°^ "^ ^° "V "o-o • • t * ' .^> ^^ ,S' LIB«A«Y OF CONQWeSS RECEIVED OCT 4 \%ft DOCUMENTS DIVISION c < FOREWORD. Many letters come to the Department of State from people who ask what its organization and duties are; they have not found information on the subject readily accessible to them. Some of the inquirers are school-teachers who wish to instruct their pupils concerning the machinery of the Gov- ernment, and some are people who wish to inform themselves. To satisfy this demand for informa- tion there has been prepared in the Department the short account of its organization and duties which follows. It is not intended to be a history of our foreign relations, or of the Diplomatic and Consu- lar Service, but a description of the central office which manages the Diplomatic and Consular Serv- ice and is the medium of official intercourse with foreign powers. The Department of State has expanded as the country and its foreign relations have expanded. The first Secretary of State was Thomas Jefferson, and his entire staff comprised five clerks. There (III) IV were then four foreign Ministers Resident at the seat of government, and our own diplomatic corps comprised three heads of missions. We had not more than sixteen consuls residing in foreign coun- tries. At the present time there are forty-four heads of foreign missions in Washington and we have diplomatic representation in fifty foreign countries. There are three hundred and twenty principal consular officers of the United States. To these must be added a large number of subordi- nate diplomatic and consular officers. In the De- partment at Washington there are now more than seven hundred officers and clerks. Nevertheless, the foundation of the Department remains the same as that which was laid down in the laws passed by the First Congress under the Constitution in 1789. Many statutes affecting the Department have been enacted since then, but the organic acts are still in force, having governed for one hundred and thirty-three years. It is hoped that the account of the Department which is presented here will prove interesting and valuable to those citizens who desire to under- stand the workings of their Government. Charles E. Hughes. Department of State, July 22, 1922. CONTENTS. Officers of the Department of State VII I. Under the Continental Congress 1 II. A Department of State 11 III. Duties which have passed 1 16 IV. Some Domestic Duties 21 - V. Some Foreign Duties. 27 VL The Subdivisions 37 VII. The Department's Homes 45 VIII. In War__ 50 IX. In Peace 57 X. The Department and the Peopled 62 Index 67 (V) OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 1922. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. Under Secretary of State William Phillips. Assistant Secretary of State Leland Harrison. Second Assistant Secretary of State Alvey A. Adee Third Assistant Secretary of State Robert Woods Bliss. Director of the Consular Service Wilbur J. Carr. Solicitor Fred K. Nielsen Chief Clerk Ben G. Davis. Chief of the Division of Far Eastern Affairs John Van A. MacMurray. Chief of the Division of Latin American Affairs Francis White (Acting). Chief of the Division of Western European Affairs William R. Castle, Jr. Chief of the Division of Near Eastern Affairs Allen W. Dulles. Chief of the Division of Mexican Affairs Matthew E. Hanna. Chief of the Division of Russian Affairs De Witt C. Poole. Economic Adviser (▼") VIII Chief of the Division of Passport Control Philip Adams. Chief of Visa Office J. Preston Doughton. Chief of the Division of Publications and Editor of the Department of State. -Gaillaio) Hunt. Chief of the Division of Political and Economic Information Prentiss B. Gilbert. Chief of the Division of Current Information Edward Bell (Acting). Chief of the Diplomatic Bureau Worthington E. Stewart, (Acting). Chief of the Consular Bureau Herbert G. Hengstler. Chief of the Bureau of Appointments Miles M. Shand. Chief of the Bureau of Indexes and Archives David A. Salmon. Chief of the Bureau of Accounts and Disbursing Officer William McNeir. SECRETARIES OF STATE (1789-1922). Presidents. Secretaries of State. Date of commission. George Washington. . . Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia September 26, 1789. Entered upon duties March 22, 1790. Retired December 31, 1793. Do Edmund Randolph, of Virginia January 2, 1794. Entered upon duties January 2, 1794. Retired August 19, 1795. Do Timothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania (Secretary of War) . Ad interim August 20, 1795, to Decem- ber 9, 1795. ■p. rTimothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania.... December 10, 1795' John Adams'. .'.'.' '...'..] filtered upon duties December 10, 1795, ' " I Retired May 12, 1800. Do Charles Lee, of Virginia (Attorney Gen- eral). Ad interim May 13, 1800, to June 5, 1800. IX John Adams John Marshall, of Virginia May 13, 1800. Entered upon duties June 6, 1800. Retired February 4, 1801. Do John Marshall, of Virginia (Chief Justice of the United States) . Ad interim February 4, 1801, to March 4, 1801. Thomas Jefferson Levi Lincoln, of Massachusetts (Attorney General) . Ad interim March 4, 1801, to May i, 1801. Do James Madison, of Virginia March 5, 1801. Entered upon duties May 2, 1801. Re- tired March 3, 1809. James Madison Robert Smith, of Maryland March 6, 1809. Entered upon duties March 6, 1809. Retired April i, 181 1. Do James Monroe, of Virginia April 2, 1811. Entered upon duties' April 6, 1811. Retired September 30, 1814. Do James Monroe, of Virginia (Secretary of War). Ad interim October i, 1814, to Feb- ruary 28, 1815. Do James Monroe, of Virginia February 28, 1815. Entered upon duties March i, 1815. Retired March 3, 1817. James Monroe John Graham (Chief Clerk) . Ad interim March 4, 1817, to'March'g, 1817. Do Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania (Attor- ney General) . Ad interim March 10, 181 7, to Septem- ber 22, 1817. Do John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts . . March s, 1817. Entered upon duties September 22, 1817. Retired March 3, 1825. John Quincy Adams.. Daniel Brent (Chief Clerk). Ad interim March 4, 1825, to March 8, 1825. Do Henry Clay, of Kentucky March 7, 1825. Entered upon duties March 9, 1825. Retired March 3, 1829. Andrew Jackson James A. Hamilton, of New York March 4, 1829. Ad interim March 4, 1829, to March 27, 1829. Do Martin Van Buren, of New York March 6, 1829. Entered upon duties March 28, 1829. Retired May 23, 1831. Do Edward Livingston, of Louisiana May 24, 1831. Entered upon duties May 24, 1831. Retired May 29, 1833. Do Louis McLane, of Delaware May 29, 1833. Entered upon duties May 29, 1833. Retired June 30, 1834. ■J-, rjohn Forsyth, of Georgia June 27, 1834. Martin Van Buren. '.J Entered upon duties July i, 1834. I Retired March 3, 1841. William H. Harrison. J. L. Martin (chief clerk). Ad interim March 4, 1 841, to March 5, 1841. [Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts March 5, 1841. . , ^' '. \ Entered upon duties March 6, 1841. John Tyler „ . , ^ , ^ Retired May 8, 1843. Do Hugh S. Legare, of South Carolina (At- torney General). Ad interim May 9, 1843, to June 20, 1843. Died June 20, 1843. Do William S. Derrick (chief clerk). Ad interim June 21, 1843, to June 23, 1843. Do Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia (Secretary of the Navy). Ad interim June 24, 1843, to July 23, 1843. Do Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia July 24, 1843. Entered upon duties July 24, 1843. Died February 28, 1844. Do John Nelson, of Maryland (Attorney General). Ad interim February 29, 1844, to March 31. 1844- Do John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina March 6, 1844. Entered upon duties April i , 1844. Re- tired March 10, 1845. XI James K. Polk James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania March 6, 1845. Entered upon duties March 10, 1845. Retired March 7, 1849. ' Zachary Taylor 1^°^ ^^- Dayton, of Delaware March 7, 1849. Millard Fillmore ^''^^'^'^ "P°" "^"^^^^ ^^^'^^ «• ^«49. l Retired July 22, 1850. Do Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts July 22, 1850. Entered upon duties July 23, 1850. Died October 24, 1852. Do Charles M. Conrad, of Louisiana (Secre- tary of War). Ad interim October 25, 1832, to No- vember 5, 1852. Do Edward Everett, of Massachusetts November 6, 1852. Entered upon duties November 6, 1852. Retired March 3, 1853. Franklin Pierce William Hunter, jr. (chief clerk). Ad interim March 4, 1853, to March 7, 1853. Do William L. Marcy, of New York March 7, 1853. Entered upon duties March 8, 1853. Retired March 6, 1857. James Buchanan Lewis Cass, of Michigan March 6, 1857. Entered upon duties March 6, 1857. Retired December 14, i860. Do William Hunter, jr. (chief clerk). Ad interim December 15, i860, to De- cember 16, i860. Do Jeremiah S. Black, of Pennsylvania December 17, i8fio. Entered upon duties December 17, i860. Retired March 5, 1861. ,. , (William H. Seward, of New York March 5, 1861. Abraham Lmclon ... . ^ ^ , j *■ ^r v, <; o^ , , ■! Entered upon duties March 6, 1861. Andrew Johnson -r, ^- j -a^ u oa '^ Retired March 4, 1869. Ulysses S. Grant Elihu B. Washbume, of Illinois March 5, 1869. Entered upon duties March 5, 1869. Retired March 16, 1869. Do Hamilton Fish, of New York March 11, 1869. Entered upon duties March 17, 1869. Recommissioned March 17, 187 <. Retired March 12, 1877. Rutherford B. Hayes. William M. Evart.s, of New York March 12, J877. Entered upon duties March 12, 1877. Retired March 7, 1881. XII _ - , , f James G. Blaine, of Maine March s, i88r. James A. Garfield....! ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^ ^^^^^ ^_ ^gg^_ Chester A. Arthur ....\ ^^^.^^^ December 19. 1881. Do Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey December 12, tSSi. Entered upon duties December 19, 1881. Retired March 6, 1885. Grover Cleveland Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware March 6, 1885. Entered upon duties March 7, 1885. Retired March 6, 1889. Benjamin Harrison . . . James G. Blaine, of Maine March 5, 1889. Entered upon duties March 7, 1889. Retired June 4, 1892. Do "William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts (Assistant Secretary) . Ad interim June 4, 1892, to June 29, 1892. Do John "W. Foster, of Indiana June 29, 1892. Entered upon duties June 29, 1892. Retired February 23, 1893. Do William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts (Assistant Secretary) . Ad interim February 24, 1893, to March 6, 1893. Grover Cleveland Walter Q. Gresham, of Illinois March 6, 1893. Entered upon duties March 7, 1893. Died May 28, 1895. Do Edwin F. Uhl, of Michigan (Assistant Secretary). Ad interim May 28, 1895, to June 9, 1895. Do Richard Olney, of Massachusetts June 8, 1895. Entered upon duties June 10, 1895. Retired March 5, 1897. William McKinley. . . . John Sherman, of Ohio March s, 1897. Entered upon duties March 6, 1897. Retired April 27, 1898. Do William R. Day, of Ohio April 26, 1898. Entered upon duties April 28, 1898. Retired September 16, 1898. Do Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Co- lumbia (Second Assistant Secretary). Ad interim September 17, 1898, to September 29, 1898. XIII William McKinley ..K , ^^ , , „. Theodore Roosevelt, .r '^' District of Columbia. . September 20, i8s Entered upon duties September 30, 1898. Recommissioned March 5, 1901. Recommissioned March 5, 1905. Died July i, 1905. Do Francis B. Loomis, of Ohio (Assistant Secretary). Ad interim July i, 1905, to July 18, 1905. Do Elihu Root, of New York July 7, 1905. Entered upon duties July 19, 1905. Retired January 27, 1909. Do Robert Bacon, of New York January 27, 1909. Entered upon duties January 27, 1909. Retired March 5, 1909. William H. Taft Philander C. Knox, of Pennsylvania. . . March s, 1909. Entered upon duties March 6, 1909. Retired March 5, 1913. Woodrow Wilson William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska. . March 5, 1913. Entered upon duties March s. i9i3- Retired June 9, 1915. Do Robert Lansing, of New York (Coun- selor for the Department of State). Ad interim June 9, 1915, to June 23, • 191S. Do Robert Lansing, of New York June 23, 1915. Entered upon duties June 24, 1915. Retired February 13, 1920. Do Frank Lyon Polk, of New York (Under Secretary). Acting February 14, 1920, to March 13, 1920. Do Bainbridge Colby, of New York March 22,'i920. Entered upon duties March 23, 1920. Retired March 4, 1921. Warren G. Harding. . . Charles Evans Hughes, of New York. . . March 4, 1921. Entered upon duties March s, 1921. COUNSELORS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE (1909-1919). Henry M. Hoyt, of Pennsylvania August 21, 1909. Entered upon duties August 27, 1909. Died November 20, 1910. XIV Chandlpr P. Anderson, of New York December r6. rt,to. Entered upon duties December i6, 1910. Retired April 22, 1913- John Bassett Moore, of New York April 21, 1913. Entered upon duties April 23, 1913. Retired March 4, 1914. Robert Lansing, of New York March 27, 1914. Entered upon duties April i, 1914- Retired June 23, 1915. Frank Lyon Polk, of New York August 30, 191 5. Entered upon duties September 16, 1915. Retired June 30, 1919. UNDERSECRETARIES OF STATE (1919-1922). Date of commission. Frank Lyon Polk, of New York June 26, 1919. Entered upon duties July i, 1919- Retired June 15, 1920. Norman H. Davis, of New York June ii, 1920. Entered uix)n duties June 15, 1920. Retired March 7, 1921. Henry P. Fletcher, of Pennsylvania March 7, 1921. Entered upon duties March 8, 1921. Retired March 6, 1922. William Phillips, of Massachusetts March 31, 1922, Entered upon duties May 26, 1922. ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE (185S-1922). Date of comtnission. Ambrose Dudley Mann, of Ohio March 23, 1853. Retired May 8, 1855. William Hunter, jr., of Rhode Island (Chief Clerk) May 8, 1855. Ad interim May 9, 1855, to October 31, 1855. John A. Thomas, of New York November i, 1853. Entered upon duties November i, 1855. Retired April 3, 1857. John Appleton, of Maine April 4, 1857. Entered upon duties April 4, 1857. Retired June 10, i860. William H. Trescot, of South Carolina June 8, i860. Entered upon duties June 11, i860. Retired December 20, i860. William Hunter (Chief Clerk) March i, 1861. Ad interim March i, 1861, to March 5, 1861. Frederick W. Seward, of New York March 6, 1861. Entered upon duties March 6, 1861. Retired March 4, 1869. J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York March 25, 1869. Entered upon duties April i, 1869. Retired November 13, 1871. Charles Hale, of Massachusetts February 19, 187a. Entered upon duties February 19, 1872. Retired January 24, >873. XV J. C. Bancroft Davis, of N^ew York January 24, 1873. Entered upon duties January 25, 1873. Retired June 30, 1874. John L. Cadwalader, of New York June 17, 1874. Entered upon duties July i, 1874. Retired March 20, 1877. Frederick W. Seward, of New York Harch 16, 1877. Entered upon duties March 21, 1877. Retired October 31, 1879. John Hay, of Ohio November i, 1879. Entered upon duties November i, 1879. Retired May 3, 1881. Robert R. Hitt, of Illinois May 4, 1881. Entered upon duties May 4, 1881. Retired December 19, 1881. J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York December 19, i88i . Entered upon duties December 20, 1881. Retired July 7, 1882. John Davis, of the District of Columbia July 7, 1882 . Entered upon duties July 8, 1882. Retired February 23, 1885. James D. Porter, of Termessee March 20, 1885. Entered upon duties March 21, 1885. Retired September 10, 1887. George L. Rives, of New York November 19, 1887. Entered upon duties November 21, 1887. Retired March 5, 1889. William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts April 2, 1889. Entered upon duties April 11, 1889. Retired March 20, 1893. Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts JIarch 20, 1893. Entered upon duties March 21, 1893. Retired September 22, 1893. Edwin F. Uhl, of Michigan November i, 1893. Entered»upon duties November 11, 1893. Retired February II, 1896. William Woodville Rockhill, of Maryland February 11, 1896. Entered upon duties February 14, 1898. Retired May 10, 1897. William R. Day, of Ohio May 3, 1897. Entered upon duties May 11, 1897. Retired April 27, 1898. John B. Moore, of New York April 27, 1898. Entered upon duties April 28, 1898. Retired September 16, 1898. David J. Hill, of New York October 25, 1898. Entered upon duties October 25, 1898. Retired January 28, 1903. Francis B. Loomis, of Ohio January 7, 1903. Entered upon duties February 9, 1903. Retired October to, 190S. XVI Robert Bacon, of New York September s, 1905. Entered upon duties October 11, 1905. Retired January 27, 1909. John Callan O'Laughlin, of the District of Columbia January 27, 1909. Entered upon duties January 28, 1909. Retired March s, 1909. Huntington Wilson, of Illinois March s, 1909. Entered upon duties March 6, 1909. Retired March 19, 1913. John E. Osborne, of Wyoming April 21, 1913. Entered upon duties April 21, 1913. Retired December 14, 1916. William Phillips, of Massachusetts January 24, 1917. Entered upon duties January 25, 1917. Retired March 25, 1920. Fred Morris Dearing, of Missouri March 11, 1921. Entered upon duties March 15, 1921. Retired February 28, 1922. Leland Harrison, of Illinois March 31, 1922. Entered upon duties April 4, 1922. SECOND ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE (1866-1922). Date of coTnmission. William Hunter, of Rhode Island July 27, 1866. Entered upon duties July 27, 1866. Died July 22, 1886. Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Columbia August 3, 1886. Entered upon duties August 6, 1886. THIRD ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE (1875-1922). Date of commission. John A. Campbell, of Wyoming February 24, 1875. Entered upon duties February 24, 1875. Retired November 30, 1877. Charles Payson, of New York June 11, 1878. Entered upon duties June 22, 1878. Retired June 30, 1881. Walker Blaine, of Maine July i, 1881. Entered upon duties July i, 1881. Retired June 30, 1882. Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Columbia July 18, 1882. Entered upon duties July 18, 1882. Retired August s, 1886. John B. Moore, of Delaware August 3, 1886. Entered upon duties August 6, 1886. Retired September 30, 1891. William M. Grinnell, of New York February 11, 1892 . Entered upon duties February 15, 1892. Retired April 16, 1893. XVII Edward H. Strobel, of New York April 13, 1893. Entered upon duties April 17, 1893. Retired April 16, 1894. William Woodville Rockhill, of Maryland April 14, 1894. Entered upon duties April 17, 1894. Retired February 13, 1896. William Woodward Baldwin, of New York February 24, 1896. Entered upon duties February 29, 1896. Retired April i, 1897. Thomas Wilbur Cridler, of West Virginia April 8, 1897. Entered upon duties April 8, 1897. Retired November 15, 1901. Herbert H. D. Peirce, of JIassachusetts November 15 ,1901. Entered upon duties November 16, 1901. Retired June 22, 1906. Huntington Wilson, of Illinois June 22, 1906. Entered upon duties July 2, 1906. Retired December 30, 1908. William Phillips, of Massachusetts January 11, 1909. Entered upon duties January 11, 1909. Retired October 13, 1909. Chandler Hale, of Maine September 25, 1909. Entered upon duties October 14, 1909. Retired April 21, 1913. Dudley Field Malone, of New York April 21, 1913. Entered upon duties April 22, 1913. Retired November 22, 1913- William Phillips, of Massachusetts March 13, 1914. Entered upon duties March 17, 1914. Retired January 24, 191 7. Breckinridge Long, of Missouri January 24, 1917. Entered upon duties January 29, 1917. Retired June 8, 1920. Van Santvoord Merle-Smith, of New York June 21, 1920. Entered upon duties June 24, 1920. Retired March 4, 1921. Robert Woods Bliss, of New York March 15, 1921. Entered upon duties March 16, 1921. 4986 — 22 2 CHAPTER I. UNDER THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. When the Continental Congress assembled in Carpenters' Hall at Philadelphia, September 5, 1774, thoughts of independence from Great Britain were in the minds of many of the delegates, but were openly expressed by few. So a loyal address to the King of England was adopted, asking him to recall the unjust measures which were oppressing his subjects in America. Several of the Colonies had agents in England to attend to their affairs, and the address was sent to them to present to the King- They were called " Friends to American liberty." These agents were Paul Wentworth, Charles Garth, William Bollan, Thomas Life, Ed- mund Burke, Arthur Lee, and Benjamin Franklin. They were instructed to act for the " United Colo- nies," but Bollan, Lee, and Franklin were the only three who did so. They were the representatives of a power destined soon afterwards to declare its independence, and their duties were to a certain extent diplomatic. (1) When the Congress met the next year it was known that the efforts of the American agents in London had failed, and that the Colonies had to choose between submission to the King or rebellion against his authority. An important means by which the rebellion might be successfully prose- cuted was provided in the " Committee of Secret Correspondence," selected November 29, 1775, with Benjamin Franklin as its chairman and guiding spirit, and Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia; John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania; Thomas Johnson, of Maryland; and John Jay, of New York, as its mem- bers. This was really a committee of foreign af- fairs. It opened correspondence with Arthur Lee, among others, instructing him to communicate with the French minister of foreign affairs, Count Ver- gennes, and ask French aid for the Colonies. This was the beginning of the negotiations, which re- sulted three years later in the alliance, offensive and defensive, with France. But after its first action the Committee of Secret Correspondence ceased to be of importance. Con- gress preferring to manage the foreign affairs of the country by itself, and on April 17, 1777, the title of the committee was changed, and it became the " Committee for Foreign Affairs." The first mem- bers were Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia; Bobert 3 Morris, of Pennsylvania; Thomas Hayward, jr., of North Carolina; and James Lovell, of Massachu- setts, but the personnel of the committee under- went constant change. The first secretary of the committee was Thomas Paine, who received a sal- ary of $70 a month. He was dismissed in January, 1779, because he made an official .matter public. The chief function of the committee was to furnish the agents of the Government abroad with ac- counts of the progress of events in America. Be- yond that it simply executed the orders of Con- gress and had little real power over our foreign affairs. The only member who remained continu- ously on the committee was Lovell. He was a Boston school-teacher; was imprisoned by the British after the Battle of Bunker Hill; was ex- changed later and elected a Member of Congress in December, 1776, serving till 1782. He is repre- sented as having been a man of learning and ability, but of such eccentricities of manner and temper as to lead at times to doubts of his sanity. The committee became so unimportant a body that after a time it almost ceased to exist. " There is really," wrote Lovell to Arthur Lee, August 6, 1779, " no such thing as a Committee of Foreign Affairs existing — no secretary or clerk further than I persevere to be one and the other. The books and the papers of that extinguished body lay yet on the table of Congress, or rather are locked up in the secretary's private box." The necessity for some channel through which to conduct foreign affairs resulted finally in " a plan for the Department of Foreign Affairs," reported to Congress in January, 1781. The opening para- graph of the plan stated : That the extent and rising power of these United States entitles them to a place among the great potentates of Europe, while our political and commercial interests point out the propriety of cultivating with them a friendly correspondence and connection. It w^as not until August 10 that the department was organized, and Robert R. Livingston, of New York, was elected the secretary. He had been a member of the old committee for a short time in 1779. He continued to act as Secretary for Foreign Affairs until June 4, 1783. Dr. Francis Wharton estimates his character and services in the Diplo- matic Correspondence of the American Revolution. " Livingston," he says, " though a much younger man than Franklin, possessed, in his dispassion- ateness and his many-sidedness, not a few of Franklin's characteristics. From his prior admin- istrative experience as royalist recorder of New York he had at least some acquaintance with prac- tical government in America; his thorough studies as scholar and jurist gave him a knowledge of ad- ministrative politics in other spheres. * * * He did more than anyone in the home government in shaping its foreign policy." Although Livingston's department was under constant instructions from Congress and was per- mitted to take no independent action, its duties were, nevertheless, highly important, as it was the medium for all correspondence with our agents abroad. The method of correspondence was peril- ous and laborious. At least four and sometimes seven copies of every letter were sent, to lessen the chances of loss from capture, and on each packet was written the warning, " To be sunk in case of danger from the enemy." Ciphers were freely used and some of the letters were in invisible ink. Nevertheless, a large portion of the correspondence went to the British foreign office, where the ciphers were probably understood. Previous to his departure from Congress Living- ston submitted a report, showing all the officers serving under him and their salaries. The " Secre- tary to the United States for Foreign Affairs " re- ceived $4,000 per annum. Benjamin Franklin, " Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States at the Court of Versailles, and Minister Plenipotenti- ary for negotiating a peace"; John Adams, "Min- ister Plenipotentiary at tlie Hague and for negoti- ating a peace"; John Jay, "Minister