LEMENTARY CABINETWORK JRANK HENRY SELDEN Book s5 nJT CopglitiN" COPliRIGHT DEPOSnV ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK FOR MANUAL TRAINING CLASSES By FRANK HENRY SELDEN Director of Manual Traiiiing^ State Normal School, Valley City^ North J)akota. Author of '^Elementary Woodwork'^ and '■'•Elementary Turning'* RAND McNALLY & COxMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK LONDON Copyright, iqoq By Rand McNally & Company Entered at Stationers' Hall ■J CI. A 251 I IV' Chicago THE TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE The Introducti07i 3 Suggestions for the Pupil 7 PART I General Directions for Cabinetwork Equipment for Elementary Cabinetmaking . . 9 Selection AND Arrangement OF Material . . 11 Mortises and Tenons . 14 Chair and Stool Legs 35 Paneling 45 The Making of Drawers 53 Shelving 56 The Making of Tops 57 Planing 67 Veneering 69 Backing 71 Patching and Plugging 74 Smoothing 79 Clamping 84 Fastening Tops to Frames 96 PART II Type Forms of Cabinetwork Book Racks and Taborets 99 Footstools 120 Chairs i33 Hall Seat 165 Tables 169 2 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK PAGE Piano Bench 198 Music Cabinet 206 Clock Case 210 Shoe Box and Costumer 211 Wall Cabinet 215 Ladies' Desk 219 Bookcase . . 223 Screens . 228 Frames 231 Hat Rack 239 Umbrella Stand . 242 PART III Description of Essentials for Cabinetwork Tools and ]\Iaterials 245 The Index v THE INTRODUCTION THE AIM of this work is to make clear, through definite directions for making the articles illus- trated, the general principles of furniture construction, so that the pupil may apply them in making other articles from designs found in trade journals and else- where. Although this book is the result of a teacher's experience in manual -training schools, yet it will also be helpful for self -instruction in the home shop. Knowledge of the correct use of ordinary wood- working bench tools must be gained before any attempt is made in the construction of furniture. Such knowl- edge is imparted in the author's earlier volume, "Ele- mentary Woodwork." Elementary Cabinetwork is not to be used merely as a reference book at the instructor's desk, but is designed as an aid to study and is to be placed in the hands of each student. The instructor should see that the projects to be made by each pupil are of such a type as will demand a systematic study of the text. Though designing and cabinetmaking are different subjects, yet the peculiar arrangement of the text, the variety of designs presented, and the suggestions for new forms and combinations will be found to teach, in the most effective way, the elements of furniture designing. 3 4 INTRODUCTION It is assumed that the pupil already has such knowl- edge of the elements of woodworking and turning as may be gained from the author's preceding works on those subjects. This book aims therefore, to direct the pupil in further study through applying these elements to solving a series of typical problems in practical construction. For convenience of study the subject-matter of the book has been arranged in three parts : Part I presenting such general directions as seem needful to add to the knowledge which it is assumed the pupil has already acquired; Part II presents a series of tested problems in actual construction found to be within the ability of the pupils of the secondary school; Part III treats of certain special tools and finishing processes not described in elementary study. Suggestion rather than variety of designs, has been the aim. A few processes thoroughly learned and properly used in typical problems, are far better for educational purposes than attempts at greater variety made at the cost of incorrect practice, and the sacrifice of progressive study to a single exigency in mere con- struction. No provision is made in this work for the use of wood files and frame saws, because the author firmly believes that their use can easily be dispensed with. Moreover, their habitual misuse has not infrequently impaired the educational value of manual training in a marked degree. For a similar reason the use of the spokeshave has been reduced to a minimum. The value of the shop work depends upon intellectual activity rather than muscular reaction. Hence problems are selected which encourage thinking and the develop- INTRODUCTION 5 ment of definite mental activities rather than problems which, by repetition of their processes, lead to skill or the power to perform certain operations by muscular reaction, the mind, meanwhile, being passive or but indefinitely active. The work of the pupil will be truly educational only in proportion as he is led to use his mind in each operation. Therefore, not only such problems as will tend to encourage mental rather than physical effort should be used, but the whole attitude of the pupil in his shop work should be one of study rather than one of acquiring skill by mere muscular repetition. No pupil is expected to construct every article described in the text, but by selecting a typical form from each group, he may readily master all the essential problems of elementary cabinetmaking. Upholstering is not taken up in this volume because of want of space for satisfactory treatment. The typical designs given herein may be modified in many ways without lowering their value as studies, and the instructor should aid pupils in devising adapta- tions of wood, finish, and upholstering, suitable for their special needs; taking special care to keep each design within the proper limits of a study. If there appear to be no controlling factors of this nature, let convenience of material be the guide. It is recommended, as promising greater educational service, that for school class-work the simpler forms of finishing and upholstery be employed, so that more time may be given to the study of woodworking problems. For this reason board and heavy leather seats have proved best suited for school use. 6 INTRODUCTION Although the drawings in this book show exact dimensions, there is usually a very wide range for size- modification in the various parts of the designs offered. The text suggests only a few of these size-modifications; but in adopting any such, care should be exercised to keep the designs suitable for school work and adapted to the progress of the individual student. For example, avoid attempts to construct articles with very small tenons, or parts which may be crowded or sprung into position. Every part and joint should be of such form and size as will compel an intelligent and definite method of work. If there is carelessness, or indefinite method used, the result must be a failure. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PUPIL It is especially urged that before the pupil attempts the construction of any article described in this book, he read all the general directions. As he proceeds with each piece he should repeat this, reading all of the refer- ences given in the text, until he has a clear understand* ing of all parts of the directions, and is able to recall each part as he has use for it. The purpose of the general directions is to give the pupil so clear an idea of the methods of combining two or more pieces, as to reduce the number of mistakes and the amount of spoiled material to a minimum. He will, therefore, save time as well as material by studying all of Part I before beginning any project. As he proceeds with the project, or type example selected from Part II, he will find references to various topics in Part I, and these, as well as all other topics that may assist in the work, should be thoroughly studied. If the pupil requires information not found in these topics, he should consult the index in the back of the book. Always proceeding on the supposition that the desired informa- tion is to be found in the book, he should continue to refer to the index until practically all information required for making any of the projects is found. 8 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PUPIL He should not attempt to make any article illustrated until he has learned to plane out of wind and straight. He should also learn to lay out and to make simple joints, and should be certain that they will be of correct shape and properly fitted, before attempting the study of any article containing combinations of joints. It is a waste of time to attempt the construction of any article, however simple, before gaining a knowledge of the more simple problems. It should be borne in mind, however, that this book does not include directions for planing, use of knife, try- square, and other fundamental studies in woodworking, these topics being treated at length in the preceding volume, "Elementary Woodwork." Hence, before attempting any project in cabinetmaking the pupil should make himself thoroughly familiar with the instructions given in that work. The fundamental knowledge of tool operations acquired through such a systematic study of that text, will not only add much to his interest in cabinetmaking, but will prove a saving of time when he attempts to make any project laid down in "Elementary Cabinetwork." PART I General Directions EQUIPMENT FOR ELEMENTARY CABINETMAKING The Care and Use of Tools. The first problem in cabinetmaking is to learn how to combine several simple pieces. The shaping and combining of pieces of irregular outline should not be attempted until the elementary principles of combining have been learned. It is, therefore, a matter of great importance that the equipment for elementary cabinetmaking be restricted to such tools as are required for plain, simple work only. This being the case, scarcely any more tools are needed for the first work than are used in elementary joinery. The equipment for each pupil and bench should be the same as that required to do the work given in "Elementary Woodwork." Such tools as are described in Part III should be kept in the tool room for general use. In all work in cabinetmaking, the tools should be kept in the best condition. Test the squares to see that they are correct. Examine the bench top for lo ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK any roughness that may injure the work. The jaws of the vise should also be examined and refinished if necessary. Keep each chisel ground to as thin an edge as is consistent with rapid use. Be espec- ially careful that the side which ought to be straight is straight to the very edge. The saws should cut freely but not roughly, as a rough end requires too much planing or chiseling. The pupils at work and the daily results of their work have furnished the material for the illustrations. No attempt has been made to produce a picture book of furniture designs. The aim has been to illustrate, in a very complete manner, such typical forms as experience has shown to be suitable for school use. Some of the pictures complement or supplement those given in "Elementary Woodwork." The illustrations, showing the various positions of the workers as well as the methods of clamping the work, illustrate general principles, and should be so understood rather than imitated in detail; yet great care has been taken to have every illustration correct in detail, as well as in general principle. To encourage the use of judgment and freedom of choice is the author's reason for giving more than one view of similar operations. A variety of illustrations of similar operations must not be understood to give unlimited license in the use of tools, for there is a best way to perform each operation; and no pupil or teacher should be satisfied with any but the best. SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL 1 1 The fact that many who are considered skilled workmen frequently use their tools in ways dif- fering from those shown in these illustrations, is not sufficient reason for rejecting the methods em- ployed in this book. Many workers use tools improperly because they have never been taught the correct way of handling them; or because the habit of improper use has become so fixed that they do not wish to change. That every method of work given in this book is in actual use by many of the most intelligent mechanics in this line of work is a fact that should not be lost sight of. SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL Face Marks. The first point to be considered in cabinetmaking is the selection and arrangement of the material. Cabinet woods are expensive, and all are subject to defects. This renders the selection of perfectly clear pieces almost impossible. It remains for the cabinetmaker so to select and arrange the material that the defective parts will be entirely hidden or placed where they will be the least seen. After all has been done to place the defects where they will not be noticed, there may yet remain parts that will require patching, puttying, staining, or other treatment in order to present a correct appearance. 12 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK When much material is to be removed in working a piece, it is usually wise to select the best side and the best edge as the faces. After jointing them by removing as little material as possible, dress the piece to nearly or quite the exact size. Examine every part of the piece carefully and, if necessary, change the face marks to other sides and carefully square the new face corner. Before finally determining the face surfaces, you must consider carefully whether or not the face side and edge will be those most noticeable in the com- pleted articles. The idea of a face side must not be confused with the idea of a finished side or a best side or a side containing the best material. A face side or face edge or face corner is the one from which the measurements are made, and the one against which the head of the square is placed. The nature of the framework determines whether the face sides shall contain the best or the poorest of the material. As the final appearance of the piece is largely determined by the selection and location of the working faces, all possible care should be exercised in their selection. In each article (similar to the stool, Fig. 113) the face corner of each leg must be on the inside, so that the adjoining horizontal pieces will be at right angles, each being joined to a face surface. If either of the three remaining corners were to be the face corner, only one or neither of SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL 13 the pieces would join a face surface, and the joints would probably be poor or the stool out of square. In jointing the face surfaces be very particular to get the piece out of wind, and also free from small irregularities. When the pieces are placed together, a joint may be spoiled by a very short curve on the face of the piece. Such a surface may throw the entire piece out of true and cause much work. Do not attempt, therefore, to lay out the pieces until the faces are straight. A little time spent in the beginning on this part of the work will save much time later on. In selecting the face surfaces on the horizontal pieces, they should be so arranged that they will face each other. Usually the upper edge should be the face edge and also the better edge. However, when the piece is to be covered with leather or upholstering of any kind, the upper edge may be the poorer edge. If the piece has a streak of sap- wood on one edge, it is usually best to plan so that the upholstering will cover the sap wood. The importance of this selection always depends largely upon the nature of the finish which is to be given to the piece. If the article is to be finished in the natural wood, using only oil, wax, or some transparent finish, the sapwood must all be so placed that it will not show ; and pieces which contain streaks should be dis- carded if they can not be so arranged. If some of 2 14 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK the darker stains are to be used, a little sap wood may show on the outer sides, and when paints or very dark stains are to be used, the sap wood may be used for any part. This applies only to such w^oods and stains as will color evenly on both sapwood and body- wood. Some hard-wood and many soft-wood saps will absorb finish so much more readily than the body- wood, that after staining they will appear of a very different shade than the body-wood. If you are not certain how the finish will act on the piece of wood you are working, take a scrap of the wood and test it before selecting the pieces. Finish the scrap carefully with plane, scraper, and sandpaper, or your test may deceive you. MORTISES AND TENONS Methods of Joining. From your study of "Ele- mentary Woodwork" you have learned of several forms of mortises and tenons. Now that you are famiUar with the forms of these joints, you should be able to combine them in the construction of framew^ork for various purposes. Do not make the mistake of thinking that you can learn to make the joint and combine it at the same time. When you are studying the methods of combining parts, you will have quite enough to attend to without attempting at the same time to learn MORTISES AND TENONS IS how to make joints. If you have not made each of the forms of mortise and tenon as given in * * Ele- mentary Woodwork," do so before attempting to lay out any piece of furniture. This will save time and material, and assure you better work and larger benefits in the doing. For convenience in explaining the various methods of laying out mortise and tenon work, we may divide the various forms of construction into two classes : First, those in which the piece is flat like the back of the large arm- chair (Fig. i); and second, those which constitute a framework similar to the footstool (Fig. 119). Each of these classes may be divided again into those which are forced together all in one direction, as the backs of the chairs (Figs. 150 and 159), or the sides of the chairs (Figs. 124 and 147), and those which are forced together in two directions, as the back of the chair (Fig. 146) and the back of the hall seat (Fig. 162). You will readily under- stand that the joints in the first class are the easier to make, and also that those which are joined all in one ^'^- '■ ^^rmchair hack direction are the easier forms of each class. This should be considered when you select your project. i6 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK All parts to be joined must first be dressed true on one face and on one edge. Usually, the other two surfaces are also jointed, yet this is sometimes omitted until after the parts are fastened together. In studying these forms of joining, we will consider ■first the making of tenons of the simple forms and the mortises used with them (Fig. i), following these, in order, with directions for making such as are more difficult. Tenons. In designing chairs and tables, the sizes and arrangement of tenons are of consider- able importance. The arrangement of rails in Fig. 1 1 9 is such that the. tenons meet in the legs, and consequently are not so long as they are in Fig. 122, in which they are arranged so that they do not meet. As the latter arrangement is considerably stronger, it should be used wherever it will be in keeping with the design. The sizes of tenons need not follow an exact proportion to the size of the piece, but should be kept usually to certain standard dimensions in order to make the laying out more simple, as well as to avoid the use of a large variety of bits and chisels. This simplifying of sizes may be accomplished with- out any loss to the design or in the value of the exercise. For pieces J inch by 4 inches, and similar sizes, the tenon may be f inch by 3 inche's, or the next inch less in width below the width of the piece. If MORTISES AND TENONS 17 the width is less than 2 J inches, the tenon may be the first J inch less in width than the width of the piece. Thus, if the piece is 3 J inches wide, after the tenon is worked to f inch thick and one edge of each tenon gauged, the gauge should be set to 3^ inches and the other edge gauged. The small variation in width from 4 inches should not be considered in making the tenon, and whatever variation there may be should be left at the back edge of the piece. This method not only simplifies the work, but also gives better results. This plan, however, cannot be used in places where equal spaces are required at each side of the piece, as in the back of some arm- chairs. In such places the tenons must be in the center of the piece. These exceptions are few com- pared with the many places in which the regular method may be used. The same principle should be followed in gauging for the thickness of a tenon. If a tenon is to be | inch thick on the end of a ||-inch piece, set the gauge first to i inch and then to f inch, having the back shoulder but -^ inch. If the piece were | inch, the back shoulder would be J inch, the same as the one at the front side. Mortises for Chair Backs. In Fig. 2 is shown how the two long sides, or stiles, of the back of a large armchair are laid side by side, face edge up, and with the face surfaces together or both outside. If one were outside and the other inside, the pieces 1 8 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK would not- face correctly when laid flat (Fig. 3). A clamp may be placed on the pieces in a manner similar to Fig. 1 1 ; but if you are careful you can dis- FiG. 2. Stiles — side by side for lining pense with the clamp unless you have more than two pieces to hold at the same time. Measure all of the pieces to see how much waste material may be cut off, and leave about half of thi;s waste at each end. Fig. 3. Stiles — flat, showing face marks Before marking the length of the mortises, exam- ine the short pieces, or rails, to see whether any change in the size of the tenon is required. Notice the difference in the location and size of the mor- tises at the top and bottom ends (Fig. 5, A and B). This is because at the top the stile projects beyond the rail and the mortise is not likely to cause the end to split. There is no projection of the stile at the MORTISES AND TENONS 19 I BlJ CL ^l'\2 i— \ -J— r bottom, and therefore the mortise is set farther away from the end. If the rails are full width, begin to lay out the mortises by drawing a line for the edge of the mortise next the end, on each stile (Figs. 2, A and 4, A). Then measure the width of the mortise and draw a line on each stile for the other edge (Figs. 2, and* 4, B). Measure the total length of the stiles, and draw a line across their bottom end. Measure from this line to the lower edge of the mortise and draw lines (Fig. 4, C). Lastly, draw the lines for the inner edge of these mortises (Fig. 4, D). Locate the other mortises and draw lines for each edge. In drawing all these /C^' er % ^^£\ Fig. 4. Armchair back 20 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK L t ^Jl -Icvj K I I I L J Fig. 5. Detail of corner joints MORTISES AND TENONS lines, be careful not to draw them entirely across the piece, for if you do, they will show badly after the parts are put together. This is especially true of the mortises for the ends of thin pieces (Fig. 2). After you have become familiar with the methods of lay- ing out such work, you will measure all the spaces at one time and then draw all the lines. In this way you avoid changing tools so often. Tenons for Chair Backs. After the lines for the ends of all the mortises have been drawn, clamp the rails side by side, all the face edges down and the face sides of the upper and lower rails together. This is done so the face marks will be on the same side as the stiles and both face edges on the inside. Be sure that the clamp ends do not touch the bench, but are far enough back fromtheedgeto allow the head of the try-square to move along the edge (Fig. 6). Place the clamp in the vise, then meas- ure on the edge of the rails the ^■°- *' ^'"""^ ^'"""^ "" ""' Space between the stiles, and draw lines as shown in Fig. 7. If the rails are too long, do not allow 22 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK for cutting off at each end, but place all the pieces even at one* end and cut all the waste from the other end. If any piece is a little short, divide the amount between the two ends. A slight varia- tion in the length of the rough piece is often unimportant. The tenons at the ends of the thin pieces will be strong enough if they are only one- half inch long. After lines are drawn at which the waste is to be cut off and also at the inner ends of the tenons, remove the clamp Fig. 7. Draw^ngl^nes ^^^ ^^^^^ ^.