NOTES AND OUTLINES BY A. T. ROBINSON, A.M. PROreSSOR OF ENGLISH IN THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO NOTES AND OUTLINES BY AfT. ROBINSON, A.M. PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Copyright. 1922, By D. C. Heath & Co. C1A686277 PRINTED IN U.S.A. OCT 14 '22 1 . ^. t ^ FOREWORD *^ To effect the savings that come from large-scale pro- 0^ duction, the modern manufacturer must employ people and sell to people with whom he cannot get into close personal relations. They must be influenced through the printed page or the typed sheet, and so we find him developing departments of correspondence, hiring men to guide him in his relations with his employees, giving much thought to letters which he uses in sales campaigns, and establishing a department to instruct his workmen and office help on the routine of their daily work and the scope of their duties. In other words, the business man of to-day of necessity puts great emphasis on the literary end of his work. He issues a monthly and weekly journal to keep his employees contented, another to hearten his salesmen, and a third, perhaps, to impress his custo- mers with the spirit of good will and service in his or- ganization. He develops charts and books of standard practise instruction; house memoranda fly back and forth from department to department; mail comes and goes in such large quantities that it must be opened and sealed by machine. The library in the plant keeps his people abreast of technical and business improve- ments. Perhaps even a trained writer prepares journal articles about the business, its methods and its founder. In short, modern large-scale production gives to language and to print an importance never before claimed for them. iv FOREWORD In the same way the student is taking advantage of the savings of large-scale production. He needs the best talent and extensive building equipment. These he can afford only if he shares them with many other people. He, too, like the business man, must use people and sell to people with whom he cannot get into close personal relations. His voice and personahty will not carry him far. Oral answers in class seldom do a man justice. In a section of twenty-five or thirty the indi- vidual is not conspicuous. Only about six per cent of the men in such a group will be readily remembered, a year later, by either their teacher or their classmates as distinctly marked individuahties. Under these con- ditions men must score, if at all, through their tests and reports. Then, too, personal impressions fade; but the written work is always there and forms part of the evidence when the verdict is made up. The writing represents the writer when he cannot represent himseK. It is his advertising and sales department. So in both business life and school more attention is now being paid to paper work, particularly that part of it which is to go out to other people to inform them of the writer's accompHshment or to convince them of his ability. The present pamphlet attempts to help in this reform. It deals with the student's paper work, his "house memoranda," and shows how this may be put into a form and dress that will not conceal or disgrace good substance. CONTENTS PAGE Cover and Binding 1 Report Form 6 Outlines 13 The Bibliography 16 Rough Notes 21 Abstracts : 34 Examinations 39 COVER AND BINDING In effective presentation, neatness is the first requisite. Written work in school and college, Uke business papers of other sorts, should be typed if possible. It should be done on sheets approximately 8 by 10| inches in size and presented in a backer, perforated and bound at the top. Only one side of the page should be used, and there should be at least a one-inch margin on all edges. Clean hands, a clean desk or table surface, and an en- velope or cover in case the work must be carried about in a bag, are all important. The uppermost page in a copy thus bound is the title- page. It should have a dignified and pleasing appearance, give all the information necessary in handling the paper, and put emphasis on important information. Good appearance means, in this case, what it would mean in free-hand drawing or advertising "display," — i.e. proper type or lettering; proper centering, and bal- ance of type and margins; and a simple and inteUigible design or blocking out of the whole page. The information necessary on a title-page is as follows : The title of the paper. The author's name, section, and year. The name of the course. The instructor's name. Of this information the author's name, class, and section is the most important, and should be placed, usually, 1 2 CO^^R AND BINDING near the "optical centre" of the page, with plenty of white space about it. The next most important item is the title, which may be placed in the customan,^ posi- tion, at the head of the page. From these general rules there may be many departm'es, following personal taste and the search for decorative effect. The specunen title-pages which follow tstU make the possibihties more clear. The first and second of these are ordinary tjiJed pages, with reasonable attention to design and spacing. The third is a hand-lettered design of unusually fine artistic quahty. REPORT OP SUMMER READING By John Doe, Section 7, '24 Books Jungle Peace William Beebe The Turkish Empire Lord Eversley Russia 1914-17 Basil Gourko Por Professor Richard Roe June, 1922. 3 • REPORT on THE LIBRARY BUREAU, CAMBRIDG-E , MASS Erom: John Doe, Section 19 To: Mr. Richard Roe MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OE TECHNOLOGY YEAR 1923 E 58 OCTOBER 20, 1921 N REPORT ON THE LOCATION AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE THREE GREATEST GOLD MINING DISTRICTS OF THE WORLD ML. CARNEY SECTION FOR MR. HEADSTONE FEBRUARY 12,1922. REPORT FORM The form used in reports is a business-like means of transmitting information and opinions to people who are busy and require to have things put before them so that they can quickly get a conception of the whole, or readily find any detail. Am-thing one desires to say may be put into report form. It would not, of course, be wholly convenient for a short story, though Coleridge used it in "The Ancient jNIariner." Report form is peculiarly suitable for work transmitted from student to instructor. We must assmne that all teachers are personal!}^ interested in all their students, free of bias, and enthusiastic about all work that comes to their desks; but we must never act on this assumption. The man who prepares and hands in a student exercise must use his imagination to construct the reader. He must say to himself, "This must please a reader who, at the end of a long evening, — which he would rather have spent at a concert, — finds he has read fifty such papers and takes this up as the fifty-fii'st. I will show him how to get through it at record speed." In a report, as the reader turns back the title-page, abeady described, he next comes, perhaps, upon a letter, addressed to himself and submitting the report. This is a poHte attention, but is not indispensable unless there are special conditions to be explained. A specimen letter of transmittal is given below. REPORT FORM 27 Central Street, Camloridge , Massachusetts NovemlDer 3, 1922 Mr. Henry Steffins, Director of Student Research, Carraway Institute, Camliridge, Mass. Dear Mr. Steffins: In compliance with your suggestion that I study the distribution of Kolpax Piston-rings in garages along the road "between Chestnut Hill and iFraminghara Junction, I submit a report and tabulation of interviews with twelve garage owners and owners* representatives. On account of the large number of jobbers named as represented in this district I thought it best to wait for further advice from you before attempting interviews among jobbers or jobbers' salesmen. I hope that the report as submitted will give you the needed informa- tion, but shall be glad to supplement it in any way in my power. Very sincerely yours, Following the letter, if there is one, is the table of contents, which is, in effect, a brief outline of the report, 8 REPORT FORM v\-ith the topics in order and the page on which each may be found. The following is a specimen page from a table of contents. TABLE OP COWTEITTS Page Report -------------___ 4 Summary -------_-______ 4 Introduction ------------- 4 Method of Investigation ------- 6 Roads Waterbound Macadam -------- 7 Bitujninous Macadam -------- 7 Cement Concrete -_----_-_ q Brick-Concrete Base ------- 9 Conclusions- ------------- n Recommendations- ----------- 12 Appendices Appendix A — Merits of Hard- surface Roads- ------------- 13 Appendix 3 — Approximate Cost - - 15 FoUo-^ing the table of contents comes the report itself. Here the table of contents is reproduced in the form of headings between paragraphs. In addition, where the text under an individual heading covers several points, a marginal word or phrase is sometimes set against each important paragraph, as a key to its substance. The following specimen pages from a report will show the form. REPORT FORM 9 HOOD RUBBER COMPAITY SERVICE DEPARTMENT WATERTOWN, MASSACHUSETTS INTRODUCTION PURPOSE. The purpose of this report is to investigate and explain the organization and functions of the Service Department of the Hood RutlDer Company, Watertown, Massa- chusetts . METHOD PURSUED . The investigation was carried on "by means of an inspection of the ■buildings, an interview with the Plant Legal Advisor, and a study of the literature that is published "by the Plant. REPORT HISTORY. Seven or eight years ago the "begin- ning of a Service Department was estab- lished. The object was to study the con- ditions under which the men worked, and to try to keep the workers contented. At this time no one thought to what extent this small service to employees would be enlarged in the future. Since that time the service to employees has constantly grown, and today there is a well organized department, the 10 REPORT FORM purpose of which is "to create an efficient, healthy, stalDle "body of wortonen." ORGAITIZATION. The Service Department is controlled "by a Service Manager (under whom are alDout sixty-five co-workers) who directs the activities of the five sections into which the whole department is divided. These su'b-depa.rtments are for the purpose of employment, health, safety and sanitation, education, and general service. EMPLOYMEITT SECTION. The Employment Section is not classed under the Service Department at present, although up to a recent date it has "been. However, since there is no defi- nite "boundary "between the activities of the two departments, in discussing the Service Department it is only right to include the Employment Section. The pri- mary purpose of this section Purpose is to hire people to fill the vacant positions. All women applicants are interviewed "by a woman, all men "by a man. The actual hiring is "based on j oId specifica- tions and analyses which are made up for that purpose, the Jo"b people heing sent to the posi- Analysis tion to which they are "best adapted. To make sure that the new employee is in the j o"b "best fitting his qualities, a month or so after the man starts workhis record is looked Eollow "Qp up, and he is again inter- viewed. If it is more advantageous for the REPORT FORM 11 i'irm he is transferred to another position. This follow-up process is con- tinued until the man is fi- Transfer nally established. Should a man "be qualified for promo- Promotion tion, it is through this sec- tion that the promotion is made. All grievances against Grievances other workers or the S'irm are communicated to this. section for investiga- tion. Leaving employees are interviewed to ascertain whether there is a part of the concern that is badly managed, or where working conditions are not up to the usual standard, and to insure an impartial hear- ing. All individual and turn- over records are kept by the Records Employment Section. HEALTH SECTION. "The Company regards the health and welfare of all its employees as one of the foundations of a prosperous con- cern." Eor this purpose a Health Section has been estab- Purpose lished in the Service Depart- ment. This section physically examines applicants for employment . Any persons having a form of^disease Physical that they are liable to have Examina- for a considerable length of tion time are examined very fre- quently; otherwise employees are examined only once a year. This section advises the 12 REPORT FORM Employment Section as to the duties that defectives may perform. X-ray, dental, ocular and medical equipment are kept in separate rooms in Equipment a "hospital," where employees are treated at a very reasonable charge. There are doctors and nurses present during working hours. The purpose of this form of presentation is evident. The reader may know at a glance what is here and where it is. He may confine himself to reading the smnmary or conclusion if he wishes; he may read such details as he needs to read; he may judge the scope and arrange- ment by reading merely the Table of Contents; or he may go through the whole with care and then follow through into the details in the Appendix. Only a man who is sound asleep can get away from such a paper without being to some degree impressed. OUTLINES The writing of a report in the form just described pre- supposes a plan. This may be made by collecting ma- terial, say on cards or shps of paper, and then arranging it in an effective and logical order, or by forming an outline of points which ought to be covered and then gathering material. The following outline on the devel- opment of imperialism in the United States was made by employing a mixture of these methods. It was drawn up, in preparation for an examination, by a student who had been reading a chronological history of the United States. He wished to prepare himself for examination, and thought he was likely to be questioned on topics rather than on periods. His logical outline, then, would follow the years from the Alaskan Purchase down. His material, as collected, would be in order if he followed the order of the book. The remaining task was to set facts down under properly subordinated headings, and under each entry to express the idea fully enough so that his mind, in review, could take hold of it and fill it out with details. What he meant to say about Mexico, under IV. 6, in relation to imperialism, might not be clear to others; but he probably knew. Our relations with Mexico are an interesting example of our foreign policy, — or lack of it, — and he was probably right in thinking that the mere name would recall to his mind a wealth of detail. Under Insular Cases, III., c, 1, 2, on the contrary, he has taken pains to be specific. On the whole the outline is admirably constructed. 13 14 OUTLINES DEVELOPMENT OF IMPERIALISM I. Growth of Imperialism. 1. Alaskan Purchase — 1867. "Seward's Refrigerator." 2. Argiiments of Imperialists. Business. 3. Eyes on Cuba. II. United States a World Power. Spanish American War Charges. 1. Importance of the Pacific. a) Samoa — 1872 Tutuila annexed 1839. b) Hawaii — 1875 Hawaii annexed 1898 by joint reso- lution like Texas. "Shirt sleeve diplomacy." c) Phihppines — 1898 $20,000,000 1. 1902 — Philippme Act. 2. 1916 — Jones Act. 3. 1921 — Wood Commission. (l) Guam— 1898. 2. Interest ia Atlantic Waters. a) Cuba' — Pre-Civil War Interest. 1. Strategic Importance. 2. Permanent Relations. a) Teller Resolution — 1898. 6) Piatt Amendment — 1901. c) Cuba Released — 1912. d) Military Occupation (1906-1909) Interregnum. b) Porto Rico. 1. 1900 — Foraker Act. 2. 1917 — Citizenship in U. S. III. Constitutionality of our Colonial Policy. a) War Governors. 6) Does the Constitution follow the flag ? 1. Are subjects citizens? 2. Are coimtries within customs limits? OUTLINES 15 c) Insular Cases. 1. De Luna vs. Bidwell. (Collector of Port of N. Y.) a) Porto Rico not a foreign country. 2. Downes vs. Bidwell. a) Constitution applies only to States and Congress has unlimited power over possessions and deter- mines how far Constitution shall be applied. IV. Later Imperialism. 1. Campaign of 1900. Bryan and Imperialism. 2. Panama Canal episode. (Hay-Herran treaty — 1903) 3. Taft, Knox and Dollar Diplomacy. 4. Wilson and the Virgin Islands — 1917. 5. Unofficial proposal that England pay debt in W. I. Islands. 