The British Flt^ (The Red Ensign Class _j£_i_7-F. Book , i^c j ^ - COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. iy by Colonies devolution { I The Pine Tree PI a.g. l<2wYork ^ l(Usecl inline AweKJcevn N«yvy ca.Hy Merche^nt Ships before the Revolution Jn the Pve volution.) RC An e^rly Coionib.! ^I^g- c DON T TKc^cy ON ME Re^ttlesn^sKe Fie^g used e6rl\/ during the Revolution. TheAmeric&.n Fls^g adopted J\iY\^/\jj{ A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS. ^ o ^ z UJ •S Q z i UJ a •^ Ui ^ o >< z ^ ~ ^ b. 5 O Z o < "H oc 8 < -I o UJ <3 Q "^ k UJ Q I s h is O ■r> z ^ K z «2 o 0) ?s • 327 Chronology 33^ Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. Section XII. — THE NATION AT PEACE. Chapter Page LXXVII. Reconstruction 335 LXXVIII. Grant's Administrations 341 LXXIX. Political Parties and Public Questions 348 LXXX. Letters and Art 360 LXXXI. The Nation of To-day 367 LXXXII. Past, Present, and Future 374 Chro7iology 379 APPENDIXES. A. The Mayflower Compact 381 B. The Declaration of Independence 381 C. The Constitution of the United States of America . . . 386 D. Extracts from Washington's Farewell Address .... 402 E. Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address 405 F. Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg 406 G. Supplementary Reading for Young People 408 H. Table of the Presidents 415 L Table of the States and Territories . » 416 J. How Dr. Whitman saved Oregon , . . . 418 INDEX 419 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page Signing the Declaration of Inde- pendence .... Frontispiece Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. . 7 Queen Isabella 7 Christopher Columbus .... 8 First Sight of Land 11 Old Gateway at St. Augustine . . 16 Sir Walter Raleigh 19 Ruins of the Settlement at James- town, Va 28 Captain John Smith 30 Pocahontas , 31 Pocahontas saves the Life of Cap- tain John Smith 32 The "Mayflower" 36 Governor Winthrop ..... 41 Salem First Church 42 Roger Williams's Monument . . 47 Hudson on the River 50 Peter Stuyvesant 51 Lord Baltimore 53 Oglethorpe 59 William Penn 60 Indian Method of Boiling , . , dd Indian Method of Broiling ... 66 Indian Shell Axe 68 Indian War Club 69 Indian Snow Shoes 70 72 73 79 87 95 96 98 The Attack on Brookfield . . King Philip An Old House at Deerfield . . Quebec A New England Colonial House An Old Dutch House . . . A Southern Mansion .... A Flax- Wheel 100 Page The Old South Church, Boston . 102 Puritans going to Church . . . 104 The " Charter Oak " 109 Puritan Youth and Maiden . . no Franklin's Clock 112 A Colonial Plough 113 Patrick Henry 120 Samuel Adams 122 Faneuil Hall, "The Cradle of Liberty" 124 George III 127 John Hancock 133 The Battle of Bunker Hill ... 140 The Washington Elm . . . . 143 The Liberty Bell 148 General Burgoyne 162 Benjamin Franklin 165 Monument at Freehold, N.J. . . 169 John Paul Jones 173 Lord Cornwallis 178 General Nathaniel Greene . . . 185 Lafayette 186 Chair and Table used by Wash- ington 196 Eli Whitney 202 The Cotton-Gin 203 George Washington 204 Daniel Boone 208 Alexander Hamilton 210 John Jay 211 John Adams 212 Chief Justice John Marshall . . 213 Mount Vernon 215 Thomas Jefferson 216 Stephen Decatur 218 Aaron Burr . , , 220 xiu XIV ILLUSTRATICNS. Page James Madison >.,... 222 The " Constitution " and " Guer- riere" 224 Oliver H. Perry 225 James Monroe 230 Robert Fulton 234 The " Clermont" 235 A Western Emigrant Train . . 236 John Quincy Adams ..... 241 Andrew Jackson , 244 •John C. Calhoun . . • . • 246 Henry Clay , 248 An Early Railroad Train , . • 249 Daniel Webster 2j;2 Samuel Houston ...•,, 253 Samuel F. B. Morse 254 General Winfield Scott .... 258 The Mormon Temple .... 260 The City of Mexico 261 Washing out Gold 264 William H. Seward 265 William Lloyd Garrison . . . 270 Harriet Beecher Stowe .... 271 Stephen A. Douglas 273 Charles Sumner 274 Harper's Ferry 279 Jefferson Davis 280 Abraham Lincoln 288 The Attack on Fort Sumter . . 290 General J. E. Johnston .... 293 General G. B. McClellan . . . 294 General A. S. Johnston .... 296 Admiral David G. Farragut . . 298 John Ericsson 301 The " Monitor " and the " Merri- mac " 302 General R. E. Lee 307 fknerai A. ]'. I'urnside (^cn.;ral " Slonevvall " Jacksoi Irlenry Ward Beecher General G. B. Meade . General G. H. Thomas . General U. S. Grant . . General P. H. Sheridan General W. T, Sherman Farragut at Mobile Bay Salmon P. Chase • • • Andrew Johnson . • • Laying an Atlantic Cable Custer's Last Fight , • Memorial Hall ... Horace Greeley . . . Rutherford Burchard Hayes James Gillespie Blaine Benjamin Harrison . Grover Cleveland James Abram Garfield Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building . . . , Washington Irving . , James Fenimore Cooper Nathaniel Hawthorne . WiUiam Cullen Bryant . Henry Wadsworth Longfellow John Greenleaf Whittier Edgar Allan Poe . . . Oliver Wendell Holmes James Russell Lowell Ralph Waldo Emerson George Bancroft . . WilHam H. Prescott . Louis Agassiz . . . Thomas A. Edison , COLORED MAPS. Page King James's Patent of 1606 facing 24 Charters of 1609 and 1620 . " 26 European Claims in 1640 . " 64 European Claims in 1755 . " 80 The Treaty of 1763 ... " 88 The English Colonies in 1763 " 106 The Original Thirteen States " 144 The Treaty of 1783 ... "188 The United States in 1790 . " 200 The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 " 216 The United States in 1830 . The United States in 1846 . The Mexican Treaty (1848) The United States (Western Half) in 1854 .... The Area of Secession in 1861 The United States (Western Half) in 1896 . . . . Pagp. facing 2./if'l " 256 " 260 272 288 368 UNCOLORED MAPS. Page The World as known at the time of Columbus 4 Route of Columbus 8 Roanoke Island 20 Early Discoveries, Explorations, and Settlements 22 Chesapeake Bay 29 England and Holland .... 38 New England 48 Acadia 83 Western Pennsylvania .... 84 Quebec 86 Boston and Vicinity 137 Boston 139 From New York to Trenton . . 152 From Elkton to Trenton . . . 158 Page Hudson River and Lake Cham- plain 161 Southern States 175 Yorktown 187 Niagara River 223 Washington and Baltimore . . 226 Rio Grande 257 Vera Cruz to Mexico .... 259 Virginia and Maryland . . . . 292 Kentucky and Tennessee . . , 297 Gulf States 300 The Peninsula 305 Gettysburg 316 Vicksburg and Vicinity . . . . 317 Chattanooga and Vicinity . . > 318 Southern Coast States .... 325 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. ALL teachers realize that, as there is no " royal road to learning," so there is no one " only correct " method of teaching. This fact is particularly true in the teaching of history. No method can be laid down which will prove to be the best for all teachers to pursue, in carrying a class through a course of American History. Still, it is true that different text-books in United States History have their peculiarities, and that each is particularly adapted to a certain method, and will prove a more valuable aid to the teacher if used in its own way. The brief suggestions for the use of this book are presented with this idea in mind. First, it is necessary to remember that the chief end of class-room work in teaching history is to instil in the pupil a true and lasting interest in history, — in the experiences of his ancestors, their achievements, and their mistakes. An end hardly less important to be borne in mind in teaching the history of our own country is the making of good citizens, the only hope of a republic. Other results that may be obtained from the pursuit of this branch of school-work are secondary, and should not be allowed to take precedence over these more important ends. In accomplishing these results, the text-book should be considered merely as an outline. It should always be noted that the book is small and can give but a few of the leading facts in history ; that these must be briefly stated ; and that emphasis is laid upon certain events, while others may be deemed more important by other students. It is necessary to supplement the text-book by material obtained from other sources. What these sources and this material may be depends in great measure upon the local conditions, — the school library ; the city library ; museums of history and of art ; and more particularly upon the ability of the teacher. The simplest resource by which a text-book outline may be filled out is by the simultaneous use of other text-books. These may be placed in the hands of the individual pupils in various ways. Each pupil may have xvi SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. XVU more than one text-book ; or he may have but one, while a supply of other books may He upon a table or shelf for consultation. This use of different text-books ought, however, to be supplemented by outside reading. No list of such reading can be prepared which will be more than provisional. The teacher should, if possible, go to the "original sources" for the material which will make him properly prepared to guide a class. The opportunity to do this is so limited, however, that it has been deemed best to present in this book only a list of the "secondary literature" with which every teacher ought to be familiar. This list, which follows these " Suggestions to Teachers," is quite full, but by no means exhaustive, and teachers are advised to consult more com- plete bibliographies and methods of teaching history, such as Adams' " Manual of Historical Literature," Hall's " Methods of Teaching History," Gordy and Twitchell's " Pathfinder of American History," Hinsdale's " How to teach History," and the "Report of the Committee of Ten." Another list of books, as a rule more suitable for the pupils' reading, is given in the Appendix. The teacher will often find, however, that there are specific portions of the standard works, in the first Hst, and sometimes whole volumes even, which they can recommend to the classes to read, or at least to certain members, especially for work on particular topics. In the pupils' list will be found historical stories, as well as more closely historical works, which, if properly used, will bend their minds in the right direction. They will give local coloring and flavor to an epoch, but the pupil will need to be cautioned against too complete trust in what are recorded as facts in these stories. These lists are necessarily too brief to contain a mention of the num- erous magazine articles on various historical subjects that are often of more value to the student of history than more pretentious volumes. This is especially true at the present day, when the magazines are vying with each other in presenting interesting and finely illustrated accounts of historical persons and events. Current events should not be forgotten in a course of American History, and the magazines, especially the " Review of Reviews," "Current Events," "Current History," " Public Opinion," and the like, are invaluable for this purpose. Not merely books and magazines, but pictures, articles of historic interest, maps, etc., must be drawn upon in the effort to interest the pupil in history as history. Debates, oral or written, on questions closely con- nected with our history, are useful aids, besides furnishing drill in compo- sition and elocution. Essays written on historical subjects relieve teacher Xviu SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. and pupil from much of the monotony of written work. These composi- tions may be illustrated by drawings or original maps, and thus history may be combined with English, drawing, geography, and writing. Turning from this work, which is for the most part carried on outside of the class, a few suggestions may be given as to the conduct of the recitation. The two methods used in teaching history are the *' Topical " and " Question and Answer " methods. Perhaps a logical combination of the two would be more scientific. This text-book has been arranged with the idea of topics and groups of topics continually in mind. The logical connection of events has been considered of more importance than a true and consistent chronological order. Yet it has not been forgotten that chronology is helpful in fixing history in mind. Dates are often aids to an understanding as well as a remembrance of historical facts. The number of dates which a pupil should memorize, however, should be kept as hmited as possible, and the tables of chronology should be used mainly for reference. Another important aid is the thorough use of geography. It will be hardly possible to carry this means of history teaching too far. The maps in this book are as complete and as numerous as such a work would warrant. The colored maps give a complete account, in themselves, of the growth of the country territorially. The outline maps present to the pupil just that small portion of the geography which is necessary for an understanding of the events under consideration. But these maps should be supplemented by other geographical work. MacCoun's " Historical Charts of the United States," 38 by 40 inches in size, colored to show territorial divisions, present clearly to the eye the several parts of the original territory and all portions added by purchase or otherwise. MacCoun's " Historical Geography of the United States," is an inexpensive handbook, accompanying the charts. These will be found helpful in any schoolroom. Atlases should be used in connection with all historical reading. More important is the constant use of outline maps. These should be placed in the hands of each pupil at the beginning of the course, and every day should find some additional place or boundary, or exploration recorded. Larger outline maps for wall use are now found in the market, and will supplement the individual maps. The blackboard should be brought into use also. Artistic or complete maps are not needed, but merely brief outlines to be filled in as the pupils recite. Perhaps the most effective use of the blackboard maps is in tracing the course of indi- vidual campaigns in any of the wars with which American history has to deal. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. XIX For the recitation, the Blackboard Analysis which precedes each of the twelve sections might be placed on the board, when the section is begun, and retained until the next section is reached. A more complete analysis might be commenced, to be added to day by day. A pupil is called upon to relate a topic as it stands in the mind of such pupil. No interruption should be made until the recitation is finished. Then real misstatements of facts should be corrected by the other pupils ; additional incidents may be presented ; other points of view may be noted. Then the teacher should carry the leading points home to the minds of the pupils by questions carefully chosen. Questions which may be answered by " Yes " or " No " should be avoided. Individual and blackboard maps might then be brought into requisition, and all important places or move- ments mentioned in the lesson might be recorded. The system of cross references, though but an outline, and needing explanation by the teacher, should not be forgotten. Interest may be stimulated by reading poems and orations in the class, and by frequent exercises upon patriotic days. These suggestions are, however, merely hints. The true teacher will realize that the text-book is but the basis upon which, by skilfully directed reading and various devices, a love for and a general knowledge of real history is to be developed. W. A. M. A. M. M. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. GENERAL ACCOUNTS. '"'T^HE latest and most valuable of the general histories of the United i States is entitled " The Narrative and Critical History of America " (8 vols.), edited by Justin Winsor. It is not a continuous history, as the chapters are distinct historical essays written by various authors, each a specialist in his department. The first volume is devoted to America be- fore the time of Columbus, the second to Spanish explorations and settle- ments, the third to English, the fourth to French, Portuguese, Dutch, and Swedish, the fifth to the French and English in North America, the sixth and seventh to the Revolution and later history of the United States, and the last to the later history of British, Spanish, and Portuguese America. Bancroft's " History of the United States " (6 vols.) is the result of more than fifty years of continuous research, and is a full and accurate account. The first two volumes are devoted to colonial history, while the remaining four cover the period from 1763 to 1789. Hildreth's " History of the United States " (6 vols.) is also full, quite accurate and impartial. The first two volumes bring the narrative to 1773, the third takes up the Revolution, while the remaining three continue the history to the year 1820. Bryant and Gay's " Popular History of the United States " (4 vols.) is the most popular illustrated history. A good short account is Doyle's " History of the United States," written by an Englishman. Each of the various school histories of the United States furnishes some material not found in any one of the others. Von Hoist's " Constitutional and Political History of the United States " (7 vols.) presents an excellent governmental history from 1750 to i860. Mr. Von Hoist is a German, and his work is specially valuable as being written by one who could be strictly impartial. The five volumes of Schou- ler's "'History of the United States of America under the Constitution" present the only recent complete history from 1781 to 186 1. McMaster's SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXI " History of the People of the United States from the Revolution to the Civil War" is not yet completed (1896), but the four volumes published present the social history very fully up to 1820. Two recent brief summaries of the governmental history are Sterne's " Constitutional History and Political Development of the United States " and Landon's " Constitutional History and Government of the United States." Johnston's " History of American Politics " and Stanvvood's " His- tory of Presidential Elections " are useful brief volumes. The three volumes of the " Epochs of American History " furnish an admirable short course in United States history. They are Thwaites' "The Colonies," Plart's " Formation of the Union," and Wilson's ''Division and Reunion." Another excellent set is the '' American History Series," of which Fisher's " Colonial Era," Sloane's '' French War and the Revolu- tion," and Walker's "The Making of the Nation" have been issued (1896). Another excellent single volume, covering the period from 1765 to 1865, is Channing's "The United States of America." Andrews' "His- tory of the United States" (2 vols.) is very readable. A large amount of valuable historical information is found in such works, as Lalor's "Cyclopedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and the Political History of the United States " (3 vols.) ; Ben. Perley Poore's " The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and other Organic Laws of the United States" (2 vols.) ; Jameson's "Dictionary of United States History; " Preston's "Documents Illustrative of American History; " Tyler's " History of American Literature " (2 vols.) ; the " Old South Tracts ; " and the " American History Leaflets." The "American Statesmen Series," the "American Commonwealth Series," the "American Men-of-Letters Series," the "Makers of America Series," and the " Historic Towns Series," are collections of biography and local history that furnish interesting and fairly accurate reading. part I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. SECTION I. DISCOVERY,- EXPLORATION, AND ATTEMPTED SETTLEMENT. For accounts of the discovery of America previous to the time of Colum- bus, the student should see Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History," XXll SOURCES OF INFORMATION. vol. i. ; Bryant and Gay's "Popular History," vol. i., chaps, i. and ii. ; Fiske's ^' Discovery of America," vol. i. ; and De Costa's " Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen." The story of Columbus is given in Irving's " Life of Columbus " (3 vols.) ; Winsor's ''Columbus" (2 vols.) ; Prescott's "Ferdinand and Isa- bella;" Fiske's "Discovery of America; " and Kettell's " Personal Narra- tive of the First Voyage of Columbus to America." General accounts of the discovery, exploration, and settlement of America, between 1492 and 1602, are given in Doyle's " English Colonies in America," vol. i., pp. 22-74; and in the complete histories of Winsor, Bancroft, Hildreth, and Bryant and Gay. Special accounts may be found in Irving's " Conquest of Florida ; " Help's "Spanish Conquest of America;" Biddle's "Sebastian Cabot;" Hawks' " History of North Carolina ; " Baird's " Huguenot Emigration to America;" Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New World;" and Hakluyt's " Collection of Early Voyages." SECTION II. PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS. In the third volume of Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History," and in the first volumes of Bancroft and Hildreth will be found full accounts of the Virginia Company. The settlement of Virginia is given in Doyle's " Virginia," Cooke's " Virginia," and Brown's " Genesis of the United States." Eggleston's " Pocahontas " popularly portrays the Indian princess, and John Smith's " Generall Historic of Virginia," written in 1624, furnishes contemporary matter. The best history of the Eastern colonies is Palfrey's " Compendious His- tory of New England " (4 vols.) The first volume is devoted to the setde- ment. Hubbard's " History of New England " furnishes early material. Fiske's " Beginnings of New England " is more recent and more thorough than the other works. Morton's " New England Memorial " and " Young's " Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers " comprise articles on Plymouth history written by the first settlers. Goodwin's " Pilgrim Republic " and Baylies' " History of New Plymouth" (2 vols.) may be consulted with profit. Barry's " History of Massachusetts " (3 vols.) is the most complete his- tory of the " Old Bay State," while Ellis' " Puritan Age and Rule in the SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXlll Colony of Massachusetts Bay " is also valuable. Other works that may be consulted with profit are Adams' " Emancipation of Massachusetts," Win- sor's "Memorial History of Boston" (4 vols.), Lodge's "Boston," in the " Historic Towns Series," and Twichell's "John Winthrop," in " Makers of America Series." Belknap's " New Hampshire," Williamson's " Maine," and Heaton's '' Vermont " are good histories of those States. For Connecticut the reader should examine the State history by Trum- bull or Johnston, Walker's " Thomas Hooker," in " Makers of America Series," and Levermore's "Republic of New Haven." The best history of Rhode Island is that of Arnold (2 vols.), while Greene's " Short History of Rhode Island " is readable. Of the lives of PvOger WiUiams that by Knowles is recommended. For the colony of New York the most elaborate and carefully written is the "History by Brodhead " (2 vols.), while Roberts' "History of New York" (2 vols.), in the " Commonwealth Series" is valuable. Mrs. Lamb's "History of New York City" is very complete, and Roosevelt's "New York," in the " Historic Towns Series," is a popular book. Browne's " Maryland " and " Lives of George and CeciHus Calvert " fur- nish full and interesting accounts of the settlement of Maryland. Raum's " New Jersey " and Scharf's " Delaware " are the most available histories of those settlements. For the more southern colonies we have Moore's " History of North Carolina " (2 vols.), Ramsay's and Rivers' "South Carolina," and Hewatt's " History of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia." Wright's "Memoirs of Oglethorpe" is a good account of the founder of the colony of Georgia. Of the " Keystone " State, Sewel's "■ History of the Quakers," Janney's " Life of Penn," and the histories of Egle, Cornell, and Proud give full accounts. General accounts of the settlements are given in Winsor, vols, iii., iv., and v., Bancroft, vols. i. and ii., Hildreth, vols. i. and ii., and Bryant and Gay, vols, i., ii., and iii. ; in Frothinghara's " Rise of the Republic ; " in Doyle's " English Colonies " (3 vols.) ; in Thwaites' " The Colonies ; " in Fisher's " Colonial Era ; " in Chalmers' " Annals of the United Colonies to 1763 ; " and in Grahame's " History of the United States of North America, from the Planting of the British Colonies until their Assumption of Indepen- dence " (2 vols.) XXIV SOURCES OF INFORMATION. SECTION III. COLONIAL WARS. Accounts of the Red Indians of America are found in Bancroft, vol. ii., 2haps. v.-viii. ; in Hildretli, vol. i., chap. ii. ; in Higginson's " Larger History of the United States," chap. i. ; in Catlin's " North American Indians ; " in Drake's "Aboriginal Races of North America;" and in Ellis' "Red Man and White Man in America." In Roosevelt's " Winning of the West," vol. i., is found a description of Southern Indians ; in Stone's " Life of Brant," and " Life of Red Jacket," of the Iroquois ; and in H. H. Bancroft's " Native Races of the Pacific Coast," of that section of the country. Carrington's " Census Report upon the Six Nations, 1890," is also valuable. Mason's " History of the Pequot War " is to be found in vol. iii. of the third series of the Massachusetts Historical Society's Collections. The best account of King Philip's War is given in Church's " Entertaining Passages relating to Philip's War." The seven volumes of Parkman's " France and England in North America " make an almost perfect history of New France and its contests with the English. The separate titles are " Pioneers of France in the New World," " Jesuits in North America," " La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West," "Old Regime in Canada," "Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV.," " Montcalm and Wolfe," and " Conspiracy of Pontiac." Other pictures of the French in America are furnished in Hinsdale's " Old Northwest " and Machar and Marquis' " Stories of New France." All of the general histories give accounts of the French and Indian wars, and besides these and Parkman's series, Warburton's " Conquest of Canada " and Mante's "History of the Late War" are valuable. Burinot's "Cape Breton and its Memorial " is a recent volume, giving a full account of the two English captures of Louisburg. SECTION IV. COLONIAL LIFE. The most valuable, available book furnishing accounts of colonial life is Lodge's " Short History of the English Colonies in America." A chapter is devoted to the population, occupations, education, religion, government, and social condition in each colony or group of colonies. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXV On colonial life in the Southern and New England colonies see Doyle's "The English in America." In F^ggleston's " History of the United States and its People " will be found matter concerning life in the colonies. Coffin's " Old Times in the Colonies " presents an interesting series of pictures. New England's peculiarities are set out in Ellis' "Puritan Age and Rule in Massachusetts Bay," in Dexter's "Congregationalism," in Lodge's " Boston," in Lowell's " New England Two Hundred Years Ago " ("Among my Books"), in Bacon's "Sabbath in New Haven," in Trumbull's "True Blue Laws," in Sewall's " Diary," and in Weeden's " Economic and Social History of New England." Stone's " New York City " furnishes an account of the early Dutch settlement ; ScharPs " History of Delaware " sets forth society in that colony; Mellick's "Story of an Old New Jersey Farm " illustrates life in the middle colonies ; and Burden's " History of the Friends in America " contains an account of the Quakers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. All the Southern colonies are illustrated in Meade's " Old Churches of Virginia," Hopkins' "Youth of the Old Dominion," and Cooke's "Stories of the Old Dominion." Whitmore's " Andros' Tracts " give an account of the political condition of the colonies; Upham's "Witchcraft" is authority in regard to that terrible delusion ; and Boone's " Education in the United States " is the standard work on that subject. part TI. FORMATION OF THE NATION. SECTION V. CONTROVERSY WITH ENGLAND. " The Revolution Impending," in Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History," vol. vi., is one of the best accounts of the years immediately pre- ceding the war. Hosmer's " Life of Samuel Adams " and Henry's " Life of Patrick Henry " are excellent biographies of those two leaders of the patriots. Many of the speeches that hastened the beginning of the struggle are given in Johnston's " American Orations " and in Magoon's " Orators of the Revolution." XXVI SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Among the many excellent works on the War of the Revolution should be mentioned the narrative histories : Gordon's ''American War" (3 vols.), and Ludlow's "War of American Independence;" the extended history, by Fiske, entitled "The American Revolution" (2 vols.) ; Greene's " His- torical View of the Revolution," Otis' Botta's " History of the American Revolution," which treats the subject philosophically from the standpoint of an Italian ; and Carrington's " Battles of the American Revolution," which is introduced by a military analysis of the causes of the Revolution. SECTION VI. RESISTANCE LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE. Besides the works of Ludlow, Greene, P^iske, Otis' Botta, Gordon, Hosmer, Henry, and Carrington, which have just been described, special mention should be made of volumes vi. and vii. of Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History." In volume vii., under the head of " Independence " is given the best description of the steps that led up to the Declaration. Storrs' "Fathers of the Declaration" and Goodrich's "Lives of the Signers of the Declaration " present accounts of the characters of the statesmen that gave us our independence. Sparks' " Life and Letters of George Washington " is invaluable to the student of the Revolution. In Frothingham's " Siege of Boston " is a full account of that part of the war. One of the most interesting stories of the war for children is Coffin's "Boys of '76." SECTION VII. STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. The general histories of the war mentioned above — namely, those of Ludlow, Fiske, Greene, Otis' Botta, Gordon, and Carrington — are still the most valuable. Sparks' " Washington " is here also most important. Among the histories of single campaigns are Drake's " Burgoyne Inva- sion of 1777," Draper's "King's Mountain and its Heroes," Lee's "Me- moirs of War in the Southern Department," and Johnston's " Yorktown Campaign." Other special histories are Hale's "Franklin in France," Balch's "The French in America," Moore's "Treason of Lee," Roosevelt's "Winning of the West," Gilmore's " Rear Guard of the Revolution," and Arnold's " Life of Benedict Arnold." The best account of the treaty of peace is that of Jay, in the seventh volume of Winsor's "Narrative and Critical SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXVll History." A better understanding of the difficulties of making a treaty tnay be obtained by reading Sabine's "Loyalists of the Revolution," and flinsdale's " Old Northwest." SECTION VIII. THE NEW NATION. The three best sources of information on this period are Fiske's " Criti- cal Period of American History," Bancroft, vol. vi., and vol. vii. of Winsor's ^ Narrative and Critical History." Bryce's " American Commonwealth " and Von Hoist's " History of the United States," vol. i., should also be consulted. The student of the Constitution should consult Story's " Commentaries on the Constitution," the works of Hamilton, Madison, and Washington, Towle's " Analysis of the Constitution," and EUiott's " Debates," including particularly "The Federalist." Some one of the many excellent works on Civil Government for the schools should be used in connection with this section. Among the best of these are Andrews' " Manual of the Constitution," Dawes' " How we are Governed," Fiske's " Civil Government in the United States," Giffin's " Civics for Young Americana," Macy's " Our Government," Mowry's " Elements of Civil Governmeiit," Nordhoffs " Politics for Young Ameri- cans," Peterman's " Elements of Civil Government," and Thorpe's " The Government of the People of the United States." ^art III. DEVEL0PM]^:NT OF THE NATION. SECTION IX. THE NATION ESTABLISHED. One of the best methods to pursue, in studying the first period of the history of the United States under the Constitution, is to use freely the biographies of the leading statesmen of the time. No better set can be found than the " American Statesmen Series," especially Lodge's " Wash- ington " and "Hamilton," Morse's " Jefferson " and "John Adams," Gil- man's " Monroe," and Gay's " Madison." More complete biographies are those of Washington, by Sparks, by Irving, and by Marshall^ of John XXVlll SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Adams, by C. F. Adams ; of Jefferson, by Tucker and by Randall ; and of Hamilton, by Sumner. The writings and correspondence of the great statesmen of this period have been published, furnishing contemporary history that is invaluable. The most noted of these are the works of Washington, John Adams, Jeffer- son, Madison, Hamilton, and Gallatin. " The History of the United States of America," by Henry Adams, in 9 vols., is a very complete and excellent account of the period from 1801 to 1817. Lossing's " Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 181 2," Taussig's "Tariff History of the United States," Bishop's " History of American Manufac- tures," and Benton's "Thirty Years' View," furnish needed information in their particular lines. In Coffin's " Building the Nation " and in " Our First Century," interesting matter may be obtained for young readers. SECTION X. THE NATION THREATENED. Besides the general histories, mentioned above, as covering the whole or a part of this period, the following special histories should be again noted, — Taussig's " Tariff History of the United States " and Sumner's " History of American Currency." A very recent and valuable production is Rhodes' "History of the United States," the first two volumes covering the period from 1850 to i860. Spring's "Kansas" gives the best account of the " Border War." Among the " American Statesmen Series " the following are important aids for students in United States History, — Schurz's "Clay," Von Hoist's "Calhoun," Lodge's "Webster," Sumner's "Jackson," and Morse's "John Quincy Adams." Johnston's " Representative American Orations " fur- nishes just what it claims to do. Peirce's " Charles Sumner " gives an accurate account of one of the most prominent of the antislavery leaders. Olmstead's " Cotton Kingdom " is the best presentation of the social conditions of the slave States. The first chapters of works on the Civil War, mentioned below, are devoted to the history leading up to the great contest. Among the many contemporaneous accounts of the history of this period the following hold a high position, — the correspondence of Daniel Webster, that of Henry Clay, the " Memoirs " of John Quincy Adams, " Perley's Reminiscences," and Benton's " Thirty Years' View." SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Xxix SECTION XL THE NATION ASSURED. For the causes of the Civil War the statements for one side or the other are fully given in the following works, — Greeley's " American Con- flict/' Stephens' "War between the States," Davis' "Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government," and Pollard's " Lost Cause." For the Civil War itself the student may examine Comte de Paris' " History of the Civil War in America," Ropes' " History of the Civil War," Rhodes' "History of the United States," vol. iii., Dodge's " Bird's- Eye View of the Civil War," The Century Company's " War Book," and the series entitled " Campaigns of the Civil War." Grant's " Memoirs," " Memoirs of General W. T. Sherman," Sheridan's " Personal Memoirs," " McClellan's Own Story," and Longstreet's " From Manassas to Appomat- tox," and many other personal reminiscences of the generals of the Civil War are at the disposal of the student. The various lives of Lincoln, large and small, must not be overlooked. SECTION XIIo THE NATION AT PEACE. The period from 1865 to the present time is too recent to have furnished many good histories. Most of the information which can be obtained is to be found in contemporary periodicals. Compilations like Appleton's " Annual Cyclopedia " are of value to the student. Memoirs and reminiscences contain much that is suggestive. Among these may be mentioned "The Sherman Letters," John Sherman's "Recol- lections of Forty Years," Cox's "Three Decades," Blaine's "Twenty Years in Congress," and "Butler's Book." Among the special works, McPherson's "History of Reconstruction" will be found valuable. Campaign lives of each of the leading candidates for President have been written, which, if carefully sifted, may furnish something of value. The only important attempt to cover this period of our history is Andrews' " History of the United States during the last Quarter-Century." A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, ciBlacfiboarD anal^jsisi* NEW WOELD Discovery -( Exploration Settlement (Attempted) NORTHMEN Vinland. COLUMBUS Guanahani. CABOT North America. BALBOA South Sea. MAGELLAN Around the World DE LEON Florida. DE SOTO Mississippi. VER KAZAN O Atlantic Coast. CHAM PLAIN St. Lawrence. DRAKE Pacific Coast. FROBISHER Labrador. ^CARTIER Quebec. HUGUENOTS Carolana. GILBERT Newfoundland. RALEIGH Roanoke Island. GOSNOLD Buzzard's Bay. ueif EncMn ^iqmingiajio lart I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 1492-1763. SECTION L DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, AND ATTEMPTED SETTLEMENT. 1492-1602. CHAPTER L DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. 1. The Known World during the Fifteenth Century At the time of the discovery of America, nearly all portions of the world were inhabited, though but a few nations were in any sense civilized. There were the Indians of America, the Negroes of Africa, the Chinese of Eastern Asia; but the world with which the civilized peoples were acquainted comprised only a quarter of that with which we are familiar. Observe that northeastern Asia, the larg- est part of Africa, the Western Hemisphere, and nearly all the islands of the sea were unknown to the Europeans of the fifteenth century. 2. Causes of this Ignorance. — The savage nature of the tribes in- habiting some of these regions kept them from associating with the civilized nations. The vessels of that time were crude and unsea- ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1492 ^,^gili^II!I£^^ worthy, and there existed a superstitious fear of things unknown. The means of communication between one nation and another were poor, both because of the difficulty in travelling, and because of the differences in languages and the labor involved in writing manu- scripts. The sailors of the time were willing to make voyages only where the shore could be kept constantly in sight. As the compass was not in general use, they had to depend upon the sun and stars for guidance. Their trips were confined mostly to the Mediterranean Sea, though a few of the more venturesome made voyages between Spain and England, keeping close all the way to the shore of France. 3 Voyages of the Northmen. — In spite of these apprehensions, some of the bolder sailors among the nations of northern Europe, partly by accident, and partly from very foolhardiness, had reached countries hitherto unknown. The inhabitants of what is now Norway were called Norse- men, and are famous in history for their warlike nature and their bold sea- manship. The people dwelling along the sea-coasts of England and Scot- land, and of that portion of France now called Normandy, were in con- stant fear of these Northmen, who, without a moment's warning, would sail down upon them, and not only plunder them of their possessions, but frequently carry them away captive. These hardy voyagers were the discoverers of Iceland during the ninth century, being driven there by severe storms. Making a settlement, they were able, in the next hundred Old Stone Mill. — In Touro Park, Newport, R. I., stands a "circular stone tower, with round arches," which has been called the " Round Tower," or the " Old Stone Mill." The tradition has been current that it was built by the Northmen during the eleventh century. This explanation is not generally ac- cepted at the present time, as it has been clearly shown that it was a colonial windmill. Towers similar in appear- ance are still standing in those portions of Great Britain, from which some of the settlers of Rhode Island emigrated. looo] DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. years, to go even farther from the beaten tracks, and to discover and make a temporary colony on the shores of Greenland. Not even with this remote island did these bold navigators end their voyages. In the *' Sagas," or stories sung by the Norse bards, which are like the Greek songs of Homer, accounts have been found of voyages beyond Greenland to a most delightful country, abounding in wild grapes, and thence called Vinland. 4. Leif Ericson's Discovery. — The first visit to Vinland was made, in the year 1000, by a Norseman called Leif, the son of Eric. Many think that Leif and his compan- ions, sailing from Greenland, passed along by the coasts of Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Maine, and landed some- where in southern Massachusetts or Rhode Island. The Sagas report that one or more winters were spent in this delightful region, and that the voyagers then returned home, and told the stories of what they had found. Because this Norseman came to the shores of New England at a time so early in history, the credit of discovering America is sometimes given to him. covery was not followed In De Costa's " Pre-Columbian Dis- covery of America by the Northmen," are given quotations from the Ice- landic Sagas. A portion of one of these runs as follows : "It happened one even- ing that a man of the party was miss- ing, and it was the south countryman, Tyrker. . . . Leif . . . proposed to go to find him ; but they had only gone a short way from the station when Tyrker came to meet them. . . . Leif said to him, ' Why art thou so late, my foster-father? and why didst thou leave thy com- rades ? '. . . After a while, and some de- lay, he said in Norse, * I did not go much further than they ; and yet I have something altogether new to relate, for I have found vines and grapes.' * Is that true, my foster-father ? ' said Leif. ' Yes, true it is,' answered he, ' for I was born where there was no scarcity of grapes.' They slept all night, and the next morning Leif said to his men, ' Now we shall have two occupations to attend to. . . namely, to gather grapes or cut vines, and to fell wood in the forest to lade our vessel,' " The dis- by other voyages, however, and the fact of the existence of land to the westward of Europe continued to be unknown to the inhabitants of the Old World. In those days, not only was communication between nations very difficult, but also the art of printing had not been discovered; and the Norse Sagas were handed down by word of mouth, as they had not been committed to writing. 5. Trade with India. — There were many reasons which tended to make the year 1492 rather than the year 1000 the date of the discovery of America. The voyage of Leif to the shores of New England was not made with any definite purpose, nor did it pro- duce any valuable results. The establishment of the printing-press, the scattering of the learned men of the Eastern Roman Empire ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. ti453 Printing. — '* In Europe, as late as the second half of the fourteenth cen- tury, every book (including school and prayer books), and every public and private document, proclamation, bull, letter, etc., was written by hand; all figures and pictures, even playing-cards and images of saints, were drawn with the pen or painted with a brush. . . . When all this writing, transcribing, illu- minating, etc., had reached their period of greatest development, the art of print- ing from wooden blocks on silk, cloth, vellum, and paper made its appearance in Europe. . . . The invention of printing with movable metal types took place at Haarlem about the year 1444, by Lourens Janszoon Coster." (Typog- raphy : Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol. XXI II. , Ninth Ed. ) The art of print- ing spread rapidly; and, by the time of Columbus, nearly every European city of any prominence had introduced the printing-press. throughout Europe, at the fall of Constantinople, and the conse- quent formation of schools, came later than the time of Eric. The trade that had sprung up between India and Europe by caravan to the Medi- terranean, and thence by vessel to the ports of Venice and Genoa, was the main incentive to the voyage which resulted in the discovery of a new continent. Silks, spices, and precious stones were being brought in great abundance when the pirates, with whom the Mediterranean Sea had long been infested, nearly brought the commerce to an end, by their captures of these richly laden vessels. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453, was the la.st blow to the trade between India and Genoa. The question at once presented itself, whether a new route was possible. The Portuguese attempted to find a way by sailing south, along the west shore of Africa, around the southern point, and thence north again to India. Bartolomeo Diaz, a Portuguese captain, discovered the " Cape of Storms," or, as it is now called, the Cape of Good Hope, in 1487. The first voyage to India was made ten years later, and five years after the discovery of America, when Da Gama, another Portuguese sailor, reached the land of spices, by sailing around the coast of Africa. 6. Christopher Columbus. — The Italian boy, Cristoforo Colombo, or, as the Latin form of his name is the more common, Christopher Columbus, was born in Genoa about the year 1436, and spent most of his life, after early boyhood, upon the sea. He was an excellent sailor, for his time, and a man unusually well read, capable of think- ing for himself. He was ready to accept new ideas when made clear to him, and was possessed of much less than the usual amount of superstition. He had made many voyages himself, and, loyal to his native city, was eager to find a new route to India. He had accepted the theory, held in those days by only a few of the most I 436-1 492] DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. rr'-^,,^ ^'^^-^ learned men, that the world was round. He not only believed it with his head, but also with his heart; and, thoroughly imbued with this belief, nothing could turn him from the idea that he could reach India by sailing westward, across the unknown Atlantic. 7. The Preparation. — Columbus was right in his belief that the earth was round, and not flat, but was iii error in re- gard to the distance to be travelled in reaching Asia by sailing west from Europe. He had made his own estimate of the size of the world, and thought that India must be but a few hundred Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. miles west of Spain, or a less distance even than the width of the Atlantic. It was fortunate that he deemed the distance so small ; otherwise, he might never have sailed. The story of his attempts to obtain the means for this desired voyage is a very interesting one. Only a poor sailor, with no influence at court, he nevertheless tried his fortunes with the authorities of the city of Genoa, at the court of the :ing of Portugal, with the king of Eng- land, and at last with Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The learned men at these courts opposed him. They talked of the " Sea of Darkness," and derided his notion as to the shape Queen Isabella. 8 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1492 was an argument that seemed to them unanswerable of the earth. If he sailed down, how could he sail up again? This Columbus was ready to give up, and retired from court; but, for some unknown reaspn, Queen Isabella called him back, had another confer- ence with him, and finally decided to grant his re- quest. He was furnished with means to fit out three small vessels, and, with the aid of a family of merchants, Pinzon by name, Columbus was soon ready to set out from the port of Palos. 8. The Voyage. — This small fleet of three vessels, carrying but ninety sailors and thirty noblemen and priests, set sail on a voyage of uncertainty, on the 3d of August, 1492. Columbus headed first for the Canary Isles, the last known Christopher Columbus. (After a painting in the Marine Museum, Madrid.) *~V. ROUTE OF COLUMBUS. land to the westward, and remained there until the 6th of Septem- ber, repairing the damages already received by the vessels. From 1492] DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. here he sailed west, and ahiiost immediately found himself sur- rounded by mutinous seamen. The common sailors of the fifteenth century were very superstitious ; and, eis they left known lands and seas farther and farther behind them, they feared more and more the hideous monsters of their dreams. They dreaded the falling-off place at the end of the world, and the impossibility, as they thought, of ever being able to sail up the curve of the earth. Columbus showed his strength of character by the way he treated these sailors, and prevailed upon them to continue. He spoke of the wealth which lay ahead of them, of the punishment that would be theirs if they returned empty- handed, and finally promised to turn back if land was not seen within a certain time. At last, on the 12th of October, 1492, Columbus and his men sighted, not India, nor one of its islands, but an island belonging to a hitherto unknown continent. In the morning, with all due pomp and ceremony, the leader landed, knelt and kissed the soil, planted the banner of Spain, and took posses- sion, in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella, of an island which was called Guanahani. He continued his voyage a few days; dis- covered Cuba and others of the West Indies ; and returned to Palos to be received with almost royal honors. Columbus's Later Life. —After Columbus had spent a few months in visiting other islands in the neighbor- hood of Guanahani, he set sail for Spain in January, 1493. After a stormy voy- age of about three months he arrived at the Spanish city of Barcelona. Here a triumphant entry was accorded him, and in the procession were strange In- dians, unknown birds, and rich goods which he had brought from the " In- dies." He was received in state by Ferdinand and Isabella, and was granted the honor of personally giving an ac- count of his voyages to the royal court. On the second voyage, Columbus was made ruler of the Island of Hispa- niola; but afterwards he was arrested and carried back to Spain in chains. The queen had pity on him, and set him free, but did not allow him to return to his colony. He made a third and a fourth voyage, and on one of these he discovered the river Orinoco and the mainland of South America. Colum- bus died in poverty, unattended by any friends. May 20, 1506. ^ ^ -^ ^i^-MI^-^ss^^^-'-l^-^^i^^ Colu.fnbiii crossing \\\e Aflantic. lO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [i497 CHAPTER II. ALONG THE COAST. 9. The Cabots. — The report of the wonderful voyage of Colum- bus spread over Europe, and other nations besides the Spaniards became interested in the discovery. England, France, and Portugal followed the lead of Spain ; and from the ports of these countries hardy seamen were soon sailing westward in search of unknown shores. Among the first of these were two Italians, father and son, who sailed under the English flag. John Cabot, a citizen of Venice, received a commission from Henry VII., the king of England. This patent gave him permission to fit out vessels at his own expense^ but required him to pay one-fifth of all his profits to King Henry. If he discovered any new land, he was to take possession of it in the name of the king of England. In the year 1497, five years after the discovery made by Colum- bus, John Cabot and his son Sebastian came in sight of the con- tinent of North America, and landed on the coast of Labrador, far to the north of the United States. The next year, 1498, under a second patent from King Henry, Cabot made another voyage, and not merely reached the American continent, but sailed from Labrador, along the United States coast, to a point as far south as Maryland or Virginia. These two voyages, one discovering the continent, the other exploring the coast, gave England a claim to the land, which later received her sons and daughters, and has furnished a home for a large portion of the Anglo-Saxon race. 10. America. — Near the close of the fifteenth century, an Italian, by the name of Amerigo Vespucci, made three or four voyages, fol- lowing in the track of Columbus. This man wrote of the " New World, " thus indicating that he did not believe, as did Columbus, that India had been reached. A friend of Amerigo, hearing of his expression, suggested that the new world should be named America for him. Thus the honor that doubtless should have gone to Co- lumbus, the real discoverer, was granted to a man who would other- wise have remained practically .unknown. I5I3J ALONG THE COAST. n 11. Balboa. — Two other great discoveries were made during the early portion of the sixteenth century, before the western route to India, that Columbus sought, was found. Vasco Nuilez de Balboa, a Spaniard, had been made governor of Darien, in Central America. Stories had come to him of the fabulous wealth of Peru, and he determined to set out on a search for gold. He was doomed to disappointment in this search, but in 15 13, from the top of a ridge First Sight of Land. of mountains in Central America, Balboa was the first European to look out upon the broad expanse of the Pacific Ocean. As it lay to the south, he named it the *' South Sea." He thus ascertained that the continent which lay between Europe and Asia was, at least in one place, very narrow. By this discovery, he strengthened the ardor of Europeans to find a passage through the land that appeared to be but an obstacle in their way. 12 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1519-1539 12. Magellan. — Since the time of Balboa there have been many attempts to find a water route through America. Sometimes a northwest passage was sought; sometimes a southwest passage; and to-day, a canal across the narrow portion of the continent seems an absolute necessity. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese by birth, but at the time in charge of a Spanish fleet, was the first to find a passage through the continent, and no other has yet been obtained. Magellan set out in the fall of 15 19, and late in the year 1520 sailed through the straits, near the southern limit of South America, which have received his name. As he passed out of the stormy Straits of Magellan into the quieter waters of the great ocean, he gave to that body of water, which Balboa had called the " South Sea, " the name of the Pacific. After a voyage of more than three years, one of the vessels of the fleet, under the command of Sebastian del Cano, returned to the same harbor of Spain: having reached India, and been the first to sail around the world, doubling the Cape of Good Hope on her return voyage. 13. Ponce de Leon. — About the time of Balboa's fruitless search for gold, another Spaniard determined to seek a boon more valu- able as well as more fabulous. Juan Ponce de Leon set sail from Porto Rico in search of the fountain of perpetual youth, wJiich was reported to furnish renewed health to all that bathed in its healing waters. He failed to find what he sought, but yet obtained the credit of being the first to set foot upon the shores of the southern portion of the United States. In the year 15 13, Ponce first saw land on Easter Sunday, a day which is called Pascua Florida in Spanish, and he called the beautiful land Florida. 14. Ferdinand de Soto. — The desire to find marvellous gold mines in Florida caused Ferdinand de Soto, the governor of Cuba, to make an exploring expedition through Florida and the region north of the Gulf of Mexico. He landed at Tampa Bay in 1539, and marched through portions of all the Gulf States. After two years of great suffering, he reached the shores of the Mississippi River not far from the present city of Memphis. De Soto was the first European to view this, the most important river of the world, and after another year's march through Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana, he reached the river again, only to die and to be buried in its waters. Of the six hundred that left Cuba with enthusiasm 1579] CANADA AND CAROLANA. 1 3 and energy, about three hundred men returned, worn out and dis- heartened, after a four years' journey. 15. Drake. — There was a long interval after the voyages of the Cabots before any other attempts were made to extend the influence of England upon the new continent. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman to explore the Pacific coast, and to look upon the land that now forms the western extent of the United States. He was an adventurer, and was traversing the Pacific Ocean, seeking to obtain wealth by attacking Spanish merchant vessels. After obtaining immense treasures, he followed along the coast in 1579 as far as Oregon, named the country New Albion, and returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, being the second to sail around the world. England acquired her first claims to the territory of the present United States and British America by the explorations of the Cabots along the Atlantic, and of Drake along the Pacific coast. CHAPTER III. CANADA AND CAROLANA. 16. Early French Voyages. — The discoveries of Columbus and the Cabots had their influence upon the French as well as upon the Spanish and the English. As early as the first years of the sixteenth century the hardy fishermen of eastern France had learned of the fisheries of Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Not only were voyages made for the purpose of obtaining fish, but, as early as the year 1524, eflbrts were made to explore the coast and to find suitable localities for colonization. John Verrazano, an Italian, was sent out by King Francis I. to in- vestigate these new countries and to bring back word if they could be made of use to the French people. This bold voyager not only passed over a course which included the route of the Cabots (II 9), but also made careful explorations and carried home the earliest account of the coast that has been preserved. His explorations extended from the latitude of Wilmington, N. C, to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. He entered the harbors of New York and Newport, and investigated the H ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1534-1562 characteristics of the country. The chart that Verrazano made, as a result of this voyage, was of great value to many of the later explorers. 17. Cartier. — A few years after the first voyage of Verrazano, a decided effort was made to establish a French colony on the new continent. James Cartier was given command of an expedition that left St. Malo, France, in the spring of 1534, and, passing around Newfoundland, he entered the great bay since called the St. Law- rence. He was the first to sail up the great river of Canada, and his voyage resulted in turning French attention to that country. Cartier made another expedition the next year, with the design of establishing a colony. On this voyage he explored the St. Law- rence as far as navigation permitted, gave to a hill on the island of Hochelaga the name of Mont-Real, and spent the winter on the island of Orleans. The fearful cold of this northern region, combined with want of proper food, caused much sickness during this winter, and the surviving members of the party were very glad to return home in the spring. They carried most unfavorable reports of the country, and for a time nothing further was attempted in the way of exploration or colonization. 18. The Huguenots. — The sixteenth century is noted especially for the great Reformation. Luther and Calvin are the best known of those men who were dissatisfied with the religion of the day, and were op- posed to the errors that seemed to them inseparable from its forms. In France, the theories of Calvin obtained a strong foothold, and near the middle of the century a persecution was begun against the Huguenots, as the followers of Calvin in France were called. Ad- miral Coligny was one of the leaders of the Protestant party, and he con- ceived the idea of founding a colony on the coast of America, where the persecuted Huguenots might find ref- uge. In 1562, he obtained from the boy-king, Charles IX., the necessary authority, and sent forth a squadron to seek for a suitable location for settlement. Gaspard de Coligny was born in 15 17, and was made Admiral of France before he was forty years of age. He was an ardent Huguenot, and the con- tinuous religious wars in France led him to plan the formation of Huguenot colo- nies in some portion of the New World. Besides the two parties sent out under Ribault and Laudonniere, Coligny at- tempted to make a settlement in Brazil. In one of the civil wars a price of fifty thousand crowns was set upon the ad- miral's head, but within a year a tem- porary peace was made. The great massacre of St. Bartholomew occurred on August 24, 1572, and Coligny was the first to be put to death, at the age of fifty-five. 1562-1564] CANADA AND CAROLANA. I5 19. Port Royal. — Remembering the failures of Cartier, John Ribault, the leader of the expedition, sought a warmer climate, and the first land seen was near the northern line of Florida. He sailed along the coast, naming the streams as he passed them, and made a settlement at what appeared to be the mouth of a great river. Near the southern end of the shore of South Carolina lies the harbor of Port Royal, and here the French built a fort and started a colony. The name of Charles, or Carolana, was given to the fort, in honor of the king, and this name was afterward applied to the whole region. The leader returned with the ships to France, for the purpose of obtaining reinforcements, leaving twenty-six persons to hold pos- session of the country. The continued religious wars in France prevented the sending of supplies and men, and, after a few months of waiting, the colonists set out for home in a vessel built by them- selves. They had nearly lost their lives from famine when an English vessel met them and carried them away captive. 20. Fort Caroline. — Coligny was not disheartened by this failure, and, during the truce in France, obtained the consent of the king to another expedition. In 1564, a fleet set sail, under the leadership of Laudonniere, to seek another harbor where a settlement could be made. The vessels were turned to the River of May, which the earlier party had observed, and there another Fort Caroline was built. This river, which is now called the St. Johns, lay within the territory of Florida, which the Spaniards had already discovered and explored. This fact was enough to cause serious trouble, even if the colony had nothing else to contend with. The character of the emigrants was the most important obstacle in the way, however, as the larger number of them were dissolute men, unable and unwilling to yield to the necessary rules of government. The colony lasted but about a year, being overthrown by the Spaniards, who had made a neighboring settlement at St. Augustine. 21. St. Augustine. — More than fifty years passed after the dis- covery of Florida by Ponce de Leon (H 13) before the Spaniards made any serious attempt at colonization of the country. Perhaps fifty years more would have passed, had not the settlement of French Huguenots appealed both to the patriotism and the bigotry of the Spanish king, Philip II. Pedro Menendez was a Spanish soldier, bigoted and cruel as his king; and to him was committed i6 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1565 Philip II., king of Spain, was born in 1527, and occupied the throne from 1556 until 1598. His father, Charles V., was not only king of Spain, but also " Emperor of the Romans," and ruler over Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. Philip succeeded to but a portion of his father's dominion, and was always plotting to regain the authority. He was an ardent believer in the Roman Catholic religion and the authority of the Pope. He persecuted the inhabitants of the Netherlands for their religion, until they revolted from his authority. The long eighty years' war began early in his reign, and he spent boundless wealth in the vain attempt to subjugate the Dutch. He died in 1598, after a long and painful illness. the opportunity to conquer these weak colonists and to make a Spanish settlement, Menendez sailed from Spain in 1565, and reached the coast of Florida on the day held sacred to St. Augustine. Finding an excellent harbor, he gave it the name of the saint, and, on September 8th, 1565, laid the foundation of St, Au- gustine, the oldest town in the United States. 22. Religious Wars. — When Ribault learned of the Spanish settlement, he decided, after much deliberation, to take the offensive and make an attack upon the intruders. As the French fleet left the harbor of Fort Caroline a severe storm arose, which destroyed nearly all the vessels, though but few of the men were lost. The Spanish fleet did not suffer so much, and, before the French could reach Fort Caroline again, Menendez had surprised the fort and cap- tured it. The Huguenot pris- oners, men, women, and chil- dren, were at once massacred, a few only escaping to the woods. The Spanish fleet soon met and captured the French vessels that had not been de- stroyed, and the captives were taken to St. Augustine. Here all of the Huguenots, with the exception of a few mechanics who were held as slaves, were immediately hung. At this time France was at peace with Spain, and Menendez claimed that these people were put to death, ** Not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans." 23. Revenge. — The French colony was entirely swept out of Old Gateway at St. Augustine. 1565] GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 1 7 existence, and no further attempt has ever been made by the French to settle this portion of the New World. The French government paid no attention to these acts of the Spaniards, and the only punishment ever received was given by a single Frenchman, on his own responsibility. Dominic de Gourgues captured the fort which the Spaniards had built on the site of Fort Caroline, but was unable to hold it. He hung his prisoners, placing over their heads, in mockery of Menendez, ** I do not this as unto Spaniards or mariners, but as unto traitors, robbers, and murderers." While the French abandoned Carolana, or French Florida, as it was sometimes called, the Spaniards retained possession, and Florida remained a Spanish colony until 1763 (H 160). CHAPTER IV. GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 24. English Colonization. —The sympathies of a large number of the people of England were aroused in behalf of the persecuted Huguenots during the terrible religious wars. After Henry VIII., king of England, had withdrawn his nation from its connection with the Roman Catholic Church, many of England's leading citizens lent their aid to their fellow-Protestants in France. Thus the unsuccess- ful attempts of the Huguenots to settle Florida turned the atten- tion of certain English noblemen to the advantages of an English colony on the American shores. When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne of England, the hatred of the English people toward Spaniards had become so intensified that the enthusiasm to obtain from America the resources which Spain was acquiring was greatly increased (1" 15). The idea of finding a northwest passage to India also entered, to a great extent, into the calculations of the English adventurers. At the beginning of the last quarter of the sixteenth century the time was ready for the English to begin that colonization which was finally to overpower that of the French and the Spanish. z l8 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1576-1583 25. Labrador. — The first attempt at colonization was made by Martin Frobisher. The great thought in his mind was similar to that of Columbus; namely, a new route to India. He claimed that the finding of a northwest passage through America to Asia was " the only thing of the world, that was yet left undone, by which a notable minde might be made famous and fortunate." His fleet of three small vessels left the Thames in 1576; but one was lost in a storm, a second turned back from fear, and, with but one vessel, Frobisher reached the coast of Labrador, near the entrance to Hud- son Bay. The straits which he discovered appeared to be the passage that he sought, and a stone which he carried back to England caused great excitement, because it was thought to contain gold. This voyage was followed two years later by an expedition for the purpose of leaving a colony to search for the gold which was con- fidently believed to exist in great quantities on this northern coast. Icebergs crushed some of the vessels, some were lost in the fogs, but Frobisher finally reached the harbor. The idea of forming a settle- ment was abandoned, the vessels were loaded with the valueless cargo of earth, and returned at once. Thus the first plan of settle- ment by the English on the coast of America proved only an utter failure. 26. Gilbert. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert was the second Englishman to plan a settlement. He obtained a favorable charter from the queen, and began to collect a body of men who volunteered to help establish the colony which he desired. He sailed in 1583, and, after having lost his largest vessel by desertion, reached Newfound- land in August. His first act was to take official possession of the island in the name of the queen, and the second to load his vessels with " ore, " which was supposed to contain silver. Gilbert was not satisfied with the situation, and soon sailed again to seek the shores of the mainland. A storm wrecked the largest remain- ing vessel, the " ore " was lost, and the two small vessels that were left were compelled to sail for England. Gilbert' s-vessel, the '' Squir- rel, " was lost on this return voyage, and he him.self perished, while the " Hind " alone brought the disastrous news back to England. 27. Raleigh. — Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, had been interested in his adventures, and was ready to take up the I584-I585] GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 19 work which he had left. He had a personal knowledge of the Huguenots of France, and his thoughts turned to Carolanai as a region with a more suitable cli- mate than that of Labrador or Newfoundland. He obtained an- other patent from Queen Eliz- abeth, and in 1584 sent out two vessels for the New World. They sailed first for the Cana- ries, thence to the West Indies, and from there reached the coast of Carolana, the whole voy- age taking about nine weeks. They took possession of the land, and chose as a suitable place for their settlement the island of Roanwke. They then returned to England, and carried ^'•' '^^^^'^' f^^'^'g^- such favorable reports of the land they had found that it was an easy matter to obtain emigrants. Accordingly, the next year, 1585, seven vessels, with one hundred and eight colonists, set out for Virginia, as the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth, had named the lands. The colony was formed, the settlement made, and the fleet returned to England. 28. Roanoke Island The work ol the colonists consisted mainly in a search for gold. The leaders obtained valuable information with regard to the geography of the region and the char- acter of the inhabitants of the land They investigated the strange products of the soil, such as maize and tobacco, and when they returned to England carried samples with them. There were no farmers among them however, and hunting for precious nietals was of no value in furnishing food. Time was wasted in a Sir Walter Raleigh was born in Devonshire, England, in 1552. Tiie part which he took in the campaign in Ireland in 1581 brought him to the attention of Queen Elizabeth, who con- tinued to consider him as one of her favorite courtiers to the time of her death. Sir Walter was very much in- terested in the colonization of the "New World," and, besides his two unsuc- cessful attempts at Roanoke Island, in 1616 he explored the Orinoco River and the country called Guiana. On return- ing home, Raleigh was arrested on a charge of making an attack upon a Spanish village. He had not brought with him any of the expected gold, and, because of this, together with his un- popularity at the court of King James, he was sentenced for treason. He was accordingly executed, Oct. 29, 1618. 20 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1586-1587 'Cape Charles Cape Henry search for the "South Sea" by sailing up the Roanoke River, and the colonists did not hesitate to deceive the Indians, and thus aroused their hostility. The strange- ness of colonial life began to tell upon the men, and when Sir Francis Drake (H 15) entered Roanoke Inlet, in June, 1586, the colonists sought and obtained permission to return with him to England. This first settle- ment at Roanoke was thus suddenly brought to an end, having lasted but about a year. 29. The Second Colony. ■— The colo- nists had hardly sailed for home when vessels with supplies and reinforce- ments arrived to find the island de- serted. The commander of the fleet left fifteen men upon the island, and returned to England for further in- structions from Raleigh. A second colony was sent over the next year, 1587, better fitted to cope with the difficulties that must be encountered. Women were sent with the men, and some of the party were qualified to cultivate the land. The new expedition reached Roanoke in July, and decided to remain there, although the intention had been to try a new location upon Chesapeake Bay. The men that had been left at the settlement the previous year were miss- ing, having doubtless been killed by the Indians, in retaliation for the treat- ment that they had received from the Tobacco. — When the colonists re- turned to England in 1586, they carried with them a quantity of tobacco which they had learned to use from the Indians. Raleigh adopted the novel habit, and a story is current of the result that followed. It is related that a servant came into his master's room one day on an errand, and was terri- fied to find smoke coming from Ra- leigh's mouth. He threw a cup of ale, which he had in his hand, over his master's head, and ran out shouting that Raleigh was on fire and would soon be burned to ashes. first colony. Governor White returned to England within a few weeks to ask for the supplies and reinforcements that the colonists deemed necessary, and left them without a leader. Before he departed, however, an interesting event took place, in the birth of his grand- 1587-1^02] GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 21 daughter. This little girl, Virginia Dare, the first English child born on this continent, was named after the place of her birth. Three years passed before the wars in Europe permitted the sending of the needed supplies. In 1587, Governor White left a colony of eighty-nine men, seventeen women, and two children, on the island of Roanoke. In 1590, he returned to the New World to find no sign whatever of these people, among whom were his daughter and granddaughter, except a mark upon one of the trees, which was perhaps intended to direct them to, a neighboring island. Nothing was found there, however, and the question has never been settled as to what became of the colonists. Either they were murdered by the Indians, or else, as recent investigations would seem to indicate, they were adopted as members of an Indian tribe. 30. Gosnold. — One more attempted settlement needs mention in this connection. Bartholomew Gosnold determined to try his for- tune in colonizing America, or at least in aiding in the future settlement. He sailed in a single vessel direct to the New World, instead of by the roundabout route previously used, and in May, 1602, reached land near Cape Ann (if 57). Passing along the coast, he missed Boston and Plymouth harbors, and, doubling Cape Cod, came into Buzzard's Bay. Giving to an island, which the Indians called Cuttyhunk, the name of his queen, Elizabeth, he prepared to leave a colony. When the time for the departure of the vessel came, the m.en lost heart, and the fifth attempt at colonization also proved a failure. WidiAn P. Xt i'"^c/,;':e,,^^^. -x^4;°;-^.co„^ St^nthon^ Ipiymouth '''^<0 Newport St. Louts '\^yOh'i'^ >9 GULF OF ■ ennesj "*• ^\ J """e/phja O flROANOKE IS. '/?0 'J'a/ BERMUDA IS. 'ort Royal / fFtXaroline 'Jk ^t. Augustine ^ ^» "^ cCUANAHANI ^^x'co _^,^s3a^-^» P0«TO RICO <3 JAMAICA EARLY DISCOVERIES, EXPLORATIONS, AND SETTLEMENTS. SOUTH S £A SOUTH AMERICA CHRONOLOGY. 23 CHRONOLOGY, 1000. Vinland — Discovered by Leif Ericson. 1450. Invention of Printing, about this date. 1453. Constantinople — Captured by the Turks. 1479. Spain — Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 1483. France — Reign of Charles VIII. 1485. England — Reign of Henry VII. 1492. West Indies — Discovered by Columbus, October 21, N. S. 1497. Cape Breton — Discovered by Cabot, June 24. Good Hope — Voyage around, by Da Gama, November 19. 1498. Atlantic Coast — Explored by Cabot. Trinidad — Discovered by Columbus, July 31. France — Reign of Louis XII. 1509. England — Reign of Henry VIII. 1513. Florida — Discovered by Ponce de Leon, March 27. South Sea — Discovered by Balboa, September 25. 1515. France — Reign of Francis I. 1516. Spain — Reign of Charles I. 1520. Straits of Magellan — Traversed by Magellan, November 28. 1524. Atlantic Coast — Explored by Verrazano. 1534. St. Lawrence — Explored by Cartier. 1539 to 1542. Southern States — Explored by De Soto. 1541. Quebec — Attempted settlement by Cartier. 1547. England — Reign of Edward VI. France — Reign of Henry II. 1553. England — Reign of Mary. 1556. Spain— Reign of Philip II. 1558. England — Reign of Elizabeth. 1559. France — Reign of Francis II. 1560. France — Reign of Charles IX. 1562. Port Royal — Attempted settlement by Ribault. 1564. Florida — Attempted settlement by Laudonniere. 1565. Florida — Settlement by Menendez. 1574. France — Reign of Henry III. 1578. Labrador — Attempted settlement by Frobisher. 1579. Pacific Coast — Explored by Sir Francis Drake. 1583. Newfoundland — Attempted settlement by Gilbert. 1585. Roanoke Island — Attempted settlement by Raleigh. 1587. Roanoke Island — Attempted settlement by Raleigh. 1589. France — Reign of Henry IV. 1598. Spain — Reign of Phihp III. 1602. Ehzabeth Island — Attempted settlement by Gosnold. 1603. England — Reign of James I. 13lac6boarD aual^jsijs, SETTLE- MENTS Virginia Company- Virginia Plymouth Massachusetts Bay New Hampshire Connecticut . . Rhode Island . New York . . Maryland . . Delaw^are . . . New Jersey . The Carolinas Georgia . . . . Pennsylvania The Grant by James I. Southern or London Company. Northern or Plymouth Company. Settlement at Jamestown. Hardships from Famine and Indians. John Smith the Leader. ^The English Separatists. } Voyage of the Mayflower. ( Hardships from Famine. The English Puritans. Settlement at Salem. The Massachusetts Bay Company. Grant to Mason and Gorges. Settlements at Dover and Ports- mouth. Settlements on the Connecticut. Settlement at New Haven. Roger Williams Settles Providence. Settlement at Aquidneck. Henry Hudson's Discovery. History of New Netherland. The English Colony. ( Grant to Lord Baltimore. I Settlement at St. Mary's. r Settled by the Swedes. } Captured by the Dutch and by the ( English. 5 Grant to Berkeley and Carteret. I Settlement at Elizabethtown. ( Settlements at Albemarle and } Charleston. j Grant to Eight Proprietors. ( The Colony Divided. 5 Grant to Oglethorpe. I Settlement at Savannah. ( Grant to William Penn. } Settlement at Philadelphia. (The "Frame of Government." SECTION II. PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS. 1606-1733. CHAPTER V. ORGANIZED MOVEMENTS. 31. The Condition of England. — The beginning of the seventeenth century marked a new epoch in the history of England. The period of the Reformation was over, and England had taken her place as the great Protestant nation of the world. The Revival of Learning had had its day, and England was beginning to become known as one of the great nations of letters. The wars with Spain were at an end for a time, and England was laying the foundation of her future commercial supremacy. The water route to India had proved a valuable blessing, and England no longer needed to send out explorations to seek new passages to the rich countries of the East. The maddening eagerness to secure wealth by the mining of gold was lessening as the fact was becoming apparent that gold was not easy to find. The time was at hand when mer- chants would begin to recognize the fact that the mother country had commercial interests in forming colonies. The day was com- ing when philanthropic citizens would seek to establish places of refuge for the oppressed and the poor that lived in the over- crowded cities of England. The conditions were ready for the successful establishment of colonies. 32. The Company. — Gosnold was not discouraged by his unsuc- cessful attempt at settlement within the limits of Virginia, and he returned to England with increased enthusiasm to try again. He considered that the cause of the failure of all the previous expe- 26 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1606 editions lay in the lack of united action. He began at once to urge the merchants of his acquaintance to form a company for the purpose of planting colonies in America. There were a few men in England who had an enthusiasm for colonization like that of Gilbert and Raleigh. Among them were Edward Maria Wing- field, Robert Hunt, John Smith, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Sir John Popham, and Richard Hakluyt. These men made application to King James for a charter to authorize them to form a company to make settlements in Virginia. The king granted their request, and issued the first colonial charter in 1606. 33. The Grant. — By this charter the company was divided; the members who were in and around London were to make the First or Southern Company of Vir- ginia; those merchants and gentlemen who had their headquarters at Plymouth, England, were to form the Second or Northern Company of Virginia. To these companies was assigned all the land between Cape Fear, or the 34th parallel of latitude, and the St. Croix River, or the 45th parallel. The land granted was to extend back a distance of one hundred miles from the coast and was to belong entirely to these two companies. The territory south of the Rappahannock, or parallel 38°, was granted to the London Company ; that north of New York City, or parallel 41°, to the Plymouth Company. The land between the two territories, from parallel 38° to parallel 41°, was to be common property, except that neither company should make settlement within one hundred miles of the other. 34. The Conditions. — Many important rights were granted to these companies ; very few to the colonists whom they should send. The entire control of the colonies to be formed rested with the companies in England ; even the local government was in the hands of a council appointed from England. The king required John Smith begins the preface to his "Generall Historie " with the fol- lowing paragraph : " This plaine His- torie humbly sheweth the truth; that our most royall King lames hath place and opportunitie to enlarge his ancient Dominions without wronging any; (which is a condition most agreeable to his most iust and pious resolutions) : and the Prince his Highness may see where to plant new colonies. The gaining Prouinces addeth to the Kings Crown : But the reducing Heathen people to civilitie and true Religion, bringeth honour to the King of Hea- uen. If his Princely wisedome and powerful! hand, renowned through the world for admirable gouernment, please but to set these new Estates unto order ; their composure will be singular; the counsell of divers is confused; the generall Stocke is consumed; nothing but the touch of the Kings sacred hand can erect a Monarchy." 1606-1635] ORGANIZED MOVEMENTS. 27 from the companies that they should render due homage to him. He demanded of them, as rent, one-fifth of all the gold and silver mined, and one-fifteenth of all the copper. The only promise made to the emigrants was that they and their descendants should not cease to be Englishmen. Such were the terms of the " first written charter of a permanent American colony;" simply the charter of a mercantile corporation. 