 
 t By leaving some blank lines between the circumstances of the first instances, the circumstances 
 of the succeeding instances may be placed in a more natural order. 
 
28 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 On examining into the nature of the operation to 
 which the signs, and, consequently, the circum- 
 stances, had been subjected by means of the pre- 
 ceding table, it was easy to be perceived, that 
 besides the relation indicated between all the cir- 
 cumstances comprehended under the same sign, 
 which has been already noticed, any relation 
 between different signs or their corresponding 
 circumstances, was also negatived; for each suc- 
 ceeding class of circumstances was excluded by 
 those preceding it. Thus the class A of circum- 
 stances having been found present when the class 
 B of circumstances was absent, according to the 
 principle* laid down by Lord Bacon, the class A 
 excludes the class B.f In the same manner, the 
 classes A and B exclude the class C, and so on, the 
 other classes successively. Therefore, as it is the 
 effect of this process of classification to bring toge- 
 ther under the same sign all those circumstances 
 which have co-existed, so is it to exclude from 
 
 * Itaque naturae facienda est prorsus solutio et separatio ; non 
 per ignem certe sed per mentem, tanquam per ignem divinum. 
 Est itaque inductionis verae opus primum (quatenus ad inveni- 
 endas formas) rejectio sive exclusio naturarum singularum, quae 
 non inveniuntur in aliqua instantia, ubi natura data adest. Aut 
 inveniuntur in aliqua instantia ubi natura data abest, aut inveni- 
 untur in aliqua instantia crescere cum natura data decrescat, aut 
 decrescere cum natura data crescat. 
 
 •j" To use the language of Lord Bacon, A is the representative 
 of instances absentice in proximo of the circumstances designated 
 byB. 
 
TABULA INVENIENDI. 29 
 
 each other, and to distinguish by different signs, 
 those which are independent of each other. 
 
 It can scarcely be necessary to observe, that, 
 though it is the principle of this and of all classifi- 
 cations, that the succeeding signs and their cir- 
 cumstances are excluded by those preceding, the 
 converse of this is not true. The circumstances 
 of the class A are not excluded by any or by all of 
 the other classes, although these may mutually 
 exclude each other. Thus the characters of the 
 genus may exclude the discriminative peculiarities of 
 the species, of the varieties, and of individuals, but 
 none of these last can exclude the genus, though 
 they may exclude one another. 
 
 Although all the circumstances comprehended 
 under the same sign, are in some degree related to 
 each other, it cannot readily escape observation, 
 that there must be among them some which are 
 merely concomitant or accidental, (as for example 
 all the special circumstances of the first instance 
 must be concealed under the common sign A,) and 
 therefore, until every such circumstance is rejected 
 from each class, the induction is obviously imper- 
 fect. Now it is possible to proceed in two differ- 
 ent ways, directly opposite to each other, in order 
 to determine which are the circumstances in this 
 predicament. The classification may be extended 
 to a greater number of instances, by a method 
 hereafter to be explained,* and observing those cir- 
 
 * Vide infra, Rectification of the Signs. 
 
30 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 cumstances of each class which constantly recur- 
 ring together, show a constancy of relation, the 
 circumstances may be rejected, which do not recur 
 together in any proportion to the number of in- 
 stances. For a little consideration will show, that 
 the instances which make up the complement of 
 the whole number of instances, negative the cir- 
 cumstances which are thus defective in instances. 
 And indeed this method of extending the classifi- 
 cation to a greater number of instances, must 
 very frequently be had recourse to, in order to 
 make the classes strong enough to bear a process 
 of further exclusion. And on some occasions, 
 when the instances are very numerous, and the 
 deficiency very considerable, it may be the shortest 
 way of proceeding, and sufficiently correct for 
 ordinary purposes. But the method which is more 
 philosophical and more strictly correct, is to reject 
 those circumstances which are deficient in their 
 number of instances, on the evidence of individual 
 instances, in which the greater number of the 
 circumstances of the class are found, except those 
 which are to be excluded * 
 
 As the affixing of the signs in this process is 
 determined by the absence of circumstances, it has 
 been called the classification by negative circum- 
 stances. The inspection of the table will easily 
 suggest the manner of performing it. 
 
 * To repeat the language of the Novum Organon, on the 
 evidence of instantice absentice in proximo. 
 
31 
 
 Form II. CLASSIFICATION BY NEGATIVE CIRCUMSTANCES. 
 
 CLASSf.A 
 
 03 
 
 S3 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 At 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 *ll 
 
 M\ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 c 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 e 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 e 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 f 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 g 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 h 
 
 6 
 
 A 
 
 e 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 h 
 
 
 i 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 e 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 h 
 
 
 J 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 k 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 e 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 h 
 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 m 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 n 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 P 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 ~1± 
 
 
 q 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 r 
 
 b | A 
 
 V 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 h 
 
 
 s 
 
 b i A 
 
 e 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 t 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 O 
 
 .2 a 
 
 rt fee 
 
 •a <*> 
 
 o 
 
 Class 
 
 V 
 
 to 
 
 a> 
 
 43 1 
 O \ 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 b 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 I 
 
 e 
 
 A 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 h 
 
 * The circumstances of the class to be inserted in these blank spaces. 
 
32 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 The circumstances of any class, (by which is of 
 course meant any number of circumstances de- 
 noted by the same sign,) may be submitted to the 
 operation of this table in the following manner. 
 As the instances (which may be either the same 
 from which the classes of the previous table had 
 been formed, or new instances, containing few or 
 more of the circumstances of the class under 
 analysis), are examined one after another, for any 
 circumstance of the class found in any instance, the 
 sign of the class must be placed opposite that 
 instance in the column of the circumstance,f and 
 so on for all the succeeding instances. But when 
 in an instance any circumstance belonging to a 
 class is found defective, the sign of that instance, || 
 instead of the sign of the class, is to be placed in 
 the column of the defective circumstance ; and 
 this defective circumstance must retain the same 
 sign in all the subsequent instances. In this 
 way, a second classification, and a second pro- 
 cess of exclusion is established; for, whenever a 
 circumstance of a class is found deficient, the sign 
 of the class being replaced by the sign of the 
 instance in which it is first found deficient, it be- 
 comes excluded from the class on the evidence of 
 the instance or instances in which it may be found 
 wanting. After the circumstances have been com- 
 pared in this way, in all the different instances, and 
 
 f || Vide Form II. Classification by Negative Circumstances. 
 
TABULiE INVENIENDI. 33 
 
 the signs placed accordingly, the whole classifica- 
 tion must be corrected at the foot of the table, by 
 substituting for the signs of the circumstances, 
 those signs which the circumstances have assumed 
 in the particular instances; so that those circum- 
 stances only which retain the sign of the class, con- 
 tinue to belong to it. These, as it were, continue to 
 affirm their relation to each other, whilst the others 
 having received different signs, are removed from it, 
 and, as it were, deny the relation, except under certain 
 combinations of circumstances. It is therefore the 
 nature of this operation to decompose the classes, 
 formed by the first table, into subordinate classes, 
 either partially or entirely ; and this has accordingly 
 led to the distinction of classes and sub-classes of 
 circumstances. 
 
 It is however necessary to observe, that the prin- 
 ciple of classification of this table is quite the 
 reverse of that of the first. In the first table, 
 the classes are determined by the presence of cir- 
 cumstances not found in any previous instance, 
 whilst, in this table, the sub-classes are formed by 
 the absence of circumstances which had been 
 present in the previous instances. Therefore, 
 though as in the first table, the classes do here 
 also exclude each other, they do so in a con- 
 trary direction ; the signs of the principal class being 
 excluded by those of the sub-classes. Hence it is 
 evident, that the method of exclusion which may 
 
 D 
 
34 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 be performed by these tables, is double, and, as it 
 were, bilateral, and that this principle of induction, 
 admitting no contradictory instance, fulfils the 
 condition which Lord Bacon requires; as far at 
 least as the relations of circumstances can be de- 
 termined by the constancy of their conjunctions. 
 
 There is a facility attendant upon the use of this 
 table, which is worthy of being remarked. Besides 
 completing the process of exclusion, it saves the 
 trouble of selecting instances suited to the differ- 
 ent circumstances; for, amongst instances which 
 are defective in circumstances, it finds out those 
 which are negative of any particular circumstance, 
 and thus, adapting the instance to the circumstance, 
 any particular knowledge of the circumstances of 
 each individual instance is rendered unnecessary. 
 
 This table by a trifling modification becomes also 
 susceptible of another advantage which deserves 
 attention, for, as well as excluding circumstances 
 from a class to which they do not constantly 
 belong, it may be made to show the combination 
 of circumstances, or the condition, under which they 
 are either conjoined or separated from a class. Thus 
 suppose that, besides having columns for only the 
 circumstances of the class, other columns be ap- 
 propriated or reserved for circumstances occurring 
 collaterally,* (such circumstances being denoted 
 
 * Vide infra, Chap. iv. Methodus Contabulandi. 
 
TABULAE INVENIENDI. 35 
 
 by signs in the usual way, according to the in- 
 stances in which they first appear,) it is plain that 
 the signs will indicate the relations which may 
 exist between the circumstances of a class and 
 the collateral circumstances, and, in this way, it 
 may be determined why a circumstance belongs 
 occasionally to a class, and why, at other times, it 
 is separated from it. 
 
 But though these tables afford the means of 
 determining most accurately the relations of cir- 
 cumstances to each other, as far as can be ascer- 
 tained by the constancy of their conjunctions, me- 
 diate or immediate, it is well known that a source 
 of fallacy lies concealed under this, and therefore 
 other criteria are necessary for determining these 
 relations. The chief of these is the mutual mo- 
 difications, or affections, which circumstances show, 
 when they are in relation with each other. This is 
 the object of the tabula graduum of Lord Bacon, 
 and on it is founded another principle of exclu- 
 sion.* For it might certainly be objected to the 
 method of induction which has just been explained, 
 that, though the signs do indeed express the absence 
 and presence of circumstances, and the classifica- 
 tions perform a process of exclusion accordingly, 
 
 * Omnino sequitur ut non recipiatur aliqua natura pro vera 
 forma, nisi perpetuo decrescat quando natura ipsa decrescit, et 
 similitur perpetuo augeatur quando natura ipsa avgetur, 
 
 D 2 
 
36 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 the degrees, modes, and modifications of the cir- 
 cumstances, are left out of the account, and, hence, 
 the evidence of the connexion between circum- 
 stances which co-exist, derived from their reci- 
 procal variations, is neither made available to com- 
 plete the exclusion, or to confirm the induction. 
 
 This very important part of every method of 
 induction may, however, be fulfilled by a very 
 simple expedient, which seems quite competent for 
 every purpose that can be required of it. It 
 consists in placing over the sign of any circum- 
 stance which presents itself under any modifica- 
 tion, the sign proper to the instance in which this 
 modification is found. In order to avoid a confu- 
 sion of signs, the corresponding letter of the Greek 
 alphabet, may be used instead of the Roman letter. 
 Thus suppose a circumstance A recurs under a 
 modification in the instance D, this will be ex- 
 pressed by a*. If, therefore, the modification of 
 the circumstance a^ is of sufficient importance to 
 induce any change in any other circumstance with 
 which it may be in relation, there will of course be 
 found other circumstances, in the same instance, 
 with signs of modifications, or there will be some 
 new combination of the signs, or some signs 
 absent or present, out of the usual order. And 
 therefore, where circumstances under the same 
 signs do not, by their signs, express such mutual 
 affections or modifications, they must be excluded 
 
tabulae inveniendi. 37 
 
 from having any constancy of relation affirmed of 
 each other. 
 
 And this seems a proper place to remind the reader, 
 that the signs considered alone, and without refer- 
 ence to the circumstances, express relations, and 
 not things. The circumstances which they signify 
 must be found by referring to the column of cir- 
 cumstances, but the relations which the circum- 
 stances have to one another, are entirely expressed 
 and shown by the signs. Now, by adding to the signs, 
 either accents, prefixes, affixes, or suffixes, after the 
 usage of grammarians, the signs might be made to 
 express every possible relation which can exist be- 
 tween different things or circumstances, and, in 
 short, might be converted into a perfect language 
 of relations. 
 
 To recapitulate, having by the first process, the 
 classification by affirmative circumstances, arranged 
 and assorted the circumstances of all the instances, 
 and formed them into classes, and having, by the 
 second process of exclusion, or classification by nega- 
 tive circumstances, rejected from the classes all such 
 circumstances as are not found constantly to belong 
 to them, the circumstances which remain of each 
 class, may be collected and arranged together. Not 
 having been able, by the evidence of any instance, 
 or individual fact, to separate these circumstances 
 
38 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 from each other, or from their class, it is allowed to 
 conclude that they are connected with each other by 
 some natural relation, either as cause or effect of 
 each other, as causes of a common effect, or effects 
 of a common cause.* This relation is expressed here 
 by the sign of the class. When the nature of this 
 relation can be ascertained or explained, we are in 
 possession of the meaning of the sign, and may 
 substitute the one for the other. If that relation 
 be referrable to any law, or general principle 
 already known, our knowledge of it ceases to be 
 empirical, but, if it continues isolated from any 
 known law or principle, our knowledge continues 
 empirical, and therefore the sign conveys as much 
 meaning as any words expressive of the relation. 
 Science is full of examples of the gradual conversion 
 of empirical into what is called rational know- 
 ledge, but it is probable there may never be a 
 nobler illustration than that which was afforded, 
 when the laws of Kepler were merged by Newton 
 in the general theory of gravitation. 
 
 * When we have carried the decomposition as far as we can, 
 we are entitled to consider this simplest combination of indis- 
 pensable conditions, as the physical cause of the event. 
 When thus by comparing a number of cases, agreeing in some 
 circumstances, but differing in others, and all attended with the 
 same result, a philosopher connects as a general law of nature, 
 the event with its physical cause, he is said to proceed by the 
 method of induction. — Stewart 's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 
 
TABULA INVENIENDI. 39 
 
 The classes thus reduced as it were to their last 
 terms or elements, may, with their sub-classes, for 
 sake of perspicuity, be arranged together in the fol- 
 lowing table, each under their respective signs, by 
 which means every circumstance may be found in 
 its proper place. And as this presents a complete 
 and comprehensive view of the result of the whole 
 process, by which all the circumstances or parti- 
 culars stand assorted together, according to their 
 natural relations and affinities, it has been called 
 the form of Synthesis, being the proper preparation 
 for that operation. 
 
40 
 
 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 Form III. SYNTHESIS. 
 
 * Classes. 
 
 * Sub-Classes. 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f,#c. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f,$c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f,*c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f,&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f,$c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Vide supra, Form II. 
 
 t The circumstances of the classes to be inserted here, each following 
 their respective signs. 
 
 U The circumstances of the sub-classes to be inserted here, each in their 
 proper class, and under their proper signs. 
 
TABULA INVENIENDL 41 
 
 The arrangement and distribution of the results 
 of any analysis of particular facts, which is made 
 by means of the preceding table, allows at once to 
 be perceived what circumstances cannot be se- 
 parated from each other, what are conjoined toge- 
 ther only under certain combinations, and what 
 cannot exist together. It may thus serve many 
 very useful purposes, by showing at once all the 
 bearings of the circumstances to each other; as 
 well in facilitating the further progress of any in- 
 vestigation, as in directing, with more certainty and 
 precision, the practical application of general prin- 
 ciples to individual cases. 
 
 There can be no difficulty in understanding, 
 that, although circumstances may, by this process of 
 classification, be placed in different classes, yet 
 very intimate relations may exist between them, 
 their conjunction or separation only depending on 
 the presence or absence of some other conditional 
 circumstance. By referring to the classifications, 
 or, if necessary, to the instances themselves, the 
 circumstance or circumstances constituting the 
 condition, may easily be discovered ; and, by in- 
 specting this table and observing their position 
 and bearings, it will be possible to determine 
 whether the condition be constant or occasional. 
 In this manner, a circumstance which is isolated, 
 may be restored to a class, or a particular class or 
 group of circumstances, may, subject to such a con- 
 dition, be placed in a class more general ; and in the 
 
42 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 same manner, also a sort of equation may be found 
 between different classes, or between circumstances 
 of different classes, allowing us, for instance, to say 
 B + D=A, &c. &c. 
 
 This power of finding the conditions under which 
 different circumstances are conjoined together, or 
 by which they are united to or separated from 
 different classes, gives, as it were, the faculty of 
 creating hypothetical instances or individual cases, 
 and of forming new combinations from the elements 
 to which the facts have been reduced by the de- 
 composing process of exclusion. In this way, it 
 may be said, that a kind of visible analysis of the 
 facts having been performed, much in the same 
 way as the chemist in his laboratory reduces differ- 
 ent substances to their elementary ingredients, new 
 compounds may also be formed from them synthe- 
 tically, according to the order of the affinities 
 which have been found to exist among them.* 
 
 There is also another advantage derived from 
 presenting the results of any analysis in the com- 
 prehensive manner of this table, for, the sub- 
 ordinate conclusions being placed in their proper 
 relation to the principal, by comparing the abstract 
 of one induction with that of another, they may be 
 both put in correspondence, and thus the rela- 
 tions of one series of facts being connected with 
 
 * Sed naturam re vera persecet, et corporum virtu tes et actus 
 eorumque leges,, in materia determinata, inveniat. 
 
TABULAE INVENIENDI. 43 
 
 those of another, the whole chain of relations 
 becomes lengthened and extended in every direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Lord Bacon informs us in different passages of 
 his works, how fully he was aware of the difficulties 
 which every one has experienced in practice, 
 when he endeavours to apply general conclusions 
 to particular cases ; the removal of the special- 
 ties and individual peculiarities leaving such a 
 chasm between the general principle and the 
 particular case, and placing us, as it were, at 
 such a distance from our object,* that frequently 
 chance has as much influence as design in deter- 
 mining the success of the application. We learn 
 therefore from the general outline of his plan that 
 he did not consider the raising of general principles 
 as the whole of the interpretation of nature ; 
 on the contrary, that he intended to give not only 
 a descending as well as an ascending scale of princi- 
 ples, but also rules for reducing principles to prac- 
 
 * " Solent autem homines naturam tanquam ex praealta turri et 
 a longe despicere, et circa generalia nimium occupari ; quando si 
 descendere placuerit, et ad particularia accedere, resque ipsas 
 attentius et diligentius inspicere, magis vera et utilis fieret com- 
 prehensio." It is for this reason that he places all his hopes and 
 confidence in what he calls intermediate principles, or axioms, 
 which connect general conclusions with individual instances. 
 " At media sunt axiomata ilia vera et solida et viva, in quibus 
 humanae res et fortunae sitae sunt : et supra haec quoque, tandem 
 ipsa ilia genalissima, talia scilicet, quae non abstracta sint, sed 
 per haec media vere limitantur." 
 
44 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 tice ; by which, however, nothing could be meant 
 but some intermediate steps or links which might 
 connect the general conclusion with particular 
 cases. Now it appears to me that some provision is 
 made for these objects by this method of induction. 
 For, by preserving all the subclasses, and specifical 
 peculiarities, and by being able to discover their 
 connexion and relation to the general classes on 
 one side, and to the individual cases on the other, 
 the conditional circumstances of each particular 
 case may be added to the general principle, and 
 thus ensure the success of its practical appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Though the foregoing method of induction must 
 be allowed to be correct in its principle, as well as 
 in its operation, the conclusions deduced by it 
 would be only limitedly or partially true, unless 
 there existed some means of extending it to a 
 greater number of instances than could be ex- 
 amined in a single table. If there was no way 
 of placing the classifications of one table in corre- 
 spondence with those of another, so as to gene- 
 ralize them, by comparing them in a greater 
 number of instances, it would be an imperfect 
 instrument, and rather fitted for a kind of pioneer- 
 ing preparation of materials for induction, by 
 dressing them and putting them in order, than 
 capable of performing that process. 
 
 This defect is, however, easily supplied by the 
 
TABULiE INVENIENDI. 45 
 
 following method of combining together the clas- 
 sifications of different tables, and of assimilating 
 the different signs to each other, in such a manner, 
 that in a series of classifications the same sign may 
 denote the same circumstance, and may continue 
 to indicate the same relations between the different 
 circumstances. 
 
 In order to effect this object it is necessary to 
 refer back to Form I. «,* and to make a trifling 
 alteration in the manner of performing the last 
 operation of that table. If, instead of merely 
 carrying the signs of the circumstances into the 
 column of classification, the number of signs of 
 each circumstance, or the number of times each 
 circumstance has recurred in the different in- 
 stances, be reckoned, and the numbers be placed 
 in the column of classification, under its proper 
 sign, of which it may be called the co-efficient, we 
 shall be supplied with the means of extending an 
 induction.f 
 
 * Vide p. 27. 
 f Vide Form I. b. 
 
46 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 FORM I. b. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION BY AFFIRMATIVE CIRCUMSTANCES NUMERICALLY. 
 
 * 
 
 It 
 
 
 Classification 
 
 
 Instances. 
 
 of 
 the Signs. 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 B 
 A 
 
 C 
 A 
 
 > 
 D 
 
 > 
 
 E 
 A 
 
 > 
 
 F 
 A 
 
 > 
 
 G 
 A 
 
 > 
 H 
 
 d 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 >< 
 
 >< 
 
 > 
 >< 
 
 X 
 
 1 — j 
 > 
 X 
 
 > 
 X 
 
 ■ — i 
 > 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 xi 
 X 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 b!c 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 &c. 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 J 
 A 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 A 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 A 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 P 
 
 Q 
 A 
 
 R 
 A 
 
 s 
 
 A 
 
 T 
 A 
 
 t 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 B~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 B~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 B~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 b" 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ~A 
 
 a" 
 
 C 
 
 A 
 
 A~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 X 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 X 
 
 C 
 A 
 
 C 
 A 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~4 
 
 — 
 
 
 A 
 
 — 
 
 A 
 
 — 
 
 A 
 
 F~ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ~c 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 C~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 c" 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 C 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 C~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 C~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 c~ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 C 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2H 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 T~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * The subject of investigation may be inserted in this open space. 
 
 t By leaving some blank lines between the circumstances of the first instances, the circum- 
 stances of the succeeding instances may be placed in a more natural order. 
 
