THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE TEAGHER\S MANUAL UNDERWOOD Se. UNDERWOOD Class Book (q73 .E53 Gopyright]*^" COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE TEACHER'S MANUAL By PHILIP EMERSON Principal of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass, Author of a ''Geography of the New England States,'' etc. AND WILLIAM CHARLES MOORE Instructor in Geography at the State Normal School^ Salem, Mass» UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD New York London ftlSBARY of CONGRESS two CoDles Rdoelvod NOV 4 '«>^ Copynfflit Entry CLASS A XXC, NO. /^/ J <5 COPY B GrTS Copyright, 1907 BY UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD New York and London (Entered at Stationers' Hall) A I! Stereographs Copyrighted MAP SYSTEM Patented in the United States, Augfust 21, 1900 Patented in Great Britain, March 22, 1900 Patented in France, March 26, 1900. S.G.D.G. Switzerland, Patent 21,211 SCHOOLROOM CHARTS Patent Applied For All Rights Reservea Printed in the United States CONTENTS Introductory — page I. The Stereograph in the teaching of Geog- raphy 5 II. Plan of work, and schoolroom charts. ....... 17 III. Aims, values and methods 26 Positions Taken by Pupils, and Materials Needed 57 The Plan of Cataloguing Stereographs 67 NORTH AMERICA New York City 69 Niagara Falls 72 Western Scenery 77 Quebec 81 Mexico 82 SOUTH AMERICA Andean Region 86 EUROPE Ireland 91 Great Britain * 93 The Iberian Peninsula 95 France 97 Holland and Belgium loi The Scandinavian Peninsula 103 Germany 106 Alpine Life and Scenery 109 Italy 113 Russia 118 Greece 121 AFRICA Egypt 123 Central Africa 127 ASIA India and Ceylon 131 China '. . 134 Japan 137 Korea 140 The Philippine Islands 142 CONTEXTS INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD page Textiles 143 Foods 145 Mining, Manufacturing and Lumbering 148 VOLCANOES Notes for the Teacher 150 Index 152 INTRODUCTORY I. The Stereograph in the Teaching of Geography The aim sought in the study of Geography is a knowledge of the geographical facts of the world and an understanding of their relations. Two im- portant classes of facts between w^hich these relations exist are recognized — those concerning the life of the world and those which constitute the physical environment of that life. In the study of geography, therefore, the results to be expected are a knowl- edge of these facts, and an appreciation of the effect of the climatic and varied physiographic conditions on the life and activities of man. The means that have so far been brought within the reach of pupils in the study of geography have certainly been imperfect. Home geogra- phy, it is true, can be studied at first hand through knowledge gained by means of school excursions, and in the ordinary course of the pupil's life. But, in the study of the great world beyond the home surroundings, pupils have been de- pendent upon word-descriptions, upon maps, and to an increasing extent in recent years, upon pictures. Teachers of geography have in the past depended mainly on written language. Speaking of this means of teaching. Professor O'Shea says, in his "Educa- tion as x^djustment," that it puts a scholar in his seat and gives him adaptation to a book. In contrast 6 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE to this, Professor O'Shea, as so many others have done, recommends a method that will take the pupil out into the world or bring the world to him, using the book only when it restates, though in a new set- ting, some experience the scholar has already had. This plan, he says, will do for the teacher what evolution did for the philosopher — open up a world of real substance and not one of mere ver- bal and formal values. And, when we consider how narrow the average school-child's range of actual experience is, we see what a revolution such new methods would mean for him. In recent years many and perhaps most teachers have held the right theories about teaching geography. The difficulty has been to find adequate means of putting the theories into practice — of tak- ing the scholar out into the world or bringing the world to him. Undoubtedly, the greatest advance so far toward the accomplishment of this result has been made by the utilization of pictures. Indeed, there has been a rapidly growing appreciation of the great superiority of pictures over mere verbal de- scriptions. Now, however, a new step is being taken in the recognition of the difference in pictures. Millions of dollars have been spent in the last decade for illustrations of one kind or another. G. Stanley Hall says they have multiplied more in the last ten years than in all the previous history of mankind. And yet only recently has the difference in illustra- tions received any adequate attention by educators. Especially is it true that only recently have people INTRODUCTORY 7 been waking up to the importance of the one great fundamental difference in photographic illustrations, — the difference between photographs based on the principle of two-eye vision and photographs based on the principle of one-eye vision, or the difference between stereoscopic and all other kinds of photo- graphs. In fact, the use of the stereoscopic photo- graph or stereograph, and of the instrument through which it is viewed, the stereoscope, was for many years limited to mere amusement and entertain- ment. As one writer says, "It seems to be the fate of every great scientific discovery to serve a kind of apprenticeship to the almost childish wonder and curiosity of the general public. For many years the stereoscope was regarded as a toy. The use that was made of it, except by a limited number of think- ing people, was unworthy of the great discovery of Sir Charles Wheatstone." But some might ask, if there is so important a difference between stereo- graphs and all other kinds of illustrations, why has it not been more generally realized before? We get a clue to the answer to this question in a sentence by Professor Le Conte in his book on ''Sight/' 'The field of binocular (two-eye) phenomena is a closed world, to most, even intelligent, people." Now, as the very nature of stereographs is ''binocu- lar phenomena," this means that the very nature of stereographs has been "a closed world, to most, even intelligent, people." Professor Le Conte goes further in explaining this by saying that binocular, or two-eye phenomena are illusor\^ and difficult of analysis, being to so great a degree subjective and 8 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE closely allied to psychical phenomena. It is there- fore easy to understand the statement that only in the past few years has any real effort been made to gain and make generally known definite and practical ideas as to the nature of the stereograph and the experiences people may have in connection with it. In this place we have room for only the briefest statement of the results attained. For fuller treatment of the subject the reader is referred to literature published by Underwood & Underwood and to such books on vision as Professor Le Conte's "Sight." For the benefit of those who may not have given this subject any particular attention, we ought to summarize here a few fundamental facts about binocular or two-eye vision and binocular or stere- oscopic photographs. Most people have never stopped to think why we have two eyes. To them, the second eye seems only a generous provision in case one eye should be lost. The second eye, though, means much more than that to us. First of all, since our eyes are some distance apart, each eye gets a somewhat different view of all solid objects near us. The right eye sees a little farther around the right side, the left eye farther around the left side of the object. This fact, together with other facts, means that a person with two eyes gets a very different idea of the shape and size and distance of objects than a person with one eye. But, great as the difference is, it is easy to overlook it. When we close one eye we might think we see about as well as when both eyes are open, but this is a mistake. INTRODUCTORY 9 Psychologists say we read into what we see with one eye shut, what we have learned with both eyes open. Some unusual test is required to make us wake up to the defects of one-eye vision. Xow, turning to photographs, all ordinary photo- graphs are made by a camera with a single lens — thus showing an object or place as it would be seen by a person with one eye. Stereographs or stereo- scopic photographs, on the other hand, are made with a camera having two lenses, set about as far apart as our two eyes. A stereoscopic camera, therefore, always gives two photographs of places or objects. These two photographs are mounted side by side on the stereoscopic card, and to the casual glance appear alike, yet, since they are taken from different points of view, they must of course always dift'er somewhat — in fact, exactly as the impression received by one of our eyes dift'ers from the impres- sion received by the other. Xow. when these two slightly different photographs are looked at in the stereoscope, the eff'ect is radically dift'erent from what we should get in looking at an ordinary photo- graph in our hands, indeed the effect is in all es- sential respects the same as that which we should get by standing where the camera stood and look- ing at the scene itself. But great as this dift'erence is between the ordinar\' and the stereoscopic photograph it is easy to underesti- mate it, exactly as it is easy to underestim.ate the dift'erence between one and two-eye vision. We al- ways tend to overestimate the ordinary photograph. We read into it more than we reallv see in it. Here 10 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE again some unusual device is required to make us realize its great defects.* But to analyze briefly the effect given in the stereoscope — we get, first of all, perfect or actual space for our minds, as contrasted with the appear- ance of space in ordinary photographs. Objects stand out in all three dimensions, or as solids, as in nature. Second, we see objects and places life-size, that is, in natural size and at natural distance. Be- cause of the smallness of the tv\^o photographs com- posing the stereograph, it is natural to assume that things are seen in the stereoscope in miniature; but the two prints, a few inches from the eyes, serve as window^s through which we look. Third, while looking at these stereographed scenes in all three di- mensions, life-size, and of almost infinite accuracy of detail, and with one's immediate surroundings shut away by the hood of the stereoscope, it is pos- sible to lose all consciousness of the place where the body is, and to gain, for appreciable lengths of time, a distinct consciousness or experience of being in the very presence of the object or place represented. This is the unrivaled claim for the stereograph. It is not held, however, that such an experience can be gotten in connection with the stereograph un- less it is used or looked at in the right way, and with the right helps. Nothing shows more clearly that the time is ripe for the serious use of the stereo- graph than the fact that only in the past few * The publishers issue some cards with diagrams and photocTa-nhs so mounted on them as to bring out in a striking manner the difference between ordinary and stereoscopic photographs. INTRODUCTORY 11 years has serious attention been given to the helps and methods to be employed in its use. The impor- tant results from attention to this field thus far at- tained are a map system (now patented) and guide books written in a special style. By this patent map system a person is able to know at once just what part of a country or city he is seeing through the stereoscope, the direction in which he is looking, and the surroundings to the right and left and behind him. It is evident that such knowledge must be an essential part of an ex- perience of actually being in a place, hence it is ab- solutely necessary that it be given if vre circ to make sucli experiences possible in connection with the ster- eograph. This map system is marvelously simple and yet entireh^ adequate for this purpose. The guide books serve two purposes. First, au- thorities on different countries strive to serve in these books as personal guides to the places seen through the stereoscope. They point out objects of importance, give some information, and try to arouse and quicken interests that will bring returns of pleasure and profit thereafter. Second, they strive to aid people to lose all consciousness of the place where they may be while looking at the stereo- graph, and to gain an experience of being in the place represented. Indeed, this is their final aim. Recognizing that such an experience is possible in connection with the stereoscope, if people look with adequate information and the right attitude of mind, the authors not only give the information but sug- gest the right mental attitude. For this reason tliey 12 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE use the first person and the present tense in the text, endeavoring to say everything as they would if standing by their fellow-travelers in the presence of the actual place. Of course there are definite limitations to the ex- periences made possible by this means, as compared to those of the actual traveler. As others have pointed out, we do not gain the traveler's experience of movement. We can have only experiences of standing in certain specific places and looking over definite and limited fields of vision. We do not re- ceive impressions through our senses of touch, taste, smell, or hearing — all our impressions come through our sense of sight. But sight is more important than all our other senses in giving us our experiences of location, and is indeed sufficient for this purpose. Furthermore, the times when we can forget our bodily surroundings and gain a consciousness of being in the places represented will be limited, per- haps to periods of a few seconds each, but feelings and emotions come quickly, and hence we can know a part at least of the feeling stirred by bein^f in these places. At any rate we should see, that, though there is a difference in the ciuantity or intensity of the feelings, there need be no difference in the kind of feelings experienced. We may experience the same kind of feelings and emotions that we should experience in the places themselves. And the fact that one can come back to these scenes in the stereo- graph again and again makes it undoubtedly possible to approximate much nearer than we think to the full emotional experience of the traveler. In other INTRODUCTORY 13 words, it is now recognized not only that we have in the stereograph the cHmax of all illustrations, but also that (when certain helps are provided and it is looked at in the right way) the experiences thus made possible are comparable to those we should get by being carried unconsciously to the places in question and allowed to look at them. Here then is found the one means by which pupils can be taken out into the world, a means of ''enor- mously expanding the horizon of their daily lives." Certainly the changes thus made possible in the methods of teaching geography are little less than revolutionar}\ Important, however, as these discoveries in con- nection with the stereograph are, whenever the edu- cator has considered the use of the stereoscope and stereograph in the schoolroom, he has been met by serious problems. The stereograph is for the indi- vidual ; but one person can use it at a time. The only w^ay to make it a basis for systematic class work has been to provide stereoscope? and duplicate stereo- graphs for ever}" pupil. This plan has been felt to be prohibitive because of its cost, except for the wealthier schools. The other alternative has been to provide stereoscopes and stereographs for refer- ence or supplementar}' work, like library books, or to provide stereoscopes for the cla - a :d then stere- ographs to be passed around rr: g- the recita- tion. In the last few years :ht srere jscope has been rapidly coming into use in these ways. But even with the most generous equipment of stere- oscopes and duplicate stereographs there was no 14 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE assurance that this material would be utilized to the best advantage. Nevertheless, by unsystematic and desultory use it is seen that results are realized that can be gotten by no other means. However, it has been clearly recognized that nothing like the best returns from the stereographs were being obtained. The obvious need was for some plan by which systematic classroom work with the stereograph could be made easy and natural for both teacher and pupils, and yet which should avoid anything like the expense of a full equipment for each scholar. Over three years ago, the authors of this book, strongly impressed with the importance of this need, began the task of working out such a plan. The present scheme is the result of over two years of actual ex- perience in the practice department of the State Normal School at Salem, Massachusetts, and in the classrooms of the Cobbet Grammar School in Lynn, Massachusetts. It was found that this task involved three things. I. A careful and rigid selection of stereographs. 2. A plan to provide for systematic work with less than a full equipment for each member of the class. 3. Detailed guidance for both pupil and teacher as to individual study and class discussion. In connection with the choice of suitable stereo- graphs it must be borne in mind that the world of geographical facts is infinite in extent. Considering the limited time of the pupil and the expense to the school, it was therefore of primary importance that the selection of stereographs be made with the INTRODUCTORY 15 Utmost care and judgment. In the prosecution of this work the authors have had access to the stereo- graphs of Underwood & Underwood, generally rec- ognized as the largest publishers of stereoscopic pho- tographs in the world. The schools of the country are certainly fortunate in having so magnificent a col- lection from all parts of the earth at their disposal. Yet the very richness of the collection in extent and variety can be a source of confusion to the teachers as well as a means of injudicious expense to the school. In consequence, out of the abundance of material there were selected only the most typical places to be visited through the stereoscope. One feature of this work that may occasion com- ment is the absence of "a more systematic treatment of the United States. The main reason for this is the great expense to the schools of any such treat- ment, at least according to States. Other reasons are the greater abundance of illustrative matter on the United States already within the reach of teach- ers, and the prevalence of information in relation to the material. Still, the lack of a full treatment of the United States in this work is more apparent than real, inasmuch as many stereographs of different parts of the United States are listed under ''Indus- tries of the World." See p. 374 of the Index. In regard to the classroom equipment, it was evi- dent at once, that, if complete duplication was to be avoided and yet systematic work secured, some means must be devised whereby the pupils could work independently of each other and of the teach- er. This called for something in the nature of a lab- 16 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE oratory manual in the hands of the individual pupil. Accordingly, the ''Student's Stereoscopic Field Guide'' has been provided, which aims to take the place of the teacher in connection with each place to be seen through the stereoscope. This ''Teacher's Manual" has also been prepared. The Student's Guide outlines the preparatory les- son that the teacher is to give her class as an intro- duction to every new topic or group of positions in the field. It gives in full detail questions and any necessary information needed by the student for effective and thorough independent study. It also suggests a great variety of plans for supplementing the stereographic study and directing the thought of both pupil and teacher to the great general truths of geography in which work should culminate. In preparing the Guide the authors have striven constantly to use such language as would aid the pupil and teacher to gain experiences of actual pres- ence in the places seen in the stereoscope. Thus the word, "Position," is used throughout for stereo- graph, the language of travel' is used wherever prac- tical; the words, "Field Guide," are used in the title of the book itself. The Teacher's Manual aims to give suggestions concerning the best reference books, an authorita- tive statement of conclusions upon the most important matters and upon any which might prove troublesome, and the results of special experience in the use of the stereographs in school work. The aim has been to lead students to dis- INTRODUCTORY ' 17 cover facts themselves, but to give to teachers all the assistance and information that any may need. One other great advance which is made in this work should be spoken of particularly. Pictures in geographies have been used almost wholly as illiiS' tratious, or a supplement to the text. Here the order is reversed. W hat the pupil and teacher see in the stereograph forms the real text, and all that is said in the Student's Guide and Teacher's Manual is intended as a supplement to what is seen — as a help to its imderstanding. In other words, we provide full plans for using stereographed scenes as original sources of information. 11. Plan of Work and Schoolroom Charts The plan employed in the working out of the scheme assumes that the class numbers 48 pupils and provides for the division of the class into two sections. It may, however, be easily modified to fit classes of any size. While one section uses the stereographs the other will be engaged in recita- tion. The equipment for a class section of 24 pupils for one period is 12 stereoscopes, 12 stereographs and 24 of the Student's Guides. At the beginning of the period a stereoscope and stereograph are given to every other pupil. Thus 12 students will be do- ing field work with the stereoscopes and stereo- graphs at any one time. The other 12 will be busy with their Guides and note books, either preparing for the study of one of the stereographed scenes or recording observations already made. At the end of every few minutes the stereographs with the stereo- 18 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE scopes are passed to the pupils who in the meantime have been busy with their note books and Guides. As the Position List shows (pages 37-66), the geography of the world is taken up under the heads of the leading countries, important cities or features of the great countries, and industries. The studies of these countries or sections or industries are divided under sub-heads each of which is suitable for study during one class period, as the Industries of New York, its Sky Scrapers, and its Street Life; People and Homes of China, its Surface Features and Waterways. The study for each of these sub-heads is based upon a supply of 12 stereographed scenes (the equipment as pointed out above for a section of 24 pupils during one class period). This unit or group of 12 stereographed scenes is made up in a certain number of different ways. One stereographed scene — 12 duplicates. Two different stereographed scenes — 6 dupli- cates each. Three different stereographed scenes — 4 dupli- cates each. Four different stereographed scenes — 3 dupli- cates each. Six different stereographed scenes — 2 duplicates each. There are also several irregular groups: Two different stereographed scenes, 8 dupli- cates of one and 4 duplicates of the other. Three different stereographed scenes, 8 duplicates of one and 2 each of the others, etc. INTRODUCTORY 19 The reason for making up this unit of 12 stereo- graphs in these different ways is the varying rich- ness of the scenes. Some stereographs con- tain such an abundance of geographical facts that not even an entire study period is sufficient to ex- haust them. As will soon appear, the intervals between ex- changes of stereographs during a class period will vary somewhat according to the number of the dif- ferent stereographs included in these groups of 12. Inasmuch as these different groups of 12 stereo- graphs form such a distinctive part of this system, it has seemed wise to adopt the following terms that can always be used in referring to them. We give also the number of each group used. (Here we introduce the word. Position, in the place of ^'Stereo- graph"). 9 One-Position-Groups. 6 Two-Position-Groups. 1 2 Three-Position-Groups. 1 8 Four-Position-Grqups. 1 4 Six-Position-Groups. 1 Irregular Two-Position-Group. 6 Irregular Three-Position-Groups. 2 Irregular Four-Position-Groups. I Irregular Seven-Position-Group. It IS desirable that every school, or at least a group of schools, should purchase several stereographs of carefully chosen scenes in full duplicate, that is, they should purchase as many duplicates of the stereo- graphs as there are members in a class. Such an outfit enables a teacher to direct every step in the 20 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Study of such scenes, since every pupil can make observations from the same standpoint throughout the lesson. Thereby the students may be trained to use the stereoscope profitably without oversight. Under the heading ''Positions to be taken by the Pupils/' a comprehensive title-list states the number of duplicates of stereographs required in each of the Position-Groups for a class section of standard size. The stereographed scenes used in connection with the supplementary or Library Reference work re- ferred to on page 32, are likewise included in the list of Positions, pages 37-66. Only one copy each of these stereographs is required. To make very clear the way in which these differ- ent Position-Groups are used in the class, as well as the way the plan can be modified in classrooms of different sizes and arrangements, we have worked out the following diagrams or charts. First are given charts of a schoolroom containing 48 seats, arranged in 8 rows of 6 seats each. The first five charts show the way the five regular Position- Groups are used in this schoolroom. The 6th and 7th charts illustrate the way the irregular Position- Groups are used. The 8th to the 12th charts show the way the five regular Position-Groups are used in a schoolroom containing 40 seats, arranged in 8 rows of 5 seats each. The 13th and 14th charts illustrate the way the Position-Groups are to be accommodated to schoolrooms with irregular ar- rangements of seats. INTRODUCTORY 21 1. 48Seatiiig8. One-Position-Gronp. 2. 48 Seatings. Two-Position-Gronp. :< n □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ CI n n n lIi \jD □ □ El [^ s m [t] E] E] [^ El E] E] El El E] [t] E] El El El El PATENT APPLIED FOR Teacher's Desk a=one stereograph, of which there are 12 duplicates. x= intervals for use of Guides or note books. Pupils work in groups of two. Stereo- graphs and stereoscopes passed along every 2^ or 5 minutes during a class period of 30 minutes. For class periods of greater or less lengths, intervals for study of the stereographs must vary in proportion. □ □ □ n □ □ □ □ u □ U u □ □ □ □ □ n □ □ □ □ □ □ w ^ W s W s. E] M. H. M [^^■' E] -m. E] _EI m 4^, El M. mjj] dp]'' 1 ■^nc'?''* PATENT APPLIED FOR 1 i^' a and b= two different stereographs of which there are 6 duplicates each. x=interv'als for use of Guides or note books. Pupils work in groups of two. Stereo- graphs and stereoscopes are passed along every 2^ or 5 minutes during a class period of 30 minutes; but in the middle of the period neighboring pairs of pupils exchange stereographs. 8. 4S Seatings. Three-Position-Gronp. 4. 4S Seatings. Fonr-Positioii*6ronp. Jg / □ □ □ □ □ □ u CO □ □ □ □ □ □ °1 z O □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ n z lEi m ^El LiJ Hi m E] m IZI El EJ. E]l s id] El ELiPn El Ejlfe] CD Eli PATENT APPLIED FOR 1 Teacher" ■ \ 1 Desk 1 □ □.□ □ □ □ □ □□□□□ □ □□□□□ □ □ □ □ -^ —^ ^^ ^-^ ^^ — — •^— — • — — □ □ [3 H [3 dk ^L^j en [zi ca (5 E| E] El El E] HI El IZI IZ] IZI [£]| ^Lij [3 m H ^ j Teachers 1 a. b and c= three different stereographs, of which there are 4 duplicates each. x== intervals for use of Guides or note books. Pupils work in groups of six. Stereo- graphs and stereoscopes are passed along every 2^ or 5 minutes during a class period of 30 minutes. a, b, c and d=four different stereo- graphs, of which there are 3 duplicates each. x= intervals for use of Guides or note- books. Pupils work in groups of eight. Stereo- graphs and stereoscopes are passed along every, 3|- minutes during a class period of 30 minutes. 22 GEOGRAPHY THEOUGEi THE STEREOSCOPE i ;. 