--^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■- '**o« : 
 
 
 ^^ * 
 
 
 v<^^ 
 
 "O^V 
 
 ./X 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■*' .-^^L'. "f 
 

 
 
 v-^^ 
 
 
 
 ^^ , 
 
 
 ^ ' 
 
 V .»1V 
 
 
 o " a 
 
 
 'Jt. ^"^ "'Mm^^^ '-^A f<t 
 
 
 v^^°^ 
 
 
 ^o^ 
 
 
V. 
 
 A SYSTEM OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 ACCOMPANIED BY AN ATLAS, EXHIBITING CHRONOLOGY IN A PICTURE OF NATIONS, 
 AND PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY IN A SERIES OF MAPS., 
 
 IBesfsneU for Scljools antJ ^catieinfes. 
 
 BY EMMA WILLARD, 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF TROY FEMALE SEMINARY, AUTHOR OF 
 " THE REPUBLIC OF AMERICA," &,C. 
 
 in 
 
 HARTFORD : 
 
 PUBLISHED BY F. J. HUNTINGTON. 
 1835. 
 

 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, by 
 P. J. HUNTINGTON, 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 
 
 
 ./■ 
 
 .^'^ 
 
 )k^ 
 
 \ 
 
 u 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The object of this work is to furnish the reader not only with 
 the main facts of history, but also with a plan of classification 
 which will enable him to arrange whatever historical knowledge 
 he may afterwards acquire. Simplicity and clearness have been 
 studied. The little tree which bears its fruit so low that who- 
 ever wishes, may easily fill his basket, is often preferred to the 
 large and lofty, whose abundant stores are above a convenient 
 reach. 
 
 The work, though a compend, it is hoped, will not be found 
 dry or tedious. It is doubtless possible, by proper grouping, and 
 by placing the main figures in the light, to make a picture in- 
 teresting, although it be on a small scale. Whether this has 
 been done in the present work, must be left to the candid read- 
 er to determine. That the work is true to rehgion, virtue, and 
 human rights, the author is confident. 
 
 An attempt is here miide to exhibit history in its proper rela- 
 tive proportions. The painter allows to objects in space less and 
 less room upon his canvass as those objects recede into the dis- 
 tance. Such is equally the order of nature in regard to objects \ 
 as they exist in time. Yet, the distant mountain must have 
 more room in the picture than the dark valley that lies near. 
 Thus tower Greece and Rome, amid the dimness of antiquity, I 
 and thus sink the dark ages, though nearer to the foreground./ 
 
 Some writers of universal history follow the ethnographical 
 method, or that by which nations are separately described. The 
 reader is thus naturally led to consider contemporary events as 
 consecutive, and to seek for some plan by which such events 
 may be placed together. This is to produce the chronographi- 
 cal method, which he is apt to think shovild have been followed 
 by the writer. On the other hand, where the chronographical 
 method prevails, the reader complains of a confusion arisins" 
 from mingling together the histories of different nations, selects 
 the scattered parts belonging to each, and having put them to- 
 gether, reproduces the ethnographical plan. He now thinks that, 
 because he has come to a good understanding of the subject, his 
 
 , method alone is good ; not reflecting that he has had the advan- 
 tages of both methods. The truth appears to be that history 
 cannot be well understood, unless the reader can with the one 
 method, trace every great nation by itself through all its most 
 
 ^ important changes, and with the other, conceive himself placed in 
 
17 PREFACE. 
 
 any of the most noted periods of time, and glance through the 
 whole range of contemporary events. 
 
 To effect this connection of the two methods, the old device 
 of a chronological tree, and other more modern inventions, have 
 been highly useful. The author believes that the " Picture of 
 Nations," contained in the Atlas, is on some accounts, an im- 
 provement on any of these plans. It was formed, in the first 
 place, by putting the old chronological tree into perspective. Sub- 
 sequently, the thought occurred, of using shade, as in a picture, 
 to represent obscurity and moral darkess, and light to represent 
 the reverse. Several other devices have been adopted to exhib- 
 it abstract subjects to the sight, and thus to aid the memory. 
 
 In the present work, the one or the other of the two methods 
 mentioned has been pursued, as the occasion seemed to require. 
 When a nation has proceeded in its affairs with little connexion 
 with other nations, its history has been treated separately. When 
 several nations have been, as it were, blended, by reason of their 
 relations with each other, as in case of wai', their history, for 
 the time, has also Ijeen blended. 
 
 The division of the whole subject into three grand parts, in- 
 stead of two, although an innovation, will, the author believes, 
 be perfectly satisfactory to the candid. Such a division will 
 greatly relieve the memory. The boundaries between Ancient 
 and Modern History are variously stated, and allowedly unfixed. 
 The term " middle ages," is established by good usage. Why 
 should not the history of those ages be termed Middle History, 
 and considered as a distinct division of the subject ? 
 
 The authors consulted in writing this work are numerous. It 
 has not been compiled from other compilations, but from original 
 writers. A hst of them may be given in a subsequent edition. 
 
 Concerning the utility of a series of maps in the study of his- 
 tory, and the importance of making events clear as to the place 
 lohere, as well as to the time when, the}'^ occurred, the author 
 has fully given her views in " The History of the Republic of 
 America." She here begs leave to refer the reader to the pre- 
 face and introduction of that work, not only for those views, but 
 for some others, deemed important in treating historical subjects, 
 by which she has endeavoured, in preparing this compendium, 
 to be guided. 
 
 The author was unable to read the work wliile in the press, 
 but as an able proof-reader was employed, it is hoped that not 
 more errours \v\U be found than are common in first editions. 
 Should teachers who use the work, or others who may examine 
 it, detect errours, either in point of fact, arrangement, or style, 
 and inform the author, or should they suggest improvements, 
 such information or suggestions will be thankfully received. 
 
 T7^oi/, September, 1835". 
 
TO TEACHERS. 
 
 Teaching with a new book is something like living in a new house. 
 Experience is necessary to know how the parts can be used to the best ad- 
 vantage. The builder can show for what purpose they were designed, 
 but the tenant, after all, will use them as he pleases. 
 
 The practice of our colleges and best schools establishes the principle, 
 that to teach well it is necessary to take a given period of time, and lay 
 out a definite course of study lor the period. In the author's school, this 
 period is twenty-one weeks. This history is intended to be studied in two 
 Buch periods ; Ancient and Middle History in one, and Modern History in 
 the other.* It is customary to begin with ancient history. In many instan- 
 ces this takes all the time which the pupil can devote to this branch of 
 study. It is true that by so beginning we go from causes to effects ; but 
 this consideration, seems to be overbalanced by the fact that every man 
 is necessarily the centre of his own system, and acquires the most useful 
 knowledge when he learns that which is most nearly connected with himself. 
 Hence, it but one of the two could be studied, the preference should be giv- 
 en to the Modern History. Although expecting that both will be studied 
 in my school, I have still wished to have a work so arranged that the study 
 may, at the option of the teacher, be begun with the Modern, as it might 
 prevent the necessity of forming two classes in any one term. 
 
 Having fixed upon the course of study for the term, let the pupil under- 
 stand that he is to be called on at its close, to give an account of the whole 
 subject. The teacher and pupil will then feel that the method which per- 
 haps may be the easiest at first lor all parties, that is to go over with the 
 same unvaried round of learning a lesson from a book and reciting it, may 
 not be the best to impress the mind so that the pupil will remember what 
 he is to-day learning, at the end of four or five months ; much less keep it 
 for use as he advances into life. For this purpose it is important to present 
 the subject to the eye, whenever it is practicable. It is my intention that 
 my pupils shall begin with studying the " Picture of Nations," and learn 
 from this the plan of the work ; giving them such questions as these — Un- 
 der what three grand divisions is the subject treated? Into how many 
 Periods is the Ancient History divided ? Into how many the Middle ? Into 
 how many the Modern? What Epocha divides the Ancient from the Middle 
 History ? What the Middle from the Modern ? What are the Epochap, 
 with their dates, which divide the Ancient History into Periods ? What 
 the Epochas that divide the Middle ? What those that divide the Modem.? 
 
 What nations are known to have existed in the first period of Ancient 
 History ? What in the second ? What in the third ? In the fourth ? &c. 
 What were the principal states of Greece ? During what period did each 
 become known ? When was the empire of Cyrus formed, and of what na- 
 tions? When that of Alexander, and of what nations 7 What nations 
 were included in the Roman empire at the time of Christ, and at about 
 what time were they united to it ? 
 
 What are the principal barbarous nations which issued from the North- 
 
 * In schools where a longer or shorter period is taken as a term, the teacher will of 
 course make a different division, to correspond with the time. 
 
 1 
 
vi To TEACHEiElS. 
 
 em Hive, and overran the Roman empire? During what periods were 
 their irruptions? What are tlie modern European nations which arose 
 from the ruins of the Roman empire? During what periods Avere they 
 divided from it? What modern nations, which did not belong to the Roman 
 empire, were formed iVom the Northern Hive ? When was the empire of 
 Charlemagne, and of what nations was it composed ? When was that 
 of Jenghis Khan, and of wliat nations composed ? Of Tamerlane — of 
 Margaret of Waldemar? With whom did the Caliphate begin ? How long 
 did it continue? At about what time did the Turks bring the eastern di- 
 vision of the Roman empire to a close ? When was the empire of Charles 
 V. formed, and of what nations did it consist? When was that of Na- 
 poleon formed, and of what nations did it consist ? 
 
 But no sound improvement in universal history can be made unless we 
 understand events as they transpire in place, as Avell as in time ; that is, 
 without a knowledge of the progressive geography of the world. 1 would 
 give the pupils general questions on the maps connected with the history, 
 as for example: What part ofthe eaith was known at the calling of Abra- 
 ham, 1921? What at the institution of the passover, 1491 ? And so on 
 respecting the other maps.* To these questions general answers may, in 
 the first place^ be given. For instance, to the first question it may be briefly 
 replied, that a small territory, extending around the eastern part of the 
 Meditterranean, comprising the western portion of Asia, the south-eastern 
 of Europe, and the north-eastern of Africa, is all that was at that period 
 known. When this cursory view of the maps is taken, the student will have 
 within his reach the plan of universal history, with " its ^tuo eyes, chro- 
 nology and geography." 
 
 While this process is going on, which will require some attention from 
 the teacher, lessons for study can be given from the book, beginning as be- 
 fore stated, either with Ancient or Modern History, at option, T he marginal 
 notes will answer every purpose of written questions. Stupid indeed must 
 that teacher be, who, when he has before him the event or the person 
 concerning which or whom he is to question his pupil, wants put into his 
 text-book the phrases, " Give some account of" — or, " What does your au- 
 thor remark or state concerning," &c. Marginal notes are far more con- 
 venient than questions [)laced somewhere at a distance from the subject. 
 But a thorough teacher will not allow his pupil to suppose that he is to 
 learn merely to answer certain questions. His task is to read with atten- 
 tion the whole text, and give as good an account of it, both as to matter 
 and manner, as he can; and the teacher's questions are but to help his 
 memory in producing its stoies. These que.stions should therefore be dif- 
 ferent in different stages of iiis progress; more minute, at first, more gen- 
 eral, as he advances. During the first part of a term, it is a teacher's grand 
 business to make his pupil understand the subject; during the last, to en- 
 able him to remember ondi communicate what he understands. 
 
 In the course of the study, the pupils will need to be exercised on the 
 "Picture of Nations;" and if they are accustomed to draw, it will be well 
 for them to delineate on an enlarged scale the three parts separately ; 
 making the part representing the Ancient History as large as it can be 
 made, say on a sheet of fools-cap paper ; then, as they read the text, they 
 can put down, in their proper nations and times, all the important persona- 
 ges of whom they read : and so of the Middle and Modern Histories. 
 
 * The series of maps is broken during the period of the dark ages. Oeography 
 then advanced but little. As cities have multiplied and states been subdivided, it 
 was found impossible to make the maps complete without crowding them. Consid- 
 erable care bus been taken in lliis work, when places not on the maps are mentioned, 
 to give some clue to their situation. But every teacher of history ought, if possible, 
 to be furnished with large maps, sothat such places may be shown to the pupil. 
 
TO TEACHERS. Vll 
 
 It will also be a good exercise for the pupils to draw, on an enlarged 
 scale, the map dated at the close of wliatever period they may be study- 
 ing, so that they may locate the events of which they study. They will 
 do well to delineate upon these maps the tracks of discoverers, the line of 
 march of armies, and whatever else may aid their recollection, and keep 
 in view the scenes of action. 
 
 The amount of knowledge treasured up from the book, must depend on 
 circumstances. The pupil of industry, of ready and retentive memory, 
 will have acquired more at tlie end of a given time, than the indolent or 
 dull. Again, the capacity of the teacher will necessarily aflect the degree 
 of the pupil's acquirements. The teacher who is ambitious to excel, and 
 desirous to perform his duty, will be careful never to go before his class 
 without previous attention to the subject of the recitation ; reading, where 
 it is possible, other more extensive works, and consulting larger maps. He 
 will thus be able to explain difficult passages, to embellish the subject by 
 interesting traits of the characters mentioned, or amusing anecdotes, and 
 to improve it by sound moral and religious reflections. The hour of recita- 
 tion will thus be made delightful and truly profitable ; for it is when pupils 
 become engrossed by their subject, that their minds are really nourished. 
 Encourage each one to express in language that part of the history which 
 has most interested him. Do not make the task too hard, by obliging 
 scholars to commit to memory too many dates ; nor in reviewing, insist oh 
 their knowing all the names of sovereigns and other personages mentioned. 
 Take those alone whose acts make their names easily remembered. The 
 names of even the insignificant monarchs of important countries must be 
 set down with their dates, to keep the chain unbi'oken ; but the scholar 
 who reads these, and know^s where he may find them in his book if occa- 
 sion require, may be excused from burdening his memory with the at- 
 tempt to retain them all. 
 
 The teacher who needs assistance from the book, in giving subjects for 
 examination, may find it in the Chronological Table and Index.* It would 
 be a good plan to make the " Picture of Nations" the groundwork of the 
 pupil's examination. 
 
 Having read the book, he will oe prepared to give an account of 
 the nations represented, in either of the methods mentioned in the preface. 
 First, ethnographically ; — for instance, the pupil might describe England 
 as having been one of those nations which arose from the ruins of the 
 western division of the Roman empire — as overrun at such a period by 
 the Saxons, and by them divided into seven kingdoms — which were about 
 such a time united into one by Egbert — and so on with this nation and 
 others, giving the history of each with more or less minuteness, according 
 to circumstances. Secondly, the pupil ought to be prepared to take chro- 
 nographical views of the world, at its most important epochas The teacher 
 will do well frequently to glance aside from the history of a particular na- 
 tion, to ask what nations were co-existent — what sovereigns were contem- 
 porary, or what important events occurred in such and such parts of (he 
 world at the date mentioned. 
 
 * A work entitled " Chronology, or an Introduction and Index to Universal Histo- 
 ry," has been published by Leavitt, Lord & Co., Nevv-Yoik, which can be highly 
 recommended as a convenient book of reference, comprehensive, clear, and correct. 
 
CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 INDEX 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 4004 The Creation, 
 
 2348 The Deluge, 
 
 2247 The Tower of Babel, . 
 
 2204 Babylon founded, 
 
 2159 Nineveh built, 
 
 2188 Egyptian Monarchy founded, 
 
 2085 Shepherd Kings, 
 
 2089 Sycion founded 
 
 PERIOD II. 
 
 1921 Calling of Abraham, First Epocha, 
 
 1897 Sodom destroyed, 
 
 1729 Joseph sold, 
 
 170(j Jacob goes down to Egypt, 
 
 1571 Moses born, 
 
 1491 Red Sea passed, . 
 
 PERIOD III. 
 
 1491 Institution of the Passover, Second Epocha, 
 
 1452 Moses dies, 
 
 1451 Land ot' Canaan divided, 
 
 1443 Joshua dies — Reign of the Judges begins, 
 
 1095 Saul made King, 
 
 1055 David, 
 
 1012 Solomon, 
 
 1856 Argos founded 
 
 1556 Athens founded, 
 
 1493 Letters brought into Greece, 
 
 1400 Laws of Minos, 
 
 1263 Argonautic Expedition, 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 a 
 
 13 
 
 a 
 
 14 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 1193 
 
 1104 
 
 1060 
 
 1055 
 
 980 
 
 « 
 
 975 
 
 963 
 
 884 
 II 
 
 886 
 
 752 
 747 
 
 li 
 
 721 
 717 
 680 
 606 
 
 Siege of Troy, , ... 
 
 War of the Heraclidse, . . 
 
 Codrus dies — Medon first Archon, . 
 Ionian Colonies founded in Asia Minor, 
 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 
 PERIOD IV. 
 
 Death of Solomon, Third Epocha, 
 
 Rehoboam, 
 
 Revolt of Ten Tribes , 
 
 Abijah, .... 
 
 Jehu, .... 
 
 Lycurgus gives laws to Sparta, 
 
 ■ finds the poems of Homer, 
 
 PERIOD V. 
 
 Founding of Rome, Fourth Epocha, 
 Sardanapulus, last king of Assyria, 
 Tiglath Pileser, king of Nineveh, 
 Shalmaneser carries captive the Ten Tribes 
 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
 Esarhaddon, .... 
 
 Nebuchanezzar, 
 
 Dejoces establishes the Median Empire, 
 Nineveh destroyed. 
 
 First Messenian War, 
 
 Second Messenian War, 
 
 Bloody Laws of Draco, 
 
 Code of Solon, .... 
 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, . 
 
 Hippias and Hipparchus, 
 
 Council of Five Hundred, in Athens, 
 
 Cyrus unites Persia and Media — Conquers Lydia 
 
 conquers Babylon — takes Jerusalem, 
 
 Cyrus killed, ..... 
 
 Darius Hystaspes' Scythian Expedition, 
 
 Persian War with Greece, 
 
 Sardis burnt, .... 
 
 Mardonius conquers Thrace, 
 
 Battle of Marathon, 
 
 Xerxes' Great Expedition, 
 
 Leonidas at Thermopylse, 
 
 Greeks victoi-ious at Salamis, . 
 
 Flight of Xerxes, 
 
 Athens burnt — Battle of Platsea, 
 
 Sacred War, .... 
 
 Cdrinthian War, . . . • 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. XI 
 
 Page. 
 
 B. C 
 
 445 Rome sends to Athens for Laws, .... 49 
 
 431 Peloponnesian War — Pericles, .... 50 
 
 416 Thucydides — Alcibiades — Nicias — Demosthenes, . 51 
 
 405 Lysander conquers the Athenian fleet — Athens burnt, 52 
 
 404 The Thirty Tyrants— Death of Socrates, . . 53 
 
 401 Cyrus the "younger— Retreat of the 10,000, . • 54 
 
 380 Pelopidas restores liberty to Thebes, ... 56 
 
 362 Battle of Mantinea — Epaminondas slain, ... 57 
 
 346 Philip of Macedon, 58 
 
 336 Alexander the Great, 59 
 
 752 Romans carry off the Sabine Women, 
 
 715 Numa 
 
 509 Death of Lucretia — Tarquins expelled, 
 
 500 Contention between the Patricians and Plebeians 
 
 498 Tribunes elected — Coriolanus, 
 
 451 Decemvirs— The Thirteen Tables, 
 
 450 Cincinnatus Dictator, .... 
 
 890 Gauls invade Italy — take Rome — Camillus, 
 
 62 
 63 
 64 
 
 commence, " 
 66 
 67 
 68 
 
 PERIOD VI. 
 
 323 Death of Alexander the Great, Fifth Epocha, 69 
 
 301 Division of his empire into four parts, ... 70 
 
 " Greece enslaved — Phocion — Demosthenes, . . " 
 
 251 Aratus renews the Achaean League, ... 72 
 
 320 War between the Romans and Samnites — Pyrrhus, . 73 
 
 264 First Punic War begins, 75 
 
 260 Romans obtain their first naval victory — Regulus,. . 7 6 
 
 241 First Punic War ends, •« 
 
 237 Hamilcar — Hannibal, • . . . . 77 
 
 222 Romans conquer Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria, . . « 
 
 218 Second Punic War — Hannibal passes the Alps, . 78 
 217- Battle of the Ticin— of Trebia— at Thrasymenus— Fabius 
 
 Maximus, ....... 79 
 
 216 Scipio^victorious near the Iberus— Battle of CannEe— Han- 
 
 nibal's conquests in Lower Italy, .... 80 
 
 202 Battle of Zama — Scipio victorious, .... 81 
 
 201 Second Punic War ends, « 
 
 1 92 Romans at war with Antiochus, king of Syria, . 8 2 
 
 171 Philip of Macedonia and his Sons, .... 83 
 165 Triumph of Paulus ^milus— Macedonia subject to the 
 
 Romans, ••.....• « 
 
 149 Third Punic War— Cato the Censor, . .' . 84 
 
 146 Carthage destroyed, •••... 85 
 " Romans dissolve the Achsean League — Corinth destroyed, 
 
 and Greece a Roman province, .... « 
 
 133 Pergamus bequeathed to Rome, . . . . « 
 
 120 Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, . . . , 36 
 
 112 Jugurthine War— Marias— Sy 11a, . . . .* 87 
 
xu 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 B. C 
 
 112 
 
 (( 
 
 91 
 
 68 
 63 
 60 
 
 55 
 49 
 
 48 
 44 
 43 
 
 42 
 31 
 
 Invasion of the Cimbri, &c., 
 
 Marius and Metellus, 
 
 The Social War— Mithridatic War, 
 Second Mithridatic War— Pompey, 
 Pompey conquers Judeea, . . • • 
 
 CataUne— First Triumvirate, Julius Csesar, Pompey 
 Crassus, ... • . . • 
 
 Csesar invades Britain and Germany, 
 Caesar advances to supreme power, _ • 
 
 Battle of Pharsalia— Pompey flees— slain, 
 Csesar slain — Brutus, . * • ' , .* 
 
 Second Triumvirate, Octavius Csesar, Mark Antony 
 Lepidus, ..••••* 
 Battle of Philippi— Death of Antony and Cleopatra, 
 Battle of Actium— Roman empire under Augustus 
 begins — Universal Peace, . . • • 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 90 
 91 
 
 93 
 94 
 95 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 99 
 
 101 
 
 MIDDLE HISTORY. 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 B. C. 
 4 
 
 Birth of Christ, 
 Condition of the Roman empire— Augustus 
 death, . . . • • 
 
 reign 
 
 and 
 
 A. D- 
 
 10 Tiberius, 
 
 33 Christ crucified, . . • • 
 
 37 Caligula— 41 Clodius— 54 Nero, 
 
 64 Nero persecutes the Christians, . , 
 
 66 Galba— 66 Otho— 70 Vitellius, . , ^ r^u 
 
 70 Vespasian— Siege and destruction of Jerusalem by litus, 
 
 79 Titus — Eruption of Vesuvius — 81 Domitian, 
 
 96 Nerva— 98 Trajan— 117 Hadrian, • • • 
 
 138 Antoninus Pius— 161 Marcus Aurelius-180 Commodus, 
 
 193 Pertinax— Julius Didianus-Severus-Caracalla and t.eta, 
 
 218 Heliogabalus— 222 Alexander Severus, 
 2'.^5 Wars with Persia and Germany— Maximmus, . 
 236 Gordian— 249 Decius— Goths invade the Empire, 
 
 253 Valerian— Franks and Allemanni in arms, . 
 
 268 Valerian made prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, • 
 270 Claudius— Aurelian— Palmyra conquered— Zenobia, . 
 275 Tacitus— 2^7 Florianus— Probus, • • • 
 
 284 Diocletian— Seat of government removed to Nicomediaj 
 296 Wars with the Britons, Persians and Goths— Diocletian 
 enjoys the last Roman triumph, . . . • 
 
 103 
 
 104 
 
 (I 
 
 105 
 
 i( 
 
 106 
 
 (( 
 
 , 107 
 108 
 110 
 HI 
 112 
 113 
 114 
 115 
 116 
 117 
 118 
 119 
 121 
 
 122 
 
MIDDLE HISTORY. XUl 
 
 A. D. Page. 
 
 304 Diocletian resigns — Constantius, . . . .122 
 306 Constantine the Great establishes Christianity — makes 
 
 Constantinople the capital, ..... 123 
 337 Constantine's three sons reign — Sarmatians and others 
 
 invade the Empire, . . . • . .124 
 
 360 Julian, the Apostate — attempts to rebuild Jerusalem, ^ 125-6 
 375 Gratian — Huns and Goths settle in the Empire, . 127-8 
 384 Theodosius last sole Emperor — Domination of the 
 
 Church, 130 
 
 PERIOD II. 
 
 395 Division OF THE Roman Empire, First Epocha, . 131 
 " Arcadius and Honorius — Causes of the downfall of the 
 
 Empire, ........" 
 
 403 Alaric, the Goth, defeated by Stilicho, . . . 132 
 
 410 Alaric sacks Rome — Adolphus — Placidia, . . 133 
 
 " Britain independent, ....," 
 
 424 Valentinianlll. — Genseric the Vandal — Attila the Hun, 134 
 454 Maximus — Vandals take Rome — Count Recimer, 135-6 
 
 475 Romulus Augustulus last Emperor of Rome — suc- 
 ceeded by Odoacer of the Heruli, . . .137 
 
 408 Theodosius II. — Pulcheria, « 
 
 450 Marcian — Leo — Justinian — Belisarius — Narses, . 138 
 
 582 Maurice — The Avars — 602 Phocas . . .140 
 
 610 Heraclius, 141 
 
 481 Clovis founds the French Monarchy, . . , 142 
 448 Britain abandoned by the Romans — Saxons called in — 
 
 Hengist and Horsa, . . . . . . 1 43 
 
 488 Theodoric of the Ostrogoths expels Odoacer, . . 144 
 553 Belisarius and Narses annex Rome to the Esatern 
 
 Empire, • . .145 
 
 568 Alboin and the Lombards overrun Italy — The Turks, " 
 
 569 Mahomet born, .....,., 14§ 
 
 PERIOD III. 
 
 622 Hegira, or Flight of Mahomet, Second Epooha, 146 
 
 632 Abu Bekir — Omar, 148 
 
 636 Mahometan Conquests — Alexandria taken — Library 
 
 destroyed, ........ 149 
 
 645 Othman — Ali — Mahometan dissensions, . 
 
 709 Mahometans conquer Africa and Spain, . 
 
 732 Mahometans checked in France by Charles Martel, 
 
 785 Hakoun Al Raschid, .... 
 
 685 Justinian II. — Leo III. — Irene, . . . .152 
 
 714 Charles Martel — Pepin — 768 Charles and Carloman, 153 
 785 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons, .... 154 
 
XIV 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 A. D. 
 800 
 814 
 841 
 
 888 
 
 PERIOD IV. 
 
 Coronation of Charlemagnk, Third Epocha, 
 Louis le Debonnaire, ..... 
 
 Empire of Charlemagne divided, 
 The Normans in Frai^ce — Count Eudes — Charles the 
 Simple, ....... 
 
 Normans under Rollo settle in Normandy, 
 Conrad I., Emperor of Germany, 
 
 Saxon Heptarchy united under Egbert, 
 Danes begin their inroads, .... 
 
 Alfred — 901 Edward the Elder — 940 Athelatan, 
 Edmund I.— 948 Edred— 985 Edwy— 959 Edgar, 
 
 Edward II 978 Ethelred — Massacre of the Danes, 
 
 Sweyn— 1016 Edmund II.— 1017 Canute I., 
 
 Germany. — Otlio I., . 
 OthoII.— 983 Otho III.— 1002 Henry II., 
 Conrad the Salic— 1039 Henry III— 1056 Henry IV 
 
 War of the Investitures — Pope Gregory VII., 
 Italian States, ...... 
 
 Robert Guiscard and the Normans, 
 
 Page. 
 
 156 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 159 
 160 
 
 161 
 162 
 163 
 164 
 
 164 
 
 165 
 I6d 
 
 167 
 168 
 169 
 
 France. — Hugh Capet, founder of the third or Cape- 
 
 tian dynasty, ... .... 169 
 
 Robert the Wise— 1031 Henry I.— 1060 Philip I., 170 
 
 England. — Canute I. (first Danish king of England,) « 
 
 Harold and Hardicanute — 1042 Edward the Confessor, 171 
 Harold II. — Norman Invasion — Battle of Hastings — 
 
 William the Conqueror, ....." 
 
 William introduces the Feudal System into England, . 172 
 William Rufus, 
 
 Scotland. — Kennith M'AIpine — 1033 Duncan — Mac- 
 beth— 1039 Malcolm III., . . . • . 173 
 Malcolm marries Margaret, a Saxon princess, . " 
 Donald Bane usurps the throne, . . . . " 
 
 Spain united into one kingdom by Sancho the Great 
 
 and his son Ferdinand, . . . . .174 
 
 Alphonso VI. — The Cid, ....." 
 
 Russia first appears in history, ... . « 
 
 Russians invade the Greek empire — repulsed by John" 
 Zimisces. — Olga — Vlodomir — embrace Christlanitv, " 
 
 Greek Empire — Irene, Empress — restores image wor- 
 ship — 867 Basil— 969 Phocas — Zimisces, . , 175 
 
MIDDLE HISTORY. XV 
 
 1056 The Comneni— Isaac— 1081 Alexius— Normans in- 
 vade the Empire — Anna Comnena, the historian, . 170 
 
 807 Empire of ti e Caliphs. — Haroun Al Raschid— Al 
 Mamun— patrons of learning— Decline of the Ca- 
 liphate, . . . • • ... 
 
 Rise of the Turkish Power.— Mahmoud— His Con- 
 quests— Tagrul Beg— Malek— Soliman, . .177 
 
 PERIOD V. 
 
 1100 The Crusades, Fourth Epocha, 
 
 Pilgrimages to the Holy Sepulchre— Pilgrims persecu- 
 ted—Holy War suggested by Pope Gregory, 
 
 1095 Peter the Hermit— Council at Placentia— Council at 
 
 Clermont, . • • • % ^ '-n 
 
 1096 Crusaders depart— destroyed— Godfrey of Bouillon 
 
 and other Chiefs, 
 
 1097 Crusaders cruelly treated by Alexius, Emperor of the 
 
 East— take Nice and Antioch, 
 
 1099 Jerusalem taken— Godfrey, king of Jerusalem— 1102 
 Baldwin crowned, . . . 'ttt 'i? 
 
 1147 Second Crusade, undertaken by Conrad III., Em- 
 peror of Germany, ' ' ' ' n'r^ 
 
 1188 Third Ckusade, undertaken by the Emperor of Ger- 
 many and the kings of France and England, 
 
 1084 Germany.— War of the Investitures continued by Pope 
 Urban II. and Henry IV. of Germany— 1099 Hen- 
 ry excommunicated, 
 
 1106 Henry V. continues the war— the Pope prisoner- 
 Henry excommunicated, .... 
 
 1119 Pope and Emperor reconciled 
 
 Lothaire — Justinian Code adopted, . 
 
 1141 Conrad III. — Guelphs and Ghibellines, 
 
 1152 Frederic Barbarossa — Lombard cities revolt — 1162 
 Milan destroyed, . . . • • 
 
 1056 France— Philip L— 1108 Louis VI.— War with 
 Henry 1. of England — 1137 Louis VII., 
 Philip Augustus — engages in the third Crusade, 
 
 1100 England. — Henry I 
 
 1135 Stephen— Civil War— 1154 Henry II., . 
 
 1158 Contests between the Civil and Ecclesiastical powers, . 
 
 Thomas a Becket — 1164 Council of Clarendon, 
 1170 Becket assassinated, 
 
 1172 Henry II. invades and conquers Ireland, . 
 
 1173 Henry's sons rebel— 1189 Richard— Jews persecuted, 
 
 178 
 179 
 180 
 
 u 
 
 181 
 183 
 184 
 
 185 
 
XVI CHRONOLOGICAL TABLF, &C. 
 
 A. D. Page. 
 
 1186 The Crusades Continued — Saladin — Saladia takes 
 
 Jerusalem, .-...-- 191 
 
 1189 Siegeof Acre— 1192 Treaty with Saladin, - - 192 
 Character of Richard Coeur de Lion — Character of 
 Saladin, 193 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 1195 Alexius Angelus — Venetian expedition against Con- 
 stantinople — 1204 Constantinople taken — Alexius 
 Mazoufle — Baldwin Emperor, - - - 193-4 
 
 1206 Moguls and Tartars. — Jenghis Khan, - - - 195 
 1227 Caliphate destroyed, ....... 
 
 1241 Conquests of Jenghis' successors, . - . - « 
 
 Germany. — 1190, Henry VI. — 1198, Frederic II. — 
 
 War with the Pope. - - - - - - 196 
 
 1230 The Sultan of Egypt cedes Jerusalem to Frederic, - 197 
 1273 Rodolph of Hapsburgh — 1241 Hanseatic League — 
 
 1291 Adolphus of Nassau— 1298 Albert, 197-8 
 
 1308 Swiss Cantons revolt — William Tell — Switzerland 
 
 independent — Henry VII., - - - - 198 
 
 1322 Louis of Bavaria — War with the Pope — Charles of 
 
 Luxembourg — 1355 Golden Bull — 1378 Winceslaus, 199 
 1393 The Reformation begins — John Huss — Sigismund, - 200 
 1415 Council of Constance — 1416 Jerome of Prague burnt — 
 
 1438 Albert Emperor, " 
 
 1440 Ladislaus — 1453 Turks masters of Constantinople, - " 
 1493 Maximilian, - 201 
 
 France. — Philip Augustus, .--.." 
 Louis VIII. — War with the Albigenses, - - - 202 
 Louis IX. — his Crusade — invades Tunis, . - " 
 
 Philip the Hardy — Sicilian Vespers, ..." 
 
 Philip IV. or the Fair, -..-..<>. 
 French clergy summoned to Rome — First National 
 
 Assembly — Poictiers the seat of the Pope, - - 203 
 Louis X.— Salic Law— 1328 Philip of Valois— Ca. 
 
 petian dynasty ends, ...... u 
 
 War with Edward III. of England, ...» 
 
 Battle of Cressy — Siege of Calais— 1350 John — 1356 
 
 Battle of Poictiers — John prisoner, - . . 204 
 
 Paris revolts — Peace with England, . - - 205 
 
 Charles V. — War with England renewed, . - " 
 
 Charles VI. — insane — Civil War, . . . u 
 
 War with England renewed — Henry of England takes 
 
 Harfleur — Battle of Agincourt, .... 206 
 Civil War in France renewed — 1420 Treaty of Troyes, « 
 
MIDDLE HISTORY. XVU 
 
 A. D. 'Page. 
 Charles VII. — Henry proclaimed king of France and 
 
 England, . - . - - - . - 206 
 
 1424 Battle of Verneuil — Siege of Orleans — Joan of Arc, 207 
 1428 Charles crowned at Rheims — 1435 undisturbed mon- 
 
 arch of France — Decay of the Feudal System, 207-8 
 
 1461 Louis XL— his cruelty— 1483 Charles VIII., - 208 
 
 1193 EncxLAND— Richard I.— 1199 John, - . 208-9 
 
 1215 Magna Charta, ..-...« 
 
 Earl of Pembroke Regent, ----- 210 
 1236 Henry III. — confirms the Charter — Parliament at Ox- 
 ford — War against the king, headed by the Earl of 
 Leicester, ...-----" 
 Henry's character— People first represented in Par- 
 liament, ...-----" 
 1274 Edward I.— 1282 conquers Wales, - - - 211 
 
 1283 John Baliol— Robert Bruce, ----•« 
 1296 Edward invades Scotland— 1297 William Wallace, - 212 
 1305 Wallace executed — 1306 Bruce elected king, - " 
 
 1307 Edward II. — Revolt under the Earl of Lancaster, - 213 
 1314 Battle of Bannockburn — Civil War in England, - " 
 
 1327 Edward II. deposed — Edward III. — Isabella regent — 
 
 Edward II. murdered, ..... 214 
 
 1332 Mortimer executed, --.--.« 
 David Bruce — Edward Baliol, . . - - " 
 
 1333 Battle at Hallidown Hill, ---.-« 
 
 1346 Edward invades France — Battle of Cressy, - . " 
 
 1347 Calais surrenders — David Bruce prisoner, - - 215 
 1359 War with France renewed — Battle of Poictiers — 
 
 1360 Peace, - - - --..«« 
 
 Edward Bruce — French renew the war — Miserable 
 death of Edward III. - --..-" 
 
 1377 Richard II. — under his uncles as regents, - - 216 
 
 Insurrection of Wat Tyler, .----'< 
 
 1387 Richard assumes the government — Gloucester mur- 
 dered, ..---■-• 217 
 1399 Insurrection of York and Lancaster — Richard deposed, " 
 " Henry IV. — Insurrection of the Percies and of Glen- 
 dower — Privileges of Parliament enlarged, . - 218 
 1413 Henry V. — Wickliffe — Rebellion of the Lollards, . " 
 
 Henry invades France — 1414 Victory of Agincourt, 219 
 1421 Henry VI. — 1455 war between the houses of York 
 
 and Lancaster ---.--.« 
 1461 Edward IV. — Battle of Towton — Margaret flees to 
 
 Scotland, -------- 220-1 
 
 1464 Battle of Hexham — 1465 Henry prisoner, - - 221 
 
 Warwick joins the Queen — 147 1 slain in the battle of 
 
 Barnet — Queen defeated at Tewksbury — Henry VI. 
 
 dies in the Tower, * 
 
 2* 
 
Xviii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, kt: 
 
 A. D Page. 
 
 1483 Edward V. — Richard III. — Contest for the throne, - 222 
 
 1485 l\ichard slain in tiie battle of Bosworth Field, - - 223 
 
 Henry VII — 1486 Simhel and Warbeck impostors, " 
 
 1085 Spain and Portugal. — Contests with the Moors, . " 
 1230 Leon and Castile united — ISOU Algesiras and Gibral- 
 tar conquered — Peter the Cruel, ... - 224 
 13G9 Henry— 1452 Henry IV.— Alphonso, . - .225 
 1469 Isabella — 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella, - - . « 
 1492 Conquest of Grenada — Discovery of America, . " 
 
 1266 Italy. — Italian Republics — 1152 Frederic Barbarossa 
 
 attempts to reduce them — Lombard League, - 225-6 
 
 1176 Battle of Legnano — 1183 Peace of Constance, . 227 
 1214 Italian Republics independent of Germany — liberty 
 
 sacrificed to aristocracy, ...... 
 
 1450 The Medici— 1273 Sovereignty of the Pope, . . " 
 
 1139 Arnold of Brescia — 1346 Insurrection under Rienzi, - 228 
 1261 Genoa — 1471 Venice, ....-« 
 
 1166 Naples and Sicily, 229 
 
 1261 EASTERN Empire. — Michael Palaeologus, - - 229 
 1282 Andronicus I — 1292 Invasion of the Catalans — 
 
 Civil Wars, ------- 230 
 
 1320 Andronicus II. — 1341 John Palaeologus, - . « 
 
 1399 Bajazet threatens Constantinople, . . . « 
 
 1299 Ottoman Empire. — Othman I., - - - - 231 
 
 1326 Orchan and Solyman — 1359 Amurath, . . . <« 
 
 1362 Janizaries established — Bajazet, . . . . u 
 1396 Battle of Nicopolis, .-.....< 
 1399 Invasion of Tamerlane — 1402 Tamerlane overthrows 
 
 the empire. — Mahomet I. — Amurath II.,. - - 232 
 
 Crusade of Pope Eugenius — 1444 battle of Varna, - 233 
 
 1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks, under Mahornet II., 234 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 1492 Discovery of Arierica, First Epocha. 
 
 General view of Europe about this time, - - 235-9 
 Columbus — his apphcations for aid, - - 240 
 
 «' Sails from Palos— Oct. 12th, land discovered — Land- 
 
 ing of Columbus, . - . . . .241 
 
Modern history. xix 
 
 A. D. Page. 
 
 Cuba and Hispaniola discovered — Right of discovery, 241 
 1493 Columbus' second voyage — Isabella, first city in 
 
 America, founded — Contests with the natives, - 242 
 
 1498 Columbus' third voyage — discovers the Continent — 
 
 Alonzo de Ojeda, ...... u 
 
 Amerigo Vespucio gives name to the continent, - 243 
 
 Portuguese discoveries — 111 treatment of Columbus — 
 Fourth voyage, .....-.« 
 
 1506 Columbus dies, at Valladolid, .... 244 
 
 1492 Italy. — Charles VIII, of France claims Naples — War 
 
 between several great powers, . - . 245a 
 
 1499 Louis XII. conquers Milan, .-.-.» 
 Spaniards gain Naples — 1508 Julius II. pope — his am- 
 bitious designs — League of Cambray — Venice hum- 
 bled by Julius, ...... 246a 
 
 1521 Holy League against France — French lose Milan — 
 
 Spain conquers Navarre — Leo X. pope, - - " 
 
 Francis I. — recovers Milan, .... 246a 
 
 1516 Charles V. king of Spain — 1520 elected emperor of 
 
 Germany, ....... u 
 
 Defection of the Constable Bourbon, - - - 248a 
 
 1525 Francis made prisoner at Pavia — ill treated — released, " 
 
 1521 Holy League against Charles - . - . « 
 
 1527 Charles takes Rome — the pope prisoner, - - " 
 1525 Henry VIII. of England unites with Francis against 
 
 the emperor — Andrew Doria, - - - . 249a 
 
 1519 Peace of Cambray — 1520 Turks invade Hungary, " 
 
 1535 Charles' successful expedition against the Barbary 
 
 States — Francis renews the war — Charles invades 
 France, ........ 250a 
 
 1536 Francis forms a league with the Turks — Ten year's 
 
 truce, - - - - - . - - 250-la 
 
 1541 Charles' second expedition against the Barbary pi- 
 rates — suppresses the insurrection at Ghent, - 251a 
 
 1544 Peace of Crespi, ...... a 
 
 1 393 The Reformation. — John Huss— Jerome of Prague — 
 
 Wickliffe, ..--...« 
 
 Leo X. sells indulgences — Martin Luther, - . " 
 1521 Diet at Worms — Zuinglius, .... 252a 
 
 1529 Diet at Spires — Reformers called Protestants — Diet at 
 Augsburg, --......" 
 
 1530 Melancthon — 1531 League of Smalkald, - - " 
 
 1545 Council of Trent — 1546 Luther dies — 1547 Protes- 
 
 tant cause desperate, . - • - . 253a 
 
 1548 The "Interim" — Maurice plots against Charles — 
 
 Charles flees, ....... n 
 
 1552 Peace of Passau — 1556 Charles abdicates, - . 254a 
 
XX CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 A. D. Page. 
 
 1513 James of Scotland invades England — Battle of Flod- 
 
 den Field — James V. continues the war, - - 254a 
 Henry VIII. of England seeks a divorce, 
 
 1525 Cardinal Wolsey's disgrace, .... 255a 
 
 Henry marries Anne Boleyn, . . . . « 
 
 Execution of Sir Thomas More, . . . . " 
 
 1557 Edward VI. — 1549 English liturgy and church es- 
 tablished, - . " 
 
 1553 Lady Jane Grey — 1555 Queen Mary marries Philip 
 
 of Spain, --..-..- 256a 
 
 1555 John Rogers, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, Cranmer, burnt, " 
 
 1556 Elizabeth succeeds Mary ....»« 
 1559 Treaty of Chateau Cambresis, . . - . « 
 
 PERIOD IL 
 1559 Treaty OF Chateau Cambresis, First Epocha, - 245 
 England. — Elizabeth — Mary Queen of Scots, - - " 
 Mary of Guise, Queen regent of Scotland — John 
 Knox persecutes the Catholics, .... 246 
 
 1565 Mary marries Darnley, ..... 247 
 
 1566 Murder of Rizzio — 1567 Darnley murdered by Both- 
 
 well — Scots revolt, ..-.." 
 
 James VI. — 1568 Mary seeks protection from EHzabeth, 248 
 
 1587 Mary executed, 
 
 " War with Spain — the Invincible Armada, . . •« 
 
 1588 Armada destroyed — 1572, Sir Francis Drake — 
 
 1603, Virginia settled, 249 
 
 1559 Spain, Portugal, The Netherlands. — 
 
 Pbilip persecutes heretics, .... 
 
 1572 The Netherlands revolt— Duke of Alva— William 
 prince of Orange — Requesens, . - 
 
 1574 Spaniards besiege Leyden, 
 
 1576 Pacification of Ghent — Don John, - - . 
 
 1579 Republic of Holland commences, 
 
 1584 Prince of Orange assassinated — Duke of Parma be- 
 sieges Antwerp, ...... 
 
 1585 Elizabeth aids the Dutch — Dutch successful, 
 Philip transfers his claim to Albert of Austria, - 
 
 1600 Battle of Nieuport — 1604 Ostend capitulates, 
 1609 Independence of the Seven Provinces, 
 
 1578 King of Portugal invades Morocco, 
 1581 Portugal united to Spain, 
 1596 Philip III., 
 
 1559 France. — Francis II. — Protestants persecuted, - 
 1566 Catharine de Medici regent — Protestants tolerated, 
 
 250 
 
 251 
 
 252 
 
 253 
 
MODERN HISTORY. XXI 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Contest between the Catholics and Protestants — Eng- 
 land and Spain interfere, _ . . . - 254 
 1560 Battle of Dreux— The League, - . - - « 
 
 1568 Battle of St. Denis— 1569 Battle of Jarnac— 
 
 Henry IV., - 254-5 
 
 1569 Battle of Montcontour — Treaty of peace — Treachery 
 
 of the court, ....... 255 
 
 1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's, .... 256 
 
 1574 Remorse of Charles — Henry III., - - - " 
 Henry defeats the leaguers — Death of the plotters of 
 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew's — Mayenne, - 257 
 Henry III. assassinated — Henry IV. — victorious at 
 
 Arques, ... . . . - " 
 
 Victorious at Ivry — invests Paris — Character of Henry, 258 
 
 1589 Henry enters Paris — Mayenne submits, . - - " 
 1596 Spaniards take Calais, 
 
 1598 Edict of Nantes — Peace with Spain, . . - « 
 
 Duke of Sully — Henry's plan for abolishing war — 259 
 1610 Henry assassinated, ......" 
 
 1556 Germany. — Ferdinand I., - . . . - " 
 
 1564 Maximilian II.— 1576 Rodolph II., - - - 260 
 
 1565 Ottoman Empire. — Turks besiege Malta — 1571 con- 
 
 quer Cyprus — Battle of Lepanto, ..." 
 
 1572 Turks and Christians make peace, • - - 261 
 
 PERIOD III. 
 
 1610 Assassination OF Henry IV, Second Epocha. 
 
 1612 Germany.— Matthias, ...... 262 
 
 1619 Ferdinand II.— Frederic V., - - - . - " 
 1629 League with Gustavus Adolphus, Cardinal Richelieu, 
 
 and others, -..-.-- 263 
 
 1631 Gustavus victorious at Leipzic — 1632 slain at Lutzen, " 
 
 1634 Battle of Nordlingen— 1635 Treaty of Prague, . 264 
 
 1636 New alliance between Sweden and France, - - " 
 
 1637 Ferdinand III. — 1640 Swedes, under Bannier, suc- 
 
 cessful — 1641 Torstenson succeeds Bannier, . 264-5 
 
 Hostilities between Sweden and Denmark, - . 265 
 1645 Imperialists defeated at Thabor — French, under Tu- 
 
 renne, successful — 1647 Successes of the Swedes, - " 
 
 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, 266 
 
 1610 France. — Louis XIII. — Mary de Medici regent — 
 
 Mary's Italian favourites put to death, - - 266-7 
 
 1621 War against the Huguenots — Projects of Cardinal 
 
 Richelieu, ....... 267 
 
 16^3 Death of Louis— of Richelieu, . - . - 268 
 
XXU CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 A. D- Page 
 
 England, Scotland, Ireland. 
 1603 James I. succeeds Elizabeth — The Puritans, - - 268 
 1605 Gunpowder plot — James promotes the civilization of 
 
 Ireland — Colonization of America, - - - 269 
 
 1G16 James attempts to establish the English church in 
 
 Scotland — Parliament begins to assert its rights, - " 
 
 George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, 
 
 1625 Death of James, 270 
 
 Charles I. — Contests between the king and parliament — 
 John Hampden, - - - - - - 271 
 
 1627 Petition of Rights, ....-." 
 
 Buckingham assassinated — Contests between the king 
 and parliament renewed — Religious parties, - - 272 
 
 1638 The Scotch Co\enant, ....-" 
 
 1640 Parliament called, after eleven years intermission, - 273 
 
 1641 Earl of Strafford executed — Irish rebellion, - . " 
 
 1642 War between Charles, his partizans, and parliament, - 274 
 
 1643 Hampden slain — 1644 Battle of Marston Moor — 
 
 1 645 Battle of Naseby, .-..." 
 
 1647 Charles prisoner — Oliver Cromwell, ..." 
 " Cornet Joyce seizes the king, ... - 275 
 
 1649 Charles tried and executed, . . . . i' 
 
 1611 Spain. — Moors expelled — Philip IV., ..." 
 
 Spain acknowledges the independence of Holland, - 276 
 1643 Spanish empire on the decline, . - . - " 
 
 Portugal asserts her independence of Spain by 
 arms — duke of Braganza placed on the throne, 
 with the title of John IV. — Portuguese settlements 
 expel their Spanish governors, . . - . " 
 
 PERIOD IV. 
 
 1648 Peace of Westphalia and Execution of Charles 1., 
 
 Third Epocha. 
 
 1648 France — Parliament of Paris asserts its authority, - 277 
 
 1 649 Insurrection at Paris, ...... 278 
 
 1651 Wars of the Fronde — Conde — Turenne — Louis XIV., " 
 
 1658 French and English take Dunkirk, - . . " 
 
 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees, ..... 279 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 1654 Christina resigns her crown to Charles X., - - * 
 
 1657 Charles makes war on Poland and Denmark, - - " 
 
 1660 Charles XL, 280 
 
 England. 
 
 Kingly power and house of lords abolished — " Con- 
 servators," ....... u 
 
MODERN HISTORY. XXlll 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 1650 Cromwell subdues Ireland, ..... 280 
 Charles II. proclaimed in Scotland, . - " 
 
 1651 Battle of Worcester, - " 
 
 1653 Cromwell protector — War with the Dutch, - - 281 
 1657 Death of Cromwell— 1659 Richard Cromwell— 
 
 1660 General Monk restores Charles II., - . <« 
 1661 Character and measures of Charles, - - - 282 
 
 1664 War with Holland, ......«« 
 
 1665 Plague in London — 1666 Great fire in London — Naval 
 
 battle off Dunkirk, ---.-- 283 
 
 1667 Peace of Breda, ..-...« 
 
 Europe during the wars of the Spanish 
 Succession. 
 1665 Ambitious projects of Louis XIV., . . - 284 
 
 1668 Peace of Aix la Chapelle — Shameful treaty of Charles 
 
 II. with Louis XIV., -....•" 
 
 1672 French successes in Holland, . - . . 285 
 The two De Witts killed — Prince of Orange stadtholder, " 
 
 1673 Dutch, under the prince of Orange, successful, - 286 
 
 1674 French again successful, ....." 
 
 1678 Peace of Nimeguen, ..--.." 
 
 Holland, France, Germany, Spain. 
 
 Hungari;u!S rebel — Turks invade the empire of 
 
 German )•, .-----.. 287 
 Louis XIV. of France improves the Frencli navy — 
 constructs ports — bombards Algiers and Genoa — 
 his splendour — Deatli of Colbert, ..." 
 
 16S5 Louis persecutes tlie protestants — rtvokes the Edict 
 
 of Nantes, -•-...-« 
 
 " League of the German princes, and of Holland, Spain, 
 
 and England, against France, .... 2S8 
 
 169Ji Battle of Widdin— 1694 Turks take Belgrade, . " 
 
 Battle of Neerwinden — 1697 Peace of Ryswick — 
 Battle of Zeuta, - ■ - - ' - . 289 
 
 1699 Peace of Carlowitz, .-.--." 
 
 England. 
 1668 Charles II. sells Dunkirk, ...... 
 
 1679 Battle of Both well bridge, ..... 290 
 1681 Rupert and Sidney executed — Rye-house plot, - . «' 
 16S5 Death of Charles II. — James II. 
 
 1688 English Revolution — William, prince of Orange, . 291 
 1702 Death of William— Anne, .... 292-3 
 
 Europe, from the Peace of Ryswick, 1697, to 
 THE Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. 
 Disputes about the Spanish succession, . - . 293 
 
XXIV 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1700 Charles II. of Spain leaves his crown to PhiHp V., 
 
 1701 The Grand Alliance — 1702 they declare war against 
 
 France, - - - - - ... 
 
 1704 Battle of Blenheim— Gibraltar taken, 
 
 1705 Joseph, emperor of Germany ... 
 
 1706 Battle of Ramilies— 1707 battle of Almanza, 
 1708 Battle of Oudendarde— 1710 battle of Almenara, 
 1711 Charles, emperor of Germany, ... 
 
 1713 Treaty of Utretcht, 
 
 1714 Peace of Rastadt, - . . - . 
 
 North of Europe. 
 1699 Peter the great — Frederic IV. of Denmark — Augus- 
 tus, elector of Saxony, king of Poland, form a 
 league against Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 
 1701 Charles makes peace with the Danes — Battle of 
 
 Narva, ........ 
 
 1702 Charles victorious at Dwina — Battle of Glissau, 
 1704 Stanislaus Leckinski elected king of Poland, in place 
 
 of Augustus, who is deposed, - - . . 
 
 1706 Charles makes peace with Augustus, 
 
 Petersburg founded — 1709 Battle of Pultowa — 
 
 Charles flees to Turkey, . - ■ - . 
 
 Consequences of Charles' defeat — he incites the 
 Turks against the Russians — 1714 returns to 
 Sweden, ...---.. 
 
 1718 Death of Charles — Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Swe- 
 den — Sweden obtains peace, - - . - 
 
 1725 Death of Peter the great, . - . . - 
 
 PERIOD V. 
 1713 From the Treaty of Utrecht, Fourth Epocha. 
 
 Southern Europe to the Eight Years' War. 
 
 1715 Turks overrun the Morea, - - - . 
 Projects of the Spanish minister, Alberoni, 
 
 1718 The Quadruple Alliance, .... 
 1731 The Pragmatic Sanction, - - . . 
 
 1733 Disputes respecting the succession of the Polish 
 
 crown, ....... 
 
 1735 Peace of Vienna, - . - - - 
 
 1740 Maria Theresa — Frederic of Prussia begins the 
 
 eight years' war, . - . , . 
 
 League of three sovereigns against Maria Theresa, 
 
 1742 Elector of Bavaria crowned as Charles VII., 
 
 " Treaty of Breslau, ..... 
 
 1743 Battle of Dettingen, 
 
 1745 Francis I. of Germany — Treaty of Dresden, 
 
 1746 Battles of Fontenoy and Roucoux, 
 
 1747 French take Bergen-op-Zoom, ... 
 
 294 
 
 295 
 
 296 
 
 (( 
 
 297 
 
 298 
 
 299 
 
 300 
 301 
 
 302 
 303 
 
 304 
 305 
 
 302 
 
 (( 
 
 307 
 
 <( 
 (( 
 
 308 
 
 (( 
 
 309 
 
MODERN HISTORY. XXV 
 
 A. D. Page- 
 
 1748 Peace of Aix la Chapelle 309 
 
 England. 
 1706 Union of the Scotch and English Parliaments, . 310 
 
 111 treatment of the duke of Marlborough, . . " 
 
 1714 Queen Anne " plagued to death" — George I — he perse- 
 
 cutes the Tories, ....••" 
 Lord Bolingbroke — Earls of Ormond and Oxford — 
 Chevalier St. George, " 
 
 1715 Pretender's army defeated at Preston Pans, . . " 
 
 1720 South Sea Scheme, 311-12 
 
 1727 George II.— 1745, Charles Edward, son of the Pre- 
 tender, ......•• 312 
 
 1T46 Battle of CuUoden— Hopes of the Stuarts extinguished, ** 
 
 PERIOD VI. 
 
 1748 Peace of Aix la Chapelle, Fifth Epocha. 
 
 Europe to the Treaty of Paris, 1763- 
 
 1755 Earthquake at Lisbon, ..... 313 
 Alliances between the great powers — War, • • 314 
 
 1757 French conquer Hanover, .....'' 
 '* Battles of Prague and Colin, . . . • " 
 
 Battles of Rosbach and Leuthen, .... 315 
 French driven from Hanover, . . . . " 
 
 1759 Battle of Cunnersdorf— Battle of Minden— Russians 
 
 take Berlin, 315-16 
 
 1760 Bourbons of France and Spain form a family compact, 316 
 In Russia Peter III. succeeds Elizabeth, . . . ** 
 
 1762 Peter murdered, and succeeded by Catharine, • . 317 
 
 1763 Peace of Paris— Treaty of Hubertsburg, . . " 
 
 Great Britain, from the Peace of Aix la Chapelle, 
 1748, . . • . . . • .318 
 
 Domestic history of the reign of George II. distinguish- 
 ed chiefly by the political knaveries of Sir Robert 
 Walpole, " 
 
 1756 William Pitt, " 
 
 1760 George III. 
 
 North American Colonies, to the Peace of Paris, 1763. 
 1497 Discoveries of the Cabots — 1534, of Cartier — of de 
 
 Leon and de Soto, . . . . . .319 
 
 Indefinite claims of the French and English, . . " 
 
 1754 Washington sent against the French, . . . 320 
 " Congress at Albany — American spirit of liberty, . " 
 
 1689 James II. sends over Colonial governors, . . 321 
 
 1755 Braddock defeated — Dieskau defeated at Fort Edward, 322 
 
 1756 War between England and France formally declared, " 
 
 1757 Massacre at Fort William Henry, . . . " 
 
 3 
 
XXVI CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 1758 George II. sends out large reinforcements, . . 322 
 Louisburg taken, ...... 323 
 
 1759 Ticonderoga, Crown Point — Fort Niagara taken, . " 
 French defeated at Quebec — Wolfe killed, . . " 
 
 Partition of Poland. 
 1764 Catharine forces the Poles to elect Stanislaus Ponia- 
 
 towski, 324 
 
 Poles seek aid of the Turks — Russia invades Turkey, " 
 1770 Scandalous partition of Poland — Polish patriots — Europe 
 
 a grand aristocracy, ...... 325 
 
 Great Britain and her American Colonies. 
 1763 Prosperity of England — 1764, Americans resist taxa- 
 tion by the British Parliament — 1768, Lord Chat- 
 ham resigns, ....... 326 
 
 1775 General Gage sent to Massachusetts, . . . ** 
 1774 First American Congress, ..... 337 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill — unsuccessful attempt of the 
 
 Americans upon Canada, ..... 327 
 
 1776 Washington invests Boston, .....*' 
 
 PERIOD VII. 
 
 1776 Declaration of American Independence, Sixth Epocha. 
 Misfortunes of the American army, . . . 328 
 Washington succeeds at Trenton and Princeton — La 
 
 Fayette, . . ..... 329 
 
 1777 Howe successful at Brandywine and Germantown — 
 
 Burgoyne invades the north, . . . . " 
 
 Americans victorious at Bennington and Stillwater, . " 
 
 1778 Treaty with France— Battle of Monmouth, . . « 
 
 1780 Gates defeated at Camden, 330 
 
 1781 Battle of the Eutaw Springs, . . . . " 
 " Surrender of Cornwallis, . . . . .331 
 
 Sir Eyre Coote's successes in India, . . • " 
 
 1783 American independence acknowledged by the ti'eaty 
 
 of Paris — army disbanded — Washington retires, . «* 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1789 William Pitt the younger, 332 
 
 British cruelties in India, ....." 
 
 Warren Hastings — Effects of the French revolution on 
 English politics, ......" 
 
 The French Revolution. .... 333 
 1763 Lamentable condition of France, . . . . " 
 1770 Marriage of the Dauphin and Maria Antoinette, . " 
 
 1772 Death of Louis XV. — Louis XVI Notables convened, 334 
 
MouERN HISTORY. XXVll 
 
 A. D. Page. 
 
 1789 States General at Versailles — Bastile destroyed — La 
 
 Fayette commands the National Guards — distur- 
 bances of the 5th of October, . . . 334-5 
 
 1790 National Assembly form a constitution, . . . 335 
 Unpopularity of the Queen — Clubs, . . . 336 
 
 1791 Royal family attempt to escape — Constituent Assem- 
 
 bly dissolved — Legislative convened, ..." 
 
 1792 War declared against Austria, . . . • " 
 " Lafayette in favour of a constitutional monarchy, . 337 
 " Louis escapes from the Tuileries to the house of depu- 
 ties — dethroned and imprisoned — La Fayette in the 
 dungeons of Olmutz — Factions — massacre of the 
 royalists, ........" 
 
 " Louis brought to the guillotine — Coalition against 
 
 France, ........ 338 
 
 1793 French take Breda — Insurrection in La Vendee — 
 
 Mountain faction supreme, ....." 
 
 1794 Reign of terrour, ......" 
 
 Fate of Danton, Marat, and Robespierre — The Direc- 
 tory, 339 
 
 1795 Napoleon Bonaparte, ....." 
 
 1796 French send three armies against Austria — Jourdan 
 
 defeated — Moreau retreats, . • . . " 
 
 Bonaparte's victorious progress into Italy, . • 340 
 
 1796 Battle of Lodi — Italian works of art sent to Paris — 
 
 Mantua besieged, ......" 
 
 Wonderful success of the campaign, . . . 341 
 
 Battle of Rivoli — Surrender of Mantua — Bonaparte 
 
 invades Austria, ......" 
 
 1797 Peace of Campo Formio, . . . . . " 
 " Italian Republics formed, ..... 342 
 
 1798 Bonaparte embarks for Egypt — Battle of the Pyra- 
 
 mids — Naval battle of Aboukir, ... " 
 
 " Bonaparte takes Gaza and Jaffa — compelled to retire 
 
 from Acre, ....... 343 
 
 1794 Bonaparte defeats the Turks at Aboukir — returns to 
 
 France, ........" 
 
 " New coalition against France — Bonaparte First Con- 
 sul, ......... 
 
 1800 Bonaparte crosses Mount St. Bernard — Battle of Ma- 
 rengo — Armistice — Battle of Hohenlinden — Treaty 
 of Luneville — English take Malta — English attack 
 Copenhagen, ....... 344 
 
 1802 Peace of Amiens, 345 
 
 1803 Bonaparte declared First Consul for life — War 
 
 with England — Duke of d'Enghein shot, . . « 
 
XXVlil CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 A. D. Page- 
 
 England. 
 1784 Dispute between Great Britain and America — Battle 
 
 between the French and EngHsh fleets off Brest, . 346 
 1797 British naval victory off Cape St. Vincent, . . " 
 
 " England and Ireland united, ..... 347 
 
 America. 
 
 1789 Federal Constitution — Washington president, . 347 
 
 1793 Washington again president, . . . . • " 
 
 1794 Whiskey Insurrection — Indian war, . . . 348 
 
 1797 John Adams president, . . . . ' " 
 
 1798 War with France — 1799, Peace — Death of Washing- 
 
 ton, " 
 
 1801 Thomas Jefferson president, .... 349 
 
 1803 Louisiana purchased, .....•" 
 
 PERIOD VIII. 
 
 1802 Peace of Amiens, Seventh Epocha. 
 
 French Empire, ....... 350 
 
 1804 Napoleon crowned Emperor, . . . . " 
 Third coalition against France, .... 351 
 
 1805 Battle of Austerlitz — Treaty of Presburg, . . " 
 
 1806 Napoleon nfiakes Holland, Naples, &c. kingdoms — 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine — Prussia at war with 
 France — Battle of Jena, ....•" 
 " Berlin Decree — Saxony made a kingdom, . • 352 
 
 1807 Battle of Eylau— of Friedland— Peace of Tilsit- 
 
 Kingdom of Westphalia formed, • . . " 
 
 " English invest Copenhagen — Napoleon's designs on 
 the Spanish peninsula — Royal family of Portugal 
 remove to Brazil, • . . . . .353 
 
 1808 Ferdinand of Spain compelled to abdicate — Joseph Bo- 
 
 naparte made king of Spain, «... 354 
 
 « The Code Napoleon, " 
 
 " La Fayette. 
 1811 Spaniards arouse to resistance — French evacuate 
 
 Madrid — Ferdinand resumes the government, . 355 
 
 1808 Portuguese and English defeat the French at Vimeira, 356 
 
 1809 Napoleon in Spain — Battle of Corunna — Death of Sir 
 
 John Moore — Central Europe rises against Napo- 
 leon — Napoleon enters Vienna, ..." 
 " Battle of Wagram — Peace of Vienna, . . 357 
 
 1810 Napoleon divorces Josephine, and marries Maria 
 
 Louisa, ........" 
 
 1809 Duke of York's expedition to Holland — Frencli 
 
 take Saragossa in Spain, ,...-" 
 
 1810 French take Seville — Cortes declare for Ferdinand, . 358 
 
 1811 Wellington defeats the French at Albuera, . . " 
 
MODERN HISTORY. XXIX 
 
 A. D. Page. 
 
 1812 Wellington victorious in Spain — Russians declare 
 
 war against France, • . . . . 359 
 " Napoleon invades Russia — Battle of Borodino — 
 
 French enter Moscow — Retreat from Russia, - " 
 
 " New coalition against Napoleon, - - - 361 
 
 1813 Napoleon raises a vast army — victorious at Lutzen 
 
 and Beautzen, ...... ^ 
 
 " Battle of Leipzic — Spanish campaign disastrous, - 362 
 
 1814 France invaded — Allies enter Paris, . . . ,* 
 " Napoleon abdicates — Louis XVIII. declared king — 
 
 Napoleon returns from Elba, .... 363 
 
 181 5 Louis leaves Paris — Napoleon enters — Allied Sove- 
 
 reigns proceed against him — Battle of Wa- 
 terloo, ....... 364 
 
 " Napoleon again abdicates, - . . . . 365 
 
 1821 Napoleon dies at St. Helena, . . . . " 
 
 1802 Great Britain and America. 
 
 1803 Great Britain declares war against France, - - 365 
 
 1804 East India French fleet captured, - . . . " 
 
 1805 Battle of Trafalgar, 366 
 
 1806 Death of Pitt— of Fox, 
 
 1809 American Embargo, - - - - - - " 
 
 1811 George IV. regent, --...." 
 
 1812 America declares war against England — General 
 
 Hull surrenders — Americans obtain several vic- 
 tories, .--..... 367 
 
 1813 York taken — 1814, Battles of Niagara frontier — - " 
 
 British squadron defeated at Plattsburgh — General 
 
 Ross burns the public edifices at Washington, 368 
 
 1815 Battle of New Orleans, " 
 
 " Peace of Ghent, 369 
 
 PERIOD IX. 
 
 Brazil and Portugal. ..... 370 
 
 1810 First measures of the Brazilian government, . " 
 
 1821 Don Pedro emperor — 1826, John VI. dies in Portu- 
 
 gal — Donna Maria — Contest with Don Miguel, - " 
 
 Spanish America, - . - . . 37J 
 1S06 Spanish America revolts — Miranda's attempt in 
 
 Caraccas, -----..." 
 
 1810 Venezuela declares herself independent, . . » 
 
 1812 Earthquake at Caraccas, « 
 
 1813 Bolivar emancipates his country, ... 372 
 
 The Greek Revolution. — Its causes, . . « 
 
 Society of the Hetairia — Cruelties of the Turks, - 373 
 
 1822 Greeks form a government — Massacre at Scio, - " 
 
XXX CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, &C. 
 
 A. D. Page. 
 
 1822 Destruction of the Turks at Thermopylse, - " 374 
 
 1826 Ibrahim Pacha invades Greece, ... - " 
 
 1827 Pacification of Greece by the Protocol of London — 
 
 Battle of Navarino, - - - - - " 
 
 1815 General View of Europe to 1835, . . . 375 
 
 " Louis re-enters Paris — Holy Alliance formed — Rus- 
 sian tyranny in Poland, ----.«» 
 
 1818 Congress of Aix la Chapelle, . . . . «• 
 
 1820 Congress of Troppau, 376 
 
 1823 The Holy Alliance denounced, - - - . " 
 
 1824 Louis XVm. dies— Charles X., . . . •« 
 1826 Nicholas of Russia — 1828 Russia at war with 
 
 Turkey, - • 377 
 
 1830 Polish Revolution begins — Insurrection at War- 
 saw — Russians take Warsaw — Poland again en- 
 slaved, 378 
 
 1829 French expedition to Algiers, - - . . " 
 
 1830 Revolution of the " Three Days — Liberals rally 
 
 around La Fayette — Ministers tried and impris- 
 oned, 379 
 
 1831 Revolution in Belgium — Leopold king, - . •' 
 
 1815 Great Britain. 380 
 
 Political Reform, " 
 
 1820 George IV. " 
 
 1829 William IV., 381 
 
 1815 America, " 
 
 " Americans chastise the Algerines, . . . » 
 
 1816 United States Bank chartered — Tarifflaid, - - 382 
 
 1817 James Monroe president, .-...«* 
 
 1818 Seminole war — 1819 Purchase of Florida, . " 
 
 1824 Visit of La Fayette, 
 
 1825 John Q. Adams president, - • - . 393 
 1827 Death of Adams and Jefferson, - . . . " 
 1829 Andrew Jackson president — 1832 Indian war, - " 
 
 1833 Andrew Jackson again president, - - - - 384 
 
 1834 Death of La Fayette, '« 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED 
 
 FROM THE CREATION, 4004 B. C. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 The calling j FIRST EPOCHA, 1921 B. C. ^ of Abraham. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The face of the whole earth, with a few exceptions, is now known. 
 The family of man is divided by natural distinctions, into different 
 races ; and by the boundary lines of the countries which they in- 
 habit, into different nations, each governed by its own peculiar laws. 
 
 If we take a series of maps representing the entire world, and 
 inquire concerning the length of time which the nations it now pre- 
 sents, have been known, we shall find in looking back to different 
 periods, that by degrees, their names and places disappear. 
 
 In 1491, A. D., the whole continent of America was, as to those 
 from whom we derive the knowledge of history, as though it were 
 not. A little before the birth of our Saviour, Great Britain, the land 
 of our ancestors, was unknown, as was the whole of the northern 
 part of Europe, the southern part of Africa, and the eastern part of 
 Asia. If we go back fifteen hundred years from the Christian era, 
 no traces of inhabitants are to be found on the face of the earth, 
 except a few comparatively small nations, around the eastern extreme 
 ity of the Mediterranean Sea.* 
 
 * The cheats practised by the Brahmins, by which the learned of Europe were for 
 a time made to believe in the great antiquity which they claim for their knowledge of 
 the sciences, have been recently exposed ; and it is the opinion of a writer of high 
 authority, Dugald Stewart, that the Sanscrit language itself is a mixture of the Greek 
 with the original dialect of the country, introduced after its conquest, by Alexander 
 the Great. I am aware that the Chinese make pretensions to great antiquity, but these 
 pretensions cannot be considered as having any foundation. The records of their em- 
 pire, we are informed, were all burned GOO years before the Christian era ; of course, 
 all beyond this is vague conjecture or unauthentic tradition. 
 
 2 
 
10 ANCIExNT HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 Hence, even without referring to tlie sacred writings, we should 
 conclude that the human race probably had their origin from that re- 
 gion, and calculating their progress from what is known of later 
 times, we should also conclude that they might have been, supposing 
 they commenced with a single family, about two thousand years in 
 coming to the state in which we find them. 
 
 AooA It is on the sacred writings alone, that we depend 
 
 The Creation ^^^' historical information concerning the creation, 
 and first abode of the human race. These, the most 
 accurate calculations of Scripture dates and places, fix at 4004 years 
 6efore the Christian era, and in the region east of the Mediterranean 
 Sea. Thus we find our confidence in the truth of the Sacred Scrip- 
 tures greatly strengthened by a comprehensive view of the history of 
 nations. 
 
 In the infancy of the human species God appears to have dealt 
 with man in a manner different from the ordinary course of his pro- 
 vidence at the present day. 
 
 An earthly parent is more with his helpless and ignorant children 
 than with those who have experience. The first duty which he 
 teaches them is implicit obedience to his will ; and when he finds 
 them wayward and disobedient, he chastises them, and sometimes with 
 severity. Thus, the Scriptures inform us, did the Almighty Pa- 
 I'ent deal with man in the infant state of his being. 
 
 Adam and Eve, whom God had created in his own image, pure and 
 holy, disobeyed his command, and were driven from their first abode, 
 the beautiful garden of Eden. This is supposed to have been some- 
 where near the head waters of the Euphrates. On the day of their 
 disobedience, the sentence of death was passed upon 
 The first trans- |]^gj^-, . (\^q y^-^^^^^ ^yj^g condemned to earn his bread by 
 ^'^^"^ " the sweat of his brow, and the woman, who had been 
 seduced by flattery and undue curiosity, to be the first transgressor, 
 was punished with a double curse. Yet God, in his mercy, then pro- 
 mised, that of her seed should OivfE arise, to bruise the head of the 
 deceiver. Thus, according to Moses, the sacred historian, the pro- 
 mise of a Saviour was coeval with the fall of man, and his need of a 
 Redeemer. 
 
 We are informed that the common age of man was, at that period, 
 more than ten times what it is at present. Most of the knowledge 
 now possessed by the human race, is derived from the experience 
 and observation of those who have lived before them ; but in those 
 days there were no such stores of knowledge laid up. A life of 
 several hundred years would give each man time to learn much from 
 his own experience, and facilitate the peopling of the earth. Hence 
 it seems very natural to suppose that God should have thus ordered 
 things at first. 
 
 As there are no authorities to consult on this part of history, ex- 
 cept the sacred volume, which is, or should be, in the hands of every 
 one, we shall refer the student to that for the particular facts, men- 
 tioning only those which are more immediately connected with the 
 course of events, as detailed by those historians, who, in distinction 
 from the sacred, are termed profane writers. 
 
CHAP. I.] ANCIENT HISTORY. 11 
 
 The most remarkable of these events is the univer- 
 2348. , sal deluge ; when God, again, for the sins of mankind, 
 
 The Deluge. gi-Qote the earth with a curse, and swept away at once 
 the whole of a wicked generation, who had filled the earth with vio- 
 lence. Yet when the fountains of the deep were broken up, and 
 when those who had climbed to the tops of the mountains were 
 buried in the waste of waters, one righteous man who had in obedi- 
 ence to the command of God, prepared an ark for himself and 
 his family, rode with them safely over the mighty ruin. 
 
 The Scripture account of this awful event is confirmed by the re- 
 searches and discoveries of those who have examined the structure 
 of the earth. In pursuing the modern science of geology, they find 
 evidences of former changes and convulsions, not to be ascribed to 
 any causes now known to be in operation. And, independently of 
 any other testimony, they conclude that many centuries after the 
 world was originally peopled, animals and vegetables were destroyed 
 by an overwhelming deluge. The great geologist, Cuvier, gives it 
 as his opinion, that " the event cannot be dated much farther back 
 than five or six thousand years." This species of evidence, like the 
 general train of historical events, before remarked, coincides with the 
 date of the deluge as drawn from the Mosaic records. 
 
 A farther source of evidence is found in the traditionary accounts 
 of people living far from each other. The Chinese, Greeks, Hindoos, 
 and the American Indians, all agree in the general fact, that in remote 
 antiquity, there was an inundation which overwhelmed the earth. 
 
 The ark of Noah rested on one of the mountains 
 
 The ark rests ^f Ararat, supposed to belong to the Caucasian chain. 
 on Ararat. When the dovc had returned with the olive branch, 
 
 to shew that there was peace again between God and man, and the 
 waves of his wrath were now assuaged, the sole patriarch of the hu- 
 man race, and his three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth, went forth to 
 take possession of their wide and solitary domain. 
 
 It is in the Mosaic history only that we find an authentic account of 
 the first peopling of the earth after the deluge. There we learn that 
 Shem and his descendants " went forth," and that " their dwelling 
 was" in Eastern and Southern Asia ; that the dwelling of Ham and his 
 descendants, Canaan and others, was in Western Asia and in Africa ; 
 that the "Isles of the Gentiles, meaning probably the Mediterranean, 
 European and Caucasian regions, were divided in their lands," among 
 the children of Japheth. Tlie epitome of the respective characters 
 and destinies of these races, given by Noah is very striking. " And he 
 said. Cursed be Canaan ; a servant of servants shall he be unto bis 
 brethren. And he said. Blessed be the Lord God of Shem ; and 
 Canaan shall be his servant. God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall 
 dwell in the tents of Shem ; and Canaan shall be his servant."* 
 Here we may remark, that those nations which have not possessed 
 the scriptures, have held traditions concerning gods and goddesses, 
 and the origin of men and things, full of monstrous absurdities. 
 
 Gen. is. 25, 26, 27. 
 
cernin 
 man race. 
 
 12 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 And as for those men, who have, in the pride of their own fancied 
 wisdom, rejected the Scriptures, and undertaken to make out con- 
 jectures concerning the origin of things from probabiUties, they 
 have by their ridiculous tlieories made themselves the jest of suc- 
 ceeding ages. They have supposed changes a thou- 
 Theories con- sand times more miraculous than any thing related in 
 the hu- Scripture : and at the same time have not assigned 
 these changes to any power adequate to then" pro- 
 duction. 
 
 Modem physiologists have classed the human species under three 
 distinct roots or races, namely, the Caucasian, the Mongol, and the 
 Negro. The Caucasian race, in their progress, have conquered 
 great portions of the territories, inhabited by the Mongols in Asia and 
 America, while the Negro race are held in servitude, by their 
 brethren. 
 
 We cannot indeed tell exactly what places on the earth's surface 
 were designated by the names of the countries mentioned at this re- 
 mote period ; for it was not until long after, that geography was cul- 
 tivated as 11 science, or that accurate maps existed. 
 2247. The sacred historian, after speaking of the location of 
 Tower orBabcl. ^j^g descendants of Noah, informs us, that they all col- 
 lected themselves on the plain of Shinar with the impious design to 
 build a tower, whose top should reach to heaven. God confounded 
 their language, and they separated by wandering to distant countries. 
 
 We begin soon to find traces of such connexions among particular 
 families or tribes, as gave them the name of nations. The earliest 
 mentioned are the Assyrians, the Babylonians or Chaldeans, the Egyp- 
 tians and the Jews. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 That which is called Ancient History, has for so many years been 
 related, and so often referred to, that for the sake of understanding 
 many books, we must know something of the accounts given ; but 
 nothing can be ascertained, farther than we have the authority of the 
 Scripture history. We know however from other sources, that great 
 cities did in reality exist ; and can determine from their ruins, where 
 Babylon, Nineveh, Thebes, and others stood. 
 
 The name of Assyria, it is thought, was derived from Ashur, the 
 son of Shem, who was supposed to have been driven out of his pro- 
 vinces by Nimrod, the grandson of Ham. Nimrod is 
 2204. said to have founded Babylon, about one hundred and 
 Babylon founded, flf^y y^^^.g ^p^^^, ^j^g deluge, and is believed to be the 
 same with Belus, who was afterwards worshipped as a god. 
 
CHAP. III.] EGYPT. 13 
 
 Tlie kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia, it seems, were at first 
 
 distinct ; but when Ninus, the son of Ashur, ascended the Assyrian 
 
 throne, he conquered the adjacent provinces, and rendered Babylonia 
 
 tributary. Ninus is said to have completed the mag- 
 
 2159. nificent city of Nineveh which his father had begun. 
 
 Nineveh built rpj^j^ accomplished prince, and his beautiful and high- 
 
 by Ninus. j^ gifted quecn Semiramis, are treated in the marvel. 
 
 lous records of historians, as the hero and heroine of the age in which 
 
 they lived. • /. t. 5 j 
 
 Ninyas, their son, being an infant, at the time of his father s death, 
 Semiramis governed the kingdom. ■ She is said to have extended her 
 dominions by the conquest of Ethiopia, and to have carried the terror 
 of her arms beyond the Indus ; but her Indian expedition proving 
 unsuccessful, she returned, with the loss of two thirds of her army. 
 She is said to have commenced many of those noble structures, which 
 adorned and rendered famous the city of Babylon, (which she made 
 the capital of her kingdom) and to have employed in the execution 
 of her plans, the labours of, two millions of men. 
 
 Ninyas, the son of Semiramis, is said to have 
 
 Nin as ^®^" ^" indolfcnt and effeminate prince, and is charg- 
 
 '"^'^^' ed with the crime of being accessory to his mother's 
 
 death. 
 
 Amraphel and Pul. The Scriptures mention Amraphel, king of Shinar, 
 
 which was in the land of Assyria ; and afterwards 
 
 Pul, who is supposed to be the father of Sardanapalus, and in whose 
 
 reign the Ninevites, repented at the preaching of Jonah. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Menes or Misraim, the son of Ham, is supposed to 
 
 2188. have been the founder of the first Egyptian monarchy ; 
 
 Menes founds the y^^j ^f j^jg immediate successors nothing is known. 
 
 first Egyptian Mon- g^^^^^ ^^^^ j^.^^ elapsed when Busiris, it is said, 
 
 '"''^ ^' built Thebes, and made it the seat of his empire. 
 
 That a most wonderful city, called by this name, was built, we know, 
 
 for the remains of it exist to this day ; but we have only traditionary 
 
 accounts of its founder. Osymaudas, another Egyptian king, it is 
 
 said, was celebrated for erecting magnificent edifices, adorning them 
 
 with sculpture and painting, and for having founded 
 
 First library found- ^\^q flj-gt library mentioned in history. Its title or in- 
 
 ■ ^^' scription was, " The office or treasury for the diseases 
 
 of the soul." At this period the Egyptians had already divided the 
 
 year into twelve months, each consisting of thirty days and six 
 
 hours. 
 
 2» 
 
14 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD 1. 
 
 In the reign of Mceris, the lake which bears his name, is said to 
 have been excavated. This is one of the most wonderful works 
 of Egypt, and was designed to remedy the inconvenience arising 
 from the irregular inundations of the Nile. It communicated with 
 the river by a canal, having sluices which opened or shut either 
 the canal or the lake, as there was occasion. When the river was 
 too high, the superfluous waters were conveyed into the lake ; when 
 too low, a sufficient quantity was let off through drains from the 
 lake. The pyramids are supposed to have been commenced during 
 this period. 
 
 Though little is known of the early histor)'- and internal revolu- 
 tions of the kingdom of Egypt, yet it is considered as the point from 
 which the rays of knowledge emanated to other portions of the earth, 
 particularly to Greece, through which channel, have come to us 
 discoveries made by the Egyptians. About 2085 
 2085. g. c Egypt is said to have been invaded by the 
 
 Egypt invaded. Shepherd-kings from Arabia or Phoenicia, who con- 
 quered Lower Egypt and Memphis, and reigned over them two bun- 
 dred and sixty years. From the expulsion of the Shepherd-kings 
 until the arrival of Joseph, the son of Jacob in Egypt, there is another 
 chasm in Egyptian history. 
 
 2089. ^^ Greece, the kingdom of Sicyon was founded 
 
 Sycion founded. during this period by ^gialus. 
 
PERIOD II. 
 
 COMPRISINO EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 Calling ^ FIRST EPOCHA, 1921 B. C. I of Abraham. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 'Passte^ and the' \ SECOND EPOCHA, 1491 B. C. I ^^f_^' 'hel.ra- 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ISRAELITES OR JEWS. 
 
 Descended from the stock- of Shem, whom the prophetic bene- 
 diction of Noah had set forth, as more blessed than his brethren, 
 Abraham the father of the faithful, and the founder of the Jewish 
 nation, dwelt in the country of the Chaldees, and retained, in the 
 midst of an idolatrous and corrupt people, the knowledge of the 
 true God. Journeying from thence with his family, his servants, and 
 
 his flocks, he rested for a time in Haran, where 
 
 1921. Terah, his father, died. Here occurred an event 
 
 The calhngof Abra- yvhich forms an important epocha in sacred history. 
 
 God called him, and bade him depart from his kin- 
 dred, and go into the land of Canaan, that he might behold a country 
 which his seed should inherit. The obedient Abraham with his 
 family, including his nephew. Lot, went and sojourned in the pro- 
 mised land. 
 
 A famine compelled him to go into Egypt in pur- 
 
 Abraham^ goes into g^jt ^f ^orn. It was after this visit that Abraham, 
 
 "■^'^ ■ on his return to Canaan, divided the land with Lot, 
 
 Abraham pitching his tent in the plain of Mamre, and Lot receiving 
 
 for his portion the valley of the Jordan. 
 
 In an invasion of the dominions of the princes inhabiting this val- 
 ley by Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, Amraphel, king of Shinar, and 
 Lot taken prisoner. Others, Lot was taken prisoner. On this occasion 
 
 Abraham armed his trained servants, and making a 
 sudden and unexpected assault upon the conquerors, recovered Lot, 
 the other prisoners, and the spoils. 
 
16 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 The limited extent of the tribes which at this time are introduced 
 into the records of history, may be estimated by the number Abraham 
 led forth in this military excursion ; which was only three hundred 
 and eighteen. Not many years after this, Lot abandoned Sodom and 
 , Qq« the other wicked cities of the plain, and they were 
 
 Sodom destroyed by destroyed by fire. We again find Abraham re- 
 fire. movmg his tent from the plam of Mamre, and pitch- 
 
 ing it in Gerar. He here led a peaceful Hfe, wan- 
 dering from place to place, as the wants of his flocks and herds 
 Abraliam dwells in I'equired ; claiming however the land of Canaan as 
 Gerar. his inheritance. Abraham and his dependants at 
 
 this period, differed from the other nomadic* or 
 wandering tribes only, in the purity of their religion. Their go- 
 vernment was patriarchal, and tlieir manners simple. 
 
 Abraham had at this time two sons, Ishmael, from whom probably 
 descended the wandering tribe of Arabia, and Isaac, his heir, whom 
 in obedience to God's command he was about to have sacrificed upon 
 the mountain of Moriah ; but God having tested his faith, provided a 
 victim in the place of the pious youth. Jacob, that son of Isaac 
 who inherited the promise, had twelve sons, among whom he distin- 
 guished with blameable partiality, the young and 
 1729. amiable Joseph. His brethren therefore envied and 
 
 Joseph sold into hated him, and sold him into Egypt. Here he be- 
 EgyP' came prime-minister to Pharaoh the reigning king ; 
 
 and when his father, pressed with famine, sent his 
 remaining sons there to buy bread, Joseph, after having, by seeming 
 severities, made them sensible of his power, showed them that he was 
 too generous and noble to harbour revenge or malice against them. 
 Weeping, he said to the trembling company, " I am Joseph your 
 brother; be not grieved, God sent me before you to preserve life." 
 His fother Jacob, and the whole family, soon remo- 
 1706. ved to Egypt ; and as tlie Egyptians lightly esteem- 
 
 Jacob goes to Egypt. g(j their occupations of shepherds, they had a se- 
 parate country assigned them, viz. the land of Goshen, where they 
 dwelt. 
 
 After the death of Joseph (B. C. 16.35,) the Israelites were cruel- 
 ly treated in Egypt for many years. Their numbers 
 1571. however, greatly increased. A deliverer of the 
 
 Moses born. nation was at length raised up in the person of JVIo- 
 ses. It was just after the cruel command of the king of Egypt had 
 gone forth, to slay all the male infants of the Jews, that Jochebed the 
 wife of Amram gave birth to a son. The mother concealed him for 
 a time, but at length, in pious trust, she committed him to God. 
 Having made a little ark or basket, she put him in it, and placed it 
 among the flags on the brink of the river Nile. While Miriam, 
 his young sister, watched his fate, the princess of Egypt, Pharaoh's 
 daughter, came with her maidens to bathe in the river. She 
 
 *The term nomadic is from the Greek, signifying to live by pasturage and to dwell 
 in tents. 
 
CHAP. I.] ISRAELITES OR JEWS. 17 
 
 looked upon the weeping child, with feelings of compassion and 
 tenderness. At Miriam's suggestion he was for a season restored to 
 the arms of his mother, by whom he was nursed during his in- 
 fancy- 
 
 The princess then adopted him for her son, and caused him to be 
 educated in all the learning of the Egyptians. 
 
 Moses was doubtless from his earliest youth made acquainted with 
 
 the secret of his birth, and amidst the splendours of a court had 
 
 thought in bitterness upon the wrongs of his kindred. 
 
 1531. Seeing an Egyptian smite a Hebrew, his indignation 
 
 Moses flees to Mi- ^^j.^^^ foj-^j^^ ^^,^^1 |jg g]g^y j^j^^^ Yov this ofTence, 
 
 he was obliged to flee from the face of the incensed 
 Pharaoh, and he went and dwelt in the land of Midian. 
 
 Here God, who had heard the cry of the oppressed, spoke to j 
 him from the burning bush, and gave him commandment to return / 
 to Egypt, for the deliverance of his chosen people. After receiving 
 this command he was made an instrument to perform many wondei'- 
 ful works in the sight of Pharaoh and his court. 
 
 At length the severe judgments of God sent upon the land of 
 Egypt, compelled Pharaoh to consent to the departure of the He- 
 brews. No sooner however had they left the country than, repenting 
 of his permission, the impious monarch pursued them to the borders 
 of the Red Sea. Here the man of God lifted his 
 Israelites pass mysterious wand over the waters, and they were di- 
 ^^' vided. The Israelites went forward, through the 
 fearful pass. The Egyptians attempting to follow, the waters closed 
 and swallowed them up. 
 
 1491. Th^ passover, a Jewish feast, was instituted in 1491 
 
 The passover B- C., in commemoratiou of the deliverance from 
 instituted. Egypt, and is the most remarkable of the types, 
 which pointed out the future coming of the Saviour of the world. 
 
 11^^ 
 
PERIOD III 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 Institution Of ? SECOND EPOCHA, 1491 B. C. I tHe Passover. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 U iiriul of Soloiiiun. 
 
 Death of j THIRD EPOCHA, 980 B. C. ^ Solomon. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ISRAELITES. 
 
 When the Israehtes, under the guidance of Moses, left Egypt, they 
 
 directed their course towards the land of Canaan, which God had 
 
 given to Abraham for his posterity. While they 
 
 1491 . were encamped in the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai, 
 
 Moral law given. q^^ g^^g ^j^gj^ ^]-^g ^g^ commandments, or the 
 
 moral law, under the most awfnlly impressive circumstances. Moses, 
 under His direction, formed a civil constitution, and enacted laws 
 for the nation. God, under his name Jehovah, was declared their 
 king, and hence their government is said to be a theocracy. Purity 
 of religious worship was the vital principle of their laws, and while 
 these provided effectually for the security and happiness of the na- 
 tion, their object was to present an insuperable barrier to polytheism, 
 by totally forbidding all intermingling with the other nations of the 
 earth, who, at this time, were universally idolaters. 
 
CHAP. I.] ISRAELITES. 19 
 
 Forty years sojourn After a sojourn of forty years in the wilderness, 
 in ihe wilderness, cluring whicli time tlie fatheis of the nation had de- 
 scended to their graves, and their children had become fitted by 
 hardships to contend with tlie powerful tribes who were in possession 
 of their jn-omised inheritance ; after they had acquired more know- 
 ledge of the God who protected them, and had learned obedience to 
 his laws, they were permitted to emerge from the wilderness, and to 
 behold spread out before them the object of their hopes, the land of 
 promise. After having obtained a victory over the Midianites, (one 
 of the tribes who inhabited this land) and when in siglit of the pro- 
 „ mised inheritance, Moses died. He was the greatest 
 
 ^ , ,. * of law-givers, the first of historians, and favoured be- 
 
 yond all other men with direct communications from 
 God. 
 Joshua succeeds Joshua succeeded Moses, and during a seven years 
 
 Moses. war with the powerful tribes who inhabited Canaan, 
 
 he led on the Israelites to conquest, until they were 
 in possession of a large portion of the country ; when contrary to 
 the divine command, which had directed the total extermination of the 
 idolaters, and fatally for the future peace of the nation, the Israelites 
 laid down their arms. 
 
 Impious men have spoken against this command of God given to 
 the Jews. But He who creates, has a right to destroy, by storm 
 or earthquake, or by the hands of such executioners as he shall 
 choose ; and when he gives his commands to men amidst such awful 
 signs as dividing a sea, leading them by a pillar of fire, and giving 
 them bread from heaven, they have no right to dispute his will. 
 Mankind are not however to derive hence, a license to persecute and 
 destroy one another, on pretences of divine intimations drawn from 
 uncertain sources. 
 
 The attention of the Jews was soon directed to the 
 
 survey of the land, and its division among the tribes. 
 
 °''"'of Canaan. ^"'"^ During the remainder of Joshua's life, the Israelites 
 
 remained in peace. At his death no successor being 
 
 1443. appointed, the government of Israel was exercised 
 
 .Joshua dies, and (he by the chiefs of the Several tribes. This period of 
 
 reign of Ae^Judges je^vigh history is called the reign of the Judges. 
 
 *"= ."■ The Jews now reaped the fruits of their disobedience 
 
 to the divine commands. They not unfrcquently relapsed into the 
 
 idolatry of the surrounding nations, and when compelled to contend 
 
 with the tribes who dwelt within their borders, were repeatedly 
 
 delivered into their hands. 
 
 The reign of the Judges continued about 460 years. The most 
 renowned among them were " Deborah and Barak, Gideon, Jeph- 
 thah, and lastly, the prophet Samuel. In his days, 
 1095. the i-ebellious Israelites demanded a king, and Saul 
 
 Saul made king. ^y^^ appointed. He carried on wars with the Amale- 
 kites and with the Philistines, to whom the Israelites had previous- 
 ly been forty years in subjection. 
 
20 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 1055. On the death of Saul, David, the son of Jesse 
 
 David reigns over who had distinguished himself in the Phihstine wars, 
 
 Judah. ^yj^g called to the throne of Judah. This young 
 
 man united qualities seemingly incompatible. While in person he 
 was beautiful almost to effeminacy, he was terrible by his valour 
 in arms. Cool and deliberate in counsel, he yet possessed the most 
 tender sensibility, and felt with the utmost keenness all the emotions 
 of love, friendship, parental fondness, and finally, of that best affec- 
 tion of the heart, devotion to his God. His accomplishments were 
 no less various, combining a profound knowledge of war and politics, 
 with a skill in music which could calm the madness of Saul, and a 
 talent for poetry of the highest order. To this talent, directed by in- 
 spiration, we owe the inimitable psalms. Such was David, beloved 
 of God and man. Yet even he sinned ; but being rebuked of God, 
 by the mouth of the prophet Nathan, he humbled himself, and bit- 
 terly repented ; hence the deep strain of humility which we find in 
 •his devotional poems. 
 
 David became sole monarch of all the tribes 
 
 1048. of Israel ; and immediately on his accession, set 
 
 Reigns over alllsra- ^bout restoring the purity of worship, whicli, under 
 
 el, and restores Liun- ci i i i i i i- i t ■ i ■ • ^i ^ 
 
 ty of worship. oaul, had greatly declined. It was m his reign that 
 Jebus, a strong fortress, which had remained in pos- 
 session of the Jebusitcs, was taken. On this spot he commenced 
 building the city of Jerusalem, where he established his royal resi- 
 dence. 
 
 David conquered the Philistines, the Edomites, the 
 ^""Tinef &c^'""'" Moabites, made Syria a Jewish province, and ex- 
 tended his frontiers to the farthest limits of the pro- 
 mised- land. He made costly preparations for building a temple for 
 the worship of God ; but left the execution of it to his son Solomon, 
 who succeeded him. 
 
 Phoenicia, of which Tyre was the capital, was at this period a pow- 
 Forrns alliances ^^'^^'^ ^'^'^ Wealthy nation. With the Tyrians, David 
 with the PlMBni- formed alliances, and from them obtained many val- 
 ciaus, a cuimnercial uable articles of merchandise. The Phoenicians 
 nation. were the first commercial nation. They excelled in 
 
 manufactures of various kinds, and monopolized the trade of the 
 west. They had colonies in Sicily, and the north of Africa, and 
 some settlements east of the Persian gulf. To them is attributed 
 the invention of letters, which, it is believed, they carried into Eu- 
 rope. Tyre was in its most flourishing state between 1000 and 
 332 B. C. The several cities of Phoenicia possessed independent 
 kings, but united together in a league or confederacy. 
 
 •j^Qj2 When Solomon succeeded to the throne of David, 
 
 Solo.iion reigns. ^^^ Jewish nation had attained its height of splen- 
 dour and power. This monarch found himself sur- 
 rounded by bold and designing enemies ; but he triumphed over them ; 
 
CHAP. II.] GREECE. 21 
 
 and the vigour of his administration rendered the first years of his reign 
 
 peaceful a'lid happy. His foreign treaties secured the peace of his 
 
 kingdom ; and his alHance with the king of Tyre furnished many 
 
 of the splendid decorations for the magnificent tem- 
 
 o , , ,', V pie which he erected to the Deity. Solomon was 
 
 Solomon b,.Ms the Jjj^^j^^g^j^j^g^ not more for the splendour of his reign, 
 
 than for the wisdom which guided his councils ; but 
 
 in his last years he fell into the sins of licentiousness and idolatry, and 
 
 thus lost the favour of God, and brought distress upon the nation. 
 
 Jerusalem had become enriched by the residence of the court, but 
 
 the country around was impoverished. At length 
 
 Loses Syria. golomon had the mortification of losing Syria, which 
 
 threw off tlie yoke of Israel and became an independent nation. The 
 
 peace of his declining days was farther disturbed by the insurrection 
 
 of Jeroboam, and the Edomites. 
 
 980. After a reign of forty years, Solomon died 980 
 
 ^'^^- B. C. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GREECE. 
 Section I. 
 
 Greece was originally inhabited by various tribes, 
 1856. Qf whom the Pelasgi and the Hellenes were the 
 
 Argos founded. ^^^^ powerful. 
 
 The Pelaso-i, a savage people, inhabited Peloponnesus, and under 
 
 Inachus, their leader, are said to have founded Argos. The more 
 
 humane Hellenes, of whom Deucalion was leader, 
 
 The Hellenes. were. Originally, a small tribe residing in the north of 
 Thessaly; but becoming powerful, they spread themselves over 
 
 Greece. 
 
 The Pelasgi, who were driven from all their pos- 
 The Pelasgi. sessions, exccpt Arcadia, and the region of Dodona, 
 are said to have migrated in various directions, to Italy, and to Crete 
 and other islands of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Probably some of them resided in Thessaly, as a district of that 
 country has always borne their name. 
 
 The Hellenes were divided into four races, distin- 
 
 Hellenes divided guished from cach other by many peculiarities of lan- 
 
 into four races, gu^ge and customs. These were, the lonians, (of 
 
 whom the principal were the Athenians) ; the Dorians, (of whom the 
 
 principal were the Spartans) ; the iEolians ; and the Achaians. The 
 
 o 
 
22 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 traditionary accounts of tliese early ages represent them as in a sav- 
 age state, wholly ignorant of husbandry. 
 
 Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt, arrived in Attica in 1556 
 B. C, and having prevailed upon the inhabitants to submit to him as 
 their king, he divided the country into twelve districts, founded the 
 1556. city of Athens, and established the Areopagus — a 
 Aihens founded council of citizens chosen for their wisdom and prop- 
 erty, and to whom was entrusted the power of pun- 
 ishing capital offences. About thirty years after the 
 Rhodes settled founding of Athens, Phoenician colonies settled in Crete, 
 in Rhodes, and in several parts of Greece. It is said by 
 some that they brought with them letters and music, and a more ac- 
 curate method of computing time than had hitherto been adopted. 
 14Qq Most writers however, are of opinion, that letters were 
 Letters brought brought into Greece by a Phoenician colony, under 
 into Greece. Cadmus, who settled in Boeotia, and founded the cele- 
 brated city of Thebes. 
 1400 '^'^^ laws and institutions ascribed to Minos, who 
 
 Laws of Minos Called himself the son of Jupiter, and reigned over 
 Crete, were celebrated for their wisdom among sur- 
 rounding nations, and in some instances imitated by them. 
 
 Attica, freed from the bloody wars which disturbed the other states 
 of Greece, made more rapid advances towards civilization. On ac- 
 count of the security of its situation, it became a refuge for the weal- 
 thy from all parts of Greece, and the increase of its population early 
 enabled it to send colonies into Asia. 
 
 Araphictyon the third, king of Athens, established the celebrated 
 assembly bearing his name. The Amphictyonic 
 Amphictyonic coun- council was a Confederacy of twelve cities, whose 
 petty princes met at Delphi, twice a year, to con- 
 cert measures for their common safety, and to settle disputes arising 
 between members of the union. They adopted, at this early period, 
 the rule that none of the states belonging to the confederacy should 
 be destroyed by the others. Thus, in remote antiquity, do we find 
 the germ of the only legitimate principle of union among different 
 states, for the purposes of peace and mutual protection. The United 
 States of America exhibit this principle in greater perfection, and on 
 a more magnificent scale ; and the philanthropist may indulge the 
 hope, that a time will come, when all civilized and Christian nations, 
 shall appoint delegates to meet and amicably settle such disputes as 
 may arise among them. 
 
 About this time occurred the celebrated expedition of tlie Argo- 
 1263. nauts, — adventurers, who, according to ancient tra- 
 
 Argonautic expedi- dition, Went to Colchis in search of the " golden 
 *'""■ fleece," which, by some is supposed to mean the 
 
 riches of that kingdom. This bold enterprise was conducted by 
 the heroic Jason, who, gaining the affections of Medea, the daugh- 
 ter of the king, a beautiful but cruel sorceress, obtained by means 
 of her enchantments the object of his search. Leaving a colony 
 
CHAP. II.] GREECE. 23 
 
 on the shores of the Euxine, he departed, carrying away the golden 
 fleece, and the beautiful sorceress, whom he had married. After- 
 wards deserting her for Creusa, daughter of the king of Athens, 
 Medea, in jealousy and rage, put her own children to death, that slie 
 might be revenged of Jason, their father. 
 
 The Greeks appear to have united parts of the 
 
 Religion of the Egyptian and Phoenician religions with that of the 
 ^'^^^ ^' original Pelasgian tribe. The names of the Grecian 
 
 gods were nearly all Egyptian. Although there were priests dedi- 
 cated to the service of particular divinities, they were not, like the 
 priests of Egypt, a separate and distinct class of persons. When 
 not engaged in the service of the divinity, nothing distinguished them 
 from the rest of the citizens. 
 
 1193. The siege of Troy is related on the authority of 
 
 Siege of Troy. the poet Homer. 
 
 Greece was at this time divided into many small states, of which 
 Mycenae and Argos were the principal. Laconia, and the great- 
 er part of Messenia belonged to the division of Menelaus, king of 
 Sparta. Achaia, Argolis, Corinth, and Mycenae, were under the 
 government of Agamemnon, the brother of Menelaus ; and the rest 
 of Peloponnesus was governed by petty chiefs dependent on him. 
 
 The offence of Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, in stealing 
 away the beautiful Helen, the wife of Menelaus, after he had been 
 hospitably entertained by her husband, roused the indignation of the 
 Grecian states, and prompted them to unite in a league in order to 
 rescue the princess, and punish the offender. The Grecian confede- 
 rates assembled, at Aulis in Bceotia, an army of more than 100,000 
 warrioi-s, and embarked in 1200 vessels. Agamemnon was the lea- 
 der of the host, among whom was Menelaus, who had succeeded Tyn- 
 dareus the father of Helen, and was now king of Sparta ; the wise 
 Ulysses from Ithaca, old Nestor from Pylos, Ajax Telamon, and Ajax 
 the less ; but the lion of the host was the beautiful and brave Achil- 
 les, who, according to fable, was rendered invulnerable by the god- 
 dess Thetis, his mother, who dipped him, when an infant, in the river 
 Styx. His heel, however, by which she held him, was not thus pro- 
 tected, and here he was mortally wounded by Paris, whose brother 
 Hector, Achilles had slain. 
 
 At length, after the long siege of ten years, 
 11Q4. the Greeks took and burned Troy and recovered 
 
 Troy burnt. Helen. 
 
 The Greeks, on their return from Troy, found their country in a 
 distracted and suffering condition. During the absence of their kings, 
 others had assumed their authority ; and for a series of years 
 nothing is heard of Greece, but a continual succession of wars and 
 disorders. 
 
24 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 1104. About eighty years after the destruction of Troy, 
 
 War of the Heracli- occurred the War of the Herachdas. This was a 
 *^*" war between the families of Perseus and Pelops, 
 
 who had anciently contended for the sovereignty of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. Hercules, the most renowned of the Grecian heroes, 
 was the great grandson of Perseus, and from him the Perseid 
 family were called the HeraclidaB. They had been expelled from 
 the Peloponnesus by the Pelopidse (or the race of Pelops) and were 
 now princes of Doris, a small rugged tract of country among the 
 mountains of iEta and Parnassus. After two unsuccessful attempts 
 to regain their inheritance, they at length by the 
 They conquer the j^j^j ^f tl^g iEtolians and Dorians, conquered the 
 e opi ffi. Pelopidffi, and made themselves masters of the Pe- 
 
 lopomiesus. The principal chiefs divided the cities by lot. Sparta 
 fell to Aristodemus, who dying, Eurysthenes and Procles, his infant 
 twins were proclaimed joint kings of Lacedsemon, and each became 
 the founder of a royal race. Of the old inhabitants, some sought 
 refuge among their Ionian brethren at Athens ; great numbers 
 emigrated, and the rest were made slaves. From this time the Do- 
 rians, conquerors of the Peloponnesus, became powerful in Greece, 
 and the city of Sparta acquired a supremacy over the whole 
 country. 
 
 Some of the Peloponnesian fugitives founded co- 
 
 *'^'°7o"n'ies'*" •=°- lonies in Asia Minor, and on the islands Lesbos 
 
 and Tenedos. On the continent, they built twelve 
 
 cities, of which Smyrna was the principal ; and on the island of 
 
 Lesbos, five, of which the largest was Mytilene. 
 
 The Dorians were indignant against the Athenians for having given 
 
 refuge to the inhabitants who had fled from Peloponnesus ; and no 
 
 sooner had they possessed themselves of the pe- 
 
 Donans invade At ninsula, than they determined to revenge the affront 
 
 by invading Attica. 
 
 The oracle of Apollo at Delphi* had promised success to their 
 
 1070. arms, on condition they should not kill Codrus, the 
 
 Codrus. Athenian king. Codrus, on learning this, disguised 
 
 himself as a peasant, entered the Dorian camp, 
 
 provoked a quarrel, and was killed. On the news of his death, the 
 
 superstitious army of the invaders immediately retreated. A dis- 
 
 * Tlie oracle at the city of Delphi was established at an unknown and very 
 remote period of antiquity. This city was near the gulf of Corinth, in a solitary 
 recess of Mount Parnassus, where was a cavern, from which arose sulphureous 
 gas, supposed to possess the power of imparting prophetic inspiration. A female 
 called the Pythia, seated upon a three legged stool, called a tripod, was exposed to the 
 fumes of the gas, and in this condition her wild and unmeaning responses were re- 
 corded by the cunning priesis who reported them to suit their own purposes. An 
 immense power was thus wielded by the priests of Apollo, who ministered at this 
 altar of superstition for a series of ages ; and enjoyed the wealth here lavished by a 
 deluded people. 
 
CHAP, n.] GREECE. 25 
 
 lOfiO pute arising between the sons of Codrus respecting 
 
 The office of kin"- ^^® succession, it was decided that no person was 
 abolished at Athens^ Worthy to succccd that magnanimous sovereign, 
 and that of Archon The office of king was therefore aboUshed, and that 
 
 created. ^^ Archon Substituted in its stead. To this office. 
 
 Medon, the eldest son of Codrus was first elected. The office was 
 to be held during life, and to be hereditary ; but the Archon was made 
 accountable to the assembly of the people. 
 
 1055. About this time the lonians founded colonies in 
 
 lonians found coio- Asia Minor. They took possession of part of Lydia 
 
 niesin Asia Minor, and Caria which, from them, received the name of 
 
 Ionia, and of the islands of Samos and Chios. They 
 
 built many cities, and established in each an independent government. 
 
 3« 
 
PERIOD IV. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 Death Of ^ THIRD EPOCHA, 980 B. C. ^ Solomon 
 
 TO THE 
 
 Romulus markins out tlje limits of Rome. 
 Foundation \ FOURTH EPOCHA, 752 B. C. I of Rome. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HEBREWS OR JEWS. 
 
 On the accession of Rehoboam, the son of Solo- 
 
 980. mon, to the throne, the provinces of the Jewish na- 
 
 Rchoboaui. tion Were grievously oppressed. The alhance which 
 
 Solomon had formed with Tyre, and the commerce 
 
 which this opened to his people, had not generally improved their 
 
 condition, although it had increased the wealth of the capital and of the 
 
 court. When the people pressed the weak and haughty Rehoboam 
 
 to redress their grievances, his contemptuous reply was, " My father 
 
 made your yoke heavy, but I will add to your yoke." 
 
 «gg Ten tribes revolted, and recalling Jeroboam, the 
 
 Rovoit of ten tribes, son of Nebat (who, after an unsuccessful insurrec- 
 tion during the life of Solomon, had fled into Egypt,) 
 tlicv declared him their king. Judah and Benjamin alone adhered 
 
CHAP. I.] THE HEBREWS OR JEWS. 27 
 
 791. to Rehoboam. In this reign, Scsac, king of Egypt, 
 
 Sesac invades invaded Judca, pillaged the temple, and carried 
 
 Jiidea. away all the treasures of Rehoboam into Egypt. 
 
 Jeroboam feeling himself insecure upon the throne of Israel, and 
 fearing that the national worship at Jerusalem would draw away his 
 subjects, " caused Israel to sin," by establishing in 
 Jeroboam's idolatry, j^jg kingdom a species of idolatry. The division of 
 the Jewish people occasioned constant wars among themselves which 
 tended to their final overthrow and destruction. 
 
 Rehoboam, after a reign of seventeen years, was 
 963. succeeded by his son Abijah. During the three 
 
 Abijah reigns in Ju- years of his reign, he made an attempt to recover 
 Israel, and obtained a victory over Jeroboam. Asa, 
 955^ the successor of Abijah, opposed idolatry, and en- 
 
 Asa succeeds Abi- couraged the subjects of Jeroboam to return to their 
 jah. obedience, and to come up to the great national 
 
 feasts at Jerusalem. During the reign of the pious 
 Asa, Judea was peaceful, prosperous, and happy. In the mean time 
 918. the ten tribes receded farther and farther from the 
 
 Ahab reigns in religion of their ancestors, until, in the reign of 
 Israel. Ahab, they openly built and consecrated temples to 
 
 the worship of idols. 
 
 About this time the king of Syria declared war 
 War between Syria ^j^]^ Israel, but his invasion was successfully re- 
 
 and Israel. n j i * i i "^ 
 
 pelled by Ahab, 
 
 Asa, king of Judah, after a long reign, was suc- 
 , ' . ceeded by his worthy son, Jehosaphat. The ani. 
 
 Jehosaphal reigns •, i • i • S> > 
 
 in Judea. mosity which arose ui consequence of the separation 
 
 of Judah and Israel, had now in a measure subsided, 
 and Jehosaphat entered into an alliance with the king of Israel. To 
 cement more firmly the union, he married his son Jehoram to Atha- 
 liah, daugliter of Ahab. The fiery John (who had succeeded to the 
 334^ throne of Israel), determined to extirpate the family 
 
 John destroys the ^f Ahab, and slew, among others, Ahaziah, the king 
 family of Ahab. of Judah, and SOU of Athaliah. This cruel woman 
 then caused his children to be put to death, that she 
 Athahah's cruelly, might reign in Jerusalem. But the designs of the 
 Lord respecting the seed of David were not thus 
 to be frustrated. One infant was saved from the massacre by the com- 
 passionate Jehoshaba, wife of Jehoida the high priest. He was con- 
 cealed for six years ; and at the age of seven proclaimed king in the 
 temple, by the name of Joash. Athaliah heard the shout, and rushed 
 into the temple, crying treason ! treason ! But she was seized and 
 put to death. 
 
 Repeated Avars between Israel and Syria, the distressing siege of 
 Samaria, and internal dissensions both in Israel and Judah, make up 
 this period of Jewish history. 
 
28 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD IVi 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Athens was now under the government of hereditary Archons, 
 and gradually acquiring power and rank among the states of 
 Greece. 
 
 QQ^ At this time, Lycurgus appeared in Sparta. He 
 
 Lvcuro-us ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ family of the Heraclidae, of the line of 
 
 Procles, and commonly reckoned the tenth in descent 
 from Hercules. By his magnanimity in preserving the crown of 
 Sparta for the infant son of a deceased brother, when it was offered 
 to himself, he obtained among the people great and deserved populari- 
 ty ; and during the minority of his nephew, the government was 
 placed in his hands. 
 
 He gave to Sparta a new and singular constitu- 
 Laws of Lycurgus. ^j^j-,^ ^^le chief aim of which was to banish luxury, 
 instil pubhc spirit in the place of private interest, and to increase 
 the power of the state by making it a nation of soldiers. He pro- 
 cured a new and equal distribution of land, and compelled every 
 citizen to eat at a public table, where the food was of the simplest 
 kind, and the conversation grave and instructive. Lycurgus banished 
 commerce and all superfluous arts from Sparta, and forbade the use 
 of any other money than iron coin. He established a senate of twenty- 
 eight members, to be elected by the people, over whom the two 
 kings of Sparta were to preside. He also established an assembly 
 of tlie people, with the power of repealing or sanctioning the decrees 
 of the senate. The children of the Spartans were taken from their 
 parents, as the property of the state ; the males were trained to arms, 
 and the females rendered hardy and vigorous by exercise and tem- 
 perance. But tlie institutions of Lycurgus were far from promoting 
 the social affections and domestic virtues. Mothers were taught to 
 rejoice when their sons fell in defence of their country ; and courage 
 was placed first among the virtues.* 
 
 The Lacedaemonians were forbidden to follow agriculture, or to 
 cultivate mechanic arts. All servile offices were assigned to the 
 Helots-j" or slaves, who were treated with great severity. Having 
 bound his countrymen by an oath, to observe his laws until he re- 
 turned, Lycurgus left Sparta, and returned no more ; thus seeking to 
 ensure the permanency of his institutions by a voluntary banishment. 
 During the 500 years in which the Laced semonians adhered to these 
 laws, they were a powerful people. 
 
 * Theft, w liich is said to have been encouraged by law, was more nominal than 
 1-0 al. The youth were, indeed, directed to steal messes, herbs, &c. from the public 
 ha.'ls and gardens; but, if detected, they were severely punished. The design was, 
 hy reaching them to become dexterous and cunning, to render them more fit for the 
 strat agems of war. 
 
 t '.'"hese were so called from Ilelos, a Laconian town, subdued by the Spartans, 
 who t'ook the inhabitants prisoners, and reduced them to the condition of slavery. 
 
CHAP. II.] GREECE. 29 
 
 Lycurgus having laboured for the good of his own state, travelled 
 over the other portions of Greece ; he beheld with 
 delight the prosperous condition of her Asiatic colo- 
 ■ nies, and discovered a great treasure in the poems of 
 
 poTms"of Horner.'^ Homer, before unknown to the Dorian conquerors of 
 the Peloponnesus. 
 It has been suggested that Lycurgus committed suicide. Accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, he put an end to his life by severe abstinence. 
 Lucian says, he died a natural death at the age of eighty-five. 
 
PERIOD V. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 Foundation j FOURTH EPOCHA, 752 B. C. I of Rome. 
 
 Alesander giving his ring to Perdiccas. 
 
 Death of j FIFTH EPOCHA, 323 B. C. I ^S"" '^^ 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Section I. 
 ASSYRIA, JUDEA AND ISRAEL. 
 
 747. The sovereign power of Assyria was now in the 
 
 Sardanapalus, king hands of the profligate Sardanapalus, the last and 
 of Assyria. worst of an effeminate race of princes. 
 
 Arbaces, governor of Media, and Belesis, governor of Babylon, 
 headed a revolt of the oppressed and murmuring people. Sardana- 
 palus, besieged in Nineveh, his capital, and too weak to attempt de. 
 fence, ordered the erection of a funeral pile, in his own palace, on 
 which he burnt himself with his wives and treasure. Thus ended 
 
 i 
 
CIIAP. I.] ASSYRIA, JUDEA AND ISRAEL. 31 
 
 747. the first Assyrian empire ; liaving existed more than 
 
 Assyrian empire 1450 years. 
 
 dissolved. Upon its ruins were raised three kingdoms, 
 
 Three kingdoms Babylon, Nineveh, and Media. Belesis, or Nabo- 
 
 raised npon Us nassar, was the first monarch of Babylon, and to 
 
 him succeeded Merodach Baladan. Tiglath-Pileser 
 
 TiglathPi'eser king was the first king of Nineveh after the destruction 
 
 of Nineveh. q£ ^y^^ ancient Assyrian empire. It was he of 
 
 whom Ahaz, king of Judah, solicited aid, when Judea was invaded 
 
 by the kings of Israel and Damascus. Tiglath-Pileser rejoicing in an 
 
 opportunity of extending the borders of his kingdom, immediately 
 
 marched an army into Palestine, invaded Syria, possessed himself 
 
 of Damascus, and killed its king ; humbled the king of Israel, and 
 
 took possession of all the lands on the farther side of the Jordan. 
 
 Ahaz having thus, in freeing Judah from the Syrians and Israelites, 
 introduced into it a more dangerous enemy, was, even now, obliged to 
 pay him tribute. In order further to weaken his power, the Assyrian 
 king left him to struggle alone with the Edomites, his most dangerous 
 enemies. 
 
 On the death of Tiglath-Pileser, the throne of 
 
 729. Assyria was occupied by a still more ambitious 
 
 shalmaneser sue- prince. Shalmaneser having observed in Hoshea 
 
 cecds Tigiath- ^j^g j^j^^™ ^^ Israel, (whom he had subdued,) a dispo- 
 
 Pileser and besieges ... , ., rt- \i a • i • ^ t ^ i 
 
 Samaria. sition to throw Oil the Assyrian yoke, mimediately 
 
 marched into Palestine, and besieged Samaria, the 
 
 „„^ capital of the ten tribes. This city after a resist- 
 
 T,, , , ., * . ance of three years was compelled to surrender, and 
 
 1 he ten tribes cam- .i . •■ •' • i • • • A 
 
 ed into captivity. ^"^ ten tribes were carried into captivity. Great 
 numbers of them were transplanted into a mountain- 
 ous region in the interior of Asia. From this period they ceased to 
 exist as an independent kingdom, and history is silent with respect to 
 their fate. 
 
 After the destruction of Samaria, Shalmaneser besieged the more 
 wealthy city of Tyre. 
 
 This siege, in which the Tyrians resisted with invincible courage 
 for five years, at length came to an end by his death. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 "717. Sennacherib who succeeded to the throne of As- 
 
 Sennacherib ascends Syria, devised a scheme of conquest which not only 
 * '^ ' ^'^syrir^'^^ included Judea, but extended to the remotest prov- 
 inces of Egypt. His first act was to demand of 
 Hezekiah the reigning king of Judah, a heavy tribute. After this 
 he marched his powerful army into Egypt, and be- 
 Besieges Pelusium. sieged Pelusium. The Egyptians made' a vigorous 
 resistance. He returned and sent again to Hezekiah, 
 Demands the surren- demanding the Surrender of Jerusalem. Tlie in- 
 
 der of Jerusalem. , • ■ ° . . mi - /. i 
 
 habitants were in consternation, llic late of the 
 
32 ANCIENT HISTORY, [PERIOD V. 
 
 ten tribes was vivid in their recollection, and they looked fearfully- 
 forward to the destruction of their beloved city. The prophet Isaiah 
 exhorted the king to trust in the God of Israel, assuring him that the 
 power of the Assyrian should be broken. At midnight the Lord sent 
 to the camp the angel of death, and in the morning 
 "y Ve'ri-?lfT,e °"® hundred and eighty five thousand of the proud 
 L^rij. Assyi'ians lay dead upon the plain.* The humbled 
 
 «:„,_ „■ ., Sennacherib hasted to return to his capital, and was 
 
 bennachenb assas- - . , . i ' 
 
 sinated. soon alter assassinated by his sons. 
 
 Hezekiah, whose whole reign had been marked 
 
 by efforts to restore the purity of the national reli- 
 
 696. gion> and to promote the prosperity of his kingdom, 
 
 Manasseh succeeds was succeeded by his son, the imperious and profli- 
 
 Hezekiah. g^^^g Manasseh. 
 
 QQQ Esarhaddon, the youngest son of Sennacherib, was 
 
 Esarhaddon king of ^^w seated upon the throne of Assyria. Taking 
 Assyria. advantage of the internal troubles of Babylon, he 
 
 He reunites Babylon made hinisclf master of that city, reuniting it to the 
 to the Assyrian em- Assyrian empire. He then directed his arms to the 
 P"^' recovery of Syria and Palestine, which after the de- 
 
 feat of Sennacherib had thrown off their allegiance. His next ob- 
 ject was to pursue the plan of colonization, commenced by Shalman- 
 eser, removing from the country the remnant of the Israelites, and 
 transplanting at the same time into the cities of Samaria an idolatrous 
 P-,« people from the countries beyond the Euphrates. 
 
 Tk Je' I He took Jerusalem, and carried away Manasseh, the 
 and carries away wicked king of Judah, prisoner ; but after a few 
 Maiiasseii. ycai's he released him and restored him to his king- 
 
 dom. 
 * . Manasseh was succeeded by Amon, who fell a 
 
 Anion succeeds Ma- . ^. . • i ■ . tt-„ 
 
 nasseh Victim to a Conspiracy among his own servants. His 
 
 successor was the pious Josiah, who restored the pu- 
 rity of the national worship, repaired the temple, and extirpated idol-, 
 atry from the land. But the virtues of Josiah suspended only for a 
 time, the fatal decree which had gone forth against a rebellious peo- 
 ple. Palestine had now become the theatre on which the rival king- 
 doms of Assyria and Egypt contested their claims to sovereign power, 
 and thus was rendered the scene of many sanguinary conflicts. In 
 the wars between Necho king of Egypt and the Assyrians, Josiah 
 opposed the passage of the Egyptians through Judea. A battle was 
 fought between him and the Egyptian king in the 
 609. valley of Megiddo ; the Jews were overthrown, and 
 
 Josiah killed. Josiah received a wound of which he soon after died. 
 Necho then proceeded to Assyria, and after makmg some con- 
 quests, he returned to Jerusalem, took that city, dethroned Jehoahaz, 
 
 * Herodotus in describing the Assyrian invasion of Egypt, attributes the overthrow 
 of Sennacherib's host to the destruction of their warlike weapons, which were gnaw- 
 ed in pieces by an immense number of mice sent by one of the Egyptian deities. 
 Thus we find the facts of a miracle in this case confirmed by the records of the Pa- 
 gans. 
 
CHAP. I.] ASSYRIA, JUDEA AND ISRAEL. 33 
 
 the youngest son of Josiah, and placed Jehoiakim on the throne. 
 The success of Necho in his war against the Babylonians, encoura- 
 ged the Syrians and Jews to throw otT the Assyrian yoke. Nebu- 
 chadnezzar was now associated with his father, Nabopolassar, in the 
 government of Assyria ; he was the most powerful prince that had 
 yet reigned over the Assyrian empire. He continued tlie war with 
 Egypt. His first success was the recovery of Carchemish, a city 
 which commanded the passage of the Euphrates, and which Necho 
 had taken from the Assyrians. Nebuchadnezzar then marched to- 
 QQQ wards Syria and Palestine, and reunited both pro- 
 
 Nebucliadnezzar vinccs to his dominions. He took Jerusalem, and 
 takes away the trea- carried away many captives, and much treasure, 
 sure from the tem- including the sacred vessels of the temple. 
 
 P'^" Mattaniah or Zedekiah, the third in succession from 
 
 Jehoiakim, attempting to effect the independence of 
 
 Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar appeared before the walls of that city. 
 
 The inhabitants, trusting to expected succour from 
 
 588. the Egyptians, maintained an obstinate resistance 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar f^j, nearly a year. The city was at length taken 
 
 ^^'"" lem^ eiusa- ^^ storm, when the vengeance of the Babylonians 
 
 was wreaked upon its inhabitants. The children 
 
 of the Jewish king were murdered in the presence of their father, 
 
 his eyes were then put out, and he was carried captive to Baby. 
 
 Ion. The inhabitants and the remaining treasures were carried 
 
 awav, and the temple, the buildings and the fortifications, levelled to 
 
 the dust. 
 
 Four years after the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar 
 again marched into Syria and besieged Tyre. But it was not until 
 after thirteen years that he made himself master of that strong and 
 opulent city. Before he obtained possession of it, the inhabitants re- 
 tired with their most valuable effects to an island, a short distance 
 from the city, where they built a new town. Enraged at the length 
 of time spent before Tyre, and at the loss of its 
 invades^and ravages ^^^jj^^ Nebuchadnezzar invaded Egypt, and was un- 
 " consciously made the instrument of God's wrath 
 
 upon the impious Pharaoh. 
 
 Egypt, until this time, had been among the most powerful, and 
 warlike of the nations, but was now rent with intestine divisions, 
 and weakened by rebellion. Taking advantage of this, the Babylo- 
 nian monarch marched through it, his footsteps being everywhere 
 marked with the most horrible devastation. He destroyed the inhabit- 
 ants, and loaded himself with their spoils. Forty years were not 
 sufficient to repair the ravages wliich he made. 
 
 On his return to Babylon, his mind being lifted 
 Nebuchadnezzar's ^p^ gj-j^j ]jjg )^eart hardened with pride, the Almighty 
 punisiinen . deposed him from his kingly throne, and drove him 
 from the dwellings of men. His body was wet with the dew of 
 heaven, and he ate the food of beasts, until he knew that God ruleth 
 over the kingdoms of men. 
 
 4 
 
34 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 CHAPTER ir. 
 
 MEDIA. 
 
 On the dissolution of the ancient Assyrian empire, Media, which 
 then became an independent nation, was divided 
 710. into tribes, and had no settled form of government. 
 
 Dejoces establishes Dejoces estabhshed tlie first monarchy. His efforts 
 thceinpireo c la. ^^j.g (jij.gcted to the improvement of the savage and 
 licentious manners of his people ; and he succeeded, during a reign 
 of fifty-three years, in preserving the nation in peace. He founded 
 the city of Ecbatana, and made it the capital of his kingdom. De- 
 joces was succeeded by his son Phraortes. 
 
 Phraortes extended the kingdom of Media, by the 
 
 658. conquest of Persia, and subjected to his dominions 
 
 Phraortes conquers almost all Upper Asia, from Mount Taurus to the 
 
 river Halys. He attacked the Assyrians, but 
 
 was defeated on the plains of Ragna by Nebuchadnezzar, the As- 
 
 Syrian king, who then marched into the heart of 
 
 Put to deaih by Ne- Media, destroyed Ecbatana, and having taken Phra- 
 
 buchadnezzar. , • •' ii'^i, iijii 
 
 ortes prisoner, caused lum to be put to death. 
 634. Cyaxares, his son and successor, invaded Assyria, 
 
 Cyaxares, his sue- defeated the Assyrian army, and laid siege to Nine- 
 cessur, besieges Ni- y^]^^ g^t he was recalled by the danger which 
 gathered over his own kingdom. A formidable 
 P'^^P^^' known by the name of Scythians, had in- 
 * vaded Media, and threatened to overspread all Asia. 
 
 "^'^ ScythianI "^ Cyaxarcs hastened to the rehef of his people, but 
 was vanquished by the barbarians. 
 For the space of twenty-eight years, the Scythians spread desola- 
 tion through all Upper Asia ; they overran Palestine, and advanced 
 towards Egypt, from the invasion of which they were diverted by 
 valuable gifts from the king. 
 
 The Medes, unable to expel them by open force, at length resorted 
 
 to stratagem. The principal Scythians were in- 
 
 Medes massacre the ^j^^j ^^ ^ ^^ where they were made intoxicated 
 
 bcytliians at a feast. . , . , . , . ,r . 
 
 With Wine, and in this condition many were massa- 
 cred. The remainder fleeing to the king of Lydia, (a kingdom now 
 rising to consequence) he afforded them protection. 
 Cyaxares at war This embroiled Cyaxares in a war with the Lydians, 
 
 with tlie Lydians. ^j^j^^j^^ ^^^^^, ^^^ ^^^^,^ ^j. ^^^^.j^ ^^^^^ sUCCCSS On 
 
 both sides, was terminated by peace. Cyaxarcs no sooner found 
 himself established in his kingdom, and again at peace, than his 
 thoughts reverted to his favourite enterprise, the destruction of Nine- 
 veh. 
 
CHAP. III.] GREECE. 35 
 
 He now entered into alliance with Nabopolassar, who had revolted 
 612. f^'O'^ the king of Assyria, and established himself 
 
 Cyaxares and Nabo- as an independent king in Babylon. Their united 
 polassai- destroy Ni- armies laid siege to Niveveh, and effected its entire 
 "'^^'^ '■ destruction. Saracus, the reigning king, was killed, 
 
 and Cyaxares soon made hunseif master of all the other cities of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 CHAPTER ILL 
 
 GREECE, 
 
 752. The States of Greece, during the early part of 
 
 States of Greece at this period, were engaged in wars among them- 
 
 v/ar with eacli oilier, gelves 
 
 The Spartans, under the laws of Lycurgus, had increased in power, 
 and become the terrour of the surrounding states. The Argives 
 (people of Argos), the Arcadians, and especially 
 "^43. tije Messenians, suffered from their desire of con- 
 
 First Messenian quest. Their war with Messenia continued twenty 
 years, during which they entirely subdued that 
 nation. For forty years the Messenians remained in bondage. 
 At length, Aristomenes, a powerful leader, arose, 
 685' and attempted the rescue of his country. The 
 
 Second Mcasenian second Messenian war commenced in 685, and con- 
 tinued fourteen years. After having fought^ three 
 years, with great bravery, and defeated the Spartans in several en- 
 gagements, Aristomenes was forced to throw himself into Eira, a 
 strong fortress near the sea. Here he had maintained himself during 
 a siege of eleven years, when the Lacedaemonian commander, finding 
 a post which had been deserted by its guard one stormy night, occu- 
 pied it with his troops. Aristomenes struggled, two 
 Aristomenes. days and three nights, to regain it. Finding himself 
 foiled, and the people suffering with hunger, he 
 formed a column, in the centre of which he put the women and chil- 
 dren, and resolutely demanded a passage out of the place. His 
 enemies saw that he was rendered desperate, and suffered him to re- 
 treat to Arcadia. A part of the Messenians were made helots or 
 Messenians found slaves, a part received the protection of their allies, ' 
 Rhegium and Mes- the Arcadiaixs, but many migrated to Italy and Si- 
 sina. cily, and there founded Rhegium and Messina. 
 
 Athens was gradually assuming a republican form of government. 
 After a succession of twelve hereditary archons, the term of office 
 
3G ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 was limited to ten years, the archons still to be 
 
 684. chosen from the family of Codrus. Nine archons 
 
 Foim of the Atlic- y^Q^e Subsequently chosen in place of one, and the 
 
 ""changed." *^" term of office limited to one year. They were at first 
 
 elected by tiie suffrages of the people, afterwards 
 
 by lot among the nobles. Faction and discord pre- 
 
 624. vailing, a reform was needed, and a code of laws 
 
 Drnco forms a code ^^^^ j^^de by Draco. By this code the smallest 
 
 offence and the most enormous crime were alike 
 
 punished with death or banishment. It has, very properly, been 
 
 termed the bloody code. 
 
 Thirty years after Draco, when the Athenians, 
 598. })y the rigour and injustice of his laws, were plunged 
 
 Solon appointed ar jj^^^ confusion and misery, the wise Solon was ap- 
 pointed Archon, with the power of reforming the 
 state. His first attempt was to settle the quarrels between the rich 
 and the poor. In order to remove the evils which arose from the 
 debts of the poor, and the power of their creditors, 
 Laws of Solon. he lowered the interest of money, raised its nomi- 
 nal value, and deprived creditors of power over the 
 persons of debtors or those of their families. He divided the people 
 into four classes according to their wealth. Only the first three 
 classes, composed of the rich, could hold public offices; but the 
 fourth had an equal vote in the assembly of the people. 
 
 The nine archons were continued as chief magistrates, but asso- 
 ciated with them, was a council or senate, and nothing could be 
 brought before the people which had not been first discussed in this 
 body. The members of the senate were chosen annually by lot 
 from the first three classes of citizens, and consisted of four hundred 
 persons. The assembly of the people comprised the four classes of 
 citizens, and possessed the power of deciding upon war or peace, of 
 choosing the magistrates, and of deliberating upon the subjects pro- 
 posed by the senate. 
 
 Solon restored and augmented the power of the 
 594. Areopagus, making it the supreme court of judi- 
 
 ^'Tus'ilc!eastd°' ^^t"^'^* ^^ was composed of those who had held 
 the office of archon with honour and dignity, and its 
 members retained their place for life. The reputation of this court 
 for justice and integrity was so great, that, it is said, even the Romans 
 referred causes to its decision. The laws of Solon allowed the Athe- 
 nians to dispose of their estates by will ; previous to this time no 
 such provision had been made. 
 
 But these wise regulations did not long restrain the restless spirit 
 of the Athenians. In a few years, Pisistiatus, a descendant of the 
 ancient kings, and a relation of Solon, by his insinuating manners, his 
 great pretences to zeal for equality among the citizens, and abhorrence 
 of all innovation, had made himself the most popular man in Athens. 
 
 560. By an artifice he succeeded in obtaining privi- 
 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of leges of a peculiar kind. Appearing one day in 
 
 Athens. ^j^g market place, bloody and covered with wounds. 
 
V 
 
 CHAP. III.] GREECE. 37 
 
 he declared he had received them from his enemies, by whom he had 
 been way-laid. The people beheved liis hfe had been thus exposed 
 in consequence of his zeal for tlie public good. An assembly was 
 called, and a guard of fifty soldiers voted to him for the security of 
 his person. Soon after this, augmenting the number of his guard, 
 he seized the Acropolis, or citadel, exiled all who would not submit 
 to him, and made himself tyrant* of Athens. 
 
 Pisistratus was twice expelled, but finding means to reinstate him- 
 self, he reigned seventeen years in peace. He governed in a mild 
 and equable manner, not attempting any farther alterations in the 
 constitution of Solon. He established a public library, and made 
 the Athenians acquainted with the poems of Homer, which he col- 
 lected, and ordered to be read at the public feasts. 
 
 Pisistratus was succeeded by his sons, Hippias and 
 521. Hipparchus. Their united reign, at first popular, 
 
 Hippias and Hip- yfas, after a few years, terminated by the assassina- 
 tion of Hij)parchus. The assassins were Harmo- 
 dius and his intimate friend Aristogiton. They chose, for the scene 
 of the murder, a religious festival. They were both slain in the 
 tumult which ensued. 
 
 From this time, the government of Hippias exhibits a jealous and 
 
 cruel policy. The Alcmeonidfe, a powerful family who had been 
 
 banished from Athens, uniting with Cleomenes, the reigning king of 
 
 Sparta, advanced at the head of a large army, and 
 
 Hippias expelled, joined by Other exiles who had sufiered from the 
 
 cruelty of Hippias, laid siege to Athens. Hippias 
 
 and his family fled from Attica and went to Sardis, then under the 
 
 government of Darius, king of Persia. 
 
 But the expulsion of the tyrants did not immediately restore peace 
 to Athens. Clisthenes, one of the Alcmeonidte, and 
 510. Isagoras, one of the principal citizens, placed them- 
 
 Factions in Athens, gglves at the head of two considerable factions. 
 
 The former won the people to his party, while the latter called in 
 to his aid the Lacedccmonians. Clisthenes, while in power, under- 
 mined the constitution of Solon, by introducing certain alterations 
 pleasing to the populace. He increased the number of tribes from 
 four to ten, and enacted that fifty should be chosen 
 *^°d"red°'^^"'d''"" fi'om each tribe to constitute the senate, from this 
 time, called the council of five hundred. 
 
 * The Greeks employed the word tqrnnt, in a sens3 different from its modern ac- 
 ceptation. With them, it denoted a person who had obtained the sovereignty in a 
 republic, but it had no reference to the abuse of power. 
 
38 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PERSIA.— THE EMPIRE OF CYRUS, 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Persia, until the time of Cyrus, consisted of twelve tribes, who 
 inhabited only one province of the vast territory which has since 
 borne this name. Of these tribes, the Pasargadse, to which Camby- 
 ses, the father of Cyrus belonged, was the most noble. The Per- 
 sians inhabited a mountainous region, were hardy and vigorous, and 
 the most warlike of all the nations subject to the Medes. 
 
 The power of Asia was at this time divided between Babylon, 
 Media, and Lydia. Croesus, the king of Lydia, was renowned for 
 his wealth, and had subjected to his power all the colonies in Asia 
 Minor. With the exception of Lycla and Cilicia, his dominions ex- 
 tended over all Asia west of the Halys. Babylon, under the suc- 
 cessors of Nebuchadnezzar, had been declining in power. 
 
 Cyrus was the son of Cambyses, a Persian noble, 
 
 Cynis u"''*'^ the a^d Mandane, the daughter of Astyages, king of 
 
 °ancl Persia. Media. The Persian tribes united in him, as their 
 
 chief or king, and he effected the union of the Per- 
 sian and Median kingdoms. The victories of Cyrus over the Ar- 
 menians aroused the jealousy of the neighbouring sovereigns. A 
 coalition was formed between the kings of Babylon, Egypt, and 
 
 Lydia, and a battle fought between the Persians and 
 
 in" whi°ch Cyruses ^'^^^' ^^^^^^ forces at Thymbra, a city of Lydia, in 
 
 victorious. which the fortune of Cyrus prevailed. He soon 
 
 made himself master of Surdis, the capital of Lydia, 
 
 '''* • seized upon the vast riches of Croesus, and took 
 
 yiuscOTquers ar- j^j^ prisoner. Thus terminated the kingdom of 
 
 Lydia. To render his conquests more secure, Cy- 
 rus sought to extinguish the national spirit of the Lydians, by the 
 introduction of a foreign dress ; and to weaken their warlike habits, 
 by luxury and effeminacy. 
 
 Having reduced all Asia Minor, he now carried the war into the 
 Babylonian empire, and in a pitched battle, defeated Labyaclus, called 
 
 in scripture Belsliazzar. Belshazzar retreated to 
 Besieges Babylon, j^jg capital, which Cyrus immediately besieged. 
 Thinking it impossible to take the city by storm or siege, he devised 
 the following stratagem. At evening he ordered his men to open 
 certain great receptacles prepared by former sovereigns to draw off 
 the water of the river in seasons of inundation. The channel of the 
 Euplirates soon became dry. Belshazzar, secure in the strength of 
 his city, had that night made a great feast for his nobles, and in the 
 disorder of the festival, the gates of brass which had closed the descent 
 to the river, had been left open ; the troops of Cyrus, passing over 
 its bed, were soon in the heart of the city. 
 