TABULAE INVENIENDI. 47 
 
 As it may frequently be required to extend the 
 induction to a greater number of instances than 
 can be entered in any single table, it may be more 
 convenient always to make the classification by 
 affirmative circumstances, after the manner of the 
 preceding table; but it must not be forgotten that 
 the truth of the induction is determined by the 
 similarity of the signs, and not by their enumera- 
 tion. The co-efficients of the signs afford the 
 means of connecting one classification with ano- 
 ther, but the relations of the circumstances to each 
 other depend entirely upon their being repre- 
 sented by the same sign. 
 
 Supposing, therefore, it is required to place the 
 classifications of several tables, prepared like the 
 preceding, in correspondence with each other, it is 
 only necessary to transfer them to the following table, 
 in which this operation is to be performed, and 
 which, because it consists in correctly adjusting the 
 signs to the circumstances, I have, for the sake of 
 distinction, called the process of Rectification. 
 
48 
 
 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 Form IV. RECTIFICATION OF THE SIGNS. 
 
 * 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Classifications of Different Series of Instances. 
 
 xvecuiicdiiun 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Series 
 No. I. 
 
 Series 
 
 No.n. 
 
 Series 
 No. HI. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 45 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C|D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 17 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c. 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 ~5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ~5 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 7 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 ~8 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 To 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 To 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 2 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 1 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 * The subject of investigation may be inserted in this blank space. 
 
 t By leaving blank lines between the circumstances of the first series, the circumstances of the 
 subsequent series may be inserted in a more natural order. 
 
tabula inveniendi. 49 
 
 The arrangement of this table is very similar to 
 that of the first, the columns of the instances 
 being occupied by the different series of classifica- 
 tions, and the column of classification by that of the 
 column rectification. Having entered in the table, 
 in the usual way, the circumstances with the signs 
 and co-efficients by which they are denoted in each 
 separate classification, on the same line opposite to 
 them, the next step is to place the circumstances 
 in correspondence with their proper class, by 
 selecting from the different signs by which they 
 may be denoted in the different classifications, the 
 proper sign by which they ought to be represented ; 
 or the sign by which they would have been repre- 
 sented, had the circumstances been classified by 
 one general, instead of several particular operations. 
 Now, in order that the correspondence of all the 
 signs may be preserved, that all the circumstances 
 may stand relatively to each other, and to their 
 signs, precisely as they do in the separate classifi- 
 cations, it is essentially necessary that the opera- 
 tion by which this is effected, should have a fair 
 and equable influence on all the signs and on all 
 the circumstances. 
 
 If the same circumstance continues to be de- 
 noted by the same sign in the different classifica- 
 tions, the operation is a simple one, and consists 
 merely in placing under that sign, in the column of 
 rectification, the sum of the co-efficients which 
 stand before it. in all the classifications. If, how- 
 
50 OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 ever, the same circumstance be denoted in the 
 different classifications by different signs, that sign 
 only is to be placed in the column of rectification, 
 which carries the largest sum of co-efficients pro- 
 portionate to the number of instances, as deduced 
 from all the classifications : or in other words, the 
 sign which has been most frequently repeated, and 
 with it the sum of the co-efficients of all the signs 
 by which the circumstance has been denoted. For 
 it is self-evident, that if the same operation be 
 performed equally on the signs of all the circum- 
 stances, the column of rectification (^f) will correctly 
 represent the same correspondence of the signs and 
 circumstances, and the same relations between 
 different signs and different circumstances, which 
 previously existed in each separate classification. 
 The process being the same in all, it is obvious 
 that the effect ought to be the same. Thus the 
 circumstances standing in the same class before 
 the process of rectification, will also be found 
 together in the same class after that process, for, if 
 they be naturally related to each other, the rela- 
 tion will be increased by being extended to a 
 greater number of instances ; but if, on the con- 
 trary, they stand together in one classification 
 accidentally, and not in the others, then the 
 process of rectification will place them in the 
 proper classes to which they belong. So that in 
 
 If Vide Form III. 
 
TABULA INVENIENDI. 51 
 
 this way any false or casual relation will be de- 
 stroyed, or expunged by this common operation, 
 whilst any natural and well founded relation will be 
 strengthened and made more conspicuous. 
 
 This method of extending an induction by rec- 
 tification of the signs, may be carried to any 
 degree ; for the operation which has been applied to 
 different series of classification may, also on the 
 same principle, be repeated on different series of 
 rectifications, and so on successively, until every 
 instance is exhausted, so that at last there will only 
 remain in the same classes, those circumstances 
 which are constantly and universally related to 
 each other. And in this manner, the process of 
 classification by affirmative circumstances may be 
 carried directly onward to such an extent, as to 
 answer all the purposes of an exclusion by negative 
 circumstances, and, when the instances are nu- 
 merous, it may be conveniently substituted for it. 
 
 But, in order that this operation of rectification 
 may produce true and equal results, it is absolutely 
 necessary that it should not be applied to signs in 
 different stages of classification. That is to say, 
 that signs merely classified, and signs which have 
 already undergone the process of- rectification, 
 cannot without an error be together submitted to 
 the same operation ; and, in the same way, that 
 signs in the first stage of rectification, and signs in 
 a more advanced stage, cannot together undergo 
 equally the same operation, without false conse- 
 
 e 2 
 
52 ON A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 quences. For the signs most advanced in the 
 inductive process will prevail over those which are 
 less advanced, drawing them as it were into their 
 more powerful vortex. As for example, should 
 any circumstance be denoted in different classifica- 
 tions by the sings 20 A, 16B, 13C, 1 ID, the principle 
 of rectification would give 60 A as the proper 
 sign. And suppose it is required to combine with 
 this rectified sign 60 A, the sign in a classification 
 of another series of instances, 25 B, it is evident 
 that the operation of rectification being performed 
 on these signs in different stages of classification, 
 will give 85 A, but if it had been performed on 
 signs in the same progress of classification, (20 A, 
 16 B, 13 C, 11 D, 25 B,) the true and proper sign 
 would have been 85 B. It will therefore readily 
 appear how important it must be, in order to pre- 
 vent the signs from being displaced, and conse- 
 quently to preserve circumstances in the classes to 
 which they naturally belong, that the process of 
 rectification should be performed on signs in the 
 same stage of classification. 
 
 The process of rectification has been placed 
 after that of exclusion or classification by negative 
 circumstances, in order to afford at once a complete 
 view of the method of induction by classification, 
 but that may not always be the order in which they 
 may be required to be made use of. It may fre- 
 quently happen that the first process, the classifi- 
 cation by affirmative circumstances, may not afford 
 
 
TABULAE 1NVENIENDI. 53 
 
 classes sufficiently strong to bear the process of 
 exclusion by negative circumstances, and in that 
 case the classification must be continued by the 
 process of rectification, until the classes are raised 
 to a state which allows them to bear the process 
 of exclusion. But in which ever order they 
 may be used, the method is precisely the same. 
 
 In order to extend the classification by negative 
 circumstances, or the second process of exclusion, 
 to a greater number of instances than it is possible 
 for a single table to hold, no further provision is 
 required. It is only necessary to carry forward 
 the corrected classification of the class, from table 
 to table, until all the instances have been ex- 
 hausted. If there still remain circumstances which 
 cannot be removed from the class by the operation 
 of this process, it may be concluded that they are 
 constantly related to each other, and induction can 
 reach no further.* 
 
 Such is the method of induction which the 
 author has to propose, and for which he is sensible 
 that he ought to solicit not less the indulgence 
 than the attention of the reader ; but, lest the 
 unavoidable tediousness of the explanation may 
 have made it difficult to comprehend it as a 
 whole, it may be useful, in resuming succinctly, 
 
 * Turn vero post rejectionera et exclusionem debitis modis 
 factam, secundo loco, tanquam in fundo, manebit, (abeuntibus in 
 fumum opinionibus volatilibus) forma affirmativa, solida, et 
 vera, et bene terminata. 
 
54 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 to draw it into a narrower space, and state the 
 processes of which it consists, the rules for per- 
 forming these processes, and the precautions neces- 
 sary for performing them correctly. 
 
 The Method of Induction by Classification 
 consists of the following processes i 
 
 I. The translation of circumstances into signs, 
 which express not only the presence and absence 
 of circumstances relatively to each other, but also 
 their reciprocal modes and modifications ; and 
 which standing precisely in the position of the cir- 
 cumstances, indicate all the possible relations which 
 can exist between them.* 
 
 II. The classification of signs by affirmative cir- 
 cumstances according to their conjunction in dif- 
 ferent instances or individual cases, by which 
 those co-existing are classed together, and those 
 not co-existing are excluded and separated from 
 each other.f 
 
 III. The extension of this principle to any num- 
 ber of instances by the rectification of the signs. 
 
 IV. Exclusion of those circumstances from the 
 classes formed by the previous processes which are 
 not found constantly present in the classes ; 1st, 
 by the classification by negative circumstances, || and 
 2dly, by deficiency of mutual variations and modifi- 
 cations, ^f 
 
 * Vide p. 24, 25, 26. f PP- 2 ?, 28. 
 
 || p. 32. U p. 36. 
 
PROCESSES AND RULES. 55 
 
 And I think I may venture to repeat that these 
 processes together comprehend every possible 
 manner by which events or circumstances can be 
 considered in all their different aspects and affec- 
 tions, so as to decide by pure observation or expe- 
 riment, how they stand related to each other, 
 whether as cause or effect of each other, as com- 
 mon causes of a common effect, or common effects 
 of a common cause, which is all that can be at- 
 tained by any method of pure observation. " For," 
 as Kepler long ago observed, " it is one of the 
 commonest axioms of natural philosophy, that if two 
 things always happen together, and in the same 
 manner, and admit the same measure, either the 
 one is the cause of the other, or both are the effect 
 of a common cause." 
 
 Rules for performing the different processes 
 of the Method of Induction by Classification. 
 
 I. Translation of circumstances into signs. For 
 every circumstance found in any instance, place 
 a sign opposite to it in the column of the in- 
 stance. If the circumstance has been already 
 found in any previous instance, the sign by which 
 it was first denoted must be repeated, but if not so, 
 the sign of the instance will be the sign of the 
 circumstance. If any circumstance already found 
 in some previous instance, presents itself in another 
 instance with some variation or modification, the 
 Greek letter corresponding to the Roman letter, the 
 
56 PROCESSES AND RULES 
 
 sign of the instance, is to be placed over the sign 
 of the circumstance, and this letter must continue 
 the sign of the same modification in all succeeding 
 instances. 
 
 II. Classification by affirmative circumstances. 
 When all the circumstances have been translated 
 into signs, according to the preceding rule, the 
 signs of the circumstances are to be carried into 
 the column of classification, each under their res- 
 pective sign, so that the same signs may stand in 
 the same vertical line ;* or, the co-efficient of each 
 sign is to placed in the column of classification in- 
 stead of the sign.f 
 
 III. Rectification of the signs. The circum- 
 stances and ' the signs by which they are repre- 
 sented in the column of classification, are to be 
 transferred to their appropriate columns in the 
 table of rectification. If a circumstance is repre- 
 sented by the same sign in all the classifications, 
 the sum of its co-efficients is to be placed under 
 that sign in the column of rectification. But if a 
 circumstance be denoted by different signs in the 
 different classifications, it is necessary to find that 
 sign whose co-efficient carries the greatest sum 
 proportionate to the number of instances, and the 
 sum of the co-efficients of all the signs must be 
 placed under that sign in the column of recti- 
 fication. J 
 
 * Vide p. 26. f Vide p. 46. 
 
 % Vide p. 48, 49. 
 
OF THE NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 57 
 
 IV. Exclusion. First, by the classification by 
 negative circumstances, the sign of the instance is 
 to be substituted for the sign of a class wherever 
 any circumstance of a class is found defective; 
 and, second, any circumstance of a class which does 
 not indicate modifications or affections reciprocally 
 with the other circumstances of the class, is to be 
 rejected from the class. 
 
 V. The products of the process of induction 
 are to be at last transferred to the table of Syn- 
 thesis, where every circumstance standing under 
 its proper sign, whether of class or sub-class, 
 shows the relations in w r hich they all stand to each 
 other. 
 
 Precautions necessary to ensure the correct 
 performance of the method of induction by clas- 
 sification. 
 
 I. It is of the first importance that the instances 
 or particular cases submitted to examination should 
 be as entire and complete in all their circum- 
 stances or particulars as it is possible to procure 
 them. In whatever way an inductive process may 
 be carried on, it must follow as a matter of course, 
 that if the instances are mutilated or deficient in 
 their circumstances, the conclusion* must be rela- 
 tively incorrect.* And, therefore, although we are 
 
 * Primo enim paranda est liistoria naturalfs et experimentalis 
 sufficiens et bona ; quod fundamentum rei est ; neque enim fin- 
 gendum, aut excogitandum, sed inveniendum quid natura facial, 
 aut feral. 
 
58 PRECAUTIONS FOR THE CORRECT PERFORMANCE. 
 
 enabled by this method to avail ourselves of frag- 
 ments of instances, and to extract all the relations 
 or evidence they are capable of affording, yet as it 
 sets forth more to open day the false results which 
 must ever attend any induction from imperfect in- 
 stances, it demands more accurate histories of them. 
 II. It is also very important that the same 
 expressions should, as nearly as possible, be used 
 for the same circumstances, so that the signs may 
 be expressions of things not of words only, or 
 signs of signs. Otherwise, when the circum- 
 stances are translated into signs, by reason of a 
 difference of expression, the same circumstance 
 in reality may yet be denoted by different signs, 
 which would obviously lead to a serious error. 
 This part of the operation, the translation of cir- 
 cumstances into signs, corresponds very nearly to 
 that which Lord Bacon calls the excitatio notio- 
 nwm, and if authority were necessary, we could 
 not refer to any more decisive. But the history of 
 every controversy offers sad but sufficient expe- 
 rience, that in every process of reasoning, the 
 truth and certainty of the whole operation depends 
 entirely upon the faithful and correct expressions 
 of things, or the correct translation of circum- 
 stances into signs, so that neither may the same 
 thing have different signs, nor different things the 
 same sign.* 
 
 * Itaque si notiones ipsae (id quod basis rei est) confusae sint 
 et temere a rebus abstracts, nihil in iis quae superstruuntur est 
 firmitudinis. 
 
OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 59 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Method of Induction by Classification compared 
 with the Method of the Novum Organon. 
 
 It cannot have escaped observation, that, in ex- 
 plaining this method of induction, no opportunity 
 has been omitted of calling in the authority of Lord 
 Bacon to sanction and to approve the different 
 steps of the operation ; and they who are more 
 conversant with his particular precepts for carrying 
 on the inductive process, or what he somewhere 
 calls his formula for the interpretation of nature, 
 must have already perceived how closely it has 
 been sought to imitate, and how implicitly it has 
 been endeavoured to obey them. But it seems 
 also incumbent to show by a formal comparison 
 with the standard of induction, which he has left 
 as an example, that the requisite conditions for 
 conducting the operation, are fully and sufficiently 
 accomplished by the method of classification.* 
 
 I. It is only from the precepts which Lord Bacon 
 has laid down for what he calls the discovery of 
 
 * For sake of convenient reference the reader may consult 
 the luminous exposition of the philosophy of Lord Bacon in the 
 "Library of Useful Knowledge." 
 
60 THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 
 
 forms, that we are made acquainted with his parti- 
 cular manner of conducting a process of induction. 
 Now it cannot be doubted, that not entertaining a 
 very accurate notion of the limits which confine hu- 
 man knowledge, he set up a division of philosophy 
 which experience has not authorised, and that not 
 distinguishing, with sufficient precision, efficient 
 from physical causes, he confidently anticipated, 
 that science would be able to penetrate more deep- 
 ly into the mysteries of nature than the severer 
 philosophy of later times permits us to hope. He 
 therefore certainly did comprehend under the term 
 form, something more than what modern philoso- 
 phers understood by the word law or cause, and 
 hence separated the investigation of forms, * from 
 that which regards the common and ordinary course 
 of nature. f Of the many discoveries, which since 
 his time have given us an insight into the hidden 
 nature of things, no one perhaps approaches so 
 nearly to his conception of form, I as the theory of 
 the latent heat of fluids. For although in the phce- 
 
 * Leges fundamentales, et communes, quae constituunt for- 
 mas. 
 
 •j* Consuetudines naturae particulares et speciales. 
 
 J Etenim forma alicujus naturae talis est, ut ea posita natura 
 data infallibiliter sequatur. Itaque adest perpetuo quando na- 
 tura ilia adest, atque earn universaliter affirmat atque inest omni. 
 Eadem forma talis est, ut ea amota natura data infallibiliter fugiat. 
 Itaque abest perpetuo quando natura ilia abest, eamque perpetuo 
 abnegat atque inest soli. 
 
OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 61 
 
 nomenon of the liquifying of bodies by heat, the 
 sensible heat can only be regarded as a common 
 physical cause, yet the latent heat which sustains 
 its fluidity, is so intrinsically identified with the na- 
 ture of fluids, that it might deserve some distinc- 
 tion from the manner of its cause, and be called in 
 the language of the Novum Organon, its form or 
 quidipsum.* But it is sufficient for our purpose 
 to know, that, besides this meaning of the word 
 form, he did also attach to it another sense, the 
 same as is generally understood by the laws of 
 nature. Of this he has given clear and definite 
 explanations in language of the purest philosophy ;f 
 and as it therefore would be perfectly correct to 
 say, that the laws of gravitation are the form of 
 gravity, we are justified in considering his precepts 
 for the discovery of forms as rules for investigating 
 the laws of nature, the order of the succession of 
 events, or, in other words, for the discovery of 
 physical causes. 
 
 If then the language of Lord Bacon be translated 
 
 * Intelligatur hoc quod diximus de motu (nempe ut sit instar 
 generis ad calorem) non quod calor generet motum, aut quod 
 motus generet calorem (licet et haec in aliquibus vera sint) sed 
 quod ipsissimus calor, sive quidipsum caloris sit motus et nihil 
 aliud. 
 
 ■f Licet enim in natura, nihil vere existat praeter corpora in- 
 dividua, edentia actus puros individuos ex lege ; in doctrinis ta- 
 men ilia ipsa lex, ejusque inquisitio et inventio atque explicatio, 
 pro fundamento est tarn ad sciendum quam ad operandum. Earn 
 autem legem ejusque paragraphos formarum nomine intelligimus. 
 
62 THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 
 
 into that of modern philosophy ; if for forms and 
 formal causes be substituted the laws of nature, the 
 principles or rules which she constantly observes in 
 her operations, and for simple natures or abstract 
 qualities, the simple and elementary forms of matter, 
 the constituent phenomena of events, the ultimate 
 circumstances into which facts are capable of being 
 resolved ; if by copulate forms and concrete natures 
 be understood the laws which regulate the consti- 
 tution and composition of bodies, and by latent pro- 
 cess or latent structure, the proximate causes, the 
 series of minute actions which compose a pheno- 
 menon, or the minute parts and their adaptation to 
 each other for the formation of any larger body ; 
 it will be found that all these different terms are 
 only varied expressions of the same thing,— the con- 
 stant order observable in the phenomena of nature. 
 To say, therefore, that no event or circumstance 
 can be the cause or effect of another unless they 
 be constantly present in the same instance (me- 
 diately or immediately), and constantly absent, at 
 the same time, from the same instance, and con- 
 stantly increase and decrease mutually with each 
 other, is faithfully to interpret the doctrine for the 
 discovery of forms.* 
 
 And it seems to be not unworthy of being here 
 remarked, that this axiom, which may be considered 
 
 * Est itaque inductionis verae opus primum (quatenus ad in* 
 veniendas formas) rejectio sive exclusiva naturarum singularum, 
 quae non inveniuntur in aliqua instantia, ubi natura data adest. 
 
OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 63 
 
 as the great dictum of the inductive logic, the se- 
 verest scrutiny of modern philosophers has in no 
 respect been able to alter or improve, and, that 
 although Lord Bacon may not have entertained so 
 accurate a notion concerning the relation of cause 
 and effect as Barrow, Berkely, or Hume, yet, con- 
 fining the knowledge of nature to ascertaining the 
 constancy of the succession or conjunctions of 
 events or circumstances, "ingenium rebus submit- 
 tentem," in his principle and in his practice, he en- 
 tirely anticipated their philosophy. 
 
 Lord Bacon having, as his meaning has been in- 
 terpreted, fixed the above as the doctrine of causes, 
 next proceeds to direct how it is to be put into 
 practice for their investigation. For this purpose 
 he points out, first, the necessity and importance of 
 a full and sufficient history of all that is known 
 concerning the subject of inquiry (ministratio ad 
 sensum); secondly ,the methodical arrangement of the 
 materials of such a history, that the understanding 
 may be better able to consider them, and the judg- 
 ment to operate upon them more correctly (minis- 
 tratio ad memoriam); and, these preparations being 
 made, it is still necessary, in the third place, to guide 
 and direct the understanding in raising axioms or 
 drawing conclusions, which constitutes the parti- 
 cular act of induction (ministratio ad rationem). 
 