^^^ ^^_ tirely around each piece, as you do in making -a blind mortise and tenon. (Elementary Woodwork.) Set the marking gauge first, for the lines nearest the face side and draw the lines for all the mortises and for the tenons on the upper and lower rails. Then set the gauge for the lines farthest from the face side, and draw the lines for the other side of the same mortises and tenons. Set the gauge again, and draw the lines for one side of the tenons on the thin pieces. Then set the gauge for the other lines, MORTISES AND TENONS 23 and draw a line on one end of the piece. Lay the end on a mortise and see if the line is correct (Fig. 8) . If it is not, adjust the gauge until the lines coincide with those of the mortise, and then draw the remain- ing lines. A mortising gauge will avoid the trouble of so much resetting. (See what is said about this gauge in Part III, page 267.) After the tenons have been worked to correct thickness, gauge them to width. Be sure to draw all the lines with the head of the gauge against the face edge. The tenons should fit to place without driving, but tight enough to require considerable force. Place the parts together in the clamps before applying any glue (page 84). See that every joint is perfect on both sides, then remove the pieces and smooth and fin- ish them as Fig. 8. Testing lines directed on page 79 before applying the glue. Length of Slats. In laying out work like the backs of Figs. 154 and 156, the sides and ends are lined in the same manner as Fig. i . After the four 24 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK joints at the corners are finished, the pieces are placed together as shown in Fig. 9, and the space between the tenons on the slats is marked. This is a safe way to locate the lines. The length between the tenons may be found by measur- ing the space Fig. q. Measuring vertical pieces in chair back between the mortises on the stiles, and then sub- tracting the space from the edge of the tenon to the inner edge of the rail. In Fig. 156 it will be 27I inches — the distance between the mortises less ^-inch shoulder at the upper rail, and J-inch shoulder at the lower rail, making the length between the rails, or the length of the slat between the tenons, 26I inches. This may be verified by laying the rails in position and measuring between them. Unless the slats are too thin, make the tenons -f^ inch thick. You will discover that this size is easier to work than if they were thinner. This thickness also corresponds with that of the tenons on the ends of the rails. Were it not for the slats the tenons at the corners would be made f of an inch. Locate and work the mortises as any other blind mortise. Do not attempt to glue the slats in place before placing the stiles in position. Test all in the clamps MORTISES AND TENONS 25 before gluing any portion. Remove the clamps and smooth the surfaces as directed on page 79; then glue all at once, clamping as shown in Fig. 66. After the glue is dry, finish the outside surfaces as directed on page 83. See that both sides and ends are of equal thickness, also chamfer the upper ends of the stiles (Fig. 156.) The lower ends are dressed flush with the lower rail. Be careful not to make the chamfers too large, and be particular to have them all alike. (Directions for * 'Chamfering, ' ' page 43 . ) Laying Out Tenons for Chair Frames. If the tenons are to enter blind mortises, there is no need of truing the ends of the pieces or of drawing lines at the ends. The pieces should have been cut to the proper length in cutting up the stock. When the pieces are all of the same width, place them face edge up, and even the ends, as shown in Fig. 10. Place the clamp and try-square as shown in Fig. II. In locating the lines for the inside ends of the tenons, ^'°- '°- ^"^"'"^ P^'" lay the rule on the piece and determine how much stock can be used for the tenons. If the pieces 26 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK are so long that they will need to be cut off, plan to cut all from one end; if they are a little scant, divide the material between the two. Tenons which are to enter blind mortises need not be all of exact length. It is a waste of time to attempt to make them ex- actly the length given in the draw- ing. They should always be made short enough not to reach closer than J inch from the rough bottom of the mortises in an ordinary chair or table leg. If the clamp is in the way of the try-square in drawing the second line, place a second clamp on the pieces (Fig. 12), then remove the first one and use the try-square again (Fig. 11). Compare these directions with those given on page 2 1 . Before clamping pieces together in this manner their sides must be parallel. If for any reason they are not parallel and cannot be made so, only one piece should be lined at first; then this piece should be laid upon each of the others and the spaces marked from it (Fig. 13). Do not attempt to measure each piece separately with the rule. Fig. II. Drawing line MORTISES AND TENONS 27 Exchanging clamps After drawing a line entirely across each end, remove the clamp and complete the lining on each piece separately. Set the gauge and draw the lines nearer the face side for all the tenons, drawing a line on each edge and across the ends. Set the gauge to the distance of the back side of the tenon from the face edge, and complete the lining. Saw and chisel the sides of the tenons. You will save time by doing the sawing for all the tenons at one time. After the sides of all the tenons are finished, gauge them all to width. Remove the waste with saw and chisel. These tenons are made h inch thick because they enter a piece which is more than i inch thick. (For further information see what is said con- cerning "Tenons," pages 16 and 21.) Fig. 13. Marking by superposition 28 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Mortises for Footstools. Clamp the pieces to- gether the same as the rails (Figs. lo and ii), and draw the lines for the mortises in the same man- ner as before directed for tenons. Draw the knife lines only a part of the way across the piece, for if the lines are much longer than are required for the mortise, their ends will be visible after the work is finished (Fig. 2). Draw lines entirely across the piece for the fin- ishing of the ends. If there are other lines or marks which need to be alike on all the pieces, make them while the pieces are clamped together. If there is a chamfer at the end, draw lines for the chamfer with a pencil. Remove the clamp and draw the lines at the ends entirely around. If the mortises are alike on both sides, carry the lines around for the other mortises. If the mortises are not alike on both sides, place the pieces together so as to lay out the mortises at the other side, and clamp and line them in the same manner, except that, in this case, instead of evening the ends with the try-square, you adjust the pieces to the line at which the ends will be cut off. If there are no lines at the ends, small marks may be made at the corners opposite the ends of the mortises, and the pieces adjusted to these marks in clamping the second time. In cases where the mortises are not alike on all sides of the legs (Fig. 122), they may be set on end MORTISES AND TENONS 29 (Fig. 14) in the relative positions they will occupy when completed, and sketches may be made with a soft pencil on each surface showing the relative position for each mortise or other joint. Some- times the top ends, the position of arms, and other details, require being indicated in this way. Fig. 14. Sketching position of mortises Do not attempt to mark these places exactly. A free-hand sketch indicating the places is all that is required or necessary, as the pencil marks are simply to avoid making the mortises on the wrong sides or at the wrong ends. 30 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK After the knife lines for all the mortises are drawn, set the gauge and draw the gauge lines nearer the face edge for all the mortises. When this is done set the gauge for the lines farther from the face edge and draw all these lines. As soon as the gauge has been set for the second side of the mortise, test it by drawing a short line and com- pare the space with the width of the tenon, similar to the test shown in Fig. 8. Bore the holes and work the mortises the same as in working the blind mortise. (Elementary Woodwork.) You will save much time by laying out all the mortises and boring all the holes at one time before doing any work on the mortises with the chisel. Be careful to have every mortise of the proper size at the bottom end and also square with the surface. The squareness of your work depends very much upon your mortises, therefore you should be very careful to make them correct. Testing a Mortise. There are many makeshifts employed by inexperienced persons to determine whether a mortise is square with the surface and of the same size at top and bottom. Do not get into the habit of using such devices. Be very care- ful to bore the holes straight, and they will aid you at first in working the mortise. After the sides are nearly finished, use the edge of the chisel against the side and also against the ends of the mortise as described in "Elementary Woodwork." MORTISES AND TENONS 31 Do not attempt to work the mortise, even in soft wood, without boring holes, and bore as many holes as are required to leave but a very small amount of waste material at either end of the mortise, and between the bit holes. Be sure to bore the two end holes quite near to the end of the mortise, even if you are obliged to bore both end holes before boring all of the other holes. Use a chisel a little narrower than the mortise for working the ends. The sides may be worked with a J-inch chisel no matter how long the mortise. A wider chisel might be used, but in most cases it is not worth while to get it from the tool room for the very small saving in time, and besides you will learn more by using the |-inch chisel. Mortises in Chair Legs. If the pieces are not straight, they cannot be handled in the same manner as are the footstool legs (page 28). To lay out the mortises on legs for chairs similar to Figs. 124 and 147, it is necessary to sketch first the positions of the mortises, as on the stool legs (Fig. 14), and then to lay all face down on the bench the same as you do the rails (Fig. 10). Be sure to set the clamp far enough from the edge to allow room for the try- square head (Fig. 6) ; then place the clamp in the vise (Fig. 15), and lay off the mortises. The loca- tion of the mortises in the back may be determined by first making marks at the corners and then carry- ing these marks across the edge after the clamp has 32 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK been removed. These marks, much exaggerated, are shown in Fig. 15, as are also the Hnes on the edge. If the mortises on the other sides of the legs are the same as on this side, the lines may be carried around after the clamp has been removed. If they Fig. 15. Lining chair legs are not alike, small marks locating them should be made at the corners before the clamp is removed. The proper corner in which to place the marks is indicated by the position of the visible face mark. MORTISES AND TENONS ^^ The legs may be clamped together ; the two back ones side by side with their face marks together, and the two front ones also side by side and their face marks together, but this need not necessarily be done if they have been properly straightened and squared. Those photographed were placed with the front legs at the center to show the lines on the back legs. After the ends of the mortises have been located, they are lined and w^orked the same as those in foot- stool legs (page 30). In locating the side lines for the mortises for the two back rails, place them so that the top edge of the upper rail is near the center of the width of the leg at the top, and draw gauge lines parallel with the face from these points, making both rails of equal distance from the face. Keyed Construction. Whether joints held in place by w^ooden keys are a mark of superior work- manship or a relic of past times, like the ox cart and wooden plow, must be decided by each person according to personal preference and understanding. Many of the articles illustrated in this book may be joined by using one or more keyed tenons. The footstool (Fig. 119) may have the long side rails secured in this manner. In Fig. 123, all of the rails may be keyed because they are so arranged that all may pass entirely through the legs. In the chairs, a part of the tenons may be keyed and a part left blind, as shown in the figures. In •34 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Fig. 128 keyed tenons may be used on the top and bottom back rails and the wide front rail. For pieces of this width, the tenon and key should be about the proportions given in Fig. 16. I I 1 I n ? kAnV^ i> i ^^' ^ 1;^ .._.-lt i N^ 7 Fig. Tenon and key Figs. 87 and igod give other suggestions as to sizes of keyed mortises and tenons. CHAIR AND STOOL LEGS 35 Doweling. Before deciding whether the parts should be joined by mortises and tenons or by dowels, you should consider the nature of the material, the sizes of the parts, the strength required, and the amount of labor to be put upon the article. To say that dow^els mean inferior workmanship is certainly incorrect; they are sometimes, but not always, better than tenons. On thin or soft wood they are generally better than mortises and tenons. In the desk (Fig. 211) where the edges of |-inch pieces are joined, dow^els are better than tenons. This is especially true in joining the upper rail, as the dowels in the ends of this piece are sure to hold better than one or two tenons at each end. Were the upright pieces if inches thick, probably a mor- tise and tenon would be better. Dowels are often useful in other places — in con- necting the upper and lower parts of the desk (Fig. 211), and also in securing the arms to the top of the chair legs (Fig. 150). Dowels should not be used in glue joints. CHAIR AND STOOL LEGS Different Kinds of Legs. Legs for chairs and footstools may be divided into five classes "or kinds for convenience in describing methods of making them. The first of these classes includes those which are rectangular in section, sides parallel and straight 36 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK (Fig. 17) ; the second, those which are rectangular in section and straight and tapered all or a part of the length (Figs. 188 and 21); the third, those which are not straight yet are of rectangular section and without curves (Fig. 18) — curved legs are not treated in this volume; the fourth, those which are turned a part of the length (Fig.- 19) ; Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Straight Bent octangular rectangular leg leg and the fifth, those turned the entire length (Fig. 20) . A part of a leg can be turned to a plain cylinder, and dressed by hand to an octagon or a hexagon. The first step in work- ing any of the forms, except those which are turned. the entire length, is to dress a face side. This face side is on the inside, or invisible side. Fig. 19. Part turned Fig. 20. All turned CHAIR AND STOOL LEGS 37 of the piece when the chair or footstool is completed. It is, therefore, the surface which ought to contain the defects. (See what is said about face sides under topic "Face Marks," page ii.) Rectangular Legs. Legs of the first class are shaped by the same method of working as is used in squaring the first piece. (Lessons i to 5, "Ele- mentary Woodwork.") If the ends are not finished until after all the mortising has been done, there will be less liability of the corners being injured. Tapered Legs. In making legs of the second class, which are tapered the entire length, the face side and face edge are jointed by the methods given in "Elemen- tary Woodwork" (Lessons i and 2). After these two faces are straightened, the third surface is lined by marking the width at each end, and using a straight edge with which to draw a pencil line. The fourth side is marked in the same manner, either before or after the third side has been finished. The surplus material may be removed either by planing or by ripping and finishing with the plane. If the taper extends but a part of the ^^^ way (Fig. 21), the piece is made straight and square on all four sides for the entire length ; then the lines are drawn for the taper, and the piece is worked to these lines. If all four sides are to be tapered Fig. 21. Tapered 38 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK (Fig. 21 or Fig. i88) to make the lining easier, you should line and taper two opposite sides first and then the other two sides. If the leg is to receive a mortise near the tapered part, it is usually better to do the mortising before doing the tapering. This method is also better in making short legs, such as those for footstools (Figs. 113 and 117). The amount of taper given legs for chairs, tables, and other articles, may vary from J inch at each side, as in Fig. 2 1 , to any amount that you may wish. Usually, on small legs the smaller amount is to be preferred. The greater taper may appear well at first but in time such pronounced forms become tiresome. On legs which are ta- pered the entire length (Fig. 188), a tapered piece may be used under the head of the try- square (Figs. 22 and 23). Use these in laying out the mortises, and in lin- FiG. 22. Tapered piece on head of try-square ing the ends of the rails, as they must correspond to the taper of the legs. To make this piece, select a piece of hard-wood about J inch square, and with the ripsaw cut a kerf in it about two inches long. Taper the piece and slip it over the try-square blade. CHAIR AND STOOL LEGS 39 After the legs have been smoothed and the tapers finished, test the try-square and tapered piece by applying them first to one side and then to the other, and changing the taper, if need be, until lines drawn from either side will coincide. The tee bevel may be used in a similar manner,' but this is so often accidentally changed, and is so difficult to use, that the tapered strip, as described, is usually better. Legs of the Third Class. Legs of the third class are more difficult to make because the plane will not cut readily at angle H, Fig. 24. These legs may be laid out by drawing lines as shown, but it is usual to lay out a thin piece of board in this manner, and then use it as a pat- tern. This will save time if more than one pair of legs is to be made, and will also save mate- rial, for the pattern can be laid on the stock and tried in several positions until the best place is found. If only one pair of legs is required, time will be saved by jointing the face side before they are cut from the stock. If they are cut out before the face side has been Fig. 23. Tapered piece on head of try-square 40 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK a •*~ct made straight and out of wind, they can be exam- ined by holding the same as in sighting a straight piece in working the first surface. Care must be taken to have the surface A (Fig. 24) straight from end to end before looking for wind. After this sur- face is correct, finish surface B (Fig. 24) and mark it, then surface C. Set the gauge for the thickness and gauge entirely around the piece, the head of the gauge resting against A, which is the face edge. Dress the surface D ; and then, with the gauge set the same as for the thickness, gauge for surface E, which is opposite B. Mark the width at the top end, and with a straight edge draw a line Fig. 24. Back chair leg fo^ the surface F. Plane E and F, turning the plane when near the angle H, as shown in Fig. 25. Run the plane straight, as near as you can. It is not necessary that the angle be finished entirely *-& a-*- CHAIR AND STOOL LEGS 41 to the line. It is much easier to leave about -g-V inch at the vertex ; and this also results in a better form. The slight roughness caused by planing across the grain can be removed with a scraper when the final smoothing is done. Fig. 2^. Using round bottom plane 42 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK When many legs of this type are to be dressed, a plane may be fitted especially for the work. This may be done by attaching a false bottom to a plane, or by rounding the bottom of a plane. A wooden bottom Bailey plane, rounded for such use, is shown in Fig. 26. Legs of the Fourth Class. The fourth class, or legs turned a part of their length, may be squared either before or after turning. Usually, it is better to have the blanks carefully squared in the machine, and the hand- jointing of the pieces done after the turning has been completed. In planing the sides after turning, care should be taken not to make any flat places on the turned part of the pattern. To avoid this, all turned surfaces should be a little below the surface of the square. Legs of the Fifth Class. The fifth class, or legs which are to be turned their entire length, ought also to be squared in the machine, as this will assist in sizing them and avoid mistakes in centering and selecting the top end. Such legs should be so shaped that the rungs may enter the larger parts of the pat- tern as shown in Fig. 20. Finishing Ends. As the ends of pieces are often quite conspicuous, the style of finishing them is very important. The most common form, known as a chamfered end, is shown in Fig. 27. Another form, the rounded end, is shown in Fig. 28. Occa- sionally, the tapered end shown in Fig. 29, is used. CHAIR AND STOOL LEGS 43 Fig. 27. Chamfered end The methods of working all the forms are similar. Pencil lines should always be used instead of knife lines in laying out the ends for any of these forms of finish, as a knife line may remain visible after the end has been finished. All of these forms should be carefully sandpapered. Do not use sandpaper on a block for this purpose, but use it in the hands as shown in Fig. 30. If the end is quite large, a block may be used on edge for a part of the sandpapering. Be sure that it does not extend over the edges, for if it does, it will certainly spoil the lines that should be sharp and clean cut. Chamfering. In making the Fig. 28. Rounded end common chamfer (Fig. 27), lines are drawn on the sides and on the end, an equal distance from the corner. For legs i } inches square these lines should not be more than \ inch from the edge; on |-inch pieces, these lines should not be more than ■^ inch frorri the edge, and in many cases, i inch is better. Fig. 29. Tapered end 44 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Fig. 30. Sandpapering^ end The lines should be care- fully drawn and the cham- fered surface exactly straight in both ways. The chamfers should be exactly alike, as the least variation shows badly. Hold the plane as in cham- fering the pieces for the bench-hook ( Elementary Woodwork), so that the comers will not split. Tapered End. The tapered end is made in the same way, except that the lines on the ends are drawn across the center, as shown in Fig. 31, and the surface is worked to these lines. After two opposite sides are finished (Fig. 32) the other sides are Fig. 