35. The Southern Company. — The Southern Company succeeded in making but one settlement, that of Jamestown, in 1607 (1F 38). In 1609, the company received a second charter granting land further north, as far as Philadelphia, or the 40th parallel, and west to the ** South Sea." In a few other respects, the conditions were changed by this charter, as well as by the third charter of 161 2. In 1624, the company dissolved, and the settlement reverted to the king, as a royal colony. 36. The Northern Company. — The Northern Company failed in all its attempts to form a colony. The most notable effort was made under the special direction of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, in 1607. One hundred and twenty immigrants, under the lead of George Popham, arrived at the mouth of the Kennebec River, and began a settlement, which they called St. George. The winter proved very severe, and, upon the death of the leader, the *' Popham Colony " abandoned the plantation and returned to England. In 1620, the company was succeeded by the Council of Plymouth for New England, which received land further south, as far as Philadelphia, and north to the parallel of 48°, or the northern boundary of New Brunswick, and west to the " South Sea." This council also failed in its purpose, and, in 1635, the members divided the land among themselves and thus surrendered their company rights. Though the results seem so meagre, the first steps had been taken, and the work of coloni- zation went steadily on, without regard to the companies. New charters were granted, and within eighty years twelve English colonies lined the coast from the 32d to the 45th parallel of latitude. aw and 'Vvrovii 28 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. L1606 CHAPTER VI. VIRGINIA. 37. The Fleet. — The London Company was more vigorous than the Plymouth, and had its colonists on the way before the close of the year 1606. '\f The leaders of the com- pany had little difficulty in finding volunteers, and the three vessels fitted out were ready to sail in December. The contrast between the "Susan Con- stant," the largest vessel of the fleet, and an ocean greyhound of to-day is very great. The ** Con- stant " was of one hun- dred tons' burden, while the ''Good Speed" carried but forty tons, and the little pinnace " Discovery," twenty. The voyagers, about one hundred in num- ber, were brave men to un- dertake the journey, which would occupy about four months, over seas so sel- dom traversed. The fleet sailed from London, December 19th, 1606, and took the southern course, via the West Indies. Captain Christopher Newport was in command, and among the party were Gosnold, Smith, and Wingfield. A storm prevented them from landing on Roanoke Island, as they had intended, and drove them northward as far as Chesapeake Bay. Ruins of the Settlement at Jamestown, Va. 1607] VIRGINIA. 29 -The refuge which they found in this bay comfort" to them, %XHESAPEAKE BAY Baltimore ^f ^ if •^\ MKp>J/^ Comfort "^^fS^"^ 'sCape.tenry | 38. Land Reached. proved of so much after the severity of the storm, that the name of Point Comfort was given to the land. As the vessels passed into the bay, the leaders named the capes on either side in honor of the two sons of King James, and Cape Henry and Cape Charles they are still called. Soon the fleet started up the beautiful river, which they termed the James, and a spot for the town was chosen on its banks. May ISth, 1607, the colonists landed, and at once began to lay the foundations of Jamestown. The place selected was not suitable for a col- ony, and to-day the ruins of a church are all that mark its site and designate the spot where the first perma- nent English settlement was made. 39. The Men. — The London Com- pany was a body of merchants united mainly for the sake of gain. If the colony which they sent out should bring back gold in abundance, or should find a Northwest Passage, it would be con- sidered a successful adventure. No special plans were formed to establish a farming community, nor were ar- rangements made whereby the colo- nists could obtain the necessary food. " Nobles, gentlemen, carpenters, labor- ers, boys," were among the voyagers, but no women. The nobles and gentle- men were unaccustomed to labor with their hands. The carpenters, laborers, and boys could dig for gold, and search for precious stones, but they could not furnish provisions. The leaders were not all wise, and their mistakes were often very serious. The members of the council had been chosen by John Smith's life covered the pe- riod from 1580 to 1631. His own ac- count of his Hfe previous to the year 1604 makes a story more exciting and apparently impossible than any fic- tion. During the six years beginning w-ith 1596, he travelled in Holland, Scotland, France, Italy, Egypt, Hun- gary, Germany, and Prussia, until he joined an expedition against the Turks. In the Turkish war he performed many deeds of great valor, but was captured in 1602. After suffering cruel treatment as a slave by Turks, Moors, and Tartars, he finally made his escape, and, travelling alone through Muscovy, Hungary, and Austria, he arrived in Leipsic, in December, 1603. His trip from here back to England was most round-about, and on reaching home he immediately entered heartily into the idea of colonizing Virginia. 30 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1607 the company (1 34) before the fleet sailed from England. The appointments were kept secret, however, and the names of the seven had been placed in a sealed box. When this box was opened after the arrival, in accordance with directions, it was found that Wingfield was made president, and that Gosnold, Smith, Newport, Rat- cliffe, Martin, and Kendall, together \ ith the president, composed the ^ounci). Had the president and all the council possessed the abil- ity and the strength of character of Smith and Gosnold, the ear- ly period of the colony might have been more prosperous than it was. found a home and at once Captain John Smith. (From the history of Virginia, by Captain John Smith.) 40. First Days. — The colonists had began to prepare places in which to live. Tents were used, and in the warm days of late spring but little covering was needed more than roofs of boughs to keep off sun and rain. A church was built, and the time was well spent in cutting trees, saw- ing logs and erecting houses. All things seemed prosperous, though the colony was in serious danger of sudden attacks from the Indians. A jealous fear of Smith appeared in the council, and he was threatened with the disgrace of being sent back to England. He demanded a trial in Virginia, and obtaining it was quickly acquitted of all charges. The military leader was thus saved to the colony, and the task of securing protection from the Indians was in safe hands. Captain Smith entertained the same opinion with regard to the neces- sity of finding a passage through the continent, or a new route to India, as did most of the discoverers of that time. Soon after the arrival of the colonists at Jamestown, Smith started out on an exploring tour up the Chickahominy River. He did not find the Pacific Ocean, but instead was captured by the Indians. A few years later he made an expedition up the Chesapeake Bay, with the same pur- pose in view, but again he failed. After one more trial he seems to have abandoned his attempts to find what has since ' received the name of the Northwest Passage. The rest of the explorations which he made, not only in Chesapeake Bay, but also along the Atlantic coast, resulted in the forma- tion of maps which, though of no value to-day, were especially helpful to the seafaring men of the early part of the seventeenth century. .^07] VIRGINIA. 31 41. The First Summer. — The new-comers arrived during the beau- tiful month of May, and for a few weeks all the immigrants were charmed with this land of flowers in its season. of beauty. Soon, however, the heat of summer, to which they were unaccustomed, and the malaria that arose from the marshy banks of the James, began to cause fatal sicknesses among them. An epidemic of disease followed, and this, together with a scarcity of food, nearly carried away the whole colony. Those who succeeded in escaping the disease were too few to care properly for the sick, and it was almost impossible to obtain decent burial for those who died. About fifty, or nearly one-half of the settlement, perished, and among them the leading spirit of the colony, Bartholomew Gos- nold. The president was unable to meet the terrible emergency, and the strength and ability of John Smith alone carried the colony along until the frosts of the autumn checked the disease. Lack of food caused hardship during the winter, but the aw- ful sickness was over at last. 42. Pocahontas. — Captain John Smith was not only a soldier and statesman, but also an au- thor, and from his writings much of the information con- cerning early Virginia has been obtained. He tells a story of an expedition which he made up the James River, and the way in which he was separated from his companions. He re- counts that he was captured by the Indians and carried before their chief, Powhatan. After a time he was condemned to death, and was only rescued because of the prayers of Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian emperor. His life was saved, and after spending the winter with the Indians, he reached Jamestown at a time when his presence was much needed. Soon after, as the warm weather came on, the colonists feared that Pocahontas (After an old ano..j...v.. ^ } «^^C^s**}i i> A* r-'^s ^^ :r:^^ ^^S Siiilfr* I 609-1610] VIRGINIA. 33 the disasters of the preceding summer were to be repeated. But a company of Indians arrived, under the command of Pocahontas, and brought an abundance of food. The good-will of the Indian girl is proved by this act, and she thus saved the Hves of many of the colonists. 43. The Bermudas. — The little colony, though it had passed through the terrible epidemic, and though the Indians seemed to be more friendly, was still in serious danger of failure. The colonists were not ready to work; they were eager for adven- ture ; they were crazed to search for gold ; they had no love for the soil; they had no true homes; they were more ready to return than to stay. Just at this time, the king granted the second charter to the London Company (H 35), and Sir Thomas West, Lord Delaware, was appointed the new governor. In May, 1609, a fleet of nine vessels, with needed supplies and a large number of colonists, this time including women and chil- dren, sailed from England. Disaster still followed the fortunes of the Lon- don Company, the fleet encountering a severe storm when nearly at the end of the voyage. One vessel was lost, and the flag-ship, the " Sea Venture," containing the lieutenant-governor. Sir Thomas Gates, and the admiral. Sir George Somers, was separated from the other vessels and Anally wrecked on the Bermuda Islands. The passengers reached land safely and spent a very enjoyable nine months on this island, which seemed to them a perfect paradise. At length, in May, 1610, having built two small vessels from the wreck of the *' Sea Venture," they sailed again, reach- ing Virginia in about a fortnight. 41 The Despair. — While the leaders of the new party were spending their time on the islands in the middle of the Atlantic, disaster and ruin were coming fast to the colonists at Jamestown- The seven vessels that survived the storm came into the Chesa- Pocahontas continued to aid the colonists for many years after slie saved the Hfe of John Smith. When the Indian princess had reached the age of eighteen the people of Jamestown became angry with Powhatan, the emperor, and stole Pocahontas, carry- ing her away as a prisoner. She remained at Jamestown as a surety of her father's good conduct, and here an Englishman, named John Rolfe, fell in love with her. He offered to marry the girl and won the consent of the "princess" as well as that of the emperor. Pocahontas was bap- tized in the little church at Jamestown and then married under the name of Rebecca. On visiting England a few years later che received a very cordial welcome, and her modesty and correct behavior brought her praise on every hand. She died from an attack of small-pox, leaving a son, whose de- scendants have been among the leaders of the colony of Virginia. 34 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1610-1619 peake with scanty . supplies, and with no leaders. Confusion followed, and again the struggle began between those willing to perform the necessary labor and the sluggards. Smith was com- pelled to return to England, broken in health, and his advice and judgment were lost to the colony. When Gates, the lieu- tenant-governor, arrived from the Bermudas, he found a company nearly famished from hunger, and the settlement passing through a period of suffering almost as severe as that of the first sum- mer. He and his party were able to bring them no aid, and despair entered their hearts at the terrible condition of affairs. Gates and Somers decided to give up the colony, and if possible return to England with the people whom disease had not yet de- stroyed. They abandoned the town, and with four vessels started on the homeward voyage on the seventh of June, 1610. 45. Lord Delaware.- — The colony was not destined to such a fate, however, and the sorrowful home voyage was not to last long. On the ninth of June, before the fleet had sailed out of the James River, it met three vessels from England, under com- mand of the governor, Lord Dela- ware. These vessels were just in time, bringing a supply of provisions suffi- cient to last the colony a whole year. With great joy the crowd of famine- stricken, weary, and spiritless colonists returned to their abandoned village, and the colony of Virginia was saved from utter ruin and a fate like that of Roa- noke Island. Fortunate also was the Thomas West succeeded his fa- thiir as Lord Delaware in 1602, and in 1609 was appointed governor and captain-general of Virginia. " His coming revived the courage of the col- onists, who had been reduced almost to despair, owing to privation and misgovernment, and his judicious and energetic management soon restored order and industry. Being ill, in March, 161 1, he embarked for Nevis in the West Indies; but having been driven north by opposing winds, the party entered the mouth of a large river, called by the natives, Chicko- hocki, but which received the name of Delaware in his honor." (Appleton's Cyclopredia of American Biography ) Lord Delaware died at sea, in 1618, on a second voyage to America. colony, at last, in its leader, and from this moment the permanency of the settlement was assured. 46. The First Assembly. — Lord Delaware did not remain gov- ernor long, and there was a succession of rulers until, in 1619, George Yeardley arrived, for the second time governor-general of Virginia. He brought with him papers that established the first republic on this continent. He summoned a General As- sembly, which was to be elected by the people, and every l6l9] PLYMOUTH. 35 freeman was entitled to vote for the burgesses. On July 30th, the " first legislative body that ever sat in America assembled at Jamestown," and two burgesses from each of the eleven boroughs were chosen to this popular assembly. Virginia was now no longer limited to the settlement at Jamestown, as ten other boroughs sent their representatives to this legislature. Two years afterwards a new charter from the king granted a full legal right to this body, and provided that no orders from England should " bind the said colony unless ratified in the General Assem- bhes." From 16 19 to the present day the colony, and later the State, of Virginia has had a free government, at all times making its own laws. CHAPTER VII. PLYMOUTH. 47. The Reformation. — The sixteenth century has a distinctive place in history as the age of the Reformation. The leading states of Europe, at the time of Columbus's discovery, were Christian nations acknowledging the Pope of Rome as the Head of the Church. One of the results of the Revival of Learning that followed the fall of Constantinople (1453) was the growth of individual thought. Men like Luther in Germany, and Calvin in France, began to disagree with the Roman Church in some of its doctrines and customs. Protesting against what seemed to them errors, they received the name of Protestants. In England the Protestant faith grew rapidly, so that in 1534 the nation withdrew its allegiance from Pope Clement VII. 48. The Puritans. — From the time of Henry VIIL, the English people as a nation have continued to hold the Protestant faith, with the exception of the few years under Queen Mary. When Elizabeth was seated on the throne, the struggle between Catholics and Protestants was practically ended. The Church of England was established, and the larger part of the people accepted their ruler as the supreme authority in religious as well as civil 36 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1603 matters. But the influence of Calvin, the French Huguenots, and the Netherlanders was felt in England as well as upon the continent, and before Elizabeth's reign came to a close there was a large and growing number of Puritans, who desired, as they said, to purify the Church. At the beginning of the reign of James I., in 1603, the Puritans were a body of earnest men, determined to change the Church of England in many respects, and make it accord more closely with their views. LW.AfcA, &-;s^ zT:?^ ~';^^^ The " Mayflower.' 49. The Separatists. — Laws were passed against the Puritans during the reign of Elizabeth, and punishments were inflicted upon those who refused either to attend church or to comply with its ordi- nances. The larger part of the Puritans, believing that they would eventually become sufliciently strong, desired to remain in the Church and "purify" it from within. These were called Non- Conformists, continuing to attend church, but not conforming to all the church rites. A small number of the Puritans withdrew from the Church entirely and met together to worship by them- selves. These people planned to form a new church, which should be in accordance with their ideas, and therefore have received the name of Separatists or Independents. They were Puritans who carried their opposition to the Church of England to a ^607-1620] PLYMOUTH. 37 greater extent than did the Non- Conformists, and who therefore were persecuted more severely. 50. The Pilgrims. — One band of the Separatists Hved in and near Scrooby, a village in Nottinghamshire on the main road between London and York. Persecuted for reli- gion's sake, they determined to become exiles rather than abandon their faith. They made an attempt to flee to Hol- land in 1607, and, though they were prevented that year, they succeeded in reaching Amsterdam, after much suffer- ing, in 1608. Journeying to Leyden the next year, the Pilgrims, as they were now called, remained there for eleven years. They had an opportunity to become acquainted with the church, the free schools, the mode of thought, and the form of free government of the Dutch, grew, until Their numbers continually in 1620 there were several hundred attendants at the Leyden Church, having John Robinson as their pastor. 51. The Exile. — The Pilgrims were lovers of home, though they had been compelled to flee to foreign shores. They were of the middle class of Eng- lishmen, hardy farmers, and skilled mechanics. They were anxious that their children should be English and not Dutch, and that they should always love and be loyal to old England. It thus happened that, after a few years, a strong desire sprang up among the Pilgrims to establish a colony in the English possessions in America. Other reasons were given for the intended emigration, among them being the wish to Christianize the Indians. Attempts were accordingly made to obtain the needed means, and at length arrangements were entered into with the London Com^ pany (t 35). This company was to provide the necessary supplies Bradford's History. — " When, by the travail and dihgence of some godly and zealous preachers, and God's bless- ing on their labors, as in other places of the land, so in the north parts, many became enlightened by the word of God, and had their ignorance and sins discovered by the word of God's grace, and began, by his grace, to reform their lives and make conscience of their ways, the work of God was no sooner manifest in them, but presently they were both scoffed and scorned by the profane multitude, and the ministers urged with the yoke of sub- scription, or else must be silenced; and the poor people were so vexed with apparators and pursuivants and the Commission Courts, as truly their affliction was not small. . . . So many, therefore, of these professors as saw the evil of these things in these parts, and whose hearts the Lord had touched with heavenly zeal for his truth, they shook off this yoke of antichristian bondage, and, as the Lord's free people joined themselves, (by a covenant of the Lord,) into a church estate, in the fellowship of the gospel, to walk in all his ways, made known, or to be made known unto them, according to their best endeavors, whatever it would cost them. And that it cost them much pains, trouble, sorrow, affliction, and persecution, and expense of their es- tates, etc., this ensuing history will declare." 38 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1620 and vessels, and was to receive from the Pilgrims a large pro- portion of the profits. ENGLAND AND HOLLAND 52. The "Mayflower." — When the time for departure came, it was found that vessels had been provided for much less than half of the Leyden colony. Pastor Robinson re- mained with the majority, and Elder Brewster accompanied the Pilgrims, to act as pastor until those left in Leyden should follow the first voyagers. On the morning of July 22d, 1620, the *' Speedwell " left Delft-haven, the port of Leyden, with a small number of these exiles, parting from friends and home for an unknown land. At South- ampton, England, they were joined by the ** Mayflower," and after two attempts at starting, the *' Speedwell " was de- clared unseaworthy, and they put back September 6th, 1620, one hundred and and children, sailed from Plymouth, a The Bradford Manuscript. — Gov- ernor Bradford wrote a history of tlie settlement at Plymouth, which has re- mained in manuscript, in his hand- writing, to this day. About the time of tlie Revolution this manuscript dis- appeared. Nearly seventy-five years afterward it was discovered in the library of the Bishop of London By a decree of the Consistorial and Epis- copal Court in London, the manuscript has been presented to the State of Massachusetts, through Hon. Thomas F. Bayard, our late Ambassador to the Court of Saint James. It was received by the Governor on May 26th, 1897, in presence of the Massachusetts Sen- ate and House of Representatives. The document will be kept in the State Library. rnto the port of Plymouth, one persons, men, women, l620] PLYMOUTH. 39 band destined to establish the second permanent Enghsh colony on the coast of America. 53. The Voyage. — The '* Mayflower," a vessel of i8o tons, was very small for such a voyage; the autumn of the year was not suitable for a trip across the Atlantic; the sailors were unacquainted with the route; at the present time such a journey would be deemed foolhardy. The voyage was stormy, and sixty-three days passed before America was reached. The In- tention had been to reach some point on the coast of New Jersey, near the mouth of the Hudson, but the captain of the *' Mayflower," for some reason, brought the vessel Into the harbor of Provlncetown, at the extreme end of Cape Cod. After a month of explora- tion, a party sent out from the vessel landed at Plymouth, December nth. This is the date according to the old style of reckoning, and December 21st, 1620, N. S. (New Style), Is the day celebrated as Forefathers' Day. 54. The Compact. — While the Pilgrims were still in Province- town Harbor, a meeting was held, November nth, in the cabin of the " Mayflower." They had arrived at land which was not under the control of the London Company, and some were thought " not well afl'ected to unity and concord." A compact was drawn up, and solemnly agreed to by all the men, forty-one In number, which was to be the fundamental law of the government. (Ap- pendix A.) ** Due submission and obedience " were promised, and John Carver was chosen governor. Bancroft calls this occa- sion the "birth of popular constitutional liberty." 55. The First Winter. — Though Plymouth is much farther south than either Scrooby or Leyden, yet the newly arrived immigrants found the winter there much more severe. To the Pilgrims, sufier- ing from the extreme cold, and lacking sufficient nourishing food, Delft-Haven. — The company of Pilgrims that set sail from Delft-haven, on July 22d, 1620, left a large company of their friends who would willingly have gone with them. Bradford him- self tells the story of the parting: "That night was spent with little sleepe by ye most, but with friendly entertainmente & christian discourse and other reall expressions of true christian love. The next day, the wind being faire, they wente aborde, and their friends with them, where truly dol- full was ye sight of that sade and mourn- full parting; to see what sighs and sobbs and praires did sound amongst them, what tears did gush from every eye, & pithy speeches peirst each harte ; that sundry of ye Dutch strangers yt stood on ye key as spectators, could not refraine from tears. . . . their Reved. pastor falling downe on his knees, . . . with watrie cheeks commended them with most fervente praiers to the Lord and his blessing. And then with mutuall imbrases and manly tears, they tooke their leaves one of another ; which proved to be ye last leave to many of them." 40 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. fl620 the first season proved a terrible ordeal. Just as the first summer proved a fatal one to the settlers at Jamestown, so during these winter months one half of the Plymouth col- ony perished. Among those who died was John Carver, the governor, and his responsible position then came to William Bradford, who held the office most of the time until his death, thirty- seven years afterwards. William Brewster, the elder, was an> other man of great importance in the infant colony, and to him much of the success of Plymouth was due. The colonists were much disturbed by fears of the Indians, but no attack was made upon the settlement during its earlier years. This was partly due to the fact that a pestilence had recently caused the death of very many of the neigh- boring Indians, but perhaps even more to the dread that they had of Myles Standish, who had command of the military forces. With such men as Bradford, Brewster, Standish, and Dr. Fuller, it was almost certain that the colony would succeed. The Julian calendar was used throughout Europe for many centuries. This was based on the supposition that the year was 365^ days long, and therefore it made every year 365 days except the fourth or " leap year " which contained 366 days. During the six- teenth century time was found to have been incorrectly kept, and the reckon- ing to be ten days behind the correct time. The Gregorian calendar, named in honor of Pope Gregory XIII., who ordered the reform, was adopted. Ten was added to the commonly ac- cepted day of the month, and it was agreed that in the future the years that are divisible by 100 should not be leap years unless they are divisible by 400. Thus Dec. itth, 1620, Old Style, be- comes Dec. 2ist, 1620, New Style, by adding the necessary ten days. The year 1600 was divisible by 400, and therefore that year was a leap year by the new calendar. The year 1500 was not div- isible by 400, that year should not have been of 366 days, and therefore during the century before it the error was only nine days. Oct. 12th, 1492, O. S., is Oct. 2ist, 1492, N. S. Feb. nth, 1732, O. S., becomes Feb. 22d, 1732, N. S., inasmuch as the error was increased one day by the year 1700, and eleven days should be added. CHAPTER VIII. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 56. The Later Puritans, — The body of Puritan Non-Conformists in England grew rapidly during the years that the Pilgrims spent in Holland. The struggle that they had begun with the king and the Church of England increased as the years went by. It was natural that the Puritans, opposed as they were to the religious I623-I628] MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 41 Governor Winthrop. (From a painting in the State House at Boston, attributed to Vandyke.) supremacy of the king, should object to the civil despotism which King James was exercising. When Charles I. succeeded his father in 1625 the contest had become a civil one to a great extent, and in a few years it resulted in a civil war. Then the Puritans had a double reason for forming a colony in America, — to provide a home where they might worship as they pleased, and also to obtain a place of refuge in case the king should be victorious in the struggle^ 57. The Fishing Station. — In 1623, an attempt was made to establish a fishing colony at Cape Ann, the site of the present city of Gloucester. After a struggle between Plymouth fishermen and others from Dorchester, England, a little set- tlement was started, over which Roger Conant was made governor in 1625. The Rev. John White, of Dorchester, a Non-Conforming Puritan, was deeply interested in this colony, and hoped that something besides mere money gain might come from it. This ex- periment proved a failure, as the land was found unsuitable for cultivation, but Conant was unwilling to abandon the attempt to form a colony, and, in 1626, with at least fourteen com- panions, he removed to Naumkeag and made a settlement there. Mr. White wrote him encouragingly, and prom- ised to send supplies and reinforce- ments, if he would hold the place. This Conant agreed to do, and the little colony waited patiently two years for the promised aid. Endicott's Charter begins as fol- lows : "Charles by the grace OF God King of England Scotland ffrannce and Ireland Defender of the faith &c. ; To all to whome these present shall come Greetinge ; Where- Ass our most deare and royall ffather kinge James of blessed memory . . . hath given and graunted unto the Coun- cill established at Plymouth in the County of Devon for the plantinge . . . of newe England in America, ... all that parte of America lyeinge and beinge in breadth from forty degrees of north- erly latitude ... to forty-eight degrees of the said northerly latitude . . . and VVhereass the said Councill . . . haue by theire deeds . . . graunted . . , to (several men, including John Endicott) ... all that parte of newe England . . . which lies . . . betweene a greate river their comonly called . . . merriemack and a certaine other river there, called Charles River, being in the bottom of a certen bay there comonly called Mas- sachusetts, . . . Now Kno7ve ye that we . . . doe graunte and confirme, unto the ^aid (gentlemen) ... all the said parte of newe England in America. 4^ ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1628-1629 First Church at Salem. Built 1634- 58. The Salem Immigration. — In 1628, White fulfilled his promise, and a new company was formed, which purchased land from the Council of Plymouth (IF 36). This grant extended from three miles south of the Charles River to three miles north of the Merrimac. Sep- tember 13th, 1628, Gov. John Endi- cott, accompanied by about one hundred people, landed at Naum- keag, which, the next year, received the name of Salem. Cordially wel- comed by Conant and his followers, Endicott soon had his settlement under way, and the Massachusetts Bay colony was fairly begun. 59. The Massachusetts Bay Com- pany. — The Dorchester Company prospered during the year 1628, and early in the next year a royal charter was obtained from King Charles. *'The Governor and Com- pany of the Massachusetts Bay in New England " was established, and jurisdic- tion was granted to this trading company over the land previously purchased from the Council of Plymouth. In the spring of 1629, a fleet sailed from England carrying two hundred settlers for the little colony at Naumkeag, among them being Rev. John Higginson and Rev. John Skelton, the first ministers of the Salem Church. This company landed during the latter portion of June, and more than doubled the number of the settlement at Salem as well as of a smaller one at Charlestown. 60. Settlement of Boston. — In the au- tumn of 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Company took an unheard of step in deciding to move their head- quarters from England to the colony. They voted that the com- Salem First Church. — Wlien, in July, 1629, the little settlement at Salem organized the first Protestant church in America by electing their pastor and teacher, the meeting was probably held in the open air. Where meetings were held during the next few years is not known, but in 1634 it was decided to build a meeting-house. This proved to be a building 25 by 20 feet, with a gallery at one end. In this church it is supposed that Roger Williams and Hugh Peters preached. The building was not finished for some years, and for a while oiled paper was used in place of glass in the windows. Four other buildings have been used by this church society since the time of this small and unpretending edifice, but the old church still stands, a monument to the heroism of those Puritans who were willing to exchange the cathedrals of England for such structures as this. I 629-1 649] MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 43 pany should be bodily transferred to New England, and that they should bring the charter with them. During the summer of 1630, seventeen vessels sailed from different ports of England, most of them coming to Salem or Charlestown. From ten to fifteen hundred persons arrived during this year, and among them was the new governor, John Winthrop. Some of the party settled in Salem, some in Charles- town, and others in various places in the vicinity. The peninsula of Shawmut, as the Indians had named it, presented a very suitable place for a settlement, and Winthrop chose it for his headquarters. In September this village was given' the name of Boston, in memory of the town in England from which some of the settlers had come. Boston was made the capital of the colony, and has always continued to be the leading town. 61. The First Years. — At last the Puritans had a home, where they might worship as they pleased, and where they could rule as seemed to them best. At first all the freemen were in the habit of meeting and making Governor Winthrop was born in 1588. When the Massachusetts Bay Colony decided to remove the colony and to carry the charter and all things necessary for the government to Amer- ica, Governor Craddock resigned and the Company chose John Winthrop in his place. He arrived in 1630, and after a short stay in Salem and Charlestown he chose Trimount for his home, and, calling it Boston, he made it the seat of government. With the exception of one or two short intervals, Winthrop remained governor of Massachusetts Bay until his death in 1649. He exer- cised a marked influence upon tlie colony, and his death was greatly lamented. His son, also named John, was one of the settlers of New Haven, and afterwards its governor. Church and State. — The first town meeting held in New England, that might properly be called by that name, was the meeting at Salem when the people chose the pastor of the church. At the present day, when church mat- ters and governmental affairs are kept entirely distinct, it seems very strange to think of the church electing town- officers. One of the earliest records of the church of Salem contains a notice of the election of a neat-herd, or an officer to take care of the cattle of the town. Church and town remained identical for some time, until the Gen- eral Court passed laws establishing the towns and defining their powers and duties. their own laws. Soon the numbers became too many and the settlements too scattered for a common meeting, so that representatives were elected to the General Court, who should carry out the will of the voters. Only mem- bers of the Puritan Church were ad- mitted as freemen and allowed the right to vote. The method of voting was by ballot, the first use of which was in Salem, in August, 1629, when the church met to elect their ministers. The population grew rapidly, many coming from England each year, until in 1649 there were perhaps twenty thousand people in the colony. 44 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [i 623-1 820 CHAPTER IX. NEW HAMPSHIRE, CONNECTICUT, RHODE ISLAND. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 62. Mason and Gorges. — A few years after the arrival of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, and while the fishing colony was making a settlement at Cape Ann, two other colonies were begun. The Council of Plymouth was unsuccessful in its attempts at coloni- zation (IT 36), and soon began to divide its possessions among the members of the company. Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant from the Council conveying to them the land between the Merrimac and the Kenne- bec rivers. In 1623, two fishing hamlets were started at Dover and Portsmouth, — the first important settlements in New Hampshire. 63. New Hampshire and Maine. — The partnership lasted but a few years, when Mason and Gorges separated and divided their lands between themselves. Mason obtained a grant of the land between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, and named his colony New Hampshire, from his home in England. After his death the few towns came under the protection of Massachusetts Bay, and for a time remained a part of that colony. Later New Hampshire had a separate government for a few years, and finally in 1691 was made a royal colony (If 191), remaining so until the Revolution. Gorges obtained the rest of the original grant, and at first called it New Somersetshire. Afterwards it was called Maine, and passing soon under the control of Massachusetts, it so remained until 1820 (t 447). Sir Ferdinando Gorges should be remembered as one of the most ear- nest and most persistent colonizers of America. He was especially influen- tial in the formation of the Virginia Company in 1606. The next year he sent the ill-fated " Popham Colony" to the coast of Maine. Captain John Smith was in his service when, in his attempt in 1615 to form a colony, he fell into the hands of French pirates. The Council of Plymouth, established in 1620, found in Gorges their most enthusiastic member. After the sepa- ration between Mason and Gorges, in 1635, the latter retained a strong inter- est in his colony of New Somersetshire. The leading settlement was at Saco, where the first court was organized in 1636. Massachusetts Bay, under her charter, however, laid claim to New Somersetshire, and in 1656 the heirs of Gorges were defeated, and Maine was placed under the control of Massachusetts. I635-I638] CONNECTICUT. 45 CONNECTICUT. 64. Connecticut. — The colony of Massachusetts Bay grew rapidly during the first few years after the settlement of Boston. Within five years there were thirty towns on or near the coast that sent their rep- resentatives to the -General Court to make laws. Some of the immigrants began to object to the law which re- fused the right to vote to those who were not members of the Puritan Church. Desiring to form communi- ties where all should have the fran- chise, some of the towns decided to move to new localities. The fertile valley of the Connecticut River pre- sented strong attractions, and during the years 1635 and 1636 settlements were made along this river. The towns of Dorchester, Watertown, and New- town (now Cambridge) moved in a body, and formed the villages after- v/ards called Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford. These were the first English settlements of importance within the present limits of Connecticut, and the colony obtained its name from that of the river, upon whose banks these towns were built. 65. New Haven. — While the newly arrived immigrants from Massachusetts were becoming settled in the valley of the Connec- ticut, the beginnings of another colony were made. A party of settlers arriving in Boston in 1637 decided to seek a place where they might form a colony of their own, and not simply a town in Massachusetts. Under the leadership of Rev. John Davenport they left Boston, and sailed around Cape Cod, past the entrance to Narragansett Bay, and landed at the mouth of the Quinnipiack River in 1638. This Indian name was changed to New Haven, and a rival colony to Connecticut was begun. The growth, however, was slow, and many, intending to settle here, were led to join the The Connecticut Constitution. — John Fiske, in " The Beginnings of New England," tells the story of the adoption of the Connecticut Constitu- tion. " On the 14th of January, 1639, all the freemen of the three towns assembled at Hartford and adopted a written constitution, in which the hand of the great preacher (Hooker) is clearly discernible. It is worthy of note that this document contains none of the conventional references to a ' dread sovereign ' or a ' gracious king,' nor the slightest allusion to the Brit- ish or any government outside of Con- necticut itstlf, nor does it prescribe any condition of church-membership for the right of suffrage. It was the first written constitution known to history, that created a government, and it marked the beginnings of American democracy, of which Thomas Hooker deserves more than any other man to be called the father. The government of the United States to-day is in lineal descent more nearly related to that of Connecticut than to that of any of the other thirteen States." 46 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1636-1638 towns on the Connecticut, because of their greater religious liberty. The two colonies grew side by side, until the Connecticut charter was received in 1662 (H 185), which was followed in 1664 by the union of the tw.o, under the name of the larger. The colony, and later the State, of Connecticut, gave proof of its double origin by having two capitals, Hartford and New Haven, until the year 1873. RHODE ISLAND. 66. Providence. — Religious persecution drove the Pilgrims to Plymouth, and also the Puritans to Salem and Boston. Religious liberty was not understood by the Eng- lishmen of the seventeenth century; those who had fled from religious op- pression quickly became themselves persecutors for religion's sake. One of the ministers of the town of Salem, unable to accept all of the beliefs and practices with which he was surrounded, began to preach and write against them. This man was Roger Williams, who had arrived in Boston in 1631. The General Court determined to investigate his new doctrines, and as a result Roger Wil- liams was banished from the country (H 181). Unwilling to be carried back to England, he fled alone into the Roger Williams, in a le'ter writ- ten about 1671, speaks thus of his win- ter's flight : " When I was unkindly, and unchristianly, as I believe, driven from my house, and land, and wife, and children, in the midst of a New England winter, now about thirty-five years past, at Salem, that ever hon- ored governor, Mr. Winthrop, pri- vately wrote to me to steer my course to the Narragansett Bay and Indians, for many high and heavenly ends, en- courageing me, from the freeness of the place from any English claims and patents. I took his prudent motion as a hint and a voice from God, and, waiving all other thoughts and motions, I steered my course from Salem — though in winter snow, which I yet feel — unto these parts, wherein I may say Peniel, that is, I have seen the face of God." wilderness. This was in midwinter, and he sojourned among the Indians, being " tossed," as he said, " for fourteen weeks, not knowing what bed or bread did mean." At length, having been joined by a few companions, he crossed the Seekonk River, and in 1636 decided to build a town, to which he gave the name of Providence. Here, at the northern end of Narragansett Bay, was established a colony which allowed perfect religious liberty. 67. Rhode Island. — Another leader of a religious sect, Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, was banished from the colony of Massachusetts Bay in the year 1638. A home was made by her followers on an island in Narragansett Bay, at a place called Aquidneck. The I644-I79I] RHODE ISLAND. 47 towns of Newport and Portsmouth sprang up on this Island of Rhode Island, and the colony of Rhode Island was thus begun. This continued on friendly terms with its neighbor at Providence, until a charter was obtained in 1644, which incorporated the col- ony of ** Rhode Island and Providence Planta- tions." Under another ch^lrter, received in 1663, the government was car- ried on until near the mid- dle of the present century. To-day Rhode Island is the only State having two cap- itals, and holds sessions of its legislature each year at Providence and Newport. 68. New England.— Thus, in the year 1638, there had been established in New England seven distinct col- onies. New Hampshire, which remained a separate colony for most of its history; Massa- chusetts Bay and Plymouth, which were united in 1691 ; Connecticut and New Haven, which continued apart until 1665 ; and Rhode Island and Providence, which were joined in 1644. After the year 1691, New England contained four colonies, with the boundaries nearly as at present, except that Maine continued a part of Massa- chusetts until it became a State in 1820 (IF 447) and that Vermont was claimed by New Hampshire and New York until it was ad- mitted to the Union in 1791 (T 402). iiiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ Roger Williams's Monument, Providence, R. I. Miles S+andisliS Sword LONG lS & <=-^'^.^ BLOCK ISLAND NEW ENGLAND I609l NEW YORK. 49 CHAPTER X. NEW YORK. 69. The Dutch. — On the west coast of the continent of Europe, directly across the British Channel from England, lies the country of Holland. This is the kingdom which was the famous Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century. During the sixteenth cen- tury, the Protestant faith took strong hold of the prosperous and educated people of the Netherlands, and a long and terrible war with the king of Spain followed. For eighty years they fought the most powerful king in the world, and yet were able, at the same time, to advance in prosperity, and to become the greatest commercial nation of the time. While the English were making their first permanent settlements in America, the Dutch Republic was driving the Spanish and the Portuguese from the ocean, and building up a trade with India and the East. 70. Henry Hudson. — The Dutch were not content with the long journey around the south of Africa, and determined to send an expedition to seek for a more direct route. Accordingly, in 1609, the Dutch East India Company directed Henry Hudson to make an expedition toward the north, and to find a way to China. Hudson was an Englishman, though in the employ of the Dutch, and had made two similar attempts before this time. He first tried to find a passage north of Europe, and then set sail for the west; after traversing the coast from Newfoundland to the Delaware, he passed through the Narrows between Staten Island and Long Island. Pleased with the beauty of the bay, as well as with its excellence as a harbor, Hudson sailed up the river, past the Palisades, almost to the mouth of the Mohawk River. He decided that he had not found the northwest passage through America, and returned to Holland to report the result of his voyages. The magnificent river received his name, as well as the great bay in British America, to which he afterward went, and where he lost his life. 50 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1610-1623 71. The Traders. — The commercial character of the Dutch led them at once to see an opportunity to establish trade with this portion of the New World which they now claimed as their territory through Hudson's discoveries. They could sell to the Indians many of the products of their excellent manufactories, and could also obtain from them an endless supply of the furs with which the interior of the country abounded. In 1610, another vessel entered the Hudson River which made purchases of furs from the Indians. The next year other vessels were sent from Hudson Sailing up the River. Holland, and about 1614 a few huts were built on the Island of Manhattan, and a "strong house," called Fort Nassau, was erected near the present site of Albany. A brisk trade sprang up, so that in 162 1 the States-General of Holland chartered the Dutch West India Company, and gave it complete control over all the land claimed by the Dutch on this continent. 72. New Netherland. — In March, 1623, the first settlers were sent out by the West India Company, under the command of Captain May. This party made the first real colony within the Dutch ^626-1664] NEW YORK, 51 gi^ Peter Stuyvesant. (From a painting in the possession of the N. Y. Historical Society.) territory, then called New Netherland. Small settlements were made at the mouth of the Hudson, or North River, on the Delaware, or South River, and on the Connecti- cut, while most of the immigrants went to Albany. Thus, three years later than the Pilgrims, and seven years before the founding of Bos- ton, the Dutch colony took its position between Canada and Vir- ginia. Purchasing land of the Indians, the people were soon on good terms with them, and New Netherland at once became a pros- perous colony. 73. The Dutch Colony. — Peter Minuit, the first governor, or director-general, took possession in 1626, and, with a council of five, exercised supreme authority. He purchased the Island of Manhattan from the Indians for twenty- four dollars, and built Fort Amsterdam to be the seat of government. Minuit was succeeded by Walter Van Twiller in 1633, ^^^^ during his rule the valley of the Connecticut was lost to the Dutch (IF 64). The most noted governor of New Netherland was Peter Stuyve- sant, who was director-general from 1647 to 1664. Stuyvesant ruled the colony with a rod of iron, and was in continual conflict with the people. He settled the long-standing dispute with Connecticut over the boundary between the two colonies, and annexed Dela- ware by conquering the Swedes (IF 81). Under his government the colony took a high rank In educational matters, and a popular government was established in 1664. Peter Stuyvesant, the last and greatest of the governors of New Netherland, was born in Holland in 1602, and died in New York at the age of eighty. In May, 1647, he arrived in New Amsterdam, and was received with great rejoicing. He "was above medium height, with a fine physique. He dressed with care, and usually wore slashed hose fastened at the knee by a knotted scarf, a velvet jacket with slashed sleeves over a full puffed shirt, and rosettes upon his shoes. Although abrupt in manner, unconventional, cold, and haughty, full of prejudice and pas- sion, and sometimes unapproachable, he possessed large sympathies and tetider affection. His clear judgment, quick perception, and extent of reading were remarkable." (Appleton's Cyclo- pedia of American Biography.) 52 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1660-1685 74. New York. — The position of New Netherland, with EngHsh colonies on both sides, was calculated to cause trouble with Eng- land. Soon after the Restoration in 1660, Charles II. granted to his brother, the Duke of York, afterwards James II., all the land between the Connecticut and the Delaware rivers. In 1664 a fleet appeared at New Amsterdam, and Stuyvesant, unable to defend his possessions, surrendered to the English deputy-governor. A few years later the Dutch recaptured the colony, but were unable to hold it, and Dutch New Netherland became permanently English New York. In 1685 James succeeded his brother as king of England, and New York became a royal colony. CHAPTER XI, MARYLAND. 75. Avalon. — Sir George Calvert was one of the many English gentlemen who took a deep interest in schemes of colonization. On account of the favorable reports which he received of Newfoundland, Calvert obtained a charter, granting him a por- tion of that island. In 1623, the year of the settlements of New Hampshire, Cape Ann, and New Amsterdam, a col- ony was established at Newfoundland, which received the name of Avalon. In 1628 Calvert himself, with most of his family, took up his residence in the colony. The little settlement found the climate extremely severe, and was in constant trouble with the French fisher- men. It was without the necessary conditions for a successful colony, and was abandoned. Its charter, however, served as a model for the later patent of Maryland. " George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, one of the principal secretaries of state under James I., was born at Kipling, in Yorkshire, in 1582. He was edu- cated at Oxford, and entered the public service as secretary to Robert Cecil. In 1617 he was knighted, and in 1619 he was made one of the principal sec- retaries of state. In 1625 he was made Baron Baltimore, and among other re- wards he received for his services was a patent as Lord of the province of Avalon, in Newfoundland. As this colony was much exposed to the attacks of the French, he left it and obtained another patent for Maryland. He died in 1632, before the grant was confirmed, but in that year it was made out in the name of his son Cecil." (Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol. IV.) I623-I729] MARYLAND. 53 76. Lord Baltimore. — Calvert, in 1623, became a Roman Catholic, and soon after was made Baron Baltimore by James I. After he found his Newfoundland colony impracticable, he petitioned Charles I. for another tract of land in a warmer climate, somewhere near the latitude of Jamestown. Meeting with opposition from the settlers of Virginia, Baltimore ap- plied for and received a grant of land north of the Potomac River. In honor of Queen Henrietta Maria, Baltimore named his colony Mary- land. When the first Lord Balti- more died, his son, Cecil Calvert, inherited his father's title, and became proprietor of Maryland. 77. Settlements. — The first set- tlem.ent was made March 27th, 1634, near the mouth of the Potomac, and was called St. Mary's, The occupations of the settlers and the nature of the country did not favor the making of large towns. The people were principally engaged in farming, especially in raising tobacco, which was shipped direct from the farmers. Each planter had land lying upon the coast of the bay or the shores of the rivers, and could provide a wharf from his own land in water deep enough for the shallow vessels of those days. This was true, also, of the other southern colonies. Near the close of the seventeenth century another important town wai founded, and the capital was moved from St. Mary's to Annapolis. The town of Baltimore, now the largest city in the State of Mary- land, was not founded until 1729. 78. The Settlers. — In the first two vessels to bring colonists to Maryland, there were " about twenty gentlemen and between two and three hundred laboring men and handycraftsmen." These settlers were not adventurers, like the early colonists in the South, nor were they religious refugees, like the ''Mayflower" voyagers. The colony was established on purely business principles, and men were chosen for settlers of such character and occupation as would Lord Baltimore. (After an ene;ravingf by A. Blotling (1657), now in the posses- sion of the Maryland Historical Society, at Baltimore, Md.) 54 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1623-1631 be needed in such a settlement. Many of them were Roman CathoHcs, and at first the government granted religious toleration. Soon after the English revolution of 1688, when William and Mary came to the throne, the Church of England was made the estab- lished church of the colony, and the Roman Catholics became the victims of religious persecution (IF 183). Maryland remained under the government of her proprietor until, with her sister colonies, she threw off all allegiance to the mother country. CHAPTER XII. DELAWARE AND NEW JERSEY. DELAWARE. 79. Dutch Settlements. — When the first Dutch colony arrived, under Cornelius May (172), in 1623, a small number formed a settlement upon what was then called South River. These Dutch- men ascended the river, since called the Delaware, to a point near the present Philadelphia, and there built Fort Nassau. For about eight years this little colony struggled for existence, until, in 1631, the Indians massacred the settlers and the river was deserted. The Dutch continued to claim the region, and always protested against the coming of colonists of any other nationality. 80. The Swedes. — To the north of Holland lies a country inhabited by people of a race closely related to the Dutch. The great king, Gustavus Adolphus, saw the advantages which his nation might receive from a Swedish colony, and therefore, in 1626, chartered the Swedish South Com- pany, as it was commonly called. No discoveries had been made by this nation, but the company relied upon the claim which they Gustavus Adolphus was king of Sweden for twenty-one years, from 161 1 to 1632. He was born in 1594, the son of Charles IX. His youth was spent in study, not only of the various languages and sciences of the day, but also of statesmanship, as he attended council meetings by the time he was ten years of age. When he came to the throne he was not only unusually gifted in literary attainments, but was a man of strong character and extraordinary courage. His entire reign was spent in wars, most of them religious, and from this he has received the title of the " Hero of Protestant- ism." "Gustavus Adolphus is justly regarded as one of the noblest and greatest figures in history." 1632-1682] NEW JERSEY. 55 would obtain by the purchase of land from the Indians. The Thirty Years' War interfered with the schemes of colonization, and the king died in 1632. The plan was not abandoned, however, and in 1637 a colony was sent out from Sweden to the new continent. 81. New Sweden. — The first Swedish colony was under the command of Peter Minuit, formerly governor of New Netherland, and the first settlement was on the Delaware. Fort Christina was built near the site of the present Wilmington, the land being pur- chased from the Indians, This was within the territory claimed by the Dutch, but they were afraid to enter into disputes with the brave Swedes of those days. The growth of New Sweden was very slow, and at the end of seventeen years, in 1655, there were perhaps seven hundred people in the colony. During that year the Dutch, deeming themselves of sufficient strength, attacked Fort Christina, and with no shedding of blood New Sweden again became a part of the Dutch possessions. 82. Delaware. — The Dutch retained possession of the lands upon the Delaware less than ten years. When the Duke of York, in 1664, wrested New Netherland from the Dutch, Delaware became an English colony. New Jersey was soon granted to other pro- prietors, but Delaware continued to be a part of New York and directly under the control of the duke. Soon after William Pcnn had secured a grant of the land which he called Pennsylvania, he found that his colony needed access to the ocean, and he obtained from the Duke of York a deed of the three lower counties on the Delaware (1[ 95). The small strip of land which had first been under the Dutch, then under the Swedes, then under the Dutch again, afterwards conquered by the Duke of York, had at last obtained, in 1682, a permanent owner, and become a part of the possessions of the Quaker proprietor. Delaware had the same governor as Pennsylvania, but a different legislature, until, by the American Revolution, it became an independent State. NEW JERSEY. 83. New Jersey. — The early history of the colony of New Jersey is almost the same as that of its neighbors, New York and Dela- ware. The Dutch claimed its territory as a part of New Netherland, 56 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1664-1688 but made few if any permanent settlements within its limits. The Swedes did not confine themselves within the present boundaries of Delaware, a few of them having farms across the Delaware River. When the Dutch seized upon New Sweden, they claimed continuous land from the Hudson to and beyond the Delaware, but did not have any setdements of note between New Amsterdam and Chris- tina. When the Dutch surrendered to the Duke of York, the land became a part of his territory, and immediately its history as a separate colony began. 84. Berkeley and Carteret. — One of the first acts of the Duke of York, after acquiring his new territory, was to give a certain portion to two of his friends. In 1664 Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret received from the duke a grant of the land between the Hudson and the Delaware. To this territory was given the name of New Jersey, in honor of Carteret, who had been gov- ernor of the Isle of Jersey. Berkeley sold his portion to two Quakers in 1674, and New Jersey was divided into East Jersey, belonging to Car- teret, and West Jersey, a Quaker col- ony. Later Carteret's heirs sold East Jersey to William Penn, and in 1 702 the two colonies were united, and henceforth New Jersey was a royal colony. 85. Settlements. — The early settlers of New Jersey were of three different classes. Some of them were New England Puritans, others came across the border from New York, while others were Quakers who came direct from England. A few months after the surrender of New Netherland, a few persons from Long Island began, in 1665, to make a settlement at Elizabethtown. Here the new governor of Jersey found them and confirmed their right to the land. Religious toleration was permitted, and settlers began to arrive in numbers from the New England colonies. By 1688 settlements had been made in such numbers that a colonial legis- lature was assembled. The class of people that flocked to New The Isle of Jersey is one of the islands in the British Channel, and contains about forty-five square miles. Sir George Carteret was governor of this island at the breaking out of the Civil War in England in 1642, and the island under his leadership remained loyal to King Charles. The Channel Islands suffered great loss because of their devotion to the king, and only yielded to Parliament when, in 1651, it was evident that a further contest was useless. When the Duke of York, James II., gave a part ownership of New Jersey to Carteret, it was a par- tial recompense for the devotion which Carteret had shown to his father. King Charles. 1653-1665] THE CAROLINAS. 57 Jersey was of the best, and the history of the people is one of quiet growth. The Indians were rarely troublesome, and the ad- joining colonies of New York and Pennsylvania protected New Jersey from the French. CHAPTER XIII. THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. THE CAROLINAS. 86. Early History. — There were many unsuccessful attempts to colonize the land lying to the south of Virginia before the first permanent settlement was made. The most important of these were the Port Royal Colony of the French Huguenots (IT 19), and the two disastrous colonies of Raleigh at Roanoke Island (IT 28). During the century which followed the massacre of the Huguenots, many English settlers sought homes in this tract of land, which was called Carolana, or Carolina. The colony sent out by the London Company was intended for Roanoke Island (1137), but instead sailed up the James River. Charles I. gave to one of his favorites a grant of Carolana, but no permanent settlements were made. 87. Early Settlers. — It was not until the middle of the seventeenth century that emigration began to set towards Carolina. In 1653, a .patty of Virginians made a settlement on the Albemarle River. These settlers had been harassed while in Virginia because they were not in sympathy with the Church of England, the estab- lished church of the colony (H 179). The Albemarle settlement was close to the original boundary of Virginia, but within the present limits of North Carolina. Some New Englanders at- tempted a settlement at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, but soon abandoned it because they deemed the place unsuitable. A party of Englishmen from Barbadoes were better satisfied with the location, and the Cape Fear Colony was established in 1665. 88. The Proprietors. — Charles II., on ascending the throne at the Restoration, rewarded many of his friends by giving them lands in 58 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1663-1729 the New World. In 1663 the king granted land south of Virginia to eight proprietors, and in 1665 enlarged the territory. Carolina, as thus granted, extended from the present southern boundary of Virginia, on the north, many miles beyond the Spanish town of St. Augustine, on the south, and westward to the Pacific. Among these proprietors were the Earl of Clarendon, the Duke of Albe- marle, Lord Ashley Cooper, and Sir William Berkeley. The proprietors permitted the settlers who had already arrived to re- main, and offered liberal inducements to attract immigrants to the new colony. Within a few years, besides the Albemarle and Clarendon or Cape Fear counties, two other settlements were begun, one on the Ashley and Cooper rivers, called Charleston, and one farther south, at Port Royal. The Charleston settlement grew the more rapidly, and the southern portion of the colony became the more important. 89. The Locke Constitution. — The proprietors attempted to place over the colonists of Carolina a form of government entirely un- suited to the time and character of the people. John Locke, one of England's greatest philosophers, is said to have drawn up the constitution, and the proprietors strove to enforce it for twenty years. It was based on the idea that the mass of the people should not only have no voice in public affairs, but that they should belong to the land, and be incapable of rising above the lot to which they were born. The tenants should be bought and sold almost as slaves, while their owners were to constitute a priv- ileged class, called the nobility. Such titles were bestowed as admiral, chancellor, baron, landgrave, and cazique, and the supreme ruler was called the palatine. The woodsmen and farmers refuse^ to have anything to do with such a government, and before 1690 the proprietors abandoned the struggle. This was the only attempt ever made to establish a nobility in any of the colonies, and its result was to weaken the government and to injure the prosperity of the colony. 90. North and South Carolina. — The proprietors did not find so much profit in the colony as they had anticipated. Settlement went on very slowly, religious troubles became common, disorder and riots prevailed. In 1729, after an ownership of about sixty- five years, the proprietors gave up their rights to the king. I732-I733] GEORGIA. 59 Carolina already consisted of two counties, each with its own gov- ernor and assembly. At this time the king decided to divide the colony, and the two provinces thus formed were called North and South Carolina. GEORGIA. 91. Oglethorpe. — The condition of the lower classes in England during the seventeenth century was very pitiable. The prisons were crowded with those who were unable to pay their debts, and these prisons were in a most terrible state. James Oglethorpe, a member of Parliament, was chair- man of a committee on prisons. He was moved with compassion at the condition which he found, and formed the idea of establish- ing a colony for the poor and the oppressed. He prevailed upon the merchants of London, and upon Parliament also, to help pay the debts of those who were willing to emigrate to the New World. 92. Government. — In 1732 Ogle- thorpe obtained from King George II. a grant of land between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers. This colony was to be called Georgia, in honor of the king, and was founded for two special purposes. It was to be a refuge for the poor and the oppressed of all lands, and at the same time it was to form a protection to Carolina from the Spaniards in Florida. The king's charter placed Georgia for twenty-one years in the hands of twenty-one trustees, " in trust for the poor." Ihe trustees were to have full power, but were to obtain no per- sonal advantage from the colony. The result was unsatisfactory, however, and the trustees gladly surrendered their rights in 1752, and Georgia became a royal colony. 93. Settlement. — The first settlement within the colony was made by Oglethorpe himself with thirty-five families, in 1733, at Savannah. Some German Protestants came the following year, and other col- James Oglethorpe. (From an old engraving.) 6o ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1681 onists soon followed. It was not long before the trustees found that others besides paupers were needed to make the colony a success. Scotch and German immigration was therefore encouraged, and as long as Oglethorpe remained in the colony, it enjoyed a general prosperity, although it continued to be scarcely more than an experiment up to the time of the Revolution. CHAPTER XIV. PENNSYLVANIA. 94. Quakers. — One of the results of the religious agitations in Europe during the seventeenth century (H 47) was the formation of the sect called Friends, or Quakers. George Fox was the founder of this denomination, and its peculiar features caused it to receive severe persecution. The Friends did not believe in any church with paid min- 1 ters or priests, and objected to State support of religion. They believed in the equality of persons, would not remove their hats even in the presence of the king, and used no titles in their conversation. They dressed very plainly, and re- fused to engage in war or attempt to enforce obedience to laws (1 182). 95. William Penn.— The doc- trines of George Fox were accepted by a large number of those who were dissatisfied with the Church of England, and rich and poor alike joined the body of Friends. Among them was William Penn, a son of Admiral Sir William Penn, a man of high rank and a friend of King William Penn. (After the painting in the rooms of the P» Hist. Soo., Phil.) 1681-1683] PENNSYLVANIA. 61 Charles II. and his brother, then Duke of York. Penn became interested in the attempt of the Quakers to settle West Jersey, and determined to provide a refuge for those who might be persecuted for religion's sake. In 1681 Charles II. gave him a grant of the land now comprised within the limits of Pennsylvania, in payment of a debt which the government had owed to his father. The king called the country " Pennsylvania," or " Penn's Woods," in honor of the admiral, in spite of objections that Penn made to the name. By this charter Penn obtained a title to forty thousand square miles of land, which was increased the next year by the purchase of Dela- ware from the Duke of York (H 82). 96. Settlement. — The Swedes and the Dutch had begun small settlements on the banks of the Delaware many years before the grant to Penn. These villages were of but little account, however, and the real settlement of Pennsylvania may be said to have been made in 1681. Three vessels of Quakers came over in this year, and in the following year Penn himself arrived with a hundred com- panions. He landed at Newcastle, Del., and soon after held his first assembly at Chester, or Upland. Passing up the Delaware to its junction with the Schuyl- kill, Penn chose this strip of land to be the site for his capital, and in 1683 laid out the city of Philadelphia, or "Broth- erly Love." He met the Indians under an elm-tree at Shackamaxon, and pur- chased the land from them for his city. Though the colony was founded for the sake of the despised Quakers, those opinions were cordially invited, and persecution was unknown. Religious freedom and easy laws stimulated immigration, and the colony grew rapidly, with Germans and Scotch-Irish, as well as English, among its numbers. 97. Government. — Penn prepared a *' Frame of Government" and proposed it to the colonists, and the first Assembly adopted it. " The scene at Shackamaxon forms the subject of one of the pic- tures of West. Shall the event be commemorated by the pencil? Imag- ine the chiefs of the savage com- munities, of noble shape and grave demeanor, assembled in council without arms : the old men sit in a half-moon upon the ground ; the middle-aged are in a like figure at a little distance be- hind them ; the young foresters form a third semi-circle in the rear. Before them stands William Penn, graceful in the summer of life, in dress scarce dis- tinguished by a belt, surrounded by a few Friends, chiefly young men, and, like Anaxagoras, whose example he cherished, pointing to the skies, as the tranquil home to which not Chris- tians only, but ' the souls of heathen go, Who better live than we, tliougli less they know.' " (Bancroft's History of the United States). who held other relio-ious 62 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1589-1623 Perfect religious freedom was accorded to all who believed in God, and the only religious qualification for the officers was that they be pro- fessing Christians. Many of the laws were such as would be particularly appropriate for a Quaker colony, and they made Pennsylvania, in many re- spects, a pattern for the other settle- ments. The same spirit showed itself in Penn's treatment of the Indians. He was always honest and straightforward in his dealings with them, so that they acquired a love and respect for him. This was doubtless the leading cause of the freedom that Penn- sylvania enjoyed from Indian warfare. The " Frame of Government " provides among other things, " That all persons living in this province, who confess and acknowledge the one Al- mighty and Eternal God to be the Cre- ator, Upholder and Ruler of the world, and that hold themselves obliged, in conscience, to live peaceably and justly in civil society, shall, in no ways, be molested, or prejudiced, for their re- ligious perswasion, or practice, in mat- ters of faith and worship; nor shall they be compelled, at any time, to fre- quent, or maintain, any religious wor- ship, place or ministry whatever." CHRONOLOGY. 1589. 1598. 1603. 1605. 1606. 1607. 1608. 1609. 1610. 1612. 1614. 1619. 1620. 1621. 1623. France — Reign of Henry IV. Spain — Reign of Philip III. England — Reign of James I. Port Royal — Settlement by De Monts. Charter granted to London and Plymouth Companies, April 10. Jamestown — Settlement by London Company, May 13. Holland — Immigration of the Scrooby Pilgrims. Quebec — Settlement by Champlain, July 3. Virginia — Second charter of the London Company. Hudson River— Explored by Henry Hudson. Lake Champlain — Explored by Champlain. France — Reign of Louis XIII. Virginia — Third charter of London Company. Fort Nassau — Built by Christiaensen. Virginia — First Legislative Assembly, July 30. Virginia — First importation of negro slaves. Plymouth — Settlement by the Pilgrims, December 21, N. S. New England — Charter of the Council of Plymouth. Spain — Reign of Philip IV. Manhattan — Settlement by the Dutch. New Hampshire — Settlement at Dover and Portsmoulht Massachusetts — Settlement at Cape Ann, I624-I673] CHRONOLOGY. 63 1624. 1625 1626, 1629. 1630. 1634. 1635, 1635 1636 1637. 1638. 1639. 1643. 1649. 1655. 1660. 1662. 1663. 1664. 1665. 1669. 1670. 1673. 1674. 1675. 1681. 1682. 1685. 1689. 1691. 1700. 1702. 1703. 1714. 1715. 1727. 1733. Virginia — Charter of London Company annulled. England — Reign of Charles I. Salem — Settlement by Conant. Massachusetts Bay — Charter granted, March 4. Boston — Settlement by Winthrop, August. Maryland — Settlement at St. Mary's, March. New England — Council of Plymouth resigns its patent, to 1636. Connecticut — Settlement at Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford. Rhode Island — Settlement at Providence. New England — Pequot'War. ' Delaware — Settlement by the Swedes. Rhode Island — Settlement at Newport. Connecticut — Settlement at New Haven. Connecticut — Constitution adopted, January 14. France — Reign of Louis XIV. England — Commonwealth. Delaware — Conquered by the Dutch. England — The Restoration. Reign of Charles II. Connecticut — Charter granted, April 20. Rhode Island — Charter granted, July 8. Carolina — Granted by Charles II., March 24. New York — Conquered by the English, September New Jersey — Settlement at Elizabethtown. Connecticut and New Haven united. Spain — Reign of Charles II. Carolina — Locke's Constitution formed. South Carolina — Settlement at Old Charleston. Great Lakes — Explored by Marquette and Joliet. New Jersey — Divided into East and West Jersey. New England — King Philip's War begun. Pennsylvania — Granted to William Penn, March 4. Pennsylvania — Settlement at Philadelphia. Mississippi River — Explored by La Salle. Delaware — Sold to Penn. England — Reign of James II. England — Reign of William and Mary. Plymouth — United to Massachusetts. Spain — Reign of Philip V. England — Reign of Anne. Delaware — Becomes a separate colony. England — Reign of George I. France — Reign of Louis XV. England — Reign of George II. Georgia — Settlement at Savannah, February 13. OBlacfeboam atualtjsijs* OOLONIAL WAKS Indian Characteristics Warfare Pequots .King Philip . New France French Wars . French Fourth War , Treaty of 1763 r Features. I Traits. 1 Occupations. I Distribution. [ Contrasts between Indians J and White Men. I Implements of War. ^Race Difficulties. r Indians in Connecticut. -j The Story of the War. I^The Tribe exterminated. The Tribe of the Pokanokets. Attempt to exterminate the English. Great Swamp-Fight. The War Severe. Early Explorers. Settlements at Acadia and Quebec. Explorations of the Jesuits. La Salle's Discovery of the Mississippi. .Extent of the Country. fKiNG William's War. -j Queen Anne's War. [King George's War. ^Causes of the War. Attempt to unite the Colo- nies. English Defeat under Brad- dock. English Failures everywhere. William Pitt comes to the Rescue. Plan of Campaign. Fall of Quebec. 'Conquest of Canada. France shut out from North America. Effect upon the English Colonies. 1640 NATIONAL CLAIMS TO THE ATLANTIC SLOPE i:sr 1640. r I EXGLISH CLAIMS based on the discoveries of John Sebastian CaJ>of, 1497-08, and tlie settlements at James- tmvn, 1607, and Plyjmuth, 1620. I I FRENCB CLAIMS based on the discoveries of Corteral, loOl, Denys, 1506, Verrazani, 1524, Cartier, 1534, and settlements of Champlavn, 1609, and the Huguenots in the south, 1562. I I SPANISH CLAIMS basedon discovery by Pmice de Leon, 1512, and settlement of St. Augtcstine, 1565. I I B UTCH CLA IMS based on the discovery of Hudson, 1609, and settlement of New Amsterdam, 1614. {To the Connecticut River until \^0.) I I SWEDISH CLAIM by settlement, 1631. iV Cofy right, 1892, in MacCoinV s Historical Geography of the United States. SECTION III. COLONIAL WARS. CHAPTER XV. INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 98. Indians. — Europeans found this country inhabited by a copper-colored race of men whom they called Indians, supposing that this land was a part of the East Indies. They were divided into tribes, and each tribe was governed by a sachem. Most of these tribes were rude savages, living in huts called wigwams, made of bark and skins of animals. They lived in hamlets, or villages, and frequently moved from place to place. Individuals laid no claim to the land, but the tribal limits were sometimes well defined. Traces of half-civilized and civilized races were found in different parts of the country, especially in the great in- terior valley of the Mississippi and its branches. In Mexico, Central America, and Peru a higher degree of civ- ilization existed. The people lived in permanent towns and cities, and were subject to an established government. They cultivated the soil, carried on various useful arts, built roads and substantial buildings, including temples of worship. In the Ohio and Missis- sippi valleys were found monuments of various kinds, such as mounds, fortifications, pyramids, temples. Here were also remains of pottery, implements of stone and copper, and occasionally rude sculptures. 99. Features. — The Indians were of moderate height, straight in form, active and athletic of limb. Their features were usually reg- ular, and they had high cheek-bones like the people of interior and 5 66 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. northeastern Asia. They had uniformly long straight coarse black hair, but little beard or none at all. They were characterized by great physical endurance, and were staid, taciturn, and stoical. 100. Mental and Moral Traits. — Their mental and moral traits may be summa- rized as follows : they were daring, brave, and self-pos- sessed ; they were warm, cor- dial, and faithful to their friends, but treacherous, vin- lictive, and cruel to their en- emies. They were usually stern and dignified in their bearing, and generally cau- tious and reserved before Indian Method of Boiling. They had quick perceptions, which were highly cul- tivated by their manner of life. Their powers of observation, espe- cially their senses of sight and hearing, were remark- ably acute and accurate. 101. Employment. — -In general they had no houses, except the wigwams al- ready mentioned, and no regular occupation. Their chief support came from hunting and fishing. The women often cultivated small patches of ground, and raised Indian corn, melons, tobacco, and a few '"'^'^" '^^^'^^^ «^ ^'■°'""^- other plants. They were a roving people, rude and lazy. The- principal employment of the Indians was hunting. They killed wild animals with the bow and arrow, or with darts or javelins. Being ignorant of the use of iron, they tipped their arrows with sharp- INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 67 pointed stones. The buffalo, the bear, the wolf, furnished them with food, dress, shelter, and warmth. They had no tame animals except the dog. 102. Women. — The women performed the hard labor of daily life. The wife, or squaw, was really a slave to her husband. Men bought their brides and sold their daughters. In return for their drudgery the women received very little but neglect and abuse. To children, after the years of infancy, but little attention was given. 103. Great Tribes. — The Indians of the United States east of the Mississippi were embraced principally in four great divisions: the Algonquins, the Iroquois, the Cherokees, the Appalaches. West of the Mississippi were the Dakotas, the Shoshones, the Apaches, the Comanches, all east of the Rocky Mountains. On the Pacific slope were found the Walla Wallas, the Nez Perces, the Flat Heads, the Spokanes, the Yakamas, the Clatsops, the Utahs, the Modocs, the Aztecs, the Zunis, the Pueblos, and numerous other tribes of less note. In these different tribes were to be observed great differences of appearance, of disposition, of language, and of culture. The Indians who first met the white people on the Atlantic coast were of the various branches of Algonquins. 104. Number of Indians. — The number of Indians at the time of the first European settlement within what is now the United States has been variously estimated at from a quarter of a million to a million. Probably the former number is nearer the truth than the latter. At present these people, within the limits of our country, number about two hundred and sixty-five thousand. Until recently it had been estimated that the number was diminishing, but it is now generally considered that their number is slowly increasing^ owing perhaps to the more humane treatment which prevails at the present time. A Dirch Sirk C«noe 68 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. CHAPTER XVI. EARLY CONFLICTS. 105. Indians and White Men. — On the first arrival of the white men the Indians were incHned to regard them as of supernatural origin. They treated them with hospitality, veneration, and con- fidence, but they soon discovered that the Europeans were mortal as well as themselves; and when the Spaniards, at an early date, and, later, the English kidnapped the In- dians and sold them into slavery, used them as captive guides for explorations, and murdered them on slight provocation, sentiments of distrust and hatred naturally Indian Shell Axe- j j i.i_ • r i* r i succeeded their leehngs oi awe and ven- eration. The Indians soon felt justified in wreaking their vengeance on the white race whenever they failed to find individual ofienders. 106. Modes of Warfare. — Under these circumstances the Indians became exceedingly cruel. Their mode of warfare was skulking; and when aroused to vengeance they appeared to enjoy nothing better than to pillage and burn the homes of the whites, and to murder with special cruelty the women and children. Hence the whites began to fear and to loathe the savage, and they often added greatly to the bitterness of the struggle by retaliation in kind. The white people themselves were too frequently brutal, reckless, and lawless, and under such conditions clashing between the white set- tlers and the Indians was inevitable. 107. Difficulties between the Races. — At the very first the white men were received by the Indians with friendship. Difficulties, however, would naturally arise; and as the colonies increased in number and pushed farther and farther into the country, the Indians saw that they were losing the land over which they had hitherto freely roamed, and upon which they had lived unmolested. Even the English settlers showed but little wisdom in their treatment of the Indians. A few men here and there treated them kindly, and some sought to make Christian? of them. The Rev. John Eliot, of Indian War Club. 1636] EARLY CONFLICTS. 