 Aut inveniuntur in aliqua instantia ubi natura data abest, aut in- 
 veniuntur in aliqua instantia crescere cum natura data decrescat; 
 aut decrescere cum natura data crescat. 
 
64 THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 
 
 The methodical arrangement of the materials of 
 any investigation, which he calls the presentation 
 of instances to the understanding, (comparentia 
 instantiarum ad intellectum), consists of three tables. 
 The first contains all the instances or particular 
 facts in which the subject of inquiry is present, but 
 under different forms or combinations,* and is 
 therefore called tabula essentia? et prcesentice. The 
 second contains those instances in which the circum- 
 stances which form the subject of inquiry, are ab- 
 sent. But, as it would be impossible to exhaust every 
 negative instance, he means only such as are 
 nearly related to the instances of the first table, 
 resembling them in as many circumstances as pos- 
 sible, except those which constitute the subject 
 of investigation.f Hence these instances are called 
 instantice absentia? in proximo. The third table con- 
 tains those instances, in which the subject inquired 
 into, presents itself in different degrees or modifi- 
 cations J and which for this reason he calls tabula 
 
 * Quae in natura eadem conveniunt per materias licet dissimil- 
 limas. 
 
 •j" Itaque subjungenda sunt negativa affirmativis et privationes 
 inspiciendse tantum, in illis subjectis, quce sunt maxime cognata 
 Mis alteris, in quibus natura data inest et comparest. 
 
 J Tertio facienda est comparentia ad intellectum instantiarum, 
 in quibus natura, de qua fit inquisitio, inest secundum magis et 
 minus ; sive facta comparatione incrementi et decrementi in eo- 
 dem subjecto, sive facta comparatione ad invicem in subjectis 
 diversis. 
 
THE METHOD OF INDUCTION, 65 
 
 graduum. These tables being completed and well 
 furnished with their appropriate instances, we may- 
 next proceed to perform the induction, which is 
 the rejection or exclusion of circumstances accord- 
 ing to the doctrine above laid down. 
 
 It is plain that the instances of the first table can 
 afford only very imperfect knowledge of the cause 
 or nature of the subject under investigation, be- 
 cause it can only be known as it exists in its dif- 
 ferent particular combinations with other circum- 
 stances, as presented in each individual instance. 
 It may be surmised or conjectured, from observing 
 some circumstance more frequently than the others 
 in the combinations, that it is the probable cause, 
 but all certain information concerning it must be 
 limited to particular conclusions.* It is therefore 
 necessary to compare with these instances, the in- 
 stances of the second table, seriatim. Now it fol- 
 lows, that all the circumstances found equally in the 
 instances of the first table and in the instances of 
 the second table, and therefore not fulfilling the 
 first condition of cause and effect, viz. being per- 
 petually present in the same instances, and absent 
 at the same time from the same instances, can have 
 
 * Nullum enim per eas constituitur axioma, sed tantum notio 
 simplex cum historia ordinata ; certd verificata per ministratio- 
 nem primam atque ita reprsesentata per secundam, ut tanquam in 
 potestate nostra sit. Impetus Philosophici. 
 
66 METHOD OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 
 
 no connexion with the subject of the inquiry.* In 
 like manner, in the instances of the third table, 
 where the subject of the inquiry presents itself in 
 different degrees or modifications, all those circum- 
 stances which do not show corresponding changes, 
 are to be rejected or excluded, because they do not 
 fulfil the second condition of cause and effect, viz., 
 perpetually increasing and decreasing together.f — 
 Setting aside the circumstances which do not belong 
 to the subject of inquiry by a comparison of these 
 different kinds of instances, constitutes the process 
 of exclusion. 
 
 After all the circumstances which fall under the 
 two preceding predicaments have been removed, it 
 is permitted by Lord Bacon to affirm the remaining 
 circumstances of each other, (Vindemiatio prima,) 
 this, however, not universally, but only under the 
 conditions in which they are combined ; and this 
 he calls limiting the affirmative conclusion by differ- 
 ences. 
 
 To have simply stated the doctrine and explained 
 the precepts of the Novum Organon would seem 
 to be all that is necessary to lead the reader to the 
 conclusion, that the method of induction by classi- 
 
 * Quia forma, ut dictum est, non minus abesse debet ubi na- 
 tura data abest ; quam adesse ubi adest. 
 
 ■j" Omnino sequitur ut non recipiatur aliqua natura pro vera 
 forma nisi perpetiio decrescat, quando natura ipsa decescit et 
 similiter perpetuo augeatur quando natura ipsa augetur. 
 
METHOD OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 67 
 
 fication is founded precisely on the same principle, 
 and works by the same rule as the method of Lord 
 Bacon, and that they only differ in some modifica- 
 tions of the means of performing the operation. 
 
 If the first table of the Novum Organon be com- 
 pared with the table of classification by qffirmitive 
 circumstances, it is evident, that the former is 
 a mere historical collection of instances, containing 
 the subject of inquiry in different forms or com- 
 binations, but no progress whatever has been made 
 towards induction ; whilst the latter, by resolving 
 the particular combinations of the circumstances of 
 all the different instances into separate classes 
 of circumstances, according to their relative co- 
 existence, narrows the field of investigation to the 
 class containing the subject or particular circum- 
 stance of inquiry, excluding all the other classes 
 as has been already explained. So that the first 
 table of classification is not only a tabula essentice 
 et prcesentice, but as soon as the signs have been 
 collected into classes, becomes also a table of ex- 
 clusion. 
 
 The classification by negative circumstances is 
 an exact copy of the operation performed by the 
 second table of Lord Bacon, by which, circum- 
 stances though classed together, are rejected from 
 the inquiry by individual negative instances. There 
 is this difference, however, that, by the operation 
 of this table, the particular instances are se- 
 
 f2 
 
68 METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 lected and applied to the circumstances of the class 
 without any previous acquaintance with them,, and 
 without the necessity of arranging them, or of 
 searching for them. 
 
 In the same manner, the signs of the modifi- 
 cations of circumstances, imitate precisely the in- 
 stances of the tabula graduum, and serve the same 
 purpose, preparing for the rejection of circum- 
 stances which do not express reciprocal modifi- 
 cations. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the process of exclusion 
 which Lord Bacon reserves for his fourth table, 
 has been already anticipated, partly by the classifi- 
 cation by affirmative circumstances, and partly by 
 the classification by negative circumstances ; so that 
 these two tables perform the operations of all the 
 tables of Lord Bacon, and complete the process of 
 induction. 
 
 The arrangement of the results in the last table 
 (Form III. or Synthesis) may also be compared to 
 the affirmative conclusion of the vindemiatio ; for 
 there, the circumstances remaining after the process 
 of rejection are brought together, and affirmed of 
 each other ; subject, however, to the condition in 
 which they are found, and by which the conclusion 
 is limited. 
 
 But, not to draw out this comparison to an 
 unnecessary length, I think it is perfectly correct 
 to say, that, the tables of classification being in- 
 
METHOD OF INDUCTION OF THE NOVUM ORGANON. 69 
 
 struments strictly adapted for discovering and de- 
 termining the constancy of the conjunction of 
 circumstances or events, the method of induction 
 by classification is nothing more than a reduction 
 of the dictum of the Novum Organon to practical 
 rules, which, by the aid of signs and tables, may 
 be worked almost mechanically. 
 
 II. The comprehensive view which Lord Bacon 
 took of philosophy, did not terminate here; for, 
 besides the raising of axioms or general principles 
 from particular instances, it was his intention to 
 have laid down rules to direct not only the applica- 
 tion of general principles to particular cases,* but 
 also for deducing new cases from general prin- 
 ciples. It is deeply to be regretted that he never 
 finished this part of his work, and that the world 
 should have been deprived of the expedients which 
 might have suggested themselves to his penetrating 
 genius for the furtherance of so important a part 
 of philosophy as that which, as he expresses it, 
 renders science active. It cannot, however, fail 
 to be interesting to know even his distant con- 
 
 * Indicia de interpretatione naturae complectantur partes in 
 genere duas ; primam de educendis et excitandis axiomatibus ab 
 experimentis ; secundam de deducendis et derivandis experimentis 
 novis ab axiomatibus. Neque enim in piano via sita est, sed as- 
 cendendo et descendendo ; ascendendo primo ad axiomata, 
 descendendo ad opera. 
 
70 METHOD OF SYNTHESIS. 
 
 templations of such a subject, and to collect his 
 suggestions as they have descended to us, scattered 
 here and there in his works. 
 
 How accurate were the notions which he enter- 
 tained concerning this subject, may be learned from 
 some prefatory observations which he has delivered. 
 Thus he reminds us, that in the investigations 
 which are carried on by the inductive formula, 
 a constant intercourse may be kept up between 
 the contemplative and active part, or between the 
 corresponding steps of the ascending and de- 
 scending scale of axioms, by what he calls an open 
 and convenient cross-path, — " manifesto et con- 
 stant tramite." And, that men should never 
 forget, that individual cases, which must ever be 
 the subject of practical applications, are of course 
 at the bottom of the scale, and that therefore a 
 descending scale is necessary, by which they may 
 come down gradually from their lofty generalities, 
 and make themselves acquainted with particular 
 combinations.* Nor, he adds, is it possible to 
 descend to individual cases by single axioms or 
 principles, for the individual combinations can 
 seldom be so simple but that different principles 
 have also an influence upon them. This, therefore, 
 leads to the necessity of considering the union or 
 composition of axioms with one another in order to 
 
 * Omnis enim operatio in individuis versatur, quae infimo loco 
 sunt. Itaque a generalibus per gradus ad ea descendendum est. 
 
METHOD OF PRACTICE. 71 
 
 insure a correct and successful practical application 
 of general principles.* 
 
 From these observations may be deduced the 
 three different parts of which he intended his 
 active doctrine, (as he terms it,) to consist. The 
 first of these was to have laid down a distinct and 
 proper manner of inquiry, when it is no longer a 
 cause, or a principle which is to be discovered, but 
 their practical application to one particular case, or 
 the practical execution of one particular opera- 
 tion. The second was to have shown a manner of 
 preparing general practical tables, by which a 
 method of applying general principles or of effecting 
 every kind of operation might be more readily and 
 easily supplied. The third would have taught a 
 method, though imperfect yet very useful, by which 
 we might proceed from one individual case to an- 
 other, without raising axioms or drawing general 
 conclusions. For, he observes, as from one prin- 
 ciple to another, so from one individual case to 
 another, a kind of cross-way may be opened, 
 though neither so safe or certain yet very deserving 
 of attention — " instabilis et lubrica sed non silentio 
 praetermittenda." From these observations and 
 from this explanation of his intentions, may be 
 collected, that, contrary to the method of in- 
 duction, by which we proceed from particulars 
 
 * Neque rursus fieri potest, ut per axiomata simplicia ad ea 
 perveniatur ; omne enim opus atque ejus ratio ex coitione axiom- 
 atum diversarum instituitur et designatur. 
 
72 METHOD OF SYNTHESIS. 
 
 to generals, which has only one correct road, the 
 method of practice has two. The first of these 
 is by a gradual descent from generalities to par- 
 ticulars, in which the more general principle as 
 it proceeds downwards enlarges, its base, by the 
 gradual addition of other axioms, or principles less 
 general, but which have an influence upon the 
 particular case. And such ought to be the object 
 of a philosophical synthesis, but how very different 
 from the present use of this process we may easily 
 learn by inspecting any single practical illustration 
 of it, where a few general conclusions are at once 
 applied to the most particular cases. The other is 
 the method of lateral transduction by the cross-zvay, 
 either from one individual case to another, or from 
 an axiom or principle in the ascending scale to its 
 corresponding one in the descending scale. This 
 last is the experientia literata of which Lord Bacon 
 has left us a masterly sketch ; and although it may 
 not advance science or establish art on the broad 
 basis of induction, yet as it seems to be the means 
 by which man in the earlier stage of society ministers 
 to his wants and converts the gradual accessions 
 of knowledge more speedily to his use ; — and being 
 the only method of every art which has not been 
 enlightened by science, it seems to me to deserve 
 more careful cultivation than has, heretofore, been 
 bestowed upon it. 
 
 Were I not afraid of seeming to attribute too 
 
METHOD OF PRACTICE. 73 
 
 much to the induction by classification, I should 
 be disposed to say, that its advantages are not 
 solely confined to the method of analysis, but that, 
 by preserving all the subordinate classes which 
 result from that operation, it promises to be useful 
 in the method of synthesis. For, by allowing them 
 to be added to the principal class, it forms a gra 
 dual and continuously descending scale which 
 connects the general conclusion with each indivi- 
 dual case. And, in the same manner, all the 
 individual and specifical peculiarities being distin- 
 guished and brought forward, may serve as sign- 
 posts, (continuing Lord Bacon's comparison), to 
 direct the observer to the different cross-ways 
 which lead between the corresponding stages of 
 the two great roads, and thus help to convert the 
 experientia literata into a more correct guide. 
 
 This would have been the fit place to have con- 
 sidered whether the rules of the Aristotelian logic 
 might have afforded any useful assistance for di- 
 recting the application of general principles to 
 particular cases, that being more properly its 
 province, but I prefer reserving my observations 
 on that subject until I have considered more 
 particularly the general nature of classification. In 
 the mean time, however, it may be remarked, that 
 Lord Bacon seems not to have entertained such an 
 opinion, having very accurately perceived the 
 reason why the syllogism can never be applied to 
 
74 METHOD OF PRACTICE. 
 
 any subjects but such as are of the nature of 
 conventional science, if it be allowed to use such 
 an expression.* 
 
 * Si concedatur, principia scientiarum ex inductione qua 
 utuntur vel sensu et experientia, recte posse constitui, certissimum 
 est tamen, axiomata inferiora ab iis per syllogisimum non posse 
 (in rebus naturalibus quae "participant ex materia) recte et tuto 
 deduci. In syllogisimo enim fit reductio propositionum ad prin- 
 cipia per propositions medias. Haec autem sive inveniendi sive 
 probandi forma in scientiis popularibus (veluti ethicis, politicis, 
 legibus, et hujus modi) locum habet. Imo et in theologicis, 
 quando quidem Deo pro bonitate sua placuerit captui humano se 
 accomodare. At in physicis, ubi naturaopere, non adversarius ar- 
 gumento, constringendus est, elabitur plane Veritas ex manibus, 
 propter longe majorem naturalium operationum, quam verborum, 
 subtilitatem. 
 
75 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of certain Advantages peculiar to the Method of 
 Induction by Classification. 
 
 " Neque tamen illis nihil adde posse affirmamus ; sed contra, nos qui men- 
 tern respicimus, non tantum in facultate propria, sed quatenus copulatur cum 
 rebus, artem inveniendi cum inventis adolescere posse statuere debemus." 
 
 If the judgment of others should correspond 
 with my own conviction, I shall not have been un- 
 satisfactorily occupied in the preceding chapters, 
 in endeavouring to explain the method of induction 
 by classification. I trust indeed that I have suc- 
 ceeded in showing, that it is a safe and correct way, 
 of carrying on that process, and, that although 
 performed by a different operation, it is virtually the 
 same, and of course founded on the same principles, 
 as the method of Lord Bacon. But I am not 
 disposed to think that this would have afforded a 
 sufficient reason for trespassing on public attention, 
 could it not also be made appear that it offers 
 certain advantages which the ordinary method does 
 not possess. 
 
 I. There are many branches of knowledge, 
 ministering equally to the happiness and well-being 
 
76 ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 of mankind to which the organ of induction has 
 never yet been applied; every attempt to effect 
 this desirable object by the ordinary method hav- 
 ing ended in disappointment. Among these may 
 be numbered civil polity, political ceconomy, sta- 
 tistics, medicine, meteorology, and many other de- 
 partments of science. There is no difficulty in 
 understanding why the benefits of the inductive 
 logic have not been extended to them. It is well 
 known to arise from the great number of parti- 
 cular circumstances which enter into the in- 
 stances, or individual facts, which belong to these 
 sciences, and the great diversity of their combina- 
 tions. It is impossible for the mind, unassisted by 
 some help or expedient, to comprehend all the 
 circumstances, — to estimate their relative influence, 
 and to consider the changes induced by their 
 different combinations. A few circumstances, often 
 selected, more by prejudice, caprice, or chance, than 
 by judgement, entirely absorb the attention, 
 whilst others, frequently the most important, are 
 left totally disregarded. The necessary conse- 
 quences of this faulty reasoning are partial in- 
 ductions or false classifications, unfounded theories 
 and unsuccessful practical applications. Now, 
 although I cannot allow myself to believe that the 
 method of classification removes the source of all 
 these errors, I am confident that it affords very con- 
 siderable assistance towards it, and that placing 
 many subjects within the grasp of induction which 
 
METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION. 77 
 
 have been heretofore excluded, it leads to the 
 establishment of more correct general conclusions,* 
 There is another advantage which follows from 
 the power of being able, by this method of induc- 
 tion, to comprehend and consider every circum- 
 stance or particular, to which allusion has been 
 already made in a former part of this work. I 
 mean that, whilst the more general conclusions 
 must be correctly deduced, those which are less 
 general are not neglected, and even the circum- 
 stances the most specific are all distinguished ; and 
 hence by this means an uninterrupted chain of cir- 
 cumstances connects the general conclusion with 
 each of the individual instances from which it has 
 been deduced. We are thus enabled to keep up a 
 more intimate acquaintance with individual facts, 
 and, by combining with the general conclusion those 
 which are subordinate or more specific, we ensure 
 a greater degree of certainty when we apply a 
 general principle to a practical purpose. In this 
 way, it may not be too much to say, that the 
 method of classification unites to the ascending 
 scale, or the rising from individual facts to general 
 conclusions, a kind of descending scale, which leads 
 from general principles to individual facts, and thus 
 serves in some degree the object of what Lord 
 
 * Interim particularium multitudinem nemo reformidet, quin 
 potius hoc ipsum ad spem revocet. Sunt enim artium et naturae 
 particularia phenomena, manipuli instar ad ingenii commenta, 
 postque ab evidentia rerum disjuncta et abstracta fuerint. 
 
78 ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 Bacon intended by his reduction to practice, (de- 
 ductio ad praxin,) or a method of making the dis- 
 covery of general principles active, and useful to 
 mankind. 
 
 To this may be added another advantage which 
 also results from the power of considering every 
 circumstance and of embracing all the relations 
 which may exist between the circumstances. It is, 
 that there is no experience lost or cast away ; for 
 many circumstances, and many relations of these 
 circumstances, though not comprehended in the 
 general conclusion, are yet brought under the at- 
 tention, and may be made available in other in- 
 quiries. Thus the relations of different circum- 
 stances observed incidentally in one investigation 
 may be made to abbreviate the labour of another, 
 and may suggest hints for directing the pursuit 
 after those which still remain concealed. In this 
 way, the method of classification may be fruitful 
 in eliciting those striking and luminous facts 
 which Lord Bacon calls prerogative instances. And 
 this gives me also the occasion of repeating, what 
 has before been said of experiment, that it is the 
 power of creating prerogative instances ; and there- 
 fore I may add, that this method of analysis, by 
 drawing out such instances, affords, in some degree, 
 the means of endowing observations with the privi- 
 lege of experiment. 
 
 It is also an advantage peculiar to this method 
 of induction that, besides the power of considering 
 
METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLASSIFICATION. 79 
 
 every circumstance, it may also embrace any num- 
 ber of instances. There are many circumstances 
 which are intimately connected with each other, 
 whose relations do not appear in a few instances, 
 but when followed through a great number, accu- 
 mulate to a degree which it is impossible to over- 
 look. The individual facts or instances to which I 
 am alluding, seem to resemble each other so closely, 
 that when the induction is confined to a small num- 
 ber, the affections of their different circumstances 
 towards each other cannot be discovered. But that 
 difference which is trifling and when confined to 
 a few instances, escapes observation, accumulating 
 and enlarging with the number, attracts the atten- 
 tion and invites investigation. It is however most 
 difficult — indeed almost impossible, to extend the 
 common method of induction to a number of 
 instances sufficient to make such minute relations 
 apparent, and it is therefore only in such things as 
 are mensurable, admitting of the application of the 
 calculus, in which they can be traced. To proceed 
 through such a number of instances by the ordinary 
 method of exclusion, would exhaust the patience 
 and exceed the power of attention of the most in- 
 defatigable observer. But the method of classifica- 
 tion may be extended to any number of instances, 
 without requiring any extraordinary intellectual 
 effort, and the process being almost mechanical, 
 may be safely confided to any capacity. It may 
 therefore be permitted to say, that subjects beyond 
 
80 ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 the grasp of the ordinary method, either on account 
 of the number of their circumstances or the number 
 of their instances, are yet within the reach of the 
 method of classification. 
 
 II. The next peculiarity of the method of classi- 
 fication which it is proper to notice, is that which 
 arises from the operation being performed by de- 
 terminate rules, the facility of the process being 
 thereby very much increased, and the chances of 
 error very much diminished. Every one knows 
 how easy the most difficult operation becomes 
 when reduced to a rule which allows it to be 
 repeated. Arithmetic affords many examples of this 
 kind. Processes which have required the most con- 
 summate skill in the contrivance, when reduced to 
 a rule by which they may be frequently repeated, 
 become so easy as to be performed almost mechan- 
 ically and without any effort of the attention. Such 
 a rule becomes an instrument which, when placed 
 under the direction of even the most common capa- 
 city, enables it to perform, with the greatest facility, 
 an operation which may have cost the greatest pains 
 and labour to the inventor, and thus renders the 
 success of the operation independent of the qualities 
 of the mind.* 
 
 When the method of conducting any investiga- 
 tion is left to the option of the inquirer, errors are 
 
 * Nostra vero inveniendi scientias ea est ratio, ut non multum 
 ingeniorum acumini et robori relinquatur, sed quae ingenia et 
 intellectus fere exaequat. 
 
