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 Book L__^_ 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 
 AND SCIENCE. 
 
LONDON : 
 PRINTED BY R. CLAY, DEVONSHIRE STREET, BISHOPSGATE. 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE HISTORY 
 
 PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE, 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 <&avlie&t %Lufymtic Utcovtw 
 
 THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 BY THOMAS MORELL, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "STUDIES IN HISTORY," &C &C. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR B. J. HOLDSWORTH, 
 
 18, st. paul's church-yard. 
 1827. 
 
V 
 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 The principal contents of this elementary volume 
 were first collected solely with a view to private 
 academical instruction, and intended to be accom- 
 panied with additional oral information. This cir- 
 cumstance is stated to account for the technical and 
 didactic form in which they appear. Had it been 
 the primary design of the Author to submit his 
 work to the public eye, he would probably have 
 adopted a less scholastic arrangement of his sub- 
 jects, and indulged in greater freedom of compo- 
 sition; but the information would, in that case, 
 have been less condensed, the method less perspi- 
 cuous, and the volume itself, though more generally 
 attractive, of less intrinsic value. 
 
 There are several classes of persons to whom the 
 Author ventures to hope the present Work may 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 prove acceptable and useful. It may revive, in the 
 minds of those who have formerly passed through 
 a course of scientific education, some agreeable 
 recollections of pursuits and objects, which have 
 almost faded from their remembrance. It may 
 serve, in some degree, to guide the inquiries and 
 stimulate the exertions of those, who, having com- 
 pleted the elementary process of classical literature, 
 are just entering upon the higher departments of 
 philosophy and science. Nor will it be wholly 
 uninteresting, it is presumed, to others, who, placed 
 in circumstances less favourable to the acquisition 
 of knowledge, yet eager in its pursuit, are desirous 
 of finding, within a narrow compass, and ready 
 collected to their hands, a mass of information on 
 scientific subjects, which they have neither leisure 
 nor opportunity to collect for themselves. The 
 Author will be happy, if the labour bestowed on 
 the compilation of the following pages shall con- 
 tribute, in any degree, to supply the wants, or 
 gratify the wishes, of these several classes of intel- 
 lectual inquirers. 
 
 It is the business of the historian faithfully to 
 record, not to invent. All, therefore, that can 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 reasonably be expected of him is, that he look well 
 to the accuracy of his statements, and the credibility 
 of his authorities. Under this conviction, the 
 Writer of the present Volume felt himself at full 
 liberty to gather, from any authentic source to 
 which he had access, whatever was suited to his 
 purpose, whether found among the records of 
 antiquity, or in the works of modern authors of 
 acknowledged reputation. In a performance of 
 this description, which is avowedly a compilation, 
 making no pretensions to originality, but solely 
 to fidelity of narration, the Author presumes he 
 will not be chargeable with an improper use of 
 the literary labours of others, if he have, in many 
 instances, preferred to adopt the words of the 
 respective authors themselves, instead of investing 
 their recorded facts with his own phraseology. 
 
 It was at first the intention of the Writer, to 
 have appended to each lesser division of his work, 
 a complete list of authorities, both ancient and 
 modern ; but, on reflection, it appeared to him, 
 that these numerous references, besides occupying 
 a considerable space, would rather look like a 
 parade of extensive reading, than answer any 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 valuable purpose. He determined, therefore, to 
 confine his references either to direct quotations, 
 or to those specific cases in which ampler infor- 
 mation might be desired than could be given 
 in these elementary pages. 
 
 It will be seen, that the Author closes his retro- 
 spect with the commencement of the eighteenth 
 century. His principal reasons for doing so are, 
 that the age of Locke and Newton constitutes 
 a most remarkable aera in the history of the 
 human mind, since these illustrious individuals 
 may justly be accounted founders of new schools 
 in physical and intellectual science; that, subse- 
 quently to that period, the ramifications of human 
 knowledge have become so numerous, as to require 
 a series of volumes for even the most cursory 
 review ; and, especially, because a variety of small 
 elementary works already exist, in which the 
 later improvements of science are accurately and 
 minutely described. 
 
 The Writer of this Volume is not so presumptuous 
 as to imagine, that the eye of criticism will not 
 detect some inaccuracies or omissions, into which 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 he may have inadvertently fallen, while taking 
 so wide a range, and touching upon so great a 
 variety of subjects. He knows not whether it 
 will be admitted as an apology for such imper- 
 fections in his Work, that it was written amidst 
 the pressure of numerous important avocations ; 
 and that he could only devote to its compilation, 
 fragments of time, snatched with difficulty from 
 his official duties. Should such inaccuracies or 
 omissions be found, when his volume shall have 
 been submitted to the test of enlightened criticism, 
 the Writer will most thankfully receive such sug- 
 gestions, from whatever quarter they may proceed ; 
 and, if a future opportunity present itself, will 
 practically express his obligations, by endeavouring 
 to correct the former or to supply the latter. 
 
 Wymondley College, 
 May 25, 1827. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sect. i. Preliminary and Explanatory Remarks . . 1 
 ii. Classification of the Objects of Human Know- 
 ledge .... 6 
 
 in. Plan and Design of the Work 12 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Sect. i. Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea 
 
 ii. China . 
 
 in. India . 
 
 iv. Persia 
 
 v. Arabia 
 
 vi. Egypt . 
 
 vii. Phoenicia 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 53 / 
 
 59 
 
 67 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 
 Chaf. I. The Fabulous Ages 
 
 72 
 
 Chap. II. General Classification of the Ancient 
 
 Philosophers 81 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chap. III. The Abstract Sciences. 
 
 Sect. i. History of Mathematics (from a.c 640—300) 91 
 
 ii. continued, (from a. c. 300— a. n. 400) 97 
 
 Chap. IV. Ancient Physics. 
 
 Sect. i. Origin and Progress of Astronomical Science 
 
 in Greece 105 
 
 ii. History of Astronomy, continued . . . . 112 
 
 hi. Origin and Progress of Mechanical Science . 121 
 
 iv. ■ of Hydrodynamics . . 128 
 
 v. Pneumatic Discoveries of the Ancients . . 134 
 
 vi. Optical Discoveries of the Ancients . . . 137 
 
 Chap. V. Ancient Dialectics. 
 
 Sect. i. On the Origin of Logical Science . . . . 145 
 
 ii. Dialectics of Plato and the Academics . . 150 
 
 in. Dialectics of Aristotle and the Peripatetics . 155 
 
 iv. Dialectics of Zeno and the Stoics .... 166 
 
 v. General Remarks on the Dialectics of the 
 
 Ancients 172 
 
 Chap. VI. Ancient Metaphysics. 
 
 Sect. i. Origin and Progress of Metaphysical Science 
 
 among the Philosophers of Greece . . . . 178 
 ii. On the Metaphysical Opinions of Socrates, 
 
 Plato, and the Academics 184 
 
 hi. On the Metaphysical System of Aristotle and 
 
 the Peripatetics 194 
 
 iv. On the Metaphysical Speculations of Zeno 
 
 and the Stoics 201 
 
 v. Sketch of the Eclectic Sect, and Summary of 
 
 their Metaphysical Tenets 208 
 
 Chap. VII. Ancient Ethics. 
 
 Sect. i. Origin and Progress of Ethical Science among 
 
 the Philosophers of Greece and Rome . 217 
 
CONTENTS, Xlll 
 
 PAGE 
 
 .Sect. ii. On the Ethics of Plato and the Academics . 222 
 
 in. of Aristotle and the Peripatetics 226 
 
 iv. ■ of Zeno and the Stoics . . . 230 
 
 v# of the Epicurean Sect . . . 233 
 
 yi. On the Ethical System of the Eclectics . . 238 
 
 PART III. 
 
 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE DURING THE 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Chap. I. Introductory. 
 Sect. i. Causes of the Decay of Literature .... 241 
 ii, Arranged List of the Philosophers of the 
 
 Middle Ages 246 
 
 Chap. II. The History of Physical Science during 
 the Middle Ages. 
 Sect. i. On the Revival of Mathematical Science among 
 
 the Arabians 249 ' 
 
 ii. On the Arabian Astronomers 254 
 
 in. Progress of Experimental Philosophy among 
 
 the Arabians 262 - 
 
 iv. On the European Mathematicians and Astro- 
 nomers of the Middle Ages 267 
 
 v. On the State of Physical Science in Europe 
 
 during the Middle Ages 275 
 
 Chap. III. The History of Intellectual Science during 
 the Middle Ages. 
 Sect. i. History of Logic (continued from p. 177) . 285 
 it. Origin and General View of the Scholastic 
 
 Philosophy 293 
 
 hi. Biographical Notices of Scholastic Philosophers 298 
 iv. Scholastics of the Middle Period .... 307 
 v. Scholastics of the Third Period . . . . 314 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE FROM THE REVIVAL 
 OF LETTERS TO THE CLOSE OF THE 11th CENTURY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chap. I. Introductory. 
 
 Sect. i. On the Causes of the Revival of Letters . . 320 
 ii. Classification of Intellectual and Scientific 
 
 Philosophers of the 1 6th and 1 7th Centuries 326 
 
 Chap. II. The Progress of the Abstract Sciences. 
 
 Sect. i. On the Mathematicians of the 16th Century . 330 
 
 ii. from 1600—1650 . 336 
 
 in.. from 1650— 1700 . 343 
 
 iv. On the Mathematical Discoveries of Sir Isaac 
 
 Newton 350 
 
 Chap. III. History of Physical Science continued. 
 
 I. Astronomy. 
 
 Sect. i. On the Astronomers of the 16th Century . 357 
 
 ii. from 1600—1650 . 369 
 
 ni. , from 1650— 1700 . 375 
 
 iv. On the Astronomical Discoveries of Sir Isaac 
 
 Newton 382 
 
 II. Dynamics and Mechanics. 
 
 Sect. i. On the Progress of Mechanical Science during 
 
 the 16th Century 390 
 
 ii. ■ continued during the 
 
 17th Century 398 
 
 in. On the Mechanical Discoveries of Sir Isaac 
 
 Newton 404 
 
 III. Hydrodynamics and Pneumatics. 
 
 Sect. i. History of Hydrostatics, &c. from 1600—1 650, 409 
 „. from 1650—1700, 414 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 IV. Optics. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sect. i. On the Progress of Optical Science during the 
 
 16th Century 419 
 
 ii. History of Optics, from 1600— 1650 . . . 427 
 
 m . . from 1650— 1700 ... 433 
 
 iv. On the Optical Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton 438 
 v. Sketch of the History of Experimental Science 
 
 during the 17th Century 446 
 
 vi. General Remarks on the Philosophy of Sir 
 
 Isaac Newton 456 
 
 Chap. IV. Progress of the Intellectual Sciences}. 
 Sect. i. On the Gradual Subversion of Scholastic 
 
 Philosophy 462 
 
 ii. On the Reformation of Intellectual Philosophy 
 
 by Lord Bacon 472 
 
 in. Sketch oftiie Literary History of Lord Bacon 479 
 iv. Summary View of the Philosophy of Lord 
 
 Bacon 485 
 
 v. General View of the Intellectual Character of 
 
 Lord Bacon . 491 
 
 vi. Sketch of the Life and Writings of Des Cartes 496 
 vn. Summary View of the Cartesian Philosophy 501 
 viii. Principal Writers on Jurisprudence during 
 
 the 16th and 17th Centuries 507 
 
 ix. On the Metaphysicians of the 17th Century . 514 
 
 x. Sketch of the Literary History of Leibnitz . 522 
 
 xi. Summary View of the Philosophy of Leibnitz 526 
 
 xii. Sketch of the Literary History of Locke . . 533 
 
 xm. Summary View of the Metaphysical System 
 
 of Locke 539 
 
WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 I. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the period of the Ancient Britons 
 to the Death of George III. In a Series of Essays, accompanied with 
 Reflections, References to original Authorities, and Historical Questions. 
 2 vols. 8vo. \l. As. boards. 
 
 II. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, for the Use of Schools. 2 vols. 12mo. 
 lis. boards. Fifth Edition. 
 
 III. 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME, from its earliest Records to the Death of 
 Constantine. With a Map. 8vo. 10s. Qd. boards 
 
 IV. 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME, for the Use of Schools. With the Map. 
 12mo. 5s. boards. Sixth Edition. 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. With a Map of Ancient Greece. 8vo. 
 10s. 6d. boards. 
 
 VI. 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE, for the Use of Schools. With the Map. 
 12mo. 5s. boards. Fifth Edition. 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 Section I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY AND EXPLANATORY REMARKS. 
 
 1. The department of History, which the present 
 work is intended to embrace, is most extensive, and 
 perpetually increasing in interest and in importance. 
 To trace back knowledge to its source — to mark 
 (if it be possible) the precise points, from which all 
 the innumerable rays of science have diverged, by 
 which the world has been illumined, and the direc- 
 tions they have severally taken — to observe the 
 progress of the human mind through all its succes- 
 sive stages of improvement, from the first and 
 feeblest efforts of human genius, to its boldest flights 
 and loftiest elevation — to survey attentively the 
 aeras which have been most memorable, and the 
 individuals who have been most celebrated in the 
 annals of philosophy and science ; — these are objects 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. [jSECT. I. 
 
 which cannot fail to interest the intellectual en- 
 quirer, far more than the afflicting details of human 
 vice and misery, with which the pages of general 
 history have too commonly been filled. Especially 
 is it desirable in a day like the present, in which new 
 and important discoveries are continually making 
 in almost every department of general knowledge, 
 that the earliest indications should be observed of 
 those intellectual advances, which have contributed, 
 in no ordinary degree, to the improvement of society, 
 and the happiness of mankind. 
 
 2. Many are the gradations through which the 
 mind of man must necessarily pass, in advancing 
 from that state of barbarism and ignorance, in which 
 the great mass of the population of our globe once 
 was, to that high degree of civilization and refine- 
 ment, which many amongst them have subsequently 
 attained. In some cases the process was slow and 
 almost imperceptible ; in others, it has been rapid 
 and brilliant, so that its course may be distinctly 
 traced. The stream of knowledge has, at some 
 periods, gently flowed from land to land, becoming 
 wider and deeper as its course extended ; at others, 
 it burst forth, like an impetuous torrent, with 
 mighty and resistless energy, surmounting every 
 obstacle, and bearing down all opposition. In almost 
 every instance, however, it will be found that the 
 origin of the arts and sciences is veiled in impene- 
 trable obscurity ; nor is it till considerable advances 
 had been made in them, or some distinguished 
 individual arose, who gave celebrity, by his genius 
 and talents, to the science in which he excelled, 
 
SECT. I.] INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 that the historian is able even to ascertain their 
 existence : and subsequently to the period of their 
 commencement, in endeavouring to describe their 
 progress, it is amidst much uncertainty and many 
 fabulous traditions, that he can make his way to the 
 clear day-light of historic truth. 
 
 3. The terms Philosophy and Science, have some- 
 times been confounded, though they have obviously 
 an appropriate and definite signification. It may 
 not indeed be necessary that the distinction between 
 them should, on all occasions, be distinctly marked ; 
 nor will it perhaps be found that, in the following 
 pages, that distinction has been uniformly preserved 
 with logical accuracy; but at the commencement 
 of a work professedly designed to give an outline 
 of the history both of philosophy and science, it is 
 manifestly proper that their precise import should 
 be explained, and their respective boundaries de- 
 fined. The term Philosophy was primarily used to 
 denote the pursuit of Wisdom, and applied indis- 
 criminately to every object of human knowledge. 
 It comprehended all the subjects of investigation, 
 about which the powers of the human understanding 
 can be employed, — whether physical, intellectual, 
 or moral, — whether speculative, theoretical, or prac- 
 tical. Originally all men of learning, however 
 slender their attainments might be, were dignified 
 with the appellation of <ro$oi, or Wise Men, But 
 in process of time this truly honourable title fell into 
 discredit, having been assumed by mere pretenders 
 to knowledge and erudition ; so that the name, which 
 was at first an enviable distinction, became a term 
 
 b 2 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. [SECT. I. 
 
 of obloquy and an occasion of reproach. This led 
 the more intelligent and modest among the ancient 
 men of letters to appropriate to themselves the 
 appellation of Philosophers, as indicating that they 
 were rather to be accounted the admirers of wisdom, 
 and persons ardently engaged in its pursuit, than 
 in actual possession of this invaluable treasure. But 
 many years had not elapsed, ere this title also be- 
 came as perverted and degraded, as that which had 
 preceded it, insomuch that every inventor of a new 
 theory, however absurd and frivolous, assumed to 
 himself the name of a Philosopher. The abuse of 
 a term is, however, no just argument against its 
 proper and legitimate use. If the definitions of the 
 illustrious Bacon be correct, who terms it, in one 
 part of his admirable writings, " Scientia rerum 
 cum causis" and in another place, " Interpretatio 
 naturcE ;" if its primary object be the discovery and 
 development of truth, and if its influence and ten- 
 dency be to improve the condition and augment the 
 happiness of man, by increasing his knowledge of 
 God, of himself, and of the world which he inhabits, — 
 it may well deserve the ardent and unwearied 
 pursuit of every intelligent mind. 
 
 4. Science, as its very etymology would indicate, 
 bears nearly the same relation to knowledge, which 
 Philosophy bears to Wisdom. It has to do with 
 facts rather than principles ; with practice, rather 
 than abstract reasonings and speculations. While 
 Philosophy is employed in the contemplation of phy- 
 sical or moral truths, for the purpose of developing 
 and explaining their hidden causes, their essential 
 
SECT. I.3 INTRODUCTION, 5 
 
 or accidental properties, their mutual relations and 
 modes of existence, it is the province of Science, 
 properly so called, to bring these principles to bear 
 on the convenience and comfort of mankind, to prove 
 their utility, and to suggest methods of improve- 
 ment. Thus, while Philosophy investigates the 
 grounds of human judgment, or the fundamental 
 laws of human belief, the Science of Logic shews 
 how they may be best applied to the purposes of 
 correct reasoning, and the elucidation or demonstra- 
 tion of truth. If this representation be correct, it 
 will be evident, that while Philosophy and Science 
 have their distinct provinces, they are, at the same 
 time, necessarily and intimately connected, — that 
 every genuine philosopher will be, to a certain 
 extent, a man of science, — and that whoever excels 
 in any department of science, contributes essentially 
 to the advancement of philosophical knowledge. 
 
 5. It will, of course, be impossible that a pro- 
 fessedly elementary work, taking so wide a range 
 as the present, should include all, or even a thou- 
 sandth part of that immense mass of information, 
 which might, with the utmost propriety, be intro- 
 duced into a History of Philosophy and Science. 
 Such a work might not improperly comprehend a 
 survey of all the doctrines and opinions of men, in 
 all ages and countries, on philosophical and scientific 
 subjects, — a review of the systems which have been 
 devised and propagated, — and a development of all 
 the discoveries which have been made in every de- 
 partment of physical and moral science, or in the 
 useful and ornamental arts, together with their 
 
6 CLASSIFICATION OF THE [SECT. II. 
 
 progressive stages of improvement. It is hoped, 
 however, that the youthful reader of these pages 
 (for whose benefit and instruction they are chiefly 
 designed) will bear in mind, and others need not 
 to be admonished, that these volumes are but 
 intended to exhibit the elements of these compre- 
 hensive subjects ; and that it can be but a cursory 
 glance which is taken of so vast an extent of scenery, 
 interesting as every object it contains must neces- 
 sarily be to the mind ardently engaged in the 
 pursuit of knowledge. To compensate in some 
 measure for this deficiency, the reader will be 
 referred continually to other works, both ancient 
 and modern, from which ample information may 
 be obtained. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE OBJECTS OF HUMAN 
 KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 6. The title prefixed to this section may seem 
 presumptuous, especially to those who may have 
 read, with attention, the elaborate essay of Dugald 
 Stewart on the subject, prefixed to his valuable 
 " Dissertation on the Progress of Mental Philo- 
 sophy since the Revival of Letters ;" in which that- 
 distinguished writer, after having investigated the 
 proposed arrangements of the various departments 
 
SECT. Il/] OBJECTS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 7 
 
 of knowledge suggested by men of pre-eminent 
 genius both in ancient and modern times, attempts 
 to prove the insurmountable difficulty of the under- 
 taking, at least in the present state of human science. 
 Presumptuous indeed must that individual be, who 
 should promise to himself the execution of a task, 
 which a writer, who unquestionably ranks highest 
 among the intellectual philosophers of the age, has 
 abandoned as hopeless. No such design, however, 
 is meditated by the present writer. All that he 
 purposes is, to exhibit in one view the principal 
 attempts which have been made towards the classi- 
 fication of the objects of human investigation, with- 
 out presuming to determine their philosophical 
 accuracy, and still less to decide on their compara- 
 tive merits. The importance of such a general 
 survey, which (to adopt the language of a celebrated 
 French writer) " should comprehend in one general 
 scheme, all the various departments of study, arrange 
 them into proper classes, and point out their mu- 
 tual relations and dependencies," all must acknow- 
 ledge ; while the difficulty of effecting it with logical 
 precision, will be sufficiently evident from the brief 
 notices about to be exhibited of the imperfect and 
 unsuccessful attempts hitherto made. 
 
 7. The most ancient philosophers of Greece 
 divided the objects of human knowledge into three 
 classes ; — Dialectics, which direct the operations of 
 the mind, and teach the right application of its 
 powers : — Physics, including under that term not 
 only the structure of the universe and the pheno- 
 mena of nature, but also the existence and attributes 
 
8 CLASSIFICATION OF THE [jSECT. II. 
 
 of God, and the nature of the human soul ;— and 
 Ethics, which treat of the personal and relative 
 duties of moral and intelligent agents. But in 
 process of time, the impropriety was felt of classing 
 those departments of knowledge, which were purely 
 intellectual, with those that related to material sub- 
 stances and the objects of sense; and hence arose a 
 further division, by which the properties and opera- 
 tions of mind were distinguished from those of inert 
 matter, the latter of which were exclusively deno- 
 minated Physics, while to the former were assigned 
 the appropriate names of Metaphysics and Pneu- 
 matology. This general arrangement, which was 
 founded in an attentive observation of the nature 
 of things, has obtained, in a greater or less degree, 
 in all subsequent ages, and among all civilized 
 nations. 
 
 8. One of the most illustrious of our countrymen, 
 Lord Bacon, to whom philosophy owes no ordinary 
 obligations, has proposed a somewhat different 
 classification, which, both on account of its inge- 
 nuity and the celebrity of its author, may justly claim 
 our attention. Having stated that " memory, 
 reason (strictly so called,) and imagination, are the 
 three modes in which the mind operates on the 
 subjects of its thoughts ;" he adds, " these three 
 faculties suggest a corresponding division of human 
 knowledge into three branches. 1. History, which 
 derives its materials from Memory. 2. Philosophy, 
 which is the product of Reason; and 3. Poetry, 
 (comprehending under this term all the Fine Arts) 
 which is the offspring of Imagination. This arrange- 
 
SECT. II.]] OBJECTS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 9 
 
 ment, somewhat varied indeed from the order in 
 which it is stated by the noble author, and rendered 
 more complete in its classification by D'Alembert, 
 one of the well-known authors of the French Ency- 
 clopaedia, is fully stated, and defended with much 
 ingenuity of reasoning in the Preface to that 
 celebrated work. — Bac. Op. Vol. I. 
 
 9. Another modern writer of high reputation, the 
 celebrated author of the " Essay on the Human 
 Understanding," has, in the close of that justly- 
 admired Treatise, adopted almost literally the classi- 
 fication of the ancients, though without intimating 
 the source from which it was derived. " All," says 
 Locke, " which can fall within the compass of 
 the Human Understanding, being either, — 1st, The 
 nature of things as they are in themselves, their 
 relations, and their manner of operation ; or, 2dly, 
 That which man himself ought to do, as a rational 
 and voluntary agent, for the attainment of any end, 
 especially happiness ; or, 3dly, the ways and means 
 whereby the knowledge both of the one and the 
 other of these is attained and communicated : I 
 think Science may be divided properly into these 
 three sorts : — 
 
 " I. Physics, or Natural Philosophy, whereby I 
 mean not only matter and body, but spirits also, 
 which have their proper natures, constitutions, 
 and operations, as well as body. The end of 
 this is bare speculative truth, and whatsoever 
 can afford the mind of man such knowledge 
 falls under this branch. 
 
 "II. Ethics, or the skill of rightly applying our 
 
10 ' CLASSIFICATION OF THE [SECT. II. 
 
 own powers and actions for the attainment of 
 things good and useful, and conducive to happi- 
 ness. The end of this is not bare speculation 
 and the knowledge of truth, but right, and a 
 conduct suitable to it. 
 " III. Logic, or the doctrine of Signs, the busi- 
 ness whereof is to consider the nature of those 
 signs which the mind makes use of for the un- 
 derstanding of things, or conveying its know- 
 ledge to others. This seems to me," concludes this 
 celebrated author, " the first and most general, 
 as well as natural division of the objects of our 
 understanding." — Locke*s Essay, b. iv. c. 21. 
 
 10, Sir W. Jones, a name not only identified with 
 modern oriental literature, but with the loftiest 
 attainments of human genius, when taking a general 
 survey of the philosophy of the Asiatics, proposes 
 the following classification : — " When man first 
 exerts his powers, his objects are himself and the 
 rest of nature. Next, he perceives himself to be 
 composed of body and mind in his individual capa- 
 city, and in his social character possessed of duties 
 and rights, both private and public. Directing his 
 intellect to nature at large, he is led to investigate 
 the substance of natural bodies, their several pro- 
 perties, and their quantity both separate and united, 
 finite and infinite; whence are deduced notions, 
 either purely abstract and universal, or mixed with 
 undoubted facts, bearing the relation of causes and 
 effects, until by this train he arrives at the demon- 
 stration of a first intelligent Cause. Whence," adds 
 this admirable writer, u his collected wisdom being 
 
SECT. II-3 OBJECTS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 11 
 
 arranged in the form of science,, chiefly consists of 
 physiology and medicine, —metaphysics and logic,-— 
 ethics and jurisprudence, natural philosophy and 
 mathematics, from which the religion of nature 
 (since revealed religion must be referred to history, 
 as alone affording evidence of it,) has in all ages 
 and nations been the sublime and consoling result." 
 Agreeably to this division of human knowledge, the 
 learned author proceeds, in his elaborate Disserta- 
 tions, to treat of the philosophy of the five great 
 Asiatic nations. — Sir W, Jones's Works,Vo\. I. p. 160. 
 11. To all the preceding classifications, (except 
 the last, which does not appear to have fallen be- 
 neath his notice), the author of the Dissertation, to 
 which we have referred to at the beginning of this 
 section, strongly objects, on the ground of their 
 blending together subjects which are in themselves 
 distinct, and arranging, under the same general 
 head, branches of science the most uncongenial and 
 remote. " Physics, he considers as properly re- 
 stricted to the phenomena of matter — the appro- 
 priate field of experiment and observation." But 
 Ethics, Logic, the Philosophy of the Mind, or 
 whatever other objects have been included under 
 the general title of Metaphysics, all these are to be 
 regarded as essentially distinct from the former, 
 having to do alone with the phenomena of mind, 
 and falling exclusively under the cognizance of 
 reflection. Fully convinced of the justice, and even 
 the necessity of this distinction, the author of the 
 following Essays has endeavoured, especially in the 
 more advanced periods of history, to observe this 
 
12 PLAN OF THE WORK. £SECT. III. 
 
 boundary line, and assign to the physical and intel- 
 lectual sciences their appropriate divisions. — Encyc. 
 Brit. New Supp. Vol. I. Pref. p. 3—17. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 DESIGN AND PLAN OF THE WORK. 
 
 12. From the preceding introductory remarks, 
 the principal object of the writer of the following 
 pages, in compiling the present work, and the species 
 of information it is intended to convey, will be 
 readily perceived. It professes not to take the 
 entire range of ancient and modern Literature in 
 all its numerous ramifications, for this w r ould require 
 a degree of erudition to which the author can make 
 no pretensions ; but merely to exhibit a kind of bird's 
 eye view of the most important discoveries of hu- 
 man genius in the departments of Philosophy and 
 Science, marking, as we proceed, the seras when they 
 took place, the persons by whom they w r ere made, 
 and the successive stages of improvement through 
 which they have passed. In attempting this, it will 
 be requisite to attend both to the order of time, and 
 the mutual relation, which the objects of human 
 science bear to each other ; and this has constituted 
 the chief difficulty in arranging the plan of the 
 present work. If the chronological order were alone 
 to be regarded, the attention of the youthful reader 
 would be perplexed by a multitude of objects pro- 
 miscuously presented to his view, and by perpetually 
 
SECT. Ill/] PLAN OF THE WORK. 13 
 
 passing and repassing from one department of 
 science to another : if, on the other hand, the pro- 
 posed classification of the objects of human research 
 were alone to be regarded, a more distinct know- 
 ledge might indeed be possessed of each, but. their 
 connexion with the history of mankind, and their 
 relative bearings, would not be perceived.* Com- 
 bining, therefore, as far as possible, both these 
 objects, the following arrangement of subjects will 
 be observed, as that which appears to be upon the 
 whole the most convenient and useful. 
 
 I. To divide the whole series of ages, a retro- 
 spect of which is about to be taken, into four great 
 periods. 
 
 1. That of remote antiquity, " when the culti- 
 vation of human knowledge was an exclusive occu- 
 pation and a separate profession;" the principal 
 records of which are confined to the oriental nations, 
 and have been handed down by tradition from 
 eastern priests and sages. 
 
 2. The second period embraces the literary 
 history of the Greeks and Romans, from the first 
 colonization of the Grecian states, to the final dis- 
 memberment and dissolution of the Roman Empire. 
 
 3. The third will include a brief view of the state 
 of Philosophy and Science, both in Europe and Asia, 
 during the middle ages, — if the logomachies of the 
 scholastics, and the feeble glimmerings of intellec- 
 
 * A work thus arranged could scarcely be^deslgnated a history, 
 however useful it might otherwise be. 
 
14 PLAN OF THE WORK. [jSECT. III. 
 
 tual light that served but to make the surrounding 
 darkness more visible, may be thus designated. 
 
 4. The fourth and more important period will 
 bring down the history of human knowledge, and 
 trace the progress of mind, from the revival of 
 letters, which took place about the fifteenth century, 
 to the sera of Locke and Newton, which may be re- 
 ferred to the close of the seventeenth. After this 
 period, the ramifications of science became so nume- 
 rous, and the field of general knowledge so enlarged, 
 that to take even the most cursory review within the 
 limits which the author has prescribed to himself, 
 would be almost an impracticable attempt. This 
 latter epoch has been fitly termed by a modern 
 writer, " that of the second emancipation of science, 
 in which she appears armed with better instru- 
 ments, supplied with more abundant materials, and 
 secured alike from attack or decay, by a happier 
 order of society." 
 
 II. The literary history of each of the above- 
 mentioned periods will be subdivided : 
 
 1. With reference to remote ages and countries 
 geographically, that is, according to the relative 
 positions which the several nations occupied in the 
 map of the world ; for the records of that distant 
 period are so brief and indistinct, that they will 
 scarcely admit of a more minute classification. 
 
 2. As we descend the stream of time, and ad- 
 vance to the region of authentic history, the chro- 
 nological order, in which scientific discoveries were 
 
SECT. III.)] PLAN OF THE WORK. 15 
 
 made, or philosophical systems devised, will be more 
 distinctly marked. 
 
 3. In proceeding still farther, it will be attempted 
 to sketch the history of the sciences separately, 
 under the two great divisions of matter and mind, 
 agreeably to the general classification suggested in 
 the last section. 
 
 4. In reviewing the latter of the above-mentioned 
 periods, when men of genius and science began to 
 crowd the arena, it will be desirable not only to 
 distinguish the departments of physical and intel- 
 lectual science, but to notice more particularly the 
 individuals who contributed to their advancement, 
 the order of time in which they flourished, their 
 principal productions, and the influence of their 
 writings and labours, both immediate and remote. 
 
PART I. 
 ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ASSYRIA/ BABYLONIA, AND CHALD^EA. 
 
 13. It may be gathered from the most ancient 
 historical document the world has ever known — 
 the Book of Genesis — that considerable progress 
 had been made in the practical sciences before the 
 catastrophe of the universal Deluge. Whence the 
 knowledge of the Antediluvians was derived, and 
 how far it extended, can only be matter of conjec- 
 tural and hypothetical reasonings ; since the brief 
 notices of their history, recorded by the inspired 
 author of the Pentateuch, furnish no data from 
 which certain conclusions can now be drawn. The 
 simple facts are stated, that cities were built, from 
 which some elementary acquaintance with archi- 
 tectural science may be inferred ; that certain 
 individuals were artificers in brass and iron, and 
 instructed others in the use of these valuable metals ; 
 and that others both constructed musical instru- 
 ments, and were sufficiently acquainted with the 
 
SECT. I.)] ASSYRIA AND CHALDJEA. 17 
 
 science of music,, to teach others how to " handle" 
 those instruments. Upon the same principles it 
 may not unreasonably be conjectured, especially 
 when the longevity of the patriarchs, and the faci- 
 lities they possessed for communicating traditional 
 knowledge, are considered, that the same ingenuity 
 which led to these inventions would display itself in 
 many other kindred arts and sciences. Josephus 
 indeed asserts (but on what authority he omits to 
 state), that " longevity was bestowed on them for 
 the very purpose of improving the sciences of 
 geometry and astronomy." 
 
 14. After the Flood, the event which occasioned 
 the dispersion of the human family seems to indicate 
 no inconsiderable attainments in scientific know- 
 ledge ; for, unless a far greater advancement had 
 been made in architecture than has yet been found 
 among uncivilized tribes, the conception could never 
 have been framed of building " a tower whose top 
 should reach to heaven," even after due allowance 
 is made for the boldness of oriental metaphors. 
 Especially will this conclusion appear to be well 
 founded, if, as some have supposed, the principal 
 design of these artificers was, to form a center of 
 union, which might be the basis of an universal 
 monarchy; or, as others have imagined, to construct 
 a lofty observatory for astronomical purposes. To 
 trace the progress of general knowledge among the 
 descendants of Abraham, forms no part of our 
 present plan ; because the only authentic sources of 
 information on this subject are found in a volume 
 with which, it is hoped, every reader of this work 
 
18 ASSYRIA AND CHALDiEA. [PART I. 
 
 will be better acquainted, than with the contents of 
 this elementary history; and also because the few 
 individuals of that nation, who were celebrated for 
 their wisdom or science, stand on the much higher 
 ground of prophetical inspiration. It will be suffi- 
 cient to remind the juvenile reader, that Moses is 
 said, by the illustrious Proto-martyr Stephen, to have 
 been " learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians ;" 
 that the most scientific as well as most magnificent 
 and costly specimens of ancient architecture were 
 erected in the days of Solomon, and under the di- 
 rection of that monarch, whose wisdom is said, in 
 Scripture, to have " excelled the wisdom of all the 
 children of the East and all the wisdom of Egypt, so 
 that his fame was in all nations round about. And 
 he spake three thousand proverbs; and his songs 
 were a thousand and iiYe. And he spake of trees, 
 from the cedar of Lebanon unto the hyssop that 
 springeth out of the wall : he spake also of beasts 
 and of fowls and of creeping things and of fishes." 
 (1 Kings iv. 30 — 33.) Of Daniel, the Jewish pro- 
 phet, who flourished during the captivity, it was 
 confessed, even by a Chaldasan prince, that he was 
 far superior in knowledge to the most learned of his 
 magi, and that " the wisdom of the gods was found 
 in him." It is, however, to be remembered, that in 
 all the three cases just alluded to, their pre-eminence 
 in knowledge is attributed to divine communications 
 and special revelations from heaven. 
 
 15. Notwithstanding the pretensions of the 
 Egyptians to have led the way in the march of 
 civilization and general knowledge; and although 
 
SECT. I.^ CHALDJEA. 19 
 
 it must be admitted, on the authority both of sacred 
 and profane historians, that Egypt was the cradle of 
 some useful arts ; there is sufficient ground to dispute 
 the claims of that people to priority, more especially 
 in astronomical science. The Assyrians, Babylonians, 
 and Clialdceans (names which seem to h.ve been 
 promiscuously employed by ancient writers, to de- 
 signate the same people), really preceded them by 
 several centuries at least ; and many circumstances 
 might be adduced to prove that the Egyptians rather 
 derived the rudiments of knowledge from the Chal- 
 dasans, than the Chaldaeans from them. Aristotle 
 distinctly asserts, that " the Chaldaaan magi were 
 known as a learned sect long before the Egyptian 
 priests ;" and it is certain that the Assyrian monarchy, 
 which included the provinces of Babylonia and Chal- 
 dasa, had become powerful and flourishing, while 
 that of Egypt was yet in its infancy. Diodorus 
 Siculus, from whose brief and imperfect notices our 
 information on subjects of remote antiquity must be 
 chiefly derived, has clearly attributed the origin of 
 oriental literature to the Chaldasans. The traditions 
 of the Jews, and of almost all other Eastern nations, 
 as stated by Sir W. Jones, abundantly confirm this 
 opinion. 
 
 16. But when we speak of the literature of the 
 Chaldasans, the term must be understood as em- 
 ployed in a very limited sense. Some crude and 
 jejune speculations respecting the eternity of matter ; 
 a few incorrect and partial observations on the 
 heavenly bodies ; and a mass of superstitious notions 
 on judicial astrology, comprehend almost the whole 
 
 c 2 
 
20 CHALDyEA. [PART I. 
 
 of the boasted attainments of these learned Chal- 
 dasans. With respect to the former of these, they 
 taught, that matter is eternal, never having had a 
 beginning, and never to have an end ; that the system 
 of nature does not move spontaneously, nor are its 
 motions directed by blind chance, but under the 
 continual superintendence either of superior or in- 
 ferior deities ; and, finally, that in the beginning, all 
 things consisted of darkness and water, but by divine 
 power, this humid mass was consolidated into a 
 world, and rilled with inhabitants. In this Chaldasan 
 cosmogony, it is not difficult to trace a distinct, 
 though corrupted, tradition of the Mosaic account of 
 the creation. If the testimony of ancient writers 
 respecting their knowledge of astronomy can be 
 credited, it Was fully equal to what could reasonably 
 have been expected at so early a period, and amidst 
 their great disadvantages. From these sources of 
 information it may be gathered, that they not only 
 discovered six planets, viz. the Sun, Mercury, Venus, 
 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and made rude calcu- 
 lations of their several revolutions and orbits ; but, 
 according to Petavius, that they determined with 
 tolerable exactness the length both of a synodical 
 and periodical month ; according to Hipparchus, 
 that they calculated lunar eclipses ; according to 
 Aristotle, that they made many observations on the 
 occultations of fixed stars and planets by the moon's 
 shadow, and grouped the heavenly bodies into 
 imaginary constellations ; and also that they divided 
 the zodiac into twelve signs, through which the 
 planets were observed to pass in their revolutions. 
 
SECT. I.^ CHALDjEA. 21 
 
 Nor do they appear to have been wholly ignorant of 
 the existence of comets, though they considered 
 them rather as meteors than permanent bodies, 
 moving with great velocity through the heavens. 
 But that these astronomical discoveries, if such they 
 may be termed, were mixed with the grossest errors, 
 is evident from the statements of Plutarch and 
 Seneca, who affirm, on the authority of Berosus 
 himself, that they attributed eclipses of the moon to 
 " the turning towards the earth of that part of the 
 lunar globe which is destitute of fire ;" and believed 
 that " when all the planetary bodies shall meet in 
 Cancer, the world will be consumed by fire ; but 
 when in Capricorn, it will be destroyed by an inun- 
 dation of water." 
 
 17. The most authentic fact relative to this an- 
 cient people is, that they were extremely addicted to 
 judicial astrology, which was then esteemed the 
 noblest of all the sciences. To this all their 
 astronomical observations were rendered subservient. 
 From the motions and relative positions of the 
 planets — the manner of their rising and setting— 
 the degree and colour of their light — from the ap- 
 pearance of comets and meteoric lights-- from eclipses 
 of the sun and moon ;— in a word, from all the ordi- 
 nary and extraordinary phenomena which presented 
 themselves, the Chaldajan Magi uttered their 
 oracular predictions respecting the rise and fall of 
 empires, the good or ill success of battles, as well as 
 the fortune of private individuals. As a basis for 
 these astrological predictions, it was maintained that 
 the six planets (which they called Interpreters, 
 
22 CHALD^A. [PART I. 
 
 because they portended by their aspects the will 
 of the gods,) maintained a continual correspondence 
 with thirty stars, which they termed Counselling 
 Deities, half of whom took cognizance of the things 
 of earth, and the other half of what is trans- 
 acted in the heavens; that once in ten days one 
 of the superior stars descended to the inferior, 
 to communicate the will of the gods; and, in 
 return, at stated periods, the inferior ascended to 
 the superior, to convey intelligence from earth; — 
 that the chiefs of these counselling deities were 
 twelve principal stars, one of whom reigned for 
 a month, and to each of whom was committed one 
 of the signs of the zodiac. Such is, in brief, the 
 explanation given by Diodorus Siculus of the 
 Chaldsean system of astrology, and so truly has 
 an inspired Apostle affirmed, when alluding to the 
 delusions of heathen philosophy, that * esteeming 
 themselves wise, they became fools" 
 
 18. But however defective may have been the 
 knowledge of these primitive astronomers, or how- 
 ever misapplied their few and partial discoveries, 
 it is to be remembered, that to them posterity is 
 indebted for its elementary acquaintance with a 
 science of all others the most sublime. The period 
 to which the present section refers, must be con- 
 sidered as the earliest dawn of astronomical science. 
 In Chaldsea is found the source of that stream of 
 knowledge which modern discoveries have expanded 
 into an almost interminable ocean. Disposed as 
 we may sometimes feel to treat with contempt the 
 oracular prognostications of the Chaldaean astro- 
 
SECT. 1-3 CHALD^A. 23 
 
 logers, classing them with the fortune-tellers of 
 modern times, it should not be forgotten, that even 
 the rude and inaccurate calculations by which they 
 pretended to foretell the destinies of mankind, pre- 
 pared the way for the astonishing developments of 
 later ages. To this subject may not unfitly be 
 applied the remarks of a distinguished living writer, 
 with reference to the gradual development of the 
 human character. "The smallest thing," says Foster, 
 " becomes respectable, when regarded as the com- 
 mencement of what has advanced, or is advancing, 
 into magnificence. The first rude settlement of 
 Romulus would have been an insignificant circum- 
 stance, and might justly have sunk into oblivion, if 
 Rome had not at length commanded the world. 
 The little rill near the source of one of the great 
 American rivers is an interesting object to the 
 traveller, who is apprised, as he steps across it, 
 or walks a few miles along its bank, that this is 
 the stream which runs so far, and gradually 
 swells into so immense a flood." — Foster's Essays, 
 Vol. I. p. 7. 
 
 19. The departments of Chaldaean literature 
 already alluded to, together with other modes of 
 divination, were among the occult sciences studied 
 alone by the sect of the Magi; on which account 
 they were all comprehended under the general title 
 Magic. But there is ground to believe that there 
 were other practical sciences, of far greater utility, 
 in which the ancient Babylonians made considerable 
 advances. If the accounts transmitted by ancient 
 historians, relative to the magnitude and splendour 
 
24 CHALDiEA. [PART I. 
 
 of the cities of Nineveh and Babylon, be correct; 
 if those ancient cities contained such massive walls, 
 such elevated towers, such spacious and magnificent 
 temples and palaces, as tradition has reported ; there 
 must have existed at that period architects and prac- 
 tical mathematicians of no mean reputation. From 
 the great variety of musical instruments said to have 
 been employed at the dedication of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar's colossal image, and, indeed, from the con- 
 struction of the image itself, may be inferred their 
 skill in mechanism ; and, finally, the celebrity of the 
 manufactures of ancient Babylon, the rich em- 
 broideries, sumptuous vestments, magnificent carpets, 
 and fine linen, said to have been exported thence into 
 distant parts of the world, sufficiently prove that 
 arts and industry prevailed among its inhabitants. 
 
 20. Of the men of letters, who flourished in 
 Babylonia and Chaldaea, little is now known. The 
 names of a few individuals of this class have indeed 
 been preserved, but their works have long since 
 perished. A Chaldaean philosopher, named Zo- 
 roaster, is mentioned by ancient writers, who must 
 be distinguished from the Zoroaster, or Zerdusht, so 
 celebrated in Persian history. He is supposed to 
 have been contemporary with Abraham, the founder 
 of the Magian sect, and the inventor of magic, or, 
 as it has since been designated, judicial astrology. 
 The records of antiquity contain a few scattered 
 fragments of the works of Berosus, a Chaldaean 
 historian, who flourished about the time of Alex- 
 ander. He wrote an ancient history of the world, 
 ending a. c. 267, which is referred to by Josephus, 
 
SECT. II.] CHINA. 25 
 
 and also by some of the Christian Fathers, as con- 
 firmatory of the truth of the Old Testament history. 
 By some it is called the Babylonica, and by others 
 the Chaldaica, of Berosus. It consisted of three 
 books, including the history of the Babylonians, 
 Medes, and Persians. According to Josephus, Berosus 
 reckons ten generations between the first man and 
 the Universal Deluge, and marks the duration of 
 each of these generations by periods of 223 lunar 
 revolutions, which, reduced to years, nearly accord 
 with the chronology of Moses. The fragments of 
 this ancient document, which still exist, are con- 
 tained in the writings of Josephus and Syncellus, 
 who seem to have collected tliem with much exact- 
 ness. A clumsy attempt was made, in compara- 
 tively modern times, by an obscure monk, named 
 Annius of Viterbo, to produce and impose on the 
 world a fictitious history of Chaldaea, under the 
 name of Berosus ; but the attempt has only served 
 to entail disgrace upon its author. — Vid. Enfield's 
 Abridgment of Brucker's History of Philosophy, 
 Vol. I. p. 25—37. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 21. Although it is impossible to determine the 
 geographical boundaries of the ancient Assyrian 
 empire, it is known to have been, during the period 
 of its greatest prosperity, of vast extent, including 
 
26 CHINA. [[PART I. 
 
 within its limits many large and populous pro- 
 vinces. Among these, there is little reason to doubt 
 that China, and India, both within and without the 
 Ganges, were included. " The different nations," 
 says Sir W. Jones, " who have, in different ages, 
 divided among themselves, as a kind of inheritance, 
 the vast continent of Asia, with the many islands 
 depending on it, are the five following : — the Indians, 
 the Chinese, the Tartars, the Arabs, and the Per- 
 sians : who they severally were— whence and when 
 they came — where they now are settled — and what 
 advantage a more perfect knowledge of them all 
 may bring to our European world, will be investi- 
 gated, and the great problem solved, whether they 
 had amj common origin." To this latter opinion, 
 that learned writer accedes, and adduces many in- 
 genious arguments in its defence. This fact (if it 
 may be deemed such) will not only account for the 
 early civilization of the eastern provinces of Asia, 
 and for the similarity of their customs, manners, and 
 dialects, but also for the particular direction which 
 the human mind seems to have taken in its pursuit 
 of knowledge, and the sciences cultivated by them 
 from remote antiquity. A striking resemblance 
 may be perceived in their mythological fables, their 
 metaphysical speculations, and their scientific pur- 
 suits, which goes far to prove their common origin, 
 whatever may be the opinion of antiquarians re- 
 specting their priority. Without presuming to 
 determine whether China or India should take the 
 precedence in chronological order, our attention, 
 in this survey of ancient literature, will be first 
 
SECT. Il/] CHINA. 27 
 
 directed to China, on account of its confessed anti- 
 quity and national importance. 
 
 22. A veil of impenetrable obscurity hangs over 
 the primitive history of this vast empire, which the 
 utmost diligence of research has not been able to 
 remove. Many conjectures have been made respect- 
 ing the probable origin of this singular portion of 
 the human race, and many plausible theories de- 
 vised by men of ingenuity and learning ; but all 
 have been unsuccessful in attempting to establish, 
 on the basis of authentic history, either the period 
 in which the Chinese empire was founded, or the 
 source from which its vast population was imme- 
 diately derived. The fables of the Chinese them- 
 selves, on this subject, are wholly undeserving of 
 credit, nor are the tales of the Jesuit missionaries, 
 who have long dwelt among them, and flattered 
 their national vanity for interested purposes, more 
 credible. The theory of Sir W. Jones, already 
 alluded to, who considers this people as one great 
 branch of the five Asiatic nations, which were pri- 
 marily consolidated in one mighty empire, to which 
 he gives the name of Iran, (probably the Assyrian?) 
 appears on the whole most satisfactory, because it 
 serves best to explain the phenomena of their intel- 
 lectual and moral resemblances, it accords best with 
 scripture history, and it accounts most satisfactorily 
 for the monotheism which prevailed there during 
 many ages. — Sir W. Jones's Works, Vol. I. p. 21. 
 
 23. Notwithstanding the high pretensions of this 
 people to literary eminence in very remote ages, 
 there is little reason to suppose, that the arts and 
 
28 CHINA. £PART I. 
 
 sciences, and still less that any thing which may 
 deserve the name of philosophy, had made any con- 
 siderable progress among them before the time of 
 Kung-foots%e, (or, as latinized by the Catholic 
 Missionaries, Confucius,) who flourished about six 
 centuries before the Christian i£ra, and to whom we 
 are indebted for the earliest authentic information 
 respecting the history and antiquities of China. 
 According to the traditional history of the Chinese 
 themselves, their first princes invented agriculture, 
 music, medicine or the healing art, and astronomy. 
 It is also asserted, that theology, ethics, and natural 
 philosophy, were their favourite studies, and that 
 they were the original instructors of mankind in the 
 mechanical arts, particularly architecture and navi- 
 gation. But all these have been proved by Sir 
 W. Jones, and other European writers in modern 
 times, to be unfounded pretensions, originating in 
 national vanity, and supported by popular ignorance. 
 There is rather ground to conclude, that their first 
 efforts in science were extremely rude and imperfect, 
 and that their literature was truly contemptible. 
 The most judicious and best informed of modern 
 Chinese scholars concur in the opinion, that no 
 authentic records exist of the times to which these 
 traditions relate, and that they are to be esteemed 
 altogether fabulous. It may however be deserving 
 of notice, that among their most ancient traditions, 
 is that of a general deluge, said to have taken place 
 at a period corresponding with a. c. 2200 ; and 
 that they carry back their antediluvian traditions 
 to a much earlier period. Thus do we obtain, from 
 
SECT. II.]3 CHINA. 29 
 
 another independent source, an additional confirma- 
 tion of Sacred History. 
 
 24. The. ancient literature of China is stated, by 
 Dr. Morrison (to whose various and valuable writings 
 on the subject the author is chiefly indebted for the 
 contents of this section), to consist of the writings 
 or compilations of the moral philosophers of the 
 age of Confucius, with numerous notes and com- 
 ments and paraphrases on the original text, the pro- 
 ductions of subsequent ages, and with controversies 
 concerning its genuineness, the order of particular 
 words or phrases, and the meaning of obscure pas- 
 sages, which still continue to exercise the critical 
 acumen of Chinese scholars. The text of the Woo- 
 king, or Five Sacred Boohs, written or compiled by 
 Confucius himself; and of the S%e-shoo, or Four 
 Books, compiled by four of the disciples of Confu- 
 cius, (and from which circumstance they receive 
 their title,) contain the doctrines and precepts which 
 Confucius approved and taught. " In respect of 
 external form," says the same learned writer, " the 
 Five Books of the Chinese correspond to the Penta- 
 teuch of Moses ; and the Four Books, in respect of 
 being a record of the sayings of a master, compiled 
 by four disciples, have a slight resemblance to the 
 Four Gospels. But the contents — how different! 
 with the exception of a few passages in the most 
 ancient part of the Woo-hing, which retain some- 
 thing of the knowledge which Noah must have 
 communicated to his children, the rest appears a 
 godless system of personal, domestic, and political 
 moralities, drawn only from the pride of the human 
 
30 CHINA. [[PART I. 
 
 heart, the love of fame, or present expediency. 
 The sanctions of the Eternal and Almighty God, 
 arrayed with every natural and moral perfection — 
 the fears and hopes of immortality — the love and 
 grace of a Saviour — are wholly wanting in these 
 ancient Chinese works, which yet are " deemed by 
 millions of the human race most sacred." — Morri- 
 son's Chinese Miscellany, p. 34. 
 
 25. As the works to which we have just referred 
 constitute the prominent and most important feature 
 of ancient Chinese literature, the following outline 
 of their principal contents may not be unacceptable 
 to the juvenile reader. 
 
 " The first of the Woo-king, or Five Sacred 
 Books, consists of ancient love songs — political 
 satires, in verse — concealed censures of eminent 
 persons — the praises of the virtuous — the regret of 
 soldiers on the frontier — occasional delineations of 
 nature, and expressions of feelings. Of the odes in 
 this ancient book, there are 301 ; and for the perusal 
 of them all, Confucius gave one rule in three words, 
 denoting purity of mind." 
 
 The second is a sort of chronicle of the delibera- 
 tions between two ancient chieftains, or emperors, 
 and three kings. It originally consisted of 100 
 sections, but 58 only are now extant. It is believed 
 to contain all the principles of good government, 
 which are comprehended in four words, nearly 
 corresponding with the English words, — Virtue — 
 Benevolence — Gravity — Sincerity. In this book 
 are also found some records of ancient traditions. 
 
 The third is of a more metaphysical character, 
 
SECT. II.3 CHINA. 31 
 
 and contains the doctrine of changes, or alterations, 
 founded on the system of Dual Powers in Nature. 
 The philosophy of this book bears a strong resem- 
 blance to the unintelligible jargon of the scholastics. 
 From its chaos of absurdity, Dr. Morrison has 
 endeavoured to gather something like form and 
 order, and concludes, that " the theology it teaches 
 is a species of atheistical materialism." 
 
 The fourth consists of ancient ceremonials, both 
 civil and religious, prescribed rules for regulating 
 behaviour, dress, marriages, burials, sacrifices, sacred 
 places, prescribed forms of worship, &c. &c. On 
 this ancient system of ethics, it is remarked, that it 
 places self-respect and respect for others, a serious- 
 ness of mind and deportment, and gravity of speech, 
 at the foundation of the whole. There are no re- 
 ferences to any divine law or sanction, as constituting 
 the grounds of moral obligation. 
 
 The fifth of these ancient books is said to have 
 been the only one composed by Confucius himself ; 
 those already mentioned having been compilations 
 from still more ancient documents. It is a sort of 
 history of his own times ; or, as modern Chinese 
 scholars have termed it, " a bold chronicle of public 
 occurrences," or a species of Annual Register, bearing 
 the fanciful title of Spring and Autumn. — Chinese 
 Miscell. p. 37—42. 
 
 26. Next in antiquity and importance to the 
 Woo-hing is the Sze-shoo, or Four Sacred Books, 
 which contain the recognized principles of the 
 Confucian school ; a work which, though composed 
 of the most fanciful and unfounded theories in 
 
32 CHINA. IMPART I. 
 
 nature, religion, morals, politics, medicine, and 
 other subjects of science, is said to exhibit, as a 
 whole, a most beautiful and well-arranged system, the 
 knowledge of which is indispensable to the attain- 
 ment of any station of honour or emolument in the 
 Chinese empire. " In these Four Books, knowledge 
 is considered as fundamental ; not merely intel- 
 lectual knowledge, but chiefly what they call a 
 clear discernment of illustrious virtue — an accurate 
 perception of nature's light, connected with a 
 sincere application of this knowledge to the moral 
 improvement of the individual. Next comes its 
 application to the benefit of others ; or, as they 
 express it, " to the renovation of the people :" and, 
 finally, " a constant steady adherence to the princi- 
 ples and practice of the virtues previously ascer- 
 tained." The gradations of society, as sketched in 
 these ancient documents, are — 1. The cultivators 
 of the mind, or men of philosophy and science ; 
 2. The cultivators of the land, or practical agricul- 
 turists ; 3. Operators on the earth's produce, or the 
 artizans and mechanics ; and, 4. The transferrer of 
 commodities, or the mercantile classes. The first 
 of these classes has been for many ages the most 
 privileged, retaining in full possession the power 
 of administering the " Celestial empire" — Chinese 
 Miscell p. 43. 
 
 27. From the preceding sketch of the subjects to 
 which the works of Confucius and his disciples 
 relate, it will be perceived, that the ancient literature 
 of China was rather metaphysical and ethical, 
 than connected with the practical sciences or the 
 
SECT. II.]] CHINA. 33 
 
 phenomena of nature. It abounded with abstract 
 speculations, moral aphorisms, and didactic rules 
 for individual or social conduct. The summary of 
 the ethical system of Confucius, as gathered by Sir 
 William Jones from the writings of that philosopher, 
 is, that " he who shall be fully persuaded that the 
 Lord of heaven governs the universe — who shall 
 in all things chuse moderation — who shall per- 
 fectly know his own species, and so act among 
 them, that his life and manners may conform to 
 his knowledge of God and man — may be truly 
 said to discharge all the duties of a sage, and to be 
 far exalted above the common herd of the human 
 race." Such may have been, from remote anti- 
 quity, the tenets maintained and inculcated by the 
 philosophers of China : but from other sources of 
 information it may be gathered, that in that empire, 
 as in all other pagan countries, there were gods 
 many, and lords many ; and that the superstitions 
 of the common people were encouraged, rather than 
 counteracted, by the speculative philosophers. The 
 multitude have, from time immemorial, believed in 
 the agency of subordinate deities, genii, and tutelary 
 spirits, presiding over the stars and clouds — over 
 lakes and rivers — mountains, valleys, and woods — 
 over certain regions and towns — over all the 
 elements (and especially fire, the most brilliant of 
 them all) : and to these deities they offered victims 
 on high places. A distinction must therefore be 
 made in China, no less than in India and Greece, 
 between the speculative theories of the learned, and 
 the gross superstitions of the vulgar. 
 
34 CHINA. IMPART I. 
 
 28. The only department of physical science, in 
 which the Chinese are known to have made any 
 considerable progress in remote ages, is Astronomy : 
 but by them, as well as by the Chaldaeans, and 
 almost every other oriental nation, this noble science 
 was degraded by its supposed connexion with 
 astrology. Both the Chinese annalists and the 
 Jesuit missionaries trace back the history of astro- 
 nomy in China to the age immediately succeeding 
 the universal deluge. They attribute to Fo-hi, 
 their first emperor (whom some suppose to have 
 been Noah, and others Ham), the discovery of the 
 elementary principles of their science, the invention 
 of the signs of the zodiac, the arrangement of the 
 constellations, &c. P. Gaubil, who seems to have 
 investigated more closely the claims of the Chinese 
 astronomers, admits, that at least as early as a. c. 
 120, the number and extent of the constellations 
 had been determined as they now stand ; — the situ- 
 ation of the fixed stars, with reference to the 
 solstitial and equinoctial points, and the obliquity of 
 the ecliptic ; — that, about the same time, the theory 
 by which they foretold eclipses, was discovered and 
 acted upon, and that there are still extant in their 
 language, treatises on astronomy, which were written 
 two hundred years before the Christian iEra. 
 
 29. Before we quit this vast and populous em- 
 pire, the literary history of which is daily becoming 
 better known and more interesting to Europeans, 
 a cursory view may be taken of the principal de- 
 partments of its modern literature, as arranged by 
 Dr. Morrison in his valuable Chinese Miscellany. 
 
SECT. II.]] CHINA. 35 
 
 After enumerating the ancient writings of Con- 
 fucius and his disciples, it is stated, that " the 1st 
 class includes the multitude of modern critics and 
 commentators on those writings ; 2. Histories of 
 the Chinese Empire, which are numerous, written 
 in a grave style, and interspersed with remarks 
 on the persons and occurrences which pass in re- 
 view ; 3. Historical novels, which now constitute a 
 favourite department of Chinese reading ; 4. Dra- 
 matic works, generally published under fictitious 
 names ; 5. Poetry, which consists chiefly of short 
 descriptions, expressing the tender or mournful 
 feelings of the heart, and sometimes describes rural 
 scenery, but seldom touches on moral subjects ; 
 6. The Collectanea of political, philosophical, and 
 controversial disquisitions forms a very numerous 
 class of modern Chinese writings ; 7. Geographical 
 and topographical treatises are abundant ; 8. Medi- 
 cal works on the theory and practice of the healing 
 art are also said to be numerous, and highly curious ; 
 9. Astronomical books, which generally are filled 
 with the dreams of astrology, intermingled with 
 scientific information; 10. The Prize Essays of 
 many generations, which are preserved, and pub- 
 lished with care at the expense of the government; 
 and, 11. The moral and religious essays of the 
 three modern Chinese sects," termed by Dr. Morrison, 
 " the Confucian School of Atheistical Materialists, 
 the Visionary Alchymic School of Laokeun, and the 
 Hindoo Polytheistic School of Buddha." — Morrison's 
 Chinese Miscellany, p. 36. 
 
 d 2 
 
36 INDIA. [[PART I. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 30. The same obscurity which hangs over the 
 primitive history of China, veils also that of the pe- 
 ninsula of Hindostan. But from whatever quarter 
 the inhabitants of these oriental climes (now ren- 
 dered so interesting by their political relation to 
 ourselves) may have derived the elements of their 
 civilization and knowledge, it is certain that there 
 existed among them, from the earliest period of their 
 traditional history, men highly reputed for their 
 wisdom and erudition ; and that discoveries were 
 made by them in moral and physical science, which, 
 though they may not bear a comparison with the 
 developments of modern times, are yet, when viewed 
 in connexion with the existing state of society, 
 truly astonishing. So high was the literary repu- 
 tation of this people, long before the arts and philo- 
 sophy flourished in Greece, that, all who made any 
 pretensions to learning in that country deemed it 
 necessary to visit India, that they might make them- 
 selves acquainted with the philosophical systems, and 
 scientific discoveries, for which the eastern sages 
 were renowned. An ancient Greek historian af- 
 firms, that " the Indians were the wisest of nations, 
 especially in moral science ; and notwithstanding 
 the national vanity of the Greeks, which led them 
 to pour contempt on all other nations as barbarous, 
 the confession is frequently extorted from them, that 
 
SECT. III. ^ INDIA. 37 
 
 the most celebrated of their philosophers were 
 greatly indebted to their travels among oriental 
 nations for their high attainments in knowledge. 
 " The six philosophical schools," says Sir W. Jones, 
 " whose principles are explained in the Dersana 
 Sastra, comprise all the metaphysics of the Old 
 Academy, the Stoa, the Lyceum ; nor is it possible 
 to read the Vedanta, (another of the ancient Indian 
 Sastras,) or the many fine compositions in illustra- 
 tion of it, without believing that Pythagoras and 
 Plato derived their sublime theories from the same 
 fountain with the sages of India." 
 
 31. Of the philosophy of India it would be im- 
 possible to give even a faint outline in this summary 
 of ancient literature ; nor is it easy to form a decided 
 opinion of its general character, amidst the jarring 
 opinions entertained on the subject by writers pos- 
 sessed of ample means of information. By some it 
 has been described as a compound of fanatical meta- 
 physics, and extravagant superstitions, without the 
 smallest seasoning of rational physics ; while others 
 have represented it as a refined allegorical system 
 of metaphysical theology, characterized by inge- 
 nuity and pre-eminent genius. Without acceding 
 fully to either of these contrary opinions, it may be 
 safely affirmed, that the mystical philosophy of India 
 approaches much nearer to reason and truth than 
 the bold and impious speculations of the modern 
 European philosophers. The latter have strenu- 
 ously laboured to exclude mind from the universe ; 
 but the ancient Hindoo philosophers, proceeding to 
 the opposite extreme of pantheism, allow no powers 
 
38 INDIA. [PART I. 
 
 whatever to material substances, but introduce the 
 Deity as the immediate cause of every effect, how- 
 ever trivial ; as the agent and author alike of good 
 and evil. " From all the properties of man and 
 nature — from all the various branches of science — 
 from all the deductions of human reason, the corol- 
 lary drawn by all the philosophers of the East is, 
 the supremacy and direct agency of an all-creating, 
 all-preserving spirit, infinitely wise and powerful, 
 but infinitely removed, also, from the comprehension 
 of his most exalted creatures. In common with all 
 other eastern nations, they considered the human 
 soul as a particle or an emanation of that intellec- 
 tual fire by which the universe is animated. To 
 the same source may also be referred their belief in 
 transmigration, re-absorption in the Divinity, and 
 the periodical renovation of the material universe."* 
 32. No early traces of moral science, considered 
 
 * The statement of Sir W. Jones, respecting the branch of 
 Hindoo philosophy referred to in the text, exhibits it in a more 
 favourable light. " The fundamental tenet of the Vedanti School 
 consisted, not in denying the existence of matter, that is, of 
 solidity, impenetrability, and extended figure, (to deny which 
 would be lunacy,) but in correcting the popular notion of it, and 
 in contending that it has no essence independently of mental per- 
 ception — that existence and perceptibility are convertible terms — 
 that external appearances and sensations are illusory, and would 
 vanish into nothing, if the divine energy, which alone sustains 
 them, were suspended but for a moment ; an opinion which 
 Epicharmus and Plato seem to have adopted, and which has 
 been maintained in the present day (alluding to the well-known 
 Berkleyan system,) with great elegance, but with little public 
 applause." — Sir W. Jones's Works, Vol. I. Prelim. Diss. 
 
SECT. Ill/] INDIA. 39 
 
 as a system, can be found among the ancient writ- 
 ings of the Hindoo philosophers ; but their Sastras, 
 or sacred books, abound with ethical maxims and 
 preceptive rules of conduct. 
 
 The moralists of the East have in general chosen 
 to deliver their precepts in short sententious apho- 
 risms, to illustrate them by allegorical comparisons, 
 or to inculcate them in the ancient form of apo- 
 logues or fables. The Niti Sastra, or System of 
 Ethics, still held in high veneration by the inhabi- 
 tants of India, contains, amidst many absurdities, a 
 great mass of moral instruction ; and the fables of 
 Vishnu-serman (better known by the name of 
 Pilpay) are said to be the most beautiful, if not the 
 most ancient, collection of apologues in the world. 
 These fables were originally written in the San- 
 scrit dialect, under a title which signifies (( amicable 
 instruction ;" from which they were first translated 
 into the popular language of India, in the sixth 
 century. They are now extant in more than twenty 
 of the oriental dialects, and greatly admired for the 
 moral wisdom they contain. It is conjectured by 
 Sir W. Jones, that, " as the very existence of Esop is 
 doubtful, the first moral fables known to the Euro- 
 peans, were of Indian or Ethiopic origin." — Sir W. 
 Jones's Works, Vol. I. p. 32. 
 
 33. Physical science seems to have been chiefly 
 applied by the ancient Hindoos, either to the con- 
 veniences of social life, or to the more disgraceful 
 purpose of magical and astrological imposture. If 
 full reliance could be placed on their own tradi- 
 tional history, or the testimony of some distinguished 
 
40 INDIA. [PART I. 
 
 modern writers, it would appear that the most 
 remarkable discoveries were made by them, even 
 in the infancy of society, in the kindred sciences 
 of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and astronomy. 
 That they were early famed for their skill in navi- 
 gation and their astronomical knowledge, is evident 
 from the writings of the ancient geographer, Dio- 
 nysius, who describes them as a people, 
 
 " who first assay'd the deep, 
 
 And wafted merchandize to coasts unknown ; 
 
 Those who digested first the starry choir, 
 
 Their motions mark'd, and call'd them by their names." 
 
 Yet more decisive evidence is adduced of their 
 attainments in astronomy by a scientific modern 
 writer (Bailly), who examined attentively the astro- 
 nomical tables of the Indian philosophers of anti- 
 quity, and asserts, that they are far superior in 
 accuracy to the best calculations of the Grecian 
 astronomers. The fundamental epoch of the Indian 
 astronomy is a conjunction of the sun and moon, 
 which, according to their chronology, is said to have 
 taken place at a period nearly corresponding with the 
 year 3102 before the Christian iEra; and the most 
 accurate calculations of modern astronomers have 
 shewn, that such a conjunction must have actually 
 taken place at that time. Still more remarkable is the 
 statement of Sir W. Jones, who refers to the works 
 of an ancient philosopher of India, which are said 
 to include a system of the universe, founded on 
 the principle of attraction, and the central position 
 of the sun; whence he infers, that this Indian philo- 
 
SECT. III.]] INDIA. 41 
 
 sopher (probably a contemporary of Pythagoras) 
 communicated to the philosopher of Samos that 
 knowledge of the true solar system, which he is 
 said to have possessed.* 
 
 34. On the general literature of the ancient 
 Hindoos, the following brief notices may suffice. 
 Numerous treatises are found among their ancient 
 writings on grammar, rhetoric, logic, music, medi- 
 cine, geography, and history, which, though little 
 
 * In proof of this statement (viz. that the philosophers of 
 India were not ignorant of the great law of attraction), Sir W. 
 Jones has adduced, from an ancient allegorical poem, the fol- 
 lowing curious passage : — " There is a strong propensity which 
 dances through every atom, and attracts the minutest particle 
 to some peculiar object; search this universe from its base to 
 its summit, from fire to air, from water to earth, from all below 
 the moon to all above the celestial spheres, and thou wilt not 
 find a corpuscle destitute of that natural attractability ; the very 
 point of the first thread in this apparently tangled skein is no 
 other than such a principle of attraction, and all principles 
 beside are void of a real basis ; from such a propensity arises 
 every motion perceived in heavenly or in terrestrial bodies; it 
 is a disposition to be attracted, which taught hard steel to rush 
 from its place, and rivet itself on the magnet; it is the same 
 disposition which impels the light straw to attach itself firmly 
 on amber; it is this quality which gives every substance in nature 
 a tendency toward another, and an inclination forcibly directed 
 to a determinate point." " These notions," remarks the learned 
 author of the Dissertation on the Philosophy of the Hindoos, 
 from which the above passage is quoted; " these notions are 
 vague indeed and unsatisfactory ; but permit me to ask whether 
 the last paragraph of Newton's incomparable work goes much 
 farther, and whether any subsequent experiments have thrown 
 light on a subject so abstruse and obscure." — Sir W.Jones's 
 Works, Vol.1, p. 171. 
 
42 INDIA. [PART I. 
 
 known to European scholars, are affirmed, by no 
 incompetent witness, to " evince a fertile and inven- 
 tive genius; their lighter poems, some of which are 
 of high antiquity, are lively and elegant ; their epic, 
 magnificent and sublime in the highest degree. 
 The ancient books, called Puranas, comprise a 
 series of mythological histories, in blank verse, from 
 the creation to the supposed incarnation of Buddha ; 
 and their Vedas abound with noble speculations in 
 metaphysics, and fine discourses on the being and 
 attributes of God." To this perhaps too flattering 
 statement of the contents of these ancient writings, 
 it is requisite to add (on the authority of the late 
 excellent missionary, Ward, author of a valuable 
 work on the Customs, Manners, and Superstitions 
 of the Hindoos), that these sublime speculations and 
 moral maxims are blended with and degraded by 
 the most absurd fictions and the grossest obscenity. 
 It is painful to be under the necessity of closing 
 this brief sketch of the ancient learning of India, 
 with the assertion, that these boasted attainments 
 in philosophy have hitherto presented the most 
 formidable barrier to the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity among its inhabitants, and that, while the 
 unlettered and more barbarous tribes of Africa, or the 
 islanders of the Pacific, have renounced the super- 
 stitions of their forefathers, the haughty Brahmins 
 of India (with but few exceptions), clad in the 
 proof armour of metaphysical theology and worldly 
 wisdom, have remained impervious to the light of 
 christian revelation, and continued proudly to reject 
 the " wisdom that comes from above." Happy were 
 
SECT. 1V.3 PERSIA. 43 
 
 it for them, and for the world, if the advice with 
 which one of their own Shastras concludes were 
 but practically obeyed : — " That Spirit, from which 
 all created beings proceed; through which, having 
 proceeded from it, they live; toward which they 
 tend ; and in which they are ultimately absorbed ; — 
 that Spirit study to know: that Spirit is the Great 
 One."— Sir W. Jones's Works, Vol. I. pp. 173, 174. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 35. If Persia were, as Sir W. Jones has asserted, 
 " the true center of population, of knowledge, of 
 languages, and of arts," in a very remote period of 
 antiquity ; and if from that empire civilization and 
 learning travelled in every direction throughout the 
 vast continent of Asia, a more than ordinary degree 
 of importance must attach to its primaeval history. 
 Even the most indistinct records of its ancient 
 literature must possess an unwonted interest, not 
 only on their own account, but still more because 
 of the relation they bear to the progress of know- 
 lege in subsequent and far distant ages. It is much 
 to be lamented, (though it is not difficult to account 
 for the fact.) that the early history of so distin- 
 guished an empire should be so little known, and 
 that the traditions respecting it should be so various 
 and contradictory. A few of the most credible 
 
44 PERSIA. [PART 1. 
 
 statements and opinions on this interesting subject 
 will be embodied in the present section, gathered 
 from the most authentic sources of information to 
 which its writer could obtain access. It is to be 
 premised, that Religion and Philosophy are so 
 blended together in the history of ancient Persia, 
 that, though the former falls not distinctly within 
 the object of the present work, it will be impossible 
 to separate the one from the other. The few dis- 
 tinguished names which occur in the annals of its 
 ancient literature, were chiefly celebrated as religious 
 reformers, who, by their instructions and their writ- 
 ings, propagated those tenets on moral subjects, and 
 instituted those religious rites, which continued to 
 prevail during many ages. 
 
 36. It is generally admitted, that long before the 
 time of the celebrated Zerdusht, or Zoroaster, the 
 Magian sect existed in Persia, and included men of 
 reputed learning, held in high veneration by the 
 common people ; but it is probable that, in Persia 
 as in Chaldsea, their only erudition consisted in such 
 rude calculations respecting the phenomena of the 
 heavenly bodies as enabled them more successfully 
 to practise the arts of delusion, by pretending to 
 augur, from the aspect of the heavens, the destinies 
 of mankind. Some faint traces may indeed be per- 
 ceived of an earlier and purer state of society, 
 bearing a close resemblance to the patriarchal. The 
 primaeval religion of Persia is said, on the authority 
 of some oriental writers, to have been " the oldest 
 and noblest of all religions. It consisted in a firm 
 belief that one supreme God made all things by his 
 
SECT. IV.] PERSIA. 45 
 
 power, and continually governs them by his provi- 
 dence — in a pious fear, love and adoration of Him — 
 a due reverence for parents and aged persons — 
 a fraternal affection for the whole human species, 
 and a compassionate tenderness even for the brute 
 creation." This purer form of moral and religious 
 belief was, however, gradually corrupted and debased, 
 and there was grafted upon it the Sabian supersti- 
 tion, which was probably imported from India, and 
 consisted in the adoration of the host of heaven, or 
 the worship of the celestial bodies : hence arose 
 numerous temples in Persia, dedicated to the sun 
 and planets, and containing symbolical representa- 
 tions of those objects of their idolatrous homage; 
 some memorials of which are still preserved among 
 the specimens of Persian sculpture. This popular 
 religion seems to have originated with Mahabad, 
 who is said to have been the first monarch of Persia, 
 and of whom tradition relates, that "he received 
 from the Creator, and promulgated among men, a 
 sacred book in a heavenly language, which consisted 
 of regulations and divine ordinances for the conduct 
 of mankind." In these traditions, a clear indication 
 is given, that some knowledge was preserved and 
 widely diffused of the primitive revelation; and 
 hence some have been led to imagine, that Abraham 
 or Moses was the real person intended by the 
 Persian Mahabad, A partial reformat icn of the 
 popular faith was subsequently effected, about the 
 ninth century before the Christian j£ra, by Hushang, 
 which, while it rejected the grosser forms of poly- 
 theism that had been gradually introduced, and 
 
46 PERSIA. [^PART I. 
 
 revived the laws and institutions of Mahabad, encou- 
 raged a superstitious veneration for the celestial 
 bodies. 
 
 37. It is not, however, till we arrive at the aera 
 of Zerdusht, that we find ourselves on the firm 
 ground of authentic history. This celebrated 
 Persian philosopher is to be distinguished both from 
 the Chaldaean philosopher of the same name (to 
 whom we have already referred), who flourished at 
 a much earlier period, and from several others men- 
 tioned by ancient writers who lived after him. 
 Stanley, in his Lives of the Philosophers, affirms, 
 " that ancient history mentions several Zoroasters ; 
 the first, a Chaldaean ; the second, a Bactrian ; the 
 third, a Persian ; the fourth, a Pamphylian ; and 
 the fifth, a Proconnesian : all of whom were said to 
 be the principal founders of the literature of their 
 respective countries." If this statement be correct, 
 it would seem probable, either that all these tradi- 
 tions had one common origin, and referred to the 
 same individual ; or that the name was anciently 
 employed, as a kind of literary title, to designate 
 those persons who rendered themselves famous by 
 their wisdom and learning. Whether this opinion 
 be well founded or not, there can be no doubt of the 
 existence and celebrity of the Persian Zoroaster, or, 
 as he is called by the orientals, Zerdusht ; and that 
 he flourished during the reign and under the patron- 
 age of Darius Hystaspes. This ancient sage is 
 said to have exerted his influence and learning for 
 the purpose of counteracting the popular supersti- 
 tions of his country, and to have produced a great 
 
SECT. IV. 3 PERSIA. 47 
 
 reformation, amounting almost to a revolution, both 
 in philosophy and religion. To the character of a 
 literary reformer, his pretensions seem to have been 
 well founded ; but it may be doubted, if what has 
 already been affirmed respecting the primitive reli- 
 gion of Persia be correct, whether he can claim, on 
 just grounds, the higher honour of a religious re- 
 former. 
 
 38. For a summary of the philosophical and reli- 
 gious tenets and maxims of Zoroaster, it is requisite 
 to refer to his writings, some of which are still ex- 
 tant, but the far greater part have perished. The 
 sacred book, called the Zend, still held in high vene- 
 ration by the Persians, has been generally attributed 
 to him, though some critics consider it the produc- 
 tion of a much later period. This book consists of 
 two parts, one of which contains the forms of devotion 
 and ceremonies to be observed in religious worship ; 
 the other, precepts of religion and morality. A por- 
 tion of this ancient book is read to the people on every 
 sacred day by the priests ; and from its pages are 
 derived many of the metaphysical speculations which 
 still exercise the ingenuity of the learned. Many 
 works in astrology, physics, and theology > are also 
 said to have been written by Zoroaster, and are occa- 
 sionally referred to by modern oriental scholars, no 
 traces of which remain. One curious document, how- 
 ever, still exists, consisting of fragments of his supposed 
 writings, under the title of the Oracles of Zoroaster. 
 They are in verse, and, notwithstanding all the 
 labours of the Platonic Philosophers, several of whom 
 wrote large commentaries upon them, extremely 
 
48 PERSIA. £PART I. 
 
 obscure. If these are genuine productions of the 
 Persian philosopher, they distinctly point out the 
 true origin of the philosophy of Plato. 
 
 39. The outline of the Persian philosophy, or 
 rather of that system of metaphysical theology, 
 which has been professed immemorially by the Sufis, 
 or Persian literati, is thus sketched by the masterly 
 hand of Sir W. Jones, than whom scarcely an indi- 
 vidual can be found in modern times more intimately 
 acquainted with the literature of Persia. i( Their 
 fundamental tenets are, that nothing exists abso- 
 lutely but God : that the human soul is an emana- 
 tion from his essence ; and though divided for a time 
 from its heavenly source, will be finally re-united 
 with it; that the highest possible happiness will 
 arise from its re-union, and that the chief good of 
 mankind in this transitory world consists in as per- 
 fect an union with the eternal Spirit, as the incum- 
 brances of a mortal frame will allow, — that for this 
 purpose they should break all connexion with ex- 
 trinsic objects, and pass through life without attach- 
 ments, as a swimmer in the ocean strikes freely 
 without the impediment of clothes ; that they 
 should be straight and free as the cypress, whose 
 fruit is hardly perceptible, and not sink under a load 
 like fruit-trees attached to a trellis — that if mere 
 earthly charms have power to influence the soul, the 
 idea of celestial beauty must overwhelm it in extatic 
 delight, — that for want of apt words in which to 
 express the divine perfections, and the ardour of 
 devotion, we must borrow such expressions as ap- 
 proach the nearest to our ideas, and speak of Beauty 
 
SECT. IV.3 PERSIA. 49 
 
 and Love in a transcendent and mystical sense ; that, 
 like a reed torn from its native bank, — like wax 
 separated from its delicious honey, — the soul of man 
 bewails its disunion with melancholy music, and 
 sheds burning tears, like the lighted taper, waiting 
 passionately for the moment of its extinction, as a 
 disengagement from earthly trammels, and the means 
 of returning to its Only Beloved." " Such," adds 
 this elegant writer, " is the wild and enthusiastic 
 religion of the Persian poets, especially of the sweet 
 Hafiz, and the great Maulavi ; such is the system of 
 the Vedanti philosophers, and best lyric poets of 
 India ; and, as it was a system of the highest anti- 
 quity in both nations, it may be added to the many 
 other proofs of an immemorial affinity between 
 them."— Sir W. Jones's Works, Vol. I. pp. 90, 91. 
 
 40. Truth, however, demands that it should be 
 distinctly stated, that the preceding sketch of the 
 Persian philosophy exhibits not its grosser features. 
 With these refined speculations on the nature of the 
 human soul, and its re-absorption in the Divinity, 
 were blended, by the great Persian reformer him- 
 self, many mythological fables relative to the two 
 opposite principles of good and evil, (the former of 
 which was personified under the name of Oromasdes, 
 and the latter under that of Arimanius) ; respecting 
 the genii, or angels, supposed to preside over 
 months and days; respecting the adoration of the 
 Sun, as the brightest emblem of Mithra or the 
 Supreme Deity, and of Fire, as the offspring of the 
 sun and an emanation from his magnificent orb. 
 Whether Zoroaster taught, and his disciples practised, 
 
50 PERSIA. [PART I. 
 
 the worship of the Sun, and of the element of Fire, 
 has been much questioned in modern times, though 
 it seems to have been generally believed by the 
 ancients. It is stoutly denied by the Persian Sufis 
 of the present day, who appeal to supposed writings 
 of great antiquity in proof of their assertions. In 
 one of these, the following explanation is given of 
 the act of Cyrus, in prostrating himself before the 
 blazing altar : — " Think not, that they were adorers 
 of fire, for that element was only an exalted object 
 on the lustre of which they fixed their eyes ; they 
 humbled themselves a whole week before God ; and 
 if thy understanding be ever so little exerted, thou 
 must acknowledge thy dependance on the Being su- 
 premely pure."* — Sir W, Jones's Works, Vol. I. 90. 
 41. The veneration in which the sun and other 
 celestial bodies were held by the ancient Persians 
 
 * In further confirmation of this opinion, Dr. Hyde relates, 
 that when a Persian priest was interrogated by an intimate friend 
 of his, then resident in India, " At what seasons and with what 
 ceremonies they adored the sun t" he replied, that " neither they 
 nor their fathers had ever worshipped the sun, or paid any 
 divine honours whatever to that luminary, to the moon, or to 
 the planets ; but only turned themselves toward the sun when 
 praying, because they considered it as coming nearest to the 
 nature of fire, and the brightest image of the Divinity." From 
 these facts — if such they may be called — it must be evident, that 
 Theism, or the worship of the one living and true God, has been 
 preserved, (not indeed unmingled with corrupt and superstitious 
 rites, but yet in some degree of purity,) from the earliest records 
 of the Persian empire to the present time. Additional evidence 
 on this interesting subject, may also be obtained from the " Life 
 and Remains of the late excellent and lamented Missionary, 
 Henry Martyn." 
 
SECT. IV.3 PERSIA. 51 
 
 (whether it amounted to religious worship or not), 
 naturally led them to the study of astronomy. They 
 were prompted by their religion, no less than by 
 curiosity and the desire of knowledge, to make as 
 minute observations as their limited means would 
 permit, on the orbits, motions, and other visible 
 phenomena of the heavenly luminaries. Instructed 
 probably by the Chaldean Magi, they established 
 " a number of artificial cycles with distinct names, 
 which seem to indicate a knowledge of the period 
 in which the equinoxes appear to revolve ;" and 
 from the same source, it is probable that those 
 elements of physical science were derived, which 
 obtained for them the reputation of magicians and 
 enchanters. But whatever may have been the 
 learning possessed by the Persian Magi, it was 
 carefully concealed from public view, and confined 
 to their own privileged order. None except the 
 members of the royal family were among the 
 initiated. 
 
 42. Few monuments of antiquity remain to 
 indicate the progress of the arts in ancient Persia ; 
 but of those few, some are exquisitely beautiful. 
 Among the venerable ruins of Persepolis, and other 
 sculptured remains discovered by modern travellers, 
 are found architectural specimens, which, while 
 proved by their state of decay to have been executed 
 in very remote ages, prove also, by their scientific 
 proportions and tasteful decorations, that the fine 
 arts had made no inconsiderable progress in Persia. 
 Mohsan, a learned Persian writer, frequently cited 
 by Sir W. Jones as a most credible witness, affirms 
 
 e2 
 
52 PERSIA. £PART I. 
 
 that there still exist in Persia, and its adjacent 
 countries, numerous fragments of ancient poetry 
 written in the Pahlavi, or old Persic dialect, some 
 of which are believed to have been the production 
 of Zerdusht himself, or of his immediate disciples. 
 A considerable collection of Persian MSS., con- 
 fessedly of great antiquity, have been imported into 
 Europe by eastern travellers, the most valuable of 
 which are deposited in the Royal Library at Paris. 
 These books, written partly in the Zendic or sacred 
 dialect, and partly in the vulgar Persian language, 
 contain narratives of the miracles and revelations by 
 which Zerdusht is said to have established his reli- 
 gious system — the theological doctrines and religious 
 ceremonies taught by him and his followers — and 
 metaphysical speculations on the nature of the 
 human soul, the principles of good and evil, and the 
 ultimate triumph of the former over the latter. 
 These, as well as almost every other remaining 
 fragment of ancient oriental literature, are chiefly 
 poetical, and some are said to be exquisitely beautiful 
 in their style of composition. They also contain 
 some excellent precepts of morality, and traditional 
 records of former ages. From the general agree- 
 ment of these traditional records and moral maxims 
 with the facts and precepts of the Old Testament 
 Scriptures, some have inferred that these Persian 
 MSS. are of much later origin than the period 
 usually assigned to them ; whilst others have ga- 
 thered from these ancient documents collateral and 
 independent proofs of the authenticity and antiquity 
 of the Jewish Scriptures. It may be added, in con- 
 
SECT. V.]] ARABIA. 53 
 
 eluding this brief sketch of the literature of ancient 
 Persia, that proofs are not wanting of the successful 
 cultivation of the kindred arts of music, painting, 
 and sculpture by Persian artists, some of whose 
 names have been preserved, though their works 
 have long since perished beyond all hope of re- 
 covery.— Vid. Ancient Univ. Hist. (Persia.) 
 
 Section V. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 43. The records of antiquity furnish so little 
 authentic information respecting the primitive his- 
 tory of Arabia, that it might not improperly be 
 passed over without even a cursory notice in this 
 review of ancient literature. There are, however, 
 some circumstances that render an inquiry into the 
 origin and progress of knowledge among the 
 scattered Arab tribes peculiarly interesting, and 
 which naturally prompt the wish, that the few 
 fragments of history which yet remain on this 
 subject should be preserved. One of the circum- 
 stances alluded to, is, their supposed descent from 
 Abraham, the venerable Hebrew patriarch, by the 
 line of Ishmael ; from whom they may be supposed 
 to have derived the knowledge, if not of the elements 
 of philosophy and science, yet of subjects infinitely 
 
54 ARABIA. [JPART I. 
 
 more important — the one living and true God, and 
 the homage and obedience due to him from all his 
 intelligent creation. This knowledge, which could 
 not but have been possessed by all the posterity of 
 Abraham, was, alas ! too quickly corrupted by his 
 degenerate offspring who settled in Arabia; and 
 who very soon fell into the common and fatal 
 superstition of adoring the sun and moon and stars, 
 erected temples and altars in honour of these 
 luminaries, and invented symbolical representations 
 of these gods of their idolatry. But though the 
 worship of the celestial bodies characterized the 
 religion of the vulgar, there is ground to believe 
 that " the religion of the poets was pure Theism ; 
 since there are Arabian verses of unsuspected an- 
 tiquity, which contain pious and elevated sentiments 
 on the goodness and justice, the power and omni- 
 presence of Allah, or The God. If an inscription 
 said to have been found on marble in Yemen (the 
 ancient name of Arabia) be authentic, the primitive 
 inhabitants of that country long preserved the re- 
 ligion of their patriarchal ancestor, and professed 
 a belief in miracles and in a future state/' — Sir W. 
 Jones's Works, Vol. I. 
 
 44. The interest excited by the circumstances 
 just stated, is heightened by the fact of the pre- 
 servation, in the Old Testament Scriptures, of an 
 exquisitely beautiful historical poem of high an- 
 tiquity — the scene of which is laid in Arabia— the 
 principal personages introduced as taking part in 
 the dialogue, are believed to have been Arabians, — 
 and its author (if written by him, a part of whose 
 
SECT. V.3 ARABIA. 55 
 
 history it records,) was probably a Hebrew long 
 resident in that country, who nourished during the 
 patriarchal age. None can read with attention the 
 book of Job, especially in its original dialect, and 
 believe it to be a fragment of patriarchal history, 
 written under the sanction of divine inspiration — 
 whether by Job himself, or by the author of the 
 Pentateuch — without being solicitous to know all 
 that can be known of the country to which it relates, 
 and the people whose manners it pourtrays — of the 
 attainments then made in various sciences, and above 
 all, the knowledge possessed by them of the " one 
 living and true God." Another circumstance, which 
 gives an unwonted interest to the question relative 
 to the dawn of literature in Arabia, is, that in sub- 
 sequent ages, Europe was greatly indebted to Arabic 
 scholars for the preservation of some valuable relics 
 of antiquity, and a partial revival of letters, when 
 they had fallen into a lamentable state of decay. 
 It will appear, from facts to be hereafter stated, that 
 from Arabia emanated those rays of science which 
 shed a transient gleam over the darkness of the 
 middle ages. In the absence of well-attested his- 
 torical facts, we can only have recourse to inferential 
 reasonings, which warrant the conclusion that the 
 attainments of these scattered pastoral tribes in 
 civilization and general knowledge were by no 
 means inconsiderable. 
 
 45. The following are the principal grounds on 
 which this conclusion rests : — 1. Their contiguity 
 to the Egyptians, and known intercourse with them, 
 in very remote ages. Since it is well known that 
 
56 ARABIA. [PART I. 
 
 in Egypt the arts and sciences were early culti- 
 vated, and made greater progress than in perhaps 
 any other province of the East, it is reasonable to 
 suppose, that a people bordering on that country, 
 and intimately associated with them, partook in 
 some degree of their illumination. 2. The intro- 
 duction and prevalence of the Sabian religion fur- 
 nishes another indirect proof; for though that 
 system of religion was partly idolatrous, it was also 
 speculative and metaphysical ; and, wherever it 
 spread, seems to have carried with it a taste for 
 philosophical speculations. 3. A yet more conclu- 
 sive argument in proof of the early civilization of 
 the Arabians, is drawn from the antiquity, inde- 
 pendence, and exquisite beauty of their language. 
 Its antiquity is proved by inscriptions found on 
 rocks, mountains, and decayed edifices in different 
 parts of Arabia, the characters of which have become 
 almost illegible by the lapse of ages, but which, as 
 far as they can be decyphered, are found to contain 
 ancient Arabic verses. Its independence may be 
 inferred from the fact, stated by Sir W. Jones, 
 that it bears not the least resemblance, either in 
 words or in the structure of them, to the Sanscrit, 
 which is the common parent of all the Indian dia- 
 lects. And its singular beauty is asserted by the 
 same learned author, who affirms, that '" the Arabic, 
 which is unquestionably one of the most ancient 
 languages in the world, yields to none ever spoken 
 by mortals in the number of its words and the pre- 
 cision of its phrases. 4. An additional evidence 
 is found in the specimens of ancient poetry still 
 
SECT. V.^ ARABIA. 57 
 
 extant in that language. The learned Schultens 
 has preserved, in his " Ancient Memorials of Arabia," 
 two elegiac poems, said to have been found about 
 the middle of the seventh century, on some frag- 
 ments of ruined edifices in Hadramut, near Aden, 
 which are supposed to be of an indefinite but very 
 remote age, and which, if genuine, are so regular 
 in their construction, and so beautiful, as sufficiently 
 to indicate the cultivated taste of their author. To 
 the above may be added, 5. The architectural re- 
 mains of Arabia, which, for whatever purpose the 
 edifices may have been erected, could not have been 
 built by a rude and barbarous people. From all 
 these circumstances, it is concluded, that if " courtesy 
 and urbanity — a love of poetry and eloquence— and 
 the practice of exalted virtues, be a juster measure 
 of perfect society, we have certain proof that the 
 people of Arabia, both on plains and in cities, — in 
 republican and monarchical states, — were eminently 
 civilized for many ages before their conquest of 
 Persia."*— &V W. Jones's Works, Vol. I. p. 35—50. 
 46. On the same grounds, and by the same in- 
 ferential reasonings, which render probable the early 
 
 * Dr. J. Mason Good has stated, in the Preliminary Disser- 
 tation to his elegant version of the Book of Job (though on 
 what ground the opinion rests, except that of the contents of the 
 book itself, he has neglected to inform his readers), that " Arabia 
 was perhaps earliest in possession of the most important arts 
 and sciences, and especially those which relate to manufactures 
 and commerce. It first cultivated poetry and eloquence with 
 critical attention, and taught these refinements to Persia, as 
 Persia afterwards taught them to the other parts of Asia." 
 
58 ARABIA. [[PART I. 
 
 civilization of the Arabians, their progress in moral 
 and intellectual science may be conjectured. There 
 is, however, in addition to these, an Arabian work 
 of reputed antiquity, which (if really the produc- 
 tion of remote ages) will prove, beyond doubt, that 
 ethics were at least practically understood by them. 
 The work now alluded to is, the "Apologues of 
 Lokmann" which has been long known to European 
 scholars, through the imperfect medium of a Latin 
 version, and which unquestionably contains much 
 excellent moral instruction. From the resemblance 
 which some of these fables bear to those of Esop, 
 it has been concluded by some, that the Arabic 
 Lokmann and the Grecian Esop were the same per- 
 son ; while others have contended, that the Arabian 
 apologues were compiled in later ages from the 
 Greek : but when it is remembered, that the most 
 ancient mode of communicating moral instruction 
 in the East was by parables or fables, and that the 
 first principles of Grecian literature were of eastern 
 origin, is it not more probable that those of Esop 
 were borrowed from the Arabians ? The celebrity 
 of Lokmann, as a teacher of morality, may be in- 
 ferred from the allusion to him in the Koran, where 
 the Arabian Impostor introduces the Most High as 
 saying, " We heretofore bestowed wisdom on Lok- 
 mann." He is supposed to have been contemporary 
 with David ; and if his origin were fabulous, it is 
 not improbable that Solomon may have been the 
 person intended. 
 
SECT. VI. ^ EGYPT. 59 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 47. Of all the nations of antiquity, there is none 
 whose pretensions to early civilization and improve- 
 ment are higher than the Egyptians. They arro- 
 gated to themselves the honour of having been the 
 preceptors of mankind. From them, as from the 
 grand focus of science and learning, all those rays 
 of knowledge were supposed to have diverged by 
 which the rest of the world was illumined. Though 
 truth will not permit us to concede all that is 
 claimed by this people, it cannot be doubted, that 
 in very remote ages, and when the far greater part 
 of the human race was yet in a state of unlettered 
 ignorance, the Egyptians had made great progress 
 in the useful arts of life, and were not ignorant of 
 the elements of science ; nor can it be denied, that 
 both Greece and Rome were greatly indebted to 
 Egypt for instruction in various branches of know- 
 ledge. The Sacred Volume bears distinct testimony 
 to their high reputation for learning, even as far 
 back as the time of Moses ; for that Hebrew legis- 
 lator is said to have been " learned in all the wisdom 
 of the Egyptians." From what source their know- 
 ledge was derived, and by what means this honour- 
 able distinction was attained, may be conjectured, 
 but cannot now be ascertained with any degree of 
 certainty. 
 
60 EGYPT. £PART I. 
 
 48. Several circumstances have concurred to 
 spread an unwonted degree of obscurity over the 
 literary history of the ancient Egyptians, amongst 
 which the following may be enumerated : — 
 
 1. The very remote period at which the dawn of 
 philosophy commenced among them, stretching 
 backward to an age anterior to the art of writing, 
 when the most important knowledge could only 
 be communicated by oral tradition, or rude symbo- 
 lical inscriptions. 
 
 2. The cautious reserve with which their know- 
 ledge was concealed from the vulgar, by means of 
 hieroglyphical characters, intelligible only to the 
 priests, and the hidden meaning of which was event- 
 ually lost even by them. 
 
 3. The probable misrepresentations of the an- 
 cient Greek historians, who were prompted by 
 national vanity to attribute to their own philoso- 
 phers, speculations and inventions which were pro- 
 bably of Egyptian origin. 
 
 4. But most of all is this obscurity to be attri- 
 buted to the utter destruction of the ancient records 
 of Egyptian literature by the conflagration of the 
 Alexandrian Library, which contained, it is more 
 than probable, the works of Manetho, Cher emon, and 
 other Egyptian writers, known to posterity only by 
 name, or by a few scattered fragments of their writ- 
 ings. The loss of these ancient documents cannot 
 be too deeply regretted, since they were the only 
 sources from which authentic information could be 
 obtained of the degree of science possessed by the 
 earliest of the Egyptian Magi. 
 
SECT. VI.]] EGYPT. 61 
 
 49. The ancients generally agree in tracing back 
 the literature of the Egyptians, to the time in which 
 an individual flourished, who bears a great variety 
 of names. By the Egyptians themselves, he was 
 called Thoth, and worshipped as a subordinate deity ; 
 by the Phoenicians, Taant ; by the Greeks, Hermes ; 
 and by the Romans, Mercurius. But who this far- 
 famed personage was, or at what precise period he 
 flourished, it were now vain to conjecture. Diodorus 
 Siculus speaks of him, as " the prime minister of 
 Osiris, one of their ancient kings, who improved 
 language, invented letters, instituted religious rites, 
 and taught astronomy, music, and other arts." This 
 testimony is said to have been confirmed by the 
 writings of Sanchoniatho, the Phoenician historian, 
 and of Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who flourished 
 in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The latter of 
 the abovementioned authors mentions another Thoth, 
 or Hermes, called also Trismegistus, who flourished 
 long after the former, and by whom learning was 
 revived after it had fallen into decay in that empire. 
 By him, it is said, the hieroglyphic al writings of the 
 first Hermes were interpreted, the explanation of 
 which, accompanied with large commentaries, were 
 written in books, most sacredly deposited in the 
 Egyptian temples, from which unhappily they 
 never emerged. So extravagant are the fables 
 respecting this supposed prodigy of learning, that 
 he is said to have been " the author of more than 
 twenty thousand volumes, which treated of universal 
 principles, of the nature and order of celestial beings, 
 of astrology, of medicine, and many other sciences." 
 
62 EGYPT. [[PART I. 
 
 50. The metaphysical philosophy of the ancient 
 Egyptians, (or rather, of their priests ; for to that 
 privileged order all knowledge was confined,) bears a 
 strong resemblance to that of the Hindoos and Per- 
 sians, and probably had a common origin. It pro- 
 ceeded upon the principle of two original principles ; 
 the one material, passive, and inert ; the other ac- 
 tive, intelligent, and spiritual. The former of these 
 was represented as Chaos, or Night, and worshipped 
 under the name of Athor : the latter, according to 
 Plutarch, was their supreme divinity, whose emana- 
 tions filled the universe with light and life — with 
 motion and enjoyment. But in connexion with this 
 belief in an eternal, all-pervading intelligence, the 
 Egyptians acknowledged and worshipped an im- 
 mense multitude of inferior divinities, so that idolatry 
 assumed amongst them its grossest and most loath- 
 some form. Their notions of the human soul, of 
 a future state of rewards and punishments, of the 
 dissolution and reproduction of universal nature, 
 with many other speculative tenets, were, it is 
 highly probable, derived in the first instance from 
 the family of Abraham, and were corrupted tra- 
 ditions of the original revelation. But with these 
 were blended the mythological fables, that prevailed 
 more or less among all the eastern nations, respecting 
 transmigration, the state of the dead, and a thousand 
 other speculative absurdities. 
 
 51. In common with all other oriental nations, 
 the Egyptians directed their first attention to 
 astronomy; a science, in the principles of which 
 they were probably instructed by the Chaldaean 
 
SECT. VlJ EGYPT. 63 
 
 Magi. There is little reason to believe that their 
 attainments in this sublime science were consider- 
 able. Indeed it is impossible, with the means of 
 observation and knowledge then possessed, that they 
 should have been such. Diogenes Laertius refers to 
 astronomical calculations of eclipses made by the 
 Egyptians, which carry us back to the sixteenth or 
 seventeenth century before the Christian iEra. It 
 has been inferred, from some passages found in the 
 writings of Aristotle and Plutarch, that Pythagoras 
 was instructed by the Egyptian priests in what 
 is now known to be the true solar system, and that 
 they maintained that the planets and comets re- 
 volve round the sun as their centre, and perform 
 diurnal revolutions on their own axes; but if this 
 knowledge were really possessed by them, it is 
 manifest that this theory was treated by the Grecian 
 astronomers as visionary and absurd, nor was it 
 understood by the Egyptian priests themselves, who 
 merely handed it down to posterity as an inscru- 
 table mystery, to be believed, without evidence, 
 on their sole authority. The more probable opinion 
 on this subject is, that the Egyptian priests knew 
 little more of astronomy than that which arose 
 from an attentive observation of the aspect of the 
 heavens, chiefly with a view to astrological pre- 
 dictions, or for the purposes of agriculture. Some 
 practical skill, however, must have been possessed 
 by this people in astronomical science when their 
 Pyramids were built, since it is found that they 
 are so constructed as exactly to face the four car- 
 dinal points, which could not have been effected 
 
64 EGYPT. [PART I. 
 
 without an accurate knowledge of the meridian 
 line. All antiquity also attests, that the Egyptians 
 first divided the year into twelve months, of thirty 
 days, to which were afterwards added five supple- 
 mentary days in every year, and a sixth every fourth 
 year. 
 
 52. Geometry is universally acknowledged to 
 have originated in Egypt. This is expressly asserted 
 by Herodotus, the most ancient of profane his- 
 torians, who gives the following account of the 
 circumstances leading to the invention of this im- 
 portant science :— *-" I was informed," says Herodotus, 
 " that Sesostris had divided Egypt among all his 
 subjects, assigning to each an equal portion of land, 
 on condition of paying an annual tax. If, in conse- 
 quence of the overflowing of the Nile, the allotment 
 of any one was diminished or rendered doubtful, 
 the king caused it to be measured, and required 
 a tribute in proportion to that which remained. 
 '*■ Hence," adds the historian, " arose geometry, and 
 thus was it transmitted to the Greeks. But a 
 modern writer on the history of this science has 
 justly observed, that, though the statement of 
 Herodotus proves some knowledge of geometry to 
 have been possessed in the reign of Sesostris, the 
 contemporary of Solomon, it does not prove that it 
 originated at that time. The probability is, that it 
 may be traced much higher ; that the invention 
 must have been prompted by the same necessity, 
 which led to the use of the rule and square and 
 compasses in architecture ; and was practically, if 
 not theoretically, understood in the very infancy of 
 
SECT. VI>3 EGYPT, 65 
 
 society. There is no proof that the mathematical 
 knowledge of the Egyptians exceeded that which 
 was requisite to practise the art of mensuration, to 
 construct drafts and schemes, the proportions and 
 dimensions of which were accurately laid down ; and 
 perhaps, from these, by an easy transition, to pro- 
 ceed to the solution of a few simple geometrical 
 problems. 
 
 53. The sciences of medicine and chemistry, in 
 their most elementary states, have also been traced 
 to the ancient Egyptians. The former of these, and 
 its inseparable companion, anatomy, was certainly 
 cultivated with some degree of success, at a very 
 early period of the history of that nation. For the 
 practice, observed by them from remote antiquity, 
 of embalming the dead, proves their partial ac- 
 quaintance with the properties of natural substances, 
 the power of certain drugs in preserving from decay, 
 and some degree of scientific skill in compounding 
 them; and the manner in which this ancient rite 
 was performed indicates some acquaintance with the 
 construction and anatomy of the human frame. The 
 invention of the healing art was ascribed by the 
 Egyptians themselves to certain benevolent deities, 
 to whom they gave the names of Isis and Serapis, or 
 iEsculapius ; and to whose honour they erected 
 temples and altars : but it is probable that the true 
 history of the case is, that these were individuals 
 who rendered themselves eminent, while they lived, 
 in the successful application of those drugs, with 
 which Egypt abounds, to the cure of diseases, and 
 
66 EGYPT. [PART I. 
 
 who, after their death, were elevated by their super- 
 stitious countrymen to the rank of demi-gods. 
 
 54. But the science (if science it may be called,) 
 for which the ancient Egyptians were most famous, 
 and which was most highly esteemed by them, was 
 that of magic, or the power of producing super- 
 natural appearances, interpreting dreams, and fore- 
 telling future events by certain mystical processes 
 known only to the initiated. It cannot be doubted, 
 that there was much of juggle and artifice in this 
 pretended science — that the proficients in this art 
 practised successfully on the ignorance and credu- 
 lity of the vulgar ; yet, from what is stated in the 
 book of Exodus, of the successful imitation of some 
 of the miracles of Moses by the magicians of 
 Pharaoh, it is evident that they must have possessed 
 a greater knowledge of some of the latent proper- 
 ties of natural substances than was known to their 
 descendants, and that this their physical science was 
 employed for purposes of deception. This art was 
 founded on two principles of popular belief which 
 then prevailed; the first, a persuasion that the 
 heavenly bodies exerted a constant and mighty in- 
 fluence on mundane affairs; and the second, that 
 spirits or daemons of a nature superior to men were 
 employed in the government of the world, and had 
 their several provinces appointed them by the 
 Supreme Divinity. In addition to the preceding 
 facts, tending to prove the early civilization of the 
 Egyptians, and their acquaintance with some of 
 the practical sciences, it may be stated that com- 
 merce, if not invented by them, was much improved 
 
ECT. VIl/] PHOENICIA. 67 
 
 and successfully cultivated in very remote ages ; 
 and that the art of navigation was carried farther by 
 that ingenious people, than by any other of the 
 oriental nations. — Vid. Anc. Univ. Hist. (Egypt.) 
 Enfield's Hist. o/Philos. Vol. I. p. 63. 
 