6. Me.xico. The following outline was made by a student of modern European history, again in preparation for an examina- tion. The class treatment had led him to expect that he might be called on to discuss certain topics covered in brief debates. He, therefore, took the questions as given, collected hints wherever they could be found in text or notes, and set them down in what he considered the order of emphasis. Were the troubles in Russia due to the attempt to hurry re- forms for which the Russian people were not prepared? (a) Methods in emancipation of the serfs and effects of emanci- pation. (b) Backwardness in education. (c) Degree of advancement of the city industrial population and its po.ssible leadership. (d) Extent of training in local self-government. (e) Extent to which nihilism, socialism and anarchism were supported among the peasants prior to the Russo-Japanese War. (/) Effect of the differences in racial groups on the develop- ment of national consciousness. THE BIBLIOGRAPHY Photographs, tabulated material, long quotations, and printed enclosiu'es "^ill natm-ally be placed at the end of the report, numbered as Appendices and referred to bj' notes at appropriate points in the text. Either as part of tliis appenchx material or presented on a separate page preceding it will be a hst of books and articles consulted. On this matter of references there must be the clearest understanding. ^Material quoted directly is to be enclosed in quotation marks. INIaterial given in substance is to be properly acknowl- edged. The method may be illustrated as follows: In commenting on the smprises of the struggle for the Parhament Bill, :Mr. Frank DHnot says: "The upper classes foimd it hard to realize that it was even possible for them to be beaten by 'Sir. Lloyd George, did not beUeve it to be a feasible proposition that the great mass of the prosperous well-to-do men, who had inherited vast domains and were demigods in the coxmtryside, could possibly be vanquished b}' an army drawn to some extent from the middle classes, but verj- largely from the poorer classes, led by a visionary demagogue Uke the Chancellor of the Exchequer. . . . They were naturally enough prejudiced against }^Ir. Lloyd George — as Liberals a generation before had been prejudiced against Mr. Joseph Chamberlain: but they made the great and vital mistake of under-rating their chief opponent, under-rating his motives first of all, but more important still in the situation of the moment, under-rating his strategy* and foresight." ^ 1 Dihiot, Frank The Old Order Changeth. p. 113 — London, 1911. 16 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY 17 Or: There was a tendency among Conservatives to under- estimate Mr. Lloyd George, not quite to appreciate his powers of strategy or to honor his motives. As Mr. Frank Dilnot points out in " The Old Order Chart geth" he was regarded as a visionary demagogue, not par- ticularly dangerous. How could an opposition led by him, and made up partly from the middle class but largely from the poorer classes, — how could this party hope to beat the great mass of prosperous, well-to-do men, strengthened by large inheritance? This method of using material from books, pamphlets and newspapers is irreproachable and safe. There are few serious topics on which a student can write without preparatory reading. His own experience is of course available for written work, and should be used whenever it is pertinent. As for other material, it is wholly accept- able as a source of ideas if acknowledged. The following bibliographies are given as examples of method. They represent two extremes. The first is detailed and annotated. It is not, of course, complete even for its date — October, 1920, — but it represents a real attempt to handle the material which the writer found quickly available. 18 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Basset, William R. When the Workmen Help You Manage. The Century Company, 1916 This book is written from the managerial point of view by a member of a firm of industrial engiaeers. Mr. Basset empha- sizes the recognition of the human factor ia industry, showing how production and profits have been increased by giving workers a voice in those pohcies which directly concern them. The poU- cies outlined are based on the experience gained in eighteen years' practice as an industrial engineer in more than a thousand factories, and also on investigations made in Germany, England, Scotland and HoUand. He does not sanction profit-sharing, nor does he advocate sudden radical changes. Leitch, John Man to Man. B. C. Forbes Pub. Co., 1919 A worth-while story by a man who got results, telling how he got from 30 to 300 per cent more work from the workers, how he secured their whole-hearted interest in their work, and incidentally increased their paj^ and the profits per capita. His methods of eliminating labor antagonism and dissatisfaction have done away -s^-ith time-killing tactics and waste of raw ma- terial, and reduced labor turnover. PERIODICALS Aborn, William G. and Shafer, William L. Representative SJiop Committees. Ind. Man. 58: 29-32 July '19 An excellent account of the shop committee plans used in the vicinity of Bridgeport, Conn. Some fift}' plants in this com- munity have cooperated in developing the plan to a high degree of perfection. THi: BIBLIOGRAPHY 19 Fish, E. H. Some Dangers of Shop Committees. Iiul. Man. 58: 205-6 Sept. '19 Mr. Fish warns of the dangers of politics entering into shop committee elections. Worthy of consideration. Kibby, W. J. Getting Together. hid. Man. 56 : 237 Sept. '18 This article emphasizes the necessity of educating foremen, and thus strengthening the ties between labor and management. Larkin, J. N. Employees' Representation. Ind. Man. 57 : 503 June '19 As assistant to the President of the Bethlehem Steel Company, Mr. Larkin had valuable experience in organizing shop com- mittees. This article deals with his experience at the Bethlehem plants, giving in detail the method there used. Renold, C. G. Shop Comviittees in Practice. Survey, 41 : 761-5 March 1, '19 An interesting review of the various types of shop committee plans used in England, at the suggestion of the Whitely Reports. The strong and weak points of the plans are discussed, together with the difficulties encountered. Mr. Renold is the Managing Director of Hans Renold, Ltd., Manchester, England. Stoddard, W. L. Labor and the Shop Commitiee. Ind. Man. 58 : 217-220 Sept. '19 The reasons for organized labor's opposition to the shop com- mittee idea. Stoddard, W. L. Methods of Shop Committee Elections. Ind. Man. 58 : 305 Oct. '19 This article takes up in detail the various methods of elections, cautioning against politics. Stoddard, W. L. Shop Committees in Action. Survey, 42 : 28-30 April 5, '19 An enlightening article dealing with the shop committee as it actually operates. Mr. Stoddard is an authority on shop 20 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY committee plans, and, because of his broad experience, he is able to present his subject concretely. Stoddard, W. L. The Committee System in A?nerican Shops. Ind. Man. 57 : 473-6 June '19 . A brief review of the beginnings of the installation of some form of representative shop committee, with references to the experience of British industrj^ WaUer, H. T. Fundamental Factors in Sound Industrial Relations. Ind. Man. 56: 367 Nov. '18 The author uses a rather unusual method of setting forth the ideas which he considers essential to an understanding between employers and emploj-ees. Illustrated with cartoons. Wolf, D. Successful Industrial Democracy. Ind. Man. 56 : 67-71 July '19 Freedom of self-expression is essential, says Mr. WoK. He pleads for more opportunities for self-expression, such as home products exhibits, etc. The second bibliography is merely a statement of the material used. BIBLIOGRAPHY GaUoway, Lee Factory and Office Administration. 1917 Gerstenberg, C. W. Principles of Business. 1919 Leffingwell, W. H. Office Management. 1917 Nicholson, J. L. Factory Organization and Costs. 1911 Schultze, J. W. The American Office. 1913 Scott, W. D. Increasing Human Efficiency in Business. 