ADVANTAGES OF A NEW METHOD OF INDUCTION. 81 
 
 apt to creep into the results from two different 
 sources. The method not having been ex- 
 amined and reduced to fixed rules of procedure 
 may contain within itself the cause of erroneous 
 results. But the other is a more fruitful source of 
 error ; for, where no fixed rule has been laid down, 
 the mind in its operations is constantly exposed to 
 the bias and prejudice of the feelings; and the 
 understanding, instead of proceeding directly for- 
 ward, is frequently drawn aside to false conclusions. 
 It is therefore an advantage which belongs pecu- 
 liarly to the method of induction by classification, 
 to guard the understanding from the influence of 
 those causes of error which Lord Bacon distin- 
 guishes by the name of idola ; for, by enforcing a 
 regular method of procedure, it bestows all the 
 correctness and the facility which the repetition of 
 any operation is capable of ensuring. 
 
 To this head may also be referred the advantage 
 which belongs peculiarly to the use of signs instead 
 of words, by which all those errors of induction 
 depending upon the inaccurate use of language, are 
 completely obviated. Words can seldom be re- 
 stricted to one distinct sense, or made to convey 
 only one meaning ; but the signs can have no other 
 meaning than the circumstances which they repre- 
 sent. If therefore the translation of the circum- 
 stances into signs has been made correctly, the 
 operation which is performed by the signs is no 
 longer subject to the errors which arise from un- 
 
 G 
 
82 TALENT OF OBSERVATION. 
 
 defined or double meanings. And mere signs, 
 being pure abstract forms like figures, can neither 
 feel the influence of passion or prejudice, and their 
 combinations being made by definite rules, cannot 
 be altered by the will or the feelings.* 
 
 III. The advantages of the method of classifica- 
 tion which have just been alluded to, belong more 
 strictly to the nature of the operation considered 
 in itself; those which I have now to mention, relate 
 to the influence which it is likely to have upon the 
 minds of those who may make use of it, and the 
 mental habits which it is likely to induce. 
 
 It being the nature of the method of classifica- 
 tion, to direct the attention to every circumstance 
 of an instance, such as are defective of circum- 
 stances, are easily observed, and those which are 
 incorrect, more certainly detected. In this way it 
 may be said to ensure more perfect materials for c 
 the intellect to work upon, and to protect it equally 
 from such as are false or imperfect. But leading 
 thus to a more accurate knowledge of the qualities 
 of particular instances, it ensures habits of close 
 and accurate observation. As the eye gains cor- 
 rectness and precision from the use of optical 
 instruments, it may not be too much to hope that 
 the " mind's eye" may increase its power and field 
 of vision by a mental instrument, and that thus 
 
 * Atque ut instrumenta manus motum aut cient aut regunt ; 
 ita et instrumenta mentis intellectui aut suggerunt aut cavent. 
 
HABITS OF METHOD. 83 
 
 that important talent for the interpretation of 
 nature, the power of observing with truth and fidel- 
 ity, may be promoted by its habitual use. 
 
 After the habit of clear and correct observation, 
 which the use of this method of analysis tends to 
 nourish and indeed to insist upon, I may mention 
 another beneficial consequence likely to arise from 
 it, equally necessary and important for forming 
 correct judgments and well founded opinions, — I 
 mean the habits of method, of clear and perspi- 
 cuous arrangement, which must necessarily be 
 formed by the use of this instrument of method. 
 On this subject I cannot do better than introduce 
 the philosophical observations of M. Cuvier, who 
 long exercised in the habits of method, has made it 
 subservient to such splendid results in the natural 
 history of the animal kingdom. 
 
 " Cette habitude que Ton prend necessairement 
 en etudiant l'histoire naturelle, de classer dans son 
 esprit un tres grand nombre d' idees, est l'un des 
 avantages de cette science dont on a le moins parle, 
 et qui deviendra peut-etre le principal, lorsqu' elle 
 aura ete generalement introduite dans ^education 
 commune ; on s'exerce par-la dans cette partie de 
 la logique qui se nomme la methode, a peu pres 
 comme on s'exerce par l'etude de la geometrie dans 
 celle qui se nomme le syllogisme, par la raison que 
 l'histoire naturelle est la science qui exige les me- 
 thodes les plus precises, comme la geometrie celle 
 
84 HABITS OF METHOD. 
 
 qui demande les raisonnemens les plus rigoureux. 
 Or, cet art de la methode, une fois qu'on le possede 
 bien, s'applique avec un avantage innni aux etudes 
 les plus etrangeres a l'histoire naturelle. Toute 
 discussion qui suppose un classement des faits, 
 toute recherche qui exige une distribution des 
 matieres, se fait d'apres les memes lois ; et tel 
 jeune homme qui n'avait cru faire de cette science 
 qu'un objet d' amusement, est surpris lui-meme, a 
 Pessai, de la facilite qu'elle lui a procuree pour 
 debrouiller tous les genres d'affaires." 
 
 I will close this enumeration of the advantages 
 which are proper to the method of induction by 
 classification, by drawing the attention to one 
 which to many may seem to be rather remote, but 
 which to me appears to be highly deserving of 
 consideration. I allude to the mental operation, 
 when induction is carried on unconsciously and in- 
 tuitively, being exactly represented by the process 
 of classification : — For if, as I think, there is reason 
 to believe that the understanding when acting, 
 " sponte et memoriter" does observe this method, 
 or one very similar to it, it follows that the tabular 
 analysis as it proceeds, sets constantly before the 
 mind a reflected picture of its own operation, in a 
 permanent and tangible form, which, complete in 
 all its details, may be reviewed and referred to as 
 occasion demands. This cannot be said of the 
 most correct and vivid conception, or of the most 
 
 I 
 
HABITS OF METHOD. 85 
 
 cool and deliberate judgment ; for so evanescent 
 are the operations of the mind, that they elude 
 the powers of the most retentive memory, and, 
 defying every effort to retrace them, preclude the 
 possibility of recovering any false step of the 
 inductive process. 
 
86 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 METHODUS CONTABULANDI : 
 
 OR, MODIFICATIONS OF THE TABLES OF ANALYSIS TO SUIT 
 DIFFERENT SUBJECTS OF INVESTIGATION. 
 
 "Atque insuper, cum tantus sit particularium numerus, et quasi exercitus, 
 isque ita sparsus et diffusus, ut intellectus disgreget et confundat, de velitationibus 
 et levibus motibus, et transcursibus intellectus, non bene sperandum est ; nisi fiat 
 instructio et coordinatio per tabulas inveniendi idoneas, et bene dispositas, et 
 tanquam vivas; eorum quae pertinent ad subjectum in quo versatur inquisitio, 
 atque ad harura tabularum auxilia prseparata et digesta mens applicetur. 
 
 Novum Organum, Aphorismus, C. II. 
 
 They who have taken the pains to make them- 
 selves acquainted with the method of induction 
 by classification, will find it a matter of little 
 difficulty to adapt its principle to the subjects of 
 their investigations. The spirit of inquiry will 
 readily suggest such alterations of the tables of 
 analysis as may be necessary to fit the instrument 
 to its object. To facilitate, however, as much as 
 possible, the use of this method, I have thought it 
 proper to preface its application to particular 
 subjects, with some general modifications of the 
 tables suited to the different forms in which the 
 materials may be presented. But lest the reader 
 should be daunted by the formidable array of 
 so many tables, I beg to encourage him by re- 
 minding him, that the whole process of induction 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 87 
 
 seldom requires more than two tables, viz., one 
 form of the classification by affirmative circumstances, 
 and another form of the classification by negative 
 circumstances ; and, that a third, the rectification 
 of signs, is only requisite when it is necessary to 
 extend the induction to a great number of 
 instances. 
 
 The first table is the common form of classifi- 
 cation by affirmative circumstances, and the four 
 which follow it, (Nos. II, III, IV, V,) are its dif- 
 ferent modifications. The nature of the operation 
 performed by this table I have already explained.* 
 The form is simple in its construction, and general 
 in its application, but more fitted for digesting 
 and arranging materials in their rougher state, 
 than for perfecting the work of induction. It is 
 sufficient that the instances have some common 
 points of resemblance. Submitted to the operation 
 of this table, the circumstances which they contain, 
 will be assorted together according to their natural 
 relations ; the circumstances being divided into dif- 
 ferent classes, the process of exclusion will have been 
 commenced, and the general connexion of the cir- 
 cumstances of the same class being made to appear, 
 the field of inquiry will become narrowed, and the 
 work of induction half performed. But, as the sub- 
 ject matter of inquiry is presented in different forms, 
 so this table requires corresponding alterations in 
 
 * Vide, Chap. I., page 26. 
 
88 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 order to be able to receive them. Thus No. I. is best 
 suited for investigations consisting of numerous 
 instances of few circumstances. With the view of 
 saving room, the names of the instances are num- 
 bered instead of being written ; should, however, 
 any inconvenience attend this arrangement, the 
 spaces of each instance may easily be left wide 
 enough to receive the names. The open space * 
 in the heading is left for the insertion of the 
 subject of inquiry. In writing down the circum- 
 stances of the first instance, it is more convenient 
 to leave some lines blank, which allows the new 
 circumstances of the following instances to stand 
 in their proper order of conjunction-, whether of 
 time or otherwise. 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 89 
 
 No I. — General Form for the Analysis of any subject consisting of numerous instances of 
 
 few circumstances. 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 
 Classification 
 
 
 II 
 
 Signs of the circumstances as they present themselves in 
 each Instance. 
 
 of 
 the Signs. 
 
 ~ 
 
 H 
 
 i — i 
 
 j> 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 i — i 
 > 
 
 3 
 > 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 x 
 j 
 
 x 
 
 K 
 
 i — i 
 X 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 X 
 
 N 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 p 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ~~ 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * The subject of investigation to be inserted in this open space. 
 
 t Blank lines to be left between the circumstances of the first instances, in order to allow the 
 new circumstances of other instances to be inserted in their proper order of time. 
 
 H 
 
90 
 
 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 The second table contains two forms, and is 
 suited to subjects where the instances are of the 
 same description as those of the preceding table, 
 not containing many circumstances, but where 
 the instances themselves are not very numerous. 
 The alteration is merely one in which the saving 
 of space has been consulted. 
 
 No. II. — Forms for the Analysis of any subject where the Instances are few, and the circumstances 
 
 not numerous. 
 
 * 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 * 
 
 The circumstances 
 as presented in all 
 the different in- 
 stances. 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 ! 
 -is 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 The circumstances 
 as presented in all 
 the different in- 
 stances. 
 
 a'b 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 &c. 
 
 a|b 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The third table introduces a more considerable 
 change in the form, but without any change in the 
 principle by which it operates. It has been re- 
 sorted to solely for the purpose of saving room, 
 and for preserving the table in a more compact 
 form. It consists of a double series of signs, and 
 of course of a double classification, but as the 
 second series of signs are merely the Italic in 
 correspondence with their respective Roman letters, 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 91 
 
 the second classification is a continuation of the 
 first, precisely the same as if continued in the 
 same direction downwards. This table adapts 
 itself conveniently to subjects of inquiry, where 
 the instances consist of numerous circumstances, 
 but the arrangement of the double signs affords 
 many other facilities for investigating a subject 
 by comparison, by contrast, and by allowing the 
 order of time to be more correctly observed in the 
 insertion of circumstances. 
 
 No III. — Form for the Analysis of any subject, when the Instances consist of numerous 
 
 circumstances. 
 
 * 
 
 < 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 Instances. 
 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 * 
 
 All the circumstances 
 which present them- 
 selves in their dif- 
 ferent Instances. 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 &c. 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Circumstances 
 continued. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &G. 
 
 A.a 
 
 B.b 
 
 C.c 
 
 D.d 
 
 E.e 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
92 
 
 METHODUS CONTABULAND1. 
 
 The fourth table is another form to suit 
 instances of the same description as the preceding, 
 but where they are not very numerous. 
 
 No. IV. — Form for the Analysis of any Subject where the Instances are few, but where 
 they consist of numerous circumstances. 
 
 * 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 * 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 
 a 
 
 > 
 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 The circumstances 
 as they present 
 themselves in dif- 
 ferent instances. 
 
 - 
 
 K 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 Circumstances 
 continued. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The fifth table is a form which combines the 
 method of classification with a common register. 
 This is done either by inserting the signs between 
 the written lines, and by afterwards classifying the 
 circumstances by the signs in the usual way ; or by 
 leaving space large enough to write, in words, 
 those circumstances which though indifferent, or 
 of little importance in the investigation, are yet 
 important to be recorded, and by denoting the 
 other circumstances by signs for classification in 
 the ordinary method of proceeding. 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 93 
 
 N . V.^Form for combining the method of classification by affirmative 
 circumstances with a common register. 
 
 * 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 * 
 
 ~ 
 
 1— 1 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 !> 
 
 g4 
 
 Circumstances as 
 they present them- 
 selves in the dif- 
 ferent instances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Having by either of the preceding tables, which 
 ever may best suit the nature of the instances, 
 assorted the different circumstances of which they 
 consist into classes, we are at liberty to pursue our 
 induction directly onwards, by continuing the pro- 
 cess of classification affirmatively through a greater 
 number of instances ; or we may prefer bringing the 
 inquiry at once to a conclusion, by subjecting the 
 leading or principal class to the process of classi- 
 fication by negative circumstances. In the former 
 case we transfer the classified signs to a table of 
 rectification. In the latter case we transfer the 
 
94 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 class of circumstances, which we wish to examine, 
 to the sixth table, or to some of its modifications. 
 
 In this latter table we entirely change the order 
 of investigation, for, instead of making the instances 
 serve for establishing classes as in the first process, 
 they are the means by which we decompose the 
 classes which we have already formed ; and the 
 signs instead of denoting certain circumstances 
 being present, do in this second process denote 
 the absence of certain circumstances. And also, 
 as by the first process, the preceding exclude the 
 succeeding classes, so by the second process, the 
 succeeding exclude the preceding classes. 
 
 The subject of investigation may be already 
 in such a state as to allow of the circumstances 
 being at once submitted to the last process of 
 exclusion, or classification by negative circum- 
 stances, having been already, either by supposition 
 or observation, connected together so as to form 
 a class of which we wish to ascertain the relations, 
 by examining their position in particular instances. 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 95 
 
 No. VI. — General Form of Analysis where the Inquiry is limited ta a class, 
 or to any given number, of Circumstances. 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 C 
 
 bo 
 
 CO 
 
 Circumstances, 
 
 Classj.-"- 
 
 belonging to the class. 
 
 occurring collaterally. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t$c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 O CO 
 
 Q 
 
 Class. 
 
 a; 
 a 
 O 
 
 3 
 CO 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
96 
 
 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 The sixth table, like the first, will admit of 
 various modifications in order to fit it for receiving 
 the classes of different circumstances. One of 
 these, the seventh table, is the method of double 
 signs adapted to inquiries where the circumstances 
 are limited, but the instances very numerous. 
 
 No. VII. — Form for the Analysis of a limited number of Circumstances, where 
 the Instances are very numerous. 
 
 * 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 co 
 
 C 
 
 * 
 
 Instances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Instances. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 c&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cfyc. 
 
 
 O 
 
 • ^ be 
 
 gto 
 
 CO *^ 
 
 6 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Class. 
 
 Classification of 
 the Signs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (£ 
 
 co 
 
 CO 
 
 "o 
 
 1 
 
 ■§ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GO 
 C 
 
 cr 
 a" 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 CD 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The eighth table presents a form by which 
 the second process of the induction, classification 
 by negative circumstances, is combined with a 
 common register in the same manner as in table 
 No V. It is used by giving a common sign to 
 the circumstances under investigation, which may 
 themselves be considered of the same class hypo- 
 thetically, and by changing the sign of the class 
 for the sign of the instance wherever any of the 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 97 
 
 circumstances are found deficient. — In the open 
 space* of the heading, the subject of inquiry 1 is to 
 be entered with the common sign affixed. 
 
 No. VIII. — Form for combining the method of Classification by negative cir- 
 cumstances with a common Register. 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 'xft 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 b 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 J a, 
 
 eC a) 
 "55 -=3 
 a 
 O 
 
 Class. 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «5 
 
 en 
 en 
 ei 
 '(J 
 
 b 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It may be convenient or necessary, as has 
 been already observed, before proceeding to the 
 second process of induction, the classification by 
 negative circumstances, to continue the classifi- 
 cation affirmatively through a greater number of 
 instances. The ninth table, therefore, affords the 
 form for doing so by the process of rectifying the 
 signs. This table also admits of various alterations 
 in the construction, which may tend to facilitate its 
 application to different subjects, but I think it 
 superfluous to describe them. 
 
98 
 
 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 No. IX. — General Form for extending, by the process of Rectification, the Classification by affir- 
 mative circumstances to a greater number of Instances. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Rectificatio 
 of the 
 
 n 
 
 
 Classifications of Different Series of Instances. 
 
 Different Series 
 
 of 
 Classifications. 
 
 Series 
 No. I. 
 
 Series 
 No. II. 
 
 
 Circumstances 
 as they present 
 themselves in 
 the different 
 classifications. 
 
 Series 
 No. III. 
 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 e|f 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 d|e 
 
 F 
 
 &c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "I 
 
 
 1 
 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 99 
 
 Having subjected the instances which form the 
 materials of the investigation, to the operation of 
 the two opposite processes of classification, by 
 affirmative and negative circumstances, we must 
 now collect together the results of the analysis 
 in such a manner that they may all stand related 
 to each other according to their natural affinities, 
 or as they have been found most constantly con- 
 joined in the different instances. The tenth table 
 (which from the assistance it affords for that 
 process, has been called the table of Synthesis) 
 presents a form to answer this object, where all 
 the circumstances being arranged under the re- 
 spective signs of their classes or sub-classes, we 
 are able to trace the connexions which exist 
 between them. I have often thought that it 
 would be possible to represent these connexions by 
 lines drawn between the circumstances related 
 together, which all issuing from the class to which 
 they belong, and diverging to the circumstances 
 of the other classes and sub-classes, would form a 
 kind of tree of natural relations. — It is unnecessary 
 to repeat that the classes are those circumstances 
 which, assorted together by the first process of 
 classification, remain after the class has been 
 submitted to the second process, whilst the sub- 
 classes are the circumstances which have been 
 separated from the class by that process. 
 
100 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 No. X.— SYNTHESIS. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 * Sub-Classes. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 /,:** 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f,&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 /Ac 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 /,&• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 fAo. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 101 
 
 As nothing assists analysis more than com- 
 parison or makes us more intimately acquainted 
 with individual instances and their particular dis- 
 tinctions, I have thought it might be useful to 
 subjoin some forms for comparing together dif- 
 ferent series of instances, either collectively or 
 individually, as well as for ascertaining the relative 
 position and coincidence of their different circum- 
 stances. Thus tables XI, XII and XIII are 
 different forms for the first purpose ; and XIV and 
 XV for the latter. 
 
 No. XI. — Form for comparing two Series of Instances with one another, individually. 
 
 * 
 
 ( 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 Instances. 
 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 * 
 
 of the 
 
 First Series. 
 
 I. 
 
 H. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 &c. 
 
 of the 
 Second Series. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 A.a 
 
 B.b 
 
 C.c 
 
 D.d 
 
 E.e 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 &c. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
102 
 
 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 No. XII. — Form for comparing two Series of Instances with one another, collectively. 
 
 * 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 of the 
 
 First Series. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 of the 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c 
 
 Circumstances- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. XIII. — Form for comparing with one another, individually, the Instance of two 
 
 different series. 
 
 * 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 of the 
 
 First Series. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 of the 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 &c. 
 
 A.a. 
 
 B.b. 
 
 C.c. 
 
 D.d. 
 
 E.e. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 &c. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "1 
 
 
METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 103 
 
 No. XIV. — Form for determining the Coincidence of two Series of Events or Circumstances. 
 
 
 
 
 Series of Circumstances of which the order is best 
 determined with their Signs. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII 
 
 &c. 
 
 Series of Circum- 
 stances of which 
 the order is most 
 uncertain. 
 
 A. 
 
 B, 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 G. 
 
 H. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t fyc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Combination of 
 the signs of the 
 prevailing coin- 
 cidences. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
104 
 
 METHODUS CONTABULANDI. 
 
 No. XV. — Form for examining a given Coincidence between two Series of 
 Circumstances. 
 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 of the 
 
 First Series. 
 
 Instances. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 of the 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 n. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 A.a 
 
 B.b 
 
 C.c 
 
 D.d 
 
 E.e 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
105 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF INDUCTION BY CLAS- 
 SIFICATION TO PARTICULAR SUBJECTS. 
 
 L' instrument universel ne peut devenir trop etendu, trop maniable. trop aise 
 a appliquer a tout ce qu' on voudra : il est utile de 1'utilite de toutes les sciences 
 qui ne scauroient se passer de son secours. Fonte.nelle. 
 