 Section VII. 
 
 PHCENICIA. 
 
 55. Phoenicia was the connecting link between 
 the eastern and southern provinces of Asia, and those 
 parts of Europe and Africa which border on the 
 Mediterranean. Its inhabitants are chiefly known 
 to posterity as a commercial people. Their mer- 
 chandize was extensive, and is said, in remote anti- 
 quity, to have reached even to the British isles. 
 Together with the articles of commerce, to which 
 they owed their wealth and political importance, 
 they conveyed to other lands the knowledge, both 
 scientific and practical, which they possessed. This 
 knowledge was probably confined within narrow 
 limits ; but it was such as to render them eminently 
 the benefactors of mankind. By the same process 
 of inferential reasoning, which has been applied to 
 Arabia, it may be concluded that the Phoenicians 
 were not destitute of science. They must have 
 possessed some geographical knowledge, accustomed 
 as they were to make voyages to distant lands. They 
 must have attained to no inconsiderable degree of 
 practical skill in navigation, and as a prerequisite 
 
 f2 
 
68 PH(ENICIA. [[PART I. 
 
 to this, must have derived, either from the Egyptians 
 or the Chaldseans, some knowledge of astronomy. 
 Nor is it the least honour that attaches to this 
 enterprising people, that while other eastern nations 
 degraded the science of astronomy, by rendering it 
 subservient to astrology, they applied it to the pur- 
 poses of navigation. Fixing on one of the stars of 
 Ursa Minor, situated near to that immoveable point 
 in the heavens, called the North Pole, they were 
 enabled to navigate the sea with greater certainty, 
 and to undertake more adventurous voyages,, than 
 any other nation of antiquity. To these facts it 
 may be added, that their merchandize could not 
 have become so celebrated without some degree 
 of physical science, by which they discovered the 
 properties of natural substances, and some mechani- 
 cal knowledge, by which those substances might be 
 manufactured or otherwise prepared for exporta- 
 tion. 
 
 56. The principal reason, however, for including 
 Phoenicia in this sketch of ancient literature is, that 
 there appear to have flourished among that people 
 two or three individuals who contributed, by their 
 writings or their inventions, to the advancement 
 and wider diffusion of knowledge. The most 
 ancient of these was Sanchoniatho, whose history is 
 involved in much obscurity, and whose writings are 
 only known through the medium of other works of 
 antiquity. If the testimony of Porphyry and Philo 
 Biblius can be credited, Sanchoniatho flourished long 
 before the Trojan War, and was a contemporary of 
 Semiramis. But as these enemies of Christianity 
 evidently wished to throw discredit on the Jewish 
 
SECT. VIl/] PHOENICIA. 69 
 
 Scriptures, by shewing that another history existed, 
 giving a different account of the creation of the 
 world than that given by Moses, and yet of equal 
 if not greater antiquity, there is much reason to 
 doubt whether reliance can be placed on their 
 testimony. The principal evidence for the authen- 
 ticity and antiquity of the works of Sanchoniatho, is 
 Eusebius, a learned christian writer, who seems to 
 have entertained no doubt of their genuineness, and 
 has preserved some fragments of this ancient his- 
 tory, though he does not determine their date. In 
 addition to the testimony of Eusebius, that of Theo- 
 doret may be mentioned, who informs us, that 
 " Sanchoniatho wrote a history of the beginning of 
 the world, with much fidelity, and applied himself 
 diligently to the examination of ancient records; 
 particularly those which contained authentic me- 
 morials of the Egyptian Taaut or Thoth, called 
 by the Greeks Hermes, and by the Latins 
 Mercury." 
 
 57. The cosmogony of Sanchoniatho, though a 
 highly curious relic of antiquity, is too fanciful and 
 absurd to obtain a place in the history of philo- 
 sophy. Suffice it to say in general, that its distin- 
 guishing feature was, the notion that the material 
 world was produced by the action or necessary 
 energy of an eternal principle, destitute of intelli- 
 gence and life, on an eternal passive chaotic mass. 
 Such a system might well be denounced by Euse- 
 bius as direct atheism. It seems to have been of 
 Indian origin, as a striking resemblance may be 
 perceived between some of the speculations of the 
 
70 PHOENICIA. [[PART I. 
 
 Hindoo philosophers of antiquity, (as stated above) 
 and the pretended history of the creation, given by 
 the Phoenician historian. Here too we may per- 
 ceive some of the rude chaotic elements, which were 
 afterwards expanded into the Platonic philosophy. 
 The most important use, however, to be made of 
 this relic of antiquity, as far as it is now known, is to 
 gather thence indirect evidences of the truth of 
 scripture ; for a modern writer has justly observed, 
 " that we, who have in our hands the volume of 
 divine revelation, may discover, even in this dun- 
 geon, many excellent relics of ancient traditions, 
 which throw no feeble light on many passages of 
 Holy Scripture ; as they give us the origin and pro- 
 gress of that idolatry which was so long the oppro- 
 brium of human nature ;" and, alas ! is such still. 
 They furnish, too, a complete confutation of the 
 Chaldaean, Egyptian, Hindoo, and Chinese chro- 
 nologies ; proving, if they be genuine, that the 
 world could not be older than it is said to be by 
 Moses. 
 
 58. Some ancient writers speak of a Phoenician 
 philosopher, (named Moschus, by Posidonius; and 
 Mochus, by Jamhlickus,) who is said to have flou- 
 rished before the time of Pythagoras, but whom the 
 learned Selden conjectures to have been no other 
 than the Jewish legislator Moses himself. If any 
 reliance can be placed on the testimony of the 
 ancient writers mentioned above, Moschus was the 
 founder of a system of philosophy, which afterwards 
 became celebrated in Greece, as the Atomic Philo- 
 sophy. Cud worth, in his elaborate researches into 
 
SECT. VII.] PHOENICIA. 71 
 
 the philosophy of the ancients, contained in his 
 " Intellectual System/' inclines to this opinion, and 
 traces back what he terms the " atomlcal physi- 
 ology? far above Democritus, or Epicurus, or even 
 Pythagoras himself, to the Phoenician philosopher 
 Moschus, who is said, by Strabo, to have lived before 
 the Trojan War.— Enfield's Hist, of Philos. Vol. I. 
 p. 58—62. 
 
 59. In even the most cursory sketch of ancient 
 and modern literature, it were inexcusable wholly 
 to pass unnoticed the individual who is generally 
 believed to have communicated the knowledge of 
 letters to the Greeks, and through them to the 
 whole world. Whatever fables may have been 
 interwoven with the history of Cadmus, there seems 
 no reason to doubt that he was a native of Phoe- 
 nicia, who introduced among the aboriginal inhabi- 
 tants of that part of Greece in which he settled, 
 the Phoenician alphabetical characters, which sub- 
 sequently underwent gradual changes, till the 
 Greek alphabet was produced. Humble as this 
 attempt towards the civilization of a yet barbarous 
 people may appear, the effects were incalculably 
 great. It may be considered as the tender germ 
 of that rich harvest of knowledge which has con- 
 tinued to be reaped from year to year, and from 
 age to age, even to the present hour, and in almost 
 every part of the civilized world. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE GREEKS AND 
 ROMANS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE FABULOUS AGES. 
 
 60. We now approach what may be justly 
 accounted the chosen residence of Ancient Philo- 
 sophy and Science ; for whatever may be the claims 
 of oriental nations to precedence in the order of 
 time, it cannot be denied that Greece was the 
 country in which literature of every description 
 first acquired a regular and systematic form. The 
 men of learning, who flourished at different and 
 distant periods in Chaldaea, Persia, or Egypt, pre- 
 pared the way, it is true, for the more celebrated 
 philosophers of Greece; but it was not till the 
 literature of the East was transplanted into the more 
 fruitful soil of the Grecian republics, that the inves- 
 tigations and developements of human genius can 
 be said to have acquired a permanent character. 
 It is well known that Greece was first civilized by 
 colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Thrace. The 
 
CHAP, ij THE FABULOUS AGES. 73 
 
 earliest institutions which prevailed, the most an- 
 cient dialects spoken, and the speculative opinions 
 maintained, sufficiently indicate the source whence 
 they were derived. It was therefore to be expected, 
 that the resemblance would be strongly marked 
 between the literature of the parent countries, and 
 that introduced into the colonial settlements. Ac- 
 cordingly we find, that during what are usually, 
 and not improperly, called the fabulous ages of 
 Grecian history, the same mode of philosophizing 
 was adopted, which had characterized the philo- 
 sophy of the East, and the same sciences were cul- 
 tivated in which some progress had been already 
 made by their oriental instructors. The chiefs of 
 the newly planted colonies, or those who had ac- 
 quired the reputation of superior wisdom, taught 
 the same religious dogmas, inculcated the same 
 moral precepts, pursued the same intellectual spe- 
 culations, and engaged in the same scientific pur- 
 suits, in which they had been trained from their 
 earliest years by eastern Magi. As we have seen, 
 in the preceding sketch of oriental literature, that 
 the philosophers of India, China, Persia, Arabia, and 
 Egypt, directed their chief attention to the origin 
 of the material universe, its successive changes, and 
 its final destination ; or speculated on the nature 
 of the human soul, its emanation, re-absorption, or 
 transmigration ; so the first subjects of investigation 
 among the most ancient philosophers of Greece, 
 seem to have been Theogony and Cosmogony — the 
 nature of the gods and the formation of all things. 
 These sublime mysteries, or rather, the absurd 
 
74 THE FABULOUS AGES. [PART II. 
 
 speculations of human ignorance respecting these 
 mysterious subjects, were, after the manner of eastern 
 nations, obscurely taught in allegories and mytho- 
 logical fables, disguised by poetical fictions the 
 most extravagant, and, in some instances, most 
 absurd. 
 
 61. From the scanty materials which the records 
 of antiquity furnish of the infancy of Grecian phi- 
 losophy, it may be gathered, that it was nurtured 
 in the lap of the Muses ; for, unquestionably, the 
 first philosophers of Greece were poets. To their 
 compositions we are indebted for all that is now 
 known of the literary history of the fabulous ages. 
 The most important sources of information on this 
 subject, are the Orphic Hymns, and the Poems of 
 Hesiod ; for the traditions respecting Linus, as the 
 inventor of lyric poetry, a skilful musician, and the 
 writer of an ancient cosmogony, part of which has 
 been preserved by Diogenes Laertius, are too vague 
 and imperfect to claim a distinct notice. 
 
 Although it has been questioned by some among 
 the ancients, and by many moderns, whether 
 Orpheus were a real person or only a fictitious cha- 
 racter, it is certain that there were verses commonly 
 known in Greece at a very early period, bearing his 
 name, and generally believed to have been collected 
 after his death by some of his disciples. Diodorus 
 Siculus speaks of Orpheus as a celebrated master 
 of philosophy, poetry, and music, who acquired a 
 knowledge of the mysteries of religion in Egypt, 
 and taught them to his countrymen. The probable 
 history of Orpheus is briefly this,— that he was one 
 
CHAP. I.)] THE FABULOUS AGES. 75 
 
 who acquired some distinction in a rude age, and 
 amongst a comparatively uncivilized people, by his 
 skill in music, poetry, astrology, and perhaps me- 
 dicine also ; that he thus acquired an ascendancy 
 over them, so as to be held in high veneration by 
 the barbarous tribes among whom he dwelt ; and 
 that this is the true meaning of the fable respecting 
 the attractive influence of the lyre of Orpheus on 
 the brute creation. 
 
 62. Fragments of the moral and philosophical 
 poems attributed to Orpheus, have been preserved 
 in the writings of Eusebius, Clemens Alexandrinus, 
 Proclus, Apuleius, and others ; from which may be 
 collected some brief notices of the metaphysical 
 theology of the remote age in which they were 
 written. It will be manifest, from the following 
 summary, that it was of eastern origin, and that it 
 formed the basis of the several systems of philosophy 
 which subsequently prevailed in Greece. From 
 these ancient Hymns it would appear, that " the 
 Orphic doctrines respecting God and nature were, 
 that the supreme Divinity contained within himself, 
 from all eternity, the unformed principles of the 
 material world, and that he consisted of a compound 
 nature, active and passive. By the energy of the 
 active principle, he sent forth from himself, at the 
 commencement of a certain finite period, all material 
 and spiritual beings, which partake, in different 
 degrees, of the divine nature. All beings, having 
 emanated from the Deity, will, after certain purga- 
 tions, return to him. The universe itself, after 
 having been destroyed by fire, will be renewed, by 
 
76 THE FABULOUS AGES. [PART IL 
 
 the power of Jupiter, in beauty and in perfection." 
 Some critics have imagined, that the allegorical 
 parts of these poems obscurely intimate the im- 
 mortality of the soul, and a future state of rewards 
 and punishments. Respecting the material system 
 of the universe, he is said to have taught his dis- 
 ciples, "that the moon and planets are habitable 
 worlds, and the stars fiery bodies like the sun, all of 
 which are animated by subordinate divinities, who 
 dwell in and preside over them." — E?ifield's Hist, of 
 Philos. Vol. I. p. 112—117. 
 
 63. The name of Hesiod next occurs in the 
 annals of Grecian literature — if a collection of crude 
 notions and absurd speculations respecting the 
 genealogy of the heathen gods, and the origin of 
 the material universe, may be permitted, on the 
 ground of its antiquity, to claim this distinction. 
 The general feature of Hesiod's system of theogony 
 is, that " an eternal chaos was the origin of all 
 things ;" by which term he seems to have intended 
 the elementary mass in which all the seeds of nature 
 were contained, or that unformed matter, eternally 
 existing, as a passive principle, whence all created 
 forms have been produced. The basis of this system 
 was evidently atheistical, though upon it was reared 
 a massy fabric of superstitious theology.* The 
 
 * Dr. Enfield has given, in the following passage, a luminous 
 and correct view of these ancient systems, and pointed out their 
 distinguishing features : — " There were different opinions among 
 the ancient cosmogonists, concerning the first cause of nature. 
 Some might possibly ascribe the origin of all things to a gene- 
 rating force destitute of thought, which they conceived to be 
 
CHAP, ij THE FABULOUS AGES. 77 
 
 poems of Hesiod are no otherwise important in 
 connexion with the history of Grecian philosophy, 
 than as they contain the elements of some of those 
 systems which afterwards acquired great celebrity, 
 as affording the earliest indication of the dawn of 
 Grecian literature, and as exhibiting a singular and 
 deeply affecting example of the perversion of the 
 human mind, without the aid of divine revelation. 
 Homer, his illustrious contemporary, who recited 
 those national ballads which were afterwards col- 
 lected into the " Iliad" and " Odyssey," makes no 
 pretensions to science or philosophy ; but there is, 
 in reality, more true wisdom, and a more intimate 
 acquaintance discovered with nature— both animate 
 and inanimate, corporeal and intellectual — in one 
 page of the writings of that celebrated bard of 
 antiquity, than will be found in all the didactic 
 and mythological poems of Hesiod. 
 
 64. The next stage in the earliest history of 
 Grecian philosophy, is that, in which poetical alle- 
 gories gave place to proverhial maxims, delivered, 
 with a kind of oracular dignity and authority, by a 
 few individuals, celebrated for their political or moral 
 
 inherent in matter, without looking to any higher principle. 
 But it is probable, that the general opinion among them was 
 that which had prevailed among the Egyptians and in the East, 
 and was communicated by tradition to the Greeks, ' that matter 
 or chaos existed eternally with God, and that by the divine 
 energy of emanation, material forms were sent forth from him, 
 and the visible world rose into existence.' This principle being 
 admitted, the whole system of the ancient theogonies appears 
 consistent, and a satisfactory explanation may be given of most 
 of the Grecian fables."— Vid. Hist, of Philos. Vol. I. p. 121. 
 
78 THE FABULOUS AGES. [PART II. 
 
 wisdom, and who were, on that account, emphatically 
 styled (To(j)oi, or wise men. These were men of prac- 
 tical science, who, by their political institutions and 
 moral precepts, contributed much more effectually 
 and extensively to the improvement of society and 
 the increase of knowledge, than all the speculative 
 philosophers who had preceded them. The names 
 of these distinguished individuals must be familiar 
 to all who are conversant with ancient history ; and 
 many of their sententious aphorisms have been 
 justly admired. Seven of these sages of antiquity 
 obtained (whether by accident, or from their superior 
 wisdom, it is not easy to determine) an honourable 
 pre-eminence, which has rendered their names im- 
 perishable, though few memorials of their wisdom 
 have been preserved. These were Thales of Miletus 
 (to whom we shall have occasion to refer more par- 
 ticularly hereafter) ; Solon, the celebrated Athenian 
 legislator ; Chilon, a native of Lacedsemon ; Pittacus 
 of Mitylene, a city of Lesbos ; Bias of Priene, in 
 Ionia ; Cleobulus, a Rhodian ; and Periander of 
 Corinth. Some writers substitute for the latter of 
 these, the name of Epimenides of Crete, who 
 flourished about the same period, and is said to 
 have been the first builder of temples in Greece. 
 Of the personal and private history of most of these 
 individuals, little is known, (with the exception of 
 Solon,) and that little is contradictory and uncertain. 
 It is not, however, as princes, or statesmen, or 
 warriors, they are introduced in this place, but as 
 ethical philosophers, and teachers of moral wisdom, 
 who employed their influence and talents for 
 
CHAP. 1.3 THE FABULOUS AGES. 79 
 
 beneficial purposes. None of them (except Thales) 
 were, in the strictest sense of the term, men of 
 science ; nor were they speculative philosophers, 
 giving celebrity, like Plato or Aristotle, to theories 
 of their own invention; but they did more — they 
 brought their wisdom and experience to bear on the 
 interests of social life, and the moral instruction 
 of their species. 
 
 65. Without entering into detail, it may be suf- 
 ficient to furnish a few specimens of the didactic 
 aphorisms attributed to this class of ancient Greek 
 philosophers. 
 
 (1.) To Thales, among many others, the following 
 aphorisms are attributed : " Be equally mindful of 
 friends, present and absent. Study not to beautify 
 thy face, but thy mind. Enrich not thyself by 
 unjust means. Cherish thy parents. If a governor, 
 rule thyself. Use moderation. Believe not every 
 thing. Be not idle, though rich." His favourite 
 motto, attributed by some of the ancients to 
 Apollo, was, Know thyself— & maxim which cannot 
 be too deeply impressed upon the memory. 
 
 (2.) To Solon, among others of a political character, 
 the following are ascribed : — " Nothing too much. 
 Fly pleasures, for they bring sorrow. Observe ho- 
 nesty in conversation more strictly than an oath. 
 Lie not, but speak the truth. Meditate on serious 
 things. Procure not, nor part with friends, in haste. 
 By learning to obey, you will know how to com- 
 mand." 
 
 (3.) To Chilon, — " Three things are difficult ; to 
 keep a secret, to bear an injury patiently, and to 
 
80 THE FABULOUS AGES. [[PART II* 
 
 spend leisure time well. Visit your friend in ad- 
 versity rather than in prosperity. Honour old age. 
 Think before you speak. Gold is tried by the 
 touchstone, and men are tried by gold :" to which 
 some have added the above-mentioned motto of 
 Thales, as first delivered by Chilon, " Know thyself" 
 
 (4.) To Pittacus, — " Power discovers the man. 
 Watch for opportunity. Reproach not the un- 
 happy, for the hand of God is upon them. What- 
 ever thou doest, do it well. What thou takest ill 
 in thy neighbour, do not thyself." 
 
 (5.) To Bias, — " Great minds alone can support 
 sudden reverses of fortune. Love your friend with 
 caution, for hereafter he may become your enemy. 
 Be slow in undertaking, but resolute in executing. 
 Abhor to speak hastily, for then repentance follows. 
 Preserve thy actions in remembrance." 
 
 (6.) To Cleobulus, — " Employ thyself in things 
 excellent. Take care of thy body and soul. Govern 
 thy tongue. Preserve piety. Do nothing by violence. 
 Instruct thy children. If rich, be not exalted ; if 
 poor, be not cast down. Avoid excess." 
 
 (7.) To Periander, — "Pleasures are mortal, virtue 
 is immortal. Seek to be worthy of your parents. 
 There is nothing which prudence cannot accomplish. 
 Keep thy word. Betray not secrets. Conceal thy 
 misfortunes," &c. &c. 
 
 Such were the moral maxims delivered in the 
 earliest period of Grecian civilization, which may be 
 well supposed to have materially contributed to its 
 advancement, by the ease with which they were re- 
 membered, and their adaptation to the circumstances 
 
CHAP. II.3 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS. 81 
 
 of domestic and social life. Nor can we wonder 
 that in the infancy of society, those who could ex- 
 press in a few words, and especially in verse, such 
 useful moral precepts, should have become celebrated 
 for their wisdom.* 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANCIENT 
 PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 66, During the earliest period of Grecian litera- 
 ture, it will appear from the last chapter, that there 
 flourished a few individuals, who were distinguished 
 from the mass of their contemporaries by their re- 
 puted wisdom, and who exercised, while they lived, 
 a kind of intellectual despotism over the understand- 
 ings and opinions of the vulgar. Their maxims 
 were deemed authoritative and oracular ; their 
 proverbial sayings were handed down from age to 
 age with little less than religious veneration ; and 
 after their death, divine honours were, in some 
 instances, paid to their memory. But none of these 
 ancient sages appear to have gathered disciples 
 around them, or reduced their philosophical specu- 
 
 * Those who would extend the selection, will find them in an 
 abridged form, in Dr. Enfield's History of Philosophy, and more 
 fully stated in Stanley's Lives of the Philosophers. Their 
 original terms have been preserved by Diogenes Laertius — 
 Plutarch — Stobaeus — and other ancient writers. 
 
82 CLASSIFICATION OF THE [>ART II. 
 
 lations to a regular system. Satisfied with securing 
 to themselves the reputation of wise men, they do 
 not appear in any instance (if we except Thales of 
 Miletus) to have aimed at the establishment of 
 philosophical sects, bearing their name, and by 
 which their tenets might be propagated. But in 
 process of time, knowledge became more widely 
 diffused among the Greeks, and assumed a more 
 systematic character. Many engaged in the diligent 
 pursuit of such speculative and practical sciences as 
 were then imperfectly known, and attached them- 
 selves to different leaders. A species of literary 
 oligarchy arose. It became an object of ambition 
 to every candidate for literary distinction and 
 posthumous fame, to become the founder of a new 
 sect, and extend as widely as possible its distinguish- 
 ing tenets. Hence arose the numerous schools of 
 philosophy, which, for the most part, originated in 
 Greece, or in some of its dependencies, and afterwards 
 spread over the Roman empire and the greater part 
 of the civilized world. 
 
 67. The principal schools of philosophy among 
 the Greeks and Romans have usually been divided 
 into two classes— the Ionic and the Italic; the 
 former of which originated with Thales, and the 
 latter with Pythagoras. From these arose numerous 
 other sects, which were distinguished partly by the 
 tenets they maintained, but chiefly by the individuals 
 whose names they bear. Some of these were com- 
 paratively of short duration, but others long 
 continued to flourish, and were propagated by 
 many distinguished philosophers. From the inde- 
 
CHAP. II.] ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS. 83 
 
 pendent states of Greece, they were transplanted 
 either into the metropolis of the Roman empire, 
 or some of its distant provinces, until at length 
 they were blended into one sect, which, from its 
 amalgamation of different systems, was called the 
 Eclectic, and which continued to flourish till the 
 final subversion of the Roman empire. These an- 
 cient schools of philosophy were so various and 
 numerous, and the philosophers belonging to each 
 have been so frequently confounded, that it may 
 not be unacceptable to the juvenile reader of these 
 pages, to be furnished with a distinct classification 
 of them, in the order in which they arose, that he 
 may perceive at one view the sect to which they 
 respectively belonged — the departments of physical 
 or intellectual science in which they excelled — and 
 the chronological order in which they flourished. 
 For this purpose, the following Tables, though by 
 no means complete, may perhaps be sufficiently 
 accurate. 
 
 g2 
 
84 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE [PART II, 
 
 CLASS I. 
 SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 MATHEMATICIANS. COUNTRY. 
 
 «* 
 
 DATE. 
 
 ASTRONOMERS. 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 DATE. 
 
 Thales 
 
 Miletus ... 
 
 600 
 
 Thales 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pythagoras . . 
 
 Samos , . . 
 
 550 
 
 Anaximander . 
 
 Miletus 
 
 570 
 
 (Enopidus. . . . 
 
 Chios ..... 
 
 480 
 
 Pythagoras . . 
 
 _ — 
 
 — 
 
 Zenodorus. . . . 
 
 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Cleostratus . . 
 
 Tenedos.... 
 
 550 
 
 Democritus . . 
 
 Abdera . . . 
 
 430 
 
 Philolaus 
 
 Crotona 
 
 400 
 
 Hippocrates . . 
 
 Chios 
 
 450 
 
 Hicetas 
 
 Syracuse . . 
 
 — 
 
 Plato 
 
 Athens . . . 
 
 370 
 
 Meton 
 
 Athens . . . 
 
 . 440 
 
 Archytas .... 
 
 ibid 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Euctemon 
 
 ibid 
 
 . — 
 
 Leodamus .... 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Calippus 
 
 Cyzicum. . . 
 
 . 360 
 
 Thceetetus .... 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Eudoxus 
 
 Cnidos . . . 
 
 . — 
 
 Aristeus 
 
 
 
 380 
 
 Callisthenes . . 
 
 Macedon . 
 
 . 330 
 
 Menechmus . . 
 
 Athens 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Aristotle 
 
 Stagira . . . 
 
 . 340 
 
 Dinostratus . . 
 
 ibid 
 
 . — 
 
 Eratosthenes. . 
 
 Alexandria . 
 
 . 280 
 
 Eudoxus .... 
 
 Cnidos . . . 
 
 . 365 
 
 Timochares . . 
 
 ibid 
 
 . — 
 
 Eudemus .... 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Aristillus 
 
 ibid 
 
 . 270 
 
 Theophrastus . 
 
 Lesbos . . . 
 
 . 310 
 
 Archimedes . 
 
 Syracuse. . . 
 
 . 250 
 
 Isidorus 
 
 . 
 
 — 
 
 Aratus 
 
 Tarsus . . . 
 
 . — 
 
 Hysicles . . . 
 
 . 
 
 — 
 
 Aristarchus . . 
 
 Samos . . . 
 
 . 280 
 
 Euclid 
 
 . Alexandria. 
 
 . 300 
 
 Hipparchus . 
 
 Nice ..... 
 
 . 142 
 
 Dinocrates . 
 
 . Macedon . 
 
 . ibid. 
 
 Posidonius . 
 
 Rhodes . . . 
 
 . 60 
 
 Nicomedes . 
 
 . 
 
 280 
 
 Cleomedes . 
 
 . 
 
 70 
 
 Archimedes . 
 
 . Syracuse. . . 
 
 . 250 
 
 Geminus . . . 
 
 Rhodes . . . 
 
 . 70 
 
 Apollonius . 
 
 . Perga 
 
 . 200 
 
 Sosigenes . . . 
 
 . Alexandria. 
 
 . 35 
 
 Theodosius . 
 
 . Tripoli . . . 
 
 . 60 
 
 Manilius . . . 
 
 . 
 
 35 
 
 Menelaus . . . 
 
 . Caria a 
 
 .d. 55 
 
 Frontinus . . . 
 
 . Rome 
 
 . 100 
 
 Diophantus . 
 
 
 . 350 
 
 Ptolemy 
 
 . Alexandria . 
 
 . 140 
 
 Pappus 
 
 . ibid 
 
 . 385 
 
 Ctesibius . . . 
 
 ibid 
 
 . ibid. 
 
 Diodes 
 
 . ibid 
 
 . ibid. 
 
 Hero 
 
 . ibid. " 
 
 , ibid. 
 
 Serenus 
 
 . ibid 
 
 . 380 
 
 Anthemius . 
 
 . Tralles ... 
 
 . ibid. 
 
 Theon ..... 
 
 . ibid 
 
 . 400 
 
 
 
 
 Hypatia , . . 
 
 . ibid 
 
 . ibid. 
 
 
 
 
 Proclus . ... 
 
 . Athens . . . 
 
 . 460 
 
 
 
 i 
 
85 
 
 CHAP. llO ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 CLASS IT. 
 
 PHILOSOPHERS OF THE IONIC SECT. 
 
 SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. NAMES. COUNTRY. DATE. 
 
 Founded by Thales of Miletus, about a.c. 600. 
 
 /-Anaximander Miletus 
 
 I Anaximenes 
 
 I. The Ionic (proper)< Anaxagoras Clazomene 
 
 I Diogenes Apolloniates Miletus 
 v Archelaus Athens 
 
 Founded by Socrates of Athens, about a.c. 420. 
 
 Xenophon Athens 
 
 iEschines 
 
 Cimon 
 
 II. The Socratic *\ Crito 
 
 Cebes Thebes 
 
 Glaucon Athens 
 
 Besides several Founders of New Schools. 
 
 Founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, in Africa, about a.c. 380. 
 
 /"Arete Cyrene 
 
 I Antipater Tarsus 
 
 I Parabatis Cyrene 
 
 in. The Cyrenaic J Hegesias 
 
 \ Anacerns 
 
 Aristippus, Jun 
 
 Theodoras 
 
 V Bion Borysthenes 
 
 
 Founded by Euclid of Megara, about a.c. 360. 
 
 r Eubulides Miletus 
 
 V Diodorus . Caria 
 
 iv. TheMEGAitic,orJ Stilpo Megara 
 
 Eristhic j Alexinus Elis 
 
 / Euphantus Oiynthus 
 
 ^-Apollonius (Cronus) Cyrene 
 
 Founded by Pioedo of Elis about a.c. 360. 
 
 « tk/» t?t T . „ ^ C Phsthenes Elis 
 
 v. lhe Eliac, or > n/r , V. * ■ 
 
 x^^,,, \ Menedemus Eretria 
 
 Eretriac / zr? i • j 
 
 v. /Esclepiades 
 
86 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE 
 
 [PART II. 
 
 SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. NAMES. COUNTRY. DATE. 
 
 vi. The Academic, Founded by Plato of Athens, about a.c. 370. 
 
 Founded by Speusippus of Athens, a.c. 350. 
 ^ Xenocrates .... Chalcedon 
 Subdivided into i Poleraon Athens 
 
 1. The Old Academy ) Crates Ibid. 
 
 i Crantor Soli 
 
 C (With several Founders of New Sects.) 
 
 Founded by Arcesilaus of Molis about a.c. 280. 
 
 r Lacydes Cyrene 
 
 2. Middle Academy < Evander . Ibid. 
 
 v. Egesinus Pergamos 
 
 Founded by Carneades of Cyrene, about a. c. 1 80. 
 
 3. The New Aca- £ gj£^™ ; ; \ \ g^f 
 t Antiochus Ascalon 
 
 demy 
 
 Founded by Aristotle of Slagira, about a.c. 350. 
 /-Theophrastus . . Eresium in Lesbos 
 I Callisthenes .... Olynthus 
 
 Strabo Lampsacus 
 
 I Lycon Troas 
 
 vn. The Peripa- j Aristo Coos 
 
 * Critolaus Athens 
 
 Diodorus , . . . . — 
 Demet. Phalerius iUhens 
 i Dicearchus .... Messenia 
 LEumenes Rhodes 
 
 Founded by Antisthenes of Athens, about a.c. 380. 
 
 r Diogenes Sinope in Pontus 
 
 I Onesicritus .... iEgina 
 
 J Crates Thebes 
 
 j Metrocles Ibid. 
 
 / Menippus Sinope 
 
 v-Menedemus .... Lampsacus 
 
 viii. The Cynic 
 
 Founded by Zeno of Cyprus, 
 /-Persaeus Corinth 
 
 about a. c. 300. 
 
 ix. The Stoic 
 
 Aristo Chios 
 
 Herillus Carthage 
 
 Sphaerus Borysthenes 
 
 Cleanthes Lydia 
 
 Chrysippus .... Solis in Cilicia 
 
 Zeno Tarsus 
 
 Diogenes Seleucia by Babylon 
 
 Panaetius Rhodes 
 
 ^Posidonius Apamea in Syria 
 
 Of the Ionic Sects, the schools which nourished most among the 
 Romans were the Academic, the Peripatetic, and the Stoic. 
 
CHAP. II.]] ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 CLASS III. -THE ITALIC SECT. 
 
 87 
 
 SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. NAMES. COUNTRY. DATE. 
 
 Founded by Pythagoras of Samos, a.c. 550. 
 
 rAristseus Crotona 
 
 i Menisarchus .... Samos 
 l Alcmaeon Crotona 
 
 IEmpedocles .... Agrigentum 
 Ecphantus .... Syracuse 
 
 i. IhelTALic (proper; J Hippo Rhegium 
 
 Epicharmus Coos 
 
 Archytas Tarentum 
 
 Timaeus Locris 
 
 Philolaus Crotona 
 
 LEudoxus, &c. Sbc. Cnidos 
 
 Founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, a.c. 500. 
 Parmenides .... Elea 
 
 ^Zeno ibid. 
 
 l Leucippus .... ibid. 
 
 ii. The Eleatic < Melissus Samos 
 
 i Democritus Abdera in Thrace 
 
 ^Protagoras ibid. 
 
 Anaxarchus .... ibid. 
 
 Founded by Heraclitus of Ephesus, a.c. 500. 
 
 r Zeno Athens (the Eleatic) 
 
 < Hippocrates .... Cos (afterwards Athens) 
 i. Cratylus Athens 
 
 Founded by Epicurus of Athens, a. c. 300. 
 fMetrodorus .... Lampsacus 
 
 Poly anus ibid. 
 
 Hermachus .... Mitylene 
 
 Leontius Lampsacus 
 
 iv. The Epicurean <{ Colotes ibid. 
 
 ! Idomeneus .... ibid. 
 
 Poly stratus .... 
 
 Hippoclides .... 
 
 LBasilides, &c.&c. 
 
 Founded by Pyrrho of Elea, a. c 320. 
 
 STimon Phliasia 
 
 Ptolemseus .... Cyrene 
 
 JEnesidemus. . . . Alexandria 
 
 Dioscorides .... Cyprus 
 
 Menodotus .... Nicomedia 
 
 Herodotus .... Tarsus 
 
 Of the Italic Sects, those which were best known, and continued 
 longest to nourish among the Romans, were the Pythagorean and the 
 Epicurean. 
 
 ii. The Heracli- 
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 42 'S -« 
 
CHAP. II.] ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 89 
 
 CLASS V. 
 ECLECTIC PHILOSOPHERS, 
 
 OTHERWISE CALLED THE ALEXANDRIAN SECT, OR LATER PLATONISTS, 
 
 Flourished daring the Second, Third, and Fourth Centuries. 
 
 1. CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 PAGAN PHILOSOPHERS, 
 
 Justin Martyr of Neapolis . . 
 
 A.D. 
 
 150 
 
 Potamo .... 
 
 Alexandria . 
 
 180 
 
 Tatian 
 
 Syria 
 
 170 
 
 Ammonius . . 
 
 Ibid 
 
 230 
 
 Theophilus . . 
 
 Antioch 
 
 180 
 
 Dionysius Long 
 
 n. Emesa . . 
 
 260 
 
 Irenaeus .... 
 
 Smyrna 
 
 ib. 
 
 Plotinus 
 
 Lycopolis . . 
 
 250 
 
 Athenagoras. . 
 
 Athens 
 
 ib. 
 
 Amelius .... 
 
 Tuscany . . 
 
 260 
 
 Pantoenus .... 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 ib. 
 
 Porphyry .... 
 
 Tyre 
 
 280 
 
 Tertullian .... 
 
 Carthage . 
 
 196 
 
 Jamblichus . . 
 
 Chalcis 
 
 340 
 
 Clemens .... 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 . 200 
 
 iEdisius .... 
 
 Cappadocia 
 
 — 
 
 Origen 
 
 Ibid 
 
 230 
 
 Eustathius . . 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Anatolius .... 
 
 Ibid 
 
 270 
 
 Eusebius . . MyndusinCaria 327 
 
 Arnobius .... 
 
 Africa . . . 
 
 285 
 
 Maximus .... 
 
 Nicomedia . 
 
 — 
 
 Lactantius . . 
 
 
 
 310 
 
 Priscus 
 
 Thespotium 
 
 360 
 
 Eusebius Pamph. Caesarea . . 
 
 327 
 
 Chrysanthius . 
 
 Sardis 
 
 — 
 
 Apollinarius . . 
 
 Laodicea . . 
 
 370 
 
 Julian 
 
 Rom.Emp. 
 
 360 
 
 Gregory .... 
 
 Nazianzen . . 
 
 ib. 
 
 Eunapius .... 
 
 Sardis 
 
 385 
 
 Gregory .... 
 
 Nyssa 
 
 ib. 
 
 Hierocles 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 400 
 
 Didymus .... 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 . 380 
 
 Plutarch (Nest.) 
 
 Athens 
 
 420 
 
 Jerome ...... 
 
 Bethlehem . 
 
 '400 
 
 Syrian 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 450 
 
 Chrysostom . . 
 
 Antioch . . 
 
 ib. 
 
 Marinus .... 
 
 Sichem 
 
 460 
 
 Augustine 
 
 Hippo 
 
 ib. 
 
 Isidorus .... 
 
 Gaza 
 
 500 
 
 Synesius .... 
 
 Cyrene . . . 
 
 410 
 
 Damascius . . 
 
 Syria 
 
 — 
 
 Dionysius .... 
 
 — — 
 
 420 
 
 
 
 
90 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS. £PART II. 
 
 68. The preceding enumeration of the principal 
 sects of Grecian, Roman, and Alexandrian philoso- 
 phers, both scientific and speculative, may, it is 
 presumed, be useful to the juvenile reader of the 
 followng essays, by enabling him, as he proceeds, to 
 determine the school of philosophy to which each of 
 those individuals belonged, who will be more dis- 
 tinctly noticed hereafter; and by exhibiting, at one 
 view, the ramifications of ancient philosophy, from 
 when the scion was first transplanted from the East, 
 to the period in which its sapless trunk mouldered 
 into decay in its native soil. It would extend this 
 historical review of ancient literature far beyond 
 its assigned limits, and render the work extremely 
 dry and uninteresting, were but a brief summary 
 given of the distinguishing tenets of each sect, or 
 of the systems advocated by the most celebrated of 
 these ancient philosophers. Instead of this, the 
 retrospect will be pursued in the following order. 
 
 I. The history of the abstract sciences, or ancient 
 mathematics. 
 
 II. The history of physical science, both specu- 
 lative and practical. 
 
 III. Ancient dialectics, or logic. 
 
 IV. Metaphysics, or pneumatology; and, 
 
 V. Ethics, or moral science. 
 
CHAP. Ill/] ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. 91 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE ABSTRACT SCIENCES. 
 
 Sect. I. 
 
 HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS, 
 From A.C. 640—300. 
 
 69. Geometry is the only branch of mathema- 
 tical science with which the ancients were acquainted, 
 if we except a slight and imperfect knowledge of 
 arithmetic, said to have been derived from the Phoe- 
 nicians. It will be remembered, that, in the sketch 
 of Egyptian literature, attempted in a former 
 section, a reference was made to the origin of 
 geometry in that country, and the circumstances 
 were mentioned which first led to the study and 
 practice of this important science. In its beginning 
 it was considered but as a more convenient and 
 accurate mode of mensuration than any previously 
 known. Its practical utility therefore recommended 
 it to the Egyptians, since it enabled them, with 
 the utmost accuracy, to determine the rights of 
 landed proprietors, after the annual inundation of 
 the Nile had obliterated all traces of former occu- 
 pation. Thence it was transferred to Greece, where 
 it early assumed the form of an abstract science, 
 and was cultivated far more successfully than in its 
 native soil. Thales and Pythagoras, the celebrated 
 
92 ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. [jPART II. 
 
 founders of the two principal sects of philosophy, 
 are universally acknowledged to have been the first 
 Grecian geometricians; but the degree of their 
 mathematical knowledge, or the exact amount of 
 their attainments in this department of science, it 
 is by no means easy to determine. It is probable 
 that many of the propositions found in the ele- 
 mentary works of later geometricians were first 
 discovered by them, though others, by whom they 
 have been preserved and transmitted to posterity, 
 may have obtained the credit of their invention. 
 
 70. Thales, who flourished between a. c. 640 and 
 600, during his residence in Egypt, either taught 
 the Egyptians, or, as is more probable, learned 
 from them, the method of measuring the Pyramids 
 of Memphis by the extent of their shadows. In 
 either case, the fact proves some practical acquain- 
 tance with geometry. Several of the fundamental 
 propositions subsequently incorporated into the 
 Elements of Euclid have been attributed to him, 
 particularly those in which it is proved that a 
 " circle is bisected by its diameter ; that the angles 
 at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal; that 
 vertical angles are equal; and that the angle in a 
 semicircle is a right angle." These, though amongst 
 the simplest theorems, were no inconsiderable dis- 
 coveries in the infancy of mathematical science. 
 All the ancient writers speak of him as a learned 
 geometrician, and, among other important disco- 
 veries, ascribe to him the first employment of a 
 circle for the measurement of angles. 
 
 Pythagoras, who flourished about half a century 
 
CHAP. III.] ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. 93 
 
 later, pushed forward the discoveries of Thales, 
 and made more important discoveries. His name 
 is rendered immortal among geometricians, by his 
 well-known discovery, " that the square on the 
 hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to 
 the sum of the squares on the other two sides;" a 
 discovery which is said to have occasioned such an 
 ecstacy of joy, as to induce him to offer, as an 
 expression of gratitude, an hecatomb to the gods. 
 This problem is classed among the most important 
 of geometrical truths, both from the singularity of 
 its result, and the number of cases to which it may 
 be applied in every department of mathematical 
 science. To this philosopher belongs also the praise 
 of having reduced geometry to a more regular 
 system, by his demonstrations and inductive rea- 
 sonings. Diogenes Laertius informs us, that it was 
 he " who first abstracted geometry from matter, and 
 elevated it from a scheme of mensuration to a truly 
 philosophical science." 
 
 71. Next to the above-mentioned philosophers, 
 the names of (Enopidas, Zenodorus, Democritus, 
 and Hippocrates, occur in the list of ancient mathe- 
 maticians. The former of these was a native of 
 Chios, who flourished about a.c. 450, and of whom 
 Plato speaks, as u one who obtained mathematical 
 glory," though it is to be regretted that no traces 
 of his works remain. Among the simple but im- 
 portant problems attributed to him, are those by 
 which a perpendicular is let fall on a right line 
 from a given point ; an angle made equal to a given 
 angle ; and by which it is bisected. Of Zenodorus, 
 
94 ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 who was a contemporary of GEnopidus, more 
 authentic information is possessed, since a portion 
 of his geometrical writings has survived the wreck 
 of ages, and is still preserved in Theon's Commen- 
 tary. From these ancient remains, it may be 
 gathered, that at the period in which this geome- 
 trician flourished, no inconsiderable progress had 
 been made in that science. Among the services 
 rendered by him to the abstract sciences, it was not 
 the least that he corrected some false notions which 
 had been previously entertained relative to com- 
 parative magnitudes, by proving that figures with 
 equal circumferences have not necessarily equal 
 areas. But of the philosophers enumerated above, 
 Hippocrates, who was also a native of Chios, and 
 flourished about the same period, was by far the 
 most distinguished. He is highly commended by 
 Proclus as one who contributed greatly to the 
 advancement of mathematical knowledge, and as 
 having first compiled Elements of Geometry. About 
 the period in which he flourished, the famous pro- 
 blem relative to the duplication of the cube engaged 
 the attention of the geometricians, in consequence, 
 it is said, of a response given by the Delphian 
 Oracle, which, when it was inquired by the Athe- 
 nians, how a dreadful pestilence, then raging at 
 Athens, might be removed, replied, " Double tJie 
 altar." That altar being a perfect cube, it was 
 proposed to the mathematicians of Creece to ascer- 
 tain what was the precise quantity required. Hip- 
 pocrates distinguished himself in this research, and 
 seemed to have made some advances towards the 
 
CHAP. III.] ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. 95 
 
 solution of the problem; but geometrical knowledge 
 was not then sufficiently advanced to enable him 
 to surmount the difficulty, though he discovered 
 some principles intimately connected with its solu- 
 tion, some of which still continue to bear his name. 
 
 72. The Platonic school, stimulated by the ex- 
 ample, and aided by the discoveries of those who had 
 preceded them in this department of science, greatly 
 enlarged its boundaries. To Plato himself, or to 
 some of his distinguished disciples, have been attri- 
 buted the important discoveries by which an ap- 
 proximation may be made to the quadrature of the 
 circle, the duplication of the cube, the trisection of 
 angles, and (which is by far the most important of 
 all) the method of geometrical analysis. A cele- 
 brated mathematician of modern times, whose com- 
 petence to decide on the question, none, who are 
 acquainted with his writings, can doubt, has given it 
 as his opinion, that a the method of geometrical 
 analysis constitutes the most valuable part of the 
 ancient mathematics, inasmuch as a method of dis- 
 covering truth is more valuable than the truths it 
 has already discovered ; and in another place, the 
 same writer remarks, " the geometrical analysis, 
 which is generally ascribed to the Platonic school, is 
 one of the most beautiful and ingenious contrivances 
 in the mathematics. It is a method of discovering 
 truth, by reasoning concerning things unknown, or 
 propositions merely supposed, as if the one were 
 given and the other were really true. A quantity 
 that is unknown, is only to be found by its relations 
 to quantities that are known. By reasoning on 
 
96 ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 these relations, we come at last to one so simple, 
 that the thing sought is thereby determined. By 
 this analytical process, therefore, the thing required 
 is discovered, and we are at the same time put in 
 possession of an instrument by which new truths 
 may be found out ; and which, when skill in 
 using it has been acquired by practice, may be 
 applied to an unlimited extent."* To Plato is 
 also attributed the first invention of the four conic 
 sections ; previously no other species of curve had 
 employed the speculations of men of science than 
 the circle. This new and interesting branch of 
 geometry, was diligently cultivated by his disciples, 
 of whom Proclus enumerates twelve, who acquired 
 considerable distinction, in an age in which know- 
 ledge was rapidly advancing. Among these were, 
 Leodamns, who improved on the method of analysis ; 
 Thoeetetus, who wrote Elements of Geometry ; 
 Archiates, who has the credit of having first applied 
 the principles of geometry to practical purposes ; 
 Aristeus, who composed five books on the conic 
 sections, highly applauded by the ancients, but 
 which have not reached us ; Eudoxus and Mc- 
 nechmus, who followed up, and more clearly demon- 
 strated, the problem of doubling the cube, the 
 properties of the conic sections, and many other 
 propositions connected with what are termed pure 
 mathematics. 
 
 73. Though Aristotle, the celebrated founder 
 of the Peripatetic sect, does not chiefly owe his 
 
 * Playfair's Dissert, ap. Encyc. Britt. New Supp. Vol. II. p. 3. 
 
CHAP. III.] ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. 97 
 
 reputation to his knowledge of geometry, it is well 
 known that no inconsiderable part of his voluminous 
 writings relate to the abstract sciences. Blancanus, 
 a learned commentator in Aristotle's works, collected 
 an entire book of geometrical propositions, said to 
 have been invented by this philosopher. Of his 
 school, those who are known to have excelled in 
 mathematics were, Eudemus, who wrote treatises on 
 numbers, geometry and invisible lines ; Theophras- 
 tus, who drew up a history of mathematics, part of 
 which is still extant ; Isidorus, Hy sides, and a few 
 others, who chiefly directed their attention to the 
 doctrine of solids, and thus opened a new field in 
 geometrical science. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS CONTINUED, 
 
 From A. c. 300 to A. D. 400. 
 
 74. The muse of Poetry had attained her loftiest 
 flights ; Philosophy, her most refined speculations, 
 and the Fine Arts their utmost perfection in Greece, 
 long before the mathematical sciences had reached 
 the meridian of their course. It was at a compara- 
 tively late period of Grecian history, that the most 
 celebrated of her geometricians flourished. A firm 
 and deep foundation had been laid, it is true, by 
 Thales, Pythagoras, and Plato, and the superstruc- 
 ture was partly reared by the disciples of their 
 several schools ; but it was not till about the sera of 
 
 H 
 
98 ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 Alexander of Macedon, that the fabric of geometrical 
 science was completed by the united labours of 
 Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius, — names which 
 unquestionably occupy the first place in the cata- 
 logue of ancient mathematicians. It is now impos- 
 sible to ascertain what portion of the works of 
 Euclid is original, or what was compiled from the 
 writings of his predecessors. Posterity may there- 
 fore have awarded to him a meed of mathematical 
 fame far beyond his just deserts. But, from what- 
 ever source his materials may have been derived, it 
 is universally admitted, that the period in which the 
 three abovementioned mathematicians flourished, is 
 that in which geometry attained its maximum among 
 the ancients, and from which it evidently began 
 to decline. 
 
 75. Euclid, the well-known author of the Ele- 
 ments of Geometry (who must be distinguished from 
 the founder of the Megaric sect,) was of the Platonic 
 school, and flourished about a. c. 300. The time 
 and place of his birth are unknown ; but it appears, 
 from the Commentaries of Proclus, that he taught 
 mathematics, and founded a geometrical school at 
 Alexandria during the reign of the first Ptolemy, 
 (or, as others affirm, of Ptolemy Philadelphus.) 
 This is inferred from the well-known reply he is said 
 to have given to that monarch, who enquired whe- 
 ther he could not teach him geometry by a simpler 
 and easier process. " There is," said Euclid, " no 
 royal road to geometry." This fact, attested both 
 by Archimedes and Proclus, furnishes almost the 
 only data from which to determine either the place 
 
CHAP. III.] ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. 99 
 
 of his residence, or the aera in which he flourished. 
 His chief merit seems to have consisted in reducing 
 to order the scattered parts of the system of ancient 
 mathematics, and in presenting the fundamental 
 principles established by former geometricians in 
 their natural order, adding to them others invented 
 by himself. Professor Playfair, when adverting to 
 the progress made by the Greeks in geometrical 
 science, bears the following honourable testimony to 
 the " author of the Elements." u The elementary 
 truths were connected by Euclid, into one great 
 chain, beginning from the axioms and extending to 
 the five regular solids, the whole digested into such 
 admirable order, and explained with such clearness 
 and precision, that no similar work of superior ex- 
 cellence has appeared, even in the present advanced 
 state of mathematical science." — Playf air's Dissert- 
 up. Encijc. Brit, New Sup. Vol. II. p. 3. 
 
 " No book of science," says a modern French writer, 
 " has ever met with success equal to that of Euclid's 
 Elements. They have continued to be taught ex- 
 clusively in every mathematical school for many 
 centuries ; have been translated into almost all 
 languages, and have been commented upon by 
 numerous celebrated geometricians — a sure proof of 
 their transcendent excellence." — (Bossufs History 
 of Mathematics.) Besides this, his principal work, 
 Euclid wrote several other mathematical treatises, 
 some of which are still extant, though others, men- 
 tioned by Proclus, are lost. 
 
 76. Next in chronological order, but far superior 
 in genius and science, stands the celebrated, the 
 
 h2 
 
100 ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 unrivalled Archimedes. The scientific discoveries 
 of this great philosopher will more properly claim 
 our attention, when reviewing the history of Physics, 
 or Natural Philosophy, among the Greeks. At 
 present we shall only advert to him, as unquestion- 
 ably the first of ancient mathematicians. He 
 flourished at Syracuse about a. c. 250, and spent his 
 whole life in the most unwearied and successful 
 endeavours to promote the advancement of the 
 sciences, both abstract and practical. " He assailed," 
 says Playfair, " the most difficult problems in geo- 
 metry, and by means of the method of exhaustion* 
 demonstrated many curious and important theorems 
 with regard to the lengths and areas of curves, and 
 the contents of solids." He was the first who dis- 
 covered the relation between the circumference of 
 a circle to its diameter, not indeed with geome- 
 trical strictness, (for this is found to baffle even 
 modern science,) but by a method of approximation 
 admirable in its kind, and which has served as a 
 
 * This name was given by the ancients to that process of 
 indirect demonstration, by which a great variety of difficult 
 questions were solved relative to the limitation of figures in- 
 scribed on curves, or circumscribed round them, and the propor- 
 tion of those limits to the areas of the curves with which they 
 are connected. Professor Playfair, after having given a succinct 
 but beautiful explanation of this branch of mathematics, adds, 
 " Few things more ingenious than this method have been de- 
 vised ; and nothing could be more conclusive than the demon- 
 strations resulting from it; but it laboured under two very 
 considerable defects ; viz. the long and difficult process by 
 which those demonstrations were obtained, and its indirect form 
 giving no insight into the principle on which the investigation 
 was founded." — Playf. Diss, ut sup. pp. 6, 7. 
 
CHAP. III.]] ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. 101 
 
 model for all subsequent investigations of a similar 
 kind. His most celebrated work, (which fully 
 proves the transcendent superiority of his genius 
 to the proudest attainments of ordinary men, and 
 renders him not unworthy of being placed by the 
 side of the illustrious Newton,) is that on the dimen- 
 sions and quadrature of the circle : besides which, 
 he wrote (on mathematical subjects) treatises on the 
 sphere and cylinder, — on spheroids and conoids, — 
 of spiral lines, — of the quadrature of the para- 
 bola, &c. &c, irrespective of his works on natural 
 philosophy, to be noticed hereafter. To the pre- 
 ceding summary of the geometrical labours of 
 Archimedes, it may be added, that he extended and 
 more clearly demonstrated the use of geometrical 
 analysis, the principles of which were first discovered 
 by the disciples of Plato. Eratosthenes and Conon 
 were his contemporaries, either of whom would 
 have acquired, in any other age, great celebrity in 
 this department of science, but their fame was com- 
 pletely eclipsed by the dazzling lustre of the great 
 philosopher of Syracuse. Archimedes requested, in 
 his last moments, that a sphere inscribed in a 
 cylinder might be engraved on his tomb, to perpe- 
 tuate the memory of what he deemed his most 
 glorious discovery. This was done, but the Sicilians 
 so little honoured his memory, that the place of his 
 sepulture was lost, till discovered by Cicero, when 
 Quaestor of Sicily, by these symbols and a Greek 
 inscription at their base, nearly two hundred years 
 after his death. 
 
 77. Apollonius, a native of Perga, next occurs, 
 
102 ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 after an interval of about 50 years (a. c. 200,) in 
 the series of ancient geometricians. As he is known 
 to have studied and taught mathematics at Alex- 
 andria, it is not improbable that he continued the 
 school founded in that city by Euclid. His contem- 
 poraries styled him, and not without reason, the 
 Great Geometrician, an appellation confirmed by 
 the suffrages of posterity, who place him next to 
 Archimedes in mathematical attainments. He is 
 known to have composed a great number of works 
 on the higher branches of geometry, all of which 
 have perished, except a few fragments and a Trea- 
 tise, nearly entire, on the Conic Sections, This 
 celebrated treatise was divided into eight books, 
 the first four of which are still extant in Greek ; 
 the three next were only known by means of an 
 Arabic translation and Latin version, effected during 
 the middle ages, until translated into English by 
 Dr. Halley, the astronomer, towards the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century; and the eighth is entirely 
 lost. On this work, Playfair remarks, that " his 
 elaborate and profound researches on that species 
 of curves, which, after the circle, are the most sim- 
 ple and important in geometry, laid the foundation 
 of discoveries which were to illustrate very distant 
 ages." Numerous have been the commentators on 
 this celebrated work, both ancient and modern, of 
 which the principal are, Eutocius of Ascalon, Pappus, 
 and Commandine. Apollonius is believed by many 
 to have been the author of those propositions con- 
 tained in some editions of Euclid's Elements, and 
 enumerated as the fourteenth and fifteenth books. 
 
CHAP. III.] ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. 103 
 
 The age of Archimedes and Apollonius constituted 
 the most brilliant sera in the history of ancient 
 mathematics. After these great men disappeared, 
 we meet with no geometricians of the first order, 
 and scarcely any that can be considered even 
 second-rate mathematicians. A few, however, may 
 be cursorily mentioned as having contributed in 
 some degree, if not to the advancement, yet at least 
 to the preservation of geometrical science, though 
 it will be seen that they appeared but at distant 
 intervals. 
 
 78. Theodosius, who flourished about a. c. 60, is 
 known as the author of a Treatise on Spherics, which 
 may be considered as having prepared the way for 
 the discovery of spherical trigonometry ; none of 
 the former geometricians having proceeded beyond 
 plane trigonometry, or the measurement of heights 
 and distances, by the sides and angles of a triangle. 
 The Demonstrations of Theodosius are said to have 
 been expressed with the utmost accuracy and 
 elegance. Menelaus, who flourished about a. d. 55, 
 pursued the same track, and, following up the prin- 
 ciples of his predecessor, made considerable progress 
 in spherical trigonometry. His work on Spherical 
 Triangles is said to have been a laborious and 
 learned performance, which contributed to the ad- 
 vancement of astronomical science. After a long 
 interval of more than 300 years, we arrive at the 
 aera of Pappus and Diodes, both of whom flourished 
 about a. d. 385. Pappus is chiefly known as an 
 industrious and valuable commentator on the works 
 of those who had preceded him. " The mathema- 
 
104 ANCIENT MATHEMATICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 tical collections of Pappus/ says M. Bossut, in his 
 History of Mathematics, " exhibit one of the most 
 valuable monuments of ancient geometry. In them, 
 the author has assembled together a great number 
 of excellent works, almost all of which are now lost; 
 and to these he has added several new, curious, and 
 learned propositions of his own invention. This 
 collection, therefore, is not to be considered merely 
 as a compilation, (though, in this respect, it is va- 
 luable,) since it gives us almost a complete view of 
 the state of ancient mathematical science." Diodes, 
 his contemporary, discovered a more original genius, 
 if the statement be correct, that he succeeded in 
 the solution of a problem suggested by Archimedes, 
 in his Treatise on the Sphere and Cylinder, but left 
 unanswered ; a solution which is said to have been 
 " most learned and profound." Serenus flourished 
 about the same time, whose two books on the 
 " Cylinder and Cone," Dr. H alley appended to his 
 edition of the Conic Sections of Apollonius, and 
 which are highly commended by that distinguished 
 mathematician. The review of this period of the 
 History of Geometry shall close with Proclus, who 
 revived the Platonic school at Athens about a. d. 500 ; 
 who rendered important service to the abstract 
 sciences, not only by the effort he made to rekindle 
 the languid and dying embers of philosophy, when 
 almost extinguished in Greece, but still more by his 
 valuable Commentary on the First Book of Euclid's 
 Elements, from which the greater part of the pre- 
 ceding outline has been derived, and which will well 
 repay the labour of a diligent perusal. 
 
CHAP. IV. ^ HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY. 105 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ANCIENT PHYSICS. 
 
 Sect. I. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL 
 
 SCIENCE IN GREECE, 
 
 From A.c. 640— 300. 
 
 79. The precise period in which astronomy was 
 first introduced into Greece, cannot be fixed with 
 any degree of certainty. Sir Isaac Newton traces 
 it back to the Argonautic expedition, when he con- 
 ceives the first rude sketch was made of the celestial 
 globe, and some of the most remarkable luminaries 
 were grouped together in constellations. Whether 
 this opinion be well-founded or not, (and Newton 
 was not given to theorize or take up opinions 
 hastily,) it is certain that this sublime science had 
 not approached towards a system, nor had any im- 
 portant discoveries been made, till Thales flourished, 
 who may therefore be not improperly designated 
 the father of Grecian astronomy. The knowledge 
 which Thales had acquired in Chaldaea and Egypt, 
 he extended by diligent study and attentive ob- 
 servation of the face of the heavens; and an impulse 
 was given, by his instructions and example, to this 
 science, the effects of which were apparent many 
 ages after his death. Among the astronomical at- 
 tainments of this philosopher, the following appear 
 
106 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. [PART II. 
 
 to have been the principal. (1.) He ascertained and 
 explained to his disciples the cause of the inequality 
 of day and night — divided the earth into five zones 
 by means of the polar and tropical circles — taught 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic — and shewed that all the 
 meridians which intersect each other at the poles, 
 cut the equator at right angles. (2.) He is said to 
 have observed the exact time of the solstices, and 
 thus determined the length of the solar year, though 
 not with scientific accuracy, yet so as to correct 
 some prevailing errors in the calculation of time. 
 (3.) He is said to have improved upon the Egyptian 
 arrangement of the constellations, especially those 
 which form the zodiac, combining a lively imagina- 
 tion with the love of science. Thales or some of 
 his disciples embodied the stars in fabulous emblems, 
 affixed to them names, borrowed from the popular 
 mythology, and by this expedient rendered a sub- 
 ject, in itself dry and uninteresting, attractive even 
 to the vulgar. The division of the zodiac into 
 twelve constellations, which, if not invented, was 
 completed by Thales or his immediate successor, 
 has since obtained throughout Europe, and is still 
 the only arrangement known to astronomers. 
 (4.) Four of the planets were known to Thales, as 
 they had been to the Egyptians, viz. Jupiter, Saturn, 
 Mars, and Venus ; and to these some have added 
 Mercury, as first observed by astronomers of the 
 Ionic school, though no accurate observations could 
 have been made on their phenomena, at that remote 
 period. (5.) But the astronomical fame of Thales 
 was chiefly founded on his knowledge of the theory 
 
CHAP. IV J ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. 107 
 
 of eclipses, which had been for many ages the terror 
 of the common people, and one of which (that 
 happened during the war between the Medes and 
 Lydians) he predicted some years before it occurred. 
 This was of itself sufficient to render the philosopher 
 of Miletus celebrated throughout Greece, and at- 
 tract to his school numerous disciples. Among these, 
 Anaximander, who flourished a. c. 600, ranks 
 highest, in connexion with astronomy, as well as in 
 metaphysical speculations. He is said to have set 
 up a gnomon at Sparta, by means of which, time 
 was more accurately measured, and the solstitial 
 and equinoctial points were determined with greater 
 precision. To him is also attributed the first in- 
 vention of celestial globes and geographical maps, 
 to the construction of which he was led by his 
 conjecture, that the earth is spherical — a conjecture 
 afterwards verified and demonstrated by Pythagoras. 
 
 80. While the philosophers of the Ionic sect were 
 following up these investigations at Miletus, Pytha- 
 goras and his disciples were assiduously employed 
 in Italy in similar pursuits, and met with still 
 greater success. Of the discoveries of Pythagoras 
 In this department of science, the following is a brief 
 outline : 
 
 (1.) He proved, by physical observations combined 
 with general reasonings, that the earth could not 
 be, according to the popular belief, an extended 
 plane, but must necessarily exhibit a curved and 
 spheroidal superficies. 
 
 (2.) His opinions respecting the nature of the 
 celestial bodies seem to have been, that the sun is an 
 
108 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. [PART II. 
 
 immense mass of fiery matter : that the moon is 
 opaque, reflecting only the rays of the sun, and in- 
 habited like our earth : that the galaxy consists of a 
 great number of little stars of peculiar brightness : 
 and that comets, which had before been regarded 
 with terror, as fiery meteors, portending dire ca- 
 lamities, were a kind of wandering stars, disappear- 
 ing in the remoter parts of their obits, and becoming 
 visible as they approached the earth. 
 
 (3.) He is said also to have first discovered, that 
 the evening and morning stars, called by the Greeks 
 Vesperus and Phosphorus, were in reality the same 
 planet, seen in different parts of its orbit, on the 
 eastern or western side of the sun. 
 
 (4.) Perceiving the inaccuracy of former attempts 
 to obtain a correct measurement of time, Pythagoras 
 applied to this subject the whole force of his genius, 
 and devised a method of reconciling, in some degree, 
 lunar and solar time, by the expedient of intercalary 
 days. 
 
 (5.) But the most remarkable fact in the history of 
 ancient astronomy is, that the true solar system was 
 either discovered by or known to Pythagoras, many 
 centuries before it was generally received, and, 
 which is perhaps yet more surprising, that after 
 having been known and taught, it was universally 
 abandoned as hypothetical and visionary. From the 
 imperfect astronomical observations he was able to 
 make, in the infancy of the science, this philosopher 
 was led to the conclusion, that the sun is the centre 
 of the planetary system, and that the earth and 
 other planets move round this immense luminary at 
 
CHAP. IV-3 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. 109 
 
 regular distances, and in certain harmonic propor- 
 tions. So contrary, however, was this doctrine to 
 vulgar prejudices, that neither Pythagoras nor his 
 disciples ventured to teach it openly. It was com- 
 municated only to the initiated, and quickly for- 
 gotten, or renounced by the philosophers of his sect. 
 81. Cleostratus, an astronomer of the isle of 
 Tenedos, and contemporary of Pythagoras, is chiefly 
 known to posterit}^, by his attempts to correct the 
 calendar, in which much ingenuity and no incon- 
 siderable degree of science were discovered. About 
 a century later, several astronomers directed their 
 attention to the same difficult subject. These were 
 Pliilolaus, a Pythagorean, who flourished A.c. 450, 
 and is said to have openly asserted the then incre- 
 dible fact, that the earth moves round the sun. 
 Hicetas, a Syracusan, who taught the diurnal motion 
 of the earth on its axis ; and especially Melon and 
 Euctemon, both of whom flourished at Athens 
 about A.c. 440, and the former of whom is distin- 
 guished by the invention of the cycle of nineteen 
 years, which still bears his name, being designated 
 by chronologers, the Metonic cycle. Some defects 
 having appeared after the lapse of a few years in the 
 arrangement suggested by these Athenian astrono- 
 mers, Calippus, another scientific Athenian, who 
 flourished about a.c. 338, proposed a new cycle, 
 which approached nearer to the correct division of 
 time, though it was still far from being accurate. 
 This was by connecting together four Metonic 
 cycles, and forming them into one grand cycle of 
 seventy-six years ; at the close of which, one of the 
 
110 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. £PART II. 
 
 intercalary days was to be retrenched. This is known 
 to chronologers by the name of the Calippic Period. 
 82. Celebrated as is the Platonic school in the 
 history of the Grecian philosophy, the science of 
 astronomy was retarded, rather than advanced, by 
 the speculations of Plato and his followers, as will 
 appear from the following statement, made on no 
 mean authority, and which it were easy to substan- 
 tiate from the writings of the ancients. " The 
 explanation of the celestial motions, which naturally 
 occurred to those who began the study of the 
 heavens, was, that the stars are so many luminous 
 points fixed in the surface of a sphere, having the 
 earth in its centre, and revolving on an axis passing 
 through that centre in the space of twenty-four 
 hours. When it was observed, that all the stars 
 did not partake of this diurnal motion in the same 
 degree, but that some were carried slowly towards 
 the East, and that their paths estimated in that 
 direction, after certain intervals of time, returned 
 into themselves, it was believed that they were fixed 
 in the surface of spheres, which revolved westward 
 more slowly than the spheres of the fixed stars (as 
 they are now called). These spheres must be 
 transparent, or made of some crystalline substance ; 
 and hence arose the name of the crystalline spheres, 
 given to them by the ancients. This system, though 
 it grew more complicated in proportion to the num- 
 ber and variety of the phenomena observed, was the 
 system of Aristotle and Eudoxus, and, with a few 
 exceptions, of all the philosophers of antiquity." 
 The name of Eudoxus has occurred in the precediug 
 
CHAP. IV.] ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. Ill 
 
 extract (in which the opinions both of the Platonists 
 and Peripatetics are clearly stated on the subject to 
 which it relates), concerning whom it will be suffi- 
 cient to state, that he was a Platonic philosopher, 
 who built an observatory at Cnidos, the place of his 
 birth, and wrote several treatises on astronomy, which 
 have long since perished. He is also said to have 
 first connected together the kindred sciences of geo- 
 metry and astronomy, and understood, practically at 
 least, the art of dialling, having himself constructed 
 a sun-dial, which protected the shadow on a plane. 
 Ancient writers notice the sphere of Eudoxus ; but 
 whether this was invented or only improved by 
 this astronomer, is uncertain. 
 
 83. A new and vigorous impulse was given to 
 that part of astronomical science which relates to 
 the measurement of the earth's circumference by the 
 splendid conquests of Alexander of Macedon, a. c. 
 330. The ambition of that monarch prompted him 
 to aim at universal empire ; and that he might form 
 a distinct conception of the work before him, and 
 the extent of his anticipated dominions, he called in 
 the aid of science, to ascertain the true magnitude 
 of the earth. This object, it was perceived, could 
 be effected most easily and accurately by astronomy ; 
 that is, by attentively observing the position of the 
 stars with relation to certain well-known terrestrial 
 objects. The treatises of Aristotle, " De Ccelo," and 
 " De Mundo," were partly written with this design ; 
 and Callisthenes, who flourished at the same period, 
 was expressly commanded by Alexander to execute 
 this arduous task. According to the rude calcula- 
 
112 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. £PART II. 
 
 tions then made, Aristotle informs us, that the 
 mathematicians, who had attempted to determine 
 the magnitude of the earth's circumference, had 
 calculated the amount to be 400,000 stadia. The 
 first, however, of the ancients, who attempted the 
 measurement of the earth on scientific and mathe- 
 matical principles, was Eratosthenes, the librarian 
 of the splendid collection of books then recently- 
 formed at Alexandria, and who flourished about 
 a. c. 280.* To the same scientific philosopher is 
 also attributed the invention and construction of an 
 ingenious and useful instrument or machine, bear- 
 ing some resemblance to the armillary sphere, which 
 exhibited the relations of the meridian to the equa- 
 torial and ecliptic lines, and thus indicated the 
 solstitial and equinoctial colures. 
 
 Sect. II. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY CONTINUED, 
 
 From a. c. 300 to A. d. 400. 
 
 84. After the death of Alexander, and the con- 
 sequent division of the Macedonian empire, the 
 men of science principally resided at Alexandria in 
 Egypt, attracted thither by the splendid patronage 
 
 * A particular account of the method pursued by this mathe- 
 matician and astronomer for the attainment of his object, and its 
 results, is given by Cleomedes in his Cyclical Theorems, and 
 will be found in a perspicuous abridged form, in Bossut's History 
 of Mathematics, p. 108 — 111. 
 
CHAP. IV.3 ANGIENT ASTRONOMERS. 113 
 
 of Ptolemy Philadelphia, and the facilities afforded 
 by the munificence of that monarch to the culti- 
 vation of knowledge. Timocharis and Aristillus, 
 who flourished at Alexandria between a. c. 290 and 
 270, conferred important benefits on the science of 
 astronomy, by making an immense number of obser- 
 vations on the relative positions of the stars, and on 
 the motions of the planets; noting down, with the 
 utmost exactness, the time when those phenomena 
 appeared which attracted their notice. These obser- 
 vations were extremely useful to their successors, 
 and formed, after the lapse of many ages, a basis 
 for the more extended observations of Ptolemy. 
 About the same time, an attempt was made to 
 connect this science with literature and taste, by 
 Aratus, who flourished under Antiochus, and who, 
 at the request of that prince, reduced the principles 
 of astronomy, as far as they were then known, to 
 verse, in a poem entitled Phenomena, which was 
 translated into Latin both by Cicero and Germa- 
 nicus. But these attempts to advance astronomical 
 science bear no comparison, in magnitude and im- 
 portance, to the successful researches of Aristarchus 
 and Hipparchus; names which unquestionably rank 
 highest in the history of ancient astronomy. 
 
 85. Aristarchus was a native of Samos, who 
 flourished about a.c. 280. To this astronomer, 
 posterity is indebted for several useful discoveries, 
 and many highly important observations. Of these, 
 the following is a brief summary : 
 
 (1.) He invented a simple, but scientific method of 
 computing the distance of the sun and moon from 
 
 i 
 
114 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. [PART II. 
 
 the earth. His calculations, it is true, were wide 
 of the truth, nor could they have been otherwise 
 with the means of knowledge then possessed; but 
 the attempt itself does honour to the memory of 
 this celebrated astronomer, and still more the sys- 
 tematic manner in which that attempt was made on 
 the principles of plane trigonometry. 
 
 (2.) Among other astronomical observations care- 
 fully noted by Aristarchus, one was a solstice, which 
 happened, according to Ptolemy's calculations, a.c. 
 281, and by which we are enabled to determine the 
 precise period in which this astronomer flourished. 
 
 (3.) To him, in conjunction with Eratosthenes, his 
 companion and fellow-labourer, is ascribed the first 
 successful application of mechanical science to the 
 advancement of astronomy, by the construction of 
 some rude but useful instruments, which Ptolemy 
 has minutely described. 
 
 (4.) But a still higher honour is reflected on the 
 name and memory of Aristarchus, by the well- 
 attested fact, that he not only knew, but maintained 
 and taught, the true solar system; knowledge which 
 he had probably derived from the Pythagorean 
 school, but which neither the founder of that sect, 
 nor his disciples, had the courage openly to assert. 
 From the age of Aristarchus to that of Copernicus, 
 including a series of more than eighteen centuries, 
 this important truth lay concealed beneath a cum- 
 brous mass of prejudice and superstition. 
 
 86. Hipparchus (who occupies nearly the same 
 place among astronomers, as Archimedes among the 
 geometricians and natural philosophers of antiquity) 
 
CHAP. IV.3 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. 115 
 
 was a native of Nice, in Bithynia, and flourished 
 about a.c. 142. He commenced his observations at 
 Rhodes, but afterwards pursued them, with much 
 greater advantage and success, at Alexandria. 
 With unwearied industry, he continued to prose- 
 cute those labours, which not only reared a peren- 
 nial monument to his own fame, but established 
 his favourite science on a firm and permanent basis, 
 which will probably endure to the end of time. 
 As in the instances of those who preceded him, the 
 most valuable results of these labours will be enu- 
 merated under distinct heads. 
 
 (1.) His first object was to correct the errors of 
 former astronomers, with reference to the mea- 
 surement of time, and determine the exact length 
 of the solar year. Before his time, the year was 
 made to consist of 365 days and six hours; this he 
 found to exceed the true time, and, therefore, 
 deducted seven minutes, which, though not per- 
 fectly accurate, was considerably nearer the truth. 
 
 (2.) Immense labour was bestowed by Hippar- 
 chus in the construction of astronomical tables ', which 
 explained the inequalities, or, as it was then termed, 
 the eccentricity of the solar and lunar orbits, and 
 determined their motions. With the modesty of 
 a true philosopher, these calculations were an- 
 nounced as imperfect attempts, and a confident 
 expectation expressed that, as science advanced, 
 these problems would be more accurately solved. 
 
 (3.) A yet more important discovery (and one 
 which proves the progress then made in astrono- 
 mical science) is universally ascribed to Hipparchus ; 
 
 12 
 
116 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. [PART II. 
 
 namely, that of the precession of the equinoxes, or 
 that retrogression which is observed in the equi- 
 noctial and solstitial points, with relation to the 
 zodiac, or the fixed stars, and which is found, by 
 the more accurate observations of modern science, 
 to amount to fifty seconds in a year. This phe- 
 nomenon, though imperfectly understood at the 
 time of its discovery, has become of great importance 
 in practical astronomy. 
 
 (4.) It is further attributed to Hipparchus, that 
 he followed up successfully the design of Aristar- 
 chus, who had attempted to determine the ratio of 
 the distances of the sun and moon from the earth, 
 and that for his success he was chiefly indebted to 
 the method he adopted of measuring by parallaxes, 
 or the angle made by right lines from any star, or 
 other celestial object, to the surface, and to the 
 centre of the earth. His conclusions, it is true, 
 were erroneous, but the method devised by him is 
 still found eminently useful. 
 
 (5.) But the fame of Hipparchus, as an astro- 
 nomer, chiefly rests on his attempt to number the 
 stars, and assign to them appropriate names and 
 relative positions. He was induced to undertake 
 this herculean task, by the sudden disappearance 
 of a new star, which had before attracted his notice. 
 This remarkable phenomenon naturally prompted 
 the desire to note down all the stars then visible, 
 that posterity might know whether they were per- 
 manent bodies, or whether subject to changes. 
 The execution of this bold attempt filled his con- 
 temporaries, and the men of science who succeeded 
 
CHAP. IV-3 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. 117 
 
 him, with the utmost astonishment. " Hipparchus," 
 says Pliny, in his Natural History, u has never been 
 sufficiently admired, for no one has given proofs 
 like him that man is allied to heaven, and his mind 
 a portion of the Deity. He has even braved the 
 anger of the gods, by making known to man the 
 number of the stars, and has left the heavens, as an 
 inheritance to those who may in future ages have 
 sufficient skill to take possession of it." 
 
 87. After Hipparchus, no astronomer of high re- 
 putation and inventive genius appeared for several 
 centuries. There were indeed not a few who 
 profited by his indefatigable labours and science, 
 so as to carry on his observations, and enrich the 
 science with additional facts, or who more fully 
 developed the theories which had been previously 
 established. Among these, the following may claim 
 a distinct notice : — 
 
 Posidonius, who flourished at Rhodes, about A. c. 
 60, and has been honoured with the appellation of 
 Geometer, on account of his laborious attempt to 
 measure the circumference of the globe. Cicero 
 bears a high testimony to this astronomer, in his 
 philosophical works, and especially adverts in terms 
 of high commendation to his invention of a moveable 
 sphere, the properties and construction of which are 
 not known to posterity. 
 
 Cleomedes, who flourished about the commencement 
 of the Christian i£ra, and rendered an important 
 service to astronomy, by embodying in a work, en- 
 titled " The Cyclical Theory of Meteors," all the 
 discoveries of those who had preceded him in this 
 
118 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. [PART II. 
 
 department of science, from the sera of Thales to his 
 own time. In this ancient treatise on astronomy, 
 (the most ancient now extant,) most of the facts are 
 contained, which have been stated in this and the 
 preceding section, relative to the history of astronomy 
 in Greece. 
 
 About the same time Geminus flourished, who 
 is chiefly known as the author of " Elements of 
 Astronomy," which contains not only the review of 
 astronomical science among the Greeks, but carries 
 the subject farther back, and treats of the astronomy 
 of the Chaldaeans and Egyptians in very remote 
 ages. 
 
 The aera of Julius Caesar is memorable as that of 
 the reformation of the calendar on astronomical 
 principles. It falls not within the design of this 
 work to explain the nature of that reformation, nor 
 is it now known by whose labours it was effected. 
 Some writers have conjectured that it was chiefly, 
 if not wholly, accomplished by Sosigenes, an astro- 
 nomer whom Julius Caesar brought from Athens to 
 Rome. 
 
 Manilius wrote, during the reign of Augustus, a 
 Latin poem, entitled Astronomicon— on the plan of 
 the Phenomenon of Aratus. It is to be regretted 
 that the science it contains, and the beautiful moral 
 sentiments with which its pages are adorned, should 
 be degraded by being found in connexion with all 
 the mummeries and reveries of the Chaldaean astro- 
 logers. To add but one other to this list of second 
 or third-rate astronomers, Menelaus (who has already 
 been classed with the ancient geometricians, and who 
 
CHAP. IV/] ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. 119 
 
 flourished about A. d. 50) contributed, in some de- 
 gree, to the advancement of astronomy, by applying 
 the principles of spherical trigonometry to determine 
 the motions and distances of the heavenly bodies. 
 
 88. A considerable interval elapsed before another 
 astronomer of eminence appeared in any part of the 
 civilized world. During the Imperial government 
 of Rome, poetry, sculpture, painting, oratory — all 
 the ornamental arts and sciences, were cultivated, 
 and attained a high degree of excellence ; but the 
 abstract sciences, amidst the luxuries of that de- 
 generate age, languished, and gradually fell into 
 decay. Before, however, their complete dissolution 
 and abandonment, an attempt was made to revive 
 them in the Alexandrian school of philosophy, by 
 the celebrated Ptolemy, whose name is identified 
 with the whole system of ancient astronomy. It 
 is not known whether Ptolemy was a native of 
 Pelusium or of Alexandria, but he flourished during 
 the reigns of Adrian and Antoninus, about a. d. 140. 
 The celebrity of this astronomer is founded not so 
 much on new and brilliant discoveries, (for in this 
 respect he is far inferior to many who had preceded 
 him,) as on his vast and almost incredible labours, 
 his patience, perseverance, and unwearied industry 
 in collecting and augmenting the stores of astrono- 
 mical knowledge which had been accumulating in 
 former ages. His principal work, entitled Almagest, 
 (an Arabic word, denoting " the great Collection,") 
 contains a digest of all the observations, discoveries, 
 and opinions of former astronomers ; to which his 
 own researches being added, (which were by no 
 
120 ANCIENT ASTRONOMERS. [PART II. 
 
 means inconsiderable,) the whole forms the most 
 complete system of ancient astronomy that has ever 
 appeared. The well-known theory of this astronomer 
 relative to the solar system was, that the earth is 
 fixed immoveably in the centre of the system, and 
 that all the celestial luminaries revolve round it in 
 their respective orbits. All the explanations given 
 by him of the motions of the planets rest on this 
 hypothesis, to which his authority as the first of 
 astronomers insured an universal reception, and 
 which still continues to bear his name, being usually 
 designated the Ptolemaic System. The greatest 
 difficulty with which Ptolemy had to contend was, 
 to reconcile actual phenomena, of which he could 
 not be ignorant, with this hypothesis ; and for this 
 purpose, he was under the necessity of framing 
 theories and conjectures wholly unsubstantiated by 
 evidence. 
 
 89. To the discoveries already mentioned, which 
 were more fully demonstrated by Ptolemy, may be 
 added some, the merit of which is exclusively his 
 own, particularly those which relate to the inequality 
 in the motion of the moon, known to modern 
 astronomers by the term evection; a phenomenon 
 which he both demonstrated and explained.* Fol- 
 lowing up the design of Hipparchus, he enlarged the 
 catalogue of the fixed stars, and assigned distinct 
 positions to no less than 1022 ; whilst he applied 
 himself with no less diligence to the phenomena of 
 the planets, calculating their distances, determining 
 
 * See Playfair's Elements, Vol. II. pp. 129, 130. 
 
CHAP. IV.3 MECHANICS. 121 
 
 their motions, and observing all their phsenomena, 
 as far as they could be discovered, by the means 
 of observation then possessed. After Ptolemy, no 
 astronomer is known to have flourished during the 
 period under review, who can claim distinct notice, 
 if we except Theon, author of a scientific commen- 
 tary on Potolemy's " Almagest," and his renowned 
 but unfortunate daughter Hypatia, who, after having 
 presided with distinguished reputation over the 
 astronomical and mathematical school of Alexandria, 
 fell a victim to intolerance and superstition, in the 
 disguise and under the name of Christian zeal. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 90. The practice of the mechanical arts was 
 well understood by the ancients, long before the 
 theory and general laws of that department of 
 physical science were discovered. Necessity, the 
 mother of inventions, prompted the Greeks at an 
 early period of their history, as it had previously 
 stimulated the Assyrians, Egyptians, and other 
 oriental nations, to raise and transport large masses 
 of matter and ponderous substances, by means not 
 unlike those still in use : for without some such 
 inventions, it would have been impossible to rear 
 those massy fabrics, or to construct those splendid 
 temples and forums, some of which are known to 
 
122 MECHANICS. [[PART |I. 
 
 have been erected from remote antiquity, and even 
 the ruins of which are so magnificent. But it was 
 not till a period much later than the known date 
 of their erection, that the mechanical forces were 
 theoretically understood, and mathematical reason- 
 ings employed to demonstrate their general principles 
 and laws. Ctesiphon, for example, who is said to 
 have built the celebrated temple of Diana at Ephesus, 
 adopted the simplest and most strictly philosophical 
 methods, by which to raise and fix the masses of 
 stone employed in the construction of that far- 
 famed edifice — in whicli were included the action of 
 the lever and the inclined plane, and which implied 
 a practical knowledge of the centre of gravity ; but 
 neither he nor any of the Grecian architects who 
 succeeded him, down to the age of Archimedes, 
 knew the principles of mechanical science, and still 
 less were they capable of reducing them to a system. 
 Even Aristotle himself, (who flourished as late as 
 a. c. 320,) had most confused notions relative to the 
 equilibrium and motion of heavenly bodies ; and 
 those who preceded him must necessarily have been 
 still more destitute of science in these subjects. 
 
 91. The true theory of mechanical philosophy 
 dates no higher than the aera of Archimedes. He 
 is the first of the ancient philosophers who wrote 
 systematically and scientifically on the principles 
 and laws of mechanics. In his treatise on " Equi- 
 libria/ he distinctly lays down, as the data of his 
 mathematical reasonings, the general principles 
 which modern science has fully established, relative 
 to the lever, the balance, and the centre of gravity, 
 
CHAP. IV.|] MECHANICS. 123 
 
 confirming those principles by facts which he had pre- 
 viously discovered by " a priori" reasonings. Thus 
 was he led onward, by a yet untrodden track, to 
 a great variety of important deductions, which were 
 subsequently illustrated by experiment, and reduced 
 to practice. How little progress had been pre- 
 viously made in this department of science may be 
 inferred, from the astonishment which Hiero, king 
 of Syracuse, and his courtiers, are said to have 
 expressed, when that philosopher said, " Give me 
 but a place on which to stand, and I will move the 
 globe." This proposition, daring as it may appear 
 to persons ignorant of the fundamental principles of 
 mechanics, is, however, but a simple consequence of 
 the well-known laws of equilibria, and the action of 
 the lever. By the combined influence of mathe- 
 matical and practical science, Archimedes demon- 
 strated, that there exists in every assemblage of 
 small bodies, and in every large mass of matter con- 
 sidered as such an assemblage, one general point of 
 pressure, which moderns have termed the centre of 
 gravity. Having established the fact, he proceeded 
 to apply it to particular cases, and determined 
 geometrically the precise situation of this centre 
 of gravity in bodies of all shapes and dimensions, 
 whether parallelograms, triangles, trapezia, or para- 
 bolas. 
 
 92. The mechanical inventions that are speci- 
 fically attributed to this great mechanician are, the 
 inclined plane, the pulley, and the screw : not, 
 indeed, that no machines acting on these principles 
 were ever before employed, but because he first 
 
124 MECHANICS. [[PART II- 
 
 made known the theory, by which their powers and 
 effects may be accurately determined. Combining 
 these simple instruments in various forms, he pro- 
 duced machines of prodigious force, but of which 
 little is now known except their names. Some of 
 the ancients refer to the following, among other 
 proofs of his mechanical skill. (1.) His construction 
 of an engine by which to drain marshes and stag- 
 nant pools, or to empty the beds of rivers. (2.) Ano- 
 ther machine, by which he launched Hiero's great 
 ship. (3.) An engine, called trispaton, the nature 
 and design of which is unknown, but to which 
 Tzetzes refers, as a machine of immense power ; 
 and a variety of military engines, described by 
 Plutarch, Polybius, and others, as employed with 
 great effect during the memorable siege of Syra- 
 cuse. To these inventions, Archimedes was chiefly 
 indebted for the high reputation he enjoyed during 
 his life, rather than to the science in which they 
 originated. Had he satisfied himself with reasoning 
 only on general principles, on the laws of matter and 
 motion, or on the powers and phenomena of the 
 equilibrium, however accurate and scientific those 
 reasonings might have been, he would probably 
 have sunk into an unhonoured grave, and his name 
 had long since perished. Yet Archimedes does not 
 appear himself to have set any high degree of value 
 on these far-famed mechanical inventions. They 
 were but the amusement of his leisure hours ; in 
 some instances, the mere sportings of his inventive 
 genius. Plutarch, in his Life of Marcellus, informs 
 us, that " Archimedes would not have carried so far 
 
CHAP. IV.^ MECHANICS. 125 
 
 his practical experiments, or diverted his attention 
 so much from the abstract speculations, in which 
 he most delighted, but for the pressing solicitations 
 of Hiero, his royal patron and friend." The same 
 writer has also added, in a strain of high but 
 merited eulogium, (which is particularly deserving of 
 notice, inasmuch as it exhibitis a comparative view of 
 the estimation in which the speculative and practical 
 sciences were held by the ancients,) " Archimedes 
 was possessed of such a depth of understanding, 
 such an elevation of sentiment, and so copious a 
 fund of mathematical knowledge, that, though by 
 the invention of his machines, he gained the re- 
 putation of a person endowed almost with divine 
 knowledge ; yet he did not vouchsafe to leave any 
 account of them in writing : for he considered all 
 attention to mechanics, and every art which ministers 
 merely to common uses, as mean and sordid, and 
 placed his whole delight in those intellectual specu- 
 lations, which have an intrinsic excellence, arising 
 from truth and demonstration only." — Plut. in Vit. 
 Marcell. 
 
 93. The researches and discoveries of the philo- 
 sopher of Syracuse were almost exclusively directed 
 to that branch of mechanics to which the name of 
 Statics has been given in modern times, and it must 
 be admitted that in this he was eminently successful; 
 but that elementary division of the science, which the 
 moderns distinguish by the term Dynamics,* and 
 
 * The term Dynamics has been, of late years, applied to that 
 branch of physics which relates to the general laws of matter and 
 
126 MECHANICS. £PART II. 
 
 which develops the theory and laws of motion in 
 general, was in a great degree unknown to the 
 ancients. The notions formed by the most cele- 
 brated of the philosophers of antiquity on this 
 subject, were extremely vague and confused. Aris- 
 totle, for example, has defined motion thus ; — " the 
 act of a being, in power as far as in power ;" words 
 to which it is impossible that any distinct idea 
 should ever have been annexed : and though some 
 may have conceived more clearly of its nature, its 
 properties and laws lay far beyond the boundaries of 
 ancient science. A few simple truths appear, indeed, 
 to have been discovered by them relative to uniform 
 motion, as that " the greater the space through 
 which a body passes in a given time, the greater 
 must be its velocity — that the ratio of its velocity 
 is expressed by the proportion between the spaces 
 passed through to the measures of time, or, in other 
 words, that the spaces passed through are as the 
 product of the times by the velocities ; so that if the 
 times be equal, the spaces are as the velocities, or 
 the velocity equal, the spaces are as the times." 
 But these almost self-evident truths can scarcely be 
 dignified with the name of science ; dynamics, there- 
 motion, or the doctrine of moving forces. Its proper business 
 is to establish and demonstrate, by mathematical reasonings, the 
 general principles applicable to all bodies in a state of motion, 
 whether that motion be uniform, accelerated or retarded. Ab- 
 stracting entirely from matter its accidental properties of figure, 
 colour, hardness, &c, it contemplates alone the power, force, or 
 action by which it is moved, the degree and direction of its 
 motion, and all other phenomena resulting from its change of 
 place. 
 
CHAP. IV.3 MECHANICS. 127 
 
 fore, considered as a branch of mechanical science, 
 must be reckoned among the results of modern 
 science, though some of the general principles on 
 which it is founded were manifestly known to 
 Archimedes, and some other ancient philosophers. 
 
 94. It might have been reasonably anticipated, 
 that the brilliant discoveries and high reputation of 
 Archimedes, would have given a new and vigorous 
 impulse to the science in which he so greatly ex- 
 celled; and that, after his death, many would have 
 been found who, guided by the torch of his genius, 
 and stimulated by his success, would have made new 
 discoveries, and carried forward his magnificent 
 designs. But this was far from being the case. 
 The science of Statics may be truly said to have 
 been stationary after his death, or rather to have 
 retrograded during many ages. Some few there 
 were, who followed in the train of their great mas- 
 ter, and gathered up those fragments of science, 
 which fell from his hands, or escaped his notice — but 
 no advances were made. Among the later pro- 
 ficients in mechanical science were Ctesibius and 
 Hero, two scientific philosophers of the Alexan- 
 drian school, (who will be mentioned in connexion 
 with another department of Physics, and who are 
 said first to have applied the term, " Mechanical 
 Powers," specifically to the five simple machines, 
 which still continue to bear that name) ; Anthemius 
 of Tralles, and Pappus of Alexandria, each of whom 
 successfully applied their extensive mathematical 
 knowledge to the advancement of natural philo- 
 sophy. 
 
128 PROGRESS OF HYDRODYNAMICS. (jPART II. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF HYDRODYNAMICS. 
 
 95. Before we proceed to the statement of facts 
 connected with the subject of this section, it may be 
 proper to premise, that the division of natural phi- 
 losophy which it is intended to embrace, has been 
 designated by the moderns Hydrodynamics, because 
 its object is to apply the principles of the science of 
 dynamics to that fluid with which we are most 
 familiar, and explain the phenomena of water, both 
 in a state of rest and of motion. The former class 
 of phenomena constitutes the science of Hydro- 
 statics, and the latter of Hydraulics ; the two great 
 branches into which the science of hydrodynamics 
 has been divided. As some progress was made by 
 the ancients in each of these departments of phy- 
 sical science, it is intended to comprehend both in 
 the present brief review. Solid bodies are more 
 easily subjected to experiment and minute obser- 
 vation than fluid ; and, consequently, it was much 
 more practicable in ancient times, with the rude and 
 imperfect instruments then possessed, to investigate 
 the properties and laws of matter, in a state of 
 solidity and cohesion, or as collected together in 
 large masses ; yet it will appear, from the following 
 statement, that the properties and action of fluid 
 bodies were not wholly disregarded. 
 
 96. The same great geometer and mechanician, 
 who has been repeatedly mentioned in the preceding 
 
CHAP. IV.3 HYDRODYNAMICS. 129 
 
 essays, as occupying the first place among the 
 practical philosophers of antiquity, was the first 
 who discovered the fundamental laws of hydro- 
 statics. A treatise of Archimedes has reached us, 
 not indeed in its original form, hut through the 
 imperfect medium of an Arabic and Latin version, 
 which treats of the moleculce, or minute particles of 
 fluid substances, their density, their equal pressure 
 in every direction, and the principles on which the 
 equilibrium of solids floating on the surface of fluids 
 is preserved. The theory which he endeavours to 
 establish by general reasonings and mathematical 
 science, has since been fully confirmed by experiment. 
 Amidst his researches on this subject, " he disco- 
 vered," says Playfair, " the law which determines 
 the loss of weight sustained by a body on its im- 
 mersion in any fluid." His demonstration of this 
 law rests on a principle which he lays down as a 
 postulatum ; viz. that in water, the parts which are 
 less pressed are always ready to yield in any direc- 
 tion to those that are more pressed ; and from this, 
 by the application of mathematical reasoning, the 
 whole theory of floating bodies is derived. The 
 above is the same principle on which the modern 
 writers on hydrostatics proceed ; they give it, how- 
 ever, not as a postulatum, but as constituting the 
 definition of a fluid. 
 
 97. The most remarkable experiment in hydro- 
 statics which ancient history records, is that by 
 which Archimedes detected the alloy of silver in 
 Hiero's golden crown. That prince, having sus- 
 pected the honesty of the goldsmith employed to 
 
 K 
 
130 HYDRODYNAMICS. [PART II. 
 
 make him a new crown, applied to his scientific 
 friend and subject to detect the fraud. Archimedes 
 was at first unable to devise any means by which 
 the desired problem might be solved ; but at length, 
 we are told, that the true method occurred to him 
 while sitting in a public bath, and that he was 
 so delighted with the discovery as to run home 
 through the streets of the city of Syracuse, naked 
 as he was, and exclaiming as he went, in an ecstacy 
 of joy, " / have found it, I have found it" The 
 principle, to the discovery of which he was indebted 
 for the solution of the royal problem, was the well- 
 known theorem, " that two bodies, equal in bulk, 
 and immersed in a fluid lighter than themselves, 
 lose equal quantities of their weight;" or inversely, 
 " that if two bodies thus immersed lose equal quan- 
 tities of their weight, they are of equal volume." 
 The use made of this general fact by Archimedes, 
 and its application to the discovery of the specific 
 gravity of bodies, will be readily found in almost 
 all modern treatises on hydrostatics. At present, 
 we have only to do with the interesting fact. 
 
 98. Among the mechanical inventions of Archi- 
 medes, was mentioned a machine for the drainage 
 of marshes and rivers, which, on account of the use 
 to which it was applied, may be considered as an 
 hydraulic engine. This is supposed to have been 
 an instrument similar to that which still bears the 
 name of the screw of Archimedes,* and which has 
 been found of great utility in raising water above 
 
 * Encyc. Britt. art. Hydrostat. 
 
CHAP. IV.3 HYDRODYNAMICS. 131 
 
 its natural level. Diodorus Siculus asserts that he 
 invented this machine during his travels in Egypt, 
 and first employed it in that country to carry off 
 more speedily the annual inundation of the Nile; 
 but Vitruvius, and others, have questioned the 
 originality of this invention, and maintained that, 
 though much improved by Archimedes, the machine 
 in question had been long known to the Egyptians, 
 and employed for the purpose stated above. 
 Without presuming to determine this litigated 
 question, it may be affirmed, that, as far as the 
 reputation of Archimedes is concerned, it is of little 
 moment; for whether this be numbered among 
 them or not, it may be affirmed, that " no indivi- 
 dual, before the time of Newton, ever laid the 
 foundation of more, or greater, or more important 
 discoveries," fully justifying the eulogium which 
 Wallis pronounced, when he styled him a man of 
 prodigious sagacity, who laid the foundations of 
 almost all the inventions which constitute the glory 
 of the present age. 
 
 99. The next stage in the history of hydrody- 
 namics, which can be distinctly traced, is that of the 
 invention of pumps, syphons, and artificial fountains, 
 for the elevation of water to considerable heights. 
 These useful discoveries are attributed to the two 
 mathematicians of the Alexandrian school, mentioned 
 at the close of the last section, Ctesibius and Hero, 
 both of whom flourished about a.c. 150. Ctesibius 
 constructed a machine, in which the principle of the 
 sucking and forcing pump was so combined and 
 disposed, that, by their alternate action, the water 
 
 k 2 
 
132 HYDRODYNAMICS. [jPART II. 
 
 was drawn up and forced through a tube ascending 
 between them. Hero, the pupil of Ctesibius, invented 
 a fountain, which still bears his name, and produces 
 its effect by the compression and condensation of 
 air. But the inventors of these instruments, and 
 those who continued to employ them for practical 
 purposes, during many ages, were alike ignorant of 
 the true cause to which their phenomena were to 
 be attributed. The most visionary and unphiloso- 
 phical theories were framed, by which to account for 
 the elevation of the water after every stroke of the 
 piston, among which, one was the celebrated Car- 
 tesian doctrine, that " nature abhors a vacuum." 
 Nor was it till the aera of Galileo and Toricelli that 
 the important fact was ascertained, on which the 
 operation of hydraulic machinery chiefly depends. 
 
 100. In the absence of authentic historical in- 
 formation, it is only possible to conjecture when and 
 by whom the ancient instruments, called clepsydrce, 
 or water clocks, and water mills for the grinding of 
 corn, were first invented. From the allusions made 
 to both of these kinds of machinery by ancient 
 writers, it may be inferred, that they were constructed 
 in remote ages. The clepsydrce are attributed by 
 Vitruvius to the Egyptians, or Persians, but it is 
 not known on what authority. These were machines 
 which measured time, and indicated the hour by 
 the gradual rise of water flowing into a vessel in 
 quantities regulated by the divisions of time, or, in 
 other cases, by the movement of a hand, which the 
 water turned by means of a wheel on which it was 
 made to impinge with a duly regulated force. 
 
CHAP. IVJ HYDRODYNAMICS. 133 
 
 These curious but uncertain machines, which Vitru- 
 vius has minutely described, were at length super- 
 seded by sand hour-glasses, acting on the same 
 principle. From an epigram in the Greek Antho- 
 logia, it is concluded, that water mills were used 
 for grinding corn in the reign of Augustus ; but to 
 the reproach of antiquity it must be stated, that no 
 care was taken to preserve the name, or do honour 
 to the memory of the individual, who rendered so 
 valuable a service to his species. 
 
 101. In this, as in all other departments of 
 physical science, it will be seen, that practice took 
 the precedence of theory. Amidst all the improve- 
 ments of art, and the splendid attainments of 
 geometricians, the general principles on which the 
 action of fluid bodies depend, whether in motion or 
 at rest, were but imperfectly understood. The first 
 of the ancients who appears from his writings to 
 have formed any clear and definite notions of the 
 general properties and laws of fluid bodies, was Sex- 
 tus Julius Frontinus, who flourished under Nerva 
 and Trajan, and to whom was confided the superin- 
 tendence of the celebrated Roman aqueducts. In a 
 practical and scientific treatise on these aqueducts, 
 he states, as matters of conjecture, some theories 
 relative to the motion of water in canals, and deduces 
 from those supposed facts some general principles, 
 which indicate no ordinary attainments in science. 
 Many of these have since been verified and demon- 
 strated, both theoretically and practically. Their 
 author is, however, accused by the moderns of a want 
 of geometrical precision in his scientific discoveries. 
 
134 PNEUMATICS. [PART II. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 ON THE PNEUMATIC DISCOVERIES OF THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 102. The science of pneumatics embraces that 
 division of physics, which develops the mechanical 
 properties of air, and explains the phenomena 
 which result from those properties. In proportion 
 as air is a more subtile fluid than water, its pheno- 
 mena may reasonably be supposed to have eluded 
 the investigation of ancient philosophy. Pneumatics, 
 therefore, considered as a science, must be reckoned 
 amongst the exclusive attainments of modern times. 
 Yet it is impossible that the acute and penetrating 
 genius of the ancients should have wholly overlooked 
 the element in which they breathed, and the atmo- 
 sphere with which they were constantly surrounded. 
 Ignorant as they were of its properties and laws, 
 yet a thousand conjectures were framed, and in- 
 numerable speculations attempted on this subject, 
 which are rather to be accounted the morning 
 dreams of philosophy, than its sober and rational 
 deductions. Thus, some of the Greek philosophers 
 maintained, that " air was the first principle of 
 all things, infinite and spiritual, without form 
 or substance — a subtle aether, animated with a 
 divine principle, which rendered it the origin of all 
 created substances — that it is the Deity diffused 
 through universal nature, and perpetually active," &c. 
 
 103. Such are said to have been the tenets of 
 Thales, and the other philosophers of the Ionic 
 
CHAP. IV.]] PNEUMATICS. 135 
 
 sect, derived unquestionably from the opinions of 
 Eastern Magi. Others, as Plato and Aristotle, 
 considered air as one of the primary elements of 
 matter, which, combined with earth, fire, and 
 water, constitutes and includes all the varieties 
 of the material universe. These, however, though 
 in themselves curious speculations, led to no valu- 
 able results, and are only deserving of notice as 
 proofs of the error and delusion, to which the 
 human mind is liable in its most diligent investi- 
 gation, unless guided by the light of true philosophy, 
 or the more infallible dictates of revealed truth. 
 
 104. The only department of pneumatic science, 
 in which discoveries appear to have been actually 
 made in remote ages, is that which relates to 
 the theory of sound, to which modern science has 
 given the name of Acoustics. This, though for- 
 merly considered as a distinct branch of natural 
 philosophy, having been ascertained wholly to 
 depend on the motion of air, is most properly 
 classed, in the present day, with pneumatic experi- 
 ments. The records of antiquity prove that this 
 department of physical science was not wholly un- 
 known to the ancients. The invention of different 
 kinds of musical instruments, and the astonishing 
 effects said to have been produced by ancient mu- 
 sicians, indicate a considerable advance towards 
 perfection in an art which could not have been 
 attained in any high degree without scientific know- 
 ledge. Pythagoras is universally acknowledged to 
 have been the first among the Greeks, who applied 
 the elements of arithmetical and geometrical science 
 
136 PNEUMATICS. [PART II. 
 
 to the theory of sound, and the laws by which it is 
 propagated. To him is ascribed the invention 
 of the harmonic scale, and the discovery, that chords 
 are produced by synchronous or isochronous vibra- 
 tions, that is, by vibrations measured by equal spaces 
 of time ; and discords, by those in which the spaces 
 are unequal and various. 
 