1919 Shaw, A. W. Co. How to Manage an Office 1914 ROUGH NOTES During the first year in college the student is likely to be given part of his instruction in lectures to large groups. To get the most from these hours he must learn to concen- trate, to select the important points, and to make clear memoranda of what he has heard before it is too late. This must be done dming the hour. Afterwards these rough notes must be worked over while they are still intelligible, compared with assigned readings, and put into permanent form. This is a minimum program, for the average man. It assumes that the lectures are normal and that the man is normal. If a lecturer in physics, for instance, wishes to show that he is also a man of the world, he may spend some moments in discussing the Far Eastern Republic or in telling what part he took in the Boston police strike. During those moments the lecture is not normal, and rules are suspended. The same is true if the student has a photographic memory or is palsied in both hands. But these are exceptional cases. In modern large-scale edu- cation we assume that every man is normal unless he brings proof to the contrary. The rough notes taken in the class-room are best done in ink, if the pen works properly. The most work- manlike note-book is a loose-leaf binder, to hold pages of typewritten size, approximately 8| by 11 inches. Small note-books, fitting the pocket, make for cramped work and economy of paper. Their use is best for those 21 22 ROUGH NOTES who wish to sink the student in the man of the w'orld, and have not much lecture material either in their note- books or in their heads. In getting the prehminary notes, the hstener must assume that the lecture makes sense, that its parts fit together into a coherent whole. If any part of what he hears, as he understands it, appears to be nonsense or entirely out of connection wdth the Hne of thought, the fault is probably in his understanding. He has missed the point; or he did not have enough acquaintance with the subject to understand the language and to grasp the apphcation. To the average or low-grade inteUigence much that is heard in large lectures will appear pointless. With such material care is necessary. If it seems im- portant, though bewildering, it should be noted as heard, and marked for further study and questioning. The note should be made calmly, without seK-depreciation or worry. Just because a man cannot understand every speciahst w^ho talks to him, he is not necessarily a fool. The further study and questioning on points not under- stood should deal with rehable sources, — the textbook; the lecturer, if he can be reached; the section instructor; or even some student who obiaously has his wits about him. A man may be a fraternity brother, a feUow-towns- man or a pleasant companion. That does not fit him to answer questions on the morning's lecture. One may Uke him chiefly because one is not jealous of his superior attainments. Save where there is an authoritative an- swer to the puzzle presented in the notes, no other answer should be accepted. So the first lesson in note-taking is that a man does not get ahead intellectually if his chief effort is directed to conceaUng his ignorance from those about him. There ROUGH NOTES 23 must be contact, often painful, with superior beings, many of them conscious of their superiority. That contact the man who needs it must force. Otherwise, the crowd gets him down and walks on over him, leaving him flat. Again, the listener must not think that the pleasure he gets from hearing a sentence is any measure of its value. The most striking parts of a lecture, hke the most highly-spiced dishes, are not necessarily the most nourishing. Two things only need be preserved in lec- ture notes: the facts, and the logical connection. And it will be a reliable rough test of the value of the facts that they will seem "dry." The rough notes taken in a lecture must be not only substantial but, above all, suggestive.' The speaker can deliver ten or twenty words while the listener is selecting and writing one. This one word, then, must be capable of bringing back all the others. There are two ways of getting this word. The listener may wait till the thought of a passage appears clear and complete and then rapidly summarize in words of his own choosing. This method presupposes a vocabulary, an intelhgent understanding of the subject, and an abihty to think about what is coming while you are smnmarizing what has passed. Few people have these qualifications; but many attempt to take notes in this way. Then they complain that they cannot keep up with the lecture and are constantly losing ideas while writing. The other way of getting the suggestive word is to select it from the words used by the speaker, never bother- ing with his complete sentences, but jotting down here and there the striking and characteristic phrases, — the key phrases. This process can be kept up without fatigue 24 ROUGH NOTES for an houi\ The other method, the attempt to get smooth sentences and connection, leads to full notes covering the first fifteen minutes, then nervous strain, then discom-agement, and finally a half-hour's blank. As an illustration of good method, compare the follow- ing passage from Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. II. p. 256, with the notes which foUow it. The farmer is a keener and more enterprising man than m Europe, with more of that coromercial character which one observes in Americans, far less anchored to a particular spot, and of course subject to no sach influences of territorial magnates as prevail iu England, Germany, or Italy. He is so far a business man as sometimes to speculate ia graiu or bacon. Yet he is not free from the usual defects of agriculturists. He is obstinate, tenacious of his habits, not readily- accessible to argument. His way of life is plain and simple, and he prides himself on its simpUcity, holding the class he belongs to to be the maiastaj* of the country, and regarding city-folk with a mixture of suspicion and jealousy, be- cause he deems them as inferior to himself in -vdrtue as they are superior in adroitness, and likely to outwit him. Sparing rather than stingy in his outlays, and Uving largelj* on the produce of his own fields, he has so little read}* money that smaU sums appear large to him; and as he fails to see why everybody cannot thrive and be happy on -SloOO dollars a 3"ear, he thinks that figure a suffi- cient salary for a county or district official, and regulates his notions of pajTuent for all other officials, judges included, by the same standard. To belong to a party, and support it by his vote, seems to him part of a citizen's duty, but his interests in national pohtics are secondary to those he feels in agriculturists' questions, par- ticularly in the great war against monopohes and capitalists, which the power and in some cases the tjTanny of the raihoad companies has provoked in the West. Xatm-aUy a grumbler, as are his brethren ever\-where, finding his isolated life d^lll, and often unable to follow the causes which depress the price of pro- duce, he is the more easily persuaded that his grievances are due to the combinations of designing speculators. The agricultural newspaper to which he subscribes, is of course written up to his ROUGH NOTES 25 prejudices, and its adulation of the farming class confirms his beUef that he who makes the wealth of the country is tricked out of his proper share in its prosperity. Thus he now and then makes desperate attempts to right himself by legislation, lending too ready an ear to politicians who promise him redress by measures possibly unjust and usually unwise. However, after all said and done, he is an honest, kindly sort of man, hospitable, religions, patriotic : the man whose hard work has made the West what it is. The notes which follow are as full as could be expected of long-hand notes taken from rapid speaking; the words which were selected for preservation are charac- teristic and suggestive. They will serve for a long time to bring back most of the substance of the reading. BRYCE Keener than in Europe. Commercial. Not anchored. No ter. magnates. Speculates in gr. or bacon. Yet obstinate, not easily convinced. Simple life. Thinks his class best. Suspicious of city folks; jealous. Thinks likely to outwit. Little ready money. Thinks small salaries for office holders. Party man, but not in- terested in wider questions, except war against monopoly and railroads. Grumbler. Agricul. newspaper also takes this tone. Believes self tricked out of share in prosperity. Deceived by de- signing pols. with cure-all. Honest, kindly, hosp. religious, patri- otic. Has made the West what it is. Finally, all abbreviations and approaches to the short- hand method used in rough notes should be standardized. Otherwise they may mean one thing to-day and another to-morrow. In the notes just quoted, for instance, "Deceived by designing pols," is safe; "no ter. magnates" is not. "Hosp." is, in the context, safe enough. In scientific and engineering work many abbreviations are already common in the literature, and these occur in 26 ROUGH NOTES the lectures. If the student needs other forms, he must build up a set of his own, listing them where they can occasionally