£5 V ' :• .: '}j ':X<):imi'&mlm Book CojiyrigM". l^LZ CDPyRIGHT DEPOSm The 20th Century Toolsmith and Steelworker A COMPI,ETE, PRACTICAI,, AND SCIENTIFIC BOOK, WRITTEN BY A THOROUGH EXPERT MECHANIC AND STEEI.- WORKER, ESPECIAI,I,Y IN THE INTERESTS OF BI^ACKSMITHS, TOOI^SMITHS, TOOI<- MAKERS, AND AI.1^ MECHANICS CONNECTED DIRECTl^Y OR IN- DIRECTI^Y WITH THE USE, REPAIR, AND MANU- FACTURE OF STEEI, INTO TOOI.S FULLY ILLUSTRATED By m holford CHICAGO FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 1908 Copyright 1912 BY Frederick J. Draki Chicago (gCI.A332083 PREFACE This book is written in the interests of all. mechanics connected with the working and manufacture of steel into tools, and gives all the secrets and obstacles to be overcome towards making steelwork or toolmaking a success. It will be invaluable to the young mechanic and place him years in advance of his fellow workman, by the reading and a little reflection of its contents. It is not comprised of quack theories or foolish ideas, and is not written by a college student, who knows nothirrg except what he has been told or gathered up from papers and periodicals. But is written by a thor- ough expert mechanic who has spent the best part of his life over the anvil with the hammer and tongs and making tools of every description, from steel of every quality and temper and almost every brand or make, and the contents of this book are the results of hard work, deep study, years of experimenting and wide travel. The information given is of a simple, practical, and scientific nature, which can be easily understood and everything accomplished by a mechanic of average intelligence. It gives full and complete instructions with illustra- 3 4 PREFACE tions, how to forge, weld, anneal, harden and temper, every tool that the toolsmith or toolmaker is called upon to make or repair, and if the directions are fol- lowed closely, this book will be the means of lifting a great many out of a rut of darkness and place them on the road of sunshine to mechanical success, as this in- formation could not be gained in a lifetime in the ordi- nary blacksmith shop or from the steel manufacturer. CONTENTS. Introduction o Pages 11 to 14 CHAPTER I. Steel, its use and necessity in all arts, trades and profes- sions — The composition of cast tool steel — The suc- cessful treatment of steel — Heating — Forging — Ham- mering — Hardening — The hardening bath — Quench- ing — Tempering — Welding — Annealing — Differ- ent kinds of steel — The cracking of tools when hard- ening and the cause — How to judge hard from soft steel — How to tell good from poor steel — Testing steel after hardening, with a file — Instructions on toolmaking that have to be given many times Pages 15 to 31 CHAPTER II. The blaeksmith^s fire — Bellows and blowers — The anvil — Tongs — Fullers and swages — Flatters and set ham- mer — The hammer — Making and dressing a hand hammer — Haraening and tempering a hammer — Suc- cessful points to be remembered in making and tem- pering a hammer — Punching holes in steel . Pages 32 to 55 CHAPTER III. The cold chisel — The hardy — Heavy hot, cold and rail- road chisels — Drills and drilling — Making a flat drill — Hand made twist drills — Making a twist reamer. . Pages 56 to 72 5 CONTENTS CHAPTER IV. How to draw out, harden and temper an axe that will cleave a hemlock knot — Mill picks — Butcher knives — How to make gun, revolver, trap and all fine springs — ^Dirt picks — Laying dirt picks Pages 73 to 89 CHAPTER V. Machinists tools — Air hardening steel for lathe and planer tools — How to anneal air hardening steel — Milling cutters — The use of asbestos and clay when harden- ing milling cutters and other tools — Hardening hol- low tools — The hardening and tempering of hob taps, stay bolt taps ana similar tools — Heating fur- naces — Heated lead for hardening purposes — Boiler- makers' tools — The beading tool — Punches and dies • — Flue expanders — Drifts, rivet snaps, calking tools and chisels — Hardening shear blades. . . .Pages 90 to 115 CHAPTER VI. Woodworkers' and carpenters' tools — Laying a carpenter's chisel — The screw driver — How to make a draw knife Pages 116 to 121 CHAPTER VIL Granite cutters' tools — The granite drill — Bull sets and bull chisels — The granite bush hammer — The granite hammer — Granite cutters' mash hammer — The granite tool sharpeners' hammer and anvil stake — Marble cutters' tools Pages 122 to 130 CONTENTS 7 CHAPTER VIII. Limestone cutters' tools — Plain and tooth chisels and points — Pitching- tool — Hand and ball drills — The tooth axe — The limestone bush hammer — Sandstone cutters' tools — Stone carvers' tools — Polishing board for stonecutters' tools — How to forge mallet head tools — Punching teeth in stone cutters' tools — Lathe . and planer tools for cutting soft stone — Dressing tools with the cutting edge bevelled from one side only Pages 131 to 145 CHAPTER IX. The stonemason's hammer — Miners' tools — Correct and incorrect shapes of miners' hand drills — The cross or machine drill — The K^reaking of drills when drilling and the cause — The rock cuttiug reamer — Well drills Pages 146 to 153 CHAPTER X. Horseshoer's tools — How to make and dress a pair of pincers — Making a clinch cutter — How to make a horseshoer's knife — How to dress a vise — Sharpen- ing plow shares — How to make square holes in plow shares Page 154 to 162 CHAPTER XL How to make a harnessmaker's knife — How to make a butcher's steel — Hardening tools with five projections — The butcher's cleaver — How to dress a railroad pinch bar — The spike maul — The claw bar Pages 163 to 173 CONTENTS CHAPTER XII. The bricklayer's set — How to harden and temper wire nippers or pliers — How to make a razor — To make . a scraper — Hardening jaw of pipe vise — Hardening and tempering blacksmith's bolt clipper — Tools for punching or gumming cross-cut saws — The scratch- awl — Hardening and tempering circular blades of pipe cutter — Hardening a tool according to its shape — Making, hardening and tempering an alligator pipe wrench — Hardening and tempering pruning shear blades — The center punch — The nail, set — Hardening and tempering steel stamps — Making a gouge — Hardening and tempering carpenters' augurs that have come through a fire — Case hardening. , Pages 174 to 187 CHAPTER XIIL The correct meaning of a cherry red heat — Heating to harden according to the size of the tool — Charcoal for heating steel — The sealing of steel after harden- ing — Quality and quantity — Quick methods of work- ing — Cracks in steel — Slighting tools — The result of being a successful steelworker — Hardening tools that are forged by another mechanic — Sayings and ideas of mechanics in reference to steel — Why some tools are soft when put into use — Reasons why tools break when in use — Necessary tools — Welding compounds — Hardening compounds — How to determine the tem- per of tools — Overheating tools — Cutting steel when cold — Oil tempering — Drawing the temper over the open or blacksmith's fire — More points on hammer- ing steel — How to improve — The blacksmith's helper — The danger of heating more of a tool when dress- ing, than what is to be forged or hammered — Harden- ing very small or thin tools — More information about CONTENTS 9 cold chisels — The different degrees of temperature Fahrenheit required to equal the various colors when drawing the temper in hot air or oil — Table of ordi- nary tools made from cast steel, arranged alphabeti- cally, giving the color of temper and about the per- centage of carbon the steel should contain to give the best results — Table of tools continued, which are partly or wholly hardened but have no temper drawn — Working steel at night — A few words in reference to burnt steel — Conclusion Pages 188 to 229 Useful Formulas Pages 230 to 240 INTRODUCTION In introducing this book to my readers and brother mechanics, it has long been my aim to bring this volume of information before the steehvorkers and toolmakers in general and to present it in a clear simple way that the average mechanic will quite readily understand. Although there are other books written and published on this great subject of steelworking, the information which they contain is not expressed in a clear light that is beneficial to the ordinary reader, for unless the reader is already an expert steelworker the book is not easily understood without a great deal of thought and study, as some authors oppose their own ideas, others again do not take up the entire subject and the in- formation which is most profitable to the young me- chanic and also which is most impressive on his mind is left unwritten. But this book which is entitled, The 20th Century Toolsmith and Steelworker, will give fully all the in- formation and knowledge of working steel in a clear light so that the young mechanic or apprentice will readily improve, if he will but read. The methods given and used as regards the working of steel, are of the most modern, simple, practical, and scientific nature, 11 12 INTRODUCTION while the instructions are from the experience of a suc- cessful steelworker of good reputation, and who has spent years in hard work, ranging in extent from the humble country blacksmith shop to the largest and best railroad, locomotive and machine shops, also stone yards, quarries and mines of North America, which is the only correct way of gathering together the vast amount of knowledge contained in these pages and which has cost the author thousands of dollars in wide travel and collecting valuable ideas from some of the greatest living mechanics and steelworkers that Amer- ica has produced. Although this book is chiefly intended for black- smiths, toolsmiths and tooldressers, it will be found in- valuable to every mechanic connected directly or indi- rectly with the repair and manufacture of steel into tools, and if the directions are followed closely, the amateur steelworker will become an expert of the high- est degree, as there is nothing mentioned, but that which has been accomplished by the author and proven by experiment to be the greatest success. This book is not merely written for the young me- chanic or apprentice, but likewise for the old, and it does not signify if the reader has worked over the anvil for forty years, there is information that will help him overcome difficulties and obstacles connected with steel. Although the instructions given are principally in reference to heating steel in the blacksmiths or open fire and which is mostly used, this book gives informa- INTRODUCTION 13 tion concerning heating and tempering furnaces. But, it should be remembered that if a mechanic can work steel by heating it successfully in the open fire, he will experience very little trouble when heating steel in a furnace or lead bath as used in large and up-to-date toolshops and factories. I wish to say to all mechanics young and old but more so to the young mechanics who have a desire to reach the top of the ladder and gain a good reputation, and especially to those who chance to get a copy of this book, that the greatest obstacle they have to contend with when trying to improve, is to change from the rut they have already fallen into, chiefly made by them- selves and the teachings of their first masters. I state this from experience, and to illustrate fully after I knew my trade (or ''served my time," is a' more rea- sonable way of explaining), having plenty of confi- dence and a great share jof conceit in my abilities, I started out as a journeyman blacksmith, ''and then" I found out I had something to learn. But I found out that to change my ways and ideas was quite a difficult task and often got me in hot water, as I thought my way or rather the way I was taught by my first boss was correct. However, I soon decided that if I wanted to climb to the top of mechanical success and have a good reputation, I would have to change my ideas if I thought some other shop mate had an idea or method that was superior to mine, keep my eyes open, and do a great deal of thinking in my "own" mind. W INTRODUCTION And if I could have had this book at th© close of my apprenticeship, it would have saved me many a trouble- some job, many a long hour of study, a great deal of experimenting, large sums of money and placed me years in advance of the present times. And so I wish to say to the reader, although he may have some good ideas that perhaps are equal to the author's, while on the other hand he may have some not as good, read this book carefully from beginning to end, and follow its advice and he will be crowned with success, as a poor mechanic or Jack of all trades is not wanted in these days, where there is as much competition for the me- chanic's job as there is between business men in any mercantile business. And again, I say to the mechanic read this book carefully, follow the instructions closely, and you will hold your job and take first place. CHAPTER I. Steel, its use and necessity — Composition — Successful treat- ment — Different kinds — The cracking of steel when hard- ening and the cause — Judging and testing. Steel, Its Use and Necessity in All Arts, Trades and Professions. We could get along without a great many other ma- terials and metals, ' ' but we must have steel, ' ' its great necessity comes first in all arts, trades, and professions. The doctor or surgeon must have fine lancing knives, the dentist must have forceps, and the sculptor must have fine chisels. The machinist, boilermaker, stone- cutter, bricklayer and the stone mason, must have their tools made from steel in order to perform their skillful labor, likewise, the king and foundation of all mechan- ics, ' ' The Blacksmith, ' ' he must in the first place have the anvil, hammers, chisels, fullers, swages, etc., to do his own work and make tools for others. Our Capitols, government buildings, palaces, cathe- drals, the great railroad systems, likewise the defense of our country, the navy and its guns, are all brought to the stage of perfection, by the use of steel and so we can readily see that steel comes first and_ foremost of all metals, and the mechanic who is so fortunate as to become a good steelworker, is entitled to all konor and should be proud of his skill. 15 16 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The Composition of Cast Tool Steel. In order to understand this subject fully, it is neces- sary to know something pertaining to the manufacture. But in a simple way of explaining, cast tool steel is chiefly composed of bar or wrought iron, although wrought iron is a very useful metal, it is of too soft a nature in its natural state for the purpose of tool mak- ing. Consequently iron is put through a process by the steel manufacturer, and by the use of charcoal the iron becomes carbonized and so converted into steel. A great deal could be written on the manufacture of cast tool steel, as the steel, after being manufac- tured may be of good or bad quality and also being of different degrees of hardness or temper. The quality of the steel depends on the quality of iron used in the manufacture, while the hardness of the steel depends on the amount of carbon it contains. The temper of steel is classed or measured by the percentage of carbon in the steel, for example 100 points is equal to 1 per cent, to further explain, steel that is right for making cold chisels will consist of 75 points carbon, while steel used for machinists' lathe or turning tools which is re- quired to be much harder will consist of 1 per cent. Good cast steel should be manufactured from pure Swedish iron and should contain not less than 60 points carbon in order that it will readily become (after pass- ing through the various processes of the steelworker) hard as glass, tough as whalebone and as soft as lead. When toolmaking, a good quality of steel should al- ways be used, but as to hardness, it will depend on how the tool is to be used and what material the tool is to TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 17 cut or be used upon, also a great deal will depend on the skill of the steelworker. The Successful Treatment of Steel. In the successful treatment of steel lies the founda- tion of this book and the toolsmith's art, and with which all the following processes that the steel must pass through before reaching the finished tool are con- nected. Thus: heating, forging, hammering, hard- ening, quenching, tempering, welding and annealing. These processes all form an equally important part in the manufacture of tools, and so to become an expert steelworker this subject must be understood by having a thorough knowledge regarding the nature of steel, together with good judgment, carefulness and skill. Heating. There are a great many different ways of heating steel, although the most common way is in the black- smith's coal or open fire, but in the large shops w^heie tools are made in great quantities may be found fur- naces especially adapted for tool making which are heated by oil, gas, etc. The heating of steel is somewhat complicated owing to the different temperatures that are required (reader, give this your particular attentipn as success depends on the following), heating may be divided into four classes, as the forging heat, the hardening heat, the an- nealing heat and the welding heat. But for the benefit of the apprentice, I will say the different heats must be learnt by experimenting, but to the blacksmith of more 18 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY or less experience, I will describe the heats of a piece of ordinary steel 75 points in carbon (which will answer all ordinary purposes), in the following manner, a yel- low heat for forging, cherry red for hardening, blood red for annealing, and a white heat for welding. Forging. Forging is the toolsmith's labor which is required to bring or change a piece of steel into any shape or form, by referring to the forging heat, it is at all times neces- sary and beneficial to have a yellow or soft heat, then the steel will be worked clear through, and especially in heavy forging, but the heat must gradually decrease as the tool becomes finished. For example, supposing the toolsmith has a piece of steel one inch square and it is to be forged down to a chisel shaped point, it is heated slowly and evenly to a high or yellow heat, the toolsmith and helper forges it into the shape required until it is necessary to get another heat, but the second heat will not necessarily be so hot as it will be sufficient to finish the tool and- the hardest work is over, when the steel is finished at a low heat and the last blows of the hammer fall on the flat side. The steel is left finer and stronger than if finished at a high heat. Hammering. Hammering steel in the finishing stage is one of the greatest secrets of success connected with forging tools, it is at all times necessary as it toughens, refines and packs the steel, but it is chiefly for tools that have a flat surface. On tools that have no flat surface but are TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 19 either round or square, the blows must naturally fall on all sides alike, consequently the steel is left in its natural state. But tools that are flat, such as cold chisels or mill picks, the last blows say 10 or 15, must fall on both flat sides evenly when at a low heat, but bear in mind that not a blow is to strike the edge as it will knock out all the tenacity that has been put in the steel by the blovv^s on the flat surface, and do not ham- mer the steel too cold as it will ruin the steel. If the hammering is properly done the steel will show a bright black gloss. Hardening. The process for hardening is by heating the steel to a certain heat then cooling off sudidenly in water, which will immediately change the steel from its soft natural state, into that of a hard glasslike state and will show a white appearance when coming out of the water. But after coming through this operation the steel may be properly or improperly hardened, steel that is properly hardened is flner and stronger than improperly hard- ened steel, and if broken would present a flne crystai- ized fracture, while on the other hand, improperly hardened steel when broken would present a coarse fracture resembling a piece of honeycomb and will break very easy. The secret of success for proper hardening lies in the heat that is used, the proper heat must be found out by experimenting. A good way to find out the proper heat, will be, take a small piece of steel and on one end put deep nicks in it with a chisel, about half an inch apart, say, for three inches back, as shown in Figure 1. Now place the end that has th« nicks, in the fire and heat the extreme point to a white 20 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY or welding heat, then plunge into cold water and cool off "dead cold." Now place over the anvil, commenc- ing at the extreme point that was the hottest and break off at the first nick, then the next and so on until all is broken, and the results will be as formerly explained. The first piece when broken will show a coarse, hard and very brittle fracture being very easy to break, and as the other pieces are broken the fracture will be no- ticed to be getting finer and harder to break until the mnm Fig. 1. Showing piece of steel for hardening test. one is come to showing a fine crystallized fracture re- sembling a piece of glass. Another way to find out the proper heat for hardening will be to have 3 or 4 thin flat pieces of steel, heat them to different heats then break off taking particular notice of the fracture, and how some pieces will break much easier than others. When hardening steel, always bear in mind to harden it at as low a heat as it will be sure to harden at, as proper hardening is the gateway of success in making tools that have to hold a good cutting edge. The Hardening Bath. In connection with the hardening of steel the harden- ing bath forms a very important part and which should not be overlooked. It consists chiefly of water, which must be clean and free from all oily or greasy sub- TOOLSMITH AND STEEL WORKER 21 stance. "Water containing any greasy substance of any kind will not act so quickly or as satisfactory as clear, clean water. Rain or soft water is preferred to hard well water, but salt put in the water to form a brine is still better, as steel will harden at a lower heat in brine than in the ordinary pure water and this is a point to be well considered, so keep as much salt in the water as it will dissolve or soak up. Still another advantage by the use of brine is that it will not steam up so quickly as water and this is also worthy of thought when hardening large tools. At all times keep the bath as large and as cold as possible. Quenching. In the quenching or cooling of steel during the hard- ening process, a great deal is to be learned, as some- times the tool is liable to warp when being quenched, in some cases so bad as to spoil or crack the tool, while the cause will occur from improper quenching, as a great deal depends according to the way the tool is placed in the water or hardening bath, and also accord- ing to the shape of the tool. Some tools must cut the water as a knife, others again must thrust it as a dagger, and some at one angle, some at another. For example, take a round piece of steel 6 inches long and % thick, and it is to be hardened the whole length of itself. After heating, it will have to be lowered into the bath from a perfectly upright position, if it has been properly forged, heated, and annealed, it will come from the water perfectly straight, but should it be placed in the water from an 22 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY angular position it will be very apt to warp. Wide flat tools, whether partly or wholly hardened should be quenched in a perfectly upright position or they will warp flatwise. Tempering'. After hardening the steel it will be too hard for some purposes, and so the hardness must be reduced by reheating it to a certain degree according to the work it is to do, which is ^^ termed" tempering. If a piece of hardened steel be polished bright, then reheated, dif- ferent colors will appear and change as the steel be- comes heated to a greater degree. The colors will ap- pear in their turn as follows, commencing with the least degree of heat will be a light straw, dark straw, copper, red, purple, dark blue, light blue and grey, and by watching the colors the steelworker regulates the tem- per or hardness of the tool. Tempering is the process that will readily change steel from its hardened glass like state into an elastic springy nature resembling whalebone. For illustra- tion, take a thin piece of steel 3 inches long, % inch wide, 1-16 thick, after hardening the whole piece from end to end then tempering to a very light blue and allowing it to cool off on its own accord, it will be found to be in a very elastic state and if bent it would immediately come back straight again. Tempering should not be classed as hardening or vice versa, as is often the case with a great many mechanics. For