Plenipoten- tiary at Madrid and for negotiating a peace"; Henry Laurens, "Minister Plenipotentiary for negotiating a peace"; and Thomas Jetferson, with the same rank, each received a salary of $11,111 per annum. William Carmichael, " Secretary to the Embassy at the Court of Madrid," and Francis Dana, Minister at St. Petersburg, each received $4,444.40 per annum. Charles W. F. Dumas, " Agent of the United States at the Hague," re- ceived $920; William Temple Franklin, " Secretary to the Hon. Benjamin Franklin," $1,300; Lewis R. Morris, " First Under Secretary in the OfTice of Foreign Affairs," $800; Peter L. Du Ponceau, " Sec- ond Under Secretary in the Ofhce of Foreign Affairs," $700; John P. Tetend, " Clerk and Inter- preter of the French Language," $500; Walter Stone, " Clerk," $500. The total cost of the entire service at home and abroad was $73,244. When Livingston gave up his office June 4, 1783, he left the business of the Department in the hands of the undersecretary, Lewis R. Morris; but Morris was without authority to act, and severed his con- nection with the Department soon afterwards, his place being taken by Henry Remsen, jr. As a matter of fact, however, the Department of Foreign Affairs practically ceased to exist, and Congress managed the foreign relations of the country di- rectly, committees being appointed as occasion arose to consider specific questions, x John Jay, of New York, was one of the commis- sioners who, in 1783, negotiated at Paris the defini- tive treaty of peace with Great Britain. He sailed for home in the summer of 1784, and before his arrival was elected Secretary of Foreign Affairs on motion of Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts. He took the oath of office and entered on his duties September 21, 1784, and the functions of the De- partment were revived, but they were ill defined and limited, and the Secretary was constantly complaining of the unsatisfactory nature of his authority. On August 14, 1788, a committee of Congress reported upon the condition in which the Depart- ment then was. It occupied two rooms, one the Secretary's, the other that of his deputy and clerks. The daily transactions were entered in a minute book and subsequently copied into a journal. The letters to ministers and others abroad were entered in a book called the " Book of Foreign Letters," such parts as required secrecy being in cipher. The domestic correspondence was entered in the "American Letter Book." The " Book of Reports " contained the Secretary's reports to Congress. There was also a book in which were recorded the passports issued to vessels, and one of "Foreign Commissions," besides a " Book of Accounts," and one containing acts of Congress relative to the de- partment. The papers of the old Committee of Foreign Affairs and all the correspondence of our ministers abroad were properly cared for. The office was open for business from 9 o'clock in the morning till 6 at night, and either the deputy or a clerk remained in the office while the others were at dinner. The committee concluded their report by saying: "And upon the whole they find neat- ness, method, and perspicacity throughout the Department." On September 16, 1788, was taken the last act relative to foreign affairs by the expiring Congress, when it — Resolved, That no further progress be made in the nego- tiations with Spain by the Secretary for Foreign Affairs, but that the subject to which they relate be referred to the Federal Government which is to assemble in March next. One month later the Congress was dead, not a sufficient number of Members attending to form a quorum. The only two Secretaries of Foreign Affairs be- fore the Constitution went into effect were Living- ston and Jay. Both showed conspicuous ability, and it is doubtful if men better equipped for the otTice they held could have been found in America. The diplomacy of the Revolution was, on the whole, splendidly successful, but this was due chiefly to the energy and genius of the American diplomatists, for the machinery which they were obliged to use was weak and inadequate for its purpose. In no branch of governmental affairs was the necessity for a stronger government and closer union of the States more crying than in our foreign relations, and this was more evident after the peace than it was while the States clung to- gether in the common danger of war. " When our ministers and agents in Europe," says John Fiske, " raised the question as to making commercial treaties, they were disdainfully asked whether European powers were expected to deal with thir- teen governments or with one. If it was answered that the United States constituted a single govern- ment so far as their relations with foreign powers were concerned, then we were forthwith twitted with our failure to keep our engagements with England with regard to the loyalists and the collec- tion of private debts. ' Yes, we see,' said the Euro- 10 pean diplomats; ' the United States are one nation to-day and tliirteen to-morrow, according as may seem to subserve their selfish interests.' Jefferson, at Paris, was told again and again that it was use- less for the French Government to enter into any agreement with the United States, as there was no certainty that it would be fulfilled on our part, and the same things were said all over Europe." CHAPTER II. A DEPARTMENT OF STATE. The new Government under the Constitution assembled in New York early in April, 1789. After Washington had been elected President and John Adams Vice President, the business of providing executive departments was taken up, and the first one considered was a department for foreign af- fairs. The bill introduced in the House of Repre- sentatives June 2 provided for such a department, completely separated from the conduct of domestic affairs. It passed the House June 27 by a vote of 29 to 22. A few unimportant amendments, to which the House subsequently agreed, were made in the Sen- ate, and the bill became a law July 27, 1789. The title was "An act for establishing an executive de- partment, to be denominated the Department of Foreign Affairs." It comprised four sections. The first defined the duties of the Department to be (11) 12 correspondence with and instructions to diplo- matic and consular agents abroad and negotiations with the agents of foreign nations in the United States, " or to such other matters respecting foreign affairs as the President of the United States shall assign to the said Department." The second sec- tion provided for the appointment by the Secre- tary of a chief clerk, who should have charge of the records, books, and papers of the Department during a vacancy in the office of the Secretary, by removal by the President or other cause. The third section required that each person employed in the Department should take an oath or affirma- tion " well and faithfully to execute the trust com- mitted to him." The fourth section provided that the Secretary should have custody of all the papers which had been in the old office of foreign affairs. John Jay, being in charge of the old Department of Foreign Affairs, was continued, without a new appointment, temporarily in charge of the new Department, but this Department was destined to enjoy but a brief existence. Before the final pas- sage of the act creating it, Vining, of Delaware, proposed in the House the establishment of a home department, to have the custody of the great seal, correspond with the several States, report to the 13 President " plans for the protection and improve- ment of manufactures, agriculture, and commerce," issue patents, etc.; but this proposition met with little favor, and on July 31, four days after the bill establishing the Department of Foreign Affairs had been signed, Theodore Sedgwick, of Connecticut, introduced a bill " to provide for the safe-keeping of the acts, records, and great seal of the United States; for the publication, preservation, and au- thentication of the acts of Congress," etc. The House passed it August 27; it was concurred in with a few verbal amendments by the Senate Sep- tember 7, agreed to by the House the next day, and signed by the President September 15. The first section of this act provides that the " Executive Department, denominated the Depart- ment of Foreign Affairs, shall hereafter be denomi- nated the Department of State, and the principal officer shall hereafter be called the Secretary of State." The Secretary was required to receive and publish the laws of the United States; to be the custodian of the seal of the United States; to au- thenticate copies of records and papers, and to receive all the records and papers in the office of the late Secretary of Congress, except such as re- lated to the Treasury and War Departments. 14 The scope of the Department was thus materially enlarged, and it became the most important of the Government offices under the President. The gov- ernors of the States had been informed by the President July 5 of the creation of the Department of Foreign Affairs. They were informed Septem- ber 21 of its expansion into the Department of State. A few days later Jay was nominated to be Chief Justice of the United States and Thomas Jefferson to be Secretary of State, both being com- missioned September 26. Jefferson was still on his mission to France, and on October 13 Washing- ton wrote to him informing hiin of his appoint- ment, and added that " Mr. Jay had been so oblig- ing as to continue his good offices." Jefferson ar- rived in this country in December, and Jay wrote to him under date of December 12, congratulating him on his appointment, and favorably recom- mending to him " the young gentlemen in the office." The final acceptance of office by Jefferson was not made until February 14, 1790, when he wrote to Washington from Monticello, saying that he would shortly set out for New York to assume his new duties. Upon his arrival in New York the Department was formally turned over to him and 16 fairly started upon its career. The first Secretary of State had enjoyed important diplomatic experi- ence as minister to France; he had had executive experience as Governor of Virginia during the Revolution; he had gained legislative experience in 1776 v^hen he sat in Congress and wrote the Declaration of Independence. 4986—22 3 CHAPTER III. DUTIES WHICH HAVE PASSED. When the Department of State was started, the compensation of the Secretary was fixed by law at $3,500 per annum; that of the chief clerk at $800; that of the other clerks at not more than $500. Roger Alden, the chief clerk, had been deputy secretary, under Charles Thomson, to the old Con- gress. Henry Remsen, jr., who had had charge of the business pertaining to foreign affairs, was con- tinued in that capacity by Jefferson, who had two chief clerks, but the ranking clerk appears to have been Alden. From the very beginning the Department of State was more closely connected with the Presi- dent than any other executive department. In the Secretary of State were combined the two offices usually separated in other Governments of chancellor or keeper of the great seal and min- ister of foreign relations. Washington not only (16) 17 referred to the State Department all official letters bearing upon its business, but made it the reposi- tory^ of the drafts of many other letters. The volume of business of the Government rendered it possible for the President to attend personally to matters which are now rarely, if ever, brought before him. It was Jefferson's custom to consult his chief frequently. He sent him the rough draft of his letters for approval or correction, and car- ried to him all communications of consequence. The foreign ministers to the United States were not permitted to correspond directly with the Presi- dent, but were required to address the Secretary of State. This rule had been laid down before Jefferson's appointment, when Washington de- clined direct correspondence with Moustier, the French minister. The Department was also the medium of corre- spondence between the President and the governors of the several States. A number of the duties which fell to the Depart- ment soon after its organization have since passed out of its jurisdiction. Under the law of April 10, 1790, it had charge of the patent business. The patents were granted by a board composed of the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, and the Attorney General; and the patent issued to Samuel 18 Hopkins July 31, 1790, which was the first one granted, was signed by the President, Jefferson, and Edmund Randolph, the Attorney General. Three patents were issued that year. In 1793 another act relative to patents was passed, abolishing the board and placing the Secretary of State alone at the head of the Patent Office. In 1810 the Patent Office was given quarters apart from the rest of the Depart- ment of State, but it still remained under that Department. In 1849, when the Department of the Interior was formed, the Patent Office became a part of it, but it had been practically independent of the Department of State for some years. A law passed