TX 
 
 6G1 
 
 Bulletin No. 56. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 
 
 268 
 
 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS 
 
 OF 
 
 mSTRUCTION IR COOKmG 
 
 IN THE 
 
 PUPITC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 REPOKTEl- BY 
 
 ]VIrs. LOXJISK K. TJiOGrj'^tl 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCriON BV 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 189 9. 
 

•^ "T 
 
 Bulletin No. 56. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 
 
 268 
 
 6^jLc^ 
 
 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS 
 
 OF 
 
 mSTRUCTION m COOKING 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 REPORTED BY 
 
 ]Vtrs. LOUISE E. HOG-AIST, 
 
 WITH AN INTKODCCTION BY 
 
 A. C. TRUE, Fh. D. 
 
 WASHINGTON: . 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1899. 
 

w 
 
 
 ^ LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 u. s. derartment of agrictjlture, 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations, 
 
 Washington, D. C, January 25, 18D9. 
 
 Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the history 
 and ijresent status of instruction in cooking in the public schools of 
 New York City, prepared by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, under the super- 
 vision of Prof. W. O. Atwater, special agent in charge of nutrition 
 investigations, in accordance with iustructions given by the Director 
 of this Office. 
 
 The teaching of cooking as a branch of manual-trainiug" courses in 
 the primary and grammar grades of the public schools has been rapidly 
 increasing in favor among school oflBcers and the people in different 
 parts of the country. In connection with the nutrition investigations 
 in charge of this Office numerous inquiries have been received regarding 
 the scope and meaning of such courses and the practicability of their 
 further introduction into the common schools. To meet the evident 
 demand for information on this subject it has been thought desirable to 
 prepare an account of the progress and present development of the 
 teaching of cooking in one of our great educational centers. 
 
 In the collection of material for this report substantial aid has been 
 given by Dr. E. D. Shimer, associate superintendent of public schools 
 in ]^ew York City, Mrs. M. E. Williams, supervisor of cookery in the 
 New York schools, and other officers and teachers connected with the 
 schools of that city. 
 
 The rei^ort is transmitted with the recommendation that it be pub- 
 lished as Bulletin No. m of this Office. 
 
 Respectfully, A. C. True, 
 
 Director, 
 Hon. James Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 3 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Pago. 
 
 Introduction ^ 
 
 Report on cooking in the public schools of New York City 10 
 
 Appendix , 4:1 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on water 41 
 
 Pupils' exercises on lesson on water 42 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on air 43 
 
 Pupils' exercises on lesson on air 45 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on food — its chemistry 46 
 
 Pupil's exercise on lesson on food — its chemistry 46 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on cereals 47 
 
 Pupil's exercise on lesson on cereals 49 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on bread 50 
 
 Pupils' exercises on lesson on bread 52 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on baking powder — quick breads 53 
 
 Pupil's exercise on lesson on quick breads 53 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on the potato 54 
 
 Pupils' exercises on lesson on the potato 54 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on milk 55 
 
 Pupil's exercise on lesson on milk 57 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on eggs 58 
 
 Pupil's exercise on lesson on eggs 59 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on meat 60 
 
 Pupils' exercises on lesson on meat 61 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on beverages — tea and col uo 62 
 
 Pupils' exercises on lesson on tea and coffee 63 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on digestion 64 
 
 Pupils' exercises on lesson on digestion 65 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on fuel and combustion 66 
 
 Pupil's exercise on lesson on fuel and combustion 67 
 
 Syllabus of lesson on chemistry of cleaning 67 
 
 Pupil's exercise on lesson on chemistry of cleaning 69 
 
 Notes from the children's exercise books 69 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 rase. 
 
 Plate I. Girl cooking 41 
 
 II. Buucli of wheat 50 
 
 III. Fig. 1, Girl jjaring potatoes ; Fig. 2, Girl kneadiug bread 52 
 
 IV. Fig. 1, Yeast plants as seen under the microscope; Fig. 2, Cross 
 
 section of grain of wheat as seen under the microscope 53 
 
 V. Fig. 1, Milk as it appears under the microscoi>e; Fig. 2, Potato starch 
 
 as it appears under the microscope.. 54 
 
 VI. Diagram of cuts of beef - . . 61 
 
 VII. Fig. 1, Diagram of cuts of beef; Fig. 2, Diagram of cuts of lamb 61 
 
 Vni. Fig. 1, Small loin, or porterhouse; Fig. 2, limnyi of beef; Fig. 3, 
 
 Potato 61 
 
 IX. Fig. 1, A piece of beef as seen under the microscope; Fig. 2, Indi- 
 vidual beef fibers as seen under the microscope 61 
 
 X. Fig. 1, Branches of tea and coft'ee ; Fig. 2, Cereals 63 
 
 XI. Fig. 1, Apparatus for generating oxygen; Fig. 2, Articles used in 
 
 cleaning G7 
 
 XII. Fig. 1, Sewer traps: J, co-trap; B, o-trap; Fig. 2, Sink, showing 
 
 "half-co" trap 69 
 
 6 
 
HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF INSTRUCTION IN COOKING 
 IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 By A. C. Truk, Ph. D., 
 Director, Office of Experiment Stations. 
 
 Courses in manual training, including among numerous subjects 
 instruction in cooking, have in recent years been widely introduced, 
 into public and private schools of different grades in tliis country. 
 While at first encountering many objections regarding both their the- 
 oretical and i)ractical value, they have steadily increased in favor among 
 school officers and the people who sujjport and patronize the schools. 
 It has been found possible, as regards many of the subjects taught in 
 these courses, so to adjust the relations of the practical exercises to the 
 general educational features as to maintain the interest of pupils in 
 the more routine processes of education, while at the same time fur- 
 nishing them with some degree of practical skill and knowledge of 
 direct utility to them in the various industries on which the livelihood 
 of the masses of our population depend. 
 
 Another effect of manual training, which has already been observed 
 and which will increase in importance as such instruction is more widely 
 diffused, is largely to divest the common industries of those elements 
 of drudgery which tend to make them very distasteful to our more 
 intelligent youth. When the operations of the household,^^ the farm, 
 and the shop are shown to call for trained skill and scientific knowl- 
 edge in order that they may be most easily and efticiently performed, it 
 becomes apparent that these vocations, as well as the so-called profes- 
 sions, offer abundant opportunities for the exercise of educated brains. 
 Life in these industries is no longer a dull round of routine without 
 beauty or the hope of better things. ''I am going to an agricultural 
 college," said a farm boy this summer, "because I believe that what I 
 shall learn there will enable me to get more out of my land and give 
 me more interest and pleasure in my daily work on the farm.'' 
 
 It is true that such courses are of so comparatively recent introduc- 
 tion into our schools that they are far from" perfect in many of their 
 details and the opinions of experts are widely at variance on many ques- 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 tious affecting the exact extent and scope of industrial education. 
 The general usefulness of such education is, however, thoroughly estab- 
 lished and much has been accomplished in working out its adjustment 
 to the other departments of our educational system. 
 
 The teaching of cooking and other subjects connected with domes- 
 tic science and practice in our colleges, especially those receiving 
 appropriations from the National Treasury under the Morrill Act, spe- 
 cial cooking schools, principally under j)rivate auspices in our large 
 cities, and courses in cooking for young pupils in private and public 
 schools in many localities have attracted a rapidly increasing number 
 of students and engaged the services of competent and enthusiastic 
 teachers. Begun in a comparatively simple and practical way, tliese 
 courses have steadily demanded more elaborate equipment, more sys- 
 tematic and thorough instruction, and a larger basis of scientific and 
 pedagogical principles and facts. 
 
 Fortunately, the time has also been ripe for the rapid development of 
 original investigations at home and abroad along the lines of chemical 
 and biological studies relating to the food and nutrition of man. 
 Among the agencies which have enjoyed relatively ample means for 
 the prosecution of scientific inquiries in this direction have been the 
 Division of Chemistry and the Office of Experiment Stations of this 
 Department. Much of this work has been done in cooperation with 
 colleges, experiment stations, "social settlements," and other organiza- 
 tions in different parts of the country. The investigations pursued by 
 other Divisions of the Department have also contributed considerable 
 information of value to students in domestic science. Special efforts 
 have been made to acquaint officers and teachers of schools of difler- 
 ent grades with the results of this work and the publications of the 
 Department are now widely used in connection with such courses of 
 instruction. The accumulating mass of accurate data in this line of 
 scientific inquiry has enabled teachers to systematize and strengthen 
 their lessons on foods and cooking, as well as on the general principles 
 of nutrition. It has also shown the necessity of more thorough train- 
 ing of teachers of domestic science in order that their instruction may 
 be based on definite knowledge and that they may be able to distin- 
 guish between what is mere theory or matter of opinion and what is 
 actually ascertained fact. 
 
 As interest in the teaching of topics relating to the food and nutri- 
 tion of man has grown in this country this Department has been more 
 frequently called upon to furnish information regarding the scope and 
 purpose of such courses and the practicability of their further intro- 
 duction into our common schools. To meet this growing demand it 
 has been thought desirable to collate and publish an account of the 
 l)rogress and present development of the teaching of cookery in one of 
 our great educational centers. It is believed that this report will also 
 be of service in showing the defects, as well as the excellencies, of such 
 
courses as are ordinarily given in our schools. It will constitute mate- 
 rial for the further discussion of the principles and details of such 
 instruction with reference to tbeir perfection. It should, therefore, be 
 understood that the course and sample lessons herewith presented are 
 not given because they are believed to show a system which should be 
 followed in all its details, but rather because they are exponents of a 
 successful attempt to introduce the teaching of cookiug into the com- 
 mon schools of a large city, and indicate a serious purpose on the part 
 of oflBcers and teachers managing this course to adapt it to the actual 
 requirements of their schools and to change and improve it from time 
 to time as added experience shows ways in which it may be improved. 
 Another object in issuing this report is to show to those who are 
 vitally interested in the progress of the common schools in country dis- 
 tricts, because they themselves are residents of our rural communities, 
 something of the organized eft'ort which is being made to adapt the 
 courses of instruction in our city schools to the actual needs of the 
 youth as they go out into the real work of life. A great revolution is 
 going on in our educational system in the towns and cities. In a num- 
 ber of different directions opportunities are being offered the pupils in 
 our public schools in the larger communities to x>repare themselves 
 directly for the different industries of the home, the shop, and the fac- 
 tory. This movement has as yet hardly reached our rural schools, and 
 very many school officers in our smaller communities are not aware of 
 the progress which has been made in this direction in the towns. It is 
 believed, therefore, that a report on the teaching of cookery in New 
 York City is well worthy the attention of people living on farms and 
 in villages. If it is a good thing to have the girls of New Yotk City 
 taught better methods of cooking and the reasons why good house- 
 keeping is vitally connected with the health and general welfare of our 
 people, surely it must be equally desirable that up-to-date information 
 on such subjects should be imparted in our country schools. It is true 
 there are great difficulties to be overcome before such instruction can 
 be efficiently given in sparsely settled regions, but if once the principle 
 is established in the public mind that such instruction should be an 
 essential part of a common school course, without doubt ways and 
 means will be devised for its general dissemination. 
 
REPORT ON COOKING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF 
 NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 By Louise E. Hogan. 
 
 There is a growing interest in the subject of the food and nutrition 
 of man throughout the country. Our people are awakening to the 
 importance of the practical application of scientific research in this 
 direction, and the question naturally arises, What place should this 
 work take in the schools and to what extent can it be introduced? 
 The history of the movement that brought the teaching of cooking into 
 the public schools of New York City may serve to show the pedagogi- 
 cal as well as the practical value of this branch of manual training. 
 The object of presenting such a history is naturally constructive and is 
 intended to arouse further interest in this important educational move- 
 ment, to show its usefulness by the results already attained, and also 
 to suggest methods for its further extension. 
 
 In 1887 the board of education of New York City, after a very care- 
 ful inquiry into the subject of manual training, concluded that it might 
 be well to incorporate this work into the public school system and the 
 committee in charge stated it to be their opinion that the introduction 
 of what is generally known as manual training would be an improve- 
 ment in the course of study. 
 
 In consequence the board caused to be prepared a course in manual 
 training which began at the lowest primary grade and progressed 
 through every succeeding grade of the primary and grammar school 
 grades. This course was placed under the immediate control of the 
 committee on the course of study which was given authority to deter- 
 mine what modifications, if any, should be made in the course, and what 
 schools should be permitted to introduce it upon application of the 
 boards of school trustees. The first school to adopt the new course 
 entered upon it February 1, 1888, and by the end of December, 1890, no 
 less than 19,476 pupils were pursuing the regular manual training 
 course of study. 
 
 Commissioner Holt when presenting to the board the first report of the 
 committee on the course of study in regard to manual training said : 
 
 The committee on the course of study, to which was referred the subject of the 
 introduction of manual training- into our common schools, respectfully report that 
 they have given to the matter the careful, deliberate, and extensive consideration 
 and investigation which its importance demands. 
 
 Inquiry into its origin and development in Russia, Germany, France, England, and 
 other foreign countries shows that its leading purpose in Eurojie is to foster industrial 
 skill and to produce specialists — artisans — in order to advance the interests which 
 10 
 
11 
 
 these manufacturing nations have in domestic and foreign trade. Only incidental 
 reference is had in most cases to its general educational, disciplinary, and intellectual 
 relations. 
 
 It also appears that the department of education now generally known as manual 
 training was introduced into this country by certain broad-minded, practical educa- 
 tors, to whom its educational possibilities presented themselves as its chief claim 
 for adoption. 
 
 Under the lead and example of the educators referred to, much of the detail of the 
 plans and purposes of the European system has been judiciously modified, and the 
 sul)ject made more fit to be incorporated into our system of popular instruction. 
 
 It has long been a matter of deej) regret and even of apprehension that a large 
 proportion of our young people are growing up with a positive distaste for manual 
 labor. With an ever-increasing number almost any other form of occupation is 
 preferred. 
 
 The introduction of manual training in some one or more of its various forms into 
 many of the schools of higher educational institutions of the country has already 
 begun to exert an influence toward bringing about a better state of things. It can 
 not be doubted that this result must become more and more manifest when this 
 training in suitably modified forms becomes the common possession of schools and 
 pupils of every grade. 
 
 After consideration of the facts and arguments presented your committee has 
 come to the following conclusions: 
 
 (1) That the introduction of what is generally known as niamial training would 
 be an improvement to our present course of study. 
 
 (2) That manual training is admissible into our schools only as a means of general, 
 and not of special, education. 
 
 (3) That, notwithstanding the misdirection of some of the efforts heretofore made 
 in manual training, there arc certain manual operations which time and experience 
 have sufficiently tested to demonstrate their usefulness and their availability. 
 
 These operations have the following characteristics : They are such as to lead the 
 pupil to acquire correct conceptions of form through the careful and systematic 
 discijiline of his sense perceptions and to require as a test of the accuracy of these 
 conceptions their correct manual embodiment in material, and further, to give a 
 practical knowledge of natural laws and of the qualities of materials. 
 
 They are within the scope of the faculties of all children whose minds and bodies 
 are in a normal condition. Their results are of general, if not universal, utility as 
 personal acquirements, apart from the educational value of the process. They are 
 comparatively inexpensive, and their introduction will require but little room. 
 They can be taught with but moderate addition to our present force of teachers. 
 For such instruction the following, which are not included in our present course of 
 study, seem eminently suitable, viz, carpenter work, modeling in clay, construction 
 work, drawing to scale, sewing, cooking. 
 
 By judicious modification and extension the well-established methods of the 
 kindergarten may readily be made available for the primary and lowest grammar 
 school grades, so as to form with the subject already suggested a complete and 
 continuous course. 
 
 (4) That training in these branches, if adopted, should not be for a few selected 
 hundreds of school children, but should be made an essential part of the authorized 
 course of study for all. 
 
 (5) That the regularity and continuity of school work should not be interrupted 
 by sending out pupils for instruction elsewhere than in the school building to which 
 they belong. 
 
 (6) That the length of the school session should not be extended beyond the present 
 limit. 
 
 (7) That provision must be made for suspending the introduction of some of the 
 proposed work in certain schools. The carpenter work and the cooking will require 
 
12 
 
 the setting apart of a room for each purpose. This in some schools it would 1>e 
 impossible to do at once. It would probably not be possible in the first year to 
 introduce the kitchen and workshop into more than one-,third of the grammar- 
 school departments. 
 
 Duriug their deliberations the committee adopted resolutions for the 
 establishment of this work, one of which reads as follows : 
 
 Resolved, That in the girls' grammar schools cooking should be taught in the third 
 and second grades.' That instruction in cooking and shop work should be suspended 
 as to each school until a suitable room is provided through the action of the trustees. 
 That the instruction in shop work, cooking, and sewing should be under the direc- 
 tion of special teachers, who should be licensed, employed, and paid in the manner 
 now provided for special teachers. That to secure efficient instruction an additional 
 assistant superintendent should be appointed whose special duty should be to super- 
 vise under the city superintendent all the work in manual training in the primary 
 and grammar schools. 
 
 The estimated expense of introducing the kitchen outfits was $2( 
 per department, 60 departments, $12,000; kitchen supplies, $100 per 
 department, 60 departments, $6,000. The estimated expense of main- 
 taining the kitchen outfit in succeeding years was $1,200, and for 
 kitchen supplies $6,000. In this report mention is made of two schools 
 in New York City in which cooking was already taught. One of them 
 was the Wilson Industrial School for Girls, in which school the i)upils 
 were under 12 years of age, and who after leaving generally became 
 self-supporting. The teachers of this school stated that the kind of 
 instruction given waked the children up mentally, and was favorable 
 for fitting them for the duties of active life. In another school, at No. 9 
 University Place, New York, an industrial institution under Miss Alice 
 Burns, consisting of several classes which met at different times, there 
 was an excellently equipped cooking room for a class of sixty. 
 
 Going into practical operation in the year 1888, manual training 
 gradually commended itself to teachers and trustees until it nearly 
 reached the limit prescribed by the board as proper, in view of the 
 necessity for what may be called conservative progress in the experi- 
 mental stage of a new and important departure. 
 
 The report on this work made by City Superintendent John Jasper 
 for the first year after its introduction is as follows: 
 
 This highly interesting method of instruction has been pursued in twenty schools 
 and departments during the last year. * * * The total numer of pupils in these 
 schools and departments is about ten thousand, and steadily, carefully, and en- 
 couragingly have these children worked in the course mapped out by the l)oard of 
 education. Owing to the shortness of the period during which the experiment has 
 been tried, it would be unwise to express a definite opinion in regard to the future 
 of manual training. From present appearances, however, it is certain that the 
 children have a love for it, and the parents have a keen appreciation of its advan- 
 tages. The progress that has been made in the initial stage of a new and untried 
 method is to be highly commended, and the readiness with which most of the 
 teachers have fallen into line in the efi'ort to help the good work along is greatly 
 
 1 At this time there were in the primary schools 6 and in the grammar schools 8 
 grades, the first being the highest. 
 
13 
 
 to their credit. They aim at opening channels for the devt'lnpment of manly and 
 womanly qualities, hitherto more or less unobserved or unpopular, that must and 
 will have a powerful bearing on the future happiness and prospects of the nation. 
 All the branches of this course of study are thriving — and there is an important 
 point — all the branches, separation of them being impossible. People who dream 
 of pedagogic branches and of manual-training branches in the same department as 
 separate and unrelated things have not yet grasped the subject. The manual of this 
 course of study has been arranged so that all the branches of education are inter- 
 woven in such a manner as to make a distinction impossible. It does not mean 
 merely the training of the hand; it means the training of oiir every faculty. The 
 fundamental truths underlying the manual training methods should, above all 
 things, be known and understood by the teachers and public generally. They aim 
 at no specialty of any kjnd — no carpentry, no art in designing or modeling, cooking, 
 or sewing, no geometry or mechanical drawing as such — they simply aim at a rational 
 means to obtain and transmit useful knowledge. 
 
 In this report for 1888 mention is made of the employment of two 
 special cooking teachers under the manual-training course — one at 
 $1,200 and one at $600 — and the equipment of kitchens in five grammar 
 schools at an expense of $3,392.09. A further note is made of an 
 exj^euditure of $68 for kitchen supplies. 
 
 The committee in charge of this work states that it has reason to 
 believe that further application will be made for the full manual-train- 
 ing course when the necessary accommodations can be found, and there 
 should, therefore, be provision made for a moderate increase in the 
 number of manual-training schools; that to maintain the manual- 
 training course during the year 1889 in the schools where it is now in 
 operation there will be required, approximately, $10,000, and it is rec- 
 ommended that this amount be increased in the annual estimate to 
 $25,000, so as to provide for an increase in the number of such schools. 
 
 The principal of 6ne grammar school reports that she has observed 
 upon the part of her pupils increased mental activity and a greater 
 interest in all their studies. She says further: 
 
 As to its moral aspect, I find it an educational element of much value. It incul- 
 cates the dignity of labor, cultivates habits of industry, and opens to girls new ave- 
 nues for self-support. Parents of the pupils express themselves heartily in favor of 
 the new course, and the results generally are so favorable that your committee may 
 feel somewhat repaid for the great labor and expense incurred by them. 
 
 Elizabeth Oavannah, the principal of another grammar school, 
 reports : 
 
 The cooking has been enthusiastically received by the pupils and never have I 
 seen more thoroughly interested workers than there are in that branch of the course. 
 Many report from week to week the results of home work, thus giving proof of the 
 hold it has upon them, and parents are constantly signifying their gratification at 
 its introduction. 
 
 The study of the chemistry of cooking and an intelligent application of this 
 knowledge can not fail to work a complete revolution in the homes of thousands 
 who now suffer from ignorance of the simplest laws governing the proper prepara- 
 tion of food. 
 
 Its educational advantage is manifested in the gradual development of self- 
 reliance and judgment in pupils who are particularly weak in these respects, and 
 in corresponding improvement in those who are naturally stronger. 
 
14 
 
 W. H. J. Sieberg, the principal of a third grammar school, reports: 
 
 There has beeu no deterioratiou in the eifectiveness of study in the pedagogic 
 branches. The children have entered with a will and with zest into the manual- 
 training branches, and the results have been a pleasurable surprise to them, their 
 teachers, and myself. Shop work and kitchen have been aids to discipline. 
 
 Another i)rincipal reports : 
 
 My experience thus far in industrial education in our schools leads me to conclude 
 that the course of instruction in sewing and cooking is beneficial to the pupils of 
 our school, inasmuch as the systematic and philosophic methods laid down for both 
 of these departments must necessarily result in inoculating habits of attention, 
 neatness, and judgment which will benefit children not only in these special 
 branches but in all others during school life, and which will prove of inestimable 
 value in after life. 
 