31. End lined worked to shape, giving the form shown in Fig. 29. Rounded End. The rounded end (Fig. 28) is made in the same way as the tapered end, except that the surfaces are planed to a curve instead of being ^ . , , planed fiat. This is a very Fig. 32. Two sides of -^ end worked difficult form to make. PANELING 45 PANELING The Best Methods of Paneling. There are many ways of doing paneling, but for all ordinary work, the following methods are best. The chief difficulty with paneling is, that unless every piece is carefully jointed so as to be straight and out of wind on the face surface, and straight and square at the face edge, the panel will be in wind when the pieces are all together, and there is then no way of getting it out of wind. If each step in the work is properly done the panel will be flat and square. Usually the outer edges and back sides of the stiles and rails are not jointed until after the parts are put together. Two Important Methods. There are two impor- tant methods of making paneling, and you must decide which you will use before beginning work. The first, and the usual method in manufacturing establishments, is to cut the groove for the panel the entire length of both rails and stiles. This requires a haunched mortise and tenon, or, as is often the case in cheap work, a tenon only as long as the groove is deep and fitting it in width. The other method is to make the joints at the corners the same as if no groove were to be cut, and then to plow the rails full length and work the grooves in the stiles only so far as is necessary to receive the panel. As this cannot be done with the plow, it 46 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK requires considerable time. If the stile is long the groove may be worked a short space at each end with gauge and chisel, and finished with the plow. In working a groove with a chisel, score it similar to working the rabbet (Fig. 230). If the groove is to extend the entire length of the stiles and the haunched tenons are to be used, the mortises and tenons should be worked before plowing the grooves. They should be so placed that after the grooves are made, the mortises and grooves will be in line. Usually, the tenon should be the same width as the groove. The manner of laying out and working the mor- tises and tenons is the same as described in making the back for the chair (Fig. i ) , except when the tenon is haunched instead of plain. This style of tenon is described in "Elementary Woodwork." In other respects the sizes of joints are the same as in similar sized stock for other places. Dowel joints are often much better than mortises and tenons for paneling. Holes for the dowels may be bored and then the stiles and rails grooved the entire length without regard to the location of the dowels. A plug would then be used in the ends of the grooves which are visible after the parts are together. Plowing the Groove. After the mortises and tenons have been worked, set the plow (Fig. 281) and make the groove for the edges of the panel. Be particular to have the fence of the plow on the face PANELING 47 side and the groove in the face edge. Note care- fully what is said under the topic "Face Marks," page II, before beginning to make the grooves. For ordinary panel work in |-inch thick stock the grooves should be -^ inch wide and | inch deep. These sizes should be used, unless the size of the stock makes some other size of groove necessary. You will see by referring to Figs. 216 and 217 that it is not necessary to locate the panel in the center of the edge of the stile, nor that the stiles and rails should be of the same thickness or width. For convenience in working, the stiles and rails are usu- ally flush on the face side. The sizes for the various parts used in paneling are indicated by those given in the drawings (Figs. 34, 35, 36, and 38). These may be modified to suit any particular case. Securing the Panel. A common mistake in panel- ing is that of gluing the edges of the panel to the rails. This should not be done because, if the edges are glued, there will be no chance for the panel to shrink or swell, which is an l"^^- 33- Gl^e block on panel important feature in panel work. The panel should fit snugly in place, but not so tight as to spring the rails instead of moving in the -groove. 48 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK T PANELING 49 A little glue may be placed at each end near the center to keep the panel from moving to one side. This is sometimes accomplished by a glue block at each end on the inside, as shown in Fig. 33. A brad driven in at the same place may do quite as well for some work. The stiles and rails for the various forms of panel- ing shown may be the same, the panel being the important difference. The various forms may be grouped in any of the many combinations seen in doors, furniture, and wall-paneling. Forms of Panels. The form to be used must be determined by individual needs and special condi- tions. In the shoe box and costumer (Fig. 204) are shown the four styles of panels in use. Figs. 34, 35, 36, and 38 are detailed drawings of these panels. You should have no trouble in making panels for any piece of furniture. You need only to alter the sizes given in these drawings, and then work the pieces in the same manner as directed for these typical forms. Plain Panel. The panel shown in Fig. 34 is simply a plain board of the same thickness as the groove in the rails and stiles. It is placed in position as the rails and stiles are put together. All necessary scraping and sandpapering should be attended to before it is put in place. Flush Panel. In making a flush panel (Fig. 35), simply rabbet around the piece so there will be an so ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK outer edge, or tongue, to enter the groove ; the re- mainder of the panel being of full thickness. Such panels may be finished by planing them flush with the stiles and rails after the parts are glued together. 9f ri>s^^\\\\\\^\\\\\\\\\\^<.^ ^s^^'A ^Section at a~b ^H /S' /4i"- -^^^ ■/4-' F^ ii^* Fig. 36. Raised panel If there is any likelihood of the panel swelling, a space must be left at the sides between it and the bottom of the grooves and at the edge of the stiles. No space need be left at the ends, as the panel will not swell endwise. PANELING 51 Raised Panel. In making a raised panel (Fig. 36), the piece is first dressed to the thickness of the thickest part of the panel, and then the central raised portion is laid out with a pencil. The thick- ness at the edge is marked with a gauge, and the outer portion plan- ed to an even taper to the edges, mak- ing the edges of a Fig. 37. Raising panel proper thickness to fill the grooves at the edges. In planing across the ends, the plane should be held at an angle of about 45 degrees (as shown in Fig. 37). You will notice that the piece enters the grooves about | inch, and therefore it is necessary for it to be a little thinner at its edges than the width of the groove. If both sides of the panel are visible, both may be raised in the same manner, or one may be plain. Sometimes one side is raised and the other made flush, as the outer surface of Fig. 35. This makes a very solid panel. Elevated Panel. The elevated panel (Fig. 38) is similar to the raised panel but requires thicker stock, because it must be fitted into the groove in the framework and also be itself grooved, so that 52 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK its elevated surface will cover the edges of both rails and stiles. This is necessary to make a joint which will remain tight and which can be properly finished. Fig. 39 is a view of the edge showing the groove. The finished surface is worked in the same way .^^ /6' ^6i y^r- -i\,f^ 5; J-t /?^ Fig. 38. Elevated panel as the raised panel. It may be flat, with square edges slanted to each side and end, or oval. The panel should be finished before it is put into place. The rails and stiles, being partly covered by the panel, must also be smoothed ready for sandpaper- ing on the panel side before they are put together. THE MAKING OF DRAWERS 53 This style of pan- eling is especially suitable for the tops of chests and Fig. 39. Edge of elevated panel for similar posi- tions because it will sustain considerable weight. THE HIKING OF DRAWERS Kinds of Joints. When you have a drawer to make, the first thing to do is to decide on the kinds of joints you will use at the corners. The joints ordi- narily used on fine work are the half -blind dovetail at the two front corners, and the common open dove- tail at the two back corners. A very good joint for the front is shown in Fig.' 40. A joint easier to make is the simple rabbeted joint shown i n "Elementary Woodwork." The grade of work you are doing and the amount of time you may w4sh to spend on it, must determine your choice in selecting the styles of joints. If you use 1 • -u-L- J. 1 • • ^ Fig. 40. Drawer joint a plain rabbeted joint ^ at the front end, the back end should be a simple square butt joint, secured by nailing. 54 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK 1 The Front. After deciding upon the styles of joints the next thing is to make the front. Be sure that it is a little too large, so you can dress off the top edge, the bottom edge, and the ends after the drawer is completed. There must be a little space between the front and the rails or the drawer will not work well — one-sixteenth of an inch, if the work is A'arnished, usually is not too much space at the top edge between the drawer front and the upper cross rail. This may be reduced one-half at each end of the front. The Sides. Next after the front, get out the sides and back end. Glue together the pieces for the bottom so they will be ready when needed. Make the groove for the bottom in both sides and front and then make the joints for the comers. In making these joints, you must watch the face marks carefully, so that when the parts are all together they will all face properly. Fig. 41. Inserting drawer bottom THE MAKING OF DRAWERS 55 The Bottom. After the sides and ends are together, smooth the bottom and slide it to place by shoving it into the grooves from beneath the back end (Fig. 41). After it is in place, drive a nail up through the back end of the bottom into the back end of the drawer and dress off any extra width of the bottom. /d- i' Fig. 42. Drawer J Tizm Figure 42 gives the usual dimensions of parts for drawers, using a |-inch thick front. Fig. 41 has short sides and ends in proportion to the thickness of the front, so as to show the joints in the photograph. 56 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK SHELVING Adjustment of Shelves. Before completing the design for any furniture containing shelves, go over the requirements thoroughly in order to be sure that you will have the correct spacing for the shelves, so that when the article is complete you will have secured the greatest possible amount of useful space. Although shelves can rarely be fitted exactly to the books or to other articles to be placed upon them, yet you may so classify those articles as to economize space by varying the distance between shelves. This will often result not only in finding room for more shelves but also in improving the appearance of the design. Nearly all bookcases manufactured for sale have some arrangement for adjusting or changing the spacing of the shelves. This provision should not be overlooked in designing such bookcases. Selection of Material. Another item of much importance is the selection of material for the shelves. This should be of straight-grained stock, and also of some kind of wood that will sustain the required weight. If the wood of which the other parts of the case are made is not suitable for shelves, or is too expensive for such use, the shelves may be made of a different wood and a thin strip of wood, like that of which the case is made, glued to the front THE MAKING OF TOPS 57 edge of each shelf. In most cases this strip should be considerably thicker than a veneer, so that it can be rounded or worked to some ornamental form to correspond with the moldings about the case. THE MAKING OF TOPS Glue Joints. Considerable credit is due to any pupil who can make a good glue joint ; and even more credit to one who can properly select and arrange the pieces for gluing. Although the making of a good glue joint is a credit to any pupil, it can be done by any one who understands how to use a plane. It is not so much a matter of skill, as of knowing the cor- rect process. The difficulty in mak- ing these joints is, that the pupil does not under- _ _ . . , . . Fig. 43. Examining a glue joint with a stand exactly straightedge 58 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK how to use his plane on ordinary surfaces. For this reason, a glue joint is a very appropriate test for all pupils using planes. Allowing for Waste. First determine the thick- ness of the stock which will be required to give the correct thickness after the joints are together and the surface dressed off. Usually J inch to i inch in thickness is used in truing the surfaces. From boards of the proper thickness, select those having suitable grain. It is not only important that the pieces be of sound stock and well seasoned, but also that the pattern or figure, resulting from the combi- nation of the grain in the various pieces, be pleasing. Sometimes it is necessary to dress the surfaces quite carefully before deciding what pieces to use. The way of the grain on the face surface of each piece must be indicated (Fig. 43), so that after all the pieces are glued together they m.ay all be planed from the same direction. Quarter Sawing. Another matter of importance is, that table tops and similar parts should have the iVinnn\\\\\w///m ^^^;^^\ ^/^^^ f ^ >2 nearly right angles Fig. 44. Arrangement of qiiarter-sawcd tO the SUrfaCC aS ^"^"^" shown in Fig. 44. This is secured by selecting the board sawed from across the center of the log (Fig. 45) in common saw- ing, or by sawing all the log as shown in Fig. 46, which illustrates four ways of quarter-sawing. THE MAKING OF TOPS 59 In case no quarter-sawed stock is obtainable, the pieces should be ripped to not more than five inches wide and glued together, as shown in Fig. 47. It will be seen that the pieces have been re- versed, so that if the pieces tend to warp, the action of one will coun- teract that of the other. Some kinds of wood will stay in place much better than others, and this should be consider- FiG. 45. Common sawing ed in making up table tops or other wide pieces Jointing. After the pieces have been properly selected and arranged, and also carefully marked or numbered, so that they will not become disarranged or re- versed, the joints must be carefull}^ fit- ted with the plane. On short joints the jack plane is sufB- cient, but for joints thirty inches long, or more, the jointer Fig. 46. Quarter-sawing should be USed. 6o ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Examine the planes to be sure that they are sharp and not too much rounded, and that they will cut a shaving of good width, but a little thicker at the center than at the edges. The cut- FiG. 47. Arrangement of common sawed boards ting edge should not be absolutely straight, neither should it be much curved. Place one piece on edge in the vise and joint the edge carefully. Then lay it aside and joint the edge of the other piece which is to join the edge first jointed. It is not necessary to use a try-square on these edges. They should be at right angles to the surface of the piece, yet it does not matter if they vary a little so long as they make a level joint, and the pieces do not slip sidewise in the clamps. In making a glue joint a skilled mechanic would never think of using a try-square. When you think you have the second edge correct, set the first piece on it and test with a straight edge (Fig. 43), to see if the pieces will make a true surface. Next examine the joint carefully from both sides and ends (Fig. 48). Plane and test the joint in this manner until it gives a true surface and the edges come in perfect contact the entire length. Pressing down upon the corners will help to show defective ends. Also try rapping the under board. There should not be the slightest opening at the extreme ends, even if they are to be cut off in finishing the piece. THE MAKING OF TOPS 6i Great care must be taken to fit the joint properly. This means that it must be wood to wood at the extreme ends, and no short crooks or other irregu- larities anywhere in the surfaces. In the center the pieces may be separated enough to allow the thickness of tissue paper between them. Test them care- fully , both by the straight edge (Fig. 43), and by looking closely at each end (Fig. 48) and along each side. If nec- essary, reverse the pieces in the vise in order to see each end and Fig. 48. Examining a glue joint each side. If you are working hard wood, you will often find it necessary to plane all the edges for the joints nearly true and then sharpen the plane before completing the joints. Keep your plane fine set for finishing the edges. Do not think you have a joint until the pieces appear to adhere as you gently pull or push the one upon the other. 62 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Clamping. When you think the joint is correct, place the pieces in the clamps ; the manner of apply- ing being indicated in Figs. 49 and 50. No pressure should be required to bring the CI a:}: ping glue joint pieces into contact. The clamps are used for expel- ling the surplus glue, and not for springing or bending pieces into place. The two C clamps are to keep the joint from slipping sidewise. Where so many pieces are to be glued, one-half should be glued at a time, making two sections. The picture (Fig. 49) shows the gluing together of the two sections. In no case put dowels into such a joint. Screw the clamps up a little and examine the joint care- fully along each side. If it does not come up tight, or if it tends to bulge, remove the pieces and plane them some more. Do not think the joint is all right if, by using considerable force, the pieces may be THE MAKING OF TOPS 63 Sprung together; for if the joint does not fit perfectly with very little pressure, it will not hold together very long after being removed from the clamps. Applying the Glue. The appHcation of the glue and the placing of the pieces in the clamps are quite as important as the planing of the surfaces which form the joint. In using cold glue there is oppor- tunity to make a very strong joint if the work is properly done. With the pieces jointed so that the surfaces come into perfect contact, the problem is to get as much glue as possible into the joint without keeping the surfaces the least distance apart. What is wanted is not a film of glue between the two pieces, but links of glue reaching from the pores of the w^ood on one side of the joint to the pores on the other side. The more glue in this position the stronger the joint; and if the joint is made in this manner and of good glue, it w411 probably be stronger than the wood. If a coating of glue is applied and the pieces are at once placed together, most of the glue will be forced from the joint, and the remainder will settle back so far into the wood that very little of the glue will reach from surface to surface. The joint, there- fore, will not be very strong and may fall apart. To avoid this, coat the surface and allow it to dry until the glue has had time to settle back into the grain of the wood. The parts should not be put together until the glue is as nearly dry as it can be, and yet allow the surfaces to be forced together. 64 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK This will depend upon the strength of the clamps to be used, and whether the pieces are of a nature to withstand the pressure. Fig. 50 shows how three pieces of hard wood, 2 inches thick by 4 feet long, are clamped. As many more clamps might be used to good advantage on such a table top. Chain clamps (Fig. 253) would have been better than those used. Fig. 50. Clamping large glue joint The glue for this piece w^as made thin, and. after the first coating had soaked into the wood more glue was applied. After the third coating had dried sufficiently, the pieces were clamped as tightly as the clamps w^ould hold, forcing the pieces together. Some glue was expelled but more was forced back into the w^ood. The result was a very good joint. If hot glue had been used, the pieces would have been put in the clamps as quickly as possible, and there would have been no need of so many clamps. Hot glue is quite equal to cold glue when properly- applied, but it requires too much skill and experience to be used successfully by pupils in their school work. THE MAKING OF TOPS 65 If you have proper facilities for gluing with hot glue, it will save time and expense to use it when you have many joints to make, but unless you are sufficiently skillful to apply it rapidly and clamp the parts at once, it will not hold properly. You must be as careful to use all kinds of hot glue rapidly as you should be to use cold glue slowly. Wide Tops. In gluing tops too wide to be dressed in the planer full size, glue them first in halves, and then, after each half has been carefully dressed out of wind and straight, glue the two halves together. (See what is said about "Cross Planing," page 67.) In getting such pieces out of wind, be very partic- ular to have them exactly correct. In testing the surface both from edge to edge and for wind, use the framing squares or straight edges. Sighting for wind In sighting for wind, be very particular to get a position that will insure seeing with exactness. In Fig. 51 is shown how this may be accomplished. 66 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Octagonal Top. Taborets and tables may some- times have octagonal or hexagonal tops. The octagonal top is made in the same manner ^ -' ^ as a square top, except that, after both surfaces are finished and both ends and edges squared, the corners are cut off, making the octagonal shape. To lay out the octagon, draw the diago- nals as shown in Fig. 52, and then the arc H-E. This gives the point E, at which the corner is cut. Set the gauge to this L L Fig. 52. Lay ing out an octagon point — the space D-E — and from each corner draw a gauge line across the edge of each side {L-L). These gauge lines should be pencil lines. Draw knife lines on both top and bottom surfaces con- necting these lines. Saw off the corners and plane to the lines. Usually octagonal tops should be chamfered. This is done in the same manner as the chamfering on the bench-hook in "Elementary Woodwork." Be sure to use pencil lines for such chamfering, and be careful also to work exactly to the lines. Hexagonal Top. Before attempting to make a hexagonal top, draft out the top and locate on the PLANING 67 draft the legs and rails, if there are to be any rails, beneath the top. You will notice that the top ap- pears to be much smaller than a square top having the same length of sides as the long diameter of the hexagon. Lay out the hexagon by drawing a circle on the top surface (Fig. 96), and then use the radius to determine the sides. Draw knife lines connecting these six points. Saw near the lines and finish with a plane similar to planing an end. PLANING Cross Planing. In making pieces for furniture, you are frequently obliged to reduce to a level sur- face a wide board, a table top, or a similar piece. To accomplish this in the quickest and best manner, you may place the piece crosswise of the bench and plane across the grain. The plane is usually run at an angle, as shown in Fig. 53, but sometimes it is run straight and directly across the grain. By carefully watching the effects of the cutting, you can determine how best to use the plane. As a general rule, after cross planing over the surface, you will need to plane over the surface in the ordinary manner. In all this planing be very systematic. Watch carefully where the plane cuts and do not set the plane to cut down into hollows. Examine the piece often in each of the three ways 68 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK you learned in the first lessons in "Elementary Woodwork." If you are not certain about these tests review those lessons, for the success of your work depends very much upon your being able to Cross planing make the surfaces of your pieces true in every respect. If the piece is crossgrained and does not plane smooth, you may leave the rough places a little high, so that after you have finished them with a scraper VENEERING 69 they will be level with the other parts of the surface. Of course in many cases, your only way will be to dress the surface true, and then dress it all down with the scraper or scraper plane. Sprung Pieces. Sometimes pieces will be sprung their entire length and require a great deal of planing to make them straight. Often this cannot be done without making them too thin. In such a case dress the pieces to an even curve and a smooth and even thickness, and depend upon the other parts to hold them straight after they are in place. If this does not hold them, they should be discarded. Do not spoil a fine piece of work by using a crooked piece of stock ; yet do not needlessly waste a piece which will be all right when properly placed. VENEERING Veneering End Grain. In making such pieces as the large armchairs (Figs. 149 and 155); taboret (Fig. 90); table (Fig. 188); and the piano bench (Fig. 191), which are to be finely finished or polished, the visible end grain may be covered by veneering. Although the veneering of entire pieces is too diffi- cult an operation for beginners, the covering of such end grain as the end of a table top, the ends of chair arms, and of other similar places, may be success- fully accomplished by any one who can use a plane, and follow simple directions. 