CHAP. IV.] PERSIA. 39 
 
 In the mean time, the effeminate monarch had been awakened from 
 his dream of pleasure and security, by a mysterious appearance. A 
 hand had written on the wall in characters of divine vengeance — 
 " Mene tekel." Daniel, severe in youthful sanctity, fearlessly read 
 to him their prophetic import, " Thou art weighed in the balance, 
 and found wanting." At this dread moment, the troops of Cyrus 
 were at hand, to verify the words of the prophet." Almost without 
 „ , , , . resistance, they took the city, and slew the sentenced 
 
 Belshazzar slain. t-.ii 
 
 Iselshazzar. 
 
 •"^38. 'jf he Babylonian empire now passed into the hands 
 
 S'^'h ''hands 7f^lhl °^ ^^^ Medes and Persians. Cyrus gave the gov- 
 
 Medes and Persians, ernment of Babylon to Darius, a Mede of the royal 
 
 family. After his death, Cyrus resumed the gov- 
 
 ernment himself. He permitted the Jews, who were still in captivity 
 
 in Babylon, to return to Jerusalem, and not only as- 
 
 The temple at Jeiu. gjgtgfj them in rebuilding their temple, which had 
 
 sa em re ui . jjggj^ destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but restored 
 
 its sacred vessels. 
 
 Cyrus extended his dominions from the river Indus to the ^gean 
 
 Sea, and from the Caspian and Euxine Seas, to Ethiopia and the Sea 
 
 of Arabia. He was a great and virtuous king, and his name was 
 
 long held in reverence among the nations of the 
 
 ^29. east. He was killed in an expedition against the 
 
 Cyrus killed. Scythians. 
 
 Cambyses, his son, succeeded him. This cruel 
 Cambyscs reigns, pj-jfiee extended his dominions by the conquest of 
 Egypt, and put to death its king. From a jealousy of his brother 
 Smerdis, he ordered his assassination. During the absence of Cam- 
 byses, a Magian calling himself Smerdis, pretending to have escaped 
 the intended assassination, seized upon the throne of Persia. The 
 imposition was at length discovered, and Smerdis dethroned and kil- 
 led. 
 
 The royal family becoming extinct by the death 
 
 522. of Cambyses, Darius Hystaspes, a Persian noble- 
 
 Darius Hystnspes ^^ ^^^^ j.^^jg^^} ^^ ^)^g throne. He recovered Bab- 
 
 asconds the throne. , i • i i i i i /^ in- i • • 
 
 ylon, which had revolted irom the Persian dominion. 
 After the reduction of Babylon, Darius made preparations for a war 
 against the Scythians. 
 
 The Scythians who inhabited the north of Eu- 
 Scythians. rope, though a barbarous, were reputed a virtuous 
 
 people. They were unacquainted witli the arts and sciences, igno- 
 rant of agriculture, without settled habitations, and like the nomadic 
 tribes of Asia, wandered from country to country, as the wants 
 of their families and flocks required ; removing their wives and 
 children in a kind of waggons covered with the skins of animals,, 
 which at other times formed their simple habitations.. 
 
40 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 496. Darius, with a formidable army, having passed 
 
 Darius invades the Danube, left his bridge of boats in charge of his 
 Scythia. Ionian allies, with permission, if he did not come 
 
 back in three months, to destroy the bridge, and return to their coun- 
 try. 
 
 The Scythians, on learning that Darius had crossed the Danube, 
 
 sent away their wives and children with their flocks, to the northern 
 
 Scythians waste the part of their country. They then laid waste the 
 
 country. region through which the Persians must pass, con- 
 
 suming the forage, and destroying the wells and 
 
 springs. Having done this, they marched towards their enemy, not 
 
 with the view of giving him battle, but of drawing him into an ambus- 
 
 cade. Darius advanced. At length a herald from the Scythian 
 
 prince appeared, bringing to him a present of a bird. 
 
 Present of the Scy- ^ niousc, a frog, and five arrows. One of his offi- 
 
 tliians to Darius. i i , i • i • i , i 
 
 ccrs expounded tlie enigma, which the messenger 
 refused to do. " Know," said he, " that unless you can fly in the 
 air like birds, or hide yourself in the earth like mice, or swim the 
 water like frogs, you shall in no wise be able to escape the arrows 
 of the Scythians." 
 
 The Persian army, amid the barren steppes of the North, and an- 
 noyed by the wily enemy, becoming disheartened, 
 Darius returns. their monarch was compelled to relinquish his im- 
 prudent enterprise, and retrace his steps towards the Danube. 
 
 The Persians having, as usual, lighted fires in their camp, the 
 Scythians did not discover their retreat till morning, when they imme- 
 diately despatched a body of troops to persuade the lonians to destroy 
 tlie bridge over the Daiiube. Being acquainted with the passes and 
 shortest routes through the country, they arrived there before Darius 
 and his army. 
 
 A consultation of the Grecian chiefs was held, many of whom, be- 
 lieving that the destruction of Darius would procure the future inde- 
 pendence of their own states, were in favour of destroying the bridge. 
 It had been the polic)^ of the Persian monarchs to establish tyrants, or 
 kings, in the Persian colonies, and cities of Asia-Minor, to whom the 
 people unwillingly submitted. Hystceus, tyrant of Miletus, now rep- 
 resented to the other chiefs the danger of destroying the power of 
 Darius, which was the only safeguard of their own. 
 Recrossesthe Dan- He prevailed, and Darius recrossed the Danube in 
 
 ube. . ' ' 
 
 safety. 
 
 Leaving Megabysus, one of his generals, with part of his army, 
 
 destined for the conquest of Thrace and Macedonia, he retired with 
 
 the rest of his troops to Sardis. Macedonia and Thrace were soon 
 
 conquered, and added to the Persian dominions. 
 
 lonians revolt. About.this period the lonians, who had for some time 
 been subject to the Persians, headed by Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, 
 
CHAP. IV. PERSIA. 
 
 41 
 
 I'evolted from Darius, and despatched ambassadors to the several 
 states of Greece to implore their aid. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, re- 
 fused to eno'afe in the war, but the Athenians, offended with Darius 
 for having given refuge to Hippias, their banished 
 AtlKMiianseiiterinto king, and demanding his restoration to the throne, 
 alliance wuli the ^^^ vvilUnglv entered into an alliance with the loni- 
 ans. To render the revolt against the rersians 
 more formidable, by engaging the people heartily in their cause, 
 Aristagoras travelled tlirough all Ionia, prevaihng upon the tyrants to 
 restore the freedom of the cities, of which he himself 
 Aristagoras liberates ^^^ ^^^ example by liberating Miletus. 
 
 '^'''""''' In the third year of tlie war, the lonians collected 
 
 a fleet, and sailed for Ephesus. Leaving their ships at that place, 
 
 they marched to Sardis, which they took, and hav- 
 
 504. ij]g driven Artaphernes, the Persian governor, into 
 
 Sardis burnt. ^j-^g citadel, they set fire to the city. 
 
 The lonians now marched for Ephesus, but the 
 Greeks defeated. Persian and Lydian armies overtook and defeated 
 them with great slaughter. The Athenians now recalled their ships, 
 and refused to engage any further in the war. 
 
 Miletus being the centre of the Ionian confederacy, Artaphenes re- 
 solved to concentrate his forces, and besiege the place. 
 
 The lonians discovering his design, fortified the 
 lonians fortify Mi- ^.j^y^ ^j^j prepared for a long siege ; at the same 
 time resolving to engage the Persians at sea. The 
 Ionian fleet, consisting of three hundred and fifty-three vessels, was 
 assembled at Lade, a small island near Miletus. The Persian fleet 
 was far superior in numbers, but so skilful were the Greeks consid- 
 ered in maritime affairs, that the Persian commander dared not haz- 
 ard an engagement, until he had sought to corrupt the different squad- 
 rons of which the Ionian fleet was composed. He promised indem- 
 nity to those countries whose vessels should forsake the Ionian cause, 
 and threatened utter destruction to the places whose fleets should ad- 
 here to it. All, but the Samians, stood firm in their devotion to the 
 common cause. They, in the commencement of the 
 ^^''^pisS"'^^''^ battle, gave the signal for flight, and of their sixty 
 ships, forty-nine deserted. The Samian people dis- 
 approved the treachery of their admiral, and ordered the names of the 
 eleven captains who disobeyed his commands, to be recorded on a 
 pillar erected by the commonwealth. Though the lonians, and most 
 of the allies fought with bravery, the battle was lost. 
 491. Miletus was soon after taken by assault. Its in- 
 
 Miletus taken by as- j^abitants were put to the sword ; and its buildings 
 and temples burnt. 
 The Persians now spread devastation through the towns and coun- 
 try, to the shores of the Hellespont. 
 
 The resentment of Darius was enkindled against the Grecian states, 
 not only for the destruction of Sardis, but for their intention to destroy 
 his bridge of boats. 
 
42 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 Two years after the Persians had recovered Mi- 
 wTh'^^M^ardonfils ^^^"®' Artaphernes, the Persian governor, was re- 
 called, and Mardonius, a young nobleman who had 
 married a daughter of Darius, appointed in his place. Being 
 furnished with a large army, and a powerful fleet, he was directed to 
 491, carry the war into Greece. His land army crossed 
 
 Mardonius conquers the Hellespont, and recovered Macedonia and 
 Thrace. Thrace. 
 
 His fleet, in doubling Mount Athos, was exposed to a violent storm, 
 in which three hundred ships, and twenty thousand men, were lost. 
 The season was advanced, and the Persians for the time relinquished 
 the enterprise, and returned to Asia. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GREECE.— THE PERSIAN WAR. 
 Section I. 
 
 Greece was at this time composed of a number of small and inde- 
 pendent states, connected with each other by no bond of interest or 
 obligation, but often engaged in feuds and hostilities. Sparta and 
 Athens having obtained a pre-eminence over the other states, were 
 ever jealous of each other. The invasion of the Persians, united them 
 in one common effort to repel the invaders ; and thus by awakening 
 in them a national spirit, laid the foundation of their 
 "^^l* future greatness. The year following the invasion 
 
 Darius exacts sub- ^^ Mardonius, Darius sent heralds into Greece, de. 
 
 iiiission of Greece. ,. r. n ^i •,. ,■ , , , 
 
 manding ot all the cities, earth, and water, the usual 
 form in which the Persians exacted submission. Thebes, ^gina, 
 and many of the cities and islands submitted ; but Athens and Sparta 
 resented the demand, and in the one place the heralds were thrown 
 into a cave, in the other into a well, and bade to procure there the 
 earth and water which they wanted. 
 
 Darius, in the mean time, had made vigorous preparations for the 
 
 war. Datis, with Artaphernes, son of the former 
 Datis and Aruipher- ^oygmor of Lydia, was appointed to succeed Mar- 
 ries succeed Mardo- ° . mi i i A a ■ nr- 
 
 njus. donius. Ihey departed from Asia Minor with a 
 
 fleet of five or six hundred ships, and an army of 
 five hundred thousand men. Having taken the islands of the iEgean 
 sea, they proceeded to Etruria, a city of Eubcea, which had greatly 
 incensed Darius by its participation in the Ionian revolt. Having re- 
 duced the city to ashes, and sent the inhabitants in chains to Persia, 
 the Persians under the guidance of Hippias, the banished king of 
 Athens, advanced towards Attica, and landed on the narrow plain of 
 
CHAP, v.] GREECE. 43 
 
 Marathon. The Spartans, from some superstitious 
 Battle of Marathon, f^^j.g^ ^gj.g unwilling to join the little band of Atlie- 
 nians till after the full moon. In Miltiades, the Atlicnians possessed 
 a commander capable of directing the energies of the republic, and 
 infusing into the breasts of the people something of his own self-devo- 
 tmg spirit. He had formerly been tyrant of the Chersonesus, and 
 having accompanied Darius in his Scythian expedition, was acquaint- 
 ed with the Persian mode of warfare. This intrepid hero did not even 
 await the approach of the Persians, but marched onward to Mara- 
 thon with his little army of 10,000 heroes, and prepared with alacrity 
 tor the onset of the Persian host, which was ten times his own in num- 
 ber. The strength of the Persian army consisted much in its caval- 
 ry, and the prudent Miltiades had drawn up his forces on a narrow 
 plain, where cavalry had no opportunity for action. Datis, the Per- 
 sian commander, was aware of his disadvantageous position, but trust- 
 ing to the superiority of his forces, concluded to hazard an engage- 
 ment. On the signal for battle, the Athenians advanced running, at 
 once engaging the enemy in close fight. The whole Persian army 
 retreated in disorder to the ships. The Athenians pursued, set many 
 of the ships on fire, and took seven on the shore. Hippias fell fighting 
 in the Persian ranks. Twelve thousand Persians are said to have 
 either been killed in the battle, or in the pursuit which followed, 
 while the loss of the Greeks was estimated at no more tlian two hun- 
 dred. An Athenian soldier, findi)ig the victory secure, left the field 
 of battle, covered with blood, and such was his exhaustion on reach- 
 ing the city, that he could only exclaim, " Rejoice, rejoice, the victo- 
 ry is ours," when he fell dead at the feet of the magistrate. 
 
 Miltiades now obtained of the Athenians a fleet of 
 Miltiades ^besieges geventy ships, with the design of punishing those 
 islands which had favoured the Persians. He laid 
 siege to Pares, but having received a dangerous wound in attempt- 
 ing to enter the town, he raised the siege and re- 
 488. turned to Athens. On the accusation of one of 
 
 Tried for treachery, ^]^g citizens, this benefactor of Greece was tried 
 
 and dies in prison. /. . i • • • ^i • ri n i 
 
 •^ lor treachery ni raising the siege. He was lined 
 
 fifty talents, and, being unable to pay this sum, was thrown into pris- 
 on, where he died of the wounds which he received in the service of 
 his ungrateful country. His son, the excellent Cimon, paid the fine, 
 and obtained the body of his father for burial. 
 
 Darius now set about preparing a more powerful 
 Daiius incriii:>tes armament, intending to lead the expedition in per- 
 
 aiioth'^r exnediliuii rrii i i i ■ i • i 
 
 a^TainstGieece. son. ihree years had been occupied in these pre- 
 parations, when the attention of the monarch was 
 called to the revolt of Egypt. Plis death occurring about this period, 
 put an end to his schemes for the subjugation of Greece. 
 
 • og Xerxes, his eldest son, upon whom he settled the 
 
 Y,...-oo i,L„ „<■ succession, first devoted himself to the recovery of 
 
 Persia. Egypt, wliich he effected in the second year of his 
 
44 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 reign. He next prepared for the invasion of Greece, 
 ^'''' cTeece'"''''^' and after four years, in which he liad gathered an 
 army from all parts of his empire, he commenced 
 his march towards the Hellespont. 
 
 In order to ruin the Greeks more effectually, he had persuaded the 
 
 Carthaginians, now a powerful people, to make war 
 
 Demands submis- ^ ^j^^ Grecian colonies in Sicily and Italy. 
 
 sion of the (jirecian ' . c^ ^■ r- , i 
 
 states. Aerxes passed the winter at feardis, from whence he 
 
 sent heralds to all the Grecian states, except Athens 
 and Lacedsemon, demanding earth and water. The Thessalians, and 
 some others, submitted. 
 
 In the spring, Xerxes at the head of an army, said to have been 
 greater than was ever collected either before or since his time, ad- 
 
 vanced towards Greece. A bridge of boats had 
 
 48 !• been made, at a vast expense, for the passage of the 
 
 Crosses the Helles- ^^^^ ^^^ross the Hellespont. The width of the 
 
 strait, which is nearly a mile, and the rapidity of the 
 current, rendered the undertaking as useless as it was difhcult and 
 dangerous. The bridge was destroyed by a violent storm, and 
 Xerxes, in a fit of passion, ordered the workmen to be put to death, 
 and the rebellious sea to be scourged with three hundred lashes, and 
 chains to be thrown into it. Another bridge was however soon com. 
 pleted, and the army having occupied seven days and seven nights in 
 the passage, were all landed in Europe. Having crossed the Thra- 
 
 cian Chersonesus, and arrived at Dor, a city at the 
 Reviews his army. u-jQ^th of the Hebrus, Xerxes reviewed his army. 
 His infantry amounted to 1,700,000, and his cavalry to 80,000. His 
 fleet, when he left Asia, consisted of 1207 vessels,- of three banks of 
 oars, each carrying two hundred fighting men. The European 
 nations had added to his fleet 20 vessels, each carrying 200 men ; 
 besides which there were small gallies, transport ships, and vessels 
 carrying provisions, amounting to 3000. 
 
 Great was the terrour which the advance of this 
 Alarn, in Greece and fo,,n-,it]able army Spread among the Grecians. The 
 
 measures fur rcsis- , , • i t i ■ -tj'vv 
 
 tance. Athenians and Lacedcemonians stood almost alone 
 
 in their resistance. Ambassadors were dispatched 
 to Gelon, tlie tyrant of Syracuse, who, by his superior ability, had 
 made himself the most powerful Grecian potentate of his time, and 
 also to the neighbouring state of Argos, and to the isles of Corcyra 
 and Crete. From each an unfavourable answer was returned. 
 
 The iVthenians consulted the oracle of Delphi. The most favour- 
 able answer which could be obtained, was, that when all else was 
 destroyed, their wooden walls might preserve them. This, Themis- 
 tocles, who now took tlie lead in Athens, gladly interpreted to signify 
 their ships. After the battle of Marathon, this profound politician, 
 foreseeing the probable continuance of the war, had sought to increase 
 tlie maritime power of the Athenians. At his suggestion they had 
 appropriated the revenues of some silver mines which had visually 
 been distributed among the people, to the building of an hundred gal- 
 lies. On the first alarm of the powerful Persian invasion they had 
 
CHAP, v.] GREECE. 45 
 
 doubled their number of ships. To this fleet, Athens was now in- 
 debted for her preservation. 
 
 Themlstocles was appointed to the comniand of the Athenian navy; 
 while Eurybiades, a Spartan, was commander-in-chief of the whole 
 naval force of the allies. In the present danger, Athens and yEgina 
 had become reconciled, and all internal divisions were healed. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 484. Themistocles now joined in soliciting the return 
 
 Aristides recalled. of Aristides, a man whose banishment he had been 
 active in procuring. Aristides had, in tlie war with Darius, been of 
 great service to the state, and by the spotless integrity of his charac- 
 ter, had acquired the sur-name of the Just. He returned at the 
 call of his country and united with Themistocles in promoting its 
 interests. 
 
 The Persian army had marched, at its ease, and without opposition, 
 through Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly, compelling every citv 
 through Avhich it passed, to prepare for it splendid entertainments. 
 
 Such an unresisting submission rendered it quite unprepared for 
 the resistance which it encountered at the narrow pass of Ther- 
 mopylae.* 
 
 Here Leonidas, the Spartan king, at the head of only five thousand 
 regular troops, was posted. Xerxes, hearing that the Spartans had 
 taken possession of this pass, sent a message to them, signifying that 
 it was the Athenians only with whom he was at war, and desiring 
 them to lay down their arms ; " Tell him to come and take them,'^ 
 was the reply of the Spartan king. The Persians 
 Persians repulsed. ^^^^^ repeated attacks, and were repulsed with great 
 slaughter by the irresistible valour and firmness of the Grecian pha- 
 lanx. '[• After three days, the Persians were conducted by a base 
 and treacherous Greek, to a secret path which led to the top of a 
 mountain overlooking and commanding the Spartan position. When 
 Leonidas was apprised of this event, he saw that it was impossible, 
 effectually to repulse the enemy ; but he determined to sacrifice 
 himself for his country ; believing that his self-devotion would show 
 the Persians, with whom they had to contend, and his example enkindle 
 480. the enthusiasm of his countrymen. Besides, the 
 
 Kattle of Thcrinopy- oracle had declared that either Sparta or her king 
 iffi. must perish. Reserving his three hundred Spar- 
 
 tans, who were emulous of sharing his fate, he dismissed the others. 
 Without a hope either of conquest or escape, this little band advanced 
 
 * This was a narrow pass between Mount (Eta and the sea, leading from Tiie.ssaly 
 into Phncis. It derived its name from two Greek words, therma, warm springs, of 
 which there were several near by, and pylce, gales. Through this narrow way, not 
 wide enough for two chariot.'* to pa.ss each other, the Persian land forces were obliged 
 to march, on their waj" to Attica. 
 
 + A square battalion or body of soldiers, with their shields joined and pikes cros- 
 sing each other ; and so closely arranged in rank and file, as to render it exceedingly 
 difficult to break it. It sometimes consisted of 8,000 or 10,000 men, but frequently 
 of a smallei: number. 
 
 5 
 
46 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 to the onset, determined to sell their lives at a dear price. Leonidas 
 was one of the first who fell. His soldiers, roused to fury, rallied 
 aroiind his body, and fought till 20,000 Persians were slain. Only 
 one of the tliree hundred remained to carry the news. He was despised', 
 while Sparta rejoiced over her patriot sons who nobly fell at Ther- 
 mopylaj. 
 
 The fleet of Xerxes had followed the movements of the land 
 forces, and lay near them, on the northern coast 
 The Persian licet ^f Euboea. Though a storm had destroyed above 
 ^^"^'sioi-m/ ^ 400 of his vessels, his naval strength was still su- 
 perior to the Grecian. Several engagements had 
 taken place between them, which, though not decisive, were favourable 
 to tlie Athenians, and served to animate their spirits. News of the 
 battle of Thennopyla;, induced the Grecian fleet to 
 The Persinns 111 pos- withdraw from the neighbourhood of the Persian, 
 
 session oft/Uhuia. ,., ,, •? r- t^ ^ rt f J.^ 
 
 which now took possession or Jbuboea. Betore the 
 Greeks departed, Themistocles passed through all the places where 
 the enemy would probably land to obtain water and provision, and 
 left, engraven upon the rocks and stones, addresses to the lonians, 
 urwins: them to abandon the cause of the Persians, and to come over 
 to the party of their fathers, reminding them, that the present inva- 
 sion of Greece was produced by its exertions for the liberty of the 
 lonians. 
 Xerxes burns tiic ci- Xerxes, advancing through Phocis, burnt its cities, 
 
 ties of Pliocis. and laid waste the country. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, forgetful of the claims of their 
 allies, thouglit only of preserving their own country. With this view, 
 they set about fortifying the Peloponnesus, intending to prevent the 
 progress of the Persian army, by means of a strong wall extending 
 across the isthmus from the gulf of Corinth to the gulf of Athens. 
 Had not a different spirit guided the Athenian councils, this timid and 
 selfisli policy, by separating the confederates, would have ended in 
 the entire subjugation of Greece. When the Athenians found them- 
 selves deserted and unable to withstand alone the Persian army, instead 
 of submitting to the invaders, which, by depriving the other states of 
 the aid of their fleet, would have insured the destruction of the Pe- 
 loponnesus, they immediately determined upon abandoning their 
 city. Almost all the male citizens now went on 
 Aihemans retire to board the ships, believing these to be the wooden 
 
 their fleet. . ^ . ^ 
 
 walls intended by the oracle. The protection of 
 the city was solemnly committed to Minerva, and the women and 
 children were sent to Salamis and ^gina. Xerxes now advanced 
 
 to the destruction of Athens, burnt the citadel, and 
 Xer.xes takes Athens, slaughtered the fcw remaining Athenians, who had 
 valiantly defended it. The finest paintings and statuary which adorn- 
 ed this beautiful city, he sent to adorn Susa, now the capital of his 
 own dominions^ 
 
 The chief commander of the Grecian fleet, Eurybiades, a Spar- 
 tan, with most of the confederates, were an.xious to retreat to the 
 isthmus of Corinth, near which the Grecian land forces were stationed. 
 
CHAP, v.] GREECE. 47 
 
 But Themistocles, who commanded the Athenian navy, urged the 
 necessity of maintaining theii* advantageous position in the narrow 
 sti'ait of Salamis. His threat of abandoning the armament with the 
 Athenian vessels, if a contrary I'esolution was adopted, induced the 
 other commanders to remain. To hasten an engagement, Themisto- 
 cles caused the Persians to be informed that the Greeks were in no 
 condition to encounter them, and were about to sail away. 
 
 As the crafty Themistocles had foreseen, the Persians, to prevent 
 the escape of the Greeks, sent their vessels to occupy both ends of the 
 strait. Aristides, who was at ^gina, on learning the movements of 
 the Persians, procured a passage to Salamis. On his arrival, the offi- 
 cers were discussing the expediency of a retreat, but he informed 
 them that the entrances of the strait were already in the hands of the 
 Persians. 
 
 Nothing was now left to the Greeks but united resistance. The 
 Persian fleet was far superior in number to theirs. The land army, 
 with Xerxes at its head, was drawn up on the Attic 
 The Greeks victoii- shore. The vain monarch, confident that he should 
 ous at Salamis. but witness an easy conquest, was struck with as- 
 tonishment and dismay when he found the valour of 
 the Greeks prevailing, and at length beheld the destruction and flight 
 of his mighty armament. Alarmed for his personal safety, he was 
 seized with an eager desire to escape from a country where victory 
 itself had been to him scarcely more than another name for defeat. 
 Fearing, from some secret advices, that his bridge across the Plelles- 
 pont might be destroyed, he hastened his departure ; 
 
 Xerxes flees. leaving 300,000 of his best forces under Mardoni- 
 
 us, by which he still hoped to complete the subju- 
 gation of Greece. Owing to the appearance of disease among the 
 troops which he had retained, he left them all, and with only a few 
 attendants, hurried forward ; finding his bridge across the Hellespont 
 destroyed, he did not stop to chastise the sea, a second time, but cross- 
 ed it in a small fishing boat. 
 
 The remains of the Persian fleet were stationed at Samos, to pre- 
 vent the revolt of some of the provinces of Asia Minor, and Mardo- 
 nius with his troops retired into Thessaly to winter quarters. 
 
 In the mean tune, the Carthaginians, who,' following the steps of the 
 Phoenicians, from whom they sprang, had made themselves wealthy 
 by commerce, and powerful on the sea ; believing tiiat the Greek 
 colony in Sicily might at this time be made an easy pre}', as they 
 could hope for no assistance from the mother country, attacked them 
 by sea ; and also landed an army on the island of Sicily. Gelon, 
 commanding in person, defeated the land forces ; while his brother 
 Hiero, who commanded the naval armament, obtained a victory over 
 them at sea, on the same day, as is generally believed, that the Greeks 
 defeated the Persians at Salamis. 
 
48 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 The following spring, Mardonius despatched an em- 
 Mardonius sends aa ^ ^^ Athens, to persuade the Athenians to sepa- 
 
 embassy to Atiiens. ■', ir- i/^- oi 
 
 rate themselves irom the Lrrecian confederacy. 
 The Spartans now fearing the effect of that selfish policy which had 
 left the Athenians to struggle alone, despatched messengers to assure 
 them of their determination to send them immediate succours, and 
 offering to support, during the remainder of the war, the Athenian 
 women and children. Finally, they besought the Athenians not to sa- 
 crifice Grecian freedom to the security of their own city. To the 
 emissaries of Mardonius, Aristides, who was now at the head of affairs, 
 returned a respectful but decided negative. To the Lacedcemonians, 
 he replied, that the Athenians would depend on their own resources 
 for the support of their families, and the continuance of the war, but 
 requested them to send their promised succours into Boeotia, to prevent 
 the retaking of Athens. 
 
 Mardonius, on learning the result of his negocia- 
 
 '^"''^ Au'iir'''^'' tion, advanced into Attica, laying waste the whole 
 
 country. The Athenians receiving no succours 
 
 from their allies, again abandoned their city, and retired to Salamis. 
 
 After a second rejection of his offers by the Athe- 
 
 '*'"• nians, Mardonius now consigned their city to de- 
 
 tiens burnt. structiou, burning and demolishing whatever had 
 
 been spared the preceding year. 
 
 The Athenians, in their distress, sent messengers to the Peloponne- 
 sus, in order to hasten the expected succours. The deputies found 
 the Spartans celebrating a feast, which they continued, regard. 
 less of their remonstrances. The Ephori,* for ten days, deferred 
 their decision ; but at length fearing that the Athenians might go over 
 to the Persians Avith their fleet, the impatient deputies were informed 
 that 5000 Spartans, with each seven Helots, had commenced their 
 march towards Attica. 
 
 Mardonius now retired into Bosotia, near the city of Thebes, whose 
 inhabitants were in the Persian interest, and where the plains would 
 enable him to employ his cavalry with greater advantage. The 
 Grecian forces amounting to 70,000 men, under the command of 
 Pausanias, king of Sparta, and Aristides, the Athe- 
 4'79. nian general, pursued him. Here occurred the 
 
 Battle ofPiata=a. memorable battle of Platsea, where the Greeks ob- 
 tained a splendid victory. 
 
 The Grecian history, at this time, presents a continual struggle be- 
 tween Athens and Sparta for supremacy, and on the part of the other 
 states for independence. In each state there were also internal dis- 
 
 * The Ephori were established by Theopompus, king of Sparta, 130 years after 
 Lycurgus. They were five in number, and annually chosen by the people. Their 
 authority was very great. They declared war and made peace, treated with 
 foreign princes, distributed rewards and punishments, and in some instances, evenej;- 
 pelled and put to death the kings. 
 
CHAP, v.] GREECE. 49 
 
 sensions between the aristocratical and democratical parties.* Spar- 
 ta was considered the head quarters of aristocracy ; Athens, of demo- 
 cracy. 
 
 A number of petty wars succeeded the great Per- 
 448. sian conflict. 
 
 Sacred War. First, the Sacred war, so called because it ori- 
 
 ginated in a dispute arising from a claim of the Delphians to the sole 
 care of the temple of Apollo. The Lacedsemonians supported this 
 claim, which was opposed by Athens and some of the other states. 
 The Athenians, during this war, were defeated by the Boeotians under 
 the great Epaminondas, at Chseronea. Three years after this, in a war 
 with the Samians, the Athenians under Pericles, prevailed, and look 
 the capital of the enemy. 
 
 Next, followed the Corinthian war. The Corcy- 
 Gorinihian War. yians, originally, a colony from Corinth, but who 
 now surpassed the mother country, had hitherto declined joining any 
 of the Grecian confederacies. Being at war with Corinth, they im- 
 plored the alliance of the Athenians, Corinth also sent deputies to 
 dissuade the Athenians from assisting them, on the ground that it 
 would be a violation of the treaty, Corinth being a powerful member 
 of the Peloponnesian confederacy. 
 
 Tengallies were, however, furnished to the Corcyrians by the Athe- 
 nians, but with orders to engage only if the Corinthians invaded the 
 island of Corcyra. The hostile feelings of Athens and Corinth were 
 farther increased by a dispute respecting Potidtea, a Corinthian colony 
 in Macedonia, which was a tributary ally of Athens ; 
 Battle of Potidsa. ^^j ^ ^.^^^^^ ^^^g ^^.,^^1}^ ^^^^gj^j between their forces 
 
 near that city, in which the Athenians gained the advantage, and laid 
 siege to the place. 
 
 The Corinthians now prevailed upon their allies to join in a deputa- 
 tion to Lacedcemon, accusing the Athenians of having broken the 
 articles of peace. 
 
 Such was the reputation for wisdom that Athens 
 
 44o. i^ad at this time acquired in distant countries, that a 
 
 Rome sends to j-^^^^ nation, rising in the \vest,sent deputies to obtain 
 
 At:iens Tor laws. , , r> ci i rm • ■ r» i 
 
 tlie Jaws or feolon. 1 his nation was Rome, — des- 
 tined to become the conqueror of Greece. Poets and philoso- 
 phers now flourished in the Grecian republics. Herodotus, the " Fa- 
 ther of Plistory," read his work to a public assembly at Athens, and 
 received public honours. 
 
 Tlie Laccdtcmonians were already making the most vigorous pre- 
 
 * The government of the United States of America is often compared witii ilio 
 governments of Greece and Rome during the periods when they were considered 
 free. Although a siuiilarity may be observed, there is little in those unsettled and in- 
 secure states to be compared with the order and security which the American govern- 
 ment has thus ijir aflfbrded. In them, the foes to the freedom of the slate were an aris- 
 tocratical party who beheved themselves entitled to rule, and ambitious individuals 
 who aspired t > supreme power. The people, opposing the pretensions of the ari.sto- 
 cracy, blindly gave their confidence to their pretended friends. Thus, before they 
 w ere aware, their liberties had become a prey to their ambition. 
 
 5* 
 
50 ANCIENT HISTORY. [pERIOD V. 
 
 parations for tlie war, upon which they affected to enter as the Libera- 
 tors of Greece.* 
 
 The public voice Avas favourable to Sparta. Even the Athenian 
 allies, groaning under the burdens imposed on them, secretly looked 
 to Sparta for deliverance. Archidamus, king ot 
 431. Sparta, at the head of the Peloponnesians advanced 
 
 Pclopounesian War. j^^^^ Attica. Tiie Athenians were destined to behold 
 their country, whicli was just recovering from the ravages of the 
 Persians, again desolated. The object of Pericles was to prevent a 
 battle, and to retaliate for the injuries of the enemy by a descent upon 
 the Peloponnesian coast, which the superiority of the Athenians at 
 sea, enabled them to command. With this view the inhabitants of 
 the country were directed to remove their cattle to Euboea, and to re- 
 tire to the city. Notwithstanding the distress of the multitudes, who 
 had fled thither for refuge, they bent all their efforts towards prepa- 
 rations for war. 
 
 The Spartan king continuing to ravage the country, the popular 
 voice called loudly for battle ; but Pericles, though censured as the 
 cause of all their distress, remained firm to his purpose. The Athe- 
 . nian fleet, meanwhile, had ravaged the western coast of Peloponnesus, 
 and had taken Astacus, a town of Acarnania. The success of the 
 hostile parties, in the first campaign, was nearly equal. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 The following year Athens suffered from a scourge more terrible 
 than the ravages of the Peloponnesians. 
 
 430. A plague of a most virulent character broke out 
 
 Plague at Athens. in the citv, and multitudes of its crowded popula- 
 tion became its victims. Pericles was one of the number. Such 
 was the extent of the distress, that the dying were unattended, the 
 dead unburied. The living broke out into the most disgraceful licen- 
 tiousness of conduct, as if they hasted to fill up the measure of their 
 miquit}', before death should seize upon them. 
 
 The Athenians having been successful in several engagements, and 
 having, at Pylos, taken a number of Spartan prisoners, the Lacedse- 
 monians made earnest overtures for peace. They however were re- 
 jected. In the young Brasidas, Sparta found a general who partially 
 retrieved her affairs. Pie transferred the seat of war to the coasts 
 of Macedonia, and took Amphipolis, the most valuable of the Athe- 
 nian possessions in Thrace. 
 
 Thucydides, t!ie historian, had command of the Athenian squad- 
 ron, now stationed at Thasos, which he brought up, as soon as he 
 
 *The difTerent relations of Athens and Sparta to their allies, may require some ex- 
 planation. Athens, as mistress of the sea, commanded the cities of the coast.s, and 
 most of tlie islands, which being tributary allies, subjected to unlimited control, and 
 deprived of ships, obeyed wiih reluctance ; while the allies of Sparta, were free from 
 tribute, and voluntarily attached themselves to the league. The Spartan league inclu- 
 ded all Peloponnesus, except Argos and Achaia, which remained neutial, Megara, Lo- 
 cris, Phocis, Bceotia,the cities of Ambraciaand Anactorium, and the island of Leucus. 
 
CHAP, v.] GREECE. .51 
 
 found Amphipolis was attacked. Tliough too late to prevent its sur- 
 render, he saved Eion which was next attempted. For his failure, 
 though innocent of any mismanagement, the Athe- 
 Thucydides banish- ^^^^^^^ banished him for twenty years. 
 
 The leading persons in Athens at this period, 
 were Cleon, an ambitious man who succeeded Pericles in the man- 
 agement of public affairs, Nicias, a nobleman of integrity and patri- 
 otism, and Alcibiades, the grandson of Pericles. 
 
 The latter was born to wealth, possessed uncom- 
 Alcibiades, j^q^ beauty and great power over the minds of 
 
 others, but he was unprincipled and profligate. 
 
 Hoping to acquire glory by the conquest of Sici- 
 416. ly, Alcibiades had prevailed on the Athenians, con- 
 
 Thescene of war trary to the wiser covmsels of Nicias, to send out a 
 iciy. ^^^^ against Syracuse, which had favoured the 
 Spartan cause. The most powerful and splendid fleet which had ever 
 sailed from Athens, was fitted out, and Alcibiades and Nicias appoint- 
 ed chief commanders. Previous to the departure of the armament, 
 some outrages having been committed upon the images of Mercury, 
 which the Athenians had placed at the entrances of their temples and 
 dwellings, suspicion rested upon Alcibiades. He protested his inno- 
 cence, an^ demanded a trial before his departure, which was not 
 granted. On the arrival of the fleet in Sicily, the popular excite- 
 ment was so great against him, that he was sum- 
 Alcibiades recalled, moned home. Suspecting his danger, he fled to the 
 reloponnesus, and sought revenge agauist his coun- 
 try by joining the Spartan cause. 
 
 Syracuse, alarmed at the invasion of Sicily, had sent to Sparta, 
 imploring aid against the Athenians. Alcibiades, havmg pleased the 
 Spartans by conforming to their plain dress and severe manners, art- 
 fully wrought upon their fears and pride, and persuaded them not 
 only to send supplies into Sicily, but to make a fresh incursion into 
 Attica. 
 
 , . . Tlie Athenians at length laid siege to Syracuse, 
 
 Athenians besiejfe u t ii • i • • c -\j- '^ i i 
 
 Syracuse. but the mdccision ot Nicias, who was now alone in 
 
 command, prevented its being prosecuted with 
 vigour. The Spartan succours arrived. Nicias wrote home for re- 
 inforcements, which were sent out under Demosthenes. The two 
 generals, however, found themselves unable to sustain the siege, and 
 in attempting a retreat, both Nicias and Demosthenes were taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 A battle was fought at sea, in which tlie Syracu- 
 414. sans obtained a decided superiority, and the expedi- 
 
 ^'^'niaa''fl'et'^'''" *^°" ^"^^^^ "^ ^'^^ ^"^'^'^ ™'" °f *'^® armament. 
 The Athenians were in disnjay, and tiic condition 
 of the republic seemed almost desperate. Their treasury was ex- 
 hausted, their navy almost destroyed, and their allies ready for re- 
 volt. Yet, the spirit of the people sustained them, and the most ener- 
 getic measures were speedily employed to retrieve their affairs. 
 They might have succeeded, had they not a new source of power to 
 
52 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 encounter, in the gold of Persia, which had found its way to the La- 
 cedoemonians. 
 
 The satraps of Lydia and of the Hellespont, per- 
 n^h'^ille'^Tared^T suadcd by Lysander, an accomplished Spartan, 
 nians wiil'i money, whose character resembled that of Alcibiades, fur- 
 nished them with powerful supplies. Meanwhile, 
 Alcibiades finding himself suspected at Sparta, now visited Sardis, 
 and ingratiating himself with Tissaphernes, the satrap of Lydia, ren- 
 dered him favourable to Athens. At the same time, he offered his 
 own services to his dejected country; on condition of the establishment 
 of an oligarchy. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 Since the days of Pericles, the government had passed into the 
 hands of the lowest of the populace. The disorder and confusion ari- 
 sing from this cause, were very manifest. A vote was passed to ac- 
 cept the proposal of Alcibiades. He was recalled, 
 anJ^a'^oLeT^elf ^"^ appointed general. The affairs of Athens, 
 eral at Athens!" Seemingly in utter ruin, under the guidance of Al- 
 cibiades, took a more favourable turn. The Athe- 
 nian fleet was repeatedly victorious, and the taking of Byzantium 
 established the Athenian supremacy in Ionia, and Thrace. The 
 brilliant success of Alcibiades revived the fears with which the Per- 
 sian satraps regarded the Athenians, and thus cut off the Spartan sup- 
 plies of gold in that quarter. 
 
 About this time, the Athenian fleet nearNotium, during the absence 
 of Alcibiades, and contrary to his orders, engaged in battle with Ly- 
 sander, the Spartan admiral, and was defeated. This drew upon 
 Alcibiades the wrath of the populace, of which his enemies taking 
 advantage, he was dismissed from the command 
 404. without trial, and again became an exile. He little 
 
 Alcibiades exiled deserved this treatment, but his former crimes made 
 him distrusted. Having retired to a village in 
 Phrygia, the Spartans instigated the Athenians to destroy him. They 
 sent soldiers, who set fire to his house in the night. As he attempted 
 to escape, the soldiers fearing to approach him, killed him with ar- 
 rows. One woman alone, had sufficient regard for him to give his 
 body a decent burial. 
 
 After various turns of fortune, Lysander again 
 
 405. obtained a decisive naval victory over the Atheni- 
 
 Lysandcr conquers ^^-^^ ^^^^ ^gos-Potamos on the Hellespont. Ha- 
 
 the Athenian fleet. . ■ ■, ■, ti»i- i 
 
 vmg entirely destroyed the Athenian navy and re- 
 duced the allies to submission, he proceeded to blockade Athens with 
 his fleet ; while at the same time it was besieged by land, with the 
 
 whole strength of the Peloponnesian forces. Fam- 
 Athens surrenders. ^^^ ^^ length compelled the Athenians to surrender, 
 and accept such terms as their conquerors saw fit to impose. The 
 walls of Athens were destroyed ; its ships, with the exception of 
 twelve, given up ; its exiles restored ; its government changed to an 
 
CUAP. v.] GREECE. 53 
 
 oligarchy under thirty rulers ; and the humbled Athenians obliged 
 to acknowledge the supremacy of Sparta. 
 
 405. Thus ended, after a bloody civil war of twenty- 
 
 E^id of the Pciopon- seven years, the power of Athens, and the glory of 
 iiesian War. Grecian liberty. 
 
 From the effect of the laws of Lycurgus, the power of education 
 may be inferred. If it would lead men to form and preserve, for so 
 long a period, characters, contrary, in some respects, to reason and 
 nature, much more, we should suppose, might it establish men in the 
 reasonable practices of true religion and virtue. 
 
 The American statesman may learn from the example of Athens, 
 the danger of letting down the government into the hands of the low- 
 est of the democracy ; men who do nothing towards sustaining pub- 
 lic burdens ; who have every thing to gain, and notliing to lose ; 
 and who, destitute of education, or extended views, may be imposed 
 upon by artful, unprincipled demagogues. 
 
 We may, especially, learn the vital importance of union, among 
 confederated states. While Greece was united, and public virtue in- 
 spired her heroes, she could conquer the millions of Persia. When 
 her states became jealous of each other, and the bond of union was 
 severed, she fell by the hands of her own sons. 
 
 404. The chief power in Athens being now vested in 
 
 The thirty tyrants, thirty persons, supported by the Lacedaemonian in- 
 terest, the most cruel and arbitrary measures were resorted to. 
 
 Critias, the chief of the thirty tyrants, had formerly been banished 
 from the city. He now sought to gratify his revenge by shedding the 
 blood of his countrymen. 
 
 Amidst the scenes of tyranny, murder and profligacy which reign- 
 ed in Athens, one individual shines forth with the 
 Socrates. lustre of virtue. Socrates, conforming his practice 
 
 to the principles of morality which he taught, resisted the torrent of 
 vice, with calmness and intrepidity. Having been ordered with four 
 others, to apprehend Leon, an Athenian of blameless life, but whose 
 wealth tempted the cupidity of the tyrants, he resolutely refused. 
 Leon was apprehended by the others, and executed. 
 
 The reign of the tyrants could not long continue. 
 401. The same year in which it was established, the vir- 
 
 The th^rty^jyiants ^^^^^g Thrasybulus, at the head of his exiled coun- 
 ^^^^ "^ ■ try men, entered the city, attacked and defeated the 
 
 tyrants. Favoured by the Spartan party under king Pausanias, he 
 procured the banishment of the tyrants, and the restoration of Solon's 
 constitution. But the virtuous spirit of Greece had departed. The 
 tyranny of the many, followed that of the few. This fact is striking- 
 ly illustrated by the condemnation of Socrates. 
 
 The death of this philosopher was procured by 
 The death of Socra- ^j^g sophists, a sect whose Opinions he justly despi- 
 sed. Having taken the poisonous hemlock, he 
 
54 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 calmly conversed with his friends till the moment of his dissolution. 
 One of his disciples expressed his regret that he should die innocent, 
 Socrates said with a smile, " Would you have me die guilty ?" 
 
 CHAPTER VT. 
 
 Section I. 
 EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 
 
 404. Darius Nothus, king of Persia, died about the 
 
 Darius succeeded by close of the Peloponnesian war, and was succeeded 
 
 Aitaxerxes. ^^ j_ijg eldest son Artaxcrxes, Cyrus, another son 
 
 of Darius, called the younger Cyrus, retained the government of 
 Western Asia, as a satrap of his brother. 
 
 Mutual jealousies and quarrels ensued between the brothers. At 
 length, Cyrus determined upon dethroning A rtaxerxes, and seizing his 
 kingdom. For this purpose, he raised a considerable army, and enga- 
 ged in his service 13,000 Grecian mercenaries. With these, he 
 marched towards Persia. On his arrival at Cunaxa, 
 401' he was met by Artaxerxes at the head of his army, 
 
 Cyrus slain. ^^^ defeated and slain. 
 
 The bravery of this prince is much extolled by historians. Xen- 
 ophon declares, that next to Cyrus the Great, he was most worthy of 
 being a king ; his lawless ambition seems to be overlooked in this es- 
 timate of his virtue. 
 
 After the death of Cyrus, his Persian followers submitted to their 
 king ; and the Grecian generals having been invited to a council, and 
 treacherously slain, nothing but destruction seemed to await the 10,000 
 Greeks who remained ; but they resolutely bent their steps towards 
 their distant home, and through an enemy's country 
 Retreat of the 10,000 effected, under the historian Xenophon, the most 
 
 under Xenophon. , , i 
 
 memorable retreat on record. 
 
 The defeat of Cyrus involved the Spartans in a 
 
 ^TatndTersi?''' "®^ ^^^^ '^'^^^ P^^'^'^* 
 
 The Persians first attacked the ^olian cities of 
 Asia Minor. In the commencement, the war was carried on with 
 little vigour on the part of the Lacedaemonians. But under their 
 king Agesilaus, bi'illiant successes retrieved the honour of Sparta, 
 and she again assumed an attitude which awakened the fears of the 
 Persian monarch. He had recourse to the old arts of bribery, and 
 stirred up a war against Sparta, in Greece itself. 
 
 Ancient Greece lost her free institutions by her own folly, and had 
 nothing remained but the story of her wars and political revolutions, 
 
 The chief glory of little, at this day, WOuld be said of her. She de- 
 Greece derived from rives her chief glory from the encouragement she 
 her works of genius, gave to the arts, which she carried to a perfection 
 
CHAP VI.] THEBES. 55 
 
 tliat modern times have never been able even to equal. In poetiy, 
 she boasts her Homer ; in eloquence, her Demosthenes ; in architecture, 
 her Phidias ; with many others of inferior name. In moral philoso- 
 phy, Socrates carried human reason, perhaps, to the utmost limit it 
 can reach without revelation, teaching the unity of God, and the im- 
 mortality of the soul. Indeed, he expressed an opinion that God 
 would hereafter reveal to man, concerning a future state, what above 
 all things he was interested to know, but which his own reason was 
 incompetent to discover. 
 
 Section II. 
 THEBES. 
 
 During the decay of the Athenian power, Thebes, the capital of 
 Boeotia, had been increasing in strength, and now sought a pretext 
 for til rowing ofTthe Lacedtemonian yoke. This, the Lacedcemonians, 
 by plundering the holy land of Elis, and depriving it of its command 
 over the neighbouring towns, as well as by their tyranny over the 
 allies generally, afforded. 
 
 Agesilaus marched his army towards the Hellespont, which having 
 crossed, he passed through Northern Greece, and 
 Batue of Coronea. e.^tcred BcEotia. A battle between the Spaitans and 
 Thebans was fought near Coronea, in which the former obtained a 
 complete victory. Their success by land, was however counterbal- 
 anced by the defeat of their fleet near Cnidus. This war, after con. 
 tinning eight years, with no important residt, but attended by great 
 distress to all parties, was terminated by a peace. Persia, whose 
 gold had been used to foment the war, dictated the conditions of the 
 peace, and obtained for herself the cession of the Asiatic colonies. 
 
 The ambitious designs of Sparta, through wh'^se influence this dis- 
 graceful peace was made, were soon manifest, in an 
 Sparta takes Man- attack upon Mantinea, a town of Arcadia, which 
 
 tinea. *■ . 
 
 she compelled to submit. Siie next engaged in war 
 with Olynthus, a city of Chalcidia::, where a demo- 
 She takes Olynthus. cratical government prevailed. This war lasted 
 four years, and ended in the surrender of Olynthus. 
 
 Sparta next interfered with the 'aftairs of Thebes. A Spartan ar- 
 my passing through Thebes, on its way to Olynthus, found the city 
 divided into the usual oligarchical and democratical 
 Phffibulas takes pos- factions, which were possessed of nearly equal pow- 
 er. Phcebidas, the Spartan commander, immedi- 
 ately joined the oligarchical party, which was always favoured by the 
 Spartans, and unsuspected of hostility by the citizens, garrisoned the 
 citadel with his troops. Ismenias, the leader of the democratical par- 
 ty, and first magistrate of the city, was seized on the charge of treason, 
 and imprisoned in the citadel. Many of the Thebans fled. Four 
 hundred of them took refuge in Athens. The Lacedaemonians, al- 
 though they fined Phoebidas, and deprived him of the command, yet 
 
56 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 evinced their approbation of his measures, by retaining the garrison 
 in the citadel, while they sent for Ismenias to Spar- 
 ismenias executed, ^g^^ where he was tried, condemned, and executed. 
 The government of Thebes was placed in the hands of the oligarchi- 
 cal party, who were supported by the Lacedsemoni- 
 380. an troops. A plan for restoring liberty to their 
 
 Peiopidas restores ^^^^^ y^.^^ formed by some of the Theban exiles, head- 
 1 er > o e es. ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ their number, the intrepid Pelopidas. 
 They left Athens in disguise, entered Thebes in the night, slew their 
 opponents, threw open the prison doors, proclaimed liberty to all 
 the citizens, and supplied with arms all who joined them. The 
 Lacedfemonian garrison, ignorant of their numbers, or the extent of 
 the conspiracy, delayed to attack them until morning, contenting 
 themselves with retaining their position in the citadel. On the fol- 
 lowing morning, succours for tlie conspirators arrived from Athens. 
 Pelopidas was appointed governor, and proceeded to besiege the cita- 
 del. The Lacedaemonians, after a few days resistance, capitulated, on 
 condition of being allowed to return to their own countr5^ 
 
 A war now ensued. Athens, since the expulsion 
 Ti V ^ "T^c*^*^" of the tyrants, had regained part of her former influ- 
 
 J. iiGucs snd opcirt^. i i*tiii i i 
 
 ence ; her navy, which had been destroyed, was 
 
 now increased, and the fortifications of the Pirceus rebuilt. From 
 
 Athens, Thebes hoped to derive aid ; but when the Lacedaemonians 
 
 entered Bceotia with a powerful array, the Athenians, struck with ter- 
 
 rour, shrunk from the war, and renounced their alliance with Thebes. 
 
 The Lacedsemonians, being at pf ace with A.thens, and in alliance 
 
 witli the other Grecian states, advanced under Cleombrotus, one of 
 
 their kings, with a powerful army, into Bceotia. Nothing was left to 
 
 the Thebans but victory, or entire destruction. In Epaminondas, the 
 
 Tliebans had a general suited to a great emergency. Possessed of 
 
 powerful talents, of military skill, and of a heart glowing with zeal in 
 
 the cause of his country, he had obtained the unlimited confidence of 
 
 the people. 
 
 ^'^' A decisive engagement was fought at Leuctra, in 
 
 Battle of Leuctra. ^vhich this general, aided by Pelopidas, led on the 
 
 Thebans to victory. The Lacedaemonians had the mortification, (un- 
 
 felt for ages), of being vanquished by inferior numbers. 
 
 Epaminondas in- Epaminondas, though in the dead of winter, push- 
 
 v;id.:'s ili.e Pelopon- cd his successes, and invaded the Peloponnesus ; 
 
 ncsus. penetrating even to Lacediemon, laying waste the 
 
 country, and burning every unfortified town. The reluctance of his 
 
 Peloponncsian allies to continue a winter warfare, induced him to 
 
 withdraw his troops from Laconia. 
 
 Tlie power of Sparta being now on the decline, 
 
 ^^non'i s^.am '^ the Laconians, long oppressed by her aristocracy, 
 
 took the advantageof the presence of foreign troops, 
 
 to revolt ; and they were joined by many of the Helots. Athens, 
 
 now jealous of Thebes, sent an army to the assistance of the distress- 
 
 ed Spartans. 
 
 Both the Lacedsemo lians and the Thebans. had sent to the Persian 
 
CHAP. VII.] MACEDONIA. 57 
 
 king for aid. He, declaring in favour of Thebes, issued decrees, in 
 which he assumed a superiority over Greece, offensive alike to Spar- 
 ta and to Athens. Tlie aim of Thebes at supremacy in Greece, was 
 now apparent, and produced the disaffection of her allies. Her great- 
 ness depending on the talents of her generals, Pelopidas and Epami- 
 nondas, could not survive them. Pelopidas being 
 364. again sent against the Thessalians, won a battle, 
 
 Death of Pelopidas. ^^^ £v jj jj.^ ^^^^ combat. Epaminondas advanced into 
 the Peloponnesus. Though deserted by a part of his 
 362. allies, he fought, with desperate bravery, the re- 
 
 Battle of Mantinea. gowned battle of Mantinea, where, at the moment of 
 victory, he was slain. With him the power of Thebes expired. 
 
 The Amphyctionic council, which during the supremacy of Athens 
 and Sparta possessed little power, had now risen again into something 
 of its former importance. The Thebans now prosecuted the Lace- 
 daemonians for the seizure of the citadel, and obtained a decision of 
 the council in their favour, Lacedsemon being fined 500 talents. 
 
 Another decree of the Amphyctions, less just, proved disastrous in 
 its consequences. A vague and doubtful tradition existed, that the 
 rich Cirrhean plain, which had long been cultivated by the Phocians, 
 and furnished subsistence to many of them, had anciently been conse- 
 crated by the Amphyctions to the Delphian Apollo. A decision was 
 now obtained by the Thebans, who were inveterate enemies of the 
 Phocians, compelling them to cease from the use of the sacred land, 
 and pay a heavy fine for its former occupancy. 
 357. This gave rise to a civil war of ten yeai's continu- 
 
 Phocian ^^ ar. ance, which embroiled all Greece, known by the 
 name of the "Second Sacred, or Phocian war." 
 
 The employment of foreign mercenaries in this war, the plunder of 
 the temple of Delphi, and the opportunity afforded for the interfer- 
 ence of Philip in Grecian affairs, paved the way for the still further 
 degradation of Greece. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MACEDONIA. 
 Section I. 
 
 The supremacy of Sparta was now annihilated. Thebes was in- 
 capable of ruling, and Athens, though increasing in strength, was still 
 unable to make good any claim of authority over the otlier states. 
 
 Phihp, king of Macedon, a man of powerful tal- 
 360. ents, took advantage of the distracted state of Greece 
 
 Philip of Macedon. ^^ forward his ambitious views. 
 
 Philip, during a part of his youth, had been committed to the care 
 
 6 
 
58 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 of Epaminondas. Education had cultivated and polished his natural- 
 ly powerful mind. The military skill he had acquired, enabled him 
 to introduce among his subjects the most approved discipline of the 
 great Theban general. 
 
 Macedonia had been but little known until the Persian invasion, but 
 was supposed to have been originally peopled from Argos, though it 
 was not considered one of the Grecian states. From the first inva- 
 sion, to the battle of Platroa, it was subject to Persia ; afterwards it 
 became independent, and now under Philip it was rising to power. 
 Philip designed it to become the head of the Grecian confederacy. 
 
 For this purpose, it was necessary to establish his claims, to be 
 considered a Greek, and to procure the admission of Macedonia into 
 the Grecian union. To these objects his attention was early direct- 
 ed. The Sacred or Phocian war offered him the means of attaining 
 his ends. 
 
 The Phocians, by the plunder of the temple of Delphi, had render- 
 ed their cause generally unpopular throughout Greece. Philip de- 
 termined to join the Thebans. The Phocians were conquered. The 
 council of the Amphictyons, called to decide upon their fate, decreed 
 that the Amphictyonic rights of the Phocians should be transferred to 
 the Macedonians. 
 
 The result of the sacred war was highly displeasing both to the 
 Spartans and to the Atlicnians. But Philip, by his intrigues, had pro- 
 vided himself with a party in the various states of Greece. 
 Pliiiip opposed by ^" Athens there was, however, a powerful party 
 Demosthenes and headed by the great orator Demosthenes, and Pho- 
 Phocion. cion, a noble Athenian, They, aware of his dan- 
 
 gerous policy, and foreseeing in its success the destruction of the re- 
 mains of Grecian freedom, resolutely opposed it. 
 
 The Locrians had now been cultivating the sacred lands of Apollo. 
 Some of the Grecians in the Macedonian interest, determined to re- 
 venge the sacrilege. The Amphictyonic council 
 346. jjiet, and under the influence of the partisans of 
 
 Philip chosen gen- piijijp appointed him their general, in the new war. 
 
 eral by tlie Amphic- „ ' ' ' ' i .1 • i • mi 1 
 
 tyonic council. -Dut Athens opposed this choice. 1 he eloquence 
 of Demosthenes, supported by an Athenian party in 
 Thebes, effected an alliance between these two 
 338. states. In a battle which took place at Chasronea, 
 
 Battle of Chffironea. PhUip was completely victorious, and the indepen- 
 dence of Greece received its death blow. The Macedonian interest 
 was now established in Thebes, and a Macedonian garrison placed 
 in the citadel. But the measures of Philip towards his conquered 
 foes, were m.ild and forbearing. Instead of proceeding towards 
 Athens as a conqueror, to take vengeance on his enemies, he released 
 the Athenian prisoners without ransom, and offered peace. 
 
 Not a year elapsed after the battle of Chasronea, 
 Philip meditates the ^^gf^^.p ^^^ ^^^ j^j^^^ preparing for the bold attempt of 
 
 invasion of Persia. , , r r, • t 1 1 1 i> ^i 
 
 the conquest oi Persia. A general assembly ot the 
 Amphictyons was summoned at Corinth, in which he was appointed 
 
CHAP. VII.] MACEDONIA. 59 
 
 Captain-General of Greece, and the invasion of Per- 
 336. sia determined upon as a national aiTair. Tlie death 
 
 Philip Jies. of Philip, which occurred this year, delayed for a 
 
 while the execution of the design. 
 
 On the death of Philip, the barbarians of the north, who had reluc- 
 tantly submitted to his power, revolted ; the Greeks, to whom the 
 yoke of bondage was yet new, manifested a spirit of rebellion, and his 
 whole kingdom became the scene of tumult and commotion. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 336. Alexander, son and heir of Philip, a youth of 
 
 Alexander. twenty, had from his earliest years manifested great 
 
 talents, and a haughty, but generous spirit, Philip, proud of his gen- 
 ius, had invited from Atliens the philosopher Aristotle, to superintend 
 his education. By him he was instructed in all the learning of the 
 times. 
 
 On his accession to the throne of Macedon, he first turned his arms 
 against the barbarians. Having subdued them, he 
 336. hastened to chastise the revolted Thebans. He 
 
 Destroys Tliebes. stormed their city ; caused, with a cruelty which 
 he afterwards bitterly repented, their old men, their women and chil- 
 dren to be massacred in the streets, and their buildings to be levelled 
 with the ground, sparing only the house of the poet Piudar. 
 
 Athens now trembled. Alexander had said, " Demosthenes call- 
 ed me a boy, but I will show him, before the gates of Athens, that I 
 am a man." Soothed, however, by the submission of the Athenians, 
 and bent on greater projects, he spared the city. 
 
 A council of the Amphictyons was now called at Corinth, and with 
 the exception of the Laceda3monians, the deputies, 
 mtnderof'^ilie°Gre- awed by the arms of Alexander, appointed him com- 
 cian forces. maudcr of the Grecian forces destined for the con- 
 
 quest of Persia. 
 
 The Persian power had been declining for several preceding reigns. 
 The effeminacy of its monarchs, and the extent of its territory, which 
 necessarily left much to the control of the different satraps, had pro- 
 duced internal dissensions and divisions, and so weakened the empire 
 of Darius, the reigning monarch, that notwithstanding its greatre- 
 sources, it was now little fitted for a contest with a warlike nation, 
 headed by so daring a commander. 
 
 Only two years had passed since the death of his 
 334. father, when Alexander undertook his Persian ex- 
 
 Alexander invades pedition. With an army of between twenty and 
 Persia. thirty thousand men, he crossed the Hellespont. 
 
 Memnon, the most efficient general of Darius, learning the direc- 
 tion of his march, assembled an army of 600,000, 
 Battle at the Grani- j^^-^j „^yp j^,^-, battle, at a ford of the rapid (irani- 
 "^"^^ cus. Alexander and his troops fought like mad- 
 
 men. Alexander hmiself, hard pressed, was saved, by his friend Cli. 
 
60 * ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 tus, from the stroke of a Persian battle-axe. At length the Greeks 
 forced the passage of the river, and defeated the Persians with great 
 slaughter. Sardis submitted to the arms of the conqueror. The 
 Grecian cities willingly allied themselves with him. By conciliation 
 or force, he soon made himself master of all Asia Minor, except Cili- 
 cia. 
 
 The following spring, having overrun Cilicia, he came to an en- 
 gagement with the main army of the Persians, under the command 
 of Darius himself. 
 333. The battle took place near Issus, and again 
 
 Battle of Issus. resulted in favour of the Macedonian arms. The 
 slaughter of the Persians was immense. Darius and a part of his 
 cavalry escaped ; but his wife and family fell into the hands of Alex- 
 ander, who treated them with hospitality and respect. Instead of 
 pursuing Darius, the conqueror now took possession 
 ^'^''''mtscl?^' ^^' °^ Damascus, the capital of Syria. He then march- 
 ed into Phoenicia. Some of the cities submitted to 
 him without resistance ; but Tyre, the wealthiest and most powerful, 
 mEiintained a siege of seven months, after which it was taken by as- 
 sault. The submission of Egypt, to which he im- 
 Conquers Egypt. mediately proceeded, now followed. During the 
 332. stay of Alexander in that ancient country, he found- 
 
 Pounds Alexandria, ed the city of Alexandria, on one of the branches of 
 the Nile. 
 The ensuing spring he again commenced his march towards Per- 
 sia, and having crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, 
 331. he met at Arbela 700,000 Persians, commanded by 
 
 The battle of Arbela. Darius, and fought there a more desperate battle 
 than even that of Issus. Notwithstanding the situation was more fa- 
 vourable to the Persian cavalry, the military skill of the Macedonian 
 phalanx gave them the victory. Darius again fled. His army was 
 destroyed, and his throne overturned. Alexander obtained possess- 
 ion of the southern provinces of his empire, almost without resistance. 
 So rapid were his movements, that Dariu.s, who fled before him, was 
 compelled to retreat into Bactria, while all Medina yielded to the con- 
 queror. 
 330. The friendless monarch was here inhumanly mur- 
 
 Danus assassinated, dered, by a dependent named Bessus, the governor 
 of the province. For this act of ingratitude and treachery, he ex- 
 pected to be rewarded ; but Alexander punished his crime by a cruel 
 death. 
 
 Alexander now wishing to assimilate the manners of his extensive 
 empire, adopted the Persian dress, married Statira, the daughter of 
 Darius, and caused many of his officers to marry Persian women. 
 He spent three years in reducing the remaining provinces of the em- 
 pire to entire subjection. Once, however, during this period, he car- 
 ried his arms against the Scythians. 
 
 Having destroyed the Persian monarchy, new schemes of conquest 
 opened themselves to his mind. But his troops, long absent from 
 their country, and insensible to the glory of extending conquests, 
 
CHAP. VII.] MACEDONIA. 61 
 
 from which they could hope to derive no advantage, now murmured. 
 
 They turned their eyes wistfully towards Greece. 
 
 The army of Alex- rj.^ ^j^g^j ^^^ Alexander's adoption of the Persian 
 
 anner disaffectea. ,•' ii- -i. f r- ■ ^ ^ 
 
 dress, and his evident preierence for oriental cus- 
 toms. He had now become elated with liis conquests, intemperate in 
 wine, and in the indulgence of his passions. In the fury of his 
 anger, he had caused his devoted friend Parmenio, and his son, to be 
 executed ; and with his own hand, in a drunken revel, had killed Cli- 
 tus, who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus. His troops, 
 disgusted with these things, revolted, — but when their favourite com- 
 mander showed his stern displeasure, the veterans came unarmed, and 
 stood for two days imploring his clemency. He wept, forgave them, 
 made them presents, and led them again to make, as he vainly be- 
 lieved, the conquest of the world. 
 
 He carried his arms beyond the Indus, with uniform success ; but 
 again his army remonstrated, and he was compelled to relinquish his 
 design of farther conquests, and retrace his steps. 
 NearchuB goes on a When he regained the Indus, he divided his army, 
 voyage of discovery sending part, uuder Nearchus, on a voyage of dis- 
 downthe Indus. covery down tlie Indus, and thence to the mouth of 
 ,, , , the Euphrates ; wliile he conducted the perilous 
 
 across the desert. march of tho remainder, through the desert which 
 stretches along the coast. The sufferings of his 
 army were severe, but their courage was sustained by the reflection 
 that their march was homewards, and their spirits cheered by the no- 
 ble conduct of their commander. On one occasion, a little water, in 
 a time of great drought, was found, from which a soldier filled a hel- 
 met, and brought it to the thirsting prince. Alexander, looking upon 
 his famished troops, poured the water on the ground, not choosing to 
 enjoy a refreshment in which his companions could not share. 
 
 Arrived at Babylon, he devoted himself, during the remainder of 
 his life, to the improvement of that city ; having selected it from its 
 commanding situation, and central position, for the seat of his empire. 
 
 It was Alexander, who first projected the plan of opening commu- 
 nications between Europe and India, through the Nile, the Red Sea, 
 and the Indian Ocean. 
 
 But he, whose will never bowed to man, could not resist the mes- 
 
 Sanger of God, sent to call him to his final account. After having 
 
 been the means of death to so many of his fellow be- 
 
 323. ings, he sickened with a fever, occasioned by his 
 
 Alexander dies at gxcesses, and died in the thirty-third year of his 
 
 ^ ^ ""■ age, leaving many of his projects unfinished, and his 
 
 extensive empire in an unsettled condition. 
 
 6* 
 
62 ANCIENT HISTORY. [pE&lOD V. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 While the nations of Asia, and of Greece, presenting scenes of in- 
 ternal dissention and decay, seemed tottering on the verge of ruin, a 
 power had arisen in the east, destined ere long to become the mis- 
 tress of the world. 
 
 The ancient Romans deduced their origin from 
 Origin of Rome. ^^cas, who with his father Anchises, his son Asca- 
 nius, and a small band of followers, fled from the destruction of An- 
 cient Troy, and sought refuge on the shores of Latium. Their early 
 history is, however, inseparably mixed with the religious traditions of 
 the age, the artful superstitions of the priests, and the high wrought 
 fictions of the poets. 
 '752. Romulus, the first king, founded the city of Rome 
 
 Romulus. 752 g^ c. The day of its foundation remained a 
 
 yearly festival, as long as the ancient religion of Rome endured. 
 
 To provide inhabitants for his city, Romulus invited strangers to 
 settle there, granting them equal privileges with his other subjects. 
 
 Those of the citizens of Rome who could show a 
 Patricians and Pie- j^oble, Or free anccstry, were termed patricians, 
 and were admitted to a share in the government. 
 Of these, one hundred were selected, who formed a senate. The re- 
 mainder of the people, called j^lebeians, were subject to the king and 
 patricians ; each individual with his household, being attached to the 
 head of some patrician family, from whom he re- 
 Patron and Ghent, ceived protection, and whom he was bound to serve. 
 To the protector and dependent were applied the terms patron and 
 client. 
 
 Romulus is said to have been constantly engaged in war with his 
 neighbours. 
 
 Four months after the founding of Rome, Romu- 
 Romans seize the j^^j^ wishing to provide wives for his followers, invi- 
 
 sabine women. ^ i ^i ci i ■ • i i • i i i 
 
 ted the babmes, with tlieir women, to the celebra- 
 tion of a religious festival. His soldiers, at a given signal, seized all 
 the young women, and carried them off. They married them, and 
 treated them with so inuch kindness, tliat they at length became at- 
 tached to their husbands ; and when, some time after, the Sabines 
 made war upon the Romans to recover them, they rushed between the 
 combatants, and plead with their fathers and husbands to live in peace 
 and union. Their desires were granted, and the Sabines and Ro- 
 mans became one people. 
 
 Division of the citi- ^^^^ senate was now doubled by the addition of 
 
 zcns made by Rom- an hundred Sabines. Romulus divided the citizens 
 
 ulus. into three tribes, each tribe consisting of 300 men ; 
 
CHAP. VIII.] ROME. . 63 
 
 and ao-ain into ten Curioc, consisting of thirty men ; and over each 
 Curia, was ajipointed for rehgious purposes, a priest called Curio. 
 The senate was the council of state. There was a national assem- 
 biy, composed of the people assembled by Curia;, in which questions 
 were decided according to the votes of the greater number of Curia?. 
 The first monarchs of Rome do not seem to have derived their 
 crown from hereditary right, nor with the exception of the two first, 
 to have possessed unlimited power. On the death 
 
 715. of Romulus, Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, was elect- 
 
 Nuuia Pompihus. gj ^q |.j^g throne. His reign was peaceful, and just. 
 He was revered as a favourite of the gods, and caused it to be believ- 
 ed that he was honoured with celestial communications, by a divine 
 nymph, called Egeria, who met him in solitary places, and gave him 
 instructions in regard to many laws, which he promulgated. He insti- 
 tuted different orders of priests, and one of priestesses, called the ves- 
 tal virgins. Their office was to guard the sacred fire. He built the 
 temple of Janus, which was always to be open in time of war, but 
 closed in time of peace. His laws were calculated to refine and soften 
 the ferocious manners of the followers of Romulus. 
 
 £.,~.2 The next king, Tullus Hostilius, was of a bold 
 
 Tullus Ho'stilius ^^^ daring character. In his reign, the town of Al- 
 ba was destroyed, and its inhabitants became free 
 citizens of Rome. In the war with the Albans, occurred the celebra» 
 ted combat between the Horatii and the Curiatii, three twin brothers, 
 belonging, the former to the Roman army, the latter to the Alban. It 
 was left, by mutual consent, to their valour to decide the fortune of 
 the wai-. The combat terminated in fiivour of the Romans. 
 
 G40. Ancus Martius, the next king, established the su- 
 
 Ancus Marlins. periority of the Romans over the Latins. Taking 
 several of their towns, he extended the territory of Rome to the sea. 
 He established the colony of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, and 
 made it the port of Rome. Several thousand Latins were, during 
 his reign, carried to Rome, where they became citizens. 
 
 Qlfi, Tarquinius Priscus, now chosen king, was of Gre- 
 
 Taiquinius Priscns. cian dcsccnt. He continued tlie wars of Ancus 
 
 Martius with tiie Latins, conquered the .'Equi, and a 
 
 part of the Sabines, who had never before submitted to Rome. He 
 
 added an hundred new senators to the senate, and forming three 
 
 new tribes from among the plebeians, added them 
 
 ^'°' to the patricians. He was assassinated, and Ser- 
 
 Servius TuUius. ^j^g Tullius became the next king. 
 He effected an alliance with the Latins, placing Rome at the 
 head of the confederacy. The internal changes he eflxscted, were, 
 however, of still greater importance to the nation. The institutions 
 of Servius laid the foundation of the future republic. He divided 
 the whole nation into thirty tribes, four of which were contained 
 in the city, each tribe having a magistrate who was its head and 
 representative. Having also caused an estimate of the property of 
 each citizen to be made, after separating the Equitcs, who compre- 
 hended the patricians and wealthiest of the people, he divided the rest 
 
64 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 into five classes, which were again divided into centuries, or hundreds. 
 The efforts of Servius to raise the privileges of the plebeians were re- 
 sisted, though ineffectually, by the patricians, and brought upon him 
 their enmity. He was forcibly dispossessed of the throne, and mur- 
 dered by Tarquinius Superbus, (Tarquin the Proud,) the grandson of 
 Tarquinius Priscus, at the instigation, it is said, of 
 
 534. }^ig unnatural daughter, Tulha. 
 
 Taiquuuus Super- rpj^j^ ^-^^^^ ^^^^ successful in War, but his haughti- 
 ness and tyranny made him odious to the Romans. 
 At length his son, Sextus, insulted Lucretia, a noble Roman lady. 
 She assembled her husband CoUatinus, her father, and a relation, na- 
 
 CQQ med, from his supposed stupidity, Brutus. Calling 
 
 Death of Lucretia '^^ them to avenge her wrongs, she stabbed herself 
 and termination of in their presence. They killed Sextus, and expelled 
 the regal govern- his father from the throne. Thus terminated the 
 
 ""^"'' reign of the Roman kings. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The supreme an- ^^^^ ^"^7 change at first effected by the expulsion 
 
 thority vested in of the kiugs, was the transfer of the supreme au-^ 
 Consuls. thority to two annually elected magistrates, called 
 
 consuls. 
 
 The Tarquins attempted to recover the throne, 
 Conspiracy of the ^^^ enlisted Several patricians in their cause ; but 
 
 larquins. , . / , . . ' .. 
 
 the conspiracy was detected m time to prevent it. 
 Among the conspirators were the sons of Junius Brutus, the defender 
 of Lucretia, who with her husband CoUatinus, were first chosen con- 
 suls. These young men were, with the rest, condemned by their fa- 
 ther, as consul, to die. He witnessed their public execution. His 
 countenance, it is said, displayed by turns the stern justice of the 
 judge, and the tender anguish of the father. 
 
 During the wars which were carried on with the neighbouring 
 tribes, who supported the pretensions of the Tar- 
 498. quinii, the appointment of a dictator was first made. 
 
 The first Dictator j_jg ^^^g ^hosen by the senate, and approved by the 
 appoin . patricians. He was to continue in office but six 
 
 months, but during that time his authority was unlimited, and from his 
 decree there was no appeal. On the first establishment of a dictator, 
 the populace, seeing the axes which were carried before him, as sym- 
 bols of his power, and feeling that they could not now, as under the 
 consuls, who were equal in authority, hope for protection from the 
 right of appeal, were struck with tcrrour, and submitted to his rule. 
 
 After the battle at the lake Regillus, the plebei- 
 
 Discontent of the ^^^^ ^^^lo until that time had been treated with the 
 
 e jeians. utmost deference, began to feel themselves exposed 
 
 to insults from the nobility. The patricians, having seized upon the 
 
 helm of government, and maintaining possession of the public lands, 
 
 no longer paid, as formerly, a tenth of their revenue to the State. 
 
CHAP. VIII.] ROME. 65 
 
 The plebeians, having been forced by their poverty to become their 
 debtors, were made bond-slaves, and in the dungeons of the patrician 
 houses, suffered the severest distress. At a time when the state was 
 tlireatened with a war by tlie Volsci, the indignation of the populace 
 was roused by the appearance of a man advanced in years, of a pale 
 and haggard countenance, a squalid garb, and a withered, emaciated 
 figure, suddenly throwing himself into the forum.* He was recogni- 
 zed as a centurion of the army, who had shed his blood for his coun- 
 try. He showed to the people, who crowded around him, the cruel 
 marks of recent stripes which his patrician creditor, not content with 
 his miserable incarceration, had inflicted. 
 
 The excitement of the multitude on beholding tliis spectacle, was 
 extreme ; and from the forum, it soon spread into all parts of the 
 city. The situation of the senate was alarming, — the multitude refu- 
 sed to enlist in the Volscian war, — and the city seemed threatened Avith 
 destruction on every side. The consul, Servilius, dismissing the 
 Senate, attempted to conciliate the people. He promised that their 
 grievances should be redressed, and onl}^ sought for a delay while it 
 was necessary to attend to the war, as the Volscians were threatening 
 to attack the city. To evince the sincerity of his declarations, he 
 now ordered that no person should hold any Roman citizen in bonds 
 or confinement, so as to prevent his giving in his name to the consuls ; 
 that no person should take the goods of a soldier upon service ; nor 
 detain in custody his children, or grandchildren. These measures 
 quelled the tumult, and procured the enlistment of soldiers. 
 Wars with the Sa- Wars with the Sabines and Auruncians, immedi- 
 bines and Aurun- ately succeeded the war with the Volsci, in all which 
 cians. the Romans triumphed. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 Peace being again established, the plebeians looked for the fulfilment 
 of the promises made them by the consuls. But they looked in vain. 
 Open expressions of discontent, and secret cabals, proved their dis- 
 content to be deep and dangerous. 
 
 Intestine commotions were the signal for hostilities from the neigh- 
 bouring tribes. The Volscians, yEquians, and Sabines, again took 
 up arms. The Senate and consuls were in dismay. 
 ^^^' At length it was determined again to appoint a dic- 
 
 ^"'" oLato''""' *^^°^'- Lartius Valerius, I'n whose family the pie- 
 beians had tlie utmost confidence, was appointed. 
 Again the plebeians defeiTcd urging their just claims, and enlisted in 
 the army. A force greater than had ever before been raised, was 
 now enrolled. 
 
 Victorious in the foreign war, the Roman soldiers returned but to 
 
 * The Forum was an open space, marked out by Romulus, and surrounded with 
 porticoes by TarquLnius Priscus It was a place in which the people assembled to 
 transact public business. Spacious halls for couris of justice, and other public busi- 
 ness, were afterwards built around it, called Basilicae. 
 
66 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 find their hopes of redress again disappointed. Valerius, seeing it 
 impossible to bring the patricians to yield, resigned the office of dic- 
 tator, and retired to a private station. The senate feared to disband 
 the soldiers ; and believing they would feel themselves bound by 
 their oaths to the consuls, determined upon retaining them in arms. 
 By this measure, however, tliey only hastened the crisis which they 
 dreaded. 
 
 The army, without waiting for the commands of 
 Sedition in Rome. ^j^g consuls, retired to Mons Sacer, (the sacred 
 mount,) about three miles from the city. There, without any com- 
 mander, they fortified their camp. The senate and patricians were 
 thus compelled to negotiate. Deputies being sent to the camp, a 
 reconciliation was at length effected, and the plebe- 
 498. ians were allowed ashare in the government. Three 
 
 Tribunes elected. officers from their number, called tribunes, were ap- 
 pointed as magistrates, and invested with inviolable privileges, having 
 power to protect tlie people even against the consuls. All debts were 
 cancelled, and the debtors released, but the law remained unaltered. 
 The tribunes were to be elected annually, and no patrician permitted 
 to hold the office. The contest between the patricians and plebeians 
 for the present seemed terminated. 
 
 It was soon however renewed in the following manner. A famine 
 broke out in the city, in consequence of the lands being untilled dur- 
 ing the insurrection of the plebeians. The sufferings of the people 
 were intense. A quantity of corn was at length brought from Sici- 
 ly. The senate debated at what price it should be given to the 
 people. 
 
 ^q, Marcius Coriolanus, a patrician who had signali- 
 
 Coriolanus ^^^ himself by his bravery in some of the wars 
 
 with the neighbouring nations, but whose animo- 
 sity towards the plebeians was implacable, proposed the resto- 
 ration of the former rights of the patricians, as the price of their 
 supply. The people heard the proposal with indignation, and 
 tlie tribunes could with difficulty pi-event the open expression of 
 their rage. Coriolanus was summoned by the tribunes to a trial. 
 Supported by the whole body of the plebeians, they were able 
 to enforce their summons. It was a new, and to the patricians an 
 alarming occurrence, to find one of their body arraigned at a plebe- 
 ian tribunal. Their efforts, their entreaties and supplications, could 
 not, however, move the people. Coriolanus, not appearing on the day 
 of trial, was condemned to exile. He retired to the Volscians, and 
 incited them to a war with his native city. The senate, unable to 
 depend on the plebeians for assistance, knew not what to do. Two 
 deputations were sent to the enemy, but without success. The priests 
 in their sacred garments, went as suppliants to his camp, but in vain. 
 The matrons assembling about Veturia, the mother of Coi'iolanus, 
 and joined by Volumnia his wife, leading his two little sons, proceed- 
 ed in sadness to the Volscian camp. 
 
 The stern warrior melted at the tears of his mother. Weeping, 
 he said, " You have saved Rome, but destroyed your son." In a 
 
CHAP. VIII.] ROME. 67 
 
 short time he drew off his troops from the Roman territories.* The 
 
 ivomans in lionour of this event, erected a temple to Female Fortune. 
 
 Tlie patricians and plebeians were still jealous of each other. 
 
 Dissensions arose concerning the disposition of some lands, gained by 
 
 a league with the Herulians. Further changes in the government 
 
 Romans send to Were demanded, and ambassadoi-s were despatched 
 
 Greece fur laws. to Athens for copies of the Grecian laws. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 451. On their return, ten magistrates were created, 
 
 Decemvirs created, called the Decemvirs, who were to compile a body 
 of laws. From their authority no appeal could be made. They 
 were appointed but for one year, and during that time there were to 
 be neither consuls nor tribunes. It was at first disputed whether 
 plebeians should be allowed to hold this high office. At length it was 
 decided tliat they sliould not. 
 
 During the first year the decemvirs executed justice impartially. 
 Assiduously applying themselves to the framing of 
 Laws of the Ten j^g^, j^^yg^ ti;,gy produced the ten tables, which after 
 being examined in an assembly of the people, w^ere 
 approved and ratified. It was then said that two more tables were 
 wanted. For the purpose of adding these, the office was continued 
 another year ; and new decemvirs elected, at the head of whom was 
 Appius Claudius. These decemvirs held secret meetings among 
 themselves, governed with haughtiness, and at the expiration of the 
 year, showing no intention to lay down their office, tlieir tyranny 
 seemed likely to become perpetual. An act of vio- 
 449. lence, however, of Appius Claudius, which resulted 
 
 Dc-atli of Virginia, jj-^ ^|^g death ofthe young and lovely Virginia, irri- 
 tated the people to madness. Another revolution took place, by 
 M'hich the decemvirate was abolished, and the consuls and tribunes 
 were restored. 
 
 During this period, the cause of the plebeians was gradually ad- 
 vancing. A law, allowing the intermarriage of patricians and ple- 
 beians, had, after much opposition, been passed. Another law, by 
 which plebeians should be admitted to the consulship, was proposed. 
 The plebeians, though unsuccessful in this, obtained, as a sort of com. 
 promise, the election of military tribunes with consular power, to be 
 chosen from patricians or plebeians, without distinction. 
 
 444^ The censorship, an office confined to the patri- 
 
 Censors established, cians, was also about this time established. f 
 
 In these domestic broils between the patricians 
 and the plebeians, the common resort of the" aristocracy, was to weak- 
 
 * The retreat of Coriolanus incensed the VolcJans. According to some accounts, 
 thej' put him to death. 
 
 + The name Con.sor was at first given to those who made the census, or numbered 
 the people. Their powers were no\y extended to a variety of other objects, among 
 which was the punishment of irregularities of moral conduct, and direction of the 
 education of youth. 
 
68 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 en the people by employing them abroad in foreign wars. It was 
 456. upon the occasion of the wars with the Equi and 
 
 Cincinnatus Dicta- Volsci, that the venerable Cincinnatus, ploughing 
 'o""- in his field, received the messengers from Rome, 
 
 who announced to him that he was appointed dictator of tlie common- 
 wealth. He left his fields and oxen with regret, and after leading the 
 Romans to victory, returned, in sixteen days, to his rural occupations. 
 .f^. The Romans besieged Veii, an opulent city of 
 
 Veii besie"-ed Etruria, at a distance from Rome. The war being 
 
 protracted from various causes for ten years, the 
 soldiers were for the first time obliged to stay from Rome during the 
 winter. In tliis war, wages were for the first time allowed to the 
 Roman soldiers. 
 
 In the mean time, the Gauls, now first heard of in history, invited 
 390. ^y *'^^ fertility of the soutliern countries, passed 
 
 Descent of the the Alps, and like a sweeping inundation, poured 
 Gauls into Italy. through the northern provinces of Italy. The Clu- 
 sians, whose city they now besieged, applied to the Romans for aid. 
 The Romans des])atched an embassy to the Gallic camp, with ofiers 
 of mediation. The ofiers were rejected, and the Roman ambassadors 
 entered Clusium, and engaged zealously in its defence. One of them 
 being recognized in the act of killing a Gallic cliief, Brennus, the 
 leader of the Gauls, sent envoys to Rome, to complain of the breach 
 of the law of nations, and demanded that the offender should be given 
 up, but the Romans haughtily disregarded the demand. 
 Brennus niarclies Brennus, highly irritated, marched instantly to- 
 
 to Rome. wards Rome. An army was hastily collected to 
 
 oppose him. The Romans never struck a blow, but fled in dismay 
 from the strange appearance of their unknown enemies. The Gauls 
 continued their marcli, fifteen miles, to the city. The citizens, gene- 
 rall}^ had abandoned it ; only some of the aged, and a few of consular 
 rank, remained. Their venerable appearance, for a time, stayed the 
 fury of tlie barbarians. But at length, they put them to the sword. 
 The Gauls then besieged the citadel, which was saved, when they 
 were about to make a night assault upon it, by the cackling of some 
 geese, awakening the sleeping sentinels. At length, the Gauls agreed 
 to quit the city, on condition of receiving a large amount of gold, 
 which was to be weighed. Brennus threw his sword into the scale, 
 with the weights, already complained of as too heavy. 
 
 ^„ .„ „ At this moment, Camillus, a noble Roman who 
 
 v-'U.LnilHlS. * 1 1 11 • 111** 
 
 had been banislicd, entered the city at the head of 
 
 an army, which he had collected. He told the Romans to put up 
 
 their gold, and redeem their city with iron. Thus aroused, they 
 
 oQp. chastised the Gauls, and expelled them from 
 
 . ,,|*., Rome. They had, however, burnt it to the 
 
 ground. It was soon rebuilt, but witliout order, or 
 
 regularity. 
 
PERIOD VI. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCTTRRED FROM THE 
 
 Death Of ^ FIFTH EPOCHA, 323 B. C. [ Alexander the Great 
 
 TiiC Birtli of Christ. 
 Christian \ SIXTH EPOCHA, i Era. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Empire of Aicxnn- After the death of Alexander, his vast empire 
 dor after his death, pvesented a scene of unceasing tumult, confusion, 
 and bloodshed. His generals, bold, ambitious, and unprincipled, 
 were each eager to seize a share of the mighty wreck. 
 
 After the death of their monarch, the rights of his infant son, Alex- 
 ander, and of his brother, Arida^us, afterwards called Philip, were 
 acknowledged, and they were styled kings. Their power, however, 
 Perdiccas, com- existed only in name. Perdiccas, the general to 
 mander-ia chief. whom the dying monarch gave his ring, was appoint- 
 ed Commander-in-chief. Various divisions of the empire were assign- 
 ed to the different generals. Conflicting interests, and mutual animos- 
 ities produced constant wars, and assassinations. The first sixteen 
 7 
 
70 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 years from the death of Alexander, present a tissue of intrigue and 
 
 crime, unequalled in the history of the world. His wife, his mother, 
 
 The royal family his SOU, and all the Other members of the royal family, 
 
 and Perdiccas mui-- were murdered. Perdiccas shared the same fate. 
 
 •^•^""■^ A league was at length formed between Ptolemy, 
 
 301. Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander. A battle 
 
 Battle of ipsus and was fought at Ipsus, in Phrygia, in which they ob- 
 
 Division of the Em- tained a victory over Antigonus, and liis son Deme- 
 
 ^ ' trius Poliorcetes, who had for some time held the 
 
 chief authority. The empire was then divided into four parts, and 
 
 one part assigned to each of the four generals who formed the 
 
 league. Ptolemy assumed the regal power in Egypt ; Seleucus, in 
 
 Syria, and Upper Asia ; Lysimachus, in Thrace ; and Cassander in 
 
 Macedonia. 
 
 Under Ptolemy, Alexandria rapidly rose, until it 
 became the seat of commerce and the sciences. 
 The protection of the national religion procured for the monarch the 
 entire submission of the people ; while his tolerant policy drew mul- 
 titudes of Jews to Alexandria, and thus contributed to the rapid 
 growth of the city. Of all the successors of Alexander, Ptolemy 
 alone was fitted to build up an empire, and though sometimes drawn 
 into the wars of the other princes, he generally preserved Egj-pt in 
 peace, and transmitted the kingdom entire, to his descendants. 
 
 Seleucus Nicatoi-, the founder of the dynasty of 
 the Seleucidte, preserved Syria and Upper Asia 
 ffom war during the eighteen years which succeeded the battle of 
 Ipsus. In this time, he built, or greatly improved several cities, of 
 which Antioch, in Syria, which he made the capital of his kingdom, 
 was the principal. He restored the commerce with the eastern coun- 
 tries. The regal power under his successors, however, rapidly de- 
 clined. 
 
 P , , Cassander, by the battle of Ipsus, became king of 
 
 Macedonia, and of a part of Greece. He reigned 
 but three years, leaving Macedonia as an inheritance to his sons. 
 
 Philip, the eldest son, died soon after his father. The others. Anti- 
 pater and Alexander, by their mutual animosities, hastened their own 
 ruin. After the death of Antipater, Alexander his brother, found it 
 necessary, from the distracted state of his affairs, to call in foreign 
 assistance. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Demetrius Poliorcetes were 
 both summoned to his aid. The latter procured the death of Alex- 
 ander, and usurped his throne. Constant war now seemed the portion 
 of the Macedonian empire. Demetrius, after disputing his title to the 
 throne seven years, was expelled by Pyrrhus. He, again, was sup- 
 planted by Lysimachus of Thrace. 
 
 Union of Macedonia, Macedonia, Thrace, and a part of Asia Minor, 
 Thrace, Asia Minor, Were now United. Lysim.achus, however, retained 
 and Syria. his power but for a short period. Family quarrels 
 
 soon brought on a war with Seleucus. In a battle fought at Curupe- 
 dion, Lysimachus was defeated and slain. The whole of Asia Mi- 
 nor and Syria were now united to Macedonia and Thrace. Seleucus 
 
CHAP, I.] SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 71 
 
 proclaimed himself king. On his passage into Europe, however, he 
 was assassinated, and Macedonia and Thrace were again considered 
 a prize for contest. 
 
 Ptolemy Ceraunus, the first usurper of the throne, and murderer of 
 Invasion of the Sclcucus, was soon deposed b)' the Gauls. In three 
 Gauls. successive invasions, these northern barbarians over- 
 
 ran Thrace and Macedonia, penetrated to the temple of Delphi, and 
 threatened to lay waste all Greece. They were at length expelled 
 from Greece, but made a settlement in Thrace, which was thus lost 
 to Macedonia. 
 
 Two claimants to the throne of Macedonia now appeared, Antigo- 
 nus, son of Demetrius, and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had now 
 returned from his Italian wars. At tlie death of Pyrrhus, who fell in 
 an attempt on Argos, Antigonus obtained possession 
 Antigonus becomes of the throne. During a reign of forty years, he 
 kuig of Macedonia, employed his power in recovering the country from 
 its ruinous state. 
 
 In Greece the love of liberty seemed almost extinguished. During 
 all these disorders, hardly an effort was made for the recovery of its 
 independence. Athens, indeed, aroused by the eloquence of De- 
 mosthenes, had, on the death of Alexander, attempted to shake off 
 the Macedonian yoke. But the city of arts and eloquence was forced 
 to submit to bondage. 
 
 That there was not at this time vlvtiie enough in Athens to make 
 her worthy of freedom, was evident from the meanness and injustice 
 of the condemnation and death of the venerable 
 locion. Phocion, whose virtues Alexander had respected, 
 
 and attempted to reward by lavish presents ; none of which, that in- 
 dependent Athenian would accept. He never sought preferment, but 
 he was forty-five times chosen general. He was eloquent, but his 
 speeches were short and sententious. He was so much in the habit 
 of exposing vice with severity, that generally, some persons felt them- 
 selves reproved. Once, when all applauded, he turned in surprise to 
 a friend, and asked, " Have I inadvertently let some bad thing sUp 
 from me?" Yet he was ever the protector of the iinf(jrtunate. 
 After he had taken the poison by which he was condemned to die, he 
 charged his son to forgive the Athenians. 
 
 323. The death of Demosthenes, the orator, occur- 
 
 Death of Dernos- ring a little before that of Phocion, was scarcely 
 thenes. less deplorable. Having, after his return from ban- 
 
 ishment, incited the Athenians to rise against the Macedonian power, 
 he was appointed one of the generals of the army. His conduct was 
 noble, but he was unfortunate, and to escape a disgraceful death, he 
 committed suicide. 
 
 Achaia made the last struggle for Grecian free- 
 Achsan League. dom. A union of twelve Achaean cities, possessed 
 of democratical governments, and leagued on terms of perfect equal- 
 ity, had existed from the early ages of Greece, until the death of Al- 
 
72 ANCIENT HISTORY. [pERIOD VI. 
 
 exander the Great, but the confusion and troubles of the subsequent 
 period had caused its dissolution. 
 
 251. A leader now arose in Aratus, a native of Sicyon, 
 
 Aiatus renews the of talents Sufficient to unite the scattered portions of 
 Achffian League. the Achasan league, of which he was made gene- 
 ral, and to which he soon added Corinth and Megara. He also 
 strengthened it by the accession of several other Grecian states, until 
 it became an object of jealousy to the Lacedaemonians and yEtolians. 
 Lacedajmon. Lacedccmon had departed widely from the insti- 
 
 tutions of Lycurgus. Intercourse with the eastern 
 nations, while it had introduced wealth, had brought with it foreign 
 luxuries and manners, until little but the forms of the ancient consti- 
 tution could be found. Agis, one of the best and most amiable of 
 the kings, had attempted a reformation, but Leonidas, his colleague, 
 caused him to be betrayed and assassinated, and obliged his widow, 
 Ariatis, being heiress to a large fortune, and renowned for her wis- 
 dom and beauty, to marry Clcomenes, his son. The union proved a 
 happy one. Ariatis had, as was natural, a great aversion to Leoni- 
 das, but Cleomenes, who loved and esteemed her, she ever treated 
 with respect. She revered the memory of Agis, and, by her dis- 
 course, led Cleomenes to admire his character and plans. This 
 might have been one cause which moved tliis king to make a similar 
 attempt to revive the ancient constitution. The power of the king 
 was now swallowed up by that of the Ephori. He determined, if 
 possible, to restore it. This brought, him into collision with the AchsB- 
 ans, who had now received into their league all the states of the pe- 
 ninsula, except Lacedeemon, Elis and Arcadia. The Acha?ans were 
 compelled to apply to Antigonus, who had succeeded Demetrius on 
 the throne of Alacedon. Gladly availing himself of an opportunity 
 of mingling in the affairs of the peninsula, he crossed the isthmus, 
 with an army, in aid of the Achseans, and in a battle fought at Sela- 
 B ttie of Seiasia ^^^' Cleomenes was defeated. He fled to Egypt, 
 where he was retained a prisoner by Ptolemy. 
 Sparta received its independence as a gift from Antigonus ; and 
 in the contest between its succeeding kings and the Ephori, it fell into 
 anarchy, and became the prey of tyrants. The depredations of the 
 220. iEtolians on the Messenians, soon involved the 
 
 War between the Achffians in a war with the former power. In this 
 .Etolians and Achae- war, Called the "Social war," the Achroans im- 
 ans. plored the aid of Philip III. who was at this time 
 
 on the throne of Macedon, and whose kingdom had, in a long interval 
 of peace, again become powerful. The J^tolians were joined by the 
 q-i -1 Spartans and Eleans ; and persuaded by the Ro- 
 
 ^tolians form a "lans to form a league of alliance with them. 
 league with the Ro- This prepared the way for the entire subjugation 
 mans. of Greece, although it was for some time delayed, 
 
 on account of the occupation which Hannibal's invasion gave to the 
 Roman army in Italy. 
 
 After the death of Aratus, another general arose among the 
 
CHAP. I.] RO^IE. 73 
 
 Achceans, who, in the ^Etohan wars, more than sup- 
 
 ^^^' plied his place. PhilopcEmen was deserving of a 
 
 Philopfflmen. jj^^^^^ ^^^^ g^^ ^j^^ valour and patriotism of a. 
 
 single man, could not now avert the destiny of Greece. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 Rome, which at the close of the last Period, had but com- 
 menced its conquests over the Samnites, now grasped m its am- 
 Sous views not only Italy and Africa, but the more remote do- 
 unions which had owned the sway of the Macedonian conqueror 
 Durinc the war for the conquest of the Latin states, the Samnites had 
 joined^the Romans, but becoming jealous of their increasing strength 
 they first withdrew from the alliance, and afterwards formed a league 
 with ---^ kindred ^n^s^a^mst^h^j. ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ 
 
 "^^ -Sef ""^- ousb^tli result destructive to the Samnites. At 
 one time a Roman army, under the command of the ^--1;' T^^^ 
 Veturius and Spurius Postumius, was decoyed into a defile at the 
 forks of the Caudine river, and there suri^unded by the Samnites o 
 hat either escape or battle was impossible. Finding every cifot to 
 force a passage vain, they were compelled to sue for peace, which hey 
 torce a pa , ^,^^^ ^^^^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ degrading condition. 
 
 o .~, The whole Roman army, including the consuls, 
 
 ^^nLtryCr passed,unarmedandalmostnaked,undertlieyoke.* 
 They were immediately to leave the Samnite territories. The two 
 naSs we?e henceforth to live on terms of equality, each accorchng 
 rtheir respective laws. Six hundred horsemen were given as host- 
 awes for the fulfilment of these conditions. , , „ 
 °Tlfis indignity produced, in the breasts of the haughty Romans irre- 
 concilable liltveVtowards the Samnites. Jhe senate ai^asse..b^^^^^^ 
 the people did not consider themselves bound by the tieaty. iNew 
 levies and other formidable preparations were made for a continuance 
 
 °^Thelamnites complained of the want of faith on the part of 
 
 the RomZ but with \he success which usually attends the com- 
 
 plaintsTf h^ weak against the strong. In the battles which follow. 
 
 Ke Romans sought to ^fash away their disgrace m the blood of 
 
 their enemies. The fierceness of their encounters surpassed any 
 their enem ^^^.^^ .^^ ^^^^ ^^_^^.^^^^ ^^.^^^^.^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^f. ^^^^^ 
 
 272. yeai^s continuance, the war terminated in the con- 
 
 Samnites subdued. n ucSt of Samuium. 
 
 * The yoke was a kind of gallows, composed of three spears, two being fixed in the 
 ground, and the third laid across on the top of the others. 
 
 "Y* 
 
74 ANCIENT HtSTORt*. [pERlOD VI. 
 
 Before its close, however, the Romans were attacked by the Etru- 
 Wars with the Etru- nans whom they defeated. They also became in- 
 rians and Taren- volved in hostilities with the Tarentines, who invi- 
 tines. ted to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a 
 
 Pyrrhus. general of ambition and talents, who took Alexan- 
 
 der for his model. When, however, he embarked for Italy, with a 
 few thousand troops, anticipating the conquest of the western world, 
 he soon found that he had not the enervated Persians to cope with, but 
 a people who, it is probable, would have checked Alexander himself. 
 The Tarentines, yielding themselves to their effeminate pleasures, 
 trusted to him entirely for the defence of their country, and the man- 
 agement of the war. His first battle with the Romans was at Pando- 
 sia, and though fiercely contested, the military skill of Pyrrhus finally 
 triumplied. The polished Greeks are said to have expressed aston- 
 ishment at the tactics of the Romans, remarking, " These barbarians 
 are by no means barbarous." 
 
 After the battle, Pyrrhus ravaged the country in the vicinity, took 
 the camp of the Romans, and having formed alliances with the neigh- 
 bouring tribes, marched towards Rome. When within fifteen leagues 
 of the city, he despatched an ambassador, who proposed terms of 
 peace. The Roman senate were engaged in preparations for a sec- 
 ond battle. They now intrepidly repUed that no proposals would be 
 listened to, until the army of Pyrrhus should be withdrawn from Italy. 
 Fabricius, a Roman of great worth, but poor, was 
 a ncius. g^^^^ ambassador to procure the ransom of the Ro- 
 
 man prisoners. Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him, but found the virtue 
 of the Roman, incorruptible. He next showed his terrible elephants, 
 thinking that the Roman would be intimidated at the prospect of an 
 encounter with tliese enormous animals. But the stern Roman re- 
 mained unmoved. After the return of Fabricius, and during the 
 following years in which he was consul, the physician of Pyrrhus, 
 sent him proposals for destroying his master by poison, on condition 
 of being compensated by the Romans. Fabricius immediately con- 
 veyed to his enemy information of the treacherous purpose of his 
 physician. Pyrrhus, touched with admiration of his virtue, and as 
 an expression of gratitude for his own escape, released the Roman 
 prisoners without ransom. Finding his hopes of an easy conquest of 
 Italy, fallacious, and receiving a Sicilian deputation imploring his aid 
 against the Carthaginians, he abandoned Italy, and passed over to 
 Sicily. Here he was at first successful, but after having relieved the 
 Sicilians, he assumed such a haughty control over them, that he lost 
 their aflTections. The Tarentines, now reduced to distress by the Ro- 
 mans, soliciting his aid, he again embarked for Italy. He was even 
 less successful in this enterprise thanrii^ the former. A battle was 
 fought at Beneventum, in which he was defeated by the Romans, and 
 compelled to return to Epirus. 
 
 2(36. The Romans had now made themselves masters 
 
 The Romans mas- of Italy. 
 
 teis of Italy. The relations sustained by the conquered nations 
 
 to Rome were, however, various. Some were merely allies, retain- 
 
CHAP. I.] ROME. 75 
 
 ing their internal constitution, but obliged to pay tribute, and furnish 
 auxiliary troops when demanded ; others were compelled to receive 
 Roman magistrates, annually elected. 
 
 Section III. 
 FIRST PUNIC WAR. 
 
 Rome, Carthage, and Rome now extended her ambition beyond the bor- 
 Sicily. ders of Italy, to Sicily, and to Carthage. Syracuse, 
 
 six years after the disastrous expedition of Athens against it, fell un- 
 der the dominion of Dionysius the elder, an able, and it is said a use- 
 ful prince. His son, Dionysius the younger, succeeded to his throne, 
 but not to his virtues. His cousin Dion, and afterwards the amiable 
 Corinthian, Timoleon, overtlirew his power. But the Syracusans had 
 not sufficient virtue to keep their recovered freedom. Agathocles, a 
 man of splendid talents and military renown, seized the sovereign uu- 
 thorit}', and carried his arms into Africa. Dying childless, the affairs 
 of his country fell into confusion, and Pyrrhus was called over to re- 
 duce them to order, but in vam. Hiero, a descendant of Gelon, then 
 obtained the regal authority. 
 
 Pyri'hus was carryuig on the war with the Carthaginians, and had 
 obtained some advantages, when the appearance of a new enemy 
 united the Syracusans and Carthaginians, for a time, m a common 
 league. 
 
 A body of mercenary troops, called the Mamertines, whom Aga- 
 thocles had employed in his wars, entered Messena as friends, but 
 murdered the inhabitants and obtained forcible possession of the city. 
 The Carthaginians and Syracusans were invited to aid the ]\f essenians ; 
 while the Mamertines applied to the Romans. Justice inclined the 
 Roman senate to hesitate, but did not deter them from yielding to the 
 stronger dictates of ambition, which prompted them to interfere, that 
 they might turn the dissensions of their neighbours 
 .\ to their own advantage. They sent troops to the aid 
 
 beo-ins. of the marauders. Thus commenced the first Punic 
 
 war. 
 
 The year following, Hiero changing sides, united himself with the 
 Romans, and formed with them, a plan for the expulsion of the Car- 
 thaginians from Sicily. Agrigcntum, after a siege 
 ^b "tfriidmai?" °^ several months, fell into tlie hands of the Romans. 
 
 ^ ' They now perceived the necessity of a navy, in 
 
 order to a successful contest with Carthage, now mistress of the sea. 
 
 Carthage was now at the height of her power, possessed of a large 
 portion of Africa, Spain, and Sicily, with Sardinia and other islands. 
 But Rome had a more free constitution ; her warlike citizens fought 
 their own battles, while those of Carthage w^ere entrusted to men of 
 other countries, who served for pay. 
 
 A Carthaginian galley had been taken on the coast of Italy. This 
 Tlio i^nans i.rgin Served the Romans as a model. With incredible 
 
 10 build a licet. industry, they set about building a fleet. In the 
 
76 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 mean time, they Inured their men to naval exercises. Benches similar 
 to those of the galleys, were prepared on land, where they were 
 taught to perform the action of rowing. In two months the fleet was 
 equipped. After a little practice of the rowers on shipboard, Duillius, 
 260. the commander, sailed in pursuit of the enemy. 
 
 First naval victory The two fleets met, and the Romans obtained their 
 
 of the Romans. first naval victory. 
 
 After two years, a project was formed for transferring the war 
 
 to Africa. To prevent its execution, the Carthaginians hazarded 
 
 250. anotlier naval engagement, which took place off* 
 
 Second naval victo- the coast of Sicily. Victory again declared for 
 
 ry of the Romans. the Romans. 
 
 Regulus. Regulus, to whom was committed the African ex- 
 
 pedition, landed and took Tunis, where he encamp, 
 ed. The Carthaginians at this time received a reinforcement of 
 troops from Greece, commanded by Xantippus, a Lacedosinonian. 
 To his military skill may be attributed their subsequent success. A 
 battle was now fought under the walls of Cartilage, in whicli Regulus 
 was defeated, and taken prisoner. The Carthaginians, tired of the 
 war, sent Regulus to Rome, to offer terms of peace ; but bound him 
 by an oath to return if the terms offered were not accepted. The 
 terms, by the advice of Regulus, were not accepted. He returned a 
 willing prisoner, and died in captivity. 
 
 The following year, a larger Roman fleet than had ever before 
 been put to sea, was fitted out, and having obtained a victory over the 
 enemy, sailed into Africa to bring off' the few Roman soldiers who 
 escaped after the defeat of Regulus. For several years the war was 
 carried on mostly at sea, and with so equal advantage, that there was 
 no prospect of peace. 
 
 At length a victory obtained by Lutatius, the Ro- 
 
 The Romans mas- man consul, over the Carthaginian fle'et, made the 
 
 ters of the sea. Romans masters of the sea, and by depriving the 
 
 241. Carthaginians of the means of conveying succours 
 
 End of the first Pu- to their Sicilian cities, obliged them to accept condi- 
 
 nic War. tions of pcaCC. 
 
 Carthage was deprived of all her possessions in Sicily, compelled to 
 pay the Romans a considerable sum of money, and to restore all their 
 prisoners without ransom. The Carthaginians thus exhibited a char- 
 acter the reverse of that of their enemies ; who never, in the most 
 disastrous days of the republic, thought of purchasing safety by sub- 
 mission to a foreign foe. 
 
 Peace was hardly concluded, when the Carthaginians were involv- 
 ed in a war with the mercenaries whom they had employed. 
 Though finally victorious, the republic was greatly exhausted. 
 
 The mercenaries in Sardinia, catching the spirit of insurrection, 
 rose, murdered the Carthaginians, and obtained possession of the isl- 
 and. Tlie Romans, regardless of their friendly re- 
 231. lations with Carthage, interfered, and made them. 
 
 Tlie J^ljjl*^.^ ^^'^•' selves masters of the island. The Carthaginians 
 remonstrated, but unable in their present weakened 
 
CHAP. I.] ROME. 
 
 77 
 
 State to support their right by arms, were obhged to submit to anoth- 
 er treaty, in which Sardinia was ceded to Rome. But the injustice 
 which the Carthaginirms suffered, rankled in their bosoms ; and to this 
 the second Punic war, though delayed some years, may be fairly tra- 
 
 ced. . - , . 
 
 The Carthaginians sought compensation for their 
 Carthaginians con- ^^^^ losses, by extending their conquests over Spain. 
 querpartof Spam. ^^^..^ ^^^^ ^j^^ Romans jealously interfered, and a 
 treaty was forced upon them, restricting their conquests to the further 
 side of the Iberus. 
 
 Ilamilcar was the Carthaginian general in Spain. 
 J' ' He was the inveterate foe of Rome, and laid all his 
 
 Hamiicar. ^^^^^^ ^^.^^^ ^ ^.^^^ ^^ ^^^^ humiliation of that haughty 
 
 republic. He carried with him his son Hannibal, then but nine years 
 
 of ao-e, whom he compelled to swear upon the altar, that he would 
 
 „ °., , declare himself an eternal enemy of Rome, as 
 
 Hannibal swears , . , , ., i-. • „ ii,„ „„„„„ 
 
 eternal enniity to soon as his age would permit. During the seven- 
 Rome, teen years that Hamiicar, and his son-in-law, 
 Asdrubal, commanded in Spain, most of the southern part of the 
 peninsula submitted to their arms. To secure the country, As- 
 Asdrubai builds drubal built the city of New Carthage, or Car- 
 New Cartilage. tliagcna. 
 
 After the close of the first Punic war, Rome sent a fleet into the 
 Adriatic, to put a stop to the depredations of the Illyrian pirates. This 
 fleet secured the dominion of the Adriatic, and conquered a part ofll- 
 lyria. The Greeks, who had suffered greatly from the piratical ex- 
 peditions of the lUyrians, hailed Rome as a deliverer ; while many_ of 
 the Grecian cities now formally put themselves under the protection 
 of the senate. 
 
 The Gauls had frequently, since the destruction of Rome by Bren- 
 nus, made irruptions into tlie Roman provinces, having joined both the 
 Etrurians and Samnites. The north had, however, remained quiet 
 for some time, and as j-et the Romans had not crossed the Po. Anoth- 
 er irruption of the barbarians now took place, which 
 ^. , ' , ended in their defeat at the battle of Clusium, and 
 
 £ST a ila'n the Subjection of Cisalpine Gaul to the Roman do- 
 province. minion. 
 
 Hannibal, who on the death of Asdrubal obtained the 
 ^iTr HhTiTn''' command of the Carthaginian army in Spain, early 
 
 the Oarthasfmian , , 9 , x- r*i « «l„„ 
 
 army in Spain. bcnt his thoughts towards the execution ot the plan 
 
 meditated by his father, of humbling the pride of 
 
 Rome, His finst act was to besiege Saguntum, a city 
 
 turn! ' of Spain, under Roman protection. Ambassadors 
 
 were despatched first to Flannibal, who refused on 
 
 some frivolous pretext to admit them to an audience ; then to the 
 
 senate of Carthage, from whom they received no satisfaction. jVIean- 
 
 while Hannibal prosecuted the siege with vigour, and at length took 
 
 the city. 
 
'''8 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 SECOND PUNIC WAR. 
 
 The fate of Saguntum was no sooner known at Rome, than war was 
 declared. 
 
 oi g Hannibal determined to make Italy the seat of it. 
 
 Hannibal prepares With this view he prepared to pass the Alps ; an 
 to pass the Alps. achievement wliich the Romans believed to be al- 
 together impracticable. He had previously taken 
 measures for securing the favour of the nations through whose territo- 
 ries he must pass ; having distributed gold with an unsparing hand 
 among the barbarian chiefs. Early in the spring he commenced his 
 march. Having reduced the nations which lay at the foot of the Py- 
 renean mountains, he here left his general, Hanno, with a sufficient 
 force to guard their narrow passes. He also dismissed about ten 
 tliousand of his troops, sending them home with a view of securing 
 their good will. The Gauls, being informed that the war was against 
 Ital}^, and that Hannibal desired only to pass through their territories 
 as a friend, aided him on his way. On his arrival at the Rhone, 
 however, he found the nations who dwelt on the 
 His passage over the opposite side, drawn up to prevent his passage. A 
 detachment of troops was immediately sent farther 
 up the river. Having crossed it in secresy, they came down on the 
 rear of the Gauls, who finding themselves surrounded, immediately dis- 
 persed. 
 
 Scipio and Sempro. Publius Comelius Scipio, and Tiberius Sempro- 
 nius, Roman consuls, nius, were the Roman consuls for this year. To 
 the former, was assigned Spain ; to the latter, Afri- 
 ca and Sicily. Scipio departed for his province, and finding that 
 Hannibal had already crossed the Pyrenees, pitched his camp at one 
 of the mouths of the Rhone. Hannibal, finding himself in the imme- 
 diate vicinity of a Roman army, determined to avoid a general battle. 
 He withdrew his forces from the sea, and followed up the waters of 
 the Rhone until he arrived at the foot of the Alps. Here the hearts 
 of the most courageous grew faint. The mountains with their snowy 
 tops penetrating the clouds, the naked and apparently inaccessible 
 clifls over which their path must lie, the hostile Gauls, hovering on 
 the precipices which hung over their heads, and ready on their first 
 attempt to ascend, to precipitate them into the depths below, were ob- 
 jects calculated to fill them with dismay. Hannibal used every art 
 to revive their courage. Having ascertained that the mountaineers 
 abandoned the pass at night, he with a small party 
 Hannibal passes the ^f ijg]-,^ troops passed rapidly through it, making 
 ^^' himself master of the eminences on which the Gauls 
 
 had, during the previous day, been posted. At early dawn, the army 
 commenced its ascent. The Gauls perceiving it, hastened to their 
 
CHAP. I.] ROME. 79 
 
 usual post, but to their surprise, beheld it in possession of the enemy. 
 The mountaineers now pressed into the pass by various circuitous 
 routes, augmenting the terrour and confusion of the army, until Han- 
 nibal was compelled to leave the eminence in order to disperse them. 
 The army at length gained the first pass ; but this was only the com- 
 mencement of difficulties ; sometimes, falling into ambush through 
 the treachery of guides ; again, led through bewildering tracks, and 
 over wrong roads ; now, intercepted by large bodies of the hostile 
 Gauls in battle array ; then, finding the path blocked up by tremen- 
 dous rocks, rolled from the precipices above, crushing in their onward 
 course both man and beast. But the resolute Hannibal still pursued 
 his way, until on the ninth day he completed his ascent, and reached 
 the summit. Snow having now fallen several inches in depth, in- 
 creased the dangers of the way. The army, dejected and dispirited, 
 hopeless of any termination of their toils, were sinking into utter de- 
 spondency, when Hannibal ordered them to halt on a projecting em- 
 inence. Here they looked down and beheld the valley of the Po, in 
 all its beauty and luxuriance, stretching out before them. 
 
 Their trials were not, however, ended. A difficult descent, through 
 narrow and slippery defiles, was before them. Hannibal employed 
 fifteen days in the passage of the Alps, and it was five months from 
 the time of his leaving New Carthage, before he arrived in Italy. 
 
 The consul Scipio had returned from the Rhone, and was now en- 
 camped with his legions at the Ticinus. Here Han- 
 BattleoftheTicinus. ^^^^^ j-^^^^ j^jj^^^ ^^^j obliged him to retreat. The de- 
 
 sertion of a large body of Gauls from the Romans, was the conse- 
 quence of this defeat. Scipio apprehended a general revolt, and re- 
 moved his camp to the river Trebia. Sempronius had now joined 
 his colleague, and the two consuls, with the whole strength of the Ro- 
 man army, were ready to oppose the future progress of the Car- 
 thaginians. Another battle was fought at Trebia, 
 Battle of Trebia. where the fortune of Carthage again triumphed. 
 When the news of a second defeat of a consular army was brought to 
 Rome, the whole city was in consternation, but no sound of submis- 
 sion was heard. 
 
 The passage of the Carthaginians over the Appenines, on account 
 
 of a severe storm proved nearly as destructive as that over the Alps. 
 
 Yet, early in the spring, Hannibal was again prepared for battle. 
 
 Drawing the consul Flaminius into an ambuscade 
 
 217' near lake Thrasymenus, a dreadful conflict ensued. 
 
 Battle at Lnke Thra- -pj^^ Romans, surroundcd by woods and morasses, 
 
 and pressed on all sides by their enemy, fought with 
 
 desperation. An earthquake, which overthrew many of the cities of 
 
 Italy, and turned rivers out of their courses, passed utmoticed by the 
 
 furious combatants. The genius of Hannibal again prevailed. 
 
 The misfortunes of Rome thickened around her. The appointment 
 22g of a dictator was regarded as her almost only hope. 
 
 Fabiiis Mn'ximus, Fabius Maximus, (with whom, on account of his 
 Dictator. prudcncc, the American Washington has been com- 
 
 pared,) was elected to the office. He commenced 
 
80 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 his administration by a strict attention to religious observances. He 
 adopted a plan which, had it been continued, miglit have prevented 
 the disaster of Canna?, and have driven the Carthaginians from Italy. 
 He ordered the inhabitants dwelling in insecure towns, to remove to 
 places of greater safety ; and those of the country through which 
 Hannibal must pass, to leave their homes, having first burned their 
 houses, and destroyed whatever could afford the enemy subsistence. 
 He avoided a battle, hovered near the enemy, checking their depre- 
 dations, and destroying all their supplies. 
 
 Hannibal, finding that the measures which he took to draw Fabius 
 into an engagement, were ineflectual, wreaked his sworn vengeance 
 upon Rome, by laying waste her fairest possessions. 
 
 When the army of Fabius beheld from the tops of the mountains, 
 the beautiful vale of Campania wasted by fire, its elegant villas smo- 
 king in ruins, and desolation spreading on every side, distrust of the 
 motives and policy of their commander, which had before lurked in 
 their hearts, now broke forth into open murmurs, 
 c, . . ... While these events passed in Italy, the Romans, 
 
 over the Caithagi Under Scipio, had obtained a victory over tlie Car- 
 nian fleet near the thaginian fleet near the mouth of the I her us, after 
 ibcrus. which many of tlie nations adjacent to the Iberus 
 
 submitted to them. 
 
 Although the measures of Fabius had, during the preceding cam- 
 paign, preserved the Roman army entire, yet cabals were forming 
 against liim, and the citizens regarded him as deficient in energy. 
 Tlie sole authority was taken from him, yet his counsels so far pre- 
 vailed, that for two years, Hannibal was not able to draw the Roman 
 army to a general engagement. When, however, Caius Terentius 
 Varro attained the consulship, a different course was 
 216. pursued. Hannibal drew him into an engagement 
 
 Battle of Cannaj. ^^ CannoB, where he was defeated. The flower of 
 the Roman youth lay dead upon the most disastrous of the battle 
 fields of Italy.* 
 
 „ ., ,, Hannibal, instead of proceeding to Rome, now 
 
 quests in Lower It- turned his attention to the reduction of Lower Italy. 
 aly. The most powerful of its nations submitted to his 
 
 arms, or sought his alliance. He established his quarters in Capua. 
 The luxurious habits and effeminate manners which his soldiers here 
 acquired, are assigned as the prime cause of his subsequent decline. 
 Envy and jealousy had risen against him at home, and the recruits 
 which were expected from Cartilage were withheld. 
 
 In expectation of aid from Philip, king of Macedonia, with whom he 
 had now formed a treaty, and of succours from Spain under the com- 
 mand of his brother Asdrubal, Hannibal now acted merely on the de- 
 fensive. The policy of the Romans furnished Philip with employ, 
 ment, by stirring up enemies against him in his own country. In the 
 mean time the Romans were regaining their strength, new legions 
 
 * It was on this battle field, that a great quantity of gold rings were taken from the 
 fingers of the dead Roman knights. 
 
CHAP. I.] ROME. 81 
 
 were formed, and the spirits of the nation revived. Capua was at 
 length taken from Hannibal, and tliough he had 
 Hannibal marches marched boldly to Rome, yet, when he learned that 
 to ome. while encamped before one of its gates, his presence 
 
 had inspired so little terrour that recruits for the army in Spain had 
 passed out of the other, he retired in chagrin. Asdrubal, his broth- 
 er, having effected the passage of the Alps, and arrived in the north 
 of Italy, was met and defeated by the Roman ar- 
 207. mies, near the river Metaurus, and slain. Han- 
 
 Asdrubal slain. nibal, on learning this, exclaimed, " It is done ; 
 in losing my brother I have lost all my hope, all my good fortune." 
 
 Meanwhile the younger Scipio had, by the terrour of his arms, 
 Scipio reconquers re-established the Roman power over the territories 
 Spain. of Spain, and by his engaging virtues, won the 
 
 hearts of the people. 
 
 So great was the renown which he had acquired, that after his re- 
 turn to Italy, elected consul, and having Sicily assigned as his prov- 
 ince, he had power to carry the war into Africa at 
 lnvade.s Abica. j^jg pleasure. He accordingly invaded Africa, 
 where his success compelled the Carthaginians to recal the army 
 from Italy. 
 
 The grief of Hannibal, when he received the mandate to return, 
 was extreme. He did not even yet despair of the conquest of Rome. 
 On his arrival at Carthage, he took the command of the army, and ad- 
 vanced five days into the country, when he encamped 
 ^^'^' at Zama. A battle ensued, in which, though the 
 
 Battle of Za.na. valour of the Carthaginians sustained their reputa- 
 tion, the Romans obtained a complete victory. 
 Scipio advances to- Scipio now advanced towards Carthage. At Tunis, 
 wards Carthage. j^g was met by ambassadors. The terms here im- 
 201 posed by the conqueror, though severe, were ac- 
 
 Treaty of peace. cepted by the disheartened senate of Carthage. The 
 Carthaginians agreed to relinquish their possessions 
 in Spain, and thenceforth to restrict their power to Africa ; to deliver 
 up the Roman prisoners ; to destroy their navy ; and to pay tribute to 
 Rome. 
 
 Carthage, thus deprived of its foreign possessions, and its navy, 
 though enjoying its own constitution, and the name of an independent 
 republic, was effectually deprived of all means of thwarting the bound- 
 less ambition of R-ome. Even on the side of Africa, her power was 
 soon checked. Masinissa, prince of Numidia, who had aided the 
 Romans in the late war, was by them established in his kingdom ; 
 and being declared an ally of Rome, the Carthaginians were obliged 
 to remain at peace with him. 
 
 The Romans design The Subjugation of Greece next occupied the at- 
 
 the conquest of tention of the Romans. They had drawn the iEto- 
 
 Greece. lians, and, subsequently, several other Grecian 
 
 states, into a league of alliance. Some of the Grecian cities were 
 
 dissatisfied with the terms of the peace with Philip of Macedonia, 
 
82 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI, 
 
 which followed the " Social War." The Romans had a dislike to Phi- 
 lip, on account of a treaty which he had made with Hannibal, while he 
 was victorious in Italy. Under these circumstances, they introduced 
 an army into Gx'eece, commanded by the consul Acilius. 
 
 Antiochus the Great, of the family of the Seleuci- 
 
 192. (jrg^ was now on the throne of Syria. To him Plan- 
 
 \Sar witli Aiitio- nibal, persecuted by his enemies, and exiled from 
 
 chus, king of Syria. , . ' ^ _ , rx • • i . • i , 
 
 his country, tied. He mcitcd Antiochus, who was 
 very susceptible to flattery, to fancy himself destined to become a 
 great conqueror, and to desire to cope with the Romans. Laying 
 claim to possessions in Greece, Antiochus marched an army into 
 Thessaly, took several cities, and proceeded to the pass of Thermo- 
 pylpe, where he was met and defeated by the Roman army under 
 Acilius. He escaped with a very kw of his troops to Colchis, from 
 whence he returned to Asia. Tiie cities and fortresses, of which he 
 had obtained possession, surrendered to the Romans. 
 
 Acilius having expelled Antiochus from Greece, and the Romans 
 having obtained several naval victories, the next consul, Lucius Scipio, 
 brother to the conqueror of Hannibal, carried his 
 190. arms into Asia. A battle was fought at Magnesia, 
 
 Battle of Magnesia. ^^^^^ mount Siphylus, in which Antiochus sutfered 
 an entire defeat. He now sued for peace, which he obtained only 
 by resigning his pretensions in Europe, and by the cession of all 
 Lesser Asia, as far as Mount Taurus, and the surrender of half his 
 ships. 
 
 With a show of magnanimity, the Romans freed 
 The Romans free the ^j^g Greek cities of Asia Minor, dividhig the remain- 
 j^iijo,. der of the conquered lands between their alHes. 
 
 But their moderation was only in a])pearance. In 
 reality, they now held sway from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. Af. 
 ter the peace with Antiochus, the persecuted Hannibal, fearful of be- 
 ing delivered to the Romans, fled toPrusias, king of Bythinia. The 
 Romans demanded him, and he, whose great but misguided talents 
 had been employed for the destruction of his fellow- 
 Hannibal destroys bcings, now, far from home and friends, raised his 
 hand against himself. 
 
 In the meantime, Philip of Macedonia, was ex- 
 PhihpofMaccdonia. tending his power, and waiting for an occasion to 
 make war upon the Romans. The condition of his 3'oung son, De- 
 metrius, whom he had been compelled to surrender as a hostage, and 
 who was now at Rome, for a time delayed the vengeance of the fa- 
 ther. At length he received him. The amiable youth had become 
 attached to the Roman people, and his innocent expressions were at- 
 tributed by his elder brother, Perseus, to treasonable connexion with 
 the enemy of his country, a design to dethrone his father, and (sup- 
 ported by the Romans) to become monarch in his stead. By order 
 of Philip, he was secretly put to death. Too late, the repentant 
 father found that he had sacrificed an innocent son, to a base and 
 jealous deceiver. Struck with remorse, he died, and left his crown 
 to the unworthy Perseus. 
 
CHAP. I.] ROME. 83 
 
 Perseus now souglu every where, to stir up en- 
 ^'^^' mity against the Romans. He partially succeeded ; 
 
 Perseus. ^^^^. ^^^^ declared ; but his avarice rendered him 
 
 unpopular, and he afforded but little aid to his allies. Tiie Romans, 
 on their part, did not prosecute the war in Greece with their usual 
 vigour, till at length, Paulus iEmilius, being elected consul, obtained 
 a decisive victory over Perseus at Pydna. Perseus fled, was pur- 
 sued, taken, and with his family carried captive to Rome. 
 
 A triumph, as was the case in gi'cat successes, 
 16'5' was now granted, by the Roman senate, to the con- 
 
 Tnuraph of Paulus queror. — History gives no account of any exhibi- 
 tions of human vanity, equal to the triumphs of the 
 victorious generals of Rome. — On this occasion, three days were con- 
 sumed in gorgeous processions, in which the spoils of the vanquished 
 were paraded through the streets, with splendid military shows and 
 martial music. Last came Paulus ^milius in his pompous chariot, 
 blazing with gold and purple. Behind the triumphal car of the victor, 
 on foot and clothed in black, followed the conquered king, with his 
 iittlc children, holding forth their hands, and imploring the pity of the 
 spectators. This, says Plutarch, the children of Perseus had been 
 taught to do ; for they were too young to feel their miserable degra- 
 dation. When Perseus begged of his conqueroj: to be spared this 
 degrading exhibition, iEmilius replied by hinting to him, that he might 
 spare himself from it by committing suicide ; — yet, Paulus ^milius 
 was regarded in those days as a man of great moderation. It would 
 be well if those who deny the progressive improvement of man, and 
 the meliorating influences of that religion which teaches us to give 
 glory to God, and to be merciful to man, would consider, how, at this 
 day, such a spectacle as the triumph of Paulus yEmilius, would be 
 regarded in a Christian country. The miserable 
 Macedonia subject Perseus ended his days in a Roman prison, and Ma- 
 
 to the Komans. , . .,,•'. i t» 
 
 cedonia remained subject to the Roman power. 
 In the meantime, Antiochus Epiphanes, now on 
 ^^''^"^and'Er,"!^^"^ the throne of Syria, was engaged in a war with 
 ° Egypt, whose kings, Philometer, and Ptolemy Phys- 
 
 con, finding themselves hard pressed, some of their cities having 
 already fallen into the hands of Antiochus, requested the interference 
 of the Roman senate. They sent ambasadors, requiring of the Syrian 
 prince, in an authoritative tone, to restore the places which he had 
 taken from the Egyptians. Such was the terrour of the Roman 
 name that he felt himself obliged to submit to the imperious mandate. 
 
84 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Section I. 
 THE THIRD PUNIC WAR. 
 
 Fifty years having elapsed since the close of the 
 149. second Punic war, the industrious Carthaginians had 
 
 repaired their ruined city, so that it began to exhibit traces of its 
 former splendour. 
 
 Cato, the censor, an austere man, now in his do- 
 Cato urges the de- tage, whose feehngs of justice and sympathy seem 
 thage. ' "°^ ^^ have extended beyond the boundaries of the 
 Roman territory, having had occasion to visit Car- 
 thage, gave to the senate, on his return, such accounts of its growing 
 power, that he awakened their jealousy, ending, as Plutarch says, all 
 his speeches, no matter on what subject they began, by saying, " and 
 in my opinion, Carthage must be destroyed." Pretexts were soon 
 found in the disjuites which arose between iVTasinissa, king of Numi- 
 dia, and the Carthaginians. While the senate were deliberating on 
 the expediency of immediate war, deputies were received from Utica, 
 the second city of Africa, and in the neighbourhood 
 ^''"^Roraanr" "'^ of Carthage, surrendering their city to the Roman 
 power. Having now a convenient depot, the senate 
 Roman fleet sent to no longer hesitated te send a fleet to Africa, although 
 Africa. ^j^g Carthaginian ambassadors at Rome made offers 
 
 of satisfaction and submission. No sooner was it known at Carthage 
 that the Roman fleet had arrived at Utica, than ambassadors were 
 despatched thither also, to make all necessary con- 
 Carthaginians sue cessions in Order to obtain peace. Orders were 
 or peac . issued by the Roman commander for conveying the 
 
 munitions of war fi"om Carthage to the Roman camp. The Cartha- 
 ginians gave them up ; but the means of defence were no sooner 
 removed from tiieir city, than their ambassadors were informed that 
 it was the will of the Roman senate, that Carthage should be destroy- 
 ed ; and they therefore commanded that all the citizens should de- 
 part. Astonished and overwhelmed with grief, the ambassadors 
 attempted by the most earnest supplications, to obtain the mercy of 
 those who appeared deaf to the claims of justice. They could only 
 so far prevail, as to obtain permission to send another embassy to 
 Rome. The deputies returned to the city, and communicated the 
 confirmation of the barbarous decree. The citizens, in despair, re- 
 solved to defend themselves to the last extremity. The delay of the 
 Roman consuls, who apprehended no resistance from a disarmed city, 
 afforded the Carthaginians an opportunity to prepare for the siege. 
 The temples, palaces, and markets, were, converted into arsenals, 
 
CHAP. II.] ROME. 85 
 
 where men and women worked day and night in the manufacture of 
 
 arms. But these preparations, while they delayed, could not avert 
 
 the fate of the city. After a bravely sustained siege of three years, 
 
 Carthage capitulated, with no other condition than that the lives of 
 
 those who were willing to leave the citadel, should be spared. The 
 
 city, which had existed for seven hundred years, and 
 
 ^4:6. at the commencement of the war contained 700,000 
 
 Carthage burnt. inhabitants, was now reduced to ashes. It is rela- 
 
 ted that Scipio, the consul, weeping over its ruins, repeated a verse 
 
 from Homer on the mutability of human greatness, alluding to what 
 
 would one day be the fate of Rome also. 
 
 Troubles having arisen between the members of the Achsean 
 
 league, which had till this time preserved a shadow 
 
 ■^4'' of liberty, the Romans availed themselves of t'lis 
 
 The Romans at- opportunity afforded by their dissensions, for dis- 
 
 leinpt to dissolve the i • ■ /-, • ■ r^ ■ ^ 
 
 Acliajan leao^ue. soivuig it. Commissioners were sent to Corinth, 
 
 with orders to separate as many states as possible 
 from the league. When, in the execution of their commission, they 
 called on the league to surrender those places in the Peloponnesus, 
 formerly occupied by the Macedonian king, the Corinthian multitude 
 became so furious as to insult the ambassadors, who were obliged to 
 flee from their violence. This furnished the Ro- 
 
 Rome declares war ^^^^g ^j^,^ ^ .^j^^^^ fo^. ^^^^^ ^he AchffianS, al- 
 upon Acliaia. i , • • i • m i r- t 
 
 though heroic in their eiiorts to restore the freedom 
 
 of Greece, only perished in the attempt. Critolaus, 
 
 ■*"• their general, was defeated, and in the same year 
 
 Corinth destroyed, , Carthage was bumcd, Corinth was also taken 
 
 and Ureecea Roman o i /->, i i /. 
 
 province, and destroyed ; and Crcece under the name ot 
 
 Achaia, became henceforth a Roman province. 
 
 Thus, in the west, the last feeble glimmering of Grecian liberty 
 had become extinguished ; in the south, Carthage lay smoking in 
 ruins ; and in the east, Syria had bowed in humble submission to the 
 mandate of the haughty republic. Spain, although the native Span- 
 iards maintained long-continued and obstinate wars in defence of 
 their liberty, was mostly reduced to submission.* 
 
 X33^ About this time the kingdom of Pergamus was 
 
 Pergaraus bt-qucaili- bequeathed to Rome, by its monarch Attains III. 
 
 ed to Rome. The acquisition of such immense territories; while 
 
 * These wars commenced soon after the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain, 
 and continued with little intermission. Cato the Censor, had at one time reduced 
 Hither Spain, into a state of submission ; but the contest was soon renewed, and car- 
 ried on with such success by tne natives, as to give even the Roman soldiers a dread 
 of going into that province. During the wais with Carthage and Achiia, Viriathus, 
 a native Lnsitanian, was raised to the supreme command in his nation, and uniting 
 various tribes of Hither and Farther Spain, under his command, proved a most formi- 
 dable foe. The Romans at length triumphed over him, not in open warfare, but by 
 procuring his assa.ssination. TJiis act, contrasted with the conduct of the consul in 
 the war with Pyrrhus, proclaims the degeneracy which had already taken place in 
 the Roraati character. 
 
86 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 it raised the Roman name to the highest pitch of grandeur, and drew 
 into the treasury the wealth of so many remote nations, at the same 
 Corruption of pub- time Corrupted the morals of tlie people, and thus 
 lie morals, and con- undermined the foundation of the republic. From 
 sequent disorders. ^j^jg pg^joj^ bribery and corruption swayed the sen- 
 ate at home, and extortion and oppression marked the administration of 
 the provincial governments abroad. Factions and internal convulsions 
 now appeared in the city, and distracted the state. Rome was divided 
 into aristocratic and democratic parties, whose contests were more 
 destructive than the ancient dissensions between the patricians and 
 plebeians. The power of the senate had given rise to a family aris- 
 tocracy, extremely odious to the people. A law called the Licinian 
 law, from Liciiiius Stolo, who proposed it, which restricted the pos- 
 session of public land to five hundred acres, had for a while re- 
 strained the avarice of the wealthy, and enabled the poor to obtain 
 their farms at moderate rents. The power of the aristocracy had, 
 however, gradually increased, until they had now secured to them- 
 selves tlie public lands, which were cultivated by their slaves. In 
 consequence of this, many of the poor, who were called on for 
 military services, were left without the means of procuring a 
 livelihood ; while the rich enjoyed the fruits of all their victories 
 and conquests. 
 
 An agrarian law was proposed by the tribune of 
 Tiberius Gracchus, ^j-^g people, Tiberius Scmpronius Gracchus, as a 
 means of improving their condition, whicli he hoped to effect by a 
 juster distribution of the public lands, and not, as some have supposed, 
 by taking t!ie private property of the rich, and giving it to tlie poor. 
 The first law proposed, was mild in its character, but the enthusiastic 
 zeal of the populace, who began to look with hope for the establish- 
 mentof their rights, and the obstinacy with which the nobles clung to 
 their usurped privileges, soon brought on more violent measures. A 
 renewal of the Licinian law, was at length effected. Tiberius Grac- 
 chus made a further proposal, that the treasures of Attalus should be 
 divided among the people. The nobility resisted — sedition ensued, 
 in which Tiberuis and three hundred of the citizens fell victims. 
 
 Although the leader was destroyed, the party was by no means 
 crushed. Tiberius had made the people feel the power of their tri- 
 bunes, and they resolved to exercise and increase it. 
 
 Caius Gracchus, a brother of Tiberius, some years 
 121. afterwards, obtained the office. He proposed sev- 
 
 Caius Grucchus. gj,g^j j^^^g which tended to diminish the power of the 
 senate, while they increased that of the people. A tumult more 
 threatening in its aspect than that which occasioned the death of Ti- 
 berius, now arose ; Caius was slain, and about three thousand of his 
 friends perished. The aristocratic party who had thus triumphed, 
 procured the repeal of the agrarian laws, confiscated the goods of 
 Caius, and prohibited his family from wearing mourning. The me- 
 mory of the Gracchi, however, was revered by the people, who after- 
 wards erected statues to them, in the most public part of the city. 
 
CHAP. II.] ROME. 87* 
 
 Soon after these events, occurred a war with Ju- 
 112. gurtha, king of Numidia. Hiempsal, tlie son and 
 
 Jugurilunc War. successor of Masinissa, had adopted him into his 
 family, and divided the kingdom of Numidia between him and his two 
 sons. Jugurtha had dethroned the sons of Hiempsal, and seized up- 
 on the whole kingdom ; and for a time, his acts and bribery had pre- 
 vented the Roman senate from declaring war. At length iiis crimes 
 compelled them to proceed against him. The consul Metellus, a 
 man of great merit, was despatched into Africa, and prevailing over 
 the infamous Jugurtha, was bringing the war to a favourable termi- 
 nation, when Marius, a new demagogue, who by his bravery had ob- 
 tained the favour of the people, was appointed to the chief command, 
 and snatched from Metellus the glory of the war. Bocchus, king 
 of Upper Numidia, an ally of Jugurtha, privately offered to deliver 
 him up to Sylla, who was an officer in the army of Marius. Sylla 
 went to the camp of Bocchus, where Jugurtha was given into his 
 hands. The ambitious Sylla had a seal prepared representing the 
 exploit, and thenceforth claimed the honour of terminating the war. 
 Thus began the quarrel between Marius and Sylla. 
 
 The Cimbri, the Teutones, and other barbarians 
 '"''''' br&r ^'"'" """^^ poured down fj-om the north. The senate dis- 
 liking Marius, and unwilling that a plebeian should 
 enjoy the honors of the consulate, were, notwithstanding, obliged to 
 make use again of his military talents, to conduct their armies against 
 the invaders. He met and defeated them near the mouth of the 
 Rhone, where, it is said, 100,000 of them were slain. Another 
 division of the barbarians had descended into the plains of Italy, 
 and threatened Rome. There, also, Marius met and vanquished 
 them. 
 