 The following notes on the manual-training course of study appear 
 in tlie annual report of the board of education following the one quoted 
 from above: 
 
 This highly interesting course has proved very successful, not only in the spread 
 of the schools, but also in the satisfactory manner in which it has been carried on. 
 One year ago the whole matter was tentative and many expressed gi'ave doubts as 
 to the feasibility ; to-day it has been made in modified form the basis of the general 
 course of study to be pursued by the schools in the city. 
 
 The cooking school course, as outlined in the report for 1889, is as 
 follows: 
 
 CooJcing. — Materials of the human body; waste and repair of tissues. 
 
 Digestibility. — Cooking solid materials to prepare them for digestion. 
 
 N^iitritiveness. — Kutritive values of food; j^alatability. 
 
 Food elements. — Mineral; starch and sugar; fats; albuminoids. 
 
 Related facts. — Physical effects of heat on albumen ; on starch ; on 
 gluten, etc. ; proper temperatures for various purposes; chemical effects 
 of overheating and of yeast; important function of the sugar in flour. 
 
 Utensils. — Their selection, use, and preservation. 
 
 Purchasing food. — Discrimination as to wholesome and unwholesome; 
 choice of parts. 
 
 The '■'■germ theory.'''' — Applied to foods. 
 
 Practical exercises in cooking. — These involve simple applications of 
 facts and principles taught. 
 
 In 1889, at the twenty-seventh annual convocation of the University 
 of the State of New York, held July 9 to 11, an address on the possibili- 
 ties and limitations of manual training in the public schools of I*^ew York 
 City was presented by Prof, Edgar D. Shimer, then professor of philoso- 
 phy at the New York City University and now associate superintendent 
 of public schools for the borough of Manhattan and the Bronx, New 
 York City. In this address Dr. Shimer first defines manual training as 
 it was then accepted by the New York school authorities before outlining 
 the possibilities and showing the limitations. 
 
 In his report he alludes to the want of skilled teaching in manual 
 training, and says this points toward the restoration of the old Satur- 
 
15 
 
 day normal schools or some other means for the further training of 
 teachers. He speaks of the voluntary conferences among the teachers 
 after school as furnishing supj^lementary aid to individual effort. He 
 says: 
 
 Superintendent Jasper continues tixecl in his determination not to approve a course 
 of manual training adapted to a select few with special aptitude, or a course in which 
 any of the branches are taught chiefly as ends in themselves. If it is good for the 
 few to develop and round out their lives, he claims that it is good for the many; if 
 cooking is to he taught merely as cooking, he is opposed to it; but if instruction in 
 the philosophy of cookiiig, the chemistry of food, and its hygienic application is 
 such as to make more thoughtful and intelligent pupils, the dishes being mere inci- 
 dents, he favors it. It is on this broad sense of manual training that the work in 
 the New York public schools is based, and the distinct claim is put forth that New 
 York City is the first city in the United States that has made general manual train- 
 ing a part of the regular course. 
 
 I'he main reflex advantage of this movement is that the people are inclined to keep 
 their children at school longer, because the children themselves are more inclined to 
 stay. 
 
 If manual training were admissible on no higher ground than this, it would be a 
 proper expedient to serve as a magnet for holding the child while his development 
 proceeds on those lines of the curriculum which are acknowledged by all to lead to 
 mental and moral jiower. 
 
 Whatever interpretation or restriction others may put upon the term, it is plain 
 that in New York public schools numual training is taken to be the development of 
 mind in the training of thought acquisition and thought expression by other than 
 merely verbal means — by operations performed with the aid of the hands, by the 
 manipulations of materials, by appealing to the sense of touch and to muscular sen- 
 sibility, or the sixth sense, as well as to the senses of sight and sound. Indeed, wise 
 provisions have been made for the training even of the lowest senses of smell and 
 taste, so that on the whole the manual-training idea comprehensively viewed is a 
 more complete scientific and systematic sense training than has been in vogue; a 
 fuller presentation to the mind of sensations, the simple factors or elemejits of men- 
 tal life, out of which by the elaborative powers of the conscious self the complicated 
 phenomena of a higher mental life are evolved. 
 
 Dr. Shimer says further : 
 
 It would be a work of supererogation to enter upon any argument to show, by 
 a priori principles, why the facts reported by the practical workers in manual 
 training in New York City should be just what they are. Expression of thought in 
 any form gives the best assurance of its acquisition. This working principle has 
 been acted on under all theories of education time out of mind. Iti measuring, 
 matching, marking, the child is not only systematically furnished with a store of 
 concepts through its primary perceptions, but these are at the same time riveted. 
 The work furnishes, too, an admirable outlet for the surplus store of nervous energy 
 found in childhood. It exercises, why should it not therefore develop, the attention, 
 judgment, and especially the will f It calls for exactness and promotes habits of 
 persistence, industry, fidelity, thoroughness, honesty, and self-reliance. 
 
 Whatever may be said of the indirect results of physical culture, respect for manual 
 labor, and handiness for the emergencies of daily life, the benefits of manual train- 
 ing in the New York public schools are not conceived to be social or economic or 
 utilitarian. 
 
 The possibilities, both theoretical and practical, point in a different direction, as 
 I have tried to show. Some of these possibilities have become certainties under 
 the very eyes of expert teachers, whose judgment was held in abeyance until they 
 
16 
 
 had exchanged theories for facts. Such limitatious as are extrinsic to the subject 
 largely depend for their removal upon the activity of the committee of the board 
 of education. 
 
 Such other limitations as appear to be intrinsic, but really lie in a misconception 
 of the end in view, or of the means to be applied, will be removed by the progres- 
 sive training of the teachers, for in this, and in this almost alone, lies every educa- 
 tional hope for the future. 
 
 The experiment was looked upon as successful a year ago. It is no longer an 
 experiment. In every case expectations have been more than realized, and there is 
 no doubt that manual training has come into New York City public schools to stay. 
 
 Principal F. S. Capen, of the New Paltz Normal School, in his 
 remarks on this report said: 
 
 A wrong opinion prevails with reference to the subject, and this is the reason 
 why it meets with so much opposition. I heard a paper and discussion in the State 
 association at Brooklyn, and the subject met there with very much opposition. It 
 meets with opposition oftener, perhaps, than it meets with favor. When I have 
 been asked whether I favor it or not, I have always so far said I do not know. 
 But I am prepared to say here, in the light of the paper just read, that if that is 
 manual training I am in favor of it. The opinion prevails largely with teachers, 
 and still more largely with those who send their children to our schools, that man- 
 ual training means the learning of a trade, that it means making mechanics, cooks, 
 seamstresses, etc. That, of course, we can not do in the schools, and it is a mistake 
 to undertake it. Just as much a mistake to undertake to do that as it is to make a 
 theologian, or a lawyer, or a teacher in a college. It can not be done and do thor- 
 ough work. If manual training is to be used to make men and women more compe- 
 tent to whatever they undertake to do in life, then w^e can use it. 
 
 In the annual report to the board of education for 1890 the number 
 of schools and departments pursuing the manual-training course of 
 study is stated to be 37, and the whole number of pupils registered in 
 this course is 19,904, with an average attendance of 19,482. The 
 schools consist of male grammar departments 7, female grammar 
 departments 8, mixed grammar departments 1, primary departments 
 13, and primary schools 8. 
 
 There were 185 classes in sewing, containing 5,720 pupils; 26 classes 
 in cooking, containing 891 pupils; and 52 classes in workshop (wood 
 working), containing 1,690 pupils. 
 
 All the pupils received instruction in the English branches and in 
 drawing (free-hand and mechanical), and modeling in clay was carried 
 on from the lowest primary through five of the eight grammar grades. 
 
 The course pursued in this class of schools seemed to be meeting with 
 general approval, and the instruction was efficient. 
 
 The report states that — 
 
 It was not the purpose to make of the pupils either artists or artisans, seamstresses 
 or cooks, but it was the purpose of the framers of the new plan to determine 
 definitely whether the manual-training appliances and methods would prove as 
 effective educational agents and forces as appeared probable. 
 
 The course of study was prepared from a strictly educational point of view, for 
 it was generally agreed that nothing in the laws of this State authorized the 
 diversion of the common-school funds to the purposes of industrial education or 
 the teaching of special trades. A few of the fundamental principles involved, as 
 
17 
 
 given in a circular of information Ity the United States linreau of Education in 
 1881, maj' shed some light on this aspect of the subject: 
 
 ''(1) The State has a right to teach any branch of knowledge that will iiromote 
 the public welfare. 
 
 "(2) The right of the State to teach all knowledge does not necessarily make 
 such instruction its duty. The right to teach is one thing and the obligation to 
 teach is another. The duty of the State in education is limited by its ability. 
 
 "(3) The duty of the State to teach is also conditioned by necessity. 
 
 "(4) The primary and imperative duty of the public school is to provide train- 
 ing and to teach knowledge of general application and utility. , The primary func- 
 tion of the public school is of the highest practical importance and value. Its 
 comprehensive aim is to prepare the child to discharge the duties and meet the 
 obligations of coming manhood, including his relations to the family, society, and 
 the State, relations involving the highest and most important activities of civilized 
 life. 
 
 "(5) The public school, as above defined, exhausts neither the right nor the duty 
 of the State in education. The State may establish higher institutions, and it may 
 organize and encourage special schools to promote important industries or to meet the 
 wants of classes. It has the right to supplement the public school by special schools 
 for technical training. * * * The elements of technical knowledge which are of 
 general application and utility may clearly be taught in the public schools. * * * 
 Such instruction is not only the basis of technical training, but it is of great value 
 to all youth, whatever may be their future occupations and positions in lile. It is 
 useful as a preparation for all pursuits. » * * Time for this instruction may be 
 gained by reducing the time hitherto devoted to several other branches of study. 
 This has been done in many schools without loss, and the adoption of truer ideas 
 and better methods of teaching would make it possible and feasible to all. * * * 
 Such instruction may properly be called general, in distinction from that which 
 relates to a particular trade or pursuit, which is special." 
 
 The objection to special technical training does not apply to the training of pupils 
 in the use of hand tools and simple mechanical processes, when such training is 
 made a means of general education, the training of the eye, the hand, the mind, for 
 educational purposes. > Such training is not the teaching of trades or handicraft, but 
 is general technical training, the same as mechanical drawing, and as such has a 
 place in the public-school course. 
 
 The extent of such training will depend upon its value as an element of general 
 education. The public school can not easily undertake the work of special techni- 
 cal training. * * * The public school has done its part in preparing yoxith for 
 special pursuits when it has given them an efficient general preparation for all pur- 
 suits, and all industrial experience shows that the more fundamental and thorough 
 this general preparation, the more fruitful will be the special training. 
 
 In the report to the board of education for 1891, under the heading 
 of "Course of study," it is stated that — 
 
 No modification has been made during the year, and there are 37 departments pur- 
 suing the manual-training course of study, 122 classes in sewing, 22 in cooking, and 
 55 in workshop. The course pursued in this class of schools seems to be meeting 
 general approval and the instruction is efficient. 
 
 In December of the same year a special report was made on this 
 subject, and some improvements were made as suggested by experience. 
 The comment on cooking is as follows : 
 
 This subject is taught to the girls in the second and third grammar grades. The 
 teaching is done by four special teachers. The progress made has been commend- 
 able, the instruction having been given in thorough accord with the specifications 
 9900— No. 50 2 
 
18 
 
 of the course of study. The real object of the study has been kept carefully in view, 
 and the understanding of food values, chemical changes, hygienic influences, and 
 physiological truths has not been sacrificed for the simple ability to make palatable 
 dishes. The choice of raw materials, their composition, their nutritive quality, and 
 their relative values have been carefully studied, and the change of food into blood 
 is understood from an economical as well as a scientific point of view. 
 
 A note is also made on the influence of the manual-training course as 
 follows : 
 
 The question of the amount and character of the influence which the so-called 
 manual-training subjects exert upon the ordinary branches of school education is 
 one that is not to be settled by mere offhand statement. The correct answer can 
 not be given by the enthusiast, who finds in manual training a panacea for all the 
 ills of school life, and who sees in the shop work or in the cooking an ennobling influ- 
 ence that transforms the character of the wayward i^upil ; nor can it be given by the 
 half-hearted, doubting teacher who fails to give to the pupils a fair opportunity to 
 obtain the benefit to be obtained from the really excellent methods which are charac- 
 teristic of the manual-training course. 
 
 The true condition of afi'airs can be determined only by carefully and dispassion- 
 ately viewing the whole field, and by obtaining, as nearly as may be done, the con- 
 sensus of judgment of those who have been responsible for the application and 
 enforcement of the provisions of the manual-training course of study. Probably 
 the true condition of the situation is this: The manual-training subjects lead the 
 pupil to see and to understand more things, and consequently give them more sub- 
 jects to talk about uuderstandingly and compel them to talk more. 
 
 The report of 1892 shows 594 pupils receiving instruction in cooking. 
 
 In the same year's report of free lectures given to working men and 
 women, many of whom were the parents of the children attending 
 school, six were said to be on physiology and hygiene and one on the 
 digestion of food. Another interesting note during this year is that it 
 appears to be a fact that the teachers and the pupils who do the best 
 work in manual-training departments are those who do the best work 
 in their regular studies. It is stated that the instruction continues to 
 be of a very satisfactory character, and that the introduction of the 
 manual-training course of study into other schools, as opportunity may 
 offer, would seem to be advisable. It is also urged that the kitchens 
 should be provided with food cabinets and with simple chemical appli- 
 ances for demonstrating the changes that take place in converting raw 
 material into food and food into blood. 
 
 The report of 1893 states that the number of manual-training schools 
 has not been increased, but that this has hax)pened through want of 
 necessary funds and not through lack of desire to introduce the manual- 
 training course into other schools. 
 
 The working of the full manual-training course of study in our schools has been 
 very successful. The schools of this class have been visited by many educational 
 experts and by residents of their respective localities. The commendations of these 
 visitors have been, as a rule, of the strongest possible character, and they indorse 
 most fully the New York theory that manual training is not something for the 
 kindergarten and high school simply, but is an educational principle that should 
 permeate the whole course of instruction. 
 
19 
 
 It" may be noted in passing that within this year the committee of 
 fifteen of the I^Tational Educational Association reports as fallow's : 
 
 Sewing aud cooking have the same (but stronger) claims for jilace in schools as 
 the use of tools of wood, and iron. One-half day in each week for one-half a year 
 each in the seventh and eighth grades will suflice for manual training, the sewing 
 and the cooking being studied by the girls and the wood aud iron work by the boys. 
 
 During 1894 the manual-training course of study was followed with- 
 out any modification, aud there was but slight change in the number 
 and organization of the schools imrsuing this course of study. 
 
 It was then believed that when all the promotions to the grammar 
 department of the manual-training school would come from i^rimaries 
 in which sewing is thoroughly taught it would be possible to complete 
 the course in sewing by the end of the fifth grade, thus giving more 
 time, if desired, to the subject of cooking and making it feasible to 
 introduce a short course in the cliemistry of foods. 
 
 In the year 1895 this course of study was established in two more 
 schools. A careful supervision of the instruction in cooking showed 
 thorough and appreciative work. In a few cases the results were 
 attained under difficulties. It should be borne in mind that the appli- 
 ances necessary for this work had then been in use for some time, aud 
 in several schools they needed to be renewed. The course then 
 embraced instruction in the chemistry of foods, and this received its 
 proper share of attention. The practical work was so arranged that 
 each pupil shared in the actual process of cooking the materials selected, 
 under the direct and close supervision of the teacher. Pupils often 
 brought articles cooked by them at home, and the results of the 
 instructions were thus readily seen by the teachers. 
 
 In this report there was a note made of the fact that there should be 
 in each school where this subject is taught a collection of charts show- 
 ing the various cuts of meats and samples of the various kinds of food 
 products. 
 
 During the year 1896 the manual- training course was established in 
 two more schools and a supervisor of manual-training subjects was 
 appointed for the first time, the office of supervisor having been created 
 by the board of education under authority vested in it by the new 
 school law. 
 
 The teaching of cooking, like other specialties, was provided with a 
 supervisor, the appointment being made in the latter part of October. 
 In the short time intervening between the date of appointment and 
 the close of the yeai- the supervisor held a conference with the special 
 teachers of cooking at which suggestions were made as to the methods 
 of instruction, and these suggestions were supplemented by special 
 advice given at the time of the visits to the several schools. More 
 attention to the chemistry of foods was urged and the introduction of 
 the systematic use of the microscope was recommended. 
 
20 
 
 The plan of work arranged by the supervisor of cookery appointed 
 at this time for the New York schools was as follows : 
 
 I. Subjects. — Chemistry, physics, botany, physiology, and hygiene, and their 
 
 application. 
 II. Work. — Work should he made uniform throughout schools as far as possible. 
 
 (1) Unifonniiy of science and principles. — Although science and principles 
 should be the same throughout, dishes may A^ary according to needs of 
 special schools. 
 i2) Uniformity of lime. — A time-table should be submitted. 
 
 III. Meetings. — Meetings of teachers should be called at regular intervals. 
 
 (1) Books. — Suggestions as to books, apparatus, chemicals, 1o be used. 
 
 (2) Methods. — Methods of presenting different subjects and manner of serv- 
 
 ing dishes should be discussed. 
 
 (3) Reading of papers. — Papers should be read by teachers on special subjects. 
 
 (4) Assistance to teachers. — To guide teachers in fitting themselves to teach the 
 
 different subjects. 
 
 IV. Acquaintance with work. 
 
 (1) Classes. — To visit classes regularly. Siiggestions made and help given to 
 
 teachers. Examine reports of work done by pupils at home and in 
 school. 
 
 (2) Schools. — Different schools visited with view of introducing subjects. 
 
 (3) Institutions. — Visit Wesleyan University and other institutions for benefit 
 
 of system. 
 V. Examinations. — To assist in examination of applicants when requested. 
 VI. Reports. — To supply reports as committee may desire. 
 
 The order of the cooking lessons in the third and second grades at 
 this date, with suggestions for practical work, is of interest. 
 
 Order of Cooking Lessons. 
 third grade. 
 
 Elements in the body and in food. How 
 food repairs the body ; why necessary 
 to be repaired. Combustion; oxygen 
 necessary to support combnstion both 
 in the body and in the stove. The 
 making and care of a fire. 
 
 Boiling — the conversion of water into 
 steam ; temperatures of boiling, sim- 
 mering, and scalding water. 
 
 Boiled eggs; coagulation of albumen 
 shown by use of test tube. The com- 
 position of egg; how to know a fresh 
 one; how to keep, etc. Poached eggs. 
 
 Boiled potatoes; baked potatoes; com- 
 position of potatoes ; classes of vegeta- 
 bles; potato a tuber ; manner of plant- 
 ing; how to keep, etc. Show how 
 starch is extracted. 
 
 Boiled rice; steamed rice; the different 
 cereals; composition of rice; its 
 growth; preparation for market, etc. 
 Oatmeal, composition of grain ; nutri- 
 tive value compared with that of rice. 
 
 Baked apples; composition of apple, etc. 
 
 Bread: Composition of Hour; wheat an 
 important cereal; contains more glu- 
 ten. Show how gluten is extracted 
 from flour. 
 
 Omelet. 
 
 Milk toast. 
 
 Muffins. 
 
 Coffee : The coffee berry ; the seeds roasted 
 to develop flavor; caffeine ; tannic aoid; 
 the effect of each. 
 
 Meat : Difierent kinds ; the eftect of cold 
 and hot water upon meat; difierent 
 ways of cooking meat in water; com- 
 position of beef. 
 
 Beef tea: Illustrating the principle of 
 soup making. 
 
 Broiling. 
 
 Biscuit. 
 
 Tea : The tea plant ; how prepared ; theine 
 similar to caftdne; tannic acid, etc. 
 
 Fried potatoes: Principles of frying; 
 temperature of fat, etc. 
 
21 
 
 THIRD GRADE — continued. 
 
 Corn bread: Composition of corn meal; 
 nutritive value compared with other 
 cereals; difierent preparation from 
 corn. - 
 
 Scrambled eggs. 
 
 Soup stock: Soups with stock and soups 
 without stock. 
 
 Tomato soup without stock: Should not 
 be cooked in tin vessels, as tomatoes con- 
 tain nnich acid. 
 
 SECOND 
 
 Creamed eggs. 
 
 Baked custard. 
 
 Roast beef: Different cuts roast, etc. 
 
 Browned potatoes. 
 
 Cocoa : The cocoa bean obtained from the 
 cocoa tree; chocolate and cocoa pre- 
 pared from same bean. 
 
 Breaded chops. 
 
 Ai^ple cake with lemon sauce. 
 
 Fish balls ; why salting preserves food, 
 etc. 
 
 Gingerbread. 
 
 Chicken : How to tell a young one ; how 
 to prepare for roasting; trussing, etc. ; 
 how to carve. 
 
 Molasses gems. 
 
 Cooking fo 
 
 Mutton broth with rice. 
 Clam broth. , 
 
 Chicken broth. 
 Beef tea. 
 Farina gruel. 
 Irish-moss lemonade. 
 Flaxseed lemonade. 
 
 Baked macaroni with cheese: What mac- 
 aroni is and how prepared ; cheese from 
 the caseine of milk. 
 
 Beef stew: Principles of stewing; por- 
 tions of meat which may be used. 
 
 Plain rice pudding. 
 
 Steamed brown bread: Principles of 
 steanduji-. 
 
 Plain cake. 
 
 Boiled custard. 
 
 Pea soup : Composition of peas; value as 
 
 a food. 
 Cookies. 
 Oyster soup. 
 Cottage pudding. 
 Boiled fish: Egg sauce — different kinds; 
 
 how to tell fresh fish, etc. 
 Creamed potatoes. 
 Bread pudding. 
 Griddle cakes. 
 Meat balls. 
 Pastry. 
 Lobster: How to tell a good one, etc. 
 
 R Invalids. 
 
 Lemon jelly. 
 Jelly water. 
 Toast water. 
 
 Chemistry lessons according to manual. 
 Composition on the chemistry of foods 
 once every four weeks. 
 
 SDGfiESTioxs FOR Practical Work. 
 
 The making and care of a fire. 
 
 Hard-boiled eggs. 
 
 Soft-cooked eggs. 
 
 Poached eggs on toast. 
 
 Beef tea. 
 
 Boiled beef. 
 
