Boole. 
 %rightN». 
 
WORKS OF HALBERT P. GILLETTE 
 AND RICHARD T. DANA 
 
 Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data. 
 By Ralbnit P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana. 
 1750 pages, illustrated, 4% x 7 in,, flexible binding. .. .$6.00 
 
 Handbook of Cost Data, by Gillette. 
 
 A reference book, giving methods of construction and 
 actual costs of materials and labor on numerous civil 
 engineering works. 
 1878 pages, illustrated, flexible binding, 4% x 7 in $5.00 
 
 Handbook of Construction Plant. 
 
 By Richard T. Dana. 
 Gives net prices, shipping weights, capacities, outputs, 
 etc., of all kinds of construction machinery. 
 700 pages, flexible binding, 4% x 7 in $5.00 
 
 Handbook of Rock Excavation; Methods and Cost, 
 by Gillette. 
 840 pages, 184 illustrations, flexible binding, 4% x7 in.. $5. 00 
 
 Handbook of Earth Excavation; Methods and Cost, 
 by Gillette. 
 In preparation, over 800 pages, illustrated, flexible bind- 
 ing, 4%x7 in $5.00 
 
 Handbook of Clearing and Grubbing; Methods and 
 Cost, by Gillette. 
 
 240 pages, 67 illustrations, 4% x 7 in $2.50 
 
 Cost Keeping and Management Engineering. 
 
 By Ralbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana. 
 A treatise for civil engineers and contractors. 
 360 pages, 184 illustrations, cloth, 6x9 in $3.50 
 
 Concrete Construction; Methods and Cost. 
 
 By Halbert P. Gillette and Charles S. Hill. 
 A treatise on concrete and reinforced concrete structures 
 of every kind. 
 700 pages, 306 illustrations, cloth, 6x9 in $5.00 
 
 Handbook of Road Construction; Methods and Cost. 
 By Halbert P. Gillette, and Charles R. Thomas. 
 In preparation, over 800 pages, illustrated, flexible bind- 
 ing, 4%x7 in $5.00 
 
 The Trackman's Helper. 
 
 By Richard T. Dana and A. F. Trimble. 
 400 pages, cloth, 4% x 6 % in $2.00 
 
 Note: For full descriptions of these books see the advertising 
 pages at the end of this volume. 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 MECHANICAL and ELECTRICAL 
 
 COST DATA 
 
 Giving Shipping Weights, Capacities, Outputs, and Net Prices 
 
 of Machines and Apparatus, and Detailed Costs of 
 
 Installation, Maintenance, Depreciation and 
 
 Operation, Together with Many Principles 
 
 and Data Relating to Engineering 
 
 Economics 
 
 BY 
 
 H ALBERT P. GILLETTE 
 
 Consulting Engineer, Member American Society of Civil Engineers, 
 Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Member 
 American Institute of Mining Engineers, Late Chief * 
 Engineer of the Washington Railroad Commission 
 
 AND 
 
 RICHARD T. DANA 
 
 Consulting Engineer, Member American Society of Civil Engineers, 
 
 Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
 
 Member Yale Engineering Association, Chief 
 
 Engineer Construction Service Company 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 
 McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 
 
 239 WEST 39th STREET, NEW YORK 
 
 LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO,, Ltd. 
 6 AND 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 
 
 1918 
 
m5\ 
 
 Copyright, 1918 
 
 BY 
 
 CLARK BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 
 
 OCT 14 1918 
 ©aA506233 
 
 -VI t \ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Our principal reason for thinking that these notes would be use- 
 ful to others, is that we have found them indispensable within our 
 own practice and not available m other form. Although the civil 
 engineering field has long been provided with two cost handbooks, 
 no similar book in the mechanical and electrical field has been 
 obtainable. 
 
 The main purpose of this book is to place under the hand of the 
 engineer in the most convenient form for reference the largest 
 practicable amount of information bearing upon economic and in- 
 tensive construction production and transportation in the me- 
 chanical and electrical fields. So far as possible, the material has 
 been classified along the lines of the work that one man is likely 
 to be called upon to do at the same time, and this arrangement has 
 been supplemented by a very careful and thorough index, which 
 should be freely used in order to get the maximum benefit from the 
 book. We have borne in mind particularly the practical require- 
 ments of 
 
 The Designer, 
 
 The Appraiser, 
 
 The Chief of Construction, 
 
 The Superintendent of Operation, 
 
 The Engineering Student. 
 This Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data is 
 designed to be a companion volume to our two civil engineering 
 books, the Handbook of Cost Data by Gillette, and the Hand- 
 book of Construction Plant and Its Cost by Dana. In method 
 of treatment it resembles both of these, but its field, as the title 
 indicates, is mechanical and electrical'. These three handbooks are 
 so written as not to overlap, and can be used to supplement one 
 another. This has enabled the authors to devote almost the entire 
 1716 pages of this volume to purely electrical and mechanical sub- 
 jects. Thus, there is very little in this book on excavation, con- 
 crete, structural steel work, water pipe and other work classed un- 
 der civil engineering and treated in Gillette's Handbook of Cost 
 Data. Nor does this volume contain many cost data relative to 
 derrick.s, concrete mixers, motor trucks, rock crushers, etc., which 
 are treated in Dana's Handbook of Construction Plant and Its 
 Cost. 
 
 For more than twenty years we have specialized in cost data, 
 and during that time have conducted detail appraisals aggregat- 
 ing $650,000,000 and embracing every class of plant treated in our 
 handbooks. It is not to be inferred that the authors claim to 
 have personal knowledge of every detail covered by their valuation 
 work, but their staff of engineering assistants has been so or- 
 ganized as to supply all the detail knowledge required for appraisals 
 of every character ; and tO' this staff was intrusted much of the 
 work involved in the preparation of this work. 
 
 Rewriting a book on cost data is often regarded as being neces- 
 
 V 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 sary every time that the levels of wages and prices change sub- 
 stantially. If this were true, a cost book would scarcely be off 
 the press before rewriting would be necessary, for the prices of 
 some things change every month. The authors have gone to con- 
 siderable pains in the Introduction, Chapter I, to show how cost 
 data are usable even where wages and prices have changed since 
 the compilation of the cost data. Those who are inclined to criticise 
 any given cost on the score that it is " not up to date " are re- 
 quested to read the first part of this Introduction with care. 
 
 Where the methods used are the same methods in use today, 
 the age of cost data has nothing to do with their value provided the 
 original rates of wages, etc., are given. Applying the present rates 
 of wages will then make the cost data absolutely up to date. 
 Why this has not been more thoroughly recognized by critics of 
 cost data we do not know, but it seems to be the fact and we must 
 guard against it as much as we can by this warning. 
 
 Several professors of engineering have expressed the intention 
 of having their students use this book in making estimates of cost, 
 and for this purpose it has been suggested that all our data should 
 have been reduced to some " standard wage " and " standard price " 
 basis. Admirable as such a standardization might be, it is one of 
 those things that the student fails to find anywhere. Instead of 
 helping him by standardizing the data for him, we conceive that 
 we should be hindering his progress ; for one of his functions as a 
 practicing engineer will be the interpretation of published cost data 
 that conform to no standard whatsoever. 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties that we have to contend with in 
 the use, as well as the presentation of cost data, is found in the 
 fact that they come to us, whether originally or at second hand, 
 in various kinds of forms. A cost statement on one job will in- 
 clude overhead charges, superintendence, interest, depreciation, etc., 
 and the final unit costs will represent perhaps very nearly the 
 total unit cost to be reckoned with in an estimate. Another state- 
 ment from perhaps a neighboring job, possibly collected by the same 
 man in the field, will give costs which do not include overhead 
 charges, interest or depreciation. In making use of such data it 
 is naturally essential for the reader to appreciate not only what 
 is included but what is omitted, and not allow himself to be mis- 
 led by the incompleteness of the statement at hand. Published costs 
 are frequently incomplete, yet very useful in spite of incompleteness. 
 For example, " overhead costs " may not be stated although all the 
 "direct costs" are given; or, again, operating expenses may not 
 include repair and depreciation costs. Nevertheless, a skilled esti- 
 mator can use such incomplete costs to advantage, for he can him- 
 self estimate the missing elements. To facilitate supplying such 
 omissions and to aid in correcting underestimates of " overhead 
 costs " and " upkeep costs," we have given a good many data in 
 Chapter I, accompanied by a somewhat detailed discussion of these 
 important elements of cost. 
 
 In general, our plan has been to give capacities, weights and 
 average normal net prices (f. o. b. factory) of machines and equip- 
 ment of different types and sizes, together with labor and other 
 costs of installation. Detail operating expenses, inclusive of repairs 
 and renewals, are given for many plants ; and, wherever possible, 
 these costs have been accompanied by concise descriptions of the 
 plant and its first cost. We have selected for this purpose prices 
 and expenses that existed prior to the world war ; and in most 
 cases the data are presented in such a way that relatively little 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 work will be involved in applying- them to existing conditions in any 
 part of America, by following the methods outlined in Chapter I. 
 
 No book on cost data is any more fool proof than any other 
 technical publication. It requires as much judgment to use costs 
 intelligently as to use tables of safe stresses in engineering de- 
 sign. To the man of judgment and experience it is believed that 
 the information contained in this book will prove to be indispen- 
 sable, as we have found it so in our own office. To the technical 
 student of limited experience it should offer an introduction to the 
 economics of engineering. 
 
 In the compilation of data we have drawn largely from those col- 
 lected by us in the course of our appraisal and rate case work. 
 Valuable unit costs have also been placed at our disposal by Messrs. 
 Henry L. Gray, Arthur R. Kelley and P. S. Burroughs, valuation 
 engineers. 
 
 We believe that the greatest courtesy we can offer to the writer 
 of a technical masterpiece is to place his material in permanent 
 form where it can be most readily utilized, and we have therefore 
 made the freest use of the data obtainable from all sources. In 
 doing- so we have made it a rule to g-ive credit to its original 
 source throughout the text and we wish to express our obligation 
 and that of the entire engineering community to those men who 
 have contributed by their labors and out of their ripe experience to 
 the periodical literature of our profession. We wish also in par- 
 ticular to acknowledge our indebtedness to those members of our 
 engineering staff and that of the Construction Service Company 
 who have so ably assisted in compiling the data and reading 
 proofs : Messrs. Allan C. Haskell, James M. Kingsley, John C. 
 Black, Arthur P. Ackerman, Charles R. Thomas, Jr., and Walter L. 
 Anderson. 
 
 The Authors. 
 
 New York, July 1, 1918. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. General Economic Principles 1 
 
 Definitions of Economic Terms. — General Discussion of 
 Economics. — Various Sub-divisions of Costs. — Tables of 
 Overhead Costs. — Common Errors in Capitalizing Values. 
 — Alternative Plant Methods of Valuation. — Value of 
 Plant Location, of Right-of-Way and of Water Rights. — 
 Value of Attached Business. — Rate of Fair Return. — 
 Return on Investment in Sundry Manufacturing Corpora- 
 tions Not Under Governmental Control. — Cost of Estab- 
 lishing a Business. — Development Cost. — Separate Plant 
 Theory of Prorating Joint Costs. — When is it Profitable to 
 Retire an Old Plant Unit? — The Calculation of Rates 
 for Electric Current. 
 
 Chapter II. Depreciation, Repairs and Renewals , . .82 
 
 Definitions. Plant Units and Their Relation to Depreciation. 
 
 — Weighted Average Age of Plant Units. — Analysis of 
 Maintenance Accounts and Upkeep Costs. — Methods of Es- 
 timating Annual Upkeep Cost. — Suggested Improvements 
 in Maintenance Accounting. — Amortization Before or After 
 Depreciation Has Occurred. — Accrued Depreciation and 
 Depreciated Value. — Per Cent. Condition. — Straight Line 
 Depreciation Formula. — The Declining Balance Deprecia- 
 tion Formula. — Defects of Straight Line and Sinking Fund 
 Depreciation Formulas. — Rational or Unit Cost Deprecia- 
 tion Formula. — Criterion for Retiring Obsolete or Inade- 
 quate Plant. — Depreciated Plant Value Only a Part of 
 Total Value. — Life Tables of Plant Units. — Useful Life 
 of Reciprocating Engines, Generators and Turbo-Genera- 
 tors. — An Example of the Determination of Repair and 
 Depreciation Costs of an Electric Company. — Cost of Re- 
 pairs and Life of U. S. River Improvement Plant. — Life of 
 Vessels on the Great Lakes and Tidewater. — Methods of 
 Handling Battery Maintenance Charges for Large Systems. 
 
 — The Cost of Freight Car Repairs. — Comparative Costs of 
 . Repairing Steel and Wooden Cars. — Life and Mainte- 
 nance of All-Steel Cars. — Cost of Repairs for Polyphase 
 Motors. — Life of Wooden Stave Pipe. — Cost of Maintaining 
 Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six Years. 
 
 Chapter III. Buildings ... 145 
 
 Economic Principles of Building Construction. — Cost of Items 
 of Buildings by Percentages. — Cost of Office Buildings. — 
 Comparative Cost of Wood and Steel Frame Factory Build- 
 ings. — Cubic Foot Costs of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. 
 — Cost of Mill Buildings. — Cost of Buildings of Wood, 
 Concrete and Steel Framing. — Cost of Reproducing Build- 
 ings and Yearly Cost Variation. — Comparative Cost of 
 Slow Burning and Concrete Buildings in Chicago. — Brick 
 per Square Foot of Floor and Approximate Costs of Mill 
 Buildings. — Unit Costs of Reinforced Concrete for In- 
 viii 
 
CONTENTS ix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 dustrial Buildings. — Cost Chart for a Reinforced Concrete 
 Factory Building. — Cost of Two Story Reinforced Con- 
 crete Factory. — Unit Costs of Forms and Concrete in 
 Building Construction. — Cost of a Concrete Storage Ware- 
 house Using Precast Members. — Cost of a Brick and 
 Steel Factory in Pennsylvania. — Cost of Buildings for 
 Small Pumping Stations. — Construction Camp Building 
 Costs. — Cost of Mill Erection. — Cost of Shop Drawings 
 for Structural Steel. — Estimating Structural Steel. — Cost 
 of Carpenter Work. — Mortar Required' and Cost of Brick 
 ■ Laying. — Cost of Brick-work in Five One-Story Manufac- 
 turing Plants. — Cost of Powerhouse Brickwork in Indiana. 
 
 — Cost of Laying Common Brick and Fire Brick in a Foun- 
 dry Building. — Cost of a Pump-Pit. — Building Costs for 
 Electric Light and Power Station. — Cost of Buildings for 
 Compound-Condensing Steam Plants without Chimneys. — 
 Cost of Street Car Barns. — Cost of Electric Railway Car 
 Shops. — Cost of Buildings and Equipment for a Smelter in 
 Arizona. — Construction and Cost of a Reservoir and Pump- 
 house. 
 
 Chapter IV. Chimneys 216 
 
 Relative Economy of Various Types of Chimneys. — Sizes 
 of Chimneys for Boilers. — Height and Diameter of Chimney 
 for Plants of Moderate Size. — Cost of Chimneys. — 
 Cost per Horsepower of Various Chimneys. — Design and 
 Quantities for a 220-Ft. Reinforced Concrete Chimney at 
 Penarth, Wales. — Design, Construction and Cost of a 
 Concrete Chimney at Coldwater, Mich. — Cost of a Rein- 
 forced Concrete Chimney. — Cost of Chimney for a Cop- 
 per Smelter. — Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Chimney 
 in Philadelphia. — Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Stack 
 from the Inside. — Dimensions, Lining and Lightning Pro- 
 tection of Radial Brick Chimneys. — Cost of Brick Chim- 
 neys. — Cost of a Very High Brick Chimney. — Chimney 
 for Acid Gases. — Cost of Demolishing a Brick Chimney 
 with Dynamite. — Weight per Foot of Sheet Steel Chimneys. 
 
 — Cost of Steel Chimneys. — Cost of Steel Stack and 
 Breeching. — Dimensions of Steel Chimney Foundations. — 
 A Self-Supporting Steel Stack. — Cost and Size of Wedge 
 Rope Sockets. — Cost of Removing and Replacing Top of a 
 Steel Stack. — Cost of Erecting a 160-Ft. Steel Stack. 
 
 Chapter V. Moving and Installing 245 
 
 Cost of Loading and Unloading Machinery. — Cost of Haul- 
 ing One-Piece Loads. — Effect of Grades on Cost of Haul- 
 ing. — Truck-Drawn Pole Trailers. — Cost of Hauling 
 Poles and Cross-Arms. — Cost of Mule-Back Transportation 
 of Machinery in Mexico. — Cost of Hauling Machinery for 
 a Pumping Plant. — Cost of Installing Rotating Electrical 
 Machinery. — Cost of Installing Transformers, Rectifiers, 
 etc., of Less Than 75 kw. Capacity. — Cost of Installation 
 of Power Transformers of 75 kw. and Over. — Cost of In- 
 stallation of Electrical Rotating Machinery Up to 10,000 
 lbs. — Cost of Installing Motor Generator Sets. — Cost of 
 Installing a 500 kw. Motor Generator. — Cost of Installing 
 a 1,000 kw. Turbo-Generator and Auxiliaries. — Cost of 
 Installing 2,000 kw. Turbo-Generator, Boiler, Superheater 
 and Other Auxiliaries. — Cost of Foundations. — Cost of 
 Erecting a 300 kw. Motor Generator. — Labor Cost of In- 
 stalling 850 kw. Generator and Exciter. — Cost of Installing 
 and Testing Meters. — Cost of Underground, Cypress Fuel 
 Oil Tank. — Cost of Installing Tools and Equipment in a 
 Smelter. — Cost of Installing Mining Equipment. — Cost of 
 Preliminary Work in Mill Construction. — Cost of Miscel- 
 
X CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 laneous Foundations. — Cost of Erecting Miscellaneous 
 Machinery. — Installation of Pelton and Doble Wheels. 
 
 — Weight of Electrical Apparatus and Prime Movers. 
 
 — Setting Horizontal Return Tubular Boilers. — Floor 
 Space for Reciprocating Engines. — Cost of Space for 
 Different Types of Boilers. — Cost of Erecting Har- 
 rington Automatic Stoker Under a Return Tubular 
 Boiler. — Cost of Setting Two 200 h.p. Boilers. — Cost of 
 Two Engine Foundations. — Cost of Moving and Erecting 
 a 400 h.p. Corliss Engine and 500 kw. Generator. — Cost of 
 Wrecking a Plant after a Fire. — Installation Costs of 
 Miscellaneous Equipment. 
 
 Chapter Vi. Fuel and Coal Handling 291 
 
 Calculation of Steam Coal Required by Power Plants. — 
 Theoretical Mechanical Equivalent in h.p. Hours, of Heat 
 Energy Contained in Common Fuels. — Economy to the 
 Consumer Resulting from the Purchase of Coal Under 
 Specifications. — Economic Points in the Selection and 
 Purchasing of Coal. — Specifications for Purchasing Coal. 
 
 — Economic Hints on Calorific Tests of Coal. — Methods 
 of Estimating the Heat Value of Fuel. — Relative Value of 
 Anthracite and Semi-Bituminous Coals. — The Cost of Coal 
 Analyses. — Coal Size and B.t.u. per $1 Cost. — Evaporation 
 Tests as a Check upon Coal Analysis. — The Weathering of 
 Coal. — Variation of Car and Mine Samples of Coal. — 
 Calorific Value of Selected Free-Burning and Caking Soft 
 Fuels. — Influence of Ash on Value of Coal. — Cost of Pre- 
 paring Powdered Coal. — Coal Burned per Sq. Ft. of Grate 
 Area. — Cost of Briquetting Coar. — By-Products Coke 
 Ovens. — The Cost of Manufacturing Coke. — Economic 
 Comparison between Beehive and By-Product . Ovens. — 
 Output of Gas from a By-Product Plant. — Cost of Gas 
 from a By-Product Coke Oven Plant. — Cost of Burning 
 Charcoal. — Comparative Costs of Fuel. — Comparative 
 Cost of Power with Coal versus Oil Fuel. — Comparative 
 Cost of Coal and Oil Fuel for Railroads. — Comparative 
 Sizes of Smoke Stacks Necessary with Fuel Oil as Com- 
 pared with Coal. — Comparative Qualities of Oil and Coal 
 Consumed for the Same Quantity of Power Produced. — A 
 Comparison of the Economy of Powdered Coal, Oil and 
 Water Gas for Heating Furnaces. — Oil and Coal Costs 
 Compared. — Fuel Values of Coal, Gas and Oil. — Benzol as 
 a Motor Fuel. — Oil Consumption of a Diesel Engine Ocean 
 Vessel. — Fuel Oil for Steamships. Effect of Diesel En- 
 gines on Fviel Supply and Cost. — Types of Storage Plants 
 for Anthracite Coal, Their Economic Features and Cost 
 of Construction and Operation. — Labor Costs of Han- 
 dling Coal and Ashes at Locomotive Coaling Stations. — An- 
 nual "Operating and Maintenance Cost of Several Loco- 
 motive Coaling Stations. — Comparative Cost of Han- 
 dling Fuel in a Boiler House by Hand and by Telpher. — 
 Cost and Economic Features of Modern Locomotive Coaling 
 Stations. — Cost of Handling Coal and Ashes by Loco- 
 motive Cranes at These Plants. — Cost of Handling Coal 
 by the Mechanical Plant of the Wabash R. R. at Decatur, 
 111. — Cost of Erecting a Small Bucket Coal Elevator. — 
 Comparative Cost of Handling Locomotive Cinders by a 
 Pneumatic Conveyor and from an Open Side Pit. — Cost 
 of Ash Handling by Vacuum Conveyor, — Cost of Operating 
 a Vacuum Ash-Handling System. 
 
 Chapter VII. Steam Power 379 
 
 Economic Value of Furnace Efficiency. — Relation Between 
 the Cost of Power and Load Factor for Steam Turbine 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plants of 25,000 k.w. Capacity and Larger. — Costs of 
 Producing Power, Comparison of Estimated Costs with 
 Those from Actual Tests. — Reduction of Steam Cost in 
 Boiler House by Elimination of Human Labor. — Saving in 
 St^am Costs Due to Superheat. — increasing the Economy 
 and Capacity of Steam Boilers by the Use of Forced Draft. 
 
 — Relation Between Boiler Output and Steam Consumption 
 of Driven Fan. — Reduction in Coal Costs by the Use of a 
 Balanced Draft System. — Increase in Capacity of Boilers 
 Effected by an Increase in Grate Area Without Increas- 
 ing the Heating Surface. — Annual Saving from the Use of 
 Soft Water in 1,000 h.p. Boiler Plant. — Results from 
 Operation of Water-Treating Plant. — Costs of Cooling 
 Ponds. — Cost of Steam Power. — Coal Consumption of 
 Compound Condensing Steam Plant. — Availability of Ex- 
 haust Heat from Different Types of Engines. — Summary of 
 Operating Results in Steam Turbo-Electric Plants from 
 200 to 20,000 kw. Capacity. — Floor Space Required by 
 Corliss Engines and Turbines. — Cost of Power for Various 
 Industries Under Ordinary Conditions. — Labor Costs in a 
 Compound Condensing Steam Plant. — Fixed Charges in 
 Compound Condensing Steam Plant. — Fuel and Water Con- 
 sumption for Compound Condensing Steam Engines of 
 1,000 h.p. Upward. — Choice of Power for Textile Mills. — 
 Power Plants in Textile Mills. — Cost of Steam and Electric 
 Power for Operating Flour Mills Producing 54,000 Bbls. 
 of Flour Per Yr. — Typical Solution of the Power Plant 
 Problem for an Assumed Industrial Plant in Canada. — 
 Heating and Power Costs in New York City Isolated 
 Plants. — Cost of Power in a Large Apartment House. — 
 Cost of Power, Light and Heat from Steam for 19 Build- 
 ings. Operating Records of a Large Loft Building. — 
 Power and Maintenance Costs of 12-Story Loft Building. — 
 Cost of Power for a Large Semi-Public Building at Kan- 
 sas City, Mo., as Compared with Cost if Purchased from 
 the Central Station. — A Comparison of Efficiencies and 
 Costs of Steam, Water, Gas and Oil Power Generation. — 
 Comparative Costs of Power by an Oil Engine and a Steam 
 Engine in Small Units. — Comparative Figures for 500 h.p. 
 Oil Burning Steam Plant Converted to a Diesel Engine 
 Drive. — Comparative Cost of Electricity Generated by 
 Gas and Steam Engines. — Cost of a Gas Engine and of a 
 Combined Steam Plant. — Comparative Costs of Power 
 by Diesel-Engine and Steam Turbine in Plants of 600 
 k.w. Capacity. — Cost of Power in a 700-kw. Electric Plant 
 and a Comparison Between That and the E.stimated Cost 
 in a Steam Turbine Plant. — Comparative Costs of In- 
 stallation and Operation of Gas, Oil and Steam Engines. 
 
 — Comparative Costs of Power in Small Units of Gasoline, 
 Gas, Steam and Electricity. — An Arithmetical Study of 
 the Co.st of Power. — Comparative Power Station Costs of 
 Steam, Gas and Diesel Engines. — Average Costs of In- 
 stalling and Operating Coal Burning Steam Power Plants. 
 
 — Boiler Room Equipment Costs per Rated Boiler Horse 
 Power. — Cost of a 10 h.p. Steam Plant. — Cost of a 60 h.p. 
 Steam Plant. — Average Cost of Compound Condensing 
 Steam Plant. — Approximate Cost per h.p. of Steam Power 
 Plants Complete. — Sirnple Condensing. — Cost of a Steam 
 Power Plant for a Textile Mill. — Cost of Steam Boilers of 
 Various Kinds and of Various Sizes and Weights. — Floor 
 Area Occupied by Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers. — 
 Settings for Fire Tube Boilers. — Cost of Boiler Tubes and 
 Various Boiler Equipment; — The Co.st of Fuel Economizers. 
 
 — The Prices and Cost of Setting Various Steam Engines. 
 
 — The Prices of Various Steam Engine Auxiliaries. — 
 The Cost of Feed Water Heaters, Injectors, Pipe Covering, 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lagging, Piping, etc. — Cost of Water Purification Plants. 
 
 — Cost of Maintaining Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six 
 Years. — Cost of Stokers. — Dimensions, Weight and Cost 
 of Steam Turbines. 
 
 Chapter VIII. Internal Combustion Engines and Gas Pro- 
 ducers 616 
 
 Principal Economic Factors of Gas Power. — Mechanical and 
 Thermal Efficiency of Internal Combustion Engines. — Ef- 
 fect of Elevation upon the Power of a Gas Motor. — Eco- 
 nomic Limits Between Which Prime Movers of the Va- 
 rious Types may be Advantageously Used. — Cost of Power 
 for Pumping with Internal Combustion Engines Using 
 Various Fuels. — Cost of Power Generation in Small Plants. 
 
 — Fuel Consumption Tests of Small Oil and Gasoline En- 
 gines. — Cost of Producer Gas Power Plants. — Cost of 
 Gas Engines. — Approximate Cost of Gas Power Installa- 
 tion. — Electric Railway Gas Power Plant Costs. — Manu- 
 facturing Plant Gas Engine and Producer Power Costs. 
 
 — Cost of Generating Current with Producer Gas Engines 
 at Charlotte, N. C. — Costs of Power from Four Producer 
 Gas Plants. — Cost of Power Generated by 50 Brake h.p. Suc- 
 tion Producer Gas Plant. — First Cost and Annual Operat- 
 ing Cost of Four Small Producer Gas Plants. — Annual 
 Costs of Two 400 kw. Producer Gas Plant Units. — Cost of 
 Power by Burning Wood in Gas Producers in Mexico. — 
 Cost of Power in a Small Plant Using Illuminating Gas 
 for Operating Gas Engine. — Amount of Power Available 
 from Furnaces. — Operating Costs of Small Gas Engine 
 Plant for Electric Light Service. — Oil Engine Costs and 
 Operating Expenses for Different Types in Small Plants. 
 
 — Cost of Diesel Engine Power for a Textile Factory. — 
 Cost of Power by Diesel Engine Using Retort Tar. — Cost 
 of Power for Two American 225 h.p. Diesel Engines. — 
 — Operating Expenses of a Hot-Surface Oil Engine Plant in 
 New Mexico. 
 
 Chapter IX. Hydro-Electric Plants . . . .' . . . . 684 
 
 Unit Basis for First Cost Estimates of Hydro-Electric 
 Plants. — Cost of a Subterranean Hydro-Electric Generat- 
 ing Plant in Sweden. — Relation of K. W. Cost to Size of 
 Plant in Switzerland and Sweden. — Cost of Power in 
 Switzerland. — Cost of Developing a Water Power at Val- 
 lorbe, Switzerland. — Cost of Various Hydro-Electric De- 
 velopments in Ontario. — Yearly Cost of Power, Chicago 
 Sanitary District Section. — Cost of a 1400 kw. Hydro-Elec- 
 tric Plant. — Cost of 36,000 kw. Low Head Plant in Massa- 
 chusetts. — Cost of Hydraulic Power Plants of from 100 to 
 1,000 h.p. and for 10 to 40 Ft. Heads. — Comparison of K.W. 
 Cost of Steam and Hydro-Electric Power. — Analysis of 
 Efficiencies of Component Parts of a. Hydro-Electric Sys- 
 tem. — Data Necessary in Purchasing Water Wheel. — Cost 
 of Water Wheels and Turbines. — Cost of Steel Pen- 
 stocks. Concrete Penstocks. — Wood-Stave Pipe for Water- 
 Power Penstocks. — Cost of Timber Flume for Water Power 
 in British Columbia. — The Economics of Pipe Line Diam- 
 eters. 
 
 Chapter X. First Cost and Operating Expenses of Com- 
 plete Electric Light and Power Plants . . . .740 
 
 Graphical Analysis of Operating Costs Into Fixed and Va- 
 riable Expenses. — Output of Large Generating Systems. 
 — ^ Relation of Peak Load to Capacity. — Proportions of 
 Steam and Hydro-Electric Equipment to Load. — Analysis 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Of K.W. Hour Costs of Combination System. — Operating 
 and Cost Data for Electric Railway Power Stations. — 
 Labor Costs of Operation in Street Railway Power Plants. 
 
 — Relation of Unit Labor Costs to Size of Plant for Central 
 Station Work. — Cost of Generating Electric Power for 
 Operating the Elevated and Subway Cars in Manhattan, 
 New York City. — Cost of Generating and Distributing 
 Electricity for Lighting and Power. — Cost of Electric 
 Power. — Cost of Power in a Plant with a Relatively Large 
 Railway Load. — Installation and Maintenance of a Small 
 Electric Light Plant. — Design and Operation of Cleveland 
 Municipal Electric Light Plant. — Cost of Operating City 
 Lighting Plant in Detroit. — Cost of Construction and Op- 
 erating Expenses of the Municipal Electric Lighting Plant 
 at Burlington, Vt. — Yearly Operating Costs in Four Typical 
 Central Stations in Massachusetts. — Central Station Gross 
 Receipts and Diversity Factors. — Operating Expenses of 
 Massachusetts Steam Stations. — Generation and Distribu- 
 tion Expenses of a Middle West Company. — Comparison 
 of Costs of Operation of Gas Engine Station and Steam 
 Generating Station. — Central Station Labor Costs. — 2,200 
 Volts Versus 13,200 Volts for Rural Extensions. — Distri- 
 bution-Line Economics. — Factors that Determine Econom- 
 ical Life of Transformers. — Costs of Steam Turbo-Electric 
 Central Stations. — Construction Costs of Power Houses. — 
 Cost of Constructing Steam-Driven Electric Power Plants. * 
 
 — Average Construction Costs of Steam Turbo-Electric 
 Power Plants. — Unit Costs of a Large Steam Station in 
 Ohio. — Cost of Elements of Small Steam Electric Power 
 Plants. — Checking Power Plant Construction Cost Esti- 
 mates by Percentages. — Cost of Substations. — Area per 
 h.p. Occupied by Various Power Groups. — Reconstruction 
 Cost of a Storage Battei-y Plant. — Cost of Constructing a 
 Turbo-Generator Power Plant, Transmission Line and 
 Substructures. — Distribution Equipment Cost on a Small 
 System. — Cost of Additions and Improvements for Central 
 Stations. — Central Station Equipment Costs. — Plant Ex- 
 tensions. — Cost of Control Apparatus for 19,000-volt 
 Power Station. — Cost per Pound of Electrical Machinery. 
 
 — Miscellaneous Central-Station Construction Cost Data. 
 
 — Storage Batteries for Isolated Lighting Plants. — Prices 
 of Electrical Equipment. 
 
 Chapter XI. Overhead Electrical Transmission and Dis- 
 tribution • . . 878 
 
 Cost of Wooden Poles. — Weights of Poles. — Detail Cost of 
 Preparing and Setting Wooden Poles. — Cost of Digging 
 Holes and Setting Poles; — Improved Method of Stenciling 
 Poles. — Labor Costs of Pole-Line Construction. — Value of 
 Treating Poles and Equipment. — Cost of Concrete Bases 
 for Wood Poles. — Joint Pole Construction at Los An- 
 geles. — Cost of Setting Poles by Block and Tackle. — Detail 
 Cost of Cross-Arms. — Labor Co.st of Stringing Guys. — Con- 
 crete Poles. — Cost of Concrete Electric Railway Trolley 
 Poles. — Cost of Concrete Telephone Poles. — The Eco- 
 nomic Design of a Distributing System. — Labor Costs of 
 Building a Transmission Line. — Reducing the Cost of Line 
 Construction. — Itemized Cost of a 28 Mile Telegraph 
 Line. — Relation Between Span and Size of Wire. — Tow- 
 ers for Transmission Lines. — Ratio of Labor to Material 
 Costs in Steel Tower Transmission Line Construction. — 
 Cost per Mile of Pole Lines for 3-Phase 2,300 to 6,000 Volts, 
 
 — Comparative Costs of Transmission Lines. — Cost of La- 
 bor and Materials of 6,600 Volt Transmission Line 4.6 
 Miles Long. — Steel Towers vs. Wooden Poles for Elec- 
 
xiv CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 trie Lines. — Cost and Operating Data on 6,600-Volt Lines. 
 — Cost of Constructing a Short 11.000-Volt Transmission 
 Line. — Cost of 19,000 Volt Transmission Lines in New 
 England. — Method and Cost of Erecting 20,000-Volt Trans- 
 mission Line Towers in Assembled Condition by Means of 
 Guy Poles. — Method and Cost of Constructing 22,000 
 Volt Iron-Wire Steel-Pole Transmission Line. — Cost of 
 Constructing Wooden Towers for a 60,000 Volt Transmis- 
 sion Line 25 Miles Long. — Cost of 66,000 Volt Transmis- 
 sion Line. — Cost of Erecting 110,000 Volt Transmission 
 Lines. — Cost of Various Transmission Line Material. — 
 Comparison of Aluminum and Copper Wires for Equal 
 Resistances per Unit Length. 
 
 Chapter XII. Underground Electrical Transmission and 
 
 Distribution 964 
 
 Underground Conduit. — Pump Log Conduit. — Cost of Trans- 
 mission Conduit Installed. — Fiber Duct, Advantages and 
 Materials Required for Installing. — Vitrified Clay Con- 
 duits. — Cost of Repairing Openings in Pavement. — Cost 
 of Trench Work Through Brick Pavements for Wire Con- 
 duit. — Armored Cable Versus Conduit Systems. — Compara- 
 tive Costs of Tile and Fiber Conduit. — Vault or Man- 
 hole Construction. — Cost of Brick Manholes. — Main Un- 
 derground Cable. — Lateral Underground Cable. — Rodding 
 Underground Cable. — Removing Underground Cable. — 
 Method and Cost of Cable Splicing. — Cost of Installing 
 Street Lighting Cables in Boston. — Underground Tele- 
 phone Cable. — Pulling Underground Cables in St. Louis. 
 
 Chapter XIII. Lighting and Wiring 1023 
 
 Candle-Power Ranges of Old and New Lamps. — Factory ' 
 Illumination Costs. — Current Requirements for Lighting. — 
 Power Required for Illumination with Tungsten Lamps. — 
 Comparison of the Cost of Lighting by Various Systems. — 
 Cost of Operation of Practical Lighting Systems. — Cost 
 of Street Lighting in Various Cities. — Costs of Gas and 
 Electric Lighting Compared. — Maintenance Costs of Arc 
 Lamps. — Cost of Arc Lighting. — Cost of Installing Lumi- 
 nous Arc Ornamental System. — Efficiency of Arc Lamps. — 
 Economics of Factory Lighting. — Comparison of Arc and 
 Incandescent Lighting in a Shop Building. — Lighting of 
 Railroad Stations with Gas. — The Kauffman Lighting Sys- 
 tem. — Cost of Lamps. — Cost of Wiring a Two-Story 
 House. — Cost of Wiring and Conduit Work for a Power 
 Plant. — Labor Costs in Interior Construction. 
 
 Chapter XIV. Belts, Shafts and Motor Drives .... 1079 
 
 Cost of Split Pulleys. — Cost of Belting. — Cost of Adjustable 
 Shaft Hangers. — Selection of Economical Belts and Pul- 
 leys. — Friction Load of Shaft hearings. — Steel Belts for 
 Power Transmission. — The Cost of Electric Motors, 
 Tables. Etc. — Cost of Individual Electric Drive. — Steam 
 Engine vs. Motor Drive for Small Machine Shops. — Cost of 
 Motor Drive in a Six-Story Factory. — Electrification of 
 Shops of Wabash Railroad. — Power Required to Drive 
 Shafting, B. R. & P. Ry. — Cost of Eleotiic Drive in a 
 Foundry. — Power Required to drive Wood-Working Tools. 
 — .Application of Electric Drive to Paper Calenders. — 
 Electric Motors on a Farm. — A Comparison of Gas and 
 Electric PoAver for Drawbridsre SAvinging — Cost Record 
 of an Electric Power Shovel. — Cost of Operating Mo- 
 
CONTENTS XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 tors in Lime Plants and Quarries. — Farm Imple- 
 ment Manufacturing- Power Requirements. — Electric 
 Motors in Harvesting- Machine Works. — Electric Drive in 
 Cotton Gins. — Electric Drive in Sand and Gravel Plants. — 
 Motor Service and Heating Costs in a Jewelry Factory. 
 
 Chapter XV. Compressed Air 1132 
 
 Compressors of Various Kinds. — Turbo-Auxiliary to Piston 
 Compressor in an English Mine. — Economy in Compressed 
 Air Mining Plants. — Air Compressor Economy in New 
 York. — Comparative Costs of Compressing Air by Steam 
 and Electricity. — Efficiency of Compressed Air Transmis- 
 sion. — Methods and Cost of Laying 6-in. and 8-in. Wrought 
 Iron, Screw-Joint Pipe for a Compressed Air Main. — Profit 
 in Reheating. — Air Used per Motor Horsepower. — Air and 
 Power Requirements of Pneumatic Hammers. — Compressed 
 Air and Pneumatic Tools in the Foundry. — Pneumatic Tool 
 Costs in Shipbuilding. — English Costs on Scaling Boilers. — 
 Hydro-Compressor Installation Costs. — Cost of Compress- 
 ing by Water and Electric-Driven Compressors and the 
 Direct Action of Water. 
 
 Chapter XVL Gas Plants 1182 
 
 Percentage of Gas Manufactured on Which There is No Re- 
 turn. — Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 90,000. — 
 Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 25,000. — Detailed 
 Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 15,000. — Cost of a 
 Gas Plant in a City of 2,600. — Reproduction Cost of 
 the Properties of the Kings County Lighting Company. — 
 Cost of Service Connections. — Unit Costs of Gas Mains. — 
 Effect of Length on Cost of Laying 2-in. Gas Main. — Cost 
 of Relaying Pavement. — Cost of Buildings and Equipment 
 of a Large Gas Plant. — Miscellaneous Data Pertaining to 
 Various Complete Plants. 
 
 Chapter XVII. Pumps and Pumping 1241 
 
 Various Classifications and Types of Pump. — Pulsometers. — 
 Belt Driven Pumps, etc. — Prices of Pumps of Various 
 Classifications. — Hydraulic Rams. — Pumping Losses. — 
 Operating Costs of Various Pumping Engines. — Actual 
 Cost of Pumping in Various Cities. — Cost of Complete 
 Pumping Stations. — Pumping Engine Economy. — Cost of 
 Pumping by Gas Engines, and by Steam Pumps. — Cost of 
 Pumping Machinery for Water Works. — Comparative Cost 
 of Plant and Operating Expenses for Pumps Driven by 
 Reciprocating Steam Engines, Steam Turbines and Diesel 
 Oil Engines. — Cost of Pumping Oil Long Distances. — 
 Operating Costs of Various Pumping Stations. — Costs of 
 Pumping with Gasoline and Cheaper Fuel Compared. — 
 Concrete Muffler and Operating Clost of a Small Diesel 
 Engine Pumping Plant. — Comparative Cost of Pumping 
 Water by Steam and Producer Gas in a Municipal Pumping 
 Plant. — A Water Pumping Diagram. — Efficiency Test of 
 an Air Lift Pump. — Total Fixed Charges and Operating 
 Costs of Rotary Pumps Compared with Those of High- 
 Duty, Vertical, Triple-Expansion Type. — Cost of Pumping 
 Water for Irrigation. — Cost and Efficiency of Various 
 Units in Irrigation Pumping in California. — Cost of Small 
 Irrigation Pumping Plants. — Cost of Mine Pumping. — 
 Formula for the Most Economic Size of Pipe to Carry 
 Pumped Water. 
 
xvi CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter XVIII. Conveyors, Hoists, Cranes and Elevators 1340 
 
 Belt, Flight and Screw Conveyors. — Cost of Belt Renewals 
 and Power for Driving Beits. — Cost of Loading Bricks 
 into a Box Car Using a Portable Belt Conveyor. — Bucket 
 Elevators and Conveyors. — Economic Speeds for Bucket 
 Elevators for Various Materials. — Bucket Elevator Fac- 
 tors.- — Average Costs of Standard Bucket Conveyors, Etc. 
 
 — Test of Motor-Driven Coal-Conveyor System. — Suction 
 Conveyors. — Operation of the Automatic or Gravity Rail- 
 way. — Comparative Cost and Value of First Quality and 
 Second Quality Hemp Rope. — The Life of a Wire Rope and 
 the Effect of Oiling Thereon. — Cost of Locomotive Cranes. 
 — Capacity, Cost and Operation of Locomotive Cranes. — 
 Cost of Handling Lumber in a Railway Shop by a Loco- 
 motive Crane Compared with Hand Work. — Mechanical 
 Handling in Storage Yards. — Installation and Operating 
 Costs of Cranes. — Operating Speed, Cost and Capacity of 
 Electric Traveling Cranes. — Cost of Electro-magnets. — 
 Cost of Handling Locomotive Tires and Heavy Castings by 
 a Magnet and Crane. — A Specially Designed Traveling 
 Crane. — Cost of Hoisting Water in Unwatering Mines. — 
 Comparison Between Electric and Steam Hoisting Systems. 
 
 — Electric Passenger Elevator System. 
 
 Chapter XIX. Heating, Cooking, Ventilating, Refrigerat- 
 ing AND Ice Making 1421 
 
 Cost of Heating Buildings. — Figuring the Coal Consumption 
 for Apartment and Office Buildings. — Cost of Heating and 
 Power Plant Apparatus. — Comparative Cost of Heat When 
 Generated by Coal, Gas and Electricity. — Operating Costs 
 of Steam and Furnace Heating Plants. — Cost of Install- 
 ing Underground Steam Mains. — Efficiency of Under- 
 ground Steam Mains. — Saving in Coal Due to Pipe 
 Covering. — Labor Costs of Applying Magnesia Covering 
 to Pipes and Fittings. — Metered Service vs. Flat-Rates for 
 Steam Heating. — Prices of Heat from Central Heating 
 Plants. — Comparative Cost of Heating a 25-ft. Car, 45 Ft. 
 Over All, by Hot Water and by Electricity, Based on 
 Operating Conditions on a 32-Mile Interurban Railway. — 
 Comparative Costs of Heating Cars. — Comparative Costs 
 of Gas and Electric Cooking. — Heater Capacities of Simple 
 Devices. — Power Required for Electric Thawing of Frozerx 
 Mains. — The Power Consumption of Domestic Heating 
 Devices Electrically Operated. — An Electric Heater for 
 Thawing Explosives. — Cost of Electric Heating in Shoe 
 Factory. — Cost of Various Heating and Ventilating Equip- 
 ment. — Cost of Manufacture in Distilled Water Ice Plants. 
 
 — Refrigerating Costs in Large and Small Plants. — Cost 
 of Refrigeration for a Skating and Curling Rink. 
 
 Chapter XX. Electric Railways 1517 
 
 Detailed Appraisals of Various Railways. — Cost of One Mile ^ 
 of Single Track. — Special Work. — Cost of Overhead Tro.l- 
 ley Systems. — Overhead Line Construction. — Cost of Track 
 Bonding. 
 
 Chapter XXI. Miscellaneous 1645 
 
 Prices of Various Mechanical and Electric Apparatus. — Cost 
 of Tool Operation in Engine Manufacturing. — Cutting 
 Speeds in Machine Tools. — Cost of Tempering Tools. — Cost 
 of Equipment for a Boiler and Blacksmith Shop. — Cost of 
 Equipment for a Smelter Plant Machine and Blacksmith 
 
CONTENTS xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Shop. — Cost of Drafting- Equipment. — Painting Materials 
 Required and Surface Covered per Gallon. — Cost of Sand 
 Blast Cleaning- of Structural Steel. — Electric Arc Welding 
 Apparatus. — Cost of Electric Welding. — Speed of Electric 
 Welding. — Thermit Process Welding-. — Method and Cost 
 of Welding Rails by the Thermit Process. — Cost of Cutting 
 Off Steel Sheet Piles with the Electric Arc. — Miscellaneous 
 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Costs. — Cost of Vari- 
 ous Acetylene Operations. — Cost of a Davit Collar and 
 Pump Repairs. — Handling- Scrap by Magnets and Locomo- 
 tive Cranes. — Ratio of Average Load to Connected Load. 
 
 — First Cost and Maintenance of Portable Batteries for 
 Automatic Signals. — Cost of Electric Riveting. — Cost of 
 Thawing Water Pipes by Electricity. — Cost of an Electric 
 Sign. — Power Required for Motor-Driven Farm Machinery. 
 
 — Comparative Costs of Gas and Fuel Oil in Heating 
 Japanning Ovens. 
 
MECHANICAL AND ELECTEICAL 
 COST DATA 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 GENERAL. ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 
 
 Engineering is the application of science to the problems of 
 economic production. The engineer's ultimate aim, therefore, is 
 to effect a desired result at a minimum cost. To this end, where 
 it is feasible, the engineer should formulate a unit cost equation in 
 which all the dependent variables and constants are included, and 
 he should then solve for a minimum unit cost. But whether he 
 is able to employ this ideal method or must use cruder methods, 
 he must eventually express all the items in terms of money or its 
 equivalent. 
 
 Put differently, every economic problem resolves itself into the 
 determination of quantities to which unit costs are applied. No 
 economic problem can be solved merely by the use of qualitative 
 terms ; yet many a poor reasoner attempts to solve the most com- 
 plex of economic problems without the use of a single item to 
 which a definite cost is assignable. Volubility is vainly made to 
 serve instead of valuation. 
 
 Imperfect Cost Data. The term data is coming more and more 
 to designate statistical facts rather than qualitative facts. Cost 
 data are obviously essential in solving economic problems. Yet 
 there still exists a prejudice against published cost data. If, 
 however, each engineer were to rely solely on cost data gathered 
 by meager pickings from his own little crab-apple tree of ex- 
 perience, economic progress would be decidedly restricted. Accord- 
 ingly each year witnesses more complete and detailed publication 
 of costs in most lines of engineering work. It is true that many 
 of the cost data are incomplete, or insufficiently explained, and 
 therefore apt to be misleading. It is also true that men entirely 
 inexperienced in the use of cost data may misinterpret even the 
 most complete data. But neither the deficiences»in published data 
 nor defective reasoning in their application should serve as an 
 argument for restricting the publication of such information. In 
 spite of the risk of misuse, " a half -loaf is better than none." More- 
 over a half-loaf of knowledge on a given subject is almost uni- 
 versally the precursor of a full loaf. 
 
 Published cost data are usually defective, but defectiveness is 
 characteristic of nearly all economic data whatsoever. Who, for 
 
 1 
 
2 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 example, can accurately forecast the natural life of any generator, 
 or any pump of given size and type under any specified service? 
 Although we still remain ignorant of many economic facts, we 
 shall scarcely become wiser if we fail to make use of such data as 
 we do, possess on the ground that the data are imperfect. Let us 
 have done with fatuous criticisni of published cost data, and bend 
 our efforts to the gathering and publishing of more complete costs 
 of all kinds under varying conditions. 
 
 How to Use Cost Data. If a unit cost has been so analyzed as 
 to show the quantities of each kind of labor and of each kind of 
 material involved in the production of the given unit, such a unit 
 cost may be quite as serviceable a generation or more after its pub- 
 lication as it was when first published. Thus, the yardage costs 
 of excavating earth with drag-scrapers and horses which Elwood 
 Morris published in 1841 are applicable now, three-quarters of a 
 century later ; for we still use drag-scrapers for earth excavation, 
 and we have merely to substitute present team and man wages for 
 those used in the time of Morris. Curiously enough many men, even 
 engineers, have failed to see that " out of date " cost data can often 
 be thus brought up to date. 
 
 Rates of wages are frequently omitted in giving unit costs, but, 
 if the date when the cost was incurred is given, it is usually pos- 
 sible to ascertain the wage rates that then prevailed. An expe- 
 rienced engineer often knows offhand the prevailing rates of wages 
 that were paid in any part of the country at any given time. While 
 it is true that wages of individual workmen often differ quite widely 
 even in the same locality and at the same time, it should be re- 
 membered that this difference is usually consequent upon their 
 individual differences in efficiency. Thus, when railway carpenters 
 were paid $2.50 a day and contractors' carpenters were paid $3.00 
 in the same locality for the same class of work, the carpenters 
 working for a contractor did fully 20% more work daily. Hence 
 the unit cost of carpenter work did not differ materially even where 
 the wage differed 20%. 
 
 The labor cost of installing a machine is very often estimated as 
 a percentage of the cost of the machine. Supi:)ose, for example, a 
 given machine was installed 20 years ago at a labor cost that 
 was 10% of the cost of the machine. If the general level of wages 
 and machine prices has risen 75% since that time, then the ratio 
 of labor cost of installation to machine cost would still remain 10%; 
 and the labor cost data of 20 years ago would remain applicable 
 today if applied as a percentage to the present cost of the given 
 machine. 
 
 The labor cost of installing equipment is frequently estimated in 
 dollars per ton of weight. Although the weight of a machine of 
 given size and type is seldom given in an article containing costs 
 of machinery installation, the weight is usually ascertainable from 
 tables such as are given in this book ; and then a published labor 
 cost of installation of a machine may be converted into a cost per 
 ton. Old installation costs per ton may be brought up to date by 
 making proper allowance for the rise in wages. 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 3 
 
 In making tables that give the prices of machines and equipment 
 of different types and sizes we have given also the weights. It is 
 therefore possible to deduce from our tables the price per lb. of 
 each size and type of plant-unit. Our prices were normal prices 
 at the factories in 1913 and 1914, prior to the world war. It might 
 seem at first sight that these tabular prices will be valueless at 
 least until the war is ended and normal economic conditions are re- 
 stored. Yet a little consideration of the matter will show that 
 our tables of equipment prices may be used effectively now. To 
 illustrate, suppose it is desired to estimate the present price of 
 electric transformers of different sizes. Secure either the price actu- 
 ally paid recently for a given tran.sformer, or secure a quotation, 
 then divide this price by the price given in our table, and thus 
 establish the factor by which to multiply other prices in the same 
 table to get present prices. This procedure will save time and 
 trouble. Moreover, it will be found much easier to secure a few 
 quotations from manufacturers or their agents than to secure as 
 many as may be needed for an approximate appraisal or a pre- 
 liminary estimate of cost of a proposed plant unit. 
 
 In this connection it should be noted that manufacturers usually 
 quote higher prices when they think the prices are to be used for 
 preliminary estimating or for appraising than when they regard 
 their prices as actual bids upon equipment to be furnished. As 
 our price tables are based on bids or on plant actually purchased, 
 it is evident that these tables will YvslVq value for many years to 
 come, if intelligently used as suggested. 
 
 In estimating costs there is always danger of omitting items, 
 either through ignorance or carelessness. If the cost data in this 
 book served no other purpose than to prevent such omissions, the 
 publication of the book would be justified. Danger of omission of 
 cost elements is particularly acute when the estimator is dealing 
 with a class of work with which he is not ttioroughly conversant. 
 
 Estimates of the cost of plant are usually preliminary to an 
 estimate of the unit cost of the product or service of the plant. 
 When this is the case it is important to realize that probable er- 
 rors in estimating the per cent, of " fixed charges " and the " load 
 factor " are apt to outweigh probable errors in estimating the cost 
 of the plant. Thus the "fixed charges" (interest, depreciation and 
 taxes) may be estimated by A at 10%, whereas B may estimate 
 the same at 15%. If A were to estimate the first cost of the plant 
 at $150,000, B could estimate it as low as $100,000. and the two 
 estimators would arrive at the same annual cost of fixed charges. 
 
 Comparatively few engineers seem to realize the relatively great 
 importance of accuracy in estimating the percentages allowed for 
 " fixed charges," yet the same engineers will split hairs over esti- 
 mates on the first cost of a plant. This fact is repeatedly made 
 evident in rate cases before public utility commissions where acri- 
 monious debates of considerable length often occur as to the 
 " value " of plants, only to be followed by the most cursory dis- 
 cussion of depreciation annuities and " rates of fair return " on the 
 investment. It is exceedingly important to bear in mind this rule : 
 
4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Each per cent, of difference between two estimates of fixed charges 
 divided by the total percentage allowed for fixed charges in the 
 lower estimate, gives the percentage of increment in plant invest- 
 ment that is at stake. Thus if two estimators agree on a plant 
 value but one estimator, A, allows 10% for fixed charges, whereas 
 the other estimator, B, allows 14%, dividing the difference of 4% by 
 10% gives 40%, which is the percentage by which A would have to 
 increase the plant value to get annual fixed charges equal to those 
 of estimator B. 
 
 When estimates of plant are thus viewed in the light of subse- 
 quent calculations of " fixed charges," there is apt to result far 
 greater study of the questions of depreciation, interest and tax 
 rates, to say nothing of insurance and even repair rates which 
 are also commonly applied as percentages of the plant investment. 
 Moreover, it is also perceived that great precision in estimating 
 the cost of a plant, even were it attainable, is a useless refinement 
 where equal precision in estimating " fixed charges " is not at- 
 tainable. 
 
 By a parity of reasoning it will be seen that unless the load 
 factor, or ratio of actual output to capacity output, of a plant can 
 be estimated with great accuracy, it is fruitless to estimate the 
 cost of the plant with great accuracy. Here, again, engineers have 
 been inclined to give relatively scant consideration to average 
 output factors while splitting hairs over estimates of plant cost. 
 What avails it, for example, to estimate the probable cost of a 
 factory with considerable precision, if there is to be nothing but 
 a crude guess as to the average " load factor " or annual output 
 of the factory? 
 
 Engineers have often excused themselves for not estimating 
 carefully such things as " fixed charges " and output factors, on 
 the ground that these were matters for the owners or managers of 
 the plants to decide. „ But the day when such an excuse will be 
 acceptable is gone. Even a designing engineer is now presumed 
 to study and apply all the economic factors, for if he does not he 
 can not design the most economic plant for the given purpose. 
 
 Unfortunately depreciation data and output factors (or load 
 factor data) are not as abundant as could be desired. They are 
 cost factors of great importance, and their usefulness is little im- 
 paired by age. We have made a beginning in recording miscel- 
 laneous data of this character in this book, but we are well aware 
 that it is only a beginning. 
 
 Definitions of Economic Terms. Few economic terms are used 
 in the same sense by all authorities. There have not been many 
 attemi)ts to standardize econoinic nomenclature, and it is not likely 
 that standard terms will be generally adopted for many years to 
 come. This makes it important that the student of economics 
 shall early form the habit of carefully defining the terms that he 
 himself uses, and critically examining the definitions that others 
 use. 
 
 Many writers do not define the economic terms that they em- 
 ploy, apparently taking it for granted that any dictionary will 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 5 
 
 elucidate their meaning. Not infrequently such writers them- 
 selves have a rather hazy conception of the scope of the several 
 economic words. 
 
 The definitions that follow in this chapter are those that the 
 authors have adopted or have formulated for their own purposes. 
 They conform fairly well with " general usage," but are not in 
 every instance in general use. 
 
 Economy is the judicious expenditure of labor, materials and 
 energy in the attainment of a required end. 
 
 Economics is the science of the general principles applicable in 
 securing maximum economy. 
 
 Economic Efficiency is the ratio of actual performance to an 
 ideal or standard performance. The single word efficiency is often 
 used, instead of economic efflciency, in this sense. 
 
 Engineering is the application of science to the problems of 
 economic production 
 
 Engineering Economics is that part of economics most com- 
 monly applied in the practice of engineering 
 
 Industrial Economics is that part of economics most commonly 
 applied in financing, organizing, purchasing, producing and selling. 
 
 Political Economics is that part of economics, most commonly 
 applied in political or social management. 
 
 General Discussion of Economics. The word economics is de- 
 rived from a Greek word meaning household management. Po- 
 litical economists have attempted to restrict its use to their own 
 particular branch of economics ; but this limitation of the 
 word is not approved by those interested in other branches of 
 economics. Engineers in particular refuse to use the term economics 
 solely in reference to the science of political management. 
 
 Economics is often defined as being " the science that deals with 
 the production and distribution of wealth," or more briefly as " the 
 science of wealth." But such definitions seem to be too broad. 
 Engineering also deals with the production and distribution of 
 wealth. It seems better to define economics in such manner as to 
 make clear the fact that it deals solely with principles of general 
 application in securing economy The manufacturer, the merchant, 
 the engineer and the politician may all apply the general principles 
 of securing economy, and to this end they should study economics. 
 But each in his own sphere should possess not only a knowledge 
 of certain principles applicable in securing economy of perform- 
 ance, but should have acquaintance with many facts and details 
 not classifiable as parts of the general science of economics. 
 
 To a merchant the " required end " is a maximum annual profit 
 with the aid of the capital that he commands. Hence for him a 
 maximum annual profit is the " maximum economy." 
 
 To an engineer the " required end " is usually a minimum unit 
 cost, which is the " maximum economy " that he seeks 
 
 By every class of designer or manager of productive plants a 
 maximum of economy is the desideratum in the attainment of 
 which the science of economics is immeasurably valuable. 
 
 Mr. Frank A. Vanderlip, president of the National City Bank 
 
6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of New York, said at a recent convention of a school of finance 
 for business executives : " I believe we are a nation of economic 
 illiterates. There is a science of business. It is something teach- 
 able." Yet a few years ago when engineers began to say that 
 there is a science of management and that it is teachable, the 
 scoffers almost drowned the announcement with laughter " Sci- 
 ence, indeed ! " they exclaimed " You can't teach management. 
 Managers are born, not made." Now it is admitted that man- 
 agers are first born and then made. 
 
 Value is exchangeable worth, usually expressed in money. 
 
 Price is the quantity of money exchanged for property or service. 
 
 Cost is the money outlay and debits incurred in securing prop- 
 erty or service. The price charged by a seller is always part of, 
 and may be all of. the cost to the buyer. " Debits incurred " will 
 be explained later. 
 
 Profit is the excess of the price secured over the cost incurred 
 by the seller. 
 
 Unit Price is the price per unit of property or of service ; e. g. 
 $20 per ton, or 10 cts. per kilowatt-hour. 
 
 Unit Cost is the cost per unit of property or of service 
 
 U7iit Wage is the wage per unit of employee's time ; e. g. 30 cts. 
 per hour. 
 
 General Discussion of Value, Price, Cost and Profit. Economics 
 might roughly be defined as the science of value, price, cost and 
 profit, so important and far reaching are these four words. One 
 of the commonest errors is to suppose that the full import of these 
 words is attainable by reading of short definitions such as those 
 above given. 
 
 Value is exchangeable worth, it is true, but this tells nothing as 
 to how the value of a waterfall, or a mine, or a factory site, or 
 a patent, or the " good will " of a business is ascertainable. 
 
 Cost is money outlay and debits incurred, but this tells nothing 
 about what the true debits are. 
 
 Profit is excess of selling price over cost, but since true profit 
 depends on what constitutes true cost, not much is explained by 
 the definition of profit uijtil there is a very thorough understand- 
 ing of what constitutes a true and complete cost. 
 
 Scores of thousands of men are both deceived and self-deceived 
 every year as to values, cost and profits, because they have never 
 studied economics. The majority of industrial failures is attributed 
 to lack of knowledge of cost keeping and cost estimating, but this, 
 important as it is, is only one phase of the broad subject of 
 economics. 
 
 Cost has two meanings, one quite elementary and the other 
 more complex. In its elementary sense, the cost of a thing to a 
 given owner is the sum of the prices, or total price, paid or pay- 
 able by that owner at the time the thing was acquired. This may 
 be called elementary cost. 
 
 a given time is the sum of all net debits chargeable to the thing 
 up to the given time, including the value of the owner's time. 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 1 
 
 This cost might be called economic cost, in order to distinguish 
 it from elementary cost. 
 
 Elementary cost differs from economic cost in that it does not 
 include sacrifice costs. 
 
 Sacrifice cost is any payment (such as interest, supervisory 
 wages, depreciation annuity and risk insurance) foregone during 
 the period that a business is being developed or built up to a point 
 where it earns a normal return on the investment. Sacrifice cost 
 may therefore include interest during construction as well as its 
 sequel, development cost or accumulated deficit in fair return on 
 the investment. 
 
 The following are five broad definitions of cost terms : 
 
 Cost of production includes money outlays, debits incurred, pro- 
 prietary losses of normal income and compensation for risks in- 
 volved in production. 
 
 Cost may be divided into two classes of business debits : 
 
 1. Debits of the business to others than the proprietor. 
 
 2. Debits of the business to the proprietor. 
 
 In well kept ledgers all of the first-named class of costs will 
 be found, either as property costs or as operating expenses, but 
 it frequently happens that not all — and sometimes not any — of 
 the second class of costs are entered in the ledgers. 
 
 Costs of production may be divided into two parts : 
 
 1. Direct costs. 
 
 2. Indirect costs. 
 
 Direct Costs are those costs directly assignable to a group of 
 similar units of product without prorating. 
 
 Joint or Indirect Costs are costs that cannot be directly assigned 
 to a group of similar units, but must be prorated among different 
 groups of units. 
 
 Unit Cost is the cost per unit of product, and is determined by 
 dividing the total cost assigned to a group of units of product by 
 the total number of units. 
 
 A unit cost includes all the direct costs and it may include all 
 or nearly all the indirect costs, depending upon the method of 
 accounting or cost analysis. 
 
 In appraisal work, as well as in estimating the cost of projected 
 work, it is customary for engineers to use unit co.sts that include 
 only i)art of the indirect cost, the remainder of the indirect cost 
 being called " overhead cost." 
 
 Overhead Cost is that part of the indirect cost not included in 
 the unit costs. 
 
 No hard and fast line can be drawn between unit cost and over- 
 head cost. It is entirely a matter of more or less arbitrary defini- 
 tion. If a company does its construction work by contract, the 
 contractor's unit prices are the company's unit costs; but the con- 
 tractor's unit prices include all of his overhead costs. Hence, if a 
 company does its construction with its own forces, its overhead 
 costs will ordinarily be greater than if it does its work by con- 
 tract, due to the differences in accounting. 
 
 Several recent decisions of public utility commissions serve to 
 09,11 attention to a rather general lack of knowledge about over- 
 
8 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 head costs. One decision even goes so far as to impute dishonest 
 motives to certain engineers who had estimated overhead costs at 
 what appeared to be a very high percentage. Dishonesty is rarely 
 to be found in appraisals of " overheads," but ignorance is cer- 
 tainly more in evidence. At times this ignorance results in ex- 
 cessive allowances for overhead costs, but quite as often it leads 
 to under-estimates. Why, it may be asked, are engineers ever 
 ignorant in such matters? An answer will be given to this ques- 
 tion first, and then to several other related questions that often 
 bother commissioners as well as company managers. 
 
 To begin with, the term overhead costs, or its equivalent, has 
 no generally accepted meaning. In its broadest sense any cost is 
 an overhead cost if it cannot be directly assigned to a given class 
 of construction units, and in this sense overhead cost is identical 
 with " indirect cost." A better conception of the difficulty of de- 
 fining overhead cost, except in a general manner, will be evident 
 upon defining " cost " and " unit cost." 
 
 The impression prevails that all the actual costs of a plant are 
 to be found in the plant account of a well kept set of ledgers. The 
 fact is that some cost items rarely appear in the plant account at 
 all, notably interest during construction. And again, operating 
 expenses are often charged with plant or capital costs, notably 
 managerial costs. 
 
 Appraisal engineers usually, although by no means universally, 
 limit the items of construction " overhead costs " to the following : 
 
 1. Engineering and Inspection. 
 
 2. Supervision (other than gang foremen and the profits of con- 
 tractors). 
 
 3. Organization (preliminary to construction). 
 
 4. Administration, Accounting and Clerical. 
 
 5. Legal. 
 
 6. Insurance (casualty, fire and title) and Damages. 
 
 7. Taxes. 
 
 8. Interest. 
 
 9. Contingencies, Omissions, Waste and Incidentals. 
 
 10. Broker's Fees. 
 
 11. Promoter's Profit. 
 
 Broker's Fee and Promoter's Profit are not infrequently omitted 
 by appraisal engineers, but the remaining nine items usually ap- 
 pear, either separately listed or grouped together. They are com- 
 monly expressed as percentages, either of all the direct charges 
 taken as a whole or of some of the direct charges, or of the direct 
 charges plus some of the overhead charges. This variation in 
 practice is itself confusing, but when we add to it variations caused 
 by the " burying " of some of these eleven " overheads " in the 
 unit prices, the confusion often is so great as to lead to complete 
 misapprehension on the part of those not accustomed to cost analy- 
 sis. Indeed even skilled estimators are frequently found to be 
 using " overhead percentages " erroneously. 
 
 It will be observed that we have omitted " Going Value " or 
 " Development Cost " from the list of " overheads," and in doing so 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 9 
 
 we follow present practice, although " Development Cost " is itself 
 largely interest during construction and its sequel — 'deficit in in- 
 terest during the development period. 
 
 We are informed by C. M. Larson, chief engineer of the Wiscon- 
 sin Railroad Commission, that his estimated " overhead costs " 
 exclude items 6, 10 and 11 of the above list. Item 6, Insurance, 
 is included in the unit prices that he uses. Item 10, Broker's Fee, 
 is taken into consideration by the Wisconsin Commission (as we 
 interpret their decisions) in arriving at the proper rate of " fair 
 return " on the investment, since brokerage fees commonly con- 
 stitute part of the discount on bonds. Item 11, Promoter's Profit, 
 appears not to receive recognition by the Wisconsin Commission. 
 Mr. Larson informs us that he usually adds to the direct costs 
 15% for overhead costs on " the larger properties which show a 
 high type of construction," and he intimates that, of this 15% very 
 little constitutes Item 10, or Contingencies, because his " inven- 
 tories are usually made quite complete by means of co-operation 
 of the officers and agents of the companies." For small plants 
 Mr. Larson commonly allows 12% for overheads. These percent- 
 ages — 12 and 15 — seem very low, and we believe they are low 
 where a utility company does mqst of the construction with its 
 own forces. Mr. Larson, however, uses unit prices that are as- 
 sum.ed to be fair contract prices for the plant " in place," which 
 puts a somewhat different light on these low overhead percentages. 
 
 As to unit prices he says : " These prices cover contractors' 
 profits, liability insurance, and, in a woi'd. every item which is 
 ordinarily included in the same to a general contractor." Since 
 a general contractor is a business manager, and since his sub- 
 contractors are really superintendents, it follows that, when their 
 services are paid for in the form of profits included in their unit 
 prices, Items 2 and 4, Supervision and Administration, are smaller 
 than where a company does the construction with its own forces. 
 This alone explains a considerable part of the diffei'ence between 
 percentages estimated by different appraisers for overheads. Even 
 the same appraiser may use different overhead percentags at dif- 
 ferent times, if for no other reason than to enable him to have an 
 appraisal that can be readily compared with the accounting rec- 
 ords. Thus, in Gillette's appraisal of the steam railways of Wash- 
 ington State, he included the general contractor's 5% profit in the 
 unit price, by adding 5% to ^ the subcontractor's price. Thus a 
 large part of Item 2, Supervision, was automatically " buried " in 
 the unit price, which was in accord with steam railway accounting 
 practice. But in our appraisals of electric railways, electric power 
 and light properties, and telephone plants, knowing that many 
 companies do most of their construction with their own forces, we 
 have used unit prices that often included relatively little or no 
 Supervision (other than gang foremanship). Even in these cases 
 it occasionally happens that a manufacturing company undertakes 
 to do much of the engineering and supervision involved in laying 
 out and installing apparatus, and then a large part of such " over- 
 heads " as engineering and supervision are automatically buried in 
 the prices charged for apparatus installed " in place." 
 
10 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 In the appraisal of land and right of way it often happens that 
 the appraisal engineer has no voice as to " overheads." Then all 
 " overheads " may be lumped in with the price fixed upon the land 
 by real estate experts. This was what was done in the original 
 appraisal of the steam railways of Washington, and it has led not 
 a few writers to misapprehension as to the overhead percentages 
 used in that appraisal. 
 
 In Item 2, Supervision, we find that some utility companies in- 
 clude " dead time," traveling expense, unapportioned freight and 
 carriage, and the like, under this head. To put the " dead time " 
 (due to bad weather and holidays) of laborers in this account is a 
 mistake, it seems to us. Similarly, traveling expense of laborers 
 and unapportioned freight should not be called Supervision. Never- 
 theless they are sometimes charged to such an account. Even tool 
 expense may be occasionally found there also. 
 
 Perhaps we have gone far enough in this discussion of details 
 to indicate the danger that lurks in ordinary comparisons of " over- 
 head percentages," particularly when the accounting practice of 
 different companies is not thoroughly understood. But one more 
 instance — -a very striking instance — should be given to empha- 
 size this point. Most large companies build additions to plant at 
 the same time that they make repairs and renewals. Often the 
 same gangs make both renewals and additions simultaneously. 
 The same engineering, managerial, and executive forces are usually 
 engaged in maintenance as well as on new construction. There- 
 fore, it becomes necessary to prorate engineering, supervision, etc., 
 to two or more distinct classes of work. Such prorating may be 
 done according to different theories, the two most common being : 
 (1) In proportion to the cost of direct labor, and (2) in propor- 
 tion to the combined cost of labor and materials. These two meth- 
 ods rarely give the same results ; often the results are widely dif- 
 ferent. Maintenance work generally involves a relatively high 
 proportion of labor to material costs, whereas the converse is often 
 true of new construction. Hence a company whose practice is to 
 allocate engineering and supervision between maintenance and 
 new construction in proportion to the direct labor involved will 
 have a plant account containing lower overhead costs than a com- 
 pany whose practice is to allocate these overheads in proportion 
 to combined costs of material and labor. Evidently the theory of 
 such prorating has an important bearing upon final results. As an 
 illustration we may cite one company whose new construction 
 annually amounts to many millions of dollars and whose main- 
 tenance costs are equally large. Upon analysis of that company's 
 costs, we found that its overhead charges on new construction 
 would have been 3% greater than they appeared in the plant ac- 
 count had they been apportioned according to total costs instead 
 of according to direct labor costs. 
 
 Some companies charge all general management, auditing, legal 
 expense, etc., to operating expense, and thus reduce the overhead 
 plant chargs. 
 
 It may be said that overhead percentages should be determined 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 11 
 
 solely by analysis of construction costs of companies during con- 
 struction periods and prior to beginning- operation. But to confine 
 analysis to such companies would eliminate most of the new con- 
 struction of public utility companies throughout America. 
 
 Often it is said that it matters not in the end whether overhead 
 charges are improperly prorated or not, for by as much as the 
 capital account is undercharged, by that much will operating ex- 
 penses be overcharged. The users of this argument lose sight of 
 the fact that an appraisal usually marks the passing from the 
 old regime of laissez faire to the new regime of state regulation. 
 One of the objects of such an appraisal then is to start the new 
 plant account as nearly right as practicable. 
 
 True plant cost is independent of accounting methods, of 
 whether property has been paid for or out of earnings or by 
 the sale of securities. But accounting records can be used as 
 evidence, from which true plant cost may be inferred, and to that 
 end it is desirable that both the property accounts and the main- 
 tenance accounts be carefully analyzed at least for a number of 
 years back. Upon such analysis adjustments can be made. Then 
 correct unit costs and correct overhead costs can be derived. To 
 this use of accounting records many engineers do not resort ; their 
 failure thus to use accounting records explains most of the ig- 
 norance respecting overhead costs, and makes clear why engineers 
 have so frequently underestimated " overheads" 
 
 In this connection it may be remarked that while most engineers 
 are fairly familiar with contract prices, and while some engineers 
 are equally familiar with actual unit costs, relatively fevv^ engineers 
 know from personal study of accounts what overhead costs aver- 
 age under given conditions. Until quite recently the accounting 
 records of few utility companies were open to the study of engi- 
 neers. And even when the records were available not many engi- 
 neers analyzed them thoroughly, both as to operating and con- 
 struction charges. The consequence has been that engineers em- 
 ployed by public service commissions have commonly underestimated 
 overhead costs. Engineers employed by companies have ordinarily 
 been closer to the mark, but occasionally have grossly overestimated 
 overhead costs because they were guessing. 
 
 In a recent commission decision, the overhead costs estimated by 
 a commission's engineers were rejected as being too high, although, 
 in fact, they were much too low. in our judgment. The commission 
 reasoned that because the plant account of the company showed 
 nominal charges for engineering and supervision, and no charges 
 for interest during construction, it could not be possible that the 
 company had spent much for these items. This is an instance of 
 a sort of blind faith in " book values," a faith, by the way, that 
 would quickly have ebbed had the company been found to have 
 " book values " that greatly exceeded the commission's engineer's 
 estimate of reproduction cost. ■ 
 
 Interest. Very few operating companies charge any " interest 
 during construction " when new construction proceeds pari passu 
 with renewals. In other words, after the original nucleus of a 
 
12 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 plant is built, the " interest during construction " account, if ever 
 there was one, is closed. In the case of railvv'ays, the interest ac- 
 count contains only interest on bonds and notes. Hence it usually 
 does not adequately represent full interest on all the plant even 
 during the original construction period. In our early appraisals 
 we did not recognize this fact and accordingly underestimated 
 " interest during construction." 
 
 On the other hand there is often a slight duplication of interest 
 charges arising from the practice of making a per diem charge for 
 " train service " which is itself high enough to cover interest on 
 the rolling stock. Analogous to this is the practice of charging 
 for transporting their own freight over their own lines at rates 
 that are high enough to cover part, if not all, the interest on the 
 track and equipment. 
 
 Interest during construction, as we now view it, should be 
 charged at the full " fair return rate " rather than at the bond 
 interest rate. Otherwise the investor fails to get a " fair return " 
 on his money during the construction period. 
 
 Brokerage. It has often been claimed that hond discount is a 
 proper " overhead charge," but usually this claim has been rejected 
 by commissions. Commissions have reasoned that bond discount 
 merely reflects the rate paid for the use of money, and is, there- 
 fore, to be considered only as a factor in determining the " rate 
 of fair return " on the investment. This reasoning, however, is not 
 wholly correct. Bond discount is a composite of two entirely dis- 
 tinct things: (1) Brokerage fee and (2) advance payment to the 
 bond purchaser. The broker requires part of the discount to com- 
 pensate him for investigating the property, giving it the endorse- 
 ment of his approval, circularizing his clientele, advertising and 
 selling the bonds. First, in the case of a large issue, there is the 
 wholesale broker, and, second, there are many smaller firms, who 
 retail the bonds that they have bought from the wholesaler. Se- 
 curities are thus sold as if they were merchandise. It costs money 
 to market them. The brokerage fee, therefore, is just as much a 
 part of the cost of the property as is the engineering. Indeed, there 
 is often not a little engineering involved in the study of a property 
 by the representatives of investment brokers. 
 
 Occasionally a witness who has testified as to brokerage fees is 
 asked such a question as this: "If Jones builds a $10,000 house 
 with his own money, whereas his next door neighbor, Smith, builds 
 a $10,000 house with borrowed money, is Smith's house worth more 
 than Jones'? " 
 
 The answer is no, and upon receiving such a reply i\. is pre- 
 sumed that the entire argument in favor of brokerage as an over- 
 head cost is overthrown. But let the cross-examiner himself be 
 asked . " If Jones, who is an architect, builds a house, and his 
 neighbor, Smith, who is not an architect, but hires one, builds a 
 duplicate hou.se, is Smith's house worth more than Jones'?" 
 
 Here the negative answer might with equal reason be used to 
 support the contention that architect's fees are not a proper over- 
 head charge. The fallacy in this line of reasoning arises from 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 13 
 
 the confusion of cost with value. The " worth " of a thing is its 
 value, which may be quite distinct from its cost. Appraisals of 
 utility properties are cost of reproduction estimates whenever they 
 consist of a summation of priced-out quantities. The commercial 
 value of a utility property is the present worth of its prospective 
 earnings, or its equated annual net earnings capitalized by dividing 
 them by the rate of fair return. While neither interest during 
 construction, nor taxes, nor brokerage fee, nor many another item 
 adds to the commercial value of a property, it does add to its cost. 
 Whatever normally increases cost is an element to be appraised 
 by one who is seeking either true investment or true cost of re- 
 production. 
 
 Among court decisions on this point of brokerage fee, none is 
 better expressed than the decision (Jan. 13, 1913) of the Royal 
 Courts of Justice relating to the purchase of the National Telephone 
 Co. by Great Britain. The Court said : 
 
 Next, it is said that the cost of raising the capital necessary to 
 construct the plant is not an item to be taken into account in finding 
 the cost of its construction. . . . The company has given evidence, 
 by way of example, that it cost them 4.41% to raise £5,500,000. No 
 one has given evidence that it would not cost anything, nor has that 
 proposition been put forward even in argument. I know of no 
 commodity and no service that can be procured as of a right for 
 nothing. I am clear that, as a fact, money cannot be procured 
 for nothing. ... It is not true to say that this involves the propo- 
 sition that the value of plant varies with the credit of the con- 
 structor. The cost to be considered is the cost to the hypothetical 
 constructor who is a person in good credit. 
 
 Accordingly the Court allowed a commission or brokerage fee 
 of about 2% of the construction cost of a telephone plant having 
 a total cost of about $65,000,000. 
 
 The brokerage fee on small properties is usually a higher per- 
 centage than on large properties, for reasons that are quite ap- 
 parent. 
 
 Contingencies. Contingencies, as the term is ordinarily used by 
 appraisal engineers, denotes the probable aggregate cost (or value) 
 of items not formally listed in the appraisal inventory. 
 
 Contingencies may be divided into three classes : 
 
 1. Omissions of quantities through carelessness, ignorance or 
 oversight. 
 
 2. Omissions of minor quantities, purposely left out of the formal 
 inventory, either because of the difficulty of enumerating them or 
 because of their relatively small value. 
 
 3. Underestimates of unit costs or values. 
 
 Some appraisers include an allowance for contingencies in their 
 unit costs, in which case contingencies may not appear as a sepa- 
 rate item, yet may in fact exist in the appraisal. 
 
 An allowance for contingencies is usually made by engineers in 
 estimating the probable cost of projected work. Such an allowance 
 is seldom less than 5% of the total of the schedule estimate, more 
 commonly is 10%, and not infrequently reaches a much higher 
 percentage, depending on the carefulness with which the plans 
 
14 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 have been prepared, the degree of certainty as to the conditions 
 that will be encountered, the experience of the engineer, and finally, 
 the optimism of the engineer. A higher allowance for contingencies 
 should ordinarily be used in estimating the probable cost of future 
 works than in estimating the cost of replacing or i-eproducing 
 existing works. It sometimes happens that the engineering records 
 of quantities and the accounting records of costs are so complete 
 and reliable that no allowance at all need be made for contingencies 
 •in an appraisal of existing works. This is particularly true when 
 the works are comparatively new. However, as an engineer gains 
 experience in estimating and particularly after he has had occa- 
 sion to check over the appraisals of other engineers, whether in 
 his own employment or as independents, he is more likely to recog- 
 nize the necessity of some allowance for contingencies in nearly 
 every instance. What this allowance shall be is a matter of judg- 
 ment, but not necessarily a matter of mere guess-work. 
 
 Perhaps at the basis of the phenomenon of underestimating there 
 is the psychological fact that most men are optimists. The hope 
 that work can be done cheaply is father to the too low estimate. 
 In addition to this well known cause there are many other reasons 
 why estimates of cost tend to be too low. Some of these are not 
 generally recognized even by expert appraisers. For example, in 
 not a few articles, decisions and books on appraisals, there appear 
 diagrams and tables of unit prices of materials — such as copper, 
 steel, water pipe, etc. — accompanied by statements that the aver- 
 age of these prices over a period of years was used as the base 
 price in the appraisal. This seems a philosophical method to use 
 when average prices are sought, but closer investigation discloses 
 the fact that it is not so philosophical as it seems, for sight is lost 
 of the following basic fact in the business world where the law of 
 supply and demand operates : 
 
 In general, average weighted prices are higher than average un- 
 weighted 2)^^t'es, because more materials are bought during periods 
 of high prices than during periods of low prices — the higher prices 
 being, in fact, the result of the greater deuiand. 
 
 This generalization is deducible from the law of supply and 
 demand, but it may be arrived at inductively from the actual pur- 
 chase records of large companies that have been in existence many 
 years. As a corollary of this generalization, we can immediately 
 infer that even the " average monthly " or " average yearly " prices 
 of materials as published in the technical journals are often de- 
 ceptively low, for they, too. are unweighted averages. The sale 
 price of 1,000,000 lbs. of copper in the first week of a month is 
 given as much weight as the sale price of 5,000,000 lbs, in the 
 last week of the month, in arriving at the " average monthly " 
 price. 
 
 The correct method of arriving at a true average, or weighted 
 average price, is this: INIultiply the number of units in each sale 
 by the sale price, total these i)roducts and divide by the total num- 
 ber of units to get the weighted average price. 
 
 In this excess of weighted average price over unweighted aver- 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 15 
 
 age price, we have a good example of the sort of underestimating 
 that justifies a contingency item in many appraisals. 
 
 Another common cause of underestimates by engineers is trace- 
 able to their lack of familiarity with the detailed records of the 
 accounting department. The engineer may keep quite careful cost 
 records in the field, yet fail to know some of the very important 
 elements of cost that disclose themselves only in the records of the 
 accounting department. This, perhaps, has been one of the greatest 
 sources of underestimates in the past, but is fast becoming less in 
 importance now that engineers are more frequently familiar .with 
 accounting practice and records. 
 
 In the following list of items will be found some of the things 
 that not infrequently result in underestimates. Of course most of 
 these items will ordinarily be provided for in the unit prices, but 
 the fact remains that unit prices usually do not include sufficient 
 provision for all items of cost. Hence the reason for an allowance 
 for Contingencies and Omissions made up of such elements as the 
 following : 
 
 ACCIDENTAL OMISSIONS OF QUANTITIES AND COST ITEMS 
 
 1. Quantities inventoried in the " field survey " but overlooked 
 in the final summary. 
 
 2. Quantities seen but omitted because they were believed not 
 to belong to the company. 
 
 3. Quantities not visible : 
 
 (a) Underground obstructions. 
 
 (b) Sewer connections. 
 
 (c) Foundations in quicksand, piling, etc. 
 
 (d) Rock excavation, hardpan, etc., beneath an earth surface. 
 
 (e) Clearing, grubbing and trimming. 
 
 (f) Pole butts treated. 
 
 (g) Ground braces, bog settings, concrete settings, etc., for 
 poles. 
 
 (h) "Work abandoned due to changes of plans after Avork was 
 begun. 
 
 4. General cost items overlooked : 
 
 (a) Casualty insurance and contractor's indemnity. 
 
 (b) Fire insurance. 
 
 (c) Title insurance. 
 
 (d) Brokerage fee. 
 
 (e) Demurrage. 
 
 (f) Miscellaneous items. 
 
 (g) Value of leases. 
 
 (h) Taxes during construction. 
 
 5. Damage costs : 
 
 (a) Changing location of a highway, incident to building the 
 utility plant. 
 
 (b) Ditto sewers, water pipes, etc. 
 
 (c) Ditto buildings. 
 
 (d) Ditto water courses. 
 
 (e) Severance damages. 
 
16 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ITEMS PROPERLY OMITTED IN THE INVENTORY TO BE COVERED BY A 
 GENERAL PERCENTAGE ALLOWANCE (2 TO 59,) 
 
 1. Material vv^asted, stolen, etc. 
 
 2. Excess material needed for splicing, joining, trimming, etc. 
 
 3. Increased length of wire and cables, due to sags, dips, map 
 shrinkage, inclines and slopes of ground. 
 
 4. Small items of hardware, miscellaneous small supplies, etc. 
 
 5. Disconnected installations and wiring, available for use. 
 
 6. Cost of reels and freight thereon. 
 
 7.* Changes made after construction is begun, resulting in prop- 
 erty lost, e. g., pole holes. 
 
 UNDERESTIMATES OF UNIT COSTS AND OVERHEAD COSTS 
 
 1. Use of average prices instead of weighted average prices. 
 
 2. Use of wholesale unit costs when, under no rational hypothesis: 
 could v/ork be done entirely wholesale. 
 
 3. Use of car-load freight rates throughout, when less than car- 
 load rates would often be incurred. 
 
 4. Assumption of good weather conditions throughout, when bad 
 weather, night work, etc., would normally occur for at least part 
 of the v/ork. 
 
 5. Assumption of continuous work, when delays due to non-ship- 
 ment of materials and freight congestion on railways, would nor- 
 mally add to some unit costs. Other delays, such as those in- 
 volved in securing right of way, also occur. 
 
 6. Assumption that surface conditions are sufficiently indicative 
 of subsurface conditions, or that a few borings are. ample to indi- 
 cate subsurface conditions, resulting in underestimates of unit costs 
 of excavation, hole digging, etc. 
 
 7. Assumption that existing plans and specifications were fol- 
 lovv'ed, resulting in underestimating the cost incurred because of 
 change of plans and specifications, which changes were not re- 
 corded. 
 
 8. Assumption that all the general and overhead costs of con- 
 struction appear in the construction ledgers. Some items may have 
 been improperly charged to operating expense. Some may have 
 never been charged at all. 
 
 9. Insufficient allowance made for higher unit costs occasioned 
 by the existence of other plant units that obstruct work, as Avhen 
 overhead v.'ires make it difficult to raise poles ; or when proximity 
 to underground pipes makes work on conduits difficult. 
 
 10. Assumption that unit costs based on work with relatively 
 small and well trained gangs of picked men can be equaled where 
 the work is extensive, and particularly where the work is both 
 extensive and scattered. 
 
 Since overhead costs are indirect costs and since indirect costs 
 are usually prorated or apportioned to different direct costs, it is 
 inevitable that overhead costs should ordinarily be expressed as 
 percentages. Yet the very fact that they are so expressed has 
 often produced an impression that overhead costs are less real — 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 17 
 
 more visionary — than unit costs. This unfortunate misapprehen- 
 sion has received apparent confirmation because of the different 
 overhead percentages used by diiferent appraisers for overhead 
 items bearing the same name. 
 
 Engineering. We have pointed out the fact that until one knows 
 just what an appraiser has included in his unit prices it is im- 
 practicable to compare most of the overhead costs of two different 
 appraisals. It seems desirable to add that even the same words 
 used to designate overhead items are not always used in the same 
 sense. The term " Engineering " may or may not include inspec- 
 tion, architects' fees, office expenses incident to engineering, etc. 
 
 In this connection it may be added that " office expenses " may 
 or may not include interest and taxes on the office floor space. 
 These fixed charges on office buildings, etc., are sometimes over- 
 looked entirely. At other times they are cared for under Interest 
 and Taxes. Again at other times they are distributed among 
 other overhead items. Considering all such variations, it is scarcely 
 to be wondered that percentages allowed for Engineering may vary 
 considerably. But, if in addition to these variations we have cases 
 where the engineers are also superintendents of construction, we 
 have a satisfactory explanation of the fact that Engineering ranges 
 from 3 to 10% or more. 
 
 As indicative of the errors that are being made through rather 
 blindly adopted overhead percentages used by other appraisers 
 without also understanding what their unit costs contain, we quote 
 again from one of Mr, Larson's letters to us : 
 
 " Some commissions in the Southwest have been known to quote 
 the Wisconsin Commission as putting on only 12 to 15% [for over- 
 head costs], which they declare cover not only the items enumerated, 
 but also promotion, discount on bonds and going value. I wish to 
 mention this only that it may call to your mind the fact that these 
 overhead charges are not intended to cover such items. 
 
 " It should be noted that when a telephone company purchases a 
 switchboard the cost of a large part of the engineering on that 
 switchboard is included in the price paid the supply company. 
 When a gas company purchases a gas tank the cost of a large part 
 of the engineering is. paid to the supply company. Since we [the 
 engineers of the Wisconsin Railroad Commission! place the price of 
 these items at the amount paid by the local companies to the supply 
 comi)anies, this fact must be taken into account in applying our 
 overhead charges." 
 
 We have been so frequently asked by public service commis- 
 sions to explain why our percentages for overhead charges exceed 
 those used by the engineers of the Wisconsin Railroad Commission 
 that we found it desirable to secure from Mr. Larson a statement 
 as to what his overhead, costs included and what they excluded. 
 The correspondence between Mr. Larson and us on this subject is 
 quoted in full below. 
 
 Letter of Gillette to W. Larson, Dec. 8, 1911 In estimates made 
 by your department I have frequently noticed the allowance of 
 12% for engineering and other overhead charges. Will you be kind 
 enough to let me know what overhead charges are included in this 
 12%? I infer that it covers engineering, business management, 
 
18 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 clerical expense, plant expense, legal expense, interest during con- 
 struction and contingencies. 
 
 In the course of our investigations of the actual costs of con- 
 struction for a considerable number of utility companies 1 find 
 that the overhead charges, as I use them, are very much in excess 
 of 12%, without any allowance for contingencies. However, I re- 
 alize that it is the practice of many appraisers to include certain 
 overhead charges in their unit prices. Contingencies, for example, 
 are often, placed there; likewise much of the general superin- 
 tendence is also included in unit prices by some appraisers and I 
 have done this myself in many cases. For instance, in my ap- 
 praisal of the railroads for the Washington Railroad Commission, I 
 allowed 57o for general contractor's charge, which was added to 
 the unit prices. It had been the practice of nearly all the large 
 railways in that State to award their contracts for large work to 
 some general contractor on a percentage basis, the percentage be- 
 ing usually 5%. This contractor, who was in fact the business 
 manager of the construction, then sub-let nearly all the work at 
 unit prices. Now it is evident that this 5% could either be added 
 to the unit prices or treated as an overhead charge, to be subse- 
 quently added to the grand total, and in the case of the Washing- 
 ton railways I chose the former method. It has always been my 
 practice to include in the unit prices all costs of foremen and 
 local superintendents engaged directly on the work, as well as 
 time-keepers, etc. 
 
 In a recent investigation of a large utility company. I found 
 the following actual percentages for the overhead charges named 
 below : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Engineering and inspection 5.0 
 
 Genei'al supervision 1.3 
 
 Clerical expense 2.0 
 
 Executive, legal and accounting dept 1.8 
 
 Traveling 0.6 
 
 Rent and furniture expense 0.6 
 
 Stationery, postage, etc 0.4 
 
 Miscellaneous 0.3 
 
 Total 12.0 
 
 This did not include liability insurance, as you will note. May 
 I ask whether it is your practice to include liability insurance in 
 the unit prices? The above 12% did not include the local foremen 
 and time-keepers, whose costs are regarded as direct costs and 
 therefore included in unit prices. 
 
 Since the above 12% is rather typical of a good many com- 
 panies, you will see that I am at a loss to understand how you 
 can use so low a percentage as 12% to include not only the above 
 items, but to provide for interest during construction, contingen- 
 cies and the preliminary expenses of organization. 
 
 I would greatly appreciate as detailed a reply as you care to 
 make to these questions, for as you will realize, the precedent 
 established by the Wisconsin Commission is largely followed by 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 19 
 
 other commissions, and I am frequently confronted with the state- 
 ment that the Wisconsin Commission never allows more than 12% 
 for overhead charges. Realizing that the practice of engineers 
 differs as to where they place the overhead charges, that is, whether 
 they are included in unit prices or not, I anticipate that you may 
 have distributed your overheads to a large degree in the unit prices. 
 
 Letter of Larson to Gillette, Dec. lit, 191^. 1 have your letter of 
 the 8th instant concerning overhead charges allowed by us in 
 making valuations of physical property. 
 
 It is our custom to allow from 12 to 15% for these charges; in 
 general, 15% is allowed on the larger properties which show a high 
 tjq)e of construction. This item is supj)osed to cover engineering 
 and sur)erintendence during construction, general organization and 
 legal expenses during the same period ; also interest during con- 
 struction and omissions, such as items not included in the in- 
 ventory or items of cost which are not discovered at the time of 
 making the valuation. These latter are rather low, as our inven- 
 tories are usually made quite complete by means of co-operation 
 of the officers and agents of the companies. 
 
 This overhead per cent, is applied to a figure which is supposed 
 to include the total cost of labor and material, including con- 
 tractors' profit, liability insurance, etc. Furthermore, it is not 
 supposed to include any promotional profits nor is it expected to 
 cover the item of discount on bonds ; in other words the overhead 
 charge together with the figure to which it applies will repre.sent 
 the actual value as nearly as may be determined of the physical 
 property, assuming that money shall have been provided for the 
 construction of the property. 
 
 I realize that there are plants which show higher costs for specific 
 items than may be allowed, and it is entirely possible that in some 
 cases where excessive difficulties are met with that engineering 
 and allied charges may run as high as that cited by you. How- 
 ever, in the absence of specific information on these subjects, the 
 valuation engineer is. expected to report as the value of the prop- 
 erty the most probable value, taking into account conditions as he 
 finds them as compared with conditions under which he obtains 
 his cost data. 
 
 I have had the accounts of many companies investigated under 
 my direction, and the actual costs of specific items have been ap- 
 plied to the specific costs of construction, and I am led to conclude 
 4.hat with few exceptions 15% is high enough to cover the items 
 mentioned in the first part of my letter. 
 
 In a recent valuation of the Milwaukee Gas Light Company, a 
 ?10,000,000 property in Wisconsin, a very careful study of the 
 probable cost of overhead charges was made by the manager of 
 that company and by members of our staff. This was made by 
 several methods, one of which was to make a very liberal estimate 
 of the force necessary to construct the property. The very highest 
 figure to be obtained under this method was 18%, and that was 
 based upon construction of the entire $10,000,000 worth of prop- 
 erty before operation began ; and this, as you know, is not the 
 
20 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 way plants are constructed. We finally iDlaced an overhead al- 
 lowance of 15% in this case. 
 
 We have in this state a hydro-electric property designed and 
 constructed by an engineer who charged for his services 10% on all 
 items handled by him. After the entire plant was constructed the 
 books were examined and the specific costs of construction found 
 to be something over $1,000,000. As applied to this cost the entire 
 charge was : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Engineering and superintendence •. . . . 4.51 
 
 Legal expense 0.27 
 
 Organization and office expense 2.30 
 
 Insurance, taxes and damages 1.71 
 
 Interest during construction 5.87 
 
 Discounts and commissions 0.58 
 
 Total 15.24 
 
 The period of construction was twp years. It should be said 
 that these overhead expenses include a;lso preliminary expenses 
 incurred some two years before construction began. 
 
 During our studies we have received statements of extremely 
 high overhead charges and have proceeded to investigate some of 
 them. One case which was cited by a Wisconsin corporation was 
 that of a large power company jn the west. It was reported to us 
 that the cost of specific construction was approximately $5,000,000, 
 while the cost of overhead charges was 49.6% of that — nearly $2,- 
 500,000. This was given with sufficient detail to appear to be 
 good evidence. However, we inspected the details of the book- 
 keeping accounts and found that in the overhead had been charged 
 such items as camp equipment, repairs and renewals, $131,000; 
 construction equipment investment, $232,000 ; repairs and renev.^als 
 to same, $44,000; auxiliary and operation equipment, $209,000; 
 small tools, $22,000 ; dismantling plant, $4,000 ; boarding house 
 loss, $9,000; suspense credits, $88,000; warehouse operation, $29,- 
 000 ; undistributed hauling, $41,000 ; employment expense and trans- 
 portation, $45,000; liability insurance, etc., $54,000; watching, light- 
 ing and guarding, $38,000 ; hauling and erecting construction equip- 
 ment, $4,000 ; and a number of other small items which we include 
 in our cost of specific construction. If, now, all these items had 
 been added to specific construction it would have raised the con- 
 struction cost to a considerably higher figure and would have re- 
 duced the overhead charges a corresponding amount ; the per cent, 
 of overhead would then have been reduced to a reasonable fig- 
 ure. 
 
 I have cited the above simply as instances which illustrate the 
 point I have in mind, and not at all as representing the extent of 
 our investigation. 
 
 I have had many call;5 for information on the above subject, and 
 would be very glad to have as much detailed information as pos- 
 sible. Some commissions in the <;outhv7eF.t have b3en knov/n to 
 quote the Wisconsin Commission as putting on only 12 or 15'^, 
 which they declare covers not only the items enumerated, but also 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 21 
 
 promotion, discount on bonds and going- value. I wish to mention 
 this only that it may call to your mind the fact that these over- 
 head charges are not intended to cover such items. 
 
 It has not been our practice to distribute the overhead charges 
 to the unit prices except as mentioned above ; that these prices do 
 cover contractors' profits, liability insurance and, in a word, every 
 item which is ordinarily Included In the same to a general con- 
 tractor. 
 
 It should be noted that when a telephone company purchases a 
 switchboard, the cost of a large part of the engineering on that 
 switchboard is included in the price paid the supply company. 
 When a gas company purchases a gas tank, the cost of a large 
 part of the engineering is paid to the supply company. Since we 
 place the price on these items at the amount paid by the local com- 
 panies to the supply companies, this fact must be taken into ac- 
 count in applying our overhead charges. 
 
 I shall always be glad to discuss this or related matters with 
 you or "other engineers, and shall be glad to have from you any 
 statement you can make in regard to your own practice. 
 
 Letter of Gillette to Larson, Dec. 22, IDlli. I have your, letter of 
 Dec. 17, relating to overhead charges. 
 
 I am interested to note that you are at present allowing about 
 15% for overhead charges on the larger properties which show a 
 high type of construction. 
 
 I think that the more we study the accounting records of the 
 large companies the more we shall perceive that most of them 
 make inadequate charges to the construction account for what we 
 term overhead costs. 
 
 I have just completed the analyses of overhead costs of a large 
 utility company in New England, and find that at least 4% should 
 be added to their book value for overhead costs (exclusive of in- 
 terest). Too large an amount of overhead costs has been charged 
 to operating expense. 
 
 What may be termed expenses of administration, including legal 
 expense and general accounting, are very frequently charged en- 
 tirely to operating expense, although upon no correct accounting 
 theory can this be justified. This alone may amount to 2% or more 
 of the cost of construction if properly prorated thereto. I am 
 speaking now of companies that do a very large amount of con- 
 struction each year. 
 
 Another point to be considered is the manner of prorating these 
 overhead charges. The company above referred to has prorated 
 all its engineering, superintendence, etc., in proportion to the direct 
 labor, arid not in proportion to the total cost of work done. Their 
 practice is unquestionably erroneous, at least for certain of the 
 overhead charges, and the tendency of this practice is to reduce 
 the per cent, of overhead charges to the construction account, be- 
 cause the repairs and renewals involve a far larger percentage of 
 labor than is the case with additions to the plant. 
 
 Let me thank ^ou for your very interesting and instructive 
 letter. 
 
22 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 o '^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 03 " 
 
 I— I rC 
 
 Km > 
 
 K S 
 
 P-i ^, -d 
 
 p O a; 
 
 
 
 >i - 
 
 gs 
 
 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 
 
 
 il II 
 
 «i<NioO 
 
 II II 
 
 cqHH 
 
 ►-ll-l 
 
 II II II II 
 MHgM 
 
 ^ Tf C^ M £ 
 
 !l II ll'^'O 
 
 
 U 
 
 ^0 
 
 2 I |.,» &-„ .2.25fiS 
 
 C C (B 5; 
 o 
 
 
 >. O i fi 
 
 ^^ .^3-=^.7'.5 "P^g ^oQ 
 
 E§ 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 S,o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ?^ 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 ;-l 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 b§ 
 
 -s 
 
 
 
 o-^ 
 
 
 
 
 >'0 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 l-( 
 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 
 :i§ 
 
 6 
 
 
 i •='2 2 £=.S.^5 
 
 H 5 « ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 
 
 23 
 
 ■^ ."5 
 
 T-|0 C 
 
 
 OO OO"* 
 
 rn'eo MUStH 
 
 1-1 
 
 INI II II II 
 
 • • rt • 
 
 
 . • N • 
 
 
 
 
 I.e. 
 
 
 . . «s . 
 
 
 . . &JD ■ 
 
 
 . . i7 . 
 
 
 . . O . 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 . t7 <D o _. 
 
 g- cha 
 legal 
 
 xpens 
 finan 
 
 -neous 
 
 
 M £"0 o-M o 
 
 
 OOOoO 0) 
 us t-^ CO l£5 CO O 
 
 II II II II II II 
 
 OHo5 
 
 Co 
 
 
 
 ^'S-Sm^^^S 
 
 a;>>'; 
 
 >?S.^ S 
 
 o ^ o z; . . 
 
 bfl^^ tico >>o 
 
 > -j: s<^ 
 o • 3 p . 
 
 rf 3 c o c 
 ■gt-5 ci;:^ oj 
 
 0) o o 
 
 z s 
 
 o > ™ 
 
 Lj CS C^ 
 
 O+J 
 
 c3 o 
 
 >>2 
 
 C C 0) c 
 ^x^> - 
 
 - £ r- 
 
 So?. 
 
 a;' 
 
 Ol^ca 
 
 O 
 
 O !? S- ^ 
 
 gpHa>^cau^ 
 
 
 .iL^oo 
 
 
24 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 o 
 
 5^ ^ ^i -* CO 00 00 
 
 rt > fl 
 
 
 O ;>,a3 
 O o bfi 
 
 -i-' OJ 3+-' 
 q a; ^ w 
 
 
 
 
 bca 
 
 II 11 II II 
 
 ^ 
 
 S (M«5r-iai-^COtD»OCOiM 
 
 y eo^ceofo-^ooooot- 
 
 tj 10(0 ' ' C0l0i-(O 
 
 j_. 0) 
 
 o c 
 
 be 
 9"C 
 
 ISO 
 
 '^ - k! b/j C 
 
 w 9^ N C-- 
 
 >>/' CJ, 
 
 SuH:im<oHoofe 
 
 0) 
 
 o *j 01 
 w 5 ft 
 
 ■ego 
 
 q30 
 
 Go 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 §5 
 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 
 al 
 
 *-> 
 
 rt -M 
 
 
 il 
 
 o 
 
 tM 
 
 tw 
 
 O-d 
 
 O 
 
 ^ 0) 
 
 
 
 
 m c^ 
 
 
 •5S 
 
 
 t-t.X3 o !^ <^ 
 
 ^ss- 
 
 $-.7; O) 
 
 g^osao 
 
 o 
 
 tf 
 
 =«« 
 
 CQ 
 
 O 
 
 gfqu 
 
 U^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 25 
 
 g ^: ^ ir ^ ^ 
 
 z 
 
 X bo 
 
 O o 
 
 ooo o oo 
 
 'III II INI nil iiiMMi iiiiii mill 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 S rf 
 
 
 7<u o 
 
 
 ^^s^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 OOi 
 
 oooo 
 
 o 
 
 
 <w w? 
 
 i=: 3i 
 
 S u 
 
 (U 3 
 
 £ 3 
 
 >ra 
 
 >-« 
 
 CO . 
 
 s ? 
 
 OJ 0) o 
 
 '^11 
 
 > S-. o 
 
 >^8 
 
 111 
 
 S|'§ 
 
 §5-^ 
 
 H 
 
 h 
 
 S 2 4'2 &8 -Ss III 
 
 i : sia II |l.: s 
 
 g ^ h M < , o 
 
 ^ S^o gp:^fi -co^-o cJiS'gi ^^i S^i --Hoi 
 
 ^ 3^. |5|l 1.3, g||| igg,- |g . If 
 
 ^y l^t ^3^^ /|l Us %l "S« 
 
 *:& ^i^i ^e^& :^,s ps" ^^s" >i 
 
 ||» ^\^ I „.«^| -Ssl-E li-^d ^t:« -Si^s 
 
 |5«^ §31^^ .g33oj i^5£l >^nl ^§o^ >.§Qo 
 
 O < J 
 
 < 
 
 
 3 o § 
 
 ^ 
 
 cs a 
 
26 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 3 
 
 (1) " ^t> '-I 
 
 ^ ooo oc:c> ooooi s-i'^ t--^ot^foeo 
 
 ^ II II II II II II II II II II II II II !l II II II 
 
 Q < 
 o 
 
 u u 
 
 
 OZicu *-'0 >Sh(:j 
 
 •^-> . o BZ S -c-c;' 
 
 
 h:i 'Sea ^5 ^p 
 
 ■^•5S ^.3 ^^.2 ^S^i3 3 
 
 ^ W 5 H O , K> W 
 
 sg • ..^ii ^dl^o gio^.^l l^^^s-^ 
 
 S^ -^OW -b^^ t^UHMM §G>^M<:§ g-CUoOh:] 
 
 S (^ U M U « 
 
 guw^ a^^ 'ShS.'^ gu'^ Oca's 
 
 U tf ^ U Ph 
 
 
IMMI 
 
 iri ^ 
 
 GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 27 
 
 -SS 
 
 c o 
 
 
 ^ I't mill iiiiii 
 
 a OS' 
 
 CO t- ■.-. O 
 O O 
 
 ^-0.0. a; MHM ^MM -g -2.C 
 
 K H^ =5 II "II "^'^^^ 
 
 fe M g MfeM nil II II 
 
 S m 
 
 -■ o| |§ >^- >^^,- o g'S-^ 
 
 < ^ ^ H ^H ;^ O 
 
 ^■^r'rr'. Ir'r.'^'*^ ^- bUO 
 
 SgJi .s-^ rl^l go II I'l ^^Sl^lfi.^ 
 
 1 fi n^ It ^1 ^fiiifi I iKiiP 
 
 ifis:- s«:^^ ^i.fs hjsfd s^ir^is"^ 
 
 |x6£i£ ^-ris,- |55is t^siml iiilil^«^i 
 
 ^ w ^ K ^ 
 
 3 rH ^ 
 
 02 c«^' ,_5 S s'-^rt- 
 
 ffi^a '^ .^5S '^ o ".^c 
 
 ^ Ah m a 
 
 tf.2t^ 
 
 OjO 
 
 ^-05 
 
 _ GtH 
 
 c S - 
 
 5<JS 
 
 
 ^ 03 3 
 
 K! OI-3 
 
 rtfH^ 
 
28 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 ^-1 r- -"■ C 
 
 .2— 
 
 ,-1 t^r-l'-' CO,-|Mini 
 
 II II II II II II II II 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 bp 
 
 ^ 
 
 M Irt Tf ^ 00 
 
 os^oc-J 
 
 ^t--cv 
 
 eo,-H 'eoo 
 
 Ti^ecirt'-J 
 
 cooo^ 
 
 r-t 
 
 II II II II 
 
 II II 11 
 
 nil nil II 
 
 aaffiS 
 
 Q^M 
 
 oJUQHpU 
 
 M ^ 
 
 w 
 
 
 <i %. 
 
 < 
 
 
 <J O 
 
 a'^l oS^^g "8.2 8 ^^S .22g"^a>^ =-2S^.2 
 
 « :S 5 5 e H 5 
 
 Ss ||i>^«° •* 5|^ I, IS. Ill tli^ 
 
 a© =<S-:^o3cc;u .ii:-a.M£u :3-<u5Em %t^So £-<om 
 
 H ff! ^ w c:: cri 
 
 
 
 < ^ ^ < < 
 
^ 
 
 GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 29 
 
 o ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 eo o U5 ' la 
 
 ocz. 
 
 ^ 
 
 II MINI II rnO 
 
 <u 
 
 <Jaffi"ffi ^ 
 
 c^ ., a .. _ . S 
 
 W)CO(M 
 
 > O <D 
 
 3'^^ II II II nil nil nil,, 
 
 og)^ cqa::! cqy mm ^q^^ 
 
 "5 ?. ^ 
 
 ^ ^^ < Q < W <J 
 
 1 
 
 ^"S| 
 
 
 1-i 
 
 "rt ^ 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 si^S 
 
 Q 
 
 
 .- O-M 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^o«i 
 
 <; 
 
 <1 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 ffalo. 
 stern 
 New 
 rvice 
 o n d 
 
 o 
 
 0, 
 H 
 
 
 3 oi c^; u 
 
 J 
 
 
 Ma^'^<i; 
 
 
 
 _ 5 M 
 
 Zi u, 
 
 -w w c 
 
 o 
 
 §2 o.2ti « ^''^ sl 
 
 St §^5 g -S^ "Ho 
 
 > cs >'a a. 
 5 c 
 
 0} 3 
 
 Iff Is 111 r^ i"%|i i5|f ^\,i II 
 
 wi5 ^ <u <u 5 H oo O S 
 
 "^5- s; 
 
 P^ ° 05 "3 C?' 
 
 M i^ A ^ <j ^ 
 
30 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 o 
 
 •-.■^ O 
 
 a a 
 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 >. 
 
 
 >.fl 
 
 1^ 
 
 § 
 
 - • . ?^ m (U M 
 
 Q CO ui ^ 00 O 
 
 W !l II II II 
 Q 
 
 
 
 O 0) 
 
 '^.ti'^ 
 
 
 TO , O — < . J_ 
 
 r- S^ ™ (l; tj 
 
 &ald°s 
 
 .90 2 ^oQ>;a 
 
 
 Q Q 
 
 O rH 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 31 
 
 OVERHEAD COSTS 
 
 Table I gives detailed overhead costs used in various appraisals 
 of public utilities. The different items included under " Detailed 
 overhead percentages " are as follows : 
 
 A — Engineering. 
 
 B — Supervision. 
 
 C — Organization. 
 
 D — Legal expenses. 
 
 E — Interest charges. 
 
 F — Taxes. 
 
 G — Brokerage and discount. 
 
 H — Omission and contingency. 
 
 I — Miscellaneous (stated). 
 
 Accounting Terms. Every engineer should acquaint himself 
 thoroughly with bookkeeping and accounting. Hatfield's " Modern 
 Accounting " is an excellent work on the theory of accounting and 
 the terms used in accountancy. 
 
 As engineering has suffered from lack of knov/ledge of account- 
 ing practice, so accountancy has suffered from lack of engineering 
 knowledge of cost analysis. Many terms used in accounting will 
 ultimately be revised and given greater definiteness as a result of 
 engineering analysis. 
 
 Gross Operating Earnings or Revenues are the total income from 
 the sales of the product of a plant or property. 
 
 Operating Expenses are the costs of operating and maintaining 
 the plant. Usually operating expense includes taxes, but often 
 taxes are not included in the so-called operating expenses, and are 
 treated as " fixed charges." Current repair expenditures are al- 
 ways included, but depreciation annuities to provide for future 
 renewals are seldom included. Hovv^ever, there is no fixed prac- 
 tice as to the treatment of depreciation charges (see Chapter II). 
 
 Net Earnings are the balance remaining from gross earnings 
 after deducting operating expenses. Net eai'nings are sometimes 
 crudely designated as profits. Unless taxes and depreciation an- 
 nuities are included in operating expenses, the net earnings should 
 properly be called apj)arent or ledger net earnings. But if taxes 
 and adequate depreciation annuities are deducted, the balance may 
 be called true or actiial net earnings. Very few ledger accounts 
 show true net earnings and are therefore apt to be deceptive. 
 
 Fixed Charges, as the term is commonly used, includes interest 
 (on funded debt, real estate mortgages, and floating debt), con- 
 tractual sinking fund requirements, and accrued taxes (if taxes are 
 not carried as an operating expense). Also it is occasionally the 
 practice to include depreciation annuities as a part of fixed charges. 
 The term " capital costs " is often used to designate interest, de- 
 preciation and taxes. 
 
 Dividends are the so-called " profit " distributions to stock- 
 holders. 
 
 Surplus, as the term is commonly used, is the balance remain- 
 
32 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ing- after deducting fixed charges and dividends from " ledger net 
 earnings." 
 
 While, as above stated, it is the practice of many companies to 
 provide for bond sinking fund requirements as a part of Fixed 
 Charges, other companies treat the matter differently and deduct 
 the annuities for bond sinking funds from Surplus. Some com- 
 panies also make a similar deduction from Surplus to provide an- 
 nuities for a Replacement Reserve, instead of providing for such 
 a reserve in the form of a depreciation fund considered as part 
 of the operating expense. It is important, therefore, not to assume 
 that all actual renewal expenditures will necessarily be found under 
 the Maintenance Expenses, that is, among operating expenses. 
 Where a Replacement Reserve is provided for out of Surplus, it is 
 a common practice to pay for all heavy renewals out of this Re- 
 serve, in which case such payments never appear as an operating 
 expense. Because this is done it should not be assumed that main- 
 tenance expense does not contain a considerable expenditure for 
 true renewals, for it usually does. In brief, both the maintenance 
 expenses and the credits to the Replacement Reserve should be 
 analyzed to ascertain the total actual expenditures for renewals. 
 
 In providing a Replacement Reserve it is not uncommon to esti- 
 mate as follows what should be placed annually in the reserve : 
 Take 20 or 25% of gross annual earnings, and deduct therefrom 
 the actual annual maintenance expenses of the previous year ; the 
 balance is the amount to be put into Replacement Reserve. 
 
 While this forms a good rough and ready rule in many cases, it 
 is apt to lead to serious error in a given case. A much more 
 rational method, where the appraised value of the plant is known 
 In detail, is to estimate the annual depreciation of each class of 
 plant units, take the sum total and deduct therefrom the average 
 annual expenditure for renewals that have been charged to main- 
 tenance during the previous year ; the balance is the sum to set 
 aside in the renewal reserve. (See Chapter II.) 
 
 Interest is the payment for the use of money. The payment 
 for the use of real estate is rent, but the term rent is often ap- 
 plied also to payment for the use of other sorts of capital except 
 money. 
 
 Interest includes not only a return for the use of money but 
 insurance against risk and compensation for at least some pro- 
 prietary supervision. Interest may also include compensation for 
 taxes paid on money loaned. 
 
 Economists assign a single cause for the payment of interest, 
 namely, the preference of present goods to future goods. Although 
 this is the immediate cause of interest, the statement of desire as 
 a cause is merely a platitude that yields no deeper insight into 
 the phenomenon than was already had. We must look back to 
 the mediate or remote causes. There are many motives that lead 
 to borrowing and the consequent payment of interest. The most 
 common motive in the present age is the desire to command labor 
 ?rd through successful command to secure profit. Interest has 
 thus become a device for selecting the highest officers of the in- 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 33 
 
 dustrial armies. Interest on invested capital has heretofore proved 
 to be an economic instrument of much greater efficiency than 
 election, appointment, examination or other device used to select 
 leaders. 
 
 Interest rates in America range from 3 to 12% depending 
 largely on the risk involved, but also depending on the size of the 
 loan and the amount of proprietary supervision on the part of the 
 lender. The general average rate is between 5 and 6%, where risks 
 and proprietary supervision are relatively small. It should be re- 
 membered, however, that there is always danger of error in ap- 
 plying any " general average " factor of this kind in a cost prob- 
 lem. Each case should be studied carefully as a problem in Itself. 
 
 Profit is the excess of selling price over cost. 
 
 We have just seen that " cost " is sometimes used in a sense 
 that does not include " sacrifice cost." "When so used " profit " 
 includes " sacrifice costs," such as proprietary supervision and 
 interest on the proprietor's capital. There is no unanimity of 
 practice respecting the use of the word profit, for obviously its 
 significance depends upon the definition of the word cost. 
 
 The present tendency is to include in cost a charge for the 
 proprietor's time as well as rental on his real estate and interest 
 on his other capital and development cost. Then profit covers 
 only the income that constitutes a reward for superior judgment, 
 management, luck and insurance against risks and depreciation 
 not included in the operating expenses. 
 
 Where the word profit occurs in a law or in a contract, it is 
 evidently possible for dispute to arise unless the word cost is 
 very fully and carefully defined. 
 
 Normal Return on capital is the sum of normal Interest and 
 normal profit. Normal interest rate may be designated as a bond 
 or mortgage interest rate on property similar to that in question, 
 Avhere there is a substantial eauity above the bond. 
 
 Normal profit covers both a normal return for proprietary super- 
 vision and for insurance against all risks not provided for in the 
 operating expenses. Among these risks are loss of income arising 
 from general or local business depressions, loss of income from 
 public enactments, and loss of income from direct and indirect 
 competition. Functional depreciation may also be regarded as one 
 of the forms of risk, and should be provided for in the profit rate 
 if not already provided for as an operating expense. Totaling up 
 we may have some such statement as this : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Normal interest rate 5 
 
 Normal profit rate — 
 
 Proprietary supervision 2 
 
 Functional depreciation 2 
 
 Insurance on permanency of income 1 
 
 Total normal return rate 10 
 
 These percentages are here given merely for illustration. An 
 Interest rate, such as 5%, contains elements of proprietary super- 
 vision and insurance. 
 
34 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Mistakes in the use of rates for capitalizing expenses or incomes 
 are so common as to be almost universal. Let two things be re- 
 membered and many of these mistakes will cease: First, that the 
 normal return rate and not a bare interest rate must be used in cap- 
 italizing. Second, that the normal return rate depends in part upon 
 what exists in the operating expenses in the form of j)roprietary 
 supervision and functional depreciation. 
 
 A normal return rate is what public service commissions usually 
 aim to allow a comi)any to earn, and they commonly call it a 
 " fair return rate." Although it is customary to estimate a " fair 
 return " as a percentage on an investment, it is perhaps better 
 to proceed as follows : Allow an ordinary interest rate, say 5 
 or 6% on the investment, and thereto add a percentage (for pro- 
 prietary supervision and risk) of gross annual income, say 8 to 
 12%; the sum of these two constituting a "fair return" for capital, 
 proprietary supervision and risk. Suppose, for example, the ra- 
 tio of gross income to capital investment is 1 to 5 and that 10% of 
 the gross is allowed for proprietary supervision and risk ; then this 
 is equivalent to 2% on the capital investment, which added to 
 67r interest on the ca))ital gives a fair return rate of 8%. 
 
 Capitalized Value. The capitalized or discounted value of a 
 property is the present worth of its prospective net earnings. The 
 word value is commonly used instead of capitalized value when 
 reference is had to the commercial worth of productive property. 
 
 The process of deriving the present worth, or value, by dividing 
 annual net earnings by an interest rate is called capitalizing the 
 net earnings. If the annual earnings are $12,000, and if the in- 
 terest rate is 6':'f, the capitalized value is $12,000-^0.06 = $200,000. 
 
 Capitalized Cost. The capitalized cost of a property is the 
 equated or true average annual cost divided by the interest rate. 
 If the true average annual charges, including interest, operating 
 expense, depreciation annuity, etc., are $30,000 and the interest 
 rate is 6%, the capitalized cost is $500,000. The first cost of a 
 plant plus its capitalized annual operating expense, inclusive of 
 depreciation and taxes, obviously amounts to the capitalized cost 
 of the plant. 
 
 Equated Annual Costs. The annual costs of repairs and re- 
 newals are seldom uniform, but tend to rise in an irregular 
 " curve " as a plant grows older. The pi-ocess of finding a true 
 economic average annual cost is called equating the cost. This 
 can be done correctly only by a sinking- fund method of calculating 
 wherever capital is susceptible of being invested so as to yield 
 interest. Notwithstanding this seemingly obvious fact there are 
 men so little trained to logical reasoning that they deny the neces- 
 sity of using sinking fund formulas or tables in calculating either 
 average annual costs, projierty values or depreciated plant values. 
 
 Before a rational comparison can be made between alternative 
 plants, it is essential to express all costs either as equated annual 
 costs or as capitalized annual costs that have been equated. To 
 equate, as h^-re used, means to secure a true average by a sinking 
 fund method of calculation. When, for example, the cost of re- 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 35 
 
 pairs is irregular, varying from year to year, no rational com- 
 parison of repair costs can be made until they are equated to an 
 average annual amount. This cannot be accurately done by add- 
 ing all the annual repairs together for a term of years and di- 
 viding by the number of years in the term. The correct process 
 is as follows : 
 
 Calculate the total cost of rei^airs of the first year at com- 
 pound interest up to the end of the last year of economic life of 
 the unit in question. Calculate similarly the cost of repairs of 
 the second, the third, etc., years up to the end of the last year. 
 Add all these compounded costs together and multiply by the an- 
 nual deposit in a sinking fund which started at the begiiming of 
 the life will redeem $1 at the end of the life of the plant unit. 
 The product is the equated aimual cost of repairs. 
 
 If the annual cost of repairs is actually uniform, year after 
 year, throughout the life, say $100, the above given rule gives $100 
 as the result, thus checking the correctness of the rule. 
 
 If the repairs all come at the very end of the life, and thus 
 constitute an entire renewal, obviously the rule gives the correct 
 answer, namely, the sinking annuity required to redeem the in- 
 vestment at the end of the life. 
 
 Common Errors in Capitalizing Values. The capitalized value 
 method is used not only in estimating the value of land, of water 
 right.s, of franchises, and of all property that has a prospective 
 earning capacity, but it is used by engineers in comparing the 
 relative plant designs and plant locations. In spite of such exten- 
 sive use of this method, it is probably more often used erroneously 
 than correctly. To use it correctly there must be complete under- 
 standing of the interrelation of all the factors, and this is rarely 
 had. 
 
 To begin with the percentage used in capitalizing should never 
 be an ordinary interest rate, unless the annual costs have been 
 equated (as above described). To capitalize an annual income by 
 dividing by an ordinary interest rate, say 6%, tacitly as.vumes that 
 the income will be perpetual, or if not perpetual that due deduc- 
 tion has been made in foim of a sinking fund annuity. 
 
 In a recent address to engineering students a professor said that 
 the average engineer is worth $55,000 more to society than if he 
 had no engineering education. It was stated that the average 
 " technically-trained graduate of our engineering colleges earns 
 annually, on the average, at least $3,000." This is stated to be 
 $2,200 in excess of the average earnings of a " trade-trained man." 
 
 The $2,200 annual gain was capitalized at 4%, giving $55,000 
 as the " increased potential value to the community " resulting 
 from the engineering training received by each engineering 
 graduate. 
 
 Not only is this an incorrect appraisal of " increased potential 
 value to the community " but it is not a correct appraisal of the 
 worth of an engineering education to the average engineer. 
 
 If the duration of the average engineer's earning capacity Is, 
 say, 40 years, the present worth of an average $2,260 gain is not 
 
36 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 $2,200 H- 0.04 = $55,000, but $2,200 -^ (0.04 + 0.01) = $44,000. 
 The 1% is added to the 4% because the 1% gives the amount of 
 the annuity required to amortize the value in 40 years. 
 
 In another form the error of tacitly assuming a perpetual life 
 vi^hen capitalizing a value occurs whenever any one fails to allow 
 for functional depreciation due to inadequacy or obsolescence. If 
 allowance is not made for this factor by means of an adequate 
 depreciation annuity as a part of the equated annual operating 
 expenses, it should be made by adding the depreciation annuity 
 rate to the interest r.^.te to get the j:)ercentage rate used in cap- 
 italizing the annual cost. Throughout Wellington's admirable treat- 
 ise on '• The Economic Theory of Railway Location " the error is 
 made of ignoring functional depreciation when capitalizing the 
 operating expenses of alternative railways lines. 
 
 Another common error in capitalizing values is to use bond inter- 
 est rates, say 4 to 5% instead of normal (or "fair") return rates, 
 say 10%. Consideration of the facts previously brought out in 
 our discussion of " fair return rates " will make it clear why such 
 rates should be used in capitalizing net earnings to arrive at 
 commercial values. 
 
 In this connection it should be observed that it is immaterial 
 whether every item of insurance (commercial risk, fire, bad debts, 
 etc.) be treated as an exT)ense or whether it be converted to a per- 
 centage of the plant value and added to the " fair return rate " 
 to get the capitalization rate, but one or the other of these alter- 
 natives must be adopted. Similarly as to the item of proprietary- 
 supervision, it must either appear in toto in the operating ex- 
 penses, which rarely happens, or it must appear as part of the 
 percentage rate used in capitalizing the net income. Many a plant 
 has been commercially appraised at too high a value because of 
 failure to understand the principles just stated. This is particu- 
 larly the case with small plants where proprietary supervision is 
 usually so large a factor relative to the total annual cost. 
 
 Alternative Plant Method of Valuation. A criterion of the 
 value of a given thing is the cost of securing the next best air 
 ternative that will perform th^ same function. The only limita- 
 tion in the application of the alternative plant method of valuation 
 may be stated thus : The market price of the product of the 
 plant must be such that its net earnings give a normal rate of 
 return on the cost of the alternative plant. Average prospective 
 net earnings car)italized at the normal rate of return give the 
 value of a productive property. It is conceivable, of course, that 
 an alternative plant might cost so much that its product could 
 not be marketed at a price that would yield a normal return on 
 the cost. Obviously, then, the value of the plant could not equal 
 its cost. But within this limit, the alternative plant method of 
 valuation is strictly applicable. 
 
 It follows, then, that if the gross earnings are not affected by 
 the substitution of an alternative for any part of a plant, the cor- 
 rect criterion of the value of a part of a plant is found by the rule 
 given below in italics. 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 37 
 
 Assuming gross-income to he unchanged by substituting an al- 
 ternative part in a plant, the value of any part is the first cost of 
 its most economic alternative plus the capitalized difference in 
 their respective average annual operating expenses. 
 
 Expressed algebraically this rule ib : 
 
 E — e 
 
 V = C -\- . 
 
 R 
 
 This formula also gives the depreciated value of a plant unit 
 (see page 100). The derivation of the formula follows. 
 
 C - first cost of the most economic alternative plant. 
 
 c ~ ditto of existing plant. 
 
 ^ r= average ("equated") annual operating expense inclusive of 
 repairs, natural depreciation and taxes, but exclusive of functional 
 depreciation and interest, for the most economic alternative plant. 
 
 e — ditto for the existing plant. 
 
 / = sinking fund rate per cent, of annual functional depreciation. 
 
 G — average annual gross income with the alternative plant. 
 
 g = ditto with the existing plant. 
 
 12 =: a capitalization rate — r -\- f. 
 
 r = interest rate — " fair return rate." 
 
 V — value of most economic alternative plant. 
 
 V = ditto of existing plant. 
 
 G—iE + fC) 
 V = (1) 
 
 r 
 
 9—(e + fc) 
 v= (2) 
 
 r 
 
 (E — e)+f(.C — c) — (G — g) 
 
 v-Y- (3) 
 
 r 
 
 If the gross income is the same for both plants, then G — g; 
 but in order that either plant shall have any commercial value 
 as a working plant it must ])roduce gross earnings sufficient to 
 pay its operating expenses and fixed charges. Assuming this to 
 be the case, and that all earnings in excess of this requirement are 
 " going concern value," it follows that V = C, or that the value 
 of an alternative plant is its first cost. Then sub.stituting C for 
 V in Equation (3) and remembering that G — g — 0, we have: 
 
 (E — e) +/(C' — v) 
 v = C + (4) 
 
 r 
 
 If the existing plant were sold at its value v, then to the pur- 
 chaser its " firt't co:-t " would be c, or v — c, whence : 
 
 (E~€) + f(C — c} 
 v = C + (5) 
 
38 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 E — e 
 
 r-\ t 
 
 (6) 
 
 EJquation (6) gives the depreciated value of a plant unit, under 
 the condition that a new plant unit yields the same output as 
 the old plant unit. This same equation is derived in another way 
 in Chapter II. 
 
 Equation (4) is the equation to use when the value of land, 
 water rights, or the lil<e is to be calculated, and there v includes 
 not only the value of the existing plant but the value of the land, 
 water rights or the like associated there with it and indispensable 
 thereto. 
 
 Value of Plant Location of Right of Way and of Water Rights. 
 The value of a right of way, or of a plant site, or of water rights, 
 of coal or indeed of any land entity is correctly calculable by the 
 alternative plant method (Equation 4), just discussed. But in 
 making the calculation it should be remembered that it is always 
 assumed that the gross income will be sufficient to pay a " fair 
 return" on the value thus determined. 
 
 In the case of farm or mineral products there is ordinarily an 
 " open market " wherein the prices of the products are established. 
 Given the unit prices, and knowing the number of units that will 
 be produced annually from a given piece of land, the average 
 annual gross income is readily estimated. Equation (2), above 
 given, determines the value of the plant inclusive of land, water 
 rights, coal or whatever caintal is involved in the production. 
 Then the total value thus ascertained, less the depreciated value 
 of the plant, is the value of the land, water rights, coal, or other 
 land entity. Why, then, is it necessary in such a case to use 
 Equation (4)? It is not, if all the data are available, but one of 
 the difficulties inherent in such problems is the determination of 
 the probable gross income. But it is usually easy to ascertain 
 what an alternative plant with the necessary land would cost. If 
 this can be done, Equation (4) offers a simple solution of the 
 problem. 
 
 To illustrate : 
 
 Certain water rights are owned, leased or otherwise controlled 
 by a water company. Their value is in question. The appraiser 
 must arrive at the value by considering the most economic alter- 
 native sources of water. Suppose the water company has a water- 
 shed from which it secures a water sui^ply that is impounded near 
 the city and is delivered by gravity. Two alternatives may pre- 
 sent themselves: (1) Another but more distant watershed from 
 which a gravity supply is obtainable, and (2) a nearby river from 
 which the water must be pumped and filtered. 
 
 An estimate is made of the first cost and operating expense of 
 each of these two alternatives, and of the corresponding operating 
 expense of that part of the existing plant that would be displaced 
 were either of the alternatives used. 
 
 The following example will illustrate the solution of such a prob- 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 39 
 
 lern. Let the first cost of the alternative gravity system be esti- 
 mated to be as follows: 
 
 Watershed rights, 10,000 acres at $10 per acre. ... $100,000 
 
 Pipe line right of way, 16 miles 16,000 
 
 Head works, supply pipe line and reservoir 460,000 
 
 Total $576,000 
 
 Overhead charges and contingencies 30% 172,800 
 
 Total first cost $748,800 
 
 Let the yearly operating expense, including maintenance, de- 
 preciation and taxes, be $23,000 on this alternative water supply 
 system. Let the corresponding first cost of the existing supply 
 system be : 
 
 Headworks. pipe line and reservoir $400,000 
 
 Overhead charges and contingencies, 25% 100,000 
 
 Total first cost $500,000 
 
 Let the yearly operating expense be $15,000. 
 
 Then, if a normal return rate is %%, the value of the existing 
 supply system including its water rights and lands associated 
 therewith is $748,000 + ($23,000 — $15,000) ^ 8% = $848,000. Since 
 this includes the $500,000 first cost of the existing supply system, 
 it follo^vs that the water rights (and lands associated therewith) 
 of the existing system are worth $848,000 — $500,000 = $348,000. 
 
 Four important points are to be noted: (1) The estimated cost 
 of acquiring watershed rights must be included in the first cost of 
 the alternative water supply system but must be excluded from 
 the first cost of the existing water supply system. 
 
 (2) The interest rate used in capitalizing the difference in oper- 
 ating expenses — 8% assumed in this case — must be a normal 
 return rate on .such an investment. It must not be a bare Interest 
 rate oh well secured loans. If functional depreciation is not pro- 
 vided for in the operating expenses it should be provided for by 
 increa.sing the normal return rate, and this is preferable where 
 the water right values themselves are depreciable. 
 
 (3) Estimated allowances for contingencies should ordinarily 
 be considerably higher for a plant not built than for one in ex- 
 istence, particularly where engineering and accounting records of 
 the existing plant are fairly complete. 
 
 (4) If water is brought from a great distance a larger dis- 
 tributing re.servoir is needed in or near the city than if the supply 
 line is short. Breaks in a long line are more likely to occur, and 
 the fire risk correspondingly increased if the distributing reservoir 
 is small. 
 
 "Where an alternative supply .system involves pumping and fil- 
 tration or other treatment of the water, the annual expenses when 
 capitalized may become very great, and will correspondingly in- 
 crease the value of the water rights of an existing pure, gravity 
 supply. 
 
40 MECHANICAL AND ELECT TUCAL COST DATA 
 
 For an extended, discussion of water right valuation see three 
 articles by Halbert P. Gillette in Engineering and Contracting, 
 Apr. 17 and Dec. 4, 1912. and Sept. 1. 1915. 
 
 For a discussion of the real or commercial value of a plant site 
 or a railway right of way. see " Some Important Considerations in 
 Right of Way Valuation " by Halbert P. Gillette, in Engineering 
 and Contracting. June 30, 1915. 
 
 Value of Attached Business. The value of any property, as 
 above stated, is the present worth of its prospective net earnings. 
 It is often desirable to segregate this value into two parts which 
 are variously designed; a.s, (1) "tangible" and (2) "intangible," 
 (1) "'physical" and (2) "non-physical." (1) "plant" and (2) 
 "good will," (1) "tangible property" and (2) "going concern 
 value,." etc. In the case of public service corporations the non- 
 physical value is often called '• franchise value." 
 
 In every case the procedure is first to capitalize the prospective 
 equated net earnings and therefrom deduct what is regarded as 
 the " value " of the physical or tangible property, the remainder 
 being the non-physical value or the value of the attached business. 
 But it should be remembered that this segregation is justifiable 
 only on the hypothesis that the existing physical property ■ — the 
 plant, etc. — is replaceable by an equivalent, without changing the 
 gross income. 
 
 Having calculated the value of the existing physical property 
 by the alternative plant method, as above described, deduct the 
 physical property value from the capitalized value of the pros- 
 pective net earnings and the balance is the " value of the attached 
 business " or. more properly, the value of the business in excess 
 of that needed to yield a fair return on the value of the physical 
 property. 
 
 Often, but quite improperly, the cost of developing or establish- 
 ing a business is spoken of as " going value " ; it may properly 
 be designated as " going cost," but it certainly is not value. 
 
 It is important to realize that many of the items of physical 
 or tangible cost are quite as non-physical or intangible as those 
 commonly classed as non-physical. Thus after a plant has been 
 built there is no physical thing in the plant that can be designated 
 as •' interest during construction," or as " cost of construction ac- 
 counting." or as " cost of engineering," which are all regarded as 
 parts of the total physical cost. These are quite as non-physical 
 or intangible in fact as the " cost of attaching the business." which 
 is classed as intangible. Hence the terms physical and non- 
 physical, tangible and intangible, at bottom denote no fundamental 
 difference in the costs or values to which they relate, but are 
 merely convenient expressions for classifying^ costs or values, v.hich 
 classification each appraiser adopts rather arbitrarily for his pur- 
 poses, but in which few appraisers are consistent with their own 
 theories. Men are so commonly deceived by words that it is not 
 unusual to find engineers, public utility commissioners and judges 
 floundering in a morass of quibble as to whether a given item of 
 cost or value should be classed as " tangible " or " intangible." In 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 41 
 
 truth no cost is either physical or tangible except in relation to 
 the money with which it w^as paid for. Mental services relate to 
 things that affect the senses, but once such services have been 
 performed and paid for no tangible substance may remain to in- 
 dicate the fact. It is pure sophistry, therefore, to argue that the 
 service rendered by a timekeeper on construction work is a whit 
 more entitled to be called tangible than is the service of a man 
 who attaches customers. to a plant by soliciting or advertising. 
 
 Rate of Fair Return. Public service commissions have adopted 
 the expression " rate of fair return " to denote the percentage of 
 annual net operating revenue allowed by them upon the appraised 
 value of a public utility property. The " net operating revenue " 
 is the balance remaining after deducting from gross operating 
 revenue the operating expenses, taxes and depreciation annuity. 
 
 Public service commissions have commonly allowed 6 to 8% as 
 a " fair return rate." Few decisions have indicated that much 
 study has been given to the subject of the " fair return rate." The 
 Wisconsin Railroad Commission analyzes the rate into tvv^o ele- 
 ments: (1) The interest rate and (2) the profit rate. Thus a 
 6% interest rate plus a 2% profit rate give an 8% " fair return 
 rate." The profit (2%) presumably covers risk and leaves a mar- 
 gin for what may be called proprietary reward. 
 
 Adam Smith in his " Wealth of Nations " (written about the 
 time of our Revolutionary War) speaks of the normal "profits" 
 of manufacture, merchandising, etc., as being double the normal 
 interest rate, or about 12%, but he used the word "profit," as 
 many people still use it, to include a normal interest on the in- 
 vestment. 
 
 A rate of fair return may be analyzed into three elements : 
 
 1. Interest on well secured capital. 
 
 2. Insurance against risks covered neither in the operating ex- 
 penses nor in the interest. 
 
 3. Reward for proprietary supervision. 
 
 Ordinary interest rates contain at least some insurance against 
 financial risks, but this insurance is relatively slight in the bonds 
 of large, well established companies. 
 
 A 4.5 to 5% interest rate usually includes comparatively little 
 risk insurance and very little proprietary supervision. 
 
 Risk insurance should always be considered in connection with 
 the depreciation armuity, although the two rarely have been viewed 
 together as parts of one whole. A depreciation annuity is largely 
 an insurance against obsolescence and economic inadequacy. 
 Hence if little or no provision is made for there factors in the 
 form of a depreciation fund, it follov/s that the " rate of fair 
 return " should be made correspondingly greater. Almost v/ith- 
 out exception, however, this important matter has been disre- 
 garded in establishing rates of "fair return." The same rate has 
 repeatedly been applied to tAvo similar companies, one of v/hich set 
 aside a liberal depreciation reserve while the other provided no 
 reserve at all. 
 
 It has often been said that the element of risk Is largely elim- 
 
42 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 inated under public regulation of rates. But this is not true. In 
 nearly every state the municipalities are free to build competing 
 plants, and they often do so. Wars and other causes of " hard 
 times " continue to make every business somewhat hazardous. 
 Then there is the ever present hazard of poor management. Let 
 bad judgment be used in making additions to or changes in the 
 plant, and much of the profit may be absorbed in " development 
 cost," leaving little or nothing for dividends. Against these and 
 other risks the public guarantees nothing. The rates paid for the 
 service are assumed to provide the insurance. It is true that 
 rates found to be inadecLuate may be raised, but the public ill-will 
 that usually follows a rise in rates is often very costly to a com- 
 pany, even where it is practicable to increase rates. 
 
 Every public utility plant that has been properly designed for 
 a growing community, is more than adequate for its present needs, 
 in at least some of its parts. This is inevitable, for the engineer 
 plans not merely for today, but for several years in advance. 
 Let something occur to reduce the rate of growth considerably 
 and it will often be found impracticable to charge rates that will 
 yield a "fair return" on the entire investment until the old rate 
 of growth is resumed. There are plants that are badly " over- 
 built " — too large for the present population — and they do not 
 and can not yield a " fair return." To insure against .such risks 
 as this, a higher rate of return must be provided for plants in 
 general. 
 
 A common sophistry is found in the arguments of those who 
 hold that 6% is a " fair return rate " in the case of old and suc- 
 cessful companies, even if not sufficient in the case of new com- 
 panies. This sophistry is perhaps best exposed by showing what 
 Vi'ould happen v/ere the securities of all utility eojnpanies owned 
 by one company or person. Then, it is clear, the deficits in fair 
 return suffered by the unfortunate companies would have to be 
 counterbalanced by the surpluses earned by the remaining com- 
 panies, else the total net income would fall short of being a " fair 
 return." V/herever the item of insurance rate enters an economic 
 problem, it must be applied as an annual percentage to a large 
 number of similar units. Hence if the rate of " fair return " 
 includes ini'urance against certain risks, as it should, it is mani- 
 festly unsound to confiscate the risk insurance in the case of a 
 financially successful company by reducing its rate of return. 
 
 Althoush the element of risk insurance may be discussed by it- 
 self, it is closely associated with the third element in the " fair 
 return rate," namely the reward for proprietary supervision, that 
 is the reward to the owners of the property for exercise of judg- 
 ment and the courage of their convictions. In nearly every utility 
 company there is at least one stockholder upon whose judgment 
 a very great deal depends. He is the financial leader to whom 
 men are attracted because of his recognized ability at making 
 his investments "make good." He may not be, and often is not. 
 the active manager of the company, but he frames its larger 
 policies and he directs their execution. Associated with him are 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 43 
 
 other investors, and his financial power usually depends largely 
 upon them. Such a leader, if successful, is unquestionably en- 
 titled to reward. He must share the reward with his financial 
 associates, else they will flock to other leaders. The reward is the 
 profit in excess of normal interest, and it is, of course, so inter- 
 twined with the risk insurance element as not to be precisely 
 separable*. 
 
 Altogether too much stress has been put upon the risk element 
 and too little upon the proprietary reward element in discussions 
 of fair return rates. That a stockholder should be rewarded for 
 what appear to be entirely the acts of other men has not seemed 
 equitable. Whether it is ideally equitable or not is hardly ger- 
 mane. The election of public oflficials, for example, is not an ideal 
 process of selecting such oflicials. We may well form ideals, but 
 we should not hastily condemn all that fails to fit the mold of 
 perfection. So, while it may not be a scheme without flaw to 
 reward all stockholders because some few greatly merit reward, we 
 can not escape doing so as long as the financial world is as it is. 
 Furthermore, let us beware of denying merit to the man who is 
 merely capable of discovering merit. The little stockholder who 
 saw in James J. Hill a great railway man is perhaps entitled to 
 reward for so seemingly small a thing as his vote of confidence. 
 At any rate, the time has not yet come to declare the stock com- 
 pany system of co-operative risk and profit a failure. It con- 
 tinues to bring to the front a goodly supply of strong men, who, 
 with all their frailties, are seemingly the fittest to lead. 
 
 In a small plant the proprietor often draws little or no salary, 
 but looks to the dividends on his stock for his main compensation, 
 even though he devotes considerable time to the general manage- 
 ment of the plant. Where this is the case the rate of fair return 
 should far exceed the ordinary allowance of 7 to 8%. Moreover, it 
 should be remembered that the risk insurance element is usually 
 greater for a plant serving a small city than for one serving a 
 large city. The closing down of a few large industries in a small 
 city may seriously reduce the net earnings of a utility plant that 
 serves them. The higher rate of interest that small companies pay 
 on their bonds indicates, in part, the greater risk involved. 
 
 In establishing what a rate of fair return should be it is cus- 
 tomary to show, by the testimony of local bankers and real estate 
 men, what the prevailing rates of interest on mortgages are. Also 
 it may be shown that such a business as banking itself commonly 
 yields a return of 8% or more on the invested capital and surplus. 
 The average " return " earned by national banks in America has 
 exceeded 9% for many years. 
 
 It is also well to establish what the normal " profits " from vari- 
 ous classes of business enterprises are. To do this some well- 
 known auditing firm may testify as to their experience, and with- 
 out naming individual cases may submit lists of examples of 
 " profits " normally earned by various classes of companies whose 
 books have been audited by them. (See Table I A, p. 44.) 
 
 A rate of fair return for a public utility company should be one 
 
44 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 that will attract new capital for additions and improvements. If 
 the rate is too low capital will How into other fields. But, al- 
 though it is conmion to speak of capital as if it were a thing im- 
 personal in the extreme, money is, in fact, an order to command 
 labor ; and the commission to execute the order is virtually given 
 to some capitalistic leader. It is of prime importance that the 
 leader be progies.sive. Capital will doubtless flow at low rates 
 into long established, conservatively managed businesses in old 
 communities, but the fact that it does so is no evidence that low 
 fair return rates should be fixed. Better far. for the sake of ulti- 
 mate low unit cost, is a higher rate of return that will fire the 
 imagination of a progressive financial leader. Under the guidance 
 of such a man business can be made to thrive and, thriving, the 
 unit charges for product or service will decrease almost auto- 
 matically. 
 
 It is fast becoming evident that there are grave defects in the 
 plan of allowing only a fixed rate of return on the cost or value 
 of a plant. Proprietary brains deserve reward not for what is 
 expended in plant construction, but for what is saved. Ultimately, 
 perhaps, a normal interest rate of say 6% will be allowed upon the 
 Investment in a utility plant, plus a profit that rises as the unit 
 charge for the service to the public falls. The sliding scale of 
 dividends allowed to certain gas companies, as in Boston, illus- 
 trates the trend toward a more rational rate-making theory. For 
 each 5 cts. per thousand reduction in the price of gas, the dividend 
 rate on the stock is permitted to rise a stated fraction of 1%. 
 
 Some years ago we suggested the plan of periodic rate fixing, 
 under which the rates of charge would not be lowered by public 
 act for a term of years, and during which a company would be 
 like the owner of a patent, entitled to earn all that could be 
 earned. Recently the rates of the New York Telei)hone Co. were 
 fixed bj' the public service commission for a period of three years. 
 While this is much too short a period in most cases, it illustrates 
 the point and may forecast a trend. 
 
 TABLE lA. RETURN ON INVESTMENT IN SUNDRY MANU- 
 FACTURING CORPORATIONS NOT UNDER 
 GOVERNMENTAL CONTROL 
 
 Average 
 
 Company, manufacturer, annual net 
 
 or type of industry Period investment 
 
 Musical instruments . . . 1913 $;t.557.242 
 
 Brewerv 1912 2,392.010 
 
 Office devices 3 years to 1913 11.646,224 
 
 Small brewery 1913 376,125 
 
 Textiles 3 years to 1913 151.018 
 
 Photographic supplies.. 1913 525.078 
 
 Rubber goods 3yearstol913 1.368,722 
 
 Drugs 3 years to 1913 288,031 
 
 Motion pictures 3 V- years to 1 91 3 677.404 
 
 Fertilizers 3vearstol913 5.112.926 
 
 Leather goods 3vearstol913 2.390,725 
 
 Musical instruments. . ..2 years to 1913 10,909,986 
 
 Percent- 
 
 i. 
 
 ige of 
 
 
 profit 
 
 Average 
 
 to 
 
 annual 
 
 invest- 
 
 profit 
 
 ment 
 
 $779,415 
 
 8.14 
 
 156,745 
 
 6.55 
 
 1,789,433 
 
 15.37 
 
 61.865 
 
 16.44 
 
 46,315 
 
 30.67 
 
 88.973 
 
 16.94 
 
 161,485 
 
 11.80 
 
 33.161 
 
 11.51 
 
 293.354 
 
 43.30 
 
 385,415 
 
 7.54 
 
 341.126 
 
 14.27 
 
 3,740,196 
 
 34.30 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 
 
 45 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 profit 
 Average Average to 
 Company, manufacturer, annual net annual invest- 
 or type of industry Period investment profit ment 
 
 Textiles 1913 3.607.648 1,204,9:^1 33.40 
 
 Textile machinery 1913 1,410,840 62,106 4.40 
 
 Hair (taken from hides, 
 
 skins, etc.) Vi year to 1913 97,044 21,378 44.06 
 
 Textile machinery 1913 1,560.704 21,390 1.37 
 
 Cotton goods 1913 1,716,176 123,870 7.22 
 
 Steel 1913 2,238,109 538,874 24.08 
 
 Cement 1913 1,392,216 115,141 8.27 
 
 Paper 1913 1,099,212 42,715 3.89 
 
 Textile machinery 1913 371,122 57,036 15.37 
 
 Refrigerating apparatus 1913 3,010,087 330,735 10.99 
 
 Tinwax-e, aluminum, etc. 1913 1,438.225 131,332 9.13 
 
 Tinware, aluminum, etc. 1913 490,597 48.522 9 89 
 
 Iron and steel 1913 3,799.603 225,115 5.92 
 
 Manufacturing stationery 1913 11,452,084 594,390 5.18 
 Grinding and crushing 
 
 machinery 1913 2,928,370 262.605 8.97 
 
 Wire 1913 950.821 116,705 12.27 
 
 Brass 1913 22,131,599 1,917.605 8.66 
 
 Chemicals 1913 337,794 78.919 23.36 
 
 Carpet 1913 1,726,558 229,941 13.31 
 
 Rubber goods 3913 248,129 53,279 21.47 
 
 Rubber goods 1913 658.896 108,027 16.39 
 
 Electric lighting fixtures 1913 95,395 69,680 73.04 
 
 Automobile .specialties.. 1913 460.458 516.138 112.09 
 
 Steel chains 1913 304,271 17,045 5.60 
 
 Cost of Establishing a Business. The cost of establishing or 
 building up a business is a cost item that not infrequently exceeds 
 the full first cost of an expensive plant, and rarely is less than 20% 
 of the first cost of a manufacturing or public utility plant plus the 
 depreciation accrued but not yet paid. Aside from the costs of 
 advertising for and soliciting new business, there are the cost of 
 training new employees besides the accumulated deficit in fair re- 
 turn on the investment. All these development costs, as we term 
 them, may be calculated very readily if three annual items are 
 known from the time of the initial investment down to the time 
 that deficits in fair return cease. 
 
 It is customary to class the interest on the investment during 
 the period of plant con.struction as an item by itself, called " in- 
 terest during construction," but it might with perfect propriety be 
 included as a part of the development cost. 
 
 Intangible cost is the cost involved in attaching business to a 
 plant. 
 
 Intangible value is that part of the total value (deduced by 
 capitalizing prospective net earnings) remaining after deducting 
 the tangible or physical value from the total. 
 
 Intangible cost is given various names, such as " development 
 cost," " development expense^" " going cost," " going value," " go- 
 ing concern value," " cost of e.stablishing the business," etc. 
 
 Intangible value is also given various names, such as "franchise 
 value," "going concern value" (occasionally abbreviated to "go- 
 ing value"), "good will," etc. 
 
46 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Since some terms like " going concern value " are used by some 
 people to mean intangible cost, whereas other people use the same 
 terms to mean intangible value, no end of confusion and illogical 
 reasoning results. 
 
 " The franchise value " of a public utility corresponds to the 
 " good will " of a business that is not operated under a franchise, 
 for both are dependent on prospective net earnings. There is, 
 however, such a thing as " franchise cost," which is the cost of 
 securing a franchise. This has no necessary relation to the value 
 of the franchise. 
 
 There are two commonly used methods of estimating going or 
 development cost: (1) The deficit method as applied to the ac- 
 tual plant investment, income and expenses; (2) the deficit method 
 as applied to a hypothetical projected new plant, the construction 
 of which is supposed to start at the time of the appraisal and its 
 customers subseciuently attached until its net revenue equals that 
 of the existing plant, but without competing with the existing 
 plant. The first of these methods is often called the historical or 
 Wisconsin method. Tlie second is often called the Alvord method. 
 
 We now propose a third deficit method, which resembles the Al- 
 vord method except in that it is assumed that the new hypothetical 
 plant must compete with the existing plant. 
 
 Each of these three deficit methods makes the going or develop- 
 ment cost a sequel to " interest during construction." for the deficit 
 is the deficiency in a fair interest return on the investment. Each 
 method compounds the interest on the deficit. The interest rate 
 used is a " fair return rate." 
 
 It will be seen that the historical or Wisconsin method of de- 
 riving the development or going cost logically associates this cost 
 with the actual cost of the physical plant and not with the esti- 
 mated cost of reproducing it under present conditions. The Al- 
 vord method, however, was devised to secure a development cost 
 that could logically be associated with the cost of reproduction 
 of plant under recent past -and immediately prospective conditions. 
 However, we think it falls short of accomplishing this end, and 
 for that reason have proposed the third method. 
 
 The advocates of appraising the cost of reproducing the physical 
 plant under recent past or prospective conditions, and of assign- 
 ing a functional as well as a natural depreciation, have apparently 
 not realized that in essence they were proposing to set up an 
 alternative plant as a criterion by which to judge the value of the 
 existing plant. But even if they have clearly seen this implica- 
 tion they have not seen its corollary, to wit: If a new alternative 
 plant is set up as a criterion of the worth of the existing old plant, 
 then a new alternative business must also be estimated to attach 
 to the new alternative plant. But a new alternative business can 
 be secured only by competing with the old existing plant. 
 
 To establish business under such a competitive condition will 
 cost far more than under the Alvord theory, and that the Alvord 
 method therefore gives an irreducible minimum, if present and 
 prospective conditions are assumed. But we object to the claim 
 
0) <u o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 t— CD lO CD iM 
 Tf"M Tt< O U5 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 . _o 
 
 
 c^«> 
 
 
 •*o«»'-ieoo 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 QJ *-< ^-' 
 
 
 fO O Oi '^4 I- lA 
 
 
 
 
 
 f o:,co<ji-^o 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 oi oo 00 1- f- r- 
 
 
 
 
 ooooo'o 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 C<J 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 <H 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 Q 
 
 
 oo 
 
 ooooo • 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 oo 
 
 ooooo • 
 
 
 W 
 
 00 IT- 
 
 r-l-^COr-ll' • 
 
 
 
 H^S^ 
 
 CO C^f 
 
 i-Toujc-i' • 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ««• 
 
 ««■ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r _. 
 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 Q 
 
 
 be 
 
 o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 « 
 
 
 *-. G 
 
 o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^rs 
 
 o 
 
 0"1CDM?I 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 Cj'ooVllrtCD" 
 
 
 cj 
 
 
 oS 
 
 
 1— 1 r-t i-H 
 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 
 . ^ 
 
 69- 
 
 
 
 ij 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 •;::; C <u 
 
 O 
 
 OOOOO 
 
 
 
 ft.^ M 
 
 o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 '> 
 
 
 > Oj 0) 
 
 o 
 
 «5 
 
 o -^ a-- 1- o 
 o'^iM-n'irt 
 
 
 a 
 
 h 
 w 
 
 J< 
 
 
 &9- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 "§ 
 
 
 M :3 
 
 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 ocoiooc-j 
 ci'oo'oc-j 
 
 
 t3 
 
 
 loS 
 
 
 tHC-ICICOCO 
 
 
 § 
 
 H 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Z 
 
 r '" 
 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 fL 
 
 
 bo 
 
 O 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 T' 
 
 
 0.2 
 
 oo 
 
 ■*_irti-o_c-i 
 
 
 ;3 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 t-^ 
 
 C-IMTj^'cD?© 
 
 
 'O 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 tH ,H T-l rl T-l 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ««■ 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 » 
 oo 
 
 OOOOOO 
 
 
 S-i 
 OJ 
 
 oo 
 
 oooooo 
 
 
 c 
 
 ft 
 
 ori 
 
 cg_-^__<y5oqcr.o 
 
 
 
 
 ''^ ^ =^ 
 
 '^"'m" 
 
 «5'r-l<''l^'rt-'ii5' 
 
 
 •1- 
 
 i-i 
 
 ol^ 
 
 «^ 
 
 €/S- 
 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 .5 
 
 § 
 
 
 0) 
 7i 3 
 
 o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 
 
 2 s 
 
 o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 PQ 
 
 
 P3 
 
 o 
 
 oo rHlOOV^l 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 CI 
 
 co'cocio'c^ 
 
 CJ -MCI CO CO 
 
 
 « 
 
 V. H 
 
 ««• 
 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 • . . . ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . I . ! ! 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 • ! . ! . 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ai 
 
 "S 
 
 
 
 
 
 I I I I I 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '.'.'.'.'. 
 
 o 
 
 4) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a-t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ..... 
 
 (U 
 
 <u a 
 
 
 
 
 
 '.'.'.'.'. 
 
 01 
 
 Q^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 * a 
 
 
 "^^ 
 
 in CD t- CO C5 
 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 iHi-Hi-IiHtH 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 >< 
 
 o- 
 
 
 03500105 
 
 
 47 
 
48 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 that the Alvord method is wholly consistent with the " cost of 
 reproduction method." An alternative plant spells competition, 
 and therefore a business built up under competition and not under 
 the ideal condition assumed in the Alvord method. 
 
 Street railways, electric interurbans, steam railways, telephone 
 lines and even water works have been built to compete with ex- 
 isting plants. They have in nearly every case encountered very 
 great development cost, often so great as to make the new projierties 
 dismal failures. This is strikingly seen in the so-called " inde- 
 pendent telephone companies," whose development cost has usually 
 been ruinous to them. Such alternative plants may have been built 
 because their promoters assumed that lower plant costs could be 
 had than were actually incurred by the old Bell plants. But the 
 promoters failed to estimate their probable development or going 
 cost under competitive conditions. Could an assumption of the 
 Alvord method conditions have been realized in practice the con- 
 sequent low development cost might have justified the building 
 of " independent telephone " systems. But practice and theory 
 failed to meet there, as they fail to meet anywhere when it is as- 
 sumed that a new alternative plant can be built to serve a com- 
 munity habituated to use the existing old plant, yet without en- 
 gaging in a competitive flght for business with the existing plant. 
 In other words, while v.-e can conceive the ideal conditions of the 
 Alvord method, and while we grant that those conditions yield a low 
 development or going cost we refuse to admit that the Alvord 
 method is fully concordant with any reproduction method of esti- 
 mating the cost of physical properties. 
 
 Alvord Method. For a comiilete discussion of this method of 
 estimating development cost the reader is referred to a paper 
 read before the American Society of Civil Engineers by Metcalf 
 and Alvord entitled " The Going "Value of Water Works." The 
 paper was reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, March 29, 
 1911. 
 
 In Table II we give a recent application of this method to a 
 water works that served about 8,000 people in the year 1914. The 
 investment in the plant alone was about $100,000 exclusive of 
 overhead costs. Its gross revenue and operating expense for 1914 
 are given in the table as $24,000 and $14,000 respectively, and 
 after deducting an estimated depreciation correction for that year 
 the net earnings were $7,800. Construction of the hypothetical 
 new plant was assumed to begin and end in 1914, and result in a 
 $6,000 operating expense (organization of staff, soliciting business, 
 etc.), with no income from, operation. 
 
 The business of the old plant was assumed to continue its pre- 
 vious rate of growth for five years, and that of the hypothetical 
 plant was assumed to overtake that of the old plant in 1919. The 
 eighth column, " Total Difference," is found by subtracting the net 
 earnings of the new plant from those of the old plant. The items 
 in the eighth column are multiplied by the " present worth factor " 
 in the ninth column to get the " net difference " in the tenth col- 
 umn — that is, the present amount (in 1914) of the difference in 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 49 
 
 net earnings betv/een the old and the new plants. The " present 
 worth factor " is taken from a compound interest table, such as 
 that on page 12 of Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data." The de- 
 velopment cost by the Alvord method is thus calculated to be 
 $26,360 in this case. This $26,360 was added to depreciated value 
 of the old plant. 
 
 y/isconsin Method. Applying the Wisconsin method to this same 
 water works, as far back as the accounting records were available,, 
 and the result is shown in Table III. The original nucleus of the 
 
 TABLE III. PLANT INVESTMENT AND EARNINGS 
 
 Plant, Gross Apparent Apparent 
 
 Year Jan. 1 earnings expenses net earnings 
 
 1900 $ 76,200 $13,000 $9,500 $3,500 
 
 1904. 77,200 13.800 10,700 3,100 
 
 1902 77,900 13,500 10,000 3,500 
 
 1903 79,100 14,200 9,800 4,400 
 
 1904 81,500 15,200 10,400 4,800 
 
 1905 82,800 15,700 10,000 5.700 
 
 1906 85,300 17,600 12,100 5.500 
 
 1907 87,200 18.300 15.100 3,200 
 
 1908 88,300 18.400 14,400 4.000 
 
 1909 91,300 19,900 15.000 4.900 
 
 1910 93.500 20,700 13,900 6,800 
 
 1911 96,800 21,800 14,900 6,900 
 
 1912 98,300 22.400 16.100 6.300 
 
 1913 99.000 23.900 14.500 9,400 
 
 -1914 100,000 24,000 14,000 10,000 
 
 Total $1,314,400 $82,000 
 
 'plant was built in 1885, but It had passed through a receivership 
 and no accounting records back of 1900 were available. In such 
 a case it might at first appear impracticable to apply the Wiscon- 
 sin method, but it is possible to approximate quite closely to the 
 development cost incurred during the period for which the annual 
 earnings and operating expenses are available. Thus the repro- 
 duction new cost of the plant, less overhead charges and land 
 values, was about $100,000 as of .Jan. 1, 1914. Overhead charges 
 were eliminated, for those that had been charged did not appear 
 in the ledger plant account, but in operating expense. The second 
 column in Table HI was arrived at by deducting successively the 
 yearly additions to plant, recorded in the ledgers, starting with 
 $100,000 as the base in 1914. Thus it was established that the 
 plant investment was $76,200 as that of Jan. 1. 1900. The gross 
 earnings and operating expenses (in round numbers) were set up 
 in columns 3 and 4, from which the " apparent net earnings " in 
 column 5 were deduced. The " apparent expense " includes taxes 
 and current maintenance but includes no depreciation fund annuity. 
 Table IV starts with the $76,200 property investment derived 
 from Table III and column 4 of Table TV is the same as column 5 
 of Table ITT. An 8% "fair return rate" was assumed, and $76,200 
 multiplied by 8% gave $6,100 (in round numbers), which was 
 entered in column 3, Table IV. Since the net earnings were only 
 $3,500, there was a deficit of $2,6(>0 below the fair return of 
 
50 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE IV. DEVELOPMENT COST BY THE WISCONSIN 
 METHOD 
 
 Property 8% fair Apparent Plant 
 
 Year Jan. 1 return net earning-s Deficit additions 
 
 1900 $ 76,200 $ 6,100 $ 3,500 $2,600 $1,000 
 
 1901 79,800 6.400 3,100 3,300 700 
 
 1902 83,800 6,700 3,500 3,200 1,200 
 
 1903 88,200 7,060 4,400 2,660 2,300 
 
 1904 93,160 7,450 4,800 2,650 1,300 
 
 1905 97,110 7,770 5,700 2,070 2,500 
 
 1906 101,680 8,130 5,500 2,630 1,900 
 
 1907 106,210 8,500 3,200 5,300 1,100 
 
 1908 112,610 9,010 4,000 5,010 3,000 
 
 1909 120,620 9,650 4,900 4,750 2,200 
 
 1910 127,570 10,200 6,800 3,400 3,300 
 
 1911 134.270 10,750 6,900 3,850 1,500 
 
 1912 139,620 11,170 6,300 4,870 700 
 
 1913 145,190 11,610 9,400 2,210 1,000 
 
 1914 148,400 11,870 10,000 1,870 
 
 Development cost including overhead charges 
 on the $23,000 additions to plant from year 
 1900 to 1914 $50,370 
 
 $6,100, so this deficit was entered in column 5. During 1914 
 plant additions of $1,000 were made, as shown in the sixth column. 
 Hence if we add this $1,000 and the. deficit of $2,600 to the $76,200 
 we have a total property cost of $79,800 as of Dec. 31, 1900, or 
 as of Jan. 1, 1901. Accordingly this $79,800 is entered in the 
 second column opposite 1901, and the same sort of calculations 
 is made for 1901 as for 1900. Thus the table is built up, result- 
 ing in a development cost of $50,370 for this plant during the 
 15-year period. How much more it was prior thereto no one knew, ' 
 but it was scarcely worth inquiring into in this case, for here 
 already was a development cost equal to nearly half the physical 
 cost. It is true that this $50,370 includes those overhead costs 
 (on the $23,000 of plant additions) which were improperly charged 
 to operating expense from 1900 to 1914. But this may be readily 
 estimated and deducted. The most important thing to note is that 
 the development cost thus deduced should be added to the cost new 
 of the physical plant and not to its dejrreciated value. The reason 
 for this is that the operating expenses include no depreciation an- 
 nuity, hence no provision for the accrued depreciation existing in 
 the old plant. Were an adequate depreciation annuity included 
 in operating expenses each year from the time the plant was built 
 down to date, it should be at least sufficient to build up a depre- 
 ciation fund equal to the accrued depreciation. And were this 
 done the development cost would be increased by exactly the 
 amount of the depreciation fund. Had that been done, then the 
 resulting development cost would be properly added to the depre- 
 ciated value of the plant to get the total investment in " tangible " 
 and " intangible " property. 
 
 An article on " Development Cost " in Engineering and Con- 
 tracting, June 26, 1912, gives a long reprint of one of Gillette's 
 appraisal reports on an electric utility in which are outlined many 
 of the details to be considered in applying the Wisconsin method. 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 51 
 
 These details were worked out prior to the decision of the Wis- 
 consin Railroad Commission (Hill vs. Antigo Water Co., 3 W. R. 
 C. R. 623), in v/hich they first adopted what is now styled the 
 Wisconsin method of determining " going value." But prior to 
 that other engineers had suggested and applied the same method. 
 In fact this deficit method is prescribed in a contract between the 
 city of New York and the Empire City Subway Company dated 
 May 15, 1891, from which we quote: 
 
 " The said party of the second part shall, at any time after 
 Jan. 1, 1897, upon demand of the commissioners of the Sinking 
 Fund in the City of New York . . . sell, assign, transfer, convey 
 and set over to the Mayor, Aldermen and commonality of said city 
 the subways, conduits and ducts constructed by it, as aforesaid, 
 
 . . and other property : . . upon payment of the actual cost 
 thereof; and if the said company shall not have earned 10% per 
 annum on actual cost during the terms of this contract a further 
 payment shall be made in addition to the cost not exceeding 10% 
 on such cost to the extent of such deficiency in annual earnings, 
 or such less sum as may be agreed upon." 
 
 Doubtless older contracts of this nature exist. 
 
 Below we quote from a decision of the Federal Court rendered 
 in 1904, in which the Wisconsin method was repudiated by the 
 court five years before it was adopted in Wisconsin. It is inter- 
 esting to note the false reasoning used by the court in repudiating 
 the deficit method. The court says : 
 
 " The company may have purchased a plant larger and more 
 expensive than necessary ; the current rates of interest may have 
 been abnormally high ; many causes which have absolutely no 
 relation to the value (typographical emphasis ours) of the 
 company's business now as a going concern may have Increased 
 or diminished the deficiency in revenue. [165 Fed, 657 (C. C. 
 W. D., Cal., 1904).]" 
 
 Note how the court slips from a discussion of cost into a dis- 
 cussion of value. A deficit in fair return is a cost, and it not only 
 may not but actually does not have any necessary relation to the 
 value, for the latter depends entirely on capitalized prospective not 
 earnings. The court falsely sets up a criterion of value as a way 
 of discrediting an actual cost, yet the court does not thereupon con- 
 clude to adopt value (capitalized net earnings) as the appraisal 
 base. This sort of sophistry is met on every hand. Attorneys 
 frequently attempt to discredit a given cost by showing that it has 
 no commensurate value. Yet they repudiate entirely the use of 
 value (capitalized net earnings) as a rate-making base. In such 
 cases if the appraiser has a clear conception of the distinction be- 
 tween cost and value, no great difficulty is found in making the 
 distinction clear to the commission or court. Both " going cost " 
 and " franchise value " should be presented for consideration, but 
 they should be kept entirely distinct. 
 
 Separate Plant Theory of Prorating Joint Costs. Where a plant 
 is used to produce only one class and size of units no question 
 arises as to prorating joint costs, for then the total cost during a 
 
52 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 given period of time divided by the total number of units produced 
 in that time gives the true and full unit cost, assuming that the 
 depreciation costs, lost time, etc., have been properly equated. But 
 where a plant produces units of different classes or sizes the ques- 
 tions of prorating the joint costs often becomes vitally important. 
 
 The history of industry furnishes many examples of crippled 
 business, attributable largely to improper methods of prorating 
 joint costs. If one of the joint products is priced at less than is 
 equitable, while another product is priced at more than is equitable, 
 the resulting large demand for the underpriced product may speed- 
 ily pile up losses, while at the same time the decreased demand 
 for the overpriced product may cut down the profitable sales to a 
 vanishing point. 
 
 Another source of loss from inequitable prorating of joint costs 
 is to be found where a " side line " of products is improperly loaded 
 with cost charges and made to appear to be unprofitable. Thus 
 many a " side line " is stifled before it has had a chance to become 
 more than a " side line." 
 
 Before a rational theory of prorating joint costs can be de- 
 veloped, the prime objects of cost keeping and cost analysis must be 
 considered. Correct unit costs are desirable for two purposes : 
 (1) To furnish a basis for fixing equitable and profitable unit prices ; 
 and (2) to provide acurate criteria by which to judge the economic 
 efhciency of men, machines and methods. Both these objects are 
 attained when joint costs are so prorated that the resulting unit 
 costs may be compared with similar unit costs incurred where no 
 prorating is necessary. Thus a merchant who deals in many kinds 
 of goods should so prorate the joint costs — rent, insurance, deliv- 
 ery, clerical, management, etc. — that he may compare the unit cost 
 of any class of goods with the unit price charged by a competitor 
 who specializes in that particular class of goods. For example, the 
 unit cost of candy sold by a department store should be com- 
 parable with the unit price of candy charged by a candy store, 
 or, better still, with the unit cost of candy in a candy store. 
 
 If a prorating theory is such as to prevent equitable comparison 
 of unit costs of joint production with unit costs of separate pro- 
 duction, then the economic efhciency of joint production can not be 
 gaged by comparison with separate production. Furthermore, 
 equitable unit prices that will attract business and secure adeqviate 
 profit can not readily be made unless the unit costs of joint pro- 
 duction are strictly comparable with those of separate production. 
 
 If this is a sound economic premise, it follows that a rational 
 method of prorating joint costs must be one that is based on costs 
 incurred under the most economic production of each class of units 
 by a separate plant for each class. 
 
 In this connection it is well to note the significance of the fact 
 that joint costs can not be prorated at all where separate produc- 
 tion of each of the units is not possible. Thus, the total joint cost 
 of all the parts of a beef may be known, but the unit cost of each 
 of its various rnarketable parts — sirlbin, chuck, liver, etc. — ^ can not 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 53 
 
 be determined. If under such a condition joint costs can not be 
 prorated, it follows that the one condition precedent to prorating 
 joint costs is the ability to secure unit costs of each class of units 
 where no other class of units is produced. 
 
 We thus come to this important generalization as to prorating 
 joint costs : 
 
 Where several classes of units are produced jointly, the total 
 costs of joint production must he prorated among the several classes 
 in proportion to the cost of producing each class (or its equivalent) 
 hy a separate plant designed solely for the economic production of 
 the given number of units of that class. 
 
 For convenience of reference let us term this rule the separate 
 plant theory of prorating joint costs, or, briefly, the separate plant 
 theory. When the by-product cost theory — which will be con- 
 sidered later — is not involved, this separate plant theory is ap- 
 plicable under all conditions, and the application of it will disclose 
 both the true economic efficiency of production and the equitable 
 unit price of each class of products jointly produced. 
 
 Joint production of different classes of products is an economic 
 mistake unless the total resulting cost is less than the sum of the 
 costs of producing the products separately or in joint groups of 
 fewer different classes. The saving effected by joint production 
 is to be allocated to the different classes of products. The sepa- 
 rate plant theory allocates this saving in proportion to the costs 
 of separate productions. Were two independent manufacturers of 
 different products intending to join forces, and were these manu- 
 facturers making the same percentage of profit on the cost of their 
 products, it is evident that each would regard it as fair to accept 
 his share of the increased profit resulting from the consolidation in 
 proportion to his total original cost of production. 
 
 Similarly if a company whose sole business was furnishing elec- 
 tric power to a street railway were to consolidate with a company 
 whose sole business was furnishing electricity for street lighting, 
 the resulting saving in the cost of generating current in a joint 
 power plant would be equitably allotted to each company in pro- 
 portion to its independent cost of generating current, the only pro- 
 viso being that each company had an economic generating plant, 
 ^ince, under such conditions, the investment in each of the two 
 separate generating plants would be roughly proportional to their 
 respective peak loads, it follows that an approximation to the 
 separate plant theory is had when the first cost of a joint generat- 
 ing plant is prorated to the different classes of electric service in 
 proportion to the separate peak load of each class. The peak load 
 theory of prorating investment is therefore justifiable only when it 
 conforms in its results rather closely to the results obtained by ap- 
 plication of the separate plant theory. 
 
 While generating plant investment is a function of peak loads, 
 fuel expense is a function of the amount of current generated, as 
 well as of certain other factors such as the shape of the load curve. 
 But all these varying factors are given their proper recognition 
 
54 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in prorating joint fuel expense when the separate plant theory is 
 applied. Likewise every other operating expense is properly pro- 
 rated on the separate plant theory. When this fact is clearly per- 
 ceived, a key is had to the solution of all the troublesome prorating 
 problems that confront the person who is trying to ascertain what 
 are equitable rates of charge for electricity or other public utility 
 service furnished to different classes of customers. Indeed the 
 separate plant theory, when fullj^ understood, leads to a pi'oper 
 recognition of the various competitive conditions that are so apt to 
 break down any system of rates of charge based on the ordinary 
 methods of cost analysis. 
 
 Turning back to the rule for prorating, above given, it will ba 
 seen that the separate plant need not produce precisely tlie same 
 sort and number of units, provided it produces their equivalent. 
 By this we mean the competitive equivalent or substitute service. 
 To illustrate, assume the existence of a steam railway paralleling 
 a navigable river and handling a heavy freight traffic, but a light 
 passenger traffic. If it were not for the freight traffic an electric 
 trolley line would handle the passenger traffic most economically. 
 Were it not for the passenger traffic, the freight would be most 
 economically hauled in barges. But, by virtue of the combined 
 traffic, the steam railway is more economic than a separate trolley 
 line and a separate barge line. The total annual joint costs of the 
 steam railway are properly prorated to the two classes of traffic — 
 freight and passenger — in proportion to the annual costs by the 
 most economic separate plants, namely, a barge line and a trolley 
 line. The barge line would not give precisely tlie same sort of 
 service as the steam rail service, but it would give its equivalent — 
 an economic substitute service. 
 
 One paragraph of digression may perhaps be pardoned. The ef- 
 forts of railways to eliminate water competition have caused many 
 unfavorable comments, re.sulting finally in legislation to prohibit 
 .such " iniquitous throttling of free competition." Yet a better 
 understanding of the principles of economies may fully justify the 
 elimination of water borne traffic in many places. Certainly if one 
 railway line can handle the combined traffic at a lovv-er cost than 
 the sum of the costs with separate railway and boat lines, it is 
 economic to eliminate water traffic. But when such elimination is 
 effected, equitable rates of charge are to be determined by ap- 
 plication of the separate plant theory. 
 
 Avera<je Cost Fallacies. Unless the separate plant theory, or 
 some approximation to it, is applied in cost analysis, so-called 
 " average unit costs " are often calculated and used in price making. 
 Yet the " average " may be improperly applied in price making. 
 Thus, the average cost of generating electric current in a central 
 station may be 1 ct. per kw.-hr., where the average station load 
 factor is. say, iOTi. But to use this 1 ct. cost as a basis for charging 
 residence lighting customers would be economically wrong, even 
 were there no distribution and service costs. Residence customers 
 causing a station load factor of lo'^c, business customers 22*^, and 
 large power customers 60%, maj* so amalgamate as to cause an 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 55 
 
 average of 40% station load factor ; but, as none of the three classes 
 would alone cause a 40% average, none should equitably be charged 
 on the basis of the average 1 ct. generating cost. 
 
 While the electrical engineers and managers recognize the im- 
 portance of such a distinction, the general public often does not. 
 Even keen business men are frequently so ignorant of the principles 
 of correct prorating of costs that they are easily misled by such 
 sophistical arguments as this : " Small shippers of freight are 
 charged the same car load rates as are large shippers. Hence 
 small users of electric current should be charged the same rate as 
 large users — a rate based on the average cost and therefore not 
 discriminatory." 
 
 The average cost sophistry is often best exposed by insisting 
 upon the application of average cost to individual cases only where 
 the individual case corresponds with the same average economic 
 conditions. 
 
 It has been seriously proposed to estimate all rates of charge for 
 railway freight service of a given class by application of a rule like 
 this: To a fixed cost of blank cts. per- ton add blank cts. per ton- 
 mile. 
 
 In estimating the cost of hauling uniform loads by wagon, such 
 a rule is applicable, provided all conditions are the same as those 
 upon which the cost rule is based. But in hauling miscellaneous 
 freight with a railway plant, the prorating of fixed costs upon any 
 general average theory leads to economically absurd results. In a 
 given railway it might be concluded that if the total costs not 
 affected by the length of haul were divided by the total tons of 
 freight, there would be an average cost of, say, $1 per ton. Then 
 the cost of moving the freight might be 14 ct. per ton-mile. If 
 rates were based on such an application of averages in allocating 
 total costs, this absurd result would occur : That it would be 
 cheaper to haul freight 10 miles by wagons than by rail. Now, 
 as a matter of fact, precisely that sort of economic absurdity 
 is actually to be found not only in freight rates but in the .prices 
 charged for all sorts of products and services. When traced to the 
 cause, the cause will usually be found to be improper prorating of 
 joint costs and the use of so-called " average costs " as a basis for 
 pricing. 
 
 Fallacies in Prorating Proi)orlionally to Direct Costs. Almost 
 as prolific in error as the " average cost theory " is the theory of 
 prorating all joint costs in proportion to direct costs. Yet all books 
 on accountancy concur in recommending this method of prorating. 
 There are, it is true, certain joint or indirect elements of cost that 
 are almost direct functions of certain direct cost. Thus the gen- 
 eral foreman in charge of several gangs doing different kinds of 
 work is likely to give each gang an amount of his time proportional 
 to the number of men in each gang. So, too. shop rent is closely 
 related to the number of workmen in certain cases, and therefore is 
 properly prorated to the direct cost of labor where wages are 
 relatively uniform. But there are endless conditions under which 
 joint costs are not direct functions of direct costs. Indeed certain 
 
56 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 joint costs, notably plant interest, may inciease as the direct costs 
 decrease. For example, where power iy generated hydro-eleclrically 
 the direct labor costs grow relatively smaller as the investment in 
 the power plant increases. How irrational, then, it is to appor- 
 tion interest and dejjreciation charges in proportion to the co.st of 
 direct labor in such a plant. 
 
 Estimating Direct Costs by ApproxUnation, Direct costs are 
 those directly assignably to a unit or group of similar units of 
 product. If it were possible to l^eep a record of the time spent by 
 each workman on each class of units, no prorating of labor costs 
 would be necessary except as to the cost of idle or lost time. It is 
 often impracticable to keep continuous time records of each class 
 of work done by each workman. In such cases some simple method 
 of prorating the labor cost is used, and the common mistake is to 
 use too simple a method — one that secures simplicity at the ex- 
 pense of accuracy. Thus joint labor is frequently prorated in pro- 
 portion to the number, of units of material handled, shaped or placed 
 by the laborers. 
 
 Prorating labor according to the units of material is often an 
 excellent plan if judiciously carried out. It should involve periodic 
 timing of all the labor processes in relation to the units of material 
 treated by each process. Thus, by minute-hand timing of, say, 5 
 •or 107c of the labor time each month, it is often possible to allocate 
 <correctly the entire labor of the month by ascribing certain labor 
 •costs to each different class of units of material handled under 
 given conditions. But serious errors may arise if the timing is not 
 ■carefully done and at regular intervals not too far apart. 
 
 Even where the units of material handled are not counted the 
 method of timing labor processes periodically is often an excellent 
 method of ar)proximating the amount of direct labor on each process. 
 The i)eriodic-timing method is so inexpensive that it is remarkable 
 how seldom it is applied as a means of approximating direct labor 
 costs. 
 
 Where workmen use machines the direct cost both of the labor 
 and the machines is ascertainable in the manner just indicated. 
 In cases where a rather expensive machine is used, it will usually 
 pay to record the length of time the machine is used for each 
 process. Then the direct cost of the machine is readily assignable 
 to each process and only its idle time remains to be prorated. 
 This method is far preferable to prorating machine corts in pro- 
 portion to direct labor, unless the same labor cost occurs per unit 
 of time in every case that the given machine is used. 
 
 Real estate rental can usually be quite accurately prorated ac- 
 cording to the floor area assigned to each machine, or to each 
 w^orkman. or to each process. The cost of heat and light is simi- 
 larly apportionable. 
 
 The cost of accounting is usually quite closely related to the 
 number of entries made. Hence by counting the number of entries 
 that each account averages per month, a very close approximation 
 to the direct cost of accounting can be secured. 
 
 Once the importance of approximating the direct cost of each, 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 57 
 
 process or product is appreciated, comparatively simple yet ef- 
 fective methods of approximation will be devised. By doing so the 
 remaining amount of joint costs will be materially reduced, and 
 thus render any errors of prorating less serious. 
 
 Prorating N on-Productive Time. Since neither machines nor 
 workmen are usually worked continuously to full capacity, it often 
 becomes important to determine the cost of non-productive time and 
 to prorate that cost equitably. 
 
 Non-productive time is to be allocated in proportion to pro- 
 ductive time, but it is usually desirable to record the resulting unit 
 cost of non-productive time separately from the cost of productive 
 time. By doing so attention is focused upon the cost of lost time, 
 and this generally leads to greater effort to increase the "load 
 factor." Furthermore, one of the main causes of wide fluctuations 
 in unit costs from week to week or year to year is the variation 
 in the percentage of idle time. Hence unless the idle time cost is 
 shown separately, there can be no satisfactory comparison of unit 
 costs sCt different periods. 
 
 In case the by-product theory of co.st keeping is to be applied, 
 the cost of idle time is not prorated to the by-products. 
 
 By-Product Theory. Hitherto v.'e have considered costs under 
 what may be termed the full cost theory. In order to increase total 
 profits under competitive conditions, it is often necessary to assess 
 against certain by-products only the additional costs of producing 
 them. But a philosophical analysis of the reason for doing so 
 brings us back to our separate plant theory in its broadest form ; 
 for if a by-product can not normally be sold at a price in excess 
 of the added cost of producing it with a given plant, then some 
 other separate plant must be producing that class of product at a 
 lower cost than the market price. 
 
 Proratina Accordincj to Sales. The prorating of joint costs in 
 proportion to the sales of each class of product is at first sight 
 wholly irrational, for it would seem that this is placing effect be- 
 fore cause. Nevertheless this method of prorating is not wholly 
 irrational, and in some cafes it is preferable to other methods 
 because it may be a .Simple way of approximating the separate 
 plant method of prorating. Obvioui^ly if a product is sold in a 
 competitive market, the fact indicates that the average unit price 
 over a long period is sufficient to yield a fair profit to some one 
 of the competitors, if not to all of them. Since the competitor who 
 is able to fix the price of a product often is equipped v/ith a plant 
 especially designed to make that product and no other, it follows 
 that other plants that produce the same product plus several other 
 products, are thus automatically forced to adopt the separate plant 
 theory of prorating their joint costs. 
 
 Conclvsion. The subject under discussion is susceptible of such 
 a diversity of treatment and has so many ramifications that we 
 have been able to touch "the high places" only in this article. 
 We shall have accomplished our object, however, if we have made 
 it clear that one general, underlying theory — the separate plant 
 theory — is applicable in every case, and that all other tenable 
 
58 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 theories of prorating joint costs are short-cut approximations to 
 the general iheory. 
 
 When Is It Profitable to Retire an Old Plant Unit? Business 
 succeiss often depends largely on the judgment used in scrapping 
 a comparatively new plant to malie way for a newer one. British 
 manufacturers have been proverbially slow in Retiring old ma- 
 chinery, whereas Americans have more often gone to the other 
 extieme. 
 
 The problem has been put to a score of engineers, to several 
 skilled accountants, and to a few business men, not one of whom 
 gave a completely correct solution. It was submitted also to a 
 well known business correspondence school, which likewise failed 
 to give a correct answer. That school in turn passed the problem 
 on to an expert accountant and to a well advertised " efficiency 
 engineer," both of whom gave erroneous replies. It may be as- 
 sumed, therefore, that the problem is of a sort whose seeming 
 simplicity is itself a cause of hasty reasoning where deliberate and 
 painstaking study is actually required. 
 
 This is a case where it will not suffice to give an answer in 
 general terms without ex])laining in detail the precise quantitative 
 meaning of every economic term. Thus, one general rule that was 
 submitted was this: 
 
 Retire any old plant when the annual profit will be increased by 
 substituting a more economic plant. 
 
 This is correct as far as it goes, but it is completely correct only 
 when the term "profit" is fully defined. Since profit dei)ends on 
 cost, a definition of cost must be given, even to every element that 
 enters into cost. As will be shown later, the cost elements are 
 numerous and several of them are not understood even approxi- 
 mately by most men. 
 
 Professor Taussig, of Harvard, gives a general rule in his " Eco- 
 nomics," Vol. ir, p. 85, as follows: 
 
 "It will be profitable to tear down an old or ill-adapted building 
 and replace it with a new building only when the new one prom- 
 ises to yield not only enough to pay a satisfactory return on its 
 own cost, but in addition enough to compensate for the loss of net 
 revenue which the old one still yielded." 
 
 Here the ambiguous terms are " a satisfactory return " and " net 
 revenue," both of which require no small amoimt of explanation. 
 Professor Taussig's rule borders dangerously close to an error that 
 is most commonly made in attempts to solve this problem. It is 
 quite generally believed that a new plant can not economically 
 replace an old plant unless the net earnings that the new plant 
 yields are sufficient to pay interest charges on the original cost of 
 the old plant as well as on the first cost of the new plant. Yet 
 this rule is entirely false, no matter what the definition of net earn- 
 ings may be. 
 
 A correct solution of this problem was given by Gillette in 
 Engineering and Contracting July 14, 1915. but. as it was some- 
 what buried in an article entitled ** A Rational Method of Cal- 
 culating Depreciated Value" (see Chapter II), it seems wise to 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 59 
 
 outline a solution of the problem here and to discuss more fully 
 the reasoning upon which it rests. 
 
 As between two plant units the choice obviously falls upon the 
 one that yields the greater profit over a term of years. But when 
 one of the two plant units is already owned and in service, while 
 the other must be purchased new, it is not obvious at once that 
 in calculating the cost of the product, the original cost of the old 
 plant unit has nothing whatever to do with the case. This is the 
 first logical pitfall. The second pitfall is encountered when the 
 element of depreciation is reached, for it has never been perceived 
 that, in order to solve the problem correctly, natural depreciation 
 must be entirely separated from functional depreciation and that the 
 latter must be treated precisely as if it were an item of insurance. 
 Natural -depreciation is the loss of value due to the action of the 
 forces of nature ; whereas functional depreciation is due to inven- 
 tion, growth of business that renders a plant inadequate, and other 
 social forces. In calculating the annual cost, natural depreciation 
 should be classed with repairs, for that is what it is in essence. 
 But on the other hand, a functional depreciation annuity should be 
 classed with a fire insurance premium — an element to be provided 
 for by an annuity based on past experience covering many in- 
 stances. This distinction is vital. Having ascertained from a study 
 of the history of many plant units of the same general class what 
 the average functional life of the given plant unit may be expected 
 to be, it is a 'simple mathematical matter to determine what per- 
 centage should annually be allowed as the functional depreciation 
 rate (F). 
 
 For any given new plant unit, we may express the annual 
 profit derivable from it, thus : 
 
 P=G — K (7) 
 
 P ■=■ annual profit. 
 
 Q =: annual gross income. 
 
 K ■=■ annual cost. 
 
 If we use capital letters for the new plant unit and lower case 
 (small) letters for the old plant unit, we have for an old plant unit: 
 
 p = g-^Tc (8) 
 
 If the new plant unit and the old one are equally profitable : 
 
 P = p, or (9) 
 
 G — K-g — h (10) 
 
 If, as is ordinarily the case, the gross income is not altered by 
 substituting a new plant unit for an old one, then G = g, and : 
 
 K-k (11) 
 
 Let 
 
 E = Annual operating expenses (including repairs and taxes) 
 
 equated during the estimated economic life of the new unit. 
 e = Ditto for the old plant unit during its remaining economic life. 
 C — First cost of new plant unit. 
 jR ~ Salvage value of new plant unit, 
 s = Ditto of old plant unit. 
 
60 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 r --- Interest rate, including any risk insurance not covered by F or 
 
 elsewhere 
 F — Functional depreciation rate (not including depreciation from 
 
 natural causes, such as wear and tear, rot, etc., which are 
 
 covered by "repairs"). 
 
 Then 
 
 K ■■-- E -\- (C — S) F -\- r C * ( i 2 ) 
 
 Only a little study is needed to make the truth of Equation (12) 
 evident ; but much more study is ordinarily required to make it 
 evident that Equation (13) is equally true. 
 
 k - e -{■ rs (13) 
 
 To almo.^t every one it has seemed essential that the equation 
 of annual cost for an old T>l?int unit should contain the same number 
 and kinds of terms as for a new plant unit. Here it is that the 
 reasoning process must be carefully scrutinized. Why does the 
 term (c — s)F vanish in Equation 13? Because c — s. Why so? 
 Because the condition that is tacitly assumed when K -: Ic is that 
 the old plant unit has depreciated and can therefore be purchased 
 at a dejireciated value (c). which value (o) can be no greater 
 than its salvage value (s) if the time to retire the old plant unit 
 has arrived. 
 
 A more elegant, but more elaborate, process of reaching the same 
 conclusion is given in Chapter IT. There are several other ways 
 of indicating the correctness of the above reasoning as to Equa- 
 tion 13. 
 
 Suppose, for example, the choice between a new and an old 
 second-hand machine were in question, and that each could be 
 bought in a market. Suppose the market price of the old machine 
 were little above its scrap value. Then it would be perfectly clear 
 that Equation 13 would give the annual cost of production with 
 the old machine. 
 
 Suppose, as another example, that an old machine is owned but 
 that it had been purchased several years ago as a small part of 
 a large second-hand plant, and that the price paid for it is un- 
 known. Would it be rational to insert in Equation 13 a factor c 
 representing its cost to the original owner, even if it were ascer- 
 tainable? Assuredly not. for that would not be the cost to the 
 present owner, nor would it be any more helpful to attempt to es- 
 timate (by prorating) its cost to the present owner when the 
 rnachine was newer than it now is; particularly if the present 
 owner had paid altogether too much for the entire plant. 
 
 Suppose, as a third example, that the present owner of a plant 
 has received it as a gift or as an inheritance, and that therefore 
 the cost of the old plant unit to him has been nil. Should c then 
 be made of Clearly not. for the owner is not concerned with the 
 original cost to him. which is in this case nothing, but with its 
 present cost of replacement, or its true market value. This, under 
 the assumed condition of expired economic life of the old machine, 
 is its salvage value (s). 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 61 
 
 Since K — fc, we have : 
 
 S + (O — S) F -\- r C = e + r s (14) 
 
 This is the equation of condition by which to judge whether an 
 old plant unit has just reached the age of retirement, assuming 
 the gross-income from both new and old plant units to be identical. 
 When the gross-incomes are not identical, the method to be pur- 
 sued is now self-evident. When the new plant unit is economically 
 superior to the old. there results an inequality : 
 
 E + {C — S)F + rC<e-\-rs (15) 
 
 Now a few words as to F. This factor, namely, the annual rate 
 of functional depreciation, is perhaps the factor most likely to 
 puzzle those who have not studied the different kinds of depreciation 
 and their economic significance. Functional depreciation is the loss 
 of value due to obsolescence and economic inadequacy. Average 
 functional life is the term of years that a plant unit of the given 
 class remains in use before it is superseded by an improved or 
 larger unit. The functional depreciation rate is the annuity rate 
 which compounded at the interest rate (r) will yield an amount 
 equal to unity at the end of the average functional life. 
 