 Marius having now delivered Rome from the 
 Marius and MluHus. ^i^.^^^j ^,p foreign enemies, returned to disturb her 
 domestic tranquillity, by the indulgence of the hatred and revenge 
 which rankled in his heart. He now aspired to a sixth consulate, 
 which he is said to have obtained by bribery. His arts, and the fame 
 of his military achievements enabled him to sway the minds of the 
 multitude at will, while the hatred which he bore to the patricians, 
 seemed only increased by his successes. Metellus, who had been 
 supplanted by Marius in the Jugurthine war, possessed inflexible in- 
 tegrity, and every where bore about him the spirit of better days. 
 He was, consequently, an object of extreme dislike to a demagogue 
 like Marius. IVIarius therefore resolved to remove him beyond the 
 possibility of interfering in the aflairs of the state. With this view, 
 he associated with himself Saturninus, a tribune of the people, and 
 Glaucia, a praetor, who possessed great power with the seditious 
 populace. By his instrumentality, laws were passed, increasing to 
 an alarming degree, tiie power of the democracy. The insolence 
 and crimes of the popular party, headed by a seditious tribune, now 
 knew no bounds. Marius, although at first he encouraged them, in 
 order to effect his own purposes, was at length obliged to call out a 
 
88 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERTOD VI. 
 
 body of soldiers to suppress their lawless proceedings. Thus he in- 
 curred their ill will. Hatred already existed between him and the 
 senate. Sylla, his implacable enemy, was rapidly hicreasing in pop- 
 ularity, and IMetellus, whose banishment he had procured, was re- 
 called fi'om exile. Marius, foreseeing evil, withdrew from Rome. 
 Other and pressing dangers for a while occupied the nation, and gave 
 the factious spirit of the citizens employment without the walls of 
 Rome. 
 
 The Italian allies of Rome had, from time to 
 91' ^ time, been flattered with the hope of obtaining citi- 
 
 Thc Social \» ar. zeiiship. Until, despairing of the accomplishment of 
 their wishes, and driven by continued oppressions, they formed a 
 league among themselves which threatened to subvert the power of 
 Rome itself. This contest was marked by frequent and bloody bat- 
 tles ; victory sometimes declaring in favour of the allies, sometimes for 
 Rome. This war, called the Social, or Marsian war, was finally 
 terminated by concessions on the part of tlie Romans ; the allies 
 eventually obtaining all the privileges which they demanded. 
 
 While these events were disturbing the peace of 
 Foreign Tumults. ^.j-j^ republic, Asia was in a constant state of tumult 
 and disorder, and Egypt, under the government of the degenerate 
 sons of Ptolemy, rapidly sinking. — An insurrection of the Jews, which 
 had taken place in consequence of their persecution by Antiochus 
 Epiphanes of Syria, had ripened into open rebellion, and, though 
 maintained at the expense of constant wars with Syria, finally re- 
 sulted in the establishment of a government of their own. Armenia, 
 Parthia, and Bactria had become independent kingdoms. — Pontus, also, 
 by obtaining Phrygia of the Romans, and by encroachments upon 
 the surrounding nations, had become enlarged in extent, and now held 
 under Mithridates, a prince of enterprise and talents, the first rank 
 among the Asiatic powers. 
 
 Mithridates, during his conquests in Asia Minor, 
 Mitlindaiic War. ]j^j| giyg,-, indications of his hostile views towards 
 Rome, by putting to death great numbers of the Roman citizens of 
 Lesser Asia. The factions in Rome were still distracting the repub- 
 lie. During the Marsian war, in which both Marius and Sylla had 
 been employed, Sylla had increased in popularity, and Marius had 
 declined. War with Mithridates being declared, Marius, whose 
 subserviency to the populace had produced new disorders, procured 
 himself to be chosen to the command, but the army refusing to obey 
 him, the command was transferred to Sylla. 
 
 Open war between the rivals, ensued. The for- 
 °"' ^ tune of Sylla triumphed ; — Marius was driven into 
 
 Marius and Sylla. exile, and a price set upon his head, but, with great 
 hazard, he effected his escape into Africa. — Sylla, after his victory, 
 departed for Asia, but not until by his cruelties he had rendered him- 
 self obnoxious to all parties at home. 
 
 The Grecian cities, with the exception of Athens, opened their gates 
 
 to him. Athens declared for Mithridates. Sylla 
 
 Scyiia takes Athens, besieged, and took this city ; violated the sanctua- 
 
CHAP. II.] ROME. 89 
 
 ries of Greece, and made himself master of their treasures, which he 
 distributed with lavisli profusion among his soldiers ; thereby attach- 
 ing them to his service, but corrupting the army, and thus hastening 
 the ruin of his country. Near Cha;ronea, in Boeotia, and atOrchome- 
 nus, in Thessaly, Sylla obtained victories over the forces of Mithrida- 
 Mithridatessubuiits. ^cs, who was at length compelled to sue for peace. 
 All claims to Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Lesser Asia, 
 were relinquished, and on these terms Mithridates was declared a 
 friend and ally of the Romans. 
 
 But while Sylla was thus triumphing in the East, a revolution was 
 effected at Rome. The consul Cinna, of the party of Marius, after 
 the departure of Sylla, having resorted to the former measures of the 
 Marian faction, was expelled by his colleague Octavius. He now 
 raised an army, recalled Marius, defeated the army of the senate, and 
 entered Rome triumphant. Massacres and horrours followed the en- 
 trance of the vindictive Marius, and Rome, deluged with the blood of 
 his victims, turned her eyes towards the victorious Sylla. Marius 
 heard with appalling dread the approach of his enemy. — He sickened 
 and died, and Rome rejoiced at the event. — Sylla, who had landed in 
 Apulia, found himself surrounded by powerful armies, under the com- 
 mand of Marius, the son of his late enemy, and other distinguished 
 commanders, Carbo, Scipio, and Norbanus. Young Pompey, who 
 was rising into consequence, and had the command of some troops, 
 with most of the leading citizens, declared for Sylla, who entered 
 Rome like a triumphant conqueror. He had now overcome his ene- 
 mies, and was supreme in Rome, but the senate and people were soon 
 to learn that they had exchanged one brutal tyrant, for another still 
 more bloody. He caused lists of such persons as he disliked, to be 
 put up in public places, offering rewards to those who should kill 
 them. These lists of proscription were daily renewed. Whoever 
 favoured a proscribed person, although his own father or nearest rela- 
 tive, was himself devoted to death ; while those who destroyed their 
 friends, received ample rewards. The streets were filled with the 
 dead. On one occasion, seven thousand persons were assembled in 
 a small place, and there put to the sword ; while the insulted senate, 
 sitting near, were compelled to listen to their groans. To such de- 
 grading tyranny was Rome, the mistress of the world, compelled to 
 submit ; and thus were her cruelties to Carthage, and other fallen en- 
 emies, visited upon her own head. 
 
 Sylla had declared himself dictator ; and in this capacity, he modi- 
 fied the laws to suit his own purposes. Afterwards he voluntarily 
 abdicated his power, and although he escaped the chastisement which 
 he deserved, from human hands, yet God smote him with a most loath- 
 some disease, of which he died. — In the wars of Marius and Sylla, 
 thirty persons of consular dignity, two hundred senators, and one hun- 
 dred and fifty thousand Roman citizens, are said to have perished ; 
 while other thousands were left to drag out a miserable existence, 
 without kindred, or friends, or means of subsistence. 
 
90 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 68. In the east, another war with Mithridates had 
 
 Second Mitliridatic broken out. The consul Lucullus had obtained the 
 ^^ ^''" command in that quarter, and conducted the war 
 
 with such vigour and abihty, that the second year he compelled Mith- 
 ridates to fly to his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of Armenia. Tigranes, 
 although he had before neglected to afford him any aid, now refused 
 to deliver him up. Lucullus, therefore, carried the war into Arme- 
 nia. At Tigranocerta, and Artaxata, the army of Lucullus obtained 
 victories over the allied forces of these kings, but a mutiny among the 
 Roman soldiers now embarrassed his movements, and enabled Mith- 
 ridates to recover his strength. 
 
 In the mean time, a party advei'se to Lucullus 
 Ponipey. had arisen in Rome, and the command had been 
 
 transferred to Pompey. The reputation which this 
 young commander had acquired during a late war in Spain, had been 
 increased by his conquest of the pirates of Cilicia and Isauria, and 
 thus prepared the way for his appointment to the command in the east, 
 which had long been the object of his desire. Immediately on receiv- 
 ing it, he proceeded, at the head of 30,000 chosen troops, to take the 
 place of Lucullus. 
 
 Mithridates, the most powerful and able general with whom the 
 Romans had contended since the days of Hannibal, had, with the aid 
 of Tigranes, already reconquered most of his territories. His policy 
 was to avoid a general battle, but to hover near the Romans, and by 
 intercepting their convoys, to distress and reduce them. 
 
 Pompey felt theefiects of these measures, and departed from Pontus 
 into Armenia, determined to reduce that province, or force Mithri- 
 dates to an engagement, in order to relieve it. Mithridates followed 
 with his army. Pompey, failing to draw him into an engagement, 
 besieged him in his camp for fifty days. Mithridates, reduced to 
 distress, at dead of night attacked the Roman guards, broke through 
 their intrenchments, and gained the open country. Pompey pursued, 
 and finding unguarded passes, sent detachments, which secretly gained 
 commanding positions in the rear of the Pontians. Pie then surprised 
 their camp at night. Thus surrounded, they suffered a total defeat. 
 Mithridates escaped with 800 horse ; but even this remnant of his ar- 
 my forsook him and fled. With only his wife, his daughter, and one 
 officer, he sought the court of Tigranes ; but that timid monarch refu- 
 sed his father-in-law a shelter, and he pursued his 
 Mithridates flees to way till he found a home among the more generous 
 S^^'^"^- Sc/thians. 
 
 Pompey now concluded a treaty with Tigranes, by which he was 
 received into the Roman alliance, and then proceeded northwards in 
 pursuit of ]\Iithridates. He passed two years in wars with the vari- 
 ous northern nations, penetrating far into Scythia, and exposing him- 
 self and his army to the most extreme hardships and peril. Obtain- 
 
CHx\P. II.] ROME. 91 
 
 ing no intelligence of MIthridates, and believing him dead, he retraced 
 his course, proceeded to Pontus, and reduced those places which still 
 remained faithful to the absent king. 
 
 Then leaving a few troops in Pontus, under the 
 
 "3' command of his lieutenants, he carried his armies 
 
 ^""^ Jmll°r"''' ^"*° ^y^'^^' conquered Judaja, and penetrated to 
 
 Arabia. 
 Mithridates re- After hls departure from Pontus, Mithridates is- 
 
 appeais. g^ed from his concealment, appeared in Pontus, at 
 
 the head of a considerable army, and made himself master of several 
 important places. But fortune had deserted liim. His officers mu- 
 tinied, and he sought in vain the alliance of the Scythians. He was 
 preparing to lead what few troops remained with him, into Europe, and, 
 by a union with the Gauls, to attack the Romans ni that quarter, but 
 his army murmured, and his son Pharnaces, availing himself of their 
 Mthridarps kills disaffection, proclaimed himself king ; and Mithri- 
 himself. dates, driven to despair, committed suicide. 
 
 Pompey, after declaring Pharnaces an ally to the Romans, pre- 
 pared to return to Italy. Rome rejoiced in his success, and on the 
 proposal of Cicero, twelve days were set apart for offering thanks- 
 givings to the gods. 
 
 Skction III. 
 
 Pompcj", on his arrival in Italy, disbanded his army, to the great joy 
 of the senate, who feared he would retain it, and after the examples 
 of Marius and Sylla, make himsjlf absolute in power. — Rome was 
 Conspiracy ofCata- unquiet. The Conspiracy of Catalinc and his asso- 
 I'ne- ciates, which had for its object to extirpate the Ro- 
 
 man senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire, had been 
 detected, and the conspirators punished, through tlie patriotism of 
 Cicero, (thence called the " father of his country ;") aided by the 
 honest and philosophical Cato. 
 
 60. But the master spirit of the times was Julius 
 
 First Triuaivirate CjESAR, now just returned fi'om a successful war in 
 under Caesar, Pom- Spain. Concealing his boundless ambition, he was 
 
 pey and Crassus. ^^ Rome, paying court to the ladies, and acting the 
 intriguing demagogue. Crassus, by assuming popular manners, by 
 increasing his great wealth, and by constantly making himself useful 
 to those who needed his aid, had, with far inferior talents, acquired 
 power and influence equal to those of either Coesar or Pompey. 
 Crassus and Pompey were at variance. Ceesar artfully reconciled 
 them, and the three having formed a union, divided between them- 
 selves, under the name of the triumvirate, the supreme power of the 
 commonwealth. 
 
 Ctesar's next step was to get himself appointed to 
 
 Ca;sar in Gaul. command an expedition against the Gauls. 
 ,, . T» , ■ The succeeding year, Crassus departed for Asia, 
 
 to carry on a new war agamst tlie rarthians, while 
 
92 ANCIENT HISTORY. [pERIOD VI. 
 
 Pompey remained at Rome at tlie.Ja^iad of the affairs of Italy, Africa, 
 and Spain. 
 
 Partliia, which by coming into collision with an European power, 
 now for the first time makes a conspicuous figure in history, was an 
 ancient nation of whose early history little is known. It was suc- 
 cessively subject to the Modes, the Persians, and to Alexander the 
 Great. In the division of Alexander's kingdom, it fell to the portion 
 of Seleucus, and continued, for a considerable time, a part of the 
 kingdom of the Seleucidse ; at length it revolted, and became an in- 
 dependent government. Arsaces, the principal instigator of the re- 
 volt, was declared king, and his family had continued on the throne 
 until the present time. Tiio monarclis of Syria had made several 
 efforts to recover this province, but without success ; wliile the Par- 
 thians had at various times extended the boundaries of their kingdom, 
 by conquests over their neighbours. At one period, (soon after the 
 death of Antiochus Epiphanes,) the Parthian kingdom extended from 
 the Euphrates eastward beyond the Indus. Internal dissensions, 
 however, and the power of Tigranes, of Armenia, and of Mithri- 
 dates, of Pontus, had considerably reduced its limits, and weakened 
 its strength. 
 
 A treaty with the Parthians had been entered into by LucuUus, and 
 renewed by Pompey, the terms of which had been faithfully kept by 
 the Parthians, and the two nations were now in peace. But Crassus 
 wishing to increase his wealth, and to equal the military fame of his 
 rivals, undertook against them an unprovoked and unrighteous war. 
 At the head of the Roman legions, he passed through Syria and Ju- 
 dtea, plundered the temple at Jerusalem, crossed the Euphrates, and 
 reduced many towns of Mesopotamia. 
 
 The Parthians rose in arms, and while Crassus laid up his army in 
 winter quarters, retook the places he had conquered. When he re- 
 commenced his march, they provided him with an artful adviser in 
 Ariamnes, an Arabian chief, to whom Crassus gave ear, as he made 
 great pretences of friendsliip and gratitude to the Romans, for servi- 
 ces rendered his father. Deaf to the remonstrances of Caius Cassius, 
 an able general, and of other officers and friends, who knew the Par- 
 thian mode of warfare, he persisted in keeping the open plains of 
 Mesopotamia. For some time the march of the army was through a 
 fertile and well watered country, where the wants of the soldiers 
 were easily and fully supplied. Soon, however, the scene changed, 
 and they entered upon dry and sandy plains, where neither stream, 
 nor tree, nor plant appeared. Besides, they soon found that they 
 were in the midst of an hostile- army. The Parthians attacked them. 
 The Romans fought bravely, but in vain ; whether advancing, or re- 
 treating, the discharge of the Parthian arrows were equally effective. 
 The army of Crassus, surrounded on all sides, was reduced to the 
 53. greatest extremity ; a large division was totally 
 
 Crassus defeated defeated ; and his son, who commanded it, slain. 
 
 and slain. Crassus, at length, effected a retreat, and threw him- 
 
 self into Carrae ; thither he was pursued by Surena, the Parthian 
 general, and fearful of an assault, he determined, unknown to the in- 
 
 i 
 
CHAP. II.] "* ROME. 93 
 
 habitants, to leave the city. His design was discovered by Surena, 
 and again a guide was suborned, who led him into marshes, where he 
 was overtaken, and finally slain. Of all his army, only 500 horse, 
 under the command of Cassius, escaped. Twenty thousand are said 
 to have been slain by the Parthians, and ten thousand taken prison- 
 ers. 
 
 Ccesar had at first received the government of Gaul for five years, 
 but at their expiration, lie was involved in wars with the barbarians, 
 and another five years were added to the time. 
 
 During this period, his daring*achievenients, his 
 Cwsai's cliaracter. adventurous spirit, liis personal toils and exposures, 
 exhibited military talents equal, if not superior, to those of Alexander, 
 and of Hannibal. To these he added, what neither of them possessed, 
 the polish of the finished scholar. The commanding powers of lan- 
 guage were his, whether he chose to exert them in speaking, or in 
 writing. He had in his youth pursued his education in Greece, whith- 
 er Cicero, Cato, and other eminent orators, at this golden period of 
 Roman eloquence, resorted for instruction ; the Romans thus ceding 
 the nobler palm of the arts of peace, to the nation whom they had 
 mastered in war.- 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 The expeditions of Caesar, as described by himself, in his Com- 
 mentaries, bring into notice places not before known in history. 
 
 55. The most remarkable of them is Britain, which 
 
 c-esai- invades Bri- he twice invaded. He found it inhabited by bar- 
 tain and Germany, barous tribes, who subsisted mostly on milk and 
 flesh. He enlarged the bounds of the Roman empire towards the 
 southern limits of Gaul, and found many different tribes, of new and 
 singular appearance. He also invaded Germany and had bloody 
 battles with its wandering natives, who dwelt not in cities, and were 
 distinguished by peculiar customs, among which was the rehgious 
 veneration which they paid to women. 
 
 First triumvirate On the death of Crassus, the triumvirate was dis- 
 
 dissohfd. solved. Pompey and Caesar were left to compete 
 
 for the supremacy. Julia, the amiable daughter of Csesar, whom he 
 had given in marriage to Pompey, had proved a bond of union be- 
 tween these two ambitious spirits ; but she was now dead, and Pompey 
 married Cornelia,* of the family of the Scipios, and the widow of the 
 
 * According to Plutarch, Cornelia was beautiful, amiable, well versed in polite 
 literature, played the lute, and was acquainted with geometry and pliilosopliy. But 
 the erudition of women among the Romans seems in many respects degraded. Their 
 fathers or brothers, without consulting their affections, gave them in marriage, as it 
 suited their own ambitious purposes ^^ hen Ca3sar wished to he connected with 
 Pompey, Julia, who was on Ilie eve of marriage to another, must be given to him. 
 Formerly when Sylla wished for the same connexion, Jie took his step daughter, 
 Emilia, from her husband, and obliged the young Pompey to divorce his first wife 
 Antistia, and marry her. Men divorced iheir wives at pleasure. Cajsar divorced his 
 first wife Pompeia, declaring that though ho had no proof of her guilt, yet, " Caesar's 
 wife must be above suspicion." Cato, who is regarded as a pattern of morality, di- 
 vorced his second wife, Marcia, (if Plutarch may be credited,) on a sinerular whim of 
 9 
 
94 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI 
 
 son of Crassus. Animosities between themy fatal to the peace of 
 Rome, were now beginning to appeal*. Cicero vainly attempted a 
 reconciliation. 
 
 Pompey hud enlisted the senate and the people on his side. Caesar, 
 . on the other hand, was the idol of his veteran army. 
 
 Civil dissensions. Pomj)ey obtained a decree from the senate, com- 
 manding Ceesar to disband his troops. Mark Antony, then a tribune, 
 fled to Csesar's camp with the news. To obey the mandate, would be 
 to put himself in the power of his rival. To advance with his army, 
 and pass the river Rubicon, would be setting the power of the senate 
 and the laws of his country at defiance. He advanced with an 
 49^ agitated mind, paused on the brink of the interdicted 
 
 Cffisai- pa^-ses the Stream, then dashed forward, and as he passed, he 
 Rubicon. exclaimed " the die is cast." The celerity of his 
 
 movements surprised his enemies. Pompey, not being in force to 
 meet him, fled from Rome, first to Caj)ua, and afterwards to Brundu- 
 sium. Csesar, following him thither, crossed the Adriatic, with the 
 army he had now collected, uito Greece. Ca3sar, by the departure 
 of Pompey, was left in possession of Italy, and soon entered Rome. 
 Collecting the members of the senate, he attempted to justify his con- 
 duct, and made proposals of peace with Pompey, while, at the same 
 time, he continued his preparations for war. To facilitate these, he 
 entered the treasury, and took from it an immense sum, telling the 
 tribune who opposed him, and plead llie violated rights of his coun- 
 try, that "arms and laws did not flourish together." 
 
 Appointing lieutenants over the difterent provinces, with legions at 
 their command, and leaving Mark Antony commander-in-chief in 
 Cajsur reduces Italy, he proceeded in person to reduce Spain; 
 Spain- where the army was in the interest of of Pompey. 
 
 Having, with great hazard, eftected this, he returned to Rome, leav- 
 ing one of his lieutenants to command in Spain. 
 
 The patriotic citizens of Rome knew not how to act. Cicero said, 
 " Pompey has the better cause, but Csesar is the abler man." Most 
 of the senators, magistrates, and distinguished citizens, however, had 
 followed the fortunes of Pompey. Ctesar assembled those wliich re- 
 mained ; and the prcetor, Lepidus, against the will of the senators, 
 f, T-, , . nominated Cffisar, dictator. TliisoHice he retained 
 
 Ca?sar Dictator. ' . ... , 
 
 but eleven days, dunng whicii time he made some 
 improvements in the government, restoring it to order, and filling the 
 vacant offices with his friends. Himself and one of his most zealous 
 partfzans, he procured to be appointed consuls. 
 
 Pompey, still in the east, had during the year been making vigor- 
 ous preparations for war. Ccesar now prepared to 
 Caesar pursues f^n^^^ ^^ ^^^ embarked from Brundusium with 
 
 Pompey. j-i.i- , -i i- y ■ ^ 
 
 five legions, leavmg the remainder ot his troops to 
 follow. On reaching Epirus, he took several towns ; but the arrival 
 of his troops, and the danger of their being intercepted by Pompey's 
 
 his friend Hortensius, and gave her to him. Afterwards, however, on the death of 
 Hortensius, he took her again to himself. 
 
CHAP. II.] ROME. 95 
 
 fleet, induced him again to make overtures for an accommodation. 
 They were rejected, and Mark Antony soon arriving with liis remain- 
 ing troops, Caesar sought to bring on an engagement. Pompey hes- 
 itated, but his officers were importunate ; a council of war was called, 
 and almost every voice declared for battle. Pompey's army far ex- 
 ceeded Cajsar's iu number, and in his camp were almost all the friends 
 of Roman liberty, — Cicero, Cato, and his son-in-law, 
 48« the patriotic Brutus. The two armies were drawn 
 
 Battle of Pharsalia. ^^ ^^^ jj^^ memorable plain of Pharsalia. They 
 who had sat together in council ; they who had shared the same so- 
 cial repast ; perchance, they who had drawn their infant sustenance 
 from the same maternal bosom, now stood, with deadly weapons, to 
 shed eacli other's blood. They joined the unholy strife, and the field 
 was reddened with Roman blood, shed by Roman hands. Pompey 
 fought his country's children, not as he had fought her foes, and Caesar 
 M'as victoi'ious. As soon as Pompey perceived that his cavalry were 
 defeated, he retired to his camp in despair, and sat down. When the 
 whole army was routed, and he was informed that Csesar was ap- 
 proaching to storm the intrenchments, he exclaimed " in my camp 
 too," and lajang aside the ensigns of office, he prepared for flight. 
 It is said that Caesar lost but 20U men, while 15^000 of Pompey's ar- 
 my fell, and 24,000 were taken prisoners. 
 
 Pompey flees. Pompey, a wretched fugitive, passed by Larissa, 
 
 and in the vale of Tempe, he who could so lately 
 command the attendance of suppliant thousands, prostrated himself to 
 taste the running stream, and was glad to rest his wearied limbs in a 
 iisheriTjan's hut. In the morning he embarked on the Peneus in a 
 small boat, but coming up with a ship of burden commanded by a 
 Roman, he was welcomed and carried to Mitylene, where the affec- 
 tionate Cornelia, expecting her husband as the master of the world, 
 was told that if she wished to see Pompey with one ship, and that not 
 his own, she must hasten. When she approached, he ran and caught 
 her in his arms, as she was falling in a fainting fit. Yet it was her 
 husband's fate, and not her own, that affected her, and she ingeniously 
 sought to blame herself for his ill fortune. 
 
 With one small galley, they embarked for Egypt, to seek the pro- 
 tection of Ptolemy. On their arrival at Alexandria, the base coun- 
 sellors of the young king advised him to assassinate Pompey, in or- 
 der to obtain the favour of Caesar. Accordingly, a 
 Pompey assassina- boat was Sent off to the galley, as if to take him on 
 ted. shore. Cornelia, looking after him as the boat mo- 
 
 ved onward, saw the assassin stab him through the body, and her 
 ishriek of agony was heard upon tlie shore. 
 
 Cffisar pursued Pompey to Egypt ; but when his head was present- 
 ed io him, he turned away with abhorrence of the bloody deed. 
 
96 ANCIENT HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 The crown of Egypt wus at tliis time in dispute between Ptolemy, 
 now the acknowledged king, and Cleopatra his sis. 
 Caesar e^Pfu^cs die ^gj.^ 'pj^^ claims of Ptolemy had been upheld by 
 eopa ra. the Roman Senate, and Cleopatra banished. She 
 now determined to lay her claim before Csesar. For that purpose, 
 she hastened to Alexandria. Caesar, captivated by her charms, es- 
 poused her cause, and summoned Ptolemy to appear before him ; but 
 at the instigation of his minister, he disregarded the summons, and de- 
 spatched an army of 20,000 men to besiege Csesar in Alexandria. 
 Csesar, attended by only 4,000 troops, was now in imminent danger. 
 At length, reinforcements arrived, with whose aid he attacked and 
 carried the camp of Ptolemy, who in attempting to escape was drown- 
 ed ; and Caesar settled the crown upon Cleopatra. The war was 
 closed, but the conqueror still lingered. 
 
 At length he was aroused by intelligence of the revolt and con- 
 quests of Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates. Ac- 
 Subdues Phainaces. cording to his own account. He " went, saw, con- 
 quered ;" and having appointed Mithridates of Pergamus, who had 
 succoured him in his distress at Alexandria, to be the successor of 
 Pharnaces, he embarked for Italy. 
 
 He found on his arrival at Rome, that he had during his absence 
 been created dictator for one year, consul for five years, and tribune 
 of the people for life. 
 
 The remaining partizans of Pompey, after their defeat at Pharsa- 
 lia, had returned to Africa, under Metellus Scipio, Cato, and Juba the 
 son of Hiempsal, who was dutiful to the last, to the 
 Senate at Utica. senate of Rome. A little body of them, to whom 
 Cato gave laws, were now collected in Utica. Csesar souglit them, 
 and defeated in battle their military force. Juba and one of his gen- 
 erals killed each other in despair. Scipio, who commanded the ar- 
 my, was slain ; and Cato, the most virtuous and patriotic of the Ro- 
 mans, seeing that all hope was lost, having read and commented on 
 Plato's work on the immortality of the soul, with philosophic compo- 
 sure committed suicide. Ccesar, on his return from this expedition, 
 was honoured with a splendid triumph, which lasted four days ; the 
 people, with base flattery, hailing him as the father of his country. 
 
 The sons of Pompey, yet unsubdued, held Spain, and Avere in a 
 condition for war. Ctesar went thither, conquered, and returned. 
 He had now triumphed over all his enemies, and was supreme in 
 Rome. 
 
 His triumph, however, was not like those of Marius and Sylla. 
 
 His government was mild, he was liberal to his 
 
 C^^^r's^J^^misira. fj.jends, kind and forgiving to his enemies. He 
 
 made salutary laws reforming the calendar, and 
 
 showed the advantages of learning in conditions of power. He order- 
 
 ed Carthage and Corinth to be rebuilt, sent out Roman colonies to re- 
 
CHAP. II.] ROME. 97 
 
 people them, and planned a war with Parthia, in order to extend the 
 empire, and to revenge the death of Crassus. 
 
 Had Ca3sar been ambitious only, and not vain ; had he been con- 
 tent with the substance of power, without tlie childish desire of its 
 show, he might, probably, have lived, and been a blessing to his coun- 
 try. The constitution had long since been subverted and degene- 
 rate. Rome, without republican virtues, could not be a republic. It 
 only remained to choose her master, and doubtless Coesar was the fit- 
 test man. But Caesar wished to be called king, and to wear the in- 
 signia of royalty. 
 
 This was galling to the pride of the Romans, and when Mark An- 
 tony and othei-s crowned his statue, and spoke of 
 Conspiracy against j^jg coronation, mumiurs arose. The thoughtful 
 Uassius, the envious Luina, and others, werestirnng 
 up a hatred against him wliich aimed at his life ; and at length they 
 gained the man who, since Cato, had more devotion to his country 
 than any otlier Roman. This Avas Marcus Brutus, who had fought 
 against Ctesar at Pharsalia, been pardoned by him, loaded with fa- 
 vours, and adopted as a son. " Loving Ca3sar much, he yet loved 
 Rome more ;" and by a misguided patriotism, he now joined the con- 
 spiracy, in which sixty senators were engaged. 
 
 The ides, or 15th day, of March, was the day appointed for the ex- 
 ecution of the murderous deed. The night preceding, Calphurnia, 
 the wife of Caesar, was warned in a dream, and would fain have per- 
 suaded him not to go, that day, to the senate. Ccesar, as he passed a 
 soothsayer who had foretold that the ides of March would be fatal to 
 him, said triumphantly, " The ides of March are come." " But 
 not gone," was the reply. On account of the alarm Calphurnia's 
 dream had given him, he offered sacrifices before going to the senate. 
 The omens were inauspicious, and lie thought to have adjourned the 
 senate; but one of the conspirators standing near, asked, " If he would 
 bid them go, and come again, when Calphurnia had better dreams." 
 He then took his accustomed seat. A friend came forward with a 
 paper, which he desired him to read instantly. As he held it in his 
 hand, the conspirators pressed around him with petitions. At length 
 one gave the signal, by pulling his robe. At the moment, all drew 
 their swords and fell upon him. He defended him- 
 44. self at first. But as he saw Brutus about to strike, 
 
 Caesar falls. j-jg exclaimed, " And you too, my son," and wrap- 
 
 ping his mantle about his head, fell, pierced with many wounds. 
 
 Thus died, in the 56th year of his age, a man, who, it is said, con- 
 quered three hundred nations, took eight hundred cities, and in dif- 
 ferent battles, defeated three millions of men, of whom one million 
 were killed in fight. Great as he was, he was a iTian of blood, and 
 in blood he fell. 
 
 9* 
 
98 ANCIENT HISTVORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 * 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 The conspirators retired to the capitol, to secure themselves from 
 the indignation of Ca?sar's friends. The following day, however, 
 they appeared in public, and addressed the people, who seemed to 
 listen with composure. The senate passed a decree, which, though it 
 confirmed the acts of Cajsar's dictatorship, bestowed such offices upon 
 the conspirators, as might be regarded an approval of their deed ; but 
 when Caesar's will was read by the artful Mark Antony, and it was 
 discovered that he had left to every Roman citizen a considerable 
 legacy, the fury of the populace knew no bounds. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius went to Athens, where the Greeks, honouring 
 them for their love of liberty, received them cordially. There they 
 applied themselves to the study of philosophy. 
 
 Antony, meanwhile, had brought the senate into many of his mea- 
 sures. A new competitor for power had appeared 
 Octaviiis CKsar. j^^ Octavius, a nephew of Julius Ccesar, whom he 
 had adopted as his son, giving him the name of Csesar, and making 
 him his heir. He had been pursuing his studies in Greece, but hear- 
 ing of his uncle's death, he departed for Rome. Antony, though at 
 the head of affairs, had neglected to pursue the conspirators, and 
 now withheld from Octavius the fortune which his uncle had left him, 
 that he might not have the means of acquiring popularity. Octavius, 
 seeing his design, sold off his patrimonial estate, to pay Caesar's legacy 
 to the people. His next object was to gain the senate. Cicero look- 
 ing upon him as less dangerous than Antony, aided him by his elo- 
 quence to effect his object. The senate sent to Antony, who was in 
 Gaul at the head of an army, certain orders, which he thought proper 
 to disregard ; whereupon they despatclied Octavius, with an army to 
 reduce him to submission. An engagement took place in Cisalpine 
 Gaul, m which Octavius was successful. 
 
 Lepidus, an unprincipled man, was the comman- 
 Lepidus. jjgj. Q^ j^j^ army in Farther Gaul. His office, rather 
 
 than his talents, made liim of consequence. To his camp, Antony 
 fled. Manly and graceful in person — persuasive in speech and man- 
 ners, Antony, the friend of Julius Caesar, appeared among the soldiers 
 in distress. The army preferring him to Lepidus, soon made him the 
 actual commander. 
 
 Octavius had the command of the forces of the senate, but he had 
 suspicions of the attachment of that body to himself, and thought the 
 desti'uction of Antony would be but a prelude to his own. These 
 suspicions were increased, when, on making application for the con- 
 sulship, his suit was rejected. Octavius no longer hesitated upon his 
 course. He privately sent to Antony and Lepidus, 
 
 ^, , „, ■ proposing terms of reconciliation. They gladly 
 
 The seconrl Tri- ' il -^ u- 1*1*1 * Tt*i 
 
 uravirate under Oc- embracing his proposals, the three met on a httle 
 taviiis, Amony and island in the Rhine, where they united their military 
 Lepidus. force and leagued their power ; forming the second 
 
 triumvirnte. 
 
CHAP. II.] ROME. 99 
 
 Their first business was to make a prescriptive list, in which each 
 gave up many friends, in order that the others might agree to the 
 destruction of his enemies. This bloody list con- 
 The Proscription. tained the names of three hundred senators, and 
 two hundred knights. Octavius gave up Cicero to the hatred of An- 
 tony. The estates of the proscribed were to be seized and given to 
 their murderers. 
 
 When the vengeance of the triumviri had been satisfied with 
 
 blood, they prepared for war with Brutus and Cas- 
 
 War with Brutus gj^^g^ ^^^^ j^y |.|^jg ^jj-^-jg jj^^j collected a Considerable 
 
 force. The Roman students at Athens had embra- 
 ced their cause ; the friends of the commonwealth, and the partizans 
 of the son of Pompey, who were still scattered in various parts of the 
 provinces, had flocked to their standard. Their united forces met at 
 
 Philippi, in Macedonia, and again the thousands of 
 
 42. Rome stood arrayed against their brethren. The 
 
 Battle of Philippi. i^^^^tig ^ygg f^ygl-it ^viih bravery. While Brutus 
 
 proved victorious over Octavius, Antony completely routed the troops 
 of Cassius, who, ignorant of the success of his colleague, and belie- 
 ving that all was lost, fell upon his sword. Brutus collected the for- 
 ces of Cassius, and delayed a second engagement for twenty days, 
 when, on tlie importunity of his troops, he resolved to hazard all in 
 another battle. He was totally defeated. On witnessing the irre- 
 parable loss of his army, determined not to survive the slavery of 
 his country, he also committed suicide. 
 
 On the death of Brutus, the party of the conspirators was no longer 
 formidable ; and the Roman empire was completely subjected to the 
 conquerors. Octavius returned to Italy, where Lepidus still j'emain- 
 ed ; while Antony went into Asia, receiving the homage of its various 
 kings, collecting the revenues, and regulating the affairs of the pro- 
 vinces and tributary nations, as his caprice might dictate. At Tar- 
 sus, he was met by the fascinating Cleopatra, whom he had sum- 
 moned to appear before him to answer for some suspected offence. 
 Knowing that Antony affected at times to personify Bacchus, the 
 god of wine, Cleopatra came to him in the character of Venus, sail- 
 ing up the river Cydnus in a galley decorated with the perfection of 
 art and elegance. Antony, at her invitation, came to her gallej'', and 
 was charmed to his ruin. He accompanied her on her return to 
 Alexandria, where sunk in effeminacy, tie forgot public affairs. 
 
 Octavius was, meanwhile, assiduously employed in attaching his 
 veteran troops to his person, and in bringing the whole nation to re- 
 gard him as its head. Italy was, however, the scene of want and 
 misery. Sextus Pompey infested the sea with his fleet, and prevent- 
 ed the importation of corn, while at the same time multitudes of wo- 
 men and children, by the appropriation of the lands to the soldiers, 
 deprived of a home and of subsistence, crowded the temples and the 
 streets. Multitudes of husbandmen and shepherds flocked to Rome, 
 to excite the compassion of the conqueror. Among the suppliants, 
 Virgil, the poet, alone found favour, and was per- 
 ^"•gii- mitted to retain his patrimonial estate. /'' 
 
100 ANCIENT HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 
 
 In the meantime, Antony, aroused by the representations of his 
 friends, tore himself from Egypt, and returned to Italy. Octavius 
 met him, and by the mediation of friends, a reconciliation was effect- 
 ed. The noble Octavia, the sister of Octavius, was given as a wife 
 to the lover of Cleopatra; and another division of the empire, made. 
 Octavius took the command in the west ; Antony, in the east ; while 
 to Lepidus, was assigned Africa ; and to Sextus Pompey, who had 
 now acquired considerable power, the islands of the Mediteranean, 
 and the Peloponnessus. Difficulties between Antony and Pompey 
 soon arose, which resulted in the destruction of the latter. Lepidus, 
 thinking this a good opportunity of adding Sicily to his possessions, 
 drew upon himsclfthc indignation of Octavius, who by secret intrigues 
 procured the desertion of his army, made him prisoner, deprived him 
 of all authority, and banished liim. 
 
 Antony, by the influence of the discreet Octavia, for three or four 
 
 years, kept up terms with Octavius. He undertook 
 
 Antony goesagainst ^,^g conduct of the War agalnst the Parthians, at the 
 
 sued his march into Parthia, suffered defeats by his imprudence, and 
 I'etraccd his steps, after having lost one fourth of his army. 
 
 Influenced by his blind passion for Cleopatra, he hastened to Egypt, 
 
 which again became the scene of his dissipation and 
 
 He goes to Egypt. f^jj^^ j;^^^ bestowed On Cleopatra and her chil- 
 
 dren several provinces ; ordered Octavia, who was on her way to 
 
 meet him, to return ; and, in short, so far outraged the feelings of the 
 
 Roman people that Octavius, now conscious of their support, declared 
 
 war. Antony's reluctance to abandon his effemi- 
 
 Octavius deilrircs ^-^^^^ jj^^ causcd him to be slow in liis movements, 
 
 war aiTyinst him. i -i ^i • i . • r\ ^ • i 
 
 whue the industrious Octavius made vigorous prep- 
 gj arations. A contest between these rivals was at 
 
 Buttle of Actium. length decided in a naval engagement near Actium, 
 off the coast of Epirus.* Early in the action, sixty 
 vessels under the command of Cleopatra, fled, and Antony immedi- 
 ately followed. The fleet was soon defeated, and after a few days, 
 his land forces, which had been drawn up in sight of the fleet, surren- 
 dered without striking a blow. 
 
 Antony and Cleopatra repaired to Egypt, whither Octavius follow. 
 ed. Antony despairing of his fortunes, and deceived by a false re- 
 Death of Antony port of the death of Cleopatra, committed suicide, 
 and of Clcoi atra. Octavius was dcsirous of conveying Cleopatra to 
 Rome, to grace his triumph ; but she prevented it, exposing herself 
 to the bite of a venomous reptile, and thus terminated her existence. 
 Egypt was from this time a Roman province. 
 
 Octavius had now obtained the summit of his desires. Every rival 
 was removed, and the empire of the world, within his grasp. His re- 
 turn to Rome was signalized by a gorg.:ous triumph. The obsequi- 
 ous senate, whose vacancies he now filled with his own creatures, no 
 
 * In honour of his victory, the conqueror afterwards built, on the site of Actium, 
 the cityof Nicopolis. 
 
CHAP. II. j ROME. 101 
 
 longer laid claim to independence ; and Rome henceforth became a 
 monarchy. Witli the recent fate of Julius Ctesar before him, he 
 could not but be aware of the dangers with which he was surround- 
 ed. He wisely avoided the vain show of power, and sought to cover 
 his usurpation by some name acceptable to the people ; at first calling 
 his office the tribunale. Tliis office he received for ten years, after 
 Roman Empire iiii- wliich it was renewed, and at length he took the 
 der Augiisiiis, be- titles of Augustus and Emperor. He assiduously 
 gins. courted the favour of the populace, continued to all 
 
 the magistrates their old titles and offices, although the etlective power 
 of every office centered in himself. Aided by the counsels of his 
 wise minister, Maecenas, he became the patron of arts and letters, 
 and the framer of salutary laws. 
 
 The Roman Empire now embraced the best parts of Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa. Its revenues were immense. A great army was now 
 kept on foot, and distributed in diffiirent provinces. The praetorian 
 and city cohorts,* consisting of 10,000 men, formed a guard for the 
 Emperor, to whose title, the senate now added that of " Father of his' 
 country." The king of Parthia sent to him the spoils of the army 
 of Crassus, and the kings of India sought his friendship. The Span- 
 ish nation being now, for the first time, completely subdued, an insur- 
 rection of the German tribes having been quelled, the temple of Janus, 
 which was shut only in profound peace, and which 
 Universal Peace. j^g^^j remained continually open since the reign o f 
 Numa Pompilius, was closed. 
 
 * A cohort is a body of infantry consisting of five or six hundred men. The preB-" 
 torian guards afterwards acquired great power and are frequently mentioned in his- 
 tory. 
 
MIDDLE HISTORY 
 
 PERIOD T. 
 
 CO.MPRISIXG EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA, 1 A. D. 
 
 Theodosius and liis sons. 
 
 Ti.e divi.Km S FIRST EPOCIIA, 3S.-, A. D. ] "' 'l^J^r'' 
 
 Knipire. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 Sectio.n" I. 
 
 The whole civilized world, beiii^ now included in one vast empire, 
 " the fullness of time" arrived, when the Saviour of 
 li.L-biitli ot riuisi. niaiikind made his advent upon earth. His birth 
 is supposed to have occurred four years befiire the common era. 
 The Roman empire, after ages of war and bloodshed, was fully es- 
 tablished, and in profound tranquillity, when "the desire of nations." 
 the " Prince of peace," was born. 
 
104 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 The treasures of the world poured into Rome ; and stately menu- 
 Condition of tlie ments, splendid buildings, literature and the fine 
 Roman Eiii|.iie. arts, all marked an age of luxury and wealth. 
 But the liberty of the people had become extinct. The spirit of the 
 republican institutions had departed, and a military despotism had 
 usui'ped its place. Here and there, perhaps, a spark of the old Ro- 
 man spirit miglit kindle in the breast of the patriot, but it was soon 
 smothered. The memory of the aged carried them back to the scenes 
 of horrour which marked the days of Marius and Sylla, while they 
 knew nothing of freedom but by the tradition of their fatliers. The 
 young turned with disgust from the prospect of a renewal of the civil 
 wars ; and welcomed peace and quiet, though purchased by the sur- 
 render of the sovereign power into the hands of one individual. 
 
 Augustus continued to exercise the imperial power, fourteen years 
 after the birth of Christ. His policy inclined him 
 Augustus. |.Q peaceful measures ; and the last years of his 
 
 reign were not marked b}- any military event of consequence. His 
 aim was to establish his authority more firmly, and secure the suc- 
 cession in his family. He associated with liim in the government, 
 Marcellus, the son of his excellent sister, Octavia, by her first mar- 
 riage, to whom he gave for a wife, Julia, his only cliild. Marcellus 
 dying, Julia was bestowed on Agrippa, a renowned son-in-law of Oc- 
 tavia, who was also associated in the government with Augustus. 
 
 Julia, while she was the wife of Agrippa, became the mother of 
 five children, two sons, and three daughters. She was a profligate 
 woman, and Augustus was at length obliged to banish her from his court, 
 ■and she died a miserable outcast.* He had married Livia, already 
 the mother of two sons, Tiberius, and Drusus Germanicus. Livia 
 was unprincipled, artful and intriguing. Having great influence over 
 Augustus, she secretly souglit to elevate her own sons above his 
 family relatives. Augustus associated Tiberius, the oldest, with him- 
 .self, in the administration of the empire, but required him to adopt 
 Germanicus, the son of his late brother Drusus. These things being 
 done, Augustus died in the deep secrecy of the palace. The man- 
 ner and exact time of his death are unknown ; the circumstances 
 were, however, such as gave rise to suspicions that he was poisoned 
 by Livia. 
 
 Tiberius, who, at the death of Augustus, was in possession of the 
 
 j^ imperial power, though an able general, was a 
 
 Tiberiiis hypocritical, sensual and cruel tyrant. Yet at 
 
 first he dissembled, and appeared to govern with 
 
 moderation. But the mask soon dropped. 
 
 The fame of Germanicus, who at the death of Augustus, com- 
 manded in Gaul, excited his jealousy. He was recalled, and trans- 
 ferred to the command of Syria, where his death occurred shortly 
 after. The multitude regarded Tiberius and his mother as its authors. 
 
 * The profligacy of the female character in Rome, at this period, may be reckoned 
 as one cause of her downfall. Augustus, in the conduct of his daughter, was justly 
 punished for his own crime. Becoming enamoured of Livia, tlie wife ol another 
 man, he divorced JScribonia, the mother of Julia, and immediately married her. 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 105 
 
 Livia enjoyed but little the elevation of her favourite son. He was 
 jealous of her power, dreaded her genius, and treated her with neg- 
 lect. When she died, he denied her funeral honours. But bad as 
 she was, she was so mucli less depraved than her son, tliat while she 
 lived, she held in clieck his abominable vices, to which, after her death, 
 he gave uncontrolled indulgence. 
 
 He held his court in the island of Capraea ; but in the midst of 
 brutish sensuality and continual intoxication, he kept, as it were, a 
 demoniac eye on the affairs of Rome ; knew every thing which 
 passed ; detected every conspiracy ; and while the companions of 
 his vices were quaffing with him the cup of intoxication, he, perhaps, 
 was plotting with impenetrable dissimulation to destroy them. 
 
 With Tiberius, conspicuous virtue was ever a mark for vengeance. 
 Fearing the friends of those he destroyed, he removed them also. 
 Even the mother's mourning for her slaughtered son, was in his eyes 
 a crime deserving death. Tiie obsequious senate were ever ready to 
 sanction his acts, and offered the incense of perpetual flattery to the 
 man who filled the streets of Rome with blood. Scarce a family 
 could be found, some of whom he had not destroyed. Thus he reign- 
 ed twenty-three years. 
 
 Tiberius had adopted Caligula, the son of the virtuous Germanicus, 
 but not the heir of his virtues. Tiberius saw m 
 "' • him a cruel disposition, and said he raised " a ser- 
 
 Caligula. pg^^^ ^^j. j^Qj-j^e^ j^j^j a Phseton to burn the rest of the 
 
 world." Caligula, eager to obtain the imperial dignity, was declared 
 emperor, while Tiberius was supposed to be in the agonies of death. 
 But the tyrant opening his eyes, the party of Caligula threw the bed- 
 clothes over his head, and stifled the reviving spark of existence. 
 go It was under the administration of Tiberius that our 
 
 Our Lord crucified. Lord Jesus Christ was crucified in Judsea. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Caligula wished that " the Roman people had but one neck, that he 
 might despatch them at a blow." His conduct accorded with the 
 .^ disposition here expressed. Afler a reign of nearly 
 
 _ ,* five years he was murdered, and the stupid Claudius, 
 
 the brother of Germanicus was raised by the prae- 
 torian cohorts to the imperial throne. 
 
 During these reigns, although vice pervaded the capital, there were 
 able generals abroad, and victory still crowned the arms of the legions, 
 in their foreign contests. During the reign of Claudius, successful 
 wars were maintained with the Parthians and Britons. Claudius 
 died a violent death. 
 
 Nero, whose name is associated with all that is base and cruel, was 
 
 _ . raised to the empire. On his first accession, he re- 
 
 j. * vived the hopes of the people, by giving promise of 
 
 a just and peaceful reign ; but the illusion was soon 
 
 dissipated, and the murder of his tutor, the philosopher Seneca, of 
 
 10 
 
106 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 his brother, his mother, and his wife, displayed the relentless tyranny 
 of his character. He gave loose to the most licentious indiilgerfce of 
 his passions ; subserviency to liis pleasures proved the only passport 
 to his favour. Professing himself a patron of tlie fine arts, he as- 
 pired to the character of a poet, and degraded the dignity of the em- 
 pire by appearing as a public actor on the stage. The discovery of 
 repeated conspiracies, increased his maliciousness and jealousy. 
 The city presented a scene of blood ; and funerals darkened the 
 streets. 
 
 The Christians, who had now become numerous in Rome, were 
 
 the peculiar objects of his hatred. To facihtate 
 
 64. their destruction, he caused Rome to be set on fire. 
 
 First persecution of charged the crime upon them, and devised means 
 
 for their punishment. While the city was burning, 
 
 he was engaged in revelry and dancing. 
 
 This monarch decorated his person, sung, and played his lyre, and 
 was quite the leading coxcomb of his time. He corrupted tlie liigh born 
 youth of Rome and made them companions of his revels. Flatterers 
 and sycophants thronged around him ; and he was pleased, when they 
 told him that he was tlie greatest of poets, and tliat his voice was 
 " divine melody." 
 
 The discovery of a design which he had formed for destroying 
 the senate, and again setting fire to the city, produced a general re- 
 volt. He fled from the capital to a villa owned by one of his favour- 
 ites, where finding that the army had already proclaimed a new em- 
 peror, he put an end to his life. 
 
 The two years succeeding the death of Nero, the whole Roman 
 Empire presented a scene of discord and commotion. All seemed 
 falling into anarchy and confusion. The soldiers had now learned 
 their power ; nor could the senate do more tlian assent to their de- 
 cisions. In those two years, four generals were successively raised 
 to the sovereignty by their respective armies ; and tliree of them 
 displaced and murdered. 
 
 Galba was commander of the military forces in Spain, when he 
 was proclaimed emperor by the united voice of the 
 66. senate, and of his legions. A promised donation to 
 
 Galba. |.jjg praetorian cohorts, also secured their concur- 
 
 rence. Galba came to the throne, at the age of seventy-three. Al- 
 though not addicted to the vices of liis predecessor, he was parsimo- 
 nious and cruel. By witliholding the promised donation, and attempt- 
 ing to enforce rigid discipline, he alienated the pri3etorians, who soon 
 proclaimed Otho emperor. Tiie guards entered 
 69. the city, a bloody tumult succeeded, in which Gal- 
 
 ^^^°- ba and his friends were murdered, and Otho eleva- 
 
 ted to the throne. 
 
 While these events were transpiring in Rome, a powerful compe- 
 tition for imperial honours had arisen in the north. Vitellius, to whom 
 Galba had committed the command of the German 
 \itellius. legions, was already proclaimed emperor, and 
 
 marching towards the capital. His forces encountered those of Otho, 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 107 
 
 in a battle which terminated in the defeat of the latter. Otlio, when 
 informed of the victory of liis rival, committed suicide. Vitellius en- 
 tered Rome as a conqueror. A horrible scene of carnage and vice 
 succeeded. 
 
 Meanwhile, the east declared for Vespasian, who commanded the 
 legions in Judaea. Syria, Egypt, and lUyricum es- 
 ' ^* poiised his interest. Civil war again distracted the 
 
 cspcisian. empire. Vespasian was finally raised to the impe- 
 
 rial throne. Vitellius was murdered, and sickening scenes of destruc- 
 tion were reacted in the city. 
 
 The establishment of Vespasian on the throne, however, proved 
 the commencement of a new order of things. His authority was re- 
 cognized by the senate, and after the first violences, consequent upon 
 the admission of an exasperated and victorious army within the city, 
 peace and oi'der were restored. Vespasian directed his earliest 
 efforts to the regulation of the finances, the enforcement of discipline 
 in the army, and the subjection of rebellious provinces. Some of the 
 Germans and Gauls had united in an attempt to throw off the Roman 
 yoke, and the success of their arms spread the terrour of their name 
 even to Rome itself. The generals of Vespasian were at length vic- 
 torious, and reduced the Germans to submission. 
 
 A war with the Jews was urged during this reign, which, though 
 
 perhaps less dangerous to the empire, possesses a 
 
 War with the Jews, tjggpgi- interest with US, from its relation to a people 
 
 from whom we have received our religion, and whose history now 
 
 forms a living proof of the truth of sacred prophecy. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 Judaea, from the period in which it was reduced to subjection by 
 Pompey, can be considered as little less than a Roman province. 
 Under Julius Caesar, the bondage was but little felt, but on his death 
 the commotions which agitated the Roman Empire extended to this 
 country, which was torn by intestine disorders. Mark Antony es- 
 tablished upon the throne, Herod surnamed the Great, a cruel and 
 profligate, but crafty and politic prince. The sceptre was thus de- 
 parting from Judah — an event marked by prophecy as contemporary 
 witli the birth of the Messiah. Herod was king of 
 Hormi. Juda;a at the commencement of the Christian era, 
 
 and by his orders the infants of Bethlehem were massacred. On 
 the downfall of Mark Antony, he paid successful court to Augustus, 
 and i-emained in possession of Judica until his death, when his son 
 Archelaus reigned in his stead. 
 
 No disturbance arose in the province until Caligula attempted to 
 place his statue in the Jewish Temple, when the Jews at once resorted 
 to arms to prevent the desecration of their sanctuary. The death of 
 Caligula, by removing the cause, i)ut an end to the insurrection. 
 
 The spirit of the Jews, however, could ill brook subjection to a 
 foreign power. The cruelty, avarice, and insatiable rapacity of Ges- 
 
108 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 sius Glorus, the governor of Judtea, under Nero, drove them to open 
 revolt. The succeeding disorders of the empire had prevented the 
 entire suppression of this rebellion, although Vespasian who before 
 his elevation to the throne, commanded the Syrian legions, had ob- 
 tained repeated victories, and made himself master of all their strong 
 holds and fortresses, except Jerusalem. 
 
 His son, Titus, who was now left to conduct the war in Judsea, 
 
 prepared for the reduction of this city. The siege 
 
 '''O' was commenced at the season of the Passover, when 
 
 Titus besieges Jeru- ^]^g Jews, from every nation, were gathered within 
 
 salem. t i 
 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 The city was divided into three factions, fired with the most ran- 
 courous hatred of each other ; not even with the Roman army before 
 the gates, did the fury of their contentions abate, or their outrages and 
 murders become less frequent. Every part of the city was filled 
 with pollution and massacre. The religious ceremonies, indeed were 
 not suspended, but even in the temple, the blood of the citizens min- 
 gled with that of the sacrifices. Thus "the abomination of desola- 
 tion" stood in the high place, and called down the vengeance of a 
 righteous God. War without, deadly feud, and starving famine within, 
 caused a scene of " tribulation such as was not since the beginning 
 of the world, no, nor ever shall be." 
 
 Titus made the Jews repeated offers of pardon and protection, on 
 condition of surrender, but they resisted witii inflexible obstinacy. 
 Tacitus, the Roman historian, remarks, " that they were misled 
 by an ancient prophecy, which foretold, that in this very juncture the 
 power of the east would prevail over the nations, and a race of men 
 would go forth from Judaea, to extend their dominion over the rest of 
 the world."* 
 
 The Christians, when they saw " Jerusalem encompassed with 
 armies, and a trench cast round about her," remembered the prophetic 
 words of their Lord, and fled to the mountains. 
 
 Titus, finding the siege would be of long continuance, stormed the 
 city. The Jews fought with the most determined bravery. In the 
 first assault, the Roman arms obtained no advantage. In the second, 
 which continued three days without intermission, a part of the walls 
 were levelled, and a portion of the city taken. The Jews, driven 
 from one part, retreated to anothei', and still maintained the fight. At 
 length the temple alone remained. Titus resolved to save this, but 
 the sentence of its destruction had been pronounced by a higher 
 Power. The Jews crowded into it ; and thither the Romans carried 
 the assault. In the dreadful uproar which succeeded, a soldier threw 
 a lighted torch, upon some part of the wood work. 
 The Temple burnt. ^hi^h soon Communicated to the other parts, envel- 
 oped the whole in flames, and of that beautiful and venerable fabric, 
 " not one stone was left upon another." 
 
 * " Not understanding," observes the historian, that " this referred to Vespasian and 
 his son Tilus." Tacitus, equally blind with the Jews, did not himself understand 
 that this race of men were to be ihe heralds of a peaceful religion, which was destined, 
 in the fullness of lirae, to spread its heavenly dominion over the whole earth. 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EBIPIRE. 109 
 
 Josephus, tlie Jewish historian, estimates the number which perish- 
 ed during the siege, at eleven hundred thousand. The Jews no longer 
 held the rank of a nation. Juda3a was entirely subjected to the Ro- 
 man power. Its ill-fated inhabitants have, for seventeen hundred 
 years, been scattered over the face of the earth, without ever amalga- 
 mating witli the various nations, with whom they make their residence ; 
 thus constituting one of the strongest proofs of the divine authority of 
 the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 Vespasian reigned ten years ; most of which were passed in tran- 
 quillity. He was the fa-st Roman emperor who had died without vio- 
 lence, unless we except Augustus. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 Titus, whose name signifies the " delight of mankind," succeeded 
 his father and sustained the character of a virtuous 
 79. and beneficent prince. He is one of the rare in- 
 
 '^"^"^- stances, in which elevation in rank produces im- 
 
 provement in virtue. His efforts were directed to the improvement 
 of his people. The zeal with which he engaged in noble undertakings, 
 may be learned from the regret which he expressed, when on review- 
 ing the events of a day, and finding no good deeds performed, he ex- 
 clamied, " O my friends, I have lost a day." His reign of two years, 
 although marked by several disasti'ous events, was prosperous in all 
 that depended upon himself. 
 
 The great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which desolated a conside- 
 
 rable portion of the country, and buried in ruins, 
 
 Herculaneum and Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabice, occurred at this 
 
 Pompeu uestrovcd. . . * 
 
 ■' time. 
 
 fire broke out in Rome, which for three days raged with fury, 
 Fire and Pestilence ^"^ destroyed a great portion of the city. To add 
 at Rome. to the alllictions of the people, a pestilence spread its 
 
 ravages. In its most destructive period, it swept 
 from Rome ten thousand persons in a day. The kindness and com- 
 passion of Titus, who even declared himself ready to repair from his 
 treasures the whole loss by fire, did much to alleviate the distress of 
 the people. 
 
 Domitian, brother of Titus, succeeded him. He was cruel, friv- 
 olus and vain. He caused himself to be styled God 
 81' and Lord. He once assembled the senate to debate 
 
 DoDiitian. Q,-, ^ijg question, in what utensil it was best that a 
 
 certain fish should be dressed. He once, in mockery, invited the 
 senate to a feast. When arrived at the palace, they were conducted 
 to a gloomy hall, lighted by dim tapers, hung with black, and provi- 
 ded with Collins, on which the guests saw their own names inscribed. 
 Soldiers with drawn swords came in upon them and threatened their 
 lives. After this, which the emperor esteemed a good joke, he let 
 them depart. 
 
 His chief amusement was catching flies, at which he was very ex. 
 10* 
 
110 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I- 
 
 pert. Fifteen years, the Romans submitted to such degradation, 
 when Domitian fell a victim to a conspiracy conducted by his wife, 
 and the commander of the praetorian guards. 
 
 His reign is memorable as the period in which his general, the wise 
 and virtuous Agricola, (whose life his son-in-law, Tacitus, has so ably 
 written,) completed the conquest of Britain, as far as the friths of 
 Scotland. His reign is also remarkable for a successful irruption of 
 the barbarians of the north, upon the frontiers of the empire. A le- 
 gion was destroyed by the Dacians and other barbarians united with 
 them. Domitian himself marched at the head of his troops, to 
 avenge the death of their comrades, and was compelled to purchase 
 peace, by a tribute. 
 
 Nerva, at the age of seventy, succeeded Domitian. He is re- 
 nowned for his amiable and benevolent character. 
 90' Finding the weight of the empire too great for his 
 
 advanced age, he associated Trajan in the government, and designa- 
 ted him as his successor. 
 
 The character of Trajan is one which historians unite in applaud- 
 ing. Although a military prince, and a conqueror, 
 9°' he governed with moderation and equity, and so es- 
 
 Trajan. tablished himself in the aflections of his subjects, 
 
 that it was customary in succeeding times, on the elevation of an em- 
 peror, to wish him the felicity of Augustus, and the virtue of Trajan. 
 His military achievements restoj-ed the lustre of the Roman arms. 
 The ignominious tribute paid by Domitian to the Dacians ceased, and 
 Dacia was reduced to a Roman province. The interference of the 
 Parthians in the affairs of Armenia, which was under Roman pro- 
 tection, aftbrded Trajan an opportunity of displaying his arms in the 
 east. At the head of his legions, he crossed the Euphrates, and Ti- 
 gris, reduced Mesopotamia to a Roman province, marched through 
 tracts of country where the Roman arms had never before been 
 known, and penetrated even to India. On his return, he established 
 a king upon the Parthian throne, and appointed lieutenants in various 
 provinces. At Seleucia, a sudden illness terminated his life. 
 
 Trajan, with no better guide than could be derived from heathen 
 philosophy, was a great, humane, wise and virtuous monarch. His 
 character might put to the blush many a Christian prince. Yet the 
 imperfections of liis principles may be discovered in his ardent aspi- 
 rations for military glory, while his persecution of the Christians 
 leaves a blot upon his otlierwise untarnished fame. Historians have 
 censured his policy in comparison with that of Augustus, who wisely 
 considered the danger of extending the empire, and prudently resolved 
 to abandon the idea of further conquests. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 Hadrian the succeeding emperor, returned to the pacific policy of 
 
 Augustus, and with the exception of Dacia he even 
 
 ■'■^'' relinquished the conquests of his predecessor. This, 
 
 Ha 1 lan. ^^j ^1^^ ^^^ Succeeding reigns, have been pronounced 
 
GHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. Ill 
 
 the happiest days of the Roman empire. The laws of Hadrian were 
 salutary, and his administration excellent. He secured the future 
 prosperity of the nation by appointing Titus Antoninus his successor. 
 When, on the death of Hadrian, Titus Antoninus, (afterwards for 
 his filial devotion surnamed Pius,) ascended the 
 1^°' throne, he found the various departments of govern- 
 
 Antoninus Pius. j^^^^^^ moving On ill regularity and order, and the 
 whole empire' in prosperity and peace. His reign of twenty-three 
 years flowed on in the same calm and happy course. Averse to war, 
 the circumstances of the state permitted liim to indulge his love of 
 peace; while his renown for justice and wisdom procured the admi- 
 ration of barbarians, who in their differences resorted to him as an 
 arbiter. In his reign the persecutions of the Christians ceased, and 
 all classes of his subjects could repose in the justice of their sovereign. 
 His private, as well as his public character, was unblemished, and 
 the name of Antonihus Pius will ever stand pre-eminent for virtue, in 
 the annals of princes. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who succeeded Titus in the imperial 
 ■|g, government, by his attachment to science and phi- 
 
 Marcus Aurelius losophy, has acquired the name of the Philosopher. 
 Antoninus. The situation of the empire, however, did not per- 
 
 mit Aurelius to indulge in his favourite pursuits ; or 
 pass his days in contemplative retirement. The camp required his 
 presence ; the peace of the empire was now disturbed in its various 
 borders. While in Asia, the Parthians rebelled against the sove- 
 reignty of Rome, on the Rhine and the Danube the barbarians were 
 already in arms. The lieutenants of Aurelius were despatched 
 against the Parthians ; the emperor himself conducted the war against 
 the barbarous hordes of the north. Tiie Parthians were defeated, 
 and many of their cities taken. The war in the east reflected new 
 lustre upon the Roman arms. That witli the barbarians of the north, 
 was more formidable. After many campaigns, Aurelius fell a victim 
 to its hardships. 
 
 With the reign of Aurelius, the prosperity of the empire ceased ; 
 ■jgn and fi"om the accession of his son Commodus, may 
 
 Commodus ^^ dated its decline. A more striking contrast nev- 
 
 er was presented, than in the cliaracters of the father 
 and son. In vain had Aurelius gathered around him the wise and 
 the virtuous of the age, to conduct the education of the youth. Imbe- 
 cility of mind marked the character of Commodus, and rendered all 
 means of instruction useless. Despite of the advice of the sage coun- 
 sellors of his father, Commodus purchased a peace with the barbari- 
 ans, tliat he might return to the voluptuous pleasures of Rome. 
 Abandoning himself to the influence of the most worthless favourites, 
 the reigns of government were loosened ; scenes not witnessed since 
 the days of Domitian, wez'e reacted in the capital. Outraging all the 
 honourable feelings of the Romans, Commodus signalized himself as a 
 
112 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 gladiator.* His reign, of thirteen years, was terminated by his assas- 
 sination. 
 
 The conspirators raised Pertinax, prefect of the city, to the imperi- 
 ■■ go al throne. The praetorian guards murmured at the 
 
 Peitinax elevation of a man of whose virtue they were as- 
 
 sured, and who, educated in the school of Aurelius, 
 was little likely to yield to their disorderly demands, or shower upon 
 them the profuse liberality of Commodus. His attempt to reform the 
 financial system, increased their hatred, and in less than three months 
 from the time they swore allegiance, a sedition broke out in the camp. 
 Two or three hundred of the guards rushed in arms to the palace, 
 where Pertinax, securely relying on his innocence, and their oath, 
 was inhumanly murdered. A most disgraceful scene succeeded. 
 Returning to the camp, with the head of Pertinax, borne as a trophy, 
 the guards now offered the Roman world to the highest bidder. 
 
 The wealth of Didius Julianus, a vain and voluptuous senator, ena- 
 Didius Julianus ^^^^ '^™ to meet the demands of the rapacious prae- 
 torians, who immediately completed the contract, 
 proclaimed him emperor, took the oath of allegiance, escorted him to 
 the palace, and surrounded him with the ensigns of imperial dignity. 
 The obsequious senate, though attached to Pertinax, yielded to the 
 occasion, and ratified the election of the praetorians. The legions of 
 Britain, of Illyricum, and Syria, rebelling against the assumed au- 
 thority of the praetorians, resolved to avenge the death of Pertinax, 
 and each proclaimed its respective general worthy of the empire. 
 Severus, who commanded in Illyricum, at the head of his hardy and 
 disciplined forces, accustomed to contests with the warlike barbari- 
 ans of the north, advanced towards Rome. By his contiguity to Ita- 
 ly, and the celerity of his movements, Severus anticipated his rivals, 
 and in sixty-six days from the elevation of Julianus, without having 
 drawn a sword, he was proclaimed emperor at Rome. The prajtori- 
 ans abandoned the victim of their venality, the senate deposed him, 
 and he was executed like a common criminal. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 Four years of civil war succeeded, during which, Severus triumph- 
 jQQ ed over his rivals, and secured his throne. His 
 
 Scptimius Severus. ^^ign was rigorous. His first act, on reaching the 
 capitol, was to degrade and banish the praetorians, 
 who had been engaged in selling the empire. A war with the Cale- 
 donians, which he superintended in person, occupied him in his latter 
 years. He died in Britain, before the termination of the war. 
 
 His sons, Caracalla and Geta, then in Britain, were declared his 
 21 1 successors. The beginning of their career was un- 
 
 Caracalla ; lid Geta pi'omising ; mutual jealousy and hatred were mani- 
 fested, on their journey from Britain to Rome ; they 
 
 * The gladjators were persons who fought in public, for the amusement of the 
 people. 
 
 i 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 113 
 
 neither ate at the same table, nor slept in the same house. Caracalla 
 at length, by the murder of liis brother, obtained sole possession of 
 the throne. His reign was stigmatized with deeds of blood, and with 
 the exception of the citizenship granted to all the provinces, presents 
 no event worthy of record. Caracalla extended the Roman citizen- 
 ship, with a view to procure more ample means for his extravagant 
 expenditures. The tribute received from the provinces, which Gib- 
 bon estimates at a sum equal to about one hundred millions of dollars, 
 was represented by Augustus, as not sufficient for the purposes of gov- 
 ernment, and he artfully contrived to make the Roman citizens sub- 
 mit to taxation by impost. Succeeding emperors had increased their 
 burdens, and Caracalla extended the right of citizenship, in order to 
 impose on the foreign provinces the taxation of the citizen, while he 
 failed to relieve them from the tribute of the stranger. They felt the 
 double burden, and tlieir discontent was one ot the causes of the de- 
 clineof the empire. Caracalla was assassinated in Syria, by the in- 
 Macrinus stigation of Macrinus, praetorian prefect. Macri- 
 
 nus was raised to the throne, but shortly deposed, 
 and Heliogabalus, a reputed son of Caracalla, was iiivested with the 
 sovereignty. 
 
 Heliogabalus was a monster of vice. His short reign of four years 
 2JQ was a reign of infamy. His violent death, themer- 
 
 HelioT. baliis ^^^^ punishment ofhis crimes, again loft the imperi- 
 
 al throne at the disposal of the army, and Alexander 
 Severus, the cousin of Hehogabalus, was now invested with the impe- 
 rial purple. 
 
 Tlie reign of this amiable', just, and humane prince, is like a ray 
 of light amidst surrounding darkness. Inheriting 
 222. from nature a happy disposition, and a superior in- 
 
 Aleiander Severus. t^llect, and educated by a careful mother in the best 
 precepts of the heathen philosophy, he was, amidst the corrupting in- 
 fluences of regal authorit)^, an example of industry, sobriety, and 
 regularity of life, an elegant scholar, an affectionate son, a wise states- 
 man, and an able general. He restored the senate to many of their 
 rights, reduced the tribute of the provinces, and sought to enforce 
 discipline in the army. But the military had discovered their own 
 power, and their vices were too strong for his curbing hand, Ulpian, 
 the wisest and most beloved of his counsellors, had incurred the ha- 
 tred of the guards, for seeking to bring them to order. They sought 
 his life, and pursued him to the presence of the Emperor. Alexander 
 commanded, entreated, and covered his friend with his purple robe, 
 but the audacious murderers stabbed him tlirough it. 
 
 That Alexander was not timid, appears from the dignity and spirit 
 with which he suppressed an insurrection ofhis soldiers, in the course 
 of the Persian war, while he lay at Antioch. Appearing in the 
 midst of tlic infuriated soldiery, " Be silent" said he, " in the presence 
 of your sovereign. Be silent, and reserve your shouts for the ene- 
 my, or I will no longer allow you to be soldiers." They brandished 
 their swords, and ruslied towards him. " Keep your courage," said 
 he, " for the field of battle ; me you may destroy, but you cannot in- 
 
114 MIDDLE HISTUllV. [PERIOD I, 
 
 timidate," They persisted in their dangerous demands, and again 
 bespoke, "Citizens, no longer soldiers, lay down your arms, depart 
 to your respective liabitations." The boisterous elements of sedition 
 sunk into grief and shame, and the soldiers obeyed. After a time 
 he restored their arms, and this legion ever after were devoted to his 
 interest. 
 
 The Roman arms were employed, during this reign, in a war with 
 Wai- witii Persia Persia. This ancient monarchy at this period, had 
 
 revived, and a new dynasty had been established by 
 Artaxerxes, a person of ignoble birth, but possessed of great abilities. 
 Repeated and long continued wars with the Romans, had weakened 
 the Partliian power. Of this Artaxerxes availed himself, to produce 
 a general revolt of the Persians. A bloody battle ensued, in which 
 Artabanus, tlie Parthian king, was defeated, and the Persians restored 
 to the sovereignty of the east. Claiming all Lesser Asia as the sue- 
 cesser of Cyrus, the Persian monarch came into collision with the Ro- 
 man empire. The event of the war with Alexander Severus, seems 
 somewhat doubtful ; it was at least so far unsuccessful to the Romans, 
 that Artaxerxes retained the countries which he had conquered. 
 Hardly had Alexander ]-eturned from the Persian war, before he 
 
 was compelled to encounter the Germans. In his 
 
 ^^" 'mins'" *''"'' '^^'^P °" ^'^^ ^^^"'^^ °^ t'^® ^'""®' ^^'^^ interesting 
 prince, too good for the age in which he lived, fella 
 victim to another mutiny of the soldiers, lomented by an ambitious 
 aspirant to the throne. 
 
 Section VII, 
 
 Maximinus, the successor of Alexander Severus, was born in 
 235 Thrace, on the confines of the Roman empire, but 
 
 Maxuniiiu?. ^^'^ father was a Goth, and his mother an Alan. 
 
 About thirty-two years before this period, the empe- 
 ror Severus, halting his army in Thrace, to celebrate games at wrest- 
 ling, the young barbarian, Maximinus, of the gigantic height of 
 eight feet, and of size and strength in proportion, presented himself, 
 and in a rude dialect entreated to be admitted as a competitor. The 
 emperor noticed his prodigious exploits, and permitted him to enlist as 
 a conjmon soldier. From thence he rose by degrees, till he attained 
 a high command in the army. But he was without gratitude or 
 mercy, and had nothing but brute force to recommend him. He per- 
 suaded the soldiers that Alexander was effeminate. They slew him, 
 and proclaimed the barbarian emperor. — Suspicious of contempt from 
 the well born and learned, he hated and destroyed them. — The senate 
 refused to sanction the nomination of the army ; and though Maximi- 
 nus continued the German war with success, his cruelties created dis- 
 affection, which, when he made the taxes of the provinces intolerable, 
 broke into revolt. 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 115 
 
 In Africa, the proconsul, Gordian, a man of eminent virtue, was, 
 G (Han together with his son, proclaimed emperor ; and the 
 
 election was ratified by the senate. The governor 
 of JMauritania espoused the cause of Maximinus, attacked and de- 
 feated the Gordians, who both perished in battle. The senate, des- 
 perate on hearing the death of the Gordians, nominated two of their 
 number, Maximus and Balbinus. 
 
 The news of these proceedings roused Maximinus to fury. At the 
 head of his legions, and breathing vengeance on his foes, he advan- 
 ced upon Italy ; but here he found a waste and desolated country. 
 By tlie care of the senate, all provision and forage, and all the in- 
 habitants, were removed. He laid siege to Aquileia. His army, 
 suffering from fatigue and famine, became mutinous ; a conspiracy 
 was formed, and the barbarian was slain in his tent. 
 
 Tiie virtuous reign of Maximus and Balbinus was short and inse- 
 cure. The nation indeed rejoiced in the destruction 
 230. of Maximinus; they undertook reformation, but the 
 
 Maximus and Balbi- i • /• ii t) ■ i . • 
 
 ,._yg real sovereign oi the Roman empire, the praetorian 
 
 guards, were refractory, and declared they would 
 
 not acquiesce in any choice made by the senate. 
 
 They slew Maximus and Balbinus, and proclaimed 
 
 Gordian. ^y^^ youug Gordian, a descendant of one of those who 
 
 fell in Africa, emperor. 
 
 In the east, the Persians continued to encroach upon tlie empire, 
 
 and had already invaded Mesopotamia. Gordian marclied against 
 
 them, and had compelled them to retreat from the Tigris, when his 
 
 sudden death checked the progress of the Roman arms. 
 
 Philip, an artful Arabian, who by his abilities had risen to be pre- • 
 _ . . feet of Rome, suspected of having been accessary 
 
 p. ...* to the death of Gordian, his benefactor, was imme- 
 
 diately proclaimed emperor by the army. The 
 Pannonian legions revolted, and invested their general, Decius, with 
 the purple. The rival emperors met in battle at Verona, where vie- 
 tory declared for Decius ; and Philip, after a reign of five years, lost 
 his crown, and his life. 
 
 The Goths, supposed to come from the Scandinavian region, now, 
 
 ntq for the first time, poured down upon the empire. 
 
 Deciu's Crossing the Danube, they entered Thrace, and 
 
 spread devastation and ruin on all sides. Decius 
 
 marched against them, and after a reign of two years, this monarch, 
 
 worthy of better times, perished in battle. 
 
 Gallus, his general, was made emperor. He purchased with money 
 2^1 » peace of the barbarians, that he might return to 
 
 Gallus ^''® luxuries of the palace, thus revealing the weak- 
 
 ness and the wealth of the empire ; and taking the 
 surest course to incite other invasions. Nor did the hardy and rapa- 
 cious barbarians linger long. The Goths and other hordes made 
 attacks on the north, and Persia menaced Syria, and the other prov- 
 inces in the east. 
 
116 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 iEmilianus, one of the generals of Gallus, routed the Gotha and 
 „^q pursued them beyond the Danube. His praise was 
 
 ,, .', ' every where heard, while Gallus was despised, 
 
 feo strong IS ambition in the human heart, he coveted 
 the imperial purple, stained as it was with the blood of so many em- 
 perors, and worn but as a prelude to assassination. His troops pro- 
 claimed him emperor. He met the army of Gallus at Spoletto. The 
 soldiers of Gallus mutinied, murdered their emperor, and confirmed 
 the succession of ^milianus. 
 
 Valerian, who in the reign of Decius had been appointed censor by 
 the senate, and had faithfully executed many oflices of trust, now, 
 at the age of sixty, appeared at the head of an army of superior 
 strength, a competitor for the regal power. Tlie soldiers of Emilia- 
 nus, after he had reigned four months, despatched him, to make way 
 for his more powerful rival. 
 
 Valerian stood high with all classes ; but age had impaired the 
 energy of his mind, or the people had been deceived 
 ^ J .* in his character, for his reign did not equal their ex- 
 
 pectations. With the blindness of parental affec- 
 tion, he associated with him in the government, his son, Gallienus, 
 whose character rendered him wholly unfit for the station. Possess- 
 ing genius without judgment, he was excellent in poetry, oratory, 
 cookery, and gardening, but contemptible in war and government. 
 The empire was attacked on all sides. The Franks, the Alemanni, 
 the Goths, and the Persians, hovered on the different frontiers, and 
 threatened it with destruction ; while Gallienus amused himself in 
 Rome, held mock triumphs, and smiled, and made witty speeches when 
 he heard the news of his disasters. 
 
 Section VIII. 
 
 The Franks, from whom are descended the modern French, are 
 supposed to have been a confederacy of some of the 
 tribes inhabiting the country of the Lower Rhine 
 and the Weser. They had always defied the Roman arms. Passion- 
 ately loving liberty, they took the expressive name of Franks or 
 Freemen. Their valour had long exercised the military skill of the 
 Roman legions, and they now spread terrour and consternation through 
 the provinces of Gaul and Spain. They passed over into Africa, 
 and threatened the province of Mauritania. 
 
 The Alemanni, whose name, it is said, signified all-men, and ex- 
 pressed their great numbers, were a warlike race 
 The Alemann,. ^^ Germans. They crossed the Danube, passed 
 the Rhsetian Alps into the plains of Lombardy, advanced to Ravenna, 
 and alarmed the capital. 
 
 Gallienus sent his lieutenants against the Franks, but remained in 
 Milan to amuse himself there, whilst on the senate devolved the task 
 of providing for the defence of Italy from its formidable enemies. 
 
 The Franks 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 117 
 
 Sapor, the son of Artaxerxes, was on the throne of Persia. He 
 had compelled the Armenians in alliance with 
 ar wit 1 ersia. Rome, to Submit to his power, and had now advanced 
 upon the Roman provinces. Valerian, marching to oppose him, in- 
 timidated the Goths, who were in possession of the Euxine, in Asia 
 Minor, and fur a time they withdrew. The emperor then passed the 
 Euphrates, and was betrayed into a situation near Edcssa, where his 
 army was surrounded by that of the Persian monarch. Affecting to 
 consent to a parley. Sapor made him prisoner, lie was the first Ro- 
 man emperor who suffered that disgrace. His army surrendered, 
 and the hauglity Persian spared him no indignities, mocking him and 
 treading on his neck ; at length the aged emperor sunk beneath his 
 fate and died, while Sapor spread the terrour of his arms through 
 Syria and Cilicia. 
 
 Neither the death of his father, nor the distress of the empire, in- 
 terrupted the amusements of Gallienus. The news, however, of the 
 disaffection of his people, sometimes roused him to direful revenge. 
 In one instance, he commanded the governor of a province to exter- 
 minate all the males. Usurpers, encouraged by the discontents of 
 the people, started up in every direction. A fancied resemblance be- 
 tween this period, and that of the Athenian tyrants, gave rise to the 
 assertion, that there were thirty claimants in Rome lor the imperial 
 purple. Nineteen only can be traced, and all these died by violent 
 means. Gallienus, at length, fell. 
 
 At this deplorable crisis, the Roman empire seemed lying in hope- 
 less ruin. The civil wars caused by the several 
 ,. ... ■ usurpations, the contests with the barbarians, and 
 
 Empire. their devastations, together with famine and pesti- 
 
 lence, had swept from the face of the empire one 
 half its inhabitants. But, from the course of history, we may infer, 
 that the pride of the Romans had been humbled, and that virtue, so 
 often the child of adversity, had in some degree revived among them. 
 In Claudius, whom the conspirators of Gallienus had placed upon 
 Claudius ^^^ throne, Rome once more possessed a sovereign 
 
 suited to her wants. His first efforts were directed 
 to restore order in the army, and prepare for the expulsion of the 
 barbarian invaders. In his reign of two years, he defeated the Ale- 
 manni, and obtained so great victory over the Goths, who had passed 
 over into Greece, as to obtain the appellation of the Gothic Claudius. 
 He died of the plague, and was succeeded by the energetic Aurelian, 
 one of his generals. 
 
 The barbarians, though repulsed by Claudius, were ready to re- 
 sume their depredations. The provinces of Britain, 
 ■ Gaul, and Spain, were in a state of revolt ; and 
 
 Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor, acknowledged the 
 sway of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. She was the widow of Oden- 
 atus, a general who had humbled the pride of the haughty Sapor. 
 
 Aurelian restored discipline to the Roman army, obtained some ad- 
 vantages over the Goths, entered into a treaty, by which he guaran- 
 tied them a safe retreat into their own country, on condition of their 
 11 
 
118 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD J, 
 
 furnishing the Romans with a body of two thousand auxiharies con- 
 sisting of cavalry. Finding it ditlicult to defend so extensive a fron- 
 tier, he withdrew the Roman forces from the ancient Dacia, removing 
 the greater part of the Dacians to the soutliern side of the Danube ; 
 thus adding strength and numbers to tliat province, which now receiv- 
 edthe name of Dacia. A part of the inhabitants of the old province^ 
 however, chose rather to remain in subjection to the Goths. 
 
 While Aurelian was thus engaged, the Alemannimade an irruption 
 into Italy, and extended their devastations from the Danube to the 
 Po. Aurelian hastened to meet them, and after three battles, at 
 length drove them from Italy. He next quelled an insurrection head- 
 ed by Tetricus, who held command over Gaul, Spain, and Britain. 
 In a bloody battle, fought near Chalons, in Champagne, Aurelian was 
 victorious. The whole empire, with the exception of those provinces 
 which owned the sway of Zenobia, now acknowledged him as its 
 sovereign. 
 
 Section IX. 
 
 Of the early history of Palmyra, whose ruins afford the modern 
 „ , traveller an object for wonder and admiration, little 
 
 Palmyra. . ■> . . 1,1 
 
 IS known. i>y some, it is supposed to have been 
 the Tadmor of the desert, built by Solomon. But, that so splendid a 
 city should have risen in the midst of a barren waste, can be account- 
 ed for only by its situation, it lying between the Persian Gulf and 
 the Mediterranean sea, thus constituting an emporium for the mer- 
 chandize conveyed in caravans from India to Europe. 
 
 In the contests between the Romans and Parthians, Palmyra main- 
 tained its independence, until the victories of Trajan ; after which it 
 sunk into a Roman province. 
 
 In the war which Sapor waged with the Romans, and in which the 
 emperor Valerian was made prisoner by the Persians, Odenatus, the 
 Odenatus prince of Palmyra, was the only Persian ally who 
 
 * rendered the Roman empire any service. lie made 
 
 an attempt to recover Valerian, which though unsuccessful, harassed 
 the Persians, and prevented the further progress of their arms. To 
 reward his service, Gallienus declared him his colleague in the empire. 
 Odenatus was assassinated by his nephew. 
 
 Zenobia, his widow, immediately after his death, assumed his au- 
 Zenobia thority, and added to his dominions the kingdom of 
 
 Egypt, from whose ancient Macedonian kings she 
 claimed to be descended. Such was her reputation, that Persia, Ar- 
 menia, and Arabia, dreaded her power, and courted her favour. Her 
 sway extended over Syria, and she assumed the splendid title of 
 " Queen of the East." Zenobia is represented as a personification of 
 mingled loveliness and majesty. These blended harmoniously in her 
 face and figure, in the sound of her voice, and in the powers of her 
 mind, improved by the education which she had received from the 
 celebrated Longinus. She was mistress of the learned languages, 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE- 119 
 
 well versed in the poetry of Homer, and in the philosophy of Plato. 
 In conduct she was prudent or firm, economical or liberal, as the 
 occasion demanded. 
 
 But she had to cope with superior power and superior military skill 
 in her contest with the Roman emperor. Yet Aurelian writes of her, 
 " The Roman people speak with contempt of the war, wliich I am 
 waging against a woman. They are ignorant both of the character 
 and the fame of Zenobia. It is impossible to describe her warlike 
 preparations, and her desperate courage." This he writes after he 
 had defeated her, at the two battles of Antioch and Edessa, and 
 while he was prosecuting the siege of Palmyra. Here, reduced to 
 the last extremit5s Zenobia undertook to escape by flight, but she was 
 taken prisoner, and conveyed to the camp of Aurelian. The mon- 
 arch reserved her for his triumph, alloAved the few Palmyrians who 
 had escaped the desperate siege, to rebuild the city, 
 ^°""de"ih''"''° but stained his glory by putting to death the wise 
 and amiable Longinus.* 
 
 Aurelian on his return was gratified by a splendid triumph, in 
 which the beautiful Zenobia, covered with jewels, and bound in 
 chains of gold, followed his triumphal car on hot. Yet he afterwards 
 gave her a beautiful villa at Tivoli, where she found an honourable 
 seclusion. 
 
 After his triumph, Aurelian advanced towards Asia with the design 
 of humbling the pride of Persia. On his march, near Byzantium, he 
 was assassinated in a sudden frenzy of the soldiers, who repented the 
 deed as soon as committed. 
 
 Section X. 
 
 An interregnum of eight months succeeded the death of Aurelian. 
 275. The legions repented the rashness which had depri- 
 
 Interregnum. ved them ofau able, though severe commander, and 
 humbly requested the senate to appoint a successor. The senate, struck 
 with such unwonted respect from the military, referred back the choice 
 to the army. Three times the reciprocal offer was made, and re- 
 jected ; meanwhile, the whole Roman world remained ti'anquil. 
 The senate at length elected one of their number, venerable for 
 virtue and j'ears, Tacitus, a descendant of the his- 
 Tacitus. torian. He remonstrated against the choice. " Are 
 
 * Gibbon, on the authority of Vopisons and Zoslmus, two writers, whom he takes 
 the liberty to disbelieve, whenever tlipy tell improbable stories, says that Zenobia im- 
 puted her obstinate resistance lo Longinus — a poor excuse for tlie conduct of Aure- 
 lian, if true. But tlie story i.s highly improbable, and acknowledged to be inconsist- 
 ent with the whole tenor of her character. W hat had Zenobia to gain or to lo.se, by 
 attribulnig her conduct to Longinus? She had already lost all but her life, and she 
 knew too well that ihe " Queen of the East," would be preser%'ed by the conqueror as 
 the proudest trophy to grace his triumph. In fact. Gibbon appears to bo far from a 
 profound writer. Allowing the great personal beauty of Zenobia, and the power of 
 her voice in speech, he says, " these trifles become important in speaking of women." 
 They are important in both the sexes. Alexander, and Julius Csesar, uiu'. Ponipey, 
 owed much tothcin. Take from iMark Antony his elegant and manly ligure, and his 
 eloquence, and n ho at this day had ever heard of him ? 
 
120 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 these limbs, Conscript Fathers," said he, " fitted to sustain the weight 
 of armour, or to piactise the exercises of tiie camp ?" But resistance 
 was vain. He was forced to assume the sovereignty. His election 
 was ratified by the legions in France, whither he proceeded. The 
 Scythians had invaded tlie Asiatic provinces, — he led the troops against 
 them, and obliged them to return. He sunk under the accumulated 
 cares and hardships of a military hfe, after an energetic reign of six 
 months, and died in Cappadocia. 
 
 Florianus, the unworthy brother of Tacitus,waited not for the voice 
 
 ^~„ of the senate, but with indecent haste ascended the 
 
 „, . ' til rone. He found an able and powerful rival in 
 
 Florianus. r> i i i /• i ■ ^ i 
 
 rro bus, the general 01 the armies of the east, who 
 
 Probus. took it upon him to avenge the insulted senate. 
 
 Florianus fell, and Probus already, in effect, master of the empire, 
 
 submitted his cause to the senate, who, delighted with his respectful 
 
 behaviour, confirmed his power. 
 
 The barbarians of Germany, taking advantage of the interregnum 
 . which succeeded the death of Aurelian, had renew- 
 
 ^"^ttons ""^"^ ^ ^^ their devastations in the provinces, and destroyed 
 many flourishing cities in Gaul. Probus drove 
 back the Franks, recovered the cities, and vanquished the Lygians, 
 a people residing near the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. " Their 
 shields," says Tacitus, " are black — their bodies painted black. 
 They choose for the combat the darkest hour of the night. Their 
 host advances, covered as it were with a funeral shade, nor do they 
 oflen find an enemy capable of sustaining so strange and infernal an 
 aspect." Yet the disciplined legions of Probus discomfited these 
 spirits of the night, nor were they afterwards known in history. Pro- 
 bus carried the war into Germany also, and compelled the barbari- 
 ans to sue for peace. To guard that frontier, Probus erected an ex- 
 tensive stone wall, strengthened by towers. 
 
 Perceiving that the idleness of the army had been the fruitful source 
 of disorders, he exercised the legions in planting vineyards, and in 
 other useful labours. They murmured, and assassinated him. He 
 appears to have been one of the best, and most unexceptionable of all 
 the Roman emperors. 
 
 Cai us, the prfetorian prefect, was raised by the army to the vacant 
 
 throne. He associated with him in the government, 
 
 his two sons, Carinus and Numerian, leaving the 
 
 ^^^^' west under the charge of Carinus, while Numerian 
 
 accompanied him to the east, in an expedition against Persia. Carus 
 
 had advanced to Mesopotamia, and made himself master of the cities 
 
 of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, when his death, said to have been occasioned 
 
 by lightning, put an end to the war, as the superstition of the legions 
 
 would not allow them to proceed farther. 
 
 Numerian died by the hand of an assassin, during the return of the 
 
 army from Asia, and Carinus, dwelling in Rome, 
 
 Nun,er,anju.dCan. ^jspi.^ygj ^ ^^^^. imitation of Nero— his profligacy, 
 
 without ills taste. 
 The legions of the east conferred the imperial power on Diocletian, 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 121 
 
 who from being an obscure peasant of Dalmatia, had risen by his 
 merit to the command of a Roman army. The army of the west ad- 
 hered to Carinus. A battle was fought at Moesia. The troops of 
 Carinus were on the point of obtaining the victory, when his assasina- 
 tion, by a tribune whom he had deeply injured, left Diocletian the un- 
 disputed sovereignty. 
 
 The accession of Diocletian, is an era which marks the commence- 
 „Q. ment of a new system of government, perfected in 
 
 ^. .'^ the reign of Constantine. To the military despot- 
 
 ism which had so long governed the nation, now 
 succeeded the despotism of the court. Diocletian early associated 
 with himself in the cares of government, his friend and fellow general, 
 Maximianus, and gave him an equal share of the imperial honours. 
 For the better adininistration of the government, he then chose two 
 colleagues. One was Constantius Chlorus, adopted by Maximianus ; 
 the other, Galerius, adopted by himself, to whom were committed a 
 share of the sovereign authority, and who were to be the successors 
 of the emperors. On these colleagues he conferred the titles of 
 Caesar. They had the command of the provinces of the Rhine and 
 the Danube, while the two emperors reserved for their immediate su- 
 perintendence, Africa, Italy, and the east. Maximianus resided in Mi- 
 lan, and Diocletian in Nicomedia. 
 
 These measures, by depriving Rome of the presence of its empe- 
 rors, served to diminish the power of the senate, and 
 
 ^"Tmtiisller"'"'' ^^ ^'"^^ ^"^° oblivion all those republican titles, to 
 which the Romans even yet fondly clung. At such 
 a distance, it could not be expected of the emperors, to apply to the 
 senate for the ratification of their decrees ; and the power which had 
 been exercised by them only when at the head of the army, now came 
 to be exercised by them upon all occasions. 
 
 Diocletian introduced into his court the pomp and ceremony of the 
 The court of Diocle- oi'iental monarchs, and unlike the former emperors, 
 ti;,n. to whom access might at any time be obtained, he 
 
 kept himself at an elevated distance, and was ap- 
 proached only with prostration. In thus substituting the manners of 
 Persia for those of Rome, the superior mind of Diocletian was proba- 
 bly actuated by other motives than those of vanity. The monarch 
 would thus be less exposed to the rude license of the soldiers, and 
 might avert the fate of his predecessors. The administration of justice 
 by the emperor was rigorous; and his military achievements reliev- 
 ed the empire, for a time, from numerous foreign invaders. 
 
 Section XI. 
 
 In the preceding reign, Britain had been dismembered from the 
 
 QQP empire, by the rebellion of Carausius, a naval com- 
 
 Rcbellion in Britain, "lender, who was now acknowledged sovereign of 
 
 the island, and had taught the inhabitants the rude 
 
 navigation of the day. To Constantius was assigned the reduction of 
 
 11« 
 
122 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD 1 
 
 this province, now greatly valued by the Romans. Civil war had, 
 ere his arrival, completed half his work. Carausius had been assas- 
 sinated, and a new usurper reigned. The inhabitants readily re- 
 turned to their allegiance, and after a separation of ten years, were 
 glad to be again under the protection of the Roman Empire. 
 
 Galerius kept the Goths in check ; Maximianus quelled insurrec- 
 tions which had arisen in Africa, while the superior genius of Diocle- 
 tian was directed to the Persian war. 
 
 The disgrace inflicted on Rome by the proud Supor, in the person 
 of the venerable Valerian, was as yet unatoned foi-. The Romans 
 formerly exercised as a right, the honour of nominating the king of 
 Armenia. Sapor had subjected this province. 
 
 Tiridates, son of the king of Armenia, had been preserved, while 
 Tiiidates ^^^ infant, from the wreck of his father's fortune, and 
 
 protected by the Roman emperors, during his mi- 
 nority. As he had now arrived at manhood, Diocletian declared him 
 the sovereign of Armenia, and sent him to claim the throne of his 
 father. Tlie Armenians hailed their native pi'ince with every de- 
 monstration of joy, having now been ninety-six years under the Per- 
 sian government ; and nobles and people flocked to his standard. 
 
 Persia, being at the time embroiled in civil war, had little leisure for 
 the affairs of Armenia, and for a while the arms of Tiridates triumph- 
 ed. When, however, the civil contests had ended in the elevation of 
 Narses to the Persian throne, Tiridates found himself unable to cope 
 with so powerful an adversary, and had recourse to Roman aid. Di- 
 ocletian seized the favourable opportunity of humbling in Persia, the 
 only rival of the Roman empire. His arms triumphed, and Persia 
 was compelled to sue for peace. The conditions were honourable 
 and advantageous to Rome. — The boundaries of the empire were 
 somewhat extended, the Armenian prince was acknov/ledged, and the 
 dependence of Armenia upon Rome established. 
 
 After the termination of this war, Diocletian, who had not visited 
 Diocletian enjoys Rome sincc his clcvation, repaired to the city, where 
 ihe last Roman iri- he enjoyed a splendid triumph, memorable as the last 
 "«'i''i- of these gorgeous exhibitions of human vanity. 
 
 In the twenty-first year of his reign, not long after his triumph, 
 and when the empire had been delivered from its 
 304. foreign enemies, and restored to peace, Diocletian 
 
 Diocletian resigns, formally resigned the imperial power, and retired 
 with philosophic calmness to the enjoyment of an elegant retreat in 
 Dalmatia. He had prevailed on Maximianus to resign his power al- 
 so ; and the abdication of the two emperors, the one in Milan, the 
 other in Nicomedia, took place on the same day. 
 
 Constantius survived his elevation to the rank of Augustus but fif- 
 
 oQ^ teen months, when he died in Britain, where the 
 
 Constantius. iuroads of the Caledonians had exercised his 
 
 arms. 
 
 306. Constantine, his son, then at York, was immedi- 
 
 Constantine the ately saluted Augustus and emperor, by the British 
 
 ^'''^^'- army. Spain, Gaul, and Britain, ratified the nomi- 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 123 
 
 nation. The inhabitants of Rome felt more than ever, the weight 
 of the taxes which were levied with merciless severity upon them, 
 and were indignant at the continued absence of the emperors from the 
 imperial city. The senate, and the prfetcrians, whose power Diocle- 
 tian had almost annihilated, joined in a conspiracy with the citizens, 
 and Maxentius, the son of Maximianus, was invested, at Rome, with 
 the imperial dignity. The restless spirit of Maximianus could not 
 submit tamely to the retirement to which Diocletian had doomed him; 
 and he now came forward to lend his name and aid to the party of 
 his son, assuming to himself the exercise of imperial power. Two 
 other claimants appeared, and Rome now felt tlie evils of a divided 
 government ; no less than six emperors, at enmity among themselves, 
 shared the sovereign power. These dissentions led to civil wars. 
 After a period of eighteen years, the genius of Constantine triumphed 
 over all his rivals, and he remained sole master of the empire. — This 
 period contains only disgusting pictures of discord, confusion, and car- 
 nage. 
 
 Section XII. 
 
 Constantine possessed a lofty and majestic stature, a bold, open 
 Character of Con- Countenance, and a graceful deportment. His con- 
 staiitine. stitution was made healthy by vigorous exercise in 
 
 youth, and preserved by temperance and sobriety in later life. In bu- 
 siness he was indefatigable, and he looked with a vigil'ant eye to the 
 affairs of government; while by rendering kindness to all who ap- 
 preached him, he secured love, at the same time that his talents and 
 virtues commanded respect. Such was Constantine while dangers 
 surrounded him ; but when released from fear, and placed above re- 
 sponsibility, his character seems to have fallen from its elevation. 
 Among other unworthy acts, he is charged with jealous cruelty to his 
 son. 
 
 Two events, which mark the boldness of his genius, render his 
 
 reign memorable in the history of the world. The 
 
 ' . ■ , first, was his removal of the seat of the Roman em- 
 
 searoT" the empire, pi^e to Constantinople, a city which he had founded. 
 
 and the Christian The second was his adoption of Christianity, as the 
 
 religion adopted. religion of the empire. — Christianity, up to this pe- 
 
 riod, had met no favour from civil power, but on the contrary, had 
 
 suffered silent obloquy, or active persecution from the Roman gov- 
 
 ernment.* 
 
 * If in tlie course of history, we show that human passions, and natural catises, con- 
 tribiUoJ to tiie o.vl(-ii.siori of a religion whose divinity is attested by a severe and ho]y 
 purity, before unknown to liie world, let it be remembered that there is a chasm in 
 the (hain of human means, by whieli Christianity was established, which cannot be 
 supplied but on ilicsupposition of divine agency. It is in vain that infidelity seeks to 
 shake our faith, by saying that when men were offered eternal life, on condition of their 
 abandoning tlio pleasures of this life, they accepted the ofTer, because it was an advan- 
 tageotis hai^.iin. Where did the Apostles, and teachers of this religion, get their own 
 invincible liiiih, that the doctrine was indeed true? a faith which made them disre- 
 gard labour, sutferings, and death. 
 
124 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 On the death of Constanthie, his dominions were divided between 
 
 his three sons, Coiistantine, Constantius, and Con- 
 
 ^^'' ^ stans. The youth of^these princes, unhke tliat of 
 
 Constantino H. Con- ^j^^jj. j-^^\^Qy ^^^^ ^qj gp^j,,^ jj-, martial exercises, but 
 
 stantius, and Con- .,,,,. „ ' tt i i i i i 
 
 stans. HI the eiieniniacy ota court. He knew that he had 
 
 his fortune to make, they felt that theirs was secur- 
 ed. Hence their administration wanted the vigour of his, while they 
 imitated his ambition and cruelty. During the first year of their 
 reign, two uncles and seven cousins were sacrificed to their jealous 
 fears. With the exception of Gallus and Julian, sons of the brother 
 of Constantine, whose youth and feeble constitution alone saved them, 
 these princes destroyed all the male members of the Constantine fam- 
 ily, and at length turned their arms against each other. 
 
 Constantine, who governed the eastern portion of the empire, found 
 himself early involved in a Persian war. The fame 
 
 Persian War. of Constantino the Great had checked, while he liv. 
 ed, all encroachments on the eastern provinces. — Sapor, the grand- 
 son of Narses, was now on the Persian throne, and had, for several 
 campaigns, waged a successful war upon the provinces. Constantine 
 marched against him ; still the Persian arms triumphed, and at Sin- 
 gara, Constantine sustained a memorable defeat. At length both 
 monarchs were obliged to withdraw their forces, and a peace was 
 concluded. 
 
 The sons of Constantine had been but three years on the throne, 
 when a dispute arose between Constantine and Constans, which ended 
 in the violent death of the former. 
 
 Constans, now sole master of the west, maintained his authority for 
 340. ten years. He then fell a victim to the ambition of 
 
 Constans, sole empe- Magnentius, the general of the Gallic legions, who 
 ror of the west. assumed the purple. 
 
 Constantius. Constantius resolved to avenge the death of his 
 
 brother Constans, and to secure to himself the undivi- 
 ded sovereignty of the empire. In Magnentius, who had enlisted in 
 his cause the warlike legions of Gaul and Italy, Constantius found a 
 formidable adversary. Tiie hostile armies met at Mursa, and a 
 bloody battle gave Constantius the victory. Fifty-four thousand of 
 the veteran soldiers of the empire were left dead upon the field ; and 
 Magnentius, despairing of the crown, put an end to his life. 
 
 The civil wars had given the barbarians an opportunity of renewing 
 Barbarian depreda- their depredations upon the frontier provinces. The 
 lions. Franks and the Alemanni had made inroads into 
 
 Gaul. Their devastations had extended to various parts of the pro- 
 vince. Flourishing towns were laid in ashes, and the inhabitants com- 
 pelled to flee from the country to the fortified cities, where they were 
 .obliged to depend for subsistence upon the scanty supply of grain 
 raised within the walls. 
 
 The eastern provinces were in an equally calamitous condition. — 
 The Sarmatians had passed the Danube, and the Persian monarch, 
 now returned from a victorious expedition against the Scythians, 
 a fain threatened the provinces of Asia. Constantius found himself 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 125 
 
 unequal to tlie weight of the empire, and was constrained to look for 
 some one with whom to divide its cares. His cousin Julian, now the 
 only remaining member of the Constantino family, had been left to 
 pursue his studies in obscurity, among the Grecian 
 Julian made Ca'sar. philosophers. CoDstantius appointed him Cajsar, 
 and gave him the command of the provinces of Gaul ; while he him- 
 self conducted in person tiie war with the Sarmatians. He defeated 
 them, and compelled them to supplicate for peace. 
 
 Section XIII. 
 
 Meanwhile, Julian, whose abilities for action had been despised on 
 
 account of his love of study, showed himself an able general, in a 
 
 successful contest with the Franks and Alemanni. The fame of 
 
 his hardy perseverance and successful enterprise, spread through the 
 
 empire, and increased the already awakened jealousy of Constantius. 
 
 He issued an order, commanding a large detachment of the veterans 
 
 who were under Julian, to march to the aid of the eastern legions. 
 
 The troops, reluctant to enter upon what they deemed a foreign ser- 
 
 vice, and unwilling to leave a general whom they 
 
 o60. loved, for an emperor whom they despised, refused 
 
 Julian proclaimea obcdicnce, and at once proclaimed Julian empe- 
 
 emperor. ' ^ 
 
 ror. 
 
 Julian, though with feigned reluctance, accepted the crown, and 
 instantly prepared to enforce his claim. Constantius and the Impe- 
 rial legions were still in the east, feebly maintaining the Persian war. 
 Julian resolved to attack Constantinople. Making a division of his 
 forces into three parts, which were to meet at Lirmium, one division 
 was sent through the midland parts of Rhoetia and Noricum ; anoth- 
 er through the Alps, and the nortliern parts of Italy; while the re- 
 maining division, commanded by himself, penetrated the Marcian for- 
 ests which covered the sources of the Danube, and embarked on that 
 river. The diligence of his boatmen, and a favourable wind, enabled 
 Julian to land at Pannonia, nineteen miles from Lirmium, while his 
 enemies were stdl ignorant that he had left the Rhine. 
 
 Constantius, on learning the activity and boldness of his competitor, 
 relinquished the Persian war, and commenced his march towards Eu- 
 rope ; but his death, which occurred on his homeward route, relieved 
 the empire from the expected horrours of civil war. 
 
 The reign of Julian was memorable for the re-establishment of the 
 Paganism re c stab- pagan religion. From whatever cause his enmity 
 iisUed. to Christianity might have arisen, whether from a 
 
 blind and superstitious reverence for the pagan worship, or from hav- 
 ing associated with Christianity the remembrance of the irreparable 
 injuries which his family had sustained from the Constantines, the 
 fact cannot but diminish our regard for a character, which united 
 many valuable qualities. He did not indeed revive the persecutions 
 of former pagan emperors, or prohibit the worship of the Christians, 
 
126 MIDDLE HISTORV. [PERTOD I. 
 
 yet he removed them from offices of trust, and from the care of the 
 education of youth, and oppressed them in various ways. 
 
 In less than a year from the deatli of Constantius, Julian had set- 
 tied the concerns of the empire, and proceeded into Asia. 
 
 After wintering in Antioch, and making vigorous preparations for 
 the ensuing campaign, early in the spring he march- 
 Persian expedition. ^^ towards Persia. His success in the early part 
 of his campaign, encoura^d his hopes, and inspired the ardour of his 
 troops. He ravaged the plains of Mesopotamia, passed the Euphrates, 
 and spread devastation through a part of Syria. 
 
 Julian attempted to rebuild the temple of the Jews at Jerusalem, 
 
 and engaged with ardour in the work. Yet the 
 
 3G1. joint eflbrts of the Roman emperor, and the Jewish 
 
 •^l''"" ""fiiij is to nation, who gave their most strenuous exertions to 
 
 temple. ^ ^ the cause, were unable to effect the object. The 
 
 foundations of the temple were laid, but destroyed 
 
 by a fiery eruption.* 
 
 " Horrible balls of fire," say historians, "breaking out from the 
 foundation with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place in- 
 accessible to the workmen. The victorious element continuing in 
 this manner, seemed obstinately bent to drive tliem to a distance, and 
 the hopeless attempt was abandoned." 
 
 At the passage of the Tigris, the Romans obtained an encouraging 
 victory over the Persians, but here their success ended. Julian was 
 induced to burn his fleet at the suggestion of a treacherous Persian, 
 who in the character of a deserter had entered his camp as a spy. 
 As the Romans advanced into the country of the Persians, their pro- 
 visions failed. The cattle were driven away, the inhabitants had 
 departed, and the country, naturally fertile, now presented only smo- 
 king ruins. 
 
 The Roman army had, by the deserter, been led into a snare, and 
 was reduced to the greatest necessity. 
 
 The emperor now sought to retrace his steps, but the Persian 
 prince, with a numerous army, appeared in sight, hovering around 
 the Romans and harassing their retreat. The Romans attempted to 
 force their way, and Julian was mortally wounded in the contest. — 
 His dying moments were passed in philosophical discourse, apparently 
 in imitation of Socrates. 
 
 The unexpected death of the leader of the harassed army, spread 
 
 confusion and dismay. The officers could not agree upon a succes- 
 
 sor, when the name of Jovian, a man of no military 
 
 ^"3* renown, but attached to the household of Julian, was 
 
 Jovian declared em- cii'culated among the troops. He was immediately 
 
 declared emperor, and the officers gave their assent. 
 
 * Thi.«! account; is as well attested as most historical facts. A particular description 
 of the remarkable circumstances attending it, was pablisiied by (jregory Nazianzen, a 
 Christian writer, the same year, and afterwards by tiie Roman historian Ammianiis 
 Marcellinus, t!ie pagan, ftma wjium the atmexed quotation is made. The event was 
 also at that time deemed preternatural by all, and precluded all further attempts to- 
 wards the erection of the building. 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 127 
 
 Meanwhile the news of Julian's death had circulated in the Persian 
 army, and gave confidence to their hopes of the entire destruction of 
 the Roman arms. Amid their deliberations and sorrows, the legions 
 had been compelled to continue their retreat, surrounded by tlie Per- 
 sians, and momentarily subject to their vexatious and often fatal at- 
 tacks. Four days after tiie death of Julian, the disheartened army 
 reached the city of Dura. The Tigris was still to be crossed, and 
 they were almost in despair of elFecling their escape. Here Sapor, 
 the Persian king, sent them proposals of peace, and disgraceful as 
 they sounded in Roman ears, they were accepted. The provinces 
 beyond the Tigris, which Diocletian had obtahied ofNarses,wjrenow 
 ceded to Persia, and the impregnable city of Nisibis, which had so 
 often resisted the Persian arms, together with some of the strongest 
 fortresses in Mesopotamia, was surrendered. — The army were now 
 suffered to pursue their homeward way, in ignominious peace. 
 
 Section XIV. 
 
 On the accession of Jovian, Christianity again became the estab- 
 lished religion of the empire. But his reign of a few months, was 
 terminated by his death before he reached Constantinople. 
 
 Valentinian, a commander of the guards, was unanimously pro- 
 claimed his successor. He appointed his brother 
 364. Volens, as his colleague, committing to him the 
 
 "" len" ''"'^ ^'°' ^^^^^''^ P'-ovinces, while himself retired to the west- 
 ern, where he prosecuted the war against the bar- 
 barians with considerable success. Yet the decline of the empire 
 became more and more apparent. The civil wars of the sons of 
 Constantino had destroyed vast numbers of soldiers, and left the fron- 
 tiers exposed to the depredations of the barbarians. The valour and 
 energy of Julian had, indeed, for a moment, checked their incursions, 
 but his unsuccessful Persian war had still farther weakened the mil- 
 itary force of the empire, and prepared the way for the ignominious 
 peace which Jovian concluded. 
 
 Valentinian died in the twelfth year of his reign, and left his do- 
 minions to his son, Gratian, a youth of seventeen ; 
 3'75. ^vith the condition that a younger son, named Va- 
 
 Gratian. lentinian, then an infant, should be associated with 
 
 him. 
 The Goths, who had repeatedly invaded the empire, again appeared 
 on its frontier, not indeed in the character of hostile 
 aiLf'ihl'Romanr barbarians, but of humble suppliants, themselves 
 driven from their dominions, by a new and formi- 
 dable enemy. 
 
 The Huns, a race inhabiting the north of Asia, and more barbarous 
 
 than either the Goths or Germans, had been preci- 
 
 "^ ''"^- pitated by the wars in the east, upon the frontiers of 
 
 Europe. Passing the Volga, they had subdued the nations of the 
 
 Alani, who inhabited the regions between the Volga and Tanais, and 
 
128 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 advanced upon the kingdoms of the Goths. Tlieh' first appearance 
 on the Gothic frontier, was in the declining days of the great chief, 
 Hermanric, whose dominion, it is said, extended from the Baltic to the 
 Danube, and lake Ma30tis, and who had united under his sway the two 
 great portions of tlie Gothic race — the western Goths, or Visigoths. 
 and the eastern Goths, or Ostrogoths ; the former governed by the 
 house of the Balti, the latter by that of the Amali. The death of 
 Hermanric, prevented the united efforts of the Goths in checking the 
 invaders, and the Ostrogoths soon submitted to the Huns. 
 
 The Visigoths, alarmed at the approach of this formidable race, 
 supplicated the emperor, Valens, for vacant lands on the southern 
 banks of the Danube, engaging to guard the frontier from the still 
 more dreaded Huns. 
 
 Valens agreed to admit the Gothic nation within the empire, on 
 
 certain conditions, to which they acceeded ; but the 
 
 376. most important of which, — the relinquishment of their 
 
 G.itlis allowed to ^^ — ^^ afterwards evaded. The nation was 
 
 settle in tlie Roman . , / ^i t> i ^ • *i i. 
 
 Empire. transported across tlie Danube to nnprove the waste 
 
 land of Thrace, and a multitude of barbarians were 
 thus admitted to a peaceful settlement within the bounds of the em- 
 pire. The number who composed this emigration, is estimated at 
 nearly a milhon, and among them might be collected two hundred 
 thousand warriors. 
 
 The emperor granted the Goths permission to engage in traffic, but 
 the avarice of the Roman ministers not only rendered the permission 
 useless, but destructive to them. At length, they exhausted their 
 property in procuring the means of subsistence, and were compelled 
 to sell their children to obtain the necessaries of life. 
 
 The treachery of the tvoman governor of Marcianopolis towards 
 Fritigern, enkindled his wrath. He summoned his 
 lasui-rectionof ilie couutrymen to arms ; Ma?sia was desolated, and his 
 *^"^''"'' army proceeded to threaten the capital of the Ro- 
 
 man empire. 
 
 Section XV. 
 
 Valens now sought to crush an enemy whom he had introduced into 
 the bosom of the empire, and Gratian, who had just succeeded his 
 father in the west, was summoned to his aid. An irruption of tlie Ale- 
 manni employed the resources of the western emperor, and prevent- 
 ed him from giving assistance to Valens 
 
 The Visigoths, meanwhile, had formed alliances with a body of 
 Ostrogoths, who had procured a settlement on the southern side of 
 the Danube, and also with some hordes of the Alani and Huns. On 
 the plains of Hadrianople, Valens met the barbarians, and the courage 
 and skill of the Roman legions failed in the encounter. The emperor 
 was wounded, and conveyed to a building, which was fired by the 
 enemy, and he perished in the flames. Two thirds of the imperial 
 army were destroyed ; the remainder fled. — The Goths now extended 
 their ravages to the suburbs of Constantinople. 
 
CHAP. I.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 129 
 
 Gratian, meanwhile victorious over the Alemanni, marched to the 
 
 relief of the East, and learned on his journey the death of Valens, and 
 
 the defeat of his army. Sensible of his inability to sustain the weight 
 
 of an empire sinking under numerous foes, he associated witli himself, 
 
 in the government, Theodosius, a native of Spain. 
 
 Tlieodusius. pjjg fa^t^gj. ^y^g a general, who had distinguished 
 
 himself in the reign of Valentinian, but was unjustly put to death by 
 the order of Gratian himself. 
 
 Theodosius was worthy of the imperial dignity. On the death of 
 his father, abstaining from all political interests, he returned to his na- 
 tive home, to cultivate his lands, and superintend his flocks. But the 
 magnanimity of his temper, and the superiority of his genius, impelled 
 the emperor in his hour of peril to call him to his aid. Theodosius 
 was free from the vain glory of conquest, and pursued at first, a 
 careful and watchful policy. From Thessalonica, which he made 
 his head quarters, he kept his eyes fixed upon the barbarians, and 
 availed himself of every judicious opportunity of wasting their forces, 
 or gaining over their leaders. 
 
 Fritigern died, and disunion among the Goths ensued ; the different 
 tribes pursued their own individual interests without concert or design ; 
 and in four years from the death of Valens, the policy of Theodosius 
 procured an advantageous peace ; the conditions of which were ar- 
 ranged in the neighbourhood of Constantinople. Theodosius invited 
 their aged chief, Athanaric, to visit his capital, and partake the hospi- 
 tahties of his palace. The chieftain was astonished at the grandeur 
 and magnificence of the objects presented to his view. " Truly," 
 exclaimed he, " the emperor of the Romans is a God upon earth, and 
 the presumptuous man, who dares to lift his hand against him, is guilty 
 of his own blood." Athanaric sickened and died. Theodosius paid 
 the most respectful honours to his remains ; and his grateful soldiers, 
 thus converted into friends, entered into his legions, declaring that 
 while he lived, they would acknowledge no other chief. 
 
 While Theodosius was thus calming the disorders of the east, a new 
 
 insurrection had arisen in the west. The indolence of Gratian had 
 
 alienated the affections of his subjects. Maximus, 
 
 ^'^^e'd'enumw"""" ^* *^® ^^^^^^ °^ ^^^^ legions, entered Gaul, where he 
 was hailed as emperor. Gratian, who was at Paris, 
 fled to Lyons, and was there assassinated, through the intrigues of 
 Maximus. This revolution was so speedily effected, that Theodo- 
 sius had no opportunity of sending aid to his benefactor. At first, he 
 dissembled his resentment, and permitted Maximus to administer the. 
 government of Gaul. 
 
 Afterwards, Maximus invaded the provinces of Italy, and compelled 
 the empress, Justina, with her young son Valentinian, and her daugh- 
 ter Galla, to flee for succour to the emperor of the east. Theodosius 
 did not invite her to his court, but met her at Thessalonica, whither 
 she had come by sea. His wife being dead, he married the beautiful- 
 Galla, and then marched, at the head of a hardy and disciplined army, 
 mto Pannonia. On the banks of the Save, he met and defeated the 
 forces of Maximus, whom he caused to be executed for the murder of 
 
 12 
 
130 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD I, 
 
 Gratian. But the mother and sisters of the usurper were provided 
 for by the conqueror, and treated with respectful kindness. — The 
 provinces returned to their allegiance ; and Theodosius, superior to 
 the seductions of prosperity, so often fatal to virtue, magnanimously 
 restored Valentinian to the throne of Milan, and added to his domin- 
 ions the provinces of Britain and Gaul. But the young prince soon 
 fell a victim to domestic treason ; and Theodosius, 
 3°4. having punished the traitors, remained sole monarch 
 
 Theodosius sole em- ^^ ^^^^ empire, now, for the last time, united under 
 the sway oi one sovereign. 
 Since the reign of Constantino, Christianity had been rapidly decli- 
 ning from its primitive purity ; and ambitious men sought, through its 
 medium, to gratify the unhallowed lust of power. By gradually ex- 
 tending the authority of the bishops, the foundation 
 Ecclesiastical power, y^^^ |j^jj ^^ ^^^^^ abominable oppression, which for 
 
 so many ages was to press on the moral and intellectual energies of 
 Europe. During the reign of Theodosius, the ecclesiastical power 
 manifested itself as already superior to the civil. Ambrose, bishop of 
 Milan, had forbidden to the empress Justina, mother of Valentinian II., 
 and who reigned in his name, the use of a chapel, where she might 
 worship agreeably to her belief of the Arian doctrines. The bishop 
 next sternl)^ and openly denounced her as a heretic, and when she 
 passed an edict to banish him, he refused to obey. 
 
 Theodosius had, in a moment of passion, given the only cruel order 
 which stains his equitable government, that of putting to the sword the 
 offending people of Thessalonica. He repented, and sought, too late, 
 to hinder its execution. Ambrose boldly reproached him, and exact- 
 ed of him public penance. The master of the 
 Theodosius does pe- yy^yid^ ij-, a niournful and suppliant posture, with 
 sighs and tears, confessed and deplored his crime 
 in the presence of the congregation. 
 
 ■Theodosius died at Milan, a few months after he had quelled the 
 disturbances consequent on the death of Valentinian, lamented by 
 the church to which he had been admhted ; by the Roman people, 
 whom he had governed with moderation ; and even by the van- 
 quished provinces who had experienced his kindness. 
 
PERIOD 11. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 Division Of ) FIRST EPOCH A, 395 A. D. S the Roman Empire, 
 
 Hegira or 5 SECOND EPOCHA, 622 A. D. ^ Flight of Mahomet. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 The student has hitherto found his attention directed to some one 
 great nation, extending its influence to all the smaller kingdoms and 
 nations of the earth, and thus at the same time, placing before him the 
 whole civilized world. The Egyptian, Assyrian and Chaldean, the 
 Macedonian, Persian, Grecian and Roman nations, have successively 
 risen to his view. But from this period he will find his attention di- 
 vided, first, between the two Roman empires, now distinct and separate 
 governments, and subsequently, between various independent, and 
 powerful nations, arising from the ruins of the Roman empire, and 
 the civilization of the northern barbarians. 
 
 On the death of Theodosius, his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, sue- 
 
 ceeded to the empire. Arcadius, the emperor of 
 
 395. the east, reigned over the provinces of Thrace, Da- 
 
 Arcadius aad Hono- (ji^, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt. The western 
 
 empire allotted to Honorius, comprised Italy, Africa, 
 
 Gaul, Spain, and Britain, and the provinces of Noricum, Pannonia, 
 
 and Dalmatia. Theodosius had quelled the disturbances among the 
 
 Goths, and restored tranquillity to the empire. 
 
 But, although the Goths had bowed to the superior abilities of The- 
 
 odosius, they knew their own strength, and the 
 
 ^falTof thltra'^i'rr' ^^eakness of the empire. The Roman armies were 
 
 a e empire. ^^^ ^^j^ ^^jj^^ ^.^1^ barbarian auxiliaries, but they 
 
 were also at this time, not unfrequently commanded by chiefs of bar- 
 barian origin ; while the indolent and effeminate citizens refused to 
 
132 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 leave their luxurious pleasures for the service of their country. Lux. 
 ury had, in another manner, laid the train for the subversion of the 
 empire. The Roman soldiers had obtained permission of the differ- 
 ent emperors, to cast aside their heavy shields and a part of their 
 armour, so that when they were exposed to the attacks of the barba- 
 rians, now instructed in the art of war, clad in armour, and skilful in 
 the use of missile weapons, the contest was unequal, and the barbari- 
 ans had the advantage. The youth and incapacity of Arcadius and 
 Honorius subjected them to the control of their favourites. Rufinus, 
 a Gaul, governed the councils of Arcadius, in the eastern empire, 
 while Stilicho, a Vandal, directed the administration of his brother, in 
 the western. 
 
 The western Goths had made Alaric, of the family of theBalti, their 
 chief, and only a few months elapsed, after the 
 403. death of Theodosius, before the Gothic nation was 
 
 ■'^'^''"^ in arms. Alaric passed with his barbarians into 
 
 Greece, and spread desolation through Macedonia, Thessaly, and At- 
 tica. Rufinus, deeming it a stroke of policy to turn their arms upon 
 Italy, negotiated an alliance with them, and privately advised Alaric 
 to seek his fortune in the western empire, promising that succour 
 should be sent. 
 
 The Goths accordingly broke up their settlement in MoBsia and 
 Dacia, and proceeded towards Illyricum, Istria, and the northeast of 
 Italy. Stilicho, at the head of the western legions, advanced to re- 
 pulse them. The history of their progress is obscure, but it is cer- 
 tain that Stilicho obtained a decided advantage at Pollentia, and that 
 they were compelled to retreat. Alaric was again defeated at Verona ; 
 and the vigilance and skill of Stilicho finally procured a temporary 
 peace. 
 
 The fears of Honorius were awakened by this invasion, and to 
 preserve his person from danger, he removed his 
 Ravenna the capital, residence from Milan to Ravenna, a more secure 
 situation, which henceforth became the imperial city. 
 
 Meanwhile, an irruption of Pagan barbarians occurred, more for- 
 midable than even that of the Goths, who were now 
 irruption^of Gei-n.an Christianized, and possessed the rudiments of civi- 
 lization. These were a confederacy of the German 
 nations, the Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and part of the Alani, to the 
 number of 200,000 fighting men ; and, headed by their king, Radagai- 
 sus, they now i.ssued from the shores of the Baltic, showed themselves 
 upon the banks of the upper Danube, passed into Italy, and laid siege 
 to Florence. The active Stilicho appeared with his army, surround- 
 ed the barbarians, besieged them in their camp, reduced them to the 
 greatest distress and compelled them to capitulate. Radagaisus per- 
 ished, but a great portion of his army retreated, and abandoning Italy, 
 proceeded to devastate and take possession of Gaul, from the Rhine 
 to the Pyrenees. — This, says Gibbon, may be considered as the fall 
 of the Roman empire beyond the Alps. 
 
 The feeble and contemptible Honorius, whose principal occupation, 
 history informs us, was to feed poultry, was, in the absence of his 
 
CHAP. I.] WESTERN EMPIRE. 133 
 
 minister, moved by the arts of an ambitious flatterer, to jealousy and 
 hatred against the only man, whose talents could support his tottering 
 state ; andStihcho was murdered. 
 
 Alaric, no longer held in check by fear, resumed his schemes of 
 conquest. He advanced into Italy, besieged Rome, 
 ^^^' and the venerable city was forced to purchase with 
 
 '^'''tcksRome.''"'' "^o^ey ^lie retreat of the barbarians. The condi- 
 tions of the payment not being strictly complied 
 with, Alaric made this a pretence to return. Again he besieged 
 Rome, and compelled the reluctant senate to receive from him Atta- 
 ins, the prefect of the city, as their emperor. The city was still 
 spared, but the Gothic troops overran and devastated Italy. At- 
 talus did not long enjoy the favour of the Gothic chief, who, the 
 following year, degraded him from the imperial dignity. Ho- 
 norius, at Ravenna, still refused to make peace with the Goths. 
 They returned, thirsting for spoils, and bent upon destruction ; and 
 Rome, so long vaunted as the "eternal city," was taken, and suffered, 
 during six days, the horrours of sack and pillage from a barbarous 
 soldiery. 
 
 The victorious Alaric then passed triumphantly forth, and bent his 
 course to the south of Italy, intending to embark for Africa, when 
 . , . , death put an end to his conquests. Adolphus, his 
 
 °^' ' brother-in-law, succeeded to the command of the 
 
 Goths. His first intention was to make Rome the seat of a new em- 
 pire of the Goths, but finding by study, that law and order were es- 
 sential to a well constituted state, and that the yet unlearned Goths 
 would not submit to these, he magnanimously resolved to seek a coun- 
 try more favourable to the genius of his countrymen ; and to leave 
 Italy to be governed by her own regulations. After the Goths had 
 enjoyed an undisputed control during four years, he concluded a peace 
 with Honorius, and received from his hand, his sister Placidia* in 
 marriage. He retired from Italy into Gaul, and from thence into 
 Spain, where he founded the kingdom of the Visigoths. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Britain, during this period of confusion, had thrown off its allegi- 
 
 ance to the Roman government, and its independ- 
 
 Br.tam independent. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ acknowledged by Honorius. He 
 
 had ceded the lands of Upper Germany to the Burgundians, and of 
 Lower Germany to the Franks. After an ignominious reign of twenty- 
 eight years, Honorius died. Adolphus had fallen in war, and Placi- 
 dia, having returned to Italy, had become the wife of 
 Constantius. Coustantius. After a few months possession of the 
 
 ♦The young Placidia was the daughter of the great Theodosius and Galla. She 
 was taken prisoner at the sack of Itome, and carried away by the barbarians, hut was 
 treated with respect. She captivated Adolphus; and the elegant person and ingenu- 
 ous mind of tlie youthful soldier were not regarded by her with indiiference ; and it 
 may be that Italy was, on this occasion, indebted as much to love as to reason, for 
 deliverance. 
 
 12* 
 
134 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD 11. 
 
 throne, made vacant by the death of his brother, Constantius was 
 assassinated, and his son, Valentinian, was proclaimed emperor. 
 
 Valentinian was but six years of age, and the administration of the 
 424 government was committed to his mother, Placidia, 
 
 Valentinian HI. ^^ regent. The armies of the empire were com- 
 manded by iEtius and Boniface, between whom there 
 was an irreconcilable enmity. The misrepresentations of JEtins led 
 Placidia to distrust the loyalty of Boniface, and to recal him from 
 Africa, where he lield the command. Boniface, who has been styled 
 the last of the Romans, was roused by the suspicion of his integrity, 
 and was at length driven, though very reluctantly, into revolt. 
 
 By his invitation, Genseric, king of the Vandals, who was establish- 
 . ed in Spain, now transported his hosts across the 
 
 straits of Gibraltar, and drew to his camp the wan- 
 dering Moors, He commenced a course of rapine and devastation 
 in the Roman province of Africa. Boniface learned too late, the 
 treachery which had been practised upon him, and returned to his 
 allegiance. But the provinces from Tangiers to Tripoli, had become 
 a prey to the destructive fury of the Vandals. Boniface engaged in 
 battle with them, but was defeated, and compelled to retreat. The 
 success of the Vandals was for a time retarded by a treaty with 
 the western emperor, but in eight years, Genseric had obtained pos- 
 session of Carthage, and permanently established a kingdom. 
 
 While the arms of Genseric had toi'n from the empire a rich and 
 
 fruitful province in Africa, a still more threatening tempest was rising 
 
 m the north. The Huns, who had driven the Goths and Vandals 
 
 from the north of Europe, now spread their savage hosts from the 
 
 ..2 banks of the Volga to those of the Danube. At- 
 
 ,„•, , •„ " r,}. tila, their king, claimed descent from the ancient 
 
 Huns. Huns, who had contended with the raonarchs of 
 
 China. Seven hundred thousand warriors followed 
 
 his banners. He had conquered the various nations of barbarians 
 
 who still inhabited northern Europe. The Gepidce, and the Ostro- 
 
 goths, the kings of Scandinavia and of the islands, owned his suprem- 
 
 acy. His depredations extended to Persia; and Theodosius II., now 
 
 emperor of the east, was compelled to pay him tribute. He made an 
 
 alliance with Genseric, and preventing the eastern emperors from 
 
 yielding assistance to Valentinian, facilitated the conquests of the 
 
 Vandal king. 
 
 Resolved on war with the western empire, Attila sought to unite 
 with him the barbarian nations of Gaul, among which the Visigoths, 
 headed by Theodoric, the son of Alaric, and permanently settled in 
 the south of Gaul, were the most formidable. The artifices of Alaric 
 had been used to procure the friendship of Theodoric, and the Gothic 
 monarch wavered between the rival powers. iEtius, the Roman 
 general, baffled his arts, marched into Gaul, secured the co-operation 
 of Theodoric in its defence, and drew to his standard as allies, the 
 Saxons, the Burgundians, tire Sarmatians, or Alani, the Franks, and 
 other powerful tribes. 
 
CHAP. I.] WESTERN EMPIRE. 135 
 
 At Chalons, ^tius and his auxiliaries encountered the formidable 
 
 host of Attila, and in a bloody battle compelled him 
 
 f f A •]• ^° retreat. The number slain in the battle, was 
 
 computed at one hundred and sixty two thousand. 
 
 The Visigoths constituted the strength of the Roman forces. Theo- 
 
 doric, their valiant king, fell in the battle. The Goths, animated by 
 
 the son of Theodoric, were furious to revenge his death, but the policy 
 
 of iEtius, who wished to preserve the Huns, as a counterpoise to the 
 
 power of the Goths, secured Attila a retreat. 
 
 The power of Attila, however, was not broken, nor his resources 
 exhausted. The ensuing spring, with apparently undiminished 
 Auiia ravaff - 1 1 Strength, he passed the Alps, and invaded Italy, be- 
 ° '^ ^ sieged and took Aquileia, Milan, and Pavia. Valen- 
 tinian made a hasty retreat from Ravenna to Rome, and the defence 
 of the nation was again committed to -^lius, who, destitute of other 
 troops than his domestic forces, found himself unable to withstand or 
 retard the depredations of the enemy. The barbarians of Gaul re- 
 fused to march to the defence of Italy. An embassy, accompanied 
 by Leo, bishop of Rome, in his sacred robes, was dispatched to the 
 barbarian camp. Attila listened with attention to their humble sup- 
 plications, and acceded to a treaty, which purchased the temporary 
 safety of Italy, at an immense price. 
 
 The death of Attila, which occurred soon after his retreat, by dis- 
 uniting the various nations who had yielded to the sway of his genius, 
 rumed the power of the Huns, and relieved Rome for a time froin the 
 terrour of its most formidable enemy. Yet the destruction of the 
 empire was not to be stayed by the removal of external foes. Its 
 internal strength was gone, nor did any virtue remain, to give hopes 
 of recovery. The feeble Valentinian, (no longer governed by the 
 wise counsels of Placidia, now dead,) gave way to jealousy, and the 
 first sword, which perhaps he had ever drawn, was plunged into the 
 bosom of the faithful iEtius. He thus, as he was told by a bold Ro- 
 man, " cut off his right hand with his left." His vices did not long 
 remain unpunished ; and he himself fell a victim to the vengeance of 
 Petronius Maximus, an injured husband. 
 
 Maximus was elected emperor, but his reign continued only three 
 months. He compelled Eudoxia, the widow of 
 454. Valentinian, to marry him, and the indignant empress 
 
 Maximus. secretly called for the aid of Genseric to avenge 
 
 her wrongs. 
 Genseric, now become powerful by his naval force, had extended 
 his piracies into every part of the Mediterranean. Joyfully accepting 
 the invitation to invade Italy, he landed his troops at the mouth of the 
 Tiber, and advanced to the gates of the now defenceless city. Max- 
 imus, on learning the approach of the Vandals, attempted to escape, 
 but was slain in the streets. The entreaties of Leo, again saved the 
 city from conflagration, but for fourteen days and nights, it presented 
 horrible scenes of pillage and rapine. Private and 
 *^'"l'^>f ''"'' public wealth, the treasures of temples, and church- 
 es, became the prey of the Vandals. " The orna- 
 
136 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 ments of the capitol, with the statues of the gods, which since the in- 
 troduction of Christianity, had not been removed, with the treasures 
 and vessels of the holy temple of Jerusalem, which had been brought 
 by Titus to adorn his triumph, were alike embarked for Carthage, 
 but were lost on the passage." The empress Eudoxia, and her three 
 daughters, were carried prisoners to Africa, with multitudes of Roman 
 women and children. 
 
 Avitus, of Gaul, was at Toulouse on an embassy to Theodoric, 
 Avitus king of the Visigoths, when the news of Maximus, 
 
 and of the recent disasters at Rome, was received. 
 The vacant throne tempted his ambition. The powerful Theodoric 
 encouraged it, and by his influence, Avitus was received into Rome 
 as emperor. Count Recimer, a descendant of the kings of the Goths, 
 commanded the barbarian troops who formed the defence of Italy. 
 Indignant that he should not have been consulted, in the choice of an 
 emperor, he compelled Avitus to abdicate. Recimer, for many years, 
 maintained the entire and absolute dominion in Italy, though reigning 
 under the name of emperors, whom he elevated and deposed at plea- 
 sure. 
 
 On the abdication of Avitus, Recimer raised to the imperial digni- 
 .c- ty Majorianus, a man of virtue and talents, who in 
 
 ■n. ■ ■ ' his own person, seemed to revive the image of the 
 
 Roman majesty. He attempted the character oi a 
 reformer, but the various classes who derived advantage from the ex. 
 isting abuses of the degenerate times, united against him. Italy 
 suffered severely from the piracies of the Vandals, and Majorianus 
 built a fleet, and attempted to subdue the power of Genseric. The 
 attempt proved unsuccessful, and aflbrded Recimer an opportunity of 
 alienating the minds of the mercenary troops. Majorianus was de- 
 posed. 
 
 Severus next possessed the name of emperor, while Recimer exer- 
 
 -^, cised the power. Finding himself inadequate, with- 
 
 o ' out a navy, to prevent the depredations of the Van- 
 
 dais, Recimer solicited the aid oi Leo, who now 
 
 filled the imperial throne of Constantinople, and his assistance was 
 
 granted, on condition that he should nominate an emperor of the west. 
 
 Athemius, who had married the daughter of Marcian, the predeces- 
 .^~ sor of Leo, was crowned, and repaired to Italy. 
 
 Atliemius ^^ Strengthen his power, he gave his daughter in 
 
 marriage to Recimer. 
 
 The strength of the east was now employed in preparations for a 
 war with Genseric ; an immense fleet was prepared, and the eastern 
 and western empires united in the expedition. The enterprise failed 
 through the incapacity of Basiliscus, the commander ; and Genseric 
 continued master of the sea. Recimer became jealous of Athemius, 
 and espoused the interest of Olybrius, who had married the daughter 
 of the empress Eudoxia, marched to Rome, took the city, and deliver, 
 ed it up to pillage. He slew Athemius, and declared Olybrius empe- 
 ror. Forty days after, Recimer died, and Italy rejoiced in the death 
 of the tyrant. 
 
CHAP. II.] EASTERN EMPIRE. 137 
 
 Olybrius reigned but seven months. Two competitors appeared, 
 472. Glycerins, a Roman, and Julius Nepos, the govern- 
 
 OlIiG^i^ Glyceri- or of Dalmatia. Glycerins exchanged his crown 
 us, and Julius Ne- for a mitre, and Julius Nepos was received by the 
 P°® senate, and reigned a year. Orestes, a Pannonian, 
 
 who commanded the motley army of barbarians vv^ho had enlisted in 
 the Roman service, now excited a rebellion among them. Nepos, on 
 A^r- their approach to Ravenna, retreated to Dalmatia, 
 
 AutTustulu'Roimilus ^^^ Orestes proclaimed his son, Augustulus Romulus, 
 emperor of the west. Orestes found the power he 
 had easily acquired for his son, not easily sustained. The barbarians 
 who procured his elevation, not content by the increase of their pay 
 and privileges, required him to divide among them a third of the 
 lands of Italy. Orestes refused to sacrifice the natives of the soil to 
 their capricious demands. Among them was the valiant and ambi- 
 tious Odoaccr, king of the Heruli, a savage people, who had migra- 
 ted first from the coast of the Baltic, and afterwards were found in 
 Pannonia and Noricum. They promoted him to the command, and 
 rebelled against the authority of Orestes. Orestes was executed, and 
 Augustulus Romulus laid down his sceptre, and found mercy in the 
 camp of the Herulian chief. — So passes from the historic scene the 
 last emperor of Rome. 
 
 It is a singular coincidence, that his name contains that of the first 
 king and founder of Rome, and also of the first emperor, reminding 
 us of the infancy, the maturity, and the fall of the empire. 
 
 Odoacer, now declared king of Italy, was the first barbarian who 
 
 ^jQ reigned under that name. The western empire, 
 
 Odoacer ^^*^^ existing from the foundation of Rome, 1229 
 
 years, was now extinct, while the eastern, at the 
 
 period of their separation in a like state of decay, continued nearly 
 
 a thousand years longer. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 Section I. 
 
 The annals of the eastern empire present, during this period, few 
 events of interest. The stronger allurements which the west offered 
 to the barbarians, and the subsidies paid by the emperors of the east, 
 preserved the empire in comparative tranquillity. 
 
 Arcadius, a weak and timid prince, was succeeded by his son The- 
 
 odosius. A minor at the time of his accession, his 
 
 Tl e doth r II d ^^^°^^ reign was subject to the influence of his sis- 
 
 Pukiicria. "" ^^^' Pulcheria, who on his death, succeeded to the 
 
 throne. Pulcheria was the first female who sway. 
 
138 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 ed the sceptre of the Roman empire. Her own administration, and 
 that of her brother, whose councils she guided, showed her to be a 
 princess of genius and virtue. On her death, the Theodosian family 
 became extinct, in the east. 
 
 Marcian, the husband of Pulcheria, continued to reign four years 
 
 ^t-Q after her death. His administration was vigorous 
 
 Marcian. ^^'^ prudent. Despising the miserable artifices by 
 
 which former emperors had purchased immunity 
 
 from the dreaded arms of the Huns, Marcian stopped the payment of 
 
 the subsidies. The Huns menaced revenge, but the death of Attila 
 
 occurring at this period, delivered the empire from the danger of the 
 
 threatened invasion. 
 