be reviewed, on a special page in his note- book. The following pages show an example of note-taking in an average first-year college course in chemistry. The instructor's outhne, full enough for his purposes, would of course have no value for the student. It is intended merely to relieve a busy man, standing behind a table of apparatus about four yards in length, from the bm'den of remembering what comes next. The first series of notes was jotted down by a student who did not pass the course. He knew Httle and wished to know less. He was'spendmg a happy horn', watching pretty bubbles rise in test tubes and thinking of his plans for the week-end. At intervals of from three to five minutes, when hit in the eye by some red color or fight from a burning wire, he came up out of the sub- conscious and wrote a few words. But even this effort was useless because he failed to make clear the principle behind the experiment, and so his notes are whoUy lacking in logical connection. The second set of notes is as good as can be expected, considering human weakness and the highly compficated problem of follo-^dng a chemistry lecture. For the chemistry material the author is indebted to Professor Edward ^lueller of the Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology. ROUGH NOTES 27 TEACHER'S OUTLINE OF TOPICS Science Abstract Science (a) Philosophy (6) Logic Descriptive Science (a) Botany (6) Zoology • Concrete Science (phenomena) (a) Physics (b) Chemistry Matter: Ether Complexity: Granite (a) Mica (6) Feldspar (c) Quartz Energy Constancy of Natural Phenomena Properties Natural Law Definition Changes in Properties Physical Changes: Illustrations Water Wood Platinum Wood's Alloy Crystals of Iodine Chemical Changes Illustrations Wood Wood's Metal 28 ROUGH NOTES Magnesium Sugar K^In04 + FeS04 Difference between physical and chemical changes Kinds of chemir'al change Decomposition Silver Oxide SjTithesis Iron + Sulphur ISIetathesis SUver Xitrate + Sodimn Chloride Complex Bodies (o) Made by Sj-nthesis {b) Decomposable Simple Bodies (a) Not decomposable at our wiU (&) A few decompose spontaneously Element (definition) Common Elements SjTubols Oxygen Discovered 1774 by Priestly Used in 1777 by Lavoisier An Element (a) Foimd in air, free or uncombined (20 per- cent by vol.) (b) Foimd in air dissolved in water (smaU amount) (c) Found combined in many oxj^gen-containing compounds I. Plants II. Animals III. Many Foods rV. Rocks (marble, granite, sandstone, bricks, pottery) V. Water itself A-ields 89 per cent by wgt. of oxygen. ROUGH NOTES 29 STUDENT'S VERSION (1) Different kinds of matter. Complex materials of the granite, red granite, grayish white granite, quartz and mica. Experiment. Material is changed. Water, then applied heat, causes vapor, vapor comes in contact with cooling process and vapor changes back to liquid which has the same properties that the other substance had. Experiment. Iodine is changed by being heated. Forms back to glistening crystals. E.xperiment. Power applied to platinum wire changes physically but is same. Change is physical and not chemical. Experiment. Burned wood undergoes chemical change. Experiment. Burned wire (not platinum) undergoes chemical change. Wire is elastic. Difference between chemical and physical change. Look at ma- terials before and after experiments. Find what properties it has and compare those properties after experiment. If different after experiment it underwent chemical change in material. Chemical Change: the material or substance is different after experiment. Chemical changes are caused by means of electric energy, light energy and gas energy. Experiment. Physical effect of light increases the speed of black flag, in test tube. Ex-periment. Brown substance + heat = white substance + gas. Two materials from one : called endothermal change. Silver oxide + heat energy produces silver + oxygen. Experiment. Can separate sulphur and iron in two ways. One is by means of magnet which attracts iron. The other is by adding an acid and straining them. Chemical change with iron and sulphur is synthesis. Iron + sulphur gives iron sulphide + (heat and light) energy. Two substances produce one + synthesis. Exo- thermal change. 30 ROUGH XOTES Silver nitrate + sodium chloride gives sodium nitrate and silver chloride. Metathesis + combination of other changes. Chemical changes are changes in composition. Discovery of oxj'gen in 1774. A simple body is an element. An element is a substance which has not yet been decomposed into two or more simpler substances bj^ a process under our control. There are 85 or 86 elements. STUDENT'S VERSION (2) Science, systematized or classified human knowledge. "Organized common sense." Classify in chemistr3^ Don't have to remember what everj' chemical does with everj' other. Have classes of bodies, as acids, or alkahes. We say a substance acts like an acid; such classification helpful. Such classification advances knowledge. Classify compounds by their similar properties. Abstract sciences, phUosophj^ and logic, deal with general funda- mental questions; descriptive sciences, botany and zoologj', deal with the similarities and dissimilarities different species of plants and animals; concrete sciences Uke physics and chemistry deal with phenomena of matter. Matter is everything which is perceptible or recognizable by our senses. (Ether would come imder this definition). We recognize it by its properties; these are manifestations of energy. We study the relation between energy and matter. After we subtract prop- erties (manifestations of energy) from matter, nothing is left. It seems as if energj^ were the only real entity involved. How many different kinds of matter are there? We might expect an infinite mmiber on the basis of their properties; we don't actually find aU substances different. We compare physical properties; when many physical properties of two materials are alike, probably the substances are identical. It is customary to compare more striking properties. A law generaUzes a variety of experiences; this is a "natural" law. ROUGH NOTES 31 Law of constancy of natural phenomena: under same conditions, a substance will always exhibit same properties. Granite not one substance. Specimens. It contains 3 different materials, quartz, mica, feldspar. The granite itself may be grayish or pink or other colors. Take some fairly "homogeneous" substances. Experiment. Distill water, re-condense, collect water. It is still water, with same properties as original water; it was changed physically. Experiment. Wood broken. Each piece is still wood. Experiment. Electric current passed through platinum wire; it warms up (resistance), becomes red, expands, changes shape. On turning off power, changes reverse. The wire is still platinum. Experiment. Wood's alloy melts in hot water. It is still metal. Experiment. Iodine crystals, when heated, vaporize. The vapor condenses on cold surface of flask; bright crystals of iodine form. The above changes were physical. In each case the substances changed in their physical properties but since at the end their composition (material) was the same, we say physical changes only took place. Experiment. Wood is set on fire; it burns. It disappears. Sub- stance changes. Wood gone. Experiment. Wood's metal + nitric acid. Heavy brown fumes instantly. White soUd. Metal disappears. Experiment. Magnesium — elastic metal ribbon — lustre of metal. Burns it. Bright light. Used in flashlight. White ash. Brittle. No longer magnesium but now oxide of magnesium. New sub- stance forms. Physical changes show us that a new material formed. Experiment. Heat sugar. Smoke comes off. Charring takes place. New material forms, sugar disappears. Experiment. Add red solution to jar — red color disappears, pours into third jar and water — white color of second jar changes 32 ROUGH NOTES to blue of thii'd. Substance instantly disappears and change in composition takes place. The above changes are chemical — a change in the substance — a change in the composition of the materials takes place. A chemical change is a change in composition of material; it is always made evident by the physical properties of the products being different from the physical properties of the original materials. Some changes take place without any change in composition; such changes are considered to be physical only. There are different kinds of chemical changes. Experiment. Heat browm substance in