ex- ample, a tool that is to be only hardened and no tem- per drawn, should be classed as hardened, ''and not tempered. ' ' TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 23 Welding. Welding is the process or art of joining two pieces of steel together so as to form one solid piece, and which forms a very important part in steel working or toolmaking. There are several errors made when welding steel, some of the most common ones being, the want of the proper knovvdedge concerning the nature of steel, a green or unclean fire containing sulphur and other foreign matter, which is dangerous to hot steel, the absence of the proper welding heat, and improper ways of uniting the pieces together. For the benefit of those who have not had much practice and those who have only been partly successful, I will give these in- structions, which, if followed closely will insure suc- cess. First of all the welding point in the steel that is to be welded must be known, as there are several kinds of steel, some will require a higher heat to weld than others, the heat varying according to the hardness of the steel. For illustration, we make a weld by uniting two pieces of steel together and we have had good success, as the weld represents one solid piece. Now we pro- ceed to make another weld, and in exactly the same way as the first weld, the same welding heat is used and the same fire, but this time we do not meet with success for as soon as the hot steel is struck with the hammer, to form the weld, the steel flies to pieces (I hear the reader ask the reason, why), because the steel was heated to a higher heat than what the steel would stand, and the consequence is, all the labor has been lost, the fault lies in not knowing the welding point. We could take wrought iron and make every weld at 24 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY the same heat, but not so with steel, on account of it varying in hardness. And so in cases when the me- chanic is in doubt as to the hardness or welding point in the steel, use this rule. Take a piece of the steel that is to be welded, heat it to a yellow heat, then place~it over the edge of the anvil and strike it a light blow with the hammer, if the steel does not crumble or fall to pieces, keep increasing the heat until it does, this will enable anyone to test the steel for hardness, and so find the welding point or just how high a heat the steel will stand before crumbling or flying to pieces when making a weld. But although the welding heat is well understood, there are other things to consider, as we must have a clean fire with the coal well charred and all gas, sul- phur, clinkers, ashes, etc., must be taken from the fire, to insure a solid weld. Welding is more fully ex- plained in another chapter of the book, as, in dirt picks. Annealing. The chief object of annealing steel is to soften it, the process being almost opposite to that of hardening. In hardening, the steel is cooled off very quickly, but in annealing, the steel is cooled very slowly. Steel to anneal must be heated in somewhat the same manner as to harden, with the exception that the annealing heat must not exceed the proper hardening heat, a little less heat will be best, for example a blood red. The advantage to be gained by annealing steel is to make it soft, in order that it may be easily filed, turned, or planed. Without annealing some steel will be too hard for the machinist's use, tools that are forged by TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 25 the toolsmith and finished by a machinist should al- ways be annealed, and in a great many cases the steel must be annealed when it comes from the manufac- turer, before it can be worked satisfactorily. There are many ways to anneal, but the method that is commonly used, is by taking a piece of steel heated to the heat previously mentioned, and packed deep into slack lime allowing it to remain there until perfectly cold. Wood ashes may be used in place of slack lime, but they should be perfectly dry and free from all dampness. Fine dry sawdust is also very good, but it should be kept in an iron box in case the sawdust catches fire. There is another good way to anneal and which is very often preferred on account that it is much quicker. Take a piece of steel heated as mentioned. Then hold it in a dark place long enough, so that the heat will all pass off, save a dim dull red. Then plunge into water to cool off. This is called the water anneal, and some machinists say that tools take a better hold of it. If the process was right the steel will come from the water resembling a piece of hardened steel, showing a black and white appearance by being partly scaled off. This method, however, may need a little experi- menting before getting the best results. Points on an- nealing will be found in other parts of the book. Different Kinds of Steel. There are many kinds, grades, and brands of steel which vary in shape, quality, and hardness, according to the tool that is to be made from it and which the ordinary blacksmith is not familiar with. Steel used in the blacksmith shop does not take in such a wide 26 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY range as that used in a large machine shop, as steel of 75 points carbon will answer all purposes in the blacksmith shop, but in the machine shop steel is used of a much higher carbon, ranging up to 100 points or 1 per cent and even higher. High carbon steel is used chiefly for making lathe and planer tools, which has been found out by practical experience to be prefer- able owing greatly to the reason, that these tools do their v/ork by steady pressure. Should a cold chisel be made from high carbon steel, say 1 per cent, the head of the chisel would be continually breaking and splitting off. High carbon steel is more difficult to weld and will harden at a less heat than low carbon steel. Tools that are to do their work by striking with a hammer, as a cold chisel, should always be made from a medium low carbon steel. But in these days, steel can be had in any shape or temper to suit any tool, so when ordering steel from the manufacturer always state what kind of tools the steel is to be used for. The percentage of carbon which the steel should contain for different tools will be fully explained throughout the book, as each tool is described. The Cracking of Tools When Hardening and the Cause. The cracking of tools during the hardening process, is one of the great obstacles to be overcome by the steelworker, and which is the cause of the loss of a great amount of expensive tools and labor. The primary and main cause for tools cracking when hardening, is overheating of the steel, another cause is by uneven heating, still another cause will result from forging and leaving strains in the steel by irregular heating and hammering, and also by improper anneal- TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 27 ing. Steel that is heated in the blacksmith's fire is very liable to crack in hardening, unless great care be exercised, and the tendency for the steel to crack will be increased, if the mechanic has only a limited amount of knowledge as regards the nature and virtue of steel. For illustration I will give the way that a great many who call themselves steelworkers, harden a piece of steel. They will take the piece of steel, place it in the fire, then turn on or blow a very strong blast so as to heat it quickly, getting one part at a white heat while another part is barely red, then plunge it into the water any way to cool off, consequently it cracks, and the operator blames the steel saying it was no good, while he himself was to blame. Laying the blame on the steel is the theory of a great many black- smiths and steelworkers, especially when the tool does not give good satisfaction. But on the other hand, should the tool do good v/ork they are ready to take all the praise to themselves by telling others about it, and I state this from experience as I have been in the same position before finding out my mistake. Now let us harden a piece of steel properly as it should be done, and for example, supposing we have a flat piece to be hardened, 2 inches scjuare by i/^ inch thick. Place the steel flatways on top of the fire, heat slowly and very evenly, turning the steel over occa- sionally so as not to heat in streaks, until the whole piece becomes heated to a cherry red or just enough to harden, then cool edgeways from an upright position, in clean cold water allowing it to remain there until it is perfectly cold, and it will be perfectly hardened and free from all cracks. And to more fully illustrate, I will relate a little in- cident in my own experience. I took a position as 1:5 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY toolsmith in one of the large shops of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad. The first job I undertook to do, was to harden and temper a great number of flat thread cutting dies, as I started to work the machinist foreman came along and said to me, ''I want you to harden these dies without leaving cracks in them." A few days after the dies had been in use, I asked him if he found any cracks in the dies, and he replied ''no, not one." Then he went on and explained to me, that the toolsmith who was there before me, was continu- ally leaving cracks in the dies and laying the blame on the steel saying it was no good, while the dies were not giving good satisfaction and at the same time keep- ing a machinist busy making new ones and keeping others in repair. A few days later the machinist (who was keeping the tools in repair) came along to me and said, ' ' I am not working much more than half my time since you started, as I have not near so many dies to keep in repair." Reader, I have not related this af- fair to give myself praise, but instead, to point out to you the difference between two mechanics and both calling themselves toolsmiths, one having very little knowledge concerning the nature and working of steel, was giving poor satisfaction, spoiling a great many tools and resulting in the loss of his position. The other had a thorough knowledge of steel in every way and did his work in a highly satisfactory manner. The first man did his work by heating his tools too fast, having one part of a tool at a white heat and another part scarcely red, and when being cooled to harden they cracked. The second man did his work by watching carefully so as to heat the tool very . TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 29 evenly, no part of the tool being any hotter than just enough to harden, the results being every tool came through the hardening process safe and sound, with- out a flaw of any kind. Reader, which of these me- chanics are you going to be, first or second? Consider the difference between the two, then take your choice. How to Judge Hard from Soft Steel. There are numerous ways of telling the difference between hard and soft steel, as in the following. First way is by the fracture of a fresh break, as hard steel when broken cold from the bar, will show a very fine and smooth fracture, while soft steel will show a coarse and rough fracture. Second way, take two bars of % inch octagon steel nick the bars all around when cold, 6 inches apart for cold chisels, place the part of the bar at the nick directly over the square hole of the anvil. Then strike with a sledge. The hard bar will break at the nicks with one or perhaps two blows, but the soft bar will require five or six blows in order to break it. Third way, supposing a number of cold chisels are to be dressed that have been in use for some time, by close observation it will be seen that the heads are of a different shape and appearance. For instance. The head of one chisel will have the steel widened out and curled down over the body of the chisel. This illus- trates soft steel of about 60 points carbon. Another head will crumble off as it widens out instead of curling up. This indicates steel of medium hardness of 75 or 80 points carbon, which is the best for cold chisels and all similar tools. Still another head will show the steel 30 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY split and broken off half an inch down the sides. This represents a high carbon steel of 1 per cent, which is too hard for chisel use, but would be good for lathe and planer tools. This way is perfectly reliable when telling the difference between hard and soft steel. When forging, soft steel will give much more readily under the hammer and will hold the heat much longer, than hard steel. If two pieces of steel, one hard the other soft, are hardened at the same heat, the hard piece will be scaled off white, while the soft piece will be only partly scaled off, showing a black and white appearance. How to Tell Good from Poor Steel. The fracture of good steel when first broken, will show a silvery white appearance clear through the bar, while the fracture of poor steel will show a dull grey. When judging or testing steel by the fracture do not allow the steel to get wet or rusty. Testing Steel After Hardening With a File. When hardening tools of an expensive nature, it is always best to make sure the steel is properly hardened before undertaking to draw the temper, by testing with a good sharp file in some part that will not interfere with the cutting qualities of the tool. Should the file run over the steel without taking a hold, the steel is all right, but on the other hand, should the file take a hold of it, the tool will have to be hardened again, having a little higher heat than the first time. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 31 Instructions on Toolmaking That Have to Be Given Many Times. In giving instructions on toolmaking in the following chapters of this book it will be necessary to give to a certain extent the same advice as different tools are described. And so I will ask the reader to bear this in mind, as what is told many times will be that which is most beneficial towards making steel work a success, and also which I wish to impress most deeply on the reader's mind in order that it may be well remembered CHAPTER II. The blacksmith's fire — Anvil — Tongs — Making a hand hammer. The Blacksmith's Fire. The fire is one of the most important things con- nected with the blacksmith 's or tooldresser 's trade, ano is the first thing I will describe toward toolmaking. The main points of a fire to be considered is, the fire should be on a forge large enough to enable the fire to be easily regulated to any size, according to the work that has to be heated in it, and have plenty of blast which can be well regulated. The fire should always consist of well charred coal, being perfectly free from all sulphur, gas, ashes, clinkers and thick smoke before undertaking to heat steel in it. In reference to the size of the fire I will illustrate, supposing we have a large piece of steel to heat (say a stone hammer), we want to heat it evenly and clear through, the fire must be large enough to accommodate the hammer so that it will not come in contact with the blast from the blower or bellows, and still have a cer- tain amount of fire over the hammer, which will re-, quire a fire of about 6 inches deep and 8 inches across the surface, but a smaller fire will do in case of small tools. The author has used a fire that was barely 1% inches across the whole heated surface, but this was made especially for hardening and tempering certain parts 32 TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 33 of tools. But be on the safe side by having the fire large enough, as coal is cheaper than steel and saves time. It will be money saved by securing as good coal as is possible to get, there being a great difference in coal, as some kinds are more free from smoke and sulphur and will not cake or get hard as othei kinds, and tools of irregular shape can be placed more easily without disturbing the build of the fire. Keep the coal under cover and clear from all rubbish, coal loses a great amount of its heating qualities when the sun shines on it continually. Bellows and Blowers. In the majority of ordinary shops the bellows are still used, some being much better than others, both as to the power of the blast and the construction of the bellows, and to anyone who is following the trade of blacksmithing I would advise having as good a one as is possible to get. I have seen bellows that have been in use for fifteen years and are almost as good as new, while others will wear out in one year. The hardness or easiness as the case may be of blowing the bellows is chiefly due to the way they are set up (as I have seen bellows that would tire a blacksmith to blow them, which should be in the nature of a rest instead of hard work), and if the uprights or posts on which the bellows hang are in a very upright position, the chances are the bellows will be hard to blow, so set them at an angle of about 45 degrees. If the uprights are given too much angle there will be too much leverage, and the bellows will lack motion. 34 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Blowers are used a great deal in these days (they take the place of bellows), which are run by hand in small shops by the use of a crank or lever, although in large shops blowers are run by steam power, and the smith simply regulates his fire by moving a lever to different positions. It makes no difference what pro- duces the blast so long as there is plenty of it, and at the same time it can be well regulated. The Anvil. The anvil is a tool used in the blacksmith trade or shop which is practically the foundation of all tools, for the forging and shaping of all classes of work and more particular in regards to toolmaking. There are a great many different sizes of anvils, as well as a great many different makes. In reference to the size of the anvil, some smiths want one size, some another, but for general tool work an anvil weighing 225 pounds is about right. There is a great difference in the make and also the quality of anvils. The author has forged tools on almost every make of anvil manufactured in Great Britain or the United States, but the kind that has given the most satisfactory results, and which can be relied upon, is known as the Hay Budden. Manufac- tured by the Hay Budden Manufacturing Company, Brooklyn, New York, U. S. A. This make of anvils is fully guaranteed, they are made from the very best material and by expert workmen, and the face is perfectly hardened. There are no soft spots, neither do they sag down or get hol- lowing in the face, as in a great many other makes, including the Peter Wright. This is no hearsay, TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 35 neither is the author favoring any particular manufac- turer, but this advice is founded on experience which is for the reader's benefit, as in order to do good work a good anvil is necessary, which is perfectly free from all hollows and soft spots. Tools of a flat surface, such as cold chisels, mill picks, axes, etc., must be dressed on a hard . and smooth anvil face to obtain the best results. When dressing wide tools such as an axe, a rough faced anvil will produce strains in the steel, which will increase the tendency to crack when hard- ening. The height of the anvil when on the block depends upon the tallness of the blacksmith who is to forge on it. I have noticed cases where a blacksmith was work- ing over an anvil so high as to be unable to strike a good hard blow, while on the other hand a tall black- smith was working over a low anvil that was making him humpbacked and round shouldered. But a good rule to go by, which will be found about right for all, is to have the anvil just high enough so that the black- smith may readily touch the anvil face with his knuckles when clasping the hammer handle and stand- ing in an upright position. Don't have the anvil merely sitting on a block that is continually jumping up and down with every blow from the hammer, but have it well bound to the block. But some will say, ''That stops it from ringing," or ''I can't work on an anvil that does not ring." Reader, this is all nonsense, what has the ringing of the anvil to do with the work, it may be all right for the class that wants to make a lot of noise to let others know they are working, but it is of no use when it comes to doing the work with ease, both for the blacksmith and helper. So have a block a little larger than the base of 36 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY the anvil, a good depth in the ground, say 3% or 4 feet (if it can't be made solid any other way), place the anvil on it and bore a hole through the block 6 inches below the anvil. Now make a bolt from % round iron 2^/2 inches longer than the block, as shown in Figure 2 at a. Make 0- & Fig. 2. Irons to bind anvil to block. two irons from % square as b, leaving them long enough so that the holes in the ends will extend over the base of the anvil. After taking the measure make two irons, as c, which are to extend from below the bolt in the post up through the irons that I'est on the base of the anvil b. Place all together and tighten TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 37 lip the nuts firmly. Figure 3 illustrates the anvil fast- ened to the block. In large up to date shops cast iron blocks are used, which are made especially for the anvil to fit into, thereby holding the anvil perfectly fast. Fig. 3. Showing anvil bound to block. Tongs. Tongs are among the most necessary tools needed by the blacksmith, and without them he would be at a standstill. There are a great many different shapes and forms of tongs (vfith the exception of a few ordi- nary styles) which are made according to the work they are to hold, and to be a good tong maker is an art to be proud of, as it requires skill to make them light and strong, and have them hold perfectly fast to the work without hurting or cramping the hand. Success often depends on good tongs, as I have known blacksmiths to fail at their work simply for the want of them. Again, a blacksmith who uses all his strength to hold clumsy or poor tongs on the work cannot use his hammer to advantage. The author has tongs that are made entirely from steel and are very strong, 38 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY and also are only half the weight of the ordinary iron tongs. They are a pleasure to use, as they hold per- fectly firm with very little hard pressure, because the handles just come close enough together so as to keep the hand full, in somewhat the same way as clasping a hammer handle. These tongs have been in use a num- ber of years and are as good as new. In using tongs made from steel care should be exer- cised to keep them cool (and especially if made from cast steel) by occasionally placing them in water. If brine is used to do the hardening keep the tongs out of it or they will rust, but should there be occasion to put the tongs in it be sure and rinse off after in clear water. One of the greatest features in making tongs at the present time is to have them adjustable, so that one pair will do the work of seven or eight ordinary pairs of tongs. I have tongs in my possession that will hold from V2 inch square up to 1% inches square, or octagon, and will also -hold flat sizes 2 inches by % down to % square, and hold each size very firm, while the size is regulated by an adjustable jaw by moving a small bolt into different holes in* the jaw, which requires but a few seconds to change, as shown in Figure 4. Still another point worthy of mention is to make the handles half round. This will form a spring and will be very easy to hold, but have the half round as wide as is reason- able ; for example, % half round will be right and fill the hand better than 7-16 round. Figure 5 illustrates tongs specially adapted for dressing cold chisels, made with V-shaped jaws, which will readily hold round, square or octagon. When making tongs, as Figures 4 and 5, from cast steel use a very soft steel of about 60 points carbon, and % square in size. After forging the jaws, as shown in Figure 5, the handles may be TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER ^ End view of adjustable tongs when holding smallest size. Showing how adjustable jaw is forged — dotted lines indicate where to split. V u Showing piece split and forged to shape of jaw. ^C7 Fig. 4. Adjustable tonga regulated for holding largest size. 4U THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Figure showing jaws made to hold round octagon or squarOo llustrgting how jaws are forged a.nd bent to shape. K^ v^ TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 41 forged or welded on, but will prove most satisfactory if forged in one piece. Figure 6 illustrates double levered and adjustable tongs invented by the celebrated steel worker, Prof. W. S. Casterlin, Pittston, Pennsylvania, U. S. A. These tongs have been improved by the author and are very powerful and light. They are especially designed for grasping tools of a beveled nature, such as mill picks, axes, etc., and will hold flat material of any width, ranging in thickness from 1-16 to 1% inches. The jaws of these tongs are copper lined, which prevents slipping. Fullers ajid Swages. These tools are invalu- able to the blacksmith in shaping and forging many classes of work, especially intoolmaking. Fullers and swages take in a wide range of differ- ent sizes, from % to 2 inches for ordinary use, 42 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY and larger sizes are used according to the class of work to be done. When making fullers or swages use a soft carbon steel of about 65 points. They will not require to be hardened or tempered as their work is chiefly on hot iron or steel. Figure 6% represents a top and bottom swage, while Fig. 6X. Top and bottom swages. Figure 7 shows a small size of top and bottom fullers. Figure 8 illustrates a large top fuller. Figure 9 indi- cates how large swages, and also large fullers, as Figure 8, may be forged before bending to shape. Dotted lines as aa, illustrate the projections, cc, bent to form a fuller. Dotted lines, as bb, illustrates the projections bent to form a swage. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 43 Fig. 7;" Top and bottom fullers. Fig. 8. Front view of large top fuller. b iJ Fig. 9. How large fullers and swages may be forged. Flatters and Set Hammer. The flatter is to the blacksmith what the plane is to the carpenter, being principally used for taking out all hammer marks and so leave a finished appearance on 44 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY the work, but may be used for several other purposes. Flatters may be divided into two classes, such as light and heavy (most blacksmiths make use of only one flatter, which is generally a heavy one, but a light one can be used to advantage in a great many cases), and although they are made with either round or square edges, the round edged flatter is preferred for general use. Flatters are generally made by upsetting the steel to form the face, then the projections of the face are spread with a fuller or otherwise may be driven down in a square socket, same size as the body of the steel. But flatters may be made by selecting a piece of steel the same size as the face of the flatter is to be, then fuller in from all four sides of the steel and draw out, afterv/ards cutting off from the main body of the steel according to the thickness or depth of the face. Set hammers are very useful in making square cor- ners and are very convenient in accomplishing work in awkward places which cannot be done with a flatter. Figure 10 illustrates a light round edged flatter, while Figure 11 shows a heavy flatter v/ith square edges, and Figure 12 shows a set hammer. The Hammer. A good hammer is a tool to be prized by a blacksmith, and plays an important part in working steel. The face of the hammer must be properly hardened and tempered, in order to prevent it from getting hol- low in the center or being too hard on the corners, thus causing it to break, and the face must be perfectly smooth so as not to leave any nicks or dents in the steel. A great many blacksmiths think all they have to do TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 45 Fig. 10. Light round edge flatter, made from 1/i inch square steel, face 2 inches square. Fig. 11. Heavy square edge flatter made from iX inch square steel, face 2% inch square. 4C THE TWENTIETH CENTURY in order to get a good hammer is. to go to the hardware store and buy one. They will buy one all right, but what are the results. It is this, after they are in use a little while a piece will break off the face, which if examined closely the fracture will show a dull gray appearance, a sure sign of poor steel. By referring to buying hammers in the hardware store, I had a wide experience during my first years Fig. 12. Set hammer made from 1% inch square steel. at the trade, and through ignorance, after purchasing a hammer and it did not give good satisfaction, I would generally give the hardvv^are man a calling down for selling it to me. Although he was not to blame as his business was to sell and not to manufacture, and as regards his knowledge concerning good or bad steel, it was very limited. I am not stating this, reader, to criticise the hardware merchant, or the tool manufac- turer, or machine made tools of any kind, as in a great TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 47 many eases the machine tools are equal to those that are hand made. But not so in the case of a good hand forged, hardened and tempered hammer. MaMng and Dressing a Hand Hammer. In making a hammer, as to weight and shape, it is hard to say what would suit all blacksmiths, but for a forging hammer for making and dressing tools, two pounds in weight will be about right. But in cases such as dressing mill picks, granite tool sharpening, and on jobs of tool dressing where a helper is not necessary, a hammer of three and one-quarter pounds in weight will be best. But let us take a piece of good steel of about 75 point carbon, 1% inches square and 4 inches long, which will make a forging hammer two pounds in weight. Have a good clean fire and plenty large enough; place the steel in the fire and heat slowly, turning it around oc- casionally so as not to overheat the corners while the center is yet black, but heat to a good even yellow heat clear through. The hammer may now be forged as shown and illustrated in a b c. Figure 13, or any. shape the blacksmith may choose. I have known black- smiths who could forge a well shaped hammer equal to the expert toolsmith, but when they came to the hardening and tempering of it would fail entirely. I will state some of the obstacles that blacksmiths have to contend with which reduce the chances of making a good hammer. They are afraid to heat the steel to a high forging heat ; and to explain, I remem- ber when in my apprenticeship I was helping a black- smith to make a hammer, and as we were proceeding he was giving me instructions while I was blowing the 48 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Piece of iK inch square steel 4 inches long, with eye punched to make a 2 lb. forging hammer. Illustrating how fullering is done after eye is punched. Showing side view of ham- mer completed with eye spread at c, (which is done with a fuller while the eye pin is in the eye of the hammer) and ful- lered in at e, with a larger fuller at the finish. Fig. 13. Indicating how hammer is forged. TOOLSMITH AND STEEL WORKER 49 bellows, he said: ^' Never heat a piece of steel hot enough to raise a scale," (and of course at that time I thought the advice was good), however, we worked away, getting the eye punched, which was quite a hard job at that low heat, considering we had a 2 inch square piece of steel, but while we were making the hammer we had other jobs to do as is generally the case in a general blacksmith shop, and so occasionally the steel was left soaking in the fire for half an hour at a time (letting the steel lay in the fire is a bad practice among blacksmiths and is very injurious to the steel after being hot enough to work). Well, we got it forged to a very good shape, but I was not there when he hardened and tempered it (as I had given up my job). However, I called in some time after and noticed that the hammer was broken off at the corners, and also being hollow in the face. Another blacksmith who had forged a well shaped hammer and after hardening and tempering it in his own way, found it to be as soft as lead. This hammer, I think, was hardened and tempered three or four times V itliout success, consequently he threw it in the scrap pile, saying the steel was no good, while he "himself" was to blame as he had a very poor knowledge pertain- ing to the working of steel. Now I would like to impress deeply on the reader's mind, if every mechanic could be an expert by doing his work in a rough and tumble way, the world would be full of expert mechanics, and if every blacksmith or toolsmith could make tools to give unlimited satisfac- tion, there would be no use in writing this book. But as this is impossible, it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of working steel when forging hammers, and moderation in heating is the stepping stone to success. 50 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY For instance, if a square piece of steel is heated very hot and fast the corners will become overheated and if struck a blow with the hammer on the corners the steel would fly to pieces, while the steel has lost its good qualities and is spoiled in the beginning. The other extreme is trying to forge steel at a low heat, sometimes not above a blood red, while every blow that is struck on the steel is putting strains in it. What I mean by '' strains" is the steel must be hot enough so that it will be worked clear through, and if this is not done the steel is liable to crack in the hardening. I have known hammers to crack clear through the center of the face, then all the labor is lost. But to get the best results, forge the hammer in the beginning by having the steel at an even yellow heat, but lower the heat as the hammer is finished (all tools should be finished at a low heat, for example, a dark dull red, in order to get the best results). If much filing is to be done after the hammer is forged it should be annealed. When dressing the face end of the ham- mer make the corners a little rounding, but otherwise have the face perfectly flat and level, and the hammer is ready for the flnal blow, "the hardening." Hardening and Tempering a Hammer. After hardening there are different ways of temper- ing a hammer according to the shape. But for illustra- tion, I will harden and temper a hammer as in Figure 13, but before commencing it must be understood that the face end of the hammer, at b, is the principal end. After getting the flre in good shape, the coal welJ charred and free from all sulphur and thick smoke, place the face end of the hammer in the fire from an TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 51 upright position ; noAV heat slowly and evenly, making sure that the corners do not get overheated ; should the corners get hot enough to harden before the center, stop blowing the fire until the center has come up to a cherry red, or hot enough to harden even with the corners; then plunge the whole hammer in the hardening bath and hold there until stone cold. Now polish the face end (that was hardened) bright, then place the round or pene end of the hammer in the fire in an upright position and heat very slowly, as while heating to harden the round end the temper will draw to a blue in the face end if properly timed or regulated, so that one end may be hardened and the opposite end temp- ered in one operation, but be careful to watch both ends of the hammer at the same time. If the round end g:ets hot enough to harden before the temper appears on the other end stop blowing the fire until the temper begins to show up. It will not matter about the round end, after hardening, whether any temper be drawn or not, as there are no sharp corners to break off, but the temper may be drawn by holding over the fire and keep turning the hammer around, or may be done by placing a heated heavy iron band over the end. Bear in mind that when heating the ends of the ham- mer to harden do not heat to a hardening heat more than % of an inch back from the end, and at all times never harden the eye. A hammer that is made, hardened and tempered after these instructions will not get hollow in the center or break off at the corners or the eye. This is the author's favorite way of hardening and tempering a forging hammer and will be found very simple by the average blacksmith when once tried. Although there is another good way which is very con- venient for hammers that have two face ends, such as 52 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY a horseshoer's turning sledge or a boilermaker's ham- mer. For example, after the ends are hardened the temper can be drawn by placing a heated heavy iron band over the end of the hammer (as already men- tioned). This method will draw the corners to any temper (say a pale blue), while the center will remain hard. This way will give good satisfaction as the center of a hammer cannot be too hard unless overheated, but the corners must be drawn to a very low temper. These instructions will apply to all ordinary hammers and sledges. The old-fashioned way of tempering a hammer is by heating one end with the corners hot enough to harden, while the center is barely red, it is then cooled off by dipping an inch into the hardening bath, then allow- ing the temper to run down to the desired color. Con- sequently the hammer becomes hollow faced, could not be otherwise, as it did not harden in the center of the face at all, because it was not hot enough, and when the temper came down it made it still softer. For ex- ariiple, supposing a hammer face (unless it be a very small hammer) is heated very evenly, then hardened by being dipped an inch into the water, it is still bound to be soft as the temper is sure to run out at the center first. Successful Points to Be Remembered in Making and Tempering a Hammer. Have the eye straight through the hammer and a little smaller in the center, which will keep the handle in the hammer much better after being well fitted and then wedged. Always have the center of the hammer face as hard as the corners, but the corners must not TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 53 exceed a light blue temper, unless the hammer is forged from a very soft cast steel, harden the hammer at as low heat as it will be sure to harden at. Have a good straight handle, a little spring to it is a good fault. Another good point to remember when making ham- mers is, do not punch the eye the full size at the be- ginning, but have it a little smaller, as the eye will get larger as the hammer is forged. Punching Holes in Steel. Punching holes in steel is considered by the average blacksmiths to be a difficult job, the trouble being they try to punch the steel at too low a heat or else they have not proper tools to do it with. Some blacksmiths use too long and straight an eye punch, consequently when the punch enters the steel a short distance the end becomes hot and upsets, causing it to stick in the steel, while the blacksmith experiences a difficulty to get the punch out of the steel. Then the punch is straightened again and the blacksmith works away until he gets the hole through. I have known black- smiths to have a punch stick in the steel three or four times while punching one hole through a piece of 1% inch square steel. Coal dust is very good when put in the hole to keep the punch from sticking, but the main points to be con- sidered is the heat in the steel when punching and proper shaped tools, especially when making hammers. And so make an eye punch and eye pin, as Figures 14 and 15. The eye punch is made from li^ inch square steel. After the eye is punched the punch part of the tool should be forged down to an oval shape diagonally across the steel (which will bring the handle at a right 54 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY angle when the punch is in use and also keep the hand away from the hot steel), and be very short and have plenty of taper, while the corners of the extreme point Fig. 15. The eye pin. should be perfectly square, an eye punch of this de- scription will not stick in the hole and will not bend. When punching have the steel a high yellow heat, then the punch will penetrate it with more ease than if TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 55 heated to barely a cherry red, and cool off the punch oc- casionally. An eye pin should be made from % square steel, by forging it tapering to a small square point, then to make oval, hammer down two opposite corners of the square a little rounding, which will give the shape required. The eye pin should also be short and have plenty of taper, this will make the eye a little smaller in the center when driven in from opposite sides, which will keep a handle in much better if well fitted in then wedged. CHAPTER HI. The cold chisel — The hardy — Drills and drilling. The Cold Chisel. A cold chisel is a tool used by every mechanical trade and business where iron or steel is used, or wherever machinery is repaired or manufactured, and in the proper forging, hardening and tempering of a cold chisel lies the foundation and successful stepping stone in making all edged tools with a flat surface, as a cold chisel hold a good cutting edge and neither bend or break. But the shape of the chisel is another point that must be well understood, as a fine chipping chisel which is made very thin for use on solid and soft material would not do for a boilermaker who is working on sheet steel which vibrates at every blow from the hammer. Thus, the vibration of the steel would be very trying on a thin chisel, and would consequently cause it to break, and so a heavier and thicker chisel must be made and put into use, as shown in 1, 2, 3, 4, Figure 16. A cold chisel can be made to chip almost any kind of material, as the author has made chisels to chip from the softest known material up to chilled metal, which will seem like a fable to a great many simply because they never saw it accomplished. I have known machinists who wore out a number of new files per- forming some work on chilled metal, because they could not get a cold chisel properly made to chip it. 56 TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 57 Now I would like to impress on the reader's mind that I have made chisels to chip metal that a file would not bite, but these chisels were not tempered to a blue (as a great many mechanics think a cold chisel must always be tempered to a blue), neither were they made from any old scrap piece of steel that might be handy. As I have known blacksmiths to take an old file or rasp, forge it to a round or square, and then attempt to make Q I 1 (Q (3 tt / Fig. 99. Showing steel upset to forge heel on punch bar. The Spike Maul. When building or repairing railroads, the spike maul or spike hammer is greatly used, its principal use being to drive spikes in the ties. To make one, take a piece of 2-inch square steel and after punching the eye forge to the shape as illustrated in Fig. 100, as will be Fig. 100. The spike maul. seen one end is drawn down very small to about % of an inch across the face, both ends are dressed as an ordi- TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 171 nary hammer. To harden, heat the large end of the spike maul first to a cherry red about % of an inch back from the face, having the center of the face at an even heat with the outside or corners in order that it will harden properly, then dip in the hardening bath to about 114 inches deep. Then polish the face and allow the temper to run down to a light blue. If there is not enough heat in the spike maul to drive down the tem- per it can be drawn by holding the end over the fire, and slowly and continually turning it around until the temper is drawn to the desired color. Harden and tem- per both ends the same way, but be caretul not to draw the temper in the end which is already hardened and tempered while heating to harden the second end. However, if the large end is hardened and tempered first, there will be no danger of the temper drawing in the other end, as the small end can be heated so much quicker and so the heat has not time to run to the large end enough to draw the temper, but in cases where there is danger of the temper drawing, cool off the tem- pered end in water. A spike maul is not so apt to get hollowing in the center of the face as an ordinary ham- mer, but, instead, is more apt to break off at the cor- ners, so when dressing make the corners rounding, but not too much. The Claw Bar. In railroad construction, the claw bar is very exten- sively used, its principal use being to pull spikes. Dressing claw bars when badly broken is somewhat of a difficult task and requires skill to forge them to the proper shape. To dress a claw bar, as shown in Fig. 101, when badly worn or broken, heat to a deep yellow heat, then forge to shape, as illustrated by side view 172 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY in figure, then close the claws, as a, a, front view in figure, to within % of an inch apart at the extreme ends. Now have a fuller as Fig. 103, which should be Front view. End view. Side view. Fig. 101 . Illustrating claw bar. Ys wider than the body of a railroad spike, and drive the fuller down between the claws. This will straighten the claws and bring them the right width apart. Now Fig. 102. Side view of opposite end of claw bar. have a small gouge and gouge out the claws from the front side, the extreme ends should be very thin (as shown in end view of figure, in order to go under the TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 173 head of a spike when pulling it), but should gradually become thicker back from the extreme ends. Claw bars must not be hardened or tempered, or they will break very easily when pulling a hard spike. The opposite end of a claw bar is generally made with a Fig. 103o Illustratiilg kind of fuller used, when dressing claw bars. bent chisel point as Fig. 102, which is used sometimes to loosen the spikes before pulling. There are also many different shapes of claw bars, but the one illus- trated is the principal one used, and they are all dressed after the same method or principle. CHAPTER XII. Miscellaneous tools — Case hardening. The Bricklayer's Set. A bricklayer's set has a very wide cutting edge, while the shank or handle is % octagon or square, to make one, take a wide piece of flat steel fuller in, then draw out the handle, after which the cutting edge is forged. But in case a piece of steel, as just men- tioned, cannot be had, the only way to forge the cut- ting edge (which should be about 3 inches wide) is by (Q Fig. 104. The bricklayer's set. upsetting a piece of octagon or square steel as the case may be, then flatten out until wide enough. To put on the cutting edge file only from one side, the other side being left perfectly square and flat. Harden as any similar flat tool and draw the temper to a dark blue. All tools for cutting brick should be tempered to a light blue. 174 TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 175 How to Harden and Temper Wire Nippers or Pliers. Heat the jaws back a little past the cutting blades, as indicated by dotted line a, Fig. 105, to a very even cherry red, then dip into the hardening bath to dotted line b above the rivet. Noav polish the upper side Fig. 105. The wire nippers. bright and draw the temper over the fire very slowly and evenly to a light blue, making sure that the cutting edges or teeth are properly tempered. These instruc- tions will apply to all similar tools. 176 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY How to Make a Razor. To make an ordinary razor use steel 3-16 by 7-16 of about 75 points carbon. After the shank is fullered in a little for the finger hold, then forged to shape, the blade is formed into shape by bending the steel a little edgewise, afterwards being forged, hammered and hardened, as is explained in making butcher knives Fig. 106. The razor. (which will be found in another chapter of this book), draw the temper to a purple. A razor is hollow ground after being tempered and which should be done by an expert, if a razor is made after these instructions and the hollow grinding done without drawing the temper, it will hold a very keen edge, which will equal any razor manufactured. End view, Fig. 106, illustrates shape of razor blade before being hollow ground. To Make a Scraper. A scraper for taking off paint, grease, etc., off boiler plate or any other material and leave a bright smooth surface, is chiefly made from octagon steel, the size of steel used according to the width of scraper required, although for an ordinary scraper % octagon will do. To make one, forge the steel perfectly flat % thick and about 3 inches in length and 1 inch wide. The end of the tool is left perfectly square, the scraping or cut- ting edges being the corners, which are ground very sharp. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 177 To harden, heat to about 1 inch back from the scrap- ing edges, then quench in the hardening bath and cool off the whole tool entirely. Draw no temper as the tool is required to be very hard ; it will give excellent results if properly forged, hammered and hardened. c v. Fig. 107. Showing scraper for boiler plate, cast iron, etc. Hardening Jaw of Pipe Vise. To harden a jaw of a pipe vise, heat all the teeth to a very even cherry red or just enough to harden, then quench the whole tool edgewise from a vertical position in the hardening bath and cool off entirely. Polish one side bright and draw the temper to a dark blue by plac- Fig. 108. Jaw for pipe vise. ing the jaw on a heated iron plate which should be a little wider than the jaw, in order that the jaw may be tempered evenly. These instructions will apply to all tools for holding pipes, clamps for holding bolts and all similar tools. 