48Seatiog8. Six-Position-Group. J ; > □ □□□□□ □ □□□□□ □ □□□□□ □ □□□□□ CEi m m. iz] m czi < V Jim m [Z].?[i] m s ti E m^ m (zi e' 1 Teacher- 8 PATENT APPLIf n FOB L ^^^ ,. 6. 4$Seatiugs. Irregular Tliree-Position-Group. □ □ □ □ □ n n 1 1 □ □ □ 1 1 1 1 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 1 1 n 1^ |o| El m [3 E L^ [3 Q [E| m m H'^ LiJ _^ PATENT APPLIED FOB Teacher's Desk a, b, c, d, e and f= six different stereo- graphs, of which there are 2 duplicates each. x= intervals for use of Guides or note- books. Pupils work in groups of twelve. Stereo- graphs and stereoscopes are passed along every 2\ minutes during a class period of 30 minutes. a, b and c= three different stereogrnrhs, of whinh thtre are 6 duplicates oi a and 3 duplicates eaci; of b and c. The method of use is the same as shown in No, 4. only a is seen twice as often as b and c. 7. 48Seatings. Irregular Four-Position-Gronp. □ □ □ □ □ n] □ □ □ □ 1 1 n a □ □ □ u □ □ n n n |jiJ.,LiJ [Ei]'''ci] n u j m Lil* 1 LjlJ hi Pit PATENT AF m H .-•LIED FOR Q _pi J Teacher's Desk a b, c and d=four different stereo- graphs, of which ther? are 4 duplicates of pa oh. Tho method of use is the same as shown in No. 3. only b and c are passed together as one stereograph. IXTRODUCTORY 23 8. 4tO Seatings. One-Position-Gronp. 9. 40 Seatings. Two-Position-Group. 1 a i j^ 1 ^ 1 IH 1 a 1 j^ 1 ^ 1 UJ 1 a 1 \-\ ci3~ni s' PATEMT APPLIED FOR Teacher' Desk □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □_ n^ □ W E ]~j_IZ] B [It: B Clt" > — PATENT APPLIED FOB I PI Teacher 'a Desk The equipment of stereographs and the method of use are the same as shown in Xo. 1, except that in the second section four duplicates of a are not used. The equipment of stereographs and the method of use are the same as shown in No. 2, except that in the second section two duplicate sets of the stereographs are not used. 10 40 Seatings. Three-Position-Group. 11. 40 Seatings. Four-Position-Gronp. 1 ^ 1 1 ^ 1 1 ^ 1 1 ^ 1 UJ 1 ^ 1 1 ^ 1 1 ^ 1 LiJ m'l PATENT APPLIED FOR Teacher's 1 Desk 1 ^H m' Q CEl CD ^ \ n □ □ □ □ □ □ □ I □ n □ □ I I 1 1 u U| m 1 ^ 1 1 b 1 ^ ^i^ El 1 ^ 1 1 b 1 loll LjlI PATENT APPLIED FOR ^' Tea-hel" 6 Desk B', B'l B I ^ B/ B' The equipment of stereographs and the method of use are th^ same as shown in No. 3. except that in the second section one of the sets of stereographs is not used, and another set is used by a group of only four pupils. The equipment and method of use are the same as shox^n in No. 4, except that in one of the groups in the first section a monitor will be needed to pass the stereographs, as shown by the broken line, and in th^ second section one set of stereographs "will not be used. 24 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 18 40 Seaflngs. Slx-Posttion-Gronp. [E [3 B. id] E] t! (c n [zi .c a "Vi l pn ix i^ [ z^ m c zii , p B E Zl' '/e n, [j: E ztjiii m [Zl |Z] "El b' B B B B PATENT APPLIED FOR Teacher ' Desk \l Q 05 O Q " ZI "J n ii'Seatlngs - Irregular Arrangement. Three-Position-Group. CZ] HE] Q d] EH. Ri nn Fbi Q, EJ' I Teacher's Desk CE] m iZ]| rm nn w \ ^ m "Of ' — -=? <- ^ B B PATENT APPLIED FOR The equipment and methoa of use are the same as sho^^^l in No. 5, except in the second secti-rn one set of the stereo- graphs is not U3cd, and the group of four pupils use first a and b, then c and d, and e and f . This chart shows how one of the Position- Groups may be used in a schoolroom of 44 seatings, where two scats are on either side of the teacher's desk. The equipment and method of use are the same as shown in No. 3, except that the group of two pupils in the second section study a first, then b and c. 14. r Seatiners- Irregnlar Arrangement. Tliree-Position-Group. Xm bMb p:' B B iCZ] E ^B B bJ m m. J^'j m B B B ^B B B rm B' B |m Bt B B ^B B PATENT APPLIED FOR B|l hi 1 B B ra B > |T.^W..| This chittrt shows how one of the Position- Groups is used in a classroom where one seat is missing. The equipment and method of use are the same as shown in No. 3 and No. 10. except that one group of five pupils in the first section use one set of the stereographs. INTRODUCTORY 25 We believe that by an observation of these charts, teachers will be able easily to apply the sys- tem to all classrooms. In case any questions do arise in particular instances, the publishers will be glad to give special attention to them. When classes are less than 48 in number, some reduction can be made in the equipment ; but unless the class numbers considerably less than 48, the re- duction possible in the equipment is hardly worth considering. If a class does not exceed 44, there will be one group of two pupils less in each section; hence 11 duplicates of the One-Position-Groups (see page 18) will be sufficient. If a class does not exceed 40, there will be two groups of two pupils and one group of four pupils less in each section; hence 10 duplicates of the One- Position-Groups and 5 duplicates of the Two-Posi- tion-Groups will be sufficient. If a class does not exceed 36, there will be three groups of two pupils, one group of four pupils, and one group of six pupils less in each section; hence 9 duplicates of the One-Position-Groups, 5 dupli- cates of the Two-Position-Groups, and 3 duplicates of the Three-Position-Groups will be sufficient. When a class does not exceed 36, we advise an increase of practically one-half in the regular equip- ment, which will permit the whole class to form one section. This would mean 18 duplicates of the stereographs in the One-Position-Groups, 9 dupli- cates each of the stereographs in the Two-Position- Groups, 6 duplicates each of the stereographs in the Three^Po^ition-Groups, 5 duplicates each of the 26 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Stereographs in the Four-Position-Groups, 3 duph- cates each of the stereographs in the Six-Position- Groups. It will be apparent that when classes consist of only 24 pupils, they will form single sections suf- ficiently supplied by the regular equipment. It is well for large schools to buy a full equip- ment .of 48 stereoscopes. At other times than when the whole class is engaged in the study of one stereo- graphed scene, this full equipment of stereoscopes will supply four classes during the same period. III. Further Comments on Aims, Values and Methods The methods to be followed in the use of the stere- oscope accord with the purposes and methods of all instruction. For example, in geography the teacher aims not only to present geographical facts and to secure comprehension of their relations, but also to train students to observe life and to perceive the nature of its dependence upon physical environ- ment. To accomplish this, not only is it necessary that pupils be told what to look for, but it is equally requisite that, by independent observation and in- ference, they should gain power to see and reason for themselves. This independent observation and reflection by every pupil are greatly needed, not only because they make little direct demand upon a teach- er's energy, but also because they afiford scope for individuality within the graded school system. And the stereoscope is peculiarly valuable for these pur- poses. It is easily handled. Its intense realivsm INTRODUCTORY 27 offsets the inertia of silent work and awakens a student's active niterest. Therefore, while in the study of the life of distant lands by means of the stereoscope there should at times be personal guid- ance by the teacher, there ought to be much inde- pendent study. In preparation for studying the world through the stereoscope it is desirable that a class be trained properly. \\'hile the vivid reality of the scenes presented does not need to be enhanced by the instructor's art, care should be taken that no mis- hap or misapprehension mar their impression. The pupils must learn just how to use the stereoscope to full advantage, before attempting to study a place or people that it presents. A realizing sense of being bodily present in distant lands is more effec- tively secured, too, when pupils are trained by the help of maps to think of their surroundings at the standpoint they have taken in the field, and accus- tomed to realize their position there with reference to the points of the compass, to other scenes, and to famous places in the same country. While these facts are not gone over in detail here, still they are very important. A teacher should always prepare her class for the study of any new land. Xew knowledge is well comprehended and' fully appreciated only when abundant familiar ideas, closely related to the new, are present In the pupil's thought. Therefore fre- quent paragraphs of introductory questions are given in the Student's Guide, suggesting in outline how a teacher should lead her class to recall truths already known, that are pertinent to those to be 28 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE presented. As the preparatory talk progresses, old interests in a people and their homeland will be awakened, the children will become conscious of the existence of important matters about which they are not yet informed, and will eagerly turn to the new scenes, by means of the stereoscope, for answers to their questionings. The aim in the study of life and scenery through the stereoscope as in actual field w^ork, must be, of course, to secure more than mere aimless pleasure; the teacher should skilfully direct observation and thought to definite ends of value. In field work in the home community, no teacher is successful unless she has closely studied in advance the actual land forms or life activities to be observed by her class. So, also, in stereoscopic field work in distant lands, a teacher will not be successful until she has gained sympathetic entrance to the atmosphere, the spirit, of the scenes to be visited, and discovered the really important and less obvious truths that she wishes to lead her pupils to perceive. The Student's Guide which accompanies the stereographs makes a teach- er's own preparation easy, but does not obviate its necessity. When a teacher has definitely in mind the facts that can be observed in a stereographed scene, and has determined the causal relations that explain them, she is ready to guide her pupils to the most profitable study. In the course of outdoor study, questions of fact turn the eyes of the class afield, while discussion con- cerning relations leads all to face the teacher. Sim- ilarly, during stereoscopic excursions, many ques- tions and answers may be given while the children INTRODUCTORY 29 keep the scene constantly before them, and at other times the stereoscopes will be laid down that discus- sion may be free. All such details will readily adjust themselves, when pupils approach the lesson sympathetically and intelligently under the direction of an instructor who knows the subjects to be studied and possesses skill in teaching. These requisites, however, are no more than the essentials of all successful school work. The aim in instruction is not so much to acquaint pupils with individual facts as it is to secure their grasp of principles of broad application — general truths. This end is to be secured by the study and comparison of a number of cases that illustrate the one truth. Facts that are subsidiary are neglected for the time, and the essentials that constitute the generalization are combined into a definite state- ment of the principle. To this end the survey through the stereoscope of some typical scene should be followed, during study periods, by the examina- tion of other stereographed scenes of the topics pre- sented. Independent study by class divisions should be systematized according to the instructions given beneath the various schoolroom charts in the previ- ous section of this introduction. While actual field study frequently requires unusual efifort on the teach- er's part to secure the orderly attention of all of a class to the work before them (because of the freedom of movement and of expression natural to outdoor life), stereoscopic field study within the schoolroom shuts each pupil away from his mates, 30 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE and places the world before him to enchain his interest, thus ensuring order without strain upon the teacher. The first independent study of the home scenes of a school district, and likewise of distant life or landscapes by means of the stereoscope should be for brief periods; and the requirements imposed should be limited, that during the succeeding recita- tions the teacher may keep in close touch with the class, testing them as to every observation required, and ensuring the formulating of sound generaliza- tions. Thereby the work may be habitually intense and highly effective, and the pupils will acquire right habits of study, as useful in their daily walks of life as when they view distant scenes through the eyes of the stereoscope^ The work outlined in the Student's Guide is com- prehensive. Sometimes it is more than some classes can master in a single study period. When advisable, successive studies may be made of one stereographed scene, or of a group of related scenes. To facilitate this, the questions are often divided into sections, those marked (a) treating one topic, those marked (b) related to another: so that it may be easy to assign only one main topic for one lesson. Ques- tions about details of secondary importance are given in small type, that pupils may see clearly what should be studied as of most importance. Questions re- quiring thought rather than observation are enclosed within parentheses, when they do not come at the close of a paragraph, to make evident at a glance what must be studied while the pupil is engaged in INTRODUCTORY 31 observation. Further adaptation of requirements to the training and needs of any particular class may be arranged, if the teacher will select questions for study and direct that these be checked by the pupils in their Guides. Stereographed scenes that are to be studied by an entire class, in unison with the teacher, are chosen for the richness of their content. In them are found valuable types of geographic forms and activities. No such outlook replete with geographic facts can be fully appreciated at first sight, for all later study of related activities and forms gives a clearer under- standing of the truths the first view may present. The pupils should therefore return to such types whenever consideration of other stereographed scenes, reading, or class discussion has given them greater insight. Through repeated study, the rich suggestiveness of any typical scene will be appreci- ated and fully utilized, and the advisability of sup- plying outfits that will enable all members of a class to study some scenes in unison with their teacher will be attested. The following chapters, however, more frequently direct the study of a subject from a series of posi- tions and provide typical stereographed scenes for the topic. This is necessary because it is difficult to choose single positions whence many important geographical facts may be clearly presented. A much greater proportion of independent groups are advisable and necessary because of the saving of expense and because of the great need for training children to prepare their lessons without constant 32 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE supervision — the present practice of some teachers to the contrary notwithstanding. A few primary stereographed scenes studied in every grade will pre- pare the way for most profitable study of many groups of scenes, in every year of the course. Some pupils have the ability to do more than their classmates. Good teachers plan special field work, supplementary reading, and other individual assign- ments for those pupils. The stronger pupils need this maximum of study. Their reports in class en- rich recitations and spur their mates to enthusiastic work. Such methods afiford the necessary elasticity to the prescribed courses of our graded schools. It is wise to apply this principle to field work, by means of the stereoscope. Two plans provide for its appli- cation in this work. The first plan lists stereographs under the head of Library Reference Groups. Single copies only of the stereographed scenes forming these groups need be purchased. They place the student in the presence of a much wider range of life activities and surroundings and supplement the groups purchased for class study by illustrating sub- sidiary truths. Abler pupils will have time to study them and report. Many others will thereafter seek permission to see these scenes after school hours, thus reviewing the truths their schoolmates have reported and fixing a good measure of the facts the scenes present. Another plan for supplementary study has been provided in the case of some study groups, for ex- ample that in the city of London. In addition to careful directions for the study of a few typical INTRODUCTORY 33 scenes, a comparatively large number of related stereographs are named in small type paragraphs. It is designed that single copies of each of these shall be bought and placed where the pupils may refer to them during free periods as they do to books in the class reference library, or to the Library Reference Groups just mentioned. Study of the typical scene will prepare for intelligent interest in those that show how the type varies. These additional stereo- graphs will be used much as nearly all stereographs were used in school before the publication of this Manual and Guide — but, their use being preceded by systematic study o'f type stereographs, students gain from them far more than was formerly possible. Such additional observation lessons are not essen- tial to the highly successful use of the few stereo- graphed scenes selected for thorough study by all pupils. They rather supplement, as we have said, fundamental stereoscopic field work, much as sup- plementary readers and library books serve to elabo- rate the statements of the text book in geography. Another reason for giving considerable space in the Student's Guide to paragraphs of brief suggestive questions in connection with the Library Reference Groups is because public libraries are now securing generous stereoscopic outfits, which they wish to have used eflfectively by the schools. Systematic provision for work with these Library Reference Groups may be well made. Boxes will enable the children to carry a stereoscope and stereo- graphs home safely. Often families will purchase a stereoscope, and then stereographed scenes studied 34 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE at school may be visited also from the home, with less trouble even than is necessitated in transporting books for home use. Stereographed scenes will se- cure helpful discussion of school work by older mem- bers of a family whom text books fail to interest. Still broader studies of the life and surfaces of many countries are possible where school or public libraries possess the stereoscopic tours with guide books of the leading countries of the world now being issued by the publishers of this Manual. (Some of these tours are referred to in the following pages.) A complete set of them would be a valuable addition to any school library. While the stereoscope is a wonderfully effective means for bringing the pupil face to face with many phases of geographic truths, this should not result in its becoming an end in itself in a teacher's prac- tice. The central consideration must be the geo- graphic relations to be studied. The stereoscope takes its place as one of the most important and widely useful of all the means employed to further the true end in view. The related use of several means of instruction makes everyone more effective. During an outdoor lesson in the home field speci- mens of minerals or industrial products are not only seen, they are taken in hand and examined carefully. Similarly a field lesson with the stereoscope gains added value when specimens of objects seen therein are distributed to the class for study. Many selec- tions of literature, whether poetry or prose, are best presented amid appropriate natural surroundings, for the pupils may then understand an author's INTRODUCTORY 35 thought and share his spirit, and thereby gain insight into the beauties of nature. While few teachers practice this afield, it is very easy for any teacher to take the children into the presence of sublime or picturesque scenes by means of the stereoscope, and there recite the lines of some genius who has loved and understood nature's marvels. Field work by means of the stereoscope will give its finest results when thus closely associated with observational les- sons in home geography, with the study of objects, of good maps, of literature, and of geographical readers and text books. The stereoscope has great peculiar values, and it multiplies the value of all other geographical equipment. The stereoscope not only teaches much directly, but the enthusiasm it awakens for further study is remarkable. It gives the most vivid presentation possible of important examples of a type in world geography, and thus awakens intense interest in a topic. It leads most naturally to the use of objects, maps, books, and other means for securing further knowledge. Work that is both enthusiastic and thorough prepares for the best language training. Children are eager to talk and ready to write about matters which really interest them and which they know well. With proper planning of the successive steps in the consideration of a subject, a teacher will find the indirect gain from the stereoscope to be a factor in successful instruction equal in importance to the knowledge gained while the stereoscopes are in active use. Finally, as we have said before, stereoscopic field 36 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE study is fundamental, not supplementary. It is not designed to illustrate attractively the truths stated in the text book. Rather, it enables the children to discover the most important facts and truths of geography by means of their own observations. They understand what they have seen and carefully studied. They remember novel customs and typi- cal landscapes that are impressed upon their own vision, although they may easily forget the descrip- tions of others in their text books. Field work by means of the stereoscope therefore precedes the study of the text book. It takes time now given to textual study, but it presents truths so clearly and impressively, it enables the study of essentials to be so thorough — that the text treating subjects studied in the field is needed only to summarize and review the knowledge gained. Time is saved. The text is understood and remembered. The following chapters apply the principles above stated to the treatment of important typical subjects. The scope of geography is so broad that in any school course only a comparatively few topics can be given full treatment. It will be found that the field here opened up is large and rich, and sufficient to vitalize the work at every leading stage of the course. POSITIONS TAKEN BY THE PUPILS The numbers in parenthesis following each title show how many stereographs are needed in each case by a class of forty-eight pupils working in two sections. The figures next the margin of the leaf refer to pages in the Student's Guide where the study of each subject is outlined. The titles of stereographs are here abbreviated for the sake of conve- nience. NORTH AMERICA New York City — industries of new york Position I. Looking north up West St. page {twelve or j or ty -eight) i * 'SKY-SCRAPERS" Position 2. From Brooklyn Bridge, west {six) 3 3. From St. Paul Building up Broadway {six) 4 STREET LIFE IN NEW YORK Position 4. Broad St. north to Stock Exchange {four) 5 Position 5. Elizabeth St. from Hester St. (/owr) 6 '* 6. Palatial homes on Fifth Ave. (/o^r) 6 Library Reference Group methods of travel in new york Position I R. Herald Sq. and elevated railway {one) 7 ** 2 R. New York's shopping dis- trict {one) 7 " 3 R. The great Brooklyn Bridge (on^) 7 " 4 R. New Jersey ferry-boat. . . . {one) 7 Niagara — general study of the falls — Position I. Niagara and its cloud of spray {twelve or forty -eight) 9 COMPARISON OF THE THREE FALLS Position 2. "Niagara, thou eternal". . . .{two) 12 3. Splendor of God's handiwork (^xe;o) 12 4. American Falls from Can- adian side {two) 12 5. Rock of Ages and Luna Falls {two) 12 6. Majestically grand — Falls from steamer {two) 12 7. Tireless Niagara — Horse- shoe Falls (two) 1 2 Return to Position i. 13 no o5 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE PAGE ROCK-WALLS OF THE GORGE Position 8. Winter's stilled cataracts. . . .{two) 14 *' 9. The Whirlpool rapids (two) 14 10. The gorge from Canadian side {two) 15 Six sets of rock-specimens from the gorge are desirable. THE ACTION OF THE FALLS Return to Position 7 15 ' 5 15 '' 4 IS 6 16 8 16 Position II. The magnificent Horseshoe {two) 16 RELATIONS OF NIAGARA TO COMMERCE Position 12. Boat in the Welland Canal (^^gA^) 17 '* 13. Loading a great "whale- back" {four) 18 RELATION OF NIAGARA TO MANUFACTURING Position 14. Autumn beauty on Nia- gara's banks {six) 19 '* 15. Dynamos, 5,000 horse-pow- er (5^;c) 19 Western Scenery — the colorado plateau Position I. Sheep raising in Arizona. {twelve or forty-eight) 2 1 THE GRAND CANYON Position 2. Gazing into a yawning chasm {three) 23 ** 3. The sinuous Colorado {three) 24 "4. Up the Colorado from Pyrites Point {three) 2 5 '* 5. W. N. W. down river from foot of trail {three) 26 YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK Position 6. Wild deer in the Park {three) 29 7. Wild buffalo {three) 29 .8. West from Continental Divide {three) 30 ** 9. Fort Yellowstone among the mountains {three) 30 YELLOWSTONE FALLS AND CANYON Position 10. From Point Lookout to Lower Falls {four) 31 ** II. From Point Lookout down the river {four) 3 2 12. From Canyon road to Upper Falls {four) ;^^ POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 39 Library Reference Groups the colorado plateau page Position I R. A wilderness of sand (one) 34 ** 2 R. From Red to San Francisco Mountains ' (one) 34 3 R. Blown asunder by vol- canic energies (one) 34 4 R. Nature's barriers con- quered (one) 34 HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS AT YELLOWSTONE PARK Position 5 R. Cleopatra terrace and pools(on^) 35 6 R. How a spring begins to build (one) 3 5 ** 7 R. A mountain of "petrified water" (one) 35 ** 8 R. Sunrise in Yellowstone Park (one) 3 5 9 R. "Black Growler" (one) 35 '* 10 R. The most famous sight — "Old Faithful " (one) 35 " II R. Peering into the crater .. (one) 35 " 12 R. Fantastic beauty of "Lone Star " (one) .35 THE YOSEMITE VALLEY Position 13 R. From Inspiration Point, .(one) 36 " 14 R. El Capitan, a granite mountain (one) 36 15 R. North Dome, Half Dome, etc (one) 36 " 16 R. Nearly a mile straight down (one) 3 6 17 R. Nevada and Vernal Falls (one) 36 18 R. From Cloud's Rest, •N. N. E (one) 36 THE SEQUOIAE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA Position 19 R. Distant view of "Grizzly Giant " (one) 39 20 R. Grizzly Giant, largest living tree (one) 39 21 R. Throw head back and look up (one) 39 22 R. Vegetable mammoths .. . (one) 39 '* 23 R. President Roosevelt at Wawona (one) 24 R. U. S. Cavalry on "Fallen Monarch " (one) 39 THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS Position 25 R. Natural gatcAvay, Garden of the Gods (one) 40 26 R. Mount of the Holy Cross, (one) 40 40 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE PAGE Position 27 R. Royal Gorge, Colo (one) 40 28 R. Railroad loop, George- town, Colo (one) 40 " 29 R. Hunter in Ramshorn Mountains (one) 40 CANADIAN ROCKIES AND THE SELKIRKS Position 30 R. First glimpse of the Rockies (one) 4 1 31 R. At the base of Mt. Stephen (one) 4 1 ** 32 R. The Illecillewaet Glacier . (ow^) 41 ** 33 R- Placid waters of Lake Louise (one) 4 1 " 34 R- Louise Valley and Mt. Victoria (one) 4 1 *' 35 R- Lake Louise from the glacier (one) 41 Quebec — Library Reference Group the town as a stronghold and as a port Position I R. Best fortified town of west- ern world (one) 43 2 R. Hotel "Chateau Fronte- nac" and terrace (one) 43 ** 3 R. Looking up the St. Law- rence (one) 43 *' 4 R. Warships in the St. Law- rence (one) 43 5 R. Quebec, rich in old mem- ories (one) 43 ** 6 R. Looking over Louise Basin (one) 43 " 7 R. Birds-eye view of docks, .(one) 43 Mexico — the plateau region Position I. Popocatepetl from Puebla . . .(six) 45 " 2. King of Mexico's moun- tains (three) 47 3. Guanajuato, rich in silver. . . (three) 47 life in MEXICO — Position 4. Natives trading in square, Mexico (three) 49 ** 5. Water-carriers at Zacatecas (//tree) " 50 ** 6. Homes on Tehuantepec Isthmus (six) 50 Library Reference Group characteristic industries Position I R. Extracting pulque (one) 52 2 R. Natives making rope (one) 52 ** 3 R. Natives weaving matting .