 105. The manner in which that celebrated phi- 
 losopher was led to this discovery has been thus 
 stated by Nicomachus, an ancient writer on arith- 
 metic : — " Pythagoras was passing one day by a 
 blacksmith's shop, while several workmen were 
 hammering on the anvil, and was surprised to hear 
 sounds which accorded with the intervals of the 
 fourth, fifth, and octave tones of the diatonic scale. 
 On entering the workshop, he perceived that the 
 diversity of sounds arose, not from the form of the 
 hammers, or the force with which they struck the 
 iron, but merely from the difference of their weight. 
 Reflecting on the cause of this phenomenon, after 
 he had caused the hammers to be accurately weighed, 
 he concluded, that in exact proportion to the per- 
 cussion was the vibration effected ; and as these 
 were in the gradation of four, five, and eight, the 
 tones produced exactly corresponded with those 
 proportions." If the testimony of this ancient 
 writer is to be credited, such was the occasion, 
 which led to the construction of the harmonic scale. 
 But whether this be a fable or not, it is certain 
 that to Pythagoras belongs the honour of hav- 
 ing developed the musical ratios, on which the 
 harmony of sounds depends, and to which the 
 
CHAP. IVJ OPTICS. 137 
 
 ear is indebted for so much of its enjoyment. 
 The lively imagination of this philosopher led him 
 to transfer this doctrine of musical chords to the 
 celestial spheres. He imagined that those spheres, 
 in which the planets move, being composed of ma- 
 terial substances, struck on the asther through which 
 they passed, and thus produced sounds exquisitely 
 harmonious ; that these sounds must differ according 
 to the magnitude, velocity, and relative distances of 
 the bodies ; and as these were admirably propor- 
 tioned, they could not fail to produce perfect chords, 
 infinitely diversified. This fanciful doctrine re- 
 specting what was then termed the music of the 
 spheres, gave rise to the names affixed by Pythagoras 
 to musical tones — the deepest or most grave being 
 called after Saturn, because that body was believed 
 to be the greatest and most remote of the planets ; 
 and the shrillest or most acute sound after the Moon, 
 because the least of the planetary bodies, and nearest 
 to the earth. These first ideas of Pythagoras 
 relative to equal and unequal vibrations of air as 
 the cause of harmonious or discordant sounds, were 
 the true source of the theory and science of music ; 
 and the pneumatic discoveries of modern times have 
 abundantly confirmed their truth. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 ON THE OPTICAL DISCOVERIES OF THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 106. The attention of men of science was directed 
 at a very early period to the phaenomena of vision, 
 
138 optics. [[part ii. 
 
 and to the nature and properties of light. Many 
 crude, unphilosophical, and even ridiculous notions 
 were entertained on those subjects, even by the 
 most celebrated of the Grecian philosophers. The 
 question was frequently agitated by them, whether 
 objects become visible by means of any thing pro- 
 ceeding from themselves, or of something that issues 
 from the eye of the spectator. Pythagoras advocated 
 the former of these positions, and contended that 
 vision was caused by particles continually flying off 
 from the surfaces of bodies, and entering the pupil 
 of the eye. Plato, on the other hand, and some of 
 his disciples, taught, that the gods having constructed 
 the human eye, included in it a kind of fiery light, 
 which, when the eye-lids are open, beams forth in 
 rectilineal rays, and renders surrounding objects 
 visible ; but which, when the eye-lids are closed, 
 acts internally, and occasions the illusions and 
 fantasies of dreams. Aristotle, in opposition both 
 to the Pythagoreans and Platonists, maintained that 
 light is incorporeal ; a quality of matter, and not a 
 real substance ; adducing, in proof of this position, 
 many arguments derived from its transparency, 
 velocity, and intangibility. Yet amidst these fan- 
 ciful speculations, there was found among the 
 Platonists a portion of true science; for they are 
 said to have maintained that light is propagated 
 alone in right lines, and that it is capable of being 
 reflected in an angle, which is always equal to the 
 angle of incidence. And the Peripatetic philoso- 
 phers, with Aristotle at their head, are known to 
 have ascertained some of the laws of reflection, and 
 
CHAP. IV.3 OPTICS. 139 
 
 explained by them the phenomena of the rainbow, 
 halos, parhelia, and the like — all of which the an- 
 cients comprehended under the general name of 
 meteors. Aristotle's opinion concerning these was, 
 that they are all occasioned by the reflection of the 
 sun's beams in different circumstances, by which an 
 imperfect image of his body was produced, the co- 
 lour only being exhibited, and not his configuration. 
 107. Nor were the ancient philosophers wholly 
 ignorant of the theory of refraction, though their 
 methods of solving the problem were most erroneous 
 and unsatisfactory. They could not but perceive 
 the obvious fact, that when light passes through 
 bodies of different densities, it does not move 
 forwards in right lines, but is bent, or refracted out 
 of its course. Aristotle suggests many questions 
 on this as well as other optical appearances, and 
 attempts to reply to them on philosophical princi- 
 ples ; but his answers are most frivolous and absurd. 
 It is to be regretted that a tract written by 
 Archimedes, on the appearance of a ring or circle 
 under water, has perished ; since it is probable that 
 the solution given by him was more scientific and 
 rational, in proportion as his mathematical knowledge 
 was greater, and his judgment more penetrating 
 and profound. Some vague conceptions seem also to 
 have been formed by Seneca, the Stoic philosopher, 
 (who flourished at a much later period,) relative to 
 the production of colours by refracted light ; though 
 he attributes those appearances not to any real 
 difference of colour, but to the different direction in 
 
140 OPTICS. [PART II. 
 
 which they are observed by the spectators, so that 
 the same object will exhibit different colours to 
 persons viewing it from different points. 
 
 108. The next important stage in the history of 
 optical science was, the art of constructing mirrors ; 
 an art which can be traced to remote antiquity, 
 though its inventor and the date of the discovery 
 are alike unknown. These were at first made of 
 metal, highly polished, in the several forms of plane, 
 convex, and concave surfaces. But after the art of 
 making glass was discovered, mirrors, constructed 
 of this material, were substituted for the metallic. 
 The following account is given by Pliny of the 
 accident which led to this invention : " some mer- 
 chants, who traded in mineral alkali, having occa- 
 sion to dress their food, and being unable to find 
 stones on which their culinary vessels might rest, 
 placed them on large blocks of mineral alkali, which 
 being melted by the heat of the fire, and mixing 
 with the sand on the sea-shore, flowed, to the sur- 
 prise of the merchants, in a translucent crystal 
 stream; " whence," says Pliny, " originated the 
 making of glass." To what period this fact refers, 
 the historian does not inform us; but from other 
 sources it may be gathered, that if such were the 
 origin of the invention, it must have been in some 
 very remote age : for the works of Aristophanes, 
 (who flourished about a. c. 430,) confirmed by the 
 testimonies of Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, and 
 others, prove that mirrors and lenses were early 
 invented, both for the purpose of reflecting distant 
 
CHAP. IV.3 OPTICS. 141 
 
 objects, and collecting into a focus the solar rays.* 
 Plinii Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi. c. 26. 
 
 109. But the most astonishing proof of the pro- 
 gress made by the ancients in this department of 
 science, may be gathered from the statements of 
 Diodorus Siculus, Pappus of Alexandria, and others, 
 respecting the lenses, or burning mirrors, with which 
 Archimedes is said to have set on fire and destroyed 
 the Roman fleet, at the siege of Syracuse. This 
 achievement was in itself so marvellous, that we 
 cannot be surprised at the attempts of scientific men 
 in modern times to impeach its credibility. Among 
 others, Descartes asserted, and attempted to prove, 
 the utter impossibility of accomplishing what Archi- 
 medes is said to have done, even with all the aids 
 and improvements of modern science. The his- 
 torical fact, as stated by two ancient authorities, 
 Zonaras and Tzetzes, is simply this ; " that when 
 Marcellus had removed his fleet beyond the reach 
 of the enemies' darts, Archimedes brought to bear 
 upon it a large hexagonal mirror, composed of seve- 
 ral smaller mirrors, each of which had twenty-four 
 angles, and which could be easily moved in any 
 direction by hinges or plates of metal. The rays 
 
 * Aristophanes, in his celebrated comedy of " the Clouds," 
 ridicules Socrates by representing him as giving philosophical 
 lessons to some obscure and unprincipled Athenians, and, among 
 other proposals, one is, that the debtor should, by means of a 
 reflecting mirror, melt the waxen tables, on which the records 
 of his debts were inscribed : — A sufficient proof that, at that 
 period, some such invention as that of burning lenses had been 
 discovered. 
 
142 optics. [[part ii. 
 
 of the sun falling on this mirror, kindled so great a 
 fire, that the Roman vessels were quickly burnt to 
 ashes, though at a greater distance than a dart 
 could be thrown." The incredibility of the state- 
 ment itself, — the silence of Plutarch, Polybius, and 
 Livy on the subject, and the authority of Descartes 
 and other celebrated moderns, so discredited the 
 tale, that few men of science, who lived during the 
 17th century or later, were disposed to believe 
 it. But, according to Bossut, in 1747, Buffon 
 proved, by actual experiment, the practicability of 
 such an achievement ; and in 1777, a fragment was 
 discovered written by Anthemius, who flourished 
 under the Emperor Justinian, that places the ques- 
 tion beyond all doubt. In that fragment (the 
 genuineness of which was fully proved by Dupuy, 
 its scientific translator,) Anthemius, himself a cele- 
 brated mechanician, not only asserts the disputed 
 facts, but clearly explains the manner in which the 
 mirrors were constructed, the several parts of which 
 they were composed, and the entire mechanism 
 employed on this occasion, by the Syracusan phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 110. It is not a little remarkable, that with this 
 practical knowledge of the method of manufac- 
 turing glass, and constructing reflecting mirrors of 
 immense power, there should be no proof whatever, 
 that perspective or magnifying glasses of any de- 
 scription were invented by ancient opticians. These 
 might have been expected to result from the dis- 
 coveries, with which they were familiar, but there 
 are no authenticated evidences that any such 
 
CHAP. IV.] OPTICS. 143 
 
 mechanical contrivances were devised. It has indeed 
 been asserted (but on very questionable authority) 
 that Ptolemy Philadelphus built a tower, or obser- 
 vatory, in the isle of Pharos, and that on the 
 summit of that edifice were placed telescopes of 
 great powers, by which vessels might be discerned 
 at a distance of sixty miles. It is not, however, 
 credible that this important discovery should have 
 been made in Egypt, in the reign of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, and yet be unknown to the Romans, 
 at a much later period, who annexed that province 
 to the Roman empire, and brought to its capital 
 most of the literary stores of Alexandria. From 
 the " Qusestiones Naturales" of Seneca, it is evident 
 that, in his time, the only kind of magnifying 
 glasses in use were glass globes filled with water, 
 used by artists in engraving transparent gems, or 
 by antiquarians in decyphering illegible inscriptions. 
 It is probable that the great obstacle which pre- 
 sented itself to the ancient mechanicians, and pre- 
 vented them from constructing perspective glasses 
 of any description, was, their ignorance of the 
 method of grinding or cutting glass, so as to 
 exhibit a convex or concave surface; the utmost 
 extent of their science on this subject not having 
 proceeded farther than to the manufacture of 
 hollow glass vessels, globes, and mirrors, whose 
 surface was horizontal. 
 
 111. A treatise on optics has been preserved, 
 which tradition ascribes to Euclid, but the contents 
 of which seem to indicate a later and much inferior 
 hand. This treatise chiefly relates to the method 
 
144 optics. [part ii. 
 
 of determining the size and figure of objects, by 
 the angle under which they appear, and the. phe- 
 nomena of reflected images in general. But the 
 most scientific treatise on optics, written during the 
 period under review, was that of Ptolemy the astro- 
 nomer, in which he applied the laws of refraction, 
 as far as they had then been discovered, to his 
 favourite science, and thus discriminated between 
 the real and apparent places of the heavenly bodies, 
 as well as accounted for the greater apparent mag- 
 nitude of the sun and moon, as they approach the 
 horizon. This work, and its principal contents, are 
 only known through the imperfect medium of later 
 compilations and commentaries, the original having 
 long since disappeared. After Ptolemy, nothing 
 occurs to claim the attention of the historian in 
 connexion with optics till the revival of that science 
 in Arabia during the middle ages.* 
 
 * On the subjects included in the preceding sketch of ancient 
 physics, consult the histories of the several sciences referred to, 
 particularly Montucla's History of Mathematics, Smith's His- 
 tory of Astronomy, and on Optics, — Play fair's Dissertation, 
 Memoires de l'Academie de Belles Lettres, &c. 
 
CHAP. V.] ANCIENT DIALECTICS. 145 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ANCIENT DIALECTICS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OF LOGICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 112. In tracing the progress of knowledge, it 
 will be perceived, that its advancement has fre- 
 quently been rather the result of necessity than of 
 choice, and that the particular direction which it 
 has taken arose from circumstances apparently acci- 
 dental. Thus the arts, which were most conducive 
 to the happiness of man, or ministered to his wants, 
 were cultivated long before the regions of metaphy- 
 sical speculation were explored : the properties and 
 phenomena of matter were investigated before those 
 of the human mind engaged the attention of phi- 
 losophers. And when this latter department of 
 philosophy began to flourish, it was pursued rather 
 as an art, to be applied to useful purposes, than as 
 an abstract and speculative science. The dialectic 
 art, which proposed to instruct mankind in the right 
 exercise of their intellectual powers, and professedly 
 taught them to reason correctly, was rendered ne- 
 cessary by the state of philosophy in Greece, at the 
 period in which it originated. The Ionic sect had 
 spread itself in every direction, and several new 
 schools of philosophy had arisen. Each of these 
 
 L 
 
146 ANCIENT DIALECTICS. [PART II. 
 
 was characterized by its own tenets, which, in many 
 cases, related to verbal rather than real distinctions. 
 In proportion as these differences were trifling and 
 unimportant, it became necessary that the reasoning 
 powers of the advocates of different systems should 
 be rendered acute by constant exercise, and that 
 they should stand alike prepared for attack and 
 defence. The founders, therefore, of these rival 
 sects were compelled to employ their utmost in- 
 genuity in maintaining and vindicating the systems 
 which they had espoused, and assailing the strong- 
 holds of their adversaries. 
 
 113. The term dialectics, in its proper and 
 definite acceptation, refers alone to that department 
 of logic, which suggests rules for discussion ; but 
 the ancients used it with greater latitude of inter- 
 pretation. By them it was understood to include 
 all that relates to the improvement and exercise of 
 the rational faculties. It not only taught the art of 
 reasoning, but comprehended metaphysical inquiries 
 into the nature and origin of ideas, the phenomena 
 and laws of perception, and all the sources of human 
 knowledge. On this account it is frequently difficult 
 to draw the line of demarcation between the logic 
 and metaphysics of the ancient philosophers ; and it 
 will be perceived, that in attempting to sketch the 
 former, it is scarcely possible to avoid topics which 
 more properly belong to the latter. The most an- 
 cient name given to that branch of science which 
 moderns call logic, was analytics. It was so de- 
 signated by Aristotle himself, in his own writings. 
 But that of dialectics gradually came into use, on 
 
CHAP. V.3 ANCIENT DIALECTICS. 147 
 
 account of the manner in which philosophers of 
 different sects communicated their instructions. It 
 was usual for the several masters to exercise the 
 talents of their disciples in dialogues and debates, 
 on which occasions, difficult questions were proposed 
 and discussed, objections were started, and argu- 
 ments suggested in reply ; propositions were contro- 
 verted or defended according to the rules of art ; and 
 he was accounted the most skilful dialectician, not 
 who elicited truth, but who confounded and silenced 
 his adversaries, whether by sophisms or sound ar- 
 guments. 
 
 114. Such was the practice of that class of phi- 
 losophers, termed Sophists, among whom the art of 
 logic originated. The principal of these belonged 
 to the Eleatic and Megaric sects ; and on this ac- 
 count, Zeno, the Eleatic, has been generally 
 considered the inventor of dialectics, because it 
 was he who reduced to system and order the me- 
 thods of reasoning which had been previously 
 adopted in the schools. It is supposed that some 
 of the technical rules suggested by Aristotle in his 
 logical treatises, were either the invention of Zeno, 
 or of some other Eleatic philosophers. Compared, 
 however, with the systematic form which logic 
 assumed under the plastic hand of the Stagirite, the 
 dialectics of the Sophists were exceedingly imperfect, 
 and consisted of little more than mere verbal dis- 
 putations. By them, the faculty of reason was 
 perverted from its important and legitimate object — 
 the discovery of truth — to technical forms and modes 
 of discussion favourable to the propagation of error 
 
 l2 
 
148 ANCIENT DIALECTICS. [PART II. 
 
 and falsehood. The most celebrated of these Sophists 
 taught their pupils to argue with equal facility on 
 either side of a question, and, if possible, to confound 
 their opponents by the subtilty of their reasonings, 
 rather than convince them by force of argument. 
 The ingenuity and dexterity evinced in these 
 dialectic contests, obtained for those who excelled 
 in them, a high degree of celebrity : they were ap- 
 plauded in popular assemblies, entertained at public 
 feasts, and sometimes enriched with the most valuable 
 and costly presents. One of the philosophers of 
 antiquity, however, by making his appeal to nature 
 and truth, put to flight the whole host of Sophists, 
 and rendered them objects of contempt and ridicule. 
 This was Socrates, who, though not classed among 
 the dialectic philosophers of antiquity, contributed 
 more than any other to the introduction of a new 
 and more useful species of logic. He effected this, 
 partly by directing the attention of his disciples to 
 subjects of higher interest and greater importance 
 than those on which their intellectual strength had 
 formerly been expended, and partly by introducing 
 a more simple and natural mode of philosophizing. 
 This method has been generally termed the Socratic, 
 and consisted rather of questions and responses, or 
 familiar dialogues, than of systematic discussions 
 and controversies. The influence of this mode of 
 communicating and receiving instruction, was suffi- 
 ciently evident in the character and writings of Plato, 
 and others of his illustrious disciples. 
 
 115. Before the proposed retrospect of ancient 
 logic, which it is intended to introduce into this 
 
CHAP. V.]] ANCIENT DIALECTICS. 149 
 
 elementary work, is attempted, it may be useful to 
 exhibit at one view a general classification of the 
 principal dialectic philosophers of antiquity. 
 
 The following arrangement is perhaps sufficiently 
 accurate, though the writer is conscious that it is 
 far from being complete : 
 
 Class I. — The Sophists, including all the earliest 
 Grecian philosophers of whatever sect, who directed 
 their attention to the art of reasoning, from the aera 
 of Thales to that of Socrates and Plato. This may 
 be denominated the infancy and childhood of the 
 dialectic art, during which, though some progress 
 was made, yet every stage of that progress was 
 characterized by puerilities and perverted talents. 
 
 Class II. — The Academics, including all those 
 of the Platonic schools who excelled in dialectics, 
 whether they belonged to the Old, or Middle, or 
 New Academy. These were considerable in number, 
 and include some of the most eminent men of an- 
 tiquity, both Grecian and Roman. 
 
 Class III. — The Peripatetics, commencing with 
 Aristotle, who unquestionably holds the first place 
 among the ancient dialecticians, and who established, 
 by his oral instructions and writings, a species of 
 intellectual despotism, from which the human mind 
 is scarcely yet emancipated, after an interval of 
 more than two thousand years. 
 
 Class IV. — The Stoics, who blended the rhetorical 
 and dialectic arts, and included under the generic 
 term logic, all kinds of metaphysical speculations, 
 and all possible combinations of ideas and terms. 
 The system of dialectic philosophy propagated by 
 
150 ANCIENT DIALECTICS. [PART II. 
 
 this far-famed sect, may be considered as com- 
 pounded of the JVlegarie logic, or that of the 
 Sophists ; and the Platonic, but partaking in a 
 much greater degree of the latter. 
 
 Class V. — The Epicureans, who, though they 
 affected to decry logic as a frivolous exercise of the 
 mental powers, and especially to despise the logic 
 of Aristotle, yet retained the thing under a new 
 name ; for it will be seen that the Canonica of 
 Epicurus differ but slightly from the dialectic 
 rules previously suggested by the Peripatetics. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ON THE DIALECTICS OF PLATO AND THE ACADEMICS, 
 
 116. The brief notice of the Sophists, introduced 
 into the last section, may suffice for a review of the 
 earliest period of the history of logic. This depart- 
 ment of the history of ancient literature would be 
 disproportionably extended, and become wearisome 
 to juvenile readers, if but a faint outline were 
 attempted, and much more, if we were to present a 
 detailed account of all the systems of logic taught 
 in the Grecian schools of philosophy. The Acade- 
 mics, the Peripatetics, and the Stoics, were con- 
 fessedly the most celebrated sects; and their 
 respective founders, Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno, are 
 recognized as the great masters of the dialectic 
 art, to whom, by the undivided voice of antiquity, 
 
CHAP. V«3 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 151 
 
 has been awarded the honour of having taught men 
 to reason scientifically and systematically. A sum- 
 mary view will therefore be given of the dialectic 
 rules inculcated on their disciples by each of these 
 celebrated masters, commencing with the logic of 
 Plato, and the Academicians. 
 
 117. Plato, having been a disciple of Socrates, 
 not only imbibed his philosophy, but adopted, in a 
 great measure, the Socratic method of instruction. 
 His discourses and writings, whether they relate 
 to physical, logical, or metaphysical subjects, chiefly 
 consisted of dialogues, arranged with consummate 
 art, and clothed in a diction so elevated, that the 
 ancient Greeks were accustomed to say, " If 
 Jupiter were to speak in their language, he would 
 borrow the style of Plato." In these supposed 
 conferences, the philosopher does not appear 
 in his own character, nor does he directly 
 state his own opinions ; but puts his most con- 
 vincing arguments into the mouth of certain phi- 
 losophers, who were then held in high estimation. 
 Whatever advantages attended this mode of in- 
 struction, it was attended with some injurious con- 
 sequences, since it left the unpractised mind in a 
 state of sceptical uncertainty, balanced between 
 opposite theories and arguments, and incapable of 
 distinguishing truth from error. On this account, 
 he is severely censured by Cicero, who, though a 
 zealous Platonist, charges that philosopher with a 
 disingenuous concealment of his own opinions, and 
 with leaving the questions he professes to discuss 
 wholly undetermined. It is, however, but just to 
 
152 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 add, that this concealed method of philosophizing 
 had probably been borrowed from the Egyptian 
 priests, with whom he had associated in early life, 
 and was strengthened by the danger which Socrates 
 had incurred by adopting a contrary line of con- 
 duct. Whether designed or not, it is certain, that 
 amidst all the poetical charms with which even 
 his most abstract writings are invested, the main 
 question of the dialogue is either covered with an 
 impenetrable veil of obscurity, or so long kept in 
 suspense by minute detail and colloquial interrup- 
 tions, that the most attentive reader can with 
 difficulty follow the thread of argument, and looks 
 in vain for a general conclusion. 
 
 118. Plato divides philosophy into three great 
 branches ; viz. dialectics, or the art of reasoning ; 
 theoretic inquiries concerning God, nature, the 
 human soul, matter, and the like, all of which he 
 included under the term physics ; and practical 
 rules, concerning life and manners, to which was 
 given the appropriate name of ethics. At present 
 we have only to do with the first of these divisions 
 of philosophy. 
 
 The science of logic, or dialectics, was divided by 
 the Academic philosophers into five parts ; namely, 
 Division, Definition, Analysis, Induction, and Syl- 
 logism. The three former of these were considered 
 as regarding chiefly the essences of things ; the two 
 latter, as comprehending their accidents or modifi- 
 cations. 
 
 (1.) Division denoted that part of logic which 
 separates essences, which discriminates between 
 
CHAP, v.]] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 153 
 
 genera and species, or which distributes the whole 
 into its essential parts ; as when man is consi- 
 dered a material and spiritual being, or when the 
 human mind is contemplated as consisting of per- 
 ception, memory, association, and the like. This is 
 again subdivided into division of essences, of acci- 
 dents, and of terms or words. 
 
 (2.) Definitions were considered as the result of 
 such distributions, or the expression of the genera 
 of things in connexion with their specific differences ; 
 as when man is described as an animal possessed of 
 certain properties, or endowed with certain facul- 
 ties, both mental tod corporeal. 
 
 (3.) Analysis describes the process by which the 
 mind advances from sensible to intellectual objects, 
 which Plato terms intelligible s. These he sub- 
 divides into three classes ; viz. primary intelligible s, 
 comprehending those objects of human knowledge 
 which admit of demonstration ; secondary intelli- 
 gibles, or indemonstrable propositions, though 
 attended with a high degree of probability, and 
 sustained by inferential reasonings ; and hypothetical 
 intelligibles, under which are included all con- 
 jectural or supposititious arguments. 
 
 (4.) Induction signified, in the Platonic school, 
 (what it still denotes), the progress from individuals 
 to universals, or the discovery of general principles 
 by means of connected and successive facts. In 
 addition, however, to this, Plato included under 
 this term, reasonings from analogy, or arguments 
 founded on real or supposed resemblances. 
 
 (5.) Syllogisms were invented by Plato for the 
 
154 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 purpose of deducing legitimate conclusions from 
 intermediate propositions. These were subdivided 
 into categorical, hypothetical, and mixed syllogisms. 
 The categorical were those which consisted alone 
 of axioms, or self-evident propositions, the truth 
 and certainty of which could not be questioned ; 
 the hypothetical were composed of arguments which 
 were assumed, or admitted of controversy ; and the 
 mixed were those in which arguments were built 
 on consequences, rather than antecedent or pre- 
 viously established truths. For the scientific con- 
 struction of these several kinds of syllogisms, 
 numerous rules are given, with suitable illus- 
 trations. 
 
 119. The preceding sketch includes the most 
 important subjects included in the dialectic system, 
 introduced by Plato, and propagated by the Aca- 
 demic philosophers. They are preserved in several 
 Dialogues, which are the undoubted productions of 
 that celebrated philosopher. Of fifty-six, four treat 
 of logic directly and avowedly, and several others 
 indirectly and partially. The dialectic dialogues 
 are entitled Cratylus, Parmenides, the Sophist, 
 and the Politician ; the first of which relates chiefly 
 to the correct use of words and terms, together with 
 the laws of definition; the second, to the arrange- 
 ment and classification of ideas or objects of per- 
 ception; the third, to the rules of true and false 
 reasoning; and the last is of a more mixed cha- 
 racter, and intended chiefly to illustrate the rules 
 of logic, by applying them to controversies then 
 existing, which greatly divided public opinion. 
 
CHAP. V.3 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 155 
 
 Besides these, which are expressly dialectic, there 
 are other dialogues which indirectly bear on the 
 science, such as his Eutlnjdemiis, which was in- 
 tended to explain the nature of sophisms, and expose 
 the artifices of the Sophists; and his Protagoras, 
 in which rules are laid down for the detection of 
 false reasoning. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 ON THE DIALECTICS OF ARISTOTLE AND THE PERI- 
 PATETICS. 
 
 120. When it is recollected that the logical 
 writings of Aristotle were not only celebrated 
 throughout the Grecian states and the Roman 
 empire, so long as literature continued to flourish 
 there, and formed the principal basis of all the 
 treatises subsequently written on that science, but 
 that they retained their ascendency during the long 
 period of intellectual darkness which followed the 
 subversion of the Roman empire, when almost every 
 other ray of science was extinguished; and still 
 more, when it is remembered, that even to the 
 present day they form parts of the system of edu- 
 cation adopted both in British and foreign uni- 
 versities, it must assuredly be felt to be more than 
 a mere matter of literary curiosity to know what 
 those writings contain, and to what they owe their 
 unparalleled celebrity. Though the idolatry of 
 Aristotle has ceased in modern times, and his 
 scholastic logic has given place to a more en- 
 
156 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 lightened species of dialectics, we cannot but feel 
 a sentiment of respect approaching to veneration 
 for works which evince the highest order of literary- 
 talent, and which governed, with absolute authority, 
 the opinions of mankind during a period of nearly 
 two thousand years. All the writings of Aristotle, 
 and especially those which relate to logic, are ex- 
 ceedingly abstruse, arising partly from the nature 
 of the subjects themselves, but still more from 
 the veil of obscurity which he designedly threw 
 around them. To this studied concealment he was 
 prompted by the ambition which rendered him 
 desirous of establishing a new sect, and transmitting 
 his name to posterity as the Prince of Philosophers. 
 " His writings," says Dr. Reid, in his excellent 
 analysis of the logic of Aristotle, " carry too evident 
 marks of that philosophical pride, vanity, and envy, 
 which have often sullied the character of the learned. 
 He determines boldly things above all human 
 knowledge, and enters on the most difficult ques- 
 tions, as his royal pupil (Alexander of Macedon) 
 entered upon a battle, with full assurance of success. 
 He delivers his decisions oracularly, and without 
 any fear of mistake. Rather than confess his igno- 
 rance, he hides it under hard words and ambiguous 
 expressions, of which his interpreters can make 
 what they please. There is even reason to suspect 
 that he wrote often with affected obscurity, either 
 that the air of mystery might procure great vene- 
 ration, or that his books might be understood only 
 by the adepts who had been initiated into his 
 philosophy." 
 
CHAP. V.] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 157 
 
 Lord Bacon, when adverting to the literary 
 character of Aristotle, has remarked concerning him 
 with equal truth and beauty, " that his ambition 
 was as boundless as that of his royal pupil, the one 
 aspiring at universal monarchy over the bodies and 
 fortunes of men, the other over their opinions;" 
 and when censuring his disposition to detract from 
 the merit of other philosophers (not excepting even 
 Plato, under whom he had studied twenty years), 
 Bacon sarcastically remarks, " After the manner 
 of Turkish despots, he thought he could not reign 
 securely unless all his brethren were slain." 
 
 121. The celebrity which the works of Aristotle 
 subsequently attained, give an additional interest to 
 the curious circumstances which attended their pre- 
 servation. All the writings of this great philosopher 
 were bequeathed by him, together with his library, 
 to his friend Theophrastus, who preserved them with 
 the utmost care, both from attachment to his pre- 
 ceptor, and his love to general literature. Theo- 
 phrastus, at his death, left them to his disciple 
 Neleus ; by whom they were buried in a vault at 
 Scepsis, a city of Troas, in order to secure them 
 from the king of Pergamus, who was collecting 
 MSS. from every quarter for his library. Previ- 
 ously, however, to their concealment, part of the 
 works of Aristotle had been sold to Ptolemy, king 
 of Egypt, and were by him deposited in the Alex- 
 andrian library ; whence it is probable that they 
 became known, though in a mutilated form, to the 
 Arabians and Saracens. The entire original works 
 were lost sight of more than 160 years, when they 
 
158 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 were discovered and sold to a rich citizen of Athens. 
 Sylla, the Roman dictator, brought them from 
 Athens to Rome, where they subsequently came 
 into the possession of Tyrannus and Andronicus 
 of Rhodes, who caused copies to be transcribed, 
 and by whom they were introduced to the attention 
 of the Roman philosophers. Still, however, many 
 years elapsed before they acquired popularity 
 in the Roman empire. It was not till after the 
 commencement of the Christian iEra, and after 
 many learned commentaries had been written upon 
 them by the eclectic philosophers, that they ob- 
 tained the ascendency which, it will hereafter 
 appear, they maintained through a long series of 
 ages. At present we have only to do with that 
 part of the writings of this great philosopher, which 
 relates to the dialectic art. 
 
 122. The logical writings of Aristotle, though 
 published as separate treatises, have been long 
 since collected into one volume, entitled Organon, 
 to which is usually prefixed Porphyry's Introduc- 
 tion. The Organon contains, (1.) The Categories, 
 which treat of Terms, in one book ; (2.) Interpre- 
 tation, or Definitions, (a treatise partly gram- 
 matical and partly dialectic), in one book ; (3.) 
 Analytics, including the whole doctrine of syllo- 
 gisms, in four books ; (4.) Topics, or materials for 
 reasoning and demonstration, in eight books ; and 
 (5.) Sophistics, or Sophisms, containing an explana- 
 tion of all the varieties of false reasoning, in one 
 book. These are all the logical dissertations con- 
 tained in the Organon; but many others are 
 
CHAP. V.] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 159 
 
 mentioned by ancient writers, which are lost, and 
 consequently the contents of which can only be 
 conjectured from brief extracts. Passing over Por- 
 phyry's Introduction, which, though an useful com- 
 mentary on the logical system of Aristotle, belongs 
 not properly to the dialectics of that philosopher, 
 we shall proceed at once to give a brief analysis 
 of the principal contents of the Organon. 
 
 123. Logic, as defined by Aristotle, is "the art 
 of searching for and discovering truth." This im- 
 portant science he divides into two great branches, — 
 analytics 9 which investigates truth by incontrover- 
 tible demonstration ; and dialectics, which estab- 
 lishes it by probable arguments. To the former of 
 these is assigned the primary station in the opera- 
 tions of mind, while to the latter is assigned but 
 a secondary importance. 
 
 Terms are considered as the elementary parts 
 of logic, and therefore occupy the first place in the 
 Peripatetic system. These are either homonymous, 
 synonymous, or paronymous : the first, comprehend- 
 ing those objects of human knowledge, which, 
 though differing in their qualities or accidents, 
 are expressed by one name or term ; the second, 
 those in which the name and definition coincide, 
 or in which the same object is expressed by dif- 
 ferent terms ; and the third, those which agree 
 in general signification, but differ in their accidental 
 forms of case or termination. Corresponding to the 
 above are the three distinctions of univocal, equi- 
 vocal, and denominative terms. 
 
 124. The way being thus cleared for the scien- 
 
160 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 tific and logical arrangement of terms, Aristotle 
 proceeds to the enumeration of his celebrated Cate- 
 gories, which were supposed to comprehend all the 
 objects of human knowledge, and constituted the 
 chief boast of the Peripatetic school. These were 
 ten in number, because that quantity was considered 
 by the Pythagoreans sacred, and indicative of per- 
 fection. Some of the Categories relate, however, to 
 mere verbal distinctions, the precise idea of which it 
 is difficult to express by any single terms in our 
 language. 
 
 (1.) Substance; subdivided into primary and 
 secondary. 
 
 (2.) Quantity ; which is either discrete, as num- 
 bers, or continuous, as lines, &c. 
 
 (3.) Relation ; shewing how one thing is affected 
 by another. 
 
 (4.) Quality; of which there are four kinds: 
 habit and disposition, power or weakness, passible 
 qualities or passions, and form or figure. 
 
 (5.) Action ; including all terms that express 
 motion or change of place. 
 
 (6.) Passion; or the state of the substance moved 
 or acted upon, 
 
 (7.) The when ; comprehending all terms expres- 
 sive of time. 
 
 (8.) The where ; or those which relate to place. 
 
 (9.) Situation, or j)° s ^ on > including terms de- 
 scriptive of local relations. 
 
 (10.) The having, or possession ; comprehending 
 all terms descriptive of property. 
 
 These far-famed Categories have been applauded 
 
CHAP. V.3 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 161 
 
 by the followers of Aristotle, as comprehending 
 every idea that can enter into the human mind, and 
 a most perfect classification of all possible modifica- 
 tion of language ; yet, notwithstanding this boasted 
 perfection, subsequent dialecticians have presumed 
 to augment them, by annexing several supplemen- 
 tary articles, such as, opposition, priority, coin- 
 cidence, fyc. 8fc. ; all of which, together with the 
 greater number of the categories, might be included 
 under the generic title of accidents. 
 
 125. From the classification of terms, Aristotle 
 proceeds to propositions. After having taken a 
 comprehensive and philosophical view of the prin- 
 ciples of universal grammar, as regulating the due 
 arrangement of words in sentences, and establishing 
 their mutual relations ; the various kinds of enun- 
 ciations, or propositions, are minutely described 
 under the several heads, of simple and complex, 
 universal and particular, pure and modal ; the latter 
 of which are further subdivided into necessary and 
 contingent — possible and impossible, &c. &c. To 
 these, which were considered as the essential qualities 
 of propositions, several others were added, which 
 were called accidental ; (1.) Those of Opposition, 
 including contradictory, contrary, and sub-contrary. 
 (2.) Consectation, or those which were of equivalent 
 or equal force ; and (3.) Conversion, or those which 
 involved a transposition of terms. 
 
 126. From propositions, Aristotle proceeded to 
 syllogisms, which, though invented by Plato, or 
 probably some yet earlier dialectician, form a 
 distinguishing feature of .the Peripatetic logic. 
 
 M 
 
162 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 Innumerable rules and directions are given for the 
 construction and logical arrangement of these modes 
 of reasoning. They are discussed with a degree of 
 minuteness and subtilty, that affords an astonishing 
 proof of the ingenuity and industry of their in- 
 ventor ; but to enter into the detail would be both 
 tedious and unprofitable. The rules laid down for 
 the constitution of perfect and imperfect syllogisms, 
 their division into moods and figures, and the 
 artificial expedients resorted to by which to distin- 
 guish them, have long since become matters of 
 literary curiosity, rather than subjects of profitable 
 investigation. By not distinguishing carefully be- 
 tween words and ideas, and intermingling didactic 
 rules applicable to both, this branch of the logical 
 system of Aristotle is rendered unnecessarily obscure 
 and complicated. 
 
 127. This celebrated logician proceeds from 
 syllogisms to another division of his analytics, which 
 he technically terms apodeictics, or demonstration. 
 Under this head are arranged all those propositions 
 or trains of reasoning, which relate to self-evident 
 truths, and involve in them, by immediate and 
 necessary consequence, the conclusion to be de- 
 monstrated. This is perhaps the most valuable 
 part of his dialectic writings, and that which may 
 be best applied to practical purposes. These are 
 subdivided into necessary, universal, and eternal 
 truths, as opposed to fortuitous, individual, and 
 temporary positions, which from their nature do not 
 admit of demonstration. But the most important 
 distinction suggested by Aristotle on this subject, 
 
CHAP. V.3 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 163 
 
 and which is still adopted by logicians, is, the 
 demonstration of the fact, or that process of reason- 
 ing by which a thing is proved to be what it is, and 
 the demonstration of the mode, or that which proves 
 the manner of its existence, and explains why it 
 is so. The latter of these is reckoned a perfect 
 demonstration. 
 
 128. The next division relates to dialectics , 
 (proper), by which, as distinguished from analytics, 
 was intended, the deduction of conclusions or infer- 
 ences from probable premises, not axioms and self- 
 evident truths. This is described as a conjectural 
 art, which may be usefully employed by way of 
 experiment for the advancement of science ; but 
 with which the mind, intent upon the discovery of 
 truth, will not be satisfied. Dialectic propositions 
 express genera and their differences, definitions, 
 properties, accidents, qualities, &c. &c. They shew 
 to what class any subject belongs, what are its pro- 
 perties and qualities, together with all the casual 
 circumstances which may attend them. Many 
 minute and subtle distinctions are introduced into 
 this part of his system, which it would be tedious to 
 enumerate. 
 
 129. The last division of the Organon relates to 
 Sophistics, or fallacious reasonings. As in the former 
 part of his logical writings numerous rules were 
 given for the construction of syllogisms, as instru- 
 ments of correct reasoning, here he shews in how 
 many forms those rules may be violated, and error 
 substituted for truth. Every syllogism, intended 
 for the refutation of arguments adduced by an 
 
 m 2 
 
164 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 opponent, is termed an elench. These may be 
 either true or false. The former alone will be 
 employed by those who aim at the discovery and 
 propagation of truth ; the latter belongs to sophists, 
 who have no other aim than to perplex an adversary, 
 or propagate error. 
 
 130. Sophisms may relate, (1.) To the terms of a 
 proposition, of which kind six varieties are enume- 
 rated; viz. 
 
 1. Homonymics, when ambiguous words are em- 
 ployed in different senses. 
 
 2. Amphibolies, when the sentence is ambiguously 
 constructed. 
 
 3. Sophisms by composition, when that is affirmed 
 of a thing in a state of combination, which is 
 only true in its simple state. 
 
 4. By division, which is the opposite error to the 
 preceding. 
 
 5. By accent, when persons are misled by pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 6. By figure, which consists in reasoning from 
 the literal to the figurative meaning of words, 
 or vice versa* 
 
 Or, (2.) They may relate to the subject of the 
 proposition, of which seven kinds are enumerated ; 
 viz. 
 
 1. Sophisms by accident ; or affirming that to be 
 essential which is only accidental. 
 
 2. Those which are produced by applying the 
 simple to the compound, and vice versa. 
 
 3. Ignorance, or wilful mistake of the elench or 
 argument. 
 
CHAP. V.] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 165 
 
 4. Assigning a false or unsatisfactory reason. 
 
 5. Begging the question, or assuming that which 
 is to be proved. 
 
 6. Drawing false conclusions > unsupported by the 
 premises; 
 
 ■7. Proposing a series of questions, which require 
 different answers. 
 
 Besides these principal divisions of Sophisms, 
 four other false modes of reasoning are minutely 
 described ; to which are given the appropriate 
 names of falsity, paradox, solecism, and tautology. 
 
 131. The preceding is but a brief and very im- 
 perfect sketch of that stupendous effort of human 
 ingenuity, which has rendered the name of Aristotle 
 imperishable in the annals of literature. Perhaps 
 it cannot be more appropriately concluded, than 
 by introducing his own judicious remarks on the 
 state of the science of logic before his time, and 
 the design with which his " Analytics" were com- 
 posed ; only premising that, however just may be 
 his censure of the Sophists, he ought not to have 
 passed over in silence his great master, Plato, under 
 whom he had studied twenty years, and to whom 
 he was indebted for some of those inventions, the 
 honour of which he arrogated to himself. 
 
 " Of those who may be called inventors, some 
 have made important additions to things long be- 
 fore known; others have made a small beginning 
 to things, which succeeding ages brought to per- 
 fection. The beginning of a thing, however small, 
 is its chief part, and requires the greatest degree of 
 invention ; for it is easy to add to inventions once 
 
166 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 begun. Now, with regard to the dialectic art, 
 there was not something done and something re- 
 maining to be accomplished : there was absolutely 
 nothing done ; for those who professed the art of 
 disputation had only a set of orations, composed of 
 captious questions and false arguments, system- 
 atically arranged, which might suit many occa- 
 sions. These the scholars soon learned, and sought 
 occasions to apply ; but this was not to teach the 
 art of reasoning ; it was only to furnish a few 
 of those materials which that art is intended to 
 produce." Then, alluding to his own logical 
 treatises, he adds, " we have employed much time 
 and labour in this subject ; and if our system ap- 
 pear not to rank with those things, which, having 
 been before carried to a certain extent, is rendered 
 perfect and complete, yet we will hope for your 
 favourable acceptance of what is done, and your 
 indulgence wherever it is left imperfect." 
 
 Section IV. 
 on the logic of zeno and the stoics. 
 
 132. The celebrity of the class of philosophers 
 to which this section refers, the long series of ages 
 through which they continued to flourish, and the 
 influence they exerted on the literature both of 
 Greece and Rome ; all these, and many other cir- 
 cumstances, render it an object of importance to 
 ascertain what were the tenets which characterized 
 
CHAP. V.3 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 167 
 
 their philosophical system. This will be more 
 properly investigated in the next chapter, when 
 the metaphysical opinions of the ancient philosophers 
 will be briefly reviewed. But in the mean time, the 
 dialectics of the Stoic school form too important a 
 part of their system to be passed over unnoticed, 
 and the rather as they differ materially from those 
 of Plato and Aristotle. Though the great founder 
 of the Peripatetic sect must be acknowledged to 
 have been the chief inventor of the dialectic art, and 
 to have carried it to the highest degree of perfection, 
 the rise of the Stoic sect, under the auspices of Zeno> 
 must also be acknowledged to constitute an aera of 
 considerable importance in the history of logic. 
 It will, however, appear, from the following sketch, 
 that this science, as taught in the Athenian Porch, 
 was so intimately blended both with the rhetorical 
 art, and with the speculations of mental philosophy, 
 that it is impossible to keep them wholly distinct. 
 The Stoic philosophy was, in reality, an ingenious 
 combination of the tenets and doctrines of several 
 preceding sects. In physics, it resembled the 
 Pythagorean and Platonic systems ; in ethics, it 
 partook of the character of the Cynic and Heracli- 
 tean ; and in dialectics, it united the subtilties of 
 the Sophists with the science and method of Aristotle 
 and the Peripatetics. Of this statement, the wri- 
 tings of Cicero, Seneca, Antoninus, Epictetus, and 
 especially of Sextus Empiricus, afford most convincing 
 proofs. 
 
 133. Zeno, the Stoic, divided philosophy into 
 three parts — namely, physics, ethics, and logic ; cor- 
 
168 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 responding with the three classes of virtues — natural* 
 moral, and rational. Logic, which relates to the 
 exercise of reason, consists, according to the Stoics, 
 of two parts — rhetoric and dialectics ; the former of 
 which divisions comprehends all declamatory dis- 
 courses, and appeals to the passions of mankind ; the 
 latter, argumentative discourses, or reasoning by 
 syllogism and dialogue. The great object of the 
 first is to persuade — of the latter, to convince. 
 Rhetoric, considered as a branch of logical science, 
 is of three kinds — deliberative, judicial, and demon- 
 strative. Its principal parts are, invention, style, 
 disposition, and pronunciation. Each of these is 
 subdivided into many subordinate parts, which, as 
 they do not properly belong to the science of logic, 
 it is not necessary to enumerate. The dialectic art 
 was defined by Zeno to be, " that by which truth 
 is distinguished from error, and by which the mind 
 is enabled to arrive at absolute certainty or de- 
 monstration." 
 
 134. As there can be no reasoning without ideas, 
 an inquiry was first instituted by the founder of the 
 Stoic sect into the origin of notions, and the manner 
 in which they are produced in the mind. The 
 source of all knowledge was conceived to be sen- 
 sation. Impressions made on the brain, through 
 the medium of the senses, (to which, as images of 
 external objects, was given the name of phantasies,) 
 led to perception, apprehension, knowledge, opinion, 
 judgment, and all the various phenomena of mind. 
 The notions, or ideas, thus produced, were divided 
 by Zeno, as they have subsequently been divided by 
 
CHAP. v/] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 169 
 
 Locke, into two classes, sensible and rational ; in- 
 tending by the first, those which are derived 
 immediately from sensation, and by the second, 
 those obtained by reflection, or the action of the 
 mind in itself. These are subdivided into probable 
 and improbable, doubtful and false. The phantasies, 
 or images of external objects, are either immediate, 
 as when we look on the individual himself; or con- 
 sequential, as when the view of a portrait calls up 
 the image of the person it represents ; or compounded, 
 as in the case of a landscape ; augmented or di- 
 minished, as when we look at a giant or dwarf. 
 
 135. Having laid the foundation of his logical 
 system, in these and many similar metaphysical 
 distinctions and speculations, Zeno proceeded to 
 the more definite object of the science, and inquired 
 into the origin of language — the varieties of vocal 
 sounds — words, as arbitrary signs of ideas, the 
 elementary parts of speech, the relations, affinities, 
 powers, and modifications of terms, when variously 
 arranged in sentences — and the properties of style. 
 According to this philosopher, the chief excellencies 
 of style are, perspicuity, propriety, brevity or com- 
 pression, decorum and elegance : its principal faults — 
 barbarisms, solecisms, and anomalies. From words 
 separately considered, or as grouped together in 
 sentences, he advanced to definitions, their various 
 kinds and essential qualities ; in which he seems to 
 have closely followed the track marked out by 
 Aristotle, in his books of " Interpretation" and 
 " First Analytics." The distinctions and rules 
 suggested on this subject, will be found in almost 
 
170 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 every treatise on logic, which has been since 
 published. 
 
 136. The next step in the logical system of the 
 Stoics, was the classification of the objects of human 
 knowledge into genera and species; terms which 
 were then employed in nearly the same sense as 
 that attached to them by modern logicians. The 
 principal divisions of genera are, real and imaginary 
 existences ; and these are again classified by terms 
 w r hich nearly correspond with the words substances 
 or subjects, qualities or adjuncts, modes, and relations. 
 Then passing once more from thoughts to words, 
 all objects of thought that can be expressed are 
 termed dicibles ; which admit of innumerable mo- 
 difications, such as interrogative, imperative, hypo- 
 thetical, &c. Advancing to propositions, the nature 
 and properties of predicates (technically termed 
 categorems ) are minutely described, and their 
 varieties distinguished. Of these, the most im- 
 portant are axioms, which are either simple or 
 compound, possible, probable, necessary, connective, 
 disjunctive, with a thousand other equally trifling 
 distinctions. 
 
 137. Reasons, or arguments, occupy nearly the 
 same place in the logic of the Stoics, as syllogisms 
 in that of Aristotle. They are divided into con- 
 clusive and inconclusive, the former of which (as the 
 terms import) denote those arguments which are 
 legitimately conducted and lead to the discovery of 
 truth ; and the latter, those which are imperfect or 
 sophistical. Great attention was paid by the Stoics, 
 as well as all other classes of ancient dialecticians, 
 
CHAP. V.] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 171 
 
 to the various kinds of Sophisms, the detection and 
 refutation of which are of so great importance in 
 debates. These were divided into the quiescent, 
 the false, the occult, the inexplicable, the reciprocal, 
 the defective, with many others. 
 
 Finally, Method, or the general mode of conducting 
 arguments, occupied an important place in the 
 dialectics of Zeno. The chief distinctions made on 
 this subject were, the philosophical and the vulgar. 
 The philosophical method consisted in the scientific 
 employment of all the didactic rules previously 
 suggested, relative to definition, division, and syl- 
 logistical reasoning : the vulgar, or popular method, 
 might be pursued either by continuous oration or 
 colloquial discussion. The former method is re- 
 commended as best fitted to the exposition of the 
 arts and sciences, and the latter as most useful in 
 disputation and controversy. 
 
 138. The sketch of the logical systems of the 
 Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic sects, which has 
 been attempted, may perhaps suffice for the review 
 of this department of ancient science. It would 
 have been easy to extend it, by alluding to the 
 dialectics of other sects, or by presenting the juvenile 
 reader with analyses of other logical works ; but it 
 is conceived that this would be neither desirable nor 
 advantageous in so elementary a work as the present. 
 The only additional work on the subject which 
 claims a distinct notice, is, the " Canonica" of 
 Epicurus, which is partly metaphysical and partly 
 dialectic. Having premised that " Truth is of two 
 kinds, that which respects real existences, and that 
 
172 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 which consists in a perfect agreement between our 
 mental conceptions and the nature of things," he 
 proceeds to enumerate and classify the criteria by 
 which truth may be discerned. These are the 
 three following, which are the great instruments 
 employed by the human mind in forming its 
 judgments, viz. sensation, preconception or anticipa- 
 tion, and passion or affection. On each of these, 
 several general principles, termed by Epicurus 
 canons, are laid down as rules to assist the under- 
 standing in its search after physical or moral truth. 
 These canons, though highly curious, and in some 
 degree useful, it would be tedious to enumerate.* 
 
 Section V. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE DIALECTICS OF THE 
 ANCIENTS. 
 
 139. The preceding review of the dialectics of 
 Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, and Zeno, may, it is 
 feared, seem dry and uninteresting to such juvenile 
 readers as have not paid any attention to logic. 
 For their sakes, therefore, we shall step aside for a 
 moment from the direct object of these pages, which 
 is, the recital of historic facts connected with the 
 
 * A summary of the principal contents of the Canonica of 
 Epicurus, will be found either in the ancient biographical history 
 of Diogenes Laertius, in the philosophical writings of Sextus Em- 
 piricus, or in Stanley's Lives of the Philosophers, p. 851 — 856. 
 
CHAP. V/] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 173 
 
 progress of general knowledge, in order to shew 
 that this science, (forbidding as it may appear, and 
 formidable as was the array of technical terms, with 
 which it was formerly encumbered), is of great 
 utility and importance. That a contrary opinion 
 should be entertained by many, can excite no sur- 
 prise, when it is considered that, in succeeding ages, 
 this art was solely applied to the most frivolous and 
 useless logomachies ; that the study of logic super- 
 seded, at one time, every other exercise of the human 
 mind, and even usurped the place of the Sacred 
 Volume itself; and that, in modern times, names of 
 considerable authority can be cited, by whom the 
 dialectic art has been held in sovereign contempt. 
 To remove such prejudices, it is only necessary to 
 turn from the contemplation of the abuses and per- 
 version of this art, which were the combined result 
 of ignorance and folly, to the objects which it pro- 
 poses to attain, and' for the attainment of which, 
 under the guidance of sound judgment, it is well 
 adapted. It may be proper, too, to distinguish not 
 only between the interminable disputations of the 
 Sophists, but also the scholastic refinements and 
 subtilties of the Peripatetic philosophers, and the 
 true science of logic. 
 
 140. The objects of logic, as stated by the 
 ancients themselves, are, the exercise and improve- 
 ment of the rational faculties, the exposure of error, 
 and the discovery of truth ; and who will say that 
 these are objects of subordinate importance ? With 
 respect to the former of these, it is admitted that 
 the mathematical sciences tend more directly and 
 
174 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [PART II. 
 
 effectually to the attainment of that desirable end ; 
 they require so much abstraction of thought — they 
 include such lengthened trains of connected rea- 
 soning — they yield such perfect satisfaction and 
 conviction, — that the vigorous application of the 
 powers of the understanding to these sciences, can- 
 not fail to impart to them a tone and energy which 
 otherwise they would not possess. But next to 
 these, which unquestionably occupy the highest 
 rank in practical utility, it may be safely affirmed, 
 that logic occupies no mean place, and exerts no 
 ordinary influence on the intellectual faculties. For 
 what is logic, but a development of those principles 
 on which mathematical reasonings are founded, and 
 a systematic classification of the elements of mathe- 
 matical knowledge ? A modern writer of consider- 
 able eminence has, therefore, most fitly termed 
 mathematics " the noblest praxis of logic." " Is it," 
 says Dr. Reid, " of no use in reasoning, to be well 
 acquainted with the various powers of the human 
 understanding, by which we reason ? Is it of no use 
 to resolve the various kinds of reasoning into their 
 simple elements, and to discover, as far as we are 
 able, the rules by which these elements are combined 
 in judging and reasoning? Is it of no use to mark 
 the various fallacies in reasoning, by which even the 
 most ingenious men have been led into error ? It 
 must surely betray great want of understanding to 
 think these things useless and unimportant. Yet 
 these are the things which logicians have attempted, 
 and which they have executed, — not indeed so com- 
 pletely as to leave no room for improvement, but in 
 
CHAP. V/] ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 175 
 
 such a manner as to give very considerable aid to 
 our reasoning powers. That the principles laid 
 down with regard to definition and division — with 
 regard to the conversion and opposition of propo- 
 sitions and the general rules of reasoning — are not 
 without use, is sufficiently apparent from the blun- 
 ders of those who disdain any acquaintance with 
 them."— Reid's Analysts, chap. v. sect. 1. 
 
 141. Such being the objects of logic, its general 
 utility must be apparent; but it may still be ques- 
 tioned, with reference to the dialectics of former 
 ages, and especially the logic of Aristotle, how far 
 they were fitted to attain the proposed end ? That 
 these are curious and venerable monuments of anti- 
 quity, few who are acquainted with them will feel 
 disposed to question ; and that these are parts of the 
 ancient systems of logic, which, being founded in 
 reason and truth, must prove permanently useful, 
 and have consequently formed essential parts of all 
 modern treatises on the subject, is equally evident. 
 None can regret that the idolatry and despotism of 
 Aristotle have ceased ; nor can any one seriously 
 wish that the period should return in which the 
 Categories should be venerated, as the most perfect 
 classification of the objects of knowledge ; or that 
 all the moods and figures of syllogism should be 
 again distinguished by barbarous technical phrases, 
 though they were not wholly without their use. It 
 is well that these are now regarded rather as mat- 
 ters of literary curiosity, than as constituting parts 
 of a logical education. Yet if we reflect on the 
 necessity of accurate discrimination in order to dis- 
 
176 ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. [>ART II. 
 
 cern things that differ, and the importance of method 
 to success in almost every undertaking, we cannot 
 but be convinced that the rules of syllogistic reason- 
 ing, and the methodical arrangement of ideas and 
 propositions, which logic suggests, may assist both 
 in the detection of error, and the development of 
 truth. And here, in confirmation of these remarks, 
 the writer cannot forbear to cite once more an 
 author, who certainly cannot be justly accused of 
 an undue deference to the authority of the ancients. 
 " There is perhaps no practical art which may not 
 be acquired, in a very considerable degree, by exam- 
 ple and practice, without reducing it to rules. But 
 practice, joined with rules, may carry a man further 
 on in his art, and more quickly than practice without 
 rules. Every ingenious artist knows the utility of 
 having his art reduced to rule, and by that means 
 made a science. He is thereby enlightened in his 
 practice, and works with more assurance. By rules 
 he sometimes corrects his own errors, and often 
 detects the errors of others. He finds them of great 
 use to confirm his judgment, to justify what is right, 
 and to condemn what is wrong." Alluding more 
 particularly to the ancient dialectics, the same writer 
 remarks most justly, that " although the art of 
 categorical syllogism is better fitted for scholastic 
 litigation than for real improvement in knowledge, 
 it is a venerable piece of antiquity, and a great 
 effort of human genius. We admire the pyramids 
 of Egypt, and the wall of China, though useless 
 burdens on the earth; — we can bear the most 
 minute description of them, and travel hundreds 
 
CHAP. Vj ANCIENT DIALECTICIANS. 177 
 
 of leagues to see them : if any person should, with 
 sacrilegious hands, destroy or deface them, his 
 memory would be held in abhorrence. The predi- 
 caments and predicables, the analytics and topics, 
 the rules of syllogism and the dialectics of ancient 
 philosophy, have a like title to our veneration as 
 antiquities. They are uncommon efforts, not of 
 physical power, but of human genius, and they make 
 a remarkable period in the progress of human 
 reason."— Reid's Analysis of Aristotle's Logic, 
 c. v. sect. 1. 
 
 N 
 
178 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF METAPHYSICAL 
 SCIENCE AMONG THE PHILOSOPHERS OF GREECE. 
 
 142. The present work being chiefly intended 
 for the instruction of youth, it would be evidently 
 improper to enter far into this department of ancient 
 literature. It could answer no valuable end to 
 conduct the young inquirer through all those mazes 
 of abstract speculation, in which the philosophers 
 of antiquity indulged, and amidst which minds of 
 maturer growth have been perplexed and bewildered. 
 The detail would be both uninteresting and un- 
 profitable. Yet, as these speculations form an 
 essential part of the history of ancient philosophy, 
 it would be improper to pass them over unnoticed. 
 It will be therefore attempted, in this division 
 of our historical review, to make a selection, and 
 exhibit, in as simple a form as possible, the distin- 
 guishing tenets of the most celebrated philosophers 
 and the principal sects, passing over those which, 
 either on account of their vagueness or their absur- 
 dity, may justly be consigned to perpetual oblivion. 
 From the distinction suggested in the introductory 
 chapter, it will be apparent that the division of 
 
CHAP. VI.] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 179 
 
 science, to which we now refer, is that which relates 
 to mind as distinguished from matter, and that the 
 topics it includes are the opinions and speculations 
 of the philosophers of antiquity relative to the 
 Deity; the human soul; its nature, properties, 
 powers, and operations ; spiritual existences ; and 
 whatever other subjects of human investigation 
 obviously arose out of one or other of these objects 
 of intellectual research. 
 
 143. In reviewing the literary history of oriental 
 nations, allusion was made to some of the meta- 
 physical tenets maintained by the philosophers of 
 the East; and it will be perceived, in the sketch 
 about to be given, that the metaphysics of the 
 Grecian philosophers partook of the same character, 
 and probably had one common origin. It is dif- 
 ficult to ascertain the precise aera in which meta- 
 physical science originated in Greece, or by whom 
 it was first introduced. Some of the most ancient 
 philosophers, both of the Ionic and Italic sects, 
 speculated on the nature and properties of the 
 human soul, and framed some crude and conjectural 
 theories relative to the perceptive and sentient 
 faculties of man; but these speculations were so 
 completely visionary, and so blended with physical 
 and material phenomena, as scarcely to deserve 
 attention. If by the term metaphysicians, as 
 already defined, be meant that class of philosophers, 
 whose researches were principally directed to the 
 phenomena of mind separately from those of 
 matter, scarcely can it be affirmed that any 
 approach was made towards a metaphysical system 
 
 n2 
 
180 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 by any of the Grecian sects, till the aeras of Plato 
 and Aristotle. To the theories of these fathers of 
 ancient philosophy, our attention will therefore be 
 chiefly directed at present. Yet as it is desirable 
 to trace the stream of knowledge as far back as 
 possible towards its native source, we shall first 
 glance at the advances made in this department of 
 science, before the periods to which we have just 
 alluded. 
 
 144. The first of the philosophers of Greece, 
 who seems to have formed any conception of an 
 immaterial intelligent agency, was Anaxagoras, a 
 philosopher of the Ionic sect, who flourished about 
 a. c. 440. It may be gathered, from ancient records, 
 that this distinguished philosopher taught his dis- 
 ciples to attribute the formation of the universe, 
 not, as his predecessors had done, to blind chance 
 or fate, or inert matter, but to an infinite mind, 
 which had a continued and separate existence, inde- 
 pendently of the material universe. Of the meta- 
 physical system of Anaxagoras (if system it may be 
 called), the following summary has been given: — 
 u The most important improvement in philosophy 
 suggested by this philosopher was that of separating 
 the active principle in nature from the material 
 mass upon which it acts, and thus introducing a 
 distinct intelligent cause of all things. The similar 
 particles of matter, which he supposes to be the 
 basis of nature, being without life and motion, could 
 not produce themselves; and, therefore, he con- 
 cluded that there must have been, from eternity, 
 an intelligent principle or infinite mind, existing 
 
CHAP. VI J ANCIENT METAPHYSICS* 1S1 
 
 separately from matter, which, having the power 
 of motion within itself, communicated it to the 
 material world, and thus produced the various 
 forms of nature." On account of this distinguishing 
 and important feature of his system, this philosopher 
 was honoured with the title of vovq, or mind; " for,' 
 says Laertius, in assigning the reason for that appel- 
 lation, "lie first joined that agent to matter, by 
 which order arose out of confusion." 
 
 145. The opinions of Pythagoras and his fol- 
 lowers on the subjects now under review, nearly 
 accorded with those stated above. The founder 
 of the Italic sect had been so thoroughly initiated 
 into the mysticism of the Egyptian priests, and 
 conveys his instructions in such symbolical language, 
 that it is frequently difficult to perceive what his 
 opinions really were. As far as they are intelligible, 
 the following summary gathered from the records of 
 antiquity may be considered as comprehending the 
 principal tenets of the Pythagorean philosophers. 
 
 (1.) Respecting God, it was maintained, that He 
 is the universal mind diffused through the whole 
 system of nature ; the source of animal life, the sole 
 cause of motion ; in substance similar to light, im- 
 passible, invisible, incorporeal, eternal, and only to 
 be comprehended by the mind. Justin Martyr, one 
 of the christian fathers of the third century, has 
 quoted the following passage from the writings of a 
 philosopher of this sect, as containing their theistical 
 creed : — " God is one. He is not, as some suppose, 
 exterior to the world, but in himself entire ; per- 
 vades the universal sphere, superintends all pro- 
 
182 ANCIENT METAPHYSIOS. [PART II. 
 
 ductions, is the support of all nature, eternal ; — the 
 origin of celestial light — the father of all — the mind 
 and animating principle of the universe — the first 
 mover of the spheres." Another of the Pytha- 
 goreans denominates the Deity, " the self-moving 
 principle of all things." 
 
 (2.) Respecting the orders of Intelligent Exist- 
 ences, subordinate to the Supreme Divinity, it was 
 maintained that there are three, which fill up the in- 
 terval between God and man; viz. gods, dcemons, and 
 heroes, who are distinguished by their degrees of 
 excellence, and the proportionate homage due to 
 them. These were represented by the Pythagorean 
 system, as emanations from the Supreme Intelli- 
 gence; possessing a greater or less degree of 
 spirituality, as they appproximated to or receded 
 from the fountain of life. Heroes, who constituted 
 the lowest of these orders, were supposed to be 
 invested with a subtle material clothing, more 
 refined than the gross matter of which the human 
 body is composed, yet essentially different from 
 pure spirit. The definition given by one of these 
 philosophers distinctly conveys this idea : " A hero," 
 said Hierocles, " is a rational mind united to a 
 luminous body." If to these three species be 
 added the human mind, the whole scale of divine 
 emanations, as taught in the Italic schools, will be 
 perceived. 
 
 (3.) Respecting man, it was maintained, that his 
 nature consists of two essential parts ; one of which is 
 elementary and material, the other intellectual and 
 spiritual ; for which reason he is to be accounted a 
 
CHAP. VI.3 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 183 
 
 microcosm, or compendium of the universe. The 
 soul is also composed of two parts, — the rational, 
 which includes all the powers of the understanding 
 — and the sensitive, or irrational, which includes the 
 appetites and passions. The sensitive soul is subject 
 to decay, and eventually perishes — but the rational 
 mind is immortal and imperishable, like the divine 
 Intelligence from which it proceeds. With the 
 philosophers of the East, from whom the system was 
 probably derived, Pythagoras taught the doctrine 
 of transmigration ; or that, after the rational mind 
 is freed from the incumbrances of the body, it 
 assumes an ethereal vehicle, and passes into the 
 regions of the dead, whence it returns to inhabit 
 some other body, either brutal or human, thus 
 passing through a long series of purgations, till it is 
 completely purified and reabsorbed in the divine 
 nature.* 
 
 146. Many of the Grecian sects, which arose out 
 of the Ionic and Italic, may with propriety be 
 passed over in this outline of ancient metaphysics ; 
 because they denied altogether the existence of 
 
 * One of the Roman poets has thus described the Pytha- 
 gorean notion of metempsychosis, or transmigration : 
 
 " What then is death, but ancient matter, drest 
 In some new figure and a varied vest ; 
 Thus all things are but altered ; nothing dies ; 
 And here and there th' embodied spirit flies, 
 By time, or force, or sickness dispossess'd, 
 And lodges where it lights, in man or beast ; 
 From tenement to tenement is tost, 
 The soul is still the same — the figure only lost." 
 
184 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 mind as distinct from matter, and were either ad- 
 vocates of the most absurd atheism, the grossest 
 materialism, or universal scepticism. Such were the 
 Eleatic philosophers, (with the exception of Xeno- 
 phanes, Parmenides, and Zeno, who belong rather 
 to the class of Pantheists and Idealists,) and the 
 Atomic philosophers, of whom the most celebrated 
 were Leucippus, Democritus, and Epicurus. These 
 men, in the plenitude of their wisdom, discovered 
 and taught, that the whole universe is made up 
 either of atoms or vacuum — and that the former of 
 these, by mere chance, came together, so as to form 
 a well-regulated and beautiful world, with all its 
 varieties of animate and inanimate beings. From 
 these vagaries a^ - 1 absurdities, it is grateful to pass 
 to a system which approaches nearer to rationality, 
 and needed but the illumination of revealed truth 
 to render it one of the sublimest developments of 
 human genius. We refer to the metaphysical sys- 
 tem of the earlier Platonists, a sketch of which will 
 be attempted in the next section. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ON THE METAPHYSICAL OPINIONS OF SOCRATES, PLATO, 
 AND THE ACADEMIC PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 147. We are now entering on the review of that 
 period in the history of Grecian philosophy, which is 
 universally acknowledged to have been its most 
 
CHAP. VI.^ ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 185 
 
 splendid sera ; that in which Socrates taught,, and 
 Plato flourished., and the Academic sects arose ; that 
 in which theoretic and speculative philosophy took 
 its loftiest and boldest flights. We have already 
 met with one of these celebrated philosophers in 
 other departments of literature. The discoveries 
 of Plato in physical science, and his dialectic system, 
 have been briefly adverted to ; but we now en- 
 counter him in his own province ; in that division 
 of science for which he is most celebrated, and in 
 which he most excelled. When it is considered 
 that the metaphysical speculations of Plato not only 
 influenced the opinions, and pervade the writings 
 of the most eminent philosophers of antiquity, but 
 that the far greater number of modern metaphy- 
 sicians (the venerated Locke himself not excepted) 
 have also availed themselves of his labours and 
 writings ; and, most of all, when we reflect that 
 Christianity itself was, after a short period from its 
 first promulgation, modified and corrupted thereby ; 
 it may reasonably be expected that, in an elementary 
 work, which professes to exhibit a brief but faithful 
 outline of the philosophy of the ancients, the Pla- 
 tonic system should be distinctly noticed. It must 
 be premised, that in that system, as well as in the 
 speculations of the oriental philosophers, theology 
 was so intimately blended with metaphysics, that 
 however desirable it may be to keep them distinct, 
 it is scarcely possible to furnish an intelligible out- 
 line of the one, without glancing at the other. The 
 principal topics included in the Platonic system of 
 intellectual philosophy may be thus arranged : 
 
186 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 I. THE DEITY. 
 
 148. On this fundamental subject of human in- 
 vestigation, the opinions held by Plato and his 
 followers were extremely confused and mystical; 
 yet, as far as they are intelligible, they seem to have 
 so little of the grossness of polytheism blended with 
 them, and to have been so abstract and refined, as 
 to render it highly probable that they were remotely 
 derived, through the medium of corrupted traditions, 
 from the Jewish scriptures. It was taught in the 
 Academic schools, that there is one intelligent Cause — 
 the origin of all spiritual being, and the framer of 
 the material universe. The nature of this Supreme 
 Intelligence was declared to be incomprehensible ; 
 though the marks of profound wisdom, and the 
 oneness of design apparent through the whole 
 system of nature, prove his existence, his unity, his 
 supremacy, and his infinite understanding. He was 
 further described as an incorporeal existence, 
 without beginning, end, or change, and only dis- 
 cernible by the " mind's eye;" and that to him 
 belong all those qualities which characterize im- 
 material substances, such as simplicity, ubiquity, 
 and universal diffusiveness, or omnipresence. But, 
 in addition to these general and abstract concep- 
 tions of the Deity, Plato seems to have formed the 
 notion of some mysterious distinctions in the divine 
 nature, to which he gives the name of hypostases. 
 These some affirm to have been two, and others 
 threefold. The titles given to them indicate ex- 
 istence, or being, in general— mind, or universal 
 
CHAP. VI.]] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 187 
 
 intelligence, and life, or the principle of vitality, 
 which was supposed to be diffused through the 
 material universe. The first of these hypostases 
 is represented as emphatically the Being, to denote 
 self-existence and eternity. The second was con- 
 sidered as the Wisdom, the Reason, or, as he is 
 expressly called, the Logos of Deity, as well as the 
 Author of Creation, and the Son of God. The third 
 was termed, Anima Mundi, or the soul of the world, 
 which will be more fully explained hereafter. 
 Scarcely is it possible not to perceive in these mys- 
 tical hypostases of the Platonic system an obscure 
 intimation of the scriptural doctrine of the Trinity, 
 from whatever quarter it may have been derived. 
 
 II. NATURE, OR THE MATERIAL UNIVERSE. 
 
 149. On this subject the founder of the Academic 
 sect wrote with so much obscurity, and enwraps 
 himself in so impenetrable a veil of mystery, that 
 it is difficult to collect what his real sentiments were. 
 The dialogue entitled " Timceus," which principally 
 treats of " the origin and nature of things," contains 
 opinions and statements which, if not contradictory, 
 are yet so dissonant, that it would require the 
 utmost ingenuity of reasoning to reconcile them 
 with each other. Whilst, on the one hand, he 
 speaks of God as the " Parent of the universe" — 
 as " the Creator of all things" — " by whom all 
 animate and inanimate substances were produced, 
 which previously had no existence ;" on the other, 
 he distinctly maintains the eternity of matter, and 
 
188 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. £PART II. 
 
 seems to represent it as co-existent with and inde- 
 pendent of the great First Cause. Cicero, in his 
 " Academic Questions" thus states the Platonic 
 opinions on this subject : — " Matter, from which all 
 things are produced and formed, is a substance 
 without form or quality, but capable of receiving all 
 forms and undergoing every kind of change. It 
 never suffers annihilation, but merely a solution of 
 its parts, which are in their nature infinitely divi- 
 sible, and move in portions of space which also are 
 infinitely divisible. It is the mother and receptacle 
 of all forms, by the combination of which, with 
 matter, the universe becomes perceptible to the 
 senses." These forms originating in the divine 
 mind, and being subjected to divine energy, God 
 must necessarily be the Creator of all things. 
 Hence arose the distinction made by the Platonists 
 between matter and body ; the former signifying 
 the eternal elements, from which the latter is pro- 
 duced in all its diversified forms : and for the same 
 reason it was contended, that incorporeal substances 
 may yet be material. But the most singular tenet 
 of the Academics, in connexion with matter, was, 
 the notion that it possessed a sort of blind and 
 refractory force, to the influence of which the dis- 
 orders and miseries which abound in the world were 
 to be attributed ; that inert and shapeless matter 
 resists the will of the supreme artificer, so that he 
 cannot perfectly accomplish his designs ; and that 
 this is the true cause of the mixture of good and 
 evil apparent in the system of the universe. May 
 not these speculations, erroneous as they were, be 
 
CHAP. VI.] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 189 
 
 deemed the commentaries of human ignorance and 
 imperfection, on the Mosaic narratives of the Crea- 
 tion and the Fall ? 
 
 III. THE SOUL OF THE WORLD — (ANIMA MUNDl). 
 
 150. Among the strange conceptions of Plato, 
 perhaps none is more remarkable than that which 
 relates to the "soul of the world," which, as has 
 been already stated, was considered an hypostasis 
 of the Divine Nature, co-ordinate in time, but not 
 equal in dignity to the rest. By this phrase, he 
 seems to have intended, the principle of life im- 
 mersed in matter, and forming with the material 
 world which it inhabited, and was supposed to per- 
 vade, one compound animal. This governing spirit, 
 of whom the earth, properly so called, is but the 
 body, consisted, according to Plato, of the first 
 matter, and of pure intelligence, so framed and com- 
 bined together as to actuate the whole machinery 
 of nature; it is the animating principle of the 
 universe, giving to all things life and motion. The 
 seat or residence of this mysterious agent was sup- 
 posed to be the centre of the world, whence his 
 power is described as emanating and extending in 
 all directions to the utmost limits of the material 
 universe, preserving an unbroken harmony in all its 
 various and complicated parts. Upon this being, 
 God is said to have looked with peculiar compla- 
 cency, after having formed him as an image of 
 himself, and to have given perfect beauty and 
 proportion to the mansion he was destined to in- 
 habit. This " Life of the World" thus vivifying 
 
190 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 with his presence, and pervading with his influence, 
 all matter, is described as the highest object of 
 divine complacency, and is sometimes designated 
 expressly the Son of God. How otherwise (it 
 may be asked) can this theory be rationally ex- 
 plained, than by supposing that some of those 
 predictions of the Old Testament scriptures, which 
 foretold the incarnation of the Messiah, the Son of 
 God, had been communicated to the Grecian phi- 
 losopher in a corrupted form, blended with the 
 mythology of the oriental sages, and that the result 
 of this unhallowed combination was, the hetero- 
 geneous theory stated above ? It may be added 
 here, that the later Platonic philosophers improved, 
 as they supposed, on this dogma of their founder, 
 by contending for a two-fold anima mundi, the one 
 presiding over, and the other inhabiting the world ; 
 a theory which was grafted by some of the specula- 
 tive christian fathers of the third and fourth cen- 
 turies, on the christian system. 
 
 IV. IDEAS. 
 
 151. The notions entertained by Plato and the 
 Academics on this most difficult subject, are so 
 obscurely expressed, as to have perplexed the 
 acutest metaphysicans both of ancient and modern 
 times. As far as the ideal system of the Platonic 
 school is comprehensible, it seems to have been 
 briefly this — that ideas are the patterns or arche- 
 types of all possible existences, subsisting by them- 
 selves as real essences in the Divine Mind, Reason, 
 or Logos, as in their own eternal region, and issuing 
 
CHAP. Vl/] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 191 
 
 thence at different periods, according to the will of 
 the Deity, to give form to sensible objects, and 
 become themselves in their turn objects of con- 
 templation to rational minds. Plutarch, when de- 
 scribing the philosophy of Plato, affirms, that "he 
 maintained three independent principles in nature, 
 namely, God, Matter, and Ideas;" but that con- 
 clusion is not borne out by the writings of Plato, 
 though it may have been subsequently admitted 
 into the Academic creed. It seems probable that 
 the language of Plato, when freed from rhetorical 
 ornament, meant nothing more than that there 
 existed from eternity, in the Divine Mind, a notion 
 or distinct conception of every thing which was to 
 exist in time — a theory not unlike that for which 
 Malebranche has contended in later ages. Still it 
 must be admitted, that if this be all that was 
 intended to be included in the ideal world of Plato, 
 it is difficult to reconcile with this opinion other 
 passages, in which ideas are represented, not only 
 as objects of science, but the efficient and physical 
 cause of all substances. The idea of resemblance 
 between two ideas, for example, is said to be the 
 cause of that resemblance; on which account ideas 
 are sometimes expressly called by this philosopher 
 essences; and he affirms that they always remain 
 the same, without beginning or end. " The Reason 
 of God," says Plato, in his Timceus, " comprehends 
 the exemplars of all future existences, and is the 
 primary cause of their being'." The conclusion 
 drawn by this speculative philosopher from the 
 preceding premises, was, that the objects of sense 
 
192 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 were fleeting shadows, and ideas the only perma- 
 nent and enduring substances, worthy the con- 
 templation of intellectual and rational beings. 
 
 V. THE HUMAN SOUL. 
 
 152. From some of the dialogues of Plato, and 
 from the writings of the most celebrated Academic 
 philosophers, it may be gathered that the Platonists 
 considered the soul of man as derived from the 
 Supreme Divinity, or rather, as an emanation from 
 the Divine Nature. This emanation was not sup- 
 posed to be immediate, but transmitted through 
 the agency of the Demiurgos, or Creator, and by 
 the intervention of the " Anima Mundi" This 
 soul of the world being itself in some degree 
 debased by earthly admixtures, the human soul, 
 which was derived from it, receded still farther 
 from the perfection of the First Intelligence. Upon 
 this principle, the Platonic philosophers attempted 
 to account for the origin of moral evil, and the 
 existence of misery and suffering, since they taught, 
 that " when God formed the universe, he separated 
 from the soul of the world, inferior souls, which, 
 while separated from matter, were perfect and 
 happy, but became debased, when attached to 
 and confined in material vehicles. It has been 
 questioned by some, whether the immateriality of 
 the soul formed part of the Platonic creed. It is, 
 however, probable that Plato believed the soul of 
 man to be partly material and partly spiritual; 
 the former of these properties being necessary to 
 
CHAP. VI.] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 193 
 
 its converse with sensible objects, and the latter 
 rendering it capable of divine contemplation and 
 intercourse with the Deity. In other parts of the 
 writings of Plato, the soul of man is represented 
 as consisting of three parts ; one the seat of intel- 
 ligence, another of passion or feeling, and the third 
 of appetite; to each of these, appropriate places 
 were assigned in the human body as their fixed 
 residence. With respect to the duration of the 
 soul of man, it is unquestionable that the Platonists 
 strenuously contended for its immortality. Nume- 
 rous arguments are adduced by Plato, in his 
 dialogue, entitled " Ph^do," in support of this 
 opinion, some of which are drawn from the analogy 
 of nature, and others from speculative and abstract 
 reasonings. Sometimes it is inferred from the 
 alternations of sleeping and waking, or the ceaseless 
 revolution of the seasons; and sometimes it is 
 argued from the supposed nature and properties 
 of the human soul, its powers of reminiscence, its 
 capacity of knowledge and indefinite improvement, 
 and its communication of life and motion to the 
 material vehicle which it inhabits. On these, and 
 many similar grounds, it was maintained, that the 
 soul, though it may pass through many changes, 
 and inhabit different bodies, cannot cease to exist 
 
 VI. DEMONS, OR SUBORDINATE DIVINITIES, 
 
 153. Plato, in common with almost all the phi- 
 losophers of Greece who were not avowed atheists, 
 taught that there were certain orders of created 
 intelligences superior to man, but subordinate to the 
 
 o 
 
194 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 Great First Cause. To these he gave the name 
 of Daemons, which he conceived to be, for the most 
 part, struck off by the power of the Demiurgos or 
 Creator, from the " soul of the world," though some 
 of yet higher rank were supposed to be co-ordinate 
 with him. To these subordinate deities were as- 
 signed the charge both of forming and preserving 
 inferior creatures, as well as of superintending the 
 several parts of the material universe ; some ruling 
 the stars ; others inhabiting and regulating the air ; 
 while those of inferior dignity were attached to the 
 earth, and presided over its inhabitants. This theory 
 seems to have been borrowed from the Pythagorean 
 philosophers, one of whom had asserted long before, 
 that " the Ruler of all assigned the inspection of 
 human affairs to daemons, and committed to them 
 the government of the world." 
 
 Section III. 
 
 ON THE METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM OF ARISTOTLE AND 
 THE PERIPATETICS. 
 
 154. The metaphysics of Aristotle and his dis- 
 ciples are characterized by the same ingenuity of 
 invention and artificial obscurity, which distinguish 
 his dialectics. So highly did that great philosopher 
 estimate intellectual science, as emphatically to style 
 it the first or chief philosophy ; intimating not only 
 that, in his opinion, all other objects of human 
 speculation were vain and trifling, but that this 
 
CHAP. VI.]] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 195 
 
 comprehended in itself the sum of human know- 
 ledge. In presenting a sketch of the metaphysical 
 opinions of the Peripatetic philosophers, it will be 
 most convenient to follow the arrangement of topics 
 suggested by its illustrious founder. These are, 
 being, abstractedly considered — substances or es- 
 sences — the divine mind — the human mind — and 
 animal life. In this order, the principal meta- 
 physical dogmas of Aristotle are discussed in those 
 of his writings which still remain, and the same 
 classification has usually been adopted by his com- 
 mentators both in ancient and modern times. 
 
 I. BEING, IN GENERAL. 
 
 155. The fundamental axiom of the Peripatetic 
 school on this subject was, that " it is impossible 
 that the same thing should be and not be at the 
 same time, in the same subject, and in the same 
 respect." On this primary and self-evident truth, 
 Aristotle professed to found all his reasonings and 
 deductions on metaphysical subjects, and by its 
 means to demonstrate all the phenomena both of 
 matter and mind. This basis having been laid, he 
 proceeded to the enumeration of the several kinds 
 of existences, and the different modifications of 
 Being. These were considered, 1. With respect to 
 their origin, as either self-existent or accidental ; the 
 former applying alone to the Deity, the latter to all 
 created substances. 2. With respect to their nature, 
 as either notional or real — notional, as conceived in 
 the mind, and real, as existing in nature. The 
 former of these are again subdivided into true, or 
 
 o2 
 
196 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 that which corresponds with the real nature of things ; 
 and false, when the conception and reality differ. 
 3. With respect to their several modes, beings are 
 contemplated as existing either in power or in act, 
 that is, as the subjects either of active or of passive 
 power. By active power was intended the principle 
 of motion or change, and by passive, the capacity 
 for motion or susceptibility of change in any subject, 
 on which such active power is exerted. 4. Con- 
 sidered with relation to number, Being includes the 
 properties of unity, identity, equality, resemblance, 
 and the like. 5. And, finally, the genera and species 
 of beings are adverted to — terms employed by this 
 celebrated dialectician to distinguish their primary 
 and essential, from their subordinate and accidental 
 qualities. 
 
 II. SUBSTANCES. 
 
 156. Substances, according to the Peripatetic 
 philosophers, are of three kinds—primary matter, 
 form, and essence, together with the compounds of 
 each. Corresponding to this three-fold modification 
 of substances, three properties or qualities are 
 enumerated — immovable, incorruptible, and perish- 
 able. The first of these belongs alone to the Great 
 Cause of all things, whom Aristotle describes as the 
 " First Mover, himself unmoved ;" the second, to 
 heaven, and spiritual existences, whether superhuman 
 or divine ; the third, to animal bodies of every kind 
 and degree. To the Primum Mobile, or First Mover, 
 (whatever that term might denote, whether God 
 or Nature, or an unknown and incomprehensible 
 
CHAP. VI.J ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 197 
 
 something, of which no distinct conception was 
 entertained,) were attributed eternity, infinity, 
 immutability, indivisibility, and spirituality. This 
 abstract notion of a Primary Mover, Aristotle seems 
 to have derived from his theory respecting motion 
 in general, which he considered as proceeding from 
 the perfect and eternal revolution of the heavens. 
 But in order to avoid the absurdity of an infinite 
 series of effects without a cause, he was compelled 
 to admit into his system, a " Primary Mover" who 
 from eternity acted upon the celestial sphere, and 
 gave it its first impulse, just as the human soul acts 
 upon, and communicates motion to, the several 
 organs and members of the body. All other sub- 
 stances, whether incorruptible or corruptible in 
 their nature — whether eternal or temporary in their 
 duration — are yet far inferior to this Great Primary 
 Cause of Motion, by whose perpetual agency on 
 matter, bodies undergo all their varieties of form 
 and external modification, and are continually dis- 
 solved and reproduced in endless continuity. 
 
 III. THE DEITY. 
 
 157. From the above statement, it will be evident, 
 that Aristotle and his followers are not to be classed 
 with the atheistical philosophers of antiquity, though 
 their speculations on the subject of the Divine 
 existence and attributes were far less intelligible 
 and rational than those of the Platonic school. 
 God is represented, in the Peripatetic system, as 
 a Being distinct from the world and matter, but 
 imparting to both their energy and motion; as 
 
198 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 superior, in a vast and incomprehensible degree, 
 to all other intelligent natures, but not the cause 
 of their existence ; for, conceiving matter to be 
 eternal, the work of creation, or the primary pro- 
 duction of the material universe, was not attributed 
 to the Deity, but solely that of giving motion to 
 substances eternally existing, like the main-spring 
 of a machine, which does not produce the mechanism, 
 but simply puts it in motion. In producing motion, 
 the Deity was supposed to act not voluntarily, but 
 necessarily; not for the sake of other beings, but 
 for his own pleasure. Eternally employed in the 
 contemplation of his own nature, he observes 
 nothing, he cares for nothing beyond himself. 
 Residing in the first sphere, he possesses, according 
 to the Peripatetic system, neither immensity nor 
 omnipresence. Far removed from the inferior parts 
 of the universe, he is not even the spectator of 
 passing events, and therefore can neither be an 
 object of veneration or worship. He is indeed 
 described as intelligent, immaterial, and eternal : 
 but those attributes seem to have answered no 
 more important purpose than that of giving the 
 first impulse to the mechanism of nature, and 
 originating the motions of the celestial bodies. 
 
 IV. THE HUMAN MIND. 
 
 158. On this subject, the following summary of 
 the principal tenets of the Peripatetic philosophers 
 has been given, which will be found to have been 
 chiefly gathered from Aristotle's writings. " The 
 soul is the first principle of action in an organized 
 
CHAP. VI.] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 199 
 
 body, possessing life potentially. The soul does not 
 move itself; for whatever moves, is moved by some 
 other moving power. It is not a rare or subtile 
 body, composed of elements; for then it could not 
 have perception, any more than the elements which 
 compose it. It has three faculties — the nutritive, 
 the sensitive, and the rational ; the superior of 
 these comprehending the inferior. The nutritive 
 faculty of the soul, is that by which animal life is 
 produced and preserved ; the sensitive, that by which 
 we perceive and feel, through the intervention of 
 the bodily organs. The senses are of two kinds ; 
 external, by which objects are perceived ; and in- 
 ternal, by which their properties and relations are 
 known, and their agreement or difference observed. 
 Perception differs from intellect, inasmuch as the 
 former is common to all animals, but the latter 
 belongs only to a few. To the intellectual part of 
 the human soul belong fancy, memory, reminiscence, 
 and other similar properties and powers. Fancy 
 denotes the perception itself, accompanied with dif- 
 ferent sensations, according to the object perceived. 
 Memory is the permanent impression left behind, 
 after the object is withdrawn, and succeeds to fancy. 
 Reminiscence is the power by which it is recalled, 
 and the lost impression renewed. The rational 
 faculty of the soul is that by which it understands, 
 compares, and judges. It is of two kinds — active 
 and passive. By its passive quality, it is rendered 
 capable of receiving impressions, or the forms of 
 things ; but its active energy is the efficient cause 
 
200 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 of all knowledge. The knowledge thus acquired 
 may be either speculative,, as conversant w r ith ab- 
 stract truths, or practical, as influencing the will 
 and affections, and productive of moral good or evil. 
 
 V. ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 159. A distinction was made by the Peripatetics 
 between the principle of life and of intelligence, or 
 the soul and spirit. Animal life was supposed to 
 be the result of an union between the nutritive soul 
 and animal heat : so long as this union lasts, life is 
 preserved ; when a separation takes place between 
 them, from whatever cause, death follows. As far 
 as any distinct conception can be formed of the 
 nature and origin of the vital principle, according 
 to the Peripatetic system, (in which the subject is 
 treated with the utmost obscurity,) Aristotle appears 
 to have taught, that it is a mysterious energy or 
 power, emanating from the Supreme Intelligence, 
 and externally transmitted into the human body ; 
 by which all its movements and actions are regu- 
 lated, so long as this animating principle continues 
 inherent in the human frame. But there is no 
 reason to suppose that this philosopher, like Plato, 
 taught or even conjectured the immortality of the 
 soul. It seems more probable that he maintained 
 the total and final extinction of animal life at death, 
 though not of being ; for all substance, in whatever 
 form it may have existed, was believed to be eternal 
 and indestructible. 
 
CHAP. VI /] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 201 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 ON THE METAPHYSICAL SPECULATIONS OF ZENO AND 
 THE STOICS. 
 
 160. The celebrity of the Stoic sect, both while 
 the Grecian states retained their independence, and 
 under the Roman government, renders it important 
 that the tenets of its founder and most distinguished 
 members, on all subjects, but especially on those 
 which relate to the philosophy of mind, should be 
 attentively reviewed. Every facility, which can be 
 desired for this purpose, is afforded by the numerous 
 writings of antiquity which still exist, in which that 
 system is advocated and explained. The writings 
 of Laertius, Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, and Epictetus, 
 w 7 ith many others which might be enumerated, 
 furnish ample materials, from which all requisite 
 information may be obtained relative to a sect which 
 perhaps includes a greater number of illustrious 
 names than any other known to the pagan world. 
 In some of those valuable remains of antiquity to 
 which we have just referred, the Stoical system will 
 be found developed in all its bearings, and its dis- 
 tinguishing doctrines are defended with much in- 
 genuity and subtilty of reasoning. The following 
 summary will comprehend its more prominent fea- 
 tures, from which it will appear that it emanated 
 rather from the Pythagorean than the Platonic 
 school, though in many important respects it differs 
 materially from both. 
 
202 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. £PART II, 
 
 161. (1.) Concerning Nature, its origin, and mode 
 of production, Zeno and his followers taught, that 
 there existed from eternity, a dark and confused 
 chaos, containing the primary elements of all 
 beings, which, at different periods, emerged into 
 variable forms, and from which the material uni- 
 verse was produced. But by whom or by what, as 
 its primary cause, this arrangement was effected, — 
 whether by an intelligent agent, or whether by a 
 mysterious something which they termed Destiny or 
 Fate, or whether by mere accident, — the wisest of 
 these boasted philosophers were wholly unable to 
 determine. Some indeed of the more devotional 
 writers of this sect, (if the term may be applied to 
 pagan philosophers,) speak of God, as the great 
 active principle, pervading the universe, and dif- 
 fused through all its parts ; but at" other times, the 
 origin of all things seems to be attributed to blind 
 fate, or necessity ; and sometimes to the mechanical 
 influence of an ethereal fire, which imparted life to 
 all created substances. " What is Nature," says 
 Seneca, " but God? — the divine Logos, or Reason — 
 inherent in the whole universe, and in all its parts, — 
 or you may call him, the Author of all things." 
 Diogenes Laertius, in describing this part of the 
 Stoical system, asserts, that " God and the world, — 
 the artist and his work — were comprehended under 
 the term Nature, because they considered the Deity 
 as mixed or diffused through the world. Sometimes 
 they called that Nature, which contains the world, 
 and sometimes that which generates and produces 
 all terrestrial substances." In general it will be 
 
CHAP. VI .)] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 203 
 
 found, that the rational, efficient, and active prin- 
 ciple, from which the universe, and all that it con- 
 tains, derived their existence, is promiscuously 
 termed, by Stoical writers, " Nature, God, Zeus, or 
 Jupiter, Reason, and Fate." 
 
 162. (2.) The Universe was supposed by the 
 Stoic philosophers to contain two principles, deno- 
 minated active and passive. The former, ingenerate, 
 incorruptible, and intelligent; the latter, inert, 
 mutable, and subject to decay. They do not 
 appear to have attached distinctly the idea of spirit 
 to the active principle of the universe, though they 
 assert that it is void of form, and destitute of 
 the ordinary properties of matter. It was supposed 
 to be in its nature corporeal, a kind of celestial fire, 
 so refined and subtilized, so free from all the grosser 
 qualities of bodies in general, that it might properly 
 be termed immaterial and spiritual. The passive 
 principle denoted, gross, inert matter, destitute in 
 itself of all qualities, but capable of receiving any 
 which might be produced upon it ; incapable of 
 motion, but subject to the action of any external 
 efficient cause. These two principles composing 
 the whole universe, it necessarily followed, that the 
 Stoics agreed with the Platonic philosophers in 
 maintaining the notion of an " Anima Mundi," or 
 divine principle of life and motion, diffused through 
 the whole system of nature. To this universal and 
 operative principle were attributed all the sentient 
 and intelligent properties of mind. But however 
 refined may have been the speculations of the 
 philosophers of this sect, respecting the great intel- 
 
204 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 ligent Cause of all things, when they attempted to 
 describe his nature, attributes, residence, and 
 agency, they were involved in the grossest ab- 
 surdities. They conceived of him, as dwelling 
 in the super-celestial regions, in the form of ethereal 
 fire — as impelled by a stern and inevitable fate, over 
 which he had no controul — as borne along, in com- 
 mon with all inferior existences, by the irresistible 
 current of necessary causes and effects— and, in a 
 word, as in no rational sense whatever, a voluntary 
 or moral agent, but merely a machine, controlled by 
 circumstances, and governed by invincible destiny. 
 
 163. (3.) Respecting Man, the Stoic philosophers 
 taught, that he is an image or exact representation 
 of the world; that in him also there are two 
 principles, active and passive ; or, in other words, 
 body and mind. The mind of man was supposed 
 to be an emanation, or spark of the ethereal fire — 
 a 'portion of that reason or divine intelligence by 
 which all nature is animated. But while they 
 asserted that the human soul partook of the nature 
 of the gods, they considered it as restricted in its 
 energies, deteriorated and debased by its combi- 
 nation with grosser matter. Thus Seneca writes 
 concerning man ; "Why should you not believe 
 that there is something divine in him, who is indeed 
 part of God — that whole in which we are contained 
 is one, and that one is God; we being his com- 
 panions and his members." Epictetus, in stronger 
 language, affirms, that " the souls of men have the 
 nearest relation to God, as being parts oy fragments 
 of Him, separated and torn from his substance/' 
 
CHAP. VI.] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 205 
 
 " All men/' says Cleanthes, " proceed from one,, 
 and will be resolved into one." The powers or 
 faculties of man were said to be eight, viz. the five 
 senses, the productive or generative faculty, the 
 power of speech, and the ruling power, denominated 
 reason. To each of these were assigned their several 
 stations and their respective offices in the human 
 economy. Widely different opinions were enter- 
 tained respecting the duration of the human soul. 
 Though none maintained its immortality, all agreed 
 in asserting its existence after death. Cleanthes 
 taught, that all souls would continue to exist, till 
 the final conflagration ; — Chrysippus and Seneca, 
 that this privilege would be granted alone to the 
 virtuous and the good. Epictetus and Antoninus 
 held, that as soon as the soul is released from 
 the body, it returns to the soul of the world, or 
 is lost in the universal principle of fire ; while 
 others maintained, that it continued for ages im- 
 mured, till the general destruction of the universe. 
 Some philosophers of this sect seem to have leaned 
 to the Pythagorean notion of transmigration, and 
 others to the oriental scheme of re-absorption in the 
 Divinity. 
 
 164. (4.) In connexion with the preceding specu- 
 lations respecting the nature and origin of Man, 
 it was believed that there were portions of the 
 ethereal fire distributed through all parts of the 
 universe, and giving existence to an innumerable 
 multitude of beings superior to man, though far 
 inferior to the Supreme Intelligence. These were 
 denominated gods or dcemons, who were divided into 
 
206 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [jPART II. 
 
 two classes, superior and inferior : the former in- 
 habiting the sun and stars, which they considered 
 as animated substances ; the latter were human 
 souls, in a separate state of existence, or heroes. To 
 none of these, however, was given the privilege of 
 immortality. " The Stoics taught," says Plutarch, 
 " that the heavens, the earth, the air, and the sea, 
 are full of gods ; but that none of them are im- 
 mortal, except Jupiter, to whom all the rest will 
 at length return, and in whom they will lose their 
 separate existence." 
 
 165. (5.) The Stoics, in common with all the 
 other ancient philosophers, were much perplexed 
 with the great question relative to the origin of 
 evil. Some concurred with the Platonists in 
 ascribing it to the deteriorating influence of matter, 
 which defeated the original design of the great 
 Artificer of Nature. Others, perceiving that this 
 hypothesis was at variance with their fundamental 
 doctrine relative to the divinity of nature, and the 
 universal diffusion of the Deity, had recourse to 
 
 fate, as furnishing the only rational solution of the 
 difficulty, by which the actions both of gods and 
 men were said to be controlled. Thus, when 
 Chrysippus was asked, " whether diseases were to 
 be attributed to the will of the gods," he answered, 
 that "it was neither the intention of nature that 
 such calamities should take place, nor was it ac- 
 cording to the will of the Supreme Divinity, but 
 that destiny deranged his wise and benevolent plan, 
 and rendered these evils necessary and inevitable. 
 
 166. (6.) But the most curious part of the Stoical 
 
CHAP. VI.] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 207 
 
 system, which seems to have been chiefly derived 
 from the oriental philosophers, and which they, in 
 their turn, probably derived through the medium of 
 traditional revelation, was, their belief in \\\e final 
 dissolution of the universe by fire. To this, there 
 are innumerable allusions in the writings of the 
 ancient philosophers of this sect. The following 
 passage, contained in one of Seneca's epistles, is 
 one of the most express. " The time will come," 
 says that celebrated philosopher, " when the whole 
 world will be consumed, that it may be again re- 
 newed — when the powers of nature will be turned 
 against herself— when stars will rush on stars, and 
 the material world which now appears resplendent 
 with beauty and harmony, will be destroyed in one 
 general conflagration. In this grand catastrophe 
 of nature, all animated beings, (excepting alone the 
 Universal Intelligence,) men, heroes, daemons, and 
 gods, shall perish together." This catastrophe was, 
 however, not supposed to terminate in the annihila- 
 tion of matter, but merely in reducing it to its 
 pristine chaotic state. Then all the present frame 
 of nature will undergo a complete change — all 
 material forms will be lost in one chaotic mass — 
 all animated nature reunited to the Deity — and 
 nature will again exist in its original form, as one 
 whole, consisting of God and matter. From this 
 chaotic state, it is again to emerge by the energy of 
 the great active Principle ; and gods and men and 
 all material forms are to be renewed, and dissolved, 
 and renewed, in an eternal succession. Each of 
 these grand revolutions, extending from the repro- 
 
208 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 duction to the dissolution of the universe, was termed 
 by the Stoic philosophers — the great year. — Vide 
 Enfield's Hist, of Philosophy, Vol. I. p. 338—341. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE ECLECTIC SECT, AND SUMMARY OF 
 THEIR METAPHYSICAL TENETS. 
 
 167. After the decline of literature had taken 
 place throughout the Roman Empire, about the 
 commencement of the third century, there sprang 
 up at Alexandria in Egypt, a new sect of philo- 
 sophers, who assumed to themselves the name of 
 Eclectics, because they professed to acknowledge 
 none of the ancients as their masters, but to select, 
 from all the metaphysical and moral systems of 
 former ages, those principles which were most con- 
 sonant to reason and truth. The philosophy of Plato 
 formed the basis of this new system, and the earliest 
 Eclectics were the professed admirers and disciples 
 of that great philosopher, on which account they 
 were sometimes called Later Platonists ; but in 
 many respects, they differed both from the founder 
 and supporters of the Academic sects. With the 
 distinguishing tenets of Plato and his followers, 
 were blended many others derived from the Peri- 
 patetic, the Stoic, and the Oriental systems, to which 
 were added some absurd and almost unintelligible 
 speculations of their own. The design of effecting 
 a coalition between the ancient systems, clearing 
 
CHAP. VI.3 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 209 
 
 away the superfluities of each, terminating the con- 
 troversies which they had occasioned, and forming 
 out of them all a well -digested and harmonious 
 system of philosophy, was in itself excellent : but 
 the history of this sect abundantly proves, that its 
 votaries utterly failed in the execution of this arduous 
 task, and that, " by combining systems originally 
 distinct from each other, by personifying abstract 
 conceptions, by inventing strange fictions concerning 
 the Supreme Being and subordinate divinities, and 
 by raising upon these fictions a baseless fabric of 
 enthusiasm and fanaticism, they introduced infinite 
 confusion into philosophy ; and fatally obstructed, 
 instead of promoting the progress of useful know- 
 ledge." 
 
 168. This sect was founded by Potamo, an 
 avowed Platonist, who flourished towards the close 
 of the second century. It was consolidated and 
 extended by Ammonius Sacca, who had received a 
 Christian education under Athenagoras, Pantoenus, 
 and Clemens of Alexandria, and has been classed 
 by some with the Christian philosophers of that 
 age. His labours, however, were chiefly directed 
 to the amalgamation of Christian doctrines with 
 the philosophy of Plato. To him succeeded, in the 
 Alexandrian school, Herennius, Origen, Longinus, 
 and Plotinus. The latter of these, who was a 
 native of Lycopolis in Egypt, and one of the dis- 
 ciples of Ammonius, occupies a distinguished place 
 among the Eclectic philosophy ; and indeed to his 
 personal instructions and writings, that sect chiefly 
 owes its celebrity. His numerous works on meta- 
 
 p 
 
210 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 physics, dialectics, and ethics, furnish the fullest and 
 most authentic information of their peculiar tenets ; 
 and his active zeal propagated the system in many 
 distant countries. Next to Plotinus, the two most 
 celebrated advocates of the Eclectic philosophy 
 were Porphyry and Jamblichus. Porphyry was a 
 native of Tyre, educated first at Caesar ea, under 
 Origen, then at Athens, under Longinus, and 
 finally at Rome, under Plotinus. He is best known 
 to posterity as one of the most zealous supporters 
 of the Pagan theology, and a bitter enemy of 
 Christianity. His principal writings, which have 
 survived the wreck of time, are, " his Life of 
 Pythagoras, Illustrations of Homer, Commentaries 
 on Aristotle's Logic, and Life of Plotinus." These 
 are characterized by much erudition and a species 
 of splendid eloquence, which indicated a vitiated 
 taste ; as well as by the absurdities and mysticism 
 of the Eclectic school. Jamblichus was a native of 
 Chalcis, and pupil of Porphyry, who flourished at 
 the commencement of the fourth century. He was 
 inferior to his preceptor in eloquence, but of equal 
 learning and industry. He wrote on a great variety 
 of subjects, the chief of which were historical, 
 philosophical, and mathematical treatises. But the 
 most curious, and by far the most valuable of his 
 remains, is, his celebrated work on the " Mysteries 
 of the Egyptians, Chaldaeans, and Assyrians," in 
 which are found references to and extracts from 
 oriental books which have long since perished. In 
 addition to those enumerated above, who may be 
 considered as the founders or principal supporters 
 
CHAP. VI J ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 211 
 
 of the Eclectic system, there were not a few of 
 reputed learning, who, though not philosophers by- 
 profession, embraced and advocated the Platonic 
 philosophy, as taught in the Alexandrian school. 
 Among these were, Julian, the Roman Emperor, 
 Eusebius of Myndus, Hierocles, Proclus, Isidore 
 of Gaza, Macrobius, and Ammianus Marcellinus, 
 each of whom wrote in defence of the doctrines of 
 Platonism. 
 
 169. It is scarcely possible to give in an abridged 
 form a distinct conception of the metaphysics of 
 this school. The following outline, collected chiefly 
 from the works of Plotinus, may suffice for our 
 present purpose. The opinions of the Eclectic 
 philosophers respecting 
 
 I. THE DEITY. 
 
 " The First Principle of the universe is not the 
 universe, but above all, and the power of all, 
 without which nothing could be ; which, though the 
 fountain of being, is itself incapable of division or 
 increase. This First Principle, the cause of intel- 
 lectual life, the source of essence and being, is 
 simple, and having no place, has neither motion nor 
 rest. It is infinite, not as being immense, but as it 
 is one ; and has nothing by which it can be limited. 
 Because that from which all things proceed can 
 permit nothing to exist better than itself, it is the 
 best of all beings. It is essential good, most fair 
 and beautiful; and because it is in itself lovely, and 
 the author of all that is lovely, it is the beginning 
 and end of beauty. No attribute is to be ascribed 
 
 p2 
 
212 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. £PART II. 
 
 to this First Principle in the same sense in which it 
 is ascribed to other beings, but in a manner wholly 
 inexplicable. Its nature is rather to be comprehended 
 by profound contemplation, than by any act of the 
 understanding." 
 
 II. MIND, SOUL, AND MATTER. 
 
 " From this First Principle proceeds mind or 
 intellect, and soul, or the active principle. The 
 primary Essential Good is the centre ; mind, the 
 light emerging from it, and remaining fixed ; soul, 
 the motion of the light thus emanating ; and body, 
 the opaque substance illuminated by the soul. The 
 second principle, mind, is necessarily united to its 
 source, and is the image of God, bearing such a 
 resemblance to him as light bears to the sun. It 
 is produced by the energy of the first principle, and 
 is the excited power of vision, reflection, or intelli- 
 gence. This second principle being produced, its 
 energy produces within itself the fair universe of 
 ideas, or intelligible natures, whence it comprehends 
 a plenitude of all things as essential principles, 
 before they exist as material substances. 
 
 " From the emanative energy of mind is produced 
 soul, or the active principle of life. This divine 
 principle is the fountain whence all life is derived. 
 It subsists, as well as intellect, within the divine 
 essence, and is therefore supramundane. This is 
 the immediate source of the principle which animates 
 or resides in the world, and which is diffused in 
 various portions through all animated nature. 
 
CHAP. VI.] ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 213 
 
 " Matter is the receptacle and subject of forms, but 
 has in itself neither figure, quality, magnitude, nor 
 place, and can therefore only be defined negatively. 
 Nevertheless it is not a mere name, but truly exists 
 as the basis of qualities. Matter exists potentially, 
 and has so existed from eternity — bodies actually, 
 with their peculiar characters, forms, modes, and 
 periods of existence." 
 
 III. THE WORLD. 
 
 " There never was a time when matter and form 
 existed separately, or when the universe was not 
 animated. To suppose the formation of the universe 
 the effect of chance, is absurd. The world is to be 
 conceived of as having always existed, and mind as 
 prior to it ; not in the order of time, but of nature ; 
 and therefore as the eternal and necessary cause, 
 both formal and efficient, of its existence. The 
 sensible world is produced after the pattern of the 
 intelligible, by the energy of mind pouring forth 
 some of its own nature upon matter, and hereby 
 giving it the first unconscious principle of motion 
 and form. The world contains superior and inferior 
 regions ; the former of which are inhabited by 
 subordinate divinities, genii, heroes, &c. ; the latter, 
 by men and inferior animals : because the world 
 includes every thing within itself, so that there is 
 nothing into which it can be changed, nor any 
 external force by which it can be dispersed or 
 annihilated, it must be perpetual in its duration." 
 