 Another expression requiring explanation is " equated annual 
 expense." As here used, to equate means to secure an economic 
 average by a sinking fund method of calculation. To equate annual 
 repairs, for example, calculate the total cost of repairs of the first 
 year at compound interest up to the end of the last year of economic 
 life of the given plant unit. Calculate similarly the total cost of 
 repairs of the second year, the third year, etc., up to the end of 
 the last year of economic life. Add all these compounded repair 
 costs together and multiply by the annual deposit in a sinking 
 fund which if started at the beginning of the life will redeem $1 
 at the end of the economic life of the given plant unit. The product 
 is the equated annual cost of repairs. Of course if repair ex- 
 penditures are uniform, they automatically equate themselves, but 
 this is rarely the case. 
 
 Since it is commonly believed that a new plant unit must show 
 an increased profit sufficient to pay interest on the original cost 
 of the old plant unit that it displaces, it is well to point out the 
 fallacy. This is a fallacy of confusion of a general class of im- 
 provements with a particular improvement. Progress costs money. 
 Functional depreciation is a loss of value due to progress. Hence 
 it is the cost of progress. But progress implies increasing profit, 
 which must be at least sufficient to equal the functional depreciation. 
 In other words, the profit from progress in general must pay for 
 the cost of progress in general. 
 
 Now comes the curious mental twist by which this truth is dis- 
 torted into an error, thus : ' The profit from each individual in- 
 stance of progress must pay for the cost^ of that particular in- 
 stance of progress. Whence naturally follows the blunder in the 
 final conclusion that every new plant unit must be sufficiently efl^i- 
 
62 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cient to pay not only its own individual interest charges but those 
 on the orig-inal cost of the plant unit that it displaces. As pre- 
 viously pointed out, a functional depreciation annuity is precisely 
 like a fire insurance jn-emium. Each is based on the law of 
 averages for a given class of risks. It would be evidently illogical 
 to refuse to erect a new factory building to replace one that had 
 burned, unless the new one would yield an increased profit sufficient 
 to pay interest both on its own cost and on the value of its prede- 
 cessor. Equally illogical is the reasoning that would make an im- 
 proved machine bear the interest burden of its obsolete predecessor. 
 
 These examples of false reasoning should serve to indicate the 
 necessity of studying the general processes of reasoning in a sys- 
 tematic manner. Nearly every trained engineer can juggle equa- 
 tions with skill and accuracy, but such ability is no evidence of 
 equal ability in the reasoning that should precede the setting up of 
 an equation that correctly and completely embodies all conditions, 
 implied or connoted as well as exi^licitly stated. 
 
 The Calculation of Rates for Electric Current. The following 
 is an abstract of a i-eport to the Oro Electric Company relative to 
 a schedule of electric rates for a proposed hydroelectric plant in 
 California. 
 
 The method of attacking this problem is of general applicability in 
 all electric rate problems where it is desired to base the rates to 
 each class of customer on the cost of serving that class. It is not 
 to be inferred, however, that each rate should necessarily be based 
 on cost. But it is usually desirable and often necessary to deter- 
 mine the relation of rates to costs, and for this purpose the following 
 method of solving the problem will be found helpful. 
 
 Definitions. There is as yet no unanimity as to the meaning 
 of terms used by appraisal and rate making engineers. For the 
 purpose of this discussion the following definitions will apply. The 
 definitions are arranged alphabetically. 
 
 Active Load. The maximum load in kw. recorded on a cus- 
 tomer's demand meter of the Wright type. 
 
 Apparent Diversity Factor. The quotient found by dividing the 
 total connected load by the station peak load. See Diversity Factor. 
 
 Additional Cost Rate. A rate based not on. the full cost of the 
 service including fixed charges, etc., but upon the additional cost 
 of furni.shing the additional service. See Full Cost Rate. 
 
 Capacity Cost. See Demand Cost. 
 
 Cajyacity Load Factor. The ratio of the number of kw.-hrs. ac- 
 tually generated to the number of kw.-hrs. that would be 
 generated in a given pei-iod, were the plant operated continuously 
 at full rated capacity; the average kw. load, divided by the kw. 
 capacity of the generating station. See Station Load Factor, and 
 see Connected Load Factor. 
 
 Connected Load. The total kw. capacity of all the motors (out- 
 put capacity), lam.ps (input capacity), and current consuming 
 devices connected to se given circuit. 
 
 Connected Load Factor. The ratio of the metered kw.-hrs. to 
 the number of kw.-hrs. that would be consumed during a given 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 63 
 
 period if the connected load were consunning current at its full 
 rated capacity. Unless otherwise stated, the assumed period is a 
 year of 8760 hrs. 
 
 Cost. The sum of operating expenses, taxes, depreciation an- 
 nuity, and interest, but not including profit. (See Profit and see 
 Expense.) 
 
 Consumer Cost. The cost that can be charged directly against 
 each consumer, in distinction from Demand Cost and Output Cost. 
 (See Service Cost.) 
 
 Demand Cost. This term is used by the Wisconsin Railroad 
 Commission as a synonym for Capacity Cost, which latter term 
 was originally coined by Henry L. Doherty. In Volume 4 of its 
 decision, p. 662, the Wisconsin Commission gives this definition: 
 " The expenses which are thus chargeable to demand are sometimes 
 said to consist of all expenses which do not depend on output 
 (kw.-hr. ) and at other times, again, of all expenses which go on 
 or continue even if the plant is shut down. . . . Experience shows 
 that it is difficult, if not im])Ossible, to lay down a definition that 
 will apply under all conditions." 
 
 In view of this indefiniteness, and particularly in view of the 
 Wisconsin Commission's error of prorating interest and depre- 
 ciation charges among Demand Expense, Output Expense and Con- 
 sumer Expense, in proportion to. those several expenses (see Dis- 
 trihution cost), we prefer not to use the term "demand cost." 
 
 Demand Factor. The ratio of the Active Load to the Connected 
 Load. The reciprocal of the Demand Factor is the Consumer's 
 Diversity Factor. (See Diversity Factor.) 
 
 Depreciation Annuity. The annuity deposited in a sinking fund 
 to replace plant units at the expiration of their economic life. 
 This does not include the cost of repairing parts of plant units, 
 such as the flues of a boiler, the cost of which is provided for by 
 current maintenance expense. (See Functional DejJreciation and 
 Natural Depreciation.) 
 
 Distribution Cost. The cost of distributing the current from the 
 substation to consumer, which embraces interest, depreciation, and 
 taxes on the distribution system, including customer's transformers 
 and the operating expense (including proportion of general ex- 
 pense) attached thereto. Although Distribution Cost has no logical 
 relation to Demand Cost, as the latter term is used by the Wis- 
 consin Commission, it corresponds rather closely to it in dollars 
 and cents. 
 
 Diversity Factors. Due to the fact that all customers do not 
 simultaneously require current enough to run their connected loads 
 to full capacity, but have a diversity of demand, the number of 
 kws. of station capacity is always less than the number of kws. 
 of connected load. If there were no losses of current, the Total 
 True Diversity Factor would be the quotient obtained by dividing 
 the Total Connected Load by the Station Peak Load. However, 
 there are always losses of current (transmission, transformation, 
 etc.). Hence, if the Total Connected Load is divided by the Sta- 
 tion Peak Load, the quotient is the Total Apparent Diversity Fac- 
 
.64 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tor. Apparent Diversity Factor is, then, the product of True 
 Diversity Factor by Line Efficiency. (See Line Efficiency.) 
 
 Just as there are successive efficiencies, the product of which 
 gives the combined or total efnciency, so there are successive di- 
 versity factors, the pi'oduct of wliich gives the total true diversity- 
 factor. 
 
 The successive diversity factors are : 
 
 1. Meter Diversity Factor. 
 
 2. Transformer Diversity Factor. 
 
 3. Substation Diversity Factor. 
 
 4. Station Diversity Factor. 
 
 Meter Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing the 
 connected load of a group of meters (customers) by the peak load 
 at the line transformer that serves the group. 
 
 Transformer Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing 
 the sum of the peaks of a group of line transformers by the peak 
 on the feeder wire that serves the group. 
 
 Substation Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing 
 the sum of the peaks on a group of feeder wires by the peak on 
 the substation bus bar that serves the group. 
 
 Station Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing the 
 sum of all the substation peaks by the peak at the station. 
 
 Each of these four diversity factors is an " apparent diversity 
 factor " if line losses are not eliminated, but each becomes a " true 
 diversity factor " if line losses are eliminated. 
 
 The Active Load (see definition) divided into the Connected Load 
 gives a quotient that mi^ht be called the Custoviers' Diversity 
 Factor. The reciprocal of this is the Demand Factor", (See De- 
 mand Factor.) 
 
 Efficiency. The quotient found by dividing the pov/er generated 
 into the difference betv.'een the power generated and the power 
 lost, or E = iP — L) ^ P. (See Line Efficiency.) 
 
 The efficiency of water wheels, generators, and transformers de- 
 creases as the load upon them decreases. Hence the all day average 
 efficiency is less than their efficiency at capacity load. 
 
 Expense. As here used, expense means operating expense and 
 does not include fixed charges. (See Cost.) 
 
 Fnir Return Rate. The percentage rate of annual fair return on 
 •the value of the property. The sum of the Interest Rates and 
 PxqM iRa'tes.. 
 
 Fixed Charges.. The sum of Interest, Depreciation Annuity, and 
 'Ta:xes. 
 
 F0li C'Ost Raie. A rate (Of -charge that includes all prorated ex- 
 penses, fixed charge ,and iprofit. ;(.See Additional Cost Rate.) 
 
 Ffiinatiouiivl iDefiweciation.. Depreciation due .to economic inade- 
 quacy and obsolescence. (See Natural Depreciation.) 
 
 General Expense. This includes operating <expenses ;not directly 
 assigned to Generating or Production Expense and to Distribution 
 Expense. As here used, it does not include Ta?:es, which are fre^ 
 quently classed under General Expense, 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 05 
 
 Interest Rate. The annual percentagre paid for capital that is 
 well secured. It does not include Profit. (See Profit.) 
 
 Kilowatt (kvv.) = 1.34 Horse Power (h.p.). 
 
 Kilowatt-Hour (kw.-hr. ) = 1.34 h.p.-hrs. 
 
 Line Efficiency. The term as here used includes not only the 
 efficiency of the transmission and distribution lines but of the step 
 up and step down transformers, line transformers, and customers' 
 meters. 
 
 Load Factors. See Capacity Load Factor, Connected Load Fac- 
 tor and Station Load Factor. Unless otherwise stated, all load 
 factors are for the full year of 8760 hrs. 
 
 Maintenance Expense. The current expense for upkeep, including 
 current repairs and renewals, but not including Depreciation An- 
 nuity, which latter may well be regarded as a depreciation reserve. 
 . Natural Depreciation. Depreciation that results from the action 
 of the forces of nature — rot, rust, abrasion, wear and tear, and 
 the like. (See Functional Depreciation.) 
 
 Operation Expense. All operating expenses exclusive of main- 
 tenance. 
 
 Operating Expense. All expense of operation and maintenance. 
 This does not include Fixed Charges. (See Fixed Charges.) 
 
 Output Cost. The cost (of electric current) that is a function 
 of the kw.-hr. output of the station. There is no agreement among 
 rate experts as to what costs are a function of output. In a steam 
 plant the fuel cost is clearly a function of output, but it is often 
 contended that practically all other station expenses are fixed and 
 independent of output. On the other hand, there are thot-e who 
 regard practically all expenses of operating the generating station, 
 transmission line and substations as being Output Expenses. Some, 
 like the Wisconsin Railroad Commission, regard most of the fixed 
 charges on the generating plant, transmission line and substations 
 as being Output Costs. They also prorate other Fixed Charges, 
 as well as General Expense, between Demand Expense, Consumer 
 Expense and Output Expense, in proportion to the direct distribu- 
 tion of these three classes of expenses. 
 
 Peak Load. The maximum (short time) kw. load during a given 
 period, which period unless otherwise stated, is a year. The Station 
 Peak Load is the maximum (short time) load at the generating 
 station. 
 
 Plant Unit. An appraisal unit of plant, such as a generator, a 
 building, a pole, etc. 
 
 Profit. The balance left after deducting Operating Expenses and 
 Fixed Charges from Gross Operating Income. Fair profit plus 
 interest is Fair Return. 
 
 Production Cost. The cost of generating, transmitting, and 
 transforming at the substation. This includes all operating ex- 
 pense and fixed charges on the power plant, transmission lines 
 and substations, plus its assigned part of General Expense. This 
 Production Cost corresponds roughly with what the Wisconsin- 
 Railroad Commission includes under Output Cost But it differs in. 
 
66 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 that no other fixed charges are assigned to the Production Cost 
 than those directly assignable to the producing system, i. e., the 
 power plant, transmission system and substations. It also differs 
 in that General Expense is not arbitrarily prorated to Production 
 Cost in proportion to a so-called " output expense," but only such 
 General Expenses are allotted to Production Cost as would be 
 incurred were current produced for wholesale at the substations. 
 That this is a rational treatment of the problem is well seen when 
 one proceeds to determine a fair wholesale rate for power at the 
 substation. The -Production Cost gives the proper wholesale rate 
 at the substation for any given station load factor created by the 
 customer. 
 
 Rate. A charge for service. It should include cost plus profit. 
 
 Repairs. Renewals of parts of a Plant Unit. 
 
 Real Diversity Factor. See Diversity Factor. 
 
 Service Cost. This includes the operating expenses and fixed 
 charges that pertain to the service connections and customers' 
 meters, plus clerical and other general expense involved in caring 
 for customers' accounts, collecting bills, and the like. 
 
 Station Load. The load in kilowatts at the power station. 
 
 Station Load Factors. The ratio of number of kw.-hrs. actually 
 generated to the number of kw.-hrs. that would be generated in 
 a given period were the plant operated continuously at the x>(^(^h 
 load of the period. Unless otherwise stated, the period is a year 
 of 8760 hrs. Stated otherwise, the Station Load Factor is the 
 average kw. station load divided by the peak load. (See Capacity 
 Load Factor.) 
 
 Rates based on full cost. It is assumed that every rate of charge 
 for electric current is based on the full cost plus a fair profit. 
 
 Classification of Cost Items. For rate jnaking purposes, the cost 
 of electric current can best be distributed under three heads : 
 
 1. Production Cost. 
 
 2. Distribution Cost. 
 
 3. Service Cost. 
 
 As stated under the definition of Production Cost, this part of 
 the cost corresponds rather closely to what the Wisconsin Railroad 
 Commission calls Output Cost. However, the methods used by the 
 Wisconsin Commission in prorating General Expense and Fixed 
 Charges among Demand, Output and Customer Expenses, do not 
 seem logical. Accounting authorities are cited by the Wisconsin 
 Commission in support of prorating "indirect expenses" (General 
 Expense and Fixed Charges) according to the distribution of 
 " Direct Expenses," but a careful study of the writings of those 
 accounting authorities will show that their experience has been 
 limited to mercantile and manufacturing pursuits, where interest, 
 depreciation and taxes were a relatively small part of the total 
 cost. When we come to consider public service companies in gen- 
 eral, and hydro-electric companies in particular, we find that fixed 
 charges assume large proportions. 
 
 This difference between mercantile and utility companies is con- 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 67 
 
 ceded. At once we are struck by the incongruity of prorating 
 the fixed charges of a hydro-electric plant according to the dis- 
 trilDUtlon of the direct operating expense. To do so is to make 
 the tail wag the dog ; we might almost say, to make the hair 
 on the end of the tail wag the dog. Interest and depreciation are 
 not direct functions of direct operating expense, as assumed by 
 the old accounting authorities. In fact, interest and depreciation 
 are more apt to be inverse or reciprocal functions of direct operat- 
 ing expenses. Thus, in a steam plant, the direct operating expense 
 is large in proportion to the fixed charges, whereas in a hydro plant 
 the reverse is true. The absurdity of many a general rule is best 
 disclosed by applying it to extreme cases, and nowhere does the 
 prorating of interest and depreciation according to direct operating 
 expense show forth with greater absurdity than in the case of a 
 large hydro-electric plant. 
 
 For these reasons, and because the wholesale price of current at 
 the substation must so frequently be determined, the cost of current 
 has been classified as above shown. Production Cost then becomes 
 the full cost of current at the substation, and it includes all oper- 
 ating expense and fixed charges incident to generating, transmitting 
 and transforming the current at the substation. 
 
 Prodxiction Cost. Production Cost of a given plant may be re- 
 garded as being composed of two classes of cost items: (1) Fixed 
 Cost, and (2) Variable Cost. 
 
 Fixed Cost includes all fixed charges (interest, depreciation and 
 taxes) and all operating expenses that are not affected by increase 
 or decrease in kw.-hr. output. Variable Cost includes only the 
 costs that vary with the output. In the case of a hydro plant 
 the variable costs are almost infinitesimal compared with the fixed 
 costs, unless a value is assigned to the water used. In the case of 
 a steam plant, the variable cost consists almost entirely of the fuel 
 cost. 
 
 Therefore, the Production Cost per kw.-hr. of a hydro plant 
 varies inversely as the station load factor. With a steam plant 
 the same holds true of practically all costs except fuel. The fuel 
 cost would be a constant cost per kw.-hr. were it not for the lower 
 efi^iciency of the generating plant at lower loads. 
 
 Having calculated the total annual Production Cost for a hydro 
 plant determine the kw.-hr. cost of a 100% station load factor. 
 For other station load factors of a hydro plant the kw.-hr. pro- 
 duction cost will be inversely as the station load factor. 
 
 The Station Load Factor assignable to any class of customers 
 is estimated by multiplying the True Diversity Factor (assignable 
 to that class) by their Connected Load Factor. Thus, if residence 
 lighting customers have a true diversity factor of 5 and a con- 
 nected load factor of 4, their station load is 20%. In the case of 
 a hydro plant whose Production Costs are as tabulated below, the 
 production cost at 20% Station Load Factor would be 1.25 cts. 
 per kw.-hr. if there were no line losses, or 1.67 cts. per kw.-hr. if 
 losses were 25%. 
 
68 MECHANICAL ANP ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 PRODUCTION 
 
 OHAIUJE 
 
 PlOIl 
 
 KW 
 
 .-HK IN 
 
 CENTS 
 
 Station 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 load factoi 
 
 
 
 Tra 
 
 ru^foraier a 
 
 nd line 
 
 losses 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 ]So loss 
 
 JO'.'r 
 
 1 5',); 
 
 20% 
 
 
 25% 
 
 30% 
 
 3 00 
 
 0.25 c 
 
 •ts. 
 
 0.28 ct.« 
 
 ;. 0.2!)c'ts. 
 
 31 cts. 
 
 0.33 cts. 
 
 36 eta. 
 
 iM) 
 
 0.28 
 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.3 3 
 
 35 
 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.40 
 
 80 
 
 31 
 
 
 0.3 4 
 
 36 
 
 0.39 
 
 
 0.41 
 
 0.4 4 
 
 70 
 
 36 
 
 
 0.10 
 
 0,42 
 
 0.4 5 
 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.51 
 
 60 
 
 0.-I2 
 
 
 ^7 
 
 0,4<« 
 
 52 
 
 
 0,56 
 
 0,60 
 
 50 
 
 0,50 
 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.59 
 
 62 
 
 
 0,67 
 
 0.71 
 
 40 
 
 63 
 
 
 0,70 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.79 
 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.90 
 
 35 
 
 0,71 
 
 
 7 It 
 
 0,81 
 
 0.84 
 
 
 0.9 5 
 
 1.01 
 
 30 
 
 83 
 
 
 0.1)2 
 
 0.H8 
 
 1,04 
 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.19 
 
 25 
 
 1 00 
 
 
 1,11 
 
 118 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 1 33 
 
 1.43 
 
 20 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 1 39 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.56 
 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.79 
 
 15 
 
 1 67 
 
 
 1 S5 
 
 1 96 
 
 2 09 
 
 
 2 23 
 
 2 39 
 
 12 
 
 2 (IS 
 
 
 2 31 
 
 2,^5 
 
 2.60 
 
 
 2', 7 7 
 
 2.97 
 
 10 
 
 2 50 
 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.9 4 
 
 3.12 
 
 
 3.33 
 
 3.57 
 
 'Checkinct Estiyiialed Appftrcnl D'.vcrsi'u Factors. From the 
 :abcw« given defuiit ions of Diver.^ity Factors it is evident that ap- 
 par.e-jart: diversity factor may be expressed by the formula 
 
 d - d, X (h X (h X (li X E (16) 
 
 That is, apiiarent diversity factor is the iiroduct of successive 
 'True Diversity Factors and I^ine Efficiency. Line Efficiency is itself 
 ,a product of successive efTiciencies, including an average all day 
 ^efTiciency factor. (See Live Efficiency.) 
 
 Station Load Factor assignable to any class of customers may 
 ^e expressed by the formula 
 
 df 
 E 
 
 (17) 
 
 / being connected load factor. 
 E " line efliciency. 
 
 It should be remembered that, in equity, each class of customers 
 is entitled to benefit from the general diversity of use of the cur- 
 rent by different kinds of customers at different times of the day 
 or year. Thus if the peak of a railway load is 1,200 kws. ontho 
 railway circuit, while the peak of the lightin,^: load is 1,800 kws. on 
 the lighting circuit, and. if the two peal;s are not simultaneous, it 
 may happen that the station peak is only 2,500 kws. This would 
 give a Station Diversity Factor Uli) of 
 
 3000^ 2500 - 1.2 
 
 Both classes of customers are equally entitled to the benefit of 
 this diversity factor, if a full cost rate is to apiily. 
 
 Likewise, if a class of irrigating customers use current only 6 
 summer months during the year, at full load, while a class of 
 lighting customers use current only during the remaining 6 months 
 at their full load, there is a resulting Station Diversitj' Factor 
 (fZi) of 2 from this cause alone, assuming that there are no other 
 circuits. 
 
 Great care must be exercised in allowing for class diversity of 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES GO 
 
 the sorts just indicated, for they frequently cause a very high Sta- 
 tion Diversity Factor, or Class Diversity Factor. 
 
 The Apparent Diversity Factor assigned to any class of customers 
 must be based on the record of loads for the entire year, and must 
 be ;the product of the four classes of successive diversity factors, i.e. 
 Meter, Transformer, Substation, and Station Diversity Factors. 
 
 We may now develop two important rules for checking any 
 estimates as to diversity factors for different classes of customers 
 of a given plant, and a rule for calculating Station Load Factor. 
 
 Rule I. Divide the Total Connected Load of each class of cus- 
 tomers by its Apparent Diversity Factor, and the quotient will be 
 its prorata of the kw. station peak load. The sum of these quo- 
 tients for all classes of customers is the station peak load during 
 the year. 
 
 Rule. II. Multiply the Connected Load of each class of custom- 
 ers by its. Connected Load Factor, and- the product will be the 
 kw.-hrs. sold annually to that class of customers. The sum of these 
 products for all classes of customers is the total kw.-hrs. sold 
 annually. 
 
 Rule III. Multiply the True Diversity Factor of each class of 
 customers by its Connected Load Factor and the product is the 
 Station Load Factor assignable to that class. 
 
 It will be found that if Rule 1 is applied to the electric rate 
 cases that have been handled by public service commissions, some 
 surprising errors as to assumed diversity factors will often be dis- 
 closed. Also it is noteworthy that the existence of successive di- 
 versity factors, whose product is the total diversity factor of a, 
 given class, has not usually been recognized. Finally, it has seldom; 
 been perceived that there is such a thing as an Apparent Diversity^ 
 Factor as distinguished from a True Diversity Factor. In other 
 words, the effect of Line Efficiency has been lost sight of. 
 
 Distrihutioyi Cost. To the Production Cost must be added a 
 Distribution Cost chargeable to all customers who do not buy their 
 current at the substation. The Distribution Cost includes all 
 operating expenses and fixed charges that pertain to the distribu- 
 tion system. The distribution system includes poles, wire, line 
 transformers, etc., between the substation and the customer's 
 " service." Any part of the General Expense that would be in- 
 curred if the distribution system Avere operated independently of 
 the rest of the plant, should be allotted to the Distribution Cost. 
 Parts of the distribution system can be charged directly against 
 certain classes of customers : thus, street lighting circuits are 
 chargeable to the municipality. Other parts of the distribution 
 system are used in common by two or more classes of customers, 
 and must be prorated. Perhaps the best theory of prorating is the 
 Separate Plant Theory. According to this theory, the cost of the 
 separate plant for each class of customers is calculated, and the 
 existing plant is prorated according to the respective costs of the 
 separate plants that would be required if the classes of customers 
 were served entirely independently of one another. 
 
 A close approximation to this theory is obtained by applying 
 
70 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL CO^T DATA 
 
 what may be called the Peak Load or Demand Theory. According 
 to this theory, the cost of a plant, or part of a plant, that is used 
 in common by several classes of customers is prorated among them 
 according to their peak demands. This is the theory most com- 
 monly used by rate making engineers for prorating costs of plant ; 
 but in prorating operating expenses it is often best to go back to 
 the Sei)arate Plant Theory to get a clear idea of the most rational 
 distribution of expenses that are common to two or more classes 
 served. 
 
 Having prorated the cost of the distribution sj'Stem to the dif- 
 ferent classes of customers, it is usually fair to charge to each 
 customer his prorata according to his connected load, for it is 
 highly probable that at some time or another he will use his 
 entire connected load to its full capacity. Active load might be 
 used as a basis of such prorating, in special cases, but there is 
 usually little known as to active load, and where it is known, it is 
 usually found to be a fairly uniform percentage of connected load 
 for any given class of customers. Hence it seems to us not only 
 confusing, but of doubtful value to split hairs by trying to introduce 
 an individual Active Load element in a rate case. 
 
 Service Cost. This includes the operating expenses and fixed 
 charges that pertain to the service connections and customers' 
 meters, plus the clerical and other general expense involved in 
 caring for customers' accounts, collecting bills, advertising for and 
 soliciting new customers, and the like, 
 
 Reading, inspecting, and maintaining customers' meters comes 
 under this cost heading. So do customers' repairs and renewals, 
 as well as renewals of incandescent lamps, where such renewals are 
 paid for by the Company. Office rent is to be prorated to Pro- 
 duction Cost, Distribution Cost, and Service Cost, on the separate 
 plant theory. And the same holds true of the salaries of general 
 officers, insurance, and other general expenses. 
 
 Formulas for Calculating Costs and Rates. The above enumer- 
 ated costs of electric current can be concisely expressed in formulas 
 that cleaiiy show the relation of the different constants and vari- 
 ables. The formulas will serve not only as a basis for equitable 
 rate making, but for a study of the economics of generating, 
 transmitting and distributing current. 
 
 The following formulas give the costs, but to use them for de- 
 termining rates it is merely necessary to make the Fixed Charges 
 include the Profit as well as the Interest on the investment. 
 
 Symbols 
 
 C — total annual Service Cost for all customers. 
 
 c = annual Service Cost per customer. 
 
 D — total Apparent Diversity Factor for the plant. 
 
 d — Apparent Diversity Factor for a given class. 
 
 di = True JMeter Diversity Factor for a given class. 
 
 di ■= True Transformer Diversity Factor for a given class. 
 
 ds = True Substation Diversity Factor for a given class. 
 
 di = True Station Diversity Factor for a given class. 
 
 E — total line Efficiency. 
 
 ei = Customers' meter efficiency. 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC FRINCIFLES 71 
 
 €2 = Customei's' transformer efficiency. 
 
 €3 = Feeder line efficiency. 
 
 €4, = Substation efficiency (step down). 
 
 65 = transmission line efficiency. 
 
 Ca = step up transformer efficiency. 
 
 e =: ratio of all day effici'ency to the peak load efficiency. 
 
 F = total Connected Load Factor (annual). 
 
 / = Connected Load Factor (annual) of given class. 
 
 G- = total annual Distribution Cost. 
 
 g = annual Distribution Cost per k.w of Connected Load of 
 a given class. 
 
 Ji = Fixed Annual Cost per kw. of Connected Load of a given 
 class. 
 
 K = kw.-hr. average cost for all classes. 
 
 Jc = k.w.-hr. cost for a given class. 
 
 L = total Station Load Factor. 
 
 { = Station Load Factor of a given class. 
 
 m = Annual Fixed Distribution and Service Cost per cus- 
 tomer of a given class. 
 
 n = number of kw. connected load of given customer or of a 
 typical customer of a given class. 
 
 p = Production Cost per k.w-hr. 
 
 B = Total annual Fixed Production Cost when the Station 
 Load Factor is 100'/^. 
 
 r = ditto per kw. of Station Peak Load. 
 
 s = Variable Production Cost per kw.-hr. (i.e. cost of fuel) 
 which constitutes nearly all the Variable Production 
 Cost.) 
 
 T = total yearly cost for entire plant. 
 
 (r s \ g c 
 ■ + - + + (18) 
 SIQOIE EJ SlGOf 87G0/U 
 
 h = g + — (19) 
 
 n 
 
 \ 8760?^ E I 
 
 (20) 
 
 m = gn-\- c ( 21 ) 
 
 rf = Uhdidsdi) E ( 22 ) 
 
 i<7 = ei 62 63 64 65 e (23) 
 
 df 
 
 1 = (24) 
 
 E 
 
 For rate making purposes it is usually sufficiently exact to assign 
 roughly approximate value of E3 to all residence and business light- 
 ing customers : but in the case of large power customers more pre- 
 cision should be used. 
 
 Formula for k.w.-hr. costs : 
 
 (r s \ g c 
 ■ + — I +■ + (25) 
 STGOIE E I 8760/ 8760 //i 
 
 The three terms in the right hand member of the equation are 
 respectively the kw.-hr. Production Cost, the kw.-hr. Distribution 
 Cost, and the kw.-hr. Service Cost. 
 
 The values of 7c may be plotted in a curve for any assumed values 
 
72 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of d and n, the abscissas of the curve being / (the connected load 
 factor), and the ordinates being k (the correspondence kw.-hr. 
 coot). Since for diffierent classes of customers there are different 
 values of d (d being- a function of I as in Equation 24) and n, it is 
 necessary to plot different cost curves for the different classes. 
 
 As above stated, the Variable Production Cost (s) consists al- 
 most entirely of the fuel cost. In a hydro plant, s may be re- 
 garded as having- no appreciable existence, unless a value is as- 
 signed to the water itself. 
 
 Fuel cost per kw.-hr. is commonly regarded as being constant 
 for any given plant, and for any given price of fuel. It is, how- 
 ever, constant only where the load is constant, A variable load 
 causes variation in generating and transforming efficiency, which 
 often causes wide fluctuation in the cost per kw.-hr, for fuel. Due 
 allowance should be made for this when estimating s. 
 
 Formulas for Tivo Payment Rates. It is frequently desirable to 
 charge a fixed annual (or monthly) rate (h) per kw. of connected 
 load plus a kw.-hr. rate (p) on the total kw-hr. used. To do this 
 it seems best to determine the fixed annual kw. rate by adding the 
 Distribution Cost to the Service Cost. Then the Production Cost 
 is used as the basis for the kw.-hr, rate. 
 
 Then we have 
 
 7j :-- j (7-1 I for the connected kw. rate (26) 
 
 P - ( • H I for the k\v,-hr. rate (27) 
 
 \87Q0 1E E J 
 
 It might be argued that in the case of a hydro-electric plant 
 nearly all the costs are fixed, and that the logical rate would there- 
 fore consist almost entirely of a large fixed kw, connected load rate 
 plus a very small k\v,-hr, rate. This, however, would lead to the use 
 of small installations which would be run almost continuously, 
 whether the current was really needed or not. The great objection 
 to flat rates arises from this very reason. There is, besides, an 
 innate prejudice against rates that do not result in substantial de- 
 creases in monthly charges when current is used sparingly. 
 
 Formula for Miniunim Rates. Equation (26) gives a rational 
 "minimum annual cost" per kw. of connected load. If it is de- 
 sired to express this as a minimum annual cost per customer, we 
 have 
 
 m = gn + c (28) 
 
 It has been argued by some that only c, the Service Cost, should 
 be regarded as the minimum cost, but this ignores the fact that 
 the distribution sj'stem stands ready to serve the customer, and 
 that he should be at least willing to pay his prorata of the fixed 
 charges thereon. Indeed, it may rationally be claimed that the 
 minimum rate should be high enough to include the customers' 
 prorata of the fixed charges on the power plant, transmission line 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 73 
 
 and substations, based on the customers' demand thereon. It is 
 good busmess, however, to stop short of this hist claim, and it is 
 evident that this belief is quite general, for the standard $1 per 
 month minimum charge for residence lighting customers is fjir below 
 wliat is necessary to cover a customer's prorata (jf all the fixed 
 charges of the average plant. 
 
 In applying formula (28), there may be some doubt as to the 
 value of n (the connected kw. load) of a customer of a given class. 
 It seems fair to select on average value of n, found by dividing 
 the total connected load of all the customers of a given class by 
 the number of customers in that class. If we were to go to the 
 extreme of selecting the connected load of the smallest customer, 
 the probable result would be to lead to a still further decrease in 
 the number of lamps installed by the smallest customer, which in 
 turn would result in a decided decrease in the diversity factor of 
 customers of that class, and a consequent rise in the Production 
 ;Cost for customers of that class. In brief, lowering of the mini- 
 mum rate charged to li.^hting customers, if based on a very smali 
 connected load, -would result in a lowering of the diversity factor, 
 and a rise in the Production Cost. Hence, the minimum rate can- 
 not usually be lowered without making it necessary to raise the 
 kw.-hr. rate. 
 
 Finally, it Is impracticable to ]ieep a careful check on the con- 
 nected loads of the smallest customers, for they can. readily sub- 
 stitute larger lamps for smaller and change their loads. 
 
 For these reasons, it seems fair to assume an average value for 
 n, in any given community. 
 
 Cost of Oro Electric Corporation Poiver Plant, Transinissio^h 
 Lines and Substations. Having discussed the general methods tc 
 be used in analyzing the kw.-hr. co.st of current, we come to an 
 application of the principles to the City of Stockton, California. 
 
 The first step in the analysis is to estimate the cost of the pro- 
 posed hydro-electric plant to be built on Yellow Creek and the 
 cost of the transmission lines and substations necessary to convey 
 and transform the full amount of current that will be generated 
 The following Is the itemized estimate of this cost : 
 
 TABLE VT. ESTIMATED COST OF CONSTRUCT INCx YELLOW 
 CREEK POWER PLANT AND TRANSMISSION LINES. 
 
 (38,000 kw.) Voltage on main conductors, 130,000. 
 
 ROADS, RAILWAYS AND CONSTRUCTION PLANT 
 
 1. Roads $ 30,000 
 
 2. Railway spur .50,000 
 
 3. Railway to quarry for dam 20,000 
 
 4. Incline 20,000 
 
 5. Power line (less salvage) , . . . . 30.000 
 
 6. Tools, constr., equip., camps, etc '100.000 
 
 7. Railway along flow line (pays for itself by timber 
 
 hauled out and sold) ..... 
 
 Total — Roads, rys., etc $ 250,000 
 
74 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 DAMS AND HEADWOUKS 
 
 Huinhuu Da III: 
 
 8. Excavation, 23.000 cu. yds. at $1 ,..$ 23,000 
 
 9. liock Fill, 110,000 cu. yds. measured in the dam at 
 
 $1.50 210.000 
 
 10. ('oncrete toe. 2,600 cu. yds. at $10 2(),000 
 
 11. Timber face, 4'60 M at 25 12,000 
 
 12. Spillway 30,000 
 
 13. Gate house, gates, etc 20,000 
 
 Total — Humbug Dam $ 321,000 
 
 14. Other headworks , 12,000 
 
 Total for dams and headworks $ 333,000 
 
 CANALS AND CONDUITS 
 
 Forest Conduit: 
 
 15. Tunnel (5 by 7 >/j) 5,200 ft. at $12 $ 62,400 
 
 16. Adit. 100 ft, at $10 1.000 
 
 17. Ditch, 84,000 cu. yds. at $0.50 42,000 
 
 18. Culverts, waste gates, etc 6,000 
 
 Total for Forest Conduit , $ 111,400 
 
 Cataract Conduit: 
 
 19. Wood stave pipe (7 ft., 9 4 ft., b.m. per lin. ft., 183 
 
 lbs. bands and 48 lbs. shoes, nuts, etc., per lin. ft. 
 
 19,560 lin. ft. at $15 $ 293.400 
 
 20. Steel Pipe at bends. 236,000 lbs. at,$0. 08 18,800 
 
 21. Excavation (mostly along present ditch), 26,000 cu. 
 
 yds. at $0.75 19.500 
 
 22. Back fill. 12,000 cu. yds. at $0.50 6.000 
 
 23. Trestle, 1,100 ft. at $8 8.800 
 
 24. Manholes. 8 at $200 1,600 
 
 25. Tunnel (7 ft., 2.7 cu. yds. excav. and 1.0 cu. yd. con- 
 
 crete per lin. ft.) 12,900 lin. ft. at $30 387,000 
 
 26. Tunnel adits. 4.000 cu. yds. at $6 24.000 
 
 27. Pipe at adits, 86,000 lbs. at $0.07 6 000 
 
 28. Manholes and bulkheads 5.000 
 
 Total for Cataract Conduit $ 770,100 
 
 Butt Creek Conduit: 
 
 29. Ditch trimmed, 3,200 lin. ft $ 3,200 
 
 Surge Pipe, etc.: 
 
 30. Surge pine or shaft $ 20.000 
 
 31. Pipe through dam. 170,000 lbs. at $.07 11,900 
 
 Total for Surge pipe, etc $ 31 ,900 
 
 Total for Canals and Conduits $ 916.600 
 
 PRESSURE PIPES 
 
 32. Tunnel (12 ft.) 6.^00 cu. yds. at $6 $ 38.400 
 
 33. Excavation, 30,000 cu. yds. at $2.50 75 000 
 
 34. Concrete (anchors, etc.) 1.000 cu. yds. at $0.12 12,000 
 
 35. Steel pipe — 
 
 6.S0,000 lbs. (riveted) in tunnel at $.07 47 600 
 
 630.000 " " at $0,065 40,950 
 
 4,550.000 " lap welded at $0,075 341.250 
 
 36. Manholes, etc 10,000 
 
 Total for Pressure Pipe $ 565,200 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 75 
 
 POWER STATION 
 
 Per k.w. 
 
 37. Power house 4.47 % 170.000 
 
 38. Excavation, 10,000 cu. yds. at $2.00 0.53 20,000 
 
 5.00 
 
 39. Water wheels, gates and governors 4.35 165,000 
 
 40. Generators, exciters, etc 4.20 160.000 
 
 41. Switchboard and wiring 2.63 100.000 
 
 42. Step up transformers 2.36 90,000 
 
 43. Crane, etc. (50 ton) 0.26 lO.OUU 
 
 44. Heating and miscel 0.26 10,000 
 
 Total for Power Station 19.06 $ 725,000 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS BUILDINGS 
 
 45. Operator's quarters, etc $ 30,000 
 
 46. Machine shop, equip., etc 20,000 
 
 Total — Miscel. Bldgs $ 50,000 
 
 Total power plant (Items 1 to 46) $2,839,800 
 
 47. Contingencies and overhead charges, 30% of items 1 
 
 to 46 851,940 
 
 Total power plant $3,691,740 
 
 TRANSMISSION LINES 
 
 48. steel towers (660 ft. apart), 190 miles at $2,300 .... $ 437,000 
 
 49. Copper for 190 miJes of tower line (6 wires), 3,250,- 
 
 000 lbs. at $0.19 617,500 
 
 50. Labor string, wire on towers: 1,030 miles at $40. . . . 41,200 
 
 51. Insulators (9.100) on towers, 56,000 elements (10 lb.) 
 
 at $1.25 70.000 
 
 52. Hardware for above 10,000 
 
 53. Grounding wire 10,000 
 
 54. Telephone 1 90 miles at $125 23,750 
 
 55. Fencing and misc 25,000 
 
 56. High towers, etc 25,000 
 
 57. Switching stations 14,000 
 
 58. Pole transmission lines: 
 
 100 miles at 1.600 160,000 
 
 100 miles at 1,000 100.000 
 
 Total for items 48^0 58 $1,333,450 
 
 59. Contingencies and overhead charges 25% of items 48 
 
 to 58 333,360 
 
 Total for Transmission Lines $1,666,810 
 
 WATER RIGHTS, LAND, ETC. 
 
 60. Water rights, land and right-of-way $ 600,000 
 
 SUBSTATIONS 
 
 61. Sectionalising Stations $ 50,000 
 
 62. Sub.stations for 38,000 kw. at $.8 304,000 
 
 63. Tie line transformers 60,000 
 
 64. Regulating apparatus 25,000 
 
 Total for Substations, etc $ 439,000 
 
 65. Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% of items 
 
 61 to 64 $ 109,750 
 
 Total for Substations, etc $ 548,750 
 
 Grand Total for (38,000) kw. plant complete $6,507,300 
 
76 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 Roads, rys. and const, plant $ 250,000 
 
 Dams and headwoiks 333,000 
 
 Canals and conduits 916,600 
 
 Pressure pipes 565,200 
 
 Power station 725,000 
 
 Misc. bldgs., etc 50,000 
 
 Total $2,839,800 
 
 Contingencies and overhead charges, 30% of above items. 851,940 
 
 Total power plant. 38,000 kw. at $97 $3,691,740 
 
 Transmission lines $1,333,450 
 
 Contingencies and overhead charges on same, 25%; 333.360 
 
 Total transmission lines $1,666,810 
 
 Water rights, land and right-of-way $ 600.000 
 
 Substations, etc $ 439,000 
 
 Contingencies and overhead charges 25% on same 109,750 
 
 Total substations, etc $ 548,750 
 
 Grand Total, 38,000 kw. at $171 $6,507,300 
 
 Cost of ElecMc Cxcrrent at the Substalion. Careful gaugings 
 that have extended over nearly 8 years show that there will be 
 sufficient water to develop at least 19,000 continuous kws. or 38,000 
 kws. on a 50% load factor. This can be done with a flow of 165 
 sec.-ft. ; but. as a matter of fact, there has been no time in the 
 last 8 years when 179 sec.-ft. could not have been averaged had 
 there been a storage reservoir of the size planned. The 165 sec.- 
 ft. has been assumed in order to provide for the possibility of two 
 very dry years in sequence. It will be pointed out later that the 
 full 179 sec.-ft. and even more, can be i)rofitably utilized if a steam 
 auxiliary plant of about 4.000 kws. is provided. 
 
 Assuming for the present only 38,000 at a 50% load factor we 
 have 164,600,000 kw.-hrs. generated annually. The production cost 
 of this current at the substations will be shown to be 0.5 ct. per 
 kw.-hr. on the assumption that none of the current is lost in trans- 
 mission and transforamtion (step up and step down). And with a 
 10% loss the cost at the substation will be 0.56 ct. per kw.-hr. 
 The deduction of this cost follows. 
 
 Annual Operating Cost. We shall now consider only the cost of 
 operating the plant down to and including substations, reserving 
 for later discussion the co.st of distribution and service cost. The 
 following will be the annual operating expense of the power plant, 
 transmission lines and substations, exclusive of repairs and de- 
 preciation : 
 
 Poiver Plant Expense: 
 
 Wages and supplies $ 32,000 
 
 TransHiission Line Expense: 
 
 Wages, supplies, etc . 8.000 
 
 Substation Expense: 
 
 Wages, supplies, etc 26,000 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 77 
 
 General Expense: 
 
 Salaries 28,000 
 
 Rentaly 4,000 
 
 Insurance, legal and damages ., 15,000 
 
 Miscellaneuus 10,000 
 
 Total general expense % 57,000 
 
 Total operating expense, exclusive of maintenance $123,000 
 
 Annual Cicrrent Repairs on a plant of as permanent a character 
 as this will not exceed 1% of the total plant cost. For many years 
 to come the repairs will be less than V/t. _In addition to Current 
 Repairs, a depreciation annuity of 2% of the plant investment should 
 be earned. This 2% set aside annually and compounded at 5% 
 interest will amortize the entire investment in 25 years. 
 
 It is expected that capital can be secured by the sale of bonds, 
 etc, at such rates that the interest charge will be 1% on the cost 
 of the plant. Hence the annual repairs, depreciation and interest 
 total 10%, distributed thus: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Current repairs 1 
 
 Depreciation annuity 2 
 
 Interest 7 
 
 Total 10 
 
 Since the investment in the plant, up to and including substa- 
 tions, v/ill be $6,500,000, we have the following annual cost: 
 
 Interest, repairs and depreciation (10% of $6 500,000) $650,000 
 
 Operating expense, exclusive of maintenance and taxes.... 123,000 
 Taxes on the above 52,000 
 
 Total annual production cost $825,000 
 
 As above stated, 164.600.000 kw.-hrs. will be generated annually. 
 Hence, the Production Cost is $825,000^164,600,000"= 0.50 ct. (half 
 a cent) per kw.-hr. generated. If we assume a transformer and 
 transmission line loss of 10%. the cost of current distributed at the 
 substations will be 90% -=- 0.50 :- 0.555 ct. per kw.-hr. when the 
 station load factor is 50%. 
 
 Table V gives the Production Cost per kw.-hr. for any given 
 Station Load Factor assignable to any given class of customers, 
 and for any given losses of current involved in the step up and 
 step down transformers, transmission, distribution and metering. 
 
 Cost of Current for Residence Customers. Having calculated the 
 production cost for various Station Load Factors we can determine 
 the total cost of current per kw.-hr. sold to residence customers. 
 
 At the low price proposed by the Oro Electric Corporation, the 
 average residence customer can be counted upon to create a Sta- 
 tion Load Factor of at least 20%. This is equivalent to a con- 
 nected load factor of 4.57t. and k True Diversity Factor of 4.5, the 
 product of these being 207f. or the Station Load Factor. In other 
 words, the average resid'^nce customer with a connected load of 
 0.75 kw, will use 300 kw.-hrs. per annum. 
 
78 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Referring to Table V, we see that for a Station Load Factor of 
 20% and a Line and Transformer Loss of 25%, the Production Cost 
 is 1.67 cts. per kw.-hr., to which must be added the Stockton (Cal.) 
 local tax of 2%, making a total production cost of 1.71 cts. To this 
 must be added the Distribution and Service Costs, which are as 
 follows : 
 
 For the average residence customer there will be the following 
 investment in Distribution System : 
 Poles, etc. : Per customer 
 
 0.5 pole at $13 in place $ 6.50 
 
 1.2 cross arm and hardware at $1.25 1.50 
 
 Total poles, etc $ 8.00 
 
 Wire, etc. : 
 
 35 lbs. at 0.21 (including labor, pins, insulators, etc.) 
 in place $ 7.35 
 
 Transformers : 
 
 0.5 kw. at $12 in place 6.00 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 Telephone, tools, stores, etc 2.65 
 
 Total $24.00 
 
 Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 6.00 
 
 Total per residence customer $30.00 
 
 (Note. Service connection and meter are given later.) 
 The interest, depreciation and repairs on this investment of $30. 
 per residence customer are : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Interest '. 7 
 
 Depreciation and repairs 6 
 
 Total 13 
 
 The annual distribution charge per residence customer is : 
 
 Per customer 
 
 Interest, depreciation and repairs 13% of $30 $3.90 
 
 Salaries, insurance, etc 0.40 
 
 Taxes 0.30 
 
 Total, 300 kw-hrs. at 1.53 cts $4.60 
 
 Hence the distribution cost is 1.53 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 The investment in service connection and meter is as follows 
 per residence customer : 
 
 Per customer 
 
 Service connection $ 4.00 
 
 Meter 12.00 
 
 Total $16.00 
 
 Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 4.00 
 
 Total per residence customer $20.00 
 
 The interest, depreciation and repairs on the service and meter 
 are as follows : 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 79 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Interest 7 
 
 Depreciation and repairs 8 
 
 Total 15 
 
 In addition to this annual cost of 15% on the $20. investment 
 (or $3 per year) per residence customer for service connection 
 and meter, there is a service expense of $4 per annum, which is 
 itemized as follows : 
 
 Salaries of officers $0.30 
 
 Accounting- 1.00 
 
 Billing and collecting 0.60 
 
 Rate clerk, etc 0.30 
 
 Stationery and printing 0.20 
 
 Bad accounts and cut outs 0.10 
 
 Meter reading and transfer 0.40 
 
 Soliciting and advertising 0.20 
 
 Telei)hone, telegrai)h, etc 0.20 
 
 Rent 0.20 
 
 Miscellaneous (legal, insurance, etc.) 0.50 
 
 Total service expense per customer $4.00 
 
 (Note. Part of the salaries of officers is to be found under 
 Production Cost and part under Distribution Cost, and the same 
 holds true of certain other items.) 
 
 Summing up the Service Cost per residence customer per annum, 
 we have: 
 
 Per customer 
 
 Interest, depreciation and repairs, 15% of $20 $ 3.00 
 
 Service expense 4.00 
 
 Taxes 0.50 
 
 Total, 300 kw.-hrs. at 2.50 cts $ 7.50 
 
 Summing up the average kw.-hr. cost for residence customers, we 
 have : 
 
 Cts. per kw.-nr. 
 
 Production co.st 1.71 
 
 Distribution cost • 1.53 
 
 Service cost , 2.50 
 
 Total cost per residence 5.74 
 
 The base rate proposed for residence customers is 6.5 cts. and 
 the average residence customer will fall within this rate, for the 
 rate does not begin to decrease until a customer uses more than 
 100 kw.-hrs. per month. In considering the Connected Load Factor, 
 it should be remembered that a lower price for current causes a 
 greater consumption, and consequently a greater Connected Load 
 Factor. A customer having a net rate of 6 cts. per kw.-hr. uses 
 much more current than a customer having an 8-ct. rate. 
 
 Cost of Current f6r Business Lir/hting Customers. Following the 
 same method of cost analysis above applied to residence customer 
 rates, we shall consider the three items of cost per kw.-hr. for busi- 
 ness customers: (1) Production Cost; (2) Distribution Cost, and 
 (3) Service Cost. 
 
80 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The average business lighting customer will create a Station 
 Load Factor of at least 25%, and, referring to Table V, we see that 
 the Production Cost is 1.33 cts. per kw.-hr. when the Station Load 
 Factor is 25% and the line losses are 257c, adding 2% for local tax 
 we have 1.36 cts. per kw.-hr. as the production cost. 
 
 The Distribution Cost is derived as follows: 
 
 The average business customer with 1.6 kw. connected load will 
 reciuire an investment of less than $208 in underground conduits, 
 underground service, cables, transformers, etc. (exclusive of meters 
 and outside service connections, which are a part of the service 
 cost). This distribution system cost is estimated liberally as fol- 
 lows per kw. of connected load : 
 
 Ducts:' Perkw. 
 
 100 ft. vitrified ducts at 35 cts 35.00 
 
 Manholes : 
 
 .03 manholes at $175 $5.25] 
 
 .08 manholes at $90 7.20 f 12.45 
 
 Switches, etc. in Manholes: 
 
 Junction boxes, switches and miscellaneous 4.00 
 
 Laterals and Risers : 
 
 0.2 Lateral (3 in. pipe, 60 ft.) at $75 15.00 
 
 Cable: 
 
 30 ft. lead covered cable in ducts at $0.70 $21] 
 
 20 ft. cable in laterals at $0,20 $4 1 25.00 
 
 Transformers : 
 
 0.8 k.w. at $10.00 8.00 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 Stores, etc. . .- 5.00 
 
 Total $104.45 
 
 Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 26.10 
 
 Total underground system $130.55 
 
 The annual interest depreciation and repairs on the underground 
 distribution system will be : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Interest 7 
 
 Depreciation and repairs 5 
 
 Total 12 
 
 The annual Distribution (~'ost per Ivw. of connected load will be: 
 
 Interest, depreciation and repairs 12% of $130.55 .... $15.67 
 
 Operation expense 1.50 
 
 Taxes 1.43 
 
 Total annual distribution cost per k.w $18.60 
 
 Hence a business lighting customer averaging 1.6 kws. of con- 
 nected load should be charged with an annual Distribution Cost 
 of 1.6 X $18.60 - $29.76. 
 
 The average business lighting customer has a Connected Load 
 Factor exceeding 11%, and a True Diversity Factor exceeding 2.5, 
 
GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 81 
 
 making a Station Load Factor exceeding 11% X 2.5 = 27.5%. The 
 annual consumption of current by the average business customer 
 having 1.6 kw. connected load exceeds 1,500 kw.-hrs. Hence di- 
 viding the $29.76 by 1,500 kws. we have 2.00 cts. per kw.-hr,, 
 which is a liberal estimate of the Distribution Cost for business 
 customers in the " underground district." 
 
 The investment in meters and in the individual services (not 
 included in the underground system above given) will be as follows, 
 per business customer : 
 
 Per customer 
 
 Service (in addition to underground service) $10.00 
 
 Meter 15.00 
 
 Total $25.00 
 
 Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 6.25 
 
 Total individual service and meter $31.25 
 
 The annual interest depreciation and repairs will be : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Interest 7 
 
 Depreciation and repairs 7 
 
 Total 14 
 
 Hence, the annual Service Cost per business customer will be: 
 
 Per customer 
 
 1. Interest, depreciation and repairs 14% of 31.25 4.37 
 
 2. Service expense (previously estimated) 4.00 
 
 3. Taxes 0.63 
 
 Total service cost $9.00 
 
 Since the average business customer uses at least 1,500 kw.-hrs. 
 per annum, the Service Cost will be less than $9 -^ 1,500 = 0.60 ct. 
 per kw.-hr. 
 
 Summing up we have the following kw.-hr. cost of current sold 
 to the average business lighting customer: 
 
 Cts. per kw.-hr. 
 
 Production cost 1.36 
 
 Distribution cost 2.00 
 
 Service cost 0.60 
 
 Total 3.96 
 
 The base rate for business lighting customers is 6 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 up to 95 kw.-hrs. used in a month. Then the rate drops to 5.8 
 cts. for current used up to 125 kw.-hrs. per month. Then the 
 next drop is to 5.6 cts. per current used up to 160 kw.-hrs. It is 
 evident, then, that the average business customer who used 1,500 
 kw.-hrs. per year, or 125 kw.-hrs. per month, will enjoy a rate 5.6 
 cts. per kw.-hr., less the discount for prompt payment. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 
 
 Depreciation. Depreciation is loss of value. It may occur as 
 a result of the loss of useful life of a plant-unit or its parts or be- 
 cause of the invention or design of a more efficient plant unit, or be- 
 cause a larger plant unit is more economic, or in consequence of a 
 drop in the prices of equivalent plant units, or because of accidental 
 Injury, or in consequence of any change that makes it more eco- 
 nomic to render an equivalent service with another plant-unit. 
 
 The cost of renewing an entire plant-unit is properly called a 
 depreciation cost or charge. The cost of renewing a part of a 
 plant unit is properly called a repair expense. But, as is stated 
 below in the discussion of the term Plant Unit, there has been 
 no very clear recognition of this important distinction by ac- 
 countants and engineers. 
 
 Careless writers of recent years and almost all writers ten or 
 more years ago, usually have made no distinction between the 
 annual cost of repairs and the annual charge for depreciation or 
 depreciation annuity. Consequently many estimates of operating 
 costs are deceptive. Two other causes of error as to '■ upkeep costs " 
 (i.e. combined repair and depreciation costs) are common: (1) 
 Failure to distinguish between natural and functional depreciation; 
 (2) Failure to equate rei)air costs of the entire life of the plant 
 unit. Both of these factors will be discussed later. 
 
 For ordinary purposes it is well to classify depreciation under 
 two general heads: (1) Natural Depreciation and (2) Functional 
 Depreciation. 
 
 Natural Depreciation is loss of value due to physical or chemical 
 changes in plant units, e.g., rot, rust, electrolysis, " wear and tear." 
 Loss of value due to an accident, such as the burning out of a 
 generator, may also be classed as natural depi-eciation. 
 
 Functional Depreciation is loss of value due to (a) obsolescence, 
 (b) inadequacy, or (c) drop in prices. Obsolescence arises wholly 
 from " imjjrovements in the art " — inventions. Inadequacy arises 
 from, increased demands upon plant-units rendering them economi- 
 cally too small or too light for the increased service required. Drop 
 in prices occurs as a result of any combination of causes that 
 increases the supply relative to the demand. Natural deiireciation 
 is attributable to the forces of nature, whereas functional deprecia- 
 tion is attributable to the foices of society. 
 
 The forces that commonly cause Natural Depreciation are: (1) 
 Chemical action. (2) electrical action, (3) mechanical action, and 
 (4) vital action. Rust is an example of chemical action; electro- 
 lysis is an example of electrical a^tion ; abrasion or wear is an 
 example of mechanical action ; totting of wood is an example of 
 
 82 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 83 
 
 vital action, as is also the progress of senility of animals resulting 
 finally in death. 
 
 The forces that commonly cause Functional Depreciation are : 
 (1) Invention, (2) growth of business that renders a plant unit 
 inadequate economically, (3) public enactment that causes either 
 loss of part or all of the economic use of a plant unit, (4) competi- 
 tion that results in a reduction in unit prices. 
 
 It needs but to make these classifications of the causes of de- 
 preciation to give us pause when we undertake to say that any 
 single simple method of estiinating accrued depreciation can be ap- 
 plicable to all these sorts of depreciation. Inspection, for example, 
 may disclose approximately the amount of v/ear that has occurred in 
 the piston and cylinder of an old pump, but mere inspection may not 
 disclose whether an old pump is as economic in the use of fuel 
 as a new one. Testing alone will demonstrate the fuel efficiency 
 of pumps. Testing alone, however, will not show the depreciated 
 value of a pump or of any other apparatus that is to be compared 
 with some apparatus of standard value. To make such a com- 
 parison accurately we must apply mathematics, even though it be 
 of a very simple sort, as will be shown later. 
 
 Plant Units and Their Relation to Depreciation. Before any clear 
 cut distinction can be drawn between terms such as " cost of re- 
 pairs," " cost of renewals," " maintenance expense," and " depre- 
 ciation annuity," it is essential to define what a ])lant unit is. No 
 book on accounting or ratemaking gives a definition of plant unit, 
 consequently there is endless debate as to the " true meaning " 
 of all terms relating to " upkeep costs." 
 
 Plant Unit is any unit to which a unit cost is assigned. Since 
 the cost of a machine may be split up into many units to each of 
 w^hich a unit cost may be assigned, it follows that appraisers may 
 differ greatly as to what they call a plant unit. We prefer to call 
 a whole machine — such as a generator or a boiler — a plant unit, 
 and to treat the depreciation of the machine as a whole. The 
 expense due to loss of life of the parts of the machine, we prefer 
 to classify under the term Repairs. Plant units such as the fol- 
 lowing have been used : A pole, a square yard of pavement, an 
 engine, a building, a pound of copper wire, etc. 
 
 Obviously it is possible to group the elements of a plant into 
 " units " of any desired size and class. Thus an entire transmis- 
 sion line may be called a "plant unit." If that is done, then the 
 renewal of separate poles would" be a repair expense, and only the 
 renewal of the entire transmission line would be a depreciation 
 charge. 
 
 A single pole with its cross-arms, guys, insulators, etc., but not 
 including the transmission wires, may be regarded as a plant unit. 
 In that case the renewal of a cross-arm would be a repair expense. 
 But even a cro.ss-arm may be regarded as a plant unit, in which 
 case its renewal would be a depreciation charge. 
 
 Although no attempt has ever been made to define every plant 
 unit of a given plant — except in ratemaking case.'^ — still it has 
 \isually been the practice in accounting to treat all short lived 
 
84 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 small priced elements as chargeable to repairs when renewed, while 
 renewals of long--lived, high-priced elements have been charged to 
 depreciation. Railway ties, and even rails are commonly charged 
 to " current maintenance," or " repairs," when renewed ; whereas 
 locomotives, bridges, and buildings would be charged to a deprecia- 
 tion fund if such a fund existed. In the absence of depreciation 
 funds built up from depreciation annuities and interest thereon, rail- 
 ways and other corporations have charged renewals of every sort 
 to " current maintenance." 
 
 It is important to know how to avoid the endless confusion that 
 still exists in accounting and cost estimating, because of lack of 
 definitions of what are to be regarded as plant units. It is equally 
 important to know that this confusion is so universal as to make 
 much of the published matter on repair expense and depreciation 
 costs of doubtful value. With this warning, the authors must leave 
 the reader to his own interpretation of many " upkeep costs " given 
 in this book. 
 
 Weighted Average Age of Plant Units. The average age of any 
 group of plant units of equal value is calculated thus : Multiply the 
 total number of plant units of the same age by the number of 
 years that they have been in use ; add together all such products 
 for the given class of units, and divide the sum by the total number 
 of plant units. The quotient is the average age of the given 
 class of plant units. 
 
 If the plant units of a given class vary in first cost, then the 
 weighted average age is found thus : 
 
 Multiply the money expended each year in the construction of the 
 plant units now in existence by the age in years ; add those prod- 
 ucts together and divide by the total cost. The quotient is the 
 weighted average age of the given class of plant units. 
 
 In applying this last rule, care must be taken to make adjust- 
 ments needed to provide for fluctuations in unit prices, so that 
 standard unit prices may be applied to all. Care must also be 
 taken to ascertain whether any plant units as originally built have 
 been renewed ; and to this end both the original construction ac- 
 counts and the maintenance and renewal reserve accounts should 
 be investigated. 
 
 If practically all the structures shown in the accounting records 
 al-e still in existence, and the money expended each year for each 
 class of structure is known, it is a very simple matter to figure 
 the average age of the money invested in such structure, which, 
 after all, is what is needed in estimating present value. To illus- 
 trate, suppose there are a number of station buildings in existence, 
 whose age is not known. Suppose, however, that $10,500 was 
 spent for such buildings in 1896, $20,000 in 1900. and $5,000 in 1902. 
 Then, in 1906, the average age of the money invested in these 
 buildings is ascertained thus : 
 
 $10,500 X 10 yrs. equals $105,000 one year 
 
 $20,000 X 6 yrs. equals $120,000 one year 
 
 $5,000 X 4 yrs. equals $20,000 one year 
 
 $35,500 X 7 yrs. equals $248,500 one year 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 85 
 
 This g-ives a total of $35,500 invested 7 yrs. ; for $35,500X7 yrs. 
 equals $248,500 one year. 
 
 The rule to be followed in all such cases is to multiply the money 
 expended each year for structures of a given class by the age in 
 years, add all these products together, and divide by the total 
 cost of all the structures under consideration. The quotient is the 
 average age of all the structures, or, more strictly speaking, the 
 average age of the money invested in the structures. If some of 
 the structures are no longer in existence, this method can still be 
 applied. Take railway cross-ties, for example. Ascertain the total 
 value of cross-ties in the track, then go back through the records 
 of cost and tie renewals, by years, until the total cost of the 
 renewals adds up to the total value of ties now in the track. 
 Then compute the average age as above shown. If the price of ties 
 has fluctuated, ascertain the actual price paid, and reduce all yearly 
 expenditures of renewals to the present price. 
 
 Analysis of Maintenance Accounts and Upkeep Costs. Before 
 the true net earnings of a plant can be accurately ascertained, it 
 is necessary to analyze the maintenance accounts, for it will 
 usually be found that the actual expenditures for upkeep in any 
 given year are less than the average expenditures for upkeep will 
 be in the years to come. Simply because a plant is old it must not 
 be assumed that its upkeep expenditures have reached a normal 
 or average condition. Yet this erroneous assumption has been 
 made in many rate making cases. 
 
 Upkeep Cost is the actual expenditure for current repairs and 
 current renewals (maintenance) plus the depreciation annuity not 
 provided for in the actual expenditure for renewals. 
 
 Current Maintenance, or maintenance as the term is commonly 
 used by accountants, is the actual expenditure for current repairs 
 and current renewals. 
 
 Repair Expense is the current expenditure for keeping the parts 
 of plant units in serviceable condition. 
 
 Renewal Expense is the current expenditure for the renewal of 
 whole plant units, and does not include a depreciation annuity. 
 
 Annual Depreciation, as used here, is the estimated annual loss 
 of value from all causes, including natural and functional. Annual 
 depreciation usually exceeds annual Renewals in plants that are 
 not very old. Hence the extreme importance of not assuming that 
 annual renewals are probably sufficient to cover annual deprecia- 
 tion. Annual renewals are usually only a part of annual deprecia- 
 tion, and annual depreciation is, in turn, only a part of annual 
 upkeep cost, for annual depreciation does not include annual re- 
 pairs. Great confusion still exists in the minds of many people as 
 to these terms, partly because they are not used in the same sense 
 by all engineers. Serious errors have occurred, both on the part 
 of public service companies and public service commissions, in 
 estimating the probable annual upkeep cost. Sometimes in such 
 estimates, annual repairs have been omitted, but more often the 
 error has arisen because actual annual renewals of the previous 
 year were assumed to cover all probable annual depreciation. 
 
86 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 It has been proposed to use the term " maintenance " in place of 
 " upkeep cost," and to segi-egate it into " ordinary maintenance " 
 and " deferred maintenance." Then " ordinary maintenance " would 
 cover repairs and renewals " which are made each year as needed " ; 
 while " deferred maintenance " would cover repairs and renewals 
 " which cannot economically be made each year but which are 
 made at frequent intervals." Engineers who propose such a classi- 
 fication have evidently never kept corporation books. 
 
 Many careless estimators have not used the term " annual de- 
 preciation " to cover renewals of parts (or repairs) as well as 
 renewals of entire plant units, but have actually forgotten to include 
 an allowance for repairs. When it is considered that the repairs 
 of steam locomotives annually average 18% of their first cost, 
 whereas the renewals of entire locomotives are about 4%. it will 
 be appreciated that an engineer who estimated only 4% for depre- 
 ciation of locomotives and allowed nothing additional for repairs 
 would fall into serious error. Yet precisely this sort of blundering 
 occurs with considerable frequency, and largely because of failure 
 to understand the meaning of the' term " annual depreciation." 
 
 Method of Estimating Annual Upkeep Cost. Having defined 
 terms as we shall use them and having briefly explained accounting 
 practice as to certain important features, we may pass to a sum- 
 mary of the proper method of estimating the annual upkeep cost 
 of a public utility plant. 
 
 As at present conducted, no public utility company keeps its 
 accounts in such a manner as to segregate Maintenance Expenses 
 into Repairs and Renewals, using these terms as above defined. 
 Yet, if we are to make proper estimates for depreciation funds. 
 or if we are to ascertain the " true operating expense," it becomes 
 essential to analyze Maintenance into Repairs and Renewals. 
 
 If the weighted age of any given set of plant units is less than 
 half the total life of units of that class, the expenditures for 
 Renewals of the plant units are below what they must ultimately 
 be. Thus, if the life of interurban railway cross-ties is 10 years, 
 and if the weighted age of a given lot of ties is 3 years, it is evi- 
 dent that tie renewals are still below normal. "When, however, the 
 weighted age becomes 5 years (i.e., half the life), it is evident that 
 tie renewals have reached a normal stage, for there will then be 
 ties of all gradations of age, from those just put in the track to 
 those just ready to be taken out. 
 
 If the weighted age of few classes of plant units in a plant has 
 yet reached half the total life, it becomes exceedingly important 
 to anal.vze the maintenance accounts. Otherwise, if the present 
 maintenance expenditures were regarded as being normal, no ade- 
 quate allowance would be made for depreciation that is now going- 
 on but is not yet being paid for. 
 
 In the same manner current repairs increase with increasing age 
 of the plant units. Hence neither Repairs nor Renewals can be 
 properly judged until an analysis is made of the maintenance ac- 
 counts and until the weighted age of each class of. plant units is 
 determined. 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 87 
 
 Maintenance, as before t;aid, is the cost of Repairs plus the cost 
 of Renewals of such plant units as have been charged to the op- 
 erating- account. When a plant is young, repairs are usually inex- 
 pensive and there may be a few or no renewals of plant units at 
 all. Hence, unless a renewal reserve account is provided, there may 
 be little or no charge for annual plant depreciation shown on the 
 book.s, although depreciation is actually occurring. When a large 
 plant is old, there are heavy repair expenses v/hich are quite uni- 
 form but the actual renewals of many classes of plant units fluctuate 
 from year to year. In other words, the annual expenditures to re- 
 place plant units are apt to fluctuate, and the fewer the number 
 of plant units the greater the fluctuation. 
 
 Having analyzed the annual maintenance expenses of a plant 
 .so as to show what has been expended for Renewals and what for 
 Repairs, the next step is to compare the actual expenditure for 
 Renewals with the estimated annual Depreciation. In the case 
 of most plants it almost invariably happens that the actual Re- 
 newal expenditures fall below the estimated annual Deprecia- 
 tion. 
 
 The true total upkeep expen.se is the sum of two items: (1) Re- 
 pairs and (2) Depreciation. While the actual maintenance expense 
 is the .sum of two items: (1) Repairs and (2) Renewals. Since 
 Depreciation usually exceeds Renewals and always exceeds it in 
 the case of a new plant, it is of the utmost importance that the 
 excess be accurately ascertained before passing upon the question 
 of rates charged for service. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that the estimated depreciation of cross- 
 ties is 8% per annum, and that the total cost of the ties is $20,000, 
 then the annual depreciation is $1,600. If the actual tie renewals 
 for a given year show a cost of $600, it is evident that tie renewal 
 costs for that year are $1,000 below normal. 
 
 Where the number of plant units of any given class is large, 
 and where they are of varying ages, a normal condition of renewals 
 is not reached until the weighted age of all the plant units of that 
 class is half the total life of a plant unit of that class. Keeping 
 this fact in mind, it is possible to tell roughly whether or not the 
 renewals of a given class of plant units have been normal during 
 a given year, provided only that we know the weighted age of the 
 plant unit.s. But the more precise method to use is the one above 
 outlined, which may be summed up thus : 
 
 Segregate the actual annual maintenance expenses into Repairs 
 and Renewals. Deduct all the Renewals and add the estimated 
 annual Depreciation. The resulting sum will he the total true 
 annual upkeep cost. 
 
 When nothing but the ordinary accounting records are available, 
 the segregating of Renewals from Repairs often seems like an 
 impossible task in the case of certain classes of expense items, but 
 usually a way can be found that will enable a sufliciently close 
 approximation to be made. A study of the " stock slips," for ex- 
 ample, will disclo.se the purposes for which given amounts of ma- 
 terials were used. Having ascertained the amount of materials 
 
88 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 (copper wire, for example) used for renewals, the labor required 
 to put the given length of wire in place may be estimated. 
 
 Some maintenance accounts, lil<e those for ties and rails, contain 
 only the cost of materials used for renewals. In such cases, also, 
 the labor of placing these materials in the plant can be estimated, 
 and then added to the cost of the materials. 
 
 The " requisitions " show all the purchases of equipment, and a 
 study of the equipment and accounting records discloses whether 
 a given purchase was for Renewals or for additions to plant. 
 
 Suggested Improvements in Maintenance Accounting. Since pub- 
 lic service commissions will hereafter limit net income to a "rea- 
 sonable return," it becomes of prime importance so to keep the 
 maintenance accounts as to segregate Repairs from Renewals. To 
 this end a company should subdivide its maintenance accounts 
 so as to show the labor cost corresponding to the cost of each class 
 of materials used in Repairs and Renewals. Every maintenance 
 cost item should not only be divided into labor and materials, where 
 such division is practicable, but Rejjairs should be segregated from 
 Renewals. It is also desirable that there be a separate mainten- 
 ance account for every plant distribution account. Thus, if there 
 is a plant account for bridges, there should be a corresponding 
 maintenance account for bridges, and this account should be sub- 
 divided into Labor and Materials. By providing a maintenance 
 account corresponding to eacli class of plant items, it will be 
 possible to express each kind of annual maintenance cost as a 
 percentage of the first cost of the corresponding plant items. 
 
 The method above suggested for recording maintenance expenses 
 is not in use by any public service company, so far as we know, 
 but the necessity for securing more accurate maintenance data to 
 be used in rate making cases alone justifies the adoption of this 
 method. Furthermore it will enable any one better to judge past 
 maintenance expenses and to predict future upkeep costs with 
 greater accuracy. 
 
 Analysis of Upkeep Cost. In estimating the probable annual cost 
 of upkeep, plant units should be segregated into two groups : 
 
 Group I : 
 
 Those plant units of a given class (railway ties, for example) 
 that are numerous and of ail gradations in depreciated value from 
 nearly zero to 100% value. 
 
 Group II : 
 
 Those plant units of a given class that either are not very 
 numerous, or if numerous, do not have much gradation in depre- 
 ciated value. 
 
 In the first group would fall railway ties, if the railway were 
 one in which ties of every gradation in age were to be found in 
 the track. Likewise poles of a distribution system would come in 
 the first group, if the- poles were of all gradations in age. In such 
 cases the average age of the plant units is 50% of the total life of 
 a plant unit of that class. Obviously no depreciation fund is needed 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 89 
 
 in that case, for the annual renewals will be made according to the 
 straig-ht line formula. Thus, if poles have a life of 17 years, and 
 if they are of all ages from brand new to nearly 17 years old, the 
 normal renewals will be at the rate of 6% per year. Renewal of 
 plant units in Group I is therefore to be calculated by the straight 
 line depreciation formula. 
 
 Renewal of plant units in Group II is to be calculated by the 
 sinking fund formula, the sinking fund annuities being made only 
 sufficient to amortize the depreciated value (not the new value) 
 of the given plant units. If the plant units are of a kind whose 
 repaii-s to parts of a unit will rise as time goes on, then the unit 
 cost depreciation formula is the one to apply in estimating incre- 
 ments in future upkeep. 
 
 Amortization Before or After Depreciation Has Occurred. Con- 
 tention is often made that depreciation should be amortized after 
 a renewal has been made and not before. Where only natural de- 
 preciation is involved, there is little to support such a contention. 
 But where functional depreciation is involved, the contention takes 
 on more force. It is then reasoned as follows : 
 
 Functional depreciation of a particular old plant is always at- 
 tended by functional appreciation of the property due to the eco- 
 nomic advantage of the new plant that displaces the old. The cost 
 of this depreciation is less than the profit of the appreciation, and 
 out of this profit must be paid the cost of depreciation. Therefore 
 no charge should be made for functional depreciation until there 
 is a gain accrued with which to meet the charge, that is, until 
 the saving effected by the new plant provides funds with which to 
 amortize the investment in the plant displaced. 
 
 Thus, it is contended, does the burden fall where and when it is 
 due, whereas to anticipate functional depreciation by setting aside 
 annuities before the functional depreciation occurs, results in as- 
 sessing costs prior to the enjoyment of benefits. 
 
 It is but one step from this conclusion to the next : Functional 
 depreciation is non-existent until the old plant is actually removed. 
 In other words, functional death does not occur until the inade- 
 quate or obsolete plant is permanently retired. 
 
 This last proposition is seriously supported by many men, but is 
 untenable. On the other hand, there is some justification for the 
 view that functional depreciation should be amortized after the 
 fact, although the justification is upon grounds not hitherto clearly 
 set forth. 
 
 Before correct answers can be given to the questions here in- 
 volved, it is necessary .to distinguish shari^ly between the eco- 
 nomics of free com.petition and the economics of full or partial 
 monopoly. It is also necessary to distinguish between economic 
 improvements caused by forces exterior to an owner or employe of 
 a plant and economic improvements caused by the owner or em- 
 ploye of a plant — interior forces. Competition and other exterior 
 forces may compel an action ; but complete, and often even partial 
 monopoly, may lead to non-action. 
 
 An invention made by men exterior to a public utility company, 
 
90 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 for example, may force the company to buy the improved apparatus 
 in order to protect itself from possible competition, or in order to 
 ■meet existing competition. In such an event, functional deprecia- 
 tion cannot always be amortized out of subsequent g-ains. This is 
 the condition that exists for most manufacturers, and makes it 
 imperative for them to insure themselves either through a functional 
 depreciation annuity or through large profits prior to the occur- 
 rence of the anticipated improvement. Even they can usually 
 amortize some of the functional depreciation after the fact, be- 
 cause of the partial monopoly that every well established business 
 enjoys. 
 
 Functional depreciation caused by forces over which the owner 
 of a plant has little o;' no control is closely akin to loss of property 
 by fire. It should be insured against as far as possible and in 
 advance. If such depreciation strikes the man who has built up 
 no reserves against it, his property is as surely and almost as 
 swiftly swept away as by a conflagration. Hence the fallacy of 
 the generalization that all functional depreciation should be amor- 
 tized after the fact. Hence, too, the fallacy that no property has 
 functionally depreciated until it has actually been retired. Such 
 generalizations evidently need decided qualifications, to which we 
 now come. 
 
 Invention by men exterior to a plant is to be provided for by a 
 functional depreciation reserve built up prior to the invention, as 
 far as possible. Invention by men within the plant usually needs 
 no such protection. This distinction is vital to any complete theory 
 of accrued depreciation and depreciation reserves. Invention from 
 xvithout may cause a sudden and irretrievable loss of value to a 
 given plant. Invention from within also causes destruction of 
 existing property value but the loss is not irretrievable and is, in 
 fact, never incurred unless there is overpowering belief in the 
 ability to recoup it out of savings effected by the particular inven- 
 tion. The enjoyment of the fruits of the invention is assured in 
 one or more ways: (1) Patents, (2) secrecy, (3) inertia of com- 
 petitors, (4) monopoly of the business, partial or complete. Where 
 invention is not patentable, some sort of partial or complete 
 monopoly of the business is usually the source of the protection 
 needed to stimulate the effort to secure improvement. This holds 
 also of all economic improvements whether or not they are entitled 
 to be ranked as inventions. 
 
 Economic improvement from within an organization occurs only 
 under the stimulus of some sort of protection in the enjoyment of 
 its benefits, and in that case the depreciation that it causes is 
 properly amortized subsequent to the fact. But economic improve- 
 from without an organization results in a depreciation that should 
 be insured against, as far as possible, in advance of the fact. 
 
 Every industrial invention is a gain to society at large, but 
 whether it is a gain to any particular group of men depends upon 
 their partial or complete protection from the competition with the 
 invention for a period of time. In the absence of such protection, 
 an invention may cause great loss of property to some men. 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 91 
 
 When thiough the enjoyment of a franchise or of an established 
 business, or both, a public utility company has gained the protec- 
 tion that a partial monopoly secures to it, the custom has been to 
 amortize functional depreciation after its occurrence. This is en- 
 tirely defensible, either as an economic or an ethical proposition. 
 Where such a policy has existed, it is certainly not ethical for a 
 government to change the policy by a sudden fiat, thus depriving a 
 company of the opi)ortunity to amortize its functionally retired 
 plant units. And even were it ethical to do so, it would be uneco- 
 nomic for a government , thus to destroy a company policy by fiat, 
 for the inevitable result would be to stop almost every effort to 
 economize further. Certainly no company would initiate improve- 
 ments under such conditions and it would be equally certain to put 
 every obstacle in the way of improvements initiated by others. 
 
 In ascertaining the depreciated value of a plant, only the actual 
 depreciation should be deducted from the cost new. But in creating 
 depreciation or renewal funds for future use, not only should pro- 
 vision be made for the natural depreciation that is certain to occur, 
 but for all the functional depreciation that will probably occur, 
 provided only that the annual surplus after paying operating ex- 
 penses and a fair return on the investment is large enough to per- 
 mit the creation of such a depreciation fund. Only the most 
 profitable companies can do this. During the " development 
 period " no company should attempt to provide a fund for future 
 functional depreciation, for functional depreciation may not occur, 
 although it is probable that it will. 
 
 In brief, a financially strong company should provide a fund to 
 amortize probable functional depreciation in advance of its occur- 
 rence, while a financially weak company should pay for functional 
 depreciation only when it occurs and should amortize such depre- 
 ciation after its occurrence. Intermediate between these extremes 
 will be found many companies that provide depreciation funds or 
 surpluses to take care of part of the probable functional depre- 
 ciation. 
 
 In the event that no depreciation fund is to be provided for future 
 functional depreciation, the rate of fair return on the investment 
 should be high enough to cover probable functional depreciation. 
 
 Stated otherwise. In making provision for the future, the probable 
 future functional depreciation due to future inventions, future 
 growth, etc., must be fully provided for, either in the form of de- 
 preciation funds or in a rate of " fair return " sufficiently high to 
 recoup the investor for the chance he takes that functional de- 
 preciation will reduce the value of his plant. Perhaps the most 
 rational plan is to use a combination of these two methods by : 
 (1) Providing a depreciation fund that will include all probable 
 depreciation due to inadequacy, predicated upon the past growth of 
 demand upon the plant and upon similar plants elsewhere; and (2) 
 permitting a rate of fair return sufficiently high to provide for 
 probable depreciation due to obsolescence. 
 
 Accrued Depreciation and Depreciated Value. Taking the original 
 cost of a plant unit as the base cost, and deducting from this base 
 
92 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the depreciated or present value, the remainder is its accrued de- 
 preciation. In an ideal system of accounting and financial manage- 
 ment, there would exist a depreciation fund equal to the sum of 
 the accrued depreciations of all the plant-units. Such an ideal 
 system would provide a depreciation fund out of which would be 
 paid all current rei)air expenses as well as the cost of renewing 
 entire plant-units. This ideal is seldom attained in practice. 
 
 Depreciated value is often spoken of and regarded as being 
 " second-hand value," but to do so is a mistake. Second-hand value 
 is the net price that a used plant-unit will bring in the open market. 
 The day after a new machine is put into use it can rarely be sold 
 for as much as it cost. Frequently it will not bring half its 
 original cost even though perfectly new. This is partly due to the 
 expense incurred in marketing it, but largely to the distrust with 
 which any used machine is viewed by prospective purchasers. 
 
 Obviously, then, the second-hand value of an old plant-unit is 
 not necessarily its depreciated value, provided the owner of the 
 plant-unit can find further economic use for it. 
 
 Depreciated value of a plant-unit is its economic worth as an 
 instrument of production, which worth is correctly ascertainable 
 by the application of the unit cost depreciation formula hereinafter 
 explained. In this formula, as will appear later, the standard of 
 value by which any plant-unit is rated is the unit cost of produc- 
 tion or service with the most economic plant-unit available for the 
 given service. It is impracticable to define true depreciated value 
 completely in a few words, without the use of some expression or 
 terra that must itself be defined in the form of a rule or formula in- 
 volving several elements of the unit cost depreciation formula 
 (which will be deduced later) may be expressed in words thus: 
 
 Ascertain the total cost per unit of product (or service) that the 
 old plant-unit yields, and deduct therefrom the corresponding total 
 unit cost of product that the most economic new plant-unit yields ; 
 multiply this saving in unit cost by the number of units annually 
 produced by the old plant-unit and capitalize this total annual 
 saving by dividing by the interest percentage. The quotient is the 
 accrued depreciation of the old plant-unit, which, subtracted from 
 its original cost, gives its depreciated value. 
 
 This formula gives results that sometimes approximate those 
 obtained by more commonly used formulas ; but it can and will be 
 demonstrated that it is the only depreciation formula that is 
 strictly rational and perfectly general in its applicability. 
 
 The commonly used (but less general and often erroneous) de- 
 preciation formulas are three in number : 
 
 1. The Straight Line Formula. 
 
 2. The Declining Balance Formula, 
 
 3. The Sinking Fund Formula. 
 
 Each of these formulas will be briefly discussed before passing 
 to the Unit Cost Depreciation Formula. Four terms must first be 
 defined, but it .should be noted that there is no general acceptance 
 of these definitions. 
 
 Recovery Value, or " recoverable value," is the net value remain- 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 93 
 
 ing in a plant unit upon the expiration of its natural or functional 
 life. Of course, it is understood that we are now speaking of its 
 life in its particular place in the plant under consideration. Re- 
 covery value is salvage value minus cost of removal. 
 
 Wearing Value, or " service value," is the difference between the 
 cost new and the i-ecovery value of a plant unit. Therefore " wear- 
 ing value " is the only part of the value that depreciates. 
 
 Sc7-ap Value is the selling price of an old plant unit that has so 
 depreciated as to be worthless for further service in any part of 
 any plant until it has been re-manufactured. The term applies to 
 many metals that can be used again after re-melting, re-rolling, 
 and the like. 
 
 Salvage Value is the selling price of an old plant unit after its 
 removal. It can never be less than its scrap value, and may be 
 considerably more if the plant unit can be used again in a plant 
 without being entirely re-manufactured. 
 
 The term " Minirnuvi service value " is sometimes used instead of 
 salvage value ; but it is also used to denote the least value arbi- 
 trarily assigned to a plant unit still in service. One author (Pos- 
 ter) has confu.sed these two meanings and has given erroneous data 
 of salvage value. 
 
 Recovery value may be less than salvage value or even less than 
 scrap value, as happens when the cost of removing a plant unit is 
 greater than the price for which it will sell as scrap. This is 
 illustrated in the case of a small pipe, the cost of excavating which 
 may exceed its scrap value. In paved streets, even fairly large 
 pipes may at times have little or no recovery value, because the 
 cost of taking up and relaying the pavement alone exceeds the 
 salvage value. Of course where a trench for a new pipe is to be 
 dug at the time of the abandonment of the old pipe, the same 
 trench may serve to re.scue the old pipe and then its recovery value 
 and salvage value may be almost identical. This is particularly 
 true where trenches are in rock, for it then is usually wise to re-use 
 the old trench for the new pipe. 
 
 Wearing value is sometimes defined as the difference between 
 the original cost of a plant unit and its scrap value or its salvage 
 value, thus giving wearing value two meanings, depending on which 
 subtrahend is used. 
 
 To the majority of plant units it is often useless to assign any 
 scrap value in calculating accrued depreciation, for the scrap 
 value is usually so insignilicant a part of the cost new that to 
 use it all gives an appearance of great accuracy to the depreciation 
 calculations where no great accuracy exists. 
 
 Per Cent. Condition. Depreciated value of plant units is often 
 denoted by their " per cent, condition." Thus, if the depreciated 
 value of a generator that originally cost $10,000 is $8,000, its "con- 
 dition " is 80%. Instead of using the original cost as the base, it 
 is common also to use the cdst of reproduction new as the base 
 for estimating per cent, condition. The percent of annual depre- 
 ciation used for a depreciation annuity is usually a percentage of 
 the original cost new ; but occasionally it is a percentage of the 
 
94 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 wearing value. Still less frequently it is a percentage of the cost 
 of reproduction new. 
 
 Straight Line Depreciation Formula. Expressed verbally this 
 formula is as follows : The depreciated value of a plant unit is 
 found by multiplying its wearing value by its age in years and 
 dividing by its total life in years, and adding this quotient to its 
 scrap value. In other words the percent of annual depreciation of 
 the wearing value is found by dividing the total life of the plant 
 unit into 1. Thus if the life of a pole is 20 years, it depreciates 
 annually 5% of its wearing value. If such a pole has no salvage 
 value, then its annual depreciation is 5% of its original cost. 
 
 The straight line formula is simple, and for very short lived 
 plant units it may serve sufficiently well for many purposes. But 
 it has no other merit than its simplicity to commend it. and for 
 long lived plant units it yields results that are grossly erroneous. 
 Curiously enough there are still some engineers who regard the 
 straight line formula as being quite as defensible logically as any 
 other. Most engineers, however, concede that it is purely empirical, 
 and that its only justification is that it gives results, in some spe- 
 cial cases, that approximate the truth. We may perhaps be par- 
 doned for suggesting here that if all engineers were to give as 
 much study to logic as they give to mathematics, there would be 
 none left to defend the rationality of the straight line depreciation 
 formula. 
 
 The Declining Balance Depreciation Formula. (Often called the 
 Progressive Diminution Formula.) The rule for this formula is: 
 The annual depreciation of a plant unit during a given year is a 
 fixed per cent, of its depreciated value at the end of the preceding 
 year ; hence the annual depreciation progressively diminishes, and 
 the depreciated value is found by subtracting the sum of these 
 diminishing depreciation annuities from the original cost of the 
 plant unit. 
 
 This formula produces a curve of depreciated value that rapidly 
 flattens out and extends to infinity. It has never had vogue among 
 engineers but has been extensively used by accountants. The sup- 
 posed merit of this formula is that in the early years when plant 
 repairs are small, the formula yields a higher depreciation annuity 
 than in the later years when the repairs are large ; and thus a 
 relatively constant annual sum of repairs and depreciation is at- 
 tained. At best this is a very crude way of attaining a proper 
 annual upkeep charge ; yet granting that the formula may occa- 
 sionally serve well enough for such a purpose, there is no defense 
 for it on rational grounds. For plant units that require no renewal 
 of parts before their life expires, this formula is clearly erroneous ; 
 and since there is no fixed mathematical relation, for any kind 
 of i^lant, between current repair, expense and depreciation annuity, 
 the formula has no rational defense. 
 
 Sinking Fund Depreciation Formula. According to the sinking 
 fund method of calculating depreciation, it is assumed that the 
 accrued depreciation of a plant unit is the amount already accumu- 
 lated in a sinking fund that was begun when the plant unit was 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 95 
 
 fii'st put into service, and whose annuities are such that at com- 
 pound interest the amount at the end of the life of the plant unit 
 will equal the first cost of the plant unit. 
 
 The argument upon which the sinking fund depreciation formula 
 was originally advocated is this: The i)urchaser of a depreciated 
 plant should be willing to take the plant at its first cost, providing 
 he also were to receive an accumulated sinking fund that would 
 eventually (at the end of the life of the plant) equal the first cost 
 of the plant. Hence if the purchaser takes only the depreciated 
 plant, he should take it at its cost new less the accumulated sinking 
 fund. 
 
 This argument is sound, provided the plant unit is of a kind 
 whose operating expenses, current repairs, and service performed, 
 remain constant throughout the life of the plant unit. But the 
 argument is unsound when operating expense and repairs increase 
 or when the service or output of the plant unit decrea.ses as it 
 grows older. In brief, the sinking fund depreciation formula is a 
 special case formula — although one of wide applicability. The 
 sinking fund depreciation formula is a special case of the unit cost 
 depreciation formula, as proved on page 101. 
 
 See Gillette's " Handbook of Cost Data," p. 35 et seq. for tables, 
 to be used in applying the sinking fund formula, and p. 798 for 
 depreciation curves. 
 
 Defects of Straight Line and Sinking Fund Depreciation Formula. 
 "We may be sure that the straight line formula and the sinking 
 fund formula cannot both be theoretically correct. One must be 
 merely an approximation if the other is correct. Which, if either, 
 is correct? 
 
 Accrued natural depreciation increases as time increases, if the 
 forces of nature have a progressive effect. In the case of rot, rust, 
 wear, etc., the resulting accrued depreciation can often be deter- 
 mined from consideration of the age of the plant units, provided 
 the amount of previous repairs is known. But in the case of func- 
 tional depreciation, age of plant has no direct relation to its ac- 
 crued depreciation. Invention may render a new plant almost 
 valueless, even before it has seen service or but shortly after its 
 initial use. Growth of business, which causes inadequacy, may be 
 rapid or slow, largely dependent on the vigor of the management 
 of the proi^erty, partly on a rise in general prosperity (itself largely 
 a result of invention), and for other reasons not directly related 
 to the lapse of time. Clearly, then, it is not logical to insert a 
 functional life in either the "straight line" or the "sinking fund" 
 formulas for accrued depreciation. Natural life is to be inserted 
 in these foi-mulas if they are to be applied at all. Yet how rarely 
 has this vital distinction been drawn. Tables of " average life " 
 of plant units commonly used by appraisers contain lives that are 
 for the most part functional lives, in some part composite lives, and 
 only in small part natural lives. The data in these tables were 
 originally compiled, for the most part, as a basis for calculating 
 depreciation annuities, with which to establish depreciation funds 
 — a thing entirely distinct from accrued depreciation. Thus a fire 
 
96 
 
 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 insurance fund might be establis^hed exactly as a functional depre- 
 ciation fund is established. A building nut yet burned has certainly 
 not lost value because a fire insurance fund exists to insure it. 
 In perfectly analogous manner, a plant has not lost value because of 
 a functional depreciation fund that exists to insure it against ob- 
 solescence and inadequacy. 
 
 We see, therefore, that the two common depreciation formulas 
 have been misused, usually with resulting depreciated values far 
 below the real depreciated values. Let us next examine the 
 formulas themselves to see whether they are defensible at all. 
 
 If the straight line depreciation formula be applied to a 10-year- 
 old cedar pole having- a total natural life of 20 years, its depreciated 
 value is 50 per cent, of its cost new. Assuming the pole to cost 
 $10 new and to have no salvage value, it would be worth $5 at the 
 end of ten years, according to that formula. If this deduction is 
 correct, it should be impracticable for a purchaser to use the pole 
 during its remaining life at a less annual cost than would be in- 
 curred if he bought a new pole. Let us, therefore, compare the 
 annual costs. 
 
 Old pole 
 
 Interest, 5%. of $5 $0.25 
 
 Depreciation, 10% of $5 0.50 
 
 Total annual cost for old pole (10 years remaining) $0.75 
 
 New pole 
 
 Interest. 5% of $10 $0.50 
 
 Depreciation, 57o of $10 0.50 
 
 Total anual cost for new pole $1.00 
 
 Hence, the old pole, purchased on a straight line depreciation 
 formula, can be used at a less cost per annum than a new pole. 
 This absurd result indicates that the straight line formula gives 
 too low a value. The proof of absurdity is complete if we show 
 that a sinking fund ^nnuitj'- applied to each price ($5 and $10) 
 yields likewise different annual costs. 
 
 Old pole 
 
 Interest. 5% of $5 $0.25 
 
 Depreciation annuity, 7.05% of $5 . . , 0.39 
 
 Total anhual cost for old pole $0.64 
 
 New pole 
 
 Interest, 5% of $10 $0.50 
 
 Depreciation annuity, 3.02% of $10 0.30 
 
 Total annual cost for nev/ pole $0.80 
 
 Hence a sinking fund cannot be used to secure equal annual costs 
 where depreciated value is derived by the straight line formula, 
 and in no case is it possible to use a new pole at less annual cost 
 than an old pole, if the old pole is purchased at depreciated value 
 calculated by the straight line formula. Therefore, a rational seller 
 would never part with a pole at a depreciated value thus calculated, 
 unless under some sort of compulsion. 
 
 Let us now apply the same sort of reasoning to the sinking' fund 
 depreciation formula, assuming- the same conditions as to age and 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 97 
 
 cost new of pole. A 5 per cent, sinking: fund established to redeem a 
 $10 pole in 20 yeaz^s would amount to $3.80 in 10 years. Hence the 
 sinking fund depi'eciation formula gives $10.00 — $3.80 = $6.20 as 
 the depreciated value of the pole. Then for the old pole, we estab- 
 lish a sinking fund to redeem the $6.20 in the remaining 10 years, 
 which requires an annuity of 7.95 per cent. 
 
 Old pole 
 
 Interest, 5% of $6.20 $0.31 
 
 Depreciation annuity, 7.95% of $6.20 - 0.49 
 
 Total annual cost for old pole $0.80 
 
 New pole 
 
 Interest, 5% of $10 $0.50 
 
 Depreciation annuity, 3.027^ of $10 0.30 
 
 Total annual cost for new pole $0.80 
 
 Whatever be the age of the old pole, a similar calculation shows 
 a' constant annual cost of $0.80. It follows, therefore, that a ra- 
 tional seller would part with the pole at a depreciated value estab- 
 lished by the sinking fund formula, provided he were put to no 
 loss from causes incident to the sale. 
 
 Note carefully that in the above examples nothing but natural 
 depreciation Is involved and that no repairs or renewals of parts 
 occur. If repairs to a composite plant unit are involved in the 
 problem, neither of these two formulas Is correctly applicable.. 
 And, as shown above, neither is correctly applicable if functional 
 depreciation is involved. 
 
 The sinking fund depreciation formula takes no cognizance of 
 maintenance expense, which constitutes a serious defect in the 
 formula when applied to classes of plant units that have a rising 
 curve of repairs. Curiously enough this defect in the formula has 
 been spoken of as if it were a merit. It has been said, for example, 
 that a sinking fund depreciation curve follows closely the curve of 
 actual loss of value, dropping slowly in the early years but dropping 
 very rapidly toward the close of life of the plant. In brief, the 
 argument has been that actual loss of value coincides closely with 
 a sinking fund depreciation curve. Granting that it did, the result 
 would be entirely fortuitous. In fact, however, repair " curves " 
 are not regular curves but jagged lines. One of the prime objects 
 of a depreciation reserve is to secure equality of annual charges 
 for upkeep by providing a reservoir that prevents violent fluctua- 
 tions in annual maintenance charges. Normally the repair costs 
 on a machine rise as the machine grows older, but, instead of pro- 
 viding for this rise, the sinking fund depreciation formula, as 
 commonly used, entirely ignores it. Thus, the sinking fund formula 
 gives as high a percentage of depreciated value for an automobile 
 as for a horse, if each is assumed to have same life and if both 
 are the same age. Yet the automobile has a rapidly rising curve 
 of repair.s, while the horse has no repairs. 
 
 If a sinking fund were calculated for every renewable part of a 
 composite plant unit, of course the sinking fund depreciation 
 formula could be correctly applied in the case of natural depre- 
 
98 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 elation. But this is obviously not the common method of applying 
 the formula. It will be shown that the sinking fund depreciation 
 formula is a special form of a much more general and perfectly 
 correct depreciation formula. Under certain limitations, therefore, 
 it has a field of usefulness. 
 
 Rational or Unit Cost Depreciation Formula. It has been main- 
 tained that depreciated value is " purely a matter of judgment " 
 and that it can be arrived at either with or without the aid of 
 formulas. That judgment plays an important part in estimating 
 any value, depreciated or undepreciated, is true, but that judgment 
 unaided by formulas can determine value is not true where the 
 operating expense is a factor in the value. 
 
 Given the choice between an old and a new plant unit, each 
 capable of yielding the same service or output, the new plant unit 
 would be selected unless the old plant unit were procurable at a 
 price such that "fixed charges" on that price plus the annual 
 operating expenses were equal to or less than the corresponding 
 annual cost with the new plant unit. Any business man will grant 
 the truth of this criterion the moment he understands it. Expressed 
 as a formula it is : 
 
 Rv + e — RG + E (1) 
 
 In which R is the '.'fixed charge" rate (interest, etc.) ; v is the 
 depreciated value of the old plant unit whose average annual oper- 
 ating expenses are e; O is the first cost of an equivalent new plant 
 unit and E its average annual operating expenses. From this equa- 
 tion the following is derived : 
 
 e—E 
 
 v = C (2) 
 
 R 
 
 This is the simplest form of what may be termed the Rational 
 Depreciation Formula, a more general form of which is the Unit 
 Cost Depreciation Formula which we are about to deduce. This 
 formula was first deduced in Gillette's " Handbook of Cost Data." 
 
 Although all the data for the accurate application of the unit 
 cost depreciation formula may not always be available, it is im- 
 portant to appreciate that it is the only rational depreciation formula 
 of perfect generality ; and that any other depreciation formula that 
 may be used can be justified only on the ground that it gives results 
 approximating those derivable from the use of the unit cost de- 
 preciation formula. The authors make no qualification whatsoever 
 in the foregoing statement, and they emphasize it because there 
 still remain many engineers who think that some such age-life 
 formula as the "straight line formula" is quite as logical and 
 fully as general in its application as any other. Yet no advocate 
 of an age-life formula has yet been able to refute the following: 
 
 If it cannot he shown that the substitution of a new plant unit 
 (or group of plant units) will decrease average operating expenses, 
 then the value of the old plant unit is as great as the value of a 
 new plant unit. 
 
 Recently we had occasion to apply this generalization in the case 
 
DEPRECIATION. REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 99 
 
 of a water works reservoir that was 30 years old. It had suffered 
 no natural depreciation except a small leak which could be repaired 
 for about $100. The reservoir was of permanent construction, and 
 it was adequate in capacity not only for present but for future 
 needs. No larger reservoir would be built if a new one were built 
 to-day. A stand pipe could not be economically substituted for it, 
 and no other suitable reservoir site existed nearer to the city or 
 more desirable because of greater pressure. We held that its 
 age of 30 years had not the slightest bearing upon its depreciated 
 value. Our judgment as to its value would be unaffected were it 
 300 years old or 3 years old. Our criterion of its value was entirely 
 independent of its age. The criterion was the total annual cost 
 of the most economical substitute for it, and by this test the 30- 
 year-old reservoir, instead of being worth less than a new alterna- 
 tive reservoir, was worth more. This added value we regarded as 
 the value of the reservoir site. 
 
 In the following discussion of the unit cost depreciation formula 
 the term " old plant " will be used to designate the exi.^ting plant 
 unit or group of units whose depreciated value is to be determined, 
 and the term " new plant " will designate the most economic new 
 plant unit having the same annual output as the old plant unit. 
 Wherever the word " annual " occurs, it is intended to mean 
 " equated annual " or true average annual. Where the word " an- 
 nual " occurs in reference to the old plant, it relates to the average 
 for the remaining years of its life, but where the word " annual " 
 occurs in reference to the new plant, it relates to the average for 
 its total economic life. Small letters relate to the old plant, and 
 capital letters relate to the new plant. 
 
 Let — 
 
 a — Age of old plant in years. 
 C = First cost of the new plant. 
 
 c = First cost of the old plant. « 
 
 D = Depreciati(m annuity rate for the total natural life. 
 d = Ditto for remaining natural life. 
 
 E = Equated annual operating expenses (including taxes) dur- 
 ing entire life of the new plant, inclusive of repairs and 
 cost of natural depreciation, but exclusive of functional 
 depreciation annuity. 
 e = Ditto for old plant during its remaining life. 
 F — Functional depreciation annuity rate for new plant. 
 / = Functional depreciation annuity rate for old plant. 
 K = Total equated annual cost during entire life of the new 
 
 plant, 
 fc = Total equated annual cost during remaining life of the old 
 
 plant. 
 N — Total life of new plant in years. 
 n = Remaining life of old plant in years. 
 R = Interest rate plus functional depreciation rate. 
 r— Interest rate, including risk insurance and proprietary su- 
 pervision not included in F, f, E. e. 
 S = Salvage value of new plant, 
 s — Salvage value of old plant. 
 XJ — Unit cost of product of new plant. 
 u = Unit cost of product of old plant. 
 V = Depreciated value of old plant. 
 y = Number of units annual product with new plant. 
 y = Ditto with old plant. 
 
100 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Then we have : 
 
 K E + (C-S) F + rC 
 
 ^ = T = ? "> ' 
 
 k e + (c-s) / + r v 
 
 u = — = (4) 
 
 y y 
 
 The old plant must have a depreciated value, Vj such that the 
 unit cost, u, of its product must equal the unit cost, U, of the 
 product of the ncic plant. Were u more than TJ, it would he more 
 profitable to buy the new plant. Were u less than U, it would be 
 more profitable to buy the old plant. But a condition of equity 
 exists only when it is as profitable to buy the old plant at the value, 
 V, as to buy the new plant at the cost C. This condition of equity 
 is satisfied when w = U. 
 
 Then — 
 
 E -{- (C — S)F + rr f + C — s)f + rv 
 
 y 
 
 y r E + {C ~S) F -\- rC c — fs l 
 r + fl T y J 
 
 (5) 
 
 (6) 
 
 Equation (.6) is the most general expression of the economic de- 
 preciation formula, but it may be reduced to much simpler terms 
 for ordinary use. Usually Y = y, and S =s, or if these are not 
 exactly equal the quality is so close that v is not appreciably 
 affected by assuming perfect equality. Also it often happens that 
 F and / ai-e equal or nearly so. Assuming these equalities, we 
 have : 
 
 E — e c — E 
 
 v = c + = r (7) 
 
 r + f E 
 
 Equation (7) is the economic depreciation formula in a simplified 
 but still very general form. Expressed verbally. Equation (7) is: 
 
 Assuming equal gross income, equal annual output, equal salvage 
 value and equal prospective functional life for new and old plant 
 units, the depreciated value of an old plant unit is equal to the 
 cost of a new plant unit of most econoniic design minus the capi- 
 talized difference in their equated annual operating crpenses duy^ing 
 the prospective economic life. 
 
 It will be noted that the rate of capitalization (R) is the sum of 
 the interest rate (r) and the functional depreciation rate (f) when 
 the operating expenses (e and E ) do not include functional depre- 
 ciation annuities. This is an important point, and one that is 
 frequently overlooked in capitalizing incomes and expenses. 
 
 Formula for Accrued Xatural Depreciation: When functional 
 depreciation is non-existent, we have f — o, and then the depre- 
 ciation formula, equation (7). becomes: 
 
 e — E 
 v = C-^ (8) 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 101 
 
 In this case C is the cost new of a plant unit of the same size 
 and class as the old unit whose depreciated value is v. E is the 
 equated annual operating- expense, including- the depreciation an- 
 nuity required for a sinking fund to redeem the full wearing value 
 (C — S), during N years total natural life of the unit ; and e is the 
 equated annual operating expense, including the depreciation an- 
 nuity required for a sinking fund to redeem the remaining wearing 
 value (v — s) during the retnaining natural life of n years. 
 
 If annual operating expenses other than depreciation are M, 
 and are the same for a new as for an old plant unit, we have : 
 
 E -D (C — S) -\- M (9) 
 
 e-d(v — s) + M (10) 
 
 Substituting in equation (8), and remembering that s = 8j we 
 have : 
 
 rC 
 
 d (V — aS') +D (C — S) 
 
 (11) 
 
 D + r 
 
 V = S -] (C — S). 
 
 d + r 
 
 (12) 
 
 Equation (12) gives identically the same results as the ordinary 
 sinking fund formula for depreciation, which is: 
 
 [(l+r)a — 1 1 
 1 
 (1 + r)H _i J 
 
 (C — S) 
 
 (13) 
 
 That Equations (12) and (13) give identical results may be 
 shown by the use of sinking fund tables in the solution of specific 
 numerical examples. In view of the importance of the subject, a 
 strict mathematical proof may be demanded by some engineers. 
 Accordingly it is given herewith. 
 
 Proof of Identity of Equations (12) and (13 J: 
 
 N- 
 
 (/ + r)« —1 
 r 
 
 (7 -(- r)!* — 1 (/ + r) N-a — t 
 
 Substitute these values of D and d in Equation (12). 
 r 
 
 (14) 
 (15) 
 
 (16) 
 
 v-B^- 
 
 (1+^)" — 1 
 
 (1 + r)»-a— 1 
 
 (C — >Sf). 
 
102 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 C- (1 + r)« [(1 +r)''-» — 1] ^ 
 
 -S+J -V iC — S) ..(17) 
 
 I (1 +r)''-*l (1 +r)« —11 J 
 
 Multiplying- both numerator and denominator by (1 + r>"~* we 
 have : 
 
 [d +r)s— (1 -f r)a"| 
 I iC~S) 
 (l + r)« — 1) J 
 
 [(l + r)a — 1 1 
 1 —I iC — S) (18) 
 (1 + r)H — 1 J 
 
 Since Equation (18) is the same as Equation (13), it follows that 
 Equation (12) g-ives the same value for v as does Equation (13), 
 which was to be proved. Hence the special case, Equation (12), 
 of the rational depreciation formula, Equation (8), is seen to be 
 another form of the sinking- fund formula for depreciation. Hence 
 the sinking fund formula is correctly applicable only where natu7-al 
 depreciation is involved and only where current repairs are uni- 
 form or absent. 
 
 Inspections and Tests. In order to apply the '* rational depre- 
 ciation formula," it is usually necessary to inspect the plant units 
 and it is often necessary to test some classes of them. These steps 
 are taken in order to estimate the prospective operating- expenses. 
 
 Studies of the accounting- records may be of considerable aid in 
 determining- what the prospective costs of repairs Mill be by show- 
 ing- the amount, character, expense and dates of past repairs. Thus, 
 a boiler whose flues have been recently renewed will obviously cause 
 less prospective operating expense than one whose flues are old ; 
 therefore it will have a higher depreciated value. 
 
 Tests of the efficiency of a pump will indicate its fuel consump- 
 tion as contrasted with a new pump. Inspection of the pump will 
 disclose what parts are woi'n, and what the probable date of their 
 renewal Avill be. With these factors known, and with a knowledge 
 of efficiency and maintenance costs of modern pumps, the " rational 
 depreciation formula " can be applied with considerable accuracy. 
 Whereas merely to guess at the depreciated value after an inspec- 
 tion is likely to yield results far from the truth. To apply an 
 " age-life formula " is likely to result in even greater error. This 
 is notably so in the case of buildings, reservoirs and other struc- 
 tures that are practically everlasting if properly maintained. 
 
 Criterion for Retiring Obsolete or Inadequate Plant. The general 
 formula for depreciated value. Equation (5), may be used as a 
 criterion for determining whether a plant unit has ceased to be 
 economic and should be retired. The condition for such retirement 
 is that the depreciated value, %\ shall be equal to or less than the 
 salvage value, s; for if the depreciated value, v, has reached so low 
 an amount that the plant has no greater value as an economic 
 producing instrument than its salvage value, then it is worth more 
 to its owner as merchandise than as a productive instrument. 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 103 
 
 Hence if we let v ~ s and y — Y, equation ( 5 ) becomes : 
 S + (C — /S) F + rC = e + rs (19) 
 
 When the equality of (19) is destroyed because the left hand 
 member of (19) is less than the right hand member, the old plant 
 should be retired in favor of the new plant. 
 
 Depreciated Plant Value Only a Part of Total Value. Plant 
 value is a function of the net earnings derivable from the operation 
 of the plant. By assuming the gross earnings to be constant (that 
 is, not affected by changing the plant), we have deduced a rational 
 formula for ascertaining the depreciated value of a given plant unit. 
 Observe, then, the absurdity of reducing rates of charge so as to 
 yield only normal interest on depreciated value. A company de- 
 vises a new plant unit of a given class for the purpose of reducing 
 operating expenses. It thereby destroys most of the value of its 
 old plant units of that class. But it does so because of the 
 enhanced value given to its entire property by virtue of increased 
 nej: earnings. Then comes a rate regulating commission and cuts 
 rates so as to confiscate these increased profits, upon the theory that 
 the commission is concerned with present conditions and present 
 values of plant only! 
 
 It is asserted that to capitalize profits involves circular reasoning 
 in fixing a rate making value. B\it it is entirely overlooked that 
 depreciation due to invention and inadequacy is itself a function of 
 profits. If there were to be no increased profits as a result of in- 
 vention and better engineering design of plant, then economic prog- 
 ress would halt and functional depreciation would cease. 
 
 Functional depreciation caused by a company itself is irrevocably 
 tied to appreciation of its prospective profits. Those who contend 
 that profits cannot affect rate making value do not understand the 
 full significance of the term value. That this ignorance exists may 
 be shown in many ways. Thus, commissions have used " depre- 
 ciated values " as a base for rates, although most of the deprecia- 
 tion is functional and caused by the company's own efforts ; and 
 functional depreciation is dependent on profits. 
 
 Most appraisers assert that they do not re-engineer the plant they 
 are appraising. They estimate the cost of reproducing the " identi- 
 cal plant " and therefrom deduct accrued depreciation. But when 
 they deduct depreciation, most of it is functional depreciation, and 
 they seemingly fail to realize that they are thus re-engineering 
 the plant. 
 
 From the foregoing discussion it should be evident that only 
 natural depreciation should be deducted if the " identical plant " 
 theory of appraisal is adopted. If functional depreciation is de- 
 ducted, then assuredly functional appreciation should be given due 
 consideration. If, for example, a railway has built a cut-off line 
 and abandoned an old line, it has done so because the functional 
 appreciation due to the cut-off is greater than the functional depre- 
 ciation due to abandoning the old line. Hence, if the cost of the 
 old line is to be deducted from the total property value, an even 
 greater sum should be added to cover the appreciation in value 
 
104 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 consequent upon the building: of a cut-off line that reduces operating 
 expenses. In short, commercial values cannot be disregarded in an 
 appraisal if there is to be a rational result. 
 
 Identical Plant Theory. Most engineers seem to think that "cost 
 of reproduction " implies the reproduction of an identical plant, 
 but then Avhen they come to consideration of depreciated value they 
 " cross their wires," for they deduct therefrom estimated accrued 
 depreciation due to " inadequacy," *' obsolescence resulting from 
 invention," etc. When they do that they fail to see that no longer 
 are they sticking to their " identical plant " theory, but are actually 
 setting up as a criterion another plant — the most economic sub- 
 stitute plant. There is no method of rationally estimated accrued 
 depreciation of all kinds save by comparison with the most eco- 
 nomic substitute. But in appraising an entire property this method 
 carries us logically into a consideration of the cost of building up 
 the attached business in the face of competition with the existing 
 plant, and not upon the hypothesis that the existing plant does 
 not exist. 
 
 Life Tables of Plant Units. For years many engineers and others 
 have been accustomed to use age-life formulas ("straight line" 
 and "sinking fvmd") for calculating accrued depreciation, and 
 have published plant life tables, sometimes called mortality tables. 
 These life tables are commonly said to give " average lives." but 
 the authors have yet to see accompanying explanations of how 
 " averages " were determined. Usually such tables do not even 
 indicate whether the life is natural or functional or composite, to 
 say nothing of whether the functional life is brought to a close 
 because of economic inadequacy of size of plant unit or because 
 of the invention of a more efficient type of plant unit. Hence it is 
 not putting the matter too strongly to say that practically all 
 published data as to " average lives " of plant units are no bet- 
 ter than rough approximations which are often exceedingly decep- 
 tive. 
 
 In Table I, we have prepared from original and published data a 
 table of estimated lives, in years, of plant units, giving the different 
 units alphabetically arranged, the estimated life in years and the 
 authority quoted. As noted above, most of these lives are func- 
 tional or composite and therefore cannot be used in figuring depre- 
 ciated values by the straight line or sinking fund methods. As a 
 basis for calculating depreciation aimuities, however, this table will 
 bfe found veiT valuable. 
 
 KEY TO AUTHORITIES IN TABLE I 
 
 A — Wisconsin R. R. Commission. 
 
 B — St. Louis Public Service Commission, Union Electric Light «& 
 Power Co. 
 
 C — Traction Valuation Commission, Chicago Consolidated Trac- 
 tion Co. 
 
 D — B. J. Arnold — Appraisal of the" Coney Island «& Brooklyn Rail- 
 road, Feb. 1, 1909; 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 105 
 
 E — Leonard Metcalf, Transactions American Society Civil En- 
 gineers, 1909, p. 24 Vol. LXIV. 
 
 F — Henry L. Gi*ay. 
 
 G — Arbitrators, Street Lighting Controversy, Atlanta, Ga., 1899. 
 
 H — Nathan Hayward, The Bell Telephone Co. of Pennsylvania, 
 Aug. 31, 1912. 
 
 I — H. P. Gillette, Everett Railway & Water Co., Jan. 29, 1912. 
 
 J — H. P. Gillette, Washington Ry. Appraisal. 
 
 K — Henry Floy, 3rd Ave. Case N. Y. City. 
 
 L — Prof. M. E. Cooley, Milwaukee 3c case. 
 
 M — Beegs, Milwaukee 3c case. 
 
 N — M. G. Starret, Milwaukee 3c case. 
 
 O — W. D. Pence, Milwaukee 3c case. 
 
 P — Union Traction Co., Case Chicago and Union Traction Co., 
 Stone & Webster. 
 
 Q — B. J. Arnold, Chicago Appraisals 4 cases. 
 
 R — Marwick, Mitchell & Co., Appraisal of a large street railway 
 system, Foster, p. 199. 
 
 S — Chicago Traction Commission. 
 
 T — Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Co. 
 
 U — George W. Cravens, Industrial Power Plants. 
 
 V — Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data. 
 
 TABLE I. ESTIMATED LIVES IN YEARS OF PLANT UNITS 
 
 Estimated life 
 Kind of plant years Authority 
 
 Aerial lines 20 B 
 
 Arc lamps 6.7 G 
 
 12.5 B 
 
 15 A 
 
 Batteries, storage 10 T 
 
 10-20 U 
 
 15 A 
 
 15-20 P 
 
 20 B 
 
 20 K 
 
 33.3 R 
 
 Belting 20 A 
 
 Benches (gas plant) 25 A 
 
 Bins, storage 10-33.3 Q 
 
 Boilers 10 D 
 
 10-28.6 S 
 
 11.75-15 O 
 
 12-16 E 
 
 13.3 T 
 
 15-20 P 
 
 22.2 R 
 
 25-28.6 C 
 
 28.6 Q 
 
 30-40 U 
 
 Boilers, fire tube 10 G 
 
 Boilers, fire tube 15 B 
 
 Boilers, fire tube, elect, light plants. , 15-30 A 
 
 Boilers, fire tube, waterworks 20-25 A 
 
 Boilers, water tube 20 K 
 
 Boilers, water tube, elect, light plant 20 A 
 
 Boilers, water tube, waterworks 20-25 A 
 
 Brakes, air 20 A 
 
 Bridges 40 R 
 
106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Estimated life 
 
 Kind of plant years Authority 
 
 Bridges, Howe truss 16.7 J 
 
 Breecliings, steel 10 Q 
 
 Breeching- & connections 10-28.6 C 
 
 Blowers, centrifugal (gas plant) .... 15 A 
 
 Buildings 33.3 T 
 
 40 R 
 
 50-100 U 
 
 Buildings, brick 25-50 A 
 
 Buildings, brick 66.6 C 
 
 Buildings, carhouses 33.3 1 
 
 Buildings, car barns 50 A 
 
 Buildings, coal sheds & stables, frame 20-25 A 
 
 Buildings, dwellings, frame 35 A 
 
 Buildings, frame 20-50 E 
 
 Buildings, frame 50 G 
 
 Buildings, gas retort houses, brick. , . 30 A 
 
 Buildings, grain elevators 33.3 J 
 
 Buildings, masonry 40-50 E 
 
 Buildings, misc 33.3 I, J 
 
 Buildings, office 1st class stone and 
 
 brick 75 A 
 
 Buildings, power plant 33.3 I 
 
 Buildings, power stations 50 A 
 
 Buildings, railroad transportation 
 
 dept 33.3 J 
 
 Buildings, roundhouses 33.3 J 
 
 Buildings, shops 33.3 I, J 
 
 Buildings, shops, 2nd class 50 A 
 
 Buildings, snow sheds 25 J 
 
 Buildings, stations, fuel and water. . . 33.3 J 
 
 Buildings, stations and waiting rooms 33.3 I 
 
 Buildings, sub-station 33.3 I 
 
 Buildings, telephone 24 H 
 
 Bulkheading 10 J 
 
 Cables 15-25 U 
 
 Cables 20 T 
 
 Cables 50 S 
 
 Cable, aerial exchange 12 H 
 
 Cable, aerial exchange loading coils. 20 H 
 
 Cable, aerial exchange terminal .... 10 H 
 
 Cable, aerial lead covered 12 A 
 
 Cable, aerial lead covered 15 A 
 
 Cable, aerial toll 12 H 
 
 Cable, feeders 25 O 
 
 Cable, feeders 66.6 Q 
 
 Cables, feeders overhead 33.3 R 
 
 Cables, feeder, underground 25 R 
 
 Cable, house 13 H 
 
 Cable, house terminals 10 H 
 
 Cable, submarine 9 H 
 
 Cable, underground (u. g.) 16.6 I 
 
 Cable, u. g. exchange main 20 H 
 
 Cable, u. g. exchange, subsidiary .... 13 H 
 
 Cable, u. g. exchange loading coils. . . 20 H 
 
 Cable, u. g. exchange terminals 10 H 
 
 Cables, u. g. high tension 20 K 
 
 Cable, u. g., lead covered 20 A 
 
 Cables, u. g., lead covered 20 B 
 
 Cables, u. g., lead covered 25 A 
 
 Cable, u. g. toll 25 H 
 
 Cable, u. g. toll loading coils 20 H 
 
 Cable, u. g. terminals 10 H 
 
 Cars, see Rolling Stock. 
 
 Chimney 33.3 C 
 
 Chimney, steel 10 D 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 107 
 
 Estimated life 
 Kind of plant years Authority 
 
 Chimney, steel 14.3 Q 
 
 Chimney, brick 33.3 Q 
 
 Coal & ash handling machinery, see 
 Machinery. 
 
 Compressors, air 20-25 C 
 
 Concentrators ammonia (gas plant) .15 A 
 
 Condensers 10 G 
 
 15 B 
 
 20 A, D, K 
 
 25 C 
 
 Condensers (gas plant) 30 A 
 
 Conduits 50 A, B 
 
 Conduits 100 K 
 
 Conduits (includes manholes) 50 R 
 
 Conduit, u. g 16.6 I 
 
 Conduit, u. g., exchange, main 50 H 
 
 Conduit, u. g. exchange, subsidiary.. 15 H 
 
 Conduit, u. g. toll 50 H 
 
 Conveyors 22.2 B, 
 
 Cranes 50 Q 
 
 Cribbing 10 J 
 
 Cross-Arms 8-12 A 
 
 Crossings, R. R 12.5 I 
 
 Culverts, log or timber 16.7 J 
 
 Dams 33.3 & 50 I 
 
 Distribution system, elec. ry 11.75 M 
 
 " " 12.5 L. 
 
 " " 14.25 N 
 
 " " 33.3 I 
 
 Docks 33.3 J 
 
 Drains, box 16.7 J 
 
 Economizers ] 0-20 Q 
 
 Engines 22.2 R 
 
 Engines, gas 15 A 
 
 Engines, steam 10-33.3 S 
 
 13.3-20 D 
 
 15-20 O, P 
 
 15-25 E 
 
 20 K, T 
 
 20-33.3 B, Q 
 
 20-40 U 
 
 Engines, steam, high speed 15 A, B 
 
 Engines, steam, high speed 20 G 
 
 Engines, steam, slow speed 20 A 
 
 Equipment 8 I 
 
 Equipment, electrical 11.75 M 
 
 Equipment, shop 10 I 
 
 10-25 U 
 
 10-32.3 S 
 
 13.3 T 
 
 Equipment, power plant 20 I 
 
 Exhausters (gas plant) 25 A 
 
 Extractors, tar, P. & A. (gas plant) . . 40 A 
 Feeders, see Cable. 
 
 Fences 14.3 J 
 
 Fences 20 R 
 
 Fences, snow 10 R 
 
 Foundations, machinery, same as life 
 
 of apparatus supported C, K 
 
 Foundations, machinery 16.6 Q 
 
 Furniture 7 A 
 
 Furniture and fixtures v '. . . . 12.5 L 
 
 Furniture and fixtures 20 I,N. R 
 
 Gas connections, c.i. (within the plant) 50 A 
 
 Gas (water) machines complete .... 30 A 
 
108 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Estimated life 
 Kind of plant years Authority 
 
 Gas mains, cast iron 3 ins. and 4 ins. 50 A 
 
 Gas mains, c.i., 6 ins. and larger. ... 75 A 
 Gas mains, wrought iron and steel 
 
 under 3 ins 20 A 
 
 Gas mains, w.i. and steel over 3 ins. 30 A 
 
 Gas services 20 A 
 
 Generators 12.5-33.3 C 
 
 15-20 P 
 
 20 D. K. O, Q 
 
 Generator, belted 10-20 S 
 
 13.3 T 
 
 15 U 
 
 Generators, direct connected 13.3 - T 
 
 20 S 
 
 25 U 
 
 Generators, modern type 20 A 
 
 Generators, obsolete type 15 A 
 
 Generators, steam-turbo 15 B 
 
 " " 20 A 
 
 10 G 
 
 Governors, gas (consumer's) 25 A 
 
 Governors (gas plant) 5 A 
 
 Heaters 16.7-25 C 
 
 Heaters 22.2 R 
 
 Heaters 33.3 Q 
 
 Heaters, feed water, closed 30 A 
 
 Heaters, feed water, open -.30 A 
 
 Holders (gas plant) 50 A 
 
 Horses and wagons, see teams and 
 vehicles. 
 
 Hydrants 40-50 E 
 
 Hydrants, connections 6.6 I 
 
 Locomotives 28-31 V 
 
 Machinery, coal & ash handling. ... 5 O 
 
 " " " " 10 A 
 
 " " " " .... 14.3 Q, C 
 
 " " " " 15-20 ■■ P 
 
 " " " " 20 K 
 
 Machinery, electrical 20-30 E 
 
 Machinery, fuel oil handling 25 C 
 
 Machinery, shop 10 J 
 
 " 10-30 O 
 
 " 12.5 L. 
 
 " 14.25 N 
 
 " 20 R 
 
 " 20-50 P 
 
 Meters, electric service 12.5 B 
 
 Meters, electric service 15 I, A 
 
 Meters, electric switchboard 20 A 
 
 Meters, gas (consumers) 25 A 
 
 Meter cases, station (gas plant) 50 A 
 
 Meter drums, station (gas plant) ... 20 A 
 
 Meters, water 20 I 
 
 Meters, water . 20-30 E 
 
 Motors 10-20 S 
 
 15-25 , U 
 
 20 T 
 
 Motors, railway 10 G 
 
 20 A, K 
 
 30 C 
 
 " " See rolling stock, elect, 
 
 equip. 
 
 Overhead equip, (elect, ry.) 5 Q 
 
 Overhead spans, complete 20 R 
 
 Overhead, special work 12.5 R 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 109 
 
 Estimated life 
 Kind of plant years Authority- 
 Overhead, systems 10-20 U 
 
 Overhead, systems 13.3 T 
 
 Paving- 2 K 
 
 10 L, 
 
 10-25 P 
 
 11.7 M 
 
 12.5 N 
 
 20 I 
 
 Paving 20 K 
 
 Paving, block 40 R 
 
 Paving, brick 22.2 R 
 
 Paving, tracks in car houses 28.6 R 
 
 Pipe, black iron 10 I 
 
 Pipe, cast iron small diam 20-40 E 
 
 Pipe, c. i. large diam 50-75 E 
 
 Pipe, galv. iron « 10 I 
 
 Pipe, Matheson 30 I 
 
 Pipe, screw flange 20 I 
 
 Pipe-steel 25-50 E 
 
 Pipe, wood stave 20-30 E 
 
 Pipe, wood 25 I 
 
 Pipe, also see gas mains. 
 
 Pipe, fittings 20 I 
 
 Piping and covering 5 K 
 
 15 B 
 
 15-20 P 
 
 16.6 D 
 
 20 A, O 
 
 22.2-25 C 
 
 28.6 Q 
 
 Piping, steam 13.3 T 
 
 28.6 . S 
 
 30-40 U 
 
 Poles, iron 20 P 
 
 40 A, O, Q 
 
 50 R 
 
 Poles, steel 50 K 
 
 Poles, telephone 12-15 A 
 
 Poles, wood 12-15 O 
 
 14.3 R 
 
 Poles, wood in concrete 20 A 
 
 Poles, wood in earth 12-18.2 A 
 
 Poles, wooden 10 G 
 
 Pole lines, exchange (telephone) . . . 10.5 H 
 
 Pole lines, tool (telephone) 16 H 
 
 Power plant 12.5 L 
 
 - " " 20 N 
 
 50 Q 
 
 Power plant and wire telephone .... 8 A 
 
 Pumps 20 C, D, K, Q 
 
 20-25 I 
 
 Pumps, small steam -. 15 A, B 
 
 " 20 G 
 
 Pumps and auxiliary machinery. . . . 20-30 E 
 
 Pumps and auxiliaries 22.2 R 
 
 Purifiers, modern (gas plant) 50 A 
 
 Rental equipment, elec 15 I 
 
 Reservoirs 33.3-50 I 
 
 Reservoirs (except where subject to 
 
 heavy deposit of silt) 50-100 E 
 
 Rolling stock, cars electric 13.3-16.7 T 
 
 Rolling stock, cars (including all 
 
 equipment) 20 R 
 
 Rolling stock, bodies closed cars. ... 20 C 
 
 Rolling stock, cars, bodies open cars. .25 C 
 
no MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Estimated life 
 Kind of plant years Authority- 
 Rolling- stock, bodies open trailer..,. 25 C 
 Rolling stock, cars, bodies, trucks. . . 12.5 L 
 " =" " .. '. "... 15 M 
 "... 15-20 O 
 "... 16.7 N 
 "... 20 P 
 Rollng stock, car bodies and equip.. .15 A 
 
 Rolling- stock, elect, equip 3.3-4-8.5 Q 
 
 Rolling- stock, equip, electrical 11.75-15 P 
 
 Rolling: stock, trucks 20 K 
 
 Rolling stock, trucks 30 C 
 
 Rolling stock, utility equipment , , , , 20 R 
 
 Rolling stock, cars, wooden freight. , 27.5 V 
 
 Rotary converters 20 • T 
 
 Rotary converters 20-25 U 
 
 Rotaries 22.2 R 
 
 Service connection, elect 28.5 I 
 
 Service connections, water 20 I 
 
 Scrubbers (gas plant) 30 A 
 
 Signal apparatus 10 R 
 
 Signal apparatus, interlocking 20 I 
 
 Stacks, see chimneys, 
 
 Standpipe 10 I 
 
 Standpipes 25-40 E 
 
 Stokers 4 Q 
 
 Stokers, moving parts 5 C 
 
 Stokers, fixed parts 20 C 
 
 Switchboards 15-20 P 
 
 20 T 
 
 20-50 U 
 
 22.2 R 
 
 50 O, Q, S 
 
 Switchboard and wiring 33.3 C 
 
 16.7 D 
 
 20 K 
 
 Switchboard and Aviring, modern type 20 A 
 
 Switchboard and wiring, obsolete type 15 A 
 Tanks storage ammonia, wrought 
 
 iron or steel 15 A 
 
 Teams and vehicles 5-8 I 
 
 10 L, R 
 
 20 N 
 
 Telegraph (signal) 10 R 
 
 Telephone equipment, central office, , 8.25 H 
 Telephone equipment, sub-station 
 (except installations but includ- 
 ing sub-station, central office 
 equip., public brand exchanges 
 booths and special fittings, sub- 
 license station apparatus) 9 H 
 
 Telephone central office eqUii)ment 
 
 including distributing frame,,.. 10 A 
 
 Telephone and telegraph lines . 20 I 
 
 Telephone, subscribers sets 10 - A 
 
 Tools 5 I 
 
 7 A 
 
 Tools, roadway 5 I 
 
 Tools, shop 10 J, R 
 
 12.5 L 
 
 14.25 N 
 
 10-30 O 
 
 20-50 P 
 
 Track-ballast ^ 33,3 I 
 
 Track, bonds 20 A, C 
 
 Track, fastenings and joints ." 33.3 I 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS m 
 
 Estimated life 
 Kind of plant years Authority- 
 Track fastenings -40 J 
 
 Track, main 11.7 • M 
 
 12.5 L, N 
 
 12.9-13.9 P 
 
 13.3 T 
 
 Track, straight 18.2 A 
 
 Track-rails 33.3 I 
 
 Track-rails 40 J 
 
 Track-rails in city streets 22.2 R 
 
 Track-rails in country roads 28.6 R 
 
 Track-rails in private r. of w 28.6 R 
 
 Track, rail joints 20 C 
 
 Track, special work 8.5 T 
 
 " 8-14-25 O 
 
 " ..10 Q 
 
 " 11.1 R 
 
 " 11.75 A 
 
 " 12.9-13-9 P 
 
 " 25 I 
 
 Track, substructure : 
 
 City streets 22.2 R 
 
 Country roads 14.3 R 
 
 Private right of way 10 R 
 
 Track, ties 8 J 
 
 Track, ties 13.3 I 
 
 Track, ties 20 C 
 
 Transformers 20 T 
 
 20-33.3 U 
 
 22.2 R 
 
 Transformers, station service 15 B 
 
 15-20 A 
 
 20 I 
 
 Transmission line material 33.3 I 
 
 50 R 
 
 Turbo-generators 16.7 R 
 
 Turbines, steam 20 A 
 
 15 B 
 
 20 T 
 
 20-40 U 
 
 Turbines, water 30 A 
 
 Valves 16.6 I 
 
 Valves, gate (water) 40-50 E 
 
 Washers, cast iron (gas plant) .... 40 A 
 
 Water supply lines 25-33.3 I 
 
 Wells, tar and ammonia (gas plant) 50 A 
 
 Wharves 33.3 J 
 
 Wires 15-25 U 
 
 20 T 
 
 50 S 
 
 Wiring 7.1-10 P 
 
 Wire, copper 20 A 
 
 Wire, guard 10 R 
 
 Wire, guard 8-15 A 
 
 Wire, telephone aerial exchange bare 
 
 copper 14 H 
 
 Wire, telephone aerial exchange bare 
 
 iron 8.5 H 
 
 Wire, telephone aerial exchange in- 
 sulated (including drop wires) . . 6.5 H 
 Wire, telephone aerial toll, copper. . . 30 H 
 
 Wire, telephone aerial toll, iron 15 H 
 
 Wires, telephone interior block ...... 8 H 
 
 Wire, trolley #0 — 1 min. headway 2 A 
 
 Wire, trolley #00 — 1 min. headway 2.5 A 
 
 Wire, trolley #000 — 1 min. headway 3 A 
 
112 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Estimated life 
 
 Kind of plant years Authority 
 
 Wire, trolley 20 R 
 
 Wire, weatherproof 13.3 G 
 
 Wire, weatherproof 16 A 
 
 Wire, weatherproof iron 15 A 
 
 There are many published tables of the average prospective lives 
 of different kinds of plant units. Engineers have almost universally 
 misused these tables, for they have considered that an average 
 'prospective life could be used in calculating the individual accrued 
 loss of value of a given plant unit. Under but one condition, or 
 rather set of conditions, is it correct to use life tables in estimating 
 accrued depreciation, namely: (1) The life of the particular plant 
 unit under investigation must correspond to the life of the average 
 life given in the table. This is never true, save by chance, where 
 functional depreciation is involved. (2) There must be no appre- 
 ciable difference in the lives of the parts that go to make up the 
 whole of each plant unit. This is seldom true save where there are 
 no parts that are renewed before the renewal of the whole plant 
 unit. 
 
 To put these statements in concrete form, it may be approxi- 
 mately correct to say that a given wooden pole, or a railway tie, 
 or a horse will have a life the same as that given in a table of 
 average lives of such things. But it may be, and usually is, wholly 
 erroneous to assume that a given pump or a given water main 
 will have a life the same as that given in an average prospective 
 life table. The natural life of a wooden i)ole, or cross-tie, or horse, 
 ordinarily does not differ very materially even in different parts 
 of the country ; whereas the functional life of an individual pump 
 or a given water pipe may, and usually does, depart greatly from 
 the averages given in life tables. 
 
 In this connection attention should be called to the fact that the 
 lives of water works units, as given in published life tables, are 
 nearly all functional lives. Thus, reservoirs are assigned a life 
 of 50 to 100 years. What does this mean? That a reservoir will 
 be rusted, decayed or abraded to such an extent at the end of 50 
 to 100 years that it will be no longer serviceable? Not at all. It 
 means that some engineer has come to the conclusion that the 
 average reservoir has been outgrown and abandoned at the end of 
 50 to 100 years, and that he infers that the average existing reser- 
 voirs will, in the future, be replaced in 50 to 100 years. Now he 
 may be entirely right, and, if so, the owner of every resei'voir may 
 wisely provide enough out of earnings to amortize the investment 
 in his reservoir within 50 to 100 years. But this is not tantamount 
 to saying that a given 25-year-old reservoir has lost one-half to 
 one-quarter its life, as many engineers have erroneously inferred. 
 
 In logic one of the fundamental principles is this : Conclusions 
 of fact respecting averages of many individual cases are cori'ectly 
 applicable only where many cases of the same sort are involved. 
 
 Thus, it may be a fact that the average child has an expectancy 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 113 
 
 of 35 years' life at birth. It may also be a fact that the average 
 man 35 years old has an expectancy of 25 years' remaining life. 
 But neither of these facts may be at all applicable in a given 
 individual case, unless that individual is to be treated as one of a 
 large group of similar individuals, as is done by insurance 
 companies. 
 
 There are reservoirs hundreds of years old and in service. The 
 same is true of aqueducts, pipes, buildings, etc. The natural life 
 of such things is often so great as to be beyond determination. 
 Even machinery of the heavier sorts often has a natural life much 
 greater than is given in life tables relating to machinery. Thus, 
 pumps are commonly assigned a life of 20 to 30 years, but that this 
 is assumed to be an average functional life and not a natural life 
 is evidenced by such facts as the existence of pumps 50 years old 
 and still in active service. Stevenson's second locomotive is still in 
 use in an English colliery after a century of service. 
 
 In the recent case of the Denver Union Water Co. versus City of 
 Denver, an eminent engineer testified that the pumps in use by 
 the company have an average age of 27 years, and he assigned a 
 total probable life of 41 years to the pumps in spite of the fact 
 that no published life table gives more than 30 years' life for 
 pumps. In the same case he assigned a probable life of 41 to 47 
 years to the wooden pipe in Denver, although the actual age of 
 some of the pipe was nearly as old as the 30 years' extreme life 
 given in published life tables. To this we may add our own obser- 
 vation in two water works appraisal cases where much of the 
 wooden stave pipe was nearly a quarter of a century old. Prac- 
 tically all of it was still in perfect condition as to the wood and 
 the bands were but slightly rusted. 
 
 In the Denver case a life of 23 years was assigned to boilers by 
 an engineer representing the company, and it was stated that many 
 of the boilers were more than 16 years old, doing good service and 
 approved by boiler insurance companies. 
 
 The same engineer in the Denver case assigned to cast iron pipe 
 the following lives : 
 
 16-in. and larger 94 years 
 
 10 to 15-in 72 years 
 
 6 to 8-in 56 years 
 
 3 to 4-in 41 years 
 
 In this connection it is of interest to cite the fact that 6-in. 
 cast iron pipe laid on Locust from 7th to 8th streets, Philadelphia, 
 was i-ecently removed after having been in service 88 years. The 
 pipe had been cast on its side, for it varied from .5 to .3125 in, 
 thick. Its interior was tuberculated, but the iron showed no de- 
 terioration. The pipe might have remained in use indefinitely had 
 it not been necessary to make way for a sewer. This and other 
 examples show that the natural life of cast iron pipe is so great as 
 never to have been recorded. 
 
 Since most plant lives depend largely upon the rate of growth 
 of the towns or cities, it follows that an average life for England 
 
114 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 would not be an average life for America. An average for Maine 
 would not be an average for California. An average for villages 
 would not be an average for cities. And so on indefinitely. A halt 
 should be called on the indiscriminate use of " average lives," 
 gathered nobody says how and often by whom nobody says, nor 
 where nor M-hen. Such data have been passed from author to 
 author, until frequently their age seems to entitle them to the 
 veneration that naturally associates itself with antiquity. But, 
 when we question most of these ancient data on their reason for 
 existence, their only answer is : " We are." 
 
 Nearly all property that has been appraised for public utility 
 commissions has been assigned a depreciated value far below its 
 true depreciated value. As an illustration, let us take bare copper 
 wire, which is commonly assigned a "life" of 15 to 20 years in 
 telephone or electric transmission service. The fact Is that the 
 natural life of such wire is so great that no man has ever recorded 
 it. The "life" of 15 to 20 years, therefore, is purely a functional 
 life, dependent upon economic inadequacy and the like. If, there- 
 fore, a given lot of old copper wire is serving a purpose as economi- 
 cally as if it were new, it cannot be said to have depreciated func- 
 tionally. And as the natural life of copper wire may be hundreds of 
 years, the old wire has not depreciated to any measurable degree 
 naturally. In brief, under these conditions, it has not depreciated 
 at all unless the price of copper has dropped. Yet, it is a common 
 thing to see an estimate of depreciated value of copper wire put at 
 65 to 75 per cent its cost new simply because it is a few years 
 old. The same error is to be seen in the case of depreciated values 
 assigned to buildings, to rolling stock, to machinery, and, indeed, 
 to nearly every class of plant units. An average functional life is 
 not only treated precisely as if it were a natural life, tut is applied 
 to particular cases where no average is applicable at all. 
 
 The life of water works pumps is said to average 20 years. 
 Many engineers and nearly all laymen think that this means that 
 the average pump xoears out in 20 years, but even where they know 
 better they make the mistake of substituting the 20-year functional 
 life in a sinking-fund formula that is not applicable except where 
 natural life is involved. 
 
 Where an average life given in a life table is clearly a natural 
 life, .such, for example, as a 10-year life of a railway tie, no error 
 should arise from its u.se in any correct formula, provided the con- 
 ditions in the case in hand correspond to those stated or Implied 
 in the life table. Where the given average life is functional, great 
 care must be exercised in its use ; a functional life can not be 
 u.sed at all in a straight line or sinking fund formula for estimated 
 accrued depreciation, for reasons above given ; but a functional life 
 can be used in estimating a depreciation annuity to provide a 
 depreciation fund, provided the best evidence points toward a 
 probably equal life for the given plant unit. 
 
 Looking into the future, we must obviously be guided by data 
 gathered in the past. If, for example, the history of telephone de- 
 velopment has shown that during the past 30 years, the average 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 115 
 
 functional life of a switch board has been 10 years, and if there 
 are no signs of decreased activity in both the growth of telephone 
 business and of improvements in switch board design, then we are 
 justified in using the 10 year life in providing a depreciation annuity 
 for switch boards. We may therefore properly use this 10-year 
 life in the unit cost depreciation formula, in calculating the de- 
 preciated value of a particular switchboard in a city where the 
 telephone business is growing at the general average rate. But 
 it would be illogical to use this 10-year life in a " straight line 
 depreciation formula," for the fact that a given switchboard is 6 
 years old does not necessarily signify that 60 per cent, of its 
 economic life has departed. What part of its economic life has 
 departed is ascertainable only by the application of the unit cost 
 depreciation formula, using perhaps its simplest form (page 100). 
 
 In the life tables, Table 1, most of these lives are very unsatis- 
 factory because the data upon which they rest were not published. 
 For the most part it is evident that the lives are functional lives, 
 and are presumed to be " averages " for American localities ; but 
 we seriously question whether, in many cases, they are ordinarily 
 applicable outside the locality to which they refer. Indeed we go 
 further and question the applicability of some of these data even 
 in the locality in w^hich they refer. 
 
 General experience, up to the present, indicates that few heavy 
 machines of any kind have remained in use longer than 20 to 30 
 years. American locomotives, for example, have had an average 
 life of about 25 years, but that this short life is due wholly to 
 functional depreciation is proved by such facts as that the second 
 locomotive built by Stevenson is still in use in England, although 
 it is about 100 years old. The functional depreciation of American 
 locomotives has been mainly due to inadequacy. Growth of traffic 
 has made heavier locomotives more economic. But with the grow- 
 ing weight of locomotives, and rolling stock generally, has come 
 the necessity of using heavier rails and heavier steel bridges, so 
 that rails and steel bridges have depreciated functionally at about 
 the same rate as the functional depreciation of locomotives. It is 
 always necessary, therefore, to consider the effect of functional de- 
 preciation of one class of plant units upon other classes of plant 
 units. If rails of a street railway depreciate functionally because 
 heavier cars have become economically necessary, pavement between 
 the rails will also have depreciated functionally. 
 
 In this way there is often a long chain of functional depreciation 
 of different plant units that are inter-dependent. 
 
 Composite Life. We have already discussed the calculation of 
 the " weighted average age " of plant units of a given class. The 
 " weighted average " or composite life of all classes of plant units 
 in a given plant may be calculated as in Table II from a paper by 
 Halford Erickson, late chairman of the Wisconsin Railroad Com- 
 mission. 
 
 This table gives an average composite life of 17.15 years for the 
 plant units of an electric plant, but without knowing what were 
 defined as plant units this average life lacks definiteness. It is to 
 
116 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE 11. COMPOSITE LIFE OP ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND 
 POWER PLANT 
 
 Anmifll Annual 
 
 Class Life gss'sS petSentof ^^focXr'"^ 
 
 less fecrap HorirooiQtir,r, ^ to cover 
 
 depreciation 
 
 depreciation 
 
 A '. 5 $ 210 20.00 $ 42 
 
 B 8 7,110 12.50 889 
 
 C 10 17,208 10.00 1,721 
 
 D 12 26,272 8.33 2,188 
 
 E 15 131,550 6.67 8,774 
 
 F 16 32,258 6.25 2,016 
 
 G 20 104,097 5.00 5,205 
 
 H ... .. 25 36,116 4.00 1,445 
 
 I 50 14,337 2.00 287 
 
 J 60 1,165 1.67 19 
 
 K 75 21,920 1.33 292 
 
 $392,243 $22,878 
 
 392,243 
 Average life = =: 17.15 years. 
 
 22,878 
 
 be presumed that each pole, each wire, each transformer, each 
 building, each generator, each boiler, each steam pipe, etc., was 
 regarded as a plant unit ; and that each part of a transformer, 
 building, generator, boiler, etc., was not regarded as a plant unit. 
 This average life of 17.15 years would give an average renewal 
 of nearly 6 per cent, year, according to the straight line formulas, 
 which would not include repairs to parts of plant units. 
 
 It should be noted that a composite life of this kind can not be 
 accurately used in a sinking fund formula. 
 
 The authors have found that in a large number of electric light 
 and power plants, the upkeep cost (repairs and depreciation) has 
 averaged about 8% per annum over long periods of years, using 
 the straight line formula with the plant investment as the base. 
 Of this 8%, about one-quarter was classified as renewals of parts 
 of plant units or repairs, the rest being renewals of entire plant 
 units (poles, wires, etc.). 
 
 Where a large part of the distribution system is underground, the 
 composite life is longer than otherwise. Similarly steel towers 
 lengthen the life of the transmission system. For telephone plants 
 the average annual repairs and renewals have been about 11 per 
 cent, of the investment, according to the records analyzed by the 
 authors; and of this 11% nearly one-half was classified as annual 
 repairs and the remainder as annual depreciation. But it is obvi- 
 ous that without a detailed statement of what were regarded as 
 plant units, this statement of the segregation between repairs (or 
 renewals of parts) and depreciation (or renewals of entire plant 
 units) has little significance. 
 
 Useful Life of Reciprocating Engines, Generators and Turbo-Gen- 
 erators. Tables III and IV submitted as evidence in a recent 
 " rate case," indicate clearly the great weight of functional depre- 
 ciation in determining the length of useful life. In a majority of 
 cases the " useful life " given is the result of obsolescence or in- 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 117 
 
 adequacy rather than the result of mechanical wear or 
 depreciation. 
 
 natural 
 
 TABLE III. USEFUL LIFE OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES 
 AND GENERATORS 
 
 
 t 
 
 ■ — Type of equipment 
 
 ^ 
 
 ; Time of service ^ 
 
 
 Reciprocating engines 
 
 Generators 
 
 
 
 Useful 
 
 Com- 
 
 
 Size in 
 
 
 Size in 
 
 
 
 life 
 
 pany 
 
 No. 
 
 h.p. 
 
 No. 
 
 kw. 
 
 Started 
 
 Closed 
 
 years 
 
 1. 
 
 1 
 
 Corliss 
 
 
 
 1906 
 
 1911 
 
 41/2 
 
 2. 
 
 1 
 
 150 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 1891 
 
 1907 
 
 16 
 
 
 2 
 
 200 
 
 4 
 
 65 
 
 1891 
 
 1907 
 
 16 
 
 
 1 
 
 150 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 1893 
 
 1909 
 
 16 
 
 
 3 
 
 225 
 
 6 
 
 75 
 
 1893 
 
 1909 
 
 16 
 
 
 1 
 
 1250 
 
 2 
 
 400 
 
 1894 
 
 1915 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 600 
 
 8 
 
 200 
 
 1894 
 
 1915 
 
 21 
 
 
 5 
 
 1200 
 
 10 
 
 400 
 
 1895 
 
 1915 
 
 20 
 
 
 1 
 
 3500 
 
 1 
 
 2500 
 
 1901 
 
 1915 
 
 14 
 
 
 1 
 
 Corliss 
 
 2 
 
 1000 
 
 1902 
 
 1915 
 
 13 
 
 
 1 
 
 5000 
 
 1 
 
 3500 
 
 1902 
 
 1915 
 
 13 
 
 
 1 
 
 2500 
 
 1 
 
 1800 
 
 1903 
 
 1915 
 
 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 1888 
 
 1894 
 
 6 
 
 3. 
 
 High speed 
 
 Edison d. c. 
 
 1887 
 
 1893 
 
 6 
 
 
 Compound 
 
 a. c. 
 
 single 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 phase 
 
 1893 
 
 1905 
 
 12 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 a. c. 
 
 
 1890 
 
 1907 
 
 16 
 
 5 Allis Chalmers 
 5. Cross Comp. 
 
 Average life, 34 reciprocating engines, 
 Average life, 50 generators, 16 years. 
 
 1904 1915 11 
 
 1891 1905 14 
 
 14 years. 
 
 TABLE IV. USEFUL LIFE OP TURBO-GENERATORS 
 
 
 Capacity of equip- 
 
 '' 
 
 -i iiiic yjL OCX vii 
 
 Useful life 
 
 Company 
 
 ment in kws. 
 
 Started 
 
 Closed 
 
 years 
 
 6. 
 
 1-4,000 
 
 1904 
 
 1912 
 
 8 
 
 
 1-4,000 
 
 1904 
 
 1912 
 
 8 
 
 
 1-4,000 
 
 1905 
 
 1911 
 
 6 
 
 
 1-4,000 
 
 1905 
 
 1911 
 
 6 
 
 
 1-4,000 
 
 1906 
 
 1912 
 
 6 
 
 7. 
 
 2-5,000 
 
 1903 
 
 1909 
 
 6 
 
 
 1-5,000 
 
 1904 
 
 1909 
 
 5 
 
 
 1-7,500 
 
 1904 
 
 1909 
 
 5 
 
 8. 
 
 1-1,500 
 
 1905 
 
 1914 
 
 9 
 
 9. 
 
 2-2,000 
 
 1905 
 
 1910 
 
 5 
 
 
 4-5,000 
 
 1906 
 
 1911 
 
 4 
 
 Average life, 16 turbines, 6 years. 
 
 Following is the key to names of companies given in tables III 
 and IV, also the reasons for retiring the various units. 
 
 Company 
 No. Name. Remarks 
 
 1. Nevada California Power Co Equipment replaced by 
 
 turbine plant, larger 
 unit. 
 
 2. Commonwealth Edison Co Entire plants abandoned. 
 
 27th Street, North Clark Street, 
 
 Harrison St., Adams St. stations. 
 
 3. Consumers Power Co Replaced by a. c. single 
 
 Jackson station phase Curtis turbine. 
 
118 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Company- 
 No. Name. Remarks. 
 
 4. Union Electric Light & Power Co. . . Entire plants abandoned, 
 10th, 19th and 20th St. stations. obsolete. 
 
 5. Indianapolis Light & Heat Co Obsolete, but used for 
 
 Kentucky Ave. station. steam heating. 
 
 6. Detroit Edison Co., Delroy station.. Entire plant abandoned. 
 
 7. Commonwealth Edison Co Replaced by large unit of 
 
 Fish Street station. same type. 
 
 8. Consumers Power Co Replaced by 7,500 kw. 
 
 Jackson station. turbine. 
 
 9. Union Electric Light & Power Co. . . . Replaced by larger units, 
 Ashley Street station. 
 
 An Example of the Determination of Repair and Depreciation 
 Costs of an Electric Company. The following is an abstract of a 
 report by Halbert P. Gillette to the Southern California Edison Co., 
 which report was one of the exhibits in a condemnation case insti- 
 tuted by Los Angeles, and heard by the California Railroad Com- 
 mission in 1915-16. 
 
 Before entering upon the discussion and analysis of what the 
 up-keep expenditures of this property (electric dept., So. Cal. Edison 
 Co.) have been during the 19 years' history of the Company, it 
 may be well to state that any thorough study of the reasonableness 
 of a given depreciation annuity necessarily involves a study of the 
 current maintenance expenses. So far as I know, there is in 
 existence no accounting system in which thoroughly exact defini- 
 tions have been given as to the meaning of the terms " repairs," 
 " renewals " and " depreciation." Hence it follows that account- 
 ants using their own judgment as to these terms may at one time 
 charge to current repairs items that at another time they might 
 charge to depreciation. 
 
 Repairs, or current maintenance, may be said to provide for 
 renewals of parts of a "plant unit," • whereas the depreciation 
 annuity provides for the renewals of entire plant units. The dis- 
 tinction rests upon the definition of what constitutes a plant unit. 
 To illustrate : One person may regard a bare pole as being a plant 
 unit ; another person may regard a pole with its crossarms and all 
 other attachments as being a plant unit ; still another person may 
 regard the entire pole line, including wires, as being a plant unit. 
 Obviously what one of these persons would call repairs, another 
 might call a charge to depreciation reserve. 
 
 Since it is impracticable to ascertain now exactly what was in 
 the minds of the accountants who made the distinction between 
 rei:)airs and renewals in the past years, we are forced to combine 
 all up-keep expenditures for each year in the past, and we may 
 call this combination of repairs and renewals " up-keep expendi- 
 ture." We may then ascertain what this total up-keep expenditure 
 has averaged annually and what percentage that average has been 
 of the average investment in depreciable plant. 
 
 To this should be added, of course, the accrued depreciation in 
 the plant for which money has not yet been paid out, although it 
 may be in a depreciation fund. 
 
DEPRECIATION. REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 119 
 
 In a very thorough study of up-keep expenditures of the past, 
 it is desirable to investigate charges to capital account that should 
 have been made to maintenance. Also it is desirable to examine 
 the surplus, and the profit and loss accounts to ascertain whether 
 any depreciation charges have been made through these accounts. 
 Likewise, any property sold by the Company at a loss should be 
 regarded as depreciation. Any property abandoned and not charged 
 off the capital account, together with any special fire or storm losses 
 not similarly charged off, should be ascertained, for they are 
 strictly speaking depreciation charges and may not appear either 
 in the operating expenses or in the depreciation reserve accounts. 
 Similarly suspense accounts and all special accounts in which 
 " up-keep " may be found, should be investigated. 
 
 Column C of Table V shows what has been charged to main- 
 tenance and repairs annually for each year since the Company 
 began operation. Column D shows what has been paid out for 
 renewals inclusive of moneys paid from the depreciation reserve 
 fund. Column E shows the total of these two columns by years. 
 The grand total for the 19 years is $3,295,087, or an average of 
 $173,425 per year for the 19 years. This is the actual 'expenditure 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 Maintenance, Repairs, Renewals and Depreciation by Years, and 
 Average for Straight Line Formula, Local and General Prop- 
 erty, Electrical Department of Southern California Edison 
 Company. 
 
 ABC "^ • 
 
 Year Average Maintenance D nanSe'^enafe 
 
 ending depreciable and Renewals "n?i rin^wl,!-. 
 
 Dec. 31 property repairs C plus D 
 
 1896 $ 31,733 
 
 1897 ■ 98,228 $ 128 128 
 
 1898 244,037 1,562 1,562 
 
 1899 671.785 2,209 2,209 
 
 1900 1,310,681 10,830 10,830 
 
 1901 1,463,940 12,698 $ 29,707 42,405 
 
 1902 1,849,552 30,672 30,672 
 
 1903 2,719,740 78,883 78,883 
 
 1904 4,273,220 70,489 70,489 
 
 1905 5,544,388 76,586 231,131 307,717 
 
 1906 6.702,214 78,325 145,589 223,914 
 
 1907 9,697,771 73,573 89,694 163,267 
 
 1908 12.166.861 77,984 7,197 85,181 
 
 1909 12,507,528 90,449 191,272 281,721 
 
 1910 13,120,211 235,105 38,778 278,883 
 
 1911 14,273,440 204,259 112,972 317.231 
 
 1912 16.339,749 293,950 121,508 415,458 
 
 1913 18.548,775 281,737 147,526 429,263 
 
 1914 21.182,310 280,112 280,152 560,264 
 
 Total $142,776,163 $1,899,551 $1,395,526 $3,295,067 
 $7,514,535 — Average for 19 years $173,425 
 
 Average percentage of repairs and renewals to plant 
 
 is $173,425 -H $7,514,535 ^ 2.307% 
 
120 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Adding- accrued depreciation $3,843,000* (=17.244% of 
 $22,286,000 as of Dec. 31, 1914) which divided by 
 19 years = 202,263 
 
 Total average annual repairs, renewals and accrued de- 
 preciation $375,688 
 
 Average percentage of maintenance, repairs, renewals, 
 and accrued depreciation is $375,688 -.- $7,514,535 = 
 5.00% per year, by straight lirie formula. 
 
 * 3,843,000 = 17,244% based on 20% of $10,001,265 local property 
 and 15% of $12,284,993, general property. 
 
 lor up-keep, exclusive of any unexpended amounts remaining in 
 the depreciation reserve fund. The average investment in the 
 depreciable plant during these 19 years was $7,514,535, as deduced 
 from Table V. Hence the average expenditure for up-keep has been 
 2,307% per annum. But in addition the plant has suffered accrued 
 depreciation, which is estimated to have been $3,843,000,1 as of 
 June 30th, 1915, or an average of $202,263 for 19 years, which, 
 divided by the average investment in that period of $7,514,535 is 
 2.7% per annum. Adding this 2.7% to the 2.3% expended for up- 
 keep, we have a total of 5% per annum as the average for these 19 
 years for the entire plant (Local and General combined) based 
 upon the so-called " straight line formula." This, it should be 
 noted, is based upon the history of this company and the only 
 possibility of material error would lie in the estimated accrued 
 depreciation of the plant, which depreciation is 17.24% of the de- 
 preciable property as of June 30th, 1914, an amount that seems 
 to be as close to the truth as can be arrived at. 
 
 Tables VI and VII give corresponding calculations of the actual 
 up-keep expenditures and accrued depreciation for the Local Prop- 
 erty and for the General Property respectively. By the term 
 " General Property " I mean the generating and transmission sys- 
 tem, the " Local Property " being the distribution and service sys- 
 tems. It will be noted that in Table VI we find that the average 
 annual cost of up-keep and accrued depreciation has been 6.213% 
 upon the depreciable "Local Property" throughout the 19 years, 
 based upon the straight line formula. It will be noted that in 
 Table VI the corresponding percentage for the " General Property " 
 is 3.746%. 
 
 In none of these Tales V, VI and VII is it assumed that a sink- 
 ing fund was established to care for depreciation. If, however, a 
 4% compoimd interest sinking fund had been established in 1896, 
 and if that fund had been built up until June 30, 1915, so that at 
 that time it had equalled the then accrued depreciation of $3,843,- 
 000, it would have required a depreciation annuity of 2.258%, of the 
 depreciable plant. This fact is deduced in Table VIII which re- 
 lates to the total plant or Local and General property combined. 
 The method of deduction in that Table is as follows: 
 
 1 The unexpended balance in the deijfeciation reserve account was 
 $3,675,792, as of June 30th, 1915. 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 121 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 Maintenance, Repairs, Renewals, and Depreciation by Years, and 
 Average for Straight Line Formula, Local Property. Electrical 
 Department of Southern California Edison Company. 
 
 ^A B C D E 
 
 Year Average Maintenance „ ^ , 
 
 ending depreciable and Renewals n J.?^^ 
 
 Dec. 31 property repairs ^ P^^^ ^ 
 
 1896 $ 31,733 ... 
 
 1897 98,228 $ 128 ....'.'. $ " *i28 
 
 1898 244,036 1,562 * 1,562 
 
 1899 474,221 1,263 1263 
 
 1900 718,235 4,630 4 630 
 
 1901 829,310 7,341 $ 29,707 87,048 
 
 1902 1,084,337 14 965 .....I 14 965 
 
 1903 1,604,985 48,011 - 48 011 
 
 1904 2,484,120 50,709 50 709 
 
 1905 3,035,768 48,6^8 186,450 235,138 
 
 1906 3,719,531 55,838 122,484 178,322 
 
 1907 4,444,197 48,712 74,300 123,012 
 
 1908 4.825,894 38.388 221 38,609 
 
 1909 4,970,742 45,485 47,088 92,573 
 
 1910 5.372,463 136,666 9,464 146.130 
 
 1911 5,988.599 13^,992 56,609 190,601 
 
 1912 6,764,983 185.139 84,150 269,289 
 
 1913 8.020,859 162,623 90,149 252,772 
 
 1914 9,308.714 166,839 124,765 291,604 
 
 Total $64,020,955 $1,150,979 $825,387 $1,976,366 
 
 $3,369,524 — Average for 19 years $104,019 
 
 Average, percent of property $104,019 -^ $3,369,524 = . . . 3.087% 
 
 Adding accrued depreciation on basis of 20% of $10,001,- 
 265, depreciating property as of December 31, 1914, 
 divided by 10 to obtain average, we have 105.296 
 
 Average annual repairs, renewals and depreciation $209,315 
 
 Average percentage of property is $209,315 -^ $3,369,524 
 = 6.213% by straight line formula. 
 
 Column B shows the average depreciable property by years. 
 Assuming that 1% depreciation annuity should be set aside an- 
 nually, we would have the annual amounts shown in Column C. 
 Then compounding these annual amounts at 4%, using the com- 
 pound interest factor in Column D, we would have the depreciation 
 fund accumulation as shown in Column E, total $1,701,816. But, 
 since the accrued depreciation is $3,843,000, we must divide that by 
 $1,701,816, which gives 2.258% as the proper depreciation annuity. 
 Column F shows the application of this depreciation annuity and 
 Column G shows the final depreciation that would exist in the fund 
 using that annuity and since that calculation totals $3,.842,707 we 
 have an almost exact check upon our calculation. 
 
 Since it has been shown in Table V that the actual up-keep ex- 
 penditure has averaged 2.307%, and since we have now shown that 
 a sinking fund annuity of 2.258% would be needed to build a fund 
 equal to the accrued depreciation, the sum of these two, or $4,565%, 
 is the average annual percentage for maintenance, repairs, renewals 
 
122 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and accrued depreciation of the total depreciable electrical property 
 of this Company during the past 19 years. 
 
 A similar calculation for the Local Property alone results in 
 5.668% as the averag-e annual percentage for all up-keep expendi- 
 tures and accrued depreciation. The corresponding percentage for 
 the General Property alone is 3.399%. 
 
 First, let us consider the Local and General Property combined. 
 As ^shown in Tabl^ VIII, the investment in depreciable property 
 averaged $21,182,310 for the year 1914, so if we take 4.565% thereof, 
 we have $971,072 as the sum that up-keep and accrued depreciation 
 would amount to in 1914 based on the experience of the 19 years 
 of this Company's life. Table "V shows that, as a matter of fact, 
 the Company spent in 1914, for maintenance and repairs a sum of 
 $280,.112 and $280,152 for renewals, or a total expenditure of 
 $560,264, but in that year the Company set aside a depreciation 
 annuity of $700,000, of which $43,000 was for the gas department. 
 Out of this $653,000 was spent the $280,152 for renewals as shown 
 in Table V, leaving a balance of $373,848 that went into the 
 depreciation fund for that year. Hence, if we add together $280,- 
 
 TABLE VII 
 
 Maintenance, Repairs, Renewals, and Depreciation by Years, and 
 Average for Straight Line Formula. General Property Electrical 
 Department of Southern California Edison Company. 
 
 A - B C D E 
 
 Year .Average Maintenance Total 
 
 ending depreciable and Renewals p, i,V„^ V^ 
 
 Dec. 31 property repairs ^-.piubu 
 
 1899 $ 197,563 $ 946 $ 946 
 
 1900 622,446 6,200 6,200 
 
 1901 631.629 5,357 5,357 
 
 1902 765,215 15,707 15,707 
 
 1903 1,114,754 30,872 ...... 30,872 
 
 1904 1,789,100 19,781 19,781 
 
 1905 2,508,619 27,898 $ 44,681 72,579 
 .1906 2,982,682 22,487 9,248 31.735 
 
 1907 5,253.573 24.861 922 25,783 
 
 1908 7,340,967 39,596 39,596 
 
 1909 7,536.785 44,964 97,110 142,074 
 
 1910 7,747,747 98,439 17.517 115,956 
 
 1911 8,284,841 70,267 602 70,869 
 
 1912 9,574,765 108,811 26,887 135.698 
 
 1913 10,527,915 119,114 23,521 142.635 
 
 1914 11,873,596 113,273 154,923 268,196 
 
 'Total $78,755,197 $748,573 $375,411 $1,123,984 
 
 $4,922,200 — Average for 16 years $ 70,249 
 
 Average percentage of property $70,249 H- $4,922,200 -. . 1.42% 
 
 Adding accrued depreciation on basis of 15% of $12,284.- 
 993, depreciating property as of December 31st, 1914, 
 equals $1,842,749, which divided by 16 to obtain 
 average gives 115,184 
 
 Average annual repairs, renewals and depreciation... $185,433 
 Average percentage of property is $185.433 -^ $4,922, - 
 200 = 3.746% by the straight line formula. 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 123 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 Depreciation Fund Annuity for Local and General Property, Com- 
 bined Electrical Department of the Southern California Edison 
 Company. 
 
 bfi 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 1£Q 
 
 
 1.^^ 
 
 •-^« 
 %^h 
 
 S 
 
 
 9i u 
 
 PI 
 
 2 5- 
 
 
 m 
 
 111 
 
 1896 
 
 $ 31,733 
 
 $ 317 
 
 2.03 
 
 $ 644 
 
 $ 717 
 
 $ 1,456 
 
 1897 
 
 98,228 
 
 982 
 
 1.95 
 
 1,915 
 
 2,218 
 
 4,325 
 
 1898 
 
 244.037 
 
 2,440 
 
 1.87 
 
 4,563 
 
 5,510 
 
 10,304 
 
 1899 
 
 671,785 
 
 6,718 
 
 1.80 
 
 12,092 
 
 15,169 
 
 27,304 
 
 1900 
 
 1.340.681 
 
 13,407 
 
 1.73 
 
 23,194 
 
 30,273 
 
 52,372 
 
 1901 
 
 1.463,940 
 
 14.639 
 
 1.67 
 
 24,447 
 
 33,056 
 
 55,204 
 
 1902 
 
 1,849,552 
 
 18,49 6 
 
 1.60 
 
 29,594 
 
 41,763 
 
 66,821 
 
 1903 
 
 2,719,740 
 
 27,197 
 
 1.54 
 
 41,883 
 
 61,412 
 
 94,574 
 
 1904 
 
 4,273,220 
 
 42,732 
 
 1.48 
 
 63,243 
 
 96,489 
 
 142,804 
 
 1905 
 
 5,544,388 
 
 55,444 
 
 1.42 
 
 78,730 
 
 125,192 
 
 177,773 
 
 1906 
 
 6,702,214 
 
 67,022 
 
 1.37 
 
 • 91,820 
 
 151,336 
 
 207,330 
 
 1907 
 
 9,697,771 
 
 96,978 
 
 1.32 
 
 128,011 
 
 218,976 
 
 289,048 
 
 1908 
 
 12,166,861 
 
 121,669 
 
 1.27 
 
 154,520 
 
 274,728 
 
 348,905 
 
 1909 
 
 12.507,528 
 
 125,075 
 
 1.22 
 
 152,592 
 
 282.420 
 
 344,552 
 
 1910 
 
 13,120,211 
 
 131,202 
 
 1.17 
 
 153,506 
 
 296,254 
 
 346,617 
 
 1911 
 
 14.273,440 
 
 142,734 
 
 1.12 
 
 159,862 
 
 322,294 
 
 360,969 
 
 1912 
 
 16.339.749 
 
 163,397 
 
 1.08 
 
 176,469 
 
 368,952 
 
 398,468 
 
 1913 
 
 18,548,775 
 
 185.488 
 
 1.04 
 
 192,908 
 
 418,831 
 
 435,584 
 
 1914 
 
 21,182,310 
 $142,776,163 
 
 211,823 
 
 1.00 
 
 211,823 
 $1,701,816 
 
 478,297 
 
 .478,297 
 
 
 $3,223,887 
 
 $3,842,707 
 
 Accrued depreciation of $22,286,258 as of December 31. 1914, is 
 $3,843,000 (or 17.244% based on 20% of Local and 15% of General 
 Plant), which, divided by $1,701,816, equals 2.258% which is the 
 depreciation annuity percentage required to build up a fund on a 
 4% sinking fund basis, equal to the estimated accrued depreciation 
 of the property. The final column in this Table shows the correct- 
 ness of this calculation. 
 
 Table V shows that maintenance, repairs and renewals have 
 averaged 2.307%, which added to 2.258% (above deduced) is 4.565% 
 (by sinking fund formula) for maintenance,, repairs, renewals and 
 accrued depreciation. 
 
 lisf for maintenance and repairs, $280,152 for renewals and $373V- 
 848 for accrued depreciation, we have a total of $933,112 as this 
 amount that the Company actually spent and set aside for the 
 year 1914. 
 
 We have already shown that, based on its history of 19 years, it 
 would have been justified in spending and setting aside $971,072, 
 or about $38,000 more than it did spend and set aside for up-keep 
 and accrued depreciation in 1914. 
 
 The European war, which began the first of August, 1914, caused 
 a falling off in growth of net income and it caused the Company 
 to curtail its maintenance expenses somewhat below the normal. 
 
124 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 A glance at the third column in Table V -will indicate this fact. 
 It follows, therefore, that the Company's practice as to expenditures 
 for repairs and amouiits set aside for depreciation reserve is sub- 
 stantially justified by its experience during its entire life of 
 19 years. 
 
 Let us now consider the Local and General property separately, 
 for we have thus, far considered them as combined. Table VI 
 shows that the average percentage of expenditures for repairs and. 
 renewals has been 3.087% for the Local Property, and calculation 
 shQws that a depi-eciation annuity of 2.581% would have provided 
 for the accrued depreciation upon a sinking fund basis, the sum of 
 the t'wo percentages being 5.6G8%. Table VI, column C, shows 
 that, as charged on the Company's books, $1,150,979 has been 
 spent during the 19 years for what has been termed inaintenance 
 and repairs. This is almost exactly 1.8% of the total in Column B, 
 or in other words, the so-called " maintenance and repairs " has 
 averaged 1.8% throughout this period. If Ave deduct this from the 
 5.668% we have 3.8G8% as the proper amount for annual depre- 
 ciation chai-ge of the Local property. As a matter of fact, the 
 Qompany has been setting aside 3.3G% for this item, from which 
 it would appear that they have not been setting aside quite enough. 
 However, as stated in the earlier part of this report, the only 
 correct way to look upon the problem before us is to combine all 
 charges for maintenance, repairs, renewals, and depreciation fund, 
 since distinctions between maintenance, repaii-s, etc., have not been 
 very carefully drawn in the past. 
 
 Table VII shows that for the General Property the total up-keep 
 and depreciation has averaged 3.74G% per annum. Table VII, 
 third column, shows that the maintenance and repairs expendi- 
 tures, as charged on the books of the Company, have totaled 
 $748,573 in the 19 years. This is almost exactly 0.95% of the total 
 depreciable property given in the second column. Hence, if we 
 deduct this 0.95% from the total of 3.746% w© have left 2.796% 
 as the proper amount for depreciation reserve charge. As a matter 
 of fact the Company has been setting aside in its depreciation re- 
 serve for General Property 2.42% from which it appears that it 
 has not been setting aside quite enough, if Ave assume that its 
 charges to maintenance and repairs have been precisely in accord- 
 ance with modern definitions of these expenditui'es. But, as pre- 
 viously stated, the proper way is to look at the grand total up-keep 
 and depreciation chai-ges, and, as has been shown in the earlier part 
 of this report, this grand total has been almost precisely in accord- 
 ance with actual experience of the Company during the past 19 
 years. From this it may be inferred .that the Company may have 
 legitimately charged under maintenance and repairs slightly more 
 than has appeared there in the past, but this would I'esult in de- 
 creasing correspondingly the charges to renewals. 
 
 It cannot be too often repeated, perhaps, that the sum total of 
 all up-keep charges, maintenance, repairs, renewals and deprecia- 
 tion constitutes the only i^liable criterion by which to judge the 
 equitableness of any up-keep charges made by a company of this 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 125 
 
 character. I think that the foregoing study establishes beyond 
 doubt that the Company's allowances for depreciation reserve have 
 been below rather than above what it might reasonably claim as 
 sufficient. 
 
 Repair and Depreciation Costs of Electric Connpany. In another 
 of our appraisals of an electric lighting property in a city of some 
 22,000 population w^e found by the foregoing method that, for a 
 period of 24 years, the average cost of repairs and renewals was 
 5.03% of the average plant value and that, including depreciation, 
 (on the straight line basis) the total for repairs, renewals and 
 depreciation was 8.6% of the average plant value. 
 
 Repair and Depreciation Costs of Telephone Confipany. Using a 
 method similar to the foregoing, in the Hearing of the Bell Tele- 
 phone Company of Pennsylvania, Gillette showed that the average 
 current maintenance and depreciation was 9.46% of the average 
 book valuation of the physical property for a period of 29 years. 
 
 Cost of Repairs and Life of U. S. River Improvement Plant. 
 C. W. Durham (Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 24, 1912) states 
 that one of the tow boats used by the U. S. Engineer Corps on 
 river improvement work on the Mississippi is 148 ft. long over all 
 and 129 ft. on deck; width of hull 25 ft. 4 ins.; over guards 28 ft. 
 2 ins. ; 5 ft. deep in the dead flat, and draws light 2 ft. 6 ins. Her 
 wheel is 14 ft. wide, 18 ft. 3 ins. in diameter, and has 24-in. buckets. 
 She has two propelling engines, 15.5 ins. diameter by 5 ft. stroke, 
 and 3 boilers, 24 ft. long by 36 ins. diameter, with six 13-in. return 
 flues in each. 
 
 Complete detailed costs of keeping wooden hull towboats in re- 
 pair, for 3 boats of nearly the same size and power, built or pur- 
 chased in 1881 show that while the repairs in 30 years amount to 
 about three times the original cost of each boat, yet the cost per 
 annum for a serviceable towboat is only about $1,400, and the sal- 
 vage on each today would be about $5,000. These boats have all 
 had new boilers and have been practically rebuilt as to their hulls 
 two or three times. Repairs to cabins and machinery have been 
 nominal. 
 
 TABLE IX. COST AND REPAIRS OF SMALL TOWBOATS 
 
 "Lucia," "Louise," "Elsie,'' "Emily," "Ada," 
 built 1885. built 1884. buil't 1889. built 1889. built 1889, 
 Oak hull Oak hull Steel hull Oak hull Oak hull 
 Original cost... $ 4.000 $3,538 $5,114) $4,034 $4,000 
 
 Repair.s to Dec. 
 
 31,1910 12,575 11,495 7,450 10,442 8,251 
 
 Total $16,575 $15,033 $12,560 $14,476 $12,251 
 
 The "Lucia" had new hulls in 1895 and 1910. 
 
 The "Louise" had new hulls in 1894 and 1905, the latter steel. 
 
 The " Elsie " has required no additional hull. 
 
 The "Emily" had new hulls in 1902 and 1910. 
 
 The "Ada" had a new hull in 1904. 
 
 A sample of the small auxiliary towboats attached to the U. S. 
 plants is the " Grace," which is 9 2 ft. 6 ins. long over all and 78 ft. 
 on deck ; width of hull 17 ft. and depth 3 ft. 11 ins. She has a 
 
126 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 wheel 10 ft, long and 12 ft. In diameter with 18-in. buckets; 2 cyl- 
 inders 7.5 X 49 Ins., and 2 boilers 10 ft. long and 30 ins. in diameter 
 with 44 3-in. flues. The cost of this boat, which was built by the 
 United States in 189 4, at Keokuk, was $8,616. 
 
 The costs of other small auxiliary towboats are shown in Table 
 IX. 
 
 These boats have cost the government about $500 a year each, 
 and the salvage on each would be about $3,000. 
 
 A typical office-boat and quarter-boat used with the government 
 plants is 50 ft. by 18 ft. in hull dimensions, and has a single-story 
 cabin, nicely fitted with staterooms, bunks and office furniture. It 
 was built in 1893, at a cost of about $1,800, including outfit. The 
 repairs to .1907, during which year the hull was rebuilt, were small. 
 Repairs to Dec. 31, 1910, were about $2,500, including maintenance 
 of outfit. On Dec. 31, 1911, this boat was in fine condition. 
 
 Life of Scow Barges. Table X gives the life of scow barges on 
 Mississippi River improvement work. 
 
 Life of Vessels on the Great Lakes and Tidewater. W. J. Wil- 
 gus in an appraisal of the Lehigh Valley railroad published in part 
 
 5o/vaqe 
 
 yj 20 P5 
 Life inYeors 
 
 50 5a J J 40 
 
 Fig. 1. Depreciation of marine equipment. 
 A — Steel steam vessels on Great Lakes. 
 ♦B — Steel steam vessels on tidewater. 
 C — Steel barges, floats, etc., on tidewater. 
 D — Wood tugs, barges, etc., on tidewater. 
 
 in Engineering Record, May 30, 1914, states that floating equipment 
 of roads connecting the Great Lakes and tidewater may be divided 
 into the following types: (a) Steel steam vessels on the Great 
 Lakes, (b) steel steam vessels for tidewater service, (c) steel 
 barges, car floats, etc., for tidewater service and (d) wood tugs, 
 barges and miscellaneous, for tidewater service. 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 127 
 
 ■ IMOOCOtMOl-OOCOOl 
 
 <; '•^.'■ 
 
 loa r-l rH 
 
 
 ij -"tl cvji-l tH T-( CO ,-H 00 O t^ 
 
 2 iiaooix^'OMooirtooo 
 ^ rri r.- OG CO lo CO oo a> t- o 
 
 J -H- W ^ tH j,js ^-^ 
 
 "^ ini-irHt^t-^coco-^eo 
 
 t-It-1<M T-trHiHrHT-H 
 
 .5g VH iH THr-i-HTHiH 
 
 Cj Ift lO iM 00 00 CD t- -^ lO Tfi 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 r-lT-IC-1 
 
 iHiHtH 
 
 t-ItH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OOOOO 
 
 S CD :S CD <:= <— . 
 
 s 
 
 ^-;:J ocDot-cooo 
 
 030 
 
 
 cot-cot— C-OOOOOOC-^ 
 
 !><■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 ij 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 PQ 
 
 
 
 
 tj 
 
 t 
 
 r-; 
 
 ii 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 .2 
 
 aa . . 
 
 ."2, . . 
 
 ^ 
 
 iig 
 
 
 ^4 
 
 ^o^:':ihh'^hh 
 
 
 03 
 
 i^^^^^^^^^j. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 g q3 c-i l^^ i>j oj c^i oj c-j (M <^^ w 
 
 S OOOOOOOOOo 
 
 •-H OOOOOOOtHtHiJv] 
 
 P rHiHr-lT-liHTHT-lr-tTHT-t 
 
128 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Prog^ressive percentages of depreciation are proper, as shown in 
 Fig. 1, all on the basis of regular cmnual expenditures for proper 
 upkeep, but not. embrvicing' extraordinary expenditures for new 
 boilei-s, new houses or new equipment like electric-light plants or 
 steam steering gear. 
 
 Methods of Handling Battery Maintenance Charges for a Large 
 System. We have abstracted the following from Electrical 
 World, Dec. 16, 1916. In outlining the handling of storage-battery 
 maintenance funds on the Boston IGdison Company's system at a 
 recent hearing before the Massachusetts Gas and Electric Light 
 Connnission, L. L. Elden stated that the company oi)erates about 
 fifteen storage batteries representing an investment in the vicinity 
 of $800,000, and that dui-ing the last year maintenance requirements 
 amoiuited to about $30,000. In the purchase of a battery it is 
 customary for the manufacturer to give the company a seven-year 
 guarantee, during which the manufacturer keeps the battery in 
 proper physical condition and maintains its stated capacity. Dur- 
 ing the guarantee period the manufacturer replaces any defective 
 plates or boxes that are cleai^ly due to manufacturing defects. If 
 the coillpany damages a cell in handling, the expense of repairs is 
 assumed by it. At the end of the guarantee period an amount of 
 money is set aside for each battery, depending upon its age and upon 
 what has already been expended upon it. 
 
 The Edison company estimates what the probable life of the 
 battery plate is expected to be, with the cost of renewing the plates, 
 and according to such figures a sum of money representing the 
 estimated future repair charge is pi'o-rated into a monthly charge 
 credited to the use of the battery. Unlike many other pieces of 
 apparatus, a battery may in some unusual occurrence go to pieces 
 in a day. and the amount of depreciation or wear and tear upon 
 the plates fe not readily ascertainable at any particular period ; 
 hence it is deemed best by the company to pro-rate the renewal 
 charge on these plates over a fixed period rather than to have an 
 abnormal and unequal distribution of expenses due to the com- 
 pany's having to spend say $2,500 on one battery in one month for 
 a complete renewal. The batteri^es are of various? ages and the 
 prospective repair account cannot be taken care of at any one 
 time until the condition of a battery permits it. Mr. Elden said 
 that the number of kilowatt-houis delivered by a battery in a year 
 affords no criterion of the severitj'- of use made of it, since excessive 
 discharges due to accidents, short-circuits or operating conditions 
 may depreciate the plates far more than liberal use within the 
 proper range of discharge. In a single year there may be twenty 
 occasions when battery discharge* will be utilized temporarily to 
 overcome adverse operating conditions and maintain the normal 
 standard of service. 
 
 Cost of Repairs of Buildings. Data, April, 1912, has the fol- 
 lowing cost of labor and material for estimating repairs to buildings, 
 from the Chicago Building-- and Construction Co. 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 129 
 
 Carpenti-y : 
 
 Carpenter labor costs 60 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 
 Eisht hours coustitute one clay. 
 
 13/16 by 5 14 -in. Common Yellow Pine flooring costs $25.00 per 
 M. 13/16 by 314— $23.00 per M. & * ic 
 
 1 by 4 or 1 by 6-in. White Norway C. Pine flooring costs $40.00 
 per M. 
 
 Labor for laying S'/i-in. Pine flooring $2.00 per square; 3iA-in, 
 $2.50 per square. 
 
 13/16 by 2 14, -in. face clear Maple flooring costs $42.00 per M. 
 
 Labor for laying 2i/4-in. face Maple flooring, smooth for oil finish. 
 $3.50 to $4.50 per square. 
 
 13/16 by 2 14 -in. faced plain White Oak flooring costs $56.00 per 
 
 13/16 by 2^4 -in. faced quarter sawed White Oak flooring costs 
 $88.00 per M. 
 
 Labor for laying and scraping oak floor 2^4 -in. face, for wax or 
 varnish, $5.00 to $6.00 per square. 
 
 Smoothing and scraping oak floors alone costs $2.50 to $3.50 
 per square. 
 
 Base, Pine, 2 member moulded, put down, 8 cts. per running foot. 
 
 4 and 6-in. clear Northern Pine beveled siding costs $32.00 per M. 
 
 4 and 6-in. clear Washington Red Wood bevel siding costs $33.00 
 per M. 
 
 4 and 6-in. clear Washington Spruce bevel siding costs $26.00 
 per M. 
 
 Labor for putting on siding $2.75 per square, for 4 to 6-in. sid- 
 ing; for narrow mitered siding $3.75 per square. 
 
 Labor for putting on shingles, $2.50 to $3.00 per thousand shingles. 
 
 Best grade of clear Red Cedar .shingles cost $4.50 per thousand. 
 
 Common No. 2 Pine doors, complete with frames, placed in po- 
 sition, with hardware, not painted, co.st $8.00 to $12.00 each. 
 
 Fancy Oak front doons, complete, placed in position, with hard- 
 ware, cost $15.00 to $25.00 each, according to style. 
 
 Oak veneered door.s, 1%-in. Pine core, complete with frame, 
 placed in position, with hardware, $12.00 to $15.00 each. 
 
 Mantels — Hardwood, artistic design, complete with mirror and 
 grate, set $45.00 to $65.00 each. 
 
 Grilles. Fancy Oak, $1.25 to $1.75 per lineal foot set. 
 
 Windows, with sash, frame, casing, cords, weights complete, put 
 in, $9.00 to $12.00 each. If hardwood frame and trim, with sash, 
 $12.00 to $14.00. 
 
 Stairs. Common Oak, without rail, $2.50 per riser, labor included. 
 
 Stair rail. Oak, moulded design, 30 cts. to 35 cts. per running 
 foot, labor included. 
 
 Stair rail. Pine, moulded design, 15 cts. to 25 cts. per running 
 foot, labor included. 
 
 Balusters. Pine, fancy turned, 12 cts. to 15 cts. each; Oak 15 cts. 
 to ."^O cts. each, labor included 
 
 Newels. I-in. quarter sawed Oak, moulded cap, $6.00 to $9.00 ; 
 Plain Oak, $5.00 to $7.00 ; Pine, $4.00 to $6.00 each, labor included. 
 
 Porches. Front, frame, ordinary construction, 6 to 7 feet wide, 
 .shingle roof, ceiled, square or turned columns, frieze and cornice, 
 balusters at floor, complete, $8.00 to $10.00 i)er front foot measure; 
 12 by 12-in, stone pillars under porche.s, $1.00 per lineal foot. 
 
 Painting and Glazing : 
 
 Painting, two-coat work, costs 20 cts. per square yard. 
 
 Painting, three-coat work, costs 25 cts. ])er square yard. 
 
 Painters' labor costs 55 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 
 
 Calcimining costs .$3.00 to $5.00 per room for small rooms, and 
 60 cts. per square for large rooms. 
 
 Note. — To ascertain the number of square yards of painted sur- 
 face, multiply the length by the width, in feet, and divided by 9, and 
 the result will be the number of yards. 
 
 Lattice work and stair balusters are counted double. 
 
 For reglazing old work, add 20 to 50% to cost of glass, according 
 to quantity set. 
 
130 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Wall Paper: 
 
 Cost of hanging, 15 cts. to 30 cts. per single roll for ordinary work, 
 according to quality of paper. 
 
 Three and one-half rolls will cover one square. 
 
 Plastering : 
 
 Two coats of plastering repair work cost 40 cts. per sq. yd. 
 
 Three-coat work costs 50 cts. per sq. yd. 
 
 For cement plaster add 10 cts. per sq. yd. extra. 
 
 Plaster labor costs 68^4 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 
 
 Plasters' helper costs 40 cts. per hour. 
 
 Lathers' labor, $5.00 per day of eight hours. 
 
 Note. — To ascertain the number of yards of plaster, multiply the 
 length of the ceiling by the width. Do the same with each side 
 wall and add all together, divide by 9 and the result will be the 
 number of yards. Make no deductions for openings unless very 
 large. 
 
 Plumbing : 
 
 30 gal. iron boiler, connected $15.00 each 
 
 Enameled sinks, 18 by 24 ins., connected 10.00 each 
 
 5-foot enameled bath tub, connected 35.00 each 
 
 Porcelain washout-closet with tank, connected 25.00 each 
 
 Hopper closet, connected 20.00 each 
 
 Laundry tubs, 2 divisions, cement, connected 20.00 each 
 
 Wash bowls, plain marble slabs, connected 25.00 each 
 
 Brass faucets, put on 2.00 each 
 
 Plated faucets, put on 2.25 each 
 
 6-inch iron soil pipe, put in, $1.00 per running foot. 
 
 4-inch iron soil pipe, put in, 60 cts. per running foot. 
 
 Plumbing labor costs $5.50 per day of eight hours, plus con- 
 tractor's profit. 
 
 Sewers : 
 
 6-in. sewer, ordinary digging, laid with proper drain, well ce- 
 mented, 50 cts. per lineal foot. 
 
 Traps, $1.50 each. 
 
 Elbows, $1.25 each. 
 
 Catch basins, 5 by 6, stone cover, $15.00. 
 
 Electric Wiring : 
 
 To estimate the cost of electric wiring in ordinary buildings, as- 
 certain the number of lights and multiply same by $3.00. 
 
 Gas Piping : 
 
 To estimate cost of gas piping in ordinary buildings, ascertain 
 the number of lights and multiply by $2.50. 
 
 Gas Pipe put in, connected, 20 cts. per running foot. 
 
 Gas Fitters' labor costs $5.50 per day of eight hours. 
 
 Roofing : 
 
 Gravel Roof, 3-ply, $3.50 per square. 
 
 Gravel Roof, 4-ply, $4.00 per square. 
 
 Gravel Roof, 5-ply, $4.i;5 per square. 
 
 Slate roof, ordinary black slate, $10 to $12 per square. 
 
 Slate roof, fancy green and red, $15 to $30 per square. 
 
 Best galvanized iron roofing, standing seams, $9.00 to $12.00 per 
 square, painted. 
 
 Best tin roofing, standing seams, $8.00 to $11.00 per square, 
 painted. 
 
 Tile roofing, $12.00 to $15.00 per square, according to design. 
 
 Metal Ceilings : 
 
 Fancy metal ceilings with cornice cost $8.00 to $12.00 per square. 
 Corrugated Iron Ceiling, $6.00 to $7.00 per square. 
 
DEPRECIATION. REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 131 
 
 stone Work : 
 
 Common rubble stone, 100 cu. ft. to the cord, costs, laid in wall, 
 $20 to $25 per cord, according to location and necessary hauling. 
 
 Rock face, 4-in. Bedford stone for facing, furnished and set in 
 wall, costs $1.75 to $2.25 ])er square foot face measui'ement. 
 
 Mason labor costs &IV2 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 
 
 Mason helper costs 37 V2 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 
 
 Brick Work: 
 
 Common brick, furnished and laid in 12-in. wall, costs $15.00 
 per M, wall count. 
 
 Pressed brick, for facing, laid in wall, colored mortar, rodded 
 joints, add to cost or brick $10.00 to $20.00 per thousand for lay- 
 ing, according to character and design of front. 
 
 Cement Work : 
 
 12-in. block walls cost about the same as 12-in. common brick 
 wall, laid, less 25% of the cost of brick for a similar wall. 
 
 Concrete basement walls cost 28 cts. per cubic foot, wall measure- 
 ment. 
 
 Cement sidewalk costs 12 cts. to 15 cts. per square foot. 
 
 Cement basement floors cost 10 cts. per square foot. 
 
 Chimneys : 
 
 Ordinary single flue chimneys cost $1.00 per lineal foot. For dou- 
 ble flue $1.75 per lineal foot. 
 
 Interior Marble Work : 
 
 (For Wainscoting and Floors in Apartment houses and Office 
 Buildings.) 
 
 Wainscoting, Italian, White, $1.00 per sq. ft. set. 
 
 Wainscoting, Engli.sh Vein Italian, White, $1.05 per sq. foot, set. 
 
 Wain.scoting, Tennessee Marble, 80 cts. per sq. ft., set. 
 
 Wainscoting, Vermont White Marble, 95 cts. per sq. ft., set. 
 
 Wainscoting, Vermont Green Marble, $1.60 per sq. ft., set. 
 
 Floors. Marble and Mosaic. Marble Tile, 80 cts. per sq. foot, 
 laid; Mosaic, 75 cts. per square foot, laid. 
 
 To Estimate Cost of Radiation per Cubic Foot : 
 (Direct Radiation.) 
 
 Steam Heat — Allow 1 foot radiation for each 50 cu. ft. of space. 
 Figure radiation at 72 cts. per radiation foot. 
 
 Hot Water Heat — 'Allow 1 foot radiation for each 30 cu. ft. of 
 space. 
 
 Figure radiation at 75 cts. per radiation foot. 
 
 The above is for average rooms. If rooms have extraordinarily 
 large window exposure, increase radiation. If smaller window space 
 than average, decrease radiation. 
 
 Be careful in the distribution of radiation, as the success of a 
 heating plant depends largely upon arrangement and location of 
 radiators. 
 
 The Cost of Freight Car Repairs. The following is taken from 
 the Railway Age Gazette, June 14, 1907: One Western Road has 
 compiled figures for the fiscal year 1906 which distribute the repairs 
 to freight cars somewhat roughly under a few heads as follows: 
 
 Items Material % Labor % Total % 
 
 Wheels and axles 15.0 1.6 16.6 
 
 Remainder of trucks 9.2 3.3 12.5 
 
 Draft gear 12.2 7.2 19.4 
 
 Sills and under-framing .... 6.1 3.4 9.5 
 
 Super-structure 15.9 9.8 25.7 
 
 8.1 2.5 10.6 
 
132 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Items Material % Labor % Total % 
 
 Doors, side and end 1.6 1.0 2.6 
 
 Doors, grained 0.6 0.6 1.2 
 
 Roof 1.2 0.7 1.9 
 
 Total 69.9% 30.1% 100.00% 
 
 The average number of times each car was repaired was 5.5. 
 
 Comparative Costs of Repairing Steel and Wooden Cars on a 
 Harriman Line. The following is from the Railway Age Gazette, 
 June 14, 1907: A record of comparative costs of repairs to steel 
 and wooden cars on the Harriman line to February, 1907. was 
 given through the courtesy of Mr. Kruttschnitt, and represents a 
 period of 2.5 yrs. A statement gives the average number of cars 
 of each plant for the period, total cost of repairs for same, and the 
 average cost per car per month. 
 