(one) 52 (I (f POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 41 SOUTH AMERICA The Andean Region — relief and its effects page Position I. Irrigating and planting sugarcane {three) 56 " la. Harvesting sugar-cane (one) 57 ** lb. Picking cotton, Vitarte (one) 57 Position 2. How the Oroya R. R. fol- lows river (three) 5 7 ** 2a. San Bartolome town {one) 58 ** 2b. In the heart of the Andes. . {one) 58 " 20. Chaupichaca bridge and tun- nel {one) 58 Position 3. Pack train of donkeys and llamas {three) 58 3a. Traveling up among the Andes {one) 59 3b. Coming down El Misti (one) 59 Position 4. Ice-crested Chimborazo {three) 60 " 4a. Squad of cavalry on Quito road {one) 61 ** 4b. Cotopaxi, highest active vol- cano {one) 61 ** 4c. Halt for breath, Pichincha .. (on^) 61 ** 4d. Ice-dealers collecting snow.(on^) 61 ** 4e. Where Pichincha's peak rises {one) 6 1 CITIES AND PEOPLE Position 5. Cuzco, once the richest city {two) 64 5a. Center of the equatorial Andes {one) 65 5b. Prosperous and beautiful Arequipa {one) 65 ** 5c. Lima, from northeast (one) 65 Position 6. Selling potatoes — Cuzco. . . .(two) 65 ** 6a. Lima's beautiful cathedral. . (one) 66 ** 6b. Quaint Chaupimarca Square (on^) 66 " 6c. Government Building, Quito {one) 66 Position 7. Everyday life in Cerro de Pasco {two) 66 •• 7a. Typical architecture in Cuzco {one) 67 7b. Carved balcony and open sewer {one) 6 7 7c. Maldonado St.. Quito (one) Position 8. High life and low life, 67 Guayaquil (two) 68 ** 8a. Home life of a wealthy fam- ily {one) 68 8b. Splendor of President's pal- ace, Quito {one) 6S »t (I «c «( «l 42 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE PAGE Position 9. Up-country hospitality, Rio- bamba (tn'o) 69 " 9a. Houses on stilts, La Clemen- tina {one) 69 Return to Position 8 69 Return to Position 8a 69 Position 10. Country housev\-ife grinding oats (two) 70 Library Reference Group productions, industries and methods Position I R. Har\^esting sugar-cane, Santa Clara (one) 72 " 2 R. Grinding sugar-cane, Santa Clara (o'ne) 72 Return to Position ib 72 '' 3 R. Weaving cotton, Lima... .{one) 72 ^' 4 R. Work in an old silver- mine {one) 72 " 5 R. Shaft -house, of a copper and silver mine {o'^te) 72 " 6 R. Sheep-raising among the Andes {ofte) 72 7 R. Washing and drying wool (one) 72 It THE CACAO INDUSTRY Position II. Gathering cacao pods, Ecuador {three) 74 ** 1 1 a. Gathering cacao pods, Costa Rica {one) 75 ** 12. Cacao pod cut open {three) 75 Return to Position 9a 76 Position 13. Raking over cacao beans, {three) 76 *' 13a. Opening cacao pods, Costa Rica {one) 77 ** 13b. Gliding up Babahoyo river (one) 77 ** 13c. How the equatorial sun goes down {one) 7 7 " 13d. Way down on Babahoyo river {one) 7 7 ** i3e. Guayaquil from Guayas river {one) 7 7 Position 14. Sorting cacao for shipment (^/zr^^) 77 *' 14a. Queer boats and rafts, Guayas river {one) 78 " 14b. Where donkeys wear trousers {one) 78 ** 14c. How imported goods are carried {one) 78 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 43 EUROPE Ireland — page cottage homes of tenant farmers Position I. Denis O'Shaughnessy's h.ome(two) So '^ 2. Home in Ballintoy village. ...(^it/o) 80 " 3. Milking the goat, County Monaghan {two) 80 '' 4. Beehive cottages, County Done- gal (two) 80 '^ 5. Fireplace for burning peat {three) 80 '* 6. Mansion of Lord Powers- court {two) 81 PKAT Position 7. Cutting peat at Allen bog {six) S;^ Return to Position 5 84 Three specimens of peat are desirable. Library Reference Group street markets and farm products Position I R. Cattle-fair, Kanturk. {one) 86 '* 2 R. The fair — pig market day, Kilr-ush {one) 86 *' 3 R. Market-place at Armagh. . (ow^) 86 *' 4 R. Market-place of At hlone. . (one) 86 '' 5 R. Vegetable market, Ath- 86 lone {one) *' 6 R. Hay-market, Galway (one) 86 " 7 R. Poultry and egg-market, Ballybay {one) 86 Great Britain — LONDON — Position I. Looking east over dockyard district {three) 88 '' 2. Royal Albert docks {three) 89 " 2a. Entrance to Royal Albert docks {one) 89 ^' 2b. Ocean-liners at Royal Albert docks {one) 89 Position 3 . Northeast down Thames to St. Paul's {three) 90 '' 3a. London Bridge {one) 90 " 3b. The Tcwer Bridge {one) 90 '' 3c. The Tower of London (one) 90 '' 3d. The Bank of England {one) 90 '^ 3e. The Royal Exchange (one) 90 '' 3! Hotels Cecil and Savoy .... (cne) 91 Position 4. Ludgate Hill {three) 91 '' 4a. Oxford St {one) 92 " 4b. Regent St {one) 92 " 4c. Windsor Castle {one) 92 '^ 4d. Races at Henley (one) 92 (I u 44 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Library Reference Groups government of the british empire page Position I R. King Edward receiving Lord Mayor's sword. . . . {one) 93 2 R. Indian Prince doing homage to the Queen. {one) 93 3 R. Princes, nobles and troops in review {one) 93 '* 4 R. Houses of Parliament {one) 93 ^' 5 R. House of Lords {one) 93 '' 6 R. Governors of an empire (one) 93 THE SCOTTISH LOWLANDS AND HIGHLANDS Position 7 R. Looking from Stirling Castle north {one) 94 " 8 R. From Stirling Castle west, (ow^) 94 " 9 R. Outlook from Stirling Castle N. E {one) 94 " 10 R. The ''Brig o' Turk" {one) 94 " II R. Ben Venue, across Loch Achray {one) 94 " 12 R. Oban and hills around harbor ^ {one) 94 EDINBURGH Position 13 R. Edinburgh from Calton Hill {one) 95 14 R. Princes St., Edinburgh., .(on^) 95 15 R. Edinburgh Castle (one) 95 16 R. Home of John Knox {one) 96 17 R. The Forth Bridge (one) 96 The Iberian Peninsula — physiography and climate Position I. Almeria, its citadel and har- bor, Spain {two) 99 '' 2. The Generalife and Alham- bra, Granada {two) 100 3. Burgos and its cathedral, Spain {two) i o i 4. Mountain paradise of Mont- serrat, Spain {two) 102 " 5. Irrigation of an artichoke field, Spain {two) 102 " 6. Carmelite convent and woods, Bussaco, Portugal {two) 103 BACKWARD CUSTOMS Position 7 , Ploughing a hemp-field , Va- lencia, Spain {three) 104 8. How a mule pumps water, Cadiz, Spain {three) 105 9. Old-fashioned ox-team, Arteaga, Spain {three) 106 10. Harvesting in Guipuzcoa, Spain {three) 106 {( It (I u ii a a li <( POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 45 Library Reference Groups cities of the iberian peninsula page Position I R. Puerta del Sol, Madrid, Spain (one) io8 2 R. Royal palace, Maidrid, Spain (one) io8 3 R. Throne-room in palace, Madrid, Spain (one) io8 4 R. Barcelona's most popular avenue, Spain (one) loS 5 R. Looking down the Guadal- quiver, Seville, Spain. . .(one) loS 6 R. Castle of St. George and Lisbon, Portugal (one) io8 CORK INDUSTRY Position 7 R. Cork oaks at Almoraima. . (one) log '^ 8 R. Boiling bark of cork oaks .(one) 109 '^ 9 R. Scraping and pressing bark(on^) 109 10 R. Trimming and packing (one) 109 11 R. Great stacks of cork (one) 109 France — relief and its effects Position I. x\utumn in Brittany — thresh- ing grain (six) 1 1 1 " I a. Battleground, Crecy-en-Pon- thieu (one) 1 13 " lb. Pastoral life today at Agin- court (one) 1 13 ic. ''Field of the Cloth of Gold" (one) 113 Position 2. Glacier-covered heights of the Pyrenees (three) 114 ^' 2a. In the picturesque Borrigo Valley (one) 115 Position 3. Vineyards covering fields at Ay (three) 115 THE COASTAL BORDER AND RELATED INDUSTRIES Position 4. From Grimaldi west over Men- tone (three) 117 " 4a. Monte Carlo's capital, Mon- aco (one) 1 18 4b. The port of Nice (one) it8 4c. French squadron in harbor, Villefranche (one) 118 Position 5 . Acres of oyster-beds at Can- cale (three) 119 ** 6. Vast salt-fields at Le Croisic , (three) 120 " 7. Town and harbor with fish- ing fleet, Le Croisic (three) 121 7a. Home at last, — beach at Etretat {one) 122 (( It 46 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE PARIS Position 8. The favorite drive, Ave. Champs Elysees (two) 1 23 ** 9. Avenue Hoche, etc., from Arch of Triumph {two) 124 ** 10. Avenue of the Grand Army from Arch of Triumph. . . . (two) 124 " II. Avenue Bois de Boulogne. . {two) 126 " 12. Eiffel Tower and the Troca- dero (two) 126 " 13. Old City island and the Seine {two) 127 Library Reference Groups public buildings, monuments and works of art Position I R. Hotel de Ville (City Hall) and bridge {one) 128 ** 2 R. Chamber of Deputies, ■fexterior {one) izS *' 3 R. Chamber of Deputies, interior {one) 128 ** 4 R. The old cathedral, Notre Dame {one) 128 5 R. The church of the Made- leine {one) 1 28 ** 6 R. Dome des Invalides {one) 128 ** 7 R. Sarcophagus of Napoleon (on^) 128 8 R. The Vendome Column. . . {one) 128 " 9 R. The Arch of Triumph. . . . {one) 129 " 10 R. The Venus of Melos {one) 129 II R. The Winged Victory {one) 129 ** 12 R. A Madonna by Raphael .. (on^) 129 FRENCH CATHEDRALS Position 13 R. Rouen cathedral and the town {one) 130 14 R. West front of cathedral, Rheims {one) 130 15 R. Cathedral interior, Rheims {one) 130 16.R. Amiens, east to the cathedral {one) 130 17 R. Elaboration of the choir- stalls, Amiens {one) 130 18 R. Chartres and its cathe- dral {one) 130 19 R. Beauvais, N. N. W. to cathedral . {one) 130 20 R. Cathedral entrance, Bourges {one) 130 21 R. Memorials of kings in St. Denis {one) 130 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 47 Holland — ; dikes and holders of holland Position I. Quaint costumes at Marken {four) 133 2. Industrious peasants and wind-mill, Dordrecht . . . .{four) 134 3. Miles of peaceful pastures.. . (/oiir) 135 Library Reference Groups amsterdam and rotterdam Position I R. Amsterdam from Zuider Kerk (one) 136 •* 2 R. From Zuider Kerk over Market (one) 136 ** 3 R. Looking N. up a tree-lined canal (one) 136 ** 4 R. Market-day, bargainers and Weigh House (one) 136 5 R. East across the Oude- haven, Rotterdam (one) 136 ** 6 R. The busy Leuvehaven. . . .(one) 136 VILLAGES OF HOLLAND Position 7 R. Everyday business in Volen- dam (one) 138 " 8 R. Huge windmills at Zaandyk (one) 139 ** 9 R. Picturesque women at Goes (one) 139 10 R. Cosy homes of fishermen, Scheveningen (one) 139 Belgium — cities of belgium Position I R. North along the Scheldt, Antwerp (one) 1 40 2 R. East to the cathedral, Antwerp (one) 1 40 *' 3 R. Interior of the cathedral, Antwerp (one) 140 ** 4 R. Palace of Justice, Brus- sels (one) 140 ** 5 R. The belfry of Bruges (one) 140 6 R. Dinant beside the Meuse,(on^) 140 The Scandinavian Peninsula — surface features Position I. A farmer's family making hay, Roldal, Norway. . . .(three) 141 2 . Planting time near Jonkoping Sweden (three) 142 3. Rista Falls, Jemtland, Sw^eden (three) 143 4. Bergen, west over harbor, Norway (three) 144 (( 48 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE FIORDS AND VILLAGES Position 5. Odde and the Sorfiord, Norway. . . . {twelve or forty-eight) 145 Library Reference Group ports of norway and sweden Position I R. Stockholm old and new Sweden (one) 147 ** 2 R. Christiania and harbor, Norway (one) 147 ** 3 R. Hammerfest, the northern- most of towns (one) 147 ** 4 R. Smoking chimneys and wharves, Gothenberg. . .{one) 147 Germany — • the rhine valley Position I. Castle Stolzenfels, S. E. to Oberlahnstein {twelve or forty-eight) 150 PARTS OF THE RHINE VALLEY Position 2. Heidelberg and the Neckar river (four) 151 3. St. Goarshausen, — view N. along Rhine {four) 152 " 4. Ruin Katz and St. Goar, on the Rhine {four) 152 " 5. Cologne and the Rhine, show- ing cathedral {four) 153 LIFE ALONG THE RHINE Return to Position 2 154 Return to Position 3 154 Return to Position 4 154 Return to Position 5 155 REVIEW AND TEST Return to Position i 155 Library Reference Groups BERLIN — Position I R. Berlin, seat of a Great Power {one) 156 2 R. Home of Kaiser Wilhelm. .(on^) 156 3 R. New National Gallery from Bourse {one) 156 4 R. Old Art Museum from Palace {one) 156 5 R. Imperial picture gallery in Palace {one) 156 6 R. Bismarck statue and the Reichstag {one) 156 7 R. Hall where German Parlia- ment meets {one) 157 8 R. University Buildings {one) i5f POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 49 Position 9 R. Busy Berlin, — view on Konig Strasse (one) 157 ** 10 R. Unter den Linden, from Palace (one) 157 ** II R. Rapid transit in Berlin. .. (on^) 157 ** 12 R. Convenience and architec- tural beauty (one) 157 TRANSPORTATION ON GERMAN WATERWAYS Position 13 R. Cologne and the River Rhine (one) 158 (same as Position 5 in Class Series) 14 R. Castle Katz,— N. E. across Rhine (one) 158 15 R. Ancient Magdeburg, S, W. across Elbe (one) 158 ** 16 R. Lubeck, east across river(on^) 158 ** 1 7 R. Marketing in Stettin beside the Oder (one) 158 Return to Position 11 R 158 KIEL CANAL, A TYPE OF SEA-LEVEL SHIP CANALS Position 18 R. Ship canal between Baltic and North Seas (one) 158 19 R. Kiel,— N. E. end of the canal (one) 158 ** 20 R. Suez Canal, Port Said, Egypt (one) 159 ** 21 R. Ship canal, Corinth, Greece, N. W (one) 159 COLOGNE CATHEDRAL Return to Position 13 R. Cologne and the Rhine •. 159 Position 22 R. The cathedral at Cologne (one) 159 ^' 23 R. Facade and lower part of towers (one) 159 " 24 R. The nave from the altar, (one) 159 " 25 R. Looking from cathedral spires (one) 159 GERMAN INDUSTRIES Position 26 R. Life on a Saxony farm . .(one) 160 27 R. Ehrenfels Castle across to Bingen (one) 160 28 R. Women in beet-sugar industry (one) 160 29 R. Stripping willow for bas- kets (one) 160 " 30 R. Where Germany builds ships, Stettin (one) 160 31 R. Berlin Royal Porcelain (Paris Exposition) .... (ojte) 160 a (( (( it 50 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Alpine Life and Scenery- tyrol and savoy PAGE Position I. The Ortler from Trafoi, Tyrol {twelve or jorty-etght) 1 6 1 2. The picturesque Chamonix Valley. . . . {twelve or forty-eight) 164 GLACIERS Position 3. Ice-river of Fiescher Glacier, Switzerland {four) 166 ^' 4. Breithorn, Monte Rosa group, Switzerland {four) 167 " 5. The MauvaisPas and Mer de Glace {two) 168 " 6. Ragged masses of Kjendals Glacier, Norway {two) 169 Library Reference Group SWISS LAKE scenery Position I R. Lake Geneva and Dent du Midi {one) '^ 2 R. The Axenstrasse, Lake Lu- cerne {one) " 3 R- Lake Lucerne from the Axenstein {one) Italy — surface features — Position I The Vatican, N. E. from St. Peter's {two) Genoa from the Rosazza Gardens {two) Marble blocks from quarries, Carrara {two) Birdseye view. of Naples and Vesuvius {two) Amalfi from the Capuchin Con- vent {two) Portofino on the Mediter- ranean {two) ROME- 170 170 170 172 174 174 175 176 176 Position 7. Rome from dome of St. Peter's {two) 178 8. St. Peter's- and the Vatican. .(^m;o) 178 9. Sanctuary and home of Art, the Pantheon {two) 179 10. The Roman Forum from Capitol {two) 180 11. The Coliseum {two) 181 12. Bridge and Castle of St. Angelo {two) 182 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 51 VENICE PAGE Position 13, The "Bride of the Sq3.'\. {twelve) 183 STREETS OF VENICE Position 14. The Grand Canal (four) 186 " 15. Venice, "white swan of cities" (six) 187 " 16. A serpentine by-way (two) 188 Library Reference Groups pope pius and the vatican Position I R. The Library of the Vatican(on^) 189 " 2 R. A gallery of statues (one) 189 " 3 R. The Sistine Chapel (one) 189 " 4 R. "Bower of St. Anthony". .(on^) 189 5 R. "The Holy Father is speaking" (one) rS9 " 6 R. Pope Pius bestowing his benediction (one) 189 FLORENCE Position 7 R. Florence from San Miniato(on^) 191 " 8 R. The Duomo, the heart of Florence (one) 191 " 9 R. Palazzo Vecchio and square (one) 191 10 R. Vecchio Bridge and River Arno (one) 191 irR. The Wrestlers, Venus de Medici, etc (one) 191 12 R. In the Pitti Palace gallery (one) 191 n ({ (( ST. MARK S, VENICE Position 13 R. The Lion from the Lagoon (one) 193 " 14 R. San Marco, a poem in mo- saic (one) 193 " 15 R. Interior of San Marco.. . .(one) 193 Russia — peasant life Position I. Making hay in Russia (four) 194 " 2. A characteristic country- house (four) 195 " 3. Cloth-market, Nijni Nov- gorod (four) 196 SURFACE FEATURES Position 4. From Sparrow Hills to Mos- cow (three) 198 5. Floating bridge over Oka, Nijni Novgorod (three} 199 6. Podol portion of old Kief. . . (three) 199 7. Overlooking salt -fields, Soli- . nen . .' .' . .*. .". .* .'p^^^^) 200 (( 52 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Library Reference Groups st. petersburg page Position I R. Riding-school of the Life Guards, etc (one) 201 '* 2 R. Nevsky Prospect, the prin- cipal street (one) 201 3 R. St. Catherine church and procession (one) 201 MOSCOW — Position 4 R. Moscow, the pride of the Czars (one) 202 " 5 R. The Kremlin, Moscow. . . .{one) 202 '^ 6 R. Kremlin wall and tower of Sacred Gate (one) 202 Greece — Library Reference Groups the land and the people Position I R. Modern homes in ancient Sparta (one) 204 2 R. ^'Agamemnon's council hall," Mykenae {one) 204 3 R. Argos and plain S. E. to Nauplia {one) 204 '^ 4 R. The Larisa from market, Argos {one) 204 " 5 R. Ruinsof theatre, 4th century b. c, Megalopolis (one) 204 *' 6 R. North over Pharsala (one) 204 '^ 7 R. A shepherd and his flock, .(one) 204 '' 8 R. Shepherds bringing lambs to Nauplia {one) 204 ATHENS Position 9 R. Looking N. E. from Piraeus to Athens {one) 205 10 R. Shipping at Piraeus {one) 205 11 R. Athens and Acropolis from Lykabettos {one) 205 12 R. The Acropolis crowned by the Parthenon {one) 205 13 R. "Earth proudly wears the Parthenon" {one) 205 14 R. From Parthenon over modem city {one) 205 15 R. Looking over Academy to Lykabettos {one) 206 AFRICA Egypt — the people, the monuments and the desert Position I. Ruins of the temple, Sphinx and Pyramid {six) 207 it it li IC It POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 53 PAGE Position 2 . Second Pyramid from Great Pyramid (six) 209 ** 3. From Great Pyramid E. over Nile valley (jovir) 210 THE SPHINX AND THE PYRAMIDS Return to Position i 211 Return to Position 2 212 CAIRO — Position 4. Cairo from citadel to the Nile {three) 214 5. Cairo, S. W. to the Pyra- mids {three) 215 " 6. Citadel, mosque and ceme- tery {three) 215 ** 7. A crowded street in Cairo .. (^/tr^^) 216 IRRIGATION Positions. A shaduf lifting water {six) 217 9. The great dam at Assouan. . .(5i:x:) 218 Library Reference Groups bedouin life Position I R. Bedouin village in Libyan Desert {one) 220 THE river NILE WATER-SUPPLY AND NAVIGATION Position 2 R. Boats along the Nile {one) 222 3 R. Market boats of old Cairo {one) 222 4 R. Nile bridge at Cairo {one) 222 Central Africa — life in central africa Position I. Turumu village and people (^/^r^^) 224 I a. Tying poles for new houses {one) 225 " lb. Bangala homes near Nouvelle Anvers {one) 225 *' ic. Conical huts of clay {one) 225 *' id. Ndombe, chief of a tribe ....(one) 225 Position 2. Upoto blacksmith at work {three) 225 '* 2a. Man making fish-net {one) 226 " 2b. Canoes at Yakusu {one) 226 ** 2C. Woman making pottery . . .{one) 226 " 2d. Women planting sweet pota- toes {one) 226 Position 3. Laborers in a banana field {three) 226 " 3a. Service at a mission school {one) 227 *' 3b. Outdoor class at mission school {one) 22 7 " 3c. Bangala people at a mis- sion {one) 227 Position 4 . Carrying rubber and ivory to steamer {three) 227 54 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE PAGE Position 4a. Bringing rubber to a trading- post (one) 228 4b. Native soldiers drilling .... (one) 228 4c. Rations ready for work- men (one) 228 4d. Market near Wathen (one) 228 (i THE CONGO RIVER Position 5. Forest-trail in the heart of Africa (two) 230 5a. Bridge of poles, trail at Yam- buya (one) 23 1 " 5b. Thysville, a center of Euro- peans (one) 23 1 " 5c. Trail and village near Yam- buya (one) 23 1 Position 6. Traveler's supply-caravan. . (^z£;o) 231 6a. Women carrying luggage ..(one) 232 - Position 7. Up the lower Congo, below Boma (two) 232 7a. Government house. Banana Point (one) 233 " 7b. Boma, capital of Congo Free State (one) 233 Position 8. Mission stations on Congo river (two) 233 9. Cataracts of Congo river ... (^zyo) 233 10. Leopoldville on Stanley Pool (^wo) 234 " loa. Matadi, on the lower Congo (one) 235 " lob. Train that crosses the equator (one) 235 ** II. River steamer landing, Yas- aka (two) 23 5 " 1 1 a. Lukolela wood-post near equator (one) 235 *' lib. River steamer at La Romee (one) 235 lie. Fish-traps in river, Stanley Falls (one) 235 ASIA India and Ceylon — the people and their surroundings Position I . Rice farm amid hills of Cey- lon. (two) 237 " 2 . Country home and rice har- vest, Ceylon (two) 238 ** 3. Charming valleys of interior Ceylon (two) 238 " 4. Shawl- weavers in Cashmere, India (two) 239 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS OO PAGE Position 5. Wood-carving shop, Simla, India (two) 240 " 6. Native goldsmiths, Kandy, Ceylon (two) 240 HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS AND NORTHERN PLAINS Position 7. Snows of Kinchinjanga from Darjeeling (four) 242 " 8. An earthly paradise , — Vale of Cashmere (four) 243 ** 9. Benares, N. E. down Gan- ges (Jour) 244 RELIGIONS Position 10. Hindus bathing in Ganges, Benares (three) 245 II. Worshippers in temple, Mt. Abu (three) 246 ** 12. Mohammedans at prayer, Delhi . (three) 246 *' 13. "There is no god but God," Ahmedabad (three) 247 ELEPHANTS AND THEIR WORK Position 14. Plowing a paddy-field, Ceylon (four) 248 ** 15. In a timber-yard, India. . ,(four) 249 " 16. India's princes at the Delhi Durbar (jour) 249 Library Reference Groups capturing wild elephants Position I R. Stockade before elephants were driven in (one) 250 ** 2 R. Tame elephant breaking down timber (one) 250 ** 3 R. Above a herd of wild ele- phants (one) 25 1 ** 4 R. Stockade after sixty had broken out (one) 25 1 CITIES OF INDIA Position 5 R. Chowringhee Roai, N. over Calcutta (one) 252 **' 6 R. Over University, South, Bombay (on£) 252 ** 7 R. Substantial elegance of modem Madras (one) 252 8 R. Chandni Chouk, Delhi (one) 252 *' 9 R. North up Jauhri Bazar, Jeypore (one) 252 ** 10 R. S. W. down street of shops, Lahore (one) 252 56 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Ohina — THE PEOPLE AND THEIR HOMES PAGE Position I. Types of Manchumen, Pek.in^three) 254 ** 2. Pekinese women in a wealthy home \ . . {three) 254 ** . 3. Family of the lower class, Tientsien {three) 255 ** 4. Canton's "floating" popula- tion {three) 256 SURFACE FEATURES Position 5 . From South Gate over Shan- hai-Kwan {three) 257 '* 6. A thoroughfare in the Tartar city, Pekin {three) 257 " 7. Paddy fields at Matin among mountains {three) 258 " 8. Across bay to Kowloon, — Hong Kong {three) 259 PRODUCTS — (See Rice and Tea among Industrial Subjects) BAMBOO — Position 9. Cultivated bamboo at Nan- kin {six) 261 ** 10. Giant bamboo near Kandy, Ceylon {six) 261 Twelve specimens of bamboo are desirable. THE WATER-WAYS OF CHINA Position 1 1 . Picturesque land of Confu- cius, Soo Chow {four) 262 " 12. Junk flotilla on Peiho rvver {four) 263 ** 13. Looking down Chukiang river, Canton {four) 264 Library Reference Groups chinese cities Position I R. Unchangeable China, caravan at Pekin {one) 265 " 2 R. A busy thoroughfare in the Tartar city, Pekin. .{one) 265 (same as Position 6) '* 3 R. Pagoda-gate and people of Mukden {one) 265 '' 4 R. Canton from pagoda onN. wall ^ . {one) 2 65 GREAT WALL OF CHINA Position 5 R. Shan-hai-Kwan, east end of wall {one) 267 ** 6 R. China's old barrier crossing mountains {one) 267 ** 7 R. Looking north along Great Wall {one) 267 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 57 Japan — surface features page Position I . Flailing barley beside Inland Sea {three) 268 " 2. Men shooting Hozu Rapids on the Katsura (three) 269 " 3. Home at foot of Fujiyama, the sacred mountain (three) 2 70 '* 4. Rice fields in crater of Aso San (three) 271 JAPANESE HOMES Position 5. South front, home of Count Okuma, Tokyo (three) 272 *' 6. Serene simplicity of Okuma home (interior) (three) 273. " 7. Charming geishas at dinner (three) 274 ** 8. Girl sleeping with head on support (three) 275 ** 8a. Family picnic, Omuro Gosho(on^) 276 " 8b. Gardens and home of Y. 'Namikawa (one) 2 76 Library Reference Groups japanese cities Position I R. Part of Tokyo's 100 square miles (one) 276 *' 2 R. Asakusa St. with its throngs, Tokyo (one) 276 *' 3 R. West along canal toward center of Tokyo (one) 276 ** 4 R. Soldiers leaving Tokyo for the front (one) 277 ** 5 R. From Tennoji Pagoda over Osaka (one) 277 ** 6 R. A silk store in Osaka (one) 277 ** 7 R. A Buddhist funeral Kyoto (on^) 277 *' 8 R. Mid-summer traffic in Kyoto (one) 277 TRANSPORTATION IN JAPAN Position 9 R. Japanese lady in a yama- kago (one) 2 78 10 R. Burden-bearers in Tokyo (on^) 278 " II R. Picturesque shops and crowds, Yokohama. . . . (one) 278 12 R. Shiba Canal, Tokyo (one) 278 13 R. Coaling a steamship, Nagasaki (one) 2 yS 14 R. Ocean steamships, Naga- saki (one) 278 " 15 R. Shijo bridge, Kyoto (one) 278 " 16 R. The Ginza, a thoroughfare of Tokyo (one) 2 78 58 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE JAPANESE HANDICRAFTS PAGE Position 17 R. Vats for mixing clay, Kyoto (one) 279 18 R. Preparing the clsiy ... .{one) 279 ** 19 R. A potter and his wheel.... (on^) 279 ** 20 R. Workmen watching kilns(ow^) 279 ** 21 R. Removing pottery from kilns (one) 279 ** 22 R. Decorators at work (one) 279 ** 23 R. Expert workmen on cloi- sonne {one) 279 " 24 R. Pretty factory girls {one) 279 CHILD LIFE IN JAPAN Position 25 R. Big sisters and little brothers {one) 280 ** 26 R. Schoolhouse and grounds, Yokohama {one) 280 27 R. The "Lotus Flower," a typical game {one) 280 ** 28 R. Schoolboys in Ueno Park(on^) 280 29 R. A*' tug of war." Ueno Park Tokyo {one) 280 " 30 R. Schoolboys fishing in park, Tokyo {one) 280 ** 31 R. Children celebrating a feast {one) 280 ** 32 P. Street performer amusing a crowd {one) 280 Korea — KOREAN ways Position I . Primitive life in the Hermit Kingdom (two) 282 Grist-mill of Korean peasa,nts{two) 283 A man-power shovel, Seoul. . {two) 283 House-building in Korea. . . . {two) 284 Crude industries of Korea. . . (two) 284 Village gossip in suburb of Seoul {two) 285 Library Reference Group cities in korea Position I R. Seoul, the capital of Korea (ow^) 287 ** 2 R. Typical houses outside Seoul {one) 287 3 R. Outside the South Gate Seoul {one) 287 4 R. From South Gate N. E. over Seoul {one) 287 ** 5 R. Shops and traders, Seoul. . (one) 287 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 59 Position 6 R. Washing and bathing in a page sewer (one) 287 7 R. The Gospel Light in Ko- rea (one) 287 8 R. N. W. along a street in Fu- san (one) 287 " 9 R. West to harbor entrance, Chemulpo (one) 287 Philippine Islands — Library Reference Group Position I R. Busy Pasig river, Manila. . (o«^) 289 2 R. Escolta, chief business street, Manila (one) 289 " 3 R. A native home in Ermita..(on^) 289 *' 4 R. Visayan homes, Island of Cebu {one) 289 INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD Textiles — COTTON growing Position I I T. Cotton is King: Plan- tation in Georgia . . . {twelve) 293 spinning and weaving — Position 2 I T. The Lazzaroni in street, Naples {two) 295 " 3 I T. Spinning flax with a wheel, Ireland {two) 296 " 4 I T. Peasant housewife weav- ing cotton, Japan {two) 297 ** 5 I T. Carding-room, mills at Columbia, S. C {two) 298 6 I T. Warping-room, Belfast, Ireland {two) 299 " 7 I T. Plain weaving- room, Belfast, Ireland {two) 300 sheep raising — Position 8 I T. Sheep-raising in Arizona {four) 302 *' 9 I T. Fine results of sheep- raising, Michigan {four) 303 " 10 I T. Sheep-shearing on an American ranch (Jour) 304 Library Reference Groups cotton from field to market Position I I T R. Cotton in cartloads at mill, Texas {one) 306 ** 2 I T R. Cotton-gin separating fibre from seed {one) 306 3 I T R. Baling cotton, — a power- ful press {one) 306 60 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Position 4 I T R. Packing cotton in cyl- page indrical bales {one) 306 " 5 I T R. Apart of the 4,000,000 bale crop (one) 306 " 6 I T R. Loading barges with cotton {one) 306 7 I T R. Shipping cotton by cars {one) 306 FLAX AND LIXEN Position 8 I T R. Flax curing in fields, Belgium {one) 307 " 9 I T R. Flax soaking in river, Belgium .{one) 308 . *' 10 I T R. Hatcheling flax, Belfast, Ireland. . . . {one) 308 *' II I T R. Damask weaving looms, Belfast, Ireland. . . . {one) 308 ** 12 I T R. Bleaching field near Belfast, Ireland. . . .