214 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. [PART II. 
 
 IV. THE HUMAN SOUL. 
 
 " The soul of man/' according to the Eclectic 
 system, " is derived from the supramundane soul, 
 or first principle of life, and is, in this respect, 
 sister to the soul of the world. Souls are not in 
 the body as their place, nor as their receptacle, 
 nor as their subject, nor as part of a whole, nor 
 as form united to matter, but simply as the ani- 
 mating principle; for it is in this respect only that 
 we are conscious of the presence of the soul. 
 The power of the soul is diffused through every 
 part of the body ; and though it be said to reside 
 in its chief instrument — the brain, it is incorporeal, 
 and exists entirely every where within the sphere of 
 its energy. Partaking of the nature of real being, 
 it is immutable. It is the principle of motion, 
 moving itself, and communicating motion to bodies. 
 The vices and sufferings of the soul are wholly 
 derived from its union with the body." 
 
 V. A FUTURE STATE. 
 
 " Souls, in the periodical revolutions of nature, 
 separate themselves from the great first principle 
 of life, and descend into the lower regions of the 
 world. In their passage, they attract to them- 
 selves an ethereal vehicle, and at last sink into 
 animal bodies, as into a cavern or sepulchre. But 
 when, by the power of reminiscence, they again 
 turn themselves to the contemplation of intelligible 
 and divine natures, they regain their freedom. For 
 
CHAP. VI p ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. 215 
 
 though the Deity is not known by sense or rea- 
 soning, yet by a kind of intuition, superior to all 
 science and wisdom, the soul can see God in his 
 real nature. This vision of God having been 
 enjoyed, it will lament its imprisonment in the 
 body, and rejoice in the prospect of that emanci- 
 pation which is effected at death, when it is per- 
 mitted to return to the Divine Nature whence it 
 proceeded. After death, the souls of men pass 
 into other animals, or ascend into superior regions, 
 or are converted into demigods, and beings of a 
 higher order, according to their present state of 
 deplement or of purification." 
 
 170. Such were the principal tenets of the Ammo- 
 nian school of philosophers on metaphysical subjects; 
 from which it will appear, that, though some light 
 was derived from the Jewish and Christian reve- 
 lations, their system was chiefly made up of Pla- 
 tonism and Hinduism, rendered still more obscure 
 and visionary by a thousand subtle distinctions and 
 vain imaginations of their own invention. The 
 preceding summary of the metaphysical opinions 
 of the Eclectic philosophers, has been taken from 
 the more extended view of the system, which the 
 learned Brucker has introduced into his "History 
 of Philosophy," and which he appears to have col- 
 lected with much fidelity from the works of the 
 principal writers of that school, particularly those 
 of Plotinus and Jamblichus. Brief as is the sketch 
 
216 ANCIENT METAPHYSICS. £PART II. 
 
 which has been given, it is evident that these far- 
 famed philosophers frequently lost themselves in 
 abstractions, and veiled their ignorance in a cloud 
 of terms, to which neither they nor their readers 
 could attach any intelligible ideas; that, with a 
 few important truths, were blended multitudes of 
 gross and palpable errors; and that, in defiance 
 alike of the sober dictates of reason, and the autho- 
 rity of Revelation, with which they were or might 
 have been acquainted, they gave themselves up to 
 vain imaginations; thus justifying the testimony 
 borne respecting them by an inspired Apostle, 
 " esteeming themselves wise, they became fools." 
 
CHAP. VIl/] ANCIENT ETHICS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ANCIENT ETHICS. 
 
 217 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE 
 AMONG THE PHILOSOPHERS OF GREECE AND ROME. 
 
 171. Although many ages elapsed from the first 
 civilization of trie Grecian colonies, before the 
 moral maxims, inculcated by the earlier phi- 
 losophers, and to which they owed much of their 
 celebrity, assumed a systematic form ; yet never has 
 there been a period in which the moral relations 
 of mankind, both towards the Supreme Being, 
 and those of their own species, have not engaged 
 the attention of the intelligent and the wise. 
 Whence those notions of morality were derived 
 in the infancy of society; whether from a primary 
 divine revelation, handed down by tradition; or 
 whether from the deductions of human reason, 
 or whether by intuition, it is not our present busi- 
 ness to inquire. Whatever opinion may be formed 
 of the source or medium of communication, none 
 can deny the fact itself. It is sufficient for the 
 present to state, as a matter of history, confirmed 
 by all the records of antiquity, that such elements 
 of moral science are known to have existed among 
 all nations, and in every stage of civilization, from 
 
218 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 the rudest and most barbarous, to the highest 
 degrees of intellectual refinement. Long before 
 any considerable advances were made in physical 
 science, it is well known that many moral apologues 
 were invented, and many ethical maxims promul- 
 gated for the instruction of mankind. An allusion 
 has already been made to several Persian, Chinese, 
 Hindoo, and Arabian philosophers, as well as to 
 those who, by way of eminence, were designated 
 u the Wise Men of Greece" who, if they have any 
 claim whatever to the title of philosophers, must 
 evidently belong to the ethical class. 
 
 172. The first among the Greeks who made any 
 approach towards the arrangement of a system of 
 ethics, was the celebrated philosopher of Samos, to 
 whom frequent reference has been already made, 
 as the founder of the Italic sect, and who was 
 confessedly one of the greatest men of antiquity. 
 The moral instructions of Pythagoras, it is true, 
 like those of his predecessors, were not drawn up 
 in a didactic form. They consisted rather of 
 aphorisms and sententious maxims, insulated from 
 each other, and having little pretension to order or 
 arrangement; yet they were classed under general 
 heads, and formed into a kind of moral system. 
 Whether the honour of this classification belongs 
 to Pythagoras himself, or was borrowed by him 
 from some unknown oriental philosopher, has been 
 questioned; but it is certain that he was the first 
 among the Greeks who attempted to promulgate 
 the outlines of a moral system, in which the per- 
 sonal and social virtues were arranged in their 
 
CHAP. VII.]] ANCIENT ETHICS. 219 
 
 natural order. This is affirmed on the high autho- 
 rity of Aristotle, who asserts, that the philosopher 
 of Samos was the first of the ancients who under- 
 took to treat distinctly of the nature of virtue, 
 which he divided into two great branches, public 
 and private; the former comprehending all those 
 duties which men owe to each other, and the latter 
 those which they owe to themselves. Under the 
 head of private virtues, he enumerated " institution 
 or education, silence, abstinence from animal food, 
 fortitude, temperance, and prudence;" concerning 
 each of which many didactic rules were given to 
 his disciples. Among the public or social virtues 
 were enumerated " conversation, friendship, reli- 
 gious worship, reverence for the dead, and legis- 
 lation." Two methods of conveying this moral 
 instruction were adopted; one, that of proverbial 
 maxims, short, and easy of remembrance ; the other, 
 that of mystical symbols, some of which were ex- 
 ceedingly curious, and only to be understood by the 
 initiated.* 
 
 173. The next important sera in the history of 
 ancient ethics, was that in which Socrates flourished, 
 who stands pre-eminent among the philosophers of 
 this department. He was the first of the pagan 
 philosophers, who laid down, as the basis of all his 
 moral instruction, a regard to the authority of the 
 Supreme Legislator. In his lectures and discourses, 
 
 * A full account of these, collected chiefly from the writings 
 of Diogenes Laertius, is given by Stanley, in his History of 
 Philosophers. 
 
220 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 (as far as they can be collected from the writings of 
 Plato and Xenophon,) he seems to have kept in 
 view one great object, namely, to impress the minds 
 of his disciples with sublime conceptions of the 
 character and moral administration of the Deity, 
 and on this ground to rest the obligation of intelli- 
 gent and accountable beings to practise every 
 private and social virtue. The principles of virtuous 
 conduct, he contended, were in reality the laws of 
 God, which are alike binding on all mankind, and 
 can never be violated with impunity. The chief 
 arguments by which this position was supported, 
 were derived from the instances of moral retribution 
 which continually occur both in the history of 
 nations and individuals. As far as the opinions of 
 this celebrated moral philosopher, on the much 
 agitated question respecting the nature and grounds 
 of moral obligation, can be collected from the testi- 
 mony of his disciples, (for Socrates himself left no 
 writings behind him,) they seem to have amounted 
 to this, that " there is in every man a conscience, 
 or what modern ethical writers have termed, a moral 
 sense, which clearly points out to him the distinction 
 between right and wrong, and enables him in every 
 given case to discriminate virtue from vice ; but 
 that the will of the Supreme Legislator, as made 
 known in his laws engraven on the conscience, con- 
 stitutes the sole ground of duty and moral obli- 
 gation." 
 
 174. The philosophical system of Socrates (if 
 system it may be called) was practical rather than 
 theoretical or speculative. Its principal divisions 
 
CHAP. VIlJ ANCIENT ETHICS. 221 
 
 have been thus arranged. " Man may either be 
 considered as an individual, or as the head of a 
 family, or as a member of the commonwealth. Hence 
 arise the three great branches of moral science,, 
 comprehended under the general terms, ethics, 
 ceconomics, and politics. Each of these has its 
 appropriate virtues and vices, which it is the 
 business of true philosophy to discover and make 
 known to mankind." It does not appear that any 
 more minute classification of personal, relative, or 
 social virtues was attempted by this philosopher; 
 but a great variety of excellent maxims in morality 
 are attributed to him on the several topics of 
 Piety, Obedience to superiors, Constancy, Tem- 
 perance, Liberality, Patience, Magnanimity, Truth, 
 Justice, Friendship, Patriotism, with many others. 
 The form in which these moral aphorisms have been 
 preserved, is that of sententious answers said to have 
 been given to questions proposed by his disciples 
 and friends. From this peculiarity in his mode of 
 communicating didactic instruction, all subsequent 
 philosophers, who had recourse to dialogue, were 
 said to have adopted the Socratic method ; which, 
 however suited to moral and practical subjects, was 
 a most inappropriate medium by which to carry on 
 abstract and metaphysical reasonings. A powerful 
 impulse was given to moral science by the personal 
 instructions of Socrates, the effects of which were 
 apparent long after his death, especially in the 
 Academic sects. Many important questions con- 
 nected with this department of human knowledge 
 began to be agitated and publicly discussed in the 
 
222 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 schools, of which the following are specimens. 
 " What is the criterion of virtue ? whence is it 
 derived ? and what will be its results ? What is 
 good ? What the distinction between natural and 
 moral good ? What the chief good ? Wherein 
 does happiness consist? Is pain to be accounted 
 a good or an evil ?" To these and many similar 
 ethical questions, widely different answers were 
 given by the Platonists, the Peripatetics, the Epicu- 
 reans, and the Stoics, the distinguishing features 
 of whose respective moral systems will be briefly 
 adverted to in the following sections. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ON THE ETHICS OF PLATO AND THE ACADEMICS. 
 
 175. It does not appear, from the writings of 
 Plato, that he formed any distinct ethical system, 
 though many of his dialogues treat of moral sub- 
 jects. These, it is probable, were chiefly derived 
 from the didactic instructions of his illustrious pre- 
 ceptor, but greatly modified and obscured by the 
 metaphysical speculations in which he so freely in- 
 dulged. The most important topics discussed in his 
 ethical writings relate to the chief good, the nature 
 of virtue, the moral influence of the passions, and 
 the social duties of life. 
 
 The Chief Good consists in the contemplation of 
 mind, a term used to express the Supreme Intelli- 
 gence. All the subordinate degrees of goodness are 
 
CHAP. VIl/] ANCIENT ETHICS. 223 
 
 only such as they approximate to the chief good. 
 That faculty of our nature by which this resem- 
 blance is to be attained is Reason ; and its several 
 modifications are the fair, the venerable, the amiable, 
 the proportionate, and the happy. Of those things 
 which men are accustomed to call good, such as 
 beauty, strength, riches, and the like, none are such 
 any farther than they lead to the practice of virtue. 
 These are termed, by way of distinction, mortal 
 good, on account of their imperfect nature and 
 transitory duration ; but beatitude, or happiness, 
 which was considered as the inseparable companion 
 of virtue, is a divine and immortal good, worthy of 
 the pursuit of intelligent beings, and producing a 
 resemblance to the gods. To this chief good, the 
 souls of philosophers are elevated after death ; they 
 are replenished with these inexhaustible treasures ; 
 they are admitted to divine entertainments ; they 
 range at large amidst the boundless regions of truth, 
 and look down with contempt on those who are 
 satisfied with earthly shadows and unreal good. 
 He alone who has attained to the knowledge of the 
 first good, is happy ; and the end of this knowledge 
 is to render man as like the Great Intelligence as 
 human nature is capable of becoming. 
 
 176. Virtue, according to the definition given by 
 Plato, consists in resemblance to the Deity. It 
 is the brightest perfection of human nature. Its 
 influence extends to the whole character, and it 
 constitutes the brightest ornament of man. Some of 
 the virtues exert their influence on the rational, 
 others on the animal, and others on the sensitive 
 
224 ANCIENT ETHICS. £PART II. 
 
 parts of our nature : of the former, the cardinal 
 virtue is prudence, by which was meant, the dis- 
 crimination of moral good and evil ; of the second, 
 temperance, or the due regulation of our desires and 
 appetites ; and of the third, fortitude, or the sub- 
 jection of our feelings to the command of reason 
 and the dictates of conscience. From the combined 
 influence and operation of these, arises a fourth car- 
 dinal virtue, justice, which is chiefly exercised in the 
 social relations of life. Beside this more general 
 classification of virtue, many subordinate distinctions 
 were made by the Platonists, such as perfect and 
 imperfect, necessary and voluntary, personal and 
 relative, with many others. But the most defective 
 and dangerous part of the moral system of Plato 
 was, that in which he taught, that all vice is 
 involuntary, and consequently to be punished not 
 so much on its own account, as because of the 
 evil it brings on others ; while on the other hand, 
 he maintained that virtue is to be pursued and 
 practised for its own sake, and not merely because 
 of the happiness it yields. 
 
 177. The Passions were defined to be motions of 
 the soul excited by some apparent good or evil, 
 originating in the irrational parts of our nature, but 
 capable of being moderated and subdued by reason. 
 All the passions are reduced to two simple elements, 
 pleasure and pain, or joy and grief ; — desire, fear, 
 hope, and all other mental affections, are but modifica- 
 tions of these. They are excited in us by nature, and 
 form a part of our constitution ; but the degree of 
 their excitement depends on the circumstances of the 
 
CHAP. VII.]] ANCIENT ETHICS. 225 
 
 individual who is affected by them. Some of the 
 passions are mild — such as pity, mercy, modesty, and 
 contentment ; others violent — as anger, terror, love, 
 and hatred ; while some partake of a mixed charac- 
 ter. The moderate indulgence of the passions is 
 virtuous — their excess alone is vicious. 
 
 178. The social virtues are chiefly delineated in 
 connexion with political maxims, and the rules laid 
 down for the administration of a perfect common- 
 wealth. Friendship consists, according to the Pla- 
 tonic philosophy, in reciprocal benevolence. It is 
 that disposition which prompts its possessor to feel 
 as solicitous for the happiness of another, as his own. 
 The good-will of parents to their children, and the 
 affection of kindred to each other, are but different 
 exhibitions of this social virtue. Love, considered 
 not as a passion but a branch of social duty, was 
 contemplated as of three kinds, namely, " honest, 
 dishonest, and mean." The honest, or honourable, 
 contemplates only the mind and its virtuous quali- 
 ties ; the dishonourable aims only at sensual in- 
 dulgence, and is absolutely brutish ; the mean 
 regards the beauty both of the soul and body, and 
 therefore occupies a mean place between the two 
 former. In society, as in the human soul, there are 
 three parts ; keepers, defenders, and artificers : the 
 first includes chiefs and rulers, whose duty it is 
 to counsel, direct, and govern, answering to the 
 rational part of the human soul ; the second, war- 
 riors, whose duty it is to defend the commonwealth 
 by their military prowess, and therefore resemble 
 the active powers or passions of the soul ; the 
 
 Q 
 
226 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 third, those who cultivate the arts, or are employed 
 in the ordinary occupations of life ; and these are 
 compared to the animal appetites, or the irrational 
 part of the soul. The perfection of government 
 was supposed to consist in each of these performing 
 their appropriate offices and relative duties. 
 
 179. From the preceding sketch it will be evident 
 that the ethics of the Platonic school were partly 
 derived from the maxims of Pythagoras, and partly 
 from the moral lessons of Socrates, digested into a 
 more regular system, and tinged with the splendid 
 colouring of Plato's metaphysical genius. Dr. En- 
 field justly remarks, that though many just and 
 sublime sentiments on morals are found in the 
 writings of Plato, his ethical doctrine is in some 
 particulars defective, and in others, extravagant 
 and absurd. The fanciful notions which he enter- 
 tained concerning the Divine Nature, the world of 
 ideas, and matter, seem to have given a romantic 
 and enthusiastic turn to his conceptions on morals ; 
 a defect which may be in part ascribed to his con- 
 nexion with the Pythagorean school, but which was, 
 perhaps, chiefly owing to the peculiar propensity of 
 his genius towards metaphysical fiction. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 ON THE ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE AND THE PERIPATETICS. 
 
 180. Aristotle was a disciple of Plato, a fact 
 which will sufficiently account for the resemblance 
 
CHAP. VII.] ANCIENT ETHICS. 227 
 
 between their moral systems ; but he was much 
 more of a theorist than his illustrious preceptor, and 
 this may serve to explain their principal points of 
 difference. The same minuteness of classification, 
 the same love of verbal distinctions, which have been 
 already alluded to as characterising the dialectic 
 and metaphysical writings of Aristotle, distinguish 
 no less his ethical treatises, ten of which, addressed 
 to his son Nichomachus, are still extant. 
 
 The whole moral theory of Aristotle was founded 
 on his metaphysical speculations, relative to the 
 nature and faculties of the human soul. As he 
 taught that the soul of man is partly rational and 
 partly irrational — the former denoting its intellec- 
 tual and judicial, and the latter its sentient and 
 active powers ; so it was maintained in the Peripa- 
 tetic schools, that there are two classes of virtues, 
 corresponding with this arrangement of the intellec- 
 tual powers. To the rational part of the soul 
 belong the virtues of integrity, prudence, wisdom, 
 with many others of a similar kind ; to the irra- 
 tional or sensitive, belong temperance, fortitude, 
 and the like. From this classification of virtue or 
 moral good, arose another distinction — theoretic and 
 practical: the former manifesting itself chiefly in 
 deliberation, and the latter in action. Theoretic virtue 
 includes in it the right use and exercise of the powers 
 of the understanding ; practical, the pursuit of that 
 which is right and good. Theoretic virtue is to be 
 acquired by meditation; practical, by habit and 
 exercise. The former of these was placed much 
 higher in the scale of virtues than the latter, inas- 
 
 Q2 
 
228 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 much as reason is superior to passion, and because 
 the understanding is to be accounted the noblest 
 faculty of man. 
 
 181. A further distinction was made by the Peri- 
 patetics, respecting those in which the body is 
 principally concerned, and those which are external 
 or distinct from both. For example, that species of 
 good which in the body is termed Jiealth, in the soul 
 is temperance, and in externals, riches: or what in 
 the body is strength, in the soul is magnanimity ; 
 and in externals, power : or what in the body is 
 beauty, is in the soul rectitude, or justice ; and in 
 externals, friendship. Among the desirable qua- 
 lities of the mind are enumerated — genius, art, wit, 
 wisdom, science, prudence ; among those of the 
 body, health, vigour, beauty, strength, and organic 
 soundness ; and among the external advantages are 
 riches, fame, power, friends, kindred, and country. 
 Some kinds of good are desirable on their own 
 account, others because of their influence and 
 tendency ; some should be sought for our own 
 sakes, and some for the advantage of others ; 
 some are to be contemplated as means, others as 
 ends; some are honourable — as God, or parents, 
 and princes, — others laudable, as liberty and 
 empire ; others profitable, as health, science, me- 
 mory, &c. &c. 
 
 182. The Passions were subdivided into three 
 classes — the good, the evil, and the mean, or those 
 which occupy a middle place, being in themselves 
 considered neither virtuous nor vicious. Of the 
 first, were enumerated, friendship, benevolence, in- 
 
CHAP. VII.]] ANCIENT ETHICS. 229 
 
 dignation, shame, confidence, compassion ; of the 
 second, envy, malevolence, and contumely ; of the 
 last, grief, fear, anger, joy, and desire. Each of 
 these was ramified into almost innumerable subor- 
 dinate branches, which evince more the ingenuity 
 of their inventor, than answer any valuable purpose. 
 The principal, and perhaps the most important, 
 feature of the moral system of Aristotle, was that 
 which represented all virtue as consisting in the 
 careful avoidance of every extreme, whether of 
 excess or defect ; and in steadily pursuing the 
 middle track. Thus, fortitude is the virtuous 
 medium between hardihood and timidity ; meek- 
 ness, between wrath and insensibility ; liberality, 
 between prodigality and penuriousness ; magnifi- 
 cence, between ostentation and meanness ; modesty, 
 between impudence and bashfulness ; urbanity, be- 
 tween rusticity and haughtiness ; truth, between 
 detraction and boasting; and friendship, between 
 dotage and enmity. By these and many similar 
 examples, Aristotle inculcated on his son what 
 seems to have been with him a fundamental 
 principle in morals, that all virtue consisted in 
 the moderate use, and all vice, in either an excess 
 or defect of the same quality. 
 
 183. With respect to happiness, it was taught 
 in the Peripatetic school, that it was not to be 
 sought for its own sake ; that it is the certain 
 and neccessary result of a conduct conformable to 
 virtue ; and that though the felicity which arises 
 from the enjoyment of wealth or honours is not 
 to be despised, that is incomparably superior, and 
 
230 ANCIENT ETHICS. JJPART II. 
 
 may be properly designated perfect and divine, 
 which springs from the performance of virtuous 
 actions. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 on the ethics of zeno anp the stoics. 
 
 184. None of the ancient sects of philosophers 
 boasted more of the excellence of their moral 
 system, or made higher pretensions to exalted and 
 disinterested virtue, than the Stoics ; and it must 
 be acknowledged that some of the best maxims and 
 rules of moral conduct known to the Pagan world, 
 are contained in the practical works of the most 
 celebrated philosophers of this sect. The principle 
 on which the entire ethical system of the Stoics was 
 founded, and which pervades all its parts, is, that 
 " the great end of existence, and the only rule of 
 virtue is, to live according to nature? that is, in con- 
 formity with that irreversible law of fate by which 
 all beings, divine and human, are controlled and 
 governed. For since man, as was before stated, is 
 a part of the Deity, and an image of the world, it 
 becomes him to live as a part of the great whole, 
 and accommodate all his pursuits to the general 
 arrangement of nature. This principle is stated 
 differently by different philosophers of this sect, but 
 it perpetually recurs in one or other form, in all 
 their ethical writings. Thus Chrysippus taught, 
 that " men ought to live according to the experience 
 
CHAP. VII.3 ANCIENT ETHICS. 231 
 
 of natural events ;" — Cleanthes, that " they should 
 follow the nature common to all men ;" — Diogenes 
 of Babylon,, that " they should conform to the reason 
 and law of life;" — Pancetius, that "they should 
 yield to the impressions of nature ;" — and Posidonius 
 yet more distinctly, that " they should contemplate 
 truth, follow nature, and imitate God, by making 
 the eternal reason and immutable law of the universe 
 the rule of their actions." Thus, to live according 
 to nature, (in the Stoical acceptation of that phrase, 
 which was widely different from its meaning in 
 popular language,) is the essence of virtue and of 
 true happiness. This general principle being pre- 
 mised, all the other parts of the moral system taught 
 by Zeno and his followers, obviously arise out of it. 
 Appetites are innate principles according to nature. 
 Passions are either morally good or evil, as they 
 act in conformity with, or in opposition to, the 
 great law of nature. Wisdom and virtue are those 
 dictates of the understanding, and those actions 
 resulting from them, which are in accordance with 
 nature ; and evil, in all its various modifications, is 
 that which is contrary to nature. Happiness is the 
 end assuredly to be obtained by living according to 
 nature. 
 
 185. If from this general classification of the 
 principal divisions of moral science, we proceed to 
 a more particular detail, it will be found that this 
 rule was intended to be of universal application. 
 The two predominant appetites of all beings, are, 
 to preserve themselves, (this being a law of their 
 nature,) and to obtain those things which are 
 
232 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 according to their nature,, and therefore calculated 
 to impart happiness. Those affections and passions 
 are virtuous and good, which urge us onward to 
 the pursuit and acquisition of that which nature 
 approves, or which deter us from an opposite course 
 of conduct, such as constancy, joy, contentment, 
 delectation, cheerfulness, equanimity, &c. On the 
 contrary, those passions are vicious which are 
 " preternatural motions of the soul," " inward 
 commotions, averse from right reason and contrary 
 to nature," such as excessive desire or fear, both of 
 which are incompatible with philosophy and virtue. 
 The four primary passions of this class are, grief, 
 pleasure, fear, and desire, under each of which many 
 others are enumerated, the indulgence of which was 
 represented as indicative of weakness and vice. 
 Hence arose one of the chief peculiarities of the 
 Stoical system of morals, namely, that which num- 
 bered pleasure and pain among things indifferent, 
 which ought in no degree to affect the happiness of 
 a wise man. Since pain, in its ordinary acceptation, 
 is an affection of the body, and not of the mind — 
 and since it is proved by experience not to be con- 
 trary to the law of our nature — it is not to be 
 accounted an evil ; it may, in some cases, be deemed 
 a good ; and a true philosopher may be as happy 
 in the midst of bodily torture, as on beds of down. 
 
 186. The virtues were divided by the Stoics, as 
 well as the Peripatetics, into two classes, the con- 
 templative and the practical, some of which are 
 primary, and others subordinate. The primary are, 
 prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice, each of 
 
CHAP. VII.] ANCIENT ETHICS. 233 
 
 which has many others proceeding from it, as streams 
 from a fountain. The contemplative virtues relate 
 to truth ; the practical, to the conduct of life. But 
 the most remarkable and pernicious part of their 
 moral system, was that which asserted the equality 
 of all virtues and vices. As there is no medium 
 between a straight line and a curve, so it was 
 maintained, that every virtuous action, being in 
 exact conformity with the law of nature, must be 
 alike good ; and every vicious act, being a deviation 
 from nature, must be alike evil. This tenet of 
 the Stoics formed a most vulnerable part of their 
 system, and furnished a frequent theme of ridicule 
 to the satirical poets. 
 
 Under the head of Offices, or relative duties, 
 many useful and many trifling distinctions were 
 introduced. The general classification of moral 
 duties was both just and natural, being all included 
 in those which respect God, mankind, and ourselves ; 
 but in the minute detail of these relative duties, the 
 miserable deficiency of Pagan morality abundantly 
 appears, since they originated in pride and selfish- 
 ness, and led, in their practical results, to duplicity, 
 dissimulation, and impiety. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 ON THE ETHICS OF THE EPICUREAN SECT. 
 
 187. The next of the Grecian sects, whose moral 
 system claims particular attention, both on account 
 
234 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 of its celebrity, and its influence on the state of 
 society during a long series of ages, is that of 
 Epicurus. It has been generally represented as the 
 most exceptionable, both in principle and practice, 
 of all the ethical systems of antiquity. How far 
 this statement is justified by facts, will appear from 
 the following summary of its distinguishing tenets. 
 
 Epicurus taught that happiness is the great end 
 of life, that which should be constantly pursued for 
 its own sake, and to which every other consideration 
 should be subordinate ; that the reason why men 
 fail in their pursuit of this object is, that they 
 mistake its nature, and the source from which alone 
 it can be derived : — that the highest degree of hap- 
 piness to which man can attain, is that state, in 
 which the greatest measure of physical good, and 
 the least of physical evil, is experienced: — that 
 pleasure being in its own nature a good, and pain 
 an evil, the one is to be pursued to the utmost, and 
 the other avoided ; not, however, as it relates to 
 single actions or individual character, but with 
 reference to the whole course of human existence 
 and the general mass of society: — that the use of 
 the rational faculties of our nature chiefly consists 
 in forming this estimate correctly, so as to make a 
 wise choice, by preferring that which, on the whole, 
 will yield the highest enjoyment, or by which we 
 may avoid a greater degree of pain and suffering. 
 The Epicurean doctrine concerning happiness, thus 
 interpreted, may perhaps be considered (in theory 
 at least) as not more objectionable than any other 
 of the heathen ethical systems ; but in practice it 
 
CHAP. VII.] ANCIENT ETHICS. 235 
 
 became highly injurious, subversive alike of social 
 and private virtue, an incentive to every crime, 
 and a pander to every species of profligacy and 
 licentiousness. 
 
 188. The Epicurean philosophers further main- 
 tained, that pleasure is of two kinds, which are 
 essentially distinct in their nature, and the sources 
 from which they proceed. The one consists in rest, 
 both bodily and mental, in a state of perfect and 
 uninterrupted quiescence ; the other in excitement 
 and emotion, in vivid sensations and highly impas- 
 sioned feelings of the mind. The former of these was 
 considered most desirable and excellent, because 
 according best with the intellectual part of our 
 nature, which far excels the sensitive animal. No 
 good attainable by man is, therefore, to be accounted 
 greater than bodily ease combined with mental 
 tranquillity. Arguing on these premises, Epicurus 
 taught, that the practice of virtue is essential to true 
 enjoyment, because that alone can induce serenity of 
 mind and intellectual repose ; that a steady course 
 of virtuous conduct will, on the whole, secure the 
 greatest possible degree of felicity ; that, as the 
 neglect of temperance, continence, and similar 
 virtues, leads to pain and disease of body, so to dis- 
 regard prudence, fortitude, justice, and the like, is 
 to ensure mental anxiety and suffering. On the 
 same ground, moderation was recommended in the 
 pursuit of riches and honour; the regulation and 
 subjection of the turbulent passions were enjoined ; 
 the exercise of the social virtues of compassion, 
 benevolence, sympathy, and gratitude, was incul- 
 
236 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 cated, as yielding the most pleasurable emotions, 
 without disturbing the tranquillity of the soul. 
 
 189. The basis of the system being thus laid in 
 inculcating the pursuit of happiness as the great 
 end of life, and the practice of virtue as the surest 
 means of obtaining it, the philosophers of this sect 
 proceeded to a classification of the private and 
 social virtues. In common with many other sects, 
 they considered Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude, 
 and Justice, as the four cardinal virtues. 
 
 Prudence, which consists in the regulation of 
 human conduct, so as to secure the greatest possible 
 amount of enjoyment, was subdivided into private, 
 domestic, and civil ; or that which relates to ourselves, 
 to our families, and to the commonwealth. Tem- 
 perance, which consists in self-government, was also 
 variously modified ; so as to include sobriety, in 
 opposition to gluttony and drunkenness ; continence, 
 as opposed to sensuality and impure desires ; meek- 
 ness, as opposed to the sallies of anger and un- 
 bridled passion ; modesty and humility, as opposed 
 to ambition ; and moderation, or contentment with 
 mediocrity, as opposed to avarice in all its forms 
 and degrees. Fortitude, which consists in the de- 
 termined pursuit of whatever is honourable and of 
 good report, was contemplated as connected with 
 piety or the fear of the gods ; and as counteracting 
 and controlling the fear of death, of bodily suffer- 
 ing, and of mental anxiety or discontent. Justice 
 was considered as a social virtue, prompting to 
 whatever is right and just between man and man. 
 Under this head were included humanity, bene- 
 
CHAP. VII.^ ANCIENT ETHICS. 237 
 
 ficence, gratitude, piety, and friendship. All of these 
 were enjoined as essential to that tranquillity of 
 mind, which constitutes the highest enjoyment of 
 which our nature is capable. No reference, how- 
 ever, was made by the founder or the followers of 
 this infidel sect to a future state, since present 
 felicity was the only good of which they seemed to 
 have formed any conception. 
 
 190. If the preceding summary of the ethical 
 doctrines of the ancient Epicureans be correct (and 
 it is gathered from their own writings), it will be 
 perceived, that it was not in itself that licentious 
 system which many have imagined, or which it was 
 represented to be by the advocates of other rival 
 systems. It rests, indeed, wholly on the selfish 
 principle ; it urges no motives but those which are 
 drawn from the desire of self gratification : but, as 
 Dr. Enfield has justly observed, " it differs from the 
 rigid system of the Stoics more in words than in 
 reality; both maintained that virtue is happiness, 
 though the one considered it but as a means, and the 
 other as the end ; the one represented happiness as 
 the necessary result and infallible reward of virtue, 
 while the other exhibited it as the grand motive to 
 its habitual exercise." But whatever may have been 
 the moral system of Epicurus, it is certain that the 
 latter philosophers of his sect justified every species 
 of crime, which promised present enjoyment ; and 
 that the system degenerated, in the more luxurious 
 and corrupt periods of Grecian and Roman history, 
 into habits of the grossest sensuality and volup- 
 tuousness. . 
 
238 ANCIENT ETHICS. JJPART II. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 ON THE ETHICAL SYSTEM OF THE ECLECTICS. 
 
 191. A brief account has been given, in a former 
 section, of the rise of the Eclectic sect at Alexandria, 
 about the commencement of the third century, and 
 an outline presented of the metaphysical specula- 
 tions of the principal philosophers of that school. 
 Before we close our review of the moral systems of 
 antiquity, it is requisite to advert to that of the 
 Eclectics. Here, however, it will be necessary to 
 distinguish between the moral doctrines of those 
 Alexandrian philosophers, who had embraced Chris- 
 tianity, and were of course familiar with the Jewish 
 and Christian Scriptures, (of which number were 
 Origen, Clemens Alexandrinus, and several others 
 of the Greek fathers,) and those who still adhered 
 to paganism, and were, in some instances, the bit- 
 terest and most determined enemies of the christian 
 faith. The ethical doctrines, found in the writings 
 of the first of these classes, may be considered 
 as a somewhat adulterated species of christian 
 morality. They were the precepts of revelation 
 corrupted and debased by being amalgated with the 
 Ammonian philosophy ; on the other hand, those of 
 the second class were the ethics of Plato, Pythagoras, 
 Zoroaster, or Confucius, elevated, and in some 
 degree purified, by having been brought into con- 
 tact with the christian revelation. For, however 
 inveterate may have been the enmity of Celsus, 
 Porphyry, and other infidels of ancient or modern 
 
CHAP. VII.]] ANCIENT ETHICS. 239 
 
 times, against the gospel, it will be found that they 
 derived their best moral maxims and rules of vir- 
 tuous conduct from those very Scriptures, which they 
 affected to despise as cunningly devised fables. 
 
 192. The following sketch of the ethical opinions 
 of the Eclectic philosophers has been collected by 
 Dr. Enfield, chiefly from the writings of Porphyry, 
 and may suffice, though brief, for our present 
 purpose. 
 
 " The mind of man, originally a portion of the 
 divine nature, having fallen into a state of darkness 
 and defilement by its union with the body, is to be 
 gradually emancipated from the chain of matter, 
 and, by contemplating real existences, to rise to the 
 knowledge and vision of God. The great end of 
 philosophy is, therefore, the liberation of the soul 
 from its corporeal imprisonment. This can only be 
 effected by the practice of virtue. For this purpose 
 it must pass through the several stages of the hu- 
 man and divine virtues. Human virtues are either 
 physical, ceconomical, or political ; that is, they either 
 relate to the body, or to the offices of domestic and 
 social life. The divine virtues are of three kinds, 
 purgative, theoretic, and theurgic ; the first consists 
 in bodily abstinence and voluntary mortifications ; 
 the second includes all those exercises of the intellect 
 and imagination, by which the mind contemplates 
 abstract truth and intelligible natures ; the third 
 includes those religious exercises by which the phi- 
 losopher is qualified for, and admitted to, an imme- 
 diate intercourse with the superior beings, attains a 
 power over daemons, and rises so far above the ordi- 
 
240 ANCIENT ETHICS. [PART II. 
 
 nary condition of humanity, as to enjoy the vision of 
 God in this life, and to return at death to the divine 
 mind whence it first proceeded." 
 
 198. Nor was this moral system merely specu- 
 lative. The principal founders of the Eclectic sect 
 inculcated on their disciples the practical observance 
 of their didactic rules. They required of them to 
 submit to many acts of self-denial and bodily mor- 
 tification, as evidences of their supposed piety and 
 elevated virtue. The mass of the people might 
 follow the dictates of nature, or become the slaves 
 of their animal appetites ; but philosophers were 
 expected to be more sublimated in their disposi- 
 tions and habits. They were, by the aid of medi- 
 tation, to rise above all terrestrial things, and 
 commune with the world of spirits. They were, 
 by frequent fastings and voluntary privations and 
 sufferings, to subjugate the body, in order that the 
 emancipated spirit might, even in the present state 
 of existence, be so purified and refined, as to hold 
 communion with the Deity, to converse with in- 
 visible existences, and, by their aid, to perform many 
 wonderful works. This was the substance of that 
 mystical theory which was communicated to the 
 initiated, under the name of the theurgic art; which 
 was evidently derived from oriental systems of phi- 
 losophy, and which, combined with the profession of 
 Christianity, produced, in subsequent ages, myriads 
 of monks and ascetics, and led to all the rigorous 
 austerities of popish devotees. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY & SCIENCE 
 DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Sect. I. 
 
 CAUSES OF THE DECAY OF LITERATURE. 
 
 194. The portion of time usually designated 
 " the middle ages," includes a space of not less than 
 a thousand years, extending from the dismember- 
 ment and subversion of the gigantic empire of Rome, 
 which took place towards the close of the fifth cen- 
 tury, to the revival of letters, which occurred about 
 the end of the fifteenth century, and constitutes the 
 most memorable sera in the history of the human 
 mind. However fraught this long interval may 
 have been with political revolutions, by which 
 ancient dynasties were overthrown, the face of 
 Europe and Asia changed, and the state of society, 
 throughout the world, materially affected ; to the 
 intellectual inquirer, whose object it is to mark the 
 operations of mind, and the progress of knowledge, 
 it presents little more than a barren and dreary 
 waste. Of the first five centuries, scarcely any 
 
 R 
 
242 DECAY OF LITERATURE. [PART III. 
 
 thing can be recorded, in connexion with the his- 
 tory of literature and science, except the names 
 of a few individuals, who maintained an unequal 
 struggle with the ignorance and barbarism that 
 surrounded them, leaving behind them, in their 
 voluminous writings, the memorials of their patient 
 and persevering, though misapplied, industry in the 
 pursuit of knowledge. The latter half of the period 
 to be reviewed is scarcely less barren, except that 
 some indications may be perceived, as we advance, 
 of the gradual approach of a brighter sera, and of 
 the emancipation of the human mind from the 
 trammels by which it had been long enslaved. As 
 there is little during this protracted period of in- 
 tellectual darkness on which the mind can dwell 
 with satisfaction, we shall pass over it as rapidly as 
 possible, gleaning, as we proceed, the few scattered 
 facts bearing upon our present object, which the 
 annals of Europe or Asia may present. 
 
 195. The same gradation which may be perceived 
 in all the operations of nature, and which scientific 
 men in modern times have designated " the law of 
 continuity," characterizes the history of mind. The 
 transition is not found to be instantaneous from 
 barbarism to refinement, or from refinement to 
 barbarism. The human mind does not pass at 
 once from a high degree of intellectual eminence, 
 like that to which it had attained during the best 
 days of Grecian and Roman history, to an abject 
 state of mental captivity, like that to which it was 
 reduced during the middle ages. The process was 
 gradual, though rapid, by which this melancholy 
 
CHAP. 1.3 DECAY OF LITERATURE. 243 
 
 revolution was effected. The causes were numerous 
 which operated to produce it; and the successive 
 stages of deterioration may be distinctly traced from 
 the reign of the Antonines, (when it may be con- 
 sidered as commencing,) to the rise of the Saracenic 
 empire, when the work of desolation was completed. 
 There were a few men of eminence, both as phi- 
 losophers and scholars, who flourished during the 
 third and two following centuries. Some of these 
 were mentioned in a former section of this work ; 
 men who were characterized more by patient labour 
 and unwearied application, than by inventive and 
 original genius. They were usefully and laboriously 
 employed in compilations from the works of the 
 ancients ; but they will bear no comparison in in- 
 tellectual attainments with the brilliant luminaries of 
 preceding ages. Such were — Ptolemy, the far-famed 
 astronomer ; Pappus and Proclus, who commented 
 on the works of Euclid ; Ammonius, Porphyry, 
 Aphrodiscus, JEgeus, with many others of the 
 Eclectic sect, who wrote commentaries on the me- 
 taphysics of Plato and Aristotle ; not excepting even 
 the Christian fathers, Origen, Tertullian, Clemens 
 Alexandrinus, and Jerome. These were chiefly 
 connected with the Alexandrian school, which 
 proved the last refuge of declining literature, and 
 where the arts and sciences continued for a time to 
 languish and decay, until at length, like withered 
 plants, they were plucked up and trodden under 
 foot by the Impostor of Mecca and his descendants. 
 196. It falls not within the limits of the present 
 work, to examine minutely into the causes which 
 
 r 2 
 
244 DECAY OF LITERATURE. [PART III. 
 
 produced this catastrophe ; but it is requisite 
 briefly to enumerate a few, out of many, to which 
 it may be distinctly traced. The more immediate 
 and apparent cause to which this melancholy change 
 is to be attributed, was (as has been already in- 
 timated) the rise of the Saracenic empire in the 
 East, and the consequent dispersion of the men of 
 science, who still flourished at Alexandria. " All the 
 cultivators of the arts and sciences," says a modern 
 writer, when describing the history of this period, 
 46 who had assembled from every nation in Alexan- 
 dria, were driven away with ignominy. Some fell 
 beneath the sword of the Arabian conquerors ; others 
 fled into remote countries, to drag out the residue 
 of their days in want and obscurity. The buildings 
 which had been erected, and the instruments pre- 
 pared at great expense for the purpose of making 
 astronomical observations, were involved in one 
 common destruction. And at length, to complete 
 the wreck, that precious depository of knowledge, 
 the library of the Ptolemies, which had suffered 
 greatly by fire in the time of Julius Cgesar, was 
 now utterly consumed. The Khalif Omar directed 
 all its books to be burned, because, said he, if they 
 agree with the Khoran, they are useless ; if they 
 differ from it, they are pernicious and blasphemous, 
 and, as such, should be held in universal detestation ; 
 an argument well worthy of a fanatical robber."* 
 
 197. But there were also many more remote or 
 collateral causes contributing to the same event, 
 
 * Bossut's Hist, of Mathem. p. 152. 
 
CHAP. I.] DECAY OF LITERATURE. 245 
 
 some of which preceded, and others were contem- 
 porary with that alluded to in the preceding 
 paragraph. Such were — the disorganized state 
 of society, and general corruption of manners, in 
 the latter periods of Roman history — the pre- 
 judices entertained by many of the fathers of the 
 Christian Church against heathen literature — 
 the progress of superstition — the rise of monastic 
 institutions — the ambition, ignorance, and vices of 
 the clergy— the imprisonment of the works of the 
 ancients in monastic libraries, whence they were 
 seldom permitted to emerge, and where they were 
 disregarded and forgotten — the exclusion of the 
 laity, however exalted their rank and station in 
 society, from the advantages of education, and all 
 other means of intellectual improvement — the disuse 
 of the Latin and Greek languages, as the medium 
 of communication between men of letters — the 
 despotism of a few names, such as those of Aristotle 
 and Augustine, whose works alone were sanctioned 
 by the ecclesiastical rulers. These, with many 
 other cooperating circumstances of a similar kind, 
 are more than sufficient to account for the in- 
 tellectual darkness that overspread the world, at 
 the period under review. 
 
 198. But in this tremendous struggle between 
 civilization and barbarism, between knowledge and 
 ignorance, the former ultimately prevailed. A 
 partial revival of letters, or at least their preservation 
 from total ruin, may be traced to the very people 
 who had threatened their existence, and endeavoured 
 to effect their destruction. After the lapse of about 
 
246 SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III* 
 
 a century from the rise of the Saracenic empire, a 
 succession of Khalifs arose who patronized learning, 
 and collected at Bagdad, the principal seat of 
 empire, a considerable body of philosophers and 
 mathematicians. The latter were chiefly held in 
 estimation, on account of the intimate connexion 
 which was perceived to exist between the abstract 
 sciences and practical astronomy ; a branch of 
 physical knowledge to which the oriental nations 
 had been from the earliest ages passionately de- 
 voted, not so much for its own sake, as from a 
 belief that the knowledge of the stars would enable 
 them to prognosticate future events,* 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ARRANGED LIST OF THE PHYSICAL AND INTELLECTUAL 
 PHILOSOPHERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 199. In this division of the work, instead of at- 
 tempting so minute a classification as that adopted 
 in the preceding pages, it will be sufficient to arrange 
 the scanty materials with which we are furnished, 
 under two general heads ; the first including the 
 History of Physical Science during the middle 
 ages ; and the second, that of Intellectual and Moral 
 Science j for the same period. It may not, however, 
 be unacceptable to the juvenile reader, before en- 
 tering on this retrospect, to be furnished with a 
 
 * Gibbon's Decline and Fall, Vol. V. p. 423—425. 
 
CHAP. I.] SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 247 
 
 list of the principal philosophers and men of science 
 who flourished between the sixth and sixteenth 
 centuries. 
 
 CLASS I.— SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 ASIATICS. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Geber . 650 
 
 Al-mansor, Khalif of Bagdad 760 
 
 Al-haroun ibid 800 
 
 Al-mairaon ibid 830 
 
 Albumasar . . . Bagdad . . 840 
 
 Alfragan ibid 850 
 
 Thebit ibid 850 
 
 Alkendi ibid 860 
 
 Albategni .... ibid 900 
 
 Alfarabi ibid 950 
 
 Mohammed . . . (Ben Musa) 950 
 
 Ebn Younis . . Egypt 960 
 
 Abul-Wefa ... Bagdad .. 980 
 
 Avicenna .... Bochara.. 1000 
 
 Geber (Ben Aphla) 1040 
 
 Arsachel 
 Mohammed . 
 Averroes . . . 
 
 Alhazen 
 
 Albaithar . . . 
 Maimonides . 
 Alcazuini . . . 
 EbnFadhl... 
 Ebn Aluam . 
 
 Toledo .. 
 Bagdad . . 
 Corduba. . 
 
 ibid 
 
 Malaga . , 
 Corduba. , 
 Persia . , 
 Egypt... 
 Corduba . 
 
 Albiruni Persia, 
 
 Abulfleda ....(J? amah > in l 
 L Syria ) 
 
 Nassar Eddin 
 Ulugh Beg . . . 
 
 Persia. , 
 Tartary 
 
 1040 
 1100 
 1130 
 1150 
 1160 
 1160 
 1250 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 
 1325 
 
 1400 
 1430 
 
 EUROPEANS. A. D. 
 
 Gerbert Sylvester II. 950 
 
 Leonardo de . . Pisa .... 
 
 Albert Ratisbon 
 
 Jordanus (Nem.) . 
 
 John (Sacrobosco)Halifax . 
 Campanus de Novara . 
 Gerard Cremona 
 
 Frederic II. . . 
 
 Grostfeste 
 
 Simon de .... 
 Roger Bacon. . 
 Alphonsus II. 
 
 1200 
 1240 
 1250 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 
 Germany 
 Bp. of Line. ibid. 
 Tournay . . ibid. 
 Ilchester 1260 
 Kg. Castile ibid. 
 
 Vitello Poland.. 1270 
 
 Peter the .... Dane 1285 
 
 Richard de . . . Swineshead 1330 
 
 Wallingford . . 1350 
 
 Ulsman Strame Nuremberg ibid. 
 
 Lucas (de Burgo) 1400 
 
 Nicholas . . . 
 Laurentius. .- . 
 P. Schoeffer . 
 John Faustus 
 Purbach . . . 
 
 (de Cusa) 1445 
 Haarlem. . 1445 
 Strasburg 
 Mentz. . . 
 Vienna . 
 
 1450 
 1450 
 1450 
 1470 
 
 Regiomontanus Rome... 
 
 Walther Nuremberg 1480 
 
 Werner ibid ibid. 
 
 Benedetto Italy ibid. 
 
 Bianchini .... ibid ibid. 
 
 Angeio Florence., ibid. 
 
 Ferdinand.... Cordova., ibid. 
 
 Bernard Granolachi ibid. 
 
248 
 
 DIALECTICIANS AND SCHOLASTICS. [PART III. 
 
 CLASS II. 
 DIALECTICIANS AND SCHOLASTICS. 
 
 I. Between a. d. 500 and a. d. 1000. 
 
 Flourished. 
 
 Cassiodorus . „ 510 
 
 Boethius Athens. . . . ibid. 
 
 Simplicius .... 550 
 
 Gild as ibid. 
 
 John of Alexandria 620 
 
 Isidore Seville .... ibid. 
 
 Bede Jarrow 720 
 
 Joannes (Damascenus) 770 
 
 Alcuin York 770 
 
 R. Maurus Mentz 830 
 
 Photius Constantinople 850 
 
 Psellus, Sen. . . ibid 850 
 
 Joannes Scotus, sum. Erigona 860 
 
 Leo Constantinople 880 
 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 890 
 900 
 920 
 940 
 ibid' 
 ibid. 
 
 Eustrathius . . . ibid 
 
 Nicephorus . . . ibid 
 
 Magentinus . . Mitylene 
 
 Hincraar Rheims . . . 
 
 Grimbald .... 
 
 Winfrid 
 
 Bridfurth .... 
 
 Dunstan .... Abp. Cant. 
 
 Remigius .... Auxerre . 
 
 Constantine . . Paris .... 
 
 Abbo St. Germain ibid. 
 
 Nanno Friesland . . ibid. 
 
 Baldric Vienna. . . . ibid. 
 
 Gerbert (P. Sylvest.II.) 950 
 
 Herman Mentz .... 980 
 
 II. Between a. d. 1000 and a. v. 1500, 
 
 SCHOLASTICS OF THE FIRST PERIOD. 
 Flourished. 
 
 Lanfranc .„. .Abp. of Cant. 1055 
 Berenger .... Cologne . . 1080 
 
 Fulbert Paris .... ibid. 
 
 Bruno Cologne . . ibid. 
 
 Anselm Abp. of Cant. 1100 
 
 Roscelline Brittany . . ibid. 
 
 Champeaux . . Paris .... ibid. 
 
 Abelard ibid 1120 
 
 P. Lombard . . ibid 1150 
 
 Porretan .... Poictiers . . ibid. 
 
 John of Salisbury. .1160 
 
 Hales Glocester. . 1200 
 
 THE SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 Albert (Mag.).. Cologne .. 1250 
 Bonaventure . . Tuscany . . ibid. 
 Thomas Aquinas Cologne . . ibid. 
 Grosteste . . . .Bp. of Lincoln ibid. 
 Roger Bacon.. Ilchester. . 1260 
 Columna .... Paris .... ibid. 
 Robert de Sorbonne, Paris . . ibid. 
 Duns Scotus . . Oxford, &c. 1290 
 
 Mayro Paris .... ibid. 
 
 Arnaud de . . Ville Neuf . ibid. 
 
 THE THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 Occam Oxford .. 1320 
 
 Durand Clermont . ibid. 
 
 Burley ibid. 
 
 Raymond Lully Majorca . . ibid. 
 
 Wickliffe .... Lutterworth 1360 
 Petrarch .... Tuscany . . ibid. 
 Argyropulus, Constantinople 1440 
 
 Chrysoloras . . ibid ibid. 
 
 Wessel Groningen 1450 
 
 Laur. de Valla Rome ibid. 
 
 Politian de . . Tuscany . . ibid. 
 
 Pletho Constantinople 1480 
 
 Lascaris Florence . . ibid. 
 
CHAP. II.^ ARABIAN MATHEMATICIANS. 249 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE DURING THE 
 MIDDLE A GES. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON THE REVIVAL OF MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE 
 AMONG THE ARABIANS. 
 
 200. Little more than a century had elapsed from 
 the establishment of the Saracenic empire by the 
 military prowess of Mohammed, before those very 
 arts and sciences began to be successfully cultivated 
 at Bagdad, under the patronage of the Khalifs, 
 which had been proscribed and ignominiously 
 banished from Alexandria by the barbarous foun- 
 ders of that empire. Many valuable remains of 
 antiquity had fallen into the hands of the con- 
 querors, which, though at first little regarded, and 
 even held in the utmost contempt, began by degrees 
 to be studied, admired, and translated into their 
 vernacular tongue. Among these were the works 
 of the most celebrated Greek mathematicians, the 
 study of which had the effect of exciting a taste for 
 the abstract sciences, hitherto unknown in that part 
 of the world. 
 
 201. To some of the Arabian mathematicians of 
 the middle ages, Europe is indebted for most valu- 
 able improvements in arithmetic. The invention of 
 
250 ARABIAN MATHEMATICIANS. [[PART III. 
 
 this useful and important science has been traced 
 to very remote antiquity, though it cannot with 
 certainty be determined in what sera, or among 
 what people, it originated. Several distinct periods 
 can also be pointed out in which the art of numeri- 
 cal calculation underwent material improvements. 
 Among these may be particularly noticed the sera 
 of Nicomachus, who was a contemporary of Euclid, 
 and wrote a highly scientific treatise on the theory 
 of numbers ; and that of Claudius Ftolemceus, who 
 flourished about a.d. 200, and is said to have in- 
 vented the sexagesimal arithmetic, or the method of 
 calculating both integral and fractional quantities 
 by sixties. But the most valuable improvement in 
 arithmetical science was introduced, if not invented, 
 by the mathematicians of Arabia about the eighth 
 century. The contrivance to which we refer is, the 
 method of decimal notation, or that by which each 
 figure in the decimal scale is made to change its 
 signification and power, as its position is changed, 
 being increased in value tenfold for every place that 
 it advances towards the left hand. There is no 
 reason to believe that this method of notation was 
 known either to the oriental arithmeticians, or to 
 those of Greece and Rome ; but several Arabic MSS. 
 of the eighth and ninth centuries, still extant, prove 
 it to have been a mode of calculation then generally 
 adopted. Gerbert, a monk of the Low Countries, 
 (who was afterwards raised to the pontifical chair, 
 and assumed the title of Sylvester II.), resided for 
 a considerable time among the Saracens in Spain, 
 for the purpose of becoming acquainted with this 
 
CHAP. II.]] ARABIAN MATHEMATICIANS. 251 
 
 new system of arithmetic, and by him the know- 
 ledge of the art was communicated, about a. d. 960, 
 to the mathematicians of Europe. 
 
 202. It has been much disputed whether Algebra 
 was invented, or only improved, by the Arabians. 
 Some highly respectable authorities (among whom 
 were Cardan and Wallis) incline to the former 
 opinion ; while others, whose authority is at least 
 equal to theirs, have contended for the latter. 
 Professor Playfair, in his elaborate Dissertation on 
 the Origin and Progress of Mathematical Science, 
 prefixed to the supplementary numbers of a late 
 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, asserts, 
 that " the knowledge of algebra was unquestionably 
 transmitted to Europe by the Arabs ; but its in- 
 vention must be sought for much farther to the 
 East, probably not nearer than Hindostan." This is 
 even admitted by the Arabic writers themselves ; for 
 it is stated in some of their MSS. works on this 
 science, that Mohammed Ben Musa (to whom we 
 shall have occasion again to advert as the most 
 eminent of the Arabian mathematicians) travelled 
 into India, about a.d. 959, for the purpose of re- 
 ceiving further instruction in algebraic science. The 
 difference between the algebra of Diophantus, who 
 published a treatise on this subject, in the Greek lan- 
 guage, about a.d. 800, and that of the Arabs, both 
 with respect to the terms employed, and their method 
 of notation, is so great, as to prove that the knowledge 
 they respectively possessed of this science must have 
 been derived from different sources ; and that either 
 the algebra of the latter was self-invented, or derived 
 
252 ARABIAN MATHEMATICIANS. (jPART III. 
 
 from a source with which Diophantus was wholly 
 unacquainted. It is not easy, from the want of 
 sufficient materials on which a judgment may be 
 founded, to determine what progress was actually 
 made by the Arabian arithmeticians in algebra. 
 M. Bossut affirms, that "there are indications in 
 some existing Arabic MSS. that they advanced as 
 far as to the solution of equations of the third and 
 even fourth order, in which they advanced beyond 
 Diophantus, who did not resolve any beyond the 
 second." The Leyden Library, he adds, contains 
 an Arabic MSS. entitled, " The Algebra of Cubic 
 Equations." 
 
 203. The most important service rendered by 
 the Arabian mathematicians to geometrical science, 
 consists in their preservation of many works of the 
 ancients, which, but for them, had inevitably been 
 lost to posterity. Some of these are still only 
 known to Europeans through the medium of Arabic 
 versions ; but with respect to others, the originals, 
 which were long supposed to have perished, have 
 been brought to light by the researches of scientific 
 men in later ages. The " Elements" of Euclid, the 
 treatises of Archimedes " on the Sphere and Cylin- 
 der," the " Spherics" of Theodosius, the treatise of 
 Menelaus on " Spherical Triangles," and the " Conic 
 Sections" of Apollonius Pergoeus, were all perpetu- 
 ated and handed down to posterity by their means ; 
 and with respect to the last of the above-mentioned 
 works, the fifth, sixth, and seventh books have never 
 appeared in their original form, but were printed in 
 an Arabic version at Florence, a.d. 1661. 
 
CHAP. II.3 ARABIAN MATHEMATICIANS. 253 
 
 204. Next to the preservation of the labours of 
 ancient geometricians, may be mentioned the pro- 
 gress made by the Arabians themselves in trigono- 
 metrical science. This was, perhaps, the most 
 defective part of the geometry of the ancients ; but 
 the Arabian mathematicians of the middle ages first 
 applied to this department of science the simple 
 and commodious method of calculation which is now 
 generally adopted. They reduced the resolution 
 both of plain and spherical triangles to a small num- 
 ber of simple propositions ; and by introducing the 
 practice of measuring them by sines, instead of 
 double arcs, rendered calculations, in themselves ex- 
 tremely complicated and difficult, perfectly simple 
 and easy. These important improvements in geo- 
 metrical science are chiefly attributed to Albategni, 
 or Geber, the son of Mahomet, an Arabian prince, 
 (who flourished about a.d. 880,) who, though most 
 celebrated as an astronomer, greatly promoted the 
 science of trigonometry, by the introduction of sines, 
 versed sines, tangents, and secants ; — to Mohammed 
 (Ben Musa), who flourished about the middle of 
 the tenth century, and wrote a work, still extant, 
 on " The Measurement of Plain and Spherical 
 Figures ;" — to Geber (Ben Aphla), a mathematician 
 and astronomer of the eleventh century, who is best 
 known by his laborious and scientific commentary 
 on the works of Ptolemy; — and, more than all, to 
 Ebn Jounis, who flourished under the Khalif 
 Hakem, (about 1050,) who most successfully applied 
 the sexagesimal arithmetic, then in use, to compli- 
 cated trigonometrical calculations and measure- 
 
254 ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. [PART III. 
 
 ments.* To these may be added, an elaborate and 
 elegant work on " Practical Geometry," written, at 
 a somewhat later period, by Mohammed of Bagdad ; 
 a treatise, which some modern writers, who are un- 
 willing to attribute any inventive powers to the 
 Arabians, have ascribed, though without any ade- 
 quate reason, to Euclid. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ON THE ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 205. From the time of Ptolemy, who may be 
 considered as the last of the ancient astronomers, 
 this sublime science, so far from having advanced 
 in any part of Europe or Asia, evidently retrograded 
 and almost disappeared, till nearly the close of the 
 eighth century, when a partial revival of literature 
 and science in general, but especially of astronomy, 
 took place under the auspices of several of the 
 Saracenic Khalifs, who were both distinguished 
 patrons of learning, and scientific philosophers of 
 no mean reputation. (1.) The first of these was 
 Abou Giafar, surnamed Al-Mansor, or the Vic- 
 torious, who reigned about a. d. 760. The period 
 during which this Saracenic Chief presided over 
 the Arabian empire, forms the epoch in which an 
 impulse was given to science, the effects of which 
 were apparent many centuries after his death. The 
 
 * Vide Leslie's Elements of Geometry, pp.373, 374. 
 
CHAP. IlJ ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. 255 
 
 principal object which engaged the attention of the 
 Khalif, and to which all the time which he could 
 spare from public business was devoted, was, the 
 regulation of the calendar by an accurate observation 
 of the motions and revolutions of the sun and moon. 
 Aided by the astronomers whom he gathered around 
 him from all parts of the world, he determined the 
 degree of the obliquity of the ecliptic to be nearly 
 the same as the more accurate observations of modern 
 science have proved it to be ; a discovery which is 
 the more remarkable, on account of the imperfection 
 of the astronomical instruments then in use, the 
 telescope not having been as yet invented. (2.) 
 Al-Haroun, the grandson and successor of Al- 
 Mansor, who reigned from a. d. 786 to 809, and his 
 son, Al-Maimon, who held the caliphate from a. d. 
 813 to 833, carried on with much zeal and assiduity 
 the literary projects of their ancestor. They became 
 eminent astronomers, as well as liberal patrons of 
 the arts. The former of these princes, though 
 chiefly celebrated as a most ingenious mechanician, 
 (and who will therefore be more properly noticed 
 hereafter,) was no mean proficient in the science of 
 astronomy ; but the latter was its most munificent 
 patron and zealous promoter. He seems to have 
 been early imbued with the love of science, by the 
 example and instructions of his preceptor and phy- 
 sician, who professed the Christian religion ; # and 
 
 * Of the literary character of this preceptor of Al-Maimon, 
 the following account is given by Berrington, in his History of the 
 Middle Ages : — " When the son of Mesuach, a young Nestorian 
 Christian, retiring from his own country, first entered Bagdad, he 
 
256 ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. [PART III. 
 
 from the time of his accession to the hour of his 
 death, continued to exert his utmost influence for 
 the advancement of the arts and sciences. He 
 caused all the Greek MSS. on scientific objects, 
 which he could procure, to be translated ; parti- 
 cularly Ptolemy's Almagest, alluded to in a former 
 section, as containing a valuable digest of ancient 
 astronomy. He appropriated much of that wealth, 
 which his predecessors had accumulated, to the 
 purchase of ancient MSS., to the erection of mag- 
 nificent observatories, and to the construction of 
 costly instruments for mathematical and astronomical 
 purposes. Many observations were made by himself 
 in his hours of leisure ; but a far greater number 
 by the men of science whom he summoned to his 
 court from distant provinces. Among the important 
 astronomical undertakings of this reign, the prin- 
 cipal were — to verify the observations made by the 
 preceding Khalif, relative to the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic — to measure a degree of the earth, both on 
 the plains of Sinaar and those of Cusa (by which 
 it was determined that the entire circumference of 
 the globe amounted to 24,000 miles)—- and to com- 
 pile from all the astronomical works of antiquity 
 
 appeared to have discovered a new world. He saw that the fol- 
 lowers of Christ and of Mahomet were there engaged in the 
 pursuit of the liberal arts. Here then he remained, applying 
 himself to medicine, philosophy, and astronomy. His acquire- 
 ments became great, and his knowledge of languages extensive; 
 whence, himself being a treasure of learning, he was chosen to 
 attend on Prince Al-Maimon, the son of the Caliph Al-Raschid, 
 and to accompany him on an important embassy." — P. 647. 
 
CHAP. Il/] ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. 257 
 
 a complete digest of the science,, in a work still 
 existing, though of great rarity, entitled " Astronomia 
 elaborata a compluribus DD., Jussu regis Maimon." 
 
 206. Our first attention having been paid to the 
 royal astronomers of this age, it is requisite next 
 to advert to those of inferior station, but probably 
 of far superior science, who flourished under their 
 auspices, or about the same period. The most dis- 
 tinguished of these, (as far as a judgment can now 
 be formed respecting them, either by their writings 
 or the brief notices of ancient historians,) were 
 Alfragan, Thebit, Albategni, and Alkendi. 
 
 (1.) Alfragan, who flourished a. d. 850, is best 
 known as the author of a work, entitled " Elements 
 of Astronomy," which was considered at the time, 
 and long continued to be esteemed, a standard work 
 in that department of science. He wrote also 
 treatises on " Solar Clocks and the Astrolabe," which 
 still exist in MS. On account of the facility with 
 which he made the most difficult and complicated 
 arithmetical and algebraic calculations, he was de- 
 signated by his contemporaries, the Calculator, 
 
 (2.) Thebit was nearly contemporary with the 
 last-mentioned astronomer. Though none of his 
 writings have been discovered, it may be gathered, 
 from the testimony of others, that he rendered im- 
 portant services to astronomical science " by his 
 attentive observations on the sun's motion, with 
 relation to the fixed stars ; thus determining, with a 
 precision which is most remarkable, the length of 
 the solar and sidereal years." He was, however, 
 misled by the Ptolemaic system, the only one then 
 
258 ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. [PART III. 
 
 known ; and in order to reconcile his observation 
 of facts with that system, was compelled to invent 
 theories both unphilosophical and contrary to truth. 
 
 (3.) Albategni, the third and by far the most 
 distinguished of the above-mentioned astronomers, 
 flourished towards the beginning of the tenth 
 century. He was designated (and not without 
 reason) the Arabian Ptolemy, though he might 
 with greater justice have been honoured with the 
 name of Hipparchus, since he not only resembled 
 the astronomer of Alexandria in the number and 
 extent of his observations, but, possessing a genius 
 like that of Hipparchus, seems almost to have 
 anticipated the discoveries of future ages. The 
 most important of the astronomical researches of 
 Albategni related to the precession of the equinoxes, 
 which he determined to amount to one degree in 
 seventy years— to the eccentricity of the solar orbit, 
 which he found to be precisely such as modern 
 astronomers have fully demonstrated it to be — to 
 the calculation of the length of the year, which 
 differs but two minutes from the true time — to 
 the variations in the sun's apogee, which, till then, 
 had never been observed — and to the irregularities 
 of the planetary motions, which, though only con- 
 jectured by him, modern science has proved, and 
 satisfactorily explained. The works of Albategni 
 have been long since published, in one quarto volume, 
 under the title of " Scientia Stellarum." 
 
 (4.) Alkendi, who flourished somewhat earlier 
 than Albategni, though far inferior in science, is 
 eulogized in the most extravagant terms by the 
 
CHAP. II.3 ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. 259 
 
 historians of this period. He was styled u the root 
 of the age, the phoenix in the circle of the sciences, 
 and the great Arabian philosopher ;" and if his 
 scientific attainments could be fairly estimated by 
 the number of subjects on which he wrote, he must 
 have merited in some degree these high commen- 
 dations ; for, from his pen, proceeded works on 
 geometry, arithmetic, algebra, astronomy, logic, 
 pneumatology, medicine, music, with many others 
 too numerous to mention. 
 
 207. Besides those already adverted to, many 
 other mathematicians and astronomers have been 
 enumerated by the historians of this period, of less 
 distinguished reputation. Among these may be 
 mentioned some natives of Arabia, who settled in 
 Spain, and being powerfully patronized by the princes 
 of the house of Omar, (commonly designated the 
 Ommiades^) founded schools of astronomy in the 
 chief cities, erected observatories at great expense, 
 and undertook scientific works of immense labour. 
 Such were — Arsaclwl, a Spanish Moor, who observed 
 the obliquity of the eclipses, applied the principles 
 of trigonometry to the measurement of the distances 
 of the heavenly bodies, and prepared and arranged, 
 with prodigious industry, a series of astronomical 
 tables, entitled " Tabulae Toledanae," from the city 
 of Toledo, in which the observations were made — 
 Geber of Grenada, chiefly known as a translator 
 and commentator of the "Almagest" — Ahnansor, 
 Averroes of Corduba, with many others. 
 
 208. But passing over these, it is requisite to no- 
 tice more distinctly three astronomers who flourished 
 
 s 2 
 
260 ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. [PART III. 
 
 at different periods and in distant countries, though 
 they were ardently devoted to the same scientific 
 pursuits. These were respectively natives of Egypt, 
 Persia, and Tartary, and were the principal astro- 
 nomers of the several ages in which they lived. 
 
 (1.) During the caliphate of Azir Ben Hakem, 
 that is, about the end of the twelfth century, Ibn 
 Ionis, or Ebn Younis, distinguished himself by his 
 knowledge of astronomy, in a country which may 
 almost be considered the birth-place of that noble 
 science. The details of his scientific observations are 
 contained in his " Survey of the Heavens ;" a work 
 which still exists in MS. in the Leyden Library, 
 and contains an accurate description of twenty- 
 eight eclipses that occurred between A. D. 829 and 
 1004 — seven observations of equinoxes between 830 
 and 851 — and one of the summer solstice in 832. 
 Three of the eclipses, which happened in 977, 978, 
 and 979, afforded him an opportunity of observing 
 and accurately measuring the quantity of the moon's 
 acceleration — an observation for which subsequent 
 astronomers owe him great obligations. 
 
 (2.) Nassir Eddin flourished about a. d. 1264, 
 during the administration of Houlager Khan, one of 
 the descendants of the celebrated warrior, Genghis 
 Khan. The astronomical observations of Nassir 
 Eddin were chiefly made at Tauris in Media, where 
 an observatory had been erected by the liberality of 
 the Khan, and a considerable body of astronomers 
 were assembled, over whom Nassir presided. He 
 composed several works on astronomy, among 
 which were u a Theory of the Motions of the 
 
CHAP. IT .]] ARABIAN ASTRONOMERS. 261 
 
 Heavenly Bodies, a Treatise on the Astrolabe, and 
 a large collection of Astronomical Tables." 
 
 (3.) Ulugh Beg, grandson of Tamerlane, the 
 Tartar Chief, greatly excelled in practical astronomy, 
 at a period in which literature and science seemed 
 almost extinct — about a. d. 1437. He is celebrated 
 partly on account of the magnitude of the astrono- 
 mical instruments with which his observations were 
 made — the quadrant or gnomon, employed by him, 
 being said to equal in height the church of St. So- 
 phia, in Constantinople, i. e. about 180 feet — partly 
 because of the astronomical tables which he com- 
 posed from his own observations for the meridian of 
 Samarcand, the capital of his empire, and which were 
 so exact as to differ but in a slight degree from 
 those of Tycho Brahe, the Danish astronomer ; but 
 chiefly on account of his catalogue of the fixed stars, 
 made A. d. 1437, which was far more complete than 
 that of any preceding astronomer. Several of the 
 works of Ulugh Beg have been printed, and MS. 
 copies of the rest are preserved in the libraries of 
 the curious. This munificent patron of science, and 
 distinguished scholar, was assassinated by his own 
 son in the fifty-eighth year of his age, and with him 
 the literature of Persia expired. 
 
262 ARABIAN NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 ON THE PROGRESS OF EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY 
 AMONG THE ARABIANS. 
 
 209. In the two preceding sections, a sketch has 
 been presented of the literature of Arabia during 
 the middle ages ; from which it will appear, that 
 both the mathematical sciences and astronomy were 
 cultivated successfully in that part of the world, 
 when they had almost ceased to exist in every other. 
 These, however, were not the only departments of 
 physical science, to which attention was given by 
 the philosophers of Arabia, during the period under 
 review. Though the far greater number of the 
 literati of those dark ages were geometricians, alge- 
 braists, and astronomers, proofs are not wanting, 
 that some among them made a considerable pro- 
 ficiency in mechanical and optical science ; and it is 
 well known that to this asra of intellectual darkness, 
 and to the Arabians especially, must be traced the 
 origin of the science of chemistry, than which per- 
 haps none, in the whole circle of the sciences, has 
 been productive of more valuable results. Few are 
 the individuals, it is true, whose names have been 
 preserved in connexion with these several depart- 
 ments of practical philosophy, and still fewer the 
 proofs which remain of their unwearied industry 
 and patient researches ; but the more rare their 
 occurrence, and the more scanty our information 
 concerning them, the more desirable it is, that the 
 
CHAP. II J ARABIAN NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS. 263 
 
 few scattered facts which can be collected from the 
 records of past ages, respecting these individuals and 
 their works, should be preserved. 
 
 210. In vain shall we look for an Archimedes 
 among either the European or the Asiatic philoso- 
 phers of the middle ages ; but enough is known to 
 make it evident that mechanical science was not 
 wholly lost. In proof of this, it will be sufficient 
 to adduce a single fact, which is related of Haroun, 
 the grandson of Almansor, to whom we have already 
 referred as a celebrated astronomer. That prince 
 was a contemporary of Charlemagne, the celebrated 
 French monarch, who was also a munificent patron 
 of literature and the arts. Haroun, having deter- 
 mined to send an embassy to Charlemagne, (a.d. 
 799,) at the same time charged his ambassador with 
 a present,, which was then deemed little less than 
 miraculous, and which, it must be acknowledged, 
 has rarely been surpassed even by modern science. 
 This was a clepsydra, or water-clock, of most inge- 
 nious construction. In the dial-plate were twelve 
 doors at equal distances, on which were inscribed 
 the hours successively ; each of those doors opened 
 in its turn, and let fall, upon a brazen bell, a suffi- 
 cient number of balls to strike the proper hour of 
 the day. They continued open till twelve o'clock, 
 when twelve little knights, mounted on horseback, 
 issued simultaneously from a part of the machine, pa- 
 raded round the dial, and having closed the twelve 
 doors, as suddenly retired. That the construction of 
 such an instrument, in such an age, should have 
 astonished all Europe, is not surprising ; and it may 
 
264 ARABIAN NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III, 
 
 not unreasonably be concluded, that the mechanical 
 science which was requisite to produce so curious an 
 instrument of measuring time, must have produced 
 many others of far greater utility and importance. 
 
 211. During the twelfth century, Alhazen, a cele- 
 brated Arabian astronomer, flourished and wrote ; 
 who is introduced in this place, because his scien- 
 tific researches chiefly related to optical science. 
 He made numerous experiments on refracted and 
 reflected light, and on the phenomena of vision, — 
 subjects which had either escaped the attention of 
 the ancients, or in the investigation of which they 
 were unsuccessful. By his accurate observation of 
 facts, he succeeded in discovering some phenomena 
 before unknown, and in explaining others previously 
 deemed inexplicable. On the principle of refraction, 
 he accounted for the enlarged appearance of bodies 
 immersed in water, or seen through crystalline 
 substances— the increased apparent magnitude of 
 the heavenly bodies, when near the horizon — and 
 all the phenomena of twilight. This refraction he 
 supposed to depend not on the density of the vapours 
 accumulated near the surface of the earth, but on 
 the difference of transparency between the atmo- 
 spheric air which surrounds the globe, and an ima- 
 ginary ethereal matter placed beyond it. Following 
 up this theory, he proposed rules by which to ascer- 
 tain the difference between the real and apparent 
 place of any given star. Whatever may have been 
 the success of Alhazen in his experiments on optics, 
 to him unquestionably belongs the honour of having 
 directed the attention of future philosophers to a 
 
CHAP. II.] ARABIAN NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS. 265 
 
 highly interesting and important branch of physical 
 science. His theory on this, and many similar sub- 
 jects, is fully explained in several of his treatises on 
 optics, which still exist, and are deemed great literary 
 curiosities. 
 
 212. The first rude notions of Chemistry, re- 
 garded as a branch of experimental philosophy, 
 originated among the Arabians, about the tenth 
 century, under the name of Alchemy, an Arabic 
 term, which denotes, " a knowledge of the substance 
 or composition" of any thing. An ingenious modern 
 writer has traced still higher the origin of this 
 science, by attributing it to the New Platonists, or 
 Eclectic philosophers of the third century; while 
 some have traced it yet farther back (as already 
 stated), to the ancient Egyptians, to Moses, and even 
 to the antediluvians. But whatever opinion may be 
 formed respecting the origin of the science, it is 
 agreed by all to refer to the Arabians of the middle 
 ages the practical exercise of the art of alchemy, 
 (properly so called,) or the decomposition and 
 analysis of natural substances for the purpose of 
 ascertaining their qualities and relations. The two 
 leading objects proposed by the alchemists were, 
 the transmutation of common metals into gold and 
 silver, and the discovery of an universal medicine, 
 which, by the removal or prevention of disease, should 
 confer immortality on its possessor. It is not diffi- 
 cult to account for the origin of these extravagant 
 expectations in so dark and superstitious an age. 
 When it was perceived that metallic ores, and many 
 other natural substances, changed their appear- 
 
266 ARABIAN NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III. 
 
 ances, and evinced new qualities, when variously 
 combined or exposed to the action of heat, it was 
 natural that some chimerical notion, like that of 
 the philosopher's stone, should spring up in the 
 minds of persons peculiarly fond of the marvellous, 
 and as yet unpractised in experimental philosophy. 
 
 213. The rage for this species of chemical re- 
 searches lasted many centuries, though it was con- 
 fined to comparatively few individuals. Its earliest 
 traces may be perceived in the seventh or eighth 
 century, and it attained its height during the 
 sixteenth, or just before the revival of letters. 
 
 The first of the alchemists of Arabia known to 
 posterity is Geher, whose personal history has not 
 been preserved, though some of his writings remain. 
 He is said to have flourished during the seventh 
 century, to have been a celebrated physician and 
 astronomer, and to have written a great variety 
 of works on alchemy. The principal which have 
 been attributed to him bear the following titles : 
 " On Alchemy ;" " On the chief Perfection of 
 Metals ;" " On the Philosopher's Stone ;" and " On 
 the Art of discovering Gold and Silver." During 
 the ninth and tenth centuries, several Arabian 
 physicians, of whom Avicenna was the most distin- 
 guished, practised and wrote on the art of alchemy. 
 In the three following centuries, the number of 
 professed adepts, as they were then termed, or 
 skilful practitioners in chemical philosophy, was 
 greatly multiplied — the most laborious processes 
 were carried on with exemplary patience — and the 
 most romantic expectations indulged of ultimate 
 
CHAP. II.^ EUROPEAN MATHEMATICIANS. 267 
 
 success. " But though the alchemists failed in the 
 execution of their grand project, many useful dis- 
 coveries were made by them, while vainly spending 
 their time and labour in attempts to make silver 
 and gold. Some important combinations were pro- 
 duced, by which pharmacy has been enriched, and 
 the science of medicine promoted. The method of 
 preparing alcohol, aqua-fortis, volatile alkali, vitriolic 
 acid, gunpowder, and many other chemical com- 
 pounds, might have remained unknown, but for the 
 persevering labours and patient experiments of the 
 alchemists of the middle ages." 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 ON THE EUROPEAN MATHEMATICIANS AND ASTRONOMERS 
 OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 214. The partial revival of literature and science 
 in Arabia, has been first noticed, because it pre- 
 ceded, in the order of time, that which took place in 
 Europe during the twelfth and two following cen- 
 turies ; and, because the impulse was first received 
 from Arabian scholars, which subsequently extended 
 itself over the European continent. Having taken 
 a very cursory view of the state of mathematical and 
 physical science in the East, after its expulsion from 
 Greece and Egypt, we now return to that portion 
 of the world, which has, for many ages, excelled 
 every other in civilization and general knowledge. 
 Passing over a period of not less than six or seven 
 
268 EUROPEAN MATHEMATICIANS. [[PART III. 
 
 centuries, we recommence our review of European 
 literature with the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury ; and as, at that period, mathematical and 
 astronomical science kept pace with each other, and 
 were usually cultivated by the same individuals, they 
 will be jointly considered in this place. 
 
 215. Spain and Italy were the two provinces of 
 Europe that first caught the reflected rays of 
 science from Arabia. In the former of these coun- 
 tries, the revival of knowledge is chiefly to be 
 attributed to the residence of eminent Arabian 
 scholars in some of its principal cities — the esta- 
 blishment of schools and colleges— and the collection 
 of large and valuable libraries, consisting of MSS. on 
 every department of science. Into the latter country 
 (Italy) it seems to have been rather accidentally 
 than designedly introduced. Leonardo, an opulent 
 merchant of Pisa, visited the Asiatic provinces for pur- 
 poses of commerce. During his temporary residence 
 at Bagdad, he associated frequently with the Arabian 
 literati of that city, and made himself acquainted 
 with their most important discoveries, especially those 
 which related to arithmetic and algebra, in both 
 which sciences he became a distinguished proficient. 
 The knowledge thus acquired, he lost no time in 
 imparting to his countrymen ; and, by doing this, 
 obtained the honour of introducing into Europe, a 
 science before wholly unknown, but which has ever 
 since occupied a chief place among the objects of 
 human intelligence. Though he was well known 
 to have left many valuable MSS. (chiefly on the 
 new algebraic science,) none were supposed to have 
 
CHAP. II.] EUROPEAN MATHEMATICIANS. 269 
 
 escaped the wreck of ages, till about the close of 
 the last century ; when a learned Italian referred to 
 a MS. written by Leonardo of Pisa, which he had 
 discovered in a monastic library, bearing the date 
 of a. d. 1202, and which has since been published. 
 From this ancient document it is evident, that its 
 author was a skilful algebraist ; that he was not un- 
 acquainted with the problems of Diophantus ; and 
 that he had, at least, proceeded as far as to the reso- 
 lution of cubic equations. 
 
 216. In a more advanced period of the same 
 century, several mathematicians and astronomers 
 flourished in different parts of Europe, whom it will 
 be sufficient cursorily to notice. (1.) Jordanus 
 Nemorarius, author of a treatise on the Astrolabe, 
 and a work on Arithmetic, in ten books. (2.) John 
 of Halifax, (better known by the name of Sacro- 
 bosco), an Englishman by birth, but resident at 
 Paris, as professor of mathematics. His principal 
 work, on " the Sphere/' acquired great celebrity ; 
 besides which, he wrote treatises on the Astrolabe, 
 the Calendar, and the Arabian Arithmetic. He 
 flourished about a. d. 1250. (3.) Companies of 
 Novara, is best known as one of the first European 
 Commentators on Euclid's Elements ; and also as the 
 author of several works on astronomy, which were 
 designed to make known the discoveries of the an- 
 cient astronomers, together with the improvements 
 which had been more recently suggested by the 
 Arabians. (4.) To the preceding may be added, 
 Gerard of Cremona, and his illustrious patron, the 
 Emperor Frederic II ; the latter of whom liberally 
 
270 EUROPEAN ASTRONOMERS. [PART III. 
 
 patronized the arts, by founding the university of 
 Naples ; and the former, having been appointed its 
 first professor of astronomy, rendered an important 
 service to science, by translating, from the Arabic 
 into Latin, the Almagest of Ptolemy, with Geber's 
 Commentary ; those parts of Aristotle's writings 
 which relate to Physics ; and Alhazen's treatise on 
 Twilight, besides composing several original works. 
 (5.) A name far more celebrated in the history of 
 science than any of the above-mentioned mathe- 
 maticians, must not be passed over in this place, 
 though we shall reserve for a future section, the 
 more distinct record of his scientific discoveries. 
 This was Roger Bacon, an English friar, who was 
 born a. d. 1214, and died in 1294. When the 
 ignorance of the age in which he lived, and of the 
 monks with whom he associated, compared with his 
 almost universal knowledge, is considered, it must 
 be acknowledged that he was a prodigy of genius 
 and erudition ; and that very few, either in ancient 
 or modern times, have surpassed him, either in origi- 
 nality of invention, or in profundity of research. 
 
 217. The thirteenth century is chiefly memo- 
 rable in the annals of astronomical science, as 
 the sera in which the celebrated Alphonsine 
 Tables were prepared by the united labours of 
 the most distinguished astronomers of the age, 
 both Asiatic and European, whether Christians, 
 Saracens, or Jews. They derive their name from 
 Alphonsus II. who reigned in Castile, a.d. 1240. 
 Their object was to correct the errors which had 
 been discovered in the calculations of Ptolemy, and 
 
CHAP. II.]] EUROPEAN ASTRONOMERS. 271 
 
 produce a new series, more complete and accurate 
 than any which had preceded them. The expense 
 incurred by this scientific undertaking is said, by 
 some historians of that age, to have exceeded 40,000, 
 and by others 400,000 ducats. As soon as the Al- 
 phonsine Tables were made public, they attracted the 
 attention of the principal mathematicians and astro- 
 nomers both of Europe and Asia ; several of whom 
 wrote treatises explanatory of their details, or in- 
 tended to correct their supposed errors. 
 
 218. The following century (the fourteenth) was 
 one in which true science manifestly declined 
 throughout Europe, in consequence of the ecclesi- 
 astical domination maintained by the clergy, and 
 the frivolous logomachies of the scholastics, to which 
 we shall allude more particularly hereafter. Scarcely 
 do the literary annals of that age furnish us with 
 the name of an individual, who excelled either in 
 mathematics or astronomy, though many were 
 laboriously employed in writing commentaries on 
 the works of the ancients. One exception to the 
 above remark must be made in favour of Richard of 
 Swineshead, who taught the mathematics and astro- 
 nomy in the university of Oxford, about A. d. 1350. 
 His works chiefly " consist of profound and subtle 
 applications of algebraic calculations to physics and 
 metaphysics." He wrote treatises " on astronomical 
 calculations," which indicate, to say the least, the 
 patient industry and ingenuity of their writer, and 
 his great skill in algebraic processes. Passing over 
 this inauspicious aera, we shall immediately advance 
 to the fifteenth century, during which these sciences 
 
272 EUROPEAN ASTRONOMERS. [PART III. 
 
 experienced a partial revival, and some highly gifted 
 individuals arose, whose genius illumined the age 
 and country in which they lived. 
 
 219. The first of these, in the order of time, 
 was Lucas de Burgo, an Italian monk of the 
 Franciscan order, who, after having employed 
 several years in the East, in assiduous studies, 
 brought thence a mass of scientific information, 
 which qualified him to sustain the office of professor 
 of mathematics and astronomy in the recently 
 founded universities of Naples, Venice, and Milan. 
 His principal works were, " A Latin Version of 
 Euclid's Elements," with notes ; a treatise u on 
 Algebra," in his native tongue ; and " Elements of 
 Geometry," prepared by himself; with several other 
 tracts on philosophical subjects, to which his atten- 
 tion had been directed by the Arabians. 
 
 The Cardinal, Nicholas de Cusa, who flourished 
 about a.d. 1445, is chiefly celebrated on account of 
 his attempt to revive the Pythagorean notion of the 
 earth's motion round the sun, in opposition to the 
 Ptolemaic, which then universally prevailed. It is 
 not a little extraordinary that an opinion so contrary 
 to the orthodox faith in philosophy, should have been 
 propagated with impunity in such an age ; the 
 announcement and vindication of which, nearly two 
 centuries after, consigned Galileo to the dungeons 
 of the Inquisition. It is probable that Nicholas 
 owed his safety to his high ecclesiastical rank, and 
 to the universal rejection of his theory. 
 
 220. Purbach next occurs among the mathema- 
 ticians of the fifteenth century. He was born 
 
CHAP. IlJ EUROPEAN ASTRONOMERS. 273 
 
 A. d. 1421, and died in 1461. Attracted to Vienna 
 by the liberal patronage of Frederic II., he succeeded 
 Gmunden as professor of astronomy in the university 
 recently founded by the emperor in that city. 
 There he acquired great celebrity by his scientific 
 discoveries and his writings. His first object was 
 to produce an accurate translation of Ptolemy's 
 "Almagest." This had been often attempted, but 
 every previous attempt had failed. He next di- 
 rected his attention to the improved construction 
 of celestial spheres and globes, in which the stars 
 and constellations then known to astronomers were 
 more accurately laid down. Thence he proceeded 
 to form new and enlarged tables of the fixed stars, 
 and determine their relative positions. In addition 
 to these his principal labours, Purbach employed 
 all his leisure time in writing numerous treatises 
 on arithmetic, algebra, geometry, astronomy, and 
 several other departments of natural philosophy. 
 Nor was it the least valuable of the services ren- 
 dered by this eminent astronomer, that he first 
 introduced into trigonometry those abbreviations 
 which are now generally adopted, by means of 
 which calculations in that science have been 
 greatly facilitated. 
 
 221. But the brightest luminary of this dark 
 age was Muller, better known by the name of 
 Regiomontanus, which he derived from the place of 
 his birth. To the literary eminence of this disciple 
 and successor of Purbach, a modern writer of high 
 authority has borne the following honourable 
 testimony : " Regiomontanus is the mathematician 
 
274 EUROPEAN ASTRONOMERS. [PART III. 
 
 who holds the highest rank among those of the 
 fifteenth century. To him we owe many translations 
 and commentaries, together with several original 
 and valuable works of his own. Trigonometry, 
 which had never been known to the Greeks as a 
 separate science, and which took that form in 
 Arabia, advanced, in the hands of Regiomontanus, 
 to a great degree of perfection, and approached very 
 near to the condition which it has attained at the 
 present day. He also introduced the use of decimal 
 fractions into arithmetic, and thus gave to that scale 
 its full extent, and to numerical computation the 
 utmost degree of simplicity and enlargement which 
 it seems capable of attaining."* Among the versions 
 effected by Regiomontanus, were latin translations 
 of " the Conies of Apollonius" — " the Cylindrics of 
 Serenus"— " the Mechanical Questions of Aristotle"— 
 "i the Pneumatics of Hero," and " Ptolemy's Almagest," 
 all of which versions were enriched by him with 
 highly important annotations. Among his original 
 works were, treatises on the " Theory of Comets 
 and Planets" — on the "Armillary Astrolabe"— on 
 " Plane and Spherical Triangles" — and "Ephemerides" 
 for thirty years to come. This distinguished pro- 
 moter of science was cut off in the prime of life, 
 while making a series of astronomical observations 
 at Rome ; and u his early death," (which took 
 place a. d. 1476, in the fortieth year of his age,) 
 " amidst innumerable projects for the advancement 
 of science, is even at this day a matter of regret." 
 
 * Playfair's Dissertat. apud Encyc. Britt. 
 
CHAP. IlJ PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. 275 
 
 222. A few names occur in the annals of scientific 
 philosophy, towards the close of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, which it will be sufficient merely to enumerate, 
 since they were far inferior to the two illustrious 
 individuals mentioned above. These were, Walther, 
 a citizen of Nuremberg, who attempted to carry on 
 the projects which were left unfinished by Regio- 
 montanus ; Werner, of the same place, who is said 
 to have been " the first of the moderns that became 
 acquainted with the method of geometrical analysis ;" 
 Benedetto, an Italian mathematician, who followed 
 in the same track, though with unequal steps ; 
 Bianchini of Bologna ; Angela, a Florentine ; En- 
 gelius, a Bavarian ; Ferdinand of Cordova, in 
 Spain ; and Bernard of Granolachi, in the same 
 country. All of these are included in the list of 
 persons who contributed in a greater or less degree 
 to promote mathematical and astronomical science, 
 in different parts of Europe, about the time of 
 the revival of letters. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 ON THE STATE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN EUROPE 
 DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 223. The number of practical philosophers (who 
 flourished in Europe during the dark ages) whose 
 names, and the record of whose scientific labours has 
 been preserved, is extremely small. There may have 
 
 t2 
 
276 PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III. 
 
 been many more who silently and without observa- 
 tion prosecuted their favourite studies, at a period in 
 which scholastic subtilties and dialectic disputations 
 were alone the order of the day, and when scientific 
 discoveries were attributed to demoniacal agency 
 and witchcraft. But if there were such, their me- 
 mory and works have, for the most part, perished 
 amidst the darkness of the age in which it was their 
 unhappiness to live. A few individuals were more 
 fortunate, of whom it is proposed in the present 
 section to give a brief account. 
 
 It will be remembered, that, when reviewing the 
 scientific discoveries of the Arabians, mention was 
 made of a celebrated clepsydra, or water clock, pre- 
 sented by Al-Haroun to the Emperor Charlemagne. 
 In imitation of this ingenious piece of mechanism, 
 several Europeans, in subsequent ages, exerted 
 their utmost skill and science in the construction 
 of curious automata. Among the earliest of these 
 were, Gerbert (afterwards Pope Sylvester II.), who 
 flourished during the tenth century ; and Albert 
 (surnamedthe Great), who lived nearly three centuries 
 later. Gerbert spent his youth in the study of 
 the mathematics ; but, in more advanced life, he 
 brought his geometrical science to bear on practical 
 physics. Combining theory with mechanical skill, 
 he constructed spheres for astronomical uses ; ob- 
 served the stars through tubes ; invented a clock, 
 which marked the hours with tolerable accuracy, 
 and pointed out the courses of the stars ; and built 
 an organ, which produced musical sounds, by forcing 
 currents of water with wind through brazen pipes 
 
CHAP. II. J PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. 277 
 
 of different length and thickness. These wondrous 
 inventions were more than sufficient, in that age, 
 to procure him the reputation of a magician, and 
 expose him to the hatred of his brethren. Albert 
 was the author of numerous treatises on arithmetic, 
 geometry, algebra, astronomy, and mechanics, be- 
 sides many others on metaphysics, ethics, and 
 scholastic theology. He is said to have chiefly 
 excelled in mechanical science ; in proof of which 
 it is stated, that he constructed the automaton figure 
 of a man, who opened the door of the machine in 
 which he was deposited, and uttered certain articu- 
 late sounds, as if in reply to questions addressed 
 to him. It is further stated, that the renowned 
 angelical doctor, Thomas Aquinas, was so terrified 
 when he heard the vocal sounds uttered by this 
 automaton, as to lift up his staff, and break it in 
 pieces, imagining that he had thereby obtained a 
 signal victory over the Prince of Darkness. 
 
 224. The century immediately succeeding that 
 in which Albert flourished, (the 14th,) was yet 
 more favourable to mechanical science. Machines 
 of greater practical utility were then constructed, 
 and applied to the ordinary purposes of life. Among 
 these may be mentioned, as highly important in its 
 consequences, the invention of paper mills, attributed 
 to Ulmar Strame, a senator of Nuremberg, who 
 flourished about a. d. 1350. The manufacture of 
 clocks, moving by weights and pulleys, is also 
 attributed to this age, though the original inventor 
 is unknown. Of those who excelled in this de- 
 partment of mechanical science, the annals of this 
 
278 PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. £PART III. 
 
 century record with distinguished honour the name 
 of Wallingford, an English monk, who both wrote 
 a scientific treatise on the subject, (still preserved in 
 the Bodleian Library,) and constructed a chronometer, 
 that pointed out by its movements the courses of the 
 sun and moon, the state of the tides, with several 
 other curious properties, which were then considered 
 almost miraculous. In imitation of this English 
 phenomenon, an ingenious philosopher of Padua 
 constructed a clock, which marked the hours, the 
 motions of the heavenly bodies, the days, months, 
 and sacred festivals, throughout the year. It is, 
 however, probable, that though constructed on a 
 different principle, both the last-mentioned machines 
 were but imitations of the celebrated clepsydra of 
 Al-Haroun. To Friar Bacon, (whom we shall have 
 occasion repeatedly to mention during our review 
 of the middle ages,) mechanics, as well as almost 
 all other physical sciences, were greatly indebted. 
 Dr. Friend, one of the biographers of that dis- 
 tinguished philosopher, ascribes to him a variety of 
 mechanical contrivances for the rarefaction of air, 
 which probably prepared the way for the important 
 invention of the air-pump; and scruples not to 
 affirm, that Roger Bacon was " the miracle of his 
 age, and possessed perhaps the greatest genius 
 for mechanical science, that has been known since 
 the days of Archimedes." 
 
 225. Though this eulogium on Bacon may be 
 somewhat exaggerated, there is no doubt that he 
 stands pre-eminent in one important division of 
 philosophical science, and was most successful in his 
 
CHAP. II.3 PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. 279 
 
 discoveries. We refer to his experiments in optics, 
 which sufficiently prove the unwearied assiduity 
 with which he pursued the path of true philosophy, 
 in an age of ignorance and gross delusion. No one 
 appears to have preceded him in this track among 
 the philosophers of Europe, except Vitello of Poland, 
 who flourished about a.d. 1270, and who had made 
 some useful observations and experiments on re- 
 fracted light, the rainbow, and the human eye. 
 Vitello ascribed the refraction of rays to the resist- 
 ance which they suffer in passing from a denser to 
 a rarer medium, though he was unable fully to ex- 
 plain the cause, and still less to measure the degree 
 of that resistance. The science of optics was re- 
 duced by Vitello to a more regular form than it had 
 previously assumed ; general principles were stated 
 and imperfectly established ; and tables, shewing 
 the results of experiments on the refractive powers 
 of air, water, and glass, were drawn up by him 
 with great care and accuracy. But Roger Bacon 
 far outstripped his predecessors in this branch of 
 science. It would appear from his writings, that 
 the principle of lenses of various kinds, reflecting 
 mirrors, magnifying glasses, the camera obscura, 
 and many similar inventions, was understood by him ; 
 though their practical uses had not yet been dis- 
 covered. The most important application of lenses 
 to assist vision by the construction of spectacles, 
 some have ascribed to Bacon ; but it is generally 
 believed to belong to the close of the eentury in 
 which he flourished.* 
 
 * Vide " Smith's Optics," p. 80, where the question of the 
 origin of this invention is fully discussed, and the period assigned 
 
280 PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III. 
 
 226. But though posterity may have been dis- 
 posed to attach most value to the optical researches 
 and discoveries of Friar Bacon, it is evident, from 
 his own statement, contained in his most celebrated 
 work, entitled " Opus Majus" that he estimated 
 most highly his experiments in Alchemy. " His 
 writings on this subject," says a scientific modern 
 author, " though troubled and polluted by the 
 reigning absurdities of alchemy, contain many curious 
 facts and judicious observations. His two principal 
 works were entitled '■ Opus Majus, and ' Epistola 
 de Secreiis Operihus Artis et Natures ;' the former of 
 which breathes sentiments which would do honour 
 to the most refined periods of science, and in which 
 many of the advantages likely to be derived from 
 that mode of investigation insisted upon by his great 
 successor (Chancellor Bacon) are anticipated.*" — 
 A striking proof of the justice of this remark has 
 been recently afforded ; for Homberg, a celebrated 
 French experimentalist, availing himself of some 
 hints of chemical combinations suggested by Friar 
 Bacon in the thirteenth century, has not long since 
 made some important discoveries in that science. 
 Many proofs might be gathered from the works of 
 this great philosopher, that he was enabled by his 
 penetration and accuracy of experiment to antici- 
 
 to it is a. d. 1313. — Bossut, in his History of Mathematics, 
 affirms, that " the invention of spectacles belongs to the close of 
 the thirteenth century, and that we are indebted for it to the 
 Italians. Incontestable proofs exist, that the first glasses of this 
 kind were constructed by Alexander de Spina, a Jacobin friar, 
 who died at Pisa, in 1313. 
 
 * Brande's Dissertation, apud Encyc. Britt. New Sup. 
 
CHAP. II.]] PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. 281 
 
 pate the discoveries of subsequent ages. Whatever 
 opinion may be formed respecting the invention of 
 gunpowder, which has wrought such an entire revo- 
 lution in the art of war, it is certain, that if not 
 actually invented by Roger Bacon, he pointed out 
 the chemical combinations by which it is produced, 
 and described the effects of such combination as 
 causing " an imitation of thunder and lightning." 
 " From saltpetre and other ingredients," he writes, 
 " we are able to form a fire which will burn to any 
 distance." And in another place, " a small portion 
 of matter, about the size of a thumb, properly dis- 
 posed, will make a tremendous sound and corus- 
 cation, by which cities and armies might be de- 
 stroyed." He also mentions, in another part of the 
 same work, " a substance resembling phosphorus," 
 and which he terms " a fire prepared by art, that 
 cannot be extinguished." 
 
 227. From the time of this celebrated experi- 
 mental philosopher, to that of the revival of letters, 
 scarcely can an individual be pointed out who may 
 claim distinct notice on account of improvements in 
 physical science, if we except those connected with 
 two important discoveries, which must be referred 
 to the period under review, and the influence of 
 which was incalculably great. We allude to the 
 invention of the mariner's compass and the art of 
 printing; the former of which belongs to the 
 twelfth, and the latter to the fifteenth century. 
 
 The remarkable property which the loadstone 
 possesses of attracting iron, seems to have been 
 known to the ancients in very remote ages. But 
 
282 PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III. 
 
 there is no reason to conclude, that the simple fact 
 that a suspended magnet would invariably point 
 to the North Pole, and still less, that the import- 
 ant application of this property of the loadstone to 
 purposes of navigation, was known in Europe be- 
 fore the middle or close of the twelfth century. 
 The French, Italians, Germans, and English, all 
 contend for the honour of this invention. Their 
 claims may perhaps be most equitably adjusted by 
 supposing that, the idea having been once sug- 
 gested, important improvements in the construction 
 and use of the mariner's compass were almost simul- 
 taneously made in several parts of Europe. The 
 value of this discovery (by whomsoever it may have 
 been made) can scarcely be rated too highly ; since 
 it has served to remove the barriers by which distant 
 nations were separated, and opened an easy commu- 
 nication, whether for the purposes of commerce, or 
 christian benevolence, between the remotest in- 
 habitants of our globe. New continents have been 
 discovered, — the earth which we inhabit circum- 
 navigated and explored, — the entire dominion of the 
 sea attained,— commerce indefinitely extended, — and 
 wealth, gathered from every region under heaven, 
 accumulated, by means of this felicitous invention. 
 But, we trust, an infinitely more important result 
 of this discovery will yet be seen in the facilities it 
 affords to the universal diffusion of christian know- 
 ledge, and the propagation of the gospel through- 
 out the world. 
 
 228. The second of the above-mentioned dis- 
 coveries, viz. the art of printing, is yet more im- 
 
CHAP. IlJ PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. 283 
 
 portant in itself and in its results. Some have 
 attributed this, as well as the preceding invention, 
 to eastern nations, and have adduced evidence to 
 prove, that the Chinese made use of engraved 
 tablets long before the Christian gera. Without 
 entering into this controversy, or presuming to 
 decide on a question so warmly contested, it will 
 be sufficient briefly to notice in this place its 
 European origin. Much obscurity, uncertainty, 
 and contradiction characterise the earliest historical 
 notices of this art. The most probable statement 
 is that which assigns to Haarlem the honour of 
 having conferred this inestimable benefit on man- 
 kind, and attributes to Laurentius, a native of that 
 city, of comparatively humble birth, the first rude 
 attempts at printing. He began with carving let- 
 ters in the rind of beech-trees, and impressing the 
 characters on paper for the instruction or amuse- 
 ment of his grand-children. Next he invented a 
 more glutinous kind of ink than that previously 
 used for MSS., in order that the characters thus 
 impressed might be more distinct and permanent. 
 After this, he cut entire pages in blocks of wood ; 
 and finally, he prepared, out of the most solid wood 
 that he could procure, separate types, of different 
 sizes and forms. These types are said to have been 
 stolen from Laurentius by one of his servants, 
 (named Geinsfleiches, but better known by that 
 of Faustus,) who carried them to Ment%, and there 
 privately printed the first book — H the Doctrinale, 
 or Grammar of Alexander Galius" — in 1442. Other 
 accounts, however, state, that Laurentius had previ- 
 
284 PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHERS. [PART III. 
 
 ously printed several books, at Haarlem, from his 
 wooden types, between the years 1430 and 1440 ; 
 among which were the " Speculum Belgicum," and 
 two editions of " Donatus." The next important 
 improvement in this art was the substitution of 
 metallic for ivoodcn types. These were first made 
 of lead, and soon after of a more solid metal, com- 
 pounded of tin and lead. It seems probable that 
 the first large work printed with metallic types was 
 the Vulgate Bible, published at Mentz, under the 
 auspices of Gutenberg, in 1450, after having been 
 seven or eight years in preparation. A third period 
 in the history of the art of printing is that in which 
 Peter Schoeffer, of Strasburg, effected a valuable 
 improvement by casting metal types, which had 
 been previously cut with much labour, and at great 
 expense. The first printed specimen of these im- 
 proved types was the " Rationale" or Logic of Du- 
 randus, which bears the date of 1459. On account 
 of the three distinct improvements in the art, which 
 have been briefly described, a contest for the honour 
 of its invention arose between Haarlem, Ment%> 
 and* Strasburg, which has long since been decided 
 in favour of the former. It is not necessary more 
 minutely to describe the subsequent stages of im- 
 provement through which this important art rapidly 
 passed. It constitutes one of the most remarkable 
 features of this invention, that it was perfected 
 almost as soon as discovered ; since it is admitted 
 that some of the finest specimens of typography 
 are to be found among the books printed towards 
 the close of the fifteenth century. 
 
CHAP. III.]] DIALECTICIANS. 285 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE DURING 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 HISTORY OF LOGIC CONTINUED. 
 
 229. The period, to which the present division of 
 our historical retrospect refers, was chiefly charac- 
 terised by dialectic subtilties and abstract specula- 
 tions on metaphysical subjects. This predominant 
 fashion may be traced to a much earlier period 
 than that now under review. It originated with 
 the philosophers of the Eclectic sect, and especially 
 with some christian fathers belonging to the Alexan- 
 drian school, who flourished during the second and 
 two following centuries, but whose writings exerted 
 a yet mightier influence after their decease. Among 
 these the most celebrated were, Tertullian, Origen, 
 Clemens Alexandrinus, and Augustine. The three 
 former of these, though eminent scholars, are justly 
 chargeable with the corruption of Christianity, by 
 blending with its pure and simple doctrines the 
 speculative refinements of the Platonic philosophy. 
 A taste for metaphysical theology having been thus 
 generated and nurtured, it spread in every direction 
 together with the propagation of the christian faith, 
 and diffused itself through the writings of many of 
 the Latin and Greek fathers. Augustine, Bishop of 
 
286 DIALECTICIANS. [jPART III. 
 
 Hippo,, who flourished about the commencement of 
 the fifth century, contributed in no ordinary degree 
 to the wide and almost universal diffusion of this 
 evil ; for such it proved to be in future years, however 
 harmless the speculations might at first appear. His 
 voluminous writings became so celebrated after his 
 death, as almost to supersede every other, and were 
 even deemed by some of the scholastic doctors, (to 
 whom we shall hereafter advert,) a surer standard of 
 orthodoxy, than the writings of the evangelists and 
 apostles. The first distinct treatise on the art of 
 Logic, which properly belongs to the middle ages, 
 was published under the name of Augustine, and 
 long attributed to him, though its spuriousness was 
 afterwards fully proved by some Benedictine monks. 
 This fictitious work, which became so celebrated 
 in the schools, on account of the supposed sanctity 
 and wisdom of its reputed author, was probably the 
 production of some obscure monk, not wholly igno- 
 rant of the dialectics of Aristotle, who dexterously 
 availed himself of the superstitions and semibar- 
 barism of the age in which he lived, to give a cur- 
 rency and reputation to his writings, which were by 
 no means due to their merit. It still occupies a 
 place in the first volume of Augustine's works, and 
 consists of two treatises ; the first entitled, " Prin- 
 cipia Dialectica f the second, " Categories Decern ;" 
 which were believed to have been translated by 
 Augustine, from the Greek original of Aristotle, into 
 the Latin tongue. 
 