 Leo, the successor of Marcian, is memorable only as having occu- 
 
 Afr^ pied the throne of Constantinople at the time of the 
 
 Lgjj' destruction of the western empire. For a period of 
 
 fifty years, no important events transpired in the 
 
 east. Zeno, Anastasius, and Justin successively ascended the throne, 
 
 but left behind them no deed which should preserve their names from 
 
 oblivion. 
 
 The reign of Justinian, who succeeded Justin, was marked by wars 
 K27 with the Vandals, the Goths, and the Persians. — 
 
 Justinian I '^^^^ kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, founded by 
 
 Genseric, had obtained a firm and apparently per- 
 manent establishment. Hilderic, the grandson of Genseric, had suc- 
 ceeded to the throne, but by some unsuccessful expeditions against 
 he Moors, and the toleration granted to the followers of Athanasius, 
 he had offended great numbers of his subjects. Gelimer, the cousin 
 of Hilderic, deposed him, and assumed the reins of government. 
 Justinian espoused the cause of the captive monarch, and sent Beli- 
 Belisarius sarius with an army into Africa. He achieved the 
 
 conquest of the Vandals, i-educed Carthage, and ob- 
 tained possession of the person of Gelimer, whom he carried to Con- 
 stantinople, to grace his triumph. As Hilderic had been executed, 
 the royal race of Genseric was now extinct, and the province of Afri- 
 ca became an appendage to the eastern empire. The life of Geli- 
 mer was spared agreeably to the terms of capitulation, and an ample 
 estate granted him in the province of Galatia. He was seen in the 
 triumphal procession of Belisarius, arrayed in his regal robes, and 
 though his pride repressed the utterance of a sigh, or the falling of a 
 tear, he was repeatedly heard to murmur, " Vanity ! Vanity ! all is 
 vanity !" 
 
 The success of Belisarius in the African war, procured for him the 
 command of an expedition against the Ostrogoths of Italy. Here his 
 arms were again triumphant ; he subdued Sicily, conquered the great- 
 er part of Italy, and returned to Constantinople with Vitiges, the 
 Gothic king, in chains. 
 
 The Persian war now claimed the attention of the emperor of the 
 
 east. Chosroes, or Nashirvan the Just, was seated 
 
 ersmn wai. ^^ ^j^^ thronc. The internal dissensions of his king. 
 
CHAP. II. EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 139 
 
 dom, had induced him to procure a truce with tlie Roman emperor, an 
 event equally desired by Justinian, as it enabled him to turn his military 
 strength against the Vandals of Africa. The successes of the impe- 
 rial arms in the west, had awakened the jealousy of Chosroes, who 
 availed himself of the earliest opportunity of renewing hostilities. 
 Belisarius turned his victorious arms to the defence of the empire 
 against the monarch of the east, and the war was waged with various 
 and alternate success, until the declining years of Justinian and Chos- 
 roes cooled their military ardour, and procured a truce for fifty years. 
 During the Persian wai-, the Goths of Italy rebelled. Belisarius 
 
 was sent against them, but being recalled through 
 
 ^^^' the jealousy of the emperor, Narses, another lieu- 
 
 Narses^reduces the ^^i^^^-^^ of Justinian, was substituted in his place, and 
 
 effected their complete reduction. 
 After the destruction of the Gothic kingdom, the government of 
 Ei-a-chs Italy was administered by officers styled Exarchs, 
 
 who held their court at Ravenna, and were the 
 representatives of the eastern emperor. 
 
 The last victory of Belisarius was achieved over the Bulgarians, 
 who were aided by a multitude of barbarous Sclavonians. They 
 crossed the Danube, ravaged Macedonia and Thrace, and extended 
 their devastations within a few miles of Constantinople. He, who 
 had so gloriously sustained the military fame of the empire, was now 
 doomed by regal ingratitude to pass his old age in penury and dis- 
 grace. 
 
 After a reign of thirty. eight years, Justinian died, at the age of 
 eighty-three, and left his dominions to his nephew Justin. 
 
 While the arms of the empire had acquired glory abroad, the de- 
 
 dining nation was still in distress. Constantinople 
 '*^^ ^ p^i °e. ' '^ *^™ was distracted by factions. Earthquakes of unu- 
 
 sual extent and duration spread desolation in differ, 
 ent parts. Antioch, especially, was almost wholly destroyed, and 
 two hundred and fifty thousand persons were supposed to have been 
 buried in its ruins. A most dreadful pestilence spread its ravages 
 through the empire, and for a time its virulence seemed undiminished 
 by the change of seasons. At length its malignancy abated, but for 
 half a century its presence was in some degree felt. In Constantino, 
 pie, during three months five thousand, and at length ten thousand 
 persons, are reported to have died daily. Many cities of the east 
 were depopulated, and during the reign of Justinian, there is said to 
 have been a visible diminution of the human species. 
 
 Justinian derives his chief reputation from the Roman jurisprudence. 
 Laws of Justinian With the assistance of Tribonian, an eminent law. 
 
 yer, he digested and simplified the mass of laws, 
 which had been accumulating for ages, and formed those bodies of 
 laws called the code, the pandects, and the institutes. This was the 
 greatest work of the age, and forms the tbundation of the present 
 civil law. 
 
140 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Justin II. was unequal to the weight of government, and associated 
 
 with himself Tiberius, the captain of the guards. 
 
 o7B. During the short reign of Justin, a part of Italy 
 
 "'""'''"m's^lL '^""'" ^'^^^ conquered by the Lombards, and a Persian 
 
 war threatened the empire. The reign of Tiberius 
 
 was short, but his courage, temperance, humanity, and impartiality 
 
 in the administration of justice, proved him worthy of the throne. 
 
 Maurice, by his nomination, succeeded him. — A re- 
 
 582. volution had been effected in the Persian kingdom. 
 
 '^'"'ilrPeSr'"'"' Hormouk had ascended the throne, but his effemina- 
 
 cy and weakness rendered him an object of con- 
 
 tempt to his subjects. An insurrection ended in the deposition and 
 
 death of Hormouk. Bahram, a powerful and ambitious general, 
 
 usurped the regal power, and Chosroes, the son of Hormouk, fled to 
 
 the Romans for protection. Maurice received him favourably, and 
 
 despatched an army to Persia, which subverted the power of Bahram, 
 
 and reinstated Chosroes in his rights. 
 
 While the generals of Maurice restored the majesty of the Roman 
 arms, in the east ; in the west, the weakness of the empire was con- 
 tinually betrayed in the contests with the barbarians. 
 
 The Avars, an Asiatic race, had fled from the victorious arms of 
 the Turks, and obtained a settlement in Europe, 
 no. vars. g^ union with the Lombards, they had effected the 
 
 destruction of the nation of the Gepidse, and after the Lombards car- 
 ried their arms and nation into Italy, the Avars extended their domin- 
 ion from the Euxine to the foot of the Alps. Whenever a Persian 
 war employed the imperial arms in the east, the Avars threatened 
 the empire from the north. As soon as the military force of the em- 
 pire was released from the Persian war, Maurice hastened to employ 
 it against these barbarians. His generals were ill selected, with the 
 exception of Priscus, who obtained several victories ; but the situa- 
 tion of the army and the empire rendered even his victories unprofit- 
 able. 
 
 On the reception of orders from the emperor to make the country 
 of the Avars their winter quarters, the army, already inclined to muti- 
 ny, burst into open revolt, declared Maurice unwor- 
 „, ' thy of the crown, and elevated Phocas, an ignorant 
 
 Pliocas. ■', , , • 11 mi 1 I 
 
 and brutal centurion, to tne throne. Ihe rebel 
 army hastened their return to Constantinople. Maurice and his fam- 
 ily had fled to Chalcedon, whither the cruel emissaries of Pliocas 
 followed. They compelled the emperor to witness 
 ^"'"'"'nLstcr^ir'"'"' the successive murder of his five sons. The agoni- 
 zed father uttered the ejaculation, " Thou art just, 
 O Lord, and thy judgments are righteous." He seemed elevated 
 above all earthly feelings. Even in this dreadful scene, his stern 
 adherence to truth prevailed over parental afiection. When the 
 
CHAP. II.] EASTERN EMPIRE. 141 
 
 nurse by falsehood sought to preserve the life of his infant, Maurice 
 disclosed her design, and surrendered his child. 
 
 An ignominious peace with the Avars was made by Phocas, who 
 
 found himself exposed at once to a revolt of the 
 
 Revolts in Africa pi-ovincc of Africa, and to the arms of Chosroes, 
 
 king of Persia, who threatened to avenge the death 
 
 of his benefactor, Maurice. Phocas, however, retained the throne 
 
 eight years, during which the Persians wrested from the empire many 
 
 of its eastern fortresses, and extended the war into Syria. 
 
 Meanwhile the nation grew weary of a tyrannical usurper, and 
 p-.^ Heraclius, son of the Exarch of Africa, who had 
 
 Heraclius nevcr acknowledged the authority of Phocas, ad- 
 
 vanced at the head of the African forces, to Con- 
 stantinople ; and by an union with the disaffected there, made him- 
 self master of the capital, and deposed and executed the vicious 
 monarch. 
 
 The war with Persia continued. Soon after the elevation of He- 
 
 radius, Chosroes made himself successively master of Antioch, Jeru- 
 
 salem, and Alexandria. While one army extended 
 
 Empire threatened ^^^ Persian Conquests to Tripoli, another marched 
 
 with dissolution. i ti i i /> i i 
 
 to the Bosphorus, and, lor ten years, lay encamped 
 in the neighbourhood of Constantinople. The Avars renewed their 
 hostihties, and encamped their hosts along the plains of Thrace. 
 Thus, on every side, the speedy dissolution of the empire was threat- 
 ened. , 
 
 In this extremity, the funds of the church were appropi-iated to the 
 service of the empire, and an immense army was levied, while a 
 large subsidy purchased, though it did not secure the neutrality of the 
 Avars. Declining to engage the Persian army which lay encamped 
 opposite the city, Heraclius, master of the sea, transported his forces 
 to the confines of Syria and Cilicia, and pitched his camp near Ipsus, 
 on the ground where Alexander had vanquished Darius. Here se- 
 cure from attack he organized and disciplined his troops. The Per- 
 The Romans victori- si^"^ repaired to Cilicia, and Heraclius drew them 
 ous over the Per- into an engagement, in which victory declared for 
 sians. the Romans. 
 
 In the next campaign, the emperor made the passage of the Black 
 Sea, traversed the mountains of Armenia, and penetrated into the 
 heart of Persia ; compelling Chosroes to recal his armies for the de- 
 fence of his own kingdom. Chosroes, however, still maintained an 
 army in the vicinity of Constantinople, to second the operations of the 
 treacherous Chagan, or chief of the Avars, who, regardless of the 
 subsidy he had received as the price of his neutrality, had entered in- 
 to an aUiancc with the Persians. A host of Avars, Gepidse, Rus- 
 sians, Bulgarians and Sclavonians besieged Constan- 
 ^°"'T4"el'^ ^'' tinople, but were repulsed ; while the Persians on 
 the opposite side of the Bosphorus beheld their dis- 
 comfiture, without being able to render them any assistance. 
 
 Heraclius had, meantime, strengthened his army by an alliance 
 13 
 
142 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IJ, 
 
 with the Turks. A memorable battle was fought 
 Romans completely ^t Nineveh, in which the Roman arms triumphed, 
 
 victorious over the i^, , f>,ii ,^01 ^ 
 
 Persians. '^"'^' ^'^^ g'oiT 01 the house oi oassan was forever 
 
 extinguished. Cliosroes was shortly after assassin- 
 ated by his own son, who concluded a peace with the Romans in 
 which he relinquished the conquests of his father ; and Heraclius 
 withdrawing his forces from the kingdom, returned to his capital in 
 triumph. 
 
 During tliis period, the student finds his attention distracted amid 
 the various kingdoms established upon the ruins of tlie western em- 
 pire, while the conflicts of the barbarous tribes with each other, and 
 their alternate conquests and defeats, render it difficult to preserve 
 with distinctness the thread of general history. 
 ^'"i?Zr,^S.''''^ Of the kingdoms founded in this period, the most 
 important were those of England, France,, and 
 Spain. In the first and second centuries of the Christian era, we find 
 the people of these countries, England and Spain especially, amalga- 
 mating with their conquerors, filling the ranks of the Roman armies, 
 and at length considered as the same nation. Of the separation of 
 each from the empire, and its establishment as an independent king- 
 dom, we are now to give a short account. 
 
 The Franks. 
 
 CHAPTER II L 
 
 FRANCE, BRITAIN, SPAIN, ITALY, &c. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 The Franks, an association of warlike tribes of Germans, who 
 are said to have derived the name Franks, or Free- 
 men, from their love of liberty, made some conquests 
 in Gaul, in the third century. They were governed by chiefs of the 
 family of Merovaus. 
 
 Clovis, the grandson of Merovaus, was chief of a tribe called the 
 
 Salian, and the founder of the French monarchy. 
 
 481. When the western empire was subverted by the 
 
 Clovis founds the barbarians, Gaul was divided between the Romans, 
 
 French monarchy. , ^t- • 1 1 1 -n t o • 1 
 
 the Visigoths, and the rJurgundians. Syagrius the 
 Roman commander in Gaul, had in the declining days of the empire, 
 thrown off his allegiance, and established his independence. Clovis 
 took arms against him, defeated him at SoLssons, and subjected the 
 Roman provinces of Gaul to the sway of the Franks. 
 
 He next engaged in war with the Alemanni,an independent German 
 
 nation, and defeated them in a great battle. In the course of the en- 
 
 AQC gagement, his troops were ready to give way. 
 
 ^, . V.,,„ Clovis invoked the God of Clotilda, a Christian 
 
 Clovis embraces . 1 u j • 1 
 
 Christianity. pnncess of Burgundy, whom he had married. 
 
 Rallying his troops to the charge, he obtained the 
 
CHAP. III.] FRANCE BRITAIN. 143 
 
 victory, embraced Christianity, and was baptized at Rlieims. " Bend 
 thy head, proud barbarian," said the bishop, as he approached the sa- 
 cred font. The conversion of Clovis was followed by that of great 
 numbers of his subjects. 
 
 His alliance with the Burgundians secured their friendship, while 
 his embracing the Catliolic faith, ensured the powerful support of the 
 clergy of Gaul, and afforded the subtle monarch an opportunity of 
 turning their influence to advantage, in a war upon Alaric, king of the 
 Gallic Visigoths, who held the Arian tenets, to which the Gallic clergy 
 were vehemently opposed. The armies of the Visigoths and Franks 
 encountered each other in battle near Poictiers. Alaric was slain, 
 his forces defeated, and the province of Aquitaine, added to the king- 
 dom of the Franks. 
 
 On the death of Clovis, his extensive dominions were divided be- 
 c f /-, • tween his four sons. During the reign of these 
 
 Sons of Clovis. , , . . r- ^ T^ 1 i l 
 
 brothers, the dominion of the r ranks was extended 
 over Burgundy, but the annals of the kingdom present an unvarying 
 scene of enmity, contention, violence, and bloodshed. Clotaii'e, the 
 youngest of the four, finally reunited the nation under his sway. On 
 his death, the kingdom was again divided between his four sons, and 
 this second division was followed by even more aggravated and horrid 
 crimes. The death of these four princes, left Clotaire II., grandson 
 of the former monarch of that name, undisputed sovereign of France. 
 In the decline of the Roman empire, the legions stationed in Bri- 
 ^.Q tain were withdrawn, and in 448 the island was 
 
 r, •, * evacuated bv the Romans. The native inhabitants, 
 
 who for years resisted the discipline and valour of 
 the Roman warriors, had now so degenerated from their primitive 
 courage and strength, that they were wholly unable to withstand the 
 iiicursion of their hostile neighbours, the Scots, and Picts. Abandon- 
 ed by the Romans, and incapable of defending themselves, the Britons 
 Britons ask aid of had recourse to the aid of the Saxons, a race of in 
 the Sa.xons. dependent and warlike Germans. 
 
 The request of Vortigern, the British king, was heard with joy by 
 the Saxons. Two of their chiefs, Hengist, and Horsa, attended by 
 fifteen hundred Saxon warriors, were despatched to the aid of the dis- 
 tressed monarch. 
 
 The Scots and Picts were repulsed, but the Saxons themselves 
 
 proved to the Britons not less formidable foes. On the invitation of 
 
 Hengist and Horsa, great numbers of their countrymen flocked to 
 
 England, and the inhabitants were driven to arms in defence of their 
 
 possessions. Every part of the country cxperi- 
 
 BHta'iu^^*^ encedthe desolating ravages of barbarian warfare ; 
 
 the most horrid atrocities were committed ; no age 
 
 or sex was exempt from tlicir cruelties. 
 
 Tiie command of the Britons was conferred upon Arthur, one of 
 their native princes, who gained advantages over the barbarians, 
 raised the spirits of his countrymen for awhile, and restored tranquil* 
 lity to the nation. 
 
 At length new emigrations of the Saxons took place, the war wa« 
 
144 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 renewed ; and at the end of one hundred and thirty-five years of 
 
 distressing warfare, we find the Saxons in possession of all the culti- 
 
 vated parts of South Britain, while the unhappy 
 
 '"^BritonT ^ natives were driven to the mountains of Wales, and 
 
 Cornwall, and to the district along the north-western 
 
 coast of the island. — During tliese disastrous wars, a part of the 
 
 Britons passed over to the continent, and settled in the Gallic province 
 
 of Armorica, to which they gave the name of Bretagne or Brittany. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The kingdom of the Visigoths founded by Adolphus, was extend- 
 Visi<roths in Spain. ^^ ^^ Conquests over the Suevi and Vandals, na- 
 tions who had established themselves on the penin- 
 sula at a still earlier day. Their monarchy, at one period, extended 
 from the Loire to Gibraltar, but the conquests of Clovis wrested from 
 them the greater portion of their possessions in France. The Van- 
 dals who had preceded the Goths in their invasion of Spain, on the 
 invitation of Boniface, the Roman governor in Africa, abandoned the 
 peninsula, and under their king, Genseric, founded a new monarchy 
 in Africa. 
 
 In Italy, was founded during this period, the kingdom of the Ostro- 
 Ostroffoths in Italy goths. This nation which had been subdued in the 
 irruption of the Huns into Europe, and followed the 
 standard of Attila in their subsequent invasion of the Roman empire, 
 on the death of that powerful monarch, threw off their allegiance to 
 the Huns, and by the force of arms again established their independ- 
 ence. 
 
 Theodoric, the son of their monarch, was given as a hostage to 
 AQQ Zeno, the emperor of the east, with whom the Os- 
 
 Theodoric trogoths formed an alliance. Theodoric was a 
 
 youth of talents, ambition and courage, and after a 
 residence of some years at the Byzantine court, he returned to his 
 nation, elevated above his rude subjects, and prepared, by knowing 
 the weakness of the eastern empire, to conduct against it a formidable 
 war. The emperor, Zeno, apprehensive of the increasing strength 
 of the Ostrogoths, to divert their arms from his dominions, gave The- 
 odoric permission to conquer Italy, still governed by Odoacer, king of 
 the Heruli. Theodoric accordingly advanced to claim possession of 
 the lands bestowed upon him by Zeno, defeated the forces of Odoacer, 
 and established his kingdom upon the ruins of that of the Heruli. 
 
 Theodoric reigned thirty-three years. Under his government, 
 Italy was in a state of comparative peace. The Romans or Italians 
 were left in possession of two thirds of the lands, while the remainder 
 was divided among the Goths. The Italians retained their laws, cus- 
 toms, dress, language, personal freedom, and had the civil administra- 
 tion. The last years of the reign of Theodoric were disgraced by 
 the execution of Bcethius, the last Roman orator, and 
 Boethius. Qf jj-g fo^ii^Qj. ijj ]^^y Lymmarchus, on the alleged 
 
CHAP. III.] ROMAN EMPIRE. 145 
 
 charge of treason against the Gothic government. Theodoric left 
 no son, but on iiis death bed, he commended to his nobles his daugh- 
 ter, and her son, then ten years of age. The son soon died with dis- 
 ease, the mother by violence. Tiiudat succeeded, who was soon 
 displaced to make room for Vitiges. Belisarius conquered the south 
 of Italy, and carried Vitiges a captive to Constan- 
 S43. tinople. The Goths revolted, when Belisarius left 
 
 ^"'''''' Italy, and proclaimed for their king, Totila, a brave 
 
 and warlike prince. 
 
 He rapidly extended his conquests over various parts of Italy. 
 The imperial generals who had succeeded Belisarius were unequal 
 to the defence of the kingdom, and Naples, the provinces of Lucunia, 
 Apulia and Calabria, and at length Rome itself, again submitted to the 
 Gothic sceptre. Belisarius, after the close of the Persian war, was 
 again sent to Italy, where he had already begun to retrieve the af- 
 fairs of the empire, when the jealousy of the imperial court procured 
 his recal, and Narses was despatched thither in his place. In the 
 neighbourhood of Rome, Narses defeated the Gothic army ; Totila 
 was slain, and Italy again annexed to the eastern 
 ^5^' empire. 
 
 Soon after the destruction of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, the 
 repose of the exarchs of Ravenna was disturbed by the ferocious 
 Lombards, and their king Alboin. To the weak 
 568. and often conquered Italians, Alboin was invincible, 
 
 The Lombards. g^j^j ^^^^^i hardly an effort, he made himself master 
 of the greater part of Italy. Ravenna, Rome, and a part of the east- 
 ern coast, still remained subject to the emperor, and were governed 
 by the exarch of Ravena, and officers appointed under him. The 
 reign of Alboin was short. His wife Rosamond, was a princess of the 
 Gepida3. Alboin had murdered her father, and compelled the loath- 
 ing Rosamond to drink from a cup made from her father's skull. 
 She avenged the abominable act by his death. 
 
 The original seat of the Turks was among the Altai mountains, in 
 the ititei-ior of Asia ; and tiie race which in modern 
 The Turks. times extended the terrour of their arms into Eu- 
 
 rope, were originally slaves to the great Khan of Tartary. They 
 were employed by their masters in the manufacture of iron, of which 
 great quantities were found among their native mountains. Leaders 
 at length arose among tliese slaves, who induced them to throw off 
 their allegiance to their former masters. At different times they in- 
 vaded China and Persia, and showed themselves dangerous enemies. 
 In the wars of the Byzantine monarchs with the Persians, we find the 
 Turks engaged in alliance with the emperors. In the war of Hera- 
 clius, they rendered him effectual service. 
 
 The empire of the Turks extended itself by degrees over the north- 
 ern parts of Asia, while on the south their conquests included the na- 
 tion of the White Huns, who possessed the cities of Buchara and Sa- 
 marcand, and it is said they advanced even to the Moeotis in Egypt. 
 13» 
 
PERIOD III 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 Hegiraor j SECOND EPOCHA, 622 A. D. ^FliglitofMali 
 TO THE 
 
 Coronation Of ) THIRD EPOCHA, 800 A. D. } Charlemagne. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RISE OF THE MAHOMETAN EMPIRE. 
 Section I. 
 
 While the monarchs of Constantinople, and Persia, were directing 
 their hostile arms against each other, and the two empires seemed on 
 the brink of destruction ; while the Christian religion, corrupted by 
 the introduction of Pagan rites, and the union of the civil and ecclesi- 
 astical powers, in .the hands of the patriarchs and popes, was divided 
 into various sects, animated by the most rancorous animosity and ha- 
 tred of each other, a power was rising in the wilds of Arabia, destined 
 to subvert the course of empires, and to establish a new religion in the 
 world. 
 
 Mahomet, the most successful impostor who appears on the page of 
 history, was born in Mecca. He was a descendant 
 569. of one of the most powerful families of Arabia. 
 
 Mahomet born. Early left an orphan, he was indebted to the protec- 
 tion and kindness of an uncle, Abu Taleb, for his support until the age 
 of twenty-five. Mahomet then engaged in the service of Khadijah, 
 a rich widow of Mecca, whom he subsequently married. — He is rep- 
 resented, as always of a contemplative character, and fond of retiring 
 from the world for religious observances. 
 
 It was not until the age of forty, that Mahomet presented himself 
 in the character of a prophet. — His first converts 
 609. were his wife, Khadijah, his friend Abu Beker, his 
 
 Mahornet appears as gousin All, and Zeid, a faithful servant. Fourteen 
 n piopie. proselytes were the sole reward of three years la- 
 
 bour. 
 
CHAP. 1.] MAHOMETAN EMPIRE. 147 
 
 The knowledge which Mahomet had obtained of the Christian and 
 Jewish religion, displayed to him the folly of the idolatrous worship 
 of the Arabs ; and his first efforts were directed to lead them to the 
 belief of the unity of God. The substance of the faith imposed upon 
 his followers was, " There is but one God, and Mahomet is the Apostle 
 of God." He professed to receive the Koran or Mahometan scrip, 
 tures, from the angel Gabriel, at different times, as the situation of the 
 prophet and his followers required a revelation. He retired annually 
 to a cave, about three miles from Mecca, where he spent a month in 
 solitude, professedly receiving divine communications, and holding in- 
 tercourse with the eternal world. The writer of the Koran was ne- 
 cessarily kept secreted, and as Mahomet was himself ignorant of the 
 art of writing, modern historians have supposed that a monk was em- 
 ployed by him on the occasion. 
 
 After ten years passed with little success in teaching the inhabitants 
 of Mecca, the enmity of the rulers and the people, among whom was 
 his uncle, compelled him to flee for the preservation 
 622. of his life. His cousin Ali, Abu Beker, and Zeid, 
 
 Hegira, or Mahome- accompanied him in his secret flight to Medina, 
 where he had already some followers. The vari- 
 ous tribes and inhabitants of Arabia, were accustomed to pay their 
 annual devotions in the Caaba or temple of Mecca. In their pilgri- 
 mages there, many of the citizens of Medina had listened to the elo- 
 quence of INIahomet, and become converts to his religion. He was 
 now, in his distress, received by them with enthusiasm. Five hundred 
 citizens advanced to meet him, the people unanimously embraced his 
 faith, and swore allegiance. 
 
 The first military exploits of Mahomet and his followers, were to 
 intercept the caravans of Mecca — engaged in the 
 ^''^''Mdimlif ' °^ Syrian trade. Abu Sophian, a mortal foe of Ma- 
 homet, and head of a tribe called the Koreishites, 
 was returning from Syria with a weaUhy caravan. The prophet 
 prepared to intercept it, when a party of the Koreisliites from Mecca, 
 arrived to protect their countrymen. Mahomet, abandoning his de- 
 sign upon the caravan, turned his arms against the Koreishites, who 
 were dispersed or slain. Mahomet, seated on a pulpit erected in view 
 of the battle, called for the succour of Gabriel and three thousand an- 
 gels. But as they did not come to his aid, and he beheld his troops 
 dispirited, and ready to yield, he mounted his horse, and, casting a 
 handful of sand into the air, exclaimed "Let their faces be covered 
 with confusion." The sound of his voice, the action with which he 
 denounced vengeance on his foes, gave strength and assurance to the 
 fanatical Moslems — intimidated the almost victorious Koreishites, who 
 now left tlic field. Abu Sophian burned with the desire of vengeance, 
 and the following year, Medina was attacked by a force of ten thou- 
 sand men of various nations. Divisions were excited among the dis- 
 cordant tribes of the Koreish army, and a tempest adding to their dis- 
 tress, Medina was saved. Six years after his expulsion, the arms of 
 the prophet were directed against Mecca, his native city, but the jiower 
 of the Koreishites preserved it for a time. A treaty was concluded. 
 
148 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 by which hostiHties were to be suspended for ten years, and the pro- 
 phet was permitted to enter his native city as a pilgrim. His impo- 
 sing entrance into the city — his devotion and elo- 
 '^'''intr]vL*c"cr"'^ quence, strengthened his cause, and produced the 
 conversion of muUitudes. Tlie truce was broken, 
 Mahomet overcame his enemies and entered Mecca victorious. The 
 citizens embraced his rehgion, and were pardoned. 
 
 The submission of Mecca resulted in that of all the neighbouring 
 tribes. The idols were now every where destroyed, and the faith of 
 Mahomet established throughout Arabia. Ten years after his flight 
 from Mecca, at the age of sixty-three, the prophet died, having spread 
 the terrour of his name from the Euplirates to the Red Sea. 
 
 Abu Bekir, his friend, was chosen as his successor, or the caliph. 
 The death of Mahomet had severed the bond which 
 
 632. united the various tribes under one standard, and 
 Abu Btkir. ^Yie venerable Abu Bekir, when he accepted the 
 
 sovereignty, found himself reduced to the necessity of turning his 
 arms against the rebellious Arabs. In his reign of two years, they 
 were again reduced to submission ; and his lieutenant, Caled, called 
 by the Arabians the "Sword of God," extended his conquests into 
 Persia. 
 To Abu Obeidah, another of the Saracen commanders, was entrusted 
 the conduct of a war against the province of Syria. 
 
 Syrian War. pj^ encountered a formidable army sent by the em- 
 
 peror Heraclius to its defence. The Greeks were defeated, multitudes 
 slain, and the remains of the imperial army fled to Antioch and Cesa- 
 rea. The Saracens then invested Damascus, which, seeing no hope 
 of succour, capitulated. The mildness of Abu Obeidah permitted 
 the Christians of that city to depart into exile ; after three days, how- 
 ever, Caled, led by an apostate Christian, pursued the fugitives, over- 
 took them, and gave them up to indiscriminate slaughter. 
 
 Omar succeeded Abu Bekir in the caliphate. During the first 
 
 633. years of the reign of Omar, the Syrian war was 
 Omar. prosecuted with unabated vigour. Successive vic- 
 tories increased their enthusiasm, and augmented the numbers of the 
 faithful. Damascus, Heliopolis, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Antioch suc- 
 cessively fell before the Saracens ; and in seven years after the death 
 of the prophet, the whole province of Syria bowed under the sceptre 
 of the caliph. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 In the east, also, the arms of the Saracens were found invincible. 
 They had passed the Tigris ; Ctesiphon had fallen 
 
 ^"Tn the ir '°"^ ^^^*^^'® ^'^^"''' ^"^ Yezdegerd, the Persian monarch, 
 had been compelled to flee to the protection of the 
 Turks. To these conquests, the invasion of Egypt succeeded. The 
 rapid success of the Maliometans in this province is less wonderful, 
 when we consider the divisions and hatred existing among the Chris- 
 
CHAP. I.] MAHOMETAN EMPIRE. 149 
 
 tian sects at this period. The persecutions of the emperor of the 
 east, liad embittered the feehngs of a large portion of liis Egyptian 
 subjects, who welcomed the Moslems as deliverers. Memphis sub- 
 mitted without resistance, and Alexandria was taken 
 636. after a siege of fourteen months. The great library 
 
 Ale.^an(Jria taken ^f ^j^^^j enlightened citv was destroyed. The caliph, 
 
 aiid the Library , . P , •' .^ i- i ,, rr- ii • 
 
 destroyed. When petitioned to spare it, rephed, " It these wri- 
 
 tings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, they are 
 useless, and need not be preserved ; if they disagree with it, they are 
 pernicious and ought to be destroyed." 
 
 In the reign of the succeeding cahph,Othman, the Arabians extend- 
 ^.r. ed their conquests into the province of Africa. 
 
 Othman Dissensioiis, however, arose among the Moslems, 
 
 regarding the rightful succession to the caliphate. 
 655. -^^^ insurrection resulted in the assassination of 
 
 Aii. Othman ; and Ali, the cousin of the prophet, and one 
 
 of his first four pi'oselytes, was now elected to the 
 office. The pretensions of Ali, who married Fatima, a daughter of 
 the prophet; and of his descendants, tire Fatimites, are the origin of 
 the discord which has ever existed between the Persians and Turks ; 
 the former espousing the interests of Ali, and the latter maintaining the 
 equal sanctity of the three preceding caliphs. On the accession of 
 Ali, the sceptre of the caliphs extended over the kingdoms of Persia, 
 Syria, Arabia and Egypt. Yezdegerd, the last of the Persian mon- 
 archs, made an ineffectual attempt to recover his dominions. At the 
 head of an army of Turks, he advanced, into the empire of his ances- 
 tors, but betrayed by a servant and deserted by his 
 Religion of the Magi gUigg^ \^q ^y^g s].^^-, [y^ attempting to escape ; and the 
 
 lioraetunism/ religion of the Magi was thenceforth in Persia to 
 
 be displaced by that of Mahomet. 
 The empire of the Saracens continued to be weakened by internal 
 dissensions and civil wars. Ali, though not engaged in the assassina- 
 tion of Othman, reaped the advantages derived from 
 Dissensions. j^-g ^^^^^^ Moawiyah, son of Abu Sophian, of the 
 
 family of Ommiyah, to cover his own ambitious purposes, resolved to 
 avenge it. Amon, the viceroy of Egypt, espoused his cause, Moaw- 
 iyah was declared caliph at Damascus, and at the head of a large 
 army marched against Ali. After a sanguinary conflict, in which 
 many thousand Moslems perislied, a truce was effected between the 
 rival caliphs. Meantime some enthusiasts in the temple of Mecca, 
 planned the deliverance of the nation from these evils. Assassins 
 were despatched to procure the death of AH, Moawiyah, and Amon. 
 But the lawful caliph was murdered, while Moawiyah and Amon es- 
 caped. Moawiyah succeeded to the caliphate, which 
 Moawiyah. ^,^^ .^^^^ cliaiiged into an hereditar)' ofHce. 
 During the reign of the Ommiades, as the family of Moawiyah are 
 termed, the lieutenants of tlie caliphs penetrated the deserts of Afri- 
 ca, and extended to Mount Atlas the terrour of their 
 Moors conquered. ^j.^g^ rpi^g Moorish tribes along the coast, after a 
 short resistance, were conquered, converted, and adopted in^p the 
 
150 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 Arabian family. Tlie final subjugation of Africa was effected by 
 Hassan, governor of Egypt, A. D. 709. 
 
 The Goths of Spain were in possession of the garrison ofCeuta, on 
 the African side of the straits, flere the Saracens 
 713. were at first repulsed, but the treachery of Count 
 
 Spam conquered. Julian, commander of the garrison, put them in pos- 
 session of the fortress, and instigated them to tlie invasion of the Goth- 
 ic kingdom of Spain. The obscure race of kings, who held sway 
 over the monarchy founded by Adolphus in Spain, presents no name 
 worthy of mention in history. A civil war had enabled Roderick, a 
 noble Goth, to dethrone Witerza, the lawful king, and usurp the 
 crown. It was at this period that the Saracens invaded the peninsu- 
 la. Muca, the Saracen commander, listened to the proposals of Ju- 
 lian, entered Spain, and in a decisive battle at Xeres in Andalusia, 
 established tiie Mahometan dominion. The princes and friends of 
 Witerza's family revolted, and joined the Mahome- 
 Roderick^ie^last of j^j^^g^ ^j^j Roderick, the last of the Goths, was drown- 
 ed in the Guadelquivier. The Saracens pursued 
 their march, and without encountering opposition, planted the stand- 
 ard of the prophet in the royal city of Toledo. 
 
 The Goths submitted to the victor, but were allowed the enjoyment 
 of their own religion ; and the dominion of the Saracens extended 
 from the Mediterranean to the bay of Biscay. — Pelagius, a member 
 of the royal family, finding it impossible to resist the conquerors, re- 
 tired with a band of followers to the mountains of the Asturias, where 
 he established a Christian kingdom, which in after ages reconquered 
 the kingdom of the Saracens, 
 
 The ambition of the Arabian victors was not bounded by the Pyre- 
 Saracens invade necs. They advanced into Gaul. Charles Mar- 
 Gaal. tel, now king of France, took the field against them. 
 
 A memorable battle, which decided the future destiny of Europe, was 
 fought between Tours and Poictiers. An immense multitude were 
 _oo slain, and the arms of the French acquired perpet- 
 
 c I'r . 1 ual glory in the defeat of the Saracens. The Sara- 
 
 baracens deleated. ■ i c^ ■ ■, ■ • i i i 
 
 cens retu'ed to Spam, and it is considered a remarka- 
 ble fact that they made no farther attack upon the northern nations. 
 
 In pursuing the victorious course of the Arabs westward, we have 
 Attempisof tlie Sar- passed by their attempts upon Constantinople. Un- 
 acensnpimConstan- der the Caliph Moawiyah, they menaced the capital 
 tmople. j^f j]^g eastern empire, attacked it in the summer, 
 
 and retreated in the winter, for six successive years. At length they 
 gave up the enterprise as hopeless, and a truce of thirty years was 
 concluded. A second attempt upon the city, in 716, proved equally 
 disastrous to the Moslems. The strength of Constantinople constitu- 
 ted for centuries the security of the empire. The Greek fire,* with 
 
 *The materials from which this fire was obtained, with the method of preparing 
 and directing it against an enemy, are now lost. That it was an improvement in the 
 military art, and of important benefit in the defence of Constantinople, there is no 
 doubt ; its use was for a long time confined to the Greeks, but was eventually discover^ 
 ed by tiie fearacens. 
 
CHAP. II.] EASTERN EMPIRE. 151 
 
 which, in both their attempts, the Moslems were repulsed, spread ter- 
 rour throughout their ranks. 
 
 The power of the caliph of Damascus was weakened by a formida- 
 ble revolt. The family of Ommiyah had never been 
 Mahometan faction., fovourites with the Arabian people. Their early 
 persecutions of the prophet, and the tardiness with which they embra- 
 ced the faith, made them suspected by the devout. Tlie descendants 
 of Abi and Fatima had indeed abandoned their pretensions to the 
 sovereignty, and by strict devotion to the observances of religion, had 
 acquired great reputation for sanctity among their countrymen. The 
 descendants of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet, were more aspirincrin 
 their views, and had secretly enlisted great numbers in their cause. 
 
 Through the regions of the east, the followers of the prophet were 
 divided into factions, and the adherents of each designated by the 
 adoption of a peculiar colour in their dress. The green was appro- 
 priated to the Fatimites ; the white, to the Ommiades ; and the black 
 was assumed by the Abbassides. The contest of the white and the 
 black faction could be terminated only by a civil war. Safiah, the 
 chosen caliph of the Abbassides, and Merwan, the last of the Ommi- 
 ades, led their armies to battle. Merwan was de- 
 Abbassides. feated, and the Abbassides triumphed in the east. 
 
 Abdalrahman alone, of the royal family of Ommiyah, escaped. Spain 
 received the fugitive, and established him on the throne of Cordova ; 
 wliere, for more than two hundred years, his descendants reigned. 
 The dynasty of the Abbassides was established in the east, bul the 
 unity of the empire was destroyed. The seat of government was 
 785. removed by the Abbassides to Bagdad. Under the 
 
 Haroun al Raschid. ^®'g" ^^ ^^ese princes, of whom Haroun al Raschid 
 stands pre-eminent, learning was patronised, and the 
 hterature of Greece and Rome carried into the east. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE, BRITAIN, FRANCE, ITALY. 
 Section I. 
 
 Eastern Empire. — Meanwhile the Byzantine emperors became 
 utterly insignificant. Heraclius lived to see the Syrian province sev- 
 ered from his dominion, and Jerusalem in the hands of the Moslems. 
 The successors of Heraclius, for a considerable period, present no 
 name worthy of record ; and the annals of the empire are marked 
 with the intrigues, assassinations, and revolutions of the palace. 
 
 Justinian II. ascended the throne in 68-5. His vices and incapaci- 
 Justinian II. ^7' pi'oduced general disaffection. Being deposed 
 
 and expelled the kingdom, he retired to the neigh- 
 bourhood of the Borysthenes, and obtaining the aid of the Bulgarians, 
 
152 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 returned after an absence of ten years, and recovered his throne. 
 His cruelties again produced an insurrection, during which he was 
 assassinated. With him perished the last of tlie race of Herachus. — 
 Between the death of Justinian II., and the estabhshment of the Isau- 
 rian dynasty, which commenced with Leo III., three emperors reign- 
 ed in the space of six years. 
 
 Leo rose from an obscure origin, to the imperial throne, and ad- 
 Leo III ministered the government twenty-four years. His 
 reign is memorable as the commencement of the 
 controversy respecting the worshipof images, which 
 "741. vvas continued by his successor Constantine V. This 
 S paration of the dispute Separated the eastern and western church- 
 
 easwH and western '■ i ^ -i ^ i . j- t^ i /• ii j 
 
 churches. ^^> ^^^^ contributed to disengage Italy irom all de- 
 
 pendence upon the Greek or Byzantine empire. 
 ^fl. Image worship was, however, restored by an 
 
 T, ' , empress, who rendered herself peculiarly infamous 
 
 The empress Irene. , ', . t • . a i i 
 
 by her cnmes. Irene, a native oi Athens, was the 
 empress of Leo IV., and mother of Constantine VI. The death of 
 Leo, while Constantine was but ten years of age, placed the imperi- 
 al government in her hands. When Constantine arrived at maturity, 
 she still wished to retain the power, and hence bitter enmity arose be- 
 tween the mother and the son. Ambition stifled every sentiment of 
 nature and humanity, and the barbarous Irene deprived her son of his 
 sight, and he languished many years in darkness. 
 
 After Irene had reigned five years, Nicephorus, her treasurer, sei- 
 zed the throne, and doomed her to exile in the island of Lesbos, where 
 she earned a scanty subsistence by spinning. 
 
 Britain, during this period, was disturbed by contests still contin- 
 uing between the Saxons and its ancient inhabitants ; although most 
 of the island had submitted to the Saxon sway. The 
 Saxon Heptarchy. gaxons had established seven kingdoms, known as 
 the Saxon Heptarchy, and between them there was also continual 
 wars. 
 
 In France, the degenerate descendants of Clovis, still remained 
 upon the throne. In the disorders consequent upon the weakness, or 
 minority of these monarchs, the regency, or admin- 
 Mayors of the Pal- istration of government, was committed to the May- 
 or of the palace, who combined the offices of judge, 
 and of steward of the household. These mayors acquired such an 
 extent of power, that the authority of the monarch was little more 
 than nominal. 
 
 Pepin Heristal succeeded in rendering the office hereditary in his 
 
 714. family ; and after governing twenty-eight years, 
 
 Charles Martel. was Succeeded by his son Charles Martel. 
 
 It was during his administration, that the Saracens conquered 
 
 France, from the Garonne to the Rhone. Charles collected his war. 
 
CHAP. II.] FRANCE. 153 
 
 732 riors, and in the battle fought between Tours and 
 
 Battle of Tours. Poictiers, which lasted seven days, he defeated the 
 invaders, and recovered the provinces. This battle 
 is considered one of the most important ever fought, as it influenced 
 not only the destiny of France, but of all Europe, and put a check to 
 the westward progress of the Mahometan religion. — Charles did not 
 assume the name of king, but exercised the full power. He was suc- 
 Pei.in. cecded in the mayoralty by his son Pepin, who, per- 
 
 forming the functions, aspired to the title of sove- 
 reign. 
 The clergy favoured the claims of Pepin, who had restored to 
 them the lands of which his father had dispossessed them ; and the 
 nobles, despising the weakness and imbecility of their nominal mon- 
 arch, sought the protection of his power. Still the people knew not 
 how to absolve themselves from the allegiance they had sworn to the 
 lawful monarch. In this dilemma, the aid of Zachary, bishop of 
 Rome, now known by the appellation of pope, was sought. Pepin 
 inquired of the pope, " Whether a prince incapable of governing, or 
 a minister invested with royal authority, and who supported it with 
 dignity, ought to have the title of king." The interest of the Roman 
 see favoured the pretensions of Pepin. The pope accordingly deci- 
 ded in his favour. The people were absolved from their allegiance, 
 their consciences quieted, and Childeric III., the last of the Merovin- 
 gian race, was deprived of his crown, and shut up iu a monastery. 
 Pepin was crowned king of France, at Soissons, by St. Boniface, bish- 
 op of Mentz. 
 
 Pepin was not unmindful of his obligations to the pope. In the wars 
 with the Lombards, he espoused the cause of the pontiff, and finally 
 annexed to the dominions of the Holy see, the exarchate of Ravenna 
 and Pentapolis, while the kings of France were recognized as patri- 
 cians of Rome. 
 
 After a reign of seventeen years, Pepin was succeeded by his sons, 
 768. Charles and Carloman. The sovereignty of France 
 
 Charles and Carlo- could hardly be Considered hereditary at this period, 
 ■"^"' as the consent of the nobles was required to the ac- 
 
 cession of these princes. The death of Carloman, left Charles in pos- 
 session of the whole kingdom. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 This prince^ early in his reign, gave indications of the qualities 
 
 772. which, in that warlike age, gained him the name of 
 
 Chariema'snc. Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. He found a 
 
 pretext for invading the kingdom of Lombardy, in 
 
 the hostilities of Dcsiderius, the king of the country, against the pope. 
 
 Charlemagne crossed the Alps ; and Pavia, and Verona, successively 
 
 fell before him. Lombardy was soon reduced to submission, and the 
 
 king made captive. Charlemagne next visited Rome, where he was 
 
 14 
 
154 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 received with every demonstration of joy, and hailed as the deliverer 
 of the church. 
 
 With the Saxons, who inhabited the country extending from Bo- 
 hemia to the German ocean, and from the Rhine to the Baltic, he 
 was forced to maintain perpetual war. The Saxons had often been 
 reduced to the necessity of paying tribute to the monarchs of France, 
 785. but as often revolted from the yoke imposed upon 
 
 Charlemagne sub- them. Charlemagne, after thirty years of arduous 
 dues the Saxons. warfare, reduccd them to submission. 
 
 Witikind, a Saxon chief, renowned for his resistance, at length em- 
 braced Christianity, and resigned his ai-ms. The aversion of the 
 Saxons to the Christian religion, had increased their hatred of the 
 Franks, and is considered the main cause of their revolt. The meas- 
 ures adopted by the conqueror for their conversion, 
 Saxons cornpellcd to ^^ ^ modern mind well calculated to render 
 
 embiace Christian- /*; . , i , mi , i- 
 
 ity. their antipathy unconquerable. 1 hey were obli- 
 
 ged, under penalty of death, to receive baptism, and 
 the most rigorous punishments marked the slightest deviation from the 
 rites of the Catholic church. 
 
 Besides the subjugation of Germany, which Charlemagne effected, 
 
 he carried his arms against the Huns and Sclavonians, penetrated 
 
 their dominions, and plundered their capital. In an expedition against 
 
 the Saracens of Spain, he annexed to his dominions 
 
 800. the territory between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. 
 
 Coronation of Char- jjg ^y^^g crowncd cmpcror of the west, at Rome, by 
 
 ^^"^°"^- Pope Leo III. 
 
 Italy, in the commencement of this period, was divided between 
 the kingdom of the Lombards, and the dependencies of the emperor of 
 Constantinople. Venice was an independent state, and the dukedoms 
 of Friuli, Spoletto, and Beneventum, were attached to the kingdom 
 of the Lombards. 
 
 Although Rome was nominally governed by a duke, subject to the 
 exarch of Ravenna, it already experienced the influence of the bish- 
 ops in its temporal, as well as its spiritual affairs. Until the emperor 
 Leo, the Isaurian, outraged the feelings of devout Catholics, by the 
 proscription of image worship, the authority of the Byzantine court 
 had been acknowledged in Rome. Gregory II., bishop of Rome, re- 
 monstrated ; but finding his efforts for the removal of the edict inef- 
 fectual, he excited the people to vindicate the cause of religion. 
 Rome and Ravenna revolted — all Italy flew to arms, and in retalia- 
 tion, the statues of the emperors were broken. At Ravenna, the ex- 
 arch, and many of the Iconoclasts, or image-breakers, were massa- 
 cred. 
 
 These disorders presented to Luitprand, king of the Lombards, an 
 
 „,„ opportunity of attempting the execution of his am- 
 
 r , A '..o^n. bitious project of uniting all Italy to his kingdom. 
 
 Lombards attempt ,'^t-.'' i i i i ii ^i •*• r*u« 
 
 the conquest of all He took Ravcnua, and subdued all the cities of the 
 Italy. exarchate. 
 
 Gregory, jealous alike of the Lombards, and of the emperor, sent a 
 
CHAP. II.] ITALY. 155 
 
 solemn embassy to obtain the aid of the French. Charles Martel re- 
 ceived the ambassadors favourably, but furnished no immediate assis- 
 tance. Meanwhile, Leo, Gregory, and Luitprand, had disappeared 
 from the stage of action. The successors of Leo recovered Raven- 
 na, £ind continued their persecution of image-worship ; and the suc- 
 cessors of Gregory, not less zealously resisted the imperial edicts. 
 
 Astolphus, now on the throne of Lombard y, renewed the war, 
 again subdued Ravemici, and threatened Rome. Stephen IIL, then 
 bishop of Rome, went in person to the court of Pepin, to solicit aid. 
 
 The French monarch embarked in his cause ; and at the head of 
 
 an army, marched into Italy. He compelled th@ 
 
 754. Lombards to relinquish their conquests, which he 
 
 Pepin presents the presented to the Pope. Thus, the exarchate be- 
 
 Lombard conquests * i ^ i r» mi • i 
 
 to the Pope. Came annexed to the Roman see. — i his may be re- 
 
 garded as the first instance of a Christian bishop be- 
 ing invested with the prerogatives of a temporal prince. — It was in re- 
 turn for these donations, that Stephen anointed Pepin anew, conferring 
 upon him and his sons the title of patrician, or protector of the Roman 
 people. 
 
 The Greek emperor remonstrated against the proceedings of Pepin 
 and of the pope, but in vain. The French monarch maintamed that 
 the dominions transferred to the jurisdiction of the pope, were his, by 
 right of conquest from the Lombards, and no power should induce 
 him to resume the gift he had bestowed upon the successors of St. Pe- 
 ter, as the bishops of Rome were styled. 
 
 The kingdom of the Lombards languished until twenty years after 
 the expedition of Pepin, but his son Charlemagne, as we have seen, 
 completed its conquest. Charlemagne affected to confirm the gift of 
 his father to the JBoly see, adding to it, all the cities and islands which 
 had been annexed to the exarchate. Yet, during the life of Ci^rle. 
 magne, these dominions were dependent upon his power ; and ooth 
 Ravenna and Rome were numbered in the list of his metropolitan 
 cities. 
 
 Rome had enjoyed a sort of independence^^xercising the right of 
 governing itself, for fifty years, when the pope, Stephen II., conferred 
 on Pepin and his successors the title of patrician ; thus transferring 
 the power which the Greek emperors had nominally held, to the 
 Carlovingian family. 
 
* PERIOD IV. 
 
 COMPEISINQ EVENTS FKOM THE 
 
 "\ 
 
 oronation of ) THIRD EPOCHA, 800 A. D. i Charlemagne, 
 
 Commencement 
 
 the Crusade? 
 
 of j FOURTH EPOCHA, 1100 A. D. I 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 Section I. 
 
 At the coronation of Charlemagne, the graceful Leo, after placing 
 
 the crown upon his head, saluted him with the title 
 
 800. of emperor of the Romans ; and his claim to the 
 
 ^^Toroflomr^'' ^"^F^"^ °^t^^ ^^^*' '^^^ universally acknowledged. 
 
 He received embassies from the monarchs of the 
 
 east. Irene, the empress of Constantinople, implored his friendship ; 
 
 and even the caliph of Bagdad, the princely Haroun al Raschid, en- 
 
CHAP. I,] EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 157 
 
 tered into a correspondence with him, and gave him the keys of the 
 holy sepulchre of Jerusalem. The barbarians of Charlemagne's court 
 were astonished by the splendour of the caliph's presents, among 
 which, with other works of art, was a clock. 
 
 The latter years of the reign of Charlemagne, were disturbed by 
 
 Norman pirates. ^he depredations of the Norman pirates. It is said, 
 
 that when the emperor beheld their vessels in th» 
 
 Mediterranean, foreseeing the evils with which they threatened his 
 
 subjects, he wept. 
 
 Charlemagne reigned after his coronation as emperor, fourteen 
 years, when he died in the 71st year of his age, and left his vast do- 
 minions to his son Louis. — He is justly considered the greatest of 
 barbarian monarchs, and his efforts to civilize and polish his subjects, 
 confer the noblest praise upon his character. He is censured for the 
 support he gave the Roman hierarchy, but from the manner in which 
 the ceremony of crowning his son Louis was performed, it would 
 seem that the emperor even then foresaw the claim to temporal pow- 
 er which the church would usurp, and prepared for resistance. He 
 caused Lewis to raise the crown from the altar on which it had been 
 placed, and put it on his own head, thus intimating that he received it 
 only from God. 
 
 Louis, surnamed "Ic Debonnaire," from his weakness, was ill 
 
 g-j j^ qualified to sway the sceptre transmitted to him frorn 
 
 Louis ^^^ warlike father — a sceptre which required, to 
 
 le Debonnaire. wicld it, all the energies of his father's powerful 
 
 mind. 
 Louis early associated his three sons with himself, in the govern- 
 ment of the empire. — Bernard, son of Pepin, Charlemagne's eldest 
 son, had previously been placed on the throne of Italy. He now re- 
 volted, claiming that as the son of an elder brother, his right to the 
 empire was superior to that of his uncle. Bernard was made prisoner 
 by Louis, and condemned to the loss of his eyes, which loss he survi- 
 ved only three days. — Louis, seized with remorse for his cruelty to 
 his nephew, impeached himself, and requested the church to condemn 
 him to penance. — The clergy gladly seized this opportunity of hum- 
 bling the civil power at the feet of the ecclesiastical. 
 
 Meanwhile, the birth of a son, Charles the Bald, by a second mar- 
 riage, made Louis desirous of another division of his dominions, which 
 should give this son an inheritance with his brothers. Lothario, his 
 eldest, who was associated with him in the government of the empire, 
 at first consented to a new division. He soon however repented, and 
 joining his younger brothers, Pepin and Louis, to whom had been as- 
 signed the kingdoms of Aquitaine and Bavaria, the three openly re- 
 belled against their father. The pope, Gregory IV., with a view of 
 establishing the supremacy and independence of the Roman see, join- 
 ed the party of Lothario. Louis was deposed, and Lothario pro- 
 claimed emperor in his stead. The unhappy monarch, a prisoner in 
 ihe monastery at Soissons, was compelled to submit to the judgment 
 of a council, which decreed that he should divest himself of his royal 
 robes, and assume those of a penitent. 
 
 14* 
 
158 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 The conduct of Lothario could not win the affections of the nobihty, 
 who soon returned to their allegiance ; Louis was taken from the 
 convent, restored to the throne, and Lothario found himself obliged to 
 submit at the feet of his injured father. He was forgiven, and per- 
 mitted to retain the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 On the death of Louis, his sons turned the arms so often raised 
 against their father, against each other. Pepin, to whom had been 
 assigned Aquitaine, was dead, and his possessions had been given by 
 his father to Charles the Bald. Lothario now, however, despite of 
 the rights of Charles, and of Louis, grasped at the whole empire. 
 His two brothers united against him, and the blood of thousands flow- 
 ed to gratify their ambition, and the hatred of men, who should have 
 shown to each other only kindness and affection. 
 
 The civil war was succeeded by a negotiation, in which a new di- 
 P . , vision of the empire was made. — Lothario, with the 
 
 Em lire of Charie- imperial title, was left in possession of Italy, and 
 magne divided. of the countries between the Rhone and the Alps, 
 the Meuse and the Rhine. — To Charles were assign- 
 ed Neustria and Aquitaine, while Louis retained possession of Ger- 
 many. The empire of Charlemagne, thus divided among his grand- 
 sons, continued under their successors to be subdivided, and to be the 
 scene of contention and disorder. 
 
 The Normans, taking advantage of these disturbances, renewed 
 their hostihties, and spread devastation in the dominions of Charles the 
 Bald, even to the neighbourhood of Paris. 
 
 Lothario, the emperor, in his declining days, divided his dominions 
 
 between his sons, and sought by retirement and pen- 
 
 Lothario divides his ^ncc, to expiate the sins of his former life. Louis, 
 
 '^"^'"' ' the eldest son of Lothario, succeeded to the imperial 
 
 honours under the title of Louis II. 
 
 Louis of Germany governed his dominions with considerable abil- 
 ity. On his death, they were divided between his three sons. Car- 
 loman governed Bavaria ; Louis, Saxony ; and Charles, Suabia. — 
 Louis II., emperor, and king of Italy, dying without sons, the pope 
 espoused the interest of his uncle Charles the Bald, 
 Charles the Bald. .^^j^q received at his hands the imperial crown. In 
 virtue of his authority as emperor, Charles was compelled to cross 
 the Alps for the protection of Italy, which was now invaded by the 
 Saracens, where he suddenly died. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The successors of Charles are little worthy of a place in history. 
 
 His son, Louis the Stammerer, reigned but a few 
 
 879. months, and was succeeded by his two sons, Louis 
 
 ^°"'^l " an ""^ ^'^^ ^"^ Carloman. The death of these princes, while 
 
 their brother, Charles the Simple, was yet a minor, 
 
 884. transferred the crown of France to Charles the Fat, 
 
 Charles the Fat. ^^^ ^^ Louis the German king, who had inherited 
 
CHaP. I.] EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 159 
 
 the possessions of his brothers, and had already obtained the imperial 
 crown. This monarch nearly reunited the empire of Charlemagne. 
 His incapacity for sustaining its weight, was, however, soon conspic- 
 Normans besie<^e uous. The Normans again appeared, and laid siege 
 Paris. ° to Paris. During this siege, which continued more 
 than a year, wonderful exploits of valour are related 
 of Eudes, Count of Paris, and of his brother Robert. At length the 
 emperor marched to the relief of the Parisians, but instead of giving 
 the Normans battle, he hired them to depart, by promising them money. 
 During the months occupied in raising the promised sum, the provin- 
 ces were subjected to the continued depredations of the Normans. 
 The subjects of Louis became indignant, and the spirit of rebellion 
 broke forth from all ranks. Louis was deposed, and Charles the Sim- 
 ple, yet a minor, was declared king. Meanwhile, 
 888. the valiant Eudes held the sovereign authority in 
 
 Count Eudes. trust. Germany revolted, and placed on the throne 
 Arnold, an illegitimate descendant of Charlemagne. 
 Charles the Simple. Eudes died, A. D. 898, and Charles the Simple was 
 left to govern in his own name. 
 
 France was now in a state of complete anarchy. Eudes, with all 
 his valour and ability, had found himself unable to heal the disorders 
 of the realm ; while the weakness of Charles only increased the con- 
 fusion. The nobles, though nominally yielding allegiance to the king, 
 now exercised within their respective domains the rights of sovereign 
 princes, and the realm of France was filled with the miseries arising 
 from their continual depredations upon each other. 
 
 The Normans now renewed their hostilities, and spread devastation 
 far and wide, plundering the churches, and carrying 
 905. terrour and dismay into the remotest parts of the 
 
 ^°3er Rdb'"" country. Under the command of their celebrated 
 chief, Rollo, they sailed up the Seine, and made 
 themselves masters of Rouen, which they fortified. Charles, unable 
 to repel the invaders, consented to cede to them the province of Neu- 
 stria, giving Rollo his daughter in marriage. The Norman chief was, 
 however, to do homage to Charles. — The ceremony consisted in kneel- 
 ing and kissing the king's toe. The haughty Norman, though willing 
 to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of France, was displeased 
 with the manner. At length, it was arranged that one of his officers 
 should perform the ceremony in his name. His representative, as 
 unwilling to stoop as his master, under pretence of carrying his ma- 
 jesty's foot to his mouth, overturned him in the presence of his court, 
 and Ciiarles, unable to revenge the insult, submitted to it in silence. 
 The Normans who settled in Neustria, which now received the 
 912. name of Normandy, became converted to Christian- 
 
 Neustria called Nor- ity ; and their prince, Rollo, shewed himself the 
 mandy. ablest monarch of tlie time. 
 
 Charles the Simple was dethroned by Robert, duke of France. 
 Q2-| Robert, after a short reign, was succeeded by Ro- 
 
 Robert and Rodolph. ^^^Iph, duke of Burgundy. The Carlovingian prin- 
 ces were restored to the throne, which they contm- 
 
160 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 ued to occupy until 989, when Hugh Capet made himself monarch 
 of France, and founded a new dynasty. 
 
 Meantime the Germans, disregarding the claims of Charles the 
 Simple, at this time sovereign of France, determined to fill the impe- 
 rial throne of Germany with one of their native princes. Five na- 
 tions, each governed by their own laws, and their own dukes, the 
 Franconians, the Saxons, the Swabians, the Bavarians, and Lorrain- 
 ers, composed at this time the German confederation. Assembled in 
 diet at Worms, the electors of these nations confer- 
 Diet of Worms. red upon Conrad, duke of Franconia, the imperial 
 
 dignity. 
 The reign of Conrad I. was disquieted by the rebellion of some cf 
 the powerful nobles of the empire, and by the irruptions of the Huns, 
 who spread themselves over Pannonia, which from 
 912. them received the name of Hungary. From thence 
 
 Conrad I. ^j^gy extended their ravages to the Baltic, passed 
 
 the Rhme, desolated France and the noi'thern part of Italy. Germa- 
 ny was, however, the scene of their most destructive inroads, and 
 Conrad, unable to resist them, was reduced to the necessity of purcha- 
 sing peace. 
 
 On the death of Conrad, the electors raised Henry the Fowler, 
 duke of Saxony, to the empire. He renewed the 
 920. ^var with the Hungarians, and obtained a splendid 
 
 Henry the Fowler, yictory over them, which, though it did not effectu- 
 ally subdue their power, freed the nation from their further depreda- 
 tions. 
 
 Otho I., his son and successor, completed their subjugation, and 
 also carried on a war with the Bohemians, whom 
 93^' he compelled to pay tribute to the empire, and pro- 
 
 Otho the Great. ^^^^^ ^^.^^^^ ^^le pope the title of emperor. 
 
 CHAPTER TI. 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 Section I. 
 
 While the successors of Charlemagne were engaged in perpetual 
 
 hostilities, Britain was hardly less the scene of contention. After 
 
 much bloodshed, the seven kingdoms which formed 
 
 °27. tiie Saxon Heptarchy, were united under one mon- 
 
 u JiTuSe'Sti ^^^^' ^y Egbert, king of Wessex, the only surviving 
 
 ° ' descendant of Hengist and Horsa. The country 
 
 W£LS thenceforth called England or the land of the Angles. 
 
 The tranquillity of Egbert's reign was soon disturbed by the depre- 
 
CHAP. II.] BRITAIN. l61 
 
 dations of the Danes, or as they were sometimes 
 invasion of the called the Normans, or north-men, from their resi- 
 dence in the north. He encountered them in bat- 
 tle ; and though he obtained two successive victories over them, still 
 their ships brought new swarms to pour in upon the land. Under his 
 successor, Ethelwolf, the nation suffered still more severely from their 
 ravages, and the entire conquest of the island was threatened. They 
 landed in great bodies, plundered and desolated the country, made pri- 
 soners of the inhabitants, and when attacked by the EngUsh, retreated 
 with the booty to their ships. — A succession of three weak and ineffi- 
 cient princes, Ethelbald, son of Ethelwolf, and Ethel- 
 ®'''^* bert and Ethelred, his sons, was followed by the 
 
 Alfred die Great. ^.^j^^ ^f Alfred, the younger son of Ethelwolf. 
 
 The various talents and virtues of this prince have justly acquired 
 him the name of the Great. In his early youth, he had accompanied 
 his father in a pilgrimage to Rome, and on his return visited Paris ; 
 thus gaining some insight into the characters and situations of other 
 and more civilized nations. At the age of twelve, it is said, he was 
 ignorant of the art of reading, an acquisition at that time rare, but 
 delighting in Anglo-Saxon songs, he one day discovered in the hands 
 of the queen Judith, a French princess whom his father had married, 
 a written volume of his favourite poems. She promised the delighted 
 boy that as soon as he could read the volume, he should possess it. 
 He eagerly applied himself to the task, and the little prince soon ob- 
 tained the valued trophy of his victory. 
 
 At the age of twenty he ascended the throne. The Danes were 
 
 now more formidable than ever. Alfred gained some advantages 
 
 over them, and they stipulated to retire ; but receiv- 
 
 *^*^^Dan2* "'° ^"S reinforcements, they violated their treaty. The 
 
 young prince fought eight battles with them in one 
 
 year, but again trusting to their promise of abandoning the island, he 
 
 again found them treacherous. They swarmed upon the coast in 
 
 greater numbers than before. The superstitious Saxons believed 
 
 themselves abandoned by heaven, and in vain the undaunted Alfred 
 
 sought to rally them. 
 
 He then took the habit of a peasant, wisely determining to reserve 
 
 himself for better times. To make his disguise the 
 
 Alfred assumes the ^^^.^ complete, he laid aside his princely bearing, 
 
 disguise of a peasant ,, ' , • , , j -.i .i i j 
 
 as well as his regal robes, and with the dress and 
 language of a rustic, he offered his services to a grazier, and faith- 
 fully tended the cows as they grazed. Once, it is said, when his mis- 
 tress had desired him to watch and turn the cakes at the fire, his 
 mind wandered to other things, and the good wife scolded him for 
 permitting the cakes to burn. Yet, knowing his fault, he submitted 
 patiently. He was beloved by the honest pair, whom he afterwards 
 rewarded with gratitude. At length a Saxon chief, whose castle the 
 Danes had besieged, made a sally, and took from the Danes what 
 they superstitiously believed to be their enchanted banner. Alfred 
 now seeing cause to hope for better days, put off the disguise of a 
 
162 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 cow-herd, and took that of a wandering minstrel. 
 Visits the Danish ^j^j^ ^is harp upon his back, he sought the camp 
 
 camp as a minstrel. /.1T^ ii-ii- • • ii " 
 
 01 the Danes, and while his music entertained them, 
 they unsuspiciously suffered him to wander through every part of 
 their camp. He remarked how security had made them careless, 
 and observed their provoking haughtiness to his countrymen. Quit- 
 ting the hostile camp, he revealed himself to his rejoicing subjects, who 
 
 had thought him dead. They collected from all 
 The Doners conquer- quarters, attacked the astonished Danes, and gained 
 
 an easy but complete victory. — Alfred granted 
 them permission to settle in Northumberland and East Angha, on 
 condition of their being governed by his laws, and embracing Chris- 
 tianity. They were accordingly baptised, and Alfred himself stood 
 godfather for Guthrie their chief. 
 
 The civil and mihtary institutions of Alfred, have acquired for him 
 
 the admiration of posterity. The love of letters 
 Character of Alfred, ^lanifested in youth. Continued through life ; and 
 burdened with the cares of government, and harrassed with vexatious 
 wars, he yet found time, at the age of thirty. eight, to study the Latin 
 language, and to write several works of reputation. He formed a 
 system of jurisprudence, which is supposed to be the foundation of 
 English common law. He established a navy, which is considered 
 as the commencement of the greatest naval power the world ever 
 witnessed ; in short, it was Alfred who laid the foundation of the Bri- 
 tish monarchy. Nor do we find one act of inhumanity or vice, one 
 habit of indolence or irregularity, to sully the fair fame of his public 
 acts. He had fought fifty-six battles, but his wars were those of de- 
 fence, and ever unstained by ambition or cruelty. 
 
 Alfred died in the 59th year of his age, after a glorious reign of 
 twenty-nine years. In his last years, he was again annoyed by new 
 swarms of barbarians from the "northern hive." 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The three immediate successors of Alfred were able princes, who 
 held the reins of government with a firm hand. 
 901. These were, Edward, his son and successor, who 
 
 Edward the Elder, maintained successful contests with the Danes; 
 925. Athelstan, natural son of Edward, who is renowned 
 
 Atheistan. in histoiy for the victories he obtained over these, 
 
 cmd other barbarians by whom the kingdom was assailed ; and Ed- 
 mund the elder, who conquered Northumberland from the Britons and 
 bestowed it on Malcolm, king of Scotland, on condi- 
 ^^"' tion that he should do homage to him, and defend 
 
 Edmund!. the northern frontier from the Danes. The reign 
 
CHAP. II.] BRITAIN. 163 
 
 of Edred, his brother and successor, is memorable 
 948. for the establishment of monasteries in England. — 
 
 Edred. Dunstan,* abbot of Glastonburg, possessed great 
 
 influence with this superstitious monarch. 
 
 Edred left the throne to Edwy, a young prince of seventeen, ele- 
 gant in his person, and ardent in his affections. 
 985. The beautiful young Elgiva, his second cousin, had 
 
 ^■^"'y- captivated his youthful heart, and he married her, 
 
 contrary to the decree of the church which forbade 
 Denounced by Dun- marriage between persons of this degree of affinity. 
 Stan. Dunstan denounced and insulted him ; and he boldly 
 
 banished the monk from the realm. But the spirit of fanaticism, 
 (the prevailing spirit of the age), was on the side of the church. Odo, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, tore Elgiva from her husband, and caused 
 her face to be scarred with a red hot iron, to destroy that beauty which 
 as they supposed had ensnared the king. The hapless wife escaped 
 from the cruel hands of her persecutors, and was returning to her 
 husband. They retook the fugitive, murdered her ; and dethroned 
 the wretched Edwy ; who, forsaken by his subjects, and excommu- 
 nicated by the relentless clergy, soon rested from his sorrows in death. 
 Edgar a boy of thirteen, brother to Edwy, succeeded bun ; and 
 Dunstan, who had now returned, took the govern- 
 959. ment in the name of the young prince. Edgar, as he 
 
 EJgar. grew to manhood, saw the difficulty of his situation, 
 
 and in reality proved the master spirit of his kingdom ; but his char- 
 acter presents us with greatness without virtue. Flattering the monks, 
 he preserved their favour ; and unrestrained by moral principle, he 
 violated, in the pursuit of pleasure, all laws, human and divine. He 
 built and supported a powerful navy, and dividing it into three squad- 
 rons, he commanded each to make by turns the circuit of his domin- 
 ions, thus keeping the seamen in practice, and intimidating the Danes. 
 Edgar married for his second wife, Elfrida, the beautiful daughter 
 of a nobleman. f 
 
 * This monk concealed great ambition under the cloak of sanctity. The ignorance 
 and credulity of those times cannot be better illustrated than by the stories which he 
 made the people believe. In his miserable cell, the de'vnl, affronted, it seems, by the 
 holy mortifications of the saint, annoyed him by frequent conflicts. At length, he 
 came, one day, in the shape of a woman. St. Dunstan seized him by the nose with a 
 pair of red hot pincers. Satan roared and bellowed, and after this, never dared show 
 his face to St. Dunstan again. 
 
 t The fame of her beauty had reached the monarch, and he sent Ethelwold, his 
 favourite, to see if her charms deserved the praise bestowed upon them. Ethelwold, 
 enamoured of her himself, falsely told his master that reports had exaggerated her 
 beauty — but that she was a rich heiress, and would be a desirable match for himself. 
 Edgar promoted the union. Afterwards, suspecting the treachery, he determined to visit 
 the castle of Ethelwold. The distressed husband confessed to his wife the fault his 
 passion had led him to commit, and besought her to conceal her beauty as much as 
 possible. But the ambitious Elfrida was careful to attire herself in the most becom- 
 ing manner. The monarch was charmed, slew the husband with his own hand, and 
 married Elfrida. i^he who had thus connived at the destruction of her husband, car- 
 ried dissension and disaster into the royal family. 
 
164 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD tV. 
 
 On the death of Edgar, Edward, his son by his first marriage, was 
 
 raised by Dunstan to the throne, in opposition to the 
 
 975. wishes of Elfrida, who desired her own son, Ethel- 
 
 EJward II. j.gj^ ^^ receive the crown. He obtained the sur- 
 
 name of the martyr ; for the wicked Elfrida soon 
 
 9^8' caused him to be murdered ; thus securing the 
 
 Eihelred. crown for Ethelred, her son. 
 
 The Danes, with fresh hopes and recruited strength, now entered 
 
 his dominions in swarms ; and the weak prince gave 
 
 Invasjon of the them money to depart. This was but an acknow- 
 
 ledgment of weakness, and a lure to his enemies. 
 
 As if to add yet another inducement to the myriads of the northern 
 
 hive, the weak and cruel son of Elfrida gave orders for a general 
 
 massacre of all the Danes in his dominions ; and 
 
 1002. thg order was executed with the most barbarous in- 
 
 Massacro of the humanity. Among the number was Gunilda, the 
 
 sister of Sweyn, the powerful king of Denmark — a 
 
 Christian princess, married to a nobleman of England. The mother 
 
 was made to witness the dying agonies of her children, who were put 
 
 to death before her face ; after which she herself was inhumanly 
 
 slain. 
 
 The news of this barbarity enkindled the fierce wrath of Sweyn. 
 
 He collected a formidable armament, landed in the 
 
 1013. west of England, carrying fire and sword through 
 
 Sweyn e.vpeis Ethel- ^^^ j^^^^^j^ r^j^^ ^j^^jj Ethclrcd fled to Robert, duke 
 
 red. . 
 
 of Normandy, (whose sister Emma he had married,) 
 and received protection. Sweyn died before he had time to establish 
 himself in his conquered dominions. Ethelred returned to England, 
 but found in Canute, the son and successor of Sweyn, a powerful ad- 
 versary. The death of Ethelred, left his eldest son, Edmund, called 
 the Ironside, to carry on the war.* 
 
 Edmund, though brave, found himself unable to resist the warlike^ 
 
 Danes, surrounded, as he was, by the treacherous 
 
 1016. machinations of his own subjects. — He was defeated 
 Edmund II. jjj ^ battle at Assington, in Essex ; after which a 
 
 Divides the kin tTdom treaty was Concluded between the ho.stile monarchs. 
 
 with Canute. Canute received the northern part of the kingdom, 
 
 while Edmund was left in possession of the south. 
 
 But this monarch, worthy of a better fate, was as- 
 
 1017. sassinated by two of his rebellious subjects, who 
 Canute I. were in the interest of Canute ; who thus obtained 
 
 the sovereignty of the entire kingdom. 
 
 * Ethelred liad two younger sons, Alfred and Edward, who were carried into Nor- 
 mandy and there protected by the duke, their uncle. 
 
CHAP. III.J GERMANY. 165 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Otho I. succeeded his father, Henry the Fowler, on the throne of 
 Germany. He was immediately involved in a strug- 
 936. gle with the powerful nobles of his kingdom, who 
 
 ^'''° ^- openly aspired to independence. He made war up- 
 
 on the duke of Bavaria, and expelled him from his dominions. — Otho 
 sought also to balance the power of his nobles, by conferring upon 
 the clergy the rights of temporal princes. — After he had restored the 
 internal tranquilhty of his dommions he engaged in war with Hungary 
 and Bohemia. The latter kingdom he rendered tributary to Germa- 
 ny, and compelled the inhabitants to embrace Christianity- He en- 
 countered the Hungarians near Augsburgh, and was victorious. Af- 
 ter the deliverance of his kingdom from the inroads of this nation, 
 Otho revived the project of his predecessor in the design of re-uniting 
 Italy to the German empire, and of obtaining from the pope the impe- 
 rial crown. 
 
 Since the extinction of the empire of Charlemagne, Italy had been 
 governed by native princes engaged in frequent hostilities with each 
 other, and the realm was divided by powerful factions. 
 
 The aid of Otho was implored against Berengius II., one of the 
 princes, who had rendered himself odious by his 
 9o4. tyranny. Otho marched into Italy, subdued Be- 
 
 * to tliTemp^re'^ '^ icngius, made himself master of his kingdom, de- 
 posed the licentious Pope, John XII., who had es- 
 poused the interest of his enemy, and elected Leo VIII. in his place. 
 Otho determined to set the civil above the ecclesiastical power, and 
 established a decree that he and his successors should have the power 
 of naming the pope, and of giving investiture to bishops. 
 
 On the return of Otho to Germany, his Italian subjects again re- 
 volted, and on the death of Leo, contested the right of the emperor 
 to nominate his successor. His arms, however, again compelled sub- 
 mission ; after which his reign was tranquil. 
 
 Otho I. was succeeded by his son, Otho II., who during the life of 
 his father liad been associated with him in the gov- 
 973. ernment of the empire. By a marriage with The- 
 
 Otho II. ophania, daughter of the eastern emperor, he obtain- 
 
 ed a claim to the Grecian provinces of Italy. — During his reign, the 
 most disorderly and turbulent proceedings were witnessed at Rome, 
 where at one time three several popes were elected, each anathema- 
 tising and excommunicating the others. 
 
 15 
 
16G MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 Otho III. was a minor at the time of his father's death. The Ital- 
 ians rebelled ; and under Crescentius, a natural son 
 983' of one of the popes, who took the title of consul, an 
 
 Otlio III. attempt was made to re-establish the republic. 
 
 But the degenerate Romans had no longer the virtue to remain free, 
 even if a leader of talents had been at their head. Otho, when he 
 became of age, soon quieted the disturbances made by the party of 
 Crescentius, and restored pope Gregory whom they had deposed. 
 
 This emperor defeated the Danes, and entered into an alliance with 
 Eric, who then swayed the sceptre of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark ; 
 obtaining permission for Christian missionaries to enter his kingdom. 
 He also expelled the Saracens from the south of Italy, where they 
 made frequent ravages. On the death of Otho III. without heirs, 
 several claimants of the imperial crown appeared. 
 
 Henry II., grandsonof Otho II., obtained the election, and received 
 
 the imperial crown, at the hands of the pope, Bene- 
 
 1002. diet VIII. — The reign of this monarch is marked 
 
 Henry II. j^y j-,q important event. It is said, that, disgusted 
 
 with the world, he expressed a desire to retire to a monastery, and 
 
 assumed the monastic habit. The abbot received him as a brother, 
 
 but remarked, " Monks owe obedience to their su- 
 
 Retires to a monas- periors, I Order you to continue at tiie helm of gov- 
 
 teo' ernment." Henry obeyed his superior, and reas- 
 
 sumed his crown. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The death of Henry II. without an heir, left the succession again to 
 be contested. An assembly of princes, after six 
 1024. weeks deliberation, gave the crown to Conrad, sur- 
 
 Conrad the Salic. named the Salic, duke of Franconia. During his 
 reio^n, the kingdom of Burgundy was annexed to the German empire. 
 Conrad successively quelled rebellions of the Poles and of the Italians. 
 He was succeeded by his son, Henry III., who found himself enga- 
 ged, in the commencement of his reign, in wars with 
 1039. the Poles, Hungarians, and Bohemians, in all of 
 
 Henry III. which, success followed his arms. — Henry extend. 
 
 ed the prerogatives of the crown, and exercised a more absolute 
 power than any German monarch. His nobles murmured, and after 
 his death their enmity was shown to his son and successor, Henry 
 IV., and was manifested in the course of the famous 
 1056. -war with the popes, called the war of the investitures. 
 
 Henry IV. -pj-^g fQi-j-^Qyi- emperors had exercised the power of 
 
 War of the investi- nominating bishops and abbots, and of giving them 
 tures. investiture by the ring and crosier. Pope Alexan- 
 
 der II. had published a decree during the life of 
 Henry III. forbidding this investiture, and the doctrine w^as now main- 
 tained, that as the spiritual power was superior to the temporal, the 
 
CHAP. III.] GERMANY. 167 
 
 bishops and abbots received their power from God, and not from the 
 emperor. 
 
 The famous Hildebrand, with the title of Gregory VII., now in the 
 papal chair, resolving to extend the prerogatives of the church to their 
 utmost limits, despatched a legate to the German emperor, forbid- 
 ding him to exercise the rights of investiture. Henry treated this 
 messenger with contempt, convoked an assembly of his princes and 
 ecclesiastics, and declared Gregory an usurper of the papacy. Gre- 
 gory, aware of the disaffection of the German nobles, proceeded to 
 a sentence of excommunication against Henry, absolving his subjects 
 from their allegiance, and depriving him of his imperial authority. 
 The German nobles, thus encouraged, revolted, and the German cler- 
 gy, who had just before declared Gregory an usurper, now espoused 
 his cause. 
 
 Henry, surrounded with dangers, saw no safety but in appeasing 
 the wrath of the pope. With this view, he passed the Alps, and ac- 
 companied by only a few domestics, proceeded to 
 Henry does penance. Canosna, where Gregory then was, and presented 
 himself as a penitent, at the gates of the fortress. — The monarch was 
 admitted within the outer court. But there, wrapped in sackcloth, 
 with his feet bare, he was detained three days in the month of Janu- 
 ary, before the haughty pontiff would admit him to his presence. 
 The penance of Henry, and his promise to submit, in all things, to 
 the authority of the pope, procured him absolution. 
 
 The reconciliation, however, was short; the arrogance of the pope 
 had alienated the minds of the Italian princes, and a 
 
 '^ ^Ihf ZZ '''"^ ^^"^"g ^^^y ^^^^ formed in Henry's favour.— He 
 now renewed the war, but while he engaged the Ital- 
 ians against the pope, the Germans revolted. A second excommunica- 
 tion was thundered against him, he was again deposed, and Rodolph, 
 duke of Suabia, was declared emperor. Henry, on his part, augment- 
 ed his party in Germany, and convening a few bishops who adhered 
 to him, degraded Gregory, and appointed another pope. The hostile 
 Germans met near Mersbourg ; Rodolph was defeated and slain, and 
 his followers dispersed. Henry, triumphant over his enemies in Ger- 
 many, turned to Italy, laid siege to Rome, and continued it for two 
 years, when, at length, the city was carried by as- 
 Bome taken. sault. Gregory escaped, and Henry procured the 
 
 consecration of Clement III. Afler the emperor's return to Germany, 
 his enemies deposed Clement, and elected Victor, whose early death 
 made way for Urban II. He renewed the war of the investiture, and 
 embroiled Henry in a quarrel with his son, Conrad, whom he incited 
 to rebellion. This brings the history of Germany to the period when 
 the council of Clermont decided upon the first crusade. 
 
 Italy. — When on the death of Charles the Fat, the empire of the 
 west passed from the Carlovingian family, the government of Italy 
 was usurped by the principal nobles. Of these, the dukes of Spolet- 
 to and Tuscany, and the Marquises of Pavia, Susa and Friuli, were 
 the most powerful. The great duchy of Beneveiito, had been divided 
 
168 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 into the principalities of Benevento, Salerno and Capua. Apulia and 
 Calabria were still subject to the emperor of the east, Naples and 
 Amalfi were republics, under the protection of the Grecian empire. 
 Rome was subject to the pope. For seventy years the crown of It- 
 aly was the subject of contest between the most ambitious and power- 
 ful nobles. The kingdom was in a state of complete anarchy. The 
 northern parts were desolated by the Hungarians, 
 936. while the southern coasts were subject to the in- 
 
 roads of the Saracens, who had made themselves masters of Sicily. 
 The assistance of Otho, emperor of Germany, was sought. He 
 marched into Italy, received at the hands of the 
 Otho crowned em- ^j^^ imperial crown, and revived in his per- 
 
 peror of the Romans. ^ ' , . , * „ r- i -r. i • i i j 
 
 son the title or emperor or the Romans, which had 
 been extinct for forty years. Those parts of Italy which had been 
 annexed to the Lombard monarchy, and had acknowledged the au- 
 thority of the Carlovingian princes, were re-united to the empire. 
 Otho, and his immediate successors, exercised the prerogatives with 
 which the emperors of the west had formerly been endowed. They 
 repeatedly, as we have seen, marched into Italy at the head of their 
 armies, received the homage of the Italian states, exacted their rents, 
 and promulgated their laws. — Yet, the tie which bound Italy to the 
 German empire, was continually weakening. The distance of the 
 emperor prevented the continued and energetic exercise of the 
 imperial prerogative ; and a spirit of freedom was enkindled in the 
 cities. 
 
 The dangers with which they were surrounded, compelled the in- 
 habitants of the towns to prepare for their own defence, and permis- 
 sion was obtained for rebuilding the walls of the cities. The protec- 
 tion they thus afforded, drew multitudes of the country people within 
 them. The population and wealth of the cities rapidly increased. 
 Obedience to the dukes, counts or marquises, was thrown off, and the 
 cities elected their own magistrates. The war of the investitures, in 
 which the cities engaged, part of them on the side of the emperor, 
 part on that of the pope, showed these little communities their impor- 
 tance and contributed to diffuse a republican spirit. In Lombardy, 
 Milan was the most important of these independent 
 Italian Republics. governments. There existed at this period, still 
 older republics, which had arisen from the ruins of the Grecian pos- 
 sessions — Venice, Ravenna, Genoa, and Pisa. Venice had never 
 been conquered by the Lombards, nor ever acknowledged the autho- 
 rity of Charlemagne. 
 
 The south of Italy, which, in comparison with the north, had re- 
 mained in tranquillity, experienced in the eleventh century, an impor- 
 tant revolution. Impelled by a spirit of devotion, perhaps, mingled 
 with that love of enterprise which so strongly characterized the na- 
 tion, great numbers of the Normans visited Italy as pilgrims. Early 
 in the eleventh century, many of them were employed by a prince of 
 Salerno, against the Saracens, who invaded his territories. Fresh ad- 
 venturers from the north flocked into Italy, where they founded the 
 small city of Aversa near Capua. Their valour was profitably em- 
 
CHAP. IV.] FRANCE. 169 
 
 ployed by the Greeks in a war with the Saracens of Sicily. A dif- 
 ficulty respecting their pay, at length produced a 
 1054. war between the Normans, and tlieir employers. 
 
 War vvitli the Nor- They invaded Apulia, which they soon subdued. 
 After the conquest of the Grecian possessions of It- 
 aly, the republics of Gaeta, Naples and Amalfi, fell before the inva- 
 ders. The sovereignty of Apulia, was conferred upon Robert Guis- 
 card, who, with several of his brothers, had become renowned in these 
 wars. 
 
 The pope, Leo IX., formed a league with tlie emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, against the Normans, and Leo marched in person against 
 Robert, but was defeated and taken prisoner. The devotion of the 
 Normans dictated the most honourable treatment of the head of the 
 churcli, and the warriors knelt to implore his forgiveness, for arming 
 in their own defence. — The pope granted them absolution, and con- 
 ferred upon them the sovereignty of the country they had conquered, 
 which they now held as a fief of the Holy see. 
 
 Roger, the brother of Robert Guiscard, turned his arms against 
 Sicily, and before the close of the eleventh century, had made him- 
 self master of the island. The ambition of Robert was not satisfied 
 with the sovereignty of Apulia and Calabria. 
 
 He directed his views towards the eastern empire. At the head 
 
 of his Normans, he advanced into Epirus, took the 
 
 Normans victorious ^j^ ^^ Durazzo, and obtained a splendid victory 
 
 over tll6 V^iTGCli GUI" • ,,~^ 
 
 peror. over the army of the Greek emperor, Alexius Com- 
 
 nenus. His successes in Greece, however, were of 
 no permanent advantage. Robert was recalled to Italy by the revolt 
 of some of the cities of Apulia. — In the war of the investitures, he 
 afforded powerful aid to the pope, Gregory VII., and at length gave 
 him an asylum, when driven from Rome. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FRANCE, ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, SPAIN, RUSSIA, GREEK EM- 
 PIKE, AND THE CALIPHS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 France. — The princes of the Carlovingian family had become so 
 987. insignificant, and the ties which bound the nation to 
 
 Hugh Capet. its monarch were so slight, that the accession of 
 Hugh Capet, the founder of a new dynasty, was hardly considered 
 as an usurpation, and was attended with no disorder. Charles, 
 duke of Lorraine, tlie legitimate heir, made an effort to obtain the 
 throne, but failed in the attempt. Hugh, after a reign of eight years, 
 transmitted the sovereignty to his son, Robert, whom he had already 
 associated with himself in the government. 
 
 15* 
 
170 MIDDLE HISTORY. [pERIOD iV. 
 
 Robert was undisturbed by foreign foes, but the terrific power ex- 
 
 exercised at this time by the Roman see, blasted 
 
 996. }^ig domestic happiness. He had married Bertha, 
 
 Robert. sister of Rodolph, king of Burgundy, his cousin in 
 
 tiie fourth degree, while the prohibition of the church extended to the 
 
 seventh. 
 
 Gregory V. ordered the dissolution of the marriage, under pain of 
 excommunication. The king ventured to disregard the thunders of 
 the Vatican,* aimed not only at him but against all 
 Excummunicattd by j^ogg ^^^ i^^^ abetted the offence ; and the bishops 
 '^' who had sanctioned the marriage, were suspended. 
 
 Robert soon experienced the terrific power of excommunication on 
 the minds of men. His courtiers and servants abandoned him. 
 Two domestics, whose fidelity to their master triumphed over their 
 feai's, remained, but even these, in horrour, lest guilt should accrue 
 from the touch of vessels or food which had been polluted by an ex- 
 communicated person, purified by fire the vessels used by the unfor- 
 tunate prince, and threw the food remaining in them to the dogs. 
 The weak monarch, instead of arousing to the defence of his rights, 
 at length repudiated his wife. Robert was succeeded by his son, 
 Henry I. 
 
 Henry's reign was disturbed by domestic conspiracies ; and he 
 
 sought aid of Robert, duke of Normandy, who re- 
 
 1031. established him upon the throne. In reward for 
 
 enry I. ^j^jg service, Henry added to his duchy, Chaumont, 
 
 Pontoise, and other places which belonged to the crown. 
 
 Henry was succeeded by his son, Philip I. During the minority 
 
 of this prince, who was only eight years old when 
 
 1060. hig father died, the regency was committed to the 
 
 Phihp I. pious and dignified Baldwin, earl of Flanders, who 
 
 preserved the peace of the nation, by being always ready for war. 
 
 Philip was on the throne of France, at the time when the council of 
 
 Clermont decided on the first crusade. — He was excommunicated by 
 
 Urban II. for his licentiousness. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 England. — On the assassination of Edmund Ironside, Canute as 
 we have seen, acting on the principle so universal among the ambi- 
 tious, that " might makes right," seized the in- 
 1017. heritance of Edwin and Edward, the sons of 
 
 Canute I. Edmund, and made himself sole monarch of Eng- 
 
 land. f Canute sent back a part of his followers into Denmark, and 
 
 * The palace of the popes at Rome is called the Vatican. 
 
 t Canute was, however, too politic, not to perceive that something must be done, to 
 satisfy the prejudices of the English He therefore paid his court to Emma, widow 
 of Harold; and her brother Robert of Normandy favouring his suit, the quern gave 
 him her hand. He promised to restore her sons to their right, but in the meantime, 
 sent them to Sweden, with a private request that the king shotild dispatch them. He 
 
CHAP. IV.] ENGLAND. iT"! 
 
 restored the Saxon laws and customs. After which 
 
 1036. he returned to Denmark, and achieved the conquest 
 
 Harold and Hardi- ^f Sweden and Norway. Harold and Hardicanute 
 
 successively obtained the crown of England. 
 
 On the death of the latter, the English threw off the Danish yoke, 
 
 and recalled Edward, from his piety, surnamed the Confesssor. He 
 
 was the son of Ethelred, and brother of Edmund 
 
 1042. Ironside, who had been under the protection of his 
 
 Edward the Confes- maternal uncle, the duke of Normandy. The reign 
 
 of Edward was disturbed by rebellions among his 
 
 nobility, some of whom openly aspired to the crown. 
 
 The death of Edward the Confessor, left the succession to the Eng- 
 lish throne open to contention. Edgar Atheling, grandson of Ed- 
 mund Ironside, and William, duke of Normandy, who was a kinsman 
 of Edward on his mother's side, each presented claims to the crown. 
 Before, however, the rights of either were decided, 
 1066. Harold, a powerful nobleman, usurped the sove- 
 
 Harold II. roignty, and obtained the allegiance of the nation. 
 
 But the usurper was soon disturbed from an unexpected quarter. 
 William, duke of Normandy, a prince distinguished for courage, 
 ambition, and military skill, had, as has been observ- 
 Noriuan Invasion. ^^^ pretonsions to the crown of England. His 
 court was thronged by youth eager for military enterprise. Besides 
 his own subjects, France, Flanders, and Germany furnished him with 
 levies for his meditated invasion of England. 
 
 In the meantime, Harold was in the north, where he had just de- 
 feated the forces of the king of Norway, who had invaded his king, 
 dom, when he heard that William had landed at Hastings with a 
 powerful army. Elated with his recent victory, he hastened to the 
 south. Deaf to the remonstrances of his ablest advisers, he ventured 
 his kingdom, though with an inferior force, upon the 
 Battle of Hastings, guccess of a single battle, of which Hastings was the 
 scene. This battle deprived Harold of his throne and his life, and 
 gave to William the sovereignty of England, and the title of the 
 Conqueror. 
 
 William, after his victory, proceeded to London, but before he 
 reached the city, he was met by a deputation of the nobility, accom- 
 panied by Edgar Atheling, requesting his accept- 
 1066. ance of the crown. His coronation soon after took 
 
 William the Con- place, and within six months from the battle of Has- 
 tings, he had so established his authority, and tran- 
 quillized the kingdom, that he ventured to re- visit Normandy. His 
 absence, and the rapacity of his army, soon produced a revolt. — 
 William hastened to return, and found himself obliged to withstand 
 
 would not rornmit so inliiimaa an net, bill sent them to Hungary, to be educated in 
 the court of Solomon, thinking of that country. He kindly proiectcd them, gave to 
 Edward l.i.s .sister in marriage, and to F'.dvvin, hi.s si.ster in law, Agniha, daughter of 
 the German Emperor, Henry II. Edward had no issue : Edwin and Agatha had three 
 children, Edgar Atheling, Margaret and Constance. The first two will liereafter ap- 
 pear in the history. 
 
172 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 an insurrection headed by the most powerful nobles of the realm, and 
 aided by the kings of Scotland and Denmark. He crushed these re- 
 bellions, and found pretences to enrich his Norman followers by be- 
 stowing upon them the estates of the rebels. 
 
 Wilham the Conqueror introduced the feudal system* into England, 
 dividing the kingdom into large landed estates, or 
 imruducestheft-udal baronies, which were distributed among the Nor- 
 mans, and held as ners oi the crown, imposing on 
 the holder of the lands, the obligation of the feudal tenure, — submis- 
 sion to the sovereign, and the bi-inging to the field, when called on, 
 a certain number of military followers. The English, during this 
 reign, were every where oppressed, and none of the natives were per- 
 mitted to liold baronies of the first rank. 
 
 On the death of William, his dominions were divided among his 
 sons. England was the portion of William Rufus. 
 
 ,. -^^^ '• His continental possessions were divided between 
 
 William Rufus. ^^iQ two younger sons, Robert and Henry, Robert 
 receiving the larger share. Wars between these brothers followed. 
 At length, Robert imbibed the enthusiastic spirit of the crusades, and 
 resolving to devote himself to the holy enterprise, mortgaged Nor- 
 mandy to his brother William, for a sum of money sufficient to enable 
 him to embark against the infidels for the restoration of the holy 
 sepulchre. 
 
 Scotland. — The inhabitants of the northern part of Britain, known 
 
 as the ancient Caledonians, were never conquered by the Romans, 
 
 though they employed the arms of some of their most skilful com- 
 
 manders against them. In the fifth century, when the island was 
 
 abandoned, and the Britons were left to their independence, we find 
 
 in the northern parts, two powerful and distinct 
 Picts and Scot... ^^.^^^.g . ^j^^ pj^^g ^,^j ^j^^ ^^^^^_ 'P^^g pi^^g are 
 
 supposed to be the descendants of the ancient Britons, who in the Ro- 
 man conquests chose to migrate northward rather than to submit. 
 They inhabited the eastern, while the Scots, supposed to be of the 
 same origin with the Irish, occupied the western coast of the island. f 
 These nations were continually at war with each other, and with the 
 
 * The feudal system i.s traced by some writers to the Lombards, at the time of their 
 seizing Italy, A. L>. 56S. The king divided the conquered land among his chief cap- 
 tains, on the condition of their doing homage to him, and bringing to the field a stipu- 
 lated number of followers, whenever he needed their aid. These chief oflicers, after 
 keeping what was necessary for their own use, divided the remainder of the land as- 
 .signed by the king, each among his own favourites vyho were to furnish soldiers to the 
 chief oflicers, as ihey were to the sovereign. This system was formed to subserve tJie 
 purposes of ambitious rulers, and was adopted into tlie other countries of f',urope. At 
 first the granter of the lands had power to resume ihem, but afterwards, the grants were 
 for liie, and at length became hereditary. 
 
 t This people are often spoken of as descended from the Celts ; their language is spo- 
 ken ol as the Celtic, orsometimes the Gaelic. The learned are at variance respecting 
 the Celts ; some maintaining them to be the same people as the Goths ; others assign- 
 ing them a different origin. Julius Cffisar found in Gaul a people whom he called Cells. 
 Their history is obscure. Some suppose that Caesar referred to the Belgic Gauls. All, 
 I believe, agree that the only remains of tliis people, now discoverable, are found in 
 Ireland, and the western part of the island of Great Britain. 
 
CHAP. IV.j SPAIN. IT'S 
 
 inhabitants of South Britain, who at last, unable to withstand their 
 depredations, called in, as we have seen, the aid of the Saxons. These 
 obscure contests of the Picts and Scots were at length closed in 842, 
 by the elevation of a prince named Kennith IMcAl- 
 842. pine, to tlie throne of both kingdoms. From this 
 
 KennitliMcAlpine. time, it is Said, the country received the name of 
 Scotland. His descendants are supposed to have filled the Scottish 
 throne for a long period ; but the history of the nation is at this time 
 involved in obscurity. 
 
 In 1033, Duncan succeeded to the crown, but fell by the hand of 
 
 jQgg Macbeth, who usurped his throne. Malcolm, the 
 
 Duncan ^on of Duncan, took refuge in England, where he 
 
 Macbeth ^^^^ hospitably received by Edward the Confessor. 
 
 1039 ^y ^'^^ assistance of the Duke of Northumberland, 
 
 iMaicolm. whom Edward sent into Scotland, Malcolm recover- 
 
 ed his kingdom. During the remainder of Ed ward's 
 
 reign, the two nations remained in peace. On the accession of Ha- 
 
 rold to the English throne, Malcolm favoured the insurrections against 
 
 him. After the conquest of England by William, many of the noble 
 
 Saxons fled to his court. Among them, were Edgar Atheling, and 
 
 Qucon Mar-aret ^^^^ ^'^"^^i" Margaret, a virtuous, beautiful, and ac- 
 
 ' ' ' complished princess. The monarch of the Scots 
 
 made her his queen, and she exerted a most happy influence, labour- 
 
 ing for the instruction of the barbarous Scots, and relieving the dis- 
 
 tresses of her Saxon countrymen. — During the reign of William Ru- 
 
 fus, Malcolm was frequently engaged in hostilities, and was finally 
 
 slain in battle. 
 
 The children of Malcolm being minors, his brother, Donald Bane, 
 jQgg usurped the throne, and Scotland was for some years 
 
 Donald elne. embroiled in civil war, but at length, Edgar, the 
 third son of Malcolm, obtained the crown. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 Spain. — It will be recollected that after the conquest of Spain by 
 the Saracens and Moors, some of the Christian inhabitants fled to the 
 mountains of the north, where they founded the kingdom of the Astu- 
 rias, or of Leon and Oviedo. From this kingdom, the very insignifi- 
 cance of which long proved its security, sprung other kingdoms, which 
 eventually subverted the Mahometan power on the peninsula. 
 
 The descendants of the powerful Abderhaman, had undermined 
 their own strength by their frequent dissensions, and about the com- 
 mencement of the tenth century, his family became extinct, and the 
 kingdom of Cordova was divided into separate provinces ; or petty 
 kingdoms, over which the principal nobles assumed the sovereignty. 
 
 The Christian dominions in Spain, had also, at this time, become en- 
 larged by encroachments upon the Moors, and the kingdoms of Leon, 
 Castile, Navarre, and Arragon, had each its respective monarch. 
 
 Sancho III., or the Great, united in his person the sovereignty of 
 
174 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 Spain united under NavaiTC and Arragon ; and his son and successor, 
 Sancho the Great, Ferdinand, added to his dominions Castile and Le- 
 and Ferdinand, into on, SO that the whole of Christian Spain was, at this 
 one kingdom. time, under the government of one monarch. 
 
 The war with the Moors was now renewed and prosecuted with 
 success. Alphonso VI., the successor of Ferdinand, recovered the 
 Alphonso VI ^^^y '-'^ Toledo. The wars between the Christians 
 
 and JMoors, in this century, are memorable for the 
 display of valour and chivalry. The most eminent of the Spanish 
 knights, whose exploits have descended to posterity glowing with all 
 The Cid ^'^^ romance of the age, was the Cid. — Leading a 
 
 valiant band of knights, the hero carried the Chris- 
 tian arms into many of the Mahometan kingdoms, and reduced to the 
 subjection of his master, Alphonso, New Castile and Valencia. 
 
 Russia. — It was during this period that we first meet in history, 
 
 the name of Russians. In the ninth century, they 
 ^"'Ti' histm- "i"""'" appeared at Constantinople, as traders, and exchan- 
 
 ged their slaves, furs, honey, and the hides of their 
 cattle, for the corn, wine, oil, manufactures, and spices of Greece. 
 
 The luxury and splendour of Constantinople excited the desires of 
 the barbarians, and piratical expeditions were immediately commen- 
 ced. Their vessels, descending the Borysthenes, penetrated the 
 Euxine, and spread desolation through the province of Anatolia. At 
 
 length, the adventurous Russians menaced Constan- 
 ^Jmlstmut'opTe!" tinople. In their first enterprise they entered the 
 
 port -during the absence of the emperor, Michael. 
 A tempest destroyed their ships, and compelled them to retreat. 
 
 Afterwards Nicephorus, emperor of Constantinople, instigated Swa- 
 toslaus, prince of the Russians, to undertake the conquest of the Bul- 
 garians. The Russian prince achieved the conquest, and then gave 
 indication of his dangerous vicinity to the Greeks. At the head of 
 
 his barbarians, he invaded the empire, and Nice- 
 ^" Gred: empte!''° P^oi'^s found himself Unable to cope with the enemy 
 
 he had brought upon the empire. His successor, 
 John Zimisces, was more successful. He obtained splendid victories 
 over the Russians, drove them out of the empire, and pursued Swatos- 
 laus to Dristza, a post to which he had retreated on the Danube. 
 Here he besieged him, and compelled him to capitulate, but permitted 
 him and the remnant of his followers to return to their nation. 
 
 Olga, the mother of Swatoslaus, was a princess of uncommon 
 Oi.j.^ character. She had early embraced Christianity, 
 
 and received baptism from the patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople. Her zealous efforts to Christianize her barbarous subjects, 
 had, however, proved ineffectual ; even her son Swatoslaus having 
 rigidly adhered to the ancient religion. Yet the example and influ- 
 ence of Olga were not without effect. Her grandson, Vlodomir, on 
 his marriage with Anna, a princess of Constantinople, renounced 
 idolatry and embraced the Christian faith. The efforts of Olga to 
 civilize her subjects, evinced a mii:d far in advance of the age in 
 
CHAP. IV.] GREEK EMPIRE. 175 
 
 which she hved, and Vlodomir pursued the course marked out by 
 her. 
 
 Greek Empire. — Irene, renowned as the restorer of image vvor- 
 «gj ship, and for the inhuman cruehy e.xercised towards 
 
 her son, was on the throne of Constantinople, at the 
 commencement of this period. The imperial crown was usurped by 
 Nicephorus I., and Irene, as has been related, banished to Lesbos. 
 From this period the Byzantine, or Greek empire, hastening to its de- 
 cline, and exerting little influence in the politics of growing nations, 
 presents a succession of sovereigns, but tew of whom deserve a name 
 in a brief sketch of history. 
 
 Basil, the Macedonian, was founder of a new dynasty, and by 
 a^j a rigorous reign restored in some measure the 
 
 Basil' falling honour of the empire, and rendered it for- 
 
 qr>q midable to the barbarians and Saracens. The 
 
 Di ' reigns of Nicephorus Phocas, and of his successor, 
 
 rllOCaS. T 1 rv- • ■ Til • ^ 
 
 „ ■ John Zimisces, are signahzed by the I'evival of the 
 
 /iunisces. • • t i rr- • i i r> 
 
 military spu'it. John Zimisces conquered the Rus- 
 sians, penetrated Syria, and recovered Antioch from the Saracens. 
 Zimisces carried the war still further, passed the Euphrates, and 
 made himself master of many Saracen cities. After these successes, 
 the empire sunk into insignificance, under the government of weak 
 and elTeminate princes. 
 
 In the reign of Michael VI., the last of the race, the Greeks awoke 
 
 -inrfj to a sense of their degradation, and invested Isaac 
 
 T, , .' * . Comnenus with the imperial purple. The Comneni 
 
 Ihe Ooraneni. -n * • r- i c o ■ ■ t 
 
 were an illustrious family, oi Roman origni. Isaac, 
 who was first raised to the imperial dignity, enjoyed his elevation but 
 two years, his declining health inducing him to abdicate. 
 
 Alexius, the third son of John Comnenus, who had refused the 
 
 inftl sceptre, filled the Byzantine throne, at the period of 
 
 ,, . „ ' the first crusade. Dangers surrounded the empire 
 
 Alexius Comnenus. ., ^, » . . , , ,,' 
 
 on every side, i he provinces of the east had been 
 conquered by the Turks, while the Greek possessions in Italy had 
 been usurped by the Normans, who were advancing to his capital. 
 Alexius found himself without soldiers, and with an exhausted treasu- 
 ry, vet compelled to maintain a contest with powerful enemies. He 
 made the best preparations in his power, for war ; assembled an ar- 
 my, and marched into Epirus, to meet the Normans, who, under Rob- 
 ert Guiscard, had laid siege to Durazzo. The event of the battle 
 which ensued was unfortunate. Alexius was de- 
 ^NoSatr''' Seated and compelled to flee. Yet, amid all his ca- 
 lamities, he showed himself a brave and able prince. 
 The conquests of the Normans were stayed by the return of Rob- 
 ert to Italy. His son, Bohemond, to whom was committed the direc- 
 tion of the war with Alexius, was unable to defend his conquest, and 
 returned to Italy. Robert restored tranquillity to his Italian domin- 
 ions, and resumed his eastern enterprise. Alexius had enlarged and 
 improved the naval forces of the empire, and now disputed with the 
 
176 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 Norman chief, the dominion of the sea. Three engagements took 
 
 place near the island of Corfu ; the third resulting 
 
 wiirtir Norman's! '"^ ^ victory to the Normans. But the death of 
 
 Robert, who fell a victim to an epidemical disease, 
 
 relieved the empire from its most formidable enemy. 
 
 The princess Anna Comnena, the daughter of Alexius, has render- 
 Anna Comnena. ^^ ^^^' "'i'"'^^ renowncd by a history of her father's 
 reign. 
 
 Section IV. 
 EMPIRE OF THE CALIPHS. 
 
 At the commencement of this period, Haroun Al Raschid, the sixth 
 of the Abassides, was sovereign of the caliphate of Bagdad, which 
 QQY had now attained its utmost splendour. The empire 
 
 Haroun Al Raschid. ^^ Haroun was more cxtensive, his power more ab- 
 solute, and his court more splendid, than that of any 
 other monarch of his age. While he was the patron of arts and 
 literature, his victorious arms spread terrour through the west. On 
 his death, the succession was disputed between his sons, and a civil 
 war ended in the elevation of the youngest, Al Mamour, to the ca- 
 liphate. Al Mamour was also distinguished as the patron of arts and 
 letters. In his reign, the volumes of Grecian science were translated 
 into the Arabic language, and every facility and encouragement 
 afforded to the study of the sciences. Sicily and Crete were con- 
 quered by his arms. 
 
 But even in that magnificent reign, the decline of the empire had 
 r 1 r begun. Motassem, the successor of Al Mamour, 
 
 *^ "iLhate "^ ^ established a guard of Turks for the security of his 
 
 throne ; these soon acted over the scenes of the 
 
 praetorians of Rome, and assassinated and elevated caliphs at pleasure. 
 
 From this period, the decay of the empire was rapid, and province 
 
 after province was lost. 
 
 On the elevation of the Abassides, Spain had revolted, and placed 
 the last of the Ommiades, Abdalrahman, upon the throne of Cordova. 
 The example of Spain was shortly imitated by the provinces of Af. 
 rica. Three dynasties had arisen there in the commencement of the 
 ninth century, and in the tenth, the descendants of Fatima wrested 
 from the Abassides the province of Egypt, and estabUshed their 
 throne at Cairo. Thus, Bagdad, Spain, and Cairo, had each its ca- 
 liph, and each disputed the title of the other. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 RISE OF THE TURKISH POWER. 
 
 While the empire of the Caliphs was thus dismembered, the power 
 of the Turks was rising into consequence. It is believed that they 
 
CHAP. IV.] TURKISH POWER. 177 
 
 possessed an ancient Scythian empire, but it had long been dissolved, 
 and now powerful and independent tribes were scattered through the 
 interior of Asia, from China to the Oxus and Danube. Slaves and 
 soldiers of Turkish extraction, were in the service of every monarch 
 of Asia, and often obtained places of the highest trust and honour. 
 
 At the close of the 10th century, Mahmoud, who from the situation 
 . , , , of a slave, had risen to supreme command in the 
 
 province of Gazna, made huTiseli master ot Choras- 
 an. He next added Transoxania and Persia to his dominions, and 
 extended his conquests to Hindostan. Mahmoud is one of the most 
 renowned of eastern conquerors. Twelve times, it is said, he pene- 
 trated India. He conquered the cities of Delhi, Lahore, and Multan, 
 extended the religion of the Moslems, which the Turks had embraced, 
 and returned enriched with the spoils of the east. The caliph con- 
 ferred on him the title of Sultan, and his authority was acknowledged 
 from the Caspian to the Indus. 
 
 Tagrul Beg, a valiant Turk of the family of Seljouk, was the 
 
 Taeru! Be'r founder of the Seljoukian dynasty. Tagrul ex- 
 
 pressed the utmost reverence for the caliph of Bag- 
 dad, delivered him from the oppression of the Turkish and Arabian 
 emirs, and restored to him the city and district of Bagdad. 
 
 Malek, the second prince from Tagrul, was one of the most power- 
 Malek ^"^ conquerors of his age. He extended his doniin- 
 
 ions from the borders of China, to the neighbour^ 
 hood of Constantinople. The reign of ^lalek was peaceful and pros- 
 perous, and through his liberality the literature of the east revived. 
 On the death of Malek, the empire was divided among his sons, the 
 Persian throne, as that to which the others were in some measure 
 subordinate, being given to the eldest. 
 
 Soliman, of the family of Seljouk, was a renowned and powerful 
 Soiiman sovereign. His interference was felt in the affairs 
 
 of the Greek empire, as we find him establishing 
 one of the emperors upon the throne. Under this valiant prince, 
 Jerusalem was conquered, Antioch was obtained by the treachery of 
 its commander, and at length, all Asia Minor was subdued. Alexius, 
 emperor of Constantinople, trembled for the safety of his empire, now 
 threatened by the Normans. He was forced to consent to their 
 claims, and confirmed by treaty the conquests of Soliman. 
 
 16 
 
PERIOD V 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS FROM THE 
 
 ComiTiencemem ) FOURTH EPOCHA, 1100 A. D. S of the Crusades, 
 
 Return of C oluiiibu^ 
 
 The Discovery ) FIFTH EPOCHA, 1492 A. D. S of America. 
 tP 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Section I. 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 As the spiritual worship of the early Christians was exchanged for 
 ihe frivolous rites and idle ceremonies of later days, the possession of 
 relics, and pilgrimages made to holy places, became objects of eager 
 desire and substitutes for personal piety- Of all pilgrimages, that to 
 the holy sepulchre of Jerusalem was the most fre- 
 Piigruw-.ges to^thc q^ently made, and considered the most meritorious. 
 
 ""^ ''^"^ " It was performed by multitudes of devotees from 
 every part of Europe. At\er the holy city fell into the hands of the 
 Saracens, the pilgrimages, though attended with more difficulty and 
 
■:HAP. I.J THE CRUSADES. 179 
 
 danger, were still continued. The caliph Haroun al Raschid aflbrd- 
 ed protection to the Christian pilgrims, and even presented Charle- 
 magne with the keys of the holy sepulchre. His successors, the 
 Abbassides pursued the same tolerant system. 
 
 But when the Fatimites of Africa obtained possession of Palestine 
 Pilgrims persecuted, ^nd Syria, the pilgrims suffered from them severe 
 persecution. Under the reign of Hakem, the third 
 caliph of the Fatimite race. Christian churches were demolished, 
 the destruction of the sepulchre attempted, and many Christians suf- 
 fered death. 
 
 Under the succeeding caliphs, however, a tolerant spirit revived, 
 Pilcrrims tolerated. ^^'^ pilgrimages became more frequent than ever. 
 Policy might dictate this course, as the treasury of 
 the caliphs was replenished by the tribute which procured the pro- 
 tection of the devotees. Two years preceding the first crusade, pil- 
 grimages had increased to an unparalleled extent. Multitudes of 
 every age, and rank, and sex, thronged the roads to Jerusalem. 
 
 At this period, when the holy land became the possession of the 
 Turkish hordes, new persecutions arose. The pilgrims, who with 
 . toil and suffering had pressed their way from the 
 
 ' ^"^'^utfd " '"^' '"^^^ distant parts of Christendom, often found them- 
 selves on their arrival at the holy city, debarred 
 from entrance, by demands which they were unable to meet, and thus 
 deprived of the object for which their sufferings had been endured. 
 Multitudes perished by want ; and of the thousands who directed 
 their enthusiastic way to Asia, few returned to their homes. The 
 accounts which these brought of their injuries, roused the indignation 
 of Europe against the infidel oppressors. 
 
 Previously to this time, pope Gregory VII. had suggested the idea 
 of a war, for the recovery of the holy sepul- 
 o-e*sts a HoiT^War chre, and the extermination of the infidels, but no 
 attempts were made to carry the project into execu- 
 tion. At this period every thing seemed ripe for such an event. The 
 spirit of chivalry had filled Europe with a large body of knights and 
 warriors, i*eady to embark in any enterprize where glory was to be 
 acquired. The sufferings of their friends and relatives in their visits 
 . , . . , . , to the holy land roused their sympathies, and let- 
 
 Alexius implores aid . <• "1 i • ., r> .1 ^ 
 
 airainst the Turks. *®^^ irom Alexius, the emperor of the east, earnest- 
 ly besought the assistance of the Christian mon- 
 archs against the Turkish power, which now threatened the destruc- 
 tion of his empire. 
 
 At this period, Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in France, 
 10Q5 returned from Jerusalem, where his enthusiasm had 
 
 Peter the Hermit been fed, and his resentment enkindled. He has- 
 tened to visit the pope. Urban II., and with his ap- 
 probation the enthusiastic Peter went through Europe, publishing the 
 sufferings of the pilgrims, and calling on Christian warriors to have 
 pity upon their brethren, to go up to battle in the name of the Lord, 
 and no longer suffer the holy sepulchre to be defiled by infidels. 
 The people listened to his moving appeal, till their hearts burned to 
 
180 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 avenge the wrongs of their companions and to deliver the sepulchre 
 of their Saviour from infidel profanation. The flame spread from 
 hamlet to hamlet, from city to city, from country to country. Every 
 where the holy Peter was received with rapture. 
 
 The pope called a council at Placentia. Ambassadors from Alex- 
 Council at Placentia. 1"^ urged the danger of delay, as all Christendom 
 
 was now threatened by the Turkish arms. 
 A second council was convened in the autumn of the same year, at 
 Council at Clermont. Clermont, in France, to make a final decision. An 
 
 immense multitude of priests, princes, and nobles, 
 were present ; and so great was the concourse of people, that the 
 city was filled, and thousands compelled to erect shelters in the 
 fields. Urban II. addressed the assembled crowds, and with the most 
 persuasive eloquence depicted the horrours of infidel oppression, the 
 duty of arming in defence of the holy cause, and the rewards of the 
 faithful. The effect was overwhelming. The crowds sent forth, si- 
 multaneously, the shout, " God wills it." " God wills it." "It is the 
 will of God," replied the pope, " and let this memorable word, the in- 
 spiration surely of the Holy Spirit, be forever adopted as your battle- 
 cry, to animate the devotion and courage of the champions of Christ." 
 The sign of the cross was immediately impressed upon the right 
 shoulders of the garments of the champions, the pope pronounced the 
 absolution of their sins, and the multitudes separated to prepare for 
 the war. 
 
 The 15th of August following, was fixed for the departure of the 
 
 pilgrims, but so eager were the lower orders, and 
 1096. so incapable of appreciating the necessity of prepa- 
 
 Crusaders depart. ration, that the crowds,under the command of Wal- 
 ter the Pennyless, and Peter the Hermit, took their departure early 
 in the spring. — Walter is described as possessed of considerable 
 military talent, but the multitudes who marched under his standard, 
 were undisciplined and ungovernable. — The crowd who followed 
 Peter were, if possible, still more licentious. 
 
 Before they reached Constsntinople, many of these crusaders had 
 
 fallen by skirmishes with the Hungarians, and Bul- 
 ^'crusaderf *^'^ garians. From Constantinople they crossed the 
 
 Bosphorus, but in their progress through Bythinia, 
 neai-ly the whole fell an easy conquest to the Turks. Peter returned 
 to Constantinople, and Walter fell in battle. 
 
 But while these undisciplined bodies were hurrying to destruction, 
 the chivalry of Europe, under their most warlike and able command- 
 ers, were preparing for more regular warfare. The most renowned 
 
 chiefs of the first crusade were Godfrey of Bouillon, 
 Godfrey^f Boudlon, ^^j^^ ^^ Lorraine ; Hugh, count of Vermandois, 
 
 brother of the French king ; Robert, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Robert, count of Flanders, 
 Raymond, count of Toulouse ; Adhemar, Bishop of Puy ; and Bohe- 
 mond, prince of Tarentum, son of the famous Robert Guiscard. It 
 was under his banners that Tancred, his kinsman, and the pride of 
 European chivalry, marched. The various forces under the com- 
 
CHAP. 1.] THE CRUSADES. 181 
 
 mand of their respective chiefs, toolc separate routes for Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 Hugh of Vermandois, the first wlio readied the dominions of the 
 
 emperor, wliere he had expected friendship and 
 
 Emperor of tl)cE;ist welcome, was, on his arrival, arrested and im- 
 
 irciits the Crusaders • i tii r *i ^ 
 
 with cruelty. prisoned. 1 he emperor ot the east was conscious 
 of his weakness, and though when he supplicated aid 
 from the west, he would gladly have received a kw thousand troops, 
 he was alarmed at the formidable and warlike hosts. " It seemed," 
 says the historian Anna Comnena, his daughter, " as if all Europe, 
 loosened from its foundation, was precipitating itself upon Asia." On 
 the arrival of Godfrey, Hugh was released, not however, until he had 
 done homage to the emperor of the east. The policy of Alexius was 
 to preserve his own sovereignty, and to convey from Constantinople 
 one army, before the arrival of another. 
 
 Before the walls of Nice, the capital of the Seljoukian kingdom, 
 
 these several bodies of crusaders met and besieged 
 
 1097. the city. Robert of Normandy arrived after the 
 
 Nice besieged. commencement of the* siege. Peter the Hermit 
 
 also joined him with the small wreck of his host ; yet the number of 
 
 the crusaders after their junction, is computed at six hundred thousand 
 
 armed warriors. While the Christians besieged his capital, Soliman, 
 
 who had been assembling his warriors from the distant parts of his 
 
 dominions, arrived on the mountains, in view of the Christian camp. 
 
 A battle ensued, the Turks were defeated, and 
 
 Crusaders victorious, obliged to retreat. After a few weeks, the city 
 
 surrendered. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The efForts of Soliman, after his defeat, were unremitting and vigor- 
 ous in raising another army, and when after the surrender of the 
 city, the crusaders commenced their inarch, he surprised them in 
 Phrygia and gave them battle, but the Chi-istians 
 Crusaders again VIC- -yvere again triumphant. Great numbers in both 
 
 torious. . * 
 
 armies fell. The Turks who saved themselves by 
 retreat, proceeded next to desolate the country through which the 
 route of the crusaders lay. Thus the difficulties of their march in- 
 creased, and numbers sunk under hardships. After halting a while 
 at Antiochetta, the army proceeded on their march towards Antioch. 
 After an unsuccessful attempt at storming this city, its siege was 
 commenced. For seven months it continued with 
 1098. little prospect of success, when the treachery of the 
 
 ?iege of Antioch. commander of one of the towers, admitted the Chris- 
 tians within the city. In the night a body of the crusaders entered, 
 and the Turks were awakened by their horns, announcing to the ar- 
 my without the walls, the success of their enterprise. They rushed 
 to arms, and the sanguinary and hopeless contest continued through 
 the night. The gates were opened to the army without, and in the 
 
 16* 
 
182 MIDDLE HISTORY. [pERIOD V. 
 
 confusion and darkness, many Christians, as well as Turks, fell by the 
 hands of their brethren. In the fanaticism of the moment, the most 
 horrid excesses and cruelties were committed. Though the Chris- 
 tians obtained possession of the city, the citadel was stilt occupied by 
 the Turks. The small supplies of provisions which the Christians 
 found within the city were soon exhausted, and before measures could 
 be taken for procuring more, an immense army under the command 
 of the Persian Emir appeared before the walls. The successes of 
 the Christians had alarmed the Mahometan powers, and the repre- 
 sentations of Soliman had roused them to aid in the defence of his 
 kingdom. 
 
 The crusaders were in their turn besieged. — The Persian 
 
 Emir and Soliman had joined their forces, and were 
 
 ^''"?f An.i'''r°"^ now set down before Antioch, with three hundred 
 
 in Antiocli. , J ' 
 
 thousand men. Ihe most horrible famine now pre- 
 vailed in the Christian army. Their horses were slain for food, while 
 within their view, the Turkish camp displayed every luxury. 
 
 When thus reduced to the utmost distress, the superstition of the 
 soldiers was called in aid. The priests were fa- 
 Priests resort to the ^.^^^.^^ ^^j^,^ ^j^j^^^g ^f g^ccess. Either deluded 
 
 aid 01 superstuion. . , . .... . . ... 
 
 by their enthusiastic imagination, or practising de- 
 ception, they declared that they saw visions from heaven encouraging 
 them to persevere, and promising them victory. At this time, also, 
 the knowledge of the place where the lance which pierced the Sa- 
 viour's side was buried, was revealed to a monk with directions to 
 procure it, and assurances of victory when in possession of this holy 
 relic. The lance was sought; after some digging, the monk to whom 
 the revelation was made, descended into the excavation, and brought 
 it up with him. The hearts of the soldiers revived, and with newly 
 awakened enthusiasm, they begged to be led against the infidels. — 
 They were purified by the customary rites of the church, and, the 
 following morning, advanced, full of assurance, against the Turks. 
 The immense superiority of numbers which the Turks possessed, was 
 ineffectual against the enthusiasm which now animated the crusaders. 
 The battle was bravely and obstinately fought ; at length the cry 
 
 that the saints were seen fighting on their side, gave 
 "''"'"JoHouf'"™' to the fenatical host, resistless might. The Turks 
 
 fled in confusion, their camp fell into the hands of 
 the victors, and abundance succeeded to famine. The loss of the 
 Turks, in this engagement, is estimated at 69,000, while that of the 
 Christians is placed at less than the sixth of this number. 
 
 The chiefs delayed for the next two months their advances towards 
 Jerusalem, but during their stay in Antioch, a severe pestilence swept 
 away multitudes of their followers. In October, they again com- 
 menced their march, and at length arrived in sight of the holy city. 
 Dissensions had arisen between the different commanders, but they 
 were now laid aside by mutual concessions, and every thought di- 
 rected to the recovery of the city. Though the crusaders were now 
 reduced to less than sixty thousand men, the most vigorous prepara- 
 
CHAP. I.] THE CRUSADES. 183 
 
 tions were made for the assault. Moveable towers, 
 1099. and all the implements of destruction, known to the 
 
 Crusaders assault warriors of the eleventh century were prepared. 
 Efforts almost incredible were made by tlie differ- 
 ent chiefs in the contest. The greatest part of two days was consu- 
 med in the assault; at length some of the Christian chiefs gained the 
 battlements, and there planted the standard of the cross. A most 
 dreadful massacre followed in the city, and the blood of thousands 
 polluted its holy places. 
 
 The object of the war being accomplished in the deliverance of the 
 holy city and temple, the crusaders now bent their thoughts to the 
 permanent establishment of their power. Godfrey of Bouillon, the 
 most deserving of their chiefs, was elected king of 
 Godfrey, king of Je- Jerusalem. He soon found himself compelled to 
 enter into a contest with the Turks for the preser- 
 vation of his kingdom. At Askelon, he encountered and defeated a 
 large body of Moslems. 
 
 The premature death of Godfrey left the throne of Jerusalem va- 
 cant, and after many dissensions, Baldwin, brother 
 1102. of Godfrey, received the crown. Under his admin- 
 
 Baldwin crowned, igtration, the kingdom of Jerusalem flourished. His 
 army triumphed over the Saracens, and several towns were annexed 
 to his dommions. 
 
 Previously to the conquest of the city, many of the chiefs had aban- 
 doned the enterprise and returned to Europe. The Christian force 
 was now so greatly diminished by the departure of the different bo- 
 dies of troops, that hardly enough was left for its defence. The 
 strength of the kingdom was indeed gradually augmented by the ar- 
 rival of more bodies of pilgrims, many of whom dispersed themselves 
 in the adjacent country, and commenced the cultivation of the devas- 
 tated lands. 
 
 The emperor Alexius, intent on the preservation of his empire, and 
 perhaps equally alarmed by the encroachments of 
 1097. the Turks in Asia, and the swarm of pilgrim war- 
 
 Treachery of Alex- j.JQj.^ precipitated upon his empire from the west, 
 pursued a treaclierous course of policy, by which 
 he designed to benefit his own kingdom, whichever way the fortune 
 of the war might incline. While he urged the Christians to the pro- 
 secution of the holy war, he aflbrdcd them no aid, but rather impeded 
 their movements. 
 
 On the surrender of Nice, a secret treaty was completed between 
 an agent of Alexius and the Turks, by which the city became the 
 prize of the Grecian emperor. While the Christians proceeded on- 
 wards to Jerusalem, and occupied the attention and strength of the 
 Mahometan powers, Alexius recovered possession of many of the 
 cities of Asia Minor, and of some of the islands which had been con- 
 quered by the Turks. He transmitted his empire to his successors 
 with its boundaries enlarged, and its internal atfairs in a prosperous 
 condition. 
 
184 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 His son and successor, John, swayed the imperial sceptre twenty. 
 
 John succeeds Alex- five years with vigour and clemency. The penalty 
 
 ius. of death was abolished during his reign. Manuel, 
 
 his son and successor, was occupied with a series of 
 
 1143. wars against the Turks, the Christians, and the bar- 
 
 Maiiuel. barians beyond the Danube. It was during this pe- 
 
 1147. ^"''^^ ^^^^^ ^'^^ second crusade was undertaken by 
 
 Second Crusade. Courad III., emperor of Germany, and Louis VII., 
 
 kuig of France. Manuel is accused, and probably 
 
 with justice, of having caused the failure of the expedition, by his 
 
 treacherous alliance with the Turks. 
 
 From this time to the tliird crusade, a period of nearly fifty years, 
 the Byzantine history presents domestic discords, and no characters 
 or events of magnitude. 
 
 It was during the reign of Isaac Angelus, that the third crusade 
 1188. '^^^^ undertaken by the kings of France and England, 
 
 Third Crusade. and the emperor of Germany. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 The war of the investiture did not cease with the death of Gregory 
 VII. Urban II. pursued the same design of ag- 
 1084. grandizing the Roman See, and Henry IV. of Ger- 
 
 many, the same resolution of keeping the power of the emperor supe- 
 rior to that of the pope. 
 
 At the instigation of Urban, Conrad, the son of Henry, rebelled, 
 assumed the title of king of Italy, and induced ma- 
 Conrad, j-^y Q^ ^]jg cities to submit to his government. Mean- 
 while, the death of Conrad and Urban, while it changed the actors 
 on the scene, did not change the current of events. Pascal II., sue- 
 cessor of Urban, excommunicated the emperor, and 
 1099. induced his younger son, Henry, to revolt and as- 
 Thc emperor excom- sume the imperial honours. Henry IV. was depo- 
 sed, imprisoned, and reduced to the utmost distress. 
 But he escaped from his confinement, collected an army, and in the 
 course of thirty years, fought sixty battles, Avhen his death put a stop 
 to the war. 
 
 No sooner did his successor, Henry V., find himself securely seated 
 on the throne, than he entered upon the same course 
 1106. of opposition to the church, which his father had 
 
 Henry V. opposes maintained. During the contest, which continued 
 P°pe- many years, Henry repeatedly marched into Italy, 
 
 defeated the forces of the pope, and at one time made him prisoner. 
 The pope excommunicated the emperor, and the emperor appointed a 
 new pope, who revoked the sentence, and confirmed his right of in- 
 vestiture. 
 
 At length, the states, weary of the disorder and confusion attending 
 
CHAP. 1.] GERMANY. 185 
 
 the contest, effected a reconciliation. Calixtus II., 
 
 1119* then on the papal throne, called a council, at which 
 
 P"?®^^^^^^^^,™?^""""" the ambassadors of the emperor appeared, and in 
 
 which a compromise between the emperor and the 
 
 pope was effected. 
 
 The reign of Henry V. Avas one of the most bloody which had deso- 
 
 lated Christendom, marked not only by the war just mentioned, but 
 
 by others with Hungary and Poland. 
 
 On the death of Henry, who had no children, the states elected 
 Lothaire, duke of Saxe Supplembourg. Lothaire 
 engaged in war with the Bohemians from whom he 
 exacted homage. Two popes now disputed the title to the papal 
 chair. Lothaire espoused the cause of Innocent II., and marclied 
 into Italy to establish his right. This involved him in war with Ro- 
 ger, duke of Apulia, who espoused the cause of Anacletus. The 
 arms of Lothaire prevailed, Roger was driven from his Italian pos- 
 sessions into Sicily, which he had recently conquered, and Anacletus 
 was imprisoned. — During this reign, tlie Justinian code of laws was 
 adopted in Germany. 
 
 The sudden death of Lothaire, without heirs, again changed the 
 Hne of succession. The states convened, and elect- 
 1141. ed Conrad of Franconia, nephev/ of Henry V. The 
 
 Comad III. (j^,},g Qf. Bavaria, of the family of the G uelphs, aided 
 
 by the pope, disputed his title, and embroiled the empire in a civil 
 war. The emperor's brother, Frederic, duke of Suubia, command- 
 ed the imperial forces, and his soldiers took the 
 ^"''tllincs'* ^'''" "'^™° °^ Ghibellines, from the place of Frederic's 
 nativity. Hence while the party favoured by 
 the pope, was called the Guelphs, that of the emperor was called the 
 Ghibellines. 
 
 In the war of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, a celebrated incident oc- 
 curred. The Guelphs and their principal followers, 
 Incident at the castle ^q^]^ ^ ^- ^j^g ^^^^^^ ^f Weinsburg. The lady 
 
 "' of the castle, knowing the enmity of the conqueror 
 to her husband and his adherents, begged permission for herself and 
 her ladies, to leave the castle with whatever each could carry off. The 
 conquerors consented, and made way, expecting to see loads of finery 
 carried out ; but lo ! the duchess came forth with her husband on 
 her back ! followed by the ladies of her train, each imitating the 
 worthy example. 
 
 No sooner was tranquillity in any measure restored, than Conrad 
 III., inspired by the preaching of St. Bernard with tlie fanaticism of 
 the times, resolved to take arms in defence of the Christians of Jeru- 
 salem, who were now pressed by the Mahometan powers. 
 
 He marched to Asia, but failing in the object of his enterprise, re- 
 turned with the wreck of an army. The death of 
 1148. lijg son, whicli was shortly followed by his own, 
 
 Conrad joins in the |g|-j ^i^^ imperial crown to his nephew, Frederic 
 Barbarossa. 
 
186 BIIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 His reign commenced under auspicious circumstances, yet, like his 
 
 predecessors, he was soon involved in difhculties 
 
 1152. with the pope. This warlike prince subdued the 
 
 Frederic Baibaros- Poles, awed the Bohemians, and obliged the king of 
 
 Denmark to do him homage. 
 
 The spirit of liberty had ai'isen in the Lombard cities; several of 
 
 which, encouraged by the pope, I'evolted from the 
 
 Lombaidcitios revolt, emperor. Frederic marched into Italy, and took 
 
 signal vengeance on the revolted cities. He razed 
 
 ^ iio^. Milan to its foundations, strewed salt upon its ruins, 
 
 Milan destroyed. ^^^^j destroyed Several other cities, or deprived them 
 
 of their privileges. He marched, repeatedly, into Italy, but was not 
 
 successful in his attempts to conquer the Lombards. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Philip I., who was on the throne of France at the commencement 
 
 of this period, was a profligate and licentious prince. 
 
 lOoD. go openly dissolute was his character, that in the 
 
 Phdipl. council of Clermont, assembled within his kingdom, 
 
 pope Urban did not hesitate to pronounce his excommunication. This 
 
 encouraged his nobles, who openly aspired to independence, and du- 
 
 I'ing his weak and inefficient reign, many encroachments were made 
 
 on the prerogatives of the crown. 
 
 Philip was succeeded by his son, Louis VI. The energy and 
 virtue of Louis, rescued the monarchy from its ruin- 
 1108. ous state. During the principal part of his reign, 
 
 '"'® he was occupied in a war with Henry I. of England, 
 
 War with Henr I ^^'^^ ^^^ acquired Normandy from his brother Ro- 
 of England. bert, and now withheld it from William, the son of 
 Robert. Louis regained the power over the great 
 feudatories of the crown, which his father had lost. This he effected, 
 by showing himself the protector of the lower orders, and by making 
 freemen of many of the vassals, and thus composing a third state, or 
 commons. 
 
 Louis VII., or the Young, his son and successor, was early involved 
 
 in war witli the aspiring nobles. He was successful 
 
 1137. l^^ subduing them, but the destruction of thirteen 
 
 Louis vii. or the hundred persons of the town of Vitre, who had taken 
 
 refuge in a church to which he ordered fii'e to be 
 
 1147. P"^' pressed so heavily on his conscience, that he 
 
 l>ouis resolves to join resolved to expiate his guilt by joining the crusade, 
 
 the crusade. which St. Bernard at this time so eloquently urged. 
 
 — The result of the second crusade, in which Louis, and the emperor, 
 
 Conrad III., acted a conspicuous part, was disastrous. The army of 
 
 Louis, like that of Conrad, fell before the arrows of the Moslems, and 
 
CHAP. I.] ENGLAND. 187 
 
 after a visit to the holy city, productive of no efficient aid to the Cliris- 
 tians there, Louis returned with the wreck of his army. 
 
 Immediately on his return to France, Eleanor, his queen, was di- 
 
 vorced on an accusation of iiifidehty. She soon af- 
 
 l.ouis divorces his ^gj. carried the duke of Normandy, afterwards 
 
 queen. Henry II. of England, wlio by this marriage, ob- 
 
 tained in addition to Normandy, Anjou, and Maine, already in his 
 
 possession, the fine provinces of Guienne and Poictou. 
 
 Henry, afterwards succeeding to the crown of England, still held 
 his French possessions, which proved a source of contention between 
 the rival monarchs, and led to wars which for a long period distract- 
 ed France and England. 
 Philip Augustus, son of Louis VII., succeeded to the throne of France, 
 in the fifteenth year of his age. Philip entered into 
 Philip Augustus. ^j-j alliance with Richard, the son of Henry of Eng- 
 land, and encouraged and aided him in a rebellion 
 1189. against his father. Philip Augustus engaged in the 
 
 Pliiiip eti.!j;ages in third crusado, with Frederick Barbarossa, and with 
 the third crusade. Richard, who had succeeded to the throne of Eng- 
 land under the title of Richard II. Each of these monarchs were 
 aspirants for military fame, nor is it difficult to believe that they re- 
 garded Palestine less with the revex'ence of devotion, than as a field 
 on which they were to reap the laurels they so ardently coveted. 
 
 SfiCTIO^.' IV. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 William the Conqueror left three sons, William II., who succeeded 
 to the crown of England, Robert, who inherited Normandy, and Henry. 
 Robert, duke of Normandy, in his zeal for the deli- 
 1096. verance of the holy sepulchre, had, as has been re- 
 
 lated, mortgaged his dukedom to his brother, William II. of England, 
 in order to obtain the sum requisite to enter upon that enterprise. 
 But he was, notwithstanding, the legal heir. The death of William 
 occurring during his absence, enabled Henry, the younger brother, to 
 usurp the sovereignty, and to use means to render his usurpations 
 secure. 
 
 Henry promised to restore the laws of Edward the Confessor, and 
 more effectually to ingratiate himself with the an- 
 1100. cient English, he married Margaret, called the good 
 
 Henry I. quecH Maud, a daughter of Margaret queen of Scot- 
 
 land, and thus a descendant of their ancient kings. 
 
 Robert was already on his return from the holy land when the 
 news of his brother's death reached him. He accordingly hastened 
 to England to claim his inheritance. Henry, however, persuaded Ro- 
 bert to enter into a treaty, by wliicli he received tlie dukedom of 
 Normandy, and a small annual tribute, but left Henry in possession 
 of the crown of England. The brother who outlived the other, was 
 
188 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 to inherit the dominions of the deceased. The jealousy and anibition 
 of the brothers, howevei', would not permit them to remain at peace, 
 and Henry soon possessed himself by force, of Robert's dominions, 
 made his brother prisoner for life, and inhumanly deprived him of his 
 eyes. 
 
 William, the son of Robert, was still the rightful heir of Normandy, 
 and received protection from Louis the Fat, king of France. 
 
 Heniy I., though successful in his usurpation, met with a domestic 
 
 affliction of a severe character. His son, prince William, was ship. 
 
 wrecked on his return from Normandy, through the 
 
 1110. carelessness and intemperance of the commander of 
 
 Henry's son perishes ^j^g vessel. Besidcs the prince, one hundred and 
 
 forty young nobles perished. — It is said that after 
 
 this event Henry never smiled. After the death of his son, he indu- 
 
 ced a council of the prelates and nobles to take the oath of fealty to 
 
 his daughter, Maud or Matilda, whom he married to 
 
 1127. Geoffrey Plantagenet, the earl of Anjou. On the 
 
 ^EallT/'Airou'''' ^^^'^^^ ^^'^®'' ^°"' afterward Henry II., the king pro- 
 cured from the nobles a renewal of the oath of fealty 
 to the princess and her son. After a reign of thirty-five years, con- 
 tinually disturbed by wars and disorders, Henry died. 
 