70 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Preparing the Surface. The first step in cover- ing the ends of a chair arm or table top is to. make the piece of the required length, and the surface to be covered a true plane. It is not sufficient that the end be planed nearly true, and rubbed smooth with sandpaper. It must be entirely true out to the extreme ends and edges, and this can be accom- plished only with a plane. Sizing. After the surface has been trued, cover it with cold glue. The glue will soon soak into the end of the piece, and more glue must be applied. Continue applying glue until there is a coating of dry glue left upon the surface. Let this dry until it is so hard that it can be scraped smooth with a cabinet scraper. While the glue is drying, prepare some thin pieces of wood for the veneer. If you have regular veneer at hand, it may be used. If you have no veneer, take a scrap of wood the proper size, like the piece to be covered, and plane it smooth on one side. If it is more than -f-^ inch thick, draw a gauge line around it and rip a piece ofl about \ inch thick. If it were scarcely -^ inch thick, it would be thick enough for veneering; but as you are not accustomed to using veneers, you might split or break it. Therefore, you had better use a piece about one-eighth of an inch thick. Gluing. Scrape the dry glue on the end until it is removed down to the wood. Place more glue on both the end and the veneer in the ordinary manner, and BACKING 71 when the glue is quite sticky clamp the veneer to place. Use a smooth block against the veneer. Be sure to have the outside of the veneer reasonably smooth, so that the clamp will press evenly. Use plenty of clamps, and be very careful about forcing the veneer tight around the edges. After the glue is thoroughly dry, dress the veneer to about ^V inch thick, and round it a very little at the edges to make the edge of the veneer invisible. If your work has been done properly, the end can be finished the same as a surface. Veneers are usually laid so that the shrinkage of the wood will not affect them. This makes it nec- essary for the grain to run the narrow way, or at right angles to the wide surfaces on table tops, chair arms, and other similar objects. BACKING Three Kinds of Backing. A great deal depends upon the proper backing being used in such pieces as bookcases, music cabinets, and in all other pieces where the back helps to strengthen the frame. In elementary cabinetwork we have to deal with three classes of backings : those consisting of a single board, either of one natural or of several pieces glued edge to edge; those joined by loose tongue and groove joints; and those formed of one or more panels, having both stiles and rails 72 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Backs consisting of a single piece are most often used, both because they are simple and because they are more apt to keep the framework square than are the other styles unless they are very carefully made. Solid Backs. Solid backs must not be used when their size would be such that the ordinary shrinking or swelling of the lumber would cause a disturbance of the framework, or make the back split or warp. The efficiency of such backings may be greatly increased by a careful selection of wood, and by filling the pores with such a filler or finish as will reduce the shrinking or warping to a minimum. Although many defects which would not be per- mitted in a table top, may be allowed in the backing, yet such features as the way of the grain, etc., which have to do with the stability of the lumber, should be quite as carefully considered as in selecting pieces for a top. If the back contains glue joints, they should be made quite as carefully as for any other part. The thickness of the material is a matter too often disregarded. A fine bookcase may be rendered quite unsatisfactory because the back, though w^ell joined and fitted, is so thin that its ^springing allows doors, and in fact the entire case, to appear rickety. Fastening Backs. One of the most important, though seemingly immaterial, points of the work is the place and manner of fastening the back in position. Of course, if it is a very small piece, n BACKING 73 it is not of much consequence how it is fastened so long as it is made secure ; but when shrinkage and movement have to be considered, not only the place for the fastenings but whether they should be screws or nails, also is of much importance. If the back is wide, like the back of Fig. 215, it should be fastened near the center with screws at both top and bottom. If the back is of matched boards, a sufficient number to make a piece 18 inches wide should be glued and placed at the center, and at least four screw^s used in each top and bottom end. The remaining pieces should have a screw to every 6 inches of width, and if there are two screws in each end of each piece there will be much less danger of the case racking. If the back is a solid piece the central portion should be secured the same as above, and at each side of this the holes through which the screws pass should be considerably wider than the shanks of the screws. This will allow for the shrinking and swelling of the back. Another way is to use screws at the sides so slim that they will bend before splitting the board. While a ij-to 2 -inch No. 10 screw may be used in the center, No. 8 screws may be used at the sides. Imitation Paneling. A modification of the matched backing is the use of thick and thin pieces alternating, which gives an appearance of paneling. Such an arrangement is often desirable and adds 74 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK nothing to the labor, if the thin lumber is at hand and of a thickness to fit the groove made by the match plane. In order to have the thin parts fit to the bearing, the same as the thicker pieces, the thick pieces are cut down flush with the others at both top and bottom (Fig. 54). If the backing is to be a com- FiG. 54. End of j^lse paneling ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ joints of the framework should be well fitted and glued, and the complete panel thoroughly secured. No allowance need be made for shrinking or warp- ing and each screw should be firmly set. Nails should not be used in fastening backs to place, except in the very smallest or cheapest work, because the tendency of the case to rack is certain to work the nails loose. PATCHING AND PLUGGING Method of Patching. Sometimes, rather than discard a whole piece of wood because of a small defect, the defective spot may be removed and the hole filled with a plug or patch of suitable wood. If the grain of the wood is not strongly marked, the patch may not be visible after the job is com- PATCHING AND PLUGGING 75 pleted. If there are strong contrasts in the grain — such as in quarter-sawed oak — the inserted piece may show very plainly. The method to follow in cutting out and inserting these pieces is substantially the same, whatever the nature of the wood. The opportunity for the exer- cise of skill and judgment is in the selection of the material and in determining the shape and size of the hole to be cut out. Usually, the hole should be of a rectangular shape and as small as will include the defect. The piece to be inserted should be as nearly as possible like the wood that will enclose it, not only in texture and in color but also in width of hard and soft grain, and should be so trimmed in fitting as to bring similar grains together. While the first step is to de- termine the size of the part to be removed, the shaping of the piece to be inserted is the second step, except when the hole is to be made by boring with a bit. In patching such a defect as that shown in Fig. 55, a square piece may be inserted, or a bit may be used to bore out a smooth round hole, and the patch fitted into it. Which is the better method to be used must be determined by circumstances. In this case a rectangular piece is to be used. It Fig. 55. Piece to be patched 76 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK should be a little larger than the worm hole so that all defective wood can be cut out. The Taper. The sides of the piece should be slightly tapered, as shown in Fig. 56. It is of much importance that the four surfaces should have exactly the same amount of taper. If they do not, the piece will not be equally tight at all sides when driven into place. If the slant is Fig. 56. Scrihrng around patch ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ against which the patch impinges will be crushed or bent, and will show a black line when finished. This will also be the case if the patch is driven in too tight. After smoothing the small piece on its four sides, lay it on the part to be removed and draw fine, but distinct, knife lines around it (Fig. 56). Be careful to have the Hues all of the same heft. Remove the piece and cut out the open- ing, being careful not to bruise the knife lines. Should the amount of waste material to be removed be large, part of the work may be done by boring. Be sure to cut the hole deep enough. Slant the sides nearly as much, but no more, than the sides of the piece to be inserted (Fig. 57). PATCHING AND PLUGGING 77 Test the work by placing the piece in "the hole, examin- ing to see if it is tight, and also to make sure that the grains will proper- ly meet when it is driven to place. No attempt need Fig. 57. Hole cut for patch be made to drive it in flush unless this is necessary to bring the grains in proper relation. The patch shown in the cut is thicker than is usually used. This extra thickness is to show the shape and taper of the sides more plainly in the photograph. If all appears to be right, place glue on the piece and in the hole. Sometimes it is better to size the end grain. When the glue is ready, drive the piece to place by using a block and hammer, as is shown in Fig. 58. If you do not use the block, the wood in the patch may be crushed or bruised so that Driving patch after it is dressed smooth 78 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK it will show crushed grain. After the patch is in place, it should appear as shown in Fig. 59. Be sure and allow the glue to become thoroughly dry, and then dress off the patch flush with the adjoining surface. If the hole is to be bored, the operation is much the same, with this exception, that in Fig. 59. Patch in place ^^-^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^.^ determines the exact size of the hole, and the piece is shaped by drawing a circle on it and chiseling carefully to the circle, allowing the taper as in the other method, but usually not quite so much. Plugging. Screws and nails are sometimes set far enough below the surface to allow of their being covered with wood. This is accomplished in the same manner as the patching of defective spots, and is called plugging. When many plugs of a kind are required for a piece of work, they may be purchased from dealers, or they may be cut by using a special bit or cutter designed for this purpose. This makes the opera- tion quite easy. If plugs are to be used, then the places for them should be made before boring the hole for the screw or driving the nails. SMOOTHING 79 SMOOTHING When to Smooth the Surface. It is a waste of time to smooth each piece or surface as it is worked to size, for, before the parts are fastened together, there are many chances for the surfaces to become dirty or bruised. After the joints have been tested by clamping, and before the glue is applied, is the proper time for smoothing the surfaces ready for the varnish or other finishing material. If the article is small or if the parts are likely to become stained or bruised in the clamping, smooth only such pieces or surfaces as cannot be easily smoothed after the gluing. In gluing together the parts of a chair, the sides of the legs containing the mortises and all sides of the rails must be smoothed before the tenons are in place. If the parts join so that one or more surfaces can be planed after the joint is together, these surfaces should be left until after gluing. This applies to such articles as frames (Fig. 226), the backs of some armchairs, and like pieces. By not finishing such surfaces before gluing, an opportunity is left to dress the two surfaces flush, thereby making a proper finish. Planing. To do the smoothing, first plane the surface, guarding against tearing crossgrained por- tions, splitting ends, or bruising dressed surfaces against a bench stop. Sometimes, but not generally, the different parts of the surface may be planed 8o ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK a c eg i m from different directions. Sometimes the plane will cut smoother if held at an angle of forty-five degrees. Plan to go over the pieces, reducing them to nearly a finished surface; then sharpen the plane and go carefully over them again. This time be very careful to plane in the same direction as you did the first time. The common mistake in planing is the tendency to use the plane with too heavy set. The plane must cut a very fine shaving, and you must go over each surface in a systematic manner. Begin at one side and take a shaving, as indicated by the arrow at A-By Fig. 60. Next take a shaving at C-D, then E-F, and G-H, etc., always in the regular order, even if the plane does not cut the entire length of the piece. You worked the surface straight and out of wind before making the joints, and now you are simply to smooth the minute unevenness. Unless you are very careful to proceed systematically, you will plane the piece in wind, or crooked, and spoil the work. If you did the planing properly in jointing the piece, going over it a few times with the plane should make the surface as smooth as a plane can make it. This does not mean that it will be sufficiently smooth, for the planing is very seldom sufficient. Fig. 60. Method of planing SMOOTHING 8: Fig. 6i. Using a scraper Scraping. The next step is to scrape out all rough- ness left by the plane. To do this, use a cabinet scraper about two inches by three inches for pieces of small size, such as the parts of chairs and stools. Where the surface is quite smooth and the grain even, there will be little difficulty in using the scraper. In scraping quarter- sawed oak or coarse- grained or knotty surfaces, it is necessary to examine the surface con- tinually and to change the direction of the scraper frequently in order to avoid making the piece worse instead of better. You must hold the scraper so that it will be supported by the hard grain, other- wise the soft grain will be removed and the surface made so uneven that nothing short of replaning will smooth it again. If the scraper chatters, turn it to a different angle. Often it is necessary to change the scraper at every stroke from the posi- tion in Fig. 6 1 to that shown in Fig. 62. Always hold a scraper firmly and so that it will cut at the center; otherwise the corners will be lowered, the joints will not fit, and, worst of all, the appearance of the piece will tell a practical workman 82 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Fig. 62. Using a scraper that it was made by some one who either did not know how, or did not care, to do good work. Lastly, and most important of all, do not use the scraper after it has become so dull that it will not easily remove a real shaving. Continue the scraping until there is not a single spot of broken grain or roughness of any sort on any surface that will be visible after the finish has been applied. Do not smooth the surfaces that are out of sight. If there is a small spot that requires considerable scraping, do not scrape a deep hole at this place but scrape around it for a suffi- cient distance to make the whole surface appear level. You will often find it necessary to scrape both with the grain and against the grain. Frequently, you will need to scrape at an angle of about forty- five degrees across the grain ; and sometimes a little careful scraping directly across the grain is useful. When much scraping is required, it is necessary to hold the pieces securely. Most of the pieces can be held in the vise. Some are best held by using a clamp, either by clamping them to the bench or by SMOOTHING 83 placing the clamp against the end opposite the stop, as shown in Fig. 63. So seldom is there any use for a tail vise that one should not be on the bench, for if one is at hand, it will be used many times when it will do harm rather ^^^-^3. Clamp at end of pi^ce than good. One learns far more without it. Sandpapering. After scraping comes sandpaper- ing. This does not differ essentially from the sand- papering of small pieces in joinery. If the surfaces have been well smoothed with plane and scraper, No. I paper is coarse enough. Sometimes No. li is used. Continue with finer grades until the surface is sufficiently smooth. Remember you cannot do nice varnishing over a rough surface, and the smoother the surface the better the varnish or other finish will appear. Be very careful not to roimd the corners or the edges at the joints. For nearly all of the small pieces no sandpaper block should be used; but for some of the larger surfaces a block is better than the hand or fingers. Be quite as careful not to sand- paper too much as to sandpaper enough. Removing Glue. After the parts have been glued together, all surplus glue should be removed, because, if any remains, it will injure the finish. A chisel is the best tool to use in removing glue from around the joints. The scraper usually 84 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK tears the grain near the joints and gives them the appearance of having been poorly made, but for thin spots of glue away from the joints, it can be used better than the chisel. Do not attempt to sandpaper over glue, or to remove glue by sandpapering. CLAMPING Use of Clamps. Some information in regard to clamping will be found in the directions for making the different articles. General directions only will be given in this place. Select the clamps with care. To do good w^ork you must have at hand a variety of clamps, and use each in its proper place. Nearly all clamps will injure the wood unless blocks of wood are placed between the faces of the clamp jaws and the finished surfaces. Blocks for this purpose should be kept at the gluing bench. If the work is of a nature that will permit of it, the clamp should be laid carefully in position on a bench and the pieces laid into the clamps. This is the method followed in the work illustrated in Figs. 66 and 70. The pieces were then placed in a vertical position for the purpose of photo- graphing them. The chair (Fig. 75) was clamped by laying three clamps on the bench, and then placing the chair upon these clamps. The last three clamps were then laid upon the chair. After the clamps had been tightened, the chair was set as shown in order to look for wind, etc., and the diagonal clamp applied. CLAMPING 85 Do not attempt to drive joints together after they have been covered with cold glue. This glue, if allowed to become sufficiently dry to make a good joint, will resist all efforts at hammering, but will yield to the steady pressure of a good clamp. Adjusting Pressure. One of the important points to keep in mind is that the pressure must be oppo- site to the resistance. The pressure applied with an ordinary clamp is such that if it is not at the proper Fig. 64. Clamping point, it will spring the pieces out of place. This applies to the vertical as well as to the horizontal adjustment. Some clamps are so made that the pressure at the end of the screw is so far away from the bar, that it is necessary to block the work away from the bar in order to bring the pressure at the center of the edge of a |-inch piece. Others will clamp 2 -inch pieces only by placing a clamp on each side, as in Fig. 64. 86 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK . Sometimes the blocks can be adjusted to bring the pressure at the center. In Fig. 65 a clamp is shown with the block raised to cause the clamp to press against the center of the piece. Fig. 66 affords an unusually good typical illustra- tion of clamp- ing, showing blocks to pro- FiG. 65. Clamptng ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ and clamps opposite the main corner joints. In clamping this chair back, the rails were first laid on two clamps and the vertical pieces forced nearly to place; the two clamps for the ends were then laid on the bench and the stiles laid in place. The rails and slats were then removed from the tem- porary clamps and placed in position, and the corner joints closed. After this, the three long clamps were placed in position and tightened. Lastly, the cor- ners received a final tightening. The whole arrange- ment was placed vertically to secure a photograph. Three clamps suffice for the four center pieces because they are so close together that there is little danger of springing the cross rails. Usually, there should be a clamp opposite each tenon. Notice also the framing square in position to test the corner. CLAMPING 87 Tightening Clamps. In applying several clamps it is very essential that they be tightened gradually, turning each a little in succession. Stop often to see that they are drawing the parts square and out of wind. Notice that only a small part of the Fig. 66. Clamping screws have been turned through the nuts. Always plan to keep the movable jaw as near to the end as you can. It is often necessary to turn the screw back and to move the other 'jaw up a notch after the tenons have been forced into the mortises. ss ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Squaring with Clamps. Examine carefully all the illustrations of clamping, and especially Figs. 65, 66, 67, 69, 72, 75, and 76, before using any clamps. In some of these you will notice clamps placed cross- wise, and others at various angles. This is to force the pieces square. The clamps may be made to bring joints square, even though the working has thrown them very much out of true. Know that there is a way if the pieces are properly fitted, and \ 1 ^^ 1 ^-. «»,^ «■ ■ - ^^^'"^ ^j^ ^^^t --rii^" ^ r ^ -M n ^^p^^>. ^^^fl^^l wH^ ^^ 1 i Fig. 67. Testing with try-square keep trying until the clamps draw the pieces into proper shape. If the lines are properly drawn and the joints carefully worked, there should be little difficulty about the joints drawing up square. Preliminary Clamping. Always clamp the work together before applying any glue. Clamp it sec- tion by section first and, after the sections have been glued and are thoroughly dried, clamp the sec- CLAMPING 89 tions together. Test the work in many ways, both in the preliminary clamping and after applying the Fig. 68. Testing with jraming-square glue. Apply the try-square to every joint, as shown in Fig. 67. Apply the large steel square wherever practicable as shown in Fig. 68. Look for wind from Fig. 6g. Looking for wind. (5^^ Fig. 184.) 