 A very cursory view of the present state of those 
 branches of knowledge derived purely from obser- 
 vation, and, indeed, of some even of those which 
 enjoy the privilege of experiment, must be sufficient 
 to convince any one how much all might be im- 
 proved by the application of a severe and correct 
 analysis, and how much injury the greater number 
 of them sustain from the neglect of it. And I am 
 also inclined to think that the necessity of a more 
 accurate induction is every day increasing, and has, 
 in no inconsiderable degree, been produced by the 
 desire and thirst after knowledge which distinguish 
 the days in which we live ; for they have led to a 
 hurried accumulation of matter without adequate 
 care or judgment. Assertions have been received 
 as facts upon insufficient evidence, and the love of 
 
 K 
 
106 METHOD OF INDUCTION. 
 
 what is new has too frequently obtained the ad- 
 mission of what is false. Nor, when the method 
 of observation has been true, has it always been 
 judicious. Facts have been collected without re- 
 ference to any use or object, have been heaped 
 together without any order or arrangement, and 
 have grown to a mass so disproportionate to the 
 power of digesting and appropriating them, that 
 we may almost apprehend from the confusion of 
 our materials what was formerly suffered from the 
 want of them.* From this admixture of error 
 with truth, some branches of knowledge, being in- 
 capable of practical applications, remain barren 
 and unproductive, whilst others, oppressed with 
 their burden of materials, are prevented from ad- 
 vancing. It would be difficult to find in either of 
 the great divisions of natural knowledge, moral or 
 physical, an exception to these remarks ; but it is 
 necessary that I should content myself with sug- 
 gesting the application of this method of analysis 
 only to a few particular subjects, rather because 
 they stand the most in need of it, than that others 
 might be less benefitted by it. 
 
 * Talora vi cadra, in acconcio di paragonare lo sperimentatore 
 
 all' uomo stravagante, che raccogliesse da per tutto, e amassasse 
 
 materiali per fabbricare ; ma che tutto accozzando alia rinfusa, 
 
 senza criterio e senza scelta, ingombrasse il terreno appunto su 
 
 cui erger la fabbrica, o ne confondesse talmente i materiali, onde 
 
 nissun partito trarre esso stesso, e lasciar i posteri nella impossi- 
 
 bilita di trarne alcuno considerevole dalle sue fatiche. 
 
 Rasori. 
 
MEDICINE. 107 
 
 Section 1. — Medicine. 
 
 I have placed medicine at the head of the 
 subjects to which I would recommend the appli- 
 cation of the method of analysis by classification, 
 because I feel myself fully warranted, by long and 
 ample experience, in affirming, that, whether it be 
 considered in its scientific relations, or in its prac- 
 tical details, no department of knowledge so ur- 
 gently demands the wholesome reform of a close 
 and scrutinising induction . 
 
 Although the practice of medicine must be 
 admitted to be unquestionably one of the most 
 difficult of all the arts, it is still no easy matter to 
 answer the question, which may very fairly be 
 asked, why the art of physick, one of daily neces- 
 sity and of daily exercise, should have improved 
 so slowly, and been so devious and unsteady in its 
 progress, and that after a written experience of 
 more than two thousand years, it should still remain 
 an instrument of such doubtful and uncertain ap- 
 plication. I am by no means of opinion that the 
 complex nature of the subject* which forms the 
 
 * Subjectum istud medicines (corpus nimirum humanum) ex 
 omnibus quae natura procreavit, maxime est capax remedii, et 
 vicissim illud remedium maxime est obnoxium errori. Eadem 
 namque subjecti subtilitas et varietas, ut magnam medendi 
 facultatem praebet, sic magnam etiam aberrandi facilitatem. 
 Quo circa quern admodum ars ista (quo praesertim nunc habetur 
 modo) inter praecipue conjecturales ; ita inquisitio ejus reponenda 
 est inter summe arduas et accuratas. 
 
 k2 
 
108 STUDY OF MEDICINE. 
 
 business of medical research and of medical ope- 
 ration, furnishes a satisfactory explanation of this 
 anomaly. The phenomena of health and of dis- 
 ease, the effects of food, of remedies, and of every 
 agent capable of exerting an influence upon the 
 living body, are objects of simple observation, are 
 as cognizable as any other class of facts, and as 
 certainly subject to a regular order as any other 
 series of events. No one, arguing only from the 
 past, has a right to say that this order is beyond 
 the reach of observation, or that it is impossible to 
 establish certain fixed principles concerning the 
 manner in which these phenomena and these 
 effects have place. And, consequently, no one has 
 a right to deny that it may yet be possible to 
 establish corresponding principles concerning the 
 manner of producing these phenomena by art, of 
 preventing them from taking place, or "in quantum 
 fert mortalium sors," of arresting their progress. 
 If these propositions, which are the general and 
 compressed argument of Cabanis, be fairly put, it 
 follows, that the cause of the uncertainty of medi- 
 cine is not so much to be sought for in the difficulty 
 of the subject as in the manner of observing and 
 of studying it. 
 
 Medicine never continued long an art of un- 
 biassed observation, and has never yet known the 
 powerful and fertilizing influence of the inductive 
 logic. In it no method of observation has been 
 
STUDY OF MEDICINE. 109 
 
 made a rule of general use, but either, on the one 
 hand, too nearly allied to philosophy, 
 
 " premendo littus iniquum," 
 
 it has been led astray by the fanciful doctrines of 
 dogmatising theorists, or, on the other, too servilely 
 enchained in the routine of art, " vaga enim expe- 
 rientia et se tantum sequens," it has remained in a 
 vicious circle of imitation. Independent observers, 
 intuitively following the natural methods of their 
 own suggestion, " ingenium rebus submittentem," 
 have at distant times appeared scattered like the 
 Oases of the desert ; and though they have never 
 failed to give a remarkable impulse to the progress 
 of medicine, their disciples have not long pursued 
 the track opened for them by the genius of the 
 master, and the method and the example have 
 gradually fallen into disuse and neglect. The con- 
 sequence of this is, that the age of experience in 
 medicine is almost limited to the life of each indi- 
 vidual, and, instead of resembling a stream, gra- 
 dually enlarging as it descends, by fresh accessions 
 of knowledge, it consists of insulated parts, often 
 in opposition, seldom in correspondence with each 
 other. 
 
 It is therefore not without good reason, that one 
 of the most sensible philosophers of our days has 
 observed, that although " there is hardly any one 
 branch of human knowledge in which men in 
 general are more disposed to boast of the lights of 
 
110 MEDICAL EVIDENCE. 
 
 experience than in the practice of medicine, it 
 would perhaps have been better for the world if 
 some qualifying epithet had been invariably added 
 to the word experience, to show with how very 
 great latitude it is to be understood when applied 
 to the evidence on which the physician proceeds in 
 the exercise of his art." " The truth is," he con- 
 tinues, "that even on the most favourable sup- 
 position this evidence, so far as it rests on expe- 
 rience, is weakened or destroyed by the uncertain 
 conditions of any new case to which his former 
 results are to be applied ; and that without a pecu- 
 liar sagacity and discrimination in marking not 
 only the resembling but the characteristical features 
 of disorders, classed under the same technical name, 
 his practice cannot with propriety be said to be 
 guided by any one rational principle of decision, 
 but only by blind and random conjecture. The 
 more successfully this sagacity and discrimination 
 are exercised, the more nearly does the evidence 
 of medical practice approach to that of experience ; 
 but in every instance without exception, so immense 
 is the distance between them, as to render the 
 meaning of the word experience, when applied to 
 medicine, essentially different from its import in 
 those sciences, where it is possible for us, in all 
 cases, by due attention to the circumstances of an 
 experiment, to predict its result with an almost in- 
 fallible certainty."* It was probably the same 
 
 * Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind. 
 
NEGLECT OF ANALYSIS IN MEDICINE. Ill 
 
 view of medical evidence which led the celebrated 
 La Place to convey that severe censure on the 
 practice of medicine, of proposing to submit it to 
 the mathematical doctrine of chances. 
 
 But it must be recollected that these opinions 
 are only well founded when confined to the past 
 and present method of medical research, and that 
 they fall to the ground if meant to deny the pos- 
 sible improvement of evidence in medicine under 
 the influence of a successful induction. Medicine 
 is not a science of experience in the same sense as 
 the other sciences, for no other reason than because 
 the instrument and the art of experience have never 
 yet been applied to it. Were it possible to place 
 medical facts within the grasp of induction, medi- 
 cine must necessarily stand on the same footing as 
 any other science of observation, perhaps of expe- 
 riment. The materials of experience are not 
 wanting. The stores are ample and well fur- 
 nished. Every day is busy in producing more, 
 and perhaps of a better kind. There is nothing 
 intrinsically in the nature of the facts which are of 
 the province of medicine which prevents them 
 from being analysed and reduced to order, and 
 from being thus made to contribute more or less to 
 the common stock of experience. The analysis of 
 medical observations is no doubt beset with some 
 difficulties which are only to be overcome by the 
 united labours of many, and by repeated efforts ; 
 but if this important work was only undertaken in 
 
112 HOPES FROM ANALYSIS IN MEDICINE. 
 
 a right spirit, and steadily persevered in — if the 
 method of observing was reformed, if the obser- 
 vations were subjected to the assay of a searching 
 induction, it is impossible to foretell what might be 
 the happy results ; and certainly not before such a 
 trial has been fairly made, is it allowable to say, 
 that medicine cannot be elevated to the rank of 
 the other sciences. This is no new view of the 
 matter, no enthusiastic anticipation, the offspring of 
 a new theory. It is the opinion of Sydenham* and 
 Baglivi,f equally disciples of Hippocrates and of 
 Bacon, and the two most illustrious names, who, 
 
 * Si vel unus tantum per singula mundi secula hoc modo 
 unicum tractaverit morbum, medendi ars, (quae medicorum est 
 provincia,) a multis retro annis ad aKfirfp pervenisset, omnibus 
 absoluta numeris, saltern in quantum fert mortalium sors. 
 
 •f Enim vero dum tota medicinae prudentia in eo posita videatur, 
 ut morbum cum morbo, tempus cum tempore, hominem cum 
 homine compares, quo advenientia, et crescentia mala suis certis 
 signis, ac nominibus ea distinguere, iisdemque idonea aptave re- 
 media adhibere queas, nemo certe inficias iverit, nullam prorsus, 
 et nobilissimae scientise exornandse, et curandis hominibus utili- 
 orem operam navari posse, quam si praestantissimae artis studiosi, 
 immenso retro tempore jam factas a majoribus nostris obser- 
 vationes attenderent, novasque in dies animadverterent ac nota- 
 rent. Quam quidem promovendae artis rationem, si jam inde ab 
 Hippocratis temporibus ad hanc nostram usque aetatem constanter 
 homines retinuissent, dici vix potest, quot quantique progressus 
 hac hodie parte haberentur. Cum vero rem alioqui adeo neces- 
 sariam, tarn praeclaram, atque ita feliciter institutam reliquerint, ut 
 se infinitis et (ut Apostoli verbis utar) interminatis qucestionibus, 
 XoyofiaKiag implicarent, aliam afferre causam non possem, quam 
 offensi, ac ulsciscentis Numinis iram. 
 
PRINCIPLE OF IMITATION IN MEDICINE. 113 
 
 since the revival of letters, have honoured and 
 adorned our art. 
 
 When these researches first occupied my atten- 
 tion, it is fit to confess that my hopes of the ad- 
 vancement of medicine were neither sanguine nor 
 consoling, but on the contrary, having long been 
 disappointed with the results which follow the syn- 
 thetical method in the study as well as in the 
 practice of physick, I found myself obliged to ac- 
 knowledge that the only way to increase the cer- 
 tainty of our art, was to return directly to a state 
 of pure empyricism, (confining that term to its 
 original and literal meaning.) I was reduced to 
 the opinion that precision in practice could only 
 be ensured by a kind of imitation or transduction 
 from one individual case to another, instead of 
 raising general principles from many individual 
 cases, and again applying these principles to new 
 cases. In short, forgetting that the disappoint- 
 ments of which I had to complain, might with 
 more justice be attributed to want of skill in the 
 artists, than to want of power in the art, " errores 
 non artis sed artificum," I utterly despaired of ever 
 beholding the practice of medicine proceed in the 
 broad day-light of induction, and was fully pre- 
 pared to confine myself to the humbler but more 
 practical method of imitation, of which, as has 
 been already observed, Lord Bacon has left us an 
 outline in his " experie'ntia liter ata" It was in 
 endeavouring to perfect this method, and adapt it 
 
114 OPINION OF CABANIS 
 
 more particularly to the practice of medicine, that 
 I was led to the tabular analysis. And having 
 considered the nature of the subject with more 
 attention, and viewed it in all its bearings, and 
 having seen reason for better hopes in the in- 
 creasing resources of induction, of which, as has 
 been already observed, the practice of medicine 
 has yet felt the influence only imperfectly, I am 
 encouraged to indulge the most confident expect- 
 ations ; and, in availing myself of the words, I am 
 inclined to adopt the opinion of Cabanis, in its 
 fullest extent. 
 
 " Oui, j'ose le predire : avec le veritable esprit 
 d' observation, l'esprit philosophique qui doit y pre- 
 sider va renaitre dans la medecine ; la science va 
 prendre une face nouvelle. On reunira ses frag- 
 mens epars, pour en former un systeme simple et 
 fecond comme les lois de la nature. Apres avoir 
 parcoura tous les faits ; apres les avoir revus, veri- 
 fies, compares, on les enchainera, on les rapportera 
 tous a un petit nombre des point fixes, ou peu 
 variables. On perfectionnera l'art de les etudier, 
 de les lier entre eux par leurs analogies, ou par 
 leurs differences, d'en tirer des regies generates, 
 qui ne seront que leur enonce meme, mais plus 
 precis. On simplifiera surtout l'art, plus important 
 et plus difficile, de faire l'application de ces regies a 
 la pratique. Alors, chaque medecin ne sera pas 
 force de se creer ses methodes et ses instrumens ; 
 d'oublier ce qu'on apprend dans les ecoles, pour 
 
ON FUTURE PROGRESS OF MEDICINE. 115 
 
 chercher dans ses propres sensations ce qu'il de- 
 manderoit vainement a celles d'autrui; je veux dire 
 des tableaux, non seulement bien circonstancies et 
 d'une verite scrupuleuse, mais formant un tout dont 
 les diverses parties soient coordonnees. Alors, il 
 ne sera plus necessaire que le talent se mette sans 
 cesse a la place de l'art : l'art ou contraire dirigera 
 toujours le talent, le fera naitre quelquefois, sem- 
 blera meme en tenir lieu. Non que je croie possible 
 de suppleer, par la precision des procedes, a la 
 finesse du tact, et aux combinaisons dun genie 
 heureux : mais le tact ne sera plus egare par des 
 images vagues, et incoherentes, ni le genie enchaine 
 par des regies frivoles et trompeuses ; ils ne ren- 
 contreront plus, ni l'un ni l'autre, aucun obstacle a 
 leur entier developpement. Alors, des esprits medi- 
 ocres feront peut etre avec facilite ce que des 
 esprits eminens ne font aujourd'hui qu'avec peine : 
 et la pratique depouillee de tout ce fatras etranger 
 qui 1'ofFusque, se reduisant a des indications simples, 
 distinctes, methodiques, acquerra toute la certitude 
 que comporte la nature mobile des objets sur les- 
 quels elle s'exerce." 
 
 But, concerning the views which I entertain of 
 the means of advancing the progress of medicine, 
 I think it proper to explain that it is not from the 
 cultivation of medicine in specialties and dismem- 
 bered parts that I augur much good. Indeed I 
 am not aware of any thins; which has been more 
 adverse to the diffusion of correct notions, and 
 
I 
 
 116 OF THE MEANS OF IMPROVING 
 
 more opposed to the establishment of truth in 
 medicine, than the division of its study into 
 different branches, thus separating the consi- 
 deration of the causes of disease from the 
 phenomena which they present, and from the 
 method of treating them. It is essential to 
 successful practice that all their parts should be 
 preserved in exact correspondence with each 
 other. Diseases must be considered and contem- 
 plated entire in all their parts, and complete in all 
 their circumstances, from their origin to their 
 termination. 
 
 I am therefore not of the number of those who ex- 
 pect that the power of medicine in controlling dis- 
 ease's to be greatly increased or extended by curative 
 indications deduced from the phenomena which 
 the scalpel can disclose. These, at best, can 
 present only a fraction of the data upon which 
 must be founded any deduction for the suc- 
 cessful treatment of a disease. If I do not much 
 mistake, the assistance to be derived from the 
 study of morbid anatomy, can be only indirect, 
 and must be confined to the help it may afford 
 towards individualising diseases, if I may so speak ; 
 for by demanding a closer observation of parti- 
 cular cases it may facilitate the application of 
 specific methods of treatment to specific cases. 
 But the practical application of remedies must be 
 deduced from the knowledge of their effect upon 
 the living body in cases as nearly similar as 
 
THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 117 
 
 can be asertained by observation, not from the 
 relation of any remedy to the appearances which 
 may be found in the dead subject. "A certis 
 potius et exploratis petendum esse presidium ; id 
 est, his quae experientia in ipsis curationibus 
 docuerit." 
 
 In like manner I have little hopes of the 
 improvement of medicine by the exclusive study 
 of therapeutics. Some physicians would have us 
 think that the power of medicine is to be vastly 
 enlarged by the discovery of specific remedies 
 for particular diseases, or of new agents capable 
 of modifying or removing diseased actions. But 
 the experience of ages forbids us to indulge in 
 these expectations Not more than two or three 
 such remedies are known to exist. And although it 
 may be unphilosophical to deny that more may yet 
 be formed in the great store-house of nature, 
 it is surely more prudent to make a proper use 
 of the means of which we are already possessed, 
 than to neglect them for dreams of hidden 
 treasure. It is surely more wise to avail ourselves 
 of the resources we can command, by endeavouring 
 to increase the certainty and safety of their use 
 and application, that by establishing more definite 
 relations between particular cases, and particular 
 cures, all which the sick suffer from error or 
 misapplication, may be spared them. 
 
 The means which my views of the improvement 
 of medicine embrace are neither many nor com- 
 
118 OF THE RIGHT METHOD 
 
 plicated. They may be comprehended in a few 
 words, — true, distinct, circumstantial observation, — 
 clear, severe, searching analysis. I do not wish 
 it to be imagined that I would reject any 
 elucidations which the collateral sciences are 
 capable of furnishing. So far as these explain and 
 illustrate the symptoms of diseases they increase 
 the circumstances and extend the means of distin- 
 guishing them. In this way, chemistry, experi- 
 mental philosophy, and some other sciences, may 
 supply us with useful assistance. But the danger is 
 of allowing these means to rank above their proper 
 subordinate position ; for the most baneful con- 
 sequences have been the result, where practical 
 conclusions have been deduced from such data. 
 " Rationalem quidem puto medicinam esse debere ; 
 instrui vero ab evidentibus causis, obscuris omnibus 
 non a cogitatione artificis sed ab ipsa arte rejectis." 
 
 An improved method of the study and, conse- 
 quently, of the practice of medcine is, however, 
 only to be expected from an improved method 
 of education. My meaning will be quite mis- 
 understood, if it is supposed that I imagine, that 
 such an object can in any degree be obtained 
 by the additional studies which have of late years 
 been imposed upon those qualifying themselves 
 for the practice of the healing art, in all its 
 different branches. No doubt such studies may 
 contribute much to the general accomplishment 
 of the physician, and, giving him a more entire 
 
OF STUDYING MEDICINE. 119 
 
 view of nature, by enlarging his comprehension, 
 may increase his resources. But these advantages, 
 seldom felt by more than a few individuals happily 
 gifted, are altogether subordinate to the principle 
 object of medical education considered in relation 
 to the many. My notions of the improvement 
 of medical education are in every respect opposed 
 to these alterations, and relate more to the 
 method of teaching, than to the matter which 
 is taught. It seems indeed to me by far more 
 natural that the student should pursue the 
 same course in acquiring the knowledge of his 
 profession in the schools, which he must in 
 after life follow in his practice, and that the 
 synthetical teaching from the chair should be 
 replaced by analytical observation in the hos- 
 pital. I cannot help thinking that instead of 
 acquiring a superficial acquaintance of sciences, 
 sometimes remote, generally irrelevant, and which 
 do certainly in many instances tend to establish 
 habits of the mind by no means favourable to 
 the practical details of medicine, it would be a 
 more advantageous employment of the period 
 of study, if the pupil were instructed and ex- 
 ercised in the right use and application of the 
 true method of observation, which in active 
 life must be the guide and the instrument of 
 his professional labours. What would be said of 
 a method of teaching any art in which every 
 thing was attended to, except the easy and skilful 
 
120 PLAN OF AN ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 
 
 manner of handling the tools and utensils which 
 the artist must employ ! Such a preposterous manner 
 of proceeding could not be more inconsistent than 
 what is to this very day committed in the method 
 of teaching the practice of the art of physic, 
 where the inductive logic which must preside 
 over and regulate the reasoning of the physician, 
 forms no part of any system of medical education. 
 And indeed I must own that the habits of the 
 mind which the practice of medicine demands, 
 and consequently tends to produce, is a cir- 
 cumstance but very imperfectly understood, and 
 has by no means received that attention which 
 both as an object of interest and as a matter of 
 usefulness, it is equally entitled to. 
 
 But the method of observation would be best 
 taught by example in the practice of an hospital, 
 and were hospitals organized upon proper prin- 
 ciples, with a due regard to the patient, the pupil, 
 and the public, all their details might be made 
 subservient to one general method of observation, 
 and the whole might present a continued process 
 of analysis. 
 
 In sketching the following plan of an analytical 
 hospital, I think it proper to premise that I 
 entertain no notion so visionary as to hope to 
 see it carried into effect. I have not known 
 the profession of medicine more than twenty 
 years to remain ignorant of the invincible prejudices 
 of habit. But still I am not the less convinced 
 
ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 121 
 
 that until this, or some other method of teaching 
 medicine inductively, shall come into general use, 
 the public must be content to suffer from the 
 misapplication of the art, and Medicine must 
 endure the dishonour. 
 