178 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Hardening and Tempering Blacksmiths' Bolt Clippers. A good set of bolt clippers is a tool prized very much by the general blacksmith, and yet very few black- smiths are capable of repairing them properly when they get out of order, the greatest trouble lying in the hardening and tempering. After the clippers are dressed and the cutting edges made to fit properly and closely together, heat the whole cutting edge to a very even cherry red, then quench in the hardening bath from an upright position to about one inch from the cutting edge. Polish the cutting edge bright and draw the temper slowly and evenly over the fire to a light blue. These directions for hardening and tempering bolt clippers apply to the kind that are used principally nowadays, which have a long shaped blade and by dipping into the hard- ening bath (after the fashion of hardening a cold chisel) one inch back from the cutting edge, will enable the temper to be drawn more accurate and evenly with no danger of the temper running out at any part of the cutting edge if the least care is exercised when drawing the temper over the fire. However, some bolt clippers are made with a short blade which is held in place by a set screw or some other contrivance, the knife or blade not exceeding one inch in length. In a case of this kind heat the whole blade to a very even cherry red, then quench the whole tool in the hardening bath and cool off entirely, afterwards drawing the temper on a piece of hot iron or by holding it over the fire. Bolt clippers are made exclusively for cutting iron bolts or rivets and must not be used to cut cast steel, if used on cast steel the clippers will lose their sharp cut- ting edges or will breaks TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 179 Tools for Punching or Gumming Cross Cut Saws. A punch and die for gumming cross cut saws are made a great deal after the same principle as a punch and die for punching teeth in stone cutters' chisels, with the exception that the saw tools are not beveled off, but instead are left perfectly fiat, the hardening and tempering being the same. See ''punching teeth in stone cutters' tools" in another chapter of this book. All punches for saw sets, after hardening, should be tempered to a light blue. The Scratchawl. A scratchawl for scratching or marking cast iron, boiler plate, etc., is as a rule made from small round steel, the point being drawn out very long and thin. To harden, heat to about % inch back from the point, but owing to the fineness of the tool be very careful not to overheat the extreme point, then quench and cool off entirely, draw no temper, as the point is required to be . very hard. Most mechanics who have use for a scratchawl prefer the opposite end flattened and bent to shape as Fig. 109. Fig. 109o The scratchawl. Hardening and Tempering Circular Blades of Pipe Cutter, To harden circular blades of pipe cutter, heat the whole blade to a very even cherry red heat, then quench the whole tool and cool off entirely. After- 180 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY wards draw the temper to a dark blue on a piece of heated flat iron. Should there be a great many of these tools to be hardened at once and there is no heating fur- nace in the shop, place a piece of flat iron on the sur- face of the fire, heat it to a deep red heat, then place the blades on it, as the blades are of a flat shape it will not take long for them to heat hot enough to harden. Place 5 or 6 of the blades on the heated plate at one time, but watch carefully and keep turning them over for fear some of them should become a little overheated or heated in streaks. After quenching draw the temper also on a hot iron. A V Fig. 110. Flat and end views of circular blade for pipe cutter. Heating a Tool According to Its Shape. When heating, to harden tools of an irregular shape as an eccentric ring. Fig. Ill, the heavy or thick side Fig. 111. An eccentric ring. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 181 should be heated first, then allow the thin part to come up to the heat gradually so as to avoid unequal con- traction when hardening. When quenching plunge the heaviest part of the tool into the water first. Making, Hardening and Tempering an Alligator Pipe Wrench. To make an alligator pipe wrench, take a piece of flat steel the size according to the size of wrench to be made, heat and then fuller in as a, a, Fig. 112, after- wards drawing out the handle b, now cut off the four corners, as illustrated c, to shape as indicated by dot- ted lines with a thin splitting chisel which will give the shape of the wrench. Now punch a small hole in the wrench at d and cut out the part e as dotted lines. If the wrench is made where there is a machine shop the teeth can be put in with a planer, but if made in an ordinary blacksmith shop the teeth will have to be filed in. The teeth can be put in one or both jaws, as may be desired. Fig. 113 shows the completed wrench with teeth in one jaw. To harden, heat the jaw (having the teeth) enough to harden to dotted line a, Fig. 113, then quench into the hardening bath to dotted line b, polish one side bright and draw the temper over the fire to a dark blue. Should both jaws of the wrench have teeth it can be hardened and tempered after the same method, but if the wrench has teeth in only one jaw, it is not neces- sary to harden or temper the jaw having no teeth. These directions will apply to all kinds of alligator wrenches or similar tools. 182 c / / / N \ \ \ c \ \ *d I THE TWENTIETH CENTURY C D ,d ; Fig. 112. Showing how alliga- tor pipe wrench is made. Fig. 113. The com= pleted wrench. Hardening and Tempering Pruning Shear Blades. If the blade is short, heat the whole blade to an even cherry red heat, then quench in the hardening bath about an inch back from the cutting edge and in an upright position, afterwards polish and draw the tem- per over the fire to a light blue. Should the blade be long, say 6 inches or more, harden and temper as a butcher knife, mentioned elsewhere in this book. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 183 The Center Punch. A center punch for marking or centering holes that have to be drilled in iron, steel, etc., are drawn down to a very sharp point as shown in Fig. 114. After hardening, allow the temper to draw to a dark blue, (Tl ?> Fig. 114. The center punch. which will do for punching all ordinary material, but for punching very hard metal the temper must be regu- lated accordingly. See instructions as is given in tem- pering a cold chisel in another chapter of this book. The Nail Set. A nail set for driving nails deep into the wood is gen- erally made from % octagon or square steel. The end a Fig. 115. The nail set. for striking upon the nail is tapered to % at the point. Harden not less than % of an inch back from the point and draw the temper to a light blue. Hardening and Tempering Steel Stamps. Stamps for lettering or marking cold iron, steel, etc., are hardened as any ordinary tool by being heated and quenched about one inch from the stamping end, and 184 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY afterwards drawing the temper to a purple. Stamps for marking hot iron or steel will be best tempered to a light blue. When stamping cold material, be sure to always have the stamp perfectly level and firm on the material to be stamped, otherwise the tool will be apt to break. Making a Gouge. To make a gouge for cutting hot iron or steel, it must be first made as an ordinary hot or splitting chisel, but the cutting edge should be left a little wider than the body of the chisel, then it is placed over a bottom swage and while at a cherry red heat take a fuller and place it exactly in the center of the chisel and directly over the center of the swage, then strike the fuller a good blow or two with the sledge, which will set or force the chisel down into the swage and form the gouge. Bear in mind that a certain size of swage and fuller must be used according to the size of gouge to be made, for example, and to have the best success, supposing a gouge is to be made to cut a circle of one inch, the swage must be one inch and the fuller % of an inch in size. This method will also apply to making a carpenter's gouge. A gouge for cutting cold iron or steel must be left thicker than one made to cut hot material and which will require a smaller size of fuller when making one. Also bear in mind to have the steel at an even cherry red heat (but no hotter) when bending a gouge to shape, otherwise should it be bent while at a white or high yellow heat, the hammering which is done at a low heat (before bending) is all taken out and it will never hold a keen cutting edge or otherwise if the gouge should be bent at a very low or black red heat there will be strains put TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 185 in the steel which will cause the gouge to crack while hardening. To harden a gouge, follow the directions given in hardening and tempering a blacksmith's hot or car- penter's chisel, which will be found fully illustrated in other chapters of this book. Hardening and Tempering Carpenters' Augers That Have Come Through a Fire. Although augers are made, hardened and tempered entirely in tool factories, there is often a case when an auger has simply lost its temper and become soft in a fire by the burning of hardware stores, etc., although otherwise the auger is not damaged in the least and which can be made as good as new (unless already over- heated) by the following method: Heat the auger very carefully in the blaze of the fire, making sure that the cutting edges and point are heated very evenly to a cherry red, then quench into the hardening bath about one inch back from the cutting edges, polish bright and draw the temper very carefully over the fire (hav- ing no blaze) to a dark blue. These instructions will apply to all augers, brace bits and all similar tools for boring wood. « Case Hardening. Case hardening is a process that iron or soft ma- chinery steel is put through so that the outside will be made very hard, while the centre still remains in its soft state. Case hardening is a very useful treat- ment, as certain parts of machinery are to be very hard in order to stand the wear, and iron or soft machinery steel can be made to give very satisfactory results when 186 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY case hardened properly. For a great number of pur- poses machinery steel tools will take the place of tools made from cast steel, and is less expensive as the stock is cheaper and the tools are much more easily made and will last just as long when properly treated. When case hardening parts or ends of tools, such as set screws, the process is this : Heat the end of the set screw to be hardened to a bright cherry red, then roll the heated end into powdered prussiate of potash and return to the fire and heat to a bright cherry red, then plunge into cold water and cool off entirely, when it will come out of the water presenting a white appear- ance and will be found to be very hard if tested with a file. This method will apply to all small tools that are to be case hardened all over, but not to a great depth. When case hardening a great many tools at once where the whole surface is to be case hardened and to a great depth, pack in an iron box with any case hardening compound, such as granulated or charred bone, charred leather, charcoal and potash. But in packing the pieces or tools in the box be sure that they do not come in contact with the surface of the box or with each other, but keep at least % inch apart by packing the case hardening compound between. The box should be made air tight, and then placed in a fur- nace or heating oven which must be left there long enough according to the depth that the contents are to be case hardened. If the furnace is kept at a bright cherry red heat, the contents of the box will be case hardened to the depth and rate of 1-16 of an inch per hour. Afterwards the contents are taken from the box and quenched immediately in cold water and cooled off entirely. When quenching pieces or tools to be case hardened, the process is the same as cast steel, for ex- TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 187 ample, take a flat piece of iron or soft steel 6 inches square by 1 inch thick it must be quenched by plung- ing into the water edgewise and from an upright posi- tion, also long slender pieces (for explanation 1 inch square and 6 inches long) must be quenched from a perfectly upright position and never at an angle, other- wise if the pieces are quenched at an angle they will be apt to warp. CHAPTER XIH. General information, pointers and ideas in reference to steei« work and toolmaking — Conclusion. The Correct Meaning of a Cherry Red Heat. We often hear blacksmiths and other mechanics when in conversation abont steel saying such a tool or piece of steel should be heated to a cherry red to harden or temper, but although their advice may be quite true how many are there who know the correct heat and meaning of a cherry red heat ? If every black- smith and other mechanics who claim to know all about steel were judged according to the class of tools they make, then I am afraid there would be a great many who do not understand the correct heat or meaning of a cherry red heat. I personally know some blacksmiths and tooldressers who will tell me they know a great deal about steel and its nature, who, when they are hardening a piece of steel will often heat the steel to a bright yellow heat when they think it is a cherry red, while others again will not have the steel heated above a dull red heat, consequently the steel is he'ated too much or not enough to harden. But for the benefit of those who wish to know and are anxious to learn the real meaning of a cherry red heat, I will explain. A cherry red heat is the lowest heat at which a piece of steel containing 75 points carbon will harden suc- cessfully. But when hardening a piece of steel con- .taining 100 points or 1 per cent of carbon a lower heat 188 TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 189 than a cherry red will do to harden it, and it should always be well remembered that the lowest possible heat that any steel will be sure to harden at, so much better will be the results when the finished tool is put into use, consequently the steel (to have the best re- sults) must be heated to harden according to the car- bon it contains. Heating to Harden According to the Size of the Tool. When heating to harden large or heavy tools, it should be remembered the heat should be a shade higher than that used to harden small or thin tools as the water will act much quicker on a thin piece of steel than a thick piece. Thick heavy tools will cause a great amount of steam, which has a great tendency to hold the water back from the steel, and to more fully explain, if two pieces of steel are taken to be hardened, the larger piece being 3 inches square, the smaller being I/2 of an inch square, but both pieces containing the same amount of carbon. Now if the smaller piece is heated to the lowest possible heat, that it will harden at successfully clear through the piece. Then heat the larger piece to exactly the same degree of heat, and it will be found after hardening upon close examination that only the corners are hardened. When quenching the ends of large tools or wholly, keep the water well agitated and so help to keep the water cooler next to the steel. If it is possible to have an overflow pipe attached to the hardening bath and another one to flow in at the same time, it will give good results when hardening large pieces as the hot water will continually flow away from the steel. 190 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Charcoal for Heating* Steel. A saying that I have heard a great many times is, al- ways use charcoal to heat steel, while another saying is, steel is tougher when heated in charcoal. It has been found out by practical and scientific experience that sulphur is one of the greatest enemies to be avoided when heating steel, and while charcoal is free from sulphur it is the only advantage connected with char- coal to heat steel by. But as to toughen steel by heat- ing it in charcoal, is a saying entirely without foun- dation, as there is nothing that will toughen steel ex- cept by hammering it at a certain heat and hardening it at the proper heat. In reference to heating steel by the use of charcoal, it does not matter what kind of fuel is used so long as it is free from sulphur and the necessary heat can be ob- tained, whether it be charcoal, coke, coal, bark or corn- cobs. Now, reader, never adopt any old saying or process unless you have found out by experiment or trial that it is true. Some mechanics are too ready to pick up quack theories by having heard some one say so, and consequently when the advice is put into prac- tice the result is failure. Reader, there are too many mechanics who belong to this class, you must belong to the class who do their own thinking, which is the sure road to success. Again, never turn a deaf ear to any one who has a suggestion to make, no matter who the man is or what kind of clothes he wears, the author has picked up some very valuable information in this way from some of the most illiterate men who only excelled in one point and which has been found out by experiment to be reliable. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 191 The Scaling of Steel After Hardening. The scaling of steel after hardening, as a rule, is never observed by the average steelworker, but to the expert it means a great deal. By the way the steel scales off a good steelworker is enabled to tell good or poor steel, also hard or soft steel, hard steel contain- ing 100 points carbon if heated to a cherry red will scale off clean, leaving a white surface, while a piece of medium carbon steel of 75 points of good quality and heated to a cherry red will scale off in spots leav- ing a speckled black and white surface, but the scales left on will be very thin and light. But if a piece of steel of medium carbon and of poor quality be hard- ened, the scales left on will be of a thick and heavy na- ture, and steel very low in carbon and of poor quality will not scale off at all unless heated to a bright cherry red (almost yellow). This class of steel is worthless for making good tools. The temper of a tool may also be regulated by the way the steel scales off. For illus- tration, if a cold chisel (for ordinary work) after hard- ening should be partly scaled off, the temper should be drawn to an ordinary light blue, but should it scale off perfectly clean and white allow the temper to draw to a very light blue, bordering on a grey. Sometimes when heating steel in a coke or smoky fire the steel will scale off' as already mentioned, but in- stead of leaving a white surface it will present a very dark surface and unless observed closely it will be hard to tell whether the steel has scaled off or not. The scaling of steel, however, is only in reference to tools that are hardened after being finished at the anvil, as tools that are ground bright on a grindstone or otherwise machined will not scale off. 192 THE T\7ENTIETH CENTURY By the scaling of steel a good steelworker can tell if the tool has been overheated when hardening, as the surface of overheated steel will show a very bright white color, the best way, however, to learn the differ- ence as regards the scaling off of a piece of overheated steel and of steel that was hardened at the proper heat, take two pieces of steel from the same bar of good quality and medium carbon, then heat one to a cherry red and the other to a deep yellow or white. Quality and Quantity. If tools can be made or repaired very quickly and in great quantities by a toolsmith or any mechanic, pro- ducing at the same time excellent quality, it will be a great saving of time, but there are very few who have such good ability. But to the ordinary toolsmith or steelworker I wish to give this advice, "Let quality at all times be preferred to quantity, ' ' and always see how well you can make a tool before seeing how fast you can make it, speed will naturally come but quality must be practiced in the beginning. For illustration, we will take two different toolsmiths who are making cold chisels, one may be able to make in his own way 50 chisels while the other man is only making 25, but the one who makes 25 is having a much easier time and is always up to his work, although he has as many me- chanics to keep at work as the man who makes 50, but how is that the reader asks; it is because he prefers quality first. The other man is working as hard as he can, he n^ver catches up to his work because he prefers quantity first. The slow man in action but not in work- manship makes one chisel that does as much work as three chisels made by the swift man, consequently TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 193 every chisel made by one toolsmith does its work while almost every chisel made by the other toolsmith is con- tinually breaking, bending or being too soft. Quick Methods of Working. When making or dressing a great many tools of the same shape and used for the same purpose, first of all consider the quality, then consider quantity and the quickest way of doing the work. For example, suppos- ing 25 cold chisels are brought at one time to the tool- smith to be dressed, do not dress, harden and temper them one by one, but instead dress or draw out all the chisels (using two pair of tongs and so keeping one chisel heating in the fire while the other one is being drawn out) before hardening and tempering them. When hardening the chisels have the surface of the fire flat, then lay about 4 of the chisels on top of the fire and heat very slowly, as they become hot enough to harden quench deep into the hardening bath. After polishing lay the chisel down on the forge or in some very convenient place near the fire (so that the tool- smith may be able to watch the chisels that are on the fire and also watch the temper drawing on others) and allow the temper to draw on its own accord, if there is plenty of heat left in the chisel back from the hardened part although dipped 1% inches into the hardening bath, the temper will often draw showing a light blue color 11/4 inches back from the cutting edge, but if the temper does not draw quite to the necessary color on its own accord hold it over the fire. When heating the chisels for hardening after this method let the helper (if you have one) keep the chisels placed on the fire in order that they may be continually heating, as others 191 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY are taken away to be hardened, ''but do not trust the helper" to heat them to the right heat, as the toolsmith must watch the hardening heat himself as he is respon- sible for the quality of the tool. With a good helper, the author has dressed, hardened and tempered from 15 to 20 flat cold chisels per hour after the method al- re-ady explained, and every chisel guaranteed to give the best of satisfaction by chipping as hard steel, as the chisel is made from. "When dressing granite cutters' tools, keep 3 or 4 in the fire gradually heating and as one becomes hot enough to dress, dress it and return to the fire to heat for hardening (as granite tools do not require to be heated very far back from the cutting edge, when hard- ening they can be heated very quickly), when hot enough to harden, quench it deep into the hardening bath, then rub it across the sand board to brighten, afterwards placing it on a piece of sheet iron or tin attached to a t"j.b of water (not the hardening bath) and allow the temper to draw on the tool by its own accord, as gran- ite tools do not require much temper, very little heat left in the tool after quenching will be sufficient to draw the temper to the desired color, and as the tem- per becomes drawn in a tool push it off into the water to cool off. After a little practice and having all the tools, etc., placed in a very convenient position, 50 to 60 tools such as points, chisels, and small drills can be dressed, hardened and tempered, in one hour. When hardening and tempering a great many small machinist's or riveting hammers, harden both ends at once by holding the hammer in an upright position and reversing the ends of the hammer back and forth into the fire (thus heating the ends hot enough to harden, but keeping the eye of the hammer soft), then plunge TOOLSMITH AND STEEL WORKER 195 the whole hammer into the hardening bath and cool off entirely, then polish bright. To draw the temper, heat a large iron block (say 6 inches square and 4 inches thick) to a deep yellow heat, now place the hardened hammers across the corners of the heated block, having the eye directly on the block and so al- lowing the ends to project out from the heated block as shown by dotted lines, Fig. 116. By this method of Fig. 116. Illustrating quick way of tempering small hammers. tempering small hammers, the temper will draw in the eye first if the hammer is turned over occasionally, aft- erwards the temper will draw in the ends, by keeping 4 hammers on the block at once they can be tempered very quickly. If one end of a hammer should draw the temper before the other cool it off, but not any fur- ther back than the eye, then place on the heated block again until the temper is drawn in the other end. When forging tools, keep your hand tools well ar- ranged in a very convenient place close to the anvil and so be able to put your hand on the tool at once (which is required) and save lifting or moving a great many other unnecessary tools. 