 Average Average cost 
 
 number Total cost of repairs per 
 
 Kind of car of cars of repairs car per month 
 
 Steel cars, ballast 460 $71,291.81 $5.17 
 
 Box 2,304 108,323.29 1.57 
 
 Coal 1,594 165,959.57 3.47 
 
 Dump 300 39,322.92 4.37 
 
 Flat 2,289 72,024.30 1.05 
 
 Furniture 297 32,198.04 3.61 
 
 Gondola or ore 1,419 134,019.10 3.16 
 
 Oil 871 261,613.43 10.01 
 
 Stock 1,693 55,908.34 1.10 
 
 Total 11,227 $940,660.90 $2.79 
 
 Wooden cars, ballast 457 $65,560.89 $4.78 
 
 Box 6,247 735,405.53 3.92 
 
 Coal 127 14,329.81 3.76 
 
 Flat 514 15,699.75 1.02 
 
 Furniture 278 61,999.51 7.44 
 
 Oil 247 96,910.90 13.05 
 
 Stock 2,700 291,940.19 3.61 
 
 Total '. 10,568 $1,281,846.58 $4.04 
 
 The unusually high cost of repairs to the oil cars was due to the 
 fact that these cars were new equipment, upon which it was deemed 
 advisable to make a number of alterations wjhich were charged in 
 the repairs accounts. Current repairs on these cars are not ex- 
 pected to average any higher than on other equipment. 
 
 The gradual increase in the figures for average cost of repairs 
 per car per month in comparison with the past year's record is to 
 be noted. The average cost of repairs per car per month for the 
 steel cars has increased from $2.42 to $2.79, and for the wooden 
 cars, from $3.74 to $4.04, the percentages being respectively 15 
 and 8%. 
 
 Life and Maintenance of All-Steel Cars. The following article 
 by M. K. Barnum, Supt. of Motive Power, B. & O. R. R., is from 
 the Railway Age Gazette, March 3, 1916 : When the first steel cars 
 were built, the advocates of this form of construction claimed that 
 these cars would be practically indestructible, and their life so 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 133 
 
 much greater than that of wooden cars that it was very difRcult to 
 esthiiate it. A few years later, when steel cars came into general 
 use on the larger railroads, the estimates of their life were placed 
 at from 25 to 35 years, and in calculating the rate of depreciation, 
 many roads adopted three per cent, per year, whereas for wooden 
 cars, it had for a long time been calculated at six per cent. It is 
 now nearly 30 years since the first steel cars were built, and there 
 has been a considerable difference in their durability. This has 
 been found to vary according to the manner in which they have 
 been maintained, the part of the country in which they have been 
 mostly used, and somewhat with the character of the lading. 
 However, on the whole, the life of steel freight cars is found to be 
 much less than that originally expected. 
 
 So far as the writer has been able to learn, the oldest steel freight 
 car now in service belongs to the Bessemer & Lake Erie. It was 
 built in 189 6, twenty years ago. The frame of this car was made 
 of structural steel shapes, and it weighed nearly 42,000 lbs., about 
 4,000 or 5,000 lbs. more than many cars of the same capacity which 
 were built later. A photograph taken in 1915, shows that the design 
 of this car compares very favorably with the latest methods of 
 construction, and also indicates that it has been very well main- 
 tained. The record of repairs shows that it has been kept well 
 painted, this being the usual practice of the Bessemer & Lake Erie. 
 Some of the doors and hoppers required new sheets after about 
 nine years and at 14 or 15 years of age the floor sheets required 
 extensive renewals and the side sheets and stakes had some repairs. 
 At 18 yars it received a new floor, two new corner side sheets, eight 
 new hopper sheets and other repairs, and its appearance Indicates 
 that it may be good for at least 10 years more. 
 
 This car is apparently an exceptional case, for we find many 
 thousands of steel gondola and hopper cars only U and 16 years 
 old which have the sheets and underframes so weakened by cor- 
 rosion and service that they do not justify the application of new 
 material for general repairs, and many of these cars are now 
 being destroyed on account of the bodies having reached their limit 
 of life. This is about one-half the life which was originally ex- 
 pected from steel cars, and it is disappointing. It naturally follows 
 that those roads which have calculated the depreciation of steel 
 freight cars at three per cent., and now find many of them worn 
 out at the age of 14 to 16 years, must charge quite a large amount 
 to operating expenses when they have to be scrapped. If we assume 
 the average life of a steel gondola car which cost $1,000, as 16 
 years, and the scrap value of the car to be $200, five per cent, per 
 year would be about the proper rate to be used in figuring de- 
 preciation. 
 
 Life of Wooden Coal Cars. The records of a number of roads 
 owning large numbers of wooden coal cars show that their life 
 has varied between 16 and 20 years, and the average life has been 
 about 17 years. This class of equipment has usually been con- 
 demned and dismantled on account of the underframes and draft 
 attachments becoming worn out and too weak for the heavy modern 
 
134 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 trains of coal cars. But for this reason, the life of these cars 
 undoubtedly would have been about 20 years, which is the average 
 life of a box car. However, in comparing: the life of wooden coal 
 cars with that of steel, we should bear in mind the fact that most 
 of the wooden cars are of 20 and 30 tons' capacity and few, if any, 
 are over 40 tons, whereas few steel coal cars have been built of 
 less than 40 tons' capacity and the majority of them carry 50 tons, 
 while some are now being: built to carry 75 and 90 tons. 
 
 Life of Iron and Steel Bi'idges. The writer has obtained the 
 views of a number of bridge engineers and engineers of maintenance 
 of way, and most of them say that the life of iron and steel bridges 
 varies indefinitely, so far as actual durability is concerned, provided 
 they are kept well painted, as they usually are, and the ordinary 
 repairs are maintained. In some cases iron bridges 30 and 40 
 years old have been perfectly good so far as deterioration is con- 
 cerned and have only been removed on account of the locomotives 
 and cars becoming too heavy for their construction. Bridges which 
 are exposed to salt air and water corrode rapidly and their life is 
 comparatively short, and salt water drippings from refrigerator 
 cars used for shipping fresh meat tend to corrode the girders quite 
 rapidly where the amount of this class of business is large. In 
 comparing the life of iron and steel bridges with that of steel 
 freight cars, we find the principal differences to be that the bridges 
 are kept well painted and their life is not shortened as much by 
 corrosion as is that of freight cars which are not kept painted on 
 the inside. Manj- cars are not kept painted on the outside, and 
 they are subject to more severe and frequent shocks in service. 
 
 Life of Locomotive Tenders. The locomotive tender more closely 
 approaches the steel coal car in the service to which it is subjected 
 and will afford a fairer comparison on this account. Locomotive 
 tenders are usually kept well painted on the outside, and whenever 
 the locomotive receives general repairs, ordinarily once in about 
 two years, it is thoroughly cleaned and painted outside, and often 
 a coat of paint is applied to the coal space and to the top an(f 
 bottom sheets. Many locomotives, tliirty or more j'ears old, still 
 have the original tender in fairly good condition. On some of these 
 the inside sheets have been renewed, but in many the original out- 
 side sheets are still in a fair state of preservation. 
 
 Principal Causes of Short Life of Steel Cars. There are many 
 causes which tend to shorten the life of steel cars and the most 
 active of these- is corrosion. New steel cars are painted inside and 
 out, but very few, if any, railroads attempt to keep the inside 
 painted after the cars have gone into service, as it is thought that 
 the effect of loading and unloading coal, ore, etc., is to wear the 
 point off so quickly that it would not last long enough to pay for 
 the cost of the application. Therefore, the corrosion of the inside 
 of such cars generally starts within a few months after they go 
 into service. The paint on the outside varies in durability accord- 
 ing to quality, the number of coats applied, and the manner of 
 application, but it is nothing unusual to see cars only two or three 
 years old the sides of which have begun to rust quite badly and 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 135 
 
 cars only five years old with but little paint left on them. It is 
 pretty certain that if these cars had been repainted when two or 
 three years old, before the rust had become so general, the corro- 
 sion on the outside would have been stopped and the life of the side 
 sheets prolonged. 
 
 Some of the earlier steel cars were built so light, that they have 
 become weakened by corrosion sooner than those of heavier con- 
 struction, and such cars occasionally buckle up in trains. In design- 
 ing steel cars, it has been a nice problem to determine just how far 
 to go in putting in metal to increase the strength, and at the same 
 time to cut out metal where it is not essential so as to keep the 
 dead weight down to a minimum consistent with good service. In 
 this respect, the practice of different roads varies so that we still 
 see steel gondola cars of 100,000 lbs. capacity weighing only about 
 .38,000 Ib.s., while others of the same capacity weigh 7,000 or 8,000 
 lbs. more. This matter of keeping down the dead weight has 
 always been a hobby of such prominent railroad builders as E. H. 
 Harriman and J. J. Hill, and little argument is needed to prove the 
 desirability of keeping the dead weight as low as may be consistent 
 with satisfactory service. The tendency during the past four or 
 five years has been to increase, somewhat, the weight of cars, 
 but this has generally been done, not by using thicker sheets for 
 the sides and bottoms, but by strengthening the sills and reinforc- 
 ing the top edges of the sides and ends, and also by adding more 
 substantial draft gear. These Improvements should increase some- 
 what the life of these cars over tho.se of earlier design, but in view 
 of the heavier trains in which they are used it remains to be seen 
 how far this will prove true. These problems of keeping down 
 the dead weight of cars and eliminating those of weak design are 
 not new, for. in the proceedings of one of the earliest meetings of 
 the Master Car Builders' Association, held nearly 40 years ago, we 
 find a lengthy discussion about these same questions and at that- 
 time it was the con.sensus of opinion that in the 15-ton car the 
 maximum capacity had finally been reached. 
 
 Other causes of the short life of steel cars are the strains to which 
 they are subjected in unloading machines and aLso the use of sledges 
 and bars in pounding the sides and hoppers when the coal freezes 
 or clogs and requires loosening. Some of the later designs of 
 cars are provided with holes framed into the sides and hoppers, 
 through which bars can be introduced to loosen the coal when it 
 lodges. Another cause of shortening their life is the heavier trains 
 in which they are u.sed, resulting in greater shocks than those for 
 which they were originally designed. The effect of climate has 
 quite an imijortant bearing on the life of steel cars as there is a 
 noticeable difference in the rapidity of corrosion of cars used mostly 
 in proximity to salt water and to rivers where fogs are prevalent, 
 and those which are kept principally in service in the dry climate 
 west of the Missouri river. The writer's observations lead him to 
 believe that corrosion is probably 25 per cent, more rapid in the 
 vicinity of the salt water than in the drier climate of the interior. 
 The nature of the loading also affects the deterioration. One road 
 
136 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 which uses steel hopper cars almost entirely in iron ore service 
 reports that, " as yet none of them show any effects of deterioration 
 due to rust," although they are about 16 years old. Coal having 
 much sulphur and other impurities is more injurious to steel sheets 
 than the better grades of coal, and wet ashes from cinder pits are 
 especially active in hastening corrosion. 
 
 Difficult Problems. For the first five or six years of the life of a 
 steel car the repairs are light and it is easy to decide just what 
 work should be done, but after eight or ten years the floor and 
 hopper sheets of many cars have become so corroded that they must 
 be renewed, and in some cases the sides also rust through at the 
 ends and bottom while the rest of the sheets are worth preserving. 
 After a few years more many cars become so generally corroded 
 that it is doubtful whether the side sheets are strong enough to 
 make it advisable to rivet new bottom and hoppers to them. Then 
 the problem is whether to apply new side sheets, if the car has 
 already had a new bottom and hoppers ; or, in cases where these 
 have again become weakened, to give the car general repairs using 
 such of the original parts as may yet be serviceable ; or to build 
 an entire new body using the same trucks ; or to dismantle the car 
 entirely and eliminate it from the equipment list. Under these con- 
 ditions the program will be more or less affected by the capacity of 
 the car and the desirability of improvements in the design and 
 the operating mechanism. 
 
 When steel cars become damaged in wrecks, the question of re- 
 pairs is quite a different one from that of repairing wooden cars, as 
 in the latter case the damaged parts are removed and replaced with 
 new sills, siding, flooring, etc., at a considerable expense for ma- 
 terial. On the other hand, unless a steel car is damaged almost 
 beyond recognition, the various parts can generally be straightened 
 out and replaced on the car, if they were previously in good con- 
 dition. One road, owning over 100,000 steel coal cars, has lost 
 only about 20 of them on account of being damaged beyond repair, 
 but if these had been wooden cars, probably many hundreds of 
 them would have been destroyed within the same period. 
 
 On another road which has over 50,000 hopper and gondola cars, 
 only about two per cent, of the all-steel cars were damaged beyond 
 repair during the flrst 12 or 13 years of their life, but of the com- 
 posite cars having steel frames and wood sides and bottoms, about 
 11 per cent, were destroyed. This large difference was probably 
 affected to some extent by the fact that the composite cars were 
 not originally as well designed as the steel cars, but after making 
 due allowance for this, the all-steel cars seem to have the advantage 
 over the composite cars in the matter of durability. 
 
 Rebuilding Steel Cars. On a road which owns a large number 
 of steel gondola and hopper cars, the latter have been found to 
 reach the limit of the profitable life of the body in about 13 or 14 
 years. When the cars were from eight to ten years old, it became 
 necessary to renew the floor and hoppers, and in about four or 
 five years more, the sides and other parts had become practically 
 worn out, so that it was very doubtful whether the bodies were 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 137 
 
 worth the application of more new material for repairs. A study 
 of the subject indicated that an entire new body w^ould cost only 
 about $25 more than general repairs to the old body, retaining- such 
 parts as might be fit for further service. The trucks were in good 
 general condition so that with the renewal of some \vorn parts, they 
 could be made practically equal to new. The body after receiving 
 general repairs was estimated as worth only about 65 per cent, of 
 the value, new, of a gondola and 75 per cent, of a new hopper car, 
 whereas the general repairs would probably not extend the life 
 of the car more than six or eight years. The repaired car, if 
 destroyed on a foreign line, would have its depreciation calculated 
 from the date of its original construction, whereas the new body 
 would have its depreciation calculated from the time when the 
 body was built, which made a good argument in favor of a new 
 body. 
 
 Other points in favor of the new body were that with the experi- 
 ence obtained from the maintenance of the old bodies, some im- 
 provements in the design Avere possible which would make the 
 new body more satisfactory in service and better able to with- 
 stand the effects of heavy trains, dumping machines, etc. It would 
 also have the further advantage of not being on the repair tracks 
 as often as the repaired car. It was, therefore, decided to buy 
 new bodies to replace the old hopper bodies of 100,000 lbs. capacity 
 and use the air brakes, couplers, draft gear and trucks of the old 
 cars under the new bodies. In the case of the 80,000 lb. gondolas it 
 was not thought profitable to perpetuate a steel car of this capacity, 
 and therefore it was decided to use the trucks and other serviceable 
 parts under new box and stock car bodies of 80,000 lbs. capacity. 
 In cars which had reached the limit of their life on account of the 
 sheets being so generally weakened by corrosion there was not 
 enough good material left in the bodies to justify general repairs. 
 The bodies of these old steel cars were cut down by using a heavy 
 broad-axe to cut the thinner sheets. The oxy-acetylene blow-pipe 
 process is used to cut the angles, sills and heavier sheets. By 
 these methods, the total cost of cutting down a condemned steel 
 hopper car body to sizes suitable for sale, w^as less than $6, including 
 both labor and oxy-acetylene gas. Some of the end sills, gussets, 
 side stakes and other parts of the condemned cars were considered 
 worth saving for repairs to other cars which are to be maintained 
 for a time. 
 
 Painting Steel Freight Cars. There has been a good deal of dis- 
 cussion as to whether or not it pays to keep steel coal and ore cars 
 well painted and the majority of superintendents of motive power 
 believe that it would pay to do so, but many of the higher officers 
 who are responsible for the entire cost of operation seem to have 
 concluded that it does not pay to paint them except when they 
 receive new sheets or the letters and numbers need to be brightened 
 up so that their ownership and identity can be distinguished. A 
 committee of the Master Car Builders' Association investigated this 
 subject several years ago and their conclusions as presented at the 
 1908 convention were as follows; 
 
138 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 " We cannot be too emphatic as to the necessity of taking the 
 proper care of the exterior, and regret that we are not able to 
 give the interior the same care. 
 
 " The painting of the inside of steel cars has been thought by- 
 some to be beneficial, but your committee can see no lasting results 
 in this, and do not recommend it, but is of the opinion that coating 
 the interior of the cars about once every six months with black oil 
 would act as a preservative." 
 
 During the following year a number of cars were painted with 
 different mixtures for test purposes and special attention was given 
 to painting the insides of the cars. At the 1909 convention the 
 committee reported upon the painting of the inside of cars as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 '* One car bearing mixture No. 4 was examined after being in 
 service 4 months and 17 days and shows the inside well preserved, 
 but considerable of the paint gone from the bottom, yet there seemed 
 to be retardation of the rusting and no accumulation of scale. This 
 mixture shows better results than mixtures Nos. 1, 2, and 3." 
 (Mixture No. 4 consisted of 30 lbs. of tar, 40 lbs. of aniline oil and 
 170 lbs. of corn oil.) 
 
 However, the committee's conclusions were, " It will be a very 
 hard matter to find a preservative that will take care of the in- 
 terior. The best preservative is to keep the cars in active service. 
 Some steel cars that have been in active service for 10 years have 
 the plates in excellent condition and from appearances, they are 
 good for 10 years more. It is a pretty well known fact that where 
 cars stand idle for a couple of months, the deterioration of plates 
 on the inside is equal to two or three years' service." 
 
 Similar opinions were expressed by several of the members of the 
 Association who took part in the discussion. So far as the exterior 
 of the car was concerned, practically all those discussing the report 
 gave it as their opinion that they should be kept well painted. 
 Nevertheless, this practice has not been generally followed. 
 
 As to the frequency with which steel cars should be painted, 
 there is quite a difference in opinion. Some roads paint them once 
 in every three years, others once in four or five years and others 
 only when they receive new sheets in the course of repairs. Esti- 
 mates of the cost of painting also vary widely, and as might be ex- 
 pected, those roads which paint their cars most infrequently are 
 the ones on which the cost of painting is high, varying from $5 to 
 $10 for each painting, while those roads which keep their cars well 
 painted report the cost as varying from $6 to $1 for each painting. 
 There would naturally be a considerable variation in the cost per 
 painting according to the kind of material, the class of labor used 
 and the condition of the car when painted, but a comparison of 
 the figures indicates that it cost but little more during the life 
 of the car to keep it well painted than it does to paint it only when 
 the car becomes badly corroded and requires more thorough 
 treatment. 
 
 The difference in the average age and condition of such cars 
 as have been kept well painted and those which have not been so 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 139 
 
 well maintained, makes it seem fair to conclude that thorough 
 painting- will probably prolong the life of steel freight cars between 
 25 and 50 per cent. Assuming that the average life of a car is 16, 
 years, and that the cost per painting would be $5, it seems very 
 probable that an expenditure of $25 or $30 additional for painting 
 would prolong its life one third, or about five years. This is a con- 
 servative estimate and it would certainly be a good investment 
 when applied to cars costing $1,000 apiece. Some other arguments 
 in favor of keeping steel cars well painted are, that it will help to 
 prevent their becoming weakened by corrosion so that they are 
 liable to buckle up in hea\'y trains, also that the appearance of 
 cars will be much better and although this may have no commer- 
 cial value, yet it tends to create a favorable impression about the 
 owning road. The arguments which are often advanced against 
 keeping steel coal and coke cars thoroughly painted, seem fre- 
 quently to be applied to steel underframes and other parts of cars 
 which do not come in contact with the lading, and these are often 
 found to be so corroded that their life is much shortened. 
 
 Steel Passenger Cars. The estimated life of steel passenger cars 
 has been placed by various authorities at from 30 to 50 years, 
 but as none of them are yet half that age there are no data at 
 hand on which to base any definite conclusions. The elements 
 affecting the deterioration of steel passenger cars are different from 
 those which apply to freight cars, but several years' experience with 
 such cars shows conclusively that they must be kept well painted 
 or they will deteriorate more rapidly than wooden cars. Cases have 
 been noticed where the doors and window frames which were made 
 of pressed steel .shapes, have begun to rust badly within two or 
 three years and for this reason the Pullman Company and some 
 railroads have returned to the use of wooden window sash in their 
 more recent equipment. Also some of the railroads that used 
 metal doors on their first steel passenger train cars found so many 
 objections to them that they have been discarded and wooden doors 
 used in the later cars. The parts of steel passenger cars which 
 start first to rust are the roofs and the moldings or joints between 
 the sheets at the clerestories and eaves, and there can be no doubt 
 about the importance of keeping these parts well painted. 
 
 Conchisions. 1. The average life of steel gondola and hopper cars 
 will probably be about 16 years, judging by the records of those cars 
 which have already reached their limit of life. 
 
 2. The depreciation of steel gondola and hopper cars should be 
 calculated at about five per cent. 
 
 3. It will pay to keep steel cars well painted on account of pre- 
 serving their strength and improving their appearance and extend- 
 ing their life. 
 
 Since the notes used for this article were made, there was pre- 
 sented at the December meeting of the Pittsburg Railway Club a 
 paper on " The Life of a Steel Freight Car," by S. Lynn, master car 
 builder of the Pitt.sburg & Lake Erie, and it is interesting to note 
 that the points mentioned in his paper as well as those brought 
 out in the discussion, agree in most of the essential facts with the 
 
140 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 observations and conclusions contained in this article. Two state- 
 ments made in the discussion are especially worth quoting, namely : 
 
 *' If the steel car was given reasonable treatment and repairs 
 made when needed, and repainted when the steel became exposed 
 to the weather, the renewing of some of the parts would not become 
 necessary for a longer period than is now the case." 
 
 " One of the most important things determining the life of a steel 
 car is the question of maintenance. If you spend the right amount 
 of money at the right time, you can get prolonged life and service." 
 
 Cost of Locomotive Repairs. Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 
 7, 1910, has the following: The costs of maintaining locomotives 
 as submitted to the Interstate Commerce Commission for the fiscal 
 year ending June 30, 1909, are interesting. In the following table 
 of costs. Table XI, for which we are indebted to the American En- 
 gineer, the unit employed corresponds closely to the one recom- 
 mended by the committee. This is the " work unit," which is equal 
 to traction effort in pounds multiplied by locomotive miles and 
 divided by 1,000,000, the latter figure being an arbitrary one used 
 for reducing results to a convenient size for comparison. The wide 
 variation in costs is due to differences in operating conditions — 
 mainly, differences in grades and curvature — prevailing on the dif- 
 ferent roads. No division is made between running and shop 
 repairs. 
 
 TABLE XI. COSTS OF MAINTAINING LOCOMOTIVES PER 
 WORK UNIT 
 
 New England : 
 
 New York, New Haven & Hartford $3.30 
 
 Boston & Maine 2.75 
 
 Average 3.03 
 
 Eastern District ; 
 
 Pennsylvania R. R 3.50 
 
 Pennsylvania Co 2.80 
 
 New York Central 2.25 
 
 Baltimore «& Ohio 2.35 
 
 Erie 4.80 
 
 Lake Shore &. Michigan Southern 1.95 
 
 Philadelphia &, Reading 3.65 
 
 Lehigh Valley 3.65 
 
 Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 2.45 
 
 Average 3.04 
 
 Central and Southern District : 
 
 P., C, C. & St. L 2.90 
 
 Southern Ry 2.45 
 
 Louisville & Nashville 3.00 
 
 Illinois Central 3.80 
 
 Average 3.04 
 
 Middle Western District : 
 
 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 3.20 
 
 Chicago & Northwestern 2.70 
 
 Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific 3.30 
 
 Missouri Pacific 3. JO 
 
 Union Pacific ^4^ 
 
 St. Louis «& San Francisco ^'^ 
 
 Average 3.30 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 141 
 
 Southwestern District: 
 
 Southern Pacific 4.35 
 
 Atchison, Topeka «& Santa Fe 3.30 
 
 Average 3.83 
 
 Northwestern District : 
 
 Northern Pacific 2.40 
 
 Chicago, Milwauliee & St, Paul 2.70 
 
 Great Northern 2.15 
 
 Canadian Pacific 3.90 
 
 Average 2.42 
 
 Cost of Repairs for Polyphase Motors. The following, Table XII, 
 is part of a table, from the Journal of Electricity, May 1, 1917, 
 showing the approximate cost of repairs for polyphase motors used 
 originally in connection with an article which appeared in the 
 January 1, 1916, issue of the Electrican Review and Western Elec- 
 trician. This table has been revised to take into account the 
 increased cost of the materials entering into such repairs and 
 therefore bring the estimates more in line with the present cost of 
 this work. The subject matter of the original article is given in 
 the following paragraphs in a condensed and slightly changed form. 
 
 The table is suitable for 60-cycle two or three-phase squirrel- 
 cage motors wound for any of the standard voltages from 110 to 
 550 inclusive. 
 
 For most of the sizes listed the costs were arrived at by taking 
 the average cost of repairs for a given frame and then applying this 
 cost to the various ratings built in that frame. This will be ap- 
 parent by comparing the costs for the different ratings. Take for 
 example, frame G. The cost of rewinding the stator is $34.75, 
 This figure has been applied to the following ratings all of which 
 are built in that frame: 1 horsepower, 900 revolutions per minute; 
 1.5 horsepower, 1200 revolutions per minute, and 3 horsepower, 1800 
 revolutions per minute. The frame sizes specified do not apply 
 to any particular line of motors, but were arbitrarily chosen for the 
 purpose of this article. However, the relative output of a given 
 frame at the different speeds will be found to agree quite closely 
 with several lines of induction motors on the market. 
 
 These estimates may also be used equally well for motors of 
 other frequencies by taking the figures applying to a 60-cycle rating 
 built in the same frame. This comparison can be easily made by 
 referring to the manufacturer's rating and dimension sheets for that 
 particular line of motors. The tables may be further applied to 
 slip-ring or phase-wound motors, since the cost of rewinding the 
 rotor of such a machine will not differ materially from the cost of 
 rewinding its stator. On this basis the cost of completely rewinding 
 a 10 horsepower, 1800 revolutions per minute slip-ring motor built 
 in frame J will be $119, or $59.50 for the rotor or stator separately. 
 
 The estimates for rewinding the stator or resoldering the rotor 
 do not include any preliminary work required to put the stator 
 structure in fit condition to receive the new winding or work re- 
 quired on the rotor before the actual resoldering can be started. 
 Jn other words, the ^gures cover only the actual rewinding or 
 
142 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XII. COST OF REPAIRS FOR 60-CYCLE POLYPHASE 
 
 MOTORS 
 
 
 f=5 
 
 MfL," 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 b. 
 
 ^11 
 
 
 '3 
 
 faJD 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 
 .2 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 'C 
 
 if 
 
 -^ o 
 
 byn-i-) 
 CD 
 
 bo 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 bo 
 
 C 
 
 t 
 
 .5 
 
 1200 
 
 c 
 
 26.25 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 .5 
 
 1800 
 
 A 
 
 24.25 
 
 2.25 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 .75 
 
 1200 
 
 E 
 
 28.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 .75 
 
 1800 
 
 B 
 
 24.25 
 
 2.25 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 1 
 
 900 
 
 G 
 
 34.75 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 1 
 
 1200 
 
 F 
 
 28.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.00 
 
 1 
 
 1800 
 
 C 
 
 26.25 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.5 
 
 1200 
 
 G 
 
 34.75 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.5 
 
 1800 
 
 E 
 
 28.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 2 
 
 1200 
 
 G 
 
 34.75 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 2 
 
 1800 
 
 F 
 
 28.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.00 
 
 3 
 
 900 
 
 I 
 
 53.50 
 
 6.50 
 
 5.25 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 3 
 
 1200 
 
 H 
 
 48.50 
 
 4.75 
 
 3.55 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 3 
 
 1800 
 
 G 
 
 34.75 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 5 
 
 900 
 
 K 
 
 73.75 
 
 8.75 
 
 8.05 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 5 
 
 1200 
 
 I 
 
 53.50 
 
 6.50 
 
 5.25 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 5 
 
 1800 
 
 H 
 
 48.50 
 
 4.75 
 
 3.55 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 7.5 
 
 900 
 
 L 
 
 70.75 
 
 12.00 
 
 7.85 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 7.5 
 
 1200 
 
 J 
 
 5f).50 
 
 7.00 
 
 6.60 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 7.5 
 
 1800 
 
 I 
 
 53 50 
 
 6.50 
 
 5.25 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 10 
 
 . 900 
 
 M 
 
 75.00 
 
 13.25 
 
 7.85 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 10 
 
 1200 
 
 L 
 
 70.75 
 
 12.00 
 
 7.85 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 10 
 
 1800 
 
 J 
 
 59.50 
 
 7.00 
 
 6.60 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 15 
 
 720 
 
 P 
 
 93.75 
 
 15.50 
 
 10.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 15 
 
 900 
 
 N 
 
 71.25 
 
 14.25 
 
 10.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 15 
 
 1200 
 
 M 
 
 75.00 
 
 13.25 
 
 7.85 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 15 
 
 1800 
 
 K 
 
 73.75 
 
 8.75 
 
 8.05 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 20 
 
 600 
 
 S 
 
 156.25 
 
 19.00 
 
 12.10 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 20 
 
 900 
 
 P 
 
 93.75 
 
 15.50 
 
 10.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 20 
 
 1200 
 
 N 
 
 71.25 
 
 14.25 
 
 10.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 20 
 
 1800 
 
 M 
 
 75.00 
 
 13.25 
 
 7.85 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 25 
 
 600 
 
 S 
 
 156.25 
 
 19.00 
 
 12.10 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 25 
 
 720 
 
 S 
 
 156.25 
 
 19.00 
 
 12.10 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 25 
 
 900 
 
 R 
 
 143.75 
 
 17.75 
 
 12.00 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 25 
 
 1200 
 
 P 
 
 93.75 
 
 15.50 
 
 10.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 35 
 
 600 
 
 T 
 
 187.50 
 
 20.50 
 
 19.05 
 
 3.50 
 
 6.25 
 
 35 
 
 720 
 
 S 
 
 156.25 
 
 19.00 
 
 12.10 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 •35 
 
 900 
 
 S 
 
 156.25 
 
 19.00 
 
 12.10 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 35 
 
 1200 
 
 R 
 
 143 75 
 
 17.75 
 
 12.00 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 50 
 
 600 
 
 V 
 
 218.75 
 
 21.75 
 
 30.85 
 
 3.50 
 
 6.25 
 
 50 
 
 720 
 
 V 
 
 218.75 
 
 21.75 
 
 30.85 
 
 3.50 
 
 6.25 
 
 50 
 
 900 
 
 T 
 
 187 50 
 
 20.50 
 
 19.95 
 
 3.50 
 
 6.25 
 
 50 
 
 1200 
 
 S 
 
 156.25 
 
 19.00 
 
 12.10 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 resoldering', as the case may be. However, this preliminary work 
 is frequently necessary and must always be considered in making 
 up estimates. It. is due to a number of causes. 
 
 For example, the motor bearing linings may have worn down 
 sufficiently to allow the rotor to rub against the stator. If the 
 motor has operated very long in this condition the laminations of 
 either or both stator and rotor will, probably be damaged, which 
 may require considerable work to put them into their original 
 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 143 
 
 condition. Again, a defective or broken bearing- may injure the 
 shaft. Sometimes this damage will be serious enough to require 
 a new shaft. New bearing linings will probably be required in 
 either case. Burned-out windings may also be accompanied by 
 fusing of parts of the stator laminations. These fused portions 
 must necessarily be removed before actual replacement of the coils 
 can be commenced. 
 
 In a rotor which has been badly overheated, allowing the melted 
 solder to be thrown out, arcing is frequently set up between the 
 rotor bars and end rings, causing serious burning. When this 
 occurs, new end rings are often needed, either for one or both 
 ends of the rotor, or perhaps part of the bars will need to be re- 
 placed. With bolted end-ring construction there is also liability 
 of trouble. The expansion of the end rings, caused by the excessive 
 heat, tends to snap the bolts between the rotor bars and rings, 
 producing the most favorable conditions for arcing. Burnouts of 
 this kind, for either soldered or bolted construction, are quite 
 common in connection with motors which have been started from 
 time to time under loads requiring heavy starting torque with long 
 periods of acceleration. Two or three-phase motors allowed to 
 operate single-phase for any considerable length of time may also 
 develop troubles of this nature. Very often the rotor will be badly 
 damaged, while the stator has been only slightly overheated. Con- 
 versely, in some instances, the stator will be burned out, while the 
 rotor is uninjured. 
 
 From these points it will be clear that estimates should not be 
 made until after the motor has been given a careful inspection, 
 otherwise there is likely to be a large discrepancy between the esti- 
 mated and actual cost of the work. If an inquiry of this kind must 
 be handled by letter it is not possible to make an inspection, but 
 the dealer can at least detail clearly just what his estimate covers 
 and point out the possibility of additional work that may be needed. 
 Our readers will appreciate that estimates of this kind can be only 
 approximately correct at the best. However, the table has been 
 carefully compiled from data based upon a large number of actual 
 repair jobs and it is believed these estimates will be found quite 
 conservative. 
 
 Life of Wooden Stave Pipe. Data, August, 191.5, says: The 
 tabulation gives general data on the life of fir and redwood pipe 
 under continuous water pressure. These data are summarized from 
 statistics on 79 wooden pipe lines compiled by D. C. Henny, Con- 
 sulting Engineer, United States Reclamation Service. Continuous 
 stave and machine banded pipe are both considered. 
 
 Wood Condition Life, years 
 
 Fir Uncoated, buried in tight soil 20 
 
 Fir Uncoated, buried in loose soil 4-7 
 
 Fir Uncoated, in air 12-20 
 
 Redwood Uncoated, buried in tight soil, loam or sand, 
 
 and gravel Over 25 
 
 Fir Well coated, buried in tight soil 25 
 
 Fir Well coated, buried in loose soil 15-20 
 
144 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Maintaining Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six Years. 
 
 The data in the accompanying table XIII taken from Elec- 
 trical World, Dec. 16, 1916, show what it has cost a Middle 
 West central station exclusive of labor charges to maintain four 
 10-ft. by 10-ft. chain-grate stokers and their furnaces during tlie 
 six years they have been in service. It will be noted that the total 
 expense for material has been $2,735.75 or an average of $114.99 
 per stoker per year. Of this amount $2,354.87 has been spent for 
 tile and fireclay, while $400.88 has been spent for stoker parts, 
 
 TABLE XIII. COST OF STOKER AND FURNACE REPAIRS 
 FOR SIX YEARS 
 
 , Cost of repairs > 
 
 For stoker parts 
 and iron parts . For tile 
 
 or arch and and 
 
 feed gate fireclay Total 
 
 1910 $60.00 $60.00 
 
 1911 14.00 $142.25 156.25 
 
 1912 61.12 823.17 884.29 
 
 1913 40.50 67.50 101.00 
 
 1914 3.00 217.00 220.00 
 
 1915 33.25 190.25 223.50 
 
 1916 189.01 894.70 1,083.71 
 
 $400.88 $2,334.87 $2,735.75 
 
 Total per stoker per year $16.70 $97.29 $114.99 
 
 and steel and iron parts of arches and feed gates. The cost per 
 stoker per year for tile and fireclay was $97.29, and the cost per 
 stoker per year for all castings and steel parts was $16.70. In 
 other words, the cost of the tile and fireclay represented 85 per cent, 
 of the total material maintenance cost. 
 
 A more detailed analysis of the cost of maintaining metal parts 
 shows that the cost of replacing operating parts of the four stokers 
 was but $8.77 per stoker per year, which is a very small percentage 
 of -$1,800, the present cost of such a unit without firebrick. Further 
 study of data concerning the cost of the tile also shows that in 
 1912, when the maintenance cost was high, one complete 9. 5 -ft. by 
 6.5-ft. arch, and fifty large 4-in. by 12-in. by 24-in. bridge wall tile 
 were purchased at a total cost of $498.22, which, helped appreciably 
 to increase the total for the year. 
 
 W. M. Duncan, vice-president of the Illinois Stoker Company, 
 which supplied these units, in commenting on the data said that 
 since the maintenance cost on the stokers has been so low — $8.77 
 per stoker per year — operating companies should not consider it a 
 hardship if the concerns manufacturing such apparatus required 
 the purchaser to keep rep.air parts in stock. 
 
 Cross References and References. Depreciation and repair data 
 appear throughout this book, and can be found by u.se of the in- 
 dex under the name of each clas.s of plant unit. Gillette's " Hand- 
 book of Cost Data," al.so his " Rock Excavation " and his " Earth 
 Excavation," contain dej^reciation and repair data relating to con- 
 struction machinery. Consult also Dana's " Handbook of Con- 
 struction Plant." 
 
CHAPTER III 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 The cost of a building is most easily estimated by the cubic foot 
 of contents and the square foot of area, and such unit costs are 
 frequently used and are of great value for preliminary estimates. 
 For this reason the cost data in this chapter are for the most part 
 based on these units, although the various functional costs such as 
 bricklaying, concrete forms, carpentry, etc., are also discussed. 
 The comparative costs and economy of various types of buildings 
 are treated as well as complete costs of typical buildings. For fur- 
 ther data on this subject the reader is referred to the following 
 books: Cost Data, Earth. Excavation and Rock Excavation by Hal- 
 bert P. Gillette, Concrete Construction, Methods and Costs by 
 Gillette and Hill and Construction Plant by R. T. Dana. 
 
 Economic Principles of Building Construction. The three princi- 
 pal elements that are essential to an economic investigation of a 
 building problem are : 
 
 (1) The total cost of the structure, including the cost of the land 
 that is necessary for it, or gross investment. 
 
 (2; The amount that can be borrowed on reasonable terms upon 
 the completed structure, or the lien. 
 
 (3) The net periodic receipts that can reasonably be counted on. 
 In any discussion of this kind, abnormal and accidental considera- 
 tions must be eliminated from the problem. The owner is sup- 
 posed to protect himself from loss by fire through fire insurance, 
 and he must assume the risk from such accidents as he cannot pro- 
 tect himself against, such as earthquake, riots, wars, etc. The 
 return that he receives upon his investment should be greater than 
 the return that he can receive by investing his money in other 
 ways free from those risks by an amount sufficiently greater to 
 compensate him for the risk which he runs. If he can invest his 
 money at 5% without risk it would be unwise for him to invest 
 it at 59c in a building subject to uncompensated dangers. The so- 
 called unearned increment upon his land, its conservative prospec- 
 tive increase in value from year to year, or from decade to decade, 
 may be considered as offsetting to some degree various risks of 
 loss. The depreciation in the value of the structure by age is some- 
 thing which can be computed and should be provided for in the 
 computations by an estimated addition to the operating expense, 
 this addition to be set aside in the form of an annuity toward a 
 depreciation reserve. 
 
 The above mentioned three economic elements may each be sub- 
 
 145 
 
146 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 divided into various factors, each of which is susceptible of indi- 
 vidual investig-ation, and the combination for any particular case 
 may be expressed for precision and convenience in an algebraic 
 formula or by a combination of diagrams in such a manner that 
 the bearing and influence of each factor or variations in any 
 factor or combination of factors may be observed almost at a 
 glance, to the end that we can solve a multitude of problems that 
 are ordinarily complicated and complex, with surprising rapidity 
 and without many of the uncertainties that invariably attend the 
 study of such a problem when it is not divided into .its principal 
 factors. 
 
 In grouping the various elements of a problem of this kind so 
 as to make them most amenable to study there are two principal 
 methods, the first being to collect the several factors in groups of 
 algebraic equations and the other by expressing them in diagrams. 
 While it is often very helpful to say that one factor in a design 
 is more important than another, the most desirable solution of such 
 a problem requires one to be able to say how much more important 
 it is. The solution, if possible, must be quantitative instead of 
 qualitative; and this is the excuse, if one be needed, for intro- 
 ducing a considerable amount of algebra into the present subject. 
 We have first to make a general solution containing what appear 
 to be nearly all the principal factors involved and then by sub- 
 stituting in the equations the factors that belong to a large class 
 of structures in a city such as New, York to secure certain sub- 
 general formulas in convenient form for use. Where an architect 
 has a problem which meets the conditions and in which the fac- 
 tors have the values which have been assumed for these sub- 
 general equations, he can use them directly; otherwise, he can 
 substitute the factors that he finds common to his practice, and 
 prepare sub-general equations and diagrams for himself. • 
 
 * * Let L — The area of the lot occupied by the building in square 
 
 feet. 
 4. * S r= , " area of the building, in squai'e feet. 
 
 * I = " ratio of building area to lot area. 
 
 * b = " ratio of rentable building area to total building 
 
 area. 
 « 22=:" tax rate on full value. 
 
 * m—" ratio of the amount borrowed on mortgage to the 
 
 total value. 
 
 * If =: " rate of interest on the mortgage. 
 
 * -y = " ratio of rented space to total rentable space. 
 
 * g =: " ratio of overhead charges, commissions, etc., to 
 
 gross receipts. 
 
 * f :=z " ratio of annual charges, superintendence, repairs, 
 
 painting, general labor, insurance, fuel, lights, 
 depreciation, etc., to total cost of the building. 
 
 * X = " ratio of net receipts to equity. 
 
 ° C — " cost of the land per square foot in dollars. 
 
 ° B = " cost of the building per square foot of floor area, 
 
 in dollars. 
 ° A = " annual gross rental per square foot of rented floor 
 
 area, average in dollars. 
 " Y — " annual net receipts, in dollars. 
 
 71 = " number of rentable stories in the building. 
 ° F z= " cost of the building per cubic foot. 
 
BUILDINGS 147 
 
 h = " average height of one story. 
 S- LI 
 B — Fh 
 
 Units marked * * are areas. 
 
 Units marked * are ratios. 
 
 Units marked " are in dollars. 
 
 Now, the capital investment will be CL for land, and 
 
 SnB for the building. 
 The total investment in dollars — CL -f kinB 
 The amount placed on mortgage — ( CL -\- 871B ) m 
 The " Equity " or cost less the amount of the mortgage = (CL + 
 IS71B) (1 — m) 
 
 Per year in 
 dollars 
 
 The gross receipts will be AnSbv 
 
 The operating expenses will be AnSbvg 
 
 + SnBf 
 
 The interest on the mortgage will be Mm (CL + »S'wB) 
 
 The taxes will be (CL + HnB ) R 
 
 Therefore, assuming that the total number of rentable stories 
 equals the total number of stories, 
 
 (1) Yz=:Bn lAbv (1 — g) — Bf] — (CL -^ SnB) {R -j-Mm) 
 
 Y 
 
 (2) and :? = 
 
 (CL + SnB) (1 — m) 
 
 8 
 Now, LI — S, and L = — 
 I 
 
 Y 1 Y 
 
 . X — = — ■ 
 
 (C \-SnB) (1 — m) S( \-nB) (1 — m) 
 
 I I 
 
 Y may be written = 
 
 C ' 
 Sn lAbv (1 — fif)— B/]— S ( [-uB) (^R + Mm) 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 n lAhv il — g)—Bn— (, [-uB) {R + Mm) 
 
 . X -■ 
 
 C 
 ( [-nB) (1 — m) 
 
 _ n S.Ahv {l — g)—Bn {Mm + R) 
 
 _ __ 
 
 ( \-nB) (1 — m) (1 — m) 
 
 Finally, 
 
 Ahv (1 — g) — Bf {Mm-\-R) 
 
 (3) ^ = -^^ 
 
 ( ^ B) (l — w). (1 — w) 
 
 nl 
 
 All but four of the factors in this last equation represent ratios, 
 and these four represent: 
 
148 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 A — The rental per square foot of rented space, which depends 
 upon the kind of building- and the locality where it is erected. 
 
 B — The cost of the building per square foot of floor area, which 
 depends upon the kind of building. 
 
 C — The cost of the land per square foot, which depends upon 
 the locality. 
 
 n — The number of stories in the building. 
 
 The first three are functions of the locality and kind of build- 
 ing. 
 
 y is a function of the times being 100 ^r in periods of great pros- 
 perity and averaging in normal times 90%, more or less, depending 
 upon the skill of the renting agent, the genei'al desirability of the 
 building, etc. 
 
 t\, b and I are functions of the architect's design, together with B. 
 
 M and «i are practically fixed functions, and g and / depend 
 upon the kind of building and the purposes for which it is used. 
 . Classification of Factors. — We may then say that the kind of 
 building controls factors A, B, g, f. 
 
 The architect's design controls factors n, 1), I, together with B. 
 
 The locality controls factor C. 
 
 And there are independent factors : v, vi, M, R. 
 
 R in New York City is supposed to be about 1.8%. The city au- 
 thorities try to assess property a little under its true value, but 
 of late 3'ears the assessments in many sections have been over 
 rather than under, the true amount. On a rising real estate market 
 the assessments are generally too low. while on a falling one, the 
 assessments are generallj' too high. For average conditions a fair 
 value for R would be 1.75% 
 
 m — The percentage of the true value that can be borrowed on 
 mortgage at 5% is generally nearly 6673%, so that tn may be taken 
 for average conditions at. two-thirds, when M equals 5%. 
 
 I — The percentage of the total land area occupied by the building 
 varies with the size of the building, the general plan of the archi- 
 tect's design, and the local conditions as to neighboring buildings, 
 etc. The ruling conditions are light, air and architectural sym- 
 metry, and buildings on street corners are at a considerable advan- 
 tage in this regard. Tall structures, with low adjoining buildings 
 of a permanent nature are likewise at an advantage if it is reason- 
 ably certain that the adjoining property will not be built up. A 
 20-story building alongside of a 10-story one which is substantially 
 built but with footings and columns designed for only ten stories is 
 likely to enjoy an outlook over the roof of the ten-story one so long 
 as the latter pays a fair return on its cost. At the best, however, 
 there is a decided risk in counting upon such conditions for as many 
 years as will represent the life of the modern steel or concrete 
 building. 
 
 V — The percentage of efficiency in renting will very naturally 
 vary with the times and conditions. It will never remain 100% 
 for any great length of time, because when a section is fully rented 
 at fair rates new construction and consequent competition is stimu- 
 lated. Most real estate men consider that 10% for vacancies is a 
 
BUILDINGS 149 
 
 fair value for a term of years. Therefore, we may take v as equal 
 to 90%, or 0.9. 
 
 & — The percentage of the whole building space that brings a 
 gross return, depends upon the space necessary for halls, stairways 
 and elevatgrs. 
 
 A — The rate per sq. ft. for ground floor rentals and that for 
 upper floors varies in different sections of the city and also with the 
 purposes for which the floors are used. Avenues generally rent 
 higher than side streets, and retail buildings at higher rates than 
 wholesale ones. In Kew York, and probably the same is true for 
 most other large cities, the unit rentals on space for the most ex- 
 pensive luxuries are the highest, as, for example, jewelry and art 
 showrooms, bric-a-brac shops of the most " exclusive " kind, mil- 
 linery stores and haberdasheries. Space for banking and trust 
 company buildings also comes high, and the rates for this purpose 
 are very stable in comparison with those for mercantile purposes. 
 
 g — The percentage of gross rentals charged by agents for han- 
 dling the property, negotiating leases, etc., ranges from 3% to 5%, 
 with a general average of 4%. 
 
 h — • The height of the average story in the commercial buildings 
 that are built today varies a little, but will average from ten to 
 twelve feet. 
 
 F — The cost of the building per cu. ft. will vary a ^ood deal, 
 depending upon the quality of the workmanship, the kind of con- 
 struction, whether fireproof or not, the skill of the architect, the 
 nature of the terms on which the building is erected and the credit 
 of the builder. It depends also very largely on the skill of the 
 engineer who supervises the layout of columns, etc., and upon the 
 character of the ground underlying the foundations. A building in 
 which the columns are uniformly spaced in one or both directions is 
 very considerably less expensive than with irregular column spacing, 
 owing to the lower cost of fabricating steel on a standardized design 
 than on one of dissimilar sections. Moreover, with uniformity in 
 the design the actual amount of steel in the frame is likely to be 
 decidedly less than when irregular panels are employed. The same 
 is largely true of reinforced concrete and composite structures. The 
 building's height likewise affects the unit cost, because the taller it 
 is the greater the column and footing loads, so that the cost of 
 columns and footings is about proportional to the square of the 
 number of .stories to be carried, other conditions being equal. 
 Since, however, the cost for beams, girders, floors, walls, ceiling, 
 windows and door openings, etc., will be proportional to the cubic 
 contents of the building, and these items in the aggregate are far 
 in excess of the columns, footings and cellar excavation, it may be 
 assumed for preliminary calculations that the cost of the building 
 is nearly proportional to its volume. The location of the building 
 mu.st be carefully considered in' the preliminary calculations, how- 
 ever. The " political " conditions, municipal regulations and street 
 traffic all have much to do with the cost of erection. 
 
 / — The percentage of the original cost of the building consumed 
 in annual charges will depend on the character of the service ren- 
 
150 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 dered to tenants. This is high in office buildings and low in com- 
 mercial ones and warehouses. The element of annual depreciation 
 is one that depends on the life of the building and the rate at which 
 a sinking fund can conveniently be invested. 
 
 Buildings-Factor Costs. Harold Green (Engineering and Con- 
 tracting, Feb. 3, 1915) states that there is no fixed set of elements 
 making up a land-and-buildings factor. In the majority of cases, 
 however, the elements discussed below will include all the costs 
 making up a complete factor for the purpose of a square foot 
 distribution to departments or production centers as the cost- 
 accounting practice may require. Thus the elements which have 
 been selected are almost universal, while those particular to special 
 industries are not considered. A classification of these elements 
 together with an explanation of how the cost of each was deter- 
 mined follows : 
 
 (1) Fixed charges on land. 
 
 (2) Fixed charges on buildings. 
 
 (3) Fixed charges on building fixtures. 
 
 (4) Power and light. 
 
 (5) Heat. 
 
 (6) Building expense. 
 
 Costs of Elements. Fixed charges consist of interest, taxes, insur- 
 ance, depreciation, and repairs, and these are calculated as a per- 
 centage of the appraisal value of the land, buildings, and fixtures. 
 The interest rate was taken at 5 per cent, in all cases. Tax and 
 insurance rates were determined for each particular case. These 
 rates were quite uniform, however, and 1 per cent, for taxes and 0.5 
 per cent, for insurance would be fair averages. On buildings the 
 rates for depreciation and repairs averaged 2 per cent, and 3 per 
 cent, respectively, while for buildings fixtures, which consist of 
 steam and water piping, electric light wiring, elevators, sprinkler 
 systems, etc., rates of 5 per cent, for depreciation and 5 per cent, 
 for repairs were used. 
 
 For convenience these rates are summarized in the following 
 table : 
 
 Ijand, Buildings, Fixtures, 
 per cent. per cent. per cent. 
 
 Interest 5 5 5 
 
 Taxes 1 1 1 
 
 Insurance 0.5 0.5 
 
 Depreciation 2 5 
 
 Repairs 3 5 
 
 Total ~6 IlF 16.5 
 
 It is evident that correct interest, tax, and insurance rates can 
 be determined. Correct reserves for depreciation and repairs are 
 open to considerable discussion, however, and the correct reserves 
 will vary with the type of buildings under consideration. As a 
 basis about 25 mill-construction buildings used for paper, textile, 
 and machine-building industries, and costing from $1.25 to $1.50 
 per square foot, have been selected. The rates given above for 
 
BUILDINGS 151 
 
 depreciation and repairs were used in these mills, and appear to be 
 correct, judging from accumulated cost-accounting records. 
 
 The cost of the first three elements — fixed charges on land, build- 
 ings, and fixtures — was determined ; then, by calculating proper 
 annual interest, tax, insurance, depreciation, and repair charges as 
 a percentage of the appraisal value of the land, buildings, and fix- 
 tures, the costs of these subdivisions were obtained. 
 
 The next two elements — power and light, and heat — include the 
 cost of power used for lighting buildings and operating elevators, 
 and the cost of steam used for heating. These costs are, of course, 
 based on a determination of how much power and heat is used for 
 these purposes, and how much it costs to make the power and steam 
 in the particular plant. 
 
 The amount of steam used for heating was estimated theoretically 
 by the same methods which would be used in designing a heating 
 system for a mill building, and these theoretical results were 
 checked with the known difference in coal consumption between 
 winter and summer months due to heating. Power used for lighting 
 was frequently developed by a separate generator, which enabled a 
 log of switchboard readings to be used in making this determination. 
 In a few cases power for lighting was purchased. Power used by 
 elevators is, in most cases, a relatively small item and depends on 
 the size of the elevators and the frequency with which they are used. 
 In determining the cost of the steam and power used, fixed 
 charges on land, buildings, fixtures, and equipment, as well as 
 operating charges for fuel, labor, supplies, etc., are included. In 
 the several plants under discussion the average cost of steam was 
 30 cts. per 1,000 pounds, and of power 2 cts. per kilowatt hour. The 
 cost of power, heat, and light was determined then by estimating the 
 power, heat, and light used, and by calculating the cost, taking into 
 consideration the cost of power at the plant in question. 
 
 The last element, buildings expense, is made up of expense items 
 attendant upon the operation of practically all factory buildings. 
 Under this head there has been included labor, such as watchmen, 
 elevator operators, janitors, etc., and the cost of supplies used for 
 cleaning buildings, the cost of water for general factory use, and 
 other similar items. 
 
 Division of Costs. An attempt has been made in the preceding 
 paragraphs to describe definitely how the total land-and-buildings 
 factor has been determined. If this has been done, the data fol- 
 lowing should have a practical value for comparative purposes, and 
 this discussion should serve as a basis for a study of buildings- 
 factor costs with the object in view of approaching a maximum 
 efficiency. 
 
 The average cost per square foot of floor space, in the buildings 
 described above, and determined as explained in the previous para- 
 graphs of this article, was 22 cts. As an illustration of the meaning 
 of this cost, take the case of a boring mill in a machine shop which 
 may occupy a space 20 ft. by 20 ft. when allowance is made for the 
 machine, the operator, and the necessary movement of work at the 
 machine, A square foot factor or buildings factor of, say 25 cts. 
 
152 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 would mean that it costs 20X20X25 cents, or $100 a year to house 
 this machine. Assuming a working time of 2,500 hrs. a year, it 
 would mean that this cost accumulates at a rate of 4 cts. an hr. 
 This buildings-factor charge is an appreciable percentage of the 
 wages paid the machine operator, and is but one of several equally 
 important factors making up the total burden of the industry. 
 
 Relatively, the buildings-factor charge was found to be divided 
 between the elements as follows : 
 
 Costs, cts. 
 
 Item. Per cent. per sq. ft. 
 
 Fixed charges on land 10 2.2 
 
 Fixed charges on buildings 56 12.3 
 
 Fixed charges on buildings fixtures. 9 2.0 
 
 Power and light 4 .9 
 
 Heat 14 3.1 
 
 Buildings expense 7 1.5 
 
 Total 100 22.0 
 
 Cost of Items of Buildings by Percentages. In any locality, if we 
 select buildings of any given class and estimate the percentage of 
 the total cost chargeable to each item, we find a remarkably small 
 
 si ;.| li ^S ^1 l| 
 
 •° !h Wee ^ ^^ 
 
 Excavation, brick and 
 
 cut stone 16% 36% 38% 48% 50% 15% 
 
 Plaster 8 6 6 1,^ 6 
 
 Skylights and glass ". 10 
 
 Blillwork and glass.... 21 20 17 lOV' 7 6 
 
 Lumber 19 12 lli^^ liy> 18i^ 6% 
 
 Carpenter labor 18 10 10 10 9 V' 4 
 
 Hardware 3 V^ 3 2^-, 2^2 • • • " 
 
 Tin, galv. iron and slate 2V> 4I/2 5 31/. .... 1V> 
 
 Gravel roofing 1 % . . .'. 2 1 Va 
 
 Structural steel 51/2 45^^ 
 
 Steel lintels and hard- 
 ware 81^ 6 
 
 Plumbing and gas fitt'g 7 3 4 4 2 
 
 Piping for steam, water 
 
 and power 2 
 
 Paint 5 5 V2 4 % 4 2 U 2 
 
 Total 100% 100%, 100% 100% 100% 100% 
 
 Note. — Heating is not included. 
 
 variation. For example, the hardware item in brick residences 
 averages about 3% of the total cost of the building whether the 
 building costs $10,000 or $50,000. For a $10,000 building the 
 hardware costs $10,000 X 3%, or $300. For a $50,000 building, the 
 hardware costs $50,000 X 3%, or $1,500. In making preliminary 
 estimates of cost it is often sufficiently close to estimate one or 
 two of the large items and calculate the rest by percentages. Every 
 builder and architect, therefore, should analyze the actual cost ot 
 
BUILDINGS 153 
 
 each item of a number of typical buildings, and reduce the analysis 
 to percentages. Where foundation work is difficult and variable, it 
 is well to exclude the foundations in forming a table of percentages, 
 such as the one on this page. It is also well to carry the sub- 
 divisions of cost still farther ; but for the purpose of example, the 
 foregoing table serves to illustrate. 
 
 Cost of Miscellaneous Buildings. In the following tables by Leon- 
 ard C. Wason of the Aberthaw Construction Co. given in Engineer- 
 ing Record, Feb. 27, 1909, in each case the total cost includes 
 masonry and carpentry work without interior finish or decorating, 
 plumbing and heating. The effort has been made to put the build- 
 ings upon a comparative basis as regards the amount of work done 
 on each. 
 
 The first table consists of the total cost of actual contracts exe- 
 cuted. The second table consists of bona fide bids on complete 
 
 TABLE I. COST OP FIREPROOF COMPLETED BUILDINGS 
 
 Kind of Volume 
 
 building. in cu. ft. 
 
 Offices and stores 1,365.830 
 
 Offices and stores 496,780 
 
 Factory 112,440 
 
 Factory 746,674 
 
 Factory 312,000 
 
 Garage 156,198 
 
 Filter 149,250 
 
 Fire station 44,265 
 
 Observatory 9,734 
 
 Filter 59,991 
 
 Highest .... 
 
 Lowest .... 
 
 Average .... 
 
 buildings on which Mr. "Wason's company were not the lowest bid- 
 ders but where the difference was not as a rule very great. The 
 third and fourth tables are bona fide bids on work by another 
 contractor whose experience was similar to that of Mr. Wason's. 
 As a rule, cubic foot measurements are given in cents only, seldom 
 being carried to any closer sub-division. In the table on second 
 class buildings, it will be noted that for the largest building a 
 variation of 1 cent per cubic foot amounts to over $28,000, while the 
 smallest one in the list amounts to only a little over $5,400. Again, 
 on the last three items, the cubic foot price is practically identical, 
 while the square foot measurements corresponding vary by more 
 than 100 per cent, with no easily apparent reason in the design. 
 
 In the table on fireproof buildings another discrepancy is noticed. 
 In the fir.st and last items, the highest and the lowest per cubic 
 foot as well as per square foot are on office buildings of similar 
 type which were within one mile of each other where there is no 
 apparent reason for such discrepancy in the design or difficulty of 
 access in the erection of the building. It is recommended by Mr. 
 Wason that very little reliance be placed upon this class of esti- 
 mates. 
 
 Floor 
 
 ^Unit 
 
 cost^ 
 
 area in 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 90,474 
 
 $0,133 
 
 $2.00 
 
 39,840 
 
 .124 
 
 1.545 
 
 7,519 
 
 .114 
 
 1.70 
 
 49,546 
 
 .060 
 
 .902 
 
 24,960 
 
 .127 
 
 1.60 
 
 10,806 
 
 .085 
 
 1.23 
 
 19,208 
 
 .134 
 
 1.04 
 
 2,982 
 
 .153 
 
 2.26 
 
 657 
 
 .373 
 
 5.45 
 
 5,243 
 
 .333 
 
 3.82 
 
 
 .333 
 
 3.82 
 
 
 .06 
 
 .90 
 
 
 .138 
 
 1.72 
 
154 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE II. COST OF FIREPROOF COMPLETE BUILDINGS 
 
 Kind of Volume 
 
 building. in cu. ft. 
 
 Storehouse 1,714.448 
 
 Hospital 703,692 
 
 Office building- 496,780 
 
 Cold storage 1,535,000 
 
 Factory 212,400 
 
 Factory 1,327,868 
 
 Storehouse 1,140,000 
 
 Mfg. building 1,380,500 
 
 Office 693,840 
 
 Factory 105,600 
 
 Factory 1,211,364 
 
 Factory 180,000 
 
 Highest .... 
 
 Lowest .... 
 
 Averag-e .... 
 
 Kind of Volume 
 
 building. in cu. ft. 
 
 Office building 441,000 
 
 Cold storage 1,016,400 
 
 Hospital 348,320 
 
 Hospital 414,732 
 
 Bank 533,750 
 
 Masonic 1,479,456 
 
 Warehouse 259,700 
 
 Garage 497,420 
 
 Warehouse 2,597,000 
 
 Hotel 2,116,106 
 
 Hospital 485,789 
 
 Office 264,687 
 
 Cold storage . 909,240 
 
 Club 513,808 
 
 Office 501,575 
 
 Highest .... 
 
 Lowest .... 
 
 Average .... 
 
 Variation, high and 
 
 low .... 
 
 Floor 
 
 r-Unit 
 
 cost-^ 
 
 area m 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 168,696 
 
 $0.0827 
 
 $0.84 
 
 57,654 
 
 .0865 
 
 1.05 
 
 39,840 
 
 .124 
 
 1.545 
 
 154,000 
 
 .13 
 
 1.30 
 
 15,000 
 
 .091 
 
 1.28 
 
 106,022 
 
 .107 
 
 1.335 
 
 146,000 
 
 .0685 
 
 .575 
 
 90,240 
 
 .067 
 
 1.01 
 
 56,552 
 
 .197 
 
 2.42 
 
 8,800 
 
 .124 
 
 1.485 
 
 74,604 
 
 .0625 
 
 1.01 
 
 16,394 
 
 .129 
 
 1.42 
 
 .... 
 
 .197 
 
 2.42 
 
 
 .0625 
 
 .575 
 
 
 
 .1088 
 
 1.27 
 
 ]PROOF 
 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 
 Floor 
 
 r-Unit 
 
 C0St--^ 
 
 area in 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 35,854 
 
 $0,159 
 
 $1.97 
 
 101,640 
 
 .13 
 
 1.30 
 
 34,832 
 
 .127 
 
 1.27 
 
 29,838 
 
 .124 
 .123 
 .122 
 
 1.73 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 24,500 
 
 .120 
 .118 
 
 1.28 
 
 212,000 
 
 .106 
 
 1.30 
 
 
 .104 
 
 
 38,247 
 
 .100 
 .095 
 
 1.30 
 
 66,745 
 
 .091 
 .085 
 
 1.24 
 
 67,400 
 
 .084 
 
 1.12 
 
 
 .159 
 
 1.97 
 
 .... 
 
 .084 
 
 1.12 
 
 .... 
 
 .113 
 
 1.39 
 
 53.8% 
 
 57.0% 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 COST OF MILL CONSTRUCTION OR SECOND- 
 CLASS BUILDING 
 
 Kind of Volu 
 
 building. in cu. 
 
 Mill 544, 
 
 Warehouse 2,808, 
 
 Mill 1,271, 
 
 Storehouse 1,714, 
 
 Mill 1,622, 
 
 Mill 1,331, 
 
 Mill 1,752, 
 
 Mill 2,641, 
 
 Mill 2,036, 
 
 Mill 2,867, 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Average 
 
 
 Floor 
 
 ^Unit 
 
 cost--, 
 
 ;me 
 
 area in 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 .ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 ,788 
 
 44,172 
 
 $0,122 
 
 $1.51 
 
 ,850 
 
 
 .12 
 
 
 ,300 
 
 129,920 
 
 .0891 
 
 .875 
 
 ,448 
 
 168,696 
 
 .059 
 
 .60 
 
 ,128 
 
 152,200 
 
 .056 
 
 .60 
 
 ,200 
 
 83,200 
 
 .054 
 
 .865 
 
 ,609 
 
 81.500 
 
 .048 
 
 1.05 
 
 ,000 
 
 98,059 
 
 .046 
 
 1.25 
 
 ,731 
 
 174,000 
 
 .046 
 
 .542 
 
 ,535 
 
 157,730 
 
 .045 
 
 .82 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .122 
 
 1.51 
 
 
 
 .045 
 
 .542 
 
 
 
 .069 
 
 .90 
 
BUILDINGS 155 
 
 Table V was condensed from data given by F. E. Kidder in 
 Building Construction. 
 
 TABLE V. COST PER CUBIC FOOT FOR VARIOUS HEIGHTS 
 
 Type of bldg. and No. ,• — No. of stories — ^ , Cost per cu. ft. ^ 
 
 construction. Incl. Max. Min. Avg. Max. Min. Avg. 
 Office buildings : 
 
 Fireproof 21 20 2 9.35 63c 25c 41.5c 
 
 * Non-fireproof . 3 12 3 7.66 36.4 19 27.13 
 
 "Warehouses : 
 
 Fireproof 2 7 5 6 25.17 17.12 21.14 
 
 Non-fireproof .1 7 7 7 9.08 9.08 9.08 
 
 Stores : 
 
 Fireproof 2 6 4 5 31 29 30 
 
 Non-fireproof .1 8 8 8 19.75 19.75 19.75 
 
 Hotels and apart- 
 ment houses : 
 
 Fireproof 4 14 7 9.5 44 30 38.8 
 
 Non-fireproof .1,5 5 5 18.5 18.5 18.5 
 
 F. J. T. Stewart states that in 1906 the average cost of three 
 fireproof oflSce buildings in Chicago was 33 cts. per cu. ft., while 
 that of four fireproof oflace buildings in Boston was 40 cts. per 
 cu. ft. 
 
 Cost of Office Buildings. Building Management gives the follow- 
 ing table of approximate average cost, in cents, per cubic foot of 
 content of buildings, for the principal items of a first-class office 
 building, as compiled from costs of numerous buildings. 
 
 Cost, per cu. ft., 
 Item. in cts. 
 
 Foundation 1.75 
 
 Steel framing 2.50 
 
 Granite and all masonry 11.17 
 
 Cornice, roof and skylights 0.67 
 
 Fireproof floors 0.67 
 
 Partition.s, tile 0.40 
 
 All plastering and stucco 1.25 
 
 Ornamental metal work 2.00 
 
 Marble work 3.17 
 
 Hardware 0.13 
 
 Joiner work 1.17 
 
 Glass 0.42 
 
 Painting and varnish 0.23 
 
 Electric wiring 0.66 
 
 Heating 1.12 
 
 Plumbing 0.50 
 
 Elevators 1.00 
 
 Stairs, scenic structural framing, lamp fixtures, 
 etc., " contingencies," including lesser items 
 
 not mentioned above 4.19 
 
 Architect's fee 2.60 
 
 Total cost per cu. ft 34.42 
 
 Comparative Cost of Wood- and Steel Frame Factory Buildings. 
 H. G. Tyrrell gives the following, based on prices existing in Ohio 
 in the forepart of 1905. 
 
 Slow Burning Wood Construction. The building is 60 x 100 ft., 
 six stories high, containing 6 floors, a roof and a cellar. The floors 
 
156 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 are designed for a load of 100 lbs. per sq. ft. The building has 
 windows on all four sides. The walls (brick) carry the ends 
 of the floor beams. The basement walls are 24 ins, thick. "Walls 
 of first four stories are 17 ins. thick; top two stories, 13 ins. 
 thick. Eight tiers of columns, spaced 20 ft. apart in both direc- 
 tions, carry the floors and roof. The columns of the upper four 
 stories are yellow pine, the size being 14 x 14 ins. for the lowest of 
 these four stories. Below this, round cast iron columns are u^ed, 
 11 X 1^/i ins. in the first story, and 12 x li/^ ins. in the basement. All 
 columns have cast iron bases 3 ft. square and 16 ins. high. Length- 
 wise through the building in the floors, run two lines of 12 x 20-in. 
 yellow pine header beams resting on the brackets of the cast iron 
 column caps. The cross floor beams are 8 x 16-in. yellow pine, 
 spaced 5 ft. apart. At the columns they rest on column caps, and 
 at intermediate points they hang from the header beams by wrought 
 iron stirrups. In the walls the cross beams rest on cast iron wall 
 plates, 9 X 20 X % in. The floor is of %-in. matched maple, laid on 
 1%-in. yellow pine. The roof is similar in construction and has a 
 tar and graA^el covering. 
 
 The following estimates are for the structural part of the building 
 only, including walls, columns, floors, roof, excavation, foundation, 
 doors and windows, but not including partitions, stairs, elevators, 
 plumbing, heating, lighting or wiring. 
 
 1. Excavation (cu. yds.) 1,800 
 
 2. Cellar cement floor (sq. ft.) 6,000 
 
 3. Foundation concrete (cu. yds.) . 150 
 
 4. Brick (cu. ft.) 39.000 
 
 5. Windows, 4x7 ft 238 
 
 6. Roofing ( sq. ft. ) 6,000 
 
 7. Yellow pine timber (M.) 116 
 
 8. Yellow pine flooring (M.) 73 
 
 9. Matched flooring (M.) 46 
 
 10. Iron work (tons) 46 
 
 The estimated cost of this design is $35,000, which is equivalent 
 to 6.1 cts. per cu. ft., or 83 cts. per sq. ft. of entire floor area. 
 
 The interior framing of floors and columns (including wall plates, 
 columns, caps and bases and stirrup irons), is 27 cts. per sq. ft. of 
 floor area. 
 
 Fireproof Steel Constricction. This is similar in design to the 
 above, as regards arrangemerft of beams and columns. Riveted 
 steel columns are used, and the floors are framed with steel beams. 
 The flooring between the beams is reinforced concrete. 
 
 The quantities are as before for items (1) to (6) inclusive. 
 
 The remaining items are : 
 
 7. Steel columns (tons) ' 105 
 
 8. Steel beams and wall plate (tons) 252 
 
 9. Concrete floor and roof (sq. ft.) 42,000 
 
 The estimated cost is $57,000, which is equivalent to 10.2 cts. per 
 cu. ft., or $1.36 per sq. ft. of total flbor area. Floors and columns 
 cost 75 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, as compared with 27 cts. for 
 the slow burning mill construction. 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 157 
 
 Cubic Foot Costs of Reinforced Concrete Buildings.* — The follow- 
 ing costs are for buildings actually erected and they are given by 
 Emlle G. Perrot, M. Am. Soc. C. E. : 
 
 Cents per cu. ft. 
 
 Warehouses and manufactures 8 to 10 
 
 Stores and loft buildings 11 to 17 
 
 Miscellaneous, such as schools and hospitals. . 15 to 20 
 
 These costs include the building complete, omitting power, heat, 
 light, elevators and decorations or furnishings. 
 
 Length in Feet 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 IN 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S\ 
 
 V 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 - 
 
 ^^ 
 
 = 
 
 -!— 
 
 
 — 
 
 Length in Feet 
 
 Fig. 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 
 for one story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 
 
 2. Diagram .showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 
 for two-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 
 
 Cost of iVlili Buildings. (Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 27, 
 1909.) Charles F. Main is authority for the following data, based 
 upon eastern prices in 1910. 
 
 It is not an uncommon thing to hear the cost of mill buildings 
 placed from 70 cts. to $1 per sq. ft. of floor space, regardless of the 
 size or number of .^stories. There i.s, however, a wide range of cost 
 per square foot of floor space, depending upon the width, length, 
 height of .stories and number of stories. 
 
 Some time ago, I placed a valuation upon a portion of the prop- 
 erty of a corporation, including some 400 or 500 buildings. In order 
 to have a standard of cost from which to start in each case. I pre- 
 pared a series of diagrams showing the approximate costs of build- 
 ings varying in length and width and from one story to six stories 
 in height. The height of stories also was varied for different 
 widths, being assumed 13 ft. high if 25 ft. wide, 14 ft. if 50 ft. wide, 
 15 ft. for 75 ft., 16 ft. for 100 ft. and over. 
 
 * Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 27, 1909, 
 
158 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The costs used in making up the diagrams are based largely 
 upon the actual cost of work done under average conditions of cost 
 of materials and labor and with average soil for foundations. The 
 costs given include plumbing, but no heating, sprinklers, or lighting. 
 These three latter items would add roughly 10 cts. per sq. ft. of 
 floor area. 
 
 Estimates. The accompanying diagrams, Figs. 1 to 6, can be 
 used to determine the probable approximate cost of proposed brick 
 buildings, of the type known as " slow-burning " to be used for 
 manufacturing purposes, with a total floor load of about 75 lbs. 
 per sq. ft. and these can be taken from the diagrams readily. The 
 curves were derived primarily to show the estimated cost per square 
 foot of gross floor area of brick buildings for textile mills, and to 
 include ordinary foundations and plumbing. For example, if it is 
 
 Length in Feet 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 "~" 
 
 ' — 
 
 ■— 
 
 — 
 
 
 SN 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vs 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 ^S 
 
 \ \ 
 
 3 C 
 
 n 
 
 \ § 
 
 .1 
 
 \ % 
 
 ? i 
 
 1 % 
 
 ^§ 
 
 Length in Feet 
 
 Fig. 3. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. foot of floor area 
 
 for three-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 
 
 Fig. 4. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 
 
 for four-story brick buildings for textile inanufacturing. 
 
 desired to know the probable cost of a mill 400 ft. long by 100 ft. 
 wide, three stories high, refer to the curves showing the cost of 
 three-story buildings. On the curve for buildings 100 ft. wide, find 
 the point where the vertical line of 400 ft. in length cuts the curve, 
 then move horizontally along this line to the left-hand vertical line, 
 on which will be found the cost of 81 cts. 
 
 The cost given is for brick manufacturing buildings under average 
 conditions and can be modified if necessary for the following con- 
 ditions : 
 
 (a) If the soil is poor or the conditions of the site are such as to 
 require more than the ordinary amount of foundations, the cost will 
 be increased. 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 159 
 
 (h) If the end or a side of the building is formed by another 
 building, the cost of one or the other will be reduced slightly. 
 
 (c) If the building is to be used for ordinary storage purposes 
 with low stories and no top floors, the cost will be decreased from 
 about 10% for large low buildings, to 25% for small high ones, 
 about 20% usually being a fair allowance. 
 
 (d) If the buildings are to be used for manufacturing purposes 
 and are to be substantially built of wood, the cost will be decreased 
 from about 6% for large one-story buildings, to 33% for high small 
 buildings; 15% would usually be a fair allowance. 
 
 (e) If the buildings are to be used for storage with low stories 
 and built substantially of wood, the cost will be decreased from 13% 
 
 2.10 
 2.00 
 l.£ 
 l.S 
 £1.70 
 
 £1.50 
 o. 
 2 1.10 
 
 5 1.3 
 
 o 
 
 01.2 
 
 .Si.iO 
 
 1 1.00 
 
 .70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,10 
 2.00 
 
 1 "» 
 
 a .1.80 
 ^ ^ 1.70 
 
 ^ o'l.eo 
 
 |l.50 
 
 25 2 1.40 
 
 il.30 
 
 Ol.20 
 
 ::i.io 
 
 50 Jl.OO 
 75 .90 
 100 .80 
 ^-^ ,70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 — ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 '•^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 < 
 
 i:;;;^ 
 
 -- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~^ 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Length in Feet 
 5 
 
 lo o '^ S (3 
 
 111 
 
 Length in Feet 
 6 
 
 Fig. 
 Fig. 
 
 5. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq, ft. of floor area 
 for five-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 
 
 6. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 
 for six-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 
 
 for large one-story buildings, to 50% for small high buildings ; 30% 
 would usually be a fair allowance. 
 
 (f) If the total floor loads are more than 75 lbs. per sq. ft. the 
 cost is increased. 
 
 (g) For oflSce buildings, the cost must be increased to cover 
 architectural features on the outside and interior finish. 
 
 The cost of very light wooden structures is much less than the 
 above figures would give. Table VI shows the approximate ratio 
 of the costs of different kinds of buildings to the cost of those shown 
 by the curves. 
 
 Evaluations. The diagrams can be used as a basis of valuation 
 of different buildings. 
 
 A building, no matter how built nor how expensive it was to 
 build, cannot be of any more yalue for the purpose to which it is 
 
160 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 u 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 o 
 
 H 
 W 
 
 O 
 
 I' 
 E 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 .^1^ ,x 00 tH CO CC ffj i-l(M CO -* U5 «0 
 
 •mci p iHCOmosr-iroiO^of-t-OJ 
 
 *^+0 a lO Ui lO U5 ?D «5 «0 <£> CC'X' «o 
 
 •ma fr comt>jH-*cot~oooiOrH 
 
 "+0 K IC Ifl K5 «Ci(X> «0 ?C CO CO t- t- 
 
 coooo^t-OTOrHC^jcqec 
 
 'O^S 8 lO lO <U5 ?0 CO CO t-^ t- t-^ t> t- 
 
 •<-^T ot rr THooOCOlftt-OMOOTt-lClCOt- 
 
 '-'+& us in CO CO CD CO t- c- c- 1- c- 1- 1- 
 
 •m Q T OlO'<#t-OOr-ICMSO-^m«DCOI>» 
 "+0 I- t~. t- C- t- t- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 lOCDCOOOOiOiHT-KMOieO 
 
 *O^S 9 t- ^- 1> t> t- 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 .^-,r>. « cDcor-oooTHrHMeoeceo 
 
 04S 2 t-t>i>t-oooooooooooooo 
 
 cotr-ooaiOiM(MeO'*-*Tf< 
 
 *O^S 1^ C- t- C~ t- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 .^-ir~. n OOOOa5THWM-*Tt<lOU:5CO 
 
 O + b O t- O C- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 OOMOrHTHeO-^lOCOeOOt-OO 
 
 *01<^ 7 t>t~-oooooooooooooooooooooo 
 
 OlflCOint-OlOT-liHiMMlMIM 
 
 "O^S X 00 00 00 00 00 00 a> oi OS Oi Oi OS oj 
 
 t- 05 O (M Tt< CD t- 00 05 Oi o 
 
 O+S 9 CO CO t^ t- 1> t- 1- 1- 1- 1- 00 
 
 "+b a c- 1^ t- c- c- 1- 00 00 oo 00 oo 
 
 CO-*lflt^050r-liMCOevSTti 
 •Qlg ^ t- t- t- t- l> 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 mt-ooo5r-i(Ni^-*micco 
 
 'O^S 8 t- C~- t^ C- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 ^ t-Mooo>ocMooir5cot:-t-i>oo 
 
 O + S 6 COt-t-t-000000000000000000 
 '-' + b L 00 00 00 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 
 
 ooooooooooooo 
 'A'\s X ui aoog; jo moooooooooooo 
 
 T ir I . ij- ►J r-l<>Jlflt>Ol«OlOOlrtOU50 
 
 T-lrHC^C<lCOCO^-*lLn 
 
BUILDINGS 161 
 
 put than a modern building properly designed for that particular 
 purpose. The cost of such a modern building is then the limit of 
 value of existing buildings. Existing buildings are usually of less 
 value than new modern buildings for the reason that there has been 
 some depreciation due to age and that the buildings are not as well 
 suited to the business as a modern building would be. 
 
 Starting with the diagrams as a base, the value can be approxi- 
 mately determined by making the proper deductions. 
 
 The diagrams can be used as a basis for insurance valuations 
 after deducting about 5% for large buildings to 15% for small ones, 
 for the cost of foundations, as it is not customary to include the 
 foundations in the insurable value. 
 
 Use of Tables. Table VII shows the costs which form the basis 
 of the estimates and these unit prices can be used to compute the 
 cost of any building not covered by the diagrams. The cost of 
 brick walls is based on 22 bricks per cubic foot, costing $18 per 
 
 TABLE VII. DATA FOR ESTIMATING COST OP BUILDINGS 
 
 Foundations Brick walls. Columns 
 
 including exc. Cost per sq. ft. including 
 
 Cost per lin. ft. of surface. piers and 
 
 for outside inside outside for inside castings. 
 
 walls. walls walls. walls. Cost 
 
 of one. 
 
 One-story building $2.00 $1.75 $ .40 $ .40 $15.00 
 
 Two-story building 2.90 2.25 .44 .40 15.00 
 
 Three-story building 3.80 2.80 .47 .40 15.00 
 
 Four-story building 4.70 3.40 .50 .43 15.00 
 
 Five-story building 5.60 3.90 .53 .45 15.00 
 
 Six-story building 6.50 4.50 .57 .47 15.00 
 
 thousand laid. Openings are estimated at 40 cts. per sq. ft., includ- 
 ing windows, doors and sills. 
 
 Ordinary mill floors, including timbers, planking and top floor 
 with Southern pine timber at $40 per M. ft. B. M. and spruce 
 planking at $30 per M., costs about 32 cts. per sq. ft., which has 
 been used as a unit price. Ordinary mill roofs covered with tar and 
 gravel, with lumber at the above prices, cost about 25 cts. per sq. ft. 
 and this has been used in the estimates. Add for stairways, ele- 
 vator wells, plumbing, partitions and special work. 
 
 Deductions from Diagrams. (1) An examination of the diagrams 
 shows immediately the decrease in cost as the width is increased. 
 This is due to the fact that the cost of the walls and outside founda- 
 tions, which is an important item of cost, relative to the total cost, 
 is decreased as the width increases. 
 
 For example, supposing a three-story building is desired with 
 30,000 sq. ft. on each floor: 
 
 If the building were 600 ft. x 50 ft., its co-st would be about 99 
 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 If the building were 400 ft. x 75 ft., its cost would be about 87 
 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 If the building were 300 ft. x 100 ft., its cost would be about 83 
 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
162 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 If the building were 240 ft. x 125 ft., its cost would be about 80 
 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 (2) The diagram shows that the minimum cost per square foot 
 is reached with a four-story building. A three-story building costs 
 a trifle more than a four-story. A one-story building is the most 
 expensive. This is due to a combination of several features : 
 
 (a) The cost of ordinary foundations does not increase in pro- 
 portion to the number of stories, and therefore their cost is less pur 
 square foot as the number of stories is increased, at least up to the 
 limit of the diagram. 
 
 (b) The roof is the same for a one-story building as for one of 
 any other number of stories, and therefore its cost relative to the 
 total cost grows less as the nuinber of stories increases. 
 
 (c) The cost of columns, including the supporting piers and 
 castings, does not vary much per story as the stories are added. 
 
 ^ (d) As the number of stories increases, the cost of the walls, 
 owing to increased thickness, increases in a greater ratio than the 
 number of stories, and this item is the one which in the four-story 
 building offsets the saving in foundations and roof. 
 
 (3) The saving by the use of frame construction for Avails instead 
 of brick is not as great as many persons think. The only saving 
 is in somewhat lighter foundations and in the outside surfaces of 
 the building. The floor, columns, and roof must be the same 
 strength and construction in any case. 
 
 TABLE VIII. DATA FOR APPROXIMATING COST OF MILL 
 BUILDINGS OF KNOWN SIZE BUT WITHOUT DEFINITE 
 PLANS MADE 
 
 Foundations, 
 
 Brick walls 
 
 including 
 
 exc. 
 
 Including 
 
 Cost per lin. ft. 
 
 doors and 
 
 windows. 
 
 for outside 
 
 inside 
 
 Cost per 
 
 ■ sq. ft. 
 
 walls. 
 
 walls. 
 
 of surface. 
 
 
 
 outside 
 
 for inside 
 
 
 
 walls. 
 
 walls. 
 
 Height of building. 
 
 
 
 
 One story $2.00 
 
 $1.75 
 
 $ .40 
 
 % .40 
 
 Two stories. ... 2.90 
 
 2.25 
 
 .44 
 
 .40 
 
 Three stories... 3.80 
 
 2.80 
 
 .47 
 
 .40 
 
 Four stories. . . . 4.70 
 
 3.40 
 
 .50 
 
 .43 
 
 Five stories 5.60 
 
 3.90 
 
 .53 
 
 .45 
 
 Six stories 6.50 
 
 4.50 
 
 .57 
 
 .47 
 
 Assumed Height of Stories. From ground to first floor, 3 ft. 
 Buildings 25 ft. wide, stories 13 ft. high. Buildings 50 ft. wide, 
 stories 14 ft. high. Buildings 75 ft. wide, stories 15 ft. high.. 
 Buildings 100 ft. wide, stories 16 ft. high. Buildings 125 ft. wide, 
 stories 16 ft. high. 
 
 Unit Prices. Floors, 32 cts. per sq. ft. of gross floor space not 
 including columns. If columns are inclined, 38 cts. 
 
 Roof, 25 cts. per sq. ft., not including columns. If columns are 
 included, 30 cts. Roof to project 18 ins. all around buildings. 
 
 Stairways, including partitions, $100 each flight. Allow two 
 stairways, and one elevator tower for buildings up to 150 ft. long. 
 Allow two stairways and twQ elevator towers for buildings up to 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 163 
 
 53 «H 000i-10i-I0iH000t-1 
 
 »d^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 §§ 
 
 fad 
 
 fa 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 c;,- ■*UiOOU5o6i-JoOC2 
 
 P W) IM C\l Ol C^l CI 1-1 iM IM <M ,-1 
 
 ^.S >.>>>.>. >i >i >i >>>. >>, 
 
 O ™ '*-' 00 CO O M 
 
 ^ ta o o t- 1- c^j 00 eo o 00 oi 
 
 o ; ; 
 
 !^X2 
 
 'O'O' 
 
 c3 cei^i^ 05 rt o 
 
 - - «2 02 +J 
 
 
 . . ifl t- lo lo c-i o c J -lOin -ift 
 
 J^KC'tH T-li-Hi-ICOiH •,H(M -tM 
 
 O 
 
 Wo 
 
 •* S<> Tf Irt <M <M T 
 
 oo -OOCOtHOtHO ■(£> 
 
 iM irt • •<*< c<i c-j -<*< (M 00 OO -la 
 
 (£ _ T-\\a •T-IC-lC<IM(MiHli5 -(M 
 
 oc. -otrtOi-io^ncr- -o 
 
 ^•M •iX>l>lOfOOLftO 'O 
 
 iH • iM iH T-1 • iH 
 
 a '• • • • • a • • • ' 
 
 o . .-^ . . o • • • ' 
 
 /::=: -^-^ •'OX! 
 
 CQ-- .^g •2^020)0)0)0) 
 
 -^ ° ■ US ij 5 ::^ -^ '^ 1* 1^ "^ 
 
164. MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 300 ft. long-. In buildings over two stories, allow three stairways 
 and three elevator towers for buildings over 300 ft. long. 
 
 In buildings over two stories, plumbing $75 for each fixture in- 
 cluding piping and partitions. Allow two fixtures on each fioor up 
 to 5.000 sq. ft. of floor space and add one fixture for each additional 
 5,000 sq. ft. of floor or fraction thereof. 
 
 (Note. From the above data the approximate cost of any size 
 and shape of building can be estimated in a few minutes. After 
 the cost of the items given is determined about 10% should be added 
 for incidentals.) 
 
 Reinforced Concrete Buildings. From such estimates and pro- 
 posals as I have been able to get and from work done it appears 
 that the cost of reinforced concrete buildings designed to carry floor 
 loads of 100 lbs. per sq. ft. or less would be about 25% more than 
 the slow-burning type of mill construction. 
 
 Alternate Method of Estimating Cost. Floors. 38 cts. per sq. 
 ft. of gross floor space. This price will include column piers, column 
 castings and wrought iron. 
 
 Roof. 30 cts. per sq. ft., including projections, say 18 ins., in- 
 cluding columns, etc. 
 
 Stairways and Elevator Towers. Allow two stairways and one 
 elevator tower in buildings over two stories high up to 150 ft. long. 
 Allow two stairways and two elevator towers up to 300 ft. long. 
 Allow three stairways and three elevator towers over 300 ft. long. 
 
 Brick Walls. Enclosing stairs and elevators, estimated as inside 
 walls. 
 
 Stairs. $100 per flight, per story. 
 
 Plumbing. Allow two fixtures on each floor up to 5,000 sq. ft. 
 of floor space, and add one fixture for each additional 5,000 sq ft. 
 or fraction thereof. Allow $75 per fixture. 
 
 Incidentals. Add about 10% for incidentals. 
 
 Cost of Buildings of Wood, Concrete, and Steel Framing. H. G. 
 Tj^rrell (Engineering Magazine, June, 1912), gives the following 
 data, Table IX, presented at the convention of the National Asso- 
 ciation of Cement Users in 1912: 
 
 From this table it appears that the average cost of single-story 
 buildings with saw-tooth roof is $1.77 per sq. ft. of fioor and 8^/^ cts. 
 per cu. ft. of contents, while the average cost of buildings with more 
 than one story is $1.12 per sq. ft. of fioor and 8.7 cts. per cu. ft. of 
 contents. These figures are on the complete building with plumbing, 
 but they do not include heating, lighting, sprinkler system, elevators, 
 or power equipment. The square-foot prices were obtained by divid- 
 ing the total cost of the building by the aggregate floor area 
 including the basement, but not including the roof. 
 
 Another report on the cost of reinforced-concrete buildings read 
 in 1909 before the National Association of Cement Users gives the 
 specific costs of 21 buildings, showing an average cost of $1.72 per 
 sq. ft. of floor area and 13.8 cts. per cu. ft. of contents, as given in 
 Table X. 
 
 It appears therefore that the average cost of forms per square 
 foot is for columns 13 cts., beam floors 11.6 cts., slab floors 11.1 cts., 
 
BUILDINGS 165 
 
 TABLE X. COST OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS 
 
 Volume Floor area, Costs. 
 
 Type. incu. ft. sq.ft. cu. ft. sq.ft. 
 
 Store 1,714,400 168,696 $.0827 $.84 
 
 l^ospital 703,692 57,654 .0865 1 05 
 
 Office 496,780 39,840 .124 1545 
 
 Cold storage 1,535,000 154,000 13 130 
 
 Factory 212,400 15,000 091 l'?8 
 
 Factory 1,329,868 106,000 .107 1335 
 
 Storehouse 1,140,000 146,000 .0685 '575 
 
 Factory 1,380,500 90,240 .067 l"oi 
 
 Office 693,840 56,552 .197 2'42 
 
 Factory 105,600 8,800 .124 l'485 
 
 Factory 1,211,364 75,604 .0625 I'oi 
 
 Factory 180,000 16,394 .129 142 
 
 Office 1,365,800 90,474 .133 2*00 
 
 Factory 112,440 7,519 .114 170 
 
 Factory 746,674 49,546 .060 .902 
 
 Factory 312,000 24,960 .127 160 
 
 Garage 156,198 10,806 .085 1.23 
 
 Filter 149,250 19,208 .134 1.04 
 
 Fire station 44,265 2,982 .153 2 26 
 
 Observatory .... 9,734 657 .373 5 45 
 
 Filter 59,991 5,243 .333 3!82 
 
 Average ... $ .138 $1.72 
 
 slabs only between steel beams 9.5 cts., walls above ground 12.8 cts., 
 foundations 10.3 cts. and footings 9.3 cts. 
 
 A subdivision giving the percentage cost of concrete, steel, labor 
 and forms is as follows : 
 
 Per cent, of total. 
 
 Concrete 19 
 
 Steel 17 
 
 Labor 31 
 
 Forms 33 
 
 Total 100% 
 
 This analysis assumes that materials can be delivered at the site 
 on cars, and that form lumber can be used twice. As two-thirds of 
 the total cost is for labor and forms, and one-third for the forms 
 alone, it is economical, where time will permit, to use forms more 
 than twice, or as often as the lumber will last. Repetition and 
 duplication of forms are in fact the greatest factors in cost reduc- 
 tion, and the design should be so made that this is possible. 
 The average cost of forms obtained from a different set of records 
 from those given above, is, for floors with beams, girders and slabs, 
 10 cts. per square foot, and for slab floor without beams 7 cts. per 
 square foot. The corresponding cost of column forms is 13 cts. per 
 square foot. The cost of bending and placing reinforcing steel, in- 
 cluding wire mesh in slabs, varies from $5 to $17 per ton, the 
 average being about $10 per ton. 
 
 A reinforced-concrete building -designed by the writer, 55 ft. wide 
 and 88 ft. long, with seven stories and basement and 500,000 cu. ft. 
 of contents, cost $1.15 per square foot of floor, or 9.1 cts. per cu. ft. 
 of contents. The floors were proportioned for a total load of 200 
 lbs. per sq. ft. and the prices given above include excavation, foun- 
 
166 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ^6 
 
 11340 Jj O 10 T-l U5 O ?0 M 
 
 c<5 CO CO <ro M c<i (?q 
 
 ^ CO^-*t-ait-r-l 
 
 •:jU-BItJ M cq ^ ^ r^ rH c^ 
 OOoOOOO 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 CO 
 
 od 
 
 H 
 w 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 P. 
 
 •Sutui-ea jj <M (>] ^ (M eg ,H o 
 
 OOoOOOO 
 
 _ „„ oi CO o 00 «ci <r<i t- 
 
 8:^'B38J33 V ^ 1> CO l>- CO t> 
 
 OOoOOOO 
 
 in to CO 00 CO o tH 
 •iueui9' ) 00 a> <ji »i t~ 00 1~ 
 
 Oi-HOi-HOOO 
 
 l-Bjaueo OOOOOOO 
 
 •rnriT'T CO t-( t- CI O CO irt 
 
 'I'-'Hl^l Ol iH O^ O Oi t- Tt< 
 
 8q.8aDUOO o tH o ,-( o o o 
 
 O CO ,-1 U3 00 CO CO 
 "TfTOT CO tH tH O^ eg O O 
 
 •sn-BN 
 
 rH eg c<i CQ cq eg oj 
 
 OOOOOOO 
 OOOOOOO 
 
 •aaquini 
 
 OOOOOOO 
 
 •HIM 
 
 O o* 
 
 p. 
 
 eg o tH T-i U5 00 1> 
 •innr>rT 00 c- c- co 00 co l3 
 joq'BT: OOOOOOO 
 
 5:? w >> 
 m O o c 
 C« o o d bo 
 
 o a;i^i^^ o o 
 
BUILDINGS 167 
 
 dations, walls, columns, floors, framing, roofing, windows, doors and 
 stairs, but do not include plumbing, elevators, heating, lighting or 
 partitions. 
 
 Concrete factory buildings from one to five stories in height and 
 about 50 ft. wide will have minimum costs about as follows: 
 
 Cost per sq. Costs in cents 
 
 ft. of floor per cu. ft. of 
 
 area. contents. 
 
 3, 4 and 5 stories $1.00 to $1.10 7.5 to 8.5 
 
 2 stories : . 1.05 to 1.15 8.0 to 9.0 
 
 1 story 1.10 to 1.20 8.5 to 10.0 
 
 These prices do not include partitions, plumbing, heating, lighting 
 or elevators. In the Southern States or in country districts where 
 labor is cheaper, the unit costs may occasionally be 10 to 15 per 
 cent. less. But when buildings are erected by contractors who are 
 only occasionally employed on such work, the cost is likely to exceed 
 the minimum prices given above, and amount to $1.30 per sq. ft. for 
 buildings of three stories or more, to $1.60 per sq. ft. for those with 
 only single stories. Concrete framing, including slabs, beams and 
 columns only, without walls, costs from 45 to 65 cts. per sq. ft. of 
 floor area. 
 
 The cost of reinforced-concrete buildings from numerous designs 
 varies from 6 to 12 cts. per cu. ft. for factories and warehouses, and 
 from 10 to 16 cts. per cu. ft. for stores and loft buildings. These 
 are based upon the use of complete concrete frames and exterior 
 curtain walls, without power, heat, light, elevators or interior finish. 
 Buildings with concrete slabs and 2-inch cement finish, costing $1.25 
 per square foot, would with cement finish on 2 -in. cinder concrete 
 cost about $1.30 per square foot with %-in. maple on 2-in. cinder 
 concrete, with a concrete floor slab in each case. 
 
 A two-story reinforced-concrete factory building 100 ft. square, at 
 Walkerville, Ontario, with 6-in. curtain walls, and columns 16-ft. 
 apart in both directions, cost complete, including concrete, rods, and 
 forms, $19.88 per cubic yard of concrete in place. 
 
 Some contractors used the following method of estimating the cost 
 per cubic yard of all the material in place. First find the cost 
 delivered at the site, of the cement, sand and stone required for a 
 cubic yard of concrete, and to this add $5 per yard for the reinforc- 
 ing metal. The sum of these two costs is assumed to represent one- 
 half of the total cost per cubic yard of the materials in place. The 
 labor of mixing and placing the concrete and of placing the steel 
 will add one-third to the above sum, and the material and labor on 
 forms will be two-thirds more. The resulting cost does not include 
 contractors' profit or plant depreciation. General expense and 
 cleaning up after completion may be $1 to $2 per cu. yd. addi- 
 tional. 
 
 A considerable saving in the cost of reinforced-concrete buildings 
 can be effected by omitting the floor slabs, and using a frame of 
 columns and girders only, with a double course of boards sup- 
 ported on reinforced-concrete beams. For specific example, a four- 
 
168 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 story office building of this kind at Fore River, Mass., a large part 
 of the curtain walls being glass, cost with the foundations, walls, 
 roof, and floors, only 63 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, or 4l^ cts. per 
 cu. ft. of contents. Including lighting, heating, toilets, and par- 
 titions, the cost was $1.30 per sq. ft. of floor, or 9.2 cts. per cu. ft. 
 Another similar five-story building in the same state, 50 by 300, cost 
 only 7.6 cts. per cu. ft. 
 
 Economy often results, also, from the use of separately moulded 
 floor members, a good example being the cold-storage warehouse at 
 Syracuse, recently constructed. The building was six stories high 
 and 78 ft. square, and concrete floors of the Watson system were 
 supported by a frame of steel beams and columns. The floors alone 
 cost 20.5 cts. per sq. ft., and the steel frame and fireprooflng 21.5 
 cts. additional, or a total of 42 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, or 4 cts. 
 per cu. ft. of volume for both floor and frame. Including the gravel 
 roof, curtain walls, and stairs, the cost was 61 cts. per sq. ft, or 5.7 
 cts. per cu. ft., the granolithic floor finish, and wall plastering not 
 being included. In determining these unit prices, the area of six 
 floors and basement was taken inside of the exterior walls. 
 
 Much of the published information in reference to the cost of con- 
 crete work is based upon the records of well organized building 
 companies who are equipped to do such work in the most economical 
 manner. Other buildei's with less facilities should therefore be 
 liberal in their estimates. Some contractors when estimating use a 
 cost unit for reinforced concrete of $1 per cu. ft., or $27 per cu. yd., 
 for all material in place, which is no doubt large enough for even 
 inexperienced builders. 
 
 "Where wooden buildings are referred to in the following com- 
 parisons, only mill construction of the slow-burning type is con- 
 sidered, for nearly all modern industrial enterprises are housed in 
 buildings that are to some extent fireproof. The question may 
 reasonably be asked here, what constitutes a fireproof building? 
 Nothing is more fireproof than a furnace, and yet the decomposition 
 of its contents by fire is its chief use. These buildings must there- 
 fore not only be made of non-inflammable material but they must 
 be so arranged that fire when started can be confined to one room 
 or to the smallest possible space. With this object in view, they 
 should be equipped with self-closing metal doors, and windows with 
 wire glass or metal shutters. They should have automatic fire 
 alarms, and above all an adequate sprinkler system. Steel framing 
 must be enclosed and protected with some material such as brick, 
 tile, terra cotta or concrete. Under these conditions, with insur- 
 ance on the contents, a manufacturing enterprise is reasonably safe. 
 
 Building types arranged in order of their relative first cost are as 
 follows : 
 
 A. Complete steel frame, fireproofed, with curtain walls and plank 
 floor. 
 
 B. Interior steel frame, fireproofed, with solid brick walls and 
 plank floor. 
 
 C. Complete steel frame fireproofed, with curtain walls and re- 
 Inforced-concrete fioors. 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 169 
 
 O 
 
 Z 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 U 
 
 O 
 fa 
 g 
 
 ^>; 
 
 Eh . 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 Mm 
 
 Op 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 fa 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 Sl*!-.^^© OqOOO^, OOOOwOO 
 
 O ,'"';;; lO rn ^ ^^ t- co co ro t- o co ci c^i 
 
 OL-- r^ r-i (^ 1-1 O I- CO OV CO o -i^ c-i trJ la 
 
 73 iHM tH tH 
 
 O ,1, Oo"^000000 
 
 ^, , ^- OoOOOOOOO 
 
 (J CJ ^ CI u^ 00 OO L-- Oi -+ ?0 CO 
 
 «M Oo'^'OOOOOO 
 
 CC • oooocoooo 
 
 ooo 
 ooo 
 
 OOOO 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 coc^ 
 
 <l«CT5«»'4'O0 
 
 op:;; 
 
 I C3 (^ 0* 
 
 -. rt rt 
 
 
 ^ S - l^ V. 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 cc ri rt Cu Oj 
 
 fafafafafa 
 
 0^ oi a> oi 
 
 Oi Ol Oi 7i 
 
 3 3 13 3 
 OOOO 
 
 J; 0/ 0/ Oi 
 
 rt c: rt a; 
 
 d,'-' o o 
 faP3cC7i 
 
170 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 D. Interior steel frame fire-proofed, with solid brick walls and re- 
 inforced-concrete floors, 
 
 E. Entire reinforced-concrete building. 
 
 F. Part interior steel frame not fireproofed, with solid brick walls 
 and wood mill floors. 
 
 G. Entire wood mill construction. 
 
 The first cost, however, is not always the governing considera- 
 tion, for in these times of large enterprises, any reasonable invest- 
 ment is permissible which will result in ultimate economy, when the 
 expense of maintenance, depreciation, interest and insurance is 
 considered. The selection of a building type is, indeed, a choice of 
 the most profitable investment. 
 
 In comparing the first cost of buildings in wood mill construction 
 and in reinforced concrete, it will be found that their relative cost 
 varies with the location, size of building, and the floor loads to be 
 sustained. In the Southern States, or other regions where timber is 
 abundant and cheap, wood construction will often cost 25 to 30% 
 less than reinforced concrete, while in districts where wood is scarce, 
 the two types may be nearly equal. 
 
 The comparison depends also on the size of the building, for large 
 ones have often been found to cost about the same In either material, 
 and small ones are sometimes more expensive by 30 to 40 or 50% 
 in reinforced concrete than in wood. The required floor capacity 
 also affects the comparison. Light loads with long spans are 
 cheaper in wood mill construction than in reinforced concrete, the 
 cost of the two types being nearly equal In large buildings with 200 
 lbs. imposed loads per square ft., and column spacing of 18 to 20 ft. 
 With loads of 300 to 500 lbs. per sq. ft., concrete becomes the 
 cheaper, and the saving increases rapidly with greater loads of 1,000 
 to 1,200 lbs. per sq. ft. 
 
 A concrete building designed by the writer and containing about 
 500,000 cu. ft. was found to cost 11% more than one in wood mill 
 construction, and about the same as a building with complete 
 interior fireproofed steel frame, solid walls, and wood floors. It 
 was in Ohio. 
 
 As a general rule, therefore, it will be found that reinforced con- 
 crete in the Northern States costs about the same as wood for large 
 buildings with heavy loads, worth $250,000 or more. Those worth 
 $25,000 to $100,000 will usually cost 10 to 20% more in concrete 
 than in wood, and small structures, especially for light loads, may 
 be cheaper in wood by 30 to 40 or even 50%. 
 
 Table Xll gives a miscellaneous lot of bids and estimates on 
 manufacturing buildings, with comparative costs in Avood mill 
 construction and in reinforced concrete. It will be seen that the 
 costs in most cases are from 1 to 27% higher in concrete than in 
 wood. 
 
 Comparing now the ultiviate cost of the two types. For con- 
 venience, a wooden building will be assumed at $100,000, and a con- 
 crete building 10 per cent, more, or $110,000, and the contents in 
 each case will be assumed of equal value to the building. The 
 yearly maintenance costs will be : 
 
BUILDINGS 171 
 
 Wood. Reinforced 
 
 concrete. 
 
 Depreciation at 11/2% $1,500 at 1/2% $ 500 
 
 Insurance on building at 80 cts. 800 at 20 cts. 220 
 
 Insurance on contents at 110 cts. 1,100 at 80 cts. 880 
 
 Interest and taxes at 7% 7,000 7,700 
 
 Oscillation, vibration at 1% 1,000 0000 
 
 Total $11,400 $9,300 
 
 The reinforced-concrete building costing $110 000 will then have 
 a maintenance cost of $2,100 per year, or 2.1 per cent, less than the 
 wooden one at $100,000, and this difference of $2,100 at &%, is 
 interest on $35,000. It will therefore be permissible to invest an 
 additional $35,000 on a concrete building, to make the two types of 
 equal ultimate cost. A concrete building costing $145,000, or 45 per 
 cent, more, has therefore no greater ultimate cost than a wooden 
 one at $100,000. 
 
 In comparing the cost of fireproofed-steel construction with rein- 
 forced-concrete, complete framing and exterior curtain walls being 
 considered in both cases, it will be found that for imposed floor 
 loads of 150 lbs. per sq. ft. or more, concrete will be cheaper than 
 steel by 5 to 20%, depending on conditions. For light loads, the 
 cost of the two types will be nearly equal, and in some cases with 
 very light load and long spans, steel framing will be slightly 
 cheaper. One-story buildings over large areas are best when framed 
 in steel. 
 
 A comparison on a building costing about $50,000 for total floor 
 loads of 200 lbs. per square foot, showed that one with fireproofed- 
 steel framing and heavy wooden floor cost 12% more than one of 
 reinforced concrete with granolithic floor surface. It appears, there- 
 fore, that factory buildings of reinforced concrete have the lowest 
 cost of all fireproof construction yet available. 
 
 Table XIII gives the comparative cost of a variety of buildings 
 of different kinds, in both reinforced concrete and in steel. It shows 
 that the former type is cheaper than the latter by 3 to 13%. 
 
 From comparative estimates for a building of 500,000 cu. ft., to 
 determine the comparative cost of fireproofed-steel construction and 
 wood mill framing, it appears that one with complete fireproofed- 
 steel frame, side curtain walls and wood floors, costs 30% more 
 than wood mill con.struction, while the same building with only 
 interior flreproofed-steel frame and solid bearing walls costs 19% 
 more than wood. If the first building mentioned above had a rein- 
 forced-concrete floor, its cost would be 37% more than wood mill 
 construction, while the corresponding cost of the second one with 
 reinforced concrete floor would be 26% more. 
 
 Cost of Reproducing Buildings and Yearly Cost Variation. The 
 table in Fig. 7 shows the per cent, of increased cost to be applied to 
 cost of buildings as of year built to obtain cost of reproduction 
 in a recent appraisal by the authors. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Slow Burning and Concrete Buildings in Chi- 
 cago. F. E. Davidson and T. L. Condron (Engineering News, Nov. 
 9, 1916), give the following comparison of work in Chicago: 
 
172 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 OOOo 
 
 10 laof) a^oo<=>^ 
 
 oooooo+-'o 
 
 OOOOOo ceo 
 TfiCOOOOo CfcO 
 
 «o'r-'«5 eo -a-'Tfii o* 
 oooooicaooo (m 
 
 Oi OOrHffO CO 
 
 Pi 
 
 op 
 Oh 
 
 Oh 
 
 <o 
 
 OOOo -oOOoOOO^ 
 
 •8J8J0UO0 lOOOo -OOOOOOOO 
 
 m I'^n^ oirtoo 'ooooico'i-Hooo 
 
 &9- C^iH "(M I>r-I(M (M 
 
 *S9KIO)S «0 00 O 00 t- ec Ift «0 <D 00 rH (M Oi 
 
 •TT '3ZIC2 K>-J t>» ^ >> 
 
 
 
 
 2 o '*' 5 c .« cc rt 13 :3 .q:3 
 
 •pui^l 
 
 55 oj o) 0) 
 
 5 o o o rt 
 
 fefe^ooS mtn^ffiffifej 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 173 
 
 The Olson building is 55 ft. 11/2 ins. by 124 ft. 7i^ ins. in area, 
 with six stories and basement, and contains 598,477 cu. ft. The 
 story heights are in general 13 ft. 6 ins. floor to floor. The typical 
 bays of the building are 18 ft. by 17 ft. 10 ins. The structure was 
 designed for a live -load of 150 lbs. per sq. ft, in accordance with the 
 requirements of the Chicago building code, which limits the stresses 
 in long-leaf Southern pine to 1.300 lbs. per sq. in. in bending and 
 1,100 lbs. per sq. in. in direct compression with the grain. 
 
 The floor girders are composed of two 10 x 18-in. timbers bolted 
 together, and the floor joists or beams are 8x16 in., located 4 ft. 6 
 ins. c. to c. The girders are carried on steel post caps of the writer's 
 own design. The floor construction is a 3-in. tongued and grooved 
 flooring finished with a %-in. maple wearing surface. 
 
 This building is an addition to an existing factory, and it was 
 necessary to use cantilever foundations for the entire structure. 
 This, of course, is true for either design. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 7. Diagram showing per cent, of increased cost to be ap- 
 plied to cost of building as of year built to obtain reproduction cost 
 in 1915. 
 
 The timber specified in the contract was to be of the select 
 structural grade as per the new grading rules of the Southern Pine 
 Association. The cost to the contractor in this particular building 
 at the site was as follows: Approximately $34.50 per M. for the 
 18-in. stock and $33 per M. for the 16-in. stock. 
 
 The Imperial Brass Co. building is 85x125 ft. in area, six stories 
 and basement, and has 74,000 sq. ft. of floor surface. Tlie cubical 
 contents measured in the same manner as adopted for the Olson 
 building are 972,000 cu. ft. for the standard mill construction and 
 99 3,400 cu. ft. for the reinforced-concrete construction, the difference 
 in cubical contents being due to the greater depth of foundations 
 for the concrete construction. The typical bays of the standard mill 
 construction are 18 ft. by 16 ft. 6 ins. and for the reinforced-concrete 
 construction 18 ft. by 21 ft. 6 ins. The structures were designed 
 for a live -load of 175 lbs. per sq. ft. in accordance with the require- 
 ments of the Chicago building code. 
 
 In the standard mill construction the floor girders are compo-sed 
 of two 8 X 18-in. timbers, bolted together, and the floor joists or 
 beams are 8x16 ins. spaced 4 ft. 6 ins. c. to c. The girders are 
 
174 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 carried on steel post caps built up of plates and angles. The floor 
 construction is 3 in. tongued and grooved yellow-pine flooring with 
 %-in. maple wearing surface. The timber specified was select 
 structural-grade Southern pine, according to the specifications for 
 dense Southern pine given in the Southern Pine Association Density- 
 Rule Book of March 15, 1916 No. 1 Douglas fir was permitted as 
 an alternate for the above yellow pine. 
 
 The reinforced-concrete design called for an 8-in. reinforced- 
 concrete slab supported by flaring column heads, and reinforced- 
 concrete round columns. 
 
 The foundations for the mill-construction building are the usual 
 spread type, except that cantilever foundations are required on the 
 side adjacent to the old building. 
 
 TABLE XIV. COMPARISON OF COSTS OF MILL AND CON- 
 CRETE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Comparison of bids for a factory 
 
 building of standard mill and 
 
 reinforced concrete. 
 
 Olson bldg. Imperial bldg. 
 
 Type of construction Mill. Concrete. Mill. Concrete 
 
 Masonry (brick, stone and con- 
 crete) $20,256 $56,766 $31,097] 
 
 Ornamental and miscellaneous \ $80,000 
 
 iron, etc 11,989 4,839 13,250j 
 
 Carpentry 14,374 23,500 
 
 Steel sash, glazing, painting, 
 
 roofing, etc. . . .a? 3,804 4,479 6,069 6,883 
 
 Plumbing (drainage) 615 725 1,536 1,669 
 
 Wiring* 1,100 1,250 1,830 2,060 
 
 Total bids received $52,138 $68,059 $77,282 $90,479 
 
 Per sq. ft. of floor areas $1.17 $1.51 $1.04 $1.22 
 
 Relative costs per sq. ft.. ..... 100% 129% 89% 104% 
 
 Relative costs per sq. ft 100% 117% 
 
 Adding 28 cts. per sq. ft. of floor 
 area to cover cost of sprinkler, 
 heating and elevator equipment 
 
 and plumbing fixtures $1.45 $1.79 $1.32 $1.50 
 
 Relative costs per sq. ft 100% 124% 91% 103% 
 
 Relative costs per sq. ft 100% 114% 
 
 Per cu. ft. of building 8y2C. lli/4c. 8c. 9i/sc. 
 
 Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 132% 94% 107% 
 
 Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 114% 
 
 Adding 2 cts. per cu. ft. of build- 
 ing to cover cost of sprinkler, 
 heating and elevator equipment 
 
 and plumbing fixtures 10%c. 13%c. 10c. ll%c. 
 
 Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 126% 95% 106% 
 
 Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 1121/^% 
 
 The column spacing was modified in making up the mill design, 
 changing the spans from 21 ft. in. (concrete design) to 17 ft. 10 in. 
 (mill design). 
 
 Brick per Square Foot of Floor and Approximate Costs of Mill 
 Buildings. C. F. Dingman (Engineering and Contracting. Sept. 8, 
 1915), states that the size and shape of buildings should be taken 
 into account when estimating costs on a square foot basis. For 
 
 * Estimates of wiring only. 
 
BUILDINGS 175 
 
 example, a 25 by 25-ft. building will require more brick per square 
 foot of floor area than a building 100 by 100 ft. The former would 
 require 100 lin. ft. of wall to enclose an area of 625 sq. ft., or 1 lin. 
 ft. of wall for each 6^4 sq. ft., of floor area; while the latter would 
 require only 400 lin. ft. of wall to enclose an area of 10,000 sq. ft., or 
 1 lin. ft. of wall for each 25 sq. ft. of floor. The same condition 
 applies to footings, copings, wall flashings, etc. Such items as floor 
 construction and roofing are almost directly proportional to the 
 floor area, but the items included in the wall construction affect the 
 total cost to such an extent as to make it unwise to attempt to give 
 an approximate estimate of the cost per square foot without care- 
 fully considering the effect of size and shape. 
 
 To show the effect of changes in size and shape on the number of 
 bricks required per square foot of structure, the data following are 
 taken from estimates on actual buildings. 
 
 NUMBER OF BRICKS PER SQ. FT. OF FLOOR 
 
 Number of 
 
 Height, Size of brick.s per 
 
 stories. building, ft. sq. ft. of floor. 
 
 1 32x 85 35 
 
 1 35 X 89 25.4 
 
 1 36 X 100 23.2 
 
 1 50 X 106 17.7 
 
 1 67 X 97 15.4 
 
 1 69 X 92 8.3 
 
 1 53 X 181 8.8 
 
 1 75x120 16.5 
 
 1 80 X 100 8.7 
 
 1 82x253 6.6 
 
 1 60 X 218 12 
 
 1 140x180 6.3 
 
 2 : 42 x 82 14.1 
 
 2 94 X 126 6.7 
 
 3 40 X 146 10.6 
 
 3 50 X 96 13.4 
 
 4 50x100 16.2 
 
 4 Ill X 201 9.4 
 
 5 72x102 10.9 
 
 5 72x157 17.5 
 
 The buildings are of the ordinary standard mill building type, 
 that class being selected because it is in mill construction that we 
 find the greatest uniformity and standardization of design ; the 
 values can therefore be considered fairly representative. 
 
 It is evident from the above that if a sufficient number of observa- 
 tions was made a series of curves could be prepared which would 
 show approximately the number of bricks which would be required 
 to construct a standard mill building of any size. It is evident, also, 
 that these curves would show a diminishing quantity per square 
 foot as the size of the building increased so long as its shape or 
 plan remained square, but that it requires a greater quantity of 
 material to enclose the same area in an oblong building than In a 
 square building, and that this quantity increases as the ratio be- 
 tween the length and width increases. 
 
 The costs in Table XV may be taken as a guide by an engineer 
 
176 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 or architect who desires to determine the approximate cost of a 
 projected mill building having brick walls and located in the vicinity 
 of — but not within — New York City. The costs are based on 
 buildings in which the story heights are not over 12 ft. In New 
 York City the costs may run from 5 to 10 per cent, higher, on 
 account of the high cost of transporting materials, etc. 
 
 TABLE XV. 
 
 COST OP 
 
 ORDINARY BRICK MILL 
 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 Size, ft. 
 
 1-story. 
 
 2 -story. 
 
 3 -story. 
 
 4-story. 
 
 25 X 25 
 
 $ 1,250 
 
 $ 2,500 
 
 $ 3,750 
 
 $ 5,000 
 
 50 
 
 2,400 
 
 4,800 
 
 7,200 
 
 9,600 
 
 75 
 
 3,440 
 
 6,700 
 
 9,600 
 
 13,100 
 
 100 
 
 4,200 
 
 8,100 
 
 11,850 
 
 16,200 
 
 50 X 50 
 
 3,800 
 
 7,500 
 
 11,200 
 
 13,800 
 
 75 
 
 5,100 
 
 9,750 
 
 14,100 
 
 18,750 
 
 100 
 
 6,450 
 
 12,100 
 
 17,400 
 
 23,600 
 
 125 
 
 7,750 
 
 14,500 
 
 20,600 
 
 27,000 
 
 150 
 
 9,175 
 
 16,950 
 
 24,100 
 
 31,800 
 
 75 X 75 
 
 7,050 
 
 11,900 
 
 19,500 
 
 25,600 
 
 100 
 
 8,925 
 
 16,200 
 
 23,900 
 
 31,800 
 
 125 
 
 10,680 
 
 20,250 
 
 28,125 
 
 37,500 
 
 150 
 
 12,500 
 
 23,000 
 
 32,700 
 
 43,600 
 
 100x100 
 
 11,400 
 
 21,600 
 
 28,200 
 
 37,200 
 
 125 
 
 13,500 
 
 24,500 
 
 33,200 
 
 44,000 
 
 150 
 
 15,900 
 
 28,500 
 
 38,700 
 
 51,000 
 
 Unit Costs of Reinforced Concrete for Industrial Buildings. C. S. 
 
 Allen of Lockwood, Greene and Company, mill architects, in Engi- 
 neering Record, April 6, 1912, says that concrete is especially 
 adapted to heavy construction, and for heavy loads of 200 lbs. per 
 sq. ft. and over, where the spans are 18 to 20 ft. Table XVI gives 
 ithe unit costs, on both the square-foot and the cubic-foot basis, 
 together with a general description of a number of reinforced con- 
 crete industrial buildings of different types. The average cost per 
 sq. ft. of these buildings, excluding the one-story structures, was 
 $1.12, while the average cost per cu. ft. was 8.7 cts. The one-story 
 structures had reinforced concrete saw-tooth roofs and the average 
 cost per sq. ft. was $1.77, while 8.5 cts. was the average cost per 
 cu. ft. These costs are for the finished buildings, including plumb- 
 ing, but do not include heating, lighting, elevators, sprinklers and 
 power equipment. The cost per sq. ft. of floor area was obtained by 
 dividing the cost of the building by the total number of sq. ft. of 
 floor area exclusive of roof area, but including basement floors, and 
 the cost per cubic foot by dividing the cubical contents into the cost 
 of the structure. 
 
 While no coal pockets are included in the table, it has been the ex- 
 perience of this company that above 3,000 tons' capacity, reinforced 
 concrete elevator coal pockets cost from $5.50 to $7.50 per ton of 
 capacity. Standpipes, exclusive of the foundations, average from 
 2^2 to 3 cts. per gal. of capacity. 
 
 The average unit cost of the 1:2:4 concrete in the floors, including 
 the beams, girders and slabs, was $6.10 per cu. yd. and for the 
 columns $6.70 per cu. yd. Where k 1:1% :3 mixture was used for 
 the columns, the average cost was $7.60 per cu. yd. This cost was 
 made up of the items of cement, sand, stone or gravel, labor and 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 m 
 
 H I 
 
 ^^ 
 i« 
 
 8^ 
 
 qS 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 fa 
 O 
 
 03 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 Oi o- r^ c<i t~- o 
 
 OoO-i-iOt-I 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 t— O t- t~ IfiM 
 
 
 3« 
 
 ooo o oo 
 
 c- c- T-i 00 t- o 
 
 T-iiHi-i O OrH 
 
 0000050 
 
 'A 'A '<< 'A y, 'A 
 
 OOOOCOOCD 
 
 o o t>^ i>^ «"i 00 
 
 >^ ^ 1^ >< 
 ooo <^ 
 
 M m+j 
 
 'CO 
 
 cj ct3 03 03 
 
 
 
 
 ^2 . 0«)«000 
 
 o bjoij im" «o d e^ "^ **' 
 
 q 
 
 C 005 OUSCO ,HOCO 
 
 Q Ift-M 500U3 COOUi 
 
 '^'w oo 
 
 OOCO 
 
 k! X X 
 
 iHO— I 
 •* 
 (M IM CO <M 1 
 
 
 
 • a • 
 o • 
 
 a> M <D 
 
 50 :3 
 03 O !h 
 
 -i* oi O 
 
 
 3 3 3 
 OOO 
 
 a; a; (D 
 
 t. tH ;h 
 ooo 
 
178 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 plant. The cement, of course, varied greatly with the demand, but 
 the average net cost was $1.35 per barrel, including 3 cts. for tests. 
 The sand averaged 80 cts. per cubic yard and the crushed stone 
 $1.25 per cu, yd. The cost of labor of unloading the materials and 
 mixing and placing the concrete varied from 65 cts. to $2.90 per 
 cu. yd. The cost of plant, consisting of freight, depreciation or 
 rental of mixing and hoisting towers, their erection, power and 
 coal, and losses and waste on the small tools, ranged from 50 cts. 
 to $1.50 per cubic yard of concrete placed. 
 
 On the average job the cost of the forms amounts to about one- 
 .third the cost of the entire structure. On the buildings under con- 
 sideration, the average cost of the forms for the floors, including 
 beams, girders and slabs, was 10 cts. per sq. ft. and for the columns 
 13 cts. per sq. ft. The lowest cost was in a building of flat slab 
 type construction where, by the intelligent use of corrugated iron for 
 the slab forms, the cost of the floor forms, including wall beams, 
 was 7 cts. per sq. ft., and the highest cost was for an artistic but 
 not elaborate overhanging on a 12-story building, which was 
 32 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 The cost of the labor of making, erecting and stripping the forms 
 varied, according to the price of lumber, design of the structure, 
 method of forming, character of the supervision and the skill of the 
 workmen, from 4% to 12 cts. per sq. ft. The cost of lumber, nails 
 and oil divided by the square foot of forms averaged from 2% to 
 4,^2 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 The cost of bending and placing the reinforcing steel, including 
 the necessary wire, averaged $10 per ton, the range being from $5.75 
 per ton to $17.20 per ton. 
 
 Granolithic floor finish 1^^ in. thick, when laid before the concrete 
 below it had set, so as to form one homogeneous slab, cost on the 
 average 4^/^ cts. per sq. ft. When put on after the rough concrete 
 slab the cost averaged 7 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 The most common type of curtain wall under windows has been 
 either an 8 or 12 -in. brick wall resting on the concrete wall beam. 
 The average cost of these walls has been 45 cents per square foot. 
 There is practically no difference in cost between the 8 -in. and the 
 12-in. brick curtain wall, as the saving in material is offset by 
 the great amount of extra labor in culling and laying the thinner 
 wall. 
 
 An excellent and inexpensive spandrel wall, according to Mr. 
 Allen, is constructed by using 8 x 12 x 18-in. vitrified tile. This is a 
 non-absorbent wall and when properly laid in cement mortar makes 
 a tight weatherproof curtain wall. The cost averages about 25 cts. 
 per sq. ft. If the tile is plastered both sides the cost is about 38 cts, 
 per sq. ft. 
 
 Where 8 -in. concrete curtain walls were cast in place after the 
 skeleton frame was completed, the average cost was 40 cts. per 
 sq. ft., and when poured simultaneously with the columns 48 cts. 
 per sq. ft. Four-inch cast concrete slabs cost about 35 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 While concrete blocks make a very cheap and light curtain wall, 
 the price being about the same as for the 8 -in. tile, Mr. Allen's ex- 
 
BUILDINGS 179 
 
 perience with them has been rather unfortunate on account of their 
 extreme porosity. 
 
 Where the location of the buildings has demanded special treat- 
 ment of the exposed surfaces, this company has generally specified 
 rubbing with a block of carborundum. The average cost of this 
 work has been 4 cts. per sq. ft. In two instances portions of the 
 structure have been bush-hammered, with a resulting average cost 
 of 7 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 Concrete piles were used on the foundation of several of the 
 buildngs and the average cost of the piles was $1.15 per lin. ft. 
 
 Where, for waterproofing purposes, hydrated lime has been added 
 in the proportion of 1^% of the weight of the cement, the added cost 
 per cubic yard of 1 :2 :4 concrete has been 50 cts. Patented com- 
 pounds have cost from 25 to 35 cts. per square foot of surface 
 covered. On horizontal or inclined surfaces the company has some- 
 times used a granolithic surface of rich mortar of Portland cement 
 and sand, or Portland cement and screenings in the proportions of 
 1 :1 laid at the same time as the base and troweled as in side walls 
 construction. The cost of this work has been about 5 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 Taken as a whole, the lowest possible cost on a reinforced concrete 
 building can be obtained, according to Mr. Allen, only by a careful 
 study of each particular case to determine the cheapest type of con- 
 struction and most economical spacing of columns. As a general 
 proposition, for light loads with ordinary beam and girder construc- 
 tion the most economical spacing of columns has been 18 ft. each 
 way and for flat slab construction 20 ft. each way. For heavy 
 loads, such as 300 lbs. per sq. ft. and over, the cheapest column 
 spacing for beam and girder construction is 15x15 ft. and for flat 
 slab construction 17 x 17 ft. 
 
 Cost Chart fop a Reinforced-Concrete Factory Building. An anal- 
 ysis of the distribution of the various elements of cost in a modern 
 four-story reinforced-concrete machine shop at Lowell, Mass., ap- 
 pears in the accompanying diagram. It was prepared by the 
 Aberthaw Construction Company, of Boston, and is said to represent 
 a fairly typical case, both as regards distribution and as regards the 
 character of the building itself. 
 
 The building is 150x50 ft., with brick curtain walls. The general 
 type of interior construction is beam and girder, the height between 
 finished floors being 12 ft. 4 ins. The two lower floors were designed 
 for live loads of 250 lbs. per sq. ft. and the upper floors for 150-lb. 
 loads. Floorbeams are carried on a single row of columns 10 ft. on 
 centers, running the length of the building midway between side 
 walls. Steel sash was used throughout. 
 
 Cost of Two Story Reinforced Concrete Factory. D. L. C. Ray- 
 mond (Engineering and Contracting. Apr. 29, 19 08), gives the fol- 
 lowing relative to a building erected in 19 07 at Walkerville, Ontario. 
 It is a two story factory, 100 x 100 ft., with 18 ft. clearance on the 
 first floor and 12 ft. on the second. It is skeleton type of construc- 
 tion, 16x16 ft. floor panels, and 6-in. curtain walls. Steel rods 
 were used for reinforcement with wire mesh in the slabs. A 1 :2 :4 
 mixture was used, the mortar finish on the floors being 1:2. 
 
180 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ' 
 
 The columns and beam forms were 2 -in. dressed pine, supported 
 by 4 X 4 stuff. The floor forms were 1 in. laid on 2 x 4 pieces spaced 
 18 ins. 
 
 Fig, 
 
 Cost chart for concrete building. 
 
 The men were all green at the work. There were 847 cu. yds. of 
 concrete, the cost of which was as folloAvs : 
 
 Materials : Total. 
 
 Cement at $2.05 per bbl $ 3,314 
 
 Sand and gravel at $1.25 per cu. yd 1,054 
 
 Reinforcement at $55 per ton 2,314 
 
 Lumber for forms at $27 per M 4,944 
 
 Nails ' 107 
 
 Total materials $11,733 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Building runs, niixing and hoisting concrete.? 872 
 
 Placing and tamping concrete 5G2 
 
 Placing reinforcement 221 
 
 Stripping and cleaning forms, etc 380 
 
 Carpenters building and setting forms 2,010 
 
 Superintendence 714 
 
 Tools and depreciation of plant 338 
 
 Total labor $ 5,007 
 
 Grand total 16,830 
 
 Per cu. yd. 
 $ 3.91 
 1.25 
 2.73 
 5.84 
 0.13 
 
 $13.86 
 
 1.03 
 0.66 
 0.26 
 0.45 
 2.38 
 0.84 
 0.40 
 
 .02 
 
 It will be noted that no salvage is allowed for the lumber, and 
 that 216 ft, B, M. were used per cu. yd. of concrete. The carpenter 
 
BUILDINGS 181 
 
 work on the lumber cost $11 per M. The cost of stripping lumber 
 and cleaning up amounted to a little more than $2 per M. 
 
 There were 100 lbs. of reinforcement per cu. yd., and the labor 
 of placing it was only a trifle more than 14 ct. per lb. 
 
 This building contained about- 320,000 cu. ft. of space. Hence the 
 cost of the concrete alone was 5^/4 cts. per cu. ft., which is a low 
 cost. The cost per square foot of floor area (2 stories) was 84 cts., 
 not including windows, etc. 
 
 Unit Costs of Forms and Concrete in Building Construction. 
 L. C. Wason of the Aberthaw Construction Co. in Engineering 
 Record, Jan. 16, 1909, gives the following costs of corvcrete buildings 
 taken from data collected by his company. 
 
 By reference to the general averages on form work. Table XVII, 
 in the tables of forms per square foot of surface contact, namely, 
 columns, $0.13 ; floors with reinforced concrete beams, $0,116 ; flat 
 floors without beams, $0,111; short span slabs between steel beams, 
 including the flreproofing on the sides of the beams, $0,095 ; walls 
 exposed to view above ground, $0.128 ; foundation walls, $0,103 ; 
 mass foundations, $0,093, these figures will be found to be all higher 
 than usually believed to be a fair cost by the majority of builders. 
 It is upon the success of handling forms that good results financially 
 depend. 
 
 In regard to concrete, labor is the variable item which must be 
 carefully considered. Any one of intelligence can make a careful 
 estimate of the materials to be used, but note the average prices per 
 cubic foot of labor, namely, for columns, $0,123 ; beam fioors, $0.131 ; 
 flat floors, $0,106; floors between steel beams, $0,121; walLs, $0,106; 
 foundations, $0,091, and mass work in connection with building, 
 
 TABLE XVII. UNIT COSTS OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS 
 
 ^Formspersq. ft.-^ , Concrete per cubic foot ^ 
 
 Highest 133 .082 .002 .181 .166 .056 .109 .084 .041 .034 .340 
 
 Lowe.st 057 .013 .001 075 .064 .003 .062 .027 .008 .013 .271 
 
 Average of 9. .082 .036 .001 .130 .096 .027 .085 .049 .021 .023 .301 
 
 Beam Floors of Reinforced Concrete. 
 
 Highe.st 165 .107 .004 .275 .186 .035 .194 .101 .052 .055 .470 
 
 Lowest 037 .027 .001 .067 .047 .004 .071 .037 .007 .010 .202 
 
 Average of 18. .070 .045 .002 .116 .111 .020 .106 .063 .025 .024 .354 
 
 Flat Slab Floors. 
 
 Highest 078 .039 .003 .118 .146 .017 .109 .084 .026 .039 .374 
 
 Lowest 067 .037 .001 .106 .043 .004 .087 .053 .012 .010 .252 
 
 Average 071 .038 .002 .111 .097 .009 .096 .070 .019 .024 .315 
 
 Concrete Slabs between Steel Beams. 
 
 Highest 110 .071 .003 .184 .144 .048 .208 .080 .064 .046 .428 
 
 Lowest 028 .012 .001 .049 .073 .005 .076 .026 .004 .010 .272 
 
 Average 061 .032 .002 .095 .102 .019 .128 .068 .024 .017 .359 
 
182 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Concrete per cubic foot- 
 
 U 
 
 
 .1..^, 
 
 'I' . 
 
 "S^' 
 
 
 X2 
 
 3 
 
 
 13 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 0)^ 
 
 01 
 0) 
 
 yA 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 (B 
 
 §■3 
 
 d 
 
 s ^ 1^ 3 i? o o^ <o^ <D be <u s^ ;;; o 
 
 Highest 136 .073 .005 .176 .146 .052 .105 .187 .077 .055 .446 
 
 Lowest 046 .016 .001 .079 .042 .004 .034 .043 .007 .005 .174 
 
 Average of 17. .085 .036 .002 .128 .090 .016 .073 .076 .025 .019 .301 
 
 Foundation Walls. 
 
 Highest 134 .048 .004 .193 .213 .037 .203 .116 .057 .040 .599 
 
 Lowest 032 .009 .001 .056 .040 .002 .038 .027 .003 .010 .148 
 
 Average 068 .033 .002 .103 .076 .015 .080 .062 .019 .017 .269 
 
 Footing and Mass Foundations. 
 
 Highest .119 .077 .003 .198 .081 .020 .098 .099 .013 .049 .^75 
 
 Lowest 016 .006 .001 .018 .025 .001 .047 .043 .003 .010 .181 
 
 Average of 10. .057 .034 .002 .093 .045 .007 .071 .077 .007 .021 .229 
 
 Steel. Cost per ton. 
 
 Highest $16.47 
 
 Lowest 2.54 
 
 Average of 21 8.52 
 
 $0,052 ; not until the last item is reached is a price obtained in 
 experience which the majority expect to obtain in building work in 
 general. 
 
 The table of steel omits entirely the first cost of the material. 
 After it is received at the site of the work in the shape sold by the 
 manufacturer, these prices cover the cost of fabricating into units 
 for columns or beams, bending the stirrups, placing and all inci- 
 dentals whatsoever prior to the actual embedding in concrete. 
 
 Unit Cost of Concrete in Buildings. The unit costs of concrete in 
 the buildings of a light and power plant in California, including the 
 cost of delivering material with a wagon haul not exceeding one 
 mile, were as follows : 
 
 Foundations, not reinforced, using 1:3:6 concrete. 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 Material $5.79 
 
 Labor . 2.25 
 
 Total cost of foundations $8.04 
 
 Floors, not reinforced, using 1 :2i/^ :5 concrete. 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 Material $6.30 
 
 Labor 2.75 
 
 Cost of plain floors $9.05 
 
 Reinforced floors, using 1:2:4 concrete, 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 Material $6.30 
 
 Labor 3.25 
 
 Cost of reinforced floors $9.55 
 
BUILDINGS 183 
 
 Walls and Roofs, reinforced, using 1 :2 :4 concrete, 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 Material $7.06 
 
 Labor 4.00 
 
 Cost of walls and roofs $11.06 
 
 Forms, for Roofs, Walls and Floors, 
 
 Cost per sq. ft. 
 
 Material $0.04 
 
 Labor 07 
 
 Cost of roof, walls and floor forms. . . .$0.11 
 
 Forms for Foundations, 
 
 Cost per sq. ft. 
 
 Material $0.05 
 
 Labor 02 
 
 Cost of foundation forms $0.07 
 
 Surfacing Floors, li/^ in. thick, using l:li/^ mortar, 
 
 Cost per sq. ft. 
 
 Material $0.05 
 
 Labor 02 
 
 Cost of surfacing floors $0.07 
 
 Plastering Concrete Walls, mortar 14 in. thick, 
 
 Cost per sq. ft. 
 
 Material $0,015 
 
 Labor 020 
 
 Cost of plastering concrete walls $0,035 
 
 Cost of a Concrete Storage Warehouse Using Precast Members. 
 
 W. H. Mason (Engineering News, Feb. 20, 1908), gives the cost of 
 a cement storage warehouse 14 4 by 360 ft. in plan and 30 ft. high, 
 having a capacity of 350,000 bbls. of cement. The side walls are 
 2 ft. thick at the top and 7 ft. thick at the ground, being designed as 
 retaining walls. The building is one story high, the roof being 12 
 by 6 ft. by 4 in. precast slabs carried on girders resting on 32 ft. 
 columns. 
 
 The roof slabs, girders and columns were cast in a shop about 
 % mile from the warehouse and were completed in 2 months. Some 
 preliminary work had been done previously, such as setting up 
 concrete mixer, laying railroad track, and making a few casting 
 floors to start on. The average number of men employed during this 
 time was 23. Eleven of these were classed as carpenters and fore- 
 men, whose average rate was 24 cts. per hour; twelve were classed 
 as laborers, whose average rate was 15 cts. per hour. 
 
 The lumber used for making the 1,048 pieces was 7,000 bd. ft., 
 which at $27 per M. makes a total of $189. 
 
 The total amount of steel used was 201,400 lbs., the average price 
 of which delivered at our mill was .0203 cts., or a total cost of 
 $4,088. 
 
184 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The mixture used was 1 to 6, using the run of crusher stone 
 without sand. The stone would all pass a %-in. screen. 
 
 In the following- costs the stone is figured at 60 cts. per cu. yd., 
 while the cement is figured at $1.00 per bbl. 
 
 Cost of each column complete on casting floor was as follows: 
 
 Cost of steel $ 7.57 
 
 Cost of material for concrete 5.48 
 
 Carpenter labor 4.27 
 
 Labor, making and placing concrete and rein- 
 forcing 1.95 
 
 Total per column $19.27 
 
 The columns are 18x18 ins. sq. and 32 ft. long with offsets at the 
 base which bring their contents up to 2.8 cu. yds. 
 
 Cost of each girder complete on casting floor was as follows : 
 
 Steel $ 5.53 
 
 Concrete material 3.51 
 
 Carpenter labor 2.26 
 
 Labor, mixing and placing, etc 1.34 
 
 Total per girder $12.64 
 
 The girders are 12 x 26 ins. x 24 ft. with a contents of 1.9 cu. yds. 
 Cost of each roof slab complete on casting floor was as follows : 
 
 Steel $1.69 
 
 Concrete material 1.85 
 
 Carpenter labor 423 
 
 Labor, jnixing and placing concrete, whitewash- 
 ing, smoothing tops, etc 405 
 
 Total per slab $4.37 
 
 There are 72 sq. ft. in each slab, therefore the cost per sq. ft. is 
 O.0607 cts., or $6.07 per 100 sq. ft. 
 
 The estimated cost of erecting 518 squares in the building was 
 as follows : 
 
 Cost of erection per square is $1.86 
 
 Cost of slabs per square 6.07 
 
 Total cost in place $7.93 
 
 One of the roof slabs tested to destruction failed at 7,700 lbs. 
 center load, with 12-ft. span. This gives an ample factor of safety 
 for a roof. 
 
 Cost of a Brick and Steel Factory in Pennsylvania. A. E. Duck- 
 ham (Engineering and Contracting, Apr. 15, 1908) gives the cost of 
 a building for a wireglass plant in South Greensburg, Pa., 60 by 170 
 ft., that was started on May 20, 1907, and was finished on Aug. 1. 
 This includes the lehr (furnace) foundations. 
 
 The foundations up to the level of the ground are of concrete, 
 made of 1 part cement (Portland), 3 parts sand, and 7 parts gravel. 
 They were carried down to clay, which on an average was 3 ft, 
 below the surface of the ground — which was level. The ground 
 being marsh-like, the trenches were dug and immediately filled up 
 
BUILDINGS 185 
 
 with concrete, mixed on the board and deposited by wheelbarrow 
 from a plank runway into the bottom ; no water was required in the 
 mixing-board for the bottom layers of concrete owing- to the trenches 
 being partly filled with surface water. 
 
 Above the level of the ground the building is of brick. The roof- 
 trusses are of steel, including the purlins. They rest on the pilasters 
 of the wall, and are attached to them by anchor bolts. The latter 
 were set loose in the walls ; and, after the erection of the steel, were 
 grouted with cement mortar. This was to facilitate the erection of 
 the steel-work. 
 
 The roof was covered as follows : Nailing strips of 2x4 in. 
 hemlock were bolted (every 3 ft.) to the steel purlins, and upon them 
 was nailed 1 % in. matched yellow-pine sheathing ; upon this was 
 laid and fastened magnesia flexible cement roofing. 
 
 The building was well situated for receiving materials, as it was 
 located 118 ft. from the railroad and 75 ft. from a street. The 
 cement, sand, gravel and brick were obtained from local dealers 
 within a mile of the place ; the first three were hauled by wagon 
 (with the exception of one carload of sand), and the last one was 
 shipped in by car on a siding opposite the building, and slipped in by 
 a chute — the railroad track being about 8 ft. above our ground. 
 
 The walls between the pilasters are only 9 ins., but the pilasters 
 project 9 ins., thus making an 18-in. pillar or column under each 
 truss to carry the load ; the 9 -in. wall between acting as a curtain 
 wall. The brick wall was laid complete in cement mortar, no lime 
 being used. 
 
 Four ordinary circular ventilators were used along the ridge. As 
 there were many large windows along the sides of the building, 
 as well as the ends, these were considered enough for the purpose. 
 The windows had boxes for pulleys and weights. There were two 
 sash to each window. The bottom sash weighed 39 lbs. including 
 the glass : this was weighed to determine the size of counter-weights. 
 
 The 122 squares of roof-covering took one week to lay, nail, 
 cement, and paint. There were five men for three days and two men 
 for six days. Two men (experts) came up on the job, and three 
 ordinary local mechanics were hired. The extra men cost $20. 
 
 In unloading the brick from the cars on the railroad track, in one 
 case it took five hours to unload one box car of 12,000 brick with 
 four men (two inside and two outside), with chute; and in another 
 it took 3% hours for five men to unload the same car. 
 
 The detailed cost of the building as built was as follows : 
 
 Steel-work $2,730.00 
 
 Lumber, doors and windows, sheathing, etc... 1,283.64 
 
 Roof covering (cement roofing felt) 412.50 
 
 Cement, sand and gravel 938.04 
 
 Brick 738.45 
 
 Labor (including common labor, bricklayers 
 
 and carpenters) . . . .' 2,175.58 
 
 Bolts to fasten nailing-strips to purlins 28.88 
 
 Hardware 79.54 
 
 Ventilators (circular) 18.00 
 
 Total $8,404.63 
 
186 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The cost of the building per cu. ft. of space from the ground level 
 to the roof was 314 cts. The cost per sq. ft. of floor space was 
 82.4 cts. The above does not include the architect's fee of 5% or 
 the contractor's fee (of approximately 8%) : this would bring the 
 cost per cubic foot up to 3.6 cts., and the cost per square foot up to 
 93.1 cts. 
 
 The lehr walls (foundation) were built by the writer under a 
 separate contract with the furnace contractors. This work he did 
 for $6.50 a cu. yd. for the concrete walls (3 ft. under ground and 4 
 ft. above ground) and 50 cts. a cu. yd. extra for excavating the 
 trenches. At this figure, he made 18% profit. 
 
 Cost of Buildings for Small Pumping Station. W. S. Johnson 
 (Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 30, 1914) gives the cost of sev- 
 eral small stations for municipally owned water works in Massachu- 
 setts as shown in Table XVI EI. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. COST OP SMALL PUMPING STATIONS 
 
 Material. Size. 
 
 Cobbles 22x30 
 
 Brick 19 X 36 
 
 Cobbles '. . . 9x12 
 
 Wood and steel shingles 
 
 over entire surface 
 
 Brick 24x 26 
 
 Brick 24 X 30 
 
 Brick 20x35* 
 
 Brick 30 X 40 
 
 Brick 24x34 
 
 Brick 
 
 Brick 33 X 23 
 
 Brick 24x24 
 
 Brick 28 X 28 
 
 Brick 25x36 
 
 Brick 25 X 36 
 
 Brick 16x 16 
 
 Brick 25x36 
 
 * Two stories. 
 
 t Includes some grading. 
 
 i Without pumping machinery foundations. 
 
 Construction Camp Building Costs. C. A. Bryan (Engineering 
 and Contracting, July 2, 1913), gives the first cost of a camp, includ- 
 ing a well for water supply and other accessories as $10 per man 
 accommodated. The dining and store building cost just under 30 
 cts. and the bunk house just over 30 cts. per sq. ft. of area. 
 
 Cost of Mill Erection. H. T. Curran (Engineering and Contract- 
 ing, Oct. 6, 1915), states that erection costs are variable and can 
 only be obtained by experience or by comparison with other jobs. 
 However, if the following rules are applied for summer work in the 
 United States, the estimate will come approximately close to actual 
 cost. Labor wage is based on the average paid in western mining 
 camps. 
 
 Superintendence can be figured when conditions are known, and 
 will average, including cost of plans, from 3 to 5% of the total. 
 
 
 Cost per 
 
 Cost. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 $1,935 
 
 $2.93 
 
 1,857 
 
 2.71 
 
 350 
 
 3.24 
 
 1,730 
 
 
 1,948 
 
 3.12 
 
 1,628 
 
 2.26 
 
 2,500 
 
 3.57 
 
 2,368 
 
 1.97 
 
 3,100t 
 
 3.80t 
 
 2,000 
 
 2.64 
 
 2,000 
 
 3.46 
 
 2,852 
 
 2.68 
 
 2,700 
 
 3.00 
 
 2,133t 
 
 2.37t 
 
 500t 
 
 1.95$ 
 1.83:: 
 
 1,647$ 
 
BUILDINGS 187 
 
 Excavation by picking, shoveling, and hauling average earth in 
 wheelbarrows, moving 100 ft., will cost about 45 cts. per cu. yd. ; add 
 one-third of hourly wage of laborer for every additional 100 ft. 
 Where mine cars can be used to advantage this may be cut to 35 cts. 
 per cu. yd., moving 100 ft. ; add one-fifth of hourly wage for every 
 additional 100 ft., which covers placing the track. Breaking rock by 
 hand, like hauling conditions, will cost from $1.25 to $1.75 per cu. 
 yd., with 100 ft. haul. It will cost a few cents more per cubic yard 
 than in earth work for every additional 100 ft. There are so many 
 unknown quantities entering into excavating that these figures are 
 only roughly approximate. 
 
 Rubble masonry will average $5 per cu. yd., using cement mortar. 
 A mix of 1 part of Portland cement to 5 parts of sharp, clean sand 
 will give good results. Such walls will average about 15-in. courses 
 and will require from 14 to \'z cu. yd. of mortar per cubic yard of 
 wall. 
 
 Concrete work can be figured to a nicety when conditions are 
 known. "With a mechanical mixer, $1 per cu. yd. will cover the cost 
 of mixing and placing in the average mill. On a large job it is well 
 to determine just what mix is required with the material used. The 
 duty of the sand is to fill the voids in the broken rock and, when the 
 two are mixed, the resultant voids should be filled with cement. It 
 is well to allow 10% excess in each case, but there is nothing gained 
 by using a richer mix for retaining walls and foundation. However, 
 if a weaker mix is desired it can be obtained by puddling instead of 
 cutting down the proportion of sand and cement. In forms of any 
 size puddling is good practice and the strength of the concrete is 
 by no means decreased. Clean, firm rock should be used and the 
 edges should not touch. On the average mill job concrete will not 
 cost more than $7 per cu. yd. for large forms, $8 for medium, and 
 $10 for small and heavy-duty machine foundations, including the 
 cost of the forms. By using old iron, reinforced concrete can be 
 made for 50 cts. per cu. yd. more. Floors with a 5-in. base and 1-in. 
 covering will average from $10 to $14 per cu. yd. 
 
 Carpenter work with a well organized crew of millwrights will 
 average about $21 per M for framing and erecting; $12 to $15 per M 
 for siding and roofing; and $2.50 per M for shingles, or 75 cts. to $1 
 per square for corrugated iron roofing and siding. With^a picked-up 
 local crew, $28 to $31 per M for framing and erecting, $9 per M for 
 siding and roofing and $2.50 per M for shingles or $1.25 per square 
 for iron, will be the average figures. 
 
 The nails required in this work per M ft. b. m. will be about as 
 follows : 
 
 Nails Required in Erection per M. ft. b.m. 
 
 Size, d. Lbs. 
 
 Siding and roofing 8 18 to 21 
 
 Flooring (l-in. material) 8 28 to 32 
 
 Flooring (2-in. material) 20 or 30 20 to 25 
 
 Studding, etc 10 14 
 
 Shingles (per 1,000) 4 6 
 
188 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Shop Drawings for Structural Steel. R. 11. Gage (En- 
 gineering Mild Contracting, Aug. liS, 1907), gives the cost of pre- 
 paring shop drawings in Chicago in liH)6. 
 
 The structural shop in which the cost studies were made has a 
 capacity of 800 tons per month. The drafting department employs 
 on an average seven or eight engineers. All the work is standard- 
 ized with regard to details to as great an extent as possible, in order 
 to decrease the work in the draftir.g room, yet not to such an extent 
 that it would be dilficult for the shop men to read the drawings. 
 For example, all beam, steel and cast-iron column connections, with 
 the exception of special cases, are not drawn and dimensioned com- 
 pletely, but merely Indicated. The shop and drafting room have 
 been provided with a set of the firm's standards, which have all these 
 connections drawn out completely with dimensions and which give 
 lists of the material. 
 
 The data here jiresented were taken from a great variety of work, 
 such as public and private school buildings, churches, breweries, 
 malt houses and elevators, grain bins, warehouses, libraries, hos- 
 pitals, apartment buildings, factories and manufacturing plants, 
 train sheds, mill buildings, office buildings, electric lighting plants 
 and pumping stations. 
 
 The following table shows the character of the buildings and 
 also the average cost of preparing the drawings. The cost of draft- 
 ing material and blue jjrints is not included. Where the material 
 for the work is to be ordered from the mill and not taken from stock, 
 the cutting bills or mill orders are taken as being part of the details. 
 
 Cost of Shop Drawings. Avg. 
 
 cost 
 per 
 
 Character of building. ton. 
 Entire skeleton construction, i.e., loads all carried to the foun- 
 dation by means of steel columns ^1.45 
 
 Interior portion supported on steel columns ; exterior walls 
 
 carry floor loads and their own weight 1.22 
 
 Interior portion carried on cast iron columns ; exterior walls 
 
 support floor loads as well as their own weight 70 
 
 No columns and floor beams resting on masonry walls thiough- 
 
 out 85 
 
 Structure consisting mostly of roof trusses resting on columns. 2.47 
 Structure consisting mostly of roof trusses resting on masonry 
 
 walls . 1.25 
 
 Mill buildings 2.56 
 
 Flat one-story shop or manufacturing buildings 74 
 
 Tipples, mining structures or other complicated structures 4.88 
 
 Malt or grain bins and hoppers 2.47 
 
 Remodeling and additions where measurements are necessary 
 
 before details can be made 1.87 
 
 Estimating Structural Steel. G. A. Merrill tEngineering and Con- 
 tracting, Nov. 5, 1913), says the cost of the work is generally made 
 up as follows: (1) The cost of the fabricated material F. O. B. 
 cars point of delivery. (2) The cost of unloading and teaming to 
 the building. (3) The cost of erection and field painting. 
 
 In taking off quantities from the plans, each beam, or each group 
 of beams which are alike, is noted with the number of beams, size. 
 
BUILDINGS 189 
 
 weight per foot, the kind of shop work to be performed, the number 
 of end connections, recording by distinct abbreviations, whether such 
 connections are to another beam or girder, or to a column, bearing 
 plates and anchors if any. The usual classification for beams is as 
 follows : 
 
 Plain. Cut the length with a variation of not over % in. from 
 ordered length. 
 
 Hinyle Punched. Punched one s?ze hole in ei,ther web or flange. 
 
 Double Punched. Punched one size hole in both weVj and flange. 
 
 Framed. Having connection angles at one or both ends riveted or 
 bolted to connect with some other member, and with one or both 
 ends, if required by the framing, coped to engage the flange of a 
 supporting beam or beams. 
 
 Boiled and Heparated. Two or more beams made into a single 
 member by the use of bolts and separators. 
 
 Riveted. Having plates, or angles, of shorter lengths, or running 
 the entire length of the beam, riveted to the flange or flanges, or to 
 the web of the beam. 
 
 Fittings. Connection angles, bolts and separators. In dealing 
 with riveted beams, the estimator has the option of treating the 
 beam together with the plates or angles riveted to it as a riveted 
 beam, or to regard the beam alone as single punched, double punched 
 or framed, and classify the plates, or angles, as fittings, choosing 
 whichever method gives the cheaper cost. 
 
 Tie rods, bearing plates and anchors, are generally figured by 
 themselves and not classified as fittings. 
 
 The length of beam is taken center to center of girders, or face to 
 face of columns, and the steel estimator's sheet appears somewhat 
 like this: 
 
 (1) 2, 15x42 D P 2C 16-8 
 
 (2) 4, 12x315 F'lC 14-1 
 
 (3) 1, 12x40 S P la lb Ic 14-1 
 
 (4) 2, 8x18 B & S 2b , , 12-0 
 
 (5) 1, 15 x CO 
 ' riv, 2C , ., 18-2 
 
 1, 15 X CO 1 
 1. 12x%pl/' 
 
 Item (1) signifies two, 15-in. x 42-lb. beams, each 16-ft. 8-ins. long, 
 double punched and connecting to columns at both ends. 
 
 Item (2), four, 12-in. x 31 '/{j-lb. beams, each 14-ft. 1-in. long, each 
 having standard connection angles at one end, and connecting to a 
 column at the other end. 
 
 Item (3), one, 12-in. x 40-lb. beam, 14-ft. 1-in. long, single punched, 
 connecting to a column at one end, and with a bearing plate and 
 anchor at the other. 
 
 Item (4), two, 8-in. x 18-lb. beams, bolted together and with bear- 
 ing plates at both ends. 
 
 Item (5), a 15-in. x 60-lb. beam, 18-ft. 2-jns. long, with a 12-ft. x 
 %-in. plate riveted upon one flange, connected to columns at each 
 end. 
 
 Connection angles are flgured separately from the beams, the 
 weight of a pair of standard connection angles with the rivets re- 
 
190 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 quired being taken from the Carnegie or Cambria steel hand book. 
 
 In computing the weight of connection angles, the beam sheets are 
 run over and all connections of the same weight are grouped 
 together. With riveted beams, the weight of beam with all plates, 
 angles and rivets, except connection angles, is taken together. 
 
 Often in a steel frame, the outside members consist of two chan- 
 nels, or an I-beam and channel, with an angle riveted to the channel. 
 Such a member is generally split up and the I-beam or one of the 
 channels is considered bolted and separated, while the remaining 
 channel with its angle is considered as riveted. 
 
 The usual shop prices for beam work per 100 lbs. are as follows: 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cutting to length -h %-in 00 
 
 Single punched 15 
 
 Double punched 25 
 
 Framed 35 
 
 Bolted and separated 35 
 
 Riveted 50 
 
 Beams over 15 ins. in depth cost 10 cts. per 100 lbs. extra. 
 
 In summarizing the weight of beams for shopwork, this is most 
 easily taken care of by including the deeper beams in a classifica- 
 tion one step ahead; thus, a single punched 18-in. beam would be 
 included with double punched beams 15 ins. and under. 
 
 There is a further charge of, generally, 5 cts. per 100 lbs. for 
 painting, and sometimes a charge of 5 cts. or 10 cts. per 100 lbs. 
 for drawings. The steel contractor may be called upon by the speci- 
 fications to pay a charge of 75 cts. to $1.25 per ton for inspection. 
 
 Fittings are generally figured at $1.55 per 100 lbs. for .shopwork. 
 Tie rods at the price of the rods and nuts plus freight, plus 50 cts. 
 per 100 lbs. for shopwork. Bearing plates, allow about 15 cts. per 
 100 lbs. for cutting from the long plate. Anchors, generally a small 
 item, figure at 3 lbs. each, and 4 cts. per pound. 
 
 Sometimes beams are framed into another beam on an angle or 
 skew, at one or both ends. In this case, the beam is classified as 
 framed, but the connections, which must be heated and bent, are 
 classified as bent connections, and priced at a higher rate than 
 ordinary fittings, say 6 cts. per pound for material and shopwork. 
 
 To the base price of the beams at the mill should be added the 
 cost of shopwork, and these different costs multiplied by the tonnage 
 of each sort of work. 
 
 The items of freight, paint, drawings and inspection are more 
 easily figured from the total weights of steel. 
 
 In building work riveted work generally includes the following : 
 (1) Columns, (2) Beam Girders, (3) Plate Girders, (4) Trusses. 
 
 Columns may be I-beams, Bethlehem H-sections, latticed channels, 
 latticed angles, plates and angles, with or without fiange plates, and 
 plates and channels. The Z-bar, column, once a favorite, is now 
 rarely used. In figuring the weight of columns, the size, weight per 
 foot, and length of the principal members are taken off, and the 
 weight of the column shafts computed. To the weight of the column 
 shafts must be added : 
 
BUILDINGS 191 
 
 (1) Weight of hitch angles at bottom, and steel base plate if one 
 is used. 
 
 (2) Weight of splice plates. 
 
 ( 3 ) Weight of connections of beams to columns. The beam sheets 
 are run over, and the number of connections noted and computed, 
 keeping connections of the same weight together. The weights of 
 such connections are given in some of the steel hand books. Often 
 they may be computed from a typical column detail furnished with 
 the framing plans. 
 
 (4) Weight of rivets: In plates and angles, and plates and 
 channel columns, rivets will run from 6% to 5% of the weight of 
 shafts with fittings, beings less with heavy shafts. With I-beams 
 or Bethlehem H-sections, the rivets must be estimated with each 
 plate or angle attached, calling each rivet (say) y^ lb. 
 
 In latticed angle columns allow 40% of the weight of main mem- 
 bers. For lattice bars and rivets, and for latticed channels, 60 per 
 cent. 
 
 Beam Girders. Take the weight of beams with cover plates and 
 allow 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. per foot for rivets. 
 
 Plate Girders. If stiffeners and fillers are taken off, add 5% to 
 6% for rivets, according to whether the girder is light or heavy. If 
 only the main members of the girder are taken off, add 15%. 
 
 Trusses. Take off the sizes and lengths, center to center, of joints 
 and add 30% for light trusses made up of 2i/^ x 2-in. angles, and 25% 
 for trusses having chords of 4 x 3 -in. angles, or more. 
 
 For the small work included with the structural steel in building 
 work, such as framing for pent houses, skylight curbs, bulkheads, 
 cornice brackets, take the weight of the main members and add 25%. 
 Price at 3 or 4 cts. per lb. for material and shop work. 
 
 It is a general principle in estimating riveted work, that light 
 work with considerable shop work must be priced high, and as the 
 work grows heavier, to decrease the pound price. 
 
 The prices for riveted work are not as definite as those for beam 
 work. Fair average prices would be about as follows : 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Beam girders, per 100 lbs 60 
 
 Plate girders (according as the work is 
 
 heavy or light) 55 to 80 
 
 Columns — , 
 
 I beam columns 50 
 
 Plate and angle 65 to 75 
 
 Plate and channel 70 to 80 
 
 Beth. H columns 55 to 65 
 
 Latticed Ls 80 to $1.00 
 
 Latticed channels 80 to $1.10 
 
 Trusses — 
 
 Very light $1.25 
 
 Ordinary $1.00 
 
 Heavy ' $0.85 
 
 Cast Bases: Usually columns rest upon cast bases. Sometimes 
 the bases are detailed upon the framing plans, and in such cases the 
 
192 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 weight can be readily computed, allowing 0.26 lb. per cubic inch. 
 Often, however, merely the size of the bottom of the base is given, 
 leaving the estimator to arrive at the weight as best he can. It is a 
 good practice to record and preserve the weight of well proportioned 
 cast bases, figured upon previous jobs, to use in cases such as these. 
 The following are average weights for cast bases: 
 
 Ins. Lbs. 
 
 24x 24 525 
 
 27x 27 675 
 
 30x30 850 
 
 33x 33 1,050 
 
 36x 36 1,275 
 
 39 X 39 1,500 
 
 42x 42 1,750 
 
 48x 48 2,300 
 
 The cost of cast bases varies from 2 to 2i/4 cts. per pound. 
 
 To the cost of the fabricated material delivered upon cars must 
 be added a profit. Just what profit to add depends upon conditions. 
 If all the mills and structural shops are busy they will put on a 
 higher percentage than in dull times. 
 
 The mills will generally quote on beam work at the prices pre- 
 viously given, without adding any profit. 
 
 The cost of teaming to the site can generally be figured close 
 enough by estimating the weight of an average load, the number of 
 trips per day a two-horse team will make, and the cost per day for 
 such a team. If the pieces are heavy, the time of one or two helpers 
 at the car must be added in. 
 
 The erection cost will vary with the character of the work, 
 whether straight or crooked, light beams or heavy, whether the 
 rivets are bunched together at column connections, or well scattered 
 over the work, whether bolted or riveted connections. 
 
 A fair price is $10 per ton, although the figures may get down to 
 $8 or up to $12. If unusually heavy girders or trusses occur in the 
 work, it is best to figure the erection of these separately from the 
 remainder of the steel. 
 
 Cost of Carpenter Work. C. A. Chalk (American Carpenter and 
 Builder, March, 1914), gives the following labor cost of framing 
 wooden houses with labor at 30 cts. per hour: 
 
 Floor space, including framing and setting joist, bridging and 
 flooring of one thickness of 1 by 5 -inch matched spruce or pine. Per 
 100 square feet, $3.00. 
 
 Partitions, including cutting and setting studding, trimming for 
 door openings, furnished with pine base and quarter round — 17 cts. 
 per foot run, measuring on the floor. 
 
 Outside walls, including strapping, finished Avith pine fease and 
 quarter round — 10 cts. per foot run. 
 
 Roofing, including rafters, sheathing cornice, shingling, riflgfi 
 and wall — $6.50 per 100 square feet. 
 
 Outside doors, including setting frame in place for bricklayers, fit 
 hinges, lock and case inside — $2.10 per door. 
 
 Inside doors, including nailing frame together and setting, casinj: 
 two sides, fit hinges and lock — $2.40 per door. 
 
BUILDINGS , 193 
 
 Cased openings, including nailing frame together and setting, and 
 casing two sides — $1.40 per opening. 
 
 WiJidows, box frame, sash weighted, including setting frame in 
 place for bricklayers, fitting and weighting sash, cutting and nailing 
 stops and casing — $2.40 per window. 
 
 Ceilings of collar ties fastened to rafters — $1.00 per 100 squar© 
 feet. 
 
 Stairways, for straight stairs, strings worked on the job, set in 
 place, wedged and glued, with starting newel and hand rail and 
 landing newel, and, say, 12 feet of hand rail around well hole — the 
 cost of labor will be about $1.00 per tread; where there are winders, 
 add $1.50 for each window. 
 
 The above will apply to houses that cost from $1,800 to $2,200, all 
 trim for paint finish. 
 
 E. W. Goode of Chicago, 111., gives the following costs based on 
 labor at 30 cts. per hour: 
 
 Making window frames, each $ 1.25 
 
 Making door frames, each 1.00 
 
 Fitting inside doors, each 75 
 
 Fitting outside doors, each 1.50 
 
 Putting up jambs, each 15 
 
 Putting up casing, each 20 
 
 Putting up lining, each 15 
 
 Nailing base, per 100 lin. ft 2.40 
 
 Joists, per 1,000 ft. b.m 7.00 
 
 Studs, per 1,000 ft. b.m 10.00 
 
 Bridging, per 1,000 ft. b.m : 6.00 
 
 Rafters, per 1,000 ft. b.m 10.00 
 
 Sheeting, per 1,000 ft. b.m 5.00 
 
 Rough floors, per 1,000 ft. b.m 3.20 
 
 Shiplap, per 1,000 ft. b.m 6.00 
 
 Siding: 
 
 Plain 6-inch work, per 100 sq. ft 1.00 
 
 With long blank walls, per 100 sq. ft 60 
 
 Mitered joints, per 100 sq. ft 1.70 
 
 Grounds and Furring: 
 1 by 1-inch grounds, per 1,000 ft. b.m '- 25.00 
 
 1 by 2-inch grounds and furring, per 1,000 ft. b.m. 19.00 
 
 2 by 2-inch grounds and furring, per 1,000 ft. b.m. 15.00 
 
 Mortar Required and Cost of Brick Laying. Building Age gives 
 the following data : 
 
 Mortar Required to Lat 1,000 Brick. 
 
 Thickness of joint in inches ^M % '^10 % V2 % % 
 
 Mortar required per 1,000 brick, cu. ft. 8 10 12 15 18 22 26 
 
 Cost of Mortar to Lay 1,000 Brick. 
 
 Lime Mortar: 1 part lime to 5 Portland Cement Mortar: 1 part 
 parts -sand, with % to V^-in. cement to 3i/^ parts sand, 
 
 joints.* ' with % to ^/^-in. joints. t 
 
 Total cost per Total cost per 
 
 Quantity. Rates. i: 1,000 brick laid. Quantity. Rate.j: 1,000 brick laid. 
 
 3bu. $0.30perbu. • $0.90 li4bbls. $2.00 per. bbl. $2.50 
 
 iJs cu. yd. 1.50 per cu. yd. 1.00 ' % cu. yd. 1.50 per cu. yd. 1.00 
 
 $1.90 $3.50 
 
 * Slightly poorer than usually required, t Richer than usually re- 
 quired. % Prices are only for comparative purposes. 
 
194 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Brickwork. The cost of brickwork as given by S. W. 
 Emerson (Engineering and Contracting, April, 1906, p. 100), may be 
 divided into two principal parts, cost of materials and cost of labor. 
 
 For common brickwork the cost of materials is a fairly constant 
 quantity, but the labor cost varies greatly, depending on the class of 
 work and rates of wages. 
 
 Units of Measurement. Brickwork in buildings is usually figured 
 and paid for at so much per 1,000 wall measure. This is an arbi- 
 trary quantity and is a very different thing from kiln count or the 
 actual number of brick. The rule usually adopted by engineers, is 
 to figure 14 brick per sq. ft. of 9 in. wall ; 21 brick per sq. ft, of 13i^ 
 in. wall, etc., deducting all openings. In other words 7 brick are 
 allowed per square foot for each half brick thickness of wall. Fig- 
 ured this way a "thousand" brick represents 48 sq. ft, of 13 1/^ In. 
 wall or practically two cu, yds. and will be used in this sense 
 throughout the present article. Masons frequently figure 22i/^ brick 
 per sq. ft, of 13 in. wall, include all openings and figure corners 
 twice. 
 
 Some arbitrary rule is necessary because of the variation in size 
 of brick made by different manufacturers and in the thickness of 
 the mortar joints. 
 
 An average size brick is 8% ins. to 8% ins. long, 4 ins. wide and 
 2% ins. to 2% ins. thick, although in some localities brick will be 
 found measuring 9 ins. x 4% ins. x 2i^ ins. and in New York City 
 many are used as small as 7 1^ ins. x 3 V2 ins. x 2 ins. Brick 8 1/^ 
 ins. X 214 ins. with % in. to % in. joints will lay up about 900 
 brick per M. 
 
 Brick are bought by kiln count or the actual number and the price 
 varies from $4.00 to $7.00 per M. at the yard. 
 
 Five to $6 per M. at the yard is a fair price to which must be 
 added the freight or hauling. 
 
 The Amount of Mortar used depends on the thickness of the joints 
 and the proportion of mortar in the wall will be about as follows : 
 
 %-in. joints 0.25 
 
 i/^-in. joints 0.33 
 
 %-in. joints 0.40 
 
 or as a " thousand " brick equals approximately two cu. yds., the 
 cu. yds. of mortar required per M. will be : 
 
 %-in. joints 0.50 
 
 %-in. joints 0.67 
 
 %-in. joints 0.80 
 
 To make up a cu. yd. of 1 to 3 mortar requires about .85 cu. yd. 
 of sand and 2 bbls. of lime or Portland cement. All cement mortar 
 is seldom used except in engineering structures or underground 
 work, while lime mortar is used only in the cheaper classes of work 
 and should never be used in very heavy work or when exposed to 
 dampness. 
 
 The usual practice is to use both lime and cement in the mortar, 
 the relative proportions varying greatly according to circumstances. 
 
 One part lime and one part cement to six parts sand is a com- 
 
BUILDINGS 195 
 
 mon specification but also one seldom lived up to. Figuring sand at 
 $0.50 per cu. yd., lime a,t $0.50 per bbl. or $0.20 per bu. and cement 
 at $1.75 per bbl. the materials for a cu. yd. of mortar would cost for 
 1 to 3 lime mortar : 
 
 .85 cu. yd. sand at $0.50 $ .43 
 
 2 bbls. lime at $0.50 1.00 
 
 Total $1.43 
 
 .85 cu. yd. sand at $0.50 $ .43 
 
 1.0 bbl. lime at $0.50 50 
 
 1.0, bbl. cement at $1.75 1.75 
 
 Total $2.68 
 
 .85 cu. yd. sand at $0.50 $ .43 
 
 2.0 bbls. cement at $1.75 3.50 
 
 Total $3.93 
 
 One thousand brick, 8^/4 ins. x 4 ins. x 2^4 i^^s., piled up solid 
 "Without mortar, equals 1.65 cu. yds. If brick cost $6.50 per M. the 
 cost per cu. yd. would be $3.96 or practically the same as cement 
 mortar, but more than the mortar where part lime is used. 
 
 Cement mortar does not " work " easily, being hard for the 
 bricklayers to spread. It is partly on this account that cement is so 
 seldom used without adding at least a small portion of lime. 
 
 The cost of the sand may be practically nothing where it is dug 
 out of the cellar and seldom runs as high as $1 per cu. yd. 
 
 The labor cost may be divided into three classes, bricklayers, 
 laborers and unloading materials. 
 
 An average first-class bricklayer should lay about as follows, in 
 9 hrs. : 
 
 In 9-in. walls 1,100 to 1,400 
 
 In 13-in. walls ^ 1,300 to 1,600 
 
 In 18-22-in. walls 1,500 to 2,200 
 
 Heavy foundations 3,000 to 
 
 Rate of bricklaying. The number of openings, pilasters and cor- 
 ners makes a big difference in the amount of brick laid. Working 
 on narrow piers, projections, etc., a man might find it difficult to lay 
 500 brick in 9 hrs. The writer knows of one job on which four 
 bricklayers, two of whom were the contractors, were building a 3 ft. 
 wall, the footing for a warehouse. They ran out of brick. Two cars 
 were set one afternoon containing 20,000 brick and the next day the 
 four bricklayers put them all in the wall, an average of 5,000 (kiln 
 count) apiece. No mortar boards were used, the mortar being 
 dumped on the wall and spread with shovels, trowels being used for 
 the outside 4 in. only. In addition to the usual materials two 
 " eighths " of beer were used. How much this increased the rate 
 of laying I am not prepared to say. 
 
 Bricklayers are paid all the way from 30 to 70 cts. per hour, but 
 60 cts. is probably the rate most commonly met with. 
 
 To tend each bricklayer, keeping him supplied with brick and 
 mortar and building scaffolds, from one to two laborers are usually 
 
106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 required, receiving from 17% to 30 or even 40 cts. per hr. where hod 
 carriers' unions have forced the price up. The usual rate is 20 to 
 2214 cts. per hr. 
 
 In buildings having several stories, such as stores, warehouses, 
 etc., where the materials can be dumped on the ground floor, raised 
 to the proper story on an elevator, and distributed in wheelbarrows 
 to the wall, the labor may fall as low as $1 per M. On buildings of 
 this class, only one scaffold need be erected for each story, the joist 
 serving for the lower half of the wall. 
 
 On one story factory buildings with high gables where the scaffolds 
 have to be carried all the way up and everything handled in hods 
 the labor will run $2 to $4 per M with laborers at 20 cts. 
 
 The cost of getting materials on the ground varies greatly depend- 
 ing on conditions. 
 
 In cities where the brick yards are close at hand the brick are 
 usually delivered in wagons by the manufacturers, who make a uni- 
 form charge to cover the cost of delivery to any part of the city. 
 
 Where the brick have to be shipped in on cars, then unloaded and 
 hauled some distance, the freight and hauling may amount to several 
 dollars per M. 
 
 Over good paved streets a team can easily haul 1,500 brick, but 
 over poor dirt roads 500 might make a big load. 
 
 Cost of Brickwork in Five One Story Manufacturing Plants. — 
 The following tables give the actual cost of laying something over a 
 million brick in five one-story factory buildings forming part of a 
 large manufacturing plant. Brick cost $5 and $5.25 at the yards, 
 the average price being $5.08. 
 
 Materials. 
 
 Brick, 918 at $5.08 per M $4.67 
 
 Brick freight 1.12 
 
 Sand, 1/2 cu. yd. at $0.46 23 
 
 Sand freight 13 
 
 Cement, .44 bbl. at $2.00 88 
 
 Lime, 2 bu. at $0.20 40 
 
 Total materials $7.43 
 
 Labor. 
 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. Avg. 
 
 Bricklayers $5.56 $4.49 $4.57 $4.68 $3.68 $4.16 
 
 Laborers 1.95 1.67 2.14 1.95 2.00 1.87 
 
 Carpenters 70 .71 .88 1.15 .67 .77 
 
 Unloading mat'l... 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 
 
 Total labor. .... .$9.37 $8.03 $8.75 $8.94 $7.51 $7.96 
 
 This makes the average total for materials and labor $15.39. 
 The cost per cu. yd. would be just half this or 
 
 Materials. 
 
 459 brick at $5.08 . . $2.34 
 
 Brick freight 56 
 
 % cu. yd. sand 11 
 
 % cu. yd. sand freight ^ 06 
 
 ..22 bbl. cement at $2.00 44 
 
 1 bu. lime at $0.20 20 
 
 Total materials $3.71 
 
BUILDINGS 19r 
 
 Labor. 
 
 Bricklayers $2.08 
 
 Laborers 93 
 
 Carpenters 39 
 
 Unloading materials 58 
 
 Total labor $3.9 8 
 
 Total materials , $3.71 
 
 Total material and labor $7.69 
 
 On all the buildings except No. 1 bricklayers were paid 60 cts. per 
 hour and foreman 65 cts. On No. 1 local bricklayers from the town 
 near which the plant was built were used at 50 cts. per hour. They 
 proved too expensive, however, and for the balance of the work 
 bricklayers were imported from a large city at 60 cts. 
 
 The hodcarriers and mortar men were developed from local labor- 
 ers and paid 17% cents per hour. 
 
 Buildings No. 1 and 2 were long and low, containing about equal . 
 amounts of 9 in. and 13 in. walls. 
 
 Buildings Nos. 3 and 4 were higher and contained a someM^hat 
 larger proportion of 13 in. walls. Part of the brick work in No. 4 
 started from steel lintles at some distance above the floor line, which 
 explains the higher cost of scaffolding. 
 
 Building No. 5 was higher than any of the others and contained 
 more brick. It was composed of 13 in. walls, with some 18 ins. and 
 22 ins., which accounts for the lower cost of laying, although better 
 foremanship was responsible for part of this. 
 
 The scaffolds were erected by carpenters at 20 and 221/^ cts. per 
 hr., drawn from other parts of the work when needed. 
 
 The cost of unloading the brick, sand, lime and cement was all 
 charged under one head, $1.16 being the average for the job. Teams 
 were paid 30 cts. per hour. The materials had to be hauled an 
 average of \'z of a mile over country roads. 
 
 Allowing $0.85 as the proper proportion to charge to unloading the 
 brick, their cost delivered on the ground would be 
 
 $5.08 plus $1.12 freight plus $0.85 hauling equals $7.22 per 1000. 
 
 If this work were figured by the rules frequently used by masons, 
 (221/4 brick per sq. ft. of 13 in. wall, openings included) the cost per 
 M. would be about $12.75 instead of $15.39. 
 
 Cost of Powerhouse Brickwork in Indiana. The following costs 
 of the brickwork for an electrolytic lead refining plant at Grasselli, 
 Ind., are taken from Engineering and Contractingj Mar. 12, 1913. 
 
 The brick walls of the power house were about 34 ft. high and 
 the walls were 13 ins. thick. There were about 240,000 brick laid 
 and the work was done between June 11 and July 19. Ordinary 
 scaffolding was built up and materials were hoisted with a light 
 apparatus operated by a single horse. Wages were 75 cts. per 
 hour. 
 
 Briek laid 240,000 
 
 Total labor cost $1,838.12 
 
 Cost per M brick 7.66 
 
198 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The brickwork for the tank house consisted of walls about 30 ft. 
 high and 13 ins. thick. There were 360,000 bricks in all and they 
 were laid in about 26 days with the same scaffolding that was 
 employed on the power house. 
 
 Brick 360,000 
 
 Total labor cost $2,054.20 
 
 Labor cost per M 5.70 
 
 Cost of Laying Common Brick and Fire Brick in a Foundry Build- 
 ing. Victor Windet (Engineering and Contracting, June 28, 1911) 
 gives costs for the Chicago Drop Forge & Foundry Co.'s hammer 
 shop, which was built of 13 in. and 17 in. common brick walls some 
 30 ft. high from floor to roof, and required 100,000 brick in its con- 
 struction. The actual bricklaying cost $4.29 per 1,000 brick, or 6.36 
 hours. The collateral operations of unloading brick, mortar, scaffold 
 work, etc., cost $2.88, or 7.24 hours. A bricklayer's average 8-hr. 
 •day's work was the laying of 1,257 brick. The cost of brick, mortar 
 materials, coping and lumber for scaffolding was $8.90 per 1,000 
 brick, making a total cost of $16.07 per 1,000 brick. If the scaffold- 
 ing, horses, mortar boards, etc., had been available from some other 
 work, this cost would have been reduced $1.40 per 1,000 brick. 
 
 An old wall 13 ft. high was taken down, and the brick were 
 cleaned and piled at a cost of $0.56 per thousand. 
 
 A smooth red brick made at Hobart, Ind., not quite as fine as the 
 pressed red brick available in the Chicago market, makes a very 
 presentable wall. On account of its finish, more care is required in 
 laying than is the case with the Chicago common brick. In building 
 a power house 220 ft. long and 30 ft. high of side walls, using a 
 13-in. wall with plain pilasters at the steel columns and corners, 
 and three smaller buildings adjacent, 370,000 brick were laid at the 
 following costs for labor : 
 
 Per 1,000 brick. 
 
 Hours. Cost. Hours. Cost. 
 
 Bricklayer foreman 337 $ 269.60 0.91 $0.72 
 
 Bricklayers 3,863 2,607.87 10.5 7.05 
 
 Helpers 4,285 749.85 11.6 2.02 
 
 Mortar mixers 717 154.15 1.94 0.40 
 
 Labor foreman 175 61.25 0.5 0.16 
 
 Labor (common) 2,078 363.65 5.68 0.97 
 
 Hoist operator 120 42.00 0.33 0.10 
 
 Carpenter foreman 85 42.50 0.03 0.11 
 
 Carpenters 324 113.40 0.90 0.30 
 
 Handy man 190 46.50 0.51 0.12 
 
 Timekeeper 185 55.50 0.50 0.15 
 
 Total 12,359 $4,506.27 33.4 $12.10 
 
 Teaming of scaffold, etc., to and from Avork and unloading of brick 
 and sand from cars not included. Cost of washing walls inside and 
 outside with acid is included. One-half of the work was done with 
 scaffolds hoisted by cables and winches as the rise of the brick work 
 required. The rest of the scaffoMing was the ordinary wooden 
 staging. 
 
 Laying of Fire Brick. In the building of a blast furnace plant 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 199 
 
 640,000 fire brick were used in the construction of gas flues from 
 the hot blast stoves and boilers to the chimneys, and also for foun- 
 dations of two blast furnaces. The flues were composed of 9-in. 
 walls and arches and 4 Y^ -in. floors. As the flues were subsequently 
 imbedded in massive concrete foundations, forms were built on the 
 interior lines of the flues throughout. The fire brick laid in neat 
 Portland cement grout were laid against the forms and then the 
 concrete was built against the brick. The joints averaged i/ie in. to 
 % in. thickness. Half of the cost of the forms was charged against 
 the brickwork. Due to the presence of the forms, the masons laid 
 brick much faster than if they had to build a wall by plumb and line, 
 or against the concrete while working in the interior of the flues. 
 The floors were paved with brick on edge laid on 2 ins. of sand and 
 grouted. The blast furnace foundations were in courses 3 ft. high 
 and 9 ft. to 12 ft. thick. 
 
 TABLE XIX. FIRE-BRICK MASONRY LABOR 
 
 Brick Cost per 
 Brick Masons' Helpers' mason 1,000 
 laid. hours. hours, per day. brick. 
 
 Arches of flues 63,930 530 2,380 1,206 $14.45 
 
 9-in. walls of flues 232,395 490 4,450 4,110 6.48 
 
 Paving of flues 32,580 221 1,320 1,480 14.40 
 
 Total * 328,905 1,241 8,150 2,652 $8.73 
 
 Massive foundations .. 311,495 1,150 5,600 3,386 6.85 
 
 Total or average 640,400 2,391 13,750 2,720 $ 7.81 
 
 FIRE-BRICK SIZES 
 
 %-in. 
 
 Vol. Briak joints 
 
 of brick per brick Brick 
 
 Kind. cu. in. cu. ft. per cu. ft. laid. 
 
 87i(j X 2 V, X 4Vi6 85.6 20.2 18.3 539,000 
 
 9-in. Straight 8"/ig x 21/0 x 4i/i6 ... 79.7 21.7 19.7 60,000 
 
 No. 1 Arch 8% X 4x21/10 and 214. 64.3 26.9 24.2 3,000 
 
 No. 2 Arch 8% X 41/1,; x 11/. and 21/8 67.8 25.5 23.2 10,000 
 
 No. 1. Key 81/. x2i/,x2% and 4. 72.6 23.8 21.7 2,700 
 
 No. 2. Key 8 i^ x 2 i/> x 3 and 2,%. 69.4 24.9 22.7 25,000 
 
 No. 3 Key 8 Vfx 21/rx 21/2 and 4 . . 63.8 27.1 24.5 1,700 
 No. 4. Key 8 1/. x 2 i/j x 2 and 4 . . . 
 
 Total 641,400 
 
 Unloading brick from box cars and carefully piling took 5 hours at 
 $1,121/; jjer 1,000 brick. The wages for an 8 hour day were as fol- 
 lows: Masons, $7; helpers, $2.50, and foreman, $3.75. 
 
 The exterior foundations of two blast furnaces was massive work. 
 The form and dimensions of the work were such as to be exceed- 
 ingly favorable to low costs. The brick were taken from cars on 
 tracks immediately adjacent and- parallel to the work. The mortar 
 was 1 :1 mixture of Portland cement and sand, and was mixed into 
 a thin grout. This was poured over the brick from one quart dip- 
 pers and the brick was laid with joints varying from nothing to % 
 in. in thickness. About 5 per cent, of the brick laid in the gas flues 
 
200 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 were laid as headers to project 4 ins. irtto the concrete which was 
 afterwards built up around it. 
 
 Including unloading brick, mortar men, tenders, carpenters, or 
 forms, and other laborers, there were ten men per bricklayer. 
 
 The average 9-in. straight fire-brick is 9x4i/^x2^/^ containing 
 101.25 cu. ins., with rubbed joints; this will take 17 brick per cu. ft, 
 of masonry. 
 
 Cost of a Pump-Pit. Mr. P. E. Harroun (Transactions of Ameri- 
 can Society of Civil Engineers, January, 1905) gives the following 
 data on excavating a circular pump-pit 26 ft. deep and 22 ft. in 
 diameter. The work was done in Porterville, Cal., in 1904, by 
 company labor which was not efficient, and was high priced. In 
 sinking the pit, the upper 8 ft. were river silt, then came 5 ft. of 
 coarse gravel carrying a large volume of water, and the remaining 
 13 ft. were in clay. The clay was very hard to pick, and contained 
 many seams carrying water. The sides of the pit were covered with 
 spouting streams and the bottom of the pit was a series of small 
 geysers. On account of the sloughing of the sides, it was necessary 
 to timber the pit from top to bottom. The timbering consisted of 
 4xl2-in. rangers or wales, and braces, sheeted with 2-in. plank 
 driven vertically, as in sewer work. The earth was loaded with 
 shovels into dump boxes, holding %-cu. yd. each, and raised with a 
 derrick, the hoi.sting power being a pair of mules. One box was 
 loaded while the other was being dumped into a wagon. The follow- 
 ing costs do not include the hauling away in wagons or the cosl of 
 dumping the pit: 
 
 Per cu. yd. 
 
 Laborers, at 20 cts. per hr $0.58 
 
 Team of mules, at 20 cts. per hr 0.06 
 
 Foreman of laborers (130 hrs.), at 30 cts 0.08 
 
 Tools and blacksmithing 0.14 
 
 Lumber (714 M, at $22) 0.36 
 
 Miscellaneous material 0.04 
 
 Carpenter (160 hrs.), at 35 cts 0.11 
 
 Carpenter's helper (154 hrs.), at 20 cts 0.07 
 
 Foreman of timbering (130 hrs.), at 30 cts 0.08 
 
 Total per cu. yd., for 454 cu. yds $1.52 
 
 It will be noted that the carpenter work, including helper, cost 
 $11.50 per M of timber. There were 10 laborers, 1 team of mules, 
 and 1 foreman, at work about 13 days (10-hr.), doing the exca- 
 vating. 
 
 A circular reservoir 4 ft. deep and 52 ft. in diameter was 
 excavated in stif£ adobe (clay), and about 300 cu. yds. were loaded 
 with pick and shovel into wagons and hauled away. The cost of 
 this pick and shovel work alone was 59 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 
 20 cts. per hour. 
 
 Building Costs for Electric Light and Power Station. W. H. 
 Weston (Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912) states that electric 
 light and power stations usually average $2.75 to $3 per sq. ft. of 
 floor area. For water-power plant buildings, not counting any ex- 
 pense of foundations that may or may not be necessary, amount to 
 
BUILDINGS '201 
 
 $2.75 per sq. ft. of floor area. Water-works pumping stations vary 
 from $3 per sq. ft. for the plain buildings to $6 for the ornamental 
 ones, and more than this with elaborate architectural features. 
 
 Car barns with steel columns and roof cost from $0.08 to $0.10 per 
 cu. ft., making the height from basement floor to average roof and 
 all measurements to the outside of walls. Boiler shops with struc- 
 tural steel columns and framing and steel roof trusses, galleries with 
 heating and ventilating equipment cost from $2 to $2.25 per sq. ft. of 
 the area of the flrst floor. 
 
 Cost of Buildings for Compound-Condensing Steam Plants with- 
 out Chimneys. W. H. Weston also gives the following table- 
 Foundations for engines, 
 H.p. Engine and boiler. condensers and pumps. 
 
 400 $ 7,000 $ 1,400 
 
 500 7,500 1,800 
 
 600 7,800 2,200 
 
 800 8,500 2,800 
 
 1,000 9,500 3,400 
 
 1,500 13,500 4,800 
 
 • 2,000 17,000 6,000 
 
 4,000 30,000 10,00.0 
 
 Cost of Street Car Barns. H. T. Campion and William McClellan 
 in a paper on " The Design of Railway Structures," read before the 
 American Street and Interurban Railway Association, give the fol- 
 lowing approximate costs of different types of car barns and shops : 
 
 Cost per sq. ft. 
 
 Timber barn, 2-track bays, sides covered with corru- 
 gated iron $0.55 to $0.70 
 
 Timber barn, 3-track bays, brick or stone walls 1.10 to 1.30 
 
 Fireproof concrete barn, 3-track bays, concrete or brick 
 
 walls 1.25 to 1.50 
 
 Clear span steel roof, 8 to 10 tracks, brick walls 1.40 to 2.00 
 
 Cost of Electric Railway Car Shops. W. L. Fulton (Engineering 
 and Contracting, October 6, 19 15-) describes an addition to the shops 
 of the Omaha & Council Bluffs Street Railway Co., Omaha, Neb., 
 comprises a one-story section 134 ft. 8 ins. wide and 144 ft. 8 ins. 
 long, and an adjoining two-story section 80 ft. wide and 112 ft. 8 ins. 
 long. The building was built by the company to provide facilities 
 for the construction of street cars, and it houses the wood-working 
 department, or mill room, and the car-erecting and car-painting 
 departments. The wall footings and the walls up to the first floor 
 level are concrete ; above this level the walls are brick. The steel 
 roof trusses are of the saw-tooth type ; they are supported on 
 interior steel columns and on the brick walls. 
 
 Loads and Allowable Stresses. In designing the structure the fol- 
 lowing loads were used : 
 
 On roof, On second 
 
 lbs. ])er floor, lbs. 
 
 Loading. sq. ft. per sq. in. 
 
 Dead load 10 15 
 
 Snow load 15 ... 
 
 Live load 25 100 
 
202 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The allowable pressure on the clay and loam soil was 2,000 lbs. 
 per sa- ft. 
 
 General Design Features. It will be noted that the central por- 
 tion of the two-story section, embracing an area 32 x 80 ft., is open 
 from the first floor level to the roof ; the remaining area is provided 
 w^ith a second floor consisting of a 2 x 6 -in. matched yellow pine 
 flooring laid on 3 x 12-in. wooden joists, the joists resting on 18-in. 
 5 5 -lb. I-beams. The roof sheathing is also 2 x 6 -in. matched yellow 
 pine, and is spiked to 3 x 10-in. and 2 x 10-in. yellow pine purlins 
 bolted to clip angles. The skylight windows in the vertical (north) 
 sides 'of the saw-tooth roof provide excellent lighting facilities. To 
 provide for ventilation some of these skylight windows are arranged 
 to open by means of sash-operating devices manipulated from the 
 floor level. 
 
 Wopaen Purlins 
 
 j^!' Sheathing 
 
 Ski^lighT- 
 
 Fig. 9. Cross-section of addition to Lake St. shops of O. & C. B. 
 St. Ry. Co., Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Excavation. The ground surface at the site sloped gently from 
 northwest to southeast, the building facing the east. The site was 
 excavated to a level 8 ins. below the first floor, with an elevating 
 grader, the average cut being about 2 ft. 9 ins. The excavated ma- 
 terial, consisting of clay and loam, was hauled away in dump 
 wagons, the average length of haul being 1,140 ft. The total exca- 
 vation was 2,852 cu. yds. 
 
 TABLE XX. COST OF EXCAVATING BUILDING SITE 
 
 Rate Cost per 
 
 Item. per hour. cu. yd. 
 
 Foreman $0,325 $0.0045 
 
 Elevating grader : 
 
 Driver 0.225 0.0032 
 
 Operator 0.225 0.0032 
 
 Driver 0.20 0.0028 
 
 Teams 0.1 5 0.0147 
 
 Wagons : 
 
 Drivers 0.20 0.0228 
 
 Teams 0.15 0.0171 
 
 On the dump : 
 
 Scraper team 0.15 0.0021 
 
 Dumpman 0.225 0.0032 
 
 Leveling site after excavation : 
 
 Driver 0.225 0.0020 
 
 Teams 0.15 0.0024 
 
 Total cost $0.0780 
 
BUILDINGS 203 
 
 The trenches for the wall footings were excavated by hand. 
 These trenches varied from 2 to 4 ft. in width and from 4 to 7 ft. in 
 depth. A total of 416 cu. yds. was excavaled, of which 312 cu. yds. 
 were loaded into dump wagons and hauled to a dump 400 ft. distant. 
 In loading the earth into the wagons it was thrown onto the bank by 
 the digger and was shoveled into the wagon by a second man. The 
 team and driver were idle while the wagon was being loaded. The 
 cost of excavating 416 cu. yds., including the loading of 312 cu. yds. 
 into wagons, is given in Table XXI. 
 
 TABLE XXI. COST OF EXCAVATING FOR WALL. FOOTINGS 
 
 Rate Cost per 
 
 Item. per hour. cu. yd. 
 
 Foreman $0.25 $0,032 
 
 Labor 0.20 0.251 
 
 Total $0,283 
 
 The cost of hauling "312 cu. yds. to the dump, a distance of 400 
 ft., was $34, or 10.9 cts. per cubic yard. This includes the cost of 
 the teams and drivers, but does not include any charge for the fore- 
 man. The rates of pay for teams and drivers were respectively 15 
 cts. and 20 cts. per hour. 
 
 Mixing and Placing Concrete. The concrete in the wall footings 
 and in the walls below the first floor level was mixed in a i/4-cu. yd. 
 mixer driyen by a gasoline engine and equipped with a charging 
 hopper. The concrete was mixed in the proportions of 1 part 
 cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 parts broken stone. The stone and 
 sand were wheeled to the mixer from stock piles. The concrete 
 was wheeled from the mixer to the forms in barrows of 3 cu. ft. 
 capacity, the average distance wheeled being 105 ft. The cost of 
 mixing and placing 315 cu. yds. of concrete is given in Table XXII. 
 