 Boiled potatoes. 
 
 Baked potatoes. 
 
 Extraction of starch from potatoes. 
 
 The making of a stew. 
 
 Steamed rice. 
 
 Boiled rice. 
 
 Soup stock. 
 
 Broiled steak. 
 
 Broiled chops. 
 
 A lesson on waste meats. 
 
 A lesson on frying. 
 
 Boiling oatmeal and other cereals. 
 
 Wheat mufiSns. 
 
 Baked apples. 
 
 Making of coffee.- . 
 
 Plain omelet. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Tomato soup with rice. 
 
 Tea biscuit. " 
 
 Lessons on bread nuiking, extraction of 
 
 gluten from Hour. 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Pea soup with croutons. 
 Baked custard. 
 Corn mufiSns. 
 Plain rice pudding. 
 Cottage pudding with lemon sauce. 
 Milk toast. 
 
22 
 
 Suggestions for Practical Work— Continued. 
 
 Codfish balls. 
 
 Gingerbread. 
 
 Mashed potatoes. 
 
 Popovers. 
 
 Steamed brown bread. 
 
 Oyster soup. 
 
 Molasses gems. 
 
 Creamed potatoes. 
 
 Baked fish. 
 
 Scrambled eggs. 
 
 Potato soup. 
 
 Chocolate. 
 
 Creamed codfish. 
 
 Griddle cakes. 
 
 Preparing a chicken to roast. 
 
 Mock bisque soup . 
 
 Plain cake, with suggestions for fancy 
 
 cake. 
 Clam soup. 
 
 Junket made with pepsin. 
 
 Boiled fish with egg sauce. 
 
 Macaroni with tomato sauce. 
 
 Whole -wheat gems. 
 
 Potato salad. 
 
 Corn-starch blancmange. 
 
 Queen of pudding made with bread 
 
 crumbs. 
 Omelet souffle. 
 Pastry, with suggestions for different 
 
 kinds of pies. 
 Dutch apple cake with sauce, 
 Graham pudding. 
 Jumbles. 
 Sponge cake. 
 Lemon jelly. 
 Tapioca cream. 
 Snow pudding with boiled custard. 
 
 Special Foods for Invalids. 
 
 Beef tea made in a bottle. Irish-moss lemonade. 
 
 Mutton broth with boiled rice. ' Irish-moss blancmange. 
 
 Crust cofiee. Flour souffle. 
 
 Indian-meal gruel Stewed oysters. 
 
 Barley gruel. Brown-bread brewis. 
 Oatmeal gruel. 
 
 The following are samples of the reports made to the city superin- 
 tendent of schools regarding the courses in cooking in each school dur- 
 ing this year : 
 
 Female Department, Grammar School No. — , 
 
 New York, Octoler 5, 1896. 
 
 Seating capacity of kitchen 35 
 
 Number of hours and minutes the teacher of cooking is employed each week in 
 this department 2 hours 30 minutes 
 
 Number of classes 
 
 Number in eacb class ^ 
 
 Number receiviug lesson in practice together a 
 
 Number receiving lesson in chemistry together 
 
 Length of each lesson in practice hours. . 
 
 Length of each lesson in chemistry do 
 
 Ninuber of lessons in practice which eacb child receives per month a... 
 
 Number of lessons in chemistry which eacb child receives per month 
 
 Total time given to instruction in this grade per month hours.. 
 
 Third 
 grade. 
 
 1 
 29 
 
 5 
 29 
 
 li 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 a Every child in eacb class is present at a practical lesson twice a month, but as only five can work 
 at a time, each child has actual practice but two or three times in a term. 
 
 , Principal. 
 
23 
 
 Female Department, Grammar School No. — , 
 
 A^eiv York, October —, 1S96. 
 Seating capacity of kitchen 45 
 
 Number of hours the teacher of cooking is employed each week iu this department' 3 
 
 Second 
 grade. 
 
 Third 
 grade. 
 
 Number of classes 
 
 Number in each class 
 
 Number receiving le.sson in practice together 
 
 Number receiving lesson in chemistry together 
 
 Length of each lesson in practice a hours.. 
 
 Length of each lesson in chemistry a do 
 
 Number of lessons in practice which each child receives per month 
 
 Number of lessons in chemistry which each child receives per month 
 
 Total time given to instruction in this grade per morith ^ hours.. 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 4 or 5 
 
 12 or 15 
 
 1 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 1 
 4 or 5 
 12 or 15 
 
 a The lessons in practice and those in chemistry are frequently combined. While some articles are 
 being cooked, a lesson in chemistry can be given. 
 
 , Principal. 
 
 The course in cookery was given during the school year 1897-98 in 
 22 schools to 127 classes, numbering- 4,130 pupils. The number of 
 pupils in each class ranged from 18 to 45. The supervisor states 
 that — 
 
 Three other schools will be ready in September, and I trust the above number will 
 be more than doubled during the coming winter. The schools in which you see 
 small classes are mostly schools for boys and girls, the boys taking the shopwork 
 and the girls cooking. A few of the principals of girls' schools have divided their 
 classes. This ought to be done iu every school, and we are hoping it soon will be, 
 for it is impossible to have satisfactory results with large classes. 
 
 Before January 1, 1897, three hours per week were allowed with 
 divided classes, so that the maximum number of pupils should never 
 be more than 30. This division practically gave six hours to some 
 classes though only three hours to each pupil. Afterwards the time 
 was reduced to two hours as the result of a prolonged investigation 
 into such work in the United States and abroad. 
 
 In January, 1898, the board of superintendents reviewed the matter, 
 and unanimously reported in favor of reducing the time to one and a 
 half hours per week. On January 18, 1899, the school board adopted 
 the recommendation of the board of superintendents. 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS OP TEACHERS. 
 
 The board of superintendents of Manhattan and the Bronx estab- 
 lished the following qualifications for supervisors and teachers of cook- 
 ery in the schools under their control : 
 
 SPECIAL TEACHERS OF COOKING. 
 
 (a) Must give evidence of good general education and culture, and must have 
 graduated from a course of professional training of at least one year, or must have 
 had two years' experience in teaching the subject. 
 
 ' Miss ■ 
 
 • remains In school from 9 a. m. to 3 p. m; All time not spent in instruc- 
 
 tion is spent in preparation. 
 
24 
 
 (h) Must be examined in (1) chemistry and plij'siology of foods; (2) cooking; 
 (3) hygiene; and (4) methods of teaching the subject, especially as shown by a 
 practical demonstration lesson in the kitchen. 
 
 SUrKRVISORS. 
 
 (a) A candidate for election as supervisor of a special branch must be (1) a gradu- 
 ate of a high school or of an institution of equal or higher scholastic rank ; (2) a 
 graduate from a course of professional training of at least one year in the special 
 branch that he is to supervise or teach ; and (3) a teacher of that special branch 
 with at least three years' successful experience. 
 
 (&) Candidates for this position must give evidence of marked ability in the 
 branches which they are to supervise. 
 
 Since the consolidation in February, 1898, of the various communi- 
 ties lying in and about l^ew York Harbor into the city of New York a 
 new regime has been called for, as a result of a chapter on education in 
 the charter of the city. There is now one central board and one city 
 superintendent over all boroughs, under whose direction a board of 
 examiners provides an eligible list for all appointments, and who does 
 all licensing. This central board has already issued one circular to 
 candidates notifying them of an examination to take place on a certain 
 date at a certain place. 
 
 The cooking schools are now to be found only in the elementary and 
 evening schools and in the normal college, although they are also 
 included in the authorized course for high schools and training schools. 
 
 The boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx are educationally united 
 under one borough superintendent^ John Jasper, who alone thus far 
 has cooking schools in his manual-training course. 
 
 Under his direction the course in cookery for the sixth and >seventh 
 school years has been revised and is now as follows: 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE COURSE OF COOKERY IN THE NEW YORK CITY 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 What cooking means. — Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of 
 Calypso, and of Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the 
 knowledge of all herbs, and fruit, and balms, and spices, and of all that is healing 
 and sweet in fields, and groves and savory in meats; it means carefulness and invent- 
 iveness, and watchfulness, and willinguess, and readiness of appliance; it means 
 the economy of your great-grandmothers and the science of modern chemists; it 
 means much tasting and no wasting ; it means English thoroughness, and French art, 
 and Arabian hosjiitality ; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfectly and always, 
 ladies (loaf givers) ; and, as you are to see imperatively that everybody has some- 
 thing pretty to put on, so you ai'e to see, yet more; imperatively, that everyl)ody has 
 something nice to eat. — Ruskin. 
 
 Air, Fire, Water. 
 
 a. Their relation to life. 
 
 h. Their relation to cookery. 
 
 Air. — a. Why important to life. 
 
 1. Oxygen, with experiment. 
 
 2. Necessity of fresh air. 
 4. Relation to combustion. 
 
Fire. 
 
 -a. Combustion. 
 1. Kinds of .. 
 
 25 
 
 /Slow — Examples of. 
 "\Rapid — Examples of. 
 
 & Principal uses of fire in the house. 
 
 1. For warmth. 
 
 2. For cooking purposes. 
 
 c. Fuels. 
 
 1. History. 
 
 2. Varieties. 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Woods 
 
 a. Solid 
 
 Mineral 
 
 Fuels not in 
 general use. 
 
 Lignite. 
 
 Bituminous. 
 
 Anthracite. 
 
 /Hard. 
 
 /Soft. 
 Peat. 
 
 Pressed hay. 
 Peach pits. 
 Corncobs. 
 Corn. 
 Camels' dung. 
 
 Manufactured \ Poke 
 
 {Petroleum. 
 Alcohol. |-T(j.,+,,p„i 
 ^'^^®®- -- [Manufactured. 
 
 Note. — The attention of the pupils should constantly bo called to the importance 
 of economy in the use of fuels and of having flue connections for all gas stoves. 
 
 Nole. — Could gas be universally used for fuel one of the greatest drudgeries of 
 housekeeping — making and taking care of coal fires — would be removed. Every 
 school kitchen is furnished with a gas stove, but great care and watchfulness on the 
 part of teachers is necessary in order that the little cooks may form the habit of using 
 it economically. 
 
 Water. — a. Its source. 
 
 1. Evaporation and condensation. 
 
 2. Soft water— rain. 
 
 3. Hard water — having taken mineral matter from the earth. 
 
 Difference between /Temporary hard water. 
 
 [Permanent hard water. 
 Tests. 
 
 4. Impurities in water. 
 
 Note. — Caution in use of water that stands in pipes. 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF CLEANING. 
 
 1. Personal cleanliness. 
 fSkin. 
 Hair. 
 Teeth. 
 (Nails. 
 h. Care of clothing. 
 
 a. Care of \ 
 
 Note. — Their importance to the health of the individual and of the public, and 
 their power as a preventive to the spread of contagious diseases should be dwelt 
 upon. 
 
 2. Household cleanliness. 
 
 r Ventilation. 
 
 a. Valuable aids to Sunlight. 
 
 [Disinfectants. 
 
 Beds and bedding. 
 Floors, walls, ceilings. 
 Closets, traps. 
 
 b. Care of I Pantries. 
 
 Ice boxes. 
 Dish towels. 
 Dish cloths, etc. 
 
 Note. — The study of the composition of soap, ammonia, soda, potash, etc., utensils, 
 stoves, and polishing reagents, to be taken up under above heading. 
 
26 
 
 The Human Body. 
 a. Elements composing it and where obtained. 
 FoOD.-a. Its functions {^^rst'jand repair. 
 
 i Water. 
 jProtein. 
 ^"*'"'«^*^---- Carbohydrates. 
 (Mineral matter. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 Theory. — History. 
 
 Botany — Note difference between sweet and white potatoes. 
 Composition. 
 
 [Water. 
 
 Experiment showing < Starch — test. 
 
 [Cellulose. 
 
 Use of microscope. 
 
 (Plant. 
 
 Drawing Tuber. 
 
 [starch grains. 
 
 DIGESTION OF STAllCH. 
 
 a. Salivary glands. 
 
 &. Action of saliva on starch. 
 
 c. Test saliva with litmus. 
 
 d. Pancreatic juice. 
 
 e. Food value of starch. 
 
 Practice. — Boiled. ] 
 
 Baked. I White. 
 Mashed. jSweet. 
 Creamed. ] 
 
 Note. — Compare nutritive value of same. 
 
 Cereals. 
 Theory. — History. 
 
 Botany — grow various grains. 
 Composition. 
 Note similarity and difference in grains. 
 Show cross sections under microscope. 
 Importance in the vegetable kingdom. 
 Prunes, figs, dates, bananas and other fruits, valuable adjuncts. 
 
 Practice. — Mush from various grains served hot and molded. 
 
 Note difference in quantity of water and time required in the cooking 
 of whole grains and those in other forms. 
 
 Note. — Emphasize importance of having rice grains whole and dry. 
 
 Breads. 
 
 Theory. — 1. History of breads of various nations. 
 
 2. Materials used. 
 
 3. Made light bj- use of — 
 
 1, Air. 
 
 [From acid and .alkali. 
 
 2. Gas — CO2 I From yeast fermentation. 
 
 [Aerated. 
 
 4. Baking powders. 
 
 a. Their composition. 
 
 T). Adulterations. 
 
 c. Materials to illustrate. 
 
 iArgol. 
 Crystal. 
 Powder. 
 2. Bicarbonate of soda. 
 
 Note. — Show other acids and alkalies. Tests. Experiments. 
 
27 
 
 Quick Breads. 
 
 PrnoUot^ — Rflttprs /Thin— Example : Pop-overs, made light by air. 
 
 nactice. -^aT;ter8....|rpj^.^,^_j,^^j^pjg. jyiugj^g^ ^ade light by baking powder. 
 
 Note. — Make muffins of various kinds. Quick oven necessary for all quick breads. 
 Doughs — tea biscuit. 
 
 Short cake — using fruits in season. 
 
 Yeast. 
 
 Theory. — Botanical classification. 
 
 Manner of growth with experiments. 
 
 Use of microscope. 
 
 Drawings. 
 
 Fermentation. ...{L^«J;«; 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Varieties of wheat and otlier grains used. 
 
 Milling processes. 
 
 Comparative value of white and whole wheat. 
 
 Separation of starch and gluten. 
 
 Use of microscope. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Processes in bread baking. 
 
 Temperature of oven in relation to size of loaf. 
 
 r Comparison between crust and crumb — 
 T^. i-i -1 %. J Fresh and stale. 
 
 Digestibility.... <^ Hot and cold. 
 
 [ Toasted (properly). 
 
 Practice. — Whole wheat and white bread. 
 Bread sticks. 
 
 1 Parker House 
 Swedish. 
 French. 
 
 Other Wheat Preparations. 
 
 Theory. — Macaroni, spaghetti, etc. 
 Manufacture of. 
 Where most used. 
 Food value of. 
 
 Practice. — Macaroni with cheese. 
 
 Macaroni with cream sauce. 
 Spaghetti with tomatoes. 
 
 Protein. 
 Theory. — 1. Where found. 
 
 2. Its function in the body. 
 
 3. Varieties — chemical nature. 
 
 4. Digestion of: 
 
 a. Under what conditions most easily digested. 
 5. Mastication. 
 
 c. Gastric and intestinal digestion. 
 
 d. Experiments. 
 
 Eggs. 
 
 Theory. — 1. Albumen. 
 
 Note. — Above experiments under protein will cover most of the work 
 with albumen. 
 
 2. Eggs of various birds: Those most commonly used as food. 
 
 3. Composition — Nutritive value. 
 
 4. Tests for fresh and stale. 
 
 5. Varying market value according to season. 
 
28 
 
 Practice. — Soft cooked. 
 Hard cooked. 
 Poached. 
 
 Omelettes.... -I c^^^^^-'-u 4. 
 [ tepanisn, etc. 
 
 Tea. 
 Theory. — History. 
 Kinds. 
 
 f Stimulating. 
 
 Pronerties \ Astringent. 
 
 ^ ] Effect on digestion, 
 
 l^ Test for tannin. 
 
 Manners of preparing. Why? 
 
 Coffee. 
 History. 
 Kinds. 
 
 Pronerties /Compare similarity and differences in tt-a and coffee. 
 ^ ' ■■■ (^Manners of J) reparing. Whyf 
 
 Cocoa and Chocolate. 
 Growth and preparation. 
 Nntritive value and digestibility. 
 Manner of cooking. 
 
 Note. — Practice work on beverages to be taken with bread lessons. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Theory. — 1. History: Milk of different animals. 
 
 2. Composition, with experiments. 
 
 a. Cream — Show globules under microscope. 
 h. Amount of water. 
 0. Casein. 
 
 3. Nutritive value. 
 
 [ Pasteurization. 
 
 4. Care of < Sterilization. 
 
 [ Cleanliness of utensils. 
 
 Butter. 
 Theory. — 1. Dairy methods. 
 
 2. Experiment. 
 
 Make small amount. 
 
 3. Flavors due to bacilli. 
 
 4. Substitutes. 
 
 5. Nutritive value. 
 
 6. Digestibility compared with other fiits. 
 
 ClIEESK. 
 
 Theory. — 1. Manufacture. 
 
 2. Digestibility — Food value. 
 
 3. Mold shown with microscope. 
 
 Practice. — Eamakins. 
 
 Cheesed crackers. 
 
 Vegetable Classification. 
 
 TAeor*/.— Seeds /Peas. 
 
 [Beans. 
 
 «-'« {Sps. 
 
 Bulbs Onions. 
 
 Tubers /Potatoes. 
 
 i^Jerasaleni artichokes. 
 
 Shoots Asparagus. 
 
29 
 
 rj,, T fCabbaae. 
 
 TAeon/.-Leaves .... JLettuce. 
 
 Flowers Cauliflower. 
 
 ^T ., (Cucumber. 
 
 *^"^^ \Tomato. 
 
 Fungi Mushroom. 
 
 Vegetable Protein. 
 Theory . — 1. Where found. 
 
 2. Composition. 
 
 3. Large proportion of vegetable casein and corresponding difficulty of 
 
 digestion if insufficiently cooked. 
 How to overcome this. 
 
 Soups. [Peas. 
 Practice. — Purees . . J Beans. 
 [Lentils. 
 Croutons. 
 Baked beans. 
 
 Animal Protein. 
 
 Theory. — 1. Historical references. 
 
 2. Diflferent cuts — their uses — comparative prices. 
 Meats — 3. Food value and digestibility of different cuts, and effect of manner of 
 cooking on same. 
 
 4. Methods of preserving. 
 
 5. Diseased meats — dangers resulting from their use. 
 
 Use of microscope showing fiber, bone, tissue, fat. 
 (>. Care of before and after cooking. 
 7. Experiments with hot and cold water. 
 
 UROILING AND PAN-IJROILING. 
 
 Practice. — 1. Round steak — garnishing. 
 
 2. Chops. ...If^^^^^- . ,. 
 
 ^ [Loin — garnishing. 
 
 3. Meat cakes — garnishing. 
 
 ROASTING. 
 
 Theory. — 1. Economy of flauk or chuck. 
 
 2. Temperature of oven depending upon kind and size of cut 
 
 3. Necessity of saving drippings. 
 
 Practice. — Eolled flank, or chuck roast. 
 
 RROILING — SIMMERING. 
 
 Theory. — 1. Difference in the broiling of fresh and salt meats. 
 
 2. Why flavor is not so good as in roasted meats. 
 
 3. Utilize water in which meat is cooked. 
 
 J'ractice. — Knuckle end of shoulder, or leg of iuutton. 
 
 STEWING. 
 
 Theory. — 1. Its relation to boiled meats. 
 
 2. The addition of vegetables. 
 
 o riT, * I Round of beef. 
 
 3. Cheap cuts....|^^^3^^f^^^^^^^_ 
 
 4. Slow cooking. 
 
 Practice. — Brown stew with dumplings. 
 
 KRAISING. 
 
 Theory. — 1. Its relation to roasting. 
 
 2. Use of vegetables. 
 
 3. Cheap cuts and slow cooking. 
 
 Practice. — Liver. Under round of beef, larded, etc. 
 
Theory. — 1. Materials used 
 2. Kinds ....{W J 
 rractice. — Fowl, veal, etc. 
 
 30 
 
 FRICASSEEING. 
 
 Fowl. 
 
 Tlieorij. — a. How to distinguish between young and old. 
 6. Preparation for market, 
 c. Purchasing of. 
 (1. Game — 
 
 What it is. 
 
 Cost, etc. 
 
 Diaestibility of. 
 e. Anatomy of. 
 
 I Drawing, 
 irussiug. 
 stuffing. 
 
 Theort/. — Different fats used. 
 
 Temperature necessary. 
 
 Difference between frying and sautoing. 
 
 Use of bread crumbs and egg. 
 
 Practice. — Breaded chops, tomato sauce. 
 Rice croquettes. 
 
 Made-ovkr Dishes. 
 
 Theori/. — a. Economy of. 
 
 b. Care necessary. 
 
 Recooking hardens albumen, etc. 
 
 c. Materials used. 
 
 Practice. — Hashes. 
 
 Croquettes. 
 
 Minced meat on toast. 
 
 Rice and meat, etc. 
 
 Saut^ing. 
 
 Theory.— a. Difference between sautcing and frying. 
 1). Food commonly sauted. 
 
 Practice. — Liver and bacon — poor summer food. 
 
 Note difference in digestibility and nutritive value of internal organs 
 compared with other parts. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Theory. — a. Kinds — Composition. 
 
 b. Native to what waters. 
 
 c. Light and dark, why difference in digestibility. 
 
 d. Fresh, salted, and smoked — Digestibility compared. 
 
 e. Nutritive value compared with meats. 
 /. How to tell fresh fish. 
 
 Practice. — Boiled. 
 Baked. 
 Broiled, saut(^d, fried. 
 
 Garnishing. 
 
 Sauces. 
 
31 
 
 Soups with Stock. 
 
 Tlieory. — a. Stock — Composition. 
 
 Little nutritive value. 
 h. Manner of preparing, and wliy. 
 c. Materials nsed. 
 
 White of egg for clearing, and why used. 
 
 Practice. — Clear soups. 
 
 Macaroni, noodles. 
 Vegetable, tomato. 
 Julienne. 
 
 Note. — Use of scraps of beef, bones, etc. 
 
 Use of water in which meat and vegetables have been cooked. 
 
 Soups without stock. 
 
 CREAM SOUPS. 
 
 Practice. — Potato. 
 
 Celery. 
 
 Mock bisque, etc. 
 
 Note. — Nutritive value. 
 
 Beef Tea, Juice, Extract. 
 