 Stephen, earl of Boulogne, grandson of the conqueror in the mater- 
 nal line, notwithstanding he had been the first to 
 1135. take the oath of fealt}' to Matilda and her son, now 
 
 Stephen. urged his claim to the throne. Before Matilda could 
 
 arrive in England, Stephen had been crowned by the archbishop of 
 Canterbury. The kingdom was immediately divided by the parti- 
 sans of the adverse claimants. Civil wai", with its 
 Civil war. accustomed horrour, raged through the land, and the 
 
 feudal barons, at this period, built and fortified castles, and acted in- 
 dependently of the sovereign authority. After many years of alter- 
 nate success, when the son of Matilda had arrived at age, the nation, 
 weary of the contest, compelled the hostile parties to peace. In a 
 council of the kingdom, it was determined that Stephen should retain 
 the crown during his life, after which Henry should succeed to it. 
 About a year afterwards, on the death of Stephen, Henry was 
 n ^14 crowned king of England, and received with accla- 
 
 Hcnr li mations by the people. His dominions were exten- 
 
 sive, and he was considered the most powerful prince 
 of his age. The sovereignty of England, Normandy, and Anjou, he 
 inherited. His marriage with Eleanor, the divorced queen of Louis 
 VII., gave him also the sovereignty of Guienne and Poitou. 
 
 The inhabitants of Ireland had until this period remained unconquer- 
 ed by any foreign power, but were engaged in perpetual contests 
 and hostilities among themselves. They were in a 
 1172. gtptQ Qf barbarism; and Henry invaded and con- 
 
 Henry 11. invades q^ered them with little difl:iculty. The native prin- 
 
 ai;a conqueis Ire- ^ „ , ii-i-^ ^xi, r 
 
 land. ^^^> ^'ter acknowledging homage to the crown oi 
 
 England, were left in possession of their respective 
 territories. 
 
CHAP. [.] ENGLAND. 189 
 
 The same contest for supremacy, between the civil and ccclesiasti- 
 Contests between cal powers, which had involved the German empe- 
 the civil and ecclesi- rors in contii.ual wars with the popes, now existed 
 asiical powers. {„ England. The power of the clergy had become 
 enormous, and as they claimed exemption from all trials before courts 
 of justice, the most atrocious crimes were often committed by them 
 with impunity. To facilitate the execution of his plans, for bringing 
 the power of the church into subordination to that of 
 1158. tlie crown, Henry elevated to the see of Canterbury, 
 
 Thomas a Becket. Thomas a Beckel, a man, who from his previous 
 habits of luxury and ease, and from the intimacy which had existed 
 between them, the king hoped to find subservient to his will. But 
 with a change of office, Becket also exhibited a change of manners ; 
 and being now the second person in the kingdom, he soon aspired to 
 be the first. To this end it was necessary to impose on the supersti- 
 tion and credulity of the people an opinion of his sanctity. He ate 
 bread, drank water, wore shirts of sackcloth seldom changed, lacera- 
 ted his body with whips, and daily washed tlie feet of thirteen beg. 
 gars. Who could doubt that with such mortifications, Becket was a 
 saint ! This character established, he openly opposed 
 1164. tl^g authority of the king. Henry summoned a 
 
 Council of Claren- couccll at Clarendon, in which laws were passed 
 for subjecting the ecclesiastical, to the secular pow- 
 er. Becket resisted the law, and was arrested. Henry also called 
 him to account for the rents and profits he had received while chan- 
 cellor, an office he had previously held. Becket appealed to Rome, 
 and obtained the approbation of pope Alexander II., and the support 
 of the king of France, Still the power of the king obliged him to flee 
 from England, and he was for a time supported by the generosity of 
 Louis. 
 
 Henry, determined to resist the usurpations of the church, suspend- 
 ed the payment of certain church revenues, and hastened an alliance 
 with Frederic Barbarossa, with whom the pope was also at war. 
 At length each party, afraid of the other, came to conditions of 
 Becket restored pcace ; and Becket was restored to his arch- 
 bishoprick with honour, while the controverted 
 points were passed by in silence. Becket now came to England like 
 a conqueror, and assumed a splendour little less than regal. He no- 
 tified three of the principal prelates, that the pope had excommunica- 
 ted them, for certain acts of obedience to the king. When the news 
 of this arrogance was brought to Henry, who was in Normandy, he 
 exclaimed, " Will my servants still leave me exposed to the insolence 
 of this ungrateful and imperious priest ?" Four knights of rank, Wil- 
 liam de Tracy, Hugh de Moreville, Richard Britts, and Reginald 
 Fitz Urse, hearing his complaints, resolved upon 
 1170. Becket's death. They immediately repaired to 
 
 Becket assusinated. Canterbury, and assassinated the prelate in his 
 church, during the evening service. It was not Henry's intention to 
 have had him murdered, and the news filled him with consternation. 
 He hastened to make his peace with the pope, and the death of Beck - 
 
 17 
 
190 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 et procured for the church those concessions which the most strenu- 
 ous exertions of his Hfe could not exact. — The king obtained absolu- 
 tion, and made a pilgrimage to the shrine of the murdered prelate, 
 who was canonized ; and so great was the feme of the martyred 
 saint, especially for healing diseases, that an luindred thousand pil- 
 grimages to his tomb, are computed to have been made in one j^ear ! 
 
 The latter years of Henry's life were embittered by domestic dis- 
 sensions. The king of France incited his sons 
 1173. against their father. Henry, tlie eldest, claimed 
 
 Honi-j.'s sons rebel. Normand}', and his father's refusal was the signal 
 for his rebelHon. Richard and Geoffrey united with their brother, 
 notwithstanding Henry had been very liberal to them ; and William, 
 the king of Scotland, joined the unnatural confederacy. The English 
 dominions in France were for two years the theatre of war between 
 the contending parties. A pacification was at length effected, and 
 the young princes pardoned. The king of ^Scotland, who invaded 
 England, was defeated and made prisoner. 
 
 Notwithstanding the reconciliation of Richard with his father, he 
 again rebelled, and united with Philip Augustus, now on the throne of 
 France. Amid these troubles, and sorely disappointed at finding him- 
 self deserted by his youngest and favourite son, John, Henry was ta- 
 ken ill, and died. This king, in most respects of a happy character, 
 was soured by his misfortur.es, and expired with a curse against his 
 disobedient children.* 
 
 Richard succeeded to the throne of England, and his first acts 
 were preparatory to a contemplated crusade. On 
 1189. the day of his coronation, a most horrible persecution 
 
 Richnrcl. of the Jcws took placc, wliich Richard vainly i^ought 
 
 Pel sedition of i!ie to prevent. Their residence in the different king- 
 "^^^^'^^ doms of Europe, could never be considered safe, as 
 
 they were without the protection of the laws, and at times multitudes 
 of them fell victims to a fanatical and infuriated populace. The un- 
 happy Jews, learning that their destruction was determined on, re- 
 solved, at the suggestion of one of their rabbis, to destroy themselves. 
 The hearts of a few, however, shrunk from the dreadful task ; but 
 their lives were only prolonged until morning, when their persecutors 
 made themselves masters of their dwellings, and murdered all who 
 survived. 
 
 * What else ought a man lo expect, who marries a bad woman from ambition, and 
 then treats her ill, but that his family will be the seat of disorders. Henry is the sove- 
 reign whose queen, Eleanor, is said to have poisoned his favourite, fair Rosamond. 
 But this story is fabulous, as Rosamond Clifford, it appears, reiiredtoa monastery, and 
 there died. To Henry's want of conjugal fidelity and lawless loves, may be traced 
 many of his troubles. There is too much reason to believe that he cherished a crim- 
 inal passion for the young Adelais, the betrothed wife of his son Richard, and sister to 
 Philip, king of France; who was sent in her childhood to be educated in England. 
 When Richard demanded her, his father would not rel nquishher ; and on Henry's 
 death, Richard refused to marry her. This caused the eiiniity of Richard to his father, 
 and the hatred of Philip to Richard. 
 
CHAP. II.] THE CRUSADES. 191 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 Section I. 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 When Jerusalem was taken by the Christians of the first crusade, 
 consternation was spread through the empire of the Moslems. The 
 Seljoukians had followed the usual course of the Asiatic dynasties, 
 and the last of the race sunk into imbecility and vice. The name of 
 the sovereign of Persia was hardly known to the Christians. But the 
 Atabeks became formidable. This was a Turkish name, given to the 
 petty princes, who, in the decline of the dynasty, obtained the govern- 
 ment of tlic different provinces, and undertook the defence of the Ma- 
 hometan faith. 
 
 The Fatimite caliphs of Egypt were at this time reduced to the 
 most distressed and degraded state, the viziers or sultans had usurped 
 the supreme authority, and Cairo was distracted by hostile factions. 
 The aid of Noureddin was implored by the weaker party, and Sira- 
 Gouh, a valiant commander of the race of the Curds, was despatched 
 for that purpose. The Curds eventually became masters of Egypt, 
 the Fatimite caliphs were dethroned, and the house of Abbas declared 
 the rightful successors of the prophet. 
 
 Siracouh was accompanied in his Egyptian expedition, by his 
 Saladiii nephew Saladin, who on the death of his uncle was 
 
 promoted to the office of vizier. Saladin at length 
 threw off his allegiance to the caliphs, made himself lord of Egypt, in- 
 vaded and conquered Aleppo, Damascus, and Diarbekir ; Arabia sub- 
 mitted to his arms ; and the inhabitants of Tripoli and Tunis acknow- 
 ledged his authority. Uniting the power of Egypt, 
 1186. Syria, and Arabia, Saladin proceeded to wrest the 
 
 Saladin takes Jeru- j^jj Jq,^ of Jerusalem from the Christians. This 
 
 sa'eiii. o ^ T • 11 
 
 kingdom, now under Guy of Lusignan, was reduced 
 to a state of extreme weakness. A battle fought at Tiberias, in 
 which Saladin was victorious, broke the Christian power in Palestine ; 
 and at length Jerusalem, in the conquest and defence of which so 
 much blood had been shed, was recovered by the Turks. The con- 
 duct of Saladin in the surrender of Jerusalem, was mild and magnani- 
 mous. He accepted a ransom for the richer prisoners, and permitted 
 the poor to go free. — Saladin still extended his conquests, and vvith 
 the exception of Tyre, made hmiself master of the whole of Palestine. 
 
192 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 Section II. 
 THE THIRD CRUSADE. 
 
 The news of the conquest of Jerusalem filled Europe with dismay ; 
 the pope sought at once to heal the dissensions of the Christian mon- 
 archs, and induce them again to take arms in defence of the cross. 
 
 The enmity of France and England presenting an obstacle to the 
 absence of either monarch from his kingdom, Richard I. of England, 
 and Philip Augustus, agreed to lay aside their animosities, and em- 
 bark in the holy war. Their entrance upon the enterprise was de- 
 layed by the war in which Richard had engaged against his father. 
 On the accession of Richard to the crown, all impediments were re- 
 moved, and the monarchs of England and France entered into a trea- 
 ty, by which no aggressions should be made on the kingdom of the 
 other during the absence of its king. 
 
 The first monarch to go forward with his arms in the third crusade, 
 was Frederic Barbarossa, emperor of Germany. In his march 
 through the Greek empire, he was subjected to all the annoyances 
 which had destroyed the former expeditions. The resolute Freder- 
 ic, however, crossed the Bosphorus, defeated the Saracens, took the 
 city of Iconium, and spread the fame of his military skill, and the ter- 
 rour of his arms, even to the throne of Saladin, But the death of 
 Frederic, which occurred in consequence of bathing in the Cydnus, 
 a river in Cilicia, put a period to his splendid successes. His troops 
 proceeded to Antioch, to await the arrival of the other crusaders. 
 
 Philip Augustus and Richard wisely resolved to avoid the evils in- 
 cident to a passage through the Greek empire. They accordingly 
 embarked, the one at Genoa, and the other at Marseilles, and met 
 again, at Messina, in Sicily. During their stay here, animosities 
 arose between them which threatened the destruc- 
 1189. tion of the enterprise. Philip advanced to Pales- 
 
 Siege of Acre. tine, and commenced the siege of Acre. Richard 
 was detained at Cyprus by a quarrel with the sovereign of that island, 
 whom he reduced to submission. He then joined the crusade at Acre, 
 which was taken after a memorable siege of two years. 
 
 Philip Augustus, displeased with the delay of Richard, now return, 
 ed to France, leaving, however, a body of troops under the command 
 of the duke of Burgundy. Near Azotus, Richard obtained a victory 
 over the Mahometans ; but when he had advanced within view of Je- 
 rusalem, he was discouraged by the dissensions of the camp. He 
 found his numbers and resources diminished, and he 
 1192. determined to forego the siege, and entered into a 
 
 iruce Willi Saladin. ^^^^^^ ^^j^,^ Saladin for a truce of three years. The 
 Christians were permitted to visit the holy city, and enjoy the protec- 
 tion of the sultan. 
 
CHAP. II.] EASTERN EMPIRE. 193 
 
 Had Richard been as discreet and politic as he was brave, he 
 „. , „ , ,. might have made himself master of the east.- Per- 
 
 Richard's strength o . ^ , , ■ 
 
 and bravery. haps no wamor 01 history ever dealt such blows as 
 Richard the lion-hearted. Of almost giant size and 
 strength, cased in the heavy armour of the times, which the strength 
 of a man at the present day could scarcely raise from the ground, his 
 power in the battle field made him a host in himself. During this 
 war, learning that the Christian garrison at Jaffa was in jeopardy, 
 Richard hasted with a small body of troops to their relief. He rush- 
 ed with his knights into the thickest ranks of the enemy, vanquished 
 every thing that dared oppose him, and rescued two noble knights who 
 had been taken by the Saracens. Once he was surrounded by a host 
 of soldiers, and single handed he cut his way through them. S:icli 
 terrour and admiration seized his enemies, that fifty years afterwards 
 his name was used by the Saracens to frighten wayward children. 
 It is said tiuit when Saladin perceived the flight of his men, he eti- 
 quired the cause, and being told that the English king had himself 
 driven them from the city, asked, "Which is he]" He was 
 pointed to a little hillock, where Richard with his men had halt- 
 ed. "What," said Saladin, " On foot among his servants ? This is 
 not as it should be ;" and immediately sent him a horse. After the 
 departure of Richard, until the death of Saladin, which occurred about 
 a year afterwards, the Christians of Palestine enjoyed a season of re- 
 pose. 
 
 Saladm was the wisest and most upright prince that ever filled a 
 Character of Sal- Mahometan throne. When he found himself near 
 adin. death, impressed with the worthlessness of earthly 
 
 grandeur, he ordered the standard which had been borne in his victo- 
 rious marches, to be removed, and a shroud to be substituted in its 
 place. This he commanded to be carried through the streets, the 
 criers proclaiming, " Behold what Saladin the mighty conqueror 
 carries with him of all his vast dominions." — After this period, re- 
 peated expeditions were undertaken to the holy land, but there was 
 no crusade memorable like those already related. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE.— MOGULS AND TARTARS. 
 
 The Byzantine empire, already stripped of its Asiatic provinces, 
 was further dismembered. Bulgaria, which had for almost two cen- 
 turies acknowledged its supremacy, revolted, and became indepen- 
 dent. Cyprus had been usurped by a prince of the Comnenian fami- 
 ly. Richard of England conquered him, and bestowed the island up- 
 on Guy ofLusignan, the former king of Jerusalem. 
 
 The throne of Isaac Angelus, the monarch of Constantinople, was 
 
 , I qp. usurped by his brother, Alexius Angelus, and the 
 
 ., . ', dethroned monarch deprived of his sight, and impris- 
 
 Alexius Angelus. , -tr » i • i /• t j 
 
 oned. Young Alexius, the son of Isaac, escaped ; 
 17* 
 
194 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V 
 
 implored ihe protection of Pope Innocent III., and sought to engage 
 the nations of the west to employ their arms in the restoration of his 
 father. At this time, many of the nobles of Germany and France, 
 the flower of western chivalry, l:ad assembled with their vassals at 
 Venice, with the design of procuring conveyance to Palestine, for a 
 fourth crusade. 
 
 Venice had its origin in the beginning of the fifth century, and was 
 Y'g^j^g founded by some citizens of Aquileia, who first gave 
 
 it the name of Rivoalto. Gradually increasing in 
 population, it remained subject to the Byzantine empire, till in the 
 tenth century, it having become a place of commerce, the Venetians 
 setup for independence, and conquered some provinces of the adjacent 
 country. The crusades had increased their wealth, and at this ])eriod 
 they possessed a formidable navy. 
 
 To Venice, Alexius proceeded, and besought for his father the aid 
 of the gallant warriors. His importunity was seconded by Dandalo, 
 the aged and venerable doge, or duke, of Venice. 
 1^02. 'f iig crusaders deliberated, disagreed, and separated. 
 
 Venetian cxpcdi.ion ^ ^ ^^j ^f ^j^g pilgrims with the Venetians, 
 
 .,ig embarked tor Gonstantinople. ihe Venetians de- 
 
 stroyed the Grecian fleet, and rode triumphant in 
 1204. the harbour; and the capitol, containing above four 
 
 Constantinople tu- hundred tliousaiid inhabitants, was besieged and 
 conquered by twenty thousand Latin jjilgrims. 
 Alexius, after one attempt at a sally, fled in secrecy from the city, 
 while the nobles leleased Isaac fj-om prison, placed him upon the 
 throne, and opened the gates of the city to the besiegers. 
 
 The conditions of their succour promised by the young Alexius, 
 were, the submission of tiie eastern empire to the pope, aid in the holy 
 war, and a contribution of two hundred thousand marks to his deliv- 
 erers. The Greeks were dissatisfied with these conditions, and irrita- 
 ted at the prospect of surrendering the independence of their church. 
 The engagements of Alexius were not fulfilled, and the Latins be- 
 came dissatisfied and insolent in their conduct. The indignant Greeks 
 petitioned the senate to give them a more wortliy emperor, andoffer- 
 ed the imperial purple, in succession, to all the senators. Alexius 
 ,, . ^, a Ducas, surnamed Mazoufle, encouraged the revolt, 
 
 Alexius Mazoufle. ' . . ' ^^ , ■ i 
 
 placed himscK at its head, treacherously obtained 
 possession of the person of Alexius, murdered him, and took posses- 
 sion of the throne. The aged emperor died of fear and grief. 
 
 Mazoufle at first had possession of Constantinople, and endeavoured 
 to defend it against the Latins, whose demands he refused to satisfy. 
 They besieged and took the city. Plunder followed the conquest, 
 and the most precious monuments of ancient arts were destroyed by 
 the hands, not of barbarians, but of Latin soldiery. 
 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders, was elected emperor of Constantinople, 
 1204. by ihe victors, while, to the marquis of Montserrat, 
 
 Baldwin emperor. were given the island of Crete, and Asiatic Greece. 
 Baldwin was soon compelled to defend the empii-e he had conquer- 
 ed. The Greeks of Thrace having revolted, he marched against 
 
CHAP. II.] MOGULS AND TARTARS. 195 
 
 ihem, but was defeated and taken captive. Under his successors, 
 tlie Latin kingdom languished, until in 1261, less than fifty years after 
 its conquest, it was recovered by the Greeks, under Michael Palteolo- 
 gus, who became the emperor. 
 
 About the time of the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins, a 
 conqueror appeared in the heart of Asia, who threatened to subvert 
 all the nations of the east. 
 
 Jenghis Klian was the son of a barbarian who reigned over a few 
 isnfi hordes of Tartars, numbering, in all, thirty or forty 
 
 Jen-^his Klmn thousand families. — The death of liis father, while 
 Jenghis was yet a child, induced the revolt of his 
 subjects, and at the age of thirteen, the courageous Jengliis fought a 
 battle with the rebels. He was compelled to flee, but youthful spirit 
 and valour acquired him renown. By degrees he gained control, un- 
 til he was formally proclaimed great Khan of tlie Moguls and Tar- 
 tars. 
 
 He led vast multitudes against the Chinese, passed the great wall, 
 ("on uests of Jen- "^^^*^ Stormed and destroyed a multitude of cities, 
 ghis. His path, like that of other conquerors, was the 
 
 track of desolation. His retreat was purchased by 
 a tribute from the Chinese emperor. A second expedition drove the 
 emperor of China to his southern provinces, while the northern were 
 added to the empire of Jenghis. — His next expedition was towards 
 the dominions of tlie Mahometan sultan. Seven hundred thousand 
 Moguls and Tartars ai'e said to have followed his standard, while 
 their antagonists, the Mahometans, are numbered at four hundred 
 thousand. City after city, from the Caspian to the Indus, was be- 
 sieged and taken ; naiions and kingdoms were depopulated, laid waste 
 and destroyed. Five centuries were not sufficient to repair the rava- 
 ges of four years. — While Jenghis himself engaged in this expedition, 
 one of his generals liad spread the terrour of his arms thi'ough the 
 western provinces of Persia, extended his conquests to the banks of 
 the Volga, and made the circuit of the Caspian sea. 
 
 The first four successors of Jenghis, nearly completed the reduc- 
 1'241 tionof all Asia, and conquered a considerable por- 
 
 Oon uc^ts of J<>u- ^^^"^ of Europe. His grandson, Kouli Khan,achiev- 
 i^his's successors. cd the entire conquest of China, tlie northern provin- 
 ces of which had submitted to Jenghis, and the dynas- 
 ty of the ancient Chinese emperors was exterminated. Bengal and 
 Thibet also yielded him tribute and obedience. The arms of the Mo- 
 guls were, under another of the grandsons of Jenghis, again carried 
 into Persia, the cmpin^ of the caliphs subverted, and the conquests 
 of the Moguls extended to Aleppo and Damascus. The Mamelukes 
 of Egypt opposed their progress, but the kingdoms of Anatolia and 
 Armenia sunk under their arms. They conquered Russia, invaded 
 Poland, and spread devastation through Hungary. Of one of the 
 grandsons of Jenghis it is said, that in the space of less than six years, 
 he extended his conquests over a line of ninety degrees of longitude. 
 
196 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 The successors of Jenghis, seated on the borders of Chma, gradu- 
 Succcssors of Jen- ally assunied the manners of the Chinese whom 
 g'lis- they governed. The whole of China submitted to 
 
 the government of Kouli Khan, who, to gain their favour, governed 
 them according to their own laws and customs. The extensive con- 
 quests of the Moguls were not conducted by the successors of Jenghis 
 in person, but committed to their lieutenants. By degrees, these lieu- 
 tenants threw off their allegiance to the great Khan, and acquired the 
 supreme controul in their respective provinces. After a time, also, 
 they renounced idolatry and all connection with the Mogul idolaters 
 of China, and embraced Mahometanism. Holagou Khan, a descend- 
 ant of Jenghis, extirpated the banditti known by the name of the " So- 
 1227. ciety of Assassins." Under Holagou, the temporal 
 
 Caiiphitedi-stroyrd. powcr of the caliphs was destroyed. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 Section I. 
 
 Henry VI., the son ofFrederic Bai'barossa, succeeded to the impe- 
 1 100 '''^^ crown of Germany, on the death of his father. 
 
 Hciry \ I '^'^'^ death of William, king of Sicily, about the 
 
 same time, gave Henry a claim upon that crown, in 
 right of his empress Constantia, the sister of the deceased king. His 
 claim was disputed, and he marched into Italy to support it. 
 
 The pope, wlio claimed Sicily as a fief of the holy see, regarded his 
 pretensions unfavourably. Henry, however, made himself master of 
 nearly all Campania, Calabria, and Apulia ; and at length achieved, 
 in another expedition, the conquest of the kingdoms of Sicily and Na- 
 ples. 
 
 PL's death, which occurred soon after, involved Germany in new 
 troubles. His efforts to render the imperial dignity hereditary, had 
 so far succeeded, as to procure a decree, by which his son, Frederic 
 II., wa.s made king of the Romans, and heir to the empire. Freder- 
 ic being in his minority, his uncle, Philip, duke of 
 1198. Suabia, was appointed regent.; but the empire was 
 
 Frederic II. disturbed by factions. The reign of Frederic II., 
 like that of Henry IV., passed in continual contests with pope Inno- 
 cent, who iiad urged his undertaking a crusade. Frederic promised, 
 but continually delayed. The sultan of Egypt had reduced the Chris- 
 tians of the cast to the greatest distress, and their only hope was in 
 the aid of their brethren of the west. To engage Frederic in their 
 cause. Innocent gave him in marriage, Zolande, the daughter of John 
 de Brienne, king of Jerusalem, with that kingdom as her dower. 
 
CHAP. III.] GERMANY. 197 
 
 1228. Still Frederic manifested a reluctance to depart, un- 
 
 Frederic excoinmu- til the patience of the pope was exhausted, and he 
 
 nicated. pronounced his excommunication. 
 
 Tlie emperor, now at open hostility, carried war 
 ,„ . . ., into Italy, compelled the pope to flee from Rome, 
 
 War with the pope. J ' f_ • rp, , , ^ ,• ,■ 
 
 and ravaged Ins possessions. 1 he old tactions oi 
 the Guelphs and Ghibellines revived, and the desolating ravages of a 
 civil war were felt throughout Italy. — Frederic at length proceeded 
 to perform his vow, but departed for the holy land without the sen- 
 tence of excommunication having been revoked. His expedition was 
 more successful than that of either of the preceding 
 1230. monarchs, who had visited Palestine. Tlie sultan 
 
 Jerusalem ceded. of Egypt Ceded to Frederic, Jerusalem, with several 
 other cities, and a truce of ten years was concluded. — The reign of 
 Frederic after his return from the east, was passed in the same unhap- 
 py contest with the Roman pontiff, with which the earlier period had 
 been marked. The pope instigated many of his subjects in Italy to 
 revolt, and for several years, Germany and Italy were deluged with 
 blood. A succession of popes pursued the same course, they declared 
 Frederic excommunicated and dethroned, and a new emperor was 
 elected. Still Frederic maintained liis cause, until death relieved 
 the popes from a fearless and formidable enemy. 
 
 The troubles of the empire, however, did not cease with the death 
 of Frederic. The disorder and tumult increased, and a period of dis- 
 traction and almost unexampled confusion prevailed. All classes 
 1273 were in arms ; several emperors were elected, but 
 
 Rodolph.' none properly acknowledged, until Rodolph, of 
 
 Hapsburgh, a prince of an ancient family, and con- 
 siderable possessions in Switzerland, was raised to the throne. From 
 him sprang the house of Austria. 
 
 While Germany was in this state of disorder, Denmark, Holland, 
 
 and Hungary, threw off their allegiance to the em- 
 
 1241. pire. A confederation of several cities was formed 
 
 Hanseatic league. j^^^^^j^ ^j^jg pgrjoj^ i^ the wesi of Germany. These 
 
 cities were situated on, and near the Elbe. They were called the 
 
 Hanse towns ; and the confederation, the Hanseatic league. 
 
 The first efforts of Rodolph were to suppress the disorders of his 
 subjects, and to restore tranquillity to his empire. His first military 
 expedition was against Ottocarus, king of Bohemia, who had seized 
 the duchy of Austria. The arms of Rodolph were successful, and 
 Ottocarus was defeated, and slain in battle. The duchy of Austria, 
 the subject of contention, was given to Albert, the eldest son of Ro- 
 dolph. The reign of Rodolph was prosperous and popular, and the 
 empire under him was raised from depression to security. His ef- 
 forts to procure the succession of his son Albert, 
 1291. were unsuccessful ; and after his death, the electors 
 
 Adolphus of Nassau. (,j^Qgg Adolphus of Nassau. The unpopularity of 
 
198 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 this prince, which Albeit increased by representing 
 1298. his actions in the worst h'ght, ended in his deposi- 
 
 Aibert. tion, and the elevation of Albert to the imperial dig- 
 
 nity. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 At this period, the Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwitz and Underwald, 
 revolted. These cantons, althougli free and inde- 
 : pendent in tlieir internal government, acknowledged 
 
 Revolt ui Swiss can- ^j^^^ supremacy of the empire; and under the ad- 
 ministration of Rodolph, had been treated with great 
 lenity. Albert, indignant at the spirit of freedom which they had oc- 
 casionally expressed, sent governors, with orders to tame those moun- 
 taineers, and bring them to a spirit of subjection. Gesler, one of 
 these governors, had erected in the market place, a pole, on which he 
 placed his hat, commanding the passers by to pay it obeisance. 
 
 William Tell, a patriot, whose bosom burned with a desire of re- 
 dressing his country's wrongs, refused to yield the 
 I idui e . homage. His sentence of death was changed by 
 the governor, into a command to shoot an apple from the head of his 
 son. Tell, who was a skilful marksman, hit the apple ; but the gov- 
 ernor discovering another arrow in his possession, enquired for what 
 purpose he had it. The intrepid Tell replied, " It was designed for 
 thee, if I had killed my son." Tell was immediately sentenced to im- 
 prisonment for life. But the patriot knew that vengeance was brew- 
 ing for the tyrants, and deliverance for his country. 
 
 Milchtat, Staffacher, and Svvitz, three patriot leaders, had in secret 
 
 matured their plans, and no sooner was the abomhiable act of tyranny 
 
 perpetrated against their respected fellow citizen, 
 
 General revolt ia ^^.^^ ^^ raised the Standard of revolt, and the 
 
 fev/itzerland. •' . rni > 
 
 whole country rose ni arms. 1 he Austrian gov- 
 ernors, surprised, and unable to resist, were made prisoners, and con- 
 ducted to the frontiers, where they were compelled to swear never 
 again to serve against the Swiss, and then liberated. — The forbear- 
 ance of the Swiss under their repeated wrongs is wonderful, and forms 
 one of the most beautiful examples of a love of liberty, united with 
 humanity, to be found in tiie history of the world. 
 
 The deliverance of these three cantons, thus effected without the 
 shedding of one drop of human blood, was shortly 
 '' Su5it7"eHa"nd ""^ Allowed by that of others, who joined in a confede- 
 racy, and formed the republic of Switzerland. 
 The death of Albert prevented the execution of the measures he was 
 meditating, for reducing the Swiss to submission, and for several 
 months there was an interregnum in the government. 
 
 At length Henry, count of Luxembourg, the seventh of that name 
 
 who had swayed the German sceptre, was elevated 
 
 "'"^ *■ to the throne. His short reign of four years, is but 
 
 a repetition of that of many of his predecessors — contests with the 
 
CHAP. III.] GERMANY. 190 
 
 popes, wars in Italy, and intrigues at home. During his wars in Italy, 
 he died suddenly, at Benevento. After an interregnum of fourteen 
 months, two emperors were elected in Germany, who, by their con- 
 flicting claims, involved the empire in civil war, and again drenched 
 ■fooo it in blood. The contest ended in the elevation of 
 
 l,ouis of Bavaria Louis of BavaHa to the imperial throne. — Louis, 
 like his predecessors, found himself involved in war 
 with the pope. When the emperor carried the war into Italy, the 
 pope, John XXII., who resided at Avignon, excited the German prin- 
 ces to revolt. On the return of the emperor to quell the domestic dis- 
 turbanccs, the pope recovered his power at Rome, and the friends of 
 the emperor were expelled from the city. Finding all reconciliation 
 with the Roman see impossible, Louis summoned a, diet, which de- 
 creed that the pope had no superiority over the German emperor ; 
 i;or was his approval essential in the imperial elections, the power of 
 electing the emperor being vested in the college of electors alone. 
 
 For a while the empire remained at peace, but the constant in- 
 trigues of the poritifTs again produced open hostility to Louis ; and 
 Charles orLuxcm- Clement VI., who had succeeded to the papal cliair, 
 Li""'?'- procured the election of Charles of Luxembourg, 
 
 son andheir of the kingof Boiiemia. The death of Louis, which oc- 
 curred not long after tlie election of Charles, prepared the way for the 
 establislrment of the latter upon the imperial throne. Charles IV. 
 was a mere tool for the reigning popes. — It was 
 looo. however during- this reign, that the constitution call- 
 
 Gold, n iJuii. ^j, ^,jg Golden' Bull was established. By this, the 
 number and duties of the electors, which custom rather tlian law had 
 heretofore legulated, were settled. This famous instrument shows 
 the style and spirit of the times. It begins with an apostrophe to Sa- 
 tan, Anger, Pride, and Luxury ; and it sets forth the necessity that 
 the number of electors should be seven, in order to oppose the seven 
 mortal sins. 
 
 On the death of Charles, his son, VVinceslaus, succeeded to tl:e im- 
 perial throne, as well as to the crown of Bohemia. 
 1378. 'pjie levity and profligacy of this prince disqualified 
 
 uK-eslans. j^jj^^ ^^j. ^^^^ ^^^j,^ of his empire, and under his admin- 
 
 istration, its affairs, both in (Tcrmany and Italy, went to ruin. The; 
 electors of the empire held a diet, and deposed him. Winceslaus 
 took their treatment however in good part, and returned to his hered- 
 itary dominions in Germany, only desiring the cities to send him as 
 a parting present, some butts of their best wine. The electors chose 
 Frederic, duke of Brunswick, who was shortly after murdered; and 
 subsequently, Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine, to till the vacant 
 throne. 
 
200 . MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 At this period may be dated the commencement in Germany, of 
 that schism in the church, called " the Reformation," 
 1393. which John Huss, of Prague, a follower ofthe opin- 
 
 Ti.e Reformaiion. j^^^ ^j^j^jj wickliffe had taught in England, began 
 to teach in Bohemia. The emperor Rupert sought to heal the'dis- 
 sensions which arose in the church, but died without effecting his ob- 
 ject. 
 
 Rupert was succeeded in the imperial government by Sigismund, 
 
 king of Hungary, brother to the deposed Winces- 
 
 Sigi.rnund, ,g^,g rpj^^ disorders of tlie church claimed his first 
 
 1415. attention. A general council was, with the appro- 
 Council of Con. bation ofthe pope, convened at Constance, at which 
 
 stance. ^^^^ ^^^ unusual display of magnificence. Huss was 
 
 cited to appear, charged with heresy, condemned, 
 
 •Jnlin Huss burnt. ^^^^^ ^^j^]^ ^ mitre of paper placed upon his head, on 
 
 which were painted three devils, he was committed to the flames, and 
 
 died maintaining his faith. 
 
 The same opinions were professed, and taught, by the learned Jc- 
 rome of Prague, the companion of Huss, and he 
 
 1416. suffered the same fate. — But these executions served 
 ''"'","' "^ '^"^'"'' to increase the numbers of the Hussites, and in Bohe- 
 
 rnia they mamtamed a long war with the imperial 
 ])o\ver. A pacification was at length effected, and to the Hussites 
 were granted the privileges which they claimed. 
 
 Albert, duke of Austria, son inlaw of Sigismund, succeeded him in 
 the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, and was 
 1438. subsequently raised to the imperial throne. The 
 
 Aiix-rt succeeds Si- gi^Qj-j reign of Albert was occupied in preparations 
 " " for carrying on a war with the Turks in Bulgaria ; 
 
 but his sudden and early death, prevented the execution of his plan. 
 He was succeeded on the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, by his 
 son Ladislaus, then a minor, and the empire was 
 1440. conferred on his cousin, Frederic of Austria. This 
 
 Ladisluiis. prince wandered, like his predecessors, after the 
 
 ])liantom of power which their Italian titles conferred, and was crown- 
 ed at Rome. — Ladislaus, king of Hungary, died young, and that king- 
 dom was the subject of contest between many claimants; among 
 these, Frederic appeared, and Germany became for many years the 
 theatre of civil war. 
 
 Europe was now alarmed at the progress of the Turks, who at this 
 
 period made themselves masters of Constantinople. — 
 
 1453. j3lh although assemblies were summoned for the 
 
 Turks imisieis of purpose of arming Christendom against them, noth- 
 
 inop e. .^^^ effectual was done. The attempts of the Turks 
 
 uix)n Hungary were resisted, and the country long defended by the 
 
 skill of John Hunniades, who compelled the invaders to raise the 
 
CHAP. IV.] PRANCE. 201 
 
 siege of Belgrade, which they had invested. But the death of the 
 Hungarian general, which occurred shortly after, prevented any far- 
 ther successes to the Christian arms. After a long reign, unmarked 
 by any important event, Frederic III. was succeed- 
 1493. gj \yy hig gQ,-,^ Maximiliau, arch duke of Austria, 
 
 Maximilian. .^^j^^ ^^ ^ marriage with the heiress of Burgundy 
 
 and Flanders, had obtained possession of those extensive domains. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 Section I. 
 
 The plea of Philip Augustus for forsaking the crusade, was ill 
 health ; but if we are to judge by his subsequent 
 1191. conduct, the true cause was, the facilities whicli 
 
 Philip Augustus. pr, sented themselves at that moment in Europe, for 
 aggrandizing his kingdom, joined with the differences which had aris- 
 en between him and the Englisli king. The obligations under which 
 he had placed himself by an oath, not to encroach upon the domin- 
 ions of Richard, were annulled by a dispensation from the pope ; and 
 the unprincii)led Philip held himself free to follow his ambitious in- 
 clinations. He had excited John of England, to rebel against his 
 brother, and their projects were matured during the captivity of Rich- 
 ard in Germany. When the English king, whom, by arts and bri- 
 bery, the emissaries of Philip had thought to keep imprisoned, was un- 
 expectedly set free, Philip wrote to John, " Beware ; the devil is un- 
 chained." On Richard's return to his dominions, a war ensued be- 
 tween the rivals, but it was characterized by no remarkable event, 
 and waged with little vigour. 
 
 On the accession of John to the crown of England, Philip, availing 
 himself of the deserved unpopularity of that monarch, summoned him 
 as his vassal of Normandy, to appear before him, and answer for the 
 murder of his nephew Arthur. John neglecting to appear, his conti- 
 nental dominions were declared forfeit, and annexed to the French 
 crown. 
 
 Philip, though little bound by moral obligation, was a sagacious and 
 politic monarch. He aimed, throughout his reign, to bring his vassals 
 into subordination, to extend the prerogative of the crown, and to en- 
 large his kingdom. 
 
 The pope, in a quarrel with John of England, offered Philip that 
 crown ; and the French monarch made extensive preparations for a 
 war in vindication of the claim thus obtained. Meanwhile the pope 
 concluded a peace with England, and revoked the gift. 
 18 
 
202 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERTOD V. 
 
 Philip was succeeded by his son, Louis VIII., whose short reign is 
 
 memorable for nothing save a cruel war undertaken 
 
 1223. against the Albigenses, a religious order in the 
 
 Louis VIII. south of France, whom the pope denounced as here- 
 
 War against the ^j^g^ Their pure and harmless lives afforded them 
 
 ^ ° ' no protection ; the same misguided zeal which had 
 
 hurried on multitudes to the contests with the Saracens of Asia, now 
 
 wasted itself in persecuting this unhappy sect. 
 
 Louis VIII., called Saint Louis, was succeeded by his son, Louis 
 
 IX., during whose minority, his mother, Blanche of 
 
 1226. Castile, held the reigns of government with a vigor- 
 
 Louis IX. jjug lijiiid. 
 
 Louis undertook a crusade for the benefit of the distres.sed Chris- 
 tians in the east. He first directed his arms 
 Crusade of Louis. against Egypt, as being the key to the holy land ; 
 but his army was reduced by pestilence, defeated by the Moslems, and 
 himself made prisoner. — He was released, in exchange for the city of 
 Damietta, of vv^hich his ai'my had obtained possession. — After passing 
 four years in the holy land, he returned to his kingdom. 
 
 But his rage of crusading was not extinguished. He invaded the 
 kingdom of Tunis, in order to convert the monarch 
 Louis invades Tu- ^j^j j^jg people; but himself and his army fell a 
 prey to an epidemic disease which ravaged the 
 country. 
 Louis was succeeded by his son, Philip, surnamed " the Hardy." — 
 It was during the reign of this prince, that the fa- 
 1253. mous massacre of the French took place in the island 
 
 Pliilip tli3 Hardy. ^^ Sicily, meiitioned in history, as tlie " Sicilian ves- 
 ScMnSkil^ pers." Charles of Anjou, the sovereign of Sicily, 
 was a French prince, and uncle to Philip. His am- 
 bition and talents had made him feared and hated by the clergy, es- 
 pecially by the pope ; and the seeds of revolt were sown deep in the 
 minds of the Sicilians. At Palermo, as a bride with her train were 
 passing the streets, they were treated rudely by a Frenchman. A 
 Sicilian immediately stabbed him to the heart. Instantly the cry was 
 heard in every direction, " Kill the French, kill the French ;" and a 
 scene of horrible carnage ensued. Men, women and children, were 
 massacred, and every thing belonging to the French was exterminated 
 from the island. 
 
 Charles, who had escaped from Sicily, appealing to his nephew, 
 Philip, for aid, engaged him in his cause. Peter, king of Arragon, had 
 claims upon Naples and Sicily, and these were now acknowledged by 
 the inhabitants. Philip, in order to establish the claims of Charles, 
 invaded Spain ; but he suffered much in the attempt, without accom- 
 plishing his purpose. 
 
 Philip III. was succeeded by his son Philip, surnamed "the 
 
 Fair ;" whose reign is marked by contests with 
 
 1288. the haughty pope Boniface VIII. Philip, whose 
 
 Philip 1V-, or the finances were low, exacted money from the priests, 
 
 ^^' notwithstanding Boniface had prohibited the clergy 
 
CHAP. IV.] FRANCE. 203 
 
 of any kingdom whatever, from granting money to princes with- 
 out his special permission. Boniface sent as a legate, to threaten 
 the king of France, one of his own rebel subjects, who was immedi- 
 ately seized and imprisoned by his sovereign. Boniface, enraged, is- 
 sued a proclamation declaring that the " Vicar of Christ was vested 
 with full authority over all the kings and princes of 
 French clergy sum- ^he earth ;" and ordered the French clergy forth- 
 
 moned to Komc. . , ' . _, « t-< i • • i 
 
 With to repair to Kome. A t rench priest carried 
 this proclamation to the king. Philip threw it into the fire, assembled 
 the representatives of the states of his kingdom, and laid the case be- 
 fore them. They acknowledged Philip's independent authority, and 
 
 disavowed the pope's claim. — It was on this occa- 
 First national as- gjQ„ ^^^^^ ^^le representatives of cities were first reg- 
 
 sembly of France. , , i ^ ^i ^- i ii 
 
 ularly summoned to the national assembly. 
 Boniface, it is said, died in consequence of his mortification at the 
 indignities offered him by the partisans of Philip in Italy. His suc- 
 cessor, the mild Benedict VI., revoked the sentence of excommunica- 
 tion whicli Boniface had pronounced against Philip. Clement V., at 
 the death of Benedict, succeeded to the papal chair. 
 Poicticrsthe seat of jjg ^^^^ ^ Frenchman, and changed the seat of the 
 pope- pontificate from Rome, to Poictiers in France. 
 
 Philip IV., although revengeful in his disposition, was a wise and 
 able king. He greatly improved the civil policy of France, both in 
 the legislative, and judicial departments. 
 
 His son and successor, Louis X., was a mean and avaricious king. 
 
 1314 ^^ executed his prime minister, Marigny, on the 
 
 Louis X pretence of his dealing in magic ; but in reality in 
 
 order to confiscate his great possessions. — The death 
 
 of Louis without male heirs, gave rise to a contest respecting the right 
 
 offemale succession. The decision was unfavourable to the daugh- 
 
 ter of the king. It was urged that by an ancient 
 
 Salic law. jg^^^ called the Salic law, no female could inherit 
 
 the crown of France. The Salic law was confirmed. The crown 
 
 of France passed first to Philip the Long, then to Charles the Fair, 
 
 both brothers of the late monarch. The short 
 
 1328. reigns of these princes, who died without heirs, were 
 
 Philip of Valois. followed by the elevation of Philip of Valois, cousin 
 
 n ,■ ^ , of the late kings ; and thus the crown of France 
 
 Capetian dynasty . „ . »^' . , , /> Tr i • 
 
 ends. passed from the Capetians, to the Jiouse oi Valois. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Edward III., of England, put in a claim to the sovereignty of 
 
 France in right of his mother Isabella, sister of the 
 
 1336. last king ; his claim was disallowed by the French, 
 
 War with England. ^^^^^ unanimously placed Philip on the throne ;* 
 
 * Edward's claim was in every respect unjust, for if what he maintained were true, 
 that though by the SaUc law females could not reign in France, yet, their male de- 
 scendants might, there was in this case, a nearer heir to the French throne than 
 Edward- 
 
204 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 yet it. gave rise to the destructive war which now commenced, and 
 which continued' with only one interval of peace, and an occasional 
 truce, for a century ; being the most memorable war which had been 
 waged in Europe, since the destruction of the Roman empire. Ed- 
 ward, doubtless trusting more in the strength of his arms, than in the 
 justice of his cause, having obtained the alliance of the Flemings, 
 assumed the title of king of France, invaded that 
 1346. kingdom, fought the famous battle of Cressy,* and 
 
 Battle of Ciessy. defeated the army of Philip with great slaughter. 
 Siege of Calais. He then besieged and took Calais, when a truce 
 was concluded between the two nations. On ta- 
 king the city, which had resisted his arms for nearly twelve months, 
 Edward threatened to put the inhabitants to the sword, unless they 
 would deliver up to death six of their noblest citizens. Six noble 
 burghers, self devoted, came forth to his camp with halters on their 
 necks. Edward commanded their execution ; but at the moment, his 
 queen Philippa arrived, threw herself upon her knees, and implored 
 her husband to save them. She prevailed, and the gallant burghers 
 exclaimed, " Edward conquers our cities, but Philippa our hearts." 
 The death of Philip occurred before the time of the truce had ex- 
 pired, and the sovereign authority descended to his 
 1350. son John, a prince ill qualified to direct the govern- 
 
 John. ment of a nation threatened by such formidable foes. 
 
 On the expiration of the truce, Edward again renewed the war. 
 His valiant son, the prince of Wales, called the Black Prince, who 
 had, when very young, distinguished himself at Cressy ; entered 
 France at the head of an army, and near Poictiers 
 1356. encountered the forces of John, which were far su- 
 
 Battle of Poictiers. perior in numbers. Victory declared for the Eng- 
 lish, the French were routed, and their king made 
 John taken prisoner, prisoner. The captive monarch received from the 
 Black Prince, the most respectful courtesy. He was carried into Eng- 
 land ; and during his absence, the government of the kingdom was 
 committed to the dauphin, afterwards Charles V. 
 
 A truce with England for two years, relieved France from foreign 
 enemies ; but it was torn with domestic dissensions, which the weak 
 administration of the young dauphin was unable to check. The na- 
 tional assembly was convened, but instead of assisting the king's gov- 
 ernment, they availed themselves of the present disturbances to ex- 
 
 * In this battle the English for the first time used artillery. The great improvement 
 in the art of war, made by introducing fire arms, seemed at the time a barbarous in- 
 novation, and it vi'as not until considerably later, that small arms were in use. One 
 hundred years after, the chivalrous Bayard refused to use them, maintaining that it 
 was a cowardly method of attacking an adversary. But experience has shown that 
 the invention of fire arms has been one of the greatest means of civilizing the world. 
 Sturdy barbarians had no longer the advantage which they formerly possessed ; and 
 the physical strength of a steel guarded giant, who could deal heavier blows than his 
 neighbours, no longer gained him an ascendancy to which his moral and intellectual 
 energies afforded no claim. It has been found, that whatever increases the dangers 
 and hazards of those who fight, naturally diminishes the number of wars, and makes 
 people more inclined to settle their differences peaceably. 
 
CHAP. IV.] PRANCE. 205 
 
 tend their own prerogatives, and limit those of the 
 Pans and other crown. — Paris revolted ; the example was followed 
 by many other cities, and anarchy pervaded the na- 
 tion. The peasants rose against the nobility, burnt their castles, and 
 murdered their families without mercy. The horrour and desolation 
 which spread through the land, and the want of any authority to check 
 disorders, brought the capital to submit to the dauphin. Charles 
 now proceeded with vigour to restore order in the state. 
 
 Meanwhile the truce expired, and the English prepared for another 
 
 invasion. A peace was, however, soon concluded, by 
 
 Peace with England, -wrhich the ransom of John was effected, and several 
 
 provinces of France, over which the French king renounced all claim 
 
 to homage, were ceded to England. 
 
 John did not long survive the peace, and the dauphin, Charles V., 
 
 from the character of his reign, surnamed the wise, 
 
 1364. ascended the throne. The first measures of the 
 
 Charles V. j^g^ monarch were directed to the removal of the 
 
 internal disorders which had so nearly destroyed the nation. The 
 
 king of Navarre had been active in fomenting these disturbances. 
 
 Against him, therefore, the arms of Charles were now turned. He 
 
 was defeated, and reduced to submission. When Charles had restor- 
 
 Charles renews the ^^ the tranquillity of his own kingdom, he renewed 
 
 war with England, the War with England, whose continental affairs, in 
 
 consequence of the advanced age of Edward III., 
 
 and feeble health of the Black Prince, were now less prosperous. 
 
 During the remaining years of his reign, Charles recovered all the 
 
 conquests of the English except Calais, and conquered from them, a 
 
 part of Guienne. 
 
 His son, Charles VI., a minor, succeeded his father. The ani- 
 mosities of the ambitious regents, the dukes of An- 
 , .JoUj Berri, and Burgundy, uncles to the young king, 
 
 Charles VI. j^ypj. ^y^^ nation in a continual state of distraction. 
 
 „ . Charles became insane, and never fully recovered 
 
 Becomes insane. , . rm V i i 
 
 his reason, i he people were more than ever bur- 
 dened with taxes, and the revenues of the kingdom were lavished up- 
 on the regal household, or plundered by the officers of government ; 
 who, in the mean time, preserved the most inveterate hostility towards 
 each other. From this hatred proceeded horrible 
 Civil wnr. assassinations, and at length a cruel war. The 
 
 hostile parties, called from their leaders, Armagnacs, and Burgundi- 
 ans, each struggled to obtain the person of the king, and as they ob- 
 tained it, alternately seized the reigns of government. The dregs of 
 the populace of Paris espoused, with the most ferocious zeal, the par- 
 ties of the rivals, and unchecked by any authority, committed the 
 most horrid crimes. 
 
 While the nation was thus distracted, the English war was renew- 
 18* 
 
206 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 ed. Henry V., now on the throne of England, land- 
 
 l^l"*' ed at the mouth of the Seine, and took Harfleur. On 
 
 ^^^' r'lnewed^^''"'' ^'^® invasion of a foreign enemy, the French, for the 
 
 Henrv takes Har- moment, Suspended their quarrels, and rallied in de- 
 
 'fleur. fence of the kingdom. A French army of fifty 
 
 thousand men, under the constable D'Albert, posted 
 
 Battle of Agincoint. themselves near the village of Agincourt, to inter- 
 
 cept the English on their march. A bloody battle 
 
 ensued, in which Henry, with an army of only eleven thousand, was 
 
 completely victorious. In this battle, the national character of the 
 
 French was ill sustained ; a general panic seemed to seize the troops, 
 
 while the vanquished far outnumbered the victors. 
 
 In the mean time, the hostilities of the Bui-gundian and Armagnac 
 factions were renewed, with more violence than ev- 
 Civil war in Prance g^.^ ^^^ ^|-jg niassacre of the Armagnacs, and the bar- 
 barous assassination of the count, their leader, took 
 place at Paris. — Henry of England, having made himself master of Nor- 
 mandy, was preparing to advance to that city. The young dauphin, 
 who was now at the head of the Armagnac, or Orleans party, atTected 
 to seek a reconciliation with the Burgundians. A meeting between 
 him and the duke, surnamed John the Fearless, was appointed on the 
 bridge of Montereau. The duke of Burgundy was murdered by one 
 of the Armagnacs at the moment of kneeling before the dauphin, and 
 probably with tlie approbation ofthe prince. The Burgundians, who 
 had the control of Paris, now resolved to unite themselves with the 
 king of England ; and Philip, the young duke, hastened to offer to 
 Henry the crown of France. A treaty was conclu- 
 1420. (]ed between them at Troyes, by which Henry es- 
 
 Treaty of Troyes. pouscd the princess Catharine, daughter of Charles 
 VI., and was declared heir to the French monarchy. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 On the death of Charles VI., (preceded, a f^ew months, by that of 
 the king of England,) the dauphin assumed the 
 Charles VII. government, under the title of Charles VII., and ap- 
 
 peared again in the field. He was crowned by his partisans atPoic- 
 tiers ; Rheims, the usual place, being in the hands of his enemies. 
 The northern parts of the nation adhered to Henry VI., the infant son 
 of Henry v., whose birth was celebrated with as great rejoicings at 
 Paris as at London ; and who was proclaimed 
 Henry proclaimed ^- ^f Prauce and England. The regency of 
 
 king of Prance and „ ° . ^ , °, . . ..i t^ i- u * 
 
 Ent^land. -t* rance was committed, on the part ot the English, to 
 
 the duke of Bedford, uncle ofthe young Henry. 
 While the English interest in France was supported by the dukes 
 of Burgundy and Brittany, the nation, after the death of their mon- 
 arch, evinced symptoms of returning affection for the amiable Charles, 
 his son. Yet, though the number of his adherents increased, and he 
 received auxiliary troops from Scotland, his treasury was at a low 
 
CHAP. IV.] FRANCE. 207 
 
 ebb, and his prospects gloomy. The duke of Bed- 
 1424. foixl had obtained a victory over the united French 
 
 Battle of Verneuil. g^j-^j gcots at Verneuil, which had nearly proved fa- 
 tal to Charles. Bedford had then besieged Orleans, and the king, 
 hopeless of relieving the city, was about to retire, when his sinking 
 and almost ruined fortunes were retrieved by means of the most singu- 
 lar kind. While the English were yet pressing the 
 Siege of Orleans. siege of Orleans, (now considered as a place of 
 greater consequence to either party than any other in France,) a 
 young female presented herself before the king, and declared herself 
 commissioned by God to deliver the city of Orleans, and conduct him 
 to Rheims, there to be crowned and anointed. Her own solemn per- 
 suasion of the reality of her mission, which was, she said, communi- 
 cated in visions, together with the intrepidity of her manner, made an 
 impression of awe, even on the minds of the gay courtiers. The poli- 
 ticians saw that whether true or false, important use 
 Joan of Arc. might be made of the heroic Joan of Arc. Yet to 
 
 increase the effect th,ey meant to produce, they pretended to doubt ; 
 and called a council of the clergy, who pronounced her i-evelations 
 genuine. Clad in steel armour* from head to foot, and mounted on 
 a noble horse, the maid of Orleans rode forth, bearing her consecra- 
 ted banner, to take the command of the army. Assured as by a voice 
 from God, the joyful troops followed her into the city. The English 
 aflected to laugh, but they were stricken at heart with the fear that 
 haply they were fighting against God. The heroine led the French 
 to repeated attacks, and by continued victories, compelled the English 
 to retire from the city. 
 
 She then demanded of the king that he should depart for Rheims, 
 to be crowned. It seemed a mad undertaking, for the country was in 
 the hands of the English. Yet, Charles obeyed the mandate. The 
 English, although the duke of Bedford was indefatigable, could scarce- 
 ly be prevailed on to offer the little army any annoyance. The cities 
 as they passed, opened their gates ; Rheims sent 
 1428. its keys, and Charles entered, was crowned, and 
 
 ^''"''^RhcLrr''^ ''^ anointed with the holy oil, kejjt since the time of 
 Clovis. Here the maid declared her mission closed ; 
 but the French plead for her stay, and she unwisely remained in the 
 camp. At the siege of Compegne, she was taken captive in making 
 a sally, tried by an English ecclesiastical court for 
 Joan of Arc burnt. ^|^g ^^.■^^^Q ^^ sorcery, and burnt alive. Her influ- 
 ence was however still felt. Heaven had interposed in behalf of the 
 French, and restored their lawful sovereign ; and the nation after 
 such divine interposition, was not slow in returning to its duty. 
 
 The party of the English rapidly declined ; the death of the duke 
 
 of Bedford gave the finishing blow to their misfor- 
 
 143o. tunes, and enabled Charles to obtain entire posses. 
 
 Charles unciisturb- gj^j^ of his kingdom The remaining years of his 
 
 ed monarch ol . j ^ i ^ i i i 
 
 France. reign wcrc devoted to measures calculated to re- 
 
 store the wasted energies of the kingdom ; and were 
 
 * The identical steel armour which she wore, is in the " 31usee d'Artillerie" at Paris. 
 
208 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 successful in raising it from its long depression to a high state of pros- 
 
 perity and happiness. A standing army was supported by a tax 
 
 upon the people. This, by rendering it unnecessa- 
 
 Decay of the feudal ^^ ^^^^jj ^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ heretofore fumished by 
 
 the vassals of the crown, prevented the continuance 
 of that relation which had existed between the nobles and their re- 
 tainers, when called into the field ; and facilitated the decay of the 
 feudal policy, now found, in the progress of society, to be destructive 
 in its consequences, both to the government and the people. 
 
 Louis XL, the son and successor of Charles, gave early indications 
 of that intriguing policy, which characterized his 
 1461. reign. He collected around him as ministers to ex- 
 
 Louis XI. ecute his plans, the most degraded of his subjects. 
 
 His attempts to humble his vassals, and extend the prerogatives of the 
 crown, caused a war, known by the name of the war of " Public 
 Weal ;" which ended in a treaty favourable to his subjects, but which 
 Louis soon infringed. He was long engaged in hostilities with 
 Charles, surnamed "the Bold," duke of Burgundy. None of his 
 wars, however, were of much moment, as he was always eager to ne- 
 gotiate ; and if he did not overreach his enemy in the treaty, he scru- 
 pled not, on the first occasion, to break it. The war with the duke of 
 Burgundy continued during the life of the latter. On his death, Lou- 
 is seized part of the dominions of Mary, the daughter and sole heir- 
 ess of the duke, and continued the war with her. At length lie ob- 
 tained by treaty a part of those extensive dominions. 
 
 Multitudes of the subjects of Louis were sacrificed to his cruelty 
 
 and treacliery. — During his reign, four thousand 
 
 Louis's cruelty. ^^.^ estimated to have perished by torture, without 
 
 any kind of trial. Yet he was himself perpetually tormented by the 
 
 fear of death, and that punishment thereafter which he well knew 
 
 that he had merited. 
 
 Louis XL was succeeded by his son, Charles VIIL, who soon after 
 married Anne, the duchess of Brittany, by which 
 1483. tijat province, the last of the great feudatories of 
 
 Charles VIIL France, was annexed to the crown. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Section L 
 
 Richard, on the conclusion of the truce with Saladin, hastened his 
 return to his own kingdom, where the intrigues of 
 1193. hig brother John, and Philip Augustus, rendered 
 
 Richard I. ]^jg presence necessary. 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. 209 
 
 But on tlie arrival of the English monarch in Germany, where, 
 from the enmity of its princes, he was compelled to travel in disguise, 
 he was discovered and made prisoner by tlie duke of Austria. After 
 a long imprisonment, he was liberated, on condition of paying a ran- 
 som equal to 300,000 pounds sterling, to the emperor. 
 
 His return to England was welcomed with joyful acclamations 
 by his subjects. His brother John had cause to dread his approach, 
 but Richard, naturally kind hearted, was willing to overlook his mis- 
 deeds. " I freely forgive him," said he, " and I hope I may forget 
 his wrongs, as soon as he will my pardon." 
 
 Richard was a valorous knight, a jovial companion, but fierce and 
 rash in conduct ; he was a bad king, and his reign was unfortunate 
 for his country. His delight was in hard blows, and he received his 
 death wound in storming the castle of a rebellious subject. 
 
 On his death, there were two claimants of the English throne ; 
 John, who took immediate possession, and Arthur 
 1199. of Brittany, his nephew, son of Geoffrey Plantaga- 
 
 *'"''"• net, the elder brother of Richard and John. John 
 
 defeated the forces of Arthur, took the young prince, and killed him 
 with his own hand. The king of France summoned John, (who 
 was his vassal on account of the dominions he held in France.) to 
 answer for the murder of Arthur, who was also a vassal of the 
 French king ; and a court of peers was summoned upon the occa- 
 sion. John did not appear ; the court gave sentence against him, and 
 declared his domains forfeited to the French crown ; and Philip 
 Augustus took possession of Normandy, jVIarne and Anjou, which 
 were ever after alienated from England. 
 
 The unnatural murder of his nephew Arthur, and the continued 
 violence and oppressions of which John was guilty, had rendered his 
 character and person odious to his English subjects ; while his 
 weakness enabled the people to put forth their claims to those rights 
 of which they had long been deprived. A confederacy including 
 nearly all the nobility of England, demanded the restoration of their 
 ancient laws, and the redress of grievances. To enforce their 
 demands, they made vigorous preparations for war. John found 
 himself compelled to treat with his subjects, and subscribed the 
 charter called the "iVIagna Charta." Twenty. 
 1215. Ave of the barons were named as guardians of the 
 
 Magna Cliarta. liberties of the kingdom, to whom was committed 
 the charge of seeing the provisions of the charter executed. 
 
 John, however, did not design to adhere to his engagements, but 
 to gain time for obtaining foreign aid. — He employed in his service 
 mercenary troops from the continent, who, when the armies of the 
 barons were dispersed, entered England and burned and ravaged the 
 country without mercy. The pope took the part of his obedient 
 vassal against his rebellious subjects, declared the engagements of 
 John void, and excommunicated the barons. In their distressed 
 state, the barons also resorted to foreign aid, and offered the crown 
 to Louis, son of Philip Augustus, who entered England with an army. 
 
 The death of John, which occurred at this juncture, relieved the 
 
210 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V< 
 
 barons from their pressing danger, and drew them by the fear of 
 foreign domination from the interest of Louis. Happily for Eng- 
 land, (Henry III, the son of John, being a minor,) 
 egency o t le ^j^^ administration was in the hands of the earl of 
 
 earl of Peinbioke. n i , . i • i t • 
 
 rembroke, a wise and upright statesman, liouis, 
 having been defeated in a naval battle, fought in the precincts of 
 Dover, entered into a treaty with the regent, renounced his claim to 
 the English throne, and procured indemnity for all his adherents. 
 
 These troubles were hardly appeased by the wise measures of the 
 earl of Pembroke, when death deprived the young monarch of his 
 counsels. 
 
 The marriage of Henry with Eleanor, the daughter of the count 
 
 of Provence, introduced into England many for- 
 
 1236. eigners, upon whom the young king lavished 
 
 Henry 111. favours, and whose haughty demeanour incurred the 
 
 dislike of the English nobles. Henry's applica. 
 
 tion for money to enable him to accomplish an in- 
 
 "'"' Chanel' *''*' ^"^^^^^^ °^ France, was met by the barons with a 
 demand for the confirmation of the charter, which 
 was granted. — The invasion was fruitless ; meanwhile the spirit of 
 diaffection spread through the kingdom. The great charter was 
 again renewed by Henry with the most imposing ceremonies, but he 
 Parliament at afterwards disregarding it, a parliament was sum- 
 Oxford, moned at Oxford, which confirmed and extended 
 1262 ^^^ rights of the people. At the head of the party 
 War ao-ainstthe Opposed to the king was Simon de Montfort, earl of 
 king, hea'ded by the Leicester, who by his talents and address had 
 earl of Leicester. insinuated himsclf into the confidence of the people. 
 A civil war ensued. Leicester obtained possession of the person of 
 the king ; and for two years exercised the regal power in his name. 
 Edward, the eldest son of Henry, who had at first joined the party 
 against his father, now took the direction of the royalists, and by the 
 energy of his measures, obtained a victory over the forces of Leices- 
 ter at Evesham, where that celebrated earl was slain. 
 
 Henry acted in many instances like a good man, though he was a 
 weak prince, and unsuited to the troublesome times 
 Character of Henry, j^^ ^j^j^,^ j^^ jj^gj^ Although his reign is iiot con- 
 sidered a glorious one, yet his kingdom, less oppressed by exactions 
 than in the times of warlike sovereigns, increased in wealth, and ex- 
 Pcople first repre- tended its commerce ; the rights of the common 
 sented in Parlia- people became more respected, and for the first 
 m™'- time they were represented in parliament. After 
 
 a reign of fifty-six years, Henry left the crown to his son Edward. 
 The character of Edward was in many respects the reverse of 
 that of his father. Few sovereigns have swayed a 
 1274. sceptre with a more vigorous hand, or moved for- 
 
 Edward I. ward with more bodily and mental strength. — In 
 
 the period which intervened between the battle of Evesham and his 
 father's death, he went, at the summons of the pope, accompanied 
 by his queen, Eleanor of Spain, and a few military followers ; not so 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. 211 
 
 much to aid the cause of the Christians, as to behold their defeat in 
 the holy land. Yet he found various occasions for the display of 
 bravery and sagacity. He came near falling the victim of an as- 
 sassin. An infidel stabbed him in his tent, with a poisoned weapon. 
 The affectionate Eleanor sucked out the poison, nursed and tended 
 him, and he slowly recovered from its effects. 
 
 On his return to England, he regulated the affairs of his kingdom ; 
 and his aspiring mind conceived the design of uniting in his own per- 
 son the dominion of the whole island. 
 
 The Welsh, under their king Lewellyn, struggled bravely to retain 
 their independence, but were conquered. Lewel- 
 
 1282. [y,i yyas shuu in battle. His brother, prince David, 
 ^^''' WalTJ"^""'' ^^'*° ^'^'-'^ formerly received great favours from Ed- 
 
 ward, was made prisoner by the English, tried as 
 a traitor, and executed with a barbarity not unfrequent in that cruel 
 
 INIeanwhile, events transpired in Scotland which gave to Edward 
 the desired opportunity to interfere in the affairs of that kingdom. 
 Alexander III. died, leaving no other descendant than a grand, 
 daughter, Margaret, then about three years of age ; the offspring of 
 Eric king of Norway, and Margaret, daughter of Alexander. She 
 was affianced to Edward,* the young prince of Wales, son of the 
 king of England ; under whose protection she was immediately to be 
 placed. The delicate little " maid of Norway " withered like a 
 transplanted flower, and died at the Orkney islands, on her passage 
 to England. 
 
 Thirteen claimants to the Scottish crown appeared, but all were 
 soon dismissed, except John Baliol and Robert 
 
 1283. Bruce — They were both descendants of the earl 
 "^Robert'emc? °^ Huntingdon, third son of David, first king of 
 
 Scotland. — Baliol's claims would at this day have 
 
 been acknowledged without controversy, as he was descended from 
 
 the eldest daughter of the earl of Huntingdon, being lier grandson ; 
 
 but he was one remove farther from the blood of the Scottish kino- 
 
 than Bruce, who was the son of the second daughter of the earl. 
 
 Henry II. had compelled William, king of Scotland, whom he had 
 
 taken prisoner, to do homage for his kingdom. 
 
 King of Scotland Richard I. renounced this claim. Edward renew- 
 
 prisoner of ilie king , . i i ai i /• 
 
 of England. 6" 't, nor dared Alexander refuse comphance.f — 
 
 In virtue of being lord paramount, Edward, on the 
 
 death of Margaret, summoned the Scottish nobility and clergy to 
 
 * Tliis prince was liorn in tlic caslle uf Caernarvon in tiie northwestern part rf ^Vale9 
 60on after tlie conquest of that country. Tlie Welsh cluiuied him as their countryman, 
 and the politic father g-ive hiiu the title of prince of Wales, a title since borne Ly the eldest 
 sons of the kings of England. 
 
 t On his knees, in presence of the English prelates and barons, he said, " I Alex- 
 ander, king of Scotland, become the liege man of the lord Edward, king of England, 
 against all men." This may serve as a specimen of what is meant Ijy the phrase 
 "doing homage," so frequently occurring in the history of the feudaj times. Several 
 conditions, such as supplying a certain number of troops (fee, were generally annexed 
 to this acknowledgment of paramount authority. 
 
212 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 meet him at Norham, on the southern bank of the Tweed ; where, 
 by his address, he succeeded in inducing them to 
 1286. recognise his supreme authority, and leave to his 
 
 twtrn"Vrucp''aad ^ccision the question of right between Bruce and 
 Baliol. Bahol. Both the competitors also gave their sol- 
 
 emn assent that their claims should be decided by 
 1292. Edward, as sovereign lord of Scotland. After 
 
 Decides in favour calling much learned counsel to his aid, Edward 
 of Baliol. decided in favour of Baliol. 
 
 Baliol, however, soon found the English yoke galling, and his haugh- 
 ty temper being wrought upon by his nobles, he concluded an 
 alliance with France, with which kingdom Edward was at variance, 
 and obtained from the pope a dispensation from the oath of fealty. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Edward now commenced hostilities against Scotland. At the head 
 
 of a powerful army, he crossed the Tweed, defeat- 
 
 1296. g(j |.j-jg forces of Baliol, reduced the king to submis- 
 
 Edward invades ^ ^^^^ carried him prisoner to England. But 
 
 Scotland. , ' . . ,. , <ri i i i i . 
 
 the spirit ol the ccots, although apparently sub- 
 dued, was still unbroken. 
 
 William Wallace now rose from obscurity. The fame of his 
 bravery, and successful exploits, drew multitudes to 
 1*«J7. jjjg standard, and at length placed him at the head 
 
 Wdhan, Wallace. ^^ ^ considerable army. He defeated the Enghsh 
 governor, near Sterling, made himself master of that fortress, and 
 compelled him to retreat into England. Edward, who had conclu- 
 ded a peace with France, turned his whole strength upon Scotland. 
 He defeated the Scots at Falkirk, proceeded to the northern parts of 
 the kingdom, and for a time, again subjected it to his power. 
 Wallace still maintained his independence, but was 
 
 1305. betrayed to Edward by his pretended friend. Sir 
 Wallace executed, j^j^^^ Monteith, and suftered on Tower Hill at Lon- 
 don, the cruel death of a traitor. 
 
 The Scots, indignant at the cruelty exercised upon their hero, 
 determined to avenge it. They found a leader in 
 
 1 306. Robert Bruce, grandson of the competitor of Baliol ; 
 Robert Bruce elected ^j-^q succeeded to his father's claims, and now pre- 
 
 ""°" pared to vindicate them. He had served in the 
 
 English army, but fleeing from the court of Edward, he was re- 
 ceived by the Scots, and crowned as their lawful sovereign. 
 
 For sometime Bruce waged an unsuccessful war, and was reduced 
 to such extremity that he was compelled to flee to the western isles 
 and secrete himself, while his friends and adherents were subjected 
 to the vengeance of the exasperated English. After passing a win- 
 ter in concealment, Bruce returned to Scotland, where his prospects 
 began to brighten. After alternate success and defeat, he was re- 
 leased from the immediate dread of the English arms. 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. 213 
 
 Edward II. died just as he arrived in Scotland at the head of a 
 
 large army. Edward II., his successor, withdrew 
 
 1307. jjjj. forces, or left them under lieutenants, contrary 
 
 EMwardll. ^^ l^jg father's dying commands. — The reign of this 
 
 weak prince was disgraced by his subserviency to the worthless 
 
 favourites whom he kept around him. After withdrawing his armies 
 
 from Scotland, he surrendered himself to the control of Piers Gaves- 
 
 ton, a Gascon, whom his father had required him to banish. — His 
 
 nobles, disaffected with his retreat from Scotland, 
 
 Revolt under the ^^j enraged at beholding unlimited honours and 
 
 earl of Lancaster. . , i • i i c • i i , 
 
 riches lavished upon a loreigner, revolted, and 
 placed at their head, Thomas, earl of Lancaster, cousin of the king. 
 Edward was at length compelled to yield his favourite to the public 
 indignation. The surrender of Gaveston, for a 
 Scottish war renew- jj^^^^ appeased the public resentment, and the re- 
 newal of the Scottish war gave some popularity to 
 the king. 
 Robert Bruce had availed himself of the events in England, to 
 strengthen his power. His authority was now acknowledged 
 throughout Scotland, and with the exception of a Cow fortresses, all 
 the conquests of the English had been recovered. He now prepared 
 to resist the arms of Edward. His army, assembled in the county 
 of Sterling, was much inferior to the English, but rendered intrepid 
 by the knowledge that they must fight for their homes, and their 
 independence. — Edward himself headed the English. The Scots 
 had made careful preparations for the action, and 
 1314. chosen well the battle field, — the memorable plain 
 
 ^'"^''' burn """"'''' ofBannockburn. Thearmies were in sight of each 
 other when the Scots knelt to implore the blessing 
 of heaven, and to receive the benediction of their venerable priests. 
 Edward, who had expressed his doubts whether they would " abide 
 battle," on beholding the army in this posture of supplication, ex- 
 claimed joyfully, "they crave mercy." "It is from heaven, not 
 from your highness," replied Umfraville, a Scotchman in the Eng- 
 lish service ; "on that field, they will either win, or die." His pre- 
 diction was fulfilled ; the English were defeated, and driven into their 
 own kingdom. 
 
 After tliis unsuccessful campaign against the Scotch, the peace of 
 England was again disturbed by the jealousies of the nobility towards 
 the favourites of the king. Hugh Spencer was now the object of 
 the royal favour, and of the nation's jealousy. This favourite, and 
 his father, were banished, but were shortly after 
 Civil ^J'o'' '" ^'"S- recalled, and a civil war ensued. A truce was con- 
 cluded with Scotland for thirteen years, and the 
 queen Isabella, the beautiful but unprincipled sister of the king of 
 France, returned to her native country to settle disputes which had 
 arisen between her brother, and her husband, Edward II. In France, 
 Isabella united her influence with the members of the Lancastrian 
 faction, witli whose chief, Mortimer, she carried on an intrigue, con- 
 spired against her husband, and re-embarking for England, she 
 
 19 
 
214 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V, 
 
 landed at Orewell in Suffolk. The disaffected barons of England 
 flocked to her standard, and Edward found hinaself nearly deserted. 
 The Spencers were made prisoners and executed. 
 1327. The queen summoned a parliament which deposed 
 
 Edwa d II. deposed. Edward, On the ground of incapacity for gov- 
 erning. 
 His son, Edward III., was placed upon the throne ; and the 
 regency committed to the queen. — The deposed 
 Edward III. king, monarch was carried from place to place, till at 
 aud Isabella regent, j^^^^^j^ ^^ ^^^ Confined in Berkley castle, on the 
 Edward II. murder- little Avon. The vassals one night heard dread- 
 ful shi'ieks from his apartment, and the next morn- 
 ing his death was announced ; and no one doubted that he had been 
 murdered. — The nation was not long deluded by the pretences of 
 Isabella and Mortimer, who still kept the young prince under their 
 control. A conspiracy, to which he was privy, was formed, which 
 succeeded in delivering him from the power of the 
 1332. regency. Mortimer was taken and executed. 
 
 Mortimer executed, jgabella was Spared from regard to her rank, but 
 remained a prisoner. She was held in contempt for her vices, dur- 
 ing the rest of her life ; but received in her confinement, annual 
 visits from her son. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 While these events were transpiring in England, Scotland had 
 passed from the vigorous hand of Robert Bruce, to 
 David Bruce. J^jg g^j-^ Q^yid, a minor. The powerful lord Doug- 
 las, at one time, the support of the throne of Bruce, was absent, and 
 the regency was committed to the earl of Mar. — Edward Baliol, son 
 d Baliol ^^ John Baliol, took this opportunity of advancing 
 his claim to the Scottish throne, and was supported 
 by the king of England. He collected an army 
 1333. which defeated that of Bruce, at Halidown hill. 
 
 Battle at Halidown gj-uce was forced to take refuge in France. A 
 Scottish parliament was called, who recognized 
 Baliol as their sovereign, and some of the nobles took the oath of 
 fealty. 
 
 Soon, however, the attachment of the Scots to their former mon- 
 arch, and their inveterate animosity towards the English, by whom 
 Baliol was supported, revived the party of Bruce, and the contest 
 was renewed. A second and a third invasion by Edward, failed of 
 establishing Baliol on the throne. 
 
 Meanwhile the attention of the English monarch was called from 
 
 the Scottish affairs by the prospect of obtaining the French crown. 
 
 Edward assumed the title of king of France, landed 
 
 f . , in Antwerp, from whence he proceeded thither. 
 
 ^^Francel^^ ^^ ^^^ result of the first campaign was not decisive, 
 
 and Edward returned to his kingdom to make more 
 
CHAP. V,] ENGLAND. 215 
 
 vigorous preparations for another war. From the 
 
 Battle of Cressy. period of Edward's first embarkation, to his victory 
 
 at Cressy, eight years elapsed without any important 
 
 1347. advantage gained on either side. After this victory 
 
 Calais surrenders. Edward proceeded to Calais, which, after a well 
 
 sustained siege, capitulated. 
 
 During this war, David Bruce had returned from France to Scot- 
 land, and carried his arms into the north of Eng- 
 
 ^""^ o^r ^"'" ^^^^' "'"^^^^ ^^ '■^^ defeated and made prisoner by 
 the qMeen, Philippa. 
 At the expiration of the truce which succeeded the surrender of 
 Calais, the war with France, where John had 
 
 1359. succeeded Philip of Valois, was renewed by the 
 War with France valiant pHnce of Wales, called the Black Prince, 
 
 renewed. y^^^ governed the English territories on the con- 
 
 tinent. His arms were attended with signal suc- 
 
 Battle of Poictiers. cess, and at the battle of Poictiers, he defeated a 
 French army greatly superior in force, and made 
 
 king John prisoner. Another truce of two years followed this battle, 
 when the monarch entered into a treaty, by which 
 
 1360. Edward renounced his pretensions to the crown of 
 Treaty of peace. France, but obtained the full sovereignty of the 
 
 ancient English possessions, and recent conquests in France, together 
 with a liberal ransom for the French monarch. 
 
 The differences between England and Scotland were settled by 
 
 the death of Edward Baliol, and the recognition of 
 Edward Bruce. Edward Bruce as its monarch, by the English king. 
 The Black Prince was entrusted by his father with the sovereignty 
 of the provinces of Aquitaine and Gascony. The remaining years 
 of Edward's reign were less glorious to England. The health of 
 the Black Prince failed during an expedition which he had under- 
 taken to Spain, to reinstate upon his throne " Peter the Cruel." — 
 After his return to England, the nation was unable to preserve its 
 
 continental conquests. The French renewed the 
 ^''"'"'''war'^ "'" war, and recovered nearly all which the English 
 
 had taken from them. — The death of the Prince of 
 Wales, was shortly followed by that of his father. After the death 
 of his queen, Philippa of Hainault, Edward kept about his person one 
 Alice Perrars, to whose care and mercy, he was abandoned when a 
 mortal disease was upon him. She removed him to Shene, and the 
 
 morning before his death, robbed him of the very 
 
 '^''Edttdtn*' °^ ""g "P°" ^^^ ^"g^^"' ^"^ departed. The other 
 servants left him, to plunder the house ; and he 
 who had been the most powerful monarch of his age, would have 
 breathed his last sigh alone, had not a priest chanced to come in. 
 He admonished him of his situation. Edward thanked him, wept, 
 and expired. 
 
216 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 Edward III. was succeeded by Richard II., son of the Black 
 Prince, then in his thirteenth year. On account 
 1377. of his minority, the administration was entrusted to 
 
 Richard II. j^jg uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and 
 
 Gloucester ; the latter of whom had a controlling ascendency in the 
 government. Richard became the dupe of favourites, upon whom 
 he lavished treasures and honours, and by his indolence and dissipa- 
 tion, alienated the affections of his subjects. The duke of Glouces- 
 ter headed a party opposed to the king's favourites, and successfully 
 courted the favour of the people. 
 
 In 1381 there broke out a revolt of the lower classes. — The true 
 cause of this insurrection is easily found in the 
 1381. increasing spirit of independence among the op- 
 
 insurre^.im. of Wat pi-ggsed people. In Dartford, fifteen miles from 
 London, a tax gatherer insulted the daughter of a 
 blacksmith. The enraged father slew him by a blow on the head, 
 with his hammer. To shield him from the consequences of the act, 
 and to avenge their own cause, his neighbours rallied around him. 
 They took their way to London, their numbers increasing as they 
 went on. They entered the place, where they burned the duke of 
 Lancaster's palace, murdered those of the higher orders who fell 
 into their hands, and pillaged the wealthy parts of the city. At 
 Smithfield, Richard, then in his seventeenth year, had a conference 
 with Wat Tyler of Maidstone, whom the insurgents had placed at 
 their head. Wat showed evident signs of an intention to stab the 
 young king. Walworth, mayor of London, hasted forward, thrust 
 a small-sword into his throat, and he fell. The archers drew their 
 bows to avenge his death. Richard rode intrepidly up to them, and 
 spoke like a king ; " What are you doing my lieges ? Wat was a 
 traitor; come with me, and I will be your leader." The rabble, 
 disconcerted and overawed, followed him as he rode off the field. 
 The nobility had been meantime collecting with their followers. 
 The insurgents, on their knees implored the king's mercy ; and, 
 influenced by the wishes of the royalists, Richard granted it, and they 
 returned to their homes, only two of the leaders being executed. 
 
 From this period when the warm-hearted and elegant young king 
 had given such happy presages of a good reign, we see him by 
 degrees become the victim of a situation which, however desirable it 
 may seem, tends to ruin the character, and blight the happiness of 
 the individual. Richard's ambitious uncles placed around him 
 young men from whose influence they thought they had nothing to 
 fear. To keep him from politics, they encouraged the disposition to 
 pleasure natural to his age. When he became attached to these 
 young men, and granted them favours and emoluments ; and when 
 his pleasui-es became expensive, they charged him with favouritism 
 and extravagance, fomented discontents against him, and raised so 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. 217 
 
 powerful a party that they deprived him of all his friends ; some of 
 whom were sentenced to death, and executed. Richard was obliged 
 to learn dissimulation. He quietly remained a mere cypher, while 
 the duke of Gloucester and his party governed in his name. In 
 the meantime, the excitement subsided, and some of the adherents 
 of Gloucester privately offered their services to the king, and Rich- 
 ard again extricated himself by a bold stroke. 
 
 In a great council held after Easter, he unexpectedly asked his 
 
 uncle his age. — " Your highness," said the duke, 
 
 1287. " is in your twenty second year." " Then," said 
 
 Richard assumes the jj^g king, " I must be old enough to manage my 
 
 fifovernment in per- ° t ^i i i i /• 
 
 son own concerns ; 1 thank you my lords lor your 
 
 past services, but do not need them longer." He 
 immediately demanded the seals from the arch-bishop of York ; and 
 the keys of the exchequer from the bishop of Hereford ; and proceed- 
 ed to appoint new officers. Gloucester was obliged to yield ; and 
 Richard continued for several years to govern with discretion ; and 
 harmony prevailed among all ranks. At length, foi'getting the les- 
 son taught by adversity, that there were other laws than his own 
 will, he gave himself up to the gratification of revengeful feelings. 
 Jealousies had always existed between him and his uncle Gloucester. 
 Gloucester murder- The latter was suddcnl)^ arrested and sent to Ca- 
 ed. lais, where he was secretly murdered. 
 
 The dukes of Gloucester and Lancaster had been opposed to each 
 other, and the house of Lancaster was now without a rival in the 
 affections of the people. Not long after the dea h 
 Duke of Hereford ^^ Gloucester, Henry, duke of Hereford, son to 
 
 arrested and banish- , , ^^ i ^ r t ^ xj 
 
 pj John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, was arrested on 
 
 the charge of holding language disrespectful to the 
 king, and sentenced to banishment from the realm for ten years. — 
 On tiie death of the duke of Lancaster, Richard seized his immense 
 estates. These acts of Richard deprived him of the confidence of 
 his friends, and every one feared that in his turn he might become 
 the victim of lawless power. 
 
 Richard being absent from England on an expedition into Ireland, 
 
 Hereford, now duke of Lancaster, landed in Eng- 
 
 1399. land, was joined by many of the powerful nobles, 
 
 Insurrection of Lnn- ^^^^ gQ^j^ collected a hirge army ; his ostensible 
 
 object being to claim his inheritance. The duke 
 
 of York, who was regent of the kingdom in the absence of Richard, 
 
 joined the party of Lancaster, who now obtained possession of the 
 
 capitol. The ministers of Richard were made prisoners, tried by a 
 
 military court, condemned, and executed as traitors. 
 
 When Richard learned the news of the general insurrection in 
 his kingdom, he was overwhelmed with grief, but made immediate 
 preparation for his return. He landed in Wales, where he remained 
 some time without forces sufficient to cope with his adversaries. At 
 length the duke of Lancaster, under pretence of negotiation, ob- 
 tained possession of the king's person. Richard was taken to Lon- 
 don. So fallen were his fortunes, that as he passed through the 
 
 19* 
 
218 MIDDLE HISTORY. [pERIOD V. 
 
 Streets, "no man cried, God bless him." He renounced the crown, 
 whether voluntarily or not, is uncertain, The par- 
 Richard deposed, liament deposed him for tyranny and misconduct, 
 and decided that he should be kept a prisoner. He died in the 
 castle of Pontefract. The circumstances of his death are not 
 known, though there are grounds for suspicion that violence was 
 used. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 The duke of Hereford, now of Lancaster, was raised to the 
 1399. throne, under the title of Henry IV. His reign was 
 
 Henry IV. sooii disturbed by the insurrection of the Percies, in 
 
 Insurrection of tlie the north, and of Owen Glendower, in Wales. The 
 Percies and of Glen- northern insurrection was quelled by the battle of 
 ower. Shrewsbury, in which the revolters were defeated ; 
 
 and Percy, (called Hotspur, from his fiery temper,) the son of the 
 earl of Northumberland, was killed. The valorous Owen Glen- 
 dower so long maintained the contest in Wales, and with such une- 
 qual forces, that he was suspected of being a magician. 
 
 The claims by which Henry IV. maintained possession of the 
 throne, were calculated to make him pay court to 
 *'l?am^tenrarge'd.' the parliament, and their privileges were enlarged 
 during his reign. 
 His son, Henry of Monmouth, was made prince of Wales, and 
 acknowledged as heir to the crown ; to which he 
 1413. succeeded, on the death of his father, under the 
 
 "«"■">' ^- title of Henry V. 
 
 The youth of this prince, with the exception of occasional flashes 
 of valour, and a iew acts of wisdom, was spent in frolics and dissi- 
 pation, amidst dissolute companions. 
 
 On his accession to the crown, the idlers who had surrounded him 
 expected to be promoted; and the wise, who had rebuked his youth- 
 ful follies, to be persecuted. But the man, (as often happens,) saw 
 with different eyes from the boy ; and while he dismissed the former, 
 he advanced the latter. 
 
 Under the reign of Richard, Wickliffe, the first of the Reformers in 
 England, commenced preaching against the pre- 
 Wickliffe. vailing corruptions of the Romish church ; and his 
 
 sentiments had spread extensively through the kingdom. Laws had 
 been enacted against his followers, as heretics, in the reign of Henry 
 IV., and one of their ministers burned at the stake ; yet the sect 
 increased, and under the name of Lollards, they 
 Loiiardt. '^^ formed an extensive party in the realm. The pro- 
 ceedings against them now drove them into open 
 rebellion. They were, however, dispersed, and their leader. Sir 
 John Oldcastle, of Cobham,* was executed. 
 
 * Fuller, an early English historian, asserts that Sir John Oldcastle was the original 
 of Shakspeare's Falstaff. 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. 219 
 
 Henry now renewed the claim of the Plantaganets to the crown of 
 
 France ; the distracted state of that kingdonn, under Charles V., 
 
 offering a prospect of success. At the head of a 
 
 Henry invades powerful army he invaded France, laid siege to 
 
 Harfleur, which he soon reduced, and terminated 
 
 1414. his first campaign by the battle of Agincourt, 
 
 Victory of Agin- where the English obtained a memorable victory. 
 
 court. gy ^i^g success of his arms, and by treaties with 
 
 the Burgundian faction, Henry made himself master of the capital, 
 
 and of a large portion of France ; married the princess Catharine, 
 
 daughter of the French king, and was acknowledged heir of that 
 
 monarchy. Charles was reinstated on the throne, but was merely a 
 
 nominal king, while the real authority was in the hands of the 
 
 English sovereign. 
 
 Henry V. died in France, his son Henry VI. being yet an infant. 
 Before his death, he appointed the duke of Glouces- 
 1421. ter to the regency of England, and the duke of Bed- 
 
 Henry vi. fQ,.j ^^ ^^^^ ^^ France. The decay of the Eng- 
 
 lish power in that kingdom, connected with the story of the Maid of 
 Orleans, has already been related. 
 
 In character, Henry VI. was free from vice ; mild and forgiving, 
 
 but he was destitute of capacity. — At the age of twenty-five, on the 
 
 suggestion of his council, he bethought himself of 
 
 Henry marries marriage ; and Margaret, daughter of Rene or 
 
 Murgaret of Anion. _, .=>'., , . °^ c^- ■, i i i ^ » • 
 
 Kegnier, titular kmg of oiciiy, and duke oi Anjou, 
 was chosen as his bride. Margaret was beautiful in person ; and had 
 she found a protector in her husband (to whom she appears to have 
 been ever an affectionate and faithful wife) she might, perhaps, have 
 been feminine in character. But she was obliged to be the support- 
 er of one whose mind, naturally weak, at times sunk into utter imbe- 
 cility. History presents her as a masculine woman, coping with the 
 most able politicians and military commanders of her day. 
 
 When Henry IV. succeeded to the sovereignty on the deposition 
 
 of Richard II., who died without i.ssue, there were 
 
 1455. gj^jll living some of the descendants of the duke of 
 
 War beivveen tl.e Qlarence, elder brother of John of Gaunt ; and 
 
 houses of York and , i • ,i • , ,i 
 
 Lancaster. whose clauTi was, Consequently, superior to that 
 
 of the Lancastrian family. This right had now 
 descended to Richard, duke of York, through his mother, the last of 
 the descendants of Clarence. The opposition to the queen and her 
 ministry, had procured from the parliament the appointment of this 
 nobleman as regent, or protector of tlie kingdom ; but the transient 
 restoration of the king to health, again transferred the power to the 
 queen's party. The Yorkists resorted to arms, and a civil war com- 
 menced, which, for thirty years, desolated the land. — This was termed 
 "the war of the roses , " the Lancaster party assuming the red, and 
 the Yorkists the white rose. This war comprehends one of the most 
 disastrous peiiods of English history. By repeated battles and exe- 
 cutions, the kingdom was deluged with blood, and some of the noblest 
 families in thu realm were nearly exterminated. In the first battle. 
 
220 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 at St. Albans, where the Yorkists were triumphant, they obtained 
 possession of the person of the king, induced him to grant a general 
 pardon, and to reinstate the duke of York in office. 
 
 A change however was again effected by the management of the 
 court party, and York dismissed by the king. — Three years now 
 elapsed before hostilities were again renewed. 
 
 The peace-loving king sought to reconcile all differences, and the 
 parties in the quarrel agreed to a reconciliation. Heniy with his 
 whole court went in procession to the cathedral of St. Pauls, and at 
 his desire, the duke of York walked with the queen. But hatred 
 was still in their hearts, and cabals and stratagems led to the accus- 
 tomed resort to arms. A battle was fought at Bloreheath in Staf- 
 fordshire, in which victory declared for the Lancastrians. The 
 Yorkists were entirely defeated, and the duke compelled to take 
 refuge in Ireland. 
 
 Meanwhile another sudden reverse of fortune took place. The 
 earl of Warwick, who was governor of Calais, had 
 
 Earl of War- espoused the cause of the duke of York ; and now 
 
 landed with his forces at Kent. Advancing towards 
 
 the capital, his army constantly augmented. He entered, and took 
 
 possession of London, and of the person of the king. — A parliament 
 
 was summoned, which decided that Henry VL should possess the 
 
 crown, during his life, but that the duke of York should succeed 
 
 him, and in the meantime, be entrusted with the administration of 
 
 the government. — The queen, with her young son, had retired into 
 
 the north of the kingdom, where she had gathered a considerable 
 
 army. York marched against her, but was defeat- 
 
 1460. ed, and slain at Wakefield-green, one hundred and 
 
 York slain. twenty-four miles north of London. His principal 
 
 followers were taken and executed. 
 
 Section VL 
 
 Edward, earl of March, the son of York, inherited his title, and 
 prosecuted his claims. He was victorious in a bat- 
 1461. tie fought between his forces and the queen's army, 
 
 Edward IV. ^^ g^_ Albans. Margaret, who was now joined by 
 
 her husband, retired into the north of England, where her greatest 
 strength lay, and Edward IV. was proclaimed king in London. The 
 war now raged with increasing violence. The armies of Edward 
 and Margaret soon met near Towton, a few miles from York ; where 
 was fought the most memorable battle which had yet occurred dur- 
 ing the contest. The forces of Edward amounted 
 Battle of To^^ ton. ^^ 40,000, while the Lancastrians numbered 60,000. 
 The fight continued at intervals during three days, and resulted 
 in the entire discomfiture of the Lancastrian army. Thirty-six 
 thousand Englishmen are said to have fallen in the battle. 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. 221 
 
 Margaret fled with her husband, and her son the young prince, to 
 
 seek friends in Scotland. She next sought aid from 
 
 Margaret flees to LquIs XI. of France, and after an absence of two 
 
 years, returned with a small body of French, which 
 
 was augmented by her Scottish allies. At the 
 
 1464. head of these forces, she again met her enemies, 
 Battle of Hexham. ^^^^ ^.^^ defeated at Hexham near the Tyne, and, 
 with her husband and son, again compelled to flee. 
 
 Henry, after being secreted in the borders of Scotland some time, 
 
 1465. ^^^s made prisoner, and confined in the tower. 
 Henry made prison- Margaret, and the young prince Edward, made 
 
 er- their escape to the continent. The duke of York 
 
 was now triumphant. A short period of comparative quiet succeeded 
 these events. The Lancastrians without a chief, and every where 
 defeated and humbled, were incapable of offering any effectual resist- 
 ance to the government of Edward. Scotland and France mani- 
 fested a desire of reconciliation with the ruh'ng monarch of England. 
 Edward had now the misfortune, or the indiscretion, to offend his 
 most powerful adherent, the earl of Warwick ; styled the " king 
 maker." While the earl was on the continent, negotiating a marriage 
 between Edward and the princess of Savoy, sister in law of Louis 
 XL, Edward accidentally meeting with the lady Elizabeth Gray, 
 of the family of Wydeville, was so pleased with her, that he pri- 
 vately married her, and soon publicly acknowledged her as his queen. 
 The earl of Warwick highly resented this conduct, which interfered 
 with the negotiation in which he was engaged. The promotion of 
 the queen's family to places of honour and trust, still farther alienated 
 the mind of this haughty noble, as well as others of his former friends. 
 They conspired against him, and soon engaged in open rebellion. 
 An union was effected between them and the Lan- 
 Warwick joins the gastrian party, and Margaret and Warwick, from 
 being the most implacable of enemies, became friends. 
 Warwick left Calais, of which he was governor ; landed in England, 
 and produced so general a revolt, that Edward was obliged to flee 
 to Holland. With the aid of the Flemings, however, he returned 
 to England, encountered his enemy at Barnet near London, 
 1471. where a battle was fought, in which the array 
 
 Warwick slain in of Warwick was defeated, and himself left dead on 
 the battle of Barnet. the field. The Same day, Margaret with her 
 French forces arrived in England, and another battle was fought at 
 Tewksbury. Margaret suffered an entire defeat. 
 Q,ueen defeated at Her SOU, prince Edward, was made prisoner, and 
 Tewksbury. brutally murdered by some of the highest nobles 
 
 in the realm. This battle closed the bloody war, 
 and while it secured the crown to Edward, restored tranquillity, at 
 least for a time, to the kingdom. The husband of Margaret, Henry 
 VI., who had never been more than a nominal king, 
 Henry VI. dies in expired in the tower, soon after the battle of Tewks- 
 the tower. bury. His death has been charged upon Richard 
 
 of Gloucester. The resolute, persevering, but un- 
 
22*2 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 fortunate Margaret, was kept for years a prisoner, but at length ran- 
 somed, when she returned to the court of her father. 
 
 Edward next made preparations to invade France. A treaty, 
 advantage JUS to England, was the result. Negotiations between the 
 English and French monarchs became frequent during the remain- 
 der of this reign, in which the crafty Louis usually outwitted his 
 rival. The profligacy of Edward, during the last years of his 
 reign, hastened the period of his death. 
 
 His son Edward, a youth of thirteen, was declared his successor ; 
 
 but his immediate coronation was postponed through 
 
 14S3. the intrigues of his hypocritical uncle, Richard, 
 
 Edward V. duke of Gloucester. A large party of the ancient 
 
 nobility had manifested a jealousy of the rising fortunes of the Wyde- 
 
 villes, the queen's relatives. Of tliis faction, Richard now availed 
 
 himself for the execution of his sinister designs. On the death of his 
 
 brother, he hastened to assume the title of protector of the kingdom. 
 
 Having made himself master of the young king, he next lured, by fair 
 
 pretences, his younger brother, the duke of York, from the arms of 
 
 his weeping mother. He then removed all the nobles who were hke- 
 
 ly to prove an obstacle to his usurpation. The earl of Rivers, and 
 
 the Wydevilles, Lords Stanley and Hastings, were executed on the 
 
 same day, and without the form of trial. 
 
 Richard then caused the young princess to be declared illegitimate ; 
 1483. after which, he was declared king by the obsequi- 
 
 Ricljaidlil. ous parliament. In the meantime, the two royal 
 
 boys, who were confined in the tower, disappeared. No inquiry was 
 made concerning them, but all supposed that they were murdered by 
 Richard's commands.* 
 
 The duke of Buckingham, who had been an instrument of Rich- 
 Coniesi. for the ard's elevation, perceiving the general detestation 
 throne. with which his crimes inspired the nation, turned 
 
 against him. Henry, earl of Richmond, a descendant of Owen 
 Tudor, and the dowager queen of Henry V., was, on his mother's 
 side, descended from John of Gaunt. In the general destruction 
 of the Lancastrian family, he remained the only surviving chief of 
 that party, and was now in exile on the continent. To him the 
 attention of the Lancastrians was directed, and a deep laid conspir- 
 acy was formed to dethrone the usurper, and to elevate the earl of 
 Richmond to the throne. To unite the parties of York and Lancaster, 
 the plan was formed, of marrying him to the eldest daughter of Ed- 
 ward v., Elizabeth, who inherited the claim of the York family. 
 Richard discovered the conspiracy, seized the duke of Buckingham 
 who was at its head, and executed him with some of his accomplices. 
 
 Richard, having defeated this design, ventured to summon a par- 
 liament. They acknowledged his right to the crown, and created 
 his soa Edward prince of Wales. To strengthen his title, Richard 
 
 * By the confessions of the assassins afterwards made, it appears that these two 
 lovely boys, of the ages of thirteen and eleven, were strangled in their bed, as they 
 VPere sleeping together, in a room in the tower; and their bodies buiied under the 
 stairs. The wooden chest containing their remains was afterwards discovered. 
 
CHAP. VI.J SPAIN AND PORTUGAL, 223 
 
 took measures (his wife being yet alive,) for marrying liis niece, 
 Elizabetli, the heiress of the house of York. Meanwhile the earl of 
 Richmond determined upon invading England. He embarked at 
 Harfleur in Normandy, with about 2,000 men, and landed at Milford- 
 Haven in Wales, where he was received with the most favourable 
 regard. The number of his followers was rapidly augmented by the 
 Welch, who at once espoused his cause. Richard had been ener- 
 getic in his measures for repelling the invasion which was expected, 
 but could place no reliance upon his subjects, to whom he was odi- 
 ous ; nor depend upon the fidelity of those nobles 
 
 1485. -yyi-jQ openly espoused his cause. The adverse 
 Richard slain in the ^^.^j^g ^^^ ^^ Bosworth field near the river Trent. 
 
 battle of Hosworth ,^ i i r» • i i i ■ • i i ^i j 
 
 field. -'■he detestable Richard was slam m the battle, and 
 
 the nation rejoiced in his death. 
 
 The earl of Richmond was crowned on the field and saluted king 
 
 of England. The subsequent marriage of Henry 
 
 Henry vil. ^^-^^y^ Elizabeth, united the Lancastrian and York 
 
 factions ; and parliament added their sanction to his authority. 
 
 Henry VII. reigned twenty-one years. He was subtle and pene- 
 trating, and vigorous in his measures for defeating the designs of his 
 enemies. But the leading feature of his character was avarice. To 
 get money, he often stooped to falsehood, and low artifices. 
 
 During his reign several impostors appeared, who attempted to 
 personate the two sons of Edward IV. The first 
 
 1486. vvas Lambert Simnel, who pretended that he was the 
 siinnel and^AN'ar- young king ; and afterwai'ds, Perkin Warbeck, 
 
 , .iiposois. who set himself up for the duke of York ; and mar- 
 vellous accounts were given of their escape from the tower, and many 
 friends to their cause appeared. — This reign is also 
 1492. memorable as being the period of the discovery 
 
 America disove.'ed. ^^ America. Henry was the sovereign under 
 whose banners that part of the continent which we inhabit, was dis- 
 covered by the Venetian captains, Jolin and Sebastian Cabot. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 At the epoch at which tliis period of our history commences, the 
 Christian kings of Spain had extended their empire, 
 1085. and wrested from the Moors many important pos- 
 
 Contests with the sessions. The arms of the Cid had already recov- 
 ered New Castile and Valencia, for his master AI- 
 phonso, king of Castile. After his death, tlie wars still continued. 
 The king of Navarre and Arragon, took Saragossa. He bequeathed 
 his kingdom to the knights Ten)plar, but his subjects disregarding 
 
224 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 his will, chose a king for themselves. Arragon chose one, and Na- 
 varre another, thus by division weakenirg their power. The 
 Moors taking advantage of this, renewed their hostilities, when the 
 Christians called in the aid of the king of Casiilo, Alphonso VII., who 
 rescued them from their perils, and received in recompense the city 
 of Saragossa, and the homage of the king of Navarre. — The count of 
 Portugal about this time had assumed the name of king, and received 
 from the pope a confirmation of his title to that part of the peninsula. 
 
 A union of the Moors of Africa, with those of Andalusia, now 
 threatened the overthrow of the Christian kingdom, and the re-estab- 
 lishment of the Mahometan power in Spain. The kings of Castile, 
 Arragon, and Navarre, united, and received aid from the king of 
 Portugal. Mahomet Ben Joseph, with his Moorish forces, was de- 
 feated in the Sierra Morena. The Moorish power on the peninsula 
 might now have been entirely crushed, but the Christians delayed to 
 push the advantages obtained. But the strength of tlie Moors was 
 diminished, and the dissensions which existed among them, prevented 
 their molesting the Christians. Under the succeeding monarchs of 
 the Spanish kingdoms, however, place after place was taken frona 
 them by the Moorish sovereigns 
 
 Ferdinand III. united the kingdoms of Leon and Castile,and conquer- 
 ed the cities of Cordova and Seville. From his reign, 
 1230. and that of the cotemporary sovereign, James I. of 
 
 l^oi. and^Castiie Arragon, who made the conquest of the Balearic 
 isles, and of the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, 
 the efforts of the Clu'istians for the delivery of the peninsula became 
 more feeble. Their princes were much occupied with rebellions and 
 civil wars, and the Moors received aid, when ever they needed, from 
 their Mahometan brethren of Africa. Thus for nearly a century their 
 destruction was delaj^ed. 
 
 Two hundred and fifty years elapsed from the conquests of Ferdi- 
 nand III., and James I., to the united reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 The century which passed from the reign of Fer- 
 1309. dinand III., to that of " Peter the Cruel," with the 
 
 Aifjosirasar.d Gi- exception of the conquests of Algesiras and Gibral- 
 
 braltar conquered. ^ ^.,,.° r-c-i- i-i 
 
 tar, presents no events m the history oi Spam, which 
 require to be here mentioned. Alphonso XL, of 
 Fcter the Cruel. Castile, conquered Algesiras. He was succeeded 
 on the throne by his son Peter I., whose enormities procured him the 
 appellation of" the Cruel." Henry of Trastamara, his natural broth- 
 er, was driven into rebellion by his severities, and by the apprehen- 
 sion of his own destruction. 
 
 The French monarch, Charles V., enraged by the murder of the 
 queen of Castile, Blanche of Bourbon, a French princess, perpetrated 
 by Peter her husband, espoused the interests of Henry, and sent Du 
 Guesclin, a famous commander, at the head of a considerable body of 
 French soldiers, to his aid. Peter was driven from his king- 
 dom, and took refuge with Edward, the ^Black Prince, then gov- 
 erning the English principality of Aquitaine. This prince made it a 
 point of honour to reinstate the deposed monarch, who had solicited 
 
CHAP. VII.] 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 225 
 
 his aid. At the head of his army, he advanced into Castile, defeated 
 the French and Castihans, who warmly espoused the interests of Hen- 
 ry, and restored Peter to the throne. 
 
 His cruelties soon produced another rebellion. Du Guesclin, who 
 had been made prisoner in the former defeat, but was ransomed, re- 
 turned, with a recruited army, to the aid of Henry. 
 1369. The tyrant, now abandoned by the Black Prince, 
 
 Henry. ^^^^ j^gj. jjjg crown and his life, and Henry was made 
 
 king. 
 Under the descendants of this monarch, Castile presents no memora- 
 ble transaction for nearly a century. This quiet ceased on the death 
 of John II. His son, Henry IV., who was seated 
 1452. on the throne of Castile, in the middle of the fifteenth 
 
 Henry IV. century, rendered himself odious by his effeminate 
 
 and voluptuous life. His subjects rebelled, deposed 
 him, and proclaimed his brother, Ajphonso, king. 
 Henry raised a party, and a bloody civil war ensued. 
 
 Alphonso dying, the claims of his noble sister Isabella, (afterwards 
 the patroness of Columbus,) were substituted, and 
 Henry was compelled by his subjects, to sign a trea- 
 ty declaring her heiress of the throne. Isabella, not 
 long after this, married Ferdinand, son of the kin(» of 
 Arragon, and heir to that crown. — These sove- 
 reigns united in their persons the kingdoms of Cas- 
 tile and Leon, Arragon, and afterwards that of Si- 
 oily. Their reign is memorable in history, for the 
 final expulsion of the Moors from Spain, and the 
 conquest of Grenada ; and still more for the encour- 
 agement afforded to an enterprise of immense im- 
 portance, which opened to the inhabitants of the 
 eastern hemisphere, a new world. 
 
 Alphonso. 
 
 1469. 
 
 Isabella. 
 
 1479. 
 
 Ferdinand and 
 bella. 
 
 Isa- 
 
 1492. 
 
 Conquest of Grena- 
 da. — Discovery of 
 America. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ITALY. 
 Section I. 
 
 Italy was at this period divided between the republics in the north- 
 j2gg ern and central parts, the temporal sovereignty of 
 
 ' the pope, and the kingdom of Naples. The repub- 
 
 itahan repubucs. jj^^ ^^-^^ occupied the northern parts of Italy, may 
 be divided into four clusters. The first was composed of the cities of 
 central Lombardy, of which Milan was the principal. This group in- 
 cluded Milan, Cremona, Pavia, Brescia, Bergamo, Parma, Placenza, 
 Mantua, Lodi, and Alexandria. These were the oriffinal seats of 
 
 20 ^ 
 
226 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 Italian liberty. In the second, may be placed the cities Verona Vi. 
 T vTdnl and Treviso. The cities of Romagna, of which Bolog- 
 TandFet^^aklTe of most consequence, composed a third cluster; 
 to which may be added Modena. A fourth comprised the cities of 
 Tn<,panv of which Florence and Pisa were the chiei. 
 
 BeSsthrse, were the two maritime republics of Genoa and Ven- 
 ire These cites did not all at once throw off their allegiance to the 
 
 S of affai-s placed the rural gentry. The nobility of the country 
 were themselves oppressed by the cities, and glad to take refuge in 
 r^:'re:e,asaeywereVvilegedwi^ 
 
 sttiin the power of d rectmg the government. As the i strengtn m 
 creased thHesire of extending their power, and the hmits of their 
 Sor4 increased with it ; this produced encroachments upon the 
 small owns, and upon the territories of the country nobibty. Earl^ 
 f/iv3fth century, a war was carried on between Milan and Lodi, 
 In whiSriatttw^as s^^^ to the former. Wars continued to 
 
 V.A nrnspcuted between many of these cities. 
 
 MeanwhUe Frederic Barbarossa of Germany, attempted to regain 
 
 Meanwmie ^^^^ .^ I^^^^ . ^i^j.^, though still acknow- 
 
 1152. ledged, existed but in name. Availing himself ol 
 
 Frederick Barbaros- ^^q ^ar between Milan and Lodi, and of the jealous- 
 
 sa atiempts to re- . ^^^^ ^ many of the cities towards the tormer 
 
 subject the Italian p/ederic attacked the towns in dependence 
 
 Repubhcs. . -f ^^^'/.'^''g- s of Italy, the inhabitants of Milan 
 
 upon Milan After two^nva.^^^^^^^ a diet at 
 
 were compelled ^y™""^^^^^ rights, appointed magis- 
 
 reT'ilXlMot^^^^^^ 
 rf iS w office of consuls, who were chosen by the people. The 
 
 ''T tSIi^fiXt ne^^^^^^^ the^rai of Frederic. Milan, was 
 pendent of Milan, farstexpe f^^i^^^^^rrendered. The citizens 
 
 '::e:Z'2eZ\^^^^^^^ fo four villages a few miles 
 
 weie compelie ^_^^^^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^^.^, habitations were razed to the 
 
 Milan destroyed. g^ound. The misery of the Cities of Lombaidy 
 
 i^f^ Fvpn those which had enlisted in the service o 
 
 re",:;rFeU than.;; haTLnficed their l.bev.les.o thel.- hatred 
 
 "^Mr^SItLe emperor had ™et with a -H- - Ve™„« a|a™' 
 .hieh he had -- --d^ -^ jredTrr^-rd c. 
 
 Lombard League. ^^ ^^ Lombard league, by which they 
 
 »orreSb='/^rva^t^^^^ 
 
CHAP. VII.] ITALY. 227 
 
 was quickly rebuilt, and the confederates prepared to withstand the 
 arms of Frederic, whose strength had been reduced by a contest with 
 pope Alexander III., during which, in laying siege to Rome, he lost 
 a large part of his army by pestilence. 
 
 The war, now commenced, continued many years without any de- 
 cisive action, until in the battle of Legnano, a small 
 11'76. town near Milan, the confederates obtained a splen- 
 
 Battle of Legnano. jj^j victory. Frederic escaped from the field in dis- 
 guise ; and was obliged to treat with his rebellious subjects. By the 
 mediation of Venice, a truce of six years was agreed upon. After 
 1183 ^^^^^' *'^^ peace of Constance was concluded, by 
 
 Peace of Constance which the Lombard republics were established in 
 their rights. The league was renewed ; but un- 
 fortunately no federal union was formed. 
 
 During the reign of Frederic II., grandson of Frederic Barbarossa, 
 these republics were plunged into another protract- 
 1214. ed war, and became entirely emancipated from the 
 
 Italian Republics in- empire. — The liberties of the people were, howev- 
 ^"^^'^ many. ^'^ ^^» gradually sacrificed to the ambition of the aris- 
 Liberty sacrificed to tocracy. Milan fell into the power of the Visconti, 
 Aristocracy. while principalities of second rank were formed in 
 
 the smaller towns ; so that in the close of the thirteenth century, there 
 were almost as many princes in the north of Italy, as there had been 
 free cities in the preceding age. The cities of Tuscany continued 
 longer than those of Lombardy, under the imperial government. Of 
 these cities, Florence, the most important, was often the scene of 
 bitter dissensions and cruel factions. She waged wars with Genoa 
 and Pisa, the latter of which she conquered. Early in the fourteenth 
 century, the family of the Medici came into note in Florence, and by 
 1450 ^^^ middle of the fifteenth, completely established 
 
 The Medici. ^^^®^^ ^ ^^^ Sovereign power, which became hered- 
 itary. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The temporal sovereignty of the pope was at this time fully es- 
 tablished over the dominions belonging to the Ro- 
 1273. rnan see. The emperor Rodolph, of Germany, gave 
 
 ^""""'pope. "*" ""' "P ^^^ ^^^"^' ^"•^ th^ P^P^ "o^v held the relation to 
 Italy, formerly claimed by the emperor ; but the 
 city of Rome itself often revolted from his government. The remem- 
 brance of the glory of their ancestors, at times enkindled the spirit of 
 freedom in the breasts of the degenerate Romans ; and it had often 
 burst forth in resistance to the power of the pope. Several times, the 
 holy father was expalled the city. 
 
 During the residence of the popes at Avignon, in France, no au- 
 thority of sufficient power existed at Rome, to curb the licentious citi- 
 zens ; and disorders of every kind were frequent. At different peri- 
 ods, individuals arose who roused the popular feeling by eloquent 
 
228 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 harangues, in which they depicted the blessings of hberty, and re- 
 counted the names of the officers of the ancient re- 
 1139. public. One of these orators, Arnold of Brescia, ad- 
 
 Arnoid of Brescia, located boldly the principles of civil liberty, and 
 was banished by Innocent II., who branded his doctrine as the " her- 
 esy of the politicians." He was subsequently recalled to Rome, and 
 burned at the stake. 
 
 After him, Nicholas di Rienzi conceived the project of restoring lib- 
 erty to Rome. The insurrection was for a time 
 1346. successful. Rienzi was placed at the head of the 
 
 NkLTafdTRrentf government, with the title of tribune. The bene- 
 fits of his government were immediately felt. The 
 tumults and disorders of the city were quelled, and tranquillity restor- 
 ed. Rienzi, however, was soon compelled to quit the government, 
 and become an exile. Rome now returned to her obedience to the 
 popes. But while they resided at Avignon, and during the schism of 
 the church, the city at times enjoyed some degree of political free- 
 dom. 
 
 Genoa, in the commencement of the 13th century, had attained 
 considerable importance, and its commerce was in 
 1261. a flourishing state. Its prosperity was greatly in- 
 
 Genoa. creased by the settlement of Pera, in the suburbs of 
 
 Constantinople, which the Genoese obtained from the Greeks, in re- 
 ward of their services in the recovery of that city. Genoa maintain- 
 ed frequent wars with Pisa, and with Venice, its rival in trade. Its 
 internal history is marked by frequent contests between its leading 
 families. After several changes of government, it submitted to that 
 , .-., of a duke, or doge, and was finally placed under the 
 
 protection of the king of France. 
 The republic of Venice had been early founded, and in the revolu- 
 „ . tions which overthrew the Roman empire, escaped 
 
 by its insignificance. At the period of the crusades, 
 it had attained considerable wealth, and was a maritime power of the 
 first consequence. Its assistance to the crusaders in conveying them 
 to Palestine, was rewarded by the commerce which they obtained 
 with the east. But the period of the commencement of its prosperity 
 and splendour was the thirteenth century. Having sustained an im- 
 portant part in the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins, it obtain- 
 ed three eighths of the city, and of the provinces, as its reward. The 
 government of Venice was administered by a doge, or duke, who as 
 early as the eighth century, exercised the power of a king. Subse- 
 quently his authority was limited, and at length it very little exceed- 
 ed that of the other nobles ; and the government became in the latter 
 part of the 13th century, an oppressive aristocracy. 
 
 In the latter part of the 14th century, Venice was engaged in wars 
 with her neighbours, and proving generally successful, her prosperity 
 increased. The fifteenth century is the most splendid period in her 
 annals. During it she extended her dominion over Padua and Vero- 
 na, and obtained from the duke of Milan, the cession of Vicenza* 
 
CKAP. VIII.] EASTERN EMPIRE. 229 
 
 After the extinction of Robert Guiscard's posterity, the son and sue- 
 cessor of Roger, his younger brother, king of Sicily, 
 1166. added to his dominions the Norman possessions of 
 
 Naples and Sicily. ^p^^jj^^ ^,^(j Calabria, subdued the republics of Na- 
 ples and Amalfi, and the principal city of Capua. He was succeed, 
 ed by his son, William the Good, the last prince of the race of Guis- 
 card. At his death, the crown of Naples and Sicily passed to Henry 
 VI., of Germany, son of Frederic Barbarossa, who had married Con- 
 stance, aunt of William. 
 
 The German princes continued upon the throne, until at length the 
 pope, who was opposed to them, offered the kingdom to Charles of An- 
 jou, brother of St. Louis, king of France ; who led thither an army 
 to enforce his claim. Manfred, the last German prince, was slain. 
 
 The whole of Italy was at this time divided between the Guelph, and 
 1282 Ghibbelline factions. Charles was master of Na- 
 
 ples and Sicily, at the head of the Guelph party in It- 
 aly, and a prince of the first rank in Europe. The Neapolitans were 
 in the French interest, but the Sicilians did not so cheerfully submit to 
 its government. They were treated like a conquered country, and 
 were called upon continually to endure insults and indignities. 
 
 The people, by the aid of John of Procida, an adherent of the house 
 of Suabia, succeeded in placing upon the throne Peter III., of Arra- 
 gon, who had married Constance, the daughter of Manfred. A bloody 
 war succeeded, in which the king of France supported the pretensions 
 of the house of Anjou. James, the son of Peter, who had succeeded 
 him on the throne of Arragon, desirous of peace, renounced his claims 
 upon Sicily, in favour of the French ; but the Sicilians, unwilling to 
 submit to French domination, placed his brother Frederic upon the 
 throne. 
 
 From this period, we find the kingdom of Naples a subject of per- 
 petual contention, among the rival princes of France and Spain, and 
 those of other countries, who from intermarriages derived claims to it. 
 14Q2 ■^^ *^^ close of this period, the Spanish princes had 
 
 prevailed, and Ferdinand of Arragon weis the sove- 
 reign of Naples and Sicily. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Section I. 
 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 On the recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks, Michael Palseol. 
 
 ogus, to secure himself in possession of the throne 
 
 1261. he had usurped, deprived of his sight, and banished, 
 
 Michael Paijeologus. j^^j^ Lascaris, the heir of the crown. The crimes 
 
 20* 
 
230 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 of which Michael was thus guilty, drew upon him the anger of the 
 patriarch Arsenius, who excommunicated him ; and stirred up a pow- 
 erful faction in the empire. 
 
 Michael was succeeded by his son Andronicus, in whose reign 
 1282. there was an ineffectual attempt to unite the eastern 
 
 Andronicus I. and westem churches. 
 
 The repose of the provinces was now disturbed by the invasion 
 
 1292. of the Catalans, who having served in the Sicilian 
 
 Invasion of the Cat- wars, at their close swarmed into the Greek em- 
 
 alans. pii'e in quest of plunder. 
 
 But still more disastrous to the empire, were the civil wars waged 
 
 between the emperor Andronicus, and his grand- 
 
 Civil wars. ^^^ of the Same name, whose dissolute life alienated 
 
 the affections of his grandfather, and induced him to look for another 
 
 successor. Twice the civil war was interrupted, and again renewed, 
 
 until at length, after seven years, the younger Andronicus entered the 
 
 capital triumphant. 
 
 The aged emperor abdicated the crown, which the younger seized. 
 
 In his reign, the decay of the empire was rapidly 
 
 1320. accelerated. Andronicus was the slave of intem- 
 
 Andronicus II. perancc and debauchery, and became odious to his 
 
 subjects. He carried war into Asia, but found himself unable to 
 
 cope with the Ottoman power. His death left the empire a prey to 
 
 civil commotions. 
 
 John Palseologus swayed the imperial sceptre thirty-six years, 
 
 during which period the distress of the nation was 
 
 1341. continually augmenting. At the instigation of 
 
 John Palseologus. Amurath, the Ottoman sultan, he put out the eyes 
 
 of Andronicus, his eldest son, and of John, his grandson, imprisoned 
 
 ♦.hem, and made Manuel, his second son, his heir. His reign was a 
 
 series of alternate successes and defeats. His discontented subjects 
 
 removed the two blind princes from their prison to the throne. The 
 
 emperor, with Manuel, made his escape from Constantinople, and 
 
 civil war was added to other disasters. 
 
 The Turks already encroached on the several borders of the 
 empire, having obtained a firm footing in Europe. 
 
 A reconciliation between the contending princes was at length 
 effected by the partition of the remaining possessions of the Greeks. 
 Constantinople was left to John and Manuel ; and all without the 
 wall, to the blind princes. The death of John, again renewed the 
 civil war, while the Ottoman sultan, Bajazet, now 
 1399. threatened the city. A truce was effected, by the 
 
 Bajazet threatens promise of an annual tribute from the Greeks, and 
 onstantinop e. the toleration of the Mahometan religion in the city. 
 Bajazet soon violated this truce, again laid siege to the city, under 
 pretence of vindicating the right of John, the blind prince. Manuel 
 was constrained to flee, and sought aid from France. — Meanwhile, 
 Bajazet restored John to the throne ; then, claiming the city for him- 
 self, he continued the siege. Constantinople must have now fallen, 
 had not a threatening power in the east demanded the immediate 
 attention of Bajazet. 
 
CHAP. VIII.] OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 231 
 
 Section II. 
 
 THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 On the destruction of the Seljoukian kingdom, by the descendants 
 of Jenghis Khan, many of the Turkish chiefs retired among the 
 mountains, and estabhshed small principalities. Of these, that which 
 eventually became of the most note, and exercised 
 1299. a wide and important influence upon the nations of 
 
 Othman 1. ^.j^g earth, was founded by Othman, and situated on 
 
 the banks of the Langar. Othman's first warlike exploits were 
 upon the provinces of the Greek empire. In 1299 he invaded Nico- 
 media, and his conquests were continued during a reign of twenty- 
 seven years. Prusa, near the sea of Marmora, was taken in the 
 latter years of this reign, and made the capital of the kingdom. 
 Othman was succeeded by his son Orchan, who continued his 
 encroachments upon the Grecian provinces, con- 
 1326. quered the whole of Bythinia, and obtained a vic- 
 
 Orchan and Soiy- ^^j.y ^ygj, Androuicus the younger. Solyman, the 
 son of Orchan, with several thousand Turks were 
 carried across the Hellespont in the civil war of the Grecian princes, 
 and once in possession of the fortresses of Thrace, the Grecian power 
 was insufficient to expel them. 
 
 The death of Solyman and of Orchan occurred at nearly the same 
 
 time, and Amurath, the son of Orchan, succeeded 
 
 1359. to the command of the Turks. He pushed his 
 
 Amurath. conquests in Europe, subjected nearly the whole 
 
 of Thrace to his sway, and made Adrianople his European capital. 
 
 He turned his arms against the warlike tribes who dwelt between 
 
 the Danube and the Adriatic. In a battle with these nations, in 
 
 Servia, although victorious, he fell by the hand of a Servian soldier, 
 
 who starting up from among the heaps of slain upon the battle-field, 
 
 stabbed this destroyer of his country's independence. 
 
 1362. — To Amurath is ascribed the establishment of the 
 
 Janizanesestab- Janizaries, a distinguished military order. They 
 
 were selected from among his captives, educated 
 
 in the religion of the Moslems, trained to the exercise of arms, and 
 
 consecrated by a dervish. 
 
 Amurath was succeeded by his son Bajazet, the rapidity of whose 
 
 „. .. marches and conquests, procured him among his 
 
 countrymen, the name of Ilderim, or the lightning. 
 
 His conquests were not confined to the Christians, but extended to 
 
 the dominions of the neighbouring emirs of Asia. In Europe, he 
 
 subjected the remaining parts of Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, 
 
 carried his arms into Hungary, defeated at Nice- 
 
 1396. polls, on the Danube, a confederate army of French 
 
 Battle of Nicopohs. ^^i^ Germans, but was here arrested in the career 
 
 of victory by a fit of the gout. — The interference of Bajazet in the 
 
232 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 affairs of the Greek princes, and his siege of Constantinople, have 
 already been mentioned. From this siege, he was called by a Mo- 
 gul irruption under Tamerlane, to defend his Asiatic dominions, and 
 Constantinople was for a time delivered from the dread of his arms. 
 The Turkish empire in Asia now experienced an inundation of 
 1399. Moguls, under Tamerlane, a descendant in the 
 
 Tameiiane invades female line, of Jenghis Khan, who from a chief of a 
 the Ottoman Small province of Transoxania, had raised himself 
 
 ^"'P""'^- to the sovereignty of the Mogul empire. He had 
 
 expelled the Getes, or Calmucks, from Transoxania, achieved the con- 
 quest of Persia, and of Tartary, and carried his arms into Hindostan. 
 In a campaign of one year, he made himself master of Delhi, passed 
 the Ganges, and penetrated to the Burrampooter, when intelligence 
 of disturbances in Georgia and Anatolia, and the conquests of Baja- 
 zet, induced him to return. The Christians of Georgia felt the 
 power of his arms. Upon their submission, he turned them upon 
 the Ottoman empire. After the conquest of one city in Anatolia, 
 Tamerlane left for a time the Ottoman dominions. At Aleppo, the 
 capital of Syria, he conquered the Turkish emirs, but at Damascus 
 met with a repulse from the Mamelukes of Egypt. A revolt of the 
 Mamelukes, however, delivered him from their arms, and he soon 
 achieved the conquest of Damascus. 
 
 The period occupied by Tamerlane in the Syrian conquest, gave 
 Bajazet an opportunity to prepare for the coming contest. At 
 Angora, was fought between them the memorable 
 1402. battle in which the Ottoman power was overthrown, 
 
 Tamerlane over- ^^^ ^^^ Moguls obtained a Complete ascendency, 
 empire. For the throne of the Ottoman empire, the proud 
 
 Bajazet was now compelled to accept an iron cage, 
 in which he was carried about to grace the triumphant marches of his 
 conqueror. — The invasion of Europe was prevented more by the 
 want of a fleet, to conduct the forces of Tamerlane across the Helles- 
 pont, than by the suppliant embassies of the Greeks and the sons of 
 Bajazet. — Tamerlane now projected the conquest of China, where 
 the dynasty of Jenghis had recently been overthrown. But death 
 prevented the execution of his plans. 
 
 After the conquest of Bajazet, though the strength of the Ottoman 
 power was crushed, his sons were left in possession of the different 
 provinces of his kingdom. The discord and dissension which fol- 
 lowed, ceased only with the death of all, save Ma- 
 Mahomet I and homet I., under whose sway the unity of the em- 
 pire was restored. Mahomet was succeeded by 
 Amurath II. Amurath was diverted from the siege of Constantino- 
 ple, which he had undertaken, by a revolt in his own dominions. 
 
 The revival of the Ottoman power, and the spread of the Turkish 
 
 arms in Europe, awakened the pope Eugenius to a consciousness of 
 
 the danger, not only of Constantinople, but of Christendom. He 
 
 sought to form a league among the Christian pow- 
 
 Pope Eugenius ur- gj.g f^j. ^ crusadc against the infidels. But his ef- 
 
 ges a crusade. ^^^^^ ^^^^ attended with little success. The Hun- 
 
CHAP. VIII.] OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 233 
 
 garians and Poles, under their monarch Ladislaus, in whom the gov- 
 ernment of both kingdoms was united, undertook the war. His army 
 was augmented by many soldiers from France and Germany, and 
 strengthened by the counsels and conduct of the pope's legate, cardi- 
 nal Julian, and the brave Hungarian general, John Hunniades. The 
 Christians, in two successive battles, humbled the 
 The Christians vie Qttoman power, and drew from Amurath an offer 
 
 tonous. r ' 
 
 of peace. 
 By this peace, Amurath was to withdraw from their frontier ; but 
 the remonstrances and intrigues of the cardinal soon procured its vi- 
 olation, and a mournful reverse to the former triumphs of the Chris- 
 tian arms, was now presented. With an army diminished by the de- 
 parture of the French and Germans, (volunteers, who on the first 
 sound of peace, had hastened to their homes,) Ladislaus marched to 
 encounter Amurath. The Turk, irritated and incensed by the in- 
 fraction of the treaty, hastened to avenge himself 
 1444. on the Christians. On the field of Varna, the ar- 
 
 Battle of Varna. j^jgg ^gj.g drawn up in hostile array, and a most 
 sanguinary conflict terminated in the triumph of the Mahometans. 
 Ladislaus signalized himself by daring feats, but at length perished on 
 the field. Ten thousand Christians were slain, but so great was the 
 loss of the Turks, that Amurath declared that another such victory 
 would prove his ruin. The vahant Hunniades survived, and for ma- 
 ny years defended the Hungarian frontier from the arms of the infi- 
 dels. 
 
 With the exception of the siege which was commenced, and raised 
 soon after his accession, Amurath made no attempt upon Constanti- 
 nople. But when his son, Mahomet II., succeeded 
 ^thTdtsIIucdonTf ^^^ °^ *^^ Ottoman throne, the destruction of the 
 the Greek empire. Greek empire was determined. While Mahomet 
 was soothing Constantine, the last of the Greek em- 
 perors, with professions of friendship, he was secretly maturing his 
 plans for the conquest of his capital. He erected a fortress on the 
 European side of the Bosphorus, which gave him the command of the 
 streets, and in spite of the supplications of the Greeks, prepared to be- 
 siege the city. 
 
 The winter preceding the siege, was one of distress and dismay 
 within the capital. Constantine, with a spirit worthy the glorious 
 days of the empire, endeavoured to animate the fainting hearts of his 
 degenerate subjects, to quell their divisions, and to inspire them with 
 an heroic ardour in vindicating the last remains of their possessions. 
 He conveyed the intelligence of his distress to the -western monarchs, 
 and solicited the aid of -his Christian brethren. But amid the din of 
 arms, which resounded through the western nations, the petitions of 
 Constantine passed unheeded. He next attempted to effect a recon- 
 ciUation of the churches, which might enlist the pope in his cause, 
 but the attempt only brought upon him the wrath of his intolerant and 
 superstitious subjects, of the Greek churches, and involved the city in 
 new disorders. Meanwhile Mahomet continued his active prepara- 
 
234 MIDDLE HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 tions for the siege, which early in the spring commenced by sea and 
 land. 
 
 The spirits of the Greeks revived when a small fleet of five ships, 
 furnished by Sicily, the Morea, and some of the islands of the Archipe- 
 lago, triumphantly entered the harbour, after obtaining a splendid vic- 
 tory over the Turkish fleet which guarded the Bosphorus. Mahomet 
 now devised a plan, by which his fleet obtained possession of the har- 
 bour, the entrance to which was guarded by a chain, and defended by 
 the Greek vessels. He caused a passage of neax'ly two leagues to be 
 dug over land, lined with planks, and smeared with grease ; and in 
 the space of one night, by the help of engines, and a prodigious num- 
 ber of men, he drew a fleet of more than a hundred vessels across 
 
 this passage, and launched them all in the harbour. 
 
 1453. Thg city, after enduring a siege of fifty-three days, 
 
 Srrfxitks ^^^^ ^^^®" ^y assault. Constantine, the last of the 
 
 Csesars, perished fighting for his country, while mul- 
 titudes fell by his side. The city experienced the horrours of sack 
 and pillage, heightened by the animosity which the Mahometans felt 
 towards the Christians. Mahomet now established his throne in the 
 capital of the east, and the remainder of the Greek empire soon fell 
 before the arms of the Moslem conqueror. His empire became con- 
 solidated, and a succession of able princes continued to fill the Otto- 
 man throne. 
 
MODERN HIST:0RY. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 COMPKISma EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 DICOVERY OF AMERICA, 1492 A. D. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 The Treaty of \ FIRST EPOCHA, 1559 A. D. i Chateau Cambresis 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 At the commencement of this period of history, we find the nations 
 of Europe entering upon a new order of things. Science and litera- 
 ture began to revive, and to take the place of monastic legends and 
 
 monkish superstitions. The human mind was ex- 
 Inventions and dis- panded, and discoveries were made in the arts and 
 
 sciences. The invention of gunpowder* had already 
 begun to mitigate the horrors of war.f That of the mariner's com- 
 pass, had enabled the navigator to steer boldly forth into the broad 
 ocean, no longer creeping timidly along the coast. In consequence, 
 commerce, and with it, civilization and wealth, became more widely 
 diffused. 
 
 * Invented in 1320, by Schwartz a monk of Cologne. 
 
 t That this engine of destruction should have this effect, seems at first improbable, 
 but experience has shown it to be true ; and no doubt that the more certain the de- 
 struction should be to those who engage in war, the less frequent it would become. 
 Particularly where the mean-s of defensive war are made more fatal, the less the spirit 
 of lawless aggression dares to show itself Gunpowder, though carried into the field 
 of battle, can be made still more destructive in those heavy fixed batteries, by means 
 of which, cities and harbours are defended. The invention of gunpowder has done 
 much to free mankind from the dominion of mere physical strength, and daring, and 
 
236 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 The spirit of chivalry, by elevating women, and changing the char- 
 acter of the intercourse between the sexes, had 
 ^f^'T'[^ ^""^ ^^® contributed greatly to polish and refine the man- 
 sysem. ^^^^ ^^ society. The feudal system, which had 
 made the people little better than slaves to a few great lords, had 
 now declined. In some instances, the people had obtained their 
 rights. In others, the power of the monarch over the lords, was 
 confirmed, and although it sometimes approached to despotism, it 
 was by no means a condition so degrading to the mass of the people, 
 as when they had their petty tyrants at their own doors, ready to 
 call them forth in clans to shed each other's blood. 
 
 From about this period, also, may be dated a new policy in Eu- 
 rope, having for its object the preservation of the 
 Balance of power. balance of power, each nation being persuaded 
 that it was unsafe to let any one become so strong, as to be able to 
 get an ascendancy over all the others, and each beginning to per- 
 ceive, that it was better to be guarantied in its own possessions, 
 than to have the liberty of plundering others. 
 
 Still, it is but the dawn of improvement which at this time appears. 
 
 — Popery, that terrible superstition, by which the 
 
 Papal tyranny and -wicked ambition of man to hold an unjust sway 
 
 supers 1 ion. over his fellow, had perverted the greatest blessing 
 
 of God, the Christian religion, to be the direst curse, was now at its 
 full height. The practice of auricular confession began about A. D. 
 1200. By this, the emissaries of the pope, in the persons of con- 
 fessors, obtained the secrets of those in power, and the popes were 
 thus kept advised of coming events, and were prepared to meet 
 them. The sins confessed, it was believed might be absolved by 
 the confessor, and thus absolved, divine vengeance was no more to 
 be feared for the most flagrant transgressions. Hence the power of 
 conscience was put to rest, and deluded men, believing that the 
 priesthood could open and shut the gates of heaven, sought rather to 
 obtain their favour, than that of the all-seeing God. The priests, 
 taking advantage of this delusion, found many methods of converting 
 it into money. They sold indulgences to commit various sins, at 
 various prices, according to their enormity. They made merchan- 
 dize of natural affection, requiring masses to be paid by the people 
 to keep their dead relatives from purgatory, and send them to heaven. 
 
 The church by these, and other means, grew rich ; and the priests 
 in many instances, rioted in luxury and ill concealed voluptuousness. 
 But if men had accusing thoughts, they must not breathe them to the 
 winds. 
 
 put them more under the control of mind. The knight whose giant arm could over- 
 throw a host of common men, went forth in his armour almost invincible, and becanie 
 powerful hy his individual prowess. Since the invention of gunpowder, armour is 
 useless, and a man's power must consist in his superior faculty to win, and direct 
 others. Compare as examples, Richard Coeur de Lion, with Bonaparte. As numbers 
 must generally now decide contests, wars become diminished. Because their result 
 can be better foreseen, the weaker party of course submits, rather than engage in a 
 contest probably fruitless. 
 
CHAP, r.l GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 237 
 
 A tribunal, the most blighting in its tyranny of any the world has 
 ever known, was now established ; and had its 
 1251. secret agents at every turn. This was the Inqui- 
 
 The Inquisition. siTioN, a name at which those of other days turned 
 pale. Private accusations were received by its emissaries,— the 
 accused secretly arrested — not confronted with his accuser — tor- 
 tured at the pleasure of the inquisitors, to make him confess his 
 crime— and if he survived his agonies, publicly or privately executed, 
 as best suited their purposes. The imbecile monarchs of Europe 
 quietly submitted to this all-pervading despotism ; being allowed 
 peaceably to exercise their political functions, provided they gave no 
 offence to the church. 
 
 From the papal power, however, some advantages were occasion- 
 ally derived to society. Its exercise in the hands of a few of the 
 popes, was guided by a degree of benevolence ; and the interest ol 
 the church was, to keep its votaries at peace, and prevent their lav- 
 ishing in war those treasures which in prosperous times flowed more 
 freely into the coffers of the church. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE SEVERAL EUROPEAN NATIONS. 
 
 We shall take a short survey of the situation of the different na- 
 
 tions of Europe at the commencement of the period 
 
 14S5. from which we date Modern History. After which, 
 
 we shall carry on a connected history of the whole, or speak of im- 
 
 portant nations separately, as we find their affairs more or less 
 
 closely interwoven. 
 
 We now find Europe divided into several great monarchies, so 
 nearly equal in power as to prevent any one tramplmg upon the 
 rights of the rest. 
 
 England under Henry VII. had been far more prosperous than 
 under her warlike sovereigns. By degrees, the disorders and msur- 
 rections which attended the commencement of his reign were quieted ; 
 many good laws were passed, commerce and industry were en- 
 couraged ; and though his avarice led him to make oppressive exac 
 tions, they were in a measure counterbalanced by these advantages. 
 The parliament at this period had little independence, but gave its 
 sanction to such acts as were most agreeable to the will of the reign- 
 ing sovereign. Henry, a'though he in general avoided war, yet 
 joined the other monarchs in their attempts to preserve the balance 
 of power m Europe, and once invaded France, in order to draw back 
 the French monarch from Italy. 
 
 21 
 
238 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 Scotland at this period, flourished under James IV., one of the 
 greatest of her kings. He held the marauding 
 1423. nobles in check, and protected commerce. 
 
 Spain was now at the summit of her national glory. Granada, 
 the last hold of Moorish strength, had fallen before the arms of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella ; and the whole territory of Spain was united 
 under their sway. And the discovery of America now opened to 
 them a new source of wealth, and a vast extent of dominion. 
 
 In France, all the great feudal nobles had been brought into sub- 
 jection to the monarch. Charles VIII. succeeded to his father, Louis 
 XI. After a short reign, he was succeeded by his son, Louis XII., 
 by whose marriage with Anne, the heiress of Brittany, that im- 
 portant province, often contended for, was re-united to the crown of 
 France. 
 
 In Germany, the emperor, Frederic III., was succeeded at this 
 time by his son, the arch-duke Maximilian I. Burgundy now 
 became annexed to the empire, by the marriage of Maximilian with 
 Mary, the heiress of those provinces. His hereditary possessions 
 were also increased by the death of his cousm, the arch-duke of 
 Austria, to whose dominions he succeeded. 
 
 Portugal, under the swa)^ of Don Manuel, had commenced a se- 
 ries of successful naval enterprises, which extended her commerce 
 and power, and made her respectable among the nations of Europe. 
 
 Switzerland maintained her independence, notwithstanding the 
 efforts of the German emperor, Maximilian, to establish his authority. 
 The Swiss furnished soldiers, who enlisted in the service of the 
 different monarchs in their wars ; and their services on account of 
 their faithfulness to their employers, were wont to be highly appre- 
 ciated, and well rewarded. 
 
 Italy remained divided into independent states. Genoa was 
 prosperous ; Venice had conquered the isle of Cy- 
 1461. prus, and continued to monopolize the commerce of 
 
 the Mediterranean, and of the Indies. Her merchants outvied in 
 wealth and splendour, the monarchs of the most mighty nations. 
 Milan was governed by Ludovico Sforza, called " the Moor," who 
 had murdered his nephew, and usurped the ducal honours. Naples 
 was under the sway of an illegitimate branch of the house of Arra- 
 gon. Florence was governed by the family of the Medici. In Rome, 
 the papal throne was filled by the infamous Alexander VI., who 
 was seeking to extend the papal territories, and establish his vicious 
 son, Caesar Borgia, in a principality in Italy. 
 