May 31, 1790, made the Department of State the repository for maps, charts, and books for which copyright might be granted by the United States district courts. It does not appear that the Secretary of State ever had the power of granting copyrights. In 1859 all of the records, books, etc., were by law turned over to the Department of the Interior, from which they passed later to the Library of Congress, where the business is now conducted. Another of the earlier functions of the Depart- ment was the superintendence of the census enu- meration. The first one was taken in 1790 by the 19 United States marshals, beginning on the first Mon- day in August and closing within nine months. The returns were filed with the clerks of the Fed- eral district courts, and the aggregate results sent to the President, who transmitted them to Con- gress; then they were printed under the super- vision of the Secretary of State. In taking the census of 1800 the returns were, under the law, sent direct to the Secretary of State, and the in- structions for the marshals were prepared by him. In 1850 the business was transferred by the act of May 23 to the Department of the Interior; thence in 1903 to the Department of Commerce and Labor and later to the Department of Commerce. The affairs of the Territories were under the Department of State until the organization of the Department of the Interior. When the Constitu- tion was formed the Territory northwest of the Ohio was the only one. The government, which had been organized under the Articles of Confeder- ation, was continued by the act of August 7, 1789. The communications from the governor intended for Congress were transmitted through the Presi- dent, and the correspondence between the Presi- dent and governor was conducted through the^ Department of State. The law of 1792 required 20 the Secretary of State to have the laws of the Territory printed and to provide seals for the offi- cers. As the Territorj'^ came to be subdivided into several separate governments the labors of the Department increased, but their nature did not materially change. The Department also maintained at one time a register of American seamen and incoming alien passengers. It had, when it was organized, the management of the mint, and one of the early acts of Secretary Jefferson was to send to the President two experi- mental coins made " by putting a silver plug worth three-fourths of a cent into a copper worth one- fourth of a cent." In fact, the department at the beginning was considered, as Jefferson said, to em- brace " the whole domestic administration (war and finance excepted)." CHAPTER IV. SOME DOMESTIC DUTIES. There are certain domestic functions of the De- partment which make it a Department of State. It is the medium for the publication of the laws of the United States. It is by the Secretary of State's proclamation that the adoption of amendments to the Constitution of the United States is made known. It promulgates the President's proclama- tions and orders and the treaties of the United States. Under the law it is the Secretary of State who is officially informed by the governors of the States of the votes cast for electors to decide who shall be the President and the Vice President of the United States, and the Secretary of State certi- fies these votes to the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives and publishes the governors' certificates in a newspaper in Washington. The law creating the Department of State pre- scribed that the Secretary should keep the seal of (21) **• 22 the United States, and he thus became the custo- dian of the most important official evidence of Federal Executive authority. The law reads that the Secretary of State — shall affix the said seal to all civil commissions to officers of the United States, to be appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, or by the President alone: Provided, That the said seal shall not be affixed to any commission before the same shall have been signed by the President of the United States, nor to any other instrument or act without the special warrant of the President therefor. The seal thus, as the Supreme Court has ex- pressed it, " attests, by an act supposed to be of public notoriety, the verity of the presidential sig- nature." The device of the seal was adopted by the Con- tinental Congress in 1782, and is as follows: The device for an armorial achievement and reverse of the great seal for the United States in Congress assembled, is as follows : ARMS.^Paleways of thirteen pieces, argent and gules; a chief, azure; the escutcheon on the breast of the Ameri- ca'n eagle displayed proper, holding in his dexter talon an olive branch, and in his sinister a bundle of thirteen arrows, all proper, and in his beak a scroll,, inscribed with this motto, " E pluribus Unum." For the Crest. Over the head of the Eagle, which ap- pears above the escutcheon, a glory, or, breaking through .23 a cloud, proper, and surrounding thirteen stars, fornft^^a constellation, argent, on an azure field. Reverse. — A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith, an eye in a triangle, surrounded With a glory proper. Over the eye these words, "Annuit coeptis." On the base of the pyramid the numerical letters MDCCLXXVL And underneath the following motto, "Novus Ordo Seclornm." REMARKS AND EXPLANATION. The Escutcheon is composed of the chief and pale, the two most honourable ordinaries. The pieces, paly, repre- sent the several States all joined in one solid compact entire, supporting a Chief, which unites the whole and represents Congress. The Motto alludes to this union. The pales in the arms are kept closely united by the chief and the chief depends on that Union and the strength re- sulting from it for its support, to denote the Confederacy of the United States of America and the preservation of their Union through Congress. The colours of the pales are those used in the flag of the United States of America; White signifies purity and innocence; Red, hardiness and valour, and Blue, the colour of the chief signifies vigilance perseverance & justice. The Olive branch and arrows de- note the power of peace and war which is exclusively vested in Congress. The Constellation denotes a new State taking its place and rank among other sovereign powers. The Escutcheon is born on the breast of an American Eagle without any other supporters, to denote that the United States ought to rely on their own Virtue. •24 Reverse. — The pyramid signifies Strength and Duration. Thp Eye over it and the motto allude to the many signal intlS'positions of providence in favour of the American causd. The date underneath is that of the Declaration of Independence and the words under it signify the begin- ning of the new American ^Era, which commences from that date. Passed June 20, 1782. The above is the official description of the coat of arms of the United States. When an American shield appears with the stripes alternately red (gules) and white (argent), instead of alternately white and red; when the stripes are more or less than thirteen; when there are stars in the top (chief) of the shield; when the eagle grasps in his left (sinister) talon more or less than thirteen arrows; when above the eagle's head there are more or less than thirteen stars — whenever any of these and other common errors appear, the i\meri- can arms are not correctly reproduced. The reverse of the seal has never been used officially. At the present time the seal of the United States is affixed to the commissions of all Cabinet officers and diplomatic and consular officers appointed by the President; to all ceremonial communications from the President to the heads of foreign Govern- ments; to all treaties, conventions, and formal 25 agreements of the President with foreign powers; to all exequaturs to foreign consular officers in the United States who are appointed by the heads of the Governments which they represent; to war- rants by the President to receive persons sur- rendered by foreign Governments under extradi- tion treaties; and to all miscellaneous commissions of civil officers appointed by the President, whose appointments are not now directed by law to be countersigned under a different seal. The law creating the Department ordered that all bills, orders, resolutions, etc., passed by Con- gress and approved by the President, or passed over his veto, should be sent to the Secretary of State, by whom they were to be printed and the originals recorded and preserved. They were printed, under varying regulations, in newspapers until 1874, but this did not interfere with their pub- lication also in pamphlet form. Since 1874 the publication of the laws has been wholly by the Secretary of State. In that year, also, the Revised Statutes of the United States was provided for. The Declaration of Independence and the Con- stitution of the United States, the fundamental laws of the United States, were in the custody of the Secretary of State for 133 years; but by an order 26 of President Harding, dated September 29, 1921, issued at the instance of Secretary Hughes, they were transferred to the custody of the Library of Congress, because the Library of Congress was in a fireproof building, and the' facilities for the ex- hibition of the documents were better there than they were in the State Department Building. A facsimile of the Declaration of Independence was made in 1824. On January 2 of that year was read in the House of Representatives a letter from John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, stat- ing that the facsimile had been made by his direction and 200 copies struck off. A joint reso- lution was passed providing for their distribution to various public institutions and to each of the sur- viving signers of the original. These were Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton. The engraver who made the copy was William J. Stone, of Washington. Facsimiles have been struck off since and are now quite common. They do not, however, closely resemble the docu- ment as it appears at the present day, as within the past 30 years the ink has faded and the names of many of the signers have become almost illegible. CHAPTER V. SOME FOREIGN DUTIES. Presidential warrants of extradition, as we have seen, bear the seal of the United States, and this brings us to one of the most important and inter- esting of the legal functions of the Department of State. Extradition, as Prof. John B. Moore de- fines it, is " the act by which one nation delivers up an individual accused or convicted of an of- fense outside of its own territory to another na- tion which demands him." In the earlier days of the Republic this function was not infrequently discharged by the governors of the individual States. But with the development and clearer comprehension of the powers of the National Government the States have ceased to deal with the subject, and it is now generally admitted to belong exclusively to the General Government. There is an exception to this rule in the case of Mexico. The United States has, by treaty with that Government, agreed that applications for ex- (27) 28 tradition may be made and granted by State gov- ernments for offenses committed in the frontier territory of this country and Mexico. This does not, however, preclude the exercise of supreme control in the matter by the National Government of either country. The first treaty of this country providing for mutual surrender of criminals was that of 1794 with Great Britain. Murder and forgery were the only crimes included in it, and it expired in 12 years. A new treaty was concluded with Great Britain in 1842, and since then treaties have been entered into with many powers, and the practice of extradition has become general. The most important routine duties of the De- partment of State are those connected with the Diplomatic and Consular Service. The Depart- ment of Foreign Affairs was formed with the chief purpose of taking under its charge these functions of government, and the methods of administration have not changed materially since the early days of the Republic. The rules and practices that govern our diplo- matic and consular corps are found in the various works on international law, and these cover even minute matters of form and routine; but there has , 29 gradually grown up an American construction of international law. What this construction is may be found in the volumes known as Foreign Rela- tions, which have been regularly issued by the Government since 1870, and which were issued before that, from 1861 to 1868, under the title Diplomatic Correspondence. Previous to 1861 the foreign correspondence was printed in separate reports to Congress. In these volumes the instruc- tions of the Secretary of State to our ministers abroad, and their dispatches, and the notes ex- changed between the Secretary of State and foreign ministers accredited to this country are given in part. In 1877, utider the supervision of John L. Cad- walader. Assistant Secretary of State, the Depart- ment issued a small volume entitled " Digest