 I am of opinion that the student having been 
 thoroughly disciplined in classical and mathema- 
 tical learning, (quamvis non faciat medicum, ap- 
 tiorem tamen medicince reddit,) and having been pre- 
 pared by an adequate acquaintance with anatomy, 
 physiology, chemistry, and materia medica, should 
 at once proceed to the hospital. It is there, I think, 
 that his knowledge of diseases ought to commence, 
 so that he might know nothing of their symptoms 
 by name, before he has made himself familiar 
 with the reality. The symptoms of disease should 
 be first demonstrated to him on the living subject, 
 after the manner of teaching natural history, 
 and not until he has acquired a distinct notion 
 of them and understood them accurately, ought 
 he to learn the names by which they are technically 
 distinguished.* He should first become acquainted 
 
 * Les connoissances qu'on acquiert dans les ecoles, ou dans 
 les livres, ne peuvent donner ni cultiver la sagacite des sens : — 
 Les vraies connoissances de notre art ne sont qu'un ensemble, 
 plus ou moins complet, des sensation recuillies au lit des mala- 
 des ; ces sensations ne peuvent etre fournies, que par les objets 
 memes qui les produisent. Ainsi la lecture, a proprement parler, 
 ne nous enseigne, en quelque sorte, que ce que nous savons deja. 
 
 Cabanis* 
 L 
 
122 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 
 
 with diseases in individual cases and afterwards 
 proceed by degrees to their common features and 
 generic characters, according to the natural order 
 of induction. The distribution and classification 
 of the cases of disease in the different wards, 
 ought to be such as to favor this method of study. 
 Thus the same diseases, or those allied to each other, 
 should be placed together, that the mind being 
 occupied with one class of diseases might become 
 fully conversant with them ; whilst the comparison 
 of individual cases of the same disease being 
 forced upon the attention by their juxta-position, 
 would point out their peculiarities and specifical 
 distinctions, and would explain and account for the 
 exceptions and modifications of the general method 
 of treatment. 
 
 In such an hospital, every ward ought to have 
 its own physician, and every physician should 
 be a professor of clinical medicine, who with 
 his pupils, all mutually cooperating with each 
 other, should form a well organised corps of 
 observers. The students should be divided into 
 two classes, senior and junior, and every case 
 of disease should be entrusted to two students, 
 one of each class. The senior student should 
 be accustomed to demonstrate and explain the 
 symptoms and phenomena of disease to his junior 
 colleague, and it should be the duty of both to 
 register and report, with fidelity and correctness, 
 every circumstance as it presents itself in the 
 course of the disease. To monitors or students 
 
ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 123 
 
 still more advanced should be committed the 
 task of observing and recording all the general 
 and common circumstances having an influence 
 upon all the diseases, as the weather, temperature 
 of the air, temperature of the ward, the prevailing 
 constitution of the atmosphere, and such like ; 
 and to other monitors should be entrusted the 
 superintendence of all the journals, and the care 
 of analysing the different cases. To the physician 
 himself should exclusively belong the direction 
 of the treatment, and explanatory lectures on 
 the nature of the diseases. He should point 
 out, by comparing and contrasting different cases 
 of the same disease, their general resemblance 
 and their particular distinctions; and, in order 
 to be assured that the subordinate duties were 
 punctually performed, the students should be 
 subjected to occasional examinations. 
 
 On each case being received into the ward, 
 the causes or circumstances preceding the disease, 
 the particulars of any previous treatment, and 
 the period of the disease, should be minutely 
 investigated and carefully noted, and, as the 
 disease proceeded, every symptom which it pre- 
 sented, every agent of whatever kind capable 
 in any way of influencing the disease and the 
 effects of such agents, should be scrupulously 
 watched and distinctly described. On the case 
 being brought to a termination, whether successful 
 or otherwise, the history of it should be handed 
 
124 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 
 
 over to the monitor charged with the duty of 
 analysis. By submitting the case to the operation 
 of the analytical table, he would easily determine 
 the relations of its different circumstances to 
 one another, and the agreement or disagreement 
 of the circumstances of different cases of the 
 same disease, and he would thus learn to draw 
 accurate and well founded conclusions accordingly. 
 This office should be filled by the best instructed 
 pupil, that, in this manner, every student rising 
 gradually from the simple to the analytical ob- 
 server, would be initiated in the art of correct 
 observation, and, having thus been daily exercised 
 in the practice of induction, would pass from 
 the hospital to the world, well trained in the use 
 of that instrument which must be the guide of his 
 professional life. 
 
 Having studied the diseases of one ward and 
 gradually risen from the lowest to the highest 
 station of observation, the pupil should proceed 
 to study the diseases of another ward, under 
 another professor of clinical medicine, and so 
 on successively, until having become familiar with 
 the diseases of all the wards, his course of clinical 
 education would be completed. It would then 
 be the fit time for him to listen to the gene- 
 ralities of the chair, to hear all that is known, 
 all the opinions which have been entertained, 
 of the nature of diseases, and all the various 
 methods which have been suggested or followed 
 
ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 125 
 
 for their cure. Or, instead of reserving a general 
 course of lectures on the practice of Medicine for 
 the termination of the clinical studies, each clinical 
 professor might partly provide for this object by 
 delivering lectures on the general nature of the 
 diseases of his wards, as well as particular lectures 
 on individual cases of disease, as is at present the 
 custom. Under either plan, the student will be in 
 a position to derive the full advantage of such 
 lectures ; for, understanding the language of the 
 art, and being able to compare what is said with 
 what he has seen, he will begin to exercise his own 
 judgment and to appeal to his own experience. 
 
 In order, however, to give unity to the plan and 
 co-operation to the parts of such an analytical 
 hospital, it would be important that all the 
 machinery should be under the regulating control 
 of one directing head, to whom all should be 
 amenable for the right performance of their re- 
 spective duties. This directing physician might be 
 charged with the general lectures on the practice of 
 medicine, but his chief business ought to be to 
 inspect the patients on their reception into the 
 hospital, to distribute them to their appropriate 
 wards, and to register, in a book kept for that 
 purpose, every particular concerning them which 
 it may be important to record. As each case was 
 brought to a termination, the nature of the event 
 should be reported to him, and the patients being 
 examined by him on their discharge, as well as on 
 
126 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 
 
 their entrance, he would have a checque on the 
 practice of the different physicians, without, how- 
 ever, interfering with them in the general manage- 
 ment of their wards, or in the particular treatment 
 of the diseases. Besides this, at stated periods, the 
 physician of each ward should be required to 
 submit to the directing physician full analytical 
 reports of the diseases treated in each ward ; which 
 being circumstantial, might be at last incorporated 
 with the general analysis of each disease, and 
 ought to be carefully preserved in the archives of 
 the hospital. These successive processes being 
 performed analytically, their recorded results would 
 occupy a comparatively trifling volume, and each 
 hospital would thus be in possession of a code 
 of experience, every day extending the usefulness, 
 and diminishing the uncertainty, of the art of 
 physick. 
 
ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 
 
 127 
 
 Form for the Medical Archives of an 
 Experience in Diseases, 
 
 Hospital, for recording 
 Analytically deduced. 
 
 the results of 
 
 * 
 
 Classes. Sub-Classes. 
 
 A. 
 
 t 
 
 4- 
 
 a 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 C 
 
 4. 
 
 d, fyc. 
 
 t 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 d, fyc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 d,8?c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 c 
 
 d, Sfc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 d, fyc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Name of Disease to be inserted in this space. 
 
 t The circumstances or particulars of the disease to be inserted in these columns, 
 each under their respective signs, and according to their relation to each other, as 
 determined by analysis. 
 
 \ These columns are for the insertion of references to the cases, or series of cases, 
 in which the circumstances have been found. 
 
128 ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 
 
 In this manner also, each physician would be 
 subject to a proper responsibility in the discharge 
 of his duties, and the estimation of his practice 
 being founded on the circumstances of the cases 
 and not on the event alone, his professional cha- 
 racter would not be decided as heretofore, by the 
 uncertain evidence of single cases, but his merits 
 would be established upon the general tenour of 
 his practice. "Medicus et fortasse politicus, vix 
 habet actiones aliquas proprias, quibus specimen 
 artis et virtutis suae liquido exhibeant ; sed ab 
 eventu praecipue honorem aut dedecus reportant, 
 iniquissimo prorsusjudicio" And I must take leave 
 to say that such a measure of responsibility is only 
 in justice demanded of those who fill a situation so 
 important to society, as that of physician to a 
 public hospital.* 
 
 * Fide, Form p. 129. 
 
ANALYTICAL HOSPITAL. 
 
 129 
 
 ifHOoa 
 
 > 8"^| 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 td 
 
 Signs. 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Ess 
 
 ? 2 £ 
 
 
130 NEGLECT OF INDUCTION IN UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 I cannot help expressing my regret that the 
 opportunities lately afforded in establishing the 
 medical schools of the London University and 
 King's College, have not been made use of to intro- 
 duce an example of the method of teaching medicine 
 analytically : and that a fresher spirit of analysis, 
 more becoming the temper of the age, had not more 
 generally pervaded the organization of these in- 
 stitutions. It is, indeed, full time that the spirit of 
 the Novum Organon presided more entirely over 
 the constitution of our public academies, and that 
 a chair, at least, was exclusively devoted to teaching 
 explaining, and cultivating the vast resources of the 
 inductive philosophy. It is not easy to calculate 
 what might have been the general and remote con- 
 sequences of a practical example of medical induc- 
 tion, but those who are at all conversant with the 
 matter, can have little hesitation in admitting, that, 
 by sending into the world men well exercised in the 
 practical details of medicine, and already accom- 
 plished in the method of correct observation, the 
 interests of society at large would have been most 
 wisely consulted, and such advantages, not to be 
 obtained elsewhere, would have most certainly 
 ensured the success of these institutions. 
 
 It appears to me this method of acquiring the 
 knowledge of the practice of medicine, might also 
 be sufficiently well pursued in apprenticeships, 
 were their terms and conditions reformed and 
 placed upon a proper footing; the duties of the 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF MEDICAL APPRENTICESHIPS. 131 
 
 master being made as imperative as those of the 
 pupil. Thus, if no one was admissible as an 
 apprentice, until he had, after a proper classical 
 education, attended courses of anatomy, chemistry, 
 and materia medica, he would be prepared for 
 entering upon the observation of disease, and 
 might pass two or three years under the super- 
 intendence of a practitioner, whose duty it should 
 be, instead of only confining him as at present 
 to the drudgery of pharmacy, to demonstrate and 
 explain to him the phenomena of disease, and the 
 methods of treatment, thus serving, as it were, for 
 his clinical guide. Nor ought apprentices to be 
 confined only to general practitioners. Physicians 
 ought also to have their apprenticed pupils, which, 
 by the nature of the present regulations and in- 
 stitutions, is denied them. 
 
 In order to promote the use of a better analysis, 
 and facilitate the application to medicine of the 
 method of induction by classification, I have drawn 
 up the following plan of a book of analysis, that 
 any medical observer may at once be able to 
 construct and prepare one for his own use. 
 
THE BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 MEDICAL ANALYSIS, 
 
 OR 
 
 GUIDE 
 
 FOR STUDYING 
 
 FAITHFULLY FROM NATURE. 
 
 5 Ev v6i>) Kai ra wepi vovohiv irjaiog, ko\ ol roiovreiav rpo7roi, baay&qi 
 xal ov rpoTTov 7repi iicaoTMv ij(pvaiv' clvti) yap apx*) * v iflrpnci|, nal 
 fit<xa xal tiXoq. 
 
 IIHIOKPATHS mpl EYSXEM0SYNH2. 
 
DIRECTIONS 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 THE BOOK OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 In order to ensure true and correct results by 
 this method of analysis, it is first necessary to 
 collect full, entire, and circumstantial histories of 
 particular cases of disease, and it is next of 
 importance to use, as near as possible, the same 
 terms, for the same circumstances, whether they 
 be causes, symptoms, or remedies. But it is not 
 meant to exclude those variations of expressions, 
 and shades of distinctions which lead to fine and 
 delicate observation, for these may be faithfully 
 given by the modifications of the signs as has been 
 already explained.* 
 
 As I have not yet been able to succeed in 
 making the analytical table serve the purpose of a 
 daily journal of cases, so as to carry on the 
 analysis from day to day, through the whole 
 history of the disease, (which would indeed be to 
 give it the highest degree of perfection,) it will be 
 necessary that the observer should select from 
 
 * Vide supra, Chap. I. 
 
2 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 cases, either detailed by others, or observed by 
 himself, every particular or circumstance which 
 can be supposed to have any influence on the 
 results, and insert them in order, in such an 
 analytical form, as may seem best adapted to the 
 case. As soon as a case of disease presents itself 
 for observation, he will appropriate a form to that 
 disease, by writing its name in the open space* 
 left for that purpose, and proceed to write down, 
 in the column of circumstances/)* the causes of the 
 disease, whether predisposing or exciting, the 
 symptoms in their order of succession, the par- 
 ticulars of the method of treatment, the effects of 
 remedies, the nature of the event, and the duration 
 of the disease. Opposite to each of these cir- 
 cumstances, he will place the sign of the case in 
 its proper column.^f That similar circumstances of 
 different cases may succeed each other in the 
 order of their occurrence, it is convenient to leave 
 open lines for their insertion, between the circum- 
 stances of the first cases, and, as the period of the 
 disease in which these circumstances occur may 
 constitute an important element in the induction, it 
 may be expressed by placing the day of the disease, 
 in figures, over the sign of the circumstance. It 
 will thus be easy to perceive how the same circum- 
 stance varies in different cases, as to the period of 
 the disease in which it takes place, and to trace the 
 influence of this variation upon the consecutive 
 circumstances. . 
 
 *. f, ^f. Vide infra, Forms for the analysis of diseases, 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. *> 
 
 When another case of the same disease is sub- 
 mitted to examination, the circumstances are to be 
 selected as in the first case. Those which have 
 already been found in the first case will be ex- 
 pressed by repeating the sign of that case in the 
 column of the second case, but such as have not 
 been found before in the first case, must be written 
 down in the column of circumstances, and have 
 the sign of the second case placed against them in 
 its proper column. This process, the translation 
 of circumstances into signs, is to be repeated, in 
 the same manner, in all the subsequent cases, so 
 that the same circumstance in every case may be 
 invariably denoted by the same sign, but different 
 circumstances by different signs, each proper to 
 the case in which it occurs. But as the same 
 circumstance may present itself in different cases, 
 in a less or a greater degree, it is proper that 
 this should be distinguished and denoted by the 
 signs of modifications, according to the principles 
 explained in the first chapter.* 
 
 So soon as a table has received its complement 
 of cases, the signs of the circumstances are to be 
 collected together and classified, by placing under 
 its proper sign, in the column of classification, the 
 number of times the sign of any circumstance has 
 been found in all the instances. This operation, as 
 I have already explained,! shows what circum- 
 stances are connected together, and which have no 
 
 * Vide Chap. I. f Vide, Chap. I. 
 
4< BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 relation to each other. If the observer thinks that 
 the cases examined afford sufficient data for his in- 
 vestigation, or that any class (such as are denoted 
 by the same sign being considered to belong to the 
 same class) indicates a connection existing between 
 its circumstances sufficiently strong for a more 
 particular scrutiny, he will then submit it to the 
 second process of analysis, or exclusion by negative 
 circumstances. This is performed by transfering 
 the circumstances of the class to a table of the 
 second form, by comparing them in new cases, 
 and by changing the sign according to the rule 
 given above.* 
 
 But if it should appear that the cases of one 
 table do not afford data sufficiently extensive for 
 deducing a conclusion, or that the classes of cir- 
 cumstances do none of them indicate relations 
 worthy of further research, a new table must be 
 opened for receiving another series of cases of the 
 same disease ; the classified signs of which must be 
 placed in correspondence with those of the first 
 table by the method of rectification as already 
 explained.* By this plan the observer may con- 
 tinue his classification to a very great number of 
 cases, and, being able to put them all in cor- 
 respondence with each other, he will perceive 
 the relations which connect together the circum- 
 stances of the same class; and by submitting 
 any class to the second process of analysis, he 
 
 * Chap. I. 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. O 
 
 will discover the conditions and combinations 
 which unite any particular circumstance with the 
 other circumstances of its class. Having sub- 
 jected every class to this process, the results may 
 be transferred to a table of the fourth form, where 
 the circumstances of the different classes and sub- 
 classes being all arranged under their respective 
 signs, will be presented in the natural order of 
 their relations, and will allow all the connections 
 existing between them to be easily traced. 
 
 I have already stated that the period of the 
 disease in which any circumstance occurs, may be 
 expressed by placing the day of the disease over 
 the sign of the circumstance, but the difference of 
 acute and chronic diseases in this respect may 
 require some modification in the form of their 
 tables. This has led me to construct some tables 
 with a column for inserting either the period of the 
 disease in which a circumstance presents itself, or 
 the limits of time between which it ranges. This 
 modification of the general form may be applied 
 accordingly as it is found more or less convenient. 
 
 Besides analyzing diseases in this manner, the 
 observer may find it necessary to institute com- 
 parisons between different cases of the same disease, 
 or between different series of cases, either collec- 
 tively or individually, according as he may wish to 
 trace the influence of different causes in the same 
 disease, or to estimate the merits of different 
 methods of treatment. Convenient modifications 
 have been adopted to this object. The manner of 
 
6 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 using them being precisely the same as for the 
 analysis, their applications will easily suggest them- 
 selves. 
 
 There are always other collateral inquiries 
 which present themselves to the medical observer, 
 in the course of his investigations of disease, such 
 as the general effects of particular medicines, the 
 connection between symptoms of diseases and the 
 morbid alterations of structure found on dissection, 
 the coincidence of stethosopic signs with certain 
 diseases of the chest, and many other similar re- 
 searches which it may be desirable to promote. 
 Appropriate forms have therefore been prepared for 
 these purposes, which there can be no difficulty in 
 applying to the particular subjects. 
 
 That nothing worthy of observation may escape 
 attention, or be passed over, I recommend blank 
 pages to be provided at the end of the book of 
 analysis, for the purpose of writing, at full length, 
 descriptions of any striking or remarkable cases or 
 circumstances of a disease, and if to this be ap- 
 pended a proper analytical index of all the diseases 
 examined, and of all their circumstances, alpha- 
 betically arranged, the observer, whether student 
 or practitioner, will have provided for himself a 
 body of experience of his own, easy to be con- 
 sulted, such as no other method of study is ca- 
 pable of communicating. 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 FORM I. a. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases are 
 the Circumstances of each case comparatively few. 
 
 numerous but 
 
 * 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Causes, predisposing and exciting ; 
 Symptoms in their order, duration, 
 and period ; Method of treatment, 
 Nature of Event, Duration of dis- 
 ease. 
 
 H 
 
 P 
 
 C 
 
 < 
 D 
 
 < 
 E 
 
 < 
 F 
 
 < 
 G 
 
 < 
 H 
 
 >< 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 7 
 
 &c 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. b. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where it is particularly desirable to mark 
 the period, or the range of the periods, of the Circumstances. 
 
 * 
 
 Days 
 
 of 
 
 the 
 
 Disease. 
 
 ( 
 
 Classification 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 - 
 
 s 
 
 « 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 7 
 
 &c 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 fee. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. c. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases as well as their Cir- 
 cumstances are comparatively few. 
 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 * i 
 
 Circumstances 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 ~ 
 
 P 
 
 ? 
 
 < 
 
 <! 
 
 - 
 
 i — i 
 
 H 
 
 > 
 
 >' 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 8 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 FORM I. d. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases, as well as their 
 circumstances, are comparatively few, but where it is necessary to mark the periods of the 
 circumstances. 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 1 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Days 
 
 of the 
 Disease. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 J~ 
 
 £ 
 
 <! 
 
 A 
 
 K 
 
 g 
 
 > 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Days 
 
 of the 
 Disease. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 Sec. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. e.—For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases, as well as their circumstances, 
 are comparatively numerous. 
 
 Causes, predisposing 
 
 and exciting : 
 
 Symptoms, their order, 
 
 duration, and period. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 A B;C Dj 
 
 &c 
 
 Cases. 
 
 B.b. 
 
 III. 
 
 C.c. 
 
 IV. 
 
 D.d 
 
 E.6 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 a b c d e 
 
 &c 
 
 Methods of Treatment 
 
 in their order ; 
 
 Nature of Event ; 
 
 Duration of Diease 
 
 I. /. — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Cases and their circumstances are 
 equally numerous, but where it may be of importance to mark the periods of the circumstances. 
 
 * 
 
 
 Cases. 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Causes,predisposing 
 
 and exciting : 
 
 Symptoms in their 
 
 order. 
 
 CD 
 
 O aj 
 to .«} 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 <6 
 
 CO 
 
 co .J5 
 
 Methods of Treat- 
 ment, in their order;! 
 
 Nature of Event ; ! . 
 Duration of Disease., 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 Sic. 
 
 A.a 
 
 B.b 
 
 C.c 
 
 D.d 
 Sec. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 Stc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 FORM I. °\ — For the Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Circumstances are numerous 
 
 but the cases few. 
 
 * 
 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Cases 
 Continued. 
 
 
 * 
 
 History of 
 Disease. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 ~ 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 > 
 
 - 
 
 i — ! 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 > 
 
 Classification 
 Continued. 
 
 Method of Treat 
 
 ment; 
 Nature of Even 
 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 CD 
 
 E 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 &c. 
 
 Durationof Disease. 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 g- 
 £>' 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 CD 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 _J_ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 e 
 
 E 
 
 5' 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 
 I. A. — .For ^Ae Analysis of Cases of Disease, where the Circumstances are numerous but the 
 Cases few, but ivhere it is important to ascertain the periods of the Circumstances. 
 