 TABLE XXII. COST OF MIXING AND PLACING CONCRETE 
 IN FOOTINGS AND IN WALLS BELOW GRADE 
 
 Rate Cost per 
 
 Item. per hour. cu. yd. 
 
 Foremen $0.30 $0,033 
 
 Wheelers : 
 
 Stone 0.20 0.106 
 
 Sand 0.20 0.065 
 
 Cement 0.20 0.179 
 
 Placing concrete 0.20 0.036 
 
 Handling cement 0.20 0.034 
 
 Charging mixer 0.20 0.036 
 
 Discharging mixer 0.20 0.036 
 
 Total cost $0,525 
 
 Concrete Wall Fortns. The concrete walls below grade are 171^ 
 ins. thick and have an average height of 3 ft. 8 ins. The total area 
 of forms was 6,450 sq. ft. The forms were used twice and con- 
 tained 8,500 ft. ; they were built of 2-in. plank, cleated together, 
 and were handled in sections. The forms were built in place in 
 
204 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 their first location, and after a section of wall was completed they 
 were removed by the men and immediately set up in their second 
 location. The costs of building, setting and removing the forms 
 therefore were not separated, the combined cost being as given in 
 Table XXIII. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. COST OF BUILDING. SETTING AND REMOV- 
 ING WALL FORMS 
 
 ^■■^ 
 ft — +-> 
 
 Foreman $0.55 $1.02 $0,076 
 
 Carpenters 0.45 6.25 0.468 
 
 Helpers 0.295 2.44 0.183 
 
 Total $9.71 $0,727 
 
 Brick Laying. Common bricks only were used, and these were 
 laid in 1 : 2 Portland ceinent mortar, with just enough lime added 
 to make the mortar work easily. The mortar was hand mixed. 
 The brick and mortar in the first-story walls were conveyed in 
 wheel-barrows, inclined runways having been built from the ground 
 to the scaffold level. Except in the two-story section the first-story 
 walls have a uniform thickness of 17 ins. In that section the flrst- 
 story walls are reinforced on the inside with pilasters 8 ins. thick 
 and 17 ins. wide, these pilasters being spaced 16 ft. on centers. 
 The second-story walls are 13 ins. thick and are reinforced at the 
 trusses with 8 x 17-in. pilasters on the inside and 4 x 17-in. pilasters 
 on the outside of the walls. The brick and mortar for the second- 
 
 TABLE XXIV. 
 
 UNIT AND TOTAL COSTS OF LAYING BRICK 
 WALLS 
 
 First-story 
 walls. 
 
 Second-story 
 walls. 
 
 •r' ■*-> C 
 
 53 ^^ o ^^ 
 
 ft ^o o ^o 
 
 '-' rt "^ 
 
 <u do o o 
 
 S (^ U H U 
 
 Foreman $0.80 $0,152 $ 60.80 $0,602 
 
 Ma.sons 0.70 3.527 435.40 4.310 
 
 Tenders 0.25 1.116 162.00 1.604 
 
 Mixing mortar 0.25 0.488 35.00 0.347 
 
 Building scaffolds... 0.295 0.434 47.85 0.474 
 
 Operating elevator.. 0.30 .... 33.60 0.333 
 
 Totals $5,717 $774.65 $7,670 
 
BUILDINGS 205 
 
 story walls were loaded into wheelbarrows at the ground level, 
 hoisted to the second-floor level, and then wheeled along runways 
 to the scaffolds, as in the case of the first-story walls. The first- 
 story walls contained 310,000 bricks and the second-story walls 
 101,000. The itemized cost of laying these walls was as given in 
 Table XXIV. 
 
 Erecting Structural Steel. The steel frame consists of 6-in. 
 latticed channel columns. 18 -in. I-beam floor girders, roof trusses 
 and wind bracing for both columns and trusses. All trusses were 
 delivered entirely riveted up, with the exception of those over the 
 car-erecting and painting shop ; these trusses were delivered in two 
 sections. These sections were bolted together on the ground, 
 hoisted to place with a hand-operated breast derrick, and riveted. 
 The second-floor girders were shipped with connection angles riv- 
 eted to them. 3600 field rivets, were required, or 54 field rivets 
 per ton of steelwork. These were driven with pneumatic ham- 
 mers, compressed air being supplied by a portable air compressor, 
 driven by an electric motor. The weights of the various portions 
 of the steel frame were as follows : 
 
 Item. Lbs. 
 
 Columns 13,350 
 
 Column bracing 2,700 
 
 Girders at second floor 20,500 
 
 Roof trusses over one-story section 57,400 
 
 Roof trusses over two-story section 13,100 
 
 Lateral bracing for one-story section 15,600 
 
 Lateral bracing for two-story section 8,750 
 
 Total .^ 131,400 
 
 The total and unit costs of erecting and riveting the steelwork 
 were as given in Table XXV. 
 
 TABLE XXV. COST OF ERECTING AND RIVETING STEEL- 
 WORK 
 
 Rate Cost. 
 
 Item. per hour. per ton. 
 
 Foreman $0.60 $1.53 
 
 Labor 0.45 4.89 
 
 Total $6.42 
 
 Second-Floor Constritction. The second-floc^ construction con- 
 sists of 2 X 6-in. matched yellow pine flooring laid on 3 x 12-in. 
 joists, and nailed with 20-d nails, tvv'o at each bearing. The joists 
 are 16 ft. long and are spaced 2 ft. on centers. Solid bridging, 
 2x12 ins., was cut to fit between the joists over the I-beams, and 
 one row of 1 x 2-in. cross bridging was placed between the joists 
 at the center of the span. All material was raised to place by 
 hand. In constructing this floor 24,300 ft. b. m. of lumber were 
 used, divided as follows: Joists, 9,700 ft. b. m. ; flooring, 14,000 ft. 
 b. m. ; and bridging 600 ft. b. m. The total and unit costs of build- 
 ing this floor were as shown in Table XXVI, 
 
206 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXVI. COST OF CONSTRUCTING SECOND FLOOR 
 
 Rate Cost per 
 
 Item. per hour. • m ft. b. m. 
 
 Foreman $0.55 $0,724 
 
 Carpenters 0.45 2.963 
 
 Helpers 0.295 1.700 
 
 Total $5,387 
 
 Roof Construction. The roofs were constructed of 2 x 6-in. 
 matched yellow pine flooring- spiked to 2xl0-in. and 3xl0-in. pur- 
 lins, the latter being bolted to clip angles on the trusses. The 
 spacing of the purlins varied from 4 ft. to 6 ft. All material was 
 raised to place by hand. For the roof over the one-story section 
 50,900 ft. b. m. were used, of which 10,600 ft. b. m. were in the 
 purlins and 40,300 ft. b. m. in the sheathing. The roof over the 
 two-story section required 27,500 ft. b. m. of lumber, of which 5,700 
 ft. b. m. were in the purlins and 21,800 ft. b. m. in the sheathing. 
 The total and unit costs of constructing these roofs were as given 
 in Table XXVII. 
 
 TABLE XXVIL TOTAL AND UNIT COSTS OF CONSTRUCT- 
 ING ROOFS 
 
 One-story sec- Two-story sec- 
 tion, tion. 
 
 A § . . ^ . 
 
 S'O -u _^ "rf -t-> • 
 
 Foreman $0.55 $ 1.156 $ 41.80 $ 1.520 
 
 Carpenters 0.45 6.542 273.60 9.949 
 
 Helpers 0.295 2.434 97.94 3.561 
 
 Total $10,132 $413.34 $15,030 
 
 The higher unit costs for the roof over the two-story section were 
 due to several factors, among which are : the trusses have a shorter 
 span ; they have a steeper slope ; and the material had to be ele- 
 vated a greater distance. 
 
 General Costs. The cost of this building equipped, per square 
 foot of floor area, was $1.28, divided as follows: Building proper, 
 86.3 cts. ; heating, 5.1 cts. ; lighting, 1.1 cts. ; sprinkler system, 27.6 
 cts. ; tracks and trolleys, 8.3 cts. 
 
 The cost given for heating covers that of an indirect system, 
 including fan, heating coils, galvanized iron air distributing ducts, 
 and supply and return mains (each 440 ft. long) ; it does not include 
 the cost of the boilers. The cost given for the sprinkler system 
 does not include that of the tank.s, but does include all other parts 
 necessary to a dry pipe sprinkler system. The cost per sprinkler 
 head was $6, each head covering an area of 21.7 sq. ft. The tracks 
 consist of 70-lb. A. S. C. E. rails laid on 6 x 8-in. x 7 ft. cross-ties 
 spaced 2 ft. on centers. 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 207 
 
 Cost of Buildings and Equipment for a Smelter in Arizona. E. H. 
 
 Jones (Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
 
 July, 1914) gives the following costs for the Arizona Copper Co. 
 plant at Clifton, Ariz. 
 
 TABLE XXVIII. COST OF SMELTER BUILDINGS PER 
 SQUARE FOOT 
 
 Floor Cost Cost per 
 
 space, per sq. ft.. 
 
 Name of building. sq. ft. sq. ft. equipped. 
 
 Crushing plant 1,650 $3.62 $ 5.62 
 
 Sampling plant 6,140 2.65 5.56 
 
 Roasting plant 28,740 1.51 4.76 
 
 Reverberatory plant 20,370 2.49 8.45 
 
 Reverberatory boiler building. . . 14,310 2.58 11.16 
 
 Converter building 26,084 3.34 8.28 
 
 Boiler and blacksmith shop 4,424 2.56 4.85 
 
 Machine and carpenter shop.... 5,144 2.90 5.32 
 
 Warehouse 5,040 2.28 2.70 
 
 Laboratory 1,492 2.92 4.12 
 
 Sample room 600 1.65 4.71 
 
 Power plant 32,096 2.'il 11.20 
 
 TABLE XXIX. 
 
 COST OF SMELTER BUILDING PER CUBIC 
 FOOT 
 
 Cost Cost per 
 
 Volume, per cu. ft. 
 
 Name of building. cu. ft. cu. ft. equipped. 
 
 Crushing plant 27,040 $0.22 $0.34 
 
 Sampling plant 80,547 0.20 0.42 
 
 Roasting plant 410,140 0.11 0.33 
 
 Reverberatory plant 474,350 0.11 0.36 
 
 Reverberatory boiler building., 500,850 0.07 0.32 
 
 Converter building 1,529,636 0.06 0.14 
 
 Boiler and blacksmith shop 86,268 0.15 0.24 
 
 Machine and carpenter shop 100,308 0.15 0.27 
 
 Warehouse 83,160 0.14 0.16 
 
 Laboratory 16,140 0.27 0.38 
 
 Sample room 6,000 0.16 0.47 
 
 Power house 784,000 0.10 0.46 
 
 Miscellaneous Costs. The cost of the cooling tower per 1,000 gal. 
 per min. (capacity 12,000 gals, per min.) was $2,189.42, its total 
 cost being $26,273.01. 
 
 The cost of the power plant, including boiler plant, per indicated 
 h. p. (capacity 10,660 i. h. p.) was $55.32, its total cost being 
 $589,717.16. The capacity, indicated h. p., of the three turbines was 
 9,460 ; that of the two Nordberg blowers, 1,000 ; and that of the 
 single air compressor, 200. 
 
 The cost of the power plant, exclusive of boiler plant, per indi- 
 cated h. p., was $37.40, its total cost being $398,631.17. 
 
 The cost of the boiler plant per boiler h. p. (capacity 6.143 h. p.) 
 was $31.11, its total cost being • $191,085.99. The total capacity is 
 given by seven waste heat units at 713 h. p. each and three oil-fired 
 units at 384 h. p. each. 
 
 Labor Costs of an Underground Pumping Plant. H. B. Ferriss, 
 in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 13, 1916, gives the following 
 segregated items of cost connected with the construction of an un- 
 
208 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXX. TOTAL COSTS OF LABOR AND MATERIALS, 
 QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND UNIT COSTS OF 
 POWER HOUSE AND EQUIPMENT 
 
 O --3 
 
 Account. u 'u-^ 
 
 o <» S 
 
 t r 
 
 Building. 
 
 Excavation . $7,727.56 % 69.09 
 
 Building foundation piers 1,699.92 1,460.02 
 
 Building foundation walls 3,735.78 3,628.81 
 
 North tunnel 1,350.79 1,1^30.37 
 
 Concrete drain 205.68 227.37 
 
 Basement floor, concrete. 916.41 1,347.78 
 
 Basement painting 81.45 48.81 
 
 Preparation of concrete 
 
 for painting 891.73 42.69 
 
 Painting concrete 195.84 301.61 
 
 Steel structure 
 
 Tile walls 3,856.83 4,510.20 
 
 Unloading tile 332.40 0.17 
 
 Wall coping 372.69 107.05 
 
 Doors, windows and 
 
 frames 974.38 3,319.93 
 
 Concrete sills 596.33 120.96 
 
 Ventilators 125.60 439.76 
 
 Main floor columns 236.93 626.44 
 
 Main floor slab concrete. 1,267.91 3,341.61 
 Painting underside of 
 
 main floor 181.88 147.58 
 
 Painting top of main 
 
 floor 95.56 199.32 
 
 Roof, Berger multiplex 
 
 plate 420.83 3,063.18 
 
 Roof concrete 1,723.10 958.51 
 
 Roof tar 172.70 127.73 
 
 Roof, downspouts and 
 
 tile drain 286.17 240.44 
 
 Roof painting, underside 692.84 324.55 
 
 Roof, P. & B. roofing 577.68 1,317.08 
 
 Painting sash 290.09 16.72 
 
 Painting woodwork 29.50 4.06 
 
 Equipment. 
 
 Crane 131.89 1,723.27 
 
 Well grading 1,558.07 517.68 
 
 Shaft sinking 765.62 612.10 
 
 Timbering 57.61 
 
 Aldrich pump installation 74.56 16.62 
 Nordberg blowers, foun- 
 dation 774.06 .3,020.83 
 
 Nordberg blowers, cost 
 
 and installation 1,641.62 32,514.02 
 
 Nordberg blowers, paint- 
 ing 327.57 57.65 
 
 Turbines, foundation . . . 959.08 1,432.70 
 Turbines, cost and instal- 
 lation 2,297.70 79,586.49 
 
 Turbines, painting 286.15 41.02 
 
 Turbines, air pipe mak- 
 ing 547.68 200.75 
 
 Turbines, air pipe erec- 
 tion 232.57 64.24 
 
 Transformer trucks and 
 
 transfer table 121.63 538.08 
 
 m 
 
 § . 
 
 -)-> -M 
 
 
 Crf 
 
 |8 
 
 ^a 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 7,313 cu. yds. 
 
 % 1.07 
 
 231.7 cu. yds. 
 
 13.64 
 
 508.5 cu. yds. 
 
 14.48 
 
 180.3 cu. yds. 
 
 14.32 
 
 34.6 cu. yds. 
 
 12.52 
 
 12,130 sq. ft. 
 
 0.19 
 
 830 sq. yds. 
 
 0.16 
 
 2,459 sq. yds. 
 
 0.38 
 
 2,459 sq. yds. 
 
 0.20 
 
 254.29 tons 
 
 93.49 
 
 14,343 cu. ft. 
 
 0.58 
 
 522.70 tons 
 
 0.64 
 
 732 lin. ft. 
 
 0.66 
 
 4,044 sq. ft. 
 
 
 opening 
 
 1.06 
 
 964 lin. ft. 
 
 0.74 
 
 6 ventilators 
 
 94.23 
 
 68 columns 
 
 12.70 
 
 10,210 sq. ft. 
 
 0.45 
 
 2,679 sq. yds. 
 
 0.12 
 
 1,134 sq. yds. 
 
 0.26 
 
 214.83 squares 
 
 16.22 
 
 214.83 squares 
 
 12.48 
 
 214.83 squares 
 
 1.40 
 
 905 ft. 
 
 0.58 
 
 6,813 sq. yds. • 
 
 0.15 
 
 214.83 squares 
 
 8.82 
 
 299 sash 
 
 1.04 
 
 89 sq. yds. 
 
 0.38 
 
 1 crane 
 
 1,855.16 
 
 2,600 cu. yds. 
 
 0.80 
 
 45 ft. 
 
 30.61 
 
 45 ft. 
 
 1.28 
 
 686.3 cu. yds. 5.53 
 
 2 Nordbergs 17,077.82 
 
 2 Nordbergs 
 19 6.5 cu. yds. 
 
 192.61 
 12.16 
 
 3 turbines 
 3 turbines 
 
 27,294 73 
 109.06 
 
 103 ft. 
 
 6.27 
 
 103 ft. 
 
 2.88 
 
 15 trucks 
 
 43.98 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 209 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 °ri 
 
 -M 
 
 Account. 
 
 u 
 
 rt 
 'C-^ 
 
 
 'S 
 
 P3^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 O M 
 
 c'S 
 
 "::; ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 is 
 
 d o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 E-i 
 
 Building. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Auto transformers 
 
 735.60 
 
 12,044.91 
 
 10 trans- 
 formers 
 
 1,278.05 
 
 Condenser foundations. . 
 
 291.08 
 
 285.18 
 
 50.3 cu. yds. 
 
 11.45 
 
 Condensers, cost and in- 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 stallation 
 
 415.31 
 
 19,563.55 
 
 3 condensers 
 
 6,659.62 
 11.95 
 
 Condensers, painting- . . . 
 
 30.00 
 
 5.86 
 
 3 condensers 
 
 Jet condenser hot well, 
 
 
 
 
 
 excavation 
 
 28.82 
 
 0.90 
 
 46 cu. yds. 
 
 0.65 
 
 Jet condenser hot well. 
 
 
 
 
 
 foundation 
 
 66.27 
 
 69.99 
 
 16.5 cu. yds. 
 
 8.26 
 
 Jet condenser hot well, 
 
 
 
 
 
 supporting- structure 
 
 
 
 
 
 and tank 
 
 
 
 
 5.76 tons 
 
 164.18 
 
 Jet condenser hot well. 
 
 
 
 
 
 cost and erection 
 
 128.97 
 
 494.68 
 
 1 condenser 
 
 1,078.65 
 
 Jet condenser hot well. 
 
 
 
 
 
 dry vacuum pumps . . . 
 
 285.51 
 
 2,860.01 
 
 2 pumps 
 
 1,572.76 
 
 Jet condenser hot well. 
 
 
 
 
 
 pumps, painting- 
 
 30.00 
 
 5.86 
 
 2 pumps 
 
 17.93 
 
 Circulating- pumps, foun- 
 
 
 
 
 
 dation 
 
 560.04 
 
 708.93 
 
 210 cu. yds. 
 
 6.04 
 
 Circulating pumps, cost 
 
 
 
 
 
 and erection 
 
 366.90 
 
 3,535.68 
 
 2 pumps 
 
 1,951.29 
 
 Circulating pumps, paint- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing 
 
 30.00 
 
 5.86 
 
 2 pumps 
 
 17.93 
 
 Air compressor founda- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion 
 
 840.98 
 
 1,246.54 
 
 238.3 cu. yds. 
 
 8.76 
 
 Air compressor, erection 
 
 642.90 
 10.58 
 
 148.67 
 24.49 
 
 
 
 Air compressor, painting 
 
 
 
 Air compressor, all pip- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing except steam 
 
 298.46 
 
 160.65 
 
 
 
 
 
 Air compressor, wrecking 
 
 
 
 
 
 and transportation . . . 
 
 457.77 
 
 136.06 
 
 
 
 Air compressor, installa- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion of air receivers . . 
 
 49.47 
 
 1.43 
 
 
 
 2 exciters, 2 air pumps. 
 
 
 
 2 circulating pumps. 
 
 
 
 
 
 foundation 
 
 1,439.67 
 
 1,875.43 
 
 373 cu. yds. 
 
 8.89 
 
 2 exciters, cost and in- 
 
 
 
 
 stallation 
 
 491.01 
 
 6,118.26 
 
 2 exciters 
 
 3,304.64 
 
 3 dry vacuum pumps, 
 
 
 
 
 cost and installation.. 
 
 147.26 
 
 3,190.10 
 
 3 pumps 
 
 1,112.45 
 
 3 cir. pumps and engines. 
 
 
 
 
 
 cost and installation.. 
 
 389.32 
 
 8,729.37 
 
 3 pumps 
 
 3,309.56 
 
 2 exciters, painting 
 
 86.01 
 
 14.65 
 
 2 exciters 
 
 50.33 
 
 3 air pumps, painting . . . 
 
 50.00 
 
 8.79 
 
 3 pumps 
 
 19.59 
 
 3 cir. pumps, painting. . 
 
 81.69 
 
 14.65 
 
 3 pumps 
 
 32.11 
 
 2 motor gen., 1 air pump, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 cir. pump, foundation 
 
 269.52 
 
 658.91 
 
 107 cu. yds. 
 
 8.93 
 
 2 motor generators, cost 
 
 
 
 
 
 and installation 
 
 319.06 
 
 6,830.33 
 
 2 generators 
 
 3,574.69 
 
 2 motor generators. 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 painting 
 
 30.00 
 
 5.86 
 
 2 generators 
 
 17.93 
 
 Transfer table pit, con- 
 
 
 
 
 
 crete 
 
 24.13 
 
 58.23 
 
 12 cu. yds. 
 
 6.86 
 
 Switchboard, concrete 
 
 
 
 
 
 compartments 
 
 1,472.21 
 
 510.48 
 
 1,469 sq. ft. 
 
 1.35 
 
 Switchboard, cost and 
 
 
 
 
 
 erection 
 
 2,730.53 
 
 15,520.57 
 
 
 
 Steam piping north and 
 
 
 
 
 south mains, excava- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion 
 
 249.65 
 
 
 279 cu. yds. 
 
 0.89 
 
210 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 " ^"^ .t! 
 
 Account. " -t*^ '-S-S !=>-• 
 
 g So ^^ 73o 
 
 1 |S |a |8 
 
 Building-. 
 
 Steam piping, foundation 578.24 945.97 194.5 cu. yds. 7.84 
 
 Steam piping, steel sup- 
 porting structure 86.81 tons 88.64 
 
 Steam piping) hangers 
 
 and anchors 1,030.68 337.26 153 rods 8.94 
 
 Steam piping, cost and 
 
 erection 2,286.3118,622.25 3,401ft. 6.15 
 
 Steam piping, covering 
 
 and erection 266.71 5,813.23 3,401ft. 1.79 
 
 Exhaust pipe, cost and 
 
 erection 1,745.71 8,715.66 1,541ft. 6.79 
 
 Exhaust pipe, painting. . 85.05 51.19 1,541ft. . 0.09 
 
 Exhaust pipe, covering 
 
 and erection 318.25 830.56 746 ft. 1.54 
 
 Air piping, cost and erec- 
 tion 363.19 554.16 
 
 Air piping, painting 31.56 18.66 
 
 Exhaust pipe, foundation 63.09 102.81 18.3 cu. yds. 9.07 
 
 Exhaust pipe, supporting 
 
 structure 197.27 57.93 
 
 Exhaust pipe, excavation 20.82 29 cu. yds, 0.72 
 
 Water pipe, excavation 
 
 and backfill 1,485.10 0.24 2,406 cu. yds: 0.62 
 
 Water pipe, cost and 
 
 erection 3,747.79 16,437.88 
 
 Water pipe, painting 230.59 25.54 
 
 derground pumping plant. In order to understand the records a 
 brief description of the plant is perhaps necessary. 
 
 The company owns a subdivision for which it purchases water in 
 bulk. The normal pressure as supplied to the company is satis- 
 factory up to elevation 140 only. A considerable portion of the 
 subdivision lies above this elevation, and in order to give adequate 
 pressure to the purchasers within this high level district the pump- 
 ing plant was constructed. 
 
 The engineer's original scheme consisted of the usual elevated 
 tanks, etc., but was changed owing to the owner's set policy of 
 placing all utilities underground. The plant, as finally approved by 
 the directors, consists essentially of two electrically driven pumps 
 connected to 2 large tanks ; 2 motors operating the pumps ; an auto- 
 matic sump-pump and an air compressor with self-contained 
 motors ; all housed within an underground concrete vault. Th( 
 sump-pump is mounted on an iron bracket fastened to the walls ol 
 the vault. The rest of the equipment is placed on raised concrete 
 foundations, with the exception of the tanks, which rest on the fioor, 
 part of which was strengthened for this purpose. The plant is 
 connected to large municipal mains and is entirely automatic in its 
 operation. 
 
 The vault housing the machinery' and tanks is built of 1:2:4 
 concrete with a percentage of hydrated lime. The work was done 
 very carefully in order to make the vault as nearly watertight as 
 possible. The roof is 5 in. thick of reinforced concrete, supported 
 on " I " beams. The floors are 6 ins. thick, surfaced with 1 in. of 
 
BUILDINGS 
 
 211 
 
 1 : 2 mortar, except under the tanks, where the floor is 12 ins. thick. 
 All openings for pipes, etc., were carefully caulked and the vault is 
 considered practically watertight. 
 
 The excavation for the vault was in stiff Avhite clay, and no tim- 
 bering was required, nor was there any difficulty with water. The 
 
 [7^ 
 
 ^p ' vv : 
 
 »- iZ-4 Con ere fe 
 
 Tank 
 Capacify 
 4126 Imp Oaf. 
 
 r--; f'toai- 
 
 Tank 
 
 Capacify 
 
 4156 Imp 6al 
 
 t^S 
 
 ■Air Pipe 
 
 |B» Discharge 
 
 ^ Moior - 
 
 Gate 
 
 ^Check' 
 
 cCompres 
 
 Dischar 
 
 ft^^ T-oundahon: 
 
 valve I 
 Check 
 Valve 
 
 Ini-ake 
 Fig. 10. Underground pumping plant. 
 
 dimensions of the excavation were 18x38 ft. x 11 ft. deep, or 281 
 cu. yds., including the sump-hole. Of the total earth removed, 200 
 cu. yds. were back-filled, 150 cU. yds. were hauled to a dump 1 mile 
 away, and 111 cu. yds. to a dump half a mile away, both hauls 
 over good pavements. Two large boulders were removed during 
 the work. . The wagons were loaded as the earth was removed. 
 Weather was good and the work very well handled. 
 
212 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The materials for concrete were delivered conveniently near the 
 work, mixed on top at one end, and handled in wheelbarrows. 
 After the forms and reinforcement were placed the walls were 
 brought up in one continuous operation. The floor was laid first 
 and special precautions taken to secure a good bond with the walls, 
 which were built two or three days later. The workmanship was 
 excellent. 
 
 A good foreman and well organized crew were employed from 
 the first and it is believed that the costs on excavation and concrete 
 are close, considering the character of the work. 
 
 The cost of installing the machinery, electrical equipment, etc., 
 however, is regarded as high, as the men employed for this work 
 were slow, although thoroughly competent and conscientious. Also 
 there was considerable delay over the delivery of some special 
 castings and other parts of the equipment. The company, however, 
 was not affected, as the work was done under contract. It should, 
 therefore, be mentioned that in the following costs the rates for 
 this part of the work are a^umed. The hours are correct. 
 
 LABOR COSTS OF CONSTRUCTING UNDERGROUND PUMPING PLANT. 
 
 (Excavation (281 cu. yds.). Per 
 
 cu. yd. 
 
 Foreman, 80 hrs. at $0.50 $ 40.00 $0.14 
 
 Labor, 570 hrs. at $0.25 ■' 142.50 .50 
 
 Teams, 120 hrs. at $0.70 84.00 .30 
 
 Black.'^mith, 20 hrs. at $0.30... 6.00 .02 
 
 Backfill and clean-up, 55 hrs. at $0.25 13.75 .05 
 
 Total $286.25 $1.01 
 
 Note : Two extra dump wagons were included in the above rate 
 of 70 cts. for teams, which were loaded while the teams were trav- 
 eling. The unit cost for backfill only was about 40 cts. per cu. yd. 
 
 Concreting, including foundations — 57 cu. yds. 
 
 Forms and Reinforcement. Per cu. yd. 
 
 concrete. 
 
 Carpenter, 35 hrs. at $0.40 $ 14.00 $0.25 
 
 Helpers, 100 hrs. at $0.35 35.00 .61 
 
 Common labor, 44 hrs. at $0.25 11.00 .19 
 
 Total $ 60.00 $1.05 
 
 Foundations for Pumps and Motors — Concrete. 
 
 43 hrs. at $0.30 $ 12.90 $0.23 
 
 Walls, Floors, and Roofs. 
 
 Foreman, 12 hrs. at $0.50 $ 6.00 $0.10 
 
 Mixing, etc., 300 hrs. at $0.30 90.00 1.58 
 
 Tamping, 53 hr.s. at $0.30 15.90 .28 
 
 Miscellaneous labor, 20 hrs. at $0.30 6.00 .11 
 
 Mix boards, etc., 10 hrs. at $0.35 3.50 .06 
 
 Total $121.40 $2.13 
 
 Installation of Equipment. 
 
 Tanks (set in place by contract) $ 25.00 
 
 Erecting all machinery, including water con- 
 nections, etc. : 
 
 Skilled labor, 200 hrs. at $0.50 $100.00 
 
 Helpers, 240 hrs. at $0.40 96.00 196.00 
 
BUILDINGS 213 
 
 Painting fittings and general clean up : 
 
 Helpers, 22 hrs. at $0.40 8.80 8.80 
 
 Erecting switchboard, wiring, etc., etc. : 
 
 Skilled labor, 192 hrs. at $0.50 96.00 
 
 Helpers, 36 hrs. at $0.30 10.80 106.80 
 
 Testing equipment : 
 
 Skilled labor, 22 hrs. at $0.50 11.00 
 
 Helpers, 22 hrs. at $0.40 8.80 19.80 
 
 Total $356.40 
 
 General Miscellaneous Labor. 
 Haul machinery and supplies (other than concrete mate- 
 rials and tanks) $37.50 
 
 Seeding ground over roof of plant 3.50 
 
 Removal of tools, etc., and general clean up 11.50 
 
 Water connections for mixing concrete 5.50 
 
 Miscellaneous labor 15.60 
 
 Total $73.60 
 
 The foregoing are all net labor costs only. Overhead inspection, 
 etc., etc., are not included. 
 
 Construction and Cost of a Reservoir and Pumphouse. G. F. 
 Alderson in Coal Age, Sept. 23, 1!)16, describes a reservoir and 
 pumping equipment installed as a means of raising the pressure in 
 a system which under normal conditions, was 20 lbs., to a pressure 
 of 80 lbs. for fire protection purposes. 
 
 By referring to Fig. 11 the scheme of the new system may be 
 seen at a glance. The reservoir is filled from the source of supply 
 through the inlet pipe A. The floor of the reservoir drains toward 
 a sump B, in which is placed the foot valve and strainer on the 
 suction end of the pump. Normally, the valves at C and E are 
 closed and the valve at D is open. Thus the reservoir is shut off 
 from its supply, except in case of fire, when the valve at D is 
 closed and valves C and E are opened. These valves are controlled 
 by a single handwheel within the pumphouse. Should a fire alarm 
 be turned in, the pump is started by throwing the switch at the 
 board F. The valves C and E are opened, and the valve at D is 
 closed. In starting the motor, the pump is primed automatically 
 by means of a priming tank placed above it in the pump house. 
 Immediately the pump begins to draw the water from the reservoir 
 and pump it to the discharge / into the main leading to the plant, 
 which action at once increases the pressure in the main ui^ to that 
 necessary for producing the desired result through the firehouse. 
 
 When starting the operation, the valve at C is opened and the 
 water at ordinary pressure flows into the reservoir, thus virtually 
 increasing its capacity, for perhaps 30,000 gals, has flowed into the 
 reservoir while the pump is drawing out 100,000 gals., and so the 
 water is drawn out much faster than it enters. 
 
 The dimensions of the reservoir are 40 x 60 ft. with an average 
 depth of 61/2 ft. It was constructed of concrete reinforced with 
 1/2 -in. square twisted steel rods. The floor of the reservoir is 6 ins. 
 thick and the side walls are 12 ins. thick. Both the walls and the 
 
214 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 floor were poured in one continuous operation, thus securing a 
 proper bond. The sump is 3 ft. square and 3 ft. deep. It gives 
 ample room for the foot valve and strainer on the suction pipe and 
 also provides space in the bottom for the collection of sediment. 
 From the bottom of this sump a 4 -in. pipe drains into the sewer 
 system. At one side of the reservoir an overflow box is provided 
 from which an 8 -in. terra-cotta pipe connects with the nearest 
 sewer. 
 
 Overflovf to 
 Nearest Sewer 
 
 deanou-f al- Priming 
 Bo-H-om of Tank 
 Sump Hole ',^ Overhead 
 
 Overflow , __ 
 
 ^a 
 
 p— — rjrp 
 rooiVafve---^', 
 andStrainf^r i.B 
 
 Sump Hole, 3 Deep'- 
 
 PUMP HOUSE 
 
 c/ireci- connecfecf 
 Cenirifugaheleciric 
 Fire Pump 
 
 Fig. 11. Piping arrangement for reservoir. 
 
 A fireproof pumphouse, 12x18 ft., was constructed at one end of 
 the reservoir. This building has a cement floor, brick walls, con- 
 crete slab roof supported by an 8 -in. I-beam, reinforced with Hy- 
 Rib, and is to house an Allis-Chalmers high-duty, 1,000-gal. electric 
 fire pump, together with all necessary fittings and appliances for its 
 proper operation. The motor was connected to a 2,200-volt service 
 line. The pump running at 1,750 r.p.m. operated under a head of 
 260 ft. This tank was supported above the pump by brackets on 
 the wall, to provide a means of priming the pump. An automatic 
 ball float valve keeps the tank properly filled. 
 
 COST OF ERECTING THE PUMPHOUSE. 
 
 Labor, 68% $536.07 
 
 Masonry (masons at $0.70 per hr., helpers at $0.24 per hr..$176.04 
 
 Forms for roof (carpenters at $0.53 per hr. ) 40.78 
 
 Carpenter work, setting window and door frames 31.80 
 
 Installing pump (plumbers $0.45 per hr., helpers $0.35 per 
 
 hr. ) 
 
 129.75 
 
 Installing motor (electrician $0.45 per hr., helper $0.35 per 
 
 hr.) 130.00 
 
 Lining tank (coppersmith $0.45 per hr.) 8.50 
 
 Painting (painter $0,371/2 per hr.) 11.25 
 
 Labor at $0.24 per hr , 7.95 
 
 Material (32%) 252.16 
 
 Brick (9,000 at $8.50 per M) 76.50 
 
 Concrete work, foundation, roof, floor and mortar 53.80 
 
BUILDINGS 215 
 
 22 bbls. cement $1.30 per bbl., 7 cu. yds. sand $1 per ton, 
 
 14 cu. yds. gravel $1.30 per ton. 
 
 Four window frames at $1.75 each 7.00 
 
 Paneled door and door frame 3.50 
 
 3-in. I-beam 11 ft. 6 in. long 4.00 
 
 Lumber forms for roof $20 per M ft. b. m 20.00 
 
 Hy-Rib (270 sq. ft., at $0.022) 6.00 
 
 Paint (3 gals., at $1.75) 5.25 
 
 Pipe and fittings for connecting pump 71.61 
 
 Material for priming tank , . 4.50 
 
 Total cost of pumphouse — Labor 536.07 
 
 Material 252.1 6 
 
 $788.23 
 
 To prevent dust and scum from accumulating on the water and 
 to make freezing in winter more difficult, an ordinary sloping roof 
 was built over the reservoir. This roof is supported by nine 8x8 
 in. timbers resting on the floor of the reservoir. For a roof cover- 
 ing, a good quality of 2-ply prepared roofing was used. 
 
 The concrete used was a 1 :2 :4 mixture of Portland cement, 
 clean, sharp, bar sand and clear pit gravel. The concrete was 
 hand-mixed, four boards working continuously until the floors and 
 walls were flnished. 
 
 COST OF BUILDING THE RESERVOIR. 
 
 Labor, 60% $1,672.23 
 
 Excavation, 804 cu. yds. (labor at $0.24 per hr.) $ 868.32 
 
 Forms for concrete (carpenters at $0.53 per hr. ) 230.55 
 
 Laying outside piping (plumber at $0.45 per hr., helper at 
 
 $0.35 per hr.) 71.82 
 
 Pouring concrete, 136 cu. yds. (labor at $0.24 per hr.)..., 422.04 
 
 Roof (carpenters at $0.53 per hr.) 79.50 
 
 Material, W/o $1,066.40 
 
 Lumber (average $20 per M ft. b. m.) 248.64 
 
 Nails (average $0,017 per lb.) 4.64 
 
 Concrete, 1:2:4 mixture 437.22 
 
 Cement, 181.25 bbls. at $1.30 per bbl. 
 
 Sand, 56 yds. at $1 per ton. 
 
 Gravel, 112 yds. at $1.30 per ton. 
 
 Reinforcing rods, 9,000 ft. (108 ft. per 100 lbs. at $4 per lb.) 333.00 
 
 Wire, No. 12 (200 lbs. at $0,112 per lb.) 22.50 
 
 Roofing paper (34 squares at- $0.60) 20.40 
 
 Total cost of reservoir — Labor 1,672.23 
 
 Material 1,066.40 
 
 $2,738.63 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 CHIMNEYS 
 
 Relative Economy of Various Types of Clnimneys. There are 
 four types of chimneys in common use : the guyed steel chimney, 
 the self-supporting- steel chimney, the radial brick chimney, and 
 the reinf orced-concrete chimney. The. guyed steel chimney is very 
 commonly used in boiler plants of comparatively^ small power. It 
 is the cheapest of all types and it has also the most rapid de- 
 preciation, as it is generally constructed of light material. Steel 
 chimneys have a shorter life than the brick or reinforced-concrete 
 chimneys, and in some localities, as along the sea coasts or vhere 
 acid fumes are present in the atmosphere, the depreciation may be 
 very rapid. A maintenance charge exists for steel that is not 
 necessary for brick or concrete chimneys, as they require painting 
 at least once a year if they are to be properly cared for. A brick 
 chimney would naturally be more in harmony with a power house 
 built of brick than any other, and a concrete-steel chimney for a 
 building of reinforced concrete. 
 
 As the temperature and friction losses are nearly the same for 
 chimneys of the same height and diameter, irrespective of the 
 material of which they are constructed, the ecionornj'^ of operation 
 of such chimneys is the same, and a selection, on the basis of 
 economy, depends upon their first cost, repair cost, and useful life. 
 T. J. Maguire in an article in Engineering Magazine, March, 
 1912, from which the following is condensed gives as an example 
 the case of a power installation M'here it has been found that a 
 chimney 175 ft. in height and 8 ft. in diameter will be required, 
 and where a careful investigation leads to the conclusion that this 
 chimney will be required for 35 years. A well -designed radial- 
 brick chimney of the above height and diameter would cost about 
 $7,600, and it would readily last the above estimated number of 
 years. The repair item per year for this chimney would be neg- 
 ligible, and the annual cost of the chimney would consist simply 
 of an interest charge on the first cost and the annual sum set aside 
 for depreciation. On the basis of an interest charge of 5 per 
 cent, the annual cost of the radiai-brick chimney Avould be $464. 
 
 A reinforced-concrete chimney 175 ft. in height and 8 ft. in 
 diameter would cost about $5,700, if properly designed and in- 
 stalled. Now assume that local conditions are such as to warrant 
 a life of only 25 years, as compared to 35 years for the radial- 
 brick chimney. Evidently the conorete chimney will have to be 
 replaced at the end of 25 years, and as the chimney is required 
 for a total of 35 years, the actual useful life of the second rein- 
 
 216 
 
CHIMNEYS 217 
 
 forced-concrete chimney will be only 10 years. Assuming again 
 that the repair item per year for the two reinforced-concrete 
 chimneys would be negligible, the annual cost for 25 years, for the 
 first concrete chimney, would be equal to $405, and for the second 
 concrete chimney $738, for 10 years. The average annual cost, 
 for the entire 35 years, for the reinforced type of chimney, on the 
 above assumption, would be $500, and the radial-brick chimney 
 would be the more economical type to install even if its first cost 
 exceeds by one-third the first cost of the reinforced-concrete type. 
 Take, as a third type for this proposed plant, a self-supporting 
 steel chimney, and assume that it will have a life of 20 years, 
 thus necessitating rebuilding once in order to obtain the desired 
 useful life of 35 years. It will be necessary to paint once a year 
 at a cost of about $80 for a chimney 8 ft. in diameter and 175 
 ft. in height. Assume that the annual cost of the steel chimneys 
 on the aveiage for the entire 35 years is not to exceed the annual 
 cost of the radial-brick chimney, or $464. On this basis, then, 
 the first cost or cost of installing each steel chimney would be 
 equal to $4,410. If the two steel chimneys could each be installed 
 at a cost less than $4,410, then the self-supporting type would be 
 more economical than the radial-brick 
 
 A proper selection demands not only a careful comparison of 
 first costs, but also of repair costs, actual useful life of chimneys, 
 and the length of time for which the chimney is desired. 
 
 Care should be taken in determining the diameter and height. 
 A chimney larger than the requirements call for is evidently a 
 waste of money, and too small a chimney is likely to prove a very 
 costly investment on account of the deficient draft produced by it 
 and the resulting incomplete combustion of the fuel. The height 
 depends upon the available intensity of draft required of it, and 
 this latter must equal the sum of the draft loss in the breeching 
 connection from boilers to chimney, the draft loss in the boiler 
 setting, and the intensity of draft required in the furnace to burn 
 the fuel properly. The design of the furnace and the grade of fuel 
 that is ever likely to be used during the life of the plant are 
 features that must be carefully considered if the height is to be 
 correctly determined. A well designed chimney of any type will 
 consume 20% of the theoretical draft intensity produced by it, 
 and on this basis the chimney diameter is determined by the 
 maximum boiler horse power which the chimney will have to take 
 care of and the evaporative ability of the fuel used. 
 
 The production of draft by a chimney is due to the temperature 
 of the gases in the chimney, and it is therefore evident that a 
 chimney consumes a certain amount of the heat energy of the 
 fuel. A temperature of 475 degs. F. at the breeching connection 
 to the boilers represents good operating economy with the boilers 
 developing their rated capacity, and at 50% overload on the boilers 
 this temperature will rise to' 550 degs. F. or higher. In any boiler 
 equipment, whatever may be the design of the boiler and furnace, 
 it is not feasible to lower the breeching temperature to any appre- 
 ciable extent below the temperatures noted above. It is possible, 
 
218 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 however, to abstract further heat from the gases leaving the 
 boilers, by conveying them through an economizer before they 
 reach the chimney. It Is not customary, however, to use natural 
 draft in conjunction with an economizer on account of the low 
 temperature of the gases available for chimney purposes. As an 
 illustration take the case of a plant where 0.9 in. of draft at 
 the point where the breeching connects to the stack Is required to 
 burn the fuel properly, and assume that the average temperature 
 of the gases entering the chimney is 450 degs. F. If the chimney 
 is at sea level, its height would be 184 ft. in order to satisfy 
 the above conditions. If, now, a suitable economizer were placed 
 between chimney and boilers, with enough heating surface to 
 reduce the temperature of the gases to 250 degs. P.. then the 
 chimney would have to create a draft intensity of about 1.1 ins., 
 as the additional draft lost in breeching connections to economizers 
 and in economizer would probably amount to 0.2 in. A chimney 
 380 ft. in height would be required to produce 1.1 ins. of draft 
 with a gas temi)erature of only 250 degs. F. Chimneys that are 
 not commercially practicable would be required for use with most 
 economizer equipments, and hence it is customary to employ me- 
 chanical draft rather than natural draft for plants using econo- 
 mizers. 
 
 Natural draft is very often undesirable for certain coals that 
 are of low heating value, have a high flxed-carbon value, are high 
 in ash, or have a tendency to form objectionable clinkers. For 
 instance, take the case of a boiler plant of 2,000 h.-p. rating, where 
 
 TABLE T. CHIMNEY DIMENSIONS FOR VARIOUS HEIGHTS 
 
 Jl 
 
 Height of 
 
 Chimney. 
 
 
 50 ft. 70 ft 
 
 100 ft. 
 
 150 ft. 200 ft. 
 
 
 l! 
 
 2 
 
 0) 
 
 •- & Commercial horse-power of boilers. 
 
 a! 
 
 3 
 
 m 
 
 c a 
 
 < 
 
 StJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 X 16 . 
 
 . 18 
 
 1.77 
 
 .97 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 X 19 . 
 
 . 21 
 
 2.41 
 
 1.47 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 x22 . 
 
 . 24 
 
 3.14 
 
 2.08 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 X 24 . 
 
 . . 27 
 
 3.98 
 
 2.78 
 
 65 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 x27 . 
 
 . . 30 
 
 4.91 
 
 3.58 
 
 85 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 x 30 . 
 
 . . 33 
 
 5.94 
 
 4.48 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 X 32 . 
 
 . . 36 
 
 7.07 
 
 5.47 
 
 150 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 X 35 . 
 
 .. 39 
 
 8.30 
 
 6.57 
 
 180 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 X 38 . 
 
 . . 42 
 
 9.62 
 
 7,76 
 
 220 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 x43 . 
 
 . . 48 
 
 12.57 
 
 10.44 
 
 
 . . 
 
 350 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 X 48 . 
 
 . . 54 
 
 15.90 
 
 13.51 
 
 
 . 
 
 4 50 
 
 55( 
 
 
 54 
 
 x54 . 
 
 .. 60 
 
 19.64 
 
 16.98 
 
 
 . . 
 
 565 
 
 69 
 
 
 59 
 
 X 59 . 
 
 . . 66 
 
 23.76 
 
 20.83 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 85 
 
 3 980 
 
 64 
 
 X 64 . 
 
 . . 72 
 
 28.27 
 
 25.08 
 
 
 . . 
 
 835 
 
 1.02 
 
 ) 1.180 
 
 70 
 
 X 70 . 
 
 . . 78 
 
 33.18 
 
 29.73 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 1.21 
 
 ) 1.400 
 
 75 
 
 X 75 . 
 
 . . 84 
 
 38.48 
 
 34.76 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 1.42( 
 
 ) 1,630 
 
 80 
 
 X 80 . 
 
 .. 90 
 
 44.18 
 
 40.19 
 
 
 
 
 1.64 
 
 ) 1.900 
 
 86 
 
 x86 . 
 
 .. 96 
 
 50.27 
 
 46.01 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ,88( 
 
 ) 2,200 
 
CHIMNEYS 219 
 
 draft conditions must be such as to enable the boilers to develop 
 an overload of 33i/2%' Boilers are of the vertical-pass water- 
 tube type, with grate areas equal to 1,32 of the heating surface. 
 The coal that is to be used, to be what is known as anthracite 
 buckwheat No. 3. This coal would have a calorific value of about 
 11.000 B.t.u. per pound dry, and would run as high possibly as 
 25% ash. To develop 33i/3% overload, the boiler output would be 
 equal to 2,670 boiler horse power and about 13,500 lbs. of dry 
 anthracite coal would be burned per hour. This would call for a 
 consumption of 22 lbs. of dry coal per square foot of grate per 
 hour, and such a rate of combustion would require a furnace draft 
 of not less than 1.6 ins. With 0.4 in. lost in the boiler and (say) 
 0.2 in. lost in the breeching, the available draft required would 
 have to equal 2.2 ins. A chimney 96 ins. in diameter and 400 ft. 
 in height would be required. Such a chimney is obviously not 
 practicable on account of its excessive height. 
 
 Sizes of Chimneys for Boilers. Table I condensed from one by 
 J. H. Boughton gives the diameters, heights, and effective areas 
 of chimneys, etc., for various commercial h. p. of boilers. 
 
 Height and Diameter of Chimney for Plants of Moderate Size 
 (500 h. p. or less) according to C. £>. Wesselhoeft (Data, 1914), 
 should be as follows : 
 
 Height, ft. 
 
 Free burning bituminous coal 75 
 
 Anthracite of medium and large size 100 
 
 Slow-burning bituminous 120 
 
 Anthracite pea 130 
 
 Anthracite buckwheat 150 
 
 Anthracite slack 175 
 
 For plant of 700 or 800 h. p., the chimney should not be less 
 than 150 ft. high regardless of the kind of coal used. 
 
 Internal cross-sectional area of chimney " E " may be obtained 
 from the following formula : 
 
 3RP 
 
 in which R = maximum rate of coal consumption in 
 
 50\/H 
 
 pounds per hr. per rated boiler h. p. ; P = total rated boiler h. p. ; 
 H = height of chimney in ft. R is commonly taken as 5 lbs., 
 which is high for modern plants. 
 
 Cost of Chimneys. W. H. Weston in Engineering Magazine, 
 Jan., 1912, gives the following table figured on a compound con- 
 densing basis plus 30% for overload. 
 
 H. p. Cost 
 
 400 $2,700 
 
 500 3,200 
 
 600 3,700 
 
 800 4,300 
 
 1000 5,100 
 
 1500 6,700 
 
 2000 8,200 
 
 4000 15,000 
 
220 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost per Horsepower of Various Chimneys. W. W. Christie 
 (Railroad Gazette, Oct. 19, 1900) gives tlie following list, Table 
 II, from actual costs. 
 
 TABLE II. COST OF CHIMNEYS FOR VARIOUS HP. RATINGS 
 
 Cost, dollars. 
 H.-p. Per rated Remarks. 
 
 Description. rating.* Total h.-p. 
 
 Radial brick, ci^c 13.484 40,000 3.00 Foreign. 
 
 Red brick, circ 4,040 16.000 4.00 
 
 " 6,000 18,500 3.00 
 
 rect 450 2,192 4.87 
 
 hex 12,211 55.000 4.50 
 
 circ 4,859 10,000 2.06 Single shell, firebrick 
 
 lining half height. 
 
 " 2,925 15,000 5.13 
 
 " 5,772 40 000 6.93 
 
 " 6,300 18.500 3.00 
 
 " 6,000 25.000 4.25 
 
 " 1,100 4.950 4.50 
 
 rect 517 1.900 3.80 
 
 Steel, self-supporting. 2,400 10.000 4.15 Lined throughout. 
 
 2,350 8,000 3.40 Half-lined, price with- 
 out foundation, 
 240 700 2.91 Unlined. 
 
 guyed 240 400 1.66 
 
 * Chimney Design and Tlieory, by W. W. Christie. 
 
 Based upon figures given in the table, chimneys of 2,000 h. p. 
 each, if built of red brick, would cost about $8,500 each; of steel, 
 self-supporting, full lined, about $8,300 each; of steel, self-support- 
 ing, half lined, about $7,800 each; of steel, self-supporting, unlined, 
 about $5,820 each, 12, $69,840; of steel, guyed, about $4,000 each. 
 
 To substitute forced draft apparatus for the large chimney, or 
 chimneys in multiple, there could be used forced or induced draft, 
 or steam blowers. In this connection an 80-in. centrifugal blower, 
 48 in. wheel, 4 x 3 in. double engine, blower and engine on beam 
 platform, was erected in New England in 1899, connected with a 
 48-in. diam. chimney of No. 12 steel, 22 ft. high, 10 ft. of it above 
 the roof, 1 in. thick cast base plate. The total cost for apparatus, 
 frame work, and mason work was $856. The boilers used in the 
 plant, in connection with the blower, were horizontal tubular, one 
 80 in. diam. by 171/2 ft. ; two 72 in. diam. by 17 1/2 ft. In the same 
 year a self-supporting steel chimney, outlined, 3 1^ ft. diam. X 105 
 ft. high, was erected, with foundations and flue connections, at a 
 cost of $1,013. The chimney was made of •yio, Vi and %-in. steel. 
 The blower outfit works satisfactorily in the part having two 
 boilers with a total of 75 sq. ft. of grate. The chimney gives a 
 very satisfactory draught for 93 sq. ft. of grate surface, and if 
 it had been made 48 in. diam., as in the blower outfit mentioned, 
 and been guyed with wire rope, with a light foundation, $800 would 
 easily have met the expense. The cost of a double fan outfit, 
 with a short chimney for 1,600 boiler h.p. is given as $3,500, or 
 $2.19 per h.p. 
 
 Cost of Mechanical Draft. W. W. Christie (Railroad Gazette, 
 
CHIMNEYS 221 
 
 Oct. 19, 1900) gives the cost of mechanical draft in the table 
 below. 
 
 For a good steam plant it is fair to assume the following as 
 average fixed charges for mechanical draft apparatus : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Interest 5 
 
 Depreciation 4 % 
 
 Insurance and taxes . 1 ^ 
 
 11 
 For a chimney : 
 
 Interest 5 
 
 Depreciation and repairs 1 1/^ 
 
 Insurance and taxes 1 1/^ 
 
 Then the operating expenses for a mechanical draft apparatus 
 for the plant are, say, $12,000, to which must be added the fixed 
 charges, 117c of cost of outfit, or $5,781, making a total of $17,781, 
 which must be compared with 8% of chimney cost, or $9,600. 
 
 Should a cheaper grade of fuel be used there may be an ad- 
 vantage in using mechanical draft. A reduction of over $6,500 
 per year has been made -in actual practice in the case of a boiler 
 plant of 1,000 h.p.. by the introduction of mechanical draft, and 
 the burning of buckwheat and yard screenings with a slight mix- 
 ture of Cumberland coal. 
 
 From published tests of steam blowers it is learned that they 
 use from 7.4 to 8.78% of the steam made by the boilers. Eight 
 per cent, of the value of coal used for 24,000 h.p., or $44,474, should 
 be placed in comparison with the operating expenses, $12,000 for 
 mechanical draft, and nothing for the brick chimney, to show the 
 expensiveness of this method. 
 
 Design and Quantities for a 220-Ft. Reinforced Concrete Chim- 
 ney at Penarth, Wales. An unusual type of reinforced concrete 
 chimney has .recently been built at Penarth, near Cardiff, "Wales, 
 for the new rotary cement plant of the South Wales Portland 
 Cement and Lime Co., Ltd. The following data, descriptive of 
 this chimney, were taken from an article by John W. Rodger, in 
 Concrete and Constructional Engineering in 1914, and is of value 
 for design purposes. 
 
 The chimney is 14-sided externally, and is 220 ft. high. It is 
 formed in two parts, the outer shell consisting of concrete bloclvs, 
 and the inner one being built of brick. The outer and inner 
 shells are not connected at any point throughout the full height 
 of the chimney. The outside and inside diameters of the top of 
 the outer shell are 10 ft. 4 ins. and 9 ft. 6 ins., respectively; the 
 corresponding diameters at the base of the chimney are 20 ft. 
 6 ins. and 17 ft. 6 ins. Thus the outer shell has a thickness at 
 the top of 5 ins. and at the bottom of 18 ins. The inner shell 
 has an inside diameter at the top of 8 ft. 6 ins. and at the bottom 
 of 9 ft. 2 ins. The thickness for the upper 24.5 ft. of this shell 
 is 41/^ ins., and for the lower 183.5 ft. its thickness is 9 ins. The 
 
222 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 brick lining is strengthened laterally by brick buttresses which 
 increase in width with the height of the chimney (see Figs. 1, a 
 and 1, b). The minimum clearance between the brickwork of the 
 lining and the concrete shell is 6 ins. This clearance is sufficient 
 to provide for the swaying action of the chimney in a high wind. 
 The estimated maximum deflection of the chimney in an 80-mile- 
 per-hour gale is 3.2 ins. It was realized that the chimney would 
 be subjected at times to exceptionally high temperature, which 
 made it desirable to extend the brick lining to within 12 ft. of 
 the top, and to provide a substantial air space between the con- 
 crete and the brickwork as a special protection to the brickwork. 
 Figure 1 (c) shows a detail of one of the reinforced concrete 
 blocks used in the construction of the outer shell; Fig. 1 (d) 
 shows a detail of the top part of the chimney; and (e) shows a 
 detail at M, near the base. 
 
 The concrete of which the blocks of the outer shell are made 
 is composed of materials in the following proportions : 9 cu. ft. 
 of crushed granite, of a fineness sufficient to pass a %-in. sieve, 
 with all dust removed ; 5 cu. ft. of clean coarse sand ; and 3 cu. 
 ft. of Portland cement. The concrete was mixed by hand, and 
 was molded in cast-iron molds of varying shapes and sizes, care 
 being taken to obtain a wet plastic mixture of such a consistency 
 as could be efficiently worked into the forms to insure a dense 
 concrete. Each block is reinforced Vv^ith steel rods of varying 
 diameters embedded in the concrete during the process of mold- 
 ing. 
 
 The blocks are set in a 1 :2 cement mortar with a steel ring, 
 or joint rod, embedded in each horizontal joint and extending 
 around the entire circumference of the chimney. The vertical 
 reinforcement consists of steel rods fixed in the end joints of the 
 blocl<s, being further protected by concrete " necks " which are 
 molded as a part of the blocks and which form vertical shafts 
 on the finished chimney. Each vertical rod projects a dic'tance 
 of 6 ft. into the concrete foundation, and is attached there to a 
 horizontal steel ring which has a diameter equal to that of the 
 chimney at its base. Special reinforcement is used around and 
 over the flue opening and for the molded cornice and necks. 
 
 The lining is built throughout of hard, red bricks, made to the 
 correct radius and set in 1:2 cement mortar, up to the level of 
 the bottom of the intake flue ; above that level to the top of the 
 9-in. brickwork the mortar is composed of 14 part Portland cement, 
 1 part slaked ground blue lias lime, and 2 1{. parts sand; while 
 the 41^-in. bricliwork — the upper 24.5 ft. of the lining — is set in 
 1 :2 cement mortar. 
 
 The chimney rests on a reinforced concrete foundation, con- 
 sisting of a slab 23.5 ft. square. The load on the bottom course 
 of blocks is 8.5 tons per sq. ft. The total weight of the chimney 
 and its concrete foundation is 1,400 "tons, which is equal to a 
 uniform load of 2.54 tons per sq. ft. in the subsoil. 
 
 Design, Construction and Cost of a Concrete Chimney at Cold- 
 water, IVIich. The design, construction and cost of a concrete 
 
Concrete 
 
 (.d) Detai( of Cormce 
 
 10) Verfical Section 
 
 Section at Base 
 lb) Horizontal Sections 
 
 Fig. 1. Sections and details of a 220-ft. chimney. 
 223 
 
224 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 chimney at Coldwater, Mich., is described in Engineering and 
 Contracting, April 11, 1915, as follows: 
 
 Design. The chimney has a total height of 137 ft., an inside 
 diameter at the top of 6 ft., an outside diameter at the top of 
 6 ft. 10 ins., and an outside diameter at the bottom of 10 ft. 
 The reinforced concrete lining extends to a height of 40 ft. 6 ins., 
 the thickness of this lining being 4 ins., with an air space of 
 4 ins. between it and the chimney proper. The reinforced con- 
 crete foundation has a thickness at its center of 3 ft. 6 ins, and 
 at its outer edge of 1 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 The reinforcement in the foundation consists of two layers of 
 bars. The lower layer is placed 4 ins. about the base of the 
 footing, and the upper layer 10 ins. above the lower one. The 
 % -in. square twisted bars in the lower layer are placed diagonally, 
 the bars being spaced 12 ins. on centers. The bars in the upper 
 layer are of the same size, these bars being placed parallel to a 
 side on 24-in. centers. 
 
 The vertical reinforcement of the chimney consists of %-in. 
 square twisted bars, the first set of bars being bent to hook out- 
 ward under the lower layer a distance of 12 ins. Different lengths 
 of bars were used, and the joints were broken so that the splices 
 did not all come in one form. Beginning at the base, the length 
 of each section and the number of bars used in each are as fol- 
 lows: 7 ft., 72 bars; 12 ft., 62 bars; 15 ft., 52 bars; 15 ft., 42 
 bax's; 18 ft., 32 bars; 20 ft.. 22 bars; and 50 ft., 12 bars. The 
 circular reinforcement consists of the American Steel & Wire 
 Co.'s No. 23 triangular mesh, extending the entire height of the 
 chimney. 
 
 The shaft around the smoke opening, which is 5 ft. wide by 
 7 ft. high, is reinforced above and below with three extra rings 
 of V^-in. round bars and on each side with four extra %-in. square 
 twisted bars. The head is reinforced with four additional rings 
 of i/^-in. round bars. At the top of the lining a shoulder was 
 cast on the outer shell, which projects inward over the top of the 
 lining and 4 ins. above it. This was built to prevent soot from 
 filling the air space, the shoulder being reinforced with tv.'o extra 
 rings of i/^-in. round rods. The concrete lining is reinforced with 
 twelve vertical i/^-in. round bars extending the entire height of 
 the lining. 
 
 Construction. The bottom of the footing is 7 ft. below grade, 
 the excavation extending about 4 ins. into a bed of gravel, which 
 was found to give sufficient bearing power. 
 
 A 1:3:6 concrete was used in the foundation, and a 1:2:4 
 concrete in the chimney proper. Pit-run gravel was used, as an 
 excellent quality was obtainable. An inspector was constantly on 
 the work, and care was taken to exclude all stones larger than 
 a small ess, especially those of irregular shape. The inspector 
 was furnished with tabular data giving the quantities of materials 
 required for each form, and rigid infepection was insisted on. 
 
 The outer surface of the chimney was made smooth by the 
 constant use of a spading bar. At the start the men were re- 
 
CHIMNEYS 225 
 
 quired to repair several rough places on the outside of the chim- 
 ney, which resulted in a proper use of the spading bar there- 
 after. 
 
 The concrete for the chimney shaft was mixed by hand, while 
 that for the foundation was machine mixed. In hoisting the con- 
 crete a rope and bucket were used, a horse being used for power. 
 
 All scaffolds were built inside of the chimney. They consisted 
 of four upright posts, each made of two 2 x4-in. x 16-ft. timbers. 
 The ends were butted together and were nailed with 16d spikes, 
 the joints being broken. Around the outside of the four posts, 
 level with the top of the form to be filled, 2x4-in. pieces were 
 spiked, the working platform resting on these. Another set of 
 2 X 4-in. pieces were placed at a sufficient height to support the 
 sheaves, in order that the concrete could be placed by means of 
 short chutes. 
 
 The bucket in which the concrete was hoisted was filled by means 
 of a chute through the clean-out door, the mixing platform being 
 just outside and level with this door. 
 
 The forms were constructed of 2-in. lumber, in sections 6 ft. 
 high, the sections being raised to position with ropes. 
 
 The chimney was completed in 32 days from the time the founda- 
 tion was started. 
 
 Cotil. The following data give the approximate cost of the 
 chimney to the contractor, the wages of the foreman and the 
 assistant foreman being estimated at $6 per day each. 
 
 Foreman, 29 days at $6.00 $174.00 
 
 Assistant foreman, 35 days at $6.00 210.00 
 
 Common labor, 410 hrs. at 20 cts 82.00 
 
 Material : Sand, gravel, cement and reinforcing ste?l 350.00 
 
 Lumber 30.00 
 
 Pouring of foundation 25.00 
 
 Freight on tools 52.02 
 
 Use of horse for hoisting concrete, 23 days at $1.00 23.00 
 
 Total $946.02 
 
 The above data do not include transportation for the men, in- 
 surance, or depreciation on forms or tools, the total cost of which 
 did not exceed $100. The contract price of the chimney was $1,725. 
 
 A Reinforced Concrete Chimney described in Engineering News, 
 Dec. 19, 1901, was built in 1901 by the Ransome Concrete Co. 
 for the Central Lard Co., Jersey City. The stack is 108 ft. high 
 above the foundations, its inner diameter being 8 ft., and its 
 outer diameter 11 ft. 4 ins. The shell is double. The foundation 
 is of concrete, 3 ft. thick, resting on 56 piles driven 55 ft. into 
 marshy ground. The inner shell of the stack is 4 ins. thick. 
 The outer shell is 7 ins. thick at base and 4 ins. at the top. The 
 concrete was 1 part Atlas cement to 5 parts broken trap rock, 
 crusher run, no stone larger than % in. An interior scaffold 
 was built a little in advance of the chimney. The forms, which 
 were in sections 12 ft. high, were suspended by threaded rods 
 passing through band-wheels at their upper ends. A vertical joint 
 in each form was provided with turn-buckles to open or close it. 
 
226 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The air-space between the two shells was made by collapsible 
 boxes. 
 
 The following were the quantities: 
 
 Concrete in foundation, cu. ft 1,460 
 
 " stack, cu. ft 3,514 
 
 total, cu. ft. 4.974 
 
 Twisted steel rods, lbs 8,020 
 
 Piles, lin. ft 3,080 
 
 The weight of the chimney, including its concrete base, is 362 
 tons. The contract price was $3,500. 
 
 Cost of Chimney for a Copper Smelter. E. H, JonecJ (Engineer- 
 ing and Contracting, Dec. 16, 1914) gives the cost of a chimney 
 for the Arizona Copper Co., Clifton, Ariz. The chimney is 300 
 ft. high. 26 ft. 8 ins. inside diameter at the base and 22 ft. at 
 the top. The average thickness of the walls is 24''/^ ins. The 
 chimney is corbeled out every 25 ft. to hold the lining of radial 
 perforated fire brick laid in acid-proof mortar. The foundation 
 of the chimney is constructed of concrete, the base of red brick, 
 and the chimney proper of radial blocks. The upper 75 ft. of 
 the chimney are pointed with acid-proof mortar. 
 
 The excavation for the foundation was a deep hexagonal cut 
 through clay and caliche, and penetrating a considerable distance 
 into sand and gravel containing large boulders. The material was 
 loosened with picks, slipped out with fresnos, dumped through a 
 trap into' carts, and hauled 2,700 ft. 
 
 The foundation consists of a concrete block, cast in a hexagonal 
 shape, with a depth of 20 ft. and a least diameter of 50 ft. The 
 bottom of the block is reinforced with three layers of 1-in. rods 
 spaced 1 ft. on centers. The concrete was machine mixed and 
 consists of 1 part cement to 8 parts sand and gravel, v/ith large 
 stones embedded in it. Forms were built for about 40% of the 
 vertical surface. The concrete was transported about 100 ft. 
 in cars. 
 
 The chimney proper was constructed by the Alphons Custodis 
 Chimney Construction Co., the costs given including constant 
 inspection by the Arizona Copper Co. There were used in the 
 construction of the chimney proper 138,000 lbs. of lime, 290 lbs. 
 cement, 1,638 tons of radial brick, 652 tons of wire-cut brick, 56 
 tons of wedge brick, and 100 bbls. of acid-proof mortar. 
 
 The cost was as given in Table III, 
 
 TABLE III. COST OF CHIMNEY FOR A COPPER SMELTER 
 
 Labor Material Total 
 
 Item. cost. coi^t. unit cost. 
 
 597 cu. yds. Excavation $337.44 $ 29.61 $0.61 
 
 872.7 cu. yds. Foundation 654.42 4,199.65 556 
 
 58,644 cu ft. <^himney proper .. 891.88 39,358.34 0.69 
 
 Total cost of chimney $45,471.34 
 
 Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Chimney in Philadelphia. C. E. 
 Davis (Engineering News, Jan. 14, 1915) gives the cost of 
 
CHIMNEYS 227 
 
 demolishing a reinforced concrete chimney 251 ft. high above 
 ground, with a 91-ft. lower section of 12-ft. outside diameter and 
 10-in. solid walls and a 160-ft. upper section of 10-ft. outi5ide di- 
 ameter and 6-in. solid walls. The reinforcement consisted of heavy- 
 vertical deformed rods tied by closely spaced circumferential rods 
 of smaller section. The construction was carried on in 5-ft. 
 lifts, which made clear planes of separation; it was here that 
 failure became first evident. 
 
 The razing was all done by hand by two and three men on the 
 chimney top breaking down the concrete wall with sledges and 
 bars and throwing the pieces over the side. The reinforcing rods 
 were only lapped at the ends, and thus did not have to be cut 
 or sawed. But very little of the concrete was hard enough to 
 require blasting, but some sections made such difficult bar and 
 sledge work that the wall was loosened up there by small shots. 
 
 There was no ladder to the chimney top, so the workmen had 
 to work their way up the inside of the stack by successive short, 
 slanting boards footing into holes dug into the concrete as the 
 lifts progressed. Once the top was reached a line was rigged up 
 by which the men went up and down. 
 
 The cost of the work is given in Table IV. 
 
 TABLE IV. COST OF DEMOLISHING CONCRETE CHIMNEY, 
 TORRESDALE PUMPING STATION 
 
 Cost to demolish first 160 ft.: 
 
 72 men days at $5.00 per day $360.00 
 
 3 men days at 1.75 per day .' 5.25 
 
 $365.25 
 Average cc~* per foot $2.20 
 
 Cost to demolish lower 91 ft. : 
 
 35 men days at $5.00 per day $175.00 
 
 96 men days at 3.50 per day 336.00 
 
 36 men days at 1.75 per day 63.00 
 
 $574.00 
 
 Average cost per foot $6.31 
 
 Maximum demolished for 1 day in top section 15 ft. 
 Maximum demolished for 1 day in bottom section 8 ft. 
 
 Approximate cost to demolish chimney : 
 
 Foremen 59 men days at $5.00 $295.00 
 
 Mechanics 48men,daysat 5.00 24 0.00 
 
 Mechanics 96 men days at 3.50 336.00 
 
 Laborers 39 men days at 1.75... 68.25 
 
 Rope, tools, powder, etc 100.00 
 
 Approximate total cost $1039.25 
 
 Average cost per foot to demolish $4.15 
 
 Time required to demolish 250 ft., 59 working days: 
 
 Average progress per working day, ft 4.25 
 
 Bid price to demolish was $2,260 
 
 Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Stack from the Inside. O. C. 
 
 Kern (Engineering Record, June 20, 1914) de.scribes the wrecking 
 of a concrete stack working from inside the stack. 
 
228 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The dimensions of the stack were : Inside diameter at the 
 base, 12 ft. 9 Ins., and at top, 7 ft. ; wall thickness at the bottom, 
 12 ins. and at the top, 5 ins. For a height of 75 ft. a lining of 
 radial tile blocks was provided, varying in thickness from 8 to 4 
 ins. and leaving an air space between the lining and the shell of 
 from 8 to 2 ins. The stack was reinforced vertically with %-in. 
 twisted rods lapped 2>V2 ft. at all splices, the spacing varying 
 from 3 ins. at the base to more than 3 ft. at the top. These rods 
 were wrapped from top to bottom of the chimney with a single 
 layer of American Steel & Wire Company's 23-mesh wire. 
 
 The concrete was broken up with sledges and permitted to fall 
 betvv'een the inside of the stack and the tower, the sides of the 
 tower being provided with vertical 1 X 6-in. guard strips to pro- 
 tect the braces, ladders and landings from injury. At all times 
 the scaffold was inclosed with tarpaulin to prevent any injury to 
 the men working balow. One man gave his entire time to cutting 
 the wire mesh with a bolt cutter and to tying the ends of the 
 26-ft. vertical reinforcing rods, so as to prevent their falling when 
 loosened. The rods, which were all saved for use in other work, 
 were lowered to the ground from the outside of the stack. The 
 only accident on the job was occasioned by one of the long rods 
 getting away and falling across the stack, inflicting a slight scalp 
 wound on a workman on the scaffold. 
 
 The rods were found to be bright and clean, entirely free from 
 rust. The stack was built in sections about 8 ft. deep, and it 
 was noticed in wrecking that all the joints between sections pre- 
 sented a horizontal plane of cleavage across which the concrete 
 separated with a clean, sharp break. The only cracks found In 
 the entire structure were confined to the 8-ft. bell at the very 
 top. The two largest of the six found showed an opening of 
 nearly % in., disappearing entirely within the depth of the bell. 
 All cracks were vertical. 
 
 Every 48 ft. the outriggers were lowered and the upper portion 
 of the tower torn down. This operation required about one day 
 each time and necessitated suspending cutting for part of the day 
 on the upper half, and on the lower half the number of men was 
 reduced, but cutting was not stopped. 
 
 Broken concrete and other debris, wheeled in barrows to the 
 fill for a switch track 100 ft. away, was handled by two laborers 
 nights and Sundays. The radial tiles of the lining were saved 
 except for a small breakage and will be used in the lining of the 
 new stack. On the lower 65 ft. of stack it was necessary to use 
 bull points in addition to the sledges in breaking up the concrete, 
 the method being to chisel off 4 to 5 ins. of concrete from the 
 outside into the bars, then to batter off the ledge on the inside 
 of the bars with sledges. 
 
 Landings were placed every 48 ft., as it was thought that 
 fatigue of the workmen in climbing to the top of the chimney 
 would interfere with their efficiency. No trouble was experienced, 
 however. The foreman went up in four minutes without stop- 
 ping, but the laborers were ten minutes in making the ascent, 
 
CHIMNEYS 229 
 
 taking- time for rests at the landings. The tarpaulin at the top 
 was partly to prevent the workmen from seeing- out and partly 
 for the protection of the men on the ground. Within a very few 
 days these precautions were entirely unnecessary, as the men 
 became accustomed to their dizzy working quarters. 
 
 Cost. Laborers were paid 30 cts. an hour and carpenters 40 
 cts. an hour. The total cost of wrecking 207 ft. of stack and 
 75 ft. of lining was apportioned as shown in the table. 
 
 Omitting the cost of cleaning- out the soot and crediting- the 
 salvage, the total cost of wrecking the stack amounts to $5.20 
 per foot of height. Per cubic yard of concrete and tile removed 
 the cost amounts to $4.50. The salvage amounted to more than 
 8 tons of reinforcing steel valued at $220, 3000 ft. of lumber, 
 $30, and about 1200 cu. ft. of radial tile blocks, $60 — a total 
 of $310. 
 
 Liability insurance of $6.48 per hundred was carried in addition 
 to the foregoing costs. 
 
 The cost was as follows : 
 
 Cleaning out soot below breaching $ 21.30 
 
 Lumber for tower and scaffold. 8,700 ft. B.M 130.00 
 
 Erecting tower 222 ft. high inside stack, building ladders, 
 
 g-uard sheeting, platforms, outrigging and scaffold. . 211.27 
 
 Rental on bricklayers scaffold hangers 100.00 
 
 Cutting concrete and wire netting, saving reinforcing 
 
 rods and radial tile lining 649.45 
 
 Removing debris, 100 ft. haul, and stacking tile and rods 68.25 
 
 Lowering outrigging and tearing down tower 202.26 
 
 Total cost of wrecking stack $1,382.53 
 
 The tower was completed in 9 working days and the work of 
 demolishing completed 22 days later. 
 
 Dimensions, Lining and Liglntning Protection of Radial Brick 
 Chimneys. M. W. Kellog Co. of New York City gives in Engineer- 
 ing Xews, July 8, 1915, the following data concerning perforated 
 radial brick chimneys : 
 
 Lining for Brick Chimneys. The height of the lining for chim- 
 neys is found in the following manner : For ordinary conditions, 
 where the temperature does not exceed 800 deg. F., the lining 
 should be approximately one-fifth the height of the chimney ; 
 above 800 degs. and below 1200 degs., one-half the total height; 
 above 1200 degs. and below 2000 degs., full height. 
 
 Protection against Lightning. For lightning protection two 
 points are the minimum for any chimney of diameter up to 5 ft. 
 Above this, one point should be added for every 2 ft. in diameter 
 or fraction thereof. The points of the conductor should be of 
 copper % in. in diameter by 8 ft. long, with a li/^-in. platinum- 
 covered tip. They should be anchored at the top of the column 
 and extend from the bottom of the corbeling upward. The lower 
 ends of the points are connected by a copper cable which encircles 
 the chimney. From this loop a 1%-in. 7-strand No. 10 Stubs' 
 gage copper cable is carried down the side of the chimney and 
 .connected to a copper ground plate of the three-winged type. On 
 
230 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the way up, the cable is anchored every 7 ft. with brass anchors, 
 which support the weight of the cable. The ground plate is buried 
 by the foundation contractor at the time' the foundation is built. 
 
 Tower Elevation 
 Scaffold in Highest Fbsition at Ptatform 
 
 Fig. 2. Outrigging and scaffold for wrecking old concrete stack. 
 
 Dimensions. Wall thicknesses of chimneys are obtained from 
 Fig, 3. Table V gives the maximum outside diameter of the 
 chimney at the base, for various heights and inside diameters. 
 
 Lengths ond Thicknesses of Walls of T?ocl!ciI Brick Column 
 
 'A A aA Aa - A a a 7i — '-k — K 
 
 Fig. 3. Dimensions of radial brick chimneys. 
 
 TABLE V. DIAMETERS OF RADIAL-BRICK CHIMNEYS 
 
 Height of 
 
 chimney 
 
 in ft. 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 - 90 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 110 
 
 115 
 
 120 
 
 125 
 
 130 
 
 135 
 
 140.... 
 
 Internal diameter at top 
 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 
 Diameters in feet at bottom of column 
 
 7.96 
 
 8.27 
 
 8.58 
 
 8.88 
 
 9.19 
 
 9.50 
 
 9.85 
 
 10.20 
 
 10.55 
 
 10.90 
 
 11.25 
 
 11.65 
 
 12.05 
 
 12.45 
 
 8.96 
 
 9.13 
 
 9.31 
 
 9.48 
 
 9.66 
 
 9.83 
 
 10.21 
 
 10.60 
 
 10.98 
 
 11.37 
 
 11.75 
 
 12.10 
 
 12.45 
 
 12.80 
 
 9.96 
 10.02 
 10.08 
 10.13 
 10.19 
 10.25 
 10.55 
 10.85 
 11.15 
 11.45 
 11.75 
 12.13 
 12.51 
 12.90 
 
 11.2 
 
 11.50 
 
 11.75 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.25 
 
 12.50 
 
 12.80 
 
 13.10 
 
 13.40 
 
 12.25 
 12.40 
 12.55 
 12.70 
 12.85 
 13.00 
 13.37 
 13.73 
 14.10 
 
 9 ft. 10 ft. 
 
 14.00 
 14.22 
 14.43 
 14.65 
 
 -15.00 
 15.15 
 15.30 
 15.45 
 
CHIMNEYS 
 
 231 
 
 Height of 
 
 chimney 
 in ft. 
 145. 
 150. 
 155. 
 160. 
 165. 
 170. 
 175. 
 180. 
 185. 
 190. 
 195. 
 200. 
 205. 
 210. 
 215. 
 220. 
 225. 
 
 Internal diameter at top 
 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. & ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 
 Diameters in feet at bottom of column 
 
 9 ft. 10 ft. 
 
 12.85 
 13.25 
 13.58 
 13.92 
 14.25 
 14.59 
 14.92 
 
 13.15 
 13.50 
 13.87 
 14.23 
 14.60 
 14.96 
 15.33 
 
 13.26 
 13.66 
 14.06 
 14.46 
 14.86 
 15.26 
 15.66 
 
 13.70 
 14.00 
 14.30 
 14.60 
 14.90 
 15.20 
 15.50 
 15.80 
 16.10 
 16.40 
 16.70 
 17.00 
 
 14.46 
 14.83 
 15.06 
 15.30 
 15.53 
 15.77 
 16.00 
 16.30 
 16.60 
 16.90 
 17.20 
 17.50 
 
 14.86 
 15.08 
 15.31 
 15.55 
 15.78 
 16.02 
 16.25 
 16.50 
 16.75 
 17.00 
 17.25 
 17.50 
 17.80 
 18.10 
 18.40 
 18.70 
 19.00 
 
 15.60 
 15.75 
 15.91 
 16.07 
 16.22 
 16.38 
 16.54 
 16.80 
 17.06 
 17.31 
 17.57 
 17.83 
 18.16 
 18.50 
 18.83 
 19.17 
 19.50 
 
 Cost of Brick Chimneys. J. H. Boughton gives the following 
 
 table 
 
 Approx. 
 h.-p. 
 
 85 
 
 135 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 450 
 
 750 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,650 
 
 2,500 
 
 Diameter 
 Height, flue, in 
 
 ft. 
 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 110 
 120 
 130 
 140 
 150 
 160 
 
 Outside 
 dimensions, 
 side ins, square base 
 Ft. Ins. 
 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 43 
 51 
 61 
 75 
 88 
 110 
 
 17 10 
 
 , Outside 
 
 No. of 
 brick 
 
 32,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 87,000 
 131,000 
 151,000 
 200,000 
 275,000 
 
 Wall ^ 
 
 Cost at 
 $14 per M. 
 
 $448 
 
 560 
 
 910 
 1050 
 1218 
 1834 
 2114 
 2800 
 
 3850 
 
 Approx. 
 
 85 
 
 135 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 450 
 
 750 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,650 
 
 2,500 
 
 h.-p. 
 
 Cost of fire brick Cost of concrete 
 
 lining, 1/2 height 
 $60 
 82 
 118 
 190 
 261 
 334 
 432 
 
 482 ■ • 
 720 
 
 foundation 
 $90 
 144 
 198 
 252 
 306 
 360 
 414 
 468 
 525 
 
 Total cost 
 of chimney 
 $598 
 786 
 1,226 
 1,492 
 1,785 
 2,528 
 3,060 
 3,750 
 5,095 
 
 A Brick Chimney described by I. W. Hubbard in the Proceedings 
 of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, 1901, was built in 1909 
 at Camden, N. J., for Mellar & Rittenhouse Co. The chimney is 
 212 ft. high above the level of its concrete base, which is 7 ft. 
 thick, making a total height of 219 ft. The bottom of the con- 
 crete is 19 ft. below the ground level. The concrete base is 34 ft. 
 square and weighs 526 tons. The lower 11 ft. of the chimney is 
 of common brick, stepped up in* 2 ft. steps, being 28.5 ft. square 
 at the bottom and 18.5 ft. square at the ground level. This 
 brickwork below the ground level weighs 360 tons. Above the 
 ground level, to a height of 22 ft., red brick were used. Above 
 this the chimney takes its circular form and is made of perforated 
 
232 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 radial bricks manufactured by the Alphons Custodis Chimney 
 Construction Co., of New York City. The inside diameter of the 
 chimney is 11 ft. at the bottom and 8.5 ft. at the top. The thick- 
 ness of the shell of perforated radial brick decreases from 26 ins. 
 to 7 ins. 
 
 The materials for construction were raised in buckets by a 
 hoisting-engine. The work was done from the inside from plat- 
 forms erected as the work progressed, the platform also support- 
 ing the tripod holding the pulley-wheel through which the hoisting 
 cable ran. 
 
 The total weight of the stack is 1.640 tons (including the 360 
 tons of concrete) on a ground area of 1,156 sq. ft., or 1.42 tons 
 per sq. ft. 
 
 The cost was $12,250 and the chimney was designed for 2,000 
 h.i).. making a unit cost of $6.12 per horsepower. 
 
 One of the Highest Chimneys in the world, described in Engi- 
 neering News, Sept. 1, 1898, was built in 1892 for the Omaha 
 and Grand Smelter, Denver, Colo., at a cost of $53,000. Its di- 
 mensions are : 
 
 Height above stone table at ground, ft 352.5 
 
 Size at base, which is square, ft 33 by 33 
 
 " " throat, diameter, ft 20 
 
 Thickness of outer shell at base, ins 48.5 
 
 " " " " " top, ins. 13 
 
 " inner " " base, ins 26 
 
 " " " " '* top, ins 9 
 
 Diameter of flue, ft 16 
 
 Foundation, square, ft 56 by 56 
 
 The foundation is 16 ft. thick, the lower 8 ft. being concrete, 
 and the upper 8 ft. being brick. 
 
 The outer part of the chimney is rectangular up to 64 ft. in 
 height, above which it is octagonal. The weight of the stack 
 above the foundation is 12,376,500 lbs. The materials in the 
 chimney are as follows : 
 
 Brick 1,943,000 
 
 Lime, bushels 8,480 
 
 Cement in brickwork, bbls 707 
 
 ** concrete " 775 
 
 " stone work " 26 
 
 Sand. cu. yds 2,331 
 
 Railroad iron in concrete base, lbs 48,960 
 
 Steel beams under openings, lbs 2.574 
 
 Wrought-iron bands and rollers, lbs 23,180 
 
 Cast-iron cap. lbs 22.000 
 
 Cast-iron plates, lbs 36,474 
 
 The chimney was built in 120 days. 
 
 In 1905 a chimney 350 ft. high above the ground was built by 
 the same company for Heller & Merz Co., Newark, N. J. The 
 chimney is designed to handle acid gases having a temperature 
 of 1.500 degs. F., and is lined with fire and acid proof brick 4 ins. 
 thick. The shell of the chimney is made of perforated radial 
 bricks. The foundation consists of 324 piles supporting a con- 
 
CHIMNEYS 233 
 
 Crete base 45 ft. square at the bottom. 30 ft. across at the top 
 (the top being hexagonal) and 14 ft. thick. The brick sihaft of 
 the chimney rises 340 ft. above the top of this concrete base. 
 The concrete base contains 766 cu. yds., which required 800 cu. 
 yds. of stone, 400 cu. yds. of sand and 1,000 bbls. of Atlas cement. 
 The stack required 2,000 tons of brick, 500 bbls. cement, 800 bbls. 
 lime, 600 cu. yds. sand. The inside diameter is 8 ft. at the top, 
 and the shell is 11.13 ins. thick (including the 4-in. lining) at the 
 top. The outside diameter is 27.5 ft. at the bottom, and the 
 shell is 42 ins. thick (including the 4-in. lining) at the bottom. 
 The acid proof lining is suj^ported on corbels projecting from the 
 main shell, at 20-ft. intervals. 
 
 The contract price for the stack and foundations was $32,000 
 and the time required for the work was 7 months. 
 
 Chimneys for Acid Gases. In 1901 a very high chimney described 
 in Engineering News, Nov. 21. 1901, was built by the Alphons 
 Custodis Chimney Construction Co., of New York, for the (^rford 
 Copper Co., Bayonne, N. J. The chimney is designed to carry 
 acid gases. The height of the stack is 365 ft. above the ground 
 level. Below the ground level is a concrete foundation 15 ft. 
 thick, 45 ft. square at the base and 34 ft. square at the top, con- 
 taining 1.980 tons of concrete. This base rests on 360 piles, the 
 ground being marshy. The weight of the brick stack is 2,528 
 tons, making a total of 4,508 tons on the pile foundation. Ex- 
 cepting the lower 30 ft. of the stack, which is common red brick, 
 the .shell of the stack is of perforated radial brick. The stack has 
 an inside diameter of 10 ft. at the top and 20 ft. at the bottom. 
 The shell is 10.5 ins. thick at the top and 46 ins. at the bottom. 
 The lower 64 ft. are lined with acid proof brick. This chimney 
 and its foundation cost $50,000. 
 
 Cost of Demolishing a Brick Chimney with Dynamite. W. J. 
 Douglas (Engineering News, Dec. 4, 1902) gives the following 
 cost of demolishing a brick chimney : 
 
 The chimney was built of hard burnt red brick laid in natural 
 cement mortar, in the proportion of about one cement to three 
 sand, and was lined with fire brick also laid in natural cement 
 mortar. An air space separated the chimney pioper from the 
 lining. Portland cement mortar was used for a few feet above 
 the foundation, and spasmodically throughout the stack, but was 
 used too infrequently to be of value. The height of the chimney 
 above the foundation was 150 ft. The diameter of the opening 
 at the base was 7 ft., that at the top was also 7 ft. The bottom 
 of the stack was 15 ft. square, up to a point 33 ft. above the 
 foundation, where it changed to an octagon. The thickness of 
 the outer wall at the base was 34 ins. ; the thickness of the outer 
 wall at the top, 13 ins. ; and the thickness of the inner circular 
 lining wall at the base, 13 ins. The inside lining stopped at a 
 point 100 ft. above the foundation terminating in a 4.5-in. wall. 
 Fifty feet of the chimney were removed by pick and bar before 
 resorting to dynamite, thus reducing the height of the stack to 
 100 ft. This was done on account of t3*e feeling prevalent among 
 
234 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the surrounding property-owners that their buildings would be 
 endangered by throwing down the stack in its entirety. 
 
 After the stack had been reduced to 100 ft. a test blast hole 
 was drilled into the northwest corner of the stack about 3 ft. 
 above the foundation, on a level, and on an angle of about 4 5 
 degs. with the north face. This hole was loaded with one dyna- 
 mite cartridge (all dynamite was 40% Star brand), and fired 
 without even cracking the wall. A second hole similarly located, 
 and just 1 ft. above the first one, was then drilled and loaded 
 with five sticks or cartridges and fired, loosening about one-third 
 of a cubic yard of brick, which was et^sily barred out. Then 
 shots of two and three sticks were made until all of the north 
 wall for a height of 3 ft. had been removed excepting about 5 ft. 
 at the east end. In the east wall of the stack there was a furnace 
 opening 6 ft. wide, so that by the excavation of the north wall 
 just described there now remained only a pillar 5 ft. long and 
 34 ins. thick carrying a large portion of the weight of the east 
 
 Furnace] 
 Opening 
 
 50 >> 
 
 Fig. 4. Diagrams showing arrangement of dynamite blasts for 
 demolition of 150-ft. chimney. 
 
 and north walls. Then about 5 ft. of the fire brick lining was 
 barred out for a height of 1 ft. 
 
 The chimney was now in shape to be blasted down. Two holes 
 were drilled into the 5-ft. pillar from the back on a dip of 45 
 degs., with the horizontal, and each hole was loaded with six sticks 
 of dynamite. Then a hole was drilled into the west face at B, 
 on a dip of 10 degs. and on an angle of 45 degs. with the west 
 face and about 5 ft. from its end. Five sticks of dynamite were 
 I)laced at X and five sticks at Y, in order to tear out the lining. 
 This was not thought essential, but its use probably allowed the 
 stack to fall further from the base, giving the contractor a better 
 chance to handle the material in the demolished structure. These 
 sticks at X and Y were laid between the outer and inner walls 
 and covered with clay. Two exploders were placed in each hole 
 in order to make sure of the blast and the 25 sticks located as 
 described were fired at one time by a battery. Before blasting 
 the chimney was carefully planked on the east, north and west 
 faces; 2-in. and 3-in. by 12-in. by 16-ft. planks were used. Single 
 planking was used on the west face, and double planking was 
 used on the north and east sides. At the northeast corner and 
 
CHIMNEYS 
 
 235 
 
 for 5 ft. on either side 6-in. by 12-in. by 12-ft. timbers were 
 used instead of one of the thicknesses of planking. Wlaen tlie 
 charge was fired tlie planking was found sufficient to keep the 
 debris, resulting directly from the blast, from flying over 100 ft. 
 from the chimney. 
 
 After the blast the stack imnrediately toppled over toward the 
 north. The motion was slow and steady until a point about 
 20 degs. from the vertical was reached, in which position it 
 sheared into three sections and fell rapidly to the ground. About 
 60.000 bricks were completely separated from each other by the 
 jar; these bricks were almost free of mortar. The mortar was 
 not much stronger than first-class lime mortar. The area which 
 
 f 
 
 U 
 
 St. 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 ~~" 
 
 <2(h 
 
 241 V 
 
 f0'fo2o'\^m ]■ /34'6"- 
 
 yj 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,.-> 
 
 m 
 
 
 x-,^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \n 
 
 <-35-' 
 
 St. 
 
 Fig. 5. Sketch plan showing areas covered by debris and scattered 
 
 bricks. 
 
 was covered by the stack after the fall is shown by the irregular 
 heavy full-lines. The outside dotted irregular line shows the 
 limit outside of which no bricks were thrown. The area between 
 the full line and the dotted one, aforementioned, was partially 
 covered with scattered brick. 
 
 All brick excepting those incliaded within the cross-hatched 
 area were loose and practically free of mortar. The bricks in 
 this area were in masonry blocks varying in size between 2 by 
 2 by 2 ft. and 3 by 6 by 12 ft., and averaging 3 by 3 by 6 ft. 
 The bricks in these blocks were separated from each other by 
 means of wedges and picks. The use of dynamite for this work 
 was thought both dangerous and uneconomical on account of the 
 damage to the individual bricks. The bricks were readily removed 
 
236 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 by means of wedgea. Old whole bricks are at present worth, 
 exclusive of haul, about $4.50 per thousand, and bats are worth 
 about 40 cts. i)er cu. yd. It is thought that the stack was de- 
 molished with a profit to the contractor. The following is an 
 approximate cost of the work : 
 
 Removing first 50 ft. with pick and bar $150.00 
 
 Dynamiting stack 60.00 
 
 Cleaning new brick, 116,000 at 60 cts 69.60 
 
 $279.60 
 Incidentals, 25% 69.90 
 
 Total $349.50 
 
 On the credit side we have : 
 
 118,000 whole brick removed, estimated to be worth when 
 
 cleaned $531 
 
 About 24 cu. yds, old brick sold, worth it is thought at about 
 
 40 cts. per cu. yd. .■ 96 
 
 Total $627 
 
 The estimated number of bricks In the stack was 14 0,000 red 
 brick and 14,000 fire brick. These are accounted for, as follows: 
 116,000 whole red bricks removed; 2,000 whole fire brick removed; 
 24,000 bats removed; 12.000 bricks not of any use; total, 154,000. 
 Weight per Foot of Sheet Steel Chimneys. C, D. We.sselhoeff 
 (Data. May. 1915) states that the cost of sheet steel chimneys 
 varies from 3.5 to 6.5 cts. per lb., the higher value being for the 
 shorter chimneys. 
 
 TABLE VI. WEIGHTS OF SHEET STEEL CHIMNEYS 
 
 Thick- Thick- Thick- 
 
 Diam., ness, Lbs., Diam., ness. Lbs., Diam., ness. Lbs., 
 
 in. w. g. per ft. in. w. g. per ft. in. w. g. per ft. 
 
 10 No. 16 7.20 26 No. 16 17.50 20 No. 14 18.33 
 
 12 No. 16 8.66 28 No. 16 18.75 22 No. 14 20.00 
 
 14 No 16 9.58 30 No. 16 20.00 24 No. 14 21.66 
 
 16 No. 16 11,68 10 No. 14 9.40 26 No. 14 23.33 
 
 20 No. 16 13.75 12 No. 14 11.11 28 No. 14 25.00 
 
 22 No. 16 15 00 14 No. 14 13.69 30 No. 14 26.66 
 
 24 No. 16 16.25 16 No. 14 15.00 
 
 Cost of Steel Chimneys. J. H. Boughton gives the cost of steel 
 chimneys shown in Table VII. 
 
 TABLE VII. COST OF STEEL CHIMNEYS 
 
 Height, Diameter, No, of Price of chimney 
 
 H.-p. ft. ins. , iron complete 
 
 25 40 16 12 and 14 $60 
 
 40 18 12 and 14 70 
 
 50 18 12 and 14 85 
 
 75 50 20 12 and 14 90 
 
 50 26 12 and 14 105 
 
 60 22 12 and 14 110 
 
 100 60 24 12 and 14 125 
 
 60 26 12 and 14 135 
 
 60 28 12 and 14 150 
 
CHIMNEYS 237 
 
 Height, Diameter, No. of Price of Lhimney 
 
 H.-p. ft. ins. iron c-otniil* le 
 
 125 fiO 28 10 and 12 jyo 
 
 60 32 10 and 12 2U5 
 
 150 60 34 12 and 14 165 
 
 200 60 36 10 and 12 215 
 
 225 60 38 10 and 12 230 
 
 250 CO 42 10 and 12 260 
 
 300 CO 46 10 and 12 290 
 
 400 60 52 10 and 12 340 
 
 Dimensions of Steel Chimney Foundations. Table VIII was com- 
 piled by Kidder from data t^upplied by the Philadeli)hia Engineer- 
 ing Works. 
 
 TABLE VIII. SIZES OF FOUNDATIONS FOR SELF-SUSTAIN- 
 ING STEEL CHIMNEYS, HA LP" LINED 
 
 Clear dian}eter, 
 
 in ft. 3 4 5 6 7 9 11 
 
 Height in ft 100 100 150 150 150 175 225 
 
 Least diameter 
 
 of foundation 
 
 in ft 15.75 15.25 20.33 21.83 22.58 25.75 29.92 
 
 Least depth of 
 
 foundation in 
 
 ft 6.5 7 9 8 9.0 10 13.0 
 
 Height in ft. ... .... 125 200 200 250 275 300 
 
 Least diameter 
 
 of foundation 
 
 in ft 17.5 23.66 25.0 29 66 33.5 36.0 
 
 Least depth of 
 
 foundation in 
 
 ft 7.5 10.0 10.0 12.0 12.0 14.0 
 
 Cost of Steel Stack and Breeching. Following was the cost of a 
 stack and breeching, 80 ft. high, 5 ft. diumetei- of N(j. 8 steel. 
 The breeching was 14 ft. by 4 ins. by 5 ft. of No. 10 steel. 
 
 Cost installed $74168 
 
 Cost per foot height 9.27 
 
 A Self-Supporting Steel Stack described in Engineering News, 
 Jan. 28, 1897, was built in 1896 for the Ridgewood pumi)ing 
 station of the Brooklyn Water Works, by the PhiladeHi hia Engi- 
 neering Works, for $10,000. It is 217 ft. high above the founda- 
 tion and 8 ft. inside diameter at the top. The thickness of the 
 steel plates is as follows : 
 
 Height, ft. Thickness, ins. 
 
 to 4 1/2 
 
 4 to 80 Vi6 
 
 80 to 120 % 
 
 120 to 1 CO ■ 5/jg 
 
 160 to 217 1/4 
 
 At a height of 40 ft. the outside diameter is 11 ft., and 15 ft. 
 lower down the stack starts to flare out, its outside diameter 
 being 24 ft. at the base. It is lined with red brick to a height 
 of 95 ft., the thickness of the lining being 13 ins. for the If)wer 
 25 ft. and 9 ins. above that. Below the ground level, the chimney 
 
238 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 is entirely of brick for a depth of 18.5 ft., resting on a concrete 
 base 4.5 ft. thicli and 30 ft. in diameter, octagonal in shape. 
 
 Cost and Size of Wedge Rope Sockets are particularly useful in 
 connection with guy ropes of all types and safety cables where 
 small adjustments in length are desirable. These sockets can be 
 used either with U-bolts or eye-bolts, as illustrated in Fig. 6, and 
 a considerable range of adjustment can be secured. 
 
 Size of rope, ins % 1 1 ^4 1 Mj-1 % 2 
 
 Rough dia. of holes. R. ins 1% 1% 2 21/2 3 
 
 List price socket and wedge only $3.95 $6.10 $7.85 $14.30 $25.70 
 
 Diameter A, ins 1 Vs 1 % 1 % 2 14 2% 
 
 Distance threaded. C. ins 914 IIM. I414 171/2 21 
 
 Length U-bolt. D. ins 15 181/2 221/2 27 35 
 
 List price U-bolt and 2 nuts... $2. 30 $3.45 $5.85 $11.75 $21.50 
 
 Length eye bolt. E. ins 211/2 26 1/2 32 39 V2 51 
 
 Opening, G. ins 1 1/. 2 21/2 3 3i/a 
 
 Size hole, J. ins 1% 21/3 2% 31/8 4% 
 
 List price 1 eye bolt and nut.. $4. 30 $6.10 $7.85 $19.30 $27.90 
 
 Fig. 6. Wedge rope sockets. 
 
 Cost of Removing and Replacing Top of a Steel Stack. A steel 
 smoke stack described by C. J. Carew (Engineering and Con- 
 tracting, May 1, 1907), which was 100 ft. high, had become so 
 corroded that it was necessary to replace the top 56 ft. with new 
 steel. Owing to the location a new stack could not be built on 
 the ground and up-ended in the usual manner. Moreover, the old 
 stack had to be taken down piecemeal and the work had to be 
 done, if possible, without shutting down the plant. A Sunday 
 was selected for the work, which was conducted as follows, the 
 plan being to cut away and lower the old stack in sections and 
 to hoist and bolt up the new stack in similar sections : 
 
 A timber tower was built enclosing the stack, as shown in the 
 accompanying sketch. This tower had four legs or corner struts 
 of triangular trough sections made up of two 2 by 8-in. planks, 
 while the bracing was 1 by 6-in. boards. It was 11.5 by 23 ft. 
 in plan at the bottom and 1.5 by 15 ft. at the top. The mode 
 of guying is indicated in the drawing. As will be seen, the old 
 stack occupied one-half the interior space of the tower, the other 
 half being used for hoisting and lowering the steel sections. The 
 hoisting apparatus consisted of a trolley running on an I-beam 
 
CHIMNEYS 239 
 
 laid across the top of the tower. This trolley was operated by a 
 rope passing down the stack and to a drum operated by a pneu- 
 matic motor. 
 
 To remove the old stack three holes were first punched through 
 the shell near the top to receive the hooks on three short chains 
 hung from a ring suspended from the hoisting tackle. Then a 
 section about 14 ft. long was cut off with cold chisels and lowered. 
 The cutting was quickly done, owing to the corroded condition 
 of the steel. Once free a section could be lowered in about three 
 minutes. Then a second section was removed in the same way, 
 and so on until the portion of the old stack to be left standing 
 was reached. The manufacturers of the new stack then riveted 
 an angle iron ring to the top edge and the job was ready for the 
 work of erecting the sections of new stack. 
 
 The length of new stack added was 56 ft., in five sections, four 
 12 ft. long each, and one 8 ft. long; the lower 30 ft. was %6-in. 
 steel and the upper 26 ft. was %-in. steel. The heaviest sections 
 weighed 1,880 lbs., and the total weight of new steel was 7,500 
 lbs. This included the rings of 2 by 2-in. angle at the ends to 
 form flanges for bolting the sections together. The sections were 
 hoisted and bolted up one at a time. 
 
 So much for the method. The time occupied and the labor costs 
 were as follows : The whole work of erecting the tower, taking 
 down the old stack, erecting the new stack and taking down the 
 tower was done by four men, one of whom had taken the job 
 on contract for $110. The usual wages of these men were: For 
 the contractor, $2.75 per day; for one man, $2.50 per day, and 
 for the other two men, $2 per day each. On this basis of wages 
 we can figure the cost as follows : 
 
 Erecting tower, adjusting tackle, putting up I-beams and trol- 
 leys and connecting air motor to windlass : 
 
 Contractor, 26 hours at 27.5 cts $ 7.15 
 
 1 man 26 hours at 25 cts 6.50 
 
 2 men 26 hours at 20 cts 10.40 
 
 Total labor $24.05 
 
 There were 3,000 ft. b. m. of timber, making the labor cost of 
 erection practically $8 per M. ft. b. m. It was really somewhat 
 less than this, as the total of $24.05 given above includes some 
 other work, as indicated. 
 
 Taking down old stack: 
 
 Contractor, 3% hours at 27.5 cts $0,926 
 
 1 man 3 i/^ hours at 25 cts 0.875 
 
 2 men 31/2 hours at 20 cts 0.700 
 
 Total labor ; $2,537 
 
 The weight of steel removed is not obtainable, but assuming that 
 it was half the weight of the nejv steel which took its place, we 
 have 3,750 lbs.= 1.875 tons of steel removed at a co.st of $1.41 
 per ton. 
 
240 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Laying out, punching and bolting first angle iron to old portion 
 of stack: 
 
 2 men 21,4 hours at 50 cts $2.50 
 
 This work was done by the manufacturer of the new stack and 
 its cost was included in his contract. The item is actual, but 
 the rate of wages has been assumed. 
 
 Erecting new stack : 
 
 Contractor. 4 hours at 27.5 cts $1.10 
 
 1 man 4 hours at 25 cts 1.00 
 
 2 men 4 hours at 20 cts 1.60 
 
 Total labor $3.70 
 
 The weight of the new steel stack was 7,500 lbs. or 3.75 tons, 
 
 so that the cost of erection was just short of $1 per ton of steel. 
 
 Removing tower, adjusting guys, painting stack and cleaning up : 
 
 Contractor, 19 hours at 27.5 cts $5.22 
 
 1 man 19 hours at 25 cts 4.75 
 
 2 men 19 hours at 20 cts 7.60 
 
 Total labor $17.57 
 
 Charging this whole amount to the work of removing the tower 
 we have a cost of $5.86 per M. ft. b. m. 
 
 We can now summarize the labor cost of the work as follows : 
 
 Erecting tower and hoisting plant $24.05 
 
 Taking down old stack 2.54 
 
 Building angle to old stack 2.50 
 
 Erecting new stack - 3.70 
 
 Removing tower, etc 17.57 
 
 Total cost $50.36 
 
 The 3,000 ft. b. m. of lumber in the tower was made up as 
 follows : 
 
 1.400 ft. B. M. chestnut at $20 for legs $28.00 
 
 1.600 ft. B. M. hemlock at $19 for bracing 30.40 
 
 Total lumber $58.40 
 
 Not more than 5 per cent, of the lumber was destroyed and the 
 remaining 95 per cent, was finally used for other purpose.s for 
 which it had been originally purchased. 
 
 The Tallest Steel Chimney. Fig. 8 shows a steel chimney erected 
 at the United Verde Copper Works in Arizona, described in En- 
 gineering and Contracting. June 27, 1916. and named by A. G. 
 McGregor in Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers 
 in Augu.st, 1916, the talle.st steel chimney ever built. Specifically 
 this chimney is 30 ft. 9.5 ins. in diam. and 400 ft. 1 in. high. The 
 drawings present all the essential structural features and may 
 be read for details". 
 
CHIMNEYS 
 
 241 
 
 Cost of Erecting a 160- Ft. Steel Stack. An exceedingly inter- 
 esting job of hoisting engineering is described in Engineering and 
 Contracting, Nov. 10, 1909. The job consisted in erecting a steel 
 stack 66 ins. by 160 ft. in size in one piece, after it had been 
 assembled on the ground, with an erecting plant consisting of a 
 
 J- Beam -.^ 
 
 Trolley 
 
 • "//w/fw///////;//////, 
 
 //WW////>JJW/y//////////M'///W^A 
 
 72-ft. mast and a 7 by 10-in. Lidgerwood hoisting engine with 
 the necessary tackle. 
 
 The stack was built of 1/4 -iri. steel for 85 ft. from the base and 
 of i/s-in. steel for the top 75 ft.; s/g-in. rivets were used. The 
 stack came to the ground in four 40 -ft. sections. These were 
 laid in line, with the base of the bottom section as close as prac- 
 ticable to the foundation, and riveted together on the ground. 
 
242 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 After being riveted and lined out the stack was braced or rein- 
 forced inside to prevent buckling' and crushing of the plates at 
 the slings. The bracing consisted of cross frames of 4 by 6-in. 
 timbers placed inside the shell and spaced every 5 ft., beginning 
 
 Fig. 
 
 De+all of Lining ort Base 
 
 Details of tallest steel chimney. 
 
 through 
 
 at a point 20 ft. from the top. These frames were wedged into 
 the shell tight enough to hold firmly and yet not bulge the plates 
 or seams. 
 
 The next step was to place the hoisting plant. A 72-ft. mast 
 was erected on top of the boiler house 20 ft. above ground, so 
 
CHIMNEYS 243 
 
 that its total height was 92 ft. The mast guys consisted of five 
 1%-in. galvanized wire ropes radiating from the spider casting 
 at the top of the mast. In addition a sixth guy was attached 
 to the ma.st 20 ft. below the top and carried back directly in line 
 with the stack. This guy was designed to prevent the mast from 
 buckling under the pull, which failure, if it occurred at all, was 
 figured would occur at the point mentioned ; that is, about 20 ft. 
 below the top. The mast was a 12 by 12 -in. timber. At the top 
 of the mast there was fastened a triple block shackled to the top 
 casting and also lashed by a wire cable passing four times around 
 the mast and securely clamped. The hoisting engine, a 7 by 10-in. 
 Lidgerwood, was set 25 ft. to one side of the stack and 125 ft. 
 from the base. 
 
 The line used was 1,400 ft. of %-in. crucible steel rope spliced 
 at one point with an 18 -ft. splice. This line was rigidly inspected 
 before it was run through the blocks. It was carried from the 
 engine to and through the foot block casting sheave ; thence up 
 the mast to the top sheave ; thence down to a single block lashed 
 to the stack 30 ft. from its top ; thence up to the middle sheave 
 in the triple block lashed to the mast head ; thence down to a 
 second single block lashed to the stack 55 ft. from the top ; thence 
 up to the right-hand outside sheave of the triple block ; thence 
 down to a third single block lashed to the stack 80 ft. from the 
 top ; thence up to the left-hand outside sheave of the triple block, 
 and the free end, thence to another in the ground about 60 or 
 65 ft. from the base of the stack. 
 
 The single blocks were lashed to the stack by several turns of 
 wire rope passing around the shell and 6 by 6-in. timbers laid 
 along it on the under side. These timbers acted both as longi- 
 tudinal stifEeners and as spacers to keep the lashings from sliding 
 up or down the shell. To prevent possible cutting of the line the 
 thimbles were all removed from the shell of the triple block and 
 the lines were kept clear by running them through the middle 
 sheave, then to the right and to the left as described above. 
 
 With everything ready as described hoisting was begun at 1 :30 
 p. m. and at 5 p. m. the stack was in place with all guys fastened. 
 The first lift made was 75 ft. Then hoisting was stopped until 
 the permanent guys, 24 in all, each a %-in. wire cable, were 
 fastened to the stack attachments. Lifting was then resumed and 
 continued until the stack stood only about 15 degs. out of plumb. 
 Hoisting was then stopped and the guys secured to their ground 
 anchors. The stack was then raised plumb, jacked over the stud 
 bolts on the foundation and the guys permanently clamped. 
 
 The cost of the work described was not kept in such a way that 
 it can be itemized, but the total cost including riveting, erecting 
 ma.st on the boiler house, raising, buying 4 pairs of cone clamps for 
 the guys and 4 sets of %-in. blocks for hauling in guys, and bracing 
 the stack in.side was $250. A gang of 8 men at .$1.30 per day 
 and one top man at $2.25 per day were employed, with some 
 extra men for about 2 hours. 
 
 The erection as described was planned and carried out by 
 
244 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 George B. Nicholson, a hoisting engineer. Incidentally it may be 
 stated that Mr. Nicholson undertook the job after it had been 
 rejected as impossible by expert riggers. We consider this a 
 rather remarkable job of hoisting engineering. Only one man, Mr. 
 Nicholson, was a skilled man, all the others being ordinary la- 
 borers with no experience in hoisting and rigging. In addition 
 the method of rigging the tackle, using only one line to run 
 through three sets of blocks on the stack and one block on the 
 mast, is notable. We are indebted for the information from which 
 this description has been pi'epared to F. W. Raymond. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 To aid in estimating- the cost of hauling and installing- machinery 
 many specific data have been collected and grouped in this chapter. 
 Where costs of moving and installing were combined with other 
 functional costs in such manner that they could not be separated 
 without injuring the value of the data they have been included in 
 other chapters. The index and list of chapters will aid the reader 
 in locating other costs of moving and installing. 
 
 Cost of Loading and Unloading Machinery. Table I is from a 
 recent appraisal (prior to the war). 
 
 TABLE I. COST OP LOADING AND UNLOADING MACHINERY 
 
 Cost with Cost with Cost with 
 
 Weight Cost with- crane at ry. crane at crane at 
 
 of piece, out crane, station only, power station both ends, 
 
 tons per ton per ton only, per ton per ton 
 
 1 $11.50 $8.12 $3.45 $0.80 
 
 2 7.50 5.03 2.25 .53 
 
 3 6.33 4.50 1.90 .44 
 
 4 5.70 4.12 1.77 .44 
 
 5 5.90 4.15 1.75 .41 
 
 6 6.01 4.32 1.85 .48 
 
 7 6.45 4.50 1.93 / .45 
 
 8 7.00 4.93 2.10 .49 
 
 9 7.45 5.17 2.23 .52 
 
 10 8.00 5.60 2.40 .56 
 
 11 8.45 5.95 2.57 .58 
 
 12 8.75 6.25 2.75 .6$ 
 
 For large generators and motors assume total shipping weight, 
 divided as follows: Revolving part, 51'/^ ; upper part, 24%; lower 
 part, 25%. 
 
 For motor generator sets assume total shipping weights divided 
 equally between motor and generator, and apply same ratio for 
 parts. 
 
 Cost of Hauling One Piece Loads. The data in Table II are from 
 a recent appraisal (prior to the war). 
 
 Where the haul is over 20 miles on mountain roads, use average 
 condition cost. 
 
 For large generators and motors assume total shipping weights 
 divided as follows: Revolving part, 51%; upper part, 24%; lower 
 part, 25%. 
 
 For motor generator sets assume total shipping weights divided 
 equally between motor and generator, and apply same ratio for 
 parts. 
 
 246 
 
246 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE II. COST OF 
 
 HAULING ONE 
 
 Weight 
 
 of pieces, 
 
 in tons 
 
 Flat country- 
 good roads, 
 cost per 
 ton-mile 
 
 Average con- 
 ditions, roll- 
 ing country, 
 cost per 
 ton-mile 
 
 1. . , . . . 
 
 $0.-10 
 
 $0.45 
 .37 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 38 
 
 .47 
 .55 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 62 
 
 7 
 
 . 8. . . 
 
 42 
 
 .44 
 
 .68 
 74 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 46 
 
 48 
 
 .80 
 .86 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 .90 
 .93 
 .95 
 .98 
 1.00 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 1.02 
 1.04 
 1.06 
 1.07 
 
 20 
 
 64 
 
 1.09 
 
 PIECE LOADS 
 
 Mountain 
 roads, 
 cost per 
 ton-mile 
 $0.50 
 .40 
 .46 
 .57 
 .70 
 
 .62 
 
 .93 
 1.04 
 1.13 
 1.24 
 
 1.31 
 1.34 
 1.38 
 1.42 
 1.54 
 
 1.47 
 1.50 
 1.52 
 1.53 
 1.55 
 
 Hauling small miscellaneous material, including loading and un- 
 loading per ton-mile. Cost as follows : 
 
 Per ton-mile 
 
 Flat country good roads $0.60 
 
 Rolling country average conditions 90 
 
 Mountain roads 1.20 
 
 Effect of Grades on Cost of Hauling. H. T. Curran (Engineering 
 and Contracting. Oct. 6. 1915) states that unloading and hauling 
 depend upon local conditions. There will be a fixed average charge 
 of from 30 to 40 cts. per ton. Small pieces should be handled for 
 less, but large, unyielding pieces, such as a tube mill, can easily 
 cost up to $1 per ton. Probably 75 cts. per ton-mile would be a 
 good average for hauling on any kind of a decent road and grade. 
 By consulting local freighters these things can be definitely settled. 
 The curve. Fig. 1. shows the variable cost of hauling on different 
 grades. 
 
 Truck- Drawn Pole Trailers. In comparing the expenses of using 
 horse and auto trucks to transport poles Electrical World, May 
 26, 1917, states that the Springfield district of the New England 
 Telephone & Telegraph Company found that the truck-drawn 
 trailer will do the same work as a horse-drawn trailer in about 
 one-sixth of the time. During 115 hrs. of pole hauling in 12 days 
 the truck traveled 441 miles at a cost of little more than 25 cts. 
 per mile. Using horses for the same work would have required 71 
 days at a rate of 97 cts. per mile. "An additional point in favor 
 of such trucks is the fact that the hired teams are slow in de- 
 livering poles, causing a great deal of lost time and often neces- ' 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 247 
 
 sitating an additional light team to transport the men and tools. 
 When using a truck and trailer, the men, poles and tools will 
 arrive on the job at the same time, so the work can proceed with- 
 out delay. 
 
 ^liO 
 
 Traction Engine WorK 
 
 — 
 
 ■r 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 "■ 
 
 
 -^^ 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~T 
 
 
 — 
 
 "~ 
 
 "~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 "" 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 " 
 
 ■^ 
 
 r 
 
 - 
 
 '~ 
 
 "~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 "§M0 
 
 c-eioocenti 
 
 1 • 30 Minutes 
 W'bOO, - X, 
 
 b-U£Peri^n 
 If II 
 i-09> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ij. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 1 
 
 %m 
 
 i* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \l. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^'1 
 
 
 e Hone wagon worh 
 
 
 ■i' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -' 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 •' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-iib Minutei 
 5-eeo n Minufer, 
 
 J-.09I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 ^ 
 
 '1 
 
 
 .0 
 
 -^ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^. ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 .' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^: 
 
 
 f- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 7f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 Uo 
 
 ^-J- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 /''i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^' 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 -^ 
 
 -" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 -' 
 
 
 
 
 5- 
 
 OS 
 
 I* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1" JO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 ,/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 yr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 J 
 
 1/ ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■r-^ 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 := 
 
 ^.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 — ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 _,J 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 .-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /^v3C0i^ 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 kjo 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 '' 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 
 -J 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 — 
 
 --^ 
 
 -ttt 
 
 .;^^ 
 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 __ 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 '~ 
 
 > 
 
 ' 
 
 ,^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vv." 
 
 ^ 
 
 = 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 = 
 
 S to 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 <: 
 
 L^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —J 
 
 1 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ki' 
 
 
 e 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 :;^ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 _- 
 
 
 ' — 
 
 " 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 k'c 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iroctioh Cnqine5 i3rd tvogon-^ 
 
 k£ 
 
 -f- 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^.0 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 u 
 
 LU 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 L 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 _ 
 
 i" 
 
 _ 
 
 __ 
 
 _ 
 
 J 
 
 Length of Hci:<' in ^"Rl 
 
 Fig. 1. Cost per ton comparison curves between train- and team- 
 drawn dump wagons. 
 
 Cost of Hauling Poles and Cross-Arms. The following are the 
 costs of hauling material for a light and power plant. 
 
 Poles Cross-arms 
 
 Character of country per ton-mile per ton-mile 
 
 Mountain roads $1.00 $1.20 
 
 Rolling or swampy .7.5 .00 
 
 Flat, good roads 50 .60 
 
 Cost of Mule-Back Transportation of Machinery In Mexico. F. C. 
 
 Roberts and W. C. Bradley (Engineering News, Aug. 12, 1912) 
 give the following cost of transporting sectional ized machinery 
 for a smelter in Mexico. The loads carried varied from 350 lbs. 
 to 680 lbs. per mule. 
 
 The freight rate for an ordinary carga of two pieces, weighing 
 304 lbs., from Durango to Ventanas, a distance of 105 miles, fluc- 
 tuates between $4.25 and $6 per carga, or between $29.25 or $42 
 per metric ton, an approximate average cost of $32.80 per short 
 ton ; while, for individual pieces weighing up to 425 lbs., that is, 
 cuarteos, a special charge of from $10 to $100 is made. The 
 railroad rate from any center in the United States to Durango is 
 
248 MECHAXICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 $1.60 per 100 lbs., or $32 per short ton. Add to this the local 
 expenses for discharging, transferring, re-packing, etc. (another 
 $2 per ton), and the total of $66 per ton is reached, besides the 
 duties. 
 
 About 2.500 tons of material (1.500 tons of machinery, and 
 1,000 tons of supplies and stores) were transported during a 
 period of 16 months. It made 17.500 mule-loads, or 262,500 mule- 
 load days, taking 15 days for the round trip. 
 
 Cost of Hauling Machinery for a Pumping Plant. W. L. De- 
 Moulin (Proceedings American Society of Civil Engineers. June, 
 1915) gives the cost of hauling machinery over a rough mountain 
 wagon road, more than 6 miles long, extending from Morenci to 
 the pumping plant on the Eagle River. A great part of the road 
 is blasted along the rocky hillsides. Out of Morenci. the road 
 runs up a hill requiring a climb 3.400 ft. in length, with grades 
 varying from 17 to more than SO';,. Near the plant, there is a 
 continual down grade along very rocky hillsides, with grades of 
 25 to 40%. On steep grades, snubbing posts were placed at 
 regular intervals, during the construction period, for the purpose 
 of letting the heavy loads down hill gradually. All material was 
 hauled from Morenci to the plant on wagons. The average loads 
 are about 3,000 lbs. A load of this size requires 10 horses to 
 make the hill out of Morenci. During the construction period, the 
 heavy pieces of machinery were taken out on a wagon built for 
 heavy hauling, with 4-in. iron axles. Extra rear and front wheels 
 were carried along to replace immediately any that broke down. 
 Some of the pieces of machinery weighed from 15.000 to more 
 than 24.000 lbs. each. Twenty horses could make the hill out of 
 camp with a load of 4 tons, and 24 horses could manage a load 
 of 5 or 6 tons. It was necessary to use a number of triple blocks, 
 with from 6 to 8 horses pulling down hill, in order to work slowly 
 a load heavier than 6 tons up the hill. At the plant, it was 
 necessary to pack material and supplies around by Mexicans and 
 burros, as in many cases the work was prosecuted at points inac- 
 cessible by any other method of transferring material. The cost 
 of transferring machinery from the flat cars at Morenci to the 
 plant, placed ready for the erector, averaged about $52.45 per 
 ton. which is about twice what the freight per ton amounted to 
 from Milwaukee to Morenci. The 40-lb. and the 54.74-lb.. 10-in. 
 pipes were transferred through a tunnel and distributed by wagon 
 to stock piles. In this way, the haul over the steep hill out of 
 town was avoided. From the stock pil^s, the pipe was " snaked " 
 by horses to the place where it was being laid. The tunnel was 
 too small to permit passing heavy material through it. The. cost 
 of delivering the pipe from the cars to the location of the proposed 
 line was $6. SO per ton. The average cost for each 10-in. pipe 
 line laid comi)lete. was $2.20 per ft. The average labor charge, 
 for laying the lines by contract, was 28 cts. per ft. for each 10-in. 
 pipe line. 
 
 Costs of Installing Electrical Apparatus and Methods of Com- 
 puting Profits in Contracting. The following data are taken from 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 249 
 
 an article by Mr. Louis W. Moxey, Jr., Electrical World, Oct. 16, 
 1915: 
 
 There are two ilems which combined compose the cost of con- 
 ducting an electrical contracting business. The first item includes 
 the cost of materials and labor actually used on jobs, such as en- 
 gines, dynamos, panelboards, conduit, wire, etc., together with the 
 salaries of the foreman, journeyman, helpers and apprentices. 
 This item may be called, for convenience, shop or raw cost. 
 
 The second item includes the cost of materials and labor ex- 
 pended in securing a contract and in the execution of the job. It 
 embraces the salaries of the officers, bookkeeper, stenographer, bill 
 clerk, draftsman, superintendent, etc.. and the cost of rent, heat, 
 light, taxes, insurance, stationery, postage, telephone and the like. 
 This item is called manufacturer's expense or overhead charge. 
 
 The writer has found it more conv-enient and logical to compute 
 the manufacturer's or overhead expense as a percentage of the 
 shop cost, instead of as a percentage of the selling price. An 
 estimate of overhead expense should be made at least once or 
 twice a year and the percentages thus obtained added to the shop 
 cost in all estimates made in the succeeding period to obtain the 
 real cost ; e. g. 
 
 Shop Cost: 
 
 Pay of foremen, journeymen, helpers and apprentices. . . .% 80,000 
 Cost or material, engines, generators, conduit, wire, etc. 200.000 
 
 Total shop cost $280,000 
 
 Overhead Expense: 
 
 Salaries of employers, co-partners or officers | 30,000 
 
 Salaries of office employees — bookkeepers, clerks, etc.... 8,000 
 
 Salaries of superintendent, draftsman and engineer 10,000 
 
 Stationery, telephones, taxes, insurance, rent, etc 8,000 
 
 Total manufacturer's expense % 56,000 
 
 Manufacturer's or overhead expense as a percentage of shop 
 co.st equals $56,000 -=- $280,000, or 20%. 
 
 The real cost, therefore, of the year's business would be the 
 shop cost, $280,000. plus the overhead expense of $56,000, or 
 $336,000. Should the selling value of this work be $369,600. the 
 contractor has made a profit of 10% on the investment made. 
 Should the selling value, however, be only $334,992, he has lost 
 3% on his investment. A true estimate should, therefore, be made 
 for any job as follows : 
 
 vShop cost $10 000 
 
 Overhead expense at 20% 2 000 
 
 Real cost $12 000 
 
 Profit at 10 per cent 1.200 
 
 Amount of proposal $13,200 
 
 Some contractors figure their overhead expense as a percentage 
 of the selling price. If a contractor's overhead expense is 20% 
 
250 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cf his selling' price <ind he desires to make a profit of 10% on 
 the selling price, he would not make it if he used the following 
 method : 
 
 Shop cost % 1.500 
 
 20% overhead expense plus 10% profit 450 
 
 Amount of proposal $ 1,950 
 
 To get the results desired — namely, 20% of selling price as 
 overhead expense and 10% of selling price as net profit — the esti- 
 mate should be made in the following manner: If the shop cost 
 is $1,500, this amount must represent 70% of the selling price, 
 for the overhead expense is taken as 20% of the selling price and 
 the profit is taken as 10% of the selling price. Hence the selling 
 price should be ($1,500 -=- 70)X 100. or $2,142. The overhead ex- 
 pense is 207o of $2,142 or $428, and the profit is 10% of $2,142 or 
 $214. Tlie sum of these two items, $642, subtracted from the 
 selling price leaves the original shop cost of $1,500. Hence the 
 previous method of estimating was in error by $2,142 — $1,950 
 or $192. 
 
 The entire principle of applying overhead expense and profit as 
 percentages of the selling price is wrong. Profit on a job is ac- 
 tually interest on an investment. The investment in the con- 
 tractor's business is the sum of the shop cost and the overhead 
 expense. Hence the -profit should be computed as a percentage 
 of this sum. 
 
 From a collection of data compiled by the National Electrical 
 Contractors' Association on the costs of conducting an electrical 
 contracting business, it appears that the overhead expense of an 
 electrical contractor lies between about 15 and 25% of his shop 
 cost and that the average profit is figured at from 5 to 15% of the 
 gross cost, depending upon the terms of the contract and the nature 
 of the work. 
 
 It is not the intention of the writer to present methods for 
 ascertaining approximately the shop cost of labor and materials. 
 No accurate figures for use in estimating the cost of the materials 
 used on a job can be given, owing to the constant changes in price 
 of most of these materials, such as wire, conduit, etc. On the 
 other hand, while the rates paid for labor change, the changes 
 are not of frequent occurrence and tables of labor costs can be 
 worked out on the present rates for labor and any increa.se or 
 decrease of rates can be taken care of by employing a percentage 
 correction factor. 
 
 For engines, generators, motors, transformers, etc., it is always 
 best to secure a bid on the apparatus direct from the manufac- 
 turer, especially if a reasonable time be given the contractor to 
 prepare his estimate. It is preferable to have these quotations 
 include the cost of the apparatus delivered and erected in position, 
 as well as the cost of foundation, templets, bolts, painting, etc. 
 
 Should, however, the job be a large one and the time for pre- 
 paring an estimate be short, the approximate cost of the ap- 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 251 
 
 paratus could be determined if the contractor had prepared curves 
 of cost for the various sizes of such apparatus in the past and 
 had frequently checked them. Such checking is absolutely neces- 
 sary, as apparatus may vary considerably in price within com- 
 paratively short periods of time. Fig. 2 shows how these curves 
 should be prepared. 
 
 Separate curves or tables should be prepared for directly con- 
 nected and belted single- and four-valve or Corliss engines, also 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 IP 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 10 
 
 Curve s 
 , hauling 
 
 howinq va 
 on d if fen 
 
 riable cos 
 nt grades 
 
 tof 
 
 1 
 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 (2i: 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 E.&C. 
 
 0.50 
 
 £50 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.00 1.50 LOO 
 
 Cost pef Lood-Mile 
 
 Fig. 2. Curve showing effect of grade on hauling costs in mill 
 construction. 
 
 for directly connected and belted direct-current and alternating 
 current generators of various types, as well as for motors of low, 
 medium and high speeds, etc. 
 
 The same method could be followed for figuring the cost of 
 certain other kinds of materials, although greater accuracy must 
 be used in plotting some curves, for in some cases price differ- 
 ences of a few cents may be desired. This method can be ap- 
 plied advantageously to such material as panel boxes, panelboards, 
 doors and trim, annunciators, watchmen's clocks, etc. 
 
 Tables III to VI are for apparatus delivered ar>d erected ready 
 for the wiring connections of the electrical contractor, and hence 
 
252 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE III. ENGINES AND FOUNDATIONS * -^ 
 
 , Cost per horsepower ^ 
 
 Horsepower Tandem- 
 
 Rating Single compound Four-valve 
 
 50 — 100 $16 
 
 100 — 200 15 $26 $25 
 
 300 and above 14 24 23 
 
 * Installed ready for steam-pipe connections under ordinary con- 
 ditions. The figures given are based on data from the Ames Iron 
 Works, Oswego, N. Y. 
 
 TABLE IV. DIRECTLY CONNECTED D.C. & A.C. •' 
 GENERATORS * 
 
 Rating, kw. d. c. Cost per kw. Rating, kva, a. c. Cost per kva. 
 
 25 $25 50 $16 
 
 35 23 75 14 
 
 50 20 125 13 
 
 75 , 16 135 12 
 
 100 15 185 10 
 
 125 14 250 9 
 
 150 13 312 9 
 
 200 12 350 8 
 
 250 12 375 and above 8 
 
 300 and above 12 
 
 * These prices are based on engine-driven generators installed 
 under ordinary conditions, the sub-bases for the erection of the 
 generators being furnished by the engine contractor. The values 
 are based on data from the G. E. Co. 
 
 TABLE V. COST OF SWITCHBOARDS. INCLUDING DYNAMO 
 AND FEEDER PANELS, 220 VOLTS OR LESS * 
 
 Rating, kw. d. c. Cost per kw. Rating, kva. a. c. Cost per kva. 
 
 25 — 50 
 
 $5 — $10 
 
 50 — 125 
 
 $4 — $6 
 
 50 — 100 
 
 4— 8 
 
 125 — 350 
 
 3— 4 
 
 100 and above 
 
 3 — 6 
 
 350 and above 
 
 2— 3 
 
 * The range of prices is due to variations in the grade of ma- 
 terials and workmanship, the number of instruments, switches, etc. 
 These figures include the switchboards erected complete and ready 
 for the connection of generator cables, power and light feeders, 
 etc. The prices are based on data obtained from the Walker 
 Electric Company, Philadelphia. 
 
 TABLE VI. COSTS PER HORSEPOWER OF MOTORS AND 
 NECESSARY RHEOSTATS AND CONTROLLERS ERECTED * 
 
 r Direct-current- 
 
 
 ,- Alternating-current-^ 
 
 Horsepower 
 
 Cost 
 
 Horsepower Cost 
 
 1 — 3 
 
 $50 
 
 1 — 11/2 $60 
 
 5 — 71/2 
 
 40 
 
 1 1/2 — 2 50 
 
 7 1/1, — 10 
 
 30 
 
 2—3 40 
 
 10 -^ 15 
 
 25 
 
 3 — 71/2 30 
 
 15 -^ 25 
 
 20 
 
 7i,^_10 25 
 
 25 — 50 
 
 18 
 
 10 — 20 20 
 
 50 ^100 
 
 15 
 
 20 —35 18 
 
 100 — 250 
 
 13 
 
 35 —75 15 
 
 250 and above 
 
 12 
 
 100 and above 13 
 
 * Motors are assumed to be of standard speeds, voltage, etc.. and 
 to l)e erected on floor, cost of foundations not being included. 
 The costs include delivery and erection ready for wiring connec- 
 tions and are based on data obtained from the General Electric 
 Company, 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 253 
 
 are practically the figures the electrical contractor would secure 
 from his sub-contractors. 
 
 Tables VII to XII are the complete costs of electrical construe- 
 
 T 
 
 ABLE VIL ( 
 
 COST OF 
 
 DYNAMO 
 
 CONNECTIONS * • 
 
 
 Direct-current 
 
 • 
 
 
 Llternating-ci 
 
 J. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 Rubber- 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 Rubber- 
 
 
 sheathed 
 
 covered 
 
 
 sheathed 
 
 covered 
 
 Rating 
 
 rubber 
 
 cable in 
 
 Rating 
 
 rubber 
 
 cable in 
 
 kw. 
 
 insulation 
 
 conduit 
 
 kva. 
 
 insulation 
 
 conduit 
 
 25- 50 
 
 $50-$150 
 
 $25-$125 
 
 50-125 
 
 $100-$300 
 
 $ 75-$27o 
 
 50-100 
 
 75- 250 
 
 50- 225 
 
 125-350 
 
 200- 400 
 
 175- 375 
 
 100 and 
 
 100- 350 
 
 75- 325 
 
 350 and 
 
 300- 500 
 
 275- 475 
 
 above 
 
 
 
 above 
 
 
 
 *The 
 
 average flat 
 
 distance 
 
 between dynamo and 
 
 switchboard 
 
 has been assumed as 25 ft. 
 
 TABLE VITL COSTS OF WIRING AND CONNECTING MOTORS, 
 INCLUDING ALL LABOR AND MATERIAL • 
 
 Horsepovv^er Porcelain Molding Conduit 
 
 1— 5 $7.50— 75 $10 — 100 $15 — 150 
 
 5 — 10 30 —120 40 — 170 60 — 240 
 
 15 — 25 75 — 250 90 — 300 150 — 300 
 
 25 — 50 100 — 400 125 — 500 200 — 500 
 
 50 and over 150 —500 200 — 600 300 — 600 
 
 * The range of figures is due first to structural difficulties, second 
 to the type of motor panel desired, third to the voltage, and fourth 
 to the circuit distance. The lower figures represent the minimum 
 structural difficulties, with fused switches in an iron box and with 
 starting device mounted exposed on wall to side of motor, 220 volt 
 service and 50-ft. to 100-ft. circuit distance. The higher figures 
 represent the maximum structural difficulties, motor panels with 
 circuit breakers, 110 volt service and 1 50-ft. to 300-ft. circuit dis- 
 tance. The figures do not include the cost of motors, rheostats 
 and regulators. 
 
 TABLE IX. AVERAGE COST PER OUTLET FOR WIRING FOR 
 LAMPS IN NEW BUILDINGS * 
 
 Concealed Exposed Concealed 
 
 Outlets porcelain Wood mldg. Metal mldg. conduit 
 
 Light $4 — $8 $5 — 10 $8 — 16 $7 — 14 
 
 Switch 5 — 10 6 — 12 9 — 18 8 — 16 
 
 Wall receptacle 5 — 10 6 — 12 9 — 18 8 — 16 
 
 Floor receptacle 7 — 14 8 — 16 11 — 22 10 — 20 
 
 Fan 6 — 12 7 — 14 10 — 20 9 — 18 
 
 Iron 9 — 18 10 — 20 13 — 26 12 — 24 
 
 Electric Heater 7 — 14 8 — 16 11 — 22 10 — 20 
 
 Vacuum Control 
 
 Switcht 12 — 24 13 — 26 16 — 32 15 — 30 
 
 * For use where the total cost of the work is about $2,000, 
 For residences the lower figures should be used. For public build- 
 ings, such as banks, office buildings, churches and the like, a figure 
 midway between the range of figures given should be used. Where 
 best grade of material and workmanship is required the higher 
 figures should be used. Prices do not include costs of fixtures or 
 appliances, but do include switches and receptacles. For wiring 
 old buildings where porcelain work and conduit work is concealed 
 the figures given should at least be doubled. If porcelain or con- 
 duit work is to be installed exposed in either old or new buildings, 
 the figures should be increased at least 25%, the difference of cost 
 depending upon the purpose for which the building is or was de- 
 signed. 
 
 t Includes automatic starter at motor. 
 
254 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tion work, and include all labor and material, and also overhead 
 and profit. A wage rate of 55 cts. per hr. for foremen, 45 cts. 
 per hr. for wiremen, and 25 cts. per hr. for helpers is assumed. 
 
 TABLE X. AVERAGE COSTS FOR SIGNAL SYSTEMS RUN 
 CONCEALED IN NEW BUILDINGS * 
 
 Costs per outlet (connected as one outlet) 
 Bell wiring Porcelain Conduit 
 
 Per push-button and bell $6 $12 
 
 Per drop on annunciator 4 8 
 
 * For work on old buildings the figures given above should be 
 doubled. The cost of push-buttons, bells and annunciators is in- 
 cluded. 
 
 TABLE XL AVERAGE COSTS OP PRIVATE TELEPHONES 
 
 Porcelain Conduit 
 
 Per desk telephone $30 — $50 $40 — $60 
 
 Per wall telephone 25 — 45 35 — 55 
 
 The average cost per outlet of public telephones in new buildings 
 (concealed work) ranges from $5 to $15 with conduit construction, 
 C^ost of wire is not included since the electrical contractor very sel- 
 dom does the wiring. The range of the figures is due to variations 
 in the distances between outlets. Instruments are assumed to be 
 furnished and installed by the telephone company, 
 
 TABLE XIL COST OP MISCELLANEOUS WORK * 
 Apparatus Porcelain Conduit 
 
 Time Clocks $30 — $45 $35 — $50 per clock 
 
 Time stamps 65 — 85 70 — 90 per stamp 
 
 Fire alarms 20 • — 30 25 ■ — 35 per alarm 
 
 Watchmen's stations 25 — 35 30 — 40 per station 
 
 * The range of the figures given above is due to differences in 
 the grades of workmanship and materials. For old buildings the 
 figures given .should be increased from 25 to 50%. These figures 
 include the cost of apparatus as well as the cost of all conductors, 
 conduits and labor. 
 
 TABLE XIIL COST OF INSTALLING ROTATING ELECTRICAL 
 MACHINERY 
 
 Weight, 
 lbs. 
 
 Cost per 
 piece 
 
 Weight, 
 lbs. 
 
 Cost per 
 piece 
 
 Weight, 
 lbs. 
 
 Cost per 
 piece 
 
 Ito 500 , 
 
 550 . 
 600 . 
 650 , 
 700 . 
 
 . ..$1 to$5 
 
 ... 5.45 
 
 5.95 
 
 6.35 
 
 6.85 
 
 1,350 
 1,400 
 1,450 
 1.500 
 1,600 
 
 $10.35 
 10.40 
 10.45 
 10.50 
 10.70 
 
 2,900 
 3.000 
 3.500 
 4.000 
 4,500 
 
 $12.45 
 12.50 
 12.60 
 12.70 
 12.80 
 
 750 . 
 800 . 
 850 . 
 900 . 
 950 . 
 
 7.20 
 7.60 
 8.00 
 8.30 
 8.65 
 
 1,700 
 1,800 
 1,900 
 2.000 
 2,100 
 
 10.90 
 11.15 
 11.40 
 11.50 
 11.55 
 
 5,000 
 6,000 
 7.000 
 8,000 
 9.000 
 
 12.90 
 13.00 
 14.00 
 15.00 
 16.00 
 
 1,000 . 
 1,050 . 
 1,100 . 
 1.150 . 
 1,200 . 
 
 9.00 
 9.25 
 9.45 
 9.65 
 9.85 
 
 2,200 
 2.300 
 2,400 
 2.500 
 2,600 
 
 11.65 
 11.75 
 12.00 
 12.10 
 12.20 
 
 10,000 
 
 16.25 
 
 1.250 . 
 1.300 . 
 
 ... 10.10 
 ,,. 10.30 
 
 2.700 
 2,800 
 
 12.30 
 12.35 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 255 
 
 Cost of Installation of Rotating Electrical Machinery. Table 
 XIII i« from a recent appraisal (prior to the war). 
 
 All rotating^ machinery weighing over 10,000 lbs. is estimated 
 at $0.1625 per 100 lbs. The cost includes the co.st of setting, grout- 
 ing or securing, drying and connecting. Unloading costs included 
 with hauling charges, allow for placing apparatus approximately 
 In position. 
 
 Costs of Installing Transformers, Rectifiers, etc., of Less Than 
 75 kw. Capacity as taken from a recent appraisal were the same 
 as for rotating electrical machinery given above and include setting, 
 securing, drying and connecting. The cost of setting the apparatus 
 approximately in position is included in hauling cost, a separate 
 item. 
 
 Cost of Installation and Factory Inspection of Power Trans- 
 formers, — 75 k. w. and Over. The following installation cost from 
 a recent appraisal includes assembling, drying, filling, connecting 
 and starting. 
 
 TABLE XTV. COST OF INSTALLATION AND INSPECTION OF 
 TRANSFORMERS OF OVER 75 K. W. CAPACITY 
 
 Labor Material 
 
 11.000 volts Over 11,000 Factory 
 
 K. w. or less volts inspection 
 
 75 $13.85 $17.85 $10 
 
 100 15.35 19.75 10 
 
 150 16.60 21.50 10 
 
 200 17.85 23.25 10 
 
 250 19.10 25.05 10 
 
 300 20.35 26.75 10 
 
 333 21.60 28.45 10 
 
 500 22.85 30.20 10 
 
 666 24.10 31.90 10 
 
 750 25.10 33.40 10 
 
 1.000 26.35 35.10 12 50 
 
 1,250 27.60 36.80 12.50 
 
 1.500 28.85 38.40 15 
 
 1.600 30.10 40.10 15 
 
 2,000 31.35 41.75 
 
 Cost of Installation of Power Transformers, 75 kw. and Over. 
 The following is from a recent appraisal.' 
 
 TABLE XV. COST OF INSTALLATION OF TRANSFORMERS 
 OF OVER 75 K. W. CAPACITY 
 
 , 11,000 volts or less , r-Over 11,000 volts-^ 
 
 K. w. Cost A Cost B Total Add Cost C Total 
 
 75 $ 9.00 $4.85 $13.85 $4.00 $17.85 
 
 100 10.50 4.85 15.35 4.40 19.75 
 
 150 11.75 4.85 16.60 4.90 21.50 
 
 200 13.00 4.85 17.85 5.40 23.25 
 
 250 14.25 4.85 19.10 5.95 25.05 
 
 300 15.50 '4.85 20.35 6.40 26.75 
 
 333 16.75 4.85 21.60 6.85 28.45 
 
 500 18.00 4.85 22.85 7.35 30.20 
 
 666 19.25 4.85 24.10 7.80 31.90 
 
 750 20.25 4.85 25.10 8.30 33.40 
 
256 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 , 11,000 volts or less , ^Over 11,000 volts-^ 
 
 K. w. Cost. A Cost B Total Add Cost C Total 
 
 1,000 21.50 4.85 26.35 8.75 35.10 
 
 1,250 22.75 4.85 27.60 9.20 36.80 
 
 1,500 24.00 4.85 28.85 9.60 38.45 
 
 1,600 25.25 4.85 30.10 10.00 40.10 
 
 2,000 26.50 4.85 31.35 10.40 41.75 
 
 Cost A: Includes inspection, cleaning, assembling and filling. 
 2 men at $4-25, and 6 men at $3 for 1 day — $26.50 for 2,000 k. w. 
 transformer. 1 man at $4.25, and 3 men at $3 for 1 day — $13.25 
 for 100 k. w, transformer. 
 
 Cost B: Includes testing and connecting high and low voltage 
 terminals. 2 men at $4.25, and 2 men at $3 for 1 day on 3 trans- 
 formers. 
 
 Cost each transformer (Vs of $14.50) $4.85 all cHDacities. 
 
 Cost C: Includes additional labor for assembling and for drying 
 core and oil. Drying 3 — 2.000 k. w. transformers. 37,000 volts. 
 1 man at $4.25, and 3 men at $3, 1 day, preparation. 1 man at 
 $3 per day for 6 days, attending. 
 
 Cost each transformer (Vs of $31.25) $10.42. 
 
 Drying 3 — 100 k. w. transformers, 11,000 volts. 1 man at 
 $4.25, and 1 man at $3 1 day, preparation. 1 man at $3 per day 
 for 2 days, attending. 
 
 Cost each transformer (% of $13.25) $4.42. 
 
 Cost of Installation of Electrical Rotating Machinery Up to 10,000 
 lbs., Transformers, Rectifiers and Regulators Less than 75 k. w. 
 Table XVI gives costs for miscellaneous electrical machinery taken 
 from appraisals by the authors. 
 
 Cost of Labor Installing Line Transformers. The following data 
 are from an appraisal by the authors : 
 
 Size, k. w. Cost of labor 
 
 0.6 $3.00 
 
 1 3.10 
 
 1.5 3.30 
 
 2. 3.50 
 
 2.5 3.70 
 
 3 4.10 
 
 4 4.70 
 
 5 5.30 
 
 7.5 6.50 
 
 10 7.75 
 
 15 9.70 
 
 20 11.30 
 
 25 12.80 
 
 30 14.25 
 
 40. 16.75 
 
 50 19.00 
 
 100 28.00 
 
 150 33.50 
 
 200 37.50 
 
 The above costs Include inspection, cleaning, assembling and 
 fill together with the cost of distributing, cross-arming, hanging 
 and connecting the transformers. 
 
 Cost of Setting and Moving Meters and Transformers. The fol- 
 lowing distribution and service ex]:)enses are shown in a recent 
 ajialysis by the Pacific Power & Light Company given in Elea- 
 

 
 a 
 o 
 
 in t--<X>r-lT-IOt-t^t-OlMkr5 
 
 C-l iM fO M CO CO c-l C-l C<1 (M to in 
 
 ■ ^ r-i r-i rH M M C-i W Cvi C^ 
 
 COm?CiOOa500i-l(MTHC-Ir-'iMC^I>t^t- 
 
 MMMCOCOiMfOeCOOCOMiMCOfCOOMCOeO 
 
 ^ m LO lo lo o 05 05 00 o o o o o <m c^j th c^] ■m <m c] im ci c<) (m c^i in in i 
 
 cj o incviiMc^iOLnininoino inoinooininininoinoocinincino 
 cj e^in int~-?©c£>ominin'*ic--iiH fOrHcoOi-iooiHocoTfcoTfcoTt<-*ininin 
 Q^ ■ 'e>-if3c^«^iT(<'*^''^inin ininin«J«cJinco«o«ococdcocD«o^t-t-t-^ 
 
 r; O i-f-^CvUMMrHiHiHOOin'M t-«<It-O(MI>-e0rHt-00t»00t-0i0iOr-'O 
 
 ^ 60-^ rHinininina>o5«soooo oooc<i(Mr-ie^'MiM(M(M(Mco(Mwiffinin 
 
 bo I 
 
 r-l,H r-lTHrH<MrHrH 
 
 (MiM lH<£l 
 
 OOirtO 
 
 CM 00 o] ^ _ , , ^., ^ 
 
 inmininominoinooin 
 iM iM c<j c-1 c-i iM eo eg 
 
 IM tH T-I<M iH Ca CM T-l 
 
 jfoin-^iot-ooooo int-i 
 
 ( Cq r^ CO tH C^l tH , 
 
 S O 
 
 
 i-drtj-^ 
 
 
 il^cim. 
 
 _> ry^ _3 r/) ■"' _j rr, .*^ _i ,<-. -rfi _i _. rr, —a m 
 
 • Oi o 
 •So 
 
 ^o 
 
 C a; 
 HC5 
 
 o^3 
 
 o 
 
 So 
 
 NO 
 
 oi "i <w 03 K "»^ 03 a »■- as M w 
 
 tj^i'M . <i^Lj-f^ ^i2tj "^^u-i <i^2.M 
 §0:^ o ttl § Eh C5 § S p § § ,^§ 
 
 25/ 
 
258 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 trical World, Dec. 2, 1916. The average distribution cost per 
 consumer for the year (1916) was $1.83. Lower costs ($1.53 up) 
 existed in some districts, but expenses ran as high as $4.05 
 in other districts. Setting and removing meters and trans- 
 formers on the average cost $0.55 per consumer, the minimum ex- 
 pense being $0.29 and the maximum $0.99, Meter maintenance 
 averaged about 8.14 cts. per meter, although in some districts the 
 expense went as high as 13 cts. and as low as 4.8 cts. Main- 
 tenance of installations varied from 5 to 88 cts. and averaged 
 about 19.9 cts. The commercial expense per consumer had a range 
 of $2.60 to $6.40 and averaged $3.48. It should be pointed out 
 that all items making up the total expense of serving consumers 
 are not included. 
 
 Cost of Installing Motor Generator Sets. The costs for generator 
 sets, weighing over 10.000 lbs., given in Table XVII, were derived 
 by the authors from appraisal on the^ Pacific coast in 1910. 
 
 TABLE XVII. COST OP INSTALLING MOTOR GENERATOR 
 SETS WEIGHING OVER 10,000 LBS. 
 
 Per cent. Unit. Unit. Unit, 
 
 Item of total cost 120 k. w. 500 k. w. 1,000 k. w. 
 
 Voltage 2,400-150 4.300-550 11.000-550 
 
 Weight, lbs 38,000 56.000 109,000 
 
 (1) Assembly 38.5 $23.90 $35.00 $68.20 
 
 (2) Leveling 3.5 2.20 3.50 6.20 
 
 (3) Groutmg 7.5 4.65 7.00 13.30 
 
 (4) Cleaning 4.0 2.50 3.50 7.10 
 
 (5) Testing 8.0 4.95 7.00 14.20 
 
 (6) Connecting 9.0 5.60 8.15 15.95 
 
 (7) Drying 26.5 16.45 23.80 46.85 
 
 (8) Starting 3.0 1.85 2.80 5.30 
 
 Total 100% $62.00 $91.00 $177.00 
 
 Cost per 100 lbs., all sizes $0.18 
 
 Of these costs 53.5% are for assembling, leveling, grouting and 
 cleaning — items (1) to (4) — and 46.5% are for testing, connect- 
 ing, drying and cleaning — items (5) to (8). 
 
 Cost of Installing a 500 k. w. Motor Generator Set according 
 to the figures given in Table XVII may be further subdivided as 
 shown in Table XVIII, 
 
 TABLE XVTII. INSTALLATION OF 500 K. W. MOTOR 
 GENERATOR SET 
 
 Men at Men at Total 
 
 Item $4.25 per day $3 per day hrs. Cost 
 
 (1) Assembly 2 3 16 $35.00 
 
 (2) Leveling 1 3 2 3.31 
 
 (3) Grouting 1 3 4 6.62 
 
 (4) Cleaning 1 2 3 3.84 
 
 (5) Testing 2 2 4 7.25 
 
 (6) Connecting 1 1 9 8.15 
 
 (7) Drying 1 1 4) 
 
 1 28| 24.13* 
 
 (8) Starting 2 1 2 . 2.88 
 
 Total labor cost of installation $91.18 
 
 * Includes $10 for power. 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 259 
 
 Cost of Installing 300 k. w. Motor Generator Set. The data in 
 Table XIX are for an installation in the Southern States in 1913 
 and are from a recent appraisal by the authors. The costs are 
 taken from accounting records. 
 
 TABLE XIX. INSTALLATION OF 300 K. W. MOTOR 
 GENERATOR SET 
 
 Material Labor Freight Drayage Total 
 1-3030 k. w. 3 bearing 
 motor generator set, 
 consisting of one 2,200 
 volt, 2-phase, synchron- 
 ous motor directly con- 
 nected to railv/ay gen- 
 erator with direct-con- 
 nected exciter ■ — f. o. b. 
 
 factory $6,000 $180 $185 $27 $6,392 
 
 Switchboard, synchronous 
 motor panel for 300 k. 
 w. generator swinging 
 bracket, lighting ar- 
 rester, 8 disconnecting 
 switches, f. o. b. fac- 
 tory 1,435 117 53 5 1,610 
 
 Connections to present 
 
 buses 69 ... ... . . 69 
 
 Cable and v/ire 228 65 ... .. 293 
 
 Conduit and fittings 69 75 ... .. 144 
 
 Rebuilding old buses 96 217 ... .. 383 
 
 Total $7,897 $724 $238 $32 $8,891 
 
 Cost of Installing a 500 k. w. Motor Generator in Washington. 
 
 The following is the cost of installing a 500 k. w. motor generator 
 in a light and power plant in Washington in 1906. 
 Material : 
 
 500 k. w., 500 rev. per min. motor generator $ 9,200.00 
 
 Switchboard and switching apparatus 1,725.00 
 
 Freight on generator and switchboard 1,200.00 
 
 Wire 64.61 
 
 Miscellaneous material 160.75 
 
 60 ft. 13,000 volt, 3 cond. cable 129.00 
 
 490 lbs., 1,000,000 C, M. S. B. W. P. cable 151.90 
 
 Cost of material $12,631.26 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Setting up machine $ 116.39 
 
 Setting up switch, machine pipe supports, insulators 
 
 and compensators 131.65 
 
 All 13.000 volt wiring 176.06 
 
 A. c. controller and instrument wiring, setting up 
 
 a. c. panel and running motor field wire 94.00 
 
 All d. c. wiring not included above 94.35 
 
 Miscellaneous 4.20 
 
 Cost of labor $ 616.65 
 
 Total cost of installation $13,247 
 
 Cost of Installing 1,000 k. w. Turbo-Generator and Auxiliaries. 
 The data in Table XX are for an installation in the Southern 
 
260 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 states in 1913 and are from a recent appraisal by the authors 
 and are actual costs taken from accounting records. 
 
 TABLE XX. INSTALLATION OF 1.000 K. W. TURBO- 
 GENERATOR AND AUXILIARIES 
 
 m o 
 
 Excavating, clearing, etc $ 147 
 
 Basement floor, patching, 
 turbine floor 62 
 
 Contract, building: tur- 
 bine and auxiliary 
 foundations 
 
 Piping $3,313 525 $155 
 
 1-lOOOk.w.G.E. Co. tur- 
 bo-generator, erected. 13,100 210 
 
 * Auxiliaries, f. o. b. 
 
 plant 7,300 105 . 
 
 1 oil switch, 500 ampere, 
 7,500 volts, 4 pole 
 single throw complete 
 — f. o. b. factory.... 387 163 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 0<D 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 5'^ 
 
 
 bfi 
 
 ^■t. 
 
 
 
 Til ^ 
 
 
 >> 
 
 c3 
 
 m^ 
 
 o3 
 
 Q 
 
 i^ 
 
 O 
 
 
 % 10 
 
 $ 157 
 
 ? 3 
 
 50 
 
 115 
 1,250 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 4,042 
 
 110 13,420 
 201 
 
 212 
 
 7.606 
 
 787 
 
 Total $24,100 $1,212 $180 $35 $600 $27,377 
 
 ♦Auxiliaries consisted of one surface condenser of 2,9 00 sq. ft. 
 cooling surface, one 7 by 14 by 14 in. rotary dry vacuum pump, 
 one 2 in. centrifugal hotwell pump, and one 10 in. centrifugal 
 pump. 
 
 Cost of Installing 2,000 k. w. Turbo-Generator, Boiler, Super- 
 heater and Other Auxiliaries. The data in Table XXI are for an 
 
 installation in the Southern States in 1914-15 and are from a 
 recent appraisal by the authors. The costs are taken from ac- 
 counting records. 
 
 Cost of Foundations for Two 500 k. w. Generators. The cost of 
 foundations for two 500 k. w. direct connected, engine driven 
 generator units built by contract for a power house in Washington 
 in 1906 was $2,480. There were 320 cu. yds. of granite masonry 
 placed at $7 per cu. yd. 
 
 Cost of Foundations for a Turbo-Generator. The cost of founda- 
 tions for a 750 k. w. turbo-generator built by contract in Wash- 
 ington in 1906 was $313.05, divided as follows: 
 
 Unit cost 
 
 12.8 cu. yds. concrete, per cu. yd $10.00 
 
 1,638 brick, per M in place 33.85 
 
 ,8—15 in. I beams 10 ft, long weighing 3,360 lbs., per lb. in 
 
 place 045 
 
 The foundation consisted of one concrete slab and four brick 
 columns. 
 
 Cost of Foundations for a Rotary Converter. The cost of foun- 
 dations for a 250 k. w. altei-nating current rotary converter built 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 261 
 
 by contract in 1906 in a power house in Washington was $113.76, 
 divided as follows : 
 
 340 lbs. cast iron, per lb. in place $.035 
 
 2,268 lbs. steel, per lb. in place 045 
 
 TABLE XXI. INSTALLATION OF 2,000 K. W. TURBO-GEN- 
 ERATOR, BOILER, SUPER HEATER AND OTHER AUX- 
 ILIARIES 
 
 \ o <^ 
 
 Item. -^ - S, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "C 
 
 j_ 
 
 fi, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «i 
 
 X5 
 
 ?, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 fc 
 
 1- 
 
 -600 
 
 h.- 
 
 ■P- 
 
 boiler 
 
 erected 
 
 $7,U95 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1- 
 
 -600 
 
 h 
 
 •-p. 
 
 . superheater, 
 
 
 
 
 TO K " 
 
 o 
 
 Eh 
 $8,650 
 
 erected 1,555 
 
 Boiler setting, fuel oil 
 system, foundation 
 footings, damper regu- 
 lator, installed 2,503 $221 $2 $3 $2,729 
 
 1-2,000 k. w. turbo-gen- 
 erator, f.-ob. erected. 21,500 518 $252 22,270 
 
 * Auxiliaries 8,578 159 3 31 8,771 
 
 1-500 k. w. motor gen- 
 erator set, f. o. b. fac- 
 tory 6,100 83 476 34 28 8,546 
 
 1-50 k. w. turbine driven 
 
 exciter, f. o. b. plant. 1,825 
 
 Switchboard, f. o. b. fac- 
 tory 1.647 1,668 160 6 1,198 5,402 
 
 Wiring 723 
 
 Total $51,526 $2,649 $638 $46 $1,509 $56,368 
 
 * Auxiliaries consisted of: One 4 in. 3-stage, double suction, tur- 
 bine boiler feed pump, direct connected to and mounted on a spe- 
 cial cast iron base with turbine, f. o. b. plant, cost $1,200. B. and 
 W. No. 18 gauge condenser tubes, 17.700 lin. ft., f. o. b. plant, cost 
 $1,878. One condenser equipment for a 2.000 k. w. turbo-gen- 
 erator unit, the equipment to consist of one 4,400 sq. ft. surface 
 condenser v.ithout the tubes, one 9 in. and 18 in. by 16 in. rotary 
 vacuum pump and one 3 in. turbine driven, centrifugal hotwell 
 pump, f. o. b. erected, cost $5,500. 
 
 Cost of Erecting a 300 k. w. Motor Generator. Kent gives the 
 following cost of a temporary installation of a 300 k. w. motor 
 generator. 
 
 Labor : Unit cost 
 
 Moving and erecting machine $118.50 
 
 25.000 volt wiring. Including hauling 20.80 
 
 2.300 volt wiring, including oil switch 37.90 
 
 600 volt wiring, including panel and pedestal 60.50 
 
 Machine foundation and anchor bolts 21.80 
 
 Time of shop men • 8.36 
 
 Material : 
 
 Wire 48.09 
 
 Miscellaneous material 16.17 
 
 Total cost of erecting g-enerator $332.20 
 
262 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Labor Cost of Installing 850 k. w. Generator and Exciter. The 
 
 following is the labor cost of installing an 850 k. w, generator 
 and exciter in a light and power plant in Washington in 1909. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Setting up exciter $ 68.50 
 
 Exciter wiring 8.75 
 
 Wiring for motor and motor panel 67.50 
 
 Setting up generator 267.10 
 
 Wiring for generator and panel 127.50 
 
 Draftsman 117.37 
 
 Machine foundation, floor, retaining walls, etc... 1,032.42 
 
 Total labor cost of installation $1,688.74 
 
 Cost of Installing and Testing iVieters. One meterman at $2.70 
 per day can inspect and test 10 Thompson recording watt meters, 
 or 20 Type G meters in a day. He can install 8 meters per day. 
 
 Thompson Type G 
 
 meters meter 
 
 Testing: $0.27 $0.14 
 
 Installing . 0.34 0.34 
 
 Total cost per meter $0.61 $0.48 
 
 Cost of Underground, Cypress Fuel Oil Tank. The cost of a 
 cypress fuel oil tank built in the Southern States in 1912 as taken 
 from a recent appraisal by the authors was as follows : 
 
 Excavation $200 
 
 Cypress tank, 6x1x40 ft. long 262 
 
 Pipe fittings 48 
 
 Cost complete $610 
 
 The cypress tank had a foundation of cedar and was covered 
 with a cedar top. The pipe fittings consisted of miscellaneous 
 pipe, unions and Ts and 5 valves. 
 
 Cost of Installing Tools and Equipment in a Smelter. See chap- 
 ter on Buildings. 
 
 Cost of Installing Miscellaneous Tools. See Miscellaneous chap- 
 ter. 
 
 Cost of Installing Milling Equipment. H. T. Curran (Engineer- 
 ing and Contracting, Oct. 6, 1915) states that poorly stored 
 machinery may easily add several dollars per tan to erection 
 costs. An experienced engineer will size up the job and divide 
 the material into different classes. It is then usually figured 
 on a tonnage basis. Generally speaking, the heavier the piece the 
 less the erection cost per ton. Steel tanks over % in. thick can 
 be erected for $35 per ton; and % in. or less from $40 to $45 
 per ton. To place engines, stamps, crushers, pumps, to line up 
 shafting, set electric motors, including wiring, etc., the cost will 
 be about $45 per ton of iron; to set up concentrating machinery, 
 classifiers, filters, etc., from $50 to $65 per ton. These figures 
 cover the necessary carpenter work, placing pulleys, belts, and ad- 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 263 
 
 justments. When the carpenter work is figured separately these 
 figures are high. Under these conditions it will cost from ?25 
 to $30 per ton of iron to place engines, stamps, crushers, line up 
 shafting, etc. To set up concentrating machinery, classifiers, 
 filters, etc., costs from $30 to $45 per ton. This of course includes 
 placing pulleys, belts and adjustments. The pipe work in the 
 average mill will cost from $40 to $45 per ton. Erecting wooden 
 tanks costs around $12 per M. Reduction works constructed 
 wholly of steel are now becoming popular where the winters are 
 not too severe. Framework of steel can be erected for $12 to $15 
 per ton by contract. A good contractor with a crew of construc- 
 tion men will make money at these figures. 
 
 Cost of Preliminary Work in iVIili Construction. H. T. Curran 
 (Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 6, 1915) states that after it 
 has been determined just what kind of a plant is needed, and 
 after the site has been selected and the drawings made, a thor- 
 ough organization of plans should be established and every detail 
 gone over in the mind's eye. 
 
 The first step is to estimate the yardage to be excavated, the 
 amount of masonry or concrete work required, and then a complete 
 list of all material should be made. The tendency is to overlook 
 a multitude of small things which have considerable value in the 
 aggregate. To the machinery specifications should be added a 
 complete list of lumber, doors, windows, all hardware down to 
 nails, pulleys, belts, lime, sand, broken rock — in fact everything 
 that goes into the construction. The cost and weight of this can 
 readily be determined by consulting reliable dealers and adding 
 the necessary freight charges. 
 
 The next step should be the working out of a thorough develop- 
 ment plan and an estimate of its cost. Everything should be made 
 ready, so that when actual con.struction starts there will be neither 
 confusion nor delay. The cost of this work is considerable and 
 it is often neglected, with the consequent addition of excessive 
 costs to some other part of the work. A great amount of future 
 trouble and worry can be avoided by a careful planning for a few 
 im])ortant features, which will be mentioned. 
 
 Unloading facilities and material and tools to do it with should 
 be provided. A good road to the plant should be built and con- 
 venient deliveries arranged for. It is a noticeable fact that many 
 a well constructed mill has such poor facilities for receiving sup- 
 plies that the extra cost for a year w^ould probably build every- 
 thing needed to make such work easy and cheap. Ample room 
 ought to be set aside for timber yards and all lumber should be 
 marked and piled so that a glance will determine just what part 
 of the job it was bought for. 
 
 A handy place should be marked off for a storage house and 
 its cost estimated. It is surprising what a number of small things 
 will be lost or mi.splaced without such storage. Roomy framing 
 plots, as level as possible, should be marked off and handy places 
 for machinery storage determined, keeping in mind pieces which 
 will be first used and their situation. The supply of gravel, sand 
 
2G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and rock must be looked into and arrangements made for its cheap 
 delivery at any point. All details for disposing of rock and earth 
 excavated with the least possible amount of handling should be 
 planned. 
 
 The labor question must be studied and complete arrangements 
 made for the comfort of the men. Their efficiency will vary di- 
 rectly with the conditions of their surroundings. Recently, in the 
 west, a so-called mining man who had never given human nature 
 a moment's thought attempted to build a mill in an out-of-the-way 
 place with no fit accommodations for anyone but himself. The 
 results were disastrous for the company. Good men could not be 
 kept and the mill was finished up at an excess in cost of more 
 than $50,000. Some of the tanks collapsed on their foundations 
 with the first filling. 
 
 The cost of all this preliminary work can be estimated by the 
 man on the ground; it averages from 5 to 10% of the total. If 
 it is neglected, confusion and delays throughout the job are the 
 inevitable result. Good organization is just as essential to the 
 construction of a plant as to its operation. 
 
 Cost of Miscellaneous Foundations. The following costs of the 
 foundations for an electrolytic lead refining plant at Grasselli, 
 Ind,, are taken from Engineering and Contracting, Mar, 12, 1913. 
 
 Cost of Engine Foundations. These foundations consisted of 
 heavy blocks of concrete built in pits excavated in sand to 4 ft, 
 below the level of the ground. The blocks extended 6 ft. above 
 ground level. Excavation and concreting are included in the costs 
 given but not the forms. The work was begun June 7 and com- 
 pleted July 6. The wages were 37,5 cts. per hour and the concrete 
 was hand mixed. 
 
 Concrete, cu. yds 399,2 
 
 Total cost $946.20 
 
 Labor cost per cu. yd 2.37 
 
 Cost of Furnace Foundations. This concrete was placed in small 
 excavations 4 ft. deep and no forms were employed. 
 
 Concrete, cu, yds 399.2 
 
 Total cost $106.80 
 
 Labor cost per cu, yd 1.70 
 
 Cost of Power House Foundations. The concrete foundations 
 for the building consisted of a wall about 20 ins. wide and 4 ft. 
 deep in sand under the four walls of the building. No forms were 
 used. The boiler foundations were simply large square blocks of 
 concrete 4 ft. deep. 
 
 Concrete, cu. yds., in boiler foundations 53 
 
 Concrete, cu. yds., in building foundations..,, 118 
 
 Concrete, eu, yds., total 171 
 
 Total labor cost $501.50 
 
 Cost of labor per cu. yd 2.93 
 
 Cost of Pump Foundations. These were foundations for boiler 
 feed pumps, centrifugal pumps for the condensers, and foundations 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING ' 265 
 
 for the feed water heater. They were small blocks of concrete set 
 in the sand and extending about a foot above the ground. Boxes 
 were made with templates for the foundation bolts. 
 
 Concrete, cu. yds 22.4 
 
 Total labor $73.20 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. labor 3.27 
 
 Cost of Scale Foundations. These foundations were for a nar- 
 row-gage track scale of the Howe type and they were built within 
 one of the buildings and required 3 days' work : 
 
 Concrete, cu. yds 23.4 
 
 Total cost of labor $30.80 
 
 Cost per cu. yd 1.30 
 
 Cost of Tank House Foundations. These foundations were about 
 20 ins. wide and 4 ft. deep and were built to support the walls 
 around a building 72 X 360 f-t. in plan. There were also piers 
 supporting the steel columns at 18-ft. intervals. The excavation 
 amounted to 365 cu. yds. of sand and is also included. 
 
 Concrete, cu. yds 287 
 
 Total labor $611.60 
 
 Cost per cu. yd 2.13 
 
 Cost of Erecting Miscellaneous Machinery, E. H. Jones (Bulletin 
 of American Institute of Mining Engineers, July, 1914) gives in 
 Table XXII the erection costs of machinery of the Arizona Smelter 
 Co., Clifton, Ariz. The costs of buildings for this plant are given 
 in the chapter on Buildings. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. COST AND ERECTION OF MACHINERY FOR 
 A SMELTER 
 
 7i— < 
 
 Ofl . O 5^ 
 
 '^^ -SS 
 
 ^- 3^ 
 
 Group No. 1 
 
 1. Two electrical feed 
 
 pumps 43,345. $0.87 
 
 2. Six No. 14 Wilgus 
 
 oil systems . . . 8,475. 1.32 
 
 3. Steam feed pumps 3,547. 1.05 
 
 4. Two Nordberg 
 
 blowers with air 
 
 receivers 383,242. 0.43 
 
 5. Three Curtis tur- 
 
 bines and ten 
 auto transform- 
 ers 454,140. 0.51 
 
 6. Two dry vacuum 
 
 pumps for jet 
 
 condenser 24,200. 1.18 
 
 7. T w o circulating 
 
 pumps 37,560. 0.98 
 
 Oo 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 4-1 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 tH 
 
 ;0.87 
 
 $6,187.56 
 
 $14.28 
 
 1.4 6 
 
 1.07 
 
 1,973.77 
 499.24 
 
 23.29 
 14.07 
 
 0.80 
 
 34,155.64 
 
 8.91 
 
 0.98 
 
 81,884.19 
 
 18.03 
 
 2.14 
 
 3,145.52 
 
 13.00 
 
 1.15 
 
 3,902.58 
 
 10.39 
 
266 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 go Co § f 
 
 8. Air compressor ... U7,8i0. 0.66 O.Sl .... 
 
 9. Three dry vacuum 
 
 pumps 14,000. 1.05 1.42 $3,337.36 $23.84 
 
 10. Three pumps and 
 
 engines 97.255. 0.40 0.58 9,118.69 9.38 
 
 11. Two 5 by 8 vertical 
 
 triplex pumps.. 11,354. 1.55 1,72 2,211.78- 19.48 
 
 1,174,958. $0.55 $0.92 $146,416.33 $13.59 
 
 Group No. 2 
 
 12. Two 40-ton Morgan 
 
 cranes 221,500. $0.65 $1.72 $23,027.65 $10.40 
 
 13. Two elinkering ma- 
 
 chines 169,213 1.01 1.44 15,697.17 9.28 
 
 14. Two casting ma- 
 
 chines 269,220. 1.21 1.37 27,477.55 10.21 
 
 659,933. $0.97 $1.50 $66,202.37 $10.03 
 
 Group No. 3 
 
 15. Farrell crusher, 36 
 
 by 18 50,000. $0.79 $0.80 $1,486.47 $2.96 
 
 16. Two motor-driven 
 
 fans at roaster 
 
 building 6,140. 1.27 1.32 1,483.60 24.16 
 
 17. Traveling hand 
 
 crane. 5 ton... 3,000. 0.84 1.50 589.55 19.65 
 
 20 ton... 25,200. 0.52 0.67 1,855.16 7.36 
 
 18. Three surface con- 
 
 densers 115,700. 0.36 0.47 19,978.86 17.27 
 
 19. One barometric con- 
 
 denser 8,132. 1.59 2.28 1,078.65 13.26 
 
 208,172. $0.56 $0.68 $26,472.29 $12.72 
 
 Group No. 4 
 
 20. Two exciters 54,300. $0.90 $1.59 $6,609.27 $12.17 
 
 21. Two 150 kw. syn- 
 
 chronous gener- 
 ator sets 41,898. 0.76 1.67 7,149.39 17.09 
 
 96,198. $0.84 $1.63 $13,758.66 $14.30 
 
 Group 1 contains the erection of engine machinery. It was here 
 necessary, in addition to handling heavy w^eights and placing on 
 the foundation, to clean, adjust, and line up many mechanical parts. 
 Group 2 is very similar to 1. but the machinery is not of the engine 
 type and not so heavy In proportion to the labor required to put 
 it in working order. Group 3 composes machinery that required 
 little other labor in the main than the lifting of heavy loads into 
 place. Group 4 is somev.'hat similar to Group 3, but the labor is 
 principally electrical. The above costs are reported as labor, erec- 
 tion, and total costs. The labor cost is self-explanatory. The 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 267 
 
 erection cost is the labor cost plus the needed small supplies, such 
 as waste, oil, small tools, and the like. The total cost is also self- 
 explanatory. Further details relating to the machinery in Table 
 XVIII are given in the following notes. 
 
 (1) Two Electrical Feed Pumps located back of the boilers were 
 lowered into the 13-ft. pit onto their foundations and set ready 
 for piping connections. They are two vertical triplex, 8- by 10 -in. 
 Aldrich, electrically driven pumps each attached with flexible coup- 
 lings to a 40-h.p. motor. The cost covers the material segregated 
 below and the labor of installing the same : 
 
 Factory Freight Total 
 
 Two 40-h.p. motors $1,700.00 $24.44 $1,724.44 
 
 Two vertical triplex pumps 2,794.00) 547.07 3,859.07 
 
 Spare parts for pumps 518.00 j 
 
 Miscellaneous 50.46 
 
 $5,633.97 
 
 In wiring the two 40-h.p. motors of the feed pumps to the 
 mains the material was as follows : 
 
 2 circuit breakers $ 31.70 
 
 Conduit and covering 85.20 
 
 Wiring and miscellaneous 60.99 
 
 $177.89 
 
 (2) Six No. U Wilgus Oil Systems. This account covers the 
 cost of 6 Wilgus oil pumps, asbestos covering for portions of these 
 pumps, the labor of installing the pumps, the labor of thoroughly 
 overhauling them, required because of the unsatisfactory condi- 
 tion existing in the leaking steam heating coils and the labor of 
 applying the asbestos covering. The 51^- by 3%- by 5-in. duplex 
 oil pumps were set directly on the concrete floor in front of the 
 oil-fired boilers. 
 
 (3) Steam Feed Pump. Here is given the labor of installing 
 and the material cost of one 10- by 6- by 12-in. duplex boiler 
 steam feed pump. This pump is located next to the two electrically 
 driven Aldrich pumps. 
 
 (4) Nordbery Blowers — Cost and Installation. This account 
 covers the cost of the material as listed below, together with the 
 labor of erecting. Engines are two Nordberg cross-compound 
 blowing engines, designed to compress 10,000 cu. ft. of free air 
 at an altitude of 3,500 ft. to 12 lbs. pressure, while 15 lbs. may 
 be carried if desired. The high-pressure steam cylinder is 20 
 ins., the low-pressure 42 ins., while the air cylinders are 44 ins., all 
 having the common stroke of 42 ins. The engines are furni.shed 
 160 lbs. steam pressure, superheated 75 degs. F. The speed is 
 71 r.p.m. The labor of grouting, and the labor of testing out and 
 starting up are included. 
 
 2 Nordberg blowing engines, with receivers. .$30,967.34 
 
 2 No. 34 crane tilt traps 107.78 . 
 
 Grout, etc 1,438.90 
 
 $32,514.02 
 
268 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 (5) Turbines ■ — Cost and Installation. This account covers the 
 purchase price of three Curtis turbines and material as listed 
 below, together with the labor of erection, grouting, wiring from 
 generator to switchboard, testing and starting up. The turbines 
 are 2,000-k.w, Curtis-type horizontal shaft engines and direct con- 
 nected to 2,500-k.v.a., 6,600-volt, 60-cycle, 3-phase, 1,900-r.p.m. 
 generators. The approximate size of each unit is 23 ft. 8 ins, long 
 by 10 ft. 6 ins. wide by 9 ft. 7 ins. high, with a net weight of 
 108,300 lbs. 
 
 3 turbines $77,828.10 
 
 486 gallons of gargoyle turbine oil . , 233.04 
 
 Grout, electrical material 1,525.35 
 
 $79,586.49 
 
 (6) Jet Condenser — Dry Vacuum Pumps. These air pumps re- 
 move the air from the barometric condenser and are located in the 
 power house. The account covers the cost of the material listed 
 below and the labor of erecting the same. 
 
 Two 15-h.p. slip ring motors, 440 volts, 3 phase, 60 cycles, 
 
 565-r.p.m,, with resistance controllers. $ 739.92 
 
 Two 16 by 12 single-stage Alberger dry vacuum pumps... 1,888.82 
 
 2 circuit breakers 39.88 
 
 Grout, cable, condulets, etc 191.99 
 
 $2,860.01 
 
 (7) Circulating Pump — Cost and Erection. These air pumps 
 furnish the circulating water for the barometric condenser. The 
 cost includes the price of the material listed and the labor of in- 
 stalling. 
 
 Two 35-h.p., 440-voIt, 60-cycle. 570-r.p.m. motors $1,687.50 
 
 Two 2 Lobe cycloidal jumps, 14 by 12, 17.8 gal. per rev. . 2,341.41 
 
 2 oil switches, 6G0 volt 39.89 
 
 Miscellaneous 66.88 
 
 $3,535.68 
 
 (8) Air Compressor — Erection. This account covers only the 
 erection at the smelter of the following IngersoU-Rand tv,'0-stage 
 compressor. It was brought from the mines and erected at the 
 smelter power house. The compressor has a steam-driven cross- 
 compound Corliss engine. The steam cylinders are 13 in. and the 
 air cylinders are 22 in. and 13 in. and the common stroke is 36 in. 
 
 (9) Three Dry Vac^uim Pu))ips — Cost and histallation. These 
 pumps are for the surface condensers. The account covers their 
 cost, erection, grouting and trying out. They weighed 14,000 lbs. 
 
 3 dry vacuum pumps 8-in. steam by 20-in. air by 12-in. 
 
 stroke $3,136.11 
 
 Grout, packing, etc 53.99 
 
 $3,190.10 
 
 (10) Three Circulating Pumps and Engines — Cost and Installa- 
 tion. These pumps furnish the circulating water for the surface 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 269 
 
 condensers. The account covers the cost of the material licted 
 below and the labor of erecting and trying out. 
 
 3 Lobe, 18 bv 20. cycloidal pumps, capacity 49.5 gallons 
 
 per rev., and three 27-in. flexible couplings $4,425.25 
 
 Three 11 by 14 Ridgway, simple balanced, slide-valve 
 
 engine.^ for direct connection to above pumps 4,124.60 
 
 Grout, packing, etc 179.43 
 
 $8,729.37 
 
 (11) Pumps. This account covers the cost of the following ma- 
 terial and its erection in the pump house. 
 
 Two 5 by 8 Aldrich vertical triplex, single-acting pumps, 
 
 37 r.p.m. with metallic packing $1,597.91 
 
 Two 10-h.p. induction motors, squirrel-cage, 3-phase, 60- 
 
 cycle, 440-volt, 850-r.p.m 287.22 
 
 2 auto starters 
 
 2 overload releases calibrated from 6 to 18 ampere per ter- 
 minal 124.36 
 
 Miscellaneous • 26.09 
 
 $2,035.58 
 
 (12) Cranes. This covers the cost of two 40-ton Morgan cranes 
 and the labor of installing them on the craneway, and putting 
 together the equipment ready for operation. It does not include 
 the wiring. They were hoisted in place on the craneway by the 
 use of two erecting engines. These cranes are of 40-ton capacity, 
 have 4 four motors, span 55 ft. from rail to rail, and are rigged 
 for a 50-ft. lift. Each crane has a 15-ton auxiliary hoist. 
 
 (13) Clinkering Machines. These two machines are set 24 ft. 
 above the floor of the converter building on structural steel sup- 
 ports. The steel supports are a part of the converter building 
 and have been costed in that account. The main body of the 
 jnachine, the mixer, is the frustrura of a cone 13 ft. 6 ins. long, 
 whose head end is 5 ft. diameter and whose discharge end is 
 9 ft. 6 ins. diameter. It is made of %-in. steel plate, lined with 
 1-in. cast-iron liners. The whole is mounted on trunnions oper- 
 ated by a 50-h.p. motor. The ladle which feeds the converter slag 
 into the head end is 60 cu. ft. capacity and is tilted by a screw 
 oper.ated by a 15-h.p. motor. 
 
 The feeder which lets siliceous ore into the head end to ag- 
 glomerate with the slag extends from the silica bins to a pipe 
 discharging into the dropping stream of slag. It is a screw con- 
 veyor 4 ft. 91/4 ins. long. Each machine has a hqod connected 
 to a steel flue 2 ft. 6 ins. diameter by 36 ft. 8 ins. long, leading 
 Into the converter dust chamber. 
 
 The machinery for two machines enumerated above cost . $11,872.82 
 
 Two 50-h.p. motors as above 828.61 
 
 Two 15-h.p. motors as above 820.16 
 
 2 V)rakes for ladle tiT)ping motor 176.51 
 
 2 traveling switches for brakes 1 36.4 4 
 
 2 circuit breakers 102.80 
 
 Miscellaneous 4 4.60 
 
 $13,981.94 
 
270 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 This cost includes the price of the machines and the cost of 
 installing them. 
 
 (14) Casting Machine — Cost and Erection. This account cov- 
 ers the cost of ail the material composing 2 casting machines, 
 and all the labor required to erect on their foundations ready to 
 operate. Each machine has a steel cradle to receive a ladle of 
 molten copper. This cradle is controlled from a pulpit and is 
 tipped by the power from a 20-h.p. motor. It is set high enough 
 to pour into a casting spoon of IV^-in. cast iron whose approxi- 
 mate dimensions are 2 ft. wide by 3 ft. 6i/^ ins. long, and from 
 7 ins. to 1 ft. 5V^ ins. deep. This casting spoon pours into the 
 moulds, which are attached to a heavy steel conveyor. The 
 moulds are 39 in number, made of 2V^-in. cast iron reinforced 
 with 'yjo-in. perforated plate. Their inside dimensions are 2 ft. 4 
 ins. by 1 ft. 6^4 ins. by 3^4 ins. deep. From the pulpit, by use 
 of power from a 20-h.p. motor, the conveyor with the moulds 
 moves along under a spray of water from needle holes in pipes 
 placed above them until they reach the end of the conveyor, where 
 a device in the bottom of the moulds loosens the ingots, allowing 
 them to drop into a tank of water. This bosh is made of ^le-in. 
 plate, 3 by 3 and 4 by 3 angles. It is 7 ft. wide, 23 ft. 5% ins. 
 long, and varies in depth from 7 ft. 10 ins. to 2 ft. 10 ins. The 
 copper bars are removed from here by a .steel drag conveyor oper- 
 ated by a 11-h.p. motor, controlled from the pulpit. When the bars 
 leave the bosh and fall onto the striking plate they are handled 
 by a radial crane whose moving end travels on a 40-ft. curved 
 I-beam. Along the radial crane beam travels a small air hoist 
 capable of picking up 1 ton. It operates undar an air pressure 
 of 16 lbs. A jib crane is so located, attached to a building column, 
 that it can handle the moulds for removing and replacing. It has 
 a 3,000-lb. capacity triplex block and 8-in. I-beam trolley. Below 
 is a segregated material list : 
 
 2 casting machines $18,657.89 
 
 Two 11-h.p. and four 20-h.p. motors 2,933.88 
 
 2 jib cranes 327.22 
 
 2 radial cranes 1,167.91 
 
 2 traveling switches 135.75 
 
 2 brakes for ladle tipping motors 176.51 
 
 4 circuit breakers 103.50 
 
 Moulds, etc. 708.55 
 
 $24,211.21 
 
 (15) Crushing Machinery. This account covers the material cost 
 and labor of installing the following machinery : 
 
 One 36-in, by 18-in. Farrell Crusher, second hand, weight 
 
 50.000 lbs $1,000.00 
 
 Miscellaneous lumber 93.61 
 
 $1,093.61 
 
 (16) Motor-driven Fans. This covers the price and cost of in- 
 stalling upon their foundations 2 motor-driven fans, which furnish 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 271 
 
 the air to cool the roaster arms. They are 55-in. double width, 
 full housing conoidal fans, direct connected, each with a 25-h.p. 
 squirrel-cage induction motor. 
 
 Each fan has a capacity of 22,000 cu. ft. of air per minute against 
 a pressure of 1% ins. water. 
 
 Cost Freight Total 
 
 2 fans and motors $1,203.00 $199.49 $1,402.49 
 
 Miscellaneous 3.42 
 
 $1,405.91 
 
 (17) Crane. This covers the purchase of the crane listed below, 
 the labor of overhauling and erecting it. 
 
 One 5-ton hand power traveling crane, chain block trans- 
 fer type 18-ft. span, complete with roller bushed geared 
 trolley and provided with 5-ton triplex chain block for 
 13 ft. lift $378.35 
 
 Miscellaneous 60.06 
 
 $438.41 
 
 (18) Condensers — Cost and Installation. This covers the cost 
 of 3 Alberger surface condensers and the labor of placing and 
 grouting them in position. Each condenser has 7,600 sq. ft. of 
 surface. 
 
 3 Condensers $19,436.04 
 
 Grouting, etc 127.51 
 
 $19,563.55 
 
 (19) Jet Condenser — Cost and Erection. This covers the cost 
 of one 28-in. Alberger type " F," barometric jet condenser and erec- 
 tion above a tank. 
 
 (20) Jet Condenser — Hot Well Supporting Structure and Tank. 
 This account covers the cost and erection of 5.76 tons of steel. 
 There was a quadrangular tower 19 ft. 6 ins. high, with about 
 12 ft. base, surmounted with a 10 ft. diameter by 8 ft. 6 in. high 
 steel tank. 
 
 (21) Two Motor Generator's — Cost and Installation. This ac- 
 count covers the material listed below as well as the labor of un- 
 loading, erecting, grouting, wiring to switchboard, and trying out. 
 
 Two 150-k.-w. synchronous motor-generator sets to supply 
 
 250 volt d.c $6,450.16 
 
 Conduit and wire 317.36 
 
 Miscellaneous 62.81 
 
 $6,830.33 
 
 Installation of Pelton and Doble Wheels of 3,000 to 4,000 h. p. 
 in general takes about 30 days' time of an erecting engineer at $10 
 a day and expenses and 6 men at $2.50 to $3 per day, making a 
 total cost for the installation of about $1,100, or $50 per ton. 
 
 Weight of Electrical Apparatus and Prime Movers. Leonard A. 
 Doggett (Electrical World, May 3, 1913) gives curves of approxi- 
 mate weights prepared after consulting the bulletins of American 
 
272 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and European manufacturers, periodicals and textbooks, the only- 
 requirement being that the data must be less than 10 years old 
 and preferably not over 5 years. See Fig-s. 3, 4 and 5. 
 
 Logarithmic paper was used, because it gives straight line plots 
 and is economical of space. Curves of this nature can easily be 
 Interpolated as the dotted curves, whereby the weight of the 
 smallest motors and transformers can be easily estimated. In 
 
 4500 
 
 'WOO 
 
 4400 
 ^ 4200 
 ^ 4400 
 ^ 3&00 
 •5* 3600 
 I 3400 
 r^ 3200 
 § 3000 
 "S 2300 
 % .2600 
 g 2400 
 % 2200 
 a 2000 
 ■ S 1900 
 ^ l&OO 
 Z KOO 
 J 1200 
 
 1000 
 
 800 
 
 ^0 
 
 2040 WSOiOCKOWOieO 180 200 220- 240 2W 250 300 32Q3W 369 380 400 
 5ire& of Generators ir>K,VA. 
 
 Fig. 3. Cost of directly connected engine (#iven D C and A C 
 generators installed under ordinary conditions, bases being fin-- 
 ni.shed by engme contractor. »jciiis lui 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~7\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 ^'> 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ,*./! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 /■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /•' 
 
 x- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 '/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 C( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 using the curves it should be noted that for transformers the upper 
 scale is to be used. For the machines "pounds" means weight 
 of active material plus weight of shaft, spider, bearings, etc. ; 
 in other words, the total weight of the machine. In the case of 
 alternators the abscissas are (kva.) -- (r.p.m.) ; for induction mo- 
 tors (kw. output) -f- (r.p.m.). 
 
 Any of these curves for electrical apparatus can be expressed in 
 the form of an equation, for example : 
 
 Weight in pounds of a transformer, including case and 
 
 oil - 1800 
 
 / kva. \ 
 
 \ frequency / 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 273 
 
 Setting Horizontal Return Tubular Boilers. The following data 
 are abstracted from a publication of The Big-elow Company, New 
 Haven, Conn. The first thing- necessary to secure a setting that 
 will remain tight and free from cracking is a good foundation. 
 This should be prepared before the arrival of the boiler. When a 
 boiler arrives it should be carefully unloaded and transported to 
 the site of erection. One should remember that it is made up of a 
 number of plates riveted together, and that the tightness of each 
 tube depends upon two expanded joints ; therefore a boiler should 
 be handled with care. Pipes or bars should never be stuck in the 
 tubes to aid in moving the boiler. 
 
 100.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 100,000 
 
 1000 Iba 
 
 Pounds 
 
 1.0 
 Multiple Logarithmic 
 
 ^ KW 
 
 " exm: 
 
 100 
 £l«etrUal World 
 
 Fig. 4. Curves for obtaining approximate weight of prime movers. 
 
 Place the boiler in the correct position with the front properly 
 set up before commencing the brickwork. When a boiler is to be 
 supported on lugs resting on the brickwork, place it y^ in. higher 
 than the desired final position, to allow for lowering on the brick- 
 work when the supports are removed. If a boiler is to be hung 
 from beams it can be placed in the correct position at once. No 
 weight should be carried by the boiler front. To insure against 
 this leave % to % in. clearance between the bottom of the shell 
 and the front. This is especially important in the lug-supported 
 type in order to allow for settling. 
 
 The front end of a boiler should be set 1 in. higher than the 
 rear to aid in draining through the blow-off pipe when washing 
 out. This also allows an extra inch depth of water over the rear 
 tube ends, a precaution against damage from low water. In 
 leveling a boiler cros.swise consider two points, the top line of 
 tubes and the face of the steam nozzle. 
 
274 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Barrels are preferable to blocking for supporting a boiler while 
 the setting walls are being built, for they are less in the way of 
 the masons. Two heavy oil barrels will support a 66-in. by IC-ft. 
 boiler, if the blocking below them and on top is arranged so that the 
 load is distributed evenly over all the staves. Use more barrels for 
 larger boilers and arrang*} the blocking on top so that the load 
 will be distributed evenly between the barrels. If good barrels 
 are not available, a cribwork of blocks placed under the front 
 and rear of the sheU will serve the purpose. Care should be used 
 in the arrangement of the blocking so that it will not interfere 
 with the building of the setting walls. 
 
 0.01 
 
 (O.Ol-For use— 0,001) 
 with dotted lines 
 
 Fig. 5. Curves for obtaining approximate weight of electrical 
 apparatus. 
 
 Some masons use common lime mortar in building boiler set- 
 tings, but a much better and more lasting job can be obtained by 
 adding cement to the bonding mixture. First mix regular lime 
 mortar, using % cu. yd. of good, sharp sand to 1 bbl. of lime. 
 Then make a mixture of sand and cement, using 2 bbls. of sand 
 to 1 bbl. or 4 bags of cement ; add this to the lime mortar and 
 then it is ready for use. and this quantity should be enough to 
 lay about 1.000 bricks. If all the mortar cannot be u-^ed at once, 
 the sand and cement mixture should be added only to such portion 
 of the lime mortar as will be reciuired for immediate use. It is 
 difTicult to keep it in proi)er condition for use overnight after the 
 cement has been added. Fire-cl;iy only should be used for bond- 
 ing, in laying fire-brick. For this purpose mix it with water to 
 about the consistency of buttermilk, so that the bricks may be 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 275 
 
 dipped in it and rubbed together when laying them. About 2 bbls. 
 of fire-clay are required to lay 1,000 bricks. 
 
 To estimate the amount of common bricks required for a boiler 
 setting, figure the number of cu. ft. of wall to be laid with this 
 kind of brick, and multii)ly Ijy 23 ; the result will be the numbi^r 
 of bricks required. In making calculations no deductions should 
 be made for openings in the setting walls for cleaning doors, etc. ; 
 the waste from breakage and cutting will require the extra brick 
 figured in this way. Where fire lining is laid iV^ ins. thick and 
 with every sixth course a header, figure 8 fire-bricks for each 
 square foot of wall surface lined in this manner. If the lining 
 is to be 9 ins. thick and with every sixth course tied to the common 
 brick with a header, figure in 15 bricks for every square foot of 
 wall surface lined. 
 
 Return tubular boilers are set with an air-spaced wall. This 
 lessens the radiation losses by keeping down the temperature of 
 the exposed wall surface. The chief advantage of the air-space 
 construction, however, is that when properly built it tends to pre- 
 vent the cracking of the outer wall surface and therefore makes 
 a better-looking setting. An important point in the designing of 
 setting walls, to prevent cracking, is the method u.sed to join the 
 ends of the bridge wall with the side walls. Usually a mason will 
 build the two at the same time and tie the bridge wall rigidly to 
 the side walls. This will result in cracked side walls, because the 
 bridge wall expands when heated and pushes out the side walls. 
 "With the wall having an air space this does not necessarily show 
 on the outer wall unless the two are tied together at this point. 
 
 There are two ways of preventing trouble from expansion of the 
 bridge wall, one by leaving the ends of the bridge wall about an 
 inch away from the side walls, packing the space with asbestos or 
 mineral wool. The elasticity of the packing allows for the ex- 
 pansion of the bridge wall and it prevents the space from becom- 
 ing clogged with ashes and cinders. The other way is to build 
 a recess about 4^^ ins. deep in the side walls having the same 
 .shape as a vertical section of the bridge wall, and build the ends 
 of the bridge wall into this recess, leaving 1 1^ ins. of clearance 
 at each end for expansion. 
 