196 THE TWENTIETH. CENTURY Cracks in Steel. Anyone who has had any experience working steel or making" tools has noticed cracks in the steel as shown in the cold chisel, Fig. 117. These cracks are often called "water cracks" and some will say the water was too cold, but the real causes are having the steel too hot when hardening and unevenly forging the tool at too low a heat, and if the tool has been forged at a very low heat then overheated when hardening, cracks in the steel are almost sure to be the result. Any tool that has a crack in it, no matter how small, will break very easy when put in use. Slighting Tools. Any toolsmith who wants to do good work in order that he may gain a good reputation cannot afford to be careless or slight the tools he is to make or repair, but should at all times do the work to the best of his ability. When dressing cold chisels as the one illus- trated in Fig. 117 (or any similar tool) do not attempt Fig. 117. Showing cracks in cutting edge of a cold chiseL to dress it by leaving the cracks in it, but cut off the end of the chisel as far back as the cracks are visible in the steel. A steelworker should never get in the habit of doing much talking while a piece of steel is heating in the fire, and more especially if the steel should be heating TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 197 to be hardened, a great many expensive tools have been entirely destroyed by doing too much talking, thus causing the toolsmith to forget his work. If you have a lot of talking to do v^hich is apt to draw your atten- tion away from the fir^, take the steel out of the fire and lay it to one side until you are through with the conversation, as there is no work which demands closer attention and greater care than successful toolmaking. Also, do not get excited when working steel, as no one can work steel successfully if he is of an excited and nervous nature and never attempt to make tools when under the influence of strong drink, to work steel suc- cessfully the steelworker must have a clear brain and be patient, careful and have a quick and decisive judg- ment. The Result of Being a Successful Steelworker. The keynote of being a successful steelworker is "economy," and any large manufacturing company having in its employ an expert steelworker will De a great amount of money ahead at the end of a year, this result caused by the saving of steeland also labor. For example, I have been in large manufacturing estab- lishments where they had a poor toolsmith in their em- ploy, and the results were, a great many mechanics were losing time going back and forth to the tool fire in order that they might get a tool to do good work. I have known machinists and others to go to the tool fire 3 or 4 times (while once is enough) before they would get a tool to do its work, and in some cases they never got a first-class tool. Not only is the result of being a successful steel- worker or toolsmith a great saving to the firm or com- 198 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY pany lie is employed with, but a saving of a great amount of unnecessary work and trouble to himself. A first-class toolsmith will keep a much larger gang of mechanics at work, when placed beside a toolsmith whose knowledge concerning steelwork or toolmaking is very limited. Hardening Tools That Are Forged By Another Mechanic. No blacksmith or steelworker should assume the re- sponsibility of hardening tools (especially if expen- sive) that are forged by another mechanic, for if the tool should crack when hardening (or in any other way not prove satisfactory) the blame will fall on the mechanic who hardens the tool, although the one who deserves the blame is the man who forged the tool, as he left strains in the steel by irregular heating and irregular hammering. It does not signify how expert the hardelier may be, as the steel is still bound to crack if not forged properly. Sayings and Ideas of Mechanics in Reference to Steel. Steel is one of the greatest and favorite subjects for discussion among mechanics, and the consequence is a great many different theories, sayings and ideas arise in their minds as to what they think is the best way of working it, and the toolsmith is in a position to hear the idea of each mechanic when wanting a tool made or repaired. But the toolsmith must do as he thinks right as regards the working of the steel, but as to the shape of the tool he must follow the mechanic's in- structions. For example, I will give a few of the say- TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 199 ings and ideas which I have gathered up at the tool fire, although other sayings are mentioned in this book. Some mechanics have a habit of trying a tool with a file before using it, and not long ago I made a chisel for a machinist. After I had it made he took it away and in a few minutes returned with the chisel filed to an edge. He came up to me and said, "This chisel is no good because I can file it!" I asked him if he had tried it. He said, '^No, there is no use of me trying it when I can file it so easy ! " I told him to go and try it. He went and tried it and was convinced that the chisel would hold a good edge although he was able to file it. Now I wish to say to anyone who uses a cold chisel, although a chisel will chip cast steel and at the same time hold a good edge, it can be very easily filed to an edge with the use of a new or sharp file. An idea with a great many so-called steelworkers is, they will say, it does not matter Low hot steel is heated (so long as it is not burnt) when hardening, if it is put in the water at a cherry red. Now I wish to say in reference to this idea, although the result will not be as bad, neither will the steel be so liable to crack as when quenching the steel at a deep yellow or white heat, but the steel will never be in a fine crystalized state or hold a keen cutting edge as a piece of steel heated to the proper hardening heat, which is men- tioned so often in this book. Again, steel should never be held in the air to cool off after it leaves the fire when it is to be hardened, so bear in mind when hard- ening steel to quench it in the hardening bath directly after it leaves the fire, and have the hardening bath as close to the fire as possible and in a convenient place. Forge steel at a low heat is an old saying of a great many, and likewise a great many blacksmiths believe 200 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY it and so forge the steel at a cherry red heat. I have already mentioned about the dangerous practice and hard work of forging steel at a low heat, but for the benefit of any reader who is connected with the work- ing of steel, I will give this information, trusting it will be well remembered. Forge cast steel in the be- ginning at a deep yellow heat, and if the steel is heated to a white heat (so long as it is not burnt) it will be all right, but lessen the heat as the tool nears the fin- ished stage, all tools should be finished at a very low heat, especially all edged tools having a flat surface. Never upset cast steel is another old saying of some steelworkers, and when they are asked the reason why they will generally reply, "It opens the grain and spoils the steel," and I have known some blacksmiths who refused to make certain tools, saying to the cus- tomer the steel was not large enough without upset- ting and that would spoil the steel. Reader, upsetting spoils the steel is an old saying, but that is all there is to it, as there is practically no foundation in the theory and there is positively no grain in steel. Sometimes there happens to be seams lengthwise in the bar but that is a fault of the manufacturer. A piece of good steel may be said to resemble a piece of putty, which can be worked in any way and still produce the same results so far as the grain is concerned. The author has upset steel to three times its original size and when finished gave as good satisfaction as if it had not been upset at all. But to more fully explain, take a piece of octagon steel and make it into a chisel and when made the chisel is found to cut first class, now what is to hinder us from making a chisel on the op- posite end. There is simply nothing at all, ''and yet \vq are upsetting it, as drawing the steel out on one TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKEB 201 end is working the steel in the same direction as upset- ting it in the other end. Now, reader, remember this : A cutting edge can be put on the side of the octagon bar and still stand as well as if put on at the end; also the steel can be upset, crooked or bent any shape or form and still hold a first-class cutting edge when properly worked. Why Some Tools Are Soft When Put Into Use. There are different reasons for tools being soft when put into use. However, the main reason is, the tool has not been hardened successfully as the steel was not hot enough when quenched into the hardening bath, and if the steel has not been hardened it matters not whether any temper is drawn or not the tool will be soft just the same. Another reason why a tool is often said to be soft by some mechanics when bringing it to the toolsmith to be repaired, is because the tool has been used on hard cast iron while the tool was not tempered to cut anything harder than ordinary cast steel, consequently the cutting edge turns over when coming into contact with the hard metal. Still another reason, although the tool may be hard- ened and tempered properly, it is quite a common oc- currence that the temper is drawn when grinding on an emery wheel. Reasons Why Tools Break When in Use. A few of the main reasons why tools break when in use are — overheating of the steel when hardening, and improper forging which will cause cracks in the steel, also by leaving the temper too high, making the tools too thin and using a poor quality of steel. An- 202 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY other reason for tools breaking is the result cf putting tools to a use for which they were not intended. For explanation, I have had mechanics bring me broken cold chisels (and having made the chisels myself, I could certify that they were forged, hardened and tem- pered correctly) and when I would make inquiries to ascertain how the chisels were broken, the mechanic would say he was using them for wedges. Very often the toolsmith worries and so keeps himself in hot water when broken tools come to him to be dressed, as he thinks he is to blame because he thinks he did not make the tools properly. This is a great mistake on the toolsmith 's part, for in a great many cases the me- chanic who is using the tools is to blame, for if a tool is put into a use for which it is not intended or used carelessly it does not signify how well the tools are forged, hardened or tempered, they will break just the same, and for the benefit of every blacksmith or tool- smith who chances to get a copy of this book, I say follow the instructions closely concerning each tool, and then if the tools are broken when in use 9 cases out of 10 the fault will lie with the mechanic who was using the tool. When a tool is broken look at the fracture of the break, if it presents a close grain re- sembling a piece of glass the tool has been hardened properly. But, instead, should the break present a very coarse fracture resembling somewhat a piece of honeycomb, the tool has been improperly hardened by overheating, and in a case of this kind the toolsmith is to blame for the tool breaking. Tools used in very cold and frosty weather will break much easier than in warm weather, especially if used outside in the open air. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 203 Necessary Tools. I have often strolled into a country or general black- smith shop and found the blacksmith trying to forge a piece of neat work, by using simply a hammer and the anvil. It is quite possible that a great amount of work can be accomplished with only a hammer and the anvil, but the work is limited and very often after forging the article as near the shape as is possible, the blacksmith will often wear out a new file by filing the article to the finished shape, while the money that he pays out for files would soon amount up enough to buy him a good outfit of anvil tools or pay him for the time it would take to make them. By having a good outfit of tools, a great many jobs can be done in half the time and give a much neater appearance. The most necessary tools required in the ordinary black- smith shop, aside from a good anvil and hammer are tongs for holding different shapes and sizes, fullers and swages ranging in size from % inch to 2 inches, a flatter, set hammer, a hot and cold chisel, and a hardy. Of course there are a great many useful tools that I could mention, such as are used in large and up- to-date shops, but in a small shop it would not pay to keep them all on hand. However, the ones already mentioned should always be kept on hand. Any black- smith who is employed in a large machine, locomotive, or any large shop, should always be on the lookout to have as good an outfit of tools as anyone else in the shop, and so save borrowing from another fire. Al- though in some cases it is necessary to borrow, but when borrowing tools from another fire bear in mind to take them back as soon as possible, otherwise it may cause trouble. 204 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Welding Compounds. There are a great many different kinds of welding compounds, but the kind that is most extensively used and most commonly known is borax. The borax should be crushed to a fine powder to have the best results, and if wrought iron drillings (that are very fine and free from oil) be mixed it will increase the welding qualities of the borax by causing the steel to unite more readily. Although all the instructions that I have given in the previous chapters (in reference to welding) is with the use of borax, there are other compounds Avhich I have used with great success. A welding compound that I will recommend to the reader is the Climax, manufactured by the Cortland Welding Compound Co., Cortland, N. Y. This compound is very valuable when welding steel, especially when taking separate heats, as the steel will unite very readily and not slip away as is sometimes the case when using plain borax. When using the Climax Welding Compound be sure and follow the directions given by the manufacturer and also the instructions that I have given in this book in reference to the welding heat of steel. Hardening Compounds. There are many kinds of compounds used for hard- ening steel and most of them are of no value. Some blacksmith will have a certain compound which he says will toughen the steel, another will say he has something that will improve the steel, while others think, no matter how the steel is worked or heated if it is only dipped in some wonderful liquid kept in a TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 205 fancy pail or bucket the steel will be all right, and some have said to me in my travels, "If I knew what you had in the bucket I could make the tools stand as well as you." To explain, I happened to be in a coun- tr}^ village and asked the village blacksmith to let me have a fire which he was not using, as I had some mill picks, axes and chisels to dress. Well, I went to work and put some salt into a bucket of water, but as I wanted to have a joke on the blacksmith, I had the salt in different sizes of paper bags, so of course as I was emptying the different papers the blacksmith and his apprentice were watching me very closely, and as they had heard I was coming to the shop they wanted to learn all they could. However, I went to work and dressed the tools, occasionally showing the blacksmith what they would do, then I went away and left the brine in the pail as I was not expected back again. The next day the story was circulated that I went away and left the mixture in a pail, and the village blacksmith could temper tools now as well as I, con- sequently some of his customers heard of it and they were taking him some tools and he soon had a large number of tools to dress. But a few days after I hap- pened to be in the same village and so I called into the blacksmith shop to have a conversation. The black- smith not expecting me, I caught him at work on some tools that had just come in to be dressed, and after taking a look around the shop I saw some other tools that the blacksmith had dressed, but they were re- turned to him to do over again, as they were broken. Not only were the tools broken and giving poor sat- isfaction, but the blacksmith was getting himself in hot water by spoiling his customers' tools and trying to do something which he did not understand. This may 206 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY look like a fish story to the reader, but nevertheless it is quite true and I could relate other such happenings. Now, reader, there is positively no witchcraft or common sense connected with hardening compounds, as they neither toughen or improve the steel ; not only arc they of no value, but the blacksmith v/ould need almost a drug store to mix some of them, while the blacksmith works too hard for his money to spend it on such rubbish. The best hardening compound is simply clean cold water and salt to form a brine ; the water should contain as much salt as the water will soak up or dissolve. This is the best compound yet discovered to harden steel at a low heat, and, reader, bear in mind that the lower the heat which steel can be hardened at the tougher it will be, and this is one of the greatest secrets connected with toughening steel. Keep the hardening bath as clean and as cold as possible. Water and brine are the only two hardening compounds used by the author. How to Determine the Temper of Tools. As much information could be given regarding the shape of the tool as the temper, and if tools arc to be made to cut or work on material that is not mentioned in this book, it would be best to find out what hardness the material is also if the tool is to do its work by steady pressure as a lathe tool or by a blow from a hammer as a cold chisel. If the tool is to do its work by striking it with a hammer, it must be ascertained how heavy the blow is to be. For example, if the tool is struck very lightly, although the tool is to chip very hard material, it can be drawn out very thin, but if the blow is very heavy the tool must be made heavy and thick accordingly, to stand the force of the blow. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 207 When making tools to work on strange material, it will be best to make them on the thick and temper them on the soft side, after which the hardness of the temper can be increased and the thickness of the tool reduced to whatever gives the workman (who is to use it) the best satisfaction. If it should be otherwise by having the tools drawn out too thin and the temper left too hard, causing the tools to break very easy, there will be a good many chances to one if the black- smith or tool dresser does not lose liis job, so make sure and be on the safe side in the beginning. To more fully explain : I have knov/n blacksmiths to take jobs sharpening granite cutters' tools, and although the tools were hardened and tempered first class they were drawn out too thin, consequently the tools were easily broken, as the hammers used by ordinary granite cut- ters are very heavy, and likewise the blows that are struck upon the tools ''are very heavy," and as gran- ite tools require a hard temper in order to cut or chip the stone, the only method to fall back on for safety is to increase the thickness of the tool by not drawing it out so thin. There are times however when it is quite a difficult problem to determine the correct temper. Take for example, the toolsmith v/ho is making or dressing the chisels in a large locomotive shop, when a large num- ber of chisels is brought to him to be dressed at one time, he does not know if a certain chisel is going to be used in the erecting department or at the motion bench. A chisel used in the erecting department has to stand a great amount of rough usage by being used for a wedge, but does not chip any hard material more than splitting iron nuts, this chisel when dressing (and its use is understood) should not be drawn out so 208 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY thin as a chisel that is to do fine chipping, and it may be classed as the ordinary chisel (see chisel No. 2, Fig. 16, shown in another chapter of this book). The temper should be drawn to a very light blue almost a grey. But a chisel used by a machinist at the motion bench can be drawn out very thin (see chisel No. 1 of the same figure as just previously mentioned). The reason why this chisel can be drawn out so thin, is because the machinist as a rule is an expert in using a chisel, as he strikes it squarely on the head and holds it firm to the material he is chipping, consequently the temper ''can be left harder" without fear of the chis3l break- ng. Overheating" Tools. If at any time tools of a flat surface such as cold chisels, axes, etc., become overheated when hardening, never attempt to quench the tool in the hardening bath while the steel is at such a high heat but rehammer it at a low heat equally on both sides, then the tool is all right again to be heated to harden. Should the tool be quenched or hardened at such a high heat, it is very apt to crack while hardening or it will break very easy when in use. Tools of irregular shape such as milling cutters, taps, dies, etc., cannot be worked over again with the hammer, consequently great care must be exercised when heating to harden or the tool will be ruined, but if the tool is not heated hot enough to harden the first time no harm iK. done and it can be heated again to a little higher heat. Cutting Steel When Cold. Cutting the steel cold is a very satisfactory method, when bar steel is to be cut or broken into certain TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 209 lengths, as when making cold chisels )r other similar tools but the advantage of this method will cease when cutting steel over a certain size. For example, octa- gon, round or square cast steel ranging from the smal- lest size up to 11/4 inches in diameter, can be broken very quickly ^nd satisfactorily when perfectly cold, by nicking the bar equally from all sides, afterwards placing the nicked part of the bar directly over the square hole of the anvil, then striking it with a sledge when it will break. But care must be exercised when breaking steel after this method, as the pieces are very apt to fly and strike the blacksmith or his helper, but to overcome this danger place the handle of the chisel on the piece which is to be broken off before striking it with the sledge, which will prevent the piece from flying. When nicking the steel, hold the chisel so as to cut in a straight line and so enable the steel to break off square on the ends. To enable the steel to break with greater ease pour a little cold v^^ater directly on the nicked part of the steel. By pouring cold water on the steel all the heat is taken out, as steel will break more readily when perfectly cold than when it is warm. Breaking a bar of steel cold, is a very good way of finding out the hardness or the quality of the steel, for example take a bar of % or % steel (after being nicked) if the steel breaks with one or two blows from the sledge it denotes hard steel, but soft steel will re- quire five or six blows before it breaks ; also hard steel (by looking at the break) will show a fine and close fracture, but the fracture of soft steel will be more coarse and rough. If the steel is of good quality, the break or fracture will show a very uniform and silvery white appearance clear through the bar, but if the 210 - THE TWENTIETH CENTURY steel is of a poor quality it will show a dull brown appearance. To test steel bars that are too large to break cold, for example a bar two inches in diameter, heat the bar to a deep cherry red, then cut in from all sides say half an inch deep with a hot chisel, then lay the bar down to cool and when it is perfectly cold it may be broken by striking it with a sledge or dropping the bar over the anvil and the quality or hardness can be judged as formerly explained. But bear in 'mind that the steel must not be heated above a deep cherry red (in order to cut in the nick) or the fracture when broken cannot be judged correct, as a high heat in the steel would materially change the appearance and form of the fracture. I also wish to add, when cutting a great amount of cold steel at one time, dampen the cutting edge of the chisel with oil ; again, if used with care the chisel may be tempered to a purple without danger of breaking if made from steel of the proper hardness. Oil Tempering. Oil tempering, although often talked about, is a process little understood by the average blacksmith or steelworker and a great many mechanics have the idea that oil tempering is simply cooling off the steel in oil after the temper has been drawn. But to those whose knowledge is very limited as regards oil tem- pering, I will give the process, thus : In some large tool factories where tempering by colors is done avv^ay with, the temper is drawn on the tool after hardening by placing it in a vat of heated oil, the temper can be drawn to any degree according to the degree of heat the oil is heated to, which is registered by a ther- mometer attached to the vat. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 211 Oil tempering does not refine tlie steel in any way as some meclianics think it does, but it has an advan- tage in this way, the temper can be drawn very even- ly to any degree, also when drawing the temper in oil the steel does not have to be polished. Drawing the Temper over the Open or Blacksmith's Fire. The method of drawing the temper on tools over the fire is a very useful one, although a great many black- smiths or tooldressers are not acquainted with it, as they think the only way is to let the temper run down on its own accord. I have already explained the meth- od many times in this book, but there are a few ideas I wish to add. Of course the work that can be accom- plished by this method is limited to a certain class of tools; take for example tools that are partly hard- ened, such as cold chisels, axes, or any similar tools. Very often a tool is dipped a little too deep in the hardening bath, consequently there isn't enough heat left in the tool to allow the temper to run down on its own accord to the desired color, and so the necessary temper must be drawn over the fire if the best results are to be expected. When drawing the temper over the fire be careful not to have too much blaze (better still to have no blaze), and do not have a smoKy fire if it can be avoided, but in case the fire is smoky have a piece of cloth made stiff by winding around it a piece of fine, pliable wire, so that when drawing the temper, occa- sionally brush the tool with the cloth (where the tem- per is to be drawn), which will take off the smoke and keep the tool bright, and also allow the temper to be 212 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY seen and drawn with greater ease and exactness; Again, when drawing the temper over the fire, do not hold the tool too close, but hold it about two inches above the surface of the fire. Also bear in mind, do not give the fire too strong a blast (just enough to keep the fire bright is plenty), as it will draw the temper too quickly on the extreme cutting edge first. Do not hold the tool perfectly still when drawing the temper as there may be a hotter spot in one place in the fire than another which would draw the temper in streaks, but move the tool sideways or lengthways back and forth whichever is best to suit the shape of the tool, until the temper is drawn very evenly. If one side of a tool is seen to be drawing the neces- sary temper first, lower the other side nearer to the fire; this information will apply more especially to tools having a wide and unequal shape. Also when drawing the temper on tools, such as round punches or any similar tool that are partly hardened, keep the tool slowly and continually revolving around, in order to draw the temper very evenly on all sides. Other- wise if a round tool is held perfectly still over the fire, one side will draw to a blue while the opposite side will only heat to a straw color, unless the tool is very small'. More Points on Hammering Steel. When hammering steel in the finishing stage to refine it, bear in mind to forge the tool as near the shape or size as possible while the steel is at a bright yellow heat, but leaving the tool a trifle large or thick, as the tool will naturally require a little stock in order that the tool will be the right width or size after being hammered. This information v/ill apply more partic- ularly to tools of a flat shape. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 213 Too much hammering is not good for steel, for ex- ample, supposing the toolsmith has a flat cold chisel to draw out. He draws out the chisel and hammers it in the finishing stage to refine the steel. Now after the chisel has been drawn out to a certain thickness and hammered sufiiciently, the toolsmith decides he will have to draw the chisel much thinner as he has been informed the chisel is to do some very fine chip- ping. But I want to say to the toolsmith right here, do not draw the chisel thinner by continuing to ham- mer it at a low heat, because it will have ?, great tendency to cause strains in the steel, which would result by cracking when hardening. But to draw the chisel thinner, heat it again to a bright yellow heat, then draw out to almost as thin as is required, then finish by hammering it as before. Do not attempt to bend cast steel at a dull red or black heat after it has been hammered, as that would destroy all the tenacity put in the steel by hammering. If the steel is to be bent after it has been hammered, heat the steel to a cherry red heat, although a certain amount of the tenacity will be destroyed, yet not enough to injure the quality of the steel. But if the steel should be hammered, then bent at a black heal or otherwise should it be bent at a white heat, then all the toughness has been taken out of the steel. This information will apply to. fine flat springs that some- times have to be bent to the correct shape after the hammering has been done, and will also apply when bending lips on flat drills. The correct heat for hammering steel so that it will be refined and made tough, is a dull red heat, but do not hammer steel after it becomes black, beoause if the steel is hammered after it becomes black it will be 214 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY brittle and flakey, which will cause the cutting edge of the tool to break more easily when put in use. Very often cold chisels or similar tools are brought to the toolsmith to be hardened and tempered which were forged by another mechanic whose knowledge concerning steel was very limited. Now ''if the best results are expected ' ' do not simply harden^ and tem- per the chisel, as the chisel must likewise be ham- mered. But the toolsmith will say the chisel is already drawn out thin enough, but we will suppose it is, heat the chisel to a bright cherry red heat and upset it a little, which will give a little stock to allow it to be hammered to the right size again, also, by upsetting the chisel will help to take out any light strains which may have been put in the steel by the man who forged the chisel. Again, when hammering steel do not use too light a hammer as it is only time lost. A hammer weighing two pounds is plenty light enough, and when hammer- ing cold chisels (unless very fine) always strike level and as hard as you can, in order to pack and refine the steel sufficiently. Bear in mind when hammering tools that have a fiat surface for the last time, never strike one blow edgewise but strike every blow on the flat surface and both sides the same. How to Improve. Improvement is the gateway of true success in every art, trade or profession, and which applies especially to the toolsmith. To improve, the toolsmith must be devoted to his work and give it his whole mind and attention, as no toolsmith will ever be a successful steelworker, if he allows himself to become discon- tented by thinking that some other business or trade is TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 215 better than his own, or if he only works at his own trade to make a living, and consequently all the time looking for quitting time and payday. To the toolsmith who is determined to improve and be in the front rank, I wish to give this advice, first of all read and study this book from beginning to end, do not simply read it once but read it many times until you have the contents almost by heart, and put the instructions into practice. If you are making or dress- ing any 4;ool that is mentioned in this book and it should happen to break or in any other way not give satisfaction, somewhere in these pages you will find the cause of your trouble. But if you are making a tool not mentioned in this book and it should break, find out the reason it broke, also find out how the tool does its work and if there is a weak point in the tool. Very often a tool will break, although it is made from the best quality of steel and it is properly forged, hard- ened and tempered, and so always remember to make a tool that is apt to break as strong as possible in every way, and do not temper the tool any harder than "just enough to do the work." Again, when trying to improve do not accept the advice of every Tom, Dick or Harry as being the best way, without first giving it a trial, no matter if the advice "does come" from the foreman, superintend- ent or the master mechanic. The manager of the com- pany whom you are employed with may be competent to run the business successfully, but remember, in 19 cases out of 20 he knows nothing about steel from a practical standpoint, with the exception of what he has been told. The toolsmith who takes everybody's advice without giving it a trial by trying to please everybody, will never improve or meet with success. To improve 216 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY and become an expert toolsmith, learn all you can about working steel, as it is better in these days of great competition to be master of one trade than a Jack of all trades. Never say to yourself I can't do this job or I can't do that, but go ahead and try; do your best and if you fail, always try again until you accomplish the work in a first class and satisfactory manner. Bear in mind that success is reached by overcoming difficulties. The author has had many a hard trial ana dilliculty to overcome connected with steel, but by hard work, deep study and perseverance has been crowned with success. The Blacksmith's Helper. A willing and intelligent helper is a great help to any blacksmith, and very often the work can be ac- complished with greater ease and quicker than if a blacksmith has a don't care and a dull minded sort of a fellow for his helper, and for the tool fire the helper should be fully up to the average for intelligence. I know helpers who have better ideas concerning how the work should be done than a great many black- smiths themselves, and very often a blacksmith has been greatly indebted to his helper for certain ideas. No blacksmith should have a helper whom he has got to be teaching or telling all the time how to strike, neither should a helper be helping an overbearing blacksmith, as I have known some blacksmiths to be changing helpers every week or two, because the helper would rather lose his job than help a blacksmith who was continually using him more lil^e a machine than a brother shop mate. I have had helpers helping mc on the tool fire from one year's end to the other, and TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 217 I always treated my helpers as I would like to be treated myself and often forming a close and lasting friendship. And to all my brother mechanics I wish to say, treat your helper as you would like to be treated if you were in his place. Do not use him like a slave by making him do heavy striking when it is possible to do the work under the steam hammer. The Danger of Heating More of a Tool When Dressing Than What is to be Forged or Hammered. To explain this subject fully, we will suppose a cold chisel is heated to a high yellow or white heat two inches back from the cutting edge, but it is only forged or hammered one inch back of the cutting edge. Now if this chisel should be hardened two inches from the cutting edge, it would break very easy just back of the hammered part, when put in use, for this reason. If steel is once heated to a very high heat and not forged or hammered but hardened, although it should be hardened at the proper heat, it does not become crystalized the same as when forged or hammered. Also, when the steel breaks at the unforged part, the break will present a very coarse fracture resembling a piece of overheated steel, so bear in mind to forge or hammer all the steel that is heated to a high heat, especially if it is to be hardened. If the steel is not to be hardened, it is not necessary to be so particular in working all the heated steel, although steel is always stronger when finished at a low heat whether it is to be hardened or left unhardened. This information will apply directly to small granite hand drills, where only half an inch back of the cutting edge can be worked with the hammer, and so when dressing small granite 218 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY hand drills (or any similar drill) be careful not to heat to a high yellow any farther back from the cutting edge than % of an inch. But when dressing a large hand drill such as a miner's hand drill, it will have to be heated according to the size. Hardening Very Small or Thin Tools. When hardening very fine tools, have a small can of cold water or brine placed as close as possible to the fire, then the tool can be quenched immediately after it leaves the fire. Otherwise very thin tools will not hold the necessary heat (which is required to harden them successfully) long enough to reach the ordinary hardening bath. More Information About Cold Chisels. Although I have given more information concerning a cold chisel than any other tool mentioned in this book, I have done so because there is no one tool which requires so much science or skill as a cold chisel. I know some toolsmiths who have worked steel for forty years and yet never learned to make a cold chisel that would chip any material harder than ordinary cast steel and even then it was only guess work. Now, reader, I want to impress deeply on your mind, that cold chisels can be made to chip from the softest known material up to the hardest of chilled metal, but the chisels to do this work successfully must vary in soft- ness or hardness of temper according to the hardness of the material to be chipped, and also vary in shape according to the weight of the blow struck by the ham- mer. There are a great many mechanics who think there is some way of making and tempering a cold TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 219 chisel so that it will chip everything without breaking or being too soft. This is a great mistake, as it is impossible for one cold chisel to chip every kind of material and at the same time give satisfactory results. Instead we must have a number of cold chisels and each one made for a certain use. The different shapes of chisels as illustrated in an- other chapter of this book, will be found to give the very best results if made according to the instructions and each chisel used for its own particular purpose. Blacksmiths and ordinary tool dressers as a rule never take the shape of a chisel into consideration; conse- quently, they will very often make a chisel very thin when it is required to be made thick or vice versa. "When making chisels or any other tool, bear in mind that no matter how good the quality of the steel may be or how well it may be worked, hardened or tem- pered, the strength of the tool is always limited, con- sequently a thin cnisel will always break much easier than a thick one especially when given hard and rough usage. Of course the general or country blacksmith who is making chisels for farmers and others, cannot tell how the chisel is going to be used or what material it is to chip, therefore the chisel must not be made too thin or too thick; it must be medium, which I have classed as "the ordinary or farmer's chisel," and which should be tempered to a light blue. Never temper a cold chisel above a light blue unless you know for certain it is to chip very hard cast steel or cast iron. A chisel to chip very hard cast steel of about one per cent carbon, should be tempered to a dark blue. The cold chisel No. 4 as illustrated in Fig. 16 which will be found in another chapter of this book, is used for exceedingly hard and rough chipping, the 220 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY shape will also apply to long chisel bars such as are used in the erecting departments of locomotive shops, and a chisel bar for this particular purpose should be tempered to a very light blue or almost a grey, as a chisel bar does not have to cut or chip any hard ma- terial, but it is given very rough usage, consequently, it must be made with a very short taper and tempered very low in order to keep it from breaking. Always remember that if a chisel (or any other tool) is properly hardened, the chisel will stand first class even if the temper is not drawn to the exact color. But if the chisel is improperly hardened by being over-, heated, it will never stand or do good work no matter what temper is drawn afterwards, so make sure the chisel is properly hardened. Although steel of 75 point carbon is best for making all kinds of cold chisels, on account of some bars of octagon steel being much higher in carbon than o'thers it is almost impossible to always make chisels from steel of the proper hardness, and so I wish to say to the blacksmith or tooldresser, any time you have to dress or make a cold chisel from very high carbon steel (say one per cent) harden it at as low a heat as it will harden at successfully, and always let the temper run down lower. For ordinary use, let the temper of a chisel made from high carbon steel draw to almost a grey and it will give good results, but bear in mind never make a chisel from high carbon steel when it is possible to make one from steel of the proper carbon, for this reason, a chisel made from high carbon steel will keep breaking or splitting off at the end which is struck by the hammer. When dressinj cold chisels, always cut off the old cutting edge after the chisel is drawn out to the right thickness before TOOLSMITII AND STEELWORKER 221 hammering for the last time, then file or grind on a new cutting edge. In the ordinary blacksmith shop the cutting edge is filed on before tempering the chisel, but in large machine shops the cutting edge is ground on after the chisel is tempered. The different degrees of temperature Fahrenheit re- quired to equal the various colors when drawing the temper in hot air or oil : Color. • Deg. of Tern. F. Light straw , 440 Dark straw 470 Copper 500 Eed 520 Purple 540 Dark blue 560 Light blue 590 Grey 620 Table of ordinary tools made from cast steel, ar- ranged alphabetically, giving the color of temper and about the percentage of carbon the steel should con- tain to give the best results. To understand the fol- lowing table of carbon, I will explain, 0.75 is equal to 75 points, 1.00 is equal to 1 per cent, 1.25 is equal to 125 points or ly^ per cent. Description of tool. Color of temper Carbon Axe, broad Light blue 0.75 Axe, lumberman's chopping . . . Light blue 0.75 Axe, limestone tooth Light blue 0.75 Beading tool, boilermaker's . . Light blue 0.75 Calking tool, boilermaker's . . Light blue 0.75 Canthookg Light blue 0.75 Centers, lathe Purple 0.90 222 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Description of tool. Color of temper Carbon Chisel, machinists' cold Light blue 0.75 Chisel, ordinary or farmers' cold Light blue 0.75 Chisel boilermaker's cold Light blue 0.75 Chisel, blacksmiths' hot Light blue .0.75 Chisel, blacksmiths' cold Light blue 0.75 Chisel, railroad track Light blue 0.75 Chisel, limestone Light blue 0.75 Chisel, sandstone Light blue 0.75 Chisel, ordinary granite Light straw 0.75 Chisel, marble Very light straw 0.75 Chisel, carpenters' ,. Dark blue 0.75 Chisel, brick Light blue 0.75 Clamp, bolt Light blue 0.75 Cleaver butchers' Light blue 0.75 Clippers, blacksmiths' bolt . . . Light blue 0.75 Clinch cutter, horseshoers' . . . Light blue 0.75 Cutter, ordinary milling Dark straw 0.90 Gutter, pipe Purple 0.75 Cutter, horseshoers' hoof Light blue 0.75 Die, ordinary threading Dark straw 0.90 Digging bars Light blue 0.75 Drill, twist Purple 0.90 Drill, ordinary flat Purple 0.75 Drill, soft rock well Dark blue 0.75 Drill, small granite hand Light straw 0.75 Drill, limestone hand Light blue.... ...0.7^ Drill, limestone ball Light blue 0.75 Drill, sandstone Light blue 0.75 Drill, small marble. Very light straw 0.75 Hammer, granite bush. ...... Light straw 0.75 Hammer, limestone bush Light blue 0.75 Hammer, ordinary granite. . . Light straw 0.75 Hammer, machinists' Light blue 0.75 Hammer, blacksmiths' Light blue 0.75 Hammer, car wheel inspectors' Light blue 0.75 Hardy Light blue 0.75 Hatchets, woodworkers' Light blue 0.75 TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 223 Description of tool. Color of temper Carbon Jaws, blacksmiths' vise Dark blue 0.75 Jaws, pipe vise Dark blue 0.75 Knife, pruning Light blue 0.75 Knife, butchers' Light blue 0.75 Knife, pocket Light blue 0.75 Knife, draw Light blue 0.75 Knife, horseshoers' Dark blue 0.75 Knife, carpenters' plane Dark blue 0.75 Knife, harnessmakers' Dark blue 0.75 Maul, railroad spike Light blue 0.75 Pick, dirt Light blue 0.75 Pin, flue expander Dark blue 0.75 Pincers, horseshoers' Light blue 0.75 Pitching tool, limestone Light blue 0.75 Pitching tool, sandstone Light blue 0.75 Planer tool, soft stone rough- ing Light straw 0.90 Planer tool, ordinary ma- chinists* Copper 0.90 Pliers, wire Light blue 0.75 Point, granite Light straw 0.75 Point, limestone or sandstone. Light blue 0.75 Punch, boilermakers' hand... Light blue 0.75 Punch, nail Light blue 0.75 Punch, boilermakers' ma- chine Light blue 0.75 Punch, saw gumming Dark blue 0.75 Punch, ordinary center Dark blue 0.75 Razor Purple 0.75 Reamer, ordinary « Purple 0.90 Rolls, flue expander , . . Dark blue 0.75 Scraper, wood Purple 0.75 Screwdriver Grey 0.75 Set, nail Light blue 0.75 Set, bricklayers' Light blue 0.75 Shear blades Dark straw 0.75 Snap, boilermakers' rivet . . . Light blue 0.75 Spring, gum (see springs as illustrated) Very light blue 0.60 224 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Description of tool. Color of temper Carbon Spring, trap (see springs as illustrated) Very light blue 0.60 Tap, ordinary threading Dark straw 0.90 Tool, woodturners' lathe Dark blue 0.75 Tool, ordinary machinists' lathe Copper 0.90 Tool, stone lathe Copper 0.90 Wrench, alligator Dark blue 0.75 Table of tools continued, which are partly or wholly hardened but have no temper drawn. Description of tool. Carbon Chisel, cold, for excessive hard metal 0.75 Chisel, stonecutters', for very hard granite 0,75 Cutter, milling, heavy forme d 0.90 Cutter, milling, for hard met al 0.90 Dies, forging machine 0.75 Drill, large hand, for granite or hard rock 0.75 Drill, miners' cross, for granite or hard rock 0.75 Drill, well, for hard rock 0.75 Drill, machinists' flat, for very hard material 0.90 File 1.00 to 1.25 Hammer, stonecutters' mash . 0.75 Hammer, ordinary stone 0.75 Pick, mill 0.90 Reamer, heavy tapered, for hard material. 0.90 Reamer, for granite or hard rock, 0.75 Rasp 1.00 to 1.25 Scraper for cast iron or steel 0.75 Scratchawl for cast iron 0.75 Share, plow 0.75 Stake anvil, for dressing stonecutters' tools 0.75 Steel, butchers' 1.00 Tool, machinists' lathe, for hard cast iron 0.90 Tool, machinists' planer, for hard cast iron 0.90 Tool, granite pitching 0.75 Tools, stone carvers' fine 0.75 !25 of ch en iss an 3ls »re :ht he ^e- en at ay lie he 00 is )W )re re. ys )re ill of ler is by IS, let steel lay in fire any longer To Anneal Hard Steel. Heat to cherry red and bury in dust or ashes to cool slow, than possible. To Harden Tools or Steel. Always heat steel slow in charred coal. Charcoal is best. Green coal will ruin oast steel. Hot lead is very good to heat steel in. To Heat Steel for Hardening or Tempering. Take an iron box or piece of heavy gas pipe, put tools in, pack charcoal around them, heat box or pipe until tools get heated in center, then dip tools in solution. For flat piece, knife, bit or blade, always heat on edge. If you lay fiat on fire you will spring it, and for flat piece, blade, bit or knife always dip toward the north. For heavy round piece, stir water to a whirl, then plunge tool in center of whirl. It will not spring. " GUIDE FOE HARDENING - - CHAET A. High steel (tool steel) heated, quenched in water and kept there until cooled will be hardened and refined (small crystals). Resulting Hardness. Excessively hard; almost brittle. Too hard for use; will break easily. Too hard for use; not strong QOUgh. Very hard; strong enough. Very strong; hard enough except in middle. Stronger than bar; not hard enough. Heat Used. Appearance of Fracture. Coarse grain, with fiery lustre. Grain open, but not so coarse or fiery. Grain not coarse, but with fiei-y lustre. Fine grain clear through; no fiery lustre. Grain fine on the outside, but not in the middle. GUIDE FOR TEMPERING - - CHART B. High steel, after hardening, may be tempered as desired by slowly heating it in the open fire uBiil_ the correspondmg color appears. If heated in oil or tallow, these colors do not appear, but indications of the right heat are as given below. Designation of Temper. Very high. High. Medium. Mild. Soft or dead soft. Color of the Steel. Temp. "F." Condition of Oil or Tallow. ABOUT Dark smoke arises. More abundant dark smoke arises. Thick black volume of smoke appears. Oil will flash if flame is applied. Will continue to bum. Black Oxide. (Show* Red He>t in a Dark Place.) (No temper remains.) To Draw Temper. If it is a flat piece, knife blade or bit, heat a heavy iron; lay tool on edge up; draw to dark straw color. ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ .^ ^^^^^^_ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ j^,. After tools are forged never grind or file them until tempered. As carbon is on the outside, the more you grind off. p^^ Drawing Temper in OU. Better ude tallow Put tallow in pot on slow fire; put tools in tallow, and watch color of smoke, fls chart indicates The color on Chart B and color of smoke gives you the temper you desire. Fot all springs do not harden, but boil in tallow until the smoke indicates blue color, then take out and plunge in cold linseed oil. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 225 Working Steel at Night. Considering that the author has done a great deal of toolmaking at night, the tools have never been of such a good quality or given such good satisfaction as when made in daylight. Although there is a certain class of tools which can be made with greater success than others, for example take miners' tools. These tools are as a rule hardened but not tempered. Therefore the heat in the steel can be seen more clearly at night than the different colors of the temper. Drawing the temper on tools after night is very hard on the eye- sight and even then the correct color is very often guessed at. When tempering by colors (if possible at all), arrange your work so that the tempering may be done while there is good daylight, and this rule will apply more especially to the toolsmith when the days are short if the best results are required. Too much light at the tool fire is not good. When there is too much light have a blind put up at the window which will act as a shade and which will apply more especially when the sun is shining directly on the fire. A Few Words in Reference to Burnt Steel. There are a great many steelworkers, who are always looking for some method or compound to restore burnt steel and so for the reader's benefit, I will give the following information: The meaning of "burnt steel" is steel that has been heated to a higher heat than what it would stand, thus, when the steel is burnt it falls or flies to pieces when being struck by the hammer. The best method the author has yet discovered is, 226 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY being careful in the first place not to burn it, as an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. The next best method is, cut off all the steel that is burnt, as it is only time lost trying to restore it to its natural state, and the time lost is of more value than the steel. Supposing it should be restored successfully, but bear in mind, that steel when once burnt is never as good as the steel in its ordinary natural state. Special Methods of Hardening Tools and Steel Goods. The following remarks may serve as an amplifica- tion of the general principles already enunciated, and as an explanation of the special methods. The proc- esses to be described have justified themselves, al- though it cannot be said definitely that other methods might not serve as well. In considering the question I shall pass from partial to total, from the simpler to the more difficult hardening, and shall allude to the hardening of certain steel goods for the sake of com- pleteness. File-Cutters' Chisels. These are hardened in water to a depth of from 15 to 20 mm., according to their size, after being raised to a dull red heat, which must be uniform over the whole width of the edge, which is the only part hard- ened. The chisels are tempered at a purple red on red-hot iron. They can be ground down about 8 mm., after which fresh hardening is wanted. Before this rehardening the edge must be forged thinner, as it has already become too thick by wear and grinding. At this time, too, the shank is forged out smooth again. If the shank has been hardened it ^ight fly, to the danger of the eye or hand of the file- cutter. Hence it is a mistake to believe that a hard- TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 227 ened shank of a file-cutter's chisel lasts longer than an unhardened shank. Paper and Tobacco Knives and Shears. Long articles of these kinds are best heated in a cupola and kept there till the edge has reached the hardening temperature. These cutting tools have gen- erally holes and slots in them whereby they are fixed into the machine. So that the thin edges of these aper- tures may not get hotter than the solid metal near them, they should be stopped with loam before heat- ing. The hardening is done in water or, in difiicult cases, in tallow, into which the knife is put horizon- tally with its back outwards. For tempering we use a rectangular iron frame, somewhat longer than the knife. Several holes are cut below in the sides of the frame, and fire-bars rest on bearers a little way above the holes. This permits the access of air to the coal-fire which is made in the box. When a sufficient glow is got, two thin iron bars are laid across the box and the knives are laid on them with their backs downwards. There they remain till their edges appear violet. Another way is to lay the knives flat, so that only half the width of the lowest knife is over the fire. The second half covers the first, the third the second, and so on, so that only the backs of the knives are exposed to the direct heat of the fire, the edges being heated by conduction only. The rea- son is that the edge must be hard and the rest of the knife soft and tough. Short knives are dipped vertically in the hardening liquid. Short thick shear-blades are heated with the cutting side downwards in an open forge fire, only at the edge, 228 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY but not bounding the heated part too closely. The edge is then dipped horizontally into the hardening liquid, the process being similar to that used for chis- els and plane irons. Stamps. Stamps can be classified from their chief characters as follows: — Punches used for making holes in metal. The shape and size of the flat ground surface corre- sponds to, and determines the shape and size of the hole made, and of the piece of metal punched out. Stamps are matrices worked by the hand, like a chisel. They consist of short steel rods with working faces of the proper form, and are used principally for making hollow bodies and for inscribing letters on metal, and ornamenting it by inlaying. Strictly speaking, the already described stamping hammers come into this class. In many cases, the gradual action of a large number of weak blows with the hammer may be ad- vantageously replaced, with the aid of a machine, by a single powerful impulse or pressure, in which case th o form to be given is determined by a matrix or die. Stamps include both matrices and relief dies. For stamping metal buttons, jewelry, ornaments, etc., mat- rices are generally used (rarely relief dies), anl are called stamps most generally. The stamp has hi under and an upper part. In coining, two stamps ai\^ used, the lower one being fixed, while the upper on 3 comes down vertically above it. A ring confines the edges of the coin during the stamping so as to prevent the deformation of them. The second stamp, made from an original stamp, is called the matrix or model- stamp, and is used for making dies by pressing. 1. Minting Dies. — These are heated red hot in char- TOOLSMITII AND STEELWORKER - 229 ?oal in an iron box smeared with loam, but' not closely jhut. The working face of the die is then hardened by allowing a stream of water to fall upon its centre, as it is difficult to get that part as hot as the edge, and yet the whole surface must have a uniform hardness. The w^orking surf ace' is usually not tempered, and the rest of the die only a little, so that the die may not be deformed in use by the powerful pressure. 2. Press Tools.—Such dies with very fine engraving are hardened like coining dies. Those for button- and ornament-making and, also for rivet manufacture can, however, be heated in an open charcoal fire. They are licnted up, slowly at first, till the whole mass, and par- ticularly the working surface, appears of a tiniform brown red. Then the working surface is quickly brought to a higher temperature, ^s uniform all over as possible, and shading off into the brown red of the rest of the tool. For this purpose the fire must be kept short. To compensate for the unavoidably unequal heating of the working surface, the hardening should be done with a stream of water falling on the middle cf it. If the edge gets harder than the rest it must be lempered rather more to prevent cracking in use. The tempering is done in a sand bath, or an iron plate float- ing on fused lead, the working surface being upwards so as to temper the body of the tool the most. To prevent the tempering color from getting too r•^^r}l into the middle, that part is cooled with drops of water. For press tools used with heavy blows, tal- lov7 hardening is advisable. 3. Drawing Rods for Cartridge-Case Making. — These are hardened over their whole length, and there is the danger to be encountered that from want of care they may be warped. They are best heated inside a 230 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY uniformly heated tube lying in a long bedded forge fire with several tryers, or in a muffle. The hardening consists in a vertical dipping into water until the sur- face of the steel is dark, and then finishing the cooling in oil or tallow. Tempering is usually dispensed with. 4. Matrices for Rivet-making. — These must be hard on the upper surface, on the inner edge of this surface, and also in its anterior walls, but very tough and re- sistant to blows in the rest of its mass. The heating has therefore to be done accordingly, which is difficult. After a preliminary gentle heating, as uniform as pos- sible, of the whole tool, it is brought into the hot part of the fire with its working surface downwards, so as to ^ive that the full hardening heat. The quenching is best done with a stream of water, directed not merely through the opening of the matrix but over all its upper surface. If the outer edge scales fairly com- pletely it must be tempered yellow, which can be done with a red-hot iron ring. Matrices for cartridge-case manufacture are quenched the same way. 5. Short Stamps with large Working Face. — These are heated entirely and uniformly to the hardening temperature, and quickly cooled in a large vessel of water, with a constant flow through it, by dipping ver- tically and stirring them about. If possible the flow of water into the reservoir should be under pressura from below, in which case the stamps can be held quietly in the current. This is enough for soft steel (about 7 per cent, of carbon), but for harder steels the quenching in water is followed by a cooling in oil. In neither case is the steel tempered. If the stamps are made of medium or of hard steel, they must only be hardened in oil or tallow, and must be slightly tem- pered. Soft steel should be preferred, as it is more TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 231 easily engraved. In heating such steel the working surface should be sprinkled with ferrocyanide of pot- ash, both to prevent oxidation and to get greater hard- ness. The residual ferrocyanide is quickly removed with a fine wire brush before the hardening tempera- ture is reached, and renewed thinly and uniformly by means of a wire sieve. 6. Long Stamps with large Working Surface. — These are warmed all over, but the further heating is only at the working end, the cherry red passing into a brown red a little way up the tool. The quenching is done, like that of hammer heads, in water with a rapidly rising inflow. The overflow pipe must be so arranged that the surface of the watei* does not come more than about 2 cm. above the working face of the tool. The chief difference between the hardening of short anil long stamps is, that the former are hardened all over, the latter only at the face. If short stamps were only hardened partially they would warp, and this need not be feared with long stamps, as the larger mass of steel proceeding from the working face opposes a sufficient resistance to warping. 7. Gutting Matrices for punching out Plates for Tin- man's Work, etc. — These are heated like the stamps for rivet-making, and c[uenched by vertical dipping in water, or for hard steel in oil or tallow. Tempering colour: yellowish brown to brown red. In general, it may be remarked that with stamps which have to work with great accuracy, and which must therefore be of an exact size after hardening, the change of volume produced by the hardening must be allowed for. Hence a solid tool must be made some- what too small, a hollow one somewhat too large, and 232 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY just enough to compensate for the expansion in the one case and the contraction in the other. As the change in volume is different for different kinds of steel, it must be determined beforehand for each kind. Saws. Haswell recommends the following hardening method for saws in Karmarsch and Heeren's technical diction- ary: "Circular saws are brought to a cherry red and quenched in water with a thin layer of oil on its sur- face. The heating must be done slowly. The saws are immersed vertically. The oil catches fire as it touches the hot steel, and covers it with a crust of carbon, which protects it from too quick cooling and makes cracking less likely. Single saws can be given the hardening heat by laying them on a cold iron plate and then heating both together, and still better by heating the saw while pressed between two wrought-iron plates. This ensures slow heating of the saw and prevents warping. For the thinnest saws only oil is used for quenching, or a mixture of oil and tallow. This gives enough hardness. Saws of medium thickness are best quenched in solid tallow. This gives a somewhat greater hardness than oil. Very thin saw blades also get hard enough if heated red hot and cooled between two iron plates smeared with tallow. Saws for metal mu^t be tempered at a straw yellow. This is done after polishing best by laying the saw on red-hot iron.'' Holzapfel describes the hardening of saw blades as follows in the Mechanic's Magazine: — ''Saw blades are heated in special long stoves and then laid horizontally Yvdth the toothed edge, or the edge to be toothed, up- permoRt in the hardening liquid, which is a mixture of c^.l, tallow, wax, etc. Two troughs are generally used, TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 233 SO that when one gets too hot the other can be used while it cools again. A part of the hardening liquid is wiped from the saws to a piece of leather, and they are then heated over a bright coke fire till the grease left on them catches fire. If they have to be left rather hard, only a little fat is allowed to burn on them, but more if they are to be softer. To get spring-hardness, all the fat is allowed to burn. "With other objects, which are thick, or of unequal section, such as many springs, two or three lots of fat are burnt off' them, so as to ensure the same tempering throughout. ' ' Thin saw blades and other small objects are some- times brought to the hardening temperature by immer- sion in red-hot lead, having first, as already said, smeared them with linseed oil and soot, and dried to prevent the lead from sticking to them. Shears. The blades are healed uniformly to a dark clierrj^ red reaching from the point to the rivet hole. This can be done in the open fire, first with a weak blast, until the steel begins to glow. Then the fire is left to itself, and the steel is moved about in the fire till all the parts to be hardened have received a uniform dark cherry red. Both blades are hardened together in water and tempered at a purple red or violet. It is necessary to treat the two blades together throughout, so that both may be of equal hardness, so that one will not cut the other — the well-known rule of dipping the blades vertically and slowly, points uppermost, down to over the rivet hole. 234 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Table and Pocket Knives. There is little special about liardeniDg table-knives. The blade is dipped slantwise at a dark cherry red, back first, into the hardening liquid, which is usually plain water, or water covered to a depth of 10 to 15 mm. with oil. The blades are then tempered at violet or blue. Pocket-knives are taken, half a dozen at a time, in the tongs, the separate blades being kept apart in the grip of the tongs by a piece of iron. They are then heated edge upperm-ost over a fire or hot-iron plate. For fine knives, a fused mixture of tin and lead is used for tempering the back and a spirit flame for tempering the edge. Scythes. The blades are heated in a little reverberatory-fur- nace, a small walled flue of neatly square section, which is steeply inclined towards the chimney. The grate is in front, and in front of it is a tuyer-opening. It is preferred to fire with wood rather than charcoal, as the former makes more flame and keeps out the air better. A few centimetres above the sole of the furnace iron bearers carry the scythe blades. At first one blade is put with about a third of its length in the furnace, v/ith its back downwards and with the point foremost. When this has been somev/hat heated, other blades are put in, and the first is gradually got entirely into the furnace. The number of blades being heated at once depends on the temperature of the furnace. The slow pushing in of the blades is necessary, because the greatest heat is in front, over the grate, so that the points of the scythes would get less heated than the rest if they were put at once into the fire. The quenching is in tallow, with edge uppermost. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 235 The scythe is removed from the hardening trough when fumes cease to come from the tallow. The tal- low is scraped off the still warm steel with a sharpened piece of bark. Cherry tree bark is preferred for this. The scythe is then worked about in a heap of coal ashes to clean it. It is then heated very gently and as uniformly as possible over a charcoal fire, and then immersed w4th a hewing movement in a trough of run- ning water. This brings the scale partly off the front side of the blade. The rest of it is got off with an emery wheel, and the scythe is finally blue tempered. For this purpose an iron trough of proper size is lined on three sides with glowing charcoal, leaving one of the long sides free. On this side the scythe blades are put with their backs downwards on iron bearers and brought separately in turn nearer to the heat. As the tempering colour should appear uniformly over the whole blade, any defects in it are rectified over a char- coal fire with a gentle blast, heating those parts which have not been tempered enough, while the over- tempering of the rest is prevented by keeping it cool with a wet cloth applied now and then. The tempered scythes are cooled in the air. If very hard steel has been used, the scythes are tempered twice, polishing the front side of the blade before the second temper- ing, so that the colour can be observed. A sand bath heated by waste heat or some inferior fuel is more economical than the open charcoal trough, but does not do the tempering so well. The subsequent operations consist principally in hammering the slightly heated blades under a very rapid but light machine-driven hammer with a very small rise. This rectifies the distortions produced by hardness, and increases the hardness and elasticity of 236 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY the steel. This is followed by a final adjustment of the blade to its right form by means of hand-hammer- ing. Wire. According to Tunner, piano wire is hardened in Worcester as follows : — After a lead bath in an iron pipe kept red hot, the wire is hardened in a circulating oil bath. It then passes to a second lead bath, which, liowever, is at a temperature only just above the fusion point, and tempers the hardened wire. Watch Spring's. An interesting machine of Kugler of Paris for hard- ening watch springs is described as follows by Kohn in Karmarsch and Heeren's technical dictionary: — ''After the steel wire has been rolled out to the proper thinness it is coiled up on a cylinder, from which the ribbon passes through an iron pipe surrounded outside by fireproof material and having a rectangular section of about 100 mm. wide and 12 mm. high. This pipe is in a furnace heated with charcoal. As the steel ribbon slowly passes through the pipe it becomes red hot, and is drawn through a bath of oil and hardened. The heating of this bath is prevented by a constant flow of oil, the warm oil escaping by an overflow. On leaving the oil the ribbon passes between two pairs of drying rollers, one behind the other, which are suitably loaded and from which the oil floAvs back into the hardening bath. The band next arrives at a cast-iron plate heated by a fire, to temper the spring. Here it is also straightened by a weight, and, finally, through a pol- ishing apparatus consisting of six emery rollers, which TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 237 polish both sides of the spring. The spring is finally wound on a reel." A similarly acting apparatus for hardening and tempering long springs is that patented by Luttger Brothers of Solingen. Here, however, the hardening is done dry, by passing the spring as it leaves the hot pipe between two cast-iron reservoirs filled wnth cold water, which harden it by their pressure and coldness. The reservoirs are kept cool by a constant flow of water. The pressuie of the uipcr reservoir on the spring can be regulated by a lever. Hollow Steels. The method to be follow^ed with these has been already described, but we will here mention an ap- paratus patented by Lorenz of Karlsruhe. It consists essentially of the following parts : — To a vertical water pipe with a conical valve regulated by a screw, a m.outhpiece is fixed below by a coupling box. The mouthpiece must exactly fit into the object to be hardened, and it is given a spheroidal shape to enable it to fit into various sizes. Below there is a vertical overflow pipe, which can be raised or lowered by a lever, and by a spring acting on this IcA^er is pressed up against the mouthpiece. This pipe has a suitable flange to carry the hollow steel. If the hardening is to be internal only, the red-hot steel is put between the overflow pipe and the mouthpiece,- from which the water then flows through it. In this it is clear that the stream of water must fit the bore of the steel, or else the supply of water must be somewhat lessened, so that the thinner stream may spread over the inside of the steel. If the hollow steel is to be hardened first inside and 238 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY then outside, the overflow pipe receives a sort of cast- iron pan, the edge of which reaches the upper edge of the steel to be hardened. In this pan a small tripod is put for the steel to stand on. With this arrangement the water flowing into the pan through the hollow of the steel ultimately immerses it altogether. The over- flow from the pan is taken away through a side open- ing into the overflow pipe. To drive the hardening water close against the inner sides of the steel, the mouthpiece has a spindle in its centre, which spreads out outwards into a cone which directs the water out- wards. The space left by the base of the cone for the water to pass out can be regulated. If a hollow steel is to be hardened inside and out simultaneously, Lorenz uses an apparatus of which we can form an idea by supposing that a short coupling pipe is placed over the above-mentioned pan. This is connected above to the mouthpiece, which in this case does not rest upon the hollow steel. In this we get a closed chamber in which the hollow steel is placed free on all sides. The conical