{one) 308 Foods — harvesting grain Position I I F. Harvesting wheat, Gui- puzcoa, Spain {three) 312 2 I F. Modern harvester in Manitoba {three) 312 " 3 I F. A threshing-floor in Palestine {three) 312 ** 4 I F. Wonderful progress from flail to thresher {three) 313 " 4 I Fa. Sacking wheat from thresher {one) 314 TRANSPORTATION OF GRAIN Position 5 I F. Wheat for export at Odessa, Russia C-^^^) 3^4 *' 6 I F. Loading steamers from elevators, Canada {six) 315 test; COMPARISON OF METHODS Position 6 I F a. Plowing in Plain of Sharon {one) 316 " 6 I F b. Plowing on a farm in Illinois {one) 316 Position 6 I F c. Evolution of sickle and flail, Washington ... (on^) 316 TEA Position 7 I F. Coolie tea-pickers at work, Ceylon (jour) 318 8 I F. Girls picking tea, Uji, Japan {four) 3 18 *' 9 I F. Unloading tea, Hankow, China {four) 319 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 61 RICE PAGE Position lo I F. Filipino rice-field and water buffalo {three) 321 " II I F. Pulling up young rice, Japan {three) 321 *' 12 I F. Transplanting rice in Japan {three) 322 " 13 I F. Cutting and sheaving rice, Japan {three) 322 Library Reference Groups RICE IN the united STATES Position I I F R. Harvester cutting rice, Texas {one) 324 2 I F R. Hauling rice to thresher, Texas {one) 324 ** 3 I F R. Steam thresher at work, Texas {one) 324 4 I F R. Modern methods in the field, Texas {one) 324 GRAZING AND MEAT PACKING Position 5 I F R. A cattle round-up in Arizona {one) 325 6 I F R. Spring "round-up," iVrizona {one) 325 7 I F R. Cowboys examining a brand . {one) 325 8 I F R. How grass is turned into beef {one) 325 9 I F R. Union Stock Yards, Chicago {one) 325 10 I F R. Cooling-room, Armour's packing-house {one) 325 CORN AND PORK Position 1 1 I F R. In the great cornfields, Kansas {one) 326 *' 12 I F R. Twentieth century har- vesting, Mich {one) 326 " 13 I F R. Genuine corn-fed pork, Illinois (one) 326 *' 14 I F R. A half-mile of pork, Chicago {one) 326 FISHING Position 15 I F R. Seining for salmon, Oregon {one) 327 *' 16 I F R. Seining chenook salm- on, Oregon {one) 327 17 I F R. A pot full of fish, Oregon {one) 328 18 I F R. Brailing — taking from trap, Oregon {one) 328 62 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Position 19 I F R. What *' captains cour- page ageous " bring home (on^) 328 20 I F R. **Fish out of water," {one) 328 WHALING Position 2 1 I F R. Whalers Diana and Nova Zembla (one) 328 ** 22 I F R. A veteran harpooner.(ow^) 328 '* 23 I F R. Loading flippers and blubber (one) 328 24 I F R. Whaling in Baffin Bay (one) 328 FRUIT RAISING IN CALIFORNIA Position 25 I F R. Redlands and S. Ber- nardino valley .... {one) 329 ** 26 I F R. Irrigating an orange grove {one) 329 ** 27 I F R. Picking oranges, Riverside {one) 329 SUGAR IN AMERICA Position 28 I F R. Plantation and sugar mill Cuba {one) 330 29 I F R. Cutting sugar cane, Cuba {one) 330 30 I F R. Hauling cane to mill, Caguas. {one) 330 31 I F R. Evaporators for beet- juice {one) 330 32 I F R. Diffusion batteries for beet-sugar {one) 330 33 I F R. Centrifugals for sepa- rating sugar {one) 330 / 34 I F R. Sugar levee in New Orleans {one) 330 COFFEE — Position 35 I F R. Coolies picking coffee, Ceylon {one) 331 '* 36 I F R. Coffee on drying- floors, Mexico {one) 331 '* 37 I F R. Drying coffee in Porto Rico {o7te) ^^ I 38 I F R. Crude method of husking coffee. . . .{one) 331 BANANAS Position 39 I F R. In the heart of a plantation, Hawaii (ow^) 332 . *' 40 I F R. Largest banana field, Costa Rica {one) 332 ** 41 I F R. Among finest bananas, Costa Rica {one) 332 ..-.*-' 42 I F R. Young banana plants, -'•.J .... . . • Porto Rico (one) 332 POSITIONS TAKEX BY PUPILS 63 Position 43 IF R. Carrying to market, page Jamaica {one) 332 44 I F R. Indian "dug-outs," Panama {one) 332 TOBACCO Position 45 I F R. Typical tobacco plan- tation, Cuba {one) 333 " 46 I F R. Largest tobacco field, Jamaica {one) ^^^ Mining and Manufacturing — lake superior mines Position I I M. Miners in underground drift {four) 335 1 I Ma. Copper ore hoisted up shaft {one) 335 2 I M. Open-pit mining at Hibbing {four) 335 3 I M. Digging iron ore with steam-shovels (fotir) 336 3 I Ma. Stripping surface earth {one) 337 3 I Mb. Five-ton steam shovel crew {one) 2)3 7 TRANSPORTATION OF ORES Position 4 I M. Docks with two miles frontage, Michigan . . {two) 338 5 I M. Pockets of iron ore on dock, Michigan {two) 339 ** 6 I M. Lake steamer loading with ore, Minnesota., {two) 340 *' 7 I M. "Down-lockage "in canal, — the Soo {two) 340 *' 7 I Ma. Looking W. over locks, Soo Canal {one) 341 7 I Mb. '*Up-lockage" for freighters Soo Canal {one) 341 ** 7 I Me. Whaleback freighters, Soo Canal {one) 341 7 I Md. *' Down-lockage for freighters, Soo Canal {one) 341 7 I Me. North from Michigan side, Soo Canal {one) 341 Position SIM. Unloading an ore steamer, Cleveland {two) 342 9 I M. Piles of iron ore at Con- neaut {two) 342 ** 9 I Ma. Electric unloader lifting 5 tons {one) 343 ** 9 I Mb. Unloading, — new method and old {one) 343 64 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Position 9 I Mc. Docks, switchyards and page buckets^ (one) 343 " 9 I Md. Hulett unloader hand- ling 10 tons {one) 343 IRON AND STEEL Position 10 I M. Steel Works at Home- stead, Pennsylvania (four) 345 ** II I M. Red-hot iron from blast furnace {four) 346 ** 12 I M. Beam of red-hot steel in mill . / {four) 347 Library Reference Groups coal and coke Position I I M R. Mining three miles underground {one) 349 " 2 I M R. Dinner underground with safety lamps. . {one) 349 " 3 I M R. Down in a soft coal mine {one) 349 " 4 I M R. Coke ovens near Al- toona {one) 349 COPPER MINING Position 5 I M R. Loading surface ore, Arizona {one) 350 6 I M R. Drilling ore under- ground, Arizona. . . {one) 350 7 I M R. In the mountain's heart, Arizona {one) 350 8 I M R. Inclines to the copper mines, Arizona {one) 350 9 I M R. Detroit Copper Co. 's con- centrator, Arizona., (ow^) 350 10 I M R. Climbing last loop on railway, Arizona . . . {one) 350 GOLD MINING Position II I M R. Prospecting for gold, Arizona {one) 351 12 I M R. Gold mine at Hunker Creek, Klondike, .{one) 351 " 13 I M R. Gold miners at work, Klondike {one) 351 " 14 I M R. In an ore-crushing mill, S. Africa. . . .{one) 351 " 15 I M R. Precipitating vats, Jo- hannesburg, S . Af r. {one) 351 PLATE GLASS MANUFACTURE — Position 16 I M R. In the glass works, Tarantum, Pa. . . . {one) 352 ** 17 I M R. Drawing pot from fur- nace ,Tar antum , Pa. {one) 352 POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 65 Position i8 I M R. Rolling sheets of glass, page Tarantum, Pa. . . . {one) 352 " ig I M R. Grinding surface of glass, Tarantum, Pa(on^) 352 20 I M R. Finishing plate glass, Tarantum, Pa. . . . {one) 352 Lumbering — big trees of california Position I I L R. Cutting down big trees, Converse Basin. . . {one) 353 " 2 I L R. Ending a life of centur- ies , Converse B asin {one) 353 '* 3 I L R. Stump whe^e a forest giant stood {one) 353 ** 4 I L R. Blast rending section of tree. {one) 353 " 5 I L R. Hauling sections on skids {one) 353 6 I L R. Saw-mill in Big Tree district {one) 353 FROM FOREST TO LUMBER YARD Position 7 I L R. Flat-cars loaded with logs, Cal {one) 354 8 I L R. Poling logs in a mill- pond, Cal {one) 354 '* 9 I L R. Nashwaak river. New Brunswick {one) 354 ** 10 I L R. Sorting logs for mill. Wis {one) 354 ** II I L R. Scouring logs at mill, Minn {one) 354 " 12 I L R. Piles of lumber season- ing, Minn {one) 354 TAR AND TURPENTINE Position 13 I L R. Gathering crude tur- pentine, N. C {one) 355 14 I L R. Distilling turpentine from resin, N. C. . {one) 355 15 I L R. Sweating out tar from pine wood, N. C. . {one) 355 16 I L R. Free and happy life in the Sand Belt, N.C.{one) 355 17 I L R. Typical negro home in Sand Belt, N. C.{one) 355 18 I L R. Greatest resin market, Georgia (one) 355 Quarrying — Position I I Q R. Blasting granite at Cape Ann, Mass. ..{one) 356 66 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Volcanoes — VOLCANIC CONES PAGE Position I V. Birdseye view of Naples and Vesuvius (six) 357 (same as Position 4 in Italy) *\ 2 V. Snow-capped Fuji the superb, Japan {three) 358 ** 3 V. Mount Hood from Lost Lake, Oregon {three) 3 59 VOLCANIC PHENOMENA AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES Position 4 V. A terrible volcanic explo- sion, Mont Pelee {two) 359 '* 5 V. Gazing through sulphurous vapors, Aso San {two) 360 ** 6 V. Stones and lava thrown up- ward, Hawaai {two) 3 60 7 V. Over dead St. Pierre to Mont Pel6e {two) 361 8 V. Scientists exploring St. Pierre {two) 361 9 V. The forum of Pompeii and Vesuvius (two) 362 iC << THE PLAN OF CATALOGUING We have adopted a simple system to aid schools in cataloguing the stereographs upon which this work is based. The stereographs provided for class study are numbered in the Guide, in the order in which they appear under the heads of the dififerent countries or important sections. Then on the back of each of the stereograph mounts, in the upper right-hand corner, is given the name of the country or section to which the stereo- graph belongs, together with its serial number, and ''School Position" in parenthesis, as, for example, "(i) New York City (School Position)." Any numbers that may appear in connection with the title on the front of the stereograph are to be ignored in using or cataloguing the school stereographs. Stereographs used in the Library Reference Groups under the heads of the different countries or sections are numbered in the Guide separately from the stereographs for regular class use, and have the letter R added to their serial numbers. On the backs of the stereographs the word ''Reference" is added, as "(i) New York City — Reference (School Posi- tion)." All the stereographs used under the heading, "The Industries of the World" have the letter I added to the numbers in the Guide. The Industries are studied under the headings. Textiles, Foods, Mining and Manufacturing, Lumbering, and Quarrying. Stereographs used in each of these divisions are numbered separately. The stereographs used in the 68 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE study of Textiles have the letter T added in this book to the letter I and the serial numbers; those used in the study of Foods, have the letter F added to the letter I and their serial numbers; those used under Mining and Manufacturing have the letter M added to the letter I and their serial numbers. Stereographs relating to Lumbering (including the extraction of Tar and Turpentine) add the letter L to the I and the serial numbers. The stereographs used in the Library Reference Groups under these various heads have the letter R added to the other letters and their serial numbers. The titles appearing on the backs of these stereo- graphs are, for instance, ''(i) Industries — Textiles (School Position)," ''(i) Industries — Foods ( School Position) ,'' '' ( i ) Industries — Textiles — Reference (School Position)," etc. The classification of Whaling along with Fisheries in general brings it somewhat incongruously under the head of Food Industries, but, for the sake of avoiding elaboration, this will doubtless be par- doned. The stereographs used in the study of Volcanoes have the letter V added to the serial numbers in this book, and the word Volcanoes given in full on the backs of the stereographs. NORTH AMERICA NEW YORK CITY The industries, the tall buildings and the street life of New York are studied from six Positions. A Library Reference Group of four Positions covers methods of travel. All together, these afford a very comprehensive view of New York City. It is important, in beginning the study of every topic, and in connection with each Position, for the pupils to locate their standpoints on the map with some care. For the study of New York City a spe- cially prepared map has been provided. Information concerning the value and use of these patented maps is given on page xxi, in the Student's Stereoscopic Field Guide. The teacher is urged to make sure that the pupils are trained in the intelligent use of this device. The text on New York City in the Tarr and Mc- Murry Geography of North America, and the topic Cities in the section entitled Summary and Con- clusion, will be found helpful both to teachers and pupils. For the teacher Brigham's Geographic In- Huences in American History, pp. 25 and 26, will prove suggestive and stimulating. The Metropolitan Line, seen from the West street, or first, Position, is used principally for freight. Travelers and business men cannot afford the time 70 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE required to make the trip around Cape Cod. This point can be brought out in the recitation. Most of the craft upon the river are freight or passenger ferry boats. Some of the smallest are tow boats. Freight cars are transferred between the Jersey City terminals of the railroads and New York upon flat scows, like the one seen over the end of the w^harf. From the second Position, ''From Brooklyn Bridge, west," one of these scows can be seen just coming into sight from the left. B. T. Babbitt, seen on a building from the first Position, is the name of a soap manufacturer. The tall buildings seen from the second Position, ''From Brooklyn Bridge, west," are used principally for offices. That section of the city is distinctively the wholesale trading center. (See Tarr and Mc- Murry.) Tall buildings are a necessity in New York both geographically and economically. Sur- rounded by water on three sides there is no oppor- tunity to spread out and land is, therefore, so ex- pensive that lofty structures containing a great many offices are necessary, in order for the landlord to re- ceive a profitable return upon his investment. From our fourth Position, in Broad street, the Sub-Treasury is the low Doric building in the dis- tance facing us. The lowest of the near buildings on our left with pillars in front is the Stock Ex- change. The Sub-Treasury stands at the corner of Broad and Wall streets, that is. Wall street runs in front of the Sub-Treasury. The United States keeps a large amount of money in the Sub- Treasury. The banking house of J. P. Morgan & Co. is the last building on our right, the building NEW YORK CITY 71 nearest to the Sub-Treasury. Wall Street is one of the most important financial centers of the world. Immense loans of money are obtained on Wall Street and ventures involving millions of dollars are planned and consummated by the men whose places of business are located there. In the Stock Exchange bonds, railroad and bank stocks and shares in mines and factories are bought and sold every day. The street just in front of us where you see the crowd of men is the ''Curb'' market, w^here stocks are sold on the street. Elizabeth street is a type of the tenement house district. The houses are occupied by a great many people. Each family perhaps has only a single room and in some cases it is said that in that space two or three families live. The fire escapes on the fronts of the houses are required by law. The street ped- dlers sell vegetables, bread, toys, small wares and drygoods. (See Xew York State Supplement to Tarr and McMurry's Geography.) NIAGARA From Position i we get a birdseye view and make a general study of Niagara. This is suggest- ed for complete duplication. From Positions 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, we study and compare the several falls; from Positions 8, 9 and 10, 'The Rock Walls of the Gorge.'' For a study of *'The Action of the Falls/' we return to Positions 7, 5, 4, 6, 8, and take a new Position, 11. We study Niagara's *'Rela- tions to Commerce'^ from Positions 12 and 13; Ni- agara's ''Relations to Manufacturing," from Posi- tions 14 and 15. Most of the Positions are located on the map in the Student's Guide. If the six sets of rock specimens, referred to on page 14 be not used when studying the walls of the gorge, four duplicate stereographs each for Positions 8, 9 and 10 will be needed. If a school system prefers to treat the influ- ence of Niagara upon commerce and manufacturing as one topic, with one observation lesson, but three duplicates for Positions 12 to 15 should be secured. Renowned scenery as observ^ed through the stereo- scope afifords opportunity for systematic drill that will vigorously train the powers of observation and memory. When the recitation period arrives, ask the pupils to shut their eyes and call to mind what they saw from the first Position. Ask one, then another, to describe the view. So continue with succeeding Positions. This will give practice in the vivid expression of observations also. The class should return to the central standpoint (Position i), giving the birdseye view, at several NIAGARA FALLS 73 Stages of the work. The falls are studied from other Positions repeatedly also. The teacher should not expect too much from the class during the ear- lier recitations. Far more may be observed from each standpoint than can be noted or understood at first sight. Some lines of questioning are started early, to direct observation and thought, which the class should not be pressed to answer fully until the work closes. For instance, when comparing the three falls the pupils are asked as to the effects of a less or greater volume of water upon conditions at the foot of the falls (p. 13), but the question will not be discussed at length until viewed in the light of further knowledge (p. 15, Position 4). A more thorough study of Niagara is provided than can be undertaken wisely in lower grades — the fifth or sixth; the more difficult topics and lines of thought should be deferred until the United States IS studied for the last time in an upper grade. The central standpoint gives a comprehensive foundation view. The level horizon shows that the undulating plain of woodlands and fields extends be- yond our vision. The Niagara Valley above the falls appears broad and shallow, as befits a river flowing down a gentle slope. How small the objects on the farther river bank look! The steep slope from near the railway embankment on the plain down to the al- most level land in the narrow Victoria Park suggests that the upper river has here removed glacial deposits down to the underlying rock. Into this the gorge is sharply cut, narrow, deep and walled by vertical cliffs with slopes of fallen rocks at their foot. Up- stream the shallow waters slip or plunge from ledge 74 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE to ledge : in the gorge the steamer rides on currents whose tortuous Hnes of foam reveal the tumultuous heaving of depths mightily stirred by the falling floods. Recognize Niagara as a sublime spectacle. Let the pupils catalogue its scenic features; the mighty falls curtained by a wind-blown drapery of mists, the far horizon and o'er-arching heavens, the darkly wooded islands, and the flashing foam of broken waters. Studies of the scenery of the falls follow under the topic, '*The Falls.'' The map shows the bend of the river at the falls, and thus one cause for the large vol- ume of water over the Canadian Falls, for the current presses ever forward and swings against the curve of the Canadian bank. Except at the deep center of the Canadian Falls the water drops from the irregu- lar, broken verge of the cliffs in separate masses, or plunging rockets, because the steplike ledges above the falls throw the water into waves and the air resistance tends to break the falling water into spray. The broken waters, mingled with air, scatter the light rays reflected from their surfaces and appear white in the falls and spray and where the bubbles boil up from the depths of the restless pool. This and the preceding paragraph suggest the descriptive summary that the teacher should give or secure from the class at the close of the discussion of their ob- servations. For the study of the "Rock Walls of the Gorge." a half dozen sets of labeled rock specimens, crumbly, thin-bedded shale and massive Niagara and Tren- ton limestones, may be secured by any school if the aid of friends about to visit Niagara is enlisted.^ NIAGARA FALLS 75 Limestones and shales from other sources, however, may be substituted. They will materially aid the pupils to infer that as the weak shales w^eather, the resistant limestone beds are gradually undermined, until blocks fall and leave a vertical cliff face, above the steep slopes of crumbling shale. The cause of the recession of the falls is so well presented in many accessible books that it needs no discussion here. Teachers should prepare for directing class dis- cussion of the two exercises on the history of Ni- agara, ''Rock Walls of the Gorge" and 'The Action of the Falls,'' by studying accounts of water action and valley forms in the best physical geographies, such as those by Tarr, Davis, Gilbert & Brigham, or Dryer, and in Gilbert's little monograph on Niagara Falls (American Book Co.). Only simple truths of first importance, however, should be considered with the class. Teachers will find the life relations of Niagara, such as are taken up in our topics, ''Relations to Commerce" and "Relations to ^lanufacturing" con- sidered at length in Brigham's Geographic In- Uiiences in American History (Ginn), and in Miss Semple's American History and Its Geographic Conditions (Houghton, Mifiiin & Co.). Dr. C. A. McMurry's Type Studies from United States Ge- ography (]\Iacmillan), considers the values of Ni- agara as a type along many lines, and it should be in a teacher's library. Such matters as the working of a canal lock, or of elevator machiner}', are ex- plained in any good encyclopaedia. In Position 12 the vessel is evidently moving 76 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE southward, and from Lake Ontario toward Lake Erie. It is lightly laden, for most heavy cargoes, as of grain or lumber, move oceanward from the in- terior plains, forests and mines. In Position 13 the pairs of shafts that extend into the vessel's hold con- tain an endless chain or belt with buckets that auto- matically remove the grain. Over the wharf are tubes that are used in directing the streams of grain from the elevators into vessels or freight cars. The Student's Stereoscopic Field Guide suggests that the study of Niagara from the different stand- points be introduced or supplemented by the study of books and literature, by field study, picture study, and written composition. Other similar exercises are often wise. Visits may be made by class and teacher to an electric power station, and to a neigh- boring grain elevator or flour mill, even though it be small. The United States Geological Survey pub- lishes a map of Niagara and vicinity which can easily be made of great value in the work of a class. It may be obtained from the Director of the sur- vey at Washington, D. C., for ten cents. A similar government map of the falls and gorge of the Miss- issippi River at Minneapolis (five cents) makes pos- sible the full application of the study of Niagara as a type to another important example of a gorge and falls of glacial origin. A valuable exercise to close the work would be an address from some one who has visited Niagara Falls, Buffalo, and the canals, and who can answer questions that may be still in doubt. WESTERN SCENERY Western America possesses sublime and inspiring scenes. They are visited by thousands of tourists yearly. The Nation has reserved some of the finest regions as national parks. Children should receive the uplift that comes from standing in the presence of these grand natural features of our own land. It will be found, moreover, that life relations are not overlooked in the treatment suggested. We take the class to the desert reaches of the Colorado Pla- teau at Position i, to Positions 2, 3, 4 and 5, to be- hold the Grand Canyon of the Colorado ; to Positions 6, 7, 8 and 9 to study the Yellowstone National Park, and to Positions 10, 11 and 12 to enjoy the Yellowstone Canyon. We suggest in addition that at least the abler pupils avail themselves of the Li- brary Reference Groups during spare moments, studying the Colorado Plateau from the Library Reference Positions iR, 2R, 3R and 4R; the Hot Springs and Geysers of the Yellowstone National Park from Positions 5R, 6R, 7R, 8R, 9R, loR, iiR, and 12R; the Yosemite Valley from Positions 13R, 14R, 15R, 16R, 17R and 18R; the Big Trees of California from Positions 19R, 20R,. 21R, 22 R, 23R and 24R ; the Rocky Mountains as iseen from Positions 25R, 26R, 27R, 28R and 29R; and the Canadian Rocky Mountains and the Selkirks from Positions 30R, 31R, 32R, 33R, 34R and 35R. The best instructors in geography, in connection with the patented maps given in the Student's Guide, 78 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE use the contour line maps of the United States Geo- logical Survey, Washington, D. C, on class field trips. The excursions planned above will gain much from such correlation. The various standpoints and their fields of view should be marked on the maps with red ink and the eyes of the class should turn from the mountains, slopes and valley to their repre- sentation on the map, both to learn to read maps and also to better understand what is seen in the field. The map will inform the student accurately as to distances, heights, and slopes and thus correct the judgments formed by observation of distant features. For the Colorado Canyon get the Bright Angel and Vishnu sheets. A fine wall map of the Yellowstone National Park may be made by grouping together on a cloth back the Gallatin, Canyon, Lake and Sho- shone sheets of the topographic map. Full details for this are given in Appendix J to Tarr's New Physical Geography, For the Yosemite Valley get the Yosemite sheet. Selected scenes usually present a great many truths. Seldom can all their contents be studied in- tensely at any one period in a school course. For instance Position i shows the surface features of the Colorado Plateau, and also a typical herd of sheep. Only one class of facts is emphasized in this treatment. Industrial features are considered under ''Textiles." The series of four Positions, chosen from dozens that finely reveal the Canyon, illustrates a wealth of geographical and geological truths. Two treatments are suggested. The first (a), empha- sizes the largest scenic features, and notes the cli- matic and industrial relations. The second (b), WESTERN SCENERY 79 Studies physiographic details more fully and ques- tions their causes. Much remains for study in the secondary school, for instance the evidence of an ancient peneplain that bevelled off the granite (Po- sitions 3 and 4) and the tilted Algonkian strata (Position 2). Every teacher will decide how^ much study of the subjects for field w-ork is wise for her own class, and she may then direct the pupils to check chosen questions for consideration. Teachers w^ill find helpful discussions of the Colo- rado Canyon in recent physical geographies and in Russell's Rivers of North America. A discussion of the larger relation of the Canyon to transportation routes and to the distribution of population is given in Miss Semple's American History and Its Geo- graphic Conditions. The opening chapters of Fair- banks' s geographical reader on The Western United States afford excellent reference matter for pupils. We study the Yellowstone National Park from four standpoints, which give general views. The higher, windw-ard, western slopes receive much rain and snow and are forested; w^hile the lower valleys and plateaus to leeward on the east are so dry that the surface is not clothed with verdure but the grasses grow in tufts which gather moisture from the surrounding soil. This bunch grass cures to form a natural hay, and now feeds herds of cattle as formerly millions of buffalo. Yellowstone Falls are due to a nearly vertical body of resistant rock within the weaker lavas of the plateau. It is evident that the river is cutting down into this rock. The fall is slowly becoming lower, and in time it w^ill nearly disappear. In con- 80 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE trast, Niagara undercuts a nearly horizontal bed of resistant rock, and while the fall ever retreats up- stream, making a gorge, it will not disappear until the stream cuts back to where its gradually rising bed gets above the hard strata. An article on the National Park, by William C. Moore, in the Perry Magazine for December, 1904, outlines further de- tails admirably. John Muir's work on Our National Parks should be familiar to every teacher. QUEBEC The many studies of the rehef, industries, and cities of the United States for which stereoscopic field excursions are provided, present types true for Can- adian geography. This, for example, is notably true for lumbering and agriculture, where some stand- points are chosen in Canada. The western moun- tain ranges of Canada are viewed from standpoints listed on page 41 of the Student's Guide. A series of Positions at Quebec finely presents the scenic, historic, and commercial features of this provincial capital as a Library Reference Group. As the map and these field standpoints show a pupil, the city was founded on a commanding headland where a tributary joins the St. Lawrence, and where the river estuary broadens toward the Gulf, a natural point for a seaport and for a fortified colonial capital. The rugged character of the surface, the lack of any flood-plain, ex- plain the comparatively sparse surrounding settle- ments. The grain elevators and ocean steamer indi- cate the city's position intermediate between the far northwestern grain fields and Europe; while the small craft and miscellaneous cargo on the wharves of the Louise Basin note the character of local coast- wise commerce centering there. Quebec has been outstripped in growth and commercial importance by Montreal, advantageously placed at the head of navi- gation, but it is historically famous, is still of much importance, and is fairly typical of ports in the Maritime