69 Boston, spent his life in earnest efforts to Christianize them. He translated the Bible into their language. This was the first Bible printed in America. It was published in Cambridge in 1663. 108. Pequot War. — The first severe war that occurred between the English settlers and the Indians was in 1636, and is known as the Pequot War. The Pequots were a savage tribe of Indians living mostly in Connecticut (IT 64). In June, 1634, the Indians treacherously murdered August, 1635, they inhu- manly murdered a whole family, and soon afterwards the wife and children of another family near Hartford. These unprovoked acts of barbarity kindled the resentment of the English, and they be*an making preparations to exterminate the cruel tribe of Pequots. The Indians then sent mes- sengers with gifts to the governor. Their attempts to conciliate the English, however, were in vain. 109. Treaty soon broken. — Again they sent messengers with a large quantity of wampum as a present to the governor and council. A treaty of peace was concluded, to which the Pequots readily agreed. It was not long, however, before the treacherous Indians commenced again their brutal murders. A severe war now ensued- The Pequots, in June, 1636, attacked Fort Saybrook, in which were about twenty men. The attacking party numbered one hundred and fifty. The firing of a cannon from the fort produced such deadly execution among the Indians, huddled together as they were, that they soon retreated, leaving their dead and wounded, about twenty in number, behind them. In this attack the English sustained no loss. 110. War general. — Soon after this, Captain Endicott proceeded against Block Island, which was inhabited by Pequots, killed many Indians, destroyed their wigwams and supplies, and then sailed away to the Connecticut coast. The Indians on the mainland at once made cruel war upon the English. The Connecticut Colony suffered most. Troops were sent from Massachusetts to aid in the contest. Roger Williams, of Rhode Island, performed heroic service 70 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1636-1643 at this critical juncture. Alone and unarmed, he travelled more than twenty miles through the wilderness to the Narragansetts, and at the risk of his life entreated them not to join the Pequots in their war against the English. He succeeded in persuading them to keep the peace. 111. War continued. — The English now showed no mercy. The war continued through 1636 and the spring and early summer of 1637. The report of the unprovoked cruelties and savage barbar- ities of the Pequots roused the other colonies to the most spirited exertions. Massachusetts determined to send two hundred men, and Ply- mouth Colony forty more, to assist in prosecuting the war. A severe en- gagement took place in May, near Fort Saybrook, on the Connecticut. Several engagements followed, with terrible results to the Indians. A se- vere battle took place in the latter part of May, 1637, ^^^^^ Groton. The Indians were encamped in a thick swariip, but they were surrounded by the English and their Indian allies, and after a severe engagement the wigwams were set on fire, and but few Indians escaped. Eighty wigwams were burned and upwards of eight hundred Indians destroyed. The loss of the English was comparatively small, not exceeding twenty-five killed and wounded. 112. Results. — The war had been a terrible one. It was char- acterized by much personal bravery. A large proportion of the several colonies were put to great and immediate danger; but they were so resolute that although greatly outnumbered by the Indians, they were entirely successful, and the Indians were utterly vanquished. By the bravery and unconquerable resolution of less than one hundred men, Connecticut was saved and the most war- like tribe of Indians in New England completely exterminated. A league called the United Colonies of New England was formed in 1643 Q^ 189)- Indian Snow Shoes. 1601-1675] PHILIP OF POKANOKET. 71 CHAPTER XVIL PHILIP OF POKANOKET. 113. The Pokanokets. — In the early history of New England the Wampanoags, or Pokanokets, were a strong and numerous tribe of Indians, occupying considerable territory in the southeastern part of Massachusetts, and in Rhode Island, bordering upon Narragansett Bay. For forty years after the settlement of Ply- mouth the chief or king of this tribe was the good Massasoit. His home was at Sowams, which is the site of the present town of Warren, Rhode Island. The whole region was called Pokano- The settlers of Plymouth were very fortunate in that the Indians did not disturb thein during the terrors of the first winter. In fact, they saw nothing of them, and it was not until the next spring that they were terrified by the sight of an Indian approaching the village. The fear was partially relieved by the first words which he uttered: "Welcome, Englishmen." This Indian was Samoset, who had learned to speak a little English from some fishermen along the coast of Maine. Samoset proved a true friend indeed to the colonists, and was in the habit of mingling freely with them. He brought the chief of the Indians of the vicinity, named Massasoit, to visit the village, and Governor Brad- ford was able to make a treaty with him. This treaty was kept by both parties; and in spite of a few hostile threats, the Indians did not attack Plymouth for about fifty years. ket. Massasoit was always friendly to the whites, and gave shelter to Roger Williams during those fourteen weeks of winter weather (H 66}. 114. King Philip. — Philip, the son of Massasoit, became the sachem of his tribe about 1 66 1. From that time, for fourteen years he was constantly en- gaged in plotting against the whites. Again and again was he charged with conspiracy against them, which he invariably denied. He fre- quently made treaties and affected friendship with the whites, only to break his promises and renew his plottings. Philip made stren- uous efforts to secure the aid of the Narragansett tribe, living in Rhode Island. He determined upon the annihilation of the P2nglish at all hazards. He was a man of great courage, strong will, and invincible determination. 115. The War begun. — The first blow fell upon the people of Swansea, on Thursday, June 24, 1675. For more than a year the savages carried on their aggressive warfare, skulking here and there, pouncing upon unarmed citizens, burning towns, and killing ^2 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1675 with merciless cruelty men, women, and children alike. The towns destroyed and injured were scattered over Massachusetts and Rhode Island, extending from Taunton, Swansea, and Rehoboth on the one Bide, to Springfield, Northampton, and Deerfield on the other. 116. The Great Swamp Fight. — The Narragansetts finally joined Philip, and fortified themselves in a great fort situated within a swamp in Rhode Island. Here, in December, 1675, the Indians were at- tacked by a large body of troops from the several New England colonies. The contest was long and bloody, but the Indians were completely de- stroyed. Their wigwams, num- bering at least five hundred, were burned. Their corn, stores, and utensils, with many of their men, women, and children perished in '^^^ ^^^^^'^ °" Brookfieid, Mass. the flames. More than a thousand Indians were killed. It was the greatest defeat the Indians had ever sustained. 117. The Final Struggle. — Philip was now hunted from place to place. His followers had either been overcome in battle or had deserted him, until he was left with but a handful of his former 1676] PHILIP OF POKANOKET. 73 army. At length he took refuge near his old home at Mount Hope. There, in August, 1676, he was attacked by Captain Church with a small body of colonists, and the heart of the great chieftain was pierced by the ball of an Indian. The great contest was ended by the capture of Philip's only remaining general, Annawan, by Captain Church. The capture of Annawan was accom- plished by a bold stratagem, and the account of it reads like a tale from the '* Arabian Nights." 118. The Cost of the War.— Thus King Philip's War was ended. The amount of suffering which it had occasioned was enormous. At least thirteen towns were wholly de- stroyed, and a number of others sustained more or less damage. Over six hundred of the colonists fell in battle, and many more were wounded. Scarcely a family could be found in which some one had not suffered. The principal burden fell upon Massachusetts and Plymouth. The loss in property was not less than half a million of dollars, — a large sum for those days, and as great in proportion as the cost of the Revolutionary War was for the nation a hundred years later. More than six hundred buildings had been consumed by fire. It was years before some of the towns were rebuilt 119. The Result. — This struggle was the most severe that the colonies experienced with the natives at any time. It was really a case of life or death. Had Philip succeeded, he would have swept out of existence every white man in New England. After the contest was over, the settlers had a long period for rest and recuperation. King Philip. (After an old anonymous print.) |f -Dftrfield. 98 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. CHAPTER XXIV, RESOURCES. 169. Plantations. — The first settlers of Virginia came for the pur- pose of finding gold, or the Northwest Passage, or to trade with the Indians. Little was thought of agriculture until after the " starving time," and even then, for a time, there was but little real farming, as the immigrants were for the most part unused to that form of - — — , — -^ — — ^ labor. In time the poorer land- owners were com- pelled to sell to the more wealthy, and soon a large por- tion of the South- ern Coloniec was owned bycosTipar- atively few men. These planters patterned closely after the English country gentle- men of their day. On the plantations would be found the great house, the negro quarters, the barns and stables, and the shops, in which were rudely manufactured many of the articles needed on the place. In fact, each plantation became a com- munity by itself. Throughout all the Southern colonies tobacco was the principal crop, but in the Carolinas rice and indigo came to be staple articles. Lumber was shipped from the Carolinas, and cattle were raised to a considerable extent. Other farm produce, as a rule, was grown on each plantation, but only as much as was necessary for the support of the community. 170. Small Farms. — • Proceeding northward, one would find the plantations growing smaller and more numerous. The great wheat A Southern Mansion. RESOURCES. 99 region was in the Middle colonies, and many of the farms here were large and prosperous. There was a greater variety of farm produce than south of the Potomac, and many cattle were raised in New Jersey. In New England an entire change of things was to be found. Here there were no large farms, no tenants ; each farm was managed by its owner. The soil was not rich ; rocks and stones abounded ; it was impossible to raise large crops of any staple. Each farm raised enough of various crops to feed the family; and all necessities, for the most part, were made on the place. The larger portion of the population of New England lived in towns and villages, and these clusters of houses were separated by long distances. In no respect was the difference between the Eastern and Southern colonies more pronounced than in the communities, — the towns, in which almost every house was owned by the occupant himself, and the planta- tions, where all was the property of the great planter. 171. Commerce. — The scattered condition of the colonies alonor the coast built up a large coasting trade. Their dependency upon the mother country was productive of much commerce. Vessels were built in all the colonies, though shipbuilding was confined prin- cipally to New England, — Maine furnishing the most timber for this purpose. The great fisheries off* the New England coast developed a race of hardy sailors, and these did most of the carrying trade. Tobacco, rice, indigo, beef, cotton, tar, and turpentine were exported from the Southern colonies, while all kinds of manufactures were brought back from England. The exports of grain and flour from the port of New York did not equal the imports Into the Middle colonies. New England raised little that could be used in foreign trade, but rather sought to build and man the vessels which should engage in commerce. Lumber and furs formed a considerable part of the exports from all the colonies, and sugar and molasses of the imports. Pirates did much injury to the commerce of the colonies, and for a long time were able to ward off all efforts to drive them from American waters. 172. Navigation Acts. — A great blow was dealt to colonial com- merce by the Navigation Acts (11202), the first of which was passed in 165 1 by Cromwell and his Parliament. This provided that England's products must be carried to the colonies in English or colonial vessels. This act was passed for the purpose simply of aiding English com- merce and as a dy-ect blow to the Dutch carrying trade. In 1663 lOO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. other laws were passed by the Parliament of Charles II., ordering that all goods imported into any colony must come from some English port. This bore heavily on the colonists, especially on the commerce-lovivng New Englanders, and later acts proved even more burdensome. As the colonists considered these laws unjust, it was not strange that many of the merchants attempted to evade them, and smuggling grew to be common in various New England ports. The laws were poorly enforced, as the revenue officers often either took bribes to overlook the illicit trade, or sometimes even engaged in it themselves. A more rigid enforcement proved, in later years, one of the most important causes that brought about the Revolution. 173. Manufactures. — In a new country, farming, shipping, and hunting are usually the first occupations. It has always proved true that manufactures only become of importance as the settlements grow older. Thus the people of the colonies devoted but little time to developing those industries which, since the Revolution, have made the United States the great manufacturing na- tion of the world. In the South there were no manu- factures whatever, everything that was needed being im- ported from England. In the Middle colonies there were small manufactures, as paper A Flax-Wheel. ^^^ glass, and in 1720 an iron furnace was started in Pennsylvania. New England imported fewer manufactured goods than the other colonies, needing only the most important ones. *' There being abundant water-power, small saw and grist mills were numerous ; there were many tanneries and distilleries ; the Scotch-Irish made linens and coarse woollens." Homespun goods were made in every farmhouse, the spinning- wheels being run by every maiden and housewife. The large manu- factories of the New England of to-day sprang naturally from the smaller industries of colonial times. EDUCATION. lOI CHAPTER XXV. EDUCATION. 174. Schools. — One of the most important characteristics of the Puritans of New England was their beHef in the necessity of educa- tion. Hardly had they founded their churches and built their houses before they established a school. In 1647 the General Court of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay passed an act requiring every town to establish a free school, and, if there were one hundred families in the town, a grammar school. Common schools were to be found thrqughout all the New England colonies at an early date, and in every colony but Rhode Island there was an attempt at requiring all the children to attend school. The Dutch in New Netherland rivalled the Puritans in their establishment of free schools, but these schools began to decay when the colony became English. Throughout the Middle colonies there were many suc- cessful private schools, though but little public money was used in educating the people. In the South, opportunities for obtaining an education were very few. There were no free schools, and but very few schools of any kind. The planters either placed their children under tutors at home, or sent them to England to be educated. 175. Colleges. — The elementary schools taught the boys to *' read, write, and cipher;" the girls received even less education. The grammar schools were not like those of to-day ; the word " gram- mar " meant Latin grammar, and these schools were academies, fit- ting boys only for college. The first college was founded in 1636, the General Court of Massachusetts appropriating i^400 for the pur- pose. In 1638 the college received the name of Harvard College, in honor of John Harvard, who gave to it his library and half his estate. In 1693 a charter was obtained from the king and queen, which established William and Mary College in Virginia, the second in the colonies. Yale College was founded at Saybrook, Connecti- cut, in 1700, and before the French and Indian War three others were started which have since become Columbia, Princeton, and the University of Pennsylvania. I02 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 176. Printing. — Daily newspapers and free public libraries were unknown in the colonies. The first printing-press was set up at Cambridge, in connection with Harvard College, in 1639, and from this time aided the college in moulding New England. The first newspaper was the Boston *' News Letter," which was published in 1704. The title of this paper indicates its character, as its columns were filled, for the most part, with extracts from private letters received by the inhabitants of Boston. At the begin- ning of the Revolution there were thirty-seven news- papers in all the colonies. Few persons were rich enough to afford a library, and the libraries that did exist would seem small to- day. The colonists had a hard struggle to support themselves, and were not able to devote much time to reading. The people of New England acquired their education fully as much from the sermons to which they listened every Sunday, and from the town meetings, as from schools or books. 177. Professions. — In some of the Southern colonies it might be said that there were no professions. In none of them were there many lawyers or skilled physicians, while the ministers were for the most part of but moderate ability. In the Middle colonies the same condition of things existed as to the practice of medicine. The judges and lawyers were usually of high standing, while the clergy were earnest, able men. Much of New England's leadership among the colonies was due to the eminent ministers who were popular leaders and men of rare ability. The The Old South Church, Boston, Mass. RELIGION. 103 lawyers and statesmen were of less importance, though as time went on they came more and more into prominence. The doc- tors were much esteemed by the people, though many of them were not of very high ability. Literature, fine arts, and the sciences were unable to make much headway, and until the middle of the eighteenth century there were almost no authors, painters, or scientists. 178. Town Meetings. — The most peculiar feature of the New Eng- land colonies, making them unlike any of the others, was their town government, with its town meeting. The people of a New England town governed themselves, making their own laws. They met in town meeting at least once a year, and all the men of the town might be present, vote, and take part in the discussions. In fact, there was, at one time, a fine if any citizen was not present. These meetings were often held in the churches, as few halls and no theatres then existed. In several towns the meetings were very large, and in Boston they were usually held in Faneuil Hall or the Old South Church. All matters relating to the town were dis- cussed, appropriations of money were made, and the officers were elected. Here was a pure democracy, all men's votes being of equal importance, and each being privileged to speak his mind on any subject. The town meeting was a great educator of the people, and its influence has been felt even to the present day. CHAPTER XXVI. RELIGION. 179. Churcli of England. — The first settlers in Virginia brought with them the Church of England, or the Episcopal Church, as it is called in America to-day. The Royal Instructions given to the London Company made it the Established Church of the colony. Taxes were levied in most of the Southern colonies for the support of the church. Those colonists who had other forms of belief were persecuted, and, especially after the Restoration, harsh measures I04 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. prevailed. In the Carolinas less persecution took place, - and In South Carolina the Dissenters were in the majority. The Church of England was established in New York and New Jersey, but in the latter there was no religious persecution. In these colonies there were many religious sects, the Dutch Reformed, the Dutch Lutheran, and the Presbyterian being the leading denominations. The Episcopal service was not permitted in New England until the time of Andros (IT 190), and during the eigh- teenth century this church made few gains among the Puritans of Massachusetts and Connecticut. 180. The Puritans. — The early settlers of New England fled from religious perse- cution in England to establish Puritan churches. At first, town and church in Massachusetts were identical, and for many years only members of Puritan churches were allowed to vote. It was natural that there should be a very marked religious feeling, and that religious matters should pre- dominate throughout the colony. The Puritans were very intoler- ant, not allowing any other form of worship, though this feeling grew weaker as time went on. They were especially opposed to the introduction of the Episcopal ritual, as they feared that Eng- land might force that church service upon them. The Puritans, or Congregationalists, formed a large majority of the population of Puritans going to Church. RELIGION. 105 New England, even up to the Revolution, though they were not numerous in the other colonies. At times they obtained some power in South Carolina and Maryland, and were quite promi- nent in New Jersey, but their stronghold was in the New England colonies. 181. Roger Williams. — -Endicott had scarcely become settled at Salem (TsS) when he sent back to England two brothers by the name of Browne, because they objected to the omission of the Prayer-book from the service of the Salem church. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson was driven from Massachusetts Bay because the Puri- tans deemed the doctrines which she preached dangerous (ir67). The most noted example of the persecution of a single individual was that of Roger Williams (j 66). He went to Salem in 1631, and, after preaching a short time in the First Church, was chosen pastor at Plymouth. Returning to Salem in 1634, he soon incurred the enmity of the leaders of the colony on account of the radical views which he preached from the Salem pulpit. He believed in separating church and state and in allowing perfect religious liberty. He denied the right of the colonists to the land, since they had not purchased it from the Indians. Through his influence Endicott cut the cross from the royal ensign, thinking it a symbol of Roman Catholicism. He became feared both for religious and political reasons, and in January, 1636, orders were issued that he be carried back to England. Fleeing into the wilderness, he spent many weeks among the Indians before he landed at Providence and founded the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 182. The Quakers. — The peculiar views of the Friends, popularly called Quakers, were sufficient to set the Puritans against them» But there were a few who called themselves Friends who went to such extremes that they brought against the whole denomination a prejudice which the mass of the Quakers did not deserve. Massa- chusetts took the lead in persecuting these people, and their cruel treatment has always been a blot upon her fair fame. The first to arrive were two women from Barbadoes who were put in prison, and their books publicly burned. They were sent back, but immediately eight more arrived from England. The four colonies belonging to the New England Union (T 189) passed laws banishing all Quakers and threatening severe punishment if any should return. The poof Io6 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. Quakers, earnest in their faith, persisted in returning, and were flogged, imprisoned, had their ears cut off, and their tongues burned with a hot iron. At last Massachusetts passed a law that returning Quakers should be put to death, and three persons were hanged on Boston Common. In 1660 the death penalty was repealed, and persecution grew less and less. Times had changed when in 1789 a Quaker, chairman of the board of selectmen, welcomed President Washington to Salem. 183. Religious Freedom. — While there was a great difference among the colonies in regard to religious persecution, in but three could it be said that religious toleration existed. Roger Williams fled from the persecution of the Puritans to found a colony wherein every person was allowed perfect religious freedom. The Baptists became the most numerous sect in Rhode Island, but they had no special political power. In Penn's Frame of Government, it was enacted that there should be religious liberty in Pennsylvania, and this colony, as well as Rhode Island, came to be an asylum for those persecuted for religion's sake. The only Roman Catholic colony was Maryland, and here there was no per- secution as long as the Catholics were in power. When William and Mary came to the throne in 1688, the Church of England was established, and religious freedom in Maryland came to an end. 184. Superstition. — Throughout all ages and in all countries belief in some form of evil spirits has accompanied belief in God. An almost universal fear of witches and witchcraft was associated even with the Christian faith. Throughout all European nations, so-called witches were executed ; and in England in one year one hundred and twenty were put to death on charges of witchcraft. Among the colonies, here and there, persons were accused of being in league with the Devil, and punishment was inflicted upon a few. In 1692 an "epidemic of superstitious fear" occurred in Massachu- setts, beginning in Salem Village, or what is now called Danvers. Children witnessed against many persons throughout the county, and before the craze was over twenty persons unjustly lost their lives. The next year, the people began to recover their senses, and in May, 1693, the jail doors were opened and all the prisoners accused of witchcraft were set free. This jail delivery marked the beginning of a better day. 1763. Copyright, 1892, in MacCoun's Historical Geography of the United States. GOVERNMENT. IO7 CHAPTER XXVII. GOVERNMENT. 185. Charter Colonies. — There were three forms of government among the colonies, — charter, proprietary, and royal. The three charter colonies were Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Charles I. in 1629 granted a charter to the Massachusetts Bay Company which they brought over with them the next year. In 1644 the same king gave a charter to the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and in 1665 New Haven and Connecti- cut were united by a charter granted to the colony of Connecticut. In these three colonies the people were allowed to govern them- selves, provided merely that they made no laws contrary to those of England. They chose the members of both branches of the legislature and the governor as well. Massachusetts lost its first charter in 1684, and the second, granted in 1691, directed that the governor should be appointed by the king. Rhode Island and Connecticut retained their charters and lived under them until lonsf after the Revolution, Connecticut adopting a State constitution in 1818, and Rhode Island in 1842 (1 486). 186. Proprietary and Royal Colonies. — Each of the other ten colonies was originally given to some company or proprietor, though at the beginning of the Revolution but three were proprie- tary. Maryland was granted to Lord Baltimore in 1632; and Penn- sylvania and Delaware came into the hands of William Penn in 168 1 and 1682. In these colonies the proprietors appointed the governors and furnished charters to the people in accordance with which they were allowed to elect one branch of the legislature. The other colonies, though originally proprietary, became royal, one at a time, when the proprietors surrendered their rights to the king; in one of these the proprietor, the Duke of York, became King James II. In these colonies there were no charters, and the governors were appointed by the king. As he paid little attention to them, the people gradually began to elect the members of the legislature, as in the other colonies. loS ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 187. Colonial Government. — The colonies patterned after England in their form of government: the governor corresponded to the king; the two branches of the legislature to the House of Lords and the House of Commons. In Pennsylvania there was but one house, and in some of the colonies the Governor's Council formed the higher branch. The governor was the executive officer, — that is, had the duty of enforcing the laws, — while the legislature made the statutes necessary for the government of the colony. The legisla- tures of the different colonies went by different names, as the General Court of Massachusetts and the General Assembly of Rhode Island ; the lower house was sometimes the House of Burgesses, as in Virginia, the Assembly, as in New York, or more commonly the House of Representatives : by whatever name they were called, they had much the same power, and in every colony they did much to encourage home government and to instil a love of liberty and independence. 188. Laws. — Some of the laws passed in the colonies were severe, though no worse than in other countries at that time. Many crimes were punishable by death ; severe penalties were inflicted for lying and swearing; in New England laws were enacted for the rigid keeping of the Sabbath day. For smaller offences, as slander, scold- ing, etc., the ducking-stool, the pillory, and the stocks were in com- mon use. The private lives of the people were carefully ordered, and liberty of conscience was often violated. 189. The New England Union. — Prior to the French and Indian War only one attempt was made to unite any of the colonies. In 1643 the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Con- necticut, and New Haven, sent representatives to Boston, who formed " The United Colonies of New England." The purpose of this Union can be best shown in the words of its constitution. It was to be '* a firm and perpetual league of friendship and amity for offence and defence, mutual advice and succor upon all just occa- sions, both for preserving and propagating the truth and liberties of the gospel, and for their own mutual safety and welfare." The Union was formed soon after the Pequot War (T 112), when the people were much afraid of the Indians, and at a time when the Dutch were troublesome in Connecticut, and the king and the Puritans were at war in England. Rhode Island was not admitted GOVERNMENT. lOQ because Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Connecticut each claimed a portion of her territory, while the remote position of New Hamp- shire left her out also. The only government of the Union con- sisted in a board of commissioners, two from each colony, whose duty it was to be a committee of public safety, and to merely recom- mend measures to the colonies. After the Restoration in 1660 the Union began to grow weaker, and, though meetings were held by the commissioners until 1684, had little importance except during King Philip's War (IT 115). 190. Andros. — Charles II., after the Restoration, was more than willing to punish the Puritans, who had beheaded his father and wrested the throne from himself He was a firm believer in the " divine right of kings," and was opposed to the rule of the people, and especially the democratic government of the charter colonies. In 1684, after a long struggle with Massachusetts Bay, he declared the charter to be ** null and void," and the colony to be a royal possession. James II. suc- ceeded his brother in 1685, and sent over Sir Edmund Andros the next year, to be governor of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Hampshire, and Maine. He was granted almost royal authority, and soon after the rest of New England was put un- der his government. Although , . , , The " Charter Oak," Hartford, Conn. this was contrary to the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, it did not deter the king. In 1688 Andros was made governor of New York and New Jersey, thus ruling from Acadia to Delaware. 191. The Charters. — The power granted to Andros was very great, and his method of government was despotic. Rhode Island was com- pelled to give up her charter, and Andros went to Hartford to obtain the charter of Connecticut. The story runs that while the magis- trates were discussing the matter with the governor, the lights were put out; and when they were relighted, the charter could not be found. It had been taken from the table and hidden in an oak- no ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. tree, which has received the title of the " Charter Oak." Andros* rule was short, for, in the spring of 1689, news reached Boston of the landing of the Prince of Orange, and the flight of King James. The governor was seized by the people of Boston and sent back to England. In 1691 a new charter was granted to Massachusetts, annexing Plymouth and Maine, and forever separating New Hamp- shire, making it a royal colony. The charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island were returned, and matters went on as before. CHAPTER XXVIII. LIFE. 192. Dress. — The people of the colonies, for the most part, were simple in habits and plain in dress. On ordinary occasions they Puritan Youth and Maiden. wore sober-colored gariiients, only decking themselves in finery on the Sabbath or on holidays. The men wore knee-breeches, long stockings, buckled shoes, short cloaks, and *' steeple-crowned " hats. LIFE. I I I The working classes had clothes made of leather, deer-skin, or coarse canvas only, while the better clothing was homespun, except the small amount of imported cloth which the wealthy could afford. The younger men delighted in gaudy belts, with buckles and but- tons of silver or polished brass. Often they used much lace and long ruffs upon their sleeves. The hair was worn long, powdered, and done up in a queue. The women ordinarily dressed in plain homespun goods, and only on special occasions did they appear in silks and laces. The Dutch matrons were more gayly dressed than the New England women, with short bright dresses, many-colored stockings of their own knitting, and high-heeled shoes. The fashions of the seven- teenth century differed greatly from those of the nineteenth, but as far as they could our ancestors kept up to the styles of the day. 193. Houses. — The first dwellings of the colonists, both north and south, were much alike. They were usually made of logs, though in a few cases the people lived in holes or caves. At first round logs were used, then they were squared or hewed, and finally cut into beams. One-story houses with steep roofs, covered with thatch, was the rule. As the people grew more prosperous, better houses were built. The Southern planters had large mansions, '' baronial halls," built of imported brick, with mahogany staircases and mantels. In Philadelphia and New York, the better residences were of brick or stone. The Dutch houses had gable-ends facing the street, and many doors and windows. The wood and brass work was always kept highly polished. In New England the houses were of wood or home-made brick, often two stories high in front and one In the rear. They usually faced the south, so that the time of day could readily be told from the sun. Instead of glass, oiled paper was at first used to admit the light. In all the houses were open fire- places, large enough for four-foot logs, and often containing long settles on which the members of the family could sit. Friction matches were unknown, and fire was kept through the night with jealous care, the coals covered over thick with ashes. Wood was very plentiful, and was burned without stinto 194. Furniture. — The plain and simple houses of the colonists contained plain and simple furniture. Tables and benches were 112 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. roughly made, and stools were used in place of chairs. The beds were filled with mistletoe or with the feathers of wild birds. The dishes were for the most part of wood, and none of the people had forks. The dresser had its long rows of pewter, or, in the wealthy families, of silver and china. Only the rich planters and the Dutch "patroons" could afford gold and silver plate. These had also imported furniture, mahogany bedsteads, and tables with claw- footed legs. There were no carpets ; but most of the floors were covered with sand. There were no stoves; heat was furnished by wood fires, over which most of the cooking was done. 195. Food. — Meat was roasted by being placed over the fire upon a spit or long iron rod, which was frequently turned ; fish were cooked directly upon the coals. Meat and vegetables were boiled in pots or kettles hung in the flames on a crane, or in skillets placed in front of the fire, ^-V HBl under which live coals were put. Some- \^ ^ iHM times food was cooked by being placed in water in wooden vessels, into which hot stones had been laid. In later times large brick ovens were built; in these hot coals were put, and bread was baked after the ashes had been swept out. The food, among the middle classes, was plain and spare. Very little fresh meat was to be had, except that obtained by hunters and anglers. The fare was mainly of vegetables with a little salt pork, corn meal and milk, and rye or Indian bread. Seldom did the common people have more than meal or porridge for breakfast, and mush for supper. Tea and coffee were little used, home-made cider and beer taking their place. More spirits were used than at the present day, and by all the people. Though wine, rum, and hard cider were common beverages, being largely of home manufacture, the evils resulting from their use were much less then than now. Franklin's Clock. (Now in Philadelphia Library.) LIFE. I I 3 196. Implements. — The tools of the colonists were as rude as their furniture. Iron was an expensive luxury, and but little of it could be used. Many of the farming implements were of home manufacture, and even the smiths were poor workmen. Hoes, shovels, and rakes were rough and bulky, and the ploughs were frequently made of wood, covered with plates of iron. Horse-rakes, mowing - machines, and automatic reapers had not been invented. In warfare the imple- ments were rude and in- convenient. At first iron helmets and breastplates were worn, and later the colonists lined their coats with cotton-wool as a pro- A Colonial Plough. , . ^ tection agamst the arrows of the Indians. The first guns were match-locks, so called because a long slow-match was carried with which to light the powder. These guns were so heavy that it was necessary to carry forked sticks, on which they could be rested, in order to be fired. These nearly useless guns were succeeded by the flint-locks, in which the spark was made by flint striking steel. 197. Amusements. — Though the colonists were sober, hard- working people, they were also fond of certain amusements. In New England, holidays, such as Thanksgiving, election, and training days, were long anticipated and thoroughly enjoyed. Quilting and spinning bees, corn-huskings,and house-raisings were times of merri- ment as well as of labor. Weddings, and even funerals, were made times of feasting, which often continued for many days. Wrestling and shooting matches were common at holidays, and blind-man's- buff at parties. In the Middle and Southern colonies ruder sports were indulged in, as horse-racing, bull-baiting, and cock-fighting. Hunting and fishing were common in all the colonies, while the Dutch introduced the customs of coasting, skating, and sleighing. 198. The New England Sunday. — Religious matters occupied a large part of the thought of the Puritans of New England, and their Sunday very noticeably influenced their character. The day began with them at sunset on Saturday, and work was then laid S 114 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. asJde. No cooking was allowed on the Sabbath ; all amusements and regular occupations were forbidden ; and all was quiet and sober on that day. No travelling was permitted, except to and from the nearest church. They were called to service by a drum or bell, and for many years it was necessary for them to go armed. The churches were not heated, and the women often carried foot- stoves. The men and women, young and old, had their separate places in the church, and constables took care of the boys. The sermons were long, and the sexton would often turn the hour-glass upon the desk twice during their delivery. Laws required the attendance of all the people, and tithing-men were appointed to investigate each case of absence. Long and tiresome as the day was, it was simply an expression of their understanding of the Bible doctrines. 199. Travel. — As in all new countries, the first travel was by water. Canoes were hollowed out of the trees, usually capable of carrying six persons. Small sailing-vessels, or shallops, were used in travelling along the coast Later, packets ran between the larger towns, as, from New Haven and Albany to New York. Indian trails and bridle-paths were the first roads across the country, and people went on foot or horseback, the goods being carried on pack-horses. Few wheeled wagons were seen outside of the towns, and horseback was at all times the best mode of travelling. The roads were poor, especially outside of New England, and few streams were bridged except the smallest, and those only on the main roads. The jour- ney from Boston to New York by stage required six days, and three more to Philadelphia. Taverns were found in nearly every town, and travellers were compelled to endure poor quarters and worse cooking. CHRONOLOGY. 1606. Charter granted to London and Plymouth Companies, April lo. 1609. Virginia — Second charter to the London Company. 1612. Virginia — Third charter to the London Company. 1619. Virginia — First Legislative Assembly, July 30. Virginia — First importation of negro slaves. 1620. New England — Charter granted to Council of Plymouth. CHRONOLOGY. 1 1 ^ 1624. Virginia — Charter annulled. 1629. Massachusetts Bay — Charter granted, March 4, 1632. Maryland — Charter granted. 1635. New England — Council of Plymouth resigns its charter. 1636. Massachusetts — Harvard University founded. Massachusetts — Roger Williams banished. 1638. Massachusetts — Mrs. Hutchinson banished. 1639. Connecticut — Constitution adopted, January 14. 1641. New Hampshire — Joined to Massachusetts. 1643. New England Confederation formed, May. 1647. Massachusetts — Free School Act passed. 1649. England — Charles I. beheaded, January 30, 1651. England — First Navigation Act passed. 1656. Massachusetts — Arrival of the lirst Quakers. 1659. Massachusetts — Hanging of two Quakers. 1660. England — The Restoration. 1662. Connecticut — Charter granted, April 20. 1663. Rhode Island — Charter granted, July 8. First Bible printed in the colonies. Carolina — Granted by Charles II., March 24. 1664. New York — Granted to the Duke of York. 1665. New Jersey — Granted to Berkeley and Carteret. Connecticut and New Haven united. 1674. New Jersey — Divided into East and West Jersey. 1679. New Hampshire — Made royal province. 1681. Pennsylvania — Granted to William Penn, March 4. 1682. Delaware — Sold to William Penn. 1684. Massachusetts — Charter annulled, June 18. 1686. New England — Arrival of Andros, December 20. 1687. Connecticut — Andros demands the charter, October 31. 1688. England — Landing of the Prince of Orange, November 5. 1689. Massachusetts — Andros deposed, April 18. 1691. Massachusetts — Second charter granted. Plymouth — United to Massachusetts. New Hampshire ^ Made a royal province. 1692. Massachusetts — Witchcraft delusion. 1693. Virginia — William and Mary College chartered. 1701. Connecticut — Yale College chartered. 1702. New Jersey — Becomes a royal colony. 1703. Delaware — Becomes a separate colony. 1704. Massachusetts — " Boston News Letter" pubhshed. 1729. Carolinas — Become royal provinces, September, 1732. Georgia — Granted to Oglethorpe. 1752. Georgia — Charter surrendered to the king. OBlacfiboarti anal^jSijS* CAUSES or THE KEVOLUTION Provocations . Resistance f Navigation Laws. Taxation. Stamp Act. Quartering of Troops. Tax on Tea. Boston Port Bill. Massachusetts Bill. Transportation Bill. Quebec Act. ' Smuggling. Stamp Act Congress. Boston Massacre. The Gaspee. Boston Tea Party. lart II. FORMATION OF THE NATION 1763-1789. SECTION V. CONTROVERSY WITH ENGLAND. 1763-1775. CHAPTER XXIX. COMMERCE OF THE COLONIES. 200. Population. — The colonies were now about to enter upon a course which would lead them to resistance against the mother country, and finally to independence. There were four New Eng- land, four Middle, and five Southern colonies, with an entire popu- lation of not more than two millions. The various industries at the North and at the South were rapidly yielding an abundance of products, especially agricultural. The excess beyond the demand for home consumption was more and more seeking foreign markets. 201. Exports and Imports.— In 1763 the value of the colonial ex- ports exceeded five million dollars, and the imports amounted to fully eight millions. Both exports and imports were rapidly increas- ing, notwithstanding the *' Non-Importation Agreements" (T215). The significance of this will be best appreciated by bearing in mind that the studied policy of the mother country was designed to keep ii8 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1764 the colonies dependent upon her, especially for manufactures and trade. Manufactures in America were prohibited. Iron works were denounced as '' common nuisances." It was insisted that America must not make even a nail for a horseshoe unless Parliament gave its permission. In the Carolinas the making of turpentine and tar was prohibited. The manufacture of hats in one colony, to be sold in another, was not allowed. Printing was discouraged to such an extent that to print an English Bible would have been an act of piracy. 202. Navigation Laws. — Great Britain passed, in 1764, what were termed '' Navigation Laws." These laws extended the former Navi- gation Acts (1 172), making England a storehouse of Asiatic as well as of European supplies ; dimin- ished the drawbacks on foreign articles exported to America; placed imposts, especially on wines ; established a rev- enue duty on foreign molasses, and increased the duty on sugar; made various regulations to sustain English manufactures, as well as to enforce more diligently the acts of trade ; and absolutely prohibited all trade be- tween the British provinces and St. Pierre and Miquelon. Of this act Ban- croft says, it *' had for the first time the title of * granting duties in the colonies and plantations of America; ' for the first time it was asserted in the preamble that it was 'just and neces- sary that a revenue should be raised there.'" 203. England's Repressive Policy. — These acts to restrain the colo- nial trade were now put in operation. Numerous customs-officers were appointed, who received orders to proceed rigorously. Naval officers were encouraged to prey upon American commerce with the West Indies and other parts ; vessels were constantly searched ; confiscation usually followed, and an appeal cost more than the value of the goods. Christopher Sower (or, as it was then spelled, Saur), a German, who was born in 1693 and emigrated to America in 1724, was a printer and publisher in Germantown, Pa. He began the publication of books in 1738, and continued it till his death, twenty years later. In 1743 he published a German Bible after Luther's transla- tion. This was the first Bible printed in America in a European language. Thejirsi Bible printed in America was in the Indian language, and was pub- lished in 1663, at Boston. This was the famous Indian Bible translated by Rev. John Eliot, "the apostle to the Indians." Sower's German Bible con- tained 1284 pages, quarto, and was sold unbound for twelve shillings, and bound in full leather with clasps for eighteen shillings. The unbound copies were strongly sewed and fastened with a leather strap and buckle. Bancroft says that " No copy of the Bible in English was ever printed in these col- onies till the land had become free." 1764] TAXATION. 119 204. The First Colonial Movement in Opposition. — This state of things brought about the first movement in the struggle for union between the colonies. The Massachu- setts Assembly, led by James Otis, protested against any attempt to create a standing army in America, to ap- point officers who should not be re- sponsible to the colonial assemblies, or to raise a revenue without the con- sent of these assemblies. 205. Increase of Colonial Commerce. — It surely is surprising that under all these adverse circumstances the foreign trade of the colonies should rapidly increase. On the New England coast, numerous shipyards produced vessels of various kinds and sizes, which were at once engaged in carrying on the commerce of the colonies, or were sold in foreign harbors. Large quantities of salt fish were carried to the various countries of Europe. Lumber, fish, and breadstufifs were sent to the West Indies to be exchanged for molasses, which, on its arrival, was often con verted into New England rum. James Otis was one of the foremost men in moulding the pubHc sentiment of the colonies so as to bring about that condition of affairs which resulted in the Revolution and in independence. He was a man of great genius and ar- dent temper. He was impetuous and commanding as an orator, and as a law- yer stood at the head of his profession in Boston. He was born in 1725, and died in 1783. His public career began with his famous speech against the " Writs of Assistance," in 1761. From tjiat time he was the leader of the pop- ular party. He published ' ' The Rights of the Colonies Vindicated," a master- piece of argument. He wrote many articles for the " Gazette," denouncing in severe terms the calumnies of some of the customs-officers. For this he was personally attacked in 1769, and received a deep cut on his head which has sometimes been assigned as the cause of his subsequent insanity. He was a representative to the General Court in 1771, but subsequently, his mind having become seriously im- paired, he took no active part in public affairs. CHAPTER XXX. TAXATION. 206. Taxation. — The causes of the American revolution all lead back to, and cluster around, the one word *' taxation." On this subject there was an English theory and an American theory. The imperial Parliament claimed the right to levy taxes not only in Great Britain, but in her colonies as well ; the American theory denied its right of taxation in the colonies. I20 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1765 207. The American Theory. — The colonists professed loyalty to the king, but they did not acknowledge the authority of Parliament, They claimed that their relations were only with the crown. If, therefore, the British government needed money from the Ameri- can colonies, it must be raised by the voluntary taxation of the colonies themselves, and not by a tax levied by Parliament. 208. The English Theory. — The English theory, on the othef hand, was that the British Parliament had grown in its powers and claims into an " Imperial Parlia- ment " which was to give the law to the whole empire; hence Parlia- ment had passed the Navigation Laws. 209. Writs of Assistance. — When smuggling had become so com- mon that these acts were practi- cally dead-letters, English officers were granted writs of assistance. These writs authorized custom- house and naval officers to enter a man's store or even his dwelling- house Patrick Heni^. (From a painting^ by T. Sully, I search for smuggled whenever they pleased, to goods. The first use of these writs was espe- cially opposed by James Otis, who declared them to be contrary to the English constitution. The General Court of Massachusetts protested, and appointed a committee to secure union of action. This was the first general movement for union on the part of the colonies. " Here Independence was born." 210. The Stamp Act. —In March, 1765, Parliament passed the famous Stamp Act, which made it obligatory upon the colonies to have all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, etc., written or printed upon stamped paper, purchased of the British government. Dr. Franklin wrote to Mr. Charles Thompson, afterwards Secretary of Congress, "The sun of liberty is set; you must light up the candles of industry and economy." Mr. Thompson answered that he was apprehensive that other lights would be the consequence, and predicted the opposition that followed. 1765] TAXATION. 121 211. Effects upon the Colonies. — Great commotion followed the passage of this act throughout the colonies. The houses of British officers were mobbed ; the agents for the sale of the stamps were seized ; and the people agreed to use only articles of home manufac- ture. Various branches of home industry vastly increased their product. At Harvard College in 1770, the graduating class took their diplomas in "homespun" suits. Associations were formed, called the " Sons of Liberty," with the express design of resisting the law. The act was to go into effect on the first of November. On that day business was very generally suspended, bells were tolled, flags were at half-mast, and the day was widely observed as a day of mourning. Such men as James Otis, Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Patrick Henry made stirring addresses to the people. 212. Stamp Act Congress. — On the 7th of October, 1765, the first American Congress assembled in New York. This was the first union of the American people repre- sented by delegates elected by each separate colony, for the purpose of considering their rights and privileges, and of obtaining a redress for the vio- lation of them on the part of the mother country. In all its votes these repre- sentatives recognized each colony as equal to any other, " without the least claim for pre-eminence, one over the other." This was called the " Stamp Act Congress." 213. Action of this Congress. — It pe- titioned the king, the House of Com- mons, and the House of Lords. It also put forth a declaration of colonial rights. Its action was only declaratory; there was no attempt to legislate; and the importance of the meeting was simply that it demonstrated the possibility of union between the colonies. A Famous Speech. — It was at this time that Patrick Henry made his fa- mous speech before the House of Bur- gesses at Williamsburg, Va. against parliamentary taxation. This address gave Mr. Henry a great reputation throughout the country. While des- canting on the tyranny of the obnox- ious act, he exclaimed, in a voice and with a gesture which stirred the house, " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third— " " Treason I " shouted the speaker. "Treason! treason !" echoed from every part of the house. Without faltering for an instant, but rising to a loftier attitude, and fixing on the speaker an eye which seemed to flash fire, Mr. Henry added with the most thrilling emphasis, " may profit by their example ! If this be treason, make the most of it." 125 FORMATION OF THE NATION. L1770 CHAPTER XXXI. THE BOSTON MASSACRE. 214. Tax on Tea. — The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but Parliament still declared the right to tax the colonies, and the next year a new tax was imposed on tea, glass, paper, lead, and painters' colors. This act changed entirely the attitude of the colonists. The repeal of the Stamp Act had produced much better feeling, and the people had entertained the hope that Parliament would not again assert the right, which she claimed, of taxing them. Now, however, there was a grea>: revulsion of feeling. 215. Its Effects. — The determi- nation not to submit to a tax was almost the universal sentiment. A board of trade was established at Boston to act independently of the colonial assemblies. The ** writs of assistance " were legalized, and the New York Assembly was sus- pended. The colonies ceased to import taxed articles, so that the amount of receipts from the law was insignificant. 216. Troops in Boston. — The king's troops were now in Boston. Cannon were planted, sentries posted, and citizens challenged. Quarrels between the people and the soldiers were frequent. On the 5th of March, 1770, a crowd of men and boys, exasperated by the presence of the redcoats, insulted the city guard. 217. Boston Mob. — In the evening several hundred persons with sticks or clubs gathered about King Street (now State Street), and threatened and provoked the soldiers with abusive language, daring them to fire. The officer ordered the soldiers into the barracks. By nine o'clock the mob gathered around the sentry, who was on Samuel Adams. 1772] THE BOSTON MASSACRE. guard at the Custom-House, with cries, " Kill him ! kill him ! Knock him down ! " Captain Preston, the officer of the day, sent a corporal and six men to protect the sentry. At length the assaulting party came to close quarters with the soldiers, still continuing their abuse and daring them to fire. The soldiers then fired upon the mob, and four persons were killed and five dangerously wounded, one of whom afterwards died. 218. The Soldiers tried. — A month later the soldiers were tried for murder, and were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy. Although these lawyers were stanch patriots, they felt that the killing was justifiable, and were determined that the soldiers should have justice. It was a notable trial. Captain Preston and six soldiers were acquitted, and two were convicted of manslaughter. The sentence that they be burned in the hand was executed in open court They were then discharged. The result of this trial was regarded as proving the integrity of Boston juries, and as clearly showing that they would give upright verdicts, even in defiance of popular opinions. 219. The "Gaspee." — On the 9th of June, 1772, the British armed schooner " Gaspee," commanded by Lieutenant Dudingston, ran aground upon a point in Narragansett Bay. That night eight boat- loads of respectable men from Providence boarded the schooner, captured her, and burned both the vessel and its stores. The officers and crew were put on shore, and the attacking party returned to Providence. A reward of ;^iOO from the governor, and an additional reward of ^^500 from the British government, for the discovery of any person engaged in the affair, as well as a reward of ;^500 more for the capture of the captain of the enterprise, were all without effect. In the Boston Massacre the first blood was shed by the British soldiers, but the affair of the " Gaspee " may be regarded as the real beginning of the revolutionary struggle. 9...i>l I *• >»yM- 24 FORMATION OF THE NATION. r.1773 CHAPTER XXXII. THE BOSTON TEA-PARTY. p«|H|B«ll«||ip 220. Opposition. — The colonies were rapidly learning that they could co-operate with each other in their controversies with the British government. The opposition to the Tea Tax was becoming general. Threats were made against the pilots of Boston, if they should bring any vessels laden with tea into the harbor. 221. Boston at Fever Heat. — Public meetings were held, and resolu- tions were passed for- bidding any tea to be landed or received. The feeling was rapidly grow- ing that the quarrel be- tween Great Britain and the Massachusetts col- ony must come, and that it might as well take place now as at any time. On November 1 8th, 1773, a committee gl was appointed to wait upon the consignees and request that they should resign their appoint- ments. They refused to resign. On November 28th, Captain Hall, in the ship '* Dart- mouth," came to anchor, having on board one hundred and fourteen chests of tea. Faneuil Hall, "the Cradle of Liberty.' 1773] THE BOSTON TEA-PARTY. 125 222. Public Meeting. — The next day the good people of Boston found written notices posted in all parts of the town, inviting all friends of the country to meet at nine o'clock for concerted action to prevent the landing of the tea. The meeting adjourned until the next day, when it was determined that the tea should not be landed. Faneuil Hall being too small, the assembly adjourned to the Old South Meeting-House, where it was voted " that the tea shall not be landed, that no duty shall be paid, and that it shall be sent back in the same bottoms." 223. Meeting in the Old South. — On December 14th, 1773, the people of Boston and the neighboring towns met at the Old South Meeting-House and ordered the owner of the ship, Mr. Rotch, to apply immediately for clear- ance papers, and that the ship must sail away without landing any of its cargo. The clearance papers were re- fused by the collector. December 16th, 1773, the public meeting of citizens was continued, and several thousand per- sons were present. Josiah Ouincy made a famous address, inquiring of the people if they would stand by their words with such decisive action as might be necessary. He advised them care- fully to consider the issue, and to look forward to the end before entering upon their course of action. In the after- noon the question, *' Will you abide by your former resolutions with respect to not suffering the tea to be landed ? " was put. An affirmative answer was given unanimously- Mr. Rotch was ordered to pro- cure a pass for his vessel. About six o'clock he informed the body that he had applied to the governor for a pass, which had been refused. Faneuil Hall. — This famous build- ing, which is usually denominated "The Cradle of Liberty," was first built in 1742 by Peter P'aneuil, at his own ex- pense, and given to the town. The first story was intended for a market, and the second story was added for a town hall. The building was destroyed by fire in 1761. It was rebuilt by the town with the aid of a lottery established by the colony for that purpose. This new building was dedicated March 14, 1763, when James Otis delivered the dedicatory address. It was enlarged in 1806 to its present size, and a third story was added. " The first public oration in the hall was the funeral eulogy, de- livered in honor of its donor, Peter Faneuil, March 14, 1743, by Master Lovell, of the Latin School." When Boston was occupied by the British troops in 1775-76, theatrical entertain- ments, particularly ridiculing the patri- ots, were given in its hall. It has been the scene of many bril- liant social and political events. En- tertainments have been given here to distinguished men almost without num- ber. Its walls have echoed to the elo- quence of Samuel Adams, James Otis, Daniel Webster, Wendell Phillips, Charles Sumner, and others. In this hall are many interesting portraits. The largest is the great painting repre- senting Daniel Webster addressing the United States Senate on the occasion of his celebrated reply to Hayne of South Carolina. 126 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [l773 224. Indian War-whoop. — It was voted that the meeting be dis- solved. The crowd immediately ran to Griffin's Wharf. At the same time, twenty or thirty persons from the North End of the town, dressed as Indians, crossed Fort Hill, and at once boarded the tea ships. So expeditious was the proceeding that in two hours' time they had hoisted out of three vessels three hundred and forty-two chests of tea, broken them open, and discharged their contents into the salt water. The whole business was conducted in a very quiet way, with a multitude of spectators upon and around the wharf. No damage was done to the vessels or any other prop- erty, and when the work was finished the people returned to their homes in Boston and the surrounding towns. 225. Retaliatory Measures. — Such a bold proceeding could not go unpunished, and retaliatory measures were at once adopted by the British government. The climax was now reached. Party lines were drawn. The patriots were termed Whigs ; the royalists were called Tories. Nothing apparently could now prevent a union of the colonies. Military companies, called " minute-men," were formed. From this time on it was evident that but little was needed to throw all the colonies into open rebellion, and that a spark would kindle the flames of war. CHAPTER XXXIII. ENGLAND RETALIATES. 226. George the Third. — King George III. was an obstinate man, arbitrary, and stubborn. He began his reign in 1760, when he was twenty-two years old. He died in 1820, after a reign of sixty years, the longest reign in the entire history of England. He was not a great statesman, and his chief characteristic v/as what we may call persistent wilfulness. He was now thoroughly bent on reducing the colonies to a state of submission. Lord North, his prime min- ister, was also hostile to the colonies. They therefore were able to secure from Parliament a series of the most severe and repres- sive measures. 1774] ENGLAND RETALIATES. 127 227. The Americans Still Loyal. — The people of the colonies were strongly inchned towards loyalty to the mother country. They were Englishmen, and had no wish to be separated from Great Britain. Most revolutions are brought about by the leaders of the people. In this case, both leaders and people were averse to revolution, and only yielded to it when no other means were available for retaining their rights and their liberties. Had the British government mani- fested a spirit of conciliation, had it yielded to the better sentiment in America, it would have made the Revolution impossible, but Providence, which so often clearly shapes the course of nations, as well as of individuals, planned otherwise. 228. "The Intolerable Acts." — In March, 1774, full intelligence of the proceedings at Boston was received at London. Before the end of April the British ministry had pro- posed, and Parliament had passed, a series of acts, which made the Revolution only a question of time. These were called by the colonists ^' The Intolerable Acts." They were intended to crush Massachusetts and awe the other colonies into obedi- ence. The ''Boston Port Bill" closed the town of Boston against all com- merce until the tea which had been destroyed was paid for, and the in- habitants of the town returned to manifest loyalty. The "Massachu- setts Act " changed the charter of that colony to such an extent that ^^°'^^ "^ the governor's council and the sheriffs were to be appointed by the Crown; juries were to be selected by the sheriffs; and all town meetings were strictly forbidden, except by special permission of the governor. General Gage, who had been appointed commander- in-chief of the British forces in the colonies, was made governor, and four regiments of soldiers with proper artillery were sent to Boston to support him in his arbitrary measures, and to overawe the people. A special act required the transportation of offenders and witnesses to England or her other colonies for trial. 128 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1774 229. The Quebec Act. — The "Quebec Act," passed the same year, proposed ostensibly to regulate the government of Canada; but it would have resulted in raising a barrier between the Canadian provinces and the thirteen colonies, now on the verge of war. This act granted the free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion, and extended the province from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Missis- sippi River, which province was to be governed by officers appointed by the Crown. As might have been expected, the news of these severe, repressive acts crystallized at once every element of union in the colonies. The points embodied included all for which the colonies had been contending. The Quebec Act would cut off the colonies from the Western expansion to which they had been hopefully looking forward as plainly open to them for future settle- ment. 230. Public Sentiment in Great Britain. — It must not be supposed that these severe and unreasonable acts passed Parliament without strong and vigorous opposition. The king and his prime minister had a majority of Parliament in favor of their extreme measures of opposition to the colonies ; but with only two or three exceptions all the eminent and shining lights of the country, under the leadership of Edmund Burke, were strongly opposed to these unjust raeasures of the government, and persistently advocated the rights of the colonies. These va- rious acts of Parliament at once not only provoked a feeling of hos- tility to the home government, but also cemented every colony with all the others in one common sentiment of union. Thus it came to pass that the thirteen North American colonies rebelled against the mother country, and the American Revolution was precipitated. We shall see in the subsequent chapters how united the colonies became, and how patriotically and courageously they fought for independence, which, after years of desolating war, they finally secured. Bancroft says : " The king set himself, his ministers, Parliament, and all Great Britain to subdue to his will one stubborn town on the sterile coast of the Massachusetts Bay. The odds against it were fearful ; but it showed a life inextinguishable, and had been chosen to keep guard over the liberties of mankind. The old world had not its parallel. It counted but 16,000 in- habitants of European origin, all of whom learned to read and write. Good public schools were the foundation of this political system." 1760-1774] CHRONOLOGY. 129 CHRONOLOGY. 1760. England — Reign of George III. 1764. England — Parliament passes the Navigation Laws. England — Parliament votes to tax the colonies. 1765. England — Parliament passes the Stamp Act, March. New York — Stamp Act Congress, October 7 1766. England — Parliament repeals the Stamp Act, March, 1767. England — Parliament taxes tea, etc. 1768. Massachusetts — British troops arrive. 1770. Massachusetts — Boston Massacre, March 5. England — Parliament removes taxes except on tea, 1772. Rhode Island — Burning of the " Gaspee," June 9. 1773. Massachusetts — Boston Tea Party, December 16. 1774. England — Parliament passes the intolerable acts. Ensi'gi-i carried by New England ships before the Rtvt>\v\ion.. ■Blacfeboart) anal^jiisf. Military INDEPENDENCE < , Government . f Resistance at Salem. Concord and Lexington. TiCONDEROGA AND CrOWN POINT. Battle of Bunker Hill. Washington the Commander. Evacuation of Boston. Committees of Correspondence. Provincial Assemblies. First Continental Congress. Second Continental Congress. Steps toward Independence. I The Declaration. SECTION VI. RESISTANCE LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE. 1775-1776. CHAPTER XXXIV. THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 231. Committees of Correspondence. — The colonies all had what they termed " Committees of Correspondence," and through these committees they kept one another informed by letter of what was going on. In Boston, only one town meeting a year was permitted by the governor. The citizens accordingly held one town meeting, and by ad- journing from time to time made it last through all the year. Through- out the colonies first steps were being taken. They knew not whither these steps would lead ; they hoped to a redress of grievances. As the result showed, they could lead only to inde- pendence. 232. A Continental Congress proposed. - — On the 17th of June, 1774, Samuel Adams proposed in the Massachusetts General Court, held at Salem, that a Continental Congress should be called Samuel Adams, one of the leaders of the Revolutionary patriots, probably foresaw independence quite as early as any other man. His influence in shaping public sentiment for absolute independence of Great Britain was, doubtless, second to that of no one. He was born in Boston in 1722, and died there in 1803. He was graduated from Harvard when he was eighteen years old. On taking the master's degree in 1743, he discussed the affirmative of the question, "whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." He was always courage- ous and ardent, but was also always prudent and successful in bending the wills of others to his own purposes. His prominent characteristics were "an enthusiastic love of liberty, an inextinguishable hate of tyranny, great promptness of decision, and inflexible firmness." to meet in Philadelphia the first of September. Five delegates from Massachusetts were chosen. Two days earlier, Rhode Island had elected delegates to such a congress. 132 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1774 233. The Massachusetts Provincial Congress. — A few months later, the House again met in Salem and resolved itself into a Provincial Congress to be joined by such other members as should be chosen. They then adjourned to Concord, and there elected John Hancock president. After transacting what business was necessary, they adjourned to Cambridge, and there, October 2 1 st, 1 774, a committee drew up a plan for the immediate defence of the colony. A committee of safety ^as ap- pointed to attend to all military matters, and a committee of supplies to furnish resources for the committee of safety. 234. Massachusetts raises an Army. — In November, this Congress decided to raise an army of twelve thousand men, and appointed proper officers for it. Thus a revolutionary government was in full operation in Massachusetts. The drift toward revolution was appar- ent in every colony. The Provincial Congress remained the government of the people in Massachusetts until the 19th of July, 1775, when it dissolved it- self, and a new House of Representa- tives, whose members had been chosen by the several towns, according to their usage and their charter, organized, by choosing James Warren as speaker. James Bowdoln was made president. The present seal of the Commonwealth was adopted. 235. The First Congress. — The first Continental Congress met in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. This Congress resulted from an almost universal and simultaneous demand from the various colonies. The first call came from Virginia. 236. Proposed by Massachusetts. — The Massachusetts General Court, at Salem, on June 17th, appointed five delegates to a Congress The Massachusetts Seal shows the figure of an Anglo-American hold- ing a drawn sword, with the motto " E7ise petit placidani sub libertate quictcm.''^ (With the sword she seeks calm peace under liberty.) The story of this motto is an interesting one. Algernon Sidney was a famous patriot in Cromwell's time. In 1659 he was one of the council of State, and he was sent to Denmark on a political mission. While there he wrote his name in the king's autograph book, and added tliis motto in Latin. The minister from France felt that this was an insult to the monarchs of Europe, and cut out the motto from the king's book. In 1772 Sidney's works, having been out of print for a long time, were repub- lished in a fine edition by that otlier famous lover of liberty, Thomas Hollis. The frontispiece was a profile likeness of .Sidney, and underneath it was told this story of the Latin motto. Hollis was a great friend and benefactor of Harvard College, and he sent over a copy of this book, and presented it to the Harvard Library. There it fell under the eyes of the Massachusetts patriots. Its sentiment so neatly ex- pressed their own thought, and was so applicable to the time and the con- ditions surrounding them, that they prompdy adopted it for the motto of this new Commonwealth. It has never been changed, and will doubtless go down to the centuries to come, perpet- uating the sentiment so dear to the heart of that famous liberty-loving patriot of Cromwell's time. 1774] THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 133 " That might be convened the first of September at Philadelphia.' All the colonies except Georgia appointed delegates. This Con- gress included many sagacious men, well versed in governmental affairs. Among them may be named George Washington, Richard Henry Lee, Peyton Randolph, Patrick Plenry, and Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia; Samuel Adams and John Adams, of Massachusetts ; John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania ; Christopher Gads- den and John Rutledge, of South Carolina; Dr. John Witherspoon, President of the College of New Jersey; Stephen Hopkins, of Rhode Island ; Roger Sherman, of Connect- icut; and John Jay, of New York. 237. What it Did.— All votes taken by this Congress were by States, every State having one vote. The important action was as follows : John Hancock. (After a painting- by J. Singleton Copley in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.) 1. A declaration of rights. 2. An agreement to stop exports to Great Britain and imports from there, and to discontinue the slave trade after the first of December. 3. An address to the British people. 4. A petition to the king. 5. The formation of the "American Association." 6. An address to the people of Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Floridas. 7. A i^rovision for another Congress, to be held in May, 1775. 238. How it was Done. — The business of this Congress was exe- cuted with remarkable skill. William Pitt said : " For solidity of reason, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion under a com- bination of difficult circumstances, no nation or body of men can stand in preference to the General Congress at Philadelphia. The histories of Greece and Rome give us nothing equal to it, and all attempts to impose servitude upon such a mighty continental nation roust be in vain." J 34 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1775 CHAPTER XXXV. THE FIRST ARMED RESISTANCE. 239. Resistance. — The king and his prime minister were bent on subduing the colonies. They thought the task would be an easy one. The appeal of the Continental Congress to the king was as idle as the wind. But all the colonies were solid in their determina- tion that they would never submit to the king's arbitrary measures. 240. Independence foreseen. — Here and there one among the leaders was able to see that a revolution was in- evitable. James Otis, Samuel Adams, and Joseph Hawley, in Massachusetts, and Patrick Henry in Virginia, were probably the first men who clearly saw that independence was the only solu- tion of the problem. Washington fore- saw that these parchment measures of the Congress would prove of no avail. Hawley of Massachusetts wrote, " After all, we must fight." When Patrick Henry heard his letter read, he replied, ** I am of that man's opinion." 241. Leslie at Salem. — Gage had for- tified Boston Neck, and determined to prevent the people from arming them- selves. He sent Colonel Leslie with three hundred of the king's troops from Castle Island to Salem, to capture a number of cannon secreted there. On Sunday morning, February 26th, 1775, this force sailed out of Boston Harbor, and by noon anchored at Marblehead. The good people of that town at once suspected the object of this Sunday excursion. Major John Pedrick mounted his horse, and, riding Patrick Henry in Virginia, and Samuel Adams in Massachusetts, lighted the torch of liberty for the South and the North, preceding the American Revolution. Henry was born in 1736, and died in 1799- He was a good Latin scholar, and acquired some proficiency in mathematics before he was fifteen years of age. He was ad- mitted to the bar at the age of twenty- four years. His famous speech against the Stamp Act gave him a great repu- tation throughout the country. He was a member of the Continental Congress in 1774, of which he was the first speaker. His eloquence astonished all, and he soon took rank as the greatest American orator. He caused the colony of Virginia to be put in a thorough state of defence. He was the first Republican governor of his State, serving from 1776 to 1779. After the close of the war he was again governor until 1786. In 1788 he was a member of the State Convention which ratified the National Constitution, which he opposed with all his eloquence and strength. He declined high offices under the Federal government, offered him by Washington and by Adams. (See his "Life and Times," in two volumes, by his grandson, William Wirt Henry.) 1775] LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. 1 35 rapidly to Salem, gave notice to the people assembled in their several churches of the approach of Leslie and the troops. The services were instantly suspended. All repaired to the North Bridge. 242. At Salem North Bridge. — The draw of the bridge was raised, and Colonel Timothy Pickering, commanding the militia, prepared to resist the crossing of Leslie. A parley ensued. Leslie threat- ened to fire. He was instantly warned that should his men fire, not a man of them would leave Salem alive. Rev. Thomas Barnard, pastor of the North Church, finally efi'ected a compromise. It was that the bridge should be lowered and Leslie allowed to cross it and proceed thirty rods beyond, on his promise as a man and a soldier that he would then countermarch his forces and return to Boston. This was done ; but in the mean time the cannon had been spirited away under cover of the buildings, and concealed under leaves in the woods beyond. This was the first armed resistance to British sol- diers, and but for the prompt sagacity and skill of Mr. Barnard, would doubtless have resulted in the first bloodshed of the Revolu- tion. As it was, however, the affair was bloodless ; the colonists saved their cannon, and Leslie returned crestfallen to report his ill- success to his general. CHAPTER XXXVL LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. 243. The Expedition. — Gage was alert. He was determined that the " rebels," as he called them, should not gather military supplies. The committee of the Provincial Congress were as constantly active. They had caused military stores to be deposited at Concord and Worcester. Concord was twenty miles from Boston, and Worcester was forty. Gage turned his attention to Concord. At eleven o'clock on the evening of April i8th, eight hundred regulars, the flower of the king's army in Boston, embarked upon the Charles River, from behind the Common, proceeded up the river, and landed at Phipps' form ; from whencQ the^ marched to Concord, under command of 136 FORMATION OF THE NATION, [1775 Lieutenant-Colonel- Smith and Major Pitcairn. The major led the advanced troops. News of the expedition had preceded them. 244. At Lexington. — A considerable body of minute-men from the surrounding country had gathered upon the green near the meeting- house in Lexington. About five o'clock in the morning of April 19th, 1775, Major Pitcairn at the head of his troops arrived at Lex- ington. He rode around the meeting-house, and with drawn sword in one hand and a pistol in the other, called out, *' Disperse, you rebels ! Throw down your arms, and disperse ! " A solemn silence ensued. He rode a little further, fired his pistol, flourished his sword, and ordered his soldiers to fire. The patriots scattered, concealed themselves here and there under cover, and continued to annoy the enemy with desultory firing. 245. On to Concord. — The detachment marched on to Concord. The provin- cials, finding that the regulars were too numerous to warrant attacking them, retired across the North Bridge, and waited for reinforcements. The British disabled several cannon, threw five hun- dred pounds of ball into the river, and destroyed sixty barrels of flour. The militia were now reinforced, and ad- vanced upon the regulars. The British fired first, and at this first fire. Captain Isaac Davis of Acton and one private soldier were killed. The fire was re- turned; a skirmish ensued; and the British retreated, having lost several men, killed and wounded, and some prisoners. Meantime Gage had despatched Lord Percy with nearly one thousand men and two pieces of cannon to support his advanced forces. The brigade marched out, playing " Yankee Doodle." 246. The Retreat from Lexington to Boston. — Lord Percy came up with the retreating column at Lexington, and gave the troops under Colonel Smith a breathing time, especially as they now had cannon Yankee. — " You may wish to know the origin of the term Yankee. It was a cant, favorite word with farmer Jonathan Hastings, of Cambridge, about 1 7 13. Two aged ministers, who were at the college in that town, have told me they remembered it to have been then in use among the students, but had no recollection of it before that period. The inventor used it to express excellency. A Yankee good horse, or Yankee cider, and the like, were an ex- cellent good horse, and excellent cider. The students used to hire horses of him; their intercourse with him, and his use of the term upon all occasions, led them to adopt it, and they gave him the name of Yankee Jon. He was a worthy, honest man, but no conjurer. This could not escape the notice of the collegiates. Yankee probably became a by-word among them to express a weak, simple, awkward person ; was carried from the college with them when they left it, and was in that way circulated and established through the country, till from its currency in New England, it was at length taken up and unjustly applied to the New Englanders in common, as a term of reproach." ((Gordon's American War, pp. 324-5.) 