 The chief function of a bridge wall is to limit the length of 
 grate surface by presenting a barrier beyond which the spreading 
 of the fuel is prevented ; it also aids in mingling the unburned 
 gases and air, so as to cause complete combustion before reaching 
 the tubes. Where girth seams are located in the vicinity of the 
 bridge wall, the top of the wall .should be so shaped and of such 
 a distance below the shell that the products of combustion will not 
 strilve directly against the seam. Leave at least 10 or 14 ins. be- 
 tween the top of the bridge wall and the shell to prevent over- 
 heating of the .sheets, even in the absence of seams. The top of 
 the bridge wall should be built straight across, and not follow the 
 contour of the shell as is sometimes done. 
 
 The combu.stion chamber at the rear of the bridge wall is a very 
 important feature. It aids complete combustion, especially if 
 
276 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 bituminous coal is used. The rear edge of the bridge wall should 
 be built vertically, and the space behind it down to about the level 
 of the floor should be left open. The deep combustion chamber 
 at the rear of the bridge wall causes a whirl in the air and gases 
 coming over it and greatly aids in their proper mixture. It also 
 increases storage capacity for the fine ash and cinder that is car- 
 ried beyond the bridge wall. 
 
 The practice of filling the space behind the bridge wall cannot 
 be too strongly condemned, for it seriously interferes with the 
 accessibility for inspection of the most important surfaces of the 
 boiler, and is certain to prevent complete combustion, especially 
 if bituminous coal is used. It is easier to clean out the combus- 
 tion chamber by arranging the bottom of it so that the blow-off 
 pipe passes out below the paving. The cleanout door, which is 
 usually located in the rear wall, should be placed on a level with 
 the paving so that no obstacle is offered to raking out the ashes. 
 Place the blow-off pipe in a brick trough, the bricks on top being 
 arranged so that they may be readily removed for inspection. 
 This arrangement admits the blow-off pipe being placed" above 
 the boiler-room floor without interfering with free access to the 
 cleanout door. The vertical section of the blow-off pipe should 
 be protected from the direct impingement of the flames by use of a 
 pipe sleeve over it. 
 
 Some engineers prefer to line all the inner surfaces that are 
 swept by flame and heated gases with fire-brick, and while this 
 makes a good and lasting setting it adds considerably to the cost. 
 If the front wall and the side walls as far as the bridge wall are 
 lined, together with the face of bridge wall, and the balance of 
 the setting is laid with good, hard-burned red brick, a satisfac- 
 tory and very durable job will result. Every fifth or sixth course 
 of fire-brick should be a header course to properly bind the lining 
 to the main wall. When laying the fire-brick care should be taken 
 to use only the minimurn amount of fire-clay for bonding. 
 
 When a boiler is set with a Dutch oven, there is absolute need 
 of binder bars or their equivalent to carry the thrust of the arch, 
 but no such need exists with the ordinary return tubular setting 
 where the boiler is hung, and probably not where the boiler is 
 supported by lugs resting on the setting walls. 
 
 Proper provision to allow freedom for expansion of the shell 
 must be made if the cracking of the setting walls is to be pre- 
 vented. The walls should be left about 1 in. from the shell of the 
 boiler at all points, and this space can be closed with asbestos 
 rope or plastic asbestos to prevent air leakage into the setting. 
 Pockets should be left in the brickwork around the rear supporting 
 lugs so that there will be no chance for the lugs to push against 
 the walls. A point where clearance is of vital importance is- 
 around the pipe connection to the water column and blow-off. 
 Unless there is proper freedom allowed at these points there is 
 danger of the piping being broken off. 
 
 Where boilers are hung from beams and supported on columns 
 and more than one boiler is used, a column is often placed in the 
 
o 
 
 N 
 
 
 S« 
 
 K^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 Sffi 
 
 H H 
 
 H?^ 
 
 «^:/).2? 
 
 FOR 
 ILER 
 . (F 
 
 O^ 
 
 WfQ^ 
 
 h°^ 
 
 ^ <^ 
 
 %ip 
 
 tf PQ 2 
 
 'P'^i*^ 
 
 MEAS 
 URN T 
 CHAN 
 
 . h 
 
 -a 
 
 
 XJ • 
 
 1^ 
 
 w ^ 
 
 J 
 
 CQ 
 
 <1 
 
 en 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 WL">a J" J3»»M »l»uraoislclv 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 \ i. § 1 1 1 1 1 1. ti 
 
 222;:S;;SSS?|| 
 
 
 w.g )0 jqFraM Ituontppv 1 
 
 ' 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 S S i g i 5.111 1 
 
 
 j>«ajoiii»BM'>«'n™''j<»'iv : 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 11 ill 11 Hill 
 
 
 «»jq«'">qviJns)"ii»PH 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 sssgss^gs 
 
 
 fisjnilx^'^ixns JO iwm.ia 1 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 g 
 
 ?!gS3SgS55 
 
 
 jsiion 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 «r>,,015^0,22 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 i s i S S § 1 § 1 
 
 
 «) ,oua uom-iioo 10 i*4u/nN | 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 qjus-i js|io3 1 
 JO looj W ),oua uom 
 -moo ;o jsqoinN [mionrppv | 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S g 1 i g i 1 § 
 
 
 JO JiTO,"o*jit.n Mirajnj 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 i 1 1 i i, g i i 1 
 
 
 j=poa >|3>ns 
 ioj son Joou »Aoq» r»jml»i 
 VWa oomraoo JO jjqiunN | 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 « 
 
 1 i i S i i 1 i s 
 
 2 - .2 ;: S S S 8 3 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 soil joou 1 
 " n.M ■>«>^-0 JO 1'P!M 1 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 SggSSSS^SS 
 
 
 xjKwa oi «Jsnoa jo jsio^ | 
 
 Ol mmo mojj aooviBiQ | 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 «, 
 
 
 
 »noa <1M«1^ jrau m 03<:ds- i 
 
 ^ 
 
 s. 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 S35gggg?S 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aojog JO <Joi 01 9an loou 
 
 . a 
 
 ■t 
 
 « 
 
 'o 
 
 !:::::=:: 
 
 
 j"S jpisjspa.T 01 iaiT joou 
 
 - 
 
 
 f 
 
 .^ 
 
 sssssssss 
 
 
 . imij irisnoa 
 
 X 
 
 2. 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 ggS = 3SgSS 
 
 
 OTHioou 
 
 OIOJJ tlUM JO iq^BH 
 
 « 
 
 & 
 
 ° 
 
 !^ 
 
 <"»»»22a = = 
 
 
 »u!ii>s ^oua JO q'pm ' 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 son»8 vug » <r»»on- 
 
 ^ 
 
 7. 
 
 = 
 
 2 
 
 22283 nSSS 
 
 
 U«A\ "OJJ JO Bjtmonix 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 raoiioa 
 
 X Mjtfs JIV q»ia-! qi'« 
 
 ^.VV »p.8 0... JO naoviqj. 
 
 ^ 
 
 '= 
 
 S^ 
 
 s 
 
 SSSS-ggggg 
 
 
 t|p>.^i jpitTij JO eiairiSfqX 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 S28SS8S-i;g 
 
 
 -1 
 
 »!»ojnj JO qipi.tt 
 
 - 
 
 = 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 3 5 3 S g f.' S 3 g- 
 
 
 oOTOinj JO qiaoaq 
 
 
 = 
 
 g 
 
 5 
 
 3. :^5JSg3St 
 
 
 • laojj n wiiog JO 
 spmspon o] 8HU0 )o 001 
 
 -, 
 
 = 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 SgggsgSSS 
 
 
 OTSJO JO dox Ol son joou 
 
 - 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 5 
 
 gSC;S5gSSg- 
 
 
 ^.,0 )o iol^'Jon ioou 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 SS?J5SSS5!S 
 
 
 1 
 
 »1"°M )0 mjm.ia 
 
 
 = 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 »iOq« KliWN JO jqJpH 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 » 
 
 jr 
 
 ?sss5df?:sj 
 
 
 jDl»a »ioq« "noa JO iqW-.'H 
 
 fa 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 «SgSg5ti55 
 
 
 tmOQ JO mamsig 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 5g3SS3255 
 
 
 »»3qg oi»uno tn 
 
 
 = 
 ± 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 3 ;! 2 2 ^ g S £ 2 
 
 
 
 :? ? y y X i' X r 
 
 
 
 
 »2_22_2-» 
 
 
 • ,»qs oiwrno JO ^^3v=rl 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 = 
 
 t; 
 
 :2::22s?:ss 
 
 
 soqnX 10 q)3oyi 
 
 " 
 
 i 
 
 <« 
 
 = 
 
 2222£2ggg 
 
 
 
 
 
 nv »*o »i>oa JO <n*»i 
 
 - 
 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 S2i'.:22sS£! 
 
 
 wnofl 10 iMxireia 
 
 < 
 
 
 g 
 
 3 
 
 SJSSKKSgg 
 
 ^SModasJOj-i 
 
 *S?PS§E8|2S 
 
 277 
 
278 MECHANICML AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 dividing wall between boilers ; where this is the case too great 
 care cannot be exercised to keep such columns from being over- 
 heated. There should be at least 13 ins. of brickwork between the 
 column and the fire and a 2-in. air space around the column, 
 with free ventilation in this space. To accomplish this, air 
 should be admitted near the bottom of the column through an 
 open duct not less than 10 ins. square, and with free opening at the 
 top. These requirements, where a column 8 ins. in diameter is 
 used, mean that the minimum wall thickness between the boilers 
 at the grate level must be 38 ins. 
 
 Floor Space for Reciprocating Engines. H. A. Lardner (Trans- 
 actions American Institute of Electrical Engineers, April, 1903) 
 states that the floor .space required is affected more by the design 
 than the size of the unit. Vertical space has proved cheaper than 
 floor space. The floor space required per h. p. at 3 central sta- 
 tions in New York is as follows : 
 
 Units, h.-p. Sq. ft. per h.-p. 
 
 Edison station 5,500 .33 
 
 Metropolitan station . . •. 4,500 .50 
 
 Manhattan Station 8.000 ,55 
 
 Cost of Space for Different Types of Boilers. C. R. D. Meier 
 (Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 22, 1913) in comparing the 
 space occupied, per rated horse power, by the various types of 
 boilers, shows the cost of floor space per boiler horse power. Tak- 
 ing the cost per sq. ft. as $10, for example, we note that the cost 
 per boiler hor.se power with Type A is $7.84; with Type A with 
 alleys. $8 96; with Type C, $11.50; with Type B, $13.50, and with 
 Type D, $13.32, Type A being the horizontal pass type boiler; B, 
 vertical baffle, horizontal water tube boilers. No. 1 with inclined 
 header.s No. 2 with vertical headers, and No. 3 with a cross-dium 
 and vertical headers, this reducing the head room ; C, inclined water 
 tube boilers. No. 1, being a standard setting and No. 2 arranged 
 with A -shaped furnace; D, horizontal boiler with steel water legs 
 instead of sectional headers, as in Type B. It has 4-in. tubes, ver- 
 tical baffles, and a tube spacing similar to Type A. so that the space 
 occupied is approximately the same as for Type B. 
 
 Money Valve of Head Room. The different head room require- 
 ments with the boilers under consideration are given below. 
 
 COMPARATIVE HEIGHTS AND COSTS FOR DIFFERENT 
 TYPES OF BOILERS 
 
 Type of 
 boiler 
 
 Ht.ft. 
 
 Add'l. ht. 
 
 comp'd. 
 
 to A 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 % 
 
 Add'l. cost of 
 
 boiler plant 
 
 bldg., acc't. 
 
 greater ht. 
 
 per hp. 
 
 A 
 Bi 
 
 B2 
 
 Ba 
 Ci 
 
 c, 
 
 D 
 
 22.00 
 26.25 
 
 
 
 4.25_ 
 
 
 19.3 
 
 0.00 
 0.24 
 
 23.60 
 30.00 
 33.50 
 24.00 
 
 1.60 
 
 8.00 
 
 11.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 6.8 
 36.4 
 52.3 
 
 8.7 
 
 0.09 
 0.46 
 0.65 
 0.11 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 279 
 
 It now remains to determine the money value of head room so that 
 these costs may be properly combined with the floor space figures. 
 
 We may assume $5 per boiler h. p. as an average cost of a 
 boiler plant building alone, as corresponding to the average value 
 of $10 \)er sq. ft. for the cost of building foundations and real 
 estate. It is unnecessary to analyze the money value of head 
 room for a range of values of boiler plants from the minimum to 
 the maximum, because this item is less important than floor space. 
 
 Obviously, the height of the boiler plant building will not affect 
 the cost of real estate afid, and for all practical purposes, the cost 
 of foundations. Furthermore, increasing the height of the boiler 
 room does not increase its cost so much in proportion as does an 
 increase in the plan area of the building. The reason for this is 
 that the side walls and columns may be increased in height at a 
 less cost than the roof construction. We shall therefore' assume 
 that doubling the height of the building increases its cost only 
 50%, whereas if the cubical contents were increased the same 
 amount by making the floor area double, the cost would be in- 
 creased 1009^. In the second place, an increase of a certain per- 
 centage in the height of a boiler does not increase the height of 
 the boiler room by the same amount ; the clearance above the 
 boilers remains practically the same in any case. We shall there- 
 fore make the further assumption that an increase in the height 
 of a boiler of 100%. instead of increasing the height of the boiler 
 room by 100%, increases that dimension only 50%. 
 
 Total Saving per Boiler Horse Power. Table XXIV shows the 
 additional costs, due to increased floor space and head room, of the 
 different types of boiler as compared with Type A without 6-ft. 
 alleys between batteries. These costs are evaluated on a basis of 
 $10 per sq. ft., which is a fair average. The costs due to greater 
 heights are taken from the calculations above, which were made 
 on a basis of the cost of a boiler plant building of $5 per h. p, 
 which would correspond to $10 per sq. ft. for buildings, real estate 
 and foundations. 
 
 It is seen that, compared with Type A without alleys (for hand 
 firing and a few types of stokers), the additional cost for the 
 various other types of boilers ranges from $3.49 to $5.90 per h. p. 
 As compared to Type A with alleys (the general condition for 
 stokers), the additional cost ranges from $2.37 to $4.78 per boiler 
 h. p. If, instead of considering the one basis of $10 per sq. ft., 
 we consider the upper and lower limits of $22 and $3.50, it is evi- 
 dent that the saving in space occupied, with the Type A boiler, as 
 compared to the various other types, is worth from $1 to $10 per 
 boiler h. p. 
 
 Money Value of Floor Space. The money value of space saved 
 will depend on : 
 
 (1) The cost of real estate. 
 
 (2) The cost of foundations. 
 
 (3) The cost of the power plant building. 
 
 Power plants, factories and industrial plants are generally lo- 
 
280 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 281 
 
 cated where real estate is cheap, but nevertheless in many cases 
 the cost of the site will be 50 to 100% of the cost of the building 
 itself. (Power, Jan. 26, 1909, p. 219.) 
 
 The cost of the generator station building, and of the land oc- 
 cupied, of the Edison Electric Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn, is $29 
 per kw. (Engineering and Contracting. April 6, 1910), and as the 
 cost of the building probably lies between $10 and ?20, the land 
 and the building are about equally expensive. 
 
 As against this upper extreme, we have such plants as factories 
 in outlying districts of small towns where the cost of real estate 
 might be as low as 25 cts. per sq. ft. Between these values lie 
 the factories, breweries, mills and similar plants, in medium-sized 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 } 
 
 yy 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 7^ 
 
 « '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // ^> 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 5 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 M 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 ^ " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .:^ 
 
 /^ 
 
 ■^ v; 
 
 y 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 y: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S^/V^VAA 
 
 ^J^^f 
 
 \.^? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C lA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '// 
 
 M 
 
 /f\ 
 
 \.^/w/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ <2v^ 
 
 I 
 
 '// 
 
 y 
 
 h 
 
 
 oV 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 .!> 
 
 \^^y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VP 
 
 ^// 
 
 }/ 
 
 ^>^.e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 1/1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 / 
 
 w 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « '0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^/ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 '' 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ I 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 Y 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■fe- ' 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 V 
 
 
 'y 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^: 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 P 
 
 (/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^. 
 
 . 
 
 
 // 
 
 ^/ 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <^c 
 
 
 
 '^< 
 
 (/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •J O t Z. :i a 5 6 7 & 9 10 11 IZ 13 14 i5 16 n 15 19 SO 2/ £t tS 14 Z5 
 
 Coshpf Real Estate, Foundations ^Boiler Plant Building Per 5q Ft in Dotiars^ 
 
 Fig. 7. Relation of cost per sq. ft. of floor space, to cost per boiler 
 hp. of various types of boilers. 
 
 cities. "We must also consider isolated plants in cities and shall 
 assume the following limits for the value of real estate : Real 
 estate, 25 cts. to $10 per sq. ft. 
 
 In a paper on " Steam Power Plants," by O. S. Lyford and R. 
 W. Stovel, in the January, 1911, Proceedings of the Engineers' 
 Society of Western Pennsylvania, it is pointed out that foundation 
 costs range from $1.25 to $4 per sq. ft. of building plan area, 
 depending upon the character of the soil. The lower figure covers 
 simple concrete footings for. good bearing soil, while the higher 
 figure covers locations where piling or rock excavation is required. 
 We shall assume the same figures, viz. : Foundations, $1.25 to 
 $4 per sq. ft. 
 
 The same paper states that power plant buildings cost $4 to 
 
282 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 q ui w Co^ ^-2 
 
 CD oxi 
 
 <1 
 
 a<w 
 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 ft'*' • o 
 
 4J<H 
 
 m O 
 o 
 
 TO iH Ol O >j 
 
 ft o 
 U 
 
 pi 
 
 o 
 p 
 
 Ocousco p^ 
 
 €«■ p 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 H 
 Ai 
 <^ 
 
 <1 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 !> 
 
 X 
 
 H 
 
 (U 0) OJ OJ ^ 
 
 Gftftft 
 
 eqocooo 
 th focotn 
 
 <0 O^ 4J 
 
 
 
 o . 
 
 oS ft' 
 
 ft '. 
 
 zl ^ 
 
 T3 ft 
 <1 
 
 . O C<l S^5 Tt< 
 
 ■ do'o 
 
 S ft; 
 
 o >.< 
 
 ^Sft 
 
 o ft 
 
 ft^.^^ 
 d o m 
 
 
 O r-i CO (TOio 
 
 00 Ol S0 10 03 
 t-CX)THTHfO 
 
 ) U5 <0 
 > O o 
 
 co'co 1-1 
 iHOOOO 
 
 
 
 ^t^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 ® <D <X) (D 0) 
 
 ftft ftftft 
 
 i-C O J^ t^ 
 3 H c3 ft 
 
 bo 
 
 0000 
 
 1^ o 
 
 §|gS 
 
 
 <1§ 
 
 •ss 
 
 0.5 
 
 <D (D (U (U 
 
 ftftftft 
 
 He<EHei 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 283 
 
 $12 per kw. and that the plan area will average from 0.8 to 1.5 
 .sq. ft. per kw., giving a cost per .sq. ft. of from $2.70 to $15. 
 
 In Power, of Aug. 22, 1911, p. 274, A. E. Dixon cites a case of 
 a power* plant building in the Middle West of 1,600 kw. where the 
 building cost was .|2.35 per sq. ft. The author also states that in 
 many of the larger steam plants the cost of the building per sq. ft. 
 is much higher than the figure for this plant, ranging from $5 
 to $10 without foundations. 
 
 Tn Data Chicago, for September, 1910, is given a chart with 6 
 cases of power plant buildings varying in plan area from about 
 
 
 Type A(Wifhout Alleys) 
 
 — -JW-"-- 
 
 6' 
 
 - 
 
 Type 
 
 Fig. 8. Required floor space for eight boilers of 9,000 sq. ft. heat- 
 ing .surface, each for different types of water tube boilers. 
 
 3,000 to 30,000 sq. ft., which ranged in cost from $2 to $4 per 
 sq. ft. 
 
 On the basis of the foregoing, we shall assume : Cost of build- 
 ings, $2 to $8 per sq. ft. of plan area. Grouping the three items of 
 real estate, foundation and power plant building, we have the 
 following : 
 
 Real estate, cost per sq. ft. $025 to $10 
 
 Foundations, cost per .sq. ft 1.25 to 4 
 
 Power plant buildings, cost per sq. ft.... 2.00 to 8 
 
 Total cost per sq. ft $3.50 to $22 
 
 The chart of Fig 7 is drawn with the above limits of cost 
 per sq. ft. of space. 
 
 Number of Brick Required for 507 h. p. Boiler. The brick re-, 
 quired above the fioor line in setting a 507 h. p. Stirling boiler in 
 a power house in Washington were as follows; 
 
284 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Arch fire brick : Number required 
 
 High grade, standard size 476 
 
 High grade, wedge shape, 2 Va by 2 by 4 V2 by 9 
 
 ins 5,32 
 
 Wall Fire Brick: 
 
 High grade, standard size 3,846 
 
 Second grade, standard size 2,398 
 
 Third grade, standard size 2,758 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 Red brick 23.755 
 
 Fire tile, 12 by 2 by 12 ins 279 
 
 Cost of Erecting Harrington Automatic Stoker Under a Return 
 Tubular Boiler. C. L. Samson (Engineering and Contracting. Aug. 
 16, rj 11) gives the cost of tearing out the old cast iron front, 
 furnace iron work, bridge wall and all flre brick lining in front of 
 the bridge wall of a 72-in, and 18-ft. horizontal return tubular 
 boiler, and the erection of a Harrington automatic stoker in i)lace, 
 rebuilding the bridge wall and relining the furnace from the bridge 
 wall to the front. 
 
 The floor line of the old furnace was too low to permit the use 
 of the ash drag furnished with stoker. This necessitated cutting 
 out the concrete floor and digging pit 8x9 ft. by 2 ft. 6 ins. deep 
 at the front of the furnace. The material excavated consisted 
 of 6 ins. of concrete floor and 2 ft. of shelly rock. All excavating 
 was done with sledge an I wedges. The itemized costs of the 
 various parts of the work were as follows : 
 
 Cost of tearing out old boiler front, 13 hrs. at $0.25 $ 3.25- 
 
 Excavation for ash pit, 74 V, hrs. at $0.25 18.62- 
 
 rrentering for arches, 18 hrs. at $0.30 5.40. 
 
 Forms for concrete work, 7 his. at $0.30 2.10^ 
 
 Door over ash pit. V2 hr. at $0.25 13^ 
 
 Brick work. l65i/> hrs. at $0.25. 55 hrs. at $0.21 52.93-- 
 
 Erecting iron work. 59 hrs. at $0.25. % hr. at $0.30 14.90- 
 
 Steam piping to stoker engine, 21 hrs. at $0.25 5.25 
 
 Sorting and handling old firebrick, 25 hrs. at $0.25 6.25' 
 
 ('oncrete work, 15 hrs. at $0.25 3.75 
 
 Total cost of labor $112.58 
 
 The above costs do not include superintendence and material. 
 
 In another case the work included erecting stokers, rebuilding 
 the bridge wall and relining the furnace from the bridge wall to 
 the front. The floor of the old furnaces was so low as to neces- 
 sitate cutting out the floor and excavating a pit ; the floor being 
 concrete and the excavation being rock and the work being done 
 with sledge and wedges. The cost of installing the first stoker 
 as Itemized in article mentioned above was $12 58. The same gang 
 put in the remaining three stokers. It will be noted that the cost 
 gradually decreased with the successive installations. The follow- 
 ing were the costs of labor for stokers 2, 3 and 4 : 
 
 • Second Stoker 
 
 Excavation. 82 hrs. at 25 cts $ 20.50 
 
 Tearing out old fronts, 10 hrs. at 25 cts 2.50" 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING * 285 
 
 Forms for concrete, 7V:? hrs. at 25 cts $ 1.'88 1 4 28 
 
 Forms for concrete, 2 hrs, at 30 cts 2.40 j 
 
 Centering for arches. 2 Mj hrs. at 30 cts 75 ^ ^ a-, 
 
 renteriijg for arches, 1 1 V2 hrs. at 25 cts 2.88 j "^"'^ 
 
 Concrete work. 32 V-, his. at 25 cts 8.13 
 
 Unloading- stoker. 4V2 hrs. at 25 cts 1.13 
 
 Unloading sand, 2 hrs. at 25 cts , .50 
 
 Unloading firebrick. 152^.^ hrs. at 25 cts 3.92 
 
 Brickwork, 36 hrs. at 22 cts 7.92 1 07^7 
 
 Brickwork. 119 hrs. at 25 cts 29.75 f- •^'•°' 
 
 Erecting iron woj k, 44 hrs. at 25 cts. ..,< 11.00 ( 1010 
 
 Erecting iron work. 27 hrs. at 30 cts 8.10 j 
 
 Teaming 2.50 
 
 Shafting. 12 hrs. at 30 cts 3.60 J . qo 
 
 Shafting. 5 Ms hrs. at 25 cts 1.38 J ^-^^ 
 
 Total labor $108.84 
 
 Third Stoker 
 
 Excavation. 89 hrs. at 25 cts .....* $ 22.25 
 
 Tearing out old front. 10 hrs. at 25 cts 2.50 
 
 Forms for concrete, 16 hrs. at 30 cts. $ 4.80 | f- ,,, 
 
 Forms for concrete, 2 hrs. at 25 cts 50 J ^ 
 
 Centering for arches. 7 hrs. at 25 cts 1.75 
 
 Concrete work, 20 hrs. at 25 cts 5,00 ) ^ 04 
 
 Concrete work. 4 hrs. at 21 cts 84 j "'^^ 
 
 Unloading stoker, 4 V> hrs. at 25 cts 1,13 
 
 Unloading sand. 2 hrs. at 25 cts .50. 
 
 Unloading firebrick, 152/;j hrs, at 25 cts 3.92. 
 
 Brickwork. 98 hrs. at 25 cts 24.50 1 00 r-j 
 
 Brickwork. 43 hrs. at 21 cts 9.03 | ^'^^"^ 
 
 Erecting iron work. 77 hrs. at 25 cts 19.25 j 91 ou 
 
 Erecting iron work, 13 hrs. at 21 cts. . 2,73 \ "^'^^ 
 
 Shafting. 4 hr.s. at 30 cts 1 20 
 
 Teaming -, 2 50 
 
 Total labor \ $102.40 
 
 Fourth Stoker 
 
 Excavation, 101 1^ hrs. at 25 cts $25.38 \ ».,(. ^. 
 
 Excavation, 7 hrs. at 21 cts 1,47 ( if-"^^ 
 
 Tearing out old front, 12 hrs. at 25 cts 3 00 
 
 Forms for concrete, 2 hrs. at 30 cts 60 | ., ^ ,. 
 
 Forms for concrete, 6 hrs. at 25 cts 1.50 \ " 
 
 (Centering for arches. 5 hrs. at 21 cts 1.05' 
 
 Concrete work. 26 V2 hrs. at 25 cts 6.62 
 
 Unloading stoker. 41/2 hrs. at 25 cts 1.13 
 
 Unloading sand. 2 hrs. at 25 cts 50 
 
 Unloading firebrick, 15% hrs. at 25 cts 3.92 
 
 Brickwork, 98 hrs. at 25 cts 14,50 f 91 ■$ . . 
 
 Brickwork. 32V2 hrs. at 21 cts 6,84 ( "^'^^ 
 
 Erecting iron work, 1 hr. at 30 cts 30 ( 1.1 55- 
 
 Erecting iron work. 57 hrs. at 25 cts 14,25 j 
 
 Shafting. 3 hrs. at 30 cts 90 [ , r.^ 
 
 Shafting. 3 hrs. at 25 cts 75 J ^ ""^ 
 
 Teaming 2.50 
 
 Platform for ash pit. 3 hrs. at 25 cts .75 
 
 Cleaning up boiler room, 5 hrs. at 25 cts 1.25 
 
 Total ' , $87.21 
 
 Cost of Setting Two 200 h. p. Boilers at the Bush Terminal, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. The work was accomplished in bad weather. 
 
 Labor $ 449.83 
 
286 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Material : 
 
 38.360 red brick at $12 per M $ 400.00 
 
 4,500 fire brick at $32 per M I i ai aa 
 
 75 Bull nose fire brick at $32 per M j ^^^-^^ 
 
 36 bbls. of lime at $1 36.00 
 
 12 lbs. of Rosendale cement at $2 24.00 
 
 29 yds. sand at $1.25 34.25 
 
 11 bbls. fire clay at $3 33.00 
 
 $ 670.65 
 Total cost of setting boiler $1,219.83 
 
 Cost of Two Engine Foundations at the Corliss Surprise Store, 
 8th Avenue, New York. A 1 :4 ;6 mixture of concrete was used. 
 
 Labor : 
 
 271/2 days at $2 ...$ 55.00 
 
 Material Used : 
 
 21 bbls. cement at $2 42.00 
 
 8 yds. sand at $1.75 14.00 
 
 13 yds. stone at $3 39.00 
 
 Material Hauled Away: 
 
 18 yds. earth at $1.25 22.50 
 
 Total cost of foundations $172.50 
 
 Excavation, cu. yds 17 
 
 Concrete, cu. yds 17 
 
 Cost of foundation per cu. yd $10.10 
 
 Cost of Moving and Erecting a 400 h. p. Corliss Engine and 500 
 k. w. Generator. In describing the moving and erection of a Cor- 
 liss engine and generator C. L. Samson (Engineering and (Con- 
 tracting. Aug. 16, 1911) states that the engine and generator came 
 knocked down on flat bars and were hauled 1 y-y miles over paved 
 streets on a heavy truck, especially designed for hauling heavy 
 loads. The heaviest piece weighed 15 tons. It so chanced that 
 the streets were slightly down grade for the entire distance, so 
 that four horses were sufficient to draw the heaviest parts. The 
 most of the parts, however, were drawn by a 2-horse team. 
 
 The installation was in an old building and the floor was not 
 strong enough to support the weight of the heavier parts. Shores 
 were accordingly set under floor sills and joists at about 36-in. 
 centers to strengthen the floor. 
 
 A gin pole with a 4-sheave rope block and a hand power double- 
 geared winch was used in taking off the top half of the generator 
 field ring and for lowering the bottom half of the flywheel into 
 the wheelpit. All other parts were placed on skids, rolled into 
 position and lowered with jacks. 
 
 A house mover furnished his services with the truck, one team, 
 blocking and the necessary jacks and rigging for $10 per day. 
 The man sent by the engine company supei'vised the erection of 
 the engine and the company furnishing the generator sent a man 
 to supervise the erection of the electrical ecjuipment. 
 
 Charges for moving the generator are high, due to a truck break- 
 ing down under load with considerable delay in transferring the 
 load. 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 287 
 
 The charges for erection on both engine and generator are high, 
 due to delay in arrival of certain parts that failed to come with 
 the rest of the machinery. The charges for installation and cov- 
 ering of steam and exhaust piping are high due to the fact that 
 they were laid under the lloor where only about 18 ins. woiking 
 space was available. Further, two concrete foundation walls had 
 to be pierced. The steam line was about 18 ft. long -and the ex- 
 haust line was about 45 ft. long. Both steam and exhaust lines 
 were 8 ins. and flanged pipe and fittings were used. Aside from 
 pipe and fittings, little material was used and the charges below 
 given are for labor only. 
 
 The weight of the engine was 41 tons and the weight of the 
 generator was 20 tons. The switchboard, transformers and fittings 
 weighed about 5 tons. The itemized costs of labor were as follows : 
 
 Cost of shoring up engine room floor, 43 1/^ hrs. 
 
 at $0.30 $ 13 05 
 
 Cutting walls for steam piping. 591/2 hrs. at $0.25.. 14.88 
 
 covering steam piping : 
 
 20 hrs, at $0.30 6 00 
 
 91 hrs. at $0.25 22.75 
 
 Total , $28.75 
 
 Piping for oiling system : 
 
 8 hrs. at $0.30 $ 2.40 
 
 118 hrs. at $0.25 , 29.50 
 
 Total $ 31.90 
 
 Moving engine : 
 
 23 hrs. at $0.30 $ 6.90 
 
 1361/2 hrs, at $0.25 ,. 34.12 
 
 House mover 34.50 
 
 Extra men 6.00 
 
 Total $ 81.52 
 
 Setting up engine : 
 
 137 hrs. at $0.30 $ 41.10 
 
 343 hrs, at $0.25 85.75 
 
 House mover , 5600 
 
 Erector 286.15 
 
 Total $469.00 
 
 Moving generator : 
 
 431/2 hrs. at $0.30 $ 13.05 
 
 581/. hrs. at $0.25 14.62 
 
 House mover 42.50 
 
 Extra team 4.00 
 
 Total $ 74.17 
 
 Setting up generator: 
 
 4 hrs. at $0.30 ■ $ 1.20 
 
 102 hrs. at $0.25 ' 25.50 
 
 House mover 38.00 
 
 Erector 190.00 
 
 Total $254.70 
 
 Total cost of labor for moving and erecting engine 
 
 and generator $967.97 
 
288 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Wrecking a Plant after a Fire. Wilfred Twinch (Power, 
 Oct., 1907) gives the following account of wrecking the Minnesota 
 Sugar Company's plant, at St. Louis Park, Minn., after it was 
 burned down. The plant cost $400,000. The main building and 
 warehouses were of enamel brick, one end of the plant being of 
 mill construction, two stories high, and the other end part steel 
 and three stories high. Some of the heaviest machinery was sup- 
 ported by iron columns. The floors were wood. After the insur- 
 ance was adjusted the plant was turned over to the engineer to 
 wreck. He was instructed to save everything worth saving, to 
 sell the scrap, and to clear the ground. There were four cast-iron 
 evaporators, built-up structures, 20 ft. long, 8 ft. wide and 8 ft. 
 high, with their backs broken. There were eight wrought-iron 
 crystallizers weighing 20 tons each, and there were steel storage 
 tanks and pipe lines galore. Altogether there was sufficient salvage 
 to preclude the use of dynamite. 
 
 The engineer had had no previous experience in wrecking, so he 
 concluded that scrapmen could do it more cheai)ly. These gentle- 
 men were found to be banded together and very difficult to deal 
 with. At first the best proposition they would offer was to pay 
 us $2.40 a ton for the wreck, they to clear the ground, leaving us 
 everything we wished to retain. Finally competition got pretty 
 sharp, and we closed a contract with one fellow to clear the ground 
 and pay $6.75 a ton for all wrought- and cast-iron scrap, 12i^ cts. 
 per pound for copper scrap, 4 cts. for brass, and $3 per thousand 
 for whole brick. Fortunately we had a lawyer to draw up a 
 contract which contained a penalty clause for not finishing the 
 job within 60 days. 
 
 These wreckers were specialists, competent to handle such a 
 proposition. Incidentally we learned that it is best to consider 
 all machinery that has been in the heat of a fire as scrap, only 
 scrap, and that cast-iron columns go through fire better than builtup 
 columns, because they are capable of withstanding more heat. 
 
 The wreckers first extended the railroad track into the wreck 
 and procured two gondola cars, then removing by hand and team 
 such as they could, they put the cast-iron scrap into one car and 
 the wrought-iron into the other. Next they installed a guy derrick 
 with a 60-ft. mast, with 18 X 18-in. base and a 70-ft. boom; al.so a 
 double-cylinder. 7 X 10-in. hoisting engine. Care was taken in lo- 
 cating the derrick so it would need shifting only three times, as 
 each move cost $50 to $60 in labor. 
 
 The big cast-iron evaporators, condensers, vacuum pans, etc., 
 were broken up by dropping a big ball upon them from the top 
 of the derrick. All wrought-iron work and the steel structures 
 were cut up with cold chisels and sledge hammers, piece by piece. 
 To show that the workmen were not amateurs, the pipe work was 
 unscrewed where necessary, or the flanges were broken with sledge 
 hammers. 
 
 Cost of Wrecking the Plant.' The market price for wrought- 
 and cast-iron scrap, mixed, was $10 per ton. f.o.b. cars; the con- 
 tract price was $6,75 per ton on the ground, so the contractor 
 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 
 
 289 
 
 evidently allowed $3.25 a ^n for wrecking and loading. Follow- 
 ing is the actual cost as checked up daily by the company's en- 
 gineer : 
 
 Labor (excluding derrick gang) 4500 hours at 22i/^ cents... $1,012 
 
 Supervision, 2 men for two months, at $75 300 
 
 Team, 10 days at $4 40 
 
 Setting derrick 60 
 
 Derrick, 60 days at $12 a day (4 men) 720 
 
 Derrick repair 50 
 
 Loading derrick 50 
 
 Tools (say) 30 
 
 $2,262 
 
 There was 990 tons of scrap iron shipped, so the actual cost of 
 wrecking and loading was $2.28 per ton. 
 
 Installation Costs of Miscellaneous Equipment. Table XXVIII 
 gives actual costs of installing power plant equipment and is 
 largely taken from accounting records, in connection with recent 
 appraisals (prior to the war). 
 
 TABLE XXVIII. INSTALLATION COSTS 
 
 Weight, 
 Description lb. 
 
 2-18,000 hp. turbines 611,400 
 
 ■ 1-10,000 hp. turbine 169,000 
 
 2- 500 hp. impulse wheels.. 19,200 
 1— 5,000 hp. turbine and gov- 
 ernor 143,900 
 
 1- 1,000 hp. turbine 148,000 
 
 2-10,000 kw. generators 470,000 
 
 2- 225 kw. exciters 48,000 
 
 1- 7,000 kw. generator 199,100 
 
 2- 1,500 kw. motor generators 309,700 
 1— 500 kw. motor generator. 41,115 
 
 1-1,250 kw. generator 32.500 
 
 1-3,750 kw. generator...... 107,360 
 
 1-1,400 kw. generator 66,700 
 
 7-3.333 kw. transformers.... 245,000 
 
 4-1,000 kw. transformers 78,000 
 
 1-1,000 kw. transformer 33,000 
 
 3- 200 kw. transformers 28,500 
 
 3-1,500 kw. transformers 55,500 
 
 3-1,000 kw. transformers 57,600 
 
 3- 200 kw. transformers 28,300 
 
 1-2,200 kw. transformers 66,200 
 
 1-60 ton crane 114,000 
 
 1-50 ton crane 77,000 
 
 1-25 ton crane 24,000 
 
 1-30 ton crane 42,000 
 
 1-10 ton crane 11,500 
 
 
 Misc. 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 
 mate- 
 
 
 per 
 
 Labor 
 
 rial 
 
 Total 
 
 ton 
 
 $9,848 
 
 $2,440 
 
 $12,288 
 
 $40.20 
 
 3,973 
 
 924 
 
 4,897 
 
 57.90 
 
 1,357 
 
 1,051 
 
 2,408 
 
 25.10 
 
 1,288 
 
 209 
 
 1,497 
 
 20.80 
 
 825 
 
 36 
 
 851 
 
 11.50 
 
 3,719 
 
 1,332 
 
 5,051 
 
 21.50 
 
 590 
 
 362 
 
 952 
 
 39.50 
 
 2,285 
 
 1,190 
 
 3,475 
 
 35.00 
 
 1,566 
 
 372 
 
 1,938 
 
 12.50 
 
 347 
 
 7 
 
 354 
 
 17.30 
 
 235 
 
 62 
 
 297 
 
 18.30 
 
 392 
 
 17 
 
 409 
 
 7.80 
 
 401 
 
 21 
 
 422 
 
 12.60 
 
 1,573 
 
 340 
 
 1,913 
 
 15.60 
 
 
 
 507 
 
 13.00 
 
 110 
 
 33 
 
 143 
 
 8.70 
 
 262 
 
 10 
 
 272 
 
 19.20 
 
 1,138 
 
 152 
 
 1,290 
 
 46.50 
 
 752 
 
 237 
 
 989 
 
 34.30 
 
 765 
 
 22 
 
 787 
 
 55.80 
 
 
 
 771 
 
 23.30 
 
 1,708 
 
 140 
 
 1,848 
 
 32.40 
 
 1,004 
 
 136 
 
 1,140 
 
 29.60 
 
 290 
 
 
 290 
 
 24.20 
 
 
 
 417 
 
 19.80 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 24 30 
 
 How a IVIachine Foundation in a Substation Was Removed by 
 Dynamite. (Electrical World, March 11, 1916.) A booster set in 
 the Kolmar Avenue (Chicago) substation of the Commonwealth 
 Edison Company has been removed to make room for a new 
 
290 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 2000-kw. synchronous converter. A part of the reconstruction 
 work incident to the change consisted in removing the booster 
 foundation, which was built in a solid concrete block 12 ft. wide 
 by 15 ft. long- by 5 ft. high. To remove this monolithic block by 
 manual labor would have taken 8 men a week working 8 hrs. a 
 day with points and sledges. 
 
 A quicker and more efficacious method, however, was adopted. 
 Working with air hammer and drills, a workman made 25 1.5-in. 
 holes varying in deptli from 12 ins. to 30 ins. in the concrete. Two 
 licensed dynamiters, whose seiwices had been secured from the Chi- 
 cago surface Lines, then set and ignited 14 dynamite blasts, which 
 completely removed the old foundation. The man who drilled the 
 holes worked from 2 to 11 p. m on his part of the job. The dyna- 
 miters worked from 1.30 A. M. till 4.30 a. m. the following morning, 
 firing the first blast at 1.30 a. m. and the last at 4.21 a. m. While 
 the dynamiters were at work the two converters at the substation 
 were shut down. This experience with dynamiting has led the 
 company's engineers to believe that machine foundations inside 
 of buildings can be more safelj*. speedily and economically removed 
 by men who thoroughly understand dynamiting than by laborers 
 with sledges and points. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 Easy Calculation of Steam Coal Required by Power Plants. R. E. 
 
 Horton in Engineering-- News, March 11, 1915. gives the data in 
 Table I for use in calculating the cost of coal required by actual 
 or hypothetical steam plants under comparison with proposed 
 hydraulic stations. 
 
 Computations were carried through and tabulated for the yearly 
 coal consumption in tons at a rate of 1 lb. per h.p.-hr. under vari- 
 ous conditions. Now it is only necessary to ascertain or estimate 
 and combine (1) the simplest unit coal consumption (per h.p.-hr., 
 including allowance for shrinkage and waste if any) ; (2) the 
 average h.p. in use when running; (3) the allowance for banking; 
 (4) the hrs, use per day, and days per year. 
 
 TABLE I. FACTORS FOR CALCULATING AMOUNT OF STEAM 
 COAL REQUIRED PER HORSEPOWER-YEAR 
 
 Gross tons. Net tons, 
 
 2,240 Ib.^. 2.000 Ib.s. 
 
 310 365 310 365 
 
 Method of operation days days days days 
 
 10 hrs. per day, no banking 1.38 J. 63 1.55 1.83 
 
 10 hrs. per day, plus % for banking. 1.8 4 2.17 2.07 2.43 
 
 12 hrs. per day, no banking 1.65 1.96 1.86 2.19 
 
 12 hrs. per day, plus i/^ for banking 2.21 2.61 2.48 2.92 
 
 24 hrs. per day, no banking 3.32 3.91 3.72 4.38 
 
 For example: A plant runs 10 hrs. per day and 310 days 
 per year, produces 500 h.p. average, useg 2i^ lbs. per h.p.-hr. of 
 steam coal, has % allowance for banking; coal co.'^ts $3.50 per 
 gross ton. From the table, the proper unit consumption per h.p.- 
 year is 1.84 gross tons. Then, 
 
 2.5 X 1.84 X 500 X$3. 50 = $7,735 annual co.st. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to know the tons of ash that will have 
 to be disposed of each year ; then it is necessary only to substitute 
 the decimal percentage of ash in the coal for the price per ton. 
 For 15% ash the foregoing case shows 
 
 2.5 X 1.84 X 500 X 0.15 — 345 gross tons. 
 
 Theoretical Mechanical Equivalent, in H. P. Hours, of Heat 
 Energy Contained in Common Fuels. Fig. 1 shows the equivalent 
 theoretical energy contained in the ordinary units of measure of 
 
 291 
 
292 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 common fuels. The chart has been prepared by taking accepted 
 standards for the heat content per pound of fuels such as wood, coal 
 anthracite and bituminous, alcohol, petroleum, etc., taking 1 B. t. u. 
 equal to 778 ft. -lbs. and 1 hp. .equal to 2,545 B. t. u. per hour. 
 
 Knowing tJie thermodynamic efficiency of any combination of 
 boiler and engine and tlie heating value of any fuel in B. t. u.'s 
 the amount of fuel required to operate the plant can readily be 
 
 Eiiuivalent Theoretical Energy in Horse Power. 1 Lb. of Fuel 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. Theoretical energy contained in lbs. of fuel for heating 
 values up to 24,000 B.t.u. per lb., a B.t.u. being equal to 778 ft.- 
 Ibs. 
 
 estimated from the chart. Or, knowing the heating value of a 
 fuel, and the amount of fuel required to produce a mechanical 
 h.p., the thermodynamic efficiency of the plant can be determined. 
 Thus, a plant operating with an average boiler efficiency of 
 70%, a heat loss from radiation of 5% and an efficiency of engine 
 and auxiliaries of 20% has a total net operating efficiency of 
 70 X 95 X 20 = 13.3%, If the plant uses coal with a heating value 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 203 
 
 of 14,000 B. t. u. per lb. 1 ton of fuel would produce 11,000 X 0.1 33 - 
 1,463 h.p.-hns. If the jjlant is required to develop 100 h.p., 8 hrs. 
 per day for 300 days or 240,000 h.p.-hrs. per year there will be 
 required 240,000 — 1.463 = 164 tons of fuel. 
 
 The Economy to the Consumer Resulting from the Purchase of 
 Coal Under Specifications. The advantage to the consumer aris- 
 ing from the purchase of coal according to specifications was 
 shown clearly by W. O. Collins, vice-president of the Gullocl< Hen- 
 derson Co. of Chicago, in a paper before the Illinois Water Supply 
 Association, printed in Engineering and Contracting. March 27, 
 1912. The adoption of this phase of the economic operation of 
 pumping and power plants merits the careful consideration of the 
 superintendents of such ])lants. 
 
 The heat value and buining qualities have always been the 
 underlying basis of consideration wherever it has been possible to 
 choose between one or more grades or sizes of coal. We find all 
 sorts of crude methods used in making these decisions and too 
 often we find that a consumer simply knows that one kind of coal 
 seems to burn better than another without really knowing whether 
 or not it is cheai)er for him than some other available fuel. 
 
 Up until a few years ago the larger consumers emi)lf>yed the 
 boiler test to determine whether or not coal was efficient or up to 
 contract requirements. Selections of coal for contracts were fre- 
 (luently made by this method. Coal contractors were requested 
 to make a .shiiiment of coal representative of the fuel which they 
 proposed to furnish if awarded the contract. Several shipments 
 so received were subjected to burning tests under the boiler and 
 the evaporation per pound of coal and the cost to evaporate 1,000 
 lbs. of -water were dc^termined with more or less accuracy depend- 
 ing on the care with which the tests were made. If coal con- 
 tractors were wi.se, as they usually were, extra good coal was 
 often supplied for the test and, generally, extraordinarily high 
 results were recorded. 
 
 However, in individual cases this method has been satisfactorily 
 handled and the system is often us(^ful in determining the gen- 
 eral grade of fuel best suited for any particular boiler equip- 
 ment. 
 
 On public and political contracts the eva|)oration method has 
 caused no end of criticism as there are many conditions under 
 the control of the testing engineer and firemen by means of v\hi(!h 
 ihe results can be controlled at will. Furthermore, even if the 
 tests are honestly and efficiently made, they are u.'^eless in the 
 case of a legal fight as it is always possible to show th^it the con- 
 <Iitions of testing are constantly changing to a greater or less 
 extent due to the formation of boiler i^cale, weather, load and 
 firing re(iuirements. 
 
 Along with and following this method of specifying and regu- 
 lating deliveries a chemical analysis showing the amount of mois- 
 ture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash and heat v»lue was fre- 
 quently incorporated in the contract together with the guarantee 
 of evaporation obtained by the boiler test method. This was often 
 
294 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 a strengthening clause and was many times the basis of making 
 settlement where substitution was clearly evident. 
 
 It can not be said that any of these methods were ever uni- 
 versal nor is . the new and improved B. t. u. system in universal 
 use. In many cases the fuel which forms from 10 to 25% of the 
 yearly expense, is bought without any supervision whatever, while 
 the much less expensive items, such as steel, pig iron, cement, 
 electrical materials, paper, etc., are often purchased on the most 
 rigid sj)ecifications and guarantee. 
 
 Following the public demand for efficiency and honest purchas- 
 ing, the political and public institutions have in many cases been 
 the leaders in scientific methods of purchasing coal. Thus in 1907 
 the U. S. Government adopted a form of B. t. u. specifications 
 which is now in use by practically all Government departments. 
 The methods used by the Government and the method now in use 
 by other consumers are, generally, based on the same fundamental 
 principle, which is the " delivery of heat units." While there are 
 several different methods of regulating and figuring the value of 
 a delivery, practically all of them consider the analysis of as much 
 importance as the weight of the coal. 
 
 The B. t. u. system as applied to public institutions briefly is as 
 follows : Bids for the delivery of fuel are advertised for in the 
 usual way. The advertisement differs little from the common 
 form and often simply states that an ainount of coal is desired 
 and that the same will be purchased in accordance with the B. t. u. 
 system, specifications for which may be had by application, etc. 
 
 Other specifications differ in detail for different institutions, due 
 to the variations in the coal requirements and business methods 
 of the office. All embrace clauses to cover the following principal 
 points and it will be seen that a specification should cover some- 
 thing more than the mere physical properties of coal. 
 
 (1) Conditions under which proposals are to be made must be 
 clearly defined, the bond, certified check, and other general con- 
 ditions must be explained. 
 
 (2) Special requirements such as time and place of delivery, 
 amount of coal required, strike clause (if any), liability of con- 
 tractor, and clauses covering the purchase on open market must 
 be clearly and specifically drawn. Since a specification is usually 
 the basis of and a part of a contract, it must be legally drawn 
 and fair to both the contractor and consumer, as an unfair contract 
 may not stand the test of the court eve*n though it may have been 
 accepted by the contractor 
 
 (3) A general description of the coal wanted should be included 
 in the specifications. This description is usually composed of the 
 chemical analysis limits together with a paragraph relating to 
 size, as follows : 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF COAL WANTED 
 
 Bituminous lump containing not less than 12,500 B.t.u. per pound 
 of dry coal and not to exceed 14 per cent, of ash dry coal. Lump 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 295 
 
 coal shall contain all the lumps as mined and shall be* so screened as 
 not to contain to exceed 20 per cent, by weight of coal which will 
 pass through a li/4-in. circular perforated screen. 
 
 These limitations are the basis on which future deliveries are to 
 be enforced. Similar chemical and physical restrictions can be 
 drawn to cover other grades and sizes of coal, such as screenings, 
 chestnut anthracite, washed and unwashed nut, etc. 
 
 (4) A specification must contain a clause covering and providing 
 for a means of rejection of a shipment should it be far below the 
 limit of the specification as to quality and size. 
 
 If coal inferior as to size and quality is kept and burned, it may 
 be accepted and paid for on the basis of deductions made in accord- 
 ance with the terms of the specifications. 
 
 The penalty for excess of fine coal is usually based on a deduc- 
 tion of something like 1%% of the contract price for each 1% ex- 
 cess of fine material as limited above. For example, if lump coal 
 containing not to exceed 20% fines at about $2 per ton was con- 
 tracted for, and mine run coal containing 32% of fines was actually 
 delivered, the deductions due to fineness would be 1V2% of $2 for 
 each 1% of fine coal in excess of the 20% of allowed or a net deduc- 
 tion of 36 cts. per ton. This deduction would be made in addition 
 to any deduction originating fiom lower heating value. 
 
 (5) The real essence of the specification lies in the clause cover- 
 ing methods of payment. This paragraph must literally be bull 
 strong and hog tight. 
 
 Believing that each individual contractor should know the analy- 
 sis and heating value of the coal he is attempting to sell, the re- 
 sponsibility of stating the exact guarantee as to moisture, ash and 
 heat value, is placed upon him. A sheet is provided whereon he 
 may place this detailed information together with the price per 
 ton and the number of heat units which he is willing to guarantee 
 to furnish for one cent. 
 
 The testing and payment clause clearly states in words how the 
 B. t. u. for one cent shall be figured and is briefly stated as follows: 
 
 Multiply the number of heat units per pound of coal as deliv- 
 ered by two thousand. This gives the number of heat units de- 
 livered in every ton. Divide this product by the price of the coal 
 per ton expressed in cents plus an arbitrary correction for 
 ash amounting to one-half the percentage of ash expressed as 
 cents. 
 
 Since the anlysis of coal is often expressed on the dry basis, the 
 heat value as delivered must be determined by deducting for the 
 percentage of moisture. Thus the calculation resolves Itself to this 
 formula : 
 
 B.t.u. dry coal X per cent, dry coal (100 less per cent, of 
 
 moisture) X 2. QUO 
 
 Price per ton in cents -f- (0.5 X per cent, of ash dry coal) 
 
 The result of this simple calculation gives the number of heat 
 units for one cent which the bidder proposes to deliver. Samples 
 
296 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 are taken from all subsequent deliveries and upon these samples 
 analyses are made and by a converse calculation the value of the 
 coal as delivered is determined accurately. 
 
 The specifications state the high and low limits of analysis which 
 will be accepted under any conditions. Coal accepted is paid for 
 on the showing of the analysis. 
 
 The method of sami»ling. chemical analysis and other details 
 of the process are now fairly well standardized and while there are 
 still differences of opinion in minor details, nevertheless it is a 
 fact that they are as well standardized and can be as accurately 
 handled as in the sampling and testing of other materials of com- 
 merce, such as iron, steel, cement, etc. 
 
 After the preparation and adoption of a scientific and fair speci- 
 fication the personal element again enters and unless the work is 
 honestly and accurately done, without fear and without favor, the 
 system becomes a failure. Although the system has enjoyed a 
 steady growth, still much of thef criticism and many of the objec- 
 tions are based entirely on the inefficiency and dishonesty of the 
 testing. 
 
 The best of ai>paratus and the most careful and straightforward 
 work are required. Needless to say the tester must have no af- 
 filiations or connections with the coal trade and his efforts must 
 be to maintain the absolute confidence of the coal trade as well as 
 that of the consumer. 
 
 In several cases the contractors have continually earned a bonus 
 due to their care in the selection of good coal. There are other 
 cases where they always run behind, due to overbidding. We 
 believe that the bonus should be paid where it is earned and like- 
 wise believe in making deductions where the coal is below the 
 guarantee. 
 
 Economic Points in the Selection and Purchasing of Coal. An 
 analysis of the coal bids made for a large manufacturer in 1915, 
 made by H. R. Callaway and described in Engineering Magazine, 
 Sept.. 1915, is given in the following table, the names of the coals 
 and of the dealers being indicated by index numbers. 
 
 Volatile Fusing 
 
 Index matter Sulphur Ash B.t.u. point, 
 
 number per cent, per cent, per cent. dry Price deg. P. 
 
 1 27.53 1.93 8.32 14,314 $2.80 
 
 2 23.17 1.70 11.93 13,713 2.85 2,189 
 
 3 16.22 1.39 7.52 14,532 2.80 2,774 
 
 4 23.20 1.20 10.00 14,135 2.85 2,580 
 
 5 16.10 1.69 8.73 14.350 2.90 2.662 
 
 6 22.35 .83 9.44 14,178 2.95 
 
 7 22.75 1.03 8.06 14,307 2.95 2,734 
 
 8 17.59 1.81 11.75 13.736 3.00 2,560 
 
 9 21.41 1.61 7.42 14,535 2.95 2.938 
 
 10 17.28 2.04 10.04 14,160 3.00 2,444 
 
 11 22.12 1.49 10.10 14,100 3.00 2,780 
 
 12 21.18 .86 7.06 14,587 3.05 2,780 
 
 13 18.77 1.34 7.38 14,500 3.05 
 
 14 20.36 1.33 9.42 14,228 3.05 .... 
 
 15 17.47 1.56 11.90 13,961 3.10 2.586 
 
 16 21.96 2.10 9.36 14,237 3.00 2,460 
 
 17 17.65 1.30 7.60 14,565 3.10 2,800 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 297 
 
 The data as to the character and quality of these coals repre- 
 sented the average of several tests made in connection with inde- 
 pendent investigations of the same coal delivered to other plants. 
 The plant in question needed coal running over 20% volatile mat- 
 ter under 1.5% sulphur, under 8.57c ash and at least 2,700 degs. F. 
 for the fusing point of ash. Inspection of the table shows that 
 only Nos. 7 and 12 met these requirements, prices shown in the 6th 
 column. The advantage in favor of No. 7 over No. 12 figured 
 out about $0.04 per ton, No. 12 being of somewhat higher quality 
 on the basis of the ash and the B. t. u. quality. 
 
 Mr. Callaway cites a case of a manufacturer who adopted a 
 certain coal seven years ago at $1.60 at the mines and although 
 normally he was running his business in an efficient manner he 
 was continuing to pay $1.60 for this coal in spite of a considerable 
 reduction in the general soft coal market and at that he was not 
 getting the best coal that he could for $1.60 in any market, thus 
 throwing away over $1,000 a year because of a lack of basis 
 of comparison between the coal that he was buying and other 
 coals that he could get. 
 
 Specifications for Purchasing Coal. Leo Loeb in Engineering 
 Magazine, March, 1911, quotes the follov/ing forms of coal speci- 
 fications covering large deliveries. The Interborough Rapid Transit 
 Company purchased 360,000 tons of run-of-mine bituminous and 
 dry coal analysis as follows: Carbon, 71%; volatile, 20^6; a.sh, 
 97o ; B. t. u. 14,100 per lb. and sulphur, not over 1.5%. Premiums 
 or deductions on heat value are based on a rate of 17c for each 
 50 B. t. u. per lb. of coal for each V-^% of volatile matter in excess 
 of 217o, 2 cts. per ton was deducted and also 2 cts for each i^% 
 of ash in excess of 9% and a 6-ct. deduction for each V4% of sulphur 
 in excess of lMs7,. Mr. Loeb criticises certain features of this 
 contract as inequitable ; first excessive penalties in the case of 
 sulphur and volatile matter, and deductions without corresponding 
 premiums in the case of volatile matter, ash and sulphur, and he 
 objects to the omission of incentive to the dealer to deliver coal 
 low in moisture. The coal is not actually delivered dry but always 
 contains a certain amount of moisture and the B. t. u. in the coal 
 as delivered form the only true basis for potential heat. 
 
 The Panama Canal coal for vessels, locomotive, and fuel for 
 dredges and steam shovels, aggregating 650,000 tons per annum, 
 is purcha.sed on a desired quality of 14,600 B. t. u. as received, 
 with acceptance down to 14.350 B. t. u. on deduction of 14 7o per 
 25 B. t. u. or fraction thereof. Coal that analysed below 14,350 
 B. t. u. and on a dry basis less than 14,750 was penalized 1 cent for 
 each 25 B. t. u. below 15,000 in addition to the above noted penalty. 
 This, in effect, being an ash adjustment, since the coal actually 
 had a value dry of 14,900 B, t. u. Mr. Loeb criticises this as a 
 severe contract, but is justified because although the prices f. o. b. 
 vessels at Norfolk were $2.72 y^ per long ton in 1908. $2.44 in 
 1909, and $2.60 in' 1910, the total cost distributed to shovels and 
 dredges amounted to $6.50 per ton. He states that the result of 
 this contract was an average delivery for 1908 of 14,547 B. t. u., 
 
298 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 for 1909 there were 14,528 B. t. u. The banner cargo for that 
 year consisted of 5,021 tons containing 2.06% moisture, 3.69% ash, 
 yielding 14,888 B.t.u. 
 
 The U. S. Ckwernment pays a premium for all coal showing more 
 than 15,000 B. t. u. dry, allowing an ash variation of 2% and 
 penalizing at rates increasing from 2 cts. to 35 cts. per ton from 
 3% to 9% ash above guarantee. The ash penalties do not change 
 with the price. 
 
 Economic Hints on Calorific Tests of Coal. Whereas, the calorific 
 qualities of coal can be determined by laboratory te.sts in a very 
 convenient and inexpensive manner, the physical properties of the 
 coal, which involve clinkering, packing down on the grates, or 
 adaptability to the mechanical features of automatic stokers, must 
 be determined by actual tests on firing, and these tests depend upon 
 the skill of the fireman, the conscientiousness with which he does 
 his work, and the ability with which he is supervised while the 
 tests are being made. They should be tests under regular running 
 conditions for a considerable period, possibly a week. 
 
 iVIethods of Estimating the Heat Value of Fuel. There are two 
 generally used methods : 
 
 Calculations. The formula frequently used is as follows: B, t. u. 
 
 O 
 
 per lb. of fuel -CX 14,600 + (H ) 62,000. Where 
 
 8 
 
 C — Decimal part by weight of carbon in the fuel ; 
 H— Decimal part by weight of hydrogen in the fuel; 
 O -- Decimal part by weight of oxygen in the fuel. 
 
 Tn using this formula in determining the value of gas fuels care 
 shf)uld be taken not to confuse the weight of gas with its volume 
 and temperature and pressures of gas mu.st be specified. The 
 temperatures most frequently taken are 32 and 60 degs. F., and 
 the pressure. 14.7 lbs., absolute. 
 
 rroxiniate Ayialysis. The proximate analysis of coal does not 
 give the percentage of total carbon nor the percentage of gases, 
 but it does give the percentage of fixed carbon. The accompanying 
 diagram. Fig. 2, appeared in Power, June 10. 1913, and w-as con- 
 .structed from over 300 analyses made by the U. S. Government, 
 representing coal found in 27 different states and territories. It 
 is almost exactly correct for a limited number of cases, reasonably 
 near correct (ju-obably within 3'/') ioi- a large number of cases 
 and quite far from correct in a few cases. The curve is most 
 uniformly accurate for coals having combustible matter that con- 
 tains from 64 to 90% fixed carbon. Where the fixed carbon runs 
 less than 6 1%. the curve may. in a few cases, err as much as 7%. 
 
 Application of the Chart. "To estimate the heat value of a coal 
 with a given proximate analysi.s, add together the percentage of 
 fixed carbon and the percentage of volatile matter in the coal ; 
 divide this sum into the percentage of fixed carbon and multiply 
 by 100. This gives the percentage of fixed carbon in the com- 
 bustible matter. Locate this percentage at the foot of the chart, 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 299 
 
 extend your pencil straight up until you strike the curve, then 
 extend it to the nearest (left or right) margin in a straight hori- 
 zontal line and read off the B. t. u. per pound of combustible. 
 Multii)ly the B. t. u. thus found by the sum of the percentage of 
 fixed carbon and volatile matter in the coal as shown by the proxi- 
 mate anlysis, and the answer, divided by 100, gives the B. t. u. 
 per pound of coal. 
 
 "To illustrate with an actual example, assume a coal with this 
 proximate analysis: Moisture. 5 127f ; volatile matter, 27.25%; fixed 
 
 
 T 
 
 rn 
 
 r— 
 
 r— 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 1 1 1 1 ! ! 1 ' i 1 I ; 1 1 ■ i 1 1: ■ i 1 1 1 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ■■ 
 
 "■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 i^^---' ■: iT-<: i ' ' M ' ' ' ^ 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .X 1 1 1 1 ^ ; 1 i ., . - -^1 ^ , . , 1 1 ; ; 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 -f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -I- 
 
 ■ 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 M i 1 1 1 
 
 
 ; f 1 i : t ,\ . . i 1 1 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 i\ r i • i 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ' 1 . 1 i 
 
 i ' i\ i M '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ' ; 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i !\' ' i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ' ' 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J ! . 
 
 _Nl 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ' 5.1 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 \ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 5.0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i I i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 1 i ' i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 71 i 1 ! 
 
 
 
 i !M 1 ; 1 i i 1 : ' i 1 
 
 
 
 i 1 1 i 1 i i 1 i i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; ' 71 J Ll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : \ \ \ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 4,700 
 
 
 1 Vi M Ji 
 
 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 i 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 4.6 
 
 
 1 i / 
 
 1 ; ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i '■ i ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 y 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' *.=oo 
 
 
 '' / i 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i i 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' /i 1 ' M t 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 1 • 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 _yi M M 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 i i 1 1 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 / I 1 1 i ! 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 i 1 1 i 1 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / ■ 1 1 M 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ' ; ! . . . . : . , 1 , . . i i ]| 
 
 
 
 • ' 
 
 /I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 1 i ; , ' ' , : ; , • 1 1 i 1 1 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '5 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 r> 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Fig. 
 
 2. Diagram for e.stimating heat value of coal fi'om proximate 
 analysis. 
 
 carbon. .53.38'7r ; ash. 14.25%. Adding together the percentage of 
 fixed carbon and the percentage of volatile matter, 
 
 53.38 + 27,25 - 80.63. 
 
 Dividing this into the fixed carbon, we have 
 
 53.38-^80.63 — 0.662, 
 
 which, multiplied by 100, gives 66.27c fixed carbon in the com- 
 bu.stible. Referring to the base line of the chart, find the 66% 
 line and judge a point 0.2. or Vi. of the distance to the next line 
 beyond. Trace an imaginary vertical line (this line is shown 
 dotted on the chart) up from this point to the curve and then hori- 
 zontally to the left margin. It strikes exactly the 15,400 B. t. u. 
 line. Then, 15,400 B. t. u. may be taken as the heat value of a 
 pound of the combustible matter found. 
 
 " Now, if the coal were all combu.'-tible and had no moisture 
 nor a.sh, the heat value per pound of coal would be identical with 
 the heat value per pound of combustible. But only 80.63% of the 
 
300 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 coal is combustible, and hence the heat value of a pound of coal is 
 equal to only 8 0.6 3% of the heat value of a pound of combustible. 
 Thus, the heat value of the coal is 
 
 15.100 X 80.63 -^ 100 = 12.417 B. t. u." 
 
 Relative Value of Anthracite and Semi-Bituminous Coals. The 
 
 comparison of the relative fuel value of the steam sizes of anthra- 
 cite semi-bituminous coals shown in Fig. 3 was made by G. B. 
 Gould, vice-president of the Fuel Engineering- Company of New 
 York, and was printed in Cost of Power by that company. The 
 average coal quality upon which the chart is based was determined 
 from 8.195 tests of semi-bituminous and 9,885 tests of steam sizes 
 of anthracite niade by that company. 
 
 The Cost of Coal Analyses. The analysis of coal to determine 
 the calorific value of the fuel costs from a maximum of 2 cts. 
 per ton when the work is done on a small scale to % ct. per ton 
 when the analyses of large shipments are made regularly. 
 
 The cost of a calorimeter is from $100 to $150, and the cost for. 
 a complete proximate analysis calorific determination in the U. S. 
 Inspection Laboratory is $1.95 per sample in 1911 (Fng. Magazine, 
 March, 1911). 
 
 Coal Size and B. t. u. per $1 Cost. The data in Table II given 
 in Isolated Plant, Sept., 1913, .^how the relative value of various 
 size coals when properly burned, 
 
 TABLE II. RELATIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS SIZE COAL 
 
 Kind 
 Broken . . 
 Egg 
 
 Stove .... 
 Chestnut . 
 
 Pea 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 No. 1 . . 
 
 No. 2 . . 
 
 No. 3 . . 
 
 Pass 
 
 square 
 
 hole 
 
 . 4V4 
 
 . 3 
 
 . . 21/2 
 
 . . 1V:> 
 
 ■ . % 
 
 ■ . V2 
 
 . . /A 
 
 • • 4l6 
 
 Not 
 pass 
 
 2% 
 2 
 
 IM 
 
 % 
 
 V2 
 
 Vi 
 
 %2 
 
 -Specification- 
 
 Ash, 
 pr. ct. 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 19 
 19 
 
 B.t.u. 
 
 13.200 
 13:200 
 13,000 
 13,000 
 12,200 
 
 12,000 
 11.900 
 11,900 
 
 Approx. 
 price 
 $6.00 
 6.25 
 6.25 
 6.25 
 4.25 
 
 3.50 
 3.15 
 2.75 
 
 Evaporation Tests as a Check upon Coal Analysis. 
 Loeb, Engineering Magazine, March, 1911.) 
 
 No. of 
 B.t.u. 
 for $1.00 
 4,400,000 
 4,220,000 
 4,000.000 
 4,000,000 
 5,740,000 
 
 6,860,000 
 7.510,000 
 8,600,000 
 
 (After Leo 
 
 EVAPORATION TESTS OF TWO COMPETING COALS 
 
 Name of coal 
 
 Duration of test, hours. 
 Analysis : 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Ash 
 
 Fixed carbon 
 
 Volatile matter 
 
 B.t.u. as received 
 
 Elk Licl 
 
 1.80 
 
 9.10 
 
 68.60 
 
 20.50 
 
 14.050 
 
 B.t.u. dry coal 14,310 
 
 Refuse : 
 
 Combustible matter 22.75 
 
 Non-combustible 77.25 
 
 Orenda. Orenda. Elk Lick, 
 
 2.10 
 
 8.20 
 
 73.70 
 
 16.00 
 
 14,070 
 
 14,370 
 
 30.10 
 69.90 
 
 2.70 
 
 9.30 
 
 71.50 
 
 16.50 
 
 13,770 
 
 14.150 
 
 20.80 
 79.20 
 
 5.80 
 
 8.30 
 
 65.90 
 
 20.00 
 
 13,565 
 
 14,400 
 
 21.00 
 79.00 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 301 
 
 Name of coal Elk Lick. Orenda. Orenda. Elk Lick. 
 
 Duration of test hours. .9 9 9 9 
 
 Peicent.refu.se. 12.86 9.73 9.74 10.46 
 
 Boiler horse power 42G.5 421.8 426.8 455.2 
 
 Equivalent evai)oration per 
 
 lb. coal as receivod 10.25 10.51 9.97 9.92 
 Equivalenl evaporation per 
 
 lb. dry coal 10.44 10.74 10.25 10.52 
 
 Equivalent evaporation per 
 
 lb. combustible 11.98 11.90 11.35 11.75 
 
 Efficiency of boiler and 
 
 grate, per cent 70. }5 72.18 69.95 70.55 
 
 Contract price, per ton,. $3.01 $3.15 $3.15 $3.01 
 
 A.sh in dry coal, per cent. 7 6 6 7 
 
 B.t.u. Hs received 14,000 14,300 14,300 14,000 
 
 Smoke, per cent, black. . . 15.2 1.7 3.62 13.8 
 Cost of evaporating 1,000 
 lbs. of steam under ob- 
 served conditions, cts. 13.08 13.09 13.69 13.12 
 
 The two bids considered gave respectively 9.84 and 9.66 cts. per 
 million B. t. u., showing a ratio of 1.018. The first bidder had sup- 
 plied satisfactory coal for a year; and the second one was known 
 to be slightly inferior from records in the Bureau of Mines. But 
 since there was a possible saving of 1.8'/<. it was decided to leave 
 the results to evaporation tests on two Babcock & Wilcox boilers 
 of 206 boiler h.p.. fitted with mechanical stokers, the results being 
 given in the above table. The result being that the average coat 
 of producing steam with the Elk Lick coal was 13.10 cts. per 
 thousand lbs. and with Orenda 13.39 giving a ratio of 1.021, show- 
 ing a saving in favor of the first of 2.1% as compared with an 
 expected saving by calculation of 1.8%. 
 
 The Weathering of Coal. As the result of some experiments 
 on the weathering of coal conducted at the engineering experiment 
 station of the University of Illinois the following conclusions were 
 reached: (1) Sul)merged coal does not lose appreciably in heat 
 value. (2) Outdoor exposure results in a loss of heating value 
 varying from 2 to i^)%. (3) Dry storage has no advantage over 
 storage in the open except with high suljihur coals, where the 
 distintegrating effect of sulphur in the process of oxidation facili- 
 tates the e.scape of hydiocarbons or the oxidation of the same. 
 (4) In most cases the losses in storage appear to be practically 
 complete at the end of 5 months. From the seventh to the ninth 
 month, the loss is inapi)reciHl:»le. 
 
 Variation of Car and Mine Samples of Coal. The following data 
 are from Bulletin 85 of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. 
 
 Method of Mine ^am2)ling Follovjed by Bureau of Mines. The 
 method of collecting mine samples that is practiced by the Bureau 
 of Mines has been described in detail in a previous publication. 
 It involves selecting a repre.septative face of the bed to be sampled; 
 cleaning the face ; making a cut across it from roof to floor, and 
 rejecting or including imi)Uiities in this cut according to a definite 
 plan as they are included or nxcludi^d in mining operations; re- 
 ducing this gross sample, by crushing and quartering, to about 
 
302 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL^COST DATA 
 
 3 lbs. ; and immediately sealing the 3-lb. sample in an airtight 
 container for shipment to the laboratory. 
 
 Collection of Car Samples. The carload lots of coal shipped to 
 Pittsburgh for test were sampled by taking definite quantities of 
 coal at regular intervals from a car as it was unloaded, and by 
 reducing to convenient size (about 50 lbs.) the gross sample thus 
 obtained. 
 
 Method of Sampling Folloioed by the United States Geological 
 Survey. In collecting mine samples the Geological Survey follows 
 essentially the same method of sampling as that used by the Bureau 
 of Mines. However, in sampling outcrops and prospect holes or 
 country banks when mining is not in progress, the geologist can not 
 imitate the miner in rejecting or including impurities in the sample, 
 and hence the sample from the cut across the bed includes all part- 
 ings or binders less than % in. thick and every concretion or " sul- 
 phur ball " having a maximum diameter of less than 2 ins. and 
 a thickness of less than y^ in. All other impurities in the bed 
 are excluded from the sample. Obviou.sly an arbitrary and uni- 
 form system of rejecting impurities is necessary for sampling out- 
 crops, prospects, and undeveloped mines. 
 
 Relation of Mine Satnples to Co)n)nercial Shipments. In making 
 statements, on the basis of the analyses of mine samples, in re- 
 gard to the quality of coal shipped from a mine due allowance 
 must be made for the larger proportion of impurities that may be 
 included in the commercial operation of the mine. It is difficult to 
 take a mine sampl.e in which impurities are rejected in exactly the 
 same manner as is done by the miner. The practice of different 
 miners will vary, especially if rigid inspection at the tipple is not 
 enforced. In some mines, for instance, where the coal bed has 
 friable partings or has a soft, flaky roof or floor, the inclusion of 
 some foreign matter is unavoidable. Hence the analysis of the 
 mine sample usually indicates a better grade of coal, as regards 
 ash content and heating value, than the actual commercial ship- 
 ments, and for this reason the mine sample should be considered 
 as representing the coal that can only be produced under the most 
 favorable conditions of mining and preparation. 
 
 In commercial shipments that are sampled at their destination 
 the moisture content may be either more or less than that in the 
 mine samples, the relative proportions depending on the amount 
 of bed moisture, the size of the coal, and the weather conditions 
 during transit. 
 
 Coals containing 5% or more of moisture tend to lose moisture 
 while in transit. Slack coal usually contains more moisture than 
 the mine sample. Low-moisture coals shipped in open cars may 
 gain or lose moisture, depending on weather conditions. 
 
 The calorific value, referred to moisture-free and ash-free coal, of 
 samples taken from shipments at destination, tends to be slightly 
 lower than that of the fresh mine samples from the same mine. 
 The deterioration is caused mainly by the freshly exposed surfaces 
 of coal absorbing oxygen from the air. The rate of deterioration 
 varies with the different types of coal and depends on a number of 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 303 
 
 factors, chief of which are: (1) Size of coal, (2) proportion of 
 surface exposed to circulating air, (3) duration of exposure, (4) 
 temperature and humidity. 
 
 It is therefore difficult to assign any definite values for deteriora- 
 tion of coal while in transit. A number of mine and car samples 
 tested by the United States Geological Survi'y and the Bureau of 
 Mines showed ihe following average losses in moisture-free and 
 ash-free calorific value of car sample as compared with that of 
 mine sample. 
 
 Kind of coal. Per cent. 
 
 Semibituminous, New River and Pocahontas 0.1 
 
 Bituminous, Appalachian field 3 
 
 Bituminous, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri 8 
 
 Subbituminous and lignite 1-3 
 
 TABLE 111. CALORIFIC VALUE OF COALS FROM VARIOUS 
 STATES 
 State Kind of fuel County perVb. 
 
 Alabama Soft — Caking Bibb 13,671 
 
 Alabama Soft — Free-Burning Jefferson 14.447 
 
 Arliansas Soft — Caking Sebastian 13,705 
 
 Arkansas Semi-Anthracite — Caking Johnson 14.125 
 
 Arkansas Lignite Ouachita 9,5 19 
 
 Georgia Soft — Free-Burning Chattooga 12.865 
 
 Illinois Soft — Free-Burning Williamson 12,920 
 
 Illinois Soft Briquets St. Clair 13,271 
 
 Illinois Soft — Caking Saline 13,621 
 
 Indiana Soft — Free-Burning Greene 13,099 
 
 Indiana Soft — Caking Pike 13.545 
 
 Indiana Soft Briquets Parke 11.930 
 
 Indian Territory Soft — Free-Burning 13,932 
 
 Indian Territory Semi-Anthracite 14,682 
 
 Kansas Soft — Free-Burning Linn 12,343 
 
 Kentucky Soft — Free-Burning Union 14,026 
 
 Maryland Soft — Free-Burning Allegany 14,515 
 
 Maryland Soft Briquets Allegany 14,717 
 
 Missouri Soft — Caking Randolph 11,747 
 
 Montana Lignite — Free-Burning Carbon 11,628 
 
 New Mexico Soft — Caking Colfax 13,059 
 
 New Mexico Soft — F'ree-Burning Colfax 12,721 
 
 Ohio Soft — Free-Burning Belmont 13,381 
 
 Pennsylvania Soft — Caking Indiana 14,240 
 
 Pennsylvania Soft — Free-Burning Cambria 14,119 
 
 Pennsylvania Soft Briquets Westmoreland 14,382 
 
 Tennessee Soft Briquets Claiborne 14,092 
 
 Tennessee Soft — Free-Burning Campbell 14,008 
 
 Tennessee Soft — Caking Grundy 13,257 
 
 Texas Lignite — Free-Burning Wood 11,131 
 
 Utah Soft — Free-Burning Summit 12,586 
 
 Virginia Anthracite — Free-Burning Montgomery 12,679 
 
 Virginia Soft — Caking Tazewell 14,177 
 
 Wa.^hington Sub-bit. — Free-Burning King 11,772 
 
 Washington Soft — Free-Burning Kittitas 12,996 
 
 West Virginia Soft — Free-Burning Marion 13,964 
 
 West Virginia Soft — Caking Kanawha 13,995 
 
 Wyoming Soft — Free-Burning Carbon 12,222 
 
 Wyoming Sub-bit. — Free-Burning Uinta 12,488 
 
 The valuations in Table III were obtained at St. Louis testing' 
 plant from 139 samples of coal. The heating values of the various 
 coals were established by " actually burning one grain of the air- 
 dried coal in oxygen in a Mahler bomb calorimeter." 
 
304 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Calorific Value of Selected Free-Burning and Caking Soft Fuels. 
 The data in Table HI are from U. S. rjeological Survey Bulletin 
 No. 332 and U. S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin No. 23. See Fig. 3. 
 
 TABI^E IV. COMPOSITION AND HEAT 
 ANTHRACITE COALS 
 
 Fixed 
 
 Locality car- Vola- Mois- 
 
 bon tile ture 
 Anthracite 
 
 Penna 78. GO 
 
 Buckwheat 81.32 3.84 3.88 
 
 Wilkesbarre ... 76.94 6.42 1.34 
 
 Scranton 79.23 3.73 3.33 
 
 84.46 5.37 0.97 
 
 Cross Creek 89.19 1.96 3.62 
 
 Lehigh Valley 75.20 7.36 1.44 
 
 Lykens Valley 76.94 6.21 
 
 .... 81.00 5.00 
 
 Wharton 86.40 3.08 3.71 
 
 Buck Mt 82.66 3.95 3.04 
 
 Beaver Meadow . . . 88.94 2.38 1.50 
 
 Lackawanna 87.74 3.91 2.12 
 
 Rhode Lsland 85.00 
 
 Arkansas 74.49 14.73 1.52 
 
 Semi- Anthracite 
 
 Penna., Loyalsock 83.34 8.10 1.30 
 
 Bernice 82.52 3.56 0.96 
 
 89.39 8.56 0.97 
 
 Wilkesbarre 88.90 7.68 
 
 Lycoming Creek... 71.53 13.84 0.67 
 
 Virginia, natural coke .... 75.08 12.44 1.12 
 
 Arkansas 74.06 14.93 1.35 
 
 Indian Territory 73.21 13.65 5.11 
 
 Maryland, Basby . 83.60 16.40 . . . 
 
 VALUES OF 
 
 
 Sul- 
 
 B.t.U. 
 
 Ash 
 
 phur 
 
 per lb. 
 
 14.80 
 
 0.40 
 
 
 10.96 
 
 0.67 
 
 12,200 
 
 15.30 
 
 
 11.801 
 
 13.70 
 
 
 12,149 
 
 9.20 
 
 
 12,294 
 
 5.23 
 
 . . . 
 
 13.723 
 
 16.00 
 
 
 12 123 
 15,300 
 15,300 
 
 6.22 
 
 0.58 
 
 15,000 
 
 9.88 
 
 0.46 
 
 15,070 
 
 7.11 
 
 0.01 
 
 
 6.35 
 
 0.12 
 
 
 
 7.00 
 
 0.90 
 
 
 9.26 
 
 
 13,217 
 
 6.23 
 
 1.03 
 
 15,400 
 
 3.27 
 
 0.24 
 
 15,050 
 
 9.34 
 
 1.04 
 
 15,475 
 
 3.49 
 
 
 14,199 
 
 13.96 
 
 0.03 
 
 
 11.38 
 
 0.47 
 
 
 9.66 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 8.03 
 
 1.18 
 
 13,662 
 11,207 
 
 TABLE V. HEAT VALUE AND COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS 
 
 FUELS 
 
 , Composition ^ 
 
 Vola- Calo- 
 
 tile rifle 
 
 Name of combustible C H mat- Ash power 
 
 ter B.t.U. 
 
 Carbon 1.00 ... 14,400 
 
 Anthracite coal 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.01 13.500 
 
 Bituminous Coal 85 0.05 0.06 0.06 14,400 
 
 Lignite 0.70 0.05 0.20 0.05 11.700 
 
 Peat 0.55 0.05 0.30 0.10 9.000 
 
 Peat 0.30 water 0.39 0.04 0.50 0.07 7.200 
 
 CoUe 0.85 0.05 ... 0.10 12.600 
 
 Peat — charcoal 0.82 ... ... 0.18 9.000 
 
 Dry wood 0.48 0.06 0.05 0.01 7.200 
 
 Wood 0.20 water 0.40 0.05 0.25 0.01 5.400 
 
 Wood charcoal 0.80 ... 0.04 0.07 10,800 
 
 Hydrogen 1.00 ... ... 62.000 
 
 Carbonic oxide 0.43 ... 0.57 ... 4.320 
 
 Illuminating gas 0.62 0.21 0.17 ... 18,000 
 
 Gas from blast-furnace ... 0.06 0.02 0.92 ... 1.620 
 
 Note. Above information is quoted from standard authorities. 
 Not guaranteed. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 SOS 
 
 Influence of Ash on Value of Coal. All motive power officers, 
 locomotive engineers and firemen are familiar with the trouble 
 occasioned by what is designated as " bad coal," which makes 
 clinkers as well as fills the firebox with ashes, so that the capacity 
 of the locomotive is very materially reduced, resulting In delays 
 and various other troubles, due not to inferiority in the coal itself, 
 
 4.80 
 4.60 
 4.40 
 4.20 
 H 4.00 
 3.80 
 3.G0 
 3.40 
 3.20 
 3.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 r~ 
 
 -- 
 
 -- 
 
 -- 
 
 -- 
 
 -- 
 
 -- 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 [ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UL 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 § 2.80 
 S 2.60 
 S 2.40 
 ^ 2.20 
 « 2.00 
 W 1.^0 
 l^CO 
 1.40 
 
 oooocaooooooogooo 
 
 ANTHRACITE VALUE 
 Fig. 3. Relative Value of Semi-Bituminous and Anthracite 
 
 but to the fact that the ash in or associated with the fuel is ex- 
 cessive. In Railroad Age Gazette, July 30, 1909, there are given 
 two diagrams, Figs, 4 and 5, the first illustrating value of coal 
 fuel with varying percentages of ash, and the second, showing the 
 results of experiments from which Fig. 5 is derived. 
 
 These experiments were made with a Babcock & Wilcox boiler 
 served with a chain grate' stoker. A .special lot of four cars of 
 what is Itnown as No. 4 washed coal from Williamson county, 
 Illinois, were provided to insure that no effect produced would be 
 due to irregularity in size. In preparation it was passed over a 
 screen having round perforations i/4 in. in diam. and through a 
 screen having round perforations % in. in diam. The coal as re- 
 ceived contained approximately 8% ash. The first experiment was 
 run with this coal in condition as received. In the test of the fol- 
 lowing day a small quantity of ash-pit refuse was mixed with it, 
 and on each succeeding day a gradually increasing quantity of 
 ash-pit refuse was added to the coal and thoroughly mixed. This 
 process was continued until the efficiency and capacity dropped 
 
306 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 * 
 
 to zero, or in other words, until there was no water evaporated 
 from the coal burned, notwithstanding the fact that 60% of the 
 fuel composition was pure coal. 
 
 The above mentioned experiments were conducted for the Com- 
 monwealth Edison Co., Chicago, and they refer to conditions 
 of stationary boiler service rather than of locomotive. Some re- 
 sults plotted from tests made by the United States Geological 
 Survey using coal containing ash ranging from 5 to 15% on hand- 
 
 100 
 
 i 80 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 7. 20 
 
 8 
 
 _=i.,^__ ^: . — 
 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^ " : -± " ~ ::: 
 
 li -^i"*w N : 
 
 •^. V ■^ V 
 
 ^ ^^ ^■ 
 
 X ^^^»; ^ ~ " " 
 
 s s ^ 
 
 !5i, S J 
 
 5* S !^ 
 
 !^. ^ ^r- 
 
 \^^S - - -- - 
 
 _ _ ^^s\ : : :_ 
 
 -- - - - s_L^ _. . :::_ 
 
 _ _- _ - - - ^:,L, :_ _ .: : 
 
 _ - _ -^s^ _ __: : 
 
 - _- -- _ -S-^ _ ::: : 
 
 -- - __ - -L^^ __ . _ 
 
 v^ 
 
 5 k 
 
 N> . - 
 
 
 * 1 1 .1 :rK Y Mf 
 
 
 :::?':!i::::: = :: ::-::H:::::::: 
 
 in 
 
 10 20 30 40 
 PER CENT or ASH IN DRY COAL 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 fired grates, conform very closely to the corresponding portion of 
 the curve shown in Fig. 5. 
 
 The matter of ash in locomotive fuel may be considered from 
 two standpoints ; one, the desirability of employing fuel which is 
 low in ash, the other, the removal of the ash as rapidly as it 
 accumulates, each tending to the same result. It has been the 
 author's experience that by frequently shaking the grate, the ash 
 accumulation could be so disposed of that an engine would come 
 in at the end of a division with the fire in apparently as good 
 condition as when leaving. This, however, added very materially 
 to the labor required on an engine, but more recently, grate-shaking 
 apparatus, which is operated by steam, has been proposed and also 
 employed to a limited extent. 
 
 The whole matter of the ash in locomotive fuel is one of the 
 very first importance, probably much greater than has been re- 
 alized. The characteristic of smallness in size, which cuts a con- 
 siderable figure in stationary practice, is largely absent in the case 
 of locomotives, for the reason that the fine coal is carried out of 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 307 
 
 the stack by the intense draft and does not clog the fuel to such 
 harmful extent, leaving the ash as the greatest cause of trouble 
 with the railway fuel, which results in many so-called engine 
 failures. 
 
 600 
 700 
 600 
 SCO 
 400 
 
 •^ 300 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 ErrKtcHor 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^. 
 
 70 
 
 60 H 
 Z 
 lU 
 
 50 O 
 (t 
 
 u 
 
 40 0- 
 
 >- 
 
 30 ^ 
 
 LJ 
 
 20 y 
 
 Lu 
 to UJ 
 
 10 20 30 40 
 
 PER CENT OF ASH IN DRY COAU 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Cost of Preparing Powdered Coal. W. L. Robinson states that a 
 general average from available data, covering a period of the past 
 5 or 10 years of cement and metallurgical plants, will justify the 
 following conservative estimates for plants of different sizes, as- 
 suming the cost of the raw coal at from $1 to $2 per short ton. 
 The material will require crushing and have a moisture content of 
 from 5 to 10% when placed in the dryer. 
 
 Capacity of plant in 
 
 short tons per hr. 
 
 2 
 
 Average total cost for prepara- 
 tion per short ton, cts. 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 20 to 45 
 
 16 to 40 
 
 14 to 35 
 
 12 to 30 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 The fuel required for drying the coal will average from 1 to 2% 
 of the coal dried, and the distribution of the total cost is approxi- 
 mately as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Fuel for drying 10 
 
 Power for operation ^0 
 
 Labor 30 
 
 Maintenance and supplies ^o 
 
 Interest, taxes, insurance and depreciation 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
308 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Coal Burned per Sq. Ft. of Grate Area. Fig. 6 gives the results 
 of tests on briquettes and run-of-mine coal noted by W. F. M. Goss 
 in Bui. No. 363, U. S. Geological Survey. 
 
 The experiments were made on the U. S. torpedo boat Biddle 
 by Kenneth McAlpin of the U. S. Navy Department and W. T. 
 Ray and H. Kreisinger of the U. S. Geological Survey. The run- 
 of-mine coal from the New River district of West Virginia was 
 low-volatile, bituminous or semi-bituminous in character and very 
 friable. It was tested after an exposure of 23 days. The bricjuettes 
 were made on Johnson and Renfrow machines using 6% of water- 
 gas pitch binder. 
 
 Cost of Briquetting Coal. From a paper on " Coal-Briquetting 
 in the United States." by K. W. Parker, appearing in the Transac- 
 tions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and published 
 by them with the permission of the director of the U. S. Geological 
 Survey we abstract the author's description of a plant in New 
 York City and the costs of its operation. 
 
 °OUN03 0( COAl. «S riREO euXNEO PER HOUR PER SQUARE rOOT OC CRATE AREA 
 
 Fig. G. lOvaporative elhciency of briquettes and coal. 
 
 The Mashek press in this iilant has a capacity of about 14 tons 
 per hr. of 2-oz. briquettes, but because of unfav(»rable conditions 
 its capacity is about 10 tons per hr. The briquettes mo.st in de- 
 mand were found to be the 2-oz. size, which corresi)onds with the 
 stove-coal size of anthracite. The weight varies with the nature 
 of the dust from which the briquette is made, and it has been found 
 that in using coke-breeze a 2.5-oz. briquette is mo.st desirable, and 
 about a 3-oz. if made of soft coal and lignite. The press is de- 
 signed so that a charge of the mould shells can be made in about 
 2 hrs. 
 
 The arrangement of the plant is such that the anthracite-dust is 
 elevated to a dust bin. from which it is drawn by a feed-conveyor 
 so arranged that the feed is constant and can be regulated as de- 
 sired. This conveyor discharges into a chain elevator, which in 
 turn discharges into a battery of five 18-in. rotary diiers and 
 heateis. These are sui)erimposed ,one above the other and all 
 bricked in. The mateiial is conveyed through these driers by 
 means of screw-mixers until it passes into the following elevator. 
 
 On the side of these driers is constructed a furnace, the products 
 of combustion from which are distributed into the driers through 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 309 
 
 openings into different units, so that no unit gets heat sufficient 
 either to char the dust or to burn out the iron-work of the paddle- 
 conveyor. An exhaust-fan draws off the products of combustion 
 and the moisture. The temperature of the discharge-gases and 
 moisture from the drier rarely exceeds 212 degs. F. After the 
 material passes out of the drier into the elevator it is elevated 
 and dropped into a 36-in. Williams pulverizer, where the larger 
 pieces are crushed, so that everything passes through about a 
 12-mesh screen. From the pulverizer the material is again ele- 
 vated to another series of mixers and coolers similar in construc- 
 tion to the driers. The anthracite dust at this point has a tem- 
 perature of about 300 degs. F. The coal-tar pitch is here intro- 
 duced by means of a pitch-pump so arranged as to deliver a definite 
 quantity of i)itch. as desired. Alongside of this last battery of 
 mixers is a small furnace which heats the two upper mixers, main- 
 taining an even temperature of the mixture and not allowing 
 it to stiffen or set. From the last mixer the mateiial drops to an 
 elevator which takes it up to the second floor and discharges it on 
 to an 18-in. belt conveyor, which delivers the material over the 
 press and into the hopper. The press is continually discharg- 
 ing the briquettes into a perforated-pan conveyor, which conveys 
 them to the briquette bin. While on this conveyor the briquettes 
 are subjected to a heavy spray of water in order to cool and 
 clean them. 
 
 The coal-tar pitch used in this plant is of the ordinary roofing- 
 hardness; it is delivered by lighter on an adjacent dock and carted 
 to the pitch melting house. 
 
 The plant requires about 125 h.p. to turn out 10 tons per hr. 
 
 The cost of manufacture is as follows : 
 
 Pitch: 
 
 Using 676 of pitch at $10 per ton $0.60 
 
 DedU(;tirig increased weight of product due to 6% of pitch 
 
 and calculating product at $5 per ton 0.30 
 
 Net cost of pitch $0.30 
 
 Fuel: 
 
 For boilers, brol<en coal and screenings, broken briquettes, 
 
 4 tons i>er day of 10 hrs., at $2.50 per ton $10.00 
 
 Per ton of hi itjueLtes 0.10 
 
 For healiMs, diiers and pitch-melting, 3 tons at $2.50 per 
 
 ton of briquettes 0.075 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Per day 
 
 1 foreman $ 5.00 
 
 2 pitch-melteis 3.50 
 
 1 dust-bin man 1.75 
 
 1 engineer 3.50 
 
 1 man on .second floor . . . ., 1.75 
 
 1 man on giound floor 175 
 
 1 night watchman 1 75 
 
 1 oiler 175 
 
 $20.75 
 Per ton of briquettes $0.21 
 
310 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Miscellaneous: 
 
 Wear and tear, per ton of briquettes $0.10 
 
 Lubricating oil, per ton of briquettes 0.01 
 
 Insurance 005 
 
 Interest on capital invested $40,000 at Q% 0.10 
 
 Office expense, telephone, stenographer and stationery, 
 
 $2,000 per annum 0.09 
 
 $0.99 
 Anthracite (dust at $1.40 per long ton) per net ton of bri- 
 quettes 125 
 
 Total cost of briquetting $2.24 
 
 Re-briquetting 3% of breakage and abrasion, charging it 
 
 back to plant as dust, per ton of briquettes 0.06 
 
 Net cost per ton of briquettes $2.30 
 
 Wholesale selling-price in bin 4.80 
 
 Net profit per short ton ' $2.50 
 
 Cost of Briquetting Coal. M, H. Blauvelt in the Transactions of 
 the American Institute of Mining Engineers, March, 1910. described 
 the fuel briquetting plant of the Solvay Co., at Detroit, Mich., and 
 gave the following figures for the plant, the capacity of which 
 has been brought up to 9 tons per hr. and may reach 10 tons: 
 
 Power consumed in motor driving in different parts of the plant 
 was as follows : 
 
 Brake h.p. 
 
 Breeze conveyor to drier 1.50 
 
 Breeze drier and ventilating fan 2 85 
 
 Pulverizing mill 22 00 
 
 Elevator shafting and rotary mixer , . 10.00 
 
 Briquetting press 25.00 
 
 Total 61.35 
 
 Tests extending over a number of days showed a consumption 
 of 206 lbs. of steam per ton of ' riquettes produced, and the writer 
 says that the above steam consumi)tion per ton of product would 
 undoubtedly be decreased by a larger output. 
 
 Labor cost of briquetting was as follows : 
 
 Cost per hr. 
 
 1 foreman $0.50 
 
 1 pressman 0.26 
 
 1 oiler, breeze-drier and conveyor man 0.18 
 
 1 pitch man 0.18 
 
 1 briquette loader 19 
 
 2 laborers, at 17 cts 0.34 
 
 Total $1.65 
 
 This labor cost amounts to 18.3 cts. per ton, when producing 9 
 tons of briquettes per hr. Two presses would double the output, 
 but would only require two more men at 18 cts., and a second 
 pressman at 26 cts. per hr., which would reduce the labor cost to 
 12.6 cts. per ton. 
 
 Cost of briquetting per ton of product with and without coke- 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 311 
 
 breeze, and a plant similar to that dencribed, producing 9 tons of 
 briquettes per hr., was as follows : 
 
 U.sing Using 
 
 507c of breeze 100% of coal 
 
 Labor $0.].83 $0,183 
 
 Power, at 1.25 ots. per kw. -hr 0.072 0.072 
 
 Steam, 206 lbs., at 0.5-ct. per hp.-hr 0.034 0.034 
 
 Breeze-drier and superheater fuel 0.03 0.011 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies, oil, waste, lights 
 
 and water 0.03 0.03 
 
 Repairs on rolls 0.191 0.035 
 
 Other repairs 0.06 0.035 
 
 Total $0.60 $0.40 
 
 The cost of the pitch for binder and of the coal, coke-breeze, or 
 other fuel used, must be added to these figures to obtain the total 
 operating cost of such a plant. And the following estimate is given, 
 as.suming the suitable slack coal can be obtained at $2, coke-breeze 
 at $1, and pitch at $8 per ton, delivered at the plant, and assuming 
 the use of 7.5% of binder with the coal and 9% with the mixture 
 of coal and breeze. 
 
 Estimated cost of one ton of briquettes on above bases was as 
 follows : 
 
 Equal parts of 
 coal and breeze All coal 
 
 0.455 ton coal, at $2 $0.91 
 
 0.925 ton coal, at $2 $1.85 
 
 0.455 ton breeze, at $1 0.455 
 
 9% of pitch, at $8 0.72 ... 
 
 7.576 of pitch, at .l;8 ... 0.60 
 
 Cost of briquetting, as above 0.60 0.40 
 
 Total $2,685 $2^85 
 
 These results were obtained with the simplest form of apparatus 
 for preheating the air. All the steam required for operating the 
 plant, handling and storing coal, distilling ammonia, etc.. being 
 produced in the waste heat assisted by the breeze that the plant 
 produced. 
 
 Cost of Coal Briquetting in the West. The following costs 
 are given in the Proceedings of the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers, 1905 : 
 
 ESTIMATED COST PER TON OF BRIQUETTES IN WESTERN AMERICA 
 
 Labor $0 16 
 
 Oil and grease 006 
 
 Sundrv stores 01 
 
 Steam -fuel ; 04 
 
 Depreciation 3.05 
 
 $0 266 
 
 S% of pitch at $1 2 ton 96 
 
 1,840 lbs. of coal-slack at $1 94 
 
 $2,166 
 Cost of plant was $10,500 to $14,000. 
 
 Sales price of brifiuettes is 66-80% price of best lump-coal. 
 In Germany the sale price is $2 to $3 per metric ton. 
 
312 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 In East America coal-slack is almost worthless and cost of 
 briquettes will be less than $2.17 per ton. 
 
 By-Products Coke Ovens (after W. H. Blauvelt) give results per 
 ton of coal coked : 
 
 Fuel eras Surplus gas Steam pro- 
 Type of oven per cent. per cent. duced, lbs. 
 
 No air preheating- 70 30 1,050 
 
 Partial air preheating .... 60 40 800 
 
 Maximum air preheating . . 40 60 
 
 Distribution and Consvynplion of Pmver in a By-Product Coke 
 Oven Plant having Capctcily of IJOO Tons of Coal per Day. (After 
 W. H. Blauvelt.) 
 
 Daily power consumption in kw.-hrs. for various operations was 
 as follows : 
 
 Ijighting 599 
 
 Pum])s handling ammonia lifpior .390 
 
 Scrubbers and pumi)s in by-product recovery-plant... 1.283 
 
 Coal-charging and coke-pushing 192 
 
 Coal-conveyors 393 
 
 Coal-unloading 282 
 
 Coal-storage 102 
 
 Crushing and pulverizing 287 
 
 Coke-handling 686 
 
 Pumping water 1,800 
 
 Total power consumption and distribution — 6,014 
 
 For 1,300 tons of coal coked — 1.63 kw. per ton 
 
 F. E. Lucas in a paper before the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers in 1912 stated that a modern by-product oven, run at 
 a reasonable capacity will give 50% or more of surplus gas from 
 a coal of about 28% volatile-content. The .surplus gas is the gas 
 over and above the quantity needed to keep the oven up to the 
 required temperature. This surplus gas should run from 450 to 
 500 B. t. u. per cu. ft. The quantity of surplus gas is approximately 
 5,000 cu. ft.; hence, 5,000x450-2,250,000 B. t. u. per ton of 
 coal carbonized is available for the production of power,.— 93,750 
 B. t. u. per hr. The builders of gas-engines tell us we can get 
 1 h.p. on a heat-consumption of 11,000 B. t. u. On that basis, we 
 find 8.5 h.p. per hr. from the surplus gas from 1 ton of coal. 
 
 The Cost of iVIanufacturing Coke. In the older so-called bee- 
 hive type of oven nothing is recovered except the coke, in the so- 
 palled by-product type of oven, in addition to the coke itself various 
 kinds of by-products are recovered, consisting mainly of tar, am- 
 monia, and gas, varying greatly in quantity and quality with the 
 composition of the coal. In America, coals similar to those of the 
 Pocahontas region, containing as low as 16%, or less of volatile 
 matter, stand at one end of the classification, while in Europe, 
 some coals are coked which contain not more than 13% of volatile 
 matter. These produce the maximum yield of coke and the mini- 
 mum yield of by-products. At the other end of the list are the 
 gas-coals, containing as much as 38 or 40% of volatile matter, and 
 yielding correspondingly small amounts of coke. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 313 
 
 The economic advantages of the bee-hive oven are that it is 
 quickly built, has relatively low first cost, and can be operated by 
 low grade labor. It can be put out of run at relatively small cost, 
 and can easily be started up again after a shut-down. 
 
 Since the organization of the United States Steel Corporation the 
 conditions in the steel business in America have been much more 
 stable and uniform and the relative advantages of the beehive type 
 of oven have decreased in proportion as the stability of the steel 
 industry has increased. In addition to this the coals which are 
 best adapted to the beehive are becoming less plentiful. 
 
 The beehive process consists essentially in heating the coal with 
 controlled admission of air to the coke in the chamber, to the end 
 that the heat necessary for the distillation of the volatile matter 
 is j)roduced by combustion within the oven chamber ; whereas in 
 the by-product oven the process is a true dry distillation, in which 
 no air is admitted to the chamber and the heat necessary for the 
 distillation is supplied through the chamber walls. 
 
 The by-product oven is generally located at the point of con- 
 sumption of the coke or at some center of distribution. The dis- 
 advantage of fi'eight charges thus entailed, on from 1.2 to 1.4 
 tons of coal for every ton of coke produced, is partially offset by 
 the fact that the coal usually carries a lower freight-rate than 
 coke, is more easily tran.sported, and is not so likely to be injured 
 by handling. Thus a blast-furnace plant, having its own coke 
 ovens at the furnace may possess an assured supply of coke inde- 
 pendent of weather or shipping conditions, and it is quite common 
 for such a plant to accumulate a stock of from one to eight months' 
 supply of coal, the cost of the coal stock pile with the cost of the 
 facilities for handling coal being a charge upon the coke plant. 
 Another advantage of this arrangement is that the by-products 
 so produced are much nearer to their market and the gas is often 
 available for industrial uses or for municipal lighting. Such loca- 
 tions are likely to be well adapted to the securing of diversified 
 labor and the various processes of the by-products of this type 
 ot oven. Still another important advantage in locating the oven- 
 plant at the ])oint of consumption is, that it permits a convenient 
 assembling of several kinds of coal at the ovens, this mixture per- 
 mitting the best quality of coke to be produced, while the coke 
 made from any one of the coals alone might be of inferior quality 
 or possibly not well adapted to the particular requirements of the 
 market at the time of manufacture. 
 
 W. H. Blauvelt of Syracuse, N. Y., to whose paper at the Cleve- 
 land meetings of the A. I. M. E., October, 1912, we are indebted 
 for the above facts, says that a complete beehive oven plant com- 
 jilete in every respect and constructed in the best manner to in- 
 clude all the equipment besides the ovens and their immediate ap- 
 purtenances such as electric power-plant, water-supply, railroad- 
 approaches and sidings, coal-handling equipment, etc., would cost 
 about .$950 per oven; 675 to 700 tons per annum representing the av- 
 erage output per oven of such a plant, this giving a plant-cost of 
 $1.38 per ton of coke produced per year, whereas a by-product oven- 
 
314 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 plant of 80 ovens, complete in every respect, and built in the best 
 manner, and costing $1,100,000 would produce 425,000 tons of coke 
 per annum from average coal, this amounting to $2.58 per ton of 
 coke per year. Thus, on the basis of the same output of coke alone 
 the by-product plant costs 1.86 times the beehive type. Economi- 
 cally speaking, this is hardly a fair basis for a comparison, because 
 the dollar output of the by-product plant would be considerably 
 higher than unity as compared with that of the other. Moreover, 
 the higher price plant is usually built for more than twice as long 
 a life as that of the beehive plant. 
 
 In 1912 the by-product coke ovens in America had often a capacity 
 for as much as 20 tons of coal per oven per day, and in the rate 
 of coking, American practice was well ahead of Europe. Several 
 types of ovens coking regularly at the rate of from 50 to 55 min. 
 per in. of oven width, this high rate being made possible partly by 
 better control of the heating-systems, and partly by the adoption 
 of silica brick, which for many years has been used generally in 
 bee-hive oven construction. 
 
 Economic Comparison between Beehive and By-Product Ovens. 
 Mr. Lucas in Proc. Am. Inst. Mining Engrs,, 1905, gives the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Bee-Hive. 
 
 Ordinary type, 12.5 ft. in diam. 
 
 Cost from $700 to $1,200 per oven. 
 
 Produces 4 net tons of coke in 48 hrs. = 2 net tons in 24 hrs. 
 
 Yield of coke from coal, 60%. 
 
 By-products and surplus gas = none. 
 
 By-Product Ovens. 
 Oven charge. 9 tons. 
 Coking-time^ 24 hrs. 
 (Ovens may be larger or smaller than this, but 9 tons would 
 
 probably be about the average charge for the modern type of 
 
 oven. ) 
 Coke produced on 70% yield = 6.3 tons of coke per oven in 
 
 24 hrs. 
 
 By-Products. 
 
 Ammonium sulphate, 22 lbs. per net ton of coal = 31 lbs. per 
 net ton of coke. Value, 2.25 cts. per lb. above cost of manu- 
 facture :- 70 cts. per ton of coke made. 
 
 Tar. 8.5 gaLs. per ton of coal =: 10.7 gals, per ton of coke, at 
 2 cts. per gal. =21 cts. per ton of coke. 
 
 Surplus gas. 5.000 cu. ft. per ton of coal = 7,143 cu. ft. per ton 
 of coke, at 10 cts. per 1,000 cu. ft. = 71 cts. per ton of coke. 
 
 Total value of by-products as above was as follows : 
 
 Ammonium sulphate $0.70 
 
 Tar 0.21 
 
 Gas 0.71 
 
 Value per ton of coke $1.62 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 315 
 
 Add to the above the difference between 60% yield in bee-hive 
 ovens and 70% in by-product ovens on the same coal. Taking 
 coal at $1.50 per ton: 
 
 Coal per ton of coke produced in bee-hive oven $2.50 
 
 Coal per ton of coke produced in by-product oven 2.14 
 
 Balance in favor of by-product oven $0.36 
 
 So that the total saving in coal and by-products equals $1.62 plus 
 $0.36 = $1.98 per ton of coke made. — $12.45 per oven in 24 
 hrs. — $4,551.55 per oven per year. Or for by-products alone, 
 without saving in coal, $3,723 per oven per year. 
 
 For a plant of 100 ovens, saving = $455,155 per year. 
 
 Cost of 100-oven plant complete, approximately $1,000,000. 
 
 A 100-oven plant of above capacity will produce 630 tons of 
 coke per day =r 229,950 tons per year, working on 24 hrs. 
 coking time. 
 
 If benzol is recovered it will further add to the income from 
 by-products. 
 
 Output of Gas from a By- Product Plant. Mr. Blauvelt states 
 that from two plants within his knowledge, using coal containing 
 less than 27% volatile matter, the year's average of gas per ton 
 of coal coked was over 4,200 cu. ft., heat units from the two plants 
 averaging over 2,600,000 B. t. u. per net ton of coal coked. 
 
 Cost of Gas from a By- Product Coke Oven Plant. For the gas 
 actually distributed and sold, it is found by the Citizens Gas Co. 
 of Indianapolis, Ind., that the cost of distribution and management 
 (not including taxes and insurance) was 13.1 cts. per 1,000 cu, ft. 
 The accompanying figures show the expenditures and receipts per 
 ton of coal carbonized (1) as actually occurring for the first six 
 months of operation, using 260- tons per day, and (2) as estimated 
 for regular working at 375 tons per day: 
 
 Actual Esti- 
 
 results mated 
 
 Coal per day 260 tons 375 tons 
 
 Expenditures per ton : 
 
 Cost of coal $2,494 $2,750 
 
 Labor, supplies and repairs .334 .686 
 
 Distrib. and management .349 .736 
 
 Taxes and insurance .099 .149 
 
 Total $3,276 $4,321 
 
 Receipts per ton : 
 
 Coke •. $2,336 $2,450 
 
 Ammonia .447 .405 
 
 Tar 242 .180 
 
 Gas 1.542 2.280 
 
 Total $4,568 $5,315 
 
 There are 50 by-product ovens, and operation was begun in No- 
 vember, 1909 : part of the time only 25 ovens were in use, and 
 when all were in use (for four months) they were operated on thQ 
 
316 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 slowent i.)os!sible s^chedule. The plant its det^igned for charging 60 
 ovens per day. but during the four months only 36 were charged 
 daily. Even on this slow t^chedule the ga.s production was 50.000,000 
 cu. ft. in excess of the demand. (Engmeering News. Sept. 22. lit 10.) 
 
 Cost of Burning Charcoal. The charcoal plant at Gorgona. I'an- 
 ama. has discontinued oijerations, with a stock on hand stifficient 
 for a year's supply. Since April, 1911. 30 kilns have been burned, 
 producing 350.229 lbs. The cost of this, including the erection of 
 the kilns, was $1,592.76. The average cost of producing charcoal 
 was 45 V^ cts. per 100 lbs. ; the two last kilns cost 29 cts. per 100 
 lbs. The price of charcoal a year ago was $1.10 per hundred- 
 weight, at which the amount produced in the year past would have 
 cost $3,852.52, so that the saving effected by the operations of the 
 plant amounted to $2,259.76. The principal use of charcoal in the 
 canal and railroad work is in starting fires in locomotives and 
 steam shovels. 
 
 Comparative Costs of Fuel. We are indebted to the Automatic 
 Gas Producer Company, New York, and to Power, where they 
 were published in 1906, for the accompanying figures showing the 
 comparative costs of fuel per h. p. -year for steam and gas engines 
 under various conditions of operation and cost per unit of fuel. 
 The figures are based on 10 working hours per day and 300 work- 
 ing days per year, and the range of prices and consumption rates 
 are such as to enable one to make very satisfactory comparisons. 
 
 STEAM ENGINE AND BOILER 
 
 Coal per , Cost per hp.-year ^ 
 
 h.p-hr. 3 lbs. 4 lbs. 5 lbs. 6 lbs. 7 lbs, 8 lbs. 
 Coal at 
 
 $2.00 a ton $9 $12 $15 $18 $21 $24 
 
 2.50 " 11 15 19 22 26 30 
 
 3.00 " 13 18 ,22 27 31 36 
 
 3.50 " 16 21 25 31 37 42 
 
 4.00 " 18 24 30 36 42 48 
 
 4.50 " 20 27 34 40 47 54 
 
 5.00 " 22 • 30 37 45 52 60 
 
 GAS ENGINE 
 
 Using 20 cu. ft. of illuminating gas per horsepower hour: 
 
 Cost per 1.000 cu. ft $0 75 $0.80 $0.85 $0.90 $0.95 $1.00 
 
 Cost per h.p.-year 45. 48. 51. 54. 57. 60. 
 
 Using 15 cu. ft. of natural gas per h.p.-hr. : 
 
 Cost per 1.000 cu. ft $0.16 $0.18 $0.20 $0.22 $0.24 $0.25 
 
 Cost per h.p.-year 7.20 8.10 9.00 9.90 10.80 11.25 
 
 Using producer gas: l\i lbs. of coal per h. p. -hour: 
 Cost of coal per ton $2.00 $2.50 $3.00 $3.50 $4.00 $4.50 $5.00 
 Cost per h.p.-year. . 3.34 4.17 5.00 5.83 6.67 7.50 8.33 
 
 GASOLENE ENGINE 
 
 Using one pint of gasolene i^er h.p.-hr. ; 
 
 Cost per gal $0.08 $0.09 $0.10 $0.11 $0.12 $0.13 $0.15 
 
 Cost per h.p.-year. . 30.00 33.75 37.50 41.25 45.00 48.75 56.25 
 
 Comparative Cost of Power with Coal versus Oil Fuel. Reginald 
 Trautschold published Tables VI and VII, giving the method of 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 317 
 
 calculating the fixed charges on two 500 h.p. plants, one burning 
 coal and the other oil, in Power. Mar. 4, 1913. 
 
 TABLE Vr. AVERAGE FUEL COST PER H.P.-YR. WITH 
 VARIOUS PRICES OF COAL AND OIL 
 
 FUEL COSTS 
 
 Fuel oil Fuel oil per Coal per Coal per h.p. 
 
 per gal. h.p. yr. ton yr. 
 
 $0.01 $9.00 - $1.00 $7.20 
 
 0.015 13.50 1.50 10.80 
 
 0.02 18.00 2.00 14.40 
 
 0.025 22.50 2.50 18.00 
 
 0.03 27.00 -3.00 21.60 
 
 0.035 31.50 3.50 25.20 
 
 0.04 36.00 4.00 28.80 
 
 0.045 40.50 4.50 32.40 
 
 0.05' 45.00 5.00 36.00 
 
 0.055 49.50 5.50 39.60 
 
 0.06 54.00 6.00 43.20 
 
 AVERAGE FIXED CHARGES OF POWER HOUSE 
 
 Oil Biirnmg Plant 
 Engine room : 
 
 Building, etc $10 
 
 Engine, accesHorieH. piping, etc 30 
 
 Foundations, installation, etc 5 
 
 Total per h.p ! $45 
 
 Depreciation, total cost 5% 
 
 Repairs 2% 
 
 Interest 6% 
 
 Insurance 1% 
 
 Taxes, % cost , 2% 
 
 Total per h.p $22.00 
 
 Boiler room : 
 
 Building, foundations, etc $4.50 
 
 Chimneys, Hues, etc 7.00 
 
 Boilers, etc 7.50 
 
 Oil burning systems (complete) 3.00 
 
 Total per h.p.-yr $22.00 
 
 Depreciation, total cost 5% 
 
 Repairs 2% 
 
 Interest 6% 
 
 Insurance 2% 
 
 Taxes, % cost ,. 2% 
 
 Total per h.p.-yr $3.63 
 
 Cost of operation : 
 Engine room — 
 
 Attendance $180 
 
 Supplies 0.80 
 
 Total per h.p.-yr. $2.60 
 
 Boiler room — 
 
 Attendance $1.10 
 
 Supplies 0.47 
 
 Total per h.p.-yr $1-57 
 
 Total fixed charges, per h.p. year $15.00 
 
318 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Coal Burning Plant 
 Engine room $ 7.20 
 
 Boiler room : 
 
 Building, foundationis. etc $ 5 
 
 Chimneys, fines, etc 8 
 
 Boilers, feed pumps, etc 12 
 
 Total per li.p $25 
 
 Depreciation, total cost 5% 
 
 Repairs 2% 
 
 Interest 6% 
 
 Insurance 1% 
 
 Taxes, % cost 27c 
 
 Total per h.p.-yr $3. 87 
 
 Cost or operation: 
 
 Engine room $2.60 
 
 Boiler room — 
 
 Attendance $1 90 
 
 Supplies 0.90 
 
 Total per h.p.-yr $2.80 
 
 Total fixed charges, per lip. per yr $16.47 
 
 TABLE VII. AVERAGE FUEE COSTS PER H.P.-YR. WITH 
 VARIOUS PRUNES OF COAL AND OIL 
 
 Oil Burning Plant. 
 
 Cost of oil Steam power per 
 
 per gal. h.p. year 
 
 $0.01 $21.00 
 
 0.015 28,50 
 
 0.02 33. SO 
 
 0.025 37.50 
 
 0.03 42.00 
 
 9.035 46.50 
 
 0.01 51.00 
 
 0.0 15 55.50 
 
 0.05 60.00 
 
 0.055 61.50 
 
 0.06 69.00 
 
 Coal-Burning Plant. 
 Cost of coal Steam power per 
 
 per ton h.p. year 
 
 $100 $23.67 
 
 1.50 • 27.27 
 
 2.00 30.87 
 
 2 50 34.47 
 
 3.00 38.07 
 
 3.50 41,67 
 
 4.00 45.27 
 
 4.50 48.87 
 
 5.00 52.47 
 
 5.50 56.07 
 
 6.00 . 59.67 
 
 These figures are based on those obtained for various plants 
 for about 500 h.p. and the results are applicable to both smaller 
 and larger plants of reasonable limits, if only a relative comparison 
 between oil and coal be desired, this relation holding true principally 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 319 
 
 because the efficiency of the plant is increased with an increase in 
 size, while the fixed charges per h.p. are correspondingly reduced, 
 all in the same proportion. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Coal and Oil Fuel for Railroads. The fol- 
 lowing figures relating to the relative cost and efficiency of coal 
 and of oil are current in California: 
 
 Two and one-half barrels of oil are the equal of one ton of coal 
 in thermal units. In other words, the same amount of heat can 
 be obtained from 2^2 bbls. of oil as can be obtained from one ton 
 of coal. But the difference in price is very great. Coal, 
 producing the same amount of heat per ton as 2 Vi bbls. 
 of oil, costs in California anywhere from $6 to $8 per ton 
 wholesale. Two and one-half bbls. of oil, figured at the market 
 delivery price of $1 per bbl., costs $2.50 — a saving of from $3.50 
 to $5.50 on every ton of coal displaced by oil. 
 
 Comparative Sizes of Smoke Stacks Necessary with Fuel Oil as 
 Compared with Coal. K. G. Dunn of San Francisco in the Journal 
 of the American Society of Mechanical I<]ngineers for 1911, has 
 called attention to the fact that the amount of draft necessary to 
 overcome the friction of the fuel bed in a coal furnace may vary 
 between 35 to 70% of the total draft head, whereas when fuel oil 
 is u.sed there is no draft friction through the fuel and a smaller 
 and shorter stack will give the necessary draft for proper circu- 
 lation of the hot gases through the furnace. Ordinarily for oil 
 burning, a stack of 50% draft capacity is not required, but for a 
 coal furnace may safely be designed. 
 
 Comparative Quantities of Oil and Coal Consumed for the Same 
 Quantity of Power Produced. Howard Stillman gives the figures 
 in Table VIII of comparative tests on the Southern Pacific Rail- 
 road, the comparison being with ordinary bituminous coal of about 
 13,350 B. t. u. and also Table IX for steam.ships. 
 
 TABLE VIII. LOCOMOTIVE TESTS ON OIL AND COAL 
 
 Evaporation, 2000 
 lbs. coal equiva- 
 Number in lent to fuel oil. 
 
 Type of locomotive service gals. 
 
 Eight-wheel 18-24 50 144 
 
 Ten-wheel 294 151 
 
 Mogul 176 146 
 
 Twelve-wheel 67 158 
 
 Consolidation 139 162 
 
 Atlantic 19 144 
 
 Mallet consolidated 17 No coal record 
 
 Mean of results — 152 gaLs. = 3.6 bbls. = 2,000 lbs. coal. 
 
 This is the record of coal burned during the last 6 months of 
 1901 and oil burned during the last 6 months of 1908 on the steam- 
 ers of the Southern Pacific Company. These figures are not from 
 evaporated tests, but cover the .service of 11 steam boats and are 
 from the official accounting records. 
 
 Comparative Coal and Oil Consumption of the " Nevadan " of the 
 Hawaiian American Steamship Company was as follows: 
 
320 MECHAXICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Voyage No. 1 . 
 Voyage No. 2 . 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 consumption 
 
 Coal 
 
 Oil 
 
 i. h.p. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 of fuel 
 
 per i. h.p. 
 
 per i. h.p. 
 
 1.833 
 
 coal 
 
 2.269 tons 
 
 2 lbs. 
 
 
 2,196 
 
 oil 
 
 9.l:i6bbls. 
 
 
 1.1 lbs. 
 
 Voyage No. 1 with coal was from San Diego to Ne-vv York and 
 No. 2 with oil was from New York to San Diego. The figures are 
 from the report of the Naval Liquid Fuel Board published in 
 1904 and quoted in the Journal of the American Society of Mechan- 
 ical Engineers for Aug.. 1911. Part of the coal burnt was Eurela 
 and part Coronel. The heat value of the coal was not given. The 
 ship was new and fitted with triple-expansion engines using the 
 Howden system of forced draft, and the Lassoe-Lovekin oil-burn- 
 
 TABLE IX. STEAMSHIP TESTS OF OIL AND COAL 
 
 S-.S t2 'S'^ S^' ^-2 "S ^^o 
 
 ^ = 5 8^ cB o- og ^^ '^'^^:=i 
 
 steamer o"i u^ o3 «„_ s-^ ^E o^o 
 
 rt X ?3 ;=; So c-S ■-- a; c <km "" o 
 
 g.2o ni: CO — o c5 ^ ^ '^ ~ "^ g.-^o-.Q 
 
 fH § § cQ § ^ a 
 
 Berkeley 2,764 18.592 6.72 11.207 21.130 1.89 356 
 
 Piedmont 4.223 19.548 4.63 15.414 20,808 1.35 3.43 
 
 Oakland 3.209 18.348 5.72 13.603 19,894 1.46 3.92 
 
 Bay ('ity 2,889 21.536 7.45 11.548 20,913 1.81 4.12 
 
 Encinal 3.703 20.284 5.47 10.512 19.678 1.87 2.93 
 
 Newark 1.860 9.372 5.04 6.559 10.631 1.62 3.11 
 
 Transit 2.581 16.715 6.48 9,548 17.922 1.88 3.45 
 
 El Capitan 1.019 7.238 7.10 3,431 6.072 1.77 4.01 
 
 Solano 4.516 5.480 121 17,151 7.143 0.42 2.88 
 
 Apache 1.971 18,992 9.64 7.996 21.380 2 67 3.61 
 
 Modoc 2,265 20.685 9.13 7.682 21.170 2.76 3.31 
 
 Totals and Re- 
 sultant means. 31,000 176.790 5.70 114.651 186.771 1.63 
 Mean equivalent of 1 ton of coal in bbl. of oil, 3.4 95. 
 
 ing system. When oil was consumed, six men were necessary in 
 the fireroom as against fifteen for coal. The saving in space for 
 cargo on account of the decreased bulk of the oil fuel was 457 
 tons, which was supposed to have resulted in a financial gain to 
 the company from all causes, including the saving in the cost of 
 the oil fuel, of $500 per day. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Fuel as Betxoeen Coal and Oil on a Small 
 Coasting Steamer. (J. H. Hopps in the Journal of the American 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers. Aug.. 1911 ) For an average 
 period of 6 months in each case the cost of fuel per hr. of actual 
 steaming was as follows: Coal at $5.25. $2.65 i)er hr, ; oil at $0.70 
 per bbl.. $1.64 per hr. 
 
 Tests on Two Tugs on San Fraucisco Bay, Owned hy the Santa 
 Fe Railroad Coynpany. Tests were made in 1903 and quoted by 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 321 
 
 Mr. Hopps, whose detailed data were destroyed in the San Francisco 
 fire, the summary of the results only remaining. The tests were 
 made with great care, the feed of water and fuel oil being weighed 
 on platform scales, which was feasible on account of the water 
 of San Francisco Bay being smooth. The machinery of the 2 
 vessels were identical with the exception of the boilers. One ship, 
 the Richmond, was fitted with a boiler of the Scotch marine 
 type, 13 ft. mean diameter by 11 ft. long, with three Morrison 
 furnaces, 3 ft. 6 ins. in diameter by 7 ft. 10 ins. long, and 230- 
 tubes 3^/^ ins. in diameter by 7 ft. 10 ins. long. The depth of the 
 combustion chamber is 36 ins. and the total heating surface is 
 2.136 sq. ft. The A. H. Parjson is fitted with a Babcock and 
 Wilcox marine water-tube boiler, total heating surface 2,770 sq. ft. 
 The engines in both cases are compound engines, high-pressure 
 cylinders 20 ins. in diameter, low-pressure cylinders 42 ins. In 
 diameter, and stroke 24 ins. 
 
 A large_ number of tests were made on these vessels in actual 
 service when towing car floats to and from Point Richmond. In 
 addition, a 5-hr. test, running steadily without a tow, was made 
 on each boat, with the results given in Table X. 
 
 TABLE X. RESULTS OF FUEL TESTS OB" TUGS 
 
 FIVE-HOUR RUN, TUG A. H. PAYSON (Aug. 2, 1903) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •"=. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^--1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c?"^' 
 
 CM 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TJ 
 
 1^ rf 
 
 oi'S 
 
 o 
 
 a^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 • 'C 
 
 <u 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 tl ,w 
 
 t- a 
 
 ;- a , 
 
 u a 
 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^ w 
 
 3 
 
 
 tt 
 
 O rt 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ii 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 rt 3 
 
 
 rt rt 
 
 oj rt 
 
 1^ 
 
 03.^ 
 
 
 <i)X 
 
 H 
 
 oi 
 
 ffi 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 0" 
 
 m 
 
 11.00 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 12.00 
 
 9 5.3 
 
 535 
 
 lV,4 75 
 
 853 
 
 13.4 
 
 14.68 
 
 l'.695 
 
 2 v. 4 
 
 l'.59 
 
 .... 
 
 1.00 
 
 96.0 
 
 523 
 
 11,326 
 
 837 
 
 13.5 
 
 14.77 
 
 1.094 
 
 21.6 
 
 1.60 
 
 
 2.00 
 
 94.5 
 
 509 
 
 11,418 
 
 809 
 
 14.1 
 
 15.32 
 
 1.087 
 
 22.4 
 
 1.58 
 
 lY.72 
 
 3.00 
 
 95.5 
 
 498 
 
 11,300 
 
 826 
 
 13.6 
 
 14.66 
 
 1.078 
 
 2'^ 9 
 
 1.65 
 
 10.63 
 
 4.00 
 
 96.4 
 
 537 
 
 12,251 
 
 845 
 
 14.6 
 
 15.84 
 
 1.085 
 
 22.9 
 
 1.56 
 
 11.65 
 
 
 FIVE-HOUR RUN, 
 
 . TUG 
 
 RICHMOND (Aug. 24, 
 
 , 1903) 
 
 1 
 
 
 12.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.00 
 
 91 
 
 418 
 
 9.532 
 
 829 
 
 l"2'2 
 
 12.80 
 
 1.140 
 
 2V.8 
 
 l".98 
 
 .... 
 
 2.00 
 
 92 
 
 424 
 
 10.331 
 
 835 
 
 12.4 
 
 14.10 
 
 1.143 
 
 24.3 
 
 1.97 
 
 
 3.00 
 
 91 
 
 418 
 
 8,831 
 
 806 
 
 11.0 
 
 12.55 
 
 1.140 
 
 21.1 
 
 1.92 
 
 iV.os 
 
 4.00 
 
 91 
 
 418 
 
 10.496 
 
 833 
 
 12.2 
 
 13.90 
 
 1.140 
 
 25.1 
 
 1.99 
 
 10.04 
 
 5.00 
 
 91 
 
 418 
 
 9,627 
 
 865 
 
 1L2 
 
 12.90 
 
 1.150 
 
 23.0 
 
 2.06 
 
 10.75 
 
 AVERAGE FOR FIVE HOURS RUN 
 
 Payson — 
 
 95.5 520 11,553 834 13.8 15.05 1.089 22.2 1.59 11.15 
 Richmond — 
 
 91 419 9,743 833 11.8 13.05 1.142 23.2 1.96 10.47 
 
 From examinations of the logs of numerous steamships, it ap- 
 pears that with vessels fitted with triple-expansion engines de- 
 
322 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 veloping from 1,000 h.p. up, with everything in first-class condition, 
 the fuel consumption will be about 1 Vi lbs, of oil per 1 h.p.-hr. 
 For smaller vessels fitted with compound engines, the consumption 
 will range from 1.6 to 2 lbs. per 1 h.p.-hr., depending on the effi- 
 ciency of the plant. 
 
 Economic Advantages of Petroleiun Over Coal as a Fuel 
 for Steamships 
 
 a. The saving in labor and consequent reduction in the number 
 of firemen. The amount of money saved varies with the size 
 of the ship and the number of firemen carried. In installations 
 of average size, one-third the number of firemen and coal 
 passers necessary when burning coal would be sufficient. 
 
 b. Reduction in weight and bulk of fuel, giving increased cargo 
 cai>acity and resultant greater earning power. Comparing 
 " Wellington Screenings," a type of coal generally used for 
 steamship worii on the coast, and fuel oil at frpm 14 to 17 
 Baume, oil for equal heating value occupies about one-half 
 the space taken by the coal and has less than one-half the 
 weight. Oil may be carried in parts of the ship not otherwise 
 useful. 
 
 c. Saving in time. The time consumed in coaling and expense 
 of moving to bunkers is saved, as fuel oil can be pumped into 
 the ship when at the dock and while the cargo is being taken 
 on or discharged. 
 
 d. Uniform steaming. The rate of steaming can be kept uniform, 
 there being no loss due to cleaning fires, etc. 
 
 e. Cleanliness, due to the absence of coal dust and dirt when 
 coaling and to the absence of ashes in the fireroom, 
 
 /. Reduced cost of maintenance. Fewer repairs on boilers due 
 to uniform temperature in furnace and combustion chamber. 
 No corrosion of floor plates, fire fronts, or bunkers. No grate 
 bars to burn out, fire doors or ash-handling machinery to re- 
 new or repair. 
 
 A Comparison of the Economy of Powdered Coal, Oil and Water 
 Gas for Heating Furnaces. C. F. Herington (Engineering News, 
 Dec. 10. 1914) gives the following: 
 
 0(7. Of the 3 fuels, powdered coat, oil and water gas, fuel oil 
 has come into use far more than any other. The U. S. Navy 
 yards have been consistent in their adoption of it. All now use 
 fuel oil for heating operations, many to the complete exclusion 
 of coal. 
 
 Without a doubt, fuel oil is one of the easiest of fuels to handle; 
 it can be carried in pijjes anywhere so long as there is air pres- 
 sure or pump pressure behind it. It requires only a comparatively 
 small outlay for equipment — all that is necessary is a couple of 
 storage tanks, ^ pump to fill the storage tanks from the cars, a 
 piping system to the furnaces, and means to secure the necessary 
 pressure. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 323 
 
 But fuel oil has one disadvantage — and this is conceded by 
 many to be a big one ; the price is constantly going up. Ten 
 years ago, fuel oil could be bought for 2^^ cts. a gal., and one 
 could contract for any quantity at that price; now it is 4Mj. 5 
 and 51/2 cts. a gal., and one has to take what quantities he can 
 get at that price. Present conditions indicate that this advance 
 in cost will continue beyond the limits of economy. 
 
 Powdered Coal. Steady increase in the price of oil has led, 
 quite recently, to extensive experiments in the use of powdered 
 coal and of water gas and producer gas as substitutes. As a fuel 
 for burning under boilers, powdered coal may some time be a 
 success. The use of i)owdered coal in portland-cement manufac- 
 ture has proven very economical and here it has come to stay. 
 But when it is claimed that it is equally good for various heating 
 operations, such as welding, shingling, annealing, riveting and 
 forging, there is likely to be a difference of opinion. 
 
 In a recent article in an engineering paper, the following ad- 
 vantages were claimed for powdered coal : 
 
 (1) "Complete combustion, doing away with losses due to the 
 carbon contained in the ash and in the escaping volatile mat- 
 ter." This is not correct, for if one stands for an hour watching 
 one of these furnaces working, as the writer did, he will be com- 
 pletely covered with fine, unburned powdered coal which has es- 
 caped through the furnace doors. This has become such a nui- 
 sance to the surrounding machinery and workmen that attempts 
 are now being made to relieve these conditions by placing a hood 
 over the furnace door and connecting it into the furnace stack. 
 This has not proven successful as yet, and probably will not until 
 an exhaust fan is provided to discharge this unburned coal through 
 the roof. 
 
 (2) "Total absence of smoke." Certainly this is not true inside 
 of the shop, for powdered-coal furnaces, due to their ununiform 
 feed, smolie worse than oil. Powdered coal, as is well known, 
 must be very dry to be pulverized and, when pulverized and al- 
 lowed to remain quiet for 48 hours, it cakes and requires that a 
 man knock on the bins to loosen it. This leads to uneven com- 
 bustion in the furnace with large quantities of smoke when there 
 is a large amount of coal coming through the burner and no smoke 
 when the coal is sticking back in the bins. No doubt this is largely 
 due to inefficient handling of the feeder and burner; even so, a 
 total absence of smoke cannot be claimed when such conditions 
 are met. 
 
 (3) "A cheaper grade of coal may be used." The best coal 
 for powdered fuel has a volatile content of not less than 30%, not 
 more than 8% ash. and l^^% sulphur. I think the readers will 
 agree that coal meeting these specifications is of no very cheap 
 grade. 
 
 Pulverized coal must be handled with great care, for if it is 
 mixed with any quantity of air, it is highly explosive, as the 
 records of accidents in cement plants will prove. In the January 
 
324 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 issue of the Quarterly of the National Fire Protection Association, 
 the following appeared regarding the hazards of drying pulverized 
 coal : 
 
 " Under no circum.stanees iy it recommended that the products 
 of combustion be allowed to come in contact with the coal to be 
 dried. . . . Already there have been quite a number of accidents 
 from this cause in which lives were lost. 
 
 "A characteristic coal mill explosion (March 2. 1903), in New 
 Village, N. J., at the Edison plant, killed six men and burned five 
 others, i)erhaps fatally, besides injuring a score of others 
 and destroying the coal building. It is supposed that the 
 pulveiized coal in bin fired spontaneously and some of the burning- 
 fuel was carried by the automatic conveyor into the blower house. 
 The atmosphere of the blower house being charged with coal dust, 
 an explosion was the result. 
 
 "On August 19, 1900. an explosion in the plant of the Nazareth 
 Cement Co., Nazareth, Penn.. caused a loss of $16,000, while on 
 November 26 of the same year $40,000 damage was done to the 
 Martin's Creek Portland Cement Co. (then known as William 
 Krause Sons), Martin's Creek, Penn. The Dexter Cement Co., 
 Nazareth. Penn., and the Alpha Portland Cement Mill No. 1, Alpha, 
 N. J., had similar experiences the same j'ear." 
 
 Another very serious objection to powdered coal, due to the in- 
 complete combustion of all the coal ejected into the furnace, is 
 that this coal lies on the work, and when the work is taken out 
 of the furnace, if not cleaned off, it is apt to be hammered into 
 the work and make flaws which later are likely to be more or less 
 serious according to the nature of the work. This is a fact seen 
 from personal observation and cannot be denied. 
 
 Powdered coal is not good for small furnaces, as it requires 
 too large a chamber of combustion, and from the experience of 
 the users of ])owdered coal it is not desirable to have a combustion 
 chamber se])arated by a bridge-wall from the working cliainber. 
 It is found that the lesser of two evils is to remove the bridge- 
 wall and blow the powdered coal directly upon the work, which 
 aggravates the condition mentioned above. If the large furnaces 
 are changed from fuel oil to powdered coal, there still remain the 
 small furnaces, and especially the portable ones, which will have 
 to work on fuel oil. Then there would be the expense of handling 
 two kinds of fuel where before there was but one. 
 
 Gas. Greater familiarity and extended experience with natural 
 gas for power and metallurgical purposes have led to better ap- 
 preciation of the many advantages of gaseous fuel. It has em- 
 phasized the value of the gas producer for converting solid into 
 gaseous fuels. But such conversion always involves a loss of a 
 part of the energy of the coal ; it is only because the gas can be 
 utilized more efRciently that the duty obtained from it is greater 
 than that given by the direct bui'ning*of the coal from which it is 
 generated. Hence, any process which claims to deliver In the 
 gas an amount of energy greater or even equal to that in the orig- 
 inal fuel is a delusion or worse. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 325 
 
 There are at present two kinds of made gases used for heating 
 furnaces — producer and water gas. Industrially, producer gas 
 is the combustible product of rather a complex series of physical 
 and chemical changes induced in the fuel by the heat arising from 
 its incomplete combustion in the producer. The combustion is 
 termed incomiJJete not in the sense of leaving an uribui-nt-d residue 
 of carbon or coke, but because the combustible while comiiletely 
 gasified gives up only about 307c of its heat in primary coHibustion 
 in the producer. The remaining 70% is develoijed when the gases 
 are burned after leaving. Water gas is made by an intermittent 
 process — first using an air blast to bring the fuel to high incan- 
 de.scence, then shutting off the air and forcing steam through the 
 fire. During the air blow, a lean producer gas is made whit.h 
 may be enriched by the addition of water gas of a higher calorific 
 value and used in the low-temperature furnaces or to diive gas 
 engines. The true water gas is made during the steam blow, 
 the steam being decomposed by the incandescent carbon so that 
 its hydrogen is freed and its oxygen united \Aith the caibon to 
 form carbon monoxide. 
 
 The water gas can be used for all purr)Oses where high tempera- 
 tures must be secured without regeneration, as in factories carry- 
 ing on a large variety of brazing, small forge work, etc., Avhere 
 the furnaces are small and distributed over a large area. Tem- 
 peratures ranging from 2,500 degs. F. to 2.900 degs. P. are easily 
 obtainable with this gas, and with properly constructed furnaces 
 it is possible to gain an added efficiency in operation so that the 
 total B. t. u. in the gas used need be only 66 to 807^, of the B. t. u. 
 required in oil as used in approved oil furnaces for the same pur- 
 poses. Water gas does not cause the metal forged to scale as 
 does oil, and with gas it is possible to get a closer regulation of 
 furnace temperatures. 
 
 Comparative Efficiencies. Now comes the debatable point of 
 what is the efficiency of the fuinace when using the different fuels. 
 The powdered coal advocates will claim that the efficiency should 
 be figured on the B t. u. basis. That is, if a furnace burns say 
 22 gals, of oil to do a certain piece of work and each gallon von- 
 tains 140.000 B. t. u.. 3,000,000 B. t. u. in all, it will take 3,000,000 
 B. t. u. in coal to do the same work, but the coal is cheaper. If 
 oil were 5 cts a gal., it would take coal at $10 a ton to equal the 
 cost ; so the reader will perhaps agree that this is i\oi the proper 
 method of comparing efficiencies, any more than saying that the 
 cost of gasoline pei- gallon is the operating cost of running an 
 automobile. 
 
 The true way is to measure the efficiency of the furnace by the 
 cotnparison of the input and. output, and below are given results 
 of .some efficiency tests, made by the writer for a well known con- 
 cern contemplating a revision of its furnace practice. 
 
 Poioder-fid Coal. (Furnace using preheated air for combustion.) 
 Furnace cold at CO degs. F. 
 Steel and furnace heated to 2 200 degs. F. 
 Rise in temperature, 2,140 degs. F. 
 
326 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 By test, 6.29 lbs. of steel heated per lb. of coal burned. 
 Specific heat of steel, 0.117. 
 0.117 X 2,140 = 250 B.t.u. per lb. of steel. 
 250 B.t.u. X 6.29 — 1,572 B.t.u. output. 
 1 lb. of coal = 14,000 B.t.u., input. 
 1,572 X 100 
 
 Efficiency = =11.3%. 
 
 14,000 
 
 Fuel Oil. Same furnace with same rise in temperature and the same 
 charge of work. 
 
 Heated 8.68 lbs. of steel per pound of oil. 
 1 lb. of oil = 19.400 B.t.u.. input. 
 250 B.t.u. X 8.68 = 2.170 B.t.u., output. 
 2.170 X 100 
 
 Efficiency = ■ = 11.3%. 
 
 19,400 
 
 Water Gas — (Furnace using preheated air for combustion). 
 
 1 cu. ft. of gas = 300 B.t.u. 
 
 Specific heat of wrought iron = 0.113 (Kent). 
 
 Temperature rise from 1,400 to 2,500 degs. r: 1,100 degs. F. 
 
 Furnace charged with 3.800 lbs. iron. 
 
 To raise this iron to that temperature required 14,000 cu. ft. of 
 
 gas. 
 .113 X 1.100 := 124 B.tu. 
 3,800 X 124 := 471.200 B.t.u. 
 14,000 X 300 = 4,200,000 B.t.u., input. 
 471,200 X 100 
 
 Efficiency — =11.2%. 
 
 4,200.000 
 
 Another furnace using fuel oil (not using preheated air). 
 
 Temperature rise from 1,200 degs. to 2,200 degs. = 1,000 degs. F. 
 Charge of wrought iron, 2,150 lbs. 
 . Oil required, 22 gals. 
 2,150 lbs. X 113 B.t.u. = 242,950 B.t.u. output. 
 1 gal oil = 140,000 B.t.u. 
 140,000 B.t.u. X 22 = 3.080,000 B.t.u. input. 
 242.950 X 100 
 
 Efficiency = = 7.88%. 
 
 3,080,000 
 
 First Costs. In making comparison as to the relative first costs 
 and operating costs with the three kinds of fuel, let us assume a 
 plant now using fuel oil with a consumption of 50,000 gals, of oil 
 per month at a cost of 5 cts. per gal., delivered at the shop. 
 (These estimates were made for the company already mentioned.) 
 
 FUEL OIL 
 
 Cost of equipment (storage tanks in place, auxiliary pressure 
 tanks in place, piping and fittings in place, steam connec- 
 tions, furnace connections, tank-car connections, tank 
 pumps and air-blast outfit) $21,100 
 
 Contractors' profit (157t) 3,165 
 
 $24,265 
 Engineering and contingencies (10%) 2,435 
 
 $26,700 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 327 
 
 POWDERED COAL 
 
 Pulverizing- machinery, house, foundations, trestle and track, 
 electric wiring, conveyors, walkways, motors, burners 
 and controllers (30), furnace bins (30), furnace changes, 
 hoods and connections, etc - $68,100 
 
 Contractor's profit (15%) 9.900 
 
 $78,000 
 Engineering and contingencies (10%) 1,^0^ 
 
 $85,800 
 
 FUEL OIL FOR SMALL FURNACES 
 
 Tank in place, auxiliary tank in place, piping and fittings, 
 furnce connections, tank-cars connections, pumps, air 
 blast, etc ^?'oAn 
 
 Contractor's profit ( 15%) l''^^^ 
 
 $10,100 
 
 Engineering and contingencies (10%,) ^'Q^Q 
 
 $11,100 
 
 WATER AND PRODUCER GAS PLANT 
 
 Gas-making machinery, building, trestle and siding, piping, 
 
 furnace changes • *i ?' aaa 
 
 Contractor's profit (15%) ^-^^'^"^ 
 
 $87,000 
 8,700 
 
 $95,700 
 
 K„e. on '""."^''.^. J27.000 
 
 Powdered coal with fuel oil al'SSn 
 
 Gas plant 96,000 
 
 Engineering and contingencies (10%) 
 
 FIXEDCHAR6K 
 FUEL OIL 
 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 Dollars.thous 
 30 40 so 60 
 
 and 
 
 70 
 
 5 
 80 
 
 m 
 
 100 
 
 no 
 
 ■77) 
 
 .48^0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PWOiREDCOAL 
 
 Zj 
 
 Jl. 
 
 v-\ 
 
 s,szo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GAS 
 
 J^ 
 
 f 
 
 /s.M 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^g^ES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3/, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^■/ki 
 
 ^c 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GAS 
 
 
 
 
 c-h 
 
 fOO'^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M, 
 
 
 
 
 '■^'^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ..J 
 
 r 
 
 50l 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "T^rT 
 
 
 
 
 .-^ 
 
 f,i 
 
 I2t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OAS 
 
 JXU:^ 
 
 
 c7 
 
 ^,' 
 
 f>(. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FUEL OIL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 
 "~ 
 
 r 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 t^ 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 7, 
 
 \ot 
 
 '•• 
 
 fmDEREDCOAL 
 OAS 
 
 tN».Hcv<» 
 
 
 " 
 
 "" 
 
 
 
 
 liH 
 
 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 r~ 
 
 
 
 ■! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "* 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 "t" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 -J 
 
 "r 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 '£i 
 
 Fig. 7. Diagrammatic comparison of estimated first cost and 
 annual charges of coal, oil and gas plants to supply fuel for dO 
 furnaces. 
 
328 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Fuel Consumption of Plants. For the fuel-oil plant, at 50,000 
 gals, of oil per month and 140,000 B. t. u. per gal., 7,000,000 
 B. t. u. are consumed per month. If we allow 10 lbs. of coal at 
 14,000 B. t. u., equal to 1 gal. of oil. we have 500,000 lbs. or 250 
 tons of coal used per month, for the powdered-coal plant. In 
 addition, this plant consumes about 8,000 gals, of oil, the difference 
 being compensated for by coal required in drying the main fuel 
 supply. For the gas plant, we require about 60.000 cu. ft. of 
 water-gas per hr., at 20 cu. ft. per lb. we require 3,000 lbs. of 
 coal per hr. or 375 tons per month. 
 
 Now the total charges can be assembled. 
 
 FUEL OIL PLANT (estimated cost, $27,000). 
 Fixed charges : 
 
 Interest (5%) $ 1,350 
 
 Depreciation (12%) 3,240 
 
 Taxes and insurance (1%) 270 
 
 $ 4,860 
 Operation : 
 
 Oil (50,000 X 0.05 X-12) $30,000 
 
 Labor, 1 man 1,000 
 
 Electrical current, steam, air 500 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 200 
 
 $31,700 
 
 Total yearly charge $36,560 
 
 POWDERED COAL PLANT (estimated cost, $97,000). 
 Fixed charges : 
 
 Interest (5%) $ 4,850 
 
 Depreciation (10%) '. 9,700 
 
 Taxes and insurance (1%) 970 
 
 ^ ^. $15,520 
 
 Operation •. 
 
 Coal (250 X 2.50 X 12) '.$7,500 
 
 Oil (8,000X0.05X12) 4,800 
 
 Labor CI operator, 2 assts. ) 2,000 
 
 Electricity for motors 5,000 
 
 $19,300 
 
 Total yearly charge $34,820 
 
 GAS PLANT (estimated cost, $96,000). 
 Fixed charges : 
 
 Interest (5%) $ 4,800 
 
 Depreciation (10%) 9,600 
 
 Taxes and insurance (1%) 960 
 
 $15,360 
 Operation : 
 
 Coal (375X2.50X12) $11,250 
 
 Labor ( 1 operator, 2 assts. ) 2,000 
 
 Water 744 
 
 $14,000 
 
 Total yearly charge $29,360 
 
 These several figures are plotted on the accompanying diagram 
 for easy comparison. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 329 
 
 Oil and Coal Costs Compared. One ton (2000 lbs.) of coal is 
 equivalent in practical heating value to 3.34 bbls. of oil at 325 lbs. 
 The table below compares the prices of coal and oil for equivalent 
 cost as fuel in a boiler furnace : 
 
 Coal, per ton 
 
 
 
 Coal, per ton 
 
 
 
 (2,000 lbs.) 
 
 Oil, 
 
 per bbl. 
 
 (2,000 lbs.) 
 
 Oil, 
 
 per bbl. 
 
 $5.00 
 
 $1.50 
 
 $1.66t 
 
 $3.25 
 
 $0.98 
 
 $1.01 
 
 4.75 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.60 ' 
 
 ' 3.00 
 
 .90 
 
 1.00 
 
 4.50 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.75 
 
 .83 
 
 <92 
 
 4.25 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.42 
 
 2.50 
 
 .75 
 
 .83 
 
 4.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.33 
 
 2.25 
 
 .68 
 
 .75 
 
 3.75 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.00 
 
 .60 
 
 .66 
 
 3.50 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.02 
 
 
 
 
 * Not allowing for labor saving, t Assuming 10% of cost of fuel 
 in labor of firing and handling ashes saved by using oil, a conser- 
 vative estimate for plant of over 300 horsepower. 
 
 An interesting point to notice is that the heat value of an oil 
 usually given is the high heat value, or heat value determined in 
 a bomb calorimeter. The actual heat value available in a boiler 
 furnace is less, because all fuel oil contains a considerable per- 
 centage of hydrogen, and the latent heat of the steam formed by 
 the combustion of this hydrogen passes up the stack as waste her.t. 
 
 In all the heavier grades of fuel, particularly the Mexican oils, 
 water mixed with the oil is in the form of an emulsion and will 
 not settle out in a tank, as it will with the lighter American 
 crudes. This is not so much a disadvantage as it would seem other 
 than causing a lowering of the heat value. With an oil light 
 enough for the water to settle out of its own accord, this water 
 will frequently accumulate in the tank and piping and go over 
 into the burners in a slug, putting the burners out ; but with heavy 
 oil a very considerable amount of water can go through the burner 
 with no bad effect. A small quantity of water in heavy oil is 
 probably an advantage in that these oils are usually heated above 
 the boiling point of water to effect atomization, and the vaporizing 
 of the moisture in the oil as it leaves the burner tip probably helps 
 to atomize the oil more thoroughly. (B. S. Nelson, Journal of the 
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, June, 1917.) 
 
 Fuel Values of Coal, Gas -and Oil. E. H. Hunter and L. G. 
 Purtee, operating engineers in Oklahoma, state in Electrical World, 
 June 5, 1915, that about 10.5 cu. ft. of air is required for the combus- 
 tion of 1 cu. ft. of gas. There are several good makes of gas burn- 
 ers on the market, but the secret of using most of them is in proper 
 manipulation to get the right mixture of gas and air. To burn 
 natural gas properly requires a furnace of somewhat different design 
 from that used in burning oil. In some furnaces checker walls are 
 used, while in others these walls are omitted entirely. There is con- 
 siderable vibration in burning gas, as in oil, but this may be con- 
 trolled to a considerable extent. 
 
 Comparing the 3 fuels as to value, said Mr. Hunter: At 212 
 degs. F., and atmospheric pressure, 1 lb. of coal will evaporate 
 9 lbs. of water; 1 lb. of oil will evaporate 15 lbs. of water, and 
 1 lb. of natural gas will evaporate 20 lbs. of water. Approxi- 
 
330 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 mately 4,800 cu. ft. of gas equals a bbl. of oil. and 4.125 bbls. of 
 oil equals a ton of good coal. 
 
 L. G. Purtee stated that gas as a fuel for the pro^duction of elec- 
 tric power is only a makeshift and a very expensive one. The 
 only thing in its favor is the fact that it may be installed quickly 
 and cheaply, used with a minimum amount of help, and has the 
 advantage of cleanliness. But by the time the cost of a complete 
 auxiliary oil-burning system and reserve supply of oil is taken 
 into consideration the first cost is no small item and in the ag- 
 gregate reaches a sum which would go a long way toward the 
 installation of a mechanical coal handling and burning system, 
 which would be permanent and by the use of which at least 25% 
 better results may be obtained than is possible with gas. 
 
 Summing it up, Mr. Purtee offered the following estimates : 
 $2.50 will buy 1 ton of coal containing 27.000,000 lbs. F. heat 
 units; $2.50 will buy 4.5 bbls. of oil. containing 24.367,500 lbs. F. 
 heat units; $2.50 will buy 25,000 ft. of gas, containing 22,500,000 
 lbs. F. heat units. 
 
 In other words, coal at $2.50 is 167-3% cheaper than 10 -ct. gas 
 and 9.8% cheaper than 55-ct. oil, Fifty-five-ct. oil is 7.7% cheaper 
 than 10-ct. gas, although operating conditions will usually make 
 the final results of 55-ct. oil and 10-ct. gas practically the same. 
 
 Benzol as a Motor Fuel. The Journal fiir Gasbeleuchtung 
 (Germany, 1915) quotes some particulars of substitutes for gaso- 
 line which, it states, have acquired importance as fuels for motor 
 vehicles because of the scarcity of petrol in Germany, The con- 
 sumption per horse power developed is approximately proportional 
 to the calorific power of the fuels. The net calorific power in 
 B. t. u. per lb. is given by Mohr for various fuels as follows: 
 Petroleum spirit, 18,000 to 18,900 ; pure benzene, 17,208 ; com- 
 mercial 90% benzol, 17,100 to 17,280; pure alcohol, 11,452; 95% 
 alcohol, 10,575 ; pure naphthalene, 16,722. The following specifi- 
 cations for substitutes for benzol are given : 
 
 Benzol-Spirit, (a) 95% methylated s])irit, 70 parts; benzol, 30 
 parts. The benzol is poured slowly into the spirit while stirring 
 — not the spirit into the benzol. (&) 90%, or ordinary methylated 
 spirits, 50 parts ; commercial acetone or acetic alcohol, 20 parts ; 
 benzol, 30 parts. The spirit and acetone are first mixed, and the 
 benzol gradually added. 
 
 Benzoline -Spirit, (a) 95% methylated spirit, 70 parts; ben- 
 zoline, 30 parts. The benzoline is poured slowly into the spirit, 
 stirring. (&) 90% or ordinary methylated spirit, 50 parts; com- 
 mercial acetone or acetic alcohol, 20 parts ; bezoline, 30 parts. 
 The spirit and acetone are first mixed, and the benzoline added 
 gradually. 
 
 Spirit-Ether, (o) 95% methylated spirit, 90 parts; sulphuric 
 ether, 10 parts. (&) 95% methylated spirit, 90 parts; sulphuric 
 ether, 10 parts, naphthalene, 1 part. 
 
 Acetone-Spirit. (a) 95% methylated spirit, 70 parts; commer- 
 cial acetone, 30 parts, (&) 90% or ordinary methylated spirit, 
 50 parts ; commercial acetone, 50 parts. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 331 
 
 Petroleum Mixtures, (a) Petroleum and benzoline (petroleum 
 spirit) mixed in proportion of 2 to 1. (&) Petroleum 3 parts, 
 acetone 1 part, (c) Petroleum 90 parts, ether 10 parts, and 1 
 part naphthalene. 
 
 Oil Consumption of a Diesel Engine Ocean Vessel. The oil-en- 
 gine cargo ship Christian X of the Hamburg-American Line 
 is 370 ft. long, 53-ft. beam, 30 ft. deep, with a loaded draft of 
 23 ft. 6 ins. and a deadweight capacity of 7,400 tons. The twin 
 screws are driven by a pair of 8-cylinder 4-cycle Diesel engines, 
 aggregating 2,500 i.h.p. at 140 r.p.n>. and there are two similar 
 auxiliary engines of 200 h.p. at 225 r.p.m. The deck machinery, 
 winches, windlass and steering gear are "electrically driven. The 
 ship was launched in March, 1912. The following account of its 
 sea service is abstracted from a report published in The Engineer 
 (London), July 18, 1913: 
 
 After loading in Hamburg for Havana, she commenced her 
 first voyage on July 23, 1912, and until the vessel ran into Havana 
 on Aug. 9, the engines ran at full power without any stoppage. 
 The weather was very good, except for a couple of days when a 
 fresh westerly wind raised a very rough sea, so that the pro- 
 pellers now and then came partly out of the water, causing the 
 governors to come into action. 
 
 The fuel used was Roumanian oil. Its effective heat value w^as 
 17,800 B. t. u. The total consumption of fuel in 24 hrs.' trial was 
 8.545 tons (metric) for the main engines and 0.84 ton for the 
 auxiliary engine. Thus the consumption per i.h.p.-hr. was: Main 
 engines, including the oil used for the auxiliary machinery, 0.361 
 lb. ; main engines, excluding the oil used for the auxiliary ma- 
 chinery, 0.328 lb. ; the auxiliary engine, 0.357 lb. At Havana, 
 the machinery was overhauled and found to be in perfect order, 
 though the exhaust valves were changed and the oil valves were 
 ground in. 
 
 The ship then proceeded to Vera Cruz. In August an easterly 
 trade wind blows at about the same rate as the vessel's speed, 
 and tnis portion of the voyage was hottest of the whole trip in 
 the engine room, since the ventilators did not carry much air to 
 the engineers' platform. The highest temperature was on Aug. 
 15. The temperature on deck in the shade was 89.6 degs. F., and 
 that in the engine room 107.6 degs. P., or considerably less than 
 the temperature in the engine room and the stokehold of a steamer 
 under similar conditions. 
 
 From Vera Cruz the ship proceeded to Tampico, and took 100 
 tons of oil fuel, which was said to contain 1.72% of sulphur. The 
 engines worked excellently with this oil, although the exhaust 
 gases smelt very strongly of sulphur. On this account, in order 
 to run no risk of damaging the machinery by the action of the 
 sulphur, it was decided to continue the voyage on the Roumanian 
 oil which was .still left in the bottom tanks, until the other oil 
 could be analyzed in order to make sure that the proportion of 
 sulphur did not exceed 1.72%. which, of course, would be harmless. 
 The vessel left Coatzacoalcos Aug. 31 for New Orleans with 
 
332 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 her holds empty. There it took a full cargo and left on Sept, 15, 
 arriving at New York Sept. 19. 
 
 After filling the bottom tanks with fuel oil the ship left New 
 York on Sept. 20 for the return to Hamburg. The next day there 
 was a very strong head wind, the sea was very rough and the 
 ship pitched and plunged heavily. The Aspinall governors worked 
 without interruption as the propellers were thrown right out of 
 the water. On Sept. 23 and 24 the starboard engine was put 
 " half speed " to enable the ship to steer better against the high 
 sea. On those two days the. speed was only 6.26 and 8.41 knots 
 respectively. On the 30ch a storm commenced again from the 
 northeast, and the engines had to be stopped for eight minutes 
 to clean out the oil filters which were not then provided with by- 
 passes. The constant rolling of the vessel set the oil in the tanks 
 in such violent movement that the sludge or sediment had got 
 down into the piping and had stopped up the filter entirely. 
 
 On Oct. 2 the very high sea smashed the railing on the prome- 
 nade deck and bent all the awning posts on the port side. The 
 starboard engine was afterward put to half speed so as to enable 
 the ship to hold on her course, and the speed dropped to 5.9 knots. 
 The vessel reached Hamburg on Oct. 6. The mean speed for the 
 home voyage was 9.58 knots, a good result if bad weather and 
 the head wind the whole way are taken into account. A sum- 
 mary of the voyage is shown in the accompanying table. 
 
 PERFORMANCE OF THE OIL-ENGINE SHIP ' 
 X" ON A VOYAGE OF 11,894 MILES 
 
 Dis- 
 tance Speed 
 
 Voyage naut. knots Total 
 
 days hrs. miles per hr. I. h.p. tons 
 
 At Hamburg 14.02 
 
 To Havana 17 12 4,627 11.01 2,390 179.80 
 
 To Vera Cruz 2 19 810 12.11 38.75 
 
 ToTampico 17 210 12.54 10.28 
 
 To Coatzacoalcos. , 1 3 311 11.38 13.28 
 
 To New Orleans.. 2 10 698 12.10 33.68 
 
 To New York ... 5 5 1.613 12.92 58.60 
 
 To Hamburg 15 18 3.625 9.58 2,415 157 00 
 
 Total and average 45 12 11.894 10.89 2.440 505.41 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 Oil consumed 
 Kilos 
 Per 24 per 
 
 hrs. i.h.p. 
 
 tons per hr. 
 
 9.732 0'.i69 
 10 
 
 9'.56 '.'.'.'. 
 
 9.80 
 
 9.90 
 
 9.713 0.168 
 
 9.75 0.169 
 
 On arrival, the engines were inspected and everything was found 
 in order. Of the escape valves, which had been working since 
 the departure from New Orleans, only two were attacked to such 
 an extent that it was necessary to turn the valve seats. Not- 
 withstanding the bad weather on the home run, the mean speed 
 over the whole trip, outward and homeward, was 10.89 knots. 
 
 On the second voyage of the Christian X, which was made 
 to New York and Philadelphia, things went well, and, notwith- 
 standing very severe weather in the Atlantic on the outward trip, 
 the average speed was 10.56 knots, while on the home run the 
 rate was 11.41 knots. 
 
 Oil the third voyage, from the departure, on Jan. 6,- a westerly 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 333 
 
 hurricane and wild sea had to be fought up to Jan. 15, and ac- 
 cording to the engineer's log books, the Aspinall governors were 
 working uninterruptedly. One of the life-boats, the after wheel- 
 house and various fittings on deck were washed overboard, and 
 it became necessary to slow down the engines in order to prevent 
 everything being swept away by the heavy seas that constantly 
 washed over the vessel. 
 
 In New York a new sort of oil fuel was taken on board which 
 caused too early ignition with the engines going slow and the 
 Aspinall governors at work, so that the valves hung open and 
 some of them were spoiled. As there were only a few spare fuel 
 valves, and as the captain did not think that he could hold the 
 ship against the strong sea with a single engine in case of need, 
 he preferred to turn and put into Queenstown, Ireland, rather 
 than expose the vessel to further damage. On arrival in port the 
 ignition was retarded by a simple operation, and the ship then 
 went out on a trial trip which showed that all was in order. Spare 
 valves were put on board and the vessel then continued her voyage 
 toward Boston, where she arrived Feb. 15 without trouble, but 
 again after experiencing very severe weather. 
 
 Fuel Oil for Steamships. The use of fuel oil for steamships has 
 been constantly on the increase on the Pacific Coast, according 
 to a recent Canadian Government report, largely because it is 
 considered that 2 tons of oil will do the work of 3 tons of the 
 best coal. The advantages in favor of oil are counted as having 
 five main points : Great saving of time and labor in loading fuel ; 
 fewer men required for handling fuel on board ship ; reduced cost 
 of boiler and other repairs; increased cleanliness; and more com- 
 plete combustion, and therefore greater efficiency of oil fuel. Re- 
 cently many vessels have been altered so as to use either coal or oil 
 fuel. Comparative costs of coal and oil on the Princess Vic- 
 toria, operating daily between Vancouver, Victoria and Seattle, 
 are given as follows ; 
 
 COAL 
 
 Per day 
 
 100 tons at $4.50 $450.00 
 
 9 firemen at $55 per month each 16.50 
 
 9 trimmers at $45 a month each 13,50 
 
 Food for 18 men 7.50 
 
 Total $487.56 
 
 OIL 
 
 344.17 bbls. at 90 cts $314.25 
 
 6 firemen 11.10 
 
 Food for 6 men 2.53 
 
 Total , $327.87 
 
 Effect of Diesel Engines on Fuel Supply and Cost. S A. Hadley 
 of Kansas City, Mo, before the annual convention of Kansas En- 
 gineering Society, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting. Feb. 
 16. 1916, stated that tlie Diesel engine has not been introduced into 
 this country long enough for the effect of its remarkable economj' 
 
334 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 to be perceived, though this economy has been proved and ad- 
 mitted. The cost of fuel, like everything else, is governed by the 
 Taw of supply and demand, and Diesel engines will affect both. 
 
 The fuel supply of this country consists chiefly of petroleum and 
 bituminous coal ; natural gas and anthracite being sold now almost 
 exclu.sively for house use are not affected much by the economy of 
 the Diesel engines and will not be considered here. 
 
 The price of coal has increased about 1 ct. per ton at the mines 
 each year in spite of increased production from 270,000.000 tons 
 in 1900 to nearly 600,000,000 tons in 1915 on account Of a de- 
 mand which increased faster than improved methods of mining 
 have cheapened the cost of production. Within the last 6 months 
 the combination of an active demand, a threatened shortage and 
 sympathy with the rise in oil prices has made a sudden increase 
 of 15 cts. per ton. nearly 11% of the cost at the mine. It is be- 
 lieved that the cost of mining coal can not be further reduced, as 
 increasing difficulties will more than offset improved methods. 
 There is no large margin of profit to be absorbed and so the in- 
 dustrial growth of the country means constantly increasing prices 
 for coal. 
 
 The Diesel engine which uses oil fuel will produce a brake horse 
 power on 7.500 heat units in the fuel. Steam plants which now 
 use coal almost exclusively for fuel require an average of 50,000 
 heat units per horse power ranging from 75,000 for the common 
 factory or central station plant of less than 100 h.p. to about 20,000 
 for the best and most expensive large central station plants. Now 
 much of the country is supplied with power by these smaller, less 
 efficient steam plants where poor water supi)ly or varying or in- 
 sufficient load has prevented the installation of large steam plants 
 of the better type. Here the Diesel engine can step in and make an 
 immediate saving of about 80% of the fuel, for it is nearly as effi- 
 cient in small sizes or at half load as in large sizes or at full load 
 and is not affected by a poor or deficient water supply. Several 
 instances in Kansas can be shown where small central station plants 
 have reduced their annual fuel bill from more than $2,500 to less 
 than $500. 
 
 The Diesel engine is limited in size to units of about 100 b.-h.p. 
 and this might be thought to prevent it from competing with the 
 large central station. To some extent this is true, but only in 
 congested districts where power can be sold in large quantities 
 with small distributing cost. There the coal fired steam plant 
 of the latest design can produce the electrical energy at nearly as 
 low fuel cost as with Diesel engine, because of the difference in 
 the cost of heat units in coal and in oil. The invevStment in such 
 a plant is nearly or quite as much as in the Diesel plant, being 
 from $75 to $110 per k.w. exclusive of land or transmission lines. 
 The convenience of having prime movers equal to the largest in- 
 dividual loads may warrant the use of steam, but where users of 
 power are .'scattered over wider territory and no one unit requires 
 several thousand k.ws. as may be the case in rolling mill work or 
 electric smelting, electro-chemical processes such as obtaining nitro- 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 335 
 
 gen from the air by electrical discharges, etc., the Diesel engine 
 can compete easily with the coal fired steam plant. Instead of 
 central stations of from 5,000 to 50,000 capacity with step up 
 transformers, high tension transmission lines, step down trans- 
 formers and in the case of electric railways, rotary converter 
 sub-stations, there may be a number of Diesel plants of 500 to 
 2.000 h.p. capacity each, equal to the sub-stations of the other 
 system with generators producing current at moderate voltage, 
 say, 2.300 to 3,300 in a.c. practice or 2,500 volts in the case of d.c. 
 railway systems, and all these stations tied into one another in 
 parallel operation. The investment would be less, the attendance 
 no more, the plants could assist each other in emergencies by 
 raising the voltage enough for two adjoining stations to carry the 
 load of one temporarily disabled or cut down for any reason, the 
 whole system would be more flexible and the economy of the Diesel 
 engine could be realized at all loads. This method is possible 
 because the Diesel engine is more efl[icient in units of 1,000 h.p. 
 or smaller than the steam turbine plant in units of 25,000 h.p. and 
 because power is finally used in relatively small amounts over a 
 wide area and by producing it closer to where it is used the cost 
 and loss of distribution is reduced. With high tension electrical 
 transmission from large central plants, it must be transmitted 
 twice, once at high tension to the sub-station and again at lower 
 voltages back over practically the same ground to the user. The 
 cost of distributing oil fuel to .scattered Diesel plants is slight be- 
 cause of the small quantity and the fact that it can be piped or 
 shipped in tank cars. 
 
 Electric traction has other advantages besides the saving of 
 fuel and is being adopted on a large scale now, by the Chicago, 
 Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad to its mountain divisions where 
 water power is available. The reduction in demand for coal caused 
 by increasing use of Diesel engines may not result in decreased 
 cost, but will at least check the increasing price and will allow 
 more coal to be used for coke making, smelting ore, and for in- 
 dustrial processes that will benefit by a continued supply at a 
 moderate price. Powdered coal is now being generally adopted 
 for burning clinker in cement kilns, for brick and tile kilns, open 
 hearth furnaces, etc. Increased prices for coal would be felt by 
 these products and by all iron and steel makers, which take 
 nearly as much coal to make the coke smelting ore as do the rail- 
 roads. 
 
 The production of coke furnishes a source of fuel for the Diesel 
 engines in the oil that can be distilled from coal tar. In Ger- 
 many this fuel is used in preference to petroleum fuel oil, which 
 is imported duty free. In this country it has not yet become a 
 commercial reality as so much tar is used in the crude state for 
 roofing, road building, paving, etc., but when we begin to refine 
 the tar to obtain aniline dyes, fertilizers and other valuable by- 
 products this tar oil will be produced in quantities sufTicient to 
 have a regular market and being a by-product will be sold at low 
 price. 
 
336 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The increased demand for oil fuel can not raise the; price much, 
 for the engine uses the cheap heavy grades of crude oil which 
 have little value for refining, and uses the residue after the gaso- 
 lene and more valuable constituents have been removed. It is 
 true that this by-product has risen in price lately almost 50% 
 more than its low price of a year ago and there has been more 
 than a doubling of price of crude oil. but a little consideration will 
 show that further increases will affect the price of gasolene and 
 the lighter products only as they have no substitute. 
 
 The production of crude oil for 1914 was 290.312.535 bbls. and 
 for 1915 about 2,000.000 bbls. more. There was a decline in the 
 last half of 1915 of almost 100.000 bbls. per day in the largest 
 field, the Cushing. a decrease from the 1914 rate of 18.000.000 bbls. 
 i. e., had Cushing kept its past rate the 1915 production would 
 have been over 310.000.000 bbls. But this was the only field that 
 decreased and many new wells were brought in and extensive 
 new fields developed in (Central Kansas and in Montana ai»d it is 
 expected these new fields will hold up production. The increasing: 
 demand which is raising prices is for gasolene and the heavy 
 residue will remain a drug on the market except at prices which 
 will compete with coal for boiler use in down town power plants 
 and heating plants where its cleanliness and easy handling will 
 allow it to be used at prices of frbm $1.25 to $1.50 per bbl. and 
 probably a little higher. At these prices the Diesel engine can 
 produce power to compete with coal in the waj'^s mentioned before. 
 
 It remains to be seen how much of this comparatively cheap 
 liquid fuel is available. Without taking into consideration the 
 fuel oil that can, and undoubtedly will, be produced from coal tar, 
 the supply is very large. P^ormerly over 50% and now about 20% 
 of the crude oil. from the mid -continent field is marketed as fuel 
 oil. though there is a wide variation with different oils and differ- 
 ent refining companies. A much larger percentage of California 
 .and Mexican oil is fit only for fuel. In 1915 the production of 
 the mid-continent field was 152.869.680 bbls.. which by modern 
 methods of refining yielded about 30.000.000 bbls. of fuel oil. Cali- 
 fornia in 1915 produced 112,89 2,855 bbls. yielding over 50% of 
 fuel oil or about 60,000,000 bbls. The total fuel oil supply for 
 .1915 was 90,000.000 bbls. The above figures take account of mod- 
 ern methods of refining and by the older methods there will be 
 much more fuel oil. There will probably be further changes in 
 refining as the demand for gasolene grows. To offset this is the 
 supply of Mexico which has just been tapi)ed and is not now being 
 imported at ^11 in any considerable quantities. It is fair to as- 
 sume that aiexico will at least supply enough to make up for a 
 decrease in the production of fuel oil by improved methods of 
 refining now unknown. It is a fact that the production of rrude 
 oil in the United States has increased steadily each year and that 
 proved oil territory has widened. Some fields, notably the Cush- 
 ing field, have fallen off in production, but none, not even those, 
 are exhausted. It may be taken as an indication of the steadiness 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 337 
 
 of the supply that the Standard Oil Co. now have under con- 
 struction 180 new stills in 7 different refineries. 
 
 Any builder of Diesel engines, of whom there are now a con- 
 siderable number of good repute, will guarantee a brake h.p. on 
 less than Vi lb of fuel oil. The annual production of 90,000,000 
 bbls. means 60 billion h.p.-hrs. or 20,000,000 h.p.-yrs. of 300 
 10 hr. days each. This is the amount of power now produced 
 at an average of over 5 lbs. of coal per h.p.-hr., which can be 
 had from Diesel engines, not taking into account the fuel oil from 
 coal tar. It represents a yearly decrease in the demand for coal 
 of 150.000.000 tons, one-fourth the present production, which will 
 be ihat much added to our coal supply and will serve to prevent 
 a rise in price. Our conclusion must be that the Diesel engine by 
 its use of a by-product as fuel will defer the exhaustion of our 
 coal supply and tend to maintain present prices and that with- 
 out it there must be a considerable increase in fuel prices. 
 
 Types of Storage Plants for Anthracite Coal, Their Economic 
 Features and Cost of Construction and Operation. R. V. Norris, 
 in the Journal of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
 1911, by E^ngineering and Contracting. July 12, 1911, states that 
 storage-plants vary much in detail of design, but may be gen- 
 erally divided into two classes — non-mechanical and mechanical 
 storage — with the following types: 
 
 NGN -MECHANICAL 
 
 (a) Level. Stocking on the 
 
 surface. 
 
 (b) Level. Stocking from tres- 
 
 tles. 
 
 (c) Level. Stocking from tres- 
 
 tles. 
 
 (d) Level. Stocking in bins. 
 
 (e) Level. Stocking by cable- 
 
 railwayand 
 dump-cars 
 
 (f) Hillside. Stocking from tres- 
 
 tles 
 
 Reloading 
 
 shovel. 
 Reloading 
 
 .shovel. 
 Reloading 
 
 by hand or steam- 
 by hand or steam- 
 
 or 
 
 by tunnel with 
 without dock-scrapers. 
 Reloading by tunnels. 
 Reloading by hand or from bins, 
 
 Reloading by hand, scrapers, or 
 hydraulicking. 
 
 MECHANICAL 
 
 (g) Hill.side. 
 
 (h) Level. 
 (i) Level. 
 
 (j) Level, 
 (k) Level. 
 
 Stocking by travel- 
 ing-cantilever 
 trimmer. 
 
 Traveling or fixed 
 tramways. 
 
 Dodge system. 
 Stocking by truss- 
 trimraers in con- 
 ical piles. 
 
 Stocking by travel- 
 ing trimmer. 
 
 Covered plants. 
 Stocking by fixed, 
 trimmers. 
 
 Reloading by hydraulicking. 
 
 Stocking and reloading by trav- 
 eling buckets. 
 
 Reloading by swinging convey- 
 ors. 
 
 Reloading by tunnel and travers- 
 ing-conveyors. 
 
 Reloading by traversing-convey- 
 ors or by tunnel and dock- 
 scrapers. 
 
 The line between the non-mechanical and the mechanical types 
 is hard to draw, so many plants being combinations of both types. 
 We have taken as mechanical storage, all plants using machinery 
 
338 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in storing coal, and as non-mechanical those storing by dumping, 
 without regard to the occasional incidental use of machinery for 
 reloading in some of the non-mechanical plants above described. 
 
 Dump-Storage (Non-Mechanical) . The simplest method of stock- 
 ing large volumes of coal consists in forming a dump on a fairly- 
 level surface, laying temporary tracks on the accumulating stock, 
 and raising and shifting these as the storage grows in extent and 
 height Reloading is accomplished either by steam-shovels or grab- 
 bucket cranes, operated from the edges of the pile from tracks 
 which are shifted as reloading progresses. This plan is only suit- 
 able for temporary storage of steam sizes. Only one size can be 
 stored, the breakage is excessive in any event, and prohibitory 
 with prepared sizes, no rescreening is possible, and the cost of 
 operation, not including waste, approximates 20 to 25 cts. per 
 ton handled. 
 
 Trestle-Storage (Non-Mechanical) . A method of storage now in 
 general use in retail yards, and also attempted on a larger scale, 
 consists of a trestle of the height of the proposed top of the pile, 
 over which the loaded cars are dumped, forming a long pile of 
 usually only moderate height, sizes being separated by partitions. 
 Reloading is accomplished usually by hand. Trestle storage is 
 small in capacity for the cost, expensive in operation, high in 
 breakage, and is generally costly and inefficient ; it does, however, 
 permit the storage of various sizes. Its use should be confined 
 to small retail yards, used for transport to proper screens for 
 final reloading. 
 
 Trestle and Tunnel Storage (Non-Mechanical). A more efficient 
 type of trestle-storage unites, with the trestle-stocking, the provision 
 of a tunnel under the trestle for reloading. The coal is fed into cars 
 in this tunnel through gates, and the cars may be either regular rail- 
 road equipment or narrow-gage dump-cars. Breakage is excessive, 
 including not only that incident to the trestle-storage, but to draw- 
 ing at least a portion of the coal from the center of the pile under 
 pressure. Except with the use of separate screening-plant, no re- 
 screening is possible ; and further, less than 60% of the coal is tribu- 
 tary to the tunnel by gravity, and the two outlying wedge-shaped 
 piles must be transported to the tunnel by hand, or better, by the 
 use of dock-scrapers, which are also occasionally used for ex- 
 tending the storage beyond the gravity-range of the trestle. 
 
 Bin-Stocking (Non-Mechanical) . In general, the construction 
 consists of wooden bins traversed by railroad tracks from which the 
 various sizes and types of coal are dumped, each in its appropri- 
 ate bin. Reloading is usually accomplished by cars passing under 
 the bins, either on the surface or more frequently in tunnels. To 
 reduce the danger from fire, the movement of the reloading-cars 
 is usually by gravity or by rope-haulage. The individual bins 
 are necessarily limited in capacity to from 50 to 100 tons each, 
 and an extensive plant covers a very large area. One such plant 
 at the seaboard has 384 bins, reloading into cars in 9 tunnels, and 
 covers approximately 9 acres. Such a plant costs in excess of 
 $3 per ton of capacity to erect, requires an enormous amount of 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 339 
 
 timber, with resulting large fire-hazard and high maintenance 
 charges, and the operating expenses approach 10 cts. per ton. 
 
 A great advantage is the practicability of storing many sizes 
 and kinds of coal, and keeping separate many small consignments. 
 The breakage in this type of plant is very serious. The loss at 
 seaboard on 1,000,000 tons of prepared and pea coal in about the 
 usual proportions, would amount to $545,000, or 54 ^/^ cts. per ton, 
 in addition to the cost of storage. 
 
 Cahle-Raib'oad Storage (N on- Mechanical). A modification of 
 the bin and tunnel type involves the use of cable or gravity return 
 cars, running out on trestles over bins or surface storage, and 
 dumping their contents at the desired points. This type is used 
 at many retail yards and at transfer points, especially where 
 water-borne coal is transferred to yards or cars The plant is 
 moderate in first cost, economical in operation, but high in break- 
 age ; does not permit rescreening except as a separate operation, 
 and, being of timber, is subject to destructive fires. It does, how- 
 ever, lend itself readily to covering for weather protection. 
 
 Hillside Storage (N on- Mechanical) . Given a not impracticable 
 hill, a plant consists essentially of one or more dumping tracks at 
 the top, which in the older forms of plant are necessarily on 
 rather high trestles. The coal is dropped from these trestles (the 
 fall being broken as much as possible by chutes) and spreads 
 down the hillside until arrested by walls, barriers, or by a level 
 space at the bottom. But little coal can be reloaded directly by 
 gravity except the layer which may be held by a retaining wall at 
 the bottom, so it is usual to reload by hand, or better, by the use 
 of dock scrapers or swinging conveyors along the level space at 
 the bottom of the plant. 
 
 In one large plant almost all the coal is put into a conveyor 
 at the foot of the hill and scraped to a central screen house, where 
 it is thoroughly rescreened and all the sizes recovered. In other 
 cases reloading is done over fixed or shaking screejis placed at 
 intervals above the tracks, and the screenings fiom these are taken 
 by cars or conveyors to a small screen house for separation. In 
 many cases the difficulty of handling at the foot of the hill is 
 solved by the use of hydraulicking water, best heated in winter, 
 which is used under considerable pressure to carry the coal to 
 the conveyors or cars for reloading. This solves the problem of 
 frozen coal as far as the storage plant is concerned ; but ar- 
 rangements must be made for the disposal of the water, and in 
 winter shipments the coal reaches its destination frozen. 
 
 Where various sizes are stored it is necessary to provide par- 
 titions between the sections. These usually take the form of 
 fences of heavy planking supported by large vertical posts, and 
 braced by a forest of props. The downward motion of the coal 
 has a strong tendency to dislodge these supports, with resultant 
 heavy maintenance cost. Moreover, to avoid admixture of dirt 
 with the coal, it has been found necessary to protect the entire 
 hillside, either by paving, planking, or concrete. This is particu- 
 larly necessary where water is used in reloading. 
 
340 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The cost of installing a hillside storage plant of this type is 
 about $1.60 per ton of capacity complete, including railroads, 
 trestle, partitions, water supply, conveyors, screen house and plank- 
 ing. With concreted or paved hillside the cost would probably 
 be a little higher. The operating cost, exclusive of fixed charges 
 and deterioration of coal, but including labor, repairs, power, and 
 shifting cars, will approximate 10 cts. per ton for the coal passed 
 through storage, dependent, as in all cases of storage operating 
 cost, on the activity of the plant. The breakage of coal is some- 
 what large. 
 
 From the above it appears that the non-mechanical plants are 
 generally expensive, both to erect and to operate, do not generally 
 lend themselves to the necessary screening, and involve a serious 
 breakage of coal. On the other hand, they are suitable to small 
 quantities of storage, lend themselves to separation of sizes and 
 qualities, and are in general suitable rather to retail yards or the 
 smaller type of wholesale piers than to extensive storage. 
 
 Mechanical Storage Plants 
 
 Hillside with Mechanical Stocking (Mechanical). The most not- 
 able plant of this type was constructed during 1905-6, for the Le- 
 high Valley Coal Co., at Hudsondale, Pa. Owing to the high 
 breakage loss in prepared sizes in hillside storage the plant was 
 designed and is operated exclusively for the storage of small sizes. 
 
 The hillside selected was fairly straight and true in grades, but 
 required heavy earthwork for the reloading tracks, and the stock- 
 ing track at the head of the hill was inaccessible at reasonable 
 grades with prohibitory cost, and is reached by an engine plant. 
 The plant (Fig. 8) differs from all previous hillside plants in many 
 particulars. Owing to the configuration of the ground the loaded 
 cars are hoisted up a plane 500 ft. long on a 30% grade, by a pair 
 of 18-30-in. hoisting engines, double geared 16 to 1 to a 10-ft. 
 drum. The cars are pushed up by a steel barney, which returns 
 into a pit at the foot of the plane. From the head of the plane 
 the cars run over a double track trestle just high enough to permit 
 dumping the coal into a traveling cantilever trimmer, by which 
 it is elevated and discharged on to the concrete floored hillside, 
 making a pile more than 55 ft. deep at its maximum, tailing 
 down against a concrete retaining wall extending 7 ft. above the 
 storage floor. This wall has a total height of 24 ft. above the 
 reloading tracks, and is provided with openings on 20-ft. centers 
 discharging the coal over screens directly into railroad cars for 
 shipment. The screenings are washed in a trough to a small 
 screen house at the lower end of the plant, where they are re- 
 screened for .shipment As but a small portion of the coal is ac- 
 cessible by gravity, the main reloading is done by the use of water 
 pumped from a nearby creek to a storage tank on the hill above 
 the plant, and used with hose streams to wash the coal to the 
 gates and over the screens 
 
 liaijroad cars 9,re Jiandled by gravity on both reloading and 
 
 1 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 341 
 
 stocking' tracks, and the empty cars from the latter are lowered 
 on a plane, operated by a drum with powerful air brakes, to the 
 level of the railroad. 
 
 Except the hoisting engines for the loaded car plane, the entire 
 
 plant is electrically operated and lighted from a station included 
 in the equipment. 
 
 The two tracks on the dumping trestles are at different eleva- 
 tions, to minimize the drop at this point, and the chutes under 
 
342 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 these form a shallow pocket controlled by numerous gates. This 
 pocket, while not of a depth to increase the drop from the hop- 
 pers of the cars, has sufhcient capacity to give the trimmers a 
 continuous supply, regardless of the variations in discharge in 
 unloading and moving the cars. The cantilever trimmer consists 
 of a platform traveling parallel to the dumping trestle on a 16-ft. 
 gage track and carrying a cantilever truss equipped with a scraper 
 conveyor. Except the drop from the cars to the chute immediately 
 below and just clearing the hoppers, the only other drop involved 
 in storing coal is in making the first small pile behind the bulk- 
 head. After this reaches the line of trimmer the pile is filled by 
 moving the discharge outward, and the coal from the end of the 
 trimmer reaches the growing pile without appreciable drop, and 
 extends the pile by avalanching, as previously described. 
 
 The storage floor averages 200 X 1,000 ft. on the hillside. This 
 was first traced to squares 25 ft. on a side, so designated to give 
 the best slopes without re-entrant angles, attainable without too 
 serious grading. The floor thus prepared was covered with from 
 2 to 3 ft. of cinders, placed by the use of a temporary cable way, 
 and then with 6 ins. of cinder-concrete with a wearing surface of 
 1 in. of cement and .sand. The entire preparation of the floor 
 cost a little less than 26 cts. per sq. ft., of which nearly 14 cts. was 
 for the concrete. The lowest 30 ft. of the floor is on a much flatter 
 grade than the rest, and with a view to a better conduction of 
 the water and coal over this section the floor is made with 
 20-ft. corrugations, the bottom of each leading to a gate. Experi- 
 ence has proved the advantage of this arrangement, and further, 
 that it would have been very advantageous to carry these corruga- 
 tions the entire width of the floor, as considerable ditficulty is 
 encountered in washing down the fine coal by reason of the spread- 
 ing of, the water. In inany cases in reloading the coal temporary 
 iron chutes are laid to prevent this spread. 
 
 The retaining wall was built of concrete reinforced with old 
 wire rope, with an aggregate of crushed mine refuse ; this, by 
 reason of its character, has somewhat deteriorated the concrete, 
 and the wall, while designed amply against overturning, and an- 
 chored back by numerous tie-rods, has been forced forward to 
 some extent in places, probably by the freezing of water in the 
 fill behind it. 
 
 The problem of letting down the loaded cars was solved by 
 the use of a second plane, single track, with a barney ahead of 
 the cars disappearing at the bottom into a pit. The controlling 
 drum lowers by means of a band-brake on an asbestos-lined brake- 
 wheel, operated by a standard Westinghouse air-brake equipment, 
 supplied with air by an automatic electrically driven air pump. 
 The barney is hoisted by a small motor, clutch connected to a 
 train of gearing operating the drum, and runaways ai-e guarded 
 against by a governor, which sets the brake in case a safe speed 
 in lowering is exceeded. The brake is also arranged for hand- 
 operation in emergency. 
 
 Different sizes when stored are either separated by temporary 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 343 
 
 bulkheads or the edges of the piles are allowed to mix, the sizes 
 being separated by the shipping screen. 
 
 As this plant is used (and is suitable) only for the small sizes 
 of coal, the question of breakage is not of supreme importance, 
 and no accurate figures are available as to its amount. From 
 observation I would consider it small, probably not much exceed- 
 ing that in a standard Dodge plant. The entire cost including all 
 charges approximated $1.50 per ton of capacity, and when in 
 active operation the handling cost has reached the record figure 
 of 1.25 cts. per ton handled through the plant. 
 
 Traveling or Fixed Traviway Storage (Mechanical). The tram- 
 way type of storage, stocking and reloading by traveling buckets, 
 while in very general use for ore-storage, has been but little used 
 for stocking anthracite on an extensive scale, largely on account 
 of excessive breakage, the impracticability of rescreening before 
 reshipment, and small handling capacity. 
 
 The largest plant of this type for anthracite storage was built 
 for Coxe Bros. & Co., at Roan Junction, Pa., with a capacity of 
 100,000 tons in a continuous pile, since increased to more than 
 150,000 tons. This plant consists essentially of a traveling truss, 225 
 ft. span, with 100-ft. cantilever-extension and 40-ft. back-projection. 
 The truss is 55 ft. high above the rail at the traveler, and the bot- 
 tom memteer has an elevation of 40 ft. above the storage ground. 
 The truss is supported by a tower, spanning the reloading tracks 
 and containing the engines and boiler for operation. The outboard 
 end, supported by an A-frame, travels on a single rail, outside 
 of which the stocking track is elevated to such a height that cars 
 can be dumped into small hoppers, 50-ft. centers, from which the 
 coal is drawn into 5-ton buckets, supported on traversing truck. 
 One bucket is hoisted, carried along the truss, lowered, and dumped 
 on the stock pile while its companion is being filed ; these buckets 
 dump automatically only when resting on the stockpile. Reload- 
 ing is accomplished by the use of a 3-ton " shovel bucket," which 
 is filled by pulling it over the surface of the coal, and dumped by 
 hand into cars at the reloading tower. 
 
 While a large storage at low cost per ton is attained, the hand- 
 ling capacity of the plant is small, the average rate of stocking 
 is but 83 and of reloading 70 tons per hour, woefully insufficient 
 for a plant of this capacity. This condition could, of course, be 
 remedied by the use of several trusses, which, however, would 
 greatly increase the cost of installation. The breakage, particu- 
 larly in reloading, is heavy, and on this account the plant is 
 chiefly used for the smaller sizes. The original cost of construc- 
 tion is said to have been but $60,000, or 60 cts. per ton of rated 
 capacity. The present cost would be at least 50% greater. The 
 cost of operation averages slightly over 5.5 cts. per ton for stock- 
 ing and about the same amount for reloading on a total exceed- 
 ing 150,000 tons handled, including all labor, repairs, and train 
 service, but not interest charges or depreciation of plant. 
 
 An interesting plant of this type is situated at Fall River, Mass. 
 The plant consists (Fig. 9) of a traveling tramway, with cantilever 
 
344 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 extension over the pockets and hinged bridge extension to extend 
 over the barges. The tramway is hung from its supports by a 
 number of thin eye-bars, giving flexibility sufficient to permit of 
 swinging 11.5 degs. either side of the center line, allowing a 
 variation of 50 ft. each way over the pockets, which is necessary 
 to permit of the selection of pockets for various sizes of coal. 
 Unloading, both from the barges and from stock, is done by means of 
 a 2-ton clam-shell bucket, in which coal is carried to the desired 
 point, lowered, and let out either on the storage pile or in the 
 pockets, which are large enough to receive it. The plant handles 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Travelling tramway storage and handling plant, Staples 
 Coal Co., Fall River, Mass. Plan and elevation. 
 
 both anthracite and bituminous coal, as may be required and in 
 reloading from stock the tramway is assisted by a locomotive crane 
 with clam-shell bucket of 0.5 ton capacity. 
 
 The cost of operation in the plant has been reduced to about 
 one-third of its previous cost. The total cost of the plant was 
 about $50,000, and the saving by its use exceeded 10 cts. per ton 
 on 150,000 tons handled per year, besides reducing the screen- 
 ings from 7 to less than 4%. The guaranteed speed of operation 
 is 100 tons per hour, which rate in practice has been nearly 
 doubled in emergency. 
 
 In general the tramway system, within its limitations, is prob- 
 ably the lowest in first cost of all the storage systems, while the 
 operating cost is between that of the non-mechanical and the 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 345 
 
 large mechanically operated plants. The principal advantages of 
 this type are low first cost, flexibility, moderate labor cost and 
 repairs ; the disadvantages, large space occupied by reason of 
 relatively low piles, danger from wind, excessive breakage (from 
 the tendency of the operators to dump the buckets without low- 
 ering to the stock pile), and lack of facilities for rescreening in 
 loading out from stock. 
 
 Dodge Storage System (Mechanical). The Dodge system fills 
 more nearly than any other the conditions of an ideal plant. In 
 its standard form, Fig. 10, anthracite is stored in conical piles 
 by means of a trimmer truss carrying a flight conveyor, with a 
 movable bottom, which discharges at the apex of the growing 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 TRACK HOPPERS AND TRIMMER TRUSSES 
 
 Standard type of Dodge storage plant. 
 
 conical pile, and reloading is accomplished by a horizontal swing- 
 ing truss, placed between two conical piles, carrying on its edge 
 a flight conveyor. This conveyor takes the coal from the edge 
 of the conical pile, draws it to a cential point, and by a change 
 in direction carries the coal up an incline to a tower, in which 
 it is thoroughly screened on its way to the car. 
 