Provinces. MEXICO Stereographs are provided which give Positions for the study of the characteristics and general ap- pearance of the plateau region of Mexico, and for a ghmpse of certain phases of Mexican life. The situation of Mexico mostly within the torrid zone, and the wide variation in altitude between the coastal border and the interior make it a country possessing great ranges of temperature. Mexico is, in fact, an imjx^rtant and typical example of the modifying effect of elevation upon tropical heat. Combined with the variations in temperature are great differences in moisture. The character of the vegetation seen from the different Positions is a key to the amount of rainfall. The coastal margins and the windward slopes of the mountains are places of great precipitation. The central plateau is shut off by mountains from the moisture bearing winds and in its broadest part situated within the influence of the horse latitudes is a place of very scanty moisture. From 80 inches per year along the eastern coast to almost nothing in the interior is the range in the amount of rainfall. The southern portions of the central plateau are the most densely populated districts of Mexico. Notwithstanding the fact that the plateau region is poorly watered even at the south and consequently not so productive as the coastal plains its delightful temperature and healthful atmosphere make it a most desirable place to live in. The open country provides ample opportunity for the extension hori- MEXICO 83 zontally of cities. Travel and transportation, more- over, in this part of Mexico are not difificult. Al- though bearing mountains, the plateau is so level that were there no roads one could ride in a carriage from the city of Mexico to Santa Fe. The most important problem at present affecting the development of this central plateau is that of obtaining a constant and efificient supply of water for agricultural purposes. Adequate irrigation, however, is difificult to provide for. Owing to the steep slopes of the land toward the coast and the absence of natural basins the rain water finds its way all too quickly to the sea. If the problem of holding, or obtaining a supply of water can be solved satisfactorily, the central plateau will then become the center of a large and most thriving popu- lation. The central tableland has been formed in great measure by the accumulation of material washed down from the mountain ranges rising above it and discharged from numerous volcanic vents. In the vicinity of Guanajuato the efifect of this filling up process is not so evident and the topography re- veals its truly mountainous character. Popocatepetl suggests Fujiyama, the sacred moun- tain of Japan. Pupils may be encouraged to find pictures of the Japanese volcano for comparison with the Mexican cone. Vesuvius is another peak of which photographic reproductions will be available. Large quantities of sulphur are obtained from Popocatepetl and other semi-active craters. The comparison with mountains of volcanic origin in the United States may be extended to include Mts. Shasta, Rainier and Hood. 84 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Mexico has some deposits of coal. It is of rather poor quahty and occurs in seams of irregular width. The difficulties encountered in mining and the poor facilities for transportation have prevented the suc- cessful exploitation of the coal mines. This fact to- gether with the lack of education of the masses will be likely to delay the industrial progress of the na- tion. The original inhabitants of the country now called Mexico are unknown. It is generally agreed, how- ever, that this portion of America was invaded at one time by numerous tribes from the north. Seven of these, among them the Aztecs, are recognized as most important. The Aztecs were the last to come, and their annals claim the greatest interest in Mexi- can history. The habits and customs of the Tehuantepec In- dians show geographical control to an interesting degree. Related to the Esquimo in a linguistic way their method of life is as far removed from that of their northern cousins as the pole is from the equa- tor. Like the dwellers of the frozen regions, they have used what was nearest and most plentiful in the construction of their dwellings but in marked contrast as to result. Their houses are built not to exclude the air but to afiford protection against ex- cessive rainfall. The loose construction of the sides makes other provision for ventilation unnecessary and with an unlettered people who naturally spend most of their lives in the open an abundance of day- light within the hut would be a superfluity. Their diet is almost entirely vegetable: what a difference from the Esquimo! Corn, of which three crops a MEXICO 85 year may be raised, is the Mexican staff of life. John Fiske says that Indian corn had much to do with the denser population, th^ increasing organi- zation of labor and the higher development in the arts which characterized Mexico and Central Ameri- ca. Goodale's Corn Plants says that the wild coyote corn of ^Mexico is the plant from which the natives developed the cultivated Indian corn or maize now grown throughout the tropics. It is interesting to note, in passing, that the presence of the limestone which when calcined may be dissolved to form lime- water has led the Indians to employ this solution to facilitate the removal of the outer covering of the grain of corn. In Cordoba, near the central western part of Vera Cruz, the lime sellers ranged along the street gutter display their stock in trade in much the same way that other articles in common demand are shown to purchasers. Climate has offered the Mexican Indian every inducement to become a sedentary people. Hence unlike their brothers of the middle latitude they are an agricultural and non- roving people with permanent dwelling places. SOUTH AMERICA ANDEAX REGIOX It is planned that a class shall make three obser- vational studies of the geography of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. They are to take Positions i, 2, 3 and 4 to study the relief of the region and its effects upon climate and life. Po'sitions 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and TO will be taken to study the cities and the home life of the people, noting their causal relations to sur- face and climate. Positions 11, 12, 13 and 14 en- able pupils to observe the gathering and curing of cocoa, the characteristic product of Ecuador. A number of Positions are suggested for supplemen- tary study, and for these duplicates are not required. In addition eight Positions are planned for a Li- brary Reference Group, enabling the comparison of the industries of South America with those studied in North America. The relief of western South America is so strong that its effects upon climate and life are marked, and serve admirably as types.. The first lesson empha- sizes relations already learned while studying Mexico. Most of the important truths are stated in elementary texts, and this first hand study w^ill enable the pupils to appreciate them. The change in temperature, occupations, productions and the char- acter of dwellings that accompanies any consider- able change in elevation should be made clear and SOUTH AMERICA 87 summarized in brief general statements that may be written on the blackboard or in notebooks, if not well put in the textbook. For example : while tropi- cal lowlands are hot, neighboring plateaus and lofty valleys are w^arm or cool, and the highest mo-un- tains are snow capped. In a similar w^ay the rela- tion of the relief and prevailing winds to rainfall, vegetation and life should be summarized. One series of general truths may be stated thus : as the trade winds from across South America descend to the plateau, then to the coastal plain, the air contracts under the increasing pressure. Its temperature and its capacity for moisture increase. Little rain falls on the plateau and less on the plain, therefore, ir- rigation is necessar}^ Sugar and cotton plantations are found on the plain where streams issue from the mountain valleys. The ease of railway construction across O'Ur west- ern plains, and their consequent rapid agricultural development should be placed in contrast to the great cost of placing the healthy plateau region of the Andes highland in commercial connection with the seaports and the world. Lead the class to compare the extensive and progressive plantations of the coastal plain, in touch with the w^orld, with the farms of the highland, whose products are for local use and whose methods are usually very primitive. The work provided w^ith the six Positions illus- trating "Cities and People" will require more time to accomplish than is usually allowed for the study of one group. There is so much that is worth while for the pupil to observe and ponder over that enough 88 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE time should be allowed to gain satisfactory impres- sions. To hurry the pupil in this particular kind of teaching is to commit a serious error. The teacher should, therefore, either select from the questions given those that can be answered easily within the allo'ted time, leaving the others for supplementary work, or assign a longer period for observation. The natives of South America whom we see from several of the Positions occupy a distinctive and important place in the social organization. Although not so well known as the Hurons and Iroquois of North America, the Indians of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia — the Incas — from whom the people in question have descended, were undoubted- ly superior in numbers and culture to the more fa- miliar redskin of the northern latitudes. They have also displayed more vitality in resisting the de- structive effect of contact with an alien civilization. While in the middle latitudes of North America the aborigines either have disappeared or have been gathered together under government protection and thus withdrawn from participation in the life of the country, in South America the natives constitute the substratum of the entire population. These natives are also important as types of the race that by miscegenation have contributed to the great majority of the present population. Immedi- ately after the cruel and murderous conquest by the Spaniards it was supposed that the aborigines must inevitably disappear. The period of decline, how- ever, was transformed by crossings with the whites into one of increase. The advance is even at a SOUTH AMERICA 89 more rapid rate than that of the whites, but not as a distinct race. Descendants of conquered and con- querors are, in a word, merged in a single nation- ality. Among the Andes the natives are generally brown in color; their hair is coarse, black and lank; they have short, beardless chins and prominent noses. The contrast between the home of the better people and the squalid hut and surroundings of the peons is most striking. The comparison suggests the difference betw^een the coastal cities and those of the interior. This difference is caused in no small measure by the isolation from the world imposed upon the inhabitants of the interior by difficulties of travel and transportation. The series of Positions taken to study cocoa pro- duction should establish another industrial type. The map in Adams' Commercial Geography showing the regions producing cocoa makes it clear that the industry is peculiarly characteristic of So'Uth America. Cocoa, chocolate, broma and shells are sold at any grocer's. Sweet chocolate and chocolate covered candy are familiar to the children. Interest may be heightened by study of shells, nibs, cocoa butter, etc. These may be obtained locally, or your principal or superintendent can obtain a full set of specimens by asking such a gift from the Walter M. Baker Co., of Boston, Mass. This leading firm also issues a book describing cocoa production and manu- facture. The statements in Carpenter's South America are reliable, except that cocoa is made from the seed kernels, like chocolate, and not from the 90 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE shells. In curing the seeds the pulp is allowed to ferment on open platforms made of slit bamboo and palms, the kernels developing flavor in the process. The pulp is removed from the seeds, as it ferments and dries, by the feet of the workmen. The cli- mate of the lowlands of the Guayas delta is so moist in the wet season that a stock of beans cannot be long stored at Guayaquil without deteriorating. They must be dried in the sun to prevent spoiling. This type of industry should be compared with others. With the cotton and sugar plantations of the same coastal plain in Peru. With the produc- tion of tea and coffee in other tropical lands. With the production of fruit and other farm products in the home district of any school. While some com- parisons are suggested in the Guide, competent teachers may profitably carry them further than there outlined. EUROPE IRELAND The class will take Positions i, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 for two studies of the ''Cottage Homes of Tenant Farmers'' of Ireland and they will take Po'sition 7 twice, make a study of specimens, and return to Position 5 in considering the topic 'Teat/' It is further suggested that abler pupils make a study of the "Street Markets and Farm Products of Ireland" from seven standpoints in the Library Reference Group. Ireland did not prosper during the 19th century. The competition of new countries, after steam trans- portation became common, caused farm products to decrease in value in Europe, while landlords kept rents high. Factory production in England greatly decreased the value of the products of cottage indus- tries. Irish tenants were in sore distress. Many died of famine. Thousands emigrated to America. In x\merica government land could be obtained free, so rents could never be unduly high and wages must be good to retain workmen. In Ireland a tenant could not buy land ; he must pay what rent the land- lord chose or be evicted from his holding. In con- sequence many landlords charged every tenant all that he could pay, thus leaving to even the enterpris- ing little or no profit. Energy and thrift were dis- couraged, cottages were often hovels, stock ran 92 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE loose, land was unimproved. England is now loan- ing money to the tenants, enabling them to buy their farms, and since they themselves will profit by in- dustry their condition will doubtless improve. The only similar condition in America existed in the South after the Civil War, where portions of the great plantations were rented to negroes and *^poor whites." They had no means with which to pur- chase the land, and they would not work regularly and faithfully for the former slave holders. Rent- ing land for cotton farming proved the only practi- cable plan. Many cotton belt tenants are always in debt and as shiftless as the poorer peasants of Eu- rope, although others work hard and have bought their farms since cotton rose in value. For the study of peat, specimens can be secured from dealers in common minerals or through pupils having relatives in Ireland. In the northern states peat can be dug in many swamps and boggy mead- ows. Sphagnum moss from which most peat is formed in part can easily be obtained from any flor- ist. The better botanies and physical geographies now in use describe the growth of peat bogs. It is planned that the study period should be apportioned into four divisions. GREAT BRITAIN London is the world's largest city, its most im- portant seaport, the leading center of commerce, shipping, banking, and the seat of government for a most widespread empire. The class will take four Positions in the city and its outport, while it is suggested that a dozen supple- mentary standpoints be provided for use by such pupils as care to plan time for further observation. A Library Reference Group brings pupils into the presence of royalty, and also before the buildings and officials that denote free government by the people. Another Library Reference Group presents the beautiful scenery of the Scottish Highlands and the Low^lands, and their contrasting life conditions. A third Group sets pupils who undertake maximum work in the romantic city of Edinburgh. London is a city of manifold interest as a geo- graphic type : teachers will find the aid necessary to develop the suggestions embodied in the Field Guide if they will refer to pertinent chapters of Mackin- der's Britain and the British Seas (Appleton). The advantages of London's positions on a tidal estu- ary, the drowned valley mouth of the master stream of lowland England, facing the continent and ad- joining the oceans, are finely set forth. The sig- nificance of its position at the lowest ford of tribal times, centering now at London Bridge, the head of navigation, is pointed out. The need of extensive dock basins in this tidal stream, and of outports far 94 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE below London where the shallow estuary deepens, and their character are made plain. The typical sections of the city are described, the docks, in- dustrial section and monotonous, crowded homes of the poor in East London (Position i) ; the shops and offices in the heart of the city (Position 4); the enclosing circles of stationary population and of steadily growing suburbs. The importance of Lon- don as a center of government, commerce, banking, religion, shopping and other phases of life is portrayed. The Library Reference Group on the relief of Scotland presents such sharply contrasting land forms and life conditions, affording distinct types of the geography of plains and mountainous regions, that it is worthy of being provided in duplicate for systematic study by entire classes, in school systems where the course of study allows ample time for geography. Mackinder's monograph on British geography referred to above gives a brief, clear sketch of the structure of Scotland, and of the origin of the Lowlands as a ''rift valley." Emerson's The Nezv England States, a supplementary volume in the Tarr & McMurry series of geographies, describes suggestively the similar contrasts of surface and life in New England. All of the scenes visited in Great Britain are associated with historic times and persons, and a skilful teacher will utilize the interest they awaken to lead some children to read the fine books on English history and biography now avail- able for young people, and such introductions to English historical fiction as Crockett's Red Cap Tales of the North. THE IBERIAN PENINSULA Strong contrasts in geographical conditions are found upon the Iberian Peninsula. For example, upon the northwestern shoulder the rainfall is ex- cessive, and on the easterly and southeasterly coast, as well as upon the plateaus of the interior, the pre- cipitation of moisture is very scanty. In the stand- points selected the differences in the amount and character of the vegetation form the basis for the study of rainfall. A map showing average precipi- tation, sketched upon the blackboard, would be a helpful device. (See Tarr & AIcMurry's Europe.) Conditions of relief are also observed from all of the first six Positions, except Position 5, and the differences are very striking. The control which these two factors, relief and climate, exert upon the development of the people, is shown very clearly in the Iberian Peninsula. In fact, the present back- ward condition of Spain is due in part either to the ruggedness of the land, or the aridity of the climate, or both. The antiquated methods employed in doing things tend also to hinder industrial and commercial pros- perity. The Iberians are content to perform their work in the most plodding and laborious fashion. Lack of education and absence of enterprise keep the Spanish people where their forefathers were. In the second series of Positions will be found typical illustrations, gathered from remote portions of the peninsula, of the ''Backward Customs'' of the people. In Position 7, on the level fields around Valencia, 96 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE where . the flood-plain of the Guadalquivir merges into the coastal lowlands, we find, at close range, an excellent type of the old-fashioned wooden plough. It is nothing but a sharpened stick, and in compari- son with the subsoil plough of modern construction does little more than scratch the surface of the ground. At one side are two hand tools ; the short- handled, heavy hoe with a triangular blade, and a wooden mallet for pulverizing lumps of earth. The irrigating machine at Cadiz reminds one of the sakiyehs of Egypt. Fortunately this scene af- fords an opportunity for contrasting old and new machines. Behind this clumsy affair which requires at least one man and a mule to operate it, there is, in the distance, over the tops of the trees, a modem automatic wind-mill. One runs only when there is somebody in attendance to drive the mule ; the other works without supervision, night and day. One is a source of continual expense for labor and fodder ; the other practically requires no other outlay than the first cost. The cactus seen in the foreground was introduced into Spain after the discovery of America. It runs wild and is often cultivated in hedge-rows. The method of harvesting grain, shown in Po- sition 7, is quite common among the peasants of Europe and among the people of the East. Stand- points showing similar conditions in other countries, if already studied, should be recalled. The economic problems given in small type are added for the pur- pose of stimulating thought. Without the teacher's help, probably few pupils will be able to answer them. FRANCE Standpoints in France have been selected from which the surface features and coastal border may be studied in their relation to life effects. An op- portunity is also provided to get a somewhat com- prehensive view of Paris, the most beautiful city in the world. Library Reference Groups present the public buildings, monuments and works of art in Paris and the cathedrals of France. The teacher who desires to make most adequate preparation to lead the discussion suggested in the introduction to the study of relief will get much help from Chapter XV in the International Geography. The opening paragraphs in Chapter XI in Carpen- ter's geographical reader, Europe, are excellent for the pupils. In connection with the topic ''Relief and Its Ef- fects" Positions are chosen from which the open, rolling character of the country in the north may be compared with the mountainous boundary between Spain upon the south and Italy on the east. The even skyline as observed from the first Position and some of the supplementary Positions leads to the legitimate inference that the area of faint relief is far more extensive than the particular field of vision. From the well-wooded appearance of the country seen from Position i it is natural to conclude that rainfall there is abundant. Around Le Croisic, on the contrary, the generally barren appearance of the area and the fact that the evaporation of salt from 98 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE sea water is successfully carried on there indicate that in the country of the salt fields the rainfall is slight. In France a large proportion of the farms are held by peasant proprietors like those seen near Car- haix. The individual holdings are small, averaging from fifteen to seventeen acres each. The effect of the size of the farms and of the peasant ownership upon the methods of work is obvious. Expensive farm machinery is out of the question and all the members of the family work with tireless energy in simple and somewhat primitive ways to cultivate their land. The strong contrasts between the scenery of the Pyrenees and that of northern France afford good opportunity for showing the importance of relief in controlling the usefulness of the land for farming purposes and in determining locations of lines of travel. In the Position taken upon the road to Gavarnie the absence of cultivated land is signifi- cant. So is the presence of the roadway at the side of the river. While the northern plains are capable of sustaining a dense population, the steep slopes of this mountainous region must forever remain almost unsettled. The obvious difference in the climatic conditions between the northern slopes of the Pyrenees and the southern exposure of the maritime Alps is interest- ing and important. It shows very clearly the effect of mountains as a barrier to the winds. The method of training the vines in the cultiva- tion of the grape is typical of all the vineyards. This, together with the utilization of every available FRANCE 99 space, is a form of intensive cultivation of the land worthy of notice. The use of the fertilizer is a necessary corollary. In considering the relation between the coastal border and industries the teacher will find the. map on page 229 in A Commercial Geography, by Adams, most suggestive. The situation of Mentone upon a salient portion of a relatively smooth coast line, with its artificial harbor, is a raod illustration of one wav in which man reacts for his own benefit upon natural sur- roundings. In the construction of breakwaters the French have achieved a notable degree of success. This is in part, of course, the result of a coast line almost unbroken by important inlets. The efifect of the mountainous topography in crowding the settlements close to the water's edge and in determining the development of along-shore travel and transportation is well exemplified in the conditions around Mentone. The cultivation of the oyster is an important in- dustry in France. It helps to give France high rank among countries engaged in winning a livelihood from the sea. A gradually sloping shore and a suf- ficient rise and fall of the tide to uncover a con- siderable area of mud flats are conditions essential for the oyster industry as practiced in France. The oysters can be gathered by the French method only during the period of low tide which, of course, comes at a later hour each day. In the United States the oystermen work quite differently. They use either dredges or long-handle tongs and se- cure the shellfish in water from ten to twenty-five 100 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE feet deep. The United States furnishes about five- sixths of the world's oyster supply. The method of obtaining salt seen near Le Croisic is common upon the coasts of warm, sunshiny coun- tries where the rainfall is not too frequent and abun- dant. The comparison referred to in the Student's Guide is well w^orth the making. In the United States some salt is produced in this manner but most of it is obtained from brine wells. The fishing craft seen at Le Croisic and Etretat are a type of clumsy, open boat. They are built for short trips. The fish are caught in seines of very fine mesh. These boats are engaged in the sardine fisheries. France sends canned sardines all over the w^orld. f More than the information easily accessible in Tarr & McMurry's Europe, under the topic Paris, and in Carpenter's Geographical Reader, Europe, Chapters XII and XIII, there is little that need be given here. It may be well to quote a few lines from The International Geography, page 250, viz.: 'Taris illustrates the rich past of France in its monu- ments, and reflects the varied aspects of the country in the daily life of its people. Its beauty, made up of contrasts softened by time, makes many a French- man forget his province, and attracts many a for- eigner from his native land," HOLLAND AND BELGIUM As being the most typical features of the Nether- lands, the pupils are to study the ''Dikes and Polders'' of the lowlands of Holland, and for this we take them to Positions i, 2, and 3. Elsewhere they study the character of the sources of the Rhine in Switzerland (p. 170), and its middle course in Germany (p. 151) ; Holland is the Rhine delta. The first Library Reference Group takes pupils to six Positions in the great seaports that evince Holland's commercial importance, while the second group of four Positions presents the villages of the dikes and dunes. Belgium has been the most populous region of northern Europe for centuries, and the third group of six Positions takes pupils to its important and characteristic cities. The introductory lessons suggested for every field trip will vary according to the environment and previous preparation of classes, but any teacher of European geography should find her class familiar with deltas in the street gutters near the school and acquainted with the main facts as to the Mississippi delta. Swift headwater streams erode the land, and rivers transport rock waste, and deposit the finest silt as mudbanks, or deltas, where their currents slacken at their