CHAP. I.] GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 239 
 
 The Ottoman throne was at this time filled by Bajazet II., a 
 mild, yet courageous prince. He made war upon the Mamelukes of 
 Egypt* and subdued them. 
 
 From this period, the northern nations of Europe begin to min- 
 gle in politics, and to be known as something more 
 1492. than barbarians. Russia began to make exertions 
 
 for the establishment of trade and intercourse with the more polished 
 nations. Still, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Poland, were far 
 behind the other European nations, and a considerable period of time 
 elapses before their history becomes much connected with the general 
 politics of Europe. 
 
 Before closing our remarks on the general state of Christian Eu- 
 rope, that portion of the globe which for many ages past has been the 
 seat of learning, and the centre of a dominion which has reached to 
 the farthest east, and the remotest west ; we will hazard an hypothe- 
 sis, which, though it should generally be regarded as visionary, yet 
 will help the memory, by giving a common bearing to many facts 
 regarded as desultory. It is this : Europe is des- 
 
 &irope destined to ^^^^^ ^^ become a GRAND CONFEDERACY, and haS 
 
 'foleracy! '^^ ^^en verging towards this point for ages. But the 
 limits of the federative power over the individual 
 states has been, and still is, ill-defined and not understood, or ac- 
 knowledged by individual states. There has been no regular rep- 
 resentation of the several states in one general congress ; no bounda- 
 ries fixed to each state, to which all have been obliged to agree ; 
 and no prescribed force to carry into effect laws for the common good 
 of the whole ; or to protect the weak from the aggressions of the 
 strong. But the idea of a balance of poioer to be preserved, is an 
 indefinite confederation, tacitly acknowledging the obligations of each 
 nation to respect the rights of the others ; and saying to each — if 
 you go too far, (it does not say hoto far,) we will all interfere to 
 check you. The wars of Europe from this period of history, have 
 mostly been the struggles of individual ambition against this unde- 
 fined federative power."!" 
 
 * The Mamelukes were a body of Turkish slaves, who had gained great authority 
 at the Egyptian court. They had by degrees gained so much property and influ- 
 ence that they threatened the existence of the Turkish power in Egypt. 
 
 t In our days, the spirit of freedom among the people, has caused the sovereigns to 
 tremble for tlie stability of their thrones, and they have used the federative power 
 against their own subjects. 
 
240 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 The discovery of America is the most important event recorded 
 in profane history. 
 
 The extrordinary man by whom it was accompHshed, was Chris- 
 topher Columbus, a native of Genoa. Like many 
 
 Columbus. qjp j^jg countrymen, he early engaged in navigation. 
 
 His attention to astronomy, and his knowledge of the figure of the 
 earth, led him to believe that there might be vast countries still 
 undiscovered ; and the glowing descriptions of Marco Polo, a Ve- 
 netian traveller, who had visited the East Indies, led him to the 
 desire of finding a passage to those rich countries by sea. 
 
 His first application for aid in his vast project, was made to his 
 countrymen. They regarding his theory as the chimera of a 
 visionary enthusiast, he next turned to Portugal, already, under 
 John II., renowned for patronizing the spirit of discovery. But here 
 also, ignorance and prejudice rose up to oppose him. The persons 
 to whom the monarch submitted the examination of his plan, re- 
 ported so unfavourably, that all aid to Columbus was withheld. 
 
 To Henry VII. of England, he had meantime fruitlessly applied, 
 through his brother Bartholomew. Spain, now under Ferdmand and 
 Isabella, was his next resort. After eight years, passed in indigence, 
 and in repeated applications to that court, the generosity of Isabella at 
 length put him in possession of scanty means, but sufiicient to attain 
 the long cherished object of his hopes. The monarchs had just com- 
 pleted the reduction of Granada ; and in so low a state were the 
 finances that the queen, anim.ated by the greatness of the object, 
 offered to pledge her jewels, for the necessary expenditure. This, 
 however, was prevented by Santangal, receiver of the ecclesiastical 
 revenues in Arragon, who advanced the requisite sum. 
 
 The armament, when fitted out, consisted of only three small ves- 
 sels, manned by ninety men. With these frail 
 1492. barks, Columbus sailed from Palos in Spain, Au- 
 
 Columbus sets sail. ^^^^^ gj^ j^gg, and committed himself to the mercy 
 of an unknown sea ; nor is it wonderful, that the superstitious crew, 
 uninspired with the enthusiastic hopes of their commander, should 
 have regarded the enterprise with feelings of awe and terrour. 
 After sailing many days, discovering nothing but a boundless waste 
 of waters, in a sea where no human being had ever before penetrated, 
 their hearts misgave them, and they proposed to put to death their 
 obstinate commander, who resisted all their solicitations to return. 
 The genius of Columbus prevailed over the seditious crew ; yet he 
 was compelled to promise that if after three days no land should be 
 
CHAP. II.] DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 241 
 
 discovered, he would abandon the enterprise. Within the time 
 specified, a httle after midnight, on the 12th of October, 1492, the 
 
 joyful shout of land ! land ! was uttered by Colum- 
 Land discovered. ^^^^ himself As the glad mariners approached the 
 shore, which proved to be that of one of the Bahama islands, they 
 beheld it crowded with the gazing natives, who pressed with eager 
 curiosity to view the wonderful machines which were about to visit 
 them. 
 
 Since the time when Noah left his ark to set his foot upon a 
 recovered world, a landing so sublime as that of Columbus, had 
 never occurred. — His majestic person attired with splendour, his 
 
 more majestic mind deeply penetrated with reli- 
 Landmg of Coiuui- opjous gratitude, he led forth his ofRcers and men. 
 
 bus o o ' 
 
 His own was the first European foot which touched 
 the American soil ; and liis first act was to prostrate himself upon 
 it, and return devout thanks to that Being who had guided and pre- 
 served him. Ho next erected a crucifix, and took possession of tht 
 country for the crown of Castile and Leon. The innocent inhabit- 
 ants received the Spaniards with joy, as superior beings. ^' 
 
 From St. Salvador (the name he gave to the island,) Columbus 
 
 visited several of the islands adjacent, and at length 
 
 ^"ok dLtofe'ieT' discovered Cuba. From thence, he sailed to His- 
 
 paniola, in pursuit of gold. On the coast of this 
 
 island, one of his vessels was wrecked ; but through his presence 
 
 of mind, and the kind aid of the natives, the crew were all saved. 
 
 Columbus now felt the necessity of hastening his return to Europe. 
 Arranging with the free consent of the inhabitants to leave a garri- 
 son of his own men on the island of Cuba, he took a few of the na- 
 tives, and what gold he could obtain, together with specimens of the 
 productions of the country ; and on the sixteenth of January, 1493, 
 set sail on his return, and arrived on the 15th of March at Palos. 
 from whence he had departed seven months and eleven days before. 
 
 His success spread his renown through Europe. The inhabitants 
 of Spain crowded to behold him. Ferdinand and Isabella received 
 him with the most distinguishing marks of favour. A new spirit 
 was awakened, multitudes were now ready to embark in an enterprise 
 which promised them wealth and honour. Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 agreeably to previous stipulation, appointed Columbus admiral and 
 viceroy of all the countries discovered. 
 
 The sanction of the pope was obtained, and no instance can be 
 adduced of more impious presumption on the one hand, and egre- 
 gious credulity on the other, than the grants made on this and 
 similar occasions. The holy father, in virtue of his 
 Rigiit of discovery, authority as vicegerent of Christ, gave to the Span- 
 ish monarchs the sovereignty of all the countries which their naviga- 
 tors should discover. The monarchs then proceeded to make exten- 
 sive discoveries, not doubting the validity of the title thus given- 
 
 21* 
 
242 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 Columbus set forth on his second voyage with a larger armament 
 
 than before. On his return to Hispaniola, he found 
 
 1493. ti^at the Spaniards whom he had left, had been 
 
 ^'''To*'"/e^'°"'^ massacred, and their fort destroyed. After the 
 
 departure of their commander, their licentiousness 
 
 and rapacity knew no bounds; and the kind hearted natives, at 
 
 length roused to madness, destroyed, in self-defence, the abusive 
 
 intruders. 
 
 Columbus now made choice of a healthy situation, where he 
 
 founded a city, which he named Isabella : the first 
 
 First city in Amor- planted by the Europeans in the new world. The 
 
 situation 01 the colony, iiowever, was lar irom 
 
 promising. During a short absence of Columbus from the town, on 
 
 a voyage of discovery, the Spaniards, disobeying his commands, 
 
 irritated the natives by new excesses. Assem- 
 
 Contests with the bling in Vast numbers, they determined to drive 
 
 tlfltlVGS . 
 
 from their land these terrible invaders. Columbus 
 having returned, attacked them in the night, and so alarmed were 
 they by his fire-arms, and other weapons of European warfare, that 
 they fled without resistance, and he at length subjected the whole 
 island to the Spanish government. 
 
 The unhappy natives next attempted to destroy their oppressors 
 by neglecting the cultivation of the maize and capsada, which fur- 
 nished bread. They were themselves, however, the greatest suffer- 
 ers. The Spaniards received supplies from Europe, while the Indians, 
 having retired to the mountains and wooded parts of the island, and 
 subsisting upon spontaneous productions of the soil, fell with famine 
 and disease, and in a few months, more than a third part of the 
 inhabitants of the island perished. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Columbus leaving the government of the colony to his faithful 
 brother, Bartholomew, again returned to Spain, where his enemies 
 were undermining his interest with the king. He was received with 
 seeming favour, but the delays attendant on the fitting out of another 
 expedition, and the preparations for making the colony permanent, 
 detained him two years. 
 
 In his third voyage, he proceeded further to the south, discovered 
 1498. the mouth of the Orinoco, and sailing thence west- 
 
 Columbus discovers ward, landed at several places on the continent. 
 
 the contine.it. Qn his arrival at Hispaniola, he found the afllairs of 
 the colony in a suffering state. The insurrections of the natives, 
 and still worse, the mutiny of the Spaniards, had reduced his brother 
 to the greatest distress. 
 
 Private expeditions began now to be attempted. An armament 
 
 under the command of Alonzo de Ojeda, was fitted 
 
 Aionzo de Ojeda. q^^ ^^ ^1^^ merchants of Seville. Ojeda, having 
 
 obtained the charts and journal of Columbus, followed directly the 
 
CHAP. II.] DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 243 
 
 track which he had pursued in his last voyage. Reaching Paria, he 
 sailed along a considerable extent of its coast, and ascertained (what 
 Columbus had previously supposed) that it was a part of a continent. 
 Amerigo Vespucio, a native of Florence, accompanied this expe- 
 dition, and by publishing a work on his return, 
 Amerigo Vespucio. descriptive of the country and natives, came to be 
 considered the discoverer of the continent ; and thus fraudulently de- 
 prived Columbus of the honour of giving it his own name. 
 
 Meanwhile the Portuguese had pushed their discoveries in the 
 east. A squadron under the command of Vasco 
 Portuguese discov- je Gama, had doubled the Cape of Good Hope 
 and discovered the passage to India. The follow- 
 ing year, another expedition, steering west to avoid the winds and 
 calms off the coast of Africa, discovered the coast of Brazil, in South 
 America, and took possession of the country for the crown of Por- 
 tugal. 
 
 Many of the colonists which Columbus had carried over, were of 
 the very dregs of society — criminals who were released from prison, 
 to be transported to the New World. His attempts to enforce disci- 
 pline among this licentious mass, exposed him to their hatred ; and 
 they made false accusations against him, which eventually reached 
 the court of Spain. There he had active enemies. 
 
 ^" "^° b;? ^°^""'" ^"^y' ^^^^^^ ®^^^ follows, and seeks to depreciate 
 superior merit, had been awakened, by witnessing 
 his splendid successes, and they now misrepresented him to the sove- 
 reigns. Isabella, though she had long withstood these calumnies, 
 at last yielded to their influence, and believed Columbus to be guilty 
 of oppression to the natives. 
 
 Francis de Bovadilla was now appointed to proceed to Hispaniola, 
 with power to examine into the administration of Columbus, and if 
 necessary, to supersede him in the government. On his arrival, the 
 island had been reduced by Columbus to submission, and all dissen- 
 sions composed. Bovadilla, however, at once 
 Columbus in chains, ^ssumed the government, and sent Columbus in 
 chains to Europe. Ferdinand, ashamed of this injustice, gave orders 
 on his arrival in Spain, that he should be released, and invited to 
 court. This cold and calculating monarch received him with civility ; 
 Isabella, with tenderness. Columbus recapitulated to his sovereigns 
 his trials, his efibrts and his injuries. But, though Bovadilla was 
 removed from the government and recalled, Columbus was not rein- 
 stated in his rights, now so extensive as to be an object of jealousy 
 to the court. On the contrary, Nicholas de Ovando was appointed 
 governor of St. Domingo. 
 
 Columbus, though he felt keenly this new injury, remained two 
 
 years an unsuccessful suitor at the court of Spain. Finding it vain 
 
 to solicit the redress of his injuries from an ungrate- 
 
 ^'^"toT e!°°"*' ^"^ monarch, he offered to conduct another voyage 
 
 of discovery, to seek a new passage to the Indies, 
 
 which he expected to find somewhere near the isthmus of Darien. 
 
 Ferdinand, hoping to reap new advantages from his genius, furnished 
 
244 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD t. 
 
 him with four small ships, and Columbus, at an advanced age, again 
 went forth to seek new countries. This voyage was disastrous ; 
 after sailing along the coast a considerable distance, he found his 
 hopes of discovering a strait, delusive. He encountered a violent 
 storm, and his vessels were so much injured as to compel him to run 
 them aground at Jamaica. Here, far away from all aid or consola- 
 tion, he was detained more than a year by the governor of St. Do- 
 mingo. When he returned, Isabella was dead, and from her alone 
 he had hopes of sympathy and justice. Heart stricken by this 
 blow, he sunk into despondency, and died at Valla- 
 1506. dolid, A. D. 1506, in the fifty-seventh year of his 
 
 Columbus dies. _~c. 
 
 age. 
 
CHAP. III.] ITALY. 245 a 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Section I. 
 ITALY. 
 
 A war now commences, the seat of which is Italy, but which enga- 
 ges several of the great powers. Its first subject was the sovereign- 
 ty of Naples, which, as we have before seen, had been long contested 
 between the French and Spanish. The throne 
 1492. ^vas now claimed by Charles VIII. of France, 
 
 ^Charles^^vm. of ^ though occupied by a Spanish prince. Charles, be- 
 ples, ing instigated by Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan, to 
 
 prosecute his claim, invaded Italy at the head of a 
 large army. All the Italian powers were alarmed, and even Sforza 
 was surprised at the result of his intrigue ; but as no opposition was 
 made, Charles achieved the conquest of Naples without the shedding 
 of blood. He was, however, at little pains to establish his govern- 
 ment in Naples, and the licentious manners of the French rendered 
 the Italians more and more averse to their dominion. Meanwhile the 
 jealousy of the other powers was awakened, and Sforza, who had 
 suggested to Charles the idea of this conquest, now united in a league 
 with the Venetians, the object of which was to expel the French from 
 Italy, which Ferdinand, king of Spain, the pope, Alexander, and the 
 emperor, also joined. Charles, on learning this, left a governor in 
 Naples, and garrisons in the principal towns, marched to meet the con- 
 federate armies, and encountered them near Parma, where a battle 
 ensued. Tiiough his enemies had nearly double his force, he obtained 
 a i)artial victory, but was forced to retreat to France, with little the 
 air of a conqueror. 
 
 Ferdinand II. took advantage of his retreat to recover Naples, ^ 
 and was aided in his designs by that valiant captain, Gonsalvo di 
 Cordova, and the French were at length driven from the south of 
 Italy. 
 
 The death of Charles VII., who left no sons, was followed by the 
 elevation of Louis XII., duke of Orleans, to the throne of France. 
 Louis early asserted his claims to Italy. In addition to the claims 
 upon Naples, he asserted a right to the duchy of Milan. By various 
 iDcitements, he allured pope Alexander VI., the Venetians, and the 
 Florentines, to his interest. He then marched into 
 1499. Italy, and achieved the conquest of Milan, almost 
 
 Louis XII. conquers ^yithout a blow. Sforza was eventually taken, and 
 ended his days an unpitied prisoner in France. Louis 
 next set himself to the recovery of Naples, and for this object form- 
 ed an alliance with Ferdinand of Spain, by the terms of which the 
 kingdom of Naples was to be divided. The French monarch was 
 to possess the northern, and the Spanish, the soutl^rn portion, and eac*i 
 to conquer his own division. This treaty but prepared the way for 
 
 21** 
 
246 a MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 more bloody and lasting wars, as the French and Spanish portions 
 not being defined, they each claimed the central parts. 
 
 While Gonsalvo di Cordova, was already pushing the war in Italy, 
 Ferdinand was amusing Louis with negotiations. When the Span- 
 ish troops had made themselves masters of Naples, Louis became 
 sensible that he had been duped, prepared to attack Ferdinand with 
 vigour, and to carry the war both into Spain and 
 The Spaniai-xls gain j^^iy^ g^,^ (jgspite of his efforts, the Spaniards 
 ^^ '''" remained masters of the whole kingdom. 
 
 Meantime a change in the views of the popedom had taken place. 
 The death of Alexander VL was followed by the election of Julius 
 II. This pontiff, not satisfied with the engines 
 1508. which his sacred chai'acter put into his hands, to 
 
 Pope Juhus II. bend kings to his will, sunk that character, in the 
 ambition to rival those kings in the extent of his temporal domin- 
 ions, and in intrigue, and martial achievement, proved the master 
 spirit of his day. His object was to extend the popedom over all 
 Italy. The power of Venice must first be humbled. To effect this, 
 Julius entered into an alliance, called the " league 
 League of Cambray. of Cambray," with Louis of France, and Maximil- 
 ian of Germany. The Venetians could not with- 
 stand their power. After losing a battle, they gave 
 Venice humbled. ^p ji^gjj. possessions on the Continent, and retreated 
 
 to their city. 
 Having humbled the Venetians, and obtained a portion of their 
 territories, as he desired, Julius next determined to expel every for- 
 eign power from Italy, and he now found means to draw the Ve- 
 netians to his alliance against France. Spain and 
 1521. Switzerland soon joined the " Holy league." Louis 
 
 Holy league against despatched a powerful army into Italy, under the 
 command of his gallant nephew, Gaston de Foix. 
 French successful at After brilliant successes, this young hero penetra- 
 Ravenna, but lose ^g^j ^q Ravcnna, and there encountered the troops 
 of the allies, and completely defeated them, but fell 
 in the battle. With him fell the fortunes of the French. They 
 were driven out of Milan, and the son of Sforza was seated on the 
 ducal throne. 
 
 Meanwhile, Ferdinand of Spain made himself master of Navarre, 
 Spain conquers which he Conquered from John d'Albret, its sove- 
 Navarre. reign, who was in alliance with France. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 FRANCIS I.— CHARLES V. 
 
 The death of pope Julius, at this period, changed the aspect of 
 
 things. His successor, the accomplished Leo X., 
 
 Leo X. Qf tbg illustrious house of Medicis, showed himself 
 
 friendly to France. The death of Louis occurred shortly after that 
 
 of pope Julius. Leaving only a daughter, the crown of France 
 
CHAP. III.] ITALY. 247 a 
 
 descended to his cousin, Francis I. This popular 
 Francis I. princc was distinguished for the manly beauty of 
 
 his countenance and person, the suavity of his manner, his bravery, 
 and ambition, rather than for the soundness of his mind. Such, 
 though as men, they may be the joy of social life, as princes, sel- 
 dom fail of causing destruction to human life, and public prosperity. 
 Thus it eventually proved with Francis. 
 
 Bent on the recovery of Milan, he assembled a large army, led 
 
 them in person across the Alps, and, at Marignan, 
 
 Francis recovers encountered the Swiss in the service of the Milan- 
 
 ese, fought and won a bloody battle. The duchy 
 
 of Milan submitted, and its duke, Maximilian Sforza, abandoned 
 
 his claims to its sovereignty, and in exchange, received a pensios 
 
 from France. Pope Leo X. now made peace with France, and 
 
 Europe for a short season enjoyed a general tranquillity. 
 
 The death of Ferdinand, king of Spain, was followed by the ele- 
 vation of his grandson, Charles V., then sixteen 
 1516. years of age. Tiie character of this prince, con- 
 
 Charles V. trasts strongly with that of the young king of 
 
 France. He was grave and judicious, but cold and calculating, a 
 less amiable man, but perhaps a more desirable sovereign. He 
 was the son of Philip, arch-duke of Austria, who was son of the 
 emperor Maximilian, and Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella. From his maternal grand -parents, he inherited Spain — from 
 his paternal, Austria and the Netherlands. 
 
 About two years after the elevation of Charles to the sovereignty 
 of Spain, the death of his grandfather, the emperor Maximilian, left 
 the imperial throne vacant, and presented a source of competition 
 between Charles and Francis. Both offered themselves as candi- 
 dates. The electors very naturally preferred the 
 1520. claims of Charles, who was a prince of German 
 
 Cliarles elected origin, and heir to the Austrian possessions, to 
 emperor. those of a foreigner, who was not even acquainted 
 
 with their language. At another period, they might have been 
 jealous of concentrating so many powers in one man ; but at this 
 time, they felt the need of a powerful sovereign to defend them from 
 the alarmuig power of the Turks. Charles therefore obtained the 
 election. 
 
 It was not long before the disappointed Francis found pretexts 
 for hostilities. He presented claims to Naples, 
 Francis' pretences g^j^j required the restoration of Navarre to its he- 
 '"' ^^'^- reditary prince, as an ally of France. Charles, 
 
 on the other hand, revived his claim upon Burgundy, which, he 
 averred, had been unjustly united to France by Louis XI. ; and he 
 claimed Milan, as a fief of the German empire. 
 
 Both monarchs made preparations for war, and strengthened them- 
 selves by alliances. The French were again unsuccessful, and were 
 expelled from Milan. Francis Sforza, brother of the late duke, was 
 raised to the duchy, which he held as a fief of the German em- 
 pire. 
 
248 a MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 Francis was meanwhile perplexed by the defection of one of his 
 
 most important subjects, a man of splendid talents 
 
 ^^^M^^"^ k" as well as of powerful connexions, Charles, duke of 
 
 constable Bourbon. „ i .11 ^ .1 1 • 1 1 /• 
 
 courbon, constable ol the kingdom, who, from a 
 quarrel with the queen mother, abandoned the service of his country, 
 and in a spirit of revenge, entered that of the emperor. 
 
 The French king, having successfully repelled an invasion of the 
 
 imperialists into Provence, resolved to march in person, at the head 
 
 of an army, into Italy. In 1524 he besieged Pavia. 
 
 1525. X division of the opposing army, under the duke of 
 
 Francis defeated at Bourbon, attacked him, defeated him, and made 
 
 Fa via, and mace , . . , . , 1 .1 ■!-> 1 
 
 prisoner. "1™ prisoner, and in two weeks the b rench were 
 
 entirely driven from Italy. Francis wrote to his 
 
 mother, " Madame, all is lost but our honour." France was filled 
 
 with dismay, and tlie other allied powers with surprise and grief. 
 
 Meantime Francis was conveyed to Spain. His reception in that 
 
 kingdom gave to Charles the character of an un- 
 
 Charles' treatment rjenerous and unfeeling rival. Charles, however, at 
 
 of his captive. r ^ ^ ■, F ^ j ■ 1 1 
 
 length became sensible that his conduct was obnox- 
 ious in the eyes of all Europe. Insurrections in Italy threatened to 
 diminish his power in that quarter. Henry VIII. of England enter- 
 ed into a treaty with the queen-mother, Louise of Savoy, who was 
 regent of France, by which he pledged himself to a defensive alli- 
 ance with that kingdom, and to the exertion of his power in procur- 
 ing the release of the captive monarch. 
 
 Charles at last became thoroughly alarmed by the discovery that 
 Francis had resolved to resign his crown, and was taking measures to 
 carry his purpose into effect. He then negotiated with his prisoner 
 the peace styled the treaty of Madrid, by which he 
 Francis released. ^^g released ; but his liberty was dearly bought. 
 The states refused to ratify the treaty, and the pope absolved Francis 
 from his oath. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 The pope, Clement VII., the successor of Leo, the Venetians, and 
 
 the duke of Milan, now formed a league with Francis against the 
 
 emperor, and induced Henry VIII. to become its 
 
 1521. protector. Of this league, termed the "Holy 
 
 "Holy league" league," the pope was at the head. The duke of 
 
 against Charles. i-, 1 • • 1 1 i /- 1 • 
 
 Bourbon again received the command of the impe- 
 rial forces in Italy, and before the arrival of reinforcements to the 
 confederates from France, took Milan, plundered and overran the ter- 
 ritory, and advanced upon Rome. The pope, alarmed, shut himself 
 up in the castle of St. Angelo. Bourbon prepared to storm the city, 
 
 but while mounting the wall was slain. His army 
 1527. continued the assault, and made themselves masters 
 
 Charles takes Rome ^f ^j^^ ^ ^^j^j^j^ ^^^ exposed tO all the fury 
 
 — the pope prisoner. ^ ,. . ... _ ' . , •' 
 
 of a licentious soldierv. Rome now witnessed a 
 
CHAP. III.] ITALY. 249 a 
 
 scene of pillage, bloodshed and debauchery unequalled even in the 
 conquests of the Gotlis. The imperial army remained in possession 
 of the city two months, retaining the pope a prisoner. Charles, with 
 characteristic dissimulation, affected the utmost sorrow at the captiv- 
 ity of the holy father, and ordered a general mourning upon the oc- 
 casion. 
 
 Meantime, Henry VIII., of England, again alarmed, was excited 
 
 against the emperor by the continued successes of his arms, and by 
 
 the indignity offered to the pope ; and he was encouraged in these 
 
 sentiments by the famous cardinal Wolsey, who believed himself to 
 
 have been excluded from the pontificate by Charles. 
 
 lo25. ^ j-ie^y treaty between Henry and Francis was 
 
 Henry VIII. nirrns therefore formed, and their united armies marched 
 
 cis, a<Tainst the era- i^'^^ Italy. The Commander, Lautrec, made him- 
 
 peror. self master of Genoa and Pavia, and from thence 
 
 advanced towards Rome. On the approach of the confederated 
 
 army, the emperor liberated the pope. Lautrec then invaded the 
 
 kingdom of Naples, and besieged the city with every prospect of 
 
 success. 
 
 At this juncture, the French king, by some regulations likely to 
 affect the commerce of Genoa, offended Andrew 
 Andrew Dona. Doria, a Genoese admiral of great merit, who had 
 engaged in the French service, and was blockading the port of Na- 
 ples. Doria drew off the Genoese fleet, leaving the port free. Fresh 
 troops and provisions arrived in aid of the citizens, and Lautrec was 
 compelled to raise the siege. In the north of Italy, similar bad for- 
 tune attended the arms of the confederates. 
 
 By this time both Charles and Francis were weary of war. Charles 
 had difficulties to contend with in his German dominions, which de- 
 manded all his energies. The nionarchs therefore gave their sane- 
 tion to a peace, sometimes called the ladies' peace, 
 
 1519. negotiated by Louise, the queen-mother, and Mar- 
 Peace of Cambray, garet of Hungary, the aunt of Charles. By this 
 
 Jeace." '*^^ arrangement, Francis relinquished his claim upoQ 
 the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois. 
 The Reformation had spread extensively in the empire, and 
 threatened to subvert the authority of the pope. 
 
 1520. Charles, though a bigoted adherent of the Roman 
 The Reforma church, had been compelled, by the war with France, 
 
 to leave the Germans in the exercise of their opin- 
 ions ; but he was desirous of interposing his authorit}'^ for the suppres- 
 sion of heresy. In addition to this, the empire was threatened by the 
 Turks, who had already invaded Hungary, and now menaced the 
 Austrian dominions. The pressing need of giving his attention to 
 this war, induced Charles to leave the religious controversy still un. 
 decided. To obtain the assistance of the protestants against the 
 Turks, he affected great moderation. Solyman, 
 Invasion of the ^^xe Turkish sultan, entered Hungary at the head of 
 Turks. 300,000 men. Charles assembled from different 
 
 parts of the empire a well disciplined regular force of 90,000 foot. 
 
 21*** 
 
250 a MODERN HISTORY. [pERlOD 1. 
 
 and 20,000 horse, besides many irregulars. The emperor himself 
 now for the first time took the command in person. No battle was 
 fought ; but after a summer campaign, Solyman, overawed, relin- 
 quished his proposed invasion, and retraced his steps to Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 Charles now returned to Spain, and prepared for an expedition 
 against the Barbary states. Hayraddin, or Barba- 
 
 1535. rossa, the commander of a piratical fleet, had made 
 Charles goes against hi„-,self the tcrrour of all the countries on the shores 
 
 aiy a . ^^ ^^^^ Mediterranean. He ravaged the coasts of 
 Italy, and invaded the kingdom of Tunis, winch he conquered, and 
 drove away its king. The exiled prince applied to Charles for aid, 
 and the emperor gladly entered upon a war which might rid him of 
 a formidable and piratical neighbour, and in the eyes of all Christen- 
 dom, be in truth a holy expedition. He collected a veteran army 
 from various parts of his dominions, and with a fleet of nearly five 
 hundred vessels sailed for Africa. Barbarossa drew together the 
 Moorish and Arabian forces of the different African princes, to whom 
 he represented the invasion as an attack upon all Mussulmen. Not- 
 withstanding this formidable resistance, the expedition of the emperor 
 proved successful. The conquest of Francis, the release of twenty 
 thousand Christian slaves, and the check given to the piratical power, 
 were truly glorious to Cliarles, and called forth the applause and ad- 
 miration of the civilized world. 
 
 The absence of the emperor in Africa seemed to Francis a fit 
 
 opportunity fur renewing the war. The trial and 
 Francisjenews tlie execution of his envoy at the court of Milan, for 
 
 the murder of one of the duke's domestics, afford- 
 ed a pretext. He at once engaged in war, despatched an army into 
 Italy, which ravaged tlie territories of the duke of Savoy, an ally of 
 the emperor, almost without opposition. The death of Sforza, with- 
 out heirs, now occurring, Francis renewed his claim to the duchy of 
 Milan. Charles, in the meantime, returned successful from his Afri. 
 can expedhion, and now flattered himself that he might add France 
 
 to his other conquests. He invaded it, and was pres- 
 ^''^FranlT'^'' sing forward with vigour. Francis prudently re- 
 
 solved to maintain only a defensive warfare. He 
 directed his general, Montmorenci, who commanded in the south of 
 France, to lay waste the country on which the emperor must depend 
 for subsistence. He obeyed, and rendered the atttempts of the im- 
 perial forces entirely unsuccessful. 
 
 Francis in the meantime had obtained a powerful ally in Solyman, 
 
 the sultan. Solyman despatched an army into Hun- 
 
 1536. gary, which defeated the Germans in a great bat- 
 Francis fo.n,s a ^jg yj Essek, on the Drave, and sent his fleet under 
 
 league with the t.i ■ ^.ii imiiji 
 
 Turks. Barbarossa to the coast of Italy ; the i urks landed 
 
 near Tarento, ravaged the countr}^, and retired. 
 
 The feelings of all the Christian powers were outraged by this union 
 
 with the infidels. Eftbrts were made by the pope to effect a peace, 
 
 which both monarchs greatly desired, but the terms of which could 
 
CHAP. IV.j THE REFORMATION. 251 rt 
 
 not be settled. At last, through his mediation, a 
 Ten years' truce. truce of ten years was agreed upon. 
 
 During the period of this truce, Charles wislied to pass through 
 France to the Netherlands, to suppress an insurrection of the citi- 
 zens of Ghent. He hesitated whether he should trust himself to the 
 power of his rival. The generosity of Francis' character, and his 
 chivalric notions of honour, induced him to make the trial. His 
 confidence was far from being disappointed.— 
 Charles suppressed the insurrection, and inflicted 
 1541. rigorous punishments upon the citizens of Ghent, 
 
 Charles goes a sec- ^j^ native city. During this year he made a 
 "'^''"irates""^' second expedition against the pirates, which was 
 disastrous and unsuccessful. 
 Meantime, his obstinate refusal to grant to Francis the investiture 
 of Milan, caused the truce to be broken. For two years, war raged 
 in France and Spain, Italy and the Netherlands, with all its con- 
 comitant horrours, but without any decisive result. 
 1544. A treaty of peace was at length concluded at 
 
 Peace of Crespi. Cr.espi, in which Charles made several concessions. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 The corruptions of the Romish church, and the despotic power 
 which the popes exercised, had frequently produced controver- 
 sies between the pontiffs, and the different sovereigns of Christen- 
 dom. In many instances, however, individuals of uncommon pene- 
 tration and courage, had burst from the thraldom of superstition 
 and asserted their right to freedom of opinion. Ut 
 1393. this number were, WicklifFe, Huss, and Jerome of 
 
 John Huss and Prague. Still no successful resistance was made 
 Jerome of Prague. ^^ .^^ usurpations, Until the commencement of the 
 sixteenth century, when the revival of letters had awakened a spirit 
 of inquiry, and the influences of the art of printing began to be felt. 
 Leo X., to defray the expenses of building St. Peter s church at 
 Rome, pushed the sale of indulgences, letzel, a 
 Sale of indulgences. Dominican friar, of licentious morals, was commis- 
 sioned to sell these licenses for past and future sins, and despatched 
 to Germany in the execution of his commission. 
 
 This excited the indignation of Martin Luther, a monk of the ordei 
 of St. Augustine, a man renowned for his learning. 
 Martin Luther. jJq boldly cxposed the liceutious lives of the ven- 
 ders of indulgences, and the impotency of their pretended absolving 
 powers He was summoned to the court of Rome, to answer to the 
 charges there brought against him. The professors of the univer- 
 
252 a MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 sity of Wittemberg, and his other friends, entreated the pope to per- 
 mit his trial to be held in Germany. A legate was accordingly des- 
 patched thither. The legate adduced the authority of the church 
 for the sale of indulgences. Luther appealed to scripture. The 
 legate insisted upon his recantation. Luther de- 
 Procecdings against blared that he never would renounce opinions which 
 
 Luther. i i i- i i i i i i 
 
 he believed to be true, and appealed to the pope at 
 B-ome. Here he was condemned as a heretic. He then appealed 
 1521 *° ^ general council. Charles V. summoned him to 
 
 Diet at Worms appear before a diet at Worms. He was con- 
 demned ; but Charles' affairs in Spain, and the Low 
 Countries, requiring his immediate attention, prevented the execution 
 of the decree. Luther, meanwhile, was protected, and for a time, 
 secreted, by the elector of Saxony. Afterwards he propagated his 
 opinions with renewed zeal. 
 
 For the eight years succeeding the diet of Worms, Charles was 
 fully occupied by his contests with Francis. In the meantime, the 
 sentiments of the Reformers continued to spread rapidly. In Swit- 
 zerland, two or three years before Luther com- 
 Zuingiius. menced his career, Zuinglius, a priest of Zurich, 
 
 entered on the same course, and was heard with 
 admiration by the Swiss. From Germany these opinions quickly 
 extended to France, the Low Countries, and England. 
 
 The peace of Cambray no sooner liberated Charles from the 
 
 French war, than he summoned a diet at Spires, 
 
 1529. to settle the religious controversies. The decree 
 
 Diet -at Spires. ^^ ^j^g ^-^^ Confirmed that of Worms, and forbade 
 
 any further innovation in religious matters. The elector of Saxony, 
 
 with other princes of the empire, and the deputies of fourteen im- 
 
 perial cities, protested against the decree, and 
 
 Reformcis called jiencc the reformers received the name of Prot- 
 
 ESTANTS. The emperor summoned another diet at 
 
 Augsburg. Luther was not permitted to attend. 
 
 Diet at Augsburg. lest his impetuous spirit should increase the dissen- 
 
 , p. o^ sions, and because he was an excommunicated 
 
 ., , ., ' nerson. His friend, the amiable Melancthon drew 
 
 Melancthon- 1 '_. ^„., ,., 
 
 up the protestant coniession ot laith, which was 
 presented to the diet ; but all efforts at reconciliation were fruitless, 
 and a more rigorous decree was passed against the protestants. 
 The reformers in self-defence now formed the league of Smalk- 
 ald, in whioh the protestant states pledged them- 
 1531. selves to defend each other against all agression* 
 
 League of They also formed a secret alliance with Henry 
 
 Smalkaid. VIII. of England, and with Francis, the constant 
 
 enemy of Charles. 
 From this period, 1531, to the peace of Crespi, 1544,the emperor, oc 
 cupied by his wars with the French, and the Turks, and by his expedi- 
 tion to Africa, left the protestants free to promulgate their opinions. 
 
 Relieved from these cares, Charles determined to employ the 
 whole weight of the imperial power to suppress the reformation. 
 
CHAP. IV.] THE REFORMATION. 253 a 
 
 He accordingly leagued with the pope, to extirpate 
 
 1545. heresy. A council was convened at Trent. The 
 Counni ui Trent. protestants refused to submit to its decisions, and 
 
 determined to resort to arms. Charles, unprepared for immediate 
 
 war, had recourse to his usual arts, intrigue, and negotiation. He 
 
 won Maurice, a prince of the Saxon family, by promising to give 
 
 him the possessions of the elector of Saxony. While 
 
 1546. ti^e emperor and pi-inces of the league were thus 
 LutliLT dies. negotiating, Luther died. The prospects of the 
 
 protestants seemed dark. They were subject to all the evils arising 
 from divided councils, Maurice invaded Saxony, defeated the troops 
 of the Elector, and made himself master of almost the whole electo- 
 rate. The disheartened confederates sued to the emperor for peace, 
 but the conditions he imposed, were so rigorous that they were at 
 once rejected. Their army, meantime, very imprudently separated. 
 This was no sooner done, than Charles took measures to procure 
 the separate submission of the princes. All but the elector of Saxo- 
 ny, and the landgrave of Hesse, yielded. The elector returned to 
 his electorate, which he recovered. The death of Francis, relieving 
 Charles from fear of France, he carried the war into Saxony. The 
 elector was defeated, and taken prisoner. The landgrave alone was 
 now in arms. By artifice, the emperor obtained 
 
 1547. possession of his person, and detained both him and 
 Protestant cause ^j^g elector, in rigorous captivity. The league, so 
 
 formidable at first, was now wholly dispersed. 
 At a diet held at Augsburg, a system of doctrine called " the 
 Interim," because it was to bo binding only until a general council 
 should be called, was prepared by the emperor's orders. This sys- 
 tem, although relaxed in one or two points, was 
 
 1548. decidedly against the protestants, and did not satisfy 
 '•The Interim." either them or the calholics. 
 
 The emperor desired to make the imperial dignity hereditary in his 
 family, and sought to procure his son, Philip, to be elected king of 
 the Romans, and heir of the empire, to the prejudice of his brother 
 Ferdinand, who had already received the title of king of the Romans. 
 These, with other measures, alarmed the German princes. The elec- 
 tors refused to yield to his solicitation. Maurice 
 
 Maurice plots ^^ Saxony now secretly became his enemy, and 
 
 agains lar es. ^^.^^^ consummate art, set himself to countermine his 
 plans. He obtained of Charles the command of the imperial army, 
 and was employed to compel the citizens of Magdeburg to submit 
 to the Interim. After accomplishing that object, he delayed, under 
 various pretexts, to disband his army. He next obtained the support 
 of Henry II. of France. At the head of 20,000 foot, and 5,000 
 horse, he now published a manifesto, boldly stating the reasons of his 
 taking arms. Charles, out of health, and not suspicious of ill, was, 
 with a few soldiers, at Innspruck. He had no resource but flight, 
 and unable to travel in a carriage, the sovereign of 
 
 Charles fleer. j^j^if Europe was hurried over the Alps in a litter. 
 He arrived safely at Villach, in Carinthia, where he remained till 
 matters were settled with the protestant princes. 
 
254 rt MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD 1. 
 
 Maurice finding the puisuit fruitless, returned to Innspruck. The 
 
 council of Trent, separated in consternation. Meantime negotiations 
 
 commenced at Passau, which at length terminated 
 
 1552. in a peace, styled " the Peace of Religion." Its 
 
 Peace of Pussau. principal stipulation was, that the liberties and rights 
 
 of the protestants in Germany, should be secured. 
 
 The French king had no part in this treaty, so that Charles still 
 had a war upon his hands. The Turkish fleet again made a descent 
 upon Italy, and ravaged the coast of Naples; while, in Hungary, the 
 imperial arms were unsuccessful. 
 
 Charles, wearied with the cares of royalty, now abdicated his 
 crown, resigning the sovereignty of Spain and the 
 1556. Netlierlands to his son Philip. His brother Ferdinand 
 
 Charles abdicates. ^^.^^ choseu emperor by the electors of Germany. 
 In order to leave his dominions in quiet, he made a truce with Henry 
 III. of France, for five years. He then retired to a monastery in 
 Spain, where he passed the two remaining years of his life, with no 
 amusement but that of making watches. 
 
 James IV., of Scotland, invaded England with a powerful army, 
 1513. t)Lit was defeated in the bloody battle of Flodden 
 
 Battle of Floddcn field, and slain with the flower of the Scottish 
 field. nobility. 
 
 James V. was a minor at the time of his father's death. Henry 
 intrigued to get the administration placed in the hands of his sister, 
 queen Margaret, mother of the young king. Be- 
 ames V. twecn her and the duke of Albany, who had been 
 
 appointed regent, constant dissensions arose. Hostilities with the 
 English continued, with no important results. James made peace 
 with Henry, but espousing first, Magdalen, a French princess, and 
 after her death, Mary of Guise, the Scotch became still more closely 
 united with the French. Scotland, as well as England, had become 
 imbued with the principles of the reformation. James, however, ad- 
 hered zealously to the religion of Rome, and persecuted the protes- 
 tants. This was another source of enmity between him and the king 
 of England. Another war ensued. At Haddonrig, the Scottish 
 arms triumphed over the English. Shortly after, James having 
 assembled an army of thirty thousand men, their feudal leaders refused 
 to advance into England. News arrived of the disgraceful flight of 
 the Scots on the western border. The monarch sunk under these 
 misfortunes, and shortly after died. 
 
 Meanwhile, a spirit of opposition to the church of Rome had rapid- 
 
 ly extended among the English. Henry VIII. had at first written 
 
 against it, and burned several heretics ; but at this time favoured 
 
 the good cause. He wished to be divorced from 
 
 '^"'^^divorce^^'^ ^^ ^ Catharine of Arragon, in order to espouse Anne 
 
 Boleyn, a lady of the court. He affected to be 
 
 convinced that his marriage with Catharine was illegal, because she 
 
 was his brother's widow, and therefore within the degrees of affinity 
 
 forbidden by the church. He appealed to Rome, but his suit was 
 
 delayed from time to time. At length he was summoned to appear 
 
CHAP. IV.] THE REFORMATION. 255 a 
 
 at Rome, an insult which he highly resented. He next proposed 
 the question of the validity of his marriage to the universities of Eu- 
 rope, and received answers favourable to his purpose. 
 
 Cardinal Wolsey, was in favour of the divorce, and consequently 
 incurred the ill will of Catharine's party. He 
 1525. secretly desired to procure a marriage for Henry 
 
 Wolsey's disgrace, ^jjj^ some French princess, in order to forward his 
 own design upon the papal crown. His intrigues awakened sus- 
 picions in the friends of Anne Boleyn, and roused their indignation. 
 Wolsey was apprehended on the charge of high treason, but died of 
 a sudden illness before the time of his trial. 
 
 Henry resolved to wait no longer the pope's determination. 
 Cranmer, as primate declared his marriage null and 
 Ann'/Bole^n' ^°'^- ^^ ^^^" married his favourite. The church 
 of England was severed from that of Rome, and 
 the^king was declared its head. The Reformation progressed in Eng- 
 land, though the measures of the monarch continually fluctuated, and 
 he exercised a despotic power, over both protestants and Romanists. — 
 His regard for Anne Boleyn was of short continuance. She was soon 
 discarded for Jane Seymour ; she, for Anna of Cleves; she, for Ca- 
 tharine Howard ; and she, for Catharine Parr. 
 
 The execution of Sir Thomas More, chancellor of the kingdom, 
 
 who is said to have resembled the ancient sages 
 
 Fxecuti.m ofSir more than any man who had appeared in Europe 
 
 riioinas More. „ ^ . •' . , ,i • i- • r. ,, 
 
 tor centuries, awakened the mdignation of all 
 Christendom. More refused either to affirm or deny the validity of 
 Catharine's marriage or the supremacy of the king in religious mat- 
 ters ; although he declared himself ready to swear that he would sup- 
 port the succession to the crown, established by parliament. The 
 despotic Henry and his obsequious ministers pronounced him guilty 
 of treason. 
 
 Henry, by his will, left his crown, first to his son, Edward VI., 
 next to Mary, daughter of Catharine, and next 
 1557. to Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn. Edward 
 
 Edwuid VI. ^y^g -^^^ jjjj_i^ years of age at tlie death of his fa- 
 
 ther. The government was committed to a regency, at the head of 
 which was his uncle, Henry Seymour, earl of Hertford, created duke 
 of Somerset. He, adhering to the opinions of Luther, established a 
 church not only independent of the see of .Rome, but dissenting from 
 it in matters of doctrine. The young monarch had 
 1549. himself zealously espoused the protestant cause, and 
 
 English liturgy. during tliis reign, a liturgy in the English language 
 was adopted, and the church of England established on much the 
 same foundation as that on which it now exists. 
 
 The war with Scotland continued. The object of Henry was to 
 procure the hand of the young queen, Mary Stuart, in marriage for 
 his son Edward, and thus unite both crowns. The Catholic party 
 preponderated in the Scottish councils, and Mary was affianced to 
 the dauphin of France. The war, although sanguinary, resulted in 
 nothing decisive, and at length, a peace was concluded. 
 
256 a MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD I. 
 
 The health of Edward failed, and the hopes derived from his ami- 
 ability of character and attachment to the protestant cause, were 
 about to be blighted. The duke of Northumberland, now sought to 
 prepare the way for the elevation of one of his family to the throne. 
 Lord Guilford Dudley, son of Northumberland, had married the lady 
 Jane Grey, tlie grand daughter of Mary, youngest 
 1553. daughter of Henry VII. The attachment of Ed- 
 
 Lady Jane Grey. ward to the lady Jane, who was about his own age, 
 and who had been, under the celebrated Roger Ascham, the companion 
 of his studies, with her piety and sweetness of character, rendered 
 him more accessible to the reasonings of Northumberland. He, ac- 
 cordingly, without the knowledge of Lady Jane, declared her his suc- 
 cessor. When, on the death of Edward, the tidings of her elevation 
 were announced to her, she fainted with surprise and grief. When 
 she recovered, she sought to escape the unwelcome dignity, urging 
 the prior claims of Mary and Elizabeth. But in an evil hour, she 
 suffered her scruples to be overruled by her ambitious relatives, and 
 was proclaimed queen. A contest ensued between Northumberland 
 and the partizans of Mary, in which the latter were successful. 
 
 Northumberland was impeached for treason and executed. The 
 innocence of Lady Jane, and her husband. Lord Dudley, pi'ocured 
 them a short respite ; but at length, they too, Avere condemned. 
 
 The leading partisans of Lady Jane were next tried and execu- 
 ted, and tlie Catholic bishops were restored. Negotiations were 
 shortly after commenced for the marriage of the 
 1555. queen, which, notwithstanding the remonstrances of 
 
 Srphiii'i'ors''ain' ^^^^' subjects, resulted in a treaty with Charles V., 
 who had proposed her union with his son Piiihp II. 
 An insurrection, headed by Sir Thomas Wyatt, and the duke of 
 Suffolk, showed the disturbed state of the public mind. The conspira- 
 tors had urged Elizabeth to assume the crown, which, with her 
 cliaracteristic prudence, she refused. 
 
 Shortly after the arrival of PhiHp in England, the realm was, with 
 great ceremony, re-united to the Roman church, and absolved by car- 
 dinal Pole, from the sins of hei'esy and schism. At Rome, this event 
 was celebrated with great joy and splendour. This reconciliation 
 was the signal for lighting up the fires of persecution 
 1555. Jq England. The first martyr was John Rogers, 
 
 "'^'•Lr'^'furnr'* ^^^^'^ "^^^ ^"^"^ ^^ Smithfield, March 4th, 1555. 
 Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, and Cranmer, were also 
 made victims. The number of those who suffered death for con- 
 science sake, during this short reign, is estimated at four hundred, 
 of whom two hundred and ninety were burned alive. Many of the 
 protestants fled to foreign lands. 
 
 The death of the bloody Mary, which occurred not long after, was 
 
 followed by the accession of her sister EHzabeth to 
 
 15.00. ti^g throne. The following year, the wars which 
 
 Elizabeth succeeds gg |Q|^g y^^^ agitated Europe, were composed by the 
 
 ^' treaty of Chateau Cambresis, which procured a 
 
 general peace. 
 
PERIOD II. 
 
 COJIPHISIN-G EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FR03I THE 
 
 The treaty Of ) FIRST EPOCHA, 1559 A. D. > Chateau Cambresis, 
 
 To the assassination ) SECOND EPOCHA, 1610 A. D. S of Henry IV. 
 
 CHAPTER T. 
 
 ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 After Charles V.., the main light of the historical picture should, 
 
 until the rise of Henry IV. of France, be thrown 
 
 1558. upon Elizabeth of England ; as being the most 
 
 Eiizaoeth. powerful, sagacious and politic sovereign of the 
 
 time. Though she succeeded to the crown without opposition, her 
 claims were every where disputed by the catholics, on the ground 
 that the marriage of her father, Henry VIII., to her mother, Anne 
 Boleyn, was not valid ; the pope not having sanctioned his divorce 
 from Catharine of Arragon. The pope accordingly issued a bull, 
 declaring her illegitimate. 
 
 Mary, queen of Scots, was esteemed the lawful heir. She had 
 remained in France, been educated to extensive 
 
 Mary, queen of knowledge of languages, general literature and 
 elegant accomplishments, and was now married to 
 the dauphin, afterwards Francis II. 
 
 By the advice of the duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine, 
 the brothers of her mother, she assumed the arms and title of '< queen 
 of England ; " though no immediate measures were used to support 
 her claim. Meanwhile Elizabeth strengthened herself in her authority, 
 and in the affections of her subjects, by prudent measures, and by 
 manners of mingled dignity and courtesy. 
 
 In Scotland, the reformation had made great progress. The 
 heads of the protestant party, the principal of whom was the bigot. 
 
246 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 John Knox, jealous of the influence which the family of Guise possess- 
 ed over the queen-mother (Mary of Guise, who was 
 queen re cnrof regent of the kingdom,) had formed themselves into 
 Scotland. ^11 association, which they called the " Congrega- 
 
 tion of the Lord." The papists, on their side, 
 alarmed at the increase of heresy, resorted to persecution to check 
 it. The regent at one time was in favour with the protestants, but 
 she forfeited their esteem by her duplicity, resulting from her adhe- 
 rence to the French counsels. An open rebellion ensued, and the 
 protestants applied for aid to Elizabeth, who immediately sent an 
 army to their assistance. The queen on her part, reeceived a rein- 
 forcement of troops from France, but retired to Leith, where she was 
 besieged. Her death, which occurred during the siege, and the con- 
 sciousness of their inability to bring the nation to submit by force, 
 induced the Guises to employ pacific measures. Plenipotentiaries 
 were despatched from France to Edinburgh, and a treaty concluded 
 with Elizabeth's ambassadors ; by the terms of which, the French 
 forces were to be withdrawn from Scotland, and Francis and Mary 
 to abstain from assuming the title of king and queen of England. 
 The rights of the protestants were secured by the treaty, which pro- 
 vided for a regency of twelve persons to be chosen jointly by the 
 queen of Scots and the parliament, to govern the realm during her 
 absence. After this the French and English armies both left Scot- 
 land. 
 
 The protestants, still headed by John Knox, now persecuted in 
 their turn. Worship according to the ritual of the 
 
 1559. Romish church was utterly prohibited by law, and 
 ^'''''Stey'°' ^^° ^^^'■'^ offence of this kind made punishable by 
 
 death. 
 
 Meantime the princes of Lorraine, (the Guises) although com- 
 pelled by the disorders in France, to yield for the present, did not 
 relinquish their design of establishing their niece, Mary, upon the 
 throne of England. Influenced by them, Francis IL and Mary, now 
 king and queen of France, refused to ratify the treaty which their 
 ambassadors had made in Edinburgh, and continued to assume the 
 title and arms of monarchs of England. 
 
 The sudden death of Francis left Mary (now no longer queen of 
 France) at liberty to return to Scotland ; and a 
 
 1560. deputation of her subjects arrived with a pressing 
 '^^'"'irfSc^*' 'i'^"^'' invitation that she should assume the government. 
 
 She complied, and bade adieu to her beloved France, 
 with tears and lamentations, and dark forebodings of the difficulties 
 to which her youth, inexperience, and the divided counsels of her 
 kingdom would expose her. 
 
 On her arrival she was received with joy, and by her first meas- 
 ures acquired the confidence of the protestant party. Mary, how- 
 ever, was a papist ; and her adherence to the regular celebration of 
 mass soon awakened the jealousy, and at length alienated the aflTec 
 
CHAP. I.] ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 247 
 
 tions of those of her subjects over whom Knox held a controlUng 
 influence,* and she thenceforth received from them abusive treat- 
 ment, and, on some occasions, outrageous insults. 
 
 For some time after Mary assumed the reins of government, there 
 
 was peace between England and Scotland ; and apparently, the most 
 
 cordial friendship between the rival queens. Among the aspirants 
 
 for the favour of the beautiful queen of Scots was the young lord 
 
 Darnley, who by the elegance of his person caught 
 
 1565. her eye and her fancy ; and she gave him her hand, 
 Mary marries without Sufficiently knowing or regarding his moral 
 
 ^'^" °^' and intellectual character. 
 
 Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, was the eldest son of the earl of 
 Lenox, and Mary's cousin-german ; his mother being Margaret 
 Douglas, niece to Henry VIII. After Mary, therefore, Darnley was 
 next heir to the English crown. Policy, if she intended to prosecute 
 her claim to the English throne, might have had its influence with 
 her in raising him to be the partner of her sway. This meas- 
 ure excited the jealousy of the vigilant Elizabeth ; and she mcited 
 the Scottish protestants to oppose the connexion. Darnley, weak 
 and vain, and savage in his temper, soon ceased to pay to the lovely 
 Mary, the homage her heart demanded, and to which she had been 
 accustomed in France. The society of Rizzio, an 
 
 1566. Italian, her private secretary, was agreeable to the 
 Murder of Rizzio. queen. The jealous Darnley, with some of his 
 
 friends, entered into her apartment, dragged the Italian from her 
 presence, and murdered him in the room adjoining. The birth of 
 her son James followed this tragical event. 
 
 A few months after this, tlie house in wliich Darnley slept was 
 destro3'ed by an explosion of gun-powder, and he 
 
 1567. was killed. The earl of Both well was supposed to 
 ^w BoUnveii''''^ be the author of this atrocious deed ; and rumour 
 
 '^ ° ^^^"^ ■ attributed to the queen a share of the guilt. Both- 
 
 well, after a mock-trial, was exculpated from the charge of murder. 
 The queen exalted him to high honours and offices ; and about three 
 months after tlie murder of her husband, she married him. 
 
 An attempt of the infamous Bothwell to get possession of the 
 infant James, drove the indignant nobles to arms. 
 The Scots revolt. Mary also assembled forces ; but on witnessing the 
 reluctance of her troops to fight in defence of Bothwell, and receiving 
 assurances from the confederated lords, of their willingness to submit 
 to her government, provided Botliwell were banished from her coun- 
 cils, she dismissed him, and he fled to the Orkneys. Here his 
 piracies raised up new enemies, and he was finally captured, and 
 died unpitied in a prison in Norway. The queen herself was kept 
 a prisoner in the castle of Locli Leven, (on the east coast of Scotland 
 in Inverness,) by the confederated lords, who took upon themselves 
 
 * A table is now shown (the fragments having been collected) in Holy Rood house, 
 at Edinburgh, on which .stood an image of the virgin, wliich John Knox, intruding 
 himself into the private apartment of his sovereis;n, clashed to pieces in her presence. 
 
248 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD li- 
 
 the administration of the government ; and, compelling her to resign, 
 they proclaimed her son king, under the title of 
 James VI. James VI. ; making the earl Murray regent of 
 
 the kingdom. 
 Tired of confinement, Mary, by the aid of the chivalric young 
 Douglas, a captive to her charms, escaped from 
 1568. her prison, and rashly threw herself upon the gen- 
 
 Mary seeks protec erosity of Elizabeth for protection. The English 
 
 tioufrom Elizabeth. •' . , j i • i ° 
 
 queeen unjustly made her a prisoner, and contrary 
 to the laws of nations, (Mary being like herself, an independent sove- 
 reign,) she assumed to try her before a court of English and French 
 commissioners, on the charge of being accessory to the death of her 
 husband. Mary, though she objected to the jurisdiction, denied the 
 charge ; but was pronounced guilty, and thenceforth was kept a pris- 
 oner in England, always strictly guarded, and sometimes poorly ac- 
 commodated. Nineteen years after her first trial, she was tried again, 
 on the accusation of being engaged in a conspiracy against the life of 
 ,CQ~ Elizabeth; condemned, and executed at Fother- 
 
 Mary executed. i^g^Y castle. The misfortunes of the lovely queen 
 
 of Scots, insensibly lead the heart to regard her with 
 sympathy, and throw a veil over her imprudence ; it may be her 
 crimes. 
 
 The internal administration of the English government was, dur- 
 ing this period, wise and vigorous ; and the nation 
 Ehzate'Ji's admin- ^.^gg ^^ wealth and consequence, more rapidly than 
 
 at any former period. The religion of the reforma- 
 tion was permanently established ; and troops were sent to France 
 to aid the distressed protestants in that kingdom. 
 
 England and Spain were at this period, the two most powerful 
 nations of Europe ; and the interests of the two monarchs being 
 
 opposed, pretexts for hostilities were found. Philip 
 1557. was at the head of a league formed among the 
 
 Wav with Philip of catholic powers, for the suppression of heresy ; 
 pain. while Elizabeth was regarded as the leader of the 
 
 protestant party. Philip espoused the interests of Mary, queen of 
 ^cots, encouraged and strengthened insurrections in England, and 
 d^^spatched a body of Spaniards and Italians, to assist the Irish in 
 a rebellion against the English government. Elizabeth, by the vig- 
 our of her arms, crushed the rebellion, and yielded effectual support 
 to the inhabitants of the Low Countries ; who had for sometime been 
 engaged in war with Philip. England was now alarmed with the 
 
 intelligence that the Spanish monarch had prepared 
 ''''"a"-^"^^"'''''''^ an immense fleet, styled the " Invincible Armada," 
 
 for the invasion of the island. Philip laid every 
 part of his vast dominions under contribution ; and the length and 
 nature of his warlike preparations, betokened that the enterprise con- 
 templated nothing less for its object than the entire conquest of Eng- 
 land. Indeed so confident were the Spaniards of success, that many 
 nobles attended the armament, merely to receive a share in the 
 division of the countrv. 
 
CHAP. II.] SPAIN, PORTUGAL, NETHERLANDS. 249 
 
 Elizabeth was fully awake to the emergency. She superintended 
 the military preparations herself. She mounted her horse, rode 
 forth and inspected her troops at Tilbury, awakened their hopes, and 
 aroused their energies. The armada, from which such mighty 
 achievements were expected, was attacked in the Channel by the 
 English admiral, lord Howard, several ships taken, 
 1588. and others sunk, or damaged ; so that the Spanish 
 
 Destruction of iIk commander, the duke of Parma, deemed it prudent 
 to return to Spain for repairs. The winds proving 
 contrary, he sailed around the island. Off the Orkneys, a severe 
 storm dispersed and wrecked the fleet. One half of the vessels, 
 and a still greater proportion of the seamen and soldiers, were de- 
 stroyed. Thus ended this formidable invasion. Elizabeth continued 
 during the remainder of her reign, to assist the Low Countries ; and 
 in other ways to annoy Philip. 
 
 Parliament during this reign displayed the most abject submission 
 to the will of the queen. Finding that, with the 
 Elizabeth ubsoUite. g^j^j ^f j-j^g ministers, whom she chose with judgment, 
 and supported with constancy, she governed well, and was not of a 
 temper to brook contradiction, they passively submitted ; thus estab- 
 lishing precedents of submission to royal prerogative which brought 
 future troubles upon the nation. 
 
 In this reign, Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe, (an 
 
 1572. exploit which filled Europe with astonishment,) 
 
 Sir Francis Drake. Commercial relations were entered into with Russia 
 
 1603. and Turkey, and Virginia, the first English colo. 
 
 Settlement of Vir- ny in America, was founded. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 The treaty of Chateau Cambresis being concluded, Philip, after 
 quieting the disturbances in the Netherlands, re- 
 1559. turned to Spain; where his utmost efforts, aided 
 
 Philip persecutes by the torturcs of the Inquisition, were exerted for 
 the extirpation of heresy from his dominions.* He 
 gave orders that all heretics in Spain, Italy, the Indies, and the Neth- 
 erlands, should be forthwith converted or put to death. 
 
 The Netherlands had now become wealthy by their commerce and 
 manufactures, and the government of their cities had contributed to 
 foster a spirit of freedom, both in civil and religious matters. The 
 
 * It is reported, that having encountered a severe storm at sea, on his first landing 
 he threw hiraseif on his knees, and in gratitude for his own preservation, vowed t 
 devote the remainder of his life to destroying heretics ! 
 
 22 
 
250 MODERN HISTORY. [PERTOD tl, 
 
 persecutions of Philip at length produced a revolt. 
 15/2. The duke of Alva, whose cruelties rendered him 
 
 The Netherlands particularly odious, was commissioned as governor 
 of the Netherlands ; and a large body of Spanish 
 and Italian soldiers placed under his command. The counts Egmont 
 and Horn, who had taken the lead among their countrymen, were 
 executed by the orders of Alva. William of 
 William prince of Nassau, prince of Orange, now succeeded them in 
 '^^"°*'' command. He enlisted in his service a body of the 
 
 German protestants, but was unable to bring the Spanish general to 
 an engagement ; and having possession of no fortified place, was 
 compelled to disband his army. The tyranny of Alva increased, and 
 many of the Dutch fled from their country, and took refuge in Eng- 
 land. Their privateers, who had been permitted to dispose of their 
 prizes in the English ports, were at length, on the remonstrances of 
 the Spanish court, excluded. This compelled them to seek a har- 
 bour of their own ; and they seized and fortified the Brille, a port in 
 Holland. Many towns now yielded to the prince of Orange ; and 
 Alva, foreseeing the length and probable result of the war, petitioned 
 to be recalled. It was his boast, that during the five years of his 
 command in the Netherlands, eighteen thousand heretics had per- 
 ished by the hands of the public executioner. 
 
 Requesens, the succeeding governor, tried the efficacy of milder 
 
 measures ; but the disease was past remedy, and 
 
 Requesens sue- ^]^q inhabitants, smarting under their recent oppres- 
 
 ''eeds Alva. . ^- t t.\ -..i • a 
 
 sions, contnuied the war with various success. A 
 
 detachment under Louis, brother to the prince of Orange, was de- 
 feated by the Spaniards, and the commander left dead on the field 
 of battle. The Spaniards laid siege to Lcyden ; 
 1574. but the Dutch endured the extreme of misery, 
 
 Leyden besieged. rather than capitulate ; and having opened their 
 dykes and sluices, a powerful wind impelled the waters with fury 
 against the works of the besiegers, and compelled tliem to retreat. 
 The emperor Ferdinand of Germany attempted in vain to effect a 
 reconciliation between the king of Spain and the States. The Dutch 
 offered the sovereignty of the Low Countries to Elizabeth, but she 
 prudently declined it. After the war had raged for years, a treaty, 
 called the pacification of Ghent, was concluded, 
 1576. l,y which it was stipulated that all foreign troops 
 
 Hacification of should be expelled, and the inquisition in the Neth- 
 erlands abolished. 
 Requesens in the meantime died, and Don John of Austria suc- 
 ceeded him. After a time he violated the treaty, 
 Don John succeeds g^j^j ^he war was renewed. The divisions between 
 the states had prevented an)' vigorous efforts against 
 the common enemy. The prince of Orange exerted himself to 
 produce a union, and procured a meeting of deputies at Utrecht, 
 
CHAP. II.] SPAIN, PORTUGAL, NETHERLANDS. 251 
 
 from Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groain- 
 
 1579. ggi^^ Overvssel and Guelderland ; who signed the 
 The Republic of articles called the union of the Seven United Prov- 
 
 Holland coiumences. -mi i i r. tt 
 
 mces. ihus commenced the Republic of Hol- 
 land. 
 The duke of Parma, one of the most accomplished generals of 
 the age, now commanded the Spanish forces. The States doubting 
 their ability to withstand the power of Spain, again offered the 
 sovereignty to Elizabeth, and on her second rejection of it, to the 
 duke of Anjou ; renouncing all allegiance to Philip. The duke of 
 Anjou, by an attempt upon the liberty of the States, lost their confi- 
 dence, and was obliged to return to France, where he soon after 
 died. The command of the confederates now devolved upon the 
 prince of Orange, who through his whole life was faithful to the liber- 
 ties of his countrymen. They were, however, soon 
 1584. deprived of him, by an assassin whom, a reward 
 
 Prince of Orange offered by Philip had instigated to the ruthless deed. 
 The States appointed his son Maurice to succeed 
 him in command. 
 The duke of Parma, having reduced Ghent and Brussels, besieged 
 Antwerp, the richest and most populous city in 
 b^"tes°Artwrr'' ^^^ Netherlands. The inhabitants made every 
 esiegeo n p. Qff^y^ ^q g^yg ^]^q ^[^y^ ^^^^ were at last obliged to 
 
 capitulate. At this disastrous juncture, when the provinces were 
 
 ready to sink under continued efforts, Elizabeth finding her interest 
 
 now united with theirs, embarked heartily in their cause. The earl 
 
 of Leicester was despatched thither, with six thou- 
 
 1580. sand English troops, while Sir Francis Drake was 
 
 '^''''^Dutch "^^ """ ^^^^ *° ^"^'^^ ^^^® Spaniards in the West Indies. 
 Leicester, having failed to render any effectual as- 
 sistance, was recalled, and lord Willoughby appointed to the com- 
 mand of the English forces. 
 
 Prince JVIaurice now gained upon his adversary. The duke of 
 Parma was obliged to lead his forces into France several times, in 
 aid of the catholic party there ; and he was commanded to prepare 
 for the invasion of England, being required to co-operate with the 
 " Invincible Armada," and thus obliged to neglect the concerns of the 
 Netherlands. On the death of that able commander, Mansfield was 
 appointed to succeed him. Maurice now took 
 1594. Breda, and with the aid of the English, under Sir 
 
 Successes of the Francis Vere, made himself master of Gertruyden- 
 berg and Groningen. At Turnhout, in Brabant, 
 they obtained a complete victory over the Spaniards. In 1596, the 
 Dutch and English squadrons made a joint attack upon the Span- 
 ish fleet, in the bay of Cadiz ; destroyed it, and took the city. 
 Philip now began to think of peace, but the states would hearken to 
 no terms which did not recognize their independence. Philip was 
 
252 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 not prepared for such a measure, but chose rather 
 Phihp transfers his ^^ transfer his dominion over the revolted provinces 
 ^'"Austria. to his daugliter Isabella, who was affianced to Al- 
 
 bert, the duke of Austria. 
 Albert, after his marriage, endeavoured to prevail on the United 
 Provinces to submit, by promises of lenity. They disregarded his 
 advances, and resolved upon hberty or death.. Albert now issued a 
 decree, excluding them from all intercourse with Spain, Portugal, 
 and the Spanish Netherlands. Tliis, though designed to injure their 
 commerce, had a contrary effect, and changed the current of their 
 trade, without lessening its profit. The hostile parties now strength- 
 ened their armies. Prince Maurice enlisted bodies of Germans, 
 Swiss, and French. The arch-duke received supplies from Spain, 
 Italy, and Germany. A sanguinary battle was 
 1600. fought at Nieuport, near Ostend, in West Flanders ; 
 
 Battle of Nieuport. jj^ which the Dutch and English obtained the vic- 
 tory. Albert was soon again in the field with a powerful force, and 
 laid siege to Ostend. After a memorable siege, 
 1604. which lasted more than three years, and cost the 
 
 Ostend capitulates. arch-duke the lives of 70,000 men, Ostend capitu- 
 lated. Prince Maurice, meanwhile, had reduced seven towns, which 
 more than balanced its loss. 
 
 After prosecuting the war two years longer, the court of Spain 
 was obliged to content itself with retaining possession of the ten 
 provinces, and treating with the seven who had 
 1609. acceded to the union as an independent nation. 
 
 independence^of Ae Through the mediation of France and England, a 
 seven provinc . ^Y^^(.Q ^f twelve years was concluded, and the en- 
 joyment of their civil and religious liberties guarantied to the states. 
 — The energy and persevering industry of the Dutch is conspicuous, 
 during this period. Their East India company was established, 
 and their commerce flourished. 
 
 While Philip II. had lost one portion of his dominions, he had 
 acquired a new kingdom in Portugal. Don Sebas- 
 1578. tian, the reigning sovereign, under the influence of 
 
 King of Portugal j]^g Jesuits, attempted an invasion of Morocco, 
 invades Morocco. Q^^y^^g foj. Africa with an army of 20,000 men, 
 his forces were defeated, and he was slain in battle. 
 1581. He was succeeded in his kingdom by his uncle, 
 
 Portugal united to Cardinal Henry. On the death of Henry, who left 
 Spain. j-jQ children, the line of succession became broken, 
 
 and many claimants to the crown arose. Philip, although not pos- 
 sessed of the best right, was the most powerful, and was accordingly 
 crowned king of Portugal. The whole Spanish 
 1596. peninsula being now united under one monarch, was, 
 
 Philip III. Q,^ ^j^g jgjj^j-^ ^f Philip II., transmitted to his son 
 
 Philip III. 
 
CllAP. Ill,] FRANCE. 253 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 The death of Henry II., shortly after the treaty of Chateau Cani- 
 bresis, left the throne of France to his son, Francis, 
 1559. jj,^ ^vho had married Mary, queen of Scots. Many 
 
 Francis II. causes conspircd at this time to make France the 
 
 scene of contention and discord. The protestant religion had not only 
 taken a deep hold of the affections of the French people, but number- 
 ed among its disciples many of the nobility of the first rank. The 
 prince of Conde, admiral Coligni, and many other important persona- 
 ges, were among their number. The family of the Guises was at 
 the head of the catholic party. The duke of Guise, and the cardinal 
 Lorraine, uncles to Mary, queen of Scots, (at this time queen of France 
 also,) were at the head of this family ; and in fact, through their in- 
 fluence over the young Francis, they were at this period at the head 
 Persecution of the of the whole French nation. They instigated him 
 Protestants. to a persecution against the protestants. They en- 
 
 tered into a conspiracy to obtain possession of the person of the king, 
 and wrest the government from their hands. They attacked, for 
 this purpose, the castle of Amboin, but were defeated by tiie royal 
 troops. The king now, for the first time, discovered the hatred which 
 he had incurred, and began to mistrust the Guises. The queen 
 mother, Catharine de Medici, now also opposed them. This led 
 them to the adoption of milder measures. Conde, who had been 
 made prisoner, was released. Tiie Guises, however, shortly after 
 recovered their influence with the court. 
 
 The sudden death of Francis II., transferred the supreme authority 
 to his mother, who exercised the office of regent dur- 
 1566. ing the minority of her second son, Charles IX. 
 
 Oathaiine de Medi- Catharine sought to render her own power para- 
 ° mount, by balancing the opposing factions, and steer- 
 
 ing a middle course between them. De I'Hopital, whom she made 
 chancellor, was an upright and honest man, though he was a atho- 
 lie. The queen, under his influence, showed some favour to the protes- 
 tants. A meeting of catholic and protestant divines took place at 
 Poissy, where the cardinal Lorraine, on the part of the catholics, and 
 Theodore Berce on that of tlie protestants, held a theological dispute, 
 but without coming to any amicable understanding. Meanwhile, a 
 Protostaiits tolera- deputation from the different parliaments of the king- 
 ted, dom, published an edict granting tolerance to the 
 protestants, or Huguenots as they were called, and permitting them 
 to assemble for worship, without the walls of the town. 
 
 The Guises left the court, indignant that such toleration should be 
 22* 
 
254 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD H. 
 
 granted to heretics. But during the absence of the queen and court 
 from Paris, the duke of Guise returned thither. Upon his arrival the 
 populace rose in his favour, and evinced great zeal in the catholic 
 cause. Catharine and her son had retired to Fontainbleau. The 
 duke and his party brought back the queen to Paris. 
 
 The protestants prevailed in the south and west of France, and un- 
 der the prince of Conde, made Orleans their head quarters. The 
 England and Spain catholics entered into a league with Philip of Spain, 
 inteifere. and the protestants with Elizabeth of England. 
 
 Havre de Gi-ace was yielded to Elizabeth, and a body of 6,000 troops 
 furnished by her. The catholics besieged Rouen, which after a 
 bloody defence, surrendered. Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, 
 who had at first favoured, but afterwards abandoned the protestant 
 cause, was here slain. His queen, Jeanne d'Albert, with her young son, 
 afterwards the gallant Henry IV., still adhered to the protestants. 
 1560 "^^^^ ^'^^ important battle was fought at Dreux, for- 
 
 Baltic of Dreux ty-five miles from Paris. The prince of Conde, 
 and the admiral Coligiii, commanded the protestants. 
 The duke of Guise, and the constable Montmorenci, the catholics. 
 The contest was obstinate, but terminated in the defeat of the protes- 
 tants. Admiral Coligni retreated from the field with the remnant of 
 tlie army, and the prince of Conde was made prisoner. The duke of 
 Guise, not long after this, was shot by an assassin, while engaged in 
 the siege of Orleans. 
 
 An accommodation now took place between the hostile parties, 
 and the protestants were granted the liberty of worship within those 
 towns of which they were in possession, and peace was restored. 
 
 Charles IX. had imbibed from the Guises, an inveterate hostility to 
 the protestants. This, and other causes, led Catharine, who had here- 
 tofore wavered between the parties, as her interest dictated, to embrace 
 with zeal that of the catholics. The liberty granted to the protes- 
 tants was soon abridged. A meeting between the young monarch 
 and his sister, the queen of Spain, was arranged to take place at Bay- 
 onne, in France, near the Pyrenees. At this conference, which 
 Catharine, and the duke of Alva, as minister ofPhil- 
 1566. ip^ attended; a league, miscalled "holy," was 
 
 The League. formed for the extirpation of heresy. Meanwhile 
 the cardinal Lorraine was at Rome, concerting measures with the 
 pope for carrying the designs of the leaguers into effect. The protes- 
 tants under Conde and Coligni, again resorted to 
 1568. arms ; a battle was fought at St. Denis, five miles 
 
 Battle uf et. Denis. f^^Qijy Paris, in which the aged constable Montmoren- 
 ci, commander of the catholics, was slain. Tiie protestants, however, 
 were at length driven from the field. They next laid siege to Char- 
 tres ; during which time, Catharine betook hers If to negotiations, 
 (^with her usual artifices,) and another peace, called the " Lame 
 peace," was concluded. 
 
 This was soon infringed by an order, dictated by the double deal- 
 ing Catharine, to arrest Conde and Coligni for treason. They, hav- 
 ing kept themselves on their guard, escaped, and again placed them- 
 
CHAP. III.] FRANCE. 255 
 
 selves at the head of tlie protestant furccs. At Jar- 
 
 1569. nac they met, and were defeated by the duke of An- 
 
 Batileof Jarnac. j^^^ brother of the king. Conde fell in the battle. 
 
 This defeat, and more especially the death of their commander, threat. 
 
 ened ruin to the protestants. Many of the officers refused to obey 
 
 Coligni, and dissensions ran high in their ranks. 
 
 At this juncture, the intrepid Jeanne d'Albert, queen of Navarre, 
 stepped forward, animated the dispirited protestants by her zeal, and 
 Henrv IV furnished them with funds. " Despair not," said 
 
 she, presenting her young son, " behold the new 
 chief that Heaven has sent to command you." From this time. Hen- 
 ry was acknowledged as their leader, although the more experienced 
 Coligni yet guided their councils. This veteran strained every 
 nerve, in again preparing the troops for action ; but their first opera- 
 tions were unsuccessful. Poictiers, commanded by the young duke 
 of Guise, was besieged, but an epidemic disorder in the camp, compel- 
 led the besiegers to raise the siege. 
 
 The army of the duke of Anjou now appeared in the field, and Co- 
 ligni, urged by his troops, many of whom were German auxiliaries, 
 anxious to return to their homes, hazarded a battle. 
 1569. The plains of Montcontour now witnessed the entire 
 
 ^'"'■^ 'tour'"""""" '^^^'-'^^ °^ ^^^^ protestants. Nearly 10,000 of their 
 
 troops were left dead on the field. Coligni, though 
 
 severely wounded, was soon in the field again, at the head of a formi- 
 
 dable army. Having obtained some successes which inspirited his ar- 
 
 Tivatv ofprncc ^7' ^^^ court Commenced negotiations, and a treaty 
 
 highly favourable to the protestants was concluded. 
 
 Liberty of worship in all the towns of which they were in possession, 
 
 was again granted them ; and their well grounded fears of treachery 
 
 were lulled, by their being permitted to garrison four strong places. 
 
 Rochellc, Montauban, Cognac, and La Charite, as guarantees that 
 
 the conditions would be observed. 
 
 History, as if reluctant to defame human nature, by recounting the 
 
 horrible perfidy concealed under this pretended moderation, shudders. 
 
 Treachery of the a^d pauses in her work. The design of the court 
 
 court. was no other, than to lull the fears of the protestant 
 
 leaders, draw them to the capital, and other cities, and then massacre 
 
 them all. 
 
 On various pretexts, they were induced to come to Paris. Colig- 
 ni, ever true to his country, was incited by the prospect of command- 
 ing in a war with Philip of Spain, for the recovery of Flanders. Pie 
 was received with the most devoted respect, consulted on every occa- 
 sion, and addressed by the young monarch with the title of father. 
 The virtuous queen of Navarre came with her young son. A mar- 
 riage had been proposed for him, with Margaret, the sister of the king ; 
 but the suspicious eye of maternal affection saw treachery in the ca- 
 resses of Catharine ; and she withheld her consent. She died sud- 
 denly, probably, by poison. The negotiations for tiie marriage pro- 
 ceeded : and the leaders of the protestants throughout France were 
 summoned to Paris to celebrate its festivities. The wedding took 
 
256 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 place on the seventeenth of August, and Paris resounded with mirth 
 and revelry. 
 
 At the stillness of midnight, on the eve of St. Bartholomew's day, 
 August 24th, the tocsin bell of St. Germain L'Aux- 
 1572. errois, awoke the slumbers of the capital. It was 
 
 Massacre of St. Bar- ^j-^g signal to begin the dreadful massacre. The 
 morning light looked upon more than ten thousand 
 bleeding corpses of the protestants, strewed throughout the streets, and 
 within the houses and sanctuaries of Paris. Men, women, and infants, 
 were slain. In other parts of France, there were put to death fifty 
 thousand more. The catholic family of Montmorenci gave funeral 
 honours to the mangled remains of Coligni. Pope Pius V., on hear- 
 ing of the massacre, was affected to tears ; but Gregory XII., who at 
 this time succeeded him, insulted the majesty of heaven by returning 
 public thanks for these atrocious cruelties. 
 
 Charles, meanwhile, was seized with all the horrours of remorse. 
 When the assassins, who had acted by his authority, 
 1574. came to relate, and make a merit of their bloody 
 
 Remorse of Charles, (jgedgj the Spectators beheld him, shuddering as if 
 with cold. He hated from that time his wicked mother, and the Gui- 
 ses. " I know not," said he to his confidential physician, " what has 
 happened to me, but in mind and body I am shaking as in a fever. It 
 seems to me every moment, whether waking or sleeping, that mangled 
 bodies present themselves to me with hideous faces, and covered with 
 blood." No earthly medicine could reach the seat of his disease. 
 On the day of Pentecost, 1574, he died at the chateau of Vincennes, 
 in the most agonizing tortures, and bathed in his own blood, which had 
 oozed from his veins.* 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of the late king, ascended the throne. 
 The catholics now formed the celebrated league for 
 Henry III. the defence of religion, at the head of which was 
 
 the duke of Guise. War was declared against the 
 king of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., who had escaped the massa- 
 cre of St. Bartholomew. The league had in the field two armies, 
 each 20,000 strong, while Henry could raise at the most, only 5,000 
 men ; yet his valour, and that of his few followers, sustained him. 
 At Contras he encountered an army of the royalists, 
 Henry defeats the vvhich he defeated, but was unab.e to reap the ad- 
 '^ ' vantages which this victory gave him. Without 
 
 funds, he had no means of paying his troops, and a great part of them 
 left him soon after the battle. 
 
 The designs of the league now became apparent. Guise was 
 openly solicited to dethrone Henry, and take the sceptre into his own 
 hands. This he dared not do ; but he instigated the Parisians, who 
 
 * See Sully's Memoirs. 
 
CHAP. III.J FRANCE. 257 
 
 had organized a military force of 20,000 men, to seize the person of 
 the king. The Parisians failed in their attempt, and Guise proceeded 
 to Paris to accomplish it himself; but the king escaped, and took re- 
 fuge at Rouen. Guise, finding many difficulties in the way of his usur- 
 pation, entered into a compromise vvitli (Henry of France,) and was 
 appointed lieutenant general of the kingdom. Henry now felt himself 
 
 unsafe upon his throne, while his rival was in being ; 
 Death of the plotters ^^^j Guise was assassinatcd by his orders, as he was 
 ^^Si' BarThoimiew" entering the council chamber. His brother, the 
 
 cardinal, was sent to prison, where he was also 
 shortly after slain ; and about this time died, too, that faithless queen, 
 and wicked woman, Catharine dc Medici. , 
 
 The partisans of the league were incensed against the king for the 
 
 assassination of their leader, and the duke of May- 
 
 Mayenneheadofthc g,j[^e^his surviving brother, was now placed at its 
 
 °^°"^' head. The pope denounced Henry as an heretic. 
 
 In these circumstances, he negotiated with the king of Navarre, who, 
 
 at the head of their united forces, marched to Paris, and invested it. 
 
 The French monarch retired to St. Cloud, where 
 Henry III. assassi- ^|-jg dagger of an assassin, suborned by the duchess 
 natcd. of Montpensier, sister to the duke of Guise, accom- 
 
 plished his death. 
 
 The king of Navarre now claimed the throne of France, as being 
 
 the nearest heir ; and Henry, when dying, had de- 
 Henry IV. clared him his successor. He now therefore as- 
 
 sumed the title of Henry IV. The duke of Mayenne caused the car- 
 dinal Bourbon, to be proclaimed under the name of Charles X. ; but 
 he being a prisoner at Tours, Mayenne took the whole command of 
 the war. 
 
 The army of the league, numbering 20,000 disciplined troops, and 
 that of Henry, consisting of less than a fourth of that number, met at 
 
 Arques, on the Seine. At the moment that his 
 Henry victorious at fj.jends gave up all as lost, and his forces wereover- 
 '^'^"'^^' powered by the enemy, Henry, rushing into the 
 
 thickest of the battle, exclaimed, " In all France are there not fifty 
 gentlemen to die with their king ?" This cry reanimated the falter- 
 ing troops, who rallied, renewed the fight, and became masters of the 
 field. Henry soon after received reinforcements from England, while 
 Mayenne obtained supplies from the king of Spain. Disastrous was 
 the civil war which now wasted the fair fields of France, where 
 brothers and former friends were now shedding each other's blood.* 
 
 *It was during these wars that tlie marquis of Rosmy, afterwards the duke of Sully, 
 and ever attached to the fortunes of Henry, hearing that his wife was dangerously 
 sick, went in disguise, with a few followers, to his castle, to visit her. His brothers, 
 on the side of the calholi'js, had laken his castle, and deaf to his earnest pleadings, re- 
 fused to admit him to visit his dying wife. The daring Rosmy prepared to attack his 
 own castle, when his brothers permitted him to enter. Thus he obtained from their 
 fears, what he could not gain from their affection. 
 
258 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 Hemy victorwus at ^" ^^^^ plain of IvTV another battle took place, 
 ivry, &nd invests Heniy, in directing it, said to his troops, " If you 
 Paris. love yoLir standards, follow my white plume ; you 
 
 will find it in the way to victory and honour." His prediction was 
 accomplished, and his enemies defeated. Henry had invested the 
 capital, and now used every effort to induce the Parisians to submit, 
 but they refused. His heart was pained to witness the distress to 
 which they were reduced by famine, and he suffered those who wish- 
 ed to leave the city to pass his lines in safety ; and even, (although 
 blamed by his officers,) granted a passage to several convoys of pro- 
 visions, destined for the city. 
 
 Meanwhile the duke of Mayenne, who had been to Flanders, re- 
 turned, reinforced by Spanish forces, under the prince of Parma. 
 Henry was compelled to withdraw his forces from the siege, to oppose 
 the Spaniards ; whom, however, he was at last unable to bring to a 
 combat. Their object being the relief of the city, when that was ac- 
 complished, they withdrew from France. 
 
 The cardinal of Bourbon was now dead. The exploits of Henry 
 
 had filled Europe with his martial fame. The 
 Character of Hi. my. Strictness with which he kept his faith when once 
 
 plighted, and the constancy of his attachment to his 
 friends, made him confided in ; and he had displayed a benevolence, 
 which should have touched the hearts of his people. But worn out 
 as France was with the wars of the league, still such was the bigotry 
 of the times, Henry was convinced he could not be king of France, 
 unless he became a catholic. The protestant divines counselled him 
 rather to renounce protestantism, than to continue the war. He ac- 
 cordingly did so, and was received into the bosom of the catholic 
 church. By this measure, the league received a blow from which it 
 
 could never recover. Paris capitulated, and Hen- 
 1589. ly ^vas received into the city. The provinces grad- 
 
 H. nry enters Paris. ^^^^^ followed the example of the capital, until at 
 length the whole nation submitted. Mayenne, supported by the Span- 
 ish interest, continued for a time in arms ; but after the pope had ab- 
 Mayenne submits solved Henry, this officer made his submission, was 
 
 received into favour, and ever after remained a firm 
 friend to his monarch. 
 
 The opposition of the protestants, whose suspicions began to be ex- 
 cited by a delay in securing their rights, and by the disposal of all 
 
 the great offices to the catholics, prevented Henry 
 
 lo96. from carrying on vigorously the war against Spain. 
 
 * ' sla'nr'b ''"^ '^'^^ Spaniards took Calais and Amiens, and it was 
 
 with ditliculty that Henry could, in the exhausted 
 state of his finances, raise an army to withstand them. At length, at 
 the head of such forces as he could assemble, he advanced to Amiens, 
 
 which he invested, and compelled the city to sur- 
 1598. render. He next came to an accommodation with 
 
 Edict oi Nantes. ^|^g protestants, granting them, by the celebrated 
 edict of Nantes, the enjoyment of their religion, and admission to pub- 
 lic offices. Ambassadors now met at Vervins, 20 miles from Paris, 
 
CHAP. IV.j GERMANY. 2.59 
 
 Peace with Spain, where a peace with Spain was concluded, on terms 
 
 favourable to France. 
 
 Although policy compelled Henry to grant most of the high offices 
 
 to catholics, yet his chosen friend and counsellor, from the beginning 
 
 to the end of his career, was a protestant. This 
 
 Duke of Sully. ^^g ^j^g ^^jg^ ^^jj^g ^f. g^,jjy_ The economy and 
 
 discreet management of this minister, brought the totally deranged 
 finances of the kingdom to order, and soon placed at the disposal of his 
 beloved monarch, a well furnished treasury. Henry, constantly sec- 
 onded by Sully, followed the bent of his benevolent heart, in studying 
 to promote tlie welfare of his kingdom. Commerce, agriculture, and 
 manufactures, all received a new impulse. Nor did ho limit his de- 
 sires of doing good to his own subjects, but conceiv- 
 Heniy 3 plan lor ^^ ^^^ great design of banishing war from Europe, 
 
 nholisiiinff war- , .°,^ . ° - , '^ ■ 
 
 by uniting the great powers in one confederacy, es- 
 tablishing a grand council after the model of the Amphictyonic, to 
 which all the principal states of Europe should send tlieir delegates, 
 and refer their dilxarences. Sully at first opposed his views as vis- 
 ionary, but afterwards entered fully into them. Elizabeth of Eng- 
 land, for whom Heni-y had a high respect, was also a party to the pro- 
 ject.* It was tlie opinion of these sovereigns, that the house of Aus- 
 tria must first be humbled, before this project could be carried into ef- 
 fect. The death of Elizabeth was deplored by Henry; yet he pro- 
 ceeded to make vast preparations for the accom- 
 1610. plishment of his design : but he was cut off in the 
 
 H.nry as.as..inated ,^jjgj of them, by the dagger of Ravaillac, an ob- 
 scure assassin. The French nation wept for him as for a father. 
 The vile assassin, (wliose name the afflicted Sully never would pro- 
 nounce.") suffered a terrible death. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Section I. 
 GERMANY. 
 
 The reign of Ferdinand I., who succeeded Charles V., as emperor 
 
 of Germany, was short, and occupied in attempting 
 
 ^ 1556. to compose the religious differences which agitated 
 
 Ferdinand I jj^g empire. In the diet of Ratisbon, assembled 
 
 *This is stated on the authority of the duke of Sully— see his excellent memoirs, 
 i^ome writers have treated Henry's great design with levity, considering it as a mere 
 covering to his views against the house of Austria. The character of Elizabeth makes 
 it not improbable, that tins motive was predominant with her; but Henry had a great 
 and benevolent heart, as well as a fertile mind. And is it not rather astonishing, that 
 the powers of Europe should not to this day, have adopted this equitable plan of set- 
 tling their differences ? 
 
260 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD II. 
 
 soon after his accession, the "peace of religion" was confirmed. 
 This reign is memorable for the last meeting of a genera] council. It 
 was held at Trent. 
 
 Maximilian II., successor of Ferdinand, was early in his reign en- 
 gaged in war with Solyman I., who had planned the 
 1564. conquest of Germany. The success of the imperi- 
 
 Maximilian II. j^j generals checked the progress of the Ottoman 
 arms, and on the death of Solyman, his son and successor Selim II., 
 concluded a peace of twelve years with the empire. The remaining 
 years of the reign of Maximilian, were passed in tranquillity. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son, Rodolph II., during whose long reign, 
 
 the empire continued almost undisturbed by intestine 
 
 1576. broils. He was himself of a peaceful temper, and 
 
 Rodolph II devoted much of his time to the studies of astronomy 
 
 and astrology, in which he was instructed by Tycho Brahe. His 
 brother Matthias conducted the war with the Turks, who had inva- 
 ded Hungary ; and the renown and influence he acquired by his 
 success, enabled him to obtain the crown of Hungary, and make him- 
 self master of Austria and Moravia, all of which Rodolph confirmed 
 to him, rather than involve the empire in civil war. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The sultan Solyman, besides the war which he carried on with the 
 German empii-e, during the reign of Maximilian, despatched a fleet 
 and army to reduce the island of Malta, where the knights of St. 
 John had been established, and still maintained themselves. The 
 Turkish general, Mustapha, besieged the island ; 
 156o. Ijuj- i\^Q governor of Sicily coming to the aid of the 
 
 ^"' M- 5"^*'^^*^ knights, the Turks, after a siege of five months, with 
 the loss of 24,000 men, were obliged to abandon the 
 enterprise. Solyman died at the age of seventy, and was succeeded 
 by his son, Selim II. Selim, after having concluded a peace with 
 Germany, turned his arms eastwai'd ; but failing in his attempt to re- 
 duce Persia, he invaded the island of Cyprus, which belonged to the 
 republic of Venice. A league was formed between the pope, Pius V., 
 the king of Spain, and the Venetians, for its defence. 
 1571. Their forces failing to arrive in season, the Turks 
 
 1 uriis conquer Cy- conquered the island, and subjected its inhabitants 
 to the most inhuman cruelties. They extended 
 their ravages to the coasts of Italy, of Dalmatia, andof Istria. The 
 pope, Philip II., and the Venetians, assembled their fleet, and a naval 
 engagement between them and the Turks, took 
 Battle of Lopanto. ^^^^^ j^^ ^^^^ gulf of Lepanto. For duration, fierce- 
 ness, and destruction of human life, it was at that period unequalled. 
 The Christians, commanded by Don John, of Austria, were at length 
 victorious. Tne Turks lost 30,000 men, and their fleet was mostly 
 
CHAP. IV.] OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 261 
 
 taken or destroyed. The Christians lost 10,000 men, and derived no 
 soUd advantage from the victory. The following season, Selim equip- 
 ped another fleet, which again spread the terrour of the Turkish arms. 
 Philip soon found his attention drawn to the Low 
 1572. Countries ; and the Venetians concluded a treaty, by 
 
 Tuiks and Chris- ^hich Cyprus was left in possession of the Turks. 
 peace. 'Puj^jg^ which had been taken by Don John of Aus- 
 tria, was retaken by the sultan. 
 
 The three sultans who immediately succeeded Selim, did not ex- 
 tend the Turkish conquests. 
 
 23 
 
PERIOD III. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 The assasination ^ SECOND EPOCHA, 1610 A. D. I of Henry IV 
 
 TO THE 
 
 The execution Of ^ TRTRD EPOCHA 1648 A D f and the treaty of 
 Charles I. of England, ^ inlK,L» rjtr^JK^nj\, 1010 A. U. ^ yVeBphalia. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 The death of Rodolph at this period, left the imperial throne to 
 his brother, the arch-duke Matthias. The protes- 
 1612. tant princes had formed a confederacy called the 
 
 Matthias. Evangelical Union. Matthias had hitherto shown 
 
 himself friendly to them, and they now pressed him for an extension 
 of their privileges ; but no longer feeling the need of their friendship, 
 he resisted their demands, and encroached upon their acknowledged 
 rights. He procured the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary for his 
 cousin, Ferdinand, duke of Styria, whom he designed for his succes- 
 sor in the empire. These measures alarmed the Hungarians, the 
 Bohemians, and the members of the Evangelical Union, who now 
 resorted to arms. 
 
 Amidst these disorders, Matthias died ; and Ferdinand II. was 
 raised to the imperial throne. The Bohemians 
 1619. continued their revolt, deposed Ferdinand, and 
 
 Ferdinand II. and elected to the sovereignty of that kingdom, Fred- 
 Fre eno . ^^,j^ y^^ elector palatine of the Rhine ; who had 
 
 married the daughter of James I., reigning sovereign of England. 
 Besides the support of the protestant princes of the empire, Frederic 
 received the aid of Bethlem Gabor, the voivode of Transylvania, a 
 tributary of the grand sultan ; a body of 8,000 troops from the Low 
 Countries, under Henry, prince of Nassau ; and 2,000 English vol- 
 unteers. His preparations, were, however, inadequate for the war ; 
 in which he had to withstand the united strength of the emperor, the 
 king of Spain, and the arch -duke of Austria. The imperialists 
 
CHAP. I.] GERMANY. 263 
 
 drove Frederic from his palatinate, and degraded hinn from his electo- 
 ral dignity, which was conferred upon the duke of Bavaria. 
 
 A new league was now formed, with Christian IV., king of Den- 
 mark, at its head, having for its object, the restoration of Frederic. 
 The attempt was unsuccessful, and Christian was obliged to sue for 
 peace. 
 
 The ambition of Ferdinand growing with his success, he now 
 aspired to establish a despotic power in Germany, 
 Ferdinand irritates ^^ reduce the prioces to the rank of nobles, and to 
 6 pro es an -. rcvive the imperial jurisdiction in Italy. His first 
 attempt upon the protestant princes, was made by an edict requiring 
 them to restore the church lands and benefices which they had pos- 
 sessed since the peace of Passau. The princes remonstrated, and 
 urged that the edict was illegal. Ferdinand persisted, and the pro- 
 testants formed a secret alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, king of 
 Sweden. 
 
 This monarch had already shown his valour in war, and his wis- 
 dom in peace ; and Sweden under his government 
 1626. had attained a rank unknown in any former age. 
 
 League with Gusta- j^g ^j^g ^ zealous protestant, and he deemed it 
 dh^al'^Rkhdieu and pol'cy to Unite with those powers who sought to 
 others. Weaken the dreaded influence of the house of Aus- 
 
 tria. Furthermore, the emperor had incurred his 
 displeasure, by assisting the Poles in their wars with the Swedes. 
 He therefore formed an alliance with the court of France, where the 
 influence of cardinal Richheu, who sympathized with Gustavus in the 
 desire of curbing the Austrian power, was at this time supreme. 
 Holland also came into the alliance ; and Charles I. of England fur- 
 nished the allies with 6,000 men. 
 
 Gustavus entered Pomerania, and made himself master of many 
 important places. At Leipzic, he obtained a com- 
 lo31. plete victory over the imperial forces, under the 
 
 Successes of Gm- command of Tilly, an able general. All the mem- 
 bers of the " Evangelical Union " now joined his 
 standard ; and he possessed himself of the whole country from the 
 Elbe to the Rhine. Tilly having been killed, Wallenstein, a re- 
 nowned general, succeeded him in the command of the imperial 
 army. 
 
 At Lutzen, Gustavus offered him battle. The contest lasted from 
 
 day-break till sun-set, when the obstinate valour of the Swedes at 
 
 length triumphed over the superior numbers of their 
 
 1632. enemy ; but Gustavus perished in the conflict. 
 
 ^""Lmzmf" "^ ^^^^^" wounded on the field of battle, and asked 
 
 by the enemy who he was, " I am," said he, " the 
 
 king of Sweden, and I seal with my blood the protestant religion, and 
 
 tlie liberties of Germany." 
 
 As Gustavus left but one child, Christina, a daughter of six years 
 of age, the government of Sweden was now in the hands of a regency. 
 The war, however, was conducted with vigour, a«d officers, formed 
 in the school of Gustavus, were soon sent into Germany. 
 
264 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 The imperial general, Wallenstein, being assassinated, the com- 
 mand was given to Ferdinand, king of Hungary, eldest son of the 
 emperor. The accession of the dukes of Lorraine and Bavaria, 
 with a reinforcement of Spanish troops, at this time, strengthened the 
 imperial party. The army of the confederates, under the command 
 of general Horn and the duke of Saxe-Weimar, 
 
 1634. encountered the forces of the king of Hungary at 
 Battle of Nordiin- Nordlingen. One of the most bloody battles re- 
 corded in history ensued. It ended in the total 
 defeat of the Swedes. 
 
 The emperor now negotiated the treaty of Prague, by which he 
 left the protestants in the possession of the church 
 
 1635. property, and permitted the free exercise of their 
 Treaty of Prague, religion, throughout the empire, with the exception 
 
 of the kingdom of Bohemia, and the provinces of the house of 
 Austria. 
 
 A new alliance was formed between Sweden and France, and the 
 latter kingdom now actively participated |.in the 
 
 1636. war. In upper Germany, the elector of Saxony 
 New alliance be- ^^^g (defeated by the Swedish general, Bannier, in 
 
 France. ^ battle fought at Wittstock. — Ferdinand III., on the 
 
 1 fi^7 death of his father, succeeded to the imperial throne, 
 
 r. J- j'liT and continued the war against Sweden, France, and 
 
 Ferdinand III. , mi ? i /< r^ ttt • ^ 
 
 the protestants — ihe duke of Saxe Weimar de- 
 feated the imperial army near Brisac, and reduced this with many 
 other towns. 
 
 In the meantime, the Swedes were equally triumphant in Pomera- 
 
 nia. Bannier crossed the Elbe, entered Saxony, 
 
 1640. obtained avantages over the imperiahsts in several 
 
 ^S\vedesund^'^^ slight engagements, and near Chemnitz, gained a 
 
 Bannier. Complete victory. He next invaded Bohemia, and 
 
 at Brandeiz fought the imperialists, under general 
 
 Hofskirk, and again victorious, he pursued the retreating army to 
 
 the walls of Prague, and took the imperial general prisoner. 
 
 Bannier next formed a plan of attacking Ratisbon, during the ses- 
 sion of a diet which the emperor had there convened. Joined by the 
 French army under Guelriant, he crossed the Danube on the ice, 
 captured 1,500 of the enemy's horse, and seized the equipage and 
 advance guard of the emperor, who himself narrowly escaped being 
 made a prisoner. An unexpected thaw saved the city, and com- 
 pelled Bannier to recross the river. — A powerful army now assembled 
 under general Piccolomini, and the arch-duke Leopold. Bannier 
 marched through Bohemia followed by the imperial general. At 
 Zittau, he was joined by the French under Guelriant, but before 
 any decisive action could take place, death deprived the confederates 
 of the counsels of the Swedish general. 
 
CHAP. I.] GERMANY. 265 
 
 Torstenson, another general who had served under Gustavus 
 Adolphus, was sent from Sweden to succeed him, 
 1641. and with him a strong reinforcement of troops, and 
 
 Torstenson succeeds ^ large sum of money. Before the arrival of Tor- 
 anniei. stenson, Guelriant had led his forces to battle, and 
 
 defeated the imperialists near Wolfenbuttel. After his arrival, the 
 French and Swedes again separated. Guelriant entered Westpha- 
 lia, and Torstenson, Bohemia. 
 
 In the ensuing campaign, Guelriant defeated the imperial general, 
 and made himself master of almost the whole electorate of Cologne. 
 Torstenson obtained two victories over the imperialists, after which 
 he reduced Leipzic. The court of Vienna was in dismay, Nego- 
 tiations were now commenced, which were however retarded by the 
 death of Louis XIII., and of cardinal Richelieu. 
 
 During these conferences, Torstenson invaded Holstein ; the king 
 of Denmark having exhibited evidence of hostility 
 Hostilities bet ween towards Sweden. ^Christian IV., the Danish king, 
 ^^'^ nla^k. ^" "o^^ implored the aid of the emperor, who despatch- 
 ed one of his generals to withstand the army of 
 Torstenson. The mediation of France soon produced an accommo- 
 dation between these northern powers, and enabled Sweden to turn 
 all her energy against the empire. 
 
 France and Sweden also entered into a treaty with the voivode of 
 Transylvania, who by invading Hungary, divided the forces of the 
 empire. Torstenson invaded Bohemia, and after an unsuccessful 
 attempt at surprising Prague, drew the imperialists 
 1645. into an engagement near Thabor, where he defeat- 
 
 imperialists defeated g^j ^hem with great slaughter. Many towns now 
 submitted to the conquerors, who became masters 
 of the Danube on the side of Moravia. In the meantime, the impe- 
 rialists, under the elector of Bavaria, met the French, now under the 
 command of the marshal Turenne, and defeated them on the plains of 
 Mariendal. 
 
 Turenne, however, made a successful retreat, crossed the Maine in 
 
 safety, and soon after received a reinforcement of 
 
 Successes^of^ Uie q^qqq ^^^^-^^ ^^^^^q^. ^j^g (j^j^g d'Enghien, (afterwards 
 
 Turenne. " ^^^ great Conde,) and at Nordlingcn encountered 
 the imperialists, and was now victorious. The suc- 
 cess of Turenne spread terrour through the provinces, and induced 
 the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, and the German princes, to re- 
 nounce the alliance with the emperor, and make peace with France. 
 The following year, however, tlie elector of Bavaria renewed his 
 alliance with the emperor, and uniting his forces with the imperial- 
 ists, obliged Wrangel, the Swedish general who had succeeded Tors- 
 tenson, to abandon Bohemia. The following spring, 
 1647. Wrangel, joined by Turenne, fought the imperial- 
 
 Successes of the jgfg j^pj defeated them in a battle at Zummerhausen. 
 we es. Koningsmark, another Swedish general, surprised 
 
 the new city of Prague, and made himself master of it. 
 
 *23 
 
266 MODERN HISTORY. [peRIOD III. 
 
 The emperor now sued earnestly for peace, and the negotiations 
 resulted in the treaty of Westphalia, signed Octo- 
 1648. j)er 24, 1648. Its conditions showed that the j)ride 
 
 Treaty of Wcstpha- ^f ^]^Q emperor was humbled. To France were 
 granted Alsatia, Brisac, and the sovereignty of Metz, 
 Toul, and Verdun. To Sweden, five millions of crowns, with Upper 
 Pomerania, the isle of Rugen, and part of Lower Pomerania, Wismar, 
 Bremar, and Verden, to be held as fiefs of the empire. The upper 
 palatinate, with the electoral dignity, was continued to the duke of 
 Bavaria, while the lower palatinate was restored to Charles Louis, 
 son of the deposed elector ; an eighth electorate being established on 
 his account. Tlie republic of Switzerland was declared to be a 
 sovereign state, free from the jurisdiction of the empire ; and " the 
 three religions, Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinistic," were each admit- 
 ted to the free enjoyment of their several tenets. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Henry IV., as has been related, married, at an early age, Marga- 
 ret, sister to the king of France. He afterwards divorced her, and 
 married Mary de Medici, a weak and passionate woman, whom he 
 too often irritated by his prominent fault, a want of conjugal fidelity. 
 She on her part, incapable of appreciating the noble energies of his 
 character, or seeking by discreet measures to win his wandering 
 affections, did but make herself disagreeable by continual reproach- 
 es, and by keeping around her, Italian favourites whom he particu- 
 larly disliked. 
 
 On the death of Henry IV., his son, Louis XIII., being a minor, 
 Mary de Medici was made regent by those who 
 i'^ ?e Medkt' expected through her to govern France. She was 
 unfit to hold the reins of government, and especially 
 at a time when they required a firm and vigorous hand. The pow- 
 erful arm of Henry IV. had scarcely restrained the nobles, who 
 aimed at independence, and always furnished leaders to the male- 
 contents of the kingdom. 
 
 Mary soon departed from the line of policy pursued by her hus- 
 band, and dismissing Sully, trusted the management of affairs to her 
 Italian favourites, Leonora Galigai, and her husband, Concini. 
 Upon these, and other favourites, she lavished the wealth which 
 Sully by his prudence had accumulated. The catholic party under 
 their auspices, reassumed the ascendant. A union with Spain by 
 the marriage of Louis XIII. with the infanta, was proposed. In the 
 meantime, misrule had brought confusion and distress. The power- 
 ful nobles meditated revolt. An assembly of the states general was 
 called, (memorable as the last of these national assemblies, befoie 
 
CHAP. II.] FRANCE. 267 
 
 the French revolution,) but their meeting was productive of no 
 effect, in removing the grievances of the kingdom. 
 
 The young king, under the influence of De Luines, his favour- 
 ite, was now stirred up to resentment against the Itahan favourites 
 of his mother. Concini was arrested when proceeding to the coun- 
 cil chamber at the Louvre, and on pretence of his 
 1617. resistance, shot. Leonora was tried for sorcery. 
 
 ?Tiaa fivom^ites^ When asked by her accusers, by what process of 
 the black art she acquired such influence over her 
 mistress, she boldly replied, " Simply by the power which a strong 
 mind has over a weak one." But she was burned as a sorceress. 
 
 Mary was now exiled to Blois ; while De Luines continued to con- 
 trol the king. Richelieu, bishop of Lucon, and afterwards cardi- 
 nal, effected an accommodation between her and the king. Riche- 
 lieu made her the tool of his intriguing policy, and with her aid, 
 engaged almost all France in opposition to Louis, and his worthless 
 favourite, De Luines. 
 
 The Huguenots, displeased at an attempt of the king to establish 
 the catholic religion, called an assembly at Rochelle, intending, as is 
 supposed, to establish a republic. An army was 
 1621. raised, and the command given by De Luines to 
 
 '''' llu°aenoi3^'° Lesdiguieres, a huguenot who had embraced the 
 Romisli faith. The northern provinces which had 
 followed the doctrines of the reformation, were reduced ; but in the 
 siege of Montauban, the royalists were defeated with the loss of a 
 great part of their army. De Luines died of chagrin ; and the fol- 
 lowing year a treaty was concluded between the monarch and his 
 protestant subjects, which placed their affairs as they were before 
 this war. 
 
 On the death of De Luines, Mary with some difficulty procured 
 Richelieu a seat in the king's council ; but the genius of the cardinal 
 thenceforward obtained an entire ascendency over both monarch and 
 ministers ; and Richelieu became in fact, master of the kingdom. 
 The aim of his policy was to elevate the sove- 
 ^'"■''""Ll ^'"'^''' reignty of France, and to this end he wished firstly 
 to destroy the power of the huguenots, whom he 
 disliked as heretics, and whose assemblies he regarded as the pro- 
 lific source of sedition and insurrection ; secondly, to humble the 
 high nobility ; and thirdly, to check the engrossing power of the 
 house of Austria. 
 
 He concluded an alliance with England, by the marriage of Hen- 
 rietta, princess of France, to the prince of Wales. He shortly after 
 infringed the treaty last concluded with the huguenots, and having 
 provoked them to rebel, while unprepared for war, defeated their 
 plans, and at last made an accommodation with them favourable to 
 the crown. He next set himself to humble the house of Austria. 
 To this end, he formed first a secret alliance \v:th Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, and afterwards, at the death of that monarch, openly joined 
 the Swedes, as has been stated, in the war against the emperor of 
 Germany. 
 
268 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 This powerful and intriguing minister having lived to see his 
 1643. designs accomplished, died a few months before 
 
 Death of Louis and Louis XIII., who bore the name of monarch, while 
 of Richelieu. Richelieu exercised the power. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Section I. 
 ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND. 
 
 The history of England at this period is memorable for that strug- 
 gle between the parliament and the monarch, which convulsed the 
 nation, and spread the ravages of civil war throughout the realm ; 
 but which ended in limiting the king's prerogative, and establishmg 
 the rights and liberties of the people. 
 
 On the death of Elizabeth,* the crown of England passed from 
 the house of Tudor, in which it had remained since 
 1603. Henry VIII., to that of Stuart. Her successor, 
 
 James I. James I. of England, and VI. of Scotland, son of 
 
 the unfortunate Mary, was great-grandson of Margaret, the eldest 
 sister of Henry VIII. The accession of James was hailed by all 
 classes of the English with enthusiasm. By profession a protestant, 
 and accustomed to the rigid and austere notions of the Scottish 
 church, he was peculiarly acceptable to his protestant subjects, while 
 to the catholics, he was endeared by the remembrance of his moth- 
 er's claims and injuries. Tlie pride of the Scots too was gratified 
 in giving a monarch to their haughty neighbours, who had for ages 
 been seeking their subjugation. 
 
 On the arrival of James in England, his manners, undignified and 
 pedantic, manifesting the love of ease and self-indulgence, soon be* 
 gan to be contrasted with the royal courteousness of those of Eliza- 
 beth. His profuse liberality to his Scottish courtiers, (though he 
 left the great offices of the state in the hands of Elizabeth's minis- 
 ters,) created also some disaffection. 
 
 The puritans, an order of protestants who regarded the ceremo- 
 nies and discipline retained in the English church 
 
 The puriiuus. ^^g ^^^ approach to popery, had not yet openly sepa- 
 rated, expecting that on the accession of James these usages would 
 be abolished ; and they petitioned the king accordingly. James, 
 although he had in his youth imbibed their notions, in his mature 
 years feared the repubUcan tendency of their principles. He called 
 a conference at Hampton-court, for the purpose of hearing the argu- 
 
 * The reign of James I. commenced seven years before the Jeath of Henry IV. It 
 was judged best in this, as in some other cases, to admit of some irregularities, rather 
 than to break the thread of the history at an inconvenient place. 
 
CHAP. III.] ENGLAND. SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND. 269 
 
 ments on both sides, and at its close enjoined the puritans to conform 
 to the estabUshed worship. Hence feelings of animosity were kept 
 ahve, though they did not during this reign, break out into open 
 hostility. 
 
 About two years after the accession of James, that memorable 
 conspiracy was formed, called the " Gunpowder 
 1605. Plot." It was contrived by some of the zealous 
 
 Gunpowder plot. catholics under the direction of Garnet, the superior 
 of the Jesuits in England. Its purpose was to destroy the king 
 and parliament. The individuals who planned this most inhuman 
 crime, were men of character ; but whose minds, misguided by the 
 bigotry of the times, considered the destruction of heretics as com- 
 mendable. One of their number hired a coal cellar, under the 
 building where the house of lords met, and there deposited thirty-six 
 barrels of gunpowder, which was to be exploded on the first day of 
 the meeting of parliament, when the king, queen, and prince of 
 Wales, would be in the house. The secret, which had been in the 
 keeping of at least twenty persons for more than a year, was dis- 
 covered by means of a letter written to dissuade lord Monteagle, a 
 catholic nobleman, from going to the house on that day. Monteagle 
 communicated the letter to the king, who on the evening previous to 
 the meeting, caused search to be made, when the whole plot was 
 developed. Guy Fawkes, an officer in the Spanish service, was 
 found in the cellar with a match in his pocket. The other conspir- 
 ators were also discovered, and all consigned to the punishment 
 which they had merited. 
 
 The most politic and commendable measure of James I., was the 
 
 settlement and civilization of Ireland. He abolish- 
 
 Jarnes promotes the ^j certain customs which suppj ied the place of laws, 
 
 civilization of Ire- , i-i, ,, i ■ ^ ■, ■ r \ u 
 
 land. and which had kept that island ui a state ot barba- 
 
 rism and disorder. Among others was the Eric, as 
 it was called, which was a price set upon every man, by the pay- 
 ment of which, his murderer would escape unpunished. 
 
 James also encouraged the colonization of America. He issued a 
 charter to the duke of Lenox, marquis of Bucking- 
 American aflfairs. j^^^^^^ ^^^^ Others, styling them " the grand council 
 of Plymouth, for planting and governing New England in America." 
 It was in this reign, that the puritan fathers of New England made 
 their first settlement on the rocky coast of Plymouth. 
 
 The attempts of James to introduce the customs, rites, and disci- 
 pline of the church of England into Scotland, were 
 1616. met with determined opposition, produced popular 
 
 Scottish affairs. tumults, and drew upon him the enmity of that 
 
 kingdom. 
 In his latter years, the parliaments of England also assumed a 
 determined tone in regard to the measures of the 
 Parliament begins ^^^^^^ rpj^^ ^ of commons remonstrated against 
 
 lo iissGrt its ri^^lits • 
 
 " ' the intended marriage of the prince of Wales with 
 a catholic princess. They besought the king to unite with Sweden 
 in the war with Austria and Spain, for the recovery of the palatinate ; 
 
270 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 Ferdinand V., the elector, being his son in law. Janaes resented 
 this interference of the commons, and following the example of EHz- 
 abeth, commanded them not to presume to meddle with any thing 
 that regarded his government. The commons presented still another 
 remonstrance, claiming that they were entitled to interpose in all 
 matters of government, and that freedom of speech in public debate, 
 was their ancient and undoubted right. The king replied that their 
 pretensions were what their ancestors had never, during the weakest 
 reigns, presumed lo urge; and insinuated that their privileges were 
 derived from the royal favour. Against this, however, the resolute 
 commons made another protest. 
 
 Negotiations for a marriage between the prince of Wales and the 
 infanta of Spain, had been commenced, but were 
 George Viiiiers. broken off through the intrigues of the duke of 
 Buckingham, an unworthy court favourite ;* and a rupture with 
 Spain ensued. An alliance with France and the Low Countries 
 for restraining the power of Austria, which met the entire appro- 
 bation of parliament, was now formed. A marriage was also con- 
 eluded between Charles, prince of Wales, and Henrietta, sister of the 
 king of France. As this princess was a catholic, this match, al- 
 though more acceptable than the Spanish, was by no means agreea- 
 ble to the nation. 
 
 James died in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having filled the 
 throne of England twenty-two years, and that of 
 1625. Scotland almost from his birth. — His unwarlike 
 
 Death ofJames. disposition better suited the interest, than the incli- 
 nation of his subjects. England, during his reign, was generally 
 prosperous, increasing in wealth and national power. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Charles I., who was twenty-five years of age when he succeeded 
 to the throne, had spent too much of his youth with 
 the dissolute young Buckingham, and was igno- 
 rant of the state of the nation. His measures were of course ill 
 calculated to heal divisions, of whose existence he was little aware. 
 His first act was to summon a parliament, to obtain the means of 
 paying the debts contracted by the crown during the preceding 
 reign, and to enable him to prosecute the Austrian war. The par- 
 liament granted a small sum, inadequate to the wants of the nation. 
 
 * George Viiiiers created duke of Buckingham by James, and made his chief coun- 
 sellor, for the wise reasons that iie was handsome and of pleasing address. He was 
 like a petted and spoiled child — getting his own way sometimes by whining and coax- 
 ing and sometimes by bullying and threatening the indulgent and timid king. 
 
 Lord Clarendon gives a lively picture of the manner in which he virought upon 
 James tosanciion a visit which he wished the prince of Wales to make to the infanta 
 of Spain, to whom he was betrothed. There Buckingham disgraced his grave young 
 master by his prauks. The Spanish minister said the infanta must curb him after she 
 was married. Buckingham opposed the match, broke it off, and then told the parlia- 
 ment lying stories, laying the blame upon the Spaniards. 
 
 Charles I. 
 
CHAP. HI.] ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, IRELAND. 271 
 
 Their object was, by withholding suppHes, to obtain from the mon- 
 arch some new security for their hberties. 
 
 The contest between the prerogative of the king, and the rights of 
 Contests between ^^^ commons, had now faii-Iy commenced. Charles, 
 the king and pariia- Inheriting from his father lofty ideas of the monar- 
 ment. cliical prerogative, and regarding this attempt to 
 
 circumscribe his authority, as little less than a con- 
 spiracy against his throne, dissolved the parliament. To supply his 
 necessities, he resorted to those illegal methods of taxation which had 
 been practised by the Tudors. 
 
 Having, by strenuous efforts, succeeded in fitting out a fleet, the 
 command was given to lord Wimbledon, a favourite of the duke of 
 Buckingham. This officer sailed to Spain, mismanaged matters, and 
 returned, Charles was obliged to summon another parliament to 
 obtain supplies. The commons granted the money, and at the same 
 time, requested the king to remove the duke of Buckingham from 
 his counsels. Charles rejected the petition, and again dissolved the 
 parliament. 
 
 Though destitute of means, influenced by his unworthy favourite 
 he continued the Austrian war. He extorted money-gifts from' 
 his subjects, under the name of loans and " benevolences " and 
 claimed a legal right to levy taxes for the support of a navy * 
 John Haa.pden •^°''" Hampden, a resolute patriot, refused to pay his 
 ' ' , assessment, of twenty shillings. Though the court 
 
 ot exchequer decided against him, giving many reasons for their 
 decision, the people, as Hampden had expected, saw the weakness of 
 the royal pretensions, wiien tried in the balance of justice and be 
 came more and more determined not to submit to such unreasonable 
 exactions. 
 
 A war with France, undertaken at the instigation of Buckin^^ham 
 was now added to the alarming list of evils. Nothing was left to 
 Charles, hopeless as that measure seemed, but again to summon a 
 parliament. The parliament now assembled, resolved to provide 
 ^me security for their rights and their liberties, so often violated 
 They determined to furnish a supply to the king ; but before they 
 passed the vote, they appointed a committee, who prepared a bill 
 declaring the illegality of the said measures of the court, and se' 
 lfi97 ^T-'"^.,?^^' liberties from future infringement. 
 
 p.t;tio;o7 Rights. ?:';;f ,t^ ;r"^/ ^ :.p^^^^^°^^ r ^^""^^'" p^^^^-^ 
 
 both houses of parliament, and required only the 
 roya assent to become a law. Charles gave it his sanction in the 
 usual form, but with such evident tokens of unwillingness, as made 
 his sincerity distrusted. The supply which had been voted to the 
 king, was eventually granted. Parliament was proceeding still far-' 
 ther to reform abuses, when it was prorogued by the king. 
 
 .nH^o"*!. 'h' ?■'''"■'''' had the least idea of using the money collected on this pretence 
 and called " ship money,'' for the purpose of improving a navy. pretence. 
 
272 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD 111. 
 
 Shortly after this, Buckingham, while preparing with a fleet to go 
 to Rochelle in aid of the French protestants, was 
 ^^"^^ hLf'"^'''"° assassinated by the deliberate stroke of a religious 
 enthusiast, who rashly thought he should serve God 
 and his country ; thus doing evil that good might come. The expe- 
 dition to Rochelle failed, and while Charles had expended in prepa- 
 rations for its success, the subsidies granted by parliament, its failure 
 served only to inflame the discontent of his subjects. 
 
 The next parliament renewed their claim to the right of regula- 
 ting the mode of taxation ; they also complained of 
 Contests between grievances in matters of rehgion. Charles, irritated 
 liatnent. ^^ ^^0 continued attempts to limit his prerogative, 
 
 again determined to dissolve the parliament, but 
 when the speaker of the house of commons was about to rise in order 
 to signify the king's intention, he was forcibly held in the chair, until 
 a remonstrance was drawn up and passed. This open rupture be- 
 tween the king and parliartient increased the dissatisfaction of the 
 nation, and involved Charles in still greater perplexities ; yet he con- 
 tinued the same obnoxious measures. He committed to prison and 
 fined the leaders of the parliamentary party, who by this persecu- 
 tion, only acquired an increase of popularity. Charles now resolved 
 to call no more parliaments ; and being unprovided with means for 
 continuing the war with France and Spain, made peace with both 
 these powers. 
 
 Meanwhile the mutual hostihty of the religious parties became 
 more inveterate. The puritans, now a numerous 
 Religious parties. body, justly complained of the rigorous measures 
 taken by the episcopacy, to enforce conformity with the rules of the 
 established church ; while the church, under the control of the big- 
 oted arch-bishop Laud, increased the causes ofthei;* complaint, by in- 
 troducing new and more offensive ceremonies, and showing a manifest 
 tendency towards the catholic forms and faith. 
 
 At this critical juncture, when he should have known that he need- 
 ed the good will of Scotland, Charles made a journey into that king- 
 dom, with the intention of introducing a conformity to the customs of 
 the English church. This united the whole nation against him. An 
 outcry was raised against popery, and both the clergy and people en- 
 tered into a bond of union, pledging themselves to resist all rehgious 
 innovations, and to support each other against all op- 
 1638. position. This was termed, " the Solemn League 
 
 The Scotch "cove- j^^^^ COVENANT." The Covenantors prepared to 
 maintain their rights by military force. Charles, 
 on his part, raised an army to punish their refractory zeal. Afraid 
 to hazard a battle, and sensible of the disinclination of his English 
 troops to the war, he resorted to negotiations. The king would not 
 concede all that the Scots required, and war was renewed. The ad- 
 vantage was now all on the side of the covenanters. During the pa- 
 cification, Charles had disbanded his army, and though he now again 
 collected a body of troops, he had no means of paying them. 
 
 I 
 
CHAP. III.] ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, IRELAND. 273 
 
 In this dilemma, he was obhged to resort to the humihating expedi- 
 ent of again caUing a parHament. He obtained no 
 1640. Old, and dissolved it. — The army of the covenant- 
 
 t^releven'^ear^S ®^^ advanced into England. At Newburn upon 
 ' ^tennission. Tyne, they encountered a detachment of the royal 
 
 forces under Lord Conway, and defeated them. In 
 their march into England, the Scots maintamed the most exact dis- 
 cipline, paid for their provisions, and made protestations of loyalty to 
 the king ; wishing only to obtain access to the I'oyal person, and the 
 redress of their grievances. Charles was again obliged to make con- 
 cessions, to obtain a cessation of hostilities. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 Another English parliament was now called. The earl of Straf- 
 ford, who from being one of the parliamentary lead- 
 1641. ers, had become a favourite of the king, Avas im- 
 
 Strafford condemn- peached On the charge of high treason ; and though 
 ed and executed. illegally condemned, the efforts of Charles to save 
 
 him were unavailing. 
 At this time a bloody rebellion broke out in Ireland, and thousands 
 of the protestants were massacred by the catholics. 
 Irish rebellion. rpj^^ commons afforded their king no means of sup- 
 pressuig this rebellion, but continued, in proportion to tlie number of 
 his concessions, to increase their demands ; until at length it became 
 apparent, that the parliamentary leaders were now the oppressors of 
 the king, and intended to subvert the monarchy. During the session 
 of this parliament, called the " long parliament," the commons having 
 presented to the king a severe remonstrance against his arbitrary 
 acts, Charles caused five of the most distinguished members to be im- 
 peached for treason, and despatched a sergeant-at-arms to the house, 
 to demand them ; he was sent back without any positive answer. 
 The king unwisely proceeded in person, with armed attendants, to 
 the house ; but the five members were gone, and the king withdrew. 
 The cry which greeted him as he retired, was not " God save the 
 king ;" but murmurs of " privilege — privilege of parliament." Tu- 
 mults succeeded, and the royal family were obliged to flee from Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Both parties now raised troops, and prepared to decide the contest 
 by the appeal to arms. Charles raised the royal 
 1642. standard at Nottingham. On his side were most of 
 
 Civil war. ^jjg nobility, and highest rank of gentry, with their 
 
 dependants ; but he was destitute of arms, ammunition, and money. 
 On the side of the parliament, were not only the main body of the mil- 
 itary force of London, but most of the great corporations, with the 
 seamen. A battle, not decisive, was fought at Edgehill, in which 
 Charles commanded in person, aided by his nephew, prince Rupert ; 
 while his opponents were headed by the earl of Essex. At Lans- 
 
 24 
 
274 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 down, a battle was fought without any decisive result. At Stratton 
 and Roundway Down, the royalists were victorious. 
 
 In a skirmish on Calsgrave field, the patriot Hampden, who had 
 been exceedingly influential in parliament, was slaiu. 
 
 1643. The royalists made themselves masters of Bristol, 
 Death of Hampden. ^^^ jj^jj gjgg^ ^^ Gloucester. The parliament com- 
 manded their army under Essex to march to the relief of Gloucester. 
 The king was compelled to raise the siege. The armies fought at 
 Newbury. Neither side could claim the victory, but both sustained 
 great loss. 
 
 The Scots now united with the parliament, while the Irish despatch- 
 ed succours to the king. At Marston Moor, a bloody 
 
 1644. battle was fought, and lost by tlie royalists. Fifty 
 Battle of Marston thousand troops Were engaged — a larger force than 
 
 was engaged at any other period during this war. 
 The parliamentary commanders were Sir Thomas Fairfax, and Oli- 
 ver Cromwell. The royalists were led by the marquis of Newcastle, 
 and prince Rupert. 
 
 At Naseby was fought liis last and fatal battle, in which Charles 
 commanded in person, and displayed " the conduct 
 
 1645. of a prudent general, and the valour of a stout sol- 
 Battle of Naseby. jjgj,_» ^fjgj. ^[jg i^gg Q^^j^jg ]^^^^lQ^ he retreated to 
 
 Wales, but finding himself unable to retrieve his foi-tunes, he resolved 
 to throw himself on the generosity of the Scots. He arrived at their 
 
 camp at Newark, and was at first received with 
 1647. marks of respect, but was detained a prisoner, and 
 
 Charles a prisoner. ^^ length delivered to the English. He was con- 
 ducted by them to Holdenby,* in the county of Northampton, where 
 he was detained a prisoner by the parliament, until a change of events 
 took him out of their hands. 
 
 Between the opponents of the monarch, tliere now existed conflict- 
 ing interests, and hostile feelings. Another religious sect had arisen, 
 who maintained among other opinions, that right of freedom for all, in 
 matters of religion, which at this day is so extensively acknowledged. 
 
 These were the independents, at the head of whom 
 Oliver Cromwell. ^^^^ Oliver Cromwell. They were opposed not on- 
 ly to the king and prelacy, but also to the presbytery. This party 
 professed the desire of establishing a republican form of government. 
 Cromwell, by his real, or pretended zeal, for religion and liberty, had 
 gained the entire confidence of the army. He now sought to obtain 
 
 * Clarendon relates in a touching manner, the great satisfaction which the king felt 
 that his children were permitted to come and spend a day with him. Those were his 
 younger children. His oldest son was with his mother in P'rance — learning of her 
 doubtless some lessons in dissoluteness and double-dealing, which he afterwards prac- 
 tised. 
 
CHAP. IV.] SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 275 
 
 possession of the king's person, and privately de- 
 1647. spatched a party of five hundred horse, under cor- 
 
 Cornet Joyce seizes j^^^ Joyce,* who Seized him at Holdenby, and con- 
 "' ducted him to the army. Cromwell now marched 
 
 at the head of the army to London, where he gave laws to the parlia- 
 ment, which had become extremely unpopular with the nation. At 
 the same time, he paid great court to Charles, whom the hostilities of 
 these two parties seemed to bring again into some consequence. 
 Cromwell and his adherents established him at Hampton court, where 
 he lived for some time with the appearance of freedom. 
 
 The situation of the king, however, soon became unpleasant. The 
 visits of his friends were denied, and angry menaces were thrown 
 out by the people, against him. Charles at length made his escape 
 from the palace, and remained awhile concealed at Litchfield ; but 
 was soon compelled to place himself in the keeping of Hammond, the 
 governor of the isle of Wight. He was here detained a close prison- 
 er, until at length the party of Cromwell having the 
 1649. complete ascendant, the king was brought to a pub- 
 
 Tnaland execution y^^ ^^.j^^j ^^j. treason, ou the ground of levying war 
 against the parliament, illegally condemned, and 
 unjustly executed. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 Philip in., who succeeded Philip IL on the throne of Spain, was a 
 prince of little ambition, and governed by his minister and the priests. 
 After the peace which he concluded at the Hague, with the revolted 
 provinces of the Netherlands, he turned his attention to the extirpa- 
 tion of heresy in Spain. The Moriscoes, descend. 
 1"11' ants of the ancient Moors, were ordered to leave the 
 
 Moors expelled. j.g^jj^ ^yj^l^jj^ ^j^jj.^y ^^^^^ ^.^^jg^, penalty of death. 
 
 They x'esisted the cruel decree, and vainly attempted to establish an 
 independent kingdom. They were, however, banished ; and thus 
 Spain, deprived of nearly a million of industrious inhabitants, suffered 
 a diminution of national strength, greater than any foreign enemy had 
 ever caused. 
 
 The succeeding monarch, Philip IV., became more closely united 
 with the other branch of the house of Austria. Phil- 
 
 Phihp IV. jp ^^^ j^jg ambitious minister, Olivarez, at the expira- 
 
 *The comet, who had formerly been a taylor, came into the king's presence armed with 
 pistols. You must, said he, go inimcdiately along with me. " Whither?" asiied the 
 king. "To the army." By what warrant, demanded Charles. Joyce pointed to his 
 soldiers, tall, handsome, and well armed. Your warrant, said the king, is in fair char 
 acters, and legible. 
 
276 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD III. 
 
 tion of the truce, renewed the attempt to bring the Netherlands into 
 
 subjection to the crown. But Spain, now on the decUne, was 
 
 at last obHged to acknowledge in full, the indepen- 
 
 1643. dence of the United Provinces. In Italy, her af- 
 
 Spanish empire de- fg^j^g ^gj.g going to ruin, and she had a war with 
 
 °' France upon her hands. 
 
 Portugal, during this reign, took up arms for the recovery of her 
 independence ; and placed the duke of Braganza, whose title was su- 
 perior to that of the king of Spain, upon the throne, under the name 
 of John IV. All the Portuguese settlements in Asia, Africa, and the 
 islands, expelled their Spanish governors. The Catalans also revolt- 
 ed, and placed themselves under the direction of France ; but after 
 some years of war, they were reduced to submission. 
 1648. The peace of Westphalia did not terminate the war 
 
 between Spain and France. 
 
PERIOD IV 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 PeaceofVVestphalia^ THIRD EPOCHA, 1648 A. D. ^ ^ndjhe execution 
 M ' \ oiLiiarlesJ. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 ^afth^'c wa'r'' \ FOURTH EPOCHA, 1713 A. D. | ^^Ji-cS' 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 The peace of Westphalia left the conflicting claims of France and 
 Spain unsettled, and the war between those two powers still contin- 
 ued. Louis XIV. being a minor, the reins of government were held 
 by his mother, Anne of Austria, who was guided entirely by the 
 counsels of cardinal Mazarin, the successor of Richelieu. Paris was 
 filled with seditious spirits, and the intrigues of the capital soon 
 plunged the nation in civil war. *The parliament of Paris, insti- 
 gated by the cardinal de Retz, who thought him- 
 1648. self more fit than Mazarin to govern France, and 
 
 ^"make drL«^"^ perhaps also somewhat roused by the example of 
 their Englisli neighbours, claimed the authority of 
 examining, and refusing to pass, the edicts of the crown. Many of 
 the discontented nobility, and the citizens of Paris, supported the par- 
 liament in its opposition to the measures of Mazarin. This minister, 
 in want of money to support the war with Spain, ordered a fine to 
 be levied upon the new buildings in the suburbs of Paris, grounding 
 his right upon an old act which forbade the creation of buildings in 
 these places. The parliament prohibited the levy, and the minister 
 was obliged to desist. Other occasions of discord arose, until Maz- 
 arin arrested and committed to prison the president and five of the 
 most factious members. 
 
 * This parliament was a judicial, not a legislative body. No meeting of Ihe na- 
 tional assembly was held from the regency of Mary de Medici, till the reign of Louis 
 XVI. 
 
 24* 
 
27'8 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 The mob of Paris, joined by many of the most respectable citi- 
 zens, proceeded on the following day to barricade 
 1649. tj^g streets, the whole populace rose in arms, and 
 
 *"^"pari's°" ^^ *^® ^°"^'^ ^^^ forced to yield. The prisoners be- 
 ing delivered up, all outrages ceased, and the city 
 returned to order. The queen regent, however, did not consider the 
 seditious capital a place of safety ; and with the young king and 
 Mazarin she retired to St. Germain. 
 
 This insurrection received the name of the Fronde. Some of 
 those who commenced it being armed with slings, the wits of the 
 court contemptuously applied to the insurgents the epithet of " fron- 
 deurs," or "slingers." The wars of the Fronde 
 1651. continued five years. Constant intrigues and 
 
 Wars of the Fronde, change of parties perplex their history, and some- 
 times give it even a ludici'ous air. The generals who figured most 
 in these wars were Conde and Turenne. Towards their close a bat- 
 tle was fought at Paris near the suburb St. Antoine, between Conde, 
 who had brought troops from Spain, and the royal forces under the 
 command of Turenne, which was at last decided in favour of Conde, 
 by the intrepidity of Mademoiselle Montpensier, daughter of the duke 
 of Orleans.* 
 
 After five years of civil war, the French nation, without having 
 advanced one step towards freedom, again humbly submitted them- 
 selves to the royal authority. Louis XIV., though 
 ouis \l . young, assumed the government, entered Paris tri- 
 
 umphant, and was welcomed by the acclamations of his people. 
 Conde repaired to Spain. No clamours for the assembling of the 
 states were heard, and Louis directed his parliament to presume no 
 more to interfere with state affairs. After this period, the French 
 monarch exercised unlimited power. 
 
 During the wars of the Fronde, the Spanish war languished, but 
 now under the conduct of Turenne, was prosecuted with vigour. 
 Conde, who commanded the Spanish armies, undertook the siege of 
 Arras, but was repulsed by the French, compelled to raise the 
 siege and retreat. The successes of the hostile nations were nearly 
 equal, until Mazarin obtained for Louis the alliance of Cromwell, 
 who now governed the commonwealth of Eng- 
 1658. land. In consequence of this treaty, 6,000 Eng* 
 
 French and Eng- jjgj^ joined the French army in Flanders. Dun- 
 kirk fell before their united strength, and was 
 assigned to the English. 
 Spain and France became alike desirous of peace ; and the am- 
 bassadors of the respective sovereigns met in the ilse of Pheasants, 
 
 * She prevailed on the municipal officers to open the gate St. Antoine, and herself 
 directed the firing of the guns of the Bastile, and even with her own hand applied the 
 match. The court party by this means lost the battle. " She has killed her husband," 
 said Mazarin, who knew that she was ambitious to marry some crowned head ; and in 
 fact these valorous proceedings of the lady decided Charles II. of England (according 
 to Clarendon) not to offer her his hand. 
 
CHAP. II.] SWEDEN. 279 
 
 in the Pyrenees, and settled its terms. By the 
 1659. (I treaty of the Pyrenees," Philip agreed to pardon 
 
 Peace of the ^^le Catalans, and Louis the prince of Conde. Louis 
 yrenees. espoused Maria Theresa, the infanta of Spain, but 
 
 was required to renounce all claim upon the Spanish monarchy. 
 Mazarin died soon after the conclusion of this treaty, which com- 
 pleted the achievement of those great objects of policy undertaken 
 by Richelieu, and continued by his successor. France was extend- 
 ed in territory, her nobles humbled, and the house of Austria 
 weakened. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Christina, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, who was seated 
 on the throne of Sweden at the conclusion of the thirty year's war, 
 acquired considerable renown by her attention to literature, and her 
 patronage of men of letters, which drew to her court the learned of 
 other nations. She appears to have been an example to show how 
 fruitless is mere intellectual vigour and cultivation, when not 
 guided by benevolence and piety. 
 
 Her literary labours, instead of qualifying her to fill with useful- 
 ness and honour the station in which Providence had placed her, 
 wrought in her a distaste to the cares of royalty, and the mere sel- 
 fish wish of enjoying undisturbed her own propen- 
 1654. sities. Resigning her crown to Charles Gustavus, 
 
 Clinstina resigns ^^j^^ ascended the throne of Sweden under the name 
 Charles X. o^ Charles X., she repaired to Rome ; and that she 
 
 might enjoy the charms of Italian society there, 
 she renounced the protestant faith, in which she had been educated, 
 that the imputation of being a heretic need not interfere with her 
 pleasures. In her visits to Paris, her dissolute and licentious life 
 shocked even the French court ; and the cruelties exercised upon 
 her attendants, excited universal abhorrence. 
 
 Charles X. of Sweden made the conquest of Poland, and com- 
 
 polled Casimir, the reigning king, to flee to Silesia. 
 
 1657. The Poles, however, soon revolted from the Swedish 
 
 Charles X. makes yoke, and with the assistance of the Russians, 
 
 "^a.ncl'Denmarl" Danes and Germans, expelled the Swedes from 
 
 their kingdom. Charles now turned his arms 
 
 against Denmark. 
 
 His death, which occurred while he was engaged in the siege of 
 
 Copenhagen, left the throne of Sweden to his son, then a minor. A 
 
280 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 treaty of peace was concluded at Oliva in West 
 1660. Prussia, near Dantzic, by which the Danish and 
 
 '"^ ®* " Pohsh monarch each made some sacrifices to Swe- 
 
 den ; and Casimir, the Pohsh king, was restored to his throne. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 After the execution of Charles I., the commons passed an act, 
 
 abolishing kingly power as useless, burdensome and dangerous. 
 
 They also abolished the house of Lords, and committed the great 
 
 seal (the form and inscription of which they chang- 
 
 ^'"S'y r'"wer gjj^^ jq ^ certain number of persons, who were styled 
 
 " the Conservators of the liberties of England." 
 