 The trimming conveyor is supported by a light hinged arch truss 
 of span suited to the size of the pile, with a pitch equal to the 
 angle of repose of the coal, carrying in its bottom memj)er the 
 trough-and-chain conveyor, which returns over the top. The bot- 
 tom of the trough is a single movable strip of sheet steel wound 
 on a drum at the foot of the truss and pulled by power up the 
 truss, advancing as the pile grows, leaving an open bottom above 
 the point of discharge, thus minimizing the breakage at this point, 
 as the coal is merely shoved out on to the point of the conical 
 pile and builds the pile by avalanching rather than by rolling. 
 The thrust of the arch-truss is taken up by tie-rods extending 
 
346 MECHAXICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 under the storage floor, and wind-pressure is provided for by guy- 
 ropes extending above the surface of the coal to anchorages out- 
 side the piles. The trimming conveyor extends from the foot of 
 the truss on a catenary curve to an extension under the dumping 
 tracks, \\-here hoppers are provided, feeding the conveyor to ca- 
 pacity by adjustable gates. 
 
 Two trimming trusses with respective track hoppers and a cen- 
 tral reloader form a unit of construction. 
 
 The reloader is pivoted between the two piles, and swings on 
 curved supporting tracks, just clearing the outer ends of the 
 trusses, and covers both floors, leaving only a small crescent- 
 shaped pile outside its reach on each floor. These piles are 
 handled either by hand or by dock scrapers to within reach of the 
 end of the reloader. The reloader-truss. carrying the moving 
 conveyor on its faces, is fed by power against the bottom of ths 
 pile, being operated from a station on the pivot, from which a 
 full view of the operation is assured. As the piles cone down by 
 avalanching, and not by continuous rolling, it is often necessary 
 to back out the reloader in a hurry to avoid having it buried. 
 The movement is accomplished by wire cables which lie along one 
 of the circular tracks under the coal, and the ends of which coil 
 on reversing drums in the engine house, controlled by clutches 
 from the operator's platform. 
 
 At the pivot-end of the reloader the chain carrying the conveyor- 
 flights is deflected up an incline to the reloading tower. In the 
 case of the largest piles, the strain from this extension has proved 
 too great for the Dodge chain necessarily employed in making 
 this turn, and separate conveyors are installed on the reloader 
 and tower. The reloader-conveyor in this case transfers to the 
 tower-conveyor. 
 
 The reloading tower contains shaking screens of ample capacity 
 to fully rescreen the coal, and after passing over these the coal 
 goes by a chute to the cai's for reshipment. These loading chutes 
 are long and originally caused considerable breakage, but the 
 later ones ai'e covered and provided v.ith an end-gate, by means 
 of which the chutes can be kept full and the coal poured from 
 the end without the velocity which would be acquired in a free 
 slide for the length of the chute. 
 
 The screenings are collected in hoppers in the towers, and in 
 modern plants they are taken to a separate screen house for 
 repreparation into marketable sizes, either by long conveyors or 
 by cars, with rope or locomotive hauhige. 
 
 Power is provided for the operation of each unit from engines 
 or motors in a house adjoining the reloading tower. The trimmer 
 conveyors, while occasionally driven by motors at the top of the 
 trusses, are usually operated by rope-drives from the engine house 
 to the head sheaves on the trusses, with the object of minimizing 
 the weight on the truss. 
 
 It is evident that but one size and kind of coal should be stored 
 in any one pile, and this limitation, involving the installation of 
 numerous piles, is the most serious objection to the system. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 347 
 
 The approximate cost of the machinery and trusses, per ton of 
 capacity, varies g-reatly with the size of unit-piles. The following 
 is a table of approximate costs : 
 
 Capacity tons Diam., ft. Height,, ft. Cost per ton 
 
 120,000 333 85 $0.6625 
 
 100,000 313 80 0.72 
 
 80,000 293 74 0.8125 
 
 60,000 263 67 0.995 
 
 50,000 248 63 1.08 
 
 40,000 230 581/2 1.265 
 
 30,000 208 53 1.54 
 
 This is for plants of 2 units. To this amount must be added the 
 cost of foundations, track-hopper pits, pieparation of floors, central 
 power plant (steam or electricity) and power-distribution, drainage, 
 screen-house for screenings, and railroad tracks, scales and yards. 
 
 The most modern plants have been built of great capacity, with 
 large unit-piles of from 50,000 to 60,000 tons' capacity, with the 
 result of reducing the first cost of a complete plant from $1.50 
 per ton of capacity for a 300,000-ton plant, with 25,000-ton units, 
 to $1.06 per ton for a 480,000-ton plant, with 60,000-ton units. 
 Depending upon the size of units, the handling capacity varies 
 from 50 to 150 tons per hour for stocking or reloading, which 
 speed is attained easily in actual work, including the time lost 
 in spotting and opening the hopper-bottom steel cars. 
 
 Owing to the thorough rescreening in use, the breakage in hand- 
 ling by this type of plant is quite accurately known. In the oper- 
 ation of a typical modern plant the following breakage calculation 
 from cleaned-up piles has been recorded. The amount screened 
 out as smaller sizes is as follows : 
 
 Rice, 
 Buck- barley 
 
 Stove, Nut, Pea, wheat, and dirt. 
 
 Size stocked % % % % % 
 
 Egg 8.9 2.4 0.58 0.50 1.82 
 
 Stove 3.9 0.93 0.65 0.37 
 
 Nut ., 1.40 1.10 0.36 
 
 Pea . ..* . . ... 1.01 0.37 
 
 Buckwheat . . ... . . . ' 0.56 
 
 This loss, figured on 1,000,000 tons of assumed quantities of each 
 size passing through storage, is $53,561.25, or 5.36 cts. per ton. 
 
 The cost of operation, fairly averaged at 5 cts. per ton handled 
 each way, is extremely variable, dependent upon the activity of 
 the plant. For a large tonnage it has been as low as 2.4 cts. per 
 ton, and for three consecutive months it averaged 4.6 cts. per ton, 
 including all labor, repairs, and supplies, but not interest, taxes; 
 or depreciation, with occasional jumps to 35 cts. or 40 cts. per 
 ton during inactive times v/hen but little coal was handled and 
 the fixed charges for attendance dominated the cost. 
 
 An essential feature of this type of plant is ample railroad 
 trackage. A plant of 500,000 tons' capacity will be nearly 1.5 
 miles long, and will contain jn the aggregate about 10 miles of 
 tracks. 
 
348 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The power required to operate a plant of this type was deter- 
 mined for a 60,000-ton unit, two 30,000-ton piles, at the McClellan 
 plant of the Susquehanna Coal Co., to be : 
 
 I. h.p. ' 
 
 Engine and attached machinery, light 15.5 
 
 No. 1 trimmer-conveyor, empty 37.0 
 
 No. 1 trimmer-conveyor, loaded 53.5 
 
 No. 2 trimmer-conveyor, empty 36.7 
 
 No. 2 trimmer-conveyor, loaded 53.3 
 
 Reloader-conveyor, empty 38.7 
 
 In the screen house and on the tovvers, each shaking screen, 
 6 X 12 ft. in size, required 2.62 h.p. for operation. At the time 
 when this test was made reloading was not in progress, so no 
 test could be made on the reloader actually in service. 
 
 The m.ost recent plant of the standard Dodge type was erected 
 in 1907-08, for the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co., at Hauto, Pa. 
 The detailed costs of this plant are available through the cour- 
 tesy of W. A. Lathrop, president, and Baird Snyder, Jr., general 
 superintendent of the company. 
 
 The plant consists at present of four 30-000-ton and two 60,- 
 000-ton piles, total capacity 240,000 tons, arranged in line on one 
 side of the tracks, the other side being reserved for extensions. 
 At the present time two more 60,000-ton piles are being erected, 
 increasing the capacity to 360,000 tons, which should be available 
 early in the summer. 
 
 Special features of the plant are electrical driving from the 
 central station of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co., at Lans- 
 ford. Each unit, two piles with pivoted reloader, is driven from 
 its own power house ; the transmission to the trimmers, reloader, 
 and loading-tower of each is by rope-drives. Each loading-tower 
 is equi^oped with a shaking-screen. 5X12 ft. screening surface, 
 provided with a full set of perforated plates for any size of coal. 
 The screenings are washed in troughs to a very complete screen 
 house at the lower end of the plant. Sufficient grade for this 
 washing is obtained by the use of 2 elevator towers in the line 
 of troughs, which by raising the screenings avoid undue elevation 
 of the troughs. 
 
 The screen house is provided with breaking-down rolls and a 
 full set of screens for separating the screenings into sizes, which 
 are shipped directly from the screen house pockets. 
 
 The site selected is a favorable one for this type of storage. 
 No excessive grading was required, and drainage is available, so 
 that it is the practice to use water for reloading frozen coal. 
 
 As in all plants of this type, the capacity of the piles is rated 
 on the assumption of strictly conical structure, built directly by the 
 trimming conveyors, while in case of necessity the piles can be ma- 
 terially extended by the use of sheet-irbn chutes from the head of 
 the trimmer. In this plant such extension has been carried to 
 the limit by the further use of plank bulkheads between the piles, 
 so that a rated 30,000-ton pile of egg coal actually contained 
 70,600 tons, more than 135% above its rated capacity. The bulk- 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING . 349 
 
 heads are built with a face of 2-in. plank, retained by cleats of 
 plank extending- into the body of coal and held against spreading 
 by the friction of the coal itself. 
 
 The cost of the present 240,000-ton plant complete was $415,- 
 771.70, or $1,732 per ton of rated capacity, made up of items as 
 follows : 
 
 Per ton 
 of rated 
 capacity 
 
 Grading and masonry $ 94,996.49 $0,395 — 
 
 Railroads 32,656.84 0.136 
 
 Buildings 26,070.5.4 0.108 + 
 
 Machinez^y 215,766.73 0.900 — 
 
 Electric installation 15,829.81 0.066 
 
 Screen-house 28,415.37 0.119 -{- 
 
 Electric power-transmission 2,035.92 0,008 
 
 $415,771.70 $1,732 
 
 The two 60,000-ton piles now under contract are estimated to 
 cost $120,000, which will make the entire cost of the 360,000-ton 
 plant $536,000, or $1.49 per ton of rated capacity. 
 
 The cost of operation for the first year only is available, amount- 
 ing to 209,690 tons handled to $9,263.59, or $0.0442 per ton, as 
 follows : 
 
 Amount Cost per ton 
 
 Superintendence $ 584.62 $0.00279 
 
 Labor 3.541.48 0.0169 
 
 Supplies 1,536.39 0.00732 
 
 Repairs 80.68 0.0003 
 
 Electric power 1,133.67 0.0054 
 
 Cost $6,876.84 $0.0328' 
 
 Transportation 2,386.75 0.01143 
 
 Total cost $9,263.59 $0.0442 
 
 In general this type of plant combines most of the qualifica- 
 tions of an ideal plant; its main disadvantages are: (1) the 
 ■large individual units, with consequent tying up of capacity when 
 but a small amount of coal of a particular size or kind is to be 
 stored; (2) expensive operation in the case of frozen coal, with 
 liability to this difficulty from the method of making the piles. 
 The coal can be handled with hot water if a supply is available, 
 but this requires extensive drainage. This type is suited either 
 to very extensive storage of hundreds of thousands of tons, or 
 for the storage of moderate quantities of a single size, as for 
 large steam plants. 
 
 The Ransom Storage System {Mechanical). A notable varia- 
 tion from the Dodge type was built for the Lehigh Valley Coal 
 Co., at Ransom, Pa. The' type of plant erected. Fig. 11, varies 
 from the standard Dodge type in the use of a traveling trimmer- 
 truss, building a wedge-shaped pile of coal with rounded ends, 
 and reloading by conveyors in tunnels, with the assistance of 
 traveling reloaders, to a central loading tower and screen house. 
 
 The cost of the plant complete, including machinery, power 
 
350 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 351 
 
 equipment, grading, tracks, reloading and transfer tower, screen 
 house, dam, and a 0.5-miIe pipe line for water supply, trestles, 
 rope haulage, and lighting, was very close to $1.15 per ton of 
 capacity, and the operating expense, excluding interest, taxes and 
 depreciation, is reported as low as 1.75 cts. per ton handled during 
 months of active operation. No reliable data from a full clean-up 
 are available as to breakage, but this appears to be somewhat 
 greater than in a standard Dodge plant. 
 
 The plant as a whole has the advantages of low first cost, 
 cheap handling, large storage for the area occupied, ease and 
 cheapness of extension, exceptionally thorough rescreening and 
 ease of preparation of the screenings, low repairs, moderate main- 
 tenance, and very rapid handling. The disadvantages are in- 
 herent to the type : impossibility of handling more than one size 
 at a time, in either stocking or reloading; partial mixing of sizes, 
 except at a great sacrifice of capacity ; limitation of number of 
 sizes to not exceeding four ; some fire danger ; and high depre- 
 ciation on the wooden trestle. 
 
 Bf loading Tower 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Erie Railroad covered storage and transfer plant, 
 Hammond, Ind. Cross section. 
 
 Covered Storage Plants {Mechanical). The difficulties from 
 frozen and snow-covered coal, which are annoying in the latitude 
 of New York, become so serious in more northern regions as to 
 warrant expensive arrangements for their avoidance. As mere 
 cold involves no difficulty in reloading, trouble from freezing is 
 cured by the use of covered plants. 
 
 The Hammond, Ind., plant of the Erie R. R. (Fig. 12) of 60,000 
 tons' capacity, a building 840 ft. long by 90 ft. wide, stores coal 
 by a conveyor system, with cross conveyor in the roof. The sizes 
 are separated by A-partitions and the walls sustained by anchor- 
 bands in the coal itself. Reloading is accomplished by running 
 the forward coal by gravity into a longitudinal conveyor in front 
 of the building, whence it is transferred to the return-buckets of 
 the storing-conveyor, elevated to the loading tower, screened and 
 shipped. The screenings are prepared in a separate building. 
 The balance of the coal in each pocket is delivered to the front 
 
352 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 conveyor by traversing Dodge reloaders, one serving each two 
 bins. These are sheltered under the A~partitions when the bins 
 are full. This plant, which also is used as a transfer plant, has 
 the advantage of covered storage, moderate cost under the con- 
 ditions, good handling capacity and rescreening, with, as its most 
 serious objections, fire risk and excessive breakage from trans- 
 fers between conveyors, and drop from the roof of the building 
 in storing coal. 
 
 A bettor type, also designed by the Dodge Co., and erected for 
 the Lehigh Valley Coal Co. at West Superior, Wis., to store coal 
 from lake vessels, is practically a 50.000-ton trimmer-truss in- 
 closed in a circular dome-shaped building. Fig. 13. The roof is 
 supported by steel-dome construction and the low vertical sides 
 by retaining bands buried in the coal. Storing is accomplished 
 by the use of the usual trimmer-conveyor with movable bottom, 
 the only drop being for the first coal deposited until this makes 
 
 Fig. 13. Covered storage plant. 
 
 a pile reaching to the point of trimmer entrance into the build- 
 ing. Reloading is accomplished by the use of a tunnel-conveyor 
 extending to the center of the building, into which the coal tribu- 
 tary by gravity is admitted by valves in the roof of the tunnel. 
 When all the coal thus available has been removed, a reloader, 
 pivoted at the center of the building, has been uncovered and 
 this delivers the balance of the contents to the tunnel conveyor. 
 All the coal is elevated by this to a loading tower, where rescreen- 
 ing can be properly accomplished. 
 
 The cost of this plant, which comprises two such buildings, was 
 about $3 per ton of capacity. Except for the breakage in un- 
 loading Vessels the stocking breakage .should but little exceed that 
 of a standard Dodge plant, while the reloading breakage would 
 be somewhat greater by reason of the drop into the tunnel con- 
 veyor, the necessity of drawing the first of the coal under pressure, 
 and the double handling by reloader and tunnel of part of the coal. 
 
 The plant, being all of metal, js practically fireproof, the main 
 disadvantage being the lack of flexibility. Only one size of coal 
 can of course be .stored in each building, and any size stored 
 must be entirely reloaded before the building is available for a 
 different size. 
 
 A covered plant of 100,000 tons' capacity, built at Wende, near 
 Buffalo, by the Lehigh Valley Coal Co., in 1906, Fig. 14, has also 
 some unique features. The building is 480 ft. long by 250 ft. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 353 
 
 wide. The front and rear walls, 20 ft. high, are braced by a 
 retaining band, and the end walls and two partitions are secured 
 by tie-rods from double lines of piles. The curved roof is sup- 
 ported by steel trusses, the lower members of which are on the 
 angle of repose of piled coal. 
 
 Each of the three pockets is provided with a central trimmer 
 conveyor for stocking, and a central tunnel conveyor with valves 
 on 14-ft. centers for reloading. The tunnel conveyors carry the 
 coal each to its own reloading tower provided with proper screen- 
 ing facilities, and the coal which is not tributary by gravity to 
 the tunnels is brought to them by dock-scrapers. 
 
 The driving is done by rope from a centr-ally-located engine. 
 
 Sbkufet ConTeror' 
 
 Beloadiog Conveyor i 
 
 ELEVATION 
 
 Fig. 14. ' Wende storage plant, Lehigh Valley Coal Co., Buffalo, 
 N. Y. Plan and cross section. 
 
 The cost of the plant approximated $2.25 per ton of capacity, and 
 the operating expense is said to be moderate. Breakage should 
 approximate that of the plant previously described, over which 
 this plant appears to have the advantages of lower first cost, 
 greater handling capacity, less area occupied, and provision for 
 three sizes of coal. 
 
 In general, it appears that mechanical storage has distinct ad- 
 vantages over non-mechanical, and the Dodge type with its modi- 
 fications is best suited to extensive storage plants, and the travel- 
 ing tramway to smaller plants and to secondary wholesalers' in- 
 stallations. All the non-mechanical plants involve such serious 
 breakage in stocking as to warrant the greater first cost of the 
 mechanical types. 
 
354 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Labor Costs of Handling Coal and Ashes at Locomotive Coal- 
 ing Stations. According to H. J. Edsall, who gives Tables XI and 
 XII in Engineering News, Sept. 8, 1910, labor costs from 2 cts. 
 
 TABLE XI. LABOR COSTS FOR HANDLING COAL AT LOCO- 
 MOTIVE COALING STATIONS 
 
 Station No. 1. Av. No. locomotives per day, 120 
 
 Men employed Cost per day 
 
 1 foreman, $55 per month $1.80 
 
 5 men to unload cars 10 hrs. per day 7.00 
 
 2 coal dumpers, 12 hrs. per day 2.80 
 
 Total $11.60 
 
 Tons per day 550 
 
 Cost per ton $0,021 
 
 No. 2. 120 locomotives per day. 
 
 1 machinery man 10 hrs. per day $1.50 
 
 5 men to unload cars 12 hrs. per day 6.50 
 
 2 coal dumpers, 12 hrs. per day 2.60 
 
 Tatal $10.60 
 
 Tons per day 550 
 
 Cost per ton $0,019 
 
 No. 3, 76 locomotives per day. 
 
 % foreman's time at $66 per month $1.10 
 
 1 machinery man at $55 per month 1.80 
 
 3 men to unload cars 10 hrs. per day 4.50 
 
 2 coal dumpers, 11 hrs. per day 3.30 
 
 Total $10.70 
 
 Tons per day '. 500 
 
 Cost per ton $0,021 
 
 No. 4 * 
 
 % foreman's time at $66 per month $1.10 
 
 1 engineer at $55 per month 1.80 
 
 % fireman's tnne, 11 hrs. per day 0,83 
 
 2 machinery men, 11 hrs. per day 3.30 
 
 3 men to unload cars 4.95 
 
 2 coal dumpers 3.30 
 
 Total $15.28 
 
 Tons per day 625 
 
 Cost per ton $0,024 
 
 ♦ Wages estimated from those paid at previous stations. 
 
 TABLE XII. LABOR COSTS FOR HANDLING ASHES AT 
 LOCOMOTIVE COALING STATIONS 
 
 No. 1 :* Cost 
 
 Amt. ashes assumed at 40 cu. Men employed per day 
 
 ft. per loco. Wages assumed. 5 day and 5 night men to 
 Av. No. locomotives per day, 60. operate mach'y, feed 
 
 ashes to same and 
 clean fire boxes $15.00 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 355 
 
 No. 2 :t % of foreman's time at 
 
 Assumed that three 25-ton coal $66 per month 1.10 
 
 cars = 120 cu. yds. Locomo- 1 day and 1 night man 
 tives per day, 75. to operate gates of ash 
 
 hoppers 3.30 
 
 $4.40 
 6 day and 6 night fire 
 box cleaners, 11 hrs. 
 per day $19.80 
 
 $24.20 
 
 No. 3 :t Average cu. yds. per day 120 
 
 Assumed that six 25-ton coal Cost pits to pockets per 
 
 cars = 240 cu. yds. cu. yd $0,037 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. includ- 
 ing cleaning fire boxes $0,202 
 y. of foreman's time at 
 
 $66 per month $1.10 
 
 1 day and 1 night ma- 
 chinery man 3.30 
 
 1 day and 1 night man 
 to operate gates of 
 hoppers 3.30 
 
 $7.70 
 10 day and 10 night fire 
 
 box cleaners 33.00 
 
 $40.70 
 Average cu. yds. per day 240 
 ♦ Cost pits to pockets, per 
 
 cu. yd $0,032 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. includ- 
 ing cleaning fire boxes $0,169 
 
 ♦ At Station No. 1, ashes are deposited in pits about 50 ft. long and 
 scraped to either of two conveyors. Machinery operated 1^/^ to 3 
 hrs. per day, usually only morning and evening. Average cu. yds. 
 per day 88. 
 
 t At Stations No. 2 and No. 3, ashes are deposited in hopper and 
 fed directly to conveyors, which have to be operated each time the 
 hoppers become filled up. 
 
 to 2Y2 cts. per ton for coal, and from 1% cts. to 2 cts. per cu. yd. 
 for ashes. 
 
 Cost of operation and maintenance of gravity-discharge ele- 
 vators handling coal at locomotive coaling stations : 
 
 Operation, 
 cost per 
 Station. No. tons handled ton 
 
 No. 1. 16,704 tons per mo. (av. of 
 
 12 mos.) $0.0206 
 
 No. 2. 27.313 tons in one year, end- 
 ing Sept. 30, 1908 
 
 No. 3. 37.102 tons, 1906 0367 
 
 46,283 tons, 1907 0319 
 
 49,325 tons, 1908 0367 
 
 No. 4. 12.711 tons, 1906 0299 
 
 13,934 tons, 1907 0323 
 
 11,542 tons, 1908 0352 
 
 No. 5. 10.910 tons. 1906 0260 
 
 13,970 tons, 1907 0241 
 
 9,416 tons, 1908 0246 
 
 Mainte- 
 
 Opera- 
 
 nance, 
 
 tion and 
 
 cost per 
 
 maint.. cost 
 
 ton 
 
 per ton 
 
 $0.0080 
 
 $0.0286 
 
 .0005 
 
 
 .0048 
 
 .0415 
 
 .0010 
 
 .0329 
 
 .00006 
 
 .03676 
 
 .0002 
 
 .0301 
 
 .0017 
 
 .0340 
 
 .0009 
 
 .0361 
 
 .0000 
 
 .0260 
 
 .0003 
 
 .0244 
 
 .0005 
 
 .0251 
 
356 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Estimated operating costs for a large locomotive coaling station 
 for handling 750 tons of coal per day by means of two gravity 
 discharge elevator conveyors are as follows : 
 
 Cost per 
 day 
 
 % of foreman's time, at $66 per mo $1.10 
 
 4 men to unload cars, 15c. per hr. 10 hrs. per day 6.00 
 
 1 day and 1 night coal dumper (to tenders) 15 cts. per 
 
 hr., 11 hrs. per day 3.30 
 
 $10.40 
 Cost per ton, cts $0^15 
 
 Items pertaining directly to this system: 
 
 1 man to run coal conveyors, $55 per month each 1.80 
 
 15 h.p. for 10 hrs. at 2 cts. per h.p.-hr 3.00 
 
 Supplies 50 
 
 $15.70 
 Cost per ton, cts $0,025 
 
 For handling 250 cu. yds. of ashes per day by means of two 
 pivoted bucket carriers the costs are as follows : 
 
 Cost per 
 day 
 
 % of foreman's time at $66 per mo $1.10 
 
 6 men to scrape and feed ashes to conveyors, 15 cts. per 
 
 hr., 10 hrs. per day 9.00 
 
 $10.10 
 
 Cost per ton, cts $0.04 
 
 Items pertaining directly to this system : 
 
 1 day and 1 night man to run ashes to conveyors, $55 per 
 
 month each $3.60 
 
 Cost of 2 h.p. for 10 hrs. at 2 cts. per h.p.-hr 40 
 
 Cost of supplies • ,60 
 
 $14.70 
 Cost per ton, cts $0,059 
 
 TABT.-R XTII. OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS OP 
 SEVERAL LOCOMOTIVE COALING STATIONS FOR ONE 
 YEAR 
 
 Type 
 
 H 
 
 Bucket elevator 130,850 
 
 Inclined belt conveyor. . 62,899 
 
 Bucket elevator 43,321 
 
 Bucket elevator 183,410 
 
 Inclined belt conveyor. , 47,109 
 •Trestle 110,138 
 
 • Trestle 276,397 
 
 * Trestle 61,570 
 
 * Locomotive places cars, 
 t No record kept of repairs. 
 
 "« ^ 
 
 
 'd 
 
 g| 
 
 
 c c 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 ciO 
 
 <v 
 
 aJ G 
 
 
 
 tuo 
 
 
 ■M ^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 •g 
 
 
 Eg, 
 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 -J 
 
 tl 
 
 
 B^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ¥ 
 
 
 |8 
 
 li 
 
 31 
 
 a; 
 
 m 
 
 J 
 
 fc 
 
 h 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.71 
 
 3.36 
 
 0.63 
 
 4.91 
 
 2.36 
 
 0.70 
 
 5.81 
 
 0.79 
 
 9.66 
 
 0.74 
 
 1.05 
 
 2.30 
 
 0.87 
 
 4.96 
 
 1.32 
 
 0.69 
 
 2.47 
 
 0.30 
 
 4.78 
 
 3.09 
 
 0.71 
 
 5.25 
 
 0.67 
 
 9.72 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 0.74 
 
 4.21 
 
 
 4.95 
 
 0.74 
 
 3.05 
 
 
 3.79 
 
 t 
 
 1.30 
 
 3.34 
 
 
 4.64 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 357 
 
 >, "* o 1-1 o c<i t^ la 
 
 rH 00O00S!it>U5cn 
 >, IrtOt-T-HOO 
 2 "5 oTo^WS 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 IrtOlftOCO 
 
 OC'OM 
 
 (MU5 
 
 oo 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 t-00 
 
 •oo 
 
 t-i-i 
 
 OS 
 
 rH 
 €«- 
 
 T-l 
 
 00 00 (M 
 
 1-1 e«o- T-i 
 
 ot-«o 
 
 T-l 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 IT] 
 
 .^m- 
 
 t- irt -<*' o as o a> 
 
 iH -M M O -* 7-1 ^ 
 
 t- 1~« oco rq 
 
 o 
 
 
 TfcSoooo 
 
 tHtHt-IOO 
 
 wow 
 
 00 
 
 0-* 
 
 oo-*oo 
 
 LOOOOO 
 
 «omoo 
 
 j5 M 01 
 
 tSBo 
 
 OJ > -^ 
 
 oS o' 
 
 o 
 
 c c c c 
 o o o o 
 
 2.215 
 !:: <u o 
 
 C!3 •« S- 01 
 „ '-" TO 
 
 C^ coo; 
 
 5 s^ « X -5 "i^ 
 
 ^ C »2 rt'^'^ 
 
 ^5c a 
 
 O 3 O 'I' 
 
 o ^ (u a 
 
 d 3 3 
 
 2i JfcM 
 
 
 
 bfl o '^ 5^ .2 
 
 .S 7 be S" > 
 5 .5 t- -M M 
 
 C5 01 
 (MW 
 
 CiOO 
 
 oS.S.q5ia 
 
 a-c 
 
 i2XJ,Q oS- 
 rt d aS o ? 
 
 C 
 m O) 
 
 O) <B C 
 
 ^.£a 
 
 be 
 
 ghc-C- 
 
 oji-^ o 
 '^ 3 a; "3 
 +j a'c u 
 
 o c cc 
 u o o o 
 
 o ^ ^ ^1 
 
 .r- Ol (P O) 
 
 ^a-aa 
 
 a; K cr K 
 ao c c 
 
 O o o o 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 OJ > 
 
 o o 
 
 ^ to 
 ceo 
 
 i^ 
 
 !^ 
 
 
358 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 
 eo^in 
 
 as 
 
 
 
 
 cd 
 
 li4 
 
 111!' 
 
 M rH 
 
 00 
 
 eoeco 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 cq 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 NCOCO 
 
 co-^d 
 
 00 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 s-i 
 
 
 
 r-t-irt 
 
 03 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 O -^ 
 
 O 
 00 
 
 r-icdd 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 •»-> 
 
 
 
 IM 
 
 
 
 
 ,C 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 , 
 
 
 OO^IO 
 
 t- 
 
 
 <M 
 
 g 
 
 § 
 
 -d 
 
 
 : '^ 
 
 
 i-ic<id 
 
 ■rj< 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 < 
 
 
 tH CC 
 
 t- 
 
 CJCOt-I 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 1 
 a; 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 H 
 
 to r-( 
 
 to 
 
 * 
 
 C^rMi-i 
 * « 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 t 
 
 ■euBJO 
 
 ■>*| eo 
 
 Ift 
 
 r-lfod 
 
 \a 
 
 
 ra 
 
 ^AI:^ouIo^o'l 
 
 <M 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 rt 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 r-ooj 
 
 «o 
 
 
 -M 
 
 1— 1 
 
 
 iH U5 
 
 M 
 
 c^t-^d 
 
 d 
 
 
 c 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 LO 
 
 00 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 rt 
 
 § 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 t-,HCO 
 
 iH 
 
 
 ft 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 la 
 
 *i (D-d . 
 
 rH "5 
 
 CO 
 
 « 
 
 oi 
 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 tH O 
 
 ^6 Is- 
 
 
 
 t^iooo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 g- 
 
 ec tH 
 
 -* 
 
 r-icod 
 
 d 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 S rt 
 
 fao-t: o '^ 
 
 
 to 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 ^•3 
 
 K* 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 r/T M 
 
 
 
 eoooiH 
 
 <M 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 Oi r-l 
 
 «o 
 
 cvicqd 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ■3 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 00 «o-^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 M i > >. 
 
 T-l t- 
 
 o 
 
 dcod 
 
 tp 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 '3 
 pq 
 
 ;— <p (1) Q OC 
 
 tH 
 
 
 ♦ * 
 
 M T-l so 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 tH <M 
 
 o 
 
 r-idd 
 « « 
 
 C-^ 
 
 
 •M 
 
 111 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 T-l 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 IOtHIO 
 
 dcod 
 
 Tl< 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 o 
 
 -^ ^ 
 
 f 
 
 
 t-«DCvl 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 X 
 
 u 
 
 §c^^^^ 
 
 •J- tH 
 
 tH 
 
 r-idc<i 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 ^2a^ g . 
 
 w^ Sii bjoK 3^ 
 
 "1 « 
 
 • lO 
 
 CO 
 
 oeoin 
 
 r-ii-id 
 
 00 
 
 c<i 
 
 
 i'i 
 
 ^ 
 
 >> 
 
 
 CO 
 
 * i-i» 
 
 tH 
 
 
 OS Q, 
 
 
 -0 
 o 
 
 Sft ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 00COU5 
 
 CO 
 
 
 6-0 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 ■S :S : 
 
 2 ■ 
 
 i : -.5 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 Sh • O • 
 
 ft • 
 
 'p, '^ 
 
 
 <D 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 <y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tC ^4 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 3 • 
 
 tu 
 
 
 t;^ 
 
 
 -M 
 
 
 
 '-' o "^ o 
 
 0) (U 
 
 X c 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 ^ : 
 
 ficftft 
 
 
 o-" 
 
 
 -d 
 
 
 c . 
 
 1glg 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 3 . 
 
 
 
 
 s^n 
 
 oi 
 
 w 
 
 PCQ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 '='>. 
 
 
 -1-3 
 
 « 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 ce t: c rt o 
 
 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 359 
 
 Annual Operating and Maintenance Cost of Several Locomotive 
 Coaling Stations. The following notes are from Engineering News 
 April 16, 1908: 
 
 Data on one month's operation of a Pittsburg locomotive coal- 
 ing plant are as follows : 
 
 Number of engines supplied 766 
 
 Maximum time per engine 5 minutes 
 
 Minimum time 2 " 
 
 Average time 2.86 " 
 
 * Total cost $92.00 
 
 Cost per engine 12 cts. 
 
 Average tons per engine 4 14 
 
 Cost of coaling per ton 2.67 cts. 
 
 Number of tons hoisted during month. 3,606 
 
 Average time per carload 1 hi\ 37 mins. 
 
 Total cost for hoisting $49.50 
 
 Cost per ton 1.37 cts. 
 
 * Cost of hoisting and coaling 4.04 cts. 
 
 * Including labor, repairs, power, and fuel, but not interest on 
 the investment. 
 
 Operating Costs. In Table XV the cost of operating conveyor 
 plants varied from 4 to 8.1 cts. (total cost of handling coal 
 per ton). These costs will usually be lower as the tonnage 
 handled is greater. The following figures are supplementary to 
 Table XV. The average labor costs from 12 stations of railway in 
 the Middle West is 1.4 cts. per ton. A typical record of one 
 pocket near Pittsburg for one month is shown. 
 
 Detailed records of the cost of operating 8 coaling stations and 
 trestles along the lines of large eastern railroads were kept care- 
 fully and give an interesting record. Table XIII shows the type 
 of plant, the number of tons handled during the year, rejjair and 
 operating costs and switching charges. 
 
 This is an interesting table and worthy of considerable study. 
 The two-belt conveyor installations noted were at a disadvantage 
 in handling material at nowhere near the full capacity of the 
 belts, and in each case a new belt was charged up against the 
 , station during the year covered by the data. Wear on convey- 
 ing belts is due principally to the bending of the belt back and 
 forth and the cost of repairs per ton handled by a belt conveyor 
 will be considerably lower where it can be operated at maximum 
 loads. The figures for trestles are misleading, because no labor 
 or material for repairs were charged against them for the year 
 covered by the record. These charges are small for the first 10 
 or 12 years of operation and considerable thereafter. The me- 
 chanically operated stations are unquestionably the most econom- 
 ical in the long run. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Handling Fuel in a Boiler Houise by Hand 
 and by Telpher. Henry J. Edsall published in Power in 1912 the 
 following comparative analysis : 
 
 A comparison of two boiler houses with the same boiler and 
 stoker equipment, and the coal handled mechanically in one case 
 and by hand in the other follows. 
 
360 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Boiler House A. A cross-section of boiler house A is shown 
 in Fig. 15. The boilers are set in two rows, with a low trestle 
 between, on which the coal cars are run in and unloaded, so 
 that the coal is placed directly within reach of the firemen ; no 
 wheeling or second handling is necessary before shoveling it into 
 the stoker hoppers, unless the coal pile under the trestle gets low. 
 
 Fig. 15. Boiler house without conveyor system, ashes removed by 
 means of a telpher. 
 
 In addition to shoveling the coal, there is the additional labor 
 of breaking up the large lumps and, as this is not always prop- 
 erly done, there is more or less grate-bar trouble with the stokers, 
 thus reducing the efficiency of the steam plant as well as the 
 additional cost of maintenance on the stokers. 
 
 Ash Handling. For ash-handling there is a bucket carried by 
 an electrically operated telpher running on an overhead track. 
 The ashes are raked from under the stokers up to the boiler- 
 room floor and then shoveled into the bucket, which takes them 
 out and delivers them into a railroad car. This means consider- 
 able labor and, as there is but little room between the boilers and 
 the coal pile, the men get into each other's way. 
 
 Boilers. There are sixteen 260-h.p. Babcock & Wilcox boilers 
 in this boiler house, and all are equipped with Roney stokers. 
 This makes a total rated capacity of 4160 h.p. At the time the 
 figures were obtained only 10 boilers were in use, the other 6 
 being cleaned and repaired. 
 
 The weekly coal consumption with 10 boilers in service averages 
 about 910 tons, or 91 tons per boiler. Assuming roughly 10% ash, 
 there would be about 91 tons of ashes to be disposed of each 
 week. Table XVI gives the total weekly cost for labor, power 
 and supplies directly connected with coal- and ash-handling. 
 
 In Table XVII the figures for boiler house A are changed to 
 what they would be with 12 boilers in service, thus affording a 
 direct comparison with boiler house B, where there are, as a 
 rule, 12 boilers in use. The only changes are providing a fireman 
 for each additional boiler, both day and night, and a slight in- 
 crease in the power cost. 
 
 Boiler House B. In boiler house B there are fourteen 260-h.p. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 361 
 
 TABLE XVI. BOILER HOUSE A COSTS. COAL TRESTLE AND 
 ASH TELPHER EQUIPMENT 
 
 (Sixteen 260-hp. boilers, ten in service; weekly coal consumption, 
 
 910 long tons). 
 
 No. of Total 
 
 men Preformance of men per week 
 
 1 Telpher operator (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 $14.22 
 
 1 Telpher operator (night) 89 hrs. at 0.18 16. 02 
 
 3 Loading ashes to telpher (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 42.66 
 
 3 Loading ashes to telpher (night) 89 hrs. at 0.18 .... 48.06 
 
 3 Unloading coal from cars (day) 72 hrs. at 0.15.... 32-40 
 
 2 Unloading coal from cars (night) 78 hrs. at 0.14. .. 21. 84 
 
 1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 0.25 . 19. 75 
 
 1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. at 0.25 22. 25 
 
 1 Assistant chief (day) 79 hr.s. at 0. 221/2 17.78 
 
 1 Assistant chief (night) 89 hrs. at 0.22 1^ 20.03 
 
 10 Fireman (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 142.20 
 
 10 Fireman (night) 89 hrs. at 0.18 160.20 
 
 $557.41 
 
 150 hp.-hr. for telpher motor at 3 cts. 4.50 
 
 Supplies for telpher 2.00 
 
 Total per week $563.91 
 
 Babcock & Wilcox boilers, or a total of 3640 h.p. Usually 12 of 
 these boilers are in use at one time, the other two being held 
 for cleaning and repairs. In this boiler room the coal is fed 
 from an overhead bin to the Roney stokers and a conveyor sys- 
 tem handles both the coal and the ashes. The run-of-mine soft 
 coal is unloaded into a track hoi)per underneath the track, then 
 delivered to the crusher by means of an apron feeder, and after 
 passing through the cru.sher a bucket carrier elevates it and 
 distributes it in the overhead bin. The ashes are raked out of 
 
 Fig, 16. Section through boiler house showing conveyor system. 
 
362 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the hoppers and into the lower run of the carrier, which elevates 
 them to an ash pocket from which they are discharged into rail- 
 road cars. Fig. 16 shows a cross-section of the boiler room thus 
 equipped. 
 
 Coal Consumption. The average amount of coal consumed per 
 week with 12 boilers in service is about 12G0 tons, or 105 tons 
 per boiler. This is an increase of about 15% over the amount 
 of coal consumed by the boilers in boiler house A, which means 
 that a greater output of steam is obtained from these boilers, 
 because the coal is properly crushed and is fed continuously to the 
 stokers, resulting in better and more even fires. Figuring 10% 
 ash, as before, about 126 tons of ashes are disposed of. 
 
 Hours and Wages. The hours and wages of the men are given 
 in Table XVII. which shows a total weekly labor cost of $395. 
 The power used for handling coal is figured on the basis of 30 
 tons per hr., which is about the average amount handled. This 
 gives a total of 42 hrs. per week, and taking the average h.p. 
 consumed as 20, gives a total of 840 h.p. -hrs. per week for hand- 
 ling coal. The actual amount of power used in handling ashes 
 is hard to determine, but 660 h.p. -hrs. per week would cover it, 
 making a total of 1500 h.p.-hrs. per week for handling both coal 
 and ashes. 
 
 This gives a total weekly cost of $445 for boiler house B against 
 a cost of $625 for boiler house A, or a saving of $180 per week 
 and $9360 per year. This does not include the cost of main- 
 tenance and the depreciation of the coal- and ash-handling equip- 
 ment or the interest on the investment in either case. 
 
 Overhead Bin and Conveyor System. Since the foregoing figures 
 were obtained, four more boilers have been installed in boiler 
 house A and, as the possible saving increases with a greater num- 
 ber of boilers, the advantages of an overhead bin and conveyor 
 system for handling both coal and ashes are still more strikingly 
 shown when the costs for this boiler house, with twenty boilers, 
 are worked out. 
 
 Such a comparison is shown in Table XVIII. the first part show- 
 ing the costs with the present type of equipment and the second part 
 showing the costs with the overhead bin and conveyor system, 
 the number of boilers in service being assumed as 16, and the 
 wages, etc., being based on the actual figures obtained for the 
 two boiler houses. No men are added for the present type of 
 equipment except the firemen, though with this number of boilers 
 in service there might be more men required for loading ashes 
 to the telphers or for unloading coal from the cars. 
 
 With the overhead bin and conveyor system two day men and 
 two night men are included for handling ashes. Having an effi- 
 cient modern system this number should be ample ; in fact, one 
 man should be able to handle the 10 or 12 tons of ashes on each 
 shift — about one ton per hour. 
 
 The excavating and concrete w^ork for the ash hoppers and 
 tunnels, etc., would make the installation of this system in an 
 old boiler house considerably more expensive than in a boiler house 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 363 
 
 designed especially to suit these conditions. The total cost of 
 installation has, therefore, been assumed as $50,000, including an 
 overhead coal bin with a capacity of 900 tons. 
 
 Cost of Maintenance. Assuming then that a loan of $50,000 
 
 TABLE XVII. COAL AND ASH HANDLING COSTS 
 
 BOILER HOUSE A 
 
 With Present Coal Trestle and 
 Ash Telpher Equipment 
 
 (Twenty 260-hp. boilers, sixteen 
 in service ; weekly coal con- 
 sumption, 1,466 long tons). 
 
 Total 
 per 
 week 
 
 ■ e 16.02 
 
 No. 
 
 of Performance 
 men of men 
 
 1 Telepher operator 
 
 (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 $14.22 
 
 1 Telepher operator 
 
 (night) 89 hrs. at 
 0.18 
 
 3 Loading ashes to tel- 
 pher (day) 79 hrs. 
 at 0.18 
 
 3 Loading ashes to tel- 
 pher (night) 89 hrs. 
 at 0.18 
 
 3 Unloading coal from 
 cars (day) 72 hrs. 
 at 0.15 32.40 
 
 2 Unloading coal from 
 
 cars (night) 78 hrs. 
 
 at 0.14 
 
 1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 
 
 0.25 
 
 1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 
 
 at 0.25 
 
 1 Assistant chief (day) 
 
 79 hr.s. at 0.22 V^ • • • 
 1 Assistant chief 
 
 (night) 89 hrs. at 
 
 0.22 Va 20.03 
 
 16 Firemen (day) 79 hrs. 
 
 at 0.18 227.52 
 
 16 Firemen (night) 89 
 
 hrs. at 0.18 256.32 
 
 42.66 
 
 48.06 
 
 21.84 
 
 19.75 
 
 22.25 
 17.78 
 
 $735.85 
 Weekly cost of power 
 
 for telpher 8.15 
 
 Weekly cost of sup- 
 plies for telpher. ... 3.00 
 
 Total per week. . $750.00 
 
 BOILER HOUSE A 
 
 Equipped with Overhead Bin and 
 Conveyor System for Han- 
 dling Coal and Ashes. 
 (Twenty 260-hp. boilers, sixteen 
 in service ; weekly coal con- 
 sumption, 1,680 long tons). 
 No. Total 
 
 of Performance per 
 
 men of men week 
 
 1 Conveyor operator 
 
 (day) 76 hrs. at 0.30. $22.80 
 
 1 Conveyor operator 
 
 (night) 85 hrs. at 
 
 0.30 25.50 
 
 2 Disposing of ashes 
 
 (day) 76 hrs. at 
 0.161/2 25.08 
 
 2 Disposing of ashes 
 
 (night) 85 hrs. at 
 0.161/2 28.06 
 
 3 Unloading' coal from 
 
 cars (day) 72 hrs. 
 
 at 0.15 32.40 
 
 1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 
 
 0.25 19.75 
 
 1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 
 
 at 0.25 22.25 
 
 1 Assistant chief (day) 
 
 79 hrs. at 0.221/,. . . 17.78 
 1 Assistant chief (night) 
 
 89 hrs. at 0.22 1/2. . . 20.03 
 8 Firemen (day) 79 hrs. 
 
 at 0.18 113.76 
 
 8 Firemen (night) 89 
 
 hrs. at 0.18 128.16 
 
 $455.57 
 
 Weekly cost of power 
 for modern conveyor 
 system 40.00 
 
 Weekly cost of sup- 
 plies for modern 
 conveyor system... 4.43 
 
 Total per week. . $500.00 
 
 is obtained at 5% interest, and that 3% per year will cover the 
 cost of maintenance, the following saving is effected : 
 
 Weekly saving, $750 — $500 = $250 ; yearly saving, $250X52 = 
 $13,000. 
 
 That is, the installation would pay for itself in a little over 6 
 
3G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 years, and each year after this shows a clear saving of several 
 thousand dollars. The 3</f for maintenance should be ample, as 
 much of the installation cost is for foundation work, concrete 
 and steel bins. etc.. which work would be either permanent or re- 
 quire but little for maintenance. Besides, coal and ash convey- 
 
 TABLE XVI II. COST OF COAL AND ASH HANDLING 
 
 BOILER HOUSE A 
 
 Coal Trestle and Ash Telpher 
 
 iilquipnient. 
 Sixteen 260 h.p. boilers, 12 in 
 service, weekly coal consump- 
 tion, 1.09 2 long tons. 
 No. Total 
 
 of Performance per 
 
 men of men week 
 
 1 Telpher operator 
 
 (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18. $14.22 
 
 1 Telpht^r operator 
 
 (night) 89 hrs. at 
 
 0.18 16.02 
 
 3 Loading ashes to tel- 
 pher (day) 79 hrs. 
 at 0.18 14.22 
 
 3 Loading ashes to tel- 
 pher (night) 89 hrs. 
 at 0.18 16.02 
 
 3 Unloading coal from 
 cars (day) 72 hrs. 
 at 0.15 10.80 
 
 2 Unloading coal from 
 
 cars (night) 78 hrs. 
 
 at 0.1 t 10.92 
 
 1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 
 
 0.25 19.75 
 
 1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 
 
 at 0.25 22.25 
 
 1 Assistant chief (day) 
 
 79 hrs. at 0.22i.l>. . . 17.78 
 1 A ssi^-'tant chief (night) 
 
 89 hrs. at 0.22 V>. . . 20.03 
 12 Firemen (dav) 79 hrs. 
 
 at 0.18 14.22 
 
 12 Firemen (night) 89 
 
 hrs. at 0.18 16.02 
 
 $617.89 
 Weekly cost of power 
 
 for telpher 5.11 
 
 Weekly cost of sup- 
 plies for telpher. . . , 2.00 
 
 Total 
 per 
 week 
 
 BOILER HOUSE B 
 
 Overhead Bin and Conveyor 
 Equipment 
 Sixteen 260 h.p. boilers, 12 in 
 sei-vice ; weekly coal consump- 
 tion, 1,260 long tons. 
 No. 
 
 of Performance 
 men of men 
 
 1 Conveyor operator 
 
 (day) 76 hrs. at 0.30. $22.80 
 
 1 Conveyor operator 
 
 (night) 85 hrs. at 
 
 0.30 25.00 
 
 2 Feeding ashes to con- 
 
 veyor (day) 76 hrs. 
 
 at 0.16ii. 25.08 
 
 2 Feeding a.shes to con- 
 
 veyor (night) 85 
 
 hrs. at O.ieyo 28.06 
 
 3 Unloading coal from 
 
 cars (day) 72 hrs. 
 
 at 0.15 32.40 
 
 1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 
 
 0.25 19.75 
 
 1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 
 
 at 0.25 22.25 
 
 1 Assistant (day) 79 
 
 hrs. at 0.22y> 
 
 1 Assistant (night) 89 
 
 hrs. at 0.221/, 
 
 6 Firemen (day)"79 hrs. 
 
 at 0.18 
 
 6 Firemen (night) 89 
 
 hrs. at 0.18 
 
 17.78 
 20.03 
 85.32 
 
 5.12 
 
 Weekly cost of power 
 for conveyor system 
 (1,500 hp.-hrs. at 3 
 cts. per. hr. ) 
 
 Weekly cost of con- 
 veyor system sup- 
 plies 
 
 $395 09 
 
 45.00 
 
 4.91 
 
 Total per week. . $625.00 
 
 Total per week. . $445.00 
 
 ors have reached a point of perfection in design and construction 
 where they will stand up wonderfully well under very severe 
 service, and the handling of both coal and ashes in one carrier 
 is now good engineering practice. 
 
 In fact, a well designed carrier embodying first-class construe- 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 365 
 
 tion throughout should, when handling both coal and ashes, re- 
 quire little or no repairs in the first 4 or 5 years, and after this 
 3% per year would probably cover them, unless the amount 
 handled is unusually large, in which case the cost per ton of 
 material would shov/ to even better advantage. 
 
 Cost of Economic Features of Modern Locomotive Coaling Sta- 
 tions. A committee of the International Railway Fuel Association 
 made a report at an annual convention of that organization on the 
 design, construction, operation and maintenance of modern loco- 
 motive coaling stations, which was abstracted in Engineering and 
 Contracting, 1913. 
 
 The report is based on a set of questions which it prepared 
 and the answers to the questions as received from members of 
 the association. The committee recognize the following seven 
 types of locomotive coaling stations: 
 
 (1) Gravity chute, self-clearing cars, handled up incline by 
 locomotives or gasoline or electric hoist. (2) Balanced buckets, 
 using gasoline, steam or electric power, self-clearing cars, coal 
 dumped into pit and elevated by one to four balanced buckets, 
 holding one to three tons each. (3) Bucket conveyor, type .using 
 gasoline, steam or electric power, self-clearing cars, coal dumped 
 into pit and hoisted to main bin by small buckets on chain or 
 link-belt. (4) Inclined conveyor, rubber or canvas belt; gasoline, 
 steam or electric power, self-clearing cars, coal dumped into pit 
 and conveyed to main hopper on the inclined belt. (5) Locomo- 
 tive crane and clam-shell, gondola flat-bottom cars used, coal 
 handled direct from cars to locomotive tenders. (6) Hydraulic 
 power-hoist loaded railroad cars and dump into main hopper by 
 inverting the cars. (7) Inclined trestle with pockets, shovel coal 
 from cars to pockets, served by locomotive. 
 
 Having in mind the cost of installation, operation, maintenance 
 and depreciation the following recommendations were made by 
 certain members as to the foregoing general types : 
 
 Type 1 is generally favored where there is sufficient room for the 
 construction of the incline approach, but naturally the cost of 
 property in the larger terminals would materially offset any ad- 
 vantage that might be claimed. Eight members favor this type 
 for large stations, handling 10,000 tons or more per month, and 
 where not more than two tracks are to be served. One member 
 recommends that road cars be handled by locomotives. One mem- 
 ber calls particular attention to the advisability of raising the 
 cars high enough that the road cars may be dumped direct into 
 the serving pockets, saving expense of shoveling and breaking of 
 coal. It must not be forgotten that the railroads still retain a 
 large percentage of flat-bottom non-dumping gondolas, from which 
 the coal will continue to be shoveled. Storage of coal v/ith Type 
 1, except such as may be provided through the medium of the 
 pockets and the road cars, is practically prohibitory, due to the 
 additional initial cost. 
 
 Type 2 is recommended by twelve members for locations w)iere 
 the space is restricted and where two or more tracks are to bQ 
 
366 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 served. This type is particularly favored for large stations serv- 
 ing 50 or more locomotives, and, in fact, for any service calling 
 for an issue of 100 or more tons of coal daily. As this type calls 
 for the installation of considerably machinery, due care should 
 be given its permanent location where it will not be disturbed by 
 future improvements. 
 
 Type 3 has been endorsed by 3 members for use at the larger 
 stations where 2 or more tracks are to be used. It is particularly 
 recommended that wherever Types 2 or 3 are used that the plant 
 be provided with a duplicate hoisting arrangement. 
 
 Type 4 has not been mentioned in any of the replies received. 
 
 Type 5 — Seven members have recommended the locomotive 
 crane and clam-shell for the smaller stations, and for temporary 
 use where the larger plant cannot be permanently located. This 
 type is favored as being very flexible in its use in any class of 
 road cars, and its adaptability to many purposes at any point 
 on the railroad. 
 
 Type 6 — No mention was made. 
 
 Type 7 — for smaller stations handling less than 50 tons per 
 day, where the physical conditions would prohibit the use of the 
 more expensive plant, this type has been recommended by three 
 of the members. 
 
 Frame construction is favored for small plants and where they 
 are isolated from other buildings and where first cost is an im- 
 portant element. One reply recommends the use of concrete founda- 
 tions, and another recommends the use of creosoted timbers. 
 Wherever frame is used, ample precautions, such as stand-pipes 
 with hose connections, hand-grenades and fire extinguishers, should 
 be generously provided, and it is thought that possibly the addi- 
 tional expense for fire protection inay, at times, more than offset 
 the increased cost of steel or concrete construction. 
 
 Steel is recommended in preference to frame or concrete where 
 fireproof construction is desirable, and where there is any pos- 
 sibility that the tracks may be altei-ed at some future time, re- 
 quiring the moving of the plant. All steel that comes in contact 
 with the coal should be protected by concrete. 
 
 Concrete is favored where the cost is not prohibitory for use 
 in all mechanical plants that are permanently located. 
 
 A combination of frame, steel and reinforced concrete would 
 appear to be economical and safe for Type 1. Trestle approach to 
 be of creosoted timbers on concrete piers. Framing of supports 
 
 TABLE XIX. COST OF OPERATION 
 
 Type. 1. 2. 4. 7. 
 
 Average tons handled in 24 hrs. summer 130 120 320 110 
 
 Average tons handled in 24 hrs. winter. 170 180 390 145 
 
 Average tons used in 24 hrs. summer. 130 120 320 110 
 
 Average tons used in 24 hrs. winter .''. 170 180 390 145 
 
 Cost of labor per ton, cts 3.4 2.5 3.5 7.79 
 
 Cost of power per ton. cts 0.19 0.28 0.38 
 
 Cost of supplies per ton, cts 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 
 
 Total per ton, cts 3.6 2.8 3.9 7.8 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 367 
 
 under bins, hoppers and general structure to be of steel. Bins 
 and any other parts coming in contact with the coal to be reinforced 
 concrete slabs. The same general method of construction could be 
 used for the other types, omitting the frame approaches. 
 
 As a general rule the storage of surplus coal is not recom- 
 mended, except to overcome temporarily local or general failures 
 of transportation, or mining, or on account of possible car short- 
 age. The general objection being the deterioration of the heat 
 values. One member recommends storing two weeks' supply in 
 winter months and another suggests that there might be condi- 
 tions where it would not be objectionable to store thirty days' 
 supply. Another member recommends keeping a storage supply 
 with the necessary facilities to unload, store and reload on every 
 Division. 
 
 One reply received is so strongly in favor of storing a supply 
 that it is quoted as follows : 
 
 Coal should be stored in summer for winter use for the fol- 
 lowing reasons: (a) To have the equipment which would other- 
 wise be in use in company coal service available for revenue coal 
 service, (b) As the cost of haulage of company coal, as well as 
 all freight, is higher in cold weather than in warm, it is econom- 
 ical to haul as much as possible in warm weather, (c) To give 
 the mine operators every opportunity to sell all commercial coal 
 possible at the period when the highest prices are obtainable, 
 (d) To increase the operator's summer orders with the result 
 that they can hold their miners through the summer, and be 
 ready to put out a large winter tonnage, (e) For economy of 
 purchase, as summer storage coal could usually be purchased 
 at a lower price than coal purchased under a contract with a maxi- 
 mum twice the minimum, and orders even running below the mini- 
 mum in summer. 
 
 It is the general opinion that it is good practice to unload stor- 
 age coal, particularly to relieve cars earning per diem or losing 
 revenue. All parties agree that when coal is stored on the 
 ground, it should be piled on plank-car-siding-ties or other similar 
 material. 
 
 COST DATA 
 
 Believing that the question of cost is the most Important con- 
 sideration in determining the proper type of a modern locomo- 
 tive coaling plant the committee presented in full all the cost 
 data received from members who gave the type of chute used in 
 connection with the costs. Six replies of this character were 
 received and are here quoted : 
 
 A — Two 'balanced tuckets, 350 tons capacity. 
 
 First cost. $22,000. 
 
 Cost of operation, 2 to 8 cts. per ton; average cost 3% cts. per 
 ton. 
 
 Cost of maintenance. 2 cts. per ton. 
 
 Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 5% per annum, 2 cts. 
 per ton. 
 
 Link belt, bucket conveyor, 'WO tons capacity. 
 
 First cost, $37,000. 
 
368 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of operation, 1.7 cts, per ton. 
 
 Cost of maintenance, 1.4 cts. per ton. 
 
 Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation per annum 5%, 1.5 
 cts. per ton. 
 
 Link belt, bucket conveyor^ 150 tons capacity. 
 
 First cost, $9,000. 
 
 Cost of operation, 5.6 cts. per ton. 
 
 Cost of maintenance, 3.0 cts. per ton. 
 
 Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 5% per annum, from 
 1 ct. to 2 cts. per ton. 
 
 Inclined conveyor, belt, 150 and 350 tons capacity. 
 
 First cost, 110.400 and from $13,000 to $23,000. 
 
 Cost of operation, from 1.5 cts. to 8.8 cts. per ton. 
 
 Cost of maintenance, from 0.1 ct. to 0.7 ct. per ton. 
 
 Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 5% per annum, 
 from 1.4 cts. to 3.6 cts. per ton. 
 
 Locomotive crane. 
 
 Average total cost, 20 cts. per ton. 
 
 Inclined trestles with pockets. 
 
 First cost, $4,000 to $12,000. 
 
 Cost of operation, from 1 ct. to 5 cts. per ton. 
 
 Cost of maintenance, average 2 cts. per ton. 
 
 Fixed charges, interest, 5% and depreciation 10% per annum, 
 from 1 ct. to 2 cts. per ton. 
 
 Large balanced buckets, 15 tons capacity, running up vertically 
 and over horizontal track, capacity, 1,500 tons. 
 
 First cost. $64,000. 
 
 Cost of operation. 2 cts. per ton. 
 
 Cost of maintenance, 3 cts. per ton. 
 
 Cost of maintenance, 3 cts. per ton. 
 
 Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 10% per annum, 
 1.6 cts. per ton. 
 
 B. — Bucket conveyor. 
 
 Average tons handled and used July 257 tons 
 
 Average tons handled and used December 542 tons 
 
 Cost of labor, July 2.3 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of labor, December 2.4 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of power, July 1.0 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of power, December 0.9 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of supplies, July 0.59 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of supplies December 0.6 cts. per ton 
 
 Total cost, July 3.89 cts. per ton 
 
 Total cost, December 3.90 cts. per ton 
 
 Locomotive crane and clam shell. 
 
 Average tons handled and used, July 247 tons 
 
 Average tons handled and used, December 356 tons 
 
 Cost of labor, July 4.4 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of labor, December 3.0 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of power, July 0.19 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of power, December r 0.15 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of supplies, July 0.25 cts. per ton 
 
 Cost of supplies, December 0.28 cts. per ton 
 
 Total cost July 4.84 cts. per ton 
 
 Total cost December 3.43 cts per ton 
 
 C — The data given in reply C are shown in Table XIX. 
 
 D — Figures submitted in Table XX, reply D, are for the month 
 of November, 1912. 
 
 E — Type, 300 to 500 tons' capacity. 
 
 Hoists by means of cable running side dump cars up incline 
 at the rate of 45 tons every 15 minutes. 
 
 Total cost on locomotive — 1.5 cts. to 2 cts. per ton. 
 
 F — Inclined gravity chute type. 
 
 Capacity — Summer, 520 tons; winter. 730 tons. 
 
 Cost, not including power for elevation by locomotives nor for 
 supplies — Summer, 1 ct. per ton; winter, 0.9 ct. per ton. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 369 
 
 '% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 O0iX> 
 
 lO 
 
 c<i\a 
 
 COCO 
 
 
 o 
 
 iHO 
 
 0(M 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 OS 
 
 tH-i-( 
 
 
 
 
 T-l 
 
 MO 
 
 O'*' 
 
 
 
 (35 
 
 O 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 ■^ 
 
 iHlrt 
 
 00 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 1-1 CO 
 
 coco 
 
 
 1* 
 
 CO 
 
 coo 
 
 oc- 
 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 lOLO 
 
 • a> 
 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 •00 
 
 
 ■^rJ 
 
 T-{ 
 
 CO 1-1 
 
 .\a 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 :? 
 
 C 
 
 ^ 
 
 t-«£> 
 
 00 (M 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ,_! 
 
 «5a> 
 
 ooo 
 
 
 
 
 ,_4 
 
 wo 
 
 o-* 
 
 E^ 
 
 
 ?o 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 *- 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 \a 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 IrtCO 
 
 1-1 CO 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 to 00 
 
 tHCD 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 iHO 
 
 oco 
 
 O 
 
 
 irt 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 (£> 
 
 \aa> 
 
 T-liH 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 (SiOi 
 
 CIO 
 
 '.2^ 
 
 r-t 
 
 1—1 CO 
 
 0«5 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 X' 
 
 ■(-> 
 
 -* 
 
 cot- 
 
 OS 
 ^00 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 'i* 
 
 
 OO 
 
 o • 
 
 o 
 
 C^IO 
 
 oco 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 < 
 
 
 «> 
 
 5O00 
 
 (rq(M 
 
 c^ 
 
 CO 
 
 05U5 
 
 oos 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 OtH 
 
 
 
 Ti'^ 
 
 "o 
 
 OO 
 
 OO 
 
 CO C^l l« 00 OO 
 
 Bt 
 
 si 
 
 w ■^' 
 
 • o 
 
 (D _^ "O 
 
 (P 
 
 
 
370 MECH4NICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Balanced bucket type. 
 
 Capacity — Summer, 558 tons; winter, 652 tons. 
 Cost, not including- power nor supplies — Summer, 2.6 cts. per 
 ton; winter, l.y cts. per ton. 
 
 Cost of Handling Coal and Ashes by Locomotive Cranes at 
 Eight' Plants. In a paper before the Canadian Society of Civil 
 Engineers in 1908 C. F. Whitton presented a compilation of data 
 regarding the cost of handling locomotive coal and ashes, as 
 developed in the use of various appliances. 
 
 The fixed charges, which comprise interest, depreciation, in- 
 surance, and taxes, have been taken as 10% of the total initial 
 cost of the plant. Maintenance and operating charges vary so 
 widely with local and climatic conditions, that, considering also 
 the short time over which the costs obtained extend, they can 
 hardly be considered exact, and certainly not applicable, except 
 as an indication of general results. Pro I'ata charges are esti- 
 mated as follows : The proportion of the time of yardmaster, 
 clerks, etc., is distributed to the different departments on a labor 
 output basis, and the per cent, added to the cost of handling coal 
 and ashes is the proportion of the above wages based on the ratio 
 which the labor charges for each of these departments bears to 
 the total labor charges of all the departments fit the yard. By sev- 
 eral railroads, this amounts to about 20% of the labor charge for 
 the coal and ash handling plants. 
 
 The cost of coal handling with a locomotive crane was based 
 upon that obtained at the Cleveland yards of the Erie Railroad, 
 and is as follows : 
 
 a. Average number of locomotives fueled per day.. 25 
 
 b. Average tonnage per 12 hrs 168 
 
 c. Maximum actual tonnage per 12 hrs 180 
 
 d. Total tonnage for year 1906 60,500 
 
 The initial cost of the crane was $7,400, and the cost of bucket, 
 pits. etc.. is estimated at $4,600. The handling costs per ton are 
 made up as follows :■ 
 
 Average tons handled per day 166 
 
 Fixed charges, per ton 2 cents 
 
 Operating charges, labor •. 2 
 
 Operating charges, power and supplies 3.5 " 
 
 Maintenance charges 0.3 " 
 
 Pro rata charges 0.4 " 
 
 Total cost per ton 8.2 " 
 
 Other locomotive crane plants show the following costs (p. 371) : 
 The cost of handling ashes does not include any proportion of 
 the fixed charges. 
 
 The actual cost per ton is not so important as a comparison 
 of costs between old and new methods of doing the work. In the 
 case of the Erie plant, at Cleveland, the reduction per ton due 
 to the installation of a locomotive crane was about 12 cts. At 
 this plant there is another crane not in service at present. 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 371 
 
 COAL HANDLING 
 
 Location 
 
 Year . . 1905 
 
 Average tons per day 176 
 
 Fixed cliarges 1.9 
 
 Operating charges . . 4.7 
 Maintenance ciiarges 0.5 
 Pro rata charges . . 0.4 
 
 h:i 
 
 1905 
 116 
 
 1.7 
 6.1 
 0.2 
 0.4 
 
 W 
 1905 
 
 230 
 1.8 
 3.6 
 0.7 
 0.4 
 
 1905 
 153 
 
 1.8 
 5 1 
 0.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 <i> 
 c 
 c 
 o 
 O 
 1905 
 106 
 3.7 
 3.0 
 0.4 
 0.4 
 
 >> 2, 
 
 o 
 xn 
 1905 
 45 
 7.9 
 5.5 
 0.2 
 0.4 
 
 O 
 1906 
 166 
 2.0 
 5.5 
 0.3 
 0.4 
 
 ASH HANDLING 
 
 No. of locomotives 
 cleaned per day . . 
 Cost per locomotive 
 cleaned 4 
 
 20 13 26 17 
 
 12 
 
 22.4 3.3 
 
 5 
 
 4.7 
 
 s 
 
 1906 
 218 
 1.5 
 3.5 
 0.1 
 0.4 
 
 Total charge per ton 7.5 8.4 6.5 7.8 7.5 14.0 8.2 5.5 
 
 19 25 
 
 cts. 
 
 The belt conveyor, as operated in the Cleveland yards of the 
 Pennsylvania Lines West, gave the following results : 
 
 Average number of locomotives fueled per day. . . .50 to 75 
 
 Average tons handled per day (1906) 260 
 
 Maximum tons handled per day on a monthly basis 570 
 
 The original cost of this plant was $13,000, and it is in opera- 
 tion for 10 hours per day. 
 
 The labor connected with this plant includes one engineer In 
 charge of the machinery, and two laborers. 
 
 The handling costs for 1906 are made up as follows: 
 
 Average tons handled per day 258 
 
 Fixed charges 1.4 cts. 
 
 Operating charges 2.8 " 
 
 Maintenance charges (belt renewal) 0.2 " 
 
 Pro rata charges 0.2 " 
 
 Total cost per ton 4.6 " 
 
 In these same yards the ashes are handled by an overhead 
 trolley. The first cost of the pits and the mechanism was about 
 $5,000. During 1906, the number of locomotives handled was 
 upward of 18,000, and the cost per locomotive was as follows: 
 
 Fixed charges 2.4 cts. 
 
 Labor of operating plant 27.5 " 
 
 Cost of power and supplies 1.1 " 
 
 Maintenance . 0.2 " 
 
 Pro rata charges 5.6 " 
 
 Total cost per locomotive cleaned 36.8 " 
 
 For the bucket conveyor the plant of the Lake Shore & Michi- 
 gan Southern at Elyria, Ohio, served as an example. The ca- 
 pacity of the wharf is about 500 tons, and there are four 125-ton 
 pockets. 
 
372 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Power is supplied to one conveyor by a 32-h.p. gasolene engine 
 making 200 revolutions per minute. For the other system power 
 is derived from a 60-h.p. gasolene engine making 160 revolutions 
 per minute. 
 
 Rope transmission is used throughout. 
 
 The plant is operated by an engineer, a fireman, and two 
 laborers. 
 
 The following figures represent the operation of this plant : 
 
 a. Average No. of locomotives fueled per day. . . .60 to 70 
 
 b. Average daily tonnage — summer 300 
 
 c. Total tonnage for year 1906 88,250 
 
 This plant, as originally installed, consisted of the main struc- 
 ture and one conve5^or system, and oost $34,000. Later the second 
 conveyor was installed at an estimated cost of about $15,000, but 
 as one conveyor only is in continuous operation at present, the 
 fixed charges have been estimated for the original cost of $34,000. 
 
 Average No. of tons handled per day 242 
 
 Fixed charges 3.9 cts. 
 
 Operation charges 2.8 " 
 
 Maintenance charges 2.1 " 
 
 Pro rata charges 0.4 " 
 
 Total cost per ton 9.3 " 
 
 The figures obtained from the trestle plant of the Lake Shore & 
 Michigan Southern at Collinv/ood, Ohio, show that it handles from 
 550 tons per day in summer to 900 tons per day in winter, and that 
 the delivery ranges from 5 to 15 tons per engine, with an aver- 
 age of 10. 
 
 The labor force consists of three laborers and a foreman, who 
 also has charge of the ash-pit gang. 
 
 The original cost is estimated at $15,000, and the handling costs 
 for 1906 were as follows: 
 
 Tons per day 635 
 
 Fixed charges 6.7 cts. 
 
 Operating charges 4.1 
 
 Maintenance charges 0.1 " 
 
 Pro rata charges 0.4 " 
 
 Total cost per ton 5.3 " 
 
 In the case of the ashpits at the same locality, their capacity 
 is as follows : 
 
 Average number of locomotives having fires cleaned per day 58 
 
 Total number of locomotives having fires cleaned per year. 21,000 
 
 The cost of handling ashes is estimated as follows: 
 
 Fixed charge 4.8 cts. 
 
 Labor 26.1 " 
 
 Power, supplies, etc 1.2 
 
 Pro rata charge 4.8 
 
 Total cost per Ipcomotive cleaned 35.7 " 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 373 
 
 The locomotive crane has offered a very successful and moder- 
 ately cheap method of handling coal and ashes in locations where 
 the demands are not excessive. Its practical limit is said to be 
 about 70 locomotives a day, as the capacity of the bucket is 
 necessarily below 5 tons, and the number of trips per hour is 
 restricted to about 50. 
 
 It is not as rapid as plants having gravity discharge from 
 storage, but, as the engine is necessarily held over the ashpit 
 for about 40 minutes, this feature is hardly objectionable, as de- 
 lays to engines can be obviated by providing pockets. 
 
 The system proves a very flexible one on account of the di- 
 versity of arrangements possible. One disadvantage of open-air 
 storage in pockets or pits, however, is the liability of the coal 
 and gates to be frozen up in cold weather. With the necessary 
 tracks, pits, and pockets, it will be found that this sort of plant 
 has a considerable first cost. Its operating cost depends upon 
 the work which can be provided at spare times. Its value is great 
 in emergency situations, and at points where, because of impend- 
 ing changes, the construction of a permanent plant is unwise. 
 With a large terminal where a conveyor plant is used, a locomo- 
 tive crane can be very valuable to handle cinders and sand, and 
 also coal ■ during a possible breakdown of the conveyor. Then 
 again not only can it unload direct from flat-bottom cars, handle 
 ashes as well as coal, move to any spot desirable to stop the 
 locomotive, but if superseded by a different system, can be easily 
 moved to another point. These are a few of the points of interest 
 concerning the locomotive crane, but within its proper sphere of 
 capacity, it seems to prove one of the very best now in use. 
 
 Cost of Handling Coal by the Mechanical Plant of the Wabash 
 R. R. at Decatur, III. The following, relating to improvements 
 made by the Wabash R. R. appeared in Engineering Record, Feb- 
 ruary 20, 1909. Mr. Cunningham, chief engineer, gives this cost: 
 The cost of labor, supervision, etc., for operating for a period 
 of 10 hours is $7. To this should be added depreciation charges, 
 interest on the investment and cost of maintenance. The cost of 
 the foundation and concrete receiving hopper was $1..225, and for 
 the superstructure above foundation, $7,550, including the motive 
 power and machinery, making the total $8,775. The interest 
 charge of this investment at 5% would be $438.75. The deprecia- 
 tion should vary according to the length of time the plant is in 
 service, so nothing should be charged for this for the flrst five 
 years, but thereafter a charge of 5% per annum should be made. 
 This means that the life of the plant is assumed to be 25 years. 
 Maintenance charges will vary greatly and will increase as the 
 plant grows older ; 1% per annum should take care of this. As- 
 suming these figures correct, then the cost of operating the plant 
 will be $3,432.50 per year. As they are, on an average, 333 tons 
 of coal per day handled by the plant, the cost for handling coal 
 will be slightly less than 2.9 cts. per ton. 
 
 No charge has been made for switch engine service for trans- 
 ferring coal cars from the storage track to the depressed hopper. 
 
374 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The coaling chute, constructed of timber on concrete foundations, 
 was designed with an elevated pocket that would hold 200 tons 
 of coal, from which the engines could be coaled from ordinary- 
 movable aprons, and was constructed by the Fairbanks-Morse 
 Co. Coal is brought to the chute in bottom-dump cars and is 
 dumped into a concrete hopper beneath the track. From this 
 hopper it is emptied under control of the operator by gravity into 
 hoisting buckets through an orifice in each of the 2 side walls of 
 the concrete hopper. There are 2 of these buckets, each with 
 sufficient capacity for holding a ton of coal, and as 1 bucket is 
 hoisted the other is lowered. The full bucket, on reaching the 
 top, dumps automatically into the receiving bin. The whole plant 
 is operated by an electric motor, controlled by 1 man, but 2 men 
 in addition are necessary to empty the coal from the bottom- 
 dump cars. It requires about 2^^ firs, to fill the bin provided no 
 engines are taking coal during that time. But since engines are 
 continually being coaled, it is necessary to operate the plant about 
 10 hrs., the capacity of the bin being sufficient to take care of the 
 coal required during the other 14 hrs. 
 
 Cost of Erecting a Small Bucket Coal Elevator. The elevator, 
 described by C. L. Samson in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 30, 
 1911, was furnished and erected by contract for $1,280., The cost 
 of fabrication in shop was about $750. The elevator casing came 
 in 10 ft. lengths and weighed about 900 lbs. per section. It was 
 erected section by section by means of gin pole erected on top 
 of coal bunkers. Hoisting was done with double rope block to 
 which was hitched a i/^-ton Yale and Towne triplex chain block 
 operated by hand. Naturally hoisting was intermittent, but con- 
 sidering the shortness of time actually consumed in hoisting, this 
 loss of time did not amount to much. 
 
 As might be expected on a job of this size, the concrete work 
 was quite high. The elevator belt was punched and buckets were 
 attached on the job. There were 87 buckets and three bolts to 
 each bucket. 
 
 The charge in detailed cost statement " Cutting batter off build- 
 ing wall " applies to the wall footing which projected out, pre- 
 venting the elevator casing fitting up to wall. 
 
 The superintendent spent 15 days on the job, but actual work 
 only lasted about 11 days, since there was a 4-days' delay waiting 
 for material. One carpenter and four laborers did the work. The 
 detailed costs were as follows : 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Excavation at 25 cts. per hr $ 4.38 
 
 Making 2 stone drills .50 
 
 Drilling holes for anchors 3.00 
 
 Cutting batter off of wall 4.00 
 
 Forms for concrete at 30 cts 6.60 
 
 Shed for motor, at 30 cts 2.70 
 
 Platform and railing, at 30 cts 2.70 
 
 Concrete work at 25 cts., 7 yds 14.50 
 
 Brickwork, at 25 cts 3.88 
 
 Erection of steelwork 38.12 
 
 Belting and attaching buckets 5.00 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 
 
 375 
 
 Wiring and switchboard 6.60 
 
 Cleaning- up debris 2.00 
 
 Total labor $113.98 
 
 Materials : 
 
 9 bbls. Portland cement $ 14.85 
 
 2% cu. yds. sand 4.00 
 
 h\'z cu. yds. crushed stone 10.66 
 
 450 brick * 1.80 
 
 Total cost of material $ 31.31 
 
 Total cost of erection — superintendence excluded. $145.29 
 
 Comparative Cost of Handling Locomotive Cinders by a Pneu- 
 matic Conveyor and from an Open Side Pit. Engineering and 
 Contracting, Nov. 3, 1909, published data as determined by a 
 14-day test reported to the American Railway Bridge and Build- 
 ing Association, as follows : The track on which the cars were 
 placed for receiving the cinders was on the same level with the 
 engine track, and the cinders were dumped into the iron car below 
 the track as shown in Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 17. Pneumatic cinder conveyor. 
 
 This car was then hauled up the incline by compressed air and 
 automatically dumped the cinders into a gondola or a cinder 
 dump. The incline was made of ordinary T-rails, and the char- 
 acter of the whole construction was such that the maintenance 
 cost was very low. The drainage problem was simple because 
 of the shallowness of the pit under the engine track. 
 
 Results of 14-day tests of this apparatus compared with an 
 open side pit were as follows: 
 
 Pneumatic Open 
 conveyor side pit 
 
 Switch engines 3 424 
 
 8 wheel simple engines 357 85 
 
 10 wheel simple and larger 716 56 
 
 Total 1,076 565 
 
376 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Average per day, 14 days 76.9 40.4 
 
 Number of men employed 12 4 
 
 Wages per day $22.27 $7.44 
 
 Cost per engine (wages) $0.29 $0,184 
 
 Number of cars of cinders loaded 30.75 13.75 
 
 Cu. yds. of cinders handled 1,417.6 207 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. of cinder.s han(Ved $0.22 $0.35 
 
 For each man employed, per day 8.4 5 3 
 
 The engines handled over the pneumatic conveyor were of heavy 
 type, while those handled over the open side pit were largely 
 switch engines and the others of lighter weight. 
 
 Cost of Ash Handling by Vacuum Conveyor in the Turkey Creek 
 pumping station in Kansas City for $6 40 per day was less than by 
 the former hand system, according to the last annual report of the 
 Water Department, according to some notes in the Electrical 
 World. Oct. 31, 1914. which also gives the following particulars-: 
 The plant installed removes ashes from the ash pits in the base- 
 ment to a tank from which they feed by gravity into railway 
 cars. The railroad pays $6 per car for the ashes. The guaran- 
 teed capacity of 250 lbs. per min. was exceeded in test by 20 lbs. 
 Two men remove all ashes, load cars, clean the machine and 
 take general care of the boiler-room basement. Costs of opera- 
 tion during 178 days were $712 for labor and $37.19 for repairs. 
 Against this are receipts for $186 for 31 cars sold, a figure bal- 
 anced by the estimated cost of power for running the machinery 
 3% lirs, per day. By the old method 5 men and a mule would 
 have cost $1,886.80. 
 
 Cost of Operating a Vacuum Ash-Kandling System. C. O. 
 Sandstrom in Power. .July 7. 1914, gives the following: 
 
 Let us assume a plant of four 400 -h p. boilers, three of which 
 are in constant operation at their rated capacities. With a boiler 
 horsepower on 5 lbs. of coal and the ash content of the coal 12%, 
 we would have 
 
 1200 X 5 X 0.12 = 720 lbs. 
 
 of ashes per hour. Assuming the plant has ash hoppers with 
 capacity sufficient for a day's operation, we would have 
 
 720 X 24 
 
 nr 8.64 tons of ashes per day 
 
 2,000 
 
 According to the reported test, seven tons of ashes were handled 
 in an hour. This would require the services of two men to feed 
 the ashes into the pipe — rapid work being necessary to prevent 
 a waste of steam. With two men at 20 cts. an hour and work- 
 ing at the above rate, the labor charge per ton of ashes is 
 
 2 X 20 
 — 5.71 cents 
 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 377 
 
 For a plant of this .size, the apparatus completely installed 
 would probably cost $1,800, say, $1,000 for the tank and $800 for 
 the piping. With 6% interest on an investment of $1,800, this 
 charge against a ton of ashes is 
 
 1,800 X 0.06 X 100 ' 
 
 - 3.42 cents 
 
 ,365 X 8.64 
 
 The depreciation of the a.sh tank is at least 8%. On an unlined 
 tank it would be more, because of the corrosive action of the wet 
 ashes. In either case, the bafile-plate would require frequent re- 
 newal. The depreciation of the a.sh pipe is high — fully 40%. 
 The effect of a.shes striking a bend in the piping while traveling 
 at a high velocity can be appreciated only by those who have 
 had experience with such things. At the above rates the depre- 
 ciation charge per ton of ashes is 
 
 1,000 X 0.08 + 800 X 0.40 
 
 $0,1268 or 12.68 cents 
 
 305 X 8.64 
 Adding the foregoing, we have 
 
 5.29 -h 5.71 + 3.42 + 12.68 = 27.10 cents 
 
 as the cost of handling a ton of ashes. 
 
 To dispel any suspicion that the assumptions made are unwar- 
 ranted, I will say that I had some experience with a vacuum 
 ash-handling system in which the vacuum was maintained by a 
 so called " positive blower " which was driven by a back-geared 
 50-h.p. motor. The average life of the manganese-steel wearing 
 backs (2V2 ins. thick) at the bends was 11 days. These wearing 
 backs were replaced by plugged tees, but the power required to 
 operate was such that the 50- was replaced by a 75-h.p. motor. 
 The cost of handling a ton of ashes at this plant was 26 cts., 
 exclusive of fixed charges. The system was abandoned for a mine 
 car and skip hoist. 
 
 Gebhardt's " Steam Power-Plant Engineering " def-;cribes a vac- 
 uum ash-handling system like the one just referred to. It winds 
 up with the statement that " the cost of handling the ashes in 
 this installation is approximately 7 cts. per ton." Now, anyone 
 working up the data given will find that the 7 cts. would no more 
 than cover the cost of power, and does not include labor, main- 
 tenance or fixed charges. 
 
 W. W. Ricker in Power, Sept. 15, 1914, states that a conveyor 
 having 7 tons' capacity per hr. would require a motor of from 15 
 to 30 h.p., never exceeding the latter unless of great length or 
 having an unusual number of turns. The cost of electrical power 
 varies with the locality and the conditions, but 5 cts. per ton is 
 a fair average figure. 
 
 One man can easily feed 7 tons of ashes an hour to a conveyor 
 under ordinary conditions. In many cases, the hoppers are under 
 
378 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the stoker hoppers, thus minimizing this labor. In most plants 
 as small as the one under consideration, no extra labor is required 
 as the regular fireman feeds the ashes to the conveyor, working 
 a few minutes at a time at intervals during the day. One-half 
 of Mr. Sandstrom's figure, or 2.8 cts. per ton, is ample. 
 
 In estimating the cost of complete installation, Mr. Sandstrom 
 omits the motor and exhauster, which is more than fair to the 
 conveyor manufacturer. A conveyor for such a plant as he de- 
 scribes would cost not less than $3,500, and with a large tank, 
 under some conditions, might reach $4,500, including trenches, 
 floor, plates, etc. Assuming as an average $4,000, the interest 
 amounts to 7.6 cts. per ton. 
 
 Depreciation is the cost item which depends most largely upon 
 the proper design, care and operation of a conveyor. Mr. Sand- 
 strom's figure shows a depreciation of $400 per annum in the 
 plant. I am familiar with a conveyor, built about eight years ago. 
 where the repairs cost less than $15 per year. The motor is 25 
 h.p. and the amount of ashes handled considerably exceeds 8. 64 
 tons per day. The tank, although unlined, has never been re- 
 paired, but is painted occasionally. 
 
 Another conveyor, in operation over four years, removes the 
 ashes from ten 500-h.p. boilers ; it has a 30-h.p. motor. The re- 
 pairs, according to the user, have cost considerably less than $25 
 per annum. The conveyor has never been out of commission, 
 and the engineer has since specified another conveyor which has 
 been installed and is operating successfully. 
 
 A large conveyor, of 18 tons' capacity per hr., has been in 
 operation for more than four years, handling from 40 to 50 tons 
 per day at an annual cost for repairs of less than $50. This 
 shows a cost under ^^ ct. per ton of ashes handled. 
 
 A study of the records of a large number of plants shows that 
 repairs vary from $10 to $300 per annum; cost of plants, from 
 $3,500 to $10,000; ashes handled per year, from 3,000 to 20.000 tons. 
 It is interesting to note that the highest repairs cost is frequently 
 in smaller plants, probably because, where the amount of ashes 
 is large, the removal is of sufficient importance to secure super- 
 vision of the conveyor. 
 
 In arriving at the cost of repairs, records from many plants 
 show that $150 per annum is more than liberal for a plant of the 
 size and capacity mentioned by Mr. Sandstrom. This amounts to 
 4.7 cts. per ton handled. The total cost as taken from the rec- 
 ords of many plants, is as follows: Power, 5 cts.; interest, 76 
 cts.; labor, 2.8 cts.; depreciation, 4.7 cts.; cost per ton, 20.1 cts. 
 
 It is not my purpose to establish a fixed price per ton for ashes 
 handled, as this will vary through wide limits with varying con- 
 ditions?. A cost of 25 cts. per ton for taking a.shes hot from the 
 pits and placing them quenched in cars or carts outside the boiler 
 room is not excessive where the total amount is small. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 STEAM POWER 
 
 Definitions and Principles. The reader who is not familiar with 
 the technical terms relating- to power will do well to read pages 
 62 to 70 and pages 486 to 488. 
 
 Economic Value of Furnace Efficiency. Joseph Harrington gave 
 Table I and Figs. 1-5 in a paper read before the Western Society 
 of Engineers in Chicago. 
 
 The true boiler efficiency is not greatly affected by difference in 
 the rate of heat absorption, but is controlled by ability to absorb 
 heat, while furnace efficiency is affected by considerations of cleanli- 
 ness. Under standard conditions of cleanliness the ability of a 
 tube to transmit heat is practically invariable. Table I 
 shows a number of heat balances which indicate a fairly constant 
 boiler efficiency at a fair range of rating, the grate and furnace 
 
 ^^/^ 
 
 ^.700 
 
 •^600 
 
 J 500 
 S 
 O400 
 
 ^ 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 lOOONHOO 1200 
 Capacity of Boiler in Honsepower 
 
 Fig. 1. Relation between boiler capacity and flue gas temperature. 
 
 efficiency being subject to an appreciable variation. For correct 
 figures the analysis mu.^it be on the basis of heat contained in the 
 fuel as fired, rather than upon either dry coal or combustible, an3 
 since the moisture contained in the coal has an influence on the 
 efficiency of the entire process it must be taken into consideration. 
 
 The Middle Western coals may contain as high as 15% of 
 moisture, lignites from 25 to 40% in which case an appreciable por- 
 tion of the total heat value of the coal is used in evaporating this 
 moisture. While Eastern coals show a closer relation between the 
 actual and dry analyses, boiler tests with these coals must be 
 analyzed on a basis of coal as fired. 
 
 Fig. 2 is plotted on the assumption that the net amount of heat 
 in a pound of fuel is the difference between the percentage of 
 moisture and 100, disregarding the ash for the time being, or con- 
 
 379 
 
380 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 m 
 
 !:) 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 hJ 
 
 O 
 
 <5 
 
 (0 
 
 n 
 
 
 O 
 
 ^ 
 
 O 
 
 be 
 «1 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 k; 
 
 o 
 
 1:3 
 
 n 
 
 0. 
 
 3 
 
 « 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 fr 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 <J 
 
 m 
 
 ij| 
 
 03 
 
 <JJ 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 "-H 
 
 H 
 
 bj 
 
 <i 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 H 
 
 *- 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 m 
 
 "C {, 
 
 <) 
 
 <v m 
 
 E^ 
 
 |l 
 
 
 ^ ;>. 
 
 
 ^x^ 
 
 Aouoioiiyi 
 
 lOoc a. 
 
 ' C-l O Ci 
 
 • t> «0 t~ t^ t- t- I- t£> t~ t^ 
 
 ^OUaiOiye f^ cr^ «^i ^l ^i cr. t- o^ eg (^q oj Oi 
 
 **^U'-'a. 00 00 00 OO 00 00 00 00 OO OO OO 00 
 8S'B>|'Bai lOOT-lOit-Tj^r-KrHCg-^OCO 
 
 rtj; 8AOqH fo^ocDoo-:t<t^o5iMOOf- 
 S9ST3S -ClUiaj A'a ^^SIoS^^'^°^^^-"1 
 
 CO (>. "^ "^ Tt* CO 
 
 aiaiaiooa-^ajOicsasooasOi 
 eoc^coooccoi 
 
 00O'*'00Tf(j5 
 
 J8IlOq (Mr^COOOOOi 
 
 aoj aiqBn^Av s^'rH'r-Tor-To- ; 
 
 saapuio 
 
 OoOOOOOOU5«Dt-f-t- 
 050i^<^CTi'350'*iOi— It— li— I 
 C^4 ,_, (M (M <M (M ^ • 
 
 OO' 
 
 OOrHOO O 
 
 JIB ssaoxg 
 
 qiuo'o 
 ^ouaioyja 
 
 00O5C<]COIX>C-?O^t-U5-*M 
 
 CT5U5(MI>-O5-^O5Cr>LO«D00U5 
 
 T-iocoinc-oscoofOi-iini-* 
 
 00 -rt" 00 U5 ■* Lffl 
 
 'cgooNrreo 
 
 ?O0O00 00 00tH 
 
 r-H£i OO IC US 00 
 
 :>iun joi 00 -:*< Tt^ oi t- <x> 
 aiqeiiBA'vrf^-Srr:L". 
 
 •duia; o; dn lo «. oo t- ^ t- 
 S9SBS^apAaSS;^SS? 
 
 pUB 8Jn;siOJ\l en lo -tt^ CM r- 00 
 
 00 -^ Tj< -^ ■* TtH 
 
 00 C- 00 00 t^ c- 
 
 ^OOOi t^ tHCC 
 
 ip>TP AA ootoooinr^o 
 OS 00 a> 00 00 00 
 
 t- (M 00 Oi O Cv) 
 
 niinnrl <^30i0ooc-^c 
 
 pUllUU OOrHCOCOSO 
 '^ 1- 3 rj^oo'V 00*00 oo' 
 
 ^S8J^ rHCvqo5'!*<US«Dr-icvlWTj''us'?D 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 381 
 
 sidering- the ash percentage as constant. For instance, wet coal 
 containing 20% of moisture would contain only 80% of combustible. 
 Lig-nite coals containing 35% of moisture represent 9350 B. t. u. 
 instead of 15,000 if the coal contained no moisture. 
 
 Experiment has shown that a moisture content of 25% is about 
 the limit of practical usefulness with the ordinary furnaces in 
 
 Coal 
 
 Work 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -"— 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •S'llZpOO 
 
 
 
 ^'"**> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "l 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 i.|iqooo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ll 8,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "*^ 
 
 v.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 >N^^^ 
 
 ^1 6,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 5 10 15 20 25 ZO 35 40 45 50 
 Por Cent. Morsfure in Coaf 
 
 Effect of moisture in coal on available heat. 
 
 commercial service. In excess of this lignites require a specially 
 designed furnace. 
 
 For Western coal a gas analysis of 13% of CO2 is about the limit 
 of economic operation, because when it is carried much beyond 
 this point, CO will develop and furnace efRciency on this account 
 
 \yjK) 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~" 
 
 
 1 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 ~~" 
 
 — 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ._. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 •>«, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G95 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *>N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «> 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 "V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 •v. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «», 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "V, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P85 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 +• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *«, 
 
 ,^80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (D 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n -TC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 100 150 200 250 ZOO 
 
 Per Cent. Excess Air 
 
 Fig. 3. Relation between furnace efRciency and excess air. 
 
 will not increase, the loss due to imperfect combustion being greater 
 than the gain effected by reducing the excess air. A study of these 
 effects is given in Figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 3 has been carried to the 
 ordinary extent of dilution, and illustrates the result of a leaky 
 fuel bed or porous setting. 
 
 Mr, Harrington says that from his experience it is most im- 
 
382 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 portant to keep the CO in furnace gases down to a minimum and 
 when this gas appears he stops the reduction of air supply even 
 though the mixing ability of the furnace is deficient. 
 
 The deductions from Mr. Harrington's mathematics showing the 
 
 >.I00 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 ^90 
 
 !§ 80 
 
 u 70 
 
 2 60 
 o 
 
 c 50 
 
 V. 
 
 1^40 
 Ol 
 
 ^ 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^c 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 ">^-'c ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -«, 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 . <?^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 g.-.. 
 
 -, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H25 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ^sN 
 
 ^&N- 17^1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 .200 
 
 200 
 
 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 
 Per Cent. Excess Air 
 
 Fij 
 
 4. Effect of excess air on furnace efficiency at different steam 
 pressures. 
 
 method of determining the excess air and CO curves, are to the 
 effect that each 100% of excess air affects the efficiency 5.62%, 
 and that 1% of CO reduces furnace efficiency by 31/3%,. Ultimately 
 the efficiency would be zero when the per cent, of CO reached 30, 
 assuming that such a condition were possible. 
 
 I99 
 
 £ 98 
 ^ 96 
 
 \J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t: 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Q^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 (£9. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 Q25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 175 dJOQ 2.25 
 Per Cent. CO ^<"«^ 
 
 Fig. 5. Relation between furnace efficiency and loss from CO. 
 
 Relation between the Cost of Power and Load Factor for Steam 
 Turbine Plants of 25,000 kw. Capacity and Larger. In a paper be- 
 fore the A. I. E. E. at the 30th Annual Convention, H. G. Stott 
 and W. S. Gorsuch presented Fig. 6. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 383 
 
 The authors state that in a first class steam plant using coal 
 as fuel the cost per kw.-hr. net output varies approximately as the 
 inverse 4th root of the load factor, this law holding between 15% 
 and 90% load factors and being applicable to individual plants. 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 ;i_6 
 
 ^.5 
 
 04 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \: 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^'-v. 
 
 fe 
 
 !^ 
 
 J-co, 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " — ■ 
 
 
 £g KJLOw 
 
 F^ 
 
 „ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OFP 
 
 >1RS, 
 
 VATE 
 
 R.OiU.SUF 
 
 pi 
 
 i ETC 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ^i 
 
 ABOBU._^= 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FUEL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 ce i 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 pROt 
 
 — hr" 
 
 _PRO 
 
 )UCT 
 
 ON REPAI 
 
 R§— 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 OCT 
 
 ON P 
 
 1— =^ 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r<^ 
 
 s=^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 
 
 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 
 
 Fig. 6. Diagram showing the cost of power in its relation to load 
 factor for steam turbine plants of 25,000 kw. capacity and larger. 
 (14,000 B.t.u. per lb. of coal costing $3.00 per ton. 
 
 In the diagram the full line curves are, for a steam plant operat- 
 ing at normal rating. The cost of equipment and building is taken 
 at $75 and land at $6 per kw. economical rating. The dotted lines 
 show the charges for a plant operating at the maximum 2-hour 
 overload rating of the prime mover. Here the cost of equipment 
 
384 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and building is reduced to $G0 and the land to $4.80 per kw. In 
 each case the following allowances are made : Taxes 1% ; interest, 
 5%; insurance 1%; amortization fund 3.5%; total investment charge 
 of 10.5%. 
 
 The lower dotted curve shows the cost of production plus produc- 
 tion repairs during the maximum hour periods when operating at 
 maximum overload rating of 25% above economical rating. This 
 is about 2.25% higher than the cost of economic operation. 
 
 Attention is called to the fact that if the two ordlnates at any 
 load factor are added, the toal cost of power appears less when 
 operating at overload rating in spite of the increase in cost due to 
 poor economy and overload, thus showing the marked influence 
 of the investment costs on the total cost of power. 
 
 The investment cost curve which is an equilateral hyperbola, 
 referred to its asymptotes as coordinates, (which are at right 
 angles), is, 
 
 Yi = , in which 
 
 X 
 
 Yi represents the investment cost in mills per kw-hr. net output, 
 X the corresponding load factor of load expressed in %, xyj the 
 constants for any given curve, where x and yj are the co-ordmates 
 of any point on the curve. 
 
 To compute these investment costs of any plant for any load 
 factor it will be necessary first to determine the value of xyj in 
 which X represents the present load factor and y-^ the corresponding 
 investment cost. 
 
 The curve showing the cost of production plus production re- 
 pairs per kilowatt net output is an inverse fourth root curve and 
 is represented by the equations, 
 
 ,, _ ypVH 
 
 in which Y^ represents the cost in mills per kw.-hr. net output, X 
 the corresponding load factor of load in^ % and p^ ^^ a con- 
 stant for any given curve, where x and y are the co-ordinates of 
 any point on the curve. To compute the production plus the pro- 
 duction costs of any station for any load factor, first determine the 
 value of y p \/x~^> where x is the present load factor and y^ the 
 corresponding cost. 
 
 Illustration: If a plant is operating at 30% load factor with a 
 cost of 4.4 mills for production plus production repairs and 3.1 
 mills for investment, making a total cost of 7.5 mills per kw. net 
 output, what will be the cost if the plant were operated at 50% 
 load factor? 
 
 Investment Cost 
 
 30X3.1 
 
 Yi = = 1.86 mills 
 
 50 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 385 
 
 Production plus Production Repairs Costs 
 
 4. 4 1^30 
 
 3.87 mills 
 
 Total cost of power per kw. 
 net output . . . 
 
 5.73 mills 
 
 Ratio of Boiler Horse Power to Station Capacity. In a paper for 
 the 25th Convention of the A. I. E. E., J. R. Bibbins gives Fig. 7, 
 showing the modern practice of proportioning boiler installation to 
 
 Fig. 7. Plot representing modern practice in boiler plant equipment. 
 
 station capacity and Fig. 8 the maximum battery capacity for 
 various frontage widths. 
 
 Costs of Producing Power, Comparison of Estimated Costs with 
 Those from Actual Tests. The following data for estimating the 
 cost of power production, although based on the heating value of 
 coal from a single state are from their nature of considerably 
 more than just state-wide applicability. We therefore give them 
 in much detail from a bulletin of the Iowa State College, where 
 they were originally presented by H. W. Wagner, Assistant Engineer 
 in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering : 
 
 In working up figures on the generation of steam power with 
 Iowa coals no special attempt has been made to point out the 
 most economical methods of operation. The object has been mainly 
 to analyze the details and to show what the power costs per brake 
 h.p. hr., delivered at the belt ; and per kw.-hr., delivered at the 
 switchboard, under the various common conditions of operation. 
 
386 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 All assumptions are made to represent as nearly as possible the 
 average practice in Iowa. 
 
 The conditions assumed as variable are the load factor, the num- 
 ber of hours the plant operates during the year, and the cost of 
 coal. Depending upon these, variations then occur in nearly all 
 items of expense which go to make up the cost of the brake h.p. 
 and the kw.-hr. 
 
 The types of equipments for the different sized plants on Table 
 II are chosen to represent not so much the more economical types 
 for each size plant as the most practicable of those now in common 
 
 1200 
 
 2400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 kPACI 
 
 c 
 
 lES O 
 IF VAR 
 
 = BOIl 
 OUS V 
 
 ER BATTER 
 VIDTHS 
 
 ES 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 800'f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 1600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j^' 
 
 f. 
 
 s/ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Oj 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 y 
 
 ■?'-i 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 b 
 
 P5 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■/ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 (/ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400^ 
 
 Q 
 800 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 '/ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 S, 
 
 
 
 
 /; 
 
 '/ 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 // 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Jattei 
 
 1 
 
 yFn 
 5 
 
 utag 
 2 
 
 J -Feet 
 1 2 
 
 ' 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Fig. 8. Maximum battery capacity for various widths of frontage. 
 
 use in the state. The type for each case considered is listed in 
 the schedule of equipment of plants on Table II. Table IV and 
 attached notes give the sizes and types actually found operating 
 in the state. 
 
 No attempt has been made to estimate or calculate the cost of 
 electric power delivered to customers. That would involve the cost 
 and upkeep of transmission lines, meters, etc. The initial cost as 
 given includes nothing outside the power plant, proper. 
 
 The text and data in this bulletin have been worked out under 
 the direction of W. H. Meeker, Mechanical Engineer, and F. A. 
 Fish, Electrical Engineer, both of the Engineering Experiment 
 Station. 
 
 Indicated horsepower is the mechanical power developed in the 
 
STEAM POWER 387 
 
 engine cylinder by the steam working- against the piston. It is 
 measured from indicator cards taken from the engine cylinders. 
 
 Brake horsepower is the actual mechanical power delivered by 
 the flywheel or pulley to the belt. It is measured by a Prony brake 
 or by an absorption dynamometer and is always less than the 
 indicated horsepower. 
 
 Kilowatt is a unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 watts. 
 
 1 h.p. equals 746 watts, or 0.746 kws. 
 
 Conversely, 1 kw. equals 1.34 h.p. 
 
 Horse-power-hour and kilowatt-hour are units of energy or work 
 done by the respective power units in one hour's time. 
 
 Table II gives the estimated costs of producing mechanical and 
 electrical power in Iowa with Iowa coals. A thesis by "W. M. 
 Wilson was used as a basis of these figures. This thesis was pre- 
 pared from a large amount of data on costs and test runs collected 
 by Mr. Wilson and presented by him for the professional degree of 
 Mechanical Engineer at Sibley College of Cornell University, in 
 1904. The figures worked out in this thesis were compared with 
 cost data from other authorities and wherever a fair comparison 
 could be made, were found to check fairly well. The* general dif- 
 ference seemed to be that the other authorities gave somewhat 
 lower costs. 
 
 The estimates in the original thesis were based upon the follow- 
 ing conditions : 
 
 Fuel: Heating value of 14,0t)0 B. t. u. per lb., moist coal; 60% 
 of heat in fuel absorbed by water in boiler. 
 
 Condensing Water: 30 lbs. water required to condense 1 lb. 
 steam. 
 
 Cost: 1 ct. per 10,000 lbs. condensing water. 
 
 Fixed charges as a per cent, of the initial cost of plant : 
 
 Interest, 5%; depreciation, 5%; repairs, 2.5%; insurance, 0.5%; 
 taxes, 1.0%; total, 14%. 
 
 Methods of operation : 
 
 First: 10 hrs. X 310 days = 3,100 hrs. per yr. 
 Second: 24 hrs. X 365 days = 8,760 hrs. per yr. 
 
 Only the second method has been given in Table II as reprinted 
 here. Initial costs include duplicate feed pumps, one reserve engine 
 and one reserve boiler, in addition to those required for rated load. 
 
 The cost of building for the horizontal engines and turbines was 
 taken at $1.50 per sq. ft. This is approximately the cost of a steel 
 frame building having brick walls and a fireproof roof. The price 
 of land was taken at $0.50 per sq. ft. 
 
 Where condensers are not used it is assumed that feed water is 
 taken from the heater at a temperature of 190 deg. ; in the case of 
 condensing engines it is taken at 160 deg., and where economizers 
 are used, it is fed into the boiler at 280 deg. 
 
 When the plant is used only 10 hrs. per day, 310 days per yr., 
 coal is required for banking fires and getting up steam before the 
 
388 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 10-hr. period that the plant is in operation. An allowance of 5 lbs. 
 of coal per boiler h.p. per day should be allowed for this purpose. 
 
 The load factor was taken at 100%, i. e., the plants are assumed 
 to run at full load during the time of operation. 
 
 In the original thesis from 3 to 6 types of engines were given 
 for each size of plant. In the following but one type was chosen 
 for each plant of a given rated capacity ; a different type was 
 chosen for each different size of station, while at the same time an 
 effort was made to choose that one which was the most typical 
 of those producing power most cheaply. 
 
 In order to fit Iowa conditions the following additions and modi- 
 fications were made before arriving at the final figures : 
 
 Cost and Heating Value of Fuels: 
 
 First case: $3 per 2,000 lbs., delivered, for coal with a heat 
 
 value of 11,000 B. t. u., per lb., moist. 
 Second case: $2 per 2,000 lbs., delivered, for coal with a heat 
 
 value of 9,000 B. t. u., per lb., moist. 
 
 Boiler Efficiency at 100% Load Factor: 
 
 60% of heat in 11,000 B. t. u. coal absorbed by water in boiler. 
 55% of heat in 9,000 B. t. u. coal absorbed by water in boiler. 
 
 With the above values the fuel cost of evaporating 1,000 lbs. of 
 water from and at 212 deg. with the $3 coal is 22 cts. ; with the $2 
 coal it is 19.6 cts. 
 
 Initial cost of boilers and settings is increased 20% because of 
 the greater boiler and furnace areas required to get sufficient heat 
 out of the lower grades of Iowa coal. This increase in cost of 
 20% is arrived at as follows : 
 
 The efficiency of boilers is assumed as 60% in the original calcu- 
 lations. Under Iowa conditions an average of 57.5% is assumed for 
 the two low grades of coal. 
 
 60% -^ 57.5% = 104%, the ratio of efficiencies. 
 
 The heat value of coal in the original data is taken at 14,000 
 B. t. u. per lb. Under Iowa conditions the average of 9,000 and 
 11,000 is 10,000 B. t. u. per lb. 
 
 14,000 H- 10,000 = 140%, the ratio of heat value in the coal. 
 
 104% X 140% =: 146%, the ratio of weights of coal required to 
 supply sufficient steam. In other words, 46% rnore Iowa coal 
 under Iowa conditions must be burned than is estimated in the 
 original data. 
 
 Assuming, roughly, that half of this increase in coal consumed 
 is taken care of by a fast fire, the capacity of boilers and grates 
 must be increased by 23%. This would then make an increased cost 
 of the boilers and settings of about 20%. 
 
 Mechanical Efficiencies of Engines at 100% Load Factor: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 100 and 200 hp.. reciprocating units 85.0 
 
 600 h]). reciprocating units 87.5 
 
 Turbines 90.0 
 
STEAM POWER 389 
 
 Percentages of Exjjenses at Various Load Factors: 
 
 Load factor, per cent 100 75 50 25 
 
 Coal req., lecip. engines 100 87.5 75 62.5 
 
 Coal req., turbines 100 85 70 57.5 
 
 Condensing water 100 100 90 80 
 
 Attendance 100 100 100 100 
 
 Oil and waste 100 100 100 100 
 
 The above percentages represent the relative costs per rated 
 indicated h.p. of plant and not per h.p. actually developed. For 
 instance, the cost of coal for reciprocating engines per rated indi- 
 cated h.p. is taken at 100% when the plant is running at 100% 
 load factor or at full rated capacity. At 75% load factor when the 
 average load is only 75% of the rated capacity, the coal required 
 per rated indicated horsepower is 87.5% of that required at 100% 
 load factor. In other words, the whole plant takes .875 as much 
 coal to develop 75% of the rated load as it takes to develop full 
 load. 
 
 The term " load factor " as used above, is the ratio between the 
 average load and the capacity of the plant when both terms of the 
 ratio refer only to the time operated. The same kind of load 
 factor is used throughout on all data and curve sheets showing 
 estimated power costs. 
 
 The above paragraph leads to the fact that more coal is required 
 per h.p.-hr. at the lower load factors. This is true because of 
 lower boiler and engine efficiencies when working at lower load 
 factors or when the plant is under loaded. Oil and waste and 
 attendance costs are assumed to be the same for the whole plant 
 at all load factors. Reciprocating engines are assumed to take a 
 greater percentage of coal at the low load factors than the tur- 
 bines because their efficiency droits more rapidly. The above fig- 
 ures referring to the various expenses at different load factors 
 were derived from a study of the tests and data from different 
 authorities. 
 
 The figures given above as well as those on Table II describing 
 the conditions considered are to represent first-class operation. 
 Local conditions vary a great deal. 
 
 By comparing actual local conditions with those used above a 
 closer estimate can usually be made for any specific case. For 
 instance, in some plants the exhaust from non-condensing engines 
 may be used for steam heating, the revenue from which will effect 
 a lower cost of power. In other cases where the load factor is low, 
 the cost of attendance may be cut down if the firemen can be used 
 for other work during the period of low power demand. The price 
 of coal delivered in the furnace room depends largely upon railroad 
 facilities and varies much at different points. Poor firing or de- 
 fective equipment adds greatly to the cost of producing power. 
 This matter is discussed further. 
 
 The costs per kw.-hr. were figured from the costs per brake 
 h.p. by adding to the total yearly expense on account of the added 
 electrical machinery and by taking into account the different effi- 
 ciencies of the electrical generation at the different load factors. 
 
390 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 From Mr. Wilson's table initial costs of electrical generators were 
 obtained and in the average case the fixed charges on these figure 
 out to add about 8% to the total yearly expense. The following 
 table of electric generator efficiencies was made up from a study 
 of tests and from data of different authorities, 
 
 , % ^ 
 
 Load factor 100 75 50 25 
 
 Operated by 100 and 200 hp. engines. 85 80 75 70 
 
 Op. by 400 and 600 hp. engines 87.5 83 79 75 
 
 Operated by 1,200 and 2,000 hp. engines.. 90 87 84 80 
 
 The figures at various load factors assume that the plant be 
 operated so as to produce rated load at any time. The load factor 
 is taken as the ratio of the average load to the full rated capacity 
 of the plant, when both terms of the ratio refer only to the time 
 during which the plant operates. 
 
 All figures dealing with fuel refer to moist coal. Moist coal with 
 a heating value of 11,000 B. t. u. per pound corresponds to coal 
 having 8.3% moisture and giving 12,000 B. t. u. per dry pound. 
 Moist coal with a heating value of 9,000 B. t. u. per pound corre- 
 sponds to coal having 10% moisture and giving 10,000 B. t. u. 
 per dry pound. 
 
 Calculations of Power Costs for any Particular Plant. 
 
 The expense items have been separated somewhat to show how 
 the final results have been reached. The separation of expenses 
 is of value when the reader wishes to calculate costs where certain 
 conditions are far from the ordinary. It is not supposed that any 
 one plant will closely approach the " average " conditions as as- 
 sumed in working out the figures on Table II. Large variations 
 may occur in the initial cost of the plant, price of coal, or efficiency 
 of machinery. 
 
 TABLE II. ESTIMATED COSTS OF PRODUCING POWER 
 WITH IOWA COALS 
 
 Per 
 ^^^'^ . ^lo^d 24 hoursperday— 365 days per year 
 
 factor 
 
 1. Rated i. hp. of 100 200 400 600 1,200 2,000 
 
 plant 100 
 
 2. Number of units. 100 23 3 4 3 3 
 
 3. Size of each unit, 
 
 i. hp 100 100 100 200 200 600 1 000 
 
 4. Number of boilers 100 2 3 4 4 3 4 
 
 5. Size of each 92 74 88 113 230 256 
 
 boiler, hp 100 
 
 6. Brake hp. of plant 100 85 170 340 540 1,050 1,800 
 
 7. Cost of engines, 
 
 room and equip- 
 ment 100 51.72 52.20 50.05 45.06 43.60 31.55] 
 
 8. Cost of boilers. . . 100 22.85 14.76 11.00 9.04 12.70 11.04 | 
 
 9. Cost of boilers, } a 
 
 room and equip- 
 ment 100 58.65 38.92 28.70 22.22 20.61 18.29 1 
 
 10. Total initial cost. 100 110.37 91.12 78.75 67.28 64.21 49.84J 
 
15.40 
 
 12.75 
 
 11.03 
 
 9.42 
 
 9.00 
 
 6.98 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.89 
 
 43.80 
 
 30.66 
 
 21.37 
 
 17.96 
 
 13.14 
 
 10.51 
 
 
 
 5.48 
 
 4.65 
 
 3.55 
 
 3.55 
 
 STEAM POWER 391 
 
 Per 
 ^^^ ^fj^^ 2 4 hours perday — 365 days per year 
 
 factor 
 
 11. Fi X e d charges, \ 
 
 14% oij initial 
 
 cost 100 
 
 12. Oil and waste. . . 100 
 
 13. Attendance 100 
 
 14. Condensing water 100 
 
 15. Boiler pressure, 
 
 lbs. per sq. in. . . 100 
 
 16. Lbs. of steam per 
 
 i. hp.-hr 100 
 
 17. Lbs. water evapo- 
 
 rated per lb. 
 coal 100 
 
 18. Lbs. coal per i. 
 
 hp.-hr 100 
 
 19. Lbs. water evapo- 
 
 rated per lb. coal 100 
 
 20. Lbs. coal per i. 
 
 hp.-hr 100 
 
 21. Cost of coal per i. 
 
 hp.-yr. , 100 
 
 22. Cost of coal per 
 
 i. hp.-yr 100 
 
 23. Total cost per 1. 
 
 hp.-yr 100 123.39 95.60 84.87 72.12 53.98 49.33 
 
 24. do 75 115.71 89.44- 79.35 66.44 50.80 45.52 
 
 25. do 50 108.07 83.27 73.28 60.51 47.28 41.36 
 
 26. do 25 100.37 77.16 67.31 55.37 43.73 37.82 
 
 27. Total cost per b. 
 
 hp.-yr 100 145.00 112.50 99.70 80.10 61.60 54.70 
 
 28. do 75 136.00 105.10 93.30 73.70 58.00 50.60 
 
 29. do 50 127.00 97.80 86.10 67.20 54.00 46.00 
 
 30. do 25 117.50 90.70 79.10 61.50 50.00 42.00 
 
 31. Cost per b. hp.- 
 
 yr 100 1.65 1.28 1.14 0.91 0.70 0.63 
 
 32. do 75 2.07 1.60 1.42 1.12 0.89 0.77 
 
 33. do 50 2.89 2.23 1.96 1.53 1.23 1.05 
 
 34. do 25 5.37 4.15 3.62 2.81 2.29 1.92 
 
 35. Total cost per 1. 
 
 hp-yr 100 116.39 90.00 79.77 67.80 51.08 46.43] 
 
 36. do 75 109.61 84.54 74.85 62.74 48.30 43.02 | 
 
 37. do 50 102.87 79.07 69.48 57.51 45.08 39.36 1 
 
 38. do 25 96.00 73.66 64.1152.87 42.00 36.12] 
 
 39. Total cost per b. I 
 
 hp.-yr 100 137.90 106.80 94.75 75.80 58.64 51.75 | 
 
 40. do 75 129.80 100.13 88.90 70.05 55.45 48.15 | 
 
 41. do 50 121.75 93.61 82.36 64.20 51.80 43.95 | 
 
 42. do 25 113.06 87.20 75.55 59.04 48.20 40.30 1 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 
 6.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 6.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 6.8 " 
 
 c 
 
 4.65 
 
 3.74 
 
 3.34 
 
 2.83 
 
 1.92 
 
 1.92. 
 
 4.8 
 6.20 
 
 4.8 
 4.98 
 
 4.5 
 4.45 
 
 4.5 
 3.76 
 
 5.1 
 2.55 
 
 2.55J 
 
 d 
 
 61.30 
 
 49.30 
 
 44.10 
 
 37.20 
 
 25.40 
 
 25.40 
 
 c 
 
 54.30 
 
 43.70 
 
 39.00 
 
 32.90 
 
 22.50 
 
 22.50 
 
 d 
 
 43. Cost per b. hp.-hr. 100 1.57 1.21 1.08 0.87 0.67 0.59 
 
 44. do 75 1.96 1.52 1.36 1.07 0.85 0.74 
 
 45. do 50 2.77 2.13 1.88 1.46 1.18 1.00 
 
 46. do 25 5.16 3.98 3.47 2.70 2.16 1.85 
 
392 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Per 
 Item cent. 
 
 No. load 
 
 factor 
 
 47. Cost per kw.-hr. . 100 
 
 48. do 75 
 
 49. do 50 
 
 50. do 25 
 
 51. Cost per kw.-hr. 100 
 
 52. do 75 
 
 53. do 50 
 
 54. do 25 
 
 24 hours per day — 365 days per year 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.73 
 
 5.55 
 
 11.00 
 
 2.18 
 2.88 
 4.28 
 8.51 
 
 1.87 
 2.46 
 3.57 
 6.95 
 
 1.49 
 1.94 
 2.78 
 5.40 
 
 1.12 
 1.47 
 2.11 
 4.13 
 
 1.011 
 1.27 
 1.80 
 3.45J 
 
 2.67 
 
 3.53 
 
 5.32 
 
 10.55 
 
 2.06 
 2.74 
 4.08 
 8.15 
 
 1.77 
 2.36 
 3.42 
 6.66 
 
 1.43 
 1.85 
 2.66 
 5.18 
 
 1.07 
 1.40 
 2.02 
 3.89 
 
 0.95 1 
 1.22 
 1.71 
 3.33. 
 
 year. 
 
 cCoal at $3. d Coal 
 
 at $2. 
 
 a Per i. hp. b Per i. hp. 
 
 EXPLANATIONS OF ITEMS ON TABLE 
 
 The left-hand margin of Table II shows which general items are 
 figured at 100% load factor. The right-hand margin shows on 
 what basis the general costs are figured and with what price of 
 coal each particular cost is figured. 
 
 All costs are given in dollars except those. for brake hp. -hours 
 and kw.-hrs., which are given in cents. 
 
 Item 1 gives the rated indicated hp. of the plant, upon which the 
 yearly expenses are calculated. 
 
 Items 2, 3, 4 and 5 show the actual number and rated capacity 
 of engines and boilers, including one reserve engine and boiler in 
 each plant. It may be noted that for the larger plants the rated 
 hp. of boilers is low when compared with the engine hp. This is 
 explained by the fact that the larger engines require less steam 
 per hp. hour. 
 
 Item 6 gives the estimated brake hp. of the plant, which repre- 
 sents the actual mechanical horsepower delivered by the flywheel 
 to engine belt at full rated capacity. 
 
 Item 7 includes the cost of engine room and everything in it 
 except the electrical machinery. 
 
 Items 7-10 give the costs per rated indicated hp. 
 
 Item 9 includes the cost of stack, boiler room and everything in 
 the boiler room. 
 
 Items 11-14 give the yearly expenses per rated indicated hp. 
 
 Item 10 includes the entire cost of plant per rated indicated hp., 
 exclusive of the electrical machnery. 
 
 The electrical machinery is not considered before item 47 because 
 the object is first to arrive at a cost of purely mechanical power. 
 
 Item 17 gives the lbs. of water evaporated per lb. of moist fuel. 
 These amounts vary with constant boiler efficiency because of the 
 different temperatures at which the water is fed to the boiler. 
 
 The costs per indicated hp. year and per brake hp. year are based 
 upon the rated indicated hp. and brake hp. respectively, and not 
 upon the power actually developed at the various load factors below 
 100%. 
 
 The costs per brake hp.-hr. and per kw.-hr. are based upon the 
 power actually delivered to the belt and to the switchboard re- 
 spectively. 
 
 100 i. hp. plant: Simple, non-condensing, high-speed engines. 
 Fire-tube boilers. 
 
 200 i. hp^ plant : Compound, non-condensing, high-speed engines. 
 Fire-tube boilers. 
 
 400 i. hp. plant: Compound, condensing, high-speed engines. 
 Fire-tube boilers. 
 
 600 i. hp. plant: De Laval turbines. Fire-tube boilers. 
 
 1,200 i. hp. plant: Horizontal, condensing, low-speed Corliss en- 
 gines. Water-tube boilers. 
 
 2,000 i. hp. plant: Parson's turbines. Water-tube boilers. 
 
STEAM POWER 393 
 
 By comparing- the items of expense in an actual case with those 
 g-iven for the corresponding " estimated " case, a net difference of 
 costs will be obtained. Then by adding or subtracting (as the case 
 may call for) this net difference from the " estimated " cost per 
 rated indicated h.p. year a new cost per rated indicated h.p. year 
 for the " actual case " will be obtained. This " actual " total cost, 
 divided by the " estimated " total cost, will then form a ratio of 
 total costs. This ratio multiplied by the '" estimated " costs per 
 brake h.p.-hr. or per kw.-hr. given for the corresponding case, will 
 give the calculated costs for producing these units of energy under 
 the " actual " conditions. 
 
 CURVE SHEETS 
 
 Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12 are curve sheets showing graphically the 
 estimated costs per brake h.p.-hr. for 10 and 24-hr. operation, with 
 9,000 B. t. u. coal at $2 and with 11,000 B. t. u. coal at $3, all with 
 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25%, load factors. Curves on Figs. 9 and 10 
 are plotted from items 31 to 34 of Table II. Curves on Figs. 11 
 and 12 are plotted from items 43 to 46 of Table II. 
 
 Fig-s. 13 to 28 constitute a second set of curve sheets showing 
 estimated costs per brake horsepower with coals costing from fl 
 to $6 per 2,000 lbs. These curves show also the cost of coal per 
 brake h.p.-hr. as separated from all other costs. The curve border- 
 ing- the upper side of the shaded portion represents the total of 
 all expenses except that of coal. Each of the upper curves repre- 
 sents the total cost with coal at the particular price with which 
 the curve is marked. 
 
 For example, suppose one wishes to find the total cost and the 
 fuel cost per brake h.p. in a 1,200 h.p. plant operating 10 hrs. per 
 day, 310 days per yr., at 250 load factor, with 9,000 B. t. u. coal 
 costing $3 per 2,000 lbs. 
 
 Turning to Fig. 20 which corresponds to the conditions given, it 
 is seen that the " $3.00 " curve indicates 3.5 cts. as the total cost 
 per brake h.p.-hr. Dropping down to the curve bordering the shaded 
 portion, it is seen that 2.15 cts. is the total cost per brake h.p. 
 exclusive of coal. Subtracting 2.15 cts. from 3.5 cts. leaves 1.35 
 cts. per brake h.p.-hr. due to coal. 
 
 Table III g-ives the figures from which these curves were plotted. 
 The costs to be added for each dollar that the coal cost per 2,000 
 lbs. are given to be used in calculations where the cost per 2,000 
 lbs. is not in even dollars. 
 
 It will be noticed that Table III has the same arrangement of 
 conditions as has Table II. Table III also has an index of figure 
 numbers referring to curve sheets corresponding to each particular 
 conditiou. 
 
394 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 3 
 
 o o o o C 
 
 o o ^ m 
 
 OiHCOiH-^tHIOMiH rH CO r-l ■* IM LO fO iH 
 
 o_: ; • • 1> 
 
 XO tH t-I C 
 
 O rH t- CO 054> CO 00 O US t- 00 05 (M fo *« «D ^ 
 O iH CO rH ■<* tH tXM •>* ,h CO iH ""^i (M t- CO ■* O 
 
 Ph >>ai «D-:j<oooo<M«o«»(M t-i'#'*ooo?do^(m .S 
 
 tTJ <:^7^ o iH ■* iH in M 00 CO t^ <m -* cq to co oo '^ t- 
 
 . 'o£gd ^ rA tn 
 
 Oh' Jgo'^- t 
 
 K CO Q, ? 
 
 " ^ w _O-^^THO«ia5C0 t> ■* CO tH tH ?o t- CO 00 
 
 M X"^ g C^ Ift(M C- CO O ^ tH W U5 CO t- Tf o «o iH C 
 
 MW^' Tt<o' ' ' ' tH "m' • • • '^^ 'esq' 
 
 IH ^ aJ c<i c<j «D CO CO •*! U5 00 o ca U5 CO U5 -* ift 00 O 
 
 PQ ^^p^oe<i«>oaoococciio-* ooeocoooTt<Mt-TtH 3 
 
 « So • • • -^ --i ^ '^^ a; 
 
 PL| OC-COC^tHi-HCOOtH t>CO!MiHlrtU5COrH t"!-; 
 
 OCvJOOCOrH-^CDtOCO CO00-rtiiHtf5«OasCO ^ 
 
 ?^ '~^o''th''th'cO '''ih'ih'cO •_ 
 
 g - go 
 
 H .... \ : \ \ ^'^ 
 
 tub 6*^ rJiUSCO t^OOOiO '^m 
 
 g El?- -^- ^^^^ o^ 
 
 ^ _(Mr-CO0<lI>.Oq00CO «5t-00ClCO<M00CO 2o 
 
 g g^^rHCOrHO^C^OO T-I -*< rH <X> <^J Oi CO 00 ^g 
 
 u ^-o ^ ^ >^'^ 
 
 •<j t— , CO W* ■* i55 "^ 1— I t- t- lO O -^ m (35 CO t— 
 
 r_;^ ^tHLTJiHC-t-IOCOt-I rHUSe^t-fMO-^lH "J OP 
 
 O m+J '=^d ■ ■ " 'r-i "cvi rH 'w S-S 
 
 ^ a (-> 00 «© O 00 lO tH O tH CO CO t> 00 CO tH U5 rH -^ ^ 
 
 M Oq_, 2 rH «0 C<1 OO (M 00 -?f CO C<l <X> C^ 00 CO CO U5 (X> (j^ -M 
 
 S r:^ O COo ' ' ' 'iH ■c<i rH 'eg f^ Sh 
 
 H X^ (u = 
 
 1-5 „-'^. ^(^^<N^<X>a5COl^5«>rH- OC<lUS05krtC^T*<rH .Srrt 
 
 pq ^•'-'^C<IOO'>^OcO«OlOC^ COOOCOO^COtXM ^ 
 
 <tj -i^S'S '^'d ■ 'i-i 'rH "cO ■ ■ 'rH " th" ' Co" ^ f3 
 
 ^$ So) 
 
 Ph ^us'^oocot^ooc.ius eo-^oscDOiOOUSus _. 
 
 2ir-i<35<Ms^^cooocoi>- cooicocq-^_oooot> _C5 
 
 Md ' 'tH 'rH 'co" ■ ■ 'rH 'rH 'eo ^ ''-' 
 
 <_,rHrHC£>CJCOCOt-U5 rHiHOOC^lC-ICOCOlrt ? "2 
 
 ^CO<MCOCO-^^t>00 Tt<C^5-^(X>CC>rt<O00 ^^ 
 
 THorH 'rH ' C^' ' tM ' r-i ' tA ' ci rH Tf' 
 
 oifl ousoin oP 
 
 1/-. ^-. <— ^ »^ »/-\ rvT _zr +J 
 
 2© oirtOifl ousoin nP 
 
 §t5^o 
 
 •H ^ 
 
 H3 
 6 • ° 
 
 ^Ifl «Dt>-00 CJOrHiM S 
 
 f^ -J rH rH ft! 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 395 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 -^O — <fOO 600 SOO /o66 /eOO f900 IbOO 
 
 ToCQ/I.nPorPkinb. 
 
 Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u., coal 
 at $3.00. 
 
 eoe 'Joo ddo 300 /660 koo /aoo tibbo /god sxx) 
 7bbo.i IMP oTP/ont 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 ,000 B.t.u., coal at 
 
396 
 
 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 eoo aoo ux) eoo /ooo eoo jooo /6oo jboo eooo 
 
 Fig. 11. Twenty-four hours per day. 365 days per year, 11,000 
 B.t.u., coal at $3.00. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 _.. ... _ ______ 
 
 b^"":~:: " ::: :: :::~:":::":" ::::~:'::::::: 
 
 5 1 :. . .:..:: 
 
 <^ : : : ::.: : ± ::: : ::: :::: : :::::: 
 
 ^ <^ ^ 
 
 S5;?:-y:-- -:--_: ::-:-:x-:::-:--:_::::: ::::: 
 
 "^ \ It 
 
 «j " -^-j: -- : : 
 
 
 -jO/ ^- -- -■\ --- 
 
 
 <!0 " T-Js ' 
 
 C^ ,«. "±^:^s i :::::: :::;;: : :::::_±:::_ 
 
 ^3(f jl^^ 
 
 
 
 •^ ,,^ :: ^. :k:L ::::::::?"■■ =:^=; - ;^^ooo'/^/£,^:: :::: 
 
 ^-■__k, n^.c,-L Jlllllllllll ----- 
 
 
 
 ' ~ - ' ^- 'V^f ^<?oo'/&r/Jy - - II T" 1 TT-- " 
 
 CKf . 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 t t 
 
 eoo ooo eoo eoo /ooo /eoo /'Mo m>oo laoo eooo 
 TotQ/lrrPorPtint 
 
 Fig. 12. Twenty-four hours per day. 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u 
 coal at $2, 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 397 
 
 13. 
 
 boo ooo /coo eoo moo /e>oo eoo eooo 
 Total IfiP of Plant. 
 
 Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u. 
 100 per cent, load factor. 
 
 coal, 
 
 eoo 100 
 
 boo BOO /ooo /eoo Mxto /eoo' 
 ^o&Q/ I/iP or PJbnt 
 
 Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u., coal, 
 75 per cent, load factor. 
 
398 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 Cf<t*t 
 
 g 
 
 Fig. 15. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u., coal, 
 50 per cent, load factor. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 600 aoo looo teoo /<^oo /e>oo jsoo eooo 
 TbboHMPoTPJbnt 
 
 Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u,, coal 
 25 per cent, load factor. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 399 
 
 
 
 
 —" 
 
 -— 
 
 ~" " 
 
 
 ~" 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ■"" 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 "~ 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 "• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^r. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ £<t -1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V, *^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^.^'^ 
 
 s\. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -isi % 
 
 s>> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 2<t1H 
 
 ^s: 
 
 
 >-- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ tL 
 
 s^^ 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 :rr: 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 /« — 
 
 
 
 ^; 
 
 is 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 o*l — 
 
 %'//a 
 
 i 
 
 Wi 
 
 m. 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 aoo <}oo 600 aoo /ooo eoo moo /boo moo eooo 
 ^ibba/ I/iP ofP/onb 
 
 Fig. 17. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
 100 per cent, load factor. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■" 
 
 ) 7<t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •f^ ^.- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *: ., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 ^c- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *f^ 
 
 V 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^' 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \^ 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 N 
 
 :;^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I- 
 
 »/ 
 
 \ 
 
 ■s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 — 
 
 
 H 
 
 ._ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 !?«» 
 
 m- 
 
 ■ — 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 r 
 
 IZ 
 
 i 
 
 = 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 ■<i 
 
 _ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 P 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 W. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 b 
 
 600 a(3o /ooo leoo moo /eoo leoo eooo 
 Tbto/ inP of P/ont 
 
 18. 
 
 Ten hours per day. 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
 75 per cent, load factor. 
 
400 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Fig. 19. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
 50 per cent, load factor. 
 
 400 t>oo ooo moo eoo taoo /boo eoo eooo 
 Toto/I/iPofPhnt 
 
 Fig. 20. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
 25 per cent, load factor. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 401 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 rrm — 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 %3a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < i£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Z^ ~\ 
 
 -\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L*^V^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 55^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ^^$$=»< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 ^5iS^- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L<**'i^:^^3 
 
 ^ — ~^^~~ — = 
 
 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 <j ^"v ^^ 
 
 ■^■■--^^■~~^ 
 
 ■ — I- 
 
 -=F 
 
 
 
 "^.T/y^VP,^ 
 
 -^-^~== 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^-JMM 
 
 iiiii^i^^2Mi^J% 
 
 1 
 
 fCiO «00 6«7 
 
 /ooo /soo laoo /boo eoo sooo 
 Toto/ LfiPoTP/ont 
 
 Twenty-four hours per day. 365 days ner year, 11,000 
 B.t.u., coal 100 per cent, load factor. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 }* 3t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "~i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *CJ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *^ 
 
 s 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A? 
 
 
 s 
 
 Nj 
 
 \ 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 v^"^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 r;^ 
 
 -- 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i/ 
 
 s 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ~- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 '~~ 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 — H 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^. 
 
 ^.-. 
 
 N- 
 
 
 l^- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 = 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 22. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 k 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 /// 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 eoo 900 yso aoo /ooo >eoo /f<x) /(,oo eoo eooo 
 Toto/JJi.P oTP/onb 
 
 Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 11,000 
 B.t.u., coal, 75 per cent, load factor. 
 
402 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ^*l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 ip 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ -^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^-§ 
 
 
 L.^'^s 
 
 
 ^^'Ss^§^ 
 
 
 8 S V V^^~~ 
 
 
 "" -ii-ss?-^== 
 
 ^^^^' 
 
 
 -LULLLJ.^LilJ^ 
 
 -^^^^^^m^^^^^^^^K^^^m^^^" 1 
 
 eoo 'MO. 
 
 7bto/J/iP of Pjbnb 
 
 Fig. 23. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u. 
 coal, 50 per cent, load factor. 
 
 ^ 3* 
 
 I 
 
 <S/* 
 
 "~ 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pf- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Q 
 
 
 s 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *3 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^o 
 
 s> 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 #/ 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 ' 
 
 
 ^"1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 V. 
 
 k 
 
 
 ■~-. 
 
 
 
 — ■ 
 
 
 Ji; 
 
 ^ 
 
 -i- 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 — 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^-.1 
 
 — 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 t= 
 
 
 :: 
 
 r- 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 f3 
 
 — 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ~ 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 %/ 
 
 y 
 
 
 ,-, f,; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;', 
 
 
 1 
 
 eoo foo eoo boo /ooo iroo /aoo /t>oo 
 7bdo/I.hP ofP/bnt 
 
 Fig. 
 
 24. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 11,000 
 B.t.u., coal, 25 per cent, load factor. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 403 
 
 
 w„t 
 
 4: "^ 
 
 ^60^^K 
 
 % Ai^ 
 
 ^5* C^S 
 
 |^**^5S^S 
 
 |«i.SS^s5^ 
 
 ? \^,S^^^^^^ 
 
 
 ^ ^x, s'^^"^--"^""- — ii^ii: ~- ~ ^ *^Ms 
 
 
 ^ ..pp^^^^^^^- =::;z~ = :^ 
 
 ^^ ~§¥^$§¥§$^^¥f¥^^¥~r 
 
 cf.\. Mm/MUmmMt€mi 
 
 eoo too 600 eoo looo eoo fKo /boo /eoo eooo 
 Toto/ I.MP or Phnb 
 
 Fig. 25. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u. 
 coal, 100 per cent, load factor. 
 
 IJ 
 
 <Bg| j [ 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 
 
 
 t& 
 
 
 ^X 
 
 
 at^ 
 
 
 t^\ 
 
 
 \\^ 
 
 
 ^V^vv^ 
 
 
 e<t ^^^^^ 
 
 
 ^^S.^^v^^^ 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 _5s=^^^^^^;^^ 
 
 H *=? 
 
 ^llii""""^== 
 
 ^ -^ 1 .— .#3 
 
 -- - -If 
 
 ^^j^^^^^^ 
 
 ^^^^^^%%^ 
 
 ci 'f/////'^/'Z'0^/,W^/-^//^/ 
 
 y//^/^M''/My//^A% 
 
 &00 eoo /ooo /eoo /-mo /t,oo /eoo eooo 
 TotofinPoTP/anb 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u. 
 coal, 75 per cent, load' factor. 
 
404 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 «.* 
 
 
 
 
 r— , 
 
 1 
 
 
 rn 
 
 n 
 
 [— , 
 
 — 1 
 
 1 — i 
 
 r~] 
 
 r~i 
 
 r— , 
 
 r— , 
 
 n 
 
 
 r— 
 
 
 
 p-| 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 _i 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •*; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «Sq«; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "iJ 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 sS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 viJ^* 
 
 sv 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^v 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 K.^. 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 ^M/. 
 
 
 
 J*l 
 
 »3 
 
 €•<?<? •?o<3 6C>o eoo iooo eoo /'^oo /coo /aoo eooo 
 Toto/ ZnP or Plant 
 
 Fig. 27. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u. 
 coal, 50 per cent, load factor. 
 
 »aoo /eoo /aoo eooo 
 
 roto/ I/iP oT Pfant 
 
 Fig. 28 Twenty-four hours per day, %^^ day.s per year, 9,000 
 B.t.u, coal, 25 per cent, load factor. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 405 
 
 ■t--oirt'*comQocOLfsoc-. lo-^r 
 
 OS 00 eo (Mooooomo«o 
 
 '=^2 
 
 
 e<i r- oowr-oorHi-OoQC-ioooo 
 
 
 
 SO ec r-i 00 OS -n- irt irt 00 
 
 )«C'oo la eo 
 
 i-^in c^ Tt< 
 
 00. 
 
 CO 
 
 C^l O 00 ff> O iM o 
 ' '"' r-i e^i r-i CO 
 
 c^l w o ■* <* o O 
 c<i e^i 1-1 la 
 
 
 o ooict-t^eoo^°^ec'5'-eoc- 
 
 Tl r-l(MeO "^^ rH 
 
 r-l T-l ,_, 
 
 H^jC-jOO^lOOOO'^-'^C'"''* 
 
 O O c-j Irt C- 1 O IM '^ '^ o "* '^ t^ 
 
 H (M CO o"' o 
 
 ^ ego;.,, 
 
 rt rieoco 
 
 eg co-^in 
 
 OO^iHOrHOOcOCOOOO"^'— 'C^W 
 
 C-I 
 
 H<M- 
 
 ' CO 
 
 OiOC' 
 
 OiH (M i-(Ou5«oooor~-oirtoeo 
 
 ■"^ «Cl CO CO CI CO 
 
 |--t<iMu:)'MOI>-O00OOOOOOr-rt< 
 
 OM t-H **'C^u^oo-r?ooou:ir-t-cOTH 
 
 " 00 iH-^lO ooo 
 
 ioo«o ^ ^, 
 
 eo CO lo t^ \a 
 
 Cs) <M_ 00 CO <M O r-i r-t 
 M COCO o 
 
 'CO eg 
 
 (OiHOOOC^IOOOC^OlftOC-l 
 O OO00O-ft~T-IIMlft'MC-'*<O 
 
 t- '^ tH O 5^ O 
 
 
 • t-ooo 
 
 ■ ■r-<\n<Z>Oi ■ 
 
 ooci 
 
 >. ■ > 
 
 
 l-S OJ i^ < 
 
 
 
 :g^ 
 
 ^:i 
 
 
 ^ft.^a.„oo. 
 
 tcrt 
 
 mil 
 
 5 :i M ^.':: 
 
 
 ™ a, t, o o o c 
 
 ■Sog 
 
 I'D 0^ ^ 
 pi Oh 
 
 ^ o o 
 
 Irt CO c<i 
 
 o o o f^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^- s ^& 
 
 ,03 cc J^ 03 CC f_ If 
 
 fQ P."^ P- -^ l~ 
 
 O ^ ^ > 
 ^ ^ ^ < 
 
 .§1 -b. 
 
 7, 'I' (/. 3^ m 
 
 o > c > o 
 
 i-Ic<ico-rin«ot^oooior-ic<ieo'*'"''Cit^ooCi=^ i-ie-ieo •* 
 
 T-lT-lT-ii-ITH'-li-lrHrHi-l'^ Mcge^ c<i 
 
406 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ■ 
 
 EXPLANATION OF ITEMS ON TABLE IV 
 
 All costs are given in dollars except those for indicated h.p.-hrs., 
 b.h.p.-hrs., and kw.-hrs., which are given in cents. 
 
 Items 4. 5, 6 and 7 give the number and ratings of only those 
 engines and boilers actually operated in the test runs. Any re- 
 serve units are mentioned in the notes of equipment. Items 8, 9 
 and 10 include the cost of any reserve machinery and the costs 
 per h.p. are obtained by dividing the total costs by the rated h.p. 
 of the engines actually operated. 
 
 Item 11 gives the fixed charges per indicated h.p. year and in- 
 cludes interest, depreciation, repairs, insurance and taxes. Ex- 
 pressed as a percentage of the total initial cost, this item varies 
 from 11.3% in the case of plant No. 8 to 18% in the case of 
 plant No. 4. 
 
 Item 21, boiler and grate efficiency, gives the per cent, of heat 
 in the coal actually absorbed by the water in the boiler. 
 
 Item 22, efficiency of conversion, is the ratio of the energy de- 
 livered at the switchboard to that given the engine piston by the 
 steam. 
 
 Item 23, efficiency of plant, is the ratio of the energy delivered 
 at the switchboard to that in the coal as fired. 
 
 Item 24 is the load factor or ratio between the average load and 
 the peak load when both terms of the ratio refer only to the time 
 during which the plant was operated. 
 
 Item 25 is the load factor or ratio between the average load and 
 the rated capacity of the plant when both terms refer only to the 
 time during which the plant was operated. 
 
 Item 26 is the load factor or ratio between the average load and 
 the rated capacity of plant when the first term of the ratio refers 
 to the time operated and the second term refers to 24 hours opera- 
 tion per day. 
 
 All three kinds of load factors are figured from the indicated 
 h.p. of engines and are based upon 365 days operation per year. 
 
 Item 27 is the average indicated h.p. developed as figured from 
 the indicator cards taken during the test. 
 
 Item 29, average brake h.p., is figured from the average indi- 
 cated h.p. by assuming approximately equal losses of conversion 
 in engine and generator. 
 
 Item 31, average kws., was figured from the switchboard in- 
 strument readings. 
 
 In the case of the turbo-generator in plant No. 10, the efficiency 
 of conversion was figured at about 70% for the test load. The rat- 
 ing of 750 indicated h.p. was figured from the 500 kw. rating by 
 assuming an efficiency of conversion of about 90'>^: at full load. The 
 load factors for this same plant were figured from the kws. 
 
 EQUIPMENT OF PLANTS TESTED 
 
 Plant No. 1. 
 
 1 simple engine, 80 h.p. 
 
 2 boilers, 100 h.p. each. 
 Feed water heater. 
 
 No reserve units. 
 
 Plant No. 2. 
 1 high speed engine, simple, 100 h.p. 
 1 boiler, 100 h.p. 
 Feed water heater. 
 1 reserve boiler, 100 h.p. 
 
 Plant No. 3. 
 1 simple engine, 70 h.p. 
 
 1 simple engine, 45 h.p. 
 
 2 boilers. 70 h.p. each. 
 No reserve units. 
 
 Plant No. 4. 
 1 Corliss engine, 100 h.p., run 5 hrs. per day. 
 1 Corliss engine. 20 h.p., run 13 hrs. per day. 
 
STEAM POWER 407 
 
 1 boiler, 60 h.p. 
 1 boiler, 20 h.p. 
 Feed water heater. 
 No reserve units. 
 
 Plant No. 5, 
 
 1 compound engine, 150 h.p., run from 3 p. M to 12 midnight, and 
 from 5a. m. to 10 a. m., making 14 hrs. of service per day 
 for engine. 
 1 boiler, 200 h.p., fire kept banked while engine was not running. 
 1 reserve engine, 75 h.p. 
 
 Storage battery used as auxiliary to provide 24-hr. service. 
 With the same boiler efficiency a lower priced steam coal would 
 have reduced the kw.-hr. cost from 6.15 to 5.2 cts. 
 
 Plant No. 6. 
 
 1 simple Corliss engine, 165 h.p. 
 
 2 boilers, 100 h.p. each. 
 Feed water heater. 
 
 No reserve units. 
 
 1 Corliss engine, 120 h.p. 
 1 Corliss engine, 80 h.p. 
 1 boiler, 120 h.p. 
 1 boiler, 80 h.p. 
 No reserve units. 
 
 1 Corliss engine, 350 h.p. 
 1 boiler, 150 h.p. 
 Feed water heater. 
 1 reserve engine, 75 h.p. 
 1 reserve boiler, 125 h.p. 
 
 Plant No. 7. 
 
 Plant No. 8. 
 
 Plant No. 9. 
 
 1 tandem compound engine, 225 h.p. 
 
 1 simple engine, 150 h.p. 
 
 2 boilers, 200 h.p. each. 
 Feed M^ater heater. 
 
 1 reserve engine, simple, 120 h.p. 
 
 Plant No. 10. 
 
 1 Curtis vertical condensing steam turbine, 500 kw. 
 
 2 boilers, 500 h.p. each. 
 No reserve units. 
 
 The indicated horse power of the steam turbine is used as 750 
 on the data .sheet. This figure is obtained by assuming a conver- 
 sion efficiency of about 90% at full load. 
 
 POWER PLANT TESTS IN IOWA 
 
 Table IV gives results of tests on Iowa power plants and supplies 
 approximate figures on the cost of generating power in Iowa with 
 Iowa coals in electric power plants of the capacities noted on data 
 sheet. 
 
 All figures are based upon a one day's test of each respective 
 plant and upon the assumption that the plant is operated the same 
 each day of the year. These tests were practically all run during 
 the winter months and under the ordinary load conditions. The 
 readings were taken and the results calculated by students of the 
 Iowa State College under the direction of instructors in the Me- 
 chanical and Electrical Engineering departments of the college. 
 These figures were arranged and reduced to a comparative basis 
 by the Engineering Experiment Station. 
 
408 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The costs arrived at are not claimed to be entirely accurate. The 
 greatest discrepancy would perhaps be in the valuation of the 
 pow^er plant or in fixing the operating expenses. It will be noted 
 that the estimated value per rate indicated horsepower ranges 
 from $50.00 to $133.00 for plants of 200 i.h.p. or under. 
 
 Only the engines and boilers actually used in the tests are given 
 In the table. Any reserve units are mentioned in the notes on 
 equipment. The total cost of plants, however, includes the reserve 
 units. 
 
 The pounds of steam per i.h.p. -hr. represent dry stestm and 
 include that used for auxiliaries in practically all cases. 
 
 Efficiency of conversion is the combined mechanical efficiency of 
 the engine and the efficiency of the electric generator. 
 
 All costs are based upon 365 days of operation per year. 
 
 The cost per b.h.p.-hr. is calculated from the cost per i.h.p.-hr. 
 by assuming approximately equal losses of conversion in the engine 
 and generator. 
 
 The cost per b.h.p.-hr. includes fixed charges on the electrical 
 equipment of the station, while on Table II it does not. The differ- 
 ence amounts to about 8 or 10%. 
 
 COMPARISON OP DATA ON TABLES II AND IV 
 
 The results of actual tests are given to show how the estimated 
 efficiencies and costs check with those found in actual practice. 
 A very direct comparison is difficult to make because of the irregu- 
 larities in cost of plants, hours of operation, load factors and types 
 of equipment. Also most of the tests were made on plants of 
 small capacities. 
 
 The point of load factors should receive special attention. There 
 is some disagreement among engineers as to the correct definition 
 of load factor. To avoid misunderstanding on this point, load 
 factors based upon different standards are given together with a 
 definition of each. 
 
 On Table II (estimated costs) the different percentages of load 
 factor are based upon a peak load which is assumed to equal the 
 full rated capacity of plant. On Table IV (actual costs) the peak 
 load was found to be below the rated capacity in all cases. 
 
 If the load factor based upon the rated capacity in the actual 
 tests is used as a basis for comparison, the cost per unit of energy 
 is found to be considerably below the estimated costs. But if the 
 factor based upon the actual peak load is used, the actual check 
 quite closely with the estimated costs. On Table II the operating 
 expenses are put at a price which assumes the ability to produce a 
 peak load of rated capacity at any time. On Table IV the operat- 
 ing costs are at a price which insures the ability of the plant to 
 produce not rated load but the actual peak load at any time. From 
 this then, it appears that the most logical load factor to use is 
 the one based on the actual peak load of the day. The following 
 comparisons are made upon this principle. 
 
 The estimated costs assume two methods of operation as regards 
 hours operated per year. The first assumes 10 hrs. per day, 310 
 
STEAM POWER 409 
 
 days per yr. The second assumes 24 hrs. per day, 365 days per 
 yr. The first is of value in getting at the cost of power for fac- 
 tories operating only 10 hrs. per day and 6 days per week. The 
 second is of value in getting at the cost of all classes of power 
 supplied every hr. of the year. Most electric central stations 
 operate every day of the year, although many run less than 24 hrs. 
 per day. Referring to Table IV it will be noticed that for the 
 plants as tested the average number of hrs. operated per day is 18. 
 The following is a comparison between the averages of the actual 
 tests and the figures of the nearest corresponding estimated case. 
 
 Actual. Estimated 
 
 Hrs. per year 6,570 8,760 
 
 I.h.p. of plant 230.5 200 
 
 Total cost per i.h.p $75.50 $91.12 
 
 Fixed charges per i.h.p. -yr $10.35 $12.75 
 
 Operating cost per i.h.p.-yr $28.50 $66.32 
 
 Total cost per i.h.p.-yr $38.85 $79.07 
 
 Cost of coal per 2,000 lbs 2.36 $2.00 
 
 B.t.u. per lb. moist coal 10,150 9,000 
 
 Load factor .489 .50 
 
 Average brake h.p. developed 61.8 85.0 
 
 Cost per brake h.p.-hr., cts 2.58 2.13 
 
 Average kws. developed 37. 47.5 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr., cts 4.62 4.08 
 
 The greatest difference in the above comparison is with the 
 operating expenses per rated horse power year. It is much lower 
 in the " actual " column than in the " estimated " column because 
 in the first case the plant is so operated as to produce a maximum 
 load of only about two-thirds the rated load, while in the second 
 case the plant is so operated as to produce the full rated load at 
 any time. Also in the first column, the time operated is but 75% 
 of that in the second. 
 
 The costs per unit of energy are slightly higher in the " actual " 
 column than in the " estimated " column, but the average hrs. 
 operated is only 75% of the time operated in the " estimated " 
 column, which would naturally tend to make an even greater dif- 
 ference than that shown. 
 
 By a general comparison of all figures, the estimated costs seem 
 to be higher than those figured from the actual tests in Iowa power 
 plants ; this is especially true as the load factor decreases. It is 
 possible, however, that in the case of the tests certain operating 
 expenses were omitted, such as management and bookkeeping. 
 
 Following is the relationship between some additional correspond- 
 ing items on Tables II and IV. 
 
 Table II — Steam consumption ranges from 13 to 30 lbs. per 
 i.h.p.-hr. 
 
 Table IV — Same ranges from 23 to 46.4. 
 
 Table II — Boiler pressure ranges from 100 to 150 lbs. per sq. 
 in. by gage. 
 
 Table IV — Same ranges from 57 to 125. 
 
 Table II — Efficiency of boiler and grate ranges from 55 to 60%. 
 
 Table IV — Same ranges from 44 to 657c. 
 
 Table II — Water evaporated per pound moist coal ranges from 
 5.3 to 6.8 lbs. 
 
410 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Table IV — Same ranges from 4.1 to 7.87. 
 
 Table II — Pounds of coal per indicated h.p.-hr. ranges from 
 1.92 to 7.0. 
 
 Table IV — Same ranges from 4.2 to 9.9. 
 
 Table II — JEfficiency of conversion ranges from 49 to 81%. 
 
 Table IV — Same ranges from 50 to 81%. 
 
 Table II — Cost of coal per million B.t.u. ranges from 11.1 to 
 13.6 cts. 
 
 Table IV — Same ranges from 8.1 to 15.3 cts. 
 
 Note. — In all the above comparisons, except efficiency of con- 
 version, the figures are taken from Table II at 100% load factor, 
 and from Table IV at whatever load factor occurred in each case. 
 Efficiency of conversion was taken from the extreme limits in 
 both cases. 
 
 1 Mark =24 Cents 
 
 Human Drive 
 
 54 Helpers 
 
 2 Skilled Laborers 
 
 Chain Grate & Conveyer 
 20 Helpers 
 4 Skilled Laborers 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Reduction of steam cost in boiler house by elimination of 
 human labor. 
 
 Reduction of Steam Cost in Boiler House by Elimination of 
 Human Labor. Fig. 29 shows graphically the economic results of 
 the adoption of coal conveyors and automatic stokers, and was 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 411 
 
 included in a paper communicated to the Society of German En- 
 gineers by Professor Kammerer, and reprinted in Power and the 
 Engineer. November 8, 1910. 
 
 Before the introduction of mechanical means, there were required 
 
 ^22 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'J 
 
 ^^' 
 
 
 --v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lft _ 
 
 
 """-^v^ 
 
 V^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ S 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 -4 
 
 S." 
 
 ^ 
 
 v^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 E 
 
 J. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ZS, 50 75 100 IZ5 150 Hb ZOO 
 
 Fig. 30. Per cent, of saving due to superheat. 
 
 in the plant under investigation, 54 firemen and 2 overseers, neces- 
 sitating an outlay in wages of 3.9 cts. per ton of steam. After- 
 ward, only 20 firemen, 2 overseers and 2 machinists were needed. 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^t 
 
 
 
 
 
 s, " 
 
 ^^^^^il^.. 
 
 EAM 
 
 ^^.^^---^ 
 
 
 \. 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 Si^^RHEATH 
 
 
 — -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .-«_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 31. Curve of steam consumption for 240 h.p. Ideal Corliss 
 Engine. (Amount of superheat varies from 75° F. at ^4 load to 
 133'^ F. at 11^ load.) 
 
 must be added the cost of upkeep, interest and amortization for 
 The number of high class workmen was doubled, while the num- 
 ber of unskilled laborers was reduced to a proportion of 2.5 to 1. 
 The wages paid decreased to 1.45 cts. per ton of steam to which 
 
412 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 chain grates and conveyer, amounting to 0.85 ct., so that the total 
 cost was reduced to 2.3 cts., which is almost % of the original 
 amount. This saving was effected by employing automatic ma- 
 chinery and high class labor in the place of unskilled labor. 
 
 Saving in Steam Due to Superheat. The following data were 
 obtained from the Power Specialty Co. Results of tests by Belliss 
 & Morcom, Ltd., of Birming-ham, on one of their high-speed triple- 
 expansion engines, are shown in Fig. 30. 
 
 A 330 h.p. Lenz cross compound engine having 37.5 in. and 63 in. 
 diam, cylinders and 55 in. stroke, at the Municipal Electricity 
 Works of Charlottenburg, Germany, with 192 lbs. gauge pressure, 
 26 in. vacuum, 107 rev. per min., gave the following steam con- 
 sumption per indicated h.p. 
 
 STEAM CONSUMPTION PER I.H.P., LBS. 
 
 Load. 
 
 'A 
 
 V2 
 
 % 
 
 Vl 
 
 % 
 
 Superheat 185 deg-. P. . . . 
 
 . . . 11.1 
 
 10.1 
 
 9.5 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.7 
 
 Superheat 275 deg. P. . . . 
 
 ... 10.6 
 
 9.7 
 
 9.0 
 
 8.8 
 
 9.2 
 
 Saving: due to superheat on a 240 h.p. Ideal Corliss Engine is 
 shown in Pig-. 31. 
 
 The saving in steam consumption by superheating 100 deg. P. is 
 from 18% to 20% for simple engines to 10% for steam turbines. 
 
 Superheaters, Advantages. Efficiencies and Costs. Fig. 32. show- 
 ing the heat necessary to superheat steam above saturated steam, 
 also the heat required to dry steam with from 1 to 5% of moisture 
 was prepared by the Power Specialty Co. of Dansville, N. Y., who 
 have kindly furnished us with a copy through the courtesy of 
 R. H. Wyld. 
 
 Advantages. With a dry g-as the friction in pipe lines is much 
 less than with wet steam, or even v/ith saturated steam (v/hich 
 is a vapor that is becoming- wetter each moment). Therefore a 
 superheated steam line can be smaller in diam. for the same 
 efficiency than when wet steam is employed. A corollary to thi.s 
 is that with the same boiler pressure the installation of a super- 
 heater will not only reduce the fuel consumption but will increase 
 the end steam pressure on a long line. 
 
 Increase in Capacity. The average increase in boiler capacity 
 that can be added by installing superheaters is about 15%. 
 
 Superheat in Reciprocating Engines. In the averag-e triple ex- 
 pansion engine, with 100 deg. of superheat, 12% of steam will be 
 saved by superheaters in averag-e compounds 1 4 to 15%, and the 
 average simple engines, 18 to 20%. With small direct acting steam 
 pumps and auxiliaries, the saving- may be as high as 25 to 40%. 
 
 Superheat in Turbines. 10 degs. of superheat in a steam turbine 
 are good for about 17o saving in steam. This will hold true up 
 to 100 degs. and possibly to 150 degs., above which there is a 
 tendency to fall off. 
 
 The early stages of superheat are of particular value on account 
 Of the collateral saving of moisture. 1% of moisture in steam is 
 believed to decrease turbine economy by about 2%. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 413 
 
 All turbine guarantees are based on dry steam, which is a prac- 
 tical rarity. 
 
 Cost of Installation. For 100 degs. of superheat, on ordinary 
 plants working at 150 lbs. per sq. in. pressure, the cost of super- 
 heaters delivered and installed averages about $3 per h.p., maxi- 
 mum $3.50, minimum $2.50. (Also see page 592.) 
 
 Time to Install. On ordinary boilers the equipment will be out 
 of service a minimum of about 4 days^ while the superheaters are 
 being installed. 
 
 
 
 
 J , 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 < • 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^123W] 
 
 1 
 
 "/ 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r30o §• 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 =/ 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ii- 
 ir 
 
 lii 
 
 eS. ^ -ei 
 
 
 a^se-i] 
 
 o 
 
 St— 
 
 of^r 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 <1 
 
 '25( 
 
 
 / 
 
 -^/ 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 E1233-5J 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 i 
 
 / 
 
 
 " 
 
 B 
 
 I 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 -20C 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 j 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 [1230-1] 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 "150 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ''/ 
 
 
 
 
 tl22o-5 
 
 ' 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 "100 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 £1218- ] 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 "50 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [1205-6] 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 'III II 
 
 1 
 
 LiXLU. 
 
 1 
 
 -LLU. 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 iji.i. 
 
 MM 
 
 1 
 
 11 1 1 
 
 / 
 
 1111. 
 
 JUL 
 
 1 
 
 JJJJ. 
 
 ml 
 
 1 
 
 JJJX 
 
 MU. 
 
 000000'=''' 
 
 B.T.U.per Lb. Steam for Moisture 
 Quantities in brackets [ ] are total beats 
 of Saturated Steam above Zero 
 
 mtot^oooo^Mr) 
 
 B.T.U.per Lb.Steam for Superheat 
 
 Fig. 32. Diagram of the amount of heat necessary to superheat 
 steam above saturated steam. 
 
 Conditions Governing the Use of Super-Heat. O. S. Lyford. Jr., 
 and R. W. Stovel, in the Electric Journal, April, 1912, state that the 
 over-all efficiency of a lai'ge boiler plant will be increased from 5 
 to 7% by the use of superheat ranging from 100 to 150 degs. F., and 
 that, generally speaking, superheat is economical even wiih coaJ 
 as low as $1.50 per ton. 
 
 Since the general effect of superheaters is to raise the average 
 temperature of the steam and its corresponding pressure, thus giv- 
 ing greater velocity to the sujiply pipes, these latter need not be so 
 large as where no superheater is used. 
 
 Increasing the Economy and Capacity of Steam Boilers by the 
 Use of Forced Draft. The following data were given by Henry 
 Kreisinger and Walter T. Ray in U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 
 No. 412. 
 
^ 
 
 Large_Br^q 
 
 m 
 
 'A 
 
 tl. 
 
 M 
 
 7- 
 
 t- 
 
 2? 
 
 ..Horsepower Developed by Boiler 
 
 Fig. 33. Data of tests of locomotive boiler. (Showing how 
 "square" law of the pressure agrees with actual results.) 
 
 the 
 
 414 
 
STEAM POWER 415 
 
 The total pressure drop between ash pan and smoke box for 
 different outputs is plotted from 14 tests, 4 of which were made 
 with small round briquets, 4 with large square briquets and 6 with 
 run-of-mine coal, which contained a large quantity of slack that 
 was carried out of the furnace before it had time to burn, thus 
 resulting in a loss of the potential heat of the fine coal. Hence, 
 briquet curves are more reliable than that of the coal. Note on 
 the small briquet curve that when the total pressure drop was 2 ins. 
 of water, the boiler developed 365 h.p. to double which, the pressure 
 drop must be increased to about 8.5 ins. of water. Likewise with 
 a pressure drop of 3 ins. and 435 h.p., the capacity curve follows 
 the " square " law. Further proof of this law Is obtained in the 
 U, S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 367. 
 
 The product of the pressure drop and the volume of gases dis- 
 placed is equal, or proportional to the work done by the fan, and 
 since the former increases according to the " square law " and the 
 .second directly as the capacity of the boiler, the work of the fan 
 increases about as the cube of the capacity. 
 
 Table V gives the fan work required for the multiple capacities 
 and other related items calculated from the above mentioned 
 " cube " law. 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 o 
 oh 
 
 100 1,000 1 
 200 
 
 300 3,000 27 
 
 400 4,000 64 
 
 500 5,000 125 
 
 600 6,000 216 
 
 700 7,000 340 
 
 800 8,000 512 
 
 100 9,000 819 
 
 1.000 10,000 1,000 
 
 Note that if the steam consumption of the fan were 2% when 
 the boilers are run at their normal rate their capacity could not 
 be raised more than 7 times the normal rating, on which basis it 
 would seem that it is not practicable to increase the rate of working 
 of ordinary steam boilers more than three-fold, nor that of boilers 
 of approved efficiency more' than four-fold. The writers of the 
 paper state that the mechanical efficiencies of most fans used at 
 present for draft purposes range from 10 to 50%, and with many 
 closer to the lower than the higher limits. 
 
 Fig. 34 gives the data and results of a series of 21 tests made of 
 a Normand water-tube boiler on the U. S. Torpedo Boat Biddle, 
 
 -Co 
 
 <& 
 
 A^^ 
 
 "^-0^ 
 
 -Si-^ 
 
 It 
 
 > 
 
 1,000 
 
 2.000 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 tf 
 
 >. 
 
 >''^ 
 
 ■^ . u 
 
 ^<^ . 
 
 
 1^1 
 
 
 onsu: 
 ine i 
 iteam 
 rated 
 
 'o5| 
 
 o bc"^ 5 
 
 i^i 
 
 - c^ 
 S a> 03 
 
 <* "J^ 
 
 iJ'-a 
 
 
 m 
 
 M<2 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 4 
 
 270 
 
 9 
 
 640 
 
 16 
 
 1,250 
 
 25 
 
 2.160 
 
 36 
 
 3,400 
 
 49 
 
 5,120 
 
 64 
 
 8,190 
 
 81 
 
 L0,000 
 
 100 
 
13|||||||| III III III II II III 11111111171 
 
 
 12 :::::::::::::::::::::::::±:::::/: 
 
 ^ :---::::---:-::::::: J: 
 
 1 
 
 11 : : :: : :::"::"": : / : 
 
 11 - - -- -t: _|_ + 
 
 
 .... - ..-.__._-- -i . 
 
 » 10 ---J ^--■ 
 
 m 
 
 
 O ^>" Q "" " - - - 
 
 
 
 2© :::::::::: :": : : i'^. " : 
 
 ^cq g T — ?-- 
 
 o-S ::::::::::::::::::::::::::3:2::: 
 
 •S S 
 
 ^rt 7 :._::: cii: 
 
 •gg J 1 ^- 
 
 .iia :::::::::": ' ' it ' - '- 
 
 5 fl 6 r - - 
 
 3 3( 
 
 
 «^ 5 :::::::::::::::::::::::±:::::: + : 
 
 « bp 9^-^ 
 
 %% 4 ::::--: : :^±:±-±::: 
 
 
 %xi : : : : : " : ::::;^: ±: ~ : 
 
 01 +3 ' 2 1 
 
 g 3 _ ^..._q:j__.3:__. 
 
 
 « - X Z" " ■ " 
 
 ^ . -. --/;--- - -.-j^ 
 
 :S. it 
 
 : : : : : " : " : : . jk. • : ~ : " : 
 
 1 X ,^ 
 
 ^ :::::.:,; ?i . : :: : 
 
 Q? i 
 
 :: : : i,;-?: _ : 21J- 
 
 :t:!:::::::::::::::::::::::::J:: 
 
 .. >! • > 
 
 •-"o ^^ 4 T "L y * 
 
 
 P -2 tJ "" ^ 1 " 
 
 ^-cw^ ::::::::::::::::±:::::::^::3::^: 
 
 «< oS 3 ^ 1 ^-il4-Lkttti"mi=R 
 
 ^ c 0.^ - = :r =C f>r =F-- 
 
 ^f,'S,<n 2 --'.'"'•' '" li^- ~^ -^ - 
 
 ^Ort^^r-- , "b" T- 
 
 o&m^ -- - ----- -9-7 TT 
 
 «^ -^-n w C$» ' 
 
 ^Scc 1 II : "I :,i,i _ : : ^i : 
 
 '^ rt" 1 U^n 1 ^jM 
 
 ^ :::::-: = s!:::::::::::::::_i:::;b^: 
 
 . ^ rrnTiM [11 4imiq 
 
 mj^u ;;^ ±±--- 
 
 2 ^"0 . fi " " " " " '^y^ - - 
 
 
 £K^ :::: : : - : :z .'Ai :: : : : 
 
 o^^o4hTTM M-LUm4llillllllllill 
 
 js-s^s uOT^^ 
 
 l-s:^ 8 2 LlH^rrmT 1 ffl 
 
 :^=^^ ■ --itHf ^l'- 
 
 ^^"^ 0^:::i::::::i::::::::::::::^E::: 
 
 Fig. 
 
 100 200 300 
 
 Per cent. of.Rated Capacity Developed by Boiler. 
 
 f\tmr 
 
 34. Data of tests of Torpedo Boat Boiler. (Giving- power 
 required to push the gases through furnace and boiler.) 
 
 416 
 
STEAM POWER 417 
 
 made with run-of-mine coal, (represented in the figure by hollow 
 circles), small briquets, (represented by solid circles), and large 
 briquets, (represented by solid squares). The boiler had 2770 sq. 
 ft. of heating surface, corresponding to 277 boiler h.p. on the basis 
 of a stationary boiler, further details of the test being contained in 
 U. S. Geological Bulletin No. 403. The weight of gases passed 
 through the boiler and furnace per hour was computed from the 
 weight of coal burned and the flue-gas analysis. The curve shows 
 that the capacity of the boiler increases nearly but not quite as 
 fast as the weight of gases passing through the furnace and boiler. 
 
 The middle curve shows that the total pressure drop increases 
 very nearly as the square of the capacity. 
 
 In the upper curve the power has been computed from the total 
 pressure drops and the volume of air displaced, the latter being 
 
 TABLE Vr. RELATION BETWEEN BOILER OUTPUT AND 
 STEAM CONSUMPTION OF DRIVEN FAN 
 
 u ^ c , ii K ^^ 
 
 &io c^ ^fio cert cs'^v 
 
 ^ ^ ^^ |p ^^ ^5w 
 
 100 1,000 2.25 34 0.125 
 
 200 2,000 • 18.00 272 0.500 
 
 300 3,000 60.75 918 1125 
 
 400 4,000 144 00 2,056 2.00 
 
 500 5,000 281.25 4.250 3.125 
 
 600 6,000 485 00 7,344 4.500 
 
 700 7,000 771.75 11,662 6.125 
 
 800 8,000 1,156,00 17.408 8.000 
 
 900 9,000 1,640.00 24,786 10.125 
 
 1,000 10,000 2,250.00 34,000 12.500 
 
 figured from the data of the lowest curve. It shows that the power 
 required to move the air increases very nearly as the cube of the 
 capacity. The pressure difference was obtained by forcing air into 
 the fire room and maintaining a pressure therein. The wheel of 
 the blower supplying the air was 5 ft. in diam. and was directly 
 in the fire room, being protected by a wire screen. The blower had 
 no casing. There were no ducts and no leakage losses. 
 
 The blades of the blower wheel were curved in the direction 
 opposite to that of the rotation, which together with the omission 
 of casing made the blower highly efficient. The engine driving 
 the fan was capable of developing about 20 to 25 h.p., operated 
 by steam, with maximum speed of 1000 revs, per min. 
 
 When the boiler was working at capacity of 330% it required 
 about 13 h.p. to push the gases through the boiler, at which rate 
 
418 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of working- the power delivered to the shaft of the blower was 
 probably less than 20 h.p. or 2% of the energy which can be de- 
 veloped from the total steam made in the boiler. 
 
 The reason for the low efficiency of the existing mechanical draft 
 appliances is that the power actually needed to move the gases 
 through the boiler is so low that it would not pay to save part 
 of it at the price of increased first cost for draft apparatus. It 
 would hardly be good economy to spend several hundred dollars 
 for more efficient fans and motors, and the construction of large 
 air ducts to save perhaps 1% on the coal bill ; but in the future 
 if boilers are to be worked 3 or 4 times as hard as they are ati 
 present the power required to push the gases through the boiler 
 will increase to a considerable amount so that it will paj' to install 
 draft apparatus of high efficiency. By a proper design of the 
 boiler plant, the first cost of the draft installation can be greatly 
 reduced, and it may be possible to shorten the length of large, 
 expensive air ducts by placing independent fans for each battery 
 of boilers either above or under the boilers which they operate. 
 
 It seems entirely practicable to increase the rate of working 
 steam boilers to at least 3 and possibly 5 or 6 times the present 
 rate. The cost of installing highly efficient draft apparatus of 
 high pressure and high capacity will be small compared with the 
 saving of the cost of installing extra boilers. 
 
 A collateral advantage from the use of high pressure draft 
 apparatus necessarily greatly increases the speed of the gases in 
 the flues and all other gas passages, and consequently it Avill be 
 very much more difficult for any soot or ash to collect on the 
 heating plates or in the flues or tubes and reduce the efficiency. 
 
 In the furnace excessively high gas velocities are not desirable. 
 Since the burning of large quantities of coal with small grate 
 areas and combustion spaces would necessarily involve a rapid 
 flow of gas through the fuel bed which may carry the small pieces 
 of coal out of the furnace, and the combustible gases distilled from 
 the fuel bed may pass through the useful combustion space before 
 they are burned. 
 
 The velocity of the gases through the fuel can be reduced by 
 increasing the grate area which is inversely proportional to the 
 velocity of the gases. In most of the present boiler installations 
 there is enough space under the boiler for twice the existing grate 
 area. 
 
 The velocity of the gases through the combustion space can be 
 reduced by increasing the space, which can, perhaps, be done by 
 raising the boiler itself, and the combustion in many cases can be 
 improved by using proper mechanical stokers operated on the 
 principle of slowly heating the fresh fuel. 
 
 It is thus apparent that by doubling the grate area for instance, 
 and doubling the present velocity of gases through the furnace,, 
 about 4 times the amount of coal could be burned, resulting in 4 
 times the weight of hot gases. By doubling or tripling the present 
 effective combustion space and by the use of proper mechanical 
 
STEAM POWER . 419 
 
 stokers the combustion of the gases would be fairly complete before 
 they would enter the boiler proper. Hence it appears to be pos- 
 sible to increase the ordinary steam-generating apparatus 3 or 4 
 times without having the steam part of it take any more floor space 
 than it does for the present " normal " rate of working. 
 
 Reduction in Coal Costs by the Use of a Balanced Draft System. 
 Walter L. Watson, in Engineering and Contracting, July 1, 
 1908, has described the following experience in the proceedings of 
 the American Water Works Association in a plant consisting of 1- 
 100-h.p. Vulcan Iron Works horizontal tubular boiler, operating 
 prior to the installation of a special system of draft, at about 125 
 h.p., and using No. 1 buckwheat coal, at $2.30 per gross ton de- 
 livered, burning it with chimney draft, carefully regulating the 
 damper by hand. This station was pumping about 1,500,000 gals, 
 per 24 hrs. against a head of 342 ft., costing for fuel about $14.10 
 per million gals, pumped. 
 
 As against No. 1 buckwheat coal with natural draft evaporation 
 tests were made with No. 3 buckwheat or barley coal with the bal- 
 anced draft, with the result that the coal cost per million gals, 
 pumped was reduced from $14.10 to $8.44, which saving has since 
 been maintained. 
 
 The equipment consists of the following parts : First, a small 
 turbine blower set directly against the ash pit wall, through which 
 an opening is made to admit the air to the ash pit. The turbine 
 exhausts into the ash pit. Its speed is automatically regulated by 
 a .special type of regulating valve. 
 
 A diaphragm damper controller is used, connected in such a 
 manner to the blower, that the same variation of steam pressure 
 that changes the speed of the blower, simultaneously changes the 
 position of the damper. 
 
 The blov/er and damper are so adjusted, relatively one to the 
 other, that there is at all times practically atmospheric pressure in 
 the furnace chamber. 
 
 For each and every change in the speed of the blower, the damper 
 assumes a different position within the limits of its travel. The 
 air supply to the furnace and the exhaust of the gases from the 
 furnace thus have a constant relation one to the other and the 
 draft is at all times " balanced " against the atmosphere ; hence 
 the name " Balanced Draft." 
 
 The average steam consumption of the turbine is approximately 
 2% of the steam generated. 
 
 Increase in Capacity of Boilers Effected by an Increase in Grate 
 Area without Increasing the Heating Surface. Walter S. Finlay, 
 Jr., presented a paper on this subject at the meeting of the A. I. 
 E. E. on December 13, 1907, from which we have abstracted the 
 following. 
 
 Increase in capacity while the heating surface remains constant 
 is accompanied by a loss in the economy of evaporation due to 
 the increased temperature of the escaping gases. This loss varies 
 from almost nothing to perhaps 15% in fuel economy for an increase 
 
420 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of 100% in boiler capacity. Under the tlieory that combustion, dis- 
 tribution and transfer of lieat could be mucJi improved under new 
 conditions with careful attention to details of design, a change was 
 made in the plans of 18 of the boiler furnaces in the Fifty-ninth 
 Street plant of the Interborough Rapid Transit Co. of New York 
 City and a second stoker was installed. This enabled the plant to 
 operate within the range of the original single-stoker boiler, to- 
 gether with the higher range of the double stoker. The second 
 stoker installed has an area of 80% of the original one, local con- 
 ditions preventing an installation of a larger size ; the second, or 
 lower stoker, being constructed within a so-called " Dutch oven." 
 Tests made after the installation indicated that, in this case, 
 double-stoker operation covers the entire range of single-stoker 
 operation and adds an increase in capacity proportionate to its 
 larger grate surface, with no appreciable loss in economy, and an 
 increase of 71% in capacity was accomplished with no loss in 
 economy. 
 
 Using the above results as a basis, Mr. Finlay considers the effect 
 of such a change upon a plant as a whole and derives the follow- 
 ing figures assuming a plant with a first cost of $125 per kw., 
 equipment including turbo-generators and boiler stokers, with a 
 ratio of 60 to 1. Following are the derived results: 
 
 % 
 
 Total cost per kw $125.00 100 
 
 Building 43.75 35 
 
 Boilers 6.875 5.5 
 
 Grates 1.75 1.4 
 
 Piping . 5,625 4.5 
 
 Coal-handling apparatus per kw. . . ; • 2.30 1.84 
 
 Balance of equipment 64.70 .... 
 
 In figuring the expense of operating this plant the fixed charges 
 were taken at 12%, including interest 5%, depreciation 6%, taxes 
 and insurance 1%. The effect of a change, as outlined, on the 
 different items making up the plant cost, is tjien considered as 
 follows : 
 
 Piping: \n the assumed case the cost of steam piping between 
 boilers and manifolds, plus boiler feed piping and boiler blow-off 
 piping alone has been considered. With any change in the number 
 of boilers, capacity remaining constant, the cost of piping will vary 
 in the same ratio multiplied by a factor which is due to the change 
 in size of pipe. 
 
 Coal Handling Apparatus: Fixed plant capacity would seem to 
 demand fixed cost of this item, but the proportionate value of the 
 conveying apparatus is so great that any change affecting the 
 length of carry will raise or lower the total cost of the system 
 although not in direct ratio to such j* change. 
 
 Change of Ratio: Assume that it is decided to cut in half the 
 ratio of heating surface to grate surface by using double grates 
 or stokers under boilers of the same rating, with unchanged plant 
 output. The revised costs would then be as follows : 
 
STEAM POWER 421 
 
 Per kw. 
 
 Building- (reduced 40%) $26.25 
 
 Boilers (reduced 50%) 3.438 
 
 Stokers (remain same) 1 75 
 
 Piping (reduced 40%) 3.735 
 
 Coal-handling apparatus (reduced 15%) 1.955 
 
 Balance (remain same) 64.70 
 
 $101,468 
 
 Thus the plant first cost and fixed charges would each be reduced 
 19.6%. From figures on this plant, furnished by Mr. H. G. Stott, 
 Mr. Finlay estimates that the change to double grate operation 
 would decrease maintenance and fixed charges by 25%. 
 
 The summary of the above figures would indicate the following: 
 First cost, 19.6% saving; total plant charges varying from a saving 
 of 5.64% at 100% load factor, to 7.54% at 50% factor, to 9.657o at 
 4.16%; factor (365 hours per year). 
 
 Mr. Finlay also presented a set of figures on a plant cost of $150 
 per kw., for which he estimated a reduction in first cost and fixed 
 charges of 20.8%. 
 
 The summary of the figures in the case of the $150 plant follows: 
 First cost, 20.8% saving; total plant charges vary from 7.06% 
 saving at 100% load-factor, to 9.26%, at 50% factor to 11.51% at 
 4.16% factor. 
 
 Annual Saving from the Use of Soft Water in 1,000 h.p. Boiler 
 Plant. From a press bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey we 
 have taken Tables VII and VIII. 
 
 TABLE VII. COMPARATIVE EXTRA COST WITH USE OF 
 HARD WATER 
 
 Average coal consumption for 1,000 h.p. boiler, 48 tons a day, 
 48 tons of coal at $1.50 is $72. Estimated saving in fuel 
 on this water due to use of treated water is 5%. Five % 
 
 of $72 is $3.60 per day, or. for 300 working days $1,080 
 
 Cleaning boiler, at $8 per week 416 
 
 Repairs for tubes, etc 200 
 
 Boiler compounds 250 
 
 Coal for raising steam after cleaning, 104 tons at $1.50 156 
 
 7.5% depreciation on boiler plant costing $15,000 1,125 
 
 Total $3,227 
 
 TABLE VIII. COMPARATIVE EXTRA COST WITH USE OF 
 SOFTENED WATER 
 
 10% interest and depreciation on softening plant costing 
 
 $3,500 $350 
 
 Boiler repairs 50 
 
 Chemicals at 1 ct. per 1,000 gals 300 
 
 Coal for raising steam after cleaning, 16 tons at $1.50 24 
 
 5% depreciation on boiler plant' costing $15,000 750 
 
 Total $1,474 
 
 The total saving is. therefore $1,753, which is practically half 
 the cost of installing a softening plant, 
 
422 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Saving Derived from Water Softening Plant. G. H. Gibson, 
 Power, September 14, 1909. An installation of 300 h.p., consisting 
 of 4 Franklin and 2 Sterling water-tube boilers, taking the water 
 from a creek, the analysis of which water shows the following sub- 
 stances by solution. 
 
 Grains per gallon. 
 
 Silica 0.03 
 
 Calcium carbonate- 8.83 
 
 Magnesium " 0.33 
 
 Calcium sulphate 9.66 
 
 Magnesium " 4.79 
 
 Sodium chloride 2.54 
 
 F E 203 & A L 302 0.02 
 
 Total 26.20 
 
 These boilei's evaporate about 100,000 gals, of water per day, 
 which would precipitate within the boiler 380 lbs. of scale, or over 
 70 tons per yr., and due to the large proportion of sulphate, this 
 scale would be quite hard. In fact before the installation of the 
 water softening plant, a force of 3 men was maintained to clean 
 the boilers and replace tubes, failures of which were almost a daily 
 occurrence. 
 
 After the installation of a hot process system for softening the 
 water, consisting in effect of an open feed water heater, suitably 
 equipped and modified to provide the necessary time and space 
 for the settlement and filtration of the precipitate, resulting from 
 the effects of heat upon carbonate and from the action of soda ash 
 upon sulphate and chloride, it was found that only 1 man was 
 required for cleaning the boilers which was accomplished with a 
 hose, and that there were but few fractured or leaky tubes. 
 
 It was also found that whereas the work of the plant had some- 
 what increased, the consumption of coal had been reduced from 
 42 to 32 tons per day. On the basis of coal at $2.50 per ton, and 
 figuring that 1 new boiler tube per day was formerly required at 
 $2.00 per tube, the saving from the installation of the softening 
 system was about as follows : 
 
 3,600 tons of coal $9,000 
 
 Wages of 2 men for 1 year 900 
 
 300 new tubes per year 1,500 
 
 Total $11,400 
 
 The treatment of the water required 200 lbs. of soda ash per 
 day, costing $600 per year. The labor required for operation was 
 2.5 hrs. time of 3 men every 2 weeks, or about $36 per yr., making 
 a total cost of operation of the system of $636, which makes the 
 net saving from the operation of the plant, $10,764, or about 4 
 times wiiat the system cost. 
 
 This does not take into account the longer life of the boilers 
 because of the protection from corrosion, scale and cleaning tools, 
 nor the increased steaming capacity through always feeding the 
 boilers with hot water. 
 
STEAM POWER 423 
 
 Results from Operation of Water-Treating Plant. The following 
 article, by H. G. D. Nutting-, is from Electrical World, December 4, 
 1915. Considerable trouble has been experienced by the Mineral 
 Point (Wis.) Public Service Company in securing satisfactory 
 boiler-feed water. The creek water and well water of the vicinity 
 is hard, and in spite of the use of boiler compound a hard scale 
 about .1875 ins. thick collects on the boiler tubes and shells in a 
 run of 3 weeks. The effect of this scale on boiler operation and 
 maintenance cost suggested an investigation of methods of water 
 treatment which resulted in the installation of the apparatus shown 
 in Fig. 35. 
 
 The water-treating plant consists of 2 elements — a 30,000-gaI. 
 steel settling tank and a chemical proportioning and feeding device. 
 The settling tank is about 13.5 ft. in diam. by 25 ft. in height. 
 
 The operation of the softener is automatic and requires operating 
 attention only to provide daily a chemical mixture of lime and 
 soda ash. The water is tested each day, the chemical orifice 
 cleaned out, and the sludge blown off in addition. 
 
 The cycle of operation of the softener is as follows: When the 
 pure-water level has dropped to a point (by feeding to the feed 
 pumps) where the controlling float 5 causes the valve 4 in the raw- 
 water pipe to open, the raw water discharges into the waterwheel 
 buckets 2, causing the paddles 6 to stir the chemical solution in the 
 upper tank and also operate the chain buckets, thus delivering the 
 chemical solution into the constant-level cup 7. The chemical 
 solution then flows through the fixed orifice in 7, through the pipe 
 11, to the down-take 12 of the settling tank. The raw water is 
 exhausted from the waterwheel into the settling-tank down-take 
 pipe 12, where it mixes with the chemical solution and is stirred 
 by paddles arranged on a vertical shaft, actuated by the water- 
 wheel through the bevel gears 13. As the water level rises in the 
 settling tank, the float 5 rises and at a predetermined point shuts 
 off the raw-water valve 4. This cycle of operation requires about 
 10 mins., during which time treated water is also being drawn from 
 the softener to the heater through the outlet 15. The softener re- 
 mains idle for about 10 mins. or longer, depending upon the water 
 required, and then starts again. 
 
 The time and number of cycles of operation are recorded by an 
 electrical curve-drawing voltmeter contacted by the main-control 
 float rod 5, so that, by means of a calibrated orifice, operating 
 under a constant head controlled by a float, the amount of water 
 softened is determined. By adding the amount of steam con- 
 densed in the heater, which can be accurately calculated from the 
 record of inlet and outlet temperatures at the heater and the 
 amount of water delivered to the heater from the softener, a record 
 of daily water evaporated in the boilers is obtained. This quantity 
 is corrected for the amount of water blown out of the softener 
 with sludge, as determined by calibration of the sludge blow-ofC 
 valve. 
 
 To provide the hottest water possible to the softener and secure 
 the best economy of heat distribution throughout the plant, the 
 
y/////////////////////////////////yy//y^y/'yy/'yyy- 
 
 Fig. 35. Settling tank, chemical proportioning- and feeding device 
 of water-treating plant. 
 The mixing tank shown at 1 is installed on the ground level, 
 provided with a hand-operated stirring paddle and a steam siphon 
 for lifting the chemical solution to the chemical tank on top of the 
 settling tank. The waterwheel at 2 is operated by the raw water 
 discharged into the settling tank through the pipe 3. A raw-water 
 control valve at 4. operated by float 5, is controlled by the water 
 level of the treated water. The paddle wheel 6 used to stir the 
 chemical solution in the upper chemical tank is operated by the 
 waterwheel. The constant level cup 7 contains an orifice for feed- 
 ing the chemical solution in the correct proportion to the raw 
 water, and a bucket chain (not shown), for keeping the constant 
 level cup full, is operated from the waterwheel. A sludge blow-off 
 pipe is shown at 8 and a filter at 9. A raw-water-measuring de- 
 vice consisting of an orifice and a constant head control is indi- 
 cated at 10. 
 
 1 I 
 
STEAM POWER 425 
 
 water to be treated is taken from the discharge side of the West- 
 ing-house Le Blanc condensers witliout additional pumping, the 
 discharge head being sufficient to operate the softener. This water 
 has a temperature of from 90 degs. F. to 120 degs. F., depending 
 upon the load and weather conditions. The "make-up" water, 
 which is practically equivalent to the amount used by the turbines 
 not including the auxiliaries, and which is comparatively cold 
 water, is fed to the condenser injection pipe. In this way the hot 
 water is delivered at its most advantageous point (direct to the 
 softener) 'and the cold water at its most advantageous point (the 
 condenser). 
 
 The amount of chemicals required per day on the average is 
 35 lbs. of soda ash and 125 lbs. of lime. This amount is sufficient 
 to treat 65,000 gals, of creek water per day, which shows by test 
 not more than 5 grains of scale-forming material per gal. after 
 treatment. The cost per 1000 gals, of water is 1.63 cts. The daily 
 cost of softening chemicals is about $1, whereas before the treating 
 plant was installed the cost per day for compound was $2.40 and 
 the load was less than at present. The chemicals are purchased 
 by the car-load at low prices, the soda ash costing 1 ct. per lb. 
 and the lime 0.5 ct. per lb. 
 
 All chemical charges to the ground mixing tank are weighed on 
 platform scales and the tank is calibrated, so that by means of a 
 measuring stick the strength of the solution can be determined. 
 The mixing is done by an ordinary laborer under the direction of 
 the chief engineer. After mixing, the charge is stirred, and while 
 being stirred it is elevated to the upper tank by means of a Crane 
 steam siphon, in about 10 mins., with a small expenditure of steam. 
 
 Each day the treated water is tested by the chief engineer, by 
 means of a testing cabinet furnished by the manufacturer of the 
 softener. This would seem to be a formidable venture, in view of 
 the time and knowledge required to make a laboratory analysis of 
 water. As a matter of fact, it is quite as simple a.s making a CO2 
 analysis, and requires about 15 mins. to perform. The test is 
 conducted to determine (1) hardness, (2) causticity, (3) alkalin- 
 ity. 
 
 The hardness test is made by placing 100 cu. cm. of the water 
 to be tested in a bottle and adding a " standard soap solution " 
 from a measuring burette. The bottle is then shaken and the 
 soap solution added in small quantities until the lather will hold 
 together firmly for five minutes. A little practice in this test will 
 produce duplicate results within a reasonable practical error. 
 
 Causticity is determined by adding phenol to 100 cu. cm. of the 
 water to be tested in a porcelain dish, the phenol serving as an 
 indicator. An acid solution is then added from the measuring 
 burette until the solution again becomes clear. The number of 
 eu. cms. of acid-testing solution added gives the measure of 
 causticity. 
 
 The alkalinity test is made by adding methyl orange to the same 
 water tested for causticity. The methyl orange gives this water a 
 straw color. The acid-testing solution is again added from the 
 
426 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 burette until the indicator turns pink. The amount of acid-testing 
 solution added gives the test for alkalinity. 
 
 The relations between alkalinity and causticity tests are import- 
 ant in showing correct reatment. The test indicating proper treat- 
 ment should be about as follows: Hardness, 6; causticity, 4; 
 alkalinity, 7. 
 
 TABLE IX. ANALYSIS OP RAW CREEK WATER USED BY 
 MINERAL POINT PUBLIC SERVICE COMPANY 
 
 Grains ' Grains 
 
 Content per U. S. Content per U. S. 
 
 gallon gallon 
 
 Silicia 0.04 Sodium chloride 2 97 
 
 Iron and aluminum oxides 0.14 Total solids 29 9G 
 
 Calcium carbonate 11.03 Incrusling solids 22.26 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1.32 Organic and volatile matter 4.73 
 
 Magnesium sulphate 8.93 Alkalinity 12. GO 
 
 Magnesium chloride 0.80 Hardness 22.00 
 
 TABLE X. OPERATING CONDITIONS BEFORE AND AFTER 
 TREATING BOILER-FEED WATER 
 
 Item. Conditions before treating water. 
 
 1. Comparatively low economy of evaporation. 
 
 2. Lost, on an average, thirteen boiler tubes per month, costing 
 
 about $10 each, including cutting out old tubes and replacing 
 new ones. 
 
 3. Rapid depreciation and high maintenance cost of brickwork due 
 
 to extinguishing and starting of furnace fires. 
 
 4. Loss of service of boilers and shut-down due to loss of steam 
 
 when tubes blew out. 
 
 5. Danger from explosion. 
 
 6. Loss of coal in burning down and building up fires and loss of 
 
 heat in water. 
 
 7. Continuously calking leaks in tubes and shells. 
 
 8. Compound deposits on feed-pipe valves. 
 
 9. Required to clean heater weekly and feed cold water to boilers 
 
 while doing so. Heater never could be thoroughly cleaned. 
 
 10. Expense of frequent tui'bining of boilers (every thi-ee or four 
 
 weeks) with consequent expense for hand-hole and man- 
 hole gaskets, labor, power for turbine, etc. 
 
 11. Turbo-generator sealing glands stopped up with scale, requir- 
 
 ing turbine to be taken apart and cleaned, with consequent 
 loss of service and with considerable expense. 
 
 12. Numerous other troublesome conditions of a minor character. 
 
 In some cases even loss of vacuum was caused by scale. 
 
 Item. Results secured by treatment. 
 
 1. The coal bill has been reduced by 18% of its former amount, 
 
 based on the same load. The coal bill for July, the second 
 month of use of the water softener, was $514 less than for 
 May, when the softener was not in use — i.e., based on the 
 same output. 
 
 2. No boiler tubes have been lost since the softener began to ef- 
 
 fect results, in spite of the fact that the boilers have been 
 above rating most of the time. 
 
 3. The load has been carried on 1 500-hp. and 1 250-hp. boiler, 
 
 whereas previously 1 500-hp. and 2 250-hp. boilers were re- 
 quired. Incidentally, the load has increased while the horse- 
 power of the boilers in service has decrea.sed. 
 
 4. Scale has practically disapi)eared, leaving the black iron. 
 
 5. Maintenance and depreciation of brickwork have been di- 
 
 minished. 
 
STEAM POWER 427 
 
 Item, Results secured by treatment. 
 
 6. Additional coai is saved, owing to lack of necessity of burning 
 
 down and rebuilding tiies and reiieating water. 
 
 7. Danger of blow -out lubes eliminated. 
 
 8. Leaks stojji>ed. ( Innnediately after starting the softener, sev- 
 
 eral leaks oijened up in the tubes and shells of one boiler. 
 This was caused by a fireman permitting low water, al- 
 though the elimination of scale from the tubes and shells 
 probably aggravated the conditions. After calking and 
 rolling, no leaks have reappeared.) 
 
 9. No deposits on or eating out of valves. 
 
 10. Heater now washed out every 2 or 3 weeks (previously it was 
 
 cleaned weekly). Very little deposit found. What little is 
 found probably caused by overtreating the water slightly. 
 
 11. No turbining required. It is anticipated that once a year will" 
 
 be sufficient 
 
 12. Turbine glands remain clear. No cleaning required. 
 
 13. Less loss fiom blowing down. 
 
 14. No loss of vacuum from scale on atmospheric relief valves and 
 
 other trouble caused by scale. 
 The results in Table X have been shown by the use of the water 
 softener two months and indicate that the external treatment of 
 feed water at this plant returns a very handsome profit on the in- 
 vestment required. The apparatus cost about $3,000 installed. 
 
 This installation, in addition to furnishing treated water for the 
 boilers of the central station, pi'ovides soft water for the Mineral 
 Point & Northern Railroad Company for use in its locomotives. It 
 is reported tnat a saving in coal similar to that of the operating 
 company has been made, and, further, that fewer leaks are en- 
 countered. One of the engineers has stated that previous to using 
 soft water he did not get out of the yards in the morning before 
 his flues started leaking. Since using soft water he has had no 
 more leaks. This also results in a saving of water, as a large 
 amount leaked out on each trij). It is anticipated by the manage- 
 ment of the railroad, based on the saving so far, that the saving in 
 maintenance cost will be at least as great as the saving in fuel. 
 The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company has also 
 contracted for a supi^ly of this water and is now using it. 
 