 History of 
 the Disease. 
 
 o 8 
 
 M .22 
 
 Classification. 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 BCD? 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Cases 
 Continued. 
 
 Classification 
 Continued. 
 
 A B CD E 
 
 &c. 
 
 Method of Treat- 
 ment ; 
 Nature of Event ; 
 Durationof Disease 
 
 W 
 
10 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 FORM I. i.—For combining the method of Analysis with a Journal or Register, some of 
 the Circumstances being written, but having their signs interlined if necessary. 
 
 * 
 
 . 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 G. 
 
 H. 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 S3 
 
 o 
 
 Age. 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sex. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Temperament. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Previous Disease. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Profession, Trade. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Season of y ear, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 Oh 
 
 s- 
 
 >> 
 
 a 
 g 
 
 c 
 
 CD 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 11 
 
 FORM I.j. — For determining the particular Effects of any Medicine upon the 
 Body in health. 
 
 * 
 
 
 Experiments. 
 
 State of body previous 
 
 to taking the medicine ; 
 
 Effects following the use 
 
 of the medicine, &c. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 S- 
 
 p 
 
 B 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 R 
 
 * 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 < 
 
 <j 
 
 X 
 
 < 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 j 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (* The name of the 
 
 Medicine to be inserted 
 
 in this open space.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. k. — For determining the particular effects of any Medicine upon the Body in a state 
 of Disease, and for ascertaining the time and duration of its operation. 
 
 * 
 
 t 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Particular state of body pre- 
 vious to using the medicine ; 
 
 Form and quantity used ; 
 
 Effects following its use. 
 
 Period or 
 
 Duration of 
 
 Effects. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Sigrns. 
 
 - 
 
 i— i 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 — i 
 D 
 
 > 
 E 
 
 > 
 
 — i 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 d 
 
 >< 
 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 &c 
 
 A 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 j 
 
 kI l 
 
 k &c 
 
 (* The name of the medicine 
 
 to be inserted here. 
 
 f Space in which is to be 
 
 written the name of the 
 
 disease in which it is used.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. /. — For comparing, with one another, two methods of treatment in different cases 
 of the same Disease. 
 
 * 
 
 t 
 
 Cases of 
 First Series. 
 
 Cases of 
 Second Series. 
 
 t 
 
 * 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Classification 
 of Signs of 
 First Series. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Classification 
 
 of Signs of 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 &c. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 &c. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 &c. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 (* Space for 
 inserting name 
 
 of Disease. 
 t for inserting 
 the method of 
 
 treatment.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 12 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 
 ?ORM I. m. — For comparing 
 the same Disease, where 
 
 , with one another, two methods of treatment in different cases of 
 it is of importance to note the periods of the Circumstances. , 
 
 * 
 
 t 
 
 Cases. 
 
 f 
 
 * 
 
 Circumstances 
 
 of the Cases of 
 
 First Series. 
 
 6 
 
 as 
 
 ha 
 
 P <D 
 
 Classification 
 of Signs of 
 First Series. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of Signs of 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 6 
 
 £>P 
 P © 
 
 Circumstances 
 of the Cases of 
 Second Series. 
 
 i k 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 tc. 
 
 A.a 
 
 B.b 
 
 C.c 
 
 D.d 
 See. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 fee. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 I. n. — For comparing with one another collectively, two series of cases of different kinds of 3 
 Diseases, between which it is desired to ascertain the points of resemblance and the points - 
 of distinction. 
 
 * 
 
 
 Cases of 
 1st Series. 
 
 Cases of 
 2d Series. 
 
 
 
 Circumstances 
 of the Cases. 
 
 Classification 
 of Signs of 
 1st Series. 
 
 
 B 
 
 £h 
 
 > 
 
 >' 
 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 Classification 
 
 of Signs of 
 
 2d Series. 
 
 Circumstances 
 of the Cases. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 n{D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -|— j- 
 
 i — i 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7, , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. o. For comparing, with one another individually, the cases of two different kinds of Diseases, 
 
 where it is also of importance to note the date of the Circumstances. 
 
 * 
 
 
 Cases of both Series 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 CD 
 
 •si 
 
 £P 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 Classificatic 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs 
 
 a; 
 
 ■s 1 
 
 w .JS 
 
 ^P 
 Q a> 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A.a. 
 
 B.b. 
 
 C.c. 
 
 D.d 
 
 E.e. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 xv. 
 
 _ 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 1 
 
 I. p. — For determining the Relations between the Symptoms of 
 Appearances found on Dissection. 
 
 D 
 
 13 
 
 isease and the Morbid 
 
 
 
 Dissections. 
 
 
 
 Symptoms 
 
 bserved before 
 
 death. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Morbid Appear- 
 ances found after 
 death. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 A.a. 
 
 B.b. 
 
 C.c. 
 
 D.d. 
 
 E.e. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
14 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 FORM II. a. — For investigating the Relations existing between the Circum- 
 stances of Disease classed together by the first process of Analysis. 
 
 Class. * 
 
 c 
 
 W 
 
 Circumstances of the Class. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 I. 
 
 t 
 
 II. 
 
 t 
 
 III. 
 
 t 
 
 IV. 
 
 t 
 
 V. 
 
 t 
 
 VI. 
 
 t 
 
 VII. 
 
 t 
 
 VIII 
 
 t 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (* The Sign of 
 the Class to be in- 
 serted here. 
 
 The circum- 
 stances to be writ- 
 tenin these spaces.) 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i.tyc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Class. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 i <D 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II. b. — For investigating the Relations between the Circumstances of the 
 same Class, and for ascertaining their Combinations with the Circumstances 
 of other Classes. 
 
 Class. * 
 
 CO 
 
 & 
 
 00 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 belonging to the class. 
 
 occurring in combination. 
 
 I. 
 
 t 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 I. 
 
 t 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e.fyc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Class. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 CU 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 15 
 
 FQRM III. a. — For connecting together, by the process of Rectification, the Analysis 
 of different series of Cases. 
 
 * 
 
 Rectificatior 
 of 
 
 
 Classifications of different Series of Cases. 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 1st Series. 
 
 2d Series. 
 
 3d Series. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 'E 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 III. b. — For placing in correspondence the Analyses of different Series of Observations 
 by the process of Rectification. 
 
 * 
 
 CO 
 
 C 
 he 
 
 55 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 I. 
 
 H. 
 
 in. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 LX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XL 
 
 Classifications 
 
 of different 
 
 Series of Observations. 
 
 1st 
 Series. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2nd 
 Series. 
 
 A. 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 D&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3rd 
 
 Series. 
 
 A. 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rectification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
16 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 FORM II. c. — For determining the Relations between particular Symptoms and 
 particidar morbid Appearances found on Dissection. 
 
 
 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Dissections. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 G.&c. 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d$c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coincidences of 
 
 the two Series of 
 
 Signs. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 G.&c. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cfyc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 II. d. — For determining the Coincidence of certain morbid Appearances 
 with certain Stethoscopic Signs. 
 
 
 
 
 Stethoscopic Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 A. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Dissections. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 G.&c 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f4e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coincidence of 
 
 the two Series of 
 
 Signs. 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 17 
 
 FORM IV. a. — For Arranging and Distributing the 
 Results of any Analysis of Diseases, according to 
 the Classes and Sub-Classes to which they belong. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Sub-Classes. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 
 d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 
 d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 
 d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 
 d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
18 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 IV. b. — For Registering and Distributing the Cir- 
 cumstances of any Disease according to their affi- 
 nity to each other, as determined by Analysis, 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Sub-Classes. 
 
 A. 
 B. 
 
 
 t "3 
 
 a. 
 
 
 b. 
 
 . s 
 
 ID 
 
 c. d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 c. d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 C. 
 D. 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 c. d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 c. d. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IV. c. — For Registering and Arranging the Circum- 
 stances of any Disease according to their Classes, 
 as found by Analysis. 
 
 Circumstances arranged in Classes according to 
 their Signs. 
 
 A. 
 
 i "3 
 
 o <u 
 
 B. 
 
 "3 
 
 C. 
 
 a 
 
 i •- 
 
 D.E.&c 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 19 
 
 Particular Histories of Singular or Remarkable 
 Diseases. 
 
20 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 Particular Descriptions of any Remarkable Causes or 
 Symptoms of Disease, of the Morbid Appearances 
 on dissection, of the Effects of Medlines, fyc. fyc. 
 
BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 21 
 
 Analytical Index of the Circumstances of Diseases, Alphabetically 
 Arranged. 
 
 Circumstances of 
 
 Diseases, 
 
 Observed in 
 Cases 
 
 of 
 Series. 
 
 Page. 
 
22 
 
 BOOK OF MEDICAL ANALYSIS. 
 Alphabetical Index of Diseases. 
 
 Di 
 
 isease, 
 
 Species, 
 
 Variety, 
 
 or 
 Modification 
 
 Page. 
 
SECTION II 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 That science which has for its object to explain 
 the phenomena of organized bodies,, taking Physi- 
 ology in its most extensive sense, falls very naturally 
 under consideration after Medecine ; and may be 
 named with it, as requiring equally the aid of a 
 better Induction : not however that they are to be 
 so much compared with each other as regards the 
 intricacy and complexity of their facts, as in their 
 suffering in common from the neglect of a proper 
 method of investigation. The phenomena of physi- 
 ology consists of much fewer elementary circum- 
 stances which present themselves in an order con- 
 veniently arranged for comparison, and admit more 
 frequently of being varied and modified by experi- 
 ment. Indeed of late years physiology has in some 
 of its branches been almost elevated to the rank of 
 an experimental science, and it cannot be denied 
 that within the same period its progess has been 
 proportionately accelerated. But it must not be 
 
156 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 forgotten, that experiments upon organized bodies 
 do not carry with them the conclusive evidence 
 which results from experiments upon unorganized 
 matter, and are sometimes so entangled with the ac- 
 companying circumstances that they are even not 
 so decisive as the facts of simple observation. And 
 if we consider for a moment the conflicting opinions 
 which have been deduced from the same experi- 
 ments, and the numbers of experiments which 
 justify no opinion at all, we may be disposed to 
 admit that a method of analysing experiments 
 is as essential to elicit truth as the power of making 
 them. If we also contemplate the multitude of 
 facts, observations as well as experiments, which 
 remain isolated and unconnected, and therefore 
 sterile, it is impossible not to be convinced that 
 the only way to solve the mysteries of nature, which 
 are of the province of physiology, is by a severe 
 and searching induction ; and, therefore, though in 
 the time of Willis it might have been perrmitted to 
 him to say, after the fable, "ex aperto cerebro, 
 obstetricantibus etiam Vidcani ferramentis Minervam 
 enatam fuisse ; nam aut hac via scilicet per vulnera 
 et mortes, per anatomiam et quasi ccesareo partu, in 
 lucem prodibit Veritas, aut semper latebit" in the 
 state of the science in our days, it would be more 
 correct to conclude, in the opinion of the philoso- 
 pher, " itaque facienda est corporum separatio et 
 solutio non per ignem certe, sed per rationem et 
 inductionem veram, cum experiments auxiliaribus ; 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 157 
 
 et per comparationen ad alia corpora, et reductionem 
 adnaturassimplices et earumformas, quce in composite 
 conveniunt et complicantur : et transeundum plane a 
 Vulcano ad Miner mm, si in animo sit veras corporum 
 texturas et schematismos in lucem protrahere." 
 
 What but the want of a proper method of 
 induction has prevented the vast resources which 
 the physiology of the lower animals afford, from 
 having been made available ? The mutual illus- 
 trations which the different structure of their organs 
 might throw upon their functions, have been almost 
 entirely neglected, and although, in this way, a 
 simple comparison of observations might frequently 
 impart evidence more conclusive than a direct 
 experiment, this rich mine of physiological treasure 
 has scarcely been turned to any account. As an 
 example of investigating the phenomena of life in 
 this way, I would instance the work of Wepfer on the 
 comparative anatomy of the great sympathetic 
 nerve, and, of the principle, it would be impossible 
 to find a happier explanation than the following 
 passage from Cuvier. "II consiste a observer sue- 
 cessivement le meme corps dans les differentes 
 positions ou la nature le place, ou a comparer 
 entre eux les differens corps jusqu' a ce que Ton 
 ait reconnu des rapports constans entre leurs struc- 
 tures, et les phenomenes qu'ils manifestent. Ces 
 corps divers sont des especes d' experiences toutes 
 preparees par la nature, qui ajoute ou re tranche a 
 chacun d'eux differentes parties, comme nous 
 
158 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 pourrions desirer de le faire dans nos laboratoiresj 
 et nous montre elle-meme les resultats de ces 
 additions ou de ces retranchemens." And whilst 
 this method of substituting observations for ex- 
 periments,, by means of induction, must prove more 
 agreeable to the kinder feelings of our nature, 
 enabling Us to spare many painful sufferings, 
 otherwise of necessity inflicted upon the lower 
 animals, it is encouraging to recollect that the 
 great discovery of the circulation of the blood was 
 principally the fruit of a process of legitimate 
 induction ; and that the natural system of the 
 nerves, the most brilliant accession to physiological 
 science made in our days, was chiefly achieved by 
 the same instrument. 
 
 The remarks which I have found it necessary to 
 make on the proper method of studying the phy- 
 siology of the body, apply with equal propriety to 
 the investigation of the phenomena of mind. For 
 although it must be admitted that the present state 
 of the physiology, improperly called the philosophy, 
 of mind, is by no means encouraging, it must also 
 be allowed that it has never been satisfactorily 
 studied as a science of experience ; and that if the 
 processes under which philosophers have arranged 
 the intellectual phenomena, afford very inadequate 
 explanations of the mental operations, it must not 
 be forgotten that they have been rather the result 
 of hypothetical anticipations than of legitimate in- 
 ductions. The luminous facts which nature scatters 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 159 
 
 so abundantly at our feet,, either as instances of 
 the unequal developement of the mental faculties, 
 of the absolute deficiency of some, or of the 
 accidental derangement of them all, instead of 
 being gathered and winnowed for our information 
 and our profit, have been trodden down and 
 neglected ; and the light which they might have 
 thrown on the process of the mind, has been 
 smothered or extinguished by the very mass and 
 multitude of the observations. Nor is it merely 
 for the pleasure and satisfaction which the full 
 knowledge of the ways of nature never fails to 
 impart, that this waste of experience is to be so 
 much regretted. They whose lives are spent in 
 using the processes of Nature as the operations 
 of Art, are too deeply impressed with the belief, 
 that, if all art does not, in the language of Hip- 
 pocrates, literally exist in nature, most certainly 
 the knowledge of nature is the only power of 
 art, not to give a ready admission to the pleasing 
 prospect, — that, if the intellectual sciences we 
 possess are only copies or reflected transcripts 
 of the natural process of the intellect, in the 
 undiscovered operations of the mind, there may 
 remain wrapt up, but yet to be revealed, sciences 
 as unconceived and as unthought of by us as 
 were the wonderful powers of the modern calculus 
 by the great philosophers of antiqiuity. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 PHRENOLOGY, ANIMAL MAGNETISM, AND OMOIOPATHIC 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 These subjects have been brought forward 
 with claims to be received amongst the sciences. 
 Whether they be entitled to that rank I dare not 
 pretend to say. As they profess to be derived 
 from experience and appeal to it, they have a right 
 to be heard attentively and to have their cause 
 judged by a fair induction of facts. But as the 
 facts they bring forward are capable of various 
 constructions, without the necessity of admitting the 
 existence of new laws of mind or new agencies of 
 matter, it is obviously incumbent upon those who 
 advocate these branches of knowledge, to subject 
 their facts, without choice or bias, to the test of a 
 searching analysis. It is not by a few selected and 
 solitary instances that such complicated questions 
 are to be set at rest; on this principle, judicial 
 astrology, fortune-telling and necromancy might 
 have equal claims to be entertained. 
 
 The tabular analysis appears to me very well 
 adapted to the examination of these questions and 
 
PHRENOLOGY AND ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 161 
 
 I have therefore endeavoured to point out, in tables, 
 some of its applications to Phrenology. But in 
 order that the trial made by these tables may be 
 perfectly fair, it would be proper that the number 
 of individuals upon whom the observations were 
 made should be very considerable, and should be 
 taken indiscriminately; and that the moral and 
 intellectual qualities of each individual should be 
 determined by one party, and the developement 
 of the organs should be described by the other, 
 without any communication having place between 
 them. 
 
162 
 
 PHRENOLOGY AND ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 
 
 FORM I. a.— For ascertaining empirically the relations existing between the external 
 form of the Head, and the Moral and Intellectual Faculties. 
 
 External Configuration 
 
 Classification 
 
 Individual Observations. 
 
 of the Skull according to 
 the Phrenologists ; 
 
 Moral and Intellectual 
 Qualitiesby Observation. 
 
 of 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 vn. 
 
 VIII. 
 H. 
 
 IX. 
 I. 
 
 X. 
 
 &c. 
 
 K. 
 
 &c. 
 
 A. 
 
 B.|C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 G. 
 
 VI 
 
 C 
 ctJ 
 
 be 
 
 >- 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 o| 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [. b. — For determining the coincidence of certain Configurations of the Head with 
 the Moral and Intellectual Faculties as assigned by Phrenologists. 
 
 External Configura- 
 tion of the Skull 
 according to the 
 Phrenologists. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of the Signs 
 
 of the 
 
 Protuberances. 
 
 Individual Observations. 
 
 Classificati 
 of the Signs 
 
 on 
 of 
 mil 
 il 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 &c. 
 
 the Moral 
 Intellects 
 Faculties 
 
 Moral and Intellec 
 
 tual Faculties, as 
 
 observed in 
 
 Indivduals. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C, 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 &c. 
 
 A.a 
 
 B.b. 
 
 C.c. 
 
 D.d. 
 
 E.e. 
 
 &c. 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 
 d. 
 
 e. 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PHRENOLOGY AND ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 
 
 163 
 
 II. a. — For determining the coincidence of the external Configuration of 
 the Skull, according to Phrenologists, with the Moral and Intellectual 
 Qualities. 
 
 Names of 
 Individuals on 
 whom the Obser- 
 vations were 
 made. 
 
 Moral and 
 
 Intellectual 
 
 Qualities. 
 
 Protuberances of the Organs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 &c. 
 
 No. 
 
 Signs 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 &c. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 III. 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 e. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 f. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 S- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VIII. 
 
 h. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 3- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XL 
 
 k. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XII. 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XIII. 
 
 m. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XIV. 
 
 n. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XV. 
 
 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XVI. 
 
 P- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XVII. 
 
 ?• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XVHI. 
 
 r. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XIX. 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XX. 
 
 t. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XXI. 
 
 u. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XXII. 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 &c. 
 
 w. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coincidence of 
 
 the two Series 
 
 of Signs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 THE USEFUL ARTS, CHEMISTRY, AND METEOROLOGY. 
 
 When the useful arts are practised by observing 
 and independent minds, their history presents a 
 constant and continued series of inductions which 
 the tangible and visible nature of their operations 
 forces upon the understanding, and hence they are 
 ever steadily, though gradually, advancing forward. 
 It is for the same reason, that men, whose minds 
 are open to observe and free to think, habitually 
 occupied in the practice of an art, and uncon- 
 sciously exercised in the inductive process, are 
 distinguished by that intuitive common sense (ab- 
 normis sapiens, — crassd Minerva) which is acknow- 
 ledged to belong to practical men. But on the 
 contrary, where the rule of procedure in an art is 
 immoveably fixed, and where the artist may not 
 change or adapt the rule to the circumstances, he 
 himself becomes degraded to a machine of slavish 
 imitation, and his art may retrograde but cannot 
 improve. It is, therefore, the proper exercise of 
 induction which makes the able and the skilful 
 
USEFUL ARTS. 165 
 
 artisan, and which ensures the improvement of 
 the arts. The history of the progress of the useful 
 arts in different countries might afford some interes- 
 ting illustrations of this opinion. Thus the Chinese 
 seem for centuries to have been following in the 
 practice of their arts a process of pure imitation, 
 presenting as it were the experiment of a whole 
 people pursuing the method of the experientia 
 liter ata instead of the experientia vera. It is, there- 
 fore, not difficult to understand why, with all the 
 patient manipulating practice of their arts, they 
 have never chanced to stumble upon, a science. 
 The Greek artist, in ancient, and the English me- 
 chanic of modern times, may on the contrary be 
 fairly said to have taken the lead of all others in 
 the practice of intuitive induction, and it is unne- 
 cessary to add that the results have been in corres- 
 pondence. This consequence of the liberty of 
 thought, in the daily practice of the useful arts, has 
 perhaps not been fully appreciated, and this view of 
 the tangible nature of the intuitive induction of the 
 arts, may afford a way of explaining the difference 
 between the progress of the arts and of philosophy, 
 not precisely the same as that suggested by Bacon. — 
 Artes enim mechanicas ut aurce cujusdam vitalis par- 
 ticipes quotidie crescere et perfici ; philosophiam vero 
 statuce more adorari et celebrari nee moveri. Atque 
 Mas in primis auctoribus rudes et fere informes ac 
 onerosas se ostendere ; posted novas vires et com- 
 moditates adipisci: hanc autem in primo quoque 
 
166 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 auctore maxime vigere, ac deinceps declinare. Neque 
 aliam hujus contrarii successus causam veriorem esse, 
 quam quod in mechanicis multorum ingenia in unum 
 coeunt, in philosophia autem singulorum ingenia ab 
 uno quopiam destruuntur. 
 