1775] LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. 137 which prevented the provincials from pressing upon their rear in a direct Hne. But the mihtia and minute-men were rapidly collecting from all quarters. The whole British column was obliged to renew their march or have their retreat cut off. Constant skirmishing- con- tinned, until the regulars reached Boston. The loss of the British was two hundred and seventy-three ; of the Americans, eighty-eight. 247. Massachusetts raises an Army. — The Provincial Congress at once resolved "that an army of thirty thousand men be immediately BOSTONand VICINITY. raised and established ; that thirteen thousand six hundred be from this province ; and that a letter and delegate be sent to the several colonies of New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island." The military headquarters were fixed at Cambridge. General Artemas Ward was made commander-in-chief of the Massachusetts troops. General John Thomas commanded at Roxbury. Captain John Derby, of Salem, received the first naval commission from Massa- chusetts, and sailed at once for England with despatches from the Provincial Congress tQ Dr Franklin, containing an account of th^ 138 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [^775 Lexington fight and an address to the inhabitants of Great Britain. The war of the Revolution was begun, and it was now clear that there would be no peace, except by submission or independence. 248. Military Activity everywhere. — • Despatches giving an account of the battle were sent post-haste through all the colonies. Imme- diately military activity was displayed everywhere. Twenty thou- sand militia hastened to Boston. In Rhode Island a brigade of three regiments, with a train of artillery, was placed under command of General Nathaniel Greene. At Charleston, .South Carolina, volunteers were armed from the arsenal. In Georgia the royal magazine was seized. The power of the royal governors — from Massachusetts to Georgia — was gone. Committees of safety were appointed to provide for emergencies, and to call out the troops. Soon twenty thousand men were at work throwing up intrenchments abound Boston to shut up the British in that city. CHAPTER XXXVII. TICONDEROGA AND BUNKER HILL. 249. From Connecticut to Vermont. — General Gage had set the example of seizing military stores. Retaliation appeared to be not only warrantable but necessary for self-defence. A secret expedition was planned by some leaders in Connecticut. A few sterling men, having procured a quantity of powder and ball, set off on horseback for Bennington, in Vermont, then called the New Hampshire Grants. 250. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. — At Bennington they found Colonel Ethan Allen, a native of Connecticut. At Castleton they were joined by Colonel Benedict Arnold, who had been commis- sioned by the Massachusetts committee to raise four hundred men for the same purpose. It was agreed that Allen should take com- mand, and at daybreak. May loth, with eighty-three men, Allen and Arnold marched side by side to the entrance of Fort Ticonderoga, overpowered the sentinel, and demanded a surrender. The fort was commanded by Captain De La Place^ to whom this attack was a complete surprise, 1775] TICONDEROGA AND BUNKER HILL. 139 251. The Fort surrenders. — The fort was out of repair ; and as he had but about thirty effective men, La Place could do nothing but surrender. The boats, which had brought Colonel Allen and his men across the lake, returned at once for the remainder of the force, which was under command of Colonel Seth Warner. Ticonderoga had surrendered, however, before these men could cross. 252. Crown Point surrenders. — Colonel Warner immediately set out for Crown Point, which he captured on the 12th. Warner was left in command at Crown Point, and Colonel Arnold at Ticonderoga. These two successes were of great im- portance to the colonies, because it gave them a large amount of. military stores. Soon after, these brave offi- cers captured a sloop of war which was lying at St. John's at the foot of the lake, and sailed with it for Ticonde- roga. These successes gave the Americans full command of Lake Champlain and the sur- rounding country. 253. Bunker Hill. — And now we come to the first real battle of the war. The Massachusetts Committee of Safety recommended to the Provincial Congress to occupy Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights. The Congress therefore passed an order on the i6th of June, directing Colonel Prescott with one thousand men to take possession of the hill the following night, and fortify it. Breed's Hill, however, either because more directly commanding the landing or from inadvertence, was marked out for the intrenchment, instead of Bunker Hill. In silence the patriots pushed forward, carrying arms, shovels, and dark lanterns. Between midnight and the dawn of day they had thrown up a redoubt about eight rods square. 254. The British open Fire. — The British ship ** Lively" was stationed in the channel directly opposite. When its captain came on deck in the early dawn, June 17th, 1775, he discovered the breast- works, and about four o'clock opened fire. Soon after, the British 140 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1775 artillery on Copp's Hill began firing upon the Yankee fort. It was a hot morning, but the tired Americans continued the work with their shovels until noon, notwithstanding a heavy fire both from the ships in the channel and from Copp's Hill in Boston. During the forenoon the Americans had succeeded in throwing up breastworks from the east side of their redoubt to the bottom of the hill northward. The Battle of Bunker Hill. (Copyri lit i in, li\ Silver, Burdclt .V Cuiupaui ; Although an incessant shower of shot and bombs was rained upon them by the batteries, yet but one man was killed. 255. British Troops transported to Charlestown. — Between twelve and one o'clock the British forces to the number of about three thousand men were transported by boats and barges from Boston to Charlestown, under command of Major-General Howe and Brigadier-General Pigot. The regulars formed in two lines, and advanced deliberately towards the American works. 256. American Officers in Command. — The patriots were under command of Colonel Prescott. Colonel Stark commanded the 1775] TICONDEROGA AND BUNKER HILL. I4I New Hampshire troops, and General Putnam had selected Captain Knowlton to command the Connecticut company. General Warren, General Pomeroy, and General Putnam were all on the field, aiding and encouraging here and there as the case required. The Ameri- cans reserved their fire till the regulars were within ten or twelve rods, when they poured upon them a terrific discharge of musketry. 257. The British repulsed. — The contest continued until the stream of American fire was so incessant, and did such execution, that the regulars retreated in disorder ,and with great precipitation toward the landing-place, where their boats still were. At length they were rallied by their officers, and a second time advanced with steady pace up the hill, marching with apparent reluctance toward the intrenchments. The Americans reserved their fire till the enemy were within five or six rods. ; 258. The British repulsed Again. — The execution was fearful. Some of their officers declared it would be downright butchery to lead their men against such lines. But British honor was at stake. The fortifications must be carried. General Howe and his officers doubled their exertions for renewing the attack the third time. The ammunition of the Americans was exhausted. Meantime the town had been fired in several places; and one great blaze, burning with amazing fury, was rapidly sweeping from existence three hundred dwelHng-houses, and nearly two hundred other buildings. 259. The Americans retreat. — Reluctantly but unavoidably the provincials were ordered to retreat They were forced by absolute necessity to withdraw. They, however, delayed, and for some time kept the enemy at bay. They finally withdrew in good order across the neck which joins Charlestown to the main land. While these brave men were retreating. General Warren was shot in the head and died instantly. 260. The British Losses. — The British held possession of the field, but the loss which they had sustained was fearful, amounting in killed and wounded to more than one thousand men, including sixty-nine officers. Some companies were almost all either killed or wounded. 261. The American Losses. — The entire loss of the provincials was between four hundred and five hundred ; the majority being wounded only, many of them but slightly. Each army lost about one-third of its force. The loss of General Warren, who only three days before 142 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1775 had received his appointment from the Massachusetts Congress as a major-general, was the occasion of great sorrow. The British considered his death as better for them than that of five hundred men. Charlestown was now a heap of ruins, the women and children barely escaping with their lives. 262. Results of the Battle. — The re- sult of this battle on the one hand was to inspire courage in the minds of the colonists, and on the other to give to the British a clearer idea of the great- ness of the task which they had under- taken. General Gage at once saw that it would be difficult to subdue America, lb the Americans the consequences of the battle were equal to a decided vic- tory. General Ward in a general order said: " We shall finally come ofT victo- rious, and triumph over the enemies of freedom and America." Dr. Franklin wrote to his English friends: **The Americans will fight; England has lost her colonies forever." On the other side, General Gage wrote to Lord Dartmouth: '* The rebels are not the despicable rabble whom many have supposed them to be. The conquest of this country is not easy." General Joseph Warren was born inRoxbury, 1741, and was graduated at Harvard at the age of eighteen. His po- litical sentiments were often in advance of public opinion ; for he held that all taxation imposed by the British gov- ernment upon the colonies was nothing less than tyranny. His firmness and decision as a leader were only equalled by the prudence and wariness of all his plans. He was twice chosen to deliver the oration on the 5th of March, in com- memoration of the Boston Massacre. The second of these was pronounced in the Old South Meeting House, in defiance of the threats of the British of- ficers, that any man who should make a public address on that anniversary should lose his life. He was a delegate to the Massachusetts Congress in 1774, over which he presided. He was chair- man of the Committee of Public Safety, and as such exercised the executive power of the new commonwealth. CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE SIEGE OF BOSTON. 263. The Second Congress. -^ On the 10th of May, 1775, a few hours after the surrender of Ticonderoga, the second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. It was a notable body, and it had a remark- able work before it Peyton Randolph was its first president. Its members were experienced and sagacious men. Among them were Washington, Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry; Franklin, Jay, and i775j THE SIEGE OF BOSTON. M3 Livingston; John Adams, Richard Henry Lee, and George Clinton; and others ahuost equally well known throughout the colonies, con- spicuous for their ability and statesmanship. They sought a redress of grievances, but it soon began to appear that independence was their only means of relief. They listened to the narrative of the deeds at Lexington and Concord. They learned of the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. It was apparent that a continental army must be organized. 264. Washington appointed Commander-in-Chief. — A request for a continental army came from the Congress of Massachusetts, and John Adams suggested that Washington should be appointed commander-in- chief. On the 15th of June, he was elected by a unanimous ballot. His commission styled him "General and Commander- in-Chief of the Army of the United Colonies." This phrase — ''The United Colonies " — continued to be used until the Declara- tion of Independence sub- stituted the name *' The United States." Congress now assumed the defence of the country: it adopted a continental currency; it established a treasury de- partment ; it organized a post-office department and appointed Franklin as postmaster-general ; it created an army and appointed a general, four major-generals, and eight brigadier-generals. 265. The New Commander. — The principal part of the army being in the vicinity of Boston, Washington repaired thither. He arrived at Cambridge on the 2d of July. On the next day, the continental forces were formed in close column upon and around the Common. When they had been drawn up in order, Washington, beneath a tall The "Washington Elm," Cambridge, Mass. 144 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [i775-i776 elm-tree, whose long and graceful branches seemed to nod assent as they waved back and forth in the summer breeze, mounted his horse, drew his sword, and assumed command. This was almost one hun- dred and twenty-five years ago, yet the old elm is still standing, — an object lesson in patriotism to multitudes of pilgrims, and a con- stant reminder of the great deeds of the fathers to the thousands of students gathered from all parts of our broad land within the halls of Harvard University. 266. Washington's Army. — Washington was now forty-three years of age. He was tall, sinewy, well-proportioned. " His chest was broad, his figure stately, blending dignity of presence with ease." He was dressed according to the fashion of the time, in a " blue broadcloth coat, buff small-clothes, silk stockings, and a cocked hat." The army which Washington was to command numbered about fourteen thousand men. It was a motley crowd, badly clothed, poorly armed, with many unfit for service. In August, Washing- ton divided his forces into three divisions, and placed them under command respectively of Generals Ward, Lee, and Putnam. The headquarters were at Roxbury, Cambridge, and Winter Hill. Washington made every effort to feed and clothe his army, and to bring them to a better condition of military discipline. He issued orders respecting profanity, gambling, religious bigotry, gossip, and indecency, which illustrate his conception of the character of a patriotic citizen soldiery. 267. The Winter of 1775-76. — The winter which followed was long and wearisome to all. All connection between Boston and the sur- rounding country was cut off, and Gage was completely penned up in the town. There was much suffering among the inhabitants from a scarcity of provisions. The British army endeavored to make the best of their situation. The Old South meeting-house was turned into a riding-school. Faneuil Hall became a play-house, where the officers appeared as actors, and balls and even a masquerade were planned. 268. Boston evacuated. — In March, Washington fortified Dor- chester Heights by night. In the morning. Lord Howe, who was now in command of the British forces, w^as astonished to see these new intrenchments, which overlooked and threatened the city. General Clinton had advised him to fortify this height; his neglect 1775-1783. Ccpy right, 1892, in MacCottn's Historical Geography of the United States. I775-1776] FIRST STEPS TOWARD INDEPENDENCE. I45 cost him the loss of Boston. He remembered the lesson which he had learned at Bunker Hill, and so instead of attacking this south- ern frontier, he decided to leave the city, and accordingly sailed away with his army, fleet, and many Tories for Halifax. The city was evacuated March 17th, 1^76, and the continental troops from Roxbury at once marched in. From Cambridge they crossed in boats. The British had left behind them, in the hurry of their flight, several hundred cannon, many thousand bushels of wheat, barley, and oats, a large number of horses, and bedding and clothing for the soldiers. On the 22d of March the restrictions on intercourse between country and town were removed, and many citizens of Bos- ton, who had for a long time been exiled from their homes, returned, and all hearts were touched at " witnessing the tender interviews and fond embraces of those who had been separated." CHAPTER XXXIX. FIRST STEPS TOWARD INDEPENDENCE. 269. Expedition against Quebec. — Late in the summer of 1775, General Montgomery, with a considerable force, made an expedition by way of Lake Champlain against Canada. He captured St. Johns, found Montreal deserted, took possession there, and pushed on to Quebec. Meantime, Colonel Benedict Arnold, a brave soldier and a brilliant officer, accompanied by Aaron Burr, with more than one thousand men, joined Montgomery at Quebec, having made a des- perate march through the wilds of Maine, in which they endured untold hardships. Before they reached the St. Lawrence their sup- plies were entirely gone. 270. Americans Unsuccessful. — The two generals joined their forces about the first of December, advanced upon Quebec, and demanded its surrender. Montgomery was killed December ist, and Arnold was v/ounded. The city was defended by more than two hundred guns besides the infantry. A portion of the invading army surren- dered ; and at the approach of spring, the remaining forces were 10 146 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [l??^ glad to leave Canada in the hands of England, and retrace their steps homeward. 271. The Colonies declare for Independence. — The leaders in the Continental Congress were patiently waiting the development of public opinion. The first explicit saiftction given by any State for independence was the action of North Carolina, April 12th, 1776, when the North Carolina Congress unanimously authorized their delegates in the Continental Congress, in concurrence with delegates of the other colonies, to declare independence of foreign allegiance. At Charlotte, North Carolina, as early as May 31st, 1775, the county of Mecklenburg had, by a convention of delegates, declared in favor of absolute independence. 272. Rhode Island the First State. — The first State actually to declare herself independent of Great Britain was Rhode Island. This act was passed May 4th, 1776, just two months prior to the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress. This famous act declares that ** In all States existing by contract, protec- tion and allegiance are reciprocal, the latter being due only in con- sequence of the former." The act then goes on to say that hereafter all commissions for offices, and all writs and processes in law, shall be made out in the name and by the authority of *' The Governor and Company of the English Colony of Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations, . . . that the Courts of Law be no longer entitled nor considered as the King's Courts, and that no instrument in writing . . . shall mention the year of the said King's reign." In closing the record of the General Assembly the words " God save the King" were changed, and " God save the United Colo- nies " appeared for the first time on the records of the ancient plantation. From this time we may regard Rhode Island as an independent State. 273. South Carolina. — On the 23d of April the court at Charles- ton, South Carolina, was opened and the Chief-Justice charged the Grand Jury in these words : ** The law of the land authorizes me to declare, and it is my duty to declare the law, that George the Third, king of Great Britain, has abdicated the government, that he has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him." 274. Virginia quickly follows. — On the 6th of May, the House of Burgesses of Virginia met at Williamsburg, but " as they were 1776] THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. I47 of the opinion that the ancient constitution had been subverted by the king and ParHament of Great Britain, they dissolved them- selves unanimously, and thus the last vestige of the king's authority passed away from that colony." 275. Other Colonies declare for Independence. — On the first day of May, Joseph Hawley of Massachusetts wrote: ''For God's sake let there be a full revolution. Independence and a well-planned Continental Government will save us." A very large majority of the towns declared unanimously for independence. The choice of all New England was spontaneous and undoubted. On the 14th of June, Connecticut instructed its delegates to favor inde- pendence, and a permanent union of the colonies. Thus one by one every colony demanded independence. CHAPTER XL. THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 276. The Declaration. — Hitherto the colonies had been struggling only for a redress of grievances, Richard Henry Lee early in June introduced into Congress a resolution declaring that These United Colonics are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States. The first day of July was agreed upon as the day of final action. On that day, in committee of the whole, they discussed tlie resolution. John Adams made a masterly argument in its favor, and John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, opposed the measure as premature. In committee, nine colonies, two-thirds of the whole number, voted for the resolution. Action by the Congress was postponed until the next day. 277. Declaration passed, July 2d. — July 2d the great step was to be taken. Every member of Congress seemed to be fully aware that, should they pass the resolution, then "to recede would be infamy, and to persist might be destiuction." The vote was decisive. New York was unable to vote ; but twelve colonies, with none dissenting, agreed to adopt and stand by the following resolu- tion : *' These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 148 FORMATION OF THE NATION, [177b and independent States." The grandeur and heroism of this act can scarcely be comprehended. At the end of that great day, John Adams wrote as follows : " The greatest question has been decided which was ever debated in America, and a greater, perhaps, never was nor will be decided among men. Britain has been filled with folly, and America with wisdom. It is the will of Heaven that the two countries should be sundered forever." 278. Jefferson drafts the Formal Document. — A committee had been appointed to draw up the declaration, and set forth the reasons for it. Of this committee Thomas Jefferson had received the largest number of votes, and was thus singled out " to draft the confession of faith of the rising empire." 279. It passes and the Bell rings. — On the evening of the Fourth of July, Congress, having listened to the entire document as read by Jefferson, and having made some slight changes in it, " rendering its language more terse, more dispassionate, and more exact," came to the final vote. New York still abstained from voting; but twelve States, without one negative, agreed to this " Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled." The bell on the Pennsylvania State House, which was afterwards rung to announce that the measure had passed, bore the words around its base: "Proclaim liberty throughout the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof." Leviticus xxv. 10. Let every American become familiar with the words of this docu- ment, and cherish its phrases. (Appendix B.) Let every pupil in the public and private schools of the land, read it. Let its great truths and principles sink into our hearts. Its closing words were these: "And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." The Liberty Bell. (Now hanging in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa.) I760-I776] CHRONOLOGY. 149 CHRONOLOGY. 1760. England — Reign of George III. 1774. Philadelphia — First Continental Congress meets, September 5. Philadelphia — Congress adopts Articles of Association. 1775. Massachusetts — Armed resistance to British authority, February 26. Massachusetts — Lexington and Concord, April 19. Massachusetts — Siege of Boston. New York — Ticonderoga, May 10. New York — Crown Point, May 12. Philadelphia — Second Continental Congress meets. May 10. Philadelphia — Congress chooses a commander, June 15. Massachusetts — Bunker Hill, June 17. Massachusetts — Washington assumes command, July 3. Quebec — Americans defeated, December 31. 1776. Massachusetts — Evacuation of Boston, March 17. Rhode Island — First colony to declare independence, May 4. Philadelphia — Declaration of Independence, July 4. FIa^ used by ~^JnA\ \ 0^ J ^--^, Fort Erie// 33 .^..---^N Buffalo LAKE E B 1 E ^ 224 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, [l8l2 undisciplined men, with ignorant generals. Only great provocation could justify war under these considerations. 436. Invasion of Canada. — The first plan of the government was to invade Canada. Accordingly, General William Hull, Governor ot the Territory of Michigan, crossed the river from Detroit, only to fall back upon the advance of General Brock. The British pressed after him, and were in the act of attacking Detroit when Hull surrendered, August i6th. Instead of injuring Canada, the Americans lost Michigan, without a gun being fired in her defence. The " Constitution " and " Guerriere.' The second attempt to invade Canada was made from New York. A portion of the American army crossed the Niagara River, and won a victory at Queenstown Heights, but later was compelled to surrender because the rest of the soldiers refused to cross into Canada. During the year 1812 the American army met with con- stant defeat. I8I2-I8I3] THE WAR OF 1812. 225 437. Naval Victories. — Little had been expected from the navy at the beginning of the war; but brilliant naval victories more than offset the failures of the army. During the second half of the year 1812 four of these exploits brought joy to the American people, and astonishment to England. August 19th Captain Hull, of the frigate "Constitution," fought for two hours with the "Guerriere," near Newfoundland, and completely wrecked the British frigate. The " Constitution " barely received injury, and lost but fourteen men against the enemy's eighty. In October the "Wasp" defeated the "Frolic" off the coast of North Carolina; and on boarding the defeated vessel, the Americans found but four men left, and three of these wounded. The capture of the "Macedonian" by the "United States," and of the "Java" by the " Constitution," rounded out the glorious record of the year. Almost for the first time in her history England had been humili- ated on the ocean, and that, too, by vessels belonging to the weak navy of a young nation, from whom nothing of the kind was expected. 438. The Navy in 1813. — The victories during the second year ot the war were not so one-sided. The American seamen had been in a condition of better discipline, while the British sailors had become careless because of their previous continuous successes. The British vessels were now ordered to keep within call of one another, and the officers were directed to enforce more careful discipline. The two most important naval exploits of this year were the loss of the " Chesapeake " and the cruise of the " Essex. " Captain Lawrence, of the "Chesapeake," attacked the " Shannon " within sight of Boston, and her colors were not struck until Lawrence was mortally wounded. Captain Porter sailed the " Essex " into the Pacific Ocean, protected American vessels, and injured the British whaling industry. He Commodore 0. H Perry. (From a painting by J. W, Jarvis.) 226 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1813-1814 was blockaded in the harbor of Valparaiso by two British vessels, and was compelled to surrender. 439. Around Lake Erie. — The victories of American vessels upon the ocean gave encouragement to the building of a fleet upon the Great Lakes. Early in the year, Captain Oliver H. Perry built a small fleet upon Lake Erie. September lOth, 1813, Perry, with nine vessels and fifty-four guns, attacked the British fleet, of six vessels and sixty-three guns, and defeated it. He announced: " We have met the enemy and they are ours, — two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." By this victory the Americans obtained control of Lake Erie, and another attempt was made to invade Canada. General Harrison (1 483) crossed the lake, attacked the British army at the river Thames, and com- pletely defeated it. In this battle the In- dian chief, Tecumseh, was killed. Michigan was recovered, and the war in the Northwest was brought to an end. 440. On the Border. — Four engagements of importance oc- curred along the Ca- nadian border during the year 18 14. In July a fourth invasion of Canada was begun by an American army crossing the Niagara River. General Win- field Scott (IF 492) at- tacked the enemy at a stream called the Chippewa, and drove them as far as Lake Ontario. The British, re-enforced, were again attacked at Lundy's Lane, and the battle lasted from sunset to midnight, when the British retreated with WASHINGTO AND BALTIMORE i8i4] THE WAR OF i8i2. 227 the loss of their commander. Two months later the* Americans repelled a British attack upon Fort Erie. The assailing force was much larger than the American army at the fort, but the British were driven back beyond the Chippewa. These three vic- tories were of moral aid to the country, but bore no immediate gain. The army soon went into winter-quarters at Buffalo. An attempt was made by the British to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson River. Their fleet was met on the lake by Commodore MacDonough, in September, 1 8 14, and, though the two fleets were nearly equal, the British were driven back with a loss of two hundred men and four vessels. This defeated the expedition and ended the war in the North. 441. Burning of the Capitol.— The English fleet upon the Atlantic completely blockaded the principal seaports of the United States, and kept the coast in a condition of constant alarm. They attacked many of the smaller towns, and plun- dered and burned wherever they went. Admiral Cockburn took possession of the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay as his headquarters. In August, 18 14, General Ross landed in Maryland, and marched overland to the city of Wash- ington. The British captured the city, and disgracefully burned nearly all of the public buildings. They did not spare the Capitol, and some private buildings also were destroyed in the conflagration. From Washington the enemy sailed up the Chesapeake to attack Baltimore. They were resisted at Fort McHenry, and driven back with the loss of their commander. 442. The Hartford Convention. — As has been before mentioned, the New England States had always opposed the war. When, in the latter part of the year 18 14, it seemed as if the war was a failure, that the government could not, and, as they thought, would not, protect New England, delegates from the five New England States met at Hartford "to confer upon the subject of their public grievances. " After a short session these delegates reported, advis- " Star Spangled Banner " — The failure of the British to capture Fort McHenry inspired the writing of one of America's best-known national songs. Francis S. Key had, during the day before the battle, visited the British fleet, in order to negotiate for an exchange of prisoners. He was de- tained on the vessel, and spent the night while the enemy made the attack on the fort. With patriotic zeal, Mr. Key waited the result of the comDat, and in the morning saw the flag still flying. On the spot, he wrote the " .Star-Spangled Banner," which im- mediately became popular, and was soon sung, far and near, throughout the country. 228 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1814-1815 Louisiana was the first State to be formed out of the great province which Jefferson purchased from France in 1803. It had been settled by the French, under D'Iberville, in 1700, near the present site of New Orleans. In 1804, the southern portion of the province was made into the territory of Orleans, the name being changed to Louisiana when it was made a State. The leading agricultural industries of the " Pelican State " are cotton, sugar, and rice. Manufactures have, of late, been started in the State, while its pop- ulation has rapidly increased until it is nearly a million and a half. \ng amendments to the Constitution, among them one to restrict certain powers of Congress. Although this report was all that officially came from the Hartford Convention, it has been commonly believed that a dissolution of the Union was urged at this meeting. As the public was not admitted to its sessions, and as "no general report of its discussions was ever published, this supposition could not be disproved. The delegates were politically ruined, and a death-blow was given to the Federalist party. 443. Treaty of Peace. — No second session of the Hartford Convention was held, as a treaty of peace was concluded even during its session. December 24th, 1814, American and Brit- ish commissioners signed a treaty at Ghent, which was afterwards ratified by both nations. The issues which brought about the war were not settled by the treaty, and affairs seemed to be left about as they had been before the war. In fact, however, the war strengthened the position of the United States in the eyes of Europe, and England never again attempted to en- force her claim to the right of search and impressment. News of the treaty did not reach the United States until February of the next year. Meanwhile, January 8th, 1815, a severe battle had been fought at New Orleans. General Andrew Jackson (TT 468) had fortified the city, and with six thousand men withstood a British force of twice that number, under Sir Edward Pakenham. The American victory was complete, Jackson losing less than twenty-five men, killed and wounded, while the enemy lost their leader and more than two thousand soldiers. 444. Domestic Affairs. — Nearly the whole of Madison's two administrations was devoted to European affairs and the war with Indiana was the second of the States made out of the Northwest Ter- ritory. When Ohio was made a State, the rest of the territory was called Indi- ana, because of the Indian settlements within its borders. Like the other States in that section of the country, agriculture is the chief branch of indus- try, cereal productions holding the first rank. With a population of two and a half millions, the " Hoosier State " is one of the most prosperous in the Union. l8li-l82o] AN ERA OF GOOD FEELING. 2^9 England. Few domestic matters of importance occupied the atten- tion of Congress. In 1811 an attempt was made to re-charter the National Bank (1 409), but it was unsuccessful, and the bank was closed. Five years later another attempt fared better, and a charter was granted for twenty years. Two new States were admitted, — Louisiana, the eighteenth, April 30th, 1 812, and Indiana, the nineteenth, December nth, 1816. President Madison was re-elected in 18 12, by a vote of 128 to 89 for DeWitt Clinton of New York; Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts being chosen Vice-President. James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins were the Republican candidates in 18 16, and Monroe received a large majority over Rufus King, the candidate of the Federalists. CHAPTER LIX. AN ERA OF GOOD FEELING. 1817-1825. 445. Monroe's Administrations. — James Monroe became President in 1817, a time when the United States was at peace with all the world. During his term of office the P'ederalist party ceased to exist, and all the people belonged to one party. In 1820 there was no opposition to the re-election of Monroe and Tompkins, and in the electoral college President Monroe received all the votes but one. These eight years were termed the "Era of Good Feeling." 446. The Purchase of Florida. — In 18 18, General Andrew Jackson (IT 468) was sent to repel the invasion into Georgia by the Semi- nole Indians of Florida. The Spanish officials so persistently aided the Indians that Jackson exceeded his authority, invaded Florida, and seized the town of Pensacola. John Quincy Adams, the Secretary of State, entered into communication with Spain to settle this difficulty as well as the boundary dispute which had been pending since the purchase of Louisiana. These negotiations resulted in the purchase of Florida for the sum of five million 230 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [l 808-1 820 James Monroe. dollars. The treaty was signed by the commissioners in 1819, but was not finally ratified by the two governments until two years later. In this treaty the United States waived all right to the province of Texas (11483), and Spain gave up her claims to any land on the Pacific coast north of the forty- second parallel. Thus was acquired another claim to the Oregon country (t 485). 447. The Slavery Question. — The most important question that arose during Monroe's administrations was with regard to slave and free States. One by one the Northern States abolished slavery, so that before 1808, when the foreign slave-trade was abolished, there were nine free States in the North and eight slave States in the South. By the admission of Louisiana and Indiana during Madison's term, the numbers were ten free and nine slave. The attempt was being made to keep the numbers equal in order that the Senate might be equally divided. Decem- ber loth, 1817, Mississippi (slave) was admitted, and the numbers were equal. December 3d, 18 18, Illinois (free), and December 14th, 18 19, Alabama (slave) were admitted to the Union. In 1820 Maine and Missouri applied for ad- mission. The question arose at once whether slavery should be permitted in the proposed State of Missouri or not. Mainebecame a State March 15th, 1820. 448. The Missouri Compromise. — The South was very anxious to keep the equality in the Senate, which would be lost if both Maine and Missouri were made free States. The opposition to the extension James Monroe, the last President from the Revolutionary group of states- men, was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, April 28th, 1758. Leaving his studies at William and Mary College at the outbreak of the war, he entered the Revolutionary army at the early age of eighteen. He served his State as member of the leg- islature, representative, senator, and finally as governor. He had much ex- perience in diplomatic service, being, at various times, minister to France, Spain, and England. As minister, perhaps his most im- portant work was the negotiation, with R. R. Livingston, for the purchase of the province of Louisiana. During Madison's administration, he was Sec- retary of State, and a part of the time also Secretary of War. Monroe was elected President in 18 16, and served two terms. He died July 4th, 183 1. I820-I822] AN ERA OF GOOD FEELING. 231 MississippL — The first settlement made in southern New France was in 1699, at Biloxi, in what is now Missis- sippi. This region passed to the Eng- lish in 1763, and the larger part of it to the United States in 1783. The portion along the Gulf of Mexico was granted to Spain at the same time, and was for nearly forty years the cause of a dis- pute, which was not settled until the purchase of Florida. The " Bayou State " contains an abundance of very fertile soil, a large portion of which is used in the production of cotton. More than a million and a half people live here, of which number one fourth are employed in farming. of slavery had become strong in the North, and many members of Congress hesitated to vote to increase the number of slave States. The people of Illinois strongly objected to the forming of the slave State of Missouri, as it lay to the west of them, and a portion of Illinois would then be nearly surrounded by slavery. After a long debate the famous Missouri Com- promise bill of 1820 was passed (^ 513). This bill admitted Missouri as a slave State, while a statute was passed for- ever prohibiting slavery in the re- mainder of the Louisiana purchase, north of the parallel of 36° 30^ The result of this compromise was simply to postpone the settlement of the slavery question, and for thirty years (IT 521) no further trouble arose directly over the admission of free or slave States. Missouri be- came a State August loth, 1821. 449. The Monroe Doctrine. — During the early part of this century the various Spanish colonies on the American con- tinent, influenced by the example of the United States, threw off the yoke of Spain, and, before 1822, had become independent States. Spain was unable alone to bring them back to their alle- giance, but attempted to prevail upon other European nations to aid her. President Monroe decided to make a protest that Europe should not inter- fere in American affairs. He sent a message to Congress, in which he said "that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers," and that, in matters relating to Anierica, "we could not Illinois, the third State in rank of population, was the third of the "Northwest" States to be admitted. In 1810 the population of the territory was about twelve thousand, while, eighty years later, it was nearly four million. In T900 its population was nearly five millions. The city of Chicago had, in 1830, a population of ten families, and in 1900, after a period of seventy years, it is the second city in the country, with over a mil- lion and a half inhabitants. Illinois is one of the great cereal-producing States, and possesses very rich soil throughout its whole extent. The man- ufacturing industries of the State rank well with any of the older States. The excellent location of Chicago makes it the centre of great commercial activity. The northern section of the State is more thickly covered with railroads than any other section of equal size in the world. 232 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [I8l2-l8l6 Alabama, a portion of the eastern half of the original Louisiana Province, was ceded to England in 1763. For a time included in the State of Georgia, it was afterwards ceded to the United States, and in 1802 became a part of the Territory of Mississippi. It was made a separate territory in 181 7, when Mississippi became a State. Until within a few years, Alabama, or the " Cotton State," has devoted most of its attention to cotton and other agri- cultural products. Of late, however, it has begun to make use of its coal and iron mines, and to build up the manufacturing industries, for which it has great advantages. It is having a rapid growth, its population being nearly two millions. view any interposition by any European power in any other light than as a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United States. " He further added that we "should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. ' ' This main idea had been suggested by President Jefferson many years before this time; but this was the first explicit statement of the proposition, and it therefore received the name of the " Monroe Doctrine." 450. The Tariff auestion. — The War of 1 812, as well as the attack upon American commerce before the war, led to the formation of many manufacturing establishments. Inasmuch as manufactured goods could not be imported, it was necessary to make them at home, if possible. When the Treaty of Ghent brought peace and a revival of commerce, a vast quantity of manufactured goods was brought in from England. They were sold at such low prices that there was no sale for American manufac- tures. A large number of petition^! began to pour in upon Congress, ask ing it to impose high duties upon such imported goods as were being or could be produced in this country. It was hoped that if such duty was added to the price of foreign goods, home prod- ucts might be sold at a price that would furnish some profit to the manufacturer. 451. Tariffs. —In 1816 a new tariff act was passed by Congress, placing a Maine. —The Popham colony was established at the mouth of the Kenne- bec, in 1607. Mason and Gorges pos- sessed the land from the Kennebec to the Merrimac in 1620. In 1639 Fer- dinando Gorges obtained a charter of Maine from Charles I. Under the name of Pemaquid, the territory be- longed later to the Duke of York, after- wards James I. After other changes, Maine was annexed to Massachusetts in 1691. The province snffered se- verely in the French wars, the Revolu- tion, and the War of 1812. March 15th, 1820, with tlie permission of Massa- chusetts, Maine was made a separate State. The " Pine Tree State" is de- voted primarily to agriculture. Its fisheries are only exceeded in amount by Massachusetts. Its most unique production is the ice which is cut from its rivers. Its population is about seven hundred thousand. comparatively high duty upon cotton and woollen goods, as these W^r^ the most important of the new manufactures. This tariff did I820-I824] THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 233 not prove as satisfactory as had been hoped. The importations of foreign goods was considerably reduced, but not enough to satisfy the American manufacturers. In 1820 a bill laying a higher protective tariff lacked but one vote of becoming a law. In 1824 another, and this time a suc- cessful, attempt was made to furnish greater protection to home industries; and a new tariff was passed, increasing the duties on other goods as well as on cotton and woollen manufactures. 452. Presidential Election. — At the close of President Monroe's term, as no parties existed, no party nomina- tions for the Presidential chair were made. Four candidates were in the Missouri was the second State to be made out of the Louisiana purchase. When Louisiana was made a State in 1812, the rest of the territory was organ- ized under the name of Missouri. The first settlement in the State was made at St. Genevieve, in 1700. St. Louis ranks fourth among the great cities of the country, with a population of over half a million, while the State ranks fifth, with a population of over three millions. The State ranks seventh in valuation, and at the head of the former slave States. Its indus- tries are very diversified, mining, agri- culture, manufacturing, and commerce each holding a high place, as compared with its sister States. field for the office, each selected by a circle of friends. When the election took place it was found that Andrew Jackson had received 99 votes, John Quincy Adams 84, William H. Crawford 41, and Henry Clay 37. The election was, according to the Constitution, thrown into the House of Representatives, and a choice was made from the first three. Clay's friends gave their votes to Adams, and he was elected. John C. Calhoun (^ 472), of South Carolina, was chosen Vice-President. CHAPTER LX. THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 453. Population. — During the thirty-five years between 1790 and 1825 the population of the United States increased from less than four to about eleven millions. The business centres on the Atlantic coast had changed from small towns to cities of respectable size, and had lost the provincial character noticeable during the eighteenth century. The tide of migration was westward, and the centre of population, which in 1790 was e^st of the Chesapeake Bay, in 234 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1825 1825 had nearly reached the western extremity of Maryland. Each of the original thirteen States showed, in every census, a large growth in population ; but the new States and Territories west of the Alleghanies had made wonderful gains. 454. Territory. — The area of the original thirteen colonies east of the Alleghanies was less than four hundred thousand square miles, and that of the original United States was but a little more than twice as large. By the purchase of Louisiana in 1803 the territory of the United States was more than doubled, and the pur- chase of Florida in 18 19 (IT 446) added nearly sixty thousand square miles. The territorial area of the country, therefore, had been ex- tended, during these thirty-five years, from about eight hundred thousand to nearly eighteen hundred thousand square miles. At the same time, the number of States com- prising the Union had increased from thirteen to twenty-four. 455. Travel on Land. — The enor- mous increase of territorial limits had called attention to the great need of better means of transpor- tation. The subject of "rapid transit " began to interest states- men and inventors as well as mere travellers. Most of the journeys were usually made by land, and the necessity of better roads became apparent. Months were needed to make journeys which to-day can easily be accomplished in days. The United States government took no direct steps to improve the means of transportation except by building a national road. The intention was to connect the navigable portion of the Potomac River with the Ohio by means of a good road, of easy grade, well built, and with good bridges. The sum of a million dollars was spent during the administration of President Monroe upon the "Cumberland Road," which extended between Cumberland, Maryland, and Wheeling, Vir- ginia. Later, this road was extended into Indiana; but, with this Robert Fulton. i825] THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 235 exception, the Federal government has left the matter of the build- ing of roads to the care of the States or of private corporations. 456. Travel by Water. — Many attempts were made between 1 788 and 1807 to make use of steam as a means of propelling vessels. Robert Fulton was the first to make a successful public experiment of run- ning a steamboat. In 1807 his little boat, with side paddle-wheels, began to make regular trips be- tween New York and Al- bany. These trips of the *' Clermont " were so suc- cessful that other steam- boats were built ; and in 1 8 14 the "Vesuvius " be- gan to make regular trips between Pittsburg and New Orleans. The " Sa- vannah" crossed the Atlantic in 1819, and in 1825 the ** Enter- prise " steamed around the Cape of Good Hope to India. While the invention of the steamboat greatly aided transportation along the rivers, the travel across the land from one river to another was as difficult as ever. This was especially the case when the journey was from the Eastern to the Western States, where the roads over the Appalachian Mountains were so difficult. Attempts were made to pre- vail upon Congress to authorize the construction of canals across the moun- tains, but they were unsuccessful, and this improvement was also left to private or State enterprise. 457. Agriculture. — Farming was still the most important occu- pation in the United States. Wheat, flour, Indian corn, rye, " The Clermont." "Clinton's Big Ditch." — Many small canals were built in various sec- tions of the country, and in 1817 the immense task of connecting Lake Erie with the Hudson River was begun. This " Erie Canal " was built by the State of New York, and was not com- pleted until 1825. De Witt Clinton, the Governor of the State, was very energetic in this work, and those who opposed the building of the canal as impracticable used to speak of it as "Clinton's Big Ditch." The scheme was practicable, however, and nothing was more important in increasing the wealth and power of New York City than this canal, which furnishes an easy means of transportation from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic seaboard. ^36 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1825 beans, peas, potatoes, beef, tallow, and hides from the North, and rice, tobacco, indigo, and cotton from the South, were among the staple productions. The new West had taken the lead, and lacked only sufficient laborers to be able to furnish agricultural products for the whole world. Emigration from Europe, which had been very small between 1790 and 181 5, then began to increase, and about 1820 two or three thousand emigrants yearly left Great Britain, A Western Emigrant Train. Ireland, Germany, Switzerland, and France, for the New World, and its great agricultural territories. 458. Manufactures. — During the period preceding the year 1825 many American manufactures were started and put upon a firm ba- sis. The first cotton-mills were established in Beverly, Massachu- setts, and Pawtucket, Rhode Island, soon after the adoption of the Constitution. Mills in which cotton yarn was spun began to spring up in New England. The yarn was woven into cloth by hand. In 181 3 a mill in Waltham, Massachusetts, was the first both to spin 1825] THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 237 the cotton and weave it into cloth by power machinery. Woollen, leather, and iron manufactures ranked next in importance to cotton, and the amount of these staples produced in the United States was constantly increasing. Other smaller industries were beginning in New England and the Middle States, such as the manufacturing of hats, bonnets, and rope. The many falls in the New England rivers furnished power for running machinery at slight expense, and aided very materially in establishing the infant manufactures. 459. Protective Tariffs. — When, in 18 16, the first protective tariff act was enacted by Congress, many of the representatives from New England voted in opposition to it. The interests of the Eastern States had been almost wholly commercial, and they felt that such acts would seriously injure foreign trade. When this law had passed, and later that of 1824, New Englanders felt themselves compelled to turn their at- tention to manufacturing, and soon a large part of the manufactured goods of ordinary quality were produced in this country. The main reasons ad- vanced in favor of the protective tariff were that by means of it more employ- ment would be obtained for the people, and the mill employees would be able to purchase more farm products, and thus the gain would be mutual. Those opposed to the principle of protection to home industries would argue that unprofitable industries would be started; that without the protective tariff the country would produce naturally what was necessary and best; that the benefit would accrue to the manufacturers and not to the employees, to a section and not to the whole country. The whole question of a tariff for protection and a tariff for revenue only is still (1896) a live issue, and upon it party lines continue to be drawn. 460. Education. — The first quarter of the nineteenth century was a period of growth in education and literature as well as in material prosperity. In New England schools were established in every town; and though the "schooling" was meagre as compared with that of the present day, it was in keeping with the conditions Emigrant trains. — From the east- ern States, emigrant caravans weekly crossed the mountains, en route for the West. These were covered wag- ons, in which the household goods were placed, as well as the women and children. The men would walk, or travel on horseback, driving sheep and cattle before them. These emigrants journeyed in large parties, and passed by the larger towns and more settled communities, constantly going farther and farther west, to the very frontiers. These pioneers were hardy settlers, and the Western States owe them much. 238 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1786-1800 of the time. In the Middle States the development was later, and in the Southern States only the children of the wealthy land-owners received a fair amount of instruction. Among the new States in the West a beginning was being made in the establishment of an excellent system of education. Public lands were appropriated for educational purposes, and the revenue derived from their sale put the schools on a firm foundation. 461. Religious Interests. — One of the most marked effects of the American Revolution and the establishment of the Republic was the growth of toleration. During the colonial period, except in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, freedom in religious matters was almost unknown. When independence was fully established, one by one the different States relaxed and then repealed their intolerant laws until perfect freedom in worship was granted. With this ad- vance movement there came a revival of religious interest which spread over the whole country, and Christians of most opposite religious beliefs worked hand in hand for the advancement of right eousness and the Kinfrdom of Heaven on earth. CHRONOLOGY. 1786. Annapolis Convention, September. Shays's Rebellion. 1787. Northwest Territory organized. Constitution framed, September 17. 1788. Constitution ratified by the ninth State, June 21. 1789. Washington inaugurated President, April 30. 1791. Establishment of the first Bank of the United States 1793. Invention of the cotton-gin. Laying of the corner-stone of the Capitol. 1794. Victory of General Wayne, November Whiskey Insurrection. 1795. Ratification of Jay's Treaty. 1797. Adams inaugurated President, March 4. 1798. Difficulties with France. Alien and sedition laws. 1799. Death of Washington, December 14. 1800. Congress meets at the new Capitol. I80I-1825] CHRONOLOGY. 239 1801. Jefferson inaugurated President, March 4. War with Tripoli. 1803. Purchase of Louisiana, April 30. 1804. Lewis and Clark's expedition. 1805. Peace with Tripoli. 1806. Conspiracy of Burr. European blockade by Great Britain, May 16. Berlin decree, November 21. 1807. Chesapeake and Leopard, June. Trial trip of the Clermont. English orders in council. Milan Decree, December 17. Embargo Act, December. 1808. Foreign slave-trade forbidden. 1809. Non-intercourse Act, February. Madison inaugurated President, March 4. 1811. President and Little Belt, May 16. Battle of Tippecanoe, November 7. 1812. Declaration of war, June 18. Surrender of Detroit, August 16. Constitution and Guerriere, August 19. Battle of Queenstown Heights, October 13. Wasp and Frolic, October 18. United States and Macedonian, October 25. Constitution and Java, December 29. 1813. Shannon and Chesapeake, June i. Battle of Lake Erie, September 10. Battle of the Thames, October 5. 1814. Battle of Chippewa, July 5. Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25. Burning of Washington, August 25. Battle of Lake Champlain, September 11. Attack on Fort McHenry, September 13. Hartford Convention, December 15. Treaty of Ghent, December 24. 1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8. 1816. Charter of the second United States Bank. 1817. Monroe inaugurated President, March 4. 1818. Jackson captures Pensacola. 1819. Purchase of Florida. 1823. The " Monroe Doctrine." 1824. Protective tariff. 1825. Completion of the Erie Canal. 'Blac6tioai:D anal^jii^* Presidents . Matters of Importance J. Q. Adams 1825-1829. Jackson 1829-1837. Van Buren 1 837-1 841. Harrison and Tyler . . . 1841-1845. Polk 1845-1849. Taylor and Fillmore . . 1 849-1 853. Pierce 1853-1857. Buchanan 1857-1861. Growth. National Bank. Tariffs. Nullification. Treaties. Oregon. Texas. Mexico. Slavery Growth. Sectional Divisions. Compromises. Party Issues. Secession. Lesser Affairs Georgia Indians. Office-holders. Rebellions. Mormons. Gold Discovery. Temperance. Japan. Naturalization. Parties States ' Democratic 1797- Whig 1828-1853. Republican 1854- Free Soil 1 848-1 854. Anti-Mason 1833- 1837. American 1853-1857. 'Arkansas 1836 Michigan 1837, Florida 1845, Texas 1845 Iowa 1846, Wisconsin 1848 Cajtfornia 1850 Minnesota 1858 Oregon 1859 i^ Kansas i86i SECTION X. THE NATION THREATENED. 1825-1861. CHAPTER LXI. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 1825-1829. 462. Indians in Georgia. — In 1802, when Georgia ceded portions of the future States of Alabama and Mississippi to the United States, the Federal govern- ment agreed to remove the Indians from the State of Georgia as fast as possible. Year by year land was bought of the Indians, until in 1824 the Creeks and Cherokees refused to sell any more. In February, 1825, the Creeks were tricked into a sale of their lands, and an attempt was immediately made to take possession. President Adams ordered a delay, and early in 1826 a second treaty was made, whereby the Creeks sold their land, and agreed to emigrate to new homes beyond the Missis- sippi. The Cherokees were, a few years later, prevailed upon to do the same. The last of the tribe were forcibly removed to the John Quincy Adams. (After a painting by Healy, in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D. C.) 242 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1826 Indian Territory in 1838. During this controversy considerable ill-feeling occurred between Georgia and the United States govern- ment. Neither the actions of the State nor those of the United States in relation to the removal of these Indian tribes was creditable, but brought reproach upon our good name. 463. New Parties. — The " Era of Good Feeling" ended with the inauguration of Adams. The President made Henry Clay his Sec- retary of State, and immediately the charge was made that Adams was repaying Clay for the votes which he had received from the friends of the latter. Two parties gradually arose, the friends of Adams and Clay forming one, and those of Jackson, Crawford, and Calhoun the other. The adminis- tration party, under the leadership of Clay, espoused the doctrine of protec- tive duties and national improvements, or, as it was called, the "American System." The complete name of the only existing party had been "Demo- cratic-Republican," and as the new parties were formed out of the old, the party which adopted the " American System " took the name " National Republican," and the opposition the name " Democratic. " 464. Death of Adams and JeflPerson. — July 4th, 1826, was commemorated as the semi-centennial of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The occasion was rendered more notable by the deaths on that day of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, both signers of the Declaration, and later Presidents of the Union they had helped to form. Each died, supposing that the other was alive, and Adams is reported to have said, " Thomas Jefferson still survives." 465. The Tariff of 1828. — Another tariff act was passed during the year 1828, which was based on the idea of "protection to home John Quincy Adams was the old- est son of John Adams, the second President. He was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, July nth, 1767, and died February 23d, 1848. He began his political life at a very early age, accom- panying Francis Dana, the ambassador to St. Petersburg, as secretary, when but fourteen. In 1803 Adams was elected to represent Massachusetts in the United States Senate, but was not returned in 1809, because he upheld Jefferson's Embargo Act, which was repugnant to his Federalist constitu- ents. He afterwards held many im- portant positions under Madison and Monroe, was chairman of the commit- tee to negotiate peace after the War of 1S12, was minister to London, and Sec- retary of State. Two years after his Presidential term of office expired, he was elected to represent his district in the House of Representatives. This position he held during the remaining years of his life. Here he acted independently, considering it a " duty imposed upon him by his peculiar position," inasmuch as he "had spent the greatest portion of his life in the service of the whole nation, and had been honored with their highest trust." 1828-1829] NULLIFICATION. 243 industries " even more fully than that of 1824. Enormous duties were laid on wool and hemp, and the tariff on lead, iron, and molasses was greatly increased. As different sections of the coun- try produced these articles, a combination was made, and the bill was passed, though unsatisfactory even to those who voted for it. The majority of the votes in favor were from the North, while Southern members opposed the bill. This act received the name of the " Tariff of Abominations. " Five of the Southern States pro- tested against the passage of any kind of protective tariff law, and Calhoun, the Vice-President, suggested that South Carolina should declare the act "null and void" within her borders. 466. Presidential Election. — Of the four Presidential candidates in 1824, Clay and Crawford had withdrawn, and the campaign in 1828 was narrowed to the two leading contestants of the earlier election. The National Republican party nominated Adams for President, and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania for Vice-President. The candidates of the Democratic party were Jackson and Calhoun. When the electoral votes were counted, it was found that Jackson had received twice as many votes as Adams. CHAPTER LXII. NULLIFICATION AND THE UNITED STATES BANK. 1829-1837. 467. Andrew Jackson. — Andrew Jackson took the oath of office as President of the United States, March 4th, 1829. For the first time in the history of the country the President was a man who had had no administrative experience. In 1828, in all but two of the States, the Presidential electors received the direct vote of the peo- ple, instead of being chosen by the State legislatures, as had before been the custom. The new President was a man of the people, and intended that the people should rule. For forty years the gov- ernment had been carried on with very few changes among the em- ployees in the various departments. No^ Jackson's motto was " To the victor belong the spoils. " There had been previously five changes in the Presidential office, and in iSoi a new party even had 244 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1829-183O come into power ; but in all these years only about one hundred and fifty office-holders had been removed. Before Congress met in December, 1829, Jackson had removed more than a thousand employees, and had filled the positions with men of little or no experience. A very serious injury was done to the business of the government; but by far the greatest evil came from the fact that the so-called " Spoils System " was inaugurated, and every President since Jackson has felt obliged to remove previ- ous office-holders in order to give their places to. his own party workers. 468. Hayne and Webster. — Andrew Jackson. (From a print in the Treasury Department, Washington, D. C.) During the progress of a discus- sion in 1830 on the subject of the public lands a great debate took place between Senator Hayne of South Carolina and Senator Webster of Massachusetts. Sen- ator Hayne made a vigorous two days' speech, in which he defended nullifica- tion and the right of each State to de- cide for itself as to the constitutionality of any law which it chose to consider. In the course of his speech he cited early suggestions of nullification and secession, as the Virginia and Ken- tucky Resolutions, and the Hartford Convention. This speech was one of remarkable power and ability. Senator Webster, in a three days' reply, made a speech which to this day is considered one of the finest specimens of oratory to be found in our language. He declared for " liberty and union, now and forever, one and Andrew Jackson, next to Thomas Jefferson, is the hero of the Demo- cratic party. He was popularly called "Old Hickory," — an appellation which was appropriate, as it illustrated the firmness, even obstinacy, of his charac- ter. Jackson's father was a Scotchman, who died soon after Andrew's birth, which occurred March 15th, 1767, in one of the Carolinas, it is not certain which. After beginning the study of law, Jackson removed to Tennessee, where he held, though for a short time only, the successive positions of dis- trict solicitor, representative, senator, and Judge of the Supreme Court He had the unusual good fortune of leav- ing the Presidency with a greater degree of popularity than he entered It. He spent the rest of his life in quiet seclusion at the Hermitage, near Nashville, and died June 8th, 1845. I832J NULLIFICATION. 245 inseparable." Men with Webster's views would not peaceably permit any State to refuse to allow the laws of the United States to be carried into execution. 469. NuUification. — The tariff question was uppermost in the minds of the people. During the summer of 1832 a tariff act was passed which was much more uniform than that of 1828, and in it the average rate of duties was much lower. Al- though this act made a reduction in the duties, and therefore did not bear so heavily on the South, it still maintained the principle of protection. It was this principle to which Cal- houn was opposed. South Carolina had elected Senator Hayne Governor, and Vice-President Calhoun resigned his position, and was elected to succeed Hayne in the Senate. He urged that the time had come for South Carolina to resort to nullification, and, accord- ingly, a convention was held at Charles- ton in November, 1832, which passed such an ordinance. This act declared the tariff acts null and void, forbade the payment of duties under them in that State, and threatened to withdraw from the Union if the Federal government should attempt to enforce these laws in South Carolina. 470. A Compromise Tariff. — When Congress met in December, 1832, President Jackson, in his annual message, asked for special powers, in order that he might more surely enforce the laws. In accordance with these wishes a bill, commonly known as the " Force Bill," was introduced, quickly passed, and became a law. At the same time Congress again turned its attention to the tariff question, and Henry Clay introduced a compromise measure. This bill provided that the tariff should be decreased regularly each alternate year, until in 1842 there should be a uniform duty of twenty per cent upon all imports. This bill abandoned the theory of protection, and was satisfactory to South Carolina. She repealed the " Nullification Daniel Webster, the " Defender of the Constitution," was born at Salisbury, New Hampshire, January iSth, 17S2. Teaching school during the winter months in order to obtain the necessary funds, Daniel made his way through Dartmouth College, and was graduated in 1801. After being ad- mitted to the bar, he entered politics, and was at first Representative in Con- gress from N. H., then U. S. Senator from Mass. and Secretary of State. Henry Clay alone could dispute with Webster the position of leader of the Whig party, and each of them was grievously disappointed at failing to win the Presidency. Mr. Webster unsuccessfully sought the nomination t"rom his party in 1S44 and again in 1848. He lost popularity by his de- fence of the Compromise of 1850, and was again defeated in the contest for the nomination in 1852, but Mr. Web- ster will always hold a very high rank among the statesmen of his country. 246 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1831-1832 Act." The protectionists had, for the present, lost their ground; but, at the same time, South Carolina had failed to obtain support from any other State, in the " State Rights " theory that a State has the power to make void any law of the United States. 471. Presidential Election. — The campaign preceding the election of 1832 was in some respects more interesting than any of its prede- cessors. A new party was in the field, and national nominating conventions were for the first time held. In December, 1831, the National Republican Party nominated Henry Clay for President, and in May, 1832, another national convention of the same party adopted a set of resolutions, an- nouncing the principles of their party. This was the " first platform ever adopted by a national convention. " The Democratic Con- vention nominated Jack- son for a second term, and associated with him Martin Van Buren as the candidate for Vice President. South Carolina refused to uphold either of the regular candidates, and gave her vote to John Floyd of Virginia; forty-nine electors voted for Clay, and two hundred and nineteen for Jackson. Van Buren was elected Vice-President. 472. The United States Bank. — Early in the first administration of President Washington, Congress had passed an act granting a charter for a United States Bank. President Washington signed the bill, after having obtained the advice of two of his secretaries John C- Calhoun. (After a daguerreotype.) 1832] NULLIFICATION. 247 on the question of its constitutionality, and having decided that Hamilton's arguments in its favor were stronger than those of Jefferson against it. In 18 16 a new Bank of the United States received from Congress a twenty years' charter, and in 18 19 the United States Supreme Court declared this charter to be valid. President Jackson was afraid of the great power of the bank, was opposed to it from principle, could not agree with the decision of the Supreme Court, thought that the bank was work- ing against him politically, and there- fore decided to destroy it if he could. In 1832, by a fair majority, a bill was passed by Congress re-chartering the bank. The President responded with a veto message, in which he declared the bank to be "unnecessary, useless, expensive, hostile to the people, and possibly dangerous to the government. " The friends of the bank were unable to obtain the necessary two-thirds vote to pass the bill over the veto. 473. Removal of the Deposits. — The Bank of the United States was a private corporation, having a charter from the national government ; but it was also more than this. It was the depository of the funds of the United States, and it was the agent which the government used for doing its financial business. Perhaps half of the deposits in the bank con- sisted of the money of the federal government. The President therefore gave it the severest blow possible when he ordered that hereafter the govern- ment should deposit no more funds in the Bank of the United States, but, instead, that they should be loaned to certain specified State banks. This bold act of the President nearly caused a panic John Caldwell Calhoun, a native of South Carolina, was born March 18th, 1782. He was graduated from Yale College, studied law at Litch- field, was admitted to the bar, and was sent to Congress in 1811. Here he became an active member of the war party. He was made Secretary of War by President Monroe, was elected Vice-President by the people in 1824, and re-elected in 1828. In 1816, Mr. Calhoun was in favor of a protective tariff, but soon after he became a firm believer in the doctrine of free trade. He was henceforth a consistent advocate of the principle of the sovereignty of the State, and of the wisdom of the system of slavery. Mr. Calhoun was a man of the greatest integrity of character, and even his political opponents spoke of his worth in the highest terms. He was the first of the trio (Clay, Calhoun, and Webster) to die, his death occurring March 31st, 1850. William Wirt of Virginia was brought forward by a convention of Anti-Masons. A popular craze had been started against the secret order of Free-Masons, and a party had been formed whose main idea was to prevent any member of that order from obtaining public office. In the election of 1833 the Anti-Masonic party carried the State of Vermont only, and in a few years ceased to exist. in the money market, and brought upon him a censure from 248 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1830-1837 Congress; but the President's plans were effective, and in 1836 the bank quietly ceased to do business under the charter. No United States Bank has since been chartered. 474. Surplus Revenue. — The heated discussion with regard to the bank called attention to the fact that there was a con- stantly increasing sur- plus in the United States Treasury. Each year the revenue was in ex- cess of the expenses of the government. What should be done with the surplus? The majority of Congress as well as the President were op- posed to appropriating it for internal improve- ments ; no one desired to change the Com- promise Tariff of 1833 so as to reduce the rev- enue. As the best possible thing to do under the circumstances, as they thought, Congress voted to dis- tribute the surplus among the States. Accordingly, twenty-eight million dol- lars were thus divided before the in- creased expenditure and the decreased revenue brought the surplus to an end. 475. Minor Matters. — Two new States were admitted during Jackson's admin- istration, — Arkansas, June 15th, 1836, and Michiean, January 26th, 1837. Henry Clay. (After a daguerreotype.) Arkansas, or the " Bear State," was the third to be admitted from the Louisiana Province. It was given a territorial government in i8ig, having been a portion of Missouri Territory up to that time. Like the other South- ern States, it has devoted its attention to agriculture, but it is now rapidly advancing in the development of its material wealth. The census of 1900 showed a population of over a million, a gain of more than forty per cent over the census of 1880. The great industrial period of the United States was fast approach- ing, and the age of invention was dawning during these administr^- 1835] NULLIFICATION, 249 tions (If 728). In 1830 the first steam railroad was opened in England. Before the end of Jackson's terms there were about two thousand miles of steam railroads in this country. Canals became An Early Railroad Train. of less importance, and the canal fever soon came to an end. Steam navigation upon the rivers and lakes was greatly increasing, and many regular routes were established. Several discoveries and inventions were of importance; among the most noteworthy of these were the use of anthracite coal for making steam, the machine-reaper, and friction matches. 476. Presidential Elections. — Martin Van Buren was the choice of President Jackson to be his successor. Accord- ingly, he was nominated by the Dem- ocrats in a national convention at Baltimore early in 1835. Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky was associated with him as the candidate for Vice- President. The National Republicans had now taken the name of "Whigs." William Henry Harrison was the candidate of a large portion, though many refused to vote for Harrison, claiming that Daniel Webster was entitled to the nomination. When the votes were counted it was found that Van Buren had received 170, a majority, Harrison 73, White, a Democrat opposing Van Buren, 26, Webster 14, and W. P. Mangum, of North Caro- lina, 1 1. Johnson failed to receive a majority of thq electoral votes, and wa3 elected by the Senate, Michigan was first settled by French Jesuit missionaries, early in the seven- teenth century. It became a part of the Northwest Territory in 17S7, and received little attention until about 1810. The first act of the British, in the War of 18 12, was to capture Michigan. The "Wolverine State" has great wheat and oat fields, large apple and peach orchards, and im- mense lumber regions. Michigan is especially noted for vast copper and iron mines, as well as valuable salt- works. The State ranks ninth in pop- ulation, having nearly two and a half million inhabitants. 250 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1S37 CHAPTER LXIII. FINANCIAL PANICS AND THE SUB-TREASURY. 1837-1841. 477. Wild-Cat Banks. — One of the first results of the overthrow of the Bank of the United States was the formation of a vast num- ber of State banks throughout the country. Many of these had no money and no financial standing, and fraudulently attempted to enrich their stockholders by issuing paper money which they knew they never could redeem. Such insti- tutions were called "wild-cat" banks; and as soon as one of them failed be- cause of inability to redeem its notes, its stockholders would simply form another. The banks with whom the government placed its deposits were thereby on a better footing than the . others, and were commonly called " pet banks." 478. Panic of 1837. — The President issued a "Specie Circular," which di- rected that only gold or silver should be received as payment for the public lands. The notes of the wild-cat banks were therefore useless for this purpose, and at once a panic ensued. Money had become scarce, and the prices of the necessities of life became very high. Bread riots took place in New York City, and business failures were announced all over the country. Soon all the banks of the country found themselves unable to redeem their notes with specie, and bank failures became too nearly universal. The year 1837 was long remembered as the most disastrous in the history of the country. 479. The Sub-Treasury. — When President Jackson withdrew the deposits from the Bank of the United States he found it necessary to place them in State banks, as there were no other places of deposit. President Van Buren recommended to Congress the estab- lishment of sub-treasuries, as they were called, and a bill for this Martin Van Buren was born at Kinderhook, New York, December sth, 17S2. He was admitted to the bar at an early age and rapidly rose in polit- ical life. In 1 821 he was appointed United States Senator; in 1828 he be- came Governor of New York ; he was Secretary of State under Jackson and later Vice-President. Van Buren was defeated for re-election, his opponent in 1836 being victorious in 1840. He received nearly enough votes at the Democratic Convention in 1844, but not quite sufficient to receive the nom- ination. In 1848 he was the candidate of the Free-Soil party. He died July 24th, 1862. 1840-1841] TEXAS AND OREGON. 25 1 purpose was introduced. This plan, sometimes called the " Inde pendent Treasury " scheme, was " to make the government the cus- todian in its own vaults of its own funds." After repeated failures to pass this bill through Congress, its friends were successful in 1840, and from that time, with a short intermission, this plan has been the "permanent system of federal financial administration." 480. Presidential Election. — The panics that occurred during Van Buren's administration caused a reaction against the Democratic party, which had passed the laws which many thought had been the direct cause of the financial distress. The campaign of 1840 was fought with the same leaders as that of four years before. Both parties were united, however, as they had not been in the other election, and the contest was a direct one between the principles of the two parties. A remarkably enthusiastic contest followed the nomination of candidates, which has since been known as the " log-cabin and hard-cider " campaign. Harrison and Tyler, or "Tippecanoe and Tyler too," received nearly four-fifths of the elec- toral vote, and were declared elected. CHAPTER LXIV. TEXAS AND OREGON. 1841-1845. 481. The President's Death. — March 4th, 1841, President Harrison took the oath of office, and April 4th he died in the White House. Vice-President Tyler accordingly became President, and the affairs of the government went on without a break. The new President was not, however, in harmony with the leaders of the Whig party, and discord soon arose between them. The most important act of the new Congress was to establish a National Bank. Though this was done by the Whigs, the President's own party, he quickly vetoed the bill, declaring it to be unconstitutional. This angered the party leaders, and, after two or three other vetoes of their favorite measures, they publicly declared him to be no longer a Whig, and announced that thereafter they should treat him as a political enemy. Throughout the four years of President Tyler's 252 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1842 term the Whigs and the President were opposed to each other on nearly every question. 482, The Ashburton Treaty. — The members of President Harrison's cabinet were retained by President Tyler; but all of them, except Webster, the Secretary of State, resigned when the issue was made between the President and the Whig party. Daniel Webster remained for a time in order to complete the negotiation of a treaty with Great Britain. A large number of trouble- some disputes had arisen between the two coun- tries ; but the most im- portant was the unsettled boundary between the United States and Can- ada. By the treaty which Webster succeeded in making, the entire boun- dary line was definitely settled as far west as the Rocky Mountains, ex- actly as it is to-day. Lord Ashburton was sent over from England for the express purpose of making a treaty, and therefore it has received the name of the Webster- Ashburton Treaty. 483. Texas. — Men- tion has been made of the revolt of the Spanish American colonies (IT 449) during the earlier part of the century. Among these was the new nation of Mexico, and one of the con stituent parts of this republic was the State of Texas and Coahuila. This State bordered upon Louisiana, and very soon many South- erners, taking their slaves with them, moved into Texas. By 1835 the number of Americans was so greatly in excess of the Spaniards Daniel Webster (After a daguerreotype.) 1 844] TEXAS AND OREGON. 