mouths. Muddy floodwaters over- spread a delta and add a layer of silt. Most is dropped where the water leaves the strong current of the river, and little is deposited far back from the 102 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE main channels. Thus the stream forms very broad natural levees on either bank, with swamps farther away. Therefore along the Mississippi there are plantations and towns — New Orleans, for example — and behind them lie undrained swamps. Simi- larly Dordrecht is on firm ground next a distribu- tary of the Rhine, w^ith shipping on the river side and meadows behind its outskirts. In the introductory lesson a problem is briefly presented for class solution — How make the delta mudflats of Holland safe and fit for culture ? With the teacher the pupils should work out the need for dikes to keep out river floods and such storm tides as that which swept over Galveston in America. Next they will see the need of pumps to make and keep the protected lowlands dry. They may discuss the kinds of power available — waterpower, steam-power, ani- mal-power, wind-power — considering their relative cost and whether pumping must be constant or not. Then will come the ditching of the polders and the provision of high-level canals between or on the dikes to remove the water pumped into them, wherever a dike does not adjoin the river or sea. The dikes themselves are a problem : of what shall they be made? Hov/ broad? Of what shape in cross section? What secondary uses will their tops serve? Such an introduction serves to awaken every pupil so that on the field lesson he will use his eyes and wits to the utmost. To understand the quaint costumes of the Dutch villages, one must know the isolated life and the con- servatism of such communities in past days. THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA Two main topics are presented for study: 'The surface features of the Scandinavian Peninsula'' and 'Tiords." Position 5, "Odde and the Sorfiord, in the Hardanger Country," is valuable enough as a type and is so rich in content that duplicates for this Position sufficient to supply all the members of the study section are not an extravagant proposition. The steep slopes of Norway and the gently rolling land in southern and eastern Sweden are shown re- spectively in Positions i and 2. The scenery around Jonkoping (Position 2) is not unlike that of the more open parts of the northern United States. The soil in both cases is of glacial origin. The ice sheet that covered Sweden had its origin in the mountains of Norway. The long summer days of these far north- ern latitudes help to make the short growing season successful. The difference in relief as shown in Positions i and 2 explains why agriculture is the leading industry in Sweden and is of little impor- tance in Norway. Throughout most of Norway and in the western part of Sweden extensive forests of pine are found. Rapidly flow^ing rivers like the one seen in J emtland (Position 3) are useful in floating these logs down stream and in furnishing water power for saw mills. Fishing and commerce are two occupations natural to people inhabiting an irregular coast line., Bergen is the most important fishing port of Norway. . Along the wharves may be seen the warehouses for 104 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE storing fish and merchandise, and in the harbor are numerous fishing boats. The steamers bring sup- plies of food and manufactured articles to Norway and carry away lumber and fish. Good harbors abound upon this western coast, but the ports are few and far between. The reasons are that the land adjoining the coast is so unproductive few people live there and the products of the interior find an outlet eastward down the land slopes. In the ab- sence of a population with surplus productions for exchange, commerce is impossible, and the oppor- tunities for good anchorage and safe shelter go un- used. Norway can never furnish food enough to sustain a large population. The fiords of Norway are drowned river val- leys which were deepened by the glaciers that once filled them. The subsidence of the Norwegian coast has given the waters of the ocean an oppor- tunity to penetrate sometimes nearly a hundred miles inland. These arms of the sea are deep and narrow and branch irregularly into a maze of chan- nels. At the head and along the borders of the fiords, situated upon tiny delta plains formed from deposits brought down by the streams from the mountains, villages like Odde are found. Life in these places is usually of the most primitive sort. The men be- come sailors as well as fishermen. Everyone knows how to handle a boat and the fiord is the principal thoroughfare. When the men are away from home the women cultivate the scanty garden patches. The isolated situation of these villages shuts them ofif THE SCANDINAVrAN PENINSULA 105 almost completely from communication with the out- side world. In these far northern latitudes mountains of only- moderate height rise above the snow line. The peaks in Norway situated in the path of the moist westerly winds are frequently covered with snow and are the natural breeding grounds of glaciers. GERMANY The Rhine valley is chosen as the feature of Ger- many for stereoscopic field study by all pupils be- cause it presents varied and valuable types of relief and related life. It is famous in history and litera- ture, and renowned for scenic beauties. We take the class to Position i as an introduction to the Rhine Valley; to Positions 2, 3, 4 and 5 for a study of 'Tarts of the Rhine V^alley;" return to Positions 2, 3, 4 and 5 to study ''Life Along the Rhine;" and return to Position i for a "Review and Test Les- son." In the work on the "Parts of the Rhine Valley," a class section of standard size will be divided into' two groups of twelve pupils each. For each group there will be two duplicate stereographs, enabling pupils to take Position 2 twice and two duplicates for Position 3 ; and the questions upon each Position are divided into paragraphs (a) and (b) to corres- pond to the two observation periods. Positions 4 and 5 are taken but once during this lesson. When considering "Life Along the Rhine," the pupils will be arranged in four groups of six pupils each. During each observation period, of five min- utes, one pupil will be supplied with two stereo- graphs, enabling him to take Positions 3 and 4 in turn, to facilitate comparisons. We have suggested as Library Reference Groups a study of Berlin from twelve Positions ; "Transpor- tation on German Waterways" from six Positions, GERMANY 107 one being a return to Position 1 1 in Berlin ; a study of the Kiel Canal from two Positions, and its com- parison with the Corinth Ship Canal, one Position, and the Suez Canal, one Position ; of Cologne Cathe- dral from five Positions ; of ''German Industries" from six Positions. The Positions in the larger groups, such as those on Berlin and on German in- dustries ma}' be divided among several students; or the topics to be prepared for recitation may be dis- tributed among several observers. School systems desiring to give much time to first-hand study of German life may profitably provide outfits enabling the study of one of more of these gro-ups by entire classes. As already stated, the Rhine valley is chosen as the feature of Germany for stereoscopic field study by all pupils because it presents varied and valuable types of relief and related life. The Rhine rises in the Swiss Alps, thence flows for two hundred miles over its flood-plain in a fertile lowland between the upraised mountain blocks of the Black Forest and V^osges. The Xeckar is one of several rivers that have cut narrow valleys deeply into these pla- teaus, while flowing down to the sunken land-block •of the Rhine. Below Bingen the Rhine flows for sixtv miles in the 2:or2:e that it cut as earth forces slowly raised the plateau across its middle course. Xear Cologne the Rhine flows out upon the plain of northern Germany, while in Holland it divides into the distributaries of its delta. The densest popula- tion IS north of Cologne, because of free rail, river, and canal communications over the plain, the neigh- borhood of seaports, and the coal and iron deposits 108 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE in the adjacent highland border. The highland block is rather sparsely settled, in comparison, be- cause relatively infertile and inaccessible; but upon strips of the narrow Rhine flood-plain, near the open- ing of tributary valleys, towns have developed to conduct exchanges between the back country and the outer world. Heidelberg is similarly placed. In the middle ages ''robber barons'' built strong castles on easily defended crags, and on islands and banks of the Rhine, that they might levy toll on the merchants using this valley route. The upper Rhine valley has large river ports, and a dense population on and near the fertile lands that border the swamps and forests normal to the central flood-plain strip. In physio- graphic features and the related distribution of popu- lation, the region is comparable to our northeastern states and to Scotland. The physiography of the Rhine valley and its re- lation to population and industry are presented in detail in the volume of Appleton's World Series on Central Europe. Dr. C. A. McMurry promises a treatment of the Rhine and its cities in his forth- coming book on Type Studies from European Geog- raphy (Macmillan). Adams' Commercial Geog- raphy contains good maps of the population, rail- ways, waterways, and industries of Germany. To make definite the introductory study of the distribu- tion of the population in western Germany, a simple map or diagram of the population should be placed on the blackboard, then copied by pupils. ALPINE LIFE AND SCENERY Alpine life and scenery form an important geo- graphical type. The standpoints ''The Ortler from Trafoi'' and "The Picturesque Chamonix Valley" are so rich in detail and suggestiveness that enough duplicates may well be provided to supply each mem- ber of the class. A stereoscopic visit to these places furnishes an experience which is valuable in under- standing the life of mountain people in other parts of the world. From Positions 3, 4, 5 and 6 there is an unusually good opportunity to get realistic impressions of a valley glacier. Glaciers are not only important from a physiographic standpoint : they have a geographic value, for the glaciers of the Alps are a source of considerable income to the Swiss people. A study of the glacier is also important geographically in forming a basis for the understanding of the mo- rainal deposits found in regions affected by conti- nental glaciers. The Alps belong to the mature, vigorous type of mountains (see text books in physical geography by Davis, Tarr and others). Lofty, snow-covered peaks, steep slopes and sharp ridges prevail. Every year thousands of tourists come to enjoy the rugged and picturesque scenery. Mountain climbing is also a fascinating pastime for the more vigorous, and the dry, bracing air of these high altitudes is sought each year by many invalids. Switzerland, in fact, has been called the playground of Europe. The scenery found around the upper and middle 110 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE portions of the glacier is typical of the highest alti- tudes. Trees are nowhere to be seen, the steep, ir- regular slopes are, for the most part, barren of any vegetation and snow and ice abound. In sheltered places, where a handful of soil has accumulated in a hollow, an Alpine flora of bright hues relieves the sombre coloring of the naked clififs. The lofty val- leys, sometimes circular in outline and filled to the brim with snow and ice, are the natural breeding grounds for the glacier. Scenery of the type for which the Swiss mountains stand is found in the New Zealand Alps, the Caucasus, the Pyrenees, the Selkirks and in Scandinavia. From Position i we see a glacier as a whole in- cluding the snow field above and the characteristic tongue of ice below. Melting, freezing and pressure change the fleecy snow of the loftier slopes into the granular ice of the neve portion. Lower down, the glacier becomes compacted into a hard, translucent mass (see Position 6). Along the middle of the more conspicuous glacier seen from Position i is a well-marked medial moraine. Position 3 also shows this phenomenon in a remarkable degree. At the lateral margin of the glacial tongue upon the side of the Ortler, be- tween the ice and the pyramidal crag, are morainal deposits. From Position 4 the observer will see upon the surface of the ice the rocky fragments which go to make up the lateral moraine. (For a discussion of moraines and other usual phenomena of valley glaciers see the elementary text books in physical geography by Davis, Tarr and Gilbert and Brigham.) ALPIXE LIFE AND SCENERY 111 Snowfields and glaciers are an inevitable conse- quence of the situation of the Alps in the path of the moisture-laden westerly winds. From these glaciers four important rivers — the Rhine, Rhone, Danube and Po — derive a constant and uniform supply of water. The somewhat central location of the Alps is, therefore, important in establishing a reservoir upon which the usefulne-ss of these rivers for agri- culture, transportation and manufacturing depends. The people who live among the Alps find profit- able employment in the summer in caring for tour- ists and in serving the mountain climbers as guides. In the loftier portions human habitation is impos- sible. Food supply is limited to a few wild creatures — the mountain sheep, the goat and the chamois. Hunters stalk these animals and tourists accompa- nied by guides climb the ridges and peaks to en- joy the pure air and inspiring scenery. Upon the relatively gradual slopes of the lower portions scanty crops of grass are grown and cows, sheep and goats are raised. The hamlet at the foot of Le Brevent is located upon the gently sloping sides of a broad fan delta. The river Arve at the bottom of the valley forms the convex margin of this fan, where the steep forest clad slopes end are the sides, and the handle is at the large opening between the trees. The dif- ferent areas of light and shade show that portions of the surface are under cultivation. The Library Reference Group offers an oppor- tunity for pupils especially interested to enjoy the beauties of Swiss lake scenery. Switzerland through the Stereoscope (issued by Underwood & 112 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Underwood) giving one hundred Positions in Switzerland, with a guide book by M. S. Emery, and eleven patent maps upon which each Position is definitely located, ofifers a grand opportunity to become intimately acquainted with the most famous parts of Switzerland. ITALY The topics presented for the study of Italy through the stereoscope are ''Surface Features/' ''Rome" and "Venice." Library Reference Groups on "Pope Pius X and the Vatican," upon "Florence" and upon St. Mark's in Venice are also provided. The physiographic regions of Italy are well marked. A map of the country like the one found in Longman's Nezv School Atlas shows very clearly and graphically the important physical features. The description of Italy given in the most recent text books will be found suggestive and helpful. A more complete presentation is given in Chapter XX in the International Geography (Appleton's). The view from the dome of St. Peter's towards the northeast ( Position i ) reveals the level character of the land in the midst of which Rome is situated. The graceful bends of the River Tiber are well shown. In the distance, as would be expected from the map, the land rises a bit and breaks into low hills. The situation of Genoa is not the most favorable in some respects for the location of a city. Steep grades increase the difficulty arid expense of trans- portation. Wear and tear upon the beasts of burden and upon harnesses and wagons are greater than they would be upon level roads. The time required to go a certain distance is also increased. What has been said of travel within the city also holds true to a greater extent in regard to the country around about. Modern means of transportation require al- 114 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE most level tracks and straight roads. Curves and grades add materially to the cost of carrying goods and passengers. A comparison of the country around Genoa w^ith that in which Rome is situated will be helpful in contrasting characteristics of surface features. The importance of enough slope to take care of the sur- face drainage is emphasized in the difference in healthfulness of Genoa and Rome. Malaria, which renders the country around Rome almost uninhabit- able in certain seasons, is quite unknown at Genoa. Carrara is situated among mountains of marble. The refuse from centuries of quarrying and the waste brought down by the mountain torrents make the slopes look as if they were covered with snow. The relatively soft limestone of which this range is composed is easily carved by the running water into pointed peaks, sharp ridges and deep trench-like val- leys. Hence these mountains take on the aspect of their more lofty neighbors, the Alps. Vesuvius is the only active volcano upon the mainland of Europe. The Apennines have been formed by the folding and crumpling of the earth's crust. To the west of this range from Genoa to Naples old cones, and craters containing lakes, in- dicate the former greater extension of volcanic ac- tion. The lower slopes of Vesuvius, composed of rich, fertile soil, the volcanic ash of previous erup- tions, are notwithstanding the danger from erup- tions a highly cultivated region. See topic Vol- canoes, treated in the last section of this Manual. Positions 5 and 6 are good illustrations of the geography of a mountainous region bordering upon ITALY 115 the sea. The narrow fringe of buildings skirting the diffs at Amalfi, the construction of roads by- tunnel and parapet seen from the same standpoint, the absence of alongshore pathways at Portoiino and the location of the last named place upon the gentler slopes of the mountain side, where a break in the range and an irregularity in the coast line help to form a harbor, all show^ the control which the physical features have exerted upon the oc- cupancy of the land by man. In Position 6 in the middle distance the bare slopes descending abruptly to the water's edge lead one to suspect that at no very distant date a landslide, caused by the under- mining of the waves and by the action of the weather, took place. The nearer portion of the shore line, just beyond the narrow neck of land, also illustrates the continuous destruction by the waves. In Positions 7 to 12 the most celebrated features of Modern and Ancient Rome are studied. The teacher will find the book Rome Through the Stereoscope, by D. J. Ellison, D. D., issued by the present publishers, full of information con- cerning the Eternal City. This book describes in more detail than is possible in this manual all of the standpoints selected in Rome and many others. A copy of this w^ork, if not already in the Public Library, would probably be put in upon request. Saint Peter's Church is the most famous build- ing of present importance in Rome and the most re- nowned church in the world. It is also the center of the Roman Catholic religion. These facts de- serve emphasis in the recitation. Position I may be taken while studying Rome 116 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE for the sake of reviewing the Vatican. The Library Reference Group, entitled 'Tope Pius X and the Vatican," will be found an interesting and valuable addition to the study of St. Peter's. The site of the Forum was once a tract of marshy ground. By means of the Cloaca Maxima, the '^Great Sewer,'' the land was thoroughly drained and became the assemblying-place of the people. A detailed description of the Castle of St. Angelo will be found in the book referred to above on pp. 139 to 145. An equally good description of the Pantheon is given on pp. 155 to 162. We take the class to Position 13 for a broad view across the lagoon of Venice, and to Positions 14, 15 and 16, to study the ''Streets of Venice" and the palaces that border these canals. It is suggested that some pupils take the three Positions in the Library Reference Group to study more closely St. Mark's Cathedral. Venice is a type of Mediterranean cities. Their historic and artistic features attract many tour- ists. Venice is worth special study because its foundation, development, and decline, and its present unique characteristics are clearly due to physiographic causes. Study of the city may therefore combine geography and history. For instance, the palaces and churches give impressive evidence as to the wealth that the merchant princes of Venice accumulated when they controlled commerce between Asia and western Europe, by way of the Adriatic Sea and the Alpine passes, or by means of fleets sailing to the Netherlands. The waters encircling the city saved these treasures of ITALY 117 architecture from destruction in wars, for the powerful Venetian navy prevented attack by hostile armies. While many palaces are of Gothic and Romanesque types of architecture, St. Mark's cathedral is the finest example of Byzantine churches, for Venetians were in close commercial coiTtact with both East and West. This historical treatment is given in detail in the Perry Magazine for September, 1899. A Temple Primer, Brown's Venetian Republic, tells the history briefly. His- tory and poetry and such pictures as Ruskin gives will aid the pupils to appreciate the treasures of art and to understand the glamour of romance that leads multitudes of tourists to visit and linger in the cities on Mediterranean shores. RUSSIA The study of Russia through the stereoscope is centered about the topics ''Peasant Life" and ''Sur- face Features." Opportunity is also provided in the Library Reference Groups to become somewhat fa- mihar with Moscow^ and St. Petersburg. The vast extent of unbroken or continuous level land in Russia is the most conspicuous physiographic feature of that country. Wherever the standpoint is taken it is always in evidence. This character- istic of the surface of the land has been and will continue to be a most important geographical fac- tor. In the past it offered a broad and unobstructed pathway for the westward migration of the nomadic peoples of Asia. The openness of the country en- couraged the invaders to continue their roving habits and prevented the development of a national life. Moreover this plain was necessarily for centuries the scene of internal strife and the natural battleground of covetous foreigners. Thus while other European nations were steadily developing a higher degree of civilization Russia's progress towards unity of gov- ernment and prosperity was retarded and demoral- ized by invasion and conquest. On the other hand this vast plain holds great promise for the future de- velopment of an important nation. Extending southward into the verv heart of Russia from the relatively narrow tundras of the Arctic coast are forests of birch, pine, fir, oak and beech. Lumber and the products of the forest — tar, turpentine and RUSSIA 119 wood pulp — are important articles of export. The southern border of this forest land has been cleared for cultivation ( Position i ) . The method of build- ing the peasant's house and the presence of logs in the dooryard suggest the proximity of an abundant supply of timber. In fact, when wood is scarce the huts are often made of mud plastered over a frame- work of twigs. ThrO'Ughout the central and ''black earth'' portions of Russia's plain, agriculture hold an important place. With improvements in the method of farming and the introduction of labor-saving ma- chinery this region would assume its proper position among the food producing areas of the world. The levelness of Russia makes possible the presence of numerous and ramified river systems. These con- ditions in turn invite the construction of canals. As a result in Russia the waterways are the cheapest and the controlling means for the transportation of goods. The construction of railways, although not as great as might be expected in this land of faint relief, is nevertheless especially favored by topo- graphic conditions. The immediate future must see a rapid increase in the number and extent of railway lines. On the whole it will be safe to say that the surface of Russia offers one of the most striking examples of the relation of geographical surround- ings to historical and industrial development. Although the Russian people are divided into a number of classes — nobles, clergy, merchants, fac- tory laborers, burghers and peasants — the peasants play the most important part. Space will not per- mit any elaboration or explanation of this statement and for further information the teacher is referred 120 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE to Russian Life in Town and Country, by Francis H. E. Palmer. (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.) Chapter XXXIII in Carpenter's Geographical Reader Europe (American Book Co.) is also very helpful for the pupils. The limitations of the Russian peasant are many. To some extent they are the re- sult of the former days of serfdom. In general the peasants are shiftless and improvident. They live practically from hand to mouth. The primitive way in which farming is carried on is the result of ig- norance and poverty. These people have neither the education to understand and use complicated farm machinery nor the means with which to purchase expensive tools. Perhaps the delay in introducing modern farming methods is due in part to the Rus- sian system of community land holding. The peas- ants are very religious or at least make much of re- ligious forms. In the midst of the busy market (Position 3) and in every hut an icon reminds the Russian of his duty towards the church. The char- acter of the Russian peasant may be suggested by one of his common expressions, ''God and the Czar will provide." GREECE Library Reference Groups afford pupils wlio de- sire, or classes that can afford the time, an oppor- tunity to visit Greece. Positions iR to 8R, are standpoints presenting the general geography, and Positions 9R to 15R give a good conception of Athens and the Parthenon. Greece is a very mountainous peninsula, half drowned by ancient land depression, so that it has a very irregular outline. River deposits have formed some plains, especially at bay heads, and such level land is preferred for agriculture. These warm, fer- tile lands, protected by mountains and sea, and open to the stimulus of sea life and the influences of com- mercial intercourse, fostered the development of civ- ilization in Greece before the time of Christ. The cross ranges of mountains which separate the valleys and plains from one another, favored the division of Greece into little states that resisted union and facili- tated the conquests by Alexander and Rome. The climate, that of the horse latitude belt on the sub- tropical border of the temperate zone, is naturally rather dry, and shepherds are the typical figure of upland life, forests having been long stripped from most districts. The extensive ruins in regions now but sparsely inhabited bespeak the more settled and prosperous conditions of early times before wars of conquest and Turkish oppression devastated the land and despoiled such monuments as the Parthe- non. Athens was located about the natural fortress 122 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE of the Acropolis, which crag was far enough from the mountains and from the sea to prevent surprise of its defenders by a sudden attack. The oHve groves of the plain gave the agricultural basis the early settlement required. The present growth of the capital and its seaport are significant of reviving industry and commerce in Greece, which are a natur- al result of its separation from Turkey and reopening to the free influences of civilization and education. The causal account of Grecian history and geog- raphy in Tarr & McMurry's geographical text (Mac- millan) is much more complete than that in other elementary geographies, and in combination with the travel sketches in Carpenter's geographical reader on Europe (American Book Co.) and in the vol- ume on Modern Europe in the series of readers en- titled The World and its People (Silver, Burdett & Co.) gives the information most necessary to satis- fy the interest aw^akened by the two trips outlined in the Guide. The glorious early history of Greece, and some account of such ruins as the tombs and lion gate of Mykenae (Position 2R) are simply related for children in Guerber's The Story of the Greeks (American Book Co.). AFRICA EGYPT 'The People, the Monuments and the Desert" are studied