of the Published Opinions of the Attorney General and of the Leading Decisions of the Federal Courts, with Reference to International Law, Treaties, and Kin- dred Subjects." This was followed in 1886 by the most important work on American international law that had been printed up to that time. It was entitled "A Digest of the International Law of the United States, taken from Documents issued by Presidents and Secretaries of State, and from De- 30 • • cisions of Federal Courts and Opinions of Attor- neys General," and was published by the Govern- ment under congressional authority. The com- piler and editor was the eminent scholar and publicist, Francis Wharton, LL. D., who held the office of Solicitor of the Department of State while he prepared the work. In 1906, John Bassett Moore being the editor, appeared a new work on American International Law based upon Wharton's Digest. It was under- taken in accordance with an act of Congress, ap- proved February 20, 1897. It is in eight volumes, and is entitled "A Digest of International Law as Embodied in Diplomatic Discussions, Treaties, and Other International Agreements, International Awards, the Decisions of Municipal Courts and the Writings of Jurists, and Especially in Docu- ments, Published and Unpublished, Issued by Presidents and Secretaries of State of the United States, the Opinions of the Attorneys General, and the Decisions of Courts, Federal and State." The particular rules for the government of con- sular officers are found in the volume known as Consular Regulations, the first edition of which appeared in 1855, when William L. Marcy was Secretary of State, under the title General Instruc- tions to the Consuls and Commercial Agents of the 31 United States. This publication followed the act of March 1, 1855, remodeling the Consular and Diplomatic Service, In 1857 another edition was printed, entitled " Regulations Prescribed by the President for Consular Officers of the United States." The first volume, entitled " Consular Reg- ulations," was issued in 1874 under Secretary Ham- ilton Fish. There have been successive editions since then, the last appearing in 1896. A new edi- tion is now in preparation. The Department's relations to American diplo- matic and consular officers is similar to the rela- tions of the War Department to the Army, and of the Navy Department to the Navy. We now have diplomatic missions in 49 coun- tries. Some are under ambassadors; most of them are under envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary; two are under diplomatic agents and consuls general; and one is under a minister resident and consul general. At each of these mis- sions there are counselors or secretaries, or both; at some there are commercial, military, and naval attaches, and in China and Japan there are student interpreters. The duties of a diplomatic repre- sentative are many and varied. He must guard American rights and see that they are not infringed 4986—22 4 32 upon; he must give information to foreigners con- cerning American institutions, laws, and customs; he is the medium through whom Americans meet foreigners for official or business reasons. Hi$ most important function is the presentation to the foreign government near which he is residing of the official views of this Government, and the con- veyance to this Government of official messages from the foreign government. He must keep his Government advised of the progress of events in the country where he lives. He is supposed to be always acting under the instructions of the State Department. A diplomat is the agent of his government to a foreign government, but a consul is his govern- ment's agent only in the district in which his con- sulate is situated. It is the special function of consuls to promote American commerce, and watch over commercial interests. But, besides this, they take charge of the estates of American citizens who die abroad without legal representatives; care for stranded American seamen; certify to the correct- ness of the values of merchandise exported to the United States; aid in the enforcement of the immi- gration laws; and give advice and protection to American citizens. Their duties are so varied and multifarious that it is impossible to describe them 33 briefly. The consular regulations which prescribe a consul's duties comprise upward of 3,000 para- graphs. There are about 300 principal consular officers, and altogether the service is composed, including vice consuls, clerks, interpreters, etc., of more than 1,600 men. Wherever there are Ameri- can interests in foreign countries, there are Ameri- can consular officers; that is to say, they may be found in all the four quarters of the globe. The granting of passports to American citizens for their protection in traveling abroad was a function which fell to the Government under the general provisions of international law as soon as there was competent authority for the purpose. The treaty of 1778 with France, which was the first made by the United States, provided for a form of passport to be given by the two Govern- ments to their respective vessels, but until 1856 there was no law restricting the granting of pass- ports to Federal authority. In the absence of any statute, however, the issu- ing of passports to Americans going abroad fell to the Department of State, as one of its manifestly proper functions. Nevertheless, as they had doubtless been issued before the adoption of the Constitution by State or municipal authorities, they continued to be so issued without statutory 34 prohibition until the enactment of the law of 1856. This law provided that the Secretary of State be authorized to grant and issue passports, and cause them to be granted and verified in foreign coun- tries by. diplomatic and consular officers of the United States under such rules as the President might prescribe. No one else was to issue pass- ports, and they must be issued to none but citizens of the United States. Any person not authorized to do so who granted a passport should, upon con- viction of the offense, be deemed guilty of a mis- demeanor and fined and imprisoned. All returns of passports issued abroad were to be made to the Secretary of State. The act of July 1, 1863, was the first one estab- lishing a passport fee, which was fixed at $3. This was increased to $5 by act of June 20, 1864. The fee was abolished by act of July 14, 1870, restored by that of June 20, 1874, and reduced by act of March 23, 1888, to $1. It was increased to $9 by act of Congress approved June 4, 1920. For the year ending June 30, 1921, the receipts for passport fees were $1,184,000. During the World War it became necessary for all travelers to be provided with passports, and in order that officials might be assured of the validity 35 of the passports the vise system was resorted to; that is to say, it was required that each passport should be shown to a consul, who, after he had seen it and found it to be valid, indorsed upon it a statement to that effect. The system has been used not only to prevent the entrance into the United States of alien enemies but of anarchists and others opposed to the Government. Every alien before proceeding to the United States must go to the nearest American consul to have his passport viseed. After the armistice the United States was looked upon as a fertile field for the activities of revolutionists and fanatics who wished to create political and social unrest. In 1920 there was a wave of emigration toward this country, and it was the consuls' duty to eliminate undesirable persons* from the thousands of would-be immigrants. The passports of 657,968 aliens bound for the United States were viseed by our consuls during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1921, and the fees for this serv- ice, which went to the Treasury of the United States, amounted to more than $500,000. In per- forming their duties with reference to vises, the consuls discovered extensive frauds — the manu- facture and sale of fraudulent passports, presenta- tion of fraudulent passports at the ports of the United States, and false and fraudulent indorse- 36 ments and vises. Active steps were taken to break up these practices. To illustrate the volume of business relating to vises transacted, it may be noted that one consulate general had during the winter of 1920-21 approximately 10,000 applica- tions for vises each month; and when the office was opened in the morning three or four hundred per- sons would be found waiting to obtain their vises, notwithstanding the fact that the fee for each vise is $10. At another office, at certain times, there were as many as 8,000 persons waiting for vises. . CHAPTER VI. THE SUBDIVISIONS. To the obvious necessity of dividing the labors of the Department is due the formation of the divisions and bureaus. In a circular dated October 31, 1834, John Forsyth, Secretary of State, pre- scribed the distribution of the duties in the Depart- ment. The chief clerk's duties, he said, were such as pertained to an undersecretary. He was to exercise an immediate superintendence over the several bureaus, and report to the Secretary all acts of personal negligence or misconduct. The Diplomatic Bureau was to have charge of all corre- spondence between the Department and our diplo- matic agents abroad and foreign diplomatic agents in the United States; was to prepare treaties, etc., and keep indexes of its correspondence, a function now performed by a separate bureau. Three clerks were in charge of the bureau. The Consular Bureau had charge, similarly, of all consular corre- spondence, the business also being performed by (37) 38 three clerks. The Home Bureau was divided into four divisions, one clerk being in charge of each. One division had control of the returns of passen- gers from foreign ports and registered seamen, miscellaneous and domestic correspondence, trea- ties and presents which were permitted to be ex- hibited. To another was given the custody of the seal of the United States and the seal of the Depart- ment, the applications for office, the commissions and appointments. A third had the presidential pardons, passports, and ail correspondence re- lating to them. The fourth had in charge the filing and preserving of copyrights and the reports to the President and Congress. The keeper of the archives had charge of all archives other than diplomatic and consular, of the laws and their dis- tribution, and of the publications of the Depart- ment. The translator and librarian performed all the translations and cared for the books, etc. The disbursing agent made all the purchases and disbursements, and was also superintendent of the building. All the business was confidential. The clerks were required to finally act upon and dis- pose of all matters sent to them on the day of their receipt. The hours of business were from 10 in the morning till 3 in the afternoon, during which time 39 no one was to be absent without special permission. The clerks in the Patent Office were under a sepa- rate arrangement. In 1842, when Daniel Webster was Secretary of State, was originated the " Statistical Office." He recommended, in a report to Congress, that the ar- rangement and condensation of information on commercial subjects received from our consuls abroad be intrusted to one person, who should also have charge of the correspondence. No action was taken on the subject by Congress until 1856, when the " Statistical Office of the Department of State " was authorized, under the charge of a " superintendent," with a salary of $2,000. In 1874 the title was changed to "Bureau of Sta- tistics," with a chief receiving $2,400 a year, after- wards reduced to $2,100. Secretary Sherman, act- ing under authority of a law passed that year, changed the name by an order dated July 1, 1897, to the Bureau of Foreign Commerce. The bureau was transferred to the Department of Commerce and Labor February 14, 1903, and the Bureau of Trade Relations was established to edit the con- sular reports and formulate commercial instruc- tions to consuls. The bureau became the Office of Foreign Trade Advisers in 1914; then of Foreign 40 Trade Adviser in 1915; of Adviser on Commercial Treaties in 1916; again Foreign Trade Adviser in 1917; and Economic Adviser by order of the Sec- retary of State dated December 20, 1921. In 1870 there was instituted the Bureau of In- dexes and Archives, to index all incoming and out- going mail which had before been indexed by the several bureaus, and to have charge of the ar- chives, diplomatic, consular, and domestic, thus taking the duties which had before belonged to the keeper of the archives. The financial business of the Department, pre- viously intrusted to one of the clerks, was put by the act of 1855 in the hands of a disbursing clerk, who was ordered to give bonds. A Bureau of Ac- counts, with the disbursing clerk as chief, was formed in 1873. The librarian and translator was paid, under the act of 1836, $1,600 a year. The two offices were subsequently separated, each being filled by a clerk. The separate bureau of rolls and