253 William Henry Harrison, known as "Tippecanoe," because of his vic- tory over the Indians at that place, was born at Berkeley, Virginia, Feb- ruary 9th, 1773. He held many high positions in the army and was finally elected President by the Whigs in 1840. He was succeeded by John Tyler, who was also a native of Virginia. Tyler had previously been a member of the States Rights party, and al- though e'ected by the Whigs, retained many of this party's principles. He was born March 29th, 1790, and died January 17th, 1862. that Texas revolted from Mexico. Under the lead of General Sam- uel Houston, a desperate struggle was carried on for nearly a year. In 1836 Houston attacked Santa Anna, and a severe battle took place at San Jacinto. Although the Mexican force was nearly double that of the Texans, Houston totally defeated Santa Anna. This victory placed the new State upon a firm footing, and Texas became an independent republic. Within a year several of the leading nations recog- nized the new State, and her inde- pendence seemed to be fairly estab- lished. Almost immediately the new government applied for annexation to the United States. 484. Annexation of Texas. — The slave-owners of the South had begun to realize that most of the territory south of the compromise parallel of 36° 30' had been made into slave States, while there was still much left north of the line out of which free States could be carved. It would be greatly to their advantage to admit the applicant at once. President Van Buren was opposed to the idea, and the matter was left for a more appropriate season. Presi- dent Tyler thought differ- ently, however, and in the latter part of his term sent to the Senate a treaty annexing Texas to the Union. The treaty was so suddenly presented to a hostile Senate that it refused to ratify it. After the Presidential elec- tion had resulted in favor of the Democrats, both houses of Congress, in spite of very great objection from the Northern members, passed Samuel Houston. 254 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1844 Florida. — On Easter Sunday (Pas- cha Floridum), Ponce de Leon discov- ered land and named it Florida. The first permanent settlement within the United States was made at St. Augus- tine, in 1565. The province changed from Spanish into English hands in 1763, and back again in 1783. The his- tory of the territory until its purchase in 1819 has been told. " The produc- tions of Florida are of an essentially tropical character." Most of the State possesses a very agreeable climate, and it is therefore a favorite winter resort. It has had a remarkable development during the last few years, which is shown by its greater gain percent, in valuatioR than that of any other State east of the Mississippi. Its population in 1500 was over five hundred thousaiid. resolutior^ approving " reannexation. " The definite annexation of the new State was deferred until the Texan government had accepted the terms of Congress (11488). Meanwhile Florida entered the Union on the last day of President Tyler's term, March 3d, 1845. 485. Oregon. — West of the Rocky Mountains and north of Mexico was a tract of land which had received the name of the Oregon country. Spain, England, and the United States had considered this region to be a portion of their territory, presenting claims that were of more or less value. Before the year 1844, however, Spain had ceded her claims to the United States. Be- sides, the American nation claimed the region because of the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain Gray in 1792, the exploration of the river by Lewis and Clark in 1805 and 1806, and the settlement at Astoria in 1811. On the other hand, England claimed prior exploration and settlement, and thus the matter had stood for many years. When the Presidential campaign of 1844 was fought on the question of the annexation of Texas, the Democratic party coupled with this the proposition to demand the whole territory of Oregon from England. The cry was " Fifty-four forty or fight," which meant to hold the ter- ritory against England as far north as 54° 40', or fight her for it. In T846 the two nations agreed by treaty that the parallel of 49° should be continued westward to the channel opposite Vancouver's Island. Dr. Marcus Whitman had practically saved this country to us by an 843. (See Appendix J.) Samuel F. B. Morse. (From an engravintj in the Treasury Department Washing^ton, D. C.) emigration, brought over in 1842] TEXAS AND OREGON. 2SS The Magnetic Telegraph. — The first practical experiment with the mag- netic telegraph took place in the year 1844, when Congress established a trial line between Washington and Balti- more. Thirty thousand dollars was appropriated for this purpose, and the telegraphic system of Samuel F. B. Morse, which had been patented in 1837, was used. The first words sent over this wire were " What hath God wrought!" The telegraph, with the railroad, marks the beginning of a new era in the prosperity of the country. 486. Dorr Rebellion. — A civil war broke out in Rhode Island h May, 1842, which had its origin in a revolutionary attempt to replace the charter of Charles II. (H 6y) by a more modern and democratic constitution. The limita- tion of the suffrage to landowners and their eldest sons, and the inequalities of the representation in the General Assembly, were the principal objec- tionable features of the government which had grown up under the charter. The agitation for reform began soon after the presidential election of 1840, and in the winter of 1 841-1842 resulted in the formation of two constitutions. One, framed by a convention, which had been legally called by the legislature, was defeated by the people, while the other, prepared by the suffragists in an assembly, summoned and held without the form of law, was declared by them to have been adopted. A State election was held under the new constitution at which the suffrage party alone participated. Thomas W. Dorr was de- clared elected Governor, and an entire State government was chosen. The " law and order " party, then in power, considered this election illegal, and chose Samuel W. King governor, at an election held in accordance with the charter requirements. The two governments were organized, and a bit- ter struggle seemed imminent. Presi- dent Tyler declared in favor of the charter authorities, and sent United States troops to Fort Adams, to be in readiness if needed. After two months of excitement the "Dorr Rebellion" collapsed, and order was restored. A third constitution was prepared, which granted most of the desired changes. It was adopted almost unanimously, and put in operation in May, 1843. Dorr surrendered to the State authorities, was tried for high treason, convicted and sentenced to Patroon War. — When the Dutch settled New Netherland large tracts of land were granted to members of the wealthier class, called patroons. The system of disposing of these lands to the tenants was a peculiar one, in which the tenants partially owned them, but were compelled to pay a certain fee to the patroon. This custom con- tinued until the middle of this century, and during Tyler's administration many " anti-rent " riots took place, and the State authorities were compelled to call out the militia to put down the Patroon War. Little by little the lands were sold without the fees, and absolute ownership was obtained. 256 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1844-1845 imprisonment for life. After a confinement of one year he was set free under a general amnesty act, and his civil rights were restored to him a few years later. 487. Presidential Election. — In 1844 the Whig National Conven- tion, after adopting a platform, nominated Henry Clay of Kentucky and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New York as its candidates. The Democratic Convention failed to renominate Van Buren, who. had been a leading candidate, and finally put in nomination James K. Polk of Tennessee and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania. A very closely contested election resulted, in which the Democratic can- didates were successful. This result was due very largely to a small number of voters in the North, who had belonged to the Whig party, but who refused to vote for Clay because of his doubtful stand on the question of the annexation of Texas, CHAPTER LXV. WAR WITH MEXICO. 1845-1849. 488. The Texan Boundary. — The Republic of Mexico had not acknowledged the independence of Texas, and would not accept the boundary lines that Texas claimed. The disputed boundary question was whether the new State should include any of the province of Coahuila, or not, and if it did what portion. Texas claimed to the west as far as the Rio Grande, and north to the border line between Mexico and the United States. Mexico held that the western boundary of her State, Texas, was the Nueces River. When, Decem- ber 29th, 1845, Congress admitted Texas into the Union, the United States was pledged to uphold the claims of Texas as against Mexico. 489. Declaration of War. — President Polk had taken the necessary steps to defend the disputed territory from any occupation by the James Knox Polk was a native of North Carolina. His father intended to make a merchant of him ; but as the son was opposed to business life, he finally allowed him to enter college and to study law. He showed great abilities in his chosen line, became Speaker of the House of Representa- tives, Governor of Tennessee, and President of the United States. Mr. Polk was born in 1795, and died in 1849. I 845-1 846] WAR WITH MEXICO. 25!; Texas is the largest State in the Union, and has a larger area than any nation in Europe, except Russia. The State ranks among the foremost in the production of cotton, cattle, sheep, horses, and sugar. About a third of the State is agricultural, while the remainder is pastoral. The " Lone Star State " is sixth in population, having over three million inhabit- ants. Mexicans. During the summer of 1845 he had sent General Zachary Taylor (iT 500), with a large force, to take possession of the country between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. Obeying these orders of the President, Taylor seized Corpus Christi and awaited further orders or developments. During the spring of 1846 the President took the responsibility of ordering General Taylor to proceed to the Rio Grande. Taylor moved his forces to the mouth of the Rio Grande and was there re- quested by the Mexican general, Arista, to retire to the Nueces. Taylor refused, and therefore a portion of the Mexican force crossed the river, and on April 23d, 1846, attacked and captured a small detachment of the American army. Thus the first blood was shed. As soon as Presi- dent Polk received intelligence of the skirmish, he sent a message to Con- gress declaring, "Mexico has passed the boun- dary of the United States, and shed American blood upon American soil. War exists, and exists by the act of Mexico her- self" May 13th, 1846, a formal declaration that war existed with Mexico was passed by Congress. 490. Taylor's Victories. — The first battle of the war occurred a few days earlier. As General Taylor moved his forces along the river to relieve one of his subordinates, he met General Arista with a force of 17 258 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1846-18^7 twice or three times his own. On May 8th, a well-fought engage- ment took place at this point, Palo Alto, in which Ringgold's " Flying Artillery " quickly won the victory. The next morning the enemy retreated and took up a strong position at Resaca de la Palma, to await an attack from General Taylor. This attack was made May 9th, and after a desperate fight the Mexicans were driven back to the Rio Grande, which they crossed in much confusion. In these two battles the enemy lost about one-quarter of the force. Nine days later the American army crossed the river and captured the town of Matamoras. 491. Monterey and Buena Vista. — General Taylor remained at Matamoras waiting for orders and re-enforcements until September. On the 5th of this month he started on a march westward, and on the 19th reached and attacked the town of Monterey. The American force besieged and stormed this town for four days, and on the 24th the Mexicans surrendered, being p» rmitted to evacuate with the hon- ui 3 of war. The force under General Taylor w is greatly reduced during the early winter, many of his men being sent away for various purposes. The ^I'^xican general, Santa Anna, learn- in y of this fact, sent a large force to annihilate the American army, now diminished to about one-third the size of his own. General Taylor chose the narrow mountain pass of Buena Vista, and here awaited the attack. The battle took place February 23d and 24th, 1847, ^^d resulted in the retreat of Santa Anna on the next day. When he reached the city of Mexico, his army was barely half as large as when he set out. This glorious victory at Buena Vista ended the war in that section of Mexico. 492. New Mexico and California. — While General Taylor was entering Mexico from Texas, other expeditions were made against New Mexico and California. During the summer of 1846 General ^1< General Winfield Scott. (After a daguerreotype.) I846-I847] WAR WITH MEXICO. 259 Kearney marched against Santa Fe, one of the oldest of the Spanish towns now within the Hmits of the United States, and captured it without opposition. He left Colonel Doniphan here, and then set out for California. Doniphan moved south and captured the city of Chihuahua. Thus the whole territory of New Mexico was in the hands of the Americans. Several years before this time John C. Fremont (iT 528) had been sent out to explore various parts of the Rocky Mountains. In 1842 he crossed the mountains; in 1843 he explored the Great Salt Lake and travelled for some time in California; in 1846 he was ready to assist in snatching the terri- tory from the Mexicans. Commodores Sloat and Stockton were the leaders, together with Captain Fremont, in the capture of California. The towns of Monterey, Los Angeles, and San Francisco surrendered to the Amer- icans with but little resistance, and Mexico had lost California also. 493. A New Plan. — The government, perhaps for political rea- sons, decided to intrust the most important campaign of the war to General Winfield Scott, instead of to General Taylor. General Winfield Scott, the second man to be honored with the title of Lieutenant- Generah was born June 13th, 1786. He first became prominent in tlie battle of Queenstown Heights, October 13th, 1812. He was made major-general because of his bravery in the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. His greatest achievement as a general was his campaign in Mexico in 1847. The Whigs nominated him for the Presi- dency in 1852, but he was unable to re\ ive that party, which was fast pass- ing away. In spite of the secession of his native State, Virginia, he remained at the head of the Union armies until he was compelled to retire on account of his advanced age. He lived to see the nation victorious, and died May 29th, 1866. Scott was sent with a new army and a portion of Taylor's to attack the. city of Vera Cruz, and from that point to march against the city of Mexico. With a force of about twelve thousand men, the new commander landed at Vera Cruz on the nigjht of the gth oi 26o DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1847 The Mormon Temple. March, 1847, and immediately began a siege of the city. The town wss bombarded for nine days and on the 29th surrendered, , . „ . with its entire garrison. 434. On to Mexico. — In April, General Scott started on his march to the city of Mexico. Santa Anna strengthened his forces after the battle of Buena Vista, and advanced from Mex- ico and awaited Scott at the pass of Cerro Gordo. Here he was attacked on the 17th of April, and after a two days' battle, his army fled in a rout, though the Mexican force was fully one- third greater than that of Scott. Moving on to Puebla, General Scott placed his troops in sum- mer quarters. Receiving re-enforcements, he advanced in August, and soon arrived in sight of the capital, without fighting another battle. 495. Capture of Mexico. — The city of Mexico is situated in a deep, semi- circular valley. Around the city was a *' serpent-like line of barriers, natural and artificial, as impregnable to assault as four months of toil could make them." August 20th, the fighting be- gan, and a series of brilliant victories took place until at evening the Mexi- cans were all shut up within the city. Day by day the Americans drew nearer and nearer Mexico, capturing the strong fortress of Chapultepec by storm, Sep- tember 13th, and on the next day en- tering the capital and ending the war. 496. The Wilmot Proviso. — December 28th, 1846, Iowa was admitted to the Union as the twenty-ninth Mormons. — Joseph Smith and, later, Brigham Young were the lead- ers of a new religious denomination, " The Church of Jesus Christ of Lat- ter-Day Saints," commonly called "Mormons." Smith claimed to have found the " Book of Mormon," which. With other revelations, added to the Christian Bible, was the foundation upon which the new religion was built. The Mormons were driven from Missouri because of the hostility of their neighbors, and settled in Nauvoo, Illinois. Smith was killed by a mob, and his followers then fled across the plains toward the west. Young led this band of emigrants to Utah, which was at that time a part of Mexico. Here, in a sterile valley, not far from Great Salt Lake, they made a perma- nent settlement, and in July, 1847, hoisted the stars and stripes from "Ensign Peak." Salt Lake City is now in the midst of a fertile valley made piodnctive by irrigation. 1848] WAR WITH MEXICO. ^61 State, and Wisconsin M^ay 29th, 1848, as the thirtieth. The free and slave States were still even in number, and the North looked with apprehension upon a war waged, as it seemed to them, for the express purpose of increasing the slave territory. When the propo- sition was brought up in Congress, early in the war, to appropriate money for the purchase of lands from Mexico, in the event of her vanquishment, which no one seemed to doubt, an effort was made to prevent such land from being devoted to slavery. David Wilmot, a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, offered an amendment The City ot Mexico. to the bill under discussion. This provided that in any territories that might be obtained from Mexico, " neither slavery nor invol- untary servitude should exist." This amendment was called the " Wilmot Proviso," and barely failed to become a law. The failure to pass this proviso angered the opponents of slavery, and the very proposal of the bill angered the slave-owners. The slavery contest was definitely begun. 497. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. — The fall of Mexico neces- sitated a treaty of peace, which was finally signed, February 2d, 1848, 262 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1848 Iowa, or the " Hawkeye State," was originally a portion of the Loui- siana Territory. It was afterwards in- cluded in Missouri Territory, then in Michigan Territory, and later in Wis- consin Territory. In 1838 it was given a separate territorial organization, the first settlement having been made fifty years earlier. The soil of the State is exceedingly fertile, and the ciimate healthful. In the production of Indian corn and wheat, it holds a high rank among the agricultural States. Like most of the States of that section, Iowa has had a remarkable growth. A popu- lation of forty thousand in 1840 has become, sixty years later, a population of two and a quarter millions. at the little village of Guadalupe Hidalgo. One of the most important articles of this treaty was that which settled the boundary between the two countries. Mexico yielded Texas, made the Rio Grande the boun- dary, and sold to the United States the two entire provinces of California and New Mexico, for the sum of fifteen million dollars, and whatever debts were due from Mexico to the citizens of the United States. This treaty was ratified, and peace was restored. 498. Parties. — A new party was formed near the close of President Polk's term, called the " Free-Soilers." Many of the members of this party were those who felt that since the Wilmot Proviso had failed, the outlook for any future freedom from the chains of slavery was very meagre. They declared for " free soil for a free people." The policy of the party was not to make an attempt to interfere with slavery in the States or to change the Constitution for this purpose, but simply to forbid slavery forever in any of the territo- ries. In 1848 this party nominated ex- President Van Buren for President, and Charles Francis Adams of Massachu- setts for Vice-President. 499. Presidential Election.— The Dem- ocratic National Convention, after de- claring that Congress had no power to interfere with slavery anywhere, nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan for President and William O. Butler of Kentucky for Vice-President. The Whig National Convention was afraid of the slavery question, and adopted no platform. Their candidates were Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore of New York. General Taylor proved to be a popular candidate, and was elected, receiving 163 votes to 127 for Cass. In 1853 the ''Gadsden Purchase" added nearly 50,000 square miles to our domain. It cost us ten million dollars. ■Wisconsin, or the " Badger State," was the last of the five States to be formed from the Northwest Territory. Very little immigration to the territory took place before 1825. The southern portion of the State has most fertile soil, while the northern part is covered with vast forests. The advantages for manufacturing are excellent, and great quantities of iron ore are extracted from its mines. Its population is now over two millions. 1 849] COMPROMISE OF 1850. 263 CHAPTER LXVI. THE COMPROMISE OF 1850. 500. California. — One of the first matters to be brought to the attention of the new President was the question concerning the lands which had been purchased from Mexico. The portion of this pur- chase which lay upon the Pacific Coast was called California ; and before Congress was ready to provide a territorial government, it made application to be admitted as a State. During the years 1848 and 1849 an unprecedented migration took place from all portions of the United States to the mountains of California. Around Cape Horn, across the Isthmus of Panama, and even over land by cara- vans, thousands were drawn to the new land by the report that gold had been discovered in great abundance. As early as the autumn of 1849 there were more than one hundred thousand in- habitants in the territory, a State Constitution had been formed. State ofhcers had been chosen, and applica- tion had been made to Congress for admission. 501. The " Omnibus Bill."— While the search for gold was taking place, political leaders, both in the North and in the South, were discussing the future of the Mexican purchase, as well as the ever-present question of slavery. Bitter dissensions were common, and threats of secession were heard on all sides. For the third time Henry Clay came for- ward as " The Great Compromiser." A special committee, of which he was chairman, presented three bills, one of which has received the title of the " Omnibus Bill," because it contained so many unconnected subjects. At first it failed of passage, but General Zachary Taylor, the twelfth President, was born November 24th, 1784, in Orange County, Virginia. He served with distinction in the War of 1S12, the Black Hawk War, and the war with the Seminole Indians. On the outbreak of the troubles with Mexico he was given the command of the forces in Texas. During the war he met with great success, which led to his nomination for President by the Whig party in 1848. General Taylor was familiarly known as " Old Rough and Ready." He died in office, July 9th, 1850. He was succeeded by the Vice-Pres- ident, Millard Fillmore, who had pre- viously been well known in the House of Representatives as a supporter of John Quincy Adams and as Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. In 1856 Fillmore was nominated for the Presidency by the American party. He was born in Cayuga County, New York, January 7th, 1800, and died March 8th, 1874. 264 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1850 afterwards it was divided, and each section became a law very much as Clay proposed. 502. Compromise of 1850. — These bills, though passed sep- arately, have always been called the ** Compromise Measures of 1850." California was ad- mitted as a free State Septem- ber 9th, 1850; the rest of the Mexican Cession was divided into two territories, Utah and New Mexico, with or without slavery as each should decide ; and Texas was paid ten million dollars for a large portion of her lands. Two other matters were settled at the same time ; namely, that slavery was al- lowed to continue within the Washing out Gold. DistHct of Columbia, but the slave-trade was prohibited, and a new and strict Fugitive-Slave Law was enacted. 503. The Fugitive-Slave Law. — The Constitution of the United States de- clared that every person held to service or labor in one State, and escaping to another, should be delivered up by that State. In 1793 Congress passed the nec- essary laws to enforce this portion of the Constitution, thus enacting a Fugi- tive-Slave Law. This law remained in force until 1850, when it was superseded by the more stringent law of that year. The South claimed that the earlier act was not properly enforced, and that no provision had been made to compel its enforcement. The antislavery leaders objected strongly to certain features of this new act, especially the clauses which allowecl thQ Discovery of Gold. — In the early portions of 1848, a Swiss immigrant in California, Captain Sutter by name, began to build a saw-mill. He had established himself on a branch of the Sacramento River, some fifty miles east of Sacramento. As the workmen were engaged in digging the mill-race, they came upon certain shining parti- cles which had the appearance of gold. An attempt was made to keep the dis- covery a secret, but before the finders had ascertained whether the grains were gold or not, the news had reached San Francisco. Some very remarkable "finds" were soon made, and the story spread throughout the country. The name "Forty-niners" was given to the thousands that migrated to Cali- fornia during the year 1849. i85i] THE COMPROMISE OF 1850. 265 California. — The name California originally applied to the whole Pacific coast from about forty-two degrees north latitude to the mouth of the Gulf of California. Lower California was discovered by Mendoza in 1534, and California proper was explored by Ca- brillo in 1542. The region remained in Spanish and Mexican hands until conquered in 1846 and purchased in 1848. California contains a great gold- producing region, and since 1848 has furnished a large portion of the world's supply of the " King of Metals." The " Golden State " also possesses great quantities of silver and mercury, be- sides many other ores. Certain sec- tions of the State are unsurpassed in their agricultural productions. South- ern California is especially noted for its delightful climate. The State is rap- idly growing, having a million and a half inhabitants. San Francisco, with over three hundred thousand people and its unexcelled harbor, is the me- tropolis of the Pacific coast. person pretending to be the owner simply to affirm that the negro was his property in order to prove his ownership, which forbade the matter to be tried by jury, and which compelled those who morally disbelieved in slavery to assist in enforcing the law. As a result, many riots and rescues took place in various portions of the North, and an organized system of aiding fugi- tive slaves to escape to Canada was instituted. This hag been called *' The Underground Railway." 504. New Leaders. — President Taylor died July 9th, 1851, from a fever caused by the heat of the preceding Fourth. Vice-President Fillmore succeeded him. Again the Whigs had lost their Presi- dent by death, and again the succes- sion was fatal to future party success. During this administration all of the older great political leaders died, leaving the work to be done by younger men. A few months before the death of President Taylor, Cal- houn passed away, and during the next Presidential campaign the other two of the great trio. Clay and Webster, also ceased from their labors. The new leaders might be classed as antislavery or as pio- slavery men. Among the formci the most prominent were Willhuii H. Seward of New York, Salmon P Chase of Ohio (H 633), and Charles Sumner of Massachusetts (H 526). Among the latter, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi (l[ 536), Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia (l 537), «ind Stephen A- Douglas of Illinois (t 524) were best known, William H. Seward. (From a negative in the possession of the U. S. Government.) 266 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1852 505. Temperance. — The first " Temperance Societies " were formed about the year 1825. Previous to that time the evils resulting from alcoholic drinks had been constantly on the increase. Almost everybody drank intoxicating liquors, and drunkenness was a prevalent vice. ' The American Society for the Pro- motion of Temperance," formed in 1826, and the *' Washingtonian Tem- perance Society," formed in 1840, were followed by a large number of similar organizations, many of which pledged their members to total abstinence from the use of strong drinks. Thousands were restored to manhood, and incal- culable blessings resulted. 506. Presidential Election. — As in 1848, so in 1852, there were three national parties in the field. The Democratic National Convention pledged a faithful observance of the compromise meas- ures, and nominated, after a long con- test, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire for President, and William R. King of Alabama for Vice-President. The Whig National Convention approved the compromise measures, and nominated Winfield Scott of Vir- ginia, and William A. Graham of North Carolina as its candidates. All voters who were opposed to the compromise were compelled to vote for one of the two parties claiming to be in favor of it, or else to throw away their votes on the Free Soil Candidates, Hale and Julian. This party declared for " no more slave States, no more slave ter- ritories, no nationalized slavery, and no national legislation for the extradition of slaves." Four States voted for the Whig candidates, and the Democrats carried all the rest. Pierce and King were elected by a vote of 254 electors to 42. William Henry Seward, the leader of the Whig party in New York, was born in that State May i6th, 1801. He early began the practice of law, en- tered politics, and was chosen governor in 1838. He took a leading position among the opponents of slavery, and was sent to the Senate in 1849, at a time when but few antislavery men were to be found in Congress. He naturally joined the Republican party at its formation, and was a leading can- didate for the nomination to the Presi- dency in i860. Mr. Seward was made Secretary of State by President Lin- coln, and he held that responsible posi- tion during the war with remarkable ability. He then joined hands with President Johnson, and lost the favor of his former friends. October loth, 1S72, he died at his home in Auburn, New York. Mr. Seward was the author of the phrase, "The Irrepressi- ble Conflict," which he felt must con- tinue until either the free or the slave States were victorious. Maine Law. — For twenty-five years the temperance societies were the only means adopted to prevent the evils of drunkenness. In 185 1, the State of Maine passed a law prohibiting the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors, except for medicinal purposes. This "Maine Law" was the first at- tempt to control the matter by legal prohibition. At times other States have followed her example. To-day this question is one of the most impor- tant for the American people to settle. I776-1810] THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 267 CHAPTER LXVII. THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 507. North and South. — When the thirteen States declared their independence in 1776, the distinction between North and South which later developed did not exist. Negroes were held as slaves in every State of the Union (IT 394), though the number in the South was the greater. This was due partly to the fact that the negroes had been brought from the warm regions of Africa and could endure Southern heat better than Northern cold. The white population had suffered severely from the climate in the Southern colonies, and had been unable to endure the strain of work upon the great plantations. 508. The Slave-Trade. — This difference in the number of negroes, North and South, became greater during the twenty years between 1788 and 1808, the period during which the Constitution permitted the introduction of slaves from Africa (IT 447). By 1810 there were more than a million negro slaves south of Mason and Dixon's line, but north of that line slavery had been abolished in every State. This difference between the sections caused a great divergence in their customs and institutions. It resulted also in such a variance in their modes of thought as almost to divide the nation into two hos- tile wings. Abraham Lincoln's opinion, expressed in i860, that this country could not forever continue half slave and half free, was correct. 509. Early Ideas. — Jefferson and Washington were slave-owners, as were all of the first statesmen from the Southern section, but they differed from the majority of the Southerners in believing that the slaves should gradually be set free. President Jefferson had at one time the expectation that slavery must eventually and, he hoped, peacefully die out. He lived long enough, however, to see that his desire was not to be realized, and to fear that slavery might some time prove a serious injury to the country. 510. Change of Views. — The invention of the cotton-gin (IF 397), which so stimulated the raising of cotton, made negro help almost an absolute necessity. The people of the South had come to accept 268 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [180O-185O the system as right ; and while, before, they had been in the habit of apologizing for its existence, now many of them spoke and wrote oi it as being highly beneficial even to the slaves themselves. As the owners of the large plantations acquired more and more slaves, they were more and more opposed to the idea of emancipation. As the negroes did all the work of the plantations, their masters had only to enjoy the blessings of life, with few of its hardships. 511. Slaves. — The condition of the slaves varied greatly under different circumstances. Those that were employed in the house- hold were treated with great kindness and sometimes were affection- ately loved by their masters and mistresses. Those that worked in the field, especially upon the large plantations, under the care of overseers, were often used harshly. They were frequently whipped, sometimes very severely, and at times their suffering was extreme. It was the policy of the slave-owners not to enlighten the slaves, and in some of the States it was a crime to teach even a free negro to read. The auction-block sales, where negroes were bought to be carried to the cotton-fields, were, in Northern eyes, the most offensive features of the whole slave system. The separating of parents from children, husbands from wives, as one or the other was taken away, never to be seen again by their friends, seemed to be one of the worst evils of the system. 512. The Effect upon the South. — If there were any question as to the evil effects of slavery upon the negro himself, there is none as to the great injury which the system did to the South. The possession of a large number of slaves made life easy for the owner, but added no real wealth to the State. Slave labor was and always must be one of the most wasteful forms of human industry. The slaves had no interest in their labor, and did as little work as possible. Intelli- gence and industry are requisite for national as well as individual success. Another serious evil resulting from slavery was its effect upon the whites who did not own slaves. The largest portion of the work was done by the slaves, and therefore labor came to be considered a disgrace. White men would not work side by side with the blacks, and there was but little other work for those who did not own land. The " poor whites " naturally became shiftless, did only enough to keep body and soul together, and dragged out a mere existence. 1808-1831] THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 269 It has frequently been remarked that slavery inflicted much greater injuries upon the white people of the South than upon the negroes. 513. Colonization. — Previous to the year 1820 (IF 447) the ques- tion of slavery was treated almost entirely as a local matter, and attracted but little attention either in the free or the slave States. In 1808, the first date at which the Constitution permitted it, a law went into effect, forbidding the importation of negroes from Africa, or, in other words, abolishing the foreign slave-trade. In 1811 the American Colonization Society was formed, whose purpose was to send back the free blacks to Africa. The section to which they were to be sent was called Liberia, and a small settle- ment of these negroes was eventually formed at that place. The matter was, however, wholly voluntary, and, as the number of free blacks in the South was very small, the society had very little success in its philanthropic design. The antislavery societies formed a few years later vigorously opposed the coloniza- tion idea, and weakened the usefulness of the society. 514. Equal Representation. — When the first real struggle over slavery came, in 1820 (if 448), it turned on the ques- tion of the admission of free and slave States. For many years it had been the custom to admit simultaneously free and slave States. After 1820, the twelve free and the twelve slave States seemed to work together in harmony, believing that the Missouri Compromise had finally set- tled the troublesome dispute. For ten years the whole nation remained quiet ; and when the fire blazed up again in 183 1, it was not over the question of the admission of States. 515. Abolition. — In 1831 an insurrection broke out among the slaves In Virginia. The State authorities very easily quelled the rebellion, although the disturbance spread over nearly the whole State. Slave-owners were everywhere badly frightened, and many Henry Clay, the " Great Compro- miser," was born in Virginia, April i2th, 1777. A member of the Ken- tucky legislature in 1803, he was made its speaker in 1808. He was elected to the House of Representatives, and was chosen Speaker in 181 1. He became at once the leader of the war party, and in 1814 was one of the commissioners to negotiate the treaty of peace. Mr. Clay was, later, again made Speaker of the House, was Secretary of State under President Adams, was member of the Senate, and was three times an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency. He died July 29th, 1852. Mr. Clay, by his various compromise measures, was able to ward off, for the time, serious dangers from the country. In 1820, he presented the Missouri Compro- mise; in 1833, he prepared the Com- promise Tariff; and in his old age, he introduced the Compromise of 1850. He was the most enthusiastic advocate of the "American System" and tlie leader of the Whig party. 270 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1832-1835 harsh laws were passed throughout the slave States to prevent a possible repetition. At about the same time moral sentiment against slavery itself began to be shown in the North. This new abolition movement was principally inaugurated by WilUam Lloyd Garrison, who edited and printed an antislavery weekly newspaper, called '* The Liberator." Garrison's purpose was to awaken an interest in a movement to remove slavery from the country. No obstacle, no constitutional hindrance, no claim to damages from the slave-owner, ought, in his judgment, to delay immediate emancipation. 516. Antislavery Societies. — The first society formed for the direct purpose of fighting slavery was the New England Antislavery Society, established in 1832, and the second, the American Antislavery Society, was started the same year. The membership in these and similar organizations was greatly stimulated in 1 833 by the act of the British gov- ernment in emancipating the eight ^^ hundred thousand slaves in the Brit- ish West Indies. Nevertheless, the societies remained comparatively small, the majority of the Northern people seeing no constitutional way of abolishing slavery, and disliking to awaken any hostility between the sections. The opposition to the movement, even in the free States, was very great. Meetings of the societies were frequently broken up, the presses, on which anti- slavery documents were printed, were destroyed, and in October, 1835, a mob in Boston attacked Mr. Garrison, and probably would have severely injured him, had he not taken refuge in a jail. 517. Petitions. — The sending of antislavery tracts through the mails into the South caused great indignation among the Southern leaders. The presenting of petitions to Congress, asking for the abolition of slavery, resulted in what was called the " Gag Rule." The advocates of slavery succeeded in passing a resolution through Congress refusing Xq receive ^ny such abolition petitions. This was William Lloya Garrison. (From a photograph in the possession of his son.) 1837-1844] THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 27 1 a mistake on their part. Many, who had refused to join the anti- slavery societies, were much incensed at this denial of what they called the '* sacred right of petition." Not only did the membership of the abolition societies grow rapidly, but the number of the peti- tions increased to a remarkable extent, and, although not officially read in Congress, obtained the desired result of arousing the atten- tion of the country. John Quincy Adams did the best work of his life in his service, though an ex-President, as a member of the House of Representatives, where he constantly fought for the " Right of Petition," although he himself was not in favor of immediate aboli- tion. It was a great victory for him when, in 1844, the "Gag Law" was ~"'' repealed, after having been on the statute-books for eight years. 518. Later Antislavery Movements. — Though the methods pursued by Mr. Garrison and his most enthusi- astic supporters were not always wise or judicious, yet they resulted in awakening the North to a reali- zation of the evil of slavery. The murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, in Alton, 111., in 1837, for printing abo- lition tracts and papers, caused a wave of indignation through the free States. Wendell Phillips, the "silver-tongued orator," took up the cause of the slave in 1837, and became one of the greatest of the abolition leaders. Mr. Adams was for a time the only man in Congress upon whom the agitators could rely, but in 1841 Ohio elected Joshua R. Giddings to the House of Representatives, and for many years this so-called " apostle ot liberty " upheld the cause of the despised slave in Congress. 519. The Liberty Party. — In 1 840 the Liberty party was established In order to make the slavery question a political matter. It nomi- nated, as its candidate for the Presidency, James G. Birney, a former slave-owner, who had freed his slaves and removed to Michigan. The vote cast by this party was very small, scarcely large enough to be called anything but scattering. In 1844 the same candidate was Harriet Beecher Stowe. 272 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1852 again nominated, and obtained a larger vote than before. The result proved a disaster to the antislavery cause, as the vote of the Liberty party in New York State practically resulted in the election of Mr. Polk, the admission of Texas, the war with Mexico, and the pur- chase of New Mexico and California, all of which the slavery leaders desired. 520. "Uncle Tom's Cabin." — However much the lovers of the Union may have desired to keep the troublesome question of slavery out of Congress, it proved to be an impossibility. The admission of Texas, the Wilmot Proviso, and the Mexican purchase, all tended to keep the matter before the public. The compromise of 1850 was adopted in the hope that the agitation would now cease, but the Fugitive-Slave Law had a directly opposite effect. The publication of Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," in 1852, greatly increased the moral opposition to slavery. It told the story of some of the worst phases of slave life, and won the sympathies of thousands of North- erners who could not have been interested in any other way. From this time on, no other issue of importance came before the people, and the struggle between slavery and freedom was destined to continue until one or the other should finally become supreme. CHAPTER LXVIII. KANSAS AND NEBRASKA. 1853-1857. 521. Stephen A. Douglas. — One of the new leaders of the politics of the day was Stephen A. Douglas, a senator from Illinois. He was a Democrat from a free State, and desired to do something that would bring to an end the discussions over the slavery question. With this purpose in view he proposed in the Senate a bill organiz- ing the two territories of Kansas and Nebraska, leaving to the people of those territories the right to decide whether, as territories, they should sanction or prohibit slavery. This bill was called the Kansas- Nebraska Act, and was passed by Congress after a bitter fight. 522. The Struggle for Kansas. — It was hoped by the friends of this bill that by it the slavery question would be removed from Congress, ■s •..«/' atS York! ^°'Uii Ge%sE>uh juJi^ / ^Hanover ""e /g-'.jTX ) / HffQover 'Willi^msV^it psWicg VHavrede Grace, fJt Port Republic. ^^-^,„^,^ qS^ (!> ,/rrXhancellorsville'^^ / ^y Gorhtinsville'"'" Waynesboro j*c| Chancellorsville ^/ — < -rt m-ii ^' \ XJfl'redericksbur Tfte Wilderness\^ ^\>-.,^ '^anottesville LAt, L*Bowling.Greef vi JeSV^rDam St^T'x^'^ Palmyra \^ Hanove v« Heathsviife^ 5; Urbana C.H r •■■'-^Kwer^^V /^^ Goochland C.H. Hanover/c h¥^ m- . - , . _ . , Mechani^llefi'AA^^ ^ BucKinqham / Vu^Mnwn /f^ Vmiik J- , .„„.x , -^ ^:.H fCumberland "^'^""^ISBD/FaA^N^ii^ C.H. /v_^_ ^ Ts X* 'T^ eCirA„ ■'/>«/, ^-sPoint Lancaster S.Hj lynch bi/rg Appom^oxC.H. r„ .. ^ y, Ft.Darling k Sivaflil' ^c.^ X>^ JU .M)rthews Rice-s ^ ^ °^ ^ ^tjsva.. . ..,:r?L_.. .X.'-b.x. J? „%3 '^'Of ''^^/7/^y; itham Halifax C. c- „ kS?l^ /3etersvilleV?^< Burkeviile>/' y__?ete£^ Lilnenburg C.H iWiTl&msburaOTcf ^'^ Stony Cr.' Lawrencevilie- *S,ussex C H 0^' N R T Meherr,^ -x^ -v; .BovdtGn ,.^ •^ ^ Hicksford Jarr^tts/Sta Veldon Porfsmouf^ ^uWoiiV /»■' I N \a i86i] THE FALL OF SUMTER. 293 commerce of a coast nearly three thousand miles long was practically stopped ; and the blockade was never broken till the war closed. Some swift steamers called blockade runners would occasionally get through the blockade in a storm or by night with cargoes of merchandise ; but the greater number of such vessels was captured. 558. Northern Impatience. — The people of the North were very impatient. They wished to push forward warlike operations speedily. The cry " On to Richmond ! " was echoed and re-echoed by New York daily papers and elsewhere, until the government felt com- pelled to start the army upon an aggressive movement. Indeed, both sides were eager for the fight. This impatience of delay pervaded the minds of Congressmen, and they brought such a pressure to bear upon the government that General Scott (IT 492), who was in com- mand of the Union armies, unwillingly consented that the troops should make an advance from Washington toward the Confederate capital. General McDowell was placed in command of this army, and was directed to move his force into Virginia. On the i8th of July the Union army met the Confederate advance under General Longstreet, and the contest began. The Southern army was in command of Generals Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston. 559. The Battle of Bull Run. — On the 21st of July, 1861, the first great battle of the war was fought. It took place at a small stream called Bull Run. The place was near Manassas Junction, where Beau- regard was posted, with the larger part of the Southern army. " The contest was a severe one. At first the advantage was with the Union army; but in the afternoon the Confederate general, Kirby Smith, with a fresh army from the Shenandoah Valley, joined Beauregard, and the advance of the Union army was attacked. A desperate strug- gle now ensued, and the severe onset of the Confederates caused a retreat of the Federals, which was soon converted into a rout; and General Joseph E. Johnston. (From a negative in the possession of the It S. Government.) 294 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, [1861 the Union army, panic-stricken, fled toward Washington in wild disorder. The Southern army had suffered so severely in this short and sharp battle that their generals were unable to push their advantage by an attack upon the capital. The Union soldiers were quickly rallied, reorganized, and put to further drill in preparation for the events which must follow. 560. A New General. — General Winfield Scott had reached an extreme age, and it became necessary that a new commander should be selected. General George B. McClellan, who had won distinction by his movements in western Vir- ginia, was selected as commander of the United States forces, which soon came to be known as the Army of the Potomac. General McClellan had been educated at the United States Military Academy at West Point, and came to the command with a great popularity surrounding his name. He at once set himself to the difficult task of organizing a great army. 561. Preparations. — The battle of Bull Run opened the eyes of the people both north and south. It became apparent to all that a great war was inevitable. No " ninety days' campaign " would settle the contest. Each party immediately began preparations for the long and desperate struggle. The Union army rapidly increased until it numbered one hundred and fifty thousand men, and became the largest and finest army that had ever been raised in the United States. General McClellan, with energy and skill, undertook to drill and prepare it for active service. The Confederate armies in Virginia were also increased, and were set to work to fortify their capital, Richmond, against the advance of the Federal troops. 562. The Battle of Ball's Bluff. — On the 21st of October a force of about two thousand Union soldiers under General Stone was thrown across the Potomac at Ball's Bluff, not far from Leesburg. They General George B. McClellan. (From a negative in the possession of the U. S. Government.) ^^^^] THE WAR IN THE WEST. 295 were quickly attacked by superior numbers of the Confederates under General Evans, and actually driven into the river. Many were drowned, more were shot, and scarcely any of their number reached the opposite bank. Colonel Baker, who was a United States senator from Oregon, was among the killed. CHAPTER LXXII. THE WAR IN THE WEST. 563. Missouri. — During the first year of the war active operations in the West were chiefly confined to the State of Missouri. In the southern part of the State many citizens sided with the South ; but in the whole State a large majority were upon the Union 'side. Governor Jackson had strong sympathies with the Confederates, and a convention was called to consider the question of secession.' The Convention refused to pass the ordinance, and the governor then determined to maintain a position of armed neutrality for the State. This was prevented by Captain Lyon, who was in command of the Union forces at St. Louis. He seized the United States arsenal, and put to rout the State militia. 564. Battles. — Several engagements ensued with varying success. The Union force at Carthage was defeated in July by the Missouri troops under command of General Price and General McCulloch. In August the Southern army gained a victory at Wilson's Creek. In this battle General Lyon was killed. In September General Price captured Lexington, and took as prisoners a large number of Union soldiers. General Fremont (1[ 528), now in command, drove Price southward as far as Springfield. General Hunter suc- ceeded Fremont, and the Union army fell back to St. Louis. Afterward General Halleck took command, and drove Price out of the State into Arkansas. In November General U. S. Grant (H 656), after several successful engagements, made an attack upon a Confederate force, which had crossed over from Kentucky under command of General Pillow. This battle occurred at Belmont, and resulted favorably to the Confederates, 296 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1861-1862 565. Kentucky. — In Kentucky an attempt was made to hold the State in a position of armed neutrality; but the effort failed, as it had in the case of Missouri. The large majority of the people in Kentucky were strongly Union in sentiment, and all efforts to ally this border State with the Southern cause failed. The Confederates now held a strong line of fortifications extending from the Cumber- land Gap to the Mississippi River. They had fortified Cumberland Gap, Bowling Green, and Columbus, making a line through the entire length of the State of Kentucky. They had also fortified Fort Henry on the Tennessee River, Fort Donelson on the Cum- berland, and Island *No. 10 and Fort Pillow on the Mississippi, — all in Tennessee. 566. A. S. Johnston. — The Confederate forces of the West were placed under the command of General Albert Sidney Johnston. His effort was to protect the Mem- phis and Charleston Railroad, which connected the country west of the Mississippi with the entire east-^na section of the Confederacy, and which enabled the Southern army to supply themselves with beef from Texas. By his fortifications on the MississipjDi he intended to keep that river closed, so that the Union army could not penetrate the heart of the Confederacy with their gunboats. 567. Forts Henry and Donelson. — Early in 1862 General Grant, with a strong land force, assisted by Commodore Foote, with a fleet of gunboats, captured Fort Henry after The garrison, however, made their escape, and retreated to Fort Donelson. Grant, having sent the gunboats up the Cumberland, marched his army across, and attacked this strong fortification. The battle lasted three days. Grant's attack was so vigorous that the garrison attempted to break through the lines and escape to Nashville. They were driven back within theii intr^nchments. General A. S. Johnston. (From a photograph taken at the age of 57, in the possession of his son, Col. Preston Johnston.) an hour's fighting, i862] THE WAR IN THE WEST. 297 568. Surrender of Donelson. — Generals Floyd and Pillow, who were in command of the Confederate forces, consulting their own safety, made good their escape, leaving General Buckner in command. Early on the morning of February 16th, 1862, Buckner sent a flag of truce to Grant, asking what terms of capitulation he would accept. Without hesitation or a moment's delay. Grant replied laconically, " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender. I pro- pose to move immediately upon your works." After this U. S, Grant was often interpreted '' Unconditional Surrender Grant.'* KENTUCKY TENNESSEE SCALE OF MILES. chamauga \ ^ / SOUTH EORGIAVCarolin Buckner surrendered with fifteen thousand men, and the Confed- erate line of defence was thus broken. 569. The Result. — Nashville was soon occupied by the Union forces. Columbus and Bowling Green were evacuated, and occu- pied by the Northern army. The Confederates now fell back to Corinth. This important place is just within the northern limits of Mississippi, and was an important railroad centre. Strong forces were soon collected at this place, under command of A. S. Johnston and Beauregard. The ne^t move of the Union army was toward Corinth' 298 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1862 General Lew Wallace, who was at Crump's Landing with five thou- sand men, moved at the sound of firing toward his proper place. A courier announced the peril of the main army, and ordered him to Pitts- burg Landing, where he arrived at dusk, after a march of eighteen miles, through woods and swamp. At the time of Johnston's mortal wound and the temporary confusion before Bragg restored order, Wallace's fresh division seems to have had the destiny of the day, if not of the Confederate army, in its grasp. 570. The Battle of Shiloh. — General Grant had been placed command of a new military district called the Department Western Tennessee. He pushed his army up the Tennessee River, and posted it near Pittsburg Landing, at Shiloh. Here he awaited the arrival of General Buell with reinforcements. The Confederate army under A. S. Johnston and Beauregard numbered about forty thousand men. These gen- erals determined to rout Grant's army before Buell could arrive. They at- tacked Grant early on Sunday morning, April 6tli. The assault was sudden and unexpected, but the Union forces fought desperately. They were, however, compelled to fall back to the river, after a stubborn resist- ance during the entire day. Gen- eral A. S. Johnston, who was one of the ablest generals in the Southern army, was killed in this engagement. His death was a severe loss to the Confederacy. Buell's army arrived the following night. Early Monday morning the Union general ordered an advance, and attacked the Con- federates. Late in the day Beau- regard withdrew his army to the intrenchments at Corinth. 571. The Results of the Battle. — The first day's fight clearly gave the victory to the Confederates. They captured many prisoners and large stores. The second day was favor- able to the Union forces, and the Confederates, though resisting obstinately, were driven from the field. This was the most impor- tant battle which had yet been fought west of Virginia. General Halleck now took command of the Union army, and pushed for- ward steadily against the Confederates. Beauregard retreated from Corinth^ and Halleck took possession of that place on the 30th of Admiral David G. Farragut. (From a negative in the possession of the U. S. Government.) i862] THE WAR IN THE WEST. ^99 May. The Union army took up a position upon the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, thereby cutting off southern communication with Memphis, and securing control of an additional section of the Mississippi River. 572. Island No. 10 and Fort Pillow. — The same day on which Grant defeated Beauregard at Shiloh, April /th. General Pope, assisted by Commodore Foote, captured Island No. lo, taking more than five thousand prisoners. When Corinth had been evacuated by the Confederates, Fort Pillow was aban- doned, and the Union army now held the country from Memphis nearly to Chattanooga. Various other engage- ments took place during the summer and fall, including those at Perryville, luka, Corinth, and Nashville. 573. The Battle of Stone River. — Just at the close of the year two great armies met before Murfreesboro in Tennessee. For several days the carnage was fright- ful. The Union forces were commanded by General Rosecrans, and the Confed- erates by General Bragg. At first Bragg had the advantage, but Generals Thomas, Sheridan, and Hazen mani- fested great skill and firmness, and the day was saved for the Union cause. Bragg retreated, and the nation had gained another great victory. 574. New Orleans. — Early in 1862 Commodore Farragut had been sent to Ship Island, near the mouth of the Mississippi River, with a strong force of soldiers and a complete naval outfit. The Confederates had fortified the lower Mississippi, and prepared many obstructions to its navigation. They had nu- merous forts, iron-clads, and fire-rafts, and had obstructed the channel with iron chains. At length Commodore Farragut deter- mined to sail past all these obstructions, and, selecting a dark night, he forced his way up the river. He boldly ran past their David Glasgow Farragut, "the greatest naval commander the world has ever seen," was born in Tennessee, July 5th, 1801. His childhood was spent among the exciting scenes of frontier life, and before he reached the age of ten years he received a mid- shipman's commission in the United States navy. He had a varied expe- rience in the War of 1812, though he was not fourteen years old when the war ended. After this he continued in the navy for some time, and received a lieutenant's commission in 1825. When the Civil War broke out, Farragut found himself between two fires, — his love for the South and his love for his country. In April, 1861, he hastily left his home at Norfolk, Virginia, and in December received a commission to sail for New Orleans. His action in running the forts, and his success in capturing the city, stand unrivalled in the history of naval war- fare. December 23d, 1864, the grade of vice-admiral was created, and Far- ragut was at once appointed to this position. This rank lie held until the grade of admiral was created, July 25th, 1866. Admiral Farragut died in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, August 14th, 1870. 300 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1862 forts, defeated and destroyed their fleet of rams, and approached New Orleans. The Confederates had abandoned the city. General Benjamin F. But- ler, in command of the land forces, took possession of the city on the 28th of April. 575. The Missis- sippi River. — The Confederates still held Vicksburg and Port Hudson, — two strongly fortified points. The Union forces, with their gun- boats, kept the river open above Vicksburg. This prevented easy communication between the Con- federates beyond the river and those on the eastern side. After the capture of New Orleans, Farragut, with his fleet, steamed up the river from New Orleans to Memphis, and returned, running the gauntlet of the Confederate batteries at Vicksburg and Port Hudson. GULF OF MEXICO CHAPTER LXXIII. THE WAR IN THE EAST. 576. The "Trent" Affair. —Late in 1861 the Confederate govern- ment commissioned two former United States senators — Mr. Mason and Mr. Slidell — as commissioners to London and Paris. They suc- ceeded in sailing past the blockade, and reached Havana. At that port they embarked on an English mail steamer named the "Trent." Captain Charles Wilkes, commanding the United States steamship "San Jacinto," then at Havana, gave chase to the British steamer. i862] THE WAR IN IHE EAST. 301 overhauled her, brought her to, went on board, and carried away the commissioners, November 8th, 1861. This act caused great excite- ment in England, and for a time there seemed to be serious danger of war between Great Britain and the United States. The American government had always strongly objected to the right which English war vessels had often claimed and exercised to search neutral vessels. It was not, therefore, inconsistent for the United States to disavow the act of Captain Willies, who had clearly gone beyond his authority; and our government, without censuring him, admitted that he had overstepped his powers, and gave up the commissioners to England. 577. The Position of Great Britain and France. — Both England and France were at one time desirous of recognizing the independence of the Confederacy. They were, however, restrained from taking this step; but they both declared the Confederate States a belligerent power, entitled to make war and have war vessels. This gave to the Confederate vessels the right to take refuge in foreign harbors, and soon English ship-builders and merchants began to build cruisers for parties in the interest of the Confederate gov- ernment. These vessels were often manned principally by British sail ors, but they were commanded by Confederate officers. 578. The "Merrimac." — Early in the war the Confederates had taken possession of the navy-yard at Nor- J*'*'" Ei-'csson. folk. At this navy-yard was a large United States frigate called the "Merrimac. " This vessel the Confederates had turned into a new style of craft called an iron-clad ram, which they re-named the "Virginia." All that appeared above the water's edge was encased with heavy iron, so that all sorts of shot and shell would glance off and do her no harm. March 8th, 1862, this new iron-clad, being all ready, steamed out from Norfolk into Hampton Roads, where the United States had a fine fleet of war vessels lying at anchor. They opened fire upon this strange craft, but the shot bounded 302 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1862 harmlessly from her iron roof. She attacked the *^ Cumberland " with terrific energy, and in a few moments so seriously injured her that she sank. Turning her attention to the "Congress," she disabled this frigate, when darkness put an end to the conflict, and she retired to Norfolk. Great consternation seized the whole North. At once it appeared as though nothing could stop the " Merrimac " from sailing to the Northern cities, bombarding them and destroying their shipping, or from going ^outh and breaking the blockade at all points. It was a day of fear and trembling. The "Monitor" and the "Merrimac." 579. The "Monitor." — But relief was nearer at hand than any one knew. For some time past Captain John Ericsson, a native of Sweden, had been at work in New York, building an iron-clad on a new principle. He called it the " Monitor. " It was a small craft compared with the huge " Merrimac, " and carried but two guns, which were placed in a revolving turret. The deck of the vessel was flat, and scarcely appeared above the water's edge. The Con- federates called this singular craft "a Yankee cheese-box on a raft." Providentially it came about that this new sea monster arrived at Hampton Roads that very evening after the "Merrimac" had put into Norfolk. i862] THE WAR IN THE EAST. 303 580. The Battle between the Iron-Clads. — The next day, March 9th, 1862, the ** Merrimac " again sailed out to finish her work. As she appeared, the little " Monitor " placed herself between the wooden frigates and their huge enemy. The great giant and the little giant began firing at each other. The *' Merrimac " ran, full speed, against the " Monitor," giving her a tremendous shock, but inflicting no serious dam- age. Five times the huge ram tried to sink the small iron-clad. The strange contest continued for four hours, and apparently neither vessel had injured the other. It had, however, become clear to the managers of the " Merri- mac " that they could do nothing with their new antagonist. She was shot proof, and shell proof, and bomb proof. She could not be sunk, and, being smaller, she could move much easier and quicker than the ''Merrimac." Consequently, the Confederate nonde- script steamed back again to Norfolk, from which place she never again sailed. Later she was destroyed by the Confederates themselves. This contest of a few hours changed all mod- ern methods of naval warfare. Here- after wooden vessels play no part in naval conflicts, 581. The Virginia Campaigns. — During the second and third years of the war Virginia was the great battle-ground. Here was almost constant fighting, John Ericsson was brought up in Sweden, in the midst of mining and railroad machinery. When he was twenty-three years of age, in 1826, he went to England to introduce a new engine which he had invented. He came to the United States in iSjg, and at once on his arrival in this country he furnished designs to the United States navy department for the warship " Princeton," the first vessel which had its propelling ma- chinery below the water line, out of the reach of hostile shot. This vessel was properly regarded as the pioneer of modern naval construction. He de- signed and built the " Monitor," in Greenpoint, New York, in 1861, for the United States government. She was built and launched, with steam ma- chinery complete, in one hundred days. It was this haste in her building which brought her to Hampton Roads in season to attack the " Merrimac." " But for the victory of the * Moni- tor,' the result of the war might have been changed and European interfer- ence attempted." Soon after her con- test with tlie "Merrimac," a fleet of monitors was quickly built which defeated several iron-clad batteries. Many honors were bestowed on Erics- son for his inventions. He died in New York City, March 8th, 1889. In 1867, a huge monument, quarried in one piece from the neighboring granite mines, was set up in fraiit of his birth- place, bearing the inscription in the Swedish language, " John Ericsson was born here, 31st July, 1803." including several distinct campaigns. The first of these was McClellan's campaign on the peninsula. 582. The Peninsular Campaign. — The Battle of Bull Run {% 559) had ended the first attempt to march the Union armies overland from Washington toward Richmond. Its result was so disastrous that McClellan conceived an essentially different plan for his 304 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1862 great campaign. This was nothing less than moving his army by water to Fortress Monroe, and thence toward Richmond by the pe- ninsula which is formed by the James and the York rivers. Th^ advantages of this plan were obvious. The troops and supplies could be transported by water to within one-half the distance from Richmond that Washington is. Moreover, if McClellan could suc- ceed in opening the James River, then his water communication might carry him to some point in the immediate vicinity of the Confederate capital. It was necessary, however, that a part of his army, which he left under General McDowell, should remain in front of Washington, and another part, under General Banks, in the Shenandoah Valley, to prevent the Confederates from opening the way, by a sudden onset, to the national capital. 583. Yorktown. — By a rapid movement McClellan transferred his army to Fortress Monroe, and commenced his march up the peninsula. Meantime the Confederates had moved their force from Manassas Junction and fortified Yorktown (T 362). McClellan laid siege to the town. General Magruder, with less than fifteen thou- sand men, held the town, and maintained a bold line, thirteen miles in length on McClellan' s front. McClellan ordered heavy siege- guns from Washington, and threw up the most elaborate earthworks by parallel approaches. Here his whole army was delayed an entire month, and the Confederates withdrew (May 4th), just as he was about to open fire upon the town. 584. Williamsburg. — General Magruder fell back ten miles westward to Williamsburg, where he had already built a strong fort called by his own name, and eight outlying redoubts. A severe battle took place here on the 5th of May, 1862. He was attacked by the division of General Hooker ("Fighting Joe," as he was called) . Other troops soon arrived, and the contest was a severe one for nine hours. The Union loss was very large. Both sides claimed the victory. Magruder retreated during the night, and the pursuit was continued to a line seven miles from Richmond. 585. The Panic at Richmond. — The Confederates evacuated Nor- folk, and destroyed the iron-clad "Merrimac. " The James River was now open, and the ' 'Monitor, ' ' with other Un ion vessels, steamed up toward Richmond, and soon were but eight miles from the i862] THE WAR IN THE EAST. 305 capital. The Union army was also within seven miles of the city. Richmond was now seriously threatened. The Confederate Conirress had already adjourned. A report gained ground that the city was to be abandoned. McClellan should have continued his advance, and attacked the Confederates at once; but he discovered that a Confederate force at Hanover Court House threatened his railroad communications with White House Landing, near the head of York River. General Fitz-John Porter, by a quick movement, captured Hanover Court House. McClellan expected that General McDowell, who was at Fredericksburg with thirty thousand men, would, as soon as possible, join him. He therefore delayed the attack until McDowell might arrive. But his plans were in- terfered with by the counter plans of the enemy. General J. E. Johnston, who was in command of the Confederate army, ordered Stonewall Jackson (IT 594) to make a rapid movement down the Shenandoah Valley and threaten Washington. This relieved Richmond, which soon recovered from the panic. 586. The Panic at Washington. — Jackson, having been reinforced by Ewell's division, had under his command fifteen thousand men. With this force he chased Banks down the valley in June, but the Union troops succeeded in escaping across the Potomac. The Union capital was now in a panic. Washington was threatened. It was not known how large a force Jackson had. The President at once ordered McDowell, at Fredericksburg, and Banks, at Harper's Ferry, to unite against this attacking force, and, at all hazards, capture Jackson and his army. The race began. It was now Jackson's turn to be alarmed, and to retreat with speed. He burned 20 3o6 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, [1862 the bridges behind him, and at length made good his escape from the Shenandoah Valley; but he had accomplished the design which General Johnston intended. He had threatened Washington, held at bay three major-generals with a combined army of four times his own, prevented McDowell from joining McClellan, and by these sagacious and rapid movements had saved Richmond. 587. Battle of Fair Oaks and Seven Pines. — • McClellan's army was now divided by the Chickahominy. He had spread out his right flank with the hope of being joined by McDowell. Heavy rains ensued. The Chickahominy, which is a small stream running past the north side of Richmond and into the James River, rose rapidly and its bridges were carried away. The coun- try on both sides of the river was in reality a great swamp, and the two parts of McClellan's army, being thus separated by the swollen river, could not help each other. Johnston at once. May 31st, attacked that part of the Union forces which was on the Rich- mond side of the river. The attack was impetuous, and made with tremen- dous force. Only McClellan's left wing could be utilized in repel- ling it. At first the Confederates appeared to be successful; but their advancing column was checked by General Sumner, and Johnston himself was severely wounded. Darkness coming on caused a cessation of the conflict. The next morning the Confed- erates renewed the assault ; but the loss of their general seemed to dispirit the army, and they were repulsed with great loss. General Robert E. Lee now took command of the Confederates. Jackson hurried southward after his raid against Washington, and joined Lee. His infantry had marched more than four hundred miles, and had achieved astonishing results ; from this time Jackson was considered one of the ablest Confederate generals, and his soldiers. Joseph Eggleston Johnston, the second general of the Confederate army, was born in Virginia, in 1807. He was graduated from the West Point Academy in 1829, and served as heutenant in the Seminole War. He won for himself great credit by his bravery, as lieutenant-colonel, in the Mexican War, in which he was twice severely wounded. He remained in the army until 1861, when his native State passed the Ordinance of Seces- sion. He immediately entered the Confederate service as brigadier-gen- eral, and won the battle of Bull Run by means of his re-enforcements. In Au- gust, i86i,he was made general, and in 1863 he was assigned to the command of the Army of the Tennessee. He made vigorous efforts to save Vicksburg,but was unsuccessful. He was given com- mand of the army opposite General Sherman in 1864, but was soon super- seded by General Hood. Restored to command the next January, he was unable to check General Sherman, and surrendered his ariny to him, April 26th, 1865. After the war he held several offices in state and nation, and died in Washington in iSgi. £862] THE WAR IN THE EAST. 307 sometimes called "Jackson's foot cavalry," were the pride of the Confederate army of Virginia. 588. The Seven Days' Battle. — Lee and Jackson now attacked McClellan's right wing, — first at Mechanicsville, where they were repulsed, the next day at Gaines' Mills, where they suc- ceeded in cutting off McClellan's supplies from the York River. McClellan now deter- mined to swing his army over from the York to the James River. By this means he hoped to open up a new base of supplies on the James, and to unite the two wings of his army for a successful assault upon Richmond. Lee and Jackson followed, and for an entire week there was desperate fighting every day. The most impor- tant engagements were those of Savage's Sta- tion, Frazer's Farm, White Oak Swamp, and Malvern Hill. At the battle of Malvern Hill, July 1st, 1862, Lee was repulsed, and McClellan succeeded in reaching the James River in safety. 589. Failure of the Peninsular Campaign. — The battle of Malvern Hill told so heavily upon Lee's forces that he was in no condition to renew the attack. The Union troops retired without opposition to Harrison's Landing, where they were protected by the gunboats on the James. The loss in these battles was very heavy on both sides, but the great advantage was with the Confederates. Rich- Tpond had been saved, and the Union army was hemmed in near the General Robert E. Lee. ioS DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1862 James River under the protection of the gunboats. The North had certainly hoped that at this time Richmond would be captured. The disappointment was severe. Presi- dent Lincoln immediately issued a call for three hundred thousand more troops. The two months which followed were sad days for the North. Recruiting was very slow. The people were dis- heartened. Their disappointment at McClellan's failure to capture the Con- federate capital was akin to the public feeling after Bull Run (H 559). In September and October following, re- cruiting throughout the North was very brisk, and the number entering the ser- vice was largely increased by bounties which were now offered by the several States. Many regiments of troops were enlisted for a period of nine months' service, and others for three years or the war. 590. Pope's Campaign. — General Pope was in command of the defences of Washington, and at this time was sta- tioned at the Rapidan. McClellan received orders from Washington to transfer his army from the James River to Acquia Creek, but he was very slow in obeying the command. It was expected that Pope would begin a new advance upon Richmond from the North. As fast as McClellan's forces were withdrawn from the vicinity of Richmond, Lee started his troops on a march northward again to menace Washington. Pope met the Confeder- ates on the old field of Bull Run. The Union force was defeated, and the second time the army fell back to the fortifications be- fore Washington. Lee himself now moved northward with such celerity that McClellan had hardly reached Washington when Lee crossed the upper Potomac, apparently intending to push on and Robert Edward Lee, General of the Confederate army, was born in Vir- ginia, January 19th, 1807. He was a son of General Henry Lee, or " Light- Horse Harry," and was also a relative of Richard Henry Lee, of the Con- tinental Congress. Graduated from West Point in 1829, Captain Lee served in the Mexican War, was wounded at Chapultepec, and was made colonel for his bravery. He went with his State when it passed the Ordinance of Secession, and was at once appointed third in rank among the Confederate officers. General Lee was placed in command of the army of Northern Virginia in June, 1862, which position he held throughout the rest of the war. General Lee was " one of the great- est of the modern commanders." He would have been a remarkable general under any conditions, but his pre-emi- nent rank was more marked, owing to the great obstacles which he had to overcome. He was hindered in all his movements by political and financial difficulties, but was able to hold his position, even against the boundless power of the Union, for nearly three years. General Lee is worthy of the great love which he has always received from the Southern people, and of the high esteem which has been accorded him by his enemies. His later life was spent as President of the Wash- ington and Lee University, and his death occurred in the midst of his work, October 12th, 1870. 18623 THE WAR IN THE EAST. 309 attack Baltimore or Philadelphia. Pope's shattered army was now united with McClellan's command, and the whole force was quickly put in motion to intercept Lee. 591. South Mountain and Antietam. — McClellan first encountered the Confederates at the passage of the South Mountain, where the Union forces won an easy victory. McClellan's whole army now pushed forward, and Lee, being reinforced by Jackson, who had captured Harper's Ferry, turned upon McClellan, and on the 17tli of September, 1862, fought the great battle of Antietam. This was a severe conflict. The loss on either side was about thirteen thou- sand. Practically, it was a drawn battle; but the two armies were on northern soil, where McClellan was constantly being reinforced, and Lee found it difficult to obtain supplies for his army. This battle, therefore, successfully stopped Lee's advance into the North, and he withdrew his entire force across the Potomac into Virginia. Lee's first invasion of the North thus proved a quick failure, and the Confederates retired to their old position near Fredericksburg. McClellan was severely criticised for not at once pursuing Lee and cutting off his army. 592. General Burnside. — The tide of public sentiment had turned against McClellan. He was in many respects an efficient officer, thorough in his organization of an army, and a splendid engineer, but the people considered him too slow in his move- ments against the enemy. General Ambrose E. Burnside was a West Pointer, had acquired celebrity by his invention of the Burnside rifle had proved himself, first at Bull Run, afterward in his expedition to North Carolina, and then in command of the ninth army corps, a brave and efficient general. While the Union army was on the march, following Lee from Harper's Ferry to Fredericksburg, the President relieved McClellan and placed General Burnside in com- mand of the entire Army of the Potomac. Burnside took command General Ambrose E. Burnside. 3IO DEVELOI^MENT OF THE NATION, [1S62-1863 of the army on the 9th of November, 1862, at Warrenton, Virginia. He pushed forward from Warrenton to Falmouth. Here he was delayed in moving his army across the Rappahannock, because the pontoon bridges which he had ordered had not arrived. He had hoped also to reach there in advance of Lee ; but before he could move his troops across the river, a Confederate force was posted upon the heights opposite ready to oppose his crossing. It was now December, and heavy rains had made the river impassable with- out pontoons, and had put the soil in such condition as to make long marches impossible. Prudence might dictate winter-quarters for the army, but, remembering the criticisms against McClellan's inac- tivity, Burnside determined to hazard a battle. 593. Fredericksburg'. — On the 13th of December was fought the important battle of Fredericksburg. Burnside was obliged to send his troops across the river under a heavy fire to storm the heights. The slaughter was frightful, and the Union forces must now recross the river. It was one of the worst defeats that the Union army had thus far suffered. Had the pontoon bridges arrived in season, so that Burnside could have crossed the river immediately upon his arrival, and occupied the heights of J^'redericksburg, the result would doubtless have been very differ- ent. Burnside was a brave soldier, patriotic, generous, and magnani- mous. A change of commanders was, however, necessary. The Pres- ident refused to accept Burnside's resignation, but on the 26th of January, 1863, by order of the President, the command of the army was transferred to General Hooker. 