90 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK all sides in every piece (Figs. 69 and 70). If piece is irregular or the face surfaces obscured, straight edges or the blades of framing squares the piece to assist in testing for wind. Always test from the face edges or face sides. To determine whether a frame is square, measure with a stick or rule between opposite corners and test it the lay on Fig. Looking for wind. {Sec ¥iG. 184.) with the try-square and framing-square. Be par- ticular about having the parts rest firmly on the bench so that they will not spring out of place while left to dry. A few wedges or blocks beneath the clamps will sometimes save a great deal of twisting and springing. Do not attempt to true your work by an uneven bench top or by the floor. CLAMPING 91 In Fig. 71 is shown the most simple form of clamping. Fig. 72 shows how clamps are placed to Fig. 71. Clamp on footstool legs pull two pieces parallel. In this case, the top end of the wider leg is being drawn in, and this without pulling any harder on the other leg. 9' 1 f" ^ ^ ^ - , 'ill J 1 i. (I .'Lsi^« ^^^^ Fig. 72. Clamp on chair legs 92 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Fig. 73 shows how the arms of large chairs are kept square. The piece across the end of the arm Fig. 73. Clamping arm of large chair is not only to keep the clamps from jamming the surface, but also to keep them from splitting the arm. In such places, one block or strip should be used Fig. 74. Diagonal clamp for both clamp jaws instead of a block under each jaw. Fig. 112 shows a similar case. CLAMPING 93 Diagonal Clamps. Fig. 74 illustrates the use of diagonal clamps. The same result often may be obtained by placing the clamps at an angle, as shown on the side in Fig. 75. This draws the seat out of wind. There is also a diagonal clamp extend- FiG. 75. Clamp at an angle ing from the back leg to the opposite front leg on this chair. This is to draw the seat square. In using clamps at an angle or diagonally across the frame, a great deal of judgment must be used in tightening them. It is essential they be tightened just enough; but also, that the tension be so dis- 94 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK tributed that the frame will not change shape after the clamping is completed. In using cold glue, which does not set quickly, if the clamps on one side are all at an angle, there is danger of the piece changing form so slowly that the movement will not be noticed, but on examining it after the glue has dried it will be found very much out of shape. Fig. 76. Clamping in two directions When clamps are used at an angle the only safe way is to examine the work occasionally as the glue is drying. In Fig. 76 is shown how the clamps must be ap- plied where the joints are in two directions. The same method is used in clamping the back of hall CLAMPING 95 seat (Fig. 162). If there is any difficulty about draw- ing the piece square, two clamps may be used instead of one and both or either of the clamps placed at an angle (Fig. 164). Clamping Sections. After two sides of a piece have been glued, care must be taken not to break these joints in clamping the other parts. If the clamps are so placed that they do not press squarely against the sides and opposite to the resist- ance, the tendency of Fig. 77. Gluing side of chair jthe strain is to twist the piece and break the joint. This twisting may be so slight as to be scarcely noticeable and yet break the joint. Usually, the front rails and legs are glued together (Figs. 67 and 74), then the back rails and legs (Figs. 69 and 76), and lastly, the side rails are glued to place, complet- ing the chair (Figs. 70 and 75). In chairs similar to Figs. 140 and 144, the sides are glued first (Fig. 77), and then the front and back rails secured. The sides are glued first in chairs similar to Figs. 149 and 155, in order to clamp (Figs. 68 and 72) the arms to place more conveniently. In Fig. 73 is shown the clamping of an arm. 96 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK FASTENING TOPS TO FRAMES Corner Irons. A good top may be ruined by improper fastening to the frame. There are several ways of making the top secure, and yet of leaving it so that in case it either shrinks or swells, it will neither open at the joints nor separate the framework. A very easy way of secur- ing the top is by using small corner irons (Fig. 78). These are sold by dealers, and are easily applied. One screw in the top and one in the rail are F1G.78. Cornerironinuse usually sufficient for each corner iron. The number of corner irons may vary accord- ing to the size and character of the top. For an ordinary top, 2 feet by 3 feet, one corner iron at the center of each end and each side, and one on the side rail close to each corner should be sufficient. The location of the fastenings should in most cases be in this systematic arrange- ment. The peculiarities of grain and other special ^i^- 79- Button holding top features resulting from the variations in the material may make necessary a different number of fastenings. FASTENING TOPS TO FRAMES 97 Always avoid inserting a screw in a glue joint or so near to the joint that it will tend to open it. If the top is made of man}^ pieces it should be placed bottom side up on the bench; the frame placed upon it, and the places for the fastenings carefully selected and marked. They should be placed so that the top may either shrink or swell without straining them. Buttons. A better method of secur- ing the top is to use buttons, as shown in Fig. 79. The groove in the rail to receive the end of the button should be short as shown, and not the entire length of the rail as is sometimes made to save expense in machine-made work. The buttons should be similar in num- ber and location to the corner irons, as the screw fastenings should be also (Figs. 81 and 82). The holes in the rails for screws should be considerably larger than the shanks of the screws to allow of movement as the top changes in width. For ¥ic,.^i.Screwhold,ngtop ^^e same reason the end or shoulder of the button (Fig. 79) should not be tight against the side rail. To make the holes for the Fig. 80. Bor- ing for screws 98 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK screws, first bore through from the top of the rail (Fig. 80) . After this hole has been bored, another may be bored (Fig. 81), or a place for the head of the screw may be cut with a gouge (Fig. 82.) This is probably the best form of fastening, considering the ease with which it is made. If w^e do not consider the work of applying it, the but- ton is undoubtedly best. Boring Holes. Boring holes straight up through the rails, even though the rails may be narrow, is not ad- visable if either of the other This method marks the work Fig. 82. Place for screw- head, cut with gouge methods can be used. as that of a novice, and should be avoided. PART II Type Forms of Cabinetwork BOOK RACKS AAW TABORETS Book Rack Corners. This rack (Fig. 83), is a rack made of soft pine. It will look well made of any wood. In getting out the stock, work the two ends •-^ ¥ Fig. 83. Book rack in one piece until the upper corners have been rounded. Dress both surfaces and edges. Round the corners of the end piece and square the ends of the shelf before laying out the mortises and tenons. lOO ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK In striking the circles for the . corners, place a thin block under the stationary leg of the compasses (Fig. 84). The corners should be smoothed with the chisel, using a shear- ing cut (Fig. 85). Before chiseling the corners they may be rounded by sawing with a compass saw (Fig. 97). Usually, the best way is to saw off most of the waste material by using the hacksaw, sawing first as shown at A, Fig. 86, and then as at B. Laying Out. To lay out the mortises and tenons on the Fig. Marking the round corners shelf and ends, first draw light pencil lines across the grain, then draw the gauge lines, being careful not to make any lines beyond the pencil lines. Draw pencil and gauge lines on both top and bot- tom sides. Set the gauge to the line nearest the face edge, and draw all the lines at this distance from the edge for both mortises and tenons. Con- tinue setting the gauge for each space from the face edge until all the lines are drawn. Do not forget to draw all of the lines for the holes in the tenons BOOK RACKS AND TABORETS lOI for the tapering wedges. See drawing (Fig. 87). Remember that these holes are not of the same size on both the upper and lower sides of the shelf. Before cutting the piece in two, lay out the openings for the bottom ends and bore the holes at the corners ; also bore the holes for the mortises (Fig. 86). After working all the mortises, cut the Fig. 85. Rounding comers piece in two and square the ends with a plane. Saw from the ends into the holes, using a ripsaw. The part between the holes may be cut out either with a compass saw or with a chisel. If you use a chisel, cut first a little away from the line, cutting out a F-shaped space on both sides, .as in working a dovetail. Continue cutting in this man- ner until the piece breaks away, and then finish with the chisel, using the shearing cut as in truing ends or mak- Sawing corners mg JOmtS. I02 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK \ ^ * 2'*/ S^ -.^ ,^/ (^^ ^ teU/^J. #^ if /3'- rr"n, frn f f Fig. 126. Chair 12' M ff' ly chairs may be made of basswood, yellow pine, maple, or some other similar wood. For children's chairs, or for larger chairs to be used out of doors, the seat may consist of narrow 136 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK slats resting on strips nailed to the insides of the front and back rails. The ends of the slats should form good joints with the inside surfaces of the rails. Chairs for out of door use may be oiled or painted instead of varnished. Make a complete working draw- ing of what you wish to make before beginning work. Wooden Seat Chair. This chair (Fig. 127) is given as an illustration of one form of wooden seat. Although this kind of seat is appropriate for some chairs, it cannot be used in all places and, therefore, you should con- sider where the chair is to be used before deciding upon the style of seat. This seat may extend over the ends of the front legs. If it does, it should be rounded more on the top edge. The grain of the wood should be parallel with the side rails. Such seats may be used on foot- stools (Figs. 113 and 119), chairs (Figs. 134 and 148), and the hall seat (Fig. 162). The style and height of Fig. 127. Wooden seat chair CHAIRS 137 legs, the number and size of rails, may vary quite as much in chairs for wooden seats as in those for other styles of seats. Before beginning work, make a complete work- 3 a i 5 .-, I 1 J >1 1 •^« P % "t t 1 ■I /i' N* -ii- M 1 ii, r- S7 1. 1 |!:i ':-j 1 /i __ ^'^[^[^"1 51^ 1 H- Detail of seat frame 51^ Fig. 136. Rush seat chair 144 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK / l««# Hm Any of the de- signs having rails on a level with the top of the front legs maybe modified to receive this Fig. 137. Ends of leather and nails style of seat. The shape and size of parts of the outer frame may be changed. Make a complete drawing before beginning work on the chair. Woven Leather Seat Chair. This chair (Fig. 138), is substantially the same as Figs. 125 and 134, with the exception that it has a woven leather seat. The directions for making it are the same as those given for Fig. 124. The sizes of the chair photo- graphed are shown in Fig. 139. In fastening the leather in place, first secure one end of a strip by nailing with tacks, small nails, or brads Then stretch the piece as tightly as you can, and fasten the second end. If the pieces have been cut too near, the correct length, you will need some Fig. 138. Woven leather r - v seat chair sort of pmcers or phers CHAIRS I4S with which to grasp the ends of the strips. Place outside strips tightly against the legs, and divide the space equally for remaining strips. Drive the tacks or small nails to place, and cover the heads with fancy nails (Fig. 137). This chair may be modified by using smaller stock or by using more and larger Fig. 139. Woven leather seat chair stock (Fig. 148). This seat (Fig. 138) may be used on chairs or stools having legs with finished ends projecting above the rails. The leather may be fastened to rails of any width, or around rungs like those used in rush or rattan seats (Figs. 131 and 140). 146 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Suspended Leather Seat Chair. A style of leather seat which requires a special frame is shown in Fig. 140. This is not diffi- cult to make, nor would there be as much w^ork on it as on Fig. 138 if it were no larger. In its smaller and more simple form (Fig. 142) it is one of the easiest chairs having mortises and tenons you can make. The direc- tions for face edges, mortises and tenons, clamping, etc., given in the general direc- tions include about all the instructions Fig. 140. Suspended leather seat chair rCQuired for making these chairs. The length between the ten- ons of the two pieces beneath the seat is found by adding to the length between the tenons on the top back cross rail an amount equal to twice the space from the face corner of the leg to the surface of the side rail. In the drawing (Fig. 141) this is 18 inches plus two times J inch. Should you use a different CHAIRS 147 size of stock or wish to locate the rails differently, the proper length may be easily determined in this manner. Instead of the two square cross rails, one wide rail may be used. In a very light frame the side rails may be much lighter, and turned rungs used instead of the cross rails. /^ ^•.- 4--/ 7(5 - /P- 2S'- FiG. 141. Suspended leather seat chair Probably no other design in this book offers a better opportunity for the use of the keyed mortise and tenon joints. The top back rail and the two side rails may have double keyed tenons at each end. (Fig. 16). The cross rails beneath the seat should have one key at each tenon, or if a wide cross rail is used it should be keyed the same as the side rails. 148 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK The leather may be folded and fastened around the round pieces (Figs. 140 and 143), or it may be nailed to the pieces (Figs. 137, 142, and 144). In the latter case, the rails are square and rounded only on the upper and under front corners. In Fig. 140 the pieces were turned in a lathe. In Fig. 143 is shown how the appears from the back of the chair. In Fig. 1 44 the leather is nailed at the front side with small- headed nails; having been nailed first at the back side with small nails and then with fancy- headed nails. Fig. 142 is the same as Fig. 144, except that one rail is omitted and the top rail rabbeted so that the leather will be flush with the surface of the rail. The leather is first nailed in the rabbet with small nails, and these are then covered with flat-headed fancy nails that will not project much beyond the surface of the rails. Either style of back may be used with the front and side rails shown in Fig. 138. This is an easier form of construction and is usually more satisfactory for small chairs. Fig. 142 Suspended leather seat chair CHAIRS 149 All of these designs may be greatly modified in outside dimensions, and also in size of stock. The width and number of strips of leather, too, may be changed. By studying Figs. 138, 140, 142, and 145, and by combining or modifying elements selected from each, a large number of good designs can be made. If you wish to get the most from your work, begin the preparation for your design by studying and measuring such chairs as you can find in your home or elsewhere. It is not enough to make the measure- ments, you should in every case attempt to discover why they are as they are. No rules worth while can be given for these sizes ; for the variety of forms and reasons for them are so great that you would find it extremely diffi- cult to apply any rule. Do not fail, in all your study of such forms as you find, to recognize the fact that many shapes and sizes are not what they ought to be, but what the manufacturers could easiest make. One point of contrast, which you will notice in comparing Fig. i^. Back of chair ISO ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Fig. 143 with many chairs of commercial design is the use of substantial square or thick stock i;istead of thin flat stock ; placed with the wide surface so as to indicate strength which does not exist. In the matter of leather and its fastenings you also have opportunity for much originality. From the use of one wide strip, laced at ends and sides, to the use of many narrow strips, laced or woven in intricate patterns, you will find ample opportu- nity for both study and work. There is not only opportunity to use leather of different shades to suit the color or stain on the wood, but the tooling of patterns may also find an appro- priate place. In applying the leath- er first nail on end of the short strips, then draw the piece as tight as you can and nail the other end. have been fastened, nail the top ends of the long strips with brads, the brads to be covered with fancy nails. Clamp a stout piece oLwood across the seat, then draw the pieces as tight as you can and nail Fig 144. Suspended seat chair After the short pieces CHAIRS 151 them at the front. All the finishing should be done before the leather is appHed. The leather should be of a grade suitable for belting, and not such as is usually used for uphol- Niv ^'^ ? 'OJ'D Nm 5 bff ./r- irk Fig. 145. Suspended leather seat chair stering. It should be quite pliable, r.nd smooth on the under side. Much of the belting leather is too stiff for such use. The safest plan is to procure leather cut from the side especially for such use. For light chairs the leather may be split to the thick- ness desired. Smooth and stain the rough side. 152 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Upholstered Chair. This chair (Fig. 147) is still a little more difficult. Instead of there being two ^^^^^ pieces at the side as in Figs. 124 and ^^^^^^^[^ 138, there are three, and the wide fl^^^^HHl rails are four inches wide instead of H I^^H^H "three inches, as in Fig. 124. H ^^H H All the required directions for H^^^H H making and HH^^^hH finishing are ^P^^I^^H found in Part H Fi I under the FiG.i 46. Chair back topics *Tace Marks," "Mortises and Ten- ons," "Smoothing," ''Clamp- ing," etc. Read all of Part I carefully before beginning work on this chair. The sizes given in the drawing (Fig. 148) may be modified by using heavier stock, or by making both the seat and back lower. The top rail maybe made of I J -inch stock Fig. 147. Upholstered chair CHAIRS 153 to give more surface for the tacks used in uphol- stering. The desirabiHty of this change depends upon what the chair is to be used for. Fig. 146 shows a modification to correspond with the hall seat (Fig. 162). Two or more pieces may :i>- :i5i t '^ // A^ /3' f6s Fig. 148. U pholstered chair •^lHj be used in place of the single vertical piece in the back, or a number of squares (Fig. 159) may be used. The hall seat may have groups of narrower pieces or square spindles to correspond with the chair design. ^54 ELEMENTARY CABINET\'v^ORK Large Armchair. This chair (Fig. 149) is a desirable project for pupils of the first year in high school who have learned to make joints well. It is more difficult than the small chairs, because the pieces are longer and because close joints are required in the back. All the joints are simple, and if the Fig. 149. Large armchair. pupil is careful to have every piece out of wind, straight, square, and of proper size before laying out, he is not likely to have any trouble in making the pieces fit together at the first attempt. 156 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Be particular to select the wood so that the arms, front legs, and the 4-inch piece used for the front rail show a fine figure. The exact order in which the pieces are worked is immaterial. In working the legs and rails follow the general directions in Part I for such work. Lay out and work the mortises for the vertical pieces before gluing the side rails in place. The spaces may be determined by spacing the rail and then transferring the marks to the arm by super- position similar to Fig. 13. By drawing light lines on the arms corresponding with the shoulders of the tenons on the rail, you will have points at which to locate the arms in marking the dowels. The position of the mortise in the width of the arm should be calculated from measurements on the drawing. Clamp a front and a back leg with the piece for one side (Fig. 72), and if the joints are correct, glue them after scraping and sandpapering them as de- scribed in "General Directions" under "Smoothing," page 79. After the side rail and legs are glued together, the arms should be glued in place. (Fig. 73.) In working pieces of this length and size you must be very careful to make good joints, for a varia- tion in your work will show much worse than it will on a small piece. The arms should be of selected stock and well finished. Joint the edges and finish the ends with the plane. Draw the lines for the small portion at CHAIRS 157 the back end with knife, try-square, and gauge. Saw close to the Hnes and finish with a chisel. Use a shearing cut, either laying the piece on the bench or holding it in the vise. Lay the arm on the bench, bottom side up, and place the legs in position on it, Fig. 151. Marking for doweling using the lines drawm for the inside edge of the legs in laying out the mortises. With the point of the knife blade (Fig. 151) make a mark at the side of the leg on both the leg and the arm at the same time. Make similar marks at the three remaining face sides of this pair of legs. Remove the legs and, with a gauge set to these marks, draw gauge lines to cross near the center of the end of each leg. With the gauge head against the face edge of the arm and set to each knife mark, extend the two Hnes on each arm, and with the try-square draw lines from the other two marks, crossing those drawn with the gauge. At the places on the top ends of the legs and at the two places on the arms where these lines cross, bore holes for dowels. Remember that the arm is thin and do not bore the hole too far. Instead of using only one dowel in each leg, you may use two. In this case they are located as 158 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK ^^ ^^ Fig. 152. Locating dowels in legs shown in Fig. 152. Instead of one mark at each face side, two are made, and the holes are bored at the crossing of the Hnes drawn from these marks. Insert the dowels and place the arms in position; see if the front and back joints, also the joints at the ends of the vertical pieces, are all right. If they are, glue and clamxp them. Glue the pins into the arms first, and then glue the arms to the legs. Clamp them as shown in Fig. 73. Test the frame for wind, square, etc. (PageSp). The backs of these chairs may be modified to suit. In each large chair is shown a different style of back, yet many other styles are suitable. The most common fault in designing backs for such chairs is to make them too light. The stiles should be large enough no]t to be weakened by the tenons of the rails. To support the cushions, strips are placed across the Fig. 153. Large armchair CHAIRS 159 ^S^^jT'-i >-'--' .;f^*>--'* '^l>t r-f zi . j_ (^SiS livjj^ 1 ,#■• Lf>* .1 '-^ .