 An army of 50,000 men was under the command of Cromwell, who 
 
 at this period supported the measures of parliament. 
 
 Cromwell, who was appointed by the parliameut lord lieutenant of 
 Ireland, at the head of an army, entered the 
 
 1650. island where tiie earl of Ormond, an adherent of 
 Cromwell subdues Charles I., was still in arms. Cromwell reduced 
 
 Ireland. ^j^g IHsh to Submission, and established the author- 
 
 ity of parliament. 
 Meanwhile the Scottish covenanters, though little attached to the 
 royal family, resolved to support the monarchy, 
 Charles II. pro- ^^^^ proclaimed Charles II. king of Scotland. 
 
 claimed in Scotland. ^, ,' 1,1 1 , r- • tt 11 1 
 
 Charles, who had sought reiuge m HolJand, em- 
 barked for Scotland. On his arrival, and before he landed, he 
 signed the covenant. Parliament recalled Cromwell from Ireland, 
 made him captain-general of all their forces, and sent him against 
 the Scots. He defeated them at the battle of Dunbar, and made him- 
 self master of Edinburgh and Leith. 
 
 In the meantime, the Scots, though weakened by divisions among 
 
 themselves, and jealous of the prince they supported, had assembled 
 
 an army, with which Charles entered England. Cromwell followed, 
 
 attacked, and defeated the royal troops at Worces- 
 
 1651. tgj.^ a,nd Charles was obliged to flee. After more 
 Battle of Worcester, ^j^^^^ ^ month's Concealment in different places,* 
 
 * Atone time, he concealed himself among the thick branches of an oak tree. While 
 the persons in pursuit of him, passed underneath, he heard them express their desire 
 of seizing and delivering him to his father's murderers. At another time he rode two 
 orthree days journey, carrying Mrs. Lane, the wife of one of his adherents, on a pillion 
 behind him. She told her cousins, where she stopped at night, that the young man 
 was one of her neighbours — that he was out of health, and begged they would send 
 him directly to bed. In this way she kept him out of sight. 
 
CHAP. III.] ENGLAND. 281 
 
 and under different disguises, he effected his escape to the continent. 
 The battle of Worcester ruined, for the time, the royal cause. The 
 authority of the commonwealth was now acknowledged throughout 
 the whole extent of the English possessions ; and foreign powers 
 were made sensible of the great strength of the nation. Cromwell, 
 who had coTitinued at the head of the army, now established himself 
 in the sovereignty. The parliament, distrustful of him, urged a re- 
 duction of the land-forces. Cromwell, by means of the army which 
 was obsequious to his will, dissolved the parliament, and thus, while 
 the name of liberty was upon his lips, he became a military tyrant. 
 By a council of his officers, he was appointed 
 1653. « Protector of the Commonwealth," and addressed 
 
 Cromwell P. otector. ^,y ^j^g ^j^j^ ^f « highness. " 
 
 Jealousies now arose between England and Holland, and a naval 
 
 war ensued. After several undecisive engagements, the English 
 
 fleet under admiral Blake, engaged the Dutch un- 
 
 War with the jg^. y^^^^ Tromp, and De Ruyter, off Portland. 
 "'" ■ The battle was fought with the utmost obstinacy 
 
 for two days. On the third, the Dutch were forced to yield. After 
 this destructive battle, they sued for peace. 
 
 England, under the energetic government of Cromwell, rose to 
 an importance among the nations of Europe, which had been un- 
 known since the days of Elizabeth. The Spaniards and French, 
 the Venetians and Swiss, courted the alliance of the protector. He 
 formed connexions with France, and engaged in the Spanish war. 
 Besides the forces sent to the continent in aid of France, a naval 
 armament was despatched to the West Indies ; and Jamaica, one of 
 the Spanisli islands, was conquered and retained by the English. 
 
 Conspiracies were formed against the protector, but by his activity 
 they were disconcerted. His domestic government, though perhaps 
 as mild and equitable as his situation would permit, was yet rigorous ; 
 and he was guilty of some acts of tyranny and injustice, on which 
 Charles had never dared to venture. Cromwell 
 1657. (Jig(j flye years after he obtained the protectorate, 
 
 Death of Cromwell. ^^^^ ^^^^ succeeded by his son Richard, whose mild 
 
 1659. and unambitious disposition, so unlike that of Jiis 
 Richard Cromwell, father, took alarm at the turbulence and cabals that 
 surrounded him. He resigned the protectorate, and retiring to his 
 estate in the country, lived unmolested and unoffending. 
 
 The nation was now divided into many parties and sects ; but 
 multitudes of the people had become weary of bustle and change, 
 and desired in their hearts the revival of the monarchy. 
 
 General Monk, an officer of Cromwell, who had the supreme com- 
 mand in Scotland, marched his army into Eng- 
 
 1660. land, and advanced to London, where he proceed- 
 General Monk ^^j ^^ cxecutc the plan he had formed for restoring 
 
 restores Charles II. „, , xt i . -r-v- ■ ■ i • i ■ 
 
 Charles II. to the throne. Disguising his designs 
 under the appearance of zeal for the commonwealth, he procured 
 the dissolution of the parliament then in session, and the assembling 
 of a new one ; and succeeded in securing the election of friends of 
 
282 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV- 
 
 the monarchy as members of the new parHament. On its assembling, 
 a messenger, bearing a letter from Charles, was introduced. The 
 prince offered a general pardon, promised liberty of conscience — 
 assured the soldiers of their arrears, and submitted all grants to par- 
 liamentary arbitration. The house of peers now took their share in 
 the government, and both houses attending, Charles II. was pro- 
 claimed king. 
 
 He sailed from the Hague, was met at Dover by general Monk, 
 conducted thence to London, and his return was hailed with joy by 
 the nation. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Charles thus restored to his throne, every thing conspired to prom- 
 ise a popular and prosperous reign. But the char- 
 Charr"^ °'' acter of the monarch soon blighted the hopes of 
 
 the nation, and proved that even the school of ad- 
 versity does not always teach wisdom.. His agreeable person, and 
 easy, engaging manners, made him liked by all who approached 
 him ; even by those whose judgments most strongly disapproved 
 the unblusliing proHigacy of his hfe ; and thus his vicious example 
 became particularly dangerous to his subjects ; and licentiousness 
 spread from the court to the extremes of the kingdom. 
 
 Charles' first measures were mild and popular ; but his people soon 
 
 found that his engagements weighed little, wherever he deemed it 
 
 his interest to violate them. To favour episco- 
 
 1661. pacy, he passed an act requiring uniformity in re- 
 
 ileasures of ligion. This gave offence to the dissenting clergy, 
 
 and two thousand of them in one day relinquished 
 
 their cures. Prosecutions were commenced against those concerned 
 
 in the death of his father. Some were executed, and some fled to 
 
 foreign kingdoms. Three of the judges, Goff, Whalley and Dixwell, 
 
 concealed themselves in New England. Fears of popery were 
 
 increased, by the marriage of the king with Catharine of Portugal, 
 
 a catholic princess. But the amiable cliaracter and manners of the 
 
 queen gave general satisfaction. Indeed it was soon ascertained that 
 
 the king was influenced more in his choice by the rich dower of the 
 
 queen, than by any other consideration. He treated her at first 
 
 with coldness, then with insult, and finally with neglect.* Charles 
 
 was unfortunate as well as faithless in his foreign relations. 
 
 He engaged in hostilities with the Dutch on false pretences, hop- 
 ing by means of involving himself in a popular war, 
 ^^^^' to obtain money from parliament, and regain the 
 
 War wiu. Hoiiaad. ^^^^ ^^jjj ^^ j^j^ subjects, whose jealousies were 
 
 * The king compelled her to receive with honour in open court, his profligate mis- 
 tress. She sunk overcome with anguish, and was carried from his presence in a state 
 of insensibility. But while she continued to endure the frowns and displeasure of her 
 royal husband and his profligate court, she was sustained by the sympathy and affec- 
 tion of a generous nation. 
 
CHAP. III.] ENGLAND. 283 
 
 aroused by the interference of the Dutch in their foreign trade. He 
 wished also to restore to his nephew, Wilham III., the dignity of 
 Stadtholder, which had formerly belonged to the family of Orange, 
 but had been recently abolished by the Dutch. That industrious 
 people lost no time in preparing for the war. John De Witt, who 
 was at the head of the republican party, had before entered into an 
 alliance with France. The English despatched squadrons to Africa 
 and America, and in both, they took possession of the Dutch settle- 
 ments. 
 
 A naval engagement took place off the coast of Holland, between 
 
 the Dutch fleet, under the command of the admiral Opdam, and the 
 
 English, under the duke of York, which ended in the defeat of the 
 
 Dutch. Louis XIV. now sent out a fleet to aid them. The king of 
 
 Denmark, also, jealous of the naval power of England, came forward 
 
 to their assistance. In the following year, a sea 
 
 1666. fight took place off" Dunkirk, the English being 
 
 ^'^Dilakiik °^ commanded by Monk, (now duke of Albermarle,) 
 
 and prince Rupert ; and the Dutch, by De Ruyter, 
 
 and the younger Van Tromp. It lasted four days with alternate 
 
 success, when at length the arrival of another English squadron, 
 
 compelled the Dutch to retire. 
 
 Notwithstanding this tide of fortune on the ocean, England had 
 not been free from calamities. In London a dread- 
 
 1665. ful plague had bl'oken out, and nearly one hundred 
 Plague in London, thousand persous fell its victims. 
 
 A terrible fire burned for three days, and consumed thirteen thou- 
 sand buildings. ' Charles, though generally selfish, on these occa- 
 sions,, showed a fatherly solicitude for his subjects. 
 
 1666. This was particularly the case, in the activity he 
 Great fire in Lon- manifested in extinguishing the fire, and providing 
 
 for the suffering population, who were exposed un- 
 sheltered to the elements. 
 The situation of his kingdom, now rendered Charles not less anx- 
 ious for peace than the Dutch ; and negotiations were accordingly 
 commenced. Still, De Witt would not agree to a cessasion of hos- 
 tilities, and sent a fleet to the coast of England, under admiral De 
 Ruyter. This fleet entered the Thames ; a part of the squadron 
 advanced to Chatham, and burned several British ships of war. 
 Shortly after this, a treaty of peace was signed at 
 
 1667. Breda, and hostilities ceased. England retained 
 Peace of Breda. possession of New York, and ceded to the Dutch, 
 
 Surinam. This treaty by no means restored the popularity of 
 Charles, the nation attributing to his prodigality and avarice, the 
 necessity of concluding the war without obtaining more fiivourablc 
 terms. 
 
284 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV, 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 EURROPE DURING THE WARS OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 
 
 While England and the United Provinces had been weakening each 
 other by mutual hostilities, Louis XIV. was maturing plans for the 
 aggrandizement of the French monarchy. The death of Philip IV., 
 
 had left the throne of Spain to be filled by his son 
 
 1665. Charles II., a sickly infant ; and the regency was 
 
 Ambitious F<^ects committed to the queen-mother, a woman of weak 
 
 character. Notwithstanding the renunciation of 
 Louis on his marriage, he now brought forward claims to some of 
 the Spanish possessions, in right of his queen, Maria Theresa, and to 
 enforce them, entered the Spanish Netherlands at the head of 40,000 
 troops. The Spaniards were unprepared for the invasion, and town 
 after town fell before the French. The rapid successes of Louis 
 alarmed the other powers, who saw that unless some more efficient 
 resistance was made, another campaign would give him possession 
 of all the Low Countries. The English, Dutch and Swedes, united 
 against him in a league, called " the Triple Alliance." Louis was 
 
 now willing to negotiate ; and at Aix4a-Chapelle 
 
 1668. the ambassadors of the diffei'ent nations met, and 
 
 Peace of Aixia- formed a treaty of peace, which left to the French 
 
 monarch the conquests he had made, but compelled 
 him to relinquish all other claims upon the Spanish provinces. 
 
 Louis, however, determined to take a future occasion to revenge 
 himself upon Holland for the share she had taken in obstructing 
 his ambitious views, and also sought to detach England from the 
 triple alliance. The wants and weakness of Charles, led him to 
 the shameful measure of a secret treaty, by which he agreed to 
 
 assist the king of France in the conquest of the 
 
 Sliaraeful featy of United Provinces, and the Low Countries ; to em- 
 
 Loufsxiv '^ brace publicly the catholic faith, and to establish 
 
 it in his kingdom. In reward of these services, he 
 was to receive from Louis the sum of 200,000 pounds, besides an 
 annual subsidy ; and in case of rebellion in England, a military force. 
 While the Dutch were flattering themselves with the hope ©f a 
 long peace, Louis, at the head of an army, invaded and conquered 
 the duchy of Lorraine, in order to furnish himself with an easy pas- 
 sage into the United Provinces. He had found measures to detach 
 Sweden, as well as England, from the triple alliance ; and to bring 
 some of the German nobles into the French interest. This extensive 
 confederacy, and the formidable military and naval preparations, 
 threatenod the entire overthrow of the republic. Charles, still keep- 
 ing the treaty he had formed, a secret, obtained from his parliament 
 
CHAP. IV.] EUROPE. 285 
 
 the largest supply the commons had ever granted to a king, in order 
 to enable him to sustain the engagements under which the triple alli- 
 ance placed him. He then ordered an attack upon a Dutch fleet 
 from Smyrna, valued at two millions sterling, and shortly after, on 
 frivolous pretexts, declared war against Holland. The combined 
 English and French fleets amounted to more than a hundred sail, 
 while the army collected by Louis numbered an hundred and twenty 
 thousand troops, commanded by the ablest generals of the age. 
 
 The Dutch, relying on the faith of treaties, were unprepared with 
 an efficient military force. The strength of the republic was also 
 weakened by dissensions among themselves. William, prince of 
 Orange, was appointed commander in chief of the army. De Witt, 
 whose authority was now declining, sought to recover it, and to in- 
 spirit the states to some great naval operation. He equipped a fleet, 
 which, under admiral De Ruyter, came up with the united fleets of 
 the English and French, as they lay at anchor in Solebay. De 
 Ruyter attacked it, but obtaining no decisive advantage, he retreated 
 to the coast of Holland, wliither he was pursued by the English 
 admiral. 
 
 Meanwhile the French king, assisted in his command by Marechal- 
 Turenne, moved northward at the head of a large army, and reach- 
 ed the Rhine almost without opposition ; took Nim- 
 1672. eguen, Arnheim, and invested Utrecht. The prince 
 
 '^^"'''dTiI"'" "'^ ^^ Orange, with his small army, retreated before 
 him ; and in a few weeks, all the provinces except 
 Holland and Zealand, had submitted to the conqueror. 
 
 This crisis roused the citizens of Amsterdam, and of the whole 
 province of Holland, and every hand was nerved. 
 Dutch patriotism. rpj^^ populace were taken into pay. They station- 
 ed ships in the harbour, and consigned their fertile fields and flour- 
 ishing villages to destruction, by opening the sluices of their canals, 
 and inundating the country to save the city. Yet while they pre- 
 pared to resist, they souglit for peace, but their overtures were re- 
 jected ; and the resolute Dutch determined to leave their native land, 
 if they could not defend it, and settle in India or America. 
 
 In the frenzy of the times, the people, feeling the necessity of an 
 
 acknowledged sovereign, and accusing the two De 
 
 "^'"^ '\" ii^J ^^'"" ^'^*^' by ^^'h°^^ influence the office of stadtholder 
 
 had been abolished, now rose in fury, imprisoned 
 
 and put them to death, and again declared the prince of Orange 
 
 stadtholder. 
 
 The united fleet of the confederates about this tiine advanced 
 towards the coast of Holland, having on board the army which was 
 designed to complete its conquest. The Dutch thanked an overru- 
 ling Providence when it was carried back to sea, and prevented by 
 severe storms from landing the army. 
 
 The emperor of Germany, the king of Spain and the elector ol 
 Brandenburgh, now awoke to the grasping ambition of Louis, and 
 were ready to lend the States their aid. The prince of Orange 
 
 25 
 
286 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 retook Naerden, and joining his forces with those 
 
 1673. of the emperor under Montecuculi, they besieged 
 Dutch successes. ^^^ jq^j, Bonne, and subduing the principal part of 
 
 the electorate of Cologne, interrupted the communication between 
 France and the United provinces. The French were now compelled 
 to evacuate their conquests and retreat. The emperor and the king 
 of Spain publicly signed a treaty with the States, Spain declared 
 war against France, and the following year the parliament of Eng- 
 land compelled Charles II. to abandon the French alliance, and 
 make peace with Holland. 
 
 The efforts of the French monarch to sustain the war were un- 
 remitting. He brought, this year, four armies into 
 
 1674. i\iQ field, and commenced the campaign by march- 
 Kiench again sue- jj^g j^ person into Franche Compte, and subduing 
 
 the whole province. Conde, at the head of another 
 army, encountered the prince of Orange at Seneffe in Brabant, and 
 a bloody battle ensued, where twenty thousand were left dead on the 
 field, without any decisive victory. On the side of Germany, the 
 French were successful. Turenne, who commanded, made himself 
 master of the palatinate, but su'lied his reputation by the cruelties 
 which he there sanctioned. Louis, howevei', began to desire peace, 
 and to fear the result of the combination against him. He bribed 
 the king of England to prorogue his parUament, lest it should com- 
 pel him to unite in the confederacy. 
 
 The fortunes of France in the next campaign were less prosper- 
 ous. Near the Rhine, the imperial general, Montecuculi was, op- 
 posed to Turenne, and by his skill prevented the progress of the 
 Fi'ench. The death of Turenne, who was killed by a canon ball 
 while reconnoitering the enemy, proved an irreparable misfortune to 
 Louis. The superiority of the Fi'ench arms ceased in this quarter, 
 and the remainder of the war is marked by few memorable events. 
 On the ocean, the French were victorious chiefly through the skill of 
 Du Quesne, who yet held but an inferior rank in the navy. Several 
 battles were fought, in one of which De Ruyter, the famous Dutch 
 admiral, was killed. 
 
 Negotiations for peace were entered into at Nimeguen, in 1678, 
 the Dutch retaining their former territories. 
 
CHAP, v.] HOLLAND, FRANCE, GERMANY, SPAIN. 287 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 HOLLAND, FRANCE, GERMANY, SPAIN. 
 
 The emperor Leopold of Germany was at this time harassed by a 
 rebellion of the Hungarians, which was rendered still more alarming 
 by their union with the Turks. Mahomet IV., then on the Ottoman 
 throne, invaded the empire with the most formidable force which the 
 Turks had ever sent against Christendom. The Turkish army, un- 
 der the grand vizier, entered Germany and laid 
 Turks aid the re- skge to Vienna. The suburbs were destroyed, 
 "^"'"rian?""^^ and nothing less than the surrender of the city was 
 expected, when John Sobieski, king of Poland, 
 whose alliance the emperor had obtained, joined by several of the 
 German princes, arrived before the Turkish camp. A slight battle 
 ended in the precipitate flight of the Turks, and the relief of the dis- 
 tressed city. Among the spoils of the Turkish camp was found the 
 celebrated standard of Mahomet, which was presented by the captors 
 to the pope. In other battles, the Turks and Hungarians were un- 
 successful, and Hungary was restored to the empire. 
 
 Louis XIV., having raised the navy of France to a degree of con- 
 sequence unknown before his reign, various ports 
 Louis XIV. were constructed at great expense. His squadrons 
 
 commanded the Mediteranean, and in some measure stopped the 
 depredations of the Barbary pirates. He caused Algiers to be bom- 
 barded, and obliged the Algerines to release their Christian captives. 
 Louis also in resentment towards the Genoese, who had assisted the 
 Spaniards, ordered their city bombarded, and compelled the doge to 
 implore his clemency at Versailles. This Avas a palace which he 
 had erected at enormous cost, and where he kept his court with a 
 degree of expense and splendour probably not equalled even to this 
 time by any other monarch. 
 
 At this period, he lost his great minister, Colbert, who by his 
 
 patronage of manufactures and commerce, and liis 
 
 Death of Colbert. g|^j|j -^^ managing the revenue of the kingdom, had 
 
 enabled his monarch to maintain such expensive wars, and erect such 
 
 magnificent edifices. 
 
 Colbert had protected and patronized the huguenots ; Louis was 
 
 himself a bigot, and was now encouraged by Lou- 
 
 1685. vois, the successor of Colbert, to commence a I'e- 
 
 Louis persecutes the l[„\Q^^g persecution, in the course of which, he re- 
 
 protcstants and 111 ^■ A tvt i i tt ttt 
 
 revokes the Edict voked the cdict ot JN antcs, passed by Henry 1 V . 
 of Nantes. The protostauts were ordered to be converted by 
 
 a day appointed. Of those who continued refractory, the leaders 
 were broken on the wheel, while the common people were hanged. 
 The penalty of death was also enacted against all who attempted to 
 emigrate — yet, notwithstanding, fifty thousand families abandoned 
 
388 MODERN HISTORY. [PERTOD IV. 
 
 their country. Louis thus stained his character, and greatly injured 
 France ; for by means of these emigrations, the French skill in man- 
 ufactures was carried to other countries, while a great amount of 
 wealth and industry was lost to their own. From this period, the 
 power of Louis began to decline. The French protestants carried 
 with them a hatred to their king, which they infused into the hearts 
 
 of their brethren in the neighbouring kingdoms. A 
 1684. league of the princes belonging to the German em- 
 
 League against pn'^, was formed at Augsburg, for preventing the 
 
 further encroachments of France ; and with them, 
 
 Holland, Spain, and finally England, united. 
 Louis exerted the utmost vigour in preparing to withstand his 
 numerous and powerful enemies. The French were first in the field. 
 The dauphin led an army to the Rhine, and laid siege to Philipsburg, 
 which fell before his arms. The French overrun the palatinate, 
 where by order of the king they destroyed the great towns, and 
 spread desolation through the country. This Larbarous warfare 
 served only to render the enemies of France more inveterate. This 
 campaign was unsuccessful to the French, although the number of 
 troops in their armies was 40,000. 
 
 The following year Louis despatched an army into Italy, under 
 Catinat, which was victorious over the forces of the duke of Savoy 
 at Saluces. Luxembourg obtained a victory over the Dutch and 
 Spanish on the plains of Fleurus. The naval operations of France 
 were also prosperous. Admiral Tourville defeated the combined 
 squadrons of the English and Dutch, off" Beachy head, and even 
 made a descent upon the coast of England. 
 
 In the succeeding campaign, William, prince of Orange, now 
 -„p, king of England, who at the commencement of 
 
 the war was engaged in settling the affairs of that 
 realm, resumed the command in Flanders. Louis took Mons ; and 
 the French arms were successful on the side of Spain ; yet this 
 year, no decisive advantages were obtained by either side. 
 
 The following spring, Louis besieged and took Namur, while 
 
 Luxembourg was stationed so as to prevent the 
 
 king of England from bringing relief to the be- 
 sieged town. But at sea, the French, under the command of Tour- 
 ville, were defeated off" Cape La Hogue by the English ; and at 
 Steinkirk, William attacked and defeated their army. At Widdin, 
 
 the prince of Baden, who commanded the imperial 
 
 1693. forces, obtained a complete victory over the Turks, 
 Battle of Widdin. ^yj^j-^ ■yyi-,om the French king was now in alliance. 
 
 The following year, however, a new vizier, of more military 
 
 skill, changed the face of affairs. During the absence of tlie prince 
 
 of Baden, who was settling disturbances in Tran- 
 
 1694. sylvania, the Turks retook Widdin and made them- 
 ^"'^''rade ^'^' ^^^^^^ masters of Belgrade, and of all Upper Hun- 
 
 ^'^ ^' gary. 
 
CHAP. VI.] ENGLAND. 289 
 
 Meanwhile the French general, Luxembourg, surprised king 
 William, who with his army occupied the village of Necrwinden. 
 The conflict here was long and obstinate, and 
 Battle ofNeerwin- though victory at length declared for the French, 
 it was dearly bought. Luxembourg lost 8,000 of 
 his best troops, which so weakened his army, that ho was unable to 
 follow up the victory. He afterwards took Charleroi. In Spain, 
 the marechal de Noailles, and in Piedmont, Catinat, prosecuted the 
 war with success. At sea, also, Tourville retrieved the disasters of 
 the preceding j^ear, and obtained considerable advantages over a 
 squadron under Sir George Rooke. 
 
 The war continued through three more campaigns, during which, 
 with the exception of the conquest of Namur, by king William, no 
 event of consequence took place. The parties were at length de- 
 sirous of peace, and a congress under the media- 
 1697. tion of Charles XL, king of Sweden, assembled at 
 
 Peace of Ryswick. Ryswick to settle the terms. France acknowledged 
 William king of England. 
 Soon after the treaty of Ryswick, a battle took place at Zenta, 
 between the imperial forces under prince Eugene of Savoy, and the 
 Turks, under the command of the sultan Mustapha 
 Baltic of Zenta. jj^^ j^^ which princo Eugene obtained a decisive 
 victory. Twenty thousand Turks were left dead on the field, 
 besides great numbers who were drowned in attempting to escape. 
 The pavilion of the sultan, the great seal of the empire, and the 
 immense stores of the army, fell into the hands of the victors. This 
 event produced a peace between the German and 
 1699. 0:toman empires, which was signed at Carlowitz, 
 
 Peace of Carlowitz. ^^^^ ^^^-^Yi restored tranquillity to Europe. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Charles IL continued his unpopular measures, among which was 
 the sale of Dunkirk to the French, for the sum of 
 1663. 400,000 pounds. The duke of York declared him- 
 
 Charles II. sells g^jp ^ convert to the catholic religion, and the evi- 
 dent prepossessions of the monarch to the same 
 faith, awakened anew the fears of popery. Charles, though he 
 often offended his subjects, yet by his insinuating manners and sche- 
 ming brain, could ever find ways to recover their favour. He pro- 
 posed for this object, a marriage between the princess Mary, eldest 
 daughter of his brother James, and William, prince of Orange, 
 which, in spite of the remonstrances of James, he carried into effect. 
 
 25* 
 
290 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 On another occasion he obliged his brother, who was much disliked 
 by the people, to retire to Brussels. 
 
 Great disorders arose in Scotland, in consequence of the arbitrary 
 measures of the English ministry, in the establishment of episcopacy 
 in that kingdom. The covenanters rose in arms. 
 1679. The duke of Monmouth was sent to reduce them to 
 
 Battle of Bothwell order, and he defeated them in an irregular battle 
 ° ■ at Bothwell bridge. But behaving with great lenity 
 
 to the prisoners, he was recalled in disgrace, and the duke of York, 
 who had returned, was sent by his brother to administer the govern- 
 ment of Scotland. He cruelly persecuted the covenanters, seeming 
 to enjoy their sufferings. The court party, during the last years of 
 Charles, gathered strength, and tyrannical principles were advanced, 
 and gained ground. A conspiracy was formed for opposing the 
 succession of the duke of York, and for raising an insurrection to 
 effect this purpose. Among the conspirators were lord Russell, 
 Algernon Sidney, and John Hampden, grandson of 
 lool. {^],Q great parliamentary leader, — men who had the 
 
 '^"^'rxeTuted!'''"'^ g°°'^ «^ ^'^^'1' country at heart. The plot was de- 
 
 tected. Russell and Sidney were executed, and 
 
 Hampden imprisoned. 
 
 Another conspiracy called the Rye-house plot was formed among 
 
 a low class of persons. The discovery of this conspiracy, which 
 
 aimed at the assassination of Charles, led to the 
 
 Rye-house plot. detection of the other, though they were perfectly 
 
 distinct in their design, and composed of different members. 
 
 Charles died suddenly, at a time when his conscience having re- 
 1685. preached hiin with his tyrannical abuse of power, 
 
 Deathof Charles II. he designed a change of measures. James II. was 
 James II made king. Assembling his council, he declared 
 
 his determination to maintain the established gov- 
 ernment both in church and state. But liis conduct in sending to 
 make submissions to the pope — going in state to high mass, which 
 by act of parliament was an illegal assembly — levying taxes with- 
 out consent of parliament — and advancing catholics to office, while 
 he displaced episcopalians, soon convinced the people of the hollow, 
 ness of his professions. 
 
 Insurrections broke ou!, one in Scotland, headed by the duke of 
 Argyle, and another in England, headed by the duke of Monmouth. 
 These were suppressed, and the forces collected, defeated and scat- 
 tered. But these successes, instead of consolidating the power of 
 the king, in consequence of the bad measures which followed, un- 
 dermined his throne. Military executions of those taken prisoners, 
 were frequent, and sometimes attended with circumstances of horrid 
 cruelty.* Jefiries, who was chancellor of the kingdom, received 
 
 * After the battle of Ledgemoor, in which Monmouth was defeated, lord Fevers- 
 ham, who eommanded against liim, ordered above twenty of the prisoners to he 
 hanged without form of trial, f ol. Kirk did the .same at Bridge water, and when he 
 gaw their feet twiiching, as they were struggling in death, he ordered the band to play 
 a lively tuae, saying, " I will give them music to iheir dancing." 
 
CHAP. VI.] ENGLAND. 291 
 
 from James a special commission to try the rebels ; and to be tried 
 by this cruel and unjust judge, was to be condemned and executed. 
 
 By upholding such cruelties, the monarch made himself hated by 
 his people. To the clergy of the established church, he became 
 particularly obnoxious. He not only deprived them of privileges 
 formerly granted them, but grossly insulted them as a body, by 
 directing them to read in public his declaration of equal indulgence 
 to all religions ; a paper which contained matters contrary to their 
 legal claims and declared opinions. The arch-bishop of Canterbury, 
 and six bishops, met and drew up a petition that the king would not 
 oblige them to promulgate that which by former acts of parliament 
 was illegal. James not only refused to grant the petition, but com- 
 mitted the bishops to the tower, and prosecuted them for a libel. 
 
 The whole of the community (except a few office holders,) now 
 felt that the measure of tyranny and oppression was full, and that 
 such a government could no longer be endured. The nation was 
 roused to resistance. Many of the most considerable persons, both in 
 church and state, made secret applications to the prince of Orange, 
 who had married Mary, eldest daughter of James. 
 1688. The tories and whigs* united in requesting him to 
 
 Wiiham, prince of undertake the defence of the nation ; a proposal 
 °'" highly acceptable to William, who had ever kept 
 
 his eye upon the English throne. He sailed with a fleet for England, 
 and landed his army at Torbay without opposition. The whole 
 nation was in commotion, and soon the accessions to his party were 
 so numerous and rapid, that it seemed as if the whole realm were in 
 the conspiracy. The arm)^ and the navy deserted to him. James, 
 perceiving no chance of success in a war, and fearing the conse- 
 quences of resistance, sent tiie queen and prince of Wales to France. 
 He followed them himself, about the time that William advanced 
 to London. 
 
 A convention was summoned, and a a vote passed, declaring 
 James to have broken the original contract between king and peo- 
 ple ; and that, witlidrawing from the kingdom, he had left the throne 
 vacant. James was now dethroned, but William was not king ; and 
 in the arrangement of this affair, that prince showed the soundness 
 of his judgment. At first, the convention thought of making Mary 
 the sovereign, and William, regent ; but he sent them word that he 
 would not accept of a power which depended on the life of another, 
 and if they concluded on this plan, he would render them no assist- 
 ance. Mary seconded his views, and the prince and princess of 
 Orange were jointly declared king and queen of England. This 
 revolution is one of the most singular in history. It was accomplish, 
 ed almost without the effusion of blood ; and in its course the princi- 
 ple was acknowledged that the people had by their rci)resentative3 
 a riglit to elect the sovereign. The contest between the king and 
 
 * Th^se terms were first used in the reignof Charles II. — the tory party being those 
 who maintained the prerogative of the crown, — and the whig, those who maintained 
 the rights of the people. 
 
292 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 parliament, which began with the Stuarts, ended with them ; and 
 royal prerogative became thenceforth circumscribed. 
 
 Although William and Mary ascended the throne of England 
 without the effusion of blood, sometime was required to settle the 
 affairs of Scotland and Ireland. In Scotland, James retained a pow- 
 erful party headed by lord Dundee. At Killiecrankie this brave and 
 popular chieftain gave battle to the forces of William, and obtained 
 a victory, but fatally for the cause of James, he fell in the engage- 
 ment. 
 
 James, on his flight from England, had been hospitably received 
 by Louis XIV.,* and having collected a few hundred of his own sub- 
 jects, and some French officers, he embarked for Ireland. The earl 
 of Tyrconnel, who commanded there, remaining faithful to his inter- 
 ests, had assembled an army of nearly 40,000 men. James was 
 received with enthusiasm, and entered Dublin amidst acclamations. 
 The Irish protestants, however, resisted with intrepidity, though at 
 times reduced to the utmost distress, William, who for a time had 
 been compelled by the disputes which agitated the English parlia- 
 ment, to leave the Irish war to his lieutenants, now proceeded to that 
 kingdom in person. A battle was fought on the banks of the Boyne, 
 in which the monarchs were each at the head of their respective 
 armies. Victory declared in favour of William ; James again fled 
 to France, and Ireland soon after submitted to the power of the con- 
 queror. 
 
 Though the reign of VVilliam was often disturbed by the party 
 which adhered to the Stuarts, yet the majority of the nation sup- 
 ported him in his measures. While he was personally engaged in 
 the continental wars, Mary, whose manners were popular, exercised 
 with ability the ofhce of regent, although when her husband was in 
 England, she was the most submissive of his subjects. 
 
 William died at Kensington, by a fall from his horse. This mon- 
 arch governed with ability, yet not well. Ambi- 
 1702. tion was in his heart, and this was not modified as it 
 
 Death of Wiiliura. should liavc been, by a regard to the good of man- 
 kind, and especially to that of the people whom he governed. 
 Hence he augmented the disturbances on the continent, sent forth his 
 armies to shed the blood of distant, unoffending people, and to main- 
 tain these armies, commenced the system of borrowing inoney, 
 which has m its consequences accumulated the enormous national 
 debt which has brought England to the verge of desti'uction. To 
 carry his measures, he resorted to that dishonourable and demoraliz- 
 ing plan of bribing the members of parliament and other persons of 
 influence, both at home and abroad. During his reign, an act of set- 
 tlement was passed, notwithstanding the opposition of the Stuart 
 
 * The castle of St. Gemiainin the vicinity of Paris, situated on an eminence com- 
 manding a beautiful view of the winding Seine and its fertile meadows, was assigned 
 as his residence. The aparlmepts occupied by James and liis fumily arc now shown 
 lo the traveller in the condition in wliich they were when he and his family inhabited 
 thorn. Most persons of respoctability in that country are 6f iter accommodated, though 
 not so ainply. 
 
CHAP. VII.] EUROPE. 293 
 
 party, which secured the crown of England to the duchess dowager 
 of Hanover, grand daughter of James I., and her descendants ; they 
 being protestants. 
 
 WilHam was succeeded by Anne, sister of Mary, and second 
 
 daughter of James II. She continued the aUiance 
 
 1702. -with the house of Austria, and it was during her 
 
 Anne. reign that the victories of the duke of JMarlborough 
 
 reflected such lustre on the British arms. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 EUROPE FROM THE PEACE OF RYSVVICK, 1697, TO THE TREATY 
 OF UTRECHT, 1713. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 The peace of Ryswick had scarcely composed hostilities between 
 
 the European powers, when jarring claims and 
 
 Disputes about the intrigues, concerning the succession to the Span- 
 
 Spanish succession. .,° i-i n ij 
 
 ish crown arose, which eventually produced war. 
 Charles II., the reigning monarch of Spain, had no children ; and 
 the feeble state of his health gave reason to expect the immediate 
 vacancy of that throne. Louis XIV., the emperor Leopold, and the 
 elector of Bavaria, each possessed claims to the succession. The 
 mothers of Louis and Leopold were the daughters of Philip III. of 
 Spain, and these monarchs had each married a daughter of Philip 
 IV. The elector of Bavaria claimed the throne for his son, who 
 was the only surviving child of Leopold and Margaret, the second 
 daughter of Philip. 
 
 The balance of power in Europe, seemed to require that neither 
 tlie house of Austria, nor that of Bourbon, should obtain such an 
 accession of strength, as the acquisition of the Spanish monarchy 
 would give. A treaty of partition was therefore formed by Eng- 
 land, France and Holland, dividing the territories of the Spanish 
 monarchy among the different claimants. This treaty, which the 
 framers designed to preserve secret, became known in Spain, and 
 greatly displeased both the king and tlie nation. Charles immedi- 
 ately made a will, excluding both the house of Bourbon and that of 
 Austria, and bequeathing his crown, with all the Spanish possessions, 
 to the elector of Bavaria. The death of the elector, which occur- 
 red soon after, again renewed the intrigues of Louis and Leopold. 
 The king of England continued to interest himself in the negotia- 
 tions, and a second treaty was formed between England, France 
 and Holland, by which a new partition of the Spanish dominions 
 was made. To this partition also the emperor refused to accede. 
 
294 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 The intrigues of the clergy, and the influence of the j)ope, whom 
 
 Charles consulted, and who feared for his own territories, in case of 
 
 a union between Spain and Austria, drew Charles from the Austrian 
 
 interest, and induced him to make a secret will, in 
 
 1700. which the duke of Anjou, second son of the dau- 
 Charles II. of Spain phin, was declared his heir. The death of Charles, 
 leaves his crown to ^„j ^j^^ publication of this will, caused a powerful 
 
 Philip V. of the . r mi J ■ c 
 
 house of Bourbon, seusation tnroughout JbiUrope. Ihe desire oi 
 
 aggrandizing his family, at length overcame every 
 
 other consideration in the mind of Louis. He accepted the will, and 
 
 conveyed the duke of Anjou, liis grand-son, to ^ladrid, where he was 
 
 crowned as Philip V. 
 
 England and Holland, though highly dissatisfied by the want of 
 faith which Louis had displajed, did not consider it for their inter- 
 est to engage in war, and reluctantly acknowledged the title of Philip. 
 The emperor of Germany prepared for immediate hostilities, and 
 despatched an army under prince Eugene into Italy, to enforce his 
 claim to Milan. Here, through the treachery of the duke of Savoy, 
 who pretended to be in the French interest, the imperialists obtained 
 repeated advantages, and made themselves masters of the country 
 between the Adige and the Adda. 
 
 During this time, England and Holland were attempting to nego- 
 tiate with France, and produce an amicable adjustment of the Span- 
 ish claims. All efforts proving vain, they entered into a treaty with 
 the emperor of Germany, called the " Grand Alli- 
 
 1701. ance," whose object was to prevent the union of 
 The grand alliance. the French and Spanish monarchies; the procur- 
 ing for the emperor the Spanish possessions in Italy ; the recovery 
 of Flanders as a barrier to Holland, and the security of the English 
 and Dutch commerce. 
 
 On the death of James II., which occurred at this time, at St. Ger- 
 main, Louis acknowledged the title of James (the son of that mon- 
 arch, commonly called the Pretender) to the throne of England. 
 William at once recalled his ambassador from France, and his sub- 
 jects seconded with ardour his preparations for war. In the midst of 
 them, William died ; but Amie, who succeeded to the English throne, 
 
 cont'mued the same measures of foreign policy. 
 
 1702. England, Holland, and the German empire declared 
 
 The grand alliance ^^j. ggaj^^st France on the same day. The (rer- 
 
 ^ '"^Fi^nce.^^""' ^^^ princes generally, espoused the cause of the 
 
 emperor. Frederic, the the elector of Branden- 
 burgh, had been won by receiving from the emperor the title of the 
 king of Prussia. 
 
 During the first campaign, notliing of much consequence occurred. 
 In Italy, and on the Upper Rhine, the French arms were successful ; 
 but in Flanders, the allies, commanded by the duke of ]Mar] borough, 
 made themselves masters of several places. Their naval operations, 
 also, were fortunate. A French fleet, which had just arrived in the 
 harbour of Vigo, having in charge an immense treasure which it had 
 brought from America, was attacked bv the English and Dutch, the 
 
CHAP. Vn.] EUROPE. 295 
 
 vessels captured or destroyed, and a great amount of wealth taken. 
 The king of Portugal and the duke of Savoy now openly espoused 
 the interests of the Grand Alliance. 
 
 In the second campaign, Louis exerted himself to the utmost. 
 The electors of Bavaria and Cologne, engaged 
 1703. ^vith zeal in his cause. The former carried on the 
 
 war in Germany, and in union with marechal Villars, the French 
 commander, obtained a victory over the imperialists on the plains 
 of Hochstadt. In Alsace and Italy, also, the French arms were 
 successful. In the Netherlands, the tide of fortune changed, and the 
 arms of Marlborough triumphed, yet the general result of the cam- 
 paign was favourable to Louis. 
 
 Sectio>- II. 
 
 The following year, Marlborough was early in the field, having 
 his measures planned with care and secrecy. 
 1704. Wishing to relieve the emperor, whose capital was 
 
 threatened on the one hand by the Hungarians, who were in a state 
 of revolt ; and on the other, by the French and Bavarians, whose 
 successes in the preceding campaign had put them in possession of 
 Augsburg, and opened the road to Vienna, — Marlborough decided 
 to march into Germany. Deceivuig the French by a feint, he suc- 
 ceeded in crossing the Rhine, the Maine, and the Neckar. Hav- 
 ing united with the imperialists under the prince of Baden, he com- 
 pelled the elector of Bavaria to retreat from Donawert, which he 
 took. Soon after this, prince Eugene joined his army to that of 
 Marlborough, and a battle was fought between the allies, and the 
 French and Bavarians, near the village of Blenheim. 
 1704. 'Y[iQ hostile armies were nearly equal in strength, 
 
 Bai.le of BlenheiQ,. ^^^^^ numbering about 80,000"' men ; but the su- 
 perior military skill of JMarlborough and Eugene, gave them the 
 victory. Near 40,000 French and Bavarians were killed, or made 
 prisoners ; and all their stores, artillery, and baggage, became the 
 prey of the victors. Of the allies, .5,000 were killed, and 8,000 
 wounded. This victory relieved the emperor, and left the allies in 
 possession of the country from the Danube to the Rhine. The con- 
 querors followed up this blow by recrossing the Rhine, and obtained 
 possession of some important places in Alsace. At sea, also, the 
 success of the allies was important. The confederate fleets of the 
 English and Dutch attacked Gibraltar, and the English seamen 
 made tliemselves masters of that almost impregnable fortress. 
 
 The operations of the French, however, were successful in other 
 quarters. In Italy their arms triumphed ; and also in Portugal, 
 where the war was conducted by the arch-duke Charles, who had 
 assumed the title of king of Spain. 
 
 The ensuing spring, Louis had an army of 70,000 men, under 
 
 marechal Villars, in readiness to oppose the duke of 
 
 1705. Marlborough, who was thus prevented from pane- 
 
296 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 trating into France. The most important events of this campaign 
 were transacted in Spain, where the arms of the confederates met 
 with signal success. The principal places in the province of Estre- 
 madura were reduced, and nearly the whole kingdom of Valencia, 
 and the province of Catalonia, submitted to the arch-duke. 
 
 The death of the emperor Leopold, which occurred this year, 
 placed his son Joseph upon the imperial throne, 
 
 1705. IjuJ; (}i(} j^ot aftect the policy of the court. — In the 
 "'''^'' Germar°' °^ ^^^^ Campaign, Marlb trough, at the head of the 
 
 '""^' English and Dutch, obtained at Ramilies an im- 
 
 1706. portant victory over the French, under marechal 
 Battle of Ramilies. villeroy, where tlie loss of the French was nearly 
 20,000, while that of the allies was less than 3,000. This victory 
 enabled Marlborough to conquer Brabant, and almost all Spanish 
 Flanders. The duke of Vendome was recalled from Italy to op- 
 pose Marlborough and prince Eugene, who had already crossed the 
 Po, and carried on a successful warfare in that quarter. Joining 
 the duke of Savoy, their united armies attacked the French before 
 Turin, and completely routed them. In Spain, also, victory declared 
 for the confederates. Philip was obliged to leave Madrid, which 
 the English and Portuguese entered. Charles, the arch-duke of 
 Austria, was declared king, under the title of Charles III., but did not 
 himself advance to Madrid. Philip collected another army, and 
 recovered his capital. 
 
 Louis, now perceiving the distress to which his great expendi- 
 tures were reducing his kingdom, made proposals 
 
 1707. Qf peace to the other powers, wliich were rejected. 
 The war tlierefore continued, and Louis, though greatly embarrass- 
 ed, prepared to carry it on with vigour. Several armies were col- 
 lected, and reinforcements sent into Spain. In Italy, continued mis- 
 fortune attended tlie French and Spaniards ; the whole Jvingdom of 
 Naples was reduced by the allies, and the territory of the duke of 
 Savoy entirely recovered. Here, however, the success of the alliea 
 for this campaign, ended. In Flanders, the duke of Vendome pre- 
 vented Marlborough from performing any thing of importance. In 
 Germany, marechal Villars had obtained considerable success, and 
 penetrated to the Danube. The Hungarians continued to distress the 
 empire, and a formidable enemy from a new quarter threatened it. 
 Charles XII., king of Sweden, at this juncture manifested hostile in- 
 tentions, but through the influence of the English, desisted from exe- 
 cuting them. In Spain, the confederates met with a signal defeat at 
 
 Almanza, where they lost nearly 15,000 men. 
 1707. After this, the French and Spaniards recovered the 
 
 Battle of Ainmnza, ^holc kingdom of Valencia for Philip. An attempt 
 of prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy upon Toulon, was success- 
 fully repulsed by the French. The advantages of this campaign 
 were mainly on the side of France. 
 
CHAP. VII.] EUROPE. 297 
 
 Section III. 
 
 During the next year, the English were roused to more vigorous 
 exertions, by an attempt, though unsuccessful, of Louis, to convey 
 the pretender, James III., to Scotland. Marlborough was contin- 
 ued in the command in Flanders. At Oudenarde, 
 1708. a battle was fought between the forces under him, 
 
 Battle of Oudenarde. ^^^^ jj^g French army under the duke of Vendome, 
 where again the confederates were victorious. Soon after this, 
 prince Eugene took the city of Lisle, which he had besieged two 
 months. Ghent and Bruges, of which the duke of Vendome had 
 obtained possession in the early part of the campaign, were now 
 recovered by the confederates. At sea, they acquired the command 
 of the Mediterranean, and achieved the conquest of Sardinia arid 
 Minorca. 
 
 Louis again made liberal proposals of peace, which were again 
 rejected. Not only were his armies unfortunate, 
 
 1709. but his subjects were suffering under a grievous 
 famine, and his finances exhausted. This monarch, by his regal 
 munificence, and his imposing qualities of person and character, was 
 the idol of his subjects, to whom they willingly sacrificed their blood 
 and treasure. By his patronage of literature, he had the talents and 
 genius of France in his interest. Hence, wlien the rejection of a 
 proffered peace left him no hope but in the successful prosecution of 
 the war, France aroused again to new and extensive preparations. 
 To marechal Villars, he gave the command of his armies in Flan- 
 ders, where Marlborough and Eugene acted in concert with a force 
 of 100,000 men. The confederates having reduced Tournay, be- 
 sieged Mons. Villars encamped his army a short distance from that 
 city, where he was attacked by Marlborough and Eugene, and after 
 a fierce and long contested battle, he was compelled to retreat from 
 the field, and abandon Mons to the allies ; yet he could hardly be 
 said to have lost the victory, since the number of slain in the army 
 of the confederates, was double that on the side of the French. Vil. 
 lars held them in check, and prevented their entering France, or 
 gaining any other important advantage. 
 
 At the close of this campaign, Louis renewed his solicitations for 
 peace, and negotiations to that effect commenced at Gertruydenberg. 
 Louis was willing to make ample concessions ; but the demands of 
 the allies were so exorbitant as to preclude all hope of reconcilia- 
 tion, and the negotiations were broken off". 
 
 In Flanders, several places of importance surrendered to the 
 allies. In Spain, a battle was fought at Almenara, 
 
 1710. in which the two competitors for the crown, Philip, 
 and the arch-duke Charles, appeared at the head of their respective 
 forces. The contest was decided in favour of Charles, and Philip 
 was again compelled to flee from Madrid, of which Charles took 
 
 26 
 
298 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV. 
 
 possession. The Spaniards, however, continued faithful to Philip's 
 cause, and the duke of Vendome, who received the command of the 
 French in that quartei", soon retrieved their affairs, and recovered 
 Madrid for Philip. 
 
 About this period, two events took place, calculated to produce a 
 
 cessation of hostilities. The emperor Joseph dying, his brother, 
 
 the arch-duke Charles, was raised to the imperial 
 
 1711. dignity. As it was inconsistent with the avowed 
 
 ^'''*'GermTn"°' "^ ^^^^^^ °^ ^'^^ ^^'^'^"'^ Alliance, to permit the throne 
 of two nations to be occupied by one monarch, 
 Charles was now considered as disqualified for the throne of Spain. 
 In addition to this, a change had been effected in the British minis- 
 tr)\ The tories had acquired the ascendency in the court of Anne, 
 and a change of measures might speedily be expected. Marlbo- 
 rough was indeed continued in office, but it was evident that his influ- 
 ence was on the decline. 
 
 Though hostilities were carried on in various quarters, the next 
 campaign ended without any thing important. In 
 
 1712. i\^Q latter part of this year, negotiations were en- 
 Negotiations for ^^^.^j j^^^^ between the English and French courts. 
 
 peace. Marlborough was recalled, and dismissed from his 
 
 offices. 
 
 At length conferences were opened at Utrecht, and treaties of 
 
 peace were signed by all the belligerent powers, except the emperor, 
 
 and the king of Spain. By the terms of these 
 
 1713. treaties, Philip V. was secured on the throne of 
 Troaty of Utreclit. gp^Jn^ ou condition of his renouncing, for himself 
 
 and his descendants, all claim upon the crown of France. The heirs 
 of the French monarchy were also to renounce all claim upon that of 
 Spain ; so that the tvv'o kingdoms .should in no case be united. Sicily 
 was given to the duke of Savoy, in addition to his hereditary domin- 
 ions. The Itahan possessions of S]>ain and the Netherlands were to 
 be ceded to the house of Austria. The Rhine was to be the estab- 
 lished boundary between Germany and France. The country on 
 both sides of the river Amazon in America, was to be given to the 
 king of Portugal. The title of Anne to the throne of England, and 
 the eventual succession of tlie family of Hanover to that throne, was to 
 be acknowledged by France. Gibraltar and Minorca were to remain 
 in possession of the English. Hudson's bay and straits, the town 
 of Placentia in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia in North America, and 
 the island of St. Christophers in the West Indies, were also to bo 
 ceded to that government by France. Luxembourg, Namur, and 
 Charleroy, were given to the United Provinces ; and Lisle, Aire, 
 Bethune, and St. Vincent, were restored to France.* 
 
 As the emperor refused his assent to the treatj^, the war between 
 the entipire and France still continued. Turning all their strength 
 
 * The '.real)' of Utrecht closed, in America, 'Queen Anne's war." 
 
-CHAP. VIM.] NORTH OF EUROPE. 29^ 
 
 against Germany, the French were now successful in their opera- 
 tions, and the following year, Charles VI. was 
 1714. forced to conclude a peace at Rastadt, on less 
 
 Peace of Rastadt. favourable terms than had been offered him at 
 Utrecht. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 NORTH OF EUROPE. 
 Section I. 
 
 While the wars of the Spanish succession had desolated the south- 
 ern countries of Europe, the north had been laid 
 1697. waste by the ambition of Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 
 Charles XII, king pj^ succeeded his father, Charles XI., at the age 
 
 of Sweden, r ff 
 
 of fifteen. 
 
 The throne of Russia, at this time, was occupied by Peter, who 
 though he had faults, yet on the whole, well earned the name of 
 great, by his services to his country. Learning 
 1610. tl^at more perfect forms of society and government 
 
 Peter the Great. existed in the south, and feeling the importance of 
 maritime operations to a great state, the young monarch laid aside 
 his royal dignity, and went to travel in Holland and England, col- 
 lecting with great industry, such information as might benefit his 
 country ; and acquiring the art of ship-building, by labouring with 
 his own hands in the dock-yard. He had now returned, and was 
 engaged in polishing his rude subjects. 
 
 Denmark was under the sway of Frederic IV., and Poland under 
 that of Augustus, elector of Saxony, who had succeeded the famous 
 Sobieski. Both Poland and Denmark were torn with internal dis- 
 sensions, and Augustus particularly found himself t!ie object of 
 jggg much distrust to his subjects. These three mon- 
 
 Lert<'.ie of Riissiii arclis entered into a league against the young king 
 PoiTp.d and Den' of Sweden. Peter desired to obtain some of the 
 mark, aijainst provinces of Charlcs, wliicli would give him a port 
 Swe.ion. on the eastern side of the Baltic. Augustus wished 
 
 to obtain Swedish Livonia. The kings of Denmark had long been 
 in a quarrel with the dukes of Holstein Gottorp, a branch of their 
 family. This quarrel had now become inveterate, and the present 
 duke, having married a sister of Charles XII., and being on terms 
 of great intimacy with that prince, the enmity of Frederic IV. of 
 Denmark was thus roused against Sweden. Thus Charles found 
 himself surrounded by those who had designs against him, and who 
 
300 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IV, 
 
 thought that his youth gave them a pledge of success. But it was 
 a young lion that they were rousing from his lair. 
 
 The war was commenced by the Danes, who invaded the territo- 
 ries of the duke of Holstein Gottorp. Charles supported his brother- 
 in-law with his whole strength, and formed an alliance with England 
 and Holland. He carried the war into Denmark, and besieged 
 1701. Copenhagen. The Danish king, reduced to great 
 
 Charles makes distress, obtained the mediation of England and 
 peace with the France, and a peace was concluded highly honour- 
 
 °''"'=^- able to Sweden. 
 
 In the meantime, the Russians had commenced hostilities, and laid 
 
 siege to Narva. Charles now advanced to the defence of that part 
 
 of his kingdom, and although the Russian army numbered 80,000 
 
 men, he with 8,000 attacked their camp, defeated 
 
 1701. them, and relieved Narva. Peter, who was not in 
 Battle of Narva. ^Y^e battle, but was at the head of another army of 
 
 40,000 men, after learning the result, retired into his own dominions, 
 exclaiming, " I knew that the Swedes would beat us, but in time they 
 will teach us to beat them." 
 
 . In the meantime, Augustus of Poland had invaded Livonia, and 
 laid siege to Riga. After the victory at Narva, the season was too 
 far advanced to permit Charles to carry his arms against Augustus, 
 but early the ensuing spring he appeared in the field against the Poles 
 and Saxons. The army of Augustus was stationed on the banks of 
 the Duna, where Charles, after forcing the passage 
 
 1702. of the river, encountered them, and obtained a com- 
 ^''"iTDuna"""' P^^^^ victory. With rapid strides he marched 
 
 through Courland and Lithuania. At Birsen, the 
 town in which Peter and Augustus, a few months previously, had 
 planned his destruction, he now formed a project of dethroning the 
 king of Poland. Augustus governed the Poles with the same arbi- 
 trary sway he had been acccustomed to exercise over his Saxon sub- 
 jects ; and that people, who never willingly bent their necks to the 
 yoke of tyranny, murmured against him in their hearts ; and 
 Charles peremptorily declared he would never grant them peace until 
 they chose a new sovereign. 
 
 The hostile monarchs met at Glissau, between Warsaw and Cra- 
 cow, and the heroic Swede, though with but half 
 1702. the number of troops, defeated the king of Poland. 
 
 Battle of Glissau. Cracow surrendered, but Charles being wounded by 
 a fall fx-om his horse, a few weeks were afforded Augustus to rally 
 his supporters. Charles being now recovered, marched against 
 the remains of the Saxon army which had been defeated at Glissau, 
 dispersed them, and then proceeded to invest Thorn, a city on the 
 Vistula, whither Augustus had retired. Augustus escaped, and fled 
 to Saxony. 
 
CHAP. VIII.] NORTH OF EUROPE. 301 
 
 Charles then assembled a diet at Warsaw, which, under his 
 
 influence, deposed Augustus, and elevated Stanis- 
 
 1704. laus Leczinski to tlie throne of Poland. Augustus 
 
 Stanislaus received supplies of Russian troops, and he had still 
 
 Leczinski. adherents in Poland, who joined his standard ; but 
 
 Charles and Stanislaus obtained repeated victories over separate 
 
 bands of the Russians, and at length drove them from Poland. 
 
 Charles penetrated Saxony, and at Alt Ranstadt he forced Augus- 
 ,«.QP tus to subscribe to a peace, in wliich he renounced 
 
 Clvirles unkes ^'^ cUiim to the crown of Poland, and acknowledged 
 peace with the title of Stanislaus. 
 
 Augustus. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Meanwhile, the penetrating mind of the czar of Russia, had fore- 
 seen his own coming contest with the Swede, and he had prepared 
 for it with great prudence, and unremitted industry. He had im- 
 proved the discipline of his armies, increased their strength, and 
 had also conquered Ingria, Livonia, and the city of Narva. At the 
 same tinrie, he had reared a more honourable and lasting monument 
 o^ his greatness. In the yet hardly conquered country, and on a 
 desert island, which the long winter of that cli- 
 Petersburg founded. ^^^Q rendered almost inaccessible, the czar laid the 
 foundation of a new city, designed for ihe royal residence ; and he 
 had transported to it in less than five years, 300,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Poland being subdued, Charles, confident in his successes, resolved 
 to attack his more formidable enemy in the heart of his own domin- 
 ions, and directed his march to Moscow, but the roads were de- 
 stroyed, and the country desolated. Finding himself obstructed on 
 the route first attempted, and receiving a promise of succour from 
 Mazeppa, the chief of the Cossacks, Charles next endeavoured to 
 penetrate to the capital of Russia through the Ukraine. He also 
 ordered his general Lewenhaupt to bring him a reinforcement from 
 Livonia. He entered the Ukraine in September, ■end overcoming 
 every obstacle, advanced to the river Duna, where he expected to 
 be joined by Levvenhaupt and Mazeppa. Lewenhaupt was encoun- 
 tered by the Russians and defeated. Mazeppa failed of his proinised 
 succour. Still, Charles, with a dreary winter before him, and with 
 his army suffering from fatigue and famine, madly persisted in his 
 march. At Pultowa, he engaged the Russian army, 
 1709. consisting of more than 70,000 men, with the czar 
 
 Battle of Pulto-.va. ^^ jjg head. Charles, so often the conqueror, here 
 suffered an entire defeat. With only 300 guards, he escaped 
 wounded from the field, went to Bender, and put himself under the 
 protection of the Turks. 
 
 26* 
 
302 MODERN HISTORV. [pERIOD IV. 
 
 Augustus had declared the treaty which Charles had extorted 
 from him, void, and renewed his claim to the 
 Charles'"dcfea°I" ^^'^^^^ ^^ Poland. The czar supported his pre- 
 tensions, entered Poland with an army, and rein- 
 stated Augustus in the regal authority. Denmark declared war 
 anew with Sweden, Peter laid claim to several of its provinces, and 
 the king of Prussia to others, and nothing but the interposition of 
 the southern powers of Europe, prevented the dismemberment of 
 Sweden. 
 
 Meantime Charles was received by the Turks with great hospi- 
 tality, and employed himself in seeking to engage 
 Charles incites the ^j^^ Ottoman Porte in war witli Russia. The Porte 
 
 luiks against tho i i • i- • • -f i • • i i 
 
 Russians. showeci their disposition to gratiiy his wishes, by 
 
 imprisoning the Russian ambassador. Peter, when 
 informed of this, advanced at the head of an army upon the Turk- 
 ish frontier, as lar as Moldavia. Here he was in imminent danger 
 of the entire loss of his army, which was encompassed by that of the 
 Turks. In this disastrous situation, he was saved by the manage- 
 ment of the czarina, Catharine, who induced him to make proposals 
 of peace to tlie haughty vizier. The proposals were accepted, and 
 Peter relieved from his perilous condition. 
 
 Meanwhile the affairs of Sweden continued to suffer. The refusal 
 of Charles to subscribe to the treaty which the emperor and mari- 
 time powers had formed, kept alive the war in Sweden. The 
 Danes, Saxons and Russians, continued hostilities ; and the Swedes, 
 though reduced to great distress, perseveringly resisted. Charles 
 began to be troublesome to the Turks, who, though they desired not 
 to violate the laws of hospitality, yet requested him to leave their 
 dominions, and at last resorted to force, but still without effect. At 
 length, intelligence that the Swedes were urging the 
 1714 regency of the kingdom upon his sister, with a view 
 
 Charles returns to ^^ forcing her to make peace with Denmark and 
 Russia, he was induced to return to his kingdom. 
 He arrived at Stralsund in Pomerania, five years after the battle of 
 Pultowa. 
 
 The czar, whose navy had acquired considerable strength, com- 
 manded the Baltic, and now besieged Charles with a small army 
 which he had collected, in Stralsund. The place was taken by storm, 
 Charles escaped in a small vessel, passed safely through the Danish 
 fleet, and landed in Sweden. Fifteen years had passed since the 
 monarch left his capital, bent on the conquest of the world. In his 
 humbled fortunes, he did not choose to revisit it, but passed the winter 
 at Carlscroon. Undaunted amid all his reverses, and unsated with 
 blood, he still thought but of war. While his numerous enemies had 
 made themselves masters of all his provinces, and threatened to 
 destroy Sweden itself, Charles invaded Norway, and made the use- 
 
CHAP. VIII.] NORTH OF EUROPE. 
 
 .ot nC rhristina, which he was soon forced to abandon, 
 less conquest ^^ gj;;^;^^: ^f ^ second time invaded this kingdom, 
 1718. and while watching the attack of his soldiers upon 
 
 Death of Charles, Fredericshall, was killed by the discharge ot a 
 canon, and expired without a groan. 
 Hi, death removed the greatest obstacle to a peace among the 
 ^l !Lnr The senlte of Sweden took immediate measures 
 
 northern nations, ihe ^enaie oi favourite minister of 
 
 tm- qpttlinff the government. Ijaion ijoeu/., a lavuunw .1.1^ 
 
 rharW and by whose counsels he had iniquitously protracted the 
 Charles , ana "Y . j^^^gdom, was arrested and executed. 
 
 ^ V' o eral treaties with the different powers were con- 
 
 rluded in which by ample concessions, Sweden ob- 
 
 Ulrica Eieonorn ^^^^^^^^^ The czar, the most powerful enemy 
 
 Swedenobta.ns ^^^-^ ^^..^t^rovinces of Livonia, Ingria, and a 
 
 peace. .__ , 
 
 part of Carelia. 
 
 P«tpr thP Grearafter the peace with Sweden, assumed the title of 
 e Jpw whiSs bt l-et Jned by bis successors U the ;.e™a,„.g 
 vears of bis reign, be successfully engaged m war witb Peisia. He 
 S e'ded bis diiWon from tbe Caspian to *« ,-"''-™jX * 
 
 Pi way for .be^_n^of a^^youu.r 3o„, pr^ur.i^ -^ 
 
 1725. crowned empress during the life-tune of her bus- 
 
 Diathof Peter the ^ai^j^ and On his death, succeeded to tlie govern- 
 ^'''''- ment of the Russian empire.* 
 
 * We have continued this account of the nora.em^^^^^^^ 
 Peter the Great. 
 
PERIOD V 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED PROM THE 
 
 ""TJuSZt^ \ FOURTH EPOCHA, 1713 A. D. | '";t'cS'' 
 
 TO THE 
 Peace Of j FIFTH EPOCHA, 1748 A. D. I Aix-la Chapelle. 
 
 CHAPTER T. 
 
 SOUTHERN NATIONS OF EUROPE TO THE EIGHT YEARS WAR. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 The peace of Utrecht had produced a considerable change in the 
 situation and affairs of the southern nations of Eu- 
 1713. rope. Austria received an accession of territory 
 
 in the Spanish Netherlands, and in Italy. Two new kingdoms arose, 
 Prussia, the title of whose king, Frederic II., was now for the 
 first time acknowledged by France ; and Sicily, which, with his 
 hereditary possessions, was erected into a kingdom for Victor Ama- 
 deus IL, duke of Savoy. Although no treaty was made between 
 Spain and Austria, and although the war ceased, yet neither of these 
 powers had resigned its pretensions. The peace of Utrecht was so 
 much for the interest of the leading powers, that a state of compara- 
 tive quiet succeeded. Austria, was, however, short- 
 1715. ]y engaged in a war with the Turks, who had en- 
 
 Turks werrun tlie croached upon the Venetian possessions, and over- 
 run the Morea. 
 The imperial forces, under prince Eugene, attacked and defeated 
 their army at Peterwaradin, and again, at Belgrade. A peace was 
 soon after concluded, in which Turkey ceded to Austria, Belgrade, 
 part of Servia, and Wallachia. Venice retained part of Dalmatia, 
 but surrendered to the Turks the Morea, of which they had taken 
 possession the preceding year. 
 
CHAP. I.] SOUTH OF EUROPE. 305 
 
 While Austria was employing her forces in the east, Spain, under 
 Philip v., was concerting measures for renewing hostilities, with the 
 design to recover the possessions which the treaty of Utrecht had 
 given to the house of Austria. The Spaniards made themseles mas- 
 ters of Sardinia, and a great part of the island of Sicily. Alberoni, 
 
 D . , p., the minister of Philip, had also concerted secret 
 
 Projects of the K , ■ , . e- 
 
 Spani!»h minis- measures to procure tor his monarch the regency oi 
 tei- Alberoni. France, (his grandfather, Louis XIV., being now 
 
 dead,) and for placing the son of James II., called the pretender, 
 upon the throne of England. But the leading object of his policy 
 was, to recover the Spanish possessions in Italy, as a portion for the 
 children of Elizabeth, the queen of Spain, an Italian princess of the 
 house of Farnese, and heiress to the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and 
 Modena. 
 
 A discovery of the designs of the Spanish court, and the open acts 
 of hostilities committed against Sardinia and Sicily, aroused the jeal- 
 ousy of the neighbouring powers. England, Finance, 
 1718. Austria and Holland, formed a league for the pre- 
 
 ^'AUi^nct' "'''*' servation of the peace of Utrecht, called the " Quad- 
 ruple Alliance," which provided that the emperor 
 of Germany should renounce all claim to Spain, and the colonies ; 
 and that the king of Spain should give up his pretensions to provin- 
 ces already ceded. It stipulated also, that Don Carlos, son of Eliza- 
 beth, should eventually succeed to the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, 
 and Placentia ; and that the duke of Savoy should exchange Sicily 
 for Sardinia. The Spanish court refused to accede to these terms, 
 and a declaration of war was made by England and France against 
 Spain. Sicily and Sardinia were recovered. A French army 
 marched towards Spain, and Philip V., alarmed at the consequences 
 of his obstinacy, disgraced his minister, Alberoni, and acceded to the 
 terms of the " Quadruple Alliance." 
 
 The emperor of Germany, Charles VI., who had no sons, desired 
 
 to secure the succession of the Austrian possessions to his daughter, 
 
 Maria Theresa. With this view, he planned a law for securing the 
 
 succession of heirs female, called the Pragmatic 
 
 1731. sanction, for which he had previously obtained the 
 
 The Pragmatic asscnt of the hereditary states of the empire, and 
 
 which formed a matter of negotiation with the other 
 
 European powers. 
 
 The succession of Don Carlos to Tuscany, Parma and Placentia 
 
 being secured, and the Pragmatic sanction guarantied, nothing now 
 
 disturbed the repose of Europe, until the vacancy of the throne of 
 
 Poland, occasioned by the death of Augustus II. 
 
 1733. Stanislaus Leczinski, whom Charles XII. of Sweden 
 
 Disputes respecting j^^^ .^^^ ^^ jj^^ ^j^^.^^^g q|. ^,^j^j kingdom, was now 
 
 tiiG succession 01 tbG c? ' 
 
 Polish crown. choscn king, and received the support of Louis XV. 
 
 of France, who had married his daughter. The 
 
 sovereigns of Austria and Russia opposed his election, and compelled 
 
 the Poles to a second choice, when Augustus, son of the deceased 
 
 monarch, was raised to the throne. The king of France formed an 
 
306 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 alliance with the kings of Spain and Sardinia, and commenced hostili- 
 ties. The war was carried on in Italy by the allies, who made them- 
 selves masters of most of the Austrian possessions in that country. 
 The German empire was attacked by the French, and Philipsburg 
 was taken. The losses of the emperor, and the pacific disposition of 
 cardinal Fleury, who was at the head of the French ministry, caused 
 a peace, which, the succeeding year, was settled 
 1735. at Vienna. By this treaty, the French guarantied 
 
 Peace of Vienna. ^^^ Pragmatic sanction. 
 
 Stanislaus, for the support of whose pretensions the war was under- 
 taken, renounced his claim to the Polish thi'one, and received in com- 
 pensation the duchy of Lorraine. The duke of Lorraine received 
 Tuscany in exchange. Don Carlos was acknowledged king of the 
 two Sicilies, and the king of Sardinia received some accession of 
 territory. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The emperor, Charles VI., believed that he had secured to his 
 
 daughter her inheritance. But the Pragmatic sanction, which had 
 
 been guarantied by the various powers, to secure 
 
 1'740. to Maria Theresa the rich Austrian possessions, 
 
 Maria Theresa. including the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, 
 
 proved but a feeble barrier against the selfishness and ambition, which 
 
 ruled in the hearts of the neighbouring monarchs. The death of her 
 
 father was immediately followed by claims from the elector of Bavaria 
 
 to tlie kingdom of Bohemia ; and of the elector of Saxony now king 
 
 of Poland, to the whole Austrian territories. Besides these, the kings 
 
 of Spain and Sardinia revived their antiquated pretensions. 
 
 Nevertheless, Maria Theresa took possession of her inheritance, 
 and received the most flattering homage, particularly from her Hun. 
 garian subjects, with whom her conciliating manners had rendered 
 her extremely popular. She had married Francis of Lorraine, grand 
 duke of Tuscany, and she greatly desired his elevation to the impe- 
 rial throne. 
 
 Prussia had now become a kingdom of considerable strength and 
 importance. An immense treasure amassed by the parsimony of the 
 preceding king, Frederic William, and an army of sixty thousand 
 men had passed under the control of his son Frederic II., who had 
 succeeded to the throne. Frederic was now eager to employ the 
 power and wealth of which he was master, to enlarge his territories. 
 His heart was chiefly bent on obtaining Silesia, a province within the 
 dominion of Maria Theresa. At the head of a powerful army, he 
 marched into her territory, and then offered to sup- 
 1741. pQj-t jjgj. claims in other quarters on condition of 
 
 Frederic of Prussia j^^j. peaceably relinquishing to him Lower Silesia. 
 
 years' war.^ ^^e rejected his offers, and prepared to resist his 
 
 usurpation. The armies of the king of Prussia and 
 
CHAP. I.] SOUTH OF EUROPE. 307 
 
 of Maria Theresa, wlio had received the title of queen of Hungary, 
 met at Molwitz ; the Russians obtained a partial victory, and the 
 whole province of Silesia submitted to Frederic. 
 
 His successes awakened the ambition of the French court, which 
 had long been secretly desiring to interfere in the Austrian affairs, 
 and which now resolved to control the imperial 
 Tiiiee soweigns election. A treaty was formed between Louis 
 Maria Theresrt. XV., Frederic of Prussia, and Charles, elector of 
 Bavaria, by which it was agreed to divide the Aus- 
 trian inheritance, and place the elector of Bavaria on the imperial 
 til rone. 
 
 Military operations immediately commenced, and the forces of 
 the French, joined to those of the elector of Bavaria, entered Upper 
 Austria, made themselves masters of Lintz, and part of the army 
 advanced to within a few leagues of Vienna. JMaria Theresa was 
 compelled to retire to Hungar3\ The Hungarians, aroused by the 
 wrongs of their sovereign, enlisted in her cause with ardour; and 
 from the other parts of her dominions, powerful armies rallied to 
 her standard. The elector of Bavaria was deterred by the advanced 
 state of the season, and the strengtli of the garrison of Vienna, 
 ■y-jAo from besieging that city. He entered Bohemia, 
 
 KV.cAor of B*a\.ji! '^'"^ ^*^°^ ^'^*^ ^^^y '^^ Pi'ague, where he was crown- 
 crowned king of ed king of Bohemia, and proceeding to Frankfort, 
 B'jhrinia and cm- ■wjis elected emperor of Germany under the name 
 
 ,>e,orofGonn..y. of Charles VII. 
 
 But while Charles was obtaining the imperial crown, tlio forces 
 of the queen had been successful in Upper Austria, recovered 
 Lintz, and invaded the Bavarian territories. Another army had 
 compelled the Prussian forces to retreat from Moravia. Sliortly 
 after this, an attempt of two Austrian armies to unite tlieir forces, 
 in order to oppose the French in Bohemia, was intercepted by the 
 Prussian king, and a battle succeeded at Craslau. The Austrians 
 were compelled to retire, but Frederic, whose victory was almost 
 a defeat, began to desire peace ; and regardless of 
 1742. hjg allies, entered into a treaty with the queen at 
 
 Troaty of Brr-slan. Breslau. She granted him Upper and Lower Si- 
 lesia, and he engaged to remain neutral during tlie rest of the war. 
 The neutrality of the king of Poland was also procured by a grant 
 gf new territories. 
 
 Meanwhile the French army in Bohemia was reduced to the 
 necessity of acting on the defensive. That portion which was in 
 possession of Prague, was at length compelled to evacuate the city, 
 but through the skill of the commander, Belleisle, they effected a 
 safe retreat. 
 
 The result of this campaign induced Louis, who was now deserted 
 by his most powerful ally, the king of Prussia, to offer proposals of 
 peace, which were rejected. George I. of England, now resolved 
 to take a more active part ; and British and Hanoverian troops 
 were brought in, to aid the queen of Hungary. In the next cam- 
 paign, the French forces were driven out of Bohemia, and the emperor 
 
308 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 was reduced to the utmost distress. In Flanders, 
 1743. lYiQ British, Hanoverian, and Austrian troops, 
 
 Battle of Dettingen. maintained a sanguinary contest with the French ; 
 and at Dettingen the French army was defeated. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 This year, 1743, the queen of Hungary entered into a treaty 
 with the king of Sardinia, by which he engaged to bring an army 
 into the field, in aid of her cause. These successes of the queen, 
 and the haughtiness with which she had rejected every proposal of 
 peace, awakened a jealousy among some of the German powers, 
 and led to a new coalition against her. 
 
 Louis XV. renewed his alliance with Spain at Fontainbleau, and 
 declared war against England ; and from this peri- 
 1743. od these two powers may almost be regarded the 
 
 principals in the war. By the influence of France, Prussia, Sweden, 
 and some of the German princes, were at length induced to arm in 
 defence of the emperor. The king of Prussia invaded Bohemia. 
 His successes at first were rapid, but he was soon compelled to sur- 
 render his conquests, and retire. The emperor was in danger of 
 being driven again from his capital, when death put an end to his 
 hopes and fears. 
 
 Maximilian, son of Charles, now entered into a treaty with the 
 queen of Hungary, by which the election of Fran- 
 1745. cis was secured. She engaged to put him in pos- 
 
 Francisl. scssion of his hereditary estates, and recognize tte 
 
 imperial authority, as having been vested in his father, on condition 
 of his giving to her husband his vote for emperor at the ensuing 
 election, and also of his renouncing all claim to the Austrian pos- 
 sessions. 
 
 An opportunity for bringing about a general peace now offered, 
 but France and Spain were bent upon continuing the war. Eng- 
 land still aided Austria, and Prussia remained in alliance with 
 France. The republic of Genoa concluded an alliance with the house 
 of Bourbon, but they were obliged to yield to the superior numbers 
 of the confederate army ; and Milan, Pavia, and several other towns 
 were taken. The armies of Prussia carried on the war in Silesia, 
 and Bohemia, but after Frederic had obtained two decisive and bloody 
 victories, one near Friedberg in Silesia, the other in 
 1745. Bohemia, a treaty of peace was made at Dresden, 
 
 Treaty of Dresden. ^^ ^^1^-^]^ ^3 acknowle^cd the validity of Francis' 
 election, (which had already taken place at Frankfort,) and was 
 confirmed in the possession of Silesia. 
 
CHAP. 1.] SOUTH OF EUROPE. 309 
 
 The French maintained the war with obstinacy, in Flanders. 
 
 Marshal Saxe, who commanded the French army, 
 
 1746. obtained a victory over the English and Hanoveri- 
 
 Battles of Fontenoy ans, under the duke of Cumberland, at Fontenoy, 
 
 and Roucoux. and reduced Brussels and Brabant. Soon after the 
 
 battle of Fontenoy, the duke of Cumberland was 
 
 recalled by the progress of the Chevalier St. George, whom the 
 
 French had encouraged to make a descent upon England. The 
 
 Austrians were left to maintain the contest in Flanders, and marshal 
 
 Saxe obtained a victory over them, at Roucoux. 
 
 In the meantime, the queen of Hungary, having made peace 
 with Prussia, was ready to turn the whole force of her arms against 
 France and Spain. The king of England, incensed by the support 
 given to the pretender, only waited to suppress the insurrection 
 which his presence occasioned, to engage with new zeal in the con- 
 tinental war. In the succeeding campaign, the Dutch took an active 
 part against the French ; and the duke of Cumberland returned 
 with a reinforcement of British troops. An indecisive but bloody 
 battle was fought at Val, after which the French 
 ^'^'' invested, and finally, to the great consternation of 
 
 French take Ber- ^j^^ Dutch, made themselves masters of Bergen-op- 
 
 genopzoom. , ' ^ .„ . • t-v i t-. , ' 
 
 zoom, the strongest fortincation m Dutch Brabant. 
 At sea the British flag was triumphant. 
 Louis now turned his thoughts towards peace, which the situation 
 of his kingdom, notwithstanding his late victories, rendered neces- 
 sary. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 1748. and a treaty formed, by which mutual restitution 
 
 ^"cha^eUe^ '^ of all places taken during the war, was made ; 
 the queen of Spain obtained for her second son a 
 sovereignty in Italy, com.posed of the duchies of Parma and Pla- 
 centia. The king of Prussia was guarantied in the possession of 
 Silesia The right of Maria Theresa to the hereditary possessions 
 of the house of Austria, with the exception of such portions as were 
 already ceded to other powers, was acknowledged, and guarantied 
 anew. Neither England nor France gained any thing by, this long 
 and bloody contest. Thus was closed " The Eight Years War ; " 
 begun and carried on, not for any good, so far as the people are 
 considered ; but during which, their blood flowed freely to gratify 
 the ambition of a few crowned heads. 
 
 27 
 
 "t 
 
310 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The union of the legislative powers of England and Scotland, 
 
 is tlfe most important political event of the reign of 
 
 1706. queen Anne. Up to this period there had been a 
 
 ^ h'°p °ai-'r ^^°y^ Scottish parliament, though many efforts had been 
 
 nfo'nts. ^^"^ '^' "lade to effect a union of it with the English. To 
 
 such a union the parliament of Scotland now gave 
 
 consent, a measure which, though it diminished the political impor- 
 
 tance of that kingdom, secured its tranquillity. 
 
 England, grown weary of the long and sanguinary wars for 
 
 humbling the house of Bourbon, and depriving it of the succession 
 
 to the Spanish crown, was clamorous for peace. Intrigues were 
 
 set on foot against the duke of Marlborough. 
 
 Duke of Marlbor- T^\\e nueen allowed herself to be governed by an 
 
 treated. ungrateful and treacherous party ,^ who insulted 
 
 and libelled that general, and at length deprived 
 
 him of all his offices. After this, by the treaty of Utrecht, a gen- 
 
 eral peace was obtained. Queen Anne survived this event but a 
 
 short time. No longer occupied with foreign affairs, the ministry 
 
 broke into furious quarrels witli each other. With all the energy 
 
 her gentle nature could command, tiie queen sought to direct affairs 
 
 and settle difficulties, and to that pupose she at- 
 
 1*714. tended a long conference and dispute of her cabi- 
 
 Q,ueenAi)neluerally j^gj council. Her feminine nature could not endure 
 
 pagnet o ea i. this Strife of masculine passions. She declared she 
 
 could not outlive it, sunk into a lethargy, and after lingering two 
 
 days, expired. The ministers, when they found that the queen must 
 
 die, roused to a better spirit, and by their wise and rapid measures, 
 
 placed the kingdom in a condition which secured 
 
 George I. jj^g peaceful accession of the Hanoverian line, in the 
 
 * person of George I. 
 
 * 8orae of the most popular writers of a literature which is common lo us withtho 
 English, Pope, Bel ingbroke, Addison, Sieele, !Sv. :ft, Prior, Arbutlinot, &c., have manr 
 allusions to the events of this reign. Queen Anne, when young, formed an iniima- 
 i',y with the witty, sprightly, but high tempered Sarah Jetmings, afterwards married 
 to Col. Churrhill, who rose by his great military services, and by the affection of the 
 queen towards his wife, until he became duke of A'arlbornugh, and received the 
 spler.'did estate and palace called from one of his great battles, " [ilenheim." The 
 duche,ss introduced to the service of the queen one Agnes Hill, a weak but cunning 
 .sycophant, who supplanted her in Anne's affections, and afterwards became "the 
 Lady Masham." The duchess had become presuming and imperious, and when slie 
 found that the queen was grovvmg tired of her sway, she gave loose to her fiery tongue, 
 and irritated Anne by continual reproaches When affairs came to this pa.ss among the 
 women, then the enemies of Marlborough, the Lords Bolingbroke, Oxford, and others, 
 by paying ci)urtto Lady Mashim, brought the queen to strip him of his offices. 
 
CHAP. II.] ENGLAND. 31 I 
 
 This reiga presents an uninteresting portion of English history. 
 The king, cold and calculating, as his actions showed him to be, 
 was yet not remiss in declaring, in his speeches to his obsequious 
 parliament, his great regard for his " loving subjects." The three 
 great factions who divided the nation were still the wliigs, tories, and 
 Jacobites, of which only the latter were opposed to his accession. 
 It should have been his policy to conciliate tliem all ; instead of 
 which, he lent himself completely to the whig party, and was guilty 
 of flagrant injustice to the leading tories, taking away their estates, 
 and in some instances procuring their execution. 
 ^""toiH".'""'"^ ^^"*T St. John, lord Bolingbroke, and the earl of 
 Ormond, who had stood high in queen Anne's 
 favour, were attainted of high treason and deprived of their estates.* 
 
 The aged earl of Oxford was impeached, and though he was 
 suffering with disease, yet he was imprisoned in the tower. His 
 physician declared it would endanger his life, yet the king would 
 show no mercy. The principal crime alleged against him, was that 
 of having led queen Anne to make the peace of Utrecht. That such 
 allegations were but mere pretences to commit legal murder on men 
 whom the king, and his unprincipled and artful minister. Sir Robert 
 Walpole, wished out of their way, the people plainly saw, and 
 hence the sentiment of hatred arose in their minds. The Jacobite 
 party gained ground, and the leaders projected a rebellion. The 
 chevalier St. George was invited over, and Louis XIV. 'favoured, 
 though not openly, his cause. The earl of Mar, aided by many of 
 the Scottish nobles, took arms, and the earl of Derwentwater put 
 himself at the head of a force in the north of England. While the 
 chevalier was preparing to embark, Louis XIV. died ; and the duke 
 of Orleans, who became regent of France, (Louis XV. being but a 
 sickly child) did not favour the enterprise of the Jacobites, though 
 he amused and deceived them by false pretences. 
 
 George I., vigilant and alert, had prepared for the emergency. His 
 
 troops totally defeated the forces under lord Derwent- 
 
 1715. water, at Preston Pans ; and on the same day another 
 
 The Pictender's army, under the command of the duke of Argyie, 
 
 nrmy dcteated at . •", , , ^, i r rt ^ ai tv 
 
 Preston Pans. gamed an advantage over the earl ot Mar, at feheritl- 
 
 muir. After these transactions, the chevalier ar- 
 rived in Scotland, and was proclaimed king by his adherents ; but 
 finding his cause desperate, and knowing that a heavy price was set 
 upon his head, he returned to France. Some of his adherents fled, 
 some submitted, and some were apprehended. Those who fell into 
 the hands of the government, were treated with unsparing cruelty. 
 This reign, was the era of the famous speculating project, called 
 the South Sea Scheme. The South Sea company 
 1720. ^yas formed on some pretence of securing advan- 
 
 Soutli Sea Scheme. ^^^^^ j„ ^j^g gg^jji^ g^^^ ^j.j^jg^ {juj ^yJtl^ tJ^g j.gj,| ^p. 
 
 ject of obtaining the public stock, and becoming the sole creditor of 
 
 • They saved themselves by a flight to France, and during their residence there, 
 favoured the cause of the chevalier tit. George. Bolingbroke afterwards obtained the 
 king's pardon, and his hereditary estates. 
 
312 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD V. 
 
 the nation. An enormous amount of South sea stock was created 
 in the first place, without any actual capital. Of this, a large amount 
 was given in bribes to ensure the co-operatiun of influential persons, 
 in the views of the speculators. They succeeded, and the holders 
 of a considerable part of the public debt were induced to exchange 
 their securities for this stock ; and it rose in the market at one time 
 to four hundred per cent, above par. The whole nation seemed 
 seized with the South-sea mania. The government and the bank of 
 England, as well as innumerable individuals, became deeply involved. 
 At length the bubble burst. The stock sunk to rise no more ; and 
 individuals, who had rashly parted with their real property, to pur- 
 chase nominal, found themselves in a destitute and forlorn condition. 
 The bank was in imminent danger of failure, and public credit, of 
 extinction. King George, who had gone on a visit to his Hanoverian 
 dominions, was called home in great haste, and he and his parlia- 
 ment succeeded, after great difficulties, in allaying the evil, and set- 
 ting the wheels of commerce again in motion ; but many families 
 were irretrievably ruined, and the national credit and resources were, 
 for the time, impaired. 
 
 George I. was succeeded by his son George II. This monarch, 
 
 as has been already related, engaged in alliances 
 
 1727. -with Frederic the great of Prussia, and Maria 
 
 George II. Theresa of Austria, and sent an army against the 
 
 French, under the duke of Cumberland. 
 During this reign, another attempt was made to restore the Stuarts 
 to the throne. The chevalier Charles Edward, son of the pretender, 
 
 encouraged by the Jacobites, landed in Scotland. 
 
 1745. -pi^e Highlanders, and many Scottish nobles joined 
 
 6o?oTthe ^minder ^^™- ^* ^^^® ^®^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^°^''^'*^^' ^'^^ ^^^'^'^^^ 
 
 e preten ei. j^g^j.^^i^g^j ^q Edinburgh, surprised and made himself 
 master of the city, established himself in Holy- Rood palace, and 
 caused his father to be proclaimed king of Great Britain. He after- 
 wards gained a victory over the king's troops at Preston Pans. 
 Parliament, alarmed, recalled the duke of Cumberland from the con- 
 tinental war, and put him at the head of the forces. Meantime the 
 prince made an irruption into England, took the town of Carlisle, 
 and proceeded to Derby. But finding that few of the English Jaco- 
 bites joined his standard, and learning that extensive preparations 
 were making against him, the disappointed adventurer retraced his 
 steps. At Falkirk, he obtained another advantage over the royal 
 troops ; but the duke of Cumberland, who followed him, obtained a 
 bloody victory over his adherents, at CuUoden. 
 
 1746. From this time the wretched young prince, a heavy 
 Battle of Cullodeu. pj.-gg being set upon his head, as upon his father's, 
 wandered for five months, under various disguises, and was pur- 
 sued and hunted from place to place, suffering extreme hardships, 
 yet experiencing the attachment and fidelity of the Scots ; the poor- 
 est of whom would not betray him for money, until at length he 
 procured a passage to France. The battle of Culloden crushed for- 
 ever the hopes of the unfortunate Stuarts. The conduct of the vic- 
 tors to the vanquished was rigorous and cruel. 
 
PERIOD VI. 
 
 COMFRISINO EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 I of J 
 
 Peace oV ) FIFTH EPOCHA, 1748 A. D. } Aix-la-Chaiu 
 
 Washington assuming the command at Camliridge. 
 American j SIXTH EPOCHA, 1776 A. D. I Independe 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 EUROPE FROM THE TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1748, TO 
 THE TREATY OF PARIS, 1763. 
 
 Section I. - 
 
 1755. 
 
 Earthquake at 
 Lisbon. 
 
 An awful visitation of Almighty God was manifested at this pc- 
 riod ; a dreadful earthquake levelled the palaces 
 of Lisbon in the dust, and crushed the inhabitants 
 beneath their ruins. The earth opened and swal- 
 lowed them up, and the sea overflowed them. 
 Fifty thousand perished in an hour. But the rulers of the nations 
 were bent on again preparing for their people the more destructive 
 evil of war. 
 
 27» 
 
314 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 England formed an alliance with Prussia ; France, with Austria, 
 Russia, and Sweden. The alliance of the empress 
 Alliances formed— Maria Theresa with France, the ancient and he- 
 reditary enemy of the house of Austria, for the 
 purpose of invading a part of the German empire, is accounted for 
 by her jealousy and animosity towards Frederic, the king of Prus- 
 sia, and her desire of recoverhig the possessions wrested from her by 
 that monarch. 
 
 The French made themselves masters of the island of Minorca. 
 The war in Germany was prosecuted with success by the king 
 of Pi'ussia. He invaded Saxony, and compelled Augustus, the 
 elector, to abandon Dresden, of which he took possession. This 
 success he followed up, with the invasion of Bohemia, and obtained 
 a victory over an Austrian army at Lowesitz. 
 
 The following year, the French, under mareclial d'Etrees, passed 
 
 the Rhine, under pretence of invading Prussia, but 
 
 1757. -^vith the purpose of reducing Hanover. The king 
 
 French conquer the ^f England, warmly attached to his electoral do- 
 
 elecloiateof Hano- ..'^ „ ,i-i- . . ^ 
 
 ypr. muiions, was frustrated m his attempt to send a 
 
 force sufficient to stop the progress of the French, 
 by Pitt, now his minister, who opposed all further entanglements in 
 the continental quarrel. George I., resolving to continue the war, 
 changed his minister, and sent the duke of Cumberland to the con- 
 tinent, to command an army of 40,000 Hanoverians and Hessians ; 
 notwithstanding which, the French conquered the electorate. 
 
 Frederic of Prussia was now in an alarming position. An army 
 of 180,000 Russians was tln-eatening to invade his dominions ; the 
 Swedes were in arms, and ready to enter Pomerania, in order to 
 regain that country ; and the empress Maria Theresa had augmented 
 her armies to 180,000, intending to attack him on the side of the 
 German empire. He now found it necessary to make four divisions 
 of his army ; each of which was to enter Bohemia separately, but to 
 unite with the others as soon as practicable ; and all to join in the 
 neighbourhood of Prague. After the union of three divisions, Fred- 
 eric gave battle to the Austrians, who, under the command of prince 
 Charles of Lorraine, and marshal Daun, were encamped near 
 Prague. After a hard fought battle, the Austri- 
 1757. ans were compelled to quit the field and retire 
 
 Battles of Prague within the walls, which Frederic ineffectually be- 
 sieged. On the approach of marshal Daun, at the 
 head of another division of the Austrian army, Frederic, with a part 
 of his forces, advanced towards the Elbe, and gave him battle at 
 Colin. Twenty thousand men were left dead on the field, and Fred- 
 eric, compelled to retire, raised the siege of Prague, and evacuated 
 Bohemia. This campaign was also unfortunate to the Prussian arms 
 in other quarters. The Russians iiad invaded the kingdom of Prus- 
 sia, while the French and Swedes were ravaging its provinces. The 
 martial genius of Frederic did not desert him. Assembling another 
 
CHAP. I.] EUROPE. 315 
 
 army, he offered battle to the French and imperi- 
 Battles of Rosbach aUsts at Rosbach, where he obtained a complete 
 victory. He then marched against the army of the 
 Austrians which was still in Silesia, under prince Charles, at Leu- 
 then, near Lissa. The Prussian arms were again successful, and 
 nearly the whole of Silesia was now recovered. The Russians, 
 meanwhile, had retired into their own country, and the Prussian 
 army, which had been opposed to them, being left at liberty, now 
 tui'ned against the Swedes, and recovered many of their conquests 
 in Pomerania. 
 
 The Hanoverians and Hessians again took up arms to drive the 
 French from their country, and prince Ferdinand, 
 ^'""H.noveT'^'"'" of Brunswick, was appointed, on the part of Eng- 
 land, to the command of the electoral forces. The 
 French were compelled to recede, and to evacuate place after place, 
 until their whole army repassed the Rhine. 
 
 In the following campaign, prince Ferdinand maintained his ground 
 in Hanover. The king of Prussia besieged Olmutz, 
 1758. but after remaining four weeks before the city, was 
 
 compelled to retire and turn his forces against the Russians, who 
 had invaded Brandenburg. He obtained a victory over them at 
 Zorndorf, and compelled them to retreat into Poland. Frederic was 
 afterwards defeated at Hochkirchen, by the Austrians ; but he still 
 retained Silesia, and prevented them from deriving any important 
 advantage from their victory. He next marched into Saxony, where 
 the Austrians had besieged Dresden and Leipzig, compelled them 
 to raise the siege of both cities, and thus ended the campaign with 
 the triumph of the Prussian arms. 
 
 The British had in the meantime been successful at sea, and cap- 
 tured several French vessels. 
 
 Section IL 
 
 The succeeding campaign opened upon Frederic witli a reverse 
 of fortune. The Russians again advanced upon Silesia, and made 
 themselves masters of Frankfort upon the Oder. The Prussian 
 monarch marched against a combined Russian and Austrian force, 
 
 under general Laudon, which was posted at the 
 
 1759. village of Cunnersdorf. A most sanguinary battle 
 
 ^"'•^ doir""''"'^' ensued. Notwithstanding the almost incredible ex- 
 
 ertions of Frederic, the superior numbers of the 
 Russians and Austrians prevailed, and the Prussians were defeated. 
 At one period of the battle, victory seemed to have declared in favour 
 of Frederic, who at the moment, wrote a congratulatory note to his 
 queen, " We have driven the Russians from their intrenchments — 
 Expect within two hours to hear of a glorious victory." His tri- 
 umph was short, and in a few hours another note conveyed to the 
 queen the orders, « Remove the royal family from Berlin — Let the 
 
316 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 archives be carried to Potsdam — The town may make conditions 
 with the enemy." 
 
 The battle of Cunnersdorf, in which Frederic lost 16,000 men, 
 was a severe blow to him ;, yet so skilful were his manoeuvres that 
 the Russians did not hazard the attack of Berlin, and he soon ap- 
 peared again in the field with a formidable force. 
 
 Meantime, prince Ferdinand, with his British and Hanoverian 
 
 1759. forces, drew the French into an engagement at 
 Battle of Minden. Minden, aud completely defeated them. 
 
 In Silesia, Frederic was now compelled to act on the defensive. 
 The Russians and Swedes had entered Pomerania. Another Russian 
 army was to join the Austrians in Silesia. To prevent this junction, 
 was now the object of Frederic, and at Lignitz, he succeeded in 
 drawing the Austrians into a battle, before the anival of the Rus- 
 sians. He defeated them, and was thus relieved from his most pros- 
 ing embarrassments. The Russians, on learning the defeat of the 
 Austrians, repassed the Oder, but sent a strong detachment into 
 
 Brandenburg, where they joined the Austrians and 
 Russians take made themselvcs masters of Berlin. Frederic 
 
 passed into Saxony, fought and defeated the Aus- 
 trians under marshal Daun. This victory resulted in the recovery 
 of nearly the whole of Saxony, where the Prussian king established 
 his winter quarters. 
 
 The death of George II., which occurred at tliis period, did not 
 
 affect the relations of England and Prussia. George 
 
 1760. III. continued in the same course of policy ; resolv- 
 ed upon the preservation of his German possessions. A change had 
 taken place in the Spanish councils, when Charles III., brother of 
 the late monarch, Ferdinand VI., ascended the throne. 
 
 Many circumstances conspired to draw the court of Spain from 
 their neutrality. The most powerful of these, was 
 1760. jealousy of the success of the British arms in 
 
 Bourbons of France At^erica. A family compact was now formed be- 
 "ilQiily "compact. ^ tween the Bourbon kings of France and Spain ; 
 the result of which, was a declaration of war be- 
 tween England and Spain. Portugal became also involved in this 
 war, by refusing to join the compact against England. 
 
 Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick maintained the contest with the 
 French in Westphalia, but nothing decisive was accomplished. The 
 king of Prussia still continued the war in Silesia ; and his brother, 
 prince Henry, in Saxony ; but the warfare was, throughout this cam- 
 paign, wholly defensive. At sea, the British flag was still triumphant. 
 Besides the capture of some vessels, this campaign was signalized by 
 the conquest of Belle-isle, an island on the coast of France. 
 
 A sudden and unexpected event occurred at this time, in the death 
 
 of Elizabeth, empress of Russia, which relieved Frederic from a 
 
 dreaded and inveterate enemy. Her nephew, 
 
 Elizabeth ot^Russia pgjer III., acceding to the Russian throne, a change 
 
 ^"peter ni!'^ ^f policy took place. Peter had long admired the 
 
 hero of Prussia, now called " Frederic the great ; " 
 
CHAP. I.] EUROPE. 317 
 
 and one of the first acts of his reign, was to conclude a peace with 
 him. Shortly aftei", he made an alliance with him, and soon he sent 
 him a reinforcement of Russian troops. Sweden followed the ex- 
 ample of Russia ; and Frederic found himself at libert}' to turn his 
 whole strengtli against the Austrians. He was fast carrying into 
 effect his plans for their expulsion from Silesia, when another revolu- 
 tion in Russia occurred. Peter III. had, by his numerous innova- 
 tions in the internal administration of his kingdom, 
 
 1762. as well as by his alliance with Frederic, occasion- 
 rutcLde'd'^b'''ca[h- ^^ Si'eat discontent in his empire. Domestic dis- 
 
 arine 1. sention was added to the evils which surrounded 
 
 him, and his empress Catharine, joined by the dis- 
 affected of the clergy, nobility, and army, accomplished his over- 
 throw. Peter was dethroned, imprisoned, and probably murdered ; 
 and Catharine was raised to the throne of the czars. With the 
 imperial power, however, she did not resume the policy of Eliza- 
 beth, but while she recalled the Russians in the service of Frederic, 
 she preserved the nation in a strict neutrality. 
 
 Frederic continued the war with increased energy ; recovered 
 
 Silesia, and invaded Bohemia and Franconia. The British had 
 
 been successful at sea, and in America. Negotiations had been in 
 
 progress between England and France for some 
 
 1763. time, and a peace was concluded at Paris. France 
 Peace ot Pans. ceded lo Great Britain, Canada, in its utmost extent, 
 
 all the western side of the Mississippi, except New Orleans and its 
 territories, the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, and all Florida. 
 Great Britain made some concessions to France in the partition of 
 the West India islands. It was stipulated that France should remain 
 neutral in the contest between Austria and Prussia. Shortly after 
 the conclusion of this treaty, another was made 
 ■^ '"«*'>' °^ j^"''^'^'^' between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, at Huberts- 
 °" burg, which closed the " war of seven years." 
 
 This war had not only devastated the fair plains of Europe, and 
 drunk the blood of myriads of her sons, but it had spread destruc- 
 tion through her dependencies, in Asia and America ; thus stretch- 
 ing over more than half the circuit of the globe. And this destruc- 
 tion of the human race was made, because monarchs, with ah'eady 
 much more of the world than they could enjoy, coveted still greater 
 territories, and their thousands tamely followed them to be slaugh- 
 tered. In pity to their fate, we forbear to say they deserved it by 
 their folly. 
 
318 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 AFFAIRS OF GREAT BRITAIN FROM THE PEACE OF 
 AIX-LA.CHAPELLE, 1748. 
 
 The domestic history of England during the reign of George II., 
 is a catalogue of the political knaveries of Sir Robert Walpole, 
 who made no scruple to spend the public money, and increase the 
 national debt, that he might practice every species of bribery and 
 corruption which was calculated to keep himself in power. At 
 length he became odious to the nation, and changes in the ministry 
 occurred, but the course of politics was not yet reformed. About 
 this period, the war against France, carried on in America, com- 
 menced. At first it was managed without spirit or success. At 
 length, to prop up their sinking credit, the ministry called to a seat 
 in the cabinet, William Pitt, a leader in parliament, 
 1756. distinguished for his high powers of eloquence ; 
 
 Pitt rises to power, j^j^^ j^ their surprisc they found he had accepted a 
 post of honour only to serve his country ; and that neither office nor 
 money could tempt him to countenance measures which he did not 
 approve. He resigned his offices and retired. The nation were 
 clamorous in his praise, and petitioned the king to place him at the 
 head of affairs. George had himself, from the condition of the 
 American war, become sensible of the necessity of a change of 
 measures. Pitt was recalled and made prime minister. From this 
 period, Great Britain rose rapidly. Men were appointed to office, 
 not because they were the creatures of those in power, but because 
 they were suited to ibe service, and were true friends to their coun- 
 try. Wolfe was selected to command in the American war, and 
 Quebec, and afterwards all Canada fell into the hands of the British. 
 
 George II. was not distinguished either for talents or virtues, yet as 
 
 a sovereign he was more compliant with the wishes of his people than 
 
 his father had been. He was somewhat more a Briton, and less a 
 
 Hanoverian. His oldest son, Frederic, with whom he quarrelled, 
 
 was a prince of promising character. He dying 
 
 1760. before his father, his son, George III., then twenty- 
 
 George III. ^^^^ years of age, succeeded to the crown of Great 
 
 Britain, at a time when the nation was at the period of its greatest 
 prosperity. 
 
CHAP. III.] NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 319 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 
 TO THE PEACE OF PARIS, 1763. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 During the interval of peace in Europe, which occurred after the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, dissensions arose between the French and 
 English colonists in America, and the East Indies. In these dissen- 
 sions, the two countries, each desirous to keep what territory they 
 already possessed, and acquire more, became by degrees involved ; 
 and at length, in 1756, war between France and England was for- 
 mally declared. 
 
 As the affairs of the French and English colonists of North Amer- 
 ica have not, up to this period, materially affected the politics of 
 Europe, we have not before thought proper to break the chain of 
 onr narration, to introduce them ; but shall now give a brief sketch 
 of the steps by which they attained to the condition in which history 
 here finds them, although in adopting this course, we make an ex- 
 ception to our general method.* 
 
 The right of discovery was, as has been before remarked, fully 
 1497 recognized by the European nations. Two broth- 
 
 Discoveric-s'of the ^''^' "^^'^^ ^"^ Sebastian Cabot, under'"queen Eliza- 
 Cabots. beth, discovered and coasted North America, from 
 
 1534 Newfoundland to Florida, and took possession of the 
 
 Discovery* of country for the English. Subsequently, James 
 Cartier. Cartier, under Francis I. of France, discovered the 
 
 mouth of the St. Lawrence in 14.35 ; and in a sec- 
 ond voyage sailed up that noble river. John Ponce 
 Discoveries ofde ^^ i^ j^ 1512, discovered Florida ; and Fer- 
 
 Ijeon and de Soto. ,. iioi --.^.^ i , „,.. 
 
 dinand de Soto, m 1541, the southern part of Mis- 
 sissippi, for Spain. La Salle, in 1680, penetrated through the lakes 
 to the majestic Mississippi, the great valley of which was named 
 Louisiana, in honour of Louis XIV. 
 
 The boundaries of the countries claimed on account of these dis- 
 coveries, were wholly indefinite ; and each nation was ambitious of 
 possessing extensive territories. Hence, they each took care in 
 granting the letters patent to their subjects, who were disfjosed to 
 colonize the country, to make their claims sufficiently extensive. 
 Thus some of the English patents which bounded 
 indefimte claims of ^^g^ ^^ j^c Atlantic, gave the patentees the country 
 
 llie French and ^ , u t? •/• Jm -r-. . • "^ 
 
 English. 3S far west as the Pacific. The French, in some 
 
 instances, gave patents running from the St. Law- 
 rence, indefinitely, south. Tiiese conflicting claims had, while the 
 
 * We make also another exception in giving only small sketches of American afiain, 
 and carry on their history to the " Peace of Paris," 1763. 
 
320 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VJ. 
 
 settlements kept along the shore of the ocean, and in the valley of 
 the St. Lawrence, caused no dispute ; but at the period immediately- 
 succeeding the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, they occasioned the conten- 
 tion between the English and French colonists. The English, having 
 extended themselves to the west, and the French to the south, their 
 claims interfered.* 
 
 The Ohio company had received from the English government a 
 grant of a large tract of land on the Ohio river, which the French 
 claimed as within their territory. The French governor of Canada 
 first threatened, and next seized and imprisoned, those who had erect- 
 ed trading houses on these lands. 
 
 Dinwiddie, the English governor of Virginia, sent a young officer 
 
 across the wilderness, to bear dispatches to the French commandant, 
 
 requiring him to desist from aggressions upon the English, and quit 
 
 their territories. The French not obeying this 
 
 1754. mandate, Dinwiddie sent again the same officer, 
 
 Washington sent q^j^ George Washington, at tlie head of a regiment, 
 
 ° " 'to enforce it. Although his conduct was gallant, 
 
 his force was inferior, and he was unsuccessful. The French now 
 
 proceeded to the erection of a fort at the junction of the Monongahe- 
 
 la and Alleghany rivers ; to which they gave the name of the French 
 
 admiral, Du Quesne. 
 
 The British cabinet, learning the state of their colonies, recom- 
 mended to them to cultivate the friendship of the most powerful tribes 
 of the savages, and to form a union among themselves. 
 
 Accordingly, a congress of delegates from the four colonies of 
 New England, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and 
 Rhode Island, which had for some time been confed- 
 1/54. crated, met at Albany ; with delegates from New 
 
 Congress at Albany, york, Maryland and Pennsylvania ; and on the 4th 
 of July, 1757, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, drew up a plan 
 of union, which being approved by the congress, copies were trans- 
 mitted to the several colonial governments ; and to the court of Great 
 Britain. It suited not the colonies, because it granted too much pow- 
 er to the crown. It suited not the English ministry, because it gave 
 too little; and it was mutually rejected. 
 
 Thus was tested that inherent difference of opinion, between the 
 colonies and mother country, on matters of government, which even- 
 tually severed them. The course of history has led us to remark 
 from what quarters the opposition to arbitrary power had originated 
 in Europe. It is curious to observe that it was precisely from those 
 quarters that these colonies were originally peopled. 
 Causes of the Amer- j^, ^^g when the arbitrary proceedings of James I. 
 and Charles I. had roused the virtuous patriots 
 of England to assert their rights, that some of the purest of these 
 patriots, unwilling to make disturbance in their native land, and yet 
 
 * This was the direct cause of the war; but the English jealousy was besides awa- 
 kened by finding aline of posts extending from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that 
 of the Mississippi, projected by the French, which, if completed, would establish 
 their authority over the valley of the Mississippi, which they called New France. 
 
CHAP. III.] NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 321 
 
 determined to enjoy their civil and religious rights, leaving the scenes 
 endeared by kindred faces, and fond recollections ; and, braving the 
 ocean, found a home on the rude coasts of New England. It was 
 while the brave Dutch were resisting the tyranny of Spain, and no- 
 bly contending for liberty, that they came and settled on the banks 
 of the beautiful Hudson ; and it was when the protestants of France 
 strove for freedom from tlie civil oppressions, and religious persecu- 
 tions of the Guises and Bourbons, that they made settlements in the 
 south ;* and it was when episcopacy took, in England, the rod of per- 
 secution from the cathoUcs, in the days of Charles I., that the peace- 
 ful Calvert, (lord Baltimore) with a colony of catholics, came and 
 found a refuge, where the fair city which bears his name now stands. 
 
 Arrived in America, almost every man was, till the time of which 
 we speak, an agriculturist ; not poor, for he lived on his own do- 
 main, and acknowledged no other lord of his land, than the Lord of 
 the whole earth ; yet he was obliged to be industrious to live, to be 
 watchful and valiant, to escape the terrible savages who ambushed 
 his path and his dwelling. It was thus that the infant principles of 
 manly independence, first found a home in America ; and such was 
 the school in which they were trained to a vigorous maturity. The 
 court of Great Britain had, on various occasions, seen them mani- 
 fested, much to their annoyance. They had allowed at first, with- 
 out suspicion of the consequences, the free, and equal citizens of the 
 new world to form confederacies. The offices of the country were 
 not then marks for ambition, but posts of difficulty and danger ; re- 
 luctantly, in most instances, accepted, and gladly relinquished. 
 
 At length, under James II., the court of Great Britain, grown 
 
 jealous, interfered, and sent over colonial govern- 
 
 1689. ors, enjoining it upon the colonies to compensate 
 
 Great Britain jeal- ^j^^jj. ge,.vices. This was a source of disaffection ; 
 
 Ous 01 the indepen- , i , • . . , . , ' 
 
 dent spirit of the but the colonies proportioning their bounty to the 
 
 colonists. royal officers, to their own opinion of their good be- 
 
 haviour, still ordered their affairs much in their own way ; and the 
 court found they had yet done nothing towards humbling their inde- 
 pendent bearing. 
 
 They next instructed their governors to demand fixed salaries. 
 This, the unyielding spirit of the colonial assemblies would never 
 grant. Massachusetts became peciiliarly obnoxious to the British 
 government, for a long and obstinate adherence to the refusal. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Such was the character of he men who met at Albany, in July, 
 17.54 ; and it could hardly have been expected, that even the pres- 
 sure of a coming war with a formidable power, which they knew 
 would let loose an exterminating savage foe, would have induced 
 
 * " The Lord," says one of the writers of that period, " has sifted three nations, for 
 good seed to sow the wilderness." 
 
 28 
 
322 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 them to frame a government acceptable to the court of Great Britain. 
 That nation, however, felt that the colonies w^ere her own ; and her 
 pride was wounded by the aggressions of the French ; and she de- 
 termined not only to allow them to manage for their defence, by such 
 means as they chose, but to send them aid. General Braddock was 
 accordingly despatched to Virginia with 1500 men. These, rein- 
 forced by the colonial militia, under Washington, proceeded through 
 the desert to attack fort Du Quesne. The weak 
 1775. and haughty general, rejecting all advice from the 
 
 Braddock defeated, colonial Commander, fell into an ambush, and was 
 slaughtered with more than half his army. The colonists alone re- 
 treated in order from the field, under the conduct of the calm, and in- 
 trepid young Washington. 
 
 In the meantime, the French had sent out the baron Dieskau, with 
 a formidable force, to the assistance of the Canadians. 
 
 Dieskau had advanced from Montreal by the way of Lake Cham- 
 plain and Lake George, to attack fort Edward, on the Hudson. 
 Here the colonial forces, under general Johnson, 
 ^af?oit" E?ifd''" ^^^' ^"^ defeated his army, with the loss of 700 
 killed, and 300 prisoners, among whom was Dies- 
 kau himself. 
 These warlike operations in America, led to the declaration of 
 war between France and Great Britain, which was formally promul- 
 17'ifi gated in 1756. During the campaign of this year, 
 
 Formal Declaration ^'^'''® ^^^^ effected, tiiough the two powers continu- 
 of war between ed to Send over officers and men, and there was 
 Great Britain much bustle, and many plans among the colo- 
 
 and France. ^^jg^g^ 
 
 The year 1757 was signalized by the barbarous massacre at fort 
 
 William Henry, at the southern extremity of Lake George. Colonel 
 
 Monroe, a Bi-itish officer, was besieged in this fort, 
 
 1757. by the marquis Montcalm, who had succeeded Dies- 
 
 '^WiUiam Henr^°" ^^"' ^"^ ^^^ "^'^^ ^* ^^^^ '^^^^ °^ ^'^^^ "^®"- ^""^ 
 
 roe capitulated, on condition of leaving the fort with 
 the honours of war. He had not yet even left it, when the massa- 
 cre was begun by the Indians in Montcalm's army, whom he could 
 not, or would not restrain. No pen can describe the horrours of this 
 midnight butchery, where the sick, the wounded, men, women, and 
 infants, all bled beneath the tomahawk and the scalping-knife ; m 
 the fort, on the way, and in the woods. 
 
 George II. of England, now aroused in earnest, and blaming his 
 
 former cabinet for the languid manner in which the war had been 
 
 conducted, raised William Pitt to the office of prime minister, a 
 
 man who, for the energy of his mind and character, surpassed all his 
 
 cotemporaries. He sent out in a fleet, commanded 
 
 1758. by admiral Boscawen, a reinforcement of 14,000 
 Large reinforce- men, under the command of general Amherst. 
 
 These, together with the British and colonial forces 
 already in America, made 50,000 men, a much greater army than 
 had before been employed in this country. 
 
CHAP. IV.] PARTITION OF POLAND. 323 
 
 Admiral Bosca wen, with a fleet of twelve ships of the line, and 145 
 transports, invested Louisburg, a strong and important fortress on an 
 island at the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The siege com- 
 menced on the second of June. On the twenty-first 
 l^Duisburg taken. ^f j^j^^ Louisburg capitulated, and the English 
 took nearly 7000 prisoners. The other important events of this cam- 
 paign, were the taking of fort Frontenac, by Colonel Bradstreet, and 
 that of fort Du Quesne, by general Forbes. This fort received at this 
 time, the name of Pitt, which is still preserved in that of Pittsburg, 
 the appellation of the flourishing town which occupies its situation. 
 During the campaign of this year, General Amherst led an army 
 against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and succeed- 
 1759. ed in capturing these forts. General Prideaux with 
 
 Ticonderoga^,^^ ^"0*^^'^ division of the British forces, was sent 
 For t^Niaaara taken, against fort Niagara, which also surrendered to the 
 British arms. 
 But the most critical part was assigned to the young and gallant 
 Wolfe. He sailed from Louisburg near the close of June, and with 
 an army of 8,000 men, landed on the island of Orleans, with the for- 
 midable task before him, of reducing Quebec, the strongest fortress 
 in America. Till the first of September, he played around his game, 
 formed plans and found them impracticable ; and though his health 
 declined, still laying others. On the night of the twelfth September, 
 he scaled the heights of Abraham, a rock deemed inaccessible, and 
 his army following their daring leader ; — the marquis Montcalm saw, 
 by the morning light, his enemy upon the elevated plain in order of 
 battle. The strife was desperate, but victory de- 
 1759. clared for the English. Wolfe, mortally wounded, 
 
 French defeated be- rejoiced in his country's success, and expired. 
 
 fore Quebec-Wolfe -mT . ■< i i -n j rni • r r\ 
 
 kiUed. Montcalm was also killed. 1 he garrison of Que- 
 
 bec were panic-struck, and surrendered a fortress 
 which they might probably have still defended. All Canada soon 
 submitted to the British arms. The possession of this territory was 
 confirmed to that nation, at the peace of Paris, in 1763, and since 
 that time, has remained a British province. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PARTITION OF POLAND. 
 
 Individuals may ever be found, even in despotic countries, imbibed 
 with a deep sense of that rational liberty, which is the birth-right 
 of man. Of these, ill-fated Poland has furnished a large share. 
 Its government was that of an elective monarchy, but the spirit of 
 republicanism pervaded the hearts of many of the subjects. The 
 e lection of a monarch was oflen a stormy period, and not unfrequent- 
 
324 MODERN HISTORY. [pERTOD Vt. 
 
 ly, as we have seen, made so by the interference and arms of for- 
 eign powers. Augustus III., elector of Saxony, who now filled the 
 throne, had triumphed over Stanislaus Leczinski, by the aid of Rus- 
 sian and Austrian arms. Still there existed in Poland a powerful 
 party which deprecated foreign influence, and desired a Polander 
 for their monarch. 
 
 On the death of Augustus, Catharine of Russia turned this sen- 
 timent to the advantage of Stanislaus Poniatowski, 
 1764. g^ native, whose personal appearance and prepos- 
 
 Gathanne forces the ggssinff manners, had procured for him her favour ; 
 
 Poles to elect Stan- ^ ^ , . 
 
 isluus Puniatowski. but whose character and habits wholly unfitted him 
 for government. He having been proposed by the 
 empress, to fill the Polish throne, Russian soldiers, intending to 
 enforce his election, surrounded the senate house where the diet was 
 assembled. Malachowski, an aged patriot, and marshal of the last 
 diet, entering the assembly, where only eight senators out of fifty 
 ai)peared, exclaimed with a loud voice, " since the Russian soldiers 
 hem us in, I suspend the authority of the diet." The soldiers or- 
 dered him to resign the marshall's staff", and threatened him with 
 vengeance. Malachowski intrepidly replied, " You may cut off" my 
 hand, or take my life, but I am marshal, elected by a free people, 
 and I can only be deposed by a free people — I shall retire." The 
 partisans of Poniatowski, supported by the Russian arms, proceeded 
 to an illegal election, and the minion of Catharine was made king. 
 After the coronation, she maintained an ambassador at Warsaw, 
 who in real'ty governed the monarch ; 20,000 Russian troops being 
 scattered over the country. 
 
 The patriots who left Warsaw before the election, had attempted 
 to form confederations in diff'erent provinces of the kingdom. They 
 were now permitted to return, and did not immediately off"er any 
 opp( sition to the government. The favour of Catharine was shortly 
 withdrawn from the king of Poland, whose place at Petersburg had 
 been soon filled with another favourite. She fomented the dissen- 
 sions which existed between the dissidents (or protestants,) and cath- 
 olics, until the unhappy nation was involved in the miseries of a civil 
 war. The leading patriots were now arrested by the Russian sol- 
 diers, and transported to Siberia. Catharine offered them liberty 
 on condhion of their submitting to the authority of Russia. They 
 all rejected the disgraceful offer with contempt. 
 
 The Poles next formed combinations for the deliverance of their 
 country, and solicited and obtained the aid of the Turks. 
 
 The Russians formed extensive plans of carrying on the war with 
 17G9. Turkey by sea. Their fleet sailed through the 
 
 Turks in alliance Mediterranean, and roused the Greeks to arms, but 
 with the Poles, in- owing to disscnsions among their commanders, noth- 
 
 ''^''^'^ Sn'r ^"^' ^"g decisive was effected. Two Russian armies 
 entered the Turkish dominions from the north, and 
 made a victorious campaign ; one army defeated the Turks on the 
 banks of the Danube, and the other made the conquest of Bender, 
 on the Dniester. These events were discouraging to the Poles, but 
 
CHAP. IV.] PARTITION OF POLAND. 325 
 
 they still clung to the hope of preserving their liberty. Their army 
 did not at this time exceed 8,000 men, but they had seized the 
 strongest posts among the mountains, and, under their general Pu- 
 laski, kept the field, and occasionally annoyed their enemy. In the 
 following year, the advantages of war still remained with the Rus- 
 sians. A short period of alternate hope and fear was all that was 
 now allowed for the little band of Polish patriots. 
 1770. They were soon informed that a league had been 
 
 scandaious^partition concluded between Maria Theresa of Austria, Cath- 
 arine of Russia, and Frederic of Prussia ; and that 
 these royal thieves had taken the greater part of their country, and 
 divided it among themselves, annexing their several portions to their 
 own dominions. The contemptible Poniatowski, who was entirely 
 under their control, was by them made sovereign of the remainder. 
 Some of the Poles had still the courage to raise their voices 
 against these iniquitous pi'oceedings. The patriot 
 Pohsli patriots. Reyten, finding that all was lost, was driven by 
 grief to insanity. A few sent formal protestations to the other pow- 
 ers of Europe, but their remonstrances were unheeded. The patriot 
 chiefs were obliged to flee to foreign lands. Pulaski crossed the 
 ocean and sacrificed his life in the cause of American independence. 
 The partition of Poland has found no justifiers even among those 
 who have considered the many wars in which Europe has been in- 
 volved, as being defensible, on the ground of maintaining the balance 
 of power ; a phrase which in its real signification, as settled by the 
 practices which have grown out of it, seems to mean a combination 
 of a Cew families, to maintain each other in their hereditary author, 
 ity, whether that authority be exercised for the 
 Europe a grand good of mankind, or for their scourge and destruc- 
 tion ; thus making Europe a grand aristocracy, 
 the members of which are called kings instead of nobles, each ambi- 
 tious to extend his own dominions, by encroaching on those of his 
 neighbours, and thus creating disputes, which there was no organized 
 and ackowledged council with powers to settle, and causing continu- 
 ally the barbarous appeal to the sword. The great plan of Henry 
 IV. of France, had it been established, would not, like the American 
 constitution, have guarantied to the people their rights of self-govern- 
 ment, but it would have given them much security against the hor- 
 rours of war, and saved the blood of countless millions. 
 
 28* 
 
326 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VI. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND HER AMERICAN COLONIES. FROM THE 
 PEACE OF PARIS,- 1763, TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPEN- 
 DENCE, 1776. 
 
 The close of the seven years' war, which was ended by the peace 
 of Paris, left Great Britain the most powerful and 
 
 1763. influential kingdom in Europe, The resources of 
 Prosperity of Eng- ^j^^ nation became more extensively developed ; she 
 
 had full possession of the dominion of the sea, trade 
 and manufactures greatly flourished, labour rose in value, and in less 
 than twelve years, the national debt had been diminished more than 
 ten millions sterling. Such was the condition of this nation, when 
 her rulers commenced that disastrous course of measures which end- 
 ed in the partial dismemberment of the empire, by the loss of the 
 American colonies. The English provinces in America had claimed 
 for their own legislative assemblies the right of granting their own 
 taxes and contributions for the support of government. They be- 
 lieved this right to be secured to them by the English constitution, 
 as well as by their own local charters. When, therefore, the British 
 
 parliament passed an act for raising a revenue in 
 
 1764. America, by imposing duties on merchandise im- 
 Americans refuse to ported, and which was followed up from year to 
 
 be taxed b\' par- * , , ^ .- ^i a • 
 
 liainent. year by new and greater exactions ; the Americans 
 
 prepared for resistance. The friends of English 
 
 liberty and the constitution, in Great Britain, took sides with the 
 
 Americans, and encouraged their spirit. Pitt, now earl of Chatham, 
 
 unwilling any longer to be responsible for meas- 
 
 1768. uj.gg which he could neither approve nor control, 
 
 Lord Chatham resigned his office of prime minister. The duke of 
 
 ' ^' Grafton was called to succeed him. This minister 
 
 was found incompetent to the duties of his station, and his place was 
 
 filled by lord North. Under the unfortunate administration of this 
 
 nobleman, it was resolved to force the Americans to submit to the 
 
 unconstitutional acts of the British parliament. 
 
 Governor Gage had been sent to Massachusetts in the spirit of 
 
 hostility to that province. The people viewed his 
 
 1775. movements with jealousy and alarm ; mutual ani- 
 
 Gage sent over to niosity was enkindled, martial law was declared, 
 
 eniorce the taxation ,.•' . ^it»--i ^ 
 
 laws. and it was in an attempt of the British troops to 
 
 take possession of the magazines at Lexington, that 
 hostilities commenced and the first blood was shed. The militia 
 rose, and although they could not prevent the destruction of the 
 public stores, yet drove the British back to their strong holds in 
 Boston, with loss. 
 
 The rash and violent measures of the British ministry with re- 
 gard to America, were loudly condemned by the friends of English 
 
CHAP, v.] AMERICAN COLONIES. 327 
 
 liberty in Great Britain, who remonstrated with energy against the 
 
 war. But the ministry, nevertheless, pursued their measures ; armies 
 
 were raised, foreign troops, Hessians and others were hired, fleets 
 
 put in readiness, and veteran generals, Howe, Pigot, Clinton, Bur- 
 
 goyne, and many others, were sent over to conquer the spirit of the 
 
 Americans, and quell their resistance. In America, great men 
 
 arose, able to meet the ci'isis. Hancock, Adams, Henry, and many 
 
 others, by their speeches and writings, infused their own spirit into 
 
 the hearts of the people ; and " Give me liberty, or give me death," 
 
 was the general sentiment. 
 
 In this spirit of resistance to oppression, the first continental 
 
 congress assembled at Philadelphia. iVIeasures 
 
 1774. were taken to raise an efficient army, the com- 
 
 First American mand of which was placed in the hands of Wash- 
 Congress. . . ' 
 ington. 
 
 In the meantime the militia of the New England provinces vol- 
 unteered to drive the British troops from Boston. They took pos- 
 session of Bunker Hill, a position which commanded the town. 
 As soon as they were perceived, the British general, Howe, de- 
 termined to drive them from the entrenchments which they were 
 throwing up. Under cover of the fire of their ships, lying in the 
 harbour, and of the flames of the town of Charlestown, barbarously 
 set on fire for that purpose, three thousand of the British troops 
 ascended the hill, and a deadly conflict ensued. The advancing col- 
 umns were broken by the fire from the American 
 ^'*"'*' H i?""'^*^"^ ^''^^' ^"^ twice,amidst appalling caniage,they rallied 
 to the charge. At length, the brave Warren hav- 
 ing fallen, and their amunition failing, the Americans retired, leav- 
 ing one thousand and fifty-four of their enemies dead or dying upon 
 the field, their own loss amounting to 450 killed and wounded. 
 
 The Americans, having thus commenced the conflict, prepared to 
 
 pursue it with effect. Generals Montgomery and 
 
 Unsuccessn.i Arnold were despatched at tlic head of separate 
 
 attempt upon •/•,! r./-^ i «r', 
 
 Canuda. armies tor the conquest of Canada. Montreal, 
 
 and the fortress of St. John, surrendcied to Mont- 
 gomery. Advancing down the St. Lawrence, at Quebec, he met 
 Arnold, who had taken the direct route through the woods. Late 
 in the winter their joint forces attacked that fortress, and the brave 
 Montgomery fell. Washington, at the head of a 
 1776. formidable force, had the preceding season appear- 
 
 Washin^tmi^ invests g^j before Boston, taken possession of the adjacent 
 heights, and invested the British forces in that city. 
 He continued the siege through the winter, and on the 19th of 
 March, Howe was forced to evacuate the fort. The enemy, takino- 
 to their shipping, commenced a marauding warfare, and burnt Fal- 
 mouth, Bristol, and other towns, on the sea-board. Wasliington 
 entered Boston in triumph, but afterwards established his head quar- 
 ters at New York, stationing part of the army, under generals Put- 
 nam and Sullivan, at Brooklyn. 
 
PERIOD VII. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 Declaration Of) SIXTH EPOCHA, 1776 A. D. ^ j;^^^«p'^^^'J 
 
 American 
 
 nee. 
 
 Peace of ? SEVENTH EPOCHA, 1802 A. D. } Amiens. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 REPUBLIC OF AMERICA AFTER THE DECLARATION OF 
 INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 The 4th of July, 1776, is the birth day of a nation remarkable for 
 being the oldest civilized nation of the western continent, for the 
 extent of its territory, for the rapid increase of its population and re- 
 sources ; but more especially for its political institutions, which have 
 exhibited, in practice, those principles of natural justice, and equal 
 rights, heretofore regarded but as the visions of the enthusiast. On 
 that memorable day, the American congress, still environed with dif- 
 ficulties, took with solemnity, the bold measure of declaring that 
 " America was, and of right ought to be, free and independent. 
 
 The most disastrous scenes of the war followed hard upon this dec- 
 laration. That division of the army commanded by 
 1776. Sullivan, on Long Island, was surprised and defeat- 
 
 Misfortunes of the ^^ ^^j^j^ great loss. Washington, threatened in 
 
 American army. -t -rr r ^ ^ i • > ,i • . • mi -r. • • i 
 
 JNew York, retreated into the mterior. 1 he British 
 generals, Howe and Clinton, followed him to the White Plains, where 
 an indecisive engagement took place. But at Fort Washington, which 
 was commanded by Col. Magaw, the British prevailed, took the fort 
 and 2,000 prisoners. The garrison of Fort Lee evacuated that post, 
 and, under Greene, joined the desponding army of Washington, who 
 now crossed the Hudson, and retreated into New Jersey. He there 
 placed himself in a defensive position, waiting for recruits and sup- 
 plies. His forces were greatly reduced, and in want of almost every 
 thing necessary for a winter's campaign ; and he continued to re- 
 treat till he had crossed the Delaware. 
 
CHAP I.] REPUBLIC OF AMERICA. 329 
 
 Nevertheless, he watched his enemy with great vigilance. On the 
 26th of December, he re-crossed the Delaware, which the severity of 
 the season, and tlie ice floating in the river, made an enterprize of al- 
 most incredible hardship and difficulty. He attacked 1,000 Hessians, 
 •or ,- , , stationed at Trenton, and made them prisoners ; af- 
 
 Washington's sue- . , . , i -n i ■ • i- i i 
 
 cess at Trenton and ter which. With great skill and intrepidity, he elu- 
 Princeton. dcd the pursuit of a superior British force, and fell 
 
 upon, and surprised another division of the enemy stationed at Prince- 
 ton. These brilliant successes, following such a train of misfortunes, 
 like a sudden light amidst darkness, revived the drooping spirits of the 
 Americans. They were cheered, also, by the arri- 
 La Fayette. ^^j ^f jj^g young and generous La Fayette, who had 
 
 left, in France, all that, to an ordinary mind, makes existence desira- 
 ble, and brought to lay upon the altar of right and justice, his life and 
 fortune. 
 
 France, Spain, and Holland, now began to regard the cause of 
 
 America with more favour ; and negociations were commenced with 
 
 these powers. But success again seemed to follow 
 
 1777. the British arms. Howe defeated Washington at 
 Howe successful. Brandy wine, on the 11th of September, and entered 
 Burgoyne invades Philadelphia on the 26th. He was again successful 
 
 "the north. at Germaiitovvn, on the 4th of October. Burgoyne, 
 
 with a formidable army, made up of British regulars, 
 and their Indian and Hessian allies, had made a descent from Canada. 
 He opened a communication upon Lake Champlain, and invested Ti- 
 conderoga. This fortress, the key of that frontier, fell into his hands. 
 General Fraser was dispatched in pursuit of the flying Americans. 
 He came up with their rear guard at Hubbardton, and after a san- 
 guinary conflict, the British obtained their last victory in that quarter. 
 
 Shortly after this battle, Colonels Baum and Breyman were detach- 
 ed by Burgoyne, with a corps of Hessians, in search of provisions, and 
 ordered to advance upon Bennington. They were 
 
 Americans defeat the ^gj „gj^j. jl^^^j j^^g ^ Qgj^^ gj^j.l ^nd totally dc- 
 British at Bennina:- ,-,, in •,• i j 
 
 ton and Stillwater? icated. Alter encountering severe losses and great 
 hardships, Burgoyne arrived at Stillwater, upon 
 the Hudson. He had but just heard of his disaster at Bennington, 
 when he was met and defeated by a numerous and well appointed ar- 
 my of Americans, under the command of the dauntless Gates. The 
 British general now found retreat impossible, and on the 7th of Octo- 
 ber, he was compelled to surrender his whole army prisoners of war. 
 This expedition cost the British, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
 an army of 9,000 men. It inspirited the Ameri- 
 
 1778. cans, and disposed the European nations to favour 
 Treaty with France, jjjgj^. gause, and a treaty of alliance with France 
 was entered into on the 6th of February. 
 
 Washington was now better able to concentrate his forces. 
 
 Strengthened by reinforcements, he compelled Sir Henry Clinton to 
 
 evacuate Philadelphia ; and, pursuing tliat general 
 
 Battle of Monmouth. On his retreat, came up with him on the 4th of June, 
 
 and defeated him at Monmouth. 
 
330 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD Vll. 
 
 General Gates being sent to stop the progress of the British army 
 
 in the South, was defeated, at Camden, by Lord Cornwallis, and the 
 
 brave baron De Kalb, a German volunteer in the 
 
 1780. American army, was slain. After this disaster, 
 Gates detcated at General Greene was appointed to the command of 
 
 the southern armies. At Guilford, he gallantly 
 contended with Cornwallis, and, though not victorious, retired from 
 the field in good order. Cornwallis having been weakened by this 
 and his other battles, though successful, felt in no condition to make 
 further advances, but retreated to the sea board.* 
 
 After the retreat of lord Cornwallis into Virginia, lord Rawdon 
 was left to sustain the royal cause, now on the decline, in Carolina. 
 Becoming at length discouraged with fatigue and loss of health, he 
 returned to England, and the command of the British forces, in South 
 Carolina, devolved on Col. Stuart. General Greene, in the mean 
 time, having improved the discipline of his troops, 
 
 1781. sought the enemy, and fought and defeated them at 
 Battle of the Eiitaw Eutaw Springs, The British general retreated to 
 
 Springs. Charleston, and confined his operations to that vi- 
 
 cinity. 
 On leaving the Carolinas, lord Cornwallis entered.Virginia, threat- 
 ening chastisement to " the boy," as he termed La Fayette, who com- 
 manded the small body of American forces assigned for the defence of 
 that state. But that general showed himself a veteran in carnage 
 and skill, not only studying the pursuit of the Brit- 
 Cornvv^ms^^checked j^j^ general, but finding means to harass his out- 
 posts incessantly, and to hold him in check, until 
 the plans forming by Washington for his destruction, should be ma- 
 tured. These plans were now ready for developement. 
 
 Washington had, by a well managed feint, deceived Sir Henry 
 
 Clinton into the belief that New York was the de- 
 
 ^^thf ca°!ure^!f"^ signated point of attack. Admiral De Grasse, with 
 
 CornwalHs° 3- formidable French fleet, was ordered to block up 
 
 York river, so as to prevent reinforcements reach. 
 
 ing Cornwallis, through the Chesapeake. In the mean time, the 
 
 American commander, having formed a junction with the French ar- 
 
 my, which had arrived the year before, under general Rochambeau, 
 
 by forced marches, suddenly arrived at Yorktown, and invested the 
 
 British army by land. The brave and hitherto fortunate Cornwallis 
 
 now made vigorous efforts to extricate himself, but in vain. The 
 
 chivalry of America and France were upon him, each vieing with 
 
 the other in feats of intrepidity. The Britislv general had sustained 
 
 himself in the belief that timely succour would arrive from NewYork. 
 
 Even this hope now failed him ; and to prevent a general assault from 
 
 * This was the period of the celebrated siege and defence of Gibraltar, Spain hav- 
 ing entered into the war agaiust England, her earliest efforts were made for the recovery 
 of that fortress. The Spaniards commenced a tremendous cannonade, and continued 
 it for several months. But the place was successfully defended by the bravery and 
 skill of General Elliot. 
 
CHAP. H. ENGLAND AND INDIA. 331 
 
 the combined French and American armies, he of- 
 
 1781. fered terms of capitulation. On tiie 19th of Octo- 
 
 Cornwams^surren- bcr, 1781, the army, consisting of seven thousand 
 
 men, surrendered to the Americans, and the fleet, 
 
 consisting of two frigates and twenty transports, with their convoys, 
 
 to the French. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ENGLAND AND INDIA. 
 
 Tims ended the active operations of the most disastrous war in 
 which England was ever engaged. That power even for a time lost 
 her wonted ascendancy on the ocean. The fleets of France and 
 Spain sustained themselves with bravery, in many conflicts ; and the 
 province of West Florida, which Great Britain had captured in a for- 
 mer war from Spain, was re-taken by that power. 
 
 In the East Indies, the arms of England had been more successful. 
 Sir Eyre Coote, the British commander in that quarter, overthrew the 
 power of Hyder Ali, and obtained large cessions of territory from the 
 Indian princes. 
 
 A war so generally unsuccessful and disastrous, drew upon the 
 
 English ministry a large share of public odium. They were assailed 
 
 by the public press, and by the people at large, and in parliament ; 
 
 and at last they were compelled to resign. A new ministry was 
 
 formed, of men favourable to American Independ- 
 
 1783. ence, which was finally secured by the treaty of 
 
 Penceof Pa.is. p^^^g^ g^p^^ ^d, 1783. By this treaty. Great Brit- 
 ain lost the islands of Tobago and Senegal, ceded to France, Minorca 
 and Florida, ceded to Spain ; and the United States of America, made 
 independent, together with thousands of valuable lives, and millions of 
 treasure, and gained nothing. 
 
 The British armies having been withdrawn, those of the United 
 
 1783. States were disbanded, and Washington consum- 
 
 Army disbands. mated his glory by voluntarily retiring to the 
 
 Washington retires. shadcS of private life. 
 
332 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD Vll- 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ■ GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 England and Scotland, since the wars of the pretender, had en- 
 joyed domestic tranquillity. George [II., though not an able states. 
 man, was a pious, amiable, and charitable man, affectionate and kind, 
 as a sovereign, a husband, and a father. In his reign were no cruel 
 executions for political offences. In its early part, his ministers were 
 frequently changed, and among them was no prominent statesman, af- 
 ter the elder Pitt, Lord Chatham, until in 1784, the 
 1789. younger William Pitt, his second son, was made 
 
 w lUiani Piit. prime minister. He filled the station more than 
 
 twenty years, and his talents, guiding the energies of the kingdom, 
 greatly influenced the politics of Europe. The great evil under which 
 the nation suffered, was the public debt, to pay the interest of which, 
 the people were grievously taxed. The policy of Pitt, by interfering 
 with the affairs of France, and involving England in a war, to restore 
 the Bourbons, greatly increased this evil. 
 
 The affairs of the East Indies claimed much attention from the par- 
 liament. In the wars with Hyder Ali, and other native princes, the 
 most unheard of exactions and devastations had been committed up- 
 on that weak and effeminate people. Tracts of 
 British cruelties in country of hundreds of miles in extent, had not only 
 
 Indin ' y 
 
 been plundered, but entirely depopulated. Acts 
 of rapine and barbarity had been practiced there, which find 
 no parallel in history. Warren Hastings, the governor general 
 of British India, was impeached by the British 
 w arren Hastings. housc of commons, and brought to trial for numerous 
 acts of oppression and tyranny upon the people of India, subject to his 
 government. After an investigation of nearly eight years duration, 
 in which the best talents of the kingdom were engaged, he was ac- 
 quitted. 
 
 Causes which had long been in operation — the abuse of power by 
 
 the rulers on the one hand, and the progress of lib- 
 
 1789. eral opinions among the people, on the other, began, 
 
 Effects of the French at this period, to produce the most astonishing ef- 
 
 Ero-h^ii'poUiiTs" fects. The French revolution commenced, which, 
 
 in its progress, astonished not only France, but all 
 
 Europe, with the prodigious energies of a people rising in their might, 
 
 and struggling to obtain their liberty. 
 
 The celebrated Burke, who had been, until this time, one of the 
 most distinguished advocates for liberal opinions in the British parlia- 
 ment, now came forward in that body and condemned the principles 
 of the French in the most unqualified terms. For this, he was ap- 
 plauded by the ministerial side of the house. Fox and Sheridan, 
 
CHAP. IV.] FRENCH REVOLUTION. 333 
 
 who had heretofore acted in concert with Burke, while they condemned 
 the outrages that had attended the French revohition, defended its prin- 
 ciples. These differences of opinion spread through the kingdom, and 
 parties arrayed themselves against each other, in a spirit of unusual 
 acrimony. At first, public sentiment was strong in favour of the new 
 order of things in France, but the bold and unusual proceedings of the 
 leading men there, together with the threats of French invasion, stir- 
 red up the ancient English spirit, and the nation resorted to war. 
 
 In this contest, in which all the principal states of Europe became 
 engaged, France was the most prominent actor; and as her history, 
 for a time, involved that of all the rest, we shall commence it with a 
 short retrospective view. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 Section I. 
 