 Theory. — a. When used; why used. 
 h. Those only stimulating. 
 
 Those botli stimulating and nourishing. 
 
 c. Methods of preparing. 
 
 d. Cuts used. 
 
 Practice. — a. Beef tea. 
 h. Beef .juice, 
 c. Combining beef juice with other foods. 
 
 Vegetables. 
 
 Theory. — a. Refer to classification. 
 
 6. Use of vegetables in season. 
 
 c. Importance of having them iu fresh condition. 
 
 d. Composition (general) and food value. 
 
 e. Diti'ereint methods of cooking. 
 
 Note. — A suitable vegetable to be cooked at each lesson on meats and fish. The 
 history, composition, and adulteration of the condiments in common use will also 
 form a part of the theory lessons on these subjects. 
 
 Salads. 
 Theory. — a. Material used. 
 
 1. Freshness and crispness of lettuce, etc. 
 
 2. Left-overs of meat, fish, and vegetables. 
 6. Value of oil used. 
 
 Dressings. 
 Practice. — French. 
 
 Mayonnaise. 
 Boiled. 
 Lettuce, tomato, cabbage, salmon, etc. 
 
 Desserts. 
 
 Theory. — a. Their relation to lood and diet. 
 h. Use and abuse. 
 
 c. Use of fruits alone and in combination with other materials. 
 
 d. Eeason for the indigestibility of pastry. 
 
 e. Use, composition, and adulteration of flavorings for desserts. 
 
 Custards. 
 Practice. — Soft, caramel, with sauce. 
 Steamed, baked. 
 Use of chocolate in. 
 
32 
 
 Souffles. 
 Practice. — Various kinds. 
 
 Use of dates, ligs, and other fruits. 
 
 Gelatine Jellies. 
 
 Batteii Puddings. 
 Cakes. 
 
 Beaten jellies. 
 Charlottes. 
 
 Fruit u.sed as variety. 
 
 Sponge. 
 
 Cup. 
 
 Molasses cake — cookies. 
 
 Layer cake. 
 
 Sauces. 
 
 Suitable to combine with above desserts. 
 
 Note. — Study of the composition of different flavorings used in desserts, also adul- 
 terations of same, will form part of the theory lessons on this subject. 
 
 Canning and Presekving. 
 
 germ theory. 
 
 Theory. --a. Foreign matter in the air. 
 h. Dust and what it contains. 
 
 c. Molds, yeast, and bacteria. 
 
 d. Show molds on bread, lemon, cheese, jellies, etc. Fermented canned 
 
 fruits. 
 
 e. Souring of milk, soups, uncooked and cooked food, etc. 
 /. Use of microscope. 
 
 g. Food value of canned foods compared with other foods. 
 
 Practice. — Canning of fraits in season. Jellies, etc. 
 
 Comparison of modern methods of jireservlng with those of olden times. 
 
 Freezing. 
 Theory. — a. Latent heat. 
 
 Principle of freezing. 
 Use of salt. 
 
 b. Packing. 
 
 Practice. — Ice cream. 
 Sherbets. 
 Frozen fruits. 
 Molded frozen desserts. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 alimextary canal. 
 
 Theory, — a. Drawing, showing salivary glands, alimentary canal. 
 i. Saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice. 
 
 c. Experiments with saliva, pepsin, and pancreatin. 
 
 Invalid Cookery. 
 
 Iheory. — a. Necessity of a knowledge of. 
 
 h- How it differs from usual cooking. 
 
 c. Great carefulness and accuracy. 
 
 d. Daintiness — neatness. 
 
 e. Care in serving hot foods hot. Cold foods cold. 
 
 Practice. — Gruels — Beverages. 
 Beef juice, essence. 
 Egg preparations. 
 
 Milk preparations and combinations. 
 Oysters. 
 Jellies. 
 Ice cream. 
 
33 
 
 Infant Feeding. 
 
 Theory and Practice. — Milk — care of, kinds. 
 Sterilization. 
 Pasteurization. 
 Care of bottles. 
 
 Cooking and Serving of a Simple Dinner. 
 
 T ^Ac f Nutritious. 
 ^"«^^- --I Economical. 
 
 table setting — decoration. 
 
 Daintiness. 
 Spotless linen. 
 
 Quietness. 
 Carefulness, etc. 
 
 COURSES. 
 
 Soup. 
 
 Meat and vegetables. 
 
 Salad. 
 
 Dessert. 
 
 conclusion. 
 
 Instruction will bo given by the supervisor, at the regular conferences, on the 
 division of the work of the dift'ereut grades. The progross books kept by the 
 teachers, showing the work covered each month, will be discussed and compared at 
 these meetings. 
 
 In order to secure uniformity and mutual progress, each teacher will be required 
 in turn to give a lecture on a subject chosen from the manual. 
 
 Free use of blackboard during each lessou is advised ; also composition and dicta- 
 tion lessons for each grade. 
 
 Pupils should become familiar with quotations on cooking from the best authors, 
 and with the names of the men in Europe and America who have made a study of 
 this science. The pamphlets furnished by the Department of Agriculture in Wash- 
 ington will inform them of the investigations of food and nutrition made by the 
 Government. Professor Atwater's Food and Diet is among these pamphlets, and 
 should form one of the reading books in each class. Chas. D. Wood's Cooking of 
 Meats is another such pamphlet. 
 
 Many valuable books of reference are to be found in the school libraries. Recom- 
 mendations for others will be made from time to time in order to keep up with the 
 progress in the investigations and research in this line of work. 
 
 Teachers will visit with the supervisor, from time to time, the manufactories of 
 food products, such as flour mills, cream of tartar works, chocolate manufactories, 
 canning establishments, and tea, coffee, and spice importing houses. 
 
 The following is a partial list of the reference books recommended 
 by the supervisor for use in connection with the course in cookery : 
 
 Foods, by Edward Smith. 
 
 Chemistry of Cookery, by W. Matthieu Williams. 
 
 History of a Mouthful of Bread, by J. Mac6, translated by Mrs. A. Gatty. 
 Remsen's Chemistry. 
 
 Laboratory Manual of General Chemistry, by Williams. 
 Vegetable World and Animal World, by Figuier. 
 
 Elements of Strnctural and Systematic Botany, by Campbell. (Boston, 1890.) 
 Principles of Hygiene, E. M. Hunt. 
 9900— No. 56 3 
 
34 
 
 Spirit of Cookery (Thudichum). 
 Century Cook Book (Mary Ronald). 
 European and American Cuisine (Lemcke). 
 Thb Murrey Collection of Cook Books. 
 Francatelli's Modern Cook Book. 
 Marian Harland's Books. 
 
 The extracts given below from a letter by Mrs. Williams to tlie author 
 of this report may serve to show with what earnestness and enthusiasm 
 the work in cookery is being pursued in the New York schools : 
 
 Under the direction of the supervisor of cooking, teachers are expected to adapt 
 from this general course such special courses for instruction as are suited to the 
 peculiar needs of the environment from which their classes are drawn, thus com- 
 bining utility with the pedagogical training given. 
 
 Cookery in the schools was for several years experimental, and was established in 
 but few of our schools, but I am sure it was the hope of its advocates in the board 
 of education that it would fill a long-felt want in the education of the girls iu this 
 great city. That this hope Avas shared by some of the principals of the pioneer 
 schools whom it was ray privilege to call friends I am equally sure. 
 
 It was not alone that the number of schools into which cookery has been introduced 
 is greater than the entire numlier during the past ten years, but that it has also been 
 extended to the first grades and college classes, and that we are so much better 
 equipped to teach the work scientifically. * * * 
 
 Jnst as surely as the microscope and scientific research have accomplished wonders 
 for the hospital, so will they accomplish wonders for the home. In order that the 
 educational side of cookery might be better taught iu our schools, in 1897 I asked 
 for an appropriation of $214 for the purchase of microscopes. This amount was 
 to supply each teacher with one, so that she could take it with her to different 
 schools under her charge, and also to supply one powerful objective, which could 
 serve for special work in all the schools. This application was readily granted, and 
 I have since received an appropriation for twelve more microscopes. I believe the 
 New York City public schools, borough of Manhattan and the Bronx, are the only 
 schools in the country that can boast of the possession of these beautiful instruments 
 for domestic-science classes. The use made of the microscope in the lessons on the 
 chemistry of foods and of cookery, also of fire, air, and water, is shown iu the work 
 sent you. It is invaluable in our school. It develops the powers of observation, 
 concentration, and judgment, and unfolds to the child the beauties of nature. There 
 is much that can not be taught without it; for instance, the germ theory, fermen- 
 tation in bread making, vinegar, cider, wine, etc. Decomposition, decay, disease, 
 structure of fiber, trichina iu fiber, composition of blood, are shown by its use in 
 the meat lesson. 
 
 In the bread lesson the structure of and cell growth, structure of the grains, 
 showing relative position and proportion of bran, gluten, and starch ; in the lesson on 
 water as food, purity of and cause of disease by drinking impure water, and iu the 
 lesson on milk, the necessity for sterilization, cheese molds and fungi. 
 
 A number of the jiupils in one of the cooking classes of Grammar School Xo. 85 gave 
 the lesson on the grains before the microscopical society a few weeks ago, and were 
 highly praised for their intelligent work and beautiful drawings. 
 
 My teachers are working faithfully to keep up with the jirogress ol' all the sciences 
 and research that bear upon the proper conduct of the home, and particularly the 
 investigation relating to the food and nutrition of man. They have studied and 
 worked with me in the biological laboratory of the New York University every Sat- 
 urday during the winter, and we have planned to continue this study in connection 
 with physiological chemistry at the summer course of this same university. 
 
 With such intelligent and earnest workers, do you think it too extravagant to hope 
 
35 
 
 that an article may some day he written telling that the teaching of cookery or home 
 science has greatly reduced infant mortality, contagious diseases, intemperance (in 
 eating and drinking), divorces, insanity, pauperism, competition of labor between 
 the sexes, men's and women's clubs, etc. ? 
 
 You have asked me my hope for the future for this work, and this is my firm hope : 
 That this work, so truly woman's, will, by forming a part of every girl's education, 
 bring about great changes in the home life. The girl who learns to-day the chem- 
 ical composition of the potato, as well as how to cook it, will hardly, as the future 
 mothei-, boast that her six months' boy "just loves" potatoes, nor will she be foolish 
 enough to allow him a taste of everything at the table. She has been trained to 
 know that the little white hearse has stood at the door of many a home because the 
 young mother did not know how to feed and cloth and nurse her baby. 
 
 The " little woman " who has taken the lessons on combustion and economy in the 
 use of fuels will not use the full force of gas in a half a dozen burners to cook her 
 dinner, for she has learned that one burner turned very low will keep water at boil- 
 ing point, and that no amount of heat can make it hotter. 
 
 The simple little experiments in the school kitchen on the composition of air have 
 caused the little housekeeper to realize that it is positively injurious to health to 
 sit in closed rooms on the winter evenings with lamps lighted or the gas stoves burn- 
 ing without any flue connections. And so it is with the lesson on the chemistry of 
 cleaning. Our little gii'l is wonderfully interested in the bacteria of the dishcloth, 
 and the ice box, and the garbage pail, and when she becomes mistress of a home 
 these things will receive her attention as well as the parlor, library, and music 
 room. If John cannot aftbrd to give her all Ihese rooms, she has beentrained to know 
 that she can be just as happy if she must make one room answer the three purposes, 
 and besides, being an American, she has this thought to comfort her, that under this 
 glorious Government her thrift and economy may help to place her husband among 
 the millionaires. With such a wife John will not need to go to the liquor store, nor 
 will you see John, jr., among the boys who buy a hot fried cake for a penny and a 
 cup of coffee for a penny, and stand in the snow and slush to eat them, as I have 
 seen them do down in the Post-Office Square. For this little mother, I would have 
 you know, learned how to make whole-wheat bread at school, and she knows that 
 one of her nice light' muffins and a little flat bottle of heated and cooled milk which 
 she tucked in Johnny's pocket in the morning will give him more nourishment than 
 a cart load of coff'ee and fried cakes. Such a little wife and mother is a blessing to 
 her home and consequently to the State. If she has servants they are good ones, 
 because she is a capable mistress. If she has not, she has leaxned to work so neatly 
 and to so economize in time and strength that she scarcely misses them. 
 
 If the teaching of domestic science in (mr public schools produces such women — 
 and it surely must — I think you will agree with me that the State and the nation 
 reap the benefit. 
 
 The following statements have been taken from the printed report 
 of the supervisor of cookery to the board of education, June 6, 1898: 
 
 Applications for the establishment of cooking classes have been made by the 
 principals of (13 additional) public schools. 
 
 This is very gratifying when it is remembered that the number of applications 
 made this year exceeds the entire number entered from the year 1887, when cookery 
 was introduced, to the present year. These applications were obtained through the 
 personal visits of the supervisor and were the voluntary acts of the principals. 
 While this method of introducing the work consumed much time, it at least had the 
 advantage of leaving no room for complaints, nor have any complaints been made; 
 on the contrary, great praise and appreciation have been received from all. The 
 supervisor earnestly recommends that the work be extended as rapidly as possible. 
 
 The cooking in the evening schools has been highly satisfactory, and it is greatly 
 
36 
 
 to be hoped that it may he introduced into evening schools for women during the 
 coming year. The young girls and women who attend these schools are certainly 
 ambitious for knowledge when they are willing to study two hours after a hard 
 day's work. Great pride is taken in educating them for typewriters, stenographers, 
 and bookkeepers, thus crowding the market with cheap labor. Would it not be 
 better for the State if these women were taught just enough bookkeeping to enable 
 them to keep the household accounts accurately and neatly, to understand taxation, 
 to lease a house and know their legal responsibility as tenants, as they do in France? 
 How many members of the class in chemistry in the Evening High School for 
 Women have taken up that branch in order to hotter fit themselves to be home- 
 keepers f Do they realize that there is no science so intimately connected with the 
 very life of man as chemistry? How many would read with interest and profit the 
 bulletins on the Chemistry and Economy of Food, furnished free by the Govern- 
 ment? Probably not one. If, then, the study of cookery tends to fit our girls for 
 their true station in life, and it is held by all who have made domestic economy their 
 study that it does, should it not form a part of every girl's education? 
 
 EQUIPMENT OF KITCHENS. 
 
 All applications to the building and supply committees and departments have met 
 with the most generous and courteous responses. An appropriation of $214 for the 
 purchase of microscopes recommended by the supervisor was granted, and these 
 beautiful instruments are the pride of the teachers of cookery and the principals 
 interested in the sciences. At the request of the supply committee the supervisor 
 was present when the awards for kitchen supplies were given out. She has also met 
 the representatives of the building department at each new kitchen, in order to 
 advise with them as to placing of blackboard, stoves, etc. Each kitchen is fur- 
 nished with the following equipment: 
 
 Bath brick. 
 Whisk broom. 
 Brushes: 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Stove, blacking. 
 
 Stove, polishing. 
 Oilcloth. 
 Cheese cloth. 
 Tablecloth. 
 Corkscrew. 
 Clotheshorse. 
 Napkins, fringed. 
 Stove polish, enameline. 
 Towel rack, roller. 
 Thermometers. 
 Bowls: 
 
 1 qt., white. 
 
 Large mixing, yellow. 
 Custard cups, yellow. 
 Cups and saucers. 
 Dish: 
 
 Pressed glass, 8-in., plain. 
 
 Vegetable, 8-in., oval. 
 Jars : 
 
 Mason's 1-pt. 
 
 Mason's 1-qt. 
 Jugs, 1-pt. 
 
 Nappies : 
 
 8-in. 
 
 7-in., scalloped. 
 Plates : 
 
 Bread and butter. 
 
 Dinner, 7-in. 
 
 Soup, 6-in. 
 
 Tea, 6-in. 
 Platters : 
 
 Medium, 10-in. 
 
 Large, 12-in. 
 Teapots. 
 Soup tureen. 
 Double agate boilers : 
 
 Iqt. 
 
 2qts. 
 
 4 qts. 
 Butter crock, 1 qt. 
 Carving set (knife, fork, and steel). 
 Cleaver, 7 in. 
 
 Soap dish, agate, hanging. 
 Forks : 
 
 Table, plated. 
 
 Kitchen. 
 Knives : 
 
 Table, plated. 
 
 Table, iron. 
 
37 
 
 Knives — Continned. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Chopping. 
 
 Palette. 
 
 Vegetable, French. 
 Larding needles. 
 Can openers. 
 Pans: 
 
 Dripping. 
 
 Frying, No. 1. 
 
 Frying, No. 3. 
 Plates, agate. 
 Saucepan, lipped, agate, covered : 
 
 No. 10. 
 
 No. 14. 
 
 No. 20. 
 Scales, large, with scoop, 12 lbs.. No. 24. 
 Teaspoons, plated. 
 Tablespoons, plated. 
 Lemon squeezer. 
 Bins: 
 
 Sugar, 5 lbs. 
 
 Flour, 25 lbs. 
 Boxes : 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 Salt. 
 
 Spice. 
 Apple corers. 
 Biscuit cutters. 
 Colanders, agate. 
 Egg whisk. 
 Flour dredgers. 
 Funnels, small month. 
 Graters. 
 
 Oyster broilers. 
 Potato mashers : 
 
 Wire. 
 
 Wooden. 
 Measures, graduated : 
 
 ipt. 
 
 Iqt. 
 Melon molds. 
 Pans : 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Cake. 
 
 Dish, tin, one 4-qt. 
 
 MuflSn, iron, 8 holes. 
 
 Muffin, 8 holes. 
 
 Roll, 8 holes, Russia. 
 
 Roll, French. 
 Vegetable, press (Hennis). 
 Coffeepots, 2 qts. 
 Shakers, soap. 
 Soup strainers, wire : 
 
 Small. 
 
 Medium. 
 Skimmers. 
 Sieves, flour. 
 Scoops. 
 Steamer. 
 
 Trays, japanned, oval, medium. 
 Tins, jelly-cake. 
 Dishcloth, wire. 
 Bread boards. 
 Chopping bowls, 12 in. 
 Dish mops, small. 
 Ice picks. 
 
 Rolling pins, revolving handles. 
 Spoon, wooden. 
 
 The furniture of the class room consists of a large marble-topped table (which 
 serves as a dining table and as a demonstration table), kitchen table, dresser, speci- 
 men case, and clock. The floors are covered with linoleum. There are gas ranges, 
 instantaneous water heaters, and large comfortable chairs with arm rests. Chem- 
 icals and chemical apparatus are iturchased as required. In addition to the above 
 a number of schools have the food charts published by the United States Department 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 EXAMINATION OF APPLICANTS. 
 
 An examination of applicants for special teachers of cookery was held in October, 
 1897. Special subjects for the examination of candidates were suggested by the 
 supervisor, and questions relating thereto were submitted by her. Six teachers were 
 appointed from the eligible list. 
 
 VISITS TO SCHOOLS. 
 
 Visits have been regularly made, as shown in monthly reports, and such aid and 
 suggestions given to the teachers as were found necessary. The city superintend- 
 ent has been advised as to the appointments, transfers, and promotions of teachers. 
 
38 
 
 CONFERENCES WITH TEACHERS. 
 
 Teachers have met the supervisor ou Friday afternoon of eacli week at Public 
 School 43, for lectures in chemistry. They were also enabled to do considerable 
 laboratory work, as this school had been supplied with some chemicals and appa- 
 ratus by the teacher of cookery (now supervisor) under an appropriation granted by 
 the board of trustees in 1895. The lectures on the chemistry of food and of cookery 
 were given by Mr. Sieberg, principal of this school, after 3 o'clock, through courtesy 
 of the supervisor, who had been special teacher of cookery in his school for six years. 
 These lectures, experiments, and the tests for adulterations in foods have proved 
 invaluable to the teachers, and they feel that they have enjoyed an unusual advan- 
 tage in this course. Mr. Hyatt, principal of Public School 85, is an enthusiast on 
 cooking in the public schools, and he also has given valuable aid gratis in micros- 
 copy and botany to the supervisor and her teachers. As he has been a member 
 of the microscopical society for thirty years, it was a great pleasure to study with 
 him. And lastly, the teachers have met the supervisor every Saturday afc the New 
 York University, where she arranged for a course in biology with laboratory practice. 
 The object of the course being to study the digestive processes of the lower ani- 
 mals, as a foundation for the study of the human alimentary system, special atten- 
 tion was given to those animals that serve as food for man. 
 
 The teachers have entered into the spirit of all this work with the greatest possi- 
 ble enthusiasm, and have given verbal and written expressions of their hearty appre- 
 ciation of the aid and guidance of the supervisor. It has been a delight to her that 
 her experience has made it possible to help them thus, and she thinks the board of 
 education may be proud of this body of teachers who labor so faithfully to make 
 themselves more able in their specialty. 
 
 COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 A manual was prepared in October, 1897, by the supervisor and, by the direction 
 of the special committee on instruction, was submitted to the secretary of the com- 
 mittee ou manual training. After careful examination by him it Was placed in the 
 hands of the city superintendent, who duly examined it and, on November 30, decided 
 to submit it to the committee on instruction with the recommendation that 1,500 
 copies be printed. Typewritten copies of this manual have been furnished the 
 teachers until such time as it may be printed, and the supervisor earnestly recom- 
 mends that it be done without further delay. The principals of the manual training 
 schools are anxious to secure copies, and many requests have been received from 
 various institutions throughout this country, and also from London and Canada. 
 
 The manual may seem perhaps to be too scientific for girls in our grammar schools, 
 but we who teach from it are convinced that it is not. Many thousands of these 
 girls never go beyond the grammar schools, and here or not at all they must be 
 trained for the business they hope to follow through life, and this business is home 
 making. Home making is the business of women by Divine right. In an age when 
 all business processes are being put upon scientitic bases, why should we not teach 
 our girls that science bears an important relation to housekeeping in a variety of 
 ways? The better they understand the philosophy of the ordinary things of life the 
 better they will perform them and the easier it will be to fill their minds with a 
 sense of the dignity of labor at home. The morethey learn of the chemistry of cookery 
 the fewer failures there will be. A girl should be taught the nutritive value of food 
 as well as its cost ; the sanitation of the home as well as its tidiness. Such training 
 must produce prudent, economical, and thrifty housewives. They are much needed 
 in America. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 Many visitors from all parts of the country and from the various organizations 
 and institutions in our city have been entertained by the supervisor, and all have 
 
39 
 
 expressed themselves as pleased with the manner in which this branch of manual 
 training is being taught in the public schools. 
 