^?^\ ti,. f^ 1" 't 1 1 ^> .#■4 "•» 1 H W -,<9- 7 T ^^ S ~^!'>' 1 --t -^^-y i> 1 1 . • .1 I «^C n i6o ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK frame. These strips may extend either from front to back or from side to side. Their width is not material, and consequently they should be made of defective or discarded stock. However, these strips should be strong and somewhat elastic, and there- fore should not contain any defects that might weaken them. Beneath their ends, and securely nailed and glued to the frame, are placed two strips to support them. There are many possible modifi- cations of this design. Fig. 1 53 is a Hghter frame and a little easier to make. In this design the side rails are so arranged that their tenons are not on the same line with the front and back rails. This makes it possible to use smaller legs. Large Armchair. In Fig. 155 we have a very substantial design, which follows closely, in methods of construction, Fig. 149. Its chief difference is that the legs are not square. The other fea- tures may be used on either design. Fig. 156 gives the ordi- nary dimensions. Fig. 159 shows a style of filling for Fig. 155. Large armchair ^^^ side which CHAIRS i6i l62 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK may also be used on either design. Such spindles are suitable for many places — in chairs, tables, etc. They may be used either in a ver- tical or horizontal position. If the chair is to be held together with rods (Fig. 158), the seat frame is Fig. 157. Seatframe made separately (Fig. 157) and is placed in position before the rods are tightened. Knockdown Armchair. Fig. 1 58 is very similar to Fig. 153. A modification of con- siderable importance, although scarcely visible, is the rods which extend entirely across both front and hack just inside of the cen- ter of the front and back rails. In Figs. 61 and 62 these rails are shown with the grooves for rods. The grooves may be made with a plow or by several kerfs of a circular saw. These rods Fig. 158. 't^J Knockdown armchair termmate m nuts at CHAIRS 163 each side. By removing the rods the chair is taken apart for packing. This arrangement makes it pos- sible to cover the ends of the rods for the hinge and for the support of the back. In Fig. 158 the side rails are 2 2 inches between the legs, and the front and back rails 20 inches. There are several methods of hinging the back. Fig. 155 shows hinges connecting the lower rail of the back with the upper edge of the cross rail, and an adjustable rod behind the back. The rod is adjusted by means of the notches as shown in Fig. 160. The rod maybe of metal with metal ball's (Figs. 149 and 153), or of wood (Fig. 155). The metal rods used for the arms should be f inch in diameter and 28 inches long over all. For the lower rod, which forms the hinges, the Fig. 159. Large armchair usual method is to get a y^g-inch rod, 24 or 26 inches long, and cut from each end a piece of the required length. The casting used on Fig. 149 is the regular curved brass sold by dealers. It is straightened by laying on a fiat iron and striking a hard wood block held in the adjusting places. File flat surface smooth. 1 64 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK The wooden rod is made the same as the cylinder. (Elementary Woodwork.) The ends are cubes with their corners cut off (Fig. i6i). The back of Fig. 149 is also hinged to the rail, but the adjusting rod is held by a casting. The back of the chair (Fig. 153) is secured by two short rods passing through th@ legs and into the sides of Fig. 160. Adjust- the stiles near the bottom end. The ^'^^ ^^''^"" upper end of the back is supported on the adjusting rod, which passes through holes in the narrow end of the arms. In Fig. 158 these rods are similarly placed except that they are cut short, so that their ends do not extend through to the outside of the legs or arms. The height of the legs may be varied to suit particular needs. If casters like those on Fig. 149 are to be used, the legs must be shorter than if no casters were to be used. If ball-bearing ball casters are used, they should be set up into the Fig. 161. Cube on end of rod ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^5 ^^ ^^ scarcely visible. One-fourth inch projection will do. The thickness of the cushions should be consid- ered also in planning the height of the rails and arms. HALL SEAT HALL SEAT 165 Directions for Making. This hall seat (Fig. 162) may be modified to correspond with the various styles of chairs. The vertical pieces may be omitted and the back rail raised. The band formed by the lower rails may be either straight as in this figure, or broken as in the chairs (Figs. 147 and 153). The Hall seat size of stock may be heavier than in the chairs as in the drawing, or of the same size. The legs may be rectangular as in the armchair (Fig. 155). The seat may be of soft wood, but will look better if made of the same wood as the other parts of the piece. i66 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK In doing this work, follow the general directions in Part I. Read also what is said in regard to mak- ing chairs. The back should be the first part to be glued together, following the methods of clamping shown in Fig. 76. Test it in every possible way. Some of the tests are indicated in Figs. 66, 67, and 68. It is essential that such large pieces rest firmly while the glue is drying or they may change shape. The front is clamped, as shown in Fig. 64. Fig. 163. Hall seat As these pieces are large and long, even a very small variation at a joint .may do considerable harm; therefore, test every corner and angle care- fully. Looking for wind or twist (Figs. 69 and 70) is also very important. If the steel square is not long enough to use in looking for wind, make two straight edges. Be sure that they are straight and their edges parallel and look toward the light. HALL SEAT 167 Clamping. In Fig. 164 is shown how to clamp front and back together. Notice the clamp that has been placed diagonally across the seat. This is to pull the corners square; this clamp usually requires but a very little tightening. Notice that the clamps on one end are not horizontal. This is to bring the verti- cal joints at the end square and the piece out of wind. Fig. 164. Clamping hall seat The arms are doweled both at the back end and on to the top of the front legs. Two |-inch dowels should be placed at each joint. The clamping of arms to place will require patience and care. Fig. 165 shows how this is accomplished. If you lack clamps for securing the arms in this manner, they may be held by screws. Drive these into the front leg from the top, and into the back end of arm through the back leg. Use flat headed screws cov- ered with plugs dressed flush with the surfaces. i68 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK The Seat. The seat should be carefully fitted and put in place from below. To do this, fasten the cleats, upon which the edges of the seat are to rest, and then put the seat in position. After the seat is placed in position, glue and nail the end cleats in place. A box may also be constructed beneath the seat, and the seat hinged to the back rail. Fig. 165. Clamping arms of hall seat If the top end rails are made thick enough to be even with the lower end rails on the outside, and flush with the inside edge of the legs, the seat can be put in place by shoving it in from the front over the front rail. It may then rest on the cleats with- out being fastened and may be removed at any time. Yet another plan is, to put a cross rail from front to back at the center, and make the seat in two parts. TABLES TABLES 169 Drawing Table. The only difficult part of the work in making this table (Figs. 166 and 167) is the joining of the strips for the top. If you want a nice top, make it of strips of pine not over two inches wide. The proper methods of jointing and gluing _ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^^ are described under the topic of "Glue Joints." Study care- fully all that is said under that heading |] Fig. 166. Drawing table before attempting to make the top for the table. The sizes given in the drawing (Fig. 168) are for a light table, which can be taken apart and packed in a trunk. If a more rigid table is desired, the parts may be made heavier. A table of the sizes given in the drawing should be sufficiently rigid for ordinary home drafting. First make the top and finish it with one light coat of shellac. When the shellac has thoroughly dried, sandpaper it to a smooth surface. The top should be true in every particular — out of wind, edges all straight, and corners square. I70 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK The cleats should be straight-grained and well seasoned, and of the same width as the legs. The ends may be beveled and chamfered. Bore holes with an auger bit to allow the screw heads to sink about halfway through the cleats. The hole for the shank of the screw should always be large enough to let the screw go through easily. The point of the screw should extend nearly through the top. The small blocks at one end of each cleat should be of the same thickness as the legs. They should be glued and nailed with four wire nails in each block. These blocks must be placed on the outside of the cleats and at their back ends. The cleats are not interchange- able. The legs are also in Fig. 167. Drawing table pairs. The ends should be rounded with a chisel, using the shearing cut (Fig. 85). The slots may be worked the sarne as a mortise by lining with the gauge, boring holes, and finishing with a chisel. Another way is to start a hole at one end of each slot, saw down each side, and finish with a chisel. The sawing may be started with a compass saw (Fig. 169). As soon as there is room for the point of a ripsaw to enter the kerf, it should be used. TABLES 171 CO ture, all the parts may be of heavier material. The turning may be omitted, or the legs may be turned their entire length except at the joints. The middle portion may be cornered in the lathe and dressed to an octagon with a smooth plane. As is usual with tables, the table top is the difficult part to make. Read all about **Glue Joints," page 57, before be- ginning work on it. The framework is made in the same manner as that for an ordinary footstool. The parts of the ends are first glued together, and W*' n. rx •^^ ^ \^n rx n ^ u 4L TOO JX n: ]CO rcz^oD yj ■1^ 'o in£j> i88 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK then the long side pieces and shelf are glued into place. Be careful to glue the pieces straight and square. Examine the end for wind as shown in Fig. 184. Fig. 1 84. Sigliting for wind Place the steel square and try-square as shown in Figs. 67 and 68. If the table is to have a drawer, the sides and rails are glued together before the ends are attached, as shown in Fig. 180. Fig. 185. Gluing together In gluing the whole together place a temporary piece in the drawer openings as shown in Fig. 185. TABLES 189 The drawer should be made as directed on page 53. As this is a large drawer, more care will be required in making it. The joints at the corners should be dovetails. The front joint should be half blind, and the back corners common open dovetails. This table (Fig. 186) is similar to Fig. 182 with- out the drawer. Read the instructions given for Fig. 186. Library table making Figs. 179 and 182, as they apply quite closely to the work on Fig. 186. The turning on this table is not so difficult as that on Fig. 183, and may be dispensed with entirely. The shelf rests on the top of the lower rails, avoiding the joints at the ends of the shelf. The TABLES 191 shelf and cross rails beneath the shelf may be omitted. If these parts are not used, the joints at the upper end of the legs must bear all the strain. Unless there is a shelf, the legs should be tapered (Fig. 179). Legs turned the entire length below the rails may be used on such tables. As turned legs from the same size stock do not appear as large as square legs, either the top should be lighter or the stock for the legs larger, if the legs are to be turned. Fig. 188. Library table This library table (Fig. 188) is designed to be finished either by oiling or by varnishing and polishing. Instead of the keyed construction and screws, the parts may be glued. Study the design carefully and then make a design of your own. 192 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK In making the top, read the directions given for glue joints, cross planing, veneering end grain, finishing, and polishing. The legs shown are hollow, being made of |-inch stock. The inside surface of one piece should be carefully trued, and two pieces fitted to this side. Nails should be driven at the inside corner so that the pieces may be kept in posi- tion while clamping, and then the parts separated and the glue applied. After two pieces have been glued to one side piece (Fig. 189), their edges should be jointed and dressed to width and the inside surface of the other piece fitted and glued. The pieces Fig. 189. Gluing up legs should be carefully clamped, so that they will be square and of proper size. The tenons and mortises are laid out and worked in the same manner as described under these topics, except that because the legs are tapered, either a tee bevel or a try-square, with a tapered piece against the head, must be used. The tapered pieces (Figs. 22 and 23) are better than a tee bevel and should be used by all who have not had much experience in lining. TABLES 193 The end rails may be either tenoned or doweled. The latter is probably the better method for hollow legs. For legs of this size, four dow^els should be used in each end of pieces 4 or 5 inches wide. The drawings (Figs. 190 a, 6, c, d) show the parts as used in Fig. 188. This design may be modified by omitting the shelf and lower cross rails, the drawers, and the sliding shelves. If no drawers are used there should be only one rail at each side. 1 6 MQQ --^- /£' JM32. K) ^^r- Fig. 190 (a). Library table hF^t^ ^) 9 r. ■9^- •--1--1 ^) ^ &H ^- -j I Li , 196 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK e ^-^^'^^ ^-X.^^vJA/'Vn^^^ TABLES 197 Large turned legs may be used in the same way as the columns in the piano bench (Figs. 193 and 1 94) , or may extend to the floor. The drawer may be at the side instead of at the end. Such an arrange- ment would require a frame similar to Fig. 180. The top may be made of |-inch stock and a facing used the same as on the taboret top (Fig. 92). Such a top may be made thick enough to be used without rails at the top of the legs. The legs, in this case, would be secured to the top first by fastening pieces to the tops of the legs, and then by securing the pieces to the table top (Fig. 93). If casters are used on such tables, they should be set up into the bottom of the legs, so that they will not be visible. Use ball bearing ball casters in such places. A careful study of this design will provide much material for use in designing tables or stands of various sizes. By using solid legs, 4 inches at the top and 3 inches at the bottom and plain rails 4 inches wide, you can make a table which will be very substantial and require less than half the time which would be required to make that shown in Fig. 188. The shelf may be omitted. In designing such large tables be very careful about the sizes. Measure the tables you have in your home, and you will get information of much value in making your design. Notice the difference in weight of different styled tables, for this is an important element in the design, especially of tables for library use. 198 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK PIANO BENCH A Plain Design. As this bench (Fig. 1 9 1 ) is a plain design, it is essential that the wood be selected with care. As the top is liable to warp unless made of several pieces, it should be made in very much the same manner as a table top. Sometimes a piece can be selected which is wide and yet not likely to warp. Pieces cut from near the center of the log so that they are fully quarter-sawed, are often of this nature (Figs. 44 and 45). This is not quite as necessary when using plain mahogany as when using oak. In factories, such pieces are often glued up of thin stock and then covered with veneering. Such a method is not deemed advisable for the high-school pupil, although, if properly done it will make a better top. The drawing (Fig. 192) gives the sizes of the parts. PIANO BENCH 199 fl* fVitft A^ W '^rWh 00 \^' -,/J i j 1 i ^ -^£- •• t 1 1 n 1 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 ^ ? i ! 1 u '^d 1 1 ' / _"j 1 Fig. 2o6. Shoe box and costumer 214 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK In designing boxes or chests with paneled sides, the thickness of rails, stiles, and panels, should usually be the same as those in Fig. 206. For boxes much less in size, thinner stock may be used. The difficulty about using rails or stiles less than | inch thick is, that the strength of the material at the sides of the groove will not be sufficient. When the width is less than J inch, there will be places in which the strength depends almost entirely on the soft, porous, or weaker grain of the wood. This is because the annual growth is a somewhat definite quantity, and to get a proper amount of strength, the parts should be thick enough to include both kinds of grain. In woods like basswood this is not so important, as there is no marked difference in the grain. This is one reason why basswood and other close-grained woods are used for articles requiring thin stock. The width of the rails and stiles should increase with the size of the box. Usually, the bottom rail is wider than a stile, and the top rail the same width as a stile. This is not essential, but is done to avoid using any number of sizes. The use for which the box is made determines the dimensions of height, width, and length. There are.no set rules. The nearer the box is to the form of a cube, the more it will hold for the amount of material on the outside. Boxes are often made of wide boards dovetailed at the corners. Except for small boxes used for toilet articles, this is not a suitable problem for school work. WALL CABINET WALL CABINET 215 Wall cases for a variety of purposes may be made similar to Fig. 207. By using art glass in the doors instead of panels, it becomes a fine plate or china case. With mirrors instead of panels, it is suitable for a toilet case. The size may be altered by changing the dimen- sions of each part, either to larger or smaller; or it Fig. 207. Wall cabinet may be made with one door instead of two, making the width but one-half that shown in Fig. 208 a. In place of the square rod beneath the case, a towel roller may be used. The top may be made high enough to hold books, and the interior also may be used for books. This size will allow for two rows, Kr-*! r- -.r- it b> P-^.^ en m :f' f^ *-^-* H t/' */■{ WALL CABINET 217 ^ one on the bottom and one on a shelf. The case can be easily planned high enough for three rows of books. Notice that there are no curved parts to perplex the maker. The ends are worked in the ordinary- way for squaring and jointing. The oblique surfaces at each end are lined with a knife and the waste material is sawed off close to the line, but leaving enough to smooth with plane and chisel. A scraper may be used before sandpapering. Be sure to leave the end square across as tested from the face surface. The rails are first glued to the shelves (Fig. 209) and then the whole is clamped together (Fig. 210). The back should be carefully fitted, and should be glued and nailed in place before the doors are hung. Cases of this type are held rigid by the backing, and hence the necessity for being careful about fitting it; also for securing it so that it will not be liable to work loose. The making of the doors follows the general directions for making panels. Directions for hanging the doors are found imder the topic head f m -9 Fig. 208 {h). Wall cabinet 2i8 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK "Hinges," Part III, page 239. In fitting doors a common mistake is to fit them too tight. There Fig. 209. Cluing rail to sJielf should be a small space at both top and bottom, and also between the two doors — about -^ of an inch. Fig. 210. Gluing together LADIES' DESK 219 LADIES' DESK The chief feature of this desk (Fig. 211) is the framework of |-inch stock. This affords an opportu- nity to illustrate the process of uniting by doweling. The method of doing this work is the same as that for doweling the footstool (Fig. 1 1 3); but, because the piece is larger, some difficul- ties will be encountered that were not met with in making the footstool. Probably the most im- portant diffi- culty is that of getting the pieces out of wind, and of keeping them out of wind while putting them together. As dowels are to be used, the various pieces are cut to the exact length given in the drawing. The ends should be squared very carefully, so that there will be no broken edges or rounded corners to result in open joints. NyQ 'M°0 '? '?• f^- ^ JU2_ -^-f^^. ^iqp ^/- s -p ^ ^-^ l-..r- JM^ i-''^--^-'" ^^. [ t, 1 3^ "«^ — 1 v- -sK^I ^ ^-.t- .wl .!^ 1 ■^ l __^ 4J.._^Bl.tx_. — i I .fZ- '&^—i ■- Tn=-^-+ FT ^ P\ (O 9§.^^C .or rO ffeL .^Bi_- :^^r m^^'i:^ -^ # '..Of "^ Mho ' 1> _L " I 222 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK After studying the directions for the dowel joint in ''Elementary Woodwork," and the directions for doweling the footstool (page 120), you should be able to do this doweling properly. Fig. 213 shows the arrangement of the dowels, and Fig. 66 how they are clamped. The rails and shelf are made and clamped in much the same way as were the parts of the table (Fig. 185). Make the ends first, shaping them as shown in Fig. 213. The top is sim- ply a large piece of paneling, with the panel sunk just far enough below the surface to allow for covering Fig. 213. End ready for gluing withcloth. The two drawers are made the same as others. Directions for making them may be found on page 53. The part containing the pigeon holes and book stalls is made removable, being held in place only with dowels. For this purpose two dowels are suffi- cient. They should be glued into the top section so that w^hen it is removed the top of the desk will be smooth. The doors are made the same as panel- ing and hung as directed under the topic head "Hinges," page 260, BOOKCASE BOOKCASE 223 After a careful study of this aesign (Fig. 214), you should be able to design a case to suit your own special requirements. The most common modi- fication of this design is to make the case only about half as wide and use but one door. Fig. 214. Bookcase The ends may be as shown in the drawing (Figs. 215, 216, and in Figs. 217 and 218), or they may be 224 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK plain |-inch paneling. In very cheap cases, the ends are simply wide boards. The back should be well made. (See topic "Backing," page 71.) In order that the case may be taken apart for packing, the various pieces are held in place with screws. Fig. 219 shows how the blocks are fastened Fig. 215. Bookcase BOOKCASE 225 -/3—\i—^ !