 230. It was not, however, till the commencement 
 of the seventh century, that the reign, or rather the 
 
CHAP. Ill/] DIALECTICIANS. 287 
 
 despotism of Aristotle can be considered as fully 
 established. In the earlier ages of the Christian 
 aera, strong prejudices had existed against the Peri- 
 patetic philosophy, as more opposed to the doctrines 
 of Christianity, than the speculations of Plato and 
 the Academics. But when the defenders of the 
 christian faith perceived the use made by heresiarchs, 
 pagans, and infidels, of the dialectic weapons with 
 which Aristotle had furnished them, and the diffi- 
 culty of detecting their sophisms, they became con- 
 vinced of the necessity of providing themselves with 
 like armour of defence and assault. They began, 
 therefore, about this period, to study and admire the 
 dialectics of Aristotle, then lately translated from 
 the Arabic into Latin ; to write commentaries upon 
 them of ponderous size ; and to employ them as 
 bulwarks for the defence of christian doctrine. Not 
 a few individuals, celebrated in their day, but whose 
 names are now almost forgotten, distinguished them- 
 selves by their cumbrous and almost interminable 
 annotations on Aristotle's and Augustine's logic. 
 Among these may be enumerated Photius, Joannes 
 Damascenus, John of Alexandria, Isidore of Seville, 
 Psellus the elder and younger, Eustrathius, Nice- 
 phorus, and Magentinus ; most of whom wrote 
 commentaries on the works of Aristotle, while some 
 drew up compendia of logic founded on the Peripa- 
 tetic system. The rise of the Scholastic sect of 
 philosophers (to whom we shall have occasion to ad- 
 vert more particularly in a future section) is chiefly 
 to be attributed to these writings. 
 
 231. A new impulse was given to the dialectic art, 
 
288 DIALECTICIANS. [[PART III. 
 
 towards the close of the seventh and the commence- 
 ment of the eighth century, by the increased vene- 
 ration in which Augustine was held by the whole 
 christian church, and the lectures which began to 
 be publicly delivered on the manual of logic falsely 
 attributed to him. Several writers of considerable 
 eminence contributed, about this time, to the ad- 
 vancement of intellectual science. Such were, — 
 Capella, a native of Africa, who wrote a work, 
 highly applauded in that benighted age, upon the 
 " seven arts," which were then supposed to em- 
 brace the entire circle of human science ; namely, 
 grammar, dialectics, geometry, rhetoric, arithmetic, 
 astrology, and music ; — Cassiodorus, author of a 
 similar work, but written in a far superior style, and 
 more methodically arranged; — Boethius, who wrote 
 in Greek, a much admired treatise on " the Conso- 
 lations of Philosophy," which our Saxon monarch, 
 Alfred the Great, translated into his vernacular 
 dialect; — and Chalcidius, whose commentary on 
 some of the writings of Plato, furnished the specu- 
 lative metaphysicians of the middle ages with 
 abundant materials for logical debate. Two in- 
 dividuals, who flourished about this period, may 
 claim yet more honourable notice, since they make 
 a distinguished figure in the literary history of our 
 country, and were men far superior to the age 
 in which they lived. These were the venerable 
 Bede, and Alcuinus, both of whom were English 
 monks, who, by their writings and instructions, 
 vainly endeavoured to introduce a more just and 
 rational mode of philosophising, than that which 
 
CHAP. III.] DIALECTICIANS. 289 
 
 then prevailed throughout Europe. Their efforts 
 were, however, completely frustrated, by the blind 
 and bigoted attachment of their contemporaries to 
 the metaphysical subtilties of scholastic theology.* 
 
 232. During the ninth and tenth centuries, the 
 rage for dialectic controversies, instead of subsiding, 
 greatly increased. John of Salisbury, who flourished 
 at a somewhat later period, thus characterises the 
 learned men of his day, and the remark will apply 
 to several of the preceding centuries : — " Men at 
 this time," says he, " waste their whole lives in con- 
 
 * The following picture of the literature of that age has 
 been sketched by a modern writer with much fidelity, and 
 may serve to illustrate the general character of the scholastic 
 system of education : — " Even in the most celebrated schools of 
 this age, the field of instruction was confused and barren. In 
 philosophy, nothing was studied but mathematics and logic, and 
 the latter was taught in a trifling and useless manner from the 
 book attributed to Augustine. Neither preceptor nor pupil was 
 at this time to be found who desired or dared to attempt greater 
 things. The circle of instruction, or the liberal arts, as the term 
 was then understood, consisted of two branches, the trivium and 
 the quadrivium. The trivium included grammar, rhetoric, and 
 dialectics ; — the quadrivium comprehended music, arithmetic, 
 geometry, and astronomy. These seven heads, which were sup- 
 posed to include universal knowledge, were thus quaintly ex- 
 pressed in the barbarous Latin of that age : 
 
 ' Gramm. loquitur, Dia. vera docet, Rhet. verba colorat, 
 Mus. canit, Ar. numerat, Geo. ponderat, Ast. colit astra.' 
 He who was master of these was thought to have no need of a 
 preceptor to explain any books, or to solve any questions, which 
 lay within the compass of human reason — the knowledge of the 
 trivium having furnished with the key to all language ; and that 
 of the quadrivium having opened to him the secret laws of 
 nature."— Enf. Hist. ofPhilos. Vol.11, p. 337. 
 
 U 
 
290 DIALECTICIANS. [PART III. 
 
 troversy, even disputing in the public streets. When 
 too old for any other employment, they still retain 
 a fondness for debate : always seeking, but never 
 arriving at truth ; retailing the opinions and say- 
 ings of others, and compiling an incoherent mass 
 of dogmas, out of which each author would find it 
 difficult to recover his own." The names of most 
 celebrity which occur in connexion with this de- 
 partment of letters, (if it may be thus designated,) 
 are, in England, Joannes Scotus, surnamed Erigena, 
 Bridfurth, and Dunstan ; — in France, Maurus, Re- 
 migius, Constantine, Hincmar, and Abbo ; — in Ger- 
 many, Nanno, Herman, and Baldric ;— in Spain, 
 Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes ; — and, above all, 
 in Italy, Gerbert, (afterwards Pope Sylvester II.) 
 who has already been included in the list of natural 
 philosophers, but who also excelled as an acute 
 dialectician. Had the latter of these luminaries of 
 the tenth century confined himself to the logic of 
 Aristotle, he might have escaped most of the perse- 
 cutions suffered from his clerical brethren, and would 
 probably have been canonized after his death ; but 
 his physical science and skill in mechanics so terri- 
 fied his ignorant contemporaries, that they ascribed 
 his pre-eminent attainments to satanic agency, and 
 charged him with holding converse with the devil. # 
 
 * A modern historian of the middle ages, concludes his 
 sketch of the varied life of Gerbert, with the following eulogium 
 on his literary character :— " I shall not, I think, be blamed for 
 bringing before the reader the principal events of the life of this 
 extraordinary personage. He has seen him in the different capa- 
 cities of a scholar and teacher ; admired his various attainments ; 
 
CHAP. III.] DIALECTICIANS. 291 
 
 233. The preceding sketch may serve as a just 
 though brief representation of the state of logical 
 science up to the commencement of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, with which the present section will terminate. 
 A few names might be added to the list already 
 enumerated, of men well versed in metaphysical 
 subtilties, and who applied them not to explain but 
 rather to mysticize and obscure the system of chris- 
 tian theology ; men who, by means of superior 
 industry, rather than original and inventive genius, 
 raised themselves above the ordinary level of the 
 times in which they lived ; but yet who perplexed 
 themselves with fruitless controversies, and expended 
 their strength in unprofitable logomachies. Such 
 were Ingulph, Lanfranc, and Anselm, in Britain ; 
 and Herman, Berenger, Bruno, Darnian, and Ros eel- 
 line, abroad : some of whom will be more distinctly 
 noticed in the subsequent sketch of the Scholastic 
 Philosophy. To all of these may be applied, though 
 
 listened to his eloquence ; and followed him as he advanced, 
 through a change of various fortunes, to the zenith of ecclesias- 
 tical power. He was certainly an able orator : and his language, 
 though not always pure, yet vigorous and animated, appears, by 
 a pleasing deception, to obliterate for a time the consciousness 
 of the forlorn period in which he lived. Indeed, had it been the 
 fortune of Gerbert to have lived in some more happy aera, his 
 intellectual height would have experienced some diminution. 
 The surrounding shades gave a more striking magnitude to his 
 talents. I must now add, that he was also a poet. Few speci- 
 mens of his talents in this line have been preserved ; but one, not 
 destitute of poetical merit, exists in the form of an epitaph 
 written beneath the portrait of the philosopher Boethius." — 
 Beringtorfs Lit. Hist, of the Middle Ages, p. 215. 
 
 U 2 
 
292 DIALECTICIANS. [PART lit, 
 
 in various degrees, the character given by Enfield, 
 in his abridgement of Bmcker's History, to the 
 learned men of this age generally. " They were 
 wholly employed in attempting to explain abstract 
 notions of theology by terms almost without mean- 
 ing ; hereby accumulating frivolous controversies, 
 and obtruding upon the church new refinements in 
 theological speculations, which soon grew into the 
 monstrous form of the scholastic philosophy." A 
 circumstance, which greatly contributed to this 
 debasement of the art of logic, was, that the dialec- 
 ticians of those barbarous ages, ignorant for the most 
 part of the Greek tongue, and, consequently, of the 
 original writings of Aristotle, studied dialectics 
 either in the wretched manual of the Pseudo- Augus- 
 tine, or in defective Latin versions of Aristotle, 
 made from the Saracenic translations of Averroes, 
 Avicenna, Alfarabi, and other Moorish writers, who 
 mutilated the text, and misinterpreted the meaning 
 of their great preceptor. Notwithstanding the 
 labour expended by Herman, Nanno, and a few 
 other scholars of that age, in translating and 
 commenting upon select portions of the genuine 
 writings of Aristotle, it was not till long after this 
 period, that they became more generally known, 
 in consequence of the introduction of copies of the 
 Greek original, into the principal schools and uni- 
 versities of Europe, and the lectures publicly deli- 
 vered on them by professors of high reputation and 
 learning. — Vid. Enf. Hist, of Philos. Vol. II. 
 pp. 350, 351. 
 
CHAP. III.]] SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 293 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ORIGIN AND GENERAL VIEW OF THE SCHOLASTIC 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 234. We have arrived at that period in the his- 
 tory of the literature of the middle ages, which 
 brings more immediately under our notice that 
 perverted species of intellectual science, which has 
 usually been designated the Scholastic Philosophy. 
 Its origin may be traced to a much earlier period ; 
 but it was about the commencement of the twelfth 
 century, that it acquired an ascendancy throughout 
 Europe, to which no parallel can be found in the 
 history either of preceding or subsequent ages. It 
 derives its name from the establishments which had 
 then been recently founded in most parts of Eu- 
 rope, and especially in France, denominated public 
 schools; on which account the preceptors were 
 called schoolmen, and their course of instruction was 
 described by the general term, scholastic learning. 
 One or more of these schools was usually attached to 
 every cathedral and monastery of reputation, to which 
 the youth of distinction repaired for education, and 
 over which presided the acutest logicians of the age. 
 This system, in itself most excellent, and which, at a 
 more enlightened sera, would have been productive 
 of incalculable benefits, soon degenerated into an 
 instrument of papal tyranny and degrading super- 
 stition. The public lectures delivered in these 
 boasted seminaries of learning, consisted alone of 
 
294 SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. [PART III. 
 
 verbal subtilties, and absurd speculations, dignified 
 with the name of metaphysical theology. The men 
 who presided over them, though bearing the high- 
 sounding titles of " irrefragable, angelical, seraphic, 
 profound, resolute, and wonderful doctors," were, 
 with a few honourable exceptions, but ignorant, 
 conceited, and pragmatical polemics, versed alone in 
 the artifices and sophisms of a debased logic. They 
 accumulated a prodigious mass of speculative ab- 
 surdities, which continued during several ages to 
 excite universal admiration. They canvassed and 
 discussed the most thorny and intricate questions in 
 metaphysics, with all the asperity of polemic war- 
 fare, and all the pomp of unintelligible language ; 
 till every ray of intellectual light was extinguished, 
 and a darkness the most portentous and fearful, 
 brooded over the face of the earth. 
 
 235. The following may be enumerated as the 
 more prominent features of the scholastic system 
 of philosophising, when fully developed : (1.) The 
 topics selected for the exercise of dialectic prowess, 
 were at once the most abstruse and trifling — the 
 most intricate and absurd. Instead of observing 
 the phenomena of nature, or the operations of the 
 human mind, these sophists were ever in pursuit 
 of occult qualities, latent properties, and imaginary 
 essences ; — the creatures of their own bewildered 
 imaginations. " Intention and remission, propor- 
 tion and degree, infinity, formality, quiddity, indi- 
 viduality, and a thousand other abstract ideas," 
 furnished them with innumerable subjects of specu- 
 lation, and topics for discussion. The immense 
 
CHAP. III.]] SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 295 
 
 multitude of metaphysical questions most learnedly 
 discussed in the ponderous volumes of scholastic 
 divinity, renders it impracticable to exhibit even an 
 outline of its distinguishing tenets. Suffice it to 
 say, that the metaphysics of Plato, the logic of 
 Aristotle, and the corrupt theology of the church of 
 Rome, were amalgamated into one crude and inco- 
 herent mass of unintelligible dogmas, which they 
 honoured with the title of " the orthodox faith ;" 
 and the slightest departure from which was esteemed 
 a pernicious heresy. 
 
 (2.) In discussing these topics, a most osten- 
 tatious display was made of dialectic skill. A 
 formidable array was brought forward, of axioms 
 and postulates, lemmas and corrollaries, defi- 
 nitions and syllogisms, arranged in the most 
 systematic form, and employed in exact accord- 
 ance with the rules of art. " The logic of the 
 schoolmen," says Enfield, " was rather the art of 
 sophistry than that of reasoning, for it was applied 
 to subjects which were not understood, and em- 
 ployed on principles which were not ascertained. 
 Their whole business being disputation, they sought 
 out such thorny questions as were likely to afford 
 sufficient exercise for their ingenuity. Their whole 
 care was to conduct themselves secundum artem, 
 and their whole ambition to obtain the victory/' 
 The object proposed by these logical prize-fighters, 
 was not so much to elucidate truth, as to bear away 
 the palm from their antagonists; and become cele- 
 brated in the schools, as the acutest reasoners of 
 their age. And it must be admitted, that some of 
 
296 SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. [PART III, 
 
 the Scholastic philosophers were eminently success- 
 ful in their object. Champeaux, Abelard, and a 
 few others, displayed an extraordinary degree of 
 talent in this science : by continual exercise, they 
 became skilful adepts in the art of reasoning; 
 prompt, ingenious, and subtle in debate; so as 
 frequently, when discussing the most intricate sub- 
 jects, to obtain the applause of multitudes, who 
 assembled in the schools, not for instruction, but 
 to witness the triumph or defeat of their respective 
 masters. 
 
 (3.) The language, in which these abstruse spe- 
 culations were discussed, whether verbally or in 
 writing, was a species of Latin the most barbarous 
 and debased that can be imagined. Unlike their 
 great preceptor, Aristotle, who wrote even his most 
 technical treatises in pure classical Greek, and em- 
 bellished some of his most abstruse speculations with 
 rhetorical ornament ; the greater part of these sera- 
 phic, angelical doctors — regardless alike of accuracy 
 and ornament, in violation both of the rules of 
 grammar and rhetoric — introduced a multitude of 
 terms and phrases into the language once spoken 
 by Cicero and Virgil and Livy, which neither they 
 nor any other of the ancient Romans could possibly 
 have comprehended. Nor does this corruption and 
 debasement of the Roman dialect apply only to the 
 more illiterate of these monks, but, with scarcely a 
 single exception, to all the most renowned scholars 
 who flourished during the four last of the middle 
 ages. 
 
 (4.) Nor must we omit to notice, among the 
 
CHAP. III.] SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 297 
 
 more prominent features of the Scholastic philo- 
 sophy, the sectarian acrimony which it generated. 
 Controversies arose, during the ages under review, 
 which, though they related to unintelligible terms, 
 and mere metaphysical subtilties, agitated the whole 
 of Europe, and gave occasion to the most bitter 
 animosities, and the deadliest hatred. Some of 
 the rival sects will be adverted to in a future 
 section, whose fierce contentions have almost be- 
 come proverbial ; and " the controversy between 
 whom, employed, for many ages, all the ingenuity 
 and learning in Europe ; which, therefore, however 
 frivolous in itself, deserves the attention of philo- 
 sophers, as one of the most curious events which 
 occurs in the history of the human mind." In these 
 metaphysical combats, the sovereigns of Europe 
 and the ministers of state, no less than monks, and 
 prelates, and cardinals, and pontiffs, were in- 
 volved ; and as either sect prevailed, their anta- 
 gonists became the objects of cruel persecution 
 and malignant revenge. Ludovicus Vives, who 
 lived when some of these sectarian controversies 
 were at their height, has faithfully pourtrayed, 
 though in language too coarse and indelicate to be 
 literally translated, the spirit in which they were 
 carried on, and the disgraceful quarrels to which 
 they led. " I have seen," says he, " the combatants, 
 after having exhausted their stock of verbal abuse, 
 proceed to blows: nor was it uncommon, in these 
 quarrels about metaphysical terms and ideas, which 
 neither party understood, to see the combatants 
 first employing their fists, then their clubs, and, 
 
298 SCHOLASTICS. [PART III. 
 
 finally, their swords, by which many were wounded 
 and some killed." A more ludicrous species of 
 persecution was exercised by Louis XI. who zea- 
 lously espoused the cause of the Realists against the 
 Nominalists. That prince, in a royal edict, issued 
 a. d. 1474, not only banished all the Nominalists 
 from his empire, and required the youth educated in 
 the schools to abjure their tenets ; but also enjoined 
 that their books should be secured in the monastic 
 libraries with iron chains, so that none might peruse 
 them. Mosheim, in his Ecclesiastical History, 
 asserts, that " the contending sects carried their 
 fury so far as to charge each other with " the sin 
 against the Holy Ghost* ;" and that " the celebrated 
 reformer, John Huss, fell a victim to the resentment 
 of the Nominalists ; while, on the other hand, the 
 Realists procured, in 1479, the condemnation of 
 John de Wesalia, who had zealously opposed the 
 tenets of their dominant sect. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 biographical notices of the earliest scholastic 
 philosophers. 
 
 236. The rise of the Scholastic philosophy can 
 scarcely be dated further back than the commence- 
 ment of the eleventh century. Its history has 
 
 * Stewart's Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 
 I. 169, 55S, 554;. Mosheim's Ch. Hist. Cent. xv. c. ii. § vii. 
 
CHAP. III.]] SCHOLASTICS. 299 
 
 usually been divided into three periods: the first 
 beginning with Lanfranc, and terminating with 
 Albert, surnamed the Great; the second, extending 
 from Albert to Occam; and the third, including the 
 period between Occam and the Reformation ; an 
 event which, combined with that of the revival of 
 general literature, completed the destruction of the 
 scholastic system. In the present section, a brief 
 review will be taken of the principal schoolmen, who 
 flourished during the first of the above-mentioned 
 periods. 
 
 (1.) Lanfranc was born at Pavia, in Italy, and 
 flourished during the greater part of the eleventh 
 century. In his youth, he became celebrated as 
 a distinguished scholar, an eloquent orator, and a 
 profound jurist. But renouncing, in maturer years, 
 these flattering secular pursuits, he embraced the 
 monastic life, and founded a celebrated school at 
 Bee, in Normandy, where many of the most eminent 
 sophists of that age received the elements of their 
 education. So high was his reputation throughout 
 Europe, that multitudes of youth of the highest 
 rank earnestly sought admission into his seminary; 
 and a still greater number attended on his public 
 lectures. The historians of that period dwell with 
 raptures on the erudition of Lanfranc, and the science 
 which long characterized his school. The fame, 
 however, of Lanfranc chiefly rests on his dialectic 
 prowess, and that of his pupils, many of whom ex- 
 celled their master in the art of disputation. While 
 presiding over this college, he acquired high distinc- 
 tion by the part which he took in a controversy then 
 
300 SCHOLASTICS. £PART III. 
 
 existing relative to the doctrine of transubstan- 
 tiation, known in the annals of ecclesiastical history, 
 by the name of the Berengerian, or Sacramentarian 
 controversy.* After having educated many emi- 
 nent scholars at Bee, he was induced, by William of 
 Normandy, (who had then recently obtained the 
 English crown,) to relinquish his literary retirement, 
 and become Primate of England. He was conse- 
 crated Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1070, and died 
 a. d. 1089. Lanfranc was the author of numerous 
 treatises, chiefly on subjects connected with polemic 
 theology, though some were of a more literary 
 character, and all are celebrated for the comparative 
 purity of their Latin style. 
 
 (2.) Berenger, of Cologne, who is chiefly cele- 
 brated as the originating cause of the famous con- 
 troversy on the Eucharist, which agitated Europe 
 at the commencement of the eleventh century ; 
 Fulbert, Bishop of Chartres, under whom Berenger 
 had studied logic and metaphysics ; and Bruno, a 
 pupil of Berenger, and founder of the Carthusian 
 order of monks ; all were distinguished ornaments of 
 the Gallican church, and masters of the dialectic 
 art, at a period in which logic was deemed the 
 highest attainment of human genius. Their writings 
 are now almost forgotten, though they are said to 
 have been characterised by great subtilty of rea- 
 soning, and many ingenious speculations. 
 
 (3.) Anselm, a name familiar to every reader 
 of English history, ranks high among those who 
 
 * Vid. Dupin's Ch. Hist. 11th Cent. Mosheim's Ibid. 
 
CHAP. III.] SCHOLASTICS. 301 
 
 received their education at Bee, under Lanfranc ; and, 
 like his preceptor, was remarkable for the application 
 of dialectic rules to the most profound subjects of 
 metaphysical research, and the minutest distinctions 
 of polemic theology. A considerable change was 
 effected by the public lectures and writings of 
 Anselm, which has been thus characterised by an 
 intelligent modern historian : — " Logic, which, agree- 
 ably to its primitive acceptation, denoted the art of 
 just and solid reasoning, had degenerated into verbal 
 controversies, the terms of which were unintelli- 
 gible even to those who employed them. But 
 Lanfranc and Anselm, by the greater purity of their 
 style and perspicuity of their reasonings, introduced 
 an important change into the philosophy of their 
 age, especially in the departments of logic and 
 metaphysics." Anselm composed a treatise entitled 
 " The Grammarian" which was in reality, a prac- 
 tical dissertation on logic. He was also the author 
 of two works on metaphysical theology, entitled 
 Monologion and Prosologion, from which even mo- 
 dern polemics might derive some advantage. He 
 succeeded Lanfranc in the presidency of the college 
 of Bee, a. d. 1070 ; became abbot of the adjoining 
 monastery in 1078 ; was elevated to the primacy of 
 the English church in 1093, and died A. d. 1109. 
 This celebrated ecclesiastic contributed more by his 
 metaphysical abstractions towards the establishment 
 of the Scholastic philosophy, than any of his con- 
 temporaries.* 
 
 * " Before these two great men opened their schools," say the 
 authors of the Literary History of France, " the Latin spoken 
 
302 SCHOLASTICS. [>ART III. 
 
 (4.) Roscelline flourished towards the close of 
 the eleventh century, and is chiefly celebrated as the 
 founder of the sect of the Nominalists* which after- 
 wards became famous under the auspices of his more 
 illustrious pupils. Of himself little is known, except 
 that he was a native of Brittany, and canon of Com- 
 peigne ; that he was acknowledged, even by his 
 adversaries, to have possessed an acute and subtle 
 genius ; and that by him certain innovations were 
 introduced into the philosophical speculations of that 
 age, which obtained a wide and rapid circulation 
 after his death. 
 
 (5.) Champeaux, Bishop of Catalan or Chalons, 
 was a contemporary of Roscelline, but attached to 
 the opposite sect of the Realists,* whose opinions 
 
 in France was rude and barbarous— their philosophy was not 
 worthy of the name ; and their theology was lifeless and void of 
 precision. When they began to speak and write, a wonderful 
 change ensued. Lanfranc taught the use of those arms in de- 
 fence of christian belief, which theology supplies : his pupil 
 Anselm undertook the solution of questions, which, before his 
 time, were involved in darkness ; and shewing the conformity 
 of his decisions with the authority of scripture, taught his dis- 
 ciples, by a new method of argumentation, to reconcile reason 
 with faith, while he directed philosophy to pursue the path of 
 patient investigation." — BeringtorCs Lit. Hist. p. 261. 
 
 * Of these two celebrated sects, it will be sufficient to state 
 here, that the Nominalists were so called, because they main- 
 tained that there are no real existences in nature corresponding 
 to general terms, and that the objects of our attention in all 
 abstract general speculations are not ideas but words. The 
 Realists held that all individuals partake of the essence of their 
 species, and are only modified by accidental causes, while their 
 real essence remains unchanged. The question between them 
 may be otherwise stated thus, — "whether universals have a real 
 
CHAP. Ill/] SCHOLASTICS. 303 
 
 on the abstruse metaphysical question to which 
 that controversy referred, he defended with the 
 utmost zeal in the public schools of Paris. But both 
 he and Roscelline owe more of their celebrity to 
 their having been, at different periods, the precep- 
 tors of Abelard, than to their own writings, or their 
 public disputations. 
 
 (6.) Abelard, the well-known founder of the 
 Paraclete monastery, alike celebrated for his talents 
 and his misfortunes, was born at Palais in Bretagne, 
 a. d. 1079. His first preceptor was Roscelline, 
 from whom he imbibed those metaphysical opinions 
 to which he stedfastly adhered through life, and 
 which indeed derived their principal lustre from his 
 unrivalled talents and learning. He subsequently 
 studied dialectics under William de Champeaux, 
 but made an ungracious return for the instructions 
 received from his venerable preceptor, by entering 
 the lists with him in the public schools, and van- 
 quishing him in several public disputations. Having 
 thus acquired the reputation of an universal cham- 
 pion in scholastic theology, he established nourishing 
 seminaries of learning, first at Melun, and after- 
 wards at Corbeil, near Paris, where he lectured 
 publicly on logic and metaphysics to immense mul- 
 titudes, and with the utmost applause. But the 
 boldness of his speculations, and his high scholastic 
 fame, soon raised him up hosts of adversaries, by 
 whom he was denounced to the papal see as here- 
 
 and essential, or only a nominal and verbal existence in indi- 
 viduals." The Realists contended for the former, the Nominal- 
 ists for the latter of these hypotheses. 
 
304 SCHOLASTICS. £PART III. 
 
 tical ; and who continued to harass him with cease- 
 less persecutions to the end of his days. He was 
 the author of many treatises on subjects connected 
 with the philosophy of that age, which have never 
 been edited, though far superior to the mass of the 
 scholastic writings, and indicating both greater re- 
 finement of taste and extent of erudition. A single 
 volume has been published, entitled " Christian 
 Theology," which is characterised both by the acute- 
 ness and absurdity of the scholastic system. Abelard 
 died at the monastery of St. Marcellus, at Chalons, 
 a. d. 1142, and was interred in the convent of the 
 Paraclete. 
 
 (7.) Peter Lombard, who studied theology and 
 logic under Abelard, rivalled him both in dialectic 
 subtilty and polemic zeal. He was a native of 
 Lombardy, and became Archbishop of Paris, a. d. 
 1151. During his life, and long after his death, he 
 was known by the title of " Magister Sententiarum" 
 on account of a work compiled by him, consisting of 
 sentences extracted from the fathers, and questions 
 for disputation. This became a standard book of 
 high reputation in the theological schools, and was 
 honoured with numerous commentaries. " When the 
 Book of Sentences appeared, says a modern histo- 
 rian, it was received with universal approbation, and 
 its authority soon became so great in all the schools, 
 that it was deemed inferior to none but the inspired 
 writings. He who, in the discussion of any ques- 
 tion, did not reason from the Master, reasoned 
 in vain ; and men of the first talents could not 
 employ them, it was thought, more worthily, than 
 
CHAP. II.] SCHOLASTICS. 305 
 
 in expounding or illustrating what the Master had 
 delivered." Beringtoris Lit. Hist. 
 
 (8.) To the preceding Scholastics, all of whom 
 belonged primarily to the Gallic church, may be 
 added Gilbert de Porretan, Bishop of Poictiers, 
 who, though deemed heretical by the rulers of the 
 Roman-catholic Church, was unquestionably a keen 
 and subtle disputant. To him are attributed many 
 of the scholastic phrases, which afterwards became 
 current among the sophists of that age, and nume- 
 rous subtle theological distinctions, unintelligible 
 alike to himself and his readers. Having presumed, 
 in his writings, to maintain that " a distinction exists 
 between nature and person, and that the essence of 
 God is not God himself," with other cobweb refine- 
 ments of a similar kind, he was denounced by the 
 famous Bernard, (at that time the great champion 
 of papal orthodoxy,) as a dangerous heretic, deprived 
 for a time of his ecclesiastical dignities, compelled 
 to retract his errors, and his books were publicly 
 burnt. He contrived, however, to make his peace 
 with the church, and was restored to his episcopal 
 see, a short time before his death, which took place 
 
 A. D. 1154. 
 
 (9.) John of Salisbury, though usually classed with 
 the Scholastics of this age, rises far above them in 
 true wisdom and useful learning. He was not only 
 a skilful dialectician, but also a considerable linguist, 
 a proficient in physical science, and a faithful histo- 
 rian of his own times. He studied at Paris under 
 Abelard, and imbibed from that celebrated master, 
 a taste for philosophy and science. He was the 
 
 x 
 
306 SCHOLASTICS. [PART III. 
 
 intimate friend of Thomas a Becket, by whom he 
 was patronized in prosperity, and whom he after- 
 wards accompanied in his exile. To this impartial 
 writer we are indebted for the most faithful por- 
 traiture of the learned men of his own age, whom 
 he describes as " exhibiting the semblance, rather than 
 the essence of knowledge ; as designedly rendering 
 their disputations obscure, that they might obtain 
 the greater credit for wisdom; and as frequently 
 confounding, through ignorance, the Peripatetic and 
 Platonic systems, while they professed the utmost 
 veneration for Aristotle; and, finally, notwithstanding 
 their high pretensions to learning, as not having 
 contributed an iota towards the advancement of 
 true science." The principal works of John of 
 Salisbury were, his Metalogicon, which contained 
 treatises on grammar, philology, and the logic of 
 Aristotle ; and his Policraticon, which gives a lively 
 description of the manners of the age, boldly cen- 
 sures the vices of the great, and exposes the ignorance 
 and ambition of the ecclesiastical orders. Of this 
 work, a competent witness in modern times has 
 given the following character :--" When I read some 
 years ago," says Berington, in his Literary History 
 of the Middle Ages, " the Polycraticon, it seemed to 
 display great erudition, and to be replete with moral 
 notions, sentences, passages of authors, examples, 
 apologues, extracts of history, common-places and 
 citations from the best classical writers. But it 
 appeared to be an ill-digested mass of learning, 
 neither directed by a sound judgment nor embel- 
 lished by taste. Notwithstanding its imperfections, 
 
CHAP. II-3 SCHOLASTICS. 307 
 
 it is a valuable monument of literature ; and exhibits, 
 in a pleasing manner, the talents, the good sense, 
 and the learning of John of Salisbury. " 
 
 (10.) The last of the Scholastics of the first period, 
 whom it is requisite to mention distinctly, was Hales, 
 Abbot of Glocester, who was dignified with the high- 
 sounding title of "the irrefragable doctor." He also 
 was one of the disciples of Abelard at Paris, and 
 became celebrated for his skill in metaphysical theo- 
 logy. He wrote commentaries on the " Book of 
 Sentences" of Peter Lombard, and on the " Meta- 
 physics of Aristotle," much admired at the time for 
 their reputed ingenuity and learning, but long since 
 buried in oblivion. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 SCHOLASTICS OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD. 
 
 237. The second or middle period of the history 
 of scholasticism may be considered as commencing 
 with the thirteenth century, when a considerable 
 number of the most renowned advocates of that 
 system simultaneously laboured with incredible zeal 
 and diligence for its advancement. To a few of 
 these it will be requisite to advert in this place, 
 whose celebrity, when living, and long after their 
 death, attaches an importance to their name and 
 memory, to which otherwise neither their learning 
 nor talents could have entitled them. 
 
 x 2 
 
308 SCHOLASTICS. [PART III. 
 
 (1.) Albert, surnamed the Great, (who has been 
 already classed with the scientific philosophers of 
 the middle ages, on account of his mechanical skill,) 
 was chiefly indebted to his logical science and 
 polemic zeal for his living and posthumous fame. 
 He was born in Swabia, a.d. 1193 ; became a domi- 
 nican friar when about thirty years of age ; and was 
 subsequently employed in teaching philosophy at 
 the public schools of Cologne and Paris, or in 
 writing ponderous volumes on abstract metaphysical 
 speculations, till his death, which took place a.d. 
 1280. This indefatigable author wrote on an 
 almost endless variety of subjects, as appears from 
 his works, which were collected and published after 
 his death in no less than twenty-one folio volumes, 
 including treatises on theology, ethics, metaphysics, 
 logic, natural philosophy, natural history, and the 
 mathematics. He seems to have traversed the whole 
 circle of theological, moral, intellectual, and physical 
 science. If the value of Albert's writings could 
 be estimated by their number or magnitude, he 
 must be acknowledged to have been no ordinary 
 contributor to the stores of general knowledge : but 
 the history of the period under review goes far to 
 prove that the estimate must be taken in an inverse 
 ratio, and that in proportion as the writings were 
 voluminous, they were trifling and useless. The 
 portion of the works of Albert, which alone can be 
 regarded with interest in modern times, is that which 
 relates to practical and experimental philosophy. 
 From him arose the sect of the Albertines, frequently 
 alluded to by the ecclesiastical historians of that age. 
 
CHAP. II-3 SCHOLASTICS. 309 
 
 (2.) Bonaventure ranks high in scholastic fame, 
 and was honoured with the title of " the seraphic 
 doctor" on account of the ardour of his devotion to 
 the Virgin Mary. He was born in Tuscany, a.d. 
 1221 ; — studied theology and logic under Hales ;— - 
 graduated at Paris ; — and became Franciscan friar 
 at the same time with his renowned contemporary, 
 Thomas Aquinas. He was created Cardinal by 
 Pope Gregory ; and died while attending the second 
 general council of Lyons, a.d. 1279. The most 
 remarkable of his productions was, " A Dissertation 
 on the application of the Arts to Theology, " which 
 affords," says Enfield, " a curious specimen of the 
 manner in which the mystical divines of that age 
 transferred the Scholastic philosophy to theology." 
 
 (3.) But the chief glory of the Scholastic age was 
 the illustrious Thomas Aquinas, to whom his con- 
 temporaries and idolaters, with one consent, awarded 
 the title of " the angelical doctor" This prodigy 
 of learning, as he was generally considered, was 
 born of a noble family at Aquino, in Italy, a.d. 1224, 
 educated first in the monastery of Mount Cassino, 
 then at Naples, and finally at Paris, under Albert 
 the Great. He subsequently became theological 
 lecturer of Cologne, Paris, and Rome. So extrava- 
 gant were the encomia passed upon him by his 
 ignorant and superstitious devotees, that some sup- 
 posed him to have inherited the soul of Augustine, 
 others of Aristotle, and some even of St. Peter him- 
 self. With a slender knowledge of the Greek and 
 Arabic tongues, he contrived to pass for a prodigy 
 of learning in a dark age ; and by dexterously blend- 
 
310 SCHOLASTICS. [PART III. 
 
 ing the Peripatetic and Eclectic systems of philoso- 
 phy with the reasoning of the Greek and Latin 
 fathers, he gained the reputation of a profound 
 theologian. His most celebrated writings are, 
 " The Sum of Theology," in which a great variety 
 of trifling and absurd questions in metaphysical 
 theology are most gravely and learnedly discussed ; 
 his " Commentary on P. Lombard's Book of Sen- 
 tences ;" and " Annotations on the Analytics, Meta- 
 physics, and Ethics of Aristotle? Speculative 
 philosophy was the only element in which Aquinas 
 could breathe ; but all physical science was either 
 despised by him as useless, or denounced as the re- 
 sult of necromancy and witchcraft. This phenome- 
 non suddenly disappeared in the midst of its glory, 
 and whilst all Europe was gazing with an admiration 
 little short of idolatry upon the splendour of its intel- 
 lectual course. This celebrated Scholastic theologian 
 died in the fiftieth year of his age, while on his way 
 to the council of Lyons, which was held a. d. 1279. 
 (4.) Contemporary with Bonaventure and Aqui- 
 nas, who belonged to the Italian and French schools 
 of philosophy, were two of the English school, who, 
 if not equal in fame, were far superior in general 
 and useful knowledge. These were Grosteste, (or 
 Greathead,) Bishop of Lincoln, and Roger Bacon, 
 the father of English philosophy. Though both of 
 these are usually classed with the Scholastics, their 
 science and erudition may justly entitle them to a 
 more venerable station in the republic of letters. 
 Having before alluded particularly to Friar Bacon, 
 it is now unnecessary to say more respecting him, 
 
CHAP. II.] SCHOLASTICS. 311 
 
 than that much of his attention was given, and many 
 of his posthumous works relate, to intellectual as 
 well as physical science, though the latter was his 
 favourite study. He applied himself diligently to 
 the acquisition of the Greek and Hebrew languages, 
 then very imperfectly known even to the best 
 scholars. He prepared, in the retirement of his 
 monastic cell, erudite works on history, jurispru- 
 dence, dialectic and metaphysical theology, as well as 
 on mathematical and physical subjects. The literary 
 history of Grosteste is less known, though he occu- 
 pies a distinguished place in the ecclesiastical history 
 of our country. His celebrity is partly founded on 
 the strenuous opposition made by him to the en- 
 croachments of the Roman pontiff, and partly on 
 the testimony of Roger Bacon to his genius and 
 learning, who, though usually parsimonious of 
 praise, and much more inclined to censure than 
 to eulogise his contemporaries, classes him with 
 " Aristotle and Solomon," and describes him as " the 
 only learned man of his age." Some of his works 
 were mathematical, others critical ; but the greater 
 portion consists of philosophical and theological 
 tracts. It may be particularly mentioned 1 to the 
 honour of this pious and learned prelate, that while 
 the seraphic and angelic doctors were laboriously 
 employed in writing commentaries on Peter Lom- 
 bard, or Augustine, Grosteste was employed in scrip- 
 tural researches, and in diligent study of the Hebrew 
 and Greek original texts, that he might be the 
 better enabled to comprehend and interpret the 
 sacred writings. Grosteste, like his celebrated coun- 
 
312 SCHOLASTICS. [jPART III. 
 
 tryman and contemporary, Roger Bacon, was far 
 too enlightened for the age in which he lived ; both 
 were charged with necromancy, and suffered perse- 
 cution on this account ; and both became objects of 
 jealousy to the ecclesiastical authorities of the church 
 of Rome. He died a.d. 1253. 
 
 (5.) Passing once more to Paris, which was the 
 strong hold of scholasticism at this period, we meet 
 with Column a, an Italian by birth, and monk of 
 the Augustine order, who was preceptor to the sons 
 of Philip III. of France, and taught philosophy 
 and theology in the university of Paris with so great 
 reputation, as to acquire the title of " most profound 
 doctor T If his real character as a philosopher cor- 
 responded with the inscription upon his tomb, de- 
 noting that " he was a luminary who brought light 
 out of darkness," he must have differed widely from 
 the rest of his scholastic brethren ; but as far as his 
 writings are now known, they utterly discredit the 
 testimony of his sepulchral monument, for they are 
 amongst the most obscure productions of that age 
 of intellectual darkness. In connexion with Co- 
 lumna may be mentioned Robert de Sorbonne, who 
 also flourished about the middle of the thirteenth 
 century. He was an acute and distinguished 
 logician ; but is better known as the founder of the 
 theological college at Paris, which still continues 
 to bear his name. 
 
 (6.) Towards the close of the thirteenth century, 
 flourished at Oxford and Paris, Duns Scotus, the 
 pupil and rival in scholastic fame of Thomas Aqui- 
 nas. He was designated " the most subtile doctor" on 
 
CHAP. IlJ SCHOLASTICS. 313 
 
 account of his acuteness and subtil ty in disputation. 
 His reputation at one period of Ms life (the whole 
 of which was short, for he died in his thirty-fourth 
 year,) was such, that not less than thirty thousand 
 youths are said to have flocked from all parts of 
 Europe to attend his public lectures. His works, 
 when collected, amounted to twelve folio volumes. 
 But he is chiefly known as the founder of a new 
 sect among the Scholastics of the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries, known by the name of the 
 Scotists, in distinction from the Thomists, who ad- 
 hered to the opinions of Thomas Aquinas. The 
 difference between these rival and hostile sects 
 related to some abstruse points of metaphysical 
 divinity, into which it is not our present business 
 to enter. " The ingenuity of Duns Scotus," says 
 Enfield, " was wholly employed in embarrassing with 
 new fictions of abstraction, and with other scho- 
 lastic distinctions, subjects already sufficiently per- 
 plexed." 
 
 The above list of Scholastics of the middle period, 
 might easily be enlarged ; but little advantage could 
 result from the mere enumeration of names de- 
 servedly forgotten ; or a transient reference to 
 works, which, though indicative of great labour, 
 tended rather to obscure than enlighten the human 
 understanding. 
 
314 SCHOLASTICS. [PART III. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 SCHOLASTICS OF THE THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 238. The portion of the history of Scholasticism, 
 which was rapidly traversed in the last section, in- 
 cludes that of its greatest prosperity. It had then 
 attained its highest elevation, and exercised a des- 
 potism over the understandings of men, almost as 
 oppressive as that which the papal hierarchy had long 
 usurped over their religious faith and practice. But 
 during the period now to be reviewed, its power 
 was shaken, its influence gradually diminished, and 
 the struggle commenced which terminated in its 
 destruction. There were still many, who remained 
 servilely attached to the logic of Aristotle and the 
 sophistry of the schools. Perhaps there was never 
 a period in which the Peripatetic philosophy was 
 more dominant. The reverence for the writings of 
 Aristotle was so great, that no more direct road to 
 scholastic fame could be devised than that of deliver- 
 ing public lectures, or writing commentaries on 
 parts of these ancient documents; and, in some 
 instances, they were even read in public during 
 divine worship, instead of the pages of inspiration. 
 A long train of schoolmen might be brought for- 
 ward, who flourished during the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries, who spent all their days in 
 poring over the " categories or analytics," which had 
 become the more celebrated, now that their Greek 
 originals were known, and Grecian literature had 
 revived. But amidst all, indications were not want- 
 
CHAP. II.] SCHOLASTICS. 315 
 
 ing of the approach of a happier aera. Light began 
 to dawn, though faintly, on several parts of Europe. 
 In Italy, a taste for classical literature began to 
 revive under the auspices of a few ardent scholars, 
 and a small band of illustrious patrons of learning. 
 In England, Wickliffe aimed an effectual blow at 
 the Scholastic system, by his theological writings, 
 and especially by his venerable translation of the 
 Scriptures. In France, the sect of the Nominalists, 
 which had languished from the time of Abelard, 
 revived, and with it a freedom of inquiry and inde- 
 pendence of speech and writing, which led to the 
 most important consequences. This was chiefly 
 effected by Durand and Occam, who were contem- 
 poraries, and in part coadjutors, in the work. 
 
 (1.) Occam was educated at Oxford, under Duns 
 Scotus; but after the death of his preceptor, he 
 renounced the sect of the Realists, and revived 
 that of the Nominalists, though under a new name. 
 His followers assumed the title of Occamists, to avoid 
 the odium which then attached to the opinions of 
 Roscelline and Abelard, and honoured their master 
 with the appellation of " the invincible doctor" on 
 account of the tenacity with which he maintained, 
 and the splendid success with which he defended, his 
 philosophical opinions. It required, at that period, 
 no common degree of moral heroism to lift up 
 a standard against the opinions of such men as 
 Aquinas and Albert and Scotus, and dispute their 
 authority, even on the most abstruse metaphysical 
 questions. This offence might, however, have been 
 forgiven, had not Occam proceeded farther, and 
 
316 SCHOLASTICS. [PART III, 
 
 assailed the Colossus of papal power, and exposed 
 the indolenee, the ignorance, and the profligacy, of 
 the monastic orders. Having directed his attention 
 to jurisprudence, he wrote several tracts on " Civil 
 and Ecclesiastical Law ;" the object of which was, 
 to define their respective boundaries, and point out 
 their legitimate authority. These treatises, though 
 written, after the fashion of that age, in barbarous 
 Latin, and in a dry systematic manner, produced a 
 strong sensation throughout the Roman church, and 
 excited the utmost alarm. Their author was re- 
 quired to retract his errors; and on his refusing 
 to do this, was excommunicated. Besides these, 
 his more valuable writings, (valuable, as having 
 contributed, in some degree, to shake the throne 
 of papal supremacy, and prepare the way for the 
 Protestant Reformation,) Occam was the author of 
 several dialectic treatises on the " Predicables of 
 Porphyry, and the Categories of Aristotle," and of 
 numerous controversial pieces in defence of the 
 opinions of the Nominalists. 
 
 (2.) Durand was a native of Clermont, who 
 taught logic and metaphysics in the university of 
 Paris, in the earlier part of his life ; and was subse- 
 quently elevated to the bishopric of Meaux. He 
 zealously espoused the cause of the Scotists, in 
 opposition to the followers of Thomas Aquinas. 
 His public lectures and writings were characterized 
 by a boldness and independence that procured for 
 him the title of " most resolute doctor" " He took," 
 says Dupin, in his Ecclesiastical History of this 
 period, " from former philosophers what he thought 
 
CHAP. II.]] SCHOLASTICS. 317 
 
 proper, without tying himself down to the principles 
 of any, and advanced many new opinions. After 
 him the divines took more liberty, and many novel 
 systems were invented." 
 
 (3.) Burley, who was surnamed, though for what 
 reason it is difficult to conjecture, " the perspicuous 
 doctor" was preceptor to Edward III. of England, 
 and one of the most renowned Scholastics of his age. 
 He wrote, on ethics, physics, logic, metaphysics, and 
 theology, works which have long since been for- 
 gotten. The treatise which is best known is, that 
 on the " Lives and Manners of the Ancient Philoso- 
 phers," into which were introduced, biographical 
 notices of all the Greek and Roman philosophers, 
 from Thales to Seneca. 
 
 (4.) Raymond Lully, flourished somewhat earlier 
 than either of the above-mentioned Scholastics, but 
 is usually classed with them, on account of the 
 novelty of his opinions, and his unwearied and per- 
 severing efforts to introduce into the schools a new 
 method of philosophizing. This " most enlightened 
 doctor" (for such was the distinctive appellation 
 given to him by the schoolmen,) is said to have 
 greatly excelled in chemistry and medicine ; but his, 
 fame chiefly rests on his celebrated invention, known 
 by the name of the " Great Art" which professed 
 to furnish adequate means for the attainment of 
 every species of science in its highest degree. The 
 proficients in this art were to be enabled thereby 
 to invent arguments, mechanically, on all kinds of 
 topics, but especially on all connected with logic, 
 metaphysics, and theology. Perhaps the whole 
 
318 SCHOLASTICS. £PART III. 
 
 history of mankind does not furnish an instance of 
 greater absurdity under the veil of profound science, 
 than that of the mechanical logic of this fanatic. 
 Yet, such was the ignorance and credulity of the 
 age in which this boasted invention was promul- 
 gated, that it is celebrated by most of the historians, 
 as one of the proudest efforts of human genius, 
 placing its inventor on a level with the greatest 
 philosophers of antiquity. 
 
 239. If it were the design of this work to trace 
 the progess of general literature, its writer would 
 dwell with pleasure on the aspect which Italy pre- 
 sented during the greater part of the fourteenth 
 century. He would record the munificent patron- 
 age of the princes of the house of Medici— the 
 ardent and unwearied labours of Petrarca, Boccacio, 
 Poggio Bracciolini, and others, in exploring the 
 monastic libraries, and bringing thence the most 
 valuable remains of classical antiquity, — or the useful 
 exertions of a literary band of exiled Greeks, who, 
 driven from their own country by the calamities of 
 war, settled in Italy, and diligently employed them- 
 selves either in the collation of Greek MSS. or 
 translating them into a Latin dialect, far superior to 
 that which prevailed in the schools. These, how- 
 ever reluctantly, we must pass over, as falling with- 
 out the prescribed line of this elementary work. 
 Those individuals among them can alone be selected, 
 who contributed to the revival, if not the advance- 
 ment of intellectual science. Among these, the 
 justly celebrated Petrarca stands preeminent; who 
 flourished about the middle of the fourteenth 
 
CHAP. IlJ SCHOLASTICS. 319 
 
 century. Though chiefly known to posterity as a 
 man of taste and letters, he occupies no mean place 
 among the philosophers of his age. His ethical 
 writings have been greatly admired, both for the 
 purity of their style, and the comparative excellence 
 of their sentiments. It is a most grateful change to 
 the intellectual inquirer, after having been wearied 
 with the frivolous and unintelligible logomachies of 
 the schoolmen, to meet with essays on subjects con- 
 nected with true philosophy ; such as " the contempt 
 of the world,"—" the remedies of fortune," or, " the 
 dangers of self-ignorance." Argyropulus, a native 
 of Constantinople, patronised by the house of 
 Medici, and his fellow countryman, Chrysoloras, 
 with many others of inferior reputation who might 
 be enumerated, rendered important services to phi- 
 losophy, by their translations of the recently dis- 
 covered remains of the Grecian philosophers, and 
 their critical commentaries on the works of Plato, 
 Aristotle, and Epicurus. 
 
PART IN. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY & SCIENCE 
 
 CONTINUED FROM THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS TO THE 
 CLOSE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Sect. I. 
 
 ON THE CAUSES OF THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS. 
 
 240. We may at length congratulate ourselves 
 on having crossed the great desert, which occupies 
 so large a space in the chart of human science, and 
 reached the borders of a region characterized by an 
 extraordinary degree of intellectual luxuriance and 
 fruitfulness. As it is grateful, after a long wintry 
 night, to observe the earliest indications of dawning 
 day, so, in emerging from the darkness of the middle 
 ages, is it most cheering to the intellectual enquirer, 
 to fix his eye on some of those morning stars of 
 genius, which afforded a sure presage, that the sun 
 of science was about to arise and shine upon the 
 earth. The analogy may be traced one step fur- 
 ther. As in the physical world we do not perceive 
 a sudden and immediate transition from midnight 
 
CHAP. I.] REVIVAL OF LETTERS. 321 
 
 darkness to the splendour of noon-day, or from the 
 dreary barrenness of the desert to the richest verdure 
 and most abundant fruitfulness ; so neither can we 
 expect, in passing from the review of ages charac- 
 terised by sterility and mental darkness, to be 
 dazzled at once with the lustre of pre-eminent genius, 
 or to reap the full harvest of physical and moral 
 science. Yet, imperfect as their first attempts, and 
 limited as their attainments may have been, who 
 first rent asunder the fetters of ignorance, and con- 
 tributed to the dispersion of intellectual darkness, 
 they are by no means to be overlooked, nor should 
 their labours be lightly esteemed. 
 
 241. It is an interesting object of inquiry, " what 
 were the causes which cooperated to effect the 
 emancipation of the human mind from the thraldom 
 in which it had been held, and who were the dis- 
 tinguished individuals by whose instrumentality it 
 was effected ?" To this inquiry it will be attempted, 
 in the present section, to furnish a brief reply. The 
 principal causes of the revival of letters, which took 
 place towards the close of the fifteenth century, 
 may be classed under three general heads— -political, 
 literary, and moral. In adverting to these, it may 
 be requisite to pass over some of the ground which 
 has been already trodden ; but perhaps this is not 
 to be regretted, since it may serve to impress more 
 deeply on the memory, facts which in themselves 
 were highly important, and in their results have 
 proved incalculably beneficial. 
 
 (1.) Among the political causes of this intellectual 
 phenomenon may be enumerated, the fall of the 
 
 Y 
 
322 REVIVAL OF LETTERS. [PART IV. 
 
 eastern empire, and the conquest of Turkey and 
 Greece by the Saracens ; the effect of which was to 
 disperse the men of learning, who resided in those 
 provinces, through the continent of Europe, but 
 more especially to enlighten those countries which lay 
 contiguous to the Ottoman empire, — the gradual 
 demolition of the feudal system, and consequent 
 elevation of the lower orders of society to wealth 
 and importance, — the study and practice of juris- 
 prudence, by which the administration of justice was 
 secured, and civilization promoted,— the intolerable 
 oppression of the papal hierarchy, which, though 
 tamely submitted to during many ages, at length 
 became so galling a yoke, that both princes and 
 their subjects stood prepared to shake it off, — and, 
 finally, the consolidation of the civil governments of 
 Europe, under the administration of more enlight- 
 ened princes, who became the zealous patrons of 
 learning and science. 
 
 242. (2.) On the literary causes of this impor- 
 tant change in the aspect and condition of society, 
 it will be proper to enter somewhat more into de- 
 tail. The first, and perhaps the greatest of these, 
 was the invention of the art of printing, a brief 
 history of which has been already given. Circum- 
 stanced as we now are, it is not easy to conceive of 
 the mighty impulse which this valuable discovery 
 must have given to the operations of the human 
 mind. " For us, (says Stewart, in his admirable 
 Dissertation on the Progress of Mental Philosophy, 
 to which we shall have frequent occasion to refer in 
 subsequent pages,) — " for us, who have been accus- 
 
CHAP. I/] REVIVAL OF LETTERS. 323 
 
 tomed, from our infancy, to the use of books, it is 
 not easy to form an adequate idea of the disad- 
 vantages which those laboured under, who had to 
 acquire the whole of their knowledge through the 
 medium of universities and schools ; blindly devoted, 
 as the generality of students must then have been, 
 to the peculiar opinions of the teacher, who first 
 unfolded to their curiosity the treasures of literature 
 and the wonders of science. Thus error was per- 
 petuated ; and, instead of yielding to time, acquired 
 additional influence in each succeeding generation. 
 But the art of printing, by rendering the taught less 
 dependent on their teachers, and by opening more 
 widely the sources of knowledge, served quickly to 
 break down these ancient barriers, and emancipated 
 the human mind from its bondage." — Stewart's 
 Dissert, ut sup. pp. 24, 25. 
 
 The next cause of the revival of letters, at the 
 period under review, which may be properly termed 
 literary, was, the discovery, and, by means of the art 
 of printing, the easy and rapid distribution of those 
 stores of ancient learning, which had been for many 
 ages immured in monastic libraries, and were scarcely 
 known to exist ; and, in connexion with this, the 
 arrival in Italy, and other parts of Europe, of a 
 considerable number of learned Greeks, formerly 
 resident at Constantinople, who assiduously and 
 honourably employed themselves in unfolding the 
 treasures of Grecian literature by means of Latin 
 versions. This awakened the attention of European 
 scholars to the importance of obtaining a critical 
 acquaintance with the Greek tongue, and at the 
 
 y2 
 
324 REVIVAL OF LETTERS. [PART IV. 
 
 same time afforded them every facility they could 
 desire. The former of these incentives to literary 
 exertion, was furnished by the generous enthusiasm 
 of such men as Petrarca, Boccacio, and Poggio 
 Bracciolini ; the latter, by the indefatigable labours of 
 Chrysoloras, Argyropulus, Pletho, Theodore Gaza, 
 Lascario, Bessarion, Trebizond, with many others. 
 
 A third cause, which cooperated with those 
 just enumerated to produce this happy result, 
 was, the existence, at that period, of a few dis- 
 tinguished individuals, who were insatiable in their 
 thirst for knowledge, and who could no longer 
 be content to follow the dull routine of dialec- 
 tics and metaphysics, hitherto exclusively taught 
 in the schools. These persons were men of let- 
 ters, rather than philosophers. Their talents were 
 chiefly directed to the critical investigation of the 
 classical writings of antiquity then recently brought 
 into notice, and their great object was to revive a 
 taste for the study of Roman and Grecian literature. 
 They laboured, therefore, with incredible assiduity, 
 in the department of philology, and substituted 
 the rules of criticism for the subtilties of scholastic 
 logic and metaphysical theology. This taste, which 
 characterised, in a great measure, the writings of 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was generated 
 and nurtured by the personal influence and success- 
 ful labours of those distinguished scholars enume- 
 rated above; to whom might be added, Erasmus, 
 Ludovicus Vives, Melancthon, Budaeus, William de 
 Wykeham, Sir Thomas More, with many others, 
 who will be more distinctly noticed hereafter. 
 
CHAP. I.] REVIVAL OF LETTERS. 325 
 
 243. (3.) Among the moral causes, which operated 
 most powerfully to subvert the authority of the 
 schoolmen, as well as to effect a yet more important 
 revolution in the opinions of mankind, the principal 
 was the Reformation from Popery, It forms no 
 part of our present design to investigate the causes 
 or trace the progress of the Protestant Reforma- 
 tion ; a subject which belongs more properly to 
 ecclesiastical history than to that of philosophy and 
 science. At present, it is only contemplated as 
 exerting a mighty and resistless influence on the 
 intellectual attainments and pursuits, not only of 
 the Reformers themselves, but indirectly and more 
 remotely on the general mass of society. " The 
 renunciation," says Stewart, " in a great part of 
 Europe, of theological opinions so long consecrated 
 by time, and the adoption of a creed more pure in 
 its principles and more liberal in its spirit, could 
 not fail to encourage, on all other subjects, a con- 
 genial freedom of inquiry. These circumstances 
 operated still more directly and powerfully by their 
 influence in undermining the authority of Aristotle ; 
 an authority, which, for many years, was scarcely 
 inferior to that of the Scriptures, and which, in 
 some universities, was supported by statutes, re- 
 quiring the teachers to promise upon oath, that in 
 their public lectures they would follow no other 
 guide."* The keen satire of Erasmus, the tre- 
 mendous thunders of the Saxon Reformer, the mild 
 philosophical reasonings of Melancthon, contributed, 
 though in different degrees, and by widely different 
 
 * Stewart's Diss. p. 23. 
 
326 SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. [j>ART IV. 
 
 methods, to the same valuable end. They taught 
 men to think, to reason, and to judge for themselves. 
 They substituted the authority of truth for that 
 of ancient tradition and venerated names. They 
 inculcated, both by precept and example, the duty 
 of " proving all things, and holding fast that which 
 is good." 
 
 Section II. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTELLECTUAL AND SCIENTIFIC 
 
 PHILOSOPHERS of the 16th & 17th centuries. 
 
 244. Following the arrangement which has been 
 adopted in the former divisions of this work, pre- 
 viously to a cursory review of the scientific disco- 
 veries and philosophical researches which shed a 
 lustre on the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a 
 general classification will be attempted of the indi- 
 viduals engaged in these pursuits. In doing this, 
 it is evident that a selection is necessary ; for the 
 arena becomes so thronged, as we proceed, that it 
 would be scarcely possible even to enumerate, and 
 much less to sketch, the literary history of all who con- 
 tributed to the advancement of science. The prin- 
 ciple on which that selection will be made, is that of 
 noticing exclusively those, who, either by the pre- 
 eminence of their genius, or by the fame of their 
 writings, or by some specific discovery in philosophy 
 or science, acquired, and justly merit, an honourable 
 distinction. The following tables will exhibit, at 
 one view, the persons who nourished in each of the 
 above-mentioned centuries, and the department in 
 
CHAP. lj SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. 327 
 
 which they principally excelled. A few names, it 
 will be perceived, occur in both lists, because they 
 may, with equal propriety, be classed with the 
 scientific and intellectual philosophers of their age. 
 
 I.-SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS, 
 
 From 1450 to 1600. 
 
 NAME. COUNTRY. BORN. DIED. 
 
 Baptista Porta Naples 1445 1515 
 
 Werner Nuremberg 1468 1528 
 
 Copernicus Thorn, in Prussia 1472 1543 
 
 Nonius Alcazar, Portugal 1492 1577 
 
 Maurolycus Messina, in Sicily 1494 1575 
 
 Cardan Milan 1501 1575 
 
 Tartaglia Brescia 
 
 Fernel Paris 1506 1558 
 
 Commandine Urbino 1509 1575 
 
 Reinhold Wirtemberg 1511 1553 
 
 Ramus Picardy 1515 1572 
 
 Stiphelius Nuremberg (Jl. 1550) 
 
 Bombelli Bologna (ibid. 1579) 
 
 Vieta Fontenoy , , 1540 1 603 
 
 Tycho Brahe Knudstorp, in Denmark 1546 1601 
 
 Napier Marchiston, in Scotland 1550 1616 
 
 Ubaldi Italy 1553 1617 
 
 H. Briggs Halifax 1556 1630 
 
 Albert Girard Flanders 1634 
 
 Harriott Oxford 1560 1621 
 
 Bacon (Lord Verulam) London 1561 1626 
 
 Galileo Florence 1564 1642 
 
 Antoni D. Dominis . . Archbishop of Spalatio ■ ■ 1625 
 
 Kepler Wirtemberg 1571 1630 
 
 Gregory St. Vincent . . Netherlands 1584 1667 
 
 Fermat Toulouse 1590 1664 
 
 Snellius Leyden {Jl. 1617) 
 
 Gassendi Provence 1592 1655 
 
 Des Cartes Touraine 1596 1650 
 
 Riccioli Ferrara 1598 1671 
 
 Cavalleri .-. Milan 1598 
 
 Stevinus Flanders (Jl. 1586—1635) 
 
 Castelli Italy {Jl. 1628) 
 
328 SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. [PART IV. 
 
 II.— SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS, 
 
 From 1600 to 1700. 
 
 NAME. COUNTRY. BORN. DIED. 
 
 Toricelli Italy 1608 1647 
 
 Roberval France (Jl. 1646) 
 
 Hevelius Dantzic 1611 1687 
 
 Mercator Holstein 1616 1688 
 
 Wallis Ashford, in Kent 1616 1703 
 
 Ward Buntingford 1617 1662 
 
 Horrox Texteth, in Lancashire . . 1619 1640 
 
 Otto Guericke Magdeburg (Jl. 1654) 
 
 Marriotte Burgundy 1684 
 
 Brouncker Castle Lyons 1620 1684 
 
 Pascal (Blaise) Claremont 1 623 1 662 
 
 Boyle Canterbury 1626 1690 
 
 Huygens. Hague 1629 1695 
 
 Barrow Suffolk 1630 1677 
 
 Spinosa Amsterdam 1633 1677 
 
 Cassini (the Elder) Piedmont 1635 1712 
 
 Hook Isle of Wight 1635 1702 
 
 Gregory (James) Aberdeen 1639 1675 
 
 Picard (Abb£) France 1683 
 
 Newton (Sir Isaac) .. Woolstrope 1642 1727 
 
 Roemer Jutland 1644 1710 
 
 Leibnitz Leipsic . , 1646 1716 
 
 Flamsteed Den by, in Derbyshire . . 1646 1719 
 
 Bernoulli (James) Basil 1654 1705 
 
 Halley London 1656 1742 
 
 D'Hopital (Marquis) Auvergne 1661 1704 
 
 Bernoulli (John) Basil 1667 1747 
 
 Boerhaave Leyden 1668 1738 
 
 Cassini (the Younger) Paris... 1672 1756 
 
 Richer France (Jl. 1672) 
 
 Bradley Sherbourne 1692 1762 
 
CHAP. I.] SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 329 
 
 III.— INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHERS, 
 
 Who flourished from a.d. 1450 to 1700. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 Erasmus 
 
 Budasus 
 
 Machiavel 
 
 More (Sir Thomas) .... 
 
 Luther 
 
 Scaliger (Julius Caesar) . . 
 
 Ludovicus Vives 
 
 Melancthon 
 
 Bodinus 
 
 Ramus 
 
 Montaigne 
 
 Scaliger (Jos. Just.) .... 
 
 Lipsius 
 
 Thuanus (De Thou.) . . 
 
 Casaubon 
 
 Bacon (Lord Chancellor) 
 
 Bruno . , 
 
 Campanella 
 
 Usher (Archbishop) .... 
 
 Grotius 
 
 Hobbes 
 
 Gassendi 
 
 Des Cartes 
 
 Arnauld 
 
 More (Dr. Henry) .... 
 
 Cudworth 
 
 Barrow 
 
 Puffendorf 
 
 Huetius 
 
 Locke 
 
 Spinosa 
 
 Malebranehe 
 
 Leibnitz 
 
 Bayle 
 
 Fontenelle 
 
 Clarke (Dr. Samuel) . . 
 Berkeley (Bishop) 
 Montesquieu 
 
 COUNTRY. BORN. DIED. 
 
 Rotterdam 1466 1536 
 
 Paris 1467 1540 
 
 Florence 1469 1550 
 
 London.., 1480 1535 
 
 Saxony 1483 1546 
 
 Verona 1484 1558 
 
 Valencia 1492 1536 
 
 Bretten 1497 1560 
 
 Angers • 1585 
 
 Picardy 1515 1572 
 
 Perigord 1533 1592 
 
 Agen 1540 1609 
 
 Louvain 1547 1606 
 
 1553 1617 
 
 Geneva 1559 1614 
 
 London 1561 1626 
 
 Nola, in Naples 1600 
 
 Calabria 1568 1639 
 
 Dublin 1580 1657 
 
 Delft, in Holland 1583 1645 
 
 Malmesbury 1588 1679 
 
 Provence 1592 1655 
 
 Touraine 1598 1650 
 
 Paris 1612 1694 
 
 Grantham 1614 1687 
 
 Somersetshire 1617 1688 
 
 Suffolk 1630 1677 
 
 Saxony 1630 1694 
 
 Avranche 1630 1721 
 
 Wrington, near Bristol . . 1632 1704 
 
 Amsterdam 1633 1677 
 
 Paris 1638 1715 
 
 Leipsic 1646 1716 
 
 Foix 1647 1706 
 
 Rouen 1657 1756 
 
 Norwich 1675 1729 
 
 Thomastown 1684 1753 
 
 Bourdeaux 1689 1755 
 
330 MATHEMATICIANS. [PART IV. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE PROGRESS OF THE ABSTRACT SCIENCES. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON the principal mathematicians of the six- 
 teenth CENTURY. 
 
 245. The history of mathematical science has 
 been sketched, both in its earliest period and its 
 intermediate stages : we now proceed to view it 
 in its full vigour and maturity of growth. The 
 retrospect of the scientific history of the middle 
 ages, it will be remembered, terminated with two 
 illustrious individuals, Purbach and Regiomonta- 
 nus s the latter of whom died towards the close of 
 the fifteenth century. But the impulse of his genius 
 was felt long after his death, and its effects were 
 quickly apparent in the rapid improvement of those 
 sciences, to the cultivation of which his distinguished 
 talents had been devoted. Among those who seem 
 to have been stimulated by his example, and en- 
 couraged by his brilliant success, was Werner, who 
 is stated to have been " the first among the moderns 
 acquainted with the method of geometrical analy- 
 sis." In an earlier part of this elementary history, 
 some account was given of the invention of this 
 beautiful method of demonstration. (§ 72.) It seems, 
 however, to have been long forgotten, if not wholly 
 
CHAP. II.3 MATHEMATICIANS. 331 
 
 lost in subsequent ages : nor was any book known 
 to exist which contained a development of this 
 system, by the help of which the ancient mathe- 
 maticians were enabled to demonstrate so many 
 simple and elegant propositions. " Euclid's Data" 
 was the only work then discovered, bearing, how- 
 ever remotely, on the subject. With this slender 
 assistance, Werner re-discovered the " Method of 
 Analysis," and applied it to the solution of some of 
 the most difficult problems. His mathematical 
 works are now little known, having been long since 
 superseded by others of far greater value. 
 
 246. Cardan and Tartaglia were contemporary 
 algebraists, whose united labours contributed in no 
 ordinary degree to the advancement of that science. 
 The former was born at Milan, a.d. 1501; the lat- 
 ter at Brescia, a few years after. Cardan is best 
 known to posterity on account of the celebrated 
 rule for solving equations of the third order, which 
 still bears his name ; but to Tartaglia seems rather 
 to have belonged the honour of the invention. A 
 hateful rivalry subsisted between these two distin- 
 guished mathematicians, which only terminated with 
 their death, in consequence of Cardan having taken 
 to himself the merit of this scientific discovery, which 
 Tartaglia asserted to have been communicated to 
 him in confidence, and under a promise of secrecy. 
 Cardan, on the contrary, affirmed, that though the 
 formula was communicated to him by Tartaglia, the 
 method of demonstrating it was discovered jointly 
 by himself and his pupil Ferrari, the latter of whom 
 carried the process farther, by solving equations of 
 
332 MATHEMATICIANS. [PART IV. 
 
 the fourth order.* However the question may be 
 determined with respect to the inventor of the 
 celebrated rule ascribed to Cardan, the effect was 
 manifest in the rapid improvement of the science of 
 analysis. Some other algebraic discoveries of Car- 
 dan materially contributed to this result. He re- 
 duced to a more regular system the mode of notation 
 in algebraic quantities, with reference to letters, 
 signs, and co-efficients ; improvements which, though 
 they may appear of little importance in the present 
 advanced state of the science, were, when first 
 discovered, of great utility and value. Tartaglia 
 made also some useful discoveries in geometry, the 
 results of which will be found in his treatise on 
 " Numbers and Measures ;" in which he first deve- 
 loped the method of determining the area of a 
 triangle, by its three sides alone, without the aid of 
 a perpendicular. 
 
 247. Several mathematicians of inferior name, 
 flourished about the same period, in different parts 
 of Europe, whom it will be sufficient cursorily to 
 notice. These were, Commandine, who translated 
 and commented on Euclid's Elements, the physical 
 works of Archimedes, Aristarchus, Hero, Ptolemy, 
 Pappus, and the Arabian astronomers; — Nonius 
 of Lisbon, the inventor of a useful mathematical 
 instrument employed in mensuration, which still 
 bears his name ; — Stiphelius, a German alge- 
 
 * Further particulars respecting this controversy between 
 Cardan and Tartaglia, will be found in Montucla's and Bossut's 
 History of Mathematics ; and in Playfair's Dissert, apud Encyc. 
 Britt. N. Supp. pp. 13, 14. 
 
CHAP. Il/] MATHEMATICIANS. 333 
 
 braist, who suggested some improvements in 
 the use of negative and positive quantities ; — 
 Recorde, an English analyst; and Pelitarius, 
 a French mathematician, who directed their chief 
 attention to algebraic equations; — and especially 
 Bombelli, of Bologna, who pushed forwards the 
 discoveries of Cardan, by resolving what appeared 
 to that distinguished algebraist to be an irre- 
 ducible case. 
 
 248. About the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 we meet with a mathematician who was justly 
 esteemed the " greatest geometer of his age." This 
 was Maurolycus, born at Messina, in Sicily, a.d. 
 1494 ; a man profoundly skilled in all the depart- 
 ments of mathematical science, but who chiefly 
 excelled in that of geometry. " His treatise on 
 Conic Sections" says Professor Playfair, " is highly 
 esteemed. All his writings indicate a man of clear 
 conception and strong understanding, though he is 
 taxed with having dealt in astrological prediction." 
 Maurolycus applied himself to a branch of analy- 
 tical calculation at that time almost unknown. This 
 was the summation of several series of numbers, 
 such as those of natural numbers, of their squares, 
 and of triangular numbers. On this subject he 
 framed theorems remarkable for subtilty of in- 
 vention and simplicity of result.* Besides his 
 original works, he bestowed great labour on the 
 remains of the ancient mathematicians ; particularly 
 the " Conies" of Apollonius, which he endeavoured 
 
 * Playfair's Dissert, p. 5 ; Bossut's Hist, of Mathem. p. 209. 
 
334 MATHEMATICIANS. [PART IV. 
 
 to restore and illustrate by valuable critical and 
 scientific commentaries. 
 
 249. The close of the sixteenth century forms a 
 splendid gera in the history of mathematical science ; 
 but the greater part of the geometricians of that age 
 pursued these studies, not so much for their own 
 sake, as on account of their inseparable connexion 
 with astronomy, or some other department of natural 
 philosophy. They may, therefore, be introduced 
 with more propriety into those sections which will 
 include a review of the history of physics at this 
 period. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, could not 
 have made their splendid scientific discoveries with- 
 out a high degree of mathematical science ; though 
 they owe their chief celebrity to their astronomical 
 researches and discoveries. But one distinguished 
 individual must be mentioned in this place, who was 
 chiefly, if not exclusively, attached to the study 
 of the abstract sciences, and to whom the science 
 of algebra owes peculiar obligations. Vieta was a 
 celebrated French algebraist, who flourished about 
 a.d. 1580; and whom Professor Playfair has cha- 
 racterized as " an illustrious man, and excellent 
 mathematician, remarkable both for industry and 
 invention." To him is attributed the very import- 
 ant invention of " the application of letters, in alge- 
 braic formula, to known as well as to unknown 
 quantities." He gave also some rules for resolving 
 cubic and biquadratic equations ; discovered the 
 relation between the different sorts of equations and 
 the coefficients of their terms ; and, above all, was 
 eminently successful in the application of algebraic 
 
CHAP. II.^ MATHEMATICIANS. 335 
 
 analysis to the solution of geometrical problems ; 
 thus pointing out more clearly the connexion be- 
 tween the two kindred sciences. To these valuable 
 discoveries may be added his improvements in trigo- 
 nometry, and his treatise on " Angular Sections." 
 The general result of his labours in mathematical 
 science was, that, by the improvements which he 
 suggested, (and of which it is impossible here to 
 give an adequate idea,) the language of algebra 
 then first acquired a regularity which it never before 
 possessed, and became capable of expressing general 
 truths, attaining by this means an extension which 
 has rendered it one of the most efficient instruments 
 of investigation. His works were originally pub- 
 lished about a.d. 1600. 
 
 250. Before this rapid sketch of the mathematical 
 history of the sixteenth century is concluded, we 
 must not omit to mention two individuals, who 
 were celebrated in their day, though eclipsed by 
 the brightness of surrounding luminaries. Fernel, 
 physician to Henry II., wrote several treatises on 
 pure mathematics and on astronomy, which were 
 highly scientific ; but his mathematical fame chiefly 
 rests on his having been the first, among the moderns, 
 who attempted the exact measurement of the earth. 
 Though the means employed for this purpose were 
 imperfect, the result to which he attained was very 
 near to the truth. The other was Albert Girard, 
 a Flemish mathematician, who, availing himself of 
 the then recent discoveries of Vieta, brought them 
 to bear successfully on other parts of algebraic 
 science, and proved their extensive and almost 
 
336 MATHEMATICIANS. [PART IV. 
 
 universal application. Playfair, after having enu- 
 merated the series of scientific inventions attri- 
 buted to Girard, concludes with this high encomium : 
 " This is the greatest list of discoveries which the 
 history of any algebraist could yet furnish." 
 
 Section II. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS CONTINUED, 
 
 From a.d. 1600 to 1650. 
 
 251. The commencement of the seventeenth 
 century is rendered memorable in the history of 
 the abstract sciences, by its being the asra of a noble 
 and most useful discovery, that of logarithms', a 
 discovery, which, by its abridgment of numerical 
 calculations, has rendered the most important service 
 to science in general, but especially to that of 
 astronomy. The labour of effecting the necessary 
 calculations to measure the distances of the heavenly 
 bodies, and other complicated and lengthened in- 
 vestigations, by the ordinary process of arithmetic, 
 had become exceedingly burdensome to the mathe- 
 maticians and astronomers of Europe. But the 
 discovery of logarithms simplified the process, and 
 rendered it comparatively easy. Baron Napier, of 
 Marchiston, in Scotland, was the undisputed inventor 
 of this improved method of calculation, which was first 
 announced to the public in a work, published at Edin- 
 burgh, a.d. 1614, entitled, " Logarithmorum Canonis 
 Description Of this admirable system, a detailed 
 
CHAP. IlJ MATHEMATICIANS. 337 
 
 account cannot be given in this elementary work : 
 suffice it to state, that by the construction of tables, 
 in which two series of numbers are arranged, one in 
 arithmetical, and the other in geometrical progression, 
 corresponding to each other, results were obtained, 
 with great facility and in the most summary manner, 
 by addition or subtraction alone, which had pre- 
 viously required tedious and almost interminable 
 processes of multiplication or division. The in- 
 genious inventor did not live to complete his un- 
 dertaking, though he proceeded far towards its 
 accomplishment. The logarithmic tables begun by 
 him, were improved, finished, and published by his 
 friend and coadjutor Henry Briggs, then professor 
 of mathematics in Gresham College. Further im- 
 provements were subsequently suggested, in a 
 more advanced period of this century, by Gelibrand, 
 Gunther, and Hadrian Vlacq, (all of whom were 
 either pupils or personal friends of Briggs,) and by 
 Justus Byrge, a German mathematician of no 
 ordinary attainments. 
 
 252. While Napier was pursuing a new track 
 in scientific philosophy, Harriott, an English 
 algebraist and astronomer, was no less diligently 
 employed in advancing his favourite sciences. Fol- 
 lowing up the suggestions of Vieta and Girard, 
 he arrived at important results which they had not 
 anticipated, and discovered truths to which they 
 had only approximated. The particulars of his re- 
 searches and improvements in mathematical science 
 are contained in his work entitled " Artis Analy- 
 lieae Praxis," published after his death. To him is 
 
 Z 
 
338 MATHEMATICIANS. £PART IV. 
 
 attributed that important improvement in alge- 
 bra, which consists " in transposing the terms and 
 changing the signs of equations, so as to arrange 
 them on one side;" a method which has greatly 
 tended to simplify algebraic solutions. Another 
 valuable improvement suggested by Harriott, con- 
 sisted in the discovery of a method of ascertaining the 
 nature of equations in general by successive multi- 
 plications of those of the first order. 
 
 253. The celebrated Des Cartes occurs next in 
 order among the mathematicians of this age. We 
 shall have occasion repeatedly to refer to this dis- 
 tinguished philosopher, in connexion with almost 
 every department of physical and moral science; 
 for, after every abatement is made on account of his 
 love of speculation, and his tendency to theorize, 
 rather than calmy to investigate truth, it must be 
 confessed, that few, either in ancient or modern 
 times, have approached so near to the character of 
 an universal genius. At present we have only to do 
 with his mathematical discoveries, which, it will be 
 evident from the following summary, were by no 
 means inconsiderable. In algebra, an improvement 
 was made by Des Cartes, which, in the opinion 
 of Playfair, forms a most important epoch in the 
 history of mathematical science ; namely, " the appli- 
 cation of the algebraic analysis to define the nature 
 and investigate the properties of curve lines, and 
 consequently to represent the notion of variable 
 quantity." To this may be added his more correct 
 notation of algebraic quantities by means of ex- 
 ponents, and a more complete development than 
 
CHAP. II.] MATHEMATICIANS. 339 
 
 had occurred to Vieta of the relation between geo- 
 metry and algebra. In geometry, this eminent 
 mathematician rendered most valuable service by 
 discovering the means of determining the relations 
 and proportions of different species of curve lines ; 
 by drawing tangents and perpendiculars to geo- 
 metrical curves, and by describing accurately their 
 course of inflexion in any given case. By these 
 abstruse investigations, he prepared the way for 
 future mathematicians, and took an important 
 step towards the discovery of the " Analysis of Infi- 
 nites," which constitutes the chief glory of modern 
 times. 
 
 254. Cavalleri, who flourished at the same time 
 with Des Cartes, was equal, if not superior, to his 
 illustrious contemporary in mathematical science. 
 He was born at Milan, a. d. 1598, and published his 
 celebrated work on the " Geometry of Indivisibles," 
 in 1635. This great mathematician was a disciple 
 of Galileo, and had associated with Kepler; from 
 both of whom, it is probable, he derived much 
 valuable assistance in the preparation of this highly 
 scientific work. It is divided into seven books, in six 
 of which his new theory is applied to the quadrature 
 of curves, and the cubation of solids ; and in the last, 
 the same theorems are demonstrated without the 
 aid of his method of indivisibles. To comprehend 
 more clearly the value and importance of this dis- 
 covery, it will be requisite to call to mind what 
 was stated in a former section of this work, respect- 
 ing the (C method of exhaustions," as far as it 
 was known to the ancient geometricians ; (§ 76 ;) 
 
 z 2 
 
340 MATHEMATICIANS. [TART IV. 
 
 the object of which was " to determine the 
 lengths and areas of curves, and the contents of 
 solids contained in them." That method was ex- 
 tremely limited in its application, and the demon- 
 strations to which it led could only be attained by 
 tedious and complicated operations. It remained for 
 Cavalleri to devise a more compendious method of 
 effectuating these objects by a principle of universal 
 application. Instead of the circuitous route, by 
 which Archimedes and other ancient mathematicians 
 were led to the accurate measurement of superficial 
 and solid bodies contained in curves, Cavalleri pro- 
 ceeded by a method of analysis of his own invention, 
 most directly to the attainment of his object. To 
 this he most properly gave the name of the " method 
 of indivisibles" In consequence of this happy and 
 most important discovery, many propositions were de- 
 monstrated with the utmost facility, which had baffled 
 all preceding geometricians, and not a few new theo- 
 rems were invented of singular beauty and elegance. 
 255. About the same time, a comparatively novel 
 object of research engaged the attention of mathe- 
 maticians, especially those of the French school. 
 This related to the nature, properties and propor- 
 tions of that particular species of curves, deno- 
 minated cycloids. This kind of curve was alluded 
 to in the review of ancient mathematics ; but little 
 advance seems to have been made towards the 
 development of this curious division of the science, 
 till the commencement of the seventeenth century ; 
 and even then, it is difficult to determine by whom 
 the solution was first made. Galileo had in vain 
 
CHAP. II.]] MATHEMATICIANS. 341 
 
 employed his vigorous and penetrating mind in this 
 investigation, Cavalleri, aided as he was by his 
 " Method of Indivisibles/' which furnished him with 
 the true key to its solution, yet failed to discover it. 
 The honour of the invention belongs either to Tori- 
 celli, one of the pupils of Galileo, or to Roberval, 
 a French mathematician of high repute. Without 
 presuming to determine a question so fiercely con- 
 tested by the partisans of each, it may be affirmed, 
 that, by whomsoever discovered, the invention of the 
 " quadration of the cycloid " forms an interesting 
 sera in the history of mathematics. 
 
 256. One of the geometricians of the French 
 school has been mentioned incidentally. But it 
 would be an act of injustice to that age and country 
 not to allude more distinctly, both to the mathema- 
 tical investigations of that individual, and of those 
 several other of his illustrious contemporaries and 
 countrymen, particularly Fermat and Pascal, all 
 of whom may justly be classed with mathematicians 
 of the first order. 
 
 Fermat was born at Toulouse, a.d. 1590, and 
 originally intended to practise in the law, but his 
 genius directing him to the study of the mathe- 
 matics, he soon relinquished the legal profession, and 
 gave himself up to scientific pursuits. He excelled 
 both as a geometrician and an algebraist. In the 
 former, he may be considered as on the very verge 
 of having discovered the method of fluxions ; since 
 his investigation of infinitely small quantities, for 
 the purpose of determining the maxima and minima 
 of geometrical figures, led him to the confines of that 
 
342 MATHEMATICIANS. [jPART IV. 
 
 important invention, which characterises and en- 
 nobles the geometry of modern times. In algebra, 
 Fermat was led to many useful improvements, by his 
 diligent analysis of prime and figurate numbers, and 
 by his intimate acquaintance with the works of Dio- 
 phantus and the Arabian mathematicians. His ori- 
 ginal treatises and commentaries on the ancients were 
 collected after his death, in two volumes folio, and are 
 lasting memorials of his science and industry. 
 
 257. Roberval was the great rival in mathe- 
 matical science both of Cavalleri and Descartes, 
 of whose well-earned celebrity he was extremely 
 jealous, and with both of whom he maintained many 
 angry controversies. His attention, like that of 
 almost all the geometricians of that period, was 
 directed chiefly to the means of ascertaining 
 the area of curves of different kinds ; particularly 
 the quadrature of parabolas and the nature of 
 cycloids. In this abstruse and difficult depart- 
 ment of pure mathematics, he proceeded a few 
 steps beyond Cavalleri, since he arrived at the same 
 results by a yet easier process than the method of 
 indivisibles. His asperity and vanity are, however, 
 great blemishes in his literary character, for which 
 even his high scientific attainments can scarcely be 
 deemed an adequate compensation. 
 
 258. The profound and excellent Pascal, whose 
 intellectual powers, and, above all, whose ardent 
 piety shed a lustre on his science and learning, 
 proved, by his inventions in mathematics, that his 
 mighty genius was capable of grasping almost any 
 subject, however abstract and difficult, to which 
 
CHAP. II.3 MATHEMATICIANS. 343 
 
 it could be directed. He opened a new path in 
 analysis, by his well-known arithmetical triangle, 
 and in geometry pursued, with brilliant success, the 
 investigation of the cycloid. " Geometricians," says 
 M. Bossut, "regret that he did not dedicate the 
 whole course of his short life to the mathematics; 
 but then we should have lost those celebrated Pro- 
 vincial Letters, and those profound Thoughts, which 
 are perhaps the master-pieces of French eloquence." 
 — Hist, of Math. p. 239. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS CONTINUED. 
 
 From A. D. 1650 to 1700. 
 
 259. Hitherto we have seen, that scientific men 
 were comparatively insulated, except as far as they 
 were mutually attracted by community of taste and 
 pursuits. In some instances their jealousies kept 
 them from freely imparting the discoveries they had 
 made in art or science to each other. But about 
 the middle of the seventeenth century a better sys- 
 tem was adopted. A kind of literary republic was 
 formed throughout Europe, by means of " Philoso- 
 phical Societies," and u Academies of Science," which 
 were then established in several of its principal 
 cities. To those scientific institutions, all who pos- 
 sessed the requisite qualifications were freely ad- 
 mitted, to whatever country they might belong. 
 Among many other valuable effects produced by 
 
344 MATHEMATICIANS. [PART IV. 
 
 these literary establishments, it soon became appa- 
 rent, that they stimulated genius, caused knowledge 
 of every kind to circulate more freely, and afforded 
 facilities to the improvement of the arts and sciences, 
 which private individuals could not possess. It is 
 not possible to estimate in how great a degree the 
 vigorous growth of mathematical and physical sci- 
 ence, which marked the close of the seventeenth 
 century, is attributable to these important associa- 
 tions. 
 
 The first, in the order of time, was the " Acade- 
 mia del Cimento? founded at Florence, a. d. 1651. 
 The next was the " Royal Society,' 9 of London ; 
 which, though it had existed as a private literary 
 association at Oxford, during the Commonwealth, 
 was not incorporated by royal charter till a. d. 1662. 
 The " Academy of Sciences? at Paris, quickly fol- 
 lowed, having been founded a. d. 1666. To these 
 succeeded similar institutions at Berlin, Leipsic, 
 Bologna, St. Petersburgh, and other European 
 cities. 
 
 260. Most of the scientific philosophers to whom 
 we shall have occasion to advert, who flourished 
 after this period, were members of one or more of 
 these philosophical institutions. At present, those 
 alone will be selected who contributed to the ad- 
 vancement of mathematical science during the latter 
 half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 (1.) Wallis was one of the earliest and most 
 distinguished members of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. Like the rest of the mathematicians of that 
 age, he directed his attention chiefly to the doctrine 
 
CHAP. II.^ MATHEMATICIANS. 345 
 
 of Infinites, which he investigated both by algebraic 
 and geometrical processes. The result of his long- 
 continued and unwearied researches in this branch 
 of the mathematics, appeared in his celebrated work, 
 entitled " The Arithmetic of Infinites ;" a work in 
 itself of great importance, but rendered still more 
 valuable by its having proved the occasion of the 
 most important discovery of modern times. 
 
 (2.) Huygens chiefly belongs to the class of prac- 
 tical and experimental philosophers ; but as a suc- 
 cessful fellow-labourer in the mathematical depart- 
 ment with Fermat, Wallis, Pascal, and others of his 
 illustrious contemporaries, he must also be included 
 in the list of geometricians of the first order. " One 
 of the greatest discoveries made in modern geome- 
 try," writes M. Bossut, " was the theory of evolutes, 
 invented by Huygens, and developed by him in his 
 work entitled, ' Horologium Oscillatorium.' The 
 chief object of this invention was to aid in the rec- 
 tification of curves, and especially cycloids ; that is, to 
 determine their exact quantity in right lines. The 
 uses," it is added, " of this theory, in all parts of 
 the mathematics, are without number*." The same 
 object was pursued by means of infinite series, and 
 similar results were obtained, by two eminent En- 
 glish mathematicians, who flourished at that period, 
 namely, Brouncker and Mercator; each of whom, 
 separately and simultaneously, made the same dis- 
 covery respecting the areas of hyperbolas and other 
 curves ; and who may be considered as proceeding, 
 
 * Bossut, p. 240. 
 
346 MATHEMATICIANS* [PART IV. 
 
 by almost imperceptible, but certain steps, towards 
 the more important invention of the new analysis. 
 
 (3.) Barrow, who is proved by his works to have 
 been at once a profound theologian, an acute rea- 
 soner, and a distinguished mathematician, is chiefly 
 celebrated in this latter department of science, by 
 his invention of the differential triangle ; which may 
 be considered as another important step taken to- 
 wards the discovery of fluxions. Its chief utility 
 consisted in enabling the geometrician to draw tan- 
 gents to curves by a shorter and simpler process 
 than that previously discovered by Fermat ; but it 
 fell far short of the " Method of Fluxions," inasmuch 
 as it would apply only to a single case instead of 
 giving a formula of general, or rather universal 
 application. 
 
 (4.) James Gregory was another coadjutor in 
 that great work, which employed, at this period, 
 the investigation of the profoundest mathematicians 
 of Europe. He discovered, by a new process, a me- 
 thod of infinite series, applicable to tangents and 
 secants, which materially assisted in determining 
 the quadrature and rectification of curves. 
 
 261. Having cursorily noticed the principal 
 English mathematicians, who flourished at the close 
 of the seventeenth century, (with the exception of 
 our illustrious Newton, whose mathematical disco- 
 veries were so splendid that they may justly claim 
 to be separately and distinctly reviewed) ; it remains 
 to enumerate some of the continental geometricians, 
 of distinguished reputation, who added to the lustre 
 of this splendid aera. 
 
CHAP. II.3 MATHEMATICIANS. 347 
 
 (1.) The Marquis D'Hopital acquired and 
 merited the reputation of a first-rate mathematician, 
 at a period in which it was no easy task to secure so 
 honourable a distinction. His mathematical genius 
 discovered itself in early youth ; for it is stated, that, 
 at fifteen years of age, he solved some of the most 
 difficult problems. He was the first of the French 
 school, who published on the analysis of Infinites, 
 then newly discovered by Leibnitz and Newton. 
 His work on this subject, " completely unveiling a 
 science, which had hitherto been but indistinctly 
 and imperfectly developed, excited universal admira- 
 tion, which was so much the greater on account of 
 the elevated rank of its author, and which still re- 
 tains its place among the standard treatises on the 
 differential calculus." This great mathematician was 
 employed in preparing a series of tracts on the conic 
 sections, equations, infinite series, and other subjects 
 connected with pure mathematics, when he was 
 arrested by the hand of death, on the second of 
 February, 1704, in the forty-third year of his age. 
 
 (2.) James and John Bernoulli, — two brethren 
 by birth, but rivals in literary fame, and, it is 
 painful to add, in the later period of their lives, 
 open enemies to each other,— pursued, with unwearied 
 assiduity, the same series of investigations, though 
 not with equal success. " The progress they made," 
 says M. Bossut, " conjointly or separately in the new 
 analysis, was rapid. A noble emulation, strengthened 
 by the ties of blood, of friendship, and of gratitude, 
 directed their studies for two or three years. Covet- 
 ous of nothing but knowledge, they were stimulated 
 
348 MATHEMATICIANS. JJPART IV. 
 
 only by the sublime emulation of penetrating into 
 the labyrinths of science now laid open to their 
 curiosity, and that unhappy rivalship, which borders 
 on envy, did not yet disturb their enjoyments." The 
 concluding portion of their literary career exhibits 
 but too melancholy a reverse of this enchanting 
 scene. An immense number of valuable tracts pro- 
 ceeded, year by year, from the pen of these scientific 
 brethren, both in separate publications and in the 
 philosophical journals of the age, which it would be 
 tedious and useless to enumerate. The more im- 
 portant of them related to the catenary curve, or 
 that formed by a heavy flexible and inextensible 
 cord, fastened at its extremities to two fixed points, 
 (a subject intimately connected with the science of 
 mechanics, though in itself mathematical,) — to the 
 nature and properties of cycloids — to elastic, isochro- 
 nous, and paracentric curves — and especially to the 
 geometry of infinites. Towards the close of his life, 
 James Bernoulli received the well-merited honour of 
 an appointment to the professorship of mathematics 
 in the University of Basil, the place of his birth, and 
 thus obtained additional facilities for prosecuting his 
 studies in mathematical and physical science. 
 
 262. The celebrated Leibnitz is last mentioned, 
 not as latest in the order of time, or inferior in 
 scientific attainments, for on both these grounds he 
 may justly take the precedence ; but because the prin- 
 cipal facts of his .literary history (especially in con- 
 nexion with the abstract sciences) are so interwoven 
 with those of the illustrious Newton, that it seemed 
 most desirable to place them in juxta-position. 
 
CHAP. II.]] MATHEMATICIANS. 349 
 
 This eminent philosopher was born at Leipsic on 
 the 4th of July, 1646. His father having been pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy in the university of that 
 city, he grew up in the atmosphere of learning, and 
 early imbibed a taste for almost every species of lite- 
 rature. Among other branches of science to which 
 his youth was devoted, the mathematics were not 
 forgotten; in which he made so great proficiency, 
 as to maintain a public thesis in the year 1663, on a 
 question of considerable difficulty. — His advancement 
 to academical honours was retarded by his rejection 
 of the principles of Aristotle and the Scholastics, who 
 still retained great influence in the principal univer- 
 sities of Europe ; but at length the genius and talents 
 of Leibnitz bore down all opposition, and procured 
 for him the highest literary distinctions. Some of 
 his earlier publications related to questions of juris- 
 prudence and subjects connected with intellectual 
 philosophy, which will be adverted to hereafter. But 
 the investigations of Pascal, Gregory, Huygens, and 
 Wallis, fired his ambition, and prompted him to 
 apply the energies of his powerful mind to those 
 intricate and abstruse subjects, in which they had 
 been so successful. In 1684, he published, in the 
 Leipsic Philosophical Transactions, ie A new Method 
 for Maxima and Minima," &c. In 1685, two tracts 
 were published by him on the quadrature of curves ; 
 and in almost every succeeding year, numerous 
 proofs were afforded of his high mathematical attain- 
 ments, either by valuable communications to literary 
 journals, or by separate treatises on the most pro- 
 found subjects of analysis. But the most remarkable 
 
350 MATHEMATICIANS. ^PART IV. 
 
 fact connected with the literary history of Leibnitz, 
 relates to the celebrated controversy respecting the 
 originality of his invention of the differential calculus, 
 which will form the principal subject of the next sec- 
 tion. That a discovery which opened so new and wide 
 a field to modern science, and so greatly enlarged the 
 boundaries of human knowledge, would reflect im- 
 mortal honour on its inventor, it was not difficult to 
 foresee ; and in proportion as this conviction was 
 felt, the partizans on either side felt determined to 
 secure the laurel for the brow of their favourite 
 philosopher. Time has allayed the passions, and 
 subdued the prejudices which this controversy once 
 excited, and furnished the requisite means of forming 
 a more impartial and correct judgment. 
 
 Section IV. 
 on the mathematical discoveries of sir ISAAC 
 
 NEWTON. 
 
 263. It will not be expected, from the title 
 prefixed to this section, that the writer of these 
 pages proposes to give a detailed account of the 
 prodigious labours and brilliant discoveries of the 
 most renowned of modern geometricians. This 
 would require more space than the assigned limits 
 of the present work would admit, and a much higher 
 degree of science than that to which its author can 
 pretend. Yet, as the age of Newton forms a new 
 and most important aera in the history of mathema- 
 
CHAP. Il/] MATHEMATICIANS. 351 
 
 tical science, it is requisite that an attempt be made 
 in this place to convey some faint conception of the 
 new geometry, of which he is justly considered the 
 inventor, and by the aid of which, science has sub- 
 sequently made such rapid progress. This may be 
 done as a matter of history, without attempting to 
 explain the process by which these valuable results 
 were obtained. 
 
 264. In order to understand the true nature of 
 those geometrical discoveries to which we are now 
 alluding, it is necessary to recall to recollection 
 what was stated respecting the discoveries of the 
 most celebrated mathematicians of Greece. When 
 reviewing the history of the abstract sciences in 
 the time of Euclid and Archimedes, it was stated 
 that those celebrated geometricians, by the aid of 
 the " Method of Exhaustions? and their investigation 
 of quantities infinitely small, prepared the way for 
 that department of mathematical science, to which 
 the moderns have given the names of " Differential 
 Calculus? " Infinitesimal Analysis? or "Fluxions." 
 (§ 76.) After the lapse of more than two thousand 
 years, the "Method of Exhaustions" gave place to that 
 of " Indivisibles? invented by C availed ; by means of 
 which, the same objects were attained with greater 
 ease and accuracy analytically, which the ancient 
 geometers had discovered by synthetical reasonings. 
 (§254.) Folio wing this track, the great mathematicians 
 of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who have 
 been enumerated, particularly Toricelli, Roberval, 
 Fermat, Pascal, Huygens, Wallis, and Barrow, 
 investigated more closely the doctrine of Infinites, 
 
352 MATHEMATICIANS. [jPART IV. 
 
 and discovered some important theorems concerning 
 variable or indeterminate quantities, which ap- 
 proximated so near to each other, that no assigned 
 difference could be shewn. Yet there was still 
 wanting some more exact calculus adapted to 
 these researches, which had continued during so 
 many ages to baffle the skill of the most scientific 
 philosophers. Such was the state of the abstract 
 sciences, when Newton and Leibnitz arose, both of 
 whom applied all the force of their mighty genius 
 to the subject. While an undergraduate at Cam- 
 bridge, Newton met with " Wallis's Arithmetic of 
 Infinites ;" and " no book," says Playfair, " could be 
 better fitted to suggest new views of geometry, 
 or call into activity the powers of mathematical 
 invention." The young philosopher quickly dis- 
 covered where Wallis had failed, and adopting the 
 general principle laid down in his work, discovered 
 a law, by which the long agitated problem of the 
 quadrature of the circle, and every other species of 
 curve, might be solved. This led to the invention 
 of his celebrated " binomial theorem," (by steps 
 perfectly easy to such a mind as Newton's, which 
 could only breathe in the atmosphere of science,) 
 and eventually to the method of " Fluxions" 
 
 265. The value of this discovery, and the new 
 field it opened to science, rendered the question 
 relative to the history of its invention interesting to 
 all Europe, and gave occasion to a controversy in 
 which many of the men of science of that age took 
 an active part. The question was simply this, 
 whether the honour of this brilliant discovery belonged 
 
CHAP. Il/] MATHEMATICIANS. 353 
 
 to Leibnitz or Newton. The facts of the case, as 
 abridged from the more full and impartial narrative 
 of Professor Playfair, are the following : " Newton 
 made the important discovery alluded to in early 
 life, but did not publish that discovery till nearly 
 thirty years afterwards. That the method effluxions 
 was known to him as early as a. d. 1665, or 1666, 
 is evident from a letter written by him, about that 
 time, to Oldenberg, one of the secretaries to the 
 Royal Society, in which some results are stated, 
 which could no otherwise have been found, though 
 he does not there explain the process by which they 
 were attained. A yet more decisive testimony is 
 borne on the subject by Dr. Barrow, who affirms 
 that, soon after the above date, Newton, then a 
 young man, placed in his hands a MS. entitled 
 " Analysis per Equationes Infinitas," &c, which he 
 earnestly exhorted his young friend to publish ; but 
 which, through an ill-judged modesty, he declined 
 to do : so that, though written as early as 1669, it 
 was not published till 1711. The first work in 
 which any intimation of the method of fluxions was 
 publicly given, and then only as by accident, with- 
 out a clear development of the process, was his 
 " Principia," published a.d. 1687. The principle 
 of the fluxinary calculus is there announced, but the 
 method itself is not explained. This did not appear 
 till a.d. 1693, when it was appended to the second 
 volume of a new edition of Wallis' Mathematical 
 Works. This is, therefore, the true date of the pub- 
 lication of this new theory by Newton. 
 
 A A 
 
354 MATHEMATICIANS. [PART IV. 
 
 266. In the mean time, Leibnitz had developed 
 in some of his writings, published before this latter 
 period, his system of the differential calculus ; the 
 principles and objects of which are precisely the 
 same, and the results similar to those of fluxions, 
 though the method of notation differs. The earliest 
 intimation given by Leibnitz of this discovery is 
 found in a letter addressed by him to the same 
 Oldenberg, bearing the date of a. d. 1676, which 
 is more than ten years later than the invention of 
 his illustrious contemporary. The conclusion, to 
 which Playfair is led by the preceding facts, differs 
 somewhat from the view still taken of the contro- 
 versy by many of the continental philosophers, but 
 seems perfectly equitable and just ; namely, that of 
 the infinitesimal analysis, Newton was the first, 
 and Leibnitz the second inventor. For nothing ap- 
 pears to have been communicated by Newton, either 
 to his personal friends or to the world, which could 
 have suggested to Leibnitz a knowledge of the 
 principle on which that analysis was founded, be- 
 fore the public announcement by Leibnitz of the 
 differential calculus : and still less was the geo- 
 metrical process developed by which it had been 
 obtained. Leibnitz must have known, from the 
 active correspondence then maintained by men of 
 science, that some such discovery had been made, 
 and this knowledge probably excited his curiosity, 
 inflamed his ambition, and stimulated his exertions ; 
 causes which, in addition to the progress previously 
 made by Wallis and others, will sufficiently account 
 
CHAP. IlJ MATHEMATICIANS. 355 
 
 for his having been led to a new and independent, 
 though similar, and almost simultaneous discovery.* 
 267. The new flood of light thus poured on a 
 science, which leads to truth and certainty by means 
 of absolute and infallible demonstrations, was hailed 
 as an event of no ordinary importance. Though 
 some, whose imperfect knowledge prevented them 
 from duly appreciating its value, or whose dread of 
 innovation armed their prejudices against it, or 
 whose jealous disposition could not brook a new 
 and formidable rival, started objections, and affected 
 lightly to esteem this great invention; the princi- 
 pal mathematicians of the age (the venerable Huy- 
 gens, then in extreme old age, not excepted) most 
 readily and gladly adopted it as the basis of their 
 future researches. Its principal value consisted in 
 its adaption to physical investigations, and, above 
 all, the immense benefit derived from it, in carrying- 
 on those astronomical calculations, in which the 
 utmost precision is necessary. The " analysis of 
 infinites" enabled Newton to meet and eventually to 
 remove the principal difficulties, with which former 
 philosophers had long contended unsuccessfully. A 
 great variety of mathematical tracts were written 
 and published by Newton at different periods of his 
 life : indeed, almost the whole of the imperishable 
 productions of his pen partake more or less of this 
 character. Not a few will be found in a scattered 
 form among the annual publications of the " Royal 
 Society/' which were greatly enriched by his com- 
 
 * Vide Playfair's Second Dissert, apud Encyc. Britt. N. Supp. 
 
 A A2 
 
356 MATHEMATICIANS. [PART IV. 
 
 munications. Some were published separately, of 
 which the most important were his " Letters in the 
 Commercium Epistolicum," # published a.d. 1711 ; 
 his " Treatise on the Quadrature of the Curve," 
 written in 1666, but not published till 1704; and 
 his book on " The Method of Fluxions and Analysis 
 by Infinite Series," published after his death, in 
 1736. 
 
 * The " Commercium Epistolicum" was the official Report 
 of the Royal Society relative to the disputed claims of Newton 
 and Leibnitz ; and contained all the communications which had 
 passed between these two great philosophers and their respective 
 friends on the subject of the new analysis, from the beginning of 
 the controversy to the time of its publication. It set the question 
 at rest in England : but a disposition manifested itself among the 
 foreign mathematicians to rob Sir Isaac Newton of his well- 
 earned honours long after this period. 
 
CHAP. III.] ASTRONOMY. 357 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 HISTORY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE CONTINUED. 
 
 I. ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Sect. I. — On the principal astronomers of the 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 268. The period which is now to pass in review, 
 forms a most splendid aera in the history of astro- 
 nomical science. The progress made in this important 
 branch of philosophy was so rapid and great — the 
 new discoveries were so various and astonishing — 
 that, compared with them, all the attainments of 
 preceding ages, from the earliest records of authentic 
 history, vanish into utter insignificance. It will 
 only be possible to glance at some of these dis- 
 coveries in the order in which they were announced 
 to the world, and to enumerate a few of the dis- 
 tinguished individuals to whose inventive genius 
 they are attributed. 
 