 Teachers have been gratified by the assurances of parents that the work was of 
 practical value in their homes. 
 
 Numerous letters of inquiry and congratulation have been received and answered. 
 
 The library at the New York University has been placed at the disposal of the 
 supervisor and teachers of cookery. All Government bulletins relating to food and 
 nutrititin have been furnished to the teachers at the request of the supervisor. 
 
 The schools in London and Paris were visited by the supervisor during the summer 
 of 1897 and re])orts of visits given to the city superintendent and to the committee 
 on instrnction. 
 
 A resolution was passed by this committee, at the request of the supervisor, that 
 the number in classes should not exceed 30. Most of the principals divided the 
 classes exceeding that number. 
 
 Visits have been made by the supervisor and teachers of cookery to various food 
 manufactories, Hour mills, etc. ; also to the aquarium and museum of Natural History. 
 
 The supervisor visited Pratt Institute, Philadelphia Cooking School, Teachers' 
 College, and the food exhibit at Philadelphia for the benefit of her work. 
 
 This report will be closed with some examples of the lessons in cooking 
 given by teachers in the New York schools during the past year, as well 
 as of the work (written exercises and drawings) of pupils performed 
 in connection with these lessons. This work was based upon subjects 
 given to the teachers by the supervisor from the manual referred to 
 before, and is a demonstration of the progress that has been made in a 
 comparatively short time toward raising the dignity of home science by 
 making the basis of the teaching the elementary jirinciples of the 
 science of food and nutrition and keeping the practical work of cookiug 
 in its proper place as a laboratory demonstration of the principles 
 taught. 
 
U. S. Dept, of Agn , Bui. 56. Office of Expt Stations. 
 
 Plate 
 
 GiRL COOKING. 
 Drawn by E. A. C. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LESSONS, EXERCISES, AND DRAWINGS FROM THE COURSE IN 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON "WATER. 
 
 Boilino- /Use of thermometer. Testing temperatures. 
 
 * I Blood heat. Simmering. 
 
 Experiments showing 
 physical properties. 
 
 Evaporation. 
 
 Is it destroyed? 
 What is steaui? Vapor? 
 Which is hotter? 
 Mineral matter remaining. 
 
 Why water assumes a spherical form when in- 
 tensely heated. 
 
 I Some suhstances insoluble. 
 Starch. Sugar. Salt. 
 Boiling to recover the substance dissolved. 
 
 Suspension.. jChalk and insoluble material. 
 
 Filtration. . JUse of porous material. 
 [A means oi puriiication. 
 
 Conclusions: The danger of it carrying disease-bearing gernis or poisons in conse- 
 quence of its great solvent power. Filtered to strain out or absorb visible impurity. 
 Boiled to destroy invisible disease germs. 
 
 Chemical composition : Decomposition by means of the metal sodium attracting 
 the oxygen of the water. Hydrogen remains. Tested for blue flame. 
 
 Showing why water should not be kept in contaminated air. 
 
 Boiled water is tasteless. Dissolved gase.s are lost. On ex- 
 posing again to fresh air the gases, principally oxygen, will 
 be reabsorbed. 
 
 Dissolves carbon dioxid, causing effervescence. 
 
 Fish will not live in boiled water. 
 
 Dissolves gases 
 
 Impurities in water 
 
 Dust mav contain. {^^g^^^^.^^ living matter. 
 [Dead animal matter. 
 
 Mineral matter. Lead. 
 Crust formed on kettle lids and in boilers. 
 Such waters better boiled before using. 
 Use of living matter in water. 
 
 Its influence on digestion : Digestion a softening and breaking up of food by means 
 of body fluids. Indigestion often a want of fluid condition of digestive juices. Its 
 wide distribution shows its importance, both to vegetable and animal kingdoms, and 
 ranking it next to air in A'^alue. 
 
 Water as a means of cleansing: Different action of hard and soft water for this 
 purpose. Hard water wastes soap. Importance of its liberal use. 
 
 Water for cooking purposes: The saving of food nutriment by use of the double 
 boiler, where vegetables or cereals can be kept at a lower temperature for a longer 
 
 41 
 
42 
 
 time than when boiled violently in direct contact with the fire. Soups and boiled 
 meats also better so cooked. 
 
 I When put into hot water. 
 When put into cold water. 
 When put into salted water. 
 When put into fresh water. 
 
 H. P., Teacher. 
 
 PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON WATER. 
 
 Water. — Water is a liquid formed by the chemical combination of the two gases, 
 oxygen and hydrogen. Water is capable of existing in three forms, as a liquid, a 
 solid, or a gas. 
 
 When heated it goes off into the air as an invisible vapor, and when frozen it forms 
 ice which is a solid. When frozen it expands, a fact which is demonstrated by the 
 bursting of pipes, a catastrophe which occurs frequently in winter. When a solid 
 is dissolved in water it is recoverable after the water has evaporated. Hot is more 
 capable of dissolving a solid than cold water. 
 
 Ninety per cent of fresh vegetables is water. Three fourths of the earth's surface 
 is water, and seven ninths of the human body is composed of it. It is next in 
 importance to air. 
 
 In burniug sugar we discovered that it contained water the hydrogen of which 
 burned with a blue flame. 
 
 Water used for drinking purposes should not be conveyed through leaden pipes 
 because it absorbs poison from them. 
 
 As a classified food, water is a mineral or inorganic food, and its importance places 
 it at the head of a long list of foods. Water is so necessary to the body that a per- 
 son can hardly live a day without it or some similar liquid. 
 
 E. E. 
 
 Water in cooking. — Soft water is best for cooking purposes, when the object is to 
 soften hard vegetables or to make soup or stew of meat, and also to extract the 
 flavor of tea and coffee. 
 
 Water is the greatest solvent. But suppose we want to cook tender green vegeta- 
 bles or onions, if soft or rain water is used all the pretty green color and the flavor 
 will be dissolved out. So for these, use hard spring water or put salt in it to harden 
 it. We proved this by boiling one onion in salt or hard water and another in soft 
 water. 
 
 The latter was all broken up and had no taste. The first one was perfect in shape 
 and had a delicious sweet flavor. It had lost nothing. 
 
 Water. — Water is a compound it contains two elements oxygen and hydrogen. 
 Hydrogen burns with a blue flame, this can be found out by burning sugar. 
 
 Water is a mineral and contains organic bodies. It contains million of inhabit- 
 ants they live on the organic matter or animal matter, they must be smaller than 
 they are, these are called microbes. If the water is an acid vegetable will appear 
 in the water, if an alkali it will be an animal. We can test this with litmus paper. 
 The acid will turn red and the alkali changes back to blue. 
 
 Water does not dissolve all substances. It takes one pint of water to dissolve two 
 pouuds of sugar and only six ounces of salt to one pint of water. It also dissolves 
 gases. The purest water is rain, sometimes it is not pure, because there is sometimes 
 a disease all over the city and when the first rain falls it collects all the impurities. 
 The blood coatains nearly 90 per cent water, vegetables 99 per cent, the body § per 
 cent, an the earth three-fourths water. 
 
 We use water for cleaning purposes also for cooking. Springs are produced by 
 the rain first coming down and filtering through the porous material, that water con- 
 
43 
 
 tains a grocat deal of mineral matter, when water contains lime and magnesium it is 
 very hard. Water is sometimes made hard by salt being piit in it and allowing it to 
 l)oil. Water absorbs the heat from the body. Fruits contain a great deal of water. 
 
 I. M. 
 
 SYLLABUS OP LESSON ON AIR. 
 
 I. 
 
 Air is first in importance of all that is necessary for life. 
 
 Water ranks second. 
 
 Solid food third. 
 
 How air links our lives with that of plants. 
 
 Most delicate of all substances (air thermometer the most 
 
 perfect). 
 Most powerful in motion. 
 Without air we could neither see, hear, touch, taste, nor 
 
 smell. 
 The part it takes in cooking. 
 
 Ideas and facts to be 
 developed during 
 progress of illustra- 
 tions and experi- 
 ments. 
 
 II. 
 
 Physical properties of. 
 
 Invisible ] 
 
 Inodorous IProve by observation. 
 
 Colorless J 
 
 Elastic 
 
 Has weight. 
 
 ■ IProve by experiment. 
 
 Elements. 
 
 Compoundaubstances., 
 
 III.— Chemical Composition. 
 
 I Experiment: to extract oxygen. 
 Two pupils assisting; class observing, mak- 
 ing drawings of apparatus, and forming 
 written conclusions. 
 
 ,., . fExperiraent: removing oxygen from a jar of 
 Nitrogen, dilut-) ^^j. . making use of property of oxygen dis- 
 , lug element. ^ covered in previous experiment. 
 
 fRespiration. 
 . Combustion. 
 Carbon dioxid, poisonous element: expen-lp^^jg^y 
 
 ments to show how produced. • | Effervescence. 
 
 UTermentation. 
 
 (Combustion. 
 Respiration. 
 Decay. 
 
 IV.— Discussion. 
 
 The discovery in 1894 by Professor Ramsay of another gas found in atmosphere 
 and named argon. 
 
 V. — Conclusions. 
 
 (Placed by pupils on blackboard as they are formed.) 
 
 Its history; when discovered; by whom; how widely dis- 
 tributed; one-fifth of air, proven; chief ingredient of water; 
 in all organic matter ; one-third of solid earth ; one-half of 
 minerals. 
 Oxygen (Bathes the body internally, cleansing and removing all im- 
 purities by a slow combustion. 
 
 Office of countless air cells in lungs. 
 
 The gas that makes fires, all fuels, and lights burn. 
 
 .Result if air were undiluted oxygen. 
 
44 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Carbon dioxid. 
 
 Serves to render air less powerful. 
 Nothing will burn in it; animals die in it. 
 Puts out a flame instantly. 
 Indifferent; neutral; does not easily combine. 
 Found largely in Arm animal tissues. 
 Basis of animal bodies. 
 
 Its wonderful activity when life ceases, combining immedi- 
 ately with hydrogen to form ammonia, a product of decay. 
 
 The great source of plant nourishment. 
 
 Interchange of elements between animals and plants. 
 
 I Takes in — Produces — 
 
 Carbon dioxid Starch. 
 Water Oxygen. 
 
 Anin^ai JStarch aud fat Carbon dioxid. 
 
 ^^^^ lOxygeu Water,fat. 
 
 VI. — Conclusions. 
 (With instructions for compositions.) 
 
 Importance of thorough ventilation. 
 
 Sufficient supply of pure air furnished. 
 
 Impure air removed — how make use of air currents. 
 
 A perfect nonconductor — air inclosed between two windows. 
 
 How temperature is measured — thermometer. 
 
 How weight is measured — barometer. 
 
 Simple experiments to prove pressure. 
 
 Air a mixture. Any one of its elements breathed alone would be dangerous. 
 
 How to best ventilate rooms. 
 
 Impure air the greatest source of sickness. We may have abundance of food and 
 water, but if obliged to breathe impure air these blessings become a source of 
 disease. 
 
 Importance of liaving with every morsel of food a corresponding morsel of air. 
 
 Sources of impurities must be removed. Teach others importance of doing this, 
 and so remove the cause of disease. 
 
 Wholesome foods become poisons if our living rooms are not well ventilated. 
 
 Wrong to remain from one to two hours in ill-ventilated public buildings with 
 numbers of human beings constantly poisoning the atmosphere. 
 
 Impure air the chief cause of consumption. 
 
 Thk Part Air Takes in Cooking. 
 
 Cooking of meats. 
 
 The contained air in the tissues is expanded by heat, forcing 
 the fibers apart, making more easily masticated. This is the 
 point at which heat should be checked, as if further contin- 
 ued the material shrivels, losing flavor and nutriment with 
 the moisture, and becoming dry and indigestible. This fact 
 made use of in broiling aud roasting. 
 
 Most delicious, light, and easily digested doughs are those made light by common 
 air. Advantage of these over baking powder and yeast breads. 
 How moisture in air influences cooking. 
 How pressure in air influences cooking.- 
 Cooking on mountain tops; in low valleys. 
 
 H. P., readier. 
 
45 
 
 PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON AIR. 
 
 Pressure of air. — Remove the shell from a hard-boiled egg and put the egg iuto 
 the mouth of a wide bottle that will just fit it. You can leave it there all day and 
 it would uot move. The air in the bottle helps to press it up as much as the air on 
 top is pressing it down and it is kept in the same place. If you were in a crowded 
 place and people were pressing you on all sides alike you would remain in the same 
 place. 
 
 Now take out the egg, and put a piece of burning match in the jar and let it burn 
 out. Then quickly put back the egg and watch it slowly move downward and all 
 at once drop into the bottle. The burning match expanded the air and it escaped. 
 When the bottle cooled the air in it contracted and so filled a smaller place, as no 
 more air could get in and there was an empty place between the air and egg and 
 the force of air above the egg being greater, it was forced into the bottle. 
 
 E. B. 
 
 Nitrogen. — We had a pan filled with water and put a button fastened by a wire 
 on the edge. Then we put a piece of phosphorous on the button and lit it, placing 
 a bottle over the top. It made a very bright light, and of course anything burning 
 must consume oxygen. We then saw a very peculiar thing happen. It was water 
 going upward. This showed that an empty space had been formed in the bottle 
 and something had to fill its place. Now, the water being nearest, it was used. 
 This experiment also shows how much oxygen was used, and we found by measure- 
 ment it was about one-fifth. This amount then showed the oxygen. We care- 
 fully lifted up the bottle, clapped over it a piece of glass. And now we test it as 
 we did oxygen and carbon dioxid. A lighted match or taper was put out immedi- 
 ately. Animal life would be stifled in the same way. 
 
 F. E. C. 
 
 Gases of the air. — What is air? Pure air is an invisible fluid, made np of two 
 gases — oxygen and nitrogen, without which we cannot live. 
 
 Men have been known to live without food many days, but man has never been 
 known to exist without air. 
 
 Oxygen is far too liyely a gas to live in, so kind nature has diluted it for us 
 with another gas called nitrogen. If a person were piit into a room filled with 
 oxygen his face would first turn red, then his body would turn the same color, then 
 his heart would beat very rapidly, and finally the arteries about this most impor- 
 tant of all organs would burst. 
 
 Oxygen will burn everything it comes in contact with. This accounts for the 
 burning up process which is always going on within our own bodies. 
 
 Oxygen can be extracted from the air by the use of electricity, but as this is not 
 easy to work with in a schoolroom, we use manganese dioxid mixed with an equal 
 quantity of chlorate of potash. 
 
 To extract the oxygen from these two substances, they are put together iuto a 
 test tube to which is attached another tube. The latter is of very small circumfer- 
 ence and has two or three crooks in it. Then place a large pan on the table filled 
 one-third with water and put in it a block of wood about one inch thick. Then 
 take an ordinary jar and fill it with water and place upside down so that the mouth 
 of the jar is about halfway on the board. Then heat the tube in which the chem- 
 icals are and put the tube to which it is attached iuto the water right under the 
 mouth of the jar. The water in the jar will then be seen to disappear gradually, 
 and in its place will be the oxygen itself. To prove this, take a piece of wood and 
 thrust it into the jar. It will take fire instantly and burn with a very bright flame. 
 
 To extract nitrogen from phosphorus is still more simply done. Attach a piece of 
 wire to a button and on the button place a piece of phosphorus, being careful not 
 to touch it with the fingers, as it will burn to the bone. The wire should be 
 
46 
 
 attached to the pan so that the button will be just above the water without touch- 
 ing it. 
 
 If you give the phosphorus long enough it will burn of itself, but if you are in a 
 hurry put a match to it. It will throw sparks in every direction, so you must be 
 very careful not to go too near it. 
 
 Place a jar over the phosphorus while it is burning. The jar will be seen to 
 almost fill with a thick, gray smoke, but the bottom of the jar will be about one- 
 fifth full of water. Light a match and throw it into this smoke, and it will go out 
 instantly. The gas which has filled this jar is nitrogen. 
 
 Oxygen and nitrogen are the two gases of which the air is mainlj' composed, but 
 the air also contains a third gas, which is carbon dioxid, and is the gas that we 
 breathe out from the lungs. 
 
 L. E. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON POOD— ITS CHEMISTRY. 
 
 I. — Introduction. 
 
 1. Food defined ("Ignorance of its meaning. 
 
 \Ignorance of relative value. 
 
 II. — Development. 
 
 IfOro-anic [Carbonaceous. 
 
 Food divisions '' jNitrogenous. 
 
 )lnorganic....|JJat^e-^^^^^^ 
 Food combinations — Importance of mixed diet. 
 
 2. Chemistry applied to 
 preparation. i 
 
 Cookiuff. 
 
 rConvection. 
 Processes --Conduction. 
 
 (Radiation. 
 
 fStarch converted to sugar. 
 Changes — Sugar converted to caramel. 
 
 [Effect upon albuminoids. 
 
 Ferments j Yeast raised breads. 
 
 I Preservation of food. 
 
 3. Chemistry applied to di- J ^alivary-con version of starches to sugar, 
 e-estion ^Gastric — albuminoids to peptones. 
 
 ° ' [intestinal — fats — emulsions. 
 
 III. — Conclusion. 
 
 1. Chemistry a safeguard ../Adulteration. 
 
 [Improper cooking. 
 
 2. Chemistry a means to fKnowledge ennobling home labor. 
 
 happiness. \Knowledge surest road to economy. 
 
 E. A. C, Teacher. 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON FOOD— ITS CHEMISTRY. 
 
 We have learned in our cooking class that everything vre eat is not food, been use 
 only what nourishes the body can be called food. 
 
 We have also learned of what substances our food is made up, and which are best 
 for the building up of our bodies. 
 
 We have learned that we must not eat one kind of food, but to combine difiereut 
 foods so that all parts of our bodies may be properly nourished. 
 
 We now kuow what makes our muflSns rise, and what changes take place, when 
 they are put in the oven, and what makes our dough rise after yeast is put in it. 
 
 We enjoy cooking at home very much now that we know why we do certain things, 
 and what our food is going to do for us after it is cooked. 
 
 It pleases my mother very much to see me cook at home what we have made in 
 school. 
 
 M. C. 
 
47 
 
 SYLLABUS or LESSON ON CEREALS. 
 
 Order Graminea' .../Principal 
 t kinds .., 
 
 fWheat. 
 Oats. 
 Rice. 
 Rye. 
 Barley. 
 Maize. 
 
 Production /Seeds of certain grasses sown in antnmn or gTowiu<!; in all but 
 I coldest climates. 
 
 Composition 
 
 Water. 
 Protein. 
 Starch. 
 Fat. 
 
 Salts. 
 
 Cellulose. 
 
 Diastase. 
 
 Food value Contain every element necessary for nutrition at small cost. 
 
 I Thrashing. 
 Winnowing. 
 Hulling. 
 Grinding. 
 
 Manner of cooking . .Softening of starch and cellulose by addition of water. 
 
 ( Blight. 
 Fungi. J Mildew. 
 [ Must. 
 
 Causes of loss 
 
 Insects./ Beetles. 
 i Moths. 
 
 i Many feed on insects and seeds injurious to grain. 
 Birds .J Bobolink exception, causing great loss to rice grow- 
 I ers. 
 
 r Feeding and fattening animals. 
 Other uses of grain..; Imitation coffee. 
 
 [ Intoxicating liquors. 
 
 Food and litter for animals. 
 
 Hats. 
 
 Uses of straw ) Mats. 
 
 I Bedding. 
 
 Thatching. 
 [ Packing. 
 
 f Beds. 
 
 Chaff <^ Packing. 
 
 [Adulteration. 
 
 Origin of name / Ceres goddess of corn 
 
 \ Cerealia feast held m Rome. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Native of Lands around Mediterranean. 
 
 Color /Red. 
 
 i White. 
 
 Varieties 
 
 Time of sowing ../ Sprin 
 ^ 1 Wint 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Appearance i. Bearded. 
 
 1 Bald. 
 
 . Food value . . .Easy of digestion ; almost perfect food. 
 
48 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 f Flakes. 
 Breakfast foods.. J Granules. 
 
 [Germs, etc. 
 
 r Macaroni. 
 
 Pastes } Spaghetti. 
 
 [Vermicelli. 
 
 ( Introduced into China 2700 B. C. 
 History J Used as vegetable in early Middle Ages in Eng- 
 
 ' I land. 
 
 [ America greatest wheat field of the world. 
 
 Oats 
 
 f Varieties ....(Black. 
 1 White. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Breakfast foods 
 
 r Hulled. 
 
 Steamed. 
 Rolled. 
 
 Thin cakes from meal. 
 Food for horses. 
 
 „ , T f Very nutritious if suflSciently cooked and hull 
 
 Food value.. I J^^^^,^^ 
 
 ( In cultivation before Christian era. 
 
 History ' Grown in colder climates than wheat. 
 
 [ Wild oats used for hay in California. 
 
 Barley 
 
 Native of Central Asia. 
 
 I Barley water. 
 Fermented liquors. 
 Soups. 
 Bread. 
 
 r First of all grasses used for food. 
 
 History -^ Up to middle of seventeenth century principal 
 
 I breadstuff of England. 
 
 Rice 
 
 fNativeof...JI°f^Vt , ^ ,. 
 \ Northern Australia. 
 
 f Large quantity of starch. 
 Food value ..J Little protein and fat. 
 
 [Easy of digestion — one hour. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 History 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Cakes. 
 
 Puddings. 
 
 Adulterate wheat Hour. 
 
 Fatten poultry. 
 
 Saki by fermentation. 
 
 Food of one-third population of world. 
 Asia and America two largest rice fields. 
 Requires much water during growth. 
 
 Rye, 
 
 Native of Black and Caspian seas. 
 
 (Next to wheat. 
 Harder of digestion, caused by acetous fermen- 
 tation. 
 
49 
 
 Rye 
 
 Com 
 
 Bread f Russia. 
 
 [ Germany. 
 
 jjses I Thin cakes. Sweden . 
 
 Substitute for coffee. 
 
 Whisky 1^ , , ,. 
 
 Kvass I y fermentation. 
 
 Grows on poorer soil and in colder clime than other cereals. 
 
 Native of America. 
 
 Distinguishing features ../ largest and handsoinest. 
 
 ° ° I Bearing two kinds or ilowers. 
 
 i White. 
 
 Varieties I^^T' 
 
 ) Sweet. 
 
 (Pop. 
 
 f Nutritious. 
 
 Food value J. Rich in oil. 
 
 [ Cheapest cereal. . 
 
 Breads. 
 
 To cheapen wheat bread by admix- 
 ture. 
 Vegetable. 
 Fodder. 
 