 The Mineral Point Public Service Company serves a group of 
 cities in southwestern Wisconsin, as well as several zinc mines, 
 with light and power. The station equipment consists of 4 250-hp. 
 and 2 500 h[). Heine boilers, 1 1200-kw. Allis-Chalmers turbine, 1 
 1200-kw. Westinghouse turbine, and 1 275-kw. directly connected 
 Nordbeig engine-generator set. The condensing water is cooled 
 by a Stocker cooling tower and by a cooling pond recently con- 
 structed. Make-up water is pumped .sometimes from a creek run- 
 ning past the power house and sometimes from wells. 
 
 The softener is made by the Northern Water Softener Company 
 of Madison, Wis. 
 
 Costs of Cooling Ponds. From Electrical World, Oct. 9, 1915. 
 Tables XI and XII give data on the operation and cost of construct- 
 ing cooling i)onds equipped with spray nozzles for cooling the circu- 
 lating water of condensers used with steam engines and turbines. 
 In order to make a proper comparison of the costs of cooling ar- 
 rangements for prime movers varying in rating from 500 lews, to 
 
428 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 w^^i 
 
 . 
 
 o*^ 
 
 
 o ooo 
 
 >i 
 
 O :«<M 
 
 <v 
 
 irt«w 
 
 H 
 
 >-< 3 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 O "3 
 
 d 
 
 
 w 
 
 c^r^ 
 
 o 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 too 
 
 rt-0» 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 Oi 
 
 00 
 
 t-o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 CO 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 co 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 K 
 
 o 
 
 
 eo 
 
 o>fl 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 .^ 
 
 oio 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ot- 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 t- 
 
 <x>o 
 
 o 
 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 Irt 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 oo_ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 •* 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 tf 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 on 
 
 a> 
 
 iM 
 
 ^ 
 
 ooo 
 
 OS 
 
 '-',— 
 
 eo 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 5-JTO 
 
 Oi 
 
 00 
 
 t- 
 
 «co 
 
 00 
 
 r— . 
 
 
 in 
 
 . 
 
 Oi^r-I 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 oc 
 
 a> 
 
 
 eg 
 
 • 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 eo 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 l-H 
 
 ^ 
 
 la 
 
 
 • 
 
 oo 
 
 iM 
 
 O 
 
 1- 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 (M~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 CI 
 
 o 
 
 o-* 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 t- 
 
 l-O 
 
 00 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 irt 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 OO 
 
 U3 
 
 ov 
 
 c i 
 
 -l-O 
 
 CI 
 
 tH -"• 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 'Xl-M 
 
 
 00 
 
 t- 
 
 oco 
 
 r- 
 
 0/ 
 
 
 t— 1 
 
 o 
 
 '£> 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 t? 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CI -rO 
 I- OCO 
 
 o 
 
 '-i O w'- 
 
 M O 
 
 •Si 
 
 O rl 
 
 
 
 2.01. 
 
 HO' 
 
 t.W 
 
 ^r.:9. 
 
 rt^ 
 
 " o 
 
 PC 
 
 W).. 
 
 :5 a: 
 
 
 rt C rt c 
 
 w l' t- C 
 
 oi-O a; ir .- . • - 
 H H -^ « Oh 
 
 3 .a;-© 
 
 
 
 a>> 
 
STEAM POWER 429 
 
 2000 kws. it is necessarj' to assume a steam consumption that is 
 faijly consistent with plant practice in each case. Foi- tlie 500 kw. 
 turbo generator a steam consumption of 22 lbs. per k\v.-hr., when 
 oi^^rating at a 17.5 in. vacuum letened to a oU in. baromelei, is 
 taken as an average water rate for summer weathei in the Middle 
 and Southern states, or a total steam consumption of 11,000 lbs. per 
 hr. for the unit. In order to obtain the vacuum mentioned, it is 
 necessary to have a ratio of circulating water to -steam of 60 to 1, 
 therefore 1320 gals, per min. of water will be circulated and sprayed 
 at the cooling pond. This will require about 35 nozzles of a size to 
 discharge approximately 4 gals, per min. at 7 lbs. pressure at the 
 nozzle. The cost of such an equipment of nozzles, spray heads, 
 si)ray arms, drip sprays and pii)ing, including eccentric spray, tees, 
 valves when required, suction-weil wall piece and flange-by-bell 
 elbow, is about $825 as shown in Table XII. 
 
 TABLE XJI COST OF CONSTRUCTING COOLING PONDS 
 WITH SPRAY NOZZLE EQUIPMENT 
 
 Size of steam unit, kws 500 1,000 2,000 
 
 Assumed steam consumption, lbs. per 
 
 kw.-hr 22 20 18 
 
 Total steam condensed per hr., lbs. . 11,000 20,000 36,000 
 
 Circulating water required, 60 to 1 
 
 ratio, gals, per min 1,320 2,400 4.320 
 
 Number of nozzles required 35 60 110 
 
 Cost of nozzles, equipment and pip- 
 ing complete $825 $1,585 $2,310 
 
 Size of cooling pond required, ft. ... 50 by 128 90 by 90 112 by 120 
 Approximate cost concrt-te basin 
 
 comi)lete $2,560 $3,240 $5,400 
 
 Approximate cost puddled clay basin 
 
 complete $1,280 $1,620 $2,700 
 
 Approximate cost concrete basin, 
 
 equiiiment and piping complete . . $3,385 $4,825 $7,710 
 
 Ai)proxiniate co.^t [juddied clay basin, 
 
 equipment and piping complete . . $2,105 $3,205 $5,010 
 
 The size of the pond required for a 500 kw= installation should 
 be abcjut 50 by 128 ft. with the sjjrays arranged in 7 groujis of 5 
 nozzles each, t-onneeled to a pi|)e line down the center of the pond 
 If a concrete basin; is required, it should have a 5 in. reinforced 
 concrete bottom and side walls, the side walls having a slope of 
 2 to 1 to avoid the cost of forms In this case the pond should 
 have a suitable suctitm well with double screens to prevent the 
 nozzles from clogging and also piers carrying i)lates and rolls oh 
 which the piping can rest The total construction cost for such a 
 pond, including the excavation, will be about 40 cts. per sq. ft. 
 under average conditions with no hazards, or a total of $2,560 
 for the concrete basin complete. This amount added to the cost of 
 the special equipment and r>iping makes the total ar)proximate cost 
 for the 500 kw. installation $3,385. 
 
 If the conditions are such that a pond can be constructed with a 
 6-in. puddled clay bottom and the bank lined with puddled clay of 
 the same thickness, the cost would be about 20 cts. per sq. ft, or 
 
430 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 C-OOMO-^COOOO 
 t^OOOOCgi-ir-ii-l 
 €«-T-l W rH as 00 I-- 
 
 o 
 
 t~- CO '-' O M CJ <0 o O Ol (M CO 
 00'^i-lt>'Ma5(M00 c- t> «> 
 
 tOWOOrH^COO 
 
 o 
 
 \a 
 
 CT5(M-^cr5«e^lO«0 
 
 \a 
 
 rt* 
 
 ©^Ift lO CO irt (M Oi 
 
 
 
 1-t NNtH 
 
 
 
 
 t-05''-'OrfO<MoO 
 
 oot'csjirtC^jt-T-ico 
 
 ' Ift CD t- O lO O 
 ■ CO CO iH lO 05 CO 
 CO tH Ift tJh Tt< 
 
 oofoooirt«ou?^W50 
 
 COIOCOtHtH'MOO-'** 
 
 fl 
 
 
 rH ■<*• CO CO r-l a; t> 
 
 
 
 Ol 
 
 
 ee^ 1-1 (Mt-Ht-i 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 
 
 'O 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 \a \a 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 lO«5U5o't^rHeo'oO 
 
 O 
 
 Tjj 
 
 CO 
 
 CJr-fOOO-^TfCOlO 
 
 «D 
 
 ICt 
 
 
 tH-S-rHOM oOCOTf 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ««■ T-l r-lT-ii- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 O 
 O Cvj 
 
 
 
 oS 
 
 o 
 
 CO 03 t-^ O O iH 00 O O 
 
 i-i 
 
 •* 
 
 0) 
 
 CV) 
 
 USCOCOCOCOcMCOO 
 
 t- 
 
 «o 
 
 
 rHCOOOCO -^C^JiH 
 
 
 
 
 60- rHT-lr-l 
 
 
 
 *5fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 <DTt-'u5ocM'«deooo 
 
 o 
 
 <m' 
 
 
 \a 
 
 t^ooasO(Moooi« 
 
 00 
 
 t- 
 
 
 rH 
 
 r-i (M «D (M (M O 0» 
 
 
 
 ^ tH 
 
 0(M OlOOS'^OOiftO O CO 
 T-l Irt Ifl tH O tH 00 ■* O CO ■!-{ 
 
 eoeoco i-i tH 
 
 coo'^ooscocooio 
 
 rHO-<f0005iHC0OC0 
 M T-t COCOIM 
 
 C >^ 
 
 .gag 
 
 
 0) o^^ 
 
 a ^ 
 
 liia .ft 
 
 aaa 
 
 rt (rf Q 
 
 0) rt d oj 
 •^ c o o r 
 0,0 o o a 
 
 ft^^ '^^ 
 p< +j +j +j 
 
 C; 7J t/i K L^ 
 
 .-^oooa 
 ^ fcc-i g >. t>, ^4j 
 c« sh 5 <D w-ri vv w 
 
 o.Sot»::3ooo« 
 OfeO<iOHEHEH>H 
 
 ; ft 
 
 
 • o • 
 o 
 
 H h 
 
 o M 
 o rt 
 
 00 00 t^ OJ C^J t- kO (M 
 
 T-ICOCDr-l iHOOS 
 
 t-'^lftOM'COCOOO 
 a5U5000(NCDCC>CO 
 i-KMcCt-1 oojoo 
 
 •OOOCOiMVOOO c 
 iH CO rH t^ CO CO ■T' ■^ < 
 CO COUJT-I O500C^ 
 
 • • o o o a 
 
 : : fc, t, ;-"5 
 
 : :aaa_^ 
 
 • • in -"fco rt 
 
 • m CO rt ra o 
 
 *S rt cc cti , 
 
 • ao o o • 
 • ao o o a 
 
 • 3 ...-•= 
 
 
 a tJ -rri O O O <D 
 
 +J 'I' • b ^ ^ V 
 
 c htri "^ >> >> ij-'-tJ 
 0.5 ot-s o o o a* 
 
 
 
 h H 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 431 
 
 ceo.-iooo'j'i'oo 
 
 O 00 03 W I- ri Ol O U5 
 
 laeocoioouioicji-io 
 t>. Oi o T-( eo 00 en «5 o 
 
 «e-t- OS lO CJ Oi «D 
 r-l eC«^JlM 
 
 •*0000l0'*o>00 
 
 o oi r^ o «o (M c~ j-i 
 
 T}> Tj. iftiMO 
 
 o 
 
 t<ooooevoeooo 
 
 ; M CO T-l U5 lO -*■ W t- 
 
 ,H US 00 eo c^i o t~- 
 
 feO^ tH C<1<Mi-I 
 
 )rJ>OOt-C0OOO 
 rt -^ O iM t^ >0 CO 
 
 looooooocgooo 
 
 > to O K5 CO CO 00 ■* 00 
 I iH CO l> W CO IM O 
 
 " OOOt-rlC^liHOeO 
 
 
 
 ■* to ca lo u3 CM CD OS o o eq 
 
 rH 0505CgOC^l-<*<coO 00 
 iH IM <£) C-l iH O 05 
 
 tD-^OOO-^IOOO 
 Ij O t^ «£> o C^j Tj< --r eg 
 
 " (M(MIOt-I OO300 
 
 tr-OMoooCM cooo CM 
 o oj-q.Qot^'Mcgooco OS 
 
 rH CMcM-TjH OiOOC- 
 
 o 
 .-Him 
 • .o 
 
 2 : :gac.^ 
 
 .£ o aiS ^ 
 tc^^ aft 
 
 Safest 
 
 o o Op o«:= o o o^ 
 
 rt rt 05 5 
 
 , CD O 
 
 •« TO CS TO 
 
 18S8| 
 
 3 • * • 
 M Oi Oj Uj U 
 
 o o o (u 
 "c o o o a 
 
 CD . Ui 
 
 o . o 
 
 iM h 
 
 ttr-n 
 
 a o 
 
 ^^ 
 o^ 
 
 60^ 
 
 ScD 
 
432 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ICO 
 
 Mr-7HOoooooot-Tf<TH( 
 
 to Ifl IC O lO T-H O O <M IM M 
 
 &9- •<*i to i-H CO CD r^ N 
 
 oo 
 
 OCOIM 
 
 W50 O O 
 
 ocoe^i lo 00 
 
 2«^'«C>OOo"u5r-IooOI>-eO, 
 
 40^ CO r~- r^ c^i 1-H o t^ 
 
 e<9«Oi-i (^^ T-i OS 
 
 rr^-icoooousoooorHOow 
 
 S inoOOOOOi-HOOCJr-liH 
 S e/&06(M«^«0O00O r 
 
 "^ tH-<*<10 lNt>CO 
 
 lH C^ ^i^ CO CO 
 
 Oi-l"*OoOOOOOCOOt- 
 la LOOoOOOOOiM Wr-f 
 
 0500 ■* tft rH t- 
 rH COCOOJ 
 
 ^(MiOOoOOuiOO-^C^Oiin 
 ^ lOCOoOOOiOOMiMrH 
 2 €^ rH irt rr •*■ u3 <M »0 
 
 rH C<llMrH 
 
 0<M«00000«OOOi-lOO»fl 
 CO 00 US o 1^4 '^^ 05 kO O CO !>) Cv^ (M 
 6O-0O rH '5^ IM ^ IC lO 
 
 ofMosoooifl-^ooiniiMas 
 
 Oi lOrHoCO-* -*OOlMCgrH"* 
 €«-J5C0 05"*'<D<Mm 
 U5.:t<C^ COrHOO 
 rH C^J C] rH 
 
 SO 
 
 cog 
 
 ^1 
 
 H 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 >^ 
 
 iMCOOOOlOOOOOWrHt^, 
 , OlCOt— O^O'^'OOCOCOC^ 
 
 (MCOi-H «DWio 
 
 Ol^^lcooocooooo<^^c^co 
 
 O OCOrHOO'^OiOOO'^COeO ^ 
 
 H to 
 
 S=^ 
 
 fl b£ 
 
 C C fl 
 
 c c d o o o 
 o o o-^-*-'-^ 
 •*-' -^ *" l^ u u 
 •„ '„ %, <ij <i^ 'i> 
 
 0, 4J O) GGft 
 aa^W^co 
 
 Irt rf* CO €^««-S«- 
 
 J? *e m («- oi *^ 
 
 0) 03 03 
 
 ;::; o o 
 coo 
 
 o o 
 
 5 03 c« 
 
 cc cc rt 
 o o o 
 CJ o o 
 
 O i-' t- " 
 
 O O) 0) O) u 
 
 S, t/. », K C 
 
 03 O p p 13 
 
 0)000 
 **' >> >. >. 
 
 A 
 
 .555 rt 03 03 
 
 JO o o a> 1) 4) 
 
 ■T) CM !M o O O ^ O O «© CO O , 
 ; ?0 Oi O O (M t-- O O <M <M (M 
 
 «<^-^ior"*«>u^rH 
 
 IflCvjC^ rH as t^ 
 
 l^(MOOlrtOOOt--*TH 
 ?CilOOlOOOlOOOCg(MiM. 
 »=> 05 O CO CO O iM IM 
 
 ■a Baa 
 
 O S ^ X 03 
 
 33 "-^ fl bfi- 
 
 > F-H 03 
 
 S '^'^ 
 
 O o - 
 &Ou_, O 
 
 C C fi 
 
 coo 
 
 0/ Oj OJ 
 
 ^^^ Oi 03 03 
 
 OS 03' 
 
 0) 
 
 'I' o3 03 o: 
 ;i: o o o 
 
 SZ.O o o 
 
 a . . . 
 
 o o c 
 -a o o o 
 
 rt 03 rt 
 O O O fl 
 
 o o o S 
 
 ^ 2 ^ ii CC « C3 
 
 o o o.^ oti^o op 
 
 (1; a> a; ^ 
 
 or! !/^ a. S 
 
 O O O 3 
 
 O O Oj^ 
 
 TITO'S 
 
 o3 03 «3 
 
 dJ <u o 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 433 
 
 $1,280 for the basin complete. Adding the cost of the special 
 equipment and piping to this amount, the total cost of a pond of 
 this character would be about $2,105. 
 
 On a similar basis for the 1000-kw. unit, assuming a steam con- 
 sumption of 20 lbs. per kw.-hr., a ratio of circulating water to 
 steam condensed of 60 to 1, and the same size of nozzles as before, 
 spraying 2400 gals per min., 60 nozzles would be required. The 
 cost of this equipment, with the necessary piping, fittings and 
 
 mmM^^i^^^^^M^^^^t^^^^^^ 
 
 Pig. 36. Plan and elevation of cooling pond. 
 
 the like, would be around $1,585. This installation would require 
 a pond 90 by 90 ft. or 65 by 125 ft., with an arrangement of 3 or 2 
 lines of pipe having 4 or 6 groups of sprays of 5 nozzles each 
 per line. The cost of a concrete basin of these dimensions at 40 
 cts. per sq. ft. would be $3,240 and, including special equipment and 
 piping, $4,825. For a pond with puddled clay bottom and sides 
 the total cost would be $3,205. The costs for the 2000-kw. installa- 
 
434 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tion shown in Table XI are arrived at in the same manner, assum- 
 ing a steam consumption of 18 lbs. per kw,-hr. 
 
 Cost of Making a Spray Cooling Pond. Power, April 13, 1915, 
 Besides the pleasing appearance, the next important feature of this 
 device is its durability. Being all iron and concrete (Fig. 36), 
 there is practically no wear and nothing to require attention or get 
 out of order, and there is no danger from wind storms. 15 lbs. 
 pressure is all that is required to operate the spray. The loss by 
 evaporation is about the same as in other spray cooling devices. 
 
 This cooler handles 1500 gals, per min., reducing the water to 
 normal temperature. This is regulated by the pressure, and thereby 
 
 Pounds 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 '4 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \'^: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bort 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 30- 
 20- 
 10- 
 
 
 
 
 X- 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 APPROXIMATE YEARLY COSTS 
 OF 
 
 STEAM POWER 
 
 150 DAYS - 10 HOURS PER DAY 
 
 SIMPLE CONDENSING 
 
 Plotted from data compUed by 
 
 Wm.j:.Snow 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^< 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Z^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 "~" 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 -?- 
 
 
 1 
 
 Total C 
 
 oaljjerf 
 
 I. p. 
 
 per 
 
 Hou 
 
 1-, L 
 
 )S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 yot. 
 
 LC^ 
 
 P 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h^i 
 
 'fp 
 
 anf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 L^-'pe 
 
 
 Pre 
 
 02l_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 )U^ 
 
 V/aa 
 
 e,.S 
 
 Su 
 
 r\ie 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^'"''"T?^ 
 
 tmt 
 
 j , 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 — ^ 
 
 =r 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 ±. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 CO 70 80 90 100 
 
 Horse Power 
 
 Fig. 37, Approximate yearly cost of steam power, 150 days at 10 
 hr. per day. 
 
 the height to which the spray rises ; the humidity of the atmosphere 
 is also a governing factor. The cost of the plant was as follows 
 (estimated): Ground, $400; excavating (800 yds.), $250; concrete 
 and labor, $1,250 ; iron pipes and nozzles, $550 ; total, $2,450 
 
 The cost of a cooling tower with fan to perform the same amount 
 of work was estimated at $5,000. The brass nozzles are of special 
 make and cost $500 for the 20 used. The bottom of the pond is 
 lined with 5 ins. of concrete and the depth of water is about 3 ft. 
 The concrete columns supporting the pipes are 12 ins. square in 
 cross-section, and they are spaced 12 ft. 6 ins. apart on straight 
 runs. The cooling pond has been in service about a year. 
 
 Cost of Steam Power. After Wm. E. Snow, Engineering Maga- 
 
STEAM POWER 435 
 
 zine, May, 1908. These figures were compiled from a large amount 
 of data obtained in many small power stations at various places, 
 and are believed to be sufficiently accurate for any purpose of 
 ordinary estimating. They are naturally general averages or ap- 
 proximations thereto. 
 
 Approximate Yearly Cost of Steam Power. The curves in Fig. 37 
 were plotted from data compiled by Wm. E. Snow and represent 
 the approximate yearly costs of steam power, 150 days, 10 hrs. per 
 day, for simple condensing engines. 
 
 The Cost of Steam Power for Small Engines. Tables XVI-XVIII 
 are quoted from W. O. Webber's figures on the cost of one steam 
 horse power per brake h.p. per year for simple engines as given in 
 Engineering Magazine, July, 1908. 
 
 TABLE XVI. COST OF ONE STEAM H.P. PER BRAKE H.P. 
 PER YEAR, SIMPLE ENGINES 
 
 Size of plant, h.p 10 20 40 60 80 
 
 Cost of plant per h.p $230. $200. $190. $180. $175. 
 
 Fixed charges, 14% 32.20 28. 26.60 25.20 24.50 
 
 Coal per h.p. per hr 15. 12. 10. 9. 8. 
 
 Cost of coal, $4.00 per ton . 82.50 66. 55. 49.50 34. 
 
 Attendance 3,080 hrs 50. 30. 20. 15. 13. 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 
 
 per yr 10. 6. 4. 3. 2.60 
 
 Total 174.70 130. 105.60 92.70 84.10 
 
 Without coal 92.20 64. 50.60 43.20 40.10 
 
 Coal, at $5.00 195. 146.50 119.35 105.07 95.10 
 
 " 4.50 185.01 138.25 112.47 98.80 89.60 
 
 " 4.00 174.70 130.00 105.60 92.70 84.10 
 
 " 3.50 164.38 121.75 98.72 86.51 78.60 
 
 " 3.00 154.06 113.50 91.85 80.32 73.10 
 
 " 2.50 143.74 105.25 84.97 74.13 67.60 
 
 " 2.00 133.42 97.00 78.10 67.95 62.10 
 
 Coal Consumption of Compound Condensing Steam Plant. W. H. 
 
 Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the follow- 
 ing figures, for running 9 hours a day and 305 days per year, in 
 tons of coal per year. 
 
 H.p. 
 
 Tons in round numbers 
 
 400 
 
 1,500 
 
 500 
 
 1,800 
 
 600 
 
 2,100 
 
 800 
 
 2,600 
 
 1.000 
 
 3,100 
 
 1,500 
 
 4,400 
 
 2,000 
 
 5,500 
 
 4,000 
 
 10,200 
 
 PLANTS WITH 2 ENGINES 
 
 500 . 3,600 
 
 750 5,000 
 
 1,000 6,200 
 
 2,000 11,000 
 
 PLANTS WITH 4 ENGINES 
 
 500 7,200 
 
 1,000 12.400 
 
436 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 fa 
 
 < 
 
 4 
 
 m 
 
 12; 
 
 «9 
 
 f,0 
 
 o 
 
 fa 
 o 
 
 y 
 
 m 
 O 
 U 
 
 OOOOU3 ooiooi^usooot- 
 ^ o oc s^i M CO " CO a> 00 CO -^ c-i T-I oj 
 
 rH >» tH (M <M <M W (M (M im tH 
 
 oi«oo U5coc<oe<?ooc>50o ecoo co 
 _ot2io'M T^ooooi>|^^ooT^or-"^-■l 
 
 O J^ m fO 05 
 OOCO tH 
 
 ' M C5 O CO 1-J oi t--^ Tf* 
 
 00 CO CO CO CO IM cvi iri 
 
 o . . . . 
 
 Ho 
 
 ,o-*i«t- 
 
 '■-^ O CO t^ 00 
 
 . a 
 
 
 0) 
 a 7i i. r^ OJ <}>, t 
 
 mufauo<«J o o 
 
 •C0CO(M(M 
 
STEAM POWER 437 
 
 o 
 
 . o o c<i ■* oi s<i ■* 
 
 o 
 
 ^OOt-'^COCOOl 
 
 o 
 
 ^ ^" n< ' C-J C5 CO <D 
 
 CO 
 
 
 g 
 
 «^i-H .C lO O CO in rH '^ t-- 
 
 O WS C^ ' •*' CO M r-5 
 
 '-'««• T-lrHtHrM 
 
 Ul 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 < 
 
 . t- o -* c<i o cq CO 
 
 P 
 
 ^CO^iOOt^OJt'lWS 
 
 
 w -f c-i -*" ■ -*: ^" d 00 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ O "^ ^ ^1 i-H tl C~) C-4 T-( 
 
 
 oo^,t^ 
 
 Ui 
 
 lO ^""^ 6«-_c 00 lA lO a-. ^ C- Oi 
 
 o 
 
 
 2 ?o "^i ' krt "«< CO e^' 
 
 tf 
 
 <i 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 t>^ 
 
 . in <=> eo <35 «> -*' c^ 
 
 tf 
 
 ^ C^ O C-. Ci lA OO i-< 
 
 • -:t< CO l« ■ «J CO ,-! d 
 
 
 gSss"- -— 
 
 
 O^viirtfJ 
 
 ^.H 
 
 ^ ^-r 1 «/j. . t^ o o «£> o 00 «o 
 
 «^^ .fibo^-^OTj-cot- 
 
 MN 
 
 o (^ c^i ■ !>.■ iri rr CO 
 
 ■^ 1—1 
 
 r-ij^ i-ii-iiHi-l 
 
 H^ 
 
 
 W^ 
 
 
 <jl^ 
 
 ■<M"=>OOOlOO<M 
 
 g^ 
 
 «oi"'<MT-i-*mt-> 
 
 C« -*<rt^lOTHdinCOTH 
 
 «» 
 
 
 Ho 
 
 o^r:,^ 
 
 £g 
 
 „• ^ JO 6«-^ O "5 O t- O t~ -^ 
 
 a;" 
 
 2 r-^ «-J ■ 00 d in "f 
 
 '^U- r-l,-,r-lr-l 
 
 wg 
 
 
 s 
 
 ;;•;;;;;;;;; 
 
 <i 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 h 
 
 "i ■ ■ ■ 1 I 
 
 w 
 
 fc- 
 
 
 •:;:;;,«::::: 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 15 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 "^^ ! : ; : 1 
 
 
 !!!!!' e^ !!■• i 
 
 h 
 
 
 o 
 
 t/7 
 
 
 '</,'''' 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 
 
 pq 
 
 S|1,^HL-2: = : 
 
 <3l 
 
 ^ 
 
 MO''-'&Hfefc<;oh 
 
438 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Labor Costs in a Compound-Condensing Steam Plant. W. H. 
 
 Weston. Eng-ineering Magazine, January, 1912, gives the following 
 figures based on 10 hours per day with wages as in 1911. 
 
 H.p. Cost per year 
 
 400 $2,400 
 
 500 3,000 
 
 600 3,400 
 
 800 4,000 
 
 1,000 4,500 
 
 1,500 4,600 
 
 2,000 5,600 
 
 4,000 9,000 
 
 Fixed Charges in Compound Condensing Steam Plant. The fol- 
 lowing figures are taken from an article by W. H. Weston, Engin- 
 eering JNJagazine, January, 1912. 
 
 Interest, insurance, and taxes j 10 to 11% 
 
 Average depreciation on engine plants 4% 
 
 Average depreciation on boiler plants 5% 
 
 Average cost of repairs, depending upon age of the plant, 
 intensity of the load and how it was handled, and 
 
 whether or not repairs were promptly made 2 to 3% 
 
 Fuel and Water Consumption for Compound-Condensing Steam 
 Engines of 1000 h.p. Upward. W. H. Weston, Engineering Maga- 
 zine, January, 1912, states that engines of this class, of 1000 h.p. 
 will ordinarily use 17 lbs. of water per h.p.-hr. with pressures of 
 125 to 135 lbs. ; 2000-h.p. engines will use 15 lbs. and 4000-h.p. 
 will use about 14 lbs. He has compiled the following figures from 
 a large quantity of data where soft coals were used. Working to a 
 fair maximum performance, without overcrowding and with average 
 chimney draft of 0.43 in., the average coal per sq. ft. of grate per 
 hr. is 19 lbs. ; average water evaporation per lb. of coal, 8.65 lbs. 
 .Under ordinary running conditions, feed-water at an average tem- 
 perature of 190 degs. F, flue gases 450 degs. to 550 degs. 
 
 17 -^ 8.65 = 1.96 lbs. coal per h.p.-hr. 
 19 -^ 1.96 = 9.7 h.p. per sq. ft. of grate. 
 15 -f- 8.65 = 1.73 lbs. coal per h.p.-hr. 
 19 H- 1.73 = 11 h.p. per sq. ft. of grate. 
 14 -^ 8.65 = 1.62 lbs. coal per h.p.-hr. 
 19-^-1.62 = 11.7 h.p. per sq. ft. of grate. 
 
 In using these figures it is worthy of note that four 1000 h.p. 
 engines will not run on as small an amount of water as one 4000 
 h.p. engine. The amount of coal burned per sq. ft. of heating 
 surface will average 0.4 to 0.45 lb. per hr., or not over 0.5 lb. 
 as a maximum. He considers that the amount for the best all- 
 round efficiency is about 0.42 lb. 
 
 The average amount of water evaporated per sq. ft. of heating 
 surface per hr. in water-tube boilers is about 4.2 lbs. ; in tubular 
 boilers, about 3.5 lbs. 
 
 To calculate the total amount of coal required for a plant, the 
 figures given, 1.96, 1.73 and 1.62 respectively per h.p.-hr., must be 
 
STEAM POWER 439 
 
 increased about 15% to allow for keeping fires over night, steam for 
 auxiliary, condensation in pipes, radiation, etc., which will make 
 them respectively 2.25, 2.00 and 1.86 lbs. Steam used for heating 
 or other purposes will be in addition to this. 
 
 Compound-condensing engines of 800 h.p. will consume about 18 
 lbs. of water per h.p.-hr., and 2.08 lbs. of coal, 15% added for 
 miscellaneous making 2.39 lbs. of coal per h.p. hr. 
 
 Similar engines of 600 h.p. use 19 lbs. of steam, and 400 h.p. 
 equipment uses 20 lbs. of steam per h.p.-hr. 
 
 The average cost of oil, waste and small supplies for such a plant 
 will amount in dollars to about 12 times the square root of the 
 h.p. per yr. 
 
 The cost of water in a steam plant is a very uncertain quantity, 
 depending upon local conditions ; such as the success in eliminating 
 oil, quality of the condensing water, whether jet condensers or the 
 mixing type are used, the distance which the water must be piped 
 or the height to which it must be pumped, etc., the average figures 
 are not trustworthy. This item should be figured out for every 
 special case. 
 
 Availability of Exhaust Heat from Different Types of Engines. 
 The exhaust, be it steam or gas, contains heat, sometimes reach- 
 ing 70 or 75%, and may be available for warming buildings, etc. 
 The more efficient the engine, the smaller the amount of the exhaust 
 heat available for this purpose. 
 
 Table XIX indicates what may be expected and was published by 
 Edwin D. Dreyfus in Power, January 31, 1911. 
 
 TABLE XIX. STEAM PER BRAKE H.P. AVAILABLE IN THE 
 EXHAUST FOR HEATING, LBS. 
 
 Type of engine 
 
 Simple automatic engine 40 
 
 Small steam turbine 30 
 
 Single cylinder Corliss engine 28 
 
 Corliss non-condensing compound engine 22 
 
 Automatic bleeder turbine 20 
 
 Complete expansion turbine (bleeding 25% from receiver) 6 
 
 Gas engine (waste jacket and exhaust heat used in hot water 
 
 system) 5 
 
 Gas engine only, exhaust applied to steaming 2 
 
 Summary of Operating Results in Steam Turbo-Electric Plants 
 from 200 to 20,000 kw. Capacity. O. S. Lyford, Jr., and R. W. 
 Stovel have given Table XX, Electric Journal, April, 1912. 
 
 This table gives the maximum results that may generally be 
 expected with bituminous coal of 14,000 B.t.u. per lb. The annual 
 average boiler and furnace efficiency ranges from 50- to 70%. In 
 the 2 sets of assumed conditions, the additional heat necessary to 
 bring the temperature of the feed-water of the one case up to that 
 of the other is sufficient to raise the steam pressure of the second 
 case to 65 lbs. more than the first and to superheat the steam 125 
 degs., the steam in the second case doing 10% more useful work 
 
440 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XX. SUMMARY OF OPERATING RESULTS 
 
 Range of 
 common practice 
 
 B.t.u. per lb. of fuel (assumed) 14,000 14,000 
 
 Average yearly overall boiler and furnace effi- 
 ciency, % 50 70 
 
 Effective B.t.u. per lb. of fuel 7,000 9,800 
 
 Boiler pressure, lbs. per sq. in., gauge 125 190 
 
 Superheat, degs. P 125 
 
 Average feed-water temperature, degs. P 120 200 
 
 B.t.u. per lb. of steam (approximate) 1,100 1,100 
 
 Lbs. of water evaporated per lb. of fuel, actual . 6.36 8.91 
 Lbs. of fuel per standard boiler h.p. (33,305 
 
 B.t.u.) 4.76 3.40 
 
 Average overall station water rate per kw 30 20 
 
 B.t.u. in coal per kw. generated . 66,000 31,500 
 
 Thermal efficiency of station, % 5.2 10.8 
 
 than that in the first case, which emphasizes the importance of 
 proper feed-water heating. 
 
 The water consumption for the main units and all auxiliaries will 
 vary over a year between 30 and 20 lbs. per kw.-hour, which 
 figures, divided by the rate of evaporation, will give the lbs. of 
 coal per kw. generated between the limits of 2.25 and 4.72 respect- 
 ively. These figures multiplied by 14,000 give, for the average 
 over the entire year, the B.t.u. in the fuel per kw.-hr. generated. 
 Since the kw.-hr. is theoretically equivalent to 3,420 B.t.u. the re- 
 sultant annual thermal efficiency of the station will appear as the 
 last two figures in the table, namely — 5.2 and 10.8%. A few sta- 
 tions to-day give better results than the best here indicated and a 
 good many plants are worse than the 5.2% shown in the lower limit 
 of this table, but a standard plant to-day ought to come lower 
 than these two limits and if large enough ought ta be very close 
 to the better one. 
 
 Floor Space Required by Corliss Engines and Turbines. J. R. 
 Bibbins gives the following information in a paper for the 25th 
 Convention of the A. I. E. E. 
 
 Por several years there has been a continual reduction in the 
 bulk and cost of the turbine unit. To what extent, can best be 
 appreciated by comparison with Corliss practice. 
 
 Over-all floor 
 
 Type of prime mover and size space, sq. ft. 
 
 in electric horsepower per electric h.p. 
 
 Horizontal Corliss, 500 to 1,500 0.7 to 1 
 
 Vertical Corliss, 1,000 to 3,500 0.35 to 0.4 
 
 Horizontal vertical comi)Ound Corliss, 7,000 0.46 
 
 Vertical 3-cyl. Corliss, 5,000 0.2 
 
 Single-flow turbine, 1,000 to 5,000 f 0.17 to 0.75 
 
 Double-flow turbine, 15,000 0.05 
 
 In large sizes, the turbine has reduced floor areas to about 20% 
 of that required by the modern vertical Corliss engine, and to 
 about 10% of the horizontal vertical type. A detailed comparison 
 between single-flow and double-flow types follows : 
 
STEAM POWER 441 
 
 TURBINES 
 
 Unit size, Floor space required per sq. ft. 
 
 kws. Type per kw. per e.h.p. 
 
 1,000 Single-now ^ 0.200 0.149 
 
 1,500 " 0.165 0.123 
 
 2,000 " 0.141 0.105 
 
 3,000 " 0.101 0.075 
 
 5,000 Double-flow 0.092 0.068 
 
 10,000 " 0.063 0.047 
 
 Similarly in weight per kw. capacity. Data are not at hand for 
 comparison with complete reciprocating- units, but without gener- 
 ators, large vertical Corliss engines, including flywheel, weigh from 
 320 to 500 lbs. per kw., the weight increasing with the size, whereas 
 the large turbine unit complete weighs but a fraction, 15 to 20% 
 of the above, and, moreover, the weight decreases with the size. 
 In addition the horizontal turbine permits the installation of aux- 
 iliaries beneath. 
 
 Cost of Power for Various Industries Under Ordinary Conditions. 
 Engineering and Contracting, May 4, 1910. Twenty-five years ago 
 the expression " cost of power " was fairly well defined as meaning 
 the yearly cost per indicated h.p.if produced by steam ; or power on 
 the wheel shaft if produced by water for 10 hrs. a day and about 
 308 days a yr., or for 24 hrs. for the same number of days. 
 
 Since that time, when mechanical transmission of power by 
 shafting, belting, ropes, etc., were about the only methods in use, 
 there has been developed the electrical transmission of power now 
 so commonly in use, with new units of power, as electrical horse- 
 power and kilowatts. 
 
 Also there has now come into common use the steam turbine, 
 for which there is no indicated h.p., the measurements of power 
 from which must be brake horsepower, electrical horsepower or 
 kilowatts. There is the power produced by water wheels, which is 
 gross h.p., net h.p. at the wheel shaft and, when transformed into 
 electric power, it is measured in electrical h.p. and kws. 
 
 New industries lilie public lighting and street railway companies 
 have also come into existence. In these plants, the cost of power 
 is affected very greatly by factors which were unknown to the 
 type of plant which was common to industrial concerns of the past. 
 
 It is the object of this paper to explain briefly some of the rea- 
 sons for the very great differences in the cost of power under 
 various circumstances, and to treat the factors affecting the net 
 costs to various industries of both steam and water power, and to 
 give a few examples of these which have come up during the course 
 of our own engineering practice. 
 
 Items in Cost of Power. Generally, the cost of producing power 
 may be divided into 2 parts : 
 
 (1) Independent charges, or the part which is independent of the 
 output, embracing fixed charges on the plant, as interest, deprecia- 
 tion, insurance and taxes, and, to a certain extent, repairs. 
 
 (2) Proportional charges, or the part which is proportional to the 
 output, including such charges as coal, labor, supplies, etc. 
 
442 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Steam plants in general may be said to have low independent 
 charges and high proportional or operating costs. 
 
 Water power plants are usually the reverse, with high fixed 
 charge accounts and low operating costs. 
 
 Another item which should be mentioned as affecting the cost of 
 power is what Dr. Steinmetz calls " reliability factor," which takes 
 into consideration the spare machinery needed to insure continuous 
 service. The charges on this spare equipment are apt to have quite 
 a bearing on the cost of power in a central station supplying power 
 for public uses, where reliability must be one of the chief con- 
 siderations and more spare or duplicate plant is usually maintained 
 than in a private plant. This same factor, too, may have quite an 
 important bearing on the value of a water power privilege. 
 
 Factors Affecting the Cost of Poiver. The chief conditions which 
 affect the cost of steam power are : 
 
 (1) Cost of fuel delivered to the furnaces. 
 
 (2) Amount of power produced. 
 
 (3) The load factor in its relation to fixed charges, whether the 
 power is continuous and uniform, or intermittent and variable. 
 
 (4) The net cost of power is reduced considerably in some con- 
 cerns where the waste heat of the power plant can be used in the 
 manufacturing processes in the form of low pressure steam or warm 
 water. 
 
 The chief conditions which affect the cost of water power are as 
 follows : 
 
 (1) Fixed charges on the development. 
 
 (2) Amount of power i)roduced in its relation to fixed charges. 
 
 (3) The load factor in its relation to efficiency of wheels, pondage 
 and reservoir capacity. 
 
 (4) The cost of supplementary power necessary to make up for 
 the fluctuations of the water power, if required. 
 
 Variatioji in Cost of Steam Power, Steam power costs the most 
 per unit of power when produced in small amounts, and the cost 
 is increased for fluctuating loads and when used for purposes where 
 the load factor is small. By " load factor " we mean the average 
 output in per cent, of the full cajiacity of the plant. The cost of 
 power in very small amounts has been eliminated from this paper, 
 and it has been assumed that the plants discussed for different 
 uses are fairly large and of about the same capacity. 
 
 Steam power costs the least per unit of power for comparatively 
 steady continuous loads, as for paper mills and other similar in- 
 dustries, and the cost may be still further reduced where there is 
 use for exhaust steam or other by-products from the plant. Such 
 conditions as the last are found in colored textile mills. Power 
 costs the mo.st in plants having a low load factor with a variable 
 load and where there is no use for the by-products of the plant, 
 as in a lighting or street railway pfant. Between these extremes 
 are various industries for which the cost of power will vary greatly. 
 
 Industries running 10 hours a day have a low load factor com- 
 paratively, but the load while on is often fairly steady, particularly 
 in textile mills. Public service plants usually have a load factor 
 
STEAM POWER 443 
 
 somewhat lower than textile mills, but the load is extremely 
 variable, which is not nearly so favorable to economical operation 
 as the textile load would be. 
 
 An example of the reverse of the procedure in a colored textile 
 mill might be cited in the case of a steel mill, where the waste 
 gases from the furnaces might be used in a steam or gas engine 
 plant, thus making the net cost of power very low. 
 
 Power for Various Ind^istHes. So far as we know, the net cost 
 of steam power is the least and the net value of water power 
 (but not of water) also the least for colored textile mills of all 
 of the important industries. This is due to the usually steady load 
 and to the fact that the waste products from the steam plant are 
 most valuable for manufacuring purposes to those industries. If 
 the heat required is not obtained from the waste products, it must 
 be obtained direct from a separate boiler-plant. 
 
 The net cost of steam power for textile mills gradually increases 
 from the cost to the mill which can use all of the waste products, 
 which will have the lowest cost, to the case of mill making white 
 goods, where only exhaust steam for warming the building and 
 drying the yarn on the slashers can be used. Next to this latter 
 case in favor of net low cost are the industries of any nature 
 where exhaust steam can be used only for heating. In order to 
 give a general idea of the usual costs of power under ordinary con- 
 ditions in this section of the country, an analysis of the cost of 
 power for a station of 2,000 kws. capacity is given below. This 
 station is similar to some which have been constructed within the 
 last few years. Later on will be given some of the effects of by- 
 products from the plant for manufacturing purposes. 
 
 Cost of Power for Textile and Similar Industries. Let us first 
 consider the cost of power under the various conditions for textile 
 mills, and from these cases an idea of the cost to various other 
 industries can be derived. 
 
 As electric driving is becoming so common in textile mills, we 
 will assume for the basis of these costs that the stations considered 
 below will be electric and of 2,000 kws. capacity, composed of 2 
 1000-kw. units. The costs of power from this station will usually 
 be given as so much per kw. In case it is desired to reduce this 
 cost per e.h.p., divide by 1.34. To get its cost per i.h.p., multiply 
 the cost per electrical horse power by about 87%, or the cost per 
 kw. by about 65%. It must be remembered also that there is no 
 spare apparatus in these plants. This may be considered as fair 
 average practice at present for manufacturing plants, but of course 
 would not be tolerated for public service plants where reliability is 
 so necessary. 
 
 In making up the cost of power here, all charges have been con- 
 sidered except the interest charges on the cost of land. These 
 charges would be very variable, depending on the location of the 
 plant. The cost of land for the station has also been omitted from 
 the cost per kw. of the station. There are many opinions as to the 
 proper percentage to charge to depreciation, interest, etc. In mak- 
 ing up these costs, interest has been taken at 5% ; depreciation, 
 
444 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 repairs on the apparatus, at 5%, and on the building at 2.5%; in- 
 surance and taxes at 1%, making a total of 11% on the apparatus 
 and 8.5% on the buildings. This was for 10-hr. power. For 24-hr. 
 power the depreciation and repairs on apparatus were taken at 
 13%, instead of 11%. A small amount is added in both cases for 
 incidentals. 
 
 These figures, of course, would not do for a station where the 
 manufacture of current was the main pi'oduct, as for public service 
 plant, because heie, during a period covered by 4% depreciation 
 newer and more efficient types of apparatus might make it necessary 
 to discard ai)paratus which was mechanically good. This course 
 would not be so necessary in a manufacturing plant, where the 
 saving of a .small percentage of tlie cost of power is not of suchi 
 vital itnpoftance as are some other considerations. 
 
 You will note that we say " cost of power as a straight power 
 proposition." The reason for this is that the net cost of this 
 power can be materially reduced by using the by-products from the 
 plant for manufacturing purposes, as will be explained later. 
 
 Ten-Hour I'oiver. With a steam engine plant with direct con- 
 nected generators the cost of the plant per kw. of capacity is about 
 $125. The cost of i)ower from this station with coal at about $4.25 
 a long ton in the pocket or $4.75 on the grates, would be about 
 $33 per kw. per yr. of 3,000 hrs., as for a textile mill, as a straight 
 power proposition. This is equivalent to about $24.60 per e.h.p. 
 per yr. and about $21.50 per i.h.p. per yr. This is equivalent to a 
 cost of 1.10 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 
 If steain turbines are used instead of steam engines, the cost of 
 the station will be reduced to about $105 per kw, capacity. The 
 cost of power produced on steam turbines would also be reduced to 
 about $29.50 per kw. yr., against $33 for the engine plant. A part 
 of this difference is made up from the reduced cost of the station 
 and apparatus and a part from the better economy of the turbines, 
 which we have assumed are using sui)erheated steam and high 
 vacuum, which is common practice. The use of suiterheated steam 
 is not common practice in engine plants, and the engine plant con- 
 sidered was assumed as not equipped with superheaters. 
 
 2Ji Hour Poiver. If steam power were to be generated for 24 hrs. 
 a day for 6 days in a week or say 300 days a yr., as for a paper 
 mill or other similar industries, the cost of power would be about 
 $57.50 per kw. per yr. for the engine plant and about $53 per kw. 
 per yr. for the turbine plant. These costs reduce to 0.8 cts. per 
 kw.-hr. and 0.74 cts. per kw.-hr.. respectively. 
 
 These figures should be compared with 1.10 cts. per kw.-hr. for 
 the engine plant and 0.1*83 cts. for the turbine plant when producing 
 10 hr. a day power. The difference in the cost for the two l<inds 
 of power is due to the fact that practically the same amount of fixed 
 i-liarges is s])jead ovei a much greater numbei of kilowatt h(jurs. 
 There is also some saving in coal per kw, houi- due to (he elimina- 
 tion of banking of fires for a lai-ge portion of the time. 
 
 Load Factors. The power i)lant for the textile mill o[)erating 10 
 hrs. a day, 300 days a yr., would have a load factor of about 40%, 
 
STEAM POWER 445 
 
 while the plant operating 24 hrs. a day for 300 days would have a 
 load factor of about 93%. These figures of course assume that the 
 plants are just large enough to drive their loads. This assunii>tion 
 is hardly true, especially at present, when the use of electric trans- 
 mission makes it easy to provide spare units. The term " load 
 factor" as used here means the ratio of the actual kilowatt hours 
 generated in a year to the number which would have been generated 
 had the plant run at full load every hour in the year. It must be 
 remembered also that for the industrial plants under consideration 
 the load is nearly constant throughout the operating time, which 
 means good operating conditions. 
 
 Public Service Plants. In a lighting plant for a city, even with 
 the same load factor as for the 10-hr. textile mill, which would 
 be high for most of these plants, the operating conditions would not 
 be nearly so favorable as in a textile mill, as about the same 
 amount of banking would have to be done, and the prime movers 
 would have to operate at variable loads. This latter undesirable 
 feature would not be so serious in a large station as in a smaller 
 one, so far as the efficiency is concerned, as the variation could be 
 more nearly cared for by varying the number of units and thus 
 operating all of them at advantageous points. 
 
 The cost of power for this type of plant is more, other things 
 being equal, than for a plant of the same size for a textile mill hav- 
 ing the same load factor. This is due to the effect of variable load 
 towards a reduction in efficiency, and because of the greater cost 
 of plant and consequently greater fixed charges per unit of output. 
 It should be borne in mind, however, that these public service plants 
 are usually of a very large size and that their output delivered has 
 to compfjte in price with the cost of power from very small stations. 
 This would give the advantage all to the central station as far as 
 the actual cost of making power is concerned. To the cost of mak- 
 ing the power, the central station must add the cost of transmitting, 
 distributing and selling it. 
 
 Effect of Use of Waste Products from Power Plant for Manu- 
 facturing Purposes. For many years it has been common practice 
 to use the by-pioducts, such as exhaust steam and wai-m watei" from 
 the steam plant, for manufacturing purposes and for heating build- 
 ings, etc. It has been also common practice to take steam out of 
 the receiver between the cylinders of a compound engine for these 
 purposes. The saving fiom using the exhaust of a non-condensing 
 engine, which would otherwise go to w^aste, is large, because there 
 is no additional steam required for the engine unless the back 
 pressure is increased. Any use of the steam is nearly all clear 
 profit, and if all of it is used, the only part left to charge to power 
 is the difference in B.t.u. due to the difference in pressure and the 
 condensation in the engine cylinder, jackets, etc. The use of large 
 noncondensing engines for producing power, excei)t in si>ecia] cases, 
 is becoming comparatively rare, but the use of steam from the 
 receiver of a cross-compound condensing engine for manufacturing 
 purposes and for heating, etc., is a common practice. 
 
 Receioer Steam. Table XXI shows the amount of coal charge- 
 
446 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 able to power when certain percentages of the steam entering the 
 high pressure cylinder are taken out of the receiver. This table 
 takes into consideration the effects on the economy of the engine 
 of not passing all of the steam into the low pressure cylinder, cylin- 
 der condensation, etc. The percentages in the first column are the 
 percentages of the steam passing the high i)ressure cylinder which 
 is taken out of the receiver for manufacturing purposes. The sec- 
 ond column is the total coal burned, and the third is the coal 
 chargeable to power after deducting the coal chargeable to manu- 
 facturing : 
 
 if nt !ii 
 
 I- 1 :^ M 
 
 O M 
 
 ^ 3 ^ 
 
 
 1.75 1.75 
 
 25 2.06 1.50 
 
 50 2.38 1.25 
 
 75 2.69 1.00 
 
 100 3.00 0.75 
 
 If the mill did not obtain its power from steam, so that it could 
 use the low pressure steam of the i)Iant for manufacturing, it would 
 have to maintain a boiler plant of suflicient size to produce an 
 amount of steam equivalent to that bled out of the receiver. The 
 amount of B.t.u. or its equivalent in coal chargeable to power is 
 represented by the amount of work done by the engine, and the 
 losses due to the i)resence of the engine. The cost of generating 
 the rest of the steam is chargeable to the manufacturing processes. 
 By cost of generating steam is meant the total cost, including coal, 
 labor, fixed charges and supplies of all kinds for the boiler i)lant. 
 The cost in the engine room does not vary with the bleeding of 
 steam, except possibly in some very unusual cases. 
 
 Exa})njlcs of Manufacturiny Plants. A few examples of the re- 
 duction in cost of power due to the uses of the by-products from a 
 steam engine plant and the bleeding of steam from the receiver may 
 be of interest. These are all given for textile mills as a basis. The 
 corresponding costs for other industries can be calculated from the 
 ta'ble and curves when the amount of steam I'equired is known. 
 
 In one colored cotton and silk mill the power to run the mill was 
 about 1,800 i.h.p. and for manufacturing purposes about 25^ of the 
 steam for this was required in the form of steam from the receiver. 
 This did not include the steam for heating the building, but the 
 cylinder ratio was such that it was deemed unwise to bleed a 
 greater amount of steam from the receiver. Assuming the cost 
 of power $33 per kw. with no bleeding, we get cost chargeable to 
 
STEAM POWER 447 
 
 power .with 25% bled continuousiy $12.75 + $17 -- $29.75- The sav- 
 ing then would be $33 — $29.75 :- $3.25 per kw.-yr. ; $12.75 i« the 
 entjine room chnige. This was for the use of low pressure steam 
 alone. Probably another material saving eould be made by using 
 the overflow from the condenser for water for dyeing purposes, etc. 
 
 In another iviill where much moje dyeing was done, requiring a 
 large quantity of hot water, also a large amount of exhaust steam 
 for maimfacturing and heating, the cost of jjower, if no steam and 
 waste products had been used, would have been about $34 per kw.- 
 yr. ; but when the proper credits had been allowed for items charge- 
 able to manufacturing purposes, the cost was reduced to about $26 
 per kw.-yr., or a reduction of about $8 per kw.-yr. 
 
 In a plain or white goods mill where ho steam would be required 
 for manufacturing other than warming the building and slashing, 
 the saving to be effected by using receiver steam for these pur- 
 poses would be about $2 per kw. About .6 of this, or $1.20, is for 
 heating and the rest for slashing, so about $1.20 per kw. is the 
 amount of the reduction which could be made in heating the build- 
 ings of an industry similar to a textile mill. The above examples 
 represent fairly average conditions. 
 
 Several years ago in one mill there was an 800 hp. simple, non- 
 condensing engine exhaustmg into the dyehouse. If the dyehouse 
 was running full, the firemen in the boiler room could not tell 
 whether this engine was running or not. 
 
 In paper mills the usual custom is to drive the paper machines 
 with simple, noncondensing engines, the exhaust from which is used 
 in the drying cans. The net co.st of this power for coal is very 
 small. In some mills some steam is also taken from the receiver 
 of compound engines for other low pressure work. 
 
 The Cost of Water Power. The cost of water power depends 
 upon a great variety of factor.^ but the essential feature is usually 
 the fact as to whether the combined result of all these factors is 
 such as to make the cost of the development per horse power de- 
 livered a reasonably small amount so that the fixed charges shall 
 not be excessive. In other words, the allowable cost of water power 
 cannot be materially more than the net cost of producing the 
 same amount of power for the same purpose in some other satis- 
 factory manner, usually by steam. 
 
 There is an idea fairly common among laymen that water power 
 is free or at least that after the development has been completed 
 the cost of operation is practically nothing. This is not true be- 
 cause the fixed charges go on whether power is generated and sold 
 or not. The large.st item in the cost of water power is usually fixed 
 charges. For in.stance, if a development should cost $125 per kw., 
 the fixed charges alone would amount to about $12.50 per kw. 
 per yr. whether the plant was operated or not. 
 
 Another idea is that if a development which is to produce 10-hr. 
 power costs about $100 per h.p. if carried to its most economical 
 point, it will be a safe investment, but that if the cost reaches 
 $200 per h.p. it will be well to proceed cautiously before investing 
 in it. In general this idea is well grounded, but it should not be 
 
448 MECHANJCAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 applied to all cases, as there are many factors affecting the cost of 
 power and such great differences in the market that each case 
 requires very careful study and general rules are not to be relied 
 upon. 
 
 The cost of maintaining and operating a supplementary steam 
 plant to make up for the shortage of power during low water and 
 floods, the effects of droughts, transmission problems in the case 
 of electric plants, etc., must all be carefully considered as factors 
 properly affecting the actual cost of power delivered from the 
 hydraulic plant. 
 
 For the reason that water powers usually have high independent 
 charges they are more valuable for use on loads with high load 
 factors than with low load factors and are hence more valuable for 
 24-hr. power than for 10-hr. power. Their value increases as the 
 price of coal rises. 
 
 Many of the modern developments are of very large size and the 
 cost per h.p. of the plant is in some cases small. In the deter- 
 mination of the cost of power, the cost per h.p. of development 
 should not be allowed to confuse or cause misrepresentation of the 
 actual cost of p^ower delivered. Usually the larger the develop- 
 ment installed, the smaller is the cost per h.p. of development, but 
 it does not follow in all cases that the cost of delivered power will 
 be smaller per h.p. After the engineers have made their estimates 
 of the cost of physical structures for these developments, there must 
 usually be added generous items for interest during construction, 
 Interest on cost befoi-e there is any return, rights of way, inciden- 
 tals, promoting, etc. The neglect of considering items like these 
 has caused several of the recent developments to get into disrepute. 
 
 There aie usually more elements of chance and more unknown 
 factors in a hydraulic development than in a stetim i)lant, and these 
 facts should be taken into consideration and properly cared for. 
 
 On the other hand, a development properly made and at a rea- 
 sonable cost is a valuable asset and one which bids fair to increase 
 in value if the price of coal increases in the future as in the past. 
 
 The prices of power where the development cost $100 and $200 
 per h.p. mentioned above do very well for the ordinary case in the 
 eastern states. There are, however, some particular uses, like min- 
 ing, for instance, where there is no supply of wood, and coal is 
 expensive, where a high cost of development is warranted and a 
 high price can be obtained for the power. For example, there is 
 one development where the cost of power at some mines was from 
 $150 to $200 a yr. A hydro-electric development was made and 
 power delivered at about $100 a h.p., thus making a great reduction 
 in cost to the mine owners and yielding a substantial profit to the 
 electric company. 
 
 There, is a development which cost about $400 a h.p. to develop. 
 A small portion of this power could be disposed of at the mines for 
 $75 a horse power with comparatively short transmission lines, but 
 the remainder had to be carried a long distance and sold in compe- 
 tition with other power. The fixed charges alone on this develop- 
 ment were about $30 to $35 a yr. a h.p., and the running expenses 
 
STEAM POIVER 449 
 
 were also high. It was impossible to produce power cheai)ly enough 
 in this case to compete with other sources of powers and pay the 
 fixed charges on the investment. 
 
 The following example is typical of many developments in New 
 England str<^ams with mechanical transmission of power. Compare 
 the cost of producing 1,000 h.p. by steam and water power on an 
 average stream at a fixed locality, where coal is $4.50 a ton de- 
 livered to boiler house, and the production of 1,000 h.p. by steam 
 power alone at a chosen locality, where coal is $4 and ?.j 50 per 
 ton delivered to boiler house. 
 
 The assumed power of the river varies in an average year so that 
 for the driest month 490 h.p. will be produced by water, leaving 
 510 h.p. to be produced by steam ; and for the other months in the 
 year the water power varies so that for four months in an average 
 year no steam power will be required at all. The average of this 
 steam power will be about 238 h.p. for 8 months per yr. 
 
 In a dry year the minimum water power will be 250 h.p. It will 
 be necessary to run the supplementary plant for about 8 months, 
 supplying in an average year from nothing to 510 h.p. and in a 
 dry year up to 750 h.p. In order to have such a plant run any- 
 where near efficiently and cost a reasonable sum, it should be of 
 such a size as to be overloaded for a portion of the time and under- 
 loaded for the rest of the time. In this case a plant rated at 500 
 h.p. capable of 50% overloading would answer. 
 
 The water power plant will cost about $75 per h.p. of develop- 
 ment, or $75,000. 
 
 The cost of the water power will be as follows : 
 
 Fixed charges on cost of plant, interest, depreciation, in.'^ur- 
 
 ance, taxes and repairs, say 9%, $75,000 by 0.09 $6,750 
 
 Attendance and .supplies 500 
 
 Cost of water power if no charge is made for water $7,250 
 
 The cost of supplementary power is as follows : 
 
 E.stimated cost of plant, 500 h.p. at $60 $.30,000 
 
 Fixed charges at 11% 3,300 
 
 Average deficiency of water power. 338 h.p. for 8 months. 
 Coal 338 h.p. by 2.10 lbs. by 205 days by 10 hr. = 650 tons 
 
 at $ 1.50 2.925 
 
 Attendance 1.700 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 200 
 
 Cost of supplementary steam power $ 8,125 
 
 $7,250 + $8,125 = $15,375, total yearly co.st of water power and 
 
 supplementary steam power. 
 $15,375 -=- 1,000 = $15.38 per h.p. 
 
 Compare this with the cost of 1,000 h.p. produced by steam alone 
 where coal is $4 per ton. This power should easily be made for 
 $20 a yr. a h.p., thus leaving a margin in favor of water power of 
 
450 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 $20 — $15.38:= $4.62 a h.p. With coal at $3.50 a ton, the cost of 
 steam power alone should be not over $18.50, with a margin in favor 
 of water power of about $3 a h.p. 
 
 Yariation in Value of Water Power. The value of a hydro- 
 electric power to various industries will vary in approximately the 
 same ratio as the cost of producing power in some other way, if 
 considered as power pure and simple, without taking into considera- 
 tion other important items affecting the business, which are some- 
 times more vital than the cost of power itself. 
 
 To illustrate the value and cost of power under different condi- 
 tions it may be well to mention the two following cases: 
 
 A price for hydro-electric power was submitted to a colored textile 
 mill, of 1.2 cts. per kw.-hr. After due consideration, it was decided 
 that the mill could not afford to accept the offer, the principal 
 reasons being : 
 
 (1) On account of the use of steam for manufacturing purposes 
 and of the water of condensation for dyeing, the net cost of steam 
 power would be less than the price of hydro-electric power. 
 
 (2) It was better for the textile company to own and control its 
 own plant, if it had the capital to build it, which it had, than to 
 purchase current brought over many miles of pole line, and be 
 tied up to some foreign company. 
 
 The cost of power per kilowatt at the switchboard from the 
 hydro-electric company for the operating time of the mill was about 
 $36 per kw. per yr., and for the steam plant which the mill was 
 proposing to install this cost was estimated at about $34 per kw.-yr. ; 
 but if the power had been bought from the hydro-electric company, 
 the mill would have had to install and operate a boiler plant nearly 
 as large as the one required for both power and manufacturing 
 steam. It was estimated that the use of the waste products from 
 the steam plant would reduce the net cost of the power at least 
 $8 per kw. 
 
 In another case offers from two hydro-electric companies were 
 made to furnish power. One offer was promptly turned down as 
 being too high a charge. A second offer was to furnish current at 
 1.2 cts. per kw.-hr., which is the same price which was refused for 
 the colored mill. For a plain cotton mill, however, it was decided 
 to be proper to accept the offer of 1.2 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 
 The principal reasons for accepting this offer were: 
 
 (1) 1.2 cts per kw.-hr. equals about $36 a kw. per year, or $27 
 an e.h.p. delivered. This reduced back to i.h.p. equals about $23.50 
 per yr., which was very near the estimated cost of steam power 
 for the quantity required and at the price of coal for this particu- 
 lar industry. 
 
 (2) The mill desired to postpone the expenditure necessary for a 
 steam plant if it could be done without serious loss. 
 
 Relative Importance of Cheap Power. It is evident that where 
 power is the chief product of a plant, and is sold as energy in the 
 form of electric lighting or electric power, it is important to produce 
 the output at the minimum price. 
 
STEAM POWER 451 
 
 In most industrial plants power is a means used to produce other 
 product, which is sold, and it is apparent that, other things being 
 equal, the necessity for cheap power is more important where the 
 cost of power is a large proportion of the cost of the product, as in 
 electro-chemical works, and the least important where the cost of 
 power is a small per cent, of the total value of the product. 
 
 Textile mills require considerable power to run them, and the 
 method and cost of production of this power must be kept in mind 
 in selecting a location for a new mill and in estimating the value 
 of an old mill already located, but it should not be allowed to play 
 too important a pait in the decision. 
 
 The chief items of cost entering into the product of a mill are 
 materials and labor. The cost of power in a fair sized mill should 
 not be over 5 to 6% of the total value of the product. It is, there- 
 fore, far more important to locate in some place where operatives 
 skilled in the particular kind of business to be carried on or who 
 can be trained to this work can be obtained at reasonable wages, 
 and where the cost of transportation of raw material and finished 
 product is a relatively small amount, than it is to seek a location 
 where cheap power can be obtained, but where the other items are 
 lacking. A saving of 10% in cost of power would represent a saving 
 of about 0.5% of the value of the product. 
 
 The relative importance of locating a plant with reference to 
 cheap power increases as the ratio of the cost of power to the value 
 of the product increases. The relative importance of locating a 
 plant with reference to the supply of help decreases as the amount 
 of help required decreases. These factors tend to make textile 
 mills locate with reference to good help and the paper mills with 
 reference to cheap power. The latter use less help per horse power 
 than the former, and usually use the power for 24 hrs. per day. 
 This causes water power to be more valuable to paper mills than 
 to textile mills. 
 
 Standard Prices for Hydro-Electric Power. Sometimes this ques- 
 tion is asked, " Is there any standard price for electric power de- 
 livered?" There does not appear to be any standard, the prices 
 varying largely according to the amount taken. For small 
 amounts large prices can be obtained. The price, of course, must 
 have a close relation to that at which power from a steam station 
 would be sold. The prices for power in large amounts, as for 
 textile mills for permanent power, seem to vary between $20 and 
 $25 per h.p. delivered for 10-hr. power, and for 24 -hr. power $30 
 to $40 i)er h.p. 
 
 For surplus or secondary power which can be furnished for more 
 than 6 months but less than 12 months a year, the charges cannot 
 usually be more than at a rate of $10 to $15 a yr. a h.p. in large 
 amounts for 10 -hr. power, or say about $1 a month a h.p. for such 
 time as it is furnished, for about all that is usually saved is coal, 
 as the fixed charges are going on all the time in the steam i)lant, 
 and often a portion of the steam plant is run all the time. In a 
 recent case it was estimated that some colored mills could afford 
 
452 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 ^1- 
 
 M > o 
 
 o 5 
 
 a 
 
 — • 
 
 •o 
 
 • o 
 
 OO O 
 
 «D 
 
 •a> 
 
 • o 
 
 o<=:^o^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ;m 
 
 'd 
 
 ■t-'utio -wo 
 
 H 
 
 
 '"* 
 
 (M 
 
 c^co Tf 
 
 OOOOO OO o 
 
 foair^co«C"'^c<?d'^eo 
 
 35 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 OOOOO 
 
 OOOOO 
 
 ooegi?qo 
 
 
 S§S2a 
 
 ? n3 cc rt t; 
 
 o o^ " -' fl 
 
 1^ "^ ;^ • r^ 
 di 0; '^ <ii 
 
STEAM POWER 453 
 
 to pay at the rate of about $15 per yr. for secondary power, where 
 the power could be obtained about 10 months a j'ear. This case 
 represents fairly average conditions, where coal costs about $4 per 
 ton and where the power is fairly steady from day to day, so that 
 it is not necessary to keep a full force of steam plant help. 
 
 Conclusions. The average results of the costs of power in the 
 vicinity as outlined in this pai)er would be about as in Table XXll. 
 
 Under the last column heading are given the possible reductions 
 which may be made in the net cost of power by the use of by- 
 products from the plant for manufacturing purposes. The extreme 
 high saving from the engines would occur only when the engine 
 was running noncondensing, which would be an extreme case. 
 
 The saving from the use of by-products from the turbine plants 
 has not yet been determined. The condenser water can certainly 
 be used, and probably quite a saving can also be made from bleed- 
 ing low pressure steam. 
 
 Choice of Power for Textile Mills. Engineering Record, May 7, 
 1910. To assist the officials of textile mills in a general way in 
 deciding upon the best motive power to use under their particular 
 conditions, Charles T. Main presented a paper before the National 
 Association of Cotton Manufacturers, in which he discussed the cost 
 of steam, hydroelectric and purchased power. All figures were 
 based on the assumption that the mill is electrically driven and the 
 cost of steam power was taken as the basis for all comiiutations and 
 deductions. In considering the figures given in the following ab- 
 stract of the paper it should be borne in mind that they are for 
 textile milLs in which the load is fairly uniform and the service 
 less severe than in most manufacturing lines. 
 
 Steam Power. In making up the cost of steam power, all charges 
 have been considered, except interest and taxes on the cost of land. 
 The fixed charges, including dei)reciation, repairs, insurance and 
 taxes, have been assumed at 11%, and the running time of 50 weeks 
 of 58 hrs. each, or 2900 hrs. a yr. It is assumed that there will be 
 2 steam turbine units in each plant. 
 
 TABLE XXIII 
 
 Size of plant, kw. 1,000 2,000 
 
 Cost of plant per kw $125 00 $110 00 
 
 Total coal per kw.-hr., lb. 3 2.8 
 
 Yearly cost per kw., coal 
 
 at $5 $39 00 $34.00 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr. coal at $5, 
 
 ot 1.34 1.17 
 
 Yearly cost per kw., coal at 
 
 $4 . $35.00 $30.50 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr. coal at $4, 
 
 ct 1.21 1.05 
 
 The principal items affecting the cost of steam power are as 
 follows : 
 
 1, Cost of fuel delivered to boilers. 2, Amount of power produced. 
 
 3, Fixed charges on cost of plant. 4, Attendance and supplies. 
 
 3,000 
 $100 00 
 
 2.7 
 
 4,000 
 
 $95.00 
 
 2 6 
 
 5,000 
 
 $90.00 
 
 2 5 
 
 $31.50 
 
 $30.25 
 
 $29 50 
 
 1 09 
 
 1.04 
 
 1 02 
 
 $28.00 
 
 $27.00 
 
 $26.25 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.91 
 
454 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 5, The net cost is reduced in some concerns where the waste heat 
 of the power plant can be used in the manufacturing processes in 
 the form of low pressure steam or warm water. 
 
 In most textile mills the power plant will vary from 1000 to 5000 
 kws, capacity. With a modern plant, the figures in Table XXIII 
 for cost of installation, Mr. Main states, are fair, when no steam is 
 used for anything but power. 
 
 The cost per engine h.p. for installation and operation is .75 of 
 the figures given per kw. To compare with equivalent cost per 
 i.h.p., take 65% of the above figures given per kw. 
 
 It has been common practice for many years to use exhaust steam 
 for heating buildings. The saving thus made is considerable. In 
 the lack of more accurate data on bleeding turbines, we will assume 
 that the savings by doing it are the same as for the steam engine. 
 The reduction effected by the use of low pressure steam (for heating 
 purposes) upon the cost of power is shown approximately in Table 
 XXIV. 
 
 TABLE XXIV 
 
 Coal at $5.00 
 %of * 
 
 steam used Per kw.-yr. Per kw.-hr., ct. 
 
 25 ....$ 3.00 to $ 4.00 0.10 to 0.14 
 
 50 6.00 to 8.00 .21 to .28 
 
 75 9.50 to 12.00 .33 to .42 
 
 100 12.50 to 16.00 .43 to .55 
 
 Coal at $4.00 
 
 25 $ 2.40 to $ 3.20 0.08 to 0.11 
 
 50 4.80 to 6.40 .17 to .27 
 
 75 7.60 to 9.60 .26 to .33 
 
 100 10.00 to 12.80 .34 to .44 
 
 If a portion or all of the condensing water is used for manufactur- 
 ing purposes, there will be a substantial reduction in the net cost 
 of power, although not as great as by the use of steam. 
 
 Water Power. The chief items affecting the cost and value of 
 water power are as follows : 
 
 1. The quantity of water and the uniformity of flow during the 
 year or a succession of years. If the flow is variable, it must be 
 supplemented by steam or other power, and the value diminishes as 
 the need of supplementary power increases. 
 
 2. The head. The cost of development increase per horse-power 
 as the head diminishes. 
 
 3. The location of the power has a large effect upon the value, 
 but the ability to transmit power electrically has rendered useful 
 and of value many powers which otherwise would be valueless. 
 
 4. In nearly all lines of textile manufacturing there are some 
 uses for low pressure steam. The use of exhaust steam and over- 
 flow water from the condenser for these purposes tends to reduce 
 the net cost of steam power, and therefore to reduce the value 
 of water power. 
 
STEAM POWER 455 
 
 The chief items in the yearly cost of power are : 1, Fixed 
 charges, as interest, depreciation, insurance and taxes on the de- 
 velopment. 2, The cost of supplementary power, if any is necessary 
 to make up for the fluctuation in water power. 3, Attendance and 
 supplies. 
 
 No definite sum can be fixed as the cost of water power, as this 
 depends largely upon local conditions. As the chief cost is usually 
 the fixed charges on the cost of the development, the first cost is 
 the most important item for consideration. 
 
 In a development substantially made, the fixed charges for inter- 
 est, depreciation, repairs, insurance and taxes, Mr. Main states, may 
 be as low as 8% with a short transmission line to 10% for a long 
 line. For the purpo.ses of this paper, they are assumed at 9%. 
 
 $75 a h.i)., or $100 a kw. would be considered a low cost of a 
 development. Table XXV shows in a general way the cost of 
 power under varying conditions of cost. 
 
 TABLE XXV. COST OF UNIFORM HYDROELECTRIC POWER 
 
 Size of plant, kw. 1.000 2.000 3.000 4,000 5.000 
 
 Assumed cost per kw $100.00 $100.00 $100.00 $100.00 $100.00 
 
 Yearly cost per kw. 12.00 11.00 10.75 10.50 10.25 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr., ct 0.41 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 
 
 Assumed cost per kw $200.00 $200.00 $200.00 $200.00 $200.00 
 
 Yearly cost per kw 21.00 20.00 19.75 19.50 19.25 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr. ct 0.73 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.66 
 
 Assumed cost per kw $300.00 $300.00 $300.00 $300.00 $300.00 
 
 Wearly cost per kw 30.00 29.00 28.75 28.50 28.25 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr., ct 1.05 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 
 
 The above costs are for current on the switchboard in the gen- 
 erating station. Transmission losses for short lines would be 
 roughly 5% and for long lines 107^. Adding 10% to the last set of 
 figures in Table XXV, we have the cost at the end of the line, 
 assuming the cost of plant and line at $300 a kw., shown in 
 Table XX VL 
 
 TABLE XXVI 
 
 Size of plant, kw. 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 Yearly cost per kw 
 
 $33.00 
 
 $31.90 
 
 $31.62 
 
 $30.80 
 
 $30.00 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr., ct 
 
 1.61 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.08 
 
 That portion of the power which is uniform and which can be 
 depended upon all of the time is called " permanent power " or 
 " primary power," and that power which is variable and cannot be 
 furni.'^hed all the time is called " surplus " or " secondary power." 
 The effect of variable power is the necessity of a supplementary 
 plant of .sufficient capacity to make up the deficiency of water 
 power. 
 
 The fixed charges on the supplementary jilant would go on 
 whethf.r this plant was used or not at 11% or $11 per kw.-yr. To 
 
456 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 this must be added the cost of operating, which under a varying 
 load would be less economical than regular steam power, and would 
 cost about $2.50 per kw. a month, with coal at $5 a ton, or about 
 $2 a month, with coal at $4 for such time as it is run. 
 
 These fixed charges would increase the cost of i)ower per kw.-hr, 
 for the yr. by about $11 divided by 2900 equals 0.38 cts., and 
 the operating charge would increase the cost per kw.-hr. by at 
 least $2.50 divided by 2900 equals 0.09 cts. for each month that the 
 plant is run full. 
 
 The total cost of power in such cases would be approximately 
 as is shown in Table XXVII. 
 
 TABLE XXVII. COST OV VARIABLE POWER AT SWITCH- 
 BOARD OF GENERATING STATION; HYDROELECTRIC 
 PLANT COSTING $100 A KW. AND COAL AT $5 A TON 
 
 Cost of Fixed 
 
 Size of hydro- charges Cost when steam plant is run for time shown 
 
 plant el. power steam One Two Three Four Five 
 
 kw. kw.-yr. plant month months months months months 
 
 1,000 $12.00 $11.00 $25.50 $28.00 $30.50 $33.00 $35.50 
 
 2.000 11.00 11.00 24.50 27.00 29.50 32.00 34.50 
 
 3,000 10.75 11.00 24.25 26.75 29.25 31.75 34.25 
 
 4.000 10.50 11.00 24.00 26.50 29.00 31.50 34.00 
 
 5,000 10.25 11.00 23.75 26.25 28.75 31.25 33.75 
 
 Every $100 incerase in the co.st of the hydro-electric development 
 adds $9 a yr. in fixed charges to the cost of power per kw. 
 
 With coal at $4 a ton, instead of $5, the cost of supplementary 
 power is 50 cts. less than for $5 for each month which the supple- 
 mentary plant is run. 
 
 Thus a 1000-kw. plant, costing $300 a kw., costs $30 a kw. for 
 steady power. If supplemented by steam to its full capacity for 5 
 months, with coal at $5, the total cost of power would be $53.50, 
 and $51 with coal at $4. 
 
 (For other data on water power consult the index). 
 
 Comparison of Hydroelectric and Steam-Electric Power, Com- 
 paring the figures above given, Mr. Main has made the following 
 deductions : 
 
 1. With transmission losses at 10%, a hydroelectric development 
 producing uniform power should cost not over $300 a kw., including 
 the cost of transmission lines and all other charges in order to 
 compete with a steam-driven station located at the mill with coal 
 at $5 a ton, except for the smaller plants. With coal at $4, the 
 hydroelectric development should cost not over $250, except as 
 noted above. 
 
 The above is on the assumption that the steam plant produces 
 power only, with no allowances for any further use of the by- 
 product. 
 
 2. With a hydroelectric development with a variable power, whose 
 variation is po great as to require a supi)lementary plant of equal 
 capacity to the hydraulic plant, and with coal at $5 a ton. the 
 cost of the hydroelectric plant should not exceed the amounts 
 shown in Table XXVIIL 
 
Coal at $4 a Ion 
 
 
 Months 
 
 supplement a 
 
 iry 
 
 plant 
 
 runs 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 $200 
 
 
 $100 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 STEAM POWER 457 
 
 TABLE XXVIII 
 
 Coal at $5 a ton 
 Size, kw. Months .supplementary 
 
 plant runs 
 1 5 
 
 1.000 $250 $150 
 
 2.000 200 100 
 
 3,000 175 75 
 
 4,000 150 50 
 
 5.000 150 50 
 
 3. The figures in Table XXVIII would apply approximately to the 
 "secondary" jjower. Having determined how much can be jiut 
 into the development of the uniform power, it can be determined 
 how nmch further the develunment could be carried to produce 
 secondary power. All of the above is for power with no uses for 
 exhaust steam and warm water. 
 
 4. The effect of the use of exhaust steam has been shown before 
 as malting a considerable reduction In the net cost of steam power. 
 
 With coal at $5 a ton, each 25% of exhaust used reduces the net 
 cost per kw. a yr. about $3.50, and per kw.-hr. about 0.12 cts., and 
 with $4 coal each 25% of exhaust used reduces net cost per kw.-yr. 
 about $3 and per kw.-hr. about 0.10 cts. 
 
 The effect of this on a hydroelectric plant is to reduce the amount 
 which can profitably be invested in the development by about $40 
 a kw. for each 25% of steam thus used, with coal at $5 a ton, and 
 by about $30 a kw. where coal is $4 a ton, so that if 100% of the 
 exhaust could be used, the maximum economical sum to put in the 
 hydroelectric development of 1000 kw. capacity of con.stant power, 
 with $5 coal, would be about $150, in.stead of $300, and with .?4 
 coal, $125 instead of $250. 
 
 5. With a variable water power requiring a double plant of 
 water and steam, the conditions might easily be such that it would 
 not pay to consider the water power, as the cost of maintenance and 
 operation of the double plant might exceed the cost of steam power 
 alone. 
 
 Purchased Power. Many mills now have the opportunity of pur- 
 chasing power. There are many advantages to the mill if such 
 power can be purchased at a reasonable price, some of which are 
 as follows : 
 
 In a new enterprise there will be required a smaller investment 
 or the same investment can be used in machinery. Less space will 
 be required. Some care may be removed from the manager. The 
 company is able, by postponing the installation, to take advantage 
 of any improvements in power plant equipment which may be 
 made during the j)eriod when c.urrent is purchased. 
 
 In considering the purchase of power, the. mill will, as a rule, 
 determine the price it can alTord to pay by estimating what it would 
 cost to produce the power in its own plant. 
 
 Power Plants in Textile Mills. Engineering Record, Oct. 17, 
 1908. It has often been said that the managers of textile mills could 
 not be interested in power plant economies to any marked extent 
 
458 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 because the expense for power is only 3 to 5% of the total ex- 
 penditures of the mill. While such a statement may have been true 
 formerly, it does not ai^ply to the present feeling regarding power 
 plants, for the experience of recent years has shown that the econo- 
 mies possible in some of the old plants were a really large per- 
 centage of the net annual profits of the mills. This saving has 
 arisen not only in the power station itself, but also in the mills, 
 where the elimination of irregularities in speed and the betterment 
 of artificial illumination have proved quite important in increasing 
 output and improving products. This subject was discussed in 
 much detail in a paper by Mr. Lewis Sanders, presented recently 
 before the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, from 
 which the following notes have been taken. 
 
 In order to obtain the best results, Mr. Sanders advises separat- 
 ing the power and mill organizations. The sole business of the 
 power plant force would be the generation of the power and steam 
 required by the mill at the lowest possible cost. 
 
 In deciding ujjon the type of power plant to construct, or upon 
 the improvement or replacement of an existing plant, the invest- 
 ment must be considered. A high-grade plant gi\ing the maximum 
 economy of operation, which may show the best investment value 
 in a locality where coal is $4 per ton, may, where coal is $1 per ton, 
 show a lower investment value than a less economical but cheaper 
 plant. 
 
 Mr. Sanders suggests as a basis of fixed charges for mill power 
 plants that they be charged with 10% depreciation and 6% interest, 
 equivalent to 3% on the initial cost of the plant during the 10 yrs. 
 that it is being written off. This gives IS'vc fixed charges to be 
 added to the operating expenses in comparing the relative economies 
 of several proposed designs of plants. Some may object that it is 
 not proper to charge the interest on the investment as part of the 
 operating expenses, as that forms part of the dividend returns on 
 the capitalization of the mill, but it should be borne in mind that 
 the mill is not in the power plant business and that it .^^hould treat 
 its power plant more as if it were covered by a bonded indebtedness 
 than as part of the stock capitalization. 
 
 If of two power plant designs the more costly is only able to 
 effect economies that will pay its extra depreciation charges and 
 6% on the investment, then the plant involving the least investment 
 had better be selected and the capital saved invested in securities 
 where the capital will be in a more liquid form than if tied up in 
 the power plant. In the case of a central station, on the other 
 hand, under those same conditions it would be better to select the 
 more costly plant. When alterations to an existing plant are con- 
 templated, it may be necessary to charge the improvement with a 
 higher rate of dei)reciation than 10%, owing to the fact that the 
 life of the improveme'nt might be limited by that of the old iilant. 
 In deciding to replace an old i^lant with a modern one. the new 
 plant should be charged with the fixed charges on its investment, 
 but the old one should not, because if the new plant does not show 
 
STEAM POWER 459 
 
 economies sufficient to absorb its fixed charges, and to show a 
 profit besides, it will not pay to make the change. 
 
 The rate of dei)reciation recommended, 10%, is not advised on 
 any idea that the power plant mat-hinery will be worn out in 10 
 yrs., as in fact most of it should last 20, under good management, 
 and maintain its efficiency. It is advised because the advances n\ 
 power plant equipment are so rapid that the plant may readily be 
 obsolete in 10 yrs., and warrttnt replacement with a more economical 
 type. 
 
 One mistake Mr. Sanders has observed to be made with sufficient 
 frequency to justify calling attention to it, lies in the calculation of 
 the savings that will be made by improvements that will reduce the 
 power consumption of an existing mill. Take the case of a mill 
 with a power consumption of 10,000 kw.-hrs. per day, and in which 
 improvements are in contemijlation that will save 500 kw.-hrs. per 
 day. Suppose the cost of generating power in that mill is known 
 to be 1.5 cts. per kw.-hr., including all fixed charges. The mistake 
 is frequently made of supposing that the saving of 500 kw.-hrs. 
 will, therefore, mean a saving of $7.50 per day. As a matter of 
 fact the saving will probably be nearer $2.50 per day, as the only 
 item of the power plant costs that will be affected will be the coal 
 con.sumption, labor and fixed charges not being reduced. Of course 
 there are often changes that do mean a reduction in the labor item, 
 but every case should be figured carefully to determine what the 
 real saving will be. 
 
 The saving to be effected in the power plant of a belt-driven mill, 
 by merely changing from belt drive to electric drive, will in very 
 few cases warrant the change, according to Mr. Sanders, If, how- 
 ever, the proposition be taken up more fully and the opportunity be 
 taken to completely redesign the entire power plant, then the econ- 
 omies that can be effected will very frequently be found to justify 
 changing the entire installation. Again, in deciding what pros- 
 pective gain there is in changing a belt-driven mill to electric drive, 
 the effect on the production of the mill should be taken into account. 
 The speed of every individual machine in the mill should be deter- 
 mined, to a.scertain how many run below the maximum permissible 
 speed. Sui)pose the introduction of the electric drive will increase 
 the mean speed of the machines 2% besides giving a more uniform 
 speed, the mill production will be increased by about that amount, 
 without any increase in machinery or operatives, and possibly with 
 less expense for repairs. This item alone will in many cases war- 
 rant electrification. 
 
 As the discussion of a concrete case is of more interest than 
 abstract ideas, Mr. Sanders stated at some length the results of an 
 investigation, conducted by his firm, on the power plant of a large 
 mill. The i^lant consists of three separate stations, known as 
 A, B and C. 
 
 Boiler plant A contains 12 Manning boilers of 19 6 h.p. each, Roney 
 stokers, Green economizers, natural draft, closed heater. Capacity 
 of plant, 2,350 b.h.p., steam pressure 100 lbs. 
 
400 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Boiler plant B contains 7 Manning boilers of 175 h.p. each, hand 
 fired, herringbone grates, smoke consumers, Green economizer, open 
 heater, natural draft. Capacity of plant, 1,225 b.h.p. Steam pres- 
 sure, 100 lbs. 
 
 Boiler plant C contains 6 Manning boilers of 175 h.p. each, hand 
 fired. Parsons grate system with a steam jet forced draft. Green 
 economizers, open heater. Capacity of plant, 1,050 b.h.p. Steam 
 pressure, 180 lbs. 
 
 Engine plant A contains 1 twin, simple, noncondensing Corliss 
 engine, geared to shafting. The exhaust of this engine is used for 
 heating water, which is used for boiler feed, washing and other 
 purposes. Engine develops about 800 h.p. 
 
 Engine plant B contains 1 twin-tandem compound, condensing 
 Corliss engine, geaied to shafting. Engine develops about 1,375 h.p. 
 
 Engine plant C contains 1 cross-compound condensing Corliss 
 engine of about 450 h.p., belted to a 300-kw. Bullock generator, one 
 750-h.p. cross-compound condensing Corliss engine belted to a 600- 
 kw. Crocker-Wheeler generator, and one 400-kw. Westinghouse- 
 ' Parsons turbo-generator. All generators are 2-phase, 60-cycle, 
 440-volt. 
 
 All the water for the plant is supplied by a central filter plant. 
 Two centrifugal pumps are belt-connected to engines of about 
 50 h.p. 
 
 Besides the incandescent lamps there are a number of series arcs 
 operated from 9 Brush arc machines, belt driven by the A engine. 
 
 Besides the steam used for power, a large quantity is used for 
 manufacturing purposes, such as boiling dye-kettles, scouring, wash- 
 ing, tentering machines, etc. Live steam is used for all these 
 purposes and for heating. The only use made of exhaust steam 
 is the water heated by the exhaust of the A engine and about half 
 of this water is used by the boiler feed. 
 
 The tests comprised 2 boiler tests of 3 days' duration each on 
 the A boiler plant, a 24-hr. boiler test on the B plant, tests on 
 the C boiler plant. 
 
 All the steam used for manufacturing purposes was metered by 
 means of steam meter.s. Indicator cards were taken on all engines 
 for several hours and the friction and live loads determined. As all 
 engines were connected to jet condensers and two of the boiler 
 plants supplied steam for manufacturing purposes, besides supply- 
 ing the engines, it was necessary to approximate the steam con- 
 suini)tion of the engines. This was done from the indicator cards 
 and the measurements of steam sui)plied by the boilers and that 
 accounted for by the steam meters. It was not possible to meter 
 the steam used by the engines, as the meters are not accurate on 
 a i)ulsatiiig flow of steam. In fact, the pulsations set up by the 
 engines disturbed the readings of the meters on the pipe lines sup- 
 plying steam for manufacturing purposes. It was, therefore, neces- 
 sary to make approximate corrections in determining the amount of 
 steam used at various points; while the total steam consumption 
 of the plant was correct, this being determined from the boiler feed, 
 there may have been individual errors of 5% in the distribution. 
 
STEAM POWER 461 
 
 From the regular test results on the boilers and engines financial 
 balance sheets were prepared on the operation of the plant. These 
 give the reisults in dollars per yr., which will probably interest the 
 mill owner more than figures of evaporation. Each balance sheet is 
 prepared on the basis of charging the plant with the cost of all 
 coal and labor, and then showing the distribution of this sum in the 
 various operations of the power plant. All losses, both the neces- 
 sary and the unnecessary, are shown and their amount. First, the 
 cost of the coal burned is shown, then the cost of the steam gen- 
 erated. From this the avoidable losses are deducted showing the 
 net value, and this is aKso given per 1,000 lbs. of steam. Then the, 
 distribution of the steam is given, on the basis of its net value. 
 The amount of useful steam is determined and from this the net 
 value of the useful steam. The useful steam is that which is used 
 by the engines and for manufacturing purposes. Steam used for 
 boiler feed pumps and other auxiliaries is not useful to the mill ; 
 it is part of the power plant expense. 
 
 This method of analysis shows the efficiency of operation and the 
 efficiency of plant design. For instance, we burn $100,000 worth 
 of coal, including the cost of firing; 75% of the heat of this coal 
 should be utilized in generating steam, if the plant is operated as 
 it should be, and 25% would be discharged in the flue gases. Now 
 if the power plant were operated so that only 70.% were utilized 
 in making steam^ the balance sheet would show $70,000 used to 
 evai)orate water, $25,000 properly discharged into stack and $5,000 
 wasted into stack. The waste of that $5,000 does not increase the 
 value of the steam produced, it only increases the cost, so that the 
 cost of the steam is shown as $100,000 and its net value as $95,000. 
 Again, two power plants may produce steam at the same cost, but 
 one may use 15% of this steam for its auxiliaries, while the other 
 may use only 10%,, making the cost of steam furni.shed the mill 
 quite different in the two cases. It is the power plant that de- 
 livers steam and power to the mill at the lowest cost that is the 
 most economical, and this is not always the one that is showing the 
 highest evaporation per pound of coal and the lowest steam con- 
 sumption per indicated horse-power. 
 
 The balance sheets show the following losses due to the character 
 of the plant, and which could only be avoided by different design : 
 Combustible wasted by stoker grates, $1,130; steam used by jets 
 under stoker, $6,555 ; steam used by jet blowers in A, $2,045 ; total, 
 $9,730. 
 
 The following losses were avoidable and are chargeable to faulty 
 operation: Loss due excessive price paid for coal, $14,000; loss 
 due excessive air used in combustion, $2,573 ; loss due leaky dampers 
 on economizers, $1,595; loss due use of smoke consumers, $1,710; 
 loss due leak m feed water heater, $1,110; loss due steam wasted 
 by turbine. $5,500; total, $26,488. 
 
 Proper purchasing of the coal would save $14,000. Improved 
 opei-ation that eliminated all the other losses would not save the 
 remaining $12,500 wasted, because only the coal involved would be 
 saved, as the reduction of steam consumption would not be suffi- 
 
462 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cient to dispense with the services of a fireman. This would result 
 in increasing the cost per 1,000 lbs. of the remainder of the steam, 
 as the percentage of labor expense would be increased. The actual 
 saving due to eliminating all the losses due to operation Is there- 
 fore about $11,000 out of the $12,500 wasted. 
 
 With regard to the possibility of effecting these savings, it should 
 be noted that, with one exception, the losses are due to undetected 
 defects of apparatus, and that their remedy does not put a con- 
 tinuous strain on the operating force. The exception is the loss 
 due excessive air going through the furnaces ; this was largely due 
 to such things as carelessness in keeping the hoppers on the stokers 
 filled and the ash pockets sealed. The opinion on what is attain- 
 able in this respect is not based on what can be accomplished 
 during a short test run, but on what the firemen have proved they 
 could accomplish without undue strain. All three boiler plants 
 were equipped with instruments for automatically making and 
 recording an analysis of the flue gases every five minutes. The 
 opinions are based on a series of records extending over 2 months, 
 in which the men showed repeatedly that they could maintain the 
 standard here adopted, without being specially urged at their work. 
 
 The figures in Table XXIX, taken from the balance sheets, give 
 a comparison of the economic value of the 3 power plants. They 
 give the comparative costs of operation per unit of power and 
 steam supplied, after deducting all costs due to a failure to operate 
 that particular plant at its maximum efficiency. The differences in 
 costs are therefore due to the difference in design of the plant. The 
 costs are based on the use of Pocahontas coal at $4 per ton. 
 
 TABLE XXIX. OPERATING EXPENSES OF THREE POWER 
 
 PLANTS. AFTER DEDUCTING EXPENSP^S DUE TO 
 
 FAILURE TO RUN AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY 
 
 Plant A B C 
 
 Coal as burned, including labor per ton $4.50 $4.72 $4.55 
 
 Steam generated, per 1,000 lb 20.0 ct. 22.6 ct. 22.2 ct. 
 
 Steam available for power, manufac- 
 turing and heating, per 1,000 lb 25.9 ct. 25.2 ct. 25.35 ct. 
 
 Power, per 1,000-b.hp $2.30 $4.40 $4.27 
 
 These comparative costs disclose a curious condition. The A 
 boiler plant is distinctlj; a modern plant and shows an economy 
 over the other two plants of some 10% in the cost of generating 
 steam, yet it is the most expensive plant for the mill to operate. 
 This is due to the amount of steam the boiler plant itself con- 
 sumes. The B plant, which is actually the most expensive to oper- 
 ate from the standpoint of water evaporated, proving to be the 
 most economical for the mill's use. The B boiler plant is the 
 most efficient of the 3 plants as regards water evaporated per 
 pound of coal, but becomes the most expensive on the basis of cost 
 of evaporation, owing to the fact that it contains 7 boilers and 
 requires 3 firemen, while the C plant has 6 boilers and runs them 
 with 2 firemen. We have here a fixed Increase in operating ex- 
 
STEAM POWER 463 
 
 pense due to nothing but the size of units selected. The same con- 
 ditions are shown in the engine plants; A, which uses the most 
 steam per h.p is the most economical because it returns a large 
 part of the steam to the mill for manufacturing use. The C engine 
 plant sliould show a greater economy than it does over the B, 
 on account of its more efficient engines. The reason that it does 
 not is due to the layout of the C plant being such that it requires 
 thiee men on shift, while B has two men and generates about the 
 same amount of power. 
 
 The C power plant satisfies the requirements of location for a 
 new station exceedingly well. It is located between the dye house, 
 tentering machines and the scouring plant. This puts it as near 
 the centfi of steam consumption as the construction of the mill 
 permits. There is room in the present C engine and boiler rooms 
 to contain the entire new plant, so no new buildings will be re- 
 quired There is available ground for enlargement to a plant 3 
 times the size, and this without interfering with the growth of 
 any of the mill buildings. Ample coal storage can be provided and 
 the railroad siding is now located at this point. 
 
 The new plant will be equipped with turbines, from which steam 
 will be drawn at 45 lbs. pressure for the tentering machines and 
 carbonizing, and at 5 lbs. pressure for dye house, scouring, heating, 
 etc The size of unit adopted for boilers and turbines is as large 
 as possible consistent with having the units of such size that if 
 any one unit breaks down the remaining units can carry its share 
 of the load on their overload capacity. The size of the unit must 
 also be selected with reference to the load at various times, so 
 that the units in service shall operate as nearly as possible at their 
 rated capacity in order to secure the highest economy. In this case 
 we have a load of 2,200 kws. for 58 hrs. a week and a load of 344 
 kws for 67.5 hrs. 
 
 The plant recommended, in this instance, consists of 3 double- 
 ended water-tube boilers of 1,000 h.p. each, combined forced and 
 induced draft, hand-fired furnaces, this to give the greatest adapta- 
 bility of the j)Iant to various grades of coal. Coal storage for about 
 3,000 tons with coal-handling apjjaratus for unloading coal and 
 handling it from stock piles to boiler room floor, and also for ash 
 removal. The turbines recommended are 3 vertical turbo-generators 
 of 750 kw. capacity each, with special modifications in construction 
 to suit these conditions. As part of the plant is already electrified, 
 the 2-phase, 60-cycle, 440-volt system would be continued, other- 
 wise 3-phase, 60-cycle, 600 volts would have been recommended. 
 The parts of the existing plant .that would be utilized are the build- 
 ings of C boiler and engine house, the economizers, possibly some 
 of the auxiliaries, some of the piping in the mill buildings, and the 
 motors and wiring. The Westinghouse turbine would be retained 
 for reserve and to provide for any moderate growth in the power 
 demands. 
 
 The engines in the filter plant will be replaced by motors with 
 automatic control, and the arc machines will be eliminated and the 
 
4G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 arcs replaced with high efficiency incandescent lamps. This will 
 dispense with the two attendants at these plants. The cost of this 
 plant, including motors, would be about $150,000. 
 
 The new plant with the auxiliary apparatus will do the work now 
 performed by 3 power plants containing 23 boilers, 4 engines, 1 
 turbine and the auxiliary apparatus in triplicate. The existing 
 plant has no coal storage and all coal has to be teamed to the 
 boiler rooms. The removal of the 2 power plants that would be 
 abandoned will make available considerable ground for mill 
 buildings. 
 
 The present plants require 33 men to operate them, while the 
 new plant, when running the same grade of coal, will require only 
 13 men. and with No. 3 buckwheat 16 men, and if stokers are used, 
 only 7 men for its operation. These figures do not include superin- 
 tendence nor the machine shop and pipe fitters forces that are used 
 when repairs are necessary. The new plant should show a decrease 
 in these items. 
 
 The coal consumption ff>r the new plant would be 18,740 tons of 
 soft coal or 22,600 tons of No. 3 buckwheat coal, as against 27.200 
 tons of soft coal for the present plant. Table XXX gives the oper- 
 ating costs of the new ])lant under several conditions. In the cost 
 of labor for the new plant the engineers are figured at a higher 
 rate of pay than they are receiving in the present plant, but no 
 higher efficiency has been counted ui)on. 
 
 TABLE XXX. ANNUAL OPERATING CHARGES OP NEW 
 PLANT 
 
 Coal used, grade Soft No. 3 Buck. No. 3 Buck. 
 
 Coal cost, per ton $4 $2.70 $2.70 
 
 Coal, tons 18,740 22,600 22.600 
 
 Firing Hand Hand Stokers 
 
 Labor $10,250 $12,475 $5,980 
 
 Removing ashes 610 1,415 1,415 
 
 Total annual cost 85,860 74,890 68,395 
 
 The operating costs of the present plant are given, about $150,000 
 per year, not including repairs, superintendence, oil or supj)lies. 
 
 In the operation of the mill large quantities of hot water are 
 discharged to the sewer, at temperatures ranging from 100 degs. to 
 200 degs. from dye kettles, scouring, etc. It is assumed that 20% 
 of this waste heat can be recovered. The installation of the neces- 
 sary ai)paratus to recover this heat might raise the cost of the plant 
 to $200,000. If this 20% of the heat discharged to the sewers is 
 recovered and at the same time the efficiency of operation of the 
 plant be raised to the maximum possible, by means of bonus pay- 
 ments to the men for excellence of operation, the operating costs 
 would become, with the i)lant oi^erated on the No. 3 buckwheat coal 
 at $2.70 per ton and the use of stokers: 19,150 tons coal, $51,700; 
 labor, $5,980; removing ashes, $1,190; bonus paid men for high 
 efficiency, $1,200; total, $60,070. 
 
 It is now possible to figure the costs per unit for the new plant, 
 to compare the economic value of its design with that of the three 
 
STEAM POIVER 465 
 
 existing power plants at the mill, which were given in Table XXIX. 
 They are given below : 
 
 Operating txpen.ses of proposed power plant, wMth soft coal at $4, 
 hand-fired, or No. 3 buckwheat coal at $2.70. stoker fired: 
 
 Coal used Soft Buck. 
 
 Coal as burned, including labor $4.42 $2.85 
 
 Steam generated per 1,000 lb 19.7 ct. 15 5 ct. 
 
 Steam, available for mill 20.8 ct. 16.35 ct. 
 
 Power, per 1,000 b. hp 1.98 $1.60 
 
 It should be particularly noted that the reductions in costs for 
 the new plant are due entirely to the design of the plant, and are 
 not based on any expectations of improved operation or of cheaper 
 coal, in so far as the comparison of the plants when using soft 
 coal is concerned. 
 
 If we take the cost of the new plant as $150,000 and the saving 
 in operating costs as that shown by operating with soft coal, hand 
 fired, viz., $59,696 per year, we have: Depreciation, 10%, $15,000; 
 interest 6% on average outstanding investment, $4,500; net saving 
 due to new plant, $31,196; net return on investment. 20.8%. 
 
 The mill possesses a record system that is about the same as to 
 be found in most mills. It .'^hows the coal and water used each 
 week and the power generated. It showed nothing at all of the 
 various defects in the power plant nor gave any means of detecting 
 them, yet that is the only reason for having a record system. If 
 the recoi'ds had been of any value they would have called the atten- 
 tion of the owners to every one of the $26,000 of losses going on in 
 the power plant, including the high price being paid for coal. 
 
 Mr. Sanders strongly believes in the use of recording instruments 
 throughout the power plant, as it can then be run on a continuous 
 test basis. If the records are not properly analyzed and if every 
 defect of apparatus or of operation that they detect is not imme- 
 diately remedied, the use of the recording instruments or a record 
 system is a waste of money. If the results are utilized, the money 
 invested in recording instruments will prove a paying investment. 
 
 Cost of Steam and Electric Power for Operating Flour Mills 
 Producing 54,000 Bbls. of Flour Per Yr. Charles A. Stanley gives 
 the following notes for the plant using oil and coal, according as 
 the prices thereof vary, in Oct., 1912, Proceedings of Kansas Gas, 
 Water, Elec. Lt., & St. Ry. Ass'n. 
 
 Investment — Fixed charges: 
 
 Power plant buildings $2,000 
 
 Engine ^ 900 
 
 Boilers 1,200 
 
 Miscellaneous ; 800 
 
 $4,900 
 
 Depreciation, 6% $294.00 
 
 Interest, 5% , . 245 00 
 
 Taxe.s 1% 49.00 
 
 Insurance, 1 V^7o 73.50 
 
 $661.50 
 
4G6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Fuel: 
 
 Coal and oil, including handling $2,500.00 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Engineer 1,300.00 
 
 Water : 
 
 Pumped from well. Softener included in repairs. 
 
 Superintendence : 
 
 Time of miller and office help. V. hr. per day at 50 cts. 
 
 per hr 75.00 
 
 Loss of Production : 
 
 % hr. per week ; time of 5 men at 25 ct 65.00 
 
 Repairs and Supplies: 
 
 Oil, waste, etc 100.00 
 
 Total $4,701.50 
 
 Cost per bbl of flour, 8.7 ct. 
 
 The above mill is using a non-condensing engine, simple Corliss 
 type, belt-driven to line shaft. The engine indication shows 85 
 hp. on full load. This results in 2,040 hp.-hr. per .day for 250 bbl. 
 output, or 6.1 kw.-hr. per bbl. 
 
 Losses in present plant : 
 
 Steam driven. 15% 11.75 h.p. 
 
 Belt drive, 87o 6.80 h.p. 
 
 Total 18.55 h.p. 
 
 If this plant is equipped with a 100 h.p. motor, the power re- 
 quired for operation will be about as follows ; 
 
 Motor power 85 h.p. 
 
 Less present losses 18.55 h.p. 
 
 66.15 h.p. 
 
 Plus motor loss, 10% 6.65 
 
 Plus wiring loss, 2% 1.3 
 
 Plus drive, loss, 3% 1.9 
 
 9.85 h.p. 
 
 Electrical power required 76.3 h.p. 
 
 The above 76.3 h.p. equals 57 kws., which operated for 24 hrs. 
 producing 250 bbl. of flour, results in 5Vij kw.-hr. per bbl. 
 
 The cost of operating this mill from central station service per 
 year will be about as follows : 
 
 Investment : 
 
 Motor building $ 250 
 
 Boiler room 250 
 
 Boiler for heating 280 
 
 Motors .-. 1,200 
 
 Installation 300 
 
 Drive 285 
 
 $2,565 
 
STEAM POWER 467 
 
 Depreciation, 6% $153.90 
 
 Interest, 5% 128.25 
 
 Taxes, 1% 25.65 
 
 Insurance, 1^^% 38.48 
 
 $346.28 
 
 Fuel: 
 
 For heating and tempering 300.00 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Fireman and motor care 100.00 
 
 Water : 
 
 Pumped from well. 
 Superintendence 25.00 
 
 Loss of production : 
 
 None. 
 Repairs and supplies 100.00 
 
 Electric energy: 
 
 297,000 kw.-hrs. at 1.2 cts $3,564.00 
 
 Total - $4,435.28 
 
 The following data show several mills now operating from cen- 
 tral station service — the cost of operation with their isolated plant, 
 as previously equipped, also the cost at present, using central sta- 
 tion service. 
 
 Central station 
 
 Isolated plant service 
 
 Mill Capacity Cost per ct. Cost per bbl. 
 
 ct ct 
 
 No. 1 350 9 8 
 
 No. 2 600 7.2 6.1 
 
 No. 3 900 6.8 5.9 
 
 No. 4 1,000 6.5 5.3 
 
 BELT DRIVE 
 
 Motor, 200 hp., slip ring, 600 rev. per min $1,700 
 
 Belt drive 300 
 
 Installation " 250 
 
 Investment $2,250 
 
 Motor house or space 750 
 
 Total investment $3,000 
 
 Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, 13^^% 405 
 
 Motor efficiency, 92% =12 kw. loss 
 Belt drive, 87% = 19% kw. loss 
 
 Total loss 21 1/^ kw. loss = 1,260 
 
 Total fixed charges and losses $1,665 
 
 Power factor — 88%. 
 
 ROPE DRIVE 
 
 Motor, 200 hp., slip ring, 600 rev. per min $1,700 
 
 Rope drive 600 
 
 Installation 250 
 
 Drive Investment $2,550 
 
468 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 Motor house or space , 1 ,000 
 
 Total investment $3,550 
 
 Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, 13i^% 479.25 
 
 Motor etticiency, 9 27o rr 12 kw. loss 
 Hope drive !)07o = 13 1^ kw. loss 
 
 Total loss 25 1/2 kw. loss = 1,080.00 
 
 Total fixed charges and losses $1,559.25 
 
 Power factor — 887o. 
 
 DIRECT CONNECTED 
 
 Motor 200 hp. slip ring-, 180 rev per min $3,000 
 
 Installation 250 
 
 Drive investment 3,250 
 
 Motor house or space 300 
 
 Total investment $3,550 
 
 Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, \ZV2% 479.25 
 
 Motor efficiency, 867o, 21 kw. loss 840.00 
 
 Total fixed charges and losses $1,319.25 
 
 Power factor — 887o. 
 
 DIRECT CONNECTED 
 
 Motor 200 hp. slip ring, 180 rev. per min $3,000 
 
 Installation 250 
 
 Drive investment 3,250 
 
 Motor house or space 300 
 
 Total investment $3,550 
 
 Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, 13i/<!7 479.25 
 
 Motor efficiency, 867o, 21 kw. loss 840.00 
 
 Total fixed charges and losses , $1,319.25 
 
 Power factor — 857c. 
 
 CHAIN DRIVE 
 
 Motor 200 hp. slip ring, 600 rev. per min $1,700 
 
 Chain drive 400 
 
 Installation 250 
 
 Drive investment $2,350 
 
 Motor house or space 300 
 
 Total investment . $2,650 
 
 Interest, depi'eciation, taxes and insurance, 13%% 357.75 
 
 Motor efficiency, 9 27o --""■ 12 kw. loss 
 Chain efficiency, 9 8%.-=; 3 kw. loss 
 
 Total loss 15 kw. loss - 600.00 
 
 Total fixed charges and losses $ 9 57.75 
 
 The efficiencies given were taken from tests coming under Mr. 
 Stanley.'s observation. 
 
 Loss of production is an item Mr. Stanley calls attention to in an 
 Interesting way. 
 
 Take a 250 bbl. mill, operating from a steam engine, in which 
 repairs of a minor nature, such as renewing belts, changing pulleys, 
 etc.. must be made, generally on Sunday, which involves waiting 
 iintil Sunday morning wheri steariT. is on to try out the mill after 
 
STEAM POWER 469 
 
 the changes have been made. This requires an average of 1 hr 
 loss per week, and 5 men at $0.25 per hr. averages a yearly loss in 
 labor of $75, added to which is the loss of production per week 
 which means about 500 bbls. per yr. 
 
 Poiver Required. The size of ]7iotor required in flour mills de- 
 pends on the type of machinery, etc., and in general will average 
 about as follows, and is for mill only and does not include elevator: 
 
 Bbl. per 24 hr. Soft wheat, h.p. Hard wheat, h.p. 
 
 100 40 50 
 
 125 50 60 
 
 150 60 75 
 
 175 75 100 
 
 250 100 125 
 
 300 125 150 
 
 500 175 200 
 
 750 250 300 
 
 1000 300 400 
 
 Typical Solution of the Power Plant Problem for an Assumed 
 Industrial Plant in Canada. Aldis Hibner of the Toronto Electric 
 Light Coinijany i)resented a paper at a joint meeting of the A. S, 
 M. E. and A. I. E. E. in March, 1911, of which the following is an 
 abstract. 
 
 In every industrial-power problem there are 3 main factors: 1, 
 the investment charges; 2, operating charges; 3, the cost of lieating 
 or the use of low pressure steam. The first covers interest, amor- 
 tization, in.^urance, taxes and profit on the invested capital. The 
 second covers coal, labor, repairs and supplies, and the third in- 
 cludes investment and operating charges of the boiler plant neces- 
 sary to heat the building, supplying steam for manufacturing 
 processes. 
 
 Assuming a typical case of a shoe company, intending to build 
 a new factory having a floor area of 60,000 sq. ft, and a cubical 
 content of 750.000 cu. ft., the first step in the solution is the de- 
 termination of the cost of heating which is necessary, the condi- 
 tions of manufacture being such that the temperature of the build- 
 ing must be kept above 50 degs. during the winter months. 
 
 The coal consumption is based on an evaporation of 7 lbs. of 
 water per lb. of coal, one change of air per hr. in the factory and 
 the supi^lying of radiation losses. For this, 90 h.p. will be required 
 in zero weather. Table XXXI gives the necessary investment, with 
 the fixed and operating costs of the plant, depreciation being pro- 
 vided for by a sinking fund drawing 5% semi-annually. 
 
 TABLE XXXI 
 
 ITE.\TING PLANT INVfi^STMENT 
 
 Boiler, piping and auxiliaries (A) $1,500 
 
 Building and stack (B) 2,250 
 
 Total investment $4,000 
 
470 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 FIXED COST 
 
 Interest, 6% on $4000 $240.00 
 
 Insurance and taxes, 2% on $4000 80.00 
 
 Amortization on A, 4%%, 15 yr. life. 67.50 
 
 Amortization on B, i^%, 50 yr. life 12.50 
 
 $400.00 
 
 OPERATING COST 
 
 Coal, 475 tons at $3.00 $1,425.00 
 
 Fireman at $15.00 per week 780.00 
 
 Supplies and repairs 100.00 
 
 $2,305.00 
 Total cost $2,705,000 
 
 Fireman's time was figured for the entire year, since high pres- 
 sure steam is necessary for industrial purposes. 
 
 The concern has a maximum capacity for 100 kws. of power, the 
 average load is 80 kws., giving an 80% 10-hr. load factor. The 
 
 TABLE XXXII 
 
 COMPLETE POWER PLANT INVESTMENT 
 
 Capacity, 100 kw. 
 
 Engine, generator, switchboard, wiring (A) $ 5,500 
 
 Boilers, steam piping, auxiliaries (B) 5,000 
 
 Building, foundations, stack (C) 5,000 
 
 $15,500 
 
 Steam-heating plant ; 4,000 
 
 Additional for power $11,500 
 
 FIXED COST OF POWER PLANT 
 
 Interest, 6% on $15,500 $930 
 
 Profit, 5% on $11,500 575 
 
 Insurance and taxes. 2% on $15,500 310 
 
 Amortization on (A), 3% (20-yr. life) 165 
 
 Amortization on (B), 4^^% (15-yr. life) 225 
 
 Amortization on (C), 1/2% (50-yr. life) 25 
 
 $2,230 
 
 Fixed cost on heating plant 400 
 
 Additional for power $1,830 
 
 OPERATING COST OF POWER PLANT 
 
 240,000 kw.-hr. 
 
 Coal at 7.39 pounds, 887 tons at $3.00 $ 2,661 
 
 Banking, 181 tons at $3.00 543 
 
 Night heating, 202 tons at $3.00 606 
 
 Engineer at $18 00 per week 936 
 
 Fireman at $15.00 per week 780 
 
 Water 100 
 
 Oil, waste, supplies 150 
 
 Repairs 200 
 
 $5,976 
 Operating cost of heating plant 2,305 
 
 Additional for power $3,671 
 
 Total additional for power , 5,501 
 
 Co.st per kw.-hr 0.0229 
 
 Cost per hp.-yr 51,40 
 
STEAM POWER 471 
 
 eng-ine is of the Corliss non-condensing type, requiring 30 lbs. of 
 steam per i.h.p.-hr. The evaporation at 7 lbs. of water per lb. of 
 coal gives a coal consumption of 4.3 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr., and the 
 efficiency from steam cylinder to switchboard is 78%, giving a coal 
 consumption of 7.39 lbs. per kw.-hr. or 5.51 lbs. per h.p.-hr. at the 
 switchboard, the factory running 300 days per yr. 
 
 Table XXXll gives the investment cost, fixed cost and operating 
 cost of the plant, allowance being made for the cost of heating, as 
 calculated. 
 
 Among the items of fixed co* is one covering profit on the addi- 
 tional investment required ^for a power plant. A concern is not 
 justified in investing in a power plant unless the capital so invested 
 returns the same profit as if invested in the most profitable part 
 of the business still capable of extension. Considering the added 
 risk this can safely be raised to 10 or 15%, and hence, it is evident 
 from the.se results that if power can be purchased for 2.3 cts. per 
 kw.-hr, there is no advantage of installing a steam-i)ower plant. 
 
 Mr. Hibner quotes the U. S. Geological Survey report on gas- 
 producer plants as showing that a non-condensing steam plant 
 requires 2.7 times as much coal per unit as a producer plant, giving 
 a maximum attainable efficiency for the producer plant of 21.5% 
 as against 10.3% for the steam plant; the Corliss non-condensing 
 engine basis requiring 30 lbs. of steam per i.h.p.-hr. The assumed 
 requirements are for a shoe company with a floor area of 60,000 sq. 
 ft. and cubical contents of 750,000 cu. ft., under which conditions 
 there will be required a 175-h.p. engine and producer, and in addi- 
 
 TABLE XXXIIL GAS PRODUCER PLANT 
 
 INVESTMENT 
 
 Engine and producer (A) $11,900 
 
 Generator, switchboard, wiring (B) 2,500 
 
 Building (C) 2,500 
 
 $16,900 
 
 FI.KED COST 
 
 Interest, 6% on $16,900 $1,014.00 
 
 Profit, 5% on $16,900 845.00 
 
 Insurance and taxes, 2% on $16,900 338.00 
 
 Amortization on A, 15-yr. life, 4 V^% 535.00 
 
 Amortization on B, 20-yr. life, 3% 75.00 
 
 Amortization on C, 50-yr. life, %% 12.50 
 
 $2,819.50 
 
 OPERATING COST 
 
 240,000 kw.-hr. 
 
 Coal, 3 lb. per kw.-hr. at $4.00 per ton, 360 tons. . $1,440.00 
 
 Engineer at $18.00 per week 936.00 
 
 Oil and waste 125.00 
 
 Repairs 300.00 
 
 Water 133.00 
 
 Emergency service 300.00 
 
 $3,234.00 
 
 Total $6,053.50 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr 0.025 
 
 Cost per hp.-yr 56.20 
 
472 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tion a heating plant for heating the building-, but as the heating 
 plant is required in any event the coyt of heating is eliminated as 
 a comparative factor in the pioblem. The investment, fixed costs 
 and operatmg costs of this plant are given in Table XXXIII. 
 
 This gives a higher fixed cost than for the steam plant, while the 
 operating costs are only about .5 that of the steam plant, but are 
 counterbalanced by the cost of heating. The final result gives a 
 slightly higher cost for the gas-producer plant. The ratio of the 
 fixed cost to operating cost in the two cases produces a marked 
 effect where the load factor is potior. The only items affected by 
 the output of the plant are coal and w^ter, these rei)resenting only 
 about 27% of the total cost, as against 50% with the steam plant, the 
 result being a very much higher cost for the gas producer at low 
 load factors, which effect would be further exaggerated by the poor 
 fuel economy on light loads. 
 
 Cost of Povr/er in Coal Mines. W. A. Thomas in the proceedings 
 of the A. I. E. E. for January 9, 1912, gives the following figures as 
 the result of careful tests on 4 typical plants in Ohio in which the 
 average capacity was 250 kws. per station. 
 
 Average cost of power 2.485 ct per kw-hr. 
 
 Cost for substation equipment, less salvage... .124 
 
 Common cost for either source .7 " " " " 
 
 Central station rate to balance against present 
 
 cost 1.661 ' " 
 
 Average power consumption 47,700 kw.-hr. 
 
 Average kw.-hr. per ton coal 2.49 
 
 An analysis of several typical small mining plants shows that the 
 average working days per month to be from 15 to 20, and the aver- 
 age load factor during an 8-hr. day to be slightly over 50%, based 
 on a ratio of average consumption to maximum duration, not 
 taking into account the actual capacity of the genei-ators or the 
 momentary swing of the ammeter. 
 
 Heating and Power Costs in New York City Isolated Plants. 
 Percival R. Mo.«-es gave the following figures, Proc. of the A. I. E. E., 
 January 12, 1912. 
 
 COST OF FUEL AND LABOR FOR HEATING IN TYPICAL 
 BUILDINGS WITHOUT PRIVATE ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 APARTMENT ilOTJSKS 
 
 100 by 100 ft. 7 stories and basement — 21 apartments — one ele- 
 vator. 
 Steam for heating and hot water and pump. 
 Fuel used No. 1 buckwheat at $3.25 per 
 
 ton P'uel $1150 to $1250 
 
 Labor $1200 to $1320 
 200 by 100 ft. irregular — 8 stories and basement — 72 apartments 
 — two elevators. 
 Steam for heating and hot water, laundiy dryers 
 
 and pumping. Fuel used costs $2.05 per ton. . . . Fuel $2350 
 
 Labor $2276 
 200 by 92 ft. — 11 stories and basem«?ht — block front — 77 apart- 
 ments — el-^n'ators. 
 Steam for heating and hot water, Coal for heat- 
 ing. Coal for hot water amounted to 300 tons in 
 a year. Stoves for dryers. Fuel used, pea coal Fuel $4317 
 
 Labor ^280Q 
 
STEAM POWER 473 
 
 (Corner) — 100 by 100 ft. — 12 stories. 
 
 Steam for heating, hot water dryers, refrigerating 
 plant and pump. Used 1050 tons No. 1 buck- 
 wheat Fuel $3700 
 
 Labor $2465 
 
 HOTELS 
 
 Apartment hotel. 50 by 100 ft. 10 stories Fuel $2700 
 
 Labor 1920 
 High class apartment hotel. 50 by 100 ft., and annex 
 25 by 100 ft. — 4 stories. 
 Heating hot water and refrigeration. Absorption 
 
 system. Low pressure steam P""uel $2503 
 
 Labor $jy20 
 
 OFFICE BUILDINGS 
 
 12 stories — corner building. 
 
 Corner heating -and some hot water Fuel $1700 
 
 Labor $2500 
 Corner — office — 11 stories — 86 by 150 ft. 
 
 Heatirig, steam for kitchen and refrigerating plant. 
 
 Steam for hot water (25 h.p. and up) Fuel $3564.65 
 
 Labor $3746.25 
 50 and 30 by 197 ft. 
 
 12 stories — protected on west Fuel $1047.50 
 
 Labor $2020.00 
 
 $3067.50 
 Offices. 
 
 Steam for heating. Plunger elevators. Pumping 
 
 and hot water Fuel $4383.35 
 
 Labor $5798.52 
 
 $10,181.87 
 Offices 45 by 85 ft. — 16 stories — corner — three elec- 
 tric elevators Fuel $1,180 
 
 Labor $ 810 
 
 $ 1 990 
 Loft building — 50 by 100 ft. — 12 stories, middle of 
 
 block protected Fuel $800 
 
 Labor $4 20 
 100 by 100 ft. — Salesrooms — 12 stories. (Corner). Fuel $1,580 
 
 Labor $5,798 
 128 by 90 ft. and 173 by 90 ft. (52.7 by 27 m.) — Mail 
 Older house — 1 1 stories and basement 
 Steam for heating hot water. 4 plunger elevator 
 
 pumps and house pumps Fuel $4,621 
 
 Labor $4,100 
 75 by 185 ft. — 12 stories and basement — middle of 
 
 block but exposed above lower floors Fuel $1,280 
 
 Labor $713 
 
 10 stories — 123 by 143 ft. (Corner) Fuel $2700 
 
 Labor $ 960 
 
 DEPARTMENT STORES 
 
 207 by 100 ft. and 25 by 104 ft. and 99 by 75 ft. 
 
 Steam for heating refrigerating and pumps and hot 
 
 water. Hydraulic elevators. 7000 kw.-hrs. ... Fuel $6,583 
 
 Labor 6,084 
 92 by 122 ft and 253 by 184 ft. — 7 and 10 stories ; yard 
 
 (anthracite) screenings and soft coal Fuel $5,9 67 
 
 Labor 5,000 
 23,000 sq. ft. — seven stories — six passenger and three 
 freight elevators (plunger type). No. 1 buck- 
 wheat anthracite Fuel $4,000 
 
 Labor 5,000 
 
474 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 200 by 200 ft. — 6 stories and basement. Use No. 2 
 
 buckwheat coal Fuel $6,231 
 
 Labor 4,056 
 Factory and loft building — two buildings about 12,000 
 
 sq. ft. per floor — 6 stories and basement Fuel $1,100 
 
 Labor 936 
 
 Mr. Moses says the figures given opposite the labor for each 
 building are within 10% of the actual payroll. 
 
 Cost of Power in a Large Apartment House. Table XXXIV, 
 showing the operating charges of the plant of The Spencer Arms 
 Apartments for the years 1910 and 1911, was made up from data 
 In the September, 1912, issue of The Isolated Plant. 
 
 The building is 160 by 112 ft., 12 stories high, each floor contain- 
 ing 3 apartment.s. The service demanded of the plant consists of 
 electricity for public and private lighting, electric power for 4 ele- 
 vators, steam for heating the building and for laundry use ; also, 
 refrigeration, Avhich is supplied direct to each apartment ice box 
 by brine ciiculation. 
 
 The princir)al features of the plant equipment are : 
 
 3 horizontal return tubular boilers of 150 b.h.p. each. 
 
 3 direct-connected generators of 65 kAV. capacity each. 
 
 1 refrigerating machine of the compression type of 12 tons 
 capacity. 
 
 The basic co.st as shown is the cost of operating the plant with- 
 out producing electricity. 
 
 TABLE XXX IV. MONTHLY COST OF OPERATION, 
 SPENCER ARMS APARTMENTS 
 
 Jan.-Dec, 1910 Jan.-Dec.,1911 
 
 Plant output, Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. 
 
 kw.-hrs 7,672 11,834 18,780 7.980 15,568 21,620 
 
 Total co.st $l.o(;:^ $1,321 $1,679 $1,075 $1,248 $1,373 
 
 Basic cost $710 $922 $1,154 $770 $871 $1,052 
 
 C/ost of electricity . . $L'!U $399 $631 $269 $377 $488 
 
 Co.«t per kw.-hr. ...$0.0197 $0.0269 $0.0389 $0.0141 $0.0243 $0.0490 
 
 Fuel $329 $544 $834 $330 $483 $604 
 
 Engine room labor . $447 $150 $453 $450 $461 $496 
 
 Water (estimated) . $43 $136 $165 $67 $115 $147 
 
 Oil . $18 $28 $38 $22 $31 $42 
 
 Engine room sun- 
 dries $8 $30 $10 $35 
 
 Ash removal $40 $40 $40 $40 $40 $40 
 
 Improvements and 
 
 new installation . $8 $37 $12 $109 
 
 Long time supplies . $2 $24 $85 $28 $85 
 
 Extra repaii's $6 $40 $3 $16 
 
 Repairs to plant ... $49 $169 $89 $476 
 
 Building repairs ... $7 $35 $4 $19 
 
 Elevator repairs ... $15 $61 $31 $157 
 
 Fuel used No. 1 Buckwheat Nos. 1 & 2 Buckwheat 
 
 Tons fuel used 105 167 249 111 151 202 
 
 Cost of Power, Light, and Heat, from Steam for 19 Buildings. 
 The following data for the operation of the Eberhard Faber Pencil 
 Comiiany's Plant were publi.^hed in the July, 1912, issue of The 
 Isolated Plant. This is a factory plant generating power, light and 
 
STEAM POWER 475 
 
 heat for 19 buildings, with a total floor area of 241,200 sq. ft. and a 
 cubical content of 2,432,700 ft. and with 22,000 sq. ft. of heating 
 surface. The buildings have 3 elevators, 2 electric drum and 1 
 electric traction type, with capacities of 1,000, 3,000 and 4,000 lbs. 
 
 The plant consists of 1 Corliss engine, direct-connected to a 
 2-wire, 24 0-volt d.c. dynamo of 350 kw. capacity. There are 4 
 water-tube boilers of 1,100 rated h p. Heating is done by 2-pipe 
 system, gravity type. The auxiliary api)aratus comprises 1 feed 
 water heater of the open type and of 600 h.p. capacity, 1 duplex 
 pump 6 by 4.5 by 10 ins., one 6 by 4 by 7 ins. and 1 10 by 8 by 
 10 ins. 
 
 Electricity is used by 30 arc lamps, 100 Mazda and 1,200 carbon 
 lamps, and there is a total of 600 motor h.p. in use in addition to 
 the power required for running blowers, fans and other accessories. 
 
 The approximate cost of the engines and dynamos with their 
 foundations, switchboard and connections required by private elec- 
 tric plant was $16,600, The approximate cost of all other material, 
 such as boilers, feed water heater, pumps, etc., was $10,400. 
 
 The fuel used is No. 1 buckwheat, costing $3.25 a ton. 
 
 The following are the fixed charges and operating cost for the 
 year 1911: 
 
 Interest on $27,000 at 6% $ 1,620 
 
 Depreciation on $27,000 at 5% 1.350 
 
 Rent 1,000 
 
 Insurance 75 
 
 Fuel 3,954 
 
 Labor 3,780 
 
 Ashes .* 314 
 
 Water 400 
 
 Repairs 400 
 
 Oil and sundries 360 
 
 Lamps 150 
 
 $13,403 
 Saving due to exhaust steam heating 1,511 
 
 $11,892 
 
 The kw.-hr. output for the year was 774,005, and the cost, 
 
 $11,892 
 
 , - 1.53 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 
 774,005 
 
 In these fixed charges and operating cost for the year 1911, the 
 fuel, ash and labor items' represent 52.5% of the total operating 
 expense. Water, oil, lamps and repairs represent the total and must 
 be charged to power and light. The water used by engine and 
 pumps was 52.5% of the total water evaporated. This water goes 
 to wa.ste in the summer. The engine runs condensing and in the 
 winter, after the exhaust steam goes through the heating coils, the 
 returns and condensation all go to the sewer. The other 47.5% 
 of the steam is used for manufacturing purposes and condensation 
 from this is always returned to the boiler. 
 
 Operating Records of a Large Loft Building. The following 
 operating costs, prepared by S. Milton Clark, were abstracted from 
 the August, 1912, issue of The Isolated Plant: 
 
476 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 In the heart of the wholesale feather and dry goods district in 
 lower New York is located the large loft building known as the 580 
 Broadway building. It has a frontage on Broadway and Crosby 
 Street of 150 ft. and 200 ft., respectively, and is 12 stories high. 
 
 The cost of the electrical output from this plant averages $0.0234 
 per kw.-hr. 
 
 The plant equipment is as follows : 3 horizontal return tubular 
 boilers, with total capacity of 375 h.p. ; 4 high speed engines direct 
 connected to d.c. generators, 1 of 75 kw. and 3 of 100 kw. capacity 
 each. 
 
 The summary of operating expenses is shown in Table XXXV, 
 and special attention is called to the " Basic Cost." This item is 
 the amount it would require for heating, furnishing live steam to 
 tenants, care of elevators, etc., without the electric plant, and the 
 amount \vas obtained from the cost previous to the installation of 
 the plant. 
 
 If the 405,020 kw.-hrs. generated in 1911 had been purchased from 
 the street at the present wholesale rates, it would have cost $15,- 
 150,60. The cost from the plant was $9,448.02. The saving affected 
 by the plant was $5,702.58. 
 
 TABLE XXXV. MONTHLY COST OP OPERATION, LOFT 
 BUILDING 
 
 Jan. -Dec, 1911 
 
 Min. Av. Max. 
 
 Output, kw.-hrs 24.490 33.752 46,490 
 
 Total cost $1,324 $1,571 $2,208 
 
 Basic cost '. $650 $783 $950 
 
 Cost of electricity $545 $787 $1,458 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr $0.0162 $0.0234 $0.0395 
 
 Fuel $416 $577 $725 
 
 Engine room labor $790 $811 $844 
 
 Water (estimated) $15 $30 $41 
 
 Oil $14 $33 $52 
 
 Engine room sundries $21 $73 
 
 Improvements and new installations .... $6 $37 
 
 Long time sui)i)lies $23 $52 
 
 Repairs to plant $80 $595. 
 
 Discounts $2 $9 $24 
 
 Receii)ts from tenants $589 $909 $1,464 
 
 Kind of fuel used Buckwheat and soft 
 
 Tons fuel used 144 195 258 
 
 ' Power and Maintenance Costs of 12 Story Loft Building. The 
 following data are also from Isolated Plant. The building covers 
 a plot 100 by 100 ft., and is 12 stories high. Three floors are given 
 up to printers and the others are occupied by manufacturers and 
 wholesale supply companies. 
 
 When the building was first erected, the electricity to operate its 
 light and power apparatus was furnished by the " Blank " Com- 
 pany, but 2 100-h.p. high pressure boilers were put in for heating 
 purposes with the view of operating avpower plant should it seem 
 advisable. 
 
 Current is used to run 4 Otis electric elevators — 2 passenger and 
 2 freight ; 30 motors ranging from 0.5 to 30 h.p., 1,000 incande.scent 
 electric lights and 20 arcs and to operate motor driving a triplex 
 
STEAM POWER 477 
 
 pump which supplies a 14,000 gal. tank on roof. Also, an elec- 
 trically driven air compressor for pressure tanks as emergency for 
 fire system. 
 
 In 1908, the following generating equipment was installed in 
 the basement : One Fi.shkill Corliss Engine, belt connected to a 
 C. & C. generator of 125 kw., 240 volts capacity; also, a 17.5 kw., 
 125 volts C. & C. motor driven balancer set. Forced draught was 
 also provided in order to keep steam up to required pressure. 
 
 Table XXXVl shows the operating cost Of this plant, the total 
 amount. $7,757, including heat, light, power and maintenance 
 charges. 
 
 TABLE XXXVI. MONTHLY COST OF OPERATING LOFT 
 BUILDING 
 
 April, 1909 to March, 1910 
 
 Miri. Av Max. 
 
 Fuel $178 $251 $343 
 
 Labor . = .. $240 $2t3 $254 
 
 Water $29 $39 $63 
 
 Sundries $5 $20 
 
 Oil $15 $23 $59 
 
 Repairs and new installations $27 $68 $93 
 
 Heat and maintenance of building $300 $300 $300 
 
 Light, kw.-hrs 1.840 4.097 6,370 
 
 Power, kw.-hrs 7,490 10.188 12,950 
 
 Cost of current, wholesale rate $4 67 $683 $903 
 
 Total engme room ex])enses $7 757 
 
 Less heat and maintenance of building 3,600 
 
 $4,157 
 
 Total kw.-hrs 171,420 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr. $0.0242 
 
 Wholesale cost of current $8,199 
 
 Cost of private plant electricity $4,157 
 
 Saving, private plant $4,042 
 
 Cost of Power for a Large Semi-Public Building at Kansas City, 
 Mo., as Compared with Cost if Purchased from the Central Station. 
 The following data aie from Isolated Plant, May, 1913. 
 
 For erection of part of building occupied by plant, figured 
 
 at 25 ct.s. per cu. ft. . $5,250 
 
 Engines and generators 4.800 
 
 Boilers , 2,350 
 
 Boiler settings , 796 
 
 Pumps 152 
 
 Switchboard 1,8 60 
 
 Ice machine and freezing tank . , . 1 . U)0 
 
 P'eed- water heater , . 2:") 5 
 
 Oil burning system 850 
 
 Return pump and tank . . . < 127 
 
 Pipe work and installation , 2,500 
 
 Total investment $20,340 
 
 Cost of Service if Purchased from Central Station: 
 
 Light, 123,704 kws. at 3.5 cts $ 1.. 329 64 
 
 Power 31,824 kws at 3 cts 9 54 00 
 
 Refrigeration, 1.2 tons per day at $2.70 a ton 1.182.00 
 
478 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Ice, 250 lbs. per day (313 days only) at 22 cts 172.15 
 
 Lamps 144.00 
 
 Salary of engineer to care for elevator.^, plumbing, steam 
 fitting laundry machinery, electric wiring, etc., at 
 
 $85 per mo 1,020.00 
 
 Extra help for engineer at $15 per mo 180.00 
 
 Heat for winter season, 6 mos. 
 
 Average live steam per hr. • , . . . 2,069 lbs. 
 
 Average live .steam per day . , 49,656 lbs. 
 
 Cost per day at 45 cts. per 1,000 lbs $22.34 
 
 Cost per season of 182 days . 4,065.88 
 
 Water heating for winter season 
 
 187.500 lbs. per day from 50 to 100 degs. F., 9,375,000 
 
 heat units per day. 
 9,375,000 heat units, condensation of 9.705 lbs. steam 
 
 from and at 212 degs. F. 
 Co.st of 9.705 lbs. steam at 45 cts. per 1,000 lbs. . . $4.36 
 
 Cost per sea.son of 182 days at $4.46 783.52 
 
 Water heating for sunnner season 
 
 187.500 lbs. per day from 70 to 100 degs. F., 5,765,000 
 
 heat units per day. 
 5,765,000 heat units per day, condensation of 5,967 lbs. 
 
 steam from and at 212. 
 5,967 lbs. steam costing 45 cts. per 1,000 lbs. at $2.68 
 
 per day. 
 Cost for season, 182 days, at $2.68 per day 487.76 
 
 Total cost $13,318.95 
 
 Actual Cost of Heat, Light, Power and Engineer's Services : 
 
 Labor $2,360.00 
 
 Fuel oil 4,488.00 
 
 Water 90.00 
 
 Oil. waste and supplies 100.00 
 
 Boiler compound 180.00 
 
 Insurance 25.00 
 
 Lamps 144.00 
 
 Total paid out $7,387.00 
 
 Cost, if purchased from central station $13,318.95 
 
 Actual cost 7,387.00 
 
 $5,931.95 
 
 Depreciation on equipment $754.52 
 
 Interest on entire investment at 5% 1,017.02 
 
 $1,771.54 
 Cash paid out " 7,387.00 
 
 Total (including depreciation and interest on total in- 
 vestment) $9,158.54 
 
 Cost, if purchased from central station $13,318.95 
 
 Total, including depreciation and interest 9,158.54 
 
 Net saving $4,160.41 
 
 A Comparison of Efficiencies and Costs of Steam, Water, Gas and 
 Oil Power Generation. A study of power costs and efficiencies 
 which is particularly valuable to the non-expert reader because of 
 its simple language is contained in the Report of the Maine State 
 Water Storage Commission. This discussion is by Seth A. Moulton 
 of Sawyer & Moulton, consulting engineers, Portland, Me., and is 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 479 
 
 based on the extensive practice of the writer in water power de- 
 velopment and power plant design. The following are parts of the 
 report which are of general interest, abstracted by Engineering and 
 Contracting, Sept. 4, 1912. 
 
 There are commercially available four distinct classes of power, 
 steam, water, gas and oil, naming them in the order of their 
 prestige. 
 
 Efficiency defined in its broadest sense means not only the most 
 complete utilization of the elements converted but also the most 
 economical combination of appliances and labor to effect the con- 
 version. To secure in power generation a maximum efficiency and 
 economy does not imply that the last vestige of available energy 
 must be extracted from the fuel or water element, with the un- 
 warranted refinements of equipment and attention which such an 
 impractical course would impose ; or that the other extreme should 
 
 ToMochineFuUef 
 rrom Engine 
 from Piping 
 From Boiler 
 InFuel 
 FromBoila- 
 From Piping 
 FnmEngine 
 FramOirConGea 
 From Wiring 
 From Motor 
 ToMachinePUlley 
 
 ;^ff~~_rmZ~in~ _j L^iss toMachme FUlley 
 I^JPJ^pSs.^^'MSn'SQZZlZTnZjKCZ Loss to EngmeShoft 
 l^l~j 1-'^ ^° Engine 
 'JftZ Loss in Boilers, Flues 8i.Stock 
 InFuel 
 
 mn: 
 
 1l9lZ Loss in filers. Flues 6LStacl< 
 2 Loss to Eryine 
 ^Jnj^den5ingWoBrW~^2ZZr^3L2 Loss to EngineShoft 
 'ZlZZZZJ^l-S-SZIirJZJISZZZll L'^ Io ^^ Terminals 
 "ZZZIZZZMZZZZ'ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ Loss to Motor 
 ZZZZZZZIl€ZZZZZZZZZZZSZZZZZZj Loss to Motor Belt 
 r_~~_~~ggy"~~7"^ ; "! loss to Mac/ime Fhlfetj 
 
 ' ' ' I I ' ' I ' ' ' t ' I I i I I » I 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Per Cent Efficiency 
 38. Power efficiencies — steam. 
 
 be applied by using the cheapest apparatus and labor procurable in 
 a vain attempt to economize ; but it is necessary to carefully bal- 
 ance all of the factors involved, endeavoring always to deliver to 
 the point of final application a maximum amount of the energy 
 originally expended at a minimum cost. 
 
 Physical Efficiency. Figures 38 to 41 inclusive show graphically 
 the efficiencies which may be expected to obtain in the practical 
 running of steam, producer gas, oil and water power plants, with 
 first-class installations, supplying a service where a fairly constant 
 loading exists and when operated by competent mechanics. It is 
 true that the average power plant does not attain the heat ef- 
 ficiencies indicated on the diagrams, but they are well within re- 
 sults which have been excelled in a few plants and can be usually 
 obtained in plants of 1,000 h.p. or more capacity. 
 
 Fig. 38 shows the thermal efficiency obtained at the several stages 
 of transportation in a steam plant from the 100% of heat value in 
 the fuel, as placed under the boilers to the mechanical energy de- 
 
480 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 livered to the machines. The plottings on the diagram above the 
 fuel line are for mechanical transmission and those below for local 
 electrical distribution. To secure the operating economies indicated 
 the plant must be equal to or in excess of 1,000 h.p. capacity. For 
 smaller plants the efficiencies would be less, probably falling as low 
 as 5 or 6% of the theoretical energy in the fuel when delivered as 
 m.echanical energy to the machine or other point of use. It is also 
 improbable that these efficiencies can be realized in central stations 
 that distribute power for all classes of service, owing to the fluc- 
 tuations of the demand. The average load in these stations does 
 not ordinarily exceed 30% of the power required to maintain the 
 maximum, or so-called " peak " load, which will exist only for a 
 short period during each day. It is also very difficult to maintain 
 the high boiler efficiency of 78%, as this requires constant cleaning 
 and very careful operation, with the application of the most scien- 
 tific methods for the manipulation of drafts and firing of the boilers. 
 The average boiler efficiency will probably not exceed 75% in plants 
 of the better class. 
 
 Up to the engines all of the losses are thermal; at the engines 
 the losses are both mechanical and thermal, and a general inspec- 
 tion of the diagram would indicate that the steam turbine or engine 
 is a very inefficient mechanism, as the total heat and mechanical 
 efficiency drops from 76.4% to only 10.9%. This is not true, how- 
 ever, for it must be remembered that the 60% noted on the diagram 
 as lost in the condensing water should not be charged against the 
 engine, as the heat energy so expended is latent or liquid heat, for 
 the exhaust steam from an engine has practically the same pressure 
 as the medium into which it is discharged and the temperature of 
 the steam is controlled by this pressure. It is obvious that there 
 will be no available potential energy from such exhaust steam, as 
 this energy is neutralized by the opposing back pressure which may 
 be either above, below or equal to the atmospheric pressure, de- 
 pending upon the conditions at the exhaust outlet; but under all 
 circumstances the full heat value of the steam remains unimpaired. 
 Crediting the engine with this 60% by deducting it from the 76.4% 
 (the thermal efficiency delivered from the piping) leaves 16.4% of 
 heat energy actually delivered to the engine which may be converted 
 into mechanical i)ower ; then the combined efficiency of the engine 
 and its auxiliaries becomes (10.9% ~ 16.4%) X 100 -- 66%, An ap- 
 preciation of this condition is most essential because it explains why 
 the steam can never compete in heat efficiency with the internal 
 combustion engine, either gas or oil. This condition is also of para- 
 mount importance when selecting the type of apparatus or deter- 
 mining the character of the -power to adopt for an industry that 
 requires heat for manufacturing or process purposes. Referring to 
 Fig. 38 it Avill be noted that 76.4%o of the heat in the fuel is ad- 
 mitted to the engine throttle and that only 10.9% of the total heat 
 in the fuel is converted to mechanical power; therefore, the waste 
 heat rejected by the engine exhaust is 65.5% of the total in the fuel, 
 and there remains in the exhaust steam 65.5%, -=- 76.4%, or 85%. of 
 the heat that was delivered to the engine. It is conservative to 
 state that there is available for process purposes at least 75% of 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 481 
 
 the heat value in steam after all available potential energy has been 
 extracted from it, and maximum economy demands that, this heat 
 should be used as heat if possible, rather than dissipate it in the 
 cooling water of a condenser to secure the comparatively small per- 
 centage of mechanical energy thus acquired. 
 
 To indicate the gain secured by utilizing exhaust steam for heating 
 purposes, Table XXXVII is given : 
 
 7 of exhaust steam 
 
 used for heating 
 
 purposes 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 TABLE XXXVII 
 
 Lbs. of coal per 
 
 h.p. per hr. All 
 
 coal charged to 
 
 power 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.06 
 
 2.38 
 
 2.69 
 
 3.00 
 
 Net lbs. of coal per 
 h.p. per hr. after 
 deducting for ex- 
 haust steam used 
 
 1.75 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.75 
 
 This table was compiled by (^harles T. Main, a prominent civil 
 engineer, who has long advocated and made practical application of 
 engine exhaust for industrial heating purposes. 
 
 To Machine Pjiley 
 From^ngine 
 From Producer 
 InRiel 
 
 From'P-oducer 
 From Engine 
 From Dir Con Gen 
 From Winng 
 From Motor 
 To Machine Fill ley 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Lo5i lo Machine Pulley 
 1€C2 Loss tq Engine Shaft 
 ^3 Loss in Producer &Aux. 
 InFuel 
 ZJ^ZH LossinProducerdAuK. 
 SLJ Loss toEngineShaft 
 7££I"rSiZ~SSSJ Loss to Gen Jernvnob 
 mji I f^a: 1 1I~ I " IIII Ifll" 1""-"Ij Loss to Motor 
 MMZZ'SlZZZZZZZslIZZZZZZZZZ'SJ tossto Motor Belt 
 
 ZTSSZIZlZLZZIZZZZZZZZj Loss to Machine Pulley . 
 
 L . I I I 
 
 j-j. 
 
 I I I I I. 
 
 do 
 
 Per Cent Eff^ciencij 
 39. Power efficiencies 
 
 producer gas. 
 
 Where all or a greater part of the exhaust can be utilized, simple 
 non-condensing engines or turbines should be installed, and where 
 lesser amounts, down to 2h% of the steam required for power pur- 
 poses, the exhaust can be taken from the "bleeder turbines" or the 
 intermediate receivers between the cylinders of a compound engine, 
 operating either non-condensing or condensing, whichever proves the 
 most economical. 
 
 F'ig. 39 illustrates the efficiency of producer gas plants in the 
 same general manner as that previously described for steam. The 
 great advantage of the gas equipment lies in the fact that for all 
 plant capacities there can be maintained practically the same effi- 
 ciencies, making the smaller producer gas plant proi.>ortionately more 
 efficient than the steam. In addition, cheap grades of fuel can be 
 
482 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 efficiently used in a gas producer wliich could not be burned with 
 any degree of economy under a boiler, and the higher grades of 
 fuel can be more efflciently used in a producer than in a boiler. 
 
 What has been said in regard to the producer gas plant applies 
 generally to the efficiency of oil engines, .with the exception that such 
 
 To Mochins Pulley 
 J^com Engine 
 J n Fuel 
 froir. Engine 
 from Dir Con Oen 
 from Wiring 
 'from Motor 
 To Machine RjUeu 
 
 W>a^WM ' ' '~ ir JflV. ~"l"/_l~_~_V-"j l-o^ to Machine PuHeii 
 
 ^Ml^Sm~~ZZT.:"JilZ:ZZ'.~'.''S:Z Lo^toEngmedhaft 
 '£r^i^/WFM':&M!^MM^&oD im^mmmmmrWA in Fuel 
 
 •mi^&W^ 7lj ~— —yjl-.":] Lo^ioEngmeShan 
 
 "iy!ibiWM''^ ~ns ]~~"_~-~-"] LoiitoGen TermnoH 
 
 W?-'b^FJS^A ~744.:7"7""rr"J Lo^s to Motor 
 
 'Mo^MZ ZZZS-ZSrZtSlIl ZlZ'JSZIZZj Loss to Motor Belt 
 
 'ZIIZZZ ZZZMlZZZZZZIZIZZ^ Loss to Macfime FUtie(j 
 
 c^§ 
 
 oJ 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Percent Efficiency 
 40. Power efficiencies — oil. 
 
 an equipment is still more efficient than the gas, as is shown on 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 Figure 41, illustrating the efficiency of hydraulic or hydro-electric 
 power plants, is self explanatory. It shows more stages than the 
 
 foMacti/nePut/ey 
 From Eur bines 
 To Turbines 
 In Wafer 
 To Turbines 
 From Turbines 
 From Dir Con Cen. 
 From Wiring 
 From Motor 
 To Machine Pulleij 
 
 From Dir Con Cen 
 
 From Step Up Trans. Sta 
 
 From Transmission Line 
 
 From 3tep Dov\/n Trans^tt^M. 
 
 From Local Wiring 
 
 From Motor 
 
 To Machine Pulley^ 
 
 'J, LosstoMachinePulley 
 
 L055 to Euroine Shaft 
 Loss In Waterwoij 
 In Water 
 
 L OSS In Waterway 
 Loss to Turbine Shaft 
 Loss toOenJermmals 
 Loss to Motor 
 Loss to Motor Belt 
 
 Jii I 
 
 'MZZZZZ2 Loss to Mach. Pulley, 
 
 n 
 
 163 ~1 LosstoCen.Terminah 
 .Z^IZZZJ Loss to Trans Line 
 
 '_16J_Z^ZZ1 Loss to Step Down 
 
 , Trans Sta 
 
 -■^5.? -> L OSS To Local Wiring 
 
 'mZZZZl Loss to Motor 
 
 , JO 
 
 60 
 
 ZL^I. Zl Lossto Motor Belt 
 
 TQZZZZZZl LosstoMach.Pulley 
 
 ■ ■ ■ I 
 
 C fc 
 1^ 
 
 'Ber Cent Efficiency 
 Fig. 41. Power efficiencies' 
 
 water. 
 
 foregoing plates, because it includes long distance electrical trans- 
 mission, as given on the lower sections of the diagram. If desired, 
 this diagram can be used to obtain the losses or the net efficiency 
 for long distance transmission in connection with any of the previ- 
 ously described diagrams. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 483 
 
 Figure 42 forcibly depicts the superior efficiency of water power, 
 indicating- tliat it is 604% more efficient than steam power at its 
 best, 209% more efficient than producer gas power and 178% more 
 efficient than oil power. In addition, nature continually replenishes 
 the " white coal " for the water power, while man constantly de- 
 pletes nature's storehouses to supply the fuel for the other classes. 
 
 Although the comparisons indicated by this last diagram are 
 startling and would make it appear that water power had an almost 
 immeasurable value, it must be remembered that the cost of installa- 
 tion is in most instances large and that the water supply must be 
 utilized as it is afforded by nature, unless storage reservoirs are 
 provided of ample capacity to impound the freshets at situations 
 on the stream or river where a maximum amount of the runofC 
 from a given watershed can be retained, with ample pondage facili- 
 
 ffifater Mechanical Tram 
 mterLoco^ fleet Trons 
 mterionq DisT HighTenEI Irons 
 Oil Mechanical Tran^ 
 Oil Local Elect Tram 
 Cos MechanicolTran^ 
 6as Local EiedTram 
 Steam Mechanical Trcf)3i 
 Steam Local Elect Tnaru 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 ^o 30 
 
 Per Cent Efficiency 
 Comparative efficiencies of various sources of power. 
 
 ties at the plant to regulate daily fluctuations. All these facts 
 tend to increase the cost of hydraulic power and decrease the value 
 of power sites, except in sections especially favored by nature, 
 remote from a fuel supply, where a demand exists for a volume of 
 high grade power within reasonable transmission range. 
 
 Investment Efficiency. All of the diagrams previously described 
 show only what may be termed the " physical efficiency " of the 
 several plants ; but there is another factor of greater importance, 
 as indicated by the above statement in regard to the cost of water 
 power, this has been called " investment efficiency." Physical effi- 
 ciency applies only to the utilization of the elemental factors, in- 
 vestment efficiency considers the cost necessary to control and apply 
 these elements ; and the ideal power to be selected for a given situa- 
 tion will be that which shows the greatest economy when both the 
 " physical " and " investment " efficiencies are maximum. 
 
 The " investment efficiency " has no definite base for unity, such 
 as the heat value of a fuel or the potential energy of water, but 
 is obtained by determining the ratio between one or more known 
 capitalized costs ; the " capitalized cost " being the capital invested 
 in the project plus the sum obtained by capitalizing the total annual 
 expenditures at the rate of interest allowed on the capital invested. 
 
484 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 To illustrate: A steam power plant costs $100,000 and the rate of 
 intei-est is ^%. The annual expendituie l(» oiieiate this plant is 
 $50,000; then the "capitalized cost" will be $100,000+ ($50,000-^ 
 0.05), or $100,000 -+- $1,000,000 - $1,100,000. A iiydraulic plant to 
 sujtply the same service costs $150,000 and the annual operating 
 exi)ense is $20,000. At the same rate of interest previously allowed, 
 the '"capitalized cost" will be $150,000 X ($20,000 V 0.05) -$550,- 
 000. The "capitalized cost" of the steam plant is $550,000 more 
 than that for the hydraulic installation, and calling the hydraulic 
 plant capitalization unity the steam plant has a 507f, " investment 
 efficiency." 
 
 The above method is the simi)lest way to determine the best in- 
 vestment, and it can be ])roved to be accurate by making a more 
 detailed analysis. For example : liach of the above plants has a 
 rated capacity of 1,800 h.jx and delivers annually 6.000,000 h.]i. hrs. ; 
 then the expenditure per h.j). hr. for the steam i)lant will be $50,000 
 -^ 6,000,000 = $0.00833. or S'.fj mills, and the interest charges, $100,- 
 000 X (0.05- 6.000,000) = $0.0008, making the total cost per h.p. hr. 
 $0.00913. For the hydraulic plant the expenditure per h.p. hr. will 
 be $20,000-=- 6.000,000 - $0 00333. or 3i/j milLs, and the interest 
 charges. $1 50.000 X (0.05 ~ 6,000,000) - $.0012 1, making the total 
 cost per h.p. hr. $0.00333 + $0.00124 -$0.00457. From the above it 
 will be seen that the steam power costs twice as much as the 
 hydraulic, and, accordingly, it has an ''investment elficiency " of 
 only 50%. 
 
 The manufacturer of power equipment usually presents to the 
 pros]>ective purchaser the economies of his apparatus viewed from 
 the standpoint of " physical efficiency," claiming that this is the 
 most important factor to consider in securing low cost power. The 
 central station managers purport to fix their charges for ])ower 
 below the apparent cost of other forms of power, and they are dis- 
 posed to exaggerate the cost of such power, placing particular em- 
 phasis on the " investment efficiency," in order that they may 
 secure a maximum return for their commodity. The consulting 
 engineer is constantly confronted with inaccurate statements in 
 regard to the cost of power that are devised to convey erroneous 
 impressions, either through intent or otherwise, with every advan- 
 tage taken of bookkeeping ambiguities. In this manner reports are 
 circulated that are incomplete or coini)iled with the specific purpose 
 of misleading, and it is almost impossible to dispel these influences 
 and convince a client that the advanced claims cannot be substan- 
 tiated in actual i)ractice. The greatest discrepancies are encoun- 
 tered in the figures given for the cost of steam power, and within 
 certain limits this is to be anticipated, on account of the many 
 contro'lling factors later enumerated ; but with a fair comprehen- 
 sion of the premises any competent engineer should be able to 
 analyze given conditions and compile an estimate which will be 
 sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. Should two reliable 
 engineers report on the same project, it is likely that their figures 
 for the cost of power would not vary more than 5% and probably 
 less, if the general conditions governing the layout were sufficiently 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 485 
 
 well defined by the local surroundings to occasion the presentation 
 of two similar designs. We do not mean by the above statement 
 that the estimated cost of the installations would necessarily be 
 within 5%. but that the cost for a unit of power for a given iJeriod of 
 time would be within these limits. 
 
 An engine salesman blandly informs the prospective purchaser 
 that he can furnish an engine which will generate 1 h.p., meaning 
 indicated h.p., using only 16 lbs. of steam per hi., and that with 
 reasonably efficient boilers this would mean about 1.75 lbs. of coal 
 per hr. per h.p. The central station rei>resentative disjjutes this 
 claim, stating that it will require at least 23 lbs. of steam, or 2.5 lbs. 
 
 7000 
 
 10 40 50 60 ro 
 
 Percent of time- 100% of ^irnc 
 irear of 6760 Hours 
 
 Fig. 43. Effect of storage and auxiliary power. 
 
 of coal, per hr. per h.p. The latter had considered the mechanical 
 losses in the engine, the losses in the auxiliarie.s, the generator 
 losses, the wiring losses and the motor losses, figuring on the power 
 delivered to the line shafting or machines where it was to be 
 utilized. Somev.hat disturbed, the victim seeks the advice of a 
 specialist, only to learn that both statements are correct. Then 
 confusion becomes chaos and a task is set for the counselor if he 
 tries to convince his client that each advi.^er has told him noihing 
 but the truth, although both have deceived him. 
 
 The prospective purchaser of power or power equipment will 
 naturally question the reliability of information received from either 
 
486 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 equipment manufacturers or the central station agents, as he ap- 
 preciates that the opinions advanced may be biased; accordingly, 
 the influence of inaccurate statements from these sources is some- 
 what restricted ; but when a company, generating power for its own 
 use, becomes imbued with the idea that it has succeeded, by some 
 special dispensation, in overthrowing the laws which regulate costs 
 and thus has accomplished results that have not and cannot be 
 attained, it is almost impossible to refute such statements or to 
 convince the self-deceived party as to the error of its ways, and 
 prevent the conversion of others into an acceptance of the false 
 theories. Admitting the difficulties encountered in endeavoring to 
 secure records and accurate information in regard to the cost of 
 power, due to the many variables that affect such costs, it is absurd 
 to assume that it is impossible to compute or predetermine with 
 reasonable accuracy the cost of power for a given service or to 
 claim that the secret of efficient and economical power generation 
 is the special knowledge of an esoteric few. What has been once 
 accomplished can be repeated; yet from the evidence which has 
 been placed before us purporting to be accurate records of power 
 costs, this logic seems to be refuted. 
 
 Much of the difficulty encountered in refuting inaccurate costs 
 can be attributed to a confusion of the technical terms used in con- 
 nection with power measurement and a lack of understanding in 
 regard to the units of power measurement. In most instances the 
 difficulty of comparison would be removed if the point of power 
 measurement was clearly defined. It has been an almost universal 
 custom to compute and compare power costs on the basis of 1 h.p. 
 per yr., using the term " cost per horsepower year," an absolutely 
 meaningless expression having no significance unless it be specifi- 
 cally defined by the number of hours' operation per year, the point 
 of measuring the power and Avhether or not it be indicated, brake or 
 electric horsepower, and if transmitted electric power whether it as 
 metered on the high or low tension side of the consumers' trans- 
 formers. The only true unit for the measurement of power or for 
 comparison of cost is the kilo\vatt or horse-power hour, then it does 
 not matter what the hours of the sei'vice may be, for at the same 
 point of delivery any class of power can be compared without con- 
 fusion or conveying false impressions. 
 
 In view of the above noted conditions, the following definitions 
 are inserted : 
 
 Indicated Horsepower; Notation : i.h.p. — This is the power gen- 
 erated in the cylinder, or cylinders, of a reciprocating or rotating 
 engine and is the measure of the energy exerted by the steam or gas 
 as determined by an indicating mechanism which does not record 
 the mechanical or friction loss in the engine itself. 
 
 Brake Horsepower; Notation : b.h.p. — This is the mechanical 
 energy delivered by an engine, waterwheel, motor or at any other 
 mechanical appliance, as determined by applying a friction brake or 
 electrical resistance, thus weighing the power. For an engine the 
 b.h.p. will be the i.h.p. minus the losses in the engine itself, and the 
 h.h.p. is usually from 90 to 95% of the i.h.p. 
 
STEAM POWER 487 
 
 Electrical Horsepower ; Notation : e.h.p. — This is the power in 
 the electric current which is delivered at the terminals of the electric 
 generator, at the switchboard or at the motors, and is the b.h.p, 
 minus the mechanical and electrical losses in the generator ; or, 
 if delivered to the motors, the above losses plus the losses in the 
 wiring. For electric generators the efficiencies will be from 90 to 
 96% of the b.h.p. of the driving element, if the generator is directly 
 connected to the prime mover without intervening belts or gearing. 
 
 Horsepower Hours; Notation: h.p.-hrs. — This is the number of 
 horsepowers utilized in one hour, or the numbers of hours during 
 which one hor.sepower is utilized. To illustrate : — A plant operates 
 for 300 days of 10 hours each, or for a total of 3,000 hours, and 
 generates continuously during this period 10 horsepower. This is 
 equal to 10 X 3,000, or 30,000 h.p.-hrs. Another plant operates for 
 1 day of 10 hours, or a total of 10 hours, and generates continuously 
 during this period 3.000 h.p. ; then 3,000 X 10 = 30,000 h.p.-hrs. 
 
 Kilowatt Hours; Notation: kw.-hrs. — Same as above, multiplied 
 by the decimal 0.746. In other words, .75 of 1 kw. is approxi- 
 mately equal to 1 h.p. or 1 kw. equals l^/f^ h.p. 
 
 Rated Capacity; Notation; r. c. — The term rated capacity as 
 herein used is the maximum normal capacity of the plant equip- 
 ment, expressed as horsepower for the size of the plant, or as 
 h.p.-hrs. for the load it will carry during a given period of time. 
 
 Nominal Capacity ; Notation: n. c. — The nominal capacity of a 
 plant is the output from the equipment when operating at its maxi- 
 mum efficiency, or with the load for which it was designed. 
 
 Capacity Factor ; Notation : c. f. — This is the ratio between the 
 total output of the plant if run at its "rated capacity" for 365 days 
 of 24 hrs., or for 8,760 hrs. per yr., and the actual output of the plant) 
 in the same period. For example: — A i^lant with equii)ment to 
 generate 100 h.p. "rated capacity" has sufficient capacity to deliver 
 8,760 X 100 = 876,000 h.p.-hrs. per' yr., but it is in operation 300 
 days of 10 hrs. each per yr. with an average load of 80 h.p. ; thus 
 its total annual output is 300 XI X 80 - 240,000 h.p.-hrs., and the 
 "capacity factor" will be (240,000-^876,000) X 100 = 27.4%. 
 
 Load Factor ; Notation : 1. f. — This is the ratio between the aver- 
 age output of the station and the maximum, or " peak " load which 
 is imposed upon it. For example : — In the foregoing plant men- 
 tioned under " Capacity Factor " there was an average load of 80 
 h.p., but it was designed to carry continuously a load of 100 h.p.; 
 therefore, the 1. f. is (80^100) x 100 = 80%. The 1. f. for central 
 stations varies from 30 to 50%, seldom exceeding the latter figure 
 in the best managed plants. For industrial plants the 1. f. will 
 rary from 60 to 90%, averaging at least 75% and seldom falling 
 below 60%. 
 
 Power Factor; Notation: p. f. — This factor has no direct relation 
 to the cost of power, except as it is an element which must be con- 
 sidered in selecting the generator and motor equipment for a given 
 service. It is a condition peculiar to alternating current apparatus, 
 very difficult to define intelligibly except to tho.se familiar with the 
 theory of alternating currents. The current in an alternating cir- 
 
488 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cuit may or may not be in phase (in step) with the electro-motive 
 force, or the pressure wliich forces tlie current through the circuit. 
 The volt is the unit of measure for the electro-motive force, and 
 the ampere for the current. The amperage may either lead or fall 
 behind the voltage. This condition is due to the magnetizing watt- 
 less (that is powerless) current required by alternating apparatus. 
 It will be noted that this magnetizing current is powerless, and it, 
 accordingly, does not appreciably affect the capacity of the prime 
 mover ; but it does have material effect upon the size of generator 
 that is driven by the prime nriover, as the wattless current causes 
 heating in the generator, and therefore the greater this wattless 
 current the larger will be the generator required. 
 
 The power factor is the ratio of the useful power in watts, as 
 recorded by the wattmeter, to the apparent power in volt-amperes, 
 determined by readings fi'om the volt and ammeters. 
 
 (Hence if the kilovolt ampere, kva., capacity of generator is multi- 
 plied by the power factor, the product is the kilowatt, kw., capac- 
 ity). 
 
 The power factor of a plant depends largely on the character of 
 the motor installation, and to maintain a high p. f. it is important 
 that the motors operate continuously at or near their full load capa- 
 city. If the average " load factor " of a mill is 60% of the maxi- 
 mum load, the motors should be installed with " nominal capacities " 
 to carry this 60% load ; but they should have *' rated capacities " 
 sufficient to temporarily withstand the overload which will be im- 
 posed when the 1. f. becomes unity, or 100%; that is, motors had 
 better be too small rather than too large. Conversely, the gener- 
 ator must have ample surplus capacity, in order to avoid overheat- 
 ing when delivering current to a system with a low average p. f. 
 
 The p. f. can never be more than 100%, but with an incandescent 
 lamp, or non-inductive load, it can attain this figure. A good 
 average p. f. for a motor instalhttion is 80%; many plants do not 
 exceed 75%, and 60% is considered a low p. f. (An ordinary power 
 factor for electric generators is 85 to 90%.) 
 
 Cost Factors. The general factors which control the cost of power 
 are the investment required, the fixed charges necessary to main- 
 tain the investment, the operating charges, the load factor and the 
 capacity factor. These are sub-divided as follows : 
 
 rCost of equipment. 
 
 i C 
 
 Capacity 
 factor. 
 
 Investment . . . .< Cost of buildings 
 Lvalue of land. 
 
 Fixed J^"axef* 
 
 charges -^ In.surance, 
 
 [Renewals — (Sinking fund.) 
 TRepairs. 1 
 
 Operating Labor. 
 
 charges -^^ Supplies. J-Load 
 
 Fuel. » factor. 
 
 Iwater. J 
 
 Both the capacity and the load factors have important influence 
 on the cost of power, as will be noted by referring to the definitions 
 
STEAM POWER 489 
 
 previously given for these terms. The c. f, affects more specifically 
 the investment and fixed charges, while the 1. f. has more effect upon 
 the operating charges. 
 
 In addition to the above, there are specific factors which affect 
 water power and power transmitted electrically from central sta- 
 tions or water powers remote from the place of usage. These are 
 as follows : 
 
 Water power: 
 
 Water rental. 
 Storage charges. 
 
 Transmitted power: 
 
 Transmission charges : 
 Patrol of lines. 
 Repairs of lines. 
 
 Distribution charges : 
 
 Sub-station operation, including labor, repairs and supplies. 
 Local Ime patrol and repairs. 
 
 Overhead charges : 
 Management. 
 Clerical or office. 
 
 General Consideration. The prospective power user may have 
 three means of securing the desired power. First, by purchasing 
 power from a public service or other distributing company ; second, 
 if water power is available, by thus generating his own power ; or 
 third, by installing a fuel operated plant. Ofttimes he must select 
 fjom two only of^the above, and in many instances from the latter 
 class only. 
 
 It is obviously impossible to give any general rules or even ap- 
 proximate average figures which will apply to the cost of a hydrau- 
 lic installation, and, hence, the cost of the power generated thereby, 
 as each project present.^ pioblems occasioned by the natural condi- 
 tions which require special engineering study. The costs of hydraulic 
 and hydro-electric developments constructed in the past have varied 
 from ?30 to $300 per h.p. of rated capacity, a range of 1,00T)%, and 
 the cost per h.p.-hr. varies accordingly. In a few instances con-- 
 tracts have been made for the delivery of hydro-electric power at the 
 switchboards in the generating stations for $9 per h.p.-yr. of 8,760 
 hrs., or for slightly more than one mill per h.p.-hr. ; and a cost of 
 5 mills per h.p.-hr. for 8.760 hrs. can be considered a reasonable 
 figure. 
 
 Fortunately the other commercial systems of power generation 
 are not surrounded by any such uncertainties as exist in connection 
 with h-ydraulic plants. Local conditions will have some effect on 
 the cost of installation, such as unstable foundation materials, re- 
 moteness from ba.'^e of supplies with insufficient transportation facili- 
 ties, dearth or imi)urity of water for boiler feed, etc., and scarcity 
 of competent labor ; but such obstructions will occur only in isolated 
 instances. The cost of fuel, water and labor for a given location is 
 usually readily predetermined, and the cost of installation under 
 
490 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ordinary circumstances will very closely approach an average for a 
 plant of given size. 
 
 The scope of this paper is limited to those power users who have 
 the alternative of purchasing power from some commercial plant, 
 or of generating their own power from fuel, and as an aid in 
 determining which type of apparatus to adopt when fuel is to be 
 employed. 
 
 It is impossible in this article to enter into the technical details of 
 analysis whereby the accompanying data are secured ; but the de- 
 ductions herein recorded are all derived from the results of actual 
 practice and not by theoretical computations. While this paper is 
 abbreviated and does not include all of the data which it is pro- 
 posed ultimately to issue in connection with this subject, it does 
 contain the information that a mill owner or manufacturer might 
 desire if he wished to determine with a reasonable degree of 
 accuracy the approximate cost for a given class of power, in order 
 to compare the same with any other class on which the price per 
 h.p.-hr. is established. 
 
 It appears advisable to touch upon a few of the salient features 
 pertaining to the design of power plants in general and particularly 
 to mention the advantages and disadvantages of the different types 
 of installations herein discussed. 
 
 There is a prevailing tendency towards the almost universal 
 adoption of the electric drive by all industries of any magnitude ; 
 accordingly, all of the accompanying diagrams for cost of installa- 
 tion and labor are compiled on this basis. The convenience, cleanli- 
 ness, flexibility and reliability of the electric drive, combined with 
 its high efficiency, as noted on Figs. 38-41, fully justify its use. 
 While the efficiencies given on the diagrams indicate that mechani- 
 cal transmission is somewhat more efficient than electrical, it must 
 be remembered that intermittent service, occasioning low load fac- 
 tor, the segregation of equipment and other practical conditions may 
 be such that the electric drive may equal the mechanical drive, or 
 perhaps excel it in efficiency. 
 
 The aim to be sought in designing any type of power plant is to 
 secure as simple an arrangement of equipment and structures as 
 can be obtained to produce the desired results without sacrificing 
 efficiency, flexibility and reliability. To attain simplicity and 
 economy of operation the equipment should consist of a few large 
 units, the total power being so sub-divided by the apparatus em- 
 ployed that a maximum of working efficiency can be obtained under 
 the conditions imposed by the load factor. The units should be 
 selected with the intention of operating them continuously at their 
 "normal capacity," so far as practicable with a "rated capacity" 
 sufficient to accommodate the " peak " load without excessive over- 
 loading or falling off in efficiency. 
 
 The merits of water power are almost self-evident, the principal 
 expense of operation being confined to the investment and fixed 
 charges, as the labor cost is very small and there is no fuel bill. 
 The disadvantages of water power are the high cost of develop- 
 ment ; restriction of application, due to limited radius of distribu- 
 
STEAM POWER 491 
 
 tion ; and last, but not least, the intermittent stream flow which 
 exists on most rivers, causing fluctuations in the available power. 
 In many instances the last condition can be ameliorated to a large 
 extent for a comparatively small expenditure, if the magnitude of 
 the river is sufficient to warrant the construction of storage reser- 
 voirs and the users on the stream are broad enough to combine 
 forces for the attainment of a mutual benefit. 
 
 The value of storage is not well understood ; if it were, much more 
 active steps would be taken to derive the benefits which it affords. 
 Properly controlled storage is utilized to augment the stream flow 
 at periods of low water, and in most cases it keeps in operation 
 equipment which would otherwise lie idle, or be partially operated 
 only ; therefore, the only cost required to utilize storage water is 
 the reservoir charges. 
 
 One million cu. ft. of water falling 1 ft. will theoretically develop 
 62,500.000 ft.-lbs., or 1,894 h.p. for one minute, which is equivalent 
 to 31.56 h.p.-hrs. If this water is used in a hydro-electric installa- 
 tion having eflSciencies, as shown by Fig. 41, there would be de- 
 livered to the generator terminals, or the station switchboard, 31.56 
 X (73.7^ 100) = 23.26 h.p.-hrs. On the basis of 1 mill per h.p.-hr. 
 (the lowest price for power within the writer's knowledge, as pre- 
 viously quoted), this amount of water would be worth 2\^ cts. if 
 used with a fall of 1 ft. 
 
 It can be proven easily that developed Maine water power is worth 
 not less than 2 mills per e.h.p.-hr., or $17.52 per yr. of 8,760 hrs., 
 and in most instances it is worth more than 3 mills, or $26.28 per 
 yr. With the value of power at the latter figure and with storage 
 basins costing not in excess of $125 per 1,000,000 cu. ft. of capacity, 
 it will only be necessary to utilize the water on a head of 160 ft. 
 to show a net return of at least 6% on the investment, in addition 
 to an allowance of 3% for the cost of maintenance and operation ; 
 and in many cases it will be found commercially profitable to 
 develop extensive storage on streams where the total utilized fall 
 does not exceed 100 ft. 
 
 Next to storage in importance, if not of equal importance, is the 
 securing of ample pondage at or near the hydraulic power station 
 to compensate for the daily fluctuations of stream flow, in order that 
 the full quantity of water which passes the plant during a given 
 period may be used in varying quantities through the wheels to 
 satisfy the irregular load factor, which is bound to exist, without 
 permitting any of the water to be wasted over the dam, except in 
 case of freshets. Certain industries, such as ground wood pulp- 
 mills and electrochemical works, are not dependent to any extent 
 upon pondage, as the output can be varied to suit the water con- 
 ditions; but all industries are directly benefited by storage, because 
 the stored water is that which would have been wasted during the 
 high water seasons. 
 
 The value of water power has been often overestimated, resulting 
 in the consummation of developments that never could show a proper 
 return on the investment. It has been, however, more often under- 
 valued and unwisely abandoned or disregarded, particularly in 
 
492 MliCllAXlCAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 connet tion with those milln that require steam for the partial 
 l)iei)Hia.tion of their jiroduer. 
 
 Probably the realization of the full benefits to be derived from 
 water i)Ower is best secured when it is operated in conjunction with 
 auxiliary power in soniw form , with steam power if there is a use 
 for the exhaust, or when cheap fuel is available, and with gas or 
 oil engines where fuel is high. 
 
 Auxiliary power bears a relation to water power similar to that 
 occupied by the storage reservoir, for it not only provides power 
 during the periods of low water, but it increases the average amount 
 of water poioer that can be economically utilized continuously. 
 This latter feature was not mentioned in cannection with the fore- 
 going comments on storage reservoirs, as at that time we were 
 endeavoring to show only the value of the storage to existing or 
 contemplated installations, without incurring any additional expense 
 for increased i)lant capacity; but there is afforded by the creation 
 of storage a still further power increase which is best illustrated 
 by the diagram Fig. 4 3. This diagram shows the amount of h.p. 
 that can be obtained from a typical river, with the natural stream 
 flow arranged in order of its magnitude and not according to sea- 
 sonal fluctuations. The vertical lines represent time, the total 100% 
 being equal to the 8,760 hrs. in one yr. Any volume of power, as 
 indicated by the figures on the lefthand margin of the diagram 
 and the corresponding horizontal line, can be obtained for a period 
 of time equivalent to that designated by the figures on the lower 
 margin for all amounts below and to the left of the curve marked 
 " natural stream flow." 
 
 For example: Following up the line 10 from the lower margin 
 until it intersects the upper solid line curve, then reading the figures 
 horizontally opposite on the left margin, shows that 5,000 h.p. can 
 be secured for 10% of one yr., or during 0.10X8,760=^876 hrs.; 
 that is, there can be obtained a total of 876 X 5,000 = 4,380,000 h.p.- 
 hrs. The total area of the diagram below the " stream flow " curve 
 represents the total quantity of power which the water could de- 
 velop in the year of 8,760 hrs. 
 
 The horizontal line marked "average available power, complete 
 storage." cuts the above " stream flow " curve at the point where the 
 area of the enclosed space above the horizontal line between the 
 left margin and the full line curve is equal to the area of the space 
 below the horizontal line confined between the "stream flow" curve 
 and the right margin of the diagram, and. therefore, shows the 
 average amount of power in the water if it could be distributed 
 uniformly throughout the year, or for the 100% time period. This 
 shows that the average power is 2,600 h.p., or 43.5% of the maxi- 
 mum 6,000 h.p. 
 
 The whole rectangle below the horizontal line at 600 h.i)., which 
 is the intersection of the flow curve with the 100% time factor line, 
 shows the quantity of power that can be utilized continuously with- 
 out the aid of storage or auxiliary power, and this is equal to only 
 23% of the average power available and but 10% of the maximum 
 power. The area of the above rectangle represents graphically the 
 
STEAM POWER 493 
 
 h.p.-hrs., amounting in total to 600 X 8,760 - 5,256.000 h p.-hrs. per 
 yr. Assume tliat a storage reservoir be constructed of sufficient 
 capacity to impound the equivalent of 700,000 h. p.-hrs. ; this amount, 
 if uniformly distributed thioughout the year, would make the total 
 yield 5,956,000 h. p.-hrs., or would increase the available power 13.3%, 
 making a total of 680 h.p. ; but this is not the actual increase. The 
 storage volume in terms of h. p.-hrs. can be represented on the 
 diagram in two ways, either by placing a rectangular area equiv- 
 alent to the quantity of h. p.-hrs. above the rectangle which indi- 
 cates the constant power available or by plotting an irregular figure 
 of the same area to the right and above the "stream flow" curve, 
 the end on the 100% time line with the top a horizontal line meeting 
 the " stream flow " curve. It will be noted that the horizontal 
 boundary line of the storage area terminates on the " stream flow " 
 curve at the point of intersection between it and the 70% time 
 factor vertical, and that for the balance or for 70% of the time that 
 the vertical distance from the base or zero power line to the power 
 curve is always greater than that at the above point of intersec- 
 tion ; hence, there will always be a sufficient volume of water from 
 the natural stream flow to develop continuously in conjunction with 
 the storage or auxiliary power the amount determined by the alti- 
 tude of the power scale at the previously described point of inter- 
 section, or for 1,000 h.p., as shown on the diagram. If the hori- 
 zontal boundary of the storage area be projected aci'oss the diagram, 
 the area of that portion of the diagram below this line will repre- 
 sent the total number of h.p.-hrs. available. This area is 1,000 X 
 8,760 = 8.760,000 h.p.-hrs. ; therefore, the reservoir actually has in- 
 creased the available power from 5,256,000 to the above amount, 
 or by 66.5% instead of 13.5%, as was shown by the uniform distribu- 
 tion of the conserved water employed for the previously given 
 storage values. The existence of storage will alter the profile of 
 the " stream flow " curve, increasing it at the minimum flow and 
 decreasing it at the maximum, making it conform to the lower dotted 
 curve shown on the diagram, the area between the two curves 
 being equal to the area of the storage. 
 
 As previously stated, auxiliary power in any form has the same 
 effect as storage on the available power, and by considering the 
 700,000 h.p.-hrs. on the diagram as derived from steam or other 
 sovirce, the annual output will be the same. The capacity of the 
 auxiliary plant can be determined readily from the diagram, for the 
 maximum altitude of the storage area as measured by the power 
 scale indicates the greatest amount of power that will be required, 
 and by flnding the mean altitude of the storage area the average 
 power is obtained ; these are for the case under discussion, respec- 
 tively 400 h.p. and 266 X h.p. 
 
 STEAM BOILERS AND ENGINES 
 
 No attempt will be made to compare the relative merits of steam 
 apparatus other than to state what modern engineering practice 
 would indicate to be the best equijiment to select for a given service. 
 Both water tube and fire tube boilers have practically the same 
 
494 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 efficiency when properly designed. Water tube boilers can be eco- 
 nomically built for much larger unit capacities than the fire tube ; 
 hence, they occupy less space and afford a simplicity in general 
 design which is desirable for large installations. They are also 
 more immune from the danger of explosion than other types. As a 
 unit the water tube boiler and setting is more complicated than the 
 horizontal return tubular or vertical "Manning" type of boiler; 
 accordingly, for a small plant the latter types are generally more 
 economical, both to install and operate. 
 
 In most cases reciprocating steam engines will prove the most 
 economical for small plants having from 1 to 3 units of not more 
 than 500 h.p. each. For installations requiring units of from 500 to 
 2,000 h.p. capacity, it is debatable whether or not the reciprocating 
 engine or steam turbine should be adopted. In case the electric 
 drive is not readily applicable, it is safe to assume that the re- 
 ciprocating engine is the best ; but if the electric drive is applicable 
 and particularly if the 1. f. is such that the equipment cannot be 
 consistently operated at or near its " nominal capacity," then the 
 steam turbine is the natural selection, on account of its ability to 
 operate on fractional or overloads without sustaining the efficiency 
 losses incident to operating steam engines under similar conditions. 
 
 In addition to the advantage of working range afforded by the 
 steam turbine, it occupies much less space than the reciprocating 
 engine and with the present state of perfection it is a simpler ma- 
 chine. On the other hand, the condensing equipment for the turbine 
 must be more refined than that provided for an engine, on account 
 of the high vacuum which must be maintained if the turbine is 
 operated efficiently. This condition incurs additional upkeep and 
 operation expenses, as well as first cost. 
 
 For units of more than 2,000 h.p, capacity, the steam turbine 
 will usually prove to be the most economical. 
 
 The cost per h.p. for turbine and engine equipments with gener- 
 ators will be approximately the same for the smaller sizes up to 
 units of about 800 h.p. capacity; above this size the turbine will cost 
 somewhat less than the engine, and as the unit size still further 
 increases the proportionate cost will constantly change in favor of 
 the turbine outfit. 
 
 GAS ENGINES 
 
 The gas engine has by no means received the recognition in this 
 country which it deserves, while in Europe it has been accepted 
 and utilized most successfully. The abundance of cheap high grade 
 fuels available in what appeared until recently to be unlimited 
 quantities has caused the consumer to be lethargic toward any at- 
 tempt at economizing in its use. Further than this, to speak 
 plainly, the American manufacturer, in spite of his boasted acumen, 
 canny business deals and claims to progressiveness, is most loathe 
 to adopt many of the so-called " new ideas " that have long since 
 become ancient history to our more scientific competitors in both 
 England and continental Europe. 
 
STEAM POWER 495 
 
 Producers and gas engines are more efficient under working con- 
 ditions ttian ttie corresponding steam equipment. Gas power plants 
 require no high pressure piping and suffer no leak or condensation 
 losses. As an auxiliary, the gas plant has no superior, for large 
 quantities of gas can be stored in holders and be ready for service 
 with the fires dead — the standby losses are less than for the steam 
 plant and the smoke nuisance is eliminated ; no small factor when 
 one considers the pall which now hangs over most of our cities. 
 
 The waste heat from the gas engine exhaust can be utilized for 
 heating purposes and from 2 to 3 lbs. of steam can be generated 
 with any desired pressure up to 50 lbs. per each b.h.p.-hr. 
 
 The disadvantages of the gas plant are its high cost of installa- 
 tion and the fact that the engines must be operated at practically 
 their " nominal capacity " with a " rated," or overload, capacity 
 about 10% in excess of the " nominal." Reliability of service was at 
 one time a formidable stumblmg block which checked the progress 
 of gas power plants, but this obstacle has now become a myth that 
 need not be seriously regarded. 
 
 The producer gas plant should appeal particularly to all Maine 
 power users, for many sections of the state are provided with an 
 abundant sui)ply of peat in accessible bogs, and this low grade fuel 
 can be utilized most efficiently in a properly designed producer. 
 
 For a treatise on this subject see Bulletin 376, U. S. Geologi- 
 cal Survey, Peat Deposits of Maine, by E. S. Bastin & C. A. Davis. 
 
 The word " peat " undoubtedly has a discordant sound to some 
 owing to the many fake schemes which have been exploited having 
 the ostensible purpose of drying, preparing and distributing peat for 
 commercial uses. But this impression we trust will be dispelled by 
 stating that instead of transporting the peat the gas plant should 
 be located at the bog or mine, and the power generated should be 
 transmitted electrically to its destination, following the same prin- 
 ciple applied when a water power station is constructed on a river 
 at some favorable site. 
 
 The peat for a producer requires no artificial preparation or 
 manipulation other than that necessary to excavate, air dry and 
 deliver to the furnace, because it can be fired when containing from 
 30 to 50% of moisture, a feat now being successfully accomplished 
 in Europe on a commercial scale. 
 
 The cost for mining peat should not exceed $1 per ton, including 
 delivering to the plant, and this cost can be entirely obliterated by 
 the return from the by-products which can be derived if the installa- 
 tion is of sufficient size to warrant the cost of constructing a re- 
 covery plant for extracting the procurable sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 There is from 2 to 3% of nitrogen in American peats ; as sulphate 
 of aininonia, this material has a market price of 3 cts. per lb., cost- 
 ing about 1 ct. per lb. for reclamation. In each short ton of peat 
 there are from 180 to 280 lbs. of sulj^hate of ammonia, and not less 
 than 90 lbs. per ton can be produced commercially, having a value 
 of $2 70 and costing about $0.90, showing a gross profit of $1.80 
 per ton of peat used as fuel. It is safe to state that the cost for 
 
496 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 fuel in a peat gas plant would be nothing if it has 4,000 h.p. or 
 more capacity, which is an amount sufficient to insure the economical 
 production of ammonium sulphate. 
 
 The ordinary grades of bituminous coals contain about 80 lbs. 
 of available sulphate of ammonia per short ton, and its recovery 
 shows a corresponding return. 
 
 The writer feels certain that gas engine, peat or coal fired, aux- 
 iliary power plants will be extensively utilized locally in connection 
 with hydro-electric installations at no remote future date. 
 
 OIL. ENGINES 
 
 From a theoretical standpoint there is no fuel power so attractive 
 as that afforded by the oil engine, and the ideal is now partially 
 realized in actual practice, although the application of the oil 
 engine has been much restricted on account of the exorbitant costs 
 which have been maintained by the manufacturers holding the 
 patent rights on the most successful types of oil engine equipment. 
 Following the policy usually applied for determining the value of 
 power, the cost of steam generated power has been taken as the 
 base from which the sale price of oil engines was determined, estab- 
 lishing the cost for the oil apparatus at a figure just low enough 
 to show a small margin of saving by its adoption, but in reality 
 absurdly high when compared with the true cost of the equipment 
 required. Such a procedure is shortsighted in the writer's opinion 
 and this conclusion is apparently sustained by the purchasing public 
 if we take the slow growth of the oil engine field in this country as 
 a criterion upon which to base our decision. 
 
 The oil engine plant is very simple, comprising the engine proper, 
 an air compressor and a fuel storage tank. It is ready for instant 
 service without standby losses ; there is no smoke nuisance ; there 
 is no dirt or dust such as accompanies the generating equipment of 
 the steam and gas plants with their incumbent coal storage, and a 
 minimum amount of operating labor is required. As against these 
 advantages there exists the high cost of installation, with corre- 
 spondingly excessive cost for repairs, and large single units have 
 not yet been perfected in America. In all probability these two con- 
 siderations will not long continue to offer obstructions against the 
 more general application of this excellent prime mover, for the 
 expiration of the " Diesel " patents already has created an under- 
 current of activity on the part of the heavy machinery and engine 
 builders which bids fair to cause brisk competition in the manufac- 
 ture and sale of oil engine equipment, a condition that will of neces- 
 sity incite perfection in design and reduce the initial cost. 
 
 It has been claimed that the future of the oil engine was threat- 
 ened by the uncertainty regarding the ultimate cost of its fuel, on 
 the ground that its extensive introduction would so increase the 
 demand for oil that the supply would prove inadequate. At this 
 time no one can foretell how much oil is available, but it is certain 
 that there exist vast oil beds still undiscovered and that with a 
 perceptible increase in consumption there will be an incentive to 
 locate " strikes " which will substantially augment the present 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 497 
 
 supply, and no reason can be seen for anticipating any material 
 increase in the cost of fuel oil. 
 
 Cost of Installations. The average cost for complete electric 
 power plants of known " rated " horsepower capacity are given on 
 Fig. 44. To obtain the co^t for a contemplated plant it is necessary 
 to determine the "load factor" which will establish the "nominal" 
 and the " rated," or full, capacity required. 
 
 To secure a uniformity of comparison in illustrating the applica- 
 tion of the diagram.s which follow, 3 hypothetical operating con- 
 ditions will ba assumed for a proposed installation having a "rated 
 capacity" of 4,000 e.h.p. and a "load factor" of 80%, making the 
 "nominal" or "working capacity" 3,200 e.h.p. In the first case, 
 
 .' ^ J 4 i 6 r d 9 10 II /i 13 14 15 IS 17 li 
 
 Rarea Copacity of Pionr m huncirec] H P 
 Fig. 44. Cost of complete electric power plants. 
 
 the plant operates for 300 days of 10 hrs. per day, or for a total of 
 3,000 hrs., and produces 3,200X3,000 = 9,600,000 h.p.-hrs. per yr. 
 The total full capacity of the plant is 4,000 X 8,760 = 35,040,000 
 h.p.-hrs. per yr. ; hence the "capacity factor" is (9,600,000 -=- 35,040,- 
 000) X 100 = 27.4%. In the second case the plant operates for 865 
 days of 18 hrs., or for a total of 6,570 hrs., producing 6.570 X 3,200 
 = 21,024,000 h.p -hrs. per annum, making the "capacity factor" 
 607o. In the third case the plant operates at its full " nominal 
 capacity for 365 days of 24 hrs., producing 28,032,000 h.p.-hrs. per 
 annum and having a "capacity factor" of practically 80%; all of 
 the foregoing powers being measured at the station switchboard. 
 The " capacity factor " can never be maintained continuously at 
 
498 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 100% in any installation, because it would be impossible to design 
 a plant which could be practically oper-ated at its full " rated " 
 capacity. 
 
 To obtain the costs of installation from Fig-. 44, select the rated 
 h.p. capacity of the plant as designed on the right-hand vertical 
 margin and trace the horizontal line opposite the desired capacity 
 to the intersection of the curves, then follow down the vertical line 
 at these intersections to the cost per h.p., which is given on the 
 lower margin. For example: The 1,500 h.p. horizontal intersects 
 the "steam electric" curve at $56, the "producer gas" at $70 and 
 the " oil electric " at $100, while for a 500 h.p. plant the intersec- 
 tions are at $63, $80 and $108, respectively. It will be noted that 
 for " rated " capacities in excess of 1,500 h.p., the cost is practically 
 constant, and, therefore, the cost for the 4,000 h.p. plant will be 
 4,000 X $56 ^ $224,000 for steam; 4,000 X $70 = $280,000 for gas, 
 and 4,000 X $100 = $400,000 for oil. 
 
 Fuels. Fuel has a most important influence in affecting the cost 
 of power and every effort should be made to reduce its consump- 
 tion to the minimum amount consistent with the practical econom- 
 ical operation of the given system ; but the necessity of utilizing fuel 
 with a maximum economy has often been advocated when the ex- 
 pense of so doing would increase the cost per h.p. hr. for the power, 
 owing to the refined apparatus required, with the greater interest 
 and repair charges thus incurred, in addition to an increased labor 
 cost due to the skillful mechanics required to properly operate the 
 more complicated equipment. 
 
 It is lamentable to observe the painstaking efforts made by coal 
 users to reduce the inroads into the coal pile by improving the 
 mechanical conditions at their power stations, at the same time 
 permitting the most slipshod methods to prevail when purchasing 
 the commodity they so cherish. To purchase coal, or any form of 
 fuel, by securing bids from reputable dealers for a certain trade 
 grade shows an ignorance not encountered in the valuation of any 
 other material. No buyer would pay for an ore except on the show- 
 ing of its assay, which would be determined and certified by an 
 expert. The merchant selects and pays for his cotton on the basis 
 of its staple, not because it was grown in Alabama or Mississippi, 
 but the manufacturer ordinarily makes his coal selection on name 
 and price only, utterly disregarding the fact that he should en- 
 deavor to obtain a heat value return for his expenditure, and that 
 no specific name, such as "New River, West Virginia, coal," or a 
 dealer's business integrity will be a guarantee that he is getting 
 his money's worth. 
 
 The measure of any fuel depends entirely on the number of avail- 
 able heat units which it contains, and it should be ])aid for on this 
 basis. A unit of heat value is the Briti.sh thermal unit (notation 
 B.t.u.) and it is an inexpensive process to determine the quality 
 of a fuel by making a " proximate analysis " that will show its 
 B.t.u. content. 
 
 Consumers receiving their coal in consignments of 300 tons or 
 over should always purchase under contract specifications that state 
 
STEAM POWER 499 
 
 the price to be paid for the B.t.u. content of the coal ; the actual 
 price paid ter ton for the coal supplied to be established pro rata 
 by test. It might be assumed that a single careful test of the coal 
 for a given mine would be sufficient to insure a uniform quality, 
 if it could be definitely proved that each shipment was made from 
 the same mine ; but this is not true, because the method of handling 
 coal at the mines, in addition to the variation of the physical and 
 chemical properties of the coal strata from the same mine, will 
 occasion variation in quality which can only be determined by 
 indej)endent tests. The quality of the marketed coal depends in a 
 large measure on the care taken in the preparation at the mines. 
 Carelessness in picking slate or other impurities, or in jigging, or 
 washing will produce a coal of inferior quality when compared with 
 that secured from the same mine but carefully prepared ; also bi- 
 tuminous coal, exposed to the atmosphere gradually depreciates in 
 value and its moisture content has important bearing upon its 
 available B.t.u. content. Buying coal by the ton in the ordinary 
 manner often necessitates the purchasing of a large percentage of 
 water and other impurities which are paid for and transported as 
 coal, but which in reality have no fuel value. 
 
 The accompanying Table XXXVIII gives the average composition 
 and heat value of several general classifications of fuels, also the 
 producer gas that can be obtained from certain fuels on which 
 reliable tests have been made. 
 
 The cost of coal has been constantly on the increase and it is 
 most important tliat we consider its probable future cost by making 
 a brief study of past conditions, for such study may occasion the 
 selection of a power plant equipment that would otherwise be dis- 
 regarded, if the present conditions alone are used in deducting the 
 probable investment efficiency. 
 