 269. Copernicus must be first mentioned, as 
 confessedly the great founder of Modern Astronomy. 
 He was born at Thorn, in Prussia, a. d. 1472, but 
 did not commence that astronomical career, which 
 has given celebrity to his name, till the beginning of 
 the following century. Originally intended for a 
 physician, he applied himself, in early youth, to the 
 
358 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 study of medicine, but afterwards took orders in 
 the Church of Rome, that he might pursue, with 
 greater advantage, his philosophical researches. His 
 literary ardour first manifested itself in the depart- 
 ment of mathematics, by which he was naturally 
 led to astronomy, as a science which opens the 
 widest field to geometrical investigation. He soon 
 perceived the deficiency and fallacy of all the theories 
 of the ancients respecting the planetary system, 
 except that which Pythagoras is said to have darkly 
 conjectured many ages before, though he was unable 
 to demonstrate its truth. (§ 87.) 
 
 It appears, from the statement of Copernicus 
 himself, that he first began to entertain doubts of 
 the truth of the Ptolemaic system, about a. d. 1507 ; 
 and that these doubts were occasioned by the diffi- 
 culty he found in reconciling that system with the 
 simplicity and uniformity of the laws of nature. It 
 soon appeared, that by transferring the sun to the 
 centre of the planetary system, instead of the earth ; 
 by giving to the earth a twofold motion, one on its 
 own axis, and another in a prescribed path or orbit 
 round the sun ; and by applying the same theory 
 to the rest of the planets, many of his difficulties 
 vanished, and the celestial phenomena, the solution 
 of which before seemed impracticable, were explained 
 with a facility at which he was perfectly astonished. 
 The simple fact that led the mind of Copernicus to 
 this discovery, was one of those familiar and every- 
 day scenes, which must have been observed a 
 thousand times both by the peasant and the phi- 
 losopher; namely, the optical illusion which takes 
 
CHAP, in.^ ASTRONOMY. 359 
 
 place when a spectator imagines the objects on the 
 banks of a river to be moving in an opposite 
 direction to that in which he is himself proceeding. 
 The conjecture was natural, that the same illusion 
 may happen with respect to the sun's apparent 
 motion, and those of the heavenly bodies. In his 
 reasonings on the subject, there are some sound and 
 solid arguments indicative of true science; but 
 others were errors into which he was betrayed by 
 his remaining attachment to ancient systems. Well 
 knowing the dread of innovations, whether in 
 philosophy or religion, which had ever characterized 
 the Church to which he belonged, he did not venture 
 to announce publicly either his rejection of the 
 ancient, or his discovery of a new theory, till nearly 
 the close of life. It is more than probable, that if 
 he had earlier developed a scheme so completely at 
 variance with the orthodox faith, he would have 
 fallen a sacrifice to the ignorance and bigotry of the 
 times, and, like one of his successors, languished 
 away the remnant of his existence in the prisons of 
 the Inquisition. He was, however, induced in 
 advanced life, by the persuasions of Cardinal 
 Schoenberg, to publish a work, written with great 
 caution, and containing many apologies for the 
 novelty of some of its statements, in which the 
 true doctrine of the solar system was developed. 
 This book, which originally was entitled " De 
 Revolutionibus Ccelestibus," but afterwards more 
 appropriately styled " Astronomia Instaurata" was 
 published a. d. 1543, and dedicated to the Roman 
 Pontiff; nor is it a little remarkable, that this 
 
360 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 great astronomer died on the very day in which the 
 first complete printed copy of this work was put 
 into his hands. 
 
 270. The new theory of Copernicus attracted 
 little attention, when first promulgated. "It lay 
 fermenting in secret/' says Playfair, " with other 
 new discoveries, for more than fifty years, till by 
 the exertions of Galileo, it was kindled into so 
 bright a flame, as to consume the philosophy of 
 Aristotle, to alarm the hierarchy of Rome, and to 
 threaten the existence of every opinion not founded 
 on experience and observation." During this in- 
 terval, which may be regarded as a kind of intel- 
 lectual twilight, Tycho Brahe, the celebrated 
 Danish astronomer, arose and flourished ; a man of 
 genius, of science, of unwearied industry; but who, 
 unhappily, suffered himself to be so fettered by early 
 prejudices, or so intimidated by the fear of man, as 
 not to dare to follow up his own convictions, or pur- 
 sue the course of his own discoveries. He was the 
 inventor of a system, which bears his name, and 
 which takes a middle course between the Ptolemaic 
 and the Copernican; for while it agrees with the 
 former, in supposing the earth to be the immoveable 
 centre of the whole planetary sphere ; it represented 
 first the moon as revolving round it; and. next the 
 sun, carrying with him in his revolution, the five 
 primary planets as his satellites. Had this theory 
 been developed before the publication of the " As- 
 tronomia Instaurata" of Copernicus, it might have 
 been hailed as one, and that not an unimportant 
 step in advance ; but appearing when it did, it must 
 
CHAP. III.] ASTRONOMYo 361 
 
 rather be accounted a retrograde movement. There 
 is, however, reason to believe, that Tycho Brahe was 
 far from being satisfied with this theory, though 
 he attempted to reconcile with it the actual phe- 
 nomena of the celestial motions. Nor can we 
 wonder that, rapidly progressive as mathematical 
 science then was, this system should have obtained 
 few converts and been soon forgotten, except as a 
 matter of history. 
 
 271. The services rendered by Tycho Brahe to 
 the sublime science of astronomy, were however 
 great and highly important, for (1.) he prevailed 
 upon the King of Denmark to establish an ob- 
 servatory at Uraniberg, and to furnish it with the 
 most accurate instruments that could be procured 
 from any part of Europe. Aided by these advan- 
 tages, he not only made an immense number of 
 astronomical observations himself, but collected 
 around him a band of scientific men ardently de- 
 voted to the same pursuits, and founded a school of 
 astronomy, from which not a few eminent astro- 
 nomers proceeded to illumine the world. 
 
 (2.) Many years had now elapsed, since the attempt 
 of Hipparchus and Ptolemy to number the stars, and 
 far superior instruments for the purpose were now 
 constructed (§. 86. 89.) The Danish astronomer de- 
 termined, therefore, to renew the attempt, and, after 
 a long series of minute observations and accurate 
 measurements, produced a catalogue of the fixed 
 stars, amounting to 777, whose situation in the 
 heavens was determined with as much precision as 
 the state of science would then permit, though far 
 
362 ASTRONOMY. [>ART IV. 
 
 less accurately than in some of the catalogues sub- 
 sequently made. The greater correctness of Tycho 
 Brahe arose not merely from the superiority of his 
 instruments, but from his employing the planet 
 Venus, instead of the moon, as the basis and rule of 
 his calculation for determining the longitude of the 
 fixed stars. 
 
 (3.) Another object, to which the astronomical 
 researches of Tycho Brahe was directed, and in 
 which he was materially aided by his mathematical 
 science, related to the irregularities which had been 
 long observed in the lunar motions, the true cause 
 of which was as yet unknown. This astronomer 
 laboured most assiduously to ascertain the degree of 
 these irregularities, the periods when they occurred, 
 and their influence in causing a difference between 
 lunar and solar time, in all which researches he was 
 eminently successful. 
 
 (4.) A series of useful calculations were made by 
 him on the subject of atmospherical refraction, the 
 object of which was to determine, by an equatorial 
 instrument of his own invention, the angle at which 
 that refraction becomes visible, and the degree of 
 refrangibility at different altitudes. 
 
 (5.) No inconsiderable degree of light was thrown 
 by this indefatigable astronomer on the theory of 
 comets ; one of which, (that of 1570,) he observed 
 most carefully and minutely as long as it remained 
 visible in our hemisphere ; and, from these observa- 
 tions, he inferred that, like the planets, they are solid 
 opaque bodies, revolving round the sun, though in 
 extremely eccentric orbits. The above are among the 
 
CHAP. III.] ASTRONOMY. 363 
 
 most important astronomical investigations of this 
 practical philosopher, to which many others of sub- 
 ordinate interest, but yet which indicate unwearied 
 diligence of research, might have been added. 
 
 272. William IV. the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, 
 and Pope Gregory XIII. contributed essentially 
 to the advancement of astronomical science, to- 
 wards the close of the sixteenth century : the for- 
 mer by his personal observations as a practical 
 astronomer ; the latter by his efforts to procure a 
 reformation of the calendar. In surveying the 
 records of past ages, it is grateful to fix the eye for 
 a moment on a prince, who, instead of being carried 
 away by the lust of ambition, and spreading abroad 
 the miseries and calamities of war, devoted his 
 leisure hours to philosophical pursuits. Such was 
 the venerable Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, who built 
 an observatory in the capital of his principality ; 
 made numerous observations on the position of the 
 fixed stars and constellations ; and called in the aid 
 of science to determine the solstitial altitudes, with 
 many other astronomical phenomena. 
 
 The pontificate of Gregory was rendered illus- 
 trious by the adoption of that new arrangement 
 of the calendar, which still bears his name. The 
 errors of the former arrangement had been long felt ; 
 and repeated, though ineffectual, attempts made to 
 correct them. But Gregory took the most effectual 
 method to accomplish this object, by inviting all 
 the astronomers of Europe to give their utmost 
 attention to the investigation, and offering a reward 
 to such as should suggest the best scheme for the 
 
364 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 more accurate measurement of time. Numerous 
 plans were suggested, but among them all, that 
 of Aloysius Lillius, an astronomer of Verona, ob- 
 tained the preference, and was accordingly adopted. 
 In the year 1582, this reformation was carried into 
 effect, and gradually superseded the use of the 
 Julian calendar. 
 
 273. We pass on to notice an astronomer who 
 was the glory of his age and country, and whose 
 name can never be forgotten so long as any records 
 remain of physical science. This was Kepler, who 
 has been designated " the creator of true physical 
 astronomy." He was born at Wirtemberg, a. d. 
 1571, and in early life distinguished himself both 
 by his physical researches and invaluable writings. 
 He is chiefly celebrated as the philosopher, who first 
 discovered the laws of the planetary motions ; the 
 theory of which was partly known to Copernicus 
 and Tycho Brahe, but the development and de- 
 monstration of which is altogether his own. The 
 steps by which Kepler was led to this important 
 discovery, the train of reasoning pursued in demon- 
 strating the truth of these general laws, and the 
 methods of calculation adopted for this purpose, 
 cannot be detailed here. They will be found at 
 length in his celebrated work, entitled " Astronomia 
 Nova" published a. d. 1609 ; and in a more abridged 
 form in most of the modern treatises on astronomy. 
 Suffice it to say, that they resulted in what are tech- 
 nically termed the first anal second laws of Kepler ; 
 the former of which relates to the proportion be- 
 tween the areas and times of planetary revolutions, 
 
CHAP. Ill/] ASTRONOMY. 365 
 
 and the latter determines their mean distances. The 
 general law, in which both the preceding were com- 
 bined, is thus perspicuously stated by the late Pro- 
 fessor Playfair ; " that in any two planets, the 
 squares of the times of the revolutions are as the 
 cubes of their mean distances from the sun." " This 
 beautiful and simple law," adds the same excellent 
 writer, " had a value beyond what Kepler could 
 possibly conceive. Yet a sort of scientific instinct 
 instructed him in its great importance ; for he has 
 marked the day and year, when it became known to 
 him ; it was on the 8th of May, 1618 ; and perhaps 
 philosophers will agree that there are few days in 
 the scientific history of the world which deserve 
 so well to be remembered."* 
 
 274. But important as were these discoveries, 
 they were not the only contributions of this great 
 philosopher to his favourite science. Having de- 
 monstrated by physical experiments the inertia of 
 matter, he applied it as a general principle, by 
 which to explain the phenomena of the planetary 
 revolutions. Kepler was the first who employed 
 the above term, to denote the tendency of bodies 
 when in motion, or at rest, to continue in the same 
 state ; and who proved that all motion is naturally 
 rectilineal ; whence he inferred, that if a body 
 moved in a curve, (as is the case with all the plane- 
 tary bodies,) it must be drawn out of its natural 
 track by some external cause. The important use 
 made of this discovery by the illustrious Newton will 
 
 * Playfair's Second Diss. pp. 87, 88. 
 
366 ASTRONOMY. JJPART IV. 
 
 hereafter appear. The objects to which the re- 
 searches of this indefatigable astronomer were 
 directed, during a life wholly devoted to practical 
 science, were so varied and almost innumerable, that 
 many must, of necessity, be passed over in this rapid 
 sketch. The more important related to the calcula- 
 tion of eclipses ; the measurement of parallaxes, both 
 diurnal and annual ; the determination of the planes 
 of the planetary orbits, and consequently of their 
 nodes ; their greater or less degree of eccentricity, 
 and their angular motions or irregularities of move- 
 ment at different periods of their revolution. To 
 convey some conception of the prodigious labour 
 bestowed by this great astronomer on some of his 
 minutest calculations, and for the purpose of prov- 
 ing to the youthful reader of these pages, that 
 " there is no royal road to astronomy," the following 
 extract from Playfair's Dissertation is subjoined: — 
 *■ The industry and patience of Kepler, in this in- 
 vestigation, (alluding to his observations upon the 
 orbit of Mars,) were not less remarkable than his 
 ingenuity and invention. Logarithms were not yet 
 known, so that arithmetical computation, when 
 pushed to great accuracy, was carried on at a vast 
 expense of time and labour. In the calculation of 
 every opposition of Mars, the work filled ten folio 
 pages, and Kepler repeated each calculation ten 
 times, so that the whole work for each extended to 
 one hundred such pages : seven oppositions thus 
 calculated produced a large folio volume. In these 
 calculations, the introduction of hypothesis was un- 
 avoidable, and Kepler's candour in rejecting them, 
 
CHAP. Ill J ASTRONOMY. 367 
 
 whenever they appeared erroneous, without any 
 other regret than for the time which they cost him, 
 cannot be sufficiently admired. He began with hy- 
 pothesis, and ended with rejecting every thing hypo- 
 thetical. In this great astronomer, we find genius, 
 industry, and candour, all uniting together as 
 instruments of investigation."* 
 
 Sect. II. 
 
 HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY CONTINUED, 
 
 From A. D. 1600 to 1650. 
 
 275. That the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury will be ever memorable in the annals of scientific 
 history, all will readily admit, who remember, that 
 then Galileo flourished ; that the telescope was 
 then invented; and that, in consequence of this 
 happy invention, a new and almost boundless field 
 of research was opened to astronomers. Galileo 
 was born at Florence, about a. d. 1564, became 
 mathematical professor in the University of Pisa in 
 1589, and in that of Padua in 1592. About the 
 year 1609, the intelligence first reached him, that 
 a Dutch optician, named Metius, had contrived a 
 method of fixing two glasses in such a position as 
 greatly to magnify objects seen through them. This 
 hint was sufficient to fire the genius, and arouse the 
 energies of Galileo, who commenced a series of 
 experiments on lenses variously combined, till he 
 
 * Play fair's Second Diss. p. 87. 
 
368 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV.. 
 
 happily discovered that most important of all astro- 
 nomical instruments — the telescope* Aided by his 
 own inventive genius alone, he constructed a tele- 
 scope formed of two lenses, (that nearest to the ob- 
 ject, convex ; and that placed near the eye, concave,) 
 which possessed a power of magnifying thirty-two 
 times beyond that of the naked eye. Having first 
 tried the effect of this instrument on terrestrial ob- 
 jects, he next applied it to the heavens ; and was 
 amply rewarded by a series of the most astonishing 
 discoveries. A brief outline of these, is all that can 
 now be attempted; but their general result, in spite 
 of all the bigotry of superstition, and all the terrors 
 of the Inquisition, was, the utter subversion of the 
 Ptolemaic, and the absolute demonstration of the 
 Copernican system. 
 
 276. (1.) The moon was first subjected to atten- 
 tive observation, on whose surface were perceived 
 numerous inequalities, which led Galileo to the con- 
 clusion that this secondary planet resembles the 
 earth, being divided into continents and oceans, and 
 interspersed with mountains, lakes, and rivers. The 
 accurate delineation of the map of the moon, which 
 he was thus enabled to make, greatly assisted in 
 determining the time of its diurnal revolution, and 
 in explaining many other curious phenomena 
 respecting it. 
 
 (2.) The fixed stars next engaged his attention, 
 and the delight of this philosopher may be more 
 
 * Some farther particulars respecting the history of this inven- 
 tion, and its successive stages of improvement, will be found in 
 a subsequent section, under the head of optics. (§ 328.) 
 
CHAP. III. ^ ASTRONOMY. 369 
 
 easily conceived than described, at finding that mul- 
 titudes of these distant luminaries were then, for 
 the first time, brought within the sphere of human 
 vision, on which the eye of man had never before 
 rested, and which were not previously known to 
 exist ; yet even he had no conception of the far 
 greater multitudes to be discovered by more power- 
 ful instruments, and affording the most overwhelm- 
 ing conception of the magnitude, the immensity of 
 the universe. 
 
 (3.) The phases of Venus, resembling those 
 exhibited by the moon, had been conjectured by 
 Copernicus as highly probable phenomena, but were 
 fully demonstrated by the telescopic observations of 
 Galileo. 
 
 (4.) Some of the satellites of Jupiter were next 
 discovered by this illustrious astronomer. When 
 three of these were first seen by him near the body 
 of the primary planet, he took them for fixed stars ; 
 but perceiving, by oft-repeated and long-continued 
 observations, that they always accompanied Jupiter 
 in his revolution, and constantly changed their places 
 with reference to each other, as well as in relation 
 to their primary, he concluded that they were really 
 moons. This conclusion received further confirma- 
 tion and proof by observing their eclipses, their 
 periods of conjunctions and opposition, their pe- 
 riodical revolutions, and many similar phenomena. 
 
 (5.) When contemplating the planet Saturn, with 
 the aid of his newly invented telescope, Galileo was 
 struck with the singularity of its appearance. It 
 seemed to him like three luminous globes, the larger 
 
 B B 
 
370 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 in the middle, and a smaller on either side. His 
 observations were continued, till he found the two 
 lesser globes disappear, and the planet looked single 
 and circular, like the rest of the planetary bodies. 
 This was the only explanation this philosopher could 
 then give of the well-known phenomena of Saturn's 
 ring, the complete discovery of which was reserved 
 for future astronomers. 
 
 (6.) Galileo discovered with his telescope some 
 dark spots on the sun's disk, by the attentive observa- 
 tion of which he was enabled not only to prove that 
 that luminary revolves on its axis, but with some 
 degree of accuracy to determine the time of his 
 revolution. 
 
 (7.) Above all, to Galileo we are indebted for the 
 complete demonstration of the true solar system ; 
 since he fully proved, by a multitude of observations 
 on the orbits and revolutions of the planets, their 
 common relation to the sun; and thus established, 
 on an immoveable basis, the true theory of the 
 heavens. 
 
 277. This brilliant assemblage of astronomical 
 discoveries was first made public about a.d. 1613, in 
 " Dialogues on the System of the World," which 
 contained a full exposition of the evidence of the 
 earth's motion, and placed the errors of the old 
 in striking contrast with the discoveries of the new 
 philosophy. This work was written with singular 
 perspicuity of reasoning, and true eloquence. It 
 was read by scientific men with an enthusiasm of 
 delight little inferior to that which its illustrious 
 author had experienced in the discoveries themselves. 
 
CHAP. III. J ASTRONOMY. 371 
 
 But the state of society was not as yet sufficiently 
 advanced to admit of the unrestricted investigation 
 of truth : and a very short time elapsed from the 
 publication of the work containing these important 
 developments, before its unfortunate author found to 
 his cost the truth of this remark. 
 
 The history of the persecutions endured by this 
 great philosopher through a long series of years, on 
 account of his defence and practical demonstration 
 of the Copernican system, forms a melancholy and 
 most disgraceful page in the annals of science. The 
 Jesuits, the prelates and cardinals of the Church of 
 Rome, with the pontiff at their head, alarmed at the 
 progress which this new species of heresy was 
 making, cited Galileo before the Court of Inqui- 
 sition, and there bound him by solemn oath to ab- 
 jure his errors, and subscribe a written avowal of 
 his belief in the Ptolemaic system, which he had 
 proved to be false ; at the same time pledging him- 
 self never to publish any thing in future contrary to 
 the doctrine of the holy Roman church on this sub- 
 ject.* To this, after a tedious imprisonment, he 
 
 * " Galileo was twice brought before the Inquisition. The 
 first time, a council of seven cardinals pronounced a sentence, 
 which, for the sake of those disposed to believe that power can 
 subdue truth, ought never to be forgotten — * That to maintain 
 the sun to be immoveable, and without local motion in the centre 
 of the world, is an absurd proposition, false in philosophy, here- 
 tical in religion, and contrary to the testimony of scripture. That 
 it is equally absurd and false in philosophy to assert that the 
 earth is not immoveable in the centre of the world ; and, con- 
 sidered theologically, equally erroneous and heretical." — Vide 
 Playfairs Second Diss. p. 91. 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 reluctantly assented ; but soon after, having obtained 
 his liberty, committed a yet heavier offence by the 
 publication of a third dialogue, in which he ventured 
 not only to ridicule the advocates of the Ptolemaic 
 philosophy, (not sparing even Aristotle himself,) but 
 also adduced additional facts in proof of the true 
 theory. This crime could not be forgiven. He was 
 again immured in the dungeons of the Inquisition, 
 about a.d. 1634, and his heretical books were pub- 
 licly Tmrnt. Thus was this venerable philosopher, 
 in his old age, harassed and worn out with perpetual 
 citations, and hardships of various kinds, till death 
 terminated his sufferings, and covered his perse- 
 cutors with perpetual infamy. In 1639, he became 
 blind ; and died in the vicinity of Florence, on the 
 8th of January, 1642, in the seventy-eighth year of 
 his age. 
 
 278. Des Cartes, whose name is associated with 
 almost every department of physical and intellectual 
 science, was a contemporary of Galileo ; and, being 
 happily placed more out of the reach of the papal 
 hierarchy, could pursue his philosophical investi- 
 gations with less interruption. In astronomy, he is 
 chiefly celebrated for his application of a high degree 
 of mathematical science to estimate the motions and 
 measure the distances of the heavenly bodies. " He 
 has the merit," says Playfair, " of being the first who 
 undertook to give an explanation of the celestial 
 motions on the principles of geometry/' or who 
 formed the great and truly philosophical conception 
 of reducing all the phenomena of the universe to 
 the same law. Kepler had suggested the idea as 
 
CHAP. Ill/] ASTRONOMY. 373 
 
 a matter of conjecture ; but Des Cartes furnished a 
 solution of the problem." But this great philosopher 
 was too much given to theory and speculation to 
 follow the sober track of experimental science. His 
 imagination delighted to rove at large amidst the 
 immensity of the universe. Borne along by an 
 ungcverned fancy, he dreamt of vortices and whirl- 
 pools in the boundless regions of space, far beyond 
 the reach of human observation, amidst which other 
 systems and worlds were perpetually performing 
 their grand revolutions, all of which were subject 
 to the same general law, and kept in their due 
 places by the nice adjustment of the centrifugal 
 and centripetal forces, which regulated the move- 
 ments of the bodies attached to our own solar system. 
 This theory is a proof of the inventive genius and 
 boundless imagination of its author ; but it is rather 
 to be remembered among the magnificent specula- 
 tions of human genius, than the discoveries of phy- 
 sical science. 
 
 279. Gassendt, who was also a native of France, 
 and flourished at the same period with Galileo and 
 Des Cartes, pursued a more safe, though a less 
 brilliant track. He was content with furnishing 
 additional evidence derived from the most careful 
 and accurate observations of the truth of the Co- 
 pernican system. In the annals of astronomical 
 science, he is chiefly distinguished as the first indi- 
 vidual who ever witnessed the comparatively rare 
 phenomenon of the transit of Mercury over the 
 sun's disk. This phenomenon, which Kepler had 
 predicted, but did not live to see, took place in 1631, 
 
374 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 and was minutely observed and described by Gas- 
 sendi. A similar transit of Venus was seen, for the 
 first time, by Horrox, a young English astronomer, 
 in 1639, whose early death was deeply lamented by 
 the astronomers of that age, as an irreparable loss to 
 science. Gassendi published, at Paris, in 1654, a 
 volume richly fraught with scientific information, 
 containing the lives of Purbach, Regiomontanus, Co- 
 pernicus, and Tycho Brahe : soon after the com- 
 pletion of which he died, in the sixty-third year of 
 his age. 
 
 280. Hevelius flourished about the same time at 
 Dantzic ; a laborious and indefatigable astronomer, 
 who is most remarkable for his important improve- 
 ments in astronomical instruments, his minute ob- 
 servations on the solar spots, on the phases and 
 spots of the moon, on the motions of comets, and 
 on the refraction of light, as it is seen in the pheno- 
 mena of rainbows, halos, and paraselenes, with many 
 other physical appearances. His astronomical 
 writings were exceedingly numerous, and continue 
 to be held in high estimation. With this celebrated 
 Prussian astronomer may be associated Riccioli, his 
 friend and correspondent, who, though belonging 
 to the order of Jesuits, was no enemy to science. 
 This industrious astronomer compiled and published 
 a great work, similar to that of Ptolemy's, entitled, 
 " The New Almagest ;" in the execution of which 
 he was greatly assisted by his learned friend and 
 fellow-countryman Grimaldi, who first discovered 
 the inflection of light. — {Vide infra, § 331.) 
 
CHAP. III.3 ASTRONOMY. 375 
 
 Section III. 
 
 HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY CONTINUED, 
 
 From a. d. 1650 to 1700. 
 
 281. Huygens contributed so essentially, during 
 more than half a century, to the advancement both 
 of the abstract and practical sciences, that he may 
 with equal propriety be classed with the first of 
 mathematicians, the profoundest of astronomers, 
 and the most scientific of experimental philosophers. 
 Perhaps his more important discoveries were those 
 which relate to mechanical science, which will form 
 the subject of a future section ; but, in the mean 
 time, those which bear upon astronomical science 
 must not be overlooked. 
 
 Though the telescope had been discovered nearly 
 forty years, some of its various uses were but little 
 known, till Huygens brought his great practical 
 science to bear on this important instrument. He 
 not only constructed telescopes on a superior 
 principle to any before known, but also suggested 
 the combination of the quadrant with the telescope, 
 and invented a micrometer of admirable construction, 
 which, when introduced into his highly improved 
 telescopes, enabled him to measure distances wholly 
 imperceptible to the naked eye. " The magnifying 
 powers of the telescope extend into a line that which 
 to the eye seems but a point ; and that line may, by 
 the use of a micrometer, be measured to so minute 
 a space as a second." The great utility, therefore, 
 
376 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 of this invention, soon became apparent in the 
 increased accuracy and certainty with which the 
 astronomer was enabled to measure small angles, 
 and to calculate the parallaxes and distances of the 
 heavenly bodies. But the principal objects to which 
 the astronomical investigations of Huygens appear 
 to have been directed, were the remarkable pheno- 
 mena exhibited by the planet Saturn. The results 
 of his observations on this planet were published in 
 a distinct work, entitled " Systema Saturninum." 
 
 282. The imperfect discovery of the singular 
 configuration of Saturn, by Galileo, was noticed in 
 the last section ; but Huygens, having brought the 
 telescope to a higher degree of perfection by his 
 mechanical science, discovered the true form of this 
 planet. He clearly perceived, that instead of the 
 two luminous globes which Galileo imagined to be 
 attached to this planet, he was surrounded by a thin 
 luminous belt or ring, which, being seen in an oblique 
 direction from the earth, assumes an elliptical form ; 
 and that when this belt is in such a position that its 
 edge is directed towards the sun, it becomes invisible 
 to us, because a sufficient number of the solar rays 
 are not reflected from it to render it perceptible at 
 so great a distance. Galileo had imagined, in 1615, 
 that he saw two satellites attached to this planet, 
 but afterwards concluded, from their remaining 
 stationary nearly three years, and afterwards be- 
 coming invisible, that they were fixed stars ; but 
 Huygens, by the aid of a more powerful telescope, 
 most evidently discovered one of these secondary 
 planets, and was enabled to determine its periodical 
 
CHAP. 111.3 ASTRONOMY. 377 
 
 revolution. To many other discoveries of this great 
 astronomer, may be added that of the true cause 
 of the tides, which he attributed to the combined 
 influence of the sun and moon, though he was 
 unable to demonstrate or explain the fact. After 
 a long life most industriously employed in scientific 
 researches, this illustrious philosopher died in his 
 native city, a. d. 1695. 
 
 283. Cassini the elder, flourished at Paris towards 
 the close of the seventeenth century. He was born 
 at Piedmont, a. d. 1635, and made so great pro- 
 ficiency in mathematical science in early life, as in 
 his fifteenth year to be appointed, by the Senate of 
 Bologna, professor of mathematics in the university 
 of that city. In the following year he made many 
 important observations on a comet then visible, 
 which added greatly to his celebrity as an astronomer. 
 A few years afterwards, he distinguished himself still 
 more in this department of science, by the accurate 
 determination of a meridian line for the newly- 
 erected cathedral at Bologna, and by his calculation 
 of astronomical tables relative to the revolutions of 
 Jupiter's satellites and the periods of their obscura- 
 tion. These laborious undertakings attracted the 
 attention and admiration of all Europe, and procured 
 for him the appointment of Astronomer Royal in the 
 Observatory of Paris, a station held by himself and 
 his son during more than half a century. Here his 
 opportunities for minute observation being greatly 
 multiplied, he made many valuable discoveries, par- 
 ticularly that of four additional satellites of Saturn, 
 which, reckoned in the order of their respective 
 
378 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 distances, are, the first, second, third, and fifth — 
 the fourth having been previously discovered by 
 Huygens. He also discovered and demonstrated 
 the rotation of Mars and Jupiter on their axes, by 
 means of spots perceived on their disks. Nor does 
 it reflect less credit on the genius and industry of 
 this great astronomer, that he succeeded in the 
 solution of a problem relative to elliptic curves, which 
 even the great Kepler had left undetermined. In 
 his latter years, Cassini prosecuted the work which 
 had been commenced by the Abbe Picard, a French 
 astronomer of no mean reputation, who had made 
 considerable progress towards measuring an arc 
 of the heavens between Amiens, in Picardy, and 
 Malvoisine, for the purpose of accomplishing an 
 object in which the ancient astronomers had failed — 
 that of determining the exact magnitude of the earth. 
 The elder Cassini died at Paris, a. d. 1712, and was 
 succeeded by his son, who had greatly assisted him 
 in his astronomical researches. 
 
 284. Having alluded to the astronomical tables 
 of Cassini, relative to the satellites of Jupiter, it 
 may be proper to introduce here an important dis- 
 covery to which they led, soon after their publication. 
 Roemer, a Danish astronomer, perceived a slight 
 disagreement between the times in which the eclipses 
 of the first of these satellites should take place, as 
 laid down in Cassini's Tables, and that of the actual 
 phenomenon. After long attempting in vain to 
 account for this discrepancy, he first conjectured, 
 and afterwards fully demonstrated, that it was 
 occasioned by the time which a ray of light occupies 
 
CHAP. 111.3 ASTRONOMY. 379 
 
 in traversing the earth's orbit ; for the obscuration 
 begins sooner when the earth is in that part of its 
 orbit nearest to the planet, and later when at its 
 greatest distance. By this important discovery, a 
 rule was obtained for the exact measurement of the 
 velocity of light. 
 
 285. Several continental astronomers, who flou- 
 rished during the period under review, have been 
 enumerated ; but there were also some English 
 astronomers (exclusive of Sir Isaac Newton), who 
 pursued the same track with scarcely inferior success. 
 Out of many distinguished members of the Royal 
 Society of London, who might be mentioned, three 
 will be selected on account of their specific dis- 
 coveries in astronomy. 
 
 (1.) Hook, a native of Freshwater, in the Isle of 
 Wight, was one of the earliest members of the 
 Royal Society, and lectured on astronomy in 
 Gresham College. " We are indebted to him," 
 says Bossut, " for the first idea of the system of 
 universal gravitation ; but with him it was rather 
 an hypothesis than an ascertained fact." He con- 
 jectured that the celestial bodies not only are 
 attracted towards their common centre, but also 
 are mutually attracted towards each other ; that, if 
 left to themselves when in motion, they would con- 
 tinue to move in a rectilineal direction; and that 
 the power of attraction is greater or less, in pro- 
 portion to the relative distances of bodies. It was, 
 however, one thing to conjecture from appearances 
 the possibility or even the probability of these facts, 
 and another to demonstrate them, and discover the 
 
880 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 law by which they are regulated. This honour 
 belongs .exclusively to the illustrious Newton. 
 
 (2.) Flamsteed was born in an obscure village 
 of Derbyshire, about a. d. 1646. When the Royal 
 Observatory was built at Greenwich by Charles II., 
 he was appointed to superintend it ; and no appoint- 
 ment could have been more congenial to his taste 
 and pursuits. During his residence there, he made 
 an immense number of astronomical observations, 
 the results of which were occasionally communicated 
 to the Royal Society, and first published in their 
 Philosophical Transactions ; but afterwards collected 
 into a volume, and published separately, under the 
 title of " Historia Coelestis." To these were added 
 valuable prolegomena, containing much scientific 
 information, relative to the most recent astronomical 
 discoveries. But the investigation which reflects 
 most credit on the science and industry of Flamsteed, 
 by which he rendered a most important service to 
 astronomy, was, his enlarged catalogue of the fixed 
 stars visible in the northern hemisphere, which 
 amounted to nearly 3000; a far greater number 
 than had been before discovered, and, in many re- 
 spects, far superior to that which had been collected, 
 a few years before, by Hevelius. 
 
 (3.) But it was not sufficient, that the number and 
 positions of the stars which illumine our northern 
 climes should be accurately determined: scientific 
 men felt it to be an object of great importance, that 
 similar observations should be made with respect to 
 the southern hemisphere. Halley, then a youth of 
 about twenty years of age, undertook and executed 
 
CHAP. III.]] ASTRONOMY. oSl 
 
 this task. In 1676, he proceeded to the island of 
 St. Helena, the place on which he had fixed for the 
 prosecution of his astronomical researches. During 
 his residence on that island, he made as complete 
 a catalogue of the fixed stars visible in that climate, 
 as was then practicable, and grouped them into 
 imaginary constellations, as they were delineated on 
 the celestial globe ; — <e thus," says Bossut, " having 
 added a new continent to the vast regions of astro- 
 nomy." During his voyage, this youthful astronomer 
 had the great satisfaction of observing that unusual 
 phenomenon — the transit of Mercury over the sun's 
 disc, on the 3d of November, 1677, the fourth time 
 it had occurred since the invention of the telescope. 
 Three years after his return from St. Helena, when 
 crossing the English channel, on his way from 
 Dantzic, he had the gratification of discovering, at 
 its first appearance, the celebrated comet of 1680, 
 which, on its nearer approach to the earth, spread 
 terror and dismay throughout Europe. 
 
 To the above list of astronomers, who flourished 
 towards the end of the seventeenth century, many 
 other distinguished names might be added, particu- 
 larly those of the two Bernouillis, Richer, and the 
 younger Cassini ; but as most of these chiefly flou- 
 rished after a new and prodigious light had been 
 poured upon the science by the genius of Newton; 
 and since the principal facts of their scientific his- 
 tory are necessarily interwoven with those of our 
 great philosopher, it will be sufficient to notice them 
 incidentally. 
 
382 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 ON THE ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES OF SIR ISAAC 
 NEWTON. 
 
 286. Many of the greatest events in the history 
 of mankind appear to have originated in compara- 
 tively trifling causes. Such were the circumstances 
 which led to the discovery of the great law of gra- 
 vitation ; a discovery, which has rendered the name 
 and memory of Newton immortal. Previously to 
 the recital of these, it may not be irrelevant to advert 
 to the advances which had been made in preceding 
 ages, towards this most important discovery. The 
 principle of gravity had been conjectured and hypo- 
 thetically asserted by some of the ancient philo- 
 sophers. Pythagoras is said to have taught his 
 disciples, that u the gravity of a planet, (though 
 it is doubtful in what sense the term is employed,) 
 is four times that of another at twice the distance." 
 Anaxagoras, (according to the statement of Dio- 
 genes Laertius,) held that " the heavens are kept in 
 their place, by the rapidity of their revolution, and 
 would fall down, if that rapidity of motion were to 
 cease ;" a conclusion to which he was probably led, 
 not by any distinct conception of the centripetal and 
 centrifugal forces, but merely by an attentive obser- 
 vation of natural phenomena. Plutarch, in some of 
 his philosophical writings, hazards a conjecture that 
 " the moon is kept from falling out of its orbit, by 
 the rapidity of her motion, just as a stone whirled 
 
CHAP. Ill/] ASTRONOMY. 383 
 
 round in a sling, is prevented by the same cause 
 from falling to the ground." Lucretius, in his cele- 
 brated philosophical poem on the " Nature of 
 Things," asserts, that " the atoms of which the 
 universe is composed, would long ere now have 
 united in the centre of the system, if it had not been 
 so infinite as to have no centre." These are the 
 chief, if not the only, notices found in the writings 
 of the ancients, respecting the action of gravity on 
 the celestial bodies, which are but to be accounted 
 the reveries of ingenious men, not in possession of 
 data on which to found any conclusive reasonings. 
 
 287. Advancing to the period under review, it 
 will be found, that several important steps had been 
 taken towards the discovery of the law of gravi- 
 tation, before the time of Newton. Copernicus 
 asserts, in his treatise on the " Celestial Revolu- 
 tions" that, in his opinion, gravity is nothing but 
 the natural appetency of the parts of the earth to 
 each other, given by the providence of the Supreme 
 Being, that by uniting together, they may assume 
 the form of a globe ;" and he adds a conjecture, 
 that " this same affection belongs to the sun, the 
 moon, the planets, and the fixed stars, all of which 
 are also spherical." Kepler, in his celebrated work on 
 the planet Mars, takes a yet more important step 
 towards the discovery of the great fact in question ; 
 for he there treats of "gravity, as acting from 
 planet to planet, and particularly from the earth 
 to the moon." Yet, with all this, he does not ap- 
 pear to have so much as conjectured, that the 
 
384 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 motions which he had so attentively observed, were 
 attributable to this cause, though, by his celebrated 
 laws, he established the principle of which this must 
 be a necessary consequence. Galileo directed much 
 of his attention to the subject of gravity ; but, in- 
 stead of considering it as pervading the entire solar 
 system, and constituting the great bond of union 
 between the bodies of which it is composed, he 
 imagined, that it formed " a part of the domestic 
 economy of each planet separately ; and by doing 
 this, receded farther from the truth than his illus- 
 trious predecessor." 
 
 One other stage of the discovery may be observed 
 before its grand development, which was taken 
 by Dr. Hook, and will be found in his treatise on 
 " the Earth's Motion," published in 1674. In that 
 work, it is laid down as a principle, on which all 
 the celestial motions are to be explained, that the 
 heavenly bodies have an attraction or gravity to- 
 wards each other, as well as towards their own 
 centres ; and that this force compelled them to 
 move not in right lines, but in circles or other 
 curves." — " This is, (says the learned professor, from 
 whose luminous statement the preceding narrative 
 has been abridged,) the farthest advance that the 
 knowledge of the cause of the celestial motions had 
 made before the investigations of Newton ; it is the 
 precise point at which that knowledge had stopped ; 
 having met with a resistance, which required a 
 mathematician armed with all the powers of the 
 new analysis to overcome. The doctrine of gravity 
 
CHAP. Ill/] ASTRONOMY. 385 
 
 was yet no more than a conjecture, of the truth or 
 falsehood of which, the measurements and reasonings 
 of geometry could alone determine.* 
 
 288. The apparently fortuitous circumstances, 
 which led to the train of investigations terminating 
 in this brilliant discovery, are thus described by one 
 of the biographers and an intimate friend of the 
 great astronomer. Having retired for a short time 
 from Cambridge, on account of the plague of 1665, 
 he was sitting alone in his garden, and began to 
 speculate on the power of gravity. This power, he 
 reflected, is not sensibly diminished at the greatest 
 elevation from the earth, as on the summits of 
 the loftiest edifices, or the highest mountains ; it 
 must, therefore, extend farther than is generally sup- 
 posed. Why not as high as the moon ? and, if so, 
 her motion must be affected by it, — will this account 
 for her revolution and orbit ? If to the moon, why 
 not to the planets, and the whole solar system ? and, 
 if so, will this explain their motions round the sun ? 
 Following up this train of thought, by laborious 
 mathematical calculations, he found, on comparing 
 the relative distances of the several planets from the 
 sun, that if any power, like that of gravity, retained 
 them in their courses, it must decrease in the dupli- 
 cate ratio of the increase of their distances. But 
 being impressed with the idea which then generally 
 prevailed, that the orbits of the planets were con- 
 centric circles, he found that his calculations did 
 not exactly correspond with what he then supposed 
 
 * Playfair's Second Dissert, ut supra, p. 66 — 69. 
 C C 
 
386 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 to be the truth. Discouraged by this difficulty, 
 he was on the point of abandoning altogether his 
 train of speculations, as merely hypothetical and 
 fallacious ; or, at least, he felt anxious to discover 
 some other force, which, combining with that of 
 gravity, might explain the supposed phenomena. 
 But, happily, having been led to the discovery, by 
 other inquiries, that the motion of the earth is ellip- 
 tical and not circular, a new light seemed to 
 break in upon his mind ; he saw at once the con- 
 nexion between this discovery and his former re- 
 searches into the operation of the law of gravity ; 
 renewed and pursued those researches more vigor- 
 ously, accompanied with accurate mathematical 
 calculations ; nor stayed in his progress, till he 
 arrived at the important results developed in his 
 celebrated " Principia." " This important trea- 
 tise," says Pemberton, " full of such a variety of pro- 
 found inventions, was composed by Newton from 
 scarcely any other materials than a few propositions 
 previously established by himself, relative to the 
 motions of the primary planets, in the space of one 
 year and a half."* The publication of this work, in 
 1687, marks a great aera in the history of human 
 knowledge, and speedily effected a complete revolu- 
 tion in the philosophical opinions and pursuits of 
 mankind; withdrawing them from the vortices 
 of the Cartesian philosophy, to investigate the laws 
 of matter and motion, as exemplified in the entire 
 system of nature. 
 
 * Vide Pemberton's View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy, 
 Preface. 
 
CHAP. III.] ASTRONOMY. 387 
 
 289. The great excellency of the Newtonian phi- 
 losophy, (for such it may be most fitly designated,) 
 consists in the solid basis of mathematical demon- 
 stration on which its fundamental principles rest, 
 and the innumerable physical proofs by which they 
 are illustrated and confirmed. The great fact of the 
 mutual attraction of bodies, had been previously 
 ascertained ; Kepler's- celebrated laws, and Huygens' 
 mechanical experiments, had gone far towards deter- 
 mining the ratio of this tendency ; but the demon- 
 stration of the exact measure of the centripetal and 
 centrifugal forces, and the phenomena resulting 
 from them, — the proof that the law of gravitation 
 pervades the whole system of nature, applying alike 
 to the mightiest masses and the minutest particles 
 of which it is composed, — the accurate delineation of 
 the motions and orbits of the heavenly bodies, in con- 
 formity with this gravitating principle — all these are 
 the glory of the new philosophy of which New- 
 ton was the founder. The demonstration of this 
 astonishing fact having been obtained by the new 
 method of analysis, it was the next object of this great 
 practical philosopher to determine the extent of this 
 mysterious law of nature, by the most careful astro- 
 nomical observations and to prove by experiment, that 
 those phenomena occurred which science had taught 
 him to expect, and that the consequences which had 
 been anticipated, really followed in the physical 
 system. On the principle of the mutual attraction 
 of the heavenly bodies, all those irregularities, or 
 rather inequalities, of motion, observable in the 
 planetary revolutions, which had long perplexed 
 
 cc 2 
 
388 ASTRONOMY. [PART IV. 
 
 astronomers, were satisfactorily explained — such as 
 the librations and evection of the moon — the disturb- 
 ing forces, mutually exerted by primary and se- 
 condary planets — the theory of the tides — and, above 
 all, tlw precession of the equinoxes — with many other 
 phenomena, which now constitute the chief objects 
 of physical astronomy. Nor was it among the 
 least of the discoveries resulting from the demon- 
 stration of this law, that the true configuration of 
 the earth was ascertained, and some difficult prob- 
 lems were solved, connected with that fact ; such 
 as the cause of the slower vibration of the pendulum, 
 and the diminished intensity of attraction, at the 
 equator than at the poles. 
 
 290. But perhaps the most astonishing conse- 
 quence of the discovery of the law of gravitation 
 was, that it enabled the astronomer to estimate the 
 magnitude and density of the planets. A rule of 
 universal application was obtained, which was briefly 
 this ; " that in any two bodies (their distances being 
 the same) their power of mutual attraction is in 
 proportion to the quantity of matter they respec- 
 tively contain ; or, in other words, that they have a 
 tendency to approach each other with velocities 
 which are inversely as their quantities of matter." 
 Applying this rule first to the moon, as the nearest 
 of the planetary bodies, and subsequently to those 
 more remote, Newton deduced, from an accurate 
 observation of their distances compared with their 
 velocity of motion, the mean density of each. Every 
 succeeding year, and all the accumulated facts of 
 modern science, have served but to confirm the 
 
CHAP. III.]] ASTRONOMY. 389 
 
 truths and extend the application of these incontro- 
 vertible principles, and heighten our admiration of 
 the genius and science of their inventor. 
 
 291. The preceding summary of the astronomical 
 researches and discoveries of our great philosopher, 
 cannot be more appropriately concluded, than by the 
 following brief extract from another valuable work 
 of the late Professor Playfair, in which they are all 
 happily brought to bear on one point, and their 
 mutual relation is distinctly traced. 
 
 " Thus it is found, that the laws of motion and 
 the general properties of matter are the same in the 
 heavens and on the earth ; that the elliptical motions 
 of the primary and secondary planets ; the small 
 deviations from those motions, whether in the places 
 of the planets or in the form and position of their 
 orbits ; the facts which concern their figures, their 
 rotation, and the position of their axis ; and lastly, 
 the oscillation of the waters which surround the 
 earth, are all explained by one principle, ' that of the 
 mutual gravitation of all bodies, with forces directly 
 as their quantities of matter, and inversely as the 
 squares of their distances.' The existence of this 
 force was not assumed as an hypothesis, but deduced 
 as a necessary consequence from the general facts or 
 laws discovered by Kepler. We have thus arrived 
 at the knowledge of a principle which pervades all 
 nature, and connects together the most distant 
 regions of space, as well as the most remote periods 
 of duration."* 
 
 * Playfair's Outlines of Nat. Philos. II. p. 339. 
 
390 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV. 
 
 II. 
 
 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 
 
 Sect. I. 
 
 ON THE PROGRESS OF MECHANICAL SCIENCE DURING 
 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 292. The connexion is so intimate between all 
 the practical sciences, that it might reasonably have 
 been expected, (and facts have abundantly verified 
 that expectation,) that the sera in which any one of 
 these has remarkably flourished, would be charac- 
 terized by a proportionate improvement in all the 
 rest. It was scarcely possible that such brilliant 
 discoveries should have been made in astronomy, as 
 have been sketched in the preceding sections, with- 
 out a simultaneous and corresponding progression 
 in all the departments of mechanical science, whe- 
 ther it be regarded in the more abstract form of 
 dynamics, or in the practical application of those 
 general principles by various kinds of machinery. 
 In like manner, we are prepared to expect that the 
 same individuals, who have immortalized their names 
 by astronomical researches and discoveries, would 
 be those who occupy a prominent place in other 
 departments of physical science, and especially in 
 one so nearly allied as ?nechanics. That a more 
 
CHAP. Ill/] DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 391 
 
 distinct conception may be formed, by the juvenile 
 reader, of the two great divisions of modern science, 
 the history of which is now to be sketched, during a 
 period in which they were rapidly progressive, it 
 may not be improper just to state that the term 
 dynamics is employed to describe that branch of 
 physico-mathematical science, which treats abstract- 
 edly of the laws of matter and motion ; or, in other 
 words, which teaches the doctrine of moving forces : 
 mechanics denotes that division of the science which 
 reduces to practice the principles of dynamics, and 
 illustrates them by experiment. The inventions of 
 mechanical philosophy serve to exhibit the manner 
 in which the moving forces act, the laws by which 
 that action is regulated, and the effects that must 
 necessarily result in any given case from their prac- 
 tical application. 
 
 293. It has been already stated, (§ 93,) that 
 dynamics, considered as a science, was wholly un- 
 known to the ancients. Nor did any material 
 alteration take place in that of mechanics, from the 
 sera of Achimedes, to the middle of the sixteenth 
 century. The principles laid down by that great 
 practical philosopher, and exemplified by his stu- 
 pendous machinery, had been applied to various 
 uses by a few scientific men, such as Gerbert, Friar 
 Bacon, and some others, who lived, at distant inter- 
 vals, during the middle ages. But no new discovery 
 had been made, — no new theories invented, — no new 
 problems solved, through the whole of that long 
 series of years. The first who can be said to have 
 taken a single step in advance, was Guido Ubaldi, 
 
392 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV. 
 
 an Italian mathematician, who published, in 1577, a 
 treatise on " Statics," in which he carried somewhat 
 farther than the ancients had done, the problems 
 relative to the equilibrium of bodies, by combining 
 the pulley and lever, shewing their mutual relation 
 and the principles common to both. Next in the 
 order of time occurs Stevinus, a Flemish mathe- 
 matician and natural philosopher, who, a few years 
 after, succeeded in establishing some important 
 principles with reference to the inclined plane. 
 Though the ancients had discovered this mechanical 
 power, they were comparatively ignorant of its na- 
 ture and properties ; and seem to have had no con- 
 ception of the important advantages which modern 
 science had derived from it. Stevinus was the first 
 who made known the laws of equilibrium, as it 
 respects bodies placed on the inclined plane, by ac- 
 curately determining the power requisite to sustain 
 or to move a body thus situated at any given angle, 
 or in any degree of inclination. The reasonings and 
 experiments by which he arrived at this useful dis- 
 covery are fully developed in his posthumous works, 
 which were collected and published by Albert Girard, 
 a.d. 1634. 
 
 294. The theory and laws of motion must ever 
 form an important branch of philosophical investi- 
 gation. Of this fundamental branch of physical 
 science, the philosophers of Greece and Rome, as 
 well as the scientific Arabians of the middle ages, 
 were almost wholly ignorant. They do not appear 
 to have proceeded further than to the estimate of 
 uniform motion, which, by the aid of mathematical 
 
CHAP. Ill/] DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 393 
 
 science, they were able to determine with tolerable 
 accuracy. But unacquainted as they were with 
 the great cause of accelerated or retarded motion, 
 it was not to be expected that they could estimate 
 the effects resulting from that unknown and mys- 
 terious agency. But from the time in which true 
 philosophy revived under the auspices of such men 
 as Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, this department 
 of mechanical philosophy began to be cultivated 
 with distinguished success. A memorable and highly 
 important revolution was effected in the practical 
 sciences, chiefly by the inventive genius and inde- 
 fatigable labours of the latter of these great philo- 
 sophers. From the asra in which Galileo flourished, 
 (which was the close of the sixteenth and the be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth centuries,) the combined 
 application of geometrical and experimental science, 
 to the solution of natural phenomena, may be dated. 
 
 295. To enumerate all the valuable discoveries 
 of this great practical philosopher, in connexion 
 with this science of mechanics, would far exceed 
 the assigned limits of the present work. A few of 
 the more important, on which his posthumous fame 
 chiefly rests, will be selected. 
 
 (1.) The researches of Galileo, in conjunction 
 with those of Kepler, led to the discovery of the 
 laws of uniformly accelerated motion; a discovery 
 which is the more interesting as an important step 
 towards the development of the great law of gravi- 
 tation. The great law established by Galileo on 
 this subject was, that, " in bodies falling freely, that 
 is, having no force acting upon them but that of 
 
394 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV. 
 
 gravity, and, consequently, in which the accelerated 
 motion is uniform, " the spaces passed over are as 
 the squares of their times" 
 
 (2.) Nearly allied to the preceding was the dis- 
 covery, that bodies of different densities fall from 
 the same height in times so nearly equal, that the 
 difference might reasonably be ascribed to the re- 
 sistance of the air alone, and, consequently, that in 
 all bodies falling freely, " the increments of velocity 
 are equal in equal times" These principles were 
 afterwards applied to the descent of bodies on in- 
 clined planes, and other cases in which different 
 forces were combined. 
 
 (3.) Hence he was led to investigate the laws of 
 motion as applied to projectiles, respecting which 
 he demonstrated that the path described by a heavy 
 body, projected with any velocity and at any degree 
 of elevation, must be a parabolic curve, since two 
 forces act upon it, the one equable along the line of 
 projection, the other uniformly accelerated towards 
 the earth; thus proving that he was not unac- 
 quainted with the doctrines, to which, in modern 
 times, the names of Composition of Forces, and 
 Virtual Velocities, have been given. 
 
 (4.) To this illustrious philosopher is also attri- 
 buted the first indistinct conception and practical 
 illustration of what is now termed " the law of con- 
 tinuity," by which is intended, the fact so fully 
 established by modern science, that all changes of 
 motion are effected gradually, and not on a sudden ; 
 so that no body can pass from one line of direction 
 into another, without describing a curve, and taking 
 
CHAP. III.]] DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 395 
 
 in its motion every possible direction from trie one 
 to the other. The important bearing of this law, 
 in explaining the phenomena of deflecting and 
 central forces, renders the discovery, however im- 
 perfectly made, highly interesting, and of great 
 value. 
 
 (5.) The preceding discoveries, it will be per- 
 ceived, relate to dynamics properly so called, and 
 comprehend almost the entire range of scientific 
 investigations connected with that science. One or 
 two may be added, which are purely mechanical. 
 In a treatise on " Statics," published by Galileo, 
 a.d. 1592, he fully established, both by facts and 
 reasonings, two fundamental laws on mechanics, 
 viz. that " the power and weight are in an inverse 
 ratio ;" and that " what is gained in power is lost 
 in time" These facts, simple as they may appear, 
 led to the train of scientific discoveries enumerated 
 above, relative to the doctrine of moving forces in 
 general. 
 
 (6.) Finally, from observing attentively the vibra- 
 tions of the lamps suspended in the cathedral of 
 Pisa, this ingenious philosopher was led to the dis- 
 covery, that " the vibrations of a pendulum, whether 
 moving in a greater or less area, are performed in 
 equal times? This was a most important step 
 taken towards the accurate measurement of time, 
 on which account some have ascribed to Galileo the 
 first invention of chronometers and clocks. The 
 principle on which they must necessarily be con- 
 structed, was undoubtedly discovered by him ; but 
 its mechanical application was not as yet discovered. 
 
396 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV* 
 
 296. It is easy to conceive how the ardour of 
 Galileo, in pursuing this train of investigations, 
 must have been stimulated and increased by the 
 obvious connexion between them and the then 
 newly discovered system of astronomy. For though 
 he was little aware of their extensive application, 
 yet his own researches, and those of his illustrious 
 contemporary Kepler, sufficiently proved that such 
 a relation existed. They could not fail to perceive 
 that the principles they had mutually established 
 with reference to the portions of matter immediately 
 within their observation, might also serve to explain 
 the motions of the heavenly bodies. Nor could they 
 be ignorant of the fact, though as yet unable fully 
 to demonstrate it, that the same laws which regu- 
 lated the path of a projectile, would account for the 
 revolutions of the planets and their satellites in their 
 several orbits, and in revolving round their common 
 centre. 
 
 297. This rapid sketch of the progress of physical 
 science during the sixteenth century cannot be con- 
 cluded without adverting to one of the most illustri- 
 ous philosophers of that or any other age ; who, if 
 he did not, like those enumerated above, employ 
 himself in laborious processes and profound investi- 
 gations into the phenomena of nature, yet accom- 
 plished more, since he pointed out the true method 
 of philosophizing, and thus prepared the way for 
 future and more important discoveries. The person- 
 age referred to is Lord Bacon, who flourished at the 
 close of this century, and who will be more distinctly 
 noticed under the head of " intellectual philosophy? 
 
CHAP. Ill/] DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 397 
 
 This profound philosopher, conceiving most justly 
 that the principal sources of ignorance and error, 
 or rather the principal hindrances to the progress of 
 true science, were the neglect of proper means to 
 enlarge our knowledge, and the presumptuous at- 
 tempt to theorise and speculate beyond the power 
 of our limited faculties, pointed out the method 
 which alone can be safely pursued, whether in phy- 
 sical or intellectual science, — that of proceeding 
 cautiously, step by step, on the sure basis of ex- 
 periment, till we arrive at general principles, as the 
 result of our inquiries and observations. 
 
 The great principle which characterizes the 
 philosophy of Lord Bacon, to which he himself 
 rigidly adhered in his scientific researches, and which 
 was still more practically regarded by Sir Isaac 
 Newton, was, upon no consideration, to indulge 
 conjectures concerning the powers and properties 
 and laws of nature, but to make it our endeavour to 
 search out by an inductive process the laws by which 
 the constitution of nature is regulated. For we can 
 only argue from that which is known to that which 
 is unknown. The qualities of bodies become known 
 to us only by experiments ; nor have we any other 
 way of finding the properties of bodies beyond the 
 reach of actual experiment, than by drawing con- 
 clusions and deductions from phaenomena actually 
 observed. To this principle of physical investiga- 
 tion, it is added, as a needful and salutary caution, 
 that the facts from which such conclusions are drawn 
 must be numerous, and that due regard must be 
 paid to objections which may be raised against them. 
 
398 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV. 
 
 A cursory view of those parts of Lord Bacon's 
 valuable writings, which belong to the department 
 of physical science, will sufficiently illustrate the 
 nature and use of these fundamental principles, and 
 justify the application to him of that truly honour- 
 able distinction, by which he is more ennobled than 
 by all the splendid titles affixed to his name, or the 
 dignified offices he sustained — The Father of Ex- 
 perimental Philosophy. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 history of dynamics and mechanics continued 
 during the seventeenth century. 
 
 298. Toricelli, the pupil of Galileo, (whose fame 
 chiefly rests on his discovery of the weight of air by 
 means of the tube which still bears his name,) con- 
 tributed also to the advancement of mechanical 
 science, by his minute experiments and accurate 
 calculations respecting the velocity of falling bodies, 
 and the position of the centre of gravity. The 
 results of his observations on these subjects were 
 communicated to the public in his well-known 
 treatise, " De Motu gravium naturaliter accele- 
 rato." " To this ingenious man," says Playfair, 
 "we are indebted for the discovery of a remarkable 
 property of the centre of gravity, and a general 
 principle of great utility, with respect to the equi- 
 librium of bodies ; which is, that if in a system of 
 bodies, the centre of gravity is so fixed that it can 
 
CHAP. Ill/) DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 399 
 
 neither ascend nor descend, those bodies will remain 
 at rest. Scarcely is there a principle of greater 
 practical utility than this in the whole range of 
 mechanical science." 
 
 299. The next important step towards the im- 
 provement of practical mechanics was taken by the 
 celebrated Des Cartes, not indeed without a mixture 
 of error, as is usually the case in the earliest stages 
 of all the experimental sciences. Setting out in his 
 researches with the metaphysical notion, that the 
 same quantity of absolute matter always exists in 
 the world, he applied this principle, which is partly 
 true and partly false, to the several cases of friction, 
 percussion, and collision; and concluded that it 
 equally applied to them all, in all possible circum- 
 stances. The conclusion to which he was led, by 
 his scientific investigations on this subject, was, that 
 in the three several cases of a body impinging against 
 another at rest, or moving in the same direction 
 with different velocities, or moving in opposite di- 
 rections, the result would be, that the sum of the 
 motions after such collision, would be equal to the 
 sum of the previous motions. This conclusion was 
 just with regard to the two former, but it is con- 
 trary to fact when applied to the latter of the above- 
 mentioned cases. To this great philosopher is also 
 attributed the more complete demonstration of the 
 principle of the composition of forces, as it is seen 
 in the curvilinear motion of projectiles, and the 
 necessity of a deflecting force continually acting 
 in conjunction with that of gravity to produce such 
 a result. It is further evident from those parts of 
 
400 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV. 
 
 his philosophical writings, which relate to mechanics, 
 that he explained more fully than any of his prede- 
 cessors had done, the true nature of the centrifugal 
 force, and ascribed that force to its true cause, viz. 
 the tendency of matter to uniform and rectilineal 
 motion. 
 
 300. The mixture of theory with experiment 
 tended greatly to diminish the value of Des Cartes' 
 philosophical investigations. But we next meet 
 with a scientific philosopher of a widely different 
 character, who rigidly adhered in all cases to the 
 evidence of facts. This was the distinguished Dutch 
 philosopher Huygens, who was unquestionably the 
 greatest mechanician of his age. Following up, 
 with steady perseverance and unabated ardour, the 
 track marked out by preceding philosophers, he suc- 
 ceeded in making many discoveries of the utmost 
 practical importance. Among others, he ascertained 
 the true nature of the cycloidal arc, described by a 
 pendulum, and applied it to the equal division of 
 time. He fully demonstrated, that from whatever 
 part of a cycloidal curve a heavy body falls, it 
 always arrives at the lowest point of that curve in 
 the same space of time. By this means the relation 
 was discovered between the length of a pendulum, 
 and the time of its least vibrations ; and thence 
 followed the rules necessary to be observed in the 
 manufactory of clocks, and upon which their accu- 
 racy chiefly depends. This very remarkable pro- 
 position would alone have been sufficient to render 
 the name and memory of its inventor illustrious. 
 But, in addition to this, many other valuable papers 
 
CHAP. III.3 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 401 
 
 were communicated by him to the philosophical 
 societies of which he was a distinguished member, 
 relative to the central forces in general, and particu- 
 larly those of percussion and oscillation. 
 
 301. A controversy arose about this period, in 
 which posterity is little concerned, but which at the 
 time was fiercely contested. The question related 
 to the honour of the invention of the pendulum, as a 
 rule for the measurement of time. The continental 
 philosophers claimed the honour of this discovery 
 for Galileo and Huygens. Dr. Hooke, an English 
 mathematician and astronomer, claimed it for him- 
 self. It is certain, that not these alone, but many 
 other men of science in different parts of Europe, 
 were, at the time of this discovery, investigating the 
 nature and properties of the cycloid ; and, being em- 
 ployed in the same researches, it is not improbable 
 that they may simultaneously have hit upon the 
 same discovery. Valuable papers were transmitted 
 continually to the respective philosophical institu- 
 tions of Europe, from the most eminent scientific 
 philosophers of the age, such as Wallis, .Sir Christo- 
 pher Wren, Huygens, Hooke, and others, closely 
 connected with the object of this discovery, and from 
 each of these valuable hints may have been derived. 
 The conclusion, however, to which we are led by 
 the detailed narrative of this controversy is, that 
 Huygens and Hooke contributed most essentially to 
 the accurate measurement of time — the former, by 
 his discovery of the laws of pendular motion — the 
 latter, by his invention of the use of a metallic spring 
 in regulating the movements of a watch. 
 
 D D 
 
402 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV. 
 
 In addition to the preceding highly important 
 discoveries of Huygens, may be mentioned one 
 which is indisputably his own, and without which all 
 the rest had been comparatively useless. This was 
 the solution of the problem by which to find the 
 centre of oscillation; a solution which, in the 
 opinion of a distinguished modern writer, whose 
 authority none will venture to dispute, was " the 
 most difficult of any which preceded the inven- 
 tion of fluxions."* 
 
 302. The above series of mechanical researches 
 comprehends the principal of those which engaged 
 the attention of scientific men before the dis- 
 covery of the " analysis of infinites." There were 
 many fellow-labourers in this department of science, 
 who might have been enumerated, amongst whom 
 the honour of carrying forward the new science of 
 dynamics must be divided. Among these were, 
 Wallis and Pascal, Roemer and Leibnitz ; but as 
 their merit chiefly consists in following up the in- 
 vestigations of others, rather than striking out a 
 new path, it is not necessary to advert to them more 
 particularly in this department of philosophy. It 
 should however be stated, that while these general 
 laws of mechanics were receiving additional confir- 
 mation from various quarters, practical men were 
 actively employed in bringing them to bear upon 
 the purposes and pursuits of social life, by the in- 
 vention of new machinery, or the improvement of 
 instruments already in use. To this period may be 
 
 * Playfair's Dissertation. 
 
CHAP. Ill/] DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 403 
 
 referred the construction of machines, in which the 
 laws of equilibrium and the doctrine of moving 
 forces were strikingly exemplified and applied to 
 important uses; such as, the improvement of navi- 
 gation, by calculating, with greater exactness, the 
 force of wind on distended sails — the construction of 
 mills, worked by wind or water ; and especially the 
 steam-engine, the first conception of which seems 
 to have been suggested by the ingenious Marquis of 
 Worcester, in his experiments made A. d. 1660, and 
 the first rude model of which was constructed by a 
 French mechanic towards the close of the century. 
 
 303. After the discoveries of Newton, (which it 
 will be proper, on account of their magnitude and 
 importance, to make the subject of a distinct 
 section,) the science of mechanics advanced rapidly 
 towards its present state of perfection. In 1687, 
 Varignon made an attempt to exhibit the combined 
 influence of all the mechanical powers, in a treatise 
 entitled " Project of a new System of Mechanics/* 
 In 1695, La Hire published a similar work, illustra- 
 tive of the laws of equilibria, as applied to all kinds 
 of machinery ; and about the same period, as well 
 as long afterwards, the Bernoullis enriched the 
 science with many valuable writings on " statics," 
 containing the results of their profound investiga- 
 tions into the properties of matter and laws of 
 motion. The following extract from Playf air's 
 Review of the History of Mechanical Science, at that 
 period, exhibits at one view the principal objects of 
 investigation, which then occupied the attention, 
 and called forth the energies of the most enlightened 
 
 dd 2 
 
404 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. £pART IV, 
 
 philosophers of Europe : — " Such problems as that 
 of finding the centre of oscillation — the nature of the 
 catenarian curve *— the determination of the line of 
 swiftest descent — the retardation produced to 
 motion in a resisting medium, whatever might be 
 the degree of that resistance — the determination of 
 the elastic curve, or that into which an elastic spring 
 forms itself, when a force is applied to bend it — all 
 these were problems of the greatest interest, and were 
 now resolved for the first time ; the science of me- 
 chanics being sufficient, by means of the composition 
 of forces, to find out the fluxionary or differential 
 equations, which expressed the nature of the gradual 
 changes which in all these cases were produced ; and 
 the calculus," (or mathematical process then newly 
 invented,) " being now sufficiently powerful to infer 
 the properties of the finite, from those of the infi- 
 nitesimal quantities."* 
 
 Section III. 
 
 ON THE MECHANICAL DISCOVERIES OF SIR ISAAC 
 NEWTON. 
 
 304. The first part of the celebrated " Prin- 
 cipia Mathematica" of Sir Isaac Newton, relates 
 exclusively to the subject of this section ; and, per- 
 haps, no better mode can be adopted of exhibiting 
 a summary view of this division of his physical 
 
 * Vide Playfair's Second Diss, and Encyc. Britt. New Sup. 
 Vol. IV. pp. 41,42. 
 
CHAP. Ill/] DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 405 
 
 researches and discoveries, than presenting an out- 
 line of the principal contents of that work, as far 
 as they relate to mechanical philosophy. The 
 chapters to which we especially refer, are those 
 which treat of the properties of matter— the laws 
 of motion — the composition of forces, and their 
 influence on bodies variously circumstanced— toge- 
 ther with the properties and use of the mechanical 
 powers, whether separately or in a state of combi- 
 nation. To this memorable work, which may justly 
 be accounted the chef d'oeuvre of modern science, 
 and an imperishable memorial of the mighty genius 
 of its author, it is requisite to refer the reader for 
 the full development of principles, which can be 
 exhibited here but in faint outline. 
 
 305. The treatise commences with a series of 
 definitions explanatory of the terms about to be 
 employed ; such as, the quantity of matter and of 
 motion — the different kinds of forces, whether that 
 of inertia, or the centripetal, or any other exter- 
 nally impressed — time and space, both relative and 
 absolute; with some other essential or accidental 
 properties and adjuncts of matter. The author 
 next propounds, in the form of axioms, his three 
 celebrated Laws of Motion ; which, as forming the 
 basis of his entire system of mechanical philosophy, 
 it will be proper distinctly to state. 
 
 (1.) That all bodies have such an indifference to 
 rest or motion, that if at rest, they remain so till 
 disturbed by some force acting upon them ; or if 
 in motion, they continue to move forward in a 
 rectilineal direction, and with uniform velocity,. 
 
406 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [PART IV. 
 
 unless turned aside, stopped, or impeded in their 
 course, by some new power impressed upon them. 
 
 (2.) That the change effected in the motion of 
 any body (whether its transition be from rest to 
 motion, or from motion to rest, or from one degree 
 of motion to another), is always proportional to 
 the force impressed, and in the direction of that 
 force. 
 
 (3.) That action and reaction are equal ; or, in 
 other words, that if one body act upon another, 
 the quantities of motion produced are equal in the 
 body acting, and in that acted upon. 
 
 Of each of these fundamental laws, mathematical 
 proofs and practical illustrations are given, sufficient 
 to place them beyond the possibility of reasonable 
 doubt. 
 
 306. This solid and immoveable basis having 
 been laid, the illustrious author proceeds to raise 
 upon it the whole structure of dynamic and me- 
 chanical science. These principles are applied to 
 the solution of the phenomena of uniform, ac- 
 celerated, and retarded motion — of motion produced 
 by percussion, collision, or friction — to projectile, 
 deflecting, and central forces — to the perpendicular, 
 oblique, or curvilinear ascent and descent of bodies 
 — to the cycloidal arch, and the properties and laws 
 of pendular motion, whether vibrating in a circle 
 or a cycloid— to the centres of gravity, oscillation, 
 and percussion — to the line of swiftest descent ; 
 with many other objects of investigation connected 
 with the absolute or relative motion of bodies, and 
 their several ratios of velocity. From the simplest 
 
CHAP. III.]] DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. 407 
 
 elementary truths, this philosopher proceeded, by a 
 train of inductive reasonings, to the investigation of 
 forces acting under all conceivable circumstances, 
 either uniformly or at intervals, either in an in- 
 creasing or a decreasing ratio, either freely and 
 without resistance, or when counteracted by other 
 forces acting in contrary directions. In all these 
 or any other supposable cases, either of simple or 
 compound forces, he calculated the velocity with 
 relation both to time and place — the distances 
 passed over in any given time — the magnitude and 
 density of the moving bodies, &c. Such are the 
 principal subjects of profound investigation to which 
 the facts and reasonings of the " Principia" refer, 
 and to which also we are chiefly indebted for the 
 brilliant discoveries of modern astronomy. 
 
 307. From these mere abstract principles, a trans- 
 ition is made to the mechanical powers ; when the 
 author describes their nature, calculates their effects 
 in any given case, and arrives at some general laws 
 respecting them. The varieties of the lever, the 
 pulley, the wheel and axis, the screw, the wedge, 
 and the inclined plane, are minutely described, and 
 the force of each is estimated, together with the laws 
 of equilibrium respecting them. These were, how- 
 ever, but elementary to his great design,— that of 
 applying the principles of mechanical science to the 
 motions and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, and 
 the entire system of the universe. With unutterable 
 delight must this mighty genius have perceived, as 
 he pursued his wondrous track, and penetrated 
 farther and deeper into the mysteries of nature, 
 
408 DYNAMICS AND MECHANICS. [[PART IV* 
 
 that all the vast machine was put in motion, and 
 all those motions were regulated, by one great, 
 universal, mysterious agent, to which was given the 
 name of gravitation, but which is, in reality, no 
 other than the power of Deity pervading all his 
 works, and constantly excited to preserve the order 
 and harmony of the material universe. This con- 
 stitutes the principal glory of this truly philosophical 
 system. The grand and comprehensive view it 
 exhibits of the mechanism of the natural world, is 
 its distinguishing excellency, which has been thus 
 happily characterised by Playfair : — " It is seen in 
 the new application of mechanical reasoning, by 
 transferring it from earth to heaven ; from small 
 portions of matter to the mechanism of the uni- 
 verse—in the reduction of questions concerning 
 force and motion, to geometrical problems, and 
 thus rendering them no longer subjects of specula- 
 tion, but capable of proof — and in the mensuration 
 of mechanical action by its nascent effects, applying 
 the same principles and general laws to the calcula- 
 tion of the greatest, as well as the least moving 
 force."* 
 
 * Vide Playfair's Dissert, ut supra. 
 
CHAP. III.]] HYDROSTATICS. 409 
 
 III. 
 
 HYDRODYNAMICS AND PNEUMATICS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 HISTORY OF HYDROSTATICS, &C CONTINUED, 
 
 From a.d. 1600 to 1650. 
 
 308. The general principles which have been 
 adverted to under the head of Mechanics, could 
 scarcely fail to direct the attention of the philoso- 
 phers of Europe to kindred branches of physical 
 science. Applicable as those principles were to 
 fluid as well as solid bodies, it was to be expected 
 that, while some constructed machines illustrative 
 of the moving forces, or the laws of equilibrium 
 with reference to solids, others would direct their 
 researches to the influence of the same causes of 
 motion or rest on the two species of fluids with 
 which we are most familiar — namely, air and 
 water. Without attempting to exhibit in detail all 
 the discoveries made by scientific men, at the me- 
 morable period under review, in these compre- 
 hensive divisions of natural philosophy, a brief 
 account will be given in the present section, of the 
 most important and useful of those scientific de- 
 velopments. 
 
 And here (as in the former case) it is requisite 
 to commence with Stevinus, of whose personal 
 
410 HYDROSTATICS. [PART IV. 
 
 history little is known, but who contributed in no 
 inconsiderable degree, both by his experiments and 
 writings, to the advancement of the practical sciences. 
 In hydrostatics, he is said to have first made the 
 discovery, that " the pressure of a fluid on the bot- 
 tom of a vessel is always as the product of the 
 altitude and the area of the base, whatever may be 
 the shape of the vessel, or whatever quantity of the 
 fluid it may contain." The practical demonstration 
 of this theorem was, at the time of its discovery, 
 little regarded ; its importance was not felt, nor 
 were its extensive bearings perceived : but it has 
 been long since classed with the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of hydrostatic science. Though the honour 
 of this discovery unquestionably belongs to Stevinus, 
 he was little aware of its intimate connexion with 
 all the principal phasnomena relative to the equili- 
 brium and pressure of fluids ; and especially with 
 its application to what has since been called the 
 hydrostatical paradox. It remained for the vigorous 
 and comprehensive genius of Pascal to develop its 
 true nature and extent. In a treatise, published 
 by that enlightened philosopher a short time before 
 his death, on the " Equilibrium of Fluids? he availed 
 himself of this principle, (which Stevinus had pre- 
 viously demonstrated,) for the purpose of proving 
 the equal pressure of fluids, while in a state of rest, 
 and to explain the apparent paradox, that a slender 
 column, pressing on the same base, will hold in 
 equilibrio a mass of the same fluid of equal height, 
 however disproportionate their relative quantities 
 might be. 
 
CHAP. Ill ^ HYDROSTATICS. 411 
 
 309. While these advances were making by slow 
 and almost imperceptible degrees in that branch of 
 hydrodynamics, to which the name of hydrostatics 
 has been given, because it relates to the phenomena 
 of fluids at rest, some curious and useful experi- 
 ments were carrying on with reference to that 
 kindred branch of the science, which treats of fluids 
 in motion, technically termed hydraulics. About 
 a.d. 1628, Castelli, (who had been a disciple of 
 Galileo, and had imbibed from his illustrious pre- 
 ceptor an ardent desire of knowledge, and un- 
 wearied diligence in the investigation of natural 
 phenomena,) published a small but valuable treatise, 
 containing the results of his observations on the 
 phenomena of fluids in a state of motion ; the de- 
 gree of resistance they oppose to solid bodies im- 
 merged in them, or floating on their surfaces ; and 
 the impetus acquired by confinement and compres- 
 sion. The chief object of Castelli's treatise was to ex- 
 plain some of the phenomena of water flowing in 
 natural or artificial channels, of whatever dimen- 
 sions ; and the general principle established was, 
 that " the velocities of a stream at different sections, 
 made perpendicular to the line of its motion, are in 
 the inverse ratio of the surfaces of those sections. 
 Toricelli, another and a far more celebrated disciple 
 of Galileo, carried farther this train of physical in- 
 vestigations, by explaining the theory of fountains 
 and jets, or of fluids spouting in any direction 
 through small apertures. On this subject he de- 
 monstrated, that " water issues from a hole in the 
 side or bottom of a vessel, with the velocity which a 
 
412 HYDROSTATICS. [PART IV, 
 
 body would acquire by falling freely or perpendicu- 
 larly from the level of the surface to that of the 
 orifice." With regard to fountains, this most in- 
 genious philosopher proved, that water thus com- 
 pressed will rise so nearly to the height of the 
 reservoir with which it is connected, as to prove the 
 truth of the general theorem stated above, due 
 allowance being made for friction and the resistance 
 of the superincumbent column of air. The results 
 of these investigations into the laws of spouting 
 fluids were communicated in a work, on " the 
 accelerated Motion of Heavy Bodies," published 
 about a.d. 1644. 
 
 310. But these researches and discoveries, though 
 in themselves highly interesting, and in their con- 
 sequences of great practical utility, constitute a 
 very small part of the benefits conferred on succeed- 
 ing ages by Toricelli. There is one which cannot 
 fail to immortalize his name and memory — his 
 demonstration of the pressure and weight of air by 
 means of the barometer, or, as it is sometimes called, 
 the Toricellian tube. The following is a brief out- 
 line of the history of this important invention. — 
 Some Florentine engineers inquired of Galileo the 
 reason why they were unable, by the action of a com- 
 mon pump, to raise water more than thirty-two feet 
 above the level of the well or reservoir with which 
 it was connected. Unable to give a more satisfac- 
 tory reply, he answered, agreeably to the prevailing 
 philosophy of that age, that it was " because nature 
 abhorred a vacuum" But this great philosopher 
 was too enlightened and scientific a man to feel 
 
CHAP. III.]] HYDROSTATICS. 413 
 
 perfectly satisfied with the reason which he had 
 assigned, and commenced a series of experiments 
 with the hope of ascertaining the true cause of the 
 phenomenon in question. He was not, however, 
 so fortunate as to succeed ; but, soon after his death, 
 Toricelli pursued the investigation with complete 
 success. He began with ascertaining the com- 
 parative density of air and mercury, which he found 
 to be in the proportion of one to fourteen ; then, 
 by repeated experiments, he ascertained that mer- 
 cury would not naturally rise more than ^th part of 
 thirty-two feet above its level. The conclusion was 
 obvious, that the same cause, whatever it might be, 
 must operate in both cases; and the solution of the 
 phenomenon which immediately occurred to this 
 ingenious philosopher was, that the weight of the 
 column of fluid in each case prevented its higher 
 elevation ; and that there was some other force which 
 then held it in equilibrio. What could this be, but 
 the weight of the atmospheric air resting on the 
 surface of the fluid ? From these previous steps, he 
 was led to infer, that the weight of a column of 
 water thirty- two feet high, or of quicksilver fourteen 
 times less, is equal to a column of atmospheric air, 
 reaching from the earth's surface to the upper ex- 
 tremity of that fluid — thus not only proving the 
 weight and pressure of air, but furnishing a rule by 
 which its comparative density may be estimated. 
 
 311. The Cartesian philosophers took alarm at 
 the discovery of a fact so fatal to their favourite 
 dogma of " Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum." Some 
 questioned the accuracy of the experiment ; others 
 
414 HYDRODYNAMICS AND PNEUMATICS. pPART IV. 
 
 denied the legitimacy of the conclusion deduced from 
 it. But in this case also, the inventive genius of 
 Pascal promoted the advancement of science, and 
 led to the triumph of truth over deeply-rooted pre- 
 judices. Causing a barometer, constructed agree- 
 ably to the directions of Toricelli, to be conveyed to 
 the summit of Puy de Dome, a mountain in Au- 
 vergne, he found that the mercury descended, as 
 the barometer was more elevated ; that is, in exact 
 proportion as the column of air which pressed upon 
 it was diminished in altitude and weight. It was 
 immediately apparent, that this additional fact 
 would furnish a rule by which to measure the 
 height of mountains ; a purpose to which it has, in 
 modern times, been most successfully applied. To 
 the honour of Toricelli, it should be added, that so 
 far was he from being elated with his success in 
 having made so curious and important a discovery, 
 that he felt and expressed the deepest regret, that 
 it had not fallen to the lot of his beloved preceptor, 
 Galileo, to make the first development of this great 
 physical fact. 
 
 Sect. II. 
 
 HISTORY OF HYDRODYNAMICS AND PNEUMATICS CON- 
 TINUED, 
 
 From A. d. 1650 to 1700. 
 
 312. The invention of the barometer, and the 
 demonstration thus obtained of the gravity and 
 
CHAP. III.*] HYDRODYNAMICS AND PNEUMATICS. 415 
 
 pressure of air, led the practical philosophers of 
 Europe into new trains of investigation. They en- 
 deavoured, by different modes of operation, to 
 remove more effectually the pressure of air, and pro- 
 duce a more perfect vacuum than had hitherto been 
 obtained. With this view, hydraulic engines of 
 various kinds were constructed, for the purpose of 
 raising water to any degree of elevation which 
 might be required, or increasing the velocity of its 
 motion. Of this description were forcing pumps, 
 syringes, and many similar contrivances of great 
 practical utility. But among all the inventions of 
 this period, none has contributed so effectually to the 
 advancement of science, as that of the air-pump. 
 The honour of this invention unquestionably belongs 
 to Otto Guericre, a counsellor of Magdeburg, who 
 flourished about a.d. 1654. The first intimation 
 was given of this important discovery in the 
 " Technica Curioscf of Schottus, who was at that 
 time professor of mathematics in the university of 
 Wirtemberg. From this authentic source of infor- 
 mation we learn, that the first attempts of Guerick6 
 to produce a vacuum were extremely rude and im- 
 perfect. He filled a barrel with water, from which 
 he drew part of the fluid by means of a common 
 sucking pump, but had not proceeded far in the 
 operation, before the weight of the external air 
 burst the vessel with a violent explosion, thus 
 " proving the weight of air as effectually by the 
 failure of his experiment, as he could have done by 
 its complete success." The experiment was fre- 
 quently repeated, and the result was uniformly the 
 
416 HYDRODYNAMICS AND PNEUMATICS. [PART IV. 
 
 same ; until a rude machine was constructed with a 
 glass globe affixed to it, which resisted the pressure 
 of the air, and enabled him to obtain the desired 
 end. Imperfect as was the instrument employed, it 
 led to the discovery of another fact, highly im- 
 portant in the science of pneumatics, namely, the 
 great expansibility and elasticity of air.* 
 
 313. Doctrines so new, and facts so surprising 
 and almost incredible as those now developed, could 
 not fail to awaken the ardour of scientific men. The 
 most distinguished members of the philosophical 
 societies then recently established in Europe, made 
 them the frequent theme of their correspondence, 
 and the object of their diligent research. None, 
 however, pursued this new train of experiments 
 more successfully than the excellent Boyle, a man 
 distinguished still more by his fervent piety, than by 
 his philosophical science. This great experimen- 
 talist had been attempting, from the time of Tori- 
 celli's discovery of the weight of air, to make 
 observations on the appearances of bodies of various 
 kinds when freed from the pressure of air, and had 
 devised numerous expedients by which to obtain 
 a vacuum ; but finding these processes laborious, 
 and the results uncertain, he hailed with delight 
 the intelligence of Guericke's discovery, when an- 
 nounced by the publication of Schottus ; and though 
 
 * The subsequent improvements made in the air-pump by 
 this ingenious philosopher, and the successive steps by which he 
 was led onward to higher and more important discoveries, will 
 be found detailed at considerable length in the Encyc. Britt. 
 Vol. XV. (article Pneumatics) § 91 — 95 ; and also in many other 
 modern treatises on Pneumatics. 
 
CHAP. HI.)] HYDRODYNAMICS AND PNEUMATICS. 417 
 
 110 description was given of the Magdeburg instru- 
 ment, immediately set about the construction of an 
 air-pump, on a plan contrived by himself; so that 
 he may be accounted the second inventor of that 
 useful machine. Successive improvements were 
 added year by year, which were either the fruit 
 of his own inventive genius, or suggested to him 
 by his learned friends ; till the instrument had 
 arrived at a considerable degree of perfection. The 
 philosophical works of Boyle contain an immense 
 number of experiments made by him, which were in- 
 tended to prove the expansibility of air — its power 
 to dissolve water, to extinguish light, and to produce 
 combustion, — its necessity for respiration and vege- 
 tation, with innumerable other facts of great prac- 
 tical importance. 
 
 314. The experiments of Toricelli, Pascal, Huy- 
 gens, Boyle, Hooke, and many others, both in 
 hydrostatics and pneumatics, had fully demon- 
 strated the fallacy of the Cartesian notion of a 
 plenum, or the theory which supposed that all 
 space is filled with matter, either in a solid or fluid 
 state. But it remained for the illustrious Newton, 
 and other celebrated mathematicians of that age, to 
 furnish a scientific refutation of the popular theory 
 by their profound investigations into the nature and 
 properties of fluids, both elastic and non-elastic. 
 A valuable portion of the " Principia" of Sir Isaac 
 Newton treats of the resistance and compres- 
 sibility of fluids, and the general laws by which 
 their motions are regulated. The design of this 
 part of his philosophical writings, is to apply the 
 
 E E 
 
418 HYDRODYNAMICS AND PNEUMATICS. [PART IV. 
 
 great principles of dynamics to fluid, in common 
 with solid bodies, and shew that the same effects 
 are produced in both cases by the composition of 
 forces. On this subject he first demonstrates, that 
 the resistance which s*olid bodies moving in fluids 
 encounter, gradually increases in proportion to the 
 space they occupy, the velocity with which they 
 move, and the time they have been in motion. 
 Thence he proceeds to investigate their different 
 degrees of density ; the causes of resistance arising 
 either from the vis inertice of matter, or the tenacity 
 of fluid particles, or the friction of solids moving in 
 them or floating on their surface ; and also the 
 velocities with which they move in all possible 
 cases. From these researches into the laws of 
 motion, as applied to incompressible fluids, this 
 great philosopher proceeds to investigate the phe- 
 nomena of those which are elastic, and estimates 
 the degree of resistance encountered from this 
 cause. He demonstrates that the measure of that 
 resistance will be in exact proportion to the density 
 of the body, and the density of the fluid, on each 
 of which the repelling force of the elastic fluid will 
 depend. The last object of investigation in this 
 department of philosophy, relates to the effect pro- 
 duced by the different configuration of bodies 
 moving in fluids ; an inquiry of immense import- 
 ance to the art of navigation, as well as applicable 
 to many other mechanical processes. 
 
CHAP. III.;] OPTICS, 419 
 
 IV. 
 OPTICS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON THE PROGRESS OF OPTICAL SCIENCE DURING THE 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 315. The history of Optics has been already 
 sketched in its earlier stages. The visionary 
 theories of Plato, the practical science of Archi- 
 medes, the progressive discoveries of Ptolemy, 
 Alhazen, Roger Bacon, and Vitello, have been cur- 
 sorily noticed in former divisions of this work.* 
 But all the inventions and improvements of pre- 
 ceding ages, in connexion with this department of 
 science, are as nothing compared with those which 
 are now to be related. When this is asserted, 
 no reflection is intended on the ancients. They 
 achieved great things with their slender means and 
 imperfect instruments of observation. The brilliant 
 discoveries of modern times are chiefly attributable 
 to the almost fortuitous invention of instruments of 
 great power, unknown to the philosophers of former 
 ages, and without which those discoveries could not 
 possibly have been made. The modern history of 
 this science (as far as it is intended to be pursued 
 in this elementary volume) may be conveniently 
 
 * Vide§ 106, 107, 111, 211, 225. 
 EE 2 
 
420 optics. [[part iv. 
 
 divided into three parts ; the first, including the 
 progress made before the invention of the telescope 
 — the second, extending from that memorable aera 
 to the time of Newton — and the third, comprehend- 
 ing the optical discoveries of that great philosopher 
 himself. 
 
 316. At the commencement of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury two individuals flourished, who have acquired 
 an honourable distinction among the earliest pro- 
 moters of optical science. These were Mauroly- 
 cus of Messina, and Baptista Porta of Naples. 
 Maurolycus was, as already stated, a profound ma- 
 thematician, who brought his geometrical science to 
 bear with great effect on his optical investigations. 
 Baptista Porta was an experimentalist, who owed 
 his most valuable discoveries to the careful obser- 
 vation of the phenomena of nature. 
 
 Maurolycus chiefly directed his researches, in 
 this branch of physical science, to the laws of re- 
 fraction as they affect the visual organ — to the struc- 
 ture and mechanism of the human eye — to some of 
 the properties of light — and to the nature and 
 causes of the rainbow. He was the author of two 
 treatises on the general theory of optics ; one 
 entitled, " Theoremata Lucis et Umbrce ;" the other, 
 " Diaphanorum Partes" &c. ; both of which con- 
 tain curious and highly interesting researches into 
 the phenomena of light, whether refracted or re- 
 flected. These, though frequently erroneous, un- 
 questionably prepared the way for future discoveries, 
 and, by doing this, rendered a valuable service to 
 posterity. The most important of the optical dis- 
 
CHAP. III.] OPTICS. 421 
 
 coveries of Maurolycus (if, indeed, they were his), 
 relate to the theory of vision, as developed by the 
 structure of the human eye. He is said to have 
 first demonstrated, that the crystalline humour of 
 the eye is a lens, that collects the rays of light 
 issuing or reflected from external objects into a 
 focus, by which means they are rendered visible : 
 and also to have assigned as a reason for more or 
 less distinct vision, the greater or less convexity of 
 this crystalline lens. Another curious discovery 
 attributed to Maurolycus is, a solution of the true 
 cause of the circular appearance of the sun, though 
 its rays are transmitted into a dark room through 
 angular apertures. To the preceding may be 
 added, his observations on the rainbow, in which 
 his profound mathematical science was successfully 
 applied to the measurement of the interior and 
 exterior arches, and the spaces between them. 
 
 317. Baptista Porta is chiefly celebrated as the 
 inventor of the camera obscura; the first announce- 
 ment of which was made in a celebrated work en- 
 ticed, " Magia Naturalist This book greatly 
 alarmed the papal hierarchy, and was denounced 
 at its first publication as heretical ; but it contained 
 such a mass of curious and valuable information on 
 all subjects connected with the science of optics, 
 that it speedily obtained a rapid and almost univer- 
 sal circulation. It was translated into the Italian, 
 French, Spanish, German, and Arabic languages ; 
 and great multitudes of persons from distant parts 
 of Europe repaired to Naples to obtain further 
 information respecting the optical illusions which 
 
422 optics. [[part iv. 
 
 it developed. The description given in this work 
 of the camera obscura is extremely brief, and con- 
 stituted a very subordinate object of attention. It 
 is almost incidentally mentioned; for he merely 
 states (among other curious facts), that " if a small 
 hole be made in the shutter of a window, all ex- 
 ternal objects will be visible, in their proper colours, 
 on the opposite wall ; and farther, that if a convex 
 lens be placed in the aperture, the images in the 
 focus of that line will be rendered much more 
 distinct ; so distinct, that even the features of per- 
 sons out of the room may be distinguished by those 
 within." Yet this simple discovery, thus unosten- 
 tatiously announced, has rendered the name of its 
 inventor celebrated in the annals of science. B. 
 Porta does not appear to have been acquainted with 
 the experiments of Maurolycus on the human eye, 
 but pursued independently a similar train of in- 
 vestigation, and arrived nearly at the same results, 
 as is evident from his assertion in a part of his 
 Magia Naturalis, that the eye is a natural camera 
 obscura ; an assertion, the correctness of which has 
 been abundantly demonstrated, 
 
 318. But notwithstanding the advances made by 
 the two above-mentioned philosophers, towards a 
 correct knowledge of the theory of vision, neither 
 Maurolycus nor his ingenious contemporary fully 
 understood the process by which objects become 
 visible. Both appear to have imagined that the 
 pupil of the eye, and not the retina, is chiefly con- 
 cerned in this phenomenon. The illustrious Kepler, 
 who first developed the true laws of planetary 
 
CHAP. Ill/] OPTICS. 423 
 
 motion, supplied also this important link in the chain 
 of optical science. Following up the train of dis- 
 covery commenced by Porta and others, he analysed 
 carefully the entire process of nature in the struc- 
 ture of the eye, and the adaptation of its several 
 parts to the perception of objects. He proved that 
 the images of external objects are painted on the 
 retina ; explained the cause of their inverted appear- 
 ances, and solved the problem, why objects thus 
 inverted on the retina, appear to the observer in 
 their natural position ; measured the angles of 
 divergence or convergence under which they are 
 seen, and proceeded far towards the development 
 of the laws of refraction. The results of these im- 
 portant investigations are contained in his treatise 
 on " Dioptrics." Nor was Kepler the only scientific 
 philosopher of that age, who illustrated this inte- 
 resting branch of optical science. Antonio De Do- 
 minis, Schemer, Snellius, Des Cartes, and Kircher, 
 all contributed, in various degrees, to its advance- 
 ment. 
 
 319. Antonio De Dominis, Bishop of Spalatro, 
 made some important discoveries in the theory of 
 refraction, in consequence of his diligent and minute 
 observation of the phenomena of the rainbow. 
 Though many philosophers of higher reputation 
 and much greater science had directed their atten- 
 tion to the remarkable appearance of the Iris, all 
 had failed to discover its true cause. De Dominis 
 perceived, that it is occasioned by a double refrac- 
 tion and one reflection, and illustrated the fact by a 
 familiar experiment. " Having placed a bottle of 
 
424 optics. [[part. iv. 
 
 water opposite to the sun, and a little above his 
 eye, he saw a beam of light issuing from the under- 
 side of the bottle, which exhibited different colours 
 in the same order, and with the same brilliancy, as 
 those of the rainbow. On a more attentive obser- 
 vation, he found that the solar ray had been refracted 
 on entering the bottle, and again at leaving it ; and 
 that it had been reflected from the concave part, so 
 as to fall upon the eye, tinged with different colours ; 
 but why those colours appeared, and why invariably 
 in a certain order, neither he, nor any philosopher 
 who succeeded him, could explain, till the disco- 
 veries of Sir Isaac Newton, on the refrangibility of 
 light, solved the mystery. The experiments of De 
 Dominis on the rainbow were first published in his 
 treatise, '/ De Radiis Visus et Lucis," about a. d. 
 1611. It is to be regretted, that the court of Rome, 
 which has so often proved itself hostile to the ad- 
 vancement of science and truth, interposed its 
 authority to check the Archbishop of Spalatro in 
 his scientific career ; compelled him first to take 
 refuge in England, and subsequently, having enticed 
 him back to Rome, shut him up in the castle of 
 St. Angelo, where he is supposed to have been 
 secretly poisoned, about a. d. 1625. 
 
 320. Snellius, the celebrated Dutch mathema- 
 tician, is acknowledged to have first discovered the 
 great fundamental law of refraction, after Kepler, 
 Tycho Brahe, Des Cartes, and Kircher, with many 
 others of inferior name, had in vain attempted 
 to ascertain its cause ; and the probable reason of 
 his success and of their failure was, that he relied 
 
chap. 111.3 OPTICS. 425 
 
 wholly on experiments, while the great philosophers 
 just enumerated depended in part on d priori rea- 
 sonings and hypotheses. By a great variety of 
 delicate and accurate experiments, Snellius not only 
 proved that light is variously refracted in passing 
 through different media, and that in proportion to 
 their density ; but also discovered the reciprocal 
 relations which the incident and refracted rays bear 
 to their vertical or perpendicular line. Des Cartes, 
 in some of his later writings, states this principle 
 more clearly, by laying it down as a general fact, 
 " that the sine of the angle of incidence always 
 has the same ratio to the sine of the angle of refrac- 
 tion." This is announced as his own discovery ; 
 but sufficient evidence exists that Hortensius, a 
 friend of Snellius, had, in his public lectures on 
 optics, announced and explained this law of refrac- 
 tion before the date of Des Cartes' treatise on 
 " Dioptrics," and had publicly ascribed it to his 
 illustrious friend. 
 
 321. Scheiner, who flourished towards the close 
 of the sixteenth century, directed his optical re- 
 searches chiefly to the laws of vision, by analyzing 
 the eye, discovering the humours and teguments 
 of which it is composed, and observing the manner 
 in which they cooperate to produce the result. 
 Among other curious optical discoveries, attributed 
 to this accurate experimentalist, are those of the 
 contraction and dilatation of the pupil of the eye, as 
 the object is nearer or further distant, or as the 
 light falling upon it is more or less vivid ; the reason 
 why objects appear single, though seen with two 
 
426 optics. [[part iv. 
 
 eyes; and the causes of some familiar optical illu- 
 sions, which every one must have perceived, but 
 which philosophy alone can explain. The same 
 remarks will apply to those parts of Des Cartes' 
 writings, which relate to the theory of vision, and 
 are of most value, because resulting from experi- 
 ment rather than theory. But on other questions 
 connected with the science of optics, particularly 
 those which relate to the nature and properties of 
 light, this great philosopher was misled partly by 
 his attachment to ancient systems, but chiefly by 
 his preconceived notions of a 'plenum throughout 
 the universe. On the ground of this false hypothesis, 
 (for such it has been fully proved to be,) he main- 
 tained the instantaneous transmission of light from 
 the remotest objects to the eye of the observer, — a 
 doctrine, the fallacy of which was demonstrated by 
 Roemer's discovery of the velocity of light alluded to 
 in a former section. ( § 284.) 
 
 322. To include, in the present section, all the 
 most important discoveries which relate to dioptrics, 
 though it lead us somewhat beyond the date of 
 the first discovery of the telescope, it may be stated 
 in this place, that at the commencement of the seven- 
 teenth century, some valuable experiments were 
 made at Rome by Kircher on the doctrine of colours, 
 and the manner in which they are produced by 
 rays falling at different angles ; but ingenious as 
 they were, and some approaching towards the truth, 
 they were necessarily erroneous, since the great 
 cause of the phenomena of colours still remained 
 unknown. 
 
CHAP. III.] OPTICS. 427 
 
 Section II. 
 
 HISTORY OF OPTICS CONTINUED, 
 
 From A. D. 1600 to 1650. 
 
 323. The train of optical discoveries alluded to 
 in the last section, belong not exclusively to the 
 sixteenth century, nor were they all made prior to 
 the period about to be reviewed. The chronological 
 order of scientific discoveries has been somewhat 
 inverted, that the history of the telescope and 
 microscope, two of the most important inventions 
 of modern science, might be presented in a more 
 entire and connected form. The sera of these in- 
 ventions is of the utmost importance in the history 
 of mankind, since they are amongst the most re- 
 markable in themselves, and most beneficial in their 
 consequences, of all the productions of human genius. 
 They have enlarged the boundaries of human 
 vision to a degree which would previously have been 
 deemed incredible ; they have subjected to philoso- 
 phical investigation the minutest as well as the most 
 stupendous of natural objects ; or, to employ the 
 language of a distinguished modern writer, "by 
 these discoveries, man has approached the nearest 
 to the construction of a new organ of sense." Not 
 curiosity alone, but a sense of justice to the bene- 
 factors of their species, naturally prompts the in- 
 quiry to which the present section is intended to 
 furnish a brief reply, " to whom are we indebted for 
 these inventions, and through what successive stages 
 
428 optics. [[part iv. 
 
 of improvement did they pass, in the earlier period 
 of their history ?" 
 
 324. It has often occurred, that some of the 
 happiest discoveries of the human mind are attri- 
 butable to accident rather than design ; and that 
 the first conception was so vague and imperfect as 
 to render it difficult to trace out its true origin. 
 This remark will apply to the invention of the 
 telescope in a greater degree, perhaps, than to any 
 other of equal magnitude. The date of this im- 
 portant discovery is clearly ascertained to have been 
 the commencement of the seventeenth century ; but 
 the original inventor is still a question of uncertainty. 
 The celebrated astronomer Galileo, who first pointed 
 the telescope to the heavens, and discovered there 
 what the eye of man had never before seen, has been 
 considered by some its inventor ; and if, by the term 
 invention, is meant, not the mere mechanical con- 
 struction of the instrument, but the development 
 of its scientific properties and use, the honour un- 
 questionably belongs to Galileo. But it may be 
 gathered from the writings of this philosopher, that 
 the first intimation of such a discovery having been 
 made in a distant part of Europe, and by some ob- 
 scure mechanic, was given him by a learned friend ; 
 which led him to apply his mathematical science 
 and mechanic skill to the construction of a similar 
 instrument. The use of lenses, to assist the sight 
 and magnify the objects of vision, was not wholly 
 unknown to the ancients. It is manifest, from the 
 Opus Majus, that Roger Bacon had employed con- 
 vex lenses of different powers for this purpose. But 
 
CHAP. III.] OPTICS. 429 
 
 at length, some humble individual, " alike to for- 
 tune and to fame unknown," hit upon the idea of 
 looking through two of these glasses at once— the 
 one convex, and the other concave — fixed at either 
 extremity of a tube ; and thus constructed the first 
 rude and imperfect telescope. Des Cartes, who 
 flourished at the time of this noble discovery, and 
 took some pains to investigate its origin, attributes 
 it to Metius, an optician, resident at Alcmaer, in 
 Holland; but the more prevalent opinion is, that 
 Zechariah Jans, or Jansen, an ingenious but humble 
 mechanic of Middleburgh, in Zealand, was the 
 original inventor of this important instrument. 
 Such at least is the statement of Borellus, who, 
 within a few years from the date of the discovery, 
 seems to have investigated the question with great 
 care and impartiality , # 
 
 325. Galileo's telescope consisted but of two 
 lenses — a convex and a concave-— the former of which 
 being fixed at the end of the telescope, caused the 
 parallel rays of light falling upon it to converge 
 towards a focus ; but before they arrived at the 
 point of convergence, the concave lens was inter- 
 posed, by which their direction was changed, and 
 they again became parallel ; thus presenting a dis- 
 tinct but enlarged image of the object at the focus of 
 parallel rays, at which point the eye of the observer 
 
 * For a detailed account of the origin of the telescope, and 
 discussion of the respective claims of Metius, Jans, Lipper- 
 stein, and others ; — refer to Montucla's or Bossut's History of 
 Mathematics — Smith and Priestley "on Optics" — or to the 
 article Optics in Encyc. Britt. 
 
430 optics. [part iv. 
 
 must be placed. All that was effected, therefore, 
 by this telescope was, to exhibit the object under a 
 much larger angle than its ordinary or natural ap- 
 pearance. This telescope did not exhibit objects in 
 an inverted position, because the rays of light, by 
 this simple but powerful instrument, cross each other 
 only at one point. One great inconvenience, how- 
 ever, attended this instrument; the field of vision 
 was extremely limited, and that in proportion to the 
 increase of its magnifying powers ; an inconvenience 
 which has been felt so strongly by modern astrono- 
 mers, that they have frequently expressed their 
 surprise at the numerous and wonderful discoveries 
 Galileo was enabled to make by its means. 
 
 326, The next stage of improvement in the 
 history of the telescope quickly followed its dis- 
 covery, which was suggested, but not executed, by 
 the great Kepler, in honour of whom it is usually 
 designated, the astronomical, or Kepler's telescope. 
 It chiefly differs from that of Galileo, by being con- 
 structed with two convex lenses, instead of a convex 
 and concave ; the effect of which is, that objects 
 are inverted, but they are also greatly magnified, 
 they are more distinctly seen, and the field of vision 
 is enlarged. 
 
 Kepler was either not aware of the importance 
 of the improvement which he had suggested, or his 
 attention was drawn from it to other investigations. 
 Certain it is, that Scheiner, availing himself of the 
 instructions given by Kepler, after the death of that 
 great philosopher, constructed the first astronomical 
 telescope, so called because of its peculiar adaptation 
 
CHAP. 111.3 OPTICS. 431 
 
 to the survey of the heavenly bodies. But a yet 
 more valuable service was rendered by Kepler with 
 reference to the telescope. It was he who first ex- 
 plained the rationale of this important instrument, 
 by developing the power of different lenses, and the 
 general laws of parallel, converging and diverging 
 rays of light ; together with the effects produced by 
 changing the position or increasing the number of 
 magnifying glasses. 
 
 327. Hitherto the only species of telescopes 
 which had been invented, was the dioptric, or that 
 which depended alone on the refrangibility of light. 
 In these, several improvements of minor import- 
 ance were made at different periods, particularly by 
 Scheiner, Huygens, Rheita, Campani, and Hooke. 
 But at length a more important improvement was 
 given to this instrument, by employing the com- 
 bined influence of refraction and reflection. The 
 first idea of a reflecting telescope is attributed to 
 James Gregory, of Aberdeen, whom Playfair charac- 
 terises as " a profound and inventive geometer, who 
 wholly devoted himself to the study of optics. In 
 a celebrated treatise, entitled c Optica Promota, 9 
 this scientific philosopher discussed many questions 
 relative to the force of lenses of various kinds; 
 suggested valuable hints respecting the means of 
 correcting the indistinctness of vision generally com- 
 plained of in refracting telescopes, and described 
 the reflecting telescope recently invented by himself. 
 He was led to this invention, in consequence of the 
 great inconvenience found in the employment of 
 spherical lenses, and the extreme difficulty of freeing 
 
432 OPTICS. |>ART IV* 
 
 them in so great a degree from the prismatic colours, 
 as to discern objects distinctly and closely. He 
 determined, therefore, to construct a telescope into 
 which metallic specula, or highly polished mirrors, 
 should be introduced instead of lenses. This con- 
 trivance was peculiarly happy, not only as in itself 
 valuable, (since it obviated the two principal objec- 
 tions to refracting telescopes, namely, their great 
 length, and their indistinctness of vision,) but still 
 more as having led to the most important invention 
 of the reflecting telescope by the illustrious Sir 
 Isaac Newton. 
 