 Uses J Fattening animals. 
 
 Distilling. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Fuel. 
 
 History. 
 
 Practical value 
 
 Specimens 
 
 In cultivation before discovery of 
 
 America. 
 In 1847 potato famine increased its 
 
 use in Ireland. 
 Supplanting millet in South Africa. 
 National bread of Mexico. 
 Tortillas. 
 Polenta in Italy. 
 
 As they contain all the nutrients, 
 meats and more expensive foods 
 can be used in smaller quantities 
 where whole grain is used. 
 
 Grains on the straw and the difler- 
 
 ent preparations. 
 Plants grown in school. 
 
 N. N. 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON CEREALS. 
 
 Oats. — Oats are classed among cereals, and belong to the grass family. Long ago, 
 when people believed in gods and goddesses, they thought that there was a goddess 
 of corn, whom they called Ceres, from which they derived the name of cereals. They 
 believed that she had a daughter named Proserpina, who was once taken in a king's 
 palace and had to go there for a few months in every year. Her mother, being very 
 much grieved at hearing this, would let nothing grow while she was away. In the 
 spring of every year, Proserpina returned, and again things began to grow, as before 
 Proserpina's absence. 
 
 9900— No. 56 4 
 
50 
 
 Oats go through much preparation before being cooked. First they are cut and 
 thrashed, then hulled, then steamed, and last of all, crushed, the last process, half 
 cooking them. 
 
 Before going through these processes, oats consist of straw, which is at the bot- 
 tom, the ear at the top, the chaff, which is the outside of the oat, and the grain 
 inside the chaff, containing the bran. When oats are being tied, we call it, "Bind- 
 ing the sheaves." 
 
 In hulling oats, we take off the hull, and in rolling oats, we put them between 
 rollers, after being hulled. The hulled oats take ten hours to cook, and the rolled 
 take about two hours. 
 
 Rice, oatmeal, hominy and farina are cereals. The Scotch, especially, are very 
 fond of cereals, and the Chinese are fond of rice. For the reason that cereals are 
 strengthening, when a horse is ready for hard work or to race, he is given oats. They 
 contain proteid, which is called gluten, and helps to build up the system. 
 
 K. K. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON BREAD. 
 
 "Remember thy bread and bake it well, for he will not be kept well that eateth 
 his bread as dough." 
 
 Materials 
 
 History. 
 
 (Picture of hai-vest field. 
 
 Different grains grown in the class room to study botany of. 
 
 Study of the action of enzynis in germination. 
 
 Samples of the different milling products. 
 
 Picture of old-fashioned mill. 
 • Microscope and slides to study cross section of grains. 
 
 Gluten, wheat starch, iodin. 
 
 Yeast cultuies. 
 
 Supplementary reading : Bulletins and charts issued by the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, History of a Mouthful of 
 Bread, by Jean Mace. 
 
 I The bread of the different people of the world. 
 What portion uses wheat flour and eats light bread. 
 Besides the grains the use of chestnuts, Iceland moss, barks of 
 trees, roots of plants. 
 
 Processes in 
 bread making. 
 
 Mixing. 
 
 Kueadini 
 
 Raising 
 
 Baking. 
 
 [Neatness and care in measuring materials. 
 jNecessity for lukewarm liquid. 
 jConsistency of batter for different kinds of bread. 
 (Proper handling of the spoon. 
 
 Reasons for. 
 
 Different methods employed. 
 Which simplest and least tiring. 
 How to tell when sufficiently kneaded. 
 Danger from diseased hands. 
 Different machines used. 
 
 rReasons for. 
 
 iTemperature required. 
 
 ^Length of time depending on quantity of yeast. 
 
 I Effect of too long raising. 
 
 (.Necessity of covering the dough. 
 
 Size of loaf and molding. 
 Small loaves better — why. 
 Temperature of oven. 
 I Effect of too hot or too cool an oven. 
 Length of time for baking. 
 
 Effect of heat in baking, cooking of starch — forma- 
 tion of dextrin in crust — killing yeast. 
 Danger of underdone bread. 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt Stations 
 
 Plate II. 
 
 ^;N' 
 
 ^m 
 
 Bunch of Wheat. 
 
 Drawn by A. P. 
 
51 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 (ibemistry.. 
 
 II. 
 
 Different grains used — which best, and why. 
 
 Visit to a mill. 
 
 Method of milling. 
 
 Different kinds of flour. 
 
 Test for good flour. 
 
 Which flour best for bread. 
 
 Why graham flour will not take the place of whole 
 
 wheat. 
 Use of pastry flour. 
 Extravagance of using prepared flour. 
 
 (Experiment to separate gluten from starch. 
 JTest for starch. 
 
 ] Burning flour, to show presence of water and min- 
 l eral matter. 
 
 Yeast. 
 
 History 
 
 Biology 
 
 /Story of its discovery. 
 \Visit to a brewery. 
 
 Study of different cultures under the raicro8coj)e. 
 Its appearance — growth and comparison with other 
 plants. 
 
 Chemistry — 
 
 Action in bread making 
 Experiments — growth i 
 
 lukewarm water. 
 Alcoholic fermentation — experiments 
 
 test CO2 — distill for alcohol. 
 Acetous formation— souring of dough, 
 
 ice water, boiling, and 
 
 -collect and 
 
 {Leaven . 
 Bread making. 
 Fermenting liquors. 
 
 .Stale yeast . . . Cause of — bacteria present. 
 
 Physiology 
 
 III. 
 
 Crust and crumb — experiments to show presence of 
 
 dextrin. 
 Toasted bread. 
 Fresh and stale bread. 
 Digestibility .^Slack baked — experiments using crumb of under- 
 done bread to raise dough. 
 Sour bread. 
 
 Heavy and compact bread. 
 ^Mastication — experiment with saliva. 
 
 I Muscle and bone forming — heat giving. (See charts 
 and bulletins issued by United States Department 
 of Agriculture.) 
 Comparative value of different kinds of bread. 
 
 I Homemade more wholesome and economical. 
 Left-over bread and crumbs used for stuffing and simple deserts and 
 digestible deserts, especially valuable for children. 
 Stale-bread crumbs, for dipping croquettes, etc. 
 
 Practical valne 
 of science in 
 the home. 
 
 Never will use boiling water in mixing the batter for the dough. 
 Will bake bread in small loaves to get more crust. 
 Will never eat hot, fresh bread, underdone nor sour bread. 
 Will make use of left-overs. 
 
 Will know which kind of bread will give most nutriment to the 
 body. 
 
 "Bread is the staff of life; 
 The honor of the husband. 
 And the pride of the wife." 
 
 E. B., Teacher. 
 
52 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON BREAD. 
 
 Bread. — Bread cau be traced almost as far back, as the first man. lu different 
 parts of the world, the natives use the cereal, which is the most abundant in their 
 country. It is but a small portion of the world, that enjoys the luxury of good 
 wheat flour. We should therefore, be thankful to our forefathers; who first planted 
 the wheat, and enlightened the process of " Bread Making." We should show our 
 gratitude, by trying to enlighten it still more. 
 
 The people in the northern part of Sweedeu, bake their bread twice a year, and 
 when eaten is like a brick. In Lapland, oats and the inner bark of the pine tree, 
 are ground, mixed, and made into large, flat cakes, cooked over a fire. In Iceland, 
 the icelaud-moss, is used, as we use flour. In some parts of the east, quite a (juan- 
 tity of buckwheat is used. Inltalj' chestnuts. Eice-bread is the chief food, of the 
 Chinese. 
 
 The nourishment of bread, depends wholly upon its preparation. Bread should 
 be light; heavy bread, is very difficult to digest. The more compact the bread, the 
 more indigestible it is. 
 
 The smaller the loaves, the more crust, which is easier to digest. The large loaves, 
 are not apt, to be thoroughly cooked in the center; the yeast plant has not been 
 killed. When eaten, the yeast will go on growing, in our stomach, changing starch 
 into sugar, the sugar into alcohol and gas, then the alcohol into vinegar, thus caus- 
 ing disorder in the stomach. 
 
 Bread should be thorouglily masticated, the starch, while being chewed, will be 
 changed, by the action of the ptyalin, into sugar, sugar being the easier to digest. 
 
 Stale bread is preferable at all times, it will crumble easier, and the juices of the 
 stomach cau operate much better. 
 
 Bread that has become too stale, for table use, should not be thrown away, it can 
 be used for many dift'erent purposes, it may be used for puddings, stuffings, toast 
 and rolling croquettes. 
 
 ''The Baker," — in olden times, was respected in the community, and occupied a 
 high position. F. L. 
 
 Recipe for wholewheat bread. — 1 pint lukewarm water ; 1 teaspoonfnl salt; 1 or 3 
 cakes yeast; flour enough to make a batter. 
 
 Directions: Put water and salt into a large bowl add salt. Mix yeast with a 
 little water and add. Stir in enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat until full 
 of bubbles. Cover frith, clean towel. Stand in warm place until light. Now add 
 flour enough to make a dough. Knead until smooth and elastic. Put into greased 
 bowl cover and stand aside until two or three times its original size. Divide 
 into small loaves mold to fit the pan. Cover stand aside. When light bake in a 
 hot oven for 30 m. Good bread should have much crust and little crumb, and should 
 not be too close-grained. If the bread be heavy it will be difficult to digest. The 
 whole wheat bread is more nutritious because it contains more gluten which gives 
 ns muscle and phosphate of lime which builds up bones and teeth. Sour bread is 
 indigestible. 
 
 We should not eat fresh bread because it is difficult to digest, nor bread that is 
 sour as the acid is bad for the stomach. 
 
 We can save all stale pieces of bread and use theiu for pudding stuffiing and also 
 for rolling croquettes. L. McF. 
 
 Experiments with yeast. — Put some yeast in pure molasses. No action. 
 
 Fill another glass with lukewarm water add one teaspoon of molasses and a small 
 piece of yeast. Stand in a warm place. 
 
 Bubbles rise to the top, notice a smell of alcohol. The liquid is in a state of fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 Put a little of this liquid on a slide glass and examine under the microscope. We 
 find a great many cells, these.are the yeast plants. 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agn., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations 
 
 Plate II 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui, 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Yeast Plants as seen under the Microscope. 
 
 Drawn by L. F. 
 
 
 .--.=-_„. 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 %-,\ J»-' '' 
 
 5^ 
 
 ■t;. 
 
 / 
 
 ■>-:^'' 
 
 
 : 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \' 
 
 ''2^ 
 
 - - 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2.— Cross Section of a Grain of Wheat as seen under the Microscope. 
 
 Drawn by H. S 
 
53 
 
 Some of them have sent out new cells like buds from them like other cells. Allow 
 this liquid to stand for a day or so we get a strong odor of vinegar. 
 Mix yeast with ice water add flour as food and put it in the ice box. 
 Mix yeast with lukewarm water add flour as food and put it in a warm place. 
 Mix yeast with boiling water add flour as food and stand aside. 
 Examine these three glasses. 
 In the first no bubbles are seen. 
 In the second full of bubbles. 
 In the third no bubbles are seen. 
 
 This teaches us that cold water will keep the yeast plant fi"om growing. 
 In warm water the yeast grows rapidly. 
 Boiling water will kill the yeast plant. 
 
 J. L. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON BAKING POWDER— QUICK BREADS. 
 
 1. Substances presented. .{Cje^mtartar^^, ^^^^ 
 
 Composition ..) 
 
 ia Vinegar, lemon juice, ammonia, 
 Acids and alkalies discussed. < soap, baking soda. 
 
 [b Tests with litmus. 
 Substances combined in definite proportions. 
 Small amount of starch used as a keeper. 
 
 1. Effect when mixed dry — None. 
 
 Experiment 
 
 /Slight. 
 
 Practical a p 
 plication . .' 
 
 2. Effect when moistoned with cold water (H.O) J ^a|"vescence 
 
 3. Effect when moistened with ho tf Greater effervescence. 
 
 water (HoO) 1 Violent escape of gas (CO.2). 
 
 4. Reason for not using liquid acids and alkalies — Too hasty escape 
 
 of gas. 
 
 1. Baking powder combined with dry ingredients. 
 
 2. Haste essential to prevent premature escape of (Moisture, 
 gas \Waruith of air. 
 
 3. Cooking. 
 
 1. Liquid in batter. 1^, j, , 
 
 2 VJ^it nf .wAn fC'as formed 
 
 Heat of oven 
 
 Test of purity. 
 
 3. Muffins or biscuits rise. 
 
 4. Porosity of muffins or biscuits — Causes, spaces occu- 
 pied by gas. 
 
 fl. Overabundance of starch — Thick when tested with boiling water. 
 2. Ammonia — Odor when heated. 
 
 3 Alum /Solution made acid with CiH402 (acetic acid), 
 l^ ■ 'iDecoction logwood added — purple color. 
 
 E. A. C. Teacher. 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON QUICK BREADS. 
 
 Baking powder. — Baking powder is composed of two (juautities of cream of-tartar 
 and one quantity of bi-carbonate of soda. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda is an alkali, and is sometimes made of common salt, but 
 very often is obtained from a mineral substance called cryolite. 
 
 Cream-of-tartar is an acid, a substance dissolved in the grapes. 
 
 When the two substances are mixed there is no action between them. When a 
 liquid is added there is a slight effervescence a small amount of carbon dioxid gas 
 is formed. When they are moistened and heated a large amount of gas is formed. 
 
 When a mixture having baking powder in it is put into the oven, the carbon 
 dioxid gas wants to escape and it carries the mixture up with it and tiie mixture 
 becomes light and porous. A. H. 
 
54 
 
 History . . 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON THE POTATO 
 Early 
 
 Later lutioduced into Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 Botany 
 
 Chemical 
 analysis.' 
 
 rBotanical name — Solanum tuberosum. 
 
 Family — Deadly nightshade. 
 > Climate — Temperate. 
 
 Part used as food — Tuber. 
 ^Propagation — By buds or eyes. 
 
 I Water. 
 Starch. 
 Nitrogenous matter. 
 Mineral salts. 
 Cellulose. 
 
 /Native South America. 
 ISpread into North America. 
 
 By Spaniards, 16th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Ireland, Sir John Haw- 
 kins, 1565. 
 
 England, Sir Francis 
 Drake, 1585. 
 
 England, Sir Walter 
 Kaleigh, 1586. 
 
 Experiment 
 
 i Starch, water, and cellulose separated. 
 Starch test — lodin. 
 Starch microscopically/Granules, 
 viewed. \Cell walls. 
 
 Food value _ 
 
 fT-v A ^ ', • (Proper cooking of starch. 
 
 JDependent "Poncooking[g^^.^i^^.^g of cfllulose or vegetable liber. 
 
 Dependent upon dietary /Fats. 
 I combination. tAlbuminoids. 
 
 Note 
 
 /Practical value of in 
 "^ struction. 
 
 Pupils will not serve waxy potatoes. 
 Will allow steam to escape. 
 Will not use potato water. 
 Will combine with food rich in nitrogen. 
 Will keep potatoes in dry, cool place. 
 Cook and thoroughly masticate all starchy 
 foods. 
 
 1. McM. A., Teacher. 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON THE POTATO. 
 
 Tlie potato. — This vegetable is a native of South America, where it still grows 
 wild. It was introduced into European countries by explorers. 
 
 The potato belongs to the same family of plants as tobacco. It contains a j>oison, 
 peculiar to this class, which may be extracted from the potato by cooking. 
 
 The potato contains many compounds. The most important of these is starch. 
 It also contains water, fat, cellulose, albumen and mineral matter. Starch is com- 
 posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is not flesh-forming but heat giving. 
 A i^otato should be well chewed, so that the saliva can act upon the starch and 
 change it to sugar. To cultivate the potato a good soil and a temperate climate are 
 necessary. 
 
 Some think that the potato is a healthful vegetable. This is only so when eaten 
 with food rich in nitrogen, for it lacks albumen. Served with eggs, meat, or fish, 
 the potato heljis to form a perfect diet. 
 
 The people of Ireland use the potato as one of the chief articles of diet. But they 
 drink large quantities of buttermilk, or skimmed milk, which contains a great deal 
 of flesh forming material. 
 
 The potato can be cooked in many ways. It can be baked, boiled, steamed, 
 stewed, or fried. Of these the most digestible way of cooking is baking. A baked 
 potato must be broken at one end, when taken from the oven, to allow the steam to 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri , Bui. 56, Office of Expt, Stations. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 O o 
 
 O 
 
 Fig. 1.— Milk as it appears under the Microscope. 
 
 Drawn by M. P. 
 
 *•' (tSTTi. 
 
 Fig. 2. —Potato Starch as it appears under the Microscope. 
 
 Drawn by J. S., age 14 years. 
 
55 
 
 escape. Boiled potatoes are also digestible; but the water in whicli they are 
 boiled must uot be used, because it contains the acrid juice. The potato when well 
 cooked should be dry and mealy. 
 
 E. N., Aged 15 years. 
 
 The potato. — The potato is a native of South America, but was afterwards raised 
 in North America. Sir John Hawkins introduced it into Ireland, where it is now 
 the chief article of food, and Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh carried sam- 
 ples of potatoes from America to Europe. They first became popular as a food in 
 the latter part of the eighteenth century. Before that time, they were cultivated in 
 gardens and not in fields. 
 
 Potatoes belong to the nightshade order, a poisonous family of vegetables. They 
 grow in temperate climates, and require a healthy soil. The part eaten is the tuber. 
 
 Starch, sugar, water, fat, cellulose, and nitrogenous matter are contained in a 
 potato. Starch will not dissolve in cold water, only in warm water. When it is 
 heated to 320°, it changes to dextrin, or British gum. 
 
 When part of a potato is seen through a microsco])e the starch grains can be readily 
 distinguished. When they are scarce, rice, or other starchy foods can be served 
 instead. 
 
 Well-cooked potatoes should be dry and mealy; if they are waxy they are Jiot 
 digestible. Before serving baked potatoes, the skin should be broken, to enable the 
 steam to escape. 
 
 R. S., Ifi years, 3 months. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON MILK. 
 
 Dairy industry. 
 
 Consumers' k n o w 1 - 
 edge of dairy prod- 
 ucts. 
 
 I Of great importance. 
 United States considered one of leading dairy countries of the 
 world. Chief occupation of great many farmers. 
 Large quantities of products exporte<l. 
 
 United States does not consume as much as some other coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Where milk comes from, if clean farm and cattle healthy. 
 
 If honest milkman, f^^'^f^^^'^Pl^ly- , . ,, 
 cause of dishonesty r"^*^'^^^^ demand full measure at low 
 •' [ prices. 
 
 I Not watered. 
 Dirt or sediment. 
 Diseased animals. 
 Removal of cream. 
 Preservatives. 
 
 Rapid cooling after milking. 
 
 How delivered from farms to supply large cities or country 
 
 customers. 
 Importance of care after delivered. 
 
 Alkaline first drawn,] 
 neutral in aboutLr 4. ..^ t^ 
 one hour. Acid i„ Test with litmus. 
 
 two or three. 
 
 Fresh or sweet milk.. 
 
 Appearance 
 
 [Yellow-white. 
 \Mixture. 
 
 1 Water. 
 Sugar. 
 Fat. 
 Casein, little albumen. 
 Mineral matter. 
 
 Effect of standiuff . . 
 
 (Fat globules in suspension lighter than 
 .< water, so rises to top of milk. 
 I Acid assists. 
 
56 
 
 Milk called perfect food. Contains an substances to sustain 
 body, not sufficient amouat of some substances for adult. 
 
 Fresh or sweet niilk.< 
 
 To kill germs or bacteria, keep from 
 souring, heating to 212^. Should not 
 
 Sterilized { be sterilized when used for babies or 
 
 invalids. 
 Casein hardened. 
 
 I French chemist, Louis Pasteur. 
 
 Pasteurized s Heating to 160^ kills germs without 
 
 ( hardening casein and albumen. 
 
 Cause due to (Organized ferments. 
 
 [Unorganized ferments. 
 
 I From air. 
 Unclean vessels. 
 Diseased farm hands. 
 Diseased animals. 
 
 Apply to care in keeping milk and employing honest milkmen. 
 
 {Cream. 
 Ciu'ds. 
 Whey. 
 
 Condensed milk Removal of large amount of water by evaporation. 
 
 I Churning in factories or individuals. 
 Made from sweet or sour cream, usually 
 sour. 
 Fresh and salt. 
 
 Rancid butter caused by presence of casein. Nitrogenous 
 foods more favorable to bacteria. 
 
 Sour milk. 
 
 Butter made from 
 cream or whole 
 milk. 
 
 Uses 
 
 Keeping 
 
 Cheese . 
 
 Adulterations 
 
 Tests . - . 
 Historv . 
 
 /Used as addition to bread in cookiug 
 ■ 1^ and an ointment in some countries. 
 
 Must be kept vers clean and from all 
 odors. Absorbs volatile odors very 
 readily from cheese, meat, vegetables. 
 
 Excess of salt covers odor and taste. 
 Oleomargarine made from animal fat 
 
 cliurned with milk. 
 Butteriue much the same as oleomarga- 
 [ Tine. 
 
 -Butter and oleomargarine heating. 
 
 (Great many factories in the United 
 ■\ States, England, Holland. 
 
 Kinds . 
 
 {Whole milk.."] Great many dilferen 
 Skim milk ... '• kinds come unde 
 Cream cheese J these heads. 
 
 Coagulation 
 
 /Milk heated, then acid or rennet added. 
 ■ I^Separate curds from whey. 
 
 (Pressed or shaped. 
 
 Molding •! Colored usually. 
 
 [Natural color pale yellow. 
 
 Process 
 
 Ripening 
 
 I Bacteria absolutely nec- 
 essary in cheese to ripen 
 it; not liarmful; gives 
 proiier llavor as result. 
 
Cheese 
 
 57 
 
 [Highly uitiogenous. 
 
 Used as a food l Very valuable. 
 
 [Muscle and bone forming. 
 
 Cooking Renders more digestible. 
 
 Digestion Richer cheeses more easily digested. 
 
 A. B. H., Teacher. 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON MILK. 
 
 Milk. — The dairy industry is carried on very extensively in the United States, but 
 chiefly in the Middle Atlantic and North Central States. In large dairies where 
 there are a great many men working, they should be careful to keep themselves 
 and all the utensils very clean, as any dirt or harmful bacteria which may get into 
 the milk are liable to cause disease. 
 
 Inspectors are appointed who go round and see that the farms, animals, and 
 stables are thoroughly clean. 
 