594. Chancellorsville. — After tak- ing command. General Hooker re- organized and unified the army, and having crossed the Rappahannock with the main body of his forces some miles above Fredericksburg, he took a position in the wilder- ness near the little village of Chancellorsville. Here, on the 2d Stonewall " Jackson. i863] THE WAR IN THE EAST. 311 Thomas Jonathan Jackson, or " Stonewall " Jackson, as he was pop- ularly called, was born in Virginia, January 21st, 1824. Like the other great generals of the Confederate army, young Jackson entered West Point, from which academy he was graduated in 1846. Here he showed marked abil- ity as a soldier, and was appointed lieutenant in the artillery on his gradu- ation. After the Mexican War he re- signed from the army, and became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Lexington, Virginia. At the beginning of the Civil War, Major Jackson was given command of a regiment of infan- try, and as colonel captured the Fed- eral Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, in May, i86i. It was his brigade which stood "like a stone wall " in the bat- tle of Bull Run, thereby winning great admiration. General Jackson was con- spicuous in each of the great battles in Virginia for the next two years, and proved himself to be General Lee's most valuable subordinate. He was fired upon, under a mistake, by men of his own command, in the battle of Chancellorsville, and died from the wound eight days later. May loth, 1863. By this death the Confederate cause lost one of its most eminent gen- erals, and one who was greatly beloved by every man in his corps. and 3d of May, 1863, he fought a severe battle with the Confederates under Lee and Jackson. The result of this engagement was favor- able to the Confederates, inasmuch as Hooker was obliged to retreat across the Rappahannock. The loss was fearful on both sides. The battle proved a great disaster to the Confederates, however, from the death of Stonewall Jackson. When Lee heard of Jackson's death he ex- claimed that he "had lost his right arm." 595. Longstreet and Suffolk. — Norfolk was held by the Federal forces. Twenty- five miles from Norfolk, at the head of the Nansemond River, was the large village of Suffolk, connected with Nor- folk by two railroads, — the Norfolk and Petersburg, and the Weldon Rail- road. Suffolk was the key to Norfolk, and virtually commanded that portion of North Carolina which lies east of the Chowan. Suffolk was thoroughly fortified, and was held by a few thousand troops under command of General Peck. In the early spring of 1863 Lee detached Longstreet from his army, and sent him with forty thousand men to capture Suffolk. Several en- gagements took place with sharp fight- ing on both sides, but the advantages of shelter, and the co-operation of the gunboats upon the river, overbalanced the superior numbers of the Confederates, and all attempts to break through the Union lines were decidedly repulsed. Peck was soon reinforced by troops from the defences of Washington, until his army numbered twenty- five thousand. Longstreet 's siege of Suffolk lasted twenty-three days, until the 3d of May, when he was called off by orders from Lee to join him as speedily as possible. Suffolk therefore remained in the hands of the Union forces. Longstreet imme- diately joined Lee, who was expecting a second attack from 312 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1861-1862 Hooker. Hooker's losses were such, however, that he did not venture another contest. 596. Along the Sea-coast. — Several expeditions during the first year of the war had been sent by sea down the coast to capture and hold various points. In August, 1861, a fleet under command of Commodore Stringham, with land forces under General Butler, cap- tured the forts on Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina. Later in the same year Commodore Dupont and General T. W. Sherman cap- tured Port Royal, South Carolina. Hilton Head was occupied per- manently by Federal forces, and from this place naval expeditions were put in operation against various Southern ports. During the winter of 1861-1862, an expedition of considerable magnitude was despatched with land and naval forces under General Burnside and Commodore Goldsboro against North Carolina. In February, 1862, they captured Roanoake Island with its garrison. A month later General Burnside fought the battle of Newbern, and took possession of that place. Soon after the Union forces captured St. Augustine, Fernandina, and other places in Florida. In April General Gil- more captured Fort Pulaski in Georgia, and Commodore Goldsboro took Fort Macon in North Carolina. Thus the Federal forces occupied various points along the Atlantic coast, which gave them great advantage, and which diminished the necessary blockade squadron. 597. General Summary. — We have now considered the first half of the war as regards the time it occupied. During the first year the Union forces had experienced the great defeat at Bull Run (IF 559), and the Confederates had been successful in several smaller engage- ments, but practically they had gained nothing from these suc- cesses. The Union had saved the States of Maryland, Kentucky (IT 565), and Missouri (IT 563), and had held western Virginia (If 560) and the national capital, Washington (IF 586). They had organized a great army and an efficient navy, and actually laid siege to the whole Confederacy (IF 596). They had secured along the coast various harbors for their blockading fleets, and to serve as points from which to make attacks upon neighboring territory. During the second year of the war the battle of Shiloh (IF 570), the capture of Forts Henry (IF 567) and Donelson (IF 568), New Orleans (IF 574), Roanoke Island (IF 596), and the contest in Hampton Roads between I86I-I862] THE WAR IN THE EAST. 313 the "Monitor" and the " Merrimac " (IT 580) had all proved substan- tial Union victories. Neither the Union nor the Confederacy had made gains in Virginia. The North had been saved from invasion at Antietam (IT 591), while the South had driven the invading forces from the Peninsula (IF 589), and had defeated the Union army at Fredericksburg (IF 593) and at Chancellorsville (IF 594). The Union lines had advanced across the State of Tennessee, the Mississippi River had been almost completely opened (IF 575), and the blockade was growing more strict. The entire North was busy with its manu- facturing and agricultural operations. The Confederacy had no commerce, and but few manufactories. Moreover, it was blockaded, and thus importations prevented. 598. Foreign Affairs. — No foreign government had been brought to recognize the Confederate States as an independent nation, as it had been generally understood that such recognition would at once necessitate a declaration of war on the part of the United States against such government. Foreign governments had, however, declared the Confeder- ate States a belligerent power, which gave them many advantages. 599. Paper Money. — The ex- penses of the war were so enormous on the part of the government that the necessity soon existed for the use of paper money (IF 631). Early in 1862 Congress authorized the issuing of government notes, which were made legal tender in payment of debts. These notes were issued by the government in various denomina- tions, promising to pay to the bearer on demand the sums which the face of the note indicated. At one time they amounted to about four hundred and fifty million dollars. These were called "Greenbacks," from the color of the ink used in printing the back of the note. The principal reliance of the government, however, for its funds, was placed on government bonds or prom- ises to pay at some future date with interest. The bill authorizing Henry Ward Beecher. (After an etching by Rajon, Paris.) 314 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, [1863 Henry Ward Beecher. — The English people were greatly interested in the American war. In many respects the sympathy seemed to be with the Southern Confederacy. Not until after the Emancipation Proclamations of President Lincoln had shown that the war had become a contest for and against slavery was the English na- tion ready to be cordial to the Union. Rev. Henry Ward Beecher greatly advanced the interests of the United States by his eloquent speeches before I'ritish audiences during the summer of 1863. Mr. Beecher was pastor of one of the largest churches in Brooklyn, and eminent, not only as a preacher, but also as a political and popular lecturer. the National Bank currency did not pass Congress until early in :863 (H 634). 600. Emancipation. — President Lincoln, from the first, had in- sisted that the war was only to preserve the Union. It was not in the interest of one section over another. Disputing the right of secession, the government claimed the right of self- preservation. The Union was to be maintained at all hazards. As the war progressed, however, a strong feeling prevailed in the North that, as slavery was the real, principal cause of the war, the President should attack slav- ery as a war measure. After the battle of Antietam, President Lincoln issued his first Emancipation Proclamation. This proclamation was only a warning. In itself it did nothing. It merely gave notice to the seceded States that unless they returned to the Union before the close of the year he would declare their slaves free. As no State did return, he issued, on January 1st, 1863, his real Emancipation Proclamation. This was put forth as a war measure, and it declared that all slaves should hereafter be free in the States then in rebellion. 601. The End of Slavery. — This proclamation did not abolish slavery in the United States. It had no application in the border States, as they were called, which had not seceded. Slavery there- fore existed legally, as heretofore, in Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. The immediate effect of the proclamation was that the army and navy thereafter considered all negroes as free men, and refused to allow their former masters to treat them as slaves. Soon after, colored men were enlisted as soldiers and sailors in the army and navy. It should be distinctly borne in mind that slavery was not finally abolished in this country until the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 1865 (IF 644). [863j THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN. 315 CHAPTER LXXIV. THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN. 602. Lee's Second Invasion. — For two years the war for the Union had been bravely fought, but not with great success. The Con- federates had fought with equal bravery, and, although generally with less numbers, they had prevented any marked gain by the Union forces. The spring campaign of 1863 in the East had proved disastrous to the Union cause, especially in Hooker's failure at Chancellorsville. Lee, emboldened by his success in this engage- ment, determined once more to cross the Potomac, and carry the war into Union territory. The Confederate army by rapid marches pushed across northern Virginia, crossed Mary- land, and marched into Pennsylvania. Hooker, by orders from the Presi- dent, turned over the command of the army to General Meade. Meade at once hurried forward the Army of the Potomac to prevent Lee from attacking Washington or Baltimore. Lee apparently was aiming directly at Harrisburg, the capital of the State. 603. Gettysburg^. — Gettysburg was a beautiful town of three thousand inhabitants, pleasantly situated in hills, slopes, and elevated plateaus cultivated and fertile region. On the first day of July, 1863, the Confederate advance, under Hill and Ewell, met the advance corps of the Union army, under Reynolds and Howard. After a spirited engagement the Confederates drove them southward through the town to an elevated line along Gulp's Hill and Cemetery Ridge, overlook- ing the town. This day's fight was a brilliant success on the part General George G. Meade. (From a negative in the possession of the U. S. Government.) little valley surrounded by It is the centre of a well- 3i6 DEVELOPMENT OP THE NATION, C1863 of the Southern army. The Federals sustained a great loss in the death of General Reynolds. 604. The Second Day. — During the night following, the larger part of the Federal army came up and formed their line along a series of ridges extending from Gulp's Hill on the right to Round Top on the left. The Gonfederates took position on the opposite side of the town, and extended themselves for twelve miles or more, their extreme right being opposite Round Top, and their left opposite Gulp's Hill. The situation was favorable to the Federals. On July 2d and 3d was fought the most important battle of the war. Here occurred the most fearful charges, advances, and re- treats, and the most terrific artillery fire. 605. The Third Day. — The centre of the Union forces was about Gemetery Ridge; and on the after- noon of the third day Lee suddenly opened an artil- lery fire, which was con centrated upon Gemetery Ridge from one hundred and fifty pieces of artillery. For two hours the air was alive with shot and shell. In all the annals of war perhaps no instance can be found of a braver assault, a more persistent attack, or a more heroic repulse than in Pickett's charge, which occurred also on the third day of the battle. The steadiness of the Union troops in resisting this charge and obliging the Gonfederates to retreat was an illustration of the bravest heroism and the most devoted patriotism to be found in history. 606. The Result. — The battle was over. The Federal army had won. A successful invasion of the North became impossible. 1863] THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN. 317 Gettysburg had put an end to that idea. But the South could never replace the thousands of Lee's veterans who went down in the terrible conflict. The losses on both sides were terrific. In the three days' contest the Union army lost more than twenty-three thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and the Confed- erate loss was equally large, cross the Potomac, which he did, slowly followed by Meade and the Army of the Po- tomac. Gettys- burg was really the dawn of the new day (Appendix F). 607. Events in the West. — The 4th of July, 1863, was a marked day for the people of the North. Not Nothing remained for Lee but to re- VICKSBURG * AND VICINITY SCALE OF WILCS only had the battle of Gettysburg been won, but military events in the West were greatly in favor of the Union cause. 608. Vicksburg and Port Hudson. — In order to gain complete control of the Mississippi (IF 575), thereby preventing the Confed- erate army from obtaining supplies from the country beyond the river, it was necessary that the Union forces should capture Vicks- burg and Port Hudson. General Banks pushed up the river and attacked Port Hudson. General Grant moved down the river and attacked Vicksburg. For two months he endeavored to cut a canal across a short bend in the river so as to turn the course of the river away from Vicksburg. Finally he moved his army still farther south, crossed the river, moved northeast, and attacked the stronghold from the eastern side. The Confederate army of the West was under the command of General Joseph E. Johns- ton, a most skilful general. General Pemberton was in com- mand at Vicksburg. Grant separated Johnston's army from that under Pemberton ; then, attacking Johnston, he drove him eastward 3i8 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1863 beyond Jackson. Returning, he hemmed in Pemberton's forces at Vicksburg, and laid siege to the town. Thus he threatened Johnston in the rear, and attacked Pemberton in the front. The siege was managed with both strategy and skill. Only one event could result. Pemberton's army was starved out. After a siege of six weeks Pemberton surrendered with his entire force. The surrender took place on the Fourth of July, 1863, the day fol- lowinof the close CHATTANOOGA vicimTY. SCALE OF MILES V; of the battle at Gettysburg. Port Hudson surren- dered on the 9th of July. 609. Chicka- maug^a. — While Grant was laying siege to Vicks- burg, Rosecrans, who occupied M urf reesboro, moved south, and obliged the Con- federates to evac- uate Chattanooga and retire still further south, where they took up a position upon the Chickamauga. Here, on the 19th and 20th of September, was fought a severe battle, which resulted in Rosecrans' defeat. His army retreated to Chattanooga, but the retreat was covered by a part of his command, under General Thomas, who held his ground obstinately and thereby prevented more serious disasters. General Bragg, with the South- ern army, followed and hemmed in the Union forces at Chattanooga, cutting off their supplies. 610. Missionary Ridge. — Grant, who had been made famous by the capture of Vicksburg, was now placed in command of the western armies. He hastened to Chattanooga, and found Bragg' s army posted along Missionary Ridge. The Confederates were so strongly fortified as apparently to defy attack. Grant ordered an i863] THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN, 319 attack along Bragg's line upon Missionary Ridge. The Ridge was so steep that the Confederate artillery could not be sufficiently depressed to reach the storming party as they ascended the heights. Bragg's entire line was therefore captured by a sudden assault. 611. Lookout Mountain. — Lookout Mountain also witnessed a unique battle. A portion of Bragg's troops were stationed upon a plateau high upon the mountain, where some- times the clouds settled down around the mountain below. Here occurred what is sometimes called ''The Bat- tle above the Clouds." It was, however, an insignificant affair, but entirely successful to the Union side. Grant had been reinforced by two corps from the Army of the Potomac, under Hooker, and Sherman had hastened up by forced marches from luka, two hundred miles away. In November, also, Thomas captured Orchard Knob. Bragg's army was routed, and the Union forces were left in possession of Chattanooga. These successes were brilliant, and added new laurels to the already great popularity of General Grant. 612. Burnside at Knoxville. — Longstreet, with a considerable force, had shut up Burnside at Knoxville. After the Confederates had retreated from the vicinity of Chattanooga, Grant sent Sherman (IF 626) to the assistance of Burnside (IT 592) at Knoxville. On the 30th of November Longstreet made an assault, but was repulsed with heavy loss, and, hearing of Sherman's approach, he abandoned the siege and retired toward Virginia. The fall campaign in the West was now practically ended. Eastern Tennessee was in the hands of the Union forces, and the gate was open through which Sherman was subsequently to pass on his march through the heart of the Confederacy. George H. Thomas. negative in the possession of the U. S. Government.) 320 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. ri864 CHAPTER LXXV. GRANT AND LEE. — SHERMAN AND JOHNSTON 613. The Position of the Armies. — During the last year of the war the Union forces were principally massed in two great armies under Grant (1 656) and Sherman (H 626). The Confederate forces were also massed in two great armies under Lee (n 589) and Johnston (IF 586). Lee was in Vir- ginia with Grant threat- ening him. Johnston was at Dalton, in west- ern Georgia, in a moun- tainous country, where it would be difficult to drive him back into the level region to the east- ward. Grant now re- ceived the rank >i Lieutenant- General, and was placed in command of all the armies. Grant and Sherman agreed on a plan of campaign which they felt assured would prove successful in the capture of all the Con- federate armies and the overthrow of the Con- federacy. They deter- mined that the movement of the two armies should begin at the same time, and that each should keep his opponent so thoroughly occupied that the two divisions of the Confederate army could not help each other. General U. S. Grant. (After a photograph taken at the time of the siege of Vicksburg.) 1864] GRANT AND LEE. 32 t 614. The Wilderness. — Grant started for Richmond from the Rappahannock, through the country known as the Wilderness. The struggle began almost immediately, and for several weeks the fight ing was intense, and the slaughter the most frightful of the whole war. The obstacles threatening Grant's success were extreme. A veteran army was before him. He was in the enemy's country, which itself was indeed a wilderness ; and whatever movement he undertook he was sure to find a formidable opposing force in front of him. Here he showed his skill and strategy, especially by the simple device of ''flank movements." Instead of a bull-dog attack in front, whenever he found his opponent in position, he simply marched his army past the enemy's flank, and forced him to retreat to a new position. In this way, with fearful slaughter, day by day, he pushed forward until his army had reached the Chickahominy, and Lee, with almost his entire force, was within the defences of Richmond. Grant lost nearly thirty thousand men, and Lee about eight thousand. 615. The Defences Impregnable. — Grant was sagacious enough soon to discover that the defences upon the north side of Richmond were impregnable. At one time he assaulted the entire Confederate line at once, but was repulsed with heavy loss. He therefore deter- mined to move his army to the other side of the James River and attack Richmond from the south. In doing this, it became necessary to follow almost the exact line over which McClellan had passed two years before in his seven days' fight. Having passed the river. Grant next attacked Petersburg. 616. The Petersburg Campaign. — The Confederate fortifications were so formidable that they could not be taken by ^sault. Grant therefore laid siege to Petersburg. Meantime he determined to push around still further to the westward, and, if possible, thus extend his left flank so as to be able finally to cut off the railroads which brought supplies for Lee's army. These movements obliged the Confederates to be constantly alert, continually to face Grant with new fortifications, and Lee was thereby prevented from send- ing any reinforcements to Johnston. 617. Sheridan and Winchester. — Grant had retained with his army his best cavalry-general, — the intrepid Phil Sheridan. Sheridan's cavalry was sent by Grant into the Shenandoah Valley, where 21 322 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1864 General Early with twenty thousand men was making a raid with the intent to threaten Washington. " The movement out of Balti- more, by General Lew Wallace, to attack a force far superior to his own, on the Monocacy River, so delayed the enemy," according to General Grant's statement, "as to enable him to get troops from City Point, Virginia, in time to save the city " of Washington. Sheridan was placed in command of all the troops in that region. He defeated Early at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, after which Early retreated rapidly up the Shenandoah Valley. Being reinforced, he returned and surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek. Sheridan being absent, his forces yielded and began a rapid retreat in great confusion. At Winchester, twenty miles away, he heard the cannonading, returned upon a rapid gallop, and arrived just at the critical moment. As he rushed along the road upon his fiery horse foaming with per- spiration, he shouted, "Turn, boys, turn; we are going back. " His presence was so magnetic that the men who had already retreated followed him into the fight, and secured a victory. "Sheridan's Ride " has been immortalized in a stirring poem by T. Buchanan Read. 618. Sherman and Atlanta. — Leaving Grant daily pushing his siege at Petersburg, let us see what Sherman is doing further south. Sherman's army consisted of perhaps one hundred thousand men. His first movement was against his antagonist at Dalton in Georgia. He had to pass through a mountainous country, largely wooded, for a hundred miles, where he found the Confederates posted in a series of well-fortified positions, some of them almost impregnable. He continued his skirmishing, both armies being led by consummate strategists. Sherman's general plan was to drive Johnston into one of his strongholds, and then flank him and push forward. His force was superior to the Confederates, and he subsisted largely upon the General Philip H. Sheridan. 1864] SHERMAN AND JOHNSTON. 323 country through which he was passing. Bloody battles were fought at Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, Lost Mountain, and Kenesaw Mountain. It was nearing the middle of July, 1864, when Sherman presented himself before the city of Atlanta, within whose intrenchments Johnston had then retired. 619. The Capture of Atlanta. — Although Johnston had handled his army with consummate skill, yet, as he was inevitably every- where unsuccessful, Davis displaced him and put General Hood in com- mand. As Johnston's defensive policy had been criticised by the authorities at Richmond, it seemed necessary for Hood to assume the offensive. Three times, therefore, he attacked Sherman, and each time he was completely re- pulsed with terrible slaughter. After this, Sherman executed another flank movement, taking with him his entire supply train with fifteen days' rations, and moving his whole force so as to cut off completely Hood's line of supplies. This brought about the evacuation of the city, September 2d, 1864. 620. The Results of Sherman's Success. — Sherman had now been four months on the march. He had fought ten pitched battles and many smaller engagements, and although he had lost fully thirty thousand men, yet he had inflicted a heavy loss upon the Confederate army and had cut them ofl" from their source of manufactured supplies. At Atlanta and other towns in Georgia were large manufacturing estab- lishments which furnished the Confederate army with wagons, har- nesses, clothing, and all sorts of military supplies. The source of these supplies was now entirely cut off". 621. Hood invades Tennessee. — At this point an unexpected turn of affairs takes place. Whatever supplies Sherman received from Union sources were brought to him over a single line of railroad from Nashville. Hood evidently supposed that if he should invade Ten- nessee, cutting off" the source of Sherman's supplies, Sherman would Philip Henry Sheridan, the hero of Winchester, was born March 6th, 1831, at Albany, N. Y. As a boy, ** Phil " showed signs of a fondness for military affairs. He graduated from West Point in 1853, and for about eight years served in the western Territories. Colonel Sheridan's active service in the Civil War began in the summer of 1862, in Mississippi. Transferred, a little later, to the Army of the Ohio, he was made major-general for liis bravery in the battle of Murfrees- boro. In 1864 General Sheridan took command of the cavalry corps of the Army of the Potomac, and to the end of the war he proved the right man in the right place. Sheridan was made lieutenant-general in 1869, and on his death-bed was honored with the rank of general. Generals Grant and Sher- man were the only ones who had previously held that rank. General Sheridan died August 5th, 1888. 3^4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. fi864 be obliged to follow him, which would transfer the battle-ground from the heart of Georgia back northward into Tennessee. In this he was mistaken ; and when Hood started northward with his whole army of forty thousand men, Sherman cut entirely loose from his base of supplies, pushed on toward Savannah, subsisting his army entirely upon the country through which he passed. The two armies had been fighting each other, but now each was hurrying away from the other with all possible speed. Hood crossed the Tennessee River, compelling General Schofield to fall back to a fortified position at Frank- lin, on the Harpeth, twenty miles below Nashville. The battle of Franklin was one of the most des- perate of the war, the Confederates losing four generals and nearly six thousand men. Schofield repelled all attacks, destroyed the bridges, and withdrew in good order to Nash- ville, leaving about two hundred wounded behind. Hood crossed the Harpeth and advanced to the siege of Nashville, feeling confident ot its capture. This place was thoroughly fortified, the Union forces being under the command of General Thomas. After a siege of two weeks, during which nothing had been accomplished, Thomas marched out of his intrenchments, and after severe fighting for two days drove the Confederates out of their intrenchments, captured many prisoners, and forced Hood to a precipitate retreat. Hood's army was now destroyed. 622. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Sherman, confronted by no considerable military force, burned the depots, factories, and impor- tant buildings in Atlanta, and, dividing his force into columns, pushed onward across Georgia toward the sea, destroying the railroads and foraging upon the country. After a march of five weeks, covering three hundred miles, he reached the coast, took Fort McAllister and captured Savannah, December 21st, 1864. Sherman had now accom- pHshed with entire success one of the most famous marches in all General William T. Sherman. :864] SHERMAN AND JoMNSTON. 3^5 modern history. He had devastated a tract of country sixty miles wide and three hundred long in the heart of the enemy's territory. He had destroyed three hundred miles of railroad, as well as the principal sources of the enemy's military supplies, and had demon- strated the weakness of the Confederacy. Sherman passed the win- ter in Georgia and South Carolina, constantly harassing whatever forces of the enemy he could find, and capturing one point after another, with constant regard to the cutting off of supplies for the Confederate army. 623. Mobile Bay. — While Generals Grant and Lee were facing each other in Virginia, and Generals Sherman and Johnston were fighting about Atlanta, the great naval battle of the war occurred in Mobile Bay. Admiral Farragut, with a fleet of fourteen wooden and four iron-clad vessels, attacked Admiral Buchanan, who commanded three gunboats and one ram. Buchanan was also aided by the three strongly garrisoned forts, Gaines, Morgan, and Powell, at the 1865] THE END OF THE WAR. 327 entrance to the harbor. The first disaster was the destruction of the Union iron-clad ** Tecumseh," which was sunk by a torpedo. Farragut, with great bravery, ran his flagship " Hartford " into the thickest of the cannonading, and finally succeeded in capturing the ram "Tennessee," but not until she had become unmanageable. The other Confederate vessels were destroyed or driven off. After being shelled for several days. Fort Powell was abandoned, and the other forts surrendered. The contest lasted from August 5th to the 23d, 1864. CHAPTER LXXVI. THE END OF THE WAR. 624. The Capture of Five Forks. — On March 29th, 1865, Sheridan, with a large body of cavalry and a strong force of infantry, pushed out from Grant's left wing with the intention of passing around to Lee's rear, thereby cutting off his supplies. He succeeded in plant- ing a strong force of infantry behind the Confederates at Five Forks, which was a small place about twelve miles westward from Petersburg. April ist the garrison surrendered, and Sheridan took five thousand prisoners. Lee at once saw that he could no longer maintain his position. The enemy had turned his right flank, and he was threatened with an attack in the rear. 625. The Fall of Richmond. — At four o'clock Sunday morning, April 2d, the entire Union army began an advance along the whole line. Before noon the Confederate intrenchments were in many places deserted and thousands of prisoners were captured. That day while the Confederate President Davis was at church, a messenger handed him a note. This was from General Lee, informing him that it was necessary for the Confederate army to leave Richmond imme- diately. He at once left the church and hastily withdrew from the city. That night both Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated, and the next morning the Federal troops marched into the Confederate capital. 626. Lee surrenders his Army at Appomattox. — Lee retreated toward Lynchburg with the intention of making his way to North Carolina 328 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [i86s and joining Johnston, who was now in command of the remnants of Hood's army. Grant immediately gave chase. The cavalry under Sheridan passed around beyond the Confederates, thereby cutting off their retreat to Lynchburg. Nothing remained for the brave Con- federate general but to surrender. In answer to a flag of truce, the two great generals met at Appomattox, and Lee proposed to surrender the rem- nants of his army. On the afternoon of April 9th, 1865, therefore, the army of Virginia laid down their arms near Appomattox Court House and turned toward their homes. Grant accepted their paroles not to take up arms against the United States until ex- changed, and allowed all officers to re- tain their private baggage and horses. Nearly thirty thousand Confederate officers and soldiers were paroled at Appomattox and their arms given up. 627. Sherman's March through the Carolinas. — In February Sherman started his army on the march north- ward. As before, it moved in columns, covering a breadth of fifty miles. He captured Columbia and it was burned at night. The Confederates evacuated Charleston. Johnston, being now in command, opposed Sherman's advance with great vigor. Sherman pushed forward to Goldsboro' and was joined by General Schofield, who had come up from Wilmington, and General Terry from New- bern. When these three armies were united, they numbered not less than a hundred thousand men. On the 26th of April Johnston surren- dered his army to General Sherman on the same terms as had been given to Lee by Grant. On the 4th of May General Taylor in Ala- bama surrendered his force to General Canby, on substantially the same terms, with the additional stipulation that "Transportation and subsistence is to be furnished at public cost for the officers and men, after surrender, to the nearest practicable point to their homes," William Tecumseh Sherman, the hero of the Civil War, was born in Oiiio, February 8th, 1820, and died February 14th, 1891. He was gradu- ated with high rank from the West Point Academy in 1S40, and at once served in Florida, in the Seminole War. He remained in the army until 1853, when he resigned his commission and entered business. Captain Sher- man rejoined the army immediately upon the outbreak, of the Civil War, and with the rank of colonel, took part in the first battle of BviU Run. He was promoted for gallantry, being made brigadier-general. The next year General Sherman joined General Grant's army, and after the battle of Shiloh was made major-general. In 1864 General Grant was placed in command of the entire army, and Gen- eral Sherman was given the charge of the armies of the Mississippi, the Ohio, the Cumberland, and the Ten- nessee. After the war. General Sher- man was made lieutenant-general, and in i86g General of the Armies of the United States. In 1883 he retired from the army, and lived in New York City until his death in 1891. 1865] THE END OF THE WAR. 329 628. The End. — Other smaller Confederate forces soon after sur- rendered, and the war was at an end. The entire number of Confed- erate soldiers paroled in their several armies was one hundred and seventy-four thousand two hundred and twenty-three. Some regi- ments were reduced to such an extent that they could muster but from eleven to sixty-five men. Ten regiments consolidated numbered but two hundred and thirty-eight men. Eight regiments of Texans, originally ten thousand strong, numbered four hundred and fifty-six in all. The Union muster-rolls on the first of March ag- gregated nearly a million men all told, while the entire number of men mus- tered into the national service during the war was two million six hundred and eighty-eight thousand five hundred and twenty-three. This included all sorts of enlistments in periods of from three months to four years (11638). 629. Assassination of President Lincoln. — As soon as Richmond was evacu- ated. President Lincoln, who had gone to the front to confer with Grant con- cerning his final movement against Lee, made a hasty visit to Rich- mond, took a drive through the principal streets, and returned to Washington on the day of Lee's surrender. On the evening of April 14tli, the President, while seated in a box overlooking the stage at Ford's Theatre, was shot by an assassin who leaped over the rail- ing upon the stage, shouted, '* Sic semper tyrannis,'' and escaped from the building. The President lingered a few hours, and at his death the wail of the people north, south, east, and west was univer- sal and their grief beyond expression. The joy of the nation at the prospect of peace was suddenly turned into the deepest mourning. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, was pursued for several days and finally overtaken and shot. 630. Capture of Jefferson Davis. — President Davis and his family, his cabinet and military guard, hastily left Richmond by rail, and The "Alabama" was the most famous of the Eiigh'sh-built privateers employed by the Confederates. It captured scores of American mer- chantmen, and made long and pros- perous cruises in various parts of the world. The "Alabama'' sailed into the French harbor of Cherbourg, and soon the Federal gunboat, " Kear- sarge," appeared outside the harbor. The commander of the "Alabama" challenged the "Kearsarge" to fight, which offer was immediately accepted. The two vessels were fairly matched, and the battle began a little before noon, June 19th, 1864. The French thronged the neighboring shores, and saw the "Kearsarge" sink the "Ala- bama" within two hours after the first gun was fired. This destruction of the terrible privateer caused great rejoic- ing throughout the Union, which was increased by the capture of the " Georgia," in August, and of the "Florida" in October of the same year. 330 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1861-1865 escaped to Danville. Here he heard of Lee's surrender and imme- diately retreated to Greensboro', North Carolina. There leaving the railroad, he pushed forward to Washington, Georgia. Meanwhile, his guard, which had consisted of two thousand cavalry soldiers, gradually dwindled away, and his cabinet officers one by one deserted him. Journeying now by wagon and on horseback, he encamped for the night at Irwinsville, Georgia, and on the morning of the lOth of May he was captured. He was im- prisoned in Fortress Monroe, but was finally set at liberty without a tiial, largely at the solicitation of I lorace Greeley of New York. The Lnited States executed no one for ti eason, at the close of the war. 631. Civil Affairs. — The preced- ing pages have carried the history of the Civil War to its end. In order to obtain a consecutive ac- count of the military affairs, many of the civil matters have been omitted, and will be discussed at this point. The Department of the Treasury was one of the most important during these four years. It belonged to Secretary Chase to devise means for obtaining the vast revenue which was needed to carry on the war (if 599). One of the last acts of the Congress which ended March 3, 1861, was to pass the so-called "Morrill Tariff Act." Since 1846 the system of a tariff for revenue had been used by the government, but the tariff of 1861 was a distinctly protective measure. After the war began, the duties on imports were frequently increased until they became nearly three times as large as in 186 I. 632. Internal Revenue. — The other source of Income which has been commonly employed by the nation is that of the Internal Revenue. The most common form is the excise tax, levied on goods made and sold within the country. Besides the excise, taxes were levied on incomes, legal documents, and in other ways, all of which wer^ classed ^s internal revenue. These ta^^s were greatly Salmon P. Chase- (From a negative in the possession of tha U. S. Government.) IS6I-I865] tH£ END OF THE WAR. 331 increased during President Lincoln's administration, so that about three hundred million dollars were raised in this manner in one year. 633. Bonds. — These two sources of revenue proved to be far from sufficient. It soon became necessary to borrow money for the use of the government. The banks and well-to-do people loaned money to the government by the purchase of United States bonds. These bonds were prom- ises to pay certain sums, at some future date, with a specified rate of interest. The thousands of millions of dollars thus obtained imposed an enormous debt upon the government. Of this about two-thirds has been paid since the war. 634. National Banks. — As an accom- paniment of these revenue measures, Congress, in February, 1863, created the National Bank system. By this plan banks could acquire a national charter, could purchase United States bonds, and, by deposit of these bonds in the public treasury, could issue bank-notes. A tax was also placed on the issue of such notes by any bank that did not hold a United States charter, and thus such issues have since that date been limited to the National Banks. The immediate cause for estab- lishing this system was the need of a more efficient method of borrowing money. The system has been contin- ued, and, with slight modifications, is still in use. The notes are perfectly safe, as the bonds in the Treasury more than cover their value, and they are very convenient, as they are of equal value throughout the country. 635. New States. — Soon after the beginning of the war, the west- ern part of Virginia separated from the seceding State, and West Virginia was admitted to the Union, June 19th, 1863. The next year, October 31st, 1864, the thirty-sixth State, Nevada, was admitted. Salmon Portland Chase, a native of New Hampshire, was born January 13th, 1808. After being admitted to the bar, he removed to Ohio. In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate, and in 1855 was chosen gov- ernor of Ohio. He was re-elected to the Senate in 1859. In 1861 he was appointed Secretary of the Treasury, and in 1864, Chief Justice of the Su- preme Court. He died May 7th, 1873. Secretary Chase was, through- out his life, an earnest opponent of slavery. He was originally a Demo- crat, but he joined the Liberty party at its organization. Later he belonged to the Free-Soil party, and finally be- came a Republican. His position dur- ing the Civil War, at the head of the Treasury Department, was a very diffi- cult one, and he fulfilled the duties with the greatest energy. The Na- tional Bank System, which has been tried for thirty years, was adopted in accordance with his advice. Nevada was settled as late as 1849. From its great silver mines it is called the " SilTer State." Mining is al- most the only industry of the State, although in certain sections there is a little agriculture. The population is about forty-two thousand. 2^?>^ DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1864 636. Presidential Election, but two parties in the field. West Virginia. — The western and the eastern sections of the State of Vir- ginia were separated from each other by the Alleghany Mountains. The different climate, soil, and occupations tended to alienate one portion from the other. When Virginia decided to join the Confederacy, the western section remained loyal to the Union. An organization was formed, a constitu- tion was adopted, and the State of West Virginia was admitted to the Union. With a population of over nine hundred thousand, the " Little Mountain State" is devoting its atten- tion primarily to mining and manufac- tures. and twelve electors represent and Johnson, and twenty-one and Pendleton. — In the campaign of 1864, there were The Republican National Convention renominated President Lincoln, chose Andrew Johnson of Tennessee as the candidate for Vice-President, and de- clared for a continued prosecution of the war, and the abolition of slavery. The Democratic National Convention pronounced the war a failure, insisted that hostilities should cease, and chose as its candidates General George B. McClellan of New Jersey, and George H. Pendleton of Ohio. Twenty-five States cast their votes for presidential electors in November. Two hundred ing twenty-two States voted for Lincoln electors from three States for McClellan CHRONOLOGY. 1861. President Lincoln inaugurated, March 4. Fort Sumter surrendered, April 14. Call for troops, April 15. Mob at Baltimore, April 19. Second Secession, April, May, and June. Meeting of Congress, July 4. Battle of Bull Run, July 21. Capture of Fort Hatteras, August 29. Battle of Ball's Bluff, October 21. Capture of Port Royal, November 7. The Trent affair, November 8. Battle of Belmont, November. 1862. Capture of Fort Henry, February 6. Capture of Roanoke Island, February 8 Capture of Fort Donelson, February 16. Battle of Monitor and Merrimac, March 9. Battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7. Capture of Island No. 10, April 7. 1862-1865] CHRONOLOGY. 333 1862. Capture of Fort Pulaski, April 11. Capture of New Orleans, April 25. Capture of Yorktown, May 4. Battle of Williamsburg, May 5. Capture of Corinth, May 30. Battle of Fair Oaks and Seven Pines, May 31, June l- Jackson's raid, June. Seven Days' battle, June 25 to July i. Pope's campaign, August. Second battle of Bull Run, August 29, 30. Battle of South Mountain, September 14. Capture of Harper's Ferry, September 15. Battle of Antietam, September 17. First Emancipation Proclamation, September 22. Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13. Batde of Stone River, December 31 to January 2, 1863. 1863. Second Emancipation Proclamation, January i. Siege of Suffolk, April 10 to May 3. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 3. Battle of Gettysburg, July i to 3. Capture of Vicksburg, July 4 Capture of Port Hudson, July 9. Battle of Chickamauga, September 19, 20. Siege of Knoxville, November and December. Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, November 24, 25 1864. Grant made lieutenant-general, March 3. Battles of the Wilderness, May 5 to 7. Siege of Petersburg, June 16 to April 2, 1865. Battle of Kearsarge and Alabama, June 19. Battle of Mobile Bay, August 5 to 23. Capture of Atlanta, September 2. Battle of Winchester, September 19. Sherman's march to the sea begins, November 12. Battle of Franklin, November 30. Battle of Nashville, December 15, 16. Capture of Savannah, December 21. 1865. Capture of Columbia, February 1 7. Capture of Charleston, February 18. Battle of Five Forks, April r. Petersburg captured, April 2. Fall of Richmond, April 3. Surrender at Appomattox, April 9. Assassination of Lincoln, April 14. Surrender of Johnson, April 26. Capture of Davis, May 10. 'Blacfeboam analtisisf. Presidents Matters of Importance . Johnson 1 865-1 869 Grant 1869-1877 Hayes 1877-1881 Garfield and Arthur . . 1881-1885 Cleveland 1 885-1 889 Harrison 1 889-1 893 Cleveland 1893- 1897 IMcKinley 1897- Amendments. Reconstruction. Resumption. Silver. Tariff. Civil Service. Australian Ballot. Labor. ^ Immigration. Other Matters Assassinations. Disasters. Prosperity. World's Fairs. Letters and Art, Nation of To-day. New States [ Nebraska 1867 Colorado 1876 Washington . , 1889 South Dakota 1889 North Dakota 1889 Montana 1889 Idaho 1890 Wyoming 1890 ^'Utah ....,,,... 1896 The Qr<»l- I6t^. 640. Disbanding^. — Within a few months this multitude of soldiers was honorably discharged and returned to their homes. Only a small army of about fifty thousand men remained, to *' execute the laws of the Union." Many expressions of fear were heard that the ^'"'^bandment could not quietly take ] 1 Lce. Great anxiety was felt as to ll ; future occupations of these men, 1 o, for so long a time, had known service but that of war. But ll : fears proved groundless, as the Idiers returned to their homes and v^u-ietly took up their various occupa- tions, as though no war had called them away. This was one of the greatest victories for our free govern- ment and its principles. 641. The Debt. — It is impossible to estimate the cost of this great civil war. Enormous taxes had been col- Andrew Johnson. lected, and an immense debt had been incurred. The revenue of the United States had been nearly a thousand million dollars, while the debt in 1865 was more than three times as much. The nation had been spending two, three, and four million dollars a day during a portion of the war. What was to be the financial future of the country? This was settled as quietly as the other question. The government simply adopted the honor- able method of paying the debt as fast as possible. Within twenty years, one billion, two hundred miUion dollars had been paid, besides the one hundred and fifty million dollars, annually, of accruing inter- est. The debt reached its lowest point in 1891, when nearly half of it had been paid. The Spanish war and troubles in the Philippines have increased it over five hundred millions. 642. The South. — This debt was only a portion of the cost of the war. Millions of dollars are being paid tvery year for pensions. The destruction of property was enormous, and a large proportion of this fell upon the Southern States. In fact, the South was com- pletely ruined at the end of the war. The slave property was gone., there was no money, and manufactures they had never had. Here 1865] RECONSTRUCTION, 337 Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth President of tlie United States, was born in North Carolina in 1808. He was without educational advantages in his earlier life, and is said to have learned to write after his marriage. In spite of these drawbacks, he was elected to Congress in 1S43, where he spent ten years. After serving as Governor of Tennessee for four years, he was chosen to represent that State in the Senate. He strongly opposed the secession of his State, and in 1862 was made its military governor, after the capture of Nashville. His activity in this position led to his nomination as the Republican candidate for Vice- President in 1864 After his Presiden- tial term, he remained in active life. He was again chosen to the Senate in 1875, but died July 31st of that year. was a third great question. What was to become of the South? Again this was answered by quiet attention to business. The '* New South " is a sufficient reply to the croaks of the pessimists. Had there been no poHtical question and no social questions, the prosperity of the South would have been easily assured. 643. The Results of the War. — The object of the war must not be forgotten. By it freedom was attained for four million human beings. But this was an incident, and not the reason for the war. The struggle decided the question that the States had not the right to secede from the Union. The nation was to be ^* one and indivisible," and the United States was to be one great power, and not two parts always at enmity with each other. This, the greatest war in all history, also proved the wonderful strength of the Republic, and placed it in the front rank of the nations of the world. 644. Emancipation. — President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclama- tion ( 1" 600) had not freed all the slaves. It did not apply to the States which had permitted slavery, but had not joined the Confed- eracy. Certain portions of the " seceding " States also were exempted from its application. An amendment was proposed by Congress, and, when ratified by three-fourths of the States, was declared a portion of the Constitution, December 18th, 1865. This, the Thirteenth Amend- ment, forever forbade slavery within the limits of the United States. 645. Southern States. — As soon as the Southern States had laid down their arms, the question as to their future political status pre- sented itself Were these States in or out of the Union? Could they still be reckoned as States, or should they be classed as terri- tories conquered by the Union armies? These questions were never answered, though the method of reconstruction seems to imply the latter. A less theoretical question was, whether the Southern States, under their former leaders, should be allowed to take their old place in the Union. 22 53^ DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1865-1868 646. Freedmen. — The President's plan was to permit the States to send senators and representatives to Congress, as soon as they repealed their acts of secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amend ment. The action taken by the new governments in these reorganized States in regard to the freedmen prevented Congress from accepting this plan. The South had no faith that the negro would be willing to labor except under compulsion, and therefore many of the States passed laws compelling the freedmen to work. The penalties pro- posed were very severe, and many Northern leaders felt that the con- dition of the negro would be practically as bad as under slavery. Laying an Atlantic Cable. 647. Reconstruction. — In spite of the President's opposition, Con- gress passed certain " Acts of Reconstruction," as they were called. These provided that the States should be admitted to Congress only when new governments should be formed, of a character which would pledge safety to the negroes. For this purpose. Congress put the districts under military governors, and voted that freedmen should be allowed to assist in forming the new governments. When these were formed and had ratified the Fourteenth Amend- ment, the States might be again represented in Congress, 1865-1870] RECONSTRUCTION. 339 648. The Fourteenth Amendment. — In 1866 Congress passed an- other amendment, which was ratified by three-fourths of the States, and became a part of the Constitution, July 28th, 1868. This amendment consisted of several distinct parts. It declared that no State should deprive any citizen of his rights ; that those who, having once sworn to uphold the Constitution of the United States, had taken up arms against it, should be ineligible to office ; and that the United States debt should be valid, while that of the Confederacy should never be paid (Appendix B, Amend, xiv.). 649. Readmission. — One by one the Southern States were re- admitted, as soon as they accepted the plan which Congress had proposed. Tennessee was the first to respond, and its representation in Con- gress was regained in 1866. By the summer of 1868 six others had become reconstructed. Georgia, Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi refused for a time to make State governments in which the ex-slaves should be the po- litical equals of the former slave-owners, and not until 1870 did they fulfil the conditions for readmission. For nearly ten years these States were without rep- resentation in Congress. 650. The President. — During all the contest over reconstruction, the quarrel between the President and Congress grew more and more bitter. The Presi- dent was a War Democrat, and could no more agree with the Repub- lican Congress than President Tyler could with the Whigs. Johnson vetoed many of the important bills sent to him, but, as the Republi- cans had a two-thirds majority, they passed them over the veto. Finally the quarrel culminated in the "Tenure of Office" act, which forbade the President's removing certain officials without the consent of the Senate. 651. Impeachment. — President Johnson believed that the au- thority for removals was vested in him alone, and that the Senate had no right to interfere. He removed Edwin M. Stanton from hh Atlantic Cable. — To Cyrus W. Field is due the honor for the suc- cess of the Atlantic Cable. In 1856 a telegraph line was built from New York to Newfoundland, and a com- pany was organized to lay a tele- graph cable from Newfoundland to Ireland. After two unsuccessful at- tempts, in July, 1858, a message was sent by Queen Victoria to President Buchanan, and a reply was received. On September ist, for some unaccount- able reason, the cable ceased to work, but Mr. Field was not dismayed. He formed a new company and, after an- other failure, finally succeeded. The *' Great Eastern " laid the third cable in 1866, and repaired the second, which had parted the year before. Ever since, Europe and America have had instantaneous communication with each other. -^40 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1863-1868 position as Secretary of War, and refused to pay attention to the Senate's action in the matter. The House of Representatives voted in February, 1868, to impeach the President, as having broken the laws. The Senate, sitting as a court of impeachment, proceeded to try the President, and came to a vote. May 26th. Thirty-five declared him guilty, and nineteen not guilty. Inasmuch as, by the Constitution, a two-thirds vote of the Senate is necessary for con- viction. President Johnson was acquitted. One vote more against him would have resulted in conviction. 652. Foreign Affairs. — When the Civil War began. Napoleon III., Emperor of France, determined to make an attempt to revive the power of France on this continent. He sent an army into Mexico and conquered the country in 1863. The next year he made Maximilian, an Austrian, Emperor of Nebraska, or" Black Water," was first settled in 1847. The Territory was organized in 1854. Like Kansas, it was a portion of Louisiana, and made famous by the Kansas- Nebraska Bill. The size of the Territory was twice reduced until, at present, it is purely a prairie State. The building of railroads led immigrants into this fertile Territory. Cereals and fruits form the basis of its agriculture and its soil is unusually adapted to stock- raising. The population is a little over a million. Mexico. The United States protested, but was unable to do more at the time. When the war was ended, the protest was changed to a demand that the French troops should be withdrawn from the country. Napoleon complied, but Max- imilian refused to abdicate. After the French troops were gone, the Mexicans rose, defeated, and captured the Em- peror, who was shot, June 19th, 1867. The same year, a purchase of territory was made by the United States. Russia was only too glad to dispose of her possessions in North America, and sold Alaska for the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars. - This purchase added nearly six hundred thousand to the three million square miles of area previously pos- sessed. The products of Alaska in lumber, fish, and furs have more than repaid its cost. Rich gold discoveries were made along the Yukon, at Circle City and in the Klondike region, in 1896 and 1897. 653. Domestic Affairs. — In 1866, an organization of Irish-Ameri- cans, called Fenians, thought to aid their native country by fighting the English in Canada. Several hundred crossed the line from Buffalo, and others from St. Albans, Vermont, but the disturbance was soon quieted by the prompt action of the President, who issued a proclamation condemning the movement. 1866-1870] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 34 1 The same year saw the first successful laying of the Atlantic cable. Several attempts had been made previous to this time, but not until July 27tli, 1866. was permanent communication opened under the ocean. This and subsequent ocean cables have done much to bring the ends of the earth nearer, and " make the world akin." Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union, March ist, 1867. 654. Presidential Election. — The question of reconstruction was the great issue before the people in 1868. The Republicans nominated for President the great general, Ulysses S. Grant, and associated with him Schuyler Colfax of Indiana. The Democratic candidate was Horatio Seymour, ex-Governor of New York. Three States were not allowed to participate in this election, and but 294 electoral votes were cast. Of these. Grant and Colfax received 214, and were declared elected. CHAPTER LXXVIII. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 655. The Treaty of Washington. — Several grounds of controversy had arisen between the United States and Great Britain during the ten years previous to 1870. After some futile attempts to settle these difficulties, a commission consisting of five men to represent Eng- land, and five to present the claims of the United States, met at Washington, in 1871. The treaty which was finally signed. May 8th, referred all the matters in dispute to arbitration. This method of settlement proved vastly superior to the more common method ol issuing a declaration of war. 656. The "Alabama" Claims. — In 1862 certain vessels were fitted out in England to aid the Confederacy in its war with the United States. Great Britain had declared neutrality in the contest, and the United States claimed that she should have prevented the sailing of these vessels, and that she was partially responsible for the evils which had resulted. Many citizens brought suits for damages done by the 342 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1872-1876 " Alabama," one of these vessels, and the United States took up the cause of the " Alabama " claims. By the Treaty of Washington, these claims were left to a commission of five men, — one each to be appointed by Great Britain, the United States, Switzerland, Italy, and Brazil. This commission met in Geneva, in September, 1872, and, by the so-called " Genevan Awards," Great Britain paid fifteen and a half million dollars for the injuries resulting from her remissness in allow- ing the " Alabama " to sail. 657. Other Disputes. — The Treaty of Washington made the Emperor of Germany the arbitrator of the dispute as to the Northwest boundary. Em- peror William decided that the chan- nel, spoken of in the Treaty of 1846 (11485), was the one to the west of the San Juan Island in Puget Sound, thus conceding that island to the United States, as she had claimed. For the first time, the entire boundary of the United States was without dispute. Another arbitration commission in- vestigated the disputes between Cana- dian and American fishermen. This difficulty was settled by the payment of five and a half million dollars by the United States. Some difficulties as to the fisheries were not settled, however, and have not been up to the present time (1896), 658. The Indians. — What to do with the Indians has been a troublesome question ever since the white man came to this conti- nent. During the Civil War Minnesota was invaded by the Sioux to avenge injuries. Many skirmishes occurred in Dakota and Montana. Fetterman with eighty men was surprised and massacred in 1866. President Grant did not find the matter any easier to settle than had his predecessors. In 1872 the Modocs, of Southern Oregon, re- fused to be moved from one reservation to another, and a year's hard fighting was necessary before the Modoc War was ended. In 1876 General Ulysses Simpson Grant, the eighteenth President of the United States, was born in Ohio, April 27th, 1822, and died at Mount McGregor, New York, July 23d, 1885. He was graduated from West Point in 1843, and served in the Mexican War, first under General Taylor, and afterwards under General Scott. He was not a politician, but preferred the Repub- lican party, because of his strong unionist sentiments. He entered the Union army at the outset of the war, and was at once made brigadier-gen- eral. His capture of Fort Donelson won for him a major-generalship. In 1864 he was made lieutenant-general, a grade which had been previously held only by Washington and Scott. In 1866 he was raised to the rank of general. President Grant has been usually considered one of the great- est generals the world has ever seen. " His deeds as general, his statesman- ship as President, and his example as an American citizen, have raised his country to a still higher position in the regard of the civilized world." I868-I872] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 343 Sitting Bull, a chief of the Sioux Indians, also objected to a removal from the Black Hills, and the Sioux War followed. The Indians were finally conquered, but not until after an incident occurred which sent a feeling of horror over the country. General Custer met, at Big Horn, a band of the Sioux, which was ten times as large as his own force. Custer and his entire regiment were killed in the attack, the Indians allowing them no quarter whatever. 659. Railroads. — During the four years from 1868 to 1872, thou- sands of miles of railways were built within the United States. In 1869 the first railroad across the continent was completed. May Custer's Last Fight, (Copyright, 1896, by b.Kc Burdett & Company.) loth, the Union Pacific Railroad, more than one thousand miles long, was joined to the Central Pacific, nearly nine hundred miles in length, thus making a continuous line from New York to San Francisco, a distance of three thousand three hundred miles. The government gave great aid to these railroads, especially by presenting to them vast stretches of land, which they could sell to pioneers. Since then the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Oregon Short Line, the Santa Fe, and the Great Northern railroads have been completed to the Pacific coast* 344 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1871-1876 660. The Results. — In many respects, the first Pacific railroad far exceeded the expectations and hopes of its promoters. The great saving of time, whereby it takes no longer to travel from New York tc San Francisco than it did from New York to Boston a hun- dred years ago, has caused a revolution in business. The objection made, when Oregon was admitted (1F 530), that a representative from that State would need to spend all his time travelling to and from Congress, causes only amusement to-day. The benefits to commerce re- sulting from these roads are incalculable, as is also the effect that they had in pro- moting the rapid growth of the West. August 1st, 1876, the '' Centennial State," Colorado, was admitted to the Union. 661. Prosperity. — These four years were prosperous in all sections of the country. Gold and silver mines added vastly to the wealth of the nation, petro- Colorado. — The first certainly- known settlement in the "Centennial State " was in 1859, upon the discovery of gold near the present site of Denver. A territorial go'vernment was provided, in 1861, for the many immigrants, who hoped to find a second California. Be- sides its valuable mining industries, Colorado has great cattle-ranches, and manufactures are springing up throughout the State. Colorado is making vast strides, having morethan doubled its population in the past ten years, until it has now over half a million. leum and coal were obtained in greater quantities, wheat fields yielded their grains as never before, manufactures went on apace, population made vast strides, and soon the country had regained the position held before the war, and had gone far beyond it. 662. "Fires. — The prosperous condition is well shown by the way in which cities recovered from severe losses by fire. In October, 1 87 1, a conflagration broke out in Chicago, which lasted two days and destroyed two hundred million dollars' worth of property. In November, 1872, Boston suffered a loss of seventy-five million dollars by a fire covering sixty acres of business blocks. The whole coun- try immediately responded to the calls for aid from the suffering people, millions of dollars being quickly subscribed. Each city began at once to rebuild, and, in a remarkably short time, all ves- tiges of the fire had disappeared, and the magnificent new build- ings seemed to prove that the disaster was a blessing rather than a curse. 663. The Centennial. — The hundredth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence was celebrated by a World's Fair, at Philadelphia. The Centennial Exhibition, which lasted i873] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. ;45 from May until November, 1876, far surpassed anything of its kind previously held. The Main Exhibition Hall covered twenty acres, and hundreds of other buildings were filled with proofs of the pros- perity of the United States and of other nations. The nearly ten million visitors to this exhibition of the world's industries received an education which could be obtained in no other way. The fair also resulted in an increased attention paid to inventions and labor- saving devices, as shown by the large number of patents granted during the next few years. 664. The Panic. — In connection with the great prosperity of the country there was a large degree of speculation. More railroads were built than the country needed or could pay for. Millions of Memorial Hall. dollars were spent upon investments which could not be produc- tive for a long time. As in 1837 and in 1857, so in 1873 there came a disturbance in all business circles. This lasted for sev- eral years, and not until 1880 did the country again feel a full tide of prosperity. 665. Political Scandals. — The period of speculation was accom- panied by corruption among certain officials of the government. A ring was formed by the whiskey distillers and certain officers of the 346 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1870-1872 Internal Revenue Department, whereby the government Wa.s de- frauded of money, which went into the pockets of the ring. Besides the Whiskey Ring, certain Indian agents also conspired to defraud the government as well as the Indians. An investigation showed that members of Congress had received bribes in the form of stocks in the Credit MobiHer, — a company which was building the Pacific Railroad, and hoped to obtain certain favors from Congress. Politi- cal rings had grown up in the larger cities, which carried on the gov- ernment in a corrupt manner. As 'j the exposures of these scandals came in connection with the great panic, j„i,lil this was a gloomy period for those who were most anxious for the wel- ili'i|jM fare of the country. 666. Grant re-elected. — Although the President was not implicated in any of these scandals, strong opposi- tion was made to his renomination by the Republicans. A branch of the party seceded, called themselves Liberal Republicans, and nominated Horace Greeley, editor of the " New York Tribune," as their candidate for the Presidency. The Democrats were not strong at the time, and ratified the nomination of this life- long Republican. General Grant was re-elected, however, receiving two hundred and eighty-six out of the three hundred and forty- nine votes cast. Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was elected Vice- President. 667. The Fifteenth Amendment. — In 1870 the third of the amend- ments which resulted from the war received a three-fourths vote of the States, and became a part of the Constitution. This Fifteenth Amendment provided that the right to vote in any State should not be denied " on account of race, color, or previous condition of servi- tude." In spite of the dense ignorance of the freedmen, negro suf- frage was made the law of the country. Though they owned little land and but a small amount of property, they had an ecjual power in the levying of taxe§. Horace Greeley. 1876-1877] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. . 347 668. The Effect in the South. — The negroes naturally mistrusted their former masters and voted against them. Those persons who came from the North and sided with the negroes were called " Carpet- Baggers," because they were said to have brought nothing into the South except what they had in their carpet-bags. The Southerners who were willing to vote with the negroes were decried by the title ** Scalawags." Disorder and almost warfare sprang up, both sides being doubtless to blame. An organization called the Ku Klux Klan was formed, with the avowed purpose of depriving the negroes of the ballot, and thereby saving the States, as they said, from ruin. This Klan caused a reign of terror to ensue, and Federal troops were sent into the South in order to protect the ballot-box and the negroes in their right to vote. 669. Presidential Election. — The political scandals, the panic and the troubles in the South, caused a reaction against the party in power. In 1876 the RepubHcans nominated Governor R. B. Hayes of Ohio, and W. A. Wheeler of New York. The Democratic candi- dates were Samuel J. Tilden of New York, and T. A. Hendricks of Indiana (I673). There was no vital issue between the two parties, and the election proved very close. For weeks after the voting of the people, the country was in suspense as to the result. It was found that two sets of electors had voted in certain Southern States. 670. An Electoral Commission. — In Florida and in Louisiana the largest number of votes were returned for the Democratic candi- dates. In each, the Returning Board, whose duty it was to count the votes, decided that there had been errors in certain districts. They therefore refused to count certain votes, which resulted in their declaring the election of the Republican electors. The Republican Senate and the Democratic House of Representatives could not agree as to which electors should be considered duly chosen. After a long controversy, it was decided by law to leave the matter to a commission, consisting of five Senators, five members of the House, and five Justices of the Supreme Court. This Electoral Commission, after careful consideration, decided in favor of Hayes and Wheeler, and they were declared elected by a vote of 185 to 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. 34S DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1877-1884 CHAPTER LXXIX, POLITICAL PARTIES AND PUBLIC QUESTIONS. /'A 671. Parties — The years that have passed since President Hayes was inaugurated, March 5th, 1877, have, on the whole, been years of prosperity. No great issues have held the attention of the people, and the political conditions have been in a state of marked and constant change. The Republicans held the Presidency and both branches of ^:2 Congress from 1889 to 1891 ; and in 1893 the Democratic party obtained Z% possession of the entire government. ;/'J At no other period since 1877 has either party had complete control of the government, as the two branches of Congress have been in the hands of different parties. 672. The Election of 1880. — Three Rutherford Burcnard Hayes. , • • ^i r i i • nr, t^i ' parties were m the held m 1 880. The Greenback party nominated J. B. Weaver of Iowa, and B. J. Chambers of Texas, and declared for a larger issue of " paper money" (IT 599) by the government. The Democratic candidates were Gen- eral VV. S. Hancock of New York, and W. H. English of Indiana. The Re- publicans put in nomination General James A. Garfield of Ohio, and Ches- ter A. Arthur of New York. After a spirited campaign, the electors gave 214 votes for Garfield and Arthur, and 155 for the Democratic candidates. 673. The Election of 1884. — The Democrats adopted as their cam- paign cry in 1884 " reduction of national expenditures," and placed Rutherford Burchard Hayes, born October 4th, 1822, was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1845. At the beginning of the war he went as a volunteer, with the rank of major. He served in the field throughout the war, and was made brigadier-general on account of his gallantry. He represented his State at Washington, and was twice the Re publican Governor of Ohio. Since his Presidency, Mr. Hayes lived in retire- ment, and was especially interested in philanthropic work. He died January 17th, 1893. l884-l888l POLITICAL PARTIES AND PUBLIC QUESTIONS. 349 James Gillespie Blaine. Grover Cleveland of New York and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana at the head of their ticket. In opposition, the Republican candidates were James G. Blaine of Maine, and General John A. Logan of Illinois. The Prohibitionists and the Greenback party had tickets in the field, whose efTect was to with- draw votes from the two leading candidates. Another defection from the Republican ranks took place, and the Independents, or " Mug- wumps," as they were called, carried enough votes to elect the Demo- cratic candidates, 219 to 182. New York, with its ;^6 votes, was the deciding factor. March 4th, 1 885, Grover Cleveland became the first Democratic President since 1861. 674. The Election of 1888. — The next Presidential campaign turned on the question of the tariff. The people were called upon to decide between the Republicans, who desired a continuance of the principle of high protective duties, and the Democrats, who demanded a reduction of the tariff. President Cleveland was a candidate for re-election, and with him was asso- ciated Allen G. Thurman of Ohio. Mr. Blaine withdrew from the contest, and the Republicans nominated General Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton of New York, who were elected by a vote of 233 to 168 for the Democratic candidates. Several other minor parties were in the field, but their votes did not materially affect the result. New York again determined the election, as President Cleveland would have been re-elected if he had carried that State. James Gillespie Blaine, one of the best known of the later statesmen, was born in Pennsylvania, January 31st, 1830. At the age of twenty- three he took charge of the " Kennebec Jour- nal," published at Augusta, Maine. He entered Congress in 1862, and for twenty years was a leader of the Re- publicans. For six years he held the position of Speaker of the House of Representatives. An unsuccessful can- didate for the Republican nomination to the Presidency in 1S76, and again in 1880, he became President Garfield's Secretary of State. In 1884 he re- ceived the nomination, but was de- feated by Mr. Cleveland. He declined to be a candidate in 1888, and became President Harrison's Secretaryof State. He was an ardent believer in the policy of reciprocity. Mr. Blaine died Jan- uary 27th, 1893. 350 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1892-1896 675. The Election of 1892. — As far as the leading parties were con- cerned, the campaign of 1892 was like that of 1888. President Har- rison and Whitelaw Reid of New York were opposed by ex-President Cleveland and Adlai E. Stevenson of IlHnois. A new party had been formed just before this election, called the " People's Party," which nominated General Weaver as its candidate. The result of the cam- paign was strongly against the Republicans. President Cleveland received 277 electoral votes to 145 for President Harrison, while the remaining 22 of the 444 electors voted for the People's Party candi- date. The Democrats retained a large majority in the House of Rep- resentatives and gained the Senate. For the first time in more than thirty years, the Democratic party had complete control of the government, 676. The Election of 1896. — Four years later, the currency ques- tion exceeded in importance the tariff issue. The Republican party nominated William McKinley of Ohio (IF 682) and Garrett A. Hobart of New Jersey, on a platform advocating pro- tection and international bimetallism. The Democrats declared for " the free and unlimited coinage of silver " (IT 679), and chose as standard-bearers William J. Bryan of Nebraska and Arthur Sewall of Maine. The ** Silver Republicans " ratified the Democratic ticket, and the Populists nominated Mr. Bryan, associating with him Thomas E. Watson of Georgia. A wing of the Democratic party opposed free silver, and nominated General John M. Palmer of Illinois, and General Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky. The election occurred November 3d, 1896, and resulted in the choice of 271 electors for McKinley, and 176 for Bryan. 6en)amin Harrison. Benjamin Harrison was born in Ohio, August20th, 1833. Admitted to the bar of Indiana in 1854, Mr. Harri- son practised law until 1862, when he formed a regiment of volunteers and joined the army of the Union. He was made brigadier-general in 1865, and then returned to his profession. In 1886 General Harrison was chosen United Stales Senator, and became the Republican leader of Indiana. He was elected to the Presidency in 1888, and failed of a re-eltction in 1892. He died March 13th, 1901. 1873-1893] POLITICAL PARTIES AND PUBLIC QUESTIONS. 35 1 677. The Election of 1900. — In this campaign free coinage of silver and "anti-imperialism" were the most important questions. The anti-imperialists, opposed to the retention of the Philippine Islands, joined the Democrats and Populists in supporting Wilham J. Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson. William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, the Republican nominees, received two hundred and ninety-two electoral votes and Colonel Bryan one hundred and fifty-five. The election was one of the most decisive in our history. 678. Specie Payments. — The *' paper money " (IF 599), which had been issued during the war, steadily increased in value after peace was declared and the government began to pay the debt. January ist, 1879, John Sherman, the Secretary of the Treasury, succeeded in bringing about the ** resumption of specie payments." The govern- ment stood ready to pay gold or silver for any of the " Greenbacks '* which the people wished to bring to it. The effect of resumption was to make the government notes of equal value with gold or silver, and, because of its greater convenience, paper money has been com- monly preferred to specie. At about the same time, the Secretary was able to refund a large portion of the debt, /. e, borrow money at a lower rate of interest, in order to pay off the notes carrying a higher rate. This resulted in the saving of millions of dollars to the United States Treasury. 679. Silver. — Both gold and silver have been used as money by the United States during most of its history. Since the discovery of silver in our western territory, its value, as compared with gold, has greatly declined. For this reason, a law was passed, in 1873, that gold alone should be coined as money. An opposition to this *' demonetization " of silver sprang up, especially in the Western and Southern States, and in 1878 an act was passed to resume the coin- age of silver dollars, to the extent of at least $2,000,000 a month. Since that time, the issue has been a live one between the " hard money " men, who believe that gold should be the only standard of exchange, and those who desire also an equal " free coinage" of the other metal. The " Bland Silver Bill" of 1878 was followed by the " Sherman Silver Bill" of 1890. This was repealed by Con- gress, at a special session in 1893, called by President Cleveland for the purpose. Since 1893, however, the demand for free silver has continued, and the currency question still divides public opinion. 352 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1879-1896 680. The Gold Reserve. — By the bank act of July 12, 1882, it was provided that, if the gold coin and bullion in the Treasury reserved for the redemption of greenbacks should fall below one hun- dred million dollars, gold certificates should no longer be issued. During the years 1894 to 1896, there was a constant drain upon the treasury of the United States. Tiiis diminished the quantity of gold on hand to such an extent that it was re- duced below the required amount on four separate occasions during that period. It became necessary for the government to borrow gold, which was done in the usual manner, by issuing bonds. On the fourth occa- sion, the bond issue was thrown open to popular bids. The amount asked for was one hundred million dollars, and nearly six times that amount was offered by the people, on the appointed day in February, 1896. This was a strong indication of the remarkable prosperity of the United States, as well as a proof of the confidence of the people in the stability of the government. 681. The Tariff of 1883. — When the government could no longer pay off the remainder of its debt (IF 641), it was found that its revenue was larger than was necessary. In 1882 a tariff com- mission was appointed which travelled throughout the country and inspected the working of the so-called ''war du- ties." Congress made slight reductions in the tariff, in accordance with the recommendations of the com- mission. Nearly all of the Republican members of Congress were protectionists, as was also a strong wing of the Democratic party. 682. Tariff Reform. — President Cleveland, in his annual message to Congress, December, 1887, recommended a radical reform in the Grover Cleveland. Grover Cleveland, a native of New Jersey, was born March iSth, 1837. In 1881 he was elected Mayor of Buf- falo, New York. He was chosen by the Democratic party as their candidate for Governor in 1882, and was elected by an overwhelming majority. This fact, together with the political posi- tion of the " Empire State," made him the "logical candidate" for the Presi- dency. Elected in 1884, he was de- feated for re-election in 1888, but was again elected in 1892. 1888-1894] POLITICAL PARTIES AND PUBLIC QUESTIONS. 353 tariff, with special reference to increasing the number of articles to be put upon the "free list." His party had not the control of Con- gress, however, and the question of protection or tariff reform entered into the campaign of 1888. When the Republicans gained the supremacy, a new tariff measure was passed in 1890, which has been called the ** McKinley Bill," from its maker, William McKinley, the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representatives. This reduced the revenue very considerably, though it increased the duties upon many articles. 683. Later Tariffs. — In 1893 the Democrats obtained a majority in both branches of Congress, and, in August, 1894, a new tariff schedule was enacted, without the signature of President Cleveland. This measure was satisfactory neither to the tariff reformers nor to the protectionists. Immediately after his inauguration, President McKinley called a special session of Congress to provide for an increase of revenue. After a four months' session. Congress passed the so-called " Dingley Bill," which received the President's signature, July 24, 1897. This tariff act was a distinctly pro- tective measure, with rates, on the whole, lower than those of the tariff of 1890, but higher than those provided by the act of 1894. 684. Reciprocity. — One of the new features of the tariff of 1890 was that of " reciprocity." By this act the President was empowered to make treaties with those foreign nations that desired to accept the reciprocity idea. By these treaties the United States agreed to make certain reductions in the duties upon goods imported from those nations, on condition that a similar change would be made in return. The tariff law of 1894 abrogated all reciprocity treaties; but the act of 1897 restored to the President the power to make . , . . . .1 , new ones, with certam restrictions as to time and manner. 