test tube, a gas forms, this is led through glass tube into bottle where it displaces water; a white sohd remains in tube. The gas makes a glowing sphnt of wood burn more brightly; the soUd Is silver. Two substances from one by appHcation of heat. A complex substance is decomposed into two simpler bodies. A decomposition takes place. Energy (heat) is absorbed. The process is endothermal — ■ it uses up energy. Experiment. Iron and sulphur separated by magnet. Experiment. Iron and sulphiu- separated by carbon bisulphide which dissolves sulphur but not iron. Filter off iron. Experiment. Heat mixture of iron and sulphur. Turns off light. The mixture seems to catch fire, it no longer heats, it continues to bum — fire goes up tube. A combination takes place. Iron sulphide is synthesized. The chemical change was a synthesis. The change was accompanied by evolution of heat and Hght. The reaction was exothermal (it evolved energy). Experiment. Mixes two solutions and gets a white cloudy pre- cipitate in a jar. Silver nitrate + sodium chloride gives silver chloride + sodium nitrate. The silver chloride did not dissolve in water. Two sub- stances interact, exchange partners. Called metathesis. ROUGH NOTES 33 A complex body may be made from two simpler bodies (by syn- thesis), thus proving it to be complex. Or, by decomposition of a complex body into two different substances we can show it to be complex. Complex bodies are compounds. The simple bodies are derived from compounds. Simple substances may or may not be further decomposable. If a simple body cannot be decomposed it is called an element. An element is a simple substance which has not yet been decomposed by any process under our control. There are 85 or 86 elements. Iron, gold, silver, lead, oxygen, carbon are common elements. We use symbols for abbreviation. Fe, Au, Ag, Pb, O2, C for above elements. Oxygen discovered by Priestley in 1774. END OF LECTURE. ABSTRACTS Abstracts, based either on rewiitten notes or on reading, are often required in lectm-e courses. If the abstract is submitted partly as an exercise in composi- tion, the substance of the article should be reshaped in the reader's own words, and the instructor's consent should have been obtained. The abstract should always bear, imder its title, an acknowledgment of the source, as for instance: Standardizing Sales Talk (Abstract of an article by TVilliam Maxwell, Administration; Vol. Ill, Xo. 4 — April, 1922 — P. 401.) The instructor should also be consulted as to the form of abstract desired. Two forms of abstract, illustrated in summaries of a lectm'e in Enghsh hteratiu"e, are given below. Both these abstracts were produced in the study hom-s follow- ing the lectm-e. The writer of the first abstract has a sHghtly better sense of the value of what he heard. He selects only the essential, yet expresses it in a waj- that may suggest other details. Note, for instance, his phrase," . . . under circumstances which from one point of idew seem foohsh, but which, neA'ertheless, reveal the generous character of the man, he received a wound which proved fatal." Compare the entry under B. 8 in the second 34 ABSTRACTS 35 outline, where the stock story is given more space than it deserves. As to the form of these two outhnes, clearly the topical form is, first, more suggestive. That is to say, it carries you on by hitches and pauses in thought, without smooth connections. There is, therefore, a chance that, as you read, you may pause between items, while your memory brings back other details. Second, the topical form is more easy to use because it presents ideas separately, and shows their relations to one another. I Lecture IV. Oct. 26, 19—. Sir Philip Sidney The Elizabethan Age was the most brilliant period of English Literature. The versatile and chivalrous characteristics which marked the people as well as the literature of the period are well illustrated in the life of Sir Philip Sidney. Sidney was the son of a court favorite and had all the advantages of the time in the way of education and society. He took his degree at Oxford and then spent three years on the continent. He was in Paris at the time of the Massacre on St. Bartholomew's Day, and saved his life only by taking refuge in the British Embassy. On returning home, he be- came a favorite at court, and at the age of twenty-two was sent on a mission to the Emperor of Germany. Later he was made governor of Flushing, a town in Holland, a country which England was at that time helping in its struggle against Spain. Here he was engaged in constant fights with the Spanish; and in one of these, under cir- cumstances which from one point of view seem foohsh, but which, nevertheless, reveal the generous character of the man, he received a wound which proved fatal. Sidney not only was a poUshed courtier who could shine in refined society, but he also could take part in the rougher things of life; and his personal bravery gained for him the warm admiration of his soldiers. His chief claim to fame is not his writings, although these are by no means insigni- ficant, but the conception of the ideal gentleman which his life exemplified; and it is probable that no man has been more uni- 36 ABSTRACTS versally and sincerely mourned or regretted with more tender feel- ings by those who were acquainted with his character than Sidney. Sidney's first literary effort took the form of a mask written in honor of Queen Ehzabeth. His chief works are "An Apology for Poetry," "Astrophel and Stella," and "Arcadia." His prose is characterized by the long, involved sentences found in all the prose of that time, while his poetry is highly imaginative, especially in descriptions, and abounds in phrases expressing noble sentiments. "Arcadia" is one of the classics of the English language, and Sid- ney's modesty is well shown by the fact that on his death-bed he requested that the manuscript of this work, which had not yet been published, be destroyed. II Lecture, Oct. 26, 19—. 4. ELIZABETHAN SCHOOL OF LITERATURE Sir Philip Sidney Elizabethan School of Literature, 1600, most briUiant. I. Sir Philip Sidney, 1600. ... A typical EUzabethan man. A. Man of letters, ideal gentleman, polished courtier, brave knight, famous master of language, accomplished in music of the time. Although a man of literature and arts, he held greatest admiration of his soldiers. Was the flexible Ehza- bethan man. Such were the men who founded coast of Amer- ica then. B. Born in family of good deal of note. 1. Education. Had use of advantages in education and cultivation, — best school. Educated at Oxford; took his degree (1572-75). 2. Sidney on the Continent. Massacre of Protestants in Paris. He took refuge in house of English Ambassador. 3. Returned home and became court favorite. Sent on poUtical embassies, as young men were in those days. 4. 1578 Wrote "Lady of May" for Elizabeth. ABSTRACTS 37 5. Wrote Arcadia — not intended for publication. At his death he direcited it to be destroyed. The adjective — Arcadian. His poems passed about to be copied. 6. Knighted, and married daughter of Sir Francis Walsing- ham. 7. 1684. Sent to Trussia. Made governor by Ehzabeth of town of Fkishing, of which she had temporary possession as security for money she lent to Xetherlands. Sidney very shrewd governor. 8. 1686 — Two years later, he lost his life by an unselfish, chivalrous deed. Threw away his leg armor so as not to have any advantage over his unarmed brother- knight, with w^hom he was going out to a skirmish. Mortally wovmded in the leg. 9. Incident of his, gave his canteen of water to a thirsty soldier when he himself was about to drink. 10. How great must have been his qualities to call forth the expression of grief from his soldiers when he died. C. Writings. 1. "Astrophel and Stella." Written about Sidney and his lady-love. 2. "Arcadia." (a) Fantastic Romance. Chief characters were two ship- wrecked companions. Each thought other dead. Finally met, one a chief of brigands, other an am- bassador sent to treat with the chief. They dis- cover each other, and go off together to Arcadia, where the king had two daughters whom he resolved should not be wooed. Complications, etc. (b) Elaborate, sugary. Full of quality of the imaginative. 3. "Defense of Poesy." Is important. (a) Those nations that have impressed time are the poetry- reading and poetry-loving nations. From earliest times of literature we find all great times are times of poetry-loving and poetry-reading. (b) Value of poetry in human development. 