 When milk is tirst drawn it is alkaline and warm. It should be put in a cool 
 spring or where it will have fresh air and will cool quickly. Within an hour it 
 becomes neutral and within a few hours begins to turn to an acid. 
 
 Dishonest milkmen often adulterate it with water. This for two reasons is harm- 
 ful. The water might not be pure and the harmful bacteria might cause disease. 
 Persons who are fed on milk do not get the amcmut of nourishment in proper pro- 
 portions. 
 
 Milk is a perfect food for young children because it contains everything that the 
 body needs: but for grown folks it is not; for this reason : although it contains most 
 of the elements that the body needs yet they are not in sufficient quantities to sustain 
 the life of a. grown person. 
 
 When milk is to be transported milkmen sometimes put preservatives or sub- 
 stances into the milk (generally borax or soda) to keep it from souring. 
 
 Milk should be kept strictly cool, for hundreds of little bodies called germs which 
 are floating around in the air some of which are friendly and others not, get into 
 the milk and as they |iourish in warmth, they grow and increase rapidly, sour the 
 milk a!id are liable to cause disease. 
 
 Milk contains fat, water, sugar, mineral salts and casein but water is the most 
 abundant. 
 
 The sugar of milk or lactose is sometimes extracted from the milk and sold at 
 druggists for sweeting milk for babies. 
 
 Cream, which is the fat of milk being lighter than the other parts, rises to the 
 top and is often sold separate. When the milk has stood for two or three hours the 
 small amount of acid that is formed helps the cream to rise. 
 
 When the milk is boiled the casein hardens and so for babies it is not as nourish- 
 ing as the unboiled milk. 
 
 A French chemist, Louis Pasteur, found that heating the milk to 165 kills the 
 germs and leaves the casein soft. This preparation is called pasteurized milk. 
 
 If boiled or sterilized milk is left in an open vessel the harmful germs get into it 
 again and begin their work. A good way to keep boiled milk is to put it in a bot- 
 tle rinsed with boiling water so as to kill the germs the bottle should be corked 
 with a piece of absorbent cotton. The air can get through this but the germs can- 
 not. 
 
 Bottling milk is a much healthier and wiser way than distributing it from cans. 
 The can must be opened at every customer's house and so the germs and dust get 
 into the milk. 
 
 When germs get into the milk in the course of time they sour it. 
 
 When milk sours it separates into curds and whey, on account of the bacteria 
 which have grown iu it. 
 
58 
 
 There are two kinds of ferments; the organized and the unorgaiiized : the organ- 
 ized ferments are the germs and bacteria and the imorganized are rennet and pepsin ; 
 these will also separate into curds and whey. 
 
 The curds contain casein and mineral substances. 
 
 The whey contains sugar water and sonic of the mineral substances. 
 
 A great many things are made from milk. Butter is made l»y churning the cream, 
 and the liquid which is left is called buttermilk. Cheese is made by heating the 
 milk and adding rennet which separates it into curds and whey. It is then pressed 
 so that the whey runs out, pressed again and shaped and has to stand for months so 
 that the microbes inside it will have a chance to ripen it. M. R. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON EGGS. 
 
 Production . 
 
 Hen 
 
 Duck 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Goose 
 
 Composition 
 
 Eggs of all birds edible. 
 
 Fowls whose eggs are used for meat 
 
 give greatest number of eggs. 
 Negroes of Guinea consider eggs of 
 
 boa constrictor an excellent article 
 
 of food. 
 Natives of Senegambia are fond of 
 
 alligators' eggs. 
 
 [Water — regulates temperature of liody ; helps carry off waste 
 
 matters, etc. 
 (Albumen — muscle former. 
 Oil — heat giver. 
 ISalts — bone maker. 
 
 r, i- • v,j. THen, 11 to 2 oz. 
 
 Comparative weights^ j^ - 
 
 of domestic fowls Turkey, 3 to 4 oz. 
 ®SS8. (Goose, 4 to 6 oz. 
 
 Food value. 
 
 Cooking 
 
 Type of a nearly perfect food ; more nutritious thau twice 
 their weight in beefsteak ; yolk most nutritious part. 
 
 rBoiled. 
 
 Baked. 
 JFried. 
 
 Omelets. 
 (.Used in combination with other ingredients. 
 
 Other uses . 
 
 Antidote in cases of poisoning by lead, arsenic, copper, mer- 
 cury. 
 
 Dressing for hair. 
 
 Glue or mucilage. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 In Russia oil separated from yolk and used medicinally. 
 
 In Middle Ages yolk used for painters' art before discovery of 
 oil colors. 
 
 Digestibility 
 
 Preservation 
 
 Raw : Most easily digested form ; not palatable. Added to 
 milk, cocoa, beef tea, and many other foods, form an impor- 
 tant part of invalid dietary. Digested in from 1^^ to 2 
 hours. 
 
 So-called boiled egg : Most agreeable form and very easily 
 digested. 
 
 Baked and fried : Very difiScult of digestion ; require from 3 to 
 4 hours. Omelets and scrambled eggs not so objection- 
 able ; due to mixture of white and yolk and to lightness. 
 
 Keep from contact 
 with air; evaporat- 
 ing water; desiccat- 
 ing. 
 
 Cover with some form of fat. 
 
 Cover with limewater. 
 
 (In both cases put small end down- 
 ward and keep in cool, dark place.) 
 
 Bury in earth. (Practiced by the 
 Chinese with excellent results.) 
 
59 
 
 Test of freshness Put in bucket of water. Fresh ones will sink. 
 
 [In New York City amounts to 10 million dollars yearly. 
 
 Commerce <In other cities proportionately large. 
 
 [United States import 15 million dozen yearly. 
 
 I Pope says: "The vulgar boil, the learned roast, an egg." 
 (Satire VI.) 
 The Persians in a proverb : "If you be a cock, crow; if a hen, 
 lay eggs." 
 Humpty Dumpty, etc., are well known. 
 
 Architecture Oval form the basis of many beautiful patterns in decoration 
 
 and architecture. 
 
 Customs Hunting eggs at Easter a custom we have copied from the 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Points to be remem- 
 bered. 
 
 Never cook in boiling 
 water two minutes 
 or more, as ordina- 
 rily done. 
 
 Give variety to the 
 family by cooking 
 the many kinds of 
 omelets you have 
 learned to prepare. 
 
 Point of coagulation, 130° F. 
 Proper point for cooking, 160° to 180°. 
 Hard and indigestible if cooked at 
 212°, boiling point of water. 
 
 Give onlv the freshest f^'''^^^ ^^^^ cause disorder of the stom- 
 „„„„ +„ ;„„„i,vi„ I ach and cause a distaste for this 
 eggs to invalids. ) . i v i ^ i 
 
 ** [ most valuable food. 
 
 It is best to use lime-kept eggs or those not strictly fresh in 
 the preparation of puddings, cakes, etc. 
 
 : M. W. W., Teacher. 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON EGGS. 
 
 Eggs. — The shape of an egg is considered one of the most beautiful as many fine 
 architects use it for the baoo of columns by modifying it. Dift'erent kinds of eggs 
 vary in shape a fowl whose flesh is eaten usually produces oval shape eggs and those 
 of the sea fowl are pear shape. 
 
 The hen's egg is the smallest weighing one and a half to two ounces and ostrich 
 egg is the largest weighing as much as three dozens of hen's eggs. The egg of the 
 hen, duck goose and turkey are the kinds which are mostly used throughout the 
 world. 
 
 In Africa the natives live chiefly on the egg of the ostrich and use the shells for 
 drinking vessels. 
 
 All civilized and some barbarous nations use eggs as a form of food and consider 
 them of more value than twice their weight in beefsteak. Raw eggs are the most 
 easily digested and are an excellent food for invalids. In Russia the eggs or roe of 
 the sturgeon are made into a dish called caviare which is considered a great luxury. 
 
 All eggs have two parts a white and a yolk, the white is composed of albumen, 
 water and salt and the yolk is composed of albumen, water, salt and oil. Eggs 
 contain everything necessary for animal life which is proved by the fact of a chick, 
 a perfect animal, being hatched from an egg. 
 
 The well known custom of hunting for eggs at Easter was taken from the l>utch. 
 One of Pope's saying's is " The vulgar boil, the learned roast, an egg." Many other 
 legends are written about eggs. Humpty Dumpty being among them. 
 
 E. F. 
 
60 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON MEAT. 
 
 Materials 
 
 Pictures of animals used as food. 
 Cuts of meat. 
 
 Drawings of sides of beef, mutton, lamb, veal, and pork. 
 Microscope slides, showing fiber of meat in healthy and dis- 
 eased condition; trichime in muscle. 
 Picture of grazing cattle. 
 
 [ Chemistry of Cookery. W. Matthieu Williams. 
 
 References < Bulletins and charts issued by United States Department of 
 
 [ Agriculture. 
 
 „. . / Use of animals as food by ancients; what animals were iised; 
 
 "^^^'^^y t tow killed, prepared, etc. 
 
 [Where raised; importance of cleanliness and careful feeding; 
 
 Geography < method of slaughtering and dressing; effect of refrigerating 
 
 I processes and improvements in transportation. 
 
 Effect of climate on kind of meat used. 
 
 Ob' of J To render more sightly and palatable, 
 je - • -"I To destroy bacteria and parasites. 
 
 jj^* g. •= ■ Aim — to retain all juices in meat. Expose to great 
 Hr ilinCT I ^'^^^ ^^ coagulate albumeu on surface. 
 Frvino-" Smaller the piece, greater the heat. 
 
 n fvi I -^"^^ — *^ draw out all the juices. Soak in cold water. 
 
 Cooking 
 
 Principles 
 
 Broth 
 
 Beef tea f Draw out juices, but little if any of nutrients. 
 
 Aim — to draw out part of juices and leave remainder 
 Stewing-J in meat. 
 
 Put into cold water, heat gradually to 180°. 
 
 Method of rendering tough cuts tender 
 Kinds of meat 
 
 f Animals from which obtained. 
 \ Digestibility. 
 
 I Their uses and cost. 
 Nutritive value of cuts compared. 
 Nutritive value as compared with cost. 
 (See charts issued by United States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 Care of meat Cooked and uncooked. 
 
 Tests of good meat .Color, texture, proportion of fat to mnscnlar fiber. 
 
 ( Extravagance of constant use of steaks and chops; high price; 
 
 Cost of meat < amount of waste. 
 
 [ Economy of using cheap cuts in form of stews and made dishes. 
 
 Left overs 
 
 J How to utilize; stews; hash; ragout; croquettes; meatballs- 
 ■ I Nutritive value of. 
 
 I Rendering and clarifying. 
 Importance of saving scraps. 
 Necessity for using water to carry off impurities. 
 Uses for frying, shortening, etc. 
 Surplus to be made into soap. 
 
 I How and where digested. 
 Experiments; artificial digestion of different kinds of meat: 
 beef, 1 hour; pork, 8 hours. 
 Artificial digestion of fats with ox bile. 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 
 
 Plate VI. 
 
 Diagram of cuts of Beef. 
 
 1. Leg. 
 
 5. 
 
 Porterhouse. 
 
 9. 
 
 Top of sirloin. 
 
 13. Shoulder. 
 
 2. Round. 
 
 6. 
 
 Sirloin. 
 
 10. 
 
 Ribs 
 
 14. Cross ribs 
 
 3. Rump. 
 
 7. 
 
 Navel. 
 
 n. 
 
 Chuck. 
 
 15. Brisket. 
 
 4. Flank steak. 
 
 8. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 12. 
 
 Neck. 
 
 16. Shin. 
 
 Drawn by E. K., age 1 3 years. 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bu!. 56. Of .ce cf Expt. S-:3X 
 
 Plate V!I. 
 
 en 4^ w lo — 
 
 
 33 3)r 
 
 c o «> 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 
 
 
 «^, 
 
 •' — 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 . 
 
 ^ 
 <- 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 NC--- 
 
 
 
 
 
 TO ■ 
 
 CDC/' 
 
 5 o 
 
U. S Dept. of Agii., Bui. 5c. Office of Expt. Stations. 
 
 Plate VI 
 
 -iG. 1.— Small Loin, or Porterhouse. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Rump of Beef. 
 
 Drawn by J. D. E., age 13 years. 
 
 Fig. 3.— Potato. 
 
 Drawn by M. P., age 14 years. 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui 56, Office of Expt Stations. 
 
 Plate IX. 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 1.— a piece of Beef as seen under the Microscope. 
 
 Drawn by L. R., age 1 3 years. 
 
 A 
 
 r^f 
 
 ■#* 
 
 Aa 
 
 Q / 
 
 y 
 
 -!<: 
 
 .JlHi'^^ 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 2.— Individual Beef Fibers as seen under the Microscope. 
 
 Drawn by L. R., age 1 3 years. 
 
61 
 
 Methods of pre8erv-|^,^^.^^j^g^ «°^«^'°^^ ^^^^^S- 
 
 Structure Fibers shown under microscope. 
 
 ^, ... e i Water, fibrin, albumen, gelatine, fat, mineral matter. 
 
 Composition of... .| ^^^ ^^'^^^ ^^[^^ . ^j^sele forming. 
 
 The science teaching will aid children in drawing conclusions which may readily 
 be put into practice in their homes, preventing a waste of money and of valuable 
 food material. 
 
 It leads them to see that true economy is dignified and that it means not only 
 economy of money but also of material. 
 
 The following are some of the facts which are impressed upon the child : 
 
 Don't think that because a pound of sirloin costs twice as much as a pound of 
 flank that it is twice as nourishing; it actually contains less nutritive matter. 
 
 Don't keep meat that is left over until it spoils; use it at once. 
 
 Don't eat much pork or any that is underdone. 
 
 Don't boil meat; let it simmer. 
 
 Don't think that because meat falls apart it is tender; connective tissue has been 
 softened, but fibers toughened. 
 
 Don't fry in a small amount of fat. 
 
 Don't throw away the dish gravy; it should go into the soup kettle. 
 
 Don't put steak bones into the garbage pail; they will add flavor to a sauce or a 
 soup. 
 
 M. I., Teacher. 
 
 PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON MEAT. 
 
 Slewed meats. — The tougher cuts of meat, such as, the flank, the leg, the shoulder, 
 and in fact all the meats found in the lower part of the animal, require long, slow 
 cooking Although cheaper than the tenderer cuts they contain just as much nourish- 
 ment, are of better flavor, and may be made palatable in the form of stews. 
 
 To stew meat, cut it into small pieces and trim the edges. Dredge with flour and 
 brown in fat. Cover with boiling water or stock and move to the end of the stove 
 where it will simmer, not boil. 
 
 Cooking meat iu boiling water toughens the fibres, while if simmered, that is 
 cooked at 180 degrees, the meat is rendered tender and digestible. 
 
 Meat which has been boiled, when touched with a fork, will fall apart and seem 
 tender, but it is not so, it is because the membranes which have held the fibres 
 together, have been softened; but the fibres have been made tough and indigestible. 
 
 Beef stew to serve eight persons. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 2 pounds shoulder 12 
 
 Potatoes 03 
 
 Tomatoes 02 
 
 Parsley. , ^^ 
 
 Celery 
 Pepper 
 Salt.... 
 Onion. 
 Flour . . 
 
 '■\ 
 
 .01 
 
 Total cost 19 
 
 E. L., Age 14. 
 
 Meat. — Meat is very nourishing. It is one of the principal foods, and is composed 
 of fibren, myosin, water, albumen, fat, and mineral matter. Albumen, myosin, and 
 fibren make flesh, and mineral matter makes bone. 
 
 Meat can be cooked in the following ways: Roasted, broiled, stewed, or made 
 
62 
 
 into broth. The ribs are used for roasting; either chnck, porterhouse, round, and 
 surloin may be used for broiling; either chuck, flank, round, neck, shoulder, bris- 
 ket, and plate are used for stew; soup meat cornea from the leg; beef oft" the round 
 is suitable for beef tea. 
 
 M. H. 
 
 Meat. — Meat is very wholesome if properly cooked, but many people cooked it at 
 too high a temperature and not for a sufficient length of time; this is often the 
 case in the stewing of meat. It is not always the most expensive meat that is the 
 best. If you get a good flank steak which is a very cheap form, it will be as pal- 
 atable as the most expensive cut. 
 
 Pork is very hard to digest, and is more likely to be infected than any other form 
 of meat. Pork requires six hours for digestion, while beef but one hour; mutton 
 about the same time as beef, lamb three to four hours, and veal about five hours. 
 
 K. C, Age 14 years. 
 
 Left overs. — Nobody need throw away any meat. If by chance there should be 
 any meat left over from the day before, we can make hash, meat balls, croquettes, 
 or potted meat. 
 
 Any of these would serve as meal and if cooked properly would make a delicious 
 dish. 
 
 Just as good a stew, can be made with meat which is left over, as with fresh meat. 
 
 These dishes can be improved by adding vegetables, stale bread soaked or made 
 into crumbs. 
 
 The nutritive value of potted meat or meat ball can be increased by the addition 
 of a cream sauce. 
 
 In cooking meat the second time it is important not to cook it too long as it will 
 become tough and very hard to digest. 
 
 P. R., 12 years. 
 
 SYIiLABUS OF LESSON ON BEVERAGES— TEA AND COFFEE. 
 
 Objects used in pre- 
 sentinjr the lesson. 
 
 [A tea shrub budding — picture of the flower. 
 
 Leaves of tea (green and black). 
 \Picture ol the coffee tree showing the blossom and berries. 
 
 Different coff"ee seeds, unroasted, partly roasted, fully roasted 
 y and ground. 
 
 Practical work 
 
 The making of tea and coffee by the girls: 
 
 JJ!K^ni?rnnlContrast. 
 (2) Uecoction.j 
 
 The proper preparation of these beverages. 
 
 Principal chemical 
 composition. 
 
 Theine. 
 
 Calfein. 
 
 Tannic acid. 
 
 Development of the volatile oils. 
 
 Substances drawn out by — 
 
 (1) Infusion. 
 
 (2) Decoction. 
 
 Physiology . 
 
 [Efifects of these substances — 
 
 (1) Upon the nerves. 
 { (2) Upon digestion. 
 Use of beverages to the body. 
 I^Suitable beverages for children. 
 
 Preparation of tea for fDiff"erent kiuds of tea. 
 exportation. (Quality shown by their names. 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 
 
 Plate X. 
 
 y 
 
 Fig. 1.— Branches of Tea and Coffee. 
 
 1. Tea (a) bud, (b) flower. 2. Coffee (a) flower, (b) berry. 
 Drawn by A. W., age 14 years. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Cereals. 
 
 Drawn by T. D. 
 
63 
 
 I Milling. 
 Koasting. 
 Various kinds of coffee and how to distinguish them by their 
 names. 
 
 J. B., Teacher, 
 
 PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON TEA AND COFFEE. 
 
 Recipes. — The water must be freshly drawn and the minute it has boiled the tea 
 and cott'ee should be infused. 
 
 Proportions for tea : 1 teaspoonful of tea to each cup of water. Allow the infusion 
 to stand 3 minutes. The tea-pot should be heated before making the tea 
 
 Proportions for coffee : 1 tablespoonful of coffee to each cuji of water allowing this 
 infusion to stand from five to seven minutes. The ground coffee should be put into 
 a muslin bag or strainer and the boiling water poured over. Never boil coffee, the 
 hue flavor is dispelled by boiling a mucilage extracted at the same time, which 
 tends to make it flat and weak. All coffee should be ground just before using. 
 
 Tea and coffee.— The only right way to prepare tea and coffee is by infusiou, but 
 they are often made by decoction, and when made in this way, they are injurious to 
 our bodies. When these beverages are prepared by infusion, the boiling water is 
 poured over the tea and coffee, and they only stand a few minutes. Decocted tea 
 and coffee are made from boiling water, and boiled. This boiling draws out the 
 tannin from the leaves of the tea, and the grounds of the coffee. Tea and coffee 
 that are prepared by infusion have a nice pleasant taste, but when they are made by 
 decoction, they have a bitter taste, and their pleasant odor and flavor are lost. All 
 albumenous foods are hardened and made indigestible by drinking tea and coffee 
 that has been boiled. Tea made by decoction causes more indigestion than coffee. 
 These beverages are vei-y useful to warm the body when it is cold and cool it. when 
 hot; the cooling takes place gradually. They also supply our bodies with the neces- 
 sary liquid food. They contain stimulating and refreshing properties, Init are not 
 necessary beverages for young people, but a great benefit to older jjeople when 
 properly used. It is necessary to have a knowledge of their composition to know 
 how to prepare them in the right way. 
 
 There is a substance' in tea and coftee called an alkaloid which causes both these 
 beverages to be stimulants. In tea this substance is called thciue and in coffee 
 caffeine. Both of these are stimulating properties of tea and coffee. They weaken 
 the nerves and take away the natural desire for food. Too much tea or coffee 
 weakens the general health and causes nervous diseases. There is also an acid 
 called tannic acid in tea, and a volatile oil. This oil is produced in the drying of 
 the leaves. It gives the tea its smell and flavor. Coftee also contains tannic acid, 
 but not so much as tea. It contains an aromatic volatile oil. This oil gives coftee 
 a flavor and smell and is produced in the roasting of the berries. 
 
 H. S., Age IS years. 
 
 Tea and coffee. — Among the principal household beverages are tea and coftee. They 
 should not however be used too frequently because they are not foods that repair the 
 body although they supply it with some of the necessary liquid food. The only 
 liquid necessary to life is water and milk for very young children. 
 
 They contain stimulating and refreshing qualities which in tea is called thiene 
 and in coffee caffiene. These act on the nerves as stimulants. When any substance 
 is called a stimulant it should be used with care for when our bodies are over-stimu- 
 lated weakness in that part is caused and too much tea and coffee cause weak nerves. 
 Both tea and coftee contain tannic acid and a volatile oil. This oil is produced in 
 the drying of the tea leaves and the roasting of the coftee beans. In making tea or 
 coftee it should never be boiled because that draws out the tannin. Infusion draws 
 out the thiene, caft'eine, and volatile oils making these beverages refreshing and not 
 causing the indigestion of other foods. 
 
64 
 
 Tea is a njitive of China and Japan b«t it is also grown in Cerlm ud Lkdiai. b 
 one year there are four gathezings of the leaves. The &tst ezop is the beet. AStr 
 the leaves have been picked they are dned, put in heated pans, dried. noUed. then 
 dried again, and then packed in ehests and sent to the different p^urts of the worid. 
 Green and blaek tea eome from the same shrub, bat the green tea is dried qnickly 
 and the blaek more :>Iov1t. 
 