 328. The invention of the microscope quickly 
 followed that of the telescope — an instrument, which 
 (to adopt the emphatic language of Professor Play- 
 fair on the subject) " discovers an immensity on the 
 one side of man — scarcely less wonderful than that 
 which the telescope discovers on the other. The ex- 
 tension and divisibility of matter are thus rendered to 
 the natural philosopher almost as unlimited as the ex- 
 tension and durability of space are to the geometer.*" 
 
 In this, as in the former case, the question of 
 origination has been contested ; some ascribing the 
 invention to Galileo ; some to Jansen and his son, the 
 inventors of the telescope ; and some to Cornelius 
 Dobrell, a native of Alcmaer. Without presuming 
 to settle this dispute, it will be sufficient to remark, 
 that the true date of the invention is about a. d. 
 1618 ; and that the instrument was first constructed 
 in the simplest manner. It consisted but of a very 
 
 * Vide Playfair's Second Diss, ut sup. p. 120. 
 
CHAP. 111.3 OPTICS. 433 
 
 convex lens, interposed between the eye and the 
 object; the effect of which is, by shortening the 
 focus, to exhibit the object under a greater angle, 
 and thus proportionably to increase its apparent 
 diameter. The first great improvement suggested 
 in this instrument, was that of the compound or 
 double miscroscope, which corresponds with the 
 astronomical telescope, since it consists of two convex 
 lenses, an object and an eye glass ; the former of 
 which magnifies the object, and the latter brings it 
 nearer to the eye. The precise aera, and the in- 
 ventor of this improvement of the microscope, are 
 not certainly known ; though it is ascertained to 
 have quickly followed the original discovery. Many 
 valuable experiments in physical science were made, 
 by means of this admirable instrument, soon after 
 its invention, by the indefatigable Huygens, the 
 excellent Boyle, and, above all, the celebrated Leu- 
 wenhoek, whose microscopical discoveries were so 
 numerous and great as almost to exceed credibility. 
 
 Sect. III. 
 
 HISTORY OF OPTICS CONTINUED, 
 
 From A. D. 1650 to 1700. 
 
 329. The facilities afforded to scientific men em- 
 ployed in optical researches, by the ever-memorable 
 inventions of the telescope and microscope, were so 
 great, that almost every distinguished philosopher of 
 that age was induced to direct his attention to this 
 interesting department of science. Scarcely is there 
 
 F F 
 
434 optics. [part iv. 
 
 an individual, whose name has been introduced in 
 connexion with other divisions of natural philosophy, 
 who might not also be included among those who 
 contributed, in a greater or less degree, to the ad- 
 vancement of optical science. It would be easy to 
 multiply names and facts in proof of this assertion ; 
 but, as in former portions of this work, so especially 
 in the present, it is requisite to proceed on the prin- 
 ciple of selection. 
 
 330. The indefatigable Huygens first claims at- 
 tention, who entered with all the ardour of youth 
 into this study, happily combining a high degree 
 of scientific with practical knowledge. His trea- 
 tise on X Dioptrics," of which Newton speaks 
 in terms of high commendation, was among the 
 earliest productions of his pen. In this work 
 he not only develops the principles of optics in 
 general, but applies those principles to practical pur- 
 poses, by investigating the causes of the indistinct- 
 ness of refracting telescopes, and suggesting rules 
 for their improved construction, which were the 
 results of his own experience ; for he had himself 
 polished lenses of high magnifying powers and ex- 
 traordinary clearness of vision. In 1678, he com- 
 municated to the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, a 
 valuable treatise on " the Nature and Properties of 
 Light, the Laws of Refraction and Reflection," and 
 many other topics connected with the science of 
 optics. These celebrated works were succeeded, 
 at different periods, by highly scientific papers on 
 similar subjects ; particularly on the phenomena of 
 coronae, parhelia, and paraselenes ; several of which 
 
CHAP. III.] OPTICS. 435 
 
 are minutely described from his own attentive obser- 
 vation, and their causes satisfactorily explained. 
 
 331. Grimaldi, a distinguished member of the 
 Academy Del Cimento, who flourished about the 
 middle of the seventeenth century, is chiefly cele- 
 brated, in connexion with optical science, by his 
 discovery of a property of light which had escaped 
 the observation of all previous philosophers ; to 
 which was primarily given the name of diffraction, 
 but which, since the time of Newton, has generally 
 been designated the inflection of light. This term 
 expresses that motion of rays of light which is per- 
 ceived when they approach within a small distance 
 of another body, and which, instead of proceeding, 
 according to the laws of optics, in a right line, are 
 deflected, or caused to bend either towards or from 
 the object, thus producing a kind of imperfect 
 reflection or refraction. The first public announce- 
 ment of this discovery was made by Grimaldi, a. d. 
 1666, in a treatise on " Light, Colours, and the 
 Rainbow." About six years after, the same discovery 
 was communicated to the Royal Society, by Dr. 
 Hookc, as the result of his own observations, and 
 apparently without any consciousness of its having 
 been previously known. In the papers of this great 
 astronomer on the subject, published in the " Philo- 
 sophical Transactions" of that period, a circumstan- 
 tial account is given of the phenomenon itself, and 
 the process by which he was led to the discovery. 
 The observations, however, of Grimaldi, are incom- 
 parably more correct and philosophical ; and are of 
 themselves sufficient to confer lustre on the name 
 
 ff2 
 
436 optics. £fart iv. 
 
 and memory of their inventor. In other respects, 
 it is readily admitted, that Hooke contributed in a 
 high degree to the advancement of optical science — 
 particularly by his experiments on refracted and re- 
 flected light — his improvement of the telescope — 
 his elucidation of the theory of vision, and his de- 
 velopment of the doctrine of colours, as far as it was 
 then understood. 
 
 332. The organ of sight is a faculty so myste- 
 rious, and yet so important, that it must ever form 
 an interesting object of research to scientific men. 
 Many were the individuals, who vied with each other 
 in their endeavours to explain the phenomena of 
 vision, at the period to which the present section 
 refers. Among these may be enumerated, of our 
 own countrymen, Boyle and Barrow ; and among 
 foreign philosophers, De la Hire, Mariotte, and 
 Leibnitz. 
 
 (1.) The pious and excellent Boyle, whose life 
 was devoted to the advancement of experimental 
 philosophy in all its several branches, directed his 
 chief attention to that division of optical science, 
 which relates to colours, their principles and causes, 
 and the constitution of bodies on which they 
 depend. The results of his elaborate investigations 
 on this subject are given in one of his earliest pro- 
 ductions, entitled, " Experiments and Observations 
 on Colours," published about a. d. 1663. 
 
 (2.) Dr. Isaac Barrow, who must be classed with 
 the most profound philosophers of modern times, 
 investigated the laws of refraction, as applied to 
 the phenomena of vision. This subject formed a 
 
CHAP, in.] OPTICS. 437 
 
 principal and most valuable part of his " optical 
 lectures/' first delivered in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, and subsequently published, about a. d. 
 1674, in which profound mathematical science was 
 combined with a high degree of practical and ex- 
 perimental knowledge. 
 
 (3.) M. De la Hire, a distinguished French phi- 
 losopher, who flourished about the same period, 
 pursued a similar train of investigation. In con- 
 junction with his fellow-countryman, Mariotte, he 
 took an active part in the controversy, which was 
 then carried on respecting the seat of vision, and the 
 manner in which external objects become visible. 
 The questions chiefly related to the part of the eye 
 on which the image is impressed — the effect pro- 
 duced by rays of light on the optic nerve — and the 
 mysterious nexus between impressions made on the 
 organ of sight, and the internal perception of the 
 object. On all these and many other subjects con- 
 nected with the phenomena of vision, this acute 
 observer of nature communicated much valuable 
 information — the result, not of theory, but of patient 
 and accurate experiment. 
 
 (4.) Mariotte, who was the principal cause of 
 exciting the controversy alluded to above, respecting 
 the seat of vision, was the first who demonstrated, 
 what had been conjectured by Des Cartes and others, 
 that objects are seen, not in the crystalline humour 
 of the eye, but through its medium ; and that the 
 true seat of vision is to be sought in the optic nerve 
 attached to the choroidal membrane, or, as others 
 maintained, to the retina, 
 
438 OPTICS. £PART IVw 
 
 (5.) Leibnitz was too ardently devoted to science 
 to permit, that investigations so curious and pro- 
 found should be carried on, without directing to 
 them the energies of his powerful mind. Several 
 valuable papers were published by him in the Leipsic 
 Transactions for 1682, on the principles of " Optics, 
 Catoptrics, and Dioptrics ;" in which much light is 
 thrown on the previously established laws of refrac- 
 tion and reflection, and many valuable additions 
 were made to the science. All these, however, and 
 every other optical discovery of this Augustan age 
 of science, were completely eclipsed by the brilliancy 
 of the development made by our illustrious fellow- 
 countryman, Sir Isaac Newton, a summary of which 
 will be presented in the next section. 
 
 Sect. IV. 
 
 ON THE OPTICAL DISCOVERIES OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 
 
 333. Another highly interesting train of physical 
 discoveries remains to be noticed; which are not 
 less surprising than those to which we have alluded 
 in former sections, and in connexion with other 
 departments of philosophy. The state of science 
 in general, and especially of optical science, when 
 Newton commenced his philosophical career, was 
 such as could not fail to enkindle his enthusiasm, 
 and stimulate to patient and persevering exertion. 
 The properties of light, and the theory of vision, had 
 
CHAP. Ill/] OPTICS. 439 
 
 been in part developed — the laws of reflection and 
 refraction had been demonstrated, both scientifically 
 and practically — a new and almost boundless field of 
 science had been laid open, by means of convex and 
 concave lenses variously combined — but yet there 
 remained much to be investigated and know r n. The 
 phenomena were familiar to men of science, but 
 their causes were as yet unknown. " What is the 
 true nature of that transparent fluid, called light — 
 and why, under certain circumstances, is it variously 
 refracted or reflected?" — these, with many similar 
 inquiries, which would naturally suggest them- 
 selves to the mind of a philosophical observer of 
 nature, were subjects still veiled in mystery and 
 darkness ; till Newton arose, who, instead of theo- 
 rizing and speculating on the subject, had recourse 
 to the most patient, minute, and oft-repeated ex- 
 periments, until he at length succeeded " in un- 
 twisting the splendid robe of day." 
 
 334. Newton was little more than twenty-three 
 years of age when he commenced these profound 
 researches into the nature and properties of light, 
 which led to a long train of curious and sublime 
 discoveries. It is probable that his attention was 
 first directed to this subject by the celebrated work 
 of Huygens, alluded to in the last section ; in which 
 that great practical philosopher had developed a 
 new theory of light, that appeared to him satisfac- 
 torily to explain the phenomena and laws of 
 refraction and reflection. According to Huygens, 
 " Light consists in certain undulations, communi- 
 cated by luminous bodies to the ethereal fluid which 
 
440 OPTICS. £part IV* 
 
 fills all space. This fluid is composed of the most 
 subtile matter, is highly elastic, and the undulations 
 are propagated through it with great velocity in 
 spherical superficies proceeding from a centre." The 
 treatise in which this ingenious theory was developed 
 and defended, appears to have first attracted the 
 attention of Sir Isaac Newton to optical researches. 
 A circumstance, apparently accidental, greatly facili- 
 tated his investigations. When trying the effect 
 of lenses of different forms, with the hope of im- 
 proving the telescope, by rendering the field of 
 vision more distinct, he hit upon the prism ; and his 
 sagacious mind quickly perceived that the instru- 
 ment was well adapted to the investigation of the 
 causes of the primary colours. These he discovered 
 and fully demonstrated to be produced by the dif- 
 ferent refrangibility of different rays of light ; those 
 which are least refrangible producing the darker 
 and stronger colours, such as red, orange, and 
 yellow ; while those which are most easily refracted, 
 being weaker rays, produce the fainter colours of 
 violet, blue, &c. Not satisfied with the experimental 
 proof of this fact, obtained by an attentive observa- 
 tion of actual phenomena, this profound philosopher 
 proceeded to the decomposition and re-union of solar 
 rays under all possible circumstances, in order to 
 shew the precise quantum of the refrangibility of 
 each, and the order in which they are severally 
 combined. Applying these facts to the rainbow, 
 he gathered thence the most convincing demonstra- 
 tions of his hypothesis, relative to the cause of the 
 prismatic colours. To him belongs the honour of 
 
CHAP. Ill/] OPTICS. Ml 
 
 having proved beyond all doubt, that the Iris is but 
 a magnificent prism produced by natural causes ; 
 since, in comparing its colours with those exhibited 
 by the prism, it was found that they are precisely 
 the same, and in the same order. " Newton 
 showed," says Playfair, " the truth of his principles 
 by calculating the extent of the arch described in 
 the heavens — the breadth of the coloured bow — the 
 position of the secondary bow — its distance from the 
 primary — and by explaining the inversion of colours. 
 There is not perhaps in the whole range of science, 
 any instance of happier application of theory, or 
 one in which the mind rests with fuller confidence."* 
 335. There remained, however, another interest- 
 ing object of investigation, with reference to the 
 doctrine of colours, which did not escape the pene- 
 tration of Newton. It had been proved, that what 
 might appear to be a single solar ray, was, in 
 reality, a pencil of rays, capable of being decom- 
 posed by the prism, and exhibiting different colours ; 
 but it was not yet ascertained why objects appeared 
 uniformly of the same colour ; one red, a second 
 blue, and a third green, &c. This was shewn, by 
 the experiments of our great philosopher, to be 
 occasioned by the greater disposition of a natural 
 substance to reflect rays of one colour, than those 
 of another which fall upon it. Thus the far greater 
 number of leaves have a tendency to absorb the red, 
 yellow, or blue rays, and to reflect the green ; for 
 which reason, they exhibit the latter colour to the 
 
 * Playfair's Second Diss. p. 4i>. 
 
442 optics. [[part iv. 
 
 eye of the observer. On investigating the subject 
 more deeply, he perceived the combined influence of 
 the two great properties of light, reflection and 
 refraction, in the production of the phenomena of 
 colours. Refraction decomposes the solar ray, and 
 separates those which are less from others which are 
 more refrangible ; while the laws of reflection de- 
 termine the manner in which they will severally fall 
 on the eye, and, consequently, what colour an ob- 
 ject will assume in any given position. The most 
 curious, but perhaps the most vulnerable part of 
 Newton's theory on this question, relates to what he 
 terms f fits of easy transmission or reflection ; a 
 theory which, whether completely satisfactory or 
 not, certainly solves many otherwise inexplicable 
 phenomena. 
 
 336. The next important step in this series of 
 optical discoveries, relates to the manner in which 
 light is propagated, and the inferences deduced from 
 its mode of transmission, serving to illustrate more 
 fully its nature and properties. The fact was 
 established, by innumerable experiments, that light 
 is an emanation of particles inconceivably subtile 
 and minute, moving in right lines with incredible 
 velocity, and attracted by the particles of trans- 
 parent bodies. Applying the principles of dyna- 
 mics (as far as they relate to the laws of motion) to 
 this theory, he found that they mutually illustrated 
 and established each other. The doctrine of vibra- 
 tions, according to the Cartesian hypothesis, and 
 that of undulations, maintained by Huygens, was 
 effectually exploded ; and demonstrative evidence 
 
CHAP. 111.3 OPTICS. 443 
 
 was given, that rays of light, whether descending 
 perpendicularly, obliquely, or in any other direction, 
 were subjected to all the laws common to falling 
 bodies under such circumstances. From this fact 
 many important consequences were deduced. A 
 new light was poured on scientific philosophy. 
 Chemists were furnished with new data on which 
 to proceed in their analyses, and by which they may 
 be led on to further discoveries. When these re- 
 sults of patient and profound investigation into the 
 nature of light, and the manner in which it is pro- 
 pagated, were communicated to the scientific world 
 through the medium of the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions," the utmost astonishment was excited ; some 
 doubted their truth ; others denied the consequences 
 deduced from them; but all were enthusiastic in 
 their admiration of the young English philosopher, 
 whose patience of research was equal to the fertility 
 of his invention and the depth of his science. 
 
 337. Among the most useful results of Newton's 
 optical experiments on light, the improvement of 
 the telescope, which was by this means suggested 
 to his sagacious mind, was not the least. It had 
 long been found that the indistinctness with which 
 objects were seen through refracting telescopes of 
 high magnifying powers, operated as a great check 
 to astronomical discoveries. The most eminent 
 mechanicians of Europe, (among whom were Eus- 
 tachio Divini of Rome, and Campani of Bologna,) 
 had exerted their utmost skill to remedy this in- 
 convenience with little success. They had enlarged 
 the diameter of their lenses, and heightened their 
 
444 optics. [[part iv. 
 
 polish, and tried various kinds of curves ; but still 
 the difficulty remained to be overcome. The fact 
 was, none of the philosophers who preceded Newton 
 had ascertained the true cause of the indistinctness 
 complained of, and of course were not likely to sug- 
 gest a remedy. But Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries, 
 with respect to the refrangibility of light and the 
 prismatic colours, at once solved the mystery. 
 Rightly judging that the principal cause of the 
 evil was the unequal refrangibility of the compo- 
 nent parts of the solar rays, he concluded, that the 
 object desired might be more easily obtained by 
 reflection than by refraction. To verify this 
 conjecture, he polished with his own hand the 
 first metallic speculum, and constructed a reflecting 
 telescope, the utility of which seems to have far 
 exceeded his expectations. This important instru- 
 ment was completed in 1671 ; and in the following 
 year, a letter addressed to Oldenburg, the Secretary 
 of the Royal Society, appears in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, communicating the first intelligence of 
 the success of his experiments, and giving an accu- 
 rate description of his new optical machine. This 
 reflecting telescope of Sir Isaac Newton differs so 
 essentially from those previously alluded to, as 
 constructed by James Gregory, and improved by 
 Dr. Hooke, that it may justly be accounted a new 
 and original invention. 
 
 338. The last in this unparalleled series of 
 brilliant discoveries, which it is requisite distinctly 
 to notice, relates to the experiments of this profound 
 philosopher on the inflection or reflection of light. 
 
CHAP. Ill/] OPTICS. 445 
 
 The original discovery of this property of light had 
 been made a few years before by Grimaldi (§ 331.) ; 
 it appears to have been re-discovered, about six 
 years after, by Hooke ; but it was not understood, 
 it was not clearly defined — it can scarcely be said 
 to have been proved to exist — till the various and 
 minute experiments of Newton placed it beyond 
 doubt, and fully ascertained the cause of the phe- 
 nomenon. From this, as from a thousand other 
 sources, were drawn additional proofs of the great law 
 of gravitation. Towards the close of his admirable 
 work on optics, a series of valuable hints were sub- 
 mitted to the learned world in the form of queries, 
 either because they had not yet been sufficiently 
 verified by experiment, or because they were merely 
 the conjectures of his penetrating mind : but to 
 intellects like those of Bacon, Newton, and a few 
 other highly gifted individuals, conjectures and 
 anticipations almost partake of the character of 
 predicted discoveries. Each revolving year, and 
 every additional fact, have served but to verify the 
 truth of many of these conjectures, and heighten 
 our admiration of the profound genius which gave 
 them birth.* 
 
 * Many valuable papers, containing full information of these 
 stupendous discoveries, appear in a scattered form in the earlier 
 volumes of the Philosophical Transactions ; part of these have 
 been subsequently collected and published among his philo- 
 sophical works. Besides which, he wrote on the subject 
 " Lectiones Opticae," or Lectures on Optics, delivered at Cam- 
 bridge, and a treatise on Optics, in three books. 
 
446 EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE. [PART IV. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE 
 DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 339. The term experimental philosophy, may be 
 applied in its extended signification to all the de- 
 partments of physical science, as far as they depend 
 on observation and experience. Few of the memo- 
 rable discoveries in natural philosophy, which have 
 been noticed in the preceding sections, could have 
 been made without the aid of patient analysis and 
 unwearied diligence of research. Galileo, Huygens, 
 Leibnitz, and Newton, may therefore be justly 
 accounted experimental, as well as scientific philo- 
 sophers ; nor is it less requisite to adhere strictly 
 to this mode of investigation in astronomical, me- 
 chanical, or optical researches, than in those which 
 relate to the constitution and transmutation of 
 material substances. But at present, the phrase 
 experimental science is used in a restricted sense, to 
 denote those branches of natural philosophy which 
 wholly depend on experimental proofs, and the evi- 
 dence of facts ; those which investigate the elementary 
 principles of bodies, and their mutual agencies ; those 
 which develop the changes of which they are sus- 
 ceptible, the new properties they acquire, and the 
 various phenomena they exhibit, in different states 
 of combination or solution. These sciences have 
 greatly multiplied in modern times, or rather 
 have been subdivided, as practical knowledge has 
 
GHAP, III.]] EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE. 447 
 
 increased ; but at the period to which the present 
 retrospect refers, none were known but chemistry 
 and electricity ; and these were as yet but in their 
 infancy, compared with the vigour and expansion to 
 which they have subsequently attained. 
 
 340. In a former part of this work, a transient 
 allusion was made to the probable origin of chemical 
 science among the Egyptians. (§ 53.) The inde- 
 fatigable labours of the Arabian and European 
 alchemists to procure the elixir of life, or to produce 
 the philosophers stone, have also been noticed. 
 (§ 212, 226.) But these visionary pursuits can 
 scarcely deserve the name of experimental science. 
 Some useful discoveries were made, it is true, by 
 a kind of felicitous accident, and some inconsiderable 
 advances in practical knowledge resulted from them. 
 But if this absurd mode of philosophizing had con- 
 tinued to the present day ;— if men, pretending to 
 science, had still endeavoured to controul, rather 
 than investigate nature ; to establish facts by hy- 
 potheses, instead of establishing hypotheses by facts ; 
 to subjugate the phasnomena of nature to their theo- 
 ries, instead of deducing their theories from physical 
 phenomena; — science had still remained stationary, 
 nor should we have witnessed any of those bold and 
 rapid flights which have been subsequently taken. 
 To the profound and penetrating genius of the 
 illustrious Bacon, it is attributed that the illusions 
 of former ages were effectually scattered, and a flood 
 of light was poured on even the most mysterious 
 operations of nature. To him belongs the distin- 
 guished honour of having thrown down the bulwarks 
 
448 EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE. [PART IV. 
 
 of ignorance and error; and pointed out the true 
 path of science to all succeeding generations. 
 
 341. After the death of Lord Bacon, many of the 
 philosophers of Europe, pursuing the track which he 
 had distinctly pointed out in his " Instauration of the 
 Sciences," entered with zeal and industry upon a 
 course of experimental inquiry, the results of which 
 were extremely important. Among those of our 
 own countrymen, who thus distinguished themselves 
 in the chemical department, were Boyle, Hooke, 
 Newton, Mayow, and Hales; of the continental phi- 
 losophers, the most successful in their experimental 
 researches were, Glauber, of Amsterdam; Brandt, 
 of Berlin ; the Elder Lemery, of Paris ; Beccher, of 
 Spires ; Ernest Stahl, of Anspach ; and Boerhaave, 
 of Leyden. The philosophical writings of Boyle 
 afford sufficient evidence of the industry and per- 
 severance with which he investigated natural phe- 
 nomena ; but it has been justly remarked by a 
 modern scientific writer, that his merit consists 
 rather " in the indirect benefits conferred on 
 science, by enkindling the zeal and directing the 
 inquiries of others, than in the discoveries ac- 
 tually made by himself. Hooke owes much of his 
 celebrity and success, as an experimentalist, to the 
 patronage of his noble friend and coadjutor, who first 
 brought him into public notice, and furnished him 
 with the means of pursuing his physical researches. 
 The results of their united labours in pneumatic 
 chemistry, and other departments of the science, are 
 contained in two treatises published by Dr. Hooke, 
 the first entitled, Micrographia, which appeared 
 
CHAP. III.] OPTICS. 449 
 
 in 1664, and the latter Lampas, printed in 1677. 
 In these scientific works, many new and important 
 experiments were announced, and not a few of the 
 discoveries of future years were anticipated and 
 partly developed. Though the mighty genius of 
 Newton was chiefly applied to the mechanical ope- 
 rations of nature, he was not regardless of its 
 internal phenomena. " To him," says a modern 
 historian, u chemistry is indebted for the first cor- 
 rect views respecting the nature of combination ; 
 a subject which had little engaged the attention of 
 the more sensible experimentalists of the preceding 
 periods, and which was formerly attributed to the 
 occult qualities of the Aristotelians, and afterwards 
 to the mechanical forms of the particles of bodies." 
 From this science, as well as from all the other 
 branches of philosophy, this profound investigator 
 of nature gathered proofs of the great law of attrac- 
 tion ; for, to the same principle which puts in 
 motion the vast machine of the universe, the chemi- 
 cal affinities and elective attractions are also to be 
 attributed.* 
 
 342. The distinguished individuals alluded to in 
 the last paragraph, were not chiefly indebted to 
 chemical science for the posthumous fame they 
 have enjoyed. They excelled, in many other depart- 
 ments of physical science, far more than in that of 
 chemistry. But the practical philosophers about 
 to be mentioned, were almost exclusively devoted to 
 this species of physical investigations, and are only 
 
 * Vide Brande's Diss, on the Progress of Chemical Philoso« 
 phy, ap. Ency. Britt. N. Supp. Vol. III. 
 
 G G 
 
450 optics. [part iv. 
 
 known to posterity in the character of theoretic or 
 experimental chemists. Adhering still to Britain, 
 we may first mention John Mayow, a native of 
 Cornwall, who flourished about the middle of the 
 seventeenth century, and was the author of several 
 valuable chemical tracts, which continue to be highly 
 esteemed. They principally treat of the nature of 
 the atmosphere, the influence of fermentation on 
 vegetable and animal substances, the cause of com- 
 bustion, and the nitro-aerial spirit, with which the 
 author conceived the atmosphere to be impregnated. 
 a The entire collection of Mayow's tracts, published 
 at Oxford, in 1674, relate to a great variety of 
 chemical, physiological, and medical subjects, and 
 abound in traits of original and inventive genius." 
 They furnish the prototype of many modern dis- 
 coveries, which have conferred great and lasting 
 renown upon succeeding experimentalists. 
 
 Next in the order of time, among the English 
 chemists, occurs Dr. Stephen Hales, a celebrated 
 philosopher and divine, who flourished at the close 
 of the seventeenth, and beginning of the eighteenth 
 centuries. The attention of this great naturalist was 
 principally directed to the nature and properties of 
 air, in all its various states of combination, and the 
 effects produced by different gases on animal, vege- 
 table, or mineral substances. On this account he 
 has been generally designated, the founder of pneu- 
 matic cliemistry. " In perusing his Essays," says 
 Brande, " we frequently find him on the verge of 
 those splendid discoveries which fell to the lot of 
 his fellow-labourers and successors ; but the erro- 
 
CHAP. III.]] OPTICS. 451 
 
 neous nature of his preconceived opinions induced 
 him to take for granted that which experiment 
 should have determined, and to rest satisfied with 
 results which, had they been followed up, would 
 have inevitably led to the most important and novel 
 facts. His experiments do credit to his industry ; 
 but his conclusions betray feebleness of judgment."* 
 
 343. Among many experimental philosophers, 
 who successfully pursued similar trains of physical 
 investigation, in various parts of Europe, may be 
 enumerated : 
 
 (1.) Glauber of Amsterdam, whose chemical 
 works were first published at Frankfort in 1658, 
 and contain an immense variety of curious and in- 
 teresting facts. When the date of these publications, 
 and the infant state of the science are considered, it 
 cannot fail to excite surprise that so many curious 
 discoveries should have been made so early ; and 
 that his experimental science should have taken so 
 wide a range. 
 
 (2.) Brandt of Berlin, who discovered the inflam- 
 mable substance, since denominated phosphorus, 
 and described its properties, in several chemical 
 tracts which appeared about a. d. 1669. 
 
 (3.) Lemery the elder, who delivered public lec- 
 tures on chemistry at Paris, about a. d. 1674, with 
 great applause, and whose celebrity chiefly rests on 
 the attractive attire with which he invested his 
 favourite science, in so much that his lectures, when 
 
 * Vide Brande's Diss, ut sup. p. 26. 
 G G 2 
 
452 OPTICS. £part IV. 
 
 published, were sought aud read with the utmost 
 avidity. 
 
 (4.) Beccher of Spires, a man of original genius 
 and prodigious labour, of which his voluminous 
 writings bear ample testimony. His principal and 
 most curious works are entitled, Physica Subter- 
 ranea, in which he treats of the original creation of 
 matter, and the transition and interchange of the 
 elements ; and (Edipus Chemicus, or chemical insti- 
 tutions, which contains the history of the chemical 
 elements, as far as they had then been ascertained, 
 and the processes of the laboratory with regard to 
 each. 
 
 (5.) Ernest Stahl of Anspach, in Franconia, 
 flourished at the close of the seventeenth century, 
 and is best known as the principal founder of 
 the once celebrated, but now exploded system of 
 Phlogiston ; a system which rapidly spread through 
 Europe, and acquired such universal credence, that 
 it was with the greatest reluctance abandoned, even 
 after its fallacy was brought to light. The chemical 
 opinions of Stahl are chiefly detailed in his " Three 
 Hundred Experiments," published at Berlin, a. d. 
 1731, and his " Fundamenta Chymiae," which ap- 
 peared soon after. 
 
 (6.) It is only requisite further to mention the 
 celebrated Boerhaave, who, though born in the seven- 
 teenth century, did not acquire fame as an experi- 
 mental philosopher, till the commencement of the 
 eighteenth. At that time he was professor of 
 chemistry, botany, and physic, in the university of 
 
chap. in/] OPTICS. 453 
 
 Leyden, on all which sciences he delivered public 
 lectures, which were subsequently published, under 
 the title of " Elements of Chemistry ;" a work which 
 has acquired great celebrity, and been translated 
 from the original Latin into almost all the languages 
 of Europe. 
 
 344. Having glanced at the progress of chemical 
 science, and the individuals, both at home and 
 abroad, who chiefly contributed to its advancement, 
 it will be proper to advert for a moment to a kindred 
 branch of experimental science, which began about 
 the same period to attract attention — that of Elec- 
 tricity. This belongs exclusively to modern times ; 
 for, although some of the ancients observed the 
 attracting power of amber, and occasionally allude 
 to it in their writings as an occult quality of 
 nature,* they had no conception of the nature or 
 extent of electric attraction in general; and still 
 less, of the remarkable phenomena resulting from 
 its operation. The first who made any real advances 
 towards the discovery of this science, was Gilbert 
 of Colchester, who flourished about a. d. 1600, and 
 was honoured with the appointment of physician to 
 
 * Thales of Miletus first mentions it, and conjectured that the 
 substance was animated. Theophrastus next alludes to it, about 
 a. c. 300, and classes it among native fossils. Pliny, in his 
 Natural History, speaks of the attracting quality of amber, 
 though he makes no attempt to solve the mystery. Many later 
 naturalists have also occasionally noticed this property, and 
 described some of its effects, particularly Gassendi, Sir Kenelm 
 Digby, and Sir Thomas Brown. — Vide Priestley on Electricity, 
 pp. 1, 2. 
 
454 optics. [[part iv. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth. He was the author of two highly 
 philosophical treatises, entitled, " De Mundo nostro 
 Sublunari" and " De Magnete" The latter of 
 these contains a great variety of electrical experi- 
 ments made on different substances. " To him/' 
 says Priestley, in his history of this science, " we owe 
 a great augmentation of the list of electrical bodies, 
 as also of the bodies on which electrics can act ; and 
 he has carefully noted several capital circumstances 
 relating to the manner of their action, though his 
 theory of electricity was very imperfect, as might be 
 expected." After enumerating the several sub- 
 stances in which Gilbert discovered the property of 
 electric attraction; and a sketch of his opinions 
 as well as facts, the narrative is thus concluded: — 
 " Such were the discoveries of our countryman 
 Gilbert, who may justly be called the father of 
 modern electricity ; though it be true that he left 
 his child in its very infancy." Some inconsiderable 
 additions were made to the scientific discoveries of 
 Gilbert, by Sir Francis Bacon, the detailed account 
 of which will be found in his " Physiological Re- 
 mains." The excellent Boyle carried somewhat 
 farther these investigations, and made some dis- 
 coveries, which may, in the present advanced state 
 of the science, appear to be unimportant, but which 
 at the time of their discovery were highly ap- 
 preciated. 
 
 345. Otto Guericke, the original inventor of the 
 air-pump, was enabled, by means of that important 
 instrument, eminently to promote the practical 
 sciences in general. Many highly ingenious experi- 
 
CHAP. HI.] OPTICS. 455 
 
 merits were made by him on electrified substances, 
 and to him is attributed the first construction of a 
 rude and imperfect electrical machine, which was 
 nothing but a globe of sulphur mounted on an axis, 
 and whirled in a wooden frame, rubbing it at the 
 same time with his hand. By this simple contrivance 
 he was enabled not only to perform all the experi- 
 ments in electricity previously known, but also to 
 make many new discoveries. Among the most im- 
 portant results of his persevering investigations in 
 this department of science was, the demonstration 
 of the fact, " that bodies immerged in electric atmo- 
 spheres, are themselves electrified, and with an elec- 
 tricity opposite to that of the atmosphere." This 
 experimental philosopher was also the first to 
 discover the luminous appearances exhibited by the 
 electric fluid, and the sound produced by electrical 
 excitement. 
 
 346. Electricity was among the amusements, 
 rather than the serious occupation of our great 
 philosopher, Sir Isaac Newton. Nothing that 
 partook of the nature of science could be indifferent 
 to him, nor was he regardless even of the minutest 
 operations of nature. Though accustomed to soar, 
 with untired wing, to the loftiest heights of finite 
 intelligence, and include within the range of his 
 profound investigation the entire mechanism of the 
 universe, he did not account it beneath him to 
 observe the movements of an electrified feather 
 dancing on the table, or the attractive and repellent 
 powers of magnetized and electrified substances in 
 general. With that modesty for which this great 
 
456 OPTICS. £part IV. 
 
 philosopher has been so justly and eloquently 
 eulogized, he proposed, in the form of queries, 
 some valuable suggestions, the correctness of which 
 subsequent discoveries have fully established and 
 confirmed,* 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF SIR 
 ISAAC NEWTON. 
 
 347. This brief retrospect of the history of 
 scientific philosophy will close with the memorable 
 discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, for reasons which 
 have been assigned in the Preface to this work. 
 But before we proceed to the remaining division, 
 in which it is proposed to sketch the history of 
 intellectual science from the revival of letters to the 
 same period, it will not be irrelevant to introduce 
 a few remarks on the general character and dis- 
 tinguishing feature of that new and sublime philo- 
 sophy, of which he was the acknowledged founder. 
 On many accounts, the sera of Newton must be 
 accounted the most memorable in the history of 
 mankind ; and as such, it cannot be too attentively 
 considered. 
 
 348. Many illustrious names occur in the list of 
 his contemporaries and coadjutors, of which no 
 other proof need be adduced, than to state that 
 at the same period flourished Barrow and the 
 
 * Vide Newton's Optics,--- Brande's Diss.— -and Priestley on 
 Electricity. 
 
CHAP. JII.3 PHILOSOPHY OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 457 
 
 Bernoullis, Gassendi and Leibnitz, with a long 
 train of other distinguished philosophers, who formed, 
 by the pre-eminence of their genius and the brilliancy 
 of their discoveries, a kind of intellectual galaxy, 
 to which no other age can furnish a parallel. Yet 
 Newton towers above them all, in the majesty of 
 unrivalled genius, and appears like the sun in the 
 midst of the celestial luminaries. " When we look 
 back," says an eloquent divine and enlightened phi- 
 losopher of the present day, " on the days of Newton, 
 we annex a kind of mysterious greatness to him, 
 who, by the pure force of his understanding, rose 
 to such a gigantic elevation above the level of ordinary 
 men — and the kings and warriors of other days sink 
 into insignificance around him — and he at this mo- 
 ment stands forth to the public eye in a prouder 
 array of glory than circles the memory of all the 
 men of former generations ; and while all the vulgar 
 grandeur of other days is now mouldering in forge t- 
 fulness, the achievements of our great astronomer 
 are still fresh in the veneration of his countrymen, 
 and they carry him forward in the stream of time 
 with a reputation ever gathering, and the triumphs 
 of a distinction that will never die."* 
 
 349. The justly admired writer, from whose 
 luminous pages the preceding extract has been 
 taken, has sketched with a masterly hand the 
 prominent features of the philosophy of Newton, 
 and fully shewn that they chiefly consist in a rigid 
 
 * Vide Dr. Chalmers' Discourses on the Christian Revelation 
 viewed in Connexion with the Modern Astronomy. Disc. II. p. 60, 
 
458 PHILOSOPHY OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON. £PART IV. 
 
 and inflexible adherence to evidence, and the utter 
 absence of all theory and hypothesis. To this 
 our great philosopher owes his most valuable disco- 
 veries, and by this he is honourably distinguished 
 from the most illustrious of his predecessors and 
 contemporaries. Des Cartes and Leibnitz, both of 
 whom may justly be classed with the most highly 
 gifted of their species, were given to theorize, and 
 were not unfrequently betrayed, by their love of 
 speculation, into philosophical errors and absurdities. 
 The vortices of the former, and the monads of the 
 latter, are striking illustrations of this fact. But 
 Newton was proof against every such temptation; 
 and the mighty fabric of philosophy, reared by him, 
 remains unshaken and impregnable, because founded 
 on the rock of experimental truth. " It was," adds 
 the before-cited author, " the property of his mind, 
 that it kept a tenacious hold of every position which 
 had proof to substantiate it; but it forms a pro- 
 perty equally characteristic, and which, in fact, gives 
 its leading peculiarity to the whole spirit and style 
 of his investigations, that he put a most determined 
 exclusion on every one position that was destitute of 
 such proof. He would not admit the astronomical 
 theories," (and the same remark will apply to all his 
 physical researches,) " of those who went before him, 
 because they had no proof. He would not give in 
 to their notions about the planets wheeling their 
 rounds in whirlpools of ether, for he did not see the 
 ether ; he had no proof of its existence ; and besides, 
 even supposing it to exist, it would not have im- 
 pressed on the heavenly bodies such movements as 
 
CHAP. Ill/] PHILOSOPHY OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 459 
 
 met his observation. He would not submit his 
 judgment to the reigning systems of the day, for 
 though they had authority to recommend them, they 
 had no proof '; and thus it is that he evinced the 
 strength and soundness of his philosophy, as much 
 by his decisions on those doctrines of science which 
 he rejected, as by his demonstration of those doctrines 
 of science which he was the first to propose, and 
 which now stand out to the eye of posterity as the 
 only monuments to the force and superiority of his 
 understanding." (pp. 63, 64.) 
 
 350. The writer of these elements cannot forbear 
 to decorate his pages with one other extract from 
 this admirable discourse, and the rather as it may 
 tend to throw additional light on some of the facts 
 which have been related in former sections of this 
 work. " In that march of intellect which led him 
 (Newton) onwards through the rich and magnificent 
 field of his discoveries, he pondered every step; and 
 while he advanced with a firm and assured movement 
 wherever the light of evidence carried him, he never 
 suffered any glare of imagination or of prejudice to 
 seduce him from his path. Sure I am, that in the 
 prosecution of his wonderful career, he found himself 
 on a way beset with temptation on every side of him. 
 But he expatiated on a lofty region, where, in all 
 the giddiness of success, he might have met with 
 much to solicit his fancy, and tempt him to some 
 devious speculation. Had he been like the majority 
 of other men, he would have broken free from the 
 fetters of a sober and chastised understanding, and, 
 giving wing to his imagination, had done what phi- 
 losophers have done after him — been carried away by 
 
460 PHILOSOPHY OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON. [PART IV. 
 
 some meteor of their own forming, or found their 
 amusement in some of their own intellectual pictures, 
 or palmed some loose and confident plausibilities of 
 their own upon the world. But Newton stood true 
 to his principle, that he would take up with nothing 
 which wanted evidence, and he kept by his de- 
 monstrations and his measurements and his proofs ; 
 and if it be true that ( he who ruleth his own spirit 
 is greater than he who taketh a city,' there was won, 
 in the solitude of his chamber, many a repeated 
 victory over himself, which should give a brighter 
 lustre to his name than all the conquests he has 
 made on the field of discovery, or than all the 
 splendour of his positive achievements." (pp. 66, 67.) 
 351. But though the philosophy of Newton rested 
 wholly on the sure basis of experiment, the mighty 
 superstructure could not have been reared without 
 the exertion of a mental vigour far beyond that 
 which usually characterizes men of genius, and the 
 attainment of a degree of science which has seldom 
 if ever been equalled. Profoundly skilled in ma- 
 thematics, he brought the abstract sciences to bear 
 with admirable effect on the knowledge derived 
 from the contemplation of nature, and was led on 
 from facts and phenomena to general principles and 
 laws — from experimental proofs, by an unbroken 
 chain of inductive reasoning, to universal truths 
 and doctrines of universal application. " He knew," 
 remarks Professor Playfair, when instituting a com- 
 parison between the genius and philosophy of 
 Leibnitz and Newton, " he knew how to transfer 
 the truths of abstract science to the study of things 
 actually existing, and, by returning in the opposite 
 
CHAP. Ill/] PHILOSOPHY OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 461 
 
 direction, to enrich the former by ideas from the 
 latter. In experimental and inductive investigation, 
 he was as great as in the pure mathematics, and his 
 discoveries were as distinguished in the one as in the 
 other. In this double claim to renown, Newton 
 stands unrivalled ; and though in the pure mathe- 
 matics, perhaps equals may be found, no one will 
 come forward as his rival, both in that science and 
 in the philosophy of nature." — " No one ever left 
 knowledge in a state so different from that in which 
 he found it. Men were instructed not only in new 
 truths, but also in new methods of discovering truth ; 
 they were made acquainted with the great principle 
 which connects together the most distant regions of 
 space, as well as the most remote periods of duration, 
 and which was to lead to future discoveries, far 
 beyond what the wisest or most sanguine could 
 anticipate."* 
 
 If the preceding remarks on the genius of Newton, 
 and the character of his philosophy, be well founded, 
 (and the writer has purposely availed himself of the 
 opinion and authority of others, rather than obtrude 
 his own sentiments,) — if such be the distinguishing 
 excellencies and such the glorious results of the mode 
 of philosophizing practically adopted by himself, 
 and recommended to others, scarcely can we wonder 
 that of him it should have been said, in the language 
 of high but well-merited panegyric — 
 
 " Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night, 
 God said, * Let Newton be,' and all was Light." 
 
 * Playfair's Second Diss. pp. 89, 90. 
 
462 SUBVERSION OF [PART TV. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE PROGRESS OF THE INTELLECTUAL SCIENCES. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON THE GRADUAL SUBVERSION OF THE SCHOLASTIC 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 352. It is now requisite to revert once more to 
 the memorable period of the revival of letters, for 
 the purpose of tracing the progress of intellectual 
 and moral science, and of observing the manner in 
 which the human mind was emancipated from the 
 bondage in which it had been long held. At the 
 commencement of that period, the despotism of 
 Aristotle and the authority of the schoolmen were 
 at their height. Upheld by all the influence and 
 power of the Roman hierarchy, which as yet scarcely 
 an individual had ventured to resist, the scholastic 
 philosophy (if such it may be termed) had taken so 
 firm a hold of the opinions and prejudices of man- 
 kind, that it might seem impossible to shake it. Yet 
 the period was at hand, and latent causes were even 
 then in operation, which slowly undermined, and 
 eventually laid in ruins this mighty fabric. Some 
 of these have been already enumerated in the section, 
 which treated of the causes of the revival of letters. 
 For whatever tended to weaken the authority of 
 the Church of Rome, to excite a taste for general 
 literature, and to awaken the spirit of inquiry and 
 
CHAP. IV.3 THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 463 
 
 reformation, could not fail, in an equal degree, to 
 shake the foundations of a system, which originated 
 in ignorance and error, and had been perpetuated 
 by superstition and priestcraft. Some of the causes 
 to which we now allude, wrought silently and in- 
 directly, while others assumed the character of open 
 and direct hostility to the dogmas of the schoolmen. 
 353. The most effectual indirect cause of this 
 intellectual change, was the restoration of learning, 
 (in the proper sense of that term,) after it had long 
 remained in a state of torpor, and had almost ceased 
 to exist. A considerable body of genuine scholars 
 simultaneously appeared in different parts of Europe, 
 whose erudition not only procured for them per- 
 sonal distinction, but exerted an influence far be- 
 yond their most sanguine expectations. At the head 
 of this illustrious phalanx, stood Erasmus of Rotter- 
 dam, whose philological labours, both in sacred and 
 profane literature, were most extensive and valu- 
 able. With him were associated not a few, both of 
 the Protestant and Roman catholic communions, 
 who were animated by the same spirit, and engaged 
 with equal ardour in the work of liberal and en- 
 lightened criticism. Of this number were Ludo- 
 vicus Vives, Budceus, Faber, Reuchlin, Julius Sca- 
 liger, Sir Thomas More, and Melanethon, with many 
 others. At this most interesting period, the critical 
 investigation of the Sacred Scriptures commenced. 
 Materials were sought with the utmost solicitude 
 from every quarter for this purpose. The monastic 
 libraries were explored wherever access could be 
 obtained to them ; and manuscripts of the Old and 
 
464 SUBVERSION OF [PART IV. 
 
 New Testament were brought thence and collated, 
 if not with the accuracy of modern philologists, yet 
 with a degree of diligence that was highly com- 
 mendable. Critical commentaries and philological 
 annotations on the several books of Scripture began 
 to multiply ; and the cognate languages of the East 
 were employed for the interpretation and elucida- 
 tion of the Sacred Writings. These proceedings 
 were more than sufficient to excite alarm at the 
 court of Rome, and amongst the ecclesiastical au- 
 thorities of that religious community, which has 
 ever manifested a determined hostility to the dif- 
 fusion of scriptural knowledge. Nor was this all. 
 While some of these distinguished scholars directed 
 their chief attention to sacred criticism, others em- 
 ployed their erudition in secular illustrations of the 
 classical writings of antiquity ; in decyphering and 
 collating ancient MSS. ; in restoring corrupted and 
 elucidating obscure passages ; and in bringing to 
 light original works, which had slumbered for ages 
 in their dusty depositories. Whilst engaged in 
 these researches, they discovered that the Aristotelian 
 philosophy, which had been taught for ages in the 
 schools, and to which they and their fathers had 
 been required to yield a blind submission, was widely 
 different from that contained in the genuine writings 
 of the Stagirite ; that there were many other valu- 
 able monuments of heathen philosophy, besides those 
 of Aristotle, though they had been proscribed by the 
 authority of the church ; and that it was possible to 
 explore these relics of antiquity without abandoning 
 their christian faith. These investigations were 
 
€HAP. IV.] THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 465 
 
 now extended to the writings of the Pythagoreans, 
 the Platonists, the Stoics, and other ancient sects 
 of philosophers, whose systems were explained and 
 publicly taught, in conjunction with the Peripatetic, 
 in some of the schools. This was, it is true, a bold 
 innovation ; it was denounced by the monks and 
 Jesuits as heretical; yet there were some learned 
 members of the Roman catholic communion who still 
 persisted in these studies, and, like Erasmus, re- 
 taliated on the advocates of ignorance by severe 
 sarcasms and keen satires against clerical dissolute- 
 ness and monastic stupidity. 
 
 354. The names of some of these literary re- 
 formers having been incidentally mentioned, it would 
 be an act of injustice to those benefactors of man- 
 kind, (for such they must be acknowledged to have 
 been,) to pass them by, without further notice of 
 their character and writings. Such notices must 
 necessarily be brief in an elementary work like the 
 present ; but may not be unacceptable to the youth- 
 ful readers of these pages. 
 
 (1.) Erasmus was born at Rotterdam, a.d. 1467. 
 Having lost both his parents in early youth, his 
 guardians neglected his education, and forced him 
 into a monastery. Here he became so well ac- 
 quainted with the immoral habits of the monks, and 
 saw so much of the profligacy which then character- 
 ized many of these professedly religious establish- 
 ments, that he was well able in future years to tear 
 off the mask, and expose to public view the mysteries 
 of abomination they had long concealed under a 
 mask of exemplary piety. The earliest opportunity 
 
 H H 
 
466 SUBVERSION OF [>ART IV, 
 
 was embraced of throwing off the yoke of monas- 
 ticism, and devoting himself to the study of letters. 
 His progress was so rapid, that he soon became, 
 considering the age in which he lived, a prodigy of 
 learning. His literary course commenced at Paris, 
 but was chiefly carried on in England, where he 
 formed an intimate acquaintance with many dis- 
 tinguished scholars ; particularly Colet, Grocyn, 
 Linacre, and Sir Thomas More, all of whom must 
 be numbered amongst the earliest promoters and 
 patrons of classical literature in this country. Many 
 attempts were made by the Roman court to induce 
 Erasmus to settle in Italy ; but either from a secret 
 attachment to the Reformation then commencing, 
 or from a personal regard to his British friends and 
 patrons, he determined chiefly to reside in England, 
 or in contiguous parts of the continent, where he 
 might enjoy a greater degree of independence of 
 thought and action, than in Roman catholic coun- 
 tries. The more serious labours of Erasmus were 
 philological, especially in the department of sacred 
 criticism ; as is evident from the successive editions 
 of the Greek Testament published by him, and his 
 commentaries on many parts of Scripture ; but the 
 keenness of his satires, the sprightliness of his wit, 
 the exquisite humour of his sarcasms, did more than 
 all beside to destroy the idolatry of Aristotle, to 
 subvert the authority of the schoolmen, and to 
 scatter the delusions of priestcraft. His works 
 (which were collected and published after his death 
 in ten folio volumes) afford the most abundant 
 evidence of the versatility of his talents — the extent, 
 
€HAP. IV.]] THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 467 
 
 if not the depth, of his erudition — and the incredible 
 labour and industry with which he followed up his 
 diversified literary pursuits. Though he continued 
 professedly a member of the Roman church to the 
 end of his life, perhaps none of the reformers (Luther 
 alone excepted) contributed more effectually to ex- 
 pose the corruptions of the church of Rome, and, by 
 doing this, indirectly to promote the cause of the 
 Reformation. 
 
 (2.) Ludovicus Vives was one of the many men 
 of letters with whom Erasmus was intimately 
 associated, and, like him, ardently devoted to gene- 
 ral literature. He wrote on many philosophical 
 subjects with much acuteness, and a degree of per- 
 spicuity, that forms a striking contrast to the 
 obscurity of the scholastic writings. Erasmus tes- 
 tifies concerning this learned coadjutor and friend, 
 that " when only twenty-six years of age, he ex- 
 celled in every part of philosophy, and that, in 
 the arts of speaking and writing, he stood un- 
 rivalled." After the death of Erasmus, Vives fol- 
 lowed up the plans of his preceptor, by prosecuting 
 still further his philological and philosophical re- 
 searches; by unwearied efforts to disperse the intel- 
 lectual darkness of preceding ages; by chastising, 
 with unsparing severity, the advocates of ignorance 
 and corrupters of the public taste ; and by reviving 
 a taste for true science and classical learning. 
 Among the numerous treatises written by him, 
 those which have been most celebrated are his 
 <( Essays on the Origin, Sects, and Praises of Phi- 
 losophy;" on the u Corruption of Science and 
 
 hh2 
 
468 SUBVERSION OF [PART IV. 
 
 Education ;" and on the " First Philosophy." A 
 modern critic has styled the writings of this eminent 
 scholar " golden remains, which are worthy to be 
 carefully perused by all learned men." 
 
 (3.) BudtEUs was born at Paris in 1467, and 
 spent his youth in dissipation and gaiety; but after- 
 wards devoted himself to literature with such assi- 
 duity and success, as to be termed, by Erasmus, 
 " Portentum Galilee — the prodigy of France'' He 
 was an eminent linguist and critic, and, as such, 
 can only be said to have contributed to the advance- 
 ment of philosophy by indirect means; but those 
 means operated most effectually, though by slow 
 degrees, to the subversion of the barbarous scho- 
 lastic philosophy. Enfield, in his History of Phi- 
 losophy, remarks, that " Erasmus, Ludovicus Vives, 
 and Budaeus, formed a triumvirate of literature, 
 which did honour to the age." 
 
 (4.) Faber, or Le Fevre, was a native of Picardy, 
 who flourished at the same period. By diligent 
 study of the ancients, and intimate converse with 
 the learned men of his age, he acquired a high 
 degree of reputation for learning. He was one of 
 the most determined opponents of the scholastic 
 philosophy, though zealously attached to that of 
 Aristotle. His principal works were commentaries 
 on the dialectics, physics, ceconomics, and ethics of 
 Aristotle, which were considered so complete, as 
 to supersede all the labours of preceding anno- 
 tators. In common with most of his learned 
 contemporaries, he suffered much persecution, and 
 encountered many dangers, on account of his efforts 
 
CHAP. IV/] THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 469 
 
 to restore true philosophy from its state of degra- 
 dation, particularly from the doctors of the Sar- 
 bonne; but, protected by the Protestant Queen 
 of Navarre, he weathered the storm, and arrived 
 at extreme old age. 
 
 (5.) Among the learned philologists and critics 
 of that age, Reuchlin, a native of Germany, and 
 correspondent of Erasmus, must be mentioned. 
 This distinguished scholar was the means of exciting 
 an ardent and insatiable thirst for knowledge, far 
 beyond the limits of his native country. He was 
 the principal restorer of Hebrew learning, at a time 
 in which the ecclesiastical authorities denounced it 
 as dangerous and heretical; when the faculty of 
 theology at Paris publicly maintained that " religion 
 was undone if the study of the Greek and Hebrew 
 languages was permitted;" and when the inquisitors 
 of Cologne and others obtained from the Emperor 
 of Germany an edict, which authorised the destruc- 
 tion of every Hebrew manuscript, as pernicious to 
 the true faith. But the reign of ignorance was 
 drawing to a close, and Reuchlin contributed in 
 no ordinary degree to accelerate its fall, by his cele- 
 brated satirical epistles, entitled, " Epistolae Virorum 
 obscuriorum," which produced as powerful an effect 
 in their day, as Pascal's " Provincial Letters" at a 
 later period. 
 
 (6.) Scaliger is a name familiar to all who are 
 conversant with Greek criticism. The elder Sca- 
 liger (Julius Caesar), who flourished at the be- 
 ginning of the sixteenth century, and the younger 
 (Joseph Justus), who was the literary ornament of 
 
470 SUBVERSION OF [jPART IV. 
 
 its close, were alike famous in their day for a 
 prodigious accumulation of critical knowledge ; but 
 the latter in a far greater degree than the former. 
 They were the authors of an innumerable variety of 
 critical commentaries on Latin and Greek authors, 
 besides many on the remains of Arabian and eastern 
 literature. But their consummate vanity and irri- 
 table disposition tarnished the glory of their repu- 
 tation, and diminished the value of their writings. 
 The younger Scaliger directed his attention par- 
 ticularly to chronology, and invented that arrange- 
 ment of the calendar, which he designated, in honour 
 of his father, the Julian period, 
 
 (7.) Sir Thomas More, who occupies so distin- 
 guished a place in English history during the reign 
 of Henry VIII., was a highly accomplished scholar, 
 and the author of several works, both historical and 
 critical, which have been much admired. The only 
 production of his pen, that can be said to partake 
 of a philosophical character, was his Utopia, a most 
 extraordinary production; the sentiments of which 
 form a striking contrast to the illiberality and 
 bigotry of the latter years of his life. Inimical as 
 he was to the principles of the Reformation, he 
 maintained an intimate friendship with Erasmus, 
 and contributed, by his erudition and writings, to 
 undermine the tottering fabric of scholasticism, and 
 disperse the darkness of preceding ages. 
 
 (8.) But of all the men of genius who flourished 
 at the memorable sera of the Reformation, there 
 is perhaps none to whom true science and sound 
 philosophy are more deeply indebted, than to the 
 
CHAP. IV.]] THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 471 
 
 amiable, the excellent Melancthon. With an ardent 
 zeal for the advancement of Christian theology and 
 the Protestant faith, he combined an enthusiastic 
 attachment to literature, in almost all its several 
 departments, and especially to intellectual philo- 
 sophy. Unlike the great Saxon Reformer, who 
 levelled his artillery indiscriminately against all the 
 systems and opinions of the ancients, and all the 
 speculations of the scholastics, Melancthon laboured 
 assiduously to separate " the precious from the 
 vile;" to discriminate between the profitable and 
 true, and that which was merely theoretical and 
 fallacious ; and to substitute a rational logic for the 
 absurd dialectics of the schoolmen. As the most 
 effectual means of accomplishing this design, he 
 aimed at the improvement of education in the public 
 schools, by introducing elementary books in science 
 and philosophy, freed from the unintelligible jargon 
 of the writers of the middle ages. Some of these 
 were drawn up by himself, and were very far 
 superior to those previously in use, though they 
 discovered an undue regard to ancient theories and 
 systems, and were quickly superseded by the more 
 enlarged and enlightened philosophy of the illus- 
 trious Bacon, to whom was reserved the honour 
 of giving the final blow to the scholastic philosophy, 
 by pointing out a more excellent way. 
 
472 REFORMATION OF [PART IV. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 ON THE REFORMATION OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY 
 BY LORD BACON. 
 
 355. The illustrious personage, whose name is 
 prefixed to this section — illustrious not so much on 
 account of his title, and rank, and dignified offices* 
 as because of the pre-eminence of his genius, and his 
 high mental endowments — occupies the very first 
 place in the list of intellectual philosophers, whether 
 of ancient or modern times. He was, in the de- 
 partment of mental philosophy, what Luther was in 
 that of religion — the first of Reformers ; the great 
 emancipator of the human mind from the thraldom 
 in which it had been held during a long series of 
 ages — the founder, not of a philosophical sect, bear- 
 ing his name and doing homage to his memory, (like 
 Plato and Aristotle,) but of an intellectual republic, 
 established on the ruins of ignorance and mental 
 despotism. Such an individual may justly demand 
 a more than ordinary degree of attention in a work 
 which, however elementary its character, professes 
 to trace the progress of knowledge, and develop the 
 history of the human mind. It will therefore be 
 attempted, in this and some following sections, to 
 convey a distinct conception of the state of intellec- 
 tual philosophy when Lord Bacon arose — to state 
 the principal facts of his literary history — to give 
 a brief outline of some of his principal works — and 
 to form an estimate of the character and influence of 
 his philosophy, both in his own times, and in suc- 
 ceeding ages. 
 
CHAP. IV.3 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 473 
 
 356. From statements already made, it will not 
 be difficult to perceive that the circumstances and 
 events which occupied public attention, when Bacon 
 commenced his illustrious career, were highly 
 favourable to the development of genius, and well 
 calculated to stimulate to the utmost exertion 
 every intellectual faculty of man. The scholastic 
 philosophy had been assailed by wit and argument, 
 by learning, taste, and genuine science. The Re- 
 formation had diffused its light over a great part 
 of the European continent, and men were beginning 
 to think, and inquire, and investigate truth for 
 themselves, both in philosophy and religion. 
 
 Still, however, the ancient system retained its 
 hold, and even seemed to be recruiting its strength. 
 It was apprehended, by some persons of exem- 
 plary piety, (among whom was the amiable Me- 
 lancthon,) that if all the ancient landmarks were 
 removed, infidelity and atheism would universally 
 prevail. They feared, that if " the veil of awful 
 obscurity which then covered the face of nature 
 were withdrawn, the rash curiosity of mankind 
 would lead them to account for all appearances 
 in the visible world, by second causes, by the powers 
 of matter and mechanism ; and thus they might 
 come insensibly to forget or neglect the Great 
 Original Cause of all." These pious but mistaken 
 apprehensions led them to aim rather at a refor- 
 mation of the old — than the establishment of a neiv 
 system of philosophy — to labour at effecting the 
 purification, and not the demolition of the venerated 
 temple, of which Aristotle was the tutelar deity. 
 
474 REFORMATION OF [PART IV. 
 
 357. There were, however, some philosophers, 
 occupying the intermediate space between the Re- 
 formation and the aera of Lord Bacon, who appear 
 to have strongly imbibed the well-known opinion 
 of Luther, that " it was impossible to reform either 
 religion or philosophy, till the metaphysical theo- 
 logy of the schools was renounced, the authority 
 of Aristotle subverted, and the scholastic system 
 utterly demolished." They consequently directed 
 all their energies to the accomplishment of these 
 objects, though with comparatively little success. 
 
 (1.) The first of these was Ramus, a French 
 logician, born a. d. 1515, who may be numbered 
 among the few who have suffered martyrdom for 
 their philosophical opinions. Ramus was of humble 
 origin, but manifested, in early youth, talents of 
 no ordinary kind, by which he was gradually raised 
 from a servile office in the college of Navarre, to 
 one of its professorships. In this honourable station 
 he acquired great celebrity ; but, at the same time, 
 stirred up against himself a host of enemies, by his 
 determined opposition to the Peripatetic philosophy. 
 Endowed with an acute and vigorous mind, and 
 furnished with the graces of elocution, he disputed 
 publicly in the university of Paris, against the logic 
 of Aristotle and the schoolmen ; held them up to 
 ridicule, and exposed the most vulnerable parts 
 of their system. In a series of publications on dia- 
 lectic subjects, he steadily pursued the same object, 
 and assailed with the utmost vehemence this vene- 
 rated fabric of antiquity. Attempts were made by 
 a few more daring combatants to vanquish him in 
 
CHAP. 1V.3 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 475 
 
 public debate ; but finding that this experiment 
 failed, they had recourse, according to the custom 
 of that age, to civil authority and the sword 
 of persecution. He was forbidden to teach phi- 
 losophy, or to write on philosophical subjects; 
 and eventually compelled to take refuge in Pro- 
 testant countries from the machinations of his 
 enemies. After having taught logic in several of 
 the German universities, he unadvisedly returned to 
 Paris, a short time before the execrable day of 
 St. Bartholemew, when he was massacred <pro- 
 fessedhj as a Hugonot — but really at the instigation 
 of Charpentain, one of the professors of the univer- 
 sity of Paris, whom he had foiled in argument, and 
 who was jealous of his reputation. The " Manual 
 of Logic," published by Ramus, was compiled from 
 the dialectics of the Platonists, Peripatetics, and 
 Stoics. It continued, during many years, to be 
 used in the public schools of Germany, Holland, 
 England, and the Protestant provinces of France ; 
 but that which renders it peculiarly interesting in 
 the present day is, that it was deemed, by the author 
 of " Paradise Lost," of sufficient importance to 
 employ his splendid talents, in enriching it with 
 commentaries and annotations. 
 
 (2.) About the same period flourished in Italy, 
 Bruno , a native of Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, who 
 also must be added to the list of philosophical martyrs ; 
 for he was burned at Rome, by order of the sanguinary 
 court of Inquisition, a. d. 1600. His speculations 
 were bold, his opinions novel, and the character of 
 his mind independent — crimes which have always 
 
476 REFORMATION OF [PART IV. 
 
 been considered unpardonable by the advocates of 
 intolerance and ignorance. Bruno was the author 
 of numerous tracts on metaphysical subjects, in some 
 of which he contends for opinions similar to those 
 afterwards maintained by Des Cartes and Leibnitz, 
 and which appear to have been derived from the 
 oriental philosophy. The principles maintained by 
 him, in his treatises on " Shadows of Ideas," on 
 " Infinity and the Universe," and on " Monads, 
 Number, and Figure," prove him to have possessed 
 an acute and vigorous mind, capable of pursuing 
 abstract speculations; but at the same time they 
 evince that his philosophy was more Pagan than 
 Christian. Dr. Enfield, after presenting a summary 
 view of his metaphysical system, states, that " his 
 doctrine appears to have been the result of an 
 absurd attempt to unite the atomic and emanative 
 systems of philosophy, in which mathematics, physics, 
 and metaphysics are injudiciously confounded, and 
 which on the whole rather served to perplex than to 
 improve philosophy."* 
 
 (3.) Towards the close of the sixteenth century, 
 flourished Campanella, a native of Calabria, in Italy, 
 who trod nearly in the steps of Bruno, and narrowly 
 escaped his fate. His mighty but eccentric genius 
 prompted him to bold speculations in philosophy, 
 and sceptical if not atheistical notions in religion. 
 His works were numerous, on almost every topic 
 that lies within the range of metaphysical and 
 moral science. Of the logical system of Campanella, 
 
 * Enfield's Hist, of Philos. Vol. II. 517. 
 
CHAP. IV/] INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 477 
 
 it is stated that, though widely different from the 
 Peripatetic, and still more from the Scholastic, it 
 abounds no less than they with subtle distinctions 
 and unintelligible jargon. Nor were his metaphysical 
 opinions less obscure than his dialectics ; yet the 
 celebrated Leibnitz, who could not be an incompetent 
 judge of his intellectual character and attainments, 
 estimates them so highly as to place him above 
 Hobbes in moral science, and on a level with Bacon 
 in intellectual philosophy. 
 
 358. The only valuable end attained by the 
 writings of Ramus, Bruno, Campanella, Patricius, 
 Nizolius, and a few others of the same class, who 
 nourished during the sixteenth century, and filled 
 up the space between Luther and Bacon, was, that 
 they shook and gradually undermined the authority 
 of the Scholastics, and, by doing this, prepared the 
 way for the reception of a more enlightened phi- 
 losophy, by whomsoever it might be promulgated. 
 But none of these invented any thing truly valuable ; 
 they possessed not sufficient comprehension of mind 
 to substitute a new and rational system in place of 
 that which was crumbling beneath their touch. But 
 it has been justly observed by Stewart, in vindication 
 of the reputation of Ramus, (and the remark will 
 apply to several of his contemporaries,) that " even 
 the praise of having shaken the Aristotelian fabric, 
 without substituting any thing more solid in its 
 place — scanty as it may now appear — involves a large 
 tribute to his memory as a philosophical reformer. 
 Before human reason was able to advance, it was 
 necessary that it should first be released from the 
 weight of its fetters." There was still wanting, 
 
478 REFORMATION OF [PART IV. 
 
 however, a master genius, endowed with sufficient 
 vigour of intellect to devise a great and compre- 
 hensive plan, which should embrace all the varieties 
 of human science, and guide our investigations in 
 all by a safe, if not an infallible rule. This 
 kind of universal philosophy was the great object 
 which Bacon pursued, as the end of his intellectual 
 researches. u If," says one of his numerous bio- 
 graphers, " we stand surprised at the happy imagi- 
 nation of such a system, our surprise redoubles upon 
 us, when we reflect that he invented and methodized 
 this system, perfected so much, and sketched out so 
 much more of it, amidst the drudgery of business 
 and the civil tumults of a court. Nature seems to 
 have intended him peculiarly for this province, by 
 bestowing on him with a liberal hand all the qualities 
 requisite — a fancy voluble and prompt to discover 
 the similitudes of things — a judgment steady and 
 intent to note their subtlest difference — a love of 
 meditation and inquiry — a patience in doubting — a 
 slowness and diffidence in affirming— a facility of 
 retracting — a careful anxiety to plan and dispose. 
 A mind of such a cast, that it neither affected novelty 
 nor idolized antiquity — that was an enemy to all 
 imposture— must have had a certain congeniality 
 and relation to truth. These characters, which, 
 with a noble confidence, he has applied to himself, 
 are obvious and eminent in his ( Instauration of the 
 Sciences? a work designed by him, not as a monu- 
 ment to his own fame, but a perpetual legacy to the 
 common benefit of others."* 
 
 * Vide Mallet's Life of Bacon, prefixed to a complete edition 
 of his Works, published in 1740, in 4 vols. fol. (p. lx.) 
 
CHAP. IV.^ INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 479 
 
 Section III. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE LITERARY HISTORY OF LORD BACON. 
 
 359. Francis Bacon, a younger son of Sir 
 Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Seals during 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at York 
 House, in the Strand, a. d. 1561. When twelve 
 years old, he was entered of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, where his progress in learning was so rapid, 
 that he is said, before he had attained his sixteenth 
 year, to have run through the whole circle of the 
 liberal sciences, as then taught in that ancient uni- 
 versity, and even to have formed a deep conviction 
 of the necessity of some surer guide in the inves- 
 tigation of truth, than the theoretic philosophy then 
 in vogue. In his nineteenth year, while resident 
 at Paris, he composed his first treatise, containing 
 * Observations on the State of Europe," which, 
 though short, afforded sufficient indications of the 
 pre-eminence of his genius. The early loss of his 
 father, and his own comparatively straitened cir- 
 cumstances, rendered it necessary that he should 
 withdraw for a time from his literary pursuits, and 
 devote himself to the study of law ; but even while 
 thus employed, he found leisure to write another 
 treatise, entitled " The greatest Birth of Time," 
 the object of which, as far as it can now be ascer- 
 tained, was, to point out the defects of learning, and 
 the best means of supplying them. It is much to 
 be regretted, that this early production of the mighty 
 
480 LITERARY HISTORY OF [PART IV. 
 
 genius of Bacon has perished, which, it should seem, 
 from some parts of his correspondence, contained 
 the first outline of that system of philosophy, sub- 
 sequently developed in his principal works. 
 
 360. Passing over the events of Bacon's political 
 history, as foreign to the design of this volume, 
 this illustrious individual will at present be regarded 
 alone as the father of experimental philosophy in 
 all its branches, and the inventor of an enlightened 
 logic, founded on the principles of right reason. 
 To this view of his literary character the inestimable 
 writings of this great philosopher bear ample testi- 
 mony. The first of these was his well-known and 
 justly-admired treatise on the " Progress and Ad- 
 vancement of Learning" (De Augmentis Scientia- 
 rum) 9 which made its first appearance in 1605, 
 though the subject of which it treats had long 
 before occupied his thoughts and studies. This was 
 followed, in 1610, by a treatise on "the Wisdom 
 of the Ancients," which bears the same characters 
 of original inventive genius, and in which the pro- 
 posed object of his former work was steadily pur- 
 sued, and carried forward most successfully. In 
 1620, his great work, entitled " Novum Organum" 
 was published, which formed a second part of his 
 " Instauration of the Sciences ;" the treatise on the 
 " Advancement of Learning" being now considered 
 as its first division. Next to these were published, 
 at different periods, and amidst the pressure of 
 state affairs, the results of his physical researches 
 and experiments in a series of treatises on the 
 phenomena of the universe, natural history, and 
 
CHAP. IV.;] LORD BACON. 481 
 
 many other branches of practical science. The 
 whole train of his philosophical productions ter- 
 minated with his " Scala Intellectus" a highly intel- 
 lectual dissertation ; intended to trace the steps by 
 which the human mind ascends in its philosophical 
 researches, from the lowest grade to its highest 
 degree of elevation : from insulated facts to general 
 truths; from the simplest elements of knowledge to 
 the perfection of science. The " Historical Tracts" 
 and " Moral Essays" were among the latest pro- 
 ductions of his genius, and, together with many 
 of his philosophical pieces, were written after his 
 political fall and degradation. The Lord Chancellor 
 Bacon terminated a life of extraordinary mental 
 exertion and activity, in 1626, in the sixty-fifth 
 year of his age. 
 
 361. But, to form a distinct conception of the 
 intellectual qualities of Lord Bacon, and a correct 
 estimate of the value of those celebrated works 
 which are unquestionably to be reckoned among the 
 chefs cVwuv7*es of human genius, it is requisite to 
 view them in their relative connexion ; for they con- 
 stitute, in reality, but one magnificent whole, and 
 afford an exquisite specimen of the " Scala In- 
 tellectus" which he recommends to others. In the 
 first of the abovementioned works, (the treatise, 
 " De Aug?nentis") the author proposes to take a 
 general survey of human knowledge, contemplating 
 the intellectual faculties under the three great 
 divisions of Memory, Fancy or imagination, and 
 Understanding. Corresponding with these, all the 
 arts and sciences are classed under three heads, 
 
 1 1 
 
482 LITERARY HISTORY OF [>ART IV. 
 
 namely, History, Poetry, and Philosophy. Under 
 each of these, an inquiry is instituted into what 
 is erroneous or defective ; and the most proper 
 means are suggested for correcting the errors, 
 amending the defects, and supplying the omissions 
 in all. The next surveys the works and discoveries 
 of the ancients, and both enumerates and estimates 
 the inventions of past ages, tracing out, as in one 
 general chart, the several tracts of science that still 
 lay uncultivated and waste, and suggesting, as he 
 proceeds, the most desirable improvements and the 
 probable discoveries to be made by future philoso- 
 phers. Having thus cleared the way for his great 
 and principal design, he proposed, in his u Novum 
 Organum" to " raise and enlarge the powers of 
 the mind by a more useful application of its reason- 
 ing faculty, to all the objects of philosophical 
 research." In this admirable treatise a new and 
 rational logic is exhibited, which forms a striking 
 contrast to that of the Scholastics ; a logic calculated, 
 not to supply arguments for controversy, but arts 
 for the use of mankind — not to triumph over an 
 enemy by subtle and sophistical disputation, but to 
 subdue nature itself by experiment and analysis.'* 
 Rejecting with deserved contempt the logomachies 
 of the schoolmen, he recommends a careful induction, 
 that examines scrupulously the data on which rea- 
 sonings are founded ; views them in every possible 
 light ; rejects all that is not necessarily included 
 in the subject, and draws its conclusions with truth 
 and certainty. By this his celebrated method of 
 induction, which forms a distinguishing feature of 
 
CHAP. IV-3 LORD BACON. 483 
 
 the philosophy of Lord Bacon,, the noblest theory 
 has been exhibited to mankind for the investigation 
 of physical and moral truth, that the human mind 
 has ever conceived. 
 
 362. A solid foundation having been thus laid in 
 a clear and rational logic, this enlightened philoso- 
 pher points out, in his remaining philosophical works, 
 its right application, by collecting and furnishing 
 a prodigious mass of experimental facts in physical 
 and moral science. This vast collection, the result 
 of patient and unwearied research continued during 
 many years, was not arranged and made public 
 till after his death. It may be considered as an 
 important step taken towards a complete History 
 of Nature. The phenomena of the universe are 
 classified under three general divisions : (1.) the 
 history of generation, or the production of all the 
 species of created existences, according to the ordi- 
 nary course of nature ; (2.) the history of preter- 
 generation, or those productions which deviate from 
 the stated rule ; (3.) the history of nature as modi- 
 fied, improved, altered, or debased by human art. 
 The design of this philosophical inquirer, in making 
 this collection of facts, he has stated to be " to con- 
 struct a " Scala Intellectus" by which the human 
 mind may regularly ascend in its intellectual re- 
 searches, and thus to furnish materials for a true and 
 useful philosophy." All these, however, were re- 
 garded but as the preparatory steps to a yet more 
 magnificent project which he meditated, but did 
 not live to accomplish — that of establishing, on the 
 
 i i2 
 
434 LITERARY HISTORY OF [>ART IV. 
 
 immoveable basis of experiment, a philosophy 
 purely axiomatical and scientific, freed from all 
 visionary speculations, and all uncertain conjectures 
 and theories, resulting from that just and patient 
 investigation of natural phenomena, of which his 
 own writings furnish so admirable a model. 
 ". Such," says his biographer, and the learned 
 editor of his works, " such, and so unlimited were 
 his views for the universal advancement of science. 
 Such was the noble aim to which all his philosophic 
 labours were directed. — What Caesar said, in com- 
 pliment to Cicero, may, with justice, be applied 
 to him: that it was more glorious to have extended 
 the limits of human wit, than to have enlarged 
 the bounds of the Roman world. Sir Francis Bacon 
 really did so : a truth acknowledged, not only 
 by the greatest private names in Europe, but by 
 all the public societies of its most civilized nations. 
 France, Italy, Germany, Britain, I may add, even 
 Russia, have taken him for their leader, and sub- 
 mitted to be governed by his institutions. The 
 empire he has erected in the learned world, is 
 as universal as the free use of reason, and the 
 one must continue till the other is no more."* 
 
 * Vide Bacon's Life, ut sup. p. 65. 
 
CHAP. IV.] LORD BACON. 485 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 SUMMARY VIEW OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF LORD BACON. 
 
 363. The influence of Lord Verulam's writings 
 on the progress of knowledge and genuine philoso- 
 phy has been so great, that they may justly demand 
 a more distinct review than the general sketch at- 
 tempted in the last section. A brief outline will 
 therefore be given, in the present, of the numerous 
 and highly important topics introduced into his 
 principal work, (the " Novum Organum") a work, 
 which contains the full development of his new and 
 admirable method of philosophizing. 
 
 (1.) The first object proposed, and which is ob- 
 viously a prerequisite to the discovery of truth, is 
 the detection of the principal causes cf error. These 
 (which in figurative language are termed idols, be- 
 cause they are a kind of false divinities, to which the 
 mind of man had been long accustomed to do 
 homage,) are classed under four heads, which he 
 designates, Idols of the Tribe — of the Den — of the 
 Forum — and of the Theatre. The former includes 
 all those erroneous conceptions which are found to 
 pervade human nature generally, and originate in 
 principles common to all mankind ; such as the love 
 of system, the disposition to theorize, and the pro- 
 pensity which exists in all men to attribute effects 
 to inadequate or imaginary causes. The second 
 comprehends all those sources of error which arise 
 out of the character and mental constitution of 
 
486 PHILOSOPHY OF LORD BACON. [PART IV. 
 
 individuals ; some of whom are carried away by their 
 imaginations; others by their fondness for specu- 
 lation and novelty ; others by their love of contro- 
 versy, or their taste for dialectic subtilties. The 
 works of Aristotle, and the golden dreams of the 
 alchemists, are alluded to as furnishing memorable 
 specimens of this class of mental aberrations. The 
 third embraces those errors, which arise out of the 
 social relations of mankind, and especially which 
 result from the imperfection of language as a 
 medium of intercourse and vehicle of thought. By 
 the fourth, it was intended to characterize those 
 deceptions and illusions which may be traced to 
 the imagination, or are the result of abstract specu- 
 lation. Such were the dogmas of the schoolmen, 
 and the physical systems of antiquity. The latter 
 were again subdivided into the sophistical, or those 
 into which the mind is betrayed by false reasonings ; 
 and the empirical, or those in which it is misled by 
 imperfect experiments, as is usually the case in the 
 infancy of science. 
 
 364. (2.) After this minute and philosophical 
 analysis of the sources of error, Bacon proceeds to 
 illustrate and demonstrate them by facts drawn from 
 the history of mankind. This is the great object of 
 his learned and elaborate review of the learning of 
 the ancients, under the threefold division of the 
 Greeks, the Romans, and the western nations of 
 Europe ; shewing distinctly how knowledge had 
 been obstructed and truth obscured during all these 
 successive stages of the history of the human mind, 
 by one or other of the causes of error stated above. 
 
CHAP. |Y.Q PHILOSOPHY OF LORD BACON. 487 
 
 Particularly is the great erudition of the author 
 employed in gathering proofs from the records of 
 antiquity, that these perversions had chiefly arisen 
 from neglecting the study of nature — from an un- 
 due reverence to authority, and from the fact that 
 ancient philosophers considered it beneath them to 
 investigate the causes of ordinary phenomena, con- 
 fining their attention to occult qualities, and what- 
 ever was mysterious and uncommon in the operations 
 of nature. In opposition to these fruitful sources 
 of delusion, he urges upon men of learning the 
 diligent investigation of nature, and the unfettered 
 pursuit of truth, whithersoever it may lead. 
 
 365. (3.) The necessary preliminary steps having 
 been taken, the illustrious author advances to a 
 more distinct explanation of his method of induction, 
 as that which can alone lead to the detection of 
 error and discovery of truth. Here he shews that 
 the primary object to be attained is to ascertain 
 facts, or, in other words, to collect the history of 
 nature. The next is, by a comparison of these 
 facts, to endeavour to find out the cause of each 
 particular phenomenon, or (to adopt his own phrase) 
 \tsform, by which term he designed to express the 
 permanent qualities, and not merely the outward 
 configuration of any substance. To ascertain those 
 forms, two processes of investigation are recom- 
 mended, which he technically terms !? latens pro* 
 cessus" and " latens schematismus f the first of which 
 denotes the secret invisible progress by which phy- 
 sical changes are effected ; the second indicates the 
 hidden structure or composition of bodies, on which 
 
488 PHILOSOPHY OF LORD BACON. [PART IV. 
 
 those changes frequently depend ; e. g. in mechanics 
 we inquire into the phenomena of nature by means 
 of the latens processus— in chemical researches and 
 experiments,, by that of latens schematismus. On 
 this firm and solid basis rests the whole super- 
 structure of the inductive or experimental philosophy, 
 which first excludes from the investigation of forms 
 or causes those properties which are either accidental 
 or hypothetical, and then proceeds by a careful 
 analysis to the establishment of general principles 
 and laws. In other words, it is laid down as a 
 rule of universal application, that " whatever may 
 be the case with superior intelligences, man can only 
 attain knowledge by beginning with negatives, and 
 proceeding to affirmatives" 
 
 366. (4.) It was the boast of the Peripatetic 
 philosophers, that the famous categories of their 
 great master included all the objects of human 
 knowledge philosophically arranged. But with far 
 greater propriety might this be asserted with 
 reference to the classification of facts, or instances, 
 which Lord Bacon has introduced into his " Novum 
 Organum," and illustrated by numerous examples. 
 It is not possible, without extending unduly the 
 limits of this work, to convey any adequate idea of 
 this important division of the philosophical system 
 of Lord Bacon ; yet it would be still more inex- 
 cusable to pass it over unnoticed. As a middle and 
 more convenient course, a simple enumeration will 
 be made of the twenty-seven classes, or species of 
 facts, which are distinctly mentioned, with one 
 example of each, selected out of many adduced by 
 
CHAP. IV.]] PHILOSOPHY OF LORD BACON. 489 
 
 the illustrious author. It will be perceived that the 
 titles are, in some instances, quaint and fanciful; 
 but they for the most part happily express the 
 meaning they are intended to convey. 
 
 In order to prove the utility and importance of 
 experimental knowledge, to facilitate the inves- 
 tigation of nature, physical facts (termed by the 
 philosopher " prcerogativce instantiarum") are ar- 
 ranged as follows : 
 
 1 . Solitary — illustrated by the doctrine of colours. 
 
 2. Migrating — exemplified by physical changes of 
 
 form, &c. 
 
 3. Ostensive or convincing — as in the case of the 
 
 thermometer. 
 
 4. Clandestine— as in the magnet or loadstone. 
 
 5. Constituent or collective — as in the process of me- 
 
 mory, &c. 
 
 6. Parallel or conformable — as in the human eye and 
 
 lenses, 
 
 7. Singular or heteroclite — as the sun among the stars. 
 
 8. Deviating or irregular — as in the case of monsters. 
 
 9. Frontier or boundary facts — as moss, bats, and apes. 
 
 10. Those which indicate power — as inventions and 
 
 discoveries. 
 
 11. Accompanying and hostile — as fire and smoke, or 
 
 air and solidity. 
 
 12. Subjunctive or extreme — as gold in weight, the 
 
 whale in bulk, iron in hardness, &c. 
 
 13. Instances of confederacy and alliance— illustrated 
 
 by attraction. 
 
 14. Crucial facts, or those which decide doubtful 
 
 questions — illustrated by the tides. 
 
 15. Instances of divorce or separation — as in the acci- 
 
 dental qualities of bodies, or the phenomena of 
 magnetism. 
 
490 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF LORD BACON. [PART IV. 
 
 16. Those of the gate, the portal — e. g. the telescope 
 and microscope. 
 
 17. Summoning facts — as when latent properties are 
 brought to light by experiment. 
 
 18. Progressive — as in the processes of vegetation and 
 nutrition. 
 
 19. Supplemental or substitutive — as in chemical affinities 
 and combinations. 
 
 20. Lancing or vellicating facts — those by which the 
 understanding is forcibly reminded of remarkable 
 phenomena. 
 
 21. Measuring or terminating facts f which relate to 
 space and distance — as in percussion or attraction. 
 
 22. Those of the course or regular motion — as in the 
 propagation of sound or the velocity of light. 
 
 23. Those of quantity — as in drops of dew, or the 
 ocean. 
 
 24. Reluctant, or those indicative of the inertia of 
 matter : (under this class, all the varieties of motion 
 are considered.) 
 
 25. Intimating facts, or those which suggest others. 
 
 26. Sovereign or general, including those which have 
 been fully established by numerous experiments. 
 
 27. Magical facts, or those in which marvellous effects 
 are produced by apparently trifling causes. 
 
 Of the above classification of instances it may 
 be remarked, that fifteen relate to the under- 
 standing, five to the senses, and the remaining seven 
 to the practical arts and sciences. It is a lasting 
 memorial of the ingenuity and profound wisdom of 
 its inventor, and fully justifies the following high 
 eulogium, pronounced by the late Professor Play fair, 
 at the close of his elaborate and admirable analysis 
 of the Novum Organum: — " The power and com- 
 pass of such a mind, which could form such a plan 
 
CHAP. IVJ PHILOSOPHY OF LORD BACON. 491 
 
 beforehand, and trace not merely the outlines, but 
 many of the most minute ramifications of sciences 
 which did not yet exist, must be an object of admi- 
 ration to all succeeding ages. He is destined (if 
 indeed any thing in the world be so destined) to 
 be an instcmtia singularis among men; and as lie 
 had no rival in times past, he is likely to have none 
 in those which are to come. If ever a second Bacon 
 is to arise, he must be ignorant of the first." — ( Vide 
 Play/air's Diss, ut sup. p. 55.) 
 
 Section V. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE INTELLECTUAL CHARACTER 
 OF LORD BACON. 
 
 367. Many of the distinguished names which 
 have occurred in former sections are identified with 
 some one department of science, in which they 
 excelled, and where their efforts proved most suc- 
 cessful. Few, comparatively, are those who have 
 acquired honourable distinction in both the great 
 divisions of human knowledge, scientific and intel- 
 lectual ; and among these, Lord Bacon stands pre- 
 eminent. Galileo, Kepler, Huygens, and, above all, 
 Newton, may perhaps rank above Bacon, both in 
 mathematical and physical science ; but, if we ex- 
 cept the last of the illustrious train of natural 
 philosophers just enumerated, their views even on 
 physical subjects were far less comprehensive than 
 those of Bacon ; and in intellectual science they were 
 
492 CHARACTER OF LORD BACON. [PART IV. 
 
 utterly unable to approach him. While pursuing 
 their most brilliant discoveries, the former were led 
 on step by step without any anticipations of the 
 developments of future ages ; but the latter seems 
 to have astonished both his contemporaries and his 
 successors, by a long catalogue of desiderata and 
 facienda, by his almost prophetic visions of futurity. 
 Upborne by his mighty genius, as to the summit of 
 some lofty mountain, his eagle sight penetrated 
 through the surrounding darkness, and saw, dimly 
 and indistinctly indeed, but yet with sufficient clear- 
 ness to guide future inquirers, the vast regions of 
 experimental philosophy, which have since been 
 traversed in every direction. 
 
 368. But merited as is the renown of Lord Bacon, 
 acquired by his physical researches, it is manifest 
 from his writings, that he was more completely at 
 home in intellectual philosophy; and that, if the 
 properties and laws of matter were subjects, to the 
 investigation of which the force of his genius was 
 frequently directed, those with which he was most 
 familiar, and in which he most delighted, were the 
 phenomena of mind, — " the laws, the resources, and 
 the limits of the human understanding." 
 
 (1.) As a profound logician, Bacon stands un- 
 rivalled. Despising the subtil ties, which, during 
 many ages, had been mistaken for true science ; 
 passing over, with silent contempt, the absurd logo- 
 machies of the schoolmen, he devised a method of 
 reasoning at once the most simple and conclusive — 
 that of legitimate induction. The object of this 
 inductive process of reasoning is, by ascending from 
 
CHAP. IV. ^ CHARACTER OF LORD F.ACON. 493 
 
 axioms, or self-evident truths, to principles of uni- 
 versal application, to arrive at demonstration and 
 absolute certainty; just as in physics, we are led 
 onward from individual facts, by a series of experi- 
 mental proofs, to the discovery of some general 
 law of nature. That this most satisfactory process 
 should have effectually subverted the scholastic 
 logic, without any attempt, on the part of its author, 
 to expose the absurdities and sophistry of the school- 
 men, might reasonably have been expected ; nor 
 would it require much penetration to perceive, that 
 such a work as the " Novum Organum," could not 
 fail to produce a new sera in the dialectic art. 
 
 369. (2.) With logic, universal grammar, or the 
 theory of language, is closely connected. Nor did 
 this escape the penetrating genius of Bacon, though 
 his aphorisms on this subject must rather be consi- 
 dered as hints suggested to future logicians, than 
 systematically arranged. His inquiry into the mutual 
 influence of thought and language is most impor- 
 tant, and still remains as a highly interesting object 
 of philosophical research. The distinction made 
 by him between grammar, considered as a branch 
 of literature, and as a department of philosophy, 
 affords a fine specimen of the enlarged, the com- 
 prehensive, the almost boundless view he was accus- 
 tomed to take of whatever subject fell beneath his 
 notice. The former is chiefly concerned in tracing- 
 out the analogies and relations of words among 
 themselves ; but the latter aims at the discovery 
 and adjustment of the relation between words and 
 things, — it is the sensible portraiture of the mental 
 
494 CHARACTER OF LORD BACON. [PART IV. 
 
 process. This important subject, which was first 
 brought forward in a transient but masterly manner 
 by Lord Bacon, has of late years been discussed by 
 philosophers of no ordinary name, with distinguished 
 success. 
 
 370. (3.) Bacon was too sound a philosopher to 
 attempt the establishment of a metaphysical system, 
 or aim at the construction of a complete theory of 
 the human mind ; though it is scarcely possible to 
 conceive of a human being better qualified for the 
 undertaking. But he was an avowed enemy to sys- 
 tems and theories : he accounted them the most fruit- 
 ful sources of error ; and therefore determined to 
 be ever on his guard against an ignis fatuus, by 
 which so many had been bewildered. He touches, 
 it is true, in almost every part of his writings, on 
 the intellectual phenomena. He treats separately 
 of the more important faculties of the understanding, 
 and their various modes of operation. He delights 
 to dwell on the capacities and improveability of the 
 human mind : but amidst all the enthusiasm of his 
 genius, when expatiating on these subjects, he never 
 loses sight of the present imperfection of human 
 knowledge, or lays aside the modesty and humility 
 of a true philosopher. 
 
 371. (4.) The ethical writings of Bacon, though 
 less celebrated than his treatise on logic and meta- 
 physics, are no less characterized by profound 
 thought, inventive genius, brilliant fancy, and correct 
 reasoning. Respecting these moral disquisitions, it is 
 remarked, that " on the influence of custom and the 
 formation of habits, Bacon has opened some new 
 
CHAP. IV. ] CHARACTER OF LORD BACON. 495 
 
 and interesting views : a most important article of 
 moral philosophy, on which he has enlarged more 
 ably and more usefully than any writer since Aris- 
 totle." Under the same head of ethics may be 
 mentioned the small volume to which he has given 
 the title of Essays, the best known and most popu- 
 lar of his works. It is also one of those in which 
 the superiority of his genius appears to the greatest 
 advantage, the novelty and depth of his reflections 
 often receiving a strong relief from the triteness of 
 his subject. It may be read from beginning to end 
 in a few hours ; and yet, after the twentieth perusal, 
 one seldom fails to remark in it something overlooked 
 before. " This, indeed," adds the same elegant and 
 judicious writer, " is a characteristic of all Bacon's 
 writings, and is only to be accounted for by the 
 inexhaustible aliment they furnish to our own 
 thoughts, and the sympathetic activity they impart 
 to our torpid faculties."* 
 
 (5.) The only points of view in which it is requi- 
 site farther to glance at the philosophical character 
 of this great man, relate to the departments of 
 political philosophy or jurisprudence, and education. 
 The former of these pervades his state papers, 
 letters, and histories ; — the latter is advocated with 
 much eloquence and erudition in one of his treatises, 
 entitled, " The Georgics of the Mind;" the object of 
 which is not only to prove the importance of educa- 
 tion, but to suggest rules for the development and 
 improvement of the intellectual character, — a work 
 
 * Stewart's Diss, ut sup. p. 54. 
 
496 LIFE AND WRITINGS £PART IV, 
 
 worthy of its illustrious author, and particularly 
 deserving of attention in the present day, when edu- 
 cation is making such rapid progress among all 
 classes of society* 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF DES CARTES* 
 
 372. Although the distinguished philosopher, 
 whose literary biography is now to be sketched, 
 flourished nearly forty years after Lord Bacon, it 
 does not appear, from any part of his numerous 
 writings, that he was acquainted with the works of 
 our great English philosopher. It is scarcely pos- 
 sible that he should have been ignorant that such 
 works existed ; for they are not unfrequently alluded 
 to, and even quoted by some of his learned corre- 
 spondents. The topics to which the philosophical 
 treatises of Bacon relate, are so similar to many of 
 those which occupied the attention of Des Cartes, 
 that it might have been reasonably expected he 
 would be solicitous to know what had been pre^ 
 viously written on these subjects, by a man whose 
 fame had already resounded throughout Europe. 
 It is probable that the true reasons of Des Cartes' 
 ignorance of these writings, or rather his silence 
 respecting them, were, either that he was too busily 
 occupied through life with his own abstractions and 
 speculations, to find leisure to cultivate an extensive 
 
CHAP. IV 4 ] OF DES CARTES. 497 
 
 acquaintance with those of others ; or that his 
 disposition to theorize and speculate, disinclined 
 him to pursue the cautious mode of philosophizing 
 recommended by his illustrious predecessor, and 
 disqualified him to estimate fairly his merits. How- 
 ever this may have been, it is certain, that scarcely 
 a greater contrast can be imagined, than that which 
 may be perceived both in the intellectual character 
 and habits, and in the philosophical systems of these 
 two distinguished personages. In proof of this 
 remark, a brief sketch will be attempted, in the 
 present section, of the literary history of Des Cartes ; 
 and in the next, a summary view given of the Car- 
 tesian philosophy. 
 
 373. Renez Des Cartes was born in the depart- 
 ment of Touraine in France, a. d. 1596. Whilst 
 yet a child, he was characterized by an insatiable 
 curiosity to know the reasons of things which 
 attracted his notice, and to trace effects to their 
 causes ; thus affording a very early presage of his 
 future eminence in intellectual philosophy. He re- 
 ceived the first elements of knowledge at the Jesuits' 
 College of La Fleche, which was then, and long 
 afterwards, a famous seat of classical and mathema- 
 tical learning. Disgusted, however, with the scho- 
 lastic method of education which then prevailed, he 
 abandoned for a time all literary pursuits, entered 
 the army, and fought, during several campaigns, 
 under the banners of Prince Maurice de Nassau, in 
 Holland, and Maximilian of Bavaria, in Germany. 
 While pursuing his military career, Des Cartes 
 gave himself up to habits of mental indolence and 
 
 K K 
 
498 LIFE AND WRITINGS [PART IV. 
 
 dissipation, from which he was with difficulty re- 
 claimed by the earnest exhortations of some friends 
 of his youth, who had justly appreciated his talents, 
 and lamented their perversion. At their solicita- 
 tion he quitted the army and the gaming-table, for 
 deep retirement and laborious study. Several years 
 were subsequently devoted to visit the principal 
 cities of Europe, for the avowed purpose of forming 
 and cultivating a personal acquaintance with the 
 most celebrated mathematicians and philosophers 
 of the age. After having accomplished this object, 
 he determined to settle at Paris, and pursue, with 
 the utmost vigour, his philosophical researches. 
 During this important period of his life, the mind 
 of this great philosopher appears to have expe- 
 rienced a change, no less remarkable than that 
 which had appeared in his conduct. After passing 
 through a most distressing process of almost uni- 
 versal scepticism, it settled down, at length, into a 
 solemn conviction of the great principles of moral 
 and religious truth, and a fixed determination to 
 employ the residue of life in their investigation. It 
 was during the earlier stages of this mental process, 
 while his mind was yet unsettled and sceptical, 
 though anxiously inquiring after truth, that the 
 first part of the celebrated ethical " Treatise on the 
 Passions" was written, — a fact which will sufficiently 
 account for the wide difference which cannot but be 
 perceived between the earlier and later writings of 
 Des Cartes, and which will also account for the 
 sarcastic sneer of a modern infidel writer, who states, 
 '? that Des Cartes began with doubting of every 
 
CHAP* IV. J OF DES CARTES. 499 
 
 thing, and ended in believing that he had left 
 nothing unexplained." His first treatise " On the 
 Passions/' (to which he owed much of his celebrity,) 
 was written in 1629 ; the second part, which is of 
 far greater value, did not appear till a. d. 1646, 
 a short time before his death. 
 
 374. After having pursued, during several years, 
 a train of moral and philosophical inquiries into the 
 physical and natural proofs of the existence of God, 
 the immortality of the soul, and its various modes of 
 operation, Des Cartes gave to the world the results 
 of those profound metaphysical speculations in a 
 treatise, entitled " Philosophical Meditations on the 
 First Philosophy," which was first published in 1633 ; 
 in which were developed the elements of what has 
 since been termed, the Cartesian Philosophy. About 
 the same time, several tracts were produced by him 
 on subjects connected with different departments 
 of physical science, particularly on " Meteors," and 
 on " Astronomy," or the System of the World, and 
 on Optics. In consequence of these successive 
 publications, the name of Des Cartes became cele- 
 brated throughout Europe. His works were eagerly 
 sought, and translated into almost all the European 
 dialects. Schools were founded in which his philo- 
 sophy was taught, and a vehement contest arose 
 between the advocates and opponents of the Car^ 
 tesian system. The Jesuits having effectually 
 driven him from his native country, princes and 
 sovereigns became anxious to secure to themselves 
 the honour of patronizing this renowned philosopher. 
 Attempts were first made by the States-General of 
 
 kk 2 
 
500 LIFE AND WRITINGS OF DES CARTES. [PART IV. 
 
 Holland to induce him to fix his residence in that 
 country, which were in part successful; as it is 
 known that some of his principal works were written 
 and published there. These were, his treatises on 
 " Mechanics, Dioptrics, and Geometry ;" his logical 
 work, entitled " De Methodo ;" and his most cele- 
 brated performance, " Principia Philosophise ;" all of 
 which appeared between the years 1637 and 1641. 
 Charles I. of England, promised him a liberal ap- 
 pointment and efficient patronage ; but the com- 
 mencement of the civil war, which terminated in the 
 death of that unfortunate monarch, prevented his 
 acceptance of these offers. At length female in- 
 fluence prevailed ; Des Cartes yielded to the flat- 
 tering solicitations of Christina, Queen of Sweden, 
 who invited him, with many others, to her capital, 
 for the purpose of forming there an academy of 
 sciences, similar to those previously established in 
 other European cities, and removed to Stockholm, 
 A. d. 1649, where he died in the following year. 
 
 375. The preceding are the principal facts con- 
 nected with the personal history of Des Cartes; 
 but few comparatively of his numerous writings 
 have been specified. They relate to almost every 
 subject connected with physical, intellectual, and 
 moral science. From statements already made, it 
 will appear that he ranks with the profoundest 
 mathematicians of his age. In physics, as in intel- 
 lectual philosophy, he was frequently diverted from 
 the sober track of induction and experience, by his 
 love of abstract speculation, and the stress laid on 
 a priori reasonings ; but in the department of logic, 
 
CHAP. IV-3 CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. 501 
 
 he rendered valuable service, by simplifying that 
 which had been long perplexed, and reducing to a 
 few intelligible principles, the rules to be observed 
 in the investigation of truth. 
 
 Section VII. 
 
 SUMMARY VIEW OF THE CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 376. In taking a brief retrospect of the philosophy 
 of Des Cartes, as far as relates to intellectual 
 science, the topics may be arranged under three 
 heads ; logic, metaphysics, and ethics. 
 
 1. LOGIC 
 
 This is chiefly contained in his " Dissertation on 
 the Method of using Reason rightly in the Investi- 
 gation of Truth." In that short but valuable treatise, 
 the following general principles are illustrated and 
 established, which at once commend themselves 
 to our understandings by their reasonableness and 
 practical utility, and prove how completely the 
 author of such a logical system must have thrown 
 off the trammels of the Scholastics. 1. That truth 
 is to be the one great object pursued by the human 
 mind in all its investigations. 2. That nothing is 
 to be admitted as true in moral science, without 
 evidence sufficient to convince every rational in- 
 quirer; or, in the abstract sciences, without com- 
 plete and absolute demonstration. 3. That, in the 
 
502 CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. [PART IV. 
 
 investigation of truth, all prejudice and precipitancy 
 of judgment are to be carefully avoided, by which 
 the mind may be obstructed in its operations, and 
 betrayed into false conclusions. 4. That difficulties 
 and objections are not be shunned, but, on the con- 
 trary, most fearlessly encountered ; and that it is the 
 office of logic so to methodise and arrange them, 
 that they may be fairly met and satisfactorily solved. 
 5. That in all moral reasonings, arguments and 
 evidences are to be brought forward in their natural 
 order, beginning with the simplest and most self- 
 evident principles ; and rising by degrees to the 
 most complex and difficult deductions. 6. That no 
 chasms be admitted in the argument ; but that all 
 the successive steps be so closely connected, that the 
 relation of each to the whole may be apparent. 
 These general rules form the basis of the entire 
 system of logic inculcated by the Cartesians, and it 
 will be perceived that they are taken from the prac- 
 tice of geometricians, and that their reception must 
 be fatal to the domination of the schoolmen. The 
 use and application of these principles in the in- 
 vestigation of natural phenomena, and the pursuit 
 of intellectual science, are distinctly pointed out; 
 and it had been well if their inventor had inflexibly 
 adhered to them in his own philosophical researches. 
 
 II. METAPHYSICS. 
 
 377. This division includes those speculations on 
 the material universe and on the phenomena of 
 mind, which form the characteristic features of the 
 Cartesian philosophy. 
 
CHAP. IV.] CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. 503 
 
 (1.) All substances, according to this system, may 
 be comprehended under two heads — matter and 
 mind : the essence of the former is extension ; of 
 the latter, thought. Matter, as extended, must have 
 a real existence ; and since extension applies to it 
 universally, there can be in nature (that is, in the 
 physical system of the universe) no vacuum: for 
 every where must be found the essential qualities of 
 matter ; — length, breadth, and thickness. Matter, 
 considered with relation to its primary or elementary 
 parts, is both indivisable and unmoveable ; and all 
 the varieties of configuration it assumes, depend 
 upon the motion communicated to them ; which 
 motion consists in the removal of one body out of 
 its own place into that of a second contiguous to 
 it, and this into a third ; by which means it is 
 propagated seriatim to the utmost boundaries of the 
 universe. This motion was originally impressed on 
 matter by God himself, and is regulated by certain 
 fixed laws. 
 
 (2.) On these data, Des Cartes founded his well- 
 known theory of the vortices, supposed to occupy 
 the vast regions of space ; which, as constituting 
 the most curious and fanciful part of the Cartesian 
 system, it will be proper briefly to explain. It was 
 conceived, that the vast regions of space are filled 
 with a fluid mass, portions of which are attached to 
 the several celestial bodies. A vast quantity of this 
 ethereal fluid revolves round the sun as the great 
 centre of the solar system. Each planet has its own 
 separate vortex, with constantly moves with the 
 solid body to which it is attached, while at the same 
 
504 CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. [PART IV. 
 
 time it forms also a part of the general vortex of 
 the solar system. The satellites of the planets have 
 also their lesser and interior vortices, which revolve 
 round their primaries, together with the satellites 
 themselves, in the same direction, and with greater 
 or less velocities, according to their distances from 
 the sun. With these exterior and interior vortices, 
 the whole material system was imagined to be so 
 completely filled, that no possibility existed of a 
 vacuum ; since every particle in motion must occupy 
 the place which another previously held, and thus 
 move the entire system, as a drop of water, poured 
 into a vessel, puts in motion the whole mass. — Such, 
 according to the Cartesians, was the material uni- 
 verse ; a space filled completely with indefinitely 
 small corpuscles, all of which are in perpetual 
 motion, and of grosser parts or masses of congre- 
 gated particles, which compose the earth and 
 planets. Upon this imaginative theory, Des Cartes 
 has attempted, in his " Principia Philosophic," to 
 explain all the ordinary and extraordinary pheno- 
 mena of nature. 
 
 (3.) The more interesting and important division 
 of the Cartesian philosophy relates to the operations 
 of mind, as distinguished from matter. To the 
 honour of this great philosopher it is stated, that he 
 was the first of all the mental philosophers, who 
 clearly and distinctly pointed out the manner in 
 which the understanding acts on itself, and acquires 
 knowledge, by reflecting on its own internal pheno- 
 mena. " Des Cartes," says Professor Stewart, " was, 
 I think, the first who clearly saw that our idea of 
 
CHAP. IV.] CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. 505 
 
 mind is not direct, but relative ; — relative to the 
 various operations of which we are conscious. 
 ' What am I V he asks, in his second Meditation : — 
 6 a thinking being ; that is, a being, doubting, know- 
 ing, affirming, denying, consenting, refusing, sus- 
 ceptible of pleasure and pain. Of all these things 
 I might have had complete experience, without any 
 previous acquaintance with the qualities and laws of 
 matter ; and therefore it is impossible that the study 
 of matter can avail me ought in the study of myself.' 
 This accordingly is laid down by Des Cartes as a 
 first principle in metaphysical science — that nothing 
 comprehensible by the imagination can be at all 
 subservient to the knowledge of the mind.*" Pro- 
 ceeding on this principle, but reasoning from it in- 
 correctly, he contends that there are certain innate 
 ideas produced within us by the Great Author of 
 our being — the seeds of which (so to speak) are 
 primarily sown in the understanding by the Deity, 
 but the knowledge of which is to be accounted 
 a reflex act of the understanding. 
 
 (4.) In speculating on the nature of the human 
 soul, Des Cartes seems to have strangely blended 
 the peculiarities of his physical system with more 
 correct philosophical notions. After treating at 
 length of the animal nature of the passions, and 
 attempting to explain the manner in which they are 
 physically excited to action, he proceeds to consider 
 the soul of man, as both sensitive and rational — the 
 conflict between the superior and inferior parts of 
 
 * Stewart's Diss, ut sup. p. 92. Cartesii Meditat. Phil. ii. & iii. 
 