38 ABSTRACTS (c) His works are important as they show how men were tr\-ing to express their best thoughts in words. II. "Literature is a Criticism of Life." Matthew Arnold. Literature is additions of man to the solution of life. Admiration for virtues is the everlasting thing that will stick by one, and this was the trend of Ehzabethan literature. EXAMINATIONS To do himself justice in an examination the student needs first of all quiet. The outward conditions must be free of distractions. When they are not, one is justified in protesting. Proctors who talk in corners and wear squeaky boots, neighbors who shake the chair and are too near for purposes of privacy and honesty, bad air and light, — these things no man is called on to endure. Pleasant but firm protest will usually bring improvement. Quiet of mind is even more important. This is induced by quiet of body. It is siuprising how much more can be accomplished if a man will get to the room early, settle himself away deliberately at his desk, and then keep the body still till the mind can work. No rapid or jerky movement should be allowed. Even the snapping of the point of a pencil is a danger signal, for it means that the whole muscular system is being held tense and knotted so that it sends up messages of alarm to the brain. Deliberate physical movements will lead to deliberate method in thinking. It is probably unwise, for instance, to read more than one question at a time. There can be no advantage in worrying about the fifth question while writing the answer to the first. It is certainly foolish to answer a question before reading it, yet that is, in effect, what many people do. The words printed on the examination paper were carefully chosen, and they have a definite meaning. What this is precisely 39 40 EXAMINATIONS may not be evident till one has read them two or three times, with individual attention to each phrase, and perhaps to each mark of punctuation. Finally, it does not follow that a question which suggests nothing at first can never be answered. The information is probably there, in the back of the head. It may come forward if the process' of hunting for it can be kept free of worry. As an example of method, we may consider the follow- ing specimen examination paper and the way in which it should be handled. ENGLISH AND HISTORY Final Examination Time: 2-5 p.m. 1. Comment on the following ia their relation to the movement for government control of the trusts, giving approximate dates, provisions of the law and other important details. (a) The literature of exposure and its leading publications. (6) The Sherman Anti-Trust Law. (c) The Northern Securities Case. (d) The Federal Reserve System. -^ (e) The Clayton Anti-Trust Law. \ (/) The Federal Trade Commission. ^ 2. Explain the successive steps in railroad regulation, with par- ticular reference to the following points: (a) The Granger Movement. (b) The Inter-State Commerce Act. (c) The Mann-Elkins Act. (fZ) The United States Railroad Administration. (e) The return of the railroads and provisions of the Bill. 3. Explain the succession of causes and effects in a tjrpieal business cycle. Then comment in .detail on the Panics of 1873, 1893 and 1907, showing the special characteristics of each. EXAMINATIONS 41 4. Trace the movement for free silver to 1900, covering: (a) The Bland-AUison Act and its effects. (6) The Sherman Silver Purchase Act and its effects on the Treasury gold reserve, (c) The campaign of 1896 and the movement for free silver. 5. Comment on the relations between the government and labor during the War, with particular reference to the following points : (a) The government's attitude in the threatened strikes of 1919. (6) Labor on the Council of National Defense and the Advisory Commission, (c) The Adamson Law. 6. Discuss our relations with Cuba as showing the type of im- perialism which we develop in dealing with tropical countries in our neighborhood. Explain specifically: (a) The Teller Resolution. (6) The Piatt Amendment. (c) The "freedom" of Cuba and the likelihood of further intervention. 7. Explain the parties, the platforms, the candidates and the results of the campaign of 1912. 8. Explain Ex-President Wilson's theory of the Presidency and comment on his attempt to work it out in practise, with particular reference to the war powers of the President, the relations between the President and the Senate, and the Congressional defeat of 1918 and the reaction of the country. There are eight questions; three hours are allowed. It will be best, then, to divide the time in advance, allowing, say, twenty minutes for review of the whole. If at the end of the twenty minutes the question is not finished, a blank space will be left for the remainder of the reply and the student will go on, according to schedule, with the next. 42 EXAMINATIONS The questions will be taken in the order in which they appear on the paper. To begin with 3 or 5 is "bad psychologJ^" It obHges the reader to check up to make sure that all the questions are there, and it gives him the impression that the man who wrote the answers was badly or unevenly prepared. Everj^ possible guide will be used to make the questions easy to foUow and to make important dates and titles stand out. As a matter of com'se the nmnber of the questions wiU be given, and all the suggested subheadings ifl)j (^)j (c), etc. will be reproduced as needed. Following that plan, the first question, for instance, might be an- swered somewhat as follows: (The answer is given as found on an actual examination paper, and the language and substance have not been changed.) EH 13 — June 7, 19— From Examinatiox Book of Johx Doe, '25 X\^2. I a) The literature of exposure was what led to the use of the term "muckraking." When Roosevelt definitely started on a campaign of "trust-busting" he was at first aided in his program by securing the backing of public opinion through the medium of the "muckrakers" or reform journaUsts, who spent great sums in investigating "big business" and whose pubUcations of business consoUdation data and scandals brought these matters to the public attention. Important exposures were made by the Hearst system of news journals and magazines, by the ten-cent magazines, such as Mimsey's, McClure's, etc. and a great contribution was that of Ida :M. Tarbell in her "History of the Standard Oil Com- pany." The literature of exposure did not stop when big business control was fairly established. It became an institution and is operative today in practically all newspapers. EXAMINATIONS 43 b) The Sherman Anti-Trust Law of 1890 was designed to secure a regulation of corporation activities by the government. It con- cerned chiefly those corporations whose mergers had tended towards or had actually created monopohes and which accordingly were enabled to exploit the particular field of their operations, its design was to prohibit by its enactment the formation of corporations causing monopohes. c) The Northern Securities Case resulted from the fact that several railroad lines of the West pooled their securities while keeping the actual railroading part of their administrations separate. This merger of finances was created by the formation of the North- ern Securities Company, a corporation which took its charter in New Jersey due to the easy terms that State demanded in granting corporation charters. It controlled the securities and finances of the roads involved, and the company had as directors chosen rep- resentatives of the roads. It was a great consolidation and amounted to a monopoly of railroad privileges in the West and Northwest. When Roosevelt showed some signs of a tendency towards govern- ment control of such consolidations, the popular cry of the North- western people against this Northern Securities Company led Roosevelt to ask his Attorney-General, Philander C. Knox, to investigate the possibility of securing a verdict outlawing this company. People thought Knox, who had been identified with big business for years, would not operate against corporations but he succeeded in putting this deal over and the Northern Secruities Company was forced to dissolve. d) The Federal Reserve System was installed under William G. McAdoo as Secretary of the Treasurj'. The details of the plan were laid by the House Committee on Finance with Carter Glass of Virginia as Chairman. The forerunners of the system