685. President Garfield. — The first months of President Gar- field's term were rendered unpleasant by the troubles arising from appointments to office. Since 1829 it has been the custom for every President to make wholesale removals, and to fill the positions with new men. This always imposes upon the President and his cabinet a large amount of unnecessary labor. The " Spoils System" has also been injurious to the efficiency of the government, by re- moving tried officials and replacing them with inexperienced men. 23 354 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1881-1896 686. Assassination. — July 2d, 1881, President Garfield was shot by a disappointed office-seeker, named Guiteau. The president suffered for weeks, and died September 19th. The assassin was tried, con- victed, and hanged. This sad event aroused the attention of the country more fully to the evils of the Federal office system, and in 1883 Congress acceded to the popular demand and passed the " Pendleton Civil Service Bill." 687. Civil Service Reform. — The, Constitution gives the appointing power to the President, so that the value of the Civil Service Act de- pends upon the willingness of the President to abide by its spirit. By it he is permitted to establish a commission, whose duty it is to ex- amine applicants for office in the civil service, and to recommend those who are qualified for the po- sitions. The President may then appoint, if he desires, from this number. Presidents Arthur, Cleveland, and Harrison have availed themselves of this act, and the number of positions filled from the approved list has been gradually increased, until, by an order of May 6th, 1896, all the 85,000 government employees, except about 800, are chosen according to their qualifications. 688. Presidential Succession. — President Garfield's death called attention to another danger, which never before had been so fuliy realized. If Vice-President Arthur had been unable to serve, there would have been no person qualified to succeed to the duties of the President. In 1886 a Presidential Succession Bill was passed, whereby, in case of the death or disability of both President and Vice-President, the duties of the office shall be performed by the Secretary of State, and, if necessary, then by the other members of the Cabinet in regular order. The next year, a Presidential Elec- tion Bill was enacted, which provided a method for counting the electoral votes. This was intended to prevent, if possible, another disputed election, like that of 1876 (1 670). James Abram Garfield. 1877-1887] POLITICAL PARTIES AND PUBLIC QUESTIONS. 355 689. The Australian Ballot. — Among the various reforms in polit- ical matters, one of the most valuable has been the Australian ballot. The purpose of this system is to prevent the bribing of voters, and to allow them to cast their ballots without intimidation. As the State prints the ballot, the can- didates are not obliged to meet this expense. All but three of the States have adopted the system, though with many important differences. Other re- forms in the method of conducting elections have been attempted in cer- tain States, and the present outlook for purer politics is bright. 690. Interstate Commerce. — Another important law was enacted by Congress in 1887. The Interstate Commerce Act provided for a commission which should oversee all railroads which extend from one State into another. Congress had this right, as the Constitution placed the commerce between the States in the hands of the Federal government. The purpose of this bill was to provide for uniform passenger fares and freight charges. 691. Labor Troubles. — As the wealth of the nation has increased, hostility has grown up between employers and laborers. Demands are frequently made for higher wages and shorter hours of labor. These demands are often just, but sometimes the laborer does not understand the conditions, and the employer is unable to grant the requests. In 1879 an organization was formed called the "Knights of Labor ; " and more recently the ** American Federation of Labor " and the " American Railway Union," have been established. The purpose of such unions is to give more weight to the demands of laborers by enabling them to make a more united stand. 692. Strikes. — The most common weapon used in this struggle has been the " strike." In 1877 many railroad employees left work; and for two weeks few, if any, trains were run on many roads. Disturbances occurred in various cities, the riot in Pittsburg being James Abram Garfield, the twen- tieth President, was born in Ohio, November 19th, 1831. In 1856 he was made Professor of Latin and Greek in Hiram College, and in 1858 its presi- dent. He was elected a State senator at the early age of twenty-eight, in 1859, but two years later resigned to enter the army as colonel. He was made major-general in 1863, and soon after entered the House of Represen- tatives. He remained here until 1880, when he was chosen United States Senator, and almost immediately Pres- ident. President Garfield died Sep- tember 19th, 1881, after weeks of strug- gle between life and death, and was succeeded by Vice-President Arthur. Chester Alan Arthur was born at Fairfield, Vermont, October 5th, 1830. He was, like President Garfield, a school-teacher, but became a lawyer in 1853. Originally a Whig, he became a Republican in 1856, and was an ardent Unionist in 1861. He was a candidate for renomination in 1884, but was unsuccessful. He died November 1 8th, 1886. 356 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1894 the most disastrous. In that city nearly a hundred lives were lost, and millions of dollars' worth of property was destroyed. Among other weapons employed in these labor troubles are the " black list " and the ** boycott." The former is used by the employer, and a laborer who has the misfortune to get upon that list finds it hard to obtain work anywhere. The latter is used by the laborers, and Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 111., 1893. consists in an agreement to have no dealings with certain employers, especially if they have used the black list. 693. The Pullman Boycott. — A strike among the employees of the Pullman Palace Car Company led to a boycott of the parlor cars by the American Railway Union, in June, 1894. Twenty railroads were " tied up," and perhaps forty thousand employees left work. The strike extended from Ohio to California. Riots ensued, several of which were quelled only by the employment of the United States troops as well as the militia to assist the local police. The strike was unsuccessful; the leaders were arrested for obstructing the Washington is the most populous of the seven new States. The territo- rial government of Washington was established in 1853. For the first thirty years the growth was slow, but during the past twelve years it has been very rapid. The population is now more than five hundred thousand, being greater than that of any one of twelve of its sister States. Its location, cli- mate, soil, and other natural advan- tages fit it for the successful prosecution of a large number of industries. 1886-1892] POLITICAL PARTIES AND PUBLIC QUESTIONS. 357 United States mail, and sentenced to fine and imprisonment. Presi- dent Cleveland appointed a special committee to investigate the strike, which committee recommended a permanent United States strike commission. 694. Anarchists. — In 1886 there appeared a long list of strikes, which culminated in Chicago, when nearly fifty thousand persons abandoned their employments until their demands were granted. In May, at a labor demonstration in that city, a bomb was thrown among a number of policemen, killing seven and wounding scores of others. This was the work of Anarchists, — men who desired the overthrow of all government. The workingmen in all parts of the country denounced the outrage, and the author- ities of Illinois tried and hanged four of the guilty men. 695. Immigration. — One of the greatest complaints made by laborers has been that cheap labor has come in from foreign coun- tries. In certain sections the greatest opposition has been to the immigration of the Chinese. It has been claimed that they not only live upon wages that would not sup- port other laborers, but do not intend to remain longer than to obtain a small amount of money which will be a fortune when they return to China. Various laws have been passed for the purpose of entirely stopping the immi- gration of any Chinese workmen. The immigration of other laborers has been restricted by recent laws, and an agita- tion is being made to check further the entrance of cheap labor (1718). 696. "World's Columbian Exposition. — The four hundredth anniver- sary of the discovery of America by Columbus was fittingly cele- brated by a Naval Parade of all nations in New York Harbor, October 12th, 1892, and by a World's Fair in Chicago, the grounds Montana, one of the youngest States, is the third largest in area. It was acquired from France as a portion of the Louisiana purchase. It was ex- plored by Lewis and Clark in 1804-5. It was organized as a Territory in 1S64. The principal industries of Montana are mining and stock-raising. Its gain in population has been marked during the last twelve years. It has now nearly two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants. 358 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1878-1893 Dakota. — The great agricultural re- gions west of Minnesota were formed into the Territory of Dakota in 1861, This Territory belonged to the province of Louisiana, and until 1868 included what was then made into the Territory of Wyoming. Dakota was divided in 1889, and the two States of North and South Dakota were admitted, with pop- ulations respectively of over three and more than four hundred thousand. and buildings of which were dedicated October 21st, 1892. The fair was opened May ist, 1893, with an address by President Cleveland, and was continued six months. This exposition far exceeded that of Philadelphia in 1876 (J 663), in the beauty of its buildings and grounds, in the extensiveness of the exhibits, and in the multitude of its visitors. The more intimate knowledge of other peoples received by those who thronged to the fair was one of its most valuabl features. 697. Disasters. — An epidemic of yel- low fever spread through the Southern States in 1878, being especially de- structive in New Orleans. More than fifteen thousand people died before the autumnal frosts had killed the germs of the disease. In 1882 the Mississippi River overflowed its banks and ren- dered many thousands homeless, besides destroying much valuable property. In 1886 an earthquake occurred in Charleston, South Carolina, which overthrew scores of buildings and killed many persons. For months lesser shocks continued, while the people were in daily terror, not knowing what would be the outcome. In 1889 a reservoir embankment gave way in Conemaugh Val- ley, Pennsylvania. The vast flood of waters struck the city of Johnstown, without warning, and thou- sands lost their lives. In all these cases the whole nation at once responded with aid. The alac- rity with which Northern cities sent food and assistance to the Mississippi and Charleston sufferers was beneficial in softening the irritation still remaining from the war. 698. Other Legislation. — Only a few of the many legislative acts that have been passed during the administrations of Presidents Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Cleveland, and Harrison can be mentioned here, and those but briefly. The Edmunds Anti-Polygamy Law, passed In 1882, has been Wyoming has, next to Nevada, the smallest population of the forty-five States, but it had over four times as great a population in 1900 as in 1880. It now numbers a little less than one hundred thousand people. Idaho was originally a part of Ore- gon, and was made a separate Territory in 1863. The State is but just beginning its development, but it has abundant resources for agricultural, grazing, and mining industries. Its population is over a hundred and fifty thousand. 1882-1896] POLITICAL PARTIES AND PUBLIC QUESTIONS. 359 very effective in putting down polygamy in the territories. The Mormons have accepted the situation, and have declared that polygamy is no longer a doctrine of the church. The next year Congress gave to the country a great boon by providing cheap postage. The cost of sending a letter to any point in the country was reduced from three to two cents. In 1885 the postage was made still cheaper by allowing an ounce to go for one stamp, in place of a half- ounce as before. Other questions have been recently prominent before the country. The construction of a canal by the government, across the narrow por- tion of the continent, at Nicaragua, is desired by many merchants. A new navy has been begun and an effort is being made to have the work continued. 699. New States, — Four new States were admitted to the Union in November, 1889, North and South Dakota, Montana and Wash- ington. The next July, Idaho and Wyoming were added to the number. January 4th, 1896, President Cleveland proclaimed the admission of Utah as the forty-fifth State. A new Territory was formed in 1889, by unit- ing a portion of the Indian Territory with the public lands. This new Ter- ritory, Oklahoma, as well as New Mexico and Arizona, are knocking at the doors of Congress. When these are admitted, the unorganized Indian and Alaska Territories, the District of Columbia, and Hawaii will remain without state governments. 700. Hawaii. — January i6th, 1893, Queen Liliuokalani, of the Sandwich Islands, was deposed, and a republic was established, which asked for annexation to the United States. In July, 1898, these Islands were formally annexed to our country by act of Congress. Later, Congress passed an act making the Hawaiian Islands a regular territory, and they now have a delegate in the House of Representatives at Washington, Utah, a portion of the Mexican pur- chase of 1848, was made a Territory by the Compromise of 1850. It had been settled by the Mormons as early as 1847. Its admission to the Union was delayed until 1896, because of opposi- tion to the Mormon principle of polyg- amy. The Mormon Church abolished polygamy in i8qo. The chief industries are mining and agriculture. The popu- lation is over a quarter of a million. 36o DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1895-1896 701. Venezuela. — December 17th, 1895, President Cleveland sent a message to Congress, calling attention to the dispute over the boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, and re-affirm- ing the Monroe doctrine (IF 449). In accordance with a law passed by Congress, a commission was appointed to look into the matter and to ascertain the true boundary line. As a result, partly, of the investigations of this commission. Great Britain and the United States, in November, 1896, signed an agreement, submitting nearly all the disputed points to a tribunal, to consist of five jurists, two to be appointed by the United States, two by Great Britain, and the fifth to be selected by the four. Venezuela accepted the pro- posed terms, and thus an international difficulty, which seemed \o threaten war between two great nations, was quietly settled by arbitration. [See Appendix K, page 418 a.J CHAPTER LXXX. LETTERS AND ART. 702. Colonial Period. — The colonial period was marked by the publication of but few books, and these were chiefly of a theological character. This was a new coun- try, and the people were too busy to find time for reading, much less for writing. Conse- quently the ministers were almost the only persons who had time or inclination for such matters, and they naturally wrote upon the subjects which interested them most. 703. The Revolution. — The Re- volution, with its excitement and radical changes, produced a re- markable group of orators and statesmen, who have left a most Washington Irving. valuablc collcction of lettcrs and The state papers of Washington, Adams, Jefferson, LETTERS AND ART. 361 James Fenimore Cooper. Hamilton, Madison, and others probably cannot be surpassed in any country. 704. Birth of Literature. — It was not until these stirring times had passed, when affairs had be- come in a sense settled, and the United States had lost to a great extent its provincial character, and had taken upon itself a higher degree of civilization, that the country had the opportunity to turn its attention to real lit- erary pursuits. Then a period of great intellectual development followed, bringing forward poets, novelists, essayists, and scientists, whose works have been widely read in all parts of the world. 705. Washington Irving. — The pioneer of American literature, or, as some one has said, the first ambassador whom the New World of Letters sent to the Old, was born in New York, in 1783. Washington Irving's first book, *' Knickerbocker's History of New York," published in 1809, was read by everybody. This pretended to be a veritable his- tory of New York, but was in reality a parody on the man- ners and customs of the early Dutch colonists. About 1820, Irving published his ** Sketch Book," which is a delightful series of pen pictures on various sub- jects. The best known of these are " Rip Van Winkle " and the "Legend of Sleepy Hollow." After this he wrote many volumes on widely differing subjects, closing his life work by the publication of the ** Life of Washington," Nathaniel Hawthorne. 362 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 706. Novelists. — James Fenimore Cooper, whom Victor Hugo calls the American Scott, was a native of New Jersey, and the first novelist to be extensively read. He is intensely national, and his stories all deal with Amer- ican subjects. His ** Spy," pub- lished in 1 82 1, was the first to be specially noticed. This was fol- lowed by many others. The "Pilot," with Paul Jones as the hero, published in 1823, is the best of the sea stories, and the " Last of the Mohicans," a story of Indian life, given to the public in 1826, is the best of the Leather-stocking Tales. William Gilmore Simms wrote in a vein quite similar to that of Cooper. His best-known works are "The Yemassee," "The Partisan," and ** Beauchampe." Nathaniel Hawthorne, " the greatest imaginative writer since Shakespeare," was a rare genius, who wrote with a style unlike that of any other author. Hawthorne belonged to an old Puritan fam- ily, and, though extremely shy William Culien Bryant. and retiring, was nevertheless a keen observer. " Twice Told Tales," published in 1837, was his first recognized work, but it was several years before his genius was fully realized. " The Scar- let Letter," considered by some his best work, was issued in 1850. This was closely followed by " The House of Seven Gables " and " The Blithedale Romance." *' The Marble Faun " came out in i860, and vies with "The Scarlet Letter" in popularity. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. LETTERS AND ART. 363 John Greenleaf Whittier. 707. Poets. — William Cullen Bryant, the father of American poetry, began writing verses when but ten years of age. The sub- lime ** Thanatopsis," his fine'^t poem, was written when he was but eighteen. Bryant was essen- tially a poet of nature. " To a Waterfowl " and *' A Forest Hymn " are among the best of his shorter poems. His tran>5- lations of Homer's ** Iliad " and " The Odyssey," begun when he was a very old man, hold fir^t rank among English translations The most beloved of all Amer- ican poets is Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, born in Portland, Maine, in 1807. His poems are so graceful and dainty, so clear and simple, that children love and understand them as well as do those of maturer mind. Some of the most popular of his shorter poems are '' The Psalm of Life," " The Reaper and the Flowers," *' The Village Blacksmith," and *' The Skeleton in Armor." ** Evange- line," a story of Acadia, ** Hia- watha," a tale of Indian life, and ** The Courtship of Miles Stand- ish," a poem of Pilgrim days, are among his longer works. John Greenleaf Whittier, New England's Quaker poet, was the great champion of freedom, whose verses did much to hasten the fall of slavery. His later poems are, however, the most finished. ** Snowbound," published in 1865, Barbara Frietchie," a tal^ of the are widely known. Edgar Allan Poe. a delightful idyl of country life, RebeUion, and '* Maud Muller' 3H DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. Oliver Wendell Holmes. Edgar Allan Poe, like Hawthorne, was a most imaginative writer, whose poems, among which are " The Bells " and ** The Raven," are weird, melancholy productions. The poems of Oliver Wendell Holmes are full of a delicate wit, of which ** The Deacon's Master- piece, or the Wonderful One* Hoss Shay " is a good example. But his fame does not depend wholly upon his verses, for his prose works, such as the *' Auto- crat of the Breakfast Table," and his novels, "Elsie Venner" and " The Guardian Angel," are writ- ten in the most delightful English. James Russell Lowell, who, like Longfellow and Holmes, occupied a professor's chair in Harvard University, gave his whole life to literature. His name first became widely known when he published, during the War with Mexico, the humorous " Biglow Papers," written in Yankee dia- lect. " The Vision of Sir Laun- fal " is his most finished work. 708. Philosophers. — Ralph Waldo Emerson stands first among America's profound thinkers, scholars, and essayists. His poems are of great beauty, and his essays are full of sublime thoughts. Henry D. Thoreau, a strange recluse, and A. Bron- son Alcott assisted in bringing into prominence the School of Philosophy at Concord. 709. Historians. — Among the historians, George Bancroft and Richard Hildreth hold high rank as writers of American history. The first volume of Bancroft's James Russell Lowell. LETTERS AND ART. 365 ^^**1^'H>^' Ralph Waldo Emerson. "History of the United States" appeared in 1834, while the last was not published until 1882. William Hickling Prescott, though laboring under the greatest of difficulties, wrote many brilliant and readable histories. Among them are the '' History of Ferdi- nand and Isabella," " The Con- quest of Mexico," and " PhiJip the Second." John Lothrop Mot- ley's *' The Rise of the Dutch Republic," ''The History of the United Netherlands," and " Life of John of Barneveld," are valu- able additions to libraries. Jared Sparks, at one time President of Harvard College, edited the biog- raphies of many famous Amer- icans. The histories written by Francis Parkman thoroughly and accurately discuss the position of the French and English in America, and are as interesting as any novel. Parkman, like Prescott, is a splendid example of one who, overcoming great obstacles, has accomplished a magnificent work. 710. Scientists. — America can well be proud of its deep think- ers in many branches of science, Louis Agassiz the noted zoolo- gist and geologist, John James Audubon the naturalist, Nathan- iel Bowditch the mathematician and astronomer, Asa Gray the botanist, Arnold Guyot the geog- raphist, and Benjamin Silliman the chemist, are all authorities in George Bancroft. ,, . . , ^ ^ r^ their various departments. One of the most valuable contributions to knowledge was that of the English Dictionary, compiled by Noah Webster. 366 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 711. Later Writers. — The latter half of the century has pro- duced a large number of authors of no small renown, who are widely scattered over the country. American writers of the present time especially excel in short stories, and in the diversity and wide range of subjects. Many do not confine themselves to one branch alone, but are equally well known in their prose and poetical works. Another noticeable feat- ure is the number and excellent quality of the books written for children whose wants had been sadly neglected. 712. Artists. — As the intellec- tual powers of the colonists be- gan to broaden, the natural love William Hickling Prescott. for the beautiful, at first rigorously repressed in many parts of the country, also began to show itself, and artists of no mean ability made their appearance. The first of these was Benjamin West, a poor Quaker lad, who won for himself great renown in England as well as in America. West was closely followed by John Single- ton Copley, the portrait painter, who placed on canvas the feat- ures of so many of the patriots of the Revolution. After Cop- ley came Gilbert Stuart, " the greatest colorist" America has produced, who painted the best- known portrait of Washington ; 1 -.yr ^ • . Aii^ 1 • Professor Louis Agassiz. and Washington Allston, who is said to have held the place in American art that Washington Irving held in literature. Peale, Trumbull, Vanderlyn, and Malbone, as portrait painters, and Durand, Cole, Kensett, and Inness as landscape THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 367 painters, also hold high rank. At the present time American artists have turned their attention to black and white drawings, to water- colors, and to illustrating for books and magazines, which they have raised to the highest degree of art. 713. Sculptors. — Of all the arts, that of sculpture was the last to make its appearance. Nevertheless many Americans have won lasting renown by their skill in fashioning the human form in clay. Among the best known of the artists are Hiram Powers, Horatio Greenough, who planned the Bunker Hill monument, Thomas Crawford, one of whose finest works is the statue of liberty on the dome of the Capitol at Washington, Randolph Rogers, who designed the famous bronze doors of the Capitol, and William W. Story. CHAPTER LXXXI. THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 714. The South. — One of the most noticeable changes that has occurred in the United States during the last thirty years is the recuperation of the South. The forms of industry and the modes of living have been almost revolutionized in many of the States that formerly suffered under the evils of slavery. Marked im- provements have taken place in the dwellings and material com- forts of the middle classes throughout these Southern States. There has been also a notable change in the status of the negro, who, as a freedman, feeling himself to be his own master, has received some stimulus toward bettering his condition. As labor ceased to be a disgrace, thrift and energy became more common among all classes. The public school has diminished much of the illiteracy that was a necessary accompaniment of slavery. 715. Its Industries. — In industry and wealth, the South has made remarkable strides during these recent years. Agriculture continues to be the most important occupation. Soil and climate are unsur- passed for the production of many of the most valuable crops. The lumber regions are greater than in most other sections, and half of 368 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. the available timber of the country is to be found in the twelve most Southern States. The mines are valuable, and have but just begun to be worked. In four of these States, the output of iron is already more than one-sixth of that of the whole United States, and the coal product multiplied four times between 1880 and 1890. The most marked change has taken place in manufactures. A vigorous start has been made in many directions. Cheap land, good water-power, abundance of coal, iron, and lumber, are impor- tant aids. The necessary transportation is furnished by the new railroads, the mileage of which is six times as great as in i860. The population in some of the States is growing as rapidly as in any portion of the country. The characteristic occupations which formerly distinguished the Southern people are rapidly changing, and the nation is becoming more and more completely unified. 716. The Great West. — One of the most important provisions of the Treaty of 1783 (if 367) was that which assured to the United States the Northwest Territory. Jefferson's fifteen million dollars added to the young nation the Louisiana Territory (IT 426). These two great regions have exhibited to the world a growth and devel- opment unprecedented in all history. The population has made most remarkable strides, and the productions have increased to an equal extent. In the year 1775 the entire population west of the AUeghanies was so small that no account of it was made. In i860 one-half of all the inhabitants in the United States lived to the west of the Appalachian range. To-day nearly a quarter of the people inhabit the Northwest Territory, and millions dwell west of the Mississippi River. During the ten years from 1 880 to 1890, the population of the United States gained nearly twenty-five per cent, while in the six new State-s admitted in 1889 and 1 890, the growth averaged two hundred and seventy-five per cent. 717. Its Industries. — The two most important pursuits of the *' Great West " are agriculture and mining. The Northwest Terri- tory produces a quarter of all the corn grown in the country, and nearly a third of the wheat. Six States west of the Mississippi raise nearly a half of all the corn produced in the United States, and nine of these States nearly half the wheat. These fourteen States furnish nearly a fifth of the wheat obtained in the whole world. A large portion of the copper and iron of the United States is found in the THE NATION OF TO-DaY. 369 Great West, and nearly all the gold and silver. The United States furnishes more than one-half of the copper, one-third of the iron and silver, and one-quarter of the gold mined in the world. With these enormous agricultural and mining products of the West, and the manufacturing industries of the East, the country is enabled to provide what it needs. 718. Immigration. — The rapid increase in population has been due mainly to immigration, which has been growing in volume during the past seventy years. Between the adoption of the Con- stitution and the year 1820 perhaps a quarter of a million foreigners came to live in the United States. Since that date the number of immigrants has been more than seventeen millions. Neither the North, East, South, nor West could have developed in the manner that it has were it not for these vast multitudes that have come to our aid, bringing in their labor and capital, to increase the produc- tions of their adopted country. The immigrants have come from all quarters of the globe, but mostly from Europe. Great Britain and Ireland have furnished more than six millions, and Germany has added four and a half millions more. Norway and Sweden, Austria-Hungary, Italy, France, Russia and Poland, Switzerland, and other European nations, have sent over their hundreds of thousands. A few of these have been skilled laborers and pro- fessional men, but perhaps nine-tenths have belonged to the class of unskilled laborers, or have possessed no occupation whatever. Many of this latter class have been brought over by employers who Bought for the cheapest labor that could be obtained. In order to stop this practice. Congress passed a Contract Labor Act, by which no foreigner is admitted to this country who has come under a contract to labor for some particular employer (IF 695). Other laws have been passed to check the immigration of those classes which can add nothing to the wealth or productiveness of the country, but which tend to increase the number of the idle and disturbing elements. 719. Its Diversity. — Waves of immigration have been common during the history of the world, but in many respects they have differed from this influx of people into the United States. In the past there have been examples of the migration of a whole nation from one country to another, which frequently drove out the former inhabi- 24 370 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, tants. But in all those cases the incomers have been people of one nationality. The immigrants who have come to our shores have been from nations having different languages, different religions, different customs and habits. They must be united, assimilated, made to regard the United States as their country, and all their neighbors as their fellow-countrymen. The most important means to this end is the public school, which brings all the children to- gether and teaches them a common language, common habits, and common customs. 720. Public Schools. — The public-school system began in a few of the Northern colonies (If 174) during the early years of their existence. From these it gradually spread over the Northern por- tion, until it was general in all sections of the country except in the slave States. Previous to the civil war some system of public schools existed in but four of the States south of Mason and Dixon's line, while to-day every State in the Union provides free instruction for its children. The principle upon which the system is based is that the State should educate the children of the State. 721. Education. — The enrolment of more than fourteen million pupils in our schools, or one-fifth of the population, promises future safety for our free institutions. Besides the schools, the twenty thousand newspapers of the country, nearly one-half of all those published in the world, the great number of periodicals of all de- scriptions, and the numerous public libraries, furnish still further instruction. With these educational advantages, the citizen will vote more intelligently, crime will be diminished, a feeling of inde- pendence will be produced, inventions will be fostered, and the whole condition of the people will be elevated. 722. Higher Education. — The Colleges of Liberal Arts and the Universities furnish higher instruction, and fittingly cap the edu- cational system. One or more of these four hundred and eighty- four institutions is to be found in every State, and in some the college is a part of the State system of instruction. More than one hundred and fifty thousand are being educated in these insti- tutions, nearly thirty thousand of them in the Professional Schools of Law, Theology, Medicine, etc. Higher education is not limited to the colleges, as Normal Schools, University Extension, the THE NATION OF TO-DAY. ^ 37 1 Chautauqua System of Education, and Summer Schools assist in the great work. 723. Religion. — A great change in the religious aspect has passed over the country within the past one hundred and twenty years. In the colonial period, religious toleration was granted in but three colonies (IT 183). Church and State were regarded as inseparable, and the people were taxed to support the Church. In New England, the Congregational Churches were established by law (H 180), and in the Southern colonies the Church of England (IT 179). Laws were passed discriminating against those who did not accept the faith of the established church, and severe punishments were in- flicted upon those who dared to profess other forms. 724. Freedom. — The spirit of freedom which brought about the War for Independence also led to a modification of the religious laws. Freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are now universally recognized. The Constitution of the United States directs that " Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of the speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances." The Church and State are kept entirely distinct, and the one hundred and sixty-five thousand church organ- izations of the nearly one hundred and fifty denominations live together in amity, each being equal with the others before the law. 725. Benevolence. — With the growth of material prosperity has come a fuller realization that owners of great possessions have special duties to perform. Millions of dollars are bestowed every year upon deserving institutions and works of charity. Hospi- tals and asylums have been established by private beneficence, as well as by the different States and cities. Institutions like the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb in Hartford, the Perkins Institute for the Blind at Boston, and the Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth have been carrying on their good work for many years. There are more than a hundred homes and asylums in New York city alone. 726. Gifts to the Public. — Gifts have not been confined to chari- table work alone. Money has been bequeathed and given to various cities for the purchase and laying oftt of parks, that resting and 372 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. ** breathing places " might be provided for the people, who other- wise would be kept shut up within four walls. Money has been profitably expended in the establishment of public libraries. Millions of dollars have been given in endowing the University of Chicago, Leland Stanford, Jr. University, in California, and numbers of other colleges in all sections of the land. Immense bequests have been made for the education of the negro and the Indian, such as those of Daniel Hand, John F. Slater, and George Peabody. These boun- tiful gifts, providing permanent benefits to the people, are among the new and wonderful conditions of our times. 727. Temperance. — Among the various charitable organizations are Homes for Inebriates, and Missions for the rescue of those addicted to the habit of strong drink. The evils resulting from drunkenness have been more recognized as evils during the last fifty years than ever before. A hundred years ago it was the cus- tom to have a *' social glass " on nearly all occasions. Since the organization of the " Washingtonian Temperance Society" in 1840, much has been done to diminish intemperance, and the opposition to the use of intoxicating drinks has grown stronger and stronger. Temperance people are very much divided on the question as to the legal steps that should be taken, and '' prohibition," " local option," " high license," and " restriction of liquor limits," are words that are often heard as the subject is discussed. Mean- while education concerning the evil effects of strong drink is being persistently furthered. Laws requiring scientific temperance instruction to be given to the pupils in the public schools have been adopted by the legislatures of forty-three States, and by Con- gress for all schools under its control. 728. Inventions. — The development of the country has been greatly aided by the numerous inventions that enterprising Ameri- cans have perfected. Five hundred and fifty thousand patents have been granted during the last sixty years, about twenty thousand of these in the year 1894. Some of the most important have already been described, as the cotton-gin (IT 397), the steamboat (1456), and the telegraph (H 486). The whole system of agriculture has been changed by the machinery which has been invented within sixty years. In 1834 Cyrus H. McCormick succeeded in perfecting a reaping-machine, — ^X). ins*trurn?,nt which had been desired for THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 373 a long time. This machine, which was propelled by horses (later by steam), mowed the grain, and, by a later improvement, bound it into sheaves. Horse-rakes and horse-threshers have also been in- vented, and thereby farm labor, which previously had been per- formed almost entirely by hand, has been greatly lightened. The first sewing-machine was invented by Elias Howe in 1845. Two years later, R. M. Hoe perfected his cylinder printing-press. This invention has revolu-^ tionized the whole business of printing, and has made possible the issuing of hun- dreds of thousands of news- papers, cut, printed, and folded, from the same press. Charles Goodyear discov- ered, in 1839, the method of "vulcanizing" India- rubber, so as to make it hard, and able to withstand the rough usage which rub- ber goods must receive. The adaptation of elec- tricity, which began when Benjamin Franklin proved that it was identical with lightning, has been contin- ued, until we have to-day the telegraph, the telephone, in- vented by A. G. Bell, in 1877, the electric light for street and house, the electric car for the street railway, and the phonograph, or " talking-machine," invented by Thomas A. Edison, besides the numberless other uses to which this wonderful power has already been applied. A mere mention of a few of the other important inventions will Miles of railroad in operation . . Lines of electric telegraph in miles Number of post-offices Number of colleges 320,769 801,461 none, none. 209 19 1851. 31 295 23,267,499 5^5^507 $43,774,848 ^78,138,314 ^15 1,898,720 3,538,454 3,021,883 10,287 15,000 21,551 121 1900. 45 447 76,304,799 3,437,202 $567,240,852 $849,714,670 $1,370,763,571 5,164,839 3,756,884 186,590 933,153 76.688 484 732. Present Extent. — The entire extent of our country at the present time is 3,756,884 square miles. This area is about the same as that of all Europe. It is nearly the size of China. It is more than half as large as the whole of South America. It is over thirty times the size of Great Britain and Ireland, eighteen times as large as France, and twenty times the size of Spain. Any one of twenty-four States has a greater area than England. Four States and three Territories are each larger than Italy, Montana is larger than Norway, California than Japan, and Texas than either Austria- Hungary, the German Empire, France, or Spain, and Alaska Ter- ritory than the German Empire, France, Italy, Holland, Belgium, and Denmark combined. 733. Natural Advantages. — The advantages which give the United States its pre-eminence are of two kinds. The natural advantages of the country equal, and perhaps surpass, those of any other region on the earth's surface. The soil is not only exceptionally good in many portions of the country, but it is capable of raising a great variety of products. The ground contains under its surface a large amount of metallic ores and an almost inexhaustible stock of coal. The climate is very varied, so that the United States is capable of producing, and m fact does produce, nearly everything which the people can desirQ. PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 377 In its rivers the United States possesses an advantage which can- not be overestimated. Many of the smaller streams are capable of furnishing unsurpassed water-power. Some of the larger rivers traverse vast extents and offer to commerce exceptional privileges. The Mississippi River, unlike most of the great rivers of the world, flows across the lines of latitude. Though the Amazon River is as great as the Mississippi, yet the land at its mouth furnishes the same tropical products as the country at its source. On the other hand, the wheat of Minnesota and Dakota is, by means of the Mississippi, exchanged for the rice, the cotton, and the sugar of the Southern States. 734. National Advantages. — Besides the natural advantages which belong to the United States, the political characteristics of the nation present exceptional opportunities. Some of these have been sug- gested. The public-school system and the State, county, and town governments, offering local, as contrasted with a centralized, govern- ment, are important aids in determining the welfare of the country. The fact that the United States is customarily at peace and does not need to keep a standing army, as is necessary among European nations, is another great advantage. 735. The Future. — '* It is clear that this great republic has an important future before it. In its prosperity is bound up the ques- tion of popular government. If we succeed, a brilliant future may be predicted for the human race. If we fail, the hand goes back for ages on the dial of progress. The result depends largely upon the intelligence and the virtue of the masses. If the people are educated to read and to think and to decide for themselves, if they retain virtue and godliness, the republic is safe, and the destiny of the race is safe also." 736. Questions of the Future. — A knowledge of the history of the United States is necessary to an understanding of the country as it is to-day. Such an understanding is necessary in order to settle the questions which the future holds in store. Some of the future ques- tions are now before the people. They form current history, which will be the history to be studied by future generations. Most of these questions have been discussed to a certain extent already, and their settlement must come at no very distant day. How shall the difficulties that exist between the laborers and the 378 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. employers be so settled that both may work together in harmony, feeling that each has a care for the interests of the other? (Laboi Question.) (IF 691.) How many foreigners shall be permitted to come to the United States, and what restrictions shall be placed upon immigration, so that the best interests of the country and the people shall be pre- served? (Immigration Question.) (IT 718.) What means shall be used for raising the necessary revenue, or what kind of tariff duties shall be levied, so as to promote the mate- rial welfare of the country and increase to its fullest extent the pro- ductiveness of the people? (Tariff Question.) (IF 683.) What steps shall be taken to purify elections, so that every voter may cast his ballot in the way that seems to him likely to conserve the best interests of the country? (Ballot Reform.) (IF 689.) What qualifications should voters have, that their ballots shall not be unwisely cast, and to what new classes should the ballot be given? (Suffrage Question.) What laws should be passed, and what forms of moral influence should be used, to save the people from the curse of intemperance? (Temperance Question.) (IF 727.) What arrangements ought the national, state, and local govern- ments to enter into, so that their affairs may be carried on in busi- ness-like ways, and that the money required to maintain governments shall be expended in the most economical manner? (Civil Service Reform.) (IF 687.) What methods can be devised to awake the business and pro- fessional men of the country to the dangers of municipal corruption, in order that the government of our great cities may be rescued from the hands of untrustworthy men, and administered in a busi- ness-like manner, for the welfare of all concerned? (Municipal Government Reform.) These are among the numerous questions which the people of the future must answer. There are also race problems, educational questions, and religious matters, that are prominent before the people. They all demand the careful and thoughtful consideration, not only of the present voters, but also of the school-children, who will soon be called upon to cast their ballots, and whose decision will eventually decide the welfare of the country. 1865-I885J CHRONOLOGY, 379 CHRONOLOGY. 1865. Review of the armies, May 23, 24. Thirteenth Amendment ratified, December 18. 1866. Tennessee readmitted. Atlantic cable finished, July 27. Invasion of Canada. 1867. Tenure of Office Act, March 4. Purchase of Alaska, March 30. 1868. Impeachment of the President, February to May. Six States readmitted. Fourteenth Amendment ratified, July 28. 1869. President Grant inaugurated, March 4. Pacific Railroad completed. May 10. 1870. Reconstruction completed, March 30. Fifteenth Amendment ratified, March 30. 1871. Treaty of Washington, May 8. Burning of Chicago, October 8, 9. Ku Klux disorders. 1872. Geneva awards, September. Burning of Boston, November 9. Modoc War. 1873. Beginning of the panic. 1876. Centennial celebration. May to November. Sioux War. 1877. Electoral Commission, February. President Hayes inaugurated, March 5. Railroad strikes. Invention of the telephone. 1878. Yellow fever epidemic. "Bland Silver Bill." 1879. Resumption of specie payments, January i. Formation of the Knights of Labor. 1881. President Garfield inaugurated, March 4. Death of President Garfield, September 19. 1882. Mississippi floods. Anti-polygamy Act. Tariff commission appointed. 1883. New Tariff Act. " Pendleton Civil Service Reform BiU." Cheaper Postage Act. 1885o President Cleveland inaugurated, March 4. Contract Labor AqL 3So 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. Anarchist riot at Chicago, May. Charleston earthquake. Presidential Succession Act. Interstate Commerce Act. Presidential Election Act. President's tariff message, December. Chinese Immigration Act. President Harrison inaugurated, March 4. Johnstown flood, May 31. Territory of Oklahoma formed. New Tariff Act. " Sherman Silver Bill." Naval parade, October 12. President Cleveland inaugurated, March 4. World's Columbian Exhibition, May to November. Repeal of the " Sherman Silver Bill." Republic of Hawaii, January 16. Pullman boycott, June. New Tariff Act, August 27. Venezuela message, December 17. Issue of Gold Reserve Bonds, February. National Civil Service Reform completed. May 6. President McKinley inaugurated, March 4. Dingley Bill. [1886-1895 Tlio Present Fl»§ APPENDIXES. APPENDIX A. THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT. In the name of God, Amen ; We whose names are under-written, the loyall subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of God of Great Britaine, Franc, & Ireland king, defender of ye faith, &c., haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God and advancemente of ye Chris- tian faith, and honour of our king and countrie, a voyage to plant the first colonie in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents solemnly and mutualy in ye presence of God, and one of another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civill body politick, for our better oi dering and preservation and furtherance of ye ends aforesaid ; and by vertue hearof to enacte, constitute, and frame such just and equall lawes, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meete and convenient for ye generall good of ye Colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. APPENDIX B. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In Congress, July 4, 1776. A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 382 APPENDIX B. them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are Hfe, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriv- ing their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organising its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experi- ence hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity that constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- able, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 383 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us in times of peace, standmg armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury ; For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing there an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 384 APPENDIX B. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large ajrmies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barba- rous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by /epeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity ; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation ; and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That these united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 385 reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and signed by the following members : — NEW HAMPSHIRE. JOSIAH BarTLETT, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND. Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. John Hancock. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. C^sAR Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone. Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. VIRGINIA. George W^ythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. Resolved that copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several com- manding officers of the continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each of the United States, at the head of the army. 25 ^86 APPENDIX C. APPENDIX C. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, estabUsh Justice, insure domestic TranquilHty, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. [Note. — The small figures in brackets are not in the original, but have been added subsequently, to mark the different clauses in a section. In reprinting the constitution here, the spelling, punctuation, and capitalization of the original have been preserved.] Section i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. ■^'^The House of Representatives shall be composed of Mem- bers chosen every second year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. ^^^ No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. f3i Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every Thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until such enum- eration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 387 Connecticut five, New- York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Dela- ware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. W When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacan- cies. ^s^The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section 3. "^'^The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. f^*^ Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expira- tion of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. ^3l No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. WThe Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. ^^The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. ^^^The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. •^^^ Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and Disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honour. Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. 2,S8 APPENDIX C. Section 4. ^ xhe Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the places of chusing Senators. ^^^ The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section 5. '^'^Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall consti- tute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. ^^^ Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. ^3^ Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. ^^^ Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section .6. ^'^ The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compen- sation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. ^^^ No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continu- ance in Office. Section 7. ^'^AU Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amend- ments as on other Bills. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 389 ^'^ Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to recon- sider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. •^3^ Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- tion of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have Power ^'^To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform through- out the United States ; t'^To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; ^^To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ; f^^To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; t^^To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; '*^To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States; ^^'^ To establish Post Ofifices and post Roads ; ^'^ To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for 390 APPENDIX C. limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respec- tive Writings and Discoveries ; ^^' To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; ^'°'To define and punish Piracies an.l Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; ^"^To declare War, grant letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; ■^'^1 To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; f'3] To provide and maintain a Navy ; ^"*i To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces ; ^'slTo provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; f'^^To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the Discipline prescribed by Congress ; f'^^To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Govern- ment of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dock^ Yards, and ^>*^^her needful Buildings ; — And ^'^^ To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying j^o Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department >r Officer thereof. Section 9. t^^The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of he States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited ^y the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, Mit a Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. ^^'^The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, .mless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may .•equire it. ^3' No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 39 1 W No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. ^s^ No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. [6] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. ^^^ No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. ^^1 No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Section 10. "^'^No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confed- eration ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. •^^^ No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. f3^No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of Delay. ARTICLE. II. Section i. '^'^The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows f^^ Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators 392 APPENDIX C. and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. * ^3l xhe Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Majority and have an equal number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representa- tion from each State having one Vote ; a Quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. f^^The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. fs] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been four- teen Years a Resident within the United States. ■^^1 In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then * This clause has been superseded by the i2th amendment, see page 399. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 393 act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. ^^^ The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his services, a Com- pensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. f^^ Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the follow- ing Oath or Affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, pre- serve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. ^'"^The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. f^l He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Sen- ate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appoint- ment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. t3] The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may hap- pen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordi- nary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the officers of the United States. 394 APPENDIX C. Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Con- viction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. ARTICLE. III. Section i. The Judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section 2. '^'^The Judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority ; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to ail Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ; — to Controversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State ; — between Citi- zens of different States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. ^^^ In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, lind those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. '31 The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section 3. ^^^ Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. ^*JThe Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. THE CONSTITUTION OF TH£ UNITED STATES. 395 ARTICLE. IV. Section i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records, and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2. ^'^ The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. ^^1 A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. ^^^ No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regula- tion therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be deliv- ered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Seci'ion 3. "^'^New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. ^^^The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion, and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. ARTICLE. V. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it neces- sary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be 396 APPENDIX C. proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE. VI. f'l All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adop- tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. ^^i This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. W The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ARTICLE. VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of che States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth, ^^n SSEttnefifi whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, G° WASHINGTON — Presidt and deputy from Virginia NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon Nicholas Oilman MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 397 CONNECTICUT. Wm Saml Johnson Roger Sherman NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton NEW JERSEY. WiL Livingston David Brearley Wm Paterson Jona Dayton PENNSYLVANIA. B Franklin Thomas Mifflin Robt Morris Geo Clymer Tho Fitzsimons Jared Ingersoll James Wilson Gouv Morris DELAWARE. Geo Read Gunning Bedford, Jun'r John Dickinson Richard Bassett Jaco Broom MARYLAND. James M'Henry Dan of St Thos Jenifer Dane Carroll VIRGINIA. John Blair James Madison, Jr NORTH CAROLINA. Wm Blount Rich'd Dobbs Spaight Hu Williamson SOUTH CAROLINA. J Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler GEORGIA. William Few Abr Baldwin Attest. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary 398 appendix c. Articles in Addition to, and Amendment of, the Consti- tution OF THE United States of America, Proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution. (ARTICLE I.) Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. (ARTICLE 11.) A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. (ARTICLE III.) No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. (ARTICLE IV.) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. (ARTICLE V.) No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be de- prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 399 (ARTICLE VI.) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have Com- pulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favour, and to have the Assis- tance of Counsel for his defence. (ARTICLE VII.) In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. (ARTICLE VIII.) Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. (ARTICLE IX.) The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con- strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. (ARTICLE X.) The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. (ARTICLE XL) The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. (ARTICLE XII.) The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabi- tant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the 400 APPENDIX C. number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certifi- cates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the great- est number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representa- tives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other consti- tutional disability of the President. — The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitution- ally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice- President of the United States. (ARTICLE XIII.) Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sect. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. (ARTICLE XIV.) Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ', nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 4OI without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Sect. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for president and vice- president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crimes, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens, twenty-one years of age, in such State. Sect. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative m Congress, or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of twc-thirds of each house remove such disability. Sect. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sect. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this article. (ARTICLE XV.) Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sect. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 26 402 APPENDIX D APPENDIX D. EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. Friends and Fellow-Citizens, The period for a new election of a Citizen, to administer the Execu- tive Government of the United States, being not far distant, and the time actually arrived, when your thoughts must be employed in designating the person, who is to be clothed with that important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more distinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprise you of the resolution I have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those, out of whom a choice is to be made. ... In looking forward to the moment, which is intended to terminate the career of my public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude, which I owe to my beloved country, — for the many honors it has conferred upon me ; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me ; and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attach- ment, by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. . . . Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. — But a solicitude for your welfare, which cannot end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments ; which are the result of much reflection, of no inconsider- able observation, and which appear to me all important to the permanency of your felicity as a People. . . . Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment. — The Unity of Government, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to you. — It is justly so ; — for it is a main Pillar in the Edifice of your real independence ; the support of your tranquillity at home ; your peace abroad ; of your safety ; of your prosperity in every shape ; of that very Liberty, which you so highly prize. ... It is of infinite moment, that you should properly estimate the immense value of your national Union to your collective and individual happiness ; — that you should cherish a cordial, habitual and immoveable attachment to it ; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as of the Palladium of your political safety and EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 403 prosperity; watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discounte- nancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can in any event be abandoned, and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every at- tempt to alienate any portion of our Country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the various parts. . . . While then every part of our Country thus feels an immediate and par- ticular interest in Union, all the parts combined in the united mass of means and efforts cannot fail to find greater strength, greater resource, propor- tionably greater security from external danger, a less frequent interruption of their Peace by foreign Nations ; and, what is of inestimable value ! they must derive from Union an exemption from those broils and wars between them- selves, which so frequently afilict neighboring countries, not tied together by the same government ; which their own rivalships alone would be sufficient to produce ; but which opposite foreign alliances, attachments, and intrigues would stimulate and embitter. . . . The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign Nations, is, in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little Political connection as possible. . . . Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote relation. — Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. — Hence therefore it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and colHsions of her friendships, or enmities. Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course. . . . 'T is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances, with any portion of the foreign world. . . . 'T is substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popular government. . . . Promote, then, as an object of primary import- ance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In' proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. — As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public credit. — One method of preserving it is, to use it as sparingly as possible : — avoiding occasions of expense by cultivating peace, but remembering also that timely disbursements to prepare for danger frequently prevent much greater disbursements to repel it — avoiding likewise the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertions in time of Peace to discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burthen which 404 APPENDIX D. we ourselves ought to bear, llie execution of these maxims belongs to your Representatives, but it is necessary that public opinion should cooperate. — To facilitate to them the performance of their duty, it is essential that you should practically bear in mind, that towards the payment of debts there must be Revenue — that to have Revenue there must be taxes — that no taxes can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and unpleas- ant — -that the intrinsic embarrassment inseparable from the selection of the proper objects (which is always a choice of difficulties) ought to be a decisive motive for a candid construction of the conduct of the Govern- ment in making it, and for a spirit of acquiescence in the measures for obtaining Revenue which the public exigencies may at any time dictate. — Observe good faith and justice towards all Nations. Cultivate peace and harmony with all. . . . Though, in reviewing the incidents of my Administration, I am uncon- scious of intentional error — I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. — Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. — I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence ; and that after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service, with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest. Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that fervent love towards it, which is so natural to a man, who views in it the native soil of himself and his progenitors for several generations ; — I antici- pate with pleasing expectation that retreat, in which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign influence of good Laws under a free Govern- ment, — the ever favourite object of my heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labours, and dangers. GEORGE WASHINGTON. United States, September 17th, 1796. LINCOLN'S SECOND INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 405 APPENDIX E. LINCOLN'S SECOND INAUGURAL ADDRESS- Fellow-Countrymen : At this second appearing to take the oath of the Presidential office, there is less occasion for an extended address than there was at the first. Then a statement somewhat in detail of a course to be pursued seemed very fitting and proper. Now, at the expiration of four years, during which public declarations have been constantly called forth on every point and phase of the great contest which still absorbs the attention and engrosses the energies of the nation, little that is new could be presented. The progress of our arms, upon which all else chiefly depends, is as well known to the pubUc as to myself; and it is, I trust, reasonably satis- factory and encouraging to all. With high hope for the future, no predic- tion in regard to it is ventured. On the occasion corresponding to this, four years ago, all thoughts were anxiously directed to an impending civil war. All dreaded it ; all sought to avoid it. While the inaugural address was being delivered from this place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insurgent agents were in this city seeking to destroy it without war, — seeking to dissol^ie the Union and divide the effects by negotiation. Both parties deprecated war ; but one of them would make war rather than let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish ; and the war came. One-eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not distributed generally over the Union, but localized in the southern part of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest, was the object for which the insurgents would rend the Union even by war, while the Government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial enlargement of it. Neither party expected for the war the magnitude or the duration which it has already attained. Neither anticipated that the cause of the conflict might cease with, or even before, the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier triumph, and a result less fundamental and astounding. Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes his aid against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of other men's faces ; but let us judge not, that we be not judged. The 406 APPENDIX E. prayers of both could not be answered. That of neither has been answered fully. The Almighty has his own purposes. '' Woe unto the world because of offences, for it must needs be that offences come ; but woe to that man by whom the offence cometh." If we shall suppose that American slavery is one of these offences, which in the providence of God must needs come, but which, having continued through his appointed time, he now wills to remove, and that he gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to those by whom the offence came, shall we discern therein any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a living God always ascribe to him? Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war may soon pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondman's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid with another drawn with the sword ; as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said, " The judg- ments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether." With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and orphans, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. APPENDIX F. LINCOLN'S ADDRESS AT GETTYSBURG. The short address made by President Lincoln, November 19th, 1863, at the dedication of the National Cemetery on the battlefield of Gettysburg, has become a classic, and is justly entitled to be ranked as one of the choicest gems of literature in the English language. It embodies in brief the philosophy of the whole great struggle. Various reports have been made as to how, when, and under what circumstances the President wrote the address. In the note of invitation by the master of ceremonies, written November 2d, occurs this sentence : " It is the desire that, after the oration, you, as Chief Executive of the NFation, formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use, by a few appropriate remarks." LINCOLN'S ADDRESS AT GETTYSBURG. 407 The President would be likely, therefore, to give some thought to the subject before the day arrived, but there is conclusive evidence that the words of the address were not written out until after the Presidential party had arrived upon the ground. The following account of how the address was written was received directly from the lips of ex-Governor Curtin, of Pennsylvania, who was present on the occasion and knew whereof he affirmed. Governor Curtin said that after the arrival of the party from Washington, while the Presi- dent and his cabinet, Edward Everett, the orator of the day. Governor Curtin, and others were sitting in the parlor of the hotel, the President remarked that he understood the committee expected him to say some- thing. He would, therefore, if they would excuse him, retire to the next room and see if he could write out something. He was absent some time, and upon returning to the company had in his hand a large-sized, yellow government envelope. The President sat down, and remarked that he had written something, and with their permission he would like to read it to them, and invited them to criticise it. After reading what he had written upon the envelope, he asked for any suggestions they might make. Secretary Seward volunteered one or two comments, which Mr. Lincoln accepted and incorporated. Then he said, " Now, gentlemen, if you will excuse me again, I will copy this off," and retiring again made a fresh copy to read from. " Ah ! " said Governor Curtin, " if I had begged that yellow envelope, which contained the original draft of this justly famous speech, how valu- able it would have proved for the fairs which were, soon after, the order of the day." The following is a complete copy of this famous address : — "Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the propo- sition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting- place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have con- secrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget 408 APPENDIX F. what they did here. It is for us, the Hving, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devo- tion, — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. * APPENDIX G. SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE GENERAL HISTORY. —HistoricaL Bonner Child's History of the United States (3 vols.). Bryant and Gay . Popular History of the United States (4 vols.). BuTTERWORTH .... Young Folks' History of America. Dodge Stories of American History. Ellis Youth's History of the United States. Half Hours in American History (2 vols.). JOHONNOT Grandfather's Stories. " Stories of Heroic Deeds. " Stories of Our Country. " Ten Great Events in History. Monroe Story of Our Country. Pratt American History Stories. BiographicaL Parker Historic Americans. Parton Famous Americans. Historical Poetry. Butterworth . . o . Songs of History. Carrington Beacon Lights of Patriotism. THE RED INDIANS. —Descriptive< Brooks The Story of the American Indian. Catlin . Life among the Indians. Jackson ....... A Century of Dishonor. Historical. Drake Indian History for Young Folks. ^^.Lis ..,.,.... The Red Man and the White Ma^. SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 4O9 Markham King Philip's War. Parkman Conspiracy of Pontiac. Biographical. Eggleston Brant and Red Jacket. " Pocahontas. " Tecumseh. Historical Fiction. Cooper Deerslayer. (French and Indian Wars.) " Last of the Mohicans. (do.) " Pathfinder. (do.) " Pioneers. (do.) " Prairie. (do.) " Red Rover. (do.) Hale Red and White. (Indian Gratitude.) Jackson Ramona. (Southern California.) SIMMS Yemassee. (South Carolina.) Historical Poetry. Longfellow .... Hiawatha. (Indian Legends.) Lowell Chippewa Legend. Whittier Bridal of Pennacook. COLONIAL PERIOD. — Historical. Banvard Southern Explorers and Colonists. Butter worth .... Young Folks' History of Boston. Coffin Old Times in the Colonies. Drake Making of New England. " Taking of Louisburg. Earle The Sabbath in Puritan New England. Fiske Beginnings of New England. Oilman Colonization of America. *' Discovery and Exploration of America. " Making of the American Nation. " The Story of Boston. Hale Stories of Discovery. " Story of Massachusetts. HiGGiNSON Travelers and Outlav/s. Lodge History of the English Colonies. Moore From Colony to Commonwealth. " Pilgrims and Puritans. Parkman A Half-Century of Conflict. " Discovery of the Great West. " Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. *♦ t » » » • • Jesuits in Nort;h iVmerica, 4IO APPENDIX G. Parkman Montcalm and Wolfe. " Old Regime in Canada. " Pioneers of France in the New World. Wright Children's Stories in American History. Biographical. Abbott Ferdinand de Soto. " Miles Standish. " Peter Stuyvesant. Abernethy ..... Autobiography of Franklin. Bell Heroes of American Discovery. Oilman Tales of the Pathfinders. HiGGiNSON Young Folks' Book of American Explorers. HosMER Young Sir Henry Vane. (Massachusetts.) Humphrey Adventures of Early Discoverers. Markham The Sea Fathers. Thayer Farmer Boy. (Washington.) Towle . Drake, the Sea King of Devon. " Magellan. « Sir Walter Raleigh. " Vasco da Gama. Twitchell John Winthrop. Walker Thomas Hooker. Historical Fiction. Austin Betty Alden. (Plymouth.) " Doctor Le Baron and his Daughters. (Plymouth.) " A Nameless Nobleman. (Plymouth.) « Standish of Standish. ' (Plymouth.) Brooks In Leisler's Times. (New York.) Cooke ...«-... My Lady Pocahontas. " Stories of the Old Dominion. " Virginia Comedians. Cooper Mercedes of Castile. (Spanish.) " The Water Witch. (New York.) Drake New England Legends and Folk Lore. Faith White's Letter Book. (Massachusetts.) XIawthorne Grandfather's Chair. (New England.) " Legends of the Province House. (Boston.) " Twice Told Tales. (New England.) Holland Bay Path. (Witchcraft.) Irving Sketch Book. Kellogg Good Old Times. Kennedy Rob of the Bowl. (Maryland.) Markham On the Edge of Winter. SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 411 ScuDDER Boston Town. SIMMS Vasconselos. (De Soto.) Thompson The Green Mountain Boys. DURFEE . . , Hemans . . Longfellow Lowell Preston Historical Poetry. " What Cheer ? " (Rhode Island.) Landing of the Pilgrims. Courtship of Miles Standish. (Plymouth.) Evangeline. (Acadia.) Giles Corey. (Witchcraft.) John Endicott. (Salem.) Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Columbus. Colonial Ballads. REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. — Historical. Abbott Blue Jackets of ''']6. Brooks Story of the American Sailor. " Story of the American Soldier. Coffin Boys of '76. Drake Burgoyne's Invasion. Ellet Domestic History of the American Revolution. FiSKE Critical Period of the United States. " The War of Independence. Hoppus The Great Treason. Lossing Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution. Ludlow War of Independence. Preble History of the Flag. Roosevelt Winning the West. ScuDDER Men and Manners in America. Watson Boston Tea Party. " Camp Fires of the Revolution. Woodman Boys and Girls of the Revolution. Biographical. Farmer General La Fayette. FiSKE Washington and his Country. Benjamin Franklin. (World's Worker Series.) Greene Life of General Greene. Hale George Washington. Hosmer Samuel Adams. Lodge George Washington. Lossing Mary and Martha Washington. " Two Spies. SIMMS Life of Marion. 412 APPENDIX G. Historical Fiction. Cooper Lionel Lincoln. (Siege of Boston.) " The Pilot. (Paul Jones.) « The Spy. Ellis Storm Mountain. (Pennsylvania and Virginia.) " Wyoming. (Pennsylvania.) Greene Peter and Polly. (New England.) Henty True to the Flag. (Tory.) Kennedy Horse Shoe Robinson. (Southern Colonies.^ SIMMS American Spy. Historical Poetry. Bryant Seventy-Six. " Song of Marion's Men. (Southern Colonies.) Eggleston American War Ballads and Lyrics. Emerson Concord Fight. Emmons Battle of Bunker Hill. English Boy's Book of Battle Lyrics. Holmes Grandmother's Story of the Battle of Bunker Hill Longfellow .... Paul Revere's Ride. LoTHROP The Minute Man. Moore Songs of the Soldiers. CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. — HistoricaL Abbott Blue Jackets of 1812. Black Story of Ohio. (Pioneer.) Brooks Story of New York. Cable The Negro Question. Coffin Building the Nation. Irving Astoria. (Oregon.) Drake Making of the Great West. (Northwest Territory.) Haygood Our Brother in Black. McMaster History of the People of the United States. Our First Century. Soley Boys of 181 2. Taylor El Dorado. (Spanish America.) Wright Children's Stories of American Progress. Biographical. Abbott Daniel Boone. (Kentucky.) Adams John Randolph, Bolton Famous American Statesmen. BowDiTCH Nat the Navigator. (Nathaniel Bowditcli.) Fremont Souvenirs of my Time. Gay James Madison. SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 413 Oilman James Monroe. Hunt American Merchants. Larcom A New England Girlhood. Lodge Alexander Hamilton. " Daniel Webster. Magruder John Marshall. McLaughlin .... Lewis Cass. Morse Benjamin Franklin. " John Adams. " John Quincy Adams. " Thomas Jefferson. Pellew John Jay. Penniman The Tanner Boy. (Grant.) Redpath John Brown. Roosevelt Gouverneur Morris. " Thomas Hart Benton. SCHURZ Henry Clay. Stevens Albert Gallatin. Stoddard Lives of the Presidents of the United States. Thayer Success. (Successful Men.) Tyler Patrick Henry. Upton Our Early Presidents, their Wives and Children. Von Holst John C. Calhoun. historical Fiction. Cooke Steadfast. (Connecticut.) Cooper Wing on Wing. (French Privateer.) Eggleston Big Brother. (1812.) " Captain Sam. (181 2.) " Signal Boys. (1812.) Hale Man without a Country. " Philip Nolan's Friends. (Louisiana.) Stowe Dred. (Slavery.) " Uncle Tom's Cabin. Trowbridge Lawrence's Adventures. (Inventions.) Historical Poetry. Lowell Biglow Papers. (Mexican and Civil War.) Whittier Voices of Freedom. CIVIL WAR. — Historical. Abbott Blue Jackets of '61. The Battlefields of '61. Blaisdell Stories of the Civil War. Champlin Young Folks' History of the War for the Union. Coffin Boys pf '61, 414 APPENDIX G. Coffin Drum-Beat of the Nation. " Following the Flag. " Freedom Triumphant. " Marching to Victory. « My Days and Nights on the Battlefield. « Redeeming the Republic. Drake Battle of Gettysburg. HiGGiNSON Army Life in a Black Regiment. LossiNG Pictorial History of the Civil War. Nichols Story of the Great March. SoLEY Sailor Boys of '6r. Thayer Youth's History of the Civil War. Biographical. Adams Our Standard Bearer. (Grant.) Brooks Abraham Lincoln. Cooke General Lee. Grant Memoirs. Headley Fighting Phil. (Sheridan.) " Young Folks' Heroes of the Rebellion. Kieffer Recollections of a Drummer-Boy. Abraham Lincoln. (World's Worker Series.; Morse Abraham Lincoln. Randolph Stonewall Jackson. Stowe Self-made Men. Thayer Abraham Lincoln. Historical Fiction. Alcott Hospital Sketches. Coffin Winning his Way. Cooke Hilt to Hilt. Cooke Mohum. " Wearing of the Gray. Davis In War Times. Goss Jed. Henty With Lee in Virginia. HosMER Cotor Guard. Trowbridge .... Coupon Bonds. " .... Cudjo's Cave. ♦* .... Three Scouts. Historical Poetry. Browne Bugle Echoes. Moore Lyrics of Loyalty. " Rebel Rhymes and Rhapsodies. White Poetry of the Civil War. Whittier In War Times. TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS. 415 oi H Z w X p (n X 0^ a. Q u ^ K W H Oh Ci. 0-. < w J PQ <: H <:Q PS- 0) ^- TO OJ Soul ) 14 cr. U P< PLh e«^ ^ -J2I U 3 3 oj •> 2 -.