library was created in 1874, the laws, treaties, and histori- cal papers being in its custody, as well as the books, periodicals, and maps. By an order of May 13, 1921, all of these duties, those of the editor of the laws, and all the publica- 41 tions of the Department were placed under the Division of Publications, with the editor of the Department as chief. The Diplomatic and Consular Bureaus continued practically as organized by Secretary Forsyth, but each bureau was for several years divided, there being a First Diplomatic Bureau and a Second Diplomatic Bureau, and a First Consular Bureau and a Second Consular Bureau, each having a separate chief. The passport business of the Department, which had been under Forsyth's arrangement a division of the Home Bureau, was afterwards separated and made a distinct bureau, with one of the clerks in charge of it. In 1894 it was placed under the Bureau of Accounts, but as a division with the passport clerk at its head. In 1902 it was made a separate bureau, and in 1907 the name was changed to the Bureau of Citizenship. The designation was again changed August 13, 1918, to Division of Pass- port Control. The applications for office, custody of the seal of the United States, preparation of commissions and appointments, also formerly a part of the duties of the Home Bureau, were put under the Bureau of Commissions and Pardons, and after the 42 pardons ceased to be made out in the Department this was simply the Bureau of Commissions. The name was subsequently changed to Bureau of Ap- pointments, with the appointment clerk in charge of it, by Secretary Olney. An important development of the machinery of the Department was t^ie formation of divisions hav- ing charge of the correspondence with diplomatic and consular officers in particular countries or groups of countries. There had always been some sort of division of the correspondence upon geo- graphic lines; but it was inadequate to the ex- panding needs of the service, having been put into effect when we were a small nation having limited intercourse with other Governments. So it was to meet what had become a necessity that certain political geographical divisions M^ere created in the Department. They deal with our political and commercial relations with different sections of the world. The Division of Far Eastern Affairs was the first established, in 1908. It has general supervision of our relations with China, Japan, Siam, the far eastern possessions of European States, and Siberia. In 1909 the Division of Latin American Affairs, with similar functions for Cen- tral and South America, was created; also in that 43 year the Division of Western European Affairs and Near Eastern Affairs; in 1915 the Division of Mexican Affairs; and in 1919 the Division of Russian Affairs. By this organization our corre- spondence with and concerning different groups of countries passes into the hands of officials as- signed for duty in the Department, who are in most cases diplomatic or consular officers of the United States and who have in all cases personal knowl- edge and experience of the affairs of the countries to which the correspondence pertains. Under the provisions of a law passed in 1909, the Secretary of State was permitted to organize his Department with reference to increase in for- eign trade and in other directions, and he then created a Division of Information, whose duty it was to circulate important correspondence among the diplomatic missions abroad, so that the entire diplomatic service might be conversant with such important matters as the department was consid- ering. This division also examined the foreign press and made extracts for the benefit of the offi- cers of the department itself." In 1917 (May 7) the division became the Division of Foreign Intelli- gence, and the preparation of information for the press was added to its other duties. By Depart- 44 ment order in 1920 (Feb. 6) the Division of Po- litical Information was created, and on May 24, 1921, it became the Division of Political and Eco- nomic Information. On the latter date was created also the Division of Current Information, which took over the business of preparing items for the press which had formerly been with the Division of Foreign Intelligence. The organization of the Department at the present time, after the Secre- taries, Director of the Consular Service, Solicitor, and Chief Clerk, is: Division of Far Eastern Affairs, Division of Latin-American Affairs, Divi- sion of Western European Affairs, Division of Near Eastern Affairs, Division of Mexican Affairs, Division of Russian Affairs, Office of the Eco- nomic Adviser, Division of Passport Control, Visa Office, Division of Publications, Division of Po- litical and Economic Information, Division of Current Information, and five bureaus as follows : Diplomatic, Consular, Appointments, Indexes and Archives, and Accounts. The whole business of the Department is divided among these divisions and bureaus. CHAPTER VII. THE DEPARTMENT'S HOMES. The meeting place of the Congress, where the plan for the conduct of our foreign affairs was first taken into consideration, was Carpenters' Hall, a building which had been constructed for the Society of House Carpenters, of Philadelphia. It stands at the end of an alley, south from Chestnut Street, between Third and Fourth Streets. The lower floor, consisting of one large room, was occupied by the Congress, and the rooms in the second story by committees. From Carpenters' Hall the Govern- ment went to what has ever since been known as Independence Hall. As soon as the Department of Foreign Affairs was organized under Livingston, it took possession of a small house in Philadelphia, owned by Peter L. Du Ponceau, No. 13 South Sixth Street, on the eastern side. Livingston's office was in the front room of the second floor, and in the back room were the undersecretaries, while the clerks and (45) 46 interpreters occupied the room on the ground floor. This building was demolished in 1846. It was occu- pied as the Office of Foreign Affairs from the latter part of 1781 up to June, 1783, when the Depart- ment was practically suspended until Jay took con- trol of it in 1785. In January, 1785, the seat of government being moved to New York, the Department of Foreign Affairs found quarters in the famous Fraunce's Tavern, in the long room of which Washington had taken farewell of the generals of the Revolution at the close of the war. Here it remained till 1788, when it moved to the west side of Broadway, in a house owned by Philip Livingston, near the Bat- tery. Later it was moved to another house on the same street on the opposite side. The capital having been again located at Phila- delhpia, the Department took up its abode first on Market Street, then on the southeast corner of Arch and Sixth Streets, then in North Alley, and finally at the northeast corner of Fifth and Chestnut Streets, where it remained until it was moved to Washington, except for an interval of three months, from August to November, 1798, when it occupied the State House at Trenton, N. J-, the office being moved from Philadelphia on account of an epi- demic of yellow fever. 47 On June 1, 1800, the archives were lodged in the Treasury, the only building sufficiently completed to receive them, and August 27 were placed in one of the " six buildings " on Pennsylvania Avenue near Twentieth Street. In May, 1801, the offices were placed in the large brick building on Seven- teenth Street opposite G Street, known as the War Office, and here they remained up to December, 1819, with an interval from September, 1814, to April, 1816, when they occupied a building on the south side of G Street, near Eighteenth, pending the repair of the former building, which had been demolished in the invasion of the city by the British troops. In January, 1820, the offices were moved to the corner of Fifteenth Street and Pennsylvania Ave- nue, the site now covered by the north wing of the iJnited States Treasury, and there the depart- ment remained up to October, 1866, when it leased the premises then belonging, as now, to the Wash- ington Orphan Asylum, on Fourteenth Street near S Street. It remained there until July, 1875, when it was removed to the State, War, and Navy Build- ing, where it now is. When it first moved into this building it did not require for the transaction of business the whole 4986 — 22 5 48 of the south wing, so the Navy Department occu- pied a part of the basement and the War Depart- ment the fourth floor and the attic. As the busi- ness of the Department grew, however, it had not sufiicien; room for all of its offices and was obliged to rent rooms in buildings near the main depart- ment for the overflow. At one time there were four offices located outside of the main building. To meet the necessities, in 1910 under on act of Congress the Government acquired a square of land bounded on the north by Pennsylvania Ave- nue, on the south by the Mall, on the east by Four- teenth Street, and on the west by Fifteenth Street. Here it was intended to erect a new building for the State Department and buildings for several other departments. In 1911 an award was made to an architect for plans for a new State Depart- ment building, but no steps have thus far been taken to build it. In the meantime the Navy De- partment and a portion of the War Department have moved from the State, War, and Navy Build- ing to other quarters, and the State Department has spread through the whole south wing and a considerable portion of the rest of the building.. All of the offices are now under one roof. The of- fice of the Secretary of State has remained in the- 49 same place where it was established in 1875, on the second floor in the middle of the south wing, overlooking the park known as the White Lot. In this office 18 Secretaries of State have conducted the foreign affairs of the United States, the first occupant being Hamilton Fish, and the present occupant Charles Evans Hughes. CHAPTER VIII. IN WAR. Since the Department was organized it has man- aged our foreign affairs through five wars — the War of 1812 with Great Britain; the Civil War of 1861-65; the War with Spain in 1898; and the World War, of which we were a part from 1917 to 1919, and which put a burden of additional work upon the Department from the time that it broke out in August, 1914. In each of these wars the regular organization of the Department has been greatly enlarged, and a number of vital temporary functions have been added to its normal duties. Only a few of these functions in the World War can be mentioned here. As soon as war was declared in Europe the State Department was asked by the several belligerent governments to take charge of their interests in those countries with which they were at war, and from which, in consequence, their representation had been withdrawn. The requests came from the (50) 51 Governments of Germany, Austria, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Japan, Russia, Italy, Bulgaria, Serbia, Turkey, and Rumania. American diplo- matic and consular officers^became in a sense the agents of these foreign governments. They were expected, for example, to look after the interests of Germany in England, and of England in Ger- many; to facilitate the departure of those civilians who were permitted to depart, to see that those who remained received humane treatment, and to give property interests such protection as they were en- titled to receive. Thus, a part of the American Embassy at London was the German section, com- prising a number of clerks who attended to the numerous requests for aid which came from Ger- mans and German interests in Great Britain. Simi- lar functions for the British were performed at the Embassy at Berlin, and the practice became general at American offices throughout the world. In some places the American representative was the representative also of five other nations. These duties continued until the United States ceased to be a neutral power. Included in the protection of foreign interests was the inspection of camps occu- pied by prisoners of war. This duty was particu- larly onerous in Russia, Germany, and England. As an example of its magnitude it may be stated 52 that by October, 1916, after the war had lasted a little over two years, our agents in Great Britain were visiting 105 separate prison camps where Germans and Austrians were confined, and in Germany our officers were visiting 148 camps of British prisoners. In behalf of the foreign govern- ments which they represented, our officers dis- bursed large sums of money. Up to October, 1916, about $2,000,000 had bcfcn placed to the credit of American diplomatic officers for the relief of enemy subjects who were unable to leave the enemy's country, Germany sent over -$100,000 per month to the American ambassador at London for the relief of German prisoners of war. When the war broke out in Europe the first duty of the Department and its agents was to protect American citizens who were traveling or sojourn- ing in those countries which had gone to war. There were