spindle sends the water both inside and outside at the same time, and it flows away by openings in the chamber. Curing Warped Steel. This operation is, if permissible, usually very diffi- cult, and must be conducted with the greatest care to be successful. It is generally done after the temper- ing. Objects which have only been slightly tempered or not at all, are made hand warm so as to slightly lessen their brittleness but not their hardness. They are then put between warm copper blocks in a screw press, and gradually brought to the proper shape and left to cool under the pressure. More strongly TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 239 tempered objects of softer steel are quickly and gently hammered on the anvil with a hammer, with a very narrow and rounded face, which stands in the direction of the hammer handle. The blows are given on the concave side of the steel, where the contracted parts lie. These are extended by the hammering till the steel has its proper shape restored. The blows must fall exactly in the direction of the bending, and not across it. The face of the hammer must be^ if neces- sary, so small that the whole length of it lies closely on the surface when the blow is struck. If the ham- mer is too heavy or used with too much force, its action extends over the whole section of the object, and the warping is made worse. Besides, the steel may then easily be broken. Blue-tempered thin elastic objects, such as blades, may, while still warm from the tempering, be bent the other way. For this purpose two pegs are fixed about £0 mm. apart in the work bench. Dietlen, in Dingier 's Polytechnic Journal, recommends adjusting the warped steel during tempering. "Stretch the hardened article on a piece of iron by means of iron screws, with its concave side next the iron, and heat the whole slowly over a coal-fire. When the steel begins to be yellow, it may be slowly straightened by means of the screws. As soon as it has the desired tempering colour, it is cooled with water on the side that had been convex, and will keep its shape when the screws are removed. Very slight warping may be cured by heating the con- cave side, and then wetting the convex side." It hardly needs to be mentioned that only compar- atively thin objects, such as files and blades, can be cured as above if warped. Compacter objects cannot be straightened, and must be reliardened, after having 240 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY been brought very slowly in a slow fire to a red heat, and then allowed to cool in the air or in wood ashes. If this does not make matters right, the piece must be reforged. If the heating is too quick, the steel may easily be cracked, and if the rehardening is done with- out this preliminary heating, it will probably cause cracking and fresh warping. Conclusion. In concluding this book, I wish to remind the read- ers that it has been written for their interest, and the author has endeavored to give all the necessary in- structions and illustrations of all the principal tools used by almost every leading trade to insure the great- est success in the art of steelwork or toolmaking. I have left nothing unwritten which I thought would be a help or interest to the readers, and remember, read- ers, I have written this book to improve your mechan- ical ability and ideas, hoping thereby to help and en- courage you to strive to reach the highest rung in the ladder of mechanical success. It is not necessary to work at blacksmithing 10 or 15 years in order to do good work or become a first class toolsmith when you have this volume of information at hand. Readers, place a great value on your leisure hours, they will be sands of precious gold to you when spent in reading this book. Do not simply read "but think as you read," and the mechanic (whether young or old) who reads and thinks in this way will be well rewarded and soon rise above his peers. No doubt this book may be the cause of many an argument and some may condemn it as being untrue, but before con- demning it take my advice and put the instructions into practice, and in years to come you will often thank TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 241 the author for bringing this information before 3'ou. The mechanic who reads this book without putting the information into practical use will remain in the same old rut. My brother mechanic, you will never succeed unless you are willing to branch out and accept new ideas or methods. Do not get in the habit of think- ing you know all about toolmaking or that no one can teach you anything more than what you already know, as the author takes second place to none in the art of general steelwork, yet he occasionally gets a new idea or a quicker method from some inferior mechanic. The author has written this book in order to illustrate the most up-to-date methods but if the reader (after reading) still fails to put the information into prac- tical use or even give the different melhods a trial, then he will not benefit by the reading of this book, and the author has failed in his attempt to instruct him. Bear in mind that toolwork is the very best part of blacksmithing and the blacksmith or tooldresser in any machine shop, stone yard, quarry or mine who happens to be a first class steelworker, holds the re- spect of all and his services are always in great de- mand, so reader why give up all your hopes of becom- ing a successful steelworker? Your chances are equal to that of the author's. He had no one to give him a word of encouragement. Neither had he a book as complete as this to help him overcome his difficulties in connection with steel, so reader let your determination be to press on and overcome every obstacle which stands in your way. Make use of all the brains which God has given you and let your ambition ever be to rise and take the lead. Your success is sure if you do your best. Do not be given to be always telling others what 242 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY you can do but keep your tongue quiet and your eyes open and always be on the alert to gain knowledge in connection with your trade. If you are a first class mechanic your customers will judge your workman- ship and give you a reputation, and remember, reader, a good reputation is worth striving for even if you gain it slowly. The author well knows the worth of a good reputation which he has gained slowly by the combination of hard work, deep study, close observa- tion, a vast amount of experimenting and wide travel. Reader, the contents of this book is the author's repu- tation, so make sure and combine the contents of this book with your own practical experience. In drawing this book to a close, the author trusts and hopes that every reader (who is connected with steelwork) will be greatly assisted and placed on a foundation for future success. I have not merely written this book to improve your mechanical ideas and instruct you in the art of toolmaking, but I have written it for the sake of the love which I hold for my brother mechanics. I have placed my whole heart in the work in order that others may share with me in the joys of mechanical success. Some readers may think I have been rather sarcastic at times, but if I have been it was only in reference to a certain class of mechanics, in order to point out to them their mistakes and thereby illustrate the difference between the right and wrong ways and also the difference be- tween good and poor tools. My closing advice to the reader is, v/hen you are making tools that have a cutting edge, make sure that they are hardened at the right heat. Hardening steel at the right heat is the most important obstacle to be overcome in connection with the art of toolmaking, TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 243 for no matter how good the quality of the steel may be or how well it is forged, the quality and success of a tool will always depend on the proper heat for hardening. Again, always remember to do your work to the very best of your ability, and follow closely the old adage, ''whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well," and you will soon become master of the "king of metals. ' ' THE AUTHOR. USEFUL FORMULAS. Tempering Brass. No. lo Brass is rendered hard by hammering or rolling; therefore when you make a thing of brass necessary to be tempered, prepare the material before shaping the article. Temper may be drawn from brass by heating it to cherry red and plunging it into water. To Case Harden Set Screws for Shafting. No. 2. Melt piece prussiate potash the size of a bean on spot you want hard while it is hot and plunge into water or linseed oil. To Case Harden any Particular Spot, Leaving Other Spot Soft. No» 3. Make a paste of concentrated solution of prussiate of potash and then coat the spot you wish to harden ; then expose to strong heat. When red hot, plunge into cold water. To Case Harden Cast Iron or any other Iron. No. 4. Three parts bichromate of potash; one-half part common salt. Pulverize well and mix. Heat iron to highest heat it will stand; then sprinkle on mix- ture and try well on both sides. Cool in water. To Case Harden Steel. No. 5. Use one part oxalic acid and two parts of pulverized common potash. Pulverize them well and 244 TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 245 thoroughly mix. Heat to cherry red, then roll in mixture as you would in borax, then heat again in clear fire; cool in water. Composition to Convert the Most Impure Scrap While in Ladle to No. 1 Castings, No. 6. 8 pounds of Copperas. 3 pounds of Zinc. % pound of Tin. Throw the above amount in every hundred pounds of melted iron„ Drilling a Larger Hole through Smaller Hole with Same Drill. No. 7. With the same drill, say you want to drill a % hole in piece of iron. Now you want the hole 1 in. deep, and 1 inch deeper at bottom and larger at bot- tom. To make this drill the % hole first 1 inch deep, use a V-shaped drill, then grind the point of same drill % to one side. Don't grind it smaller and for every % you grind the point to one side, you will drill the hole twice that size larger. It will drill shoulder where larger hole begins. Solution to Harden Cast or Gray Iron to Any Degree No. 8. 1 Pint Oil of Vitriol. 1 Bushel of Salt. 1 Pound of Saltpeter. 2 Pounds of Alum.. % Pound of Prussic Potash. % Pound of Cyanide Potash. 246 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Dissolve the whole in three gallons of rain water. Heat iron to cherry red and cool in solution. Dressing Mill Pick. No. 9. To dress mill picks, heat to cherry red and dip points while hot in a tallow before hammering. Then to temper them: 2 Ounces Muriate of Ammonia. 2 Ounces Chloride of Potash. 2 Gallons Soft Water. Heat to cherry red and plunge in solution. If too hard add more water. To Harden Steel Rolls. No. 10. To prevent shrinkage in side and so pre- vent bursting take three or four hands full of soot and a small hand full of lime in a pail of water. Heat cherry red and cool off in solution. In tempering cast steel or any steel always use soft water, always dip towards the North, and tempering round steel, dip perpendicular. Always leave steel in water until cold through. To Prevent Steel from Springing. No. 11. Have some dry common soda, heat steel to cherry red, then lay hot steel in soda. Hot steel will melt the soda to a liquid. Let it remain till cooL Will find a good temper. Hammering Cast Steel. No. 12. We have often seen smiths spoil a chisel or mill pick by hammering it too cold. This will not TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 247 spoil a thick piece of steel but will a thin piece. Better take another heat. Tempering Bitts, Blades or Knives without Drawing Temper. No. 13. 1 Ounce Pulverized Corrosive Sublimate. 2 Ounces Sal Ammoniac. • Two Hands Full of Salt. Dissolve in six quarts soft water. Heat to cherry red and plunge in solution and do not draw temper. If too strong add more water. Solution to Temper Steel to Any Degree. No. 14. 1 Ounce of Blue Vitriol. 1 Ounce Borax. 1 Ounce Prussic Potash. 1/2 Pint Salt. Dissolve all in one quart water, then add one gallon raw linseed oil and I/2 ounce pulverized charcoal. Heat cherry red. Cool in solution. Tempering, Hardening, Toughening and Restoring Steel. No. 15. This formula for compounding the cele- brated patented Mergess solution for tempering, tough- ening, converting low grade cast steel to higher grade and restoring burnt steel. 4 ounces of citric acid in one gallon boiling water, dissolve two minutes, then add 4 ounces of carbonate of iron, stir for a minute. Now let it stand till agitation stops, then add 6 ounces prussiate of potash, 2 ounces of saltpeter. Then make it into 12 gallons of soft water and stir in six pounds rock 248 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY salt. Solution is ready. Temper same as in water. But for edge tools bring to proper color, heat slowly, dip hot steel in solution once in a while while heating. Tempering Steel Springs without Springing. No. 16. Heat to cherry red, then let it cool off it- self. Then coat the spring with soot that will arise from burning resin, then heat evenly until the soot disappears, then immerse in linseed oil. Will make fine temper. Tempering in Bath, Not Fire. No. 17. For twist drills, taps, dies, small punches or such articles of cast steel you wish to keep straight ; take as follows : Equal parts of prussiate of potash and common salt, put them together in an iron pot over fire when it gets to proper temperature. It will boil and become a cherry red. Put the tool in this until it becomes a cherry red. You may leave the tool in all day if you wish, for the longer the more it improves the steel. When you take it out cool in water or lin- seed oil, always in a vertical position. Do not draw. But for taps or dies draw to dark straw. To Harden Cast Iron to Cut Glass or Cutting Purposes. No. 18. 2 pounds Common Salt, 1/2 pound Saltpeter, % pound Rock Alum, % ounce Salts of Tartar, 1/4 ounce Cyanide of Potash, 6 ounces Carbonate of Ammonia. TOOLSMITH AND STEEL WORKER 249 Mix and thoroughly pulverize together. Apply this to surface when the metal is cherry red and plunge in cold, soft water. Tempering Round Piece Cast Steel without Springing. No. 19. Stir the water fast with stick. While the water is in a whirl plunge hot steel in center of whirl perpendicular. Water turning around it will keep it straight. Tempering Drills. No. 20. Heat to cherry red and plunge in lump of Beeswax and Tallow mixed. Not too much tallow or will make soft. To Temper a Thin Blade or Knife. No. 21. Cut a piece of paper a little larger than blade, then heat blade evenly, then lay the paper flat on water, lay blade on paper and press under to cool. Never mind the theory. Try it. Always dip blades to North. Remarks When Welding Cast Steel or Any Steel. Always weld the same way. Begin where you left off. Take one heat and the next heat begin where you left off so the dross and scales will work out. If you weld one end then stick the other end the dirt will get in center and can't get out and you can not weld it any way. Welding Cast Steel with Less Heat. No. 22. Mix Sal Ammonia with ten times the amount of Borax. Fuse well when pulverized. Now mix with this an equal quantity of quick lime and use as borax. 250 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Welding Steel Bessemer Spring Axles and Tool Steel. No. 23. 15 pounds Dry Sand, 8 ounces of Powdered Sulphate of Iron, 8 ounces of Black Manganese, 8 ounces Fine Salt. Use as Borax. Welding Oast Steel and Restoring Burnt Steel. No. 24. % pound Borax, % pound of Sal Ammonia, Ys pound of Prussic Potash, % ounce of Resin, % gill of Alcohol. Simmer these in spider over slow fire until well chased. Then use as Borax. Welding Cast Iron to Steel or Iron. It Will Weld Bet- ter than is Generally Known. No. 25. 1% pounds of Powdered Copperas, 1 quart Fine Dry Sand, 1 Hand Full of Salt. Now make the pieces hot and while heating dip them in mixture. Throw some on in fire. When iron and steel are hot and will stand without running, place them quickly together, rub them with piece of steel or old file, drawing soft parts over each other. Welding Cast Steel Edge Tools or Any Fine Work. No. 26. This is the best steel welding compound in use today and is known only by a few good smiths: Dragon blood pulverized and mixed with borax until the borax looks a little pink in color. Use as borax. TOOLSMITH AND STEEI-WORKER 251 Welding Steel Boiler Tubes. No. 27. Flare long piece out, fit short piece inside the other neatly, then lay in fire. When hot enough sprinkle on welding compound. Have helper tap lightly on end of short piece, while you take light hammer and tap it lightly in fir^ turning all the time. Weld it all in fire. Repairing Plows, New Shear and Laying. No. 28. First take old plow, set it on level board. See that it measures 16 inches from floor to hitch and has 214 inches land. If not, while repairing bring it to that, and then it will run right. In laying shears take hammer, lay steel 2 by 5-16 and use the welding compound mentioned above. Don't make wing of shear more than 6I/2 inches wide. For new shares lay steel for shares on plow, make Aving 6^/2 inches wide, cut off on land side what you don't need. Now bend wing down shape of old. Lay share piece under and weld up. Stream Tempering All Heavy Tools. No. 29. We will take a hand hammer for example. Take a can or keg, make a three-eighths inch hole in it; then heat hammer a cherry red; then hold peen in slack tub and let three-eighths stream pour on center of face until cool enough; then let draw to a dark straw color. If it does not draw to right color, heat eye wedge put in hole until the right colors appear. The old way of dipping in tub cools outside too fast, cracks it and makes it shelly. The new way of cool- ing center the fastest contracts the steel and makes it solid, and it will never crack nor sprall off. 252 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Redressing and Tempering Old Anvils. No. 30. Heat old anvil to draw temper; let it cool slow, plane off face, heat face to cherry red and while hot throw on face a handful of prussiate potash. Then cool as fast as possible with a heavy stream on center of face. It will be as good as a new anvil. Oil Tempering All Heavy Bolts, Blades and Knives. No. 31. Heat all flat pieces, knives, blades and bitts on edge. If you lay them flat on fire you will spring them. Heat to cherry red and plunge in raw linseed oil. When cool scour off edge bright. Heat a heavy iron, lay tool on, edge up, draw to dark straw color. Tallow Tempering for Machinists, Tools and Tools Re- quiring Hard, Tough Edge. No. 32. Two-thirds tallow and one-third beeswax; add to this a little saltpeter to toughen steel. Dis- solve all and mix. Heat point of tool cherry red ; dip point of tool in solution as you would in water and let it draw only to a light straw color. This is a good thing. It improves the steel; all tools will have a hard, tough edge. Case Hardening Steel Plow Mold Boards. No. 33. Make a brine of salt and rain water to hold up an egg: add a little saltpeter. Heat steel or mold board cherry red, and while hot sprinkle on face prus- siate potash and plunge toward the north in the brine. Let it lay in the brine until cool through and it will not spring nor crack. TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 253 Bending Gas Pipe without Breaking. No. 34. Heat pipe good red heat. If heat is too long, cool off pipe to where you want the bend. Then put end of pipe in fork on anvil, and while bending let helper pour a small stream of water on inside of bend where it looks like kinking. You can bend any shape this way. Brazing with Copper or Brass. No. 35. Scarf the ends of pieces so they fit nice. Then clamp the pieces so they fit nice and can not slip. Then lay on fire ; put on top side the copper that you think is necessary, and then put on some charred borax or Monarch Welding Compound. Then heat iron until the copper melts. Take a file and keep the cop- per where you want it, and then lay it down and let cool. This way you can braze iron, steel or malleable iron. How to Weld Cast Steel with Borax. No. 36. Put borax in a pot on a slow fire and boil it until it becomes dry like dust: Stir it all the time it is cooking. Then use the dust. You will find it welds much better, as cooking it takes the sulphur out of it, and you will get a clear fire and a nice clean heat. How to Weld Anything Likely to Slip. Such as steel tires, but not good for cast steel. No. 37. To one pound of pulverized borax add two ounces of sal ammoniac. Put a little on tire cold, and when it gets hot it will get very sticky and hold the tire in place so you can handle it. When the tire gets hot put on more. Weld at a borax heat. 254 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY Welding or Soldering Band Saws, No. 38. File scarfs so they fit together nicely; then put a piece of silver solder between laps, or a silver coin will do. Then put on some muriatic acid, or some charred borax is just as good. Then heat a pair of very heavy jawed tongs ; heat to a very high heat ; hold laps of saw between jaws of tongs until welded. They weld very quick, and will not break where welded. Some pour water on tongs to cool them off fast. How to Work Self -Hardening Steel (Called Mushet Steel). No. 39. Heat to cherry red ; forge to desired shape ; then heat again to cherry red; lay in air to cool — the more air the harder it will be. To make very hard, hold in cold blast. Instructions for Tempering Pneumatic Tools. And for some heavy shear knives where it does not require too hard a temper. No. 40. Heat tool all over; heat very slowly, so it will heat through to cherry red, and plunge tool in linseed oil and let it lay in oil until it is cool clear through. This will give a good temper on any tool required hard all over. Books That Really Teach you the things you want to know, and in a simple, practical way that you can understand Our illustrated catalogue, which will be sent you free upon request, tells all about the Practical Mechanical Books for Home Study that we publish. There are popular priced books on the operation of trains and station work, prac- tical mechanical drawing and machine designing, pattern making, electrical railroading, power stations, automobiles, gas engines, electrical wiring, armature and magnet winding, dynamo tending, elementary electricity, wireless telegraphy and telephony, carpentry and architecture, concrete con- struction, plumbing and heat- ing, sign and house painting, amusements, etc., etc. No matter what your ambi- tion or desire for knowledge may be, we publish books written by authorities in their different lines that will give you just the training and information that you want and need. Write today for this up-to-date and complete illus- trated catalogue and popular price list. It is free. FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. PUBUSHERS OF SELF-EDUCATIONAL BOOKS 132S Michigan Avenue CHICAGO DEC 23 1912 Twentieth Century Machine Shop Pr actice By L. ELLIOTT BROOKES 'M\M The best and latest and most prafctical work published en mod- ern machine shop practice. This book is intended for the practical instruction of Machinists, Engin- eers and others who are interested in the use and operation of the machinery and machine tools in a modern machij e shop. The firt-t portion of the book is devoted to practical examples in Arithmetic, Decimal Fractions. Roots of Num- bers, Algebraic Signs and Symbols, Reciprocals and Logarithms of Numbers, Practical Geometry and and Mensuration. Also Applied Mechanics — which includes: The lever. The wheel and pinion, The pulley. The inclined planes, The Wedge The, screw and safety valve — Specific gravity and the velocity of falling bodies— Friction, Belt Pulleys and Gear wheels. Properties of steam, The Indi- cator, Horsepower and Electricity. Tb'^ latter part of the book gives full and complete information upon the fallowing subjects: Measuring devices, Machinists' tools, Shop tools. Machine tools, Boring machines, Boring mills. Drill presses. Gear Cutting machines, Grinding Machines, Lathes and Mill- ing machines. Also auxiliary machine tools. Portable tools. Miscella- neous tools. Plain and Spiral Indexing machines, Notes on Steel Gas furnaces. Shop talks. Shop kinks, Medical Aid and over Fifty tables. The book is profusely illustrated and shows views of the latest machinery and the most up-to-date and improved 1 elt and m.otor- driven machine tools, with full information as to the'r use and opera- tion. It has been the object of the author to present the subject matter in this work in as simple and not technical manner as is possible. 12mo, cloth, 636 pages, 456 fine illustrationj:, price, $2.00 Sold by Booksellers generally, or sent postpaid to any address upon receipt of Price by the Publishers FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. PUBLISHERS CHICAGO, U. S. A. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 021 225 286 4