were the Commissions appointed by Roosevelt and Taft and the recommend- ations of Senator Aldrich for a "Central Bank." Glass's Com- mittee urged Aldrich's idea without actually establishing a "Cen- tral Bank." In substance it was as follows: The country to be divided into districts (afterwards made 12) each of which was to have a Federal Reserve Bank, other banks in the district could become member-banks of the system and deposit in the Reserve Bank their surplus collateral, the Reserve Bank would then have a fund which it could use to establish credit in its district to farmers, 44 EXAMINATIONS business and commercial enterprises, etc. This iasm-ed the elastic- ity of credit as well as money and prevented the money from goiQg to Wall St. for speculative purposes while the farmers went to the deuce for credit. Each Reserve Bank was allowed to issue notes on real security or property held and so added an elas- ticity to the cm-rency. The idea was adopted with protests by the money interests but they afterwards subscribed heartily to the idea and now boast of membership in the System by their adver- tisements. It furnished government control of the currency and is a preventive to the formation of a money monopoly. e) The Clayton Anti-Trust Law as passed ia WUson's first ad- ministration, aimed to secure control of corporate movements not by the law of prohibition but by a differentiation between good and bad trusts and bj' an appeal to the trusts to voluntarily refrain from the formation of harmful monopohes. f) The Federal Trade Commission was created along the same lines as the Interstate Commerce Commission and was designed to do approximately the work of price-fising of commocUties as the Commerce Commission did on railroad rates. It was appointed by Wilson during his first term after being authorized by Congress. Questions 3, 7, and 8 are not pro\4ded with a ready- made outline. They should, therefore, be all the more carefully planned and skeletonized for the reader's bene- fit. The following is a typical answer to 8, fairly good reading, rather unpressive in its flow of language, but not definite, not showing real study of the facts. It might have been written by ahnost any clever person accustomed to read the newspapers. EH 13 — June 7, 19— From Examination Book of Richard Roe, '25 1 2. WUson's theory, expanded while in Princeton, was that the President is just what he makes himself, and he can be the biggest man in the countrv if he so desires. Wilson has often been criti- EXAMINATIONS 45 cized as the Czar, but Roosevelt had similar ideas as to presi- dential powers, and in him they were called "pep" and "punch." Wilson, as soon as he became President, started with this theory as a basis; and one must admit, although one may not agree with Wilson, that any theory that gets as much real work out of Congress as Wilson's did is some theory. His first attempt was the Under- wood-Simmons tariff and he kept Congress right at it until it was passed. The same way with the Federal Reserve System, which is a monument of financial genius. The first years of Wilson's administration were marked by a distinct unity, and the way in which he was able to keep his party together was nothing short of marvellous. During the War, the President assumed or was delegated almost unlimited power. The usual criticism was heard — in fact it would be hard to find an instance when anything that happened was not criticized by some one or other — to the effect that Wilson was stepping into the shoes of an absolute monarch. However, none among the critics seemed willing or able to do the job himself, and it was evident that there would have to be some sort of head to the thing, or we would be like an army where everyone was colonel. It would be hard to deny that Wilson was the real boss during the War; but it would be also hard to deny that he surrounded himself with competent advisors and went through with the job pretty well, considering its size and character. After the close of the War and during the Peace Conference, Wilson may have gone too far in going to Paris. But he was moved by a high idealism, which was far over the heads of the mob — also by a high regard for his own powers; for Wilson was by no means a match for the astute Euro- pean diplomats. Wilson's ideal of democracj' was very good; but he could not very well put it across in the state in which the world was at the time, with everyone clamoring for reparations, all wanting the fruits of victory. The reaction of 1918 was due to a letting down of the tension, and a bitter resentment against the taxation which had prevailed during the War, but which could not be manifested for fear of suspicion. A general disappointment of Wilson's after-war policy followed, and the Republicans grew in power. While Wilson had 46 EXAMINATIONS Congress with him he kept them pretty well in line. When the Repubhcan Senate came in, however, thej^ began to make trouble for him right away, with the avowed intention of discrediting the administration at the coming presidential election. The Senate warned him that if he brought back a treaty with a League of Nations tacked on they would refuse to ratify it. He brought it back and they kept their promise. It is very difficiilt to make an impartial judgment of the Wilson administration and Wilson's policies at this time. Wilson came into power without reaUy foreseeing the international comphca- tions into which we were about to be drawn, and started in on a weU-planned domestic pohcy. That the tariff and the Reserve System inaugurated under Wilson were successful is an estab- lished fact. The war also seems to have been carried on fairly weU. It was the trips to Paris that hurt Wilson in the eyes of the people; and he reaUy did not belong at the Peace Conference. Wilson was a man with an ideal, and a certain supply of egotism. In using the latter to reahze the former he apparently forgot there were others in the world beside himself, and as a result has come in for a large share of criticism, some of it not due him, to be sure, but a good deal of it justified. The following answer to the same question is an ex- ample of better method, in that it divides the question under headings, properly underscored and separated, and attempts to give as many of the facts as the writer could remember and to give them in the fewest possible words. 8. Mr. Wilson and the presidential office. (a) Attitude toward the Presidency. As Mr. Wilson had said before election, "The President is at liberty, ... to be as big a man as he can." "He has no means of compelling Congress except through pubUc opinion." He was not a favorite with the reactionary Democrats and had no adequately trained leaders in Congress. His best chance was to put through progressive measures, and to do this he must rely on his own leadership. EXAMINATIONS 47 (6) War Powers. The exigencies of the control of the War led gradually to the formation of a sort of dictatorship of the country under President Wilson and various boards appointed by him. In 1917, the Espionage Act and various acts were passed relating to trading with the enemy and the conservation of food and fuel. In the latter part of the year the railroads were taken over, under powers granted earlier. In 1918, the Fuel Administration and the Oil Division were set up. Congestion and depression led to an attack by Senator Chamberlain and a proposal for the creation of a Munitions Ministry, but instead the Overman Act was passed, giving the President complete powers to create and change agencies and to transfer funds. He had become virtually a dictator. (c) Elections of 1918. Naturally Mr. Wilson felt that a con- tinuation of these policies could be assured only by returning a Democratic Congress to power in 1918, and he issued an appeal to the country in an open letter. The Republicans used this incident in making the charge of excessive partisanship against him, and, from this and other reasons, the Democratic party went oiit of power in both Senate and House. (d) The Peace Treaty. In the same way Mr. Wilson felt that only he could conduct the negotiations at the Peace Conference; but when the Senate refused to ratify the treaty which he brought back, it became evident that he was no longer the leader of a united country. His overwhelming importance in the War had produced the inevitable reaction. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 019 725 995 4 ♦