506 CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. [PART IV. 
 
 our nature, being in reality a struggle between 
 the sensitive part, or the animal spirits, and the 
 rational or intellectual powers. By the result of 
 this contest, every one, he imagined, might form a 
 judgment respecting the strength or weakness of 
 his soul : — if the passions reign, the body prepon- 
 derates ; — if they are restrained, the soul occupies 
 her due place in the system, and the rational part 
 of our nature exerts the influence which it was 
 intended to maintain. 
 
 III. ETHICS. 
 
 378. The moral system of Des Cartes is by no 
 means clearly defined, though its prominent features 
 may be inferred from the preceding sketch of his 
 metaphysical speculations. Amidst many visionary 
 theories and abstract speculations, some valuable 
 principles are stated relative to the nature of virtue, 
 the grounds of moral obligation, the relation in 
 w r hich man stands to the Infinite Ruler of the uni- 
 verse — his social duties — the government of his 
 passions — his moral capabilities, and the perfection 
 of his nature, as chiefly consisting in a moral resem- 
 blance to the Deity. These are, however, mixed 
 up with numerous speculations of a more doubtful 
 and dangerous tendency. u On the whole," it is 
 remarked by Dr. Enfield, " the Cartesian system 
 appears to have been in part derived from the Grecian 
 philosophy ; for it is easy to recognize the Platonic 
 notion of innate ideas, and of the action of the soul 
 on the body ; the Aristotelian notion of a plenum ; 
 and the atomic system of Democritus and Epicurus, 
 
CHAP. IV.3 JURISPRUDENCE. 507 
 
 in his vortices. Yet he must be confessed also to 
 have discovered great depth of thought, much fer- 
 tility of imagination, and unwearied diligence of 
 research. He would, however, have occupied a 
 more distinguished place among intellectual philo- 
 sophers, if he had been less easily led astray by 
 romantic conceptions and visionary hypotheses ; 
 had he substituted experiment for theory ; and 
 inductive reasonings for hypothetical conjectures." — 
 (Vid. Enfield's Hist of Philos. Vol. II. p. 554.) 
 
 Section VIII. 
 
 of the principal writers on jurisprudence, who 
 
 FLOURISHED DURING THE 16th & 17th CENTURIES. 
 
 379. During the period which has just been re- 
 viewed, a highly important branch of intellectual 
 science was successfully cultivated by many who 
 occupy no mean place in the republic of letters, 
 though the limits of the present work will admit 
 of little more than an enumeration of their names > 
 and a cursory notice of their most celebrated 
 writings. The department now referred to, is that 
 which treats of the civil and social relations of man- 
 kind ; a science to which various names have been 
 given in modern times, but perhaps that of juris- 
 prudence is the most appropriate and best under- 
 stood. It was stated in a former section (241), 
 that before the memorable sera of the revival of 
 
508 JURISPRUDENCE. [PART IV. 
 
 letters, political science began to be cultivated, more 
 just and enlightened views were entertained of the 
 principles of government, and the nature of the 
 relations subsisting between man and man; and 
 this was enumerated among the causes which con- 
 tributed to emancipate the human mind from its 
 bondage. Tracing backward, therefore, to that 
 eventful period, the origin of the science in ques- 
 tion, it will be attempted to exhibit, at one view, 
 and in chronological order, the train of political 
 philosophers, who flourished between the Reforma- 
 tion and the point at which this history terminates, 
 — the commencement of the eighteenth century. 
 This series commences with Machiavel, and termi- 
 nates with Montesquieu. 
 
 380. Machiavel was a contemporary of Luther, 
 and, "like that great reformer, acquired, by the 
 commanding superiority of his genius, an astonishing 
 ascendancy over the minds of his followers ; " but in 
 this alone does the resemblance appear; for in all 
 other features of their intellectual character, scarcely 
 can a greater contrast be imagined. 
 
 Though comparatively destitute of learning, it 
 was the good fortune of Machiavel to enjoy the 
 splendid patronage of the house of Medicis, under 
 whose auspices not a few of his numerous publica- 
 tions made their first appearance. It falls not within 
 the design of the present work to notice, either his 
 dramatic performances or historical tracts, all of 
 which afford indications of the mighty genius of 
 their author. The books upon which his posthu- 
 mous fame chiefly depends, and which entitle him to 
 
CHAP. IV. JURISPRUDENCE. 509 
 
 rank among the intellectual philosophers of the age, 
 are his " Discourses on the first Decade of Livy," 
 which are full of moral and political reflections, and 
 especially his most celebrated treatise, entitled " The 
 Prince," in which he professes to lay down the 
 maxims and rules of civil government, and describes, 
 with prodigious energy of genius, the arts by which 
 corrupt and arbitrary rulers may sustain their unjust 
 authority. Widely different opinions have been 
 formed of the design of this celebrated performance : 
 some regarding it as a political satire, intended to 
 excite abhorrence of despotism, and hold up tyrants 
 to contempt, by exposing their secret machinations ; 
 while others maintain, that his political maxims, 
 infamous as they are, were seriously proposed ; 
 and plead, in mitigation of his offence, the state of 
 society in Italy at that period, and the prevailing 
 errors of the times. But whatever diversity of 
 opinion may exist with regard to the moral worth of 
 this celebrated treatise, all must agree in doing 
 homage to the transcendant talent it displays. " As 
 an original and profound thinker," says Stewart, 
 " the genius of Machiavel completely eclipses that 
 of all his contemporaries. No writer, either in 
 ancient or modern times, has ever united, in a 
 more remarkable degree, a greater variety of the 
 most dissimilar, and seemingly the most discordant 
 gifts and attainments, a profound acquaintance 
 with all those arts of dissimulation and intrigue 
 which, in the petty cabinets of Italy, were then 
 universally confounded with political wisdom — an 
 imagination familiarized to the cool contempla- 
 
510 JURISPRUDENCE. [PART IV* 
 
 tion of whatever is perfidious or atrocious in the 
 history of conspirators and tyrants — combined with 
 a graphical skill in holding up to laughter the com- 
 paratively harmless follies of ordinary life." * 
 
 381. Next to Machiavel, in the order of time, but 
 far inferior in talent and reputation, stands Bodinus, 
 an eminent French civilian, who flourished towards 
 the close of the sixteenth century. " He was the 
 first among the moderns who united a philosophical 
 train of thinking with an extensive knowledge of 
 jurisprudence and history." His most celebrated 
 Work, entitled, De la Republique, contains much 
 curious matter, and cannot fail to be read, even in 
 the present advanced state of political science, and 
 after so many highly philosophical treatises on the 
 subject have appeared, with considerable interest. 
 He is said, by a very competent witness, to have 
 approached nearly, in some of his views of the 
 philosophy of laws, to Lord Bacon, and, in his re- 
 fined combination of facts, bears a strong resem- 
 blance to Montesquieu." It is not the least of the 
 qualities that reflect credit on the memory of 
 Bodinus and his friend De Thou, that, in an in- 
 tolerant age and country, they were not ashamed 
 or afraid to maintain the principles of civil and 
 religious liberty, and earnestly to recommend their 
 universal adoption. 
 
 382. The next, and by far the greatest of the 
 writers of that age on political science, as well as 
 almost every other subject connected with general 
 
 * Stewart's Diss, ut sup. p* S3— 37. 
 
CHAP. IV.] JURISPRUDENCE. 511 
 
 literature, was Grotius. Of the immense mass of 
 knowledge accumulated by this renowned scholar, 
 ample proof is afforded in his voluminous writings, 
 which embrace an almost endless variety of subjects, 
 critical, metaphysical, moral, and theological. His 
 life was by no means that of a retired scholar ; for 
 he acted an important part in public life ; — was some- 
 times caressed, and sometimes persecuted by the 
 civil authorities of his native country ; — sometimes 
 entrusted with magisterial power, and sometimes 
 doomed to tedious imprisonment : but neither 
 prosperity nor adversity could abate his ardour or 
 diminish his assiduity in the pursuit of knowledge* 
 After a very eventful life, marked by an unusual 
 succession of strange incidents, and an extraordinary 
 degree of mental exertion, this " literary phoenix" 
 died at Rostock, on the 28th of August, 1645. The 
 book which has chiefly contributed to establish his 
 reputation as a philosophical writer, is his well- 
 known treatise, " De Jure Belli et Paris," which 
 long continued to be regarded as a standard work 
 on the subject of which it treats, in the principal 
 universities of Europe, and is still held in high 
 estimation. 
 
 383. About the same time flourished, in the 
 northern part of our island, the justly celebrated 
 Buchanan, who, though best known as a scholar of 
 prodigious attainment, may not improperly be classed 
 with the civilians of his age, on account of several 
 tracts on political science, written with all the 
 vivacity and energy of his powerful mind. Among 
 these, his dialogue, " De Jure Regni" acquired most 
 
512 JURISPRUDENCE. [PART IV. 
 
 celebrity, on account of the then state of public 
 affairs in the British empire. 
 
 With this splendid Scottish luminary may be 
 classed an English scholar, whose accumulation of 
 knowledge far exceeded that of Buchanan, however 
 inferior he might be in original genius. This was 
 Selden, who flourished during the reigns of James I. 
 Charles I. and the Commonwealth. He is distin- 
 guished as an acute philologist, a learned antiquary, 
 and a profound jurist. His principal work on the 
 latter of these subjects treats of the u Law of Nations, 
 according to the Jewish Polity," in which he has 
 evinced much Rabbinical learning, combined with 
 general political science. 
 
 Hobbes, the philosopher of Malmsbury, properly 
 belongs to the class of metaphysical writers, and as 
 such will be more particularly noticed hereafter. 
 Yet almost the whole of his far-famed productions 
 bear, either directly or indirectly, on political 
 science ; particularly his principal work, entitled, 
 " Leviathan ;" his tracts, " De Cive" and " De Cor- 
 pore Politico," which were chiefly written in defence 
 of the royal cause, during the period of the Common- 
 wealth, and in which political doctrines are main- 
 tained scarcely less objectionable than the most 
 obnoxious maxims of Machiavel himself. 
 
 384. Puffendorf next occurs in the list of 
 jurists, who flourished during the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. This distinguished writer has been considered 
 by some equal, and by others superior, to his illus- 
 trious predecessor, Grotius. He followed closely in 
 the same track, as is evident from the contents of 
 
CHAP, IV.3 JURISPRUDENCE. 513 
 
 his most celebrated work, " De Jure Naturag et 
 Gentium," which first appeared a.d. 1672. To the 
 same class of writings belongs another treatise, com- 
 posed by him at a later period of life, entitled, " De 
 Officio Hominis et Civis," &c, which may perhaps 
 more properly be considered as a methodized abridg- 
 ment of his great work on " the Law of Nations," 
 than an original production. These works, in 
 conjunction with the before-mentioned treatise of 
 Grotius, were, till of late years, in constant use as 
 text-books in all our public schools. If these 
 writings do not evince original and inventive 
 genius, they must be acknowledged to display a clear 
 discernment — a sound and accurate judgment — 
 extensive, if not profound erudition — and, which is 
 infinitely more important, a reverence for religion, 
 as the basis of all social virtue and happiness. 
 
 385. Passing over Leibnitz and Locke, (both of 
 whom will be distinctly and separately noticed here- 
 after,) it is only requisite to glance at the celebrated 
 author of the *? Spirit of Laws," who, though he 
 belongs more properly to the eighteenth century, 
 demands a cursory notice, as the founder of the 
 new school of political science. Montesquieu car- 
 ried on most successfully the project which Bodinus 
 and Bacon had commenced, — that of rearing a super- 
 structure of juridical science on the basis of philo- 
 sophy and history. " Instead of confining himself, 
 after the example of his predecessors, to the inter- 
 pretation of one part of the Roman code by another, 
 he studied the spirit of these laws, in the political 
 views of their authors, and in the peculiar circum- 
 
514 METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. [PART IV. 
 
 stances of that extraordinary race. He combined 
 the science of law with the history of political 
 society. Convinced that the general principles of 
 human nature are every where the same, he searched 
 for new lights among the subjects of every govern- 
 ment, and the inhabitants of every climate ; and 
 while he thus opened inexhaustible and unthought- 
 of resources to the student of jurisprudence, he 
 indirectly marked out to the legislator the extent 
 and limits of his power, and recalled the attention 
 of the philosopher from abstract and useless theories, 
 to the only authentic monuments of the history of 
 mankind." * 
 
 Section IX. 
 
 ON THE METAPHYSICAL WRITERS OF THE SEVEN- 
 TEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 386. It was scarcely possible that the profound 
 researches of Bacon into the phenomena of the 
 human mind, and the ingenious speculations of Des 
 Cartes, should not inspire- many of their contem- 
 poraries and successors with a desire to prosecute 
 the same train of investigations. Many there were 
 at that period, who, though characterized by a great 
 diversity of talent, and attached to different systems, 
 pursued w r ith ardour this branch of intellectual 
 science. Some of these belonged to the sceptic, or 
 
 * Stewart's Diss, ut sup. pp. 144, 145. 
 
CHAP. IV.3 METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. 515 
 
 rather the infidel school of metaphysicians, at the 
 head of whom were Hobbes and Gassendi. Others 
 were amongst the ablest and most zealous advocates 
 of revealed truth ; such as Pascal; Barrow, Cud- 
 worth, and Clarke, with many others of scarcely 
 inferior name, who brought their commanding 
 talents, and all the energies of their powerful minds, 
 to bear with effect on the strong holds of infidelity 
 and scepticism ; and a few may be regarded as of 
 a neutral class, immersed in metaphysical abstrac- 
 tions, and intent alone upon the establishment of 
 some favourite hypothesis, in connexion with the 
 philosophy of mind. 
 
 387. In attempting a rapid sketch of the principal 
 metaphysicians of the seventeenth century, (exclu- 
 sive of Bacon and Des Cartes, who have been already 
 noticed, and Locke and Leibnitz, who will be sepa- 
 rately considered hereafter,) we shall commence 
 with those of the infidel school. 
 
 (1.) The founder of this school was Hobbes, the 
 well-known author of * Leviathan" and many other 
 tracts on subjects connected with political and moral 
 science — a man of original genius and extraordinary 
 vigour of mind, an acute and powerful reasoner, 
 and a most profound metaphysician : but, unhappily, 
 these qualities served only to render him more in- 
 jurious to society, by the influence of his opinions 
 and writings. The work in which his metaphysical 
 system is most fully developed, is, his " Treatise on 
 Human Nature," which is generally acknowledged 
 to be the ablest production of his pen, though his 
 ** Leviathan" may have been more popular. In this 
 
 L L 2 
 
516 METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. [>ART IV. 
 
 and other philosophical tracts, he strenuously op- 
 poses the Cartesian doctrine of ideas, and maintains 
 that all our knowledge is to be attributed to sensa- 
 tion alone ; thus excluding mind from the universe, 
 and reducing the human understanding to a refined 
 species of material mechanism. To this philosopher 
 may also be traced that scheme of fatalism, which, 
 in modern times, has been disguised under the 
 specious name of philosophical necessity, on which 
 subject Hobbes carried on a controversy with some 
 of the most powerful reasoners of his age. In 
 the opinion of Professor Stewart, both Locke and 
 Hume have been greatly indebted to the metaphy- 
 sical speculations of Hobbes ; the former, for some 
 of his most valuable observations on the origin and 
 association of ideas ; the latter, for his disquisitions 
 on the relation between cause and effect, as well as 
 his views of philosophical necessity. Pernicious as 
 were the opinions and writings of the philosopher 
 of Malmsbury, when first promulgated, they ob- 
 tained many admirers ; and their influence is felt, 
 especially on the continent of Europe, to the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 (2.) Gassendi has been already mentioned in con- 
 nexion with physical science (§ 279.) ; he is now to 
 be regarded as an intellectual philosopher, in which 
 department his talents were principally employed. 
 His metaphysical notions accorded in almost every 
 respect with those of Hobbes ; especially with 
 reference to the origin of ideas ; for it is laid down 
 by him as a fundamental principle on this subject, 
 ** that there is not a single object of the under- 
 
CHAP. IV.^ METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. 517 
 
 standing, which may not be ultimately analyzed 
 into sensible images." On this ground, he was 
 one of the first and most determined opponents 
 of the intellectual philosophy of Des Cartes, who 
 had maintained a contrary hypothesis. Gassendi 
 was a great admirer of the writings of Lord Bacon, 
 from which he is said to have imbibed a taste 
 for the Epicurean philosophy, though it is not 
 easy to imagine what part of those writings could 
 have produced such a result. The works of Gas- 
 sendi were collected, after his death, into six folio 
 volumes ; three of which are on metaphysical sub- 
 jects ; the fourth, on astronomy ; the fifth contains 
 biographical memoirs of celebrated mathematicians ; 
 and the last, his literary correspondence. 
 
 (3.) Spinoza must unquestionably be referred 
 to the same class of infidel philosophers. He was 
 by birth a Jew, but ultimately expelled from that 
 communion on account of his reputed atheism. 
 In early life, he was a zealous Cartesian ; and one 
 of his first literary productions was entitled, " a 
 Geometrical Demonstration of the Principles of the 
 Cartesian Philosophy." But at a more advanced 
 period he withdrew his attention, in a great mea- 
 sure, from mathematical and physical science, (in 
 both which his attainments were of no ordinary 
 kind,) to indulge in daring speculations on matter 
 and spirit — on the universe and its author — 
 speculations by which he was betrayed into the 
 grossest errors and absurdities. A crude hypo- 
 thesis, (for it scarcely deserves to be designated 
 a system,) characterized alike by its impiety and 
 
518 METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. [PART IV. 
 
 absurdity, which still continues to bear the name of 
 its inventor, was propagated by this theorist, and 
 obtained many followers. It was a species of Pan- 
 theism in words, but in reality, latent atheism. It 
 chiefly consisted in representing the Deity and the 
 material universe as the same thing, — and all events, 
 physical and moral, good and evil, as necessarily 
 resulting from the same all-pervading cause. The 
 ethics of Spinoza were less objectionable than his 
 metaphysical creed ; but, as founded on false prin- 
 ciples, however specious their form, they could not 
 fail to be pernicious and' dangerous. The prin- 
 cipal works of Spinoza, in which his metaphysical 
 tenets are developed, are entitled, " Tractatus 
 Theologico Politicus," and " Etheca Geometrica 
 Demonstrata ;" the latter of which was written in 
 advanced life, and first published after his death. 
 
 (4.) The three above-mentioned metaphysical 
 writers may be contemplated as founders of new 
 sects in philosophy. Many might be added, belong- 
 ing to the sceptic, if not the avowedly infidel school 
 of mental philosophers, who flourished during the 
 period under review, It will however suffice to 
 mention, and that in the most cursory manner, three 
 who are distinguished from the rest, either by the 
 celebrity of their writings, or the extent of their 
 erudition. Montaigne, whose " Essays" are chiefly 
 valuable, as a lively practical exhibition of the phi- 
 losophy of mind — a -■ work/' says Stewart, " unique 
 in its kind, valuable in an eminent degree as an 
 authentic record of many interesting facts relative 
 to human nature; but more valuable by far, as 
 
CHAP. IV/] METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. 519 
 
 holding up a mirror in which every individual, if he 
 does not see his own image, will at least occasion- 
 ally perceive so many traits of resemblance to it, as 
 can scarcely fail to invite his curiosity to a more 
 careful review of himself.*" Huetius, the friend 
 of the learned Bochart, and himself a man of 
 extensive erudition, though the author of a valuable 
 defence of the christian religion, (entitled " Demon- 
 stratio Evangelical) it is evident, from one of his post- 
 humous works, " on the Weakness of the Human 
 Understanding," which is in reality but a laboured 
 apology for scepticism, that he can only be classed 
 with those who have perverted metaphysical science 
 to promote the cause of infidelity. Bayle, the 
 learned author of the Biographical, Historical, and 
 Critical Dictionary, was also the author of many 
 tracts on the most abstruse metaphysical questions, 
 written at different periods of his active life; some 
 of which appeared in literary journals conducted by 
 himself, and others in separate publications. They 
 are chiefly controversial, and in almost every in- 
 stance deeply tinged with the spirit of infidelity. 
 
 388. Malebranche is a writer of a much more 
 interesting kind than any of those just enumerated; 
 inasmuch as his mind seems to have been imbued 
 with a piety, which chastened, and, in a great mea- 
 sure, corrected his metaphysical errors. Des Cartes' 
 f* Treatise on Man" first inspired him with ardour 
 on philosophical subjects, and gave that bias to his 
 intellectual pursuits which manifested itself through 
 
 * Stewart's Diss. p. 75. 
 
520 METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. [jPART IV. 
 
 life. The work by which he is best known, and 
 which gave occasion to much controversy among 
 metaphysicians, is entitled the " Search after 
 Truth ;" a work which combines great abstraction 
 of thought with a lively fancy and glowing elo- 
 quence, and affords " ample illustrations both of the 
 strength and weakness of the human understand- 
 ing." The distinctive feature of his metaphysical 
 system is, that the Deity is the efficient and immediate 
 cause of every effect in the universe, or, to adopt his 
 own language, cc that we perceive all things in God J 9 
 
 Of his great antagonist, Anthony Arnauld, it is 
 only requisite to state here, that he combated most 
 powerfully and successfully the metaphysical errors 
 of Malebranche, in an elaborate work on " True 
 and False Ideas ;" in which principles are maintained 
 similar to those advocated by Locke, in his cele- 
 brated " Essay on the Understanding ;" and also 
 that he was the author of a valuable work on dia- 
 lectics, entitled " The Art of Thinking," since known 
 by the name of the Port Royal Logic. 
 
 389. It is gratifying to the friends of revealed 
 truth to perceive, that there has never been a 
 period in which genius, and talents, and learning, 
 have not been employed in its defence, far superior 
 to the proudest attainments of its mightiest adver- 
 saries. This remark will eminently apply to the 
 brilliant intellectual aera, which is now passing under 
 review ; the aera of Pascal, and Barrow, and Cud- 
 worth ; of Leibnitz, and Locke, and Newton. Though 
 the first of these did not professedly write on meta- 
 physical subjects, yet his celebrated u Thoughts 
 
CHAP. IV-3 METAPHYSICAL WRITERS. 521 
 
 on Religion" are full of profound reflections and 
 sublime reasonings on topics of a highly intellectual 
 character. The philosophical works of Barrow, 
 no less than his polemical writings, reflect the 
 highest credit on the genius of their author, and 
 sufficiently justify the eulogium pronounced on 
 his memory, " that he was second alone to Newton ; 
 and whether treating of philosophical, moral, or 
 theological subjects, he seems always to bring to 
 them a mind which feels itself superior to the 
 occasion, and which, in contending with the greatest 
 difficulties, " puts forth but half its strength.'** 
 Cudwortk was the author of two erudite works, 
 entitled " The Intellectual System," and " Immu- 
 table Morality," both of which were intended and 
 well calculated to check the sceptical spirit of the 
 age in which they were written. In the former 
 of these learned and laborious performances, the 
 speculations of the infidel philosophers of his day 
 are distinctly traced to the atheistical sects of 
 antiquity, of which a full and elaborate account 
 is given. In the latter, a powerful and most 
 convincing argument is maintained on the immu- 
 tability of virtue, and its eternal obligation, in 
 opposition to the systems which then prevailed, 
 by which virtue and vice were confounded, the 
 principles of morality subverted, and all moral 
 distinctions annihilated. Samuel Clarke flourished 
 at a somewhat later period, and is chiefly to 
 be regarded, in metaphysics, as the opponent of 
 
 * Stewart's Diss, ut sup. p. d9. 
 
522 SKETCH OF THE LITERARY [PART IV. 
 
 Leibnitz, on the question of Liberty and Necessity ; 
 but he may not improperly be mentioned in this 
 place, as one of the acutest metaphysicians of his 
 age, and a powerful combatant of the sceptical 
 philosophy; especially in his admirable discourses 
 on " the Being and Attributes of God," and on " the 
 Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion." 
 To the preceding distinguished names might be 
 added, those of Archbishops Bramhall and Tenison, 
 Wilkins and Cumberland, and Henry More, with 
 many others, who took a part in the metaphysico- 
 theological controversies of that intellectual age. 
 
 Section X. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE LITERARY HISTORY OF LEIBNITZ. 
 
 390. Among the many scientific and intellectual 
 philosophers, who flourished during the latter 
 portion of the seventeenth century, Leibnitz occu- 
 pies no subordinate place. It is somewhat difficult 
 to determine among whom he should be classed, 
 as his researches were directed to almost every 
 department of physical and moral science, and his 
 numerous writings include almost every subject of 
 human investigation. 
 
 This great philosopher was born at Leipsic, on 
 the 23d of June, 1646. In early youth, though 
 insatiable in the pursuit of knowledge, he disco- 
 vered no very marked preference to any one depart- 
 ment of literature. His reading was most extensive ; 
 so excellent was his memory, that whatever he read 
 
CHAP. IV.3 HISTORY OF LEIBNITZ. 523 
 
 became his own ; and, consequently, his accumulation 
 of knowledge was rapid and great. But when he 
 had attained his fifteenth year, he manifested a 
 decided partiality to mathematical studies, and 
 wrote several theses on subjects connected with the 
 abstract sciences, which acquired him great cele- 
 brity in the university of Leipsic. About the same 
 time, he renounced the Aristotelian, in favour of the 
 Cartesian philosophy, the latter of which systems 
 had as yet made little progress in Germany. In 
 1666, he published his first treatise, the object of 
 which was to shew how universal arithmetic might 
 be applied to other sciences ; and in the same year, 
 his " Mathematical Demonstration of the Existence 
 of God," made its first appearance, which was most 
 certainly no ordinary achievement for a youth who 
 had just attained his twentieth year. 
 
 391. Having then in prospect the legal pro- 
 fession, the attention of Leibnitz was naturally 
 directed to the study of law. Several of his next 
 publications related to jurisprudence ; one of which 
 introduced him to the friendship and patronage of 
 the Elector of Mentz, by whom he was employed, 
 for a short time, as private secretary. But nothing 
 could divert his attention from the mathematics 
 and philosophy. His flattering secular prospects 
 were gladly renounced, and the determination fixe v d 
 to devote his life to literary studies. The first of 
 his tracts on natural philosophy, entitled " A Theory 
 of Concrete Motion," was presented to the Royal 
 Society of London ; and his second, on the " Theory 
 of Abstract Motion," to the Academy of Sciences, 
 
524 SKETCH OF THE LITERARY [PART IV. 
 
 at Paris; of both which philosophical institutions 
 he had the honour to be elected a member. These 
 were successively followed by numerous papers on 
 mathematical and physical subjects, most of which 
 have been preserved in a literary journal, published 
 at Leipsic, under the title of " Acta Eruditorum." 
 (§ 262.) At the same time, this indefatigable and 
 almost universal genius was employed in preparing, 
 at the request of the Duke of Lunenburg, a 
 " History of the House of Brunswick ; " several 
 works on " The Law of Nations ; " and some 
 metaphysical tracts on " Knowledge, Truth, Ideas, 
 Nature," &c. &c. 
 
 392. Passing over that remarkable fact con- 
 nected with the literary history of Leibnitz, which 
 relates to the invention of the differential calculus, 
 (the particulars of which have been already detailed, 
 § 264 — 266,) we shall advance to that period of his 
 life, in which he was chiefly occupied with meta- 
 physical speculations and theological controversies. 
 
 In 1695, he published, in a Parisian journal, a 
 specimen of a new system of physics, in which he 
 first intimated those peculiar doctrines relative to 
 the connexion between the body and mind, which 
 were afterwards more fully developed, and charac- 
 terize his metaphysical system. This was followed 
 by a treatise, entitled " Thoughts on Locke's Essay 
 on the Human Understanding," then recently 
 published. In this tract Leibnitz first appears as 
 the antagonist of our great philosopher, and combats 
 especially those parts of his celebrated work, which 
 relate to innate ideas. The next production of 
 
CHAP. IV J HISTORY OF LEIBNITZ. 525 
 
 his pen on metaphysical subjects, was a defence of 
 his favourite doctrine of the pre-established har- 
 mony, in reply to the animadversions which Bayle 
 and others had made upon it in literary journals. 
 About the same period, his active mind was also 
 employed in polemic theology ; as is evident from 
 two controversial tracts, — one, " A Logical Defence 
 of the Holy Trinity," written against the Socinians ; 
 and the other, " on Human Liberty and Predesti- 
 nation," against the Remonstrants. 
 
 893. But his principal work, the production of 
 his later years, and that in which his philosophical 
 opinions were more fully developed, remains to be 
 noticed. This was entitled, " Theodicea, or a Dis- 
 sertation on the Goodness of God, the Liberty of 
 Man, and the Origin of Good and Evil." This 
 celebrated treatise was first printed in 1710, and 
 made a great stir amongst the metaphysicians of 
 that day. It evinced an immense store of erudition, 
 a mind well disciplined to abstract logical reasoning, 
 a lively imagination, and a highly cultivated taste ; 
 but at the same time, it discovered a love of novelty 
 and fondness for speculation unworthy of a sound 
 philosopher, and wholly at variance with the prin- 
 ciples of inductive reasoning. By these metaphysical 
 and polemic writings, he became involved in weari- 
 some controversies with some of the most enlightened 
 intellectual philosophers of that brilliant age ; among 
 whom were Locke and Newton, Clarke and Bayle, 
 with many others of inferior name. The details of 
 these intellectual combats, on subjects the most ab- 
 struse and difficult that perhaps have ever occupied 
 
526 SUMMART VIEW OF THE [PART IV. 
 
 the human understanding, will be chiefly found 
 in the volume of his works which contains his cor- 
 respondence with learned men; and which, while 
 they excite our admiration of the powers of genius 
 exerted in their discussion, convince us that there 
 are topics, about which the busy and inquisitive 
 mind of man may sometimes be employed, in the 
 investigation of which the mightiest intellects are 
 but as little children. This indefatigable writer 
 exhausted his latest energies in these abstruse specu- 
 lations, and expired on the 14th November, 1716, 
 in the seventieth year of his age. 
 
 Section XI. 
 
 SUMMARY VIEW OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF LEIBNITZ. 
 
 394. Leibnitz did not compose any systematic 
 treatise on philosophy ; but his opinions may be 
 gathered from his numerous writings, composed at 
 different periods of life. The volume, in which 
 his metaphysical system is most distinctly stated, is 
 his " Theodicea," to which a reference was made in 
 the last section ; from which, therefore, the following 
 summary will be chiefly taken. It is of the more 
 importance that the distinguishing features of the 
 philosophy of Leibnitz be attentively marked, 
 because of the influence it excited long after the 
 death of its illustrious founder. While the meta- 
 physics of Locke may be considered as laying the 
 foundation of a new school of intellectual philosophy 
 
CHAP, ivj PHILOSOPHY OF LEIBNITZ. 527 
 
 in Britain, which has subsequently spread over a 
 great part of the world, those of Leibnitz must also 
 be acknowledged to have influenced, in no incon- 
 siderable degree, the speculations and researches of 
 most of the intellectual philosophers — Kant himself 
 not excepted. To the opinions and writings of 
 Leibnitz, in the judgment of Professor Stewart, is 
 chiefly to be attributed the contrast between the 
 continental philosophy, and the contemporary sys- 
 tems, which have sprung up in our own island. 
 
 395. On the nature of ideas, and the manner in 
 which they are produced, there is no material dif- 
 ference between Leibnitz and his illustrious pre- 
 decessor, Des Cartes, who had himself derived his 
 notions on this subject from the Platonic school. 
 (§ 191.) — Nor is it easy to mark a difference between 
 the opinions of both Des Cartes and Leibnitz, and 
 those of Locke, except in words : for Leibnitz, when 
 writing on the origin of ideas, asserts, "that there is 
 nothing in the understanding which has not been 
 present to the senses, but the understanding itself ; 
 and Locke, in nearly similar terms, writes thus : — 
 " External objects furnish the mind with ideas of 
 sensible qualities ; and the mind furnishes the under- 
 standing with ideas of its own operations." This 
 cannot therefore be considered as forming a distinc- 
 tive feature of the philosophy of Leibnitz ; and those 
 which are properly such, may be classed under four 
 heads — his theory respecting Monads ; his doctrine 
 of the Pre-established Harmony; his scheme of 
 Optimism ; and his application of the " Law of 
 
528 SUMMARY VIEW OF THE £PART IV. 
 
 Continuity" to the phenomena of mind as well as 
 of matter. 
 
 I MONADS. 
 
 396. Having imbibed the Cartesian notion of a 
 plenum, and conceiving that the entire universe is 
 filled with indivisible and uncompounded particles, 
 he was led thereby to the fanciful hypothesis, that all 
 space is replenished with a kind of substances called 
 monads ; by which he seems to have meant elementary 
 active principles of nature, each of which is necessarily 
 distinct from and independent of every other in the 
 universe ; but all of which derived their existence 
 from God, the Great Supreme ; and only self-existent 
 monad. After all that Leibnitz has written on the 
 subject of these mysterious substances, and all the 
 explanations of his theory attempted by subsequent 
 commentators, it is scarcely possible to attach any 
 definite idea to the term, if any thing is intended by 
 it, but the ultimate particles, of which the material 
 universe is composed ; in which case, it will appear 
 to be but a modification of the ancient atomic philo- 
 sophy. Yet it should seem, that this theoretical 
 philosopher conceived of these monads as something 
 different both from matter and spirit. They are not 
 material, because he denied to them the properties 
 of extension, durability, inertness, and other essential 
 properties of matter. They are not spiritual, because 
 he neither considered them as animated or rational. 
 So attached was Leibnitz to this favourite hypo- 
 thesis, that it seems to have pervaded his whole 
 
CHAP. IV.]] PHILOSOPHY OF LEIBNITZ. 529 
 
 metaphysical system ; and in some instances he ap- 
 pears to have been betrayed by it into a boldness of 
 speculation approaching to profanity ; as when he 
 asserts " that the Eternal Geometrician" (meaning 
 thereby the Omnipotent Creator) is constantly em- 
 ployed in solving this problem : <e The state of a 
 single monad being given, to determine its past, 
 present, and future state throughout the universe." 
 
 2. PRE-ESTABLISHED HARMONY. 
 
 397. Before the time of Des Cartes and Leib- 
 nitz, the opinion had generally obtained, that the 
 mind and body acted really and physically on each 
 other, though the mode of their reciprocal action 
 was confessedly unknown. Des Cartes had main- 
 tained, that their nature and properties were so 
 dissimilar, so contrary to each other, that this was 
 utterly impossible, and therefore referred all mental 
 action immediately to the influence and agency of 
 God. Leibnitz carried this idea still farther, and 
 contended that the human mind and body were two 
 independent, but correspondent agents ; which, like 
 two machines, were so nicely adjusted to each other, 
 as to appear to act in concert; as if two clocks 
 were so constructed by a skilful artificer, as that, 
 though wholly unconnected with each other, one 
 should point to the true time, and the other strike 
 the successive hours. This singular doctrine is thus 
 stated by Leibnitz himself in his " Theodicea" — " I 
 cannot help coming into this notion, that God created 
 the soul in such a manner, at first, that it should 
 represent within itself all the simultaneous changes 
 
 M M 
 
530 SUMMARY VIEW OF THE £PART IV. 
 
 in the body ; and has so made the body that it must 
 of itself do what the soul wills ;" and in another 
 place, " Every thing goes on in the soul, as if it 
 had no body ; and every thing proceeds in the body 
 as if it had no soul." Hence he was led to speak 
 of the soul of man as a spiritual automaton, in dis- 
 tinction from the disciples of Hobbes, Gassendi, and 
 Spinoza, who represented it as material ; a machine, 
 however, so regulated by necessary, pre-ordained, 
 and immutable laws, that no operation of the mind, 
 nor any event in the universe, could possibly have 
 been different from what it is. In a word, this 
 great philosopher conceived, both of the corporeal 
 and intellectual parts of man, as alike impelled by 
 necessary causes, as exquisite pieces of mechanism 
 constructed by the Divine Artificer, wound up and 
 put in motion by the same power, and proceeding 
 harmoniously in the performance of their several 
 functions, though without any dependance on each 
 other, or any reciprocal influence whatever. 
 
 3. OPTIMISM. 
 
 398. From the hypothesis briefly stated in the 
 last paragraph, viewed in connexion with a firm 
 belief in the being and attributes of God, a third 
 distinguishing principle of the philosophy of Leib- 
 nitz obviously arose, viz. his scheme of optimism ; 
 which, in several respects, differs materially from 
 that which had been previously obtained. Since, 
 according to the doctrine of the pre-established 
 harmony, all events in the physical and moral 
 world resulted from the action of necessary causes, 
 
CHAP. IV/] PHILOSOPHY OF LEIBNITZ. 531 
 
 operating mechanically, if the Being, by whom this 
 wondrous mechanism was constructed and pre- 
 arranged, be infinitely wise and good ; it followed 
 that u whatever is, is best" The particular modi- 
 fication of optimism, for which Leibnitz contends, 
 may be clearly gathered from the allegory with 
 which he concludes one of the books of his " Theo- 
 dicea" in which " he represents Tarquin as com- 
 plaining of his lot, first to Apollo, then to Jupiter ; 
 and is at length satisfied with his fate, by being 
 introduced into the palace of the Destinies, and 
 shewn that of all possible volitions, with their train 
 of necessary consequences, that which led to his 
 crime and fall, was, upon the whole, the best" It 
 is easy to perceive, that this scheme involves the 
 notion of fatalism in its grossest and most offensive 
 form, that it is entirely subversive of moral agency 
 and responsibility, and that it obliterates all dis- 
 tinctions between virtue and vice. How far this 
 alarming result may have been counteracted or 
 modified by the religious feelings and principles 
 of the illustrious advocate of this scheme, we pretend 
 not to determine; but assuredly " nothing could 
 tend more directly, by a short and demonstrative 
 process, to the utter annihilation of all moral dis- 
 tinctions." 
 
 IV. LAW OF CONTINUITY. 
 
 399. Another distinguishing feature of the philo- 
 sophy of Leibnitz, to which he was led by his pro- 
 pensity to " a priori" reasonings, and the habit of 
 generalization on all philosophical subjects, consists 
 m m 2 
 
532 SUMMARY VIEW OF THE [PART IV. 
 
 in his universal application of the "law of continuity ? 
 This term has long since been familiar to natural 
 philosophers, and has been generally admitted with 
 reference to physical science. It is used to express 
 that unbroken order, which pervades the system of 
 the universe ; so that no change takes place sud- 
 denly, but all is accomplished by infinitely small 
 degrees. It has been shewn, for example, in the 
 science of dynamics, that bodies do not pass instantly 
 from one direction into another, but describe a 
 greater or less curve in their transition from place 
 to place. But whatever may be the conclusions to 
 which scientific and experimental philosophers have 
 been led by their minute observation of natural 
 phaenomena, it may be questioned whether the prin- 
 ciple will admit of the universal application for 
 which Leibnitz and his followers have strenuously 
 contended. By him it was asserted that this is an 
 eternal and immutable law of nature, applicable no 
 less to the phaenomena of mind, than to those of 
 matter. In numerous passages of his writings, 
 Leibnitz refers to this as an indisputable principle 
 in metaphysical science. On this ground he main- 
 tains that there cannot be in an intelligent being an 
 entire, and least of all, a sudden cessation of 
 thought; — that there can be no such thing as 
 death, but merely a succession of changes of con- 
 dition; — and that there is a perfect gradation 
 throughout the universe : so that the innumerable 
 classes and orders of beings form an unbroken line, 
 a continuous scale of existences, descending from the 
 Deity to the lowest species of unorganized matter. 
 
CHAP. IV J PHILOSOPHY OF LEIBNITZ. 533 
 
 Applying the same principle to the history of human 
 improvement, and the progress of science, it is 
 maintained, that the human mind has advanced, and 
 is still advancing — not per saltum — but, to adopt 
 the language of mathematicians, by innumerable 
 infinitesimal steps, towards perfection in knowledge, 
 till it attain the highest elevation of which created 
 intelligence is capable. The great metaphysical 
 argument by which this theory is sustained, is, 6i that 
 it is in the nature of things impossible that any body 
 or substance, whether corporeal or spiritual, should 
 be at the same indivisible instant in two different 
 states— that of motion and that of rest." It falls 
 not within the plan of the present work to discuss 
 these philosophical opinions, but merely to record 
 them as curious speculations, which may be dis- 
 tinctly traced to Leibnitz as their author, and 
 characterizing his philosophical system.* 
 
 Section XII. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE LITERARY HISTORY OF LOCKE. 
 
 400. The present retrospect of intellectual science 
 will close with a brief notice of the life and writings 
 of an individual who towers far above all his prede- 
 
 * For a more detailed account of these several hypotheses, 
 the reader is referred, with much pleasure, to the second part 
 of the admirable Dissertation of Dugald Stewart, and the notes 
 appended to that dissertation, in which the principal arguments 
 for and against these metaphysical theories are stated, with 
 
534 LITERARY HISTORY OF LOCKE. [PART IV. 
 
 cessors and contemporaries in this department of 
 literature, and who was the means of effecting a 
 mighty revolution in the opinions of mankind on 
 moral and metaphysical subjects, the effects of which 
 are still apparent, and will probably continue to be 
 felt through all succeeding ages. This truly philo- 
 sophical writer may justly be considered as the 
 founder of a new and more enlightened school of 
 intellectual philosophy, which, having originated in 
 Britain, has gradually diffused itself over the greater 
 part of the civilized world. Considering the period 
 in which he wrote, and the slender advances then 
 made in moral science, he must be acknowledged to 
 have achieved a work of no ordinary magnitude, 
 and most deservedly ranks highest among the logical, 
 metaphysical, and political reformers of mankind. 
 It is obvious that both the nature and limits of the 
 present work do not admit of an extended review 
 of his intellectual system, and still less can it be ex- 
 pected to comprehend a discussion of its comparative 
 merits. All that will be attempted in these con- 
 cluding pages, is to present an outline of his literary 
 history, and to glance at some of the more promi- 
 nent features of his philosophy. 
 
 401. John Locke was born at Wrington, in 
 Somersetshire, a.d. 1632. He was educated at 
 Westminster School, and entered of Christ Church 
 College, Oxford, in 165.1. While yet an under- 
 graduate, he acquired great distinction by his 
 
 a precision and beauty, to which perhaps it would be difficult 
 to find a parallel in our language. P. 37—59. 
 
CHAP. IV.] LITERARY HISTORY OF LOCKE. 535 
 
 progress in polite literature. His collegiate edu- 
 cation having been completed, he devoted himself 
 to the study of medicine, intending to practise as 
 a physician; and his distinguished attainments in 
 that science, at an early period of life, may be 
 inferred, from the honourable mention made of him 
 by Sydenham, in one of his medical treatises, 
 published a. d. 1676. To his skill in medicine, 
 Locke was indebted for his introduction to the 
 friendship and patronage of the Earl of Shaftes- 
 bury, and many other persons of talent and dis- 
 tinction. By his perusal of the writings of Lord 
 Bacon and Des Cartes, he was led to renounce the 
 logic of Aristotle, which still continued to be taught 
 in the English universities, and adopt the more 
 rational method of philosophizing suggested by the 
 author of the Novum Organum. It was about 
 this period, that the first rude sketch was framed 
 of his celebrated Essay on the Human Under- 
 standing, the occasion of which has been related 
 by himself with circumstantial fidelity, in the Pre- 
 fatory Epistle to that far-famed work.* The design 
 
 * " Five or six friends, meeting at my chamber, and dis- 
 coursing on a subject very remote from this, found themselves 
 quickly at a stand, by the difficulties that rose on every side. 
 After we had awhile puzzled ourselves, without coming any 
 nearer a resolution of those doubts which perplexed us, it came 
 into my thoughts that we took a wrong course, and that, before 
 we set ourselves upon inquiries of that nature, it was necessary 
 to examine our own abilities, and see what objects our under- 
 standings were and were not fitted to deal with. This I 
 proposed to the company, who all readily assented, and there- 
 upon it was agreed that this should be our first inquiry. Some 
 
536 LITERARY HISTORY OF LOCKE. £PART IV. 
 
 appears to have been formed of writing an analytical 
 treatise on the philosophy of mind, and some mate- 
 rials were prepared for that purpose as early as 
 1670; but the political troubles in which he was 
 involved, in common with his illustrious patron, 
 the Earl of Shaftesbury, diverted him from his 
 purpose, or rather induced him to suspend its 
 execution, till a more auspicious aera should arrive. 
 
 402. The persecutions of the Nonconformists in 
 England, and of the Protestants on the continent, 
 led this enlightened author to direct his attention 
 to the important subject of Religious Toleration. 
 His admirable treatise on this subject was first 
 published in 1689, and contains principles the most 
 just and liberal on a subject then little understood 
 by any denomination of the Christian world, most 
 of whom were ready in their turn to justify as well 
 as practise religious persecution. This important 
 tract, which obtained for its author the highest 
 reputation abroad, though at its first appearance 
 it was little regarded at home, was followed by 
 several others on political subjects, among which 
 may be mentioned two " on Government," first 
 
 hasty and undigested thoughts on a subject I had never before 
 considered, which I set down against our first meeting, gave 
 the first entrance into this discourse, which, having been thus 
 begun by chance, was continued by intreaty, written by inco- 
 herent parcels, and after long intervals of neglect, resumed 
 again as my humour or occasions permitted, and at last in a 
 retirement, where an attendance on my health gave leisure, 
 it was brought into that order thou now seest it." p. vii. foL 
 edit. 
 
CHAP. IV/] LITERARY HISTORY OF LOCKE. 537 
 
 published in 1690, and several " on Currency," and 
 other questions connected with political economy. 
 His valuable work on Education next appeared 
 in 1693, which was quickly followed by a treatise 
 on " the Reasonableness of Christianity," which in- 
 volved him in a controversy with the deistical 
 writers of his age. To their opposition we are 
 indebted for a judicious vindication of his former 
 treatise, and some other polemic writings. 
 
 403. It is not, however, on any of these pro- 
 ductions, excellent as they are in their kind, that 
 the reputation of Locke, as an intellectual phi- 
 losopher, principally rests ; nor does he appear, in 
 any of them, to have exerted the utmost force of 
 his genius. While resident on the continent, 
 during the exile of the Earl of Shaftesbury, to 
 whose fortunes he had attached himself on a prin- 
 ciple of gratitude, Locke first published, in a literary 
 journal, of which the celebrated Le Clerc was 
 editor, an abridgment of his " Essay on the Under- 
 standing," probably with the express design of 
 calling the attention of mental philosophers to 
 speculations then novel and untried, and, in many 
 respects, at variance with generally received opi- 
 nions. The leisure which he enjoyed at this period 
 of voluntary exile from his native country, enabled 
 him to prosecute, with greater vigour and success, 
 the important work which he had so long medi- 
 tated, and which was put to the press soon after 
 his return to England, at the memorable aera of 
 the Revolution. After having employed at least 
 nine years in digesting and revising it, this truly 
 
538 LITERARY HISTORY OF LOCKE. [PART IV. 
 
 philosophical Essay (of which a brief abstract will be 
 given in the next section), was first published 
 a.d. 1690, in one folio volume; and it will be ad- 
 mitted, even by those who do not fully subscribe 
 to his metaphysical creed, that the date of its publi- 
 cation constitutes an important aera in the history 
 of intellectual science. During the latter years 
 of his life, this great philosopher was employed in 
 writing several works on subjects of public interest. 
 Though labouring under great infirmity of con- 
 stitution, he drew up, at the special request of 
 William III., " a Scheme for the Comprehension of 
 Protestant Dissenters within the National Church," 
 an object which that enlightened monarch had much 
 at heart. Several parts were added to his tract 
 M on Toleration." Defences of his " Essay" were 
 prepared, in reply to the animadversions of the 
 Bishop of Worcester, Malebranche, Leibnitz, and 
 others. To the above numerous list of his valuable 
 writings, may be added his excellent tract on the 
 " Conduct of the Understanding ;" " Memoirs of the 
 Earl of Shaftesbury;" and " a Paraphrase and Notes 
 on the Epistles of Paul." Some of these did not 
 appear till after his death, which took place at 
 Oates, within the hospitable mansion of Sir Francis 
 Masham, on the 28th of October, 1704, in the 
 seventy-third year of his age. 
 
CHAP. IVJ METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM OF LOCKE. 539 
 
 Section XIII. 
 
 SUMMARY VIEW OF THE METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM OF 
 
 LOCKE. 
 
 404. The "Essay on the Human Understanding" 
 is too well known to render it necessary that an 
 extended analysis of its important contents should 
 be introduced into this elementary volume. It may 
 be presumed, that most, if not all, who shall honour 
 these pages with an attentive perusal, are familiar 
 with the principal topics of which it treats, and are 
 in the constant habit of referring to it, as a standard 
 authority. All that is necessary for our present 
 purpose, is to present a very brief outline of the 
 subjects discussed in this admirable treatise, as the 
 shortest and most practicable means of exhibiting a 
 summary view of the metaphysical system of its 
 author. 
 
 In the first book, the question is discussed, whether 
 there exist in the human understanding any innate 
 notions or principles, whether speculative or prac- 
 tical. The negative of that position is maintained 
 and defended by a great variety of conclusive 
 arguments, drawn from universal observation and 
 experience, carefully guarding against hypotheses 
 and a priori reasonings. In the second book, the 
 author proceeds more directly to his proposed 
 object — that of analyzing the phenomena and ope- 
 rations of mind ; and he does this, by explaining 
 the nature, and inquiring into the origin of ideas ; 
 
540 METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM OF LOCKE. [PART IV. 
 
 all of which are distinctly traced to two grand 
 sources, sensation and reflection : ideas in general 
 are then classified under the heads of simple and 
 complex ; the simple including those derived imme- 
 diately from the senses, as colour, solidity, &c, or 
 obtained by reflection, as our ideas of pleasure and 
 pain, existence or being, unity, power, &c. ; the 
 complex are subdivided into modes, substances, and 
 relations. Among the former of these are enume- 
 rated as simple modes, those of space, duration, 
 infinity, number, with others that proceed more 
 directly from sensation, such as sounds, tastes, 
 colours, &c. Among the mixed modes are com- 
 prehended most of the combinations of simple ideas, 
 of which the mind is conscious, and of which lan- 
 guage is, for the most part, composed. Under the 
 next division of complex ideas — substances — are 
 introduced many important and valuable distinc- 
 tions, relative to the nature and properties of body 
 and spirit. Under the third class of complex ideas, 
 viz. relations, are included disquisitions into the 
 relations of cause and effect, identity and diversity, 
 good and evil, with their several varieties and 
 modifications. In the third book, which is rather 
 dialectic than metaphysical, the author proceeds to 
 investigate language in general, and considers words 
 as signs of ideas, under which logical division of 
 the subject are introduced many important remarks 
 on terms and propositions — on the use and abuse — 
 the imperfection and improvement of language. 
 The last book, which is, morally considered, the 
 most important, treats of knowledge and opinion, of 
 
CHAP. 1V.3 METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM OF LOCKE. 541 
 
 truth and evidence, of the grounds of human judg- 
 ment, and the principles of human belief; con- 
 cluding with some valuable sections on the province 
 of reason as distinguished from that of faith, and 
 the numerous sources of prejudice, error, or mental 
 delusion. 
 
 405. Such is the wide field of investigation on 
 which this great philosopher enters, in his celebrated 
 " Essay ;" including in one or other of its parts 
 almost every topic that comes within the range of 
 moral and intellectual science. To judge correctly, 
 however, of its transcendant merits, we must not 
 view it as it may now appear to the metaphysical 
 inquirer, who possesses all the additional light and 
 information which subsequent investigations have 
 afforded. We must conceive of the science of mind, 
 as it then existed, and endeavour to place ourselves 
 in the position of those, who had just escaped from 
 the trammels of Aristotle, or who were bewildered 
 amidst the speculations of Des Cartes and Leibnitz ; 
 for these were the great authorities who had then 
 acquired an almost universal ascendancy, and to 
 whose genius and talents a homage, almost amount- 
 ing to idolatry, was rendered. We cannot wonder 
 that, at first, the development of a new and more 
 rational system should have attracted little atten- 
 tion ; that many prejudices should have been armed 
 against it ; and that, when promulgated to the 
 world, it should have encountered great opposition. 
 
 406. There were two prominent features of 
 Locke's metaphysical system, which occasioned much 
 controversy at the time, and respecting which the 
 
542 METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM OF LOCKE. [PART IV. 
 
 opinions of metaphysical writers are still much 
 divided ; these relate to the origin of ideas, and the 
 powers of moral perception. Respecting the former 
 of these, it is to be remembered, that there existed at 
 that time, and still continue to exist, two grand 
 classes, or rather schools of mental philosophers, 
 which, for the sake of distinction, may be termed 
 the Cartesians and the Gassendists. The Cartesians, 
 (with whom, in this particular, Locke must be asso- 
 ciated,) while they admit that a great part of our 
 knowledge is' obtained by sensation, contend also 
 that the mind acquires no inconsiderable portion of 
 its knowledge by reflecting on itself and by atten- 
 tively observing its own faculties and operations. 
 The Gassendists assert, that all our ideas are derived 
 from the senses, and that the intellectual phenomena 
 admit of no other explanation than that which is fur- 
 nished by analogies drawn from the material world, 
 of which indeed it forms a part. The infidel philo- 
 sophers of the two last centuries have laid claim to 
 Locke, as the founder of their metaphysical systems, 
 and affect to consider themselves his disciples ; but 
 it were easy to prove, from numerous passages in his 
 writings and correspondence, that the latter theory 
 is diametrically opposed to this fundamental doctrine 
 of his philosophical creed, and belongs rather to the 
 school of Hobbes and Gassendi, than that of Locke.* 
 407. The second of the principles adverted to, 
 as characterizing Locke's system, bears more on 
 ethics than metaphysics. From not having been 
 
 * Stewart's Second Diss. pp. 16, 26. 
 
CHAP, ivj METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM OF LOCKE. 543 
 
 well understood, and perhaps, in some instances, too 
 loosely stated, many took alarm, and imagined that it 
 involved moral consequences of the most dangerous 
 kind. The train of arguments employed by Locke 
 to prove that there are no innate principles, either 
 speculative or practical, led some to imagine that 
 his system was at variance with Scripture, and 
 destructive of all natural religion and moral obliga- 
 tion. On this ground it was vehemently attacked by 
 Stillingfleet ; Lord Shaftesbury appears too, from 
 some passages in his " Characteristics," to have 
 formed the same apprehension. Nor those alone, 
 but the illustrious and excellent Sir Isaac Newton, 
 seems at first to have entertained similar fears, though 
 he subsequently retracted that opinion, and acknow- 
 ledged his error with all the ingenuousness of a true 
 philosopher and sincere Christian.* But whoever 
 attentively reads the " Essay" in question, must, it is 
 conceived, be fully convinced that the consequences 
 attempted to be drawn from this part of his system 
 do not legitimately follow, and least of all, that the 
 excellent author himself intended thereby to shake 
 the foundations of natural religion. 
 
 408. The retrospect which has been taken of 
 the progress of human knowledge, in the two 
 
 * In proof of this statement, Dugald Stewart has preserved 
 two curious and interesting letters between these two greatest 
 philosophers of the age, which do equal honour to both parties. 
 Vide Second Diss. pp. 31, 32. 
 
544 CONCLUSION. [PART IV. 
 
 great departments of physical and intellectual 
 science, might naturally suggest to the mind a 
 great variety of important reflections. The writer 
 will not, however, prolong a work, already far 
 too extended for an elementary treatise, by any 
 lengthened train of observations ; and the rather 
 as he is persuaded, that an attentive perusal of the 
 preceding pages can scarcely fail to have produced 
 a conviction of those great moral truths, which 
 he is most anxious to impress on the minds of 
 youth — a conviction founded not on human opinion 
 merely, but on the evidence of facts : — that the 
 causes which have operated, in all preceding ages, to 
 perpetuate ignorance or to impede the progress 
 of knowledge, were, either an undue deference to 
 human authorities, or a disposition to speculate 
 without evidence — that every solid and valuable 
 attainment, and even the most stupendous dis- 
 coveries, are to be attributed to the rigid adherence 
 of those by whom they were made to the processes 
 of induction and experiment — that, great as have 
 been the attainments and discoveries of past ages, 
 and mighty the powers of genius by which they 
 were achieved, there is no reason to imagine that 
 nothing further is to be expected ; for whoever pur- 
 sues the track of inquiry marked out in the present 
 volume, and takes a survey of the history of science, 
 subsequently to the period at which this review 
 terminates, will perceive, that there are vast regions 
 yet unexplored, and still greater developments to 
 be anticipated, as the reward of diligent investiga- 
 tion in future ages ; — and finally, that on account of 
 
CHAP. IV.]] CONCLUSION. 545 
 
 the present limitation of our faculties, and the 
 necessary imperfection of our knowledge, it becomes 
 us to pursue our investigations into the hidden 
 processes of Nature, and still more, into the pro- 
 found mysteries of Revelation, with a humble and 
 devout mind ; earnestly imploring divine instruc- 
 tion ; and joyfully anticipating the period, when 
 " that which is perfect shall come, and that which 
 is in part shall be done away." 
 
 N N 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 N. B. The numbers refer not to pages, but paragraphs. 
 
 Abstinence, 145, 193. 
 
 Abstract Sciences, (see Mathematics). 
 
 Academics, sect of, 30, 67, 115, 118, 
 
 119, 138, 147—153, 167, 174,229, 
 
 230, 330. 
 Academic Questions (Cicero's), 149. 
 Academies of Science, 259, 337. 
 Acoustics, 104. 
 Acta Eruditorum (Leipsic Journal), 
 
 332,391. 
 '* Advancement of Learning" (Bacon's), 
 
 360, 361. 
 Affinities, chemical, 212, 226, 341. 
 Air, nature and properties of, 102, 
 
 224, 310, 312—314. 
 Air-Pump, invention of, 225, 312, 
 
 313, 345. 
 Albertines, sect of the, 237. 
 Alchemy, science of, 212, 213, 226, 
 
 340, 363. 
 Algebra, origin of, 33, 202 ; progress, 
 
 206,215,246,256. 
 Algebraists, Arabian, 202 — 204; 
 
 European, 215 — 222; modern, 
 
 245—267. 
 Almagest, Ptolemy's, 88, 89, 205, 207, 
 
 216,220. 
 Almagest, New, 280. 
 Alphabetical characters invented, 59. 
 Alphonsine Tables (astronomical), 217. 
 Ammonian school (see Eclectics). 
 Analysis (geometrical), 72, 222, 245, 
 
 265, 267. 
 Analytics (of Aristotle), 113,122,123, 
 
 127,128,135,14-1,236,238. 
 
 Anima Mundifsee Philosophy of Plato), 
 148, 150, 162. 
 
 Antediluvians, knowledge of the, 1 3. 
 
 Aphorisms, ancient, 27, 65, 172. 
 
 Apodeictics (in logic), 127. 
 
 Appetites, in ethics, 145, 184, 185, 
 193. 
 
 Aqueducts, ancient, 101. 
 
 Arabian literature, 200 — 213. 
 
 Architecture, ancient, 13, 14, 19, 36, 
 42, 45. 
 
 Arguments (in logic), 137. 
 
 Arithmetic, origin of, 33 ; sexage- 
 simal, 201,204; decimal, 201. 
 
 Arithmetical Triangle, 258. 
 
 Astrolabe, 206, 208, 216, 221. 
 
 Astrology, judicial, 16, 17, 33, 38, 
 54. 
 
 Astronomia Instaurata (Copernicus') 
 269. 
 
 Astronomy, Chaldaean, 15, 16, 18; 
 Chinese, 28; Indian, 33 ; Persian, 
 41; Egyptian, 51; Phoenician, 55 ; 
 Grecian, 70—89; Arabian, 205— 
 208; European, in middle ages, 
 214—222; modern, 268— 291. 
 
 Astronomy, physical, 273, 289, 307. 
 
 schools of, 207, 220, 271. 
 
 Astronomical Tables, 86, 207, 208, 217, 
 
 283, 284. 
 Atheism, Atheists, 146, 386, 387. 
 Atomic Philosophy, 58, 146, 357, 378, 
 
 396. 
 Attraction, law of, (see Gravitation). 
 
 Electric, 341, 344. 
 
 NN 2 
 
548 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 Automata, 210,223. 
 Axioms, 136, 305. 
 
 Baconian Philosophy, 297,355—371, 
 
 387, 401. 
 Barometer, invention of, 310, 312. 
 Being (in metaphysics), 148, 154, 155. 
 Binomial Theorem, 264. 
 
 Calendar, corrections of, 81, 87, 272, 
 
 354. 
 Camera Obscura, 225, 317. 
 Canonica (of Epicurus), 115, 138. 
 Cartesian System, 99, 278, 288, 310, 
 314, 321, 336, 349, 357, 372—378, 
 • 406. 
 Categories (Aristotle's), 122, 124, 141, 
 
 238, 366. 
 Catenarian Curve, 261,303. 
 Catoptrics, 332. 
 Central Forces, 286, 289, 295, 298, 
 
 300, 301, 303, 305, 306. 
 Chemistry, science of, 53, 209, 226, 
 
 238, 336, 339—343. 
 Christian Philosophers, 386, 389. 
 Chronology, 81,87,272,354. 
 Chronometers, 224. 
 Circle, quadrature of, 72, 76, 254, 260, 
 
 264. 
 Classification of Sciences, 6 — 11; an- 
 cient philosophers, 66 — 68; scien- 
 tific and intellectual Philosophers of 
 middle ages, 199; ditto moderns, 
 244. 
 Clepsydrae, or Water-clocks, 100,210, 
 
 223. 
 Clocks, invention of, 224. 
 Collision, laws of, 299, 306. 
 Colonization of Greece, 60. 
 Colours, doctrine of, 322, 331, 332, 
 
 336. 
 Colures, solstitial, 83. 
 Composition of Forces, 295, 299, 303, 
 
 304, 306. 
 Comets, theory of, 16, 17, 80, 221, 
 
 271,280,283,285. 
 Commerce, 54, 55. 
 
 Conflagration, final, 161. 
 
 Conic Sections, 72, 77, 78, 203, 221, 
 
 248,261. 
 Constellations, ancient, 16, 28, 79; 
 
 modern, 285. 
 Continuity, law of, 195, 295, 395, 399. 
 Copemican System, 269, 270, 275. 
 Coronas, discovery and theory of, 280, 
 
 330. 
 Cosmogonies, 16, 57, 60, 61, 169. 
 Criticism, progress of, 239, 242, 353, 
 
 354. 
 Cubation of solids, 254, 
 Cube, duplication of, 71. 
 Currency, tracts on, 402. 
 Curves, nature of, 76, 253, 256, 260, 
 
 262, 2&3. 
 Cycles, 41, 81, 83; Metonic, 81. 
 Cyclical Theory of Meteors, 87. 
 Cycloids, properties of, 255—258, 260, 
 
 261, 300, 306. 
 Cylinder, treatises on, 76, 78, 221. 
 
 Daemons, 145, 153, 164, 192. 
 Data (Euclid's), 245. 
 Definitions (in logic), 118, 122, 140. 
 Deflection (see Inflection). 
 Deluge, sera of, 13, 20, 23. 
 Demiurgos, 152, 153. 
 Demonstrations (Huet's and Clarke's), 
 387, 389. 
 
 Design of the work, 1, 5, 12. 
 
 Dialectics, ancient, 7, 112—141, 357; 
 of middle ages, 229, 234 ; modern, 
 354, 357. 
 
 Dialling, art of, 81, 82. 
 
 Dialogues (of Plato), 119, 152. 
 
 Diatonic Scale, 105. 
 
 Differential Calculus, 261, 262, 264, 
 266, 303, 392. 
 
 Triangle, 260. 
 
 Dioptrics, 318, 320, 330, 332. 
 
 Dispersion of mankind, 14. 
 
 Dissenters, comprehension of, 403. 
 
 Disturbing Forces, 289. 
 
 Divisions of the Work, 12,68, 199, 244. 
 
 Dynamics, science of, 93, 292—307. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 549 
 
 Earth, figure of, 289 ; measurement 
 of, 83, 87, 205, 283; motions of, 
 81, 82, 269, 277, 287, 288, 291. 
 
 Eastern Nations, origin of, 21 ; philo- 
 sophy, 13—59. 
 
 Eclectics, sect of, 67, 167—170, 191— 
 193, 212, 229, 237, 353, 357. 
 
 Eclipses, theory of, 16, 28, 51, 207, 
 208, 274, 284. 
 
 Ecliptic, 79 ; obliquity of, 28, 205. 
 
 Education, tracts on, 371, 402, 403. 
 
 Electrical Machine invented, 345. 
 
 Electricity, science of, 339, 344—346. 
 
 Elements (astronomical), 87 ; Euclid's, 
 70, 74, 75, 203, 216, 219, 247; 
 of Geometry, 71, 72, 219. 
 
 Epicurean Sect, 67, 115, 174, 187— 
 190, 387. 
 
 Equations (algebraic), 203, 205, 246, 
 249, 252, 261, 265. 
 
 Equilibria, laws of, 90, 91, 293, 303, 
 308, 310. 
 
 Equinoxes, precession of, 86, 206, 
 208, 289. 
 
 Essays (Bacon's), 371 ; (Montaigne's), 
 387 ; (Locke's), 392, 401—405. 
 
 Essences (in metaphysics), 154. 
 
 Ethics, 7, 9, 11 ; Oriental, 23,27, 32, 
 42, 46; Grecian, 64, 118, 132, 
 171—193; Modern, 371, 378. 
 
 Evection of the Moon, 89, 289. 
 
 Evil, origin of, 165. 
 
 Evolutes, theory of, 260. 
 
 Exhaustions, method of, 76, 264. 
 
 Eye, the human, 225, 316, 318, 321, 
 332. 
 
 Fabulous Ages of Greece, 60 — 65. 
 
 Fate, Fatalism, 161, 165, 387. 
 
 Feudal System, 241. 
 
 Fire Worshippers, 27, 40. 
 
 First Principle (in metaphysics), 169. 
 
 Fluids, laws of, 95, 101, 308, 309— 
 
 314. 
 Fluxions, method of, 256, 260, 264, 
 
 301, 303. 
 Forces, (see Central). 
 deflecting, 295—299. 
 
 Forms, (in metaphysics), 365. 
 Fountains, theory of, 99, 309. 
 Friction, laws of, 299. 
 Future State, notions of, 169. 
 
 Galaxy, (see Via Lactea.) 
 
 Gassendism, Gassendists, 387, 406. 
 
 Genera and Species (in logic), 136. 
 
 Geometry, origin of, 52, 69 ; progress 
 of, 70—78, 203, 204, 216, 219— 
 222,246—269; the new, 261— 267. 
 
 Glass, invention of, 108, 110. 
 
 Globes, invention of, 79, 208. 
 
 Gnomon (see Quadrant), 79. 
 
 God, nature of, 145, 148, 157, 169. 
 
 Good, the chief (in ethics), 174, 175. 
 
 Government, tracts on, 380—385,402. 
 
 Grammar, universal, 369. 
 
 Gravitation, law of, 33, 285—287, 
 291, 307. 
 
 Gravity, centre of, 91, 298, 306. 
 
 Great Art (Lully's), 238. 
 
 Year (Annus Magnus), 166. 
 
 Gunpowder, invention of, 226. 
 
 Halos, theory of, 106, 280. 
 Happiness, source of, 175, 183, 187, 
 
 188. 
 Harmonic Scale, 104, 105. 
 Heroes, 145. 
 Hieroglyphics, 48, 49. 
 Hierarchy, papal, 236, 241, 352. 
 Hour Glasses, invention of, 100. 
 Hydraulics, science of, 95—98, 99, 309. 
 
 Engines, 99, 100, 101, 312. 
 
 Hydrodynamics, science of, 95 — 101, 
 
 308—314. 
 Hydrostatics, science of, 95, 97, 308 
 
 —314. 
 Hydrostatical Paradox, 308. 
 Hypostases (of Plato), 148, 150. 
 
 Ideas, origin of, 134, 377, 387, 395, 
 404,406; nature of,151; innate, 407. 
 
 true and false (Arnauld's), 388. 
 
 Idealists, 146. 
 
 Idols (in Novum Organum), 363. 
 
 Immutable Morality(Cudworth's), 389. 
 
550 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 Indivisibles, method of, 254, 255, 257, 
 
 264. 
 Induction, method of, 118, 297, 35b 
 
 361, 365, 408. 
 Inertia (of matter), 274, 305, 814. 
 Infidel Philosophers (modern), 386, 
 
 387. 
 Infinites, analysis of, 253, 260, 261, 
 
 264, 302, 303. 
 Inflection of Light, 280, 331, 338. 
 Inquisition, court of, 277, 357. 
 Instantise (of Lord Bacon), 366. 
 Instauration of the Sciences, 341, 358, 
 
 360. 
 Intellectual System (Cudworth's)/389. 
 Intelligibles (in logic), 118. 
 Interpreters, or counselling Deities, 17. 
 Invisible Lines, geometry of, 73. 
 Ionic Sects, 67, 79, 112, 143, 144, 146. 
 Italic Sect, 67, 143, 145, 146, 172. 
 
 Julian Period, 354 ; Year, 87. 
 Jurisprudence, science of, 241, 371, 
 379—385, 391. 
 
 Language, origin of, 135 ; corruption 
 
 of, 197 ; theory of, 369. 
 Laws of Nations, (see Jurisprudence.) 
 Lenses, invention and uses of, 109, 110, 
 
 225, 316, 324—328. 
 Leviathan (Hobbes'), 383, 387. 
 Liberty and Necessity, 389, 393. 
 Library (Alexandrian), 83, 196. 
 Libraries (monastic), 239, 242. 
 Librations (of the moon), 289. 
 Light, properties of, 106, 107, 225, 
 
 306, 325, 326, 331, 333—338. 
 
 velocity of, 284, 321. 
 
 Literature, oriental, 15—20, 23 — 29, 
 
 34, 42, 45, 47, 49, 56. 
 
 decay of, 194 — 198; revi- 
 val of, 238—243, 353, 354, 358. 
 
 Load-stone (magnet), 227. 
 Logarithms, invention of, 251, 274. 
 Logic, (see Dialectics). 
 
 Mechanical, 238. 
 
 Logos (of Plato), 148; of the Stoics, 
 161. 
 
 Magian System, 15, 17, 19, 36, 
 
 41, 54. 
 Magnetism, 227, 344. 
 Man, nature of, 145, 163. 
 Manuscripts (ancient), 239, 353, 354. 
 Maps, construction of, 79. 
 Mariner's Compass, discovery of, 227. 
 Material System, 149, 169, 377. 
 Materialism, 387, 
 Mathematics, history of, 19, 52, 69 — 
 
 78, 200—204, 215—222, 245— 
 
 267, 351. 
 Maxima et Minima, 256, 262. 
 Maxims, moral, 172, 174. 
 Mechanics, 85, 90 — 92, 94, 209, 
 
 223, 292—307. 
 Medicine, science of, 53, 206, 213, 
 
 238. 
 Meditations, Philosophical (of Des 
 
 Cartes), 374. 
 Mensuration, art of, 69, 70. 
 Meridian Line, measurement of, 51, 
 
 283. 
 Metaphysics (ancient), 7, 11, 38, 50, 
 
 113, 142—146; of middle ages, 
 
 229—239; modern, 370, 377, 394 
 
 —407. 
 Metaphysical Theology, (see Scholas- 
 tics,) 31, 39, 50. 
 Meteors, theory of, 106. 
 Micrographia (Hooke's), 341. 
 Micrometer, invention of, 281. 
 Microscopes, invented or improved, 
 
 323, 328. 
 Mills, invention of, 302. 
 Mind, the human, 11, 12, 144, 148, 
 
 154, 158, 163, 169, 192, 370, 377. 
 
 the Divine, 148, 154, 157. 
 
 Mirrors, construction of, 108 ; burn- 
 ing, 109. 
 Monads, theory of, 349, 357, 395, 396. 
 Moon, motions of, 208,269— 271,276. 
 Morals, (see Ethics.) 
 Moral Sense, 173, 407. 
 Motion, laws of (Kepler's), 273, 289, 
 
 294, 295 ; Newton's, 304, 305, 394 
 
 —399, 404, 407. 
 Music, invention of, 13, 104, 105. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 551 
 
 Nature (in metaphysics), 149, 161, 
 
 184. 
 
 History of (Bacon's), 362. 
 
 Navigation, art of, 54, 55, 227, 302, 
 
 314. 
 Necessity (Philosophical), 387. 
 Newtonian Philosophy, 289, 304 — 
 
 307, 333—338, 347—351. 
 Nominalists, sect of, 235, 236, 238. 
 Novum Organum (Lord Bacon's), 360, 
 
 361—368,401. 
 
 Observatories (Astronomical), 82, 196, 
 
 205, 271, 285. 
 CEconomics (in ethics), 174. 
 Offices (in morals), 186. 
 Optics (ancient), 106—111; (middle 
 ages) 211, 225 ; (modem) 315—338. 
 Optimism, doctrine of, 395, 398. 
 Opus Majus (Roger Bacon's), 226, 324 
 Orbit, Solar, 206 ; Lunar, 269—271; 
 
 Planetary, 270—274. 
 Organon (Aristotle's), 122—130. 
 Organum Novum (Lord Bacon's), 
 
 361—368. 
 Orphic Hymns, 61, 62. 
 Oscillation, centre of, 300, 301, 303, 
 
 306. 
 
 Pantheism, Pantheists, 31, 146, 387. 
 
 Paper Mills, invention of, 224. 
 
 Parallaxes (in astronomy), 86, 274, 
 281. 
 
 Parhelia, 280, 330. 
 
 Passions (in ethics), 177, 182, 185, 
 373,377. 
 
 Pendulum, vibrations of, 289, 295, 
 300, 301, 306. 
 
 Percussion, laws of, 299, 306. 
 
 Period, Calippic, 81 ; Julian, 354. 
 
 Peripatetic Sect, 67, 73, 82, 106, 115, 
 120—132, 138, 139, 154 — 159, 
 167, 174, 179—183, 186, 230,236 
 —238, 341, 353, 355—357, 366. 
 
 Pharmacy, {see Medicine), 213. 
 
 Philology, {see Criticism). 
 
 Philosopher's Stone, {see Alchemy). 
 
 Philosophy (oriental), 27, 31, 39, 50. 
 
 Philosophy of Plato, 116—119, 147— 
 
 153, 175—179. 
 of Aristotle, 120 — 131, 
 
 154—159, 180—186. 
 of Bacon, 297, 355—371, 
 
 387, 401. 
 
 of Des Cartes, 372—378. 
 
 of Leibnitz, 394—399. 
 
 of Locke, 400—407. 
 
 of Newton, 289, 304—307, 
 
 333—338, 347—351. 
 Philosophy (experimental), 237, 297, 
 
 316, 339—347, 351, 362. 
 Philosophical Transactions, 267, 331, 
 
 336—338. 
 Phlogiston, theory of, 343. 
 Phosphorus, discovery of, 343. 
 Physics (ancient), 7, 9, 23, 28, 33, 
 
 53, 79, 118, 130—133; (middle 
 
 ages), 199, 223—228. 
 Physiological Remains, (Bacon's), 344. 
 Planetary Motions, 84, 270 — 274, 
 
 278—283, 290, 291, 307, 318. 
 Planets, discovery of, 16, 79, 271. 
 Platonists, {see Academics) ; Latter, 
 
 167. 
 Plenum, Cartesian notion of, 314, 
 
 321, 378, 396. 
 Pneumatics, 102, 221,312—314. 
 Political Science, {see Jurisprudence). 
 Predicables (in logic), 141. 
 Pre-established Harmony, doctrine of, 
 
 392, 395, 397. 
 Primary Mover, 156. 
 Prince (Machiavel's), 380. 
 Principia (Newton's), 265, 288, 304 
 
 —307, 314. 
 
 (Des Cartes'), 374. 
 
 Prism, Prismatic Colours, 334, 335. 
 Printing, art of, 228, 242. 
 Projectiles, doctrine of, 296, 299, 306. 
 Propositions (in logic), 125, 136, 140. 
 Proverbial Maxims, 42, 64, 65, 171, 
 
 172. 
 Provincial Letters (Pascal's), 258, 354. 
 Ptolemaic System, 88, 219, 269, 270, 
 
 275. 
 Pumps, invention of, 99. 
 
552 
 
 INDEX TO SUBJECTS. 
 
 Pyramids (Egyptian), 51, 70. 
 Pythagoreans, (see Italic Sect). 
 
 Quadrant, 79, 208, 281. 
 
 Quadrature of Circles, or Curvilinear 
 
 Figures, 72, 76, 254 — 258, 260— 
 
 264. 
 Quadrivium, 231. 
 
 Rainbow, theory of, 106, 225, 280, 
 
 316, 319,331. 
 Re-absorption, notion of, 31, 40, 60, 
 
 163. 
 Realists, sect of, 235, 236, 238. 
 Reason, Reasoning, 137, 140, 151, 
 
 161. 
 Rectification of Curves, 260. 
 Reflection, laws of, 106, 319, 327, 
 
 330, 333—337. 
 Reformation (literary), 354 — 358. 
 (Protestant), 238, 243, 
 
 354, 357. 
 Refraction, theory and laws of, 107, 
 
 111, 211,225,271,280,318—320, 
 
 330, 332—337. 
 Refrangibility of Light, 327, 334, 
 
 335, 337. 
 Revival of Letters, (see Literature), 
 
 198, 238—243. 
 
 Sabian System, 36, 45. 
 
 Sacramentarian Controversy, 236. 
 
 Sacred Books, 24—26, 38. 
 
 Satellites, discovery of, 276, 282, 283, 
 377. 
 
 Saturn's Ring, 276, 282. 
 
 Scala Intellectus (of Lord Bacon), 
 360—362. 
 
 Sceptics, sect of (ancient), 146; (mo- 
 dern), 386, 387. 
 
 Scholastics, 199, 218, 223, 229, 
 234—238, 262, 352—354, 358. 
 
 Schools, public, 234—236, 242, 357. 
 
 Science distinguished from Philosophy, 
 3, 4. 
 
 Scientific Philosophers (ancient), 67 ; 
 (middle ages), 199; (modern), 244. 
 
 Scotists, sect of, 237, 238. 
 
 Screw of Archimedes (in mechanics), 
 
 98. 
 Scriptures, translations and editions of, 
 
 238, 242, 243, 353, 354. 
 Search after Truth (Malebranche's) 
 
 388. 
 Sentences, Book of, (Lombard's), 236. 
 Seven Arts, (quadrivium and trivium), 
 
 231. 
 Sidereal Time, 206. 
 Societies, philosophical, 259, 271, 337, 
 
 374. 
 Socratic Philosophy, 114 — 117. 
 Solar System, 33, 51, 80, 85, 269, 
 276, 286—291. 
 
 Year, 79, 86. 
 
 Solids, doctrine of, 73, 95, 254. 
 
 Solstices, 79, 85, 208, 272. 
 
 Sophisms (in logic), 113, 119, 122, 
 
 129,137. 
 Sophists, 114—116, 119, 122, 130— 
 
 132, 139, 236—238. 
 Sorbonne, college of, 237, 354. 
 Soul (the human), 31, 39, 42, 142— 
 
 145, 152, 158, 159, 169, 180. 
 Spectacles, invention of, 225. 
 Spheres (crystalline), 82 ; of Eu- 
 
 doxus, 82. 
 Spherics, doctrine of, 78, 79, 203, 216. 
 Spinozism, system of, 387. 
 Spirit of Laws, (Montesquieu's), 385. 
 Springs, metallic, invention of, 301. 
 Stars, fixed, 28, 55, 80, 82, 84, 220, 
 276; number of, 84, 86, 87, 89, 
 271, 285. 
 Statics, 93, 94, 293, 295. 
 Steam-engine, invention of, 302. 
 Stoics, sect of, 67, 107,115, 132—138, 
 160—166, 167, 174, 184—186,190, 
 353, 357. 
 Sun, aspect and distance of, 85, 276, 
 
 280. 
 Syllogisms, in logic, 118, 126, 127, 
 
 141. 
 Symbols, origin of, 172. 
 Syphons, invention of, 99. 
 System of the World (Copernicus') 
 277, 
 
INDEX TO SUBJECTS, 
 
 553 
 
 Telescopes, invention of, 110, 274, 
 
 281, 315, 322—327. 
 
 astronomical, 326. 
 
 reflecting, 327, 337. 
 
 Terms (in logic), 123. 
 
 Theism (ancient), 40, 43. 
 
 Theodicea (of Leibnitz), 393, 394, 
 
 397. 
 Theogony, 60, 63. 
 Theurgic Art, 193. 
 Thomists, sect of, 237. 
 Thoughts (Pascal's), 258, 389. 
 Tides, theory of, 282, 289. 
 Time, measurement of, 80, 86, 206, 
 
 301. 
 Toleration, tracts on, 381, 402, 403. 
 Topics (in logic), 122. 
 Toricellian Tube, {see Barometer.) 
 Transits of Mercury and Venus, 279, 
 
 285. 
 Transmigration, doctrine of, 31, 145, 
 
 163. 
 Transmutation of Metals, 212, 213. 
 Triangles, properties of, 72, 247, 248. 
 
 Trigonometry, art of, 78, 85, 87, 203, 
 
 204,207, 220,221,249. 
 Trivium (scholastics), 231. 
 
 Vacuum, Cartesian notion of, 310, 311, 
 377. 
 
 Virtual Velocities, 295. 
 
 Virtues (in ethics), divine, 192; so- 
 cial, 172, 178, 186; private, 172, 
 176, 180, 186, 189; nature of, 172, 
 176, 192, 378. 
 
 Vision, theory of, 106, 211, 225, 316, 
 318,321, 332, 333. 
 
 Universe (in metaphysics), 162. 
 
 Vortices (of Des Cartes), 349, 377, 
 378. 
 
 Utopia (of Sir Thomas More), 354. 
 
 Water-clocks, 100, 210, 223; mills, 
 100. 
 
 World, its nature and origin, 169. 
 
 Zodiacal signs, 16, 17, 28, 79. 
 Zones of the Earth, 79. 
 
INDEX OF NAMES. 
 
 N. B. The numbers refer not to pages, but paragraphs. 
 
 Abbo,232. 
 
 Abelard, 235, 236, 238. 
 
 Abou-Giafar, 205. 
 
 Abraham, 14, 36, 43, 50. 
 
 JEgeus, 195. 
 
 Al-haroun, 205, 210, 223, 224. 
 
 Al-maimon, 205. 
 
 Al-mansor, 205, 207, 210. 
 
 Albategni, 204, 206. 
 
 Albert (the Great), 223, 224, 236— 
 
 238. 
 Alcuinus, 231. 
 Alexander (of Macedon), 74, 82—84, 
 
 120. 
 Alfarabi, 232, 233. 
 Alfragan, 206. 
 Alfred (the Great), 231. 
 Alhazen, 211, 216, 315. 
 Alkendi, 206. 
 Aloysius Lilius, 272. 
 AlphonsusIJ. (Spain), 217. 
 Ammonius, 168, 195. 
 Anaxagoras, 67, 144, 286. 
 Anaximander, 67, 79. 
 Anaximenes, 67. 
 Angelo (of Florence), 222. 
 Annius (of Viterbo), 20. 
 Anselm (Abp.), 233, 236. 
 Antheraius, 94, 109. 
 Antisthenes, 67. 
 
 Antoninus (Marc. Aurel.), 132, 163. 
 Aphrodiscus, 195. 
 Apolloniates, Diogenes, 67. 
 Apollonius, 74, 77, 78, 203, 221,248. 
 Apuleius, 62. 
 
 Aquinas (Thomas), 223, 237, 238. 
 Arabia, Arabs, 21, 43 — 46, 200 — 
 
 222. 
 
 Aratus, 84. 
 
 Arcesilaus, 67. 
 
 Archiates, 72. 
 
 Archimedes, 74—78, 86, 90—94, 96 
 —98, 107, 109, 203, 210, 224, 
 247, 254, 264, 293, 315. 
 
 Argyropulus, 239, 242. 
 
 Arimanius, 40. 
 
 Aristarchus, 84 — 86, 247. 
 
 Aristeus, 72. 
 
 Aristillus, 84. 
 
 Aristippus, 67. 
 
 Aristotle, 15, 16, 64, 73, 82, 83, 90, 
 93, 103, 106 — 116, 120—127, 
 131, 132, 135, 137, 138, 141, 143, 
 154—159, 172, 180—183, 197, 
 216, 221, 229, 230, 232, 233, 
 235—239, 243, 262, 270, 277, 
 341, 352—358, 363, 371, 378, 
 401, 405. 
 
 Aristophanes, 108. 
 
 Arnauld (Anthony), 388. 
 
 Arsachel, 207. 
 
 Assyria, 13, 15. 
 
 Athenagoras, 168. 
 
 Augustine, 197, 229—231, 237. 
 
 Averroes, (of Corduba), 207, 232, 
 233. 
 
 Avicenna, 213, 232, 233. 
 
 Azir-ben-hakem, 208. 
 
 Babylonia, Babylon, 15, 19, 20. 
 Bacon (Roger), 216, 224—226, 237, 
 
 293, 315, 324. 
 Bacon (Lord Chancellor), 3, 8, 120, 
 
 226, 297, 338, 340, 341, 344, 
 
 354—371, 372, 381, 386, 387, 
 
 401. 
 
INDEX OF NAMES, 
 
 555 
 
 Bailly, 33. 
 
 Baldric, 232. 
 
 Barrow (Dr.), 260, 264, 265, 332, 
 
 348, 386, 389. 
 Bayle (P.) 387, 392, 393. 
 Bee (School of), 236. 
 Beccher, 341, 343. 
 Bede (the Venerable), 231. 
 Benedetto, 222. 
 Berenger, 233, 236. 
 Bernard, 222, 236. 
 Bernoulli (James and John), 261, 
 
 285, 303, 348. 
 Berosus, 16, 20. 
 Bessarion (Cardinal), 242. 
 Bianchini, 222. 
 Bias (of Priene), C4, 65. 
 Blancanus, 73. 
 Boccacio, 239, 242. 
 Bochart, 387. 
 Bodinus, 381. 
 Boerhaave, 341, 343. 
 Boethius, 231, 232, (note). 
 Boinbelli, 247. 
 Bonaventure, 237. 
 Borellus, 324. 
 Boyle (Hon. Robert), 313, 314, 328, 
 
 332, 341, 344. 
 Brahma, Brahmins, 34. 
 Bramhall (Abp.), 389. 
 Brandt, 341, 343. 
 Bridfurth, 232. 
 Briggs (Henry), 251. 
 Brouncker, 260. 
 
 Brown (Sir Thomas), 344, (note). 
 Bruno (of Cologne), 233, 236. 
 Bruno (of Naples), 357,358. 
 Buchanan, 383. 
 Budaeus, 242, 353, 354. 
 Buddha, Buddhists, 29, 34. 
 Burgo (Lucas de), 219. 
 Burley, 238. 
 Byrge (Justus), 251. 
 
 Cadmus, 59. 
 
 Caesar, Julius, 87, 196, 362. 
 Calippus, 81. 
 Callisthenes, 83. 
 
 Campanella, 357,358. 
 
 Campani, 327,337. 
 
 Campanus, 216. 
 
 Capella, 231. 
 
 Cardan, 202,246,247. 
 
 Carneades, 67. 
 
 Cassini (elder), 283,284; (younger), 
 
 285. 
 Cassiodorus, 231. 
 Castelli, 309. 
 
 Cavalleri, 254, 255, 257, 264. 
 Celsus, 191. 
 Chalcidius, 231. 
 Chaldaea, 15—20,59,79. 
 Champeaux, 235, 236. 
 
 Charlemagne, 210,223. 
 
 Charles I. (of England) 374 ; Charles 
 II. 285. 
 
 Charpentain, 357. 
 
 Chilon, 64, 65. 
 
 China, 21—29,60. 
 
 Christina (Queen of Sweden), 374. 
 
 Chrysippus, 163, 165, 184. 
 
 Chrysoloras, 239, 242. 
 
 Cicero, 67,76, 84, 117, 132, 149, 160, 
 235, 362. 
 
 Clarke (Dr. Samuel), 386,389,393. 
 
 Cleanthes, 163, 184. 
 
 Clemens Alexandrinus, 62, 168, 191, 
 195, 229. 
 
 Cleobulus (of Rhodes), 64, 65. 
 
 Cleomedes, 83,87. 
 
 Cleostratus, 81. 
 
 Colet (Dean), 354. 
 
 Columna, 237. 
 
 Commandine, 77, 247. 
 
 Confucius (Kung-foo-tzee), 23—27, 
 191. 
 
 Conon, 76. 
 
 Constantine, 232. 
 
 Copernicus, 85, 249, 269, 270, 273, 
 276, 277, 279, 287, 294. 
 
 Ctesibius, 94, 99. 
 
 Ctesiphon, 90. 
 
 Cudworth, 57, 386. 
 
 Cumberland, 389. 
 
 Cusa (Nicholas de), 219. 
 
 Cyrus, 40. 
 
556 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES. 
 
 D'Alembert, 6, 8. 
 
 Damascenus, Joannes, 231. 
 
 Damian, 233. 
 
 Darius Hystaspes, 37. 
 
 De La Hire, 303, 332. 
 
 D'Hopital (Marquis), 261. 
 
 Democritus, 58, 71, 146, 378. 
 
 Des Cartes, 109, 253, 254, 257, 278, 
 279, 299, 300, 318, 320,321, 324, 
 332, 349, 357, 372—378, 386— 
 388, 395, 397, 401, 405, 406. 
 
 De Thou (Thuanus), 381. 
 
 Digby (Sir Kenelm), 344. 
 
 Diodes, 78. 
 
 Diodorus Siculus, 15, 17, 61,98, 108, 
 109. 
 
 Diogenes Laertius, 61, 70, 144, 160, 
 161, 172, 286. 
 
 Diogenes (the Cynic), 67, 184. 
 
 Dionysius (the geographer) 33. 
 
 Diophantus, 202, 215, 256. 
 
 Divini (Eustachio), 337. 
 
 Dobrell, 328. 
 
 Dominis (Antonio de), 318, 319. 
 
 Donatus, 228. 
 
 Duns Scotus, 237, 238. 
 
 Dunstan, 232. 
 
 Dupin, 236, 238. 
 
 Durandus, 228, 238. 
 
 Ebn.Younis, 204,208. 
 Edward III. (of England), 238. 
 Egypt, 14, 15, 47—53, 59, 61, 69, 
 
 79, 117, 340. 
 Empiricus Sextus, 132. 
 Engelius, 222. 
 Epictetus, 132, 160, 163. 
 Epicurus, 58, 67, 138, 139, 146, 187 — 
 
 190, 239, 378. 
 Epimenides, 64. 
 Erasmus, 242, 243, 353, 354. 
 Eratosthenes, 76, 83, 85. 
 Erigena (Joannes Scotus), 232. 
 Esculapius, 53. 
 Esop, 46. 
 Euclid (ofMegara), 67. 
 
 Euclid (the geometrician), 70, 74, 75, 
 111, 201, 203, 204, 216, 219 (note), 
 245, 247, 264. 
 
 Euctemon, 81. 
 
 Eudemus, 73. 
 
 Eudoxus, 72,82. 
 
 Eusebius, 57, 62, 168. 
 
 Eustrathius, 230. 
 
 Eutocius (of Ascalon), 77. 
 
 Faber (Le Fevre), 353, 354. 
 
 Faustus (Geinsfleiches), 228. 
 
 Ferdinand (of Corduba), 222. 
 
 Fermat, 256,260,264. 
 
 Fernel, 250. 
 
 Ferrari, 246. 
 
 Flamsteed, 285. 
 
 Fo-hi, 28. 
 
 Frederick II. (Emperor of Germany), 
 
 216,220. 
 Frontinus (Sextus Julius), 101. 
 Fulbert, 236. 
 
 Galileo, 99, 219, 249, 254, 255, 270, 
 275—279, 282, 287, 294—296, 
 298, 301, 309—311, 324—326, 
 328, 339, 367. 
 
 Galius (Alexander), 228. 
 
 Gassendi, 279, 344, 348, 386, 387, 
 406. 
 
 Gaza (Theodore de), 242. 
 
 Geber (Albategni), 204, 206, 216. 
 
 (Ben Aphla), 204, 213. 
 
 ■ (of Grenada), 207. 
 
 Gelibrand, 251. 
 
 Geminus, 87. 
 
 Gengis-Khan, 208. 
 
 Gerard (de Cremona), 216. 
 
 Gerbert, 201, 223, 232, 293. 
 
 Germanicus, 84. 
 
 Gilbert (de Porretan), 236. 
 
 (of Colchester), 344. 
 
 Girard (Albert), 250, 252, 293. 
 
 Glauber, 341, 343. 
 
 Gmunden, 220. 
 
 Greece, 30, 59, 66, 112, 117, 143, 
 144, 146, 147, 150, 153, 160, 171. 
 
INDEX OF NAMES. 
 
 557 
 
 Gregory, James (of Aberdeen), 260, 
 
 262,327, 337. 
 Gregory (Pope), 237, 272. 
 Grimaldi, 280, 331, 338. 
 Grocyn, 354. 
 
 Grosteste (Greathead), 237. 
 Grotius, 382, 384. 
 Guericke" (Otto de), 312, 313, 345. 
 Gunther, 251. 
 Guthenberg, 228. 
 
 Haarlem, 228. 
 Hadramut, 45. 
 Hafiz, 39. 
 
 Hales, 236, 237, 341, 342. 
 Halley (Dr.), 77, 78, 285. 
 Harriotte, 252. 
 Heraclitus, 67, 132. 
 Herennius, 168. 
 Herman, 232, 233. 
 Hermes, 49, 56. 
 Hero, 94, 99, 221, 247. 
 Herodotus, 52. 
 Hesiod, 61, 63. 
 Hevelius, 280, 285. 
 Hicetas, 81. 
 Hiero, 91, 92, 97. 
 Hierocles, 145, 168. 
 
 Hincmar, 23S. 
 
 Hindoo, 56, 170, (see India.) 
 
 Hipparchus, 16, 84, 86, 87, 89, 206, 
 271. 
 
 Hippocrates, 71. 
 
 Hobbes, 357, 383, 386, 387, 406. 
 
 Homberg, 226. 
 
 Homer, 63. 
 
 Hooke, 285-287, 301, 314, 327, 331, 
 337, 338, 341. 
 
 Horrox, 27). 
 
 Hortensius, 320. 
 
 Houlager than, 208. 
 
 Huetius, 337. 
 
 Hume, 38*. 
 
 Hushang, 36. 
 
 Huss, Join, 235. 
 
 Huygens, 260, 262, 264, 267, 281 — 
 283, 289, 300, 301, 314, 327, 328, 
 330, 3f4, 336, 339, 367. 
 
 Hypatia, 89. 
 Hysicles, 73. 
 
 Jamblichus, 57, 168, 170. 
 
 Jans (Jansen), 324, 328. 
 
 Jerome, 195. 
 
 India, 21, 30—34, 60. 
 
 Ingulph, 233. 
 
 Joannes Scotus (Erigena), 232. 
 
 John of Alexandria, 230. 
 
 of Salisbury, 232, 236. 
 
 Jones (Sir W.), 10, 15, 21—23, 30 — 
 
 33, 35, 39, 42, 43. 
 Josephus, 13, 20. 
 Iran, 17, 22, 36. 
 
 Isidorus, 73, 168; of Seville, 230. 
 Isis, 53. 
 
 Julian (Rom. Emp.), 168. 
 Justinian, 109. 
 Justin, Martyr, 145. 
 
 Kant, 394. 
 
 Kepler, 249, 254, 273, 274, 278, 
 
 279, 283, 287, 289, 291, 294—296, 
 
 318, 320, 326, 367. 
 Khalifs, 196, 198, 200, 204, 205. 
 Kircher, 318, 320, 322. 
 
 Lanfranc, 233, 236. 
 
 Lascario, 242. 
 
 Laurentius (De Valla), 228. 
 
 Le Clerc, 403. 
 
 Leibnitz, 261, 262, 264—267, 302, 
 332, 339, 348, 349, 351, 357, 387, 
 389, 390—399, 403, 405. 
 
 Lemery (the elder), 341, 343. 
 
 Leodamus, 72. 
 
 Leonardo (De Pisa), 215. 
 
 Leucippus, 146. 
 
 Lewenhoek, 328. 
 
 Linacre, 354. 
 
 Linus, 61. 
 
 Livy, 109, 235. 
 
 Locke, 9, 134, 147, 387—389, 392, 
 393, 395, 400—407. 
 
 Lokmann, 46. 
 
 Lombard (Peter), 236, 237. 
 
 Longinus, 168. 
 
558 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES. 
 
 Louis XL, 235. 
 Lucas (De Burgo), 219. 
 Lucretius, 286. 
 
 Ludovicus Vives, 235, 242, 353, 354. 
 Lully (Raymond), 238. 
 Luther, 243, 354, 355, 357, 358, 
 380. 
 
 Machiavel, 379—381, 383. 
 
 Macrobius, 168. 
 
 Magentinus, 230. 
 
 Mahabad, 36. 
 
 Mahomet, 195, 200. 
 
 Malebranche, 151, 388, 403. 
 
 Manetho, 48, 49. 
 
 Manilius, 87. 
 
 Marcellus, 109. 
 
 Marriotte, 332. 
 
 Maurice (de Nassau), 373. 
 
 Maurolycus, 248, 316—318. 
 
 Maurus, 232. 
 
 Maximilian (of Bavaria), 373. 
 
 Mayow, 341, 342. 
 
 Media, 20, 79. 
 
 Medici, 239. 
 
 Melancthon, 242, 243, 353, 354. 
 
 Menechmus, 72. 
 
 Menelaus, 78, 87, 203. 
 
 Mentz, 223; Elector of, 391. 
 
 Mercator, 260. 
 
 Metius, 275, 324. 
 
 Meton, 81. 
 
 Mochus, Moschus, 57. 
 
 Mohammed Ben Musa, 202, 204. 
 
 Mohsan, 42. ' 
 
 Montaigne, 387. 
 
 Montesquieu, 379, 381, 385. 
 
 More (Sir Thomas), 242, 353, 354. 
 
 More (Dr. Henry), 389. 
 
 Moses, 13, 14, 20, 36, 47, 54, 57, 58, 
 
 149, 212. 
 Muller (see Regiomontanus.) 
 
 Nanno, 232, 233. 
 
 Napier (Baron), 251, 252. 
 
 Nassir (Eddin), 208. 
 
 Neleus, 121. 
 
 Nemorarius ( Jordanus), 2 1 6. 
 
 Newton (Sir Isaac), 76, 79, 98, 261— 
 267, 274, 285— 291, 297, 303—307, 
 314, 315, 319, 327, 330—339, 341, 
 346—351, 367, 389, 393, 40T. 
 
 Nicephorus, 230. 
 
 Nicholas (De Cusa), 219. 
 
 Nichomachus, 105, 180, 201. 
 
 Nineveh, 19. 
 
 Nizolius, 358. 
 
 Nonius, 247. 
 
 Occam, 236, 238. 
 GEnopidus, 71. 
 Oldenberg, 265, 266, 337. 
 Ommiades, 207. 
 Origen, 168, 191, 195, 229. 
 Oromasdes, 40. 
 Orpheus, 61, 62. 
 
 Pahlavi, 42. 
 
 Panaetius, 184. 
 
 Pantasnus, 168. 
 
 Pappus, 77, 78, 94, 109, 195, 247. 
 
 Parmenides, 146. 
 
 Pascal, 256, 258, 260, 262, 264, 302, 
 308, 311, 314, 354, 386, 389. 
 
 Patricius, 358. 
 
 Peletarius, 247. 
 
 Pemberton, 288. 
 
 Periander (of Corinth), 64, 65. 
 
 Persepolis, 42. 
 
 Persia, 20, 21, 35—42, J9. 
 
 Petavius, 16. 
 
 Petrarcha, 239, 242. 
 
 Phaedo, 67. 
 
 Phoenicia, 54 — 58. 
 
 Philip III. (of France), 2^7. 
 
 Philobiblius, 56. 
 
 Philolaus, 81. 
 
 Photius, 230. 
 
 Picard (Abb£), 283. 
 
 Pittacus (of Mitylene), 64, 65. 
 
 Plato, 31, 38, 57, 64, 67, fl, 72, 74, 
 78, 82, 103, 106, 116-^120, 126, 
 131, 132, 139, 143, jl46 — 153, 
 157, 159, 160, 165, 167*168, 170, 
 173—176, 178—180, l|l, 229— 
 231, 235, 236, 239, 315J355. 
 
INDEX OF NAMES. 
 
 559 
 
 Pletho, 242. 
 
 Pliny, 86, 108, 344, (note.) 
 
 Plotinus, 168—170. 
 
 Plutarch, 16, 49—51, 92, 108, 109, 
 
 151, 160, 164, 286. 
 Poggio Bracciolini, 239, 242. 
 Polybius, 92, 109. 
 Porphyry, 56, 122, 168, 191, 192, 
 
 195, 238. 
 Porta (Baptista), 316—318. 
 Posidonius, 57, 87, 184. 
 Potamo, 67, 168. 
 Proclus, 62, 71, 72, 75, 78, 168, 
 
 195. 
 Psellus (elder and younger), 230. 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 49, 75, 84, 
 
 121, 196, 216, 220, 221, 315. 
 (Astronomer), 85, 88, 89, 
 
 110, 111, 195, 201, 205, 217, 219, 
 
 247, 269—271, 277, 280. 
 Puffendorf, 384. 
 Purbach, 220, 221, 245, 279. 
 Pyrrho, 67. 
 Pythagoras, 33, 51, 58, 67, 69, 70, 
 
 74, 79—81, 103, 105, 106, 132, 
 
 145, 153, 160, 163, 172, 179, 191, 
 
 219, 269, 286, 353. 
 
 Schottus, 312, 313. 
 
 Schultens, 45. 
 
 Selden, 383. 
 
 Seneca, 16, 107, 110, 132, 160, 161, 
 
 163, 166, 238. 
 Serapis, 53. 
 Serenus, 78, 221. 
 Sesostris, 52. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Earl of, 401, 403, 407. 
 Snellius, 318, 320. 
 Socrates, 67, 108, 114, 117, 147, 173, 
 
 174, 179. 
 Solomon, 14, 46, 52, 237. 
 Solon, 64, 65. 
 
 Sorbonne (Robert de), 237, 354. 
 Sosigenes, 87. 
 Speusippus, 67. 
 Spinoza, 387. 
 Stahl, 341, 343. 
 Stevinus, 293, 308. 
 Stillingfleet, 407. 
 Stiphelius, 247. 
 Strame (Ulmar), 224. 
 Strasburg, 228. 
 Sydenham, 401. 
 Sylvester II. (see Gerbert). 
 Syncellus, 20. 
 
 Ramus, 357, 358. 
 
 Recorde, 247. 
 
 Regiomontanus, 221, 222, 245, 279. 
 
 Remigius, 232. 
 
 Reuchlin, 353, 354. 
 
 Rheita, 327. 
 
 Riccioli, 280. 
 
 Richard (de Swineshead), 213. 
 
 Richer, 285. 
 
 Roberval, 255, 257, 264. 
 
 Ro6mer, 284, 302. 
 
 Rome, 67, 121. 
 
 Romulus, 18. 
 
 Rosceline, 233, 236, 238. 
 
 Sacrobosco, 216. 
 
 Sanchoniatho, 49, 56. 
 
 Sanscrit, 45. 
 
 Scaliger (Julius Caesar) , 353, 354. 
 
 Scheiner, 318, 321, 326, 327. 
 
 Tamerlane, 208. 
 
 Tartaglia, 246. 
 
 Tenison (Abp.), 389. 
 
 Tertullian, 195, 229. 
 
 Thoeetetus, 72. 
 
 Thales, 64—67, 69, 70, 74, 79, 103, 
 
 238, 344, (note). 
 Thebit, 206. 
 Theodoret, 56. 
 Theodosius, 78, 203. 
 Theon, 71, 89. 
 
 Theophrastus, 73, 121, 344, (note). 
 Timocharis, 84. 
 Toricelli, 99, 255, 264, 298, 309— 
 
 311, 313, 314. 
 Trebizond, 242. 
 Trismegistus, 49. 
 Tycho Brahe, 208, 270, 27 1, 273, 2^9, 
 
 320. 
 Tzetzes, 92, 109. 
 
560 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES. 
 
 Varignon, 303. 
 
 Ubaldi, 293. 
 
 Vieta, 249, 250, 252, 253. 
 
 Vitello (of Poland), 225, 315. 
 
 Vitruvius, 98, 100. 
 
 Vlacq, Hadrian, 251. 
 
 Ulugh Beg, 208. 
 
 Wallingford, 224. 
 
 Wallis, 98, 202, 260, 262, 264—266. 
 
 301, 302. 
 Walther, ( 222. 
 Werner, 222, 245. 
 Wesalia (John de), 235. 
 Wickliffe, 238. 
 Wilkins, 389. 
 William (Landgrave of Hesse), 272. 
 
 William III. (of England), 403. 
 Worcester, Marquis of, 302. 
 Wren (Sir Christopher), 301. 
 Wykeham (William de), 242. 
 
 Xenocrates, 67. 
 Xenophon, 67, 173. 
 Xenophanes, 67, 146. 
 
 Zeno(the Stoic), 67, 114, 116, 132— 
 135, 137, 139, 146, 160 — 166, 
 184—186. 
 
 Zenodorus, 71. 
 
 Zonaras, 109. 
 
 Zoroaster (Zerdusht), Chaldean, 20, 
 37 ; Persian, 36—38, 40, 42, 191. 
 
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 THE END. 
 
 LONDON 1 
 PRINTED BY R. CLAY, DEVONSHIRE STREET, BISHOPSGATE.