from Positions i, 2, and 3. Afterward we return to Positions i and 2 to examine more closely "The Sphinx and the Pyramids/' This double treat- ment gives the pupils an opportunity to recite about what they have seen upon their first visit before they are called upon for more detailed observations. This plan greatly simplifies the work of both teacher and pupil. "Cairo" is studied from Positions 4, 5, 6, and 7; 'Trrigation" from Positions 8 and 9. We have suggested as Library Reference Groups a study of ''The Bedouins" from one Position and ''The Nile" from three Positions. These two pic- turesque and interesting phases of Egyptian life are not of greatest geographical importance for the upper grammar grades. They are therefore treated as supplementary studies. The marked contrast between the surface features and people in Egypt and in our country offers abundant opportunity for effective and in- teresting teaching. With the attention centered upon the characteristic parts of the scenes which are being studied, the pupil obtains a remarkable familiarity with Egyptian life and its surroundings. To secure the best results, however, a determined effort must be made to locate the pupil as he takes each Position in relation to the surrounding coun- 124 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE try. This requires frequent and definite reference to maps. The Pyramids are, curiously enough, the result of geographical conditions. The soil of the desert, un- protected by a covering of vegetation, is heaped into hills and scooped into hollows by the action of the wind. To provide burial places therefore, which shall be safe from excavation by the movements of the atmosphere, it was necessary to prevent the sand from drifting. At first, four walls were built enclosing a rectangular space. Greater se- curity from natural changes and from grave robbery was gained later by covering the top of this enclosure with masonry. Following this came the desire to raise the tomb above the level of the desert. The elevation helped to keep the mound from being cov- ered with soil and it also gave a conspicuousness which was gratifying. The desire for increased height as well as greater protection from robbery led to the building of the step pyramids. From the rough structure of this type to the more finished and beautifully proportioned pyramids of Kheops and Kefren is but a step in the process of evolution. The pyramids are therefore, the result of an attempt to provide a permanent and secure burial place amid the shifting sands of the desert. It will be well for the pupils to know that, although the more picturesque way to reach the pyra- mids is by camel or donkey, science has solved the problem of rapid transit between these places by means of the ubiquitous trolley line. This is one of the manifestations of the presence of a newer and more progressive civilization among the older and EGYPT 125 more conservative people. The dam at Assouan and the bridge at Cairo are other illustrations. The descriptions of the Pyramids and the Sphinx given on pages 1 19-127 in The Boy Travelers in Egypt and the Holy Land, by Knox, will be inter- esting at this time. The story of Gemilla, the Child of the Desert (Seven Little Sisters, Jane An- drews) might also be recalled or read. Stories of Ancient Peoples, Emma J. Arnold (American Book Company) contains an attractive description of the Egyptians. The study of irrigation is an important topic in geography. Lands which were once thought to be hopelessly arid are now watered upon a large scale by scientific methods and yield large crops. Any- thing which increases the productivity of the soil or makes a barren region fertile has a direct bearing upon the relation of the earth to man. Absence of vegetation in Egypt is due entirely to lack of moisture. In fact the soil is more than us- ually fertile, for the finely pulverized mineral matter, which serves as natural fertilizer, has not been washed away by rain and by wet weather streams. From time immemorial some form of irrigation has been practiced in Egypt. (An extended and very in- teresting account of the methods employed is given in Bulletin No. 130 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture entitled Egyptian Irrigation. Write to the Superintendent of Documents, Union Build- ing, Washington, D. C, concerning the way to ob- tain a copy.) The curious primitive contrivances still in use for raising the water of the Nile and the recent successful attempt to control scientificallv. 126 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE upon a large scale, the floods for the purpose of watering the land, make the study of irrigation in Egypt especially interesting and important. Life on the desert (as seen in Position iR of the Library Reference Group), shows to a remarkable degree the influence of its environment. The Bedouin, freed by his nomadic state from the restraints of a regularly organized and well-gov- erned settlement in which the identity, occupation and home of each individual are more or less accurate- ly known, easily and naturally develops habits of plundering and treachery. Every caravan must be prepared to defend itself against attacks. Even the women of the deserts go armed. The dark, orange-colored tents of camels' or goats' hair are more serviceable than white cotton ones be- cause they are more nearly the color of the desert soil, less glaring in the daytime and warmer at night. The long legs of the camel and its broad feet are facts worthy of notice in fitting the camel for travel upon loose, yielding sand. The relation of this ani- mal to the water supply will probably be familiar to all. CENTRAL AFRICA Moist equatorial plains are the homes of uncivil- ized races; they have proved unfit for European settlement. Nevertheless they constitute a strongly marked field of distinct geographical relations, they supply important products to world commerce, and the problems of their colonial government are cur- rent topics of moment. It is well worth while to study with care a good type of tropical conditions and life. Tw^o stereographic excursions in the Congo Free State are planned, one to study the Life of Central Africa from four Positions, the second to know the Congo river in its relation to commerce and life as presented by a six-Position Group, com- posed of five single Positions and a pair of Posi- tions. An abundance of supplementary work has been provided, as detailed in the small-type paragraphs. After a pupil has studied a main Position with some care under detailed guidance, he is able to appre- ciate other scenes that show variations from the type. He will not merely look with momentary interest because the scene is novel, but his preparation will enable and lead him to note consciously the signifi- cant features of the scenery or action. He will prob- ably correlate his observations with knowledge al- ready systematized in his mind. The additional stereographs will be used like supplementary readers, being taken from a table or case whenever a 12S GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE pupil has finished the other work of any period, or being loaned for home use. Without making de- mands on class time, they may greatly enrich class recitations through reports of the enterprising pupils who voluntarily undertake this supplementary work. A good summary of the essential facts as to the Congo basin is given in the International Geography, Teachers themselves should read at least parts of Stanley's accounts of his explorations, which are recommended for the pupils, and they should also read some of the recent books and magazine articles on present conditions in the Congo Free State. Adams' Commercial Geography gives a good sketch map of the Congo rail and w^ater routes; it would be well to have some pupil reproduce it on a large sheet of wrapping paper for class use. The aim of the teacher, in reviewing the obser- vations of the pupil by means of class recitations, should be to make clear the effects of tropical climate and the physiography of Africa in checking the de- velopment of the natives and in subjecting them to European colonial government. Life there is easy; the rivers yield fish, the forests supply flesh, the earth produces fruit with slight labor, the simplest cloth- ing and shelter suffices for all seasons. Every tribe has remained along its own reach of the river, developing only such rude arts as the making of ca- noes and nets, utensils of pottery and rude tools of wrought iron, content with this step above savagery. Africa has remained a Dark Continent of savage life in its tropical interior, because the coastal belt of fever-ridden lowland plains, and the succeeding ranges of mountains or plateau scarps through which CENTRAL AFRICA 129 the rivers pass by gorges and cataracts, present a double barrier to exploration and commerce. Be- cause the coast regions were claimed by European nations long ago, the Congo Free State has only a narrow strip of land extending to the Atlantic ocean, although beyond the coastal belts it has been free to expand across the broad basin of the great river. The scenes on the Congo bring vividly before the pupils the contrast and the transition from the most primitive to modern means of transport. Efificient transport means, as the chosen scenes show, the spread of commerce, the centralization of govern- ment, the stimulation of systematic industry, and numberless changes in life customs and beliefs, as from nakedness to clothing and from paganism to Christianity. An example is the difference between the clearings and culture of savage and barbarous conditions, shown from Position i and Position 2, and the extensive and systematic agriculture of the plantation where one stands at Position 3. The changes and contrasts studied enable a child to realize the value of our great systems for transporta- tion and communication. There are many lines of comparison and exten- sion of types suggested in the Student's Field Guide. Where previous preparation of teacher and class has been rich, these will prove very profitable in- deed. For example, Leopoldville is instanced as a type of population center that develops where there is a break in lines of transportation, with need of transhipment and need of division of merchandise 130 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE through middlemen to divergent Hnes. Most cities, seaports for example, are of this type in origin and growth. Here is an opportunity to establish or em- phasize a fundamental geographical principle. The teacher who would study this general truth thor- oughly should read The Theory of Transporta- tion, published as one of the issues of the Depart- ment of Economics of Columbia University some years ago. While many classes may lack time or preparation to make much of every line of thought suggested, teachers should be alert to use every op- portunity offered for reviewing or enriching know- ledge gained in earlier months and grades, as well as insistent that the facts concerning Central Africa and its peooles should be noted and understood. ASIA INDIA From Positions i to 6 we study various phases of life among the poorer classes in India ; from Posi- tions 7, 8, and 9, the Himalaya Mountains and the plains of northern India; from Positions 10, 11, 12, and 13 the ''Religions" of India, and from the re- maining Positions the usefulness of the elephant to man. It is expected that the topic ''Elephants'' (Positions 14, 15, and 16) may be prepared in less than the usual study period of thirty minutes. In this, however, as in everything else, the teacher must adapt the plan of work to the class. Rice and Tea are discussed in full in connection with the general topic ''Industries of the World/' Library Reference Groups provide for the obser- vation of an elephant hunt and for glimpses of cer- tain typical Indian cities. It may be well to note in passing that the Hindu religion restricts the people of that faith to an almost exclusively vegetable diet. The flesh of the carabao is therefore not available for food. The railroad lines and the well-kept roads stand out in sharp contrast to the primitive tools and slip- shod ways of the native Hindu. These improve- ments are one indication of British occupancy and influence. If samples of metal ornaments or inlaid work from 132 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE India can be borrowed for the use of the school it will be easier for the pupils to appreciate the su- periority of the carefully wrought hand-made article over the more ordinary product turned out by ma- chinery. The opportunity w^hich the hand-made article offers for revealing the individuality, skill and artistic sense of the workman is readily appreciated by pupils trained in drawing and manual work. The Himalaya Mountains are an excellent type of vigorous, mature mountains. The Vale of Cashmere is a famous example of a waste-filled valley. The wide and highly fertile plain through w^hich the Jhelum winds its way was formed by the deposition of a vast amount of sedi- ment. The river escapes from this mountain-rim- med valley through a steep, narrow, trench-like gorge. Warping or uplift of the earth's crust at that point keeps pace with the deepening of the river's bed. As a result, the river gradient within the Vale of Cashmere is so flat that the waste remains where it has been deposited. The soil which forms the plains of the Ganges River has been washed down from the Himalaya Mountains and from the plateau of southern India. It is therefore, a river-made plain (Physical Geog- raphy, Davis, p. 290). Carpenter's Geographical Readers are useful sup- plementary books. Let the children read Benares, the Holy City of the Hindus (Asia, pp. 234-240), and the description of the Mohammedan service (Europe, p. 377). Refer them also to the account of the working elephants (Asia, pp. 194-197). For the teacher Holdich's India (Appleton & INDIA 133 Co.) gives the latest and most comprehensive survey of the geography of India. Compton's Indian Life in Town and Country (G. P. Putnam's Sons) de- scribes very interestingly the people. The two books admirably supplement each other. CHINi\ The topics presented for stereoscopic field work are ''The People and their Homes/' ''Surface Features/' "Bamboo'' and "The Waterways of China." The number of duplicates supplied for each Position indicates the plan of work to be followed in the study period. Teachers who prefer may study "Surface Features" first. The pupils are likely to be more interested, however, if they first get a glimpse of the life of the people. The order of topics is not fixed. The Positions from which the study of the People is pursued have been selected to permit study of the highest and lowest orders of Chinese civilization. The experience gained from these standpoints will afford a substantial foundation for further instruc- tion by the teacher or extended reading by the pupils. The garments of a person of rank in China are made of the richest silks and satins elaborately em- broidered. The use of silk is to be expected when we remember that China is the home of the silk worm and that the manufacture of silk goods was carried on by the Chinese long before Europeans knew anything about it. The contempt of the Chinese for foreign ways and habits is also a reason. In China, fashions in dress never change. Costly garments are therefore possible and clothing is an article of property handed down from one genera- tion to another. CHINA 135 Three of the four Positions from which the sur- face features are studied show rugged land of some altitude. This is characteristic for the greater por- tion of China proper is mountainous. The extensive cultivation of the hillsides and the importance of the narrow bottom lands along the lower slopes of the valleys are well brought out in Position 7. All of the hillsides in the Kiangsi province are tea lands. This region is upon the northern edge of the hot belt and within the influence of the monsoons which bring considerable rain. The sloping hillsides drain aw^ay the excess of w^ater from the roots of the tea plant. All conditions are thus favorable for the growth of tea. The most densely settled part of China is, of course, the alluvial and highly fertile plain upon which Pekin is situated (Position 6). The plan of the work on bamboo includes the ex- amination of specimens and a study of the growing plant from two standpoints. One of the ordinary fishing poles offered for sale by storekeepers will furnish a dozen or more specimens. Half of the section engaged in study may devote fifteen minutes to the specimens while the other half is engaged in studying the bamboo seen in the stereographs. Upon the outside of the bamboo stem is a hard siliceous covering which protects the fiber from moisture. It is, therefore, more durable than ordinary wood. The hollow cylindrical stem makes the bamboo stronger and at the same time lighter than a solid stick of the same size. The United States Department of Agriculture (Bureau of Plant Industry) has issued an important and interesting bulletin (No. 43), entitled Japanese 136 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE Bamboos and Their Introduction into America. This bulletin may be obtained for a nominal price. For further information write to the Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C. In China, the waterways are the most important means of transportation. In fact, the rivers and canals constitute almost the only interior trade routes. Some of the canals, however, are in a very bad condition. The Pei-ho lazily meanders through a very level country densely populated. On both sides of the river the soil is alluvial and fertile. Roads are very poor and are used only by heavy carts, wheelbarrows or pack animals. Railways are still very few, although the right to build many lines has recently been granted. Cost of transportation, when compared with the rates charged in the United States, is enormous. In the Library Reference Groups seven Positions provide opportunity for the study of ''Chinese Cities'' and 'The Great Wall of China." Pekin, Mukden and Canton are examples of cities built upon a plain and protected from invasion by high walls. They are interesting in this respect chiefly in illustrating a custom of the past. Geographically a walled city is not important as a type. The Great Wall served to defend China proper against the Tartar hordes from the north. It extends from the sea near Shan-hai- kwan (see Position 5) to the Desert of Gobi, a dis- tance of about 1,500 miles. The wall is from fifteen to twenty feet wide and thirty feet high. It is faced on both sides with slate-colored brick. JAPAN Since the life of the Japanese has been determined by their own homeland, during past centuries of iso- lation, the class will take Positions i, 2, 3 and 4 to study the ''Surface Features of Japan.'' The stand- points for observation have been so chosen as to present typical phases of Japanese industry in their relation to relief. Japanese household life strikingly presents the contrast between Oriental ways and our own; and the characteristics of typical Japanese buildings being closely related to climate and other physical controls, the subject is eminently geographi- cal. Therefore the class take Positions 5, 6, 7 and 8 to observe ''J^P^^^se Homes." Two additional Positions, 9 and 10, are to be taken more at leisure. Both topics for the stereographic study of Japan present broader fields for observation and thought than can be covered in one half-hour lesson. Two periods of observation from four related Positions may precede a recitation; or six duplicates of each stereographed scene may be secured, enabling all the class to occupy at length the first twO' Positions during one period, taking the last two Positions after an intervening recitation. Another plan would provide a set of twelve (or 48) duplicate stereo- graphs for the first Position in each group, since thorough study from one Position would make it possible to observe effectively from the other three more quickly. In this case four duplicate stereo- graphs for each of the three remaining Positions would be needed. 138 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE The recent rise of Japan to a position of prime importance makes extended study o-f the people wise, so four Library Reference Groups have been planned. The students will take eight or more Po- sitions for the study of the following topics : 'Japa- nese Cities," ''Transportation in Japan,'' '7^P^" nese Handicrafts'' and "Child Life in Japan." In all these studies to be made by selected pupils, the life of Japan is to be compared with that of America, thus enabling teachers to make the reports to the class by special pupils the basis for reviews in which all may share actively. Some of the topics may be studied from so many Positions that these may be divided among several children for home study, who will share the duty of reporting to their classmates. Level land fit for culture forms so small a part of the area of Japan that it is necessary to till every available acre intensively. Although the growing season is long and the forested mountain slopes indi- cate abundant rainfall for agriculture, the food sup- ply has ever been limited. Famines killed millions during the centuries of isolation. In consequence there are comparatively few domestic animals : they eat too much ; men do their work. Land must be divided among so many farmers for intensive culti- vation that fields and terrace plots are too small for our agricultural machines. Japan's war with Russia was due to the same causes; the nation fought for freedom of trade with the continent that she might sell her manufactures there and buy food in ex- change, and that her surplus population might settle there instead of crowding the islands until famine returned. JAPAN 139 The architecture of Japan resembles that of China, as a result of Japan's position. Roofs are the promi- nent feature of Japanese buildings, for they must give shelter from hot summer suns and from heavy rainfall. The sliding panels of lattice work and paper that form walls and partitions are adapted to sultry sunny days of the long summer of southern Japan, but when the damp and chill winds of the cool season come a double or triple outer wall is wel- come, and wadded clothes, as one shivers over a charcoal fire. These features are due to the climatic position of Japan. Japanese buildings are usually light and they are also firmly framed ; they yield to earthquake shocks wnthout injury, they also burn quickly. They stand above the ground on posts that rest on stone sockets, and thus the frame is little affected by any ordinary earth movements. The subject "Japanese Homes," and the supple- mentary topic, ''J^P^^^se Handicrafts" afford op- portunity to present the fine artistic taste of the Japa- nese, their love for flowers, the care they give to their home grounds, and the simplicity of their home life. The teacher who has read such books as Gulick's Evolution of the Japanese, and Knox's Japanese Life in Tozvn and Country will be able to fully use the opportunity for the improvement as well as the information of her pupils. KOREA Korea has been a decadent land, backward among Orientals, hardly touched by western civilization. The single excursion in Korea takes the class to six Positions whence they may study ''Korean Ways'' of working and living. The Library Reference Group enables pupils with time and inclination for further observation to make a comparative study of the ''Cities of Korea." The rude methods of farm life and city crafts in Korea are much like those followed for brief periods by American pioneers on the frontiers. In early times settlers supplied all their wants by home pro- duction and manufacture, for lack of roads forbade commercial exchange. For example, until a grist mill was established in a settlement, corn was often ground to coarse meal in a mortar fashioned from a section of a tree trunk, as today in Korea. But labor has ever been scarce and dear in America, so that invention has been stimulated to produce ma- chines; and division of labor, with factory produc- tion and commercial exchange of all the require- ments of life, has come apace. Koreans lack American or Japanese enterprise. They are satisfied to live in hovels and to work leisurely with laborious methods. Labor receives low, very low wages, yet produces so little that its products are costly. Americans are selling more and more flour in Asia, for machines in our grain fields KOREA 141 and in our flouring mills enable us to produce it cheaply as well as of the finest quality. However, Koreans are so poor — they produce so little and have so little purchasing power — and are so lacking in desire for betterment that little of our considerable export of flour to the Far East goes to Korea. It is to be expected, however, that a new generation, trained under Japanese leadership, w^ll make great advancement. These paragraphs indicate the line of economic thought easily opened to a teacher and class by this excursion in Korea. A teacher who has studied the elements of economics, or who has read such a text as Bullock's Introdttction to the Study of Economics (Silver, Burdett & Co.), can conduct the review of this lesson most effectively, but many simple and most important conclusions may be developed in any class. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS The Philippine Islands, as one of the insular pos- sessions of the United States, deserve some atten- tion in American schools. The commercial relations between the United States and the islands, although always of some importance, are likely under the new conditions to be vastly increased. The United States, moreover, in acquiring the ownership of the Philippines, assumed the task of properly governing an alien people. To give the pupils of our schools some concrete information of the present conditions and to begin the preparation which shall enable them to understand in some degree at least the problems of a commercial, industrial and political character connected with the development of a colonial policy, a Library Reference Group of four Positions has been provided. From these standpoints the pupils are directed to observe the characteristic customs of the people, the kind of buildings common in the city and in the country, the form of vegetation in- digenous to a tropical climate, the increase of the commercial importance of Manila, and in general the relation of life to its surroundings. INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD An observational knowledge of 'the great indus- tries is most helpful toward an understanding of national commercial relations and industrial geog- raphy. TEXTILES Changes in methods of textile manufacture led to revolutionary transformations in all industries, so the class will take Position iIT to study cotton in the field, and Positions 2IT, 3IT, 4IT, 5IT, 6IT and 7IT to observe contrasting stages in the develop- ment of methods of **Spinning and Weaving/' From Positions SIT, 9IT and loIT a study is made of *'Sheep Raising," with emphasis placed upon the geographical controls existing between lands and peoples and the character of the sheep and wool they produce. The story of ^^Cotton from Field to Fac- tory" is presented by a Library Reference Group of seven Positions ; and five Positions embody a sup- plementary field and factory trip for studying the changes from 'Tlax to Linen/' These are treated so fully that by providing two duplicates of each Position they may be used for study by all of a class. The most important general truth in connection with these studies of fibers and textiles is the revo- lutionarj^ change in industrial and social life that resulted from the displacement of manufacture in all homes by production with automatic, power ma- chinery in the factories of certain cities. While 144 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE teachers will be able to answer all questions set to guide the pupils, they will be able to interpret the underlying principles more broadly and forcefully if they have studied the evolution of textile manufac- tures and related commerce more fully than can be set forth either in the Field Guide or this Manual. Several simple reference works are named in the Guide, and valuable matter suitable for youth is given also in Barnard's Tools and Machines, and in Mowry's American Inventions and Inventors (both by Silver, Burdett & Co.), v^hile pictures of frontier life and home industries are given in Col- lin's school History of Vermont (Ginn & Co.). Teachers will find a good brief account of the de- velopment of American industries in the opening chapters of Bullock's Introduction to the Study of Economics (Silver, Burdett & Co.) with accom- panying bibliographies for each industry. Thurs- ton's Economics' and Industrial History (Scott, Foresman & Co.) gives a good account of the sev- eral stages in industrial evolution in England and America. A good, brief, popular account of cotton, the geography of its production and the technology of its transformation into yarn and cloth, is given in Wilkinson's The Story of the Cotton Plant, one of Appleton's Library of Useful Stories. Full de- scriptions of the retting of flax and its production are given in reports which may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. FOODS While provision of food is fundamental in human industry, changes in its production and commerce have been consequent to changes in textile manu- facture and related progress in transportation, so transformations in agriculture, that explain the present geography of the industry, are presented second. The class take three pairs of Positions, I IF and 2IF, 3IF and 4IF, 5IF and 6IF, contrast- ing methods of harvesting typical of the backward portions of the Old World and those common in America. An additional Position is suggested, 4lFa, of which two duplicates may be provided if desired. Further, a pair of Positions, 6IFa and 6IFb, and a third supplementary Position, 6IFc, are recommended for use as tests of the power for independent observation and thought the pupils have gained, with a view to enabling teachers to decide how succeeding stereoscopic field work should be planned. Library Reference Groups, presenting supplementary Positions iIFR to 46IFR, provide plans for first hand study of the production of meat and fruit, sugar, coffee, rice and tobacco, as well as a number of thoroughly typical scenes in the fishing and whaling industries by pupils who need more than the class average of work. Several of these sets may wisely be provided in duplicate for class study where time allows. Teachers will find an excellent popular account of changes in agriculture and the related development 146 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE of milling and commerce in Edgar's Story of a Grain of Wheat (Appleton's), while the several recent commercial geographies give good brief pres- entations. From the invention of the cradle to that of the combined harvester advances in agricultural machinery have been made in America. The new machines have been adopted for use in Europe and other temperate lands, but remoter sections of the Old World, and especially the East, still cling to ancient tools and ways. In the Old World holdings are usually small and land values are high, popula- tion is dense, labor is cheap, and extensive culture by hand is naturally the rule. In America land has been free while workers have been so few that labor has always commanded high wages. In con- sequence there has been constant incentive to im- prove tools and invent machines that shall enable few workers to till much land. When the broad levels of the West were opened, so fit for culture by machines, the development of machinery for har- vesting grain proceeded apace, and invention of power machinery for threshing and cleaning grain was made necessary in consequence. In the Old World grain is transported relatively short dis- tances by land, and until the rise of industrial cities nearly all countries grew their own grain. The prairies and plains of America are farther from the oceans than any other commercial wheat region, hence the erection of grain elevators and the hand- ling of wheat and corn in bulk in order that the West may sell its grains and flour in competition with the farmers of Europe, India and Argentina. FOODS 147 Teachers will find the new commercial geography- text books for use in high schools the best con- densed reference material for their own use on the topics treated in the Library Reference Groups con- cerning foods. MINING, MANUFACTURING AND LUMBERING The story of steel and the related industries of mining, transportation and manufacturing, are finely presented in three groups of standpoints. The pupils take Positions iIM, 2IM and 3IM in the mines of Minnesota, while three supplementary Po- sitions, iIMa, 3lMa and 3lMb, may be supplied singly or in duplicate if desired. Positions 4IM, 5IM, 6IM, 7IM, SIM, and 9IM are taken on the ore docks of the northern lakes and on Lake Erie, while Position 7IM at the Soo Canal and Positions SIM and 9IM may be supplemented by sev- eral adjoining Positions for further observa- tion. The class take Positions loIM, iiIM and 12IM in the steel works at Pittsburgh to observe the immense industrial plants and the impressive ma- chinery there in use. Library Reference Groups of Positions which may be taken by pupils capa- ble of maximum work, present variations of the types studied by the class. Positions iIMR to 20IMR enable observation of the production of coal and coke, the mining of copper and gold, and the manufacture of plate glass. Positions iILR to iSILR place the pupil amid the lumbering opera- tions of the giant forests of California and before typical scenes in the progress of lumber from forest to market. Position iIQR is suggested as a test standpoint, placing the pupils in a Cape Ann quarry MINING, MANUFACTURING AND LUMBERING 149 to discover to the teacher how much power for pur- poseful observation of industrial activity they have acquired. Teachers will find an able treatment of the prob- lems in the evolution of industry that are involved in the stereoscopic excursions outlined here given in the opening chapters of McVey's advanced text- book on Modern Industrialism (Appleton's). The chapter on the Economic History of the United States in Redway's The New Basis of Geography, treats some topics briefly but suggestively. Emer- son's supplementary geography on The New Eng- land States gives a condensed account of the de- velopment and geography of American industries with special reference to the group of states named. Full descriptive accounts of all the industries to be studied may be found in the magazines. A selection of the articles best suited to the use of teachers and pupils is given in the Appendix to the Tarr and Mc- Murry geography on North America; while arti- cles in the most recent periodicals are listed in Poole's Index and the Cumulative Index to maga- zines. VOLCANOES The essential feature of a volcano is the opening in the earth's crust through which clouds of con- densed steam, choking gases, finely pulverized rock dust or streams of molten lava are ejected. The cone itself or accumulated mass of material may or may not be present. Important volcanic eruptions are known to have occurred without the formation of mountains. Interesting and helpful descriptions of volcanoes and volcanic action will be found in the text books of geology by Brigham (D. Appleton & Co.) and Tarr (MacMillan) and in the text books by the same authors and publishers on physical geography. The soil derived from the decay of lava and made up of fine dust ejected from the volcanic vent is es- pecially fertile. This fact together with the favor- able climatic conditions near Naples makes the more gradual slopes of Vesuvius very productive. The conical form of Fujiyama situated in a re- gion of volcanic activity points directly to its origin. It is a dormant volcano. Already the mountain tor- rents have begun to cut radiating furrows near the apex of the cone. As weathering and erosion con- tinue the relatively smooth surface of the mountain side will become rough and uneven like Mt. Hood. In Tarr's Elementary Geology and in Gilbert and Brigham's Introduction to Physical Geography under the topic ''History of a Volcanic Cone" the VOLCANOES 151 birth, growth and decay of this form of mountain are interestingly described. An excellent and brief description of the outbreak of Mt. Pelee is given in a pamphlet issued by the publishers of the stereographs entitled vS'^. Pierre and Mont Pelee by George Kennan Current Peri- odicals like Harper's Weekly will contain accounts of the eruption of Vesuvius in April, 1906. Samples of lava, basalt, pumice and volcanic dust ought to be in every school collection. Dealers in minerals and rocks can supply these materials; fre- quently a request to the pupils to bring in suitable specimens will be all that is necessary. THE UNDERWOOD STEREOGRAPHS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS "I cannot conceive of anything better for educational pur- poses." — Professor Archibald Sayce, Queen's College, Ox- ford. **There is nothing more appropriate for giving object les- sons in geography than stereoscopic photographs. One look through the stereoscope teaches more than hours spent in hearing or reading descriptions." — A. Kirchman, Ph.D., Toronto University. "When one looks at an ordinary picture of a distant place with the naked eye, one feels himself to be still in America — or wherever he may be at the time. Through the stereoscope, with the outer world shut off by the hood, one feels himself to be looking right at the scene itself." — Walter L. Hervey, Ph.D., Board of Examiners, New York City. "It is as absurd to study history or geography without ade- quate first-hand experience of seeing places, things and people with the lifelike realism of the stereoscope, as to study natural sciences without a laboratory. Sense experience should be the foundation stone of mind-building." — Dr. Win- ship, Editor of the Journal of Education. "I am personally of the opinion that the stereograph sup- plies the very data which completes the knowledge of the teacher and renders his research work less arduous, by giv- ing him the facts he requires and equipping him with the re- sourcefulness of a travelled man." — G. F. Daniell, E.Sc, Science Master in Mercers' School, London. "The stereoscopic photograph induces through its plasticity a more intense 'looking into' the object. In other illustra- tions one always feels the lack of telling details, but in the stereograph one really does find them. The flat picture is looked at in a more superficial way, and leaves an almost use- less impression. The pupil never gets the intense impression of reality which the stereograph gives." — Dr. Karl Egli, Zurich, Switzerland. "We have recently introduced the Underwood & Under- wood stereographs into the Cleveland Normal School to help us in our geography work. The many expressions of inter- est and pleasure from the lips of our students are good evi- dence that these stereographs are winging them far beyond the sense horizon that shuts them in." — Jennie D. Pullen, In- structor in Geography. "The manageability of the instruments, the facility with which the children manipulate them, their manifest pleasure in using them, and the zest with which they report their dis- coveries and follow up their inferences, convince me that the stereoscope provides us with an instrument for visual illustration superior in handiness and general effectiveness to any such instrument hitherto in use. I think it suitable for students of any age. We have procured a set of stereoscopes and stereographs for use in this Training College.'' — Rev. G. H. Fathers, Vice-Principal and Alaster of Method, Culham College. "I have used your stereographs as an aid to the teaching of Geography and to illustrate object lessons for several years, and find that they impress the minds of the scholars in a way that no other means short of actual visits to the various scenes could do. A point that cannot be too much insisted upon is that the stereographs are not merely pic- tures, but have an effect upon the mind similar to that ex- perienced by beholding the actual scene itself — F. M. Glad- well, Principal, Sandridge, Board School, St. Albans. "It is evident that whole classes may use them in the ordinary work of demonstration, or the pupil may study them in his individual field work — for much of the field work may be done indoors as well as out-of-doors. In the study of foreign countries and their people there are great opportuni- ties. And, indeed, in the use of the stereoscope and the stereoscopic view there is an entirely new field to be opened. It is a field that hitherto has been closed to both teacher and pupil, and to both there are possibilities of study and research that are little dreamed of. In my own studies they have been a revelation. Indeed, I do not know of any device more helpful to the teacher of geography than a stereoscope with a good assortment of stereographs." — Jacques W. Redway, F. R. G. S. "Lately I have been testing the capabilities of the Underwood & Underwood system of Visual Instruction by means of care- fully selected stereographs. I am fully satisfied as to the excel- lence of the system as an aid to teaching 'World Knowledge/ I took several friends, old and young, through the Yosemite Valley, and though we never left our own country, we thor- oughly enjoyed our realistic visit to this marvelous valley, and the mental impressions of the scenes have proved to be lasting. We followed our guide from point to point and listened while he told us about the natural wonders we were so entrancingly gazing at — the exquisite reflections of Mirror Lake — the fairy-like beauty of Bridal Veil Falls — the grandeur of the view from Cloud Rest — the eerie, uncanny feeling of standing over nothing on Glacier Point — and the awe-inspiring mass of El Capitan. To us, shut in our stereoscopes from all notice of our immediate surroundings, these were so real that often have we stretched out our hands to touch objects which were actually thousands of miles away." — J. Morton, Headmaster, Oxford Gardens School, North Kensington, W. London. "Of late years several devices have come into general use in our schools, aimed at arousing, as far as possible, states of consciousness essentially similar to the states of con- sciousness produced when one is in the actual presence of certain remote scenes and objects. If teachers who make use of pictorial illustrations, whether through the medium of the lantern, wall pictures, drawings, models or similar helps, could conveniently and speedily take their pupils into the actual presence of the realities instead, it would set an end at once to the extensive use of these common aids. The essential sensations upon which an experience of seeing any scene is founded cannot be aroused in children by any flat picture, . . . Natural seeing, which necessitates the convergence and divergence of the eyes according to the nearness or distance of the objects regarded, is reproduced by one mechanical device only — the stereograph. The sensa- tions, physical and mental, produced by examining a stereo- graph through the stereoscope, are exactly the same in kind as we would receive were we looking at the real scene. We may therefore provide for our pupils in their class-room an experience similar, for instance, to that of actually visiting the volcanic phenomena in Yellowstone Park, or of standing in the midst of a tea plantation in Ceylon, etc. This is not the result merely of looking through a stereoscope at a cer- tain stereoscopic view, but it is the result of using a system in which the stereographs, a series of special maps, and a particular method of presentation are all important factors." — Education, London, England. ''in late years there has been perfected something that, in my judgment, goes ahead of pictures, and quenches the mind's thirst for the concrete almost as completely as the very object before the bodily sight. I refer to the stereograph. The art of illustration, as we all know, has been marvelously improved in recent years. Our commonest school-books today have process illustrations that for accuracy, delicacy and beauty are greatly superior to the best of sixty years since. Our ten-cent magazines are familiar miracles of picture-books. Certainly the human mind has been vastly enriched by this cheapening and perfecting of processes of illustration. But even the best pictures we still feel to be but pictures; they do not create the illusions of reality, solidity, depth. 'The best in this kind are but shadows.' But with the stereoscope the wonder of photography is brought to its culmination. . . . The problem of enriching the minds of children with a manifold contact with the actual is solved by the stereoscope. . . . May we not conclude, then, that the general introduction of the stereoscope into the schools would be of incalculable value in almost all Hnes of school work? Notably it would put new life and interest into the geography, the nature study, the language work, while enriching the children's minds with varied perceptions in many realms, which would remain part of their equipment and a source of their enjoyment for as long as they live. This newer, vivider appeal to the desire of the concrete is in line with the tendencies and aims of modern education, it accords with the teachings of psychology, and it has the sanction of the universal experience that the world is interesting and eternally worth knowing about. When Mahomet found that the mountain would not come to him, he went to it. But modern science has worked more miracles than could Mahomet's prayers. As our children cannot them- selves go out into the world in body, to see and possess it, let us nevertheless take them to the world, not in words only, or even in pictures only, but in the most vivid and satisfying way available, in stereoscopic photographs." — G. J. Smith, Ph.D., Board of School Examiners, New York City, UNDERWOOD STEREOSCOPIC TOURS The Underwood Stereoscopic Tours are put up in neat Volume Cases, or Underwood Extension Cabinets, and the stereographed places are arranged in the order in which a tourist might visit the actual scenes. Note that these are all Original Stereographs, not cooies. To accompany these Tours we recommend our "Twentieth Century" Aliuninum Mahogany Stereoscope. A higher-priced stereoscope can be furnished if desired. AUSTRIA TOUR — Giving 84 positions, and case. BELGIUM TOUR — Giving 24 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereographs, and case. BRITISH-BOER WAR —Giving 36 positions, and case. BURMA TOUR — Giving 50 positions, and case. CANADA TOUR — Giving 72 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereo- graphs, and case. CEYLON TOUR —Giving 30 positions, and case. CHINA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James Ricalton, 358 pages, cloth, and eight Underwood patent maps and case. Boxer Uprising Tour — Cheefoo, Taku, Tientsin — (a part of the China Tour) — Giving 26 positions, with guide book, three patent maps and case. Hongkong and Canton Tour (a part of the China Tour) — Giving 15 posi- tions, with guide book, three patent maDs and case. Pekin Tour (a part of the China Tour) — Giving 32 positions, with guide book, two patent maps and case. UBA AND PORTO RICO TOUR —Giving 100 positions, and case. DENMARK TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. ECUADOR TOUR —Giving 42 positions, and case. EGYPT TOUR — Gi\ing 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James H. Breasted, Ph. D., 360 pages, cloth, and twenty Underwood patent maps and case. ELEPHANT SET — Giving 12 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereographs, and case. ENGLAND TOUR — Gi\dng 100 positions, and case. FRANCE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, and case. GERMANY TOUR — Giving 100 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereographs and case. GRAND CANYON OF ARIZONA TOUR— Giving 18 positions, with guide book, two Underwood patent maps and case. GREECE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. Rufus B. Richardson, Ph.D., fourteen Underwood patent maps and case. Athens Tour (a part of the Greece Tour) — Gi\-ing 27 positions, with guide book by Prof. Richardson, four Underwood patent maps and case. INDIA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James Ricalton, ten Underwood patent maps and case. Bombay to Cashmere Tour (a part of the India Tour) — Giving 24 posi- tions, with guide book by Prof. Ricalton, five Underwood patent maps and case. IRELAND TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Charles Johnston, seven Underwood patent maps and case. Queenstown, Cork and Dublin Tour (a part of the Ireland Tour) — Gi\dng 36 positions, with guide book by Charles Johnston, three Underwood patent maps and case. ITALY TOUR —Giving 100 positions, w^th guide book by D. J. Ellison, D.D., and Prof. James C. Egbert, Jr., Ph.D., 602 pages, cloth, and ten Under- wood patent maps and case. Rome Tour (a part of Italy Tour) — With guide book by Dr. Ellison and Prof. Egbert, 310 pages, cloth, and five Underwood patent maps and case. JAMAICA TOUR —Gi\ing 24 positions, and case. JAPAN TOUR — Giving 100 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereographs, and case. JAVA TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. KOREA TOUR — Giving 48 positions, and case. MANCHURIA TOUR — Gi\'ing 18 positions, and case. MEXICO TOUR — Giving 100 positions, and case. NIAGARA FALLS TOUR —Giving 18 positions, ^\*ith guide book, and two Underwood patent maps and case. NORWAY TOUR — Gi\'ing 100 positions, ^N-ith guide book edited by Prof. Julius E. Olson, Ph. D., eight Underwood patent maps and case. The Hardanger Fjord Tour (a part of the Norway Tour) — Gi\dng 21 posi- tions, with guide book edited by Prof. Olson, two Underwood patent maps and case. PALESTINE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Rev. Jesse L. Hurlbut, D.D., 220 pages, cloth, and seven Underwood patent maps and case. Jerusalem Tour (a part of the Palestine Tour) — GiA^ng 27 positions, wdth guide book, by Dr. Hurlbut, one patent map and case. PALESTINE TOUR No 2 — GiA-ing 100 positions, all different from those in the above tours, and case. PANAMA TOUR — Gi\'ing 36 positions, and case. PARIS EXPOSITION TOUR —Giving 36 positions, and case. PERU TOUR — Giving 60 positions, and case. PHILIPPINE TOUR —Gi^ing 100 positions, and case. PILGRIMAGE TO SEE THE HOLY FATHER —Giving 36 positions, with guide book, by Rev. Father John Talbot Smith, LL.D., two Underwood patent maj,s and case. PORTUGAL TOTjII —Giving 60 positions, and case. PRESIDENT McKINLEY TOUR —Giving 60 positions, with guide book, 183 pages, cloth and case. PRESIDENT McKINLEY TOUR No 5 A —Giving 60 positions, with guide book, 183 page.s, cloth, and genuine leather case, velvet lined, inscrip- tion in silver. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT TOUR —Giving 36 positions, and case. REAL CHILDREN IN MANY LANDS TOUR — Gi^dng 18 positions, with guide book by M. S. Emery, 222 pages, cloth, and case. RUBY MINING SET — Giving 9 positions, with explanatory notes on backs of stereographs, and case. RUSSIA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by M. S. Emery, 216 pages, cloth, and ten Underwood patent maps and case. Moscow Tour (a part of the Russia Tour) — Gi\ing 27 positions, with guide book, three patent maps and case. St. Petersburg Tour (a part of the Russia Tour) — Gi\'ing 39 positions, with guide-book, five patent maps and case. RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR — Gi^'ing 100 positions, and case. SAN FRANCIoCO DISASTER TOUR —Giving 36 positions, and case. SCOTLAND TOUR — Giving 84 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereographs and case, SICILY TOUR — Gi\'ing 54 positions, and case. SPAIN TOUR — Gi^-ing 100 positions, and case. "SPANISH BULL FIGHT" —Giving 12 positions, and case. ST. PIERRE AND MONT PELEE TOUR — Gi^-ing IS positions, with guide book by the celebrated traveler, George Kennan, and three Underwood patent maps and case. SWEDEN TOUR — Gi\4ng 100 positions, with guide book edited by Prof. Jules Mauritzson, eignt Underwood patent maps and case. Stockholm Tour (a part of the Sweden Tour ) — Gi\-ing 36 positions, guide book edited by Prof. Mauritzson, three Underwood patent maps and case. SWITZERLAND TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by M. S. Emery, 274 pages, cloth, and eleven Lnderwood patent maps and case. Bernese Alps Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gi\-ing 27 positions. v."ith guide bock, three patent maps and case. Engadine Tour (a oart of the Switzerland Tour) — Giving 8 positions, with guide book, four patent maps and case. Lake Lucerne Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gi\'ing 11 positions, with guide book, three patent maps and case. Mont Blanc Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gi\dng 23 positions, with guide book, two patent maps and case. Zermatt Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gixdng 15 positions, with guide book, two patent maps and case. " TRAVEL LESSONS ON THE LIFE OF JESUS'* —Giving 36 positions, with comnlete hand-book, 230 pages, cloth, by Rev. Wm. B\Ton Fur- bush, Ph.D., and four L'nderwood patent maps and case. " TRAVEL LESSONS ON THE OLD TESTAMENT "—Giving 51 positions, with complete hand-book, 211 pages, cloth, by Rev. Wm. B>Ton Forbush, Ph.D., and four L'nderwood patent maps and case. Other interesting and instructive tours can be made up from tbe large collection of original stereographs always in stock, or from new stereographs which are constantly being added. Nev>- guide books, written by authorities on each country-, are being added each j'ear. We ad\-ise customers to purchase complete tours on the countries that they may be interested in. One hundred stereographed places of one country will generally give much better satisfaction than the same number scattered over several coimtries. Many of our patrons are placing all of our educational tours in their homes alongside of the standard works on those countries. S(?liools and pubhc libraries are turning more and more to the stereoscope to put their students and readers in touch with tho actual places of which they are stud\dng. The L'nited States Government considered them so valuable that aU educational tours published to date, with the new L'nderwood Extension Cabinet, were purchased for the L'nited States Military Academy at West Point. When two or more of the "100" tours are wanted, we recommend the "L'nderwood Extension Cabinet". It can be "built up" from time to time, as desired, holding from 200 to 2000 stereographed places, or more. UNDERWOOD C^ UNDERW^OOD 3-5 West 19th Street, Cor. Fifth Avenue, New York LONDON, ENGLAND. OTTAWA, KANSAS TORONTO. CANADA. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA TRAVELING IN THE HOLY LAND THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE A TOUR CONDUCTED BY JESSE LYMAN HURLBUT, D.D. Author of Manual of Biblical Geog^raphy, Manual Lessons for the Sunday School, Etc.; Editor of Illustrated Notes on the Inter- national Sunday School Lessons. This volume (196 pp., 7 patent maps) accompanies in guide- book fashion a sightseer viewing Palestine from one hundred specially desirable standpoints. The author, who knows Pales- tine from end to end, says of this work: "Have you dreamed of visiting Palestine? Have you longed to know what it would mean to stand by the wall of Jerusalem? in Nazareth? by the Jordan? You may know now by the right use of the stereographs, specially devised maps and this book, what it is to stand in those places." The places seen are visited in the order of a practicable journey through the country. The comments made by Dr. Hurlbut on what is seen from each standpoint include both in- teresting explanations of picturesque details of the land and the life, as observed at the moment, and reminders of the many significant associations of the place with the sacred stories of the Old and New Testaments. JOHN HENRY BARROWS, D.D., L.L.D., late President of Oberlin College, says: "I have examined with great interest the stereoscopic photographs of the Holy Land made by Messrs. Underwood & Underwood. They are altogether the finest which I have ever seen, and with Dr. Hurlbut 's interesting book (con- taining patent maps) they enable one to make a journey almost literally through Palestine. I have rarely been so pleased as by these stereoscopic photographs. They will make a trip to the sacred places accessible to those who do not cross the ocean." Other comments are like the following: "Every student of history or geography, every traveler who desires to have a faithful portraiture of what he is to see, or an exact reproduction of what he has seen, the teachers of children and those who, in the quiet of their homes, wish to pass a pleasant evening in other climes, should certainly possess these series of original stereoscopic photographs. For Biblical research and Bible students the 'Journeys in the Holy Land' is of the greatest service." "The views from the Holy Land, together with the manual, form an inval- uable aid for the Sunday School teacher and student of the Bible. With George Adam Smith's Historical Geography of the Holy Land, and Underwood & Urider- wood's stereoscope and views one would feel as though he were studying the facts on the ground where the events were enacted." f-^y 4 mt