 The experimental nature of Chemistry, as I 
 have already had occasion to remark, renders it 
 comparatively independent of the mental analysis. 
 In the decomposition of substances, the principle 
 of exclusion is applied in the same manner prac- 
 tically, as it is performed by the understanding 
 upon the objects of thought, and the privilege of 
 experiment allowing of, as it were, the creation of 
 prerogative facts, or such as have a decided bearing 
 upon the subject of investigation, the conclusion is 
 suggested, not sought for. There are, however, 
 some departments of this science where expe- 
 riments are not such luminous facts, or where they 
 possess their distinctive character in so low a 
 degree, that they afford evidence scarcely more 
 conclusive than that of simple observations, so that 
 the truth can only be ascertained by accumulating 
 the evidence of numerous instances. I allude to 
 the analysis of organic bodies, to animal and vege- 
 table chemistry, in which it is only by the in- 
 tellectual analysis of numerous experiments that 
 we can expect to arrive at satisfactory and lasting 
 results. 
 
 After Medicine and Civil Polity, the phenomena 
 which are the object of Meteorology, are probably 
 
 ■' 
 
METEOROLOGY. 167 
 
 those which are the result of the combination of 
 the greatest number of elements ; and, unlike either 
 of the subjects which have just passed under con- 
 sideration, their combinations are matter of pure 
 observation, which no artificial cause can change 
 or modify. It is, therefore, unnecessary to say, 
 that the laws which govern these phenomena can 
 only be ascertained by faithful histories of their 
 combinations, and by careful and cautious con- 
 clusions, deduced from them. Now, though we do 
 certainly possess very accurate records of atmos- 
 pheric phenomena, (and amongst the patient 
 and persevering labourers in this field of science, no 
 one is more deserving of mention than the modest 
 Howard*,) yet to place all the elements of these 
 phenomena, — all the circumstances which compose 
 the observations, in their natural relation to each 
 other, is beyond the reach of the ordinary method 
 of induction. Nor does it seem probable, that this 
 manner of investigating the laws which controul 
 atmospheric phenomena, can ever be superseded or 
 supplied by the indirect method of hypothesis, — by 
 applying to explain them, the relations of heat, 
 light, moisture, evaporation, &c, as ascertained in 
 the laboratory; so that, unless some method of ex- 
 perience can be made equal to cope with the com- 
 plexity of the subject, there is small chance of 
 success. But the only form of induction which has 
 heretofore been made use of in drawing conclusions 
 
 * (Climate of London.) 
 R 
 
168 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 from meteorological facts, (from which it has some- 
 times been possible to guess at a few indistinct, 
 ghmmering relations, connecting together some of 
 the different elements of the phenomena,) has been 
 mere enumeration, — a blindfold induction. It is, 
 therefore, in subjects of this description, that the 
 tabular analysis, which not only enumerates but 
 excludes, if aided and sustained by assiduous obser- 
 vation, promises more favourable results ; whether 
 directed to discover the laws which govern mete- 
 orological phenomena, or to determine, from the 
 present phenomena of the atmosphere, those which 
 are to follow. 
 
 But, to apply these remarks to their object, we 
 may easily gather from a comparison of the fore- 
 going subjects, in nature differing so much from 
 one another, that whether we are labouring in the 
 daily toils of the Arts, or keenly seeking to pene- 
 trate the mysteries of Nature, by the most in- 
 geniously devised experiments, or, patiently and 
 passively, watching and waiting for the slow 
 succession of natural phenomena, our success 
 chiefly depends on the skilful use we make of our 
 inductive powers, either unconsciously or inten- 
 tionally exercised. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 The method of tabular analysis promises to be 
 of much assistance in the study of Natural History, 
 in abbreviating and facilitating the process of syste- 
 matic arrangements; for classification and method 
 forming the essential part, — indeed constituting the 
 whole, of this process of Induction, it readily lends 
 its aid to such pursuits. The objects (instances) 
 being submitted to the operation of the analytical 
 tables, are decomposed mentally, and reduced to 
 their simplest forms and properties (circumstances), 
 which are afterwards assorted and distributed ac- 
 cording as they may be common to all the objects, 
 as they may belong only to a few, or be confined to 
 some particular one. This at once shows what are 
 the properties which constitute the generic charac- 
 ter, what go to the specific distinctions, and what 
 remain for the individual peculiarities. But the 
 classifications of natural history, — rather classifica- 
 tions of instances than of circumstances, are, properly 
 speaking, only incomplete inductions in which the 
 
170 CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 first stage of that process, classification by affirmative 
 circumstances, has only been performed. There is 
 reason, therefore, to hope that were this operation 
 carried a step farther, — were the classifications of 
 natural history subjected to the process of exclusion 
 or classification by negative circumstances, — our know- 
 ledge of nature would be greatly advanced, and the 
 distinction of Natural History into systematical and 
 philosophical, or physiological, would no longer exist. 
 A classification of instances, or objects, can only 
 be founded on a correct classification of their circum- 
 stances or properties. From the process of classi- 
 fication by affirmative circumstances proceeds, there- 
 fore, the classification of instances as well as the 
 process of exclusion, classification by negative circum- 
 stances; the stream of knowledge dividing itself, at 
 this point, into two branches; the one pursuing, 
 the investigations of causes, ascertaining the cir- 
 cumstances which cannot be separated; the other 
 collecting the long series of existences, determining 
 what circumstances may be conjoined. The following 
 imperfect sketch will explain the application of this 
 method to the classification of instances. 
 
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 FORM. V. Classification of Instances. 
 
 171 
 
 <8 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 1 
 
 A. 
 
 Classifications of Circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Classification of Instances. 
 
 A 
 A" 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 F 
 
 H 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 T 
 
 Genus. 
 
 1. 
 
 Species. 
 
 a. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 b. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 2. 
 
 Species. 
 
 a. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 b. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 3. 
 
 Species. 
 
 a. 
 Variety. 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 D. 
 E. 
 F. 
 G. 
 
 A 
 
 a" 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 ¥ 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 d" 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 H. 
 I. 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. 
 K. 
 L. 
 
 A 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 A 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 b" 
 
 "c 
 
 D 
 
 J 
 
 H 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M. 
 N. 
 0. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 — 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 S. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T. 
 
 A 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 U. 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
SECTION VI. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY, 
 
 Facts testified differ from facts of personal expe- 
 rience in having passed through media,— mind and 
 language, by which, like objects seen through 
 optical instruments, they are liable to be misrepre- 
 sented. The correctness of such an instrument, — the 
 credibility of a witness — can only be ascertained by 
 observing whether the object is represented consist- 
 ently with general experience, whether similar instru- 
 ments, — witnesses of the same facts, — coincide in the 
 appearance which they give to the object ; or, if, as in 
 viva voce evidence, the opportunity be allowed of 
 taking the instrument to pieces, of examining its 
 different parts, and of changing and inverting its 
 position, — by determining whether the object con- 
 tinues to be presented in a manner consistent with 
 the different aspects under which it is viewed. This 
 last is the method of cross-examination, where the 
 examiner, like the experimenter in physicks, has 
 the advantage of creating prerogative facts, and is 
 consequently the most searching test of testimony. 
 
ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 173 
 
 The agreement of testimony with general expe- 
 rience, — that which every day testifieth or common 
 consent acknowledged is of great weight where the 
 testimony concerns natural facts, but is also a test 
 of testimony which is liable to great abuse. For 
 men being disposed to limit experience to their own 
 knowledge, or to mistake one for the other as if 
 convertible terms, are either ready to believe a false- 
 hood because they understand it, or to reject what 
 is true, because they cannot comprehend it. There 
 are many instances of truths, from this cause, having 
 been left for centuries out of the pale of science, 
 and of falsehoods having been, for the same reason, 
 installed in undisputed possession. The history of 
 meteoric stones affords a good example where the 
 truth of testimony was for centuries rejected, because 
 the facts could not be explained by science, but 
 where the force of testimony at last prevailed in 
 estabhshing facts which a more perfect science after- 
 wards explained and confirmed. It would indeed be 
 difficult to say how much the world has lost in ex- 
 perience by the pride of knowledge. One of the 
 most recent instances which occurs to me, is the 
 use of cupping glasses in the treatment of poisoned 
 wounds ; a practice followed by the ancients, which 
 fell into disuse because it was not understood, and 
 which has, only lately, been revived, because expe- 
 riments have explained that the absorption of poison 
 is by that expedient prevented. 
 
 Where there is neither the opportunity of cross- 
 
174 ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 
 
 examination nor the test of experience, there 
 remains no way of judging of the credibility of 
 witnesses of the same facts but by comparing their 
 evidence with one another.* But when the question 
 is much complicated and the witnesses numerous, it 
 is no easy matter to confront them accurately, 
 to collect from the different testimonies, the bear- 
 ings of all upon the points at issue, so that each 
 may carry its proper weight and no more. It 
 is, therefore, this part of the analysis of testimony 
 which, it appears to me, might derive much 
 assistance from the method of classification. For, 
 by arranging and methodising the testimonies 
 of different witnesses according to the plan of an 
 analytical table, the classified signs would not only 
 concentrate the strength of the whole testimony, 
 but would point out where the evidence of any one 
 was defective or contradictory. The facility which 
 this plan affords of classifying and comparing toge- 
 ther the individual circumstances of facts, testified 
 by different witnesses, has many advantages over 
 the same operation performed memoriter, and shows 
 the coincidencies and discrepancies more clearly and 
 distinctly than the ordinary method of writing 
 
 * In a question which at this moment divides the scientific 
 world, the spontaneous motion of the atomic particles of matter, 
 our simile has become matter of fact ; for the point in dispute 
 hinging entirely upon the correctness of the microscopes, — the 
 credibility of the witnesses, — can only be decided by a comparison 
 of them. 
 
ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 175 
 
 down in notes the heads of the evidence. For, by 
 the operation of the analytical table, the evidence 
 of numerous testimonies, however intricate or dif- 
 ficult to unravel, might be arranged, set in order, 
 and at last classified, so as to represent their true 
 relations to each other and to the points to be 
 determined; and it seems possible to make even 
 the credibility of a witness enter as a circumstance 
 into each individual testimony, so that it may 
 receive its due estimation and no more. 
 
 The same facility which this method affords for 
 the analysis of facts certified by many individiuals, 
 it also presents for orderly digesting the various 
 opinions held by different individuals upon the 
 same question. Thus in the debates of public 
 assemblies where men assign the reasons of their 
 votes and opinions, it is most difficult to understand 
 all their relative bearings, and it is not uncommon 
 to find persons contending, with the same argu- 
 ments on opposite sides of the same question. It 
 would surely be therefore of great assistance to 
 have the debates of such public bodies correctly 
 analysed, to see the reasons of either side distinctly 
 arrayed against each other, and to understand the 
 bearing of every individual reason, and the reasons 
 of every individual member upon the question at 
 issue. 
 
176 
 
 ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 
 
 FORM I. a. — For ascertaining in what Circumstances a number of Testimonies 
 
 agree together. 
 
 
 
 Testimonies. 
 
 Circumstances 
 testified. 
 
 Classification of 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 S 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 G. 
 
 H. 
 
 T. 
 
 J.&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. b. — For comparir 
 
 g 
 
 with one 
 
 another, collectively, two series of 
 sides of the same question. 
 
 Testimonies on opposite 
 
 
 First Series. 
 
 Testimonies. 
 
 Testimonies. 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 * 
 
 Circumstances 
 testified. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 
 i~* 
 
 h-, 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 I_H 
 
 l " H 
 
 a 
 
 > 
 
 >' 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Circumstances 
 
 testified. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. c. — For comparing \ 
 
 vit 
 
 h one another, individually, two series 
 sides of the same question. 
 
 of Testimonies on opposite 
 
 
 First Series. 
 
 Testimonies. 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 
 Circumstances 
 testified. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Classification 
 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 Circumstances, 
 testified. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 &c. 
 
 A.a. 
 
 B.b. 
 
 C.c. 
 
 D.d. 
 
 E.e. 
 
 F.f. 
 
 &c. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 &e. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
ANALYSIS OF TESTIMONY. 
 
 177 
 
 -For ascertaining the bearing of a series of testimonies on certain 
 Circumstances. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 re" 
 
 3 
 
 GO 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Testimonies. 
 
 I. 
 
 11. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G.&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Classification 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D.&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II. b. 
 
 -For ascertaining the coincidence of two series of Testimonies concerning certain 
 Circumstances. 
 
 
 CO 
 Oq" 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 
 Testimonies 
 
 of 
 First Series. 
 
 I. 
 
 11. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Testimonies 
 
 of 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 E.&c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e.fyc. 
 
 
 Coincidence 
 of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coincidence 
 of 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Signs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -A 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
SECTION VII. 
 
 STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 Quotus enim quisque novit, segroto mortuoaut restituto, item republic a 
 stante vel labante, utrum sit res casus an consilii ? 
 
 If the true object of Statistics were attained, they 
 would constitute the most luminous commentary 
 upon the wisdom of particular governments; for, 
 affording the truest means of tracing effects to their 
 causes in the body politic, they would form the 
 safest criterion for estimating the relative merits of 
 different institutions. If the materials of Statistics 
 were faithfully and accurately prepared and clearly 
 analysed, they would present the experimental 
 result of legislation in all its various departments; 
 for, allowing effects to be placed in relation with 
 their causes, they would enable us to distinguish 
 that which is constant from that which is accidental, 
 
STATISTICS A1SD POLITICAL ECONOMY. 179 
 
 — the consequence of positive enactment from that 
 of collateral and intercurrent causes. In short, 
 Statistics properly studied would be constantly 
 preparing the means for making legislation a science, 
 and would thus remove that censure which, since 
 the days of Count Oxenstiern, has been so freely 
 reported of those who administer public affairs. 
 
 In the complicated machinery of the body 
 politic, a law is frequently a very subordinate 
 element in producing the series of circumstances 
 which succeed it, but being probably the only 
 element which is the result of design, it is 
 generally regarded as the sole cause. Were the 
 statistics of the case, or the circumstances which 
 accompanied the operation of the law, correctly 
 ascertained and fairly analysed so that all stood 
 in their natural relation to each other, it might 
 then be just to say what were the real conse- 
 quences of any- law, and what were foreign to it ; 
 and the biassed opinions of interest or party 
 would cease to mislead us under the name of 
 Experience. The present state of statistics is far 
 from corresponding to these views. The infor- 
 mation which they yield is vague and unsatisfactory, 
 a few general incongruous conclusions, the effects 
 of many causes without a particular reference to 
 any one. Even these are confined for the most part 
 to subjects which admit the measure of number and 
 quantity, and only speak in the dry language of 
 
180 STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 figures : or, on the other hand, some of those ques- 
 tions which most interest the feelings of society, for 
 want, it must be allowed, of better means, are 
 treated like matters of finance. The crimes of 
 a community are estimated in percentages, — their 
 murders in ratios, — their suicides and executions 
 in decimals and fractions, to which are appended 
 some clumsy speculations and much difference of 
 opinion concerning their causes and their effects, 
 but without any fair and rational appeal being 
 made to experience, with any reasonable prospect 
 of ascertaining the truth. We learn nothing, — at 
 least nothing which is entitled to the least con- 
 fidence, concerning the influence of circumstances, 
 of parentage, early habits, education, religion, 
 natural propensities, bodily health, trade and oc- 
 cupation, and many other possible causes the know- 
 ledge of which might lead to the remedy. Yet 
 all and every one of these are objects of common 
 observation and of legitimate inquiry which remain 
 unanswered only for want of a proper method 
 of asking the questions. And until some method 
 is found of obtaining satisfactory answers to such 
 questions, all hopes of enlightened government 
 must be despaired of, and legislation must remain, 
 as it is, the most empirical, though the most 
 important, of all the sciences. 
 
 The meritorious efforts of public spirited indi- 
 viduals, in collecting information on many subjects 
 intimately connected with the welfare of the 
 
STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 181 
 
 country, are fully entitled to respect, and nothing 
 can be more to be regretted than that they should 
 have been attended by such unsatisfactory results ; 
 or that their labours were not directed by a better 
 method. For though the shelves of the public 
 offices have been loaded with the lumber of returns, 
 (of which, a single sheet of information, analytically 
 collected and digested, would have contained the 
 essence of a cart load) ; so faulty and deficient has 
 been the method of collecting it, that it leads the in- 
 quiry to no conclusion, and, in spite of the best inten- 
 tions and most praiseworthy perseverance, the fruits 
 of experience never ripen to a state of usefulness. 
 But I cannot help indulging the hope, which I 
 must confess to me is matter of some satisfaction, 
 that were the method of induction by classification 
 applied to statistical researches, many of these 
 deficiencies might be supplied and much valuable 
 experience, which is at present cast away, might 
 be rendered fruitful and profitable. By means 
 of analytical tables consructed upon this principle, 
 and properly adapted to each subject, information 
 might be gathered together in such a form, that, 
 the relative influence of every circumstance bearing 
 upon the subject of inquiry, would at once present 
 itself; effects would be found in correspondence 
 with their causes; and the conclusion, instead of 
 being swayed to the right or to the left, by the 
 bias of preconceived opinions, would be drawn 
 
182 STATISTICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 by a simple mechanical operation. It would 
 require no great labour to prepare analytical forms 
 to serve the purpose of registers, records, lists, 
 journals or diaries, in such a way that the infor- 
 mation which is perpetually produced by the 
 ordinary and e very-day working of the machinery 
 of public institutions, might be preserved, collected, 
 and analysed, and be made to be unceasingly 
 contributing to a common stock of available expe- 
 rience. Were the organization of our public insti- 
 tutions formed on an inductive principle, or were a 
 system of analytical machinery attached to our 
 public offices, to our courts of law, prisons, houses 
 of correction, work-houses, penitentinaries, hos- 
 pitals, lunatic asylums, and all public establish- 
 ments, to record, methodically, every operation, 
 a vast fund of knowledge would be placed at our 
 disposal, all in some way or other conducive to 
 the public good. And if the analytical machinery 
 of all such institutions were placed in correspondence 
 with one central board of Statistics, constituted 
 of men of science, by whom should be performed 
 the last refining process of the materials, the best 
 check would be provided for the careful discharge 
 of administrative duties, the most common and 
 ordinary operations of public institutions would be 
 fraught with knowledge as well as use, (experimenta 
 et fructifera et lucifera,) and the whole would 
 be laying a broad and lasting foundation for the 
 superstructure of political science. 
 
STATISTICS OR POLITICAL ECONOMY, 183 
 
 The fear only of encumbering this little work 
 with too many forms of tables, has led me to omit 
 their particular application to Statistics and Politi- 
 cal Economy, but whoever will take the pains 
 to understand this principle of classification, will 
 find little difficulty in adapting it to any subject. 
 
 T 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 It would be an easy matter to increase the 
 number of the applications of the tabular analysis,, 
 for only a few examples have been given of the 
 many snbjects which demand the aid of a better 
 induction, though, , perhaps, sufficient have been 
 already mentioned to fulfil the object of this little 
 work — to urge, to insist upon, a better use of expe- 
 , rience — to promote the adoption of an easier, a 
 surer, method of obtaining it. If, however, any 
 one should be disposed to refuse assent to the 
 proposition which I have advanced — that the 
 sciences of observation are almost brought to a 
 stand for want of a proper method of experience — 
 I shall be happy to find that he is ready to assign 
 a better reason for their imperfect state, or one 
 which may lead us to the goal by a shorter 
 road. And if any one be inclined superciliously 
 to reject the method I have proposed, because 
 of the meanness of the apparatus, I trust he is 
 prepared with one of more finished workmanship ; 
 nor shall I be either surprised or dissappointed to 
 find, that, in this branch of science, the homely 
 
CONCLUSION. 185 
 
 contrivance of the distaff and spindle has been 
 superseded by the more powerful machinery of the 
 spinning-jenny. But deeply impressed with the 
 imperfect manner in which this work has accom- 
 plished its object, and sensibly alive to the vast 
 importance of the subject, I cannot take my leave 
 of it without repeating my conviction that the 
 sciences of observation are either starved or sur- 
 feited through the neglect of the Baconian Logic — 
 through the too light estimation of that art which 
 teaches how to discover the truth, as the Aris- 
 totelian should teach us how to use it. For I will 
 venture to hazard the opinion, that when a tithe 
 of the time has been spent upon the one, which 
 has been mis-spent upon the other, — when a grain 
 of the labour has been bestowed on the method 
 of discovery, which has been thrown away upon 
 the method of syllogism, — when the inductive logic 
 shall have received that perfection and that pre- 
 cision of which it is capable, — Experience will 
 become an open book, easy to read, and ready to 
 be understood ; purified of its false texts and 
 double senses, and admitting only one construction, 
 it will then prove the sure and unerring guide, 
 for which it seems to have been intended by the 
 great disposer of all things, — not only the planet 
 to light and to direct the path of the philosopher 
 through the boundless expanse of nature, but the 
 monitor to teach and to advise the unlettered, as 
 well as the learned, how to make the best use of 
 
186 CONCLUSION. 
 
 all his bountiful endowments. But, whilst time is 
 slowly bringing forth this happy sera, I must rest 
 satisfied with having lent my best endeavours to 
 a good cause, and, contented to bear away the 
 lowly reward of a pioneer in so great a work, 
 I shall learn, even in present failure, to console 
 myself with the reflections of a very great master : 
 " In an inquiry, it is almost every thing to be in 
 a right road. I am satisfied I have done but little 
 by these observations considered in themselves ; 
 and I never should have taken the pains to digest 
 them, much less should I have ever ventured to 
 publish them, if I were not convinced that nothing 
 tends more to the corruption of science than to 
 suffer it to stagnate. These waters must be 
 troubled before they can exert their virtues. A 
 man who works beyond the surface of things, 
 though he may be wrong himself, yet he clears the 
 way for others, and may chance to make even his 
 errors subservient to the cause of truth."* 
 
 * Burke. 
 
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