-^ a; ^5 CO .— I ni rt 03 o\co OOD 00 t^ 10 MD "^ o o 00 CO 1-1 r) CO 00 On t^ O " CO CO CI ro CO CO T T ly-) uo LOvO O vO r^ CO CO CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO vo a\ ro t^ CO CO Cn 0\ CO CO CO 00 -rf i-O 1-n C 0) oj O 03 oJ C/3 t-)h-l c3 OS 0) (u 03 03 53 (U QJ OJ 0) ^^ dj 2 ^ ^ ^ ^ rS 2 O c^ ^ c^ o3 c^ O c/^ t-i t-1 1-) i-I r-i c/3 . >>>-.>-. >> is ^ ^ ^ ^ 03 H-1 E^ C3 03 03 2 03 03 *j r- 03 oJ > :^ S.2 o3 O si- O o3 03 OJ h1«SS12 0) OJ o 3 -ft oJ TO >-^ OJ C 03 bJO bJO >> .1:5 0) >-. t« ^ M c O C o O OJ D Qj '^ 0) ;r: O O 83 ^H 416' APPENDIX I. 5 :z; w Ph Ph < a\ •rt- m v£) vo o vo ■'^ On "^ O t^ oo" ro n" >-r ir^ Ol C< vo N N- 00 ro 00 HH m -^ lo lO u-> 00 N i-i m r-- t^ Lo m OC ^ CO CO \S O 00 r^ M 1-1 O M vo m vy-i Tf u->vO n VO M "-) vO On t^ C^ vr "-, •^ 00 un n- ON 00 Tf 1-1 VO Tj- n fO ON « VO n b' O t^ « Tf 8n On ro t^ Tf 00 On O M 00 uo ro N "^ H- ro ^O OO Th o O O U-) vO LO o o o o u-^ O Q o O R lO o lO ON lO o lo u-> 00 LO ro ro lO 00 O O O O Lo "^ O CM -r -1 w 1-1 rj- t^ O ^^ ro ON ^ 9. ^ "ij •% Q H ;i^ ■ tn to a, c S rt O 2f 5 "^ SCO o N r» o 00 00 r^ 0) ro lo 00 OO '^ 00 ON •^ VO ON 0) 00 00 ro rt - 00 00 00 00 t^ t^ 00 t^ 00 00 00 00 00 t^ 00 00 t^ t^ 00 Q -a " " N tt N vO ON On O 00 ro 00 VO to t^ t^ t-^ vO t^ 00 ro 00 ro lo ro O N ro ro On VO ro cs vo VO vo r-» lo r^ 00 00 00 Th-ThOvO -^ooo 00 w-)t-»ONroroc,vO t^OO t^vOvOvOvOvO C O E Q '^ < c/2 ^ 'O 1« U C2 S 2 tf5 11 •5 tlX) J^ W cC 5 ^ ^^ Q H-I K c/2 Pm CO " t" .- -^2 3 ^ in .^ (« O C OX) -5 (u O bx)-3 •i: o ,iU"3UCv^OOOOO.SO S ^ S ^ < < <; < u Jd i E:^ o p ^ U *c s (i> O V. ° H ■73 o c5 o c5 O S 6 o O rt O 'o c c .2 '5 .J5 rt QQ E ffi t; p; c fl O t^ ^ S S S TABLE OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 417 ^ "^ vo ^ ^ On - ■<^ <-0 N a\ r^ vO N ro ro 00 w rf Tl- 't fO h-i 10 t^ Tf -d- 00 N vO fO 10 CO Lo rn u 00 l-c l-l u-> m 10 vO t^ t-. VO CO M M m 00 M LO On ro M 00 M 00 vO ro ■<^ 00 00 On ri 10 10 Tt- ^ Tf « 00 ON N rf n r< 'i- r^ -+ LO w u-t VO On "-) « N -^ 00 M CS 00 't ro Tf fO Ti- w ro 00 »y-J On M ro •-< l-l rf \o " N CO " M LO vo LO u-i u^ LO n "^ -H CO ••o rn r^ vO CO 4 ON ro 00 '^ LO r^ ro 00 i^ n C) vo VO On lo Tf 1- r^ CO ro vo ON vo r^ () ON t^ On r) w ON VO LO r-^ r4 »o ■^ On W On "f NO r^ 00 Tj- VO Tf t^ rj ^ "-> t-^ Tj- ro ON ^ ro r^ ^ 00 Tt VO M 10 ON 05 9 .2i ^ O rt ;a^ ^ d B B .^ S ^ -^ G ^ ^ xi "^ rO V xicu ^ .--- rtOJ o Ki CO r^ n\ r^ '^ 00 r-^ r/o ON On rn On r^ 00 ON NO LO NO M 00 ON ro CO LO (N 00 vi) vo 00 CO CO CO 00 to CO ON 00 CO c^ ON C7N CO «J NO Tf ON 00 00 CO 00 CO 00 t^ r~^ r^ t^ 00 CO CO r^ r^ r^ 00 I^ 00 00 r^ r-, CO 00 ^ 00 ON ON M 't ON rn ro CO ro m ri rO) On 10 MD NO Ng^ •n r^ Tt- !> ^ CJ ■S' r-^ ON NO L^l ^ rj ri ON 00 CO 'Tf ro r^ LO - 'i- n ^ ro NO NO 00 NO r^co W 00 NO 1i LO NO l-l l-H NO CO r^ 00 00 NO NO NO 00 00 I^ CO I^ NO 00 M g £■ _ S ■£ .s S i^ m c/2 pq O O G f^ J5 S < (i! ^ O < U Ah O c/3 :2; k:) c/2 fxH ^^ ^ p:; o ^ I ^ 2 1 1 1ll £ I I g I ? I ^ ? H § 1 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 1ll § t«0't;oE-' .2c^o cc: ■si S-S «E S| ocjQ g ^^-^^ uQs g ll?!! .^.;2oa)(U(uaj^ C ^ :^ ^ ;S ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ iz; ^ O O O Ph f^ c/2 c/: H H t::> > > ?; ^ ^ ^ 41 8 APPENDIX J. APPENDIX J. HOW DR. WHITMAN SAVED OREGON. On page 254 our claims to the Oregon country are stated. Joint occ-u- pancy between the British and Americans was maintained from 18 18 to 1846. Meanwhile the Astor Fur Company had fallen into the hands of the Hudson Bay Company. This company sought to secure a majority of the inhabitants, intending to make the entire territory British rather than American. Dr. Marcus Whitman, a native of the State of New York, a missionary physician among the Indians in the region of the upper Columbia, deter- mined to prevent this and to secure the whole country to the United States by the same means ; namely, obtaining a majority of the population. Acting on this determination, with intrepid bravery and untold suffering, accom- panied by a single companion only, this heroic patriot braved the snows and the cold of the Rocky Mountains and made a winter's journey on horse- back, of more than three thousand miles, from the Columbia River to St. Louis and the city of Washington, to warn the government of the designs of the British, and to implore its protection for our citizens in that remote region. Fearing treachery if he followed the well-known route through the " South Pass," he turned off, a thousand miles out of his way, and took the " Old Indian Trail," southerly, through the Spanish country. His route took him to Fort Hall in Idaho, Fort Uintah in Utah, Fort Uncom- pagre in Colorado, and to old Fort Taos and Santa F6 in New Mexico. The hardships, perils, and hairbreadth escapes of this remarkable journey can scarcely be equalled in the pages of fiction. During the following summer Dr. Whitman piloted a great caravan, divided into four bands, consisting of nearly a thousand persons, men, women, and children, with two hundred emigrant wagons, and fifteen hundred head of cattle, from Missouri to the Columbia River. This large addition to the population of Oregon more than doubled the number of inhabitants, and the Americans soon organized and put in operation a provisional government. When, therefore, the treaty of 1846 setded the boundary question, it was only legalizing what, in fact, had already been made certain by this emigration of 1843. THE WAR WITH SPAIN — 1 898. 418 a APPENDIX K. THE WAR WITH SPAIN — 1898. In 1898 the United States engaged in a war with Spain. This grew out of a deplorable condition of affairs in Cuba. An attempted revolution had been in progress in that island since early in 1895. The Spanish government sent over a large army under Marshal Campos to put down this insurrection. Campos, however, failed to subdue the insurgents, who had declared independence, and had set up a government in the eastern provinces of the island. Spain recalled Marshal Campos and placed the army under com- mand of Captain General Weyler, an experienced and distinguished officer. From the first, the course of Weyler and his army was bar- barous and brutal in th« extreme. He began a policy of exter- mination. Women and children, the aged and the wounded, were massacred with merciless cruelty. In order to starve out the insurgent forces, the farming population of large areas of territory were driven from their homes and their industries and were concentrated in the cities under military guard. The situation of these people, who were called " reconcentrados," became desperate. Many thousands of them died of starvation. Weyler's system of savage barbarity stirred the hearts of the peo- ple of our country until the general feeling throughout the United States was manifested by one united cry of intense indignation. Early in 1 896 Congress adopted resolutions favoring the recogni- tion of the Cuban insurgents by this government as belligerents, and recommending that Cuban independence should be sought by the President through friendly offices with Spain. Soon after this, how- ever, President Cleveland issued a proclamation of neutrality and of warning to filibusters. The lack of military success on the part of the Spanish army, and the increasing cruelty of Weyler, led the President in his message to Congress' in December, 1896, to state, after a review of the bad management of the Spanish army in Cuba, that the patience of this country might be exhausted unless a termination of the barbarous conditions there was speedily reached. The next year President McKinley issued a similar warning, and, through our consuls, instituted a careful system of examination into 4l8 b APPENDIX K. the condition of affairs in the island. The reports which he received, together with previous reports which had not been pubHshed, revealed an appalling state of suffering. At the President's suggestion Congress appropriated $50,000 to relieve American citizens in Cuba. The President also called for popular subscriptions to carry food, medicine, and nurses to the reconcentrados. The people responded, and under the banner oi the Red Cross Society large supplies were sent to the island. The Spanish Cabinet set up an autonomist government, as it was called, but it proved to be a signal failure. About this time our battleship " Maine," after due notification that it was coming, made a friendly visit to the harbor of Havana. On the night of the 15th of February, 1898, when our sailors to the number of more than 350 were asleep on board the ** Maine," the vessel was blown up and great numbers of them perished. Indignation in America was intense, but it restrained itself until an official report showed that the explosion was caused by a submarine mine underneath the vessel. Meantime several United States Senators had been to Cuba, and, in speeches delivered in the Senate, they showed clearly and con- clusively that the conditions in that island under the military regime of Weyler were such as to demand our immediate interference on the simple ground of humanity. Congress at once voted unanimously an appropriation of $50,000,000 for national defence, and the same was placed in the hands of the President to be expended at his discretion. The una- nimity of this vote was unprecedented in the history of our country. In April, 1898, President McKinley sent a message to Congress, pointing out that the destruction of the '* Maine " justified interfer- ence in Cuban affairs. About a week later Congress declared Cuba free, though the bill did not recognize the insurgent government. This act was passed to protect Americans in Cuba, to preserve our trade with the island, and to end conditions which, on the one hand, were inhuman, and, on the other, menaced our peace. Our American minister to Madrid was General Woodford. The Spanish government at once gave him his passports, with the state- ment that Spain regarded the course of the American Congress as equivalent to a declaration of war. The United States then declared war against Spain, and sent THE WAR WITH SPAIN — I 898. 418 C a fleet to blockade Havana and other ports of Cuba. This was done on the 22d of April, and the next day the President issued a call to the States for 125,000 volunteers. Congress had already greatly increased our regular army, and it further provided for raising several national volunteer regiments. Another call for State troops was issued, and in a few weeks an army numbering nearly 300,000 men had been raised, and Congress had provided ample means for carrying on the war with vigor and despatch. On the 1st of May Commodore Dewey sailed into the harbor of Manila, the capital of Spain's Philippine Islands, utterly destroyed a Spanish fleet of eleven vessels, captured the fort at Cavite, and held Manila at his mercy. In this remarkable battle the Spaniards lost 400 killed and 600 wounded, while not an American was killed, only six wounded, and not one of Dewey's six ships was seriously injured. For this victory, which astounded the world, Dewey received the thanks of Congress, and was made a Rear Admiral. Admiral Cervera, with seven war ships, the flower of the Spanish navy, arrived at Santiago de Cuba on May 19th. The two fleets of Rear Admiral Sampson and Commodore Schley concentrated before the harbor and penned in the Spanish squadron. Cervera's escape was made more difficult by the famous exploit of Naval Constructor Hobson, who, before daylight June 3d, with six men, took the collier '' Merrimac" into the narrow entrance of the harbor and sank her in the channel, while exposed to the annihilating fire of the Spanish forts and fleets. The little band miraculously escaped destruction, and were made prisoners by the Spanish Admiral him- self, who, in recognition of their heroism, announced their safety under a flag of truce to Admiral Sampson. General Shafter, with nearly 20,000 troops, landed just east of Santiago and invested the place. In spite of prodigious obstacles and unforeseen distresses, the Americans pressed forward, and by a series of desperate fights, culminating in the heroic charge up San Juan Hill, captured the Spanish outposts, and held the city in siege. Sunday morning, July 3d, Admiral Cervera attempted to escape, but his entire fleet was destroyed, and every one of his men either killed or taken prisoner in an engagement as extraordinary as was the battle of Manila. A few days later the Spanish army in San- tiago surrendered to General Shafter. Immediately an expedition 41 8 d APPENDIX K. under General Miles to Puerto Rico was undertaken. Landing on the south coast, the American soldiers were received with cordial welcome by the people, the Spanish troops faUing back toward the stronghold of San Juan. During the progress of this campaign, peace negotiations were begun at the instance of Spain. On August I2th, the French Ambassador, Jules Cambon, acting for Spain, and William R. Day, Secretary of State of the United States, signed a protocol of peace, and orders were given to cease hostilities. By the terms of the protocol, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico to the United States, and referred the future of the Philippine Islands to a commission which should draw up a definite treaty of peace. The closing battle of the war occurred the day after the signing of the protocol. Admiral Dewey, with the fleet, and General Mer- ritt, with an army which had been sent to support the navy, made a combined attack upon the city of Manila, which soon surrendered. Congress again showed its gratitude ; it re-established the rank of admiral, thereby permitting President McKinley to raise Rear Admiral Dewey to the position hitherto filled only by Admirals Farragut and Porter. Five commissioners, appointed by the President, met five others who represented Spain, at Paris, October ist, 1898. Two months later a treaty was concluded which ratified the protocol in every point and further provided that the Philippine Islands be ceded to the United States and that the United States should pay to Spain the sum of $20,000,000. The proposed treaty was brought be- fore the Senate of the United States, and, after full discussion, was ratified February 6th, 1899. March 17th the Queen Regent of Spain also signed the treaty, and peace between the two nations was officially declared. The close of the war brought new questions to the front, which must be thoughtfully answered by the American people. By her great victories the United States leaped to the first rank as a naval power. The forms of government adapted to the new possessions require careful study. Party politics must be subordinated to patriotism, if the new issues are to be satisfactorily decided. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Abercrombie, James, in command, 150. Abolition agitation, 515. Acadia, expedition against, 146. Adams, John, life of, 417 ;/ ; opposes Stamp Act, 211 ; defends British soldiers, 218; in the Continental Congress, 236, 263 ; favors independence, 276 ; peace com- missioner, 365 ; signs Treaty of Paris, 367; and George III., 366 « ; elected Vice-President, 400 ; re-elected, 409 ; elected President, 413; inauguration of, 415; not re-elected, 422; death of, 464; state papers of, 703. Adams, J. Q., life of, 463 Ji ; elected Presi- dent, 452 ; not re-elected, 467 ; upholds the right of petition, 517. Adams, Samuel, life of, 231 n ; opposes Stamp Act, 211 ; proposes Continental Congress, 232 ; member of, 236, 263 ; foresees independence, 240. Agassiz, Louis, scientist, 710. Agriculture in the colonies, 169, 170; in 1789. 393; in 1825, 457; in 1896, ^^l- Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 141. Alabama, admission of, 447 ; history and industries of, 449 71 ; secession of, 535, " Alabama " claims, 656. Alaska, purchase of, 652, Albany, settlement of, 71 ; before the Revo- lution, 166. Albemarle, Duke of, 88, Albemarle, settlement at, 87. Alcott, A. B., philosopher, 708. Algonquin Indians, 103. Alien laws, 419. Allen, Ethan, at Ticonderoga, 250. Allston, Washington, artist, 712. Almont, William, treason of, 286 n. Alton riots, 518. Amendments to the United States Consti- tution, 389 ; Thirteenth, 644 ; P^ourteenth, 648 ; Fifteenth, 667. America, origin of the name, 10; bounda- ries of, 1763, 159. American Colonization Society, 513. American Federation of Labor, 691. American party formed, 528. American Railway Union, 691. American Society for the Promotion of Temperance, 505, " American System," 463. Amherst, Lord, in command, 151 ; at Ti- conderoga, 154. Amsterdam, Pilgrims at, 50. Amusements in the colonies, 198. Anarchists, 694. Anderson, Robert, 550. Andre, John, interview with Arnold, 348 ; arrest of, 349. Andros, Sir Edmund, governor of New England and New York, 190. Annapolis, Md., settlement of, ']'] ; before the Revolution, 166; convention at, 378. Annawan and Captain Church, 117. Antietam, battle of, 591. Anti-Mason party, 473 «. Anti-Nebraska party, 525. Anti-slavery, petitions, 404, 517 ; societies, 516; later movements, 518. Apache Indians, 103. Appalache Indians, 103. Appomattox, surrender at, 626. Aquidnec, R. I., settlement at, 67. Arbuthnot, Marriot, British admiral, 341. Arista, Mariano, at the Rio Grande, 489. Arizona, territory of, 699. Arkansas, admission of, 475; history and industries of, 475 «; secession of, 554. 420 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Army, enrollment in, 638; review of, 639; disbandment of, 640. Arnold, Benedict, at Fort Ticonderoga, 250; at Quebec, 270; at Fort Schuyler, 305 ; at Bemis Heights, 309 ; early life of, 346; plans to betray West Point, 348 ; escape of, 350; character of, 351 ; a Brit- ish officer, 353; subsequent life, 354. Arthur, C. A., life of, 6S9 n ; elected Vice- President, 672; becomes President, 688. Articles of Confederation, ratified, 371; weakness of, 373 ; efforts to amend, 376. Ashburton treaty, 482. Ashe, John, at Brier Creek, 337. Astoria, settlement of, 485. Atlanta, capture of, 619. Atlantic cable, 649;/. Audubon, J. J., naturalist, 710. Augusta, Ga., occupation of, 336 ; attack upon, 342 ; capture of, 358. Australian ballot, 689. Austria-Hungary, emigration from, 718. Avalon, settlement at, 75. Aztec Indians, 103. Baker, E. D., death of, 562. Balboa, discovery by, 11. Ballot reform, 736. Ball's Bluff, battle of, 562. Baltimore, Lord, 75. Baltimore, settlement of, 77 ; centre of population in 1790, 391 ; bloodshed at, 552- Bancroft, George, historian, 709. Bank of the United States, 402 ; second, 472. Banks, Nathaniel P., in the Shenandoah valley, 582 ; driven out of the valley, 586; at Port Hudson, 608. Baptists in Rhode Island, 183. Barcelona, Columl)us at, 8 n. Barnard, Thomas, at Salem, 242. Barton, William, captures Prescott, 290//. Baum, Friedrich, at Bennington, 303. Beauregard, G. T., at Fort Sumter, 550 ; at Bull Run, 559; at Corinth, 569; at Shiloh, 570; retreats from Corinth, 571. Beecher, Henry Ward, life of, 600 n. Bell, A. G., inventor, 728. Bell, John, candidate for President, 533 11. Belmont, battle of, 564. Bemis Heights, battle of, 309. Benevolence, 725, 726- Bennington, battle of, 303. Berkeley, Lord, proprietor of West Jersey, 84; proprietor of Carolina, 88. Berlin decree, 429. Bermuda Islands, 43. Beverly, Mass., cotton mills at, 458. Big Horn, battle of, 658. " Black List," 692. Blaine, J. G., life of, 674 n ; candidate for President, 673. " Bland Silver Bill," 679. Block Island, Endicott at, no. Blockade of southern ports, 557. "Bon Homme Richard" and " Serapis,'' 334- Bond issues, 680. Booth, J. W., assassinates Lincoln, 629. " Border War " in Kansas, 524. Boscawen, Edward, British admiral, 151. Boston, settlement of, 60 ; before the Revo- lution, 166; British troops in, 216; Mas- sacre, 217 ; and the tea tax, 220 ; meeting in the Old South, 223 ; Tea Party, 224 ; town meeting of, 231 ; Neck fortified, 241 ; siege of, begun, 248 ; winter of 1775 in, 267 ; evacuation of, 268 ; fire in, 662. Boston "News Letter" published, 176. Boston Port Bill, 228. Bowditch, Nathaniel, mathematician, 710. Bowdoin, James, President of Massachu- setts, 234. Bowling Green, fortifications at, 565 ; evac- uated, 569. " Boycott," 692. Braddock, Edward, in command, 145 ; de- feat of, 147. Bradford, William, governor of Plymouth, 55 ; history by, 50 n. Bradstreet, John, at Frontenac, 152. Bragg, Braxton, at Stone River, 573 ; at Chickamauga, 609; at Missionary Ridge, 610; at Lookout Mountain, 611. Brandywine, battle of, 298. Bread riots, 478. Breckinridge, J. C, elected Vice-President, 528; candidate for President, 533. Breed's Hill fortified, 253. Brewster, William, elder, 52, 55. Brier Creek, battle of, 337. British " Orders in Council," 429. Brock, Sir Isaac, at Detroit, 436. Brooks, P. S., attacks Sumner, 526. Brown, John, raid of, 532. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 421 Bryant, W, C, poet, 707. Buchanan, Franklin, at Mobile Bay, 623. Buchanan, James, life of, 529;/; elected President, 528; attitude towards seces- sion, 537. Buckner, S. B., at Fort Donelson, 568. Buell, D. C, at Shiloh, 570. Buena Vista, battle of, 491. Bull Run, first battle of, 559; second battle of, 590. Bunker Hill, battle of, 253-262. Burgoyne, John, prepares expedition, 302 ; critical condition of, 306; at Stillwater, 307 ; at Bemis Heights, 309 ; surrender of, 311. Burke, Edmund, supports the colonies, 230. Burnside, A. E., in command, 592; at Fred- ericksburg, 593 ; in North Carolina, 596 ; at Knoxville, 612. Burr, Aaron, at Quebec, 269; elected Vice- President, 422 ; plot of, 431 71. Butler, B. F., at New Orleans, 574; at Hatteras Inlet, 596. Butler, W. O., candidate for Vice-President, 499- Buzzard's Bay visited by Gosnold, 30. Cabot, John, discovers North America, 9. Cabot, Sebastian, 9. Calhoun, John C, life of, 472 n ; leads the war party, 434; elected Vice-President, 452; opposes the Tariff of Abomination, 465 ; re-elected Vice-President, 467 ; sen- ator, 469 ; death of, 504. California, conquest of, 492 ; applies for admission, 500; admission of, 502; his- tory and industries of, 503 n. Calvert, Cecil, proprietor of Marvland, 76. Calvert, Sir George, nfe of. 7 1; « • names the colony Maryland, 7c. Cambridge, headquarters of colonial army, 247; Burgoyne's army at, 311. Camden, attack on, 342 ; battle of, 344. Campbell, William, at Augusta, 336; at King's Mountain, 345. Canada, Americans driven from, 291 ; in- vasion of, 181 2, 436. Canary Isles, Columl)us at, 8. Canby, E. R. S., receives surrender of Taylor, 627. Cano completes voyage around the world, J3. Cape Ann visited by Gosnold, 30 ; fishing colony at, 57. Cape Charles named, 38. Cape Fear, settlement at, 87. Cape Henry named, 38. Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 5. Capitol burned, 1814, 441. Carolana named, 19; granted by Charles I., 86. Carolina, colony of, 88 ; Church of England in, 179. "Carpet Baggers," 668. Carteret, Sir George, proprietor of East Jersey, 84. Carthage, battle of, 564. Cartier, James, settles Montreal, 17, 122. Carver, John, governor at Plymouth, 55. Cass, Lewis, candidate for President, 499. Cedar Creek, battle of, 617. Centennial Exhibition, 663. Central Pacific Railroad, 659. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 494. Chadd's Ford, on the Brandywine, 298. Chambers, B. J., candidate for Vice-Presi- dent, 672. Champe, John, and Arnold, 352. Champlain explores Canada, 125. Champlain, Lake, battle of, 440. Chancellorsville, battle of, 594. Chapultepec, capture of, 495. Charles IX., favors the Huguenots, 18. Charleston, settlement of, 88 ; before the Revolution, 166; attack on, 340; be- sieged by the British, 341 ; surrender of, 342 ; evacuation of, 627 ; earthquake at, 697. Charlestown, settlement of, 59; burning of, 258, 261. Charlotte, Va., Burgoyne's armv at, 311. Charter colonies, 185. Charters, removal or, 191. Chase, S. P., life of, 633;/; Secretary of the Treasury, 631. Cherokee Indians, 103; in Georgia, 462. Cherry Valley, N. Y., massacres at, 325. " Chesapeake " and " Leopard," 429 «. " Chesapeake " and '' Shannon," 438. Chester, Pa., settlement of, 96; American army at, 299. Chicago, fire in, 662. Chickamauga, battle of, 609. Chihuahua, capture of, 492. Chinese immigration, 695. 422 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Chippewa, battle of, 440. Church of England, in the colonies, 179. Church, Benjamin, and King Philip, 117. Cities, 399. Civil Service Reform, 687, 736. Civil War, results of, 643. Clarendon, Earl of, proprietor of Carolina, 88. Clark, Sir James, death of, 309. Clark, G. R., life of, 325 n ; in the north- west, 326, 327. Classes in the colonies, 167. Clatsop Indians, 103. Clay, Henry, life of, 513 «; Speaker of the House, 434; proposes the Missou-ri Com- promise, 448 ; candidate for President, 452, 472, 487; Secretary of State, 463; proposes Compromise Tariff, 470; pro- poses Compromise of 1850, 501 ; death of, 504. Cleaveland, Benjamin, at King's Moun- tain, 345. " Clermont," trial trip of, 456. Cleveland, Grover, life of, 680 ;/ ; elected President, 673 ; not re-elected, 674 ; elected President, 675; Venezuelan mes- sage of, 701. Clinton, De Witt, candidate for President, 444. Clinton, George, in the Continental Con- gress, 263 ; elected Vice-President, 432. Clinton, Sir Henry, arrival of, 282 ; suc- ceeds Howe, 322 ; at Monmouth, 323 ; at Springfield, 332; at Charleston, 340; in New York, 367. " Clinton's Big Ditch," 457 n. Coasting trade, 395. Cole, Thomas, artist, 712. Colfax, Schuyler, elected Vice-President, 654- Coligny, Gaspard de, life of, 18 n ; aids the Huguenots, 123. Colleges before 1763, 175; in 1896, 722. Colonial government, 187 ; population, 200. Colonies taxed by Parliament, 214. Colonization schemes, 513. Colorado, admission of, 660; history and industries of, 660 n. Columbia, S. C, capture of, 627. Columbia College founded, 175. "Columbia" and " Merrimac," 578. Columbia River explored, 427. Columbus, Christopher, early life of, 6; preparations of, 7 ; discovers Guanahani, 8 ; later life of, 8 n. Columbus, fortifications at, 565; evacu- ated, 569. Comanche Indians, 103. Commerce, in the colonies, 171; in 1789, 395; in 1896, 731 ; interstate, 690. Committees of Correspondence, 231. Compromise, of 1850, 502 ; Tariff, 470. Conant, Roger, at Naumkeag, 57. Concord, battle of, 245. Confederate States of America, formed, 536; granted belligerent powers, 577. Congress, proclaims a national thanks- giving, 363; under the Articles of Con- federation, 374; calls the Federal Con- vention, 379. Congress, powers of, 386; first and second, 407 ; summoned by Lincoln, 555 ; fifty- third, 676. "Congress" and "Merrimac," 578. Connecticut, colony of, 64; Constitution, 64 It ; charter received, 65 ; charter col- ony, 185 ; steps toward independence, 275; British raids in, 329. Constantinople, fall of, 5. Constitution of the United States, 383-389. " Constitution " and " Guerriere," 437. Constitutional Union Party, formed, 533 «. Continental Congress, first, 232; meets at Philadelphia, 235 ; work of, 237, 238 ; second, 263; work of, 264; passes the Declaration of Independence, 277 ; rati- fies treaty with France, 314 ; refuses com- promise, 315 ; a revolutionary body, 372. "Contract Labor Act," 718. Convention, at Annapolis, 2,7^ '> the Federal, 380-382. Conway Cabal, 320. Cooper, J. F., novelist, 706. Cooper, Lord Ashley, proprietor of Caro- lina, 88. Copley, J. S., artist, 712, Corinth, held by Confederates, 569; held by the Union army, 571 ; battle of, 572. Cornwallis, Lord, at New York, 282; at Princeton, 294 ; enters Philadelphia, 299 ; at Guilford Court House, 357 ; marches northward, 358 ; in Virginia, 359 ; at Yorktown, 361 ; surrender of, 362. Cotton production, increase of, 398. Cotton-gin, invention of, 396-398; effect on slavery, 510. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 423 Council of Plymouth formed, 36. Courts of the United States, 388. Cowpens, battle of, 356. Crawford, Thomas, sculptor, 713. Crawford, W. H., leads the war party, 434 ; candidate for President, 452. " Credit Mobilier," 665. Creeks in Georgia, 462. Crown Point, built, 140; capture of, 154, 291. Cuba, discovered by Columbus, 8 ; De Soto, governor of, 14. Cumberland Gap fortified, 565. "Cumberland Road," 455. Custer, G. A., death of, 658. Cuttyhunk, Gosnold at, 30. Dakota, history and industries of, 696 n. Dakota Indians, 103. Dallas, battle of, 618. Dallas, G. M., elected Vice-President, 487. Dalton, battle of, 618. Dare, Virginia, birth of, 29. Darien, Balboa at, ir. Davenport, John, at New Haven, 65. Davis, Isaac, death of, 245. Davis, Jefferson, life of, 536 n ; elected President of the Confederate States, 536; flees from Richmond, 625; capture of, 630. Dayton, W. L., candidate for Vice-Presi- dent, 528. Deane, Silas, signs treaty, 314. Debt of the United States, 641. Decatur, Stephen, and the " Philadelphia," 428 7t. Declaration of Independence, 279. Deerfield, Mass., massacre at, 115; second massacre at, 139. D'Estaing, Count, arrives, 316; attack by, 328 ; at Savannah, 339. De Grasse, Count, in the Chesapeake, 360; receives the surrender of the fleet, 362. De Kalb, Baron, death of, 344. Delaware, Lord, Sir Thomas West, 43. Delaware, conquest of, 73,81; Dutch set- tlements at, 79; Swedish settlements in, 81 ; an English colony, 82 ; a proprietary colony, 186. Delft-Haven, Pilgrims sail from, 52 ; part- ing at, 53 n. "Demonetization " of silver, 679. Democratic party formed, 464. Democratic-Republican party formed, 403. Deposits removed, 474. Derby, John, in the navy, 247. Detroit, surrender of, 436. Diaz, Bartolomeo, at the Cape of Good Hope, 5. Dickinson, John, in the Continental Con- gress, 236 ; opposes independence, 276. Doniphan, A. W., in New Mexico, 492. Dorchester Company formed, 58. Dorchester Heights fortified, 268. Dorchester moves to Connecticut, 64. Dorr Rebellion, 486. Dorr, T. W., in Rhode Island, 486. Douglas, S. A., life of, 524 n ; proposes the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 521 ; deflates with Lincoln, 531 ; candidate for Presi- dent, 533. Dover, N. H., settlement of, 62; destruc- tion of, 136. Drake, Sir Francis, voyages of, 15; at Roanoke Island, 28. Dred Scott decision, 529. Dress in the colonies, 192. Duddington, William, of the " Gaspee," 219. Du Pont, P. S., at Port Royal, 596. Durand, A. B., artist, 712. Dustin, Hannah, story of, 135 «. Dutch immigrants, 165. Dutch Lutheran Church, 179. Dutch Reformed Church, 179. East Jersey, colony of, 84. Edison, T. A., inventor, 728. Edmunds' " Anti-Polygamy Law," 698. Education, in the colonies, 174; in 1825, 460; in 1896, 721; higher, 722. Electoral Commission, 670. Electors, Presidential, duties of, 387. Eliot, John, mission to the Indians, 107. Elizabeth Islands named, 30. Elizabeth, Queen, and Raleigh, 27. Elizabethtown, N. J., settlement of, 85. Elkton, British at, 297. Ellsworth, OUver, in Federal Convention. 381. Emancipation, 644. Emancipation Proclamations, 600. Embargo Act passed, 431. Emigrant Aid Society, 523. Emerson, R. W., philosopher, 708. Emigrant trains, 459 n. 424 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Endicott Charter, 57 n. Endicott, John, at Naumkeag, 58 ; at Block Island, no. England, Columbus seeks aid from, 7 ; in the sixteenth century, 31 ; and the North- west forts, 411; recognizes the Confed- erate States as belligerents, 577, 598. England's repressive policy, 203. English colonization begins, 24. English and French possessions, 133. English immigrants, 165. English, W. H., candidate for Vice-Pres- ident, 672. " Enterprise," voyage of the, 456. Equal representation in the senate, 514. " Era of good feeling," 445. Ericsson, John, life of, 580 «; invents the " Monitor," 579. Erie, battle of Lake, 439. " Essex," cruise of the, 438. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 358. Evans, N. G., at Ball's Bluff, 562. Ewell, R. S., re-enforces Jackson, 586; at Gettysburg, 603. Executive powers of the United States, 387. Explorers, French, 129. Exports, from the colonies, 171; in 1763, 201; in 1789, 395. Fair Oaks, battle of, 587. Faneuil Hall, town meetings in, 178; ac- count of, 222 n. Farms, small, in the colonies, 170. Farragut, D. G., life of, 572 n ; on the Mis- sissippi, 574; at Mobile Bay, 623. Federal Convention, 380-382. Federalist party formed, 403. Fenians in Canada, 653. Ferdinand, King of Spain, 7. Ferguson, Patrick, at King's Mountain, 345- Fernandina, capture of, 596. Fifteenth Amendment, 667. " Fifty-four forty or fight," 485. Fillmore, Millard, life of, 500 n ; elected Vice-President, 499 ; candidate for Pres- ident, 528; becomes President, 504. Fisheries question, 657. Fisher's Hill, battle of, 617. Five Forks, capture of, 624. Five Nations in King William's War, 137. Flat Head Indians, 103. Florida, discovery of, 13; loss of, 23; ces- sion of, 160; purchase of , 446 ; admission of, 484 ; history and industries of, 484 /; ; secession of, 535. Floyd, John, candidate for President, 472. Floyd, J. B., escapes from Fort Donelson, 568. Food in the colonies, 195. Foote, A. H., at Fort Henry, 567 ; at Island No. Ten, 572. "Force Bill" of 1832,470. Fort Amsterdam built, ']t^. Fort Carolana built, 123. Fort Caroline built, 20; capture of, 22. Fort Christina built, 81. Fort CornwalUs, capture of, 358. Fort Donelson, fortified, 565 ; capture of, 568. Fort Du Quesne, built, 143; burned, 153. Fort Edward garrisoned, 148. Fort Frontenac, capture of, 152. Fort Granby, capture of, 358. Fort Griswold, capture of, 353. Fort Henry, fortified, 565 ; capture of, 567. Fort Lee fortified, 283. Fort McAllister, capture of, 622. Fort McHenry, victory at, 441. Fort Marion, capture of, 596. Fort Mott, capture of, 358. Fort Moultrie, battle of, 340 n. Fort Niagara, built, 140; capture of, 154. Fort Ontario, capture of, 149. Fort Pemaquid, capture of, 136. Fort Pillow, fortified, 565; evacuated, 572. Fort Pitt built, 153. Fort Pulaski, capture of, 596. Fort Saybrook, attack upon, 109. Fort Schuyler, attack upon, 304 ; relief of, 305- Fort Sumter, surrender of, 550; effect of capture of, 552. Fort Ticonderoga, attack upon, 152; cap- ture of, 154. Fort Washington, fortified, 283 ; capture of, 286. Fort William Henry built, 148; capture of, 150. Fortress Monroe, McClellan at, 582. Forts in the North-west, 411. Fourteenth Amendment, 648. France, in America, 120; shut out of North America, 160; versus England, 131-162; negotiations with, 313 ; alliance with, 314; fleet of, 316; Revolution in, 410; danger INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 425 of war with, 416; treaty with, 418; emi- gration from, 457, 718; recognizes the Confederate States as belligerents, 577, 598. Francis I. and Verrazano, 16. Franklin, Benjamin, life of, 144 «; in the Continental Congress, 263; signs treaty with P'rance, 314; peace commissioner, 365 ; signs Treaty of Paris, 367 ; and the " Rising Sun," 381 n ; in the Federal Con- vention, 381 ; and the lightning, 728. Franklin, battle of, 621. Frazer, Simon, death of, 309. Frazer's Farm, battle of, 5S8. Fredericksburg, battle of, 593. Freedmen after the Civil War, 646. Freedom, religious, 183, 461, 724. Freeman's Farm, battle of, 307. Free Soil party formed, 498. Frelinghuysen, Theodore, candidate for Vice-President, 487. Fremont, J. C, in California, 492 ; candi- date for President, 528 ; in Missouri, 564- French Alliance, reception of the news of, 321 n. French and Indian War, 142-162. French explorers, 129. French hopes in America, 132. French Huguenot immigrants, 165. French in the west, 140. Friends, 94, 182. Frobisher, Martin, visits Labrador, 25. " Frolic," " Wasp " and, 437. Fugitive Slave Law, 503. Furniture in the colonies, 194. Gadsden, Christopher, in the Continental Congress, 236. " Gag Law," 517. Gage, Thomas, governor of Massachusetts Bay, 228; sends troops to Salem, 241; sends troops to Concord, 243. Gaines' Mills, battle of, 588. Gama, da, voyage to India, 5. Garfield, J. A., life of, 689 «; elected Pres- ident, 672; and the Spoils System, 685; assassination of, 686. Garrison, William L., and abolition, 515. " Gaspee," burning of the, 219. Gates, Horatio, at Bemis Heights, 309; at Camden, 344; succeeded Ijy Greene, 355. Gates, Sir Thomas, in Virginia, 43. Genevan Awards, 656. Genoa, trade with the East, 5; birthplace of Columbus, 6; Columbus seeks help from, 7. George III., of England, 226; and John Adains, 366 n. Georgetown, capture of, 358. Georgia, colony of, 92 ; Indians in, 462 ; secession of, 535; readmission of, 649. Germantown, battle of, 299. Germany, emigration from, 165, 457. Gerry, Elbridge, in the Federal Conven- tion, 381; envoy to France, 417; elected Vice-President, 444. Gettysburg, battle of, 602-606. Ghent, treaty of, 443. Giddings, J. R., from Ohio, 518. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, at Newfoundland, 26. Gilmore, Q. A., at Fort Pulaski, 596. Girard, C. A., French ambassador, 316. Gold, discovery of, 503 n. Gold reserve, 680. Goldsboro, L. M., at Roanoke Island, 596. Goldsboro, N. C, surrender at, 627. Goodyear, Charles, inventor, 728. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 32 ; sends out the Popham colony, 36 ; life of, 62 n ; receives grant of land, 62. Gosnold, Bartholomew, at Buzzard's Bay, 30; member of the Virginia Company, 32 ; sails for Virginia, y] ; death of, 41, Gourgues, Dominic de, avenges the Hugue- nots, 23. Government bonds issued, 599. Graham, W. A., candidate for Vice-Presi- dent, 506. Grant, U. S., life of, 656;^; at Belmont, 564 ; at Fort Henry, 567 ; at Fort Donel- son, 568; at Shiloh, 570; at Vicksburg, 607; at Missionary Ridge, 610; at Look- out Mountain, 611 ; made Lieutenant- General, 613; in the Wilderness, 614; at Petersburg, 615; elected President, 654; re-elected President, 666. Gray, Asa, botanist, 710. Great Britain, emigration from, 457, 718, Great Northern Railroad, 659. Great Swamp fight, 116. Great West, industries of, 716, 717. Greeley, Horace, candidate for President, 666. Greenback party formed, 672. 426 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) " Greenbacks," issue of, 599, 678. Greene, Nathaniel, life of, 355 n ; of Rhode Island, 248; at Brooklyn, 283; at Ger- mantown, 300 ; at Newport, 328 ; at Springfield, 332 ; succeeds Gates, 355 ; at Guilford Court House, 357 ; at Eutaw Springs, 358. Greenland, discovery of, 3. Greenough, Horatio, sculptor, 713. Groton, battle of, in. Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty of, 497. Guanahani, discovery of, 8. " Guerriere," " Constitution " and, 437. Guiana, exploration of, 27 «. Guilford Court House, battle of, 357. Gustavus Adolphus, life of, 79;/. Guyot, Arnold, geographist, 710. Hakluyt, Richard, 32. Hale, J. P., candidate for President, 506. Hale, Nathan, life of, 284 n. Halleck, H. W., in Missouri, 564; in com- mand of the army, 571. Hamilton, Alexander, life of, 409 n ; at Annapolis, 378 ; in the Federal Conven- tion, 381 ; secretary of the treasury, 401, 409 ; leader of the Federalist party, 403 ; resigns, 410; state papers of, 703. Hamilton, Henry, governor of Detroit, 327. Hamlin, Hannibal, elected Vice-President, 533- Hampton Roads, fleet at, 578. Hancock, John, president of Massachusetts, 234. Hancock, W. S., candidate for President, 672. Hand, Samuel, philanthropist, 726. Hanging Rock, battle of, 343. Hanover Court House, battle of, 585. Harlem Heights, army at, 285. Harmer, Josiah, and the Indians, 406. Harper's Ferry, John Brown at, 532 ; Banks at, 586. Harrison, Benjamin, in the Continental Congress, 236. Harrison, Benjamin, life of, 676 n ; elected President, 674; not re-elected, 675. Harrison, W. H., life of, 483 n ; at Tippe- canoe, 434 ; at the Thames, 439 ; candi- date for President, 476; elected Presi- dent, 480; death of, 481. Harrison's Landing, army at, 589. Hartford, settlement of, 64; convention, 442. Hartley, David, peace commissioner, 367. Harvard College, founded, 175; homespun suits worn at, 211 Hatteras Inlet, capture of, 596. Haverill, Mass., massacre at, 137. Hawaii, republic of, 700. Hawley, Joseph, and independence, 240, 275- Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist, 706. Hayes, R. B., life of, 672 « ; elected Presi- dent, 669; inauguration of, 671. Hayne, R. Y., Webster and, 468 ; governor of South Carolina, 469. Hazen, W. B., at Stone River, 573. Heights of Abraham, battle of, 157. Heister, L. P. von, at New York, 282. Hendricks, T. A., candidate for Vice-Presi- dent, 669 ; elected Vice-President, 673. Hennepin, Louis, explorations of, 129. Henry, Patrick, life of, 239 n ; opposes Stamp Act, 211, 212 «; in the Conti- nental Congress, 236, 263 ; foresees inde- pendence, 240. Henry VII. sends out Cabot, 9. Henry VIII. becomes a Protestant, 24. Hessians, German mercenaries, 282. Higginson, John, teacher at Salem, 59. Higher education, 722. High license, 727. Hildreth, Richard, historian, 709. Hill, A. P., at Gettysburg, 603. Hispaniola, Columbus ruler of, 8 n. Hobkirk Hill, battle of, 357. Hoch-e-laga discovered by Cartier, 17. Hoe, R. M., inventor, 728. Holland, Pilgrims in, 50 ; and the Dutch, 69. Holmes, O. W., poet, 707. Hood, J. B., evacuates Atlanta, 619 ; in- vades Tennessee, 621. Hooker, Joseph, at Williamsburg, 584; in command, 593 ; at Chancellorsville, 594 ; superseded, 602 ; at Lookout Mountain, 611. Hopkins, Esek, in command of fleet, 291. Hopkins, Stephen, member of Continental Congress, 236. Houses in the colonies, 193. Houston, Samuel, in Texas, 483. Howard, O. O., at Gettysburg, 603. Howe, Elias, inventor, 728. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 427 Howe, Richard, arrives at New York, 282. Howe, Robert, at Savannah, 336. Howe, William, in command, 255 ; evacu- ates Boston, 268 ; arrives at New York, 282 ; captures Fort Washington, 286 ; outgeneralled by Washington, 296; sails for Philadelphia, 297 ; at Philadelphia, 317," succeeded by Clinton, 322. Hudson, Henry, makes exploration in America, 70. Hudson River explored by Hudson, 70. Huguenots, persecuted in France, 18; settle PYench Florida, 19; massacred by Men- endez, 22. Hull, William, surrenders Detroit, 436. Hunt, Robert, member of the Virginia Company, 32. Hunter, David, in command, 564. Hutchinson, Anne, banished from Massa- chusetts, 67. Iceland discovered by Northmen, 3. Idaho, admission of, 699; history and in- dustries of, 698 n. Illinois, admission of, 447 ; history and in- dustries of, 449//. Immigration, into the colonies, 165 ; early, 457; later, 695, 718, 719; question, 736. Implements in the colonies, 196. Imports into the colonies, 171 ; in 1763, 201 ; in 1789, 395. Independence Hall, Constitutional Conven- tion at, 382. " Independent Treasury," 479. India, trade with, 5. Indian characteristics, 98 ; mound builders, 98 ; features, 99 ; mental and moral traits, 100; employments, loi ; women, 102; tribes, 103; modes of warfare, 106; Bible, 107. Indiana, admission of, 444; history and industries of, 443 n. Indians, numbers of, 104; and white men, 105 ; defeat Harmer, 406 ; defeat St. Clair, 406 ; in Georgia, 462 ; in the Northwest, 658. Industries, in the colonies, 169-172 ; in 1789.392; in 1825,457,458; in 1896, 715, 717, 728. Inness, George, artist, 712. Interstate commerce, 690. Intolerable acts, 228. Inventions, 728. Iowa, admission of, 496; history and in- dustries of, 497 n. Ireland, emigration from, 457, 718. Iroquois Indians, 103. Irving, Washington, author, 705. Isabella, Queen, 7. Island No. 10, fortified, 565; capture of, 572. Isle of Jersey, 84 n. Italy, emigration from, 718. luka, battle of, 572. Jackson, Andrew, life of, 468 ;/ ; at Hang- ing Rock, 343 ; at New Orleans, 443 ; in Florida, 446; candidate for President, 452; elected President, 466; inaugura- tion of, 467; re-elected President, 471; attacks the Bank, 472; removes the de- posits, 473. Jackson, C. F., governor of Missouri, 563. Jackson, T. J. (Stonewall), life of, 594 «; threatens Washington, 586; joins Lee, 587 ; at Antietam, 591 ; death of, 594. James River named, 38. Jamestown, settlement of, 35, 38; before the Revolution, 166. Japan and Commodore Perry, 527. Jasper, William, death of, 339. " Java," " Constitution " and, 437. Jay, John, life of, 414 «; in the Continental Congress, 263 ; peace commissioner, 365; signs Treaty of Paris, 367 ; makes treaty with Great Britain, 412. Jefferson, Thomas, life of, 424 tt ; drafts the Declaration, 278 ; peace commissioner, 365 ; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 401 ; a party leader, 403 ; Secretary of State, 409; resigns, 410; elected Vice-President, 413 ; elected President, 422 ; inauguration of, 423 ; political views of, 424 ; re-elected President, 432; death of, 464; views on slavery, 509; state papers of, 703. Jeffrey's Ford, on the Brandywine, 29S. Johnson, Andrew, life of, 642 « ; elected Vice-President, 636; proclaims that the war is over, 637 ; and the Republicans, 650; impeachment of, 651. Johnson, R. M., elected Vice-President, 476. Johnson, Sir William, at Crown Point, 148. Johnson, W. S., in the Federal Conven. tion, 381. Johnston, A. S., in command, 566; at Corinth, 569 ; death of, 570. 428 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Johnston, J. E., life of, 586 «; at Bull Run, 559 ; at Fair Oaks, 587 ; at Vicksburg, 608 ; superseded, 619 ; surrender of, 627. Johnstown flood, 697. Joliet, Louis, explorations of, 129. Jones, Paul, life of, 334 71 ; defeats the " Serapis," 334. Judicial Power of the United States, 388. J ulian Calendar, 55 n. Julian, G. W., candidate for Vice-President, 506. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 521. Kansas, struggle for, 522 ; admission of, 530; history and industries of, 532 «. Kaskaskia, capture of, 326. Kearney, S. W,, in New Mexico, 492. Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 618. Kennebec River, settlement on, 36. Kensett, J. F., artist, 712. Kentucky, admission of, 402 ; history and industries of, 405 n ; remains in the Union, 565. Kentucky resolutions, 420. Key, F. S., at Fort McHenry, 441 n. King George's War, 141. King Philip's War, 113, 114; war begun, 115; first struggle, 117; cost of, 118; result of, 119. King, Rufus, candidate for Vice-President, 432 ; candidate for President, 444. King, S. W., in Rhode Island, 486. King William's War, 136. King, W. R., elected Vice-President, 506. King's Mountain, battle of, 345. Knights of Labor, 691. Knowlton, Thomas, in command, 256. "Know-Nothing" party formed, 528. Knox, Henry, Secretary of War, 401, 409; a party leader, 403. Knoxville, battle of, 612, Knyphausen, Baron, in New Jersey, 332, Kosciusko, Tadeusz, fortifies West Point, 347. Koszta, Martin, account of, 527 n. Ku Klux Klan, 668. Labor troubles, 691 ; question, 736. Labrador, discovery of, 9 ; exploration of, 25. Lafayette, Marquis de, life of, 298 n ; in command, 322; at Monmouth, 323; at Newport, 328 ; in Virginia, 359 ; at Wil- liamsburg, 360. Lake Champlain, control of, 252. Lake Erie, battle of, 439. Lake George, battle of, 148. La Place, Captain de, surrender of, 251. La Salle, Chevalier de, explorations, 128; at the mouth of the Mississippi, 131. Laudonniere, Rene de, builds Fort Caroline, 20; on the St. Johns, 124. Laurens, Henry, peace commissioner, 365 ; signs treaty, 367. Laws of the colonies, 188. Lecompton Constitution, 530. Lee, Arthur, signs treaty, 314. Lee, Charles, in command, 266; capture of, 290; at Monmouth, 323; disobedience of, 324; court martial of, 325. Lee, Henry, at Paulus Hook, 331 ; and the Whiskey Insurrection, 408. Lee, R. H., in the Continental Congress, 236, 263 ; proposes independence, 276. Lee, R. E., life of, 589 n ; in command, 587 ; in the Seven Days' battles, 588 ; at second Bull Run, 590 ; at Antietam, 591 ; at Fredericksburg, 593 ; at Chancellors- ville, 594 ; enters Pennsylvania, 602 ; at Gettysburg, 603-606; retreat of, 606; in the Wilderness, 614; evacuates Rich- mond, 625; surrender of, 626. Legislative powers of the United States, 385- Leon, Ponce de, discovery by, 13. Leslie, Col., at Salem, 241. Lewis and Clark's expedition, 427. Lexington, Mass., battle of, 244; retreat from, 246. Lexington, Mo., capture of, 564. Leyden, Pilgrims at, 50. " Liberator," the, established, 525. Liberty party formed, 519. Leif Ericson, discovery by, 4. Liliuokalani, Queen, deposed, 700. Lincoln, Abraham, life of, 550 «; and Doug- las debates, 531; elected President, 533; inauguration of, 548 ; issues calls for troops, 553; summons Congress, 555; blockades the South, 557 ; issues eman- cipation proclamation, 600; assassination of, 629; re-elected President, 636. Lincoln, Benjamin, in Georgia, 336; be- sieges Savannah, 338; at Charleston, 341 ; receives the sword of Cornwallis, 362. " Liquor limits," restriction of, 727. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 429 Literature, 702-711. Livingston, R. R., in the Continental Con- gress, 263 ; Minister to France, 426. Livingston, William, in the Federal Con- vention, 381. "Local option," 727. Locke Constitution, 89. Logan, J. A., candidate for Vice-President, 673- London Company, receives charter, 33; dissolved, 35 ; send out a colony, 37. Longfellow, H. W., poet, 707. Long Island, battle of, 283. Longstreet, James, in command, 558; be- sieges Suffolk, 595; at Knoxville, 612. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 611. Los Angeles, capture of, 492. Lost Mountain, battle of, 618. Loudon, Lord, in command, 149. Louisburg, capture of, 141 ; second capture of, 150. Louisiana, named, 131 ; cession of, 160; re- cession of, 425; purchase of, 426 ; admis- sion of, 444; history and industries of, 442 n ; secession of, 535. Lovejoy, E. P., murder of, 518. Lowell, J. R., poet, 707. Loyalists, payment to the, 369. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 440. Lyon, Nathaniel, holds Missouri, 563; death of, 564. McClellan, G. B., in command, 560; drills the army, 561 ; in the Peninsula, 582 ; besieges Yorktown, 583 ; at Fair Oaks, 587 ; in the Seven Days' Battle, 588 ; at Antietam, 591 ; candidate for President, 636. McCulloch, Benjamin, at Carthage, 564. Macdonough, Thomas, on Lake Cham- plain, 440. McDowell, Charles, at King's Mountain, 345- McDowell, Irvin, in Virginia, 558; in front of Washington, 582 ; at Fredericksburg, 585. " McKinley Tariff," 682. ** Macedonian," " United States " and, 437. Madison, James, life of, 434 « ; in the Fed- eral Convention, 381 ; elected President, 432; re-elected President, 444 ; State pa- pers of, 703. Magellan, voyage of, 12. Magellan, Straits of, 12. Magnetic telegraph, 486 n. Magruder, J. B., retreat of, 583. Maine, colony of, 63; timber exports from, 171; admission of, 447; history and in- dustries of, 450 n ; law, 506 n. Malbone, E. G., artist, 712. Malvern Hill, battle of, 588. Manassas, battle of, 559. Mangum, W. P., candidate for President, 476. Manhattan, settlement of, 71. Manufactures, in the colonies, 173; in 1789, 392; in 1825, 458; in 1896, 715, 717, 728. Marion, Francis, partisan leader, 343 ; wins back the Carolinas, 35S. Marquette, Jacques, explorations by, 127. Marshall, John, life of, 419 «; envoy to France, 417; Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 417. Maryland, colony of, 76 ; character of col- onists, 78; Puritan churches in, 180; re- ligious toleration in, 183 ; a proprietary colony, 186. Mason, James M., Confederate Commis- sioner, 576. Mason, John, receives grant of land, 62. Massachusetts, Puritan churches in, 180; Quakers in, 182; a charter colony, 185; General Court, 187; charter annulled, 190; second charter granted, 191; As- sembly protests against the Acts of Parliament, 204; elects delegates to Continental Congress, 232, 236; Provin- cial Congress of, 233 ; seal, 233 n ; raises an army, 234; towns declare for inde- pendence, 275; regiment attacked in Baltimore, 553. Massachusetts Act, the, 228. Massachusetts Bay company, formed, 59; company moves to America, 60; first years at, 61 ; schools in, 174. Mawhood, Col., at Princeton, 294. Maximilian in Mexico, 652. Maxwell, William, at Springfield, 332. Mayflower Compact, 54. Meade, G. G., in command, 602 ; at Gettys- burg, 603. Mechanicsville, battle of, 588. Mecklenburg Declaration, 271. Mediterranean Sea, travel on, 2. Menendez, Pedro, founds St. Augustine, 21, 124J massacres the Huguenots, 22 «. 430 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Mercer, Hugh, death of, 295. " Merrimac " and " Columbia," 578 ; " Mon- itor" and, 579; destruction of, 580, 585. Mexico, declaration of war with, 489; Max- imilian in, 652. Mexico, City of, capture of, 495. Michigan, admission of, 475; history and industries of, 476 n. Milan Decree, 429. Minnesota, admission of, 530; history and industries of, 530 n. Mint at Philadelphia, 402. Minuit, Peter, in New Netherland, 73 ; at Fort Christina, 81. Missionary Ridge, battle of, 610. Mississippi, admission of, 447 ; history and industries of, 448 n ; secession of, 535 ; readmission of, 649. Mississippi River, discovery of, 14; La Salle at the mouth of, 131; overflow of, 697. Missouri, admission of, 448 ; history and industries of, 451 «; remains in the Union, 563. Missouri Compromise, 448. Mobile Bay, battle of, 623. Mobile founded, 140. Modoc Indians, 103 ; in the Northwest, 658. "Monitor" and "Merrimac," 579; on the James, 585. Monmouth, battle of, 323-325. Monroe, James, life of, 447 n ; Minister to France, 426; elected President, 444; in- auguration of, 445 ; re-elected President, 445- Monroe Doctrine, 449. Montana, admission of, 699; history and industries of, 695 n. Montcalm, Marquis de, in command, 149; at Ticonderoga, 152; at Quebec, 154; death of, 157. Monterey, battle of, 49T ; capture of, 492. Montgomery, Ala., capital of the Confed- erate States, 536; government removed from, 554. Montgomery, Richard, death of, 270. Montreal, settlement of, 17, 122 ; expedition against, 136; surrender of, 158; capture of, 269. Monts, de, Pierre, founds Port Royal, 126. Morgan, Daniel, at Ninety-Six, 355; at Cowpens, 356. Mormons, account of, 495 n. Morrill Tariff Act, 631. Morris, Gouverneur, in the Federal Con- vention, 381. Morris, Robert, financial agent, 353 n ; in the Federal Convention, 381. Morristown, Washington at, 295, 340. Morse, S. F. B., inventor, 486 «. Morton, L. P., elected Vice-President, 674. Motley, J. L., historian, 709. Mott, Rebecca, burns her home, 358 n. Moultrie, William, at Port Royal, 336. Mound Builders, 98. Mount Hope, R. I., home of King Philip, 117. Mount Vernon, 420 n. " Mugwumps " revolt, 6"]^^. Municipal government, 736. Murfreesboro, battle of, 573. Musgrave, Sir Thomas, at Germantown, 300. Napoleon, treaty with, 418. Narragansett Indians, no, 114. Nashville, battle of, 572 ; occupied by the Union army, 569; siege of, 621. National Bank, establishment of, 402 ; re- chartered, 444. National bank system, 634. National-Republican party formed, 464. Nationality of the colonists, 165. Naumkeag, settlement of, 57. Navigation Acts, 172. Navigation Laws, 202. Navy, in 1812, 437; in 1813, 438; on Lake Erie, 439. Nebraska, admission of, 653 ; history and industries of, 652 n. Negro labor in 1775, 168. Nevada, admission of, 635 ; history and in- dustries of, 634 n. New Albion named, 15. Newark, British army at, 289. Newbern, battle of, 596. New Brunswick, N. J., British army at, 289. New England, Church of England in, 179; Sunday in, 198; colonial commerce in, 205; Union, 189. Newfoundland, fisheries of, 16; attempted settlement at, 26; settlement at, 75. New France named, 130. New Hampshire, colony of, 63; rejects amendment, 376. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 431 New Haven, settlement of, 65 ; before the Revolution, 166. New Jersey, claimed by the Dutch, 83; colony of, 85 ; Church of England in, 179 ; Puritan churches in, 180. New London, burning of, 353. New Mexico, conquest of, 492; made a territory, 502 ; Territory of, 699. New Netherland, colony of, 72 ; becomes New York, 74; schools in, 174. New Orleans, settlement of, 140; battle of, 443 ; abandoned by the Confederates, 574. New parties in 1825, 463. Newport, Christopher, sails, 2)7' Newport, site of Old Stone Mill, 3 n ; har- bor entered, 16; before the Revolution, r66; seizure of, 291 ; attack upon, 328. New Somersetshire. See Maine. Newtown, moves to Connecticut, 64. New York, harbor entered, 16; granted to the Duke of York, 74; before the Rev- olution, 166; Church of England in, [79; Assembly, 187; the strategic point, 281 ; evacuated, 285; rejects amendment, 376; naval parade, 696. Nez Perces Indians, 103. Nicaragua Canal, 698. Ninety-Six, attack of, 342; threatened, 355 ; siege of, 358. Non-Conformists in England, 49. Non-Importation agreements, 201. Non-Intercourse Act, 431 ; repealed, 433. Norfolk navy-yard, 578; evacuation of, 585. Norsemen discover Greenland, 3. North, Lord, Prime Minister, 226; resig- nation of, 364. North America, discovery of, 9. Northampton, Mass., massacre at, 115. North Carolina, colony of, 90; and inde- pendence, 271 ; rejects amendment, 376,* ratifies Constitution, 383 ; secession of, 554. North Castle Heights, 285. North compared with South, 538-547. North Dakota, admission of, 699. Northern Pacific Railroad, 659. Northmen discover Greenland, 3. Northwest Passage sought, 24, 25, 39, ^on. Northwest Territory, 405. Norway, emigration from, 718. Nullification doctrine, 469. Oglethorpe, James, establishes a colony, 92. O'Hara, Charles, surrenders the sword of Cornwallis, 362. Ohio, admission of, 425; history and in- dustries of, 426 n. Ohio Company formed, 142. Oklahoma Territory, 699. Old South Church, 178, 222, 223. Old Stone Mill, 3 n. "Omnibus Bill," 501. Orangeburg, capture of, 358. Orchard Knob, capture of, 611. Orders in Council, 429. Oregon, visited by Drake, 15; disputed ownership of, 485; admission of, 530; history and industries of, 531 n. Oregon Short Line, 659. Orinoco River, discovery of, 8 « ; explora- tion of, 27 n. Orleans, Island of, Cartier at, 17. Osgood, Samuel, Postmaster-General, 401. Oswald, Richard, British commissioner, 366. Otis, James, life of, 204 « ; opposes Writs of Assistance, 209; opposes Stamp Act, 211; foresees independence, 240. Pacific Coast, discovery of, 11; explora- tion of, 15. Pakenham, Sir Edward, at New Orleans, 443- Palo Alto, battle of, 490. Palos, Columbus sails from, 7 ; returns to, 8. Panic of 1837, 478; of 1873, 664. Paper Money, 375, 599. Paris, treaty of, 365-369. Parker, Sir Peter, seizes Newport, 291 ; at Savannah, 336. Parkman, Francis, historian, 709. Patents issued, 728. Patroon War, 486 «. Paulding, John, arrests Andre, 349 n. Paulus Hook, capture of, 331. Pawtucket, R. I., cotton mills at, 458. Peal:)ody, George, philanthropist, 726. Peck, J. J., at Suffolk, 595. Pedrick, John, warns people of Salem, 241. Pemberton, J. C, at Vicksburg, 60S. Pendleton, G. H., candidate for Vice- President, 636. " Pendleton Civil Service Bill," 686. 432 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Peninsular Campaign, 581-589. Penn, William, purchases Delaware, 82 ; proprietor of Pennsylvania, 95; forms '* Frame of Government," 97. Pennsylvania, colony of, 95 ; University of, 175; religious freedom in, 183; a pro- prietary colony, 186. Pensacola, seizure of, 446. People's party formed, 675. Pepperell, Sir William, at Louisburg, 141. Pequot War, loS; treaty broken, 109; war general, no; results, 112. Percy, Lord, leads reinforcements, 246 ; at New York, 282. Perry, M. C, opens the ports of Japan, 527. Perry, O. H., on Lake Erie, 439. Perryville, battle of, 572. Petersburg, Cornwallis. at, 359 j siege of, 615, 616; evacuation of, 625. Philadelphia, settlement at, 96 ; before the Revolution, 166; occupied by the British, 299; British at, 317 ; evacuation of, 323; Federal Convention at, 380-382 ; the national capital, 402 ; Centennial Exhi- bition at, 663. Philip IL, King of Spain, 21, 21 «. Philip of Pokanoket, 113. Phillips, Wendell, orator, 518. Phips, Sir William, at Port Royal, 136. Phonograph, invention of, 728. Pickens, Andrew, partisan leader, 343. Pickering, Timothy, at Salem, 242 ; Post- master-General, 401, 409. Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg, 605. Pierce, Franklin, life of, 522 it ; elected President, 506. Pigot, Sir Robert, at Bunker Hill, 255. Pilgrims, in Holland, 50; decide to leave Holland, 51 ; sail for America, 52 ; occu- pations at Leyden, 52 11 ; arrive at Plym- outh, 53. Pillow, G. J., at Belmont, 564; at Fort Donelson, 568. Pinckney, C. C, envoy to France, 417 ; candidate for President, 432. Pinzon, the family aid Columbus, 7. Pitcaim, John, at Concord, 243. Pitt, William, Secretary of State, 150. Pittsburg, riots in, 692. Plantations in 1775, 169. Plymouth, Eng., Pilgrims sail from, 52. Plymouth, Mass., Pilgrims arrive at, 53; first winter at, 55. Plymouth Company, receives charter, 33; dissolved, 36, Pocahontas, and John Smith, 42 ; later life of, 43 n. Poe, E. A., poet, 707. Point Comfort, Va., named, 38. Pokanoket Indians, T13. Poland, emigration from, 718. Political scandals, 665. Polk, J. K., life of, 488 n ; elected President, 487. Polygamy, Anti, Act, 698. Pomeroy, Seth, at Bunker Hill, 256. Pope, John, at Island No. 10, 572 ; at second Bull Run, 590. Popham, George, forms settlement, 36. Popham, Sir John, 32. Popham Colony, 36. Population, of the colonies, 164, 200; in 1790. 391; in 1825, 453; in 1896, 731; growth of, 730. Porter, Fitz-John, at Hanover Court House, 585- Port Hudson, occupation of, 575; capture of, 608. Porto Rico, expedition from, 13. Port Royal, N. S., founded, 126; capture of, 136; second capture of, 139. Port Royal, S. C, settlement of, 88, 123; British at, 336; capture of, 596. Portsmouth, N. H., settlement of, 62; be- fore the Revolution, 166. Portsmouth, R. I., battle at, 328. Portugal, Columbus seeks help from, 7. Portuguese, explorations of, 5. Postage, cheaper, 698. Potomac, army of, established, 560. Powers, Hiram, sculptor, 713. Powhatan, Indian chief, 42. Presbyterian Church, 179. Prescott, Richard, capture of, 290 «. Prescott, William, at Breed's Hill, 253 ; at Bunker Hill, 256. Prescott, W. H., historian, 709. President of the United States, 387. Presidential electors, 387. Presidential Succession Act, 688. Preston, Capt., trial of, 217. Prevost, Augustine, at Brier Creek, 337. Price, Sterling, at Carthage, 564. Prideaux, John, death of, 154. Princeton, battle of, 293-295. Princeton College, 175. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 433 Printing before 1775, 176. Printing-press, establishment of, 5 ; cylinder, invention of, 728. Professions before 1775, 177. Prohibition, 727. Prohibition party formed, 673. Proprietary colonies, 186. Protective tariffs, 450, 459. Providence, settlement at, 66 ; before the Revolution, 166. Provincetown, Pilgrims arrive at, 53. Public schools, 174, 720. Pueblo Indians, 103. Pulaski, Count, death of, 339. Pullman boycott, 693. Punishments in the colonies, 188. Puritan churches in New England, 180. Puritans in England, 48 ; civil war of, 56. Putnam, Israel, at Bunker Hill, 256; in command, 267. Quakers in England, 94; in New Eng- land, 182. Quebec, settlement of, 126; expedition against, 136, 139; battle of, 154-157; expedition against, 269. Quebec Act, 229. Queen Anne's War, 138-140. Queenstown Heights, battle of, 436. Quincy, Josiah, defends British soldiers, 218 ; address on the tea tax, 223. Races, difficulties between, 107. Railroads in the United States, 659. Raleigh, Sir Walter, sends out a colony, 27 ; life of, 27 ji. Randolph, E. J., a party leader, 403; At- torney-General, 401, 409. Randolph, Peyton, in the Continental Con- gress, 236, 263. Read, George, in the Federal Convention, 381. Readmission of Southern States, 649. Reaping-machine, invention of, 728. Reciprocity, 684. Reconstruction, 645-649. Reformation, Protestant, 47. Rehoboth, Mass., massacre at, 115. Reid, Whitelaw, candidate for Vice-Presi- dent, 675. Religion in the United States, 723. Representatives, House of, 385. Republican party formed, 528. Resaca, battle of, 618. Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 49a Resources of the colonies, 169-173. Resumption of specie payment, 678. Revenue, surplus distributed, 474. Reynolds, J. F., death of, 603. Rhode Island, colony of, 67 ; schools in, 174; religious freedom in, 183; a charter colony, 185; General Assembly of, 187; and the Continental Congress, 232 ; de- clares independence, 272 ; rejects amend- ments, 376; ratifies the Constitution, 383. Ribault, John, makes a settlement, 19, 123. "Richard, Bon Homme," and the "Se- japis," 334. Richmond, burning of, 353 ; made Confed- erate capital, 554; army at, 556; fortifi- cations of, 561 ; panic at, 585 ; evacuation of, 625. Religious freedom, 183, 461, 724. Roanoke Inlet, entered by Drake, 28. Roanoke Island, first colony at, 27 ; second colony at, 29 ; capture of, 596. Robinson, John, pastor at Leyden, 50. Rogers, Randolph, sculptor, 713. Rosecrans, W. S., at Stone River, 573 ; at Chickamauga, 609. Ross, Betsey, and the Stars and Stripes, 311 «. Ross, Robert, in Maryland, 441. Royal colonies, 186. Rush, Richard, candidate for Vice-Presi- dent, 467. Russia, emigration from, 718. Rutland, Burgoyne's army at, 311. Rutledge, John, in the Continental Con- gress, 236; in the Federal Convention, 381. Ryswick, treaty of, 137. Sagas, Norse stories, 3, 4. St. Augustine, settlement at, 21, 124; cap- ture of, 596. St. Clair, Arthur, and the Indians, 406. St. Johns, Que., capture of, 269. St. Lawrence, fisheries of, 16; exploration of, 17. St. Leger, Barry, in the Mohawk Valley, 304- St. Mary's, Md., settlement at, 77; before the Revolution, 166. 28 434 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) St. Simon, Count de, joins Lafayette, 360. Salem, first church in, 59 « ; before the Rev- olution, 166; witchcraft in, 184; armed resistance at, 242. Samoset welcomes the English, 113 «. Sandwich Islands, Republic of Hawaii, 700. San Francisco, capture of, 492. San Juan Island, dispute concerning, 657. Santa Anna, at Buena Vista, 491 ; at Cerro Gordo, 494. Saratoga, surrender at, 310. Savage's Station, battle of, 588. Savannah, settlement at, 93 ; capture of, 336 ; siege of, 33S ; capture of, 622. '* Savannah," voyage of, 456. " Scalawags," 668. Schenectady, N. Y., massacre at, 136. Schofield, J. M., at Franklin, 621 ; at Golds- boro, 627. Schools, public, 174, 720. Schuyler, P. J., at Ticonderoga, 302. Scotch-Irish immigrants, 165. Scott, Winfield, life of, 492 // ; at Chippewa, 440 ; at Vera Cruz, 493 ; at Puebla, 494 ; candidate for President, 506 ; in com- mand, 558 ; retires from the army, 560. Scrooby, first home of the Pilgrims, 50. Seamen, American, 430. " Search and Impressment," 430. Secession, 535. Sedition laws, 419. Seminole Indians in Florida, 446. Senate of the United States, 385 ; equal representation in, 514. Separatists, in England, 49. "Serapis," fight with, 334. Servants in the colonies, 168. Settlements before the Revolution, 166. Sevier, John, at King's Mountain, 345. Seward, W. H., life of, 505 n. Sewing machines, invention of, 728. Seymour, Horatio, candidate for President, 654- Shackamaxon, treaty of, 96 n. " Shannon " and " Chesapeake," 438. Shelby, Isaac, at King's Mountain, 345. Shenandoah Valley, Johnston in, 559; Banks in, 582. Sheridan, P. H., life of, 619 «; at Stone River, 573; at Winchester, 617 ; at Five Forks, 624. Sherman, John, Secretary of the Treasury, 678. Sherman Silver Bill, 679. Sherman, Roger, in the Continental Con- gress, 236; in the Federal Convention, 381. Sherman, W. T., life of, 626 n; at Lookout Mountain, 611; at Knoxville, 612; in command, 613; in Georgia, 618, 620; marches to the sea, 622; in the Caro- linas, 627. Shiloh, battle of, 570. Ship Island, Farragut at, 574. Shirley, William, at Niagara, 148. Shoshone Indians, 103. Silliman, Benjamin, chemist, 710. Silver question, 679. Simms, W. G., writings of, 706. Sioux Indians in the Northwest, 658. Skelton, John, pastor at Salem, 59. Slater, J. F., philanthropist, 726. Slavery agitation, 507-529. Slavery and the cotton-gin, 510. Slavery, effect upon the South, 512. Slavery, North and South, 507. Slavery question in 1820, 447. Slave trade, 508. Slaves, in the colonies, 168; in 1789,394; condition of, 511 ; colonization of, 513. Slidell, John, capture of, 576. Sloat, J. D., in California, 492. Smith, Francis, at Concord, 243. Smith, John, member of the Virginia Com- pany, 32; "Generall Historie," 33//; sails for Virginia, 37 ; early life of, 39 u ; trial of, 40; seeks Northwest passage, 40//; and Pocahontas, 42. Somers, Sir George, admiral, 43. Sons of Liberty, 211. Soto, Ferdinand de, discoveries of, 14. South, the, and the election of Lincoln, 534 ; compared with the North, 538-547 ; after the war, 642; industries of, 714-715. South America, discovery of, 8 «. Southampton, Eng., Pilgrims at, 52. South Carolina, colony of, 90; Puritan churches in, 180; and independence., 273; secession of, 535. South Dakota, admission of, 699. South Mountain, battle of, 591. South Sea named, 11. Southern Pacific railroad, 659. Sower, Christopher, printer, 202 «. Sparks, Jared, historian, 709. Specie circular, 478. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 435 Specie payments, resumption of, 678. " Spoils system," 685. Spokane Indians, 103. Springfield, Mass., massacre at, 115. Springfield, N. J., battle of, 332. " Squatter sovereignt)*^" 522. Stamp Act passed, 210; Congress, 212; repealed, 214. Standish, Myles, captain at Plymouth, 55. Stanton, E. M., Secretary of War, 651. " Star Spangled Banner," 441 n. Stark, John, in command, 256 ; at Benning- ton, 303 ; at Springfield, 332. Stars and Stripes first made, 311. Stephens, Alexander, life of, 537 n ; elected Vice-President of the Confederate States, 536 ; foresight of, 538. Steuben, Baron von, reorganizes the army, 321. Stevenson, A. E., elected Vice-President, 675. Stillwater, battle of, 307. Stirling, Lord, at New York, 282. Stockton, R. F., in California, 492. Stone, C. P., at Ball's Bluff, 562. Stone River, battle of, 573. Stony Point, garrisoned, 329; capture of, 330- Story, W. W., sculptor, 713. Stowe, Mrs. H. B., novelist, 520. Strikes, 692. Stringham, S. H., at Hatteras Inlet, 596. Stuart, Gilbert, artist, 712. Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New Neth- erland, 73. Sub-Treasury, 479. Suffolk, siege of, 595. Suffrage question, 736. Sullivan, John, at Long Island, 284 ; joins Washington, 290; at Newport, 328; and the Indians, 333. Sumner, Charles, life of, 526 /z; attack upon, 526. Sumner, E. V., at Fair Oaks, 587. Sumter, Thomas, at Hanging Rock, 343; in the Carolinas, 358. Superstition in the colonies, 184. Supreme moment in American history, 155. Surplus revenue distributed, 474. Swamp fight, 116. Swansea, massacre at, 115. Sweden, emigration from, 718. S?wit2;erland, emigration from, 457, 718. Talleyrand and the American envoys, 417. Tampa Bay, de Soto land at, 14. Tariffs, 451. Tariff, of 1828, 465; of 1832, 470; of 1883. 68r ; of 1890, 682; of 1894 and 1897, 683 *' Tariff of Abominations," 465. Tariff reform, 682. Tariff question, 736. Tarleton, Sir Bannastre, in the Carolinas, 345 ; at Cowpens, 356 ; and Col. Wash- ington, 356 «. Tarrytown, arrest of Andre at, 349. Taunton, Mass., massacre at, 115. Taxation, American theory of, 207; Eng. lish theory of, 208. Taylor, Richard, surrender of, 627. Taylor, Zachary, life of, 500 n ; in Mexico, 489; elected President, 499; death of, ^ 504- Tecumseh forms confederacy, 434. Telegraph, magnetic, 486 w. Telephone, invention of, 728. Temperance, societies, 505; in the United States, 727 ; question, 736. Tennessee, admission of, 402 ; history and industries of, 406 «; secession of, 554; readmission of, 649. " Tenure of Office Act," 650. Territorial growth, 729. Territory in 1825, 454. Terry, A. H., at Goldsboro, 627. Texas, Republic of, 483; annexation of, 484; boundary dispute concerning, 488; history and industries of, 489 «; seces- sion of, 535; readmission of, 649. Thames, battle of the, 439. Thirteenth Amendment, 644. Thomas, G. H., at Stone River, 573; at Chickamauga, 609; at Orchard Knob, 611 ; at Nashville, 621. Thomas, John, in command, 247. Thoreau, H. D., the recluse, 708. Thurman, A. G., candidate for Vice-Presi- dent, 674. Tilden, S. J., candidate for President, 669. Tippecanoe, battle of, 434. " Tippecanoe and Tyler too," 480. Tobacco first carried to England, 29 n. Tompkins, Daniel D., elected Vice-Presi- dent, 444; re-elected, 445. Topeka Constitution, 524. " To the victor belpng the spoils," 467. 436 INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) Town meetings in New England, 178. Travel, by land, 455; by water, 456. Travel in the colonies, 199. Treaty, of 1763, 158-162; of 1783,367; of 1814, 443; of 1848, 497. Trent affair, the, 576. Trenton, British army at, 289; capture of, 292. Tripoli, war with, 428. Trumbull, John, the artist, 712. Tyler, John, life of, 483 n ; elected Vice- President, 480 ; becomes President, 481 ; and the Texas question, 484. "Uncle Tom's Cabin, 520. Union of Colonies, Albany, 144. Union Pacific Railroad, 659. United Colonies of New England, 112. United States, geography of, 163; Bank, 472; bonds, 633; internal revenue, 632; national advantages of, 734 ; natural ad- vantages of, 733. " United States " and the " Macedonian," 437. Utah, made a territory, 502; admission of, 699 ; history and industries of, 699 n. Utah Indians, 103. Utrecht, treaty of, 139. Valley Forge, American winter quarters at, 318. Van Buren, Martin, life of, 477 n ; elected Vice-President, 471 ; elected President, 476; not re-elected, 480. Vanderlyn, John, artist, 712, Van Twiller, Walter, governor of New Netherland, ']-}^. Van Wart, Isaac, arrests Andre, 349 n. Venezuelan Commission, 701. Venice, trade with the East, 5. Vera Cruz, siege of, 493. Vermont, admission of, 402; history and industries of, 404 n. Verplanck's Point, garrisoned, 329. Verrazano, Giovanni de, explores the Atlan- tic Coast, 16, 121. Vespucci, Amerigo, gives name to America, 10. " Vesuvius " on the Mississippi, 456. Vicksburg, fortified, 575; capture of, 608. Vincennes, settlement at, 140; capture of, 327- Vinland, discovery of, 4. Vergennes' prophecy, 161. Virginia, named, 27 ; company formed, 32 ; colonists, character of, 39 ; first days of, 40; first summer, 41; abandoned, 44; burgesses first summoned, 46; Church of England in, 179; House of Burgesses, 187; takes steps toward independence, 274; British raids in, 329; calls a con- vention, 378; resolutions of 1798, 420; negro insurrection in, 515; secession of, 554; Confederate army in, 556; readmis- sion of, 649. Walla Walla Indians, 103. Wallace, Lew, at Shiloh, 570 n. Waltham, cotton mills at, 458. War, of 1812, 433-443; with Mexico, 488- 497- Ward, Artemas, in command, 247, 266. Warner, Seth, at Crown Point, 252. Warren, Joseph, life of, 261 n ; speaker of the Massachusetts House, 234; death of, 259- Warren, Sir Peter, at Louisburg, 141. Washington, George, life of, 400 «; early life of, 142;?; at Fort Du Quesne, 143; retreat of, 147 ; in Continental Congress, 236, 263; Commander-in-chief, 264; at Cambridge, 265 ; at Dorchester Heights, 268; at New York, 283; retreats from Brooklyn, 284; at North Castle Heights, 285; crosses the Hudson, 286; in New Jersey, 287; crosses the Delaware, 289; captures Trenton, 292 ; at Princeton, 293-295; at Morristown, 295; defends Philadelphia, 297 ; at Brandywine, 298 ; at Valley Forge, 319; at Monmouth, 324; plans to capture Arnold, 352; plans to crush Cornwallis, 360; at Yorktown, 362 ; in the Federal Convention, 380; elected President, 400; inauguration of, 401;/; re-elected President, 409; third term, 413; farewell address, 4n 4; Commander- in-chief, 418; death of, 421 ; and slavery, 509; State papers of, 703. Washington, admission of, 699; history and industries of, 694 n. Washington, national capital, 402 ; Capitol burned, 441; Union army at, 556; pro- tection of, 582 ; panic in, 586 ; army re- viewed at, 639; treaty of, 655. Washingtonian Temperance Society, 727. " Wasp " and " Frolic," 437. INDEX. (The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 437 Watertown moves to Connecticut, 64. Wayne, Anthony, at Stony Point, 330 ; life of, 330 ;/ ; and the Indians, 406. Weaver, J. B., candidate for President, 672, 675. Webster, Daniel, life of, 469 n ; and Hayne, 468 ; candidate for President, 476 ; death of, 504. Webster-Ashburton treaty, 482. Webster, Noah, author, 710. West, Benjamin, artist, 712. West, Sir Thomas, life of, 45 11 ; governor of Virginia, 43 ; arrives in Virginia, 45. West, the great, industries of, 717. West Indies, discovery of, 8; commerce with, 205. West Jersey, colony of, 84. West Point, Southern officers trained at, 540. West Virginia, admission of, 635; history and industries of, 636 n. Wethersfield, settlement of, 64. Wheeler, W. A., elected Vice-President, 669. Whig party named, 476. Whiskey Insurrection, 408. " Whiskey Ring," 665. White, H. L., candidate for President, 476. White, John, of Roanoke Island, 29. White, John, forms the Dorchester Com- pany, 57. White Oaks Swamp, battle of, 588. White Plains, battle of, 285. Whitney, Eli, invents the cotton gin, 397. Whittier, J. G., poet, 707. " Wild Cat Banks," 477. Wilderness, battles of the, 614. Wilkes, Charles, captures Mason and Sli- dell, 576. William, Emperor, and the Northwest boundary, 657. William and Mary College, 175. Williams, David, captures Andre, 349 it. Williams, James, at King's Mountain, 345. Williams, Roger, at Providence, 66, 181 ; and the Narragansetts, no. Williamsburg, before the Revolution, 166; Lafayette at, 360; battle of, 584. Wilmot proviso, 496. Wilson, Henry, elected Vice-President, 666. Wilson, James, in the Federal Convention, 381. Wilson's Creek, battle of, 564. Winchester, battle of, 617. Windsor, settlement of, 64. Wingfield, Edward Maria, 32 ; sails for Vir- ginia, 37 ; in the Council, 39. Winthrop, John, life of, 60 «; governor of Massachusetts Bay, 60. Winthrop, R. C, at Yorktown, 361 n. Wisconsin, admission of, 496 ; history and industries of, 498 n. Witchcraft in the colonies, 184. Witherspoon, John, in the Continental Con- gress, 236. Wolfe, James, at Quebec, 154-157; death of, 157 ; on the river, 157 n. World, as known in the fifteenth century, i. World's Columbian Exposition, 696. Writs of Assistance, 209. Wyoming, admission of, 6995 history and industries of, 697 ;/. Wyoming, Penn., Indian massacre at, 325. Yakama Indians, 103. Yale College, 175. Yankee, origin of the term, 244 n. Yeardsley, George, governor of Virginia, 46. Yellow fever epidemic, 697. Yorktown, siege of, 361 ; anniversary of 361 n ; surrender at, 362 ; evacuation of, 583- ZuNi Indians, 103. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Abercrombie, (ab'er-krum- bi). Acadia, (a-ka'di-a). Aix-la-Chapelle, (aks-lah- sha-pel'). Albemarle, (arbe-marle). Alleghany, (are-ga-ny). Mtamaha, (arta-ma-hah'). Amherst, (am'urst). Andre, (an'dra or au'dri). Andros, (ai/dros). Annapohs, {an-nap'5-lis). Apaches, (a-pah'chaz). Appalaches, (ap-a-la'chez). Appalachian, (ap-a-la'chi- an). Arbuthnot, (ar'buth-not). Arkansas, (ar'kan-saw) . Astoria, (as-t5'ri-a). Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, (vas'co nuu'yath de Bal- bo'a). Barbadoes, (bar-ba'doz). Bartolomeo, (bar-tol-o-ma'o). Berkeley, (berk'li). Bermudas, (ber-mu'daz). Beverly, (bev'er-ly). Bon Homme Bichard, (bun- hum-rich'ard). Boscawen, (bos'ka-wen). Bowdoin, (bo'd'n). Braddock, (brad'dok). Breton, (bret'on). Brewster, (brob'ster). Buena Vista, (bwa'nah-ves' tab). Burgesses, (bur'ges-ses). Burgoyne, (bur-goyn'). Cabal, (ka-bal'). Calvert, (kal'vert). Campbell, (kam'el or kam' bel). Caooes, (ka-nooz'). Cape Breton, (cape bret'on). Carteret, (kar'ter-et). Cartier, (kar-te-a'). Champe, John, (John champ). Champlain, (sham-plain'). Charlotte, (shar'lot). Chavagnac, (sh a- van-yak'). Chickahominy, (chik-a-hom' i-ny). Chihuahua, (che-wah'wah). Clement, (klem'ent). Coahuila, (ko-ah-we'la). Coligny, (ko-len'ye). Colonial, (ko-lo'-ni-al). Comfort, Point, (point kum' fort). Conant, (ko'nant). Constantinople, (con-stan-ti- n5'ple). Cornelius, (kor-nel'yus). Corpus Christi, (kor'pus kris'ti). Craddock, (krad'dok). Creeks, (kreks). Croix, (kroy). Cuttyhunk, (cut-ty-hunk'). De Grasse, (deh-gras'). De La Place, (deh lah plas'). Delaware, (del'a-ware). Delft-haven, (delft-ha'ven). D'Estaing, (des-tan'). Diaz, (de'az). D'Iberville, (de-ber-ver). Dorchester, (dor'ches-ter). D'Orvilliers, (dor-ve'ye-a'). Du Quesne, (du-kane'). Eli, (e'll). Endicott, (en'di-kot). Episcopal, (e-pis 'co-pal). Ericson, (erlk-sen). Faneuil, (fan'i^l). Frelinghuysen, (freling-hi- zen). Probisher, (fr5'bish-er). Frolic, (frol'ik). Genoa, (jen'o-a). Gerry, (ger'ry, not jer'ry). Girard, (ji-rard'). Gorges, (gor'jez). Gosnold, (gos'nold). Gourgues, (goorg). Groton, (gro'ton). Guadalupe, (gwah-dah- loop'). Guanahani, (gwah-nah-hah'- ne). Guilford, (gil'ford). Gustavus, (giis-tah'-vus). Hakluyt, (hak'loot). Harlem, (har'lem). Heister, (his'ter). Henrietta Maria, (hen-ri- et'a ma-ri'a). Hesse-Cassel, (hes'kas'el). Hessian, (hesh'an). Hidalgo, (e-dal'go). Higginson, (hig'gin-son). Hobkirk, (hob'kirk). Hochelaga, (hok-a-lah'gah). Hutchinson, Anne, (ann hutch'in-son). Huguenot, (hu'ge-not). Illinois, (il-T-noy'). Iroquois, (Tr-o-quoi''). Joliet, (zho-lya'). Knyphausen, (knip'how- zen). Lafayette, (lah-fa-yef). La Salle, (lah sal'). Laudonniere , ( 16 'don'ne-ai r'J. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 439 Iifturens, (lau'renz). Leger, (lej'er). Leslie, (lez'li). Leyden, (li'-dn). Los Angeles, (15s an'je-les). Loudon, (low'don). Louis, (lool). Louisburg, (lools-burg). Louisiana, (loo-e-zi-an'a). MacDonough, (mac-don'o). Magellan, (ma-jerian). Marquette, (mar-ket')- Massacre, (mas'sa-ker). Massasoit, (mas'sa-soit'). Mecklenburg, (mek'len- burg). Menendez, (ma-nen'deth). Miami, (ml-am'i). Milan, (miran). Minuit, Peter, (pe'ter min' u-it). Miquelon, (me-ke-lon'). Mississippi, (mis-i-sip'i). Monongahela, (m5-n6n-gah- hriah). Monsieur, (mo-ser'). Montcalm, (mont-kahm'). Moultrie, (mourtry). Nassau, (nas'sau). Naumkeag, (naum'keg). Netherlander s, (neth'er-lan- ders). Newcastle, (nu'casl). Nez Perces, (na-par-sa'). Niagara, (nl-ag'ah-rah). Nueces, (nwa'ses). Nuisance, (nu'sance). Nullification, (nul-i-fi-ca' shun). Oglethorpe, (o'gl-thorp). Orleans, (or'le-anz), Palos, (pah-los'). Parliament, (parli-ment), Pawtucket, (paw-tiick'et). Pedro, (pe'dro). Peekskill, (pek'skil). Pequot, (pe'qwot). Pierce, Franklin, (frank'lin pers). Pierre, (pe-air'). Pierre de Monte, (pe-air' de mon'). Piscataqua, (pis-kat'ah-qwa). Pitcairn, (pit'-kairn). Pocahontas, (po-kah-hon' tas). Pokanokets, (po-ka-no'kets). Pomeroy, (pum'e-roi). Ponce de Leon, (pon'tha da la-6n')- Popham, (pop'ham). Powhatan, (pou'ha-tan'). Prevost, (pre-v6'). Prideaux, (prid'o). Provincial, (pio-vTn'shal). Prussia, (prush'ya). Pueblos, (pweb'loz). Pulaski, (pu-las'ki). Quebec, (que-bec'). Queen Anne, (queen ann). Quinnipiack, (kwin-nip'i-ak)- Kaleigh, (raw'li). Randolph, (ran'dolf). Ratcliflfe, (rat'klif). Rehoboth, (re-ho'both). Ribault, (re'bo). Rio Grande, (re'o-gran'da). Roanoke, (ro-a-n5k'). Rocheblave, (rosh'blave). Rotch, (rotch). Ryswick, (riz'wik). Saint Croix, (saint croy). Saint Pierre, (san pe-air')- Samoset, (sam'o-set). Santa Fe, (san-tah-fa')- Santiago, (san-te-ah'go). Schuyler, (skfler). Schuylkill, (skoorkil). Scrooby, (skroo'by). Seekonk, (see'konk). Serapis, (se-ra'pis). Sevier, (se-ver'). Shackamaxon, (shak-a-max' on). Shoshones, (sho-sho'nez). Sioux, (soo). Somers, George, (jorge sum' erz). Somersetshire, (sum'er-set- sher or shire). Sowams, (so'wamz). Specie, (spe'she). Spokanes, (spo-kanes'). Stephens, (ste'venz). Stuyvesant, (strve-sant). Swansea, (swon'se). Sweden, (svvE'den). Taunton, (taun'ton) (au, as in aunt). Ticonderoga, (tI-con-der-5' ga). Tories, (to'riz). Utrecht, (u'trekt). Vera Cruz, (va'rah krooz). Vergennes, (ver-zhen'). Verplanck, (ver'plangk). Verrazano, (ver-raht-sah'no). Vespucci, (ves-poo'che). Vincennes, (vin-sen'). Von Heister, (von-hls'ter). Wabash, (vvah'bash). Wampanoags, (w6m-pah-no' agz). Ward, Artemas, (ar'te-mas ward). Westmoreland, (west'mor land). Wigwam, (wig'wom). Wyoming, (wT'o-ming). Yakamas, (yak'a-mahs). Zunis, (zoo'nyez). Valuable Text-Books for Higher-Grade Schools At Introductory Prices. ASTll01^03ir. THE ELEMENTS OF DESCRIPTIVE A3TR0K0MY". By Herbert A. Howe,'A.M., Sc.D., Pr«. lessor of As.ionomy in the University of Denser, Col. $1.36. THE COIfSTELLATIOWS AND HOW TO FIKD TEEM. By William Peck, F.R.A.S. $I.2So IIISTORV AND CIVICS. A HISTORY OF THE UTtlTED STATES FOR SCHOOLS. By W. A. Mowry, Ph.D., and A. M. MowRY. With numerous .lustrations, maps, and side-notes. $1.00. Sample pages 74iailed/ree. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY C? THE UNITED STATES. 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