many thousands of these citizens, some of them tourists taking a short European trip for pleasure and some of them people sojourning abroad for one purpose or another. The Depart- ment was flooded with inquiries concerning their welfare and whereabouts. Many of them had return tickets to the United States and very little money; but at first it w^s difficult and often impos- sible in Europe to obtain any money upon checks 53 or letters of credit. The first duty of the Depart- ment was, therefore, to make arrangements by which money could be advanced to Americans who wished to return home and then to arrange for their transportation. During the month of August upward of 60,000 inquiries concerning the where- abouts and welfare of individual Americans were cabled abroad by the Department at the request of their relatives and friends in the United States. Gold was sent over for their relief, ships were char- tered, and in about three months' time most Amer- icans who desired to leave Europe had had an opportunity to do so. Nevertheless, there were a great many Americans who left this country to go abroad for good rea- sons, and all of these were obliged to carry pass- ports. Thus the Division of Passport Control issued more passports in a single day than it had issued in normal times in a month. In this branch of the Department's business many frauds were dis- covered. Foreign spies were executed who were in possession of counterfeit American passports; there was false impersonation on the part of per- sons applying for passports, and much perjured evidence was presented to the Department. Crim- inal investigations and prosecutions occurred. It 54 was found to be necessary to make a new passport on a special safety paper. Strict requirements of proof of citizenship and careful scrutiny of appli- cations for passports were a necessary feature of the business. As long as the United States was a neutral power the preservation of neutrality and neutral rights required extraordinary vigilance. As an incident in managing this feature, a neutrality board was formed comprising the solicitor of the Department, an Army officer, Navy officer, and a specialist in international law. This board met regularly and considered cases concerning neutrality which the Secretary of State placed before it and reported its findings and recommendations. Of course, the great increase in the Department's duties required an increase in its staff, and it called into its service a number of persons who had special knowledge of the subjects which came before it. Some of these additional officers were former officials of the Department who volun- teered their aid in the crisis of the times. One office which had extraordinary pressure of important duties was that of the Foreign Trade Advisers, now the office of the Economic Adviser. It dealt with the complaints of persons engaged 55 in commerce whose shipments to foreign countries were seized, delayed, or sequestered, and whose importations to this country were obstructed, delayed, or sequestered. After the United States itself became a belliger- ent the Department gave its full assistance in the prosecution of the war, and at the same time prep- arations were made for the peace negotiations which would inevitably follow. For the purpose of obtaining data to be used in these negotiations, a large office force was established in New York, which worked under the general supervision of the Department. The expansion of the Department's duties dur- ing the war has not been abolished by peace. The passport business and the vise business have con- tinued to be almost as large as they were during hostilities, and the disordered conditions in most foreign countries require the continued vigilance of American diplomatic and consular officers to protect Americans and their interests. Many Americans have been attracted to European coun- tries by the prospects of opening new markets. Foreign trade must be readjusted; the markets have changed. The supervising official authority in assisting American commerce to meet the new 56 conditions is the American Diplomatic and Consu- lar Service, operating under the State Department. Whereas before the war the American flag was rarely seen in foreign waters, American ships being few, the American merchant marine is now large and our ships enter all the chief ports — always iinder the protection of the State Department's agents. Our whole outlook upon foreign relations has been forcibly expanded. Having served under arms with seven European nations, we are obliged to take notice of European affairs and to keep our- selves informed of their progress. The State De- partment is the center of this information. Events which before the World War we looked upon with detachment, we are now under the necessity of regarding as matters which affect us. Our inter- ests in the Far East are as vital as our interests in Europe, and our community of interest with Latin America always confronts us. The State Depart- ment which managed the foreign affairs of the United States 10 years ago could not effectively serve the country's foreign interests now. CHAPTER IX, IN PEACE. ro conduct the foreign affairs of the United States in times of war is a rare duty of the Department of State; to preserve friendly relations with all the world is its daily function. When differences arise between the United States and foreign governments they are settled usually by friendly, frank discussions carried on through the ordinary channels of diplomacy. If this method does not succeed, then formal conferences are held, and if these fail, then arbitration is invoked. War is the last resort. Arbitration is the application of law and of judicial methods to the determination of disputes between nations. " Its object is to displace war between nations as a means of obtaining national redress, by the judgments of international judicial tribunals, just as private war between individuals as a means of obtaining personal redress has, in (57) 58 consequence of the development of law and order in civilized States, been supplanted by the proc- esses of municipal courts." Such is the definition of aroitration given by John Bassett Moore in his Digest of International Law. (Vol. VII, p. 25.) From the commission formed in 1797 of British and American members for the purpose of arbi- trating the question of a part of the boundary line between the United States and Canada, up to 1899, when a permanent court of arbitration was pro- vided for by the international conference held at The Hague, the Government of the United States had resorted to arbitration to settle disputes with other countries more than forty times. In 1908 and 1909, 25 treaties with foreign nations, provid- ing for the arbitration of difficulties which might arise, were signed, 22 of which were ratified and proclaimed as the law of the land. In 1914 30 treaties were signed for the advancement of peace, 21 being ratified and proclaimed, and these treaties provide for joint commissions to make re- ports on differences, and in effect are arbitration treaties. To carry on negotiations for arbitrations and for treaties of friendship is one of the highest func- tions of the Department. 59 Of a kindred nature is the participation in those international conferences which take place at in- tervals between the delegates of foreign govern- ments and delegates of the United States. A nota- ble result of certain of these conferences is the Pan American Union, which, although it is not a part of the Department of State, is closely affiliated with it. In 1825 the President of the United States, John Quincy Adams, approved the project of holding a congress of independent American States to be held at Panama. One of the objects of the meeting, it was stated at the time, was to promote peace and union among the States of this hemisphere. The Panama Congress did not fulfill this hope; but it furnished a precedent for calling future interna- tional American conferences, and afterwards sev- eral were held. Finally, in 1889, the delegates of the countries of Central and South America and of the United States assembled in Washington with the Secretary of State as the presiding officer, to consider questions of mutual interest — among others the adoption of a definite plan of arbitra- tion of all questions, disputes, and differences be- tween the nations represented at the conference. This was known as the First International Ameri- can Conference. A second was held in 1902 at the 60 City of Mexico; a third at Rio de Janeiro in 1907; and a fourth at Buenos Aires in 1910. The first conference established the International Bureau of the American Republics at Washington. It was or- ganized in 1890, reorganized in 1907, and at the fourth conference the name was changed to the Pan American Union. The general control of this bu- reau is vested in a governing board of the diplo- matic representatives in Washington of all the Latin American governments and the Secretary of State, who is ex officio chairman of the board. Similar in purpose to the Pan American Con- ferences were the International Conferences held at The Hague in 1899 and 1907, in which delegates of the United States, acting under the instructions of the Secretary of State, took part. These meet- ings were commonly called " peace conferences," for their object was to advance the cause of inter- national peace. They drew up 13 international conventions and 3 international declarations. One avowed object of the first conference was to limit the armament of the various countries which had sent delegates to the conference, but to this part of the program several of the Governments represented were unwilling to agree. Both con- ferences, however, adopted conventions providing 61 for the pacific settlement of international disputes^ and for " a Judicial Arbitration Court." After the World War was terminated, so far as the United States was concerned, by law, as it had already ended in fact, the Secretary of State, un- der date of August 11, 1921, sent the invitation of the President to the Governments of Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan to attend an International Conference on the Limitation of Armament, to which subject was added in the scope of the dis- cussions Pacific and far eastern problems. The invitation was extended also to China and then to Belgium, The Netherlands, and Portugal, in view of the interest of those powers in the Far East. The conference met at Washington Novem- ber 12, 1921, and was presided over from the open- ing to the close by the Secretary of State, and a number of the members of the American delega- tion were officers of the Department of State. The executive management of the conference was a, part of the department's duty. The conference lasted for three months, from November 12, 1921, to February 6, 1922. On February 9 the Secretary of State transmitted to the President the proceed- ings of the conference, including the six treaties to which it had agreed, and these were laid before, the Senate by the President on February 10. CHAPTER X. THE DEPARTMENT AND THE PEOPLE. What has been written here is an outline sketch of the Department considered by itself; but as an essential part of the executive machinery of the Government it cooperates with all of the other de- partments. To the Treasury Department it sends, for the Bureau of Public Health Service, informa- tion received from the consuls concerning the out- break in foreign countries of contagious diseases, so that measures may be taken to prevent their introduction into the United States, and for the Customs Service it sends information concerning importations, false valuations, and possible smug- gling. The War Department details Army officers as military attaches at certain foreign capitals ; they form a part of the American embassies or legations. At the present time the War Department is admin- istering the customs receipts of Santo Domingo and Haiti, and in this business it cooperates with the American ministers in those countries. With the Interior Department the cooperation of the State (62) 63 Department relates especially to patents in foreign countries and foreign patents in the United States which are governed by treaties negotiated by the diplomatic officers of the United States. To the Department of Agriculture the State Department constantly reports concerning foreign crops, soils, climates, and plant and animal diseases, the in- formation being received from American consular officers. The Solicitor of the Department of State, who is its chief law officer, is also an officer of the Department of Justice, and thus a close connec- tion is maintained between the two departments; also the State Department, when occasion requires it, calls upon the Director and Chief of the Bureau of Investigation of the Department of Justice for assistance in the detection and prosecution of crimes which may be attempted or committed against that part of the public business which is under the State Department's jurisdiction. With the Post Office Department