/^ 2^ to the top, and Fig. 222 how they are fastened to the bottom. Fig. 219 also shows the molding which is beneath the top. This molding covers the joint at the top of the ends and the upper edge of the lintel. If this is done the whole may be packed in a space less than half the size of the case. This method of construction will also be convenient for pupils who wish to avoid the ex- pense of drayage, for when the case is taken apart no piece will be too heavy to carry. However, if the knockdown fea- ture is not want- ed, the case may be secured by using glue in con- nection with the screws, or some of the blocks may be omitted and dowels used in their place. -/o- Section at c-d /O' Fig. 216. Sections of bookcase 226 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Fig. 217. A bookcase end Fig. 220 shows the lintel board with blocks near the ends by which it is secured to the sides, the strip along part of the the upper edge by which it is secured to the top, and the strip along the lower edge against which the doors strike. Fig. 221 shows the piece which is placed below the doors. This piece requires a block near each end to secure it to the sides, and a strip at its upper edge to secure it to the bottom of the case. Shelves. The shelves are supported on cleats. These cleats are supported at their ends in semicircular PHF" **f 1 ll « '> I s .- s 4 S « s t s c S 1 H > 1 , s 1 } t ) 1 t ) i ^ >! *■ ? * . ? * ? ( fl >H— mWLtai A rM^ 1 ■ -^ 1 UBl Fig. 218. Inside of book' case end Openings in the edges of strips glued to sides (Fig. 218). To make these strips, get out a piece of material wide enough for all four and square it. Draw a line in the center of one side, and lay off the spaces for the holes. Bore the holes, and then split the piece. Plane both halves, and then rip them. BOOKCASE 227 Plane the last surface with a hand plane. This should result in four pieces exactly alike. Fig, 219. Bookcase top The directions for making shelves and backing will be found under these topic heads in Part I. Fig. 220. Lintel piece Doors. The doors should be carefully made. The joints in most cases should be mortises and tenons, but dowels can be used. Some may prefer lighter rails and stiles. If they are to be lighter, y^l •\ .W" ' »"P ' f^ffjw m Fig. 221. Skirting board they must be made with greater care and of very straight-grained lumber. If narrower stiles are used, the doors cannot be hung as shown in Fig. 215. The directions for hanging the door and fitting 228 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK the lock and catch are found in Part III under the topic heads "Hinges," "Catches," and ''Locks." Fig. 222. Bookcase bottom SCREENS Fig. 223. Screen In Fig. 223 is illus- trated one style of screen ; the drawing (Fig. 224) gives the sizes. These may be changed to suit any individual require- ment. The turned work at the top may be replaced by panel- ing, and paneling may be used at the bot- tom. Some screens are made entirely of wooden panels of various patterns. SCREENS 229 A very simple and plain screen is shown in Fig. 225. The bottom rails are f inch thick by 8 inches wide; two top side rails are 6 inches wide, and the center rail 8 J /r—i — ~^^~~A inches wide. The center panel is 5 feet 2 inches high. There is lit- tle to add to the general directions in telling you how to make either of these screens. You may need to be cautioned to do your work excep- tionally well on thoroughly seasoned wood, because the parts are so long that even a slight varia- x>5) % Ki LL r* •i^ ^0"- o % \'^ ^ ^ Fig. 224. Screen I tion may throw the pieces out of square or in wind. It is not essential that the stiles and rails be of the same size, nor either of them rectangular in section. 230 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK The stiles may be plain at top and bottom or ornamented with turnings. If turnings are used, they are made sepa- rate with dowels to enter holes in the ends of the stiles. The tapestry or other filling may be tacked to the stiles and rails, or sus- pended, on rods crossing from stile to stile near the rails ; or it may be stretched on a light frame wo rk or stretcher, and the frame nailed or screwed to the stiles Fig. 225. Screen and rails. ' The most serious difficulty in making a screen is to secure pieces for the stiles that are straight, and that will remain so. In order to do this, the pieces should be ripped from the wide stock several weeks before they are to be used. They should be enough larger than needed to allow of straightening. After one face and edge have been straightened and squared, the pieces should be sized. Before begin- ning to lay out any of the mortises, carefully select FRAMES 231 and arrange the pieces so that whatever variation remains will be eliminated in gluing. Hinges. In setting the hinges, place the pieces in the position which they will occupy when folded. Lay the hinges in place and, by marking at each side, determine the width of the space to be cut away for them, draw lines across the pieces with a try-square and knife, and gauge the thickness of the metal at each edge so that after the wood has been removed the hinges will be flush with the surface of the stile. After inserting one screw in each rail, reverse the screen and insert the remaining screws, FRAMES Methods in Making. Under the heading of ''Frames," we shall describe the methods usually employed in making plain frames for pictures and for similar purposes. For such articles, one of two methods of joining the pieces is usually employed. These are designated as the halved corner (Fig. 226) and the mitered corner (Fig. 232). Both of these styles of joints are described in "Elementary Woodwork," and therefore the methods of cutting the material at the joints need not be repeated. The new problem is how to use four joints in a frame so that all will be closely fitted, and the frame be of proper shape. In such work, when the material is plain and straight, the face marks may be at the inside and best 232 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK (or face) side of the pieces. Certain shapes of mold- ing may require the face marks to be on the inside and back, or possibly on the outside. These face surfaces should be very carefully trued. If they are at all in wind, trouble is quite sure to follow. Rabbet. One feature of nearly all frames is the rabbet at the inside back corner which is to receive the glass or picture. This rabbet is nearly always f inch each way. If the frame is very thin, the space may be less, or in the cheap and novel de- signs, the picture may be placed against the back, the rabbet being omitted. Fig. 227 shows a frame of thin stuff, the corners halved, Fig. 226. Frame ^^^ ^^ rabbet to receive glass. After the stock has been jointed and marked with the face marks, the beginner should lay all the pieces in place (Fig. 228), and mark plainly the material to be cut away. In determining this, you must decide what pieces are to appear at the front at the corners. It is usual to have the pieces, which will be vertical when the frame is in FRAMES 233 VJJ'/II. W n N«e .^"- /s"- 1_ use, full length in front, and the hori. F^ zontal pieces appear to be set between them as you view the frame from the front side. This is shown in Fig. 226. Place the pieces in pairs. As there are only two of each length, it should not be necessary to clamp Fig. 227. Frame them. Lay off the gains at each end, and draw lines halfway across each edge. Set the gauge to near the center, and gauge each end, also gauge across the ends and on each side the length of the gain. The ends are then worked the same as a simple halved corner. See ' ' Elementary Woodwork. ' ' Clamping. In order to make the best joints, the pieces should be clamped in three ways: First, end- FiG. 228. Marking gams wisC ; SCCOnd, 234 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK sidewise; and third, to force the broad surfaces together. In Fig. 229 the clamps beneath hold endwise, those on top sidewise, and the four wooden handscrews and the two iron clamps hold the broad surfaces together. Care must be taken not to set the bar clamps too tight, for it is an easy matter to make them so tight that the joints will be sprung open at the outer end. The other clamping should be very care- fully done, so that the pieces will not roll or tip, making the face surface uneven. The ik™ clamps beneath the frame should be level, so that the frame will not be in wind. A Fig. 229. Frame m clamps sqUSiVe should be applied at two or more of the inside corners, to find if the frame is square. This may also be determined by measuring diagonally from comer to corner. Usually, the frame can be sprung by hand until the measurements are equal. Tighten the clamps very little until the frame is square, then turn up bar clamps and hand screws. FRAMES 235 In some cases it is easier, when a rabbet to receive glass is required, to make the joints first and then to cut the rabbet; cutting it only to the joint. This simplifies the joining and adds but little to the work. In this case, two pieces can be worked with ^^"' -°- ^"^^oriug a rabbet a plow and two with gauge and chisel. In cutting out such a rabbet, the gauge lines should be made heavy and then the piece scored (Fig. 230). After scoring, the waste material is removed with a chisel. Rabbeted Frame Halved. If the frame is rab- beted for picture and glass before the joints are made, the rabbet should be f inch each way, as shown in the end section (Fig. 231). In calculating the size, J inch should be added to the nominal width and length of the glass to allow for any rough- ness, or for either glass or frame being out of square. Size. In making such frames, the most serious difficulty arises from not making proper allowance for the rabbet in laying out the joints. Referring to Fig. 231 you will see that the two parts at the corners are not cut alike. The space between the joints on two of the pieces is i inch more than the corresponding 236 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK dimension of the glass ; and of the other two pieces, the space between the joints is f inch less than the corresponding dimension of the glass. Also, in order to simplify the joint, the pieces are not joined at the center of the thickness, but rather at f inch from the back side; in other words, the joint is cut even with the rabbet. Although we speak of the joint surface being f inch from the back, it should be gauged from the side having the face mark, whether this be the front or back of the frame. After the joint yiiM'L _!. ¥jwj)it-^\y ^ ^ V^'-^ /z ® 254 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK found directions for its use. Fig. 256 illustrates a corner iron for heavy work; such as fastening benches to the floor, and other similar purposes. Countersinks. Of the many styles of counter- sinks for use in making holes for the heads Fig. 257. Double-lip countersink r f\n+-]jQPiA screws, the double-lipped 5 pattern (Fig. 257) will make the smoothest hole. This countersink cuts nicely when carefully used, but it must be kept sharp and used with care or it will break. Fig. 258 is a stouter make and does good work; but it will not cut as w^ell as the 5 pattern. Fi^. 2sQ is called Fig. 258. Snail countersink a rose countersink, and is suitable for hard wood, knots, and metal. If it is to be used for wood, it is best not to use it for metal because such use dulls it too much to cut wood to advantage. These coun- tersinks, though hard enough for brass and soft iron, can usually be sharpened by Fig. 259. Rose countersink careful filing. Dowel Rod. The dowel rod is usually made in dowel machines. The ordinary sizes vary by six- teenths of an inch, from J inch up to f inch. For special purposes, it is made both smaller and larger. These rods may be purchased in lengths of about TOOLS AND MATERIALS 255 36 inches, either single rods or in bundles. If much doweling is to be done, you would better use the machine-made dowels ; but if only a small amount of rod is needed, you ought to make it. There are two ways in common use for making a dowel rod. The best rod is made by following the directions for making a cylinder given in "Elementary Wood- work. ' ' Another method is to plane the rod to nearly the correct size and then drive it through an iron plate (Fig. 260). This is supposed to leave the rod both smooth and of uniform Usually it does neither. The dowel plate may be made of steel and tempered, but it is often made of a bit Fig. 260. Driving dowel rod q£ scrap iron. The holes are drilled and then reamed from the back or under side. The upper surface of the plate is nearly, or quite, flat. One plate may have holes for dowels of different sizes, or the holes may be nearly alike so that the dowel rod may be made by driving it first through the larger hole and then through each smaller size in order, thus reducing the rod little by little. This may produce a smoother rod but it requires much time. 256 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Drawshave. In Fig. 261 is illustrated the com- mon form of a drawshave. Fig. 173 shows how it is held and used. This tool is ordinarily held as shown, and is used so that the blade cuts first near one handle and then near the other; making a shearing cut, the shaving curling off. This, however, is but one of many ways in which it is held, and the only way to determine the best position in which to hold and use it, is to try the various positions and thoughtfully test each. Escutcheons. These are made in a great variety of forms. Some are made to be screwed or nailed to the surface (Fig. 262). The nails used for this pur- pose are usually short with hemi- spherical heads, and are called "escutcheon pins.'' Some escutcheons Fig. 262. Fancy escutcheon (Fig. 263) are made circular in shape so that they will fit into a hole made by boring with a common bit, and are usually held in place by glue. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 57 Extension Bits. These bits, though not often required, will sometimes save much time. In soft wood they work nicely, but in hard wood much care must be exercised or they will be broken. Keep them very sharp, and do not crowd them. There are several styles on the market. The one illustrated (Fig. 264) is best for most work. In setting it, use a screw-driver with a well shaped end and as wide as the screw head so that you may not injure the slot in turning the screw. Often such a bit may be used to bore at a corner and thus avoid the working of the curve with other tools. Sometimes ornamental designs are made entirely with such bits. The bit will bore quite smooth if carefully held. Finishing Materials. Ordinary finishing mate- rials are not difficult to use. To use the highest grades of finish and to produce the best results is beyond the ability of those who have only a limited time for such. work. It requires practice. Fig. 263. Round escutcheon Fig. 264. Extension hit The best plan undoubtedly is to use finishing materials of standard make and to attempt only 258 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK such processes as you are reasonably sure of using successfully. Materials for finishing are treated under the headings, — "Stains," "Fillers," "Pumice Stone," "Rotten Stone," "Varnish," and "Wax." Fillers. In order to produce the finest finish on wood, it is necessary not only to make the surface smooth, but also to fill the pores of the wood so that the varnish, or other material forming the finish, will lie evenly upon the surface. This filling has often been done by using such materials as the workman had at hand. Whiting, cornstarch, and similar materials have been much used. These, of course, must be mixed with some- thing to make them hold to the wood, and naturally the oil and the turpentine about the paint shop would be used to mix the filler. For many years such fillers were the sole prepa- rations used in many shops. The discovery of new materials for this purpose has caused these old-time fillers to be discarded by most modern workmen. There are several good reasons for the change. The newer materials are far better than the. old; their proper preparation for use requires an equip- ment in machinery not found in small shops; while the expense of ready-to-use fillers is no greater than that of home-made fillers when all the items are considered. The results from using the commercial fillers is so much in their favor that they should be employed even if they cost much more. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 259 Modern commercial fillers are of two kinds: paste fillers and liquid fillers. Paste fillers are used on open-grained woods, and liquid fillers usually on close-grained woods. In selecting a filler for a piece of woodwork, get the advice and directions of the maker or a reliable dealer and then use it in exact accordance with directions. Do not think that you can judge the value of these^ fillers by making a few preliminary tests, for some of the characteristics of these- prepa- rations are not apparent to the novice until they have been on the wood for a long time. Hand Drills. There are many varieties of hand drills. The best are the only ones to buy. Their use is so obvious that no directions are re- 1 T-r- -1 Fig. 26c. Geared drill quired. Keep the drills sharp, and use them with care. Be careful not to bore the holes for brads too large. The drill is to assist the brad in making a hole rather than to make the hole full size for the brad. Holes are seldom required in the end grain. Fig. 265 is called a geared drill, and Fig. 266 a reciprocating drill. Fig. 266. Reciprocating drill 26o ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Fig. 267. Plain butt hinge Hinges. The styles of hinges which concern the beginner in cabinetwork are the plain butt hinge (Fig. 267), the surface hinge (Fig. 268), the screen hinge (Fig. 269), and the com- mon loose pin butt hinge (Fig. 270). These various forms are made in a variety of finishes and of both iron and brass. In setting, hinges similar to Fig. 267, first locate them and draw lines with knife and try -square for the upper and lower ends, marking the length as shown in Fig. 271. Do this on either the door or jamb but not on both. Then with knife and try-square draw lines through these points out to the edge (Fig. 272 AA). Also draw lines down the edge to connect with the gauge line B when it is drawn. Next, set the gauge to the center of the space (Fig. 273) as the hinge is opened until the sides are parallel. With the gauge set for this space, draw lines on the edges of the door jamb or case side as shown in Fig. 272 5. This will cause the door to fit Fig. 268. Surface hinge TOOLS AND MATERIALS 261 tightly. If the place for the hinge is too deep, the door will not close freely, and is said to be hinge bound. If the space is not deep enough, there will be a space between the door stile and the frame jamb or casing. The next step is to set the gauge for the inner edge (Fig. 272 C). This space is determined by sub- tracting from the total width of the hinges Fig. 269. Screen hinge the distance the hinges are to extend out from the wood. An easy way to make this calculation is to hold hinge and gauge as shown in Fig. 274. If the door anH casing, or case side, are to be flush, the lines should be drawn on both the edge of the casing and the edge of the door stile, with the gauge set for the same space. If the parts are not to be flush, then the difference required is Fig. 270. Loose-pin butt hinge determined by the draw- ing of these lines. In the wall cabinet (Fig. 207), the door is set back J inch from the face edge of the side of the cabinet and therefore the lines appear on O O 262 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK the edges of door and side as shown in Fig. 275, the space A on the door stile being J inch shorter than space B on the side of the case. After the Hnes are drawn, score the wood (Fig. 230), and then re- move the waste, be- ing very careful to work exactly to the lines and exactly to the same depth over the entire surface. The chief difficulty Fig. 271. Marked length of hinge in removing the waste material is to make the surface exactly square back from the edge or parallel with the surface of the stile. If this surface is not of the same depth at the inner edge as at the outer edge, the hinge will not hold the door properly no matter how ex- actly the lines have been drawn. Put the hinge in place and make holes with an awl in the Yig. 272. Hinge space lined TOOLS AND MATERIALS 263 center of each screw hole. If necessary, enlarge the holes with a bit and then insert the screws. After both hinges are set on either the stile or casing, put the door in place, being careful to have the spaces at top and bot- tom exactly correct. Mark with a knife point at each end of each hinge (Fig. 276), then remove the door and draw lines with knife, try -square, and Fig. 273. Setting gauge gauge for this side of the hinge, the same as shown in Fig. 272. Remove the waste as before and insert the screws, se- curing the door in place. Sometimes it is better to remove the hinges from the first side and fit them to the second side before attempting to fasten the door in place. This makes it easier to insert the screws. Fig. 277 shows a common butt hinge in position. Fig. 274. Setting gauge With the loose pin butts 264 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK M (Fig. 270) the pin may be removed and each part secured. The door may then be put in place and r^^V^V^ K^ f\ ^A/v * "the pins inserted. In such places as the top of the piano bench and the doors of the bookcase, where the hinge is entirely hidden, the hinge is first set on the edge of the box rJ^^^'^T^ ^ \r ^A/\/S/\l or case side, then the Fig. 2JS. Unes on door and casing ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ -^ p^^ in place and the location, both of the ends of the hinges and of the outer edge, is marked. After the lines for the ends have been drawn with knife and try- square, the hinge may be placed in position, adjusting it to the scribed line, and the line for the inside edge drawn; or a mark may be made, the gauge set, and the line drawn with a gauge. The most difficult part of this F i g . 