 Coffee is the seed of an evergreen plant and is largely cultivated in Arabia. Sonth 
 Ameriea^ and the West and East Indies. It is allowed to grow irom eight to ten 
 feet and bears a pretty white dower which is saceeeiled by a red b»?rry the seeds of 
 which are the cotiee b^ans each btrry containing two seeds. The berry is gathered. 
 the outer covering is taken off first and then the parctmear-like oovenng which 
 covets the two seeds. These see«ls are roastetl in a cylinder-like pan wMeli is tnmed 
 over a clear though moderate nre. They are then groond and are ready for ose. 
 The Moeha berry is a smaller and rounder berry than any other. Java and East 
 Indian are a pale yellow and coffee jorom Brazil has a bloish color. 
 
 A- W., Jjf* 14 uian. 
 
 Beeipm. — The water should be fre^ily drawn and the minute it has boiled the tea 
 and coffee infused. 
 
 Ptop«Hti«His tor tea : 1 teaspofmlhl of tea to each cup of water. Allow the infu- 
 sion to stand three minutes. The tea-pot shonld be heated befiure making the tea. 
 
 ProptHtkns for coffee : 1 tablespoonfol of coffee to each cup of water, allowing 
 this to stand fimn five to seven minutesw The ground coffee should be put into a 
 muslin bag or strainer and the boiling water poured over. Never boil coffee, the 
 fine flavor is dispelled by boiling and a mucilage is extracted at the same time 
 which tends to make it flat and weak All coffee should be ground j ast before using. 
 
 SYIiIiABUS OF LESSON ON DIGESTION. 
 
 To a thorough understanding of the nutrition of the body, a knowledge of th«>se 
 processes by which the food becMnes part of the blood is most necessary ; a knowl- 
 edge of the normal conditions and the eaosee and effects of abnormal states of the 
 digestive organs. 
 
 This requires a clear conception of the anatomy and physiology of the entire tract, 
 and of the effects of various food sinfls and o^er substances on its work, and the 
 result of different bo«iiIy conditions. 
 
 In presenting this subject to the pnpU we have endeavored to bring it in a tangi- 
 ble foim to the comprehensifm throng sight, by the use of manikin, specimens, and 
 various e3Lperiments. 
 Salivary digestion : 
 
 Anatomy of the month — 
 Tongue; its use. 
 
 Teetii; their necessity, need for are. The effect on digestion of their loss. 
 Mucous membrane: texture, exp'^rin-rnrs to show effect of astringents, as 
 
 tannin in tea and coffee. 
 SdUva; structure of salivary glands: 
 Fran what saliva is made. 
 How it reaches the mouth. 
 Test for alkalinity. 
 
 Experiments showing its effect on cooked md raw starch. 
 Effe<-'t of slight adds 4^ its function, showing the cessation of salivaxy 
 digesti<Ma in the stomach. (^This points out the need of thorough i 
 tication of starchy foods.; 
 Esophagus: 
 
 Stmeture; aetiimofmnseks in swallowing. 
 Membrane. 
 
65 
 
 Gastric digestion: 
 
 Anatomy of stomach — 
 
 Situation. (Distention may inipedt- heart action.) 
 Microscopical examination of lining. 
 Muscles; action. 
 Gastric juice; where made, action shown by experiments, interference of its 
 work shown by various substances (superacidity, etc.). (This teaches the 
 result of large quantities of vinegar, etc.). Effect of fatty acids produced in 
 frying, erttect of ice water. 
 Causes of fermentation, of vomiting in infants. 
 Absorption of digested substances. 
 Intestinal digestion : 
 
 Anatomy; microscopical examination of lining. 
 
 Juices; where formed, chemical composition, their actions on foods, experiments. 
 
 Vermicular motion of tract explained by means of rubber tube. 
 
 Value of some indigestible material. 
 
 Causes of constipation; preventive and remedy. 
 Diarrhea; causes and remedy. 
 Comparative spaces for digestion of starches and albuminoids in the digestive tract. 
 Effects on the digestive action of various bodily conditions; nervousness, fatigue, etc. 
 Kinds of food indicated in some digestive disturbances. 
 
 E. H. C. Teacher. 
 
 PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON DIGESTION. 
 
 Digestion. — The teeth are very important to the process of digestion, as we cannot 
 chew our food very well without them; we should be careful to keep them free from 
 particles of food, to do nothing that may crack the enamel, for the least break will 
 give the microbes a place in which to settle and cause the decay of the teeth. The 
 lirsi set of teeth is called the milk teeth and the second set is called the perma- 
 nent set. 
 
 The mouth is moistened by a Huid manufactured from the blood and flows from 
 little glands under the jaw and ears into the mouth; this is called saliva and is 
 alkaline, that is, it turns blue litmus red. It contains a substance called ptyalin 
 which digests the starth we eat. 
 
 lu our last lesson we made some experiments in the digestion of starch and found 
 that saliva digested cooked starch and changed it into dextrin. A drop of iodin in 
 starch always turns blue; but after this experiment the iodin did not change color. 
 This shows us that it was no longer starch. This new substance, dextrin, is the 
 form into which starch must be digested to enter the blood. 
 
 We also tested the digestion of starch with a drop of acid and found that saliva 
 did not digest the starch when the acid was present ; we then tried the same experi- 
 ment with a little vinegar ; again we found that the saliva did not digest the starch. 
 
 This shows that we should not eat any uncooked starch,- and as acids interfere 
 with the digestion of starch, they should not be eaten with it, nor will it be digested 
 in the stomach which is acid. 
 
 C. G., Age 13 years. 
 
 Digestion. — When our food is masticated it passes down into the stomach through 
 the esophagus or food pipe, which opens and closes again as the food moves along. 
 By means of this wave-like motion the food passes along the entiie digestive tract. 
 
 The stomach and intestines are situated in the abdomen. The food remains in the 
 stomach some time, where it is churned about and some of it digested; then it con- 
 tinues its course into the duodenum, the upper part of the small intestine. 
 
 In the stomach is a slightly acid juice, called gastric juice ; this digests only nitro- 
 genous foods. 
 
 We made some experiments to see how meat was acted upon by the gastric juice; 
 we made same artiticial gastric juice by disolving pepsin in some water and adding 
 9900— No. 50 5 
 
66 
 
 a drop of hydrochloric acid. Pepsin is the digestive part of gastric juice. We put 
 a small piece of meat iuto this in a test tuhe and stood it iu a glass of water, which 
 we kept at the temperature of the stomach. At the end of our lessou the piece of 
 meat was very much smaller, it was heiug gradually dissolved Ly the gastric juice. 
 With a larger amount of acid the meat dissolved much more slowly, showing us 
 that large quantities of acid food, like vinegar, iuterfere with the work of the 
 stomach. We found that alkali also hindered the work of digestion. The delicate 
 membrane lining the stomach is very much irritated bj' fatty acids of fried foods. 
 The duodenum is very obliging, for it finishes the digestion of the substances that 
 were not completed in the mouth and stomach. Materials that are not digestible, 
 like the woody fiber of vegetables, are passed along the intestines in a wave-like 
 manner and removed from the body. We should have some indigestible matter to 
 keep the movement, and prevent constipation. Drinking plenty of water helps in 
 tbis. B. L. L. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON FUEL AND COMBUSTION. 
 Coal 
 
 Exhibition 
 rials. 
 
 of mate- 
 
 Fuel, earlv historv . 
 
 Coal 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 Gas 
 
 Combustion 
 
 I Hard. 
 I Soft. 
 
 Wood.... 
 
 Charcoal. 
 Coke. 
 
 J Hard. 
 
 ■ i Soft. 
 
 f(l) Used by prehistoric man. 
 (2) Method of igniting. 
 
 (2) 
 [(3) Kinds — formation. 
 
 (1) Importance — influence u]»on commerce. 
 
 (2) Formation. 
 
 (3) Geology. 
 
 (4) Chemical changes of wood — composition of coal. 
 
 (5) Kinds — usage. 
 
 (6) Geography. 
 
 [(1) Origin — method of formation. 
 
 (2) Composition of wood — elements 
 ' combustion of wood. 
 
 (3) Residue. 
 
 1(4) Ancient and modern usage. 
 
 (1) Formation. 
 
 (2) Two flames 
 
 driven oft' by partial 
 
 / Blue, used in cooking. 
 
 { Yellow, used to illuminate. 
 
 (3) Experiments with 
 Bunsen burner 
 to show perfect ; 
 and imperfect 
 combustion. 
 
 (a) Flames supplied with oxygen 
 
 through openings in lower part 
 of burner; also by surrounding 
 air — result, flame blue; perfect 
 combustion. 
 
 (b) Openings in burner closed — re- 
 
 sult, flame yellow; imperfect 
 combustion — incandescent car- 
 bon. 
 
 (4) Study of gas) («) Advantages. 
 
 stove. [{b) Economy in using. 
 
 (1) Chemistry. 
 
 (2) Study of coal, 
 stove. 
 
 (3) Oxygen 
 
 (a) Drafts. 
 (6) Placing. 
 
 (c) Kindling point. 
 
 (d) Products of combustion. 
 
 (e) Cinders. 
 (/) Ashes. 
 
 (a) Proportion in air. 
 
 (b) Eft'ect upon earth if air all oxygen 
 
'J. S. Dept of Agri , Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 
 
 Plate XI. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Apparatus for generating Oxygen. 
 
 Drawn by A. WlcC. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Articles used in Cleaning. 
 
 Drawn by I. G. 
 
67 
 
 -r, . , I Watch spriiiii heated to kiudlin<j point and bnrned in pure 
 
 J^xpenment ^^ oxygen. ■" 
 
 Note. — The practical benefit to be derived from this lesson by the children is the 
 making and care of a coal tire; a knowledge of the comparative value of fuels and 
 economy in the use of them. 
 
 D. I<:. M., Teacher. 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON FUEL AND COMBUSTION. 
 
 Fuel. — Fuel is material used to produce heat by combustion. 
 
 Fuel of some kiiul is used by man to render food more palatable and digestible. 
 
 The first fuel used was dry twigs and branches of trees. 
 
 ISefore people had matches they rubbed two pieces of hard wood together and 
 lighted the twigs by the sparks. 
 
 Fuel originated trom vegetable matter which grew upon the earth many ages ago 
 ill the form of trees. These trees fell to the earth and gradually sunk below the 
 surface, they passed through chenucal changes until they were reduced to an impure 
 form of carbon called coal. Coal is found in the United States, Great Britain, France, 
 Belgium and Germany. 
 
 In our homes we generally use anthracite or hard coal but if we do not feed it with 
 plenty of oxygen, it will not burn. All carbon readily unites with the oxygen of 
 the air. 
 
 The fire is hottest when a blue and white flame comes up, but some people think 
 it is hottest when it is red but it soon becomes low as most of the gas is burned away. 
 
 We should not put on coal up to the lids only up to the top of fire-box or the iron 
 will become warped. We should put coal on lightly and often. 
 
 Bituminous or soft coal is cheaper but it gives out a great deal of smoke this is 
 free carbon. Soft coal is generally used on railroad cars. If you take notice when 
 you are sitting near an open window you will see little pieces flying about. 
 
 Gas is obtained from coal. There are two flames yellow and blue. The blue flame 
 is the one to cook on as it is better fed by oxygen. The yellow flame is used to 
 illuminate as it contains incandescent carbon if we should cook on it the cooking 
 utensils would become black from the carbon. 
 
 Experiment to show that all substances will unite with oxygen when heated to 
 kindling point. We took a flask and put in it some potassium chlorate and manga- 
 nese dioxid and heated them. Tlie oxygen was driven off through a glass tube into 
 a bottle of water. The gas crowded out the water; then we took a piece of steel 
 and lighted some sulphur on the end of it and put it in the oxygen, the sulphur 
 heated the steel up to its kindling point and it burned. 
 
 So we know if the air was all oxygen every thing in the world would be consumed. 
 
 Charcoal is wood burned without much air reaching it. It is an impure form of 
 carbon. There was not enough oxygen to burn it. A. F. H. 
 
 SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON CHEMISTRY OP CLEANING. 
 
 I.— Household Cleanliness. 
 (rt) What it means: 
 
 (1) Keeping all portions of the house, both seen and unseen, free from risible and 
 inrisihle uncleanliness. 
 (a) Visible uncleanliness : 
 
 Dust and dirt of various kinds — grease and other spots on wood- 
 work, metal, marble, fabrics, etc. 
 (a) Invisible uncleanliness: 
 
 That caused by invisible particles of living matter floating in the air, 
 usually occurring in dark, damp recesses, as waste pipes, drains, 
 water-closets, pipes from tubs, etc. Closets and dark cupboards. 
 
68 
 
 II. — Dust and what it Contains. 
 
 {a) Tyndall's experiment. (An account of.) 
 
 {b) Matter in dust easily detected. 
 
 <c) Matter in dust not easily detected : 
 
 (Use of microscope.) Showing moldy bread, cheese, lemon, etc. Flour and 
 water exposed to air for several hours. Explanation of causes of these con- 
 ditions. Explanation of causes of unpleasant odors sometimes coming from 
 dark, damp places. 
 
 III. — Aids to Household Cleanliness. 
 
 (a) A desire to be clean. 
 
 (h) Plenty of fresh air and sunshine. 
 
 (c) Free use of soap and water. 
 
 {dj Ammonia, washing powders, washing soda, kerosene, polishing reagents. 
 
 IV. — Chemical Nature op' Soap. 
 
 (a) Alkalis used, f What happens when they are allowed to unite. Illustrated by 
 
 (b) Fat used [ the making of soap. 
 
 v.— How TO use "Aids to Cleanliness." 
 
 (a) Sunlight — kills germs; prevents their growth. 
 
 {b) Air, its composition; oxygen, its use and importance. 
 
 (f) Soap and water for almost all cleansing purposes. 
 
 (d) Ammonia, soda, and potash nu>re powerful cleansers. When, where, and how 
 
 to use them. 
 (<*) Polishing reagents: 
 
 (1) Why metals become tarnished, rusted, etc. 
 
 • Copper + zinc = l)rass. Brass acted upon by oxygen of air forming an 
 oxid. 
 Silver acted upon by sulphur. 
 
 Iron, in presence of moisture acted upon by oxygen of air^irou rust. 
 Nickel not acted upon by oxygen. 
 
 (2) Dififerent preparations used to remove tarnish, rust, dirt. Explanation of 
 
 their mechanical and chemical action upon metals. 
 
 YI._Caue of Dish Towels, Dish Cloths, etc. 
 
 <«) Necessity of thorough washing in warm water and soap after each using; rinsing 
 in clear warm water; drying in air and sunlight. 
 Growth of germs very rapid on dishcloths unless treated in above manner. 
 
 VII.— Sweeping and Dusting. 
 
 <rt) Best methods of obtaining desired results. 
 
 (6) We sweep and dust to remove the dirt, not to stir it iq> and let it settle in another 
 place. 
 
 YIII.— Care of Sink, Garbage Pail, etc. 
 (a) Sink. 
 
 Use of hot water and soda. 
 
 Use of strainer. » 
 
 Explanation of trap and its careful treatment. 
 {b) Garbage pail. 
 
 . Careful and thorough washing aud drying, 
 (c) Disposal of garbage. 
 
 By means of experiments, explanations, aud the use of the microscope the pupils' 
 
U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 
 
 Plate XII. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Sewer Traps: /J, c» Trap; B, o Trap. 
 
 Drawn by K. T. 
 
 Jk 
 
 i- 
 
 \ • r 
 
 V 
 
 ^L 
 
 Fig. 2.— Sink, showing "Half-w" Trap. 
 
 Drawn by L. E. W. 
 
69 
 
 minds are put in a questioning attitude, and daily more and more questions are 
 aaked. Most of the answers can be based upon scientific laws and principles, simply- 
 explained. These questions, relative to both cooking and cleaning, come not only 
 from the pupils, but from the parents (through the children), showing that at home 
 these matters are talked over. 
 
 C. G. J., Teacher. 
 
 PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON CHEMISTRY OF CLEANING. 
 
 The kitchen sirik. — In olden times, sinks were not common! j^ known but, as the years 
 have rolled on, changes came, and great improvements were made. Wooden sinks 
 were first used, but they were very hard to keep clean, as the grease was liable to 
 soak through the wood and cause bad odors. Now, iron sinks lined with porcelain, 
 plain iron, andsoapstone sinks nre used. They are indeed very pleasing to the eye, 
 and make kitchens look very clean and inviting, if kept neatly. 
 
 The faucets are fixed (m the upper part of the sink, so that the water may flow 
 down into the sink. They are made of brass or nickel and must be polished often. 
 
 A trap is a contrivance with a sort of bend in the pipe, which enables a small 
 amount of water to be placed between the sewer and the dwelling; this preventing 
 the entrance of sewer gases. There are different kinds of traps and the ones used 
 on almost every sink in the city of New York are the CO or half CO traps (PI. XII, 
 fig. IJ). 
 
 There are many other kinds of traps among the most important are the " O," (PI. 
 XII, fig. B) "Bottle," "Round," and " Bag " traps. 
 
 Germs carried by sewer gas may cause most serious diseases, so upon the care of 
 these traps largely dej>ends the health of I'amilies. Unless the trap holds a certain 
 amount of water, sufficient to form a seal to prevent gas from entering kitchens, it 
 is of no value. Kitchen tra])s are difficult to keep clean and in good condition, as 
 much grease is carried off by the dish water. When it enters the trap and waste 
 pipe, it cools and clings to the sides. If a solution of washing soda and hot water 
 Is poured down the sink frequently, this can be prevented. Soda has the power of 
 breaking the particles of fatty matter into very small parts, and then the hot water 
 washes the matter away. A strainer should always be placed at the outlet and should 
 be kejit perfectly clean. I have seen careless servants scrape the leavings from plates 
 into the sink, and try to wash little pieces of bones and sorts of food down the out- 
 let. Perhaps illness has been caused by this uncleanliness. To be sure that this 
 shall not happen, we must keei> not only the trap of the kitchen sink clean and pure 
 but all other traps as well. 
 
 K. T. 
 
 NOTES PROM THE CHILDREN'S EXERCISE BOOKS. 
 
 In looking over the notebooks of the children, also i)laced at the disposal of the 
 author, it was found that the following facts were noted, which show clearly the 
 basic principles of the instruction given : 
 
 C. S. says : " Starch is a heat-giving comi)ound ■ * * ■' it is a fine white powder 
 composed of little granules. * * * Cold water has no effect upon starch granules, 
 but boiling water bursts them. " * * When baking powder is put in flour, 
 mixed, and moistened, the gas formed fills the flour with little bubbles, which form 
 holes in the dough; when the mixture is put in the oven it hardens the dough about 
 the little holes formed by the bubbles of gas, and the mixture is light and porous. 
 * * * Yeast is the simplest form of plant life and consists of little cells which 
 expand and grow very rapidly. * ^ * Lii^e ,,|j plants, it requires heat and 
 moisture; * * * it is called a ferment because it causes fermentation in dough." 
 J. G. says, in a lesson on the chemistry of food: "Food repairs the body by mak- 
 ing flesh or muscle and by giving heat. * * * The heat or temperature of the 
 body is about 98 degrees. * ^^ This heat is produced by combustion. One ele- 
 
 ment alone will not nourish tL I'uJy. * * * All food compounds are necessary. 
 
70 
 
 * * * They are water, salt, mineral, fat, starch, sugar, and uitrogeuons mat- 
 ter. ^ * * Albumen is a llesh-formiug compound and is easily digested; it 
 thickens by heat, fibrin by exjjosure to the air, casein by an acid." 
 
 F. S. speaks of the parts of an egg as follows: "Parts of the egg: Shell, mem- 
 brane, white, yolk. Tests for fresh eggs: Light, water, shake. How to keep eggs 
 fresh : Packed in closed boxes, sawdust, place in brine, limewater, cover with fat or 
 varnish." 
 
 Albumen (Albus-white). [Heat. 
 
 -^„ -, ,. f Citric (lemon). 
 
 Effect on albumen ot Uda ... Acetic (vine>;ar). 
 
 [Muriatic or hydrochloric. 
 I^Alcohol. 
 
 C. L. says: " Food is that which is taken into the body to build up new material, 
 to repair worn-out tissue, and to yield heat and energy. There are two classes of 
 food — flesh formers, or nitrogenous, and heat givers, or carl)onaceous. There are 
 three classes of carbonaceous foods — fat, starch, sugar. Water is found in all foods. 
 Mineral matter is found in all foods; helps to build up the bones " 
 
 A. K. says: ''Cellulose is the woody fiber of the potato. * - * Cellulose forms 
 the walls of the cells which holds the starch grains. *^ * * Cold water has uo 
 effect on starch. Hot water breaks the starch cells and renders them fit for food. 
 Potatoes contain water, starch, cellulose, albumen, and potash salts." 
 
 S. T. gives the chemical composition of the potato as follows: Water, 75; starch, 
 18; fat, 0.3; mineral matter, 1; nitrogenous matter, 1; cellulose, 1; acid, 1; sugar, 2. 
 She notes further: "How do we show that potatoes contain starch? By putting 
 iodin in it; if it becomes blue, it contains starch. What other part did the experi- 
 ment show us? It showed us the water and acid." 
 
 K. McG. says : " Skim-milk is as valuable as pure milk, only it ditfers in what it is 
 composed of; it does not contain fat, but is nutritious if it does lack fat; it contains 
 nitrogenous matter."' 
 
 J. McW. says, in a note on starch : " After any food has commenced to boil reduce 
 the temperature and allow it to simmer; we do this to avoid wasting fuel and pre- 
 vent breaking of vegetable and also to prevent a hardening of albumen which many 
 foods contain." 
 
 Among M, O.'s notes, it is stated that: "Food is that which is taken into thebodj- 
 to build up new tissue, to rejjair worn-out tissue, and to yield heat and energy." 
 
 In E. W.'s notes was found the following: "Rice contains more starch than any of 
 the other grains; * ** * it is the most easily digested; * * * four-fifths 
 of rice being starch, it should be eaten with some nitrogenous food, such as milk or 
 eggs."' 
 
 A. Q. says : " Is there starch in flour? We can find that there is starch in flour bj' 
 putting a little into ii glass with a little water, put in a drop of iodin, stir it, and 
 when it turns blue we know it contains starch." 
 
 The above record with notes gives indubitable evidence of the fact that it is not 
 simply cooking that the children are learning in tliese classes in the New York City 
 public schools. 
 
 o 
 
 LB Mr '07 
 
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