 The nations who had been engaged in the " Seven Years' War," 
 found themselves, at its termination, suffering under the burden of 
 grievous taxes. England had indeed largely ex- 
 1763. tended her American possessions ; and Prussia, 
 
 European nations at though at the expense of a vast amount of suffering, 
 ''&;veT Years' and loss of hfe, had established her dominion over 
 War." Silesia. The aggrandizement of Prussia had been 
 
 the humiliation of Austria. 
 But of all the nations, France had suffered the most severely, and 
 was, at the close of the contest, in a state of the most lamentable de- 
 pression. The evils of the long continued wars in which the nation 
 had been engaged during the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV., had 
 now become fully developed. The finances of the kingdom were in 
 a state of irretrievable disorder and confusion. The reign of Louis 
 XV. is signalized, even in the French annals, for profligacy and cor- 
 ruption. The licentious monarch suffered his councils to be guided by 
 abandoned women — the treasures of his suffering people were lav- 
 ished at their bidding, and offices disposed of as their avarice or 
 caprice dictated. 
 
 The marriage of the dauphin with the arch-duchess of Austria, 
 
 Marie Antoinette, was celebrated with great pomp, 
 
 1770. and for a time withdrew the minds of the people from 
 
 Marnago of ^|^g scnsc of their sufferings. But, oppressed bv 
 
 Loins \VI. and ^ . u- ^ i * i,-? . . ' ' •^. 
 
 Marie Antoinette. taxation, subjected to arbitrary imprisonment, and 
 
 now, from the high price of corn, (there having been 
 
 a failure of crops,) threatened with famine, they expressed their dis- 
 
 29 
 
334 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VII, 
 
 satisfaction, by murmurs and insurrections. Such 
 1772. ^vas the disturbed state of France, when the long 
 
 Deatiiof LouisXV. ^^^j inglorious reign of Louis XV.* was closed by 
 his death. 
 Upon the unfortunate Louis XVL, who now succeeded to the 
 throne, the evils which had been long accumulating, burst in a 
 tempest. The parliament of Paris had acquired 
 France at the acces power, and now exhibited a determined opposition 
 to the court. The middle class had become en- 
 lightened, but many of them had unfortunately imbibed opinions hos- 
 tile to religion and morality. 
 
 The American revolution was now in progress, and Franklin was 
 received and honoured at the court of Louis. The principles of 
 rational liberty, which the American patriots advocated, were em- 
 braced even by some among the nobility. La Fayette and others 
 risked their lives and fortunes, and left their coun- 
 1778. try to aid them in their struggle. France, at 
 
 France makes a length, though she could ill atford it, gave the 
 trea y \u^i mer- j^^tional support to America, and thus became 
 involved in a war with Great Britain. 
 Louis, meantime, was making fruitless attempts to improve his 
 finances, and ameliorate the condition of the people. The national 
 deLt amounted to the enormous sum of six hundred millions of livres. 
 The minister, Calonne, in order to relieve the government of its 
 embarrassments, proposed to levy a tax upon the privileged orders, 
 and to avoid assembling tlie states general, a measure 1 )udly de- 
 manded by the nation, he convened the Notables, 
 The Notables con- ^y^ assembly selected from the higher classes. 
 This assembly, however, proved unmanageable, 
 and spread through the nation the discoveries whicli they had made 
 of the wretched situation and mismanagement of the government. 
 On the fifth of May, 1789, the king, by the advice of Neckar, 
 who was now in the ministry, having convoked 
 1789. the states general and their deputies, met at Ver- 
 
 vmed ft^Veiime" s^illes. When assembled, the change which the 
 public sentiment had undergone since the last meet- 
 ing, in 1614, was soon apparent. The commons, or third estate, 
 who in former times had been governed by the two other orders, 
 (the clergy and noblesse,) now manifested an independent spirit. 
 The higher orders in vain appealed to the assemblies of other days 
 for precedents. The power of t!ie third estate was here paramount. 
 The king threatened to dissolve the assembly, but the deputies 
 remained immoveable. Louis had dismissed Neckar, and under 
 the influence of a new minister, he ordered troops to advance to- 
 wards Versailles and Paris, these places having declared for the 
 assembly. The French guards espoused the cause of the assembly, 
 and all Paris flew to arms. Neckar was recalled, but tco late. The 
 
 * He died of the small pox, the second time taken. 
 
.AP. IV.] FRENCH REVOLUTION. 335 
 
 armed citizens assembled at the Bastile, and that 
 
 1789. gloomy prison, where so many innocent victims of 
 
 Basdle destroyed. royal capfice and tyranny have been immured, was 
 
 La Payette com- levelled with the ground. Two days after this 
 
 mander of the event. La Fayette was made commander of the 
 
 national guards. . . , j 
 
 ^ national guards. 
 
 The assembly and the court were meantime engaged at Ver- 
 sailles, each in preparing and maturing its own plans. The assem- 
 bly demanded the dismissal of the foreign troops. The court re- 
 tained them. When Louis was informed of the cause of the excite- 
 ment and agitation, which his minister had carefully concealed from 
 him, he visited the assembl)^, threw himself upon its protection, 
 and ordered the retreat of the troops. He next visited Paris, where 
 he was received with demonstrations of attachment, and he strength- 
 ened the favourable impressions of the citizens, by confirming the 
 appointments made by the assembly. The king and royal family 
 gave a splendid fete at Versailles, on the first day of October. On 
 
 the morning of the fifth, a multitude of women in 
 Disturbances of the p^j-js^ pressed by famine, rose and set up' the cry 
 
 of bread! bread! and demanded to be led to Ver- 
 sailles. The rising soon became general, arms were seized, and the 
 national and French guards determined to accompany the mob to 
 Versailles. The utmost that La Fayette could do, was to delay 
 their departure a few hours. Finding that they would go, he con- 
 ducted them, and restrained their excesses.* The king and royal 
 family removed to Paris, the national assembly followed, and its pres- 
 ence, with the exertions of La Fayette, for a time cahned the tumults 
 of the populace, and restored a temporary quiet to the city. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The assembly, at the head of which was Mirabeau, proceeded to 
 
 make a constitution and reform abuses. The re- 
 
 1790. mains of the old feudal system were cleared away ; 
 
 The national assem- ^^^ j^^jg belonging to the religious houses were 
 
 tion. converted to the use of the nation, the monks and 
 
 nuns were turned out of their convents, and the 
 
 estates of those who fled from France on the repeal of the edict of 
 
 Nantes, were ordered to be restored. 
 
 * The women went first. The crowd surrounded the palace. The king appeared, 
 and gratified them by promising to go to Paris. The queen was menaced during the 
 day, hut at evening, though the mob were at Versailles, all seemed quiet. During the 
 last hours of the night, some of the more violent fumd an unguarded entrance into the 
 palace, sought her apartment, and would have murdcrod her, had she not escaped to 
 another. La Fayette was informed of these disorders, and would have prevented 
 them, had he been permitted to station guards within the palace. He threw himself 
 among the infuriated mob, and s ived the body guard, whom they were about to mas- 
 sacre. He next souglft the queen — persuaded her to ^o with him to the balcony, 
 where, to make the people understand his meaning, he bowed to her, and kissed her 
 hand with profound respect, and the multitude shouted "Vive la Heine." 
 
336 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VII. 
 
 But while the assembly was going on with the work of reforma- 
 tion, and labouring to complete the constitution, (Louis meantime 
 assenting to their acts,) counter movements were in operation in va- 
 rious parts of the kingdom. Marie Antoinette, neither loved nor 
 trusted the French people. While this beautiful and accom- 
 plished woman was the idol of the court, she was censured by the 
 nation for her extravagance and levity, and charg- 
 Unpopuiarity and ed with more crimes than she had committed. The 
 ^^^'^"^^ °l ^''^ true daughter of Maria Theresa, if left to herself, 
 siie would have opposed the tide of revolution by 
 more energetic measures ; but she and her party now saw that it 
 had become too strong for them to cope with, and they were desirous 
 to escape. Emigrations became frequent, and the nobility who left 
 the kingdom, sought to obtain assistance from abroad, while the cath- 
 olic clergy were seeking at home to destroy the new order of things. 
 On the other hand, clubs were formed, among which was that of 
 the Jacobins, who stirred up the people to censure 
 "''^' the measures of the new government, as too mod- 
 
 erate, and too lenient to the principles of monarchy. 
 
 Meantime the crowned heads of Europe, alarmed at the preva- 
 lence of principles which tended to disorganize their own states, now 
 threatened to interfere for the purpose of restoring the authority of 
 Louis, and thus became indirectly the cause of his future sufferings. 
 Persuaded by his queen, Louis left Paris secretly, 
 1791. ^vith his family ; intending to quit the kingdom. 
 
 Royal family Incensed at this mark of distrust, and apparent in- 
 
 attempt to escape. . „ . . . , i i i i ii • 
 
 tention of joming those who had become their ene- 
 mies, the people pursued and arrested the royal fugitives at Varen- 
 nes, and carried them back to the capital. Paris was now a scene 
 of tumult and uproar, and the whole kingdom was convulsed. In 
 the assembly, violent discussions arose. Some maintained that Louis 
 had by his flight abdicated the throne, and the more violent demand- 
 ed his immediate execution. 
 
 The new constitution being completed, September 
 
 1791. 29th, 1791, the constituent assembly declared its 
 ^"br'aiss^o'lved-" business accomplished, and dissolved. A legislative 
 
 Le^skdvelcon' assembly convened October 14th. Roland was now 
 vened! minister of the interior, and Dumourier for foreign 
 
 affairs. 
 On the 20th of March, the assembly declared war against Fran- 
 cis IL, emperor of Austria, who had demanded imperatively the 
 restoration of the old order of things, and was evi- 
 
 1792. dently preparing to enforce his demand by the 
 Tinst'^Austria sword. " Marechal Rochambeau, La Fayette, and 
 
 agains us na. Lucknor, Commanded the French armies ; but 
 afler an unsuccessful invasion of Belgium, then under the Austrian 
 yoke, their operations became merely defensive. Their want of 
 success is ascribed to the malignant influence of the parties in the 
 
army wliich were opposed to the government. La 
 LaFayeite in favour p^^yptte was at the head of that in favour of a 
 
 of a consHtutional •' . . i tt "» u 
 
 monarchy. Constitutional monarchy. He wrote to the national 
 
 assembly, and at length, leaving the army, he ap- 
 peared suddenly at the bar of the house. He conjured the mem- 
 bers to respect the constitution, and warned them of the danger 
 arising from the Jacobin cliiefs. He now appealed to the national 
 guards, by whom he was greatly beloved. The court, which he 
 wished to save, unhappily distrusted him ; and thus tliemselves de- 
 feated his measures for their preservation, and La Fayette I'eturned 
 in despair to the army. 
 
 Prussia had joined Austria, and a Prussian army now advanced 
 upon the frontiers of France. A violent and imprudent manifesto, 
 publislaed by its commander, the duke of Brunswick, in the name 
 of the emperor of Russia, and the king of Spain, hastened the fall of 
 the Frencli tlirone. 
 
 On the night preceding the tenth of August, all was uproar in Pa- 
 ris. The tocsin was sounded, the drums beat, and tlie insurgents as- 
 sembled in arms. Having organized and united their forces, early in 
 the morning they besieged the palace. Louis with 
 1792. hjg family crossed the garden of the Tuileries, en- 
 
 Louis escapes from ^^^.^j ^^^ j^^^g^ ^^ deputies, and threw himself upon 
 
 tltG 1 Ullfil'lCS to tllC . * ^ 
 
 iiouse ofdeputies. the protection of the national assembly. After the 
 king left the palace, the riotous insurgents massa- 
 cred the Swiss guards, proceeded to surround the assembly, which, 
 yielding to their demands, passed a vote to dethrone the king. The 
 Luxembourg was first assigned him as his residence ; 
 Louis dethroned and ^^^^^^^ j^^ ^^^g transferred a prisoner, to the temple. 
 
 imprisoned. » r. i t t-< • 
 
 Alter these events. La r ayette, ever true to consti- 
 tutional liberty, seeing that it could no longer be maintained, attempt- 
 ed, with four of his friends, to escape to America ; but they were made 
 1792. prisoners by the Austrians, and contrary to the laws 
 
 La-Faycttc made of nations, Confined for four years in the dreary 
 
 prisoner. dungCOUS of OlmutZ. 
 
 France was now divided into violent parties, whose animosity was 
 daily increasing. Besides the Royalists, there were the Constitution- 
 alists, and the Jacobins ; and the latter were again 
 i^artic. and factions, (divided into the Girondists, (led by Brissot and Pe- 
 tion,) now most powerful, and the bloody Mountain faction, whose lead- 
 ers, Danton, Robespierre, and Marat, are so well known in the histo- 
 ry of crime. 
 
 The Prussians, who had advanced upon the frontier, now invaded 
 
 the kingdom, and made themselves masters of Longwy and Verdun. 
 
 The commune of Paris, when informed of the cap- 
 
 1792. ture of Verdun, gave orders for the general massa- 
 
 Massacre ofthe roy- ^j.g ^f t^e royalists. About three hundred murder. 
 
 ers were employed in the horrid service, and three 
 
 days were devoted to the inhuman butchery. The assembly and 
 
 the ministry, attempted in vain to arrest the massacre : the soldiers 
 
 -who guarded the prisons were unable to afford their unhappy prison. 
 
 *29 
 
338 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VII. 
 
 ers relief. The regal power was declared to be abolished, and a re- 
 public established. Meanwhile the contests in the assembly between 
 the factions of the Gironde and the Mountain, became more violent : 
 the former reprobated the massacre of the royalists, and attempted to 
 bring the perpetrators to justice ; the latter, many of whom had au- 
 thorised the deed, now justified it : the former wished to save the life 
 of the unhappy Louis, the latter were bent upon his destruction, and 
 that of all parties and persons who were opposed to their own violent 
 measures. Louis was tried, condemned, and on 
 Louis brought to the ^]^g twcnty-first of January, the axe of the guillotine 
 
 GrnillntinA 1»-l ^ r» I'll 
 
 severed his head from his body. 
 
 guillotine. 
 
 Section IH. 
 
 The execution of the king, while it rendered the parties in France 
 irreconcileable, called down upon the nation the vengeance of Eu- 
 rope, and in the event produced those long and sanguinary wars 
 "Coalition" of Eno-- which convulsed the continent. England recalled 
 land, Spain, and her ambassador, and declared war. Holland and 
 Holland, against Spain also joined the " Coalition," and the new Re- 
 
 Fiance. public was threatened in every direction. 
 
 Before the trial of Louis, Dumourier had been placed at the head 
 
 of the French armies, and sent against the Prussians. At Valney, 
 
 he obtained some advantages, and the Prussians retreated. The 
 
 French next recovered Verdun and Longwy, and finally achieved 
 
 the conquest of Belgium. Dumourier now invaded 
 
 1793. Holland, took Breda and Gertruydenberg, but was 
 French take Breda, j-ecalled to the Command in Belgium, where the 
 Austrians had obtained some advantage. He hazarded a general 
 engagement at Neer-Winden, but was defeated. 
 
 Meanwhile a formidable insurrection had taken place in La Ven- 
 dee. This and other events increased the rigour of 
 ^'"""vendee"' ^"^ ^^^ convention, and the hatred of the parties. The 
 Girondists were overthrown, and the Mountain fac- 
 tion obtained supreme authority. The once gay, 
 Mountain faction su- ^^^^ g^m beautiful queen, after having suffered for 
 preme. ^^^^ necessaries of life in the gloomy prison of the 
 
 The queen executed. Conciergei'ie, was condemned and executed.* The 
 leaders of the Girondists were also put to death. 
 The fall of this more moderate party, was the commencement of 
 the " reign of terrour." Danton, Robespierre, and Marat, in the 
 name of the republic, now exercised with arbitrary 
 
 1794. despotism, cruelties the most barbarous. Licen- 
 The reign of terrour. tiousness and profligacy walked forth unveiled : 
 Even the forms of religion were destroyed : The Sabbath was abol- 
 ished, and one day in ten set apart, not for religion, but for idleness 
 
 * The traveller in Paris is shown a little gloomy apartment, where she was confin- 
 ed, and is told, that here the daughter of iMaria Theresa, was glad to get a little water 
 that she might wash her stockings. 
 
CHAP. IV.J FRENCH REVOLUTION. 339 
 
 and licentiousness. The goddess of reason, personified by a naked 
 prostitute, was drawn in triumph through the streets of Paris ; and 
 the municipal officers of the city, and the members of the national 
 convention of France, joined publicly in the impious parade. 
 
 Of the three despots, Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, 
 
 a young girl, self-devoted to the good of her coun- 
 
 Fate of Marat, Dan- ^ Danton was Condemned through the instru- 
 
 ton.and Robespierre. "^ , i-. e T) u ■ T^u- 4. • r 
 
 mentality 01 Kobespierre. ihis atrocious man, tor 
 a time, maintained the sway alone ; but at last, deserted by his asso- 
 ciates, he was condemned by the convention, and the guillotine, which 
 had during his reign of nearly two years, shed the innocent blood of 
 thousands, for once let fall the stroke of justice, and delivered the earth 
 from a ferocious monster. 
 
 The nation during this period, had maintained the foreign war. In 
 Netherlands, the armies of the republic achieved many conquests. 
 In Germany also, the French reduced Juliers and Cologne. 
 
 After the fall of Robespierre and his associates, the constitution was 
 remodelled. The executive government was now 
 
 The directory. entrusted to a directory, consisting of five persons. 
 The legislative body was formed of two councils, that of the " an- 
 cients," and that of five hundred. All laws were to originate with 
 the latter, but not to pass without the sanction of the former. 
 
 Some of the provisions of the new constitution offended the Paris- 
 ians, who rose in arms. Barras, one of the directors, brought for- 
 ward and placed at the head of the troops to quell the insurrection, a 
 young Corsican officer, who had distinguished him- 
 
 1795. self at the siege of Toulon. This was Napoleon 
 Napoleon^ Bona- BoNAPARTE, the hero ofthe French revolution, and 
 
 ' the future conqueror of Europe. 
 
 At the commencement of the campaign of 1795, the kingof Prus- 
 sia had withdrawn from the coalition, and made peace with France. 
 The king of Spain, and the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, shortly after 
 imitated his example. Austria and England were now tlie only 
 powers ofthe first rank engaged in the war. 
 
 Bonaparte, now raised through the influence of Barras to the rank 
 
 of general, was this year entrusted by the directors, who meditated 
 
 the reduction of Austria, with the command ofthe 
 
 1796. army of Italy. Moreau had the command of the 
 French send three Q^j-jY^y ofthe Sombre and Meuse, which was to press 
 
 armies against Aus- r j ^\ ,. c 4.- r/^ i 
 
 j°ia torward on the eastern trontier 01 txermany ; and 
 
 Jourdan commanded that of the Rhine. A junc- 
 tion of their forces was designed to take place in the centre of the 
 Austrian dominions. 
 
 Moreau and Jourdan crossed the Rhine, and for a time success at- 
 tended their arms. The Austrian generals were unable to withstand 
 them, and all Germany was filled with consternation. The imperial 
 forces at length united under the arch-duke Charles, 
 Jourdan defeated. against Jourdan, and defeated him. By this event, 
 
 Moreau retreats. -.), ^ j r • • _ 4. 
 
 Moreau was prevented Irom receiving any support 
 in that quarter, and therefore compelled to retire. His safe retreat, 
 
d4U MODERN HISTORY, [PERIOD VII. 
 
 made under the most embarrassing and dangerous circumstances, is 
 considered a great military exploit. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 Bonaparte, meanwhile, advanced into Italy, passing round the 
 southern extremity of the Alps, and keeping near 
 
 miTprS^ssintrii". ^^'^ ^^^''''^^ °^ the Mediteranean. At Monte Notte, 
 ''aiy. he encountered, on the fourth of April, the Austro- 
 
 Sardinian army, and here obtained his first victory. 
 On the fifteenth, he again defeated his enemy at Millesimo, and on the 
 eighteenth at Mondovi. Thus, in less than a month, he had gained 
 three battles, destroyed 25,000 of the enemy's forces, and made him- 
 self master of the mountain passes, and of the road to Italy- 
 Bonaparte now pressed forward into Italy, accomplished tiie pas- 
 sage of the Po, and on the 11th of May, 1796, at- 
 1 ' 9o' tacking with desperate bravery the Austriaas, at 
 
 Battle of Lodi. ti^g |jj.-jgg ^f LqJi^ ]^^ fQj,^,gj ^],gjj. general. Beau- 
 
 lieu, to retreat upon Mantua. Milan submitted to his arms. 
 
 Those powers of Italy, heretofore neutral or interested in the Aus- 
 trian cause, nov^ sought the friendship of the conqueror. 
 
 The dukes of Parma and Modena, the grand duke of Tuscany, and 
 Bonapnrte sends to ^^®" ^'^^ P°P®' ^^'^^^ Compelled to purchase his fa- 
 Paris Italian works vour, not only with money and provisions for the ar- 
 of art. my, but with their boasted works of art, which were 
 
 transported to Paris, to adorn the capital of the new republic. Man- 
 tua was now the only place of strength which remained to the Austri- 
 ans, in Italy, and to this Bonaparte laid siege. A 
 M:inttia besieged. reinforcement of 80,000 Austrians was despatched 
 into Italy, under the command of Wurmser. The French general, 
 learning that the divisions of this army had unwisely been so far ex- 
 tended as to prevent easy communications with each other, at once 
 left Mantua, and advancing unexpectedly, defeated 
 Anstnatis siifler ^^^ division at Londto, and another at Castiglione. 
 Wurmser, on learning the fate of these divisions, 
 advanced with his main force, when victory again declared for the 
 French. These three defeats had destroyed nearly half the Austrian 
 army. Bonaparte now resumed the siege of Mantua, which had in 
 the mean time received supplies of men and provisions. Wurmser, who 
 had retreated to the Tyrol, having now been reinforced by 20,000 men, 
 again moved towards Mantua, leaving Davidowich, one of his gene- 
 rals, with a strong army to guard the Tyrol. Bonaparte waited on- 
 ly until the advance of Wurmser had entirely sepa- 
 .\stonishing success j-ated him from Davidowich, when leaving a small 
 01 cipai e. force to continue the siege of Mantua, he proceeded 
 rapidly towards Roveredo, attacked the forces under Davidov/ich, 
 and again defeated the Austrians. Wurmser's army were at the dis- 
 tance of twenty leagues. With astonishing celerity, he reached the 
 advanced guard on the second day, and immediately attacked and de- 
 
 ■i 
 
CHAP. IV.J FRENCH REVOLUTION. 341 
 
 feated them ; and the next day he obtained a decided victory over 
 Wurmser himself, at Bassano. The Austrian general, as a last ef- 
 fort, now succeeded in throwing himself with the remnant of his army, 
 reduced to 16,000 men, into Mantua. Another Austrian army, un- 
 der Alvinzi, was sent into Italy to relieve that city. Bonaparte met 
 and fought them for three days, at Areola, when victory again de- 
 clared for the French general. This closed the wonderful cam- 
 paign of 1796. Of this campaign, the minister of 
 Report of tlie ^^^ reported thus to the directory, " Italy has been 
 
 French immster of . , ^ , , i • x- i 
 
 „.ar. entu'ely conquered — three large armies entirely 
 
 destroyed — fifty stands of colours have been taken 
 — forty thousand Austrians have laid down their arms : — all has 
 been accomplished by an army of thirty thousand Frenchmen, com- 
 manded by a general scarce twenty-six years old." — About this 
 time, Corsica was, by means of Bonaparte, reunited to France. 
 
 The Austrians, still determined to dispute the sovereignty of Italy, 
 
 reinforced the army of Alvinzi. In his first encounter of this year, 
 
 Bonaparte failed of his usual success, though he 
 
 Battle of Rivoli claimed the victory- But on the fourteenth of 
 
 and sunenaer or ■, . ■, . i ,.-, ^ n- ^■ ^ 
 
 Mantua. January, m a desperate battle at Kivoli, he was 
 
 again victorious, and soon after, Mantua surren- 
 dered to the French. 
 Bonaparte, having now achieved the entire conquest of Italy, ad- 
 vanced towards the hereditary dominions ofAustria. A sixth Austrian 
 army was assembled under the arch-duke Charles, 
 Bonaparte invades ^^ .j ^,^g frontier of the empire. Bonaparte 
 
 crossed the Alps, compelled the arch-duke to re- 
 treat, and subjected him to severe and repeated losses. He took 
 the capital of Upper Styria, the principal towns of Lower, and 
 pressed forward on the road to Vienna, whither the arch-duke re- 
 treated. The capital was in alarm, and the hum- 
 1797. big(j court now consented to negotiations,* Pre- 
 
 Peace oi Campo liminaries were signed at Leoben, whicli after some 
 modification, terminated in the treaty of Campo 
 Formio. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 The peace between France and Austria, was concluded at the 
 expense of Venice. Austria was to bo indemnified for the renuncia- 
 tion of some of her possessions, by part of the Venetian territory ; 
 and an insurrection in Venice, with the murder of some of the 
 French soldiery, during the absence of Bonaparte, afforded a pre- 
 text for the French to declare war against that republic. The con- 
 stitution of Venice was changed, and a popular government estab- 
 lished. The Austrians took possession of some of the provinces, 
 
 * One of the conditions, made by Bonaparte, was the release of La Fayette. 
 
342 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VII. 
 
 and the French, tlie remainder, witli the capital. Other changes in 
 the ancient government of Italy were made. The 
 ""''^?n'i!er''"'' Cisalpine Republic was formed of the duchy of Mi- 
 lan and several of the Italian states. The consti- 
 tution of Genoa also was changed, and it received the name of the 
 Ligurian republic. An insun-ection took place in Rome, of which 
 the French troops taking advantage, occupied the 
 1798. city, subverted the papal government, and estab- 
 
 lished a republic. French influence also produced a revolution in 
 Switzerland. Many of the cantons opposed a change in the consti- 
 tution, but the French arms, after several battles, triumphed, and the 
 " Helvetian republic " was established. Geneva was united to 
 France. 
 
 While these events had been transpiring on land, the English had 
 
 maintained their superiority at sea, and in succes- 
 
 Bniisli succPEsful gj^^ engagements, defeated the French and their 
 
 at sea. ... ° ° ' 
 
 allies. 
 The directory of France now completely victorious on the conti- 
 nent, but disturiied by factions and disorders at home, and perhaps 
 unwilling to retain in Paris a general, who, like Bonaparte, possessed 
 almost unlimited power over the troops, and of whose ambition there 
 could be no doubt, now planned a new and singular enterprise, the 
 conquest of Egypt. The preparations were made under pretence of 
 an expedition against England, and the design concealed. The 
 command of the expedition was given to Bonaparte, 
 1798. -yvho embarked at Toulon for Alexandria. On his 
 
 Bonaparte eiiibaiks passage through the Mediterranean, he achieved 
 "^^"^ ■ the conquest of Malta, and though pursued by the 
 
 British fleet, arrived in safety at the place of his destination. He 
 ascended the Nile, fought with the Mamelukes under Murad-Bey, 
 and near Cairo, in sight of those monuments of an- 
 "''"''' "Ld^ ^^'^' tiquity, gained the famous battle of the Pyramids. 
 This victory over a cavalry considered invincible, 
 spread the terrour of the French arms, not only through Egypt, but 
 through the Mahometan dominions. Cairo surrendered, and the 
 remnant of the Mamelukes who escaped, fled into Spain, 
 
 While the French were thus successful on land, the British were 
 equally so on the sea. Nelson, who commanded the British fleet, 
 1798. followed the French to the bay of Aboukir, near 
 
 Nnvnl b-ittleof the mouth of the Nile, where their vessels were 
 Aboukir. moored, and after a bloody battle, entirely defeated^ 
 
 and almost destroyed their fleet. This victory rendered the Eng- 
 lish masters of the Mediteranean, and placed the French army in a 
 most perilous situation. 
 
 Learning that the Turks, who had now declared war against 
 France, had already assembled two armies, and were advancing to 
 the defence of Egypt, Bonaparte traversed the desert which sepa- 
 rates Asia from Africa, and entering Palestine, defeated another body 
 
CHAP. IV.] FRENCH UEVOLUTIOX. 343 
 
 of Mamelukes, and took Gaza and Jaffa. Bent 
 Bonaparte takes ^ ^^^ conquest of Syria, he invested Acre, but 
 
 Gaza and Jafla, and r _ _ i j ' , <-,• 
 
 is compelled to retiie receiving a repulse from the bnghsh under Sir 
 
 from Acre. Sidney Smith, was compelled to raise the siege. 
 
 He now relinquished Syria, and retired into Egypt. 
 
 His general, Desaix, had continued his successes against the 
 
 Mamelukes, and the whole country of Egypt seemed reduced by 
 
 the French. A Tiarkish army was landed at 
 
 1799. Aboukir, Napoleon immediately advanced against 
 
 Bonaparte defeats u .^^j jigain obtained a decisive victory. Soon 
 
 tliB Turks at . . . . 
 
 Aboukir. after this, intelligence from Europe induced him to 
 
 abandon his Eg^^ptian expedition. Leaving his 
 
 Bonajwrte returns to army under the cotnmand of Kleber, he returned 
 
 Prance. ^.^ France with secrecy and despatch, and landed 
 
 at Frejus. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 While Bonaparte was engaged in Egypt, a reverse of fortune had 
 taken place in the French affairs in Europe. A 
 1799. new combination had been formed against France.- 
 
 ^h'st*" Frinc" ^^^^sia, England, Naples and the Ottoman Porte, 
 aoai" 1 n t. ^^^^ formed alliances, and Austria joined the coa- 
 lition. 
 The war on the continent was now renewed. The arch-duke 
 Charles had won two battles over the French general, Jourdan, and 
 penetrated Switzerland. The Russians and Aus- 
 ''Tauics''in%tai"''' triaiis. Under Suwarrow, had defeated the French 
 at Cassano, and made themselves masters of Milan 
 and Turin. In short, repeated defeats had deprived the French of 
 nearly all their conquests in Italy. 
 
 In other quarters, their arms were more successful. Under 
 Massena, they defeated a Russian army in Switzerland, and took 
 Zurich. A combined English and Russian army, under the duke 
 of York, which had invaded Holland, was, after some partial suc- 
 cesses, compelled to retreat. 
 
 Section VII. 
 
 Meanwhile France was torn by factions, and the directorial^con- 
 
 stitution was found unfitted to the government of 
 
 1799. the nation. Bonaparte, a few weeks after his arn- 
 
 ^""consS ^"'" ^'^^ ^'^ ^''^^''^' Pi'*^c"i'^^ the dissolution of the direc- 
 torial government, and established one in which the 
 executive was vested in three consuls, of whom himself was first. 
 Placed now at the head of the French nation, he made earnest over. 
 tures of peace to England, but they were haughtily rejected. Rus- 
 sia, however, abandoned the coalition, and stood aloof from the war. 
 
344 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VII. 
 
 The enemies which France had to encounter, on the continent, were 
 Austria, part of the German empire, and Naples. 
 
 Moreau liad the command in Upper Germany, and Bonaparte, in 
 
 Italy. At the head of an army of thirty thou- 
 
 1800. sand men, he crossed Mount St. Bernard, through 
 
 Bonaparte crosses passes heretofore deemed inaccessible, surprised 
 
 Mt St. Bernard. fi . ■ i i i r» 
 
 the Austnans, conquered the country to the ro, 
 and restored the Cisalpine republic. Melas, the Austrian general, 
 had, at the commencement of this campaign, left what he deemed a 
 sufficient force to guard the passes of the Alps, and with his main 
 army, advanced upon Genoa, which the French general, Massena, 
 had prepared to defend. The object of Melas was the invasion of 
 France, and having placed Genoa in a situation which secured its 
 ultimate surrender, he left the blockade to one of his generals, and 
 himself advanced against Suchet, another French general, whom he 
 compelled to retreat toward the Fi'ench frontier. When on the eve 
 of invading France, he received the astonishing intelligence of the 
 passage of Bonaparte's army over Mont St. Bernard. — Melas was 
 forced to turn back, and on the plains of Marengo, 
 1800. i\^Q hostile armies met. The shock was terrific; the 
 
 Baltic of Marengo. ^^^^.^^ ^^^^ ^j^^j^ encounter left the French mas- 
 ters of the field. This battle restored to France 
 almost all she had lost in the preceding campaign, 
 Armistice. and was followed by an armistice, which extended 
 
 to the armies on the Rhine. 
 Moreau meanwhile had crossed the Rhine, penetrated Bavaria, 
 gained the battle of Hohenlinden, where he took 10,000 prison- 
 ei's, and entered Austria. Negotiations for peace 
 Battle of Hohcnlin- ^,gj.g j^Qyy opened at Luncville. The several re- 
 neviile. publics founded by the French were acknowledged ; 
 
 and the Rhine was made the boundary between 
 France and the German empire. A treaty of peace 
 was sooi> after made with Naples. The naval war 
 English take Malta. j-jg^^j meanwhile been carried on, and Malta had 
 surrendered to the English. 
 In the north of Europe, affairs wore a new aspect. Paul I., now 
 czar of Russia, won over by the policy of Bonaparte, evinced a hos- 
 tile spirit towards the English, and laid an embargo 
 ^"'"of EuroT"'' °" ^^^^^^ shipping. He also engaged Denmark and 
 Sweden in an armed neutrality, the object of which 
 was to secure the peace of Europe. The Eng- 
 Enghsh auack jjgj-j despatched a fleet to the Baltic, took possession 
 open lagen. ^^ ^^^ Danish fleet, and attacked Copenhagen, thus 
 obliging the Danes to sue for peace. 
 The death of Paul produced another change in the politics of 
 northern Europe. His son, Alexander I., who ascended the throne 
 of the czars, entered into a convention with Eng- 
 Aicvander I. land, which restored peace between those powers. 
 
CHAP. IV.] FRENCH REVOLUTION. 345 
 
 Peace was now also concluded, March 2.5tli, 1802, 
 
 1802. between France and the Porte. The English and 
 Peace of Amiens. Turkish forces had defeated the French army in 
 Egypt, and compelled them to evacuate the country, which was 
 restored to the Turks. 
 
 The short time in which France remained at peace, was employed 
 by the ambitious Bonaparte in consolidating his power, and laying 
 the foundation of his future greatness. He sought the favour of 
 every powerful class. He re-established the Roman catholic reli- 
 gion, revived the priesthood, re-organized the national institute, per- 
 mitted the emigrants to return, and pleased the officers of the army, 
 already devotedly attached to his person, by crea- 
 
 1803. ting the "Legion of Honour," a military aristoc- 
 Eonaparte dcclare.l ^acy, of which himself was chief. Such was his 
 
 fust consul for lile. i •, ^i ^ i i i i , i r- 
 
 popularity that he was declared by the senate first 
 consul for life. 
 The island of St. Domingo had revolted during the French rev- 
 olution, the negroes had risen upon their masters, and commotions 
 and massacres succeeded. During the wars which followed, the 
 English had invaded the island. The French colonists and negroes 
 accommodated their differences, turned their forces against the com- 
 mon enemy, and expelled the English. Although still tributary to 
 France, they had adopted a new government, and Toussaint Lou- 
 verture, who, though a negro, possessed distinguished talents and 
 virtues, now held the first station on the island. The French at- 
 tacked the islanders, Toussaint was treacherously made prisoner, 
 and taken to Paris, where Bonaparte disgracefully permitted the sable 
 patriot to suffer and die in prison. The islanders resisted the French 
 successfully, and maintained their liberty. 
 
 A year had not elapsed since the peace of Amiens, before disputes 
 
 arose respecting the fulfiment of the treaty, and on 
 
 1803. this pretence war was renewed between France and 
 
 War between England. The French seized the electorate of 
 
 France and En<T- '^ n • • i ^ i i i i i i 
 
 i,.,„ci_ " Hanover, and a British squadron blockaded the 
 mouths of the Elbe and Weser. 
 It was at this period that Bonaparte stained his name by the mur- 
 der of the Duke D'Enghien. This young nobleman had been accu- 
 sed of favouring those who conspired against the life of the first con- 
 sul. He was instantly arrested, and, after the form 
 D'Enghein shot. ^^ ^ military trial, condemned and shot near the 
 castle of Vincennes. The obsequious senate now offered to Bona- 
 parte the title of Emperor, and he prepared for the coronation of him- 
 self, and his consort, the charitable and elegant Josephine. 
 
 30 
 
346 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VII. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ENGLAND— UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 About the year 1784, a dispute arose between Great Britain and 
 
 the United States of America. The Americans. 
 
 1784. being neutral in the war, had supplied the French 
 
 Dispute between ^yj^i^ ^^^.^^^ Orders were issued by the British 
 
 Great Britain and .. ,. .. jj^-- ii 
 
 America. muiistry, searchmg, seizing, and detaining all 
 
 American vessels engaged in that trade. The 
 British also continued to occupy a chain of forts on the Canada 
 frontier, which by the treaty of Paris, they had agreed to surrender 
 to the Americans. They also encouraged the Indian tribes, upon 
 their borders, to acts of savage warfare, and the forts thus retained 
 served as covers for their depredations. These acts were viewed 
 by the Americans as manifestations of a hostile spirit on the part of 
 Great Britain, and they resisted it, by laying an embargo for thirty 
 days upon all English shipping in their ports. But the matters in 
 dispute were wisely submitted to negotiation. Mr. Jay, the Amer- 
 ican minister, was received in England in a conciliatory spirit, and 
 the treaty of 1794, settling the question in dispute, was the result. 
 
 A French fleet, consisting of twenty-five ships of the line, and 
 sixteen frigates, had put to sea, under admiral Villant, for the pur- 
 pose of protecting their richly laden West India fleet. The French 
 admiral was watched by Lord Howe, having a British fleet of about 
 the same force under his command. On the first 
 
 F*"rlclwS En<^lilh ^^ •^""^' *^'^ *^° ^^'^^^ ^^™° *° ^^^^°" ^^ ^'^*^ ^^^" 
 
 off Brest.' ^our of Brest. After a well fought battle, the Brit- 
 
 ish admiral succeeded in capturing six ships of the 
 line. The loss was extremely severe on both sides. 
 
 The affairs of Great Britain became more and more embarrass, 
 ing. In proportion as the French arms were tri- 
 1795. umphant over the allied powers, the war became 
 
 unpopular. British commerce and manufactures languished, money 
 became scarce, and the bank of England suspended the payment of 
 its bills. Spain had withdrawn from the coalition, and united with 
 France, and the people being seriously alarmed by threats of inva- 
 sion, were clamorous for peace. But, the early part of 1797 was 
 signalized by a brilliant naval victory obtained by the British fleet, 
 under Sir John Jarvis, of fifteen sail, over that of 
 1797. Spain, consisting of twenty-seven sail of the line, 
 
 ^''i"'*!,rca iTi off Cape St. Vincent, on the coast of Portugal. In 
 ^^ Vincent^ this battle, the British admiral exhibited prodigies 
 
 of valour, and the brave Nelson here commenced 
 his career of victories. 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. — UNITED STATES. 347 
 
 Ireland this year became united with England under the name of 
 the " United kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." 
 1797. An armament of English and Russians, under Sir 
 
 ^'"landtniled^'"' -^^'P^ Abercrombie, invaded Holland. The Dutch 
 fleet, of eight sail of the line, lying in the Texel, sur- 
 rendered to the English. Afterwards the didie of York landed in 
 Holland, and took command of the combined English and Russian 
 armies, consisting of thirty-five thousand men. This armament 
 wholly failed of supporting the high expectations it had raised. Af- 
 ter many fruitless efforts against the French general, Bruice, they 
 were compelled to evacuate Holland with great loss. The different 
 nations, grown weary of the protracted horrours of 
 1802. war, began seriously to think of peace. Negocia- 
 
 Peace of Amiens. tions. Commenced, which resulted in the peace of 
 Amiens, 1802. 
 The generous public spirit which carried the Americans through 
 the war of independence began to relax Without foreign inter- 
 course, without a bond of union, and without a na- 
 1786. tional character or government, they found them- 
 
 American affairs. gglves on the Verge of anarchy and civil war. The 
 distressing scarcity of money left no means to pay the debts which 
 individuals had contracted in time of war. Acts for paying debts 
 otherwise than in money, and other measures of impolitic legislation, 
 did but increase the evils. A suspension of legal process for debt 
 was demanded, and an insurrectionary spirit manifested itself in Mas- 
 sachusetts, and in some other states. 
 
 In the mean time attempts were made to establish a friendly inter- 
 course with foreign nations by sending am.bassadors to the principal 
 courts ; the insurrection in Massachusetts, (which was headed by 
 one Shays) and other turbulent movements were quelled, and a con- 
 vention of the states assembled at Philadelphia for the purpose of 
 forming a constitution. The great and good Washington lent his 
 influence to this convention, and was appointed its 
 1789. president. The result of their labours was the ex- 
 
 Federal Constitu. ^^^■ fg(jgj.j^| constitution. Under this constitution, 
 
 tion. — Washington .,,. ° . . . /. i 
 
 president. Washmgton was inaugurated first president of the 
 
 United States, and John Adams vice president. 
 Thomas Jefferson was appointed secretary of state, and filled the of- 
 fice with great ability. The revenue was committed to Alexander 
 Hamilton, and the wise system, by him established, has not been es- 
 sentially departed from. Washington and Adams 
 i/yo. were the second time elected president and vice- 
 
 Wasbington^^again president. Political parties began to assume a char- 
 acter of great bitterness. The terms federal and 
 republican became party names. Distinguished men arrayed them- 
 selves at the head of each ; and English and French politics, the first 
 adopted by the federal, the last by the republican party, gave zeal 
 and energy to their contests. The paternal mind of Washington was 
 grieved at such disgraceful quarrels ; and he maintained a neutral 
 position. 
 
348 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VII. 
 
 Upon the recommendation of the secretary of the treasury, con- 
 gress had laid a duty on domestic distilled spirits. This measure was 
 violently resisted in Pennsylvania, and several coun- 
 1794. tigg i-esorted to that undignified proceeding called 
 
 "^rection""^"' ^^^ "vvhiskey insurrection." A strong military 
 force under Governor Mifflin, was sent into the dis- 
 affected counties, which promptly suppressed the insurrectionary spir- 
 it of the people. 
 
 A hostile spirit existed among the western savages, and Gen. Har- 
 mer, at the head of 1400 men, was sent against 
 Indian war. them. Having suffered himself to be drawn into an 
 
 ambush, he was defeated, and his army slaughtered by the Indians, 
 near Chilicothe. Gen. Wayne was sent to succeed him. He defeat- 
 ed the savages in many sanguinary conflicts, and restored peace on 
 that frontier. 
 
 The United States now rose rapidly in power and prosperity, and 
 their friendship was sought by foreign nations. Great commercial 
 benefits were secured by the treaty with the powers of Great Britain, 
 Spain and Algiers, and the blessings of peace, liberty, and indepen- 
 dence, were freely enjoyed. Seeing the labours and anxieties of his 
 life so happily rewarded, Washington now looked forward to the en- 
 joyment of that peaceful retirement in the bosom of his family which 
 he so ardently coveted. With the affection of a father, and the fore- 
 sight of a statesman, he published his inimitable 
 
 1797. farewell address, and declined a re-election. John 
 '^°''" "^dem' ^'''''' Adams was elected president and Thomas Jefferson 
 
 vice-president. 
 The rulers of the French republic, having treated the American 
 ambassadors with indignity, and the vessels of war and privateers of 
 that country having made extensive depredations 
 
 1798. upon American commerce, measures of war were 
 War with France, resorted to. A regular army was organized, and 
 Washington was again called from his chosen retreat, and appointed 
 commander-in-chief. The aged veteran obeyed the call of his coun- 
 try, and again lent his genius for its defence. Reprisals were made at 
 sea, and the French frigate L'lnsurgent, of 40 guns, was captured by 
 the frigate Constellation of 38 guns. A change of measures, how- 
 
 ever, on the part of France, led to a negociation 
 
 1799. which resulted in a treaty of peace. This event 
 Peace. ^^^ hailed with great satisfaction by the people. 
 
 But the tone of public rejoicing was soon interrupted by deep feelings 
 of national grief. It was announced that Washington, the father of 
 
 his country, was no more. He died on the 14th of 
 
 1799. December, at his own peaceful mansion on the banks 
 
 Death of^Washing. ^f ^j^g Potomac. Of him it may be truly said, that 
 
 his name was a shield, and his example a treasure 
 
 to his country. 
 
CHAP, v.] ENGLAND. — UNITED STATES. 349 
 
 The republican party, of whom-Mr. Jefferson had long been con- 
 sidered the head, now obtained the ascendency, and that gentleman 
 was elected and inaugurated president of the United 
 1801. States. The high popularity which brought him 
 
 Thomas Jefferson Jj^^q office was generally Well sustained by his meas- 
 president. ^^^^^ During a period of unusual commotion among 
 
 the powers with whom the United States had the most intimate rela- 
 tions, he administered the government in the determmed spirit of 
 peace, and prosperity rapidly increased. The Indians were kept m 
 amity, not by the bayonet, but by kindness and a faithful observance 
 of treaties; and the port of New Orleans, the great emporium of the 
 West, which had been closed against the United 
 }^^^' . States, was opened by the purchase of the whole 
 
 Louisiana purcha- . ' ^ r . . 
 
 sed. territory of Louisiana. 
 
 30* 
 
PERIOD VIII. 
 
 COMPRISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRED FROM THE 
 
 Of j SEVENTH EPOCHA, 1802 A. D. I 
 
 Battle of 'Waterloo. 
 
 Battle of j EIGHTH EPOCHA, 1815 A. D. ^Waterloo. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Napoleon, witli Josephine, was vested with the imperial dignity on the 
 second of December, 1804. The pope, reconciled 
 1804. by the establishment of the catholic religion, as- 
 
 •^ emperT""^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ splendid Ceremonial, crowned and an- 
 ointed him, in the church of Notre Dame, at Paris. 
 Those states which, by the directory, had been moulded into repub- 
 lies, were now, by the emperor, to be remodelled. The Cisalpine and 
 Ligurian republics were formed into the kingdom of Italy, of which 
 Napoleon was crowned king at Milan. He exercised his government 
 by a viceroy. 
 
CHAP. l] FRENCH EMPIRE. 351 
 
 Alarmed at a power so formidable, and an ambition so grasping, 
 Russia and Austria formed a third coalition. Spain 
 
 Third coalition j^g^j already allied herself to France, and had enga- 
 
 agains ranee. ged in hostilities with England. 
 
 Napoleon, as usual, before hand with his enemies, crossed the 
 Rhine at the head of a formidable force, compelled a large army of 
 the Austrians at Ulm, to capitulate, and advanced rapidly upon Vien- 
 na. The emperor Francis, with his court, fled to Hungary, and the 
 French became masters of the German capital. At Austerlitz, on the 
 anniversary of his coronation, he met the united 
 
 1805. Austrian and Russian armies. The forces of the 
 Battle of Ausierhtz- contending powers were nearly equal, and the pre- 
 sence of the three emperors of France, Russia, and Germany, lent en- 
 ergy to the contest. From sunrise until evening, the battle was hotly 
 waged, when the genius of Napoleon again prevailed, and the allies 
 were compelled to retreat, leaving to the French more than thirty 
 thousand prisoners, and an immense quantity of artillery. The suc- 
 cesses of Ulm and Austerlitz were followed by the 
 
 Treaty of treaty of Presbourg with Austria ; that power now 
 
 °" deserting the coalition. 
 
 In 1806, the ambitious views of Napoleon became still more appa- 
 rent. Holland had, the preceding year, been made into a kingdom, 
 of which his brother, Louis Bonaparte, was made 
 
 1806. king. Naples was given to Joseph Bonaparte, a 
 Napoleon makes younger brother, who was also invested with the title 
 &c. kin^domsr' ^^ king of the two Sicilies. Several provinces were 
 
 constituted into duchies, or grand fiefs of the em- 
 pire, and given to the emperor's relations and favourites. His sister, 
 Pauline, was made princes of Guastalla ; his brother-in-law Murat, 
 grand-duke of Berg and Cleves; while Eugene Beauharnois, the son of 
 his empress Josephine, by a former marriage, was sent viceroy to 
 
 Italy. Fourteen princes in the south and west of 
 Confederation of the Germany, were formed into the " Confederation of 
 
 the Rhine." Tiiey were separated from the Ger- 
 manic body, and recognized Napoleon as their head, under the title of 
 Protector. The German empire now ceased to exist, and Francis II. 
 laid down the title of emperor of Germany, and assumed that of em- 
 peror of Austria. Switzerland was also brought under the domination 
 of France ; Napoleon declaring himself its mediator. 
 
 Frederic William of Prussia, who had heretofore been neutral, this 
 
 year engaged in tlie war against France. The 
 I'nissia^at^war with ^^j,j ^^j.jg-j^ ^^ j-^jg hostility was the duplicity of the 
 
 emperor, who had encouraged the Prussians to seize 
 the electorate of Hanover, and who had since, in negotiating with 
 Great Britain, offered to restore it. The Prussian army, with their 
 
 allies, amounted to 110,000 men. Napoleon met 
 
 Battle of Jena. ^^em at Jena, with 150,000 men, and obtained a 
 
 complete victory. The different bodies of the Prussian army were, 
 
 one after another, obliged to surrender, and in little more than a 
 
 mouth, the French took 140,000 prisoners, great numbers of stand- 
 
352 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIII. 
 
 ards, large quantities of artillery, and made themselves masters of the 
 principal towns of the kingdom. 
 
 From Berlin, the capital, on the twenty-sixth of December, 1806, 
 Napoleon issued his famous decree, declaring the 
 "Berlin Decree." islands of Great Britain in a state of blockade, and 
 prohibiting the countries under his government from all intercourse 
 with that nation. He next detached Saxony from Prussia ; conferred 
 upon the elector the dignity of a king, and brought 
 Saxony made a j^j^^ |j-j).q j^jg alliance. The Prussian provinces on the 
 i"d "™- lower Rhine were reduced by an army from Hol- 
 
 land, under Louis Bonaparte, and the French, under Jerome Bonaparte, 
 made themselves masters of Silesia. 
 
 Russia became now seriously alarmed, and her armies advanced to 
 protect the empire. At Pultusk, a battle was fought between the 
 French and Russians, without any decisive result, both parties claim- 
 ing the victory. February 8th, 1807, another con- 
 1807. test took place at Eylau, and continued from three 
 
 Battle of Eyiau. o'clock in the aftemoon until the next night, when, 
 about twelve o'clock, the carnage ceased. Both sides again claimed 
 the victory, but the French obtained possession of the town. The ar- 
 mies now, for some time, remained inactive. In May, the French 
 besieged and took Dantzic. 
 
 The June following, another more sanguinary and decisive battle 
 was fought at Friedland, where the Russians were 
 Battle of Fiiedlanti. defeated, and compelled to retreat with great loss. 
 Koningsburg was soon after captured by the French under iMarshal 
 Soult. The battle of Friedland was followed by a personal interview 
 between Alexander and Napoleon, who met on a 
 Peace of Tilsit. raft, in the river Niemen, and the peace of Til- 
 sit was concluded. 
 Napoleon next dictated a peace to Prussia, by which Frederic 
 William was stripped of one third of his dominions. By these trea- 
 ties, the brothers of Napoleon were acknowledged in their dignities, 
 and another of the family, Jerome Bonaparte, provi- 
 ^'"Sf""' °^ ded with a kingdom in Westphalia. This young 
 
 man had visited America. In Baltimore, he gave 
 his hand to the young and beautiful Miss Patterson, and took her to 
 France. Napoleon, whose untameable ambition, no tie, human or 
 divine, could bind, disannulled the marriage, and Jerome ceased to 
 be the protector of his wife, and became, thenceforth, the minion of 
 his brother. 
 
 Lucien Bonaparte was also offered some of " the kingdoms of this 
 world," if he would do the same homage to the demon of ambition ; 
 but he refused to worship with such a shameless sacrifice ; and if he 
 was never a king, he remained what is better, an upright, independ- 
 ent man. 
 
CHAP. I.l FRENCH EMPIRE. 353 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Denmark, which had heretofore been neutral, now manifested some 
 symptoms of hostihty towards England. Measures were immediate- 
 ly taken by the English government for controlling 
 The English take ^^^. ^^ rj., demanded of the Danes to de- 
 
 |.)Ossessiiin of the . , •'. , . n ^ t • t-i • • i 
 
 Danish fleet. posit theu' ships 01 tlie Ime m some iJritisli port. 
 
 The haughty demand was refused. A British 
 fleet was despatched to the Baltic, conveying land forces, which 
 defeated a Danish army, and invested Copenhagen. The city capitu- 
 lated, and the shipping and naval stores were deliv- 
 ^"^r'ltf*'" ^^6*J "P ^° the English. The government refused 
 
 to ratify the capitulation, and declared war against 
 England. 
 This attack upon Denmark produced a rupture between Russia and 
 and England, which caused a cessation of all commercial intercourse 
 between those nations, but did not result in otiier hostilities. 
 
 Napoleon being delivered from fear ofthe northern powers, by the 
 
 peace of Tilsit, turned his attention towards Spain and Portugal, and 
 
 meditated the project of uniting to his already vast 
 
 Designs of Napole- empire, the whole Spanish peninsula. The dissen- 
 
 on upon tlie Spanish . ' . . , . '■ r~ii i t\t i • c a ■ 
 
 peninsula. sions existmg between Charles IV., king oi opain, 
 
 and his son Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, aflbrded 
 him uncommon facilities for interference, which he did not fail to im- 
 prove. After considerable intrigue, a secret treaty was concluded 
 between the monarchs of France and Spain, the condition of which 
 was the partition of Portugal between them, and the admittance of 
 French troops into Spain, under the pretence of conquering Portugal 
 and Gibraltar. A reconciliation was effected between Charles and 
 his son, and the French troops were admitted to pass as friends into 
 Portugal. 
 
 The lucrative commerce which England maintained witli that king, 
 dom, was, to Napoleon, a source of annoyance, and by his influence, 
 the Portuguese were compelled to shut their ports 
 ^'To'rtI.'°ar''" against all British vessels. The French army, 
 " " headed by Junot, advanced towards Lisbon. Un- 
 
 der these circumstances, the prince regent and royal family of 
 Braganza, resolved to remove the seat of government to Brazil, and 
 hastily embarked in a British fleet, which had block- 
 Royal family aded the city, and which now afforded tliem protec- 
 remove to Brazil. ^j^^.^ ^^.^^^ ^^^ French, who soon after entered 
 
 Lisbon. 
 While the French were making themselves masters of Spain, un- 
 der the character of friends, the court of Madrid was agitated by the 
 most violent factions, arising from the discords of the royal family ; 
 and the city was the scene of frequent tumults. In March, 1808, 
 Charles IV. abdicated the crown in favour of his son Ferdinand, 
 
354 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIII. 
 
 prince of Asturias, who received the title of Ferdinand VII. Mu- 
 rat, with a French army, was now in possession of 
 1808. Madrid. Under these circumstances, both kings, 
 
 French ^"^op^^°"" Charles and Ferdinand, with the royal family, were 
 induced by various pretexts to go to Bayonne, thus 
 completely putting themselves into the power of the French empe- 
 ror. Here the}^ vvere compelled to abdicate, and the younger mem- 
 bers of the family to renounce all claim upon the 
 Ferdinand compel- Spanish crown. Napolcon retained them prisoners, 
 led to abdiciite. g^^^j jgg^gj orders for an assembly of notables to 
 meet at Bayonne, to settle the government. Few Spaniards, except 
 the partisans of France, attended. The crown of Spain was con- 
 Joseph Bonaparte ferred upon Joseph Bonaparte, who resigned the 
 king of Spain. kingdom of Naples to Murat. 
 During this year, a new system of French jurisprudence was pub- 
 lished, under the title of the " Code Napoleon." The 
 The Code Napoleon ablest jurists in France had been employed by the 
 emperor in its formation, and he gave much personal thought and la- 
 bour to it, and it now remains as his best title to future fame. Soon 
 after the publication of this code, Napoleon established a university 
 for the superintendance of national education. Nor was female ed- 
 ucation overlooked by his grasping mind, though in his arrangements 
 he was far from regarding this subject in its true light. The insti- 
 tution which he founded, and placed under the celebrated Madame 
 Campan, was designed rather as a means of encouraging the mili- 
 tary than of elevating the female mind and character. It was made 
 for the daughters of the " Legion of Honor," especially those whose 
 fathers fell in his service. 
 
 From this point, the pinnacle of Napoleon's greatness, we see him 
 who only eighteen years before was a Corsican striphng, making ora- 
 tions in favour of liberty and the rights of man, now maker of kings 
 and arbiter of Europe. Look over the map of that portion of the 
 earth which had for so many centuries sent forth its navigators to 
 discover, its inhabitants to settle, and its arts to civilize the most dis- 
 tant and barbarous regions. Behold it subjugated by the magic ge- 
 nius of one giant mind. An island on the west, the land of our fath- 
 ers, alone withstood ; and neither directly or indirectly, quailed be- 
 fore the power of him whom impartial history must, though sorrow- 
 fully, pronounce at this period to have become an usurper and a 
 tyrant.* 
 
 Let us turn for a moment from the colossal Napoleon, who bestrode 
 
 the continent of Europe, to La Fayette, whom our 
 
 l.a Fayette. history has for a time lost sight of, though posterity 
 
 never will. He inhabited for four years the gloomy dungeons of 
 
 Olmutz. The Emperor of Austria, appealed to by Washington in 
 
 behalf of the American people, and by other friends of justice and 
 
 *Nota usurper with regard to France, — for if that country chose to invest him with 
 supreme command, Americans hold that he was therefore their legitimate sovereign ; 
 but what had unoffending Switzerland done, what Spain and Portugal, and other states, 
 that he should assume to govern them ? 
 
CHAP. 1.] FRENCH EMPtRE. 355 
 
 humanity, offered him his hberty if he would abjure his principles. 
 No less the votary of truth than the friend of hutnan rights, La Fay- 
 ette would not tamper with a lie to save himself, or even his dearer 
 family, who had, with the generous devotion of truly noble Frenchwo- 
 men,* immured themselves with him. He did right, and left the event to 
 God ; and was, in September, 1797, and by the instrumentality of 
 Bonaparte,f delivered from prison. Being reinstated in a portion of 
 his paternal inheritance, he retired to La Grange, and quietly gave 
 himself to agricultural pursuhs. Napoleon sought to draw him 
 thence, and make him another sattellite in his system ; but the patriot, 
 though grateful for his release, rejected every public situation, by 
 .which he would have countenanced the military despotism to which 
 his country was subjected. In the result, let the young behold how 
 much safer, as well as nobler, is the course of independent virtue than 
 that of lawless ambition. 
 
 Section IIL 
 
 The Spaniards did not tamely relinquish their national indepen- 
 dence, but roused to arms ; — though not less than 100,000 French 
 troops were dispersed thi'oughout the kingdom, and though the Span- 
 iards were enervated by that luxury which the gold and silver of the 
 west had brought in its train. Provincial assemblies were lormed, 
 acknowledging the authority of Ferdinand VIL, 
 1811. and orders were issued for raising volunteers, and 
 
 The Simniards rouse organizing armies. The French fleet in the har- 
 bour of Cadiz, was compelled by its patriotic citizens 
 to surrender; anda French army, near Alnianza, was almost wholly 
 destroyed. They attacked Valencia, and there learned that the 
 Spanish people, though destitute of regular troops, would defend their 
 soil. The French were compelled to retreat, and at Saragossa were 
 again repulsed with the loss of 12,000 men. In Andalusia, the 
 French general, Dupont, was defeated, and compelled to surrender 
 his army. These victories placed the southern 
 French evacuate parts of the kingdom entirely in the hands of the 
 
 Madrid — Ferdinand ' ^ . ^ ,,. ° , •' , ., . i • nr i ■ j 
 
 assumes the "ov- patriots. Kuig Joseph meanwhue arrived m Madrid, 
 ernment. and assumcd the reins of government ; but learning 
 
 the successes of the Spaniards, he retreated from 
 
 the capital. 
 George III., of England, being in a state of mental incapacity, his 
 son, afterwards George IV., now acted as regent of that kingdom. 
 The successful resistance of the Spaniards to the arms of Napoleon, 
 gave new hopes to his enemies ; and a treaty of alliance was now 
 made between the regent of Great Britain and the patriots of Spain. 
 
 * The heroic Madame La Fayette sent lierson to \^ ..shinglon, from wliom he received 
 a father's protection, went with her two daughters to Aaslria, threw herself al the feet of 
 the emperor, and besought him in pathetic terms lo release her husbaml. Butlhe only 
 favour she could obtain, was that of sharing v itii her dauglilers, his rijorous captivity 
 
 1 His release was made a condition in the treaty of Campo-Formio. 
 
356 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIII. 
 
 The Portuguese followed the example of their neighbours, and 
 
 rose in arms against the French. The British dispatclied an army 
 
 under Sir Arthur Wellesley, (afterwards Lord Wellington,) which 
 
 landed in Portugal Oct. 12th, 1808, and obtained a 
 
 1808. victory over the French under general Junot, at 
 Portuguese and Vimeira, and compelled them to evacuate Portugal. 
 
 Englisli defeat the rn, t-> • • i i- ■ ■ i • 
 
 French at Vimeira. ■'■ he Untish army, alter remaining two months in 
 Lisbon, advanced into Spain, under the command of 
 Sir John Moore. 
 Napoleon, unused to retrograde movements, now took upon him- 
 self the command of the Spanish war. Victory still followed his 
 standard. He defeated several patriotic armies, 
 
 1809. af-,(j advanced upon Madrid, which, after a weak 
 Napoleon in Spain, defence, surrendered. 
 
 The English army, under Sir John Moore, which had proceeded 
 as far as Salamanca, was forced to retreat. After a march of four- 
 teen days they reached Corunna, but were unable to embark before 
 the arrival of the French. The English were at- 
 1809. tacked, and Sir John was mortally wounded. His 
 
 Battle of Corunna army, though with considerable loss, effected their 
 
 — death of Sir John , •' , . ° , . „ , . . , , , 
 
 Moore. embarkation, his oincers having previously snatched 
 
 a few sorrowful moments to bury him upon the 
 shore. 
 While, in the south of Europe, the French and Spaniards were thus 
 engaged, in the north, Russia and Denmark were at war with Swe- 
 den. Tlie English aided the Swedes, but fortune 
 Affairs of the north, ^^^^g against them. Finland was added to the Rus- 
 sian empire. Gustavus IV. was deposed by the Swedes, on pretence 
 of his incapacity for governing, and the Duke of Sudermania elected 
 king, under the title of Charles XIIL British vessels were now ex- 
 cluded from the Swedish ports. 
 
 While Napoleon was busy in Spain, where he imprisoned the royal 
 
 family and abolished the inquisition, Austria prepared for war, and 
 
 levied great armies. The Tyrolese rebelled, the 
 
 Central Europe Westphalians expelled their kinar, Jerome Bona- 
 
 nses against Na- ' i -n • i t. i i -i 
 
 poleon. parte ; and Prussia and Italy were ready to avail 
 
 themselves of the first adverse circumstances to 
 burst the chains by which the despot of Europe had bound them. 
 
 Napoleon returned to France soon after the battle of Corunna, and 
 gave orders for h:s armies to cross the Rhine. At Orenberg he sur- 
 prized and destroyed a division of the Austrian army, under the arch- 
 duke Charles ; the battle continued from two in the afternoon until 
 evening, when darkness alone saved the Austrians from an entire 
 defeat. Napoleon now advanced upon Vienna, 
 1809. from which the emperor Francis was again com- 
 
 Napoleon enters Vi- jj^^^j ^^ f^^^^ rpj^^ French, after entering the cap- 
 ital, proceeded down the southern bank of the Dan- 
 ube, the arch-duke Charles having collected his scattered army, 
 and taken a position on the northern bank, between Presburg and 
 Vienna. At Aspern and Esliijg, where the French attempted to 
 
CHAP. I.] FRENCH EMPIRE. 357 
 
 cross the river, a bloody battle was fought. The French were driv- 
 en back, and compelled to recross to Lobau, an island in the river, 
 from which Napoleon had thrown bridges for conveying his army to 
 the opposite bank. After remaining several weeks shut up on this 
 island, Napoleon, deceiving the Austrians with regard to the con- 
 templated point of attack, ordered a bridge thrown over the river, 
 opposite to a wing of the Austrian army, which was stationed at Wa- 
 gram. One night sufficed for the completion of his plan, and the fol- 
 lowing morning, the surprised Austrians beheld the French army, 
 who had secretly crossed the river, drawn up in battle array. The 
 contest, which commenced at sunrise, continued 
 Battle of Wagram. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ rj.j^g French obtained the victory, 
 
 though it was less decisive than those which Napoleon's arms were 
 wont to achieve. The Austrians retreated into Moravia ; an armis- 
 
 tice was concluded, and at length the treaty of 
 Peace of Vienna. Vienna was signed by Francis and Napoleon. Its 
 terms were less unfavourable to Austria than might have been ex- 
 pected from the almost ruined condition of the empire. The cause 
 of this was not long a secret. The fair Maria Louisa, eldest daugh- 
 ter of the emperor of Austria, was thrown into the balance, to be 
 
 given in marriage to Napoleon. Accordingly, after 
 
 1810. hig return to France, he divorced Josephine, thus 
 
 Napoleon divorces violating the laws of God, and severing from his 
 
 rferCa Louisa.'' side, and breaking the heart of the best of his 
 
 friends, while he took in her place the daughter of 
 
 his ancient enemy. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 The British, meantime, had invaded Holland with a considerable 
 fleet, bearing an army of 40,000 men, under the duke of York, and 
 made themselves masters of Flushing. A French army, under Ber- 
 nadotte, was sent to the defence of Antwerp. Many of the British 
 who had taken possession of the island of Walche- 
 1809. j-en, with a view of blocking up the Scheldt, fell vic- 
 
 Duke of Yorks' tims to the pestilential atmosphere of the marshes 
 ^"'^ laTd!" ° which surrounded them, and the remainder return- 
 ed ; the enterprise having entirely failed of its ob- 
 ject. 
 The peninsular war had been prosecuted by the generals of Napo- 
 leon, while he had been occupied with the Aus- 
 French take Sara- trians. Saragossa, after a vigorous and deter- 
 ^"*'''^' mined resistance, in which 20,000 of its defenders 
 
 perished, fell before the French, under Soult ; and a succession of 
 disasters attended the efforts of the patriots in various parts of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 The army, under Marshal Soult, entered Portugal, but was forced 
 to retreat by Sir Arthur Wellesley. Efforts more united, the re- 
 sult of a better understanding, were now made by the English and 
 31 
 
358 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIII. 
 
 Portuguese. Under the command of Wellesley, their armies en- 
 tered Spain, and at Talavera, achieved a victory 
 Joseph defeated at ^ygj. ^jjg French, Commanded by king Joseph in 
 person. A reinforcement of French, under Mar- 
 shals Soult and Ney, arriving in this part of Spain, Wellesley was 
 compelled to retreat into Portugal. Genoa, besieged and bravely 
 defended for more than four months, capitulated to the French. 
 At Ocana, the French, under the command of king Joseph, obtained 
 a complete victory over the Spaniards, and at the termination of 
 this campaign, the cause of the unfortunate patriots seemed almost 
 desperate. 
 
 The ensuing winter the French made themselves masters of Mala- 
 ga, and completed a line of posts from the bay of Biscay to the Med- 
 iterranean, intersecting the whole of Spain, through its capital. 
 Seville was taken, and the siege of Cadiz com- 
 1810. menced. A sanguinary contest was maintained in 
 
 French take ^|-jg southern and eastern parts of the kingdom, but 
 the most interesting events occurred on th ^ side of 
 Portugal. The strong fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo was carried by 
 the French, Portugal was invaded, and Almeida taken. The de- 
 fence of Portugal devolved upon Sir Arthur Wellesley. This pru- 
 dent general now determined to harrass his enemy, and avoid gen- 
 eral actions. At the pass of Buraco, Massena, the French com- 
 mander attacked him, but was repulsed with considerable loss. He 
 retreated to within about thirty miles of Lisbon, and Massena made 
 Santarem his head quarters. 
 
 This year, the Cortes of Spain assembled, and declared the renun- 
 ciation at Bayonne to be null and void, and swore 
 Sareft.r°Pe!dilan?' ^"egiance to Ferdinand VII. They also appointed 
 a regency of three of their most popular officers, 
 and vested in them the executive power. 
 Early in January, marshal Suchet, on the part of the French, took 
 Tortosa, and marshal Soult, Olivenza. The whole of the preceding 
 year, marshal Victor had been engaged in the siege of Cadiz, yet 
 the place seemed now no nearer being reduced. Massena retreated 
 from Santarem, and was closely pursued by Wel- 
 1811. lington. At Albuera a sanguinary battle was 
 
 ^the"F;^"ch aT" ^°"Sht, which terminated in victory to the allies. 
 Albuera. Wellington now commenced the siege of Badajos, 
 
 but on the advance of the French, who were again 
 reinforced, he raised the siege and retired. In Catalonia, Suchet 
 still maintained the war with vigour. He besieged Tarragona, which 
 surrendered, and experienced every species of shocking outrage. 
 Having made himself master of Catalonia, he invaded Valencia, de. 
 feated the Spanish general, Blake, and took the fortress of Mur- 
 viedro. 
 
CHAP. I.] FRENCH EMPIRE. 369 
 
 Section V. 
 
 While his generals were thus carrying on the war in Spain, the 
 emperor of France was engaged in projects for the exclusion of Brit- 
 ish commerce from the continent, and in preparations for contesting 
 with them the supremacy on the sea. The city of Hamburg was 
 annexed to the French empire. 
 
 Austria was this year employed in recruiting her finances, and 
 recovering herself from the depression into which her unfortunate wars 
 with France had plunged her. The marriage of Napoleon with 
 Maria Louisa, seemed to give to Francis a prospect of permanent 
 friendship with France, but Austria was rendered subservient to the 
 French interests. — Prussia was at the same time dependent on 
 France. 
 
 Russia was this year engaged in successful war with the Ottoman 
 Porte. Alexander had as yet maintained his friendly relations with 
 Napoleon, whom he had been careful not to offend, but he was yet 
 capable of withstanding his power ; and the only continental sove- 
 reign who was. Some causes of difference had now, however, arisen 
 between them, and appearances were ominous of approaching war. 
 
 Denmark, afraid of the power of Bonaparte, still kept up the show 
 of hostility towards England. — The same was the case with Sweden. 
 Marshall Bernadotte, an officer of the conqueror, who had been by 
 his influence elected Crown Prince by the Swedes, took a large share 
 in the administration of Sweden, and governed himself by the wishes 
 of the nation, rather than those of his former master. Such was the 
 situation of Europe at the opening of the year 1812. 
 
 The French arms in Spain, this year experienced a reverse. Lord 
 Wellington, who commanded the allies, took Ba- 
 1812. dajos, reduced the fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, ob- 
 
 French unsuccessful tajjjed a decisive victory at Salamanca, and soon 
 pain. ^j.^^^ entered Madrid, which Joseph Bonaparte, on 
 
 his approach, had evacuated. 
 Alexander of Russia had, in March, issued a formal declaration of 
 war against France, having previously made peace with the Porte, 
 and settled his disputes with England. Napoleon, 
 Russia declares war after vast preparations, began early in the spring 
 agams ranee. ^^ niarcli numorous bodies of his troops into the in- 
 terior of Germany, and in May he set out from Paris, accompanied 
 by the empress, Maria Louisa. After receiving the flattering hom- 
 age of the various German monarchs, whose dominions he visited, he 
 
360 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIII. 
 
 met the emperor, Francis II., at Dresden, and being assured of the 
 alliance of Austria and Prussia, proceeded north- 
 1812. ward to take the command of his army. He crossed 
 
 Napoleon invades ^j^e Vistula With 500,000 men. In his progress to- 
 wards Wilna, the capital of Russian Poland, he expe- 
 rienced little resistance ; but his armies, which had been directed to 
 open a passage to St. Petersburg, were foiled in their attempts. 
 The Russians, under count Witgenstein, defeated a French army 
 under Marshal Oudinot, at Polotsk, and General Essen, who com- 
 manded at Riga, checked the advance of the French under 
 McDonald. 
 
 Napoleon, on the 17th of August, atacked the main Russian army 
 at Smolensk. The Russians, after a valiant contest, retired, but the 
 French, on entering the city, found it in flarpes. The Russian army 
 now retreated to a position near Moscow, where general KutusofF was 
 called to the command. The French came up with the Russians at 
 Borodino, where a desperate battle was fought, 
 Battle of Borodino. September 7th, 1812. The contest, which contin- 
 ued with great fury through the whole day, left the French masters 
 of the bloody field, on which lay 50,000 of their own dead. The 
 Russians acknowledged a loss of 25,000. Kutusoff, unable to with- 
 stand the invaders, ordered Moscow to be abandoned, and retired 
 with his army, to protect the provinces beyond it. On the 14th 
 of September, the French entered Moscow, but 
 French enter Mos. f^^^j -^ deserted by its inhabitants, and on fire 
 
 cow — Kussians burn . , •' ^ni i rr- 
 
 the city. in many places. 1 hey made every eiiort to 
 
 extinguish the flames, but the Russians persisted 
 in setting fires in new directions, determined rather to destroy their 
 country, than allow it to harbour the invaders. Napoleon speaks 
 thus of the horrour of the scene — " It was the spectacle of a sea 
 and billows of fire, a sky and clouds of flame ; mountains of red 
 rolling flames, like immense waves of the sea, alternately bursting 
 forth and elevating themselves to skies of fii'e, and then sinking 
 into the ocean of flame below." The destruction of the city pre- 
 cluding the possibility of making it his winter quarters, and the as- 
 semblages of Russian troops around Moscow, induced the French 
 emperor to offer terms of peace. The reply was, that no terms 
 could be listened to, while the enemy remained in their country. 
 
 No alternative but retreat was now left, and hu- 
 Napoleon evacuates filiating as was the measure. Napoleon embraced 
 
 it. He divided his forces, and directing Murat and 
 Beauharnois, with a detachment of 50,000 men, to attack the grand 
 Russian army, while he led the remainder on the route to Minsk. 
 Murat and Beauharnois met with a severe repulse, and the whole 
 French army continued its retreat under the most distressing cir- 
 
 cumstances. The cold which now came on with 
 Retreat from Russia, unug^al severity, destroyed immense numbers, and 
 unfitted the survivors for vigorous exertions, while the hardy Rus- 
 sians pursued close upon their heels, and slaughtered them at every 
 
CHAP. I.] PREJfCH EMPIRE. 361 
 
 turn. At the passage of the Berezina, Napoleon, supposing that his 
 whole army had crossed, ordered the bridge to be blown up. But 
 a portion of the French were still on the other side, and as they were 
 rushing towards it, driven by the fire of their pursuers, they heard a 
 crash, and the bridge blew up. Uttering a shriek of despair, num. 
 bers plunged into the stream, and sunk amidst floating ice^ while the 
 remainder were slaughtered by the Russians. When the army 
 reached Wilna, Napoleon gave the chief command to Murat, and him- 
 self hastened to bear to France the tale of his misfortunes. 
 
 Thus was destroyed the most formidable army which any general 
 of modern, and probably of ancient times, had ever brought into the 
 field. Out of the 500,000 men, not more than 50,000 (one in ten,) 
 survived to re-cross the Russian frontier. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 The disasters of this campaign extended farther than to the loss of 
 the French army. The allies, whose friendship was founded in ne- 
 cessity, and the nations whose submission to France had been obtain- 
 ed at tiie point of the bayonet, now showed their readiness to eman- 
 cipate themselves from its yoke. Prussia gave the signal of defec- 
 tion, and early this year leagued with Russia and 
 
 New coalition England. Sweden, already in the interest of Rus- 
 
 against Napoleon. . ° . . , ,, iv 
 
 sia, soon joined the coalition. 
 
 On the return of Napoleon, to Paris, his genius appeared invested 
 
 with new splendour, and the hold he possessed upon the affections of 
 
 the French, seemed strengthened by misfortune. Though all France 
 
 was thrown into mourning, by the unfortunate issue 
 
 1813. of the Russian campaign, the nation responded to 
 
 Napoleon raises an- ^j^^ p^jj ^f ^j^g empcror, and new levies, to the 
 
 otlier vast army. r- „-.r> r>r.rt j i 
 
 amount of 350,000 men, were made early m 
 the spring of 1813. The wreck of the grand army with which Na- 
 poleon had entered Russia, had been placed in the fortress occupied 
 by the French in Prussia. The Russians advanced, and the inhabit- 
 ants of the countries through which they passed, every where joined 
 them. The French were compelled to reti'eat, and several of their 
 fortresses surrendered to the allies. Alexander and Frederic now 
 made their head quarters at Dresden. Napoleon advanced at the 
 head of his new recruits. At Lutzen, the French met the army of 
 tlie allies, and after a bloody conflict, remained 
 Napoleon victorious Piasters of the field. Unable to maintain them- 
 ^' Belutzen^'"^ Selves On the Elbe, the main army of the allies re- 
 treated to Beautzen, about twelve leagues from 
 Dresden. Here another battle was fought, with great loss on both 
 sides. The French again conquered, but the allies retired in good 
 order. An armistice of two months took place, during which, Aus- 
 tria joined the aUies; bringing them a considerable increase of military 
 strength. At the renewal of hostilities, in August, Napoleon had, in 
 various posts in Saxony and Silesia, 250,000 men. The allies at- 
 
 31* 
 
362 MODERN HISTORY. [pERIOD VIII. 
 
 tacked Dresden during the absence of Napoleon in Silesia, but his 
 rapid return defeated their plans. He saved the city, and killed 
 and made prisoners 25,000 of their troops. At Culm, the allies ob- 
 tained a victory over the French general, Vandamme. The Prussian 
 general, Blucher, was victorious at Katzback, and in other quarters 
 the allies gained advantages over the generals of Napoleon. Napo- 
 leon now concentrated his forces, and marched to Leipzic. On the 
 15th of October, the grand army of the allies advanced. The fol- 
 lowing day, the battle of Leipzic — the greatest bat- 
 Battle of Leipzic. ^j^ ^^^ record— commenced, and continued three 
 days. Napoleon, watching its progress, saw the princes of the 
 " Confederation of the Rhine," pass over to his enemies. This was 
 a fatal stroke. He lost the battle, and his fortunes were irretrievably 
 fallen. Again besought his capital, followed by the remnant of a 
 noble army, and arrived at Paris on the 9th of November. 
 
 The Spanish campaign had been equally disastrous. The French 
 generals, not reinforced, could only maintain a de- 
 Spanish campaiga f^^^gj^g warfare. At Vittoria, the English and pa- 
 
 disastrous. . 
 
 triots, under Wellington, obtained a decisive victo- 
 ry ; and henceforth, all efforts to check their progress were una- 
 vailing. 
 
 After the retreat of Napoleon from Germany, the garrisons, which 
 had been left there, were forced, one by one, to surrender. The al- 
 lied sovereigns now advanced upon the Rhine, and with the opening 
 of the next campaign, France was on all sides 
 1814. threatened with invasion. Wellington had enter- 
 
 F.ance invested. ^j ^^^^^ j^g southern frontier, and the Russians and 
 Austrians were ready to advfince on the side of the Rhine.* 
 
 Holland, without tumult or bloodshed, emancipated herself from the 
 French yoke, and reconstructed her ancient government. Murat, 
 the king of Naples, ungratefully abandoned Napoleon, now in the time 
 of his utmost need. 
 
 The French nation was weary and worn out with war ; and all 
 efforts to rouse the national spirit and recruit the army, proved inef- 
 fectual. The allies entered France ; and Napoleon, after making 
 the most of his inadequate means of defence, found himself surrounded 
 by difficulties which no genius or skill could sur- 
 1814. mount. On the 30lh of March, 1814, the allies ad- 
 
 AUies enter Pans. yanccd upon PaHs. The empress Maria Louisa, 
 and all the civil authorities, left the city, and a French army, which 
 had taken a position on the heights near Paris, was dfjfeated. The 
 following day, the metropolis was delivered up to the allied sove- 
 reigns. They declared their resolution of not treating with Napoleon, 
 and a provisional government was established, which passed a decree 
 absul/ing the French nation and army from their allegiance to the 
 emperor. 
 
 * Napoleon, at this period, liberated Ferdinand, king of Spain, whom he had detain- 
 ed in captivity more than four years, and the pope, whom he had kept a prisoner at 
 FoQtainbleau, more than five years. 
 
CHAP. I.] FRENCH EMPIRE. 363 
 
 In the south, Wellington had entered Bordeaux, and erected the 
 
 standard of the Bourbons ; and the Austrians had 
 
 Wellington advar.. ^.^^^ themselves masters of Lyons. Napoleon, 
 
 ces Irom bpani. i. i i i i • •■ ' , 
 
 who had been engaged in attempts to obstruct the 
 progress of the two grand armies, and to prevent their union, was ad- 
 vancing towards Paris, at the head of 50,000 men, when he learned 
 its capitulation. Finding himself too late to prevent its surrender, he 
 stationed himself at Fontainbleau, and there learned the general de- 
 fection, and the decree of forfeiture ; and on the 
 1814. 11th of April, 1814,signed an act of abdication, re- 
 
 '^''^itcTrown'''''' nouncing for himself and family the thrones of 
 France and Italy. In exchange, he received from 
 the allies the sovereignty of the small island of Elba, in the Mediter- 
 ranean. Here he was to retain the imperial title, and receive an in- 
 come from France for his support. 
 
 Section VII. 
 
 A new constitution, dictated by the allied sovereigns, was formed 
 by the French senate ; the Bourbon family were recalled, and Louis 
 XVIII.* declared king. France was reduced to the limits it had occu- 
 pied at the commencement of tlie revolution. 
 
 Louis, who had remained an exile in England, arrived in Paris in 
 June. After so manv years of war, peace could 
 Louis XVlll. enters ^^^ ^^^^ ^6 grateful to the French nation ; still their 
 "^ ' pride was humbled at the loss of the imperial con- 
 quests, and in receiving their monarch from the hands of foreigners. 
 The year had not expired, before discontents and murmurs were 
 heard from various parts of the nation. Intrigues and conspiracies 
 were carried on, and assumed an alarming character. A congress 
 of the allied sovereigns, which had assembled at Vienna, to adjust and 
 settle the concerns of Europe, had not yet adjourned, when, ten months 
 from his departure for Elba, Napoleon again trod 
 ^^friTEibr"^ the soil of France. With his imperial guard of 
 Elba, numbering about 1,000 men, he escaped from 
 the island, landed at Cannes, near Frejus, and at once advanced to- 
 wards Paris. The troops stationed in his course, were in vain ex- 
 horted by the officers of the king to oppose his progress. The sight 
 of their general awakened pleasing remembrances of past, and dreams 
 of future glory, and they hailed him with joyful acclamations. At 
 Grenoble, they seemed, for a moment, hesitating. Napoleon advan- 
 ced alone, and offered his breast, — " Let him who will, kill his empe- 
 ror." Overcome by the appeal, they threw down their arms, and 
 rushed to embrace him. The troops of Lyons, notwithstanding the 
 entreaties and remonstrances of the brother and nephew of the king, 
 followed their example. 
 
 * Louis XVIIL, poor unfortunate boy, never had other kingdom thanlhe prison in 
 which he died, liaving survived his parents about two years. Louis XVIL was the 
 oldest brother of Louis XVL 
 
364 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIlI. 
 
 Louis, meanwhile, had made the best dispositions in his power to 
 arrest the progress of his rival. But he knew not whom to trust. 
 Ney promised to bring Napoleon in a cage, and Louis gave him the 
 command of the army stationed at Melun, to oppose his entrance into 
 the capital. This army was drawn up, expecting that which Napo- 
 leon had collected on his way. A galloping of horses was heard, and 
 Napoleon himself, with a few attendants, arrived, at full speed, in an 
 open carriage. He leaped from his vehicle, and threw himself into 
 their arms. Their hearts melted ; and thus (the proudest of his vie- 
 tories) Napoleon won the last army which Louis could bring into the 
 field. 
 
 On the loth of March, Louis again went into exile, and established 
 
 his little court at Ostend, while Napoleon, in Paris, 
 
 1815. ^ag seeking amidst complicated difficulties, to regu- 
 
 Louis leaves Paris, late the government. When the news of his de- 
 
 Wspolcon enters. . 
 
 barkation from Elba was made known to the sove- 
 reigns at Vienna, they burst into a laugh ; but they 
 soon found occasion for more serious proceedings.* Scornfully re- 
 jecting the proffers of Napoleon for reconciliation, they issued their 
 maifesto, declaring that he had forfeited the only le- 
 
 Allied sovereigns j ^j^jg ^^ jjp^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ disturber of the 
 
 proceed affainst ° , ,. .,,. i • i i i ^ ■ -i i 
 
 Napoleon. public tranquillity, and without the pale of civil and 
 
 social relations. Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 
 and Prussia, re-assembled large armies. The whole fortified frontier 
 of the Bclgic provinces on the side of France, was occupied by strong 
 garrisons, chiefly of troops in British pay, of which the duke of Wel- 
 lington took the supreme command. The Russian army under prince 
 Blucher, advanced to co-operate with him. The allies had in arms, 
 in their various positions, upwards of a million of troops, to make war, 
 as they declared, upon one man ! 
 
 The efforts of Napoleon were unremitting and gigantic, and he as- 
 sembled a force which, tliough vastly inferior to that of the allies, was 
 yet formidable. On the 16th of June, the French obtained, at Ligny, 
 a victory over the Prussians, and compelled them to retreat. On the 
 18th, was fought the ever memorable battle of 
 1815. Waterloo. The Prussians were commanded by 
 
 Baltic of Waterloo. Blucher ; the English by Wellington ; and the French 
 were, for the last time, under the eye of Napoleon. The battle was 
 long and obstinately contested. It ended in the complete triumph of 
 the allies, and the sun of Napoleon now set forever. He returned to 
 Paris, and there found that he had no longer the confidence of the na- 
 tion. Some proposed that he should dissolve the legislative cham- 
 bers, and assume the dictatorship. La Fayette, then a member of 
 the body, came boldly forward, and made and carried a motion that 
 all attempts to dissolve the assembly of the representatives of the 
 people, at that perilous crisis, should be considered high treason. 
 
 * Perhaps they recalled the advice of Philip of France to John of England, when 
 Richard Cceur de Lion had escaped from the German prison, "Beware ! the devil is un- 
 chained." 
 
CHAP. II.] FRENCH E3IPIRE. 365 
 
 France had shed blood enough for the ambition of one man ; against 
 
 the force in arms, it was vain for the nation to at- 
 
 Napoleon again ab- ^gj^pt resistance. Napoleon yielded to the crisis, 
 
 dicates Ins ci'o\vn. i i t ^ i i • • f r i • rnu 
 
 and abdicated his crown in favour oi his son. 1 he 
 
 assembly received his abdication, but made no pledge in regard to his 
 
 son. Napoleon took a sorrowful farewell of his army, then went to 
 
 Rochfort, designing to embark for America. The harbour was 
 
 blockaded by a British squadron. He went on board one of the ships, 
 
 and surrendered himself to the commander, claiming, as he was self 
 
 delivered, the hospitality of the British nation. 
 
 1821. They sent him to St. Helena, a rock in the ocean. 
 
 Napoleon dies at where he died. May 5, 1821 ; and now, in a little 
 
 St. Helena. i ^. • -n i iU 
 
 grass-grown nook, two weeping willows mark the 
 grave of Napoleon. But the everlasting mountains tower above, and 
 the perpetual sea is at the base ; and the passing mariner regards 
 them as emblems of his genius, and his fame. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND AMERICA, FROM THE PEACE OF 
 AMIENS, 1802, TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON, 1815. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 The terms of the treaty of Amiens, formed in 1802, were hard up- 
 on England. She had been compelled to surrender all her conquests, 
 except Trinidad, in the West Indies, and Ceylon, in the East. Sorae 
 public rejoicings were held in London, but the people generally were 
 by no means satisfied. And when it was seen that Bonaparte not 
 only maintained his military ornaments ; but made new attempts to 
 aggrandize France, Great Britain recalled her 
 
 1803. minister from his court, and declared war. This 
 Great Britain measure enkindled the indignation of Napoleon, and 
 
 declare^^waganist ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ preparations for the invasion and con. 
 quest of the British islands. The English spirit rose 
 with the crisis. Other occupation was found for Napoleon, and he 
 was deterred from the project of invasion, and obliged to march into 
 Germany, Jo combat a new coalition that " British gold and hatred," 
 to use his own words, had caused against him. 
 
 The English continued the war in the East Indies, and acquired 
 large territories from the native princes. They 
 
 1804. were triumphant over the French by sea, and cap- 
 Frcncli fleet tured their East India homeward fleet. Spain, well 
 
 captured. known to have been long in the interests of France, 
 
 and subservient to the views of Napoleon, was employed in increasing 
 and strengthening her naval armaments. This increased the jealousy 
 
366 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIII. 
 
 and displeasure of England, and war was declared against that pow- 
 er. The French fleet, under aumiral Villeneuve, formed a junction 
 with that of Spain. The combined fleet, numbering 
 1805. 32 sail of the line, was attacked near Cape Trafal- 
 
 Battie ofTTratdgar. g^^. ^^ ^^^ g^.j^j^,^ ^^^^^ Consisting of 27 Sail, under 
 
 lord Nelson, and a tremendous action ensued. A most signal victory, 
 which destroyed nearly tiie whole fleet, was achieved by British skill 
 and valour ; but it was dearly bought. The gallant Nelson fell, and 
 with him neai'ly two thousand of his brave comrades. 
 
 William Pitt, the energy of whose character had so long sustained 
 
 the nation, the beginning of this year sunk under the weight of care ; 
 
 and his rival, Mr. Fox, appointed his successor, died 
 
 1800. ^\g0 before its close. In the meantime, the Cape of 
 
 ^'^^^''^ Pux''" "'"' Good Hope, and Buenos Ayres had been conquered 
 
 by the British. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon, having by a series of unparalleled victories 
 reduced the continent of Europe to submission, attempted, in 1807, to 
 compel the people, by what he called his " continental system," to 
 prohibit British commerce. To retaliate upon France, the English 
 ministry had issued orders blockading the large portion of the west- 
 em coasts of Europe extending from the mouth of the Elbe to Brest. 
 These and other measures of France and England nearly annihila- 
 ted the commerce of the American republic. Mr. 
 1809. Jefterson, then president, caused an embargo to 
 
 American embargo, j^g j^^j^^ ^^^ ^^^ American shipping ; but proving ex- 
 tremely unpopular, it was repealed, and a non-intercourse with the 
 two offending nations substituted. Great Britain made open preten- 
 sions to the supremacy of the ocean, assumed the right to search 
 neutral vessels, and to take from them not only such articles as the 
 officers of their ships judged contraband, but also her native seamen. 
 Under this pretended right, she had grossly insulted the American 
 flag, and taken native born American sailors, and pressed them into 
 her service. 
 
 England, though she played the tyrant on the ocean, nevertheless 
 at this moment presented an interesting spectacle. Napoleon, now 
 called " The Great," was every where triumphant. Even in Spain, 
 resistance had nearly ceased ; and all the other great powers of Eu- 
 rope were his vassals. England alone maintained the unequal contest. 
 
 The venerable George III. had now attained the 50th year of his 
 reign. His general health was good, but his mind was borne down 
 by a severe domestic affliction, and his reason was 
 1811. lost.* His son George, the prince of Wales, was 
 
 George II. regent. formally invested with the regency of the kingdom. 
 The dispute with the United States acquired by degrees a hostile as- 
 pect, and a rencontre which happened between the United States 
 
 * His youngest daughter, the princess Ameha, was seized with a fatal disease. In 
 his last visit to his favourite, but dying child, she placed a ring, with a lock of her 
 hair enclosed, upon his finger, as a token of affectionate remembrance, and took of him 
 her last solemn farewell. The aged monarch and too sensitive father, sunk under 
 the trial. He was never afterwards capable of transacting business. 
 
CHAP. II.J FRENCH EMPIRE. 367 
 
 frigate, the President, and a British ship of war, the Little Beit, al- 
 
 though disavowed by both governments, served to nourish mutual 
 
 animosities. Negotiations having at length been ex- 
 
 1812. hausted, both nations assumed a hostile attitude, and 
 
 America declares ^^^ ^j^g jg^j^ ^f j^^^^^ ^j^^ jj^^j^gj g^^^^^ ^^ j^ 
 
 war asainst Eng- , i x- c ^ 
 
 land. declaration of war. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Gen. Hull, on the part of the Americans, invaded Upper Canada, 
 but was soon compelled to retreat. The British general, Brock, 
 pursued him to Detroit, and there caused him to sur- 
 HuU surrenders to render his whole force. The American honour 
 -^vas better sustained at sea. The British frigate 
 Americans obtain Gucrrier, Struck to the frigate Constitution, corn- 
 several victories. manded by Captain Hull, and the frigate Macedo- 
 nian was captured by Commodore Decatur, commanding the frigate 
 United States. In several other naval actions the Americans were 
 also victorious. 
 
 General Winchester was defeated before Detroit. But York, the 
 capital of Upper Canada, surrendered to the Amer- 
 lold. leans, under general Dearborn. General Clay was 
 
 or ta en. defeated at the rapids of the Miami. Fort George 
 
 was taken by the Americans, and the British squadron on lake 
 Erie, captured by Commodore Perry. On lake Ontario, a strong 
 naval armament was kept up, without any decisive superiority on 
 either side. In the mean time, a Briti.sh squadron entered the Chesa- 
 peake, and committed depredations on its shores. The Chesapeake, 
 an American frigate, too 'hastily fitted for sea, surrendered to the 
 Shannon, a British frigate of superior force. 
 
 Commodore Chauncey having obtained the ascendency on lake 
 
 Ontario, a large force under general Brown crossed 
 
 1^14. the Niagara river, and, aided by the militia under 
 
 ""^'^froluie'r''''^''''* general Porter, captured fort Erie. This was the 
 
 first of a brilliant series of victories obtained by the 
 
 American generals. Porter, Scott, Ripley and Brown, on the Niagara 
 
 frontier. The most bloody of these conflicts was the night-battle of 
 
 Bridgewater. 
 
 Sir George Prevost, being reinforced by Wellington's veterans, at 
 the head of 12,000 choice troops, invaded the American territory. 
 He pursued his course without opposition until he arrived before 
 Plattsburgh. At this place were stationed about 4000 American 
 troops, chiefly militia, under General Macomb. A British flotilla 
 on lake Champlain, under captain Downie, also reached Plattsburg 
 bay at the same time. To secure his communication with Canada, 
 it was necessary for the British general to have the command of the 
 lake. For this purpose, Capt. Downie was ordered to attack the 
 
368 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD VIII. 
 
 American squadron, commanded by Commodore Macdonough. A 
 severe conflict ensued in the harbour of Plattsburgh, 
 
 ciffiitd T^PiTns- "^^^^^^ ^"'^^^ "^ *^^ ^^^^^ destruction of the British 
 buigli. flotilla, and the fall of its gallant commander. The 
 
 commander-in-chief of the British forces saw this 
 unexpected result with dismay. And to add to his distress, he learned 
 that the militia of the adjacent states of New York and Vermont, 
 by a general rally, were pressing forward by forced marches to suc- 
 cour Macomb. He perceived that his outposts were already attack- 
 ed with spirit, and that his retreat was about to be cut off. In this 
 condition a hasty retreat was ordered. Camp equipage and military 
 stores were abandoned, and the retreat became little better than a 
 flight. 
 
 This aflfair ended the military operations in the north. In the south 
 a predatory warfare had been waged by admiral Cockburn, chiefly 
 of the most petty character. Nor was its object much changed on 
 the arrival of Gen. Ross. This officer landed a strong predatory 
 
 force from the united fleets of Cockburn, Malcom 
 Gen. Ross burns the ^,jj Cochrane, and proceeded to Washington for the 
 
 public €'CllIlC6S 01 • 
 
 Washino^ion. avovved purpose of burning and destroymg the pub- 
 
 lic edifices and works of art at that place. This 
 object being effected, the British commander made a hasty retreat 
 and reimbarked his troops. The next attempt of Gen. Ross was 
 against the city of Baltimore. While advancing to the attack, he 
 was met by a detachment of American riflemen, and fell mortally 
 wounded in a skirmish. By this time the defence around Baltimore 
 assumed so formidable an appearance that the British commanders, 
 both of the navy and army, judged that the prospect of success was 
 not equal to the hazard, and the invading army was ordered to re- 
 embark. 
 
 Admiral Cochran withdrew to the West Indies. Being reinforced, 
 his fleet now consisted of thirteen ships of the line and transports, in 
 which he received Sir Edward Packenham and a well appointed ar- 
 my of thirteen thousand men, destined for an attack upon New Or- 
 leans. Well grounded feare were entertained for the safety of that 
 important city. Gen. Jackson was charged with its defence, and 
 with his characteristic intrepidity repaired to that post. The ap- 
 proach of the enemy both by sea and land, was conducted with great 
 skill and bravery. Three thousand British troops under Gen. Kean, 
 cff'ected a landing on the 23d of December, and took a position nine 
 miles below New Orleans. Gen. Packenham, with the main army 
 and a heavy train of artillery, arrived soon after. Gen. Jackson had 
 taken his position with judgment, and fortified it with care. Having 
 1815. previously made the necessary arrangements, on 
 
 BauleofNew-Or- the 8th of January, Sir Edward Packenham pre- 
 leans. pared to storm the American entrenchments. A 
 
 deadly fire from the American batteries, and entrenched riflemen, 
 overwhelmed and threw back the British divisions, as often as they 
 rallied to the charge. In their repeated attempts to rally their for- 
 ces to renewed efforts, the commander-in-chief had fallen, and the sec 
 
CHAP. II.] FRENCH EMPIRE. 369 
 
 ond and third in command had been wounded, and carried from the 
 field. The slaughter at length became too appalhng for further ef- 
 fort, and the British were driven from the field in confusion. Their 
 loss was 2,600, while of the Americans but six were killed, and seven 
 wounded, a disproportion of loss not recorded of any other battle. 
 Thus closed the military operations on land. 
 
 At sea, the frigate United States surrendered to a British frigate, 
 1815. the Endymion. Peace had in the mean time been 
 
 Peace of Ghent. concluded between the two nations, by a treaty ne- 
 gotiated at Ghent. Changes in Europe had done away that part of 
 the subject of complaint on the part of the Americans which related 
 to commerce, and the question concerning the claim of the British to 
 search neutral vessels was waived. But the Americans had shown 
 the British that it could not with impunity be exercised on them. Be- 
 fore the intelligence of peace could be communicated to the naval 
 commanders on distant stations, other naval actions were fought, 
 which terminated in the triumph of the American arms. 
 
 Peace with America at this moment was fortunate for England ; 
 for Napoleon, her old and most dreaded enemy, soon after broke loose 
 from Elba, and repossessed himself of the throne of France. Upon 
 an emergency so unexpected, all the energies of the British empire 
 were needed, and, as we have before seen, put in requisition. We have 
 also seen the result. Napoleon delivered himself to England, declar- 
 ing that he considered her the noblest of his foes.* 
 
 > Napoleon's intention was to liave come to our own country. What would have 
 been the result ? Would not the allied powers have demanded him of us, as by their 
 declaration it was with Mm, not with France that they warred ? Would not the fed- 
 eral party, to whom his very name was abhorrent, have upheld the justice of their de- 
 mand, and the republican party, who were his admirers, and in power, have rejected it 
 at all hazards ? The immense armies of the allied powers were then on the western 
 borders of Europe, and England had ships with nothing else to do but to bring them 
 across the ocean ; and the recent naval defeats, with that at New Orleans, were not 
 balanced by successes, nor forgotten. The freedom of our political institutions was 
 one of the leading causes of the disturbances of Europe, begun in France, and it was 
 natural that this should be feared and hated by the sovereigns of Europe. In short, is 
 it not to 1)6 regarded as a signal interposition of Providence in our behalf, that Napo- 
 leon's steps were turned from our shores ? 
 
 32 
 
PERIOD IX. 
 
 COMPEISING EVENTS WHICH OCCURRKD FEOM THE 
 
 Bailie Of j NINTH EPOCHA, 1815 A. D. ^ Waterloo. 
 TO THE 
 
 \ PRESENT TIME, 1835. A. D. l 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 BRAZIL AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 The removal of John VI. of Portugal,* and the Portuguese gov- 
 ernment, in 1808, to Brazil, was the cominencement of the prosperity 
 of that great South American empire. The first 
 1810. act of the government, after its arrival, was to open 
 
 First measures of ^^^^ ports of Brazil to the commerce of all friendly 
 ernme'ni" ^°^ nations. The tribunal of the inquisition was abol- 
 ished, and the slave trade prohibited. A treaty of 
 alliance and commerce which the Brazilian government now made 
 with England, added greatly to the strength and resources of the na- 
 tion. In 1815, a monarchical government was established ; and Bra- 
 zil became virtually independent of Portugal. 
 
 The crown prince, Don Pedro, had married the arch-duchess Le- 
 opoldine, the daughter of Francis I. and Maria Theresa of Austria. 
 John VI. having returned to Portugal, his son Don 
 1821. Pedi'o administered the government, and was ap- 
 
 Don Pedro empe- pointed constitutional emperor. Portugal acknow- 
 ledged the independence of Brazil, and the emperor 
 exchanged ministers and treaties with foreign nations. 
 
 John VI. died March 10, 1826, and his daughter, the infanta Isa- 
 
 bella, was appointed regent. The right to the crown 
 
 1826. Qf Portugal belonged to Don Pedro, emperor of 
 
 '^°^pltu*'ir '" Brazil. But by the constitution of the empire he 
 
 could not leave that countiy, and he resigned his 
 
 Donna Maria. rights in Portugal to his daughter, Donna Maria de 
 
 * In bringing down the histoiy of nations to the present time, we have made retro- 
 spective views of such countries as have not heretofore required a prominent place. 
 
CHAP. II.] SPANISH AMERICA. 371 
 
 Gloria. Don Miguel, brother of Don Pedro, contested her right. 
 He was aided by the nobility and the monks ; while the constitution, 
 alists and patriots rested their hopes on the infanta, Donna Maria, then 
 in Brazil. Iler presence in Portugal, it was believed, could heal the 
 unhappy divisions of the kingdom. With this view, the young prin- 
 cess left Brazil. But Don Miguel was waging a war of extermina- 
 tion against her partisans ; and she took refuge in London, where she 
 was received with all the honour due to her high station. No event 
 favourable to her fortunes having transpired in Portugal, she returned 
 to her father in Brazil. 
 
 On the 8th of April, 1831, Don Pedro abdicated the imperial crown 
 of Brazil in favour of his infant son, Don Pedro II., and embarked 
 with his daughter for Portugal. He has since established her upon 
 the throne of that kingdom. In the meantime, the government of 
 Brazil has been administered by a regency. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SPANISH AMERICA. 
 
 The jealous policy of Spain led her to suppress, as much as was 
 
 in her power, all intercourse between her American colonies and the 
 
 rest of the world. But little was therefore known of the condition 
 
 and resources of those extensive and interesting countries. At length, 
 
 wearied with the former despotism of that power, and disgusted alike 
 
 with the quarrels and crimes of the reigning family, and the invasion 
 
 and the usurpation of the kingdom by Napoleon, 
 
 1806. these provinces began to take measures to assert 
 
 Revolt of Spanish ^j^^jj. independence. These events opened a free 
 
 meiica. intercourse between them and foreign nations, and 
 
 their history is beginning to be better known. 
 
 In 1806, general Miranda, a native of Caraccas, who had served 
 1806. with reputation in the armies of republican France, 
 
 Miranda's attempt made a generous but premature attempt to liberate 
 m Caraccas. j^jg native country. 
 
 In 1810, the Spanish officers were deposed, and a new government 
 organized, under the name of the Confederation of Venzuela. A con- 
 gress assembled, independence was declared, and a 
 1810. con.?titution on republican principles was adopted, 
 
 Venezuela declares ^^^ ^l^p cause of freedom for a short time prospered. 
 herself independent, g^^ ^ numerous and mercenary clergy, alarmed at 
 the triumphs of liberty, found occasion to arrest the 
 1812. progress of public opinion. The fatal earthquake 
 
 Earthquake at Ca- of 1812, which laid almost the entire cityof Carac- 
 raccas. cas in ruins, was the occasion seized on by them to 
 
 operate on the ignorance and superstition of the people. They rep- 
 
372 MODERN HISTORY. | PERIOD IX. 
 
 resented this natural phenomenon as a demonstration of the particular 
 wrath of heaven, inflicted upon a rebellious and disobedient people, 
 for daring to improve their political condition. The people were 
 dismayed, public opinion instantly changed, and the whole province 
 again submitted to royal authority. 
 
 Venezuela remained thus subject to Spain until 1813, when it was 
 again emancipated by the military achievements of the brave and 
 
 victorious Bolivar,* who, in repeated engagements, 
 
 1813. defeated the Spanish forces, and expelled them from 
 
 """hLTun'tf^'''^ his country. And thus one by one the Spanish 
 
 provinces of Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Buenos 
 The other Spanisli Ayres, and Chili, commenced those commotions 
 provinces indepen- q^^^ revolutions which are yet scarcely settled. The 
 
 history of one is, in most essential points, the history 
 of all. The power of Spain over them is indeed broken, and their 
 independence of foreign dominion established. But they seem des- 
 tined to be rent by domestic factions, and the lawless desire for pow- 
 er of ambitious military chieftains. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE GREEK REVOLUTION. 
 
 i 
 
 The modern Greeks, conquered and long held in subjection by the 
 Turks, never felt any respect or friendship for their masters, but bore 
 the yoke with stubborn reluctance. Symptoms at length appeared of 
 
 resolute resistance. The political writings of Mon- 
 Causes of the tesquieu, Beccaria, Franklin, and other apostles of 
 
 liberty, had been translated into modern Greek. 
 Schools had been established, learning began to revive, and their ori- 
 ginal, noble tongue to be studied. The Greek name, with all its ancient 
 associations, animated them. Commercial enterprize and foreign in- 
 tercourse, partiuularly with France and the United States of America, 
 quickened their desire for liberty. Many educated Greeks were in 
 the Russian service. Among these were the count Capo d'Istrias, the 
 Ypsilantis, and many other distinguished names. 
 
 * In February, 1827, the writerof this history addressed a respectful memorial to Bo- 
 livar, through the Columbian minister, M. Salazan, then resident in this country, on the 
 importance and long neglected justice of establishing and endowing literary institu- 
 tions for females. The dictator referied it to the ministerof the interior, who by his 
 orders returned an answer dated March, 1828, giving hopes that the suggestions of the 
 memorial would be acted on. A female college was established at Caraccas, and en- 
 dowed by the government. It is said to be respectable, and in a train for usefulness. 
 This is probably the first institution of the kind. Napoleon's " royal school" was not 
 made on the just and liberal principle of allowing women their proper share of that in- 
 tellectual food by which the mind expands and improves, and the human species rise 
 in the scale of being. 
 
CHAP. III.] GREEK REVOLUTION. 373 
 
 The " Hetairia " a " society of Greek Friends " was formed and 
 
 patronized by these men. These were the men 
 
 Society of tl.e ^^j^^ f^,.gj j.^^jg^j ^j^^ standard of revolt, and called 
 
 their countrymen to liberty. They at first counted 
 upon the aid and co-operation of Russia, but being disappointed and 
 betrayed by that power, they resolved to rely only on themselves 
 and the justice of their cause. 
 
 The struggle no sooner commenced than it became one of life 
 and death. It was not so much a war of battles. 
 Cruelties of the ^^ ^p devastations and murders. Even the women 
 or the Crreek islands took arms for liberty, and 
 many of them became distinguished for bravery. The Greek 
 clergy were particular objects of Turkish vengeance. Gregory, 
 the venerable patriarch of Constantinople, was barbarously slain, at 
 the door of his sanctuary. The Ciiristian bishops were murdered, 
 and their churches every where torn down and destroyed. These 
 acts of atrocious barbarism, so far from intimidating, roused the 
 spirit of the Greeks. Modern ages never before saw such appalling 
 horrours as were perpetrated by these conflicts. The Greeks were 
 without a government, and without support, except what they re- 
 ceived from some charitable associations, in Great Britain, France, 
 and the United States. But they proceeded in 
 1822. 1822 to form a union under an independent fede- 
 
 Greel(s form a rativc government, and their prospects began to 
 ° ' brighten. — The Persians had invaded the Turkish 
 
 empire, and the sultan was obliged to send a powerful army to the 
 Euphrates. He became jealous of Russia, and placed a strong 
 military force upon the Danube, to watch the hostile movements of 
 that power. One of iiis own vassals, also, the bold and desperate 
 chieftain, All Pacha, was in open rebellion against him. These 
 troubles compelled him for a season to relax his operations against 
 the revolted Greeks. 
 
 But having at length purchased a peace with Persia, destroyed 
 Ali Pacha, and entered into friendly relations with Russia, he was 
 again at leisure to prosecute the Greek war with vigour. Scio was 
 the first object of his rage, and fifteen thousand of 
 1822. the most barbarous of the Asiatic Turks were let 
 
 Massatieat Scio. loose upon that beautiful island. TheSciotes made 
 a glorious resistance. But they were overpowered, and in a few 
 days, their little paradise was laid waste. Twenty-five thousand, 
 men, women and cliildren, were massacred, and thirty thousand car- 
 ried into captivity. But a terrible retribution awaited the Turkish 
 fleet, then prepared to spread desolation in the Morea. The Ipsa- 
 riotes, having secured their families, went on board their little fleet. 
 They grappled their fire ships to tlie ship commanded by the Turk- 
 ish admiral, which blew up with terrible destruction. The com- 
 mander himself, and nearly three thousand of his men perished in 
 the explosion. 
 
 The inhuman Kurchid Pacha, at the head of 25,000 Turks, passed 
 the celebrated straits of Thermopylae, and proceeded to subdue and 
 
 32* 
 
374 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IX. 
 
 lay waste the entire Grecian peninsula. The Greek chieftains, 
 
 Nichetas, Demetrius Ypsilanti, and Colocotroni, hastened to the 
 
 scene of danger. They occupied the straits which the enemy had 
 
 passed, and cut off" his communications. In this extremity, the 
 
 Turkish commander offered to evacuate and leave 
 
 1822. the Grecian territory. This was refused him. 
 
 Destruction jf^^the jj^ ^j^gj^ ^^^^ ^ desperate effort to break through 
 
 ijg"^™""^^' the Greek defences in the night. But Nichetas 
 
 fell upon the confused and bewildered Turks, and 
 
 cut up and destroyed the whole army. 
 
 After this, the Turkish armies made but little progress in Greece, 
 
 until the celebrated Ibrahim Pacha of Egypt, was appointed by the 
 
 sultan, governor of Greece, and charged with the management of 
 
 the war. He opened the campaign of 1826 with 
 
 1826. energy, and the conquest of Greece, by that brave 
 ibrahin, Paclia in- ^^^j fortunate Egyptian, seemed inevitable. In 
 
 vades Greece. , . , . •^- *^ , /-i i • i j .i • j 
 
 this alarmuig crisis, the Greeks implored the aid 
 of Christian powers. 
 On the 6th of July, 1827, by the treaty of London, the ministers 
 of Great Britain, France, and Russia, guarantied the pacification of 
 1827 Greece. The Greeks elected count Capo d'Istrias 
 
 Pacification of ^^^^^' President, and the ministers of the three pow- 
 Greece. crs notified the Turkish government, that " Greece 
 
 must thereafter govern herself." The Turks re- 
 jected the offered pacification of the three powers, and Ibrahim, with 
 the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, entered the bay of Navarino. While 
 lying there in order of battle, the combined British, French and 
 Russian fleets approached, and a deadly conflict 
 
 1827. ensued. The Turkish armada of 110 shij)s 
 ^""''^ °p^^''^"''°- fought with desperation. Not a flag was struck, 
 
 and the whole fleet was either burnt, sunk, or dis- 
 abled. Hostilities now ceased. And the sultan soon after acceded 
 to the treaty of London. The talents of the president, count Capo 
 d'Istrias, were directed to the domestic administration of Greece. 
 He established useful institutions, and the people began to prosper. 
 
 The combined powers, who decided that the government must be 
 monarchical, first offered the crown to prince Leopold, the widowed 
 son-in-law of George II. of England. He declining the offer, it 
 was conferred upon prince Olho, second son of Lewis, king of Ba- 
 varia, who accepted it, with the title of sovereign prince of Greece. 
 The excellent character of the father gives reason for favourable 
 expectations with regard to the son. His ministers have been oc- 
 cupied in organizing the government. They have gratified the 
 people by establishing the religion of the ancient Greek church. 
 Schools are encouraged,* and commerce and agriculture begin to 
 revive. 
 
 * On the 5th of July, 1834, a decree was made to encourage the spreading of female 
 education over Greece. 
 
CHAP. 
 
 IV.] CONTINENTAL EUROPE. 375 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FRANCE AND THE HOLY ALLIANCE, INCLUDING A GENERAL 
 VIEW OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE FROM 1815 TO 1834. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 On the abdication of Napoleon, the command of the French army 
 
 devolved on Marshal Davoust. By a military 
 
 1815. convention with Blucher and Wellington, he with- 
 
 Louis re-enters drevv his army behind the Loire, and Paris was 
 
 again occupied with foreign troops, under whose 
 
 protection, Louis XVIIL, a second time, took possession of the 
 
 throne. 
 
 France was now compelled to surrender some of her most flour- 
 ishing provinces, to maintain, for five years, a foreign army, and to 
 pay a tribute of 700,000 francs. Marshal Ney was condemned and 
 shot, contrary to the treaty of capitulation, and other adherents of 
 Napoleon were punished with rigour, and the ancient regime was 
 established. 
 
 On the 26th of September, the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, and 
 Austria, formed the league called the " Holy AUi- 
 " Holy Alliance.' ance," and issued a solemn maiifesto, in which the 
 pretended divine right of hereditary princes, was defended by 
 sophistry, and cloaked by religion. Joachim Murat, king of Naples, 
 was not received as a legitimate sovereign ; and in a contest with 
 Austria, he was deserted by his subjects, taken prisoner, and shot, 
 October, 1815. 
 
 The emperor Alexander of Russia, having assumed the title of 
 czar and king of Poland, promulgated a charter, 
 ^"''' Fohnd""^ '" ^f^apted rather to deceive, than to benefit the un- 
 fortunate people. A Russian barbarian. In the per- 
 son of Constantino, brother of the emperor, was placed at Warsaw, 
 as commander-in-chief of the kingdom. Under this despot, the char- 
 ter became a cruel mockery, and the sufferings of the people were 
 intolerable. 
 
 The congress of Aix-la-Chapelle established the principle of an 
 
 " armed intervention," or in other words, the mem- 
 
 1818. i)(3i.g ^f tj^e Holy Alliance agreed to assist each 
 
 Congress of Aix-la- ot^gj. ^yith their whole mihtary force, against their 
 
 own subjects, in case of a revolt in either kingdom. 
 
 France was represented in this congress, and became a member of 
 
 the Holy Alliance; thus lending her aid to an odious military des- 
 
 potism, which was nothing short of a conspiracy against the rights 
 
376 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IX. 
 
 and liberties of their own people.* And at the 
 
 1820. congress which convened at Troppau, the principle 
 
 Congress ofTrop- ^^g gj.jjj furtiier extended, and the preposterous 
 
 right was claimed to interiere in, and coerce, the 
 domestic affairs of all other nations. 
 
 This pretended right was shamefully exercised in relation to the 
 affairs of Spain, Portugal, and Naples. The people of all these 
 kingdoms had obtained better securities for their liberties, by adopt- 
 ing free constitutions. Their respective rulers had sworn to be 
 governed by them, and the people felt that they had secured the 
 blessings of liberty to themselves and their posterity. This they 
 believed to be the right of every people, inherent and unalienable. 
 But this the "armed intervention " of the high powers, parties to the 
 " Holy Alliance," would not allow. They sent their armies into 
 those kingdoms, broke up the domestic arrangements of tlie people, 
 abrogated their constitutions, and restored the sovereigns to absolute 
 power. These acts of gross violence against the sovereignty of 
 nations were abhorrent to all liberal men in Europe and America. 
 
 The American government, through president 
 
 1823. Monroe, took solemn notice of them, and declared 
 The Holy Alliance ^j-^^^ g^^j^ principles should not be extended to any 
 
 dcnouiiceil. ^ . '■ . ' . rm ^ ■ 1 1 11 
 
 part of their continent. 1 he doctrine was boldly 
 denounced in the French chamber of deputies, and created great heat 
 and excitement in that kingdom. 
 
 The ministry became alarmed, and were proceeding to extreme 
 
 measures, when public attention was diverted by 
 
 1824. the death of Louis XVIII. His brotiier Charles, 
 Louis XVIII. duke of Artois, a bigot in politics and religion, now 
 
 ascended the throne, under the title of Charles X. Tiie conflict of 
 opinions continued. In proportion as liberal ideas obtained mdre 
 favour with the people, the government became more despotic, and 
 was agitated with tlie alarm and jealousy usually attending such a 
 
 state. Even the return of La Fayette, from a 
 
 182o. yjgjj- Qjp friendship to America, was watched with 
 
 ^'''rai'o.ro7u.r"' apprehension. The distinguished honours intended 
 
 Liherals. him by his fellow citizens on his landing at Havre, 
 
 were suppressed ; and those most active in his fa- 
 vour were punished by royal authority. 
 
 The arbitrary Villele was now at the head of the ministry. He 
 had obtained a majority in the French chamber of deputies, by influ- 
 encing the elections. But this short sighted expedient did not in- 
 crease the solidity of his power. He was aware that the political 
 character of the deputies thus elected, was no criterion of the senti- 
 ment of the people. To divert their attention from his measures, the 
 
 * A congress wliere the governments of Europe are represented, and where mutual 
 disputes can be amicably adjusted, is doubtless to be desired ; and had these assembla- 
 ges proceeded on that principle, they wou'd have been a blessing to Furope. As it is, 
 it mustbe allowed that they have done some go jd, as in the case of Greece. 
 
CHAP. IV.] CONTINENTAL EUROPE. 377 
 
 minister resolved to gratify the national vanity, by 
 1826. a splendid public spectacle ; and the coronation of 
 
 Coronation of Charles X., with all the gorgeous and imposing su- 
 perstition attending that ceremony in ancient times, 
 was celebrated at Rheims, May 29th, 1826. 
 In Germany, also, the progress of learning and science, and the 
 bold and free discusssion of political opinions, caused much uneasi- 
 ness among the rulers, and new and severe prose- 
 Liberal opinions in cutions Served only to increase the spirit of rcsist- 
 eimany. ^nce, and to spread wide among the people a 
 
 knowledge of their rights. Alexander I., emperor of Russia, was 
 an able statesman, as well as warrior. Under his administration, the 
 power and influence of that vast and semi-barbarous empire were 
 felt in every court of Europe. On his death, which occurred De- 
 cember 1st, 1826, Constantino, his brother, was declared emperor. 
 This prince was then administering the government of Poland, and re- 
 nounced his hereditary right to Russia, to his 
 1826. brother Nicholas, who immediately assumed the 
 
 Nicholas of Russia, government, and dated his reign from the death of 
 Alexander. 
 Nicholas entered upon the administration with great vigour. He 
 suppressed conspiracies, and protected the distant frontiers of his 
 empire against the inroads of foreign nations. Peace was maintained 
 with China. The invasion of the Persians under Abbas Mirza 
 was repelled, and peace was granted to that nation 
 ^"'iuh'persir''^'"' °"^y °" condition of her ceding to Russia large 
 wi ersia. territories on both sides of the river Araxes, and 
 
 paying the expenses occasioned by the war. 
 In the meantime the Turkish sultan, having modelled his armies 
 on the European system, and suppressed a bloody insurrection occa- 
 sioned by the Janizaries in Constantinople, and seeing Russia occu- 
 pied with the Persian war, took courage to place himself in a hostile 
 attitude against that power. He also refused the mediation offered 
 by Great Britain, Russia and France, between him and the revolted 
 Greeks, and prepared to prosecute with new vig- 
 1828. our, the war with them. In doing this, he invaded 
 
 War betu-een Rus- g^j^^g ^f ^j^g Russian provinces. Both nations now 
 sia and Turkey. ^j^^^j.^gj g^^^j^ Other with the violation of treaties, 
 and prepared for war. 
 The Russian forces, amounting to 115,000, passed the river Pruth. 
 After numerous conflicts, sieges, and well fought battles, both in 
 Europe and Asia, in which victory repeatedly clianged sides, the 
 Russians at length prevailed. Having passed the Balkan mountains, 
 they occupied Adrianople, the second city in the Turkish empire, 
 where, in 1829, they dictated the terms of peace. 
 
378 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IX. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 The seventy of the Russian government in Poland had always 
 
 been intolerable to that brave and ancient people. 
 Polish revolution. ^^ extensive conspiracy of the youth of the first 
 families of the kingdom, was formed for the purpose of liberating 
 their country. Their operations were at first carried on in secret. 
 But the suspicions of a vigilant police were awakened, and the con- 
 spiracy was discovered by artifice. Russian jealousy and ven- 
 geance now became excited to the extreme, and the prisons were 
 crowded with Polish victims. This was the prelude to unprecedented 
 events of desperate daring, and patriotic sacrifice, on the part of the 
 Poles. 
 
 On the evening of the 19th of November, 1830, a young Polish 
 
 officer entered the military school at Warsaw and 
 
 1830. called the youth to arms. The cadets instantly 
 
 lnsm-recti,m of ^^^j, ^^ their line of march, and accompanied by 
 
 the students of the university, proceeded to the res- 
 idence of Constantino, and forced their way into his palace. He 
 escaped by a secret passage. The insurrection immediately became 
 general. Forty thousand Polish troops and citizens, having seized 
 the public arsenal, and armed themselves, expelled the Russian 
 troops from Warsaw. A Polish diet was immediately assembled, 
 and independence declared. 
 
 In the meantime the emperor Nicholas issued a proclamation, 
 denouncing the patriots as rebels and disturbers of the public peace. 
 A succession of sanguinary conflicts followed. The brave Poles 
 were at first victorious in many battles. But alone and single- 
 handed, they were unable to stand before the innumerable hordes 
 of the semi-barbarians sent forth from Russia to enslave them. 
 Driven to the defensive, they concentrated their forces around War- 
 
 saw. Here, after several days of continued fight- 
 Russians take War- jj^g^ |.|-jg Polish armies were defeated, Warsaw was 
 enslaved. "' taken, the liberty of Poland expired, and her brave 
 
 sons were slaughtered, or driven into exile. 
 
 After the coronation of Charles X. in France, the Jesuits, and 
 
 such as adhered to arbitrary principles, were taken into favour with 
 
 the king. They were opposed with great energy and boldness by 
 
 the liberals. — To make themselves popular with the nation, the 
 
 ministry resorted to a war with Algiers. The 
 1829. war was ably conducted, and ended in the entire 
 
 War with Algiers, subjugation of that regency. But the ministry 
 obtained no credit even for this. The elections were carried against 
 them, which they attributed to the influence of the press. " A free 
 press," they said, " was at all times an instrument of disorder and 
 
CHAP. IV.] CONTINENTAL EUROPE. 879 
 
 sedition. And on the 26th of July, 1830, they 
 1830. pubHshed the " three " celebrated " ordinances." 
 
 "ThJerD^ s»^ The first dissolving the chamber of deputies, the 
 second suspending the liberty of the press, and the 
 third prescribing a new and arbitrary law of election. The first 
 attempts to carry their despotic ordinances into execution was the 
 signal for " the revolution of the three days of July, 1830." This 
 revolution, like the American, was a contest of principle. It was not 
 the frenzy of a licentious mob, demanding of the government con- 
 cessions to which they were not entitled, but the moral determination 
 of the sound and sober sense of the nation, manfully resisting a 
 palpable usurpation, and defending to the last extremity their con- 
 stitutional rights. Under the guidance of the ven- 
 aroJiidTa'p" rtte. ^^^^^® ^^ Fayette, the " standard "* around which 
 aye . ^^^ liberal French, as if moved by one spirit, invol- 
 untarily rallied, the revolution was effected with the loss of about 
 1,000 men, who fell in the contest during the " three days," when the 
 citizens of Paris opposed and conquered the royal forces there sta- 
 tioned. La Fayette was again made commander-in-chief of the 
 national guards. 
 
 Charles and the royal family were permitted to depart from 
 France. The chamber of deputies declared the throne vacant, and 
 invited the duke of Orleans to become king of the French, who, 
 under the name of Louis Philippe, accepted the crown. The late 
 ministers were tiied and punished by perpetual im- 
 '^'"'im risoiifd ""^ prisonment. Tlie riglits of the French people be- 
 npnsont . Q^YTiO better defined. Hereditary nobility was abol- 
 
 ished, and the elective franchise extended. The people obtained 
 other privileges, and especially, they no longer suflfered tiie mortifi- 
 cation of living under a g(jvernment imposed upon them by foreign 
 bayonets. 
 
 The French revolution of 1830 was immediately followed by that 
 of Belgium. The Belgic people, always French 
 1731. in their intercourse and feelings, had been injudi- 
 
 Revokiiion in ciously annexed to Holland. An opportunity was 
 
 ^ ' ' now seized to sever themselves ; and a national 
 
 congress assembled, which declared the independence of Belgium, 
 and in 1832, adopted a constitutional monarchy. Leopold, prince 
 of SaxeCobourg, son-ni-law of George IV. of Eng- 
 Leopold king. j^^j,jjj ^^g elected king. The independence of Bel- 
 gium, and the title of king Leopold, has been since recognized by 
 most foreign powers. Leopold married Louisa Maria Theresa, 
 elde.st daughter of Louis Philippe, king of the French. By means 
 of this family alliance, tiie honour of France and Great Britain is 
 pledged to sustain tlie independence of Belgium. 
 
 Whatever may be thought of the cliaracter of Louis Philippe, it 
 must be acknowledged that his throne has been beset with difficul- 
 
 *The "standard," "the old standard," was the appellation familiarly given to La 
 Fayette himself. 
 
380 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD TX. 
 
 ties. The advocates of the old monarchy, Bonapartists and repubU- 
 cans, although agreeing in nothing else, mutually resist his title and 
 disturb his authority. The honour of the French name has, howev- 
 er, been generally sustained abroad, and the factions at home have 
 not yet been able materially to disturb the public tranquillity, or check 
 the rapid growth and prosperity ol the nation. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Until the close of the wars of the French revolution, the attitude 
 
 of Great Britain had been warlike. She had stood, 
 
 1815. thg bulwark of Europe, against the encroachments 
 
 Condition of Great ^f Napoleon. Her energies had been excited to 
 
 Britain V< i • • i i- ■ i i 
 
 rescue r ranee to her origmal limits, to destroy her 
 naval force, and to cripple her commerce. But in doing this, 
 Great Britain subjected herself to immense sacrifices. Her debt 
 amounted to more than the whole resources of the kingdom, if applied 
 to no other purpose, could pay in forty years ; and internal disturb- 
 ances gave just cause of alarm to the government. It was now clear- 
 ly seen that war destroyed the resources of the nation altogeth- 
 er beyond the means afforded for supply ; that wealth and prosperity 
 developed, most rapidly, and the people were more contented and 
 loyal when left to pursue their own occupatious in peace. 
 
 Since 1815, the policy of the English government had been, in 
 
 general, pacific. Those political reformations, call- 
 ^"oveL BdtTn '" ^^ ^°*' ^^ ^^^^ progress of events and the spirit of 
 
 the age, which have cost the other states of Eu- 
 rope so much blood and treasure, have been gradually and safely ef- 
 fected in Great Britain, by the constitutional operations of the gov- 
 ernment. The Roman Catholics, heretofore prohibited from holding 
 offices, have been emancipated and restored to their political rights. 
 Test acts have been abolished ; the representation in parliament has 
 been reformed, and established on more just and equitable principles. 
 The slave trade has been prohibited, and slavery abolished through- 
 out the Bi-itish dominions. 
 
 George III. died in 1820, after a long and exceedingly diversified 
 reign. The mental insanity which had, for several years, afflicted 
 
 him, continued until his death. George IV. his 
 1820. son and successor, who had held the office of re- 
 
 George IV. ggjj^^ l^gj. ,-,.,^^.1-, favour with the people, on account 
 
 of the scandalous and fruitless prosecution which he caused to be car- 
 ried on against his queen, Carohne, for the purpose of obtaining a di- 
 vorce ; but a familiar tour of observation through his dominions, re- 
 established his popularity. 
 
 During his reign, the most liberal measures were pursued, both in 
 the foreign and domestic policy of the nation, and the power and 
 wealth of the people increased. He died on the 26th of Jar.uary 
 
CHAP, v.] UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 381 
 
 1829, and was succeeded by his brother, the duke of Clarence, with 
 the name and title of William IV. The reign of 
 1829. j^jpg William has been governed by the same libe- 
 
 Wiiham IV. j.g^j jjj^j pacific policy which distinguished that of his 
 
 predecessor. The administration of both these sovereigns has done 
 much to promote constitutional liberty, and to oppose the unHmited 
 monarchical principles which that confederation of kings, compo- 
 sing the Holy Alliance, has laboured to establish. The position of 
 Great Britain is indeed proudly eminent. She holds the balance be- 
 tween those rival principles — unlimited monarchy on the one hand, and 
 extreme democracy on the other — which have convulsed Europe for 
 the last thirty years. In fact, it may be asserted that, owing 
 greatly to tiie resistance of her distinguished statesmen, among whom 
 Canning and Brougham are pre-eminent, the league of the kings 
 against the rights of the people, and the sovereignty of nations, is 
 now no longer in force. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 The treaty of Ghent between Great Britain and the United States, 
 was strictly a treaty of peace. The contracting nations were re- 
 stored to the condition which they occupied before the war. The free 
 institutions of the country had been tested, and found adequate to a 
 state of war, as well as of peace ; and their power and solidity were es- 
 tablished in the estimation of foreign nations. But the happiest con- 
 sequences were felt in the pacification of those violent and often alarm- 
 ing party feuds which had arrayed one half of the people against the 
 other, at times closed the door of public confidence upon those so 
 unhappy as not to agree in political oor>t;.»ieai with the stronger par- 
 ty, and made tliem feel that they were aliens and strangers m tne 
 land of their birth. . 
 
 The government now felt at leisure to call the Algerines, and other 
 
 corsairs of the coast of Barbary, to account foi- their 
 
 1815. recent depredations on American commerce. Com- 
 
 Americans chastise n^odore Decatur was despatched with a formidable 
 
 the Algerines. ^^^^^^j ^^^.^^ j^^^^ ^j^g Mediterranean, to chastise them. 
 
 The Algerines were never before so completely subdued, and hum- 
 
 bled. Their shipping was captured ; their defences were destroyed ; 
 
 and the terrified Dey, while his chief city lay exposed to the destruc 
 
 tive fire of Decatur's guns, accepted of peace upon the condiUons 
 
 imposed by the American commodore. He was compelled to make 
 
 immediate compensation for the injuries he had done to Amencan 
 
 commerce, and to abolish the disgraceful tnbute he had formerly ex- 
 
382 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD iX. 
 
 acted. Tunis and Tripoli were also compelled to accede to humilia- 
 ting terms of peace. 
 
 The attention of congress was directed to improve the internal con- 
 dition and prospei'ity of the union. The bank of 
 
 1816. the United States was chartered, with a capital 
 Bank chartered- f 35 QOO.OOO of dollars, and a tariff of duties on for- 
 
 Tariff laid. . ' ' ^ . i- 1 j 1 i • * 
 
 eign commerce was establislied, whose object was 
 to secure some of the more common, domestic manufactures against 
 a ruinous foreign competition. 
 
 Mr. Madison, having enjoyed the presidency two constitutional 
 
 terms, declined another election, and the votes of the 
 
 1817. colleges of electors of the several states were given, 
 James Monroe ^^^]^ great unanimity, to James Monroe, also a citi- 
 
 presi en . ^^^^ ^^ Virginia. Mr. Monroe commenced his ad- 
 
 ministration under the happiest auspices ; and its progress, like his char- 
 acter, was distinguished by wisdom and firmness. The federal union, 
 which had been from time to time enlarged by the admission of new 
 states, increased steadily in general prosperity. The Indian tribes on 
 the north-western frontier maintained friendly relations ; and by 
 amicable treaties they sold to the United States their title to the lands 
 in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. But the Seminoles, origin- 
 ally a band of outlaws, driven out from among the Creeks, a nation to 
 which they formerly belonged, discovered symptoms of hostility. 
 Having associated themselves with a horde of runaway negroes, and 
 some British desperadoes, they commenced a course of ruthless depre- 
 dation and murder, upon the defenceless inhabitants on the southern 
 frontier. General Jackson received orders to inflict 
 
 1818. upon these marauders the chastisement they merit- 
 Gen. Jad^son chas- g^_ jj^ one short, but active campaign, the Semi- 
 noles, with their allies, were dispersed. The Span- 
 ish fleets off St. Marks and Pensacola, under which they had taken 
 refuge, were captured, and tranquillity was restored to that frontier. 
 
 Under the auspices of a liberal and sagacious administration, the 
 United States were fast relieving themselves from the pressure of 
 pecuniai-y emi.rii 10.00^^0,^.^2 occasioned by the late war. They had 
 ^.. v^mueiit revenue, acquired mostly from duties upon foreign com- 
 merce, and from sales of public land. All internal taxes and duties 
 were abolished ; a,nd the surviving soldiers of the revolution were re- 
 7 81 q lieved from poverty and suffering, by the grant of an 
 
 i- 1 ro, M adequate annual pension. The territory of East 
 I urehaso of Florida, and West Florida was ceded by Spain to the Uni- 
 ted States, by which a longstanding controversy with that nation was 
 amicably settled, and the southern boundary ofthe union extended to 
 the sea. 
 
 " The era of good feeling, that so signally characterized the com- 
 mencement of the administration of President Monroe, still more con- 
 spicuously distinguished its close. By particular invitation of the 
 1824 president, his old friend and fellow soldier, Gen. 
 
 Visit of La Payette, ^^f, F^y^tte, arrived in New York, August, 1824. 
 All the associations connected with the name of 
 
CHAP, v.] UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 383 
 
 La Fayette, were dear to the American people, and he was met by a 
 warmth of national friendship, and gratitude, beyond his most san- 
 guine anticipations. Every where hailed as the cherished " guest of 
 the nation," his progress through the twenty-four states of the repub- 
 lic was one continued triumphal procession. The gratitude of his 
 adopted country did not exhaust itself in empty honours. In conse- 
 quence of his services and expenditures during the American revolu- 
 tion, congress made him a grant of two hundred thousand dollars, and 
 a valuable township of land in Florida. The interviews of La Fay- 
 ette with some of his most distinguished co-patriots of olden time, 
 among whom were the elder Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, 
 were solemnly affecting ; and more especially so were his pilgrimages 
 to the tombs of Washington and others of the illustrious dead. After 
 having been present at the inauguration of the 
 1825. younger Mr. Adams, March 4th, 1825, and receiv- 
 
 JohnQ,. Adams ed from him, in the name of the nation, an eloquent 
 
 DrGsiQGnt. • 
 
 and affecting farewell, he embarked on board the 
 new frigate Brandywine, and soon lost sight forever of the land he 
 had loved and served. 
 
 On the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of American in- 
 dependence, July 4th, 1826, died Thomas Jef- 
 1827. ferson, the distinguished author of that declara- 
 
 Death(^; Adams ^^ ^^j j^^^ Adams, its most devoted advo- 
 
 and Jelterson. . ' 
 
 cate.* 
 At peace with all the world, and flourishing in agriculture, com- 
 merce, and manufactures, the United States enjoyed a degree of pros- 
 parity never perhaps exceeded by that of any people. A wise and 
 vigorous system of finance and expenditure, restricted to the wants of 
 the public, was rapidly reducing the national debt, with the prospect 
 of its speedy extinguishment, and a correspondent relief from the 
 burdens of taxation. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1829, Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, was 
 inaugurated president of the United States, and John 
 1829. Q^ Calhoun, of South Carolina, vice-president. 
 
 '''"'')ie'''idenf'"'" Siucc the War with the Seminoles, the Indian tribes 
 had remahied in peace. But in April, 1832, the 
 Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes, inhabiting the Upper Mississippi, 
 re-crossed that river, led on by the celebrated warrior Black Hawk, 
 and other chiefs, and re-entered upon lands which they had before 
 sold to the United States, and which were occupied by citizens of Illi- 
 nois. These Indians, being well mounted and armed, scattered their 
 parties over that defenceless frontier with great ra- 
 18.32. pidity, breaking up the settlements, killing whole 
 
 Indian war. families, and burning their dwellings. Generals 
 
 Scott and Atkinson were charged with the defence of that frontier. By 
 forced marches. General Atkinson came up with Black Hawk and 
 his warriors, on the 2d of August, 1832, near the mouth of the Upper 
 
 * The worthy James Monroe, another ex-president, died on the 4th of July, 1831, 
 five years after. 
 
384 MODERN HISTORY. [PERIOD IX.] 
 
 lowav The Indians were routed and dispersed, and Black Hawk 
 subsequently surrendered himself a prisoner. He was afterwards 
 carried a captive to Washington. After having learned the great 
 strength and resources of the nation, and become convmced ot the 
 foUv of taking up arms, for any supposed wrongs done to his people, 
 he was released, July 1833, and sent back, with presents, to his own 
 
 ^°pSdent Jackson met with a vigorous opposition to many of the 
 leading measures of his administration, but he was, nevertheless, 
 cheered and supported by constantly increasing majorities of his tei- 
 
 1833. again inaugurated president, and Martin Van Bu- 
 
 Andrew Jackson j.^^, a native of New York, was elected vice-presi- 
 again president. ^^^^^ During the administration of Mr. Jackson, 
 aome of the most trying and dangerous questions peculiar to our insti- 
 Sns, have been met with his characteristic firmness and decision, 
 and disposed of, it is hoped, in such a manner as wi 1 secure the hon- 
 our, happiness, and credit of the confederated republic. 
 
 in May, 1834, La Fayette was called to pay the debt of nature. 
 
 probably no individual recorded in history has 
 
 1834. been so extensively honoured in his death, by public 
 
 Death of La Fayette, mouming. How happy might society become, if 
 
 all those engaged in political life, would emulate his virtuous ex- 
 
 ample. 
 
 B P 1. 9 7 
 
-^^ 
 
 
 '^. 
 
 
 ""^ 
 
 
'-• .^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 C" ♦ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ *•"• <^^ ., «=^^ *•"<'' A? \, "'• <^T^ 
 
 
 
 
 t3 V .''^^s^^^^* ***0 
 
 ^^-^^ 
 
 ^""^ 
 
 " - J^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
 
 ' * c,^ \/V Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
 '-» V^ "*^_ Treatment Date: jt^y^y jjjjg 
 
 0^ «•"•% PreservationTechnologies 
 
 ^ * J^/JTT?^ » A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 
 
 111 Thomson Park Drive 
 Cranberry Township. PA 16066 
 (724) 779-2111 
 

 
 ^^ ,.* ''^r^-. \ /^ --'^ ■■'■•' % y •"^^-. '■ 
 
 
 
 ^^•n^