276. Locating hinge TOOLS AND MATERIALS 265 Fig, 277. Butt hinge in position work is to cut the hole just deep enough. This is usually accomplished by a cut and try method. The surface hinge (Fig. 268) is easily set if you are careful to locate the center of the pin exactly in line with the joint between the door and the frame or case side. Sometimes, however, there are reasons for setting the hinge a little to one side of the joint. The method of setting the hinge (Fig. 269) is given in the directions for making a screen. The loose-pin door butt (Fig. 270) is set in the same manner as Fig. 267. Locks. The variety of locks is so great that it is scarcely possi^ ble even to '\ classify them. The common style of lock used on book- cases and sim- ilar objects is shown in Fig. ^^^- ^78- Lock ^^g_ ^j^.3 .g an easy lock to set, as it requires the boring of only one hole, the cutting out of a small space for the Ir^ 266 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK bolt and spnng, and a place on the edge of the door to bring the lock flush with the surface of the edge of the stile. The common mistake is that no allowance is made in locating the hole for letting this plate, called the selvedge, into the wood, and the hole is, therefore, just the thickness of the plate too near the edge. Remove as little material from the side of the stile as will allow the lock to rest properly, for good wood is needed to hold the four screws. Sometimes the main plate is let in flush with the surface of the stile, but this is unusual. In setting the plain locks used with an escutch- eon like Fig. 262, holes are bored for the key and the lock then fastened in place. The escutcheon is the last part to locate, and is placed to correspond with the pin over which the key slips, or with the keyhole. If a roun d escutcheon (Fig. 263) is used, the hole for it must be bored before boring the small hole Fig. 279. Match plane £qj. -j-j^g ]^gy Match Plane. In Fig. 279 is shown a handy and simple match plane. Such a plane is useful in match- ing the pieces for backs. The grooving side may be TOOLS AND MATERIALS 267 used instead of a plow for grooving the stiles and rails around a panel. Use it carefully, and keep it sharp. Your chief difficulty in using this plane is to hold it vertically. If you do not, the tongue which it makes will be too narrow and the groove too wide. As there is no side adjustment to the bit, you must be particular to grind it square across. Mortising Gauge. The mortising gauge (Fig. 280) is sometimes used in place of the common marking gauge when laying out mortises and tenons. The single spur is ^adjustable by moving the head of the gauge as IS done m p^^ ^g^ Mortising gauge setting the common gauge. In setting this gauge for a mortise or tenon, first turn the thumbscrew A at the end of the bar (Fig. 280) until the two spurs are the proper distance apart, so that you may draw the lines for both sides of the mortise at the same time. Then adjust the head of the "gauge until the mortise or tenon is located at the proper distance from the face edge. The tightening of the head of the gauge also tightens the small brass sliding bar. In laying out such work as chair frames and the back for the large armchair (Fig. 153), in which all or a part of the pieces are not joined flush, the two 268 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK Spurs are set to give the correct width of both mor- tises and tenons; and then, after drawing the lines on one part of the work, the head only is moved to adjust the position of the spurs for the other parts. This insures the same space between all the lines. In the hands of the experienced mechanic the mortising gauge is of much value for this kind of work, but those not accustomed to the drawing of lines on hard wood with gauges, often will find the ' effort necessary to make two good lines at the same time quite beyond their strength. For this reason the single spur is apt to result in better ^ joints on your first work, even though it is not so Fig. 281. Plow correct in theory. Plow. The plow shown in Figs. 281 and 282 is sufficient for the ordinary uses of cabinetmaking. There is little need of describing its parts or of giving the usual directions for its use. The bits should be carefully groimd so that they will cut square across, as there is no means for adjust- ing them side wise as there is for adjusting the plane irons. In using the plow it must be held level, for its base is too narrow to keep it square with the sur- face of the piece. The fence is also too narrow to do more than keep it the correct distance from the edge. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 269 The tilting of the plow will change the position of the bit on the edge and, therefore, in testing to see if the groove is being cut at the proper place, care must be taken to hold the plow level. A common mistake in using the plow is to attempt to cut too thick a shaving. In cutting a thick shaving, the sides of the groove are Fig. 282. Plow likely to be roughened, and it is also much more difficult to hold the plow properly. This tool is usually supplied with several bits of different widths. Pumice StonCo This is a fine grit for use in grind- ing varnish and for similar purposes. The successful use of grinding preparations de- pends almost entirely upon whether you have studied carefully the correct use of sandpaper in the ele- mentary studies. The grinding of a varnish follows the same principles as the use of sandpaper. If, in sandpapering, you have rounded corners and dag holes, you will find your pumice stone leaving white edges and spotting your work. Do not think you can overcome the difficulty by using a very fine grade of pumice stone, for if you can use any pumice stone properly you can use the ordinary commercial grades. 270 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK The success of your efforts depends upon your knowing just what is happening beneath your hand as you rub the surface. If you have not learned this in sandpapering, you will have considerable trouble learning it now. Pumice stone may be used with water or oil. Dealers supply a special oil, known as rubbing oil. The surface may be examined by wiping the oil and pumice stone off and holding the surface to the light. The rubbing should be continued as long as possible without cutting through to the wood. The thinner the finish, if it completely covers the surface, the better. If the varnish is very rough or contains dirt specks, use a little fine sandpaper before using pumice stone. The finer the grit, the slower it cuts. Use as coarse a grit as you can at first, and follow with the finer grades to give the proper finish. Do not mix the different grades by us- ing the same pad for eacho For a polish, finish with rot- FiG. 283. Rabbet plane ^^^ ^^^^^ Rabbet Plane. The rabbet plane (Fig. 283) is used for rabbeting out corners and similar work. You will have very little use for it in your first project in cabinetmaking. You may not need it at all. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 271 All the directions you need at first is to keep the blade sharp and at the correct angle. Be sure to have the corner sharp, so that the bit will cut a square corner. The blade should not be rounding nor have the corners taken off, as is the case with the bench planes, jack plane, and smooth plane. Do not allow the bit to cut too much at the vertical side. Rotten Stone. Rotten stone is used in the same manner as pumice stone. For some work, the rotten stone is not required, but for fine finishing it should be used after the finer grades of pumice stone. It is well to use the finer rubbing materials on a felt pad, although some workmen will ^ f^ make a fine finish by using cotton waste, old cloth, or similar mate- rial which will form a pad. Fig. 284. Scraper plane Scraper Plane. The scraper plane is a very ser- viceable tool. The style shown in Fig. 284 is the best for school use. For some pupils this bit is too wide because it requires too much strength, and must be made quite rounding at the sides. It should be straight near the center. In sharpening the bits for scraper planes con- siderable care must be taken to make the burr 272 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK smooth, keen, and even. After it has been dressed with a file, it may be improved by rubbing on an oil- stone. The burr, when finished, should be heavier than on a hand scraper. Be very particular not to use the plane when the burr is dull. It is only when the burr cuts a real shaving freely that it is doing good work. The bit is held so rigidly in its frame that it may do considerable harm if used with the burr in improper condition. Do not attempt to finish the work with the scraper plane. After you have done what you can to advantage with the scraper in the rigid frame, take a light hand scraper and go carefully over every spot that has not been prop- FiG. 285. Flat-head wood screw erlv finished. Screws. There are two kinds of screws usually used on furniture ; the common flat-head wood screw (Fig. 285), and the round-head wood screw (Fig. 286.) The lag screw (Fig, 287) is not regularly used in cabi- netmaking. Its use in furniture is tolerated rather than sanctioned. It helps to draw up poor joints and to avoid the use of mortises and tenons. No doubt we shall Fig. 286. Round-head wood screw see less of it in the manual training • shops as the work becomes better understood. The flat-head TOOLS AND MATERIALS 273 screw is made in either iron, steel, or brass, as is also the round-head screw. Screws are desig- nated both by the size of the smooth portion called the shank, and ^_^ by the length in inches. I r''**''"*'^4^4J|ib|4i4J|Jb4xw They are made in sizes WKHKfflflf^^ varying from 00 and ^S i inch long to sizes far ^^^- ''^- ^"^ '''''' too large for ordinary cabinetwork. Screws 4 inches long and in sizes from 18 to 24 are as large as can usually be found in the retail stores. Some dealers carry a much greater number of sizes than others. Long, slim screws, which are often very handy for the novice in woodwork, are kept by some dealers. A flat-head screw should never be used on a fin- ished surface where the head will show. Either a round-head screw should be used in such a place or the head should be sunk far enough below the sur- face to permit the hole being plugged with wood. Some manufactures save expense by gluing a button- like piece of wood over the screw head, thus saving both the trouble of counter-boring the hole and of finishing off the plug. Such makeshifts do not look well on school-made furniture. The round-head screw, although used where it will be seen, should be used sparingly (Fig. 205). In using screws of either kind, or lag screws, they will hold better if a hole is made for them and a bit of soft grease placed 2-74 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK in the hole. This is especially true of screws in end grain. In turning screws into the side grain of soft wood, it is not improper to drive them a little with a hammer before using the screw-driver. Spokeshave. Of the many forms of spokeshaves, the one shown in Fig. 288 is sufficient for all ordinary ^ , , cabinetwork. Un- b pokes nave less you use it more than many first-class workmen who are constantly working wood, your chief efforts with it will be to keep it from rusting. There are so many better ways of doing nearly all the work which the novice is likely to use a spokeshave for, that it is undoubt- edly better for the inexperienced worker not to have a spokeshave where he can make use of it. To use the spokeshave for finishing the convex sides of rockers, the outside of circles a foot or more in diameter, and for rounding corners and edges, is to mark your work as that of one who is unac- quainted with the best methods. Stains. To spend time in mixing stains or in extracting colors from their natural sources, is not only a waste of time but is certain to yield more incorrect suggestions than anything else. Information gained in limited attempts of this sort is worse than useless. Such efforts are positively injurious, and time should not be wasted in them. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 275 It is not the proper place here to name any dealer or manufacturer of stains or varnishes, but it may- be said that the later efforts of the leading manu- facturers have resulted in the production of such stains and varnishes as to leave little to be desired. Stains may now be obtained which will give excep- tionally fine results and yet will not streak or show laps, even when applied by the most inexperenced student on properly finished surfaces. Varnish. There are many kinds of varnish and many methods of applying it. If you were careful in following the directions for shellacing in your elementary studies, you should have no serious difficulty in using ordinary varnish on plain surfaces. It does not dry as quickly as shellac and there- fore, if too heavy a coat is applied, it will move on the surface after you have ceased stroking it with the brush. Sometimes streaks of varnish run down at the comers and joints. This is called crying. To avoid this, be very careful about rubbing all the surplus varnish away from the joints and from other parts where it is liable to gather. The thicker the coating the better the varnish, is not true, as^some inexperienced in this work sup- pose, but rather the opposite. The beauty of a var- nished surface is in its perfect smoothness and close- ness to the surface of the wood. This kind of coating not only shows the wood to better advantage, but is also more durable. 276 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK In order to produce a thin and perfectly smooth surface, the varnish is appHed in several coats, and then rubbed down. This rubbing is for the purpose of making it smooth and for keeping the finish as thin as it can be and cover the surface. This is accom- plished by grinding off the surface until all the raised places have been lowered to the depressions. Although the skilled workman may apply several coats before doing any rubbing, it is far better for the beginner to rub each coat carefully. In grinding off the first coats of varnish, it is usually impossible to reduce the surface to perfect smoothness, for if the grinding were continued long enough to cut down to the bottom of all of the depressions, the varnish would be entirely removed from some places, or "cut through" as it is termed. Therefore, the coating is ground only as thin as appears safe, and then another coat is applied. This, in turn, is ground to as good a surface as conditions will permit. This process of coating and grinding is continued until the required evenness of surface is produced. Rubbing. After each coat the surface becomes more refined, and therefore finer grinding materials are used. At first a coarse sandpaper may be all that is required, but later pumice stone is used. This is followed by rotten stone, and this some- times by even finer grinding materials. (Read topic heads "Pumice Stone," "Rotten Stone," "Fillers^* and "Finishing.") TOOLS AND MATERIALS 277 These finer materials are not required by the beginner, for the surface they are capable of giving can be obtained only by those thoroughly under- standing the methods of such work. Not only do the later coats of varnish require finer abrasive materials, but the coating material may also be of finer quality. The fillers and first- coaters often used are quite different from the var- nishes, and the varnishes also may differ in grade. The extent to which this selection and refining of materials may be carried is known only to the expert. For most workmen a good filler followed by two or three coats of varnish represents their standard grade of work. Some may use different grades of varnish, but the greater number use the same varnish for each of the two or three coatings. Preparing Surface. There is one other item that affects the varnishing which is often overlooked, and that is the preparation of the surface to receive the varnish. The wood should be polished with scraper and sandpaper before any finishing material is applied, as every mark, torn grain, or other rough- ness is likely to be much more visible after the surface is varnished, it should be smoothed as thoroughly as possible. Do not undertake to varnish any kind or design of work, but select for such finish only pieces that are free from corners or spaces into which the brush cannot work smoothly. This caution is espe- cially needed if you are expecting to polish the 278 ELEMENTARY CABINETWORK ^ varnish, for the polishing cannot be done well by an inexperienced person unless the piece is quite free from corners and narrow spaces. Problems 83, 90, 188, and* 191 are especially adapted for polishing, as they are planned to be entirely finished while the parts are separated. Wax. Following the stain, or a coat of filler to fix the stain, wax may be used. This wax may be any of the commercial compounds, or it may be the home-made mixture of beeswax and turpentine. In either case, it is rubbed on to the surface with a cloth, and then rubbed smooth and glossy. The chief difficulty in producing a fine wax finish is that the wood has not been properly smoothed nor the stain properly applied. The wax is not to take the place of scraper or sandpaper, and unless the wood surface is properly prepared the waxed surface will not be satisfactory. INDEX The figures refer to pages Backing: 71; fastening backs, 72; imitation paneling, 73; solid backs, 73; three kinds of, 71 Balls: 205, 243 Bench: piano, 198-205 Blocks: glue, 203 Bookcase: 223 r doors, 227; shelves. 226 Bookcases: 56, 71-2, 223,226-27 Book racks and taborets: 99; another taboret, 117; book rack corners, 99; laying out mortises and tenons, 100; notches for the legs, 112; round top taboret, 107; taboret, 104; tops, 106; wedges, 103 Cabinetmaking: equipment for elementary, 9- 11 Cabinet: music, 206-9 Cabinet: wall, 215-18 Cabinetwork : description of essentials for, 245 Cabinetwork : general direc- tions for, 9-98 Cabinetwork: tjrpe forms of, 99-244 Case: clock, 210 Chairs: 133; knockdown arm- chair, 162; large armchairs, 154, 160; rush seat, 139; suspended leather seat, 146; upholstered, 152; wooden seat, 136; woven leather seat, 144 Chairs: 17, 21, 25, 31, 33. 35. 69-71, 79, 84, 86, 91-3, 95, 133. 136, 139. 144, 146, 152, 154, 162 Chair and stool legs: 35; chamfering, 43 ; different kinds of, 35; fifth class, 42; finishing ends, 42 ; fourth class, 42; rectangular, 37; rounded end, 44; tapered, 37; tapered end, 44; third class, 39 Chamfering: 25, 28, 42-4, 66, 103, 182 Chest: 212 Clamping: 84; adjusting pres- sure, 85; clamping sections, 95; diagonal clamps, 93; preliminary clamping, 88 ; squaring with clamps, 88; tightening clamps, 87; use of clamps, 84 Clamps and clamping: 18, 21, 23, 26, 28, 31, 33, 62-4, 71, 8|-8, 93, 120, 158, 179, 192, 202-3, 222, 233, 248-52 Clock case: 210 Columns: 200, 243 Compasses: 100, 109 Compass saw: 100, 109, 174, 252-53 Construction: keyed, 33, 196 Costumer and shoe box:'2ii-i4 Curves: 125-27, 235, 240-41 Description of essentials for cabinetwork: 245 Desk: ladies', 219-22 Directions: general, 9-98 Doors: 206, 217-18, 222, 227, 260 Dowels and doweling: 35, 46, 62, 116, 119-21, 123, 157, 167, 182, 193, 204, 219-22, 254-55- Drawers: the making of, 53-5 Drawers: 53-5, 183, 188-89, 222 VI INDEX 1 Ends: finishing, 42 Equipment for elementary cab- inetmaldng: 9; care and use of tools, 9 Essentials for cabinetwork: de- scription of, 245 Face marks : 11,18 Fastening tops to frames: 96; boring holes, 98; buttons, 97; corner irons, 96 Finishing ends: 42 Footstools: 120; dimensions, 120; doweling, 121; flower- pot stand, 124; gluing, 123; mortises, 124; oblong foot- stool, 127; rush seat, 130; upholstered, 124 Footstools: 28, ^^, 35, 91, 120, 124, 127, 130, 145 Frames: fastening tops to, 96-8 Frames: 231; clamping, 233; methods in making, 231; mitered, 237; rabbet, 232; rabbeted frame halved, 235; size, 235 Frames: 25, 79, 96, 141, 203, 231. 237 Gauging: 17, 22-3, 27, 30, 33, 40, 100, 103, 111-12, 114, 121, 157, 174, 177, 179, 233, 267 General directions: 9; backing, 71; chair and stool legs, 35; clamping, 84 ; equipment for elementary cabinetmaking, 9; fastening tops to frames, 96; making of drawers, 53; making of tops, 57; mor- tises and tenons, 14; panel- ing, 45 ; patching and plug- ging, 74; planing, 67; selec- tion and arrangement of material, ii; shelving, 56; smoothing, 79; veneering, 69 Glue blocks: 203 Glue joint: 57 Gluing: 47, 49, 57, 62-3, 65, 70, 77. 79. 83-5, 88, 94, 97, 119, ^23, 156, 158, 166, 174, 179, 188, 191-92, 202-3, 205, 217, 236-38, 240, 251. Hall seat: 165; clamping, 167; directions for making, 165; the seat, 168 Hat rack: 239; rabbet, 240 Hinges: 163, 231, 260, 265 Holes: boring, 30-1, 46, 75, 97-8, 112, 115, 117, 119, 121-22, 157, 170, 172, 176, 205, 224-25, 238, 242, 25T, 254, 256, 259, 262-63, 265-66 Joint: glue, 57 Joints and jointing: 13, 15, 42, 45. 52-4, 57. 59-60, 62-3, 72, 80, 88, 97, 103-4, 120, 154, 156, 183, 189-91, 211, 231. 234-35. 227, 236-39,251 Keyed construction: 33, 196 Ladies' desk: 219 Lag screw: 117, 229 Legs: 31, 35, 37, 39, 42-3, 91, 106, 111-12, 116, 118, 122, 125, 128, 132, 134, 160, 164, 172, 176, 18s, 185, 191, 197, 237 Legs: chair and stool, 35-44 Making of drawers : 53 ; bottom, 55; front, 54; kinds of joints, 53; sides, 54 Making of tops: 57; allowing for waste, 58; applying the glue, 6;^; clamping, 62; glue joints, 57; hexagonal, 66; jointing, 59; octagonal, 66; quarter-sawing, 58; wide tops, 65 INDEX VII Marks: face, ii, i8 Material : selection and arrange- ment of, 11-14 Materials and tools: 245-78 Mitering: 237 Mortises and mortising: 14, 17, 28, 30-1, 45-6, 79, 100, 124, 132, 146-47, 176, 192, 267 Mortises and tenons : 1 4 ; dowel- iiig. 35; keyed construction, 33; laying out tenons for chair frames, 25; length of slats, 23 ; methods of joining, 14; mortises for chair backs, 17; mortises for footstools, 28 ; mortises in chair legs, 3 1 ; tenons, 16; tenons for chair backs, 21; testing a mor- tise, 30 Music cabinet: 206; shelving, 206 Paneling: 45; best methods of, 45 ; elevated panel, 51 ; flush panel, 49; forms of panels, 49; plain panel, 49; plow- ing the groove, 46; raised panel, 5 1 ; securing the panel, 47 ; two important meth- ods, 45 Panels and paneling: 45, 46-7, 49, 51, 206-7, 211, 222-24, 228-29, 241 Patching and plugging: 74; method of, 74; plugging, 78; the taper, 76 Piano bench: 198; a plain design, 198: box, 201; col- umns, 200; glue block, 203: molding, 203; rails, 204 Planes and planing: 42, 51, 58, 60, 61, 67, 70, 79-80 Planing: 67; cross, 67; sprung pieces, 69 Plugging and patching: 74-8 Quarter sawing: 58 Rabbet and rabbeting: 53, 128, 130, 202, 232, 235, 240, 270 Rack: hat, 239-41 Rails and stiles: 9, 21, 24, :^3, 46-7, 50, 52, 122, 125, 127-28, 130, 132, 134, 136, 139, 146-48, 152, 156-58, 160, 163, 183, 188, 193, 204, 206, 217, 222, 227, 229-30 Sandpapering and scraping: 43, 49. 69, 81, 83-4, 127, 169, 175, 201-2, 217. 269, 271 Sawing: quarter, 58 Scoring: 235 Scraping: 81 Screens: 228; hinges, 231 Screw: lag, 117, 229 Screws: 73, 78, 87, 106, 116-17, 142, 170, 172, 207, 234, 236, 272 Seat: hall, 165-68 Seats: 130, 136, 138, 141, 144, 146, 165, 168 Selection and arrangement of material: u; face marks, 1 1 Shelves: 57, loi, 107, 115-16, 175, 178-79, 189, 226 Shelving: 56; adjustment of shelves, 56; selection of material, 56 Shoe box and costumer: 211; chest, 212; method of mak- ing pole, 212; shoe blacking outfit, 212 Sighting for wind: 65, 89-90 Smoothing: 79; planing, 79; removing glue, 83 ; sand- papering, 83; scraping, 81; when to smooth the surface, 79 Spokeshave: no, 230 Stains: 14, 230 Stand: umbrella, 242-44 Stool and chair legs: 35-44 Superposition: 27 VIII INDEX Surfaces: 13, 37, 40. 42, 44-5. 52, 63, 65, 67-8, 70, 79, 81-3, 104, 175, 258, 276 Tables: 66, 69, 106, 169, 174, 180, 183, 186 Tables: 169; drawing, 169; leather top, 180; library, 186; light, 183; round top, 174 Taborets and book racks: 99- 120 Tenons: 14, 16, 17, 21, 25,45-6, 79, 86, 100, 128, 134, 146-47, 176, 178, 192, 205, 267 Tenons and mortises: 14-35 Tools and materials: 245; bit brace extensions, 245 ; bits, 245; brad awl, 246; casters, 247; catches, 248; clamps, 248; compass saw, 252; corner irons, 253; counter- sinks, 254; dowel rod, 254; drawshave, 256; escutch- eons, 256; extension bit, 257; fillers, 258; finishing mate- rials, 257; hand drills, 259; hinges, 260; locks, 265; match plane, 266; mortising gauge, 267; plow, 268; pre- paring surface, 277 ; pumice stone, 269; rabbet plane, 270; rotten stone, 271; rub- bing, 276; scraper plane, 271 ; screws, 272; spokeshave, 274; stains, 274; varjiish, 275; wax, 278 Tops: making of, 57-67 Tops: 57-8, 65-6, 69-72, 96, 106-7, 124, 127, 132, 169, 172, 174, 177, 180, 186, 197-98, 242 Type forms of cabinetwork: 99; bookcase, 223; book racks and taborets, 99; chairs, 133; clock case, 210; footstools, 120; frames, 231; hall seat, 165; hat rack, 239; ladies' desk, 219; music cabinet, 206; piano bench, 198; screens, 228; shoe box and costumer, 211; tables, 169; umbrella stand, 242; wall cabinet, 215 Umbrella stand: 242; top and base, 242 Veneering: 69; end grain, 69; gluing, 70; preparing the surface, 70; sizing, 70 Wall cabinet: 215 Wedges: 103 Wind: sighting for, 65, 89-90 NOV 3 190§