the State Depart- ment's connection pertains not alone to the large volume of mail, domestic and foreign, which it sends and receives, but also to those postal treaties and conventions with foreign countries which are prepared by the Second Assistant Postmaster Gen- eral, but are printed with the cooperation of the 4986 — 22 6 64 State Department. With the Navy Departmeni the State Department's relations are close, and there is a large exchange of information between them. American warships, when they enter for- eign ports, always put themselves in touch with American diplomatic and consular representa- tives, and the two departments cooperate in pro- tecting American interests. When ships are sent to protect American interests, they are sent at the request of the State Department. Occasionally, in case of emergency, an American diplomatic or consular officer may make a request directly of the commander of an American war ship to visit a port to afford protection. The Navy Depart- ment maintains Navy officers as attaches at cer- tain embassies and legations under conditions similar to those which prevail in the case of mili- tary attaches. At the present time the customs and financial affairs of Haiti and Santo Domingo are administered in part by Navy and Marine officers, who cooperate with our legations in those countries. The connection of the State Department with the Department of Commerce pertains especially to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, to which are sent the reports of the consuls on the subject of American trade and the opportunities for its extension in foreign countries. The prepara- 65 tion of such reports is one of the most important of a consul's duties. The reports themselves are published by the Department of Commerce in the Weekly Commerce Reports. The Department of Commerce maintains commercial attaches in for- eign countries who are included in the staffs of the embassies and legations and cooperate with the representatives of the Department in making re- ports on economic questions. In the Department OF Labor is the Bureau of Immigration, for which consular officers report concerning emigration from their respective districts. Also, in that Department is the Bureau of Naturalization, to which the De- partment of State reports such cases of fraudulent naturalization or of expatriation by naturalized citizens as come to its knowledge. Because it deals principally with foreign affairs — being, in fact, the department of foreign affairs — some people have the impression that the State Department's business is remote from the imme- diate interests of the people of the country; but this is an error, as a moment's reflection must reveal. Each year thousands of Americans go abroad for business reasons or for their education or health or pleasure. The State Department is required through its agents to extend them its pro- tection as long as they are in the lawful pursuit 66 of their affairs. It guards over them to see that no injustice or oppression befalls them. It assists American business men who are extending our trade and commerce by finding new markets for American products and by seeing that no obstacles are put in the way of American enterprise. Fi- nally, we must remember that upon the mainte- nance of peace and friendship with foreign coun- tries depends the safety and prosperity of all of us, and that it is the business of the State Department to maintain this peace and increase this friendship. As our foreign relations are of consequence to all, all should have an interest in the department which manages them. It acts in this respect for the President, and immediately under his direction. If there was formerly in our country a lack of gen- eral interest in foreign affairs, this apathy must have been removed by recent events. The World War has taught us that all countries are now so interlaced that a serious disturbance in one part of the world disturbs the tranquillity of every other part. We must realize how important it is to have the good will of the rest of the world, and we can obtain it only by giving to all the world our own good will. To act as the medium for interpreting this feeling is the highest function of the State Department. INDEX. Pag«. Accounts, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Accounts.) Adams, John VIII, IX, 6, 11, 26 Adams, .John Quincy IX, 26, 59 Adams, Philip VIII Adee, Alvey A VII, XII, XVI Adviser on Commercial Treaties 40' Agriculture, Department of, relations wdth 63 Alden, Roger 16 American Conference, First International 59* American Republics, Bureau of. (See Bureau of American Republics.) Anderson, Chandler P XIV Appleton, John XIV Applications for office 41 Appointments, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Appoint- ments.) Arbitration 57 Archives, Bureau of Indexes and. (See Bureau of Indexes and Archives.) Keeper of 38 Arthur, Chester A XII Austrian interests 51 Bacon, Robert XIII, XVI Baldwin, William Woodward XVII Bayard, Thomas F XII Bell, Edward VIII Belgian interests -- 51 Black, Jeremiah S XI Blaine, James G XII (67) 68 Paee. Blaine, Walker XVI Bliss, Robert Woods VII, XVII Bollan, William 1 Brent, Daniel IX British interests 51 Bryan, William Jennings XIII Buchanan, James XI Bulgarian interests 51 Bureau of Accounts ^ 40 Bureau, Consular. {See Consular Bureau.) Bureau, Diplomatic. (See Diplomatic Bureau.) Bureau of the American Republics 60 Bureau of Appointments 42 Bureau of Citizenship 41 Bureau of Commissions 42 Bureau of Commissions and Pardons 41 Bureau of Foreign Commerce 39 Bureau of Statistics 39 Bureau of Trade Relations 39 Bureaus of Departments 37 Burke, Edmund 1 Cadwalader, John L XV, 29 Calhoun, John C X Campbell, John A XVI Carmichael, William 6 Carpenters' Hall 45 Carr, Wilbur J VII Carroll, Charles, of Carollton 26 Cass, Lewis XI Castle, William R., jr VII Census enumeration 18 Chief clerk 12,37 Citizenship, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Citizen- ship.) Clay, Henry IX Clayton, John M XI 69 Page. Cleveland, Grover XII Coat of arms of the United States. {See Seal of the United States.) Colby, Bainbridge XIII Commerce, Department of, relations with 64 Commissions and Pardons, Bureau of. (See Bu- reau of Commissions and Pardons.) Commissions, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Commis- sions.) Committee of Foreign Affairs 2 Committee of Secret Correspondence 2 Conrad, Charles M . XI Consular Bureau 37,41 Consular Regulations 30 Consular Service 28,33 Constitution of the United States: Amendments 21 Original ._ 25 Continental Congress 1 Copyright 18 Cridler, Thomas Wilbur XVII Dana, Francis 6 Davis, Ben G VII Davis, John XV Davis, J. C. Bancroft XIV, XV Davis, Norman H XIV Day, William R XII, XV Dearing, Fred Morris XVI Declaration of Independence 25 Department, Navy. (See Navy Department.) Department of Agriculture. (See Agriculture, De- partment of.) Department of Commerce. (See Commerce, De- partment of.) Department of Foreign Affairs 4,11 TO Pag«. Department of Interior. (See Interior, Department of.) Department of Justice. {See Justice, Department of.) Department of Labor. (See Labor, Department of.) Department of State. (See State, Department of.) Department, Post Office. (See Post OiTice Depart- ment.) Department, Treasury. (See Treasury Department.) Department, War. (See War Department.) Derrick, William S ' X Dickinson, John 2 Digest of International Law 29,30 Digest of Opinions 29 Diplomatic Bureau 37, 41 Diplomatic Service 28, 32 Disbursing agent 38 Divisions of department 37 Division of Far Eastern Affairs '. 42 Division of Latin American Affairs 42 Division of Mexican Affairs 43 Division of Near Eastern Affairs 43 Division of Passport Control 41,53 Division of Political Information 44 Division of Publications 40 Division of Russian Affairs 43 Doughton, J. Preston VIII Dulles, Allen W VII Dumas, Charles W. F 6 Du Ponceau, Peter L._- 6, 45 Economic adviser 40 Editor of department 41 Editor of the laws 40 Evarts, William M XI Everett, Edward XI ri Page. Extradition 27 Far Eastern Affairs, Division of, (See Division of Far Eastern Affairs.) Fillmore, Millard XI Fish, Hamilton . XI, 49 Fletcher, Henry P XIV Foreign Affairs, committee of. (See Committee of Foreign Affairs.) Foreign Affairs, Department of. (See Department of Foreign Affairs.) Foreign Commerce, Bureau of. (See Bureau of Foreign Commerce.) Foreign Relations, volumes 29 Foreign trade advisers 39,40 Forsyth, John X, 37 Foster, John W XII Franklin, Benjamin 1,2 Franklin, William Temple 6 Fraunces Tavern XH Freylinghuysen, Frederick T XII French interests 51 Garfield, James A XII Garth, Charles 1 Geographical divisions 42 German interests 51 Gerry, Elbridge 7 Gilbert, Prentiss B VIII Graham, John IX Grant, Ulysses S XI Gresham, Walter Q XII Grinnell, William M XVI Hale, Chandler XVII Hale, Charles XIV Hamilton, James A X Hanna, Matthew E VII Harding, Warren G XIII 72 Page. Harrison, Benjamin, of Virginia XII Harrison, Benjamin, President 2 Harrison, Leland VII, XVI Harrison, William H X Hay, John XIII, XV Hayes, Rutherford B XI Hay ward, Thomas, jr 3 Hengstler, Herbert C VIII Hill, David J XV Ilitt, Robert R - XV Home Bureau 38 Hoyt, Henry M --_ XIII Hughes, Charles Evans VII, XIII, 49 Hunt, Gaillard VIII Hunter, William, jr XI, XIV, XVI Interests of foreign countries. (See under name of country.) Italian interests 51 International conferences 59 Interior Department, relations with 62 Jackson, Andrew X Jay, .Tohn 2,6,7,9,12,14 Japanese interests 51 .Tefferson, Thomas 6. VIII, IX, 14, 20, 26 Johnson, Andrew XI Johnson, Thomas --._ 2 Justice, Department of, relations with 63 Knox, Philander C XIII Labor, Department of, relations with 65 Lansing, Robert XIII, XIV Latin American Affairs, Division of. {See Division of Latin American Affairs.) Laurens, Henry 6 Laws of the United States 25 Lee, Arthur 1,2,3 Lee, Charles VIII 73 Pag*. Legare, Hugh S . X Librarian 38, 40 Life, Thomas 1 Limitation of Armament Conference 61 Lincoln, Abraham XI Lincoln, Levi IX Livingston, Edward X Livingston, Robert R 4,9,45 Loomis, Francis B XIII, XV Long, Breckinridge XVII Lovell, James 3 McLane, Louis X Madison, James IX Malone, Dudley Field XVII Mann, Ambrose Dudley XIV Marcy, William L XI, 30 Marshall, John IX Martin, J. L X McKinlcy, William XII, XIII MacMurray, John Van A VII McNeir, William VIII Merle-Smith, Van Santvoord XVII Mexican Affairs, Division of. (See Division of Mexican Affairs.) Mexico, treaty 27 Mint, affairs 20 Monroe, James IX Moore, John Bassett XIV, XV, XVI Moore's digest 30 Morris, Lewis R 6 Morris, Robert 3 Navy Department, relations with 64 Near Eastern Affairs, Division of, {See Division of Near Eastern Affairs.) Nelson, John X Neutrality board 54 74 Page^ Nielsen, Fred K VII O'Laughlin, John Callan XVI Olney, Richard XII, 42 Osborne, John E XVI Paine, Thomas 3 Pan American Union 59 Panama Congress 59 Passport Bureau — 41 Passport Control, Division of. (See Division of Passport Control.) Passport frauds 53 Passports 33 Patent business 17 Payson, Charles XVI Peace conferences 60 Peirce, Herbert H. D XVII Phillips, William VII, XIV, XVI, XVII Pickering, Timothy VIII Pierce, Franklin _^ XI Political Information, Division of 44 Polk, Frank Lyon XIII, XIV Polk, James K i XI Poole, De Witt C VII Porter, James D XV Post Office Department, relations with 63 President, vote for 21 Protection of American travelers 52 Quincy, Josiah XV Randolph, Edmund VIII Register of seamen 20 Remsen, Henry, jr 6,16 Rives, George L XV Rockhill, William Woodville XV, XVII Roosevelt, Theodore XIII Root, Elihu XIII Rumanian interests 51 <0 Page. Bush, Richard IX Russian Affairs, Division of. {See Division of Rus- sian Affairs.) Russian interests 51 Salmon, David A VIII Seal of the United States 22 Secret Correspondence, Committee of. (See Com- mittee of Secret Correspondence.) Sedgwick, Theodore 13 Serbian interests 51 Seward, Frederick W XIV, XV Seward, William H XI Shand, Miles M VIII Sherman, John XII Smith, Robert IX State, Department of 13 Reorganization 43 Ruildings 45 Expansion 55 Statistical Office 39 Statistics, Rureau of. (See Bureau of Statistics.) Stewart, Worthington E VIII Stone, Walter 6 Stern, William J 26 Strobel, Edward F XVIII Taft, William H XIII Taylor, Zachary XI Territories, affairs of 19 Tetend, John P 6 The Hague, conferences at 60 Thomson, Charles 16 Thomas, John A XIV Translator 38,40 Treasury Department, relations with 62 Trescot, William H XIV Turkish interests 51 76 Uhl, Edwin F XII.XV Upshur, Abel P X Van Buren, Martin X Vice President, vote for 21 Vise service 35 War Department, relations with 62 Washburne, Elihu B XI Washington, George VIII, 11 Webster, Daniel X, XI, 39 Wentworth, Paul 1 Wharton, Francis 4, 29 Wharton's Digest 29 Wharton, William F XII, XV White, Francis VII Wilson, Huntington XVI, XVII Wilson, Woodrow XIII o IH»*98 S3^ ;, ,- /\ ^^W- ^•*^\ ^H^; /\ ., >0 >*. v-^^ ^<^ -.^ip.- /\ ^^Ws ^^"\ \^*" /% ^^ T^ /CO' »■ ^^-^^^ ♦ •^ VV Vc>- ,^ ., ^^"" A^^'^-^^'% .^^>^^°" ^^•^\-Ji5^;:*^'^^ . 0^ \^^^'\/ "-^'^^•/ V^^-\^^ .** .-iJ^^". %/ .*^'v \/ .•^% %,<•* -^ '^^ -.^gl^/ /■% "°'^'' **'%