 From 1870 to 1910 the population of this country increased from 
 38,000,000 to 92,000,000, or more than 142%, and the coal consump- 
 tion increased per capita from 0.85 tons to 5.5 tons, or almpst 550%; 
 hence, in 40 years the coal consumption has increased about 4 
 times as fast as the population. During this interval the average 
 value of coal property has increased from $100 to $2,000 per acre, 
 or 1,900%, which is nearly 4 times the rate of consumption in- 
 crease. When it is remembered that this phenomenal change in 
 volume and value has been accompanied by a corresponding wage 
 increase and more difficult engineering work in connection with the 
 greater depth of the mines, it is a tribute to our application of 
 scientific management in both mine working and transportation that 
 we are not paying several hundred per cent, more for coal at this 
 date than we are ; but " coming events cast their shadows before " 
 and the abnormal rise in mine values, together with the continual 
 labor agitation, makes it almost certain that within a short period 
 the cost of coal at the mines will be increased from 25 to 50% and 
 that a greater proportionate increment of cost will be added as the 
 coal passes the several go-betweens in its transition from the mine 
 to the ultimate consumer. 
 
 Bituminous coal containing about 14,400 B.t.u. per lb. of fuel can 
 
500 MECHAXICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 •IBS J8Ci -n-^a 
 
 C C OC: ^ 
 
 ?i I- c: • 
 
 
 t* ^' S ■ 
 
 •XiiA^aS outDads ••• '.''•'•'•;'• lA-^^ — x^ e^ui^^ '. 
 
 *• ^' '^ . . . ; . -ocococococt-: •t~'C:«; • 
 
 ■ • * CO ■ ' O ■ 
 
 • M • . . . -O 
 
 •&bs io 11 00 00 ; «oc»c^ !2 "."j I ] 1 ! ; ^ ; ! ! iS 
 
 OOr-< c^c:r^3cc;c;On7io.-M'-<=ir. C-. etc 
 
 CO 'MIC c-lOC TO MC4CC 1—^f^ rr CI C: t-^L-aC CC 
 
 m'^t't" ifi re .— "occ-rcTf^'oc'ococ c. t-'oc ' 
 
 H 
 
 
 pe.iy 
 
 SB pnj qi .lacl 
 
 sbS jo ij no 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 JO 
 
 pajij SB lenj 
 ■qi jaci nia 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 < 
 
 JO 
 
 aiqusnquioo 
 •qi jaci nva 
 
 < 
 
 
 — aiqusnqiuoD 
 uoqjBO paxij 
 
 s 
 
 
 % — 9iqu 
 
 -snqiuoo 
 
 
 % — jnqflTTis 
 
 
 
 % — qsv 
 
 
 % — ajmsioK 
 
 > 
 < 
 
 
 *% — uoq,iBo 
 
 r-. O C: O t> — — O 
 cot-cCLi«c — SSO 
 t^ r; -r- ?] r- re Lt Ci 
 LsT -r re re fe — — * d" 
 
 IftMOC 
 
 Ci C^ t:^ 
 
 o ~- la 
 
 oo o t- c-1 « o 3C 4; ce oc i^. 
 
 p^XK>I 
 
 % — aiTlBiOA 
 
 : t^- L.e — u- C-. 
 
 ^ 
 >- 
 
 ■ ' X XV. xzr.x 
 
 -/. r. ■ r. i'. = - 
 
 ^^5 = 
 
 ~ • - . X > = X: 
 - - = E ^ -■t%->'H^ 
 
 i= s-~^2 c . - - . 
 
 P>.-i : 
 > . 
 
 
 ^^;lC^. 
 
 ;: ^ ^ ^ ;: ■£ X ^ 
 ci .^ s ^ o .r ^ ."T rt 
 
STBAM POWER 
 
 501 
 
 now be purchased at the Maine coast for $3 per long ton and it 
 can be delivered to the station bunkers in most of our inland cities 
 for a total of about |4.60 per long ton. If this fuel is used under 
 boilers of 78% efficiency, the lbs. of water evaporated, or the lbs. 
 of steam generated, can be determined from the " boiler efficiency 
 chart," Fig. 45, as follows: Locate on the lower margin of the 
 diagram the vertical over the 14,400 B.t.u. and follow up on this 
 
 7 d 9 W II 12 13 14 15 Id 17 Id 19 
 Heat Value In B.tu Per Unit of Fuel 
 Conturj^ible 
 
 Fig. 45. Boiler efficiency chart. 
 
 line to the intersection of the diagonal line representing 78% boiler 
 efficiency and read on the left. margin the water evaporated, which 
 is in this instance 11.5 lbs. 
 
 Any reputable boiler manufacturer can guarantee the efficiency 
 of a boiler if he knows the quality of cual that will be used for 
 with this information the proper ratio of grate and heating surface 
 area can be provided. 
 
 The selection of a boiler, including its setting, must be made 
 
502. MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 with the same care and application of the specialist's knowledge as 
 is devoted to any other accessory in a power plant. In many in- 
 stances it can be shown, upon making a careful study of a problem, 
 that a cheap grade of fuel with a low boiler efficiency is more eco- 
 nomical than an expensive fuel yielding a high boiler efficiency. 
 To prove this we will take a semi-bituminous fuel containing 11,100 
 B.t.u. per lb., costing $4.60 per ton at the bunkers, and a low grade 
 bituminous, such as Western, containing 11,230 B.t.u. per lb. and 
 costing $2.50 per ton delivered, using both in the same boiler fur- 
 nace. The higher grade of coal will permit the practical operation 
 of the boilers at an efficiency of 75% and the cheap grade with an 
 ethciency of 60%. Referring to the diagram Pig. 45, it will be 
 found that 11.2 lbs, of water can be evaporated with the good 
 coal and 6.9 lbs. with the poor. This shows that the relative fuel 
 value is as 6.9-4- 11.2 — 0.616, and it will be necessary to use 1.00 
 -f- 0.616 -- 1,623 tons of the cheap fuel to generate the steam that can 
 be produced with 1 ton of the higher grade: therefore. 1.623 X 
 $2.50 = $4.06 will be the cost of an equivalent amount of the lower 
 grade coal. This shows that the supposedly poor fuel will yield 
 l($4.60 — $4.06) ^ $4.06] X 100 - 13.3% better return for the same 
 expenditure than the good. With the cheaper fuel more coal and 
 ashes must be handled, increasing the labor expense proportionately, 
 but this will not ordinarily be a sufficient amount to off-set a sav- 
 ing so great as that indicated above. 
 
 Holding to the example cited under " Cost of InstallatioUvS," and 
 the efficiencies given on the "Power Efficiency Diagram, Fig. 38," 
 the cost for fuel can be derived from the diagram Fig. 46 as fol- 
 lows : One B.t.u, is equivalent to 778 foot pounds of energy, and 
 one theoretical h.p. requires 33,000 foot pounds of energy per minute, 
 and 33,000 ^ 778 - 42.416 X B.t.u., or.2,545 B.t.u. per hour. From 
 Fig. 38 the total efficiency at the generator terminals, which will be 
 practically the same as that at the switchboard, is shown on the 
 fourth reading from the bottom to be 10,4%; hence the heat re- 
 quired to generate one e.h.p. at the switchboard will be (2.545 -f- 
 10.4) X 100 = 24,471 B.t.u., which will necessitate the consumption 
 of 24.471-4-14.400 = 1.7 lbs. of coal per e.h.p. -hr. It has already 
 been found from Fig. 45 that 11.5 lbs. of steam can be derived from 
 1 lb. of the above coal, and with this data from Fig, 46 can be de- 
 termined the cost for fuel per e.h.p. -hr. and the pounds of steam 
 generated per e.h.p.-hr. Locating on the lower margin the 1.7 lbs. 
 of fuel per h.p.-hr. and following up this line until it meets the 
 diagonal or the interpolated diagonal representing 11.5 lbs. evapora- 
 tion, the steam consumption is found by following the horizontal 
 lines to the left margin, reading in this instance 19.5 lbs. of steam 
 per e.h.p. To obtain the cost of fuel per h.p.-hr., follow up the 
 vertical corresponding to the required coal consumption until it 
 meets the horizontal line corresponding to the cost per long ton of 
 coal as given on the right-hand margin, reading on the curved lines, 
 or interpolating between them if necessary, the cost per h.p.-hr. in 
 cents and mills. With coal at $4.60 per ton the cost will be $0.0035 
 per e.h.p.-hr. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 503 
 
 If the manufacturers of the boilers and engines state definite 
 guarantee in specifications covering the operating conditions for 
 their equi])raent, then Fig. 46 can be used directly for determining 
 the cost of fuel. For example: The boilers are guaranteed to 
 evaporate, with a given coal containing 14,400 B.t.u. and costing 
 $4.60 per ton, 10 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel. The boiler efficiency- 
 can be obtained from Fig. 45 by reading the nearest diagonal to the 
 intersection of the vertical line corresponding to the 14,400 B.t.u. 
 and the horizontal line reading 10 lbs. on the left margin, which 
 will be 67.5%, The engine manufacturer guarantees that the engine 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7, 
 
 Lbs fuel Per HP Hour 
 Fig. 46. Steam power — cost of fuel per horsepower hour. 
 
 alone will require 16 lbs. of steam per i.h.p.-hr., that the engine will 
 have a mechanical efficiency of 95%, or that the steam per b.h.p.- 
 hr. will be 16.84 lbs., and with a generator of 95% efficiency the 
 steam consumption per e.h.p.-hr. will be 16.84 h- 0.95 = 17.73 lbs. 
 To this steam must be added the amount lost in radiation, pipe fric- 
 tion and auxiliaries, including the condenser, exciter, feed-water 
 pumps, etc. ; an amount varying from 5 to 15% of the steam required 
 for the engines, depending upon the size of plant and the character 
 of the auxiliaries ; a fair average figure being about 9% ; hence the 
 total steam consumption per e.h.p.-hr. will be 17.73 X 1.09 =: 19.33 
 lbs. On Fig. 46, tracing horizontally from 19.33 lbs. reading on the 
 
504 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 left margin to the intersection of the diagonal corresponding to 10 
 lbs. evaporation the coal consumption per e.h.p.-hr, is read from 
 the lower margin and is 1.93 lbs. Following up vertically opposite 
 the same point of intersection to the line corresponding to $4.60 on 
 the right margin and reading the nearest curve cutting this last 
 intersection, we find that the cost for fuel per e h r) -hr will be 
 $0,004. 
 
 It will be noted that in almost all cases it will be necessary to 
 interpolate the readings between the verticals representing the 
 pounds of fuel per h.p.-hr. which are sub-divided in divisions of 
 0.25 lbs. each; and also the curves giving the cost for fuel per 
 
 Cubic Ft of das Per Lb. Fuel 
 
 90 50 40 30 25 20 15 
 
 H mi iii'i\ i\i\A\ W ^ 7 / 
 
 \V\k\\i\\\rJvVv\ \l 1 1 
 
 nll'VWiviA \ \r / / / 
 
 '\l\A)iiAl\)\\\ Va ' / 
 
 III 1 1 r\! \l\)'l\ \ V\i\ 1 / / 
 
 
 • 1 1 n A \(\' \l\\ V\\\a. " / / 
 
 I hAA n v\l\iY\ \iV\\ ' ' 
 
 jli 1 1 V s \A \i\ Y\'\ IN \ / / / 
 
 In 'Ail \ AlW ) \\aI\ A\ / ■ / 
 
 lliv! WWiY MK \ A V ' / 
 
 a!IA/ \t\K_ i\i\Aj \ t ij \. ' ''' 
 
 1 1 /V V ] \ m A\v\\v' / 
 
 iii hh 1 \ K/i \ \ \ \ \ \X/ / 
 
 1 A/WV A MW W\ v \. i ^\ / 
 
 il/lll A K A wN \\\\\)^\\\ ' 
 
 i(/rAJw\ I \a \) \ "i > \ \ \N. \ / 
 
 lifi ^ /\ \ ' \ A \ A \j\iXj\ \ \\ \t>0\& 
 
 fill \\ i , / V K is/ \. ^ \ \ \ >O^Si\ 
 
 jif/j] \ Yy\A \x^ V ^ J^^'^^N '^ ^ 
 
 llil f\ \ rw / , \ b^ \ \ c^^^N ^ ^ "^ \ 
 
 
 iiiiu f IN \ 'v \ "" i>^Spv \ ^ ^ " \ "~^ >r^ vi^ 
 
 1 nil / ¥ \l\'\ K \ r^£^^^p\i^ "\^ ^^^""^vT^ ^^s^ V, 
 
 1 iW/ A ; AJ /\ ,^ \ k'^^ Y-v *^ ^\'^ ^^^s!!~^^ ~-i^ "^ 
 
 will /I I / V 1 N ><^\^ "^ s^x"^ -N,"^^^^ --^^ -^ 
 
 
 
 Mlhxi / I X^ ^ "^-v "^ ^-^"^-v"^^"""-^ "~t-- ^ 
 
 /tKj^ 1 X!^"^ rPtrhtf K: "mTffiS 
 
 
 / X ' )^ J^-v '^--- ~~~- ~""~— ^~~--^ — ~ 
 
 
 -^^=:^^~]^^^^^ :-= = = — ; 
 
 17 
 16 
 15 
 
 13 ^ 
 
 '^1 
 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 d 9 10 II 12 13 14 
 Lbi Fuel Per H P Hour 
 Producer gas — cost of fuel per horsepower hour. 
 
 h.p.-hr. which are subdivided into one-half mill divisions, and this 
 condition holds for all of the fuel Diagrams, Figs. 46, 47 and 48. 
 With a little care in reading the results should be accurate 
 within 0.5%. 
 
 The total annual cost for coal in the 3 hypothetical operating 
 conditions for the 4,000 e.h.p. capacity steam plant previously de- 
 scribed will be as follows: Case I — 9,600,000 e.h.p.-hrs X $0.0035 
 =r $33,600 ; Case .11—21,024,000 e.h.p.-hr.s. X $0.0035 =r $73,584; and 
 Case III — 28,032,000 e.h.p.-hrs. X $0.0035 =r $98,112. 
 
 The fuel required in a gas plant of corresponding rated capacity 
 
STEAM POWER 505 
 
 can be determined from Fig-s. 39 and 47. From Fig. 39 the net 
 efficiency of the gas electric plant at the generator terminals, or 
 the switchboards is 23.6%. Using the same grade of bituminous 
 coal, as that employed in the steam plants, having 14,400 B.t.u. 
 per lb. of fuel, the amount of coal required per e.h.p.-hr. will be 
 (2,515-^0.236) H- 14,400 = .75 lbs. For one theoretical horse power 
 requires 2,545 B.t.u. per hr., and with 23.6% efficiency, 2,545 -f- 0.236 
 =r 10,783 B.t.u. will be required per e.h.p.-hr., or 10,783 ^ 14,400 ~ 
 0.75 lbs. of coal per e.h.p. With coal costing $4.60 per ton, the 
 cost per e.h.p.-hr. from Fig. 47 can be obtained as follow^s : Locate 
 on the lower margin the pounds of fuel per h.p.-hr. and trace ver- 
 tically to the intersection of the horizontal line corresponding to the 
 price of $4.60 on the right margin. The point of intersection in this 
 instance falls about midway between the curves $0,001 and $0,002, 
 hence the cost for fuel per e.h.p.-hr. is $0.0015, or per year for Case 
 r — 9,600,000 e.h.p. -hrs.X $0 0015 - $14,400; for Case II — 21.024,- 
 000 X $0.0015 - $31,536, and for Case III — 28,032,000 X$0. 0015 = 
 $42,048. 
 
 • The producer manufacturer can give definite guarantees for the 
 efficiency of his equipment with a stipulated quantity of fuel. This 
 efficiency will range from 60 to 80% depending upon the grade of 
 fuel. From coal containing 14,400 B.t.u. with a producer efficiency 
 of 80% — 11,520 B.t.u. will be delivered in the gas. The volumetric 
 quality of the gas must be determined by test, and with the high 
 grade fuel under consideration, approximately 80 cu. ft. of gas can 
 be generated from one lb. of coal and one cu. ft. of gas will contain 
 11.520 ^80 = 144 B.t.u. 
 
 It is customary to guarantee gas engines on the basis of the gas 
 consumption per b.h.p.-hr. On Fig. 39 the efficiency at the engine 
 shaft is given as 24.8%, hence the efficiency of the engine is (24.8 
 -f- 80) X 100 = 31% and 2,545 -^ O.Sl B.t.u. will be required per b.h.p.- 
 hr., or 8,210 -^ 144 — 57 -f- cu. ft. of gas containing 144 B.t.u. per 
 lb. With electric generators of 95% efficiency the cu. ft. of gas per 
 e.h.p. hour will be 57 -f- 0.95 — 60. This figure can be checked from 
 Fig. 39 as follows : 23.6 ^ 0.80 = 29.5 and 2545 ^ 29.5 ^ 8627 B.t.u. 
 required per e.h.p.-hr., or 8627 -=- 144 = 59.91- cu. ft. of gas which 
 is practically 60 cu. ft. as previously determined. 
 
 It must be remembered that the efficiencies given on Fig. 39 are 
 for a gas electric power plant in perfect physical condition and 
 skilfully operated. In ordinary practice it is to be expected that 
 the figures would not obtain, particularly the engine efficiencies, as 
 the manufacturers would be inclined to offer as a maximum guar- 
 antee the equivalent of 10 cu. ft. of gas containing 1000 B.t.u. 
 which is equivalent to an efficiency of 2545 -^ (10 X 1000) X 100 ::= 
 25.45%, making the total efficiency to the switchboard 25.45 X .8 (the 
 producer efficiency) X .95 fthe gen. efficiency) — 19.25% instead of 
 23.6% as given on Fig. 39 and the coal consumption (2545-^0.1925) 
 -^ 14,400 - 0.92 lbs. per e.h.p.-hr. instead of the 0.75 Ib.s. previously 
 given. To apply the diagram Fig. 47 with a known engine guar- 
 antee and quality of fuel the following example is cited : Given, a 
 peat fuel from which 30.3 cu. ft. of gas containing 175.2 B.t.u. can 
 
506 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 be generated per pound of fuel (see Table XL), costing %2 per long 
 ton; an engine which is guaranteed to develop 1 b.h.p-hr. with 
 12,264 B.t.u. or with 12,264 -;- 175.2 =: 70 cu ft. of gas and an electric 
 generator efficiency of 91% making the cubic feet of gas per e.h.p.- 
 hr. 70^0.91 =: 77. Locate on the left hand margin the 77 cu ft. 
 per h.p.. follow horizontally to the right hand until the line inter- 
 sects the diagonal representing 30 3 cu. ft. of gas per lb. of fuel, 
 as noted at the top of the diagram; from this point of intersection 
 drop vertically to the horizontal line corresponding to the price for 
 
 ,0Z M £b 05 ID 12 14 IS Id 20 .22 24 .26 28 
 
 eaUonsOilPdrHPHour 
 
 Fig. 48. Oil — cost of fuel per horsepower hour. 
 
 the fuel, as noted on the left margin, i.e. $2, and read from the 
 curve the cost of fuel per h.p.-hr. which is in this case $0,002. 
 
 Fuel oil can be purchased locally for somewhat less than 3 cts. 
 per gal. and the oil engine manufacturers will guarantee a con- 
 sumption of 0.0755 gals, per e.h.p.-hr., including the auxiliaries, 
 when the engine is direct connected to a generator of 95% efficiency. 
 Knowing the cost of oil and the engine economy the cost per e.h.p.- 
 hr. for fuel can be obtained from Fig. 48 as follows: Locate the 
 gallons of fuel per h.p.-hr. on the bottom of the diagram and trace 
 up vertically to the intersection of the horizontal corresponding to 
 the price per gal. for oil as given on the left hand margin, reading 
 the cost per h.p.-hr. from the curved line at the above intersection 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 507 
 
 which is with the foreg-oing conditions $0.0023. Then the fuel cost 
 per year for a plant of 4,000 e.h.p. rated capacity will be: Case 
 I _ 9.600,000 X $0.0023 = $22,080; Case II — $48,355, and Case III 
 — $01,474. 
 
 Labor. The operators, including all of the laborers employed in 
 connection, with the operation of a plant, exclusive of those engaged 
 on its repairs, are the sole influence which can make it produce 
 power with efficiency and economy. No matter how carefully the 
 
 Number of Men Required Per Shiff 
 2 3 4 5 6 7 5 3 10 II 12 13 H 
 
 Fig. 
 
 20 49 60 do m no m m, i60 zoo 220 i4o 260 m 
 Cost of Laboc Per Hour 
 49. Cost of labor; steam electric plants. 
 
 designing engineer selects the equipment and arranges the layout ; 
 no matter how finely balanced and adjustable the entire scheme 
 may be, to meet the requirements of a particular service, unless the 
 controlling labor organization is trained to realize to the best ad- 
 vantage all of the facilities afforded, no amount of perfected appli- 
 ances can compensate for unskillful manipulation ! This statement 
 does not mean that a power station must be manned by a crew of 
 skilled mechanics, or power experts, or that it must be operated by 
 a set of theoretical rules, that would, undoubtedly, defeat the very 
 purpose for which they were created ; but it does mean that each 
 department must be under the control of men who know what the 
 
508 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 apparatus la supposed to accomplish and who are fully conversant 
 with the various combinations and adjustments that will yield the 
 desired result. It is not even necessary and often inadvisable for 
 the attendants to know v)ky certain conditions obtain with a given 
 combination provided they are certain that they do accomplish 
 certain results. 
 
 It js imjiortant that one man should be thoroughly familiar with 
 each and every detail of a given plant, and that he have full charge 
 
 Number of Men required Per Shift 
 
 4500 'l S 3 4 5 & 7 a 9 10 V Id 13 
 
 . , 
 
 I 
 
 
 4 -4 
 
 
 t t 
 
 
 
 
 1 + 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 1-c 
 
 r>. ac/i/i / 
 
 l_ 
 
 %. ^ L-x 
 
 / 
 
 ? "%/ j 
 
 t 4- 
 
 ^ 4/ ^ 
 
 
 ■^mo -^ ?l^^ 
 
 t~ i 
 
 c v^y~r^^>< 
 
 
 § ^>/ ' V 
 
 
 q: '^, f/ 
 
 
 •*- ?';/?/7 <^ / ^' / 
 
 
 ^00 -4- -W ^^/ 
 
 
 :^ ?"/ V^> 
 
 
 § ~" z|7_ ^/t 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ';1 '" i?/r<-^/:± 
 
 ! 
 
 ^ ^r<?/ 
 
 1 1 
 
 •< I'm/) i^l s(^)L 
 
 1 1 
 
 ■^m -^/^ 
 
 
 i ^ Zl 
 
 
 7 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lU t 
 
 
 
 
 500 It 
 
 
 
 
 JX- 
 
 
 x^ 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 Q £0 40 60 dO 100 110 W 160 ISO iOO i£0 £40 iSi 
 
 Cost of Labor Per Hour 
 Fig. 50. Cost of labor; producer gas electric plants. 
 
 of its operation. Beyond this single competent operator, or super- 
 visor, the assistants need not be specialists except as they become 
 trained to deftly perform the certain specific duties placed upon 
 them. The proverb that " a little learning is a dangerous thing " 
 api)Iies aptly to the station oi)erator who has acquired a suffifient 
 insight into the mechanics of his work to incite his constant tinker- 
 ing with the equipment, making minor adjustments and changes 
 here and there, until he inadvertently oversteps his knowledge and 
 causes a mixup which damages or demolishes thousands of df)Mars' 
 worth of machinery. A skillful commander, with a corps of well 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 509 
 
 trained privates, faithful in the performance of the duties consigned 
 to them, forms a much more satisfactory and safe working crew 
 for a power station than a contingent of petty officers each im- 
 pressed with the importance of his position and ability. 
 
 The labor required for a given plant depends upon the " rated " 
 working capacity and the hours of operation per year. The rated 
 or normal capacity of the 4000-h.p. plant under consideration is 
 3,200 e.h.p. Figures 49. 50 and 51 show the number of men required 
 per shift, and the average wages per shift per hour for steam, gas 
 
 4500 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of Men Peouired Perdhift 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ; 
 
 
 , 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 i/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .>_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 1 
 
 : 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . / 
 
 . ,-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \J500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ph 
 
 -^ 
 
 % 
 w 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ki 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^:}ooo 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Is 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 f? 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^y 
 V 
 
 Sf 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 '!■ 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >« 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ] 
 
 4 
 
 k \ \ \ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "i'L- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 j:l^.^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 '-y 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c^' 
 
 \ F^ 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^7 
 
 
 #. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 haoo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 1/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 "/ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 
 
 1 ]a 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ' } 
 
 
 
 Jt; 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .6 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 i> 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 ZQ .40 60 dO ,00 l£0 140 i60 160 iOO iiO £40 m 
 
 C05t of Labor Per Hour 
 Fig. 51. Cost of labor; oil electric plants. 
 
 and oil electric power plants. These diagrams do not include the 
 repair crew, which may or may not compri.se part of the station 
 organization depending on whether or not the plant is co-related 
 to some industry, or is an isolated proposition. From. Fig. 4 9 the 
 cost for labor per eh.p.-hr. in a steam electric plant of 3.200-h.p 
 working capacity is found by locating on the left margin 3,200 
 h.p.. and following this line horizontally to the right to the inter- 
 section of the curve marked " Wages per hour for whole plant " 
 and reading from the vertical at this intersection, on the lower 
 
510 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 margin the amount, which is $2.02. Then the cost per year for 
 labor will be in Case I — 3,000 hrs. X $2.02 -. $6,060 ; Case II — 
 6,570 hrs. X $2.02 - $13,271, and Case 111 — 8,760 hrs. X $2.02 ^ 
 $17,695. 
 
 The wages for gas and oil plant operation are similarly determined 
 from Figs. 50 and 51, and are as follows: For gas, Case 1 — 3,000 
 X $1.41 ::^ $4,230; Case II — 6,420 X $1.41 = $9,264, and Case 111 
 — 8J60 X $1.41 = $12,352, and for oil, Case I — 3,000 X $1.12 = 
 $3,360; Ca.se II — 6,570 X $1.12 =; $7,358, and Case III — 8,760 X 
 $1.12 = $9,811. 
 
 When the oil engine is constructed in larger units than the pres- 
 ent standard, the operating labor cost will be reduced. 
 
 Depreciation, Repairs and Improvements. There is a wide di- 
 vergence of opinion as to the method of computing or allowing for 
 depreciation in connection with power plants, and, in fact, as to the 
 true meaning of the term " depreciation." Its literal definition is 
 " the act of lessening the worth of " ; hence all factors which lessen 
 the value of a plant mu.st be taken into consideration, including 
 wear, inadequacy, age and obsolescence. It is claimed by many 
 managers that the repairs and improvements made in the ordinary 
 course of operation cover all that it is necessary to allow for de- 
 preciation, reasoning on the theory that if a plant is kept in prime 
 physical condition it appreciates. This logic may at first sound 
 reasonable and it is practically true .so far as the immediate physical 
 condition is concerned, but in time if this policy was pursued to 
 its ultimate limit, it will be found that repairs will not longer keep 
 the equipment in working order and renewals become imperative, 
 hence age occasions an expenditure which is chargeable to the past 
 operation. 
 
 Should the growth of a power service be rapid, the demands upon 
 the equipment and buildings may soon exceed their capacity, then 
 the value Of a plant in perfect condition may be suddenly reduced, 
 due to its inadequacy, and its compulsory abandonment incurs an 
 expense which is chargeable to past operation. 
 
 If improvements in apparatus are devised which make the equip- 
 ment of a plant inefficient when comr)ared with the more recent 
 developments, economy demands that the inferior outfit should be 
 sui)i)lanted, and the discarding of apparatus mechanically in excel- 
 lent preservation, occasions a depreciation in its value, due to 
 obsoie.scence which is chargeable only to past operation. 
 
 A depreciation allowance does not mean expenditure, but the 
 setting aside of certain sums in anticipation of future losses from 
 any or all of the above causes, thus making the project self-sus- 
 taining from its inception. 
 
 There is no definite basis or established standard for determining 
 the amount of depreciation to be allowed per annum for the several 
 component parts of a power plant, this condition is largely due to 
 the contradictory decisions that have been rendered by the courts 
 in relation to this subject, combined with the entirely different 
 view-points which must be assumed when placing the depreciation 
 
STEAM POWER 511 
 
 on a projected plant on a "going" proposition. In the first instance 
 it becorneK necessary to assume a reasonable period of normal life, 
 and to distribute the depreciation reservations in some equitable 
 manner over this peiiod, so that at the end of the predetermined 
 lime there will be available a sum sufficient to replace the property. 
 In the case of a " going " proposition the theoretical de])reciation 
 as previously outlined cannot be justly ajjplied, for a plant may have 
 nearly reached its theoretical limit of life yet still be in such ex- 
 cellent physical condition that it fully meets the requirements of 
 the imposed service, and to deduct from its cost the theoretical de- 
 preciation would make its present worth only the scrap value of 
 the equipment, an appraisal which the actual conditions controverts. 
 
 For buildings of a permanent character from 1 to 1.5% of the 
 cost per annum has been found to be a sufficient allowance for 
 depreciation ; for steam engines and turbines from 3 to 6% ; for 
 electric generators, from 3 to 7% ; for boilers, from 5 to 10% , for 
 steam pumps, from 5 to 7%; for switchboards, from 3 to 5%; for 
 condensers, from 4 to 10%; for gas producers, from 3 to 8%; for 
 gas and oil engines, from 4 to 1%, and for machinery foundations, 
 the same as that allowed for the apparatus which they support. 
 
 The average depreciation per annum for a comi)lete steam electric 
 power plant will be about 4% of its total cost for a gas electric 
 plant, 5%, and for an oil electric plant 5.5%; provided the property 
 is kept in good physical condition by proper maintenance and 
 rei^airs. 
 
 On the basis of the above percentages, the annual depreciation 
 for the hypothetical plants cited, will be as follows : for steam, 
 $224,000 X 0.04 - $8,960 ; for gas, $280,000 X 0.05 - $14,000, and for 
 oil, $400,000 X 0.055 = $22,000. 
 
 The hours of operation have but slight bearing on the deprecia- 
 tion of equipment, for if kept in proper repair, continuous operation 
 does not cause much greater depreciation than that occasioned by 
 intermittent service, in fact, power equipment operating for only 
 a portion of the time is subjected to temperature strains that are 
 more conducive to its destruction than the mechanical wear that is 
 imposed upon it by continuous operation ; but the cost of main- 
 tenance, repairs and supplies varies proportionally with the " capa- 
 city " factor. 
 
 The repairs and supplies, including labor and materials, for steam 
 plants having from 80 to 100% "capacity" factor, will be about 
 2% of the first cost; for from 50 to 8^% cap factor, 1.75% of cost, 
 and for from 20 to 50% cap. factor, 15% of cost; and for oil and 
 gas plants, with 80 to 100% cap. factor, 2 5%, from 50 to 80% cap. 
 factor, 2%, and from 20 to 50% cap. factor, 1.75%. 
 
 Then for the hypothetical plants, the annual repairs and supply 
 cost will be : 
 
 Case I — 
 
 Steam $224,000X0 015 =$3,360 
 
 Gas 280,000X0.0175= 4,900 
 
 Oil 400,000X0.0175= 7,000 
 
512 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Case II — 
 
 Steam $224,000 X 0.0175 = $3,920 
 
 Gas 280,000X0.02 =r 5,600 
 
 Oil 400,000X0.02 = 8,000 
 
 Case III — 
 
 Steam $224,000X0.02 =$4,480 
 
 Gas 280,000X0.025 = 7,000 
 
 Oil 400,000X0.025 r= 10,000 
 
 Taxes, Insurance and Interest. The taxation charges depend en- 
 tirely upon local conditions, but it is safe to assume that the valua- 
 tion placed upon power plant property will not exceed 60% of its 
 first cost, or the replacement cost, and that a fair average rate of 
 taxation in Maine will be 2%. Insurance rates also depend upon 
 local conditions, but 0.5% on 60% of the property cost is about a 
 fair average allowance. Estimating on 2.5% of 60% of the cost for 
 the plants under discussion, the annual charges for taxes and 
 insurance will be as follows : 
 
 Steam 0.60 X $224,000 X 0.025 - $3,360 
 
 Gas 0.60 X 280,000X0 025= 4,200 
 
 Oil 0.60 X 400,000X0.025= 6,000 
 
 The interest charges are readily obtained for an independent power 
 plant depending for its solvency on an income from the sale of 
 power, as the capitalization and the accounting are not involved 
 with other branches of industry ; but a power plant built and oper- 
 ated in conjunction wath a mill offers a more difficult problem, as 
 the separation of accounts will usually demand some abstruse dis- 
 bursements of costs which may either favor or handicap its show- 
 ing. The thoughtful business man will concede that the power 
 plant should pay for itself, and that the power to adopt will be 
 that which yields a maximum return on the total investment for 
 the entire mill property. 
 
 A shoe manufacturer would not entertain a proposition for the 
 preparation of his own leather if by so doing he reduced the net 
 per cent, of profit on the whole plant investment, even though the 
 annual expenditure for leather was materially reduced, and the 
 same process of reasoning should be applied to the generation of 
 power. To illustrate this point more clearly ; we will take the 
 specific case of an industry which has a total capitalization of 
 $500,000 and yields a net profit of 15% on the investment, when 
 run with purchased power. By making an additional investment 
 of $100,000 the power can be produced on the mill premises for a 
 cost sufficiently less than that paid for the purchased power to 
 yield a return of 6% on the power plant investment. The total 
 capitalization for the industry now becomes $600,000 and the net 
 profit ($500,000 X 0.15) -f- ($100,000 XO. 06) = $81,000, or a return 
 on the total investment of 13.5 per cent., and the relative earning 
 power of the property has been reduced (15 — 13.5 -r- 15) X 100 = 
 1 0%. 
 
 It follows that while it is justifiable to use a uniform rate of 
 
STEAM POWER 513 
 
 interest when comparing tlie cost for several different classes of 
 power, in adopting a power to be used in connection with any 
 industry-, it is important that it be selected on the basis of its 
 intrinsic value to the entire project, and not on its relative power 
 value. 
 
 For the purposes of comparison, we have assumed an interest of 
 5% on the cost of the projects, as follows : 
 
 Steam $224,000.00 X 0.05 - $11,200.00 
 
 Gas 280.000.00x0.05-- 14.000.00 
 
 Oil 400,000.00 X 0.05 - 20,000.00 
 
 Water, Land Rental and General Expenses. In the estimates for 
 cost, no allowance has been made for water charges, land rental 
 or general expense. These items will vary for each locality and 
 are readily ascertained, with the exception of general expenses 
 which will be regulated by the policy of the managers. Tf large 
 quantities of fuel and supplies are con.^tantly maintained, the inter- 
 est on the money thus invested should be charged to the plant 
 operation ; and if a large volume of coal is stored for a considerable 
 period, a deterioration of about 5% for each 6 months in storage 
 should be added to the power cost ; as should also be the costs for 
 clerical work devoted to the ordering and disbursing of supplies and 
 materials, and employed in compiling the records of the plant 
 operation. 
 
 In most sections of Maine, water for boiler feed, condensing and 
 cooling purposes can be secured without other cost than that re- 
 quired to provide proper facilities for delivering it to the desired 
 point of use. If the water must be purchased, or if it becomes an 
 item of considerable expense, provision should be made for its 
 economical utilization, and cooling towers, or pools, should be in- 
 stalled to conserve the condensing water for steam plants and the 
 cooling water for gas plants. The use of surface condensers will 
 permit the return of all the condensed steam to the boiler with the 
 exception of about 5% which will be lost mechanically while pass- 
 ing through the system. Provision should be made for supplying 
 the condensers with about 50 times the amount of water required 
 for steam, and for supplying gas plants about 200 lbs. of water per 
 e.h.p.-hr. 
 
 The land rental is not ordinarily an important factor in local 
 power costs except in congested cities where real estate is high ; 
 and the proper amount to be added for this item is readily obtained 
 for any specific case. 
 
 Conclusions. Table XLI gives a resume and summation of the 
 figures relating to the hypothetical plants, which are distributed 
 through the preceding text, and it shows the lowest costs that can 
 be realized when generating power in plants of the several types 
 outlined, and operating under the most favorable conditions. The 
 only items that can be reduced are the fuel charges. The writer 
 wishes to place particular emphasis on the foregoing .statement and 
 to impress upon the readers' attention the fact that the final figures, 
 under items Nos. 35 and 36, for the cost per h.p. and kw.-hr., are 
 
514 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 so 
 
 d O 
 O 
 
 ooo 
 
 O CO 00 
 
 ooo 
 
 050 00 
 
 ooo 
 
 O O 00 
 CO 00 
 
 ooo -; 
 Oc-00 JCe 
 
 O OOO -< 
 
 O O t- 00 ^ < 
 
 ■tIh" Co"«0 ^ 
 
 oo<=> 
 
 Ot-00 
 <MUO 
 
 OOO 
 
 oooo 
 
 (M O 
 
 ooo 
 oooo 
 c^ o 
 
 ooo 
 oooo 
 
 (MO 
 
 eoiooo 
 
 OU3(M 
 
 ■^oo 
 
 oo 
 
 o .^ 
 
 t-o&^ 
 
 oe-oo 
 
 u5 1- i« m 
 
 ^tA ai : : : : : :5S 
 
 I 
 
 O '-Lcr. O 
 OO CC C/5 ' 
 
 l-HO 
 
 O—.-r 
 
 t-0€«- 
 
 e«-oo 
 
 OlOW lO 
 
 t-t-o CO 
 ^.-=5 oo- 
 oo '^ 
 
 :S rn" 
 
 
 o'—.cio 
 
 0&^€«- 
 tHO 
 
 o u5tr^ la If! 
 
 5 ;:i- S • ■• • • • ■- 
 
 ^« ^ '^ o 
 
 ■oo 
 oo 
 
 ooo 
 ooco 
 
 . css : 
 
 <D .^ 
 
 ft . ce 
 
 :^' 
 
 PtS-i 
 
 
 
 +- "Ol 
 
 
 •c -f^ •:::: • 
 
 JO • o . o • 
 
 ^ ^O bJD.^ .G • 
 
 ^ci'?:.^^'i 
 
 c£c« 
 
 03 O C 
 rt O 
 
 oo 
 
 ™< ^ <i' — ^ O 
 
 ^ O ^ K QJ 3 . c 
 
 OCiHCi.y H MJ 
 
 O) r- 
 
 
 t-, 
 
 •5° 
 
 
 
 • t-' !^ d * 
 :&p- r I 
 
 r, t. <l^ . 
 
 
 ^ .i;] -,c;] 
 
 3 
 wo 
 
 
 rt c o 
 
 eco 
 
 00-^"^ ?oc- 
 
 C^ ■* lO fO t- 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 515 
 
 
 IM 
 
 iH 
 
 :^§ 
 
 
 7—1 
 
 rH 
 
 ^ 
 
 rH 
 
 00 
 
 U30 
 
 u 
 
 60- 
 
 CD 
 
 cq" 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 ^1 ^■ 
 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 (M O 
 
 ^ =; 
 
 oo 
 
 coo 
 
 '^t* « ,H 
 
 e^ ^. 
 
 o «^ 
 
 ri^O 
 
 ino 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 1) n< • 
 
 O 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 MO 
 
 o ^' '^.' 
 
 U30 
 
 ^" ^. 
 
 rH- "=1 
 
 OO 
 
 la 
 
 iM 
 
 coo 
 
 C3 
 
 t- 
 
 co^cg 
 
 (M 
 
 in 
 
 Co'tH 
 
 ■rJH 
 
 n 
 
 €«-T-: 
 
 1—1 
 
 &9- 
 
 eo- 
 
 &0- 
 
 
 0'=' 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 0==" 
 
 ^ 
 
 iH 
 
 ?^- 
 
 ^ 
 
 lii 
 
 G«3- . 
 
 &9- . 
 
 i^i 
 
 r-i '=^. 
 
 <?q I 
 
 
 rH ^ 
 
 : 
 
 "^ 
 
 : \mt 
 
 • a 
 
 '. a 
 
 II 
 
 00 
 
 :2 0=2 
 
 2-^ 
 
 is 
 
 :^ 
 
 [tern 
 f labor 
 f labor 
 No. 25 
 
 ^5 
 
 CD. 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 =' 
 
 :°x 
 
 rcer 
 alio 
 tion 
 nua 
 rcen 
 alio 
 
 SI 
 
 >'S 
 
 ■^MCO 
 
 c3 fl 
 
 ax 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 C <U 
 
 C 
 
 03 
 
 - OO 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^JOh 
 
 < 
 
 e 
 
 S : 
 
 T— 1 ^^ U^I ,*, (_.) 
 
 rH CO €/S- . • 
 
 ^ 
 
 €/=h €«- 
 
 m 
 
 :S+ :p :p :^ : 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^5^ .^ .^ -^ : 
 
 O) 
 
 ifl-tic^j • . s . 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 d 
 
 cost a 
 .1 expe; 
 3S. 24 ■ 
 -31 + 
 . h.p.-h 
 
 2 
 
 . h.p.-h 
 
 5 . . . , 
 ^-hr., i 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 |a3g+a.|.a.,.^-^ 
 
 l^ii.tic<i tKco 'Jieii VIA. 
 -*-■- 000 
 
 SS 
 
 o o u 
 
516 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 minimum, and that the average cost for power as produced by 
 plants running- in connection with an industry will be about 20% 
 higher than those recorded in the tabulation. 
 
 As intimated in the introductory remarks, this paper is prepared 
 with the object in view of aiding in the education of the public in 
 regard to the real value of Maine's water-powers, at the same time 
 we hope its perusal will dispel any illusions that may exist as to 
 the possibility' of generating steam power in Maine for $15 or $16 
 per h.p.-yr. of 3,000 hrs., a falsity which we know has been occa- 
 sionally credulously accepted ; but such an accomplishment is im- 
 possible unless a portion of the power expenditure is eliminated by 
 disbursing it with process accounts ; a procedure justified only when 
 steam is required for process, or heating purposes. 
 
 It is more than probable that the necessity of insuring continuous 
 operation will compel the installation of reserve equipment in plants 
 working under the conditions outlined for Cases II and III, al- 
 though no allowance has been made for this contingency in the 
 plants cited. The need for surplus apparatus is more urgent (be- 
 coming almost imperative if power interruptions are to be avoided) 
 in gas and oil plants, on account of the small overload capacity of 
 the engines ; when compared with the steam engine or turbine that 
 can carry as high as 50% overload in an emergency by sacrificing 
 efficiency. To meet the requirements by installing surplus apparatus 
 will add materially to the cost per h.p.-hr., as items Nos. 27 to 33 
 inclusive will be increased. 
 
 Fully appreciating all of the foregoing facts, the author deemed 
 it advisable to adhere to the simple cases adopted rather than enter 
 into the details of the more involved problem with the attendant 
 discussion ; because the examples given quite clearly illustrate the 
 application of the diagrams, with less opportunity for confusion in 
 demonstrating their use than would exist if the problems were more 
 complex. 
 
 Obviously the data presented cannot be applied indiscriminately, 
 for it is not to be expected that any stereotyped code of rules can 
 be made which will eliminate the need of applying discerning judg- 
 ment ; or that the information given will obviate the necessity and 
 advisability of obtaining the counsel of an expert when a proposi- 
 tion of importance is under consideration. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Power by an Oil Engine and a Steam Engine 
 in Small Units. E. H. Lockwood and F. P. Pfleghar gave the fol- 
 lowing notes at the meeting of the A. S. M. E., November, 1912. 
 
 The steam engine was a 100-h.p. horizontal Putnam with a Fitz- 
 gibbons boiler of the same rated boiler h.p. The oil engine was a 
 De La Vergne, horizontal, single-acting, center crank, 4-stroke cycle ; 
 jacket, water-cooled ; fuel, petroleum fuel oil ; ignition, hot chamber, 
 on the Hornsby-Akroyd system ; cylinder dimensions, diam. 27 ins., 
 stroke 33 ins., rated h.p. 125, used to drive a direct-connected 220- 
 volt generator, the current being used for light and power, and the 
 average output being about 90 h.p. The engine was carefully tested 
 for output and fuel consumption and found quite economical. The 
 actual cost of operation of the oil engine follows : 
 
STEAM POWER 517 
 
 Fuel oil, 14 gal. per day $3.78 
 
 Labor, half-time of one man 1.50 
 
 Oil, waste, water, repairs, per day l.U(j 
 
 Total cost per day $6.L'8 
 
 On a basis of 300 days per year, the above amounts to $20.93 
 per h.p. per yr. 
 
 The fixed charges for this engine were as follows: 
 
 Cost of engine and generator, 10% of $6000 $600 
 
 Cost of heating boiler. 107o of $1000 100 
 
 Insurance, taxes, etc., per yr 250 
 
 Fixed charges per yr. per h.p $10.55 
 
 Combining these two costs, the total cost ijer h p. ]jer yr., in- 
 cluding operation and fixed charges, was $30.48. 
 
 Apparently the 10% given in the preceding table is intended to 
 cover interest and depreciation, Avhich is the same basis assumed 
 for the steam engine. 
 
 In contrast with the preceding, the estimated cost of operating 
 the steam engine was as follows : 
 
 Fuel per day, 2^4 tons $ 8 21 
 
 Labor, time of one man 3.00 
 
 Oil, waste, etc., per day 50 
 
 Total per day $11.71 
 
 On a basis of 300 days, and divided by 90 h.p., the above cost 
 amounts to $39.04 per h.p. per yr. 
 
 The fixed charges for this engine were as follows : 
 
 Cost of steam engine and generator, 10%. . $350 
 
 Cost of boiler, 107o ■ -• ■ 200 
 
 Repairs, insurance, and taxes 250 
 
 Total fixed charges per yr $800 
 
 Fixed charges per yr. per h.p $8.88 
 
 The two costs combined giving a total of $47.92 per h.p. per yr. 
 for operation and fixed chaiges. 
 
 This showing is favoiable to the oil engine, if no account is taken 
 of the useful by-product of exhaust steam which was utilized for 7 
 months of the year when the factory was heated. The allowance 
 that was made for this steam was arrived at by deducting the cost 
 of coal required for heating, which was estimated as 1 ton per day 
 for 7 months, or $766. With this correction the total cost of the 
 steam engine was reduced to $39.38 per h.p. per yr. as compared 
 to $30.48 for the oil engine, both of these being on the basis of 
 1 h.p. per day of 10 hrs., 300 days per yr. 
 
 In the discussion attention was called to the fact that the bad 
 features of the oil engine are necessity for heating it for 20 minutes 
 or so before it starts, the expense of frequent renewals of caps, 
 irregular work of the generator when directly connected to the 
 shafts and higher expenses for keeping up the engine than in the 
 
618 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 case of the steiim engine. The oil engine generally gives more 
 trouble and is less economical in winter. 
 
 Cost of Power with Small Unit. Engineering and Contracting, 
 April 3, iyi2. 
 
 Cost at J,:j h.p. Producer Plant. The plant is installed in a wood- 
 working shop of the Liampsen Lumber Co., New Haven, (.'onn., and 
 the records were i)resented by Albert W. llonywell, Jr. The engine 
 is rated at 45 h.p. at 160 rev. per min. and is of the 4-cycle hit-and- 
 miss type, with poppet valves and jumi)-spark ignition. The pro- 
 ducer is of the ordinary suction type, with stationary grates, and 
 the quantity of gas delivered to the engine is varied by a hand- 
 adjusted throttle valve in the delivery pipe. The plant is in opera- 
 tion 9 hrs. a day, the engine kept running noon hour, and the load 
 variable. 
 
 The average coal consumption is approximately 467 lbs. of pea 
 anthracite per day, or 46.7 lbs. per hr. Assuming an average load 
 factor for the shop of approximately 407c/, this is equivalent to 2.5 
 lbs. of coal per h.p.-hr. The cost of coal delivered is $4.50 per ton, 
 which would give an average cost per b.h.p. per hr. of 0.56 cts. No 
 account is taken of the cost of water, as the only cost is that of 
 pumping. 
 
 The first cost of the plant, including producer, engine, blower 
 and motor to drive same, was, in round figures, $3,500. The operat- 
 ing expenses per day were found to be: 
 
 Coal. 467 lb at $4.50 per ton $1.05 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 Repairs and depreciation 1.16 
 
 interest and taxes 0.70 
 
 Oil and waste 0.14 
 
 Total $5.55 
 
 The ashes from the producer were, however, screened, and coal 
 secured in this manner may be estimated at $2 per ton, which re- 
 duces the real operating expenses to $5.08 per day. 
 
 Comparative Figures for 500 h.p. Oil Burning Steam Plant Con- 
 verted to a Diesel Engine Drive. Electrical World, May 25, 1912. 
 Table XLII gives the figures from the record of a month's operation 
 in liUO and one in 1911 of a plant in the Southwest. The first 
 column is for all-steam operation, the second for all-Diesel operation. 
 
 TABLE XLII 
 
 Steam Diesel 
 
 Kw.-hr. produced 38,402 63,780 
 
 Kw.-hr. per lb. fuel oil 0.205 1.280 
 
 Kw.-hr. per gal. fuel 1.54 9.49 
 
 Total manufacturing cost $884.86 $6 16.08 
 
 Operating (.-oyt ». 8 14.24 530.69 
 
 Maintenance co.st 40.62 1 1 5.39 
 
 Power i)lant wages 210.00 251.70 
 
 Fuel for power 540.00 179.34 
 
 Water for power 65.00 32.50 
 
 Miscellaneous operating expense 16.95 25.12 
 
STEAM POWER 519 
 
 Maintenance : 
 
 Boilers $60.85 
 
 Engines , 10.65 $95.67 
 
 Electric plant 8.85 10.97 
 
 Miscellaneous 12.75 8.75 
 
 Buildings 7.25 
 
 Comparative Cost of Electricity Generated by Gas and Steam 
 
 Engines. Very interesting data comparing the cost of generating 
 electricity at a small isolated plant near Boston are contained in the 
 October, 1910, issue of The Isolated Plant, from which we have 
 abstracted the following : 
 
 The generating equipment is run in conjunction with the steam 
 heating plant in an establishment combining the features of a hotel 
 and boarding house. Due to the necessity of enlarging the plant 
 and replacing a worn-out unit and to the fact that the economy 
 of gas engine generating sets had been presented in an extremely 
 favorable manner, this type of equipment was installed. 
 
 The installation consisted of: 
 
 1 85-h.p. gas engine, 262 rev. per min. direct connected to 50-kw. 
 
 generator. 
 1 40-h.p. gas engine, 300 rev. per min. direct connected to 25-kw. 
 
 generator. 
 5 panel switchboard and wired with duplicate balancer sets for 125 
 
 volt lighting, and cost $8,100. 
 
 With gas at 60 cts. per thousand cu. ft., the cost of fuel for the 
 gas engine sets amounted to about $350 per month, making the 
 total cost for fuel of steam and electric plant about $175 a month 
 more than for the years 1904, '05 and '06, when the entire plant 
 had been operated with steam. 
 
 The boilers used were 2 125-h.p. horizontal tubular, which were 
 retained from the first installation. 
 
 The fact that operating costs outside of fuel were also increased, 
 making a total increase in cost of about $2,000 per yr., convinced 
 the management that in this case, steam operation was decidedly 
 more economical, and the following equipment was installed : 
 
 1 125-h.p. engine, 275 rev. per min. direct connected to 75-kw. gen- 
 erator. 
 
 1 40-h.]). engine, 300 rev. per min. direct connected to 25-kw. gen- 
 
 erator. 
 5 -panel switchboard. 
 
 2 balancer sets. 
 
 2 watt hour meters. 300 and 200 amp. 
 
 All installed and wired complete for $5,100. 
 
 The exhaust steam from the engines is utilized in heating during 
 the winter; in summer after passing through the feed water heater, 
 it is exhausted directly to atmosphere. 
 
 Tables XLTII and XLIV show the comparative costs of operating 
 the 2 systems : 
 
 Labor is made up* of .5 the time of the chief engineer and full 
 time for second and third assistant engineers. 
 
520 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XL.III. ANNUAL COSTS, GAS ENGINE PLANT 
 
 Annual Per kw.- 
 
 cost % hr. ct. 
 
 Labor ?2,230 30.10 1.344 
 
 Gas at 60 ct. per M 3,379 45.61 2.037 
 
 Oil 255 3.14 0.154 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 75 1.01 0.045 
 
 Electrodes 180 2.43 0.045 
 
 Repairs 200 2.70 0.120 
 
 Fixed charges (replacement, 5%, $405 ; in- 
 terest, 5%, $405) 810 10.93 0.488 
 
 Insurance (liability) 30 0.40 0.018 
 
 Taxes 25 0.34 0.015 
 
 Overhead 225 3.04 0.136 
 
 Totals $7,409 100.00 4.465 
 
 TABLE XLIV. ANNUAL COST STEAM ENGINE PLANT 
 
 Annual Per kw.- 
 
 cost % hr. ct. 
 
 Labor $1,640 48.87 0.988 
 
 Coal 591 17.61 0.357 
 
 Water 120 3.58 0.072 
 
 Oil 75 2.23 0.045 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies -. 40 1.19 0.024 
 
 Repairs 125 3.72 0.075 
 
 Fixed charges (replacement, 5%, $255; in- 
 
 teret^t, 57c, $255) 510 15.20 0.307 
 
 Insurance (liability) 30 0.89 0.018 
 
 Taxes 25 0.75 0.015 
 
 Overhead 200 5.96 0.121 
 
 Totals $3,356 100.00 2.022 
 
 TABLE XLV. KW.-HR. COSTS 
 
 Gas Steam 
 
 ct. ct. 
 
 Labor 1.314 0.988 
 
 Fuel 2.037 0.357 
 
 Incidentals 0.427 0.141 
 
 Charges, etc 0.657 0.536 
 
 Total 4.465 2.022 
 
 Use of coal in each case may be shown as follows : 
 Actual coal used, January to June inclusive. 1909, when 
 
 running with gas engines 695 tons 
 
 Annual use, 695 -^ .53, heating, etc 1,311 tons 
 
 6 months' u.«:e of coal with steam engine in 1910 769 tons 
 
 Annual use, all purposes 1,451 tons 
 
 Deduct power use 140 tons 
 
 1,311 tons 
 
 TABLE XLVL TOTALS. HEATING AND POWER PLANT 
 
 Electric light and power, 165.923 kw.-^r $ 7.409 $3,356 
 
 Additional fuel, 1,311 tons at $4.25 5,572 5,572 
 
 Add gas fuel 55 
 
 $12,981 $8,983 
 
STEAM POWER 521 
 
 Electrodes. The make and bieak method of sparking is used on 
 the engines, and the electrodes proved rather an expensive item. 
 
 Overhead is a proportionate charge for management and ofBce 
 expense. 
 
 Labor is made up of J^ the time of the chief engineer, .5 the time 
 of first assistant engineer and full time of the second assistant 
 engineer; after stopping the gas engines the third assistant engineer 
 was no longer needed. 
 
 Coal. The maximum quantity has been used, 140 tons at the 
 prevailing price of $4 22. No reduction has been made for gieater 
 efficiency of o])eration with 2 engines, although all fixed charges 
 have been based on the investment required for 2 engines. 
 
 Water, Full chnrge for the steam exhausted would be about 
 $200. but as the exhaust is entirely used in winter for heating and 
 is put through the feed water heater in the summer, this cost has 
 been reduced 40%. Remarks under table on "charges" and "over- 
 head " apply in this case also. 
 
 The kw.-hr. costs, grouped for comparison, are shown in Table 
 XLV. 
 
 Costs of a Gas Engine and of a Combined Steam Plant. The fol- 
 lowing is abstracted from an article by T. M. Chance in the 
 Engineering Record, Sept. 4, 1909. In the many excellent articles 
 upon the relative financial economy of steam and gas-driven sta- 
 tions which have appeared in the technical press of the last few 
 years the issues have been variously discussed and reliable data 
 furnished from which somewhat definite conclusions may be drawn 
 as to which of the two is preferable for any particular service. At 
 or near full load the gas engine so far has shown a decided economic 
 superiority and even in the lower ranges of load-factor is an im- 
 portant rival of the engine or turbine-driven steam plant ; but the 
 first cost of a gas engine, with its producer, scrubbers, and aux- 
 iliaries, is high, and where cheap anthracite or coke cannot be had, 
 the operation of the producer on soft coal requires more intelligent 
 attendance and skill than the steam boiler. 
 
 If a plant can be installed that will have the small first cost 
 and low fixed charges of the steam plant and at the same time 
 approach the gas engine in low operating costs, without, however, 
 the necessity of a troublesome bituminous producer, it will go far 
 toward a satisfactory solution of the power problem. In the past 
 two years such a solution has been found in the adoption of the 
 low-pressure turbine, utilizing the exhaust of high economy Corliss 
 steam engines. 
 
 P^'or the purpose of comparing the economy of this type of power 
 plant with that of the gas engine, the total cost of operating and 
 maintaining, under like conditions, a 1000-kw. plant of each type 
 will be considered. It must be borne in mind, however, that the 
 conclusions so reached apply with even greater force to larger 
 sized stations, as the first cost per kw. of the combined steam plant 
 decreases more rapidly as the power per unit increases than does 
 that of the gas plant. We will assume the locality to be one in 
 which good steam coal can be bought for $1 to $4 a ton, condensing 
 
522 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 water to be plentiful and at a fair mean temperature, and labor 
 to be average in price. Both plants are to run 24 hrs. a day, 365 
 days in the year, and are to carry at least 20% load-factor. Each 
 plant will be assumed to have a reserve unit of .5 the total capacity 
 of the plant. It will be understood that the term " load-factor " 
 will here be used to mean the fraction (100% X total kws. per 24 
 hrs. )-=- rated kws., assuming- continuous operation of the plant 
 throughout the 24 hrs. Under these conditions a low load-factor 
 denotes a high fuel consumption. 
 
 The gas-driven plant requires 3 tandem, 4-cycle, double-acting 
 500-kw. units, with generators, producers, and auxiliaries. In the 
 case of the steam plant, we can assume the exhaust turbine to be 
 capable of delivering 80% of the rating of the non-condensing engine 
 serving it. Hence, a 550-kw. compound Corliss engine and gen- 
 erator delivering all of its exhaust steam to a low-pressure turbo- 
 generator of 450-kw. capacity meets the requirements of the 1000- 
 kw. output. The turbine may be a balanced double-flow reaction 
 machine, or, as the exhaust areas are comparatively small for this 
 sized unit, it may be built single-flow and fitted with balancing 
 pistons. The mixed-flow impulse type, being provided with high- 
 pressure nozzles for admitting boiler steam when overloaded, is 
 also well fitted for this class of work. The turbine may serve a 
 separate circuit, in which case a governor and live steam connec- 
 tion with the boiler are required, or it may run in electrical unison 
 with the engine, obviating the necessity for independent govern- 
 ing mechanism. At times of low load the engine can be connected 
 directly to the condenser and the turbine cut out if both engine 
 and turbine are on the same circuit, or if the circuit that the 
 turbine serves does not require current at such times. A reserve 
 duplicate Corliss unit is an ample safeguard against shut-downs, as 
 in case of injury to the turbine the 2 engine units can carry the 
 load, or, if either engine is out of commission, the other may be run 
 in conjunction with the turbine. 
 
 The producer equipment of the gas plant w^ill consist of 3 indi- 
 vidual units, fitted with suitable scrubbers, superheaters, tar-ex- 
 tractors, and such auxiliaries, and may be either of the up or down- 
 draft type. No attempt has been made to consider a by-product 
 recovery plant of the Mond type, as the total amount of coal 
 burned at full load would be less than 21 tons per day, a tonnage 
 entirely too small for economic operation by the Mond system. 
 
 The maximum boiler capacity of the steam plant will be that 
 required when the turbine and condenser are shut down and both 
 engines operated non-condensing. Assuming a maximum water rate 
 of 29 lbs. per kw.-hr. under these conditions, the plant output of 
 1000 kw^s. will require 29,000 lbs. of steam per hr. of 900 b.h.p. As 
 maximum economy is not a necessity when the plant is run by the 
 engines only, 3 225-h.p. units, driven \^ above rating, will supply 
 the required amount of steam. Hence, allowing one standby unit, 
 the boiler equipment of the steam plant may consist of 4 225-h.p. 
 horizontal front-fired water-tube units, with economizers, stokers, 
 internal superheaters, feed pumps, and the usual equipment. The 
 
STEAM POWER 523 
 
 advisability of superheat in a plant of this size may be questioned, 
 but as it serves to deliver dry steam to the turbine and obviates 
 the necessity of steam separators in the exhaust line of the engines, 
 its use is perfectly rational and the efficiency of the plant will be 
 improved by its employment. A centrifugal jet condenser with 
 rotative dry-air pump or a barometric tube may be employed to 
 produce the necessary turbine vacuum of 28 ins., either of these 
 types of condenser being efficient and moderate in price. 
 
 The 2 Corliss compound engines, 3 -phase generators, exciters, 
 switchboard, boilers and auxiliaries will cost about $88,000, or $80 
 per kw. The turbo-generator, with its condenser and auxiliaries, 
 will cost about $22,500, or $50 per kw., making the total cost of 
 the steam plant machinery $110,500. The cost of the 3 4-cycle gas 
 engines with 3-phase generators, exciters, switchboard, air starting 
 apparatus and gas generating plant will amount to about $142,500, 
 or $95 per kw. The cost of buildings or foundations is not included 
 in either of these estimates. 
 
 A day engineer at $4 and a night engineer at $3, with two helpers 
 at $2 and two firemen at $2, are required for either plant, making 
 the total labor expense for the 24 hrs. $15. Oil, waste and supplies 
 have been charged at $5 in each plant. 
 
 TABLE XLVII. COSTS AND INTEREST OF STEAM AND GAS 
 PLANTS 
 
 Steam plant Gas plant 
 
 Two 55-kw. engine units with generators, 
 boilers and all steam and electric auxil- 
 iaries $88,000.00 
 
 One 450-kw. exhaust turbine with gener- 
 ator, condenser and other auxiliaries.. 22,500.00 
 
 Three 500-kw. engine units with generator, 
 producers and all gas and electric aux- 
 iliaries $142,500.00 
 
 Total cost of plant . $110,500.00 $142,500.00 
 
 Interest at 5% 5,525.00 7,125.00 
 
 Depreciation, maintenance and repairs at 
 
 10% 11,050.00 14,250.00 
 
 Attendance of plant at $15 per 24-hr. day 
 
 for yr. of 365 days 5,475.00 5,475.00 
 
 Oil, waste, etc., at $5 per 24-hr. day for yr. 
 
 of 365 days 1,825.00 1,825.00 
 
 Total cost per yr., exclusive of fuel. . . . $23,875.00 $28,675.00 
 " Plant charge," i.e., hourly cost, exclusive 
 
 of fuel $2,725 $3,273 
 
 In Table XLVII intere.st has been computed at 5%, and deprecia- 
 tion, maintenance and repairs charged to both plants at the rate 
 of 10%. This 10% charge includes an 11% charge for depreciation, 
 maintenance and repairs of the engines and boiler plant and a 6 
 per cent, charge for depreciation, maintenance and repairs of the 
 turbine, the latter charge being relatively smaller because no 
 boiler costs are entailed by its use, except when the live steam con- 
 nection is employed in cases of emergency or severe overload. 
 
 It will be seen from Table XLVII that there is a constant hourly 
 charge of $2,725 against the steam plant and of $3,273 against the 
 
524 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 gas plant, whether the load-factor be high or low. This constant 
 cost may be designated as the " plant charge " to differentiate it 
 from the various items of fixed charges and from the total power 
 cost. At low loads there would be a slight decrease in the cost 
 of waste, lubricants, and such supplies, and consequently in the 
 " plant charge," but as this would affect each plant equally it has 
 not been considered. 
 
 To determine the relative cost of fuel per kw.-hr. the two curves 
 in Fig. 52 have been plotted, showing the coal consumption, in- 
 cluding standby losses, of the two plants at different loads. The 
 curve of coal consumption for the steam plant is based upon an 
 actual evaporation in service of 8 lbs. of water per lb. of coal 
 burned, and on an assumption of 165 lbs. initial pressure expanding 
 to 17 lbs. in the engine and to 28-in. vacuum in the turbine, allowing 
 1-lb. pressure drop between the engine and turbine, as recommended 
 by J. R. Bibbins, in his pajier before the Canadian Society of Civil 
 Engineers, Nov. 26, 1908. An engine working through such a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 [i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i: 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 bh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Y- 
 
 h-]^'' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 «, 
 
 r'"^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ij '».> 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 - 
 
 ... 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 4C0.J 
 500.1 
 
 I.M 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.C0 3.60 t.tiO 
 Pouoda o£ Coal yei Kilowaimour. 
 
 Fig. 52. Cost of coal for the plants. 
 
 pressure range may be expected to give good economy and the allow- 
 ance of 1-lb. drop betvy^een engine and turbine obviates the injurious 
 effects upon the engine of a variable back piessure due to the 
 turbine. In plotting the curve of coal consumption for the gas plant, 
 it has been assumed that the load carried is of a violently varying 
 nature, with severe peaks, such as are met with in electric railway 
 work or in rolling mills ; hence 2 units must be kept in use for the 
 greater part of the time. Where the low load-factor is cau.'-ed by 
 a steady light load, with a heavy peak of short duration, the coal 
 consumption shown by this curve can be decreased by running one 
 unit only when the load falls off. In large stations with a number 
 of individual units, light loads would not cause the great increase 
 in fuel per kw.-hr. indicated by these curves, as the load could be 
 divided between a few machines and these driven at full load, so that 
 the loss in economy would be small, being principally due to the 
 banking of the extra, boilers or producers. 
 
 The cost per kw.-hr., exclusive of the fuel charge, may be deter- 
 mined for any particular load-factor by dividing the plant charges 
 $2,725 and $3,273 by the load carried in kws. This quotient of 
 plant charge divided by load, added to the cost of coal per kw.-hr. 
 at the load-factor investigated gives the total expense of generating 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 625 
 
 one kw.-hr., and a curve may be drawn showing- the relation of this 
 total cost to the load-factor. In Fig-. 53 curves have been plotted 
 for the two plants, showing the increase of cost per kw.-hr. with 
 loads ranging from 1000 to 200 kws. The pounds of coal per kw.-hr. 
 used in determining the fuel cost at various loads are those shown 
 by the curves in Fig. 52. Coal is assumed to be "w^orth $3 per ton 
 of 2000 lbs. ; plant charges to be $2,725 and $3,273 an hr. A glance 
 at these two curves shows that with |3 coal the steam plant is the 
 more economical at every stag-e of load above and including 200 
 
 20.0 
 
 17.5 
 
 w 
 
 15.0 
 
 ^ 
 
 12.5 
 
 w 
 
 
 I 
 
 10.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 o 
 
 5 5.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 %. 
 i\\i> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^v 
 
 
 
 
 
 "'^S;?---..; 
 
 ^=:== 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 20 40 60 80 100 
 
 Load Factor. Per Cent 
 
 Increase in cost with different load factors. 
 
 kws., the lowest load considered, and that the difference in cost per 
 kw.-hour increases as the load-factor grows smaller. 
 
 The curves of Fig. 54 illustrate the effect of the price of coal 
 on the cost per kw.-hr., the load-factor being assumed to be con- 
 stant for each pair of curves drawn. These curves are all straight 
 lines and they show that the greatesi: difference in cost exists at 
 the lowest price of coal, the steam plant curve approaching that Of 
 the gas plant as this price increases. At the coal cost per ton 
 corresponding to the intersection of these curves, both stations are 
 of equal economy. At any price of coal greater than this "critical " 
 price, the gas plant is the more economical ; at any price less, the 
 steam plant. 
 
 The cost of the foundations for the turbine and engines of the 
 steam plant will be much less than the cost of those upon which 
 
526 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the 3 gas-engine units are erected, and will offset to some extent 
 the increase in cost of the boiler foundations, settings, chimney, and 
 such equipment, over that of the foundations required by the pro- 
 ducers, scrubbers, and auxiliaries, of the gas-driven station. The 
 total floor space occupied by the 2 Corliss engines, at 2.3 sq. ft. per 
 k\v., will be about 2800 sq. ft., and, allowing 2.6 sq. ft. per b.h.p., 
 the station area exclusive of turbine wall be about 5100 sq. ft. 
 Assuming that the turbo-generator and electrical equipment do not 
 require more than 900 sq. ft.*, the total area of the plant, without 
 office or shop, will be in the neighborhood of 6000 sq. ft. The area 
 of the engine-room of the gas plant, at 3 sq. ft. per kw., will be 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £2.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 80.0 
 V,Jb 
 
 
 
 
 
 />^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 nf 
 
 ^x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U^ 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,-, 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <:^<^ 
 
 
 
 
 f' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i 
 
 □ 10 
 
 
 
 ■■■ ^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ,-f 
 
 »^ 
 
 < 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 joj" 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :^- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^i^^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 ':^-^^ 
 
 
 .-< 
 
 =**'CU^ 
 
 ^i^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^': 
 
 ^ 
 
 i^c!^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .00.1 j "^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :>■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z.'< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ao 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 il 
 
 00 iz. 
 
 JO ii 
 
 00 
 
 Si. 
 
 00 
 
 86. 
 
 » 
 
 50 
 
 00 »; 
 
 00 
 
 Cost ot CoQl per Ton 
 
 Fig. 54. Effect of cost of coal on power cost. 
 
 4500 sq. ft. and that of the producer, at 1.5, 2250, making the total 
 plant area, exclusive of office or shop, approximately 6750 sq. ft. 
 In Fig. 55 a layout of each plant is shown, planned without provi- 
 sion for high-tension apparatus. The producer room of the gas 
 plant contains a compressor and starting tanks, and a small fan 
 for blowing up the producers when cold ; both auxiliaries are driven 
 by a small oil engine. Steam is supplied to the jet blowers of the 
 producers by a waste-heat boiler utilizing ' the engine exhaust. 
 Duplicate exciters, driven by separate engines, are provided, one 
 being held as a reserve. The engine-room of the steam plant is 
 also equipped with exciters in duplicate, one being direct-connected 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 527 
 
 to the turbine and used to excite both generator fields when the 
 turbine is in use, and the other being engine-driven and used when 
 the turbine is closed down. As there is little waste steam available 
 for heating the feed-water, the condenser auxiliaries being elec- 
 trically di'iven, tlie boilers are equipped with economizers. 
 
 1 
 
 OVCdnCkD eUMK£fl 
 
 TncT ' 
 
 \ r^ L^ rj 
 
 - 
 
 ^ft -S ft 
 
 
 
 i:J"'Ut:^i=U' 
 
 .... - 
 
 "■ ■ Im 
 
 1 — j 
 
 i 
 
 J 1 L 
 1 
 
 Uii 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 .."■;ii 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 ' — 
 
 
 
 
 , *'•■"■" 80AH 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 :ii .... 
 
 ^.^B,ar* 
 
 STEAM PLANT ' ' '"..i' ™ " GAS PLANT 
 
 Fig. 55. Proposed arrangement of steam and gas plants. 
 
 In Table XLVIII the total costs per yr. of 8760 hrs. have been 
 computed for each plant, the price of coal being assumed to be $3 
 a ton and fixed charges, insurance and taxes on buildings and land 
 not considered. Although the difference in cost per kw.-hr. is 
 greatest at 20% load-factor, it will be seen from this table that 
 the greatest saving per year is at a factor of 40%. 
 
 TABLE XLVTTT. TOTAL COSTS PER YEAR, EXCLUSIVE OF 
 FIXED CHARGES, INSURANCE AND TAXES 
 
 I^ond- 
 
 factor Steam plant Oas plant Difference 
 
 100% .$49,756.80 $51,009.48 $1,252 68 
 
 80'7o 44>893.25 46.750.37 2.057.12 
 
 60% 40.429.15 43.020.36 2.591.21 
 
 40%o 36,749.95 39,497.09 2.747.14 
 
 20% 33,412.39 35,504.28 2,091.89 
 
 If cheap condensing water is not plentiful and cooling towers 
 are employed, an increase of about $4,000 must be charged against 
 the first cost of the .steam plant. The difference in the cost of 
 buildings, foundations, and other structural features will not exceed 
 $6,000, and this, with the cost of the cooling towers, will make a 
 debit of $1.0,000 against the steam plant on which about 10%, or 
 
528 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 $1,000 a year, must be charg-ed. Thus, under unfavorable con- 
 densing conditions, the steam plant still shows a saving- of $252.68 
 at 100% load-factor, the most advantageous factor at which the gas 
 plant can operate. 
 
 It may be argued that the gas producer will show better relative 
 economy compared to the steam boiler, when low-grade fuels are 
 used, than the curves in Fig. 52, which were plotted for good 
 steam coal, would indicate. At the Government fuel testing station 
 in St. Louis it was found that the fuel consumption of a compara- 
 tively small producer plant increased from 2 to 4.5 lbs. pei*kw.-hr. 
 when the heat value of the fuel decreased from 14,000 B.t.u. to 
 6500 B.t.u. It may reasonably be claimed that no coal-flred boiler 
 plant could give such efficiency on fuels that are so low in thermal 
 units; but if the boilers be fired with i)roducer gas this objection 
 is no longer valid, as they will then deliver practically the same 
 efficiency with fuels varying widely in thermal value. As Mr. 
 Ernst Schmattolla observes in an article on Gas-Producers and 
 Gas-Firing, in The Mining Journal, London, Feb. 6, 1909, a 
 far more complete combustion may be attained with gas-firing than 
 by either hand or automatic stoking, the smoke nuisance eliminated 
 and an excess of air in the furnace avoided. A small thermal loss 
 must inevitably occur when producer-gas is passed through scrub- 
 bers for purification and cooling, preparatory to its use in an 
 engine cylinder, for it is virtually impossible to utilize all of the 
 sensible heat of the gas in superheaters or boilers, and that ab- 
 stracted by the scrubbing apparatus is thrown away. This loss 
 does not occur in the gas-fired boiler, since the gases are delivered 
 directly to the combustion chamber through a short flue and in a 
 highly heated state. Practically all the heat radiated from the 
 combustion chamber is taken up by the incoming air, which forms 
 an air-jacket about it. The cost of such a producer, having no 
 scrubbers or tar extractors, would be largely offset by the cost of the 
 automatic stoking apparatus required for firing the ordinary boiler 
 furnace. 
 
 No discussion of this subject would be complete without reference 
 to the comprehensive paper of Mr, H. G. Stott, Notes on the 
 Cost of Power (given later in this chapter), printed in the 
 • April, 1909, Proceedings of the A. I. E. E. It is illustrated by more 
 than 20 cost and load curves of representative power plants of 
 various types. From these data it would seem that, aside from hy- 
 draulic installations, the most economic type for ordinary load- 
 factors is one in which gas engines are used to take the low load 
 T)ortion of the curve, assisted by steam turbines in carrying the 
 peak. It should be remembered, however, that Mr Stott deals with 
 station capacities of not less than 30,000 kws. and the inferences 
 drawn from plants of this size may not entirely be applicable to 
 small installations consisting of a few relatively large units, for 
 the latter must run at low load when the load-factor drops, with 
 correspondingly high fuel consumption. Of course, it is obvious 
 that in a majority of reciprocating engine plants running on bi- 
 tuminous coal, the addition of exhaust turbines may be a better 
 
STEAM POWER 529 
 
 method of improvang the station economy than the abandonment 
 of steam and the installation of a producer-gas plant. 
 
 Cost of Power in Gas Producer Plants versus Steam. Julius I. 
 Wile gave Tables XLIX-LIII in a paper read before the Technology- 
 Club of Syracuse, N. Y., which were afterward published in 
 Power, April, 1906. 
 
 The figures from Tables XLIX and L are from actual tests, with 
 the exceptions that where these units in a pound of coal were not 
 given in the reports they have been assumed, 12,500 and 13,600 
 B.t.u, per pound respectively. 
 
 The mam characteristic difference between the pressure producer 
 and those of the suction type is that in the former the complete 
 system is under pressure, supplied by a steam jet blower or a power 
 driven fan, a gas holder being necessary for storing the gas and 
 also an independent boiler necessary to raise the steam for satura- 
 tion and for the blower. In the suction type the gas is pulled by 
 the suction of the engine, both holder and independent steam boiler 
 being eliminated, steam and atmospheric pressure necessary for 
 saturation in the generator being raised by the passage to the 
 cleaning apparatus of the hot gases from the generator. The space 
 occupied by the suction type is less than the other and is also less 
 than that required by a return tubular boiler of the same power. 
 Advantage is also added by the fact that the attention required by 
 the station force Is also considerably less than in the case of the 
 pressure type. 
 
 Pressure producers must be fed once every half hour unless 
 automatic feeds are installed, since the level of the fuel must be 
 fixed to obtain constant resistance, this being only necessary once 
 in 3 hours at full load and once every 5 hours at half load in suc- 
 tion producers which are fitted with large fuel reservoirs. For this 
 latter type, Mr. Wile says that, the total attention otherwise re- 
 quired for starting up in the morning is 15 mins. and 20 mins. 
 at night. 
 
 In the Dowson type of pressure plant, the best known example of 
 which is the one at Walthanstow, London, England, an independent 
 boiler supplies the pressure by a steam blast. The 3000-h.p. plant 
 of this type, quoted in Table XLIX, comprised 8 Dowson gener- 
 ators and 13 direct-coupled vertical engines. The generating costs 
 given in Table LI include fuel, supplies, labor and repairs, in com- 
 parison with an average of 11 steam plant.s, having about 3 times 
 the output of the Dowson plant. Under the high costs of coal and 
 water in the London district this Walthanstow plant shows a saving 
 of 38% in fuel and 21% in operating cost. If the fuel costs for the 
 compared plants were the same the Dowson type would show a, 
 fuel saving of 51% and operating saving of 29%. 
 
 In Table LII the.se figures are somewhat bettered, for compara- 
 tive plants in Guernsey, England, where the gas is 58% in fuel 
 and 48% in operating cost. 
 
 The Taylor producer on which the U. S. Geological Survey tests 
 at St. Louis were made in 1905 are mentioned in Table XLIX is 
 here compared with the Wilson producer, which is of the Dowson 
 
530 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 Q 
 
 < 
 m 
 H 
 g 
 
 H 
 Zm 
 
 H 
 
 g^ rn- ^ rH 
 
 
 13 cr. 
 
 M CO CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 Sl^S-S 
 
 o 
 
 "3 
 
 ?5 
 
 as 
 
 F 
 
 Colo 
 Bitu 
 iturr 
 
 
 u 
 
 -^^pq 
 
 -< 
 
 <1 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 o o 
 
 K <X) ^rHCMOOTH 
 
 O as 
 
 
 t>-05t-05 
 
 t- 
 
 9 X 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 5 
 
 i-i 
 
 ■''^ t, 
 
 
 4) 
 
 
 m a 
 
 
 ■Is 
 
 1— 1 . 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 <! 
 
 O ^ 
 m 2 
 
 (U (X) <0 
 
 fa 
 
 H 
 
 H I' 
 
 a 
 tJ Eh 
 H 
 M 
 
 <X> (o ^ o 
 
 fafl'faiiii o 
 .21 11 
 
 lO Irt 00 
 
 oooo 
 
 (M OS LOO 
 CM CO 
 
 < 
 o 
 
 Ph 
 
 t 
 
 (^ 
 p 
 
 Ul 
 O 
 
 w 
 EH 
 m 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 P5 
 
 % 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 -coos 
 
 aTf o 
 
 
 oo 
 
 a i"oo^ 
 
 "^ ai-ieo 
 
 o ^<6<6 
 
 (UOiCO 
 
 o+j i>io 
 
 a^ ^.«L 
 
 3 3 oo,-i 
 
 050 
 
 (M, 
 
 Z <xi 
 wo 
 
 1-1 O 
 
 <^ 
 
 Ul (sSeoo 
 
 5 H^^ 
 
 .'^t-IO 
 
 w Ph 
 
 p ^oo 
 
 a a«D«D 
 
 4_, ;_<U505 
 
 S *a"1^. 
 
 00 
 rH 
 
 fa 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 Ul 
 
 H 
 
 Pi_i o rr 
 
 ^^ 
 
 .^ 
 
 00 to 
 
 3""; . 
 
 P^rHO 
 
 §§0^§0. 
 
 P^fa o"^S«/3. 
 O O a 
 
 §fl 
 
 ^O "O^ «ooo 
 
 
 E^Ph 0+. 
 
 pS «2 
 
 5o 1^ SS 
 
 «<^ a.tl thco 
 
 Wp. 0== "'"' 
 
 faO .-b 
 
 OO rS oo 
 ^Js-. oS 00 00 
 
 m^ ^a^TH 
 HO 
 
 Eh 
 
 o 
 
 El 
 
 § 
 
 gS 
 
 <u 
 
 
 !t1 
 
 5 
 
STEAM POWER 531 
 
 pressure type. Mr. Wile says that the main reason why the Taylor 
 plant is not as efficient as the Wilson one is on account of the 
 scrubbing device being of the rotary type requiring power, while 
 Wilson uses the stationary type of scrubber. He gives the effi- 
 ciency of these types of producer at from 60 to 65%. 
 
 A radical difference in the character of the anthracite coal found 
 In America and Europe accounts for the necessity of different dis- 
 tinctive features between the successful suction gas producers in 
 the two- countries. The American coal has not as great a heat 
 value as the European, is not as free burning, has a larger per- 
 centage of ash with a tendency to clinker, which combination makes 
 it necessary for the fuel beds of American producers to be larger 
 in area per unit of power than those employed abroad, and also 
 necessitates the use of shaking grates and poke holes. 
 
 Producer gas is the result of incomplete combustion of fuel, due 
 to the absence of sufficient oxygen to support combustion, and for 
 its formation a deep fuel bed is essential. An ordinary blast fur- 
 nace is an ideal form of gas producer, as the body of coal or coke 
 is subjected to a blast of air beneath the fuel bed and without any 
 provision above for the product of combustion, carbon monoxide, 
 to burn to carbonic acid gas (COa). The gas arising from a blast 
 furnace has a heat value of approximately 90 B.t.u. per cu. ft. 
 
 As an idea of the power which goes to waste in blast furnaces, 
 it should be borne in mind that from every ton of pig produced 
 before the waste gases have been used to heat the air blast, there 
 is available in the waste gases the heat equivalent of 600 h.p.-hrs. 
 For doing the work of the blast furnace about 240 h.p.-hrs. are 
 necessary, which leaves 360 h.p.-hrs. available for other purposes. 
 To make this gas suitable for use in a gas engine, it must be 
 cleaned of all impurities, and a cleaning apparatus is common to 
 all forms of gas producers for supplying engines. It has been 
 found, however, that on account of the minute particles of dust 
 and the different classes of iron as well as coke or coal which are 
 used in the blast furnace, a cleaning apparatus suitable for one 
 class of gas is not always suitable for another. 
 
 Table LTII shows the various kinds of gases which are used in 
 gas engines, showing their heat value and chemical composition 
 by volume. 
 
 TABLE LIII. ' COMPOSITION OF GASES 
 
 Kind of Gas H 
 
 Blast Furnace Gas 1 
 
 Producer Gas from Anthra. . . 12 
 Producer Gas from Bitum. . . 10 
 
 Blue Water Gas 44.5 
 
 Coke Oven Gas 39 
 
 Coal Gas 45 
 
 Natural Gas 2 
 
 Another type of gas producer is the by-product coke oven. In 
 coking one long ton of coking coal in a retort, there are generated 
 8,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. of gas carrying from 60 to 100 lbs. of tar 
 
 CH, C.H, 
 
 O 
 
 CO2 
 
 N 
 
 B.t.u. 
 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 62 
 
 90 
 
 1.5 .. 
 
 27 
 
 3.5 
 
 57 
 
 140 
 
 6.5 .. 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 58.5 
 
 150 
 
 
 42 
 
 3.5 
 
 10 
 
 295 
 
 40 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 660 
 
 38 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 720 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1020 
 
532 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and 10 to 20 lbs. of ammonium .sulphate. The sale of these products 
 usually covers the cost of their extraction and the gas, which is 
 approximately 600 B.t.u. per cu. ft., is required for carrying on the 
 coking process, so that from one ton of coal there are available 
 about 200 effective h.p.-hrs. 
 
 Producer gas has a calorific value of approximately 140 B.t.u. 
 per cu. ft. depending upon the type of producer. With different 
 types of producers there are larger or smaller percentages of CO2. 
 CO and hydrogen, but the general average of the gas is approxi- 
 mately as stated. 
 
 Comparative Costs of Power by Diesel Engine and Steam Turbine 
 in Plants of 600 kw. Capacity. The following. Electrical World, 
 Oct. 9, 1915, is from papers read by A. H. Goldingham and W. H. 
 Adams, at the Panama-Pacific Exposition meeting of the A. S. M. E. 
 
 TABLE LIV 
 
 Assumptions: Load-factor, 25%; maximum load equal to rated 
 output. (This gives turbines slight advantage in overload capacity.) 
 Turbines operated condensing, using jet condenser and cooling tower. 
 Oil fuel. Crude oil, 95 cts. per barrel; distilled oil, $1.50 per barrel. 
 Turbine plant develops 140 kw.-hr. per barrel. Diesel plant develops 
 447 kw.-hr. per barrel. 
 
 FIRST COST 
 
 Diesel-Engine plant 
 1 200-kw., 1 400-kw., 
 3 200-kw. units 
 
 settings $6,200 Engines $51,000 
 
 250 Erecting 5.000 
 
 500 Piping 1,400 
 
 2,95C Oil tanks 1,000 
 
 500 Water-cooling apparatus 1,000 
 
 Turbines 12.500 Generators 11,400 
 
 Generators, etc 11.400 Building 6,000 
 
 Condensers 2.400 
 
 Cooling tower 3,500 
 
 Building 10,000 
 
 Turbine plant 
 1 200-kw., 1 400-kw. 
 units 
 Boilers and 
 
 Pumps 
 
 Piping 
 
 Stack and flues 
 Heaters 
 
 $47,500 
 
 5,000 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 11.400 
 
 6.000 
 
 Total $50,200 Total $76,800 $73,300 
 
 OPERATING COSTS (1,314,000 KWS. PER YEAR) 
 
 Turbine plant 
 
 Wages 
 
 . $3,000 
 
 Lubrication . . 
 
 500 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 100 
 
 Maintenance . 
 
 400 
 
 Water 
 
 250 
 
 $4,250 
 
 Diesel-Engine plant 
 
 Wages $3,000 
 
 Lubrication 500 
 
 Miscellaneous ... 100 
 Maintenance .... 400 
 Water 50 
 
 $4,050 
 
 Fuel, 95 cts. bbl. $8,910 
 Fixed charges 
 
 147o 7,030 
 
 Total , .. . . .f20,190 
 
 3 engines 2 engines 
 
 Fuel, 95 ct. bbl. $2,790 $2,790 
 
 Fixed charges, 147^.. 10,780 10,280 
 
 Total ........... $17,620 $17,120 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 533 
 
 The plants quoted are imaginary, but the cost figures are be- 
 lieved to be approximately correct. 
 
 According to these curves when the price of oil is about 53 cts. 
 a barrel, the yearly cost will be the same for both of the plants 
 considered. At this price the Diesel plant has the advantage. The 
 
 0.30 a40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 090 1.00 I.IO L50 1.60 1.70 L80 130 
 Cost of Oil per Barrel, Dollars . 
 
 Fig. 56. Comparison of operating expenses of 600-kw. steam turbine 
 and Diesel-Engine plants. 
 
 output for a barrel of oil is based on reports from both Diesel and 
 steam plants, the oil engine plant being in Texas and the steam 
 plant in California. Operating expenses also are based on reports 
 from these two plants. 
 
 Cost of Power in a 700-kw. Gas Electric Plant and a Comparison 
 
534 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Between That and the Estimated Cost in a Steam Turbine Plant. 
 The following data are abstracted from a paper by J. R. Bibbins, 
 appearing in the July, 1908, Proceedings of the A. I. E. E. 
 
 1.4 
 1.3 
 1.2 
 
 c I.I 
 I 1.0 
 S.0.9 
 
 a: 
 
 3:^0.8 
 
 CO 
 
 "SO.G 
 t^O.5 
 
 J- 
 
 0.Z 
 0.! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diesel En 
 
 nine 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 ,5 
 
 
 
 Cyl.l6in.x24 in. Stroke. 
 A" Mexican Crude,llde2.B.n560BHJ. 
 3 -Texas » /f/-" "1785^ •» 
 ^= .. \, 13 „ »181SZ » 
 H'^tashrn Refined DlsHllah, 
 \ 39decrJ35Z5 BJU.D&rlh / 
 
 
 
 '/ 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 //} 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 /. 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .- 
 
 V^ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i\0' 
 
 v^ 
 
 y-\ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 y. 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \' 
 
 ^ 
 
 N 
 
 f 
 
 0^> 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 <: 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 X^ 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 $ 
 
 7 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 -fn 
 
 \oS. 
 
 ■-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — - 
 
 ^ 
 
 J^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Vc 
 
 nsi 
 
 rm, 
 
 ofn 
 
 m-^ 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 GO- 
 
 
 BS 
 
 \- 
 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 O 
 
 
 •V. 
 
 45 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 l2 
 
 35 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 <n 
 
 50 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 db 
 
 £ 
 
 ?0 
 
 "cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 H- 
 
 10 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 80 90 100 110 120 150 MO ISO 
 Percent of Rated B.H.P 
 
 Fig. 57. Unit and total fuel consumption for Diesel Engines at 
 different percentages of rated load. 
 
 COST OF POWKR, 700-KW. GAS POWER PLANT: 
 
 Equipment cost: Building and machinery, $138 per kw., $96,600. 
 
 Fixed charfjes: Int. 5%, taxes and insurance 1.5%, depreciation 
 (sinking fund 15 yrs. 5%) 4.63%, running repairs 1.5% on in- 
 vestment. Total 12.63% per yr., $12,220. 
 
 Operation: 300 days, 7200 hrs. per yr., 5,040,000 kw.-hrs. Input 
 to auxiliaries, 5.4% full, 10.8% half-load. Standby los.se.s, pro- 
 ducer plant, 1600 Ib.s. per week, 2.1% full, 3.1% half-load. Fuel 
 rate, full load, 1.59 lbs. + 2.17o - 1.62 lbs. per kw.-hr. ; half-load 
 2.1 lbs. + 3.1%— 2.17 lbs. per kw.-hr. 
 
 ESTIMATED COST OF POWER, WITH SAME CONDITIONS FOR A 
 700-KW. TURBINE 
 
 Equipment cost: Building and machinery, $100 per kw., $70,000 
 Fixed charges: Int. 5%, taxes and insurance 1.5%, depreciation 
 
 (sinking fund 16% yrs. at 5%) 4%; repairs 1%, total 11.5%, 
 
 $8,050. 
 Operation: 300-day yr., 7200 hrs. ; average water rate, full-load 
 
 21.5 lbs. per kw.-hr., average water rate, half-load 25.5 lbs. 
 
 per kw.-hr. ; gross evaporation, 7.5 to 8.0 lbs. ; standby, banking 
 
 10 to 15%; gross coal consumption, full, 2.96 lbs. per kw.-hr., 
 
 half, 3.9 lbs. per kw.-hr. 
 Wages and supplies — Same as gas. 
 
STEAM POWER 535 
 
 The following- figures were obtained as a result of tests made at 
 the Richmond plant of the American Locomotive Company and de- 
 scribed in the Proceedings of the A. I. E. E. for the 25th Annual 
 Convention by J. R. Bibbins. The equipment comprised the main 
 service plant of the Richmond Works and included a 23.5 by 33 in. 
 horizontal, tandem gas engine, with direct connected d.c. generator, 
 operating on producer gas g-enerated by a pair of 9 -ft. (shells) 
 bituminous producers, a 15,000 cu. ft. holder serving to equalize its 
 quality and to start the engine, of the double-acting type with two 
 impulses per revolution, governed by a sensitive oil relay system 
 designed to relieve the governor of all valve work. The gas was 
 purified by means of wooden slat scrubbers and centrifugal tar 
 extractor, motor-driven. The producer was designed for continuous 
 operation, having a water-sealed bottom to permit the removal of 
 ash at any time. It generated its own steam, the only auxiliaries 
 required for the entire plant being a motor-driven fan, tar-extractor, 
 and igniter set, these absorbing about 5% of the station capacity. 
 The test was continued for about 4 weeks, part of the time on a 
 full-load run, the remaining two weeks at .75 and .5 loads re- 
 spectively, with a rate of gasification of .25 ton per hr. 
 
 TABLE LV. TESTS OF A GAS -ELECTRIC PLANT 
 
 Three- One- 
 Nominal load Full quarters half 
 
 Length of run, hrs 223 125 136 
 
 Average load, kws 312.3 228.3 159.6 
 
 Average load, computed boiler h.p. 455.0 333.0 238.0 
 
 Load, %, engine rating 91.0 67.6 47.5 
 
 Load, %, generator rating 104.0 77.2 53.2 
 
 Coal gasified, lbs 115,289 54,143 47,775 
 
 Coal gasified, per hr 517.0 433.0 351.0 
 
 Output, kw. -hrs 69,650 28,540 21,710 
 
 Lbs. coal per kw.-hr 1.654 1.697 2.20 
 
 Lbs. coal per kw.-hr., guaranteed . 1.93 2.10 2.64 
 
 Lbs. coal per b.h.p.-hr 1.14 1.31 1.56 
 
 Avg. heat value of coal, B.t.u 14,392 14,392 14,392 
 
 B.t.u. per kw.-hr 23,700 27,280 31,650 
 
 B.t.u. per b.h.p.-hr 16,415 18,710 21,670 
 
 % thermal efficiency, brake 15.51 13.6 11.75 
 
 % thermal efficiency, elec 14.35 12.65 10.78 
 
 Coal. — Pocahontas, run-of-mine ; avg. heat value ; dry sample, 
 14,703; as fired, 14,392; volatile matter, 22.8%; ash, 4.5%; sulphur, 
 1%. Test. — August 12, 7 a. m., to September 7, 12 m. 
 
 These data are shown plotted in Fig. 58 in 3 curves as follows: 
 (a) rate of gasification in lbs. per hr. ; (b) lbs. per unit of output 
 per hr., and (c) corresponding thermal efficiency. This last is abso- 
 lute or kinetic efficiency, and covers all losses between coal pile 
 and switchboard. 
 
 Operating Conditions. The plant normally operated at 24 hrs. 
 per day at practically full load. It has sustained a load of 410 
 kws. or 19% overload on the engines for 3 hrs., and higher over- 
 loads than this for short periods. The electrical rating of the plant 
 was figured at 700 kws., giving it an investment cost of about $138 
 
536 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 per kw. complete including' machinery, buildings, foundations, pip- 
 ing-, erection, etc., except the value of the land occupied. 
 
 fiOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 ^•' 
 
 tq 
 
 VK) 
 
 
 COAl 
 
 Bin 
 
 MINO 
 
 us: 
 
 14392 
 
 B.T.J. PER .8. 
 
 . 
 
 ,ov^^. 
 
 ^-" 
 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 •.■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^N>^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 4on 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r-.« 
 
 ,^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?0 
 
 a 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , ^VoM 
 
 C^Tft 
 
 ..e^ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 5 
 
 -3.-5 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s^* 
 
 Vetvc^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -' 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ?nn 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 ^^v 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 ,<» 
 
 
 '^^, 
 
 •<^ 
 
 t^c 
 
 'oa/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?0 
 
 100 
 
 ^^ 
 
 /'*' 
 
 
 ^^>v 
 
 ^.^. 
 
 
 i^^^ 
 
 p^ 
 
 -0-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 «> 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 if.fl 
 
 •j:A^ 
 
 -<^. 
 
 
 
 _J 
 
 
 10 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 1( 
 
 K) 
 
 
 
 Load-Kw 
 200 
 
 
 1 bull Lioaa | 
 
 Fig. 58. Gas power plant economy at various loads. 
 
 Coal 
 
 at 
 
 TABLE LVI. UNIT COST PER KW. AND H.P.-YR., FOR THE 
 GAS PLANT 
 
 Full load Half load 
 Cts. per kw.-hr. 
 0.081 0.109 
 
 0.162 0.217 
 
 0.324 0.434 
 
 0.486 0.651 
 
 0.121 0.242 
 
 0.076 0.143 
 
 0.242 0.484 
 
 $1.00 
 2.00 
 4.00 
 6.00 
 
 Wages per year, $6,160 
 
 Supplies " 3,850 
 
 Fixed charges " 12,200 
 
 Total costs — coal at 
 Richmond coal .... 
 
 $1.00, 
 2.00, 
 
 .2.70, 
 4.00, 
 6.00, 
 
 0.520 
 
 0.978 
 
 0.601 
 
 1.086 
 
 0.658 
 
 1.163 
 
 0.763 
 
 1.303 
 
 0.925 
 
 1.520 
 
 Equivalent power rate: 
 300-day year, coal at 
 
 Dols. per electric h.p.-year 
 
 $1.00 $27.90 $52.40 
 
 2.00 32.30 58.20 
 
 2.70 35.60 62.40 
 
 4.00 41.00 69.90 
 
 6.00 49.60 81.50 
 
 Charges for auxiliaries if motor-driven 2.7% 7.4% 
 
 Saving gas over steam, % : 
 
 Coal at 
 
 .1.00 — 3 loss —8.5 
 
 2.00 +8 gain +0.9 
 
 2.70 12.9 " 4.7 
 
 4.00 19.6 " 12.4 
 
 6.00 33.7 " 19.0 
 
 gam 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 537 
 
 This is based on 300-day operation, 7200 hrs. per yr., the fixed 
 costs being- distributed over the operating- period, and unit prices 
 being- figured for various prices for coal, which prices are based 
 upon a net ton. 
 
 The price of fuel at Richmond was $2.70, at which basis the power 
 could be delivered at the switchboard of or % ct. per kw.-hr. at full 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 METf 
 
 1O0 OF 
 
 DETE 
 OF 
 
 RMINir 
 PRODU 
 
 \G. OVERALL 
 CER PLANT 
 
 EFFICIE 
 
 NCY 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 'irtO 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 nn 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 yy 
 
 
 
 
 
 Qn^? 
 
 
 
 
 I- 
 
 -IflO 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 -70-e 
 
 -60. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^i^ 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 roduc 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 auu 
 
 p 
 
 xt 
 
 4a 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 -40| 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 sP 
 
 '200 
 
 ,^^ 
 
 ^x' 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i, 
 
 ^y^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -20- 
 10 
 
 
 J 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.1 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 Ft 
 
 11 
 
 'f^ 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 1 
 
 y. 
 
 100 
 
 
 ) 
 
 Elec 
 1 
 
 trical 
 )0 
 
 Outp 
 2C 
 
 ut.K 
 
 
 V. 
 
 3( 
 
 K) 
 
 « 
 
 K) 
 
 
 Fig. 59. Graphical method of determining over-all efficiency 
 producer plant. 
 
 of 
 
 load operating 7200 hrs. per yr., or about 1.25 cts. at half load, 
 taking into account fixed charges which amount to about 40% of 
 the total cost. 
 
 Relative Cost of Gas and Steam Power. This is shown by Fig. 
 60 showing the comparative cost for Richmond conditions. 
 
 At the price of coal in Richmond, the gas plant showed 13% gain 
 over steam at full load and 5% at half load. Thus with steam coal 
 at $2.70, cost by steam power would be about the same as if 
 bought by the gas plant if the gas plant paid $4.00 for gas coal. 
 The gas plant is at a disadvantage, however, for light loads or 
 fluctuating loads averaging a small fraction of the generating 
 capacity. 
 
 Comparative Costs of Installation and Operation of Gas, Oil and 
 Steam Engines. R. E. Mathot gave the following data in I'ower, 
 
538 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 March 5, 1912, based on normal figures for labor, fuel consump- 
 tion, etc., for Belgium in 1912. 
 
 Fig. 60. Graphical method of determining comparative cost ef- 
 ficiency, producer gas versus steam turbine plant for Richmond 
 conditions. 
 
 TABLE LVII. COMPARATIVE INSTALLATION COSTS FOR A 
 POWER PLANT OF 3000 H.P. 
 
 FOR A FACTORY UTILIZING AN AVERAGE OF 2000 H.P. AND A MINIMUM 
 OF 800 H.P. DURING 300 DAYS PER YR., 24 HRS. PER DAY 
 
 Diesel-type Engines 
 
 4 800-h.p. engines at $29,000 $116,000 
 
 Foundations, pipings and connections 4,000 
 
 $120,000 
 Suction Producers and Engines 
 
 5 600-h.p. engines at $13,200 and 10 300-h.p. producers 
 
 at $2,000 $86,000 
 
 2 spare producers 4,000 
 
 Foundations, pipings and connections 6,000 
 
 $96,000 
 Semi-portable Steam Engines 
 
 5 600-h.p. engines at $17,000 $85,000 
 
 Masonry, connections and stacks 3,000 
 
 Turbo-alternators 
 
 3 750-kw. units at $16,600 
 
 Foundations and piping . . 
 
 8 Lancashire boilers, 1300 sq. ft. of heating surface each 
 
 Masonry for boilers 
 
 Flues and stacks 
 
 Automatic stokers 
 
 Superheaters 
 
 $88,000 
 
 $49,800 
 3,000 
 16,000 
 2,800 
 1,400 
 2,400 
 3,200 
 
 $78,600 
 
STEAM POWER 539 
 
 Piston Steam Engines 
 
 2 1,500-h.p. engines $30,000 
 
 Foundations and connections 5,000 
 
 7 boilers of 1,300 sq. ft. heating surface each 14,000 
 
 Masonry for boilers 2,400 
 
 Flues and stacks . '. 1,200 
 
 Automatic stokers and heaters 4,800 
 
 $57,400 
 
 COMPARATIVE ANNUAL LABOR COSTS 
 Crude-oil Engines 
 
 Four engines require 2 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.26 
 
 3 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.18 
 
 Total $0.44 
 
 Per yr. : 300 days X 24 hrs. X $0.44 $3,168 
 
 Fuel-gas Engines 
 
 Five engines require 3 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.39 
 
 5 stokers at 9 cts. per hr 0.45 
 
 5 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.24 
 
 Total $1.08 
 
 Per yr. : 7,200 X $1.08 $7,776 
 
 Semi-port able Engines 
 
 Five engines require 3 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.39 
 
 5 stokers at 10 cts. per hr 0.50 
 
 5 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.30 
 
 Total $1.19 
 
 Per yr. : 7,200 X $1.19 $8,568 
 
 Turho-Generators 
 Three engines require 2 engineers at 15 cts. per hr $0.30 
 
 2 stokers at 10 cts. per hr, (the boilers are provided with 
 
 automatic stokers) 0.20 
 
 3 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.18 
 
 Total $0.68 
 
 Per yr. : 7,200 X $0.68 $4,896 
 
 Piston Steam Engines 
 
 Two engines require 2 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.26 
 
 2 stokers at 15 cts. per hr. (automatic coal feeders) 0.20 
 
 3 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.18 
 
 Total $0.64 
 
 Per yr. : 7,200 X $0.64 $4,608 
 
 ANNUAL EXPENDITURE FOR FUEL 
 
 AVERAGE LOAD, 2,000 H.P. DURING 300 DAYS OP 24 HRS. EACH, GIVING 
 
 2,000 X 24 X 300 = 14,400,000 brake horse- 
 power-hours PER ANNUM 
 
 Per Year 
 Diesel-type Engines 
 
 Consuming about 200 gr. of crude oil per brake horse- 
 power-hour. Russian or Texas oil costs $1.40 per 100 
 kg., giving a cost of $.28 ct. per b.h.p.-hr. or $0.0028 
 X 14,400,000 = $40,493 
 
640 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Producer Gas Engines 
 
 Consuming at variable load per b.h.p.-hr. 400 gr. of lean 
 
 coal, which costs $3 a ton, or 12 cts. per b.hp.-hr.; ^ „ „„„ 
 $0,012X14,400,000= $17,280 
 
 Turbines 
 
 At variable load consuming about 6 kg. of steam per 
 b h p.-hr., which gives a consumption per b.h.p.-hr. of 
 7.5 kg. of steam =: 1 kg. of coal at $3.20 a ton, or 
 0.32 ct. per b.h.p.-hr. ; $0.0032 X 14,400,000 = $46,080 
 
 iie mi-portable Steam Engines 
 
 ('on.suming per b.h.p.-hr. 520 grs. of semi-bituminous coal 
 at $3.20 a ton or 16.64 cts. per b.h.p.-hr. ; $0.1664 X 
 14,400,000 = $23,962 
 
 Pislon Steam Engines 
 (\)nsuming 4.5 kg. of steam per i.h. p.-hr. or 5 kg. steam 
 per b.h.p.-hr. With a normal evaporation of 7.5 kg. 
 of steam per kg. of semi-bituminous coal, one b.h.p.-hr. 
 requires 0.665 kg. of coal, at $3.20 a ton, giving 21.28 
 cts. per b.h.p.-hr. ; $0.2128 X 14,400,000 = $30,643 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE PRINCIPAL ANNUAL OPERATING 
 
 COSTS 
 
 c 
 
 O 4> 
 
 — O 
 
 Type of equipment .2 „ m ci ^ 
 
 &C C 3, 
 
 Diesel engines 15.5 $18,600 $40,493 $3,168 $62,261 
 
 Producer gas 15.5 14,880 17,280 7,776 39.936 
 
 Semi-portable steam 12.9 ^1,352 23,962 8,568 43,882 
 
 Turbines, etc 12.9 10,139 46,080 4,896 61,115 
 
 I'iston engines, etc 11.2 6,486 30,643 4,608 41,737 
 
 1 Depreciation plus 5% interest on investment. 
 
 Mr. Mathot took into account various factors derived from prac- 
 tice, determining the number of units necessary for realizing the 
 :3000-h.p. maximum under consideration. These factors include 
 reliability, margin of power, load variations upon the fuel con- 
 sumption, facility of attendance, etc. He considered 4 Diesel en- 
 gines, 3 of which would be running while, owing to the facility of 
 starting, the fourth engine would be at standstill but ready for 
 service. The producer-engine plant allows 5 units of 600 h.p. each, 
 the power being easily realized from single-acting, twin two-cylinder 
 engines connected by couplings, with the flywheel in the middle, 
 this engine being cheaper to build, economical in up-keep and the 
 attendance simpler than the double-acting type. 
 
 The figures were for suction producers rather than pressure ones, 
 and Mr. Mathot allows 10 i)roducers of 300 h.p. each, plus 2 gen- 
 erators which would constitute the spare apparatus. 
 
 The engines were calculated for a margin in power of 10 to 20%, 
 and should develop the estimated 600 h.p. with a mean effective 
 pressure on pistons of 65 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 541 
 
 The figures on German semi-portable steam engines of the self- 
 contained boiler and engine type, having a fuel consumption of less 
 than 1 lb. of gross coal per b.h.p.-hr., with large power margin 
 and without spare units. 
 
 For the other steam plants he assumes the installation of 1 or 2 
 additional boilers of the Lancashire type with 2 or 3 corrugated 
 internal furnace tubes, and with evaporation rate of 3 to 3.5 lbs. 
 of water evaporated per hr. per sq. ft. of heating surface or 8.5 lbs. 
 of steam per lb. of good coal. 
 
 In considering depreciation, the Diesel engine may be considered 
 on the same basis as fuel-gas engines of good construction, allow- 
 ing 10 yrs. for amortization, while 15 yrs. is allowable for semi- 
 portable steam engines and 20 yrs. for stationary steam engines of 
 the Corliss, Sulzer and piston-valve types. 
 
 Repair costs are not considered. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Power in Small Units of Gasoline, Gas, 
 Steam and Electricity. William O. "^^eber published the following 
 data in Engineering News, Aug. 15, 1907. 
 
 COST OF GASOLINE POWER 
 
 Size of plant, h.p 2 6 10 20 
 
 Price of engine in place $150.00 $325.00 $500.00 $750.00 
 
 Gasoline per b.h.p. per hr. ... \^ gal. i^ gal. % gal. % gal. 
 
 Cost per gal $0.22 $0.20 $0.19 $018 
 
 =r cost per 3,080 hrs $451.53 $924,00 $975.13 $1,386.00 
 
 Attendance at $1 per day . . 308.00 308.00 308.00 308 00 
 
 Interest, 57c 7.50 16.25 25.00 37.50 
 
 Depreciation, 5% 7.50 16.25 25.00 37.50 
 
 Repairs, 10% 15.00 32.50 50.00 75.00 
 
 Supplies, 20% 30.00 65.00 100.00 150.00 
 
 Insurance, 2% 3.00 6.50 10.00 15.00 
 
 Taxes, 1% 1.50 3.25 5.00 7 50 
 
 Pov.'er cost $824.03 $1,371.75 $1,498.13 $2,016.50 
 
 To these figures should be added charges on space occupied, as 
 follows : 
 
 Value of space occupied .... $100.00 $150.00 $200.00 $300.00 
 
 Interest, 5% $5.00 $7.50 $10.00 $15.00 
 
 Repairs, 2% 2.00 3.00 4.00 6.00 
 
 Insurance, 1% 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 
 
 Taxes, 1% 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 
 
 Total annual charge for 
 
 space $9.00 $13.50 $18 00 $27.00 
 
 Total cost per annum $833.03 $1,385.25 $1,516.13 $2,043.50 
 
 Cost of 1 h.p. per annum 
 
 10-hr. basis 416.51 239.87 151.61 102.17 
 
 Cost of 1 h.p. per hr ' $0.1352 $0.0780 $0.0492 $0.0331 
 
542 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 COST OF ELECTRIC POWER 
 Size of plant, h.p 2 6 10 20 
 
 Cost of motor in place $83.00 $118.00 $216.00 $270.00 
 
 With wiring, etc 100.00 130.00 240.00 300.00 
 
 Cost of electricity 3,080 hrs. $529.56 $976.00 $1,425.00 $2,450.00 
 
 Attendance 20.00 30.00 50.00 50.00 
 
 Interest, 5% 5.00 6.50 12.00 15.00 
 
 Depreciation 10% 10.00 13.00 24.00 30.00 
 
 Repairs, 5% 5.00 6.50 12.00 15.00 
 
 Supplies, 1% 1.00 1.30 2.40 3.00 
 
 Insurance, 2% 2.00 2.60 4.80 6.00 
 
 Taxes, 1% 1.00 1.30 2.40 3.00 
 
 Total cost per annum $573.56 $1,037.20 $1,532.00 $2,572.00 
 
 Cost of 1 h.p. per annum, 
 
 10-hr. basis 286.78 172.86 153.20 128.60 
 
 Cost of 1 h.p. per hr $0.0928 $0.0558 $0.0497 $0.0417 
 
 COST OP GAS POWER 
 
 $1.50 per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas less 20% if paid in 10 days = $1.20 net, 
 gas 760 B.t.u. 
 
 Size of plant in h.p 2 6 10 20 
 
 Engine cost if in place $200.00 $375.00 $550.00 $1,050.00 
 
 Gas per h.p.-hr. in ft 30 25 22 20 
 
 Value of gas consumed, 3,080 
 
 hrs 
 
 Attendance, $1 per day .. 
 
 Interest, 5% 
 
 Depreciation, 5% 
 
 Repairs, 10% 
 
 Supplies, 20% 
 
 Insurance, 2% 
 
 Taxes, 1% , 
 
 221.76 
 
 $554.40 
 
 $843.12 
 
 $1,478.00 
 
 308.00 
 
 308.00 
 
 308.00 
 
 308.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 18.75 
 
 27.50 
 
 52.50 
 
 10.00 
 
 18.75 
 
 27.50 
 
 52.50 
 
 20.00 
 
 37.50 
 
 55.00 
 
 105.00 
 
 40.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 110.00 
 
 210.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 11.00 
 
 21.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.75 
 
 5.50 
 
 10.50 
 
 Power cost $615.76 $1,023.65 $1,387.62 $2,237.50 
 
 Annual charge for space . . . 9.00 13.50 18.00 27.00 
 
 Total cost per annum $624.76 $1,037.15 $1,405.62 $2,264.50 
 
 Cost of 1 h.p. per annum, 
 
 10-hr. basis 312.38 172.86 140.56 113.22 
 
 Cost of 1 h.p. per hr $0.1014 $0.0561 $0.0456 $0.0367 
 
 COST OF STEAM POWER 
 Size of plant, h.p 6 10 20 
 
 Cost of plant per h.p $250.00 $220.00 $200.00 
 
 Fixed charge, 14% $35.00 $30.80 $28.00 
 
 Coal per h.p.-hr., in lbs 20 15 12 
 
 Cost of coal at $5 per ton $154.00 $103.00 $82.50 
 
 Attendance, 3,080 hrs 75.00 50.00 30.00 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 15.00 10.00 6.00 
 
 Cost 1 h.p. per ann., 10-hr. basis = $279.00 $194.80 $146.50 
 
 Cost of 1 h.p. per hr $0.0906 $0.0832 $0.0475 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 543 
 
 ANNUAL COST OF POWER PER BRAKE-HORSE-POWER 
 
 B.h.p. of unit Steam Electricity Gas Gasoline 
 
 1 $600.00 $312.50 $380.00 $487.50 
 
 2 500.00 282.00 312.50 416.00 
 
 3 437.50 252.00 260.00 350.00 
 
 4 375.00 227.50 220.00 300.00 
 
 5 320.00 207.50 192.50 262.50 
 
 6 280.00 192.00 172.50 240.00 
 
 7 250.00 179.00 160.00 210.00 
 
 8 . 230.00 168.00 152.50 182.50 
 
 9 210.00 158.00 145.00 165.00 
 
 10 195.00 152.00 140.00 152.00 
 
 12 175.00 140.00 132.50 137.50 
 
 14 165.00 133.00 126.00 122.00 
 
 16 157.50 128.00 120.00 112.50 
 
 18 • 150.00 126.00 116.50 107.50 
 
 20 146.00 123.00 113.00, 102.00 
 
 22 140.00 121.50 ' 110.00 98.00 
 
 24 137.50 119.50 107.50 95.00 
 
 26 133.00 117.50 105.00 92.50 
 
 28 130.00 116.50 102.50 90.00 
 
 30 127.50 115.00 102.00 87.50 
 
 35 124.00 113.50 100.00 85.00 
 
 40 120.00 112.00 98.00 82.50 
 
 50 112.50 110.00 96.00 80.00 
 
 60 105.00 108.00 94.00 78.00 
 
 70 100.00 106.00 92.00 76.00 
 
 80 95.00 104.00 90.00 74.00 
 
 90 90.50 102.00 88.00 72.00 
 
 100 86.40 100.00 86.00 70.00 
 
 Unit costs = Coal, $5 per ton; electricity, $0,135 per kw.-hour; 
 gas, $1.20 per 1,000 ft., at 760 B.t.u. ; gasoline, $0.20 per gal. 
 
 The curves in Fig. 61 are averages for the 4 different kinds of 
 power reported for the figures given in the table accompanying this 
 paper. 
 
 Comparative Fuel Costs for Steam, Gasoline and Gas Engines. 
 Table LVIII was published by the Otto Gas Engine Works, Phila- 
 delphia, Pa. 
 
 The Cost of Power. The following is abstracted from a paper 
 by H. G. Stott, presented at a meeting of the Toronto Section of 
 the A. I. E. E.. Dec. 18, 1908. 
 
 In engineering estimates there is probably no item which contains 
 so many variables as that representing the cost of power. Conse- 
 quently we frequently find a wide divergence of opinion as to the 
 results which may be expected under different conditions. In all 
 types of plants the influence of investment upon the cost of power 
 is one which is apt to be slighted in the estimates, and if not 
 slighted it seems to be subject to more errors than any other factor 
 which enters into this cost. This is particularly the case with 
 hydraulic plants, as of necessity water storage, flumes, racks, tail- 
 race, etc., enter into the estirpate, with the result that the actual 
 cost has sometimes been found to be 100% greater than the esti- 
 mated cost. 
 
 In the same way indeterminate items of cost, such as foundations, 
 cost of labor, etc., enter into practically all the calculations, so that 
 
544 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 when we take into consideration the influence of location upon the 
 cost of coal, labor and water, as well as upon the investment, it is 
 readily seen that the actual cost of power is of necessity so variable 
 as to make impossible anything like a standard cost per kw.-hr. 
 
 With the above limitations in mind, the following notes on the 
 cost of power have been compiled with the idea that they might 
 form a guide to show at least the fundamental relations between 
 
 500 
 475 
 450 
 ,425 
 ;400 
 375 
 ;350 
 I 325 
 
 ^590 
 u275 
 I 250 
 
 a. 200 
 
 D- 175 
 
 150 
 
 S.125 
 
 ^ 100 
 
 I 75 
 o 
 
 O 50 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ .\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \\ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <\ 
 
 |\ 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?v 
 
 \ \ 
 
 4 > 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^z 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 *N^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^* 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 c-/'/-/ 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 •-13 
 
 .-. 
 
 ^. 
 
 — - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ENC 
 
 .NE 
 
 \fS>. 
 
 f^ 4 6 8 K) 12 14 le 
 Brake Horse 
 
 18 20 22 24 26-28 30 
 Power 
 
 Fig. 61. Diagram showing comparative costs per brake, horse- 
 power of steam, electricity, gas and gasoline in small powers. 
 
 the various items going to make up the cost of power, and at the 
 same time show what is actually being done to-day in large plants 
 having a maximum load of over 30,000 kws. 
 
 Table LIX, taken from a paper contributed to the A. I. E. E. in 
 1906, has been expanded and revised so as to bring it up to 
 the results obtained in practice in 1909. The principal changes 
 made have been due to the better economy obtained in the 
 steam turbine, and in the reduction of the total fixed charges from 
 12% to 11% ; fixed charges composed of 5% interest, 1% taxes and 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 545 
 
 O a 
 
 
 "^^ ft • 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 3o« 
 
 +j 4S ^ 
 
 2^ • 
 be j3 
 
 +^" jd jd jfi 
 
 
 
 ..a :S 
 
 o • 
 
 U5 • 
 
 •OOOOO 
 •OOOOO 
 
 
 
 
 Ui • 
 
 • aiiooiftiH 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 <o • 
 
 ■ (M^Tt<e<)co 
 
 th'tHtH 
 
 oi 
 
 K 
 
 Geo 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^&°^ 
 
 o • 
 
 •OOOOO 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ogx5 oo 
 
 o • 
 
 •OTfOOcO 
 
 i{::jjQjdjd 
 
 Xi 
 
 1 
 
 
 05 • 
 
 •iHrHOOOOin 
 • <M CO C<1 rH tH 
 
 OifltftLO 
 
 
 V^ 
 
 
 
 ^-M t-oa 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 r-iiHr-J 
 
 oi 
 
 I 
 
 Cfto • 
 
 •o 
 
 •ooootj^ 
 
 
 
 rt^ LO • 
 
 •c- 
 
 •looooeo 
 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 •oit-«OTHai 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 • CO 
 
 iHiHrH 
 
 
 
 
 -(-J '"' 
 
 
 
 it^ £ jQ XJ 
 
 xi 
 
 e 
 
 rt 
 
 •». 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^.vainia 
 
 
 
 ^- a o • 
 
 •00NU500(M 
 
 OC^t-iM 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^A% : 
 
 • eo O tH •* «D tH -^ 
 
 '"' T-i iH rH 
 
 M 
 
 
 • 00 LO LO O 05 l> to 
 
 
 
 
 wi se- 
 
 
 
 iw XJ XJ XJ 
 
 xi 
 
 
 
 -* . 
 
 •0000(M 
 
 
 
 
 CO • 
 
 •UiCOrHr-lo 
 
 pilrtlOlO 
 
 
 
 o --^ 
 
 OO • 
 
 •W0U50CD 
 
 OMC-M 
 
 o 
 
 
 O -US 
 
 TJH . 
 
 •<^^^eo<^qr^ 
 
 «H ^ 
 
 i-iO 
 
 ^ 9. 
 <o ft 
 
 Go 
 
 o fl d C3 
 o o o o 
 
 0-M+J-l-> 
 
 ^ ti ^1 ^ 
 Ut 'ii <s <a 
 (D GGG 
 
 (M« 
 
 he w 
 
 3 s ;3 0, g ji ^ 
 3 "s 1^ s =? p; «? o c 
 
 .ti - .ti 3 ^o C i^ 
 
 m pq fq 
 
 
 be 
 
 .S '^ 
 
 be !5 
 •g o 
 
 ft s 
 >> 2 
 
 • bo 
 
 :.S 
 
 . OJ 
 
 • G 
 ■ O 
 . o 
 . I 
 
 . a 
 . o 
 . c 
 
 hi" S 
 
 Sh rj 3 
 
 C bxiG 
 
 ?§! 
 
 o o 
 
 (X) '-I 
 
 S (1) 0) bi3 
 - o « c c 
 
 t;^ C r, m M 
 
 - « TO 
 
 00 
 
 bcbnbiD be 
 CCS C 
 
 ID O) OJ O) 
 
 Ofo; 0) (D 
 S O O O 
 
 aipp3 
 „ 'd'O'O 
 w o o o 
 
 CC Jh Sh Si 
 
 0(1^(1^A^ 
 
 ™ o 
 
 <D *:? c<io 00 • -oooooo 
 
 !>jX5 MiM tH • •ooo-*'-*«o 
 
 . O -^O «£i • -lOOCOCOo 
 
 UjO -^^ CO . •■rHWWiHrH 
 P,C<1 ««■ 
 
 s^^ 
 
 G 00 
 X3 o 
 o2 
 
 iOOOtJ< 
 
 ■ 00 -ti t- 1- eo 
 
 •C-C0rH«Du3 
 
 'CO • rHT 
 
 •00<MOl«lOt> 
 
 • lo o T-i t^ 00 eo w 
 
 • <» Tt^ TT' «c> i« eo IM 
 
 • 0) o 
 
 boc S 
 
 cS§ 
 
 Sci 
 03 <u c 
 
 bc-S 
 he C «2 
 
 w C bxi 
 g 0) C 
 
 'd c c 
 
 C 0) 
 
 -cs-c c 
 
 c^ O O ;3 
 
 '-3 S S 
 
 !h O O 
 
 QUO 
 
 0) (U OJ 0) 
 
 c c c c 
 
 "bc'bJo'S'bi 
 a; . . C C C G 
 
 g . . OJ <D OJ 0) 
 So ' '^222 
 
 C C G o O O O 
 M- d) dj j2 rj j3 ^ 
 
 O 'OtS'O'd 
 
 m W K o O O O 
 
 c^ cti oi Lh ;-. ^H ^ 
 
 OOOPhPhO^P^ 
 
546 MECHAXICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 general administrative expenses, and 5% for amortization or obso- 
 lescence in the steam and hydraulic plants. 
 
 TABLE LIX. RELATIVE COSTS PER KW.-HR. DISTRIBU- 
 TION OF MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION 
 
 05 
 
 c 
 
 "" ^ '^ is 
 
 rA a CO <U 
 
 Maintenance : -^ 5 o -^ S.S „ S ^ 
 
 o a 3 o ^ -D Tn bc-^ :s 
 
 Engine room, mechanical.. 2.59 0.51 1.55 5.18 2.84 0.51 
 Boiler or producer room.. 4.65 4.33 3.55 1.16 1.97 
 Coal and ash-handling ap- 
 paratus 0.58 0.54 0.44 0.29 0.29 
 
 Electrical apparatus 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 
 
 Operation : 
 
 Coal 61.70 55.53 52.44 26.52 25.97 
 
 Water 7.20 0.65 0.61 3.60 2.16 
 
 Engine room, labor 6.75 1.36 4.06 6.76 4.06 1.36 
 
 Boiler or producer room 
 
 labor 7.20 6.74 5.50 1.81 3.05 
 
 Coal and ash-handling labor 2.28 2.13 1.75 1.14 1.14 
 
 Ash removal 1.07 0.95 0.81 0.54 0.54 
 
 Electrical labor 2.54 2.54 2.5 i 2.54 2.54 2.54 
 
 Engine room lubrication. . . 1.78 0.35 1.02 1.80 1.07 0.20 
 
 Engine room waste, etc 0.^0 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.20 
 
 Boiler room lubrication, etc. 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 
 
 Relative operating cost,7c. .100.00 77.23 75.87 52.94 47.23 5.94 
 
 Relative investment, % 100.00 75.00 80.00 110.00 96.20 100.00 
 
 Probable average cost per 
 
 kw 125.00 93.75 100.00 137.50 120.00 125.00 
 
 Probable fixed charges, %. . 11 11 11 12 11.5 11 
 
 For steam-turbine plants larger than 60,000 kw. the cost per kw. 
 may be reduced to $75. 
 
 In the other items will be found changes due to the reduced cost 
 of steam turbines, and also due to the possibility of saving the 
 water of condensation by separating out the oil between the re- 
 ciprocating engine and the steam turbine. Under the heading of 
 Coal, in the reciprocating engine and steam turbine plant, it will 
 be found that this amount has been increased so as to cover the 
 difference between the theoretical amount which had to be assumed 
 in 1906, and the actual amount guaranteed by the manufacturer 
 in 1909. 
 
 In Figs. 62-83 the cost of delivered coal has been assumed at 
 $3.00 per ton for a high grade coal having 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 
 and also at $1.50 per ton for a low-grade coal having 11,000 B.t.u. 
 per lb. so as to illustrate the effect upon the cost of power. 
 
 Figs. 62 to 67 inclusive show with various types of plants, the 
 fixed charges upon the upper curve and the operating charges below 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 547 
 
 the axis, so that the sum of the ordinates gives the total cost per 
 kw.-hr. for any load factor on the plant. It will be noted that all 
 the steam plants are assumed to have 50% overload capacity, suffi- 
 cient to carry them over a peak-load of 2 hours, whilst the gas plant 
 has no overload capacity. The combined gas-engine and steam- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 8 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —■ 
 
 FixJ 
 
 CH 
 
 \RGE 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 o. 
 
 1 
 
 /ATE 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^n 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^1^ 
 
 r=«» 
 
 -=^ 
 
 
 f- — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 OTAl, 
 
 OPERATING CHARGE 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 1 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "PER CENT LOAD 
 Fig. 62. Cost of power. Reciprocating steam-plant. 
 Plant cost =: $125 per kw. 
 Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.= 11%. 
 Solid lines = coal at $3.00 — 14.500 B.t.u. per lb. 
 Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 turbine plant has 25% and the hydraulic plant 10% overload 
 capacity. 
 
 Figs. 68 to 75 inclusive show typical industrial, lighting (summer 
 and winter), and railroad (summer and winter) load-curves. On 
 
548 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 these Figs, will be found straight lines drawn through points cor- 
 responding to the necessary installed capacity of the various types 
 of plants, and a second series of cost curves bringing out in a very 
 suggestive manner the cost of furnishing power at every hour of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cc c 
 o 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 v\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 N 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ri 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 k 
 
 'ER , 
 
 :iLov\ 
 
 ATT 
 
 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $75. 
 
 » ? 
 
 R~K 
 
 LOW 
 
 frf" 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .'" 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 "" 
 
 c 
 
 OAL 
 
 VND > 
 
 /ATE 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 -_. 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^--" 
 
 ^^ 
 
 'to 
 
 rALC 
 
 OST 
 
 DF 
 
 ERA] 
 
 ION 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 » 
 
 ■4 
 
 
 
 fa 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 W) 
 
 li 
 
 » 
 
 1^ 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 PER CENT LOAD 
 Fig. 63. Cost of power. Steam turbine plant. 
 Plant cost = $93.75 per kw. — A. 
 Plant cost = $75.00 per kw. — B. 
 Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.= 11%. 
 Solid lines = coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 
 Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 the day. As an illustration, refer to Fig. 72, which shows the cost 
 of power on a summer lighting load. 
 
 During the greater part of the day, No. 4, or the gas-engine 
 plant, is the most expensive, owing to the necessarily high fixed 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 549 
 
 charges. For the same reason, the reciprocating- steam-engine 
 plant is also high. 
 
 During: the light morning load the hydraulic plant is also handi- 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 . ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 I- 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q. 2 
 
 (O 
 
 -J 
 
 
 
 
 
 \- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 [0_( 
 
 2AR( 
 
 ES 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -'" 
 
 
 
 
 CO/ 
 
 L- AN 
 
 D W/ 
 
 TER 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 TOT 
 
 AL C( 
 
 &" 
 
 F OP 
 
 1 .1 
 
 :rat 
 
 O-N- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ~ ^ 
 
 
 
 ,-' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 PER CENT LOAD 
 
 120 
 
 Fig. 64. Cost of power. Reciprocating engine and low-pressure 
 turbine plant. 
 Plant cost = $100 per kw. 
 Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.= 11%. 
 Solid lines = coal at .$3.00 — 14.500 B.t.u. per lb. 
 Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 capped by the fixed charges, but the low operating costs render it 
 the more efficient upon the whole. 
 
 Fig. 66, representing the plant in which .5 the installed capacity 
 
550 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 consists of gas engines and .5 of steam turbines, makes so excel- 
 lent a showing on all the load-diagrams that we may expect to 
 hear more of this type of plant in the future. 
 
 In all these comparisons it must be remembered that the costs 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 tc 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 O 
 T « 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 ge 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 0. I 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 \. 
 
 ^'■i?-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ki 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO/ 
 
 L AN 
 
 ) WA 
 
 TER 
 
 
 
 r— - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '~~tI 
 
 ital" 
 
 OPER 
 
 ATIN( 
 
 , CH/ 
 
 RGES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 ' 2 
 
 » 
 
 4 
 
 01 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 8( 
 
 ) 
 
 IC 
 
 lor 
 
 12 
 
 •0 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 PETTGENT LOAD 
 
 Fig. 65. Cost of power. Gas-engine plant. 
 Plant cost = $137.50 per kw. 
 Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc. = 12%. 
 Solid lines := coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B t.u. per lb. 
 Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 are worked out to the generating plant bus-bars -only. In prac- 
 tically all cases, therefore, the costs discriminate in favor of the 
 hydraulic plant, which almost invariably has to assume as a part 
 of its expenses, the fixed charges and operating expenses of the 
 transmission lines. Obviously, it was inadvisable to bring such an 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 551 
 
 unknown quantity into this comparison, but the fixed charges and 
 operating expenses of a long-distance transmission line connecting 
 to an hydraulic plant may be sufficient in many cases to decide 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ccio 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I' 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (0 
 
 -J 1 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -J ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 HlTf 
 
 0-c, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ji 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >— -i 
 
 ^H£E 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 3AL AND V^ATEF 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 ,'— 
 
 
 
 
 
 TOT 
 
 Ix. OP 
 
 ERATING CHARGES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 14^ 
 
 PER CENT LOAD 
 
 Fig. 66. Cost of power. Gas-engine and steam-turbine plant. 
 
 Plant cost — $120 per kw. 
 
 Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc. = 11.5%. 
 
 Solid lines = coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 Dotted lines — coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 the question of local steam or gas plant versus long-distance trans- 
 mission from an hydraulic plant. 
 
 Figs. 76 to 81 are calculated from Figs. 62 to 67 and show the 
 
552 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 power-plant costs per kw, per annum for various load-factors for 
 each of the 6 types of plants. Attention is called to the fact that 
 the result shown in Fig. 81 is for power at the bus-bars only, and 
 that this must of necessity be increased by the fixed charges and 
 maintenance costs of the transmission lines and transformers. 
 
 16 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0,0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5' 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^*^ 
 
 po 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■--iif 
 
 .iits_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TCI 
 
 AL 
 
 =e:ra 
 
 riNG 
 
 DHAR 
 
 3ES 
 
 
 .« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 40 60 80 100 WO 
 
 PER CENT LOAD' 
 
 Fig. 67. Cost of power. Hydraulic plant. 
 Plant cost = $125 per kw. 
 Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.rr 11%. 
 
 Comparative Power Station Costs for Steam, Gas and Diesel 
 Engines. The following is from a paper by Charles Day, in Power, 
 Oct. 3, 1911. The great difficulty most buyers of power-plant ma- 
 chinery find is in securing reliable figures of power costs from 
 people engaged in trade, except in the case of electric-supply 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 553 
 
 stations. The figures published in the Electrical Times cover prac- 
 tically almost all the supply stations in Great Britain, and this 
 information combined with information obtained direct from sta- 
 tion engineers has enabled the author to determine the average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 GA^ PLANT 
 
 ^APAC 
 
 TY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 000 
 
 CAPACITY OF ALL 
 
 OTHE 
 
 5^»>PLANTS 
 
 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 X. 
 
 
 60000 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 / 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 ^--. 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gsoooo 
 
 1 
 
 ^40000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MID 
 
 DAY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Z i 
 
 4 
 
 e 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 [1 1 
 
 I i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 TIME-HOURS 
 Fig. 68. Typical industrial load. 
 
 results obtained in such stations. With different types of plant 
 these averages for stations having a plant capacity not exceeding 
 1000 horsepower, are as stated in Table LX. 
 The limit of 1000 h.p. was fixed owing to there being as yet no 
 
554 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE LX. PENCE PER KW.-HR. SOLD 
 
 Type of 
 engine 
 
 Steam 
 Gas . , 
 Diesel 
 
 Fuel 
 
 0.45 
 0.43 
 0.23 
 
 Lubricat- 
 ing oil, 
 waste, 
 stores, 
 
 and 
 water 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.04 
 
 Wages 
 
 0.25 
 0.28 
 0.19 
 
 Repairs 
 and 
 
 mainte- 
 nance 
 
 0.26 
 0.24 
 0.07 
 
 Total 
 
 operating 
 
 costs, 
 
 pence 
 
 1.02 
 1.04 
 0.53 
 
 Load 
 factor 
 
 14.7 
 15.3 
 14.3 
 
 large electricity-supply stations equipped solely with Diesel engine 
 or gas engines. Of course, better results are obtained when driving 
 machinery which gives a better load factor, but the causes which 
 produce loss are, as a rule, the same, though modified in extent. 
 The general conclusion formed from a study of electricity stations 
 holds good for the great majority of power users, though perhaps 
 not applicable to some special trades, where engines can be run 
 continuously on almost uniform loads. It is also necessary to point 
 out that the figures include some items which should not strictly 
 
 tr 
 ?.n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =r=^ 
 
 ' 
 
 """^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 =$^ 
 
 -Tzr. 
 
 — - 
 
 3rrr 
 
 — 
 
 rzir: 
 
 
 
 
 :::. 
 
 '4 
 
 
 
 ^-- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 MID 
 
 DAY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 % 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 TlME-HOURS^ 
 
 Fig. 69. Typical industrial load. Cost of power throughout the 
 
 day. 
 
 1 = Reciprocating steam plant. 
 
 2 = Steam-turbine plant. 
 
 3 = Reciprocating engine and low pressure turbine plant. 
 
 4 = Gas-engine plant. 
 
 5 = Gas engine and steam-turbine plant. 
 
 6 = Hydraulic plant. 
 
 be charged against the power plant. For instance, the wages items 
 include figures for men working on cables, street lamps, and in sub- 
 stations, and the repairs items include repairs to such parts. Also 
 it is necessary to mention that the figures give the costs per unit 
 of energy sold, not per unit generated. 
 
 From the averages it is clear that a substantial gain is obtained 
 by the adoption of Diesel engines as against either gas or steam 
 engines, the figures being beyond doubt substantially accurate. It 
 is also noticeable that the gain is not only on fuel consumption, 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 555 
 
 but is practically in the same proportion on the other items of 
 expenditure. 
 
 The great saving- shown by these average figures is confirmed 
 by repeated experiences of the author. In many cases, although 
 the figures guaranteed with Diesel engines have been no better 
 than figures previously guaranteed and obtained on tests, with 
 existing steam and gas engines, the Diesel engines have shown over 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 °> 
 
 lU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 
 5. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 X 
 
 
 ^B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 X 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 X 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 'y^ y 
 
 'ix 
 
 CO 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 cc 
 
 UJ 
 
 a. 
 
 ^ on 
 
 
 /- 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 -1 
 -J 
 O 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 (y" 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 y\ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 40 60 so 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 70. Typical lighting load. 
 
 extended periods a saving of 50 and 60%, and in some cases an even 
 greater percentage, the result being due to the fact that the Diesel 
 engine's average working results were very much nearer to the 
 guaranteed figures than with gas or steam engines, combined with 
 the fact that the relatively high cost of working at light loads 
 with gas or steam had not been sufficiently taken into account when 
 considering the guaranteed figures. 
 
556 
 
 MECHANICAL ASD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ! 
 
 10 13 2 4 
 
 TIME-HOURS 
 
 Fig 71 Typical winter lighting load. Cost of power throughout 
 the day. Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 same as in Fig. 69. 
 
 TABLE LXl OPERATING COST. PENCE PER KW-HR. 
 SOLD, FOR STEAM STATIONS OF DIFFERENT SIZES 
 
 
 
 Lubricat- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Station 
 capacity 
 not exceed- 
 ing, kw. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 ing oil, 
 waste, 
 
 water 
 and 
 
 stores 
 
 Wages 
 
 Repairs 
 and main- 
 tenance 
 
 Total, 
 pence 
 
 Load 
 factor 
 
 250 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.36 
 
 1.43 
 
 13.2 
 
 500 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.29 
 
 1.18 
 
 13.3 
 
 750 
 
 0.43 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.95 
 
 15.4 
 
 1,000 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.89 
 
 16.8 
 
 1,500 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.81 
 
 16.9 
 
 2 000 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.78 
 
 17.7 
 
 3,000 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.69 
 
 17.4 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.77 
 
 18.8 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.64 
 
 18.7 
 
 7,000 
 10,000 
 
 0.36 
 0.26 
 
 0.04 
 0.03 
 
 0.13 
 0.09 
 
 0.20 
 0.13 
 
 0.73 
 0.51 
 
 17.9 
 22.6 
 
 20,000 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.60 
 
 19.6 
 
 50,000 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.46 
 
 20.56 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 557 
 
 When going through cost records to prepare the average figures 
 previously given, the author noticed very wide differences of cost 
 per unit, particularly in the case of the steam plant. He therefore 
 had the average cost calculated for steam stations of different capa- 
 city, and as the results are interesting, they are given separately 
 In Table LXI. 
 
 It is to be noted that, even with the largest steam stations, the 
 
 ;?6 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 1 \ 
 / \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 O IB 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 f\ 
 
 \ 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 1.. 
 
 
 / 
 
 /A 
 
 /a' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 '/A 
 
 W 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 W 
 
 )\'\\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /\ 
 
 
 
 / . 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1/ 
 
 K 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 
 \N 
 
 b 
 
 J-N 
 
 .-.=. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 / 
 
 kS 
 
 \^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ VJ 
 
 
 ^brr: 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' ^ \ 
 
 V-- 
 
 K- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 5' 
 
 
 
 -'' 
 
 
 v^' 
 
 /' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MID 
 
 OAV 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 . 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 5 
 
 8 1 
 
 1 
 
 2, 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 } 1 
 
 12 
 
 TIME-HOURS 
 
 Fig. 72. Typical summer lighting load. Cost of power throughout 
 the day. Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 same as Fig. 69. 
 
 costs per unit generated are no better than for quite small stations 
 using Diesel engines, and this in face of the improved load factor. 
 This is a most important point, and shows that small Diesel stations 
 can profitably supply current at prices hitherto thought to be ob- 
 tainable only in densely populated centers having large power 
 stations. 
 
 In all cases the figures which have been given are operating 
 costs and do not include anything for interest on capital or de- 
 preciation. It is hardly possible to give a definite statement show- 
 
558 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ing the cost of constructing and equipping power houses of differ- 
 ent types, as there are so many variable factors. However, the 
 author's experiences of a considerable number of estimates indi- 
 cates that up to a capacity of, say, 1000 kws. there is generally 
 little difference between fhe gross capital expenditure required, 
 whether steam, gas, or Diesel engines be adopted. 
 
 10 12 
 TIME-HOURS 
 
 Fig. 73. Typical railway load. 
 
 The heat efficiency of the Diesel engine, though far from perfect, 
 is still much better than any other heat engine, as is readily seen 
 from the fuel consumption, which is 0.44 pound of fuel oil per 
 brake horsepower per hour. The fuel consumption is also low at 
 partial loads; being 0.45 pound at three-quarters load, 0.47 pound 
 at half load and 0.62 pound at quarter load. 
 
 These are not " records " but everyday figures, and for engines 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 559 
 
 of moderate size. With larger engines the fuel consumption is 
 rather lower, but increase of size does not give anything like the 
 improvement in fuel consumption that occurs with steam engines. 
 
 Owing to the high economy at light loads it is often found dis- 
 tinctly advantageous to run a Diesel engine in preference to using 
 a storage battery. 
 
 The oil generally used is residual petroleum; that is, the re- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 22 
 
 
 1 
 t 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 
 I 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 / 
 1 
 
 /r 
 
 ^>\ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 i 
 1 / 
 1 / 
 
 f 
 
 uA 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 /'f 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 CO 
 
 -1 
 
 D 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 y^ 
 
 i 
 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 kv 
 
 & 
 
 2^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 fi 
 
 '^^ 
 
 ^/^/ 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 ^ . 
 
 
 
 
 
 l\3 
 
 b 
 
 ,'''' 
 
 •- 
 
 
 \.,^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z^'" 
 
 
 
 
 v_. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MID 
 
 DAY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 
 i 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 •i 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 \ 1 
 
 J u 
 
 TIME-HOURS 
 
 Fig. 74. Typical summer load. Cost of power throughout the day. 
 Curves 1, 2, 3. 4, 5 and 6 same as in Fig. 69. 
 
 siduum left from petroleum after the lighter oils have been distilled 
 ofE. The increased demand for gasolene will certainly tend to 
 increase the further supply of residuum, while the opening up of 
 new oilwells in various parts of the world is steadily increasing 
 the oil supply. 
 
 The fuel oil used can be almost any of the fuel oils which are 
 used for boiler firing, and a wide variety of oils can be used with 
 no alteration of the engine, this being probably explained by the 
 
560 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 fact that an atomizer which will sufficiently atomize a thick viscous 
 oil can easily atomize the thinner oils. The use of oil fuel carries 
 with it obvious advantages in the way of ease of handling and of 
 cleanliness. 
 
 The question may naturally be asked whether Diesel engines are 
 suitable for long periods of continuous running. In reply to this 
 the following instance may be quoted : 
 
 10 12 
 TIME-HOURS 
 
 Fig 75 Typical winter railway load. Cost of power throughout 
 the day. Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 same as in Fig. 69. 
 
 At the Birkdale Electricity Works a Mirrlees-Diesel was installed 
 a little over four years ago. The station engineer recently made a 
 report which showed that the engine had, on the average, worked 
 23.75 hours out of every 24 hours throughout the four years, or an 
 average stoppage of about 1.75 hours each Sunday. 
 
 Average Costs of Installing and Operating Coal-Burning Steam 
 Power Plants. Reginald Trautschold gives the following in Lefax. 
 
 The differentiated costs which together ordinarily make up the 
 total cost of a steam power plant are : 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 661 
 
 Land for engine and boiler rooms 
 
 Engine and boiler room building 
 
 Chimneys 
 
 Boilers 
 
 Feed pumps, boiler 
 
 Engines 
 
 brake h.p. capacity of plant 
 Cost of plant per brake h.p. = 
 
 Accessories 
 Foundations 
 Piping 
 Installation 
 Freight and cartage 
 
 total cost of plant 
 
 := Item A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 oc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 o> 
 
 oc 
 
 UJ 
 Q. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 c^ 
 
 ^,0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 — ^ 
 
 y 
 
 L/ 
 
 ^B 
 
 S 
 
 5<: 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 '/ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 i 30 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / . 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 'iA 
 
 CO 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 oc 
 
 UJ 
 0. 
 
 
 /y 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Av 
 
 -1 
 -i 
 o 
 
 /^ 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 €^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 'y 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 '" 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 
 Fig. 76. Cost of power per kw. per year. Reciprocating steam- 
 plant. 
 Plant cost $125 per kw. 
 Fixed charges — 11%. 
 
 A. B, C, D = coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 
 A'. B'. C, D'.= coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 A = Coal and water. 
 
 B = A + Mechanical maintenance and operation. 
 C = B + Electrical maintenance and operation. 
 D = C -f Fixed charges. 
 
562 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5& 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 > 
 
 tc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ /^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Xd 
 
 ^ 
 
 -1 
 ^ 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^^ 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^0-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 x^ 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 /;x 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 5* 
 
 
 oj^ 
 
 / 
 
 /^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 oa 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 A> 
 
 ^ 
 
 in 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 'y^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 /V^ 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <^s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 Cost of power per kw. per year. Steam-turbine plant. 
 
 Plant cost $93.75 and $75 per kw. 
 
 Fixed charges, 11%. 
 
 A, B, C. and D same as in Fig. 76 = coal at, $3.00 
 per lb. 
 
 A'. B', C and D' same as in Fig. 76 = coal at $1.50 
 per lb. 
 
 14,000 B.tu. 
 11,000 B.tu, 
 
 Fixed charges per year (yearly burden) : 
 
 Depreciation 
 
 Repairs 
 
 Interest 
 
 Insurance 
 
 Taxes, 2% or .75 cost = 
 
 Total 
 Fixed charges per brake h.p.-yr. 
 
 5 % of total cost. 
 2 % " " " 
 
 6 % " " 
 
 1 % " " 
 1.5% " " 
 
 15.5% " " 
 15.5% of Item A. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 563 
 
 TABLE LXII 
 
 A. COST OF PLANT PER 
 BRAKE H.P. 
 
 B. FIXED CHARGES PER 
 BRAKE H.P. YEAR, TAKEN 
 AS 15.5% OF COST PER 
 BRAKE H.P. 
 
 Size h.p. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Size h.p. 
 
 Cost 
 
 100 
 
 1172 
 
 100 
 
 $ 26.66 
 
 200 
 
 146 
 
 200 
 
 22.63 
 
 300 
 
 126 
 
 300 
 
 19.53 
 
 400 
 
 110 
 
 400 
 
 17.05 
 
 500 
 
 96 
 
 500 
 
 14.88 
 
 600 
 
 84 
 
 600 
 
 13.02 
 
 700 
 
 76 
 
 700 
 
 11.78 
 
 800 
 
 68 
 
 800 
 
 10.54 
 
 900 
 
 64 
 
 900 
 
 9.92 
 
 1000 
 
 60 
 
 1000 
 
 9.30 
 
 1500 
 
 58 
 
 1500 
 
 8.99 
 
 2000 
 
 56.50 
 
 2000 
 
 8.76 
 
 2500 
 
 55 
 
 2500 
 
 8.53 
 
 3000 
 
 54 
 
 3000 
 
 8.37 
 
 4000 
 
 52 
 
 4000 
 
 8.06 
 
 5000 
 
 50 
 
 5000 
 
 7.75 
 
 C. COST OF ATTENDANCE 
 PER BRAKE H.P. YEAR 
 (308 DAYS) 
 
 Size 
 
 Operative hours 
 
 of plant 
 
 per day 
 
 h.p. 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 100 
 
 $12.00 
 
 $24.00 
 
 200 
 
 10.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 300 
 
 8.60 
 
 17.20 
 
 400 
 
 7.25 
 
 14.50 
 
 500 
 
 6.20 
 
 12.40 
 
 600 
 
 5.40 
 
 10.80 
 
 700 
 
 4.70 
 
 9.40 
 
 800 
 
 4.15 
 
 8.30 
 
 900 
 
 3.75 
 
 7.50 
 
 1000 
 
 3.50 
 
 7.00 
 
 1500 
 
 3.25 
 
 6.50 
 
 2000 
 
 3.15 
 
 6.30 
 
 2500 
 
 3.05 
 
 6.10 
 
 3000 
 
 2.75 
 
 5.50 
 
 4000 
 
 2.50 
 
 5.00 
 
 5000 
 
 2.25 
 
 4.50 
 
 D. COST OF OIL, WASTE 
 
 AND SUPPLIES PER 
 
 BRAKE H.P. YEAR (308 
 DAYS) 
 
 Size 
 
 Operative 
 
 ! hours 
 
 of plant 
 
 per day 
 
 h.p. 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 100 
 
 $ 2.40 
 
 % 5.76 
 
 200 
 
 2.00 
 
 4.80 
 
 300 
 
 1.72 
 
 4.13 
 
 400 
 
 1.45 
 
 3.48 
 
 500 
 
 1.24 
 
 2.88 
 
 600 
 
 1.08 
 
 2.60 
 
 700 
 
 .94 
 
 2.26 
 
 800 
 
 .83 
 
 1.99 
 
 900 
 
 .75 
 
 1.80 
 
 1000 
 
 .70 
 
 1.68 
 
 1500 
 
 .65 
 
 1.56 
 
 2000 
 
 .60 
 
 1.44 
 
 2500 
 
 .55 
 
 1.32 
 
 3000 
 
 .50 
 
 1.20 
 
 4000 
 
 .40 
 
 .96 
 
 5000 
 
 .35 
 
 .84 
 
 TABLE LXIII. 
 
 COAL CONSUMPTION PER BRAKE H.P. 
 (308 DAYS) 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Size Operative hours 
 
 Size 
 
 Operative hours 
 
 of plant 
 
 per day 
 
 of plant 
 
 
 per 
 
 day 
 
 h.p. 10 
 
 
 24 
 
 h.p. 
 
 10 
 
 
 24 
 
 100 lO.OOtons 
 
 20.00 tons 
 
 900 
 
 4.15 tons 
 
 8.30 tons 
 
 200 9.00 
 
 
 18.00 
 
 1000 
 
 3.45 
 
 
 6.90 
 
 300 8.25 
 
 
 16.50 
 
 1500 
 
 2.80 
 
 
 5.60 
 
 400 8.00 
 
 
 16.00 
 
 2000 
 
 2.40 
 
 
 4.80 
 
 500 7.10 
 
 
 14.20 
 
 2500 
 
 2.10 
 
 
 4.20 
 
 600 6.20 
 
 
 12.40 
 
 3000 
 
 1.85 
 
 
 3.70 
 
 700 5.50 
 
 
 11.00 
 
 4000 
 
 1.72 
 
 
 3.44 
 
 800 4.80 
 
 
 9.60 
 
 5000 
 
 1.55 
 
 
 3.10 
 
564 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE LXIV. TOTAL COST OF POWER PER BRAKE HP 
 YEAR (308 DAYS) 
 
 Cost of coal per ton 
 
 Size 
 
 $2.00 
 
 $3.00 
 
 $4.00 
 
 $5.00 
 
 plant 
 
 Service 
 
 Service 
 
 Service 
 
 Ser\ 
 
 ice 
 
 h.p. 
 
 10 hr. 
 
 24 hr. 
 
 10 hr. 
 
 24 hr. 
 
 10 hr. 
 
 24 hr. 
 
 10 hr. 
 
 24 hr. 
 
 100 
 
 $61.06 
 
 $96.42 
 
 $71.06 
 
 $116.42 
 
 $81.06 
 
 $136.42 
 
 $91.06 $156.42 
 
 200 
 
 52.63 
 
 83.43 
 
 61.63 
 
 101.43 
 
 70.63 
 
 119.43 
 
 79.63 
 
 137.43 
 
 300 
 
 46.35 
 
 73.86 
 
 54.60 
 
 90.36 
 
 62.85 
 
 106.86 
 
 71.10 
 
 123.36 
 
 400 
 
 41.75 
 
 67.03 
 
 49.75 
 
 83.03 
 
 57.75 
 
 99.03 
 
 65.75 
 
 115.03 
 
 500 
 
 36.52 
 
 58.56 
 
 43.62 
 
 72.76 
 
 50.72 
 
 86.98 
 
 57.82 
 
 101.16 
 
 600 
 
 31.90 
 
 51.22 
 
 38.10 
 
 63.62 
 
 44.30 
 
 76.02 
 
 50.50 
 
 88.42 
 
 700 
 
 28.42 
 
 45.44 
 
 33.92 
 
 56.44 
 
 39.42 
 
 67.44 
 
 44.92 
 
 78.44 
 
 800 
 
 25.22 
 
 40.03 
 
 30.02 
 
 49.63 
 
 34.82 
 
 59.23 
 
 39.62 
 
 68.83 
 
 900 
 
 22.72 
 
 35.82 
 
 26.87 
 
 44.12 
 
 31.02 
 
 52.43 
 
 35.17 
 
 60.72 
 
 1000 
 
 20.40 
 
 31.78 
 
 23.85 
 
 38.68 
 
 27.30 
 
 45.58 
 
 30.75 
 
 52.48 
 
 1500 
 
 18.49 
 
 28.25 
 
 21.29 
 
 33.85 
 
 24.09 
 
 39.45 
 
 26.89 
 
 45.05 
 
 2000 
 
 17.31 
 
 26.10 
 
 19.71 
 
 30.90 
 
 22.11 
 
 35.70 
 
 24.51 
 
 40.50 
 
 2500 
 
 16.33 
 
 24.35 
 
 18.43 
 
 28.55 
 
 20.53 
 
 32.75 
 
 22.63 
 
 36.95 
 
 3000 
 
 15.32 
 
 "22.47 
 
 17.17 
 
 26.17 
 
 19.02 
 
 29.87 
 
 20.87 
 
 33.57 
 
 4000 
 
 14.40 
 
 20.90 
 
 16.12 
 
 24.34 
 
 17.84 
 
 27.78 
 
 19.56 
 
 31.22 
 
 5000 
 
 13.45 
 
 19.29 
 
 15.00 
 
 22.39 
 
 16.55 
 
 25.49 
 
 18.10 
 
 28.59 
 
 Cost of power is at engine ; no transmission or conversion losses 
 considered. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 2500-brake h.p. plant, operated 10 hrs. per day, 308 days per yr., 
 coal $4.00 per ton. 
 Cost of plant (Table LXII-A) $137,500 
 
 Yearly fixed charges (Table LXII-B) $ 21,325 
 
 Yearly cost of attendance (Table LXII-C) 7,625 
 
 Yearly cost of sujipHes (Table LXII-D) 1,375 
 
 Yearly coal. 5.250 tons (Table LXIII) 21,000 
 
 Total cost of power per year (Table LXIV) $ 51,325 
 
 Total cost of power per brake h.p.-hr. (Table LXV) $.00667 or % ct. 
 
 Steam Power Plant Costs. The following estimated costs were 
 given in a report of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of the 
 Province of Ontario, reprinted in Engineering News, Dec. 1907. 
 
 CAPITAL COSTS OF STEAM POWER PLANTS AND ANNUAL 
 COSTS OF POWER PER B.H.P. 
 
 Capital cost of plant per h.p. 
 i n st a 1 led '■ 
 
 Total 
 
 Size of Engines 
 
 plant, boilers, etc., Buildings 
 
 h.p. installed 
 Engines. Simple, slide valve, non-condensing 
 
 Boilers ; Return tubular. 
 
 10 $66.00 $40,00 
 
 20 56.00 37.00 
 
 30 48.70 35.00 
 
 40 44.75 33.50 
 
 6Q 43.00 31.00 
 
 Annual Annual 
 cost of 10- cost of 24- 
 hr. power hr. power 
 per b. h.p. perb.h.p. 
 
 $106.00 
 
 $91.16 
 
 $180.76 
 
 93.00 
 
 76.31 
 
 151.48 
 
 83.70 
 
 66.46 
 
 131.68 
 
 78.25 
 
 59.49 
 
 117.74 
 
 74.00 
 
 53.95 
 
 106.46 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 565 
 
 40 60 fiO 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 Fig. 78. Cost of power per kw. per year. Reciprocating-engine and 
 low-pressure turbine plant. 
 Plant cost $100 per kw. 
 Fixed charges 11%. 
 
 Engines : 
 Boilers : 
 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 80 
 100 
 
 Engines 
 Boilers : 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 Simple, Corliss, non-condensing. 
 Return tubular. 
 
 70.70 
 62.85 
 59.00 
 56.00 
 50.00 
 44.60 
 
 35.00 
 33.50 
 31.00 
 30.00 
 27.50 
 25.00 
 
 105.70 
 96.35 
 
 90.00 
 86.70 
 77.50 
 69.60 
 
 61.14 
 55.50 
 50.70 
 47.42 
 43.86 
 40.55 
 
 Compound, Corliss, condensing. 
 Return tubular, with reserve capacity. 
 63.40 28.00 91.40 33.18 
 
 53.70 24.00 77.70 29.83 
 
 50.10 20.00 70.10 28.14 
 
 45.90 18.00 63.90 26.27 
 
 117.70 
 107.10 
 97.73 
 91.34 
 85.41 
 79.19 
 
 60.05 
 54.63 
 51.72 
 48.83 
 
566 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 750 
 
 1,000 
 
 43.55 
 
 41.25 
 40.50 
 39.00 
 
 16.00 59.55 
 14.00 55.25 
 13.00 53.50 
 12.00 51.00 
 
 24.84 
 23.73 
 23.56 
 23.26 
 
 46.12 
 44.21 
 44.02 
 43.71 
 
 Engines : 
 Boilers : 
 
 Compound, 
 Water-tube, 
 
 Corliss, condensing, 
 with reserve capacity. 
 
 
 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 750 
 1,000 
 
 55.20 
 51.50 
 49.40 
 46.80 
 44.30 
 
 18.00 73.20 
 16.00 67.50 
 14.00 63.40 
 13.00 59.70 
 12.00 56.80 
 
 25.77 
 24.18 
 23.19 
 
 22.88 
 
 22.47 
 
 46.32 
 43.61 
 42.03 
 41.56 
 41.11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 < VI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 ir 
 
 UJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5* 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .?>" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .— -^ 
 
 
 ■'" 
 
 
 UJ 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ''" 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 _,^<!:^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 g: 
 
 _,-_; 
 
 '-■'' 
 
 •" 
 
 ^>^' 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .'''' ^.i- 
 
 P^--' 
 ^ 
 
 '■^ ^^ 
 
 ,.^- 
 
 .^^'' 
 
 _^— - 
 
 ^^— 
 
 
 
 
 
 V^.^. — ^ 
 
 "' " 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -i 
 
 u 
 
 4 
 
 D 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 [) 
 
 1 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 Fig. 79. Cost of power per kw. per year. Gas-engine plant. 
 Plant cost = $137.50 per kw. 
 Fixed charges 12%. 
 Solid lines 1 
 
 Dotted lines \ same as Fig. 76. 
 A, B, C, D J 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 567 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 §» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 .?>" 
 
 3„ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <; 
 
 ^.^ 
 
 ''" 
 
 
 <00 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^-' 
 
 
 
 
 ^\^ 
 
 Ofl) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^llT^"' 
 
 ^^"^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -:^ 
 
 
 ^80 
 
 .J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 '"-B 
 A^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 u^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ;;;-' 
 
 
 
 A- ^ 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 <:^ 
 
 
 <^'-'" 
 
 V^^-- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ..-- 
 
 '' 
 
 "^' 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 ) ■' 
 
 ' — J 
 
 • 
 
 ( 
 
 1 g 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 
 Fig, 80. Cost of power per kw. per year, 
 turbine plant. 
 Plant cost = $120 per kw. 
 Fixed charges 11.5% per annum. 
 Solid lines 1 
 
 Dotted lines \ same as in Fig. 76. 
 A, B, C, D J 
 
 Gas-engine and steam- 
 
 Boiler Room Equipment Costs Per Rated Boiler Horse-Power. 
 
 The following, by O. S. Lyford, Jr., and R. W. Stovel for plants 
 using coal for fuel, was taken from Electric Journal, April, 1912. 
 
 Dols per h.p. 
 
 High Low 
 
 Boilers exclusive of masonry setting $11.00 $ 8.00 
 
 Superheaters 3.00 
 
 Stokers 5 50 3 00 
 
 Masonry settings for boilers • . 3.50 2 00 
 
 Flues 1.50 0.75 
 
5C8 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Dols. per h.p. 
 
 High Low 
 
 Stacks .,.. 4.00 2.00 
 
 Economizers 4.00 
 
 Mechanical Draft 3.00 
 
 Feed-Pumps 1.50 0.50 
 
 All Piping and Pipe Covering 10.00 6.00 
 
 Feed-Heaters 1.00 0.40 
 
 Coal Chutes and Ash Hoppers 1.25 
 
 Various, such as Indicating and Recording Devices. 
 Damr)er Regulator, Ladders and Runwaj-^s, 
 
 Painting, etc 1.00 0.50 
 
 Totals $50.25 $23.15 
 
 Cost of a 10 h.p. Steam Plant as given by W. O. Webber, 
 Engineering Magazine, Feb., 1907. 
 
 10 h.p. boiler $ 300 
 
 Boiler foundation and setting 160 
 
 Blow-ofC tank 31 
 
 Damper and regulator 75 
 
 Injector tank 10 
 
 Water meter 40 
 
 Piping for same 20 
 
 Pump and vacuum 122 
 
 Feed-water heater 40 
 
 Pipe covering 50 
 
 $789 
 
 Engine, 7 by 10 $ 184 
 
 Foundation for same 60 
 
 Steam separator 35 
 
 Oil separator 25 
 
 Piping 95 
 
 Freight and cartage 30 
 
 $429 
 
 Land for engine and boiler room, 300 sq. ft. at $1.00 $ 300 
 
 Boiler and engine-room bidg., 300 sq. ft. at $1.50 450 
 
 Chimney, 18-in. by 40-ft 400 
 
 $1,150 
 
 Total $2,368 
 
 Note. These figures of Mr. Webber's evidently include labor in 
 each item. His allowance of $1.00 per sq. ft. for land would be 
 high in some places because it amounts to over $43,000 per acre. 
 
 Cost of a 60- h.p. Steam Plant. Mr. Webber is authority for the 
 following, also. 
 
 Land for engine and boiler room $ 2,500.00 
 
 Buildings for engine and boiler room 2.500.00 
 
 Chimney 1,200.00 
 
 80-h.p. boiler 790.00 
 
 Ash pan for boiler (below high-tide level) 120.00 
 
 Boiler and engine settings 1,282.00 
 
 Blow-off tank 31.00 
 
 Damper regulator 75.00 
 
 Injector tank 10.00 
 
 Water meter 60.00 
 
 i| 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 669 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 20 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 B^ 
 
 40 60 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 
 100 
 
 Fig. 81. Cost of power per kw. per year. Hydraulic plant. 
 
 Plant cost = $125 per kw. 
 
 Fixed charges, 11% per annum. 
 
 A = Mechanical maintenance and operation. 
 
 B = A + Electrical maintenance and operation. 
 
 C = B + Fixed charges. 
 
 Piping for same i f r in 
 
 Pump and receiver 7n 4 
 
 Feed-water heater ; 707^ 
 
 Pipe covering 
 
 $ 2,677.78 
 
 Engine, 12 by 30 5 J.%«5.00 
 
 Pan for engine fly wheel '^xy. 
 
 Steam .separator ""•"" 
 
570 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i. 
 
 \ 
 
 \\\l 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 \v 
 
 \ \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > * 
 
 S 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *<5a 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■""— 
 
 ~~~- 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 >— — 
 
 6' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -:•-'-'■ 
 
 z^- 
 
 rrr; 
 
 1— " 
 
 ~^~ 
 
 : 
 
 ZZZl 
 
 _^ 
 
 y 
 
 .6 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 'r'' 
 
 ' ^ 
 
 :n" 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 zirz 
 
 — 
 
 -*— 
 
 
 '~~" 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ca-jfs 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 5= 
 
 == 
 
 ;=s 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 ___ 
 
 
 
 ^' 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 / 
 
 /-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 • 60 80 too 
 
 PER CENT LOAD 
 
 Fig. 82. SummaiT of Figs. 1 to 4 inclusive. 
 Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 same as Fig. 69. 
 
STEAM POWER 571 
 
 Oil separator 41.00 
 
 Piping, freig-ht and cartage 1,026.41 
 
 $ 2,265.21 
 
 Shafting in place $ 550.00 
 
 Belting in place 285.00 
 
 $ 835.00 
 
 Total $11,977.99 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^/ 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 Kn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 3 
 
 .^^^ 
 
 llJ 
 
 > 
 DC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 4>^ 
 
 Q.4U 
 
 1- 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 y) 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 O 
 -J 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ai 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U-0 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /« 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ) 
 
 ^ 
 
 ) — ' 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 ' ' 
 
 i( 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
 
 Fig. 83. Summary of Figs. 76 to 81 inclusive. 
 Curves 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 same as Fig. 69, 
 Coal at $3.00 — 14.500 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
572 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 P^ 
 
 O.H 
 
 < 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 i;^'^^ 
 
 tf 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 W 
 
 
 fU 
 
 
 xn 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 fl 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 ■w 
 
 
 tf 
 
 O a; 
 O o 
 
 P 
 
 Tt^"^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 ffi 
 
 ^■^M 
 
 
 C O 
 
 Ph 
 
 iio 
 
 K 
 
 a; 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 03 
 
 <5j 
 
 O 
 
 tf 
 
 <M 
 
 w 
 
 OC 
 
 « 
 
 4J O 
 
 M 
 
 °o?> 
 
 Hi 
 
 Oo.^ 
 
 
 M > 
 
 Ph 
 
 ^0) 
 
 M 
 
 ^m 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 Ck 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 ( ) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 <Ji 
 
 O !p 
 
 
 d.2 
 
 o 
 
 &^> 
 
 ^ 
 
 -tJ 0) 
 
 
 c«W 
 
 
 _ 
 
 > 
 
 03 
 
 X! 
 
 r^. 
 
 hJ 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 <i: 
 
 
 EH 
 
 
 inaiaj-^ocDOC^j-rHasoiooococ-acD 
 
 t," ,HlOCOlOC-a5«5C00300-*OlOOQOO 
 C i3 r^ 00 CO LO CO iH O OS OO C~- CD Irt IC ■* "^ M 
 
 O M^iHtHi-ItHt-IOOOOOCOOO 
 
 +J 'S* oooooooooooocooo 
 <= '^ oooooooooooooooo 
 
 "^COlOcOCOOOt-OOuit-OOsCOOO 
 
 il, LnooOfoc-'*cooi^ot^a;coi;--cooo 
 
 rj OJ lO CO T-l 00 CD -^ Cq T-l O 00 C- C- CD CD lO 
 ■_ ?q:^q^1l<JiHTHi-l7HTHrHOOOOOO 
 
 <— ' oooooooooooooooo 
 o' o o o o o' o' o' o o o o o' o o' o 
 
 COOOU5oCDaiiHi-la:iCDCOCOCO-<*<CDUi 
 
 • ■rl^i-lxf'^lr-CMiHOOi-ICOOOTfOt--* 
 
 U 00 CD ^ CO iH O 05 00 C~ CO Irt -* Tf< T*! CO CO 
 
 -G ,-l,-(T-l,-(rHr-lOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 ^ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 <^^ ooooooooooo'ooooo 
 
 OOOOUtliOOi-HCvlt^OO-^O-. t^ciooo 
 
 1^1 Oi ^ t>---*l -^OOCOOOOOOi-ICOt-IOOCO 
 
 ;h' CO 'M O'OO CD-^C^T-HOOOt-t^CDCDlrtUS 
 
 ^ !^q(^^(^^T-^,HlHr^TH^-lOOOOooo 
 _ oooooooooooooooo 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 oooooooooooooooo o 
 
 • lO tH i-< t> Cq O CO -r-l CD CO 00 CO CO ■* 05 CO 
 
 2 t^-C-MC^IOOCDCDt^Ol'MiftrHOOlOC^lO 
 
 -C U5COKliHOi00t^COLOlft-*''*C0C0COCO 
 
 ^ iH r-l T-l i-HO'O OO O OOO OOOO 
 
 ^ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 o'oooooooo'ooooooo 
 
 . lO O CO us iH 00 lO CO -* CO CO tH OJ 00 -* 00 
 U Ifl O C- tH C^ CO iH OO C- t- as -"^i a; lO C<] 00 
 rj CO O I>- CO CO M iH Oi 00 t^ CD CD Irt U5 Irt ■<* 
 
 (^qrMT^r^,-lT-^THOoooooooo 
 
 o oooooooooooooooo 
 
 oooo'o'oooooo'ooooo' 
 
 00 00 OS OO CO -^ ITS CO CO O CO Tt< O to CO iH 
 
 • CO C<1 Ol O OS 05 tH -^ 00 CO 00 LQ CO O 00 CO 02 
 
 P C0i-lO5O5C~-CDCDm-^-*C0c0eOC0C^]CM '"^ 
 
 •^ tH i-lOoOOOOOOO OO OO O s_^ 
 
 ^ oooooooooooooooo (u 
 
 o'ooooooooo'oooo'oo ^ 
 
 &9- 
 
 ooomTf<cocDifsc<ia5COT-ieor-i«ioot- 
 
 . O00l/500CO<MCQ COCDOcOeO 05COCO 'tjj 
 
 t, OOl^COiHOOJOOt-CDCOirllrt^-*^ ft 
 
 ^ C^tHt-HtHt-HtHOO'OOOooOOO r^ 
 
 OOOOOOOOO'O'OOOOOO ^ 
 
 ,H OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 <P t3 .OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 Nci a OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 •r?rt •rH<MOOT)ilOCDI>000^01rtOu:>000 
 Wafl rH rH Oa e^ CO tMO 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 573 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /I 
 
 ►- ill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 iM 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^2 
 
 y^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 20 40 60 80 
 
 PER CENT LOAD-FACTOa 
 
 Fig-. 84. Summary of Figs. 76 to 81 inclusive. 
 Curves 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. and 6 same as Fig. 69. 
 Coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 Note. These costs include labor and incidentals. The item for 
 land is very hig-h except in cities of the first or second class. 
 
 Average Cost of Compound Condensing Steam Plants. W. H. 
 Weston has given the following-, Eng-ineering- Mag-azine, January, 
 1912: 
 
 H.P. Cost 
 
 100 Without Economizers % 10,000 
 
 200 " " 19,000 
 
 300 " " 25,500 
 
 400 " " 31,000 
 
 500 With " 28,000 
 
 600 " " 38,000 
 
 800 " " 56,500 
 
 1,000 " " 66,500 
 
574 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 H.P. Cost 
 
 1,500 With Economizers 95,000 
 
 2.000 " " 121,000 
 
 4,000 " " 225,000 
 
 The above figures do not include mechanical stokers or ash- or 
 coal-handling equipments, but do include engine and boiler houses, 
 engine foundations, condenser and pump foundations, chimney, 
 boilers (including settings and fittings), economizers (except where 
 noted), all piping, valves, feed pumps, heaters and separators; en- 
 gines, condensers, air and circulating pumps, and also allowing $1 
 or $2 per h.p. for miscellaneous costs. 
 
 Mr. Weston says that for 1000 h.p. or more, ash -handling plants 
 cost $0.50 to $3 per h.p., and coal-handling plants from $1 to $6 
 per h.p. ; these being so dependent upon special conditions that they 
 
 OMtofBoilw SSI^SS 
 IpoludlDg Sotting S 
 
 Simple Nop-coodeosias: 
 
 Total Coat 
 I>»B.P. 
 
 
 J.) 
 
 Boiler St Eoi-loe Combined 
 
 M M I I I ITTTT 
 
 APPROXIMATE COSTS 
 
 PER HORSE POWER 
 
 OF STEAM POWER PLANTS COMPLETE 
 
 SIMPLE CONDENSING 
 
 Plotted .from DaU ocmpiled bf Wm.G.Saow 
 
 ——Indloatee simple Noo.oondeMing : Eofloe 
 
 , I and Boiler Combined 
 
 
 Total Coat per H.p. 
 
 10 20 
 
 ssSSs 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 Horse Power 
 
 ( Simple ConJon^ing) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 85. Approximate cost per h.p. of steam power plants complete. 
 
 should be calculated for each plant independently, rather than 
 trusting to average figures which vary very widely between these 
 limits and even exceed them. 
 
 Approximate Cost Per h.p. of Steam Power Plants Complete. 
 Simple Condensing. Fig. S5 was plotted from data compiled by 
 Wm. E. Snow, as given in Tables LXVI-LXIX. 
 
 The Estimated Cost per h.p. of Steam Power Plant Complete. 
 After Wm. E. Snow, Engineering Magazine, May, 1908. Tables 
 LXVI-LXIX were compiled from a large amount of data, obtained 
 in many small power stations at various places, and are believed 
 to be sufficiently accurate for any purpose of ordinary estimating. 
 They are naturally general averages or approximations thereto. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 676 
 
 ^r-ocooooo 
 
 • -o OOOOOOOOlftOOO 
 
 Irt • ■COOCCr-ilft«.(3VOiOr->000 
 
 \af£> ' ■ r-^ c^i lo iM lo '* CO t-H CO c 1 1-^ ?o cj 
 
 t-CO rH i-t rH OO 
 
 Qooooo 
 
 W T-l 03 iH CO 06 CO 
 
 Z ifiT-t 00 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 U 00000 
 
 CO CO 0.1 CO 00 05 
 «OiH 00 
 
 , t- -* -* o o 
 
 00000 
 
 OOUSlrtO 
 , Irt t>^ -rJH* im' CO 
 
 ,0OOil»COC<l 
 
 , «o n 10 03 o 
 
 bo 
 
 
 a . <c o c '^ 
 <o u c, C^_4 
 
 ■ <M «C C-) 03 oc , 
 
 -t<<Mt>eOT-ilOU5(MOC«^10030 
 
 «C>'MOOCOOOU5lO<MOC-)C>l^^< 
 
 (M r-irrco 
 
 (IrtrflrtCDCqTfCO-i-COtD 
 
 rHC^-*L0CDl000e^JCC-*C3 0CO 
 10 rH CO CO r-ii-'O 
 
 •ooooooo«cooooo 
 • OMOt-iftC-coo;iftocooo 
 
 ■ «D 'M" «5 Ift «d U5 06 C^i C-^ -4' t-^ O 00 
 U5 tH CO CO cqc-],-! 
 
 c 
 "S 
 
 c 
 
 fc-^ bo 
 
 Oi 0) 1, C^ C 
 
 O j- » .^ 
 
 5 -i c^ ii oi o 'O "! 
 
 ft 0) 0/ hr, ;- , <l^ C ? 
 
 c;r o.n. 
 
 <U 
 
 o; c c^ra; c C c 
 
 ftwOHWfeMfaBKAHhCpap^^O 
 
576 MECHAXJCAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 I ri «> o <M o 05 - 
 
 'W^r^t>-lOU5i-ioS'<t'»Ot-i-t 
 
 o ot^or^O'^oooioousMino 
 
 12 ro 1-1 ra ;^ o c^' O 05 '*' U5 O -"i^ Tj^ i-I -^ ■* 
 
 OoOUiOOO oococoo 
 jT-i-«;t>oooooT-i<c> r-ascoo: ect~ 
 • »-< M ec •* <N T}^ c<i 05 «o «> r-V< ^ «j oc eo 
 
 [■^lOi-llOIO 
 
 'co iH N rH r-O 
 
 |»o■^JOo• 
 
 e<3 r-i 
 
 o fo ^; o T-i OS OS M r-i in i-H CO (M >-i c- ■* 
 "^ c-^ M Vj t> o «^ o '-H ui «j T-J lA «d c^i lo ■<!(* 
 
 oo^^l■^^t-^^c<lO'-lu5?Or-llaI>c^lcc^~ 
 
 IC0OT-HU5t>T-HW00C<l«DT 
 
 ,aj:^«^it-i-Hcoo'Miftoo!Mooc5C<i«c«c 
 
 ,O«<IC<IC^r-IC0OMl0a5<Mi-ir-IM«CtC 
 
 inino^iot^oooirt oooo 
 OfOfxjoooou-iOccwio oooco 
 
 M r: -M >i -M c- T 
 
 
 
 o) t. c 1^ 
 
 2 fa '-'— '-rr'^' CC^foil-C'^^ 
 
 i 
 
 WTT-^fiftio'MooiOi-it^ascgi-occc'^-co 
 
 •«*< <M Tj- eg 1— T-«o 
 
 ««■ tH 
 
 
 wc^oocoo ocL«c«roo 
 
 lflM(MOlftC<l-*t> ^CM«CC^1C-. 0C«O 
 
 ?^ 
 
 '"' c^ irj «c 00 e^' C5 in 00 00 o <m' <c c u; «c ^ 
 
 o 
 
 •<*• (M ■«*< r-l Ni-it-1-00 
 
 o 
 
 A^- 
 
 
 oooooo oocooo 
 
 K 
 
 •«*' i> t> lA «o w t~- 1- eo t- 1- ic ec «> 
 
 hJ 
 
 '"' oo' ift CO a> c^i OS lo o 00 o c^j c> i-i «c t> e^i 
 
 eu 
 
 rf CJ U5 tH CMr^i— r-a> 
 
 6^ iH 
 
 W9- 
 
 
 ICOOOOO 00 IftOCCO 
 
 w 
 
 J,, i-ia5i>i-icgt-t- eo t-«c«ca:«D 
 
 *— ■ m" « t-" ift c^a cvj u5 1-^ oc T-M c<i w ■«}■' c: oo' ^ 
 
 ^ir: CO iH lo th eo^r-r-ii: 
 
 i: c be 
 
 ^ c 
 -a o 
 
 J- 
 
 2 K 
 
 COi 0) w ^ 
 r- I- 01 /11 
 
 K3- 
 
 •^T 
 
 C C 
 
 o 
 
 ml 
 
 Co 
 
 ,3;H 
 
 £•5 ooo£5a;Cc.rccCc 
 
STEAM POWER 577 
 
 Cost of a Steam Power Plant for a Textile Mill. F. B. Rhea, 
 Southern Electrician, Feb., 1912, gives the following table for the 
 cost of complete installation per h.p. of such a plant. 
 
 Engine and condenser 113.67 
 
 Piping, etc 3.70 
 
 Fire tube boilers 5.00 
 
 Fan and stack 1.82 
 
 Installing fire tube boilers 1.21 
 
 Foundation 1.26 
 
 Boiler pumps 0.25 
 
 Economizer 3.92 
 
 Drive 1.00 
 
 Piping in to boiler 0.90 
 
 Pipe covering 0.50 
 
 Total $33.23 
 
 This is understood to represent a 2,500-h.p. plant with pump, hot- 
 well and jet condenser and all piping between the condenser 
 head and hot-well, the engine being delivered and er€Kited on pur- 
 chaser's foundation at competitive point in the Carolinas. The 
 plant is figured to drive a 55,000 spindle cotton mill, the engines 
 being 32 and 64 by 60 ins., cross compound condensing, complete, 
 including foundations, condenser, all necessary pumps, all piping, 
 boilers, and stack or chimney for induced draft. 
 
 Steam Boilers. We are indebted to L. P. Breckenridge, Professor 
 of Mechanical Engineering at the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale 
 University, for the following formulae of costs. 
 
 Equation of 
 Type Capacity cost in dollars 
 
 Horizontal water tube Up to 500 hp. 400 + 8 X hp. 
 
 Vertical water tube Up to 500 hp. 300 + 7 X hp. 
 
 A. A. Potter, Professor of Steam and Gas Engineering, has given 
 in Power, Dec, 1913, the following formulae of costs. 
 
 Capacity, Equation 
 
 Type boiler, h.p. of cost, dol. 
 
 Vertical fire tube Under 20 hp. 49.2 + 6.66 k hp. 
 
 Submerged tube.s, 100 lb. per sq. in. 20 to 50 hp. 116.4 + 3.35 X hp. 
 
 Full length tubes, 100 lb. per sq. in. Up to 50 hp. 51.5 + 3.62 X hp. 
 
 Horizontal fire-tube cylindrical Up to 50 hp. 64. -j- 4.14 X hp. 
 
 From Bulletin No. 2 of Kansas State Agricultural College en- 
 titled Boiler-Room Economics by A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering 
 we have taken the following : 
 
 Portable locomotive type fire-tube boilers, C = 121 + 5.68 X hp., 
 where C = cost in dollars and hp. — boiler horse-power. 
 
 Horizontal fire-tube boilers — working pressure, 125 lb. gauge; 
 for 100 hp. or less. C =i 5.8 X hp. — 20 from 100 to 225 hp., C — 
 211 + 3.35 Xhp. 
 
 Vertical water-tube boilers; upper limit, C = 1032 -}- 2.68 X hp. ; 
 lower limit, C = 797 -|- 6.17 X hp. ; average cost, C - 912 +- 6.98 X hp. 
 
 Horizontal water-tube boilers, C — 149 + 8.24 X hp. 
 
 Tables LXX-LXXIV were compiled by A. A. Potter and S. L. 
 Simmering from data furnished them by manufacturers. From 
 these tables were deduced the formulae froni Bulletin No. 2, above. 
 
578 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 « 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 0686 
 
 0594 
 
 0502 
 
 053 
 
 .0522 
 
 .0533 
 
 ,052 
 .0476 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oh 
 
 ^ ■ "ooooo 'oo 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 ««• 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 PQ 
 
 
 5d 
 
 ooooooift<nooo(Mw 
 
 
 ^? 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 ^ O 00 IC C<] CO tH lO 00 iH f- 
 
 
 ^ eg a> oj c-^ o lys irj "^ U5 ^ 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 Cs3(Ma5K500t-Tt<U5a5«O0O 
 
 
 
 l:~t-t-l350(NIU5«5CDOCO 
 
 
 o 
 
 e^ ,H tH r-i iH iH CQ irq 
 
 
 _ H 
 
 
 po 
 
 
 {£>lOlOU5U5 OSMOSES 
 
 
 tn 
 
 ^' 00 iH o" oo' O -*' OJ lO OS O 
 
 rt 
 
 tf 
 
 S2 
 
 c^^<^qc^^c?(M<^^<^:^<^^■<tlcoK5 
 
 IS 
 
 
 ^ _ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Tf<ooa3-*'# -rf< 
 
 1 
 
 rC 
 
 <;DfO-*U5U5«OOKSC<lUtl 
 
 t^ 
 
 Ttico-^M<roc<icocg<>ac<ic<| 
 
 0) 
 
 doooddddddd 
 
 l-l(V^ 
 
 l^ ^ 
 
 
 •^3 
 
 Ho 
 
 O --< Tt< Tj< IT- 1- oq iH 
 
 Xj «o imo fo CO o «£> «r> 00 00 
 
 O c<JiMCOCOlOUit>t-t-a505 
 
 ^ f^ 
 
 Sfe 
 
 
 faO 
 
 b.C 
 
 Am 
 
 S^ ' 
 
 <5H 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 up:; 
 
 <D 
 
 is 
 
 W E 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 !>S 
 
 
 p^O. 
 
 
 gg 
 
 ^ 
 *{ 
 
 g3 
 
 
 5« 
 q8 
 
 
 H^ 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 •S-S 
 
 
 s- 
 
 kj 
 
 .2-^3 
 
 X 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 pp 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 p 
 
 h 
 
 
 A t-- Irt Irt 00 W CO OS OS c^-* 
 
 t-* co' oi d d d d d i?5 o d o 
 
 ■"3 t- t> 00 irt <M c<i eg 
 
 ■M cxjt-tooocodrHC-Oioo'cg 
 O Tt< i^ c- o U5 o i> OS ■* 00 eg 
 H tH tH eg eg c<i CO CO lo 
 
 2< o . 'ocooooo 
 
 A T-i . ;«e^egr-io 
 
 ^H eg ' T— I tH 1— 1 1— I tH 
 
 Ph 
 
 ^ o • -ooooo 
 
 rrt lO • -OUSOlftO 
 
 -J O • •COlH'^aiTH 
 
 P rH ' ■ i-H"c^eg'"eg''co 
 
 evjocooooocoo^oooeco 
 
 COCOCO^^CDCO«OC-«Cia5 
 
 Tf^ootocoegcgoqoooo 
 eqegcocococo-<i<"*'*-<*<'* 
 
 • <X> ■* 00 lO 
 
 •" ?e 1-1 00 CO eg eg 
 
 , lO irt ■* -* Tt< ^ 
 
 g oooooo 
 
 P^ d><z> G <d' d <^ 
 
 m 
 
 u . 
 
 aS a cosgot-ooo 
 
 ^^ U5 00 C- iH eo r-J 
 
 ^ <V tHtH 
 
 M 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 73 OOtHOOOoO 
 ij tH t> -*■ OS OS T-i 
 
 O e^i eg CO "* in t- 
 
 >:j eoeoiHOoo«C) 
 A 10 Ti< CO CO eg <M 
 
 rc<H 
 
 |r; dddddd 
 
 rK C5 • • • • 
 
 W -i-i oooegooegus 
 O r^T-lr^e^cg 
 
 "^ 000 t-C005 
 
 M t-i <OTHooooc-eo 
 ^ in cgegiHiHiHrH 
 
 OOOOOO 
 
 ■"t; oinoooo 
 _2 cseg eg eg 0501 
 O eo'ift c--i-5"co d" 
 
 
 — a U5U50000 
 
 O^ ^eg-^ixiooo 
 PQ ^ 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 579 
 
 •Q lO ecoooo M 
 
 ^^ iHrHO •OiOOit-t- 
 
 M -"JfTtf* -COTfOOOOcO 
 
 J^JOoO -OOOOo 
 
 !"OoO 'OOOo'o 
 
 o a 
 
 . (_i ■<*! irt tH c<i -* o CO o in -rf ix> «o 
 
 olli 
 U 
 
 ri OM o o U5 i>-«r>0 irq o tft 1— I 
 "t^ t- so CO OS CO U5 CO CO 00 c- o ^^ 
 (P (Mcococo-^-^tococot-ooas 
 
 lOus-^ coooeo Lot-c^eo 
 
 
 P.COOOOO ««eu5 
 
 ,c3 cooa50ooooce«0'#ooo5 
 
 ;^ eO CO C^ CO CQ IM C<1 N (M Svj C<1 iH 
 
 . a> oooooooooooo 
 
 ■<-> CD 00 o s^ c~j lo t-^'c<i CO CD cc oj 
 
 O ^ ^ (M Cq C<1 (M oq CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 p" (D IftlOCO 
 
 •^ O CO 00 t- U5 -<^ ■* ^ C- '^ -* iH 
 
 QT. L ...• 
 
 ff <i) .5,HMtHtHcv1<Mi-(tHOiHtHtH 
 
 " m "^ CO 00 00 CJ5 oi as o o l^q OS Oi CD 
 
 ■t-J m(riC<lt-OiTHCOCOOT-(i— ICO 
 O ir5l>OOOOo5iH,-HT)^OOOC^_^ 
 E-l iHiHr-TrHC^MM 
 
 ^01005 -OiOOUS-^S^ • -US 
 "^COCOC^l -COCOCOCOM • -iM 
 
 ^^ ooo 
 
 CDOO 05 
 
 OOOOO 
 
 ooooo 
 
 ,H "* U5 C~ CO 
 r-Tc'l'cOCO'oo 
 
 ^ Tfl -^ti CO ■* CD 00 CD CD 00 00 00 O 
 
 "Wfl^ rH tH tH iH rH tH ,H ,H ,H rH iH C^ 
 
 rTiX^S oo-*-*ooococ^^(^qoooooo 
 
 W -*ilfllflCDcDCOCDC-t-C-t-C- 
 
 ^ . OOO10OOOU5OU5U5O 
 
 r;:^ a u5CDC-t-00 05oc<iu5t>t>o 
 
 ID 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 fa 
 
 WW 
 
 o(^ 
 
 MO 
 
 «^ 
 
 <CM 
 ^« 
 
 HO 
 > 
 
 O 
 fa 
 
 o1 
 
 <1 
 Q 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 a irtiMeoos 
 
 t-t-coio 
 
 S3 oooo 
 
 PL) o' ooo 
 
 ^ . 
 
 "O 2* Tt< t- O CO M CO CO iH lO 00 ■«* 
 
 rg'^ cgc<ia3t-'^cDiMiot>'*oo 
 
 - Qj 00 •^' 1-i o' oi oi OS as oo' 00 00 
 
 O 
 
 •—I -^osocaoocsioooo 
 
 rt 05 -* 00 OO U5 05 O CO O T-l o 
 •^ 00 rH CO CD -^ ooo CO kftCCN 
 
 ■-H^CSCDC^ 00 
 
 ^+j fan oscdcoai" ! i ! ! ; ! ! 
 0)2 
 
 & U5CO 00 
 
 fin coooooco 
 
 S^ MrHrHrH 
 
 "^ ^^S^ dooo 
 
 +j a3«wCL, 
 rt oi . 
 
 o c^it>cD(M ! ; i I ; I I 
 
 r^ C<)C<] COTt< 
 
 ac-ait--^ 
 
 ^ ^c^joo 
 
 <u S w 
 
 WS •5^5::s ::::::: 
 
 -M ,-lU50lft 
 
 m'-^ CO 00 CD OS 
 
 fQ ^H Tt<O500C- 
 
 -H aj MTHrHr-l 
 
 -? 
 _bp 
 
 f?r-J OOOO 
 
 K 03 oooo 
 
 •^"g coi>co_ai 
 
 m T)H''a5t>-"'i<'' 
 
 a; N c 
 
 H . 
 o 
 
 Tt<OM<cq 
 «DO0 Oi 7— I 
 
 :;3 ft OOOOOOU500010 
 
 O^ OW OlflCDOCvl irSOiflC" 
 pq rH 1-1 !M IM W CO CO 00 Tt< Tti ^ 
 
580 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 -•OO-M lO -00 •«> 
 
 ^OMIOCO •(£> -US 
 
 530000 -O -O 
 
 P^ o o' o o' ■ o ■ o' 
 
 00 
 00' 
 
 00 
 do" 
 
 iz: aoo 
 0^00 
 
 O 
 
 ojoo 
 
 ■I-'IOO 
 
 Oosco 
 Eh 
 
 ?£)iftu5ec«DiNOOe<5iflt- 
 (Moocvaus-rfooiootcm 
 
 ■*' d ■<*< cq M d th ,_; th c^,*^ THdoiddodddNo6t>o*di>"dododood-iHodi>t> 
 
 lOOOOlOOOooinoOOOOOOOOOOOOOeqOOoOoOOOlftlOlO 
 
 ^CllGlu^u3(^aokfi)ot~>i5'^■5»^ai•*ooe>^ooou3U5looo•i!tlcoO,-lTHool-HOUJc<looo 
 
 O I> O (M e<l O tH ^ CO CO^O «D 10 CO 00 O t- 00 O •* O C<3 00 CCI 00 «0 '^ Oi » O t> tH M ->«< 
 ■r^ 1-H tHiH iH iH tH rH rn'rH rH rH rHiHW r-T t-^'c^Tn m'm C^ffO i^j'cO M CO M laU) •^■^•^ 
 
 00 
 pqO 
 
 I M 
 
 ^^. 
 <^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 «C -COiXi -US •!« lCI>«5t-00 
 
 p^;5 
 
 o 
 
 p3 rCO'^egoo 
 Jw o iw' c~ d iH 
 
 O pLrHrHrHS^ 
 
 US 00 
 
 • uiooo 
 
 . (M <M (M 
 
 t_ .«D-* . 00 CON^^ t-USrH t-rHCO 
 
 OCO •asOi •rHCSOCa •OOOOOrHOOoiOOO • 'OSdOO 
 
 . CO eg Csl •■r^_-r-f_ ■ C^q rH M <>5 . rH tH cg esq rH ,-< 05 rH M • • rH rH rH 
 
 '<Z"d>'^'^ ' d d> d ci <^ S ci> d '^ 
 
 OoO 
 
 ©00 
 
 a«D -^ 
 
 -H.-H'^ 
 
 'cqPh 
 
 Oo 050 
 
 "OOOlOOOOosOOOOOO 
 
 -M Ol 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ci cJ'-joo -ui • 
 
 0) rt ™0 -rH • 
 
 000 • • 
 
 •O -00 
 
 •00 
 
 «DO • 
 
 
 
 OOOOOOOrHOoOOOOOO 
 
 rHoO • • 
 
 • cc -c- 
 
 • 10 
 
 
 
 0OK5 • 
 
 
 
 '*' 00 00 Oi t> rH 
 
 CO w Tf Tf eo 
 
 OOS • . 
 
 •(M •-* 
 
 •U5 
 
 r^ 
 
 <rio • 
 
 
 
 ^oooir5ioa>Oio<r>oOrH«cas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H ■ ' 
 
 tH 
 
 
 'rH 'i-i 
 
 rH 
 
 T-i 
 
 rHC^J 
 
 
 eg 
 
 e<icoc<iccooecTt<^Tt<LC5iflioiou5 
 
 ■Q-^^oot- 
 
 (M 
 
 . 
 
 • "dco 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 'coo 
 
 ■«o 
 
 ••<*< 
 
 t> * , 
 
 ^ t^COOiC-OO 
 
 Ift 
 
 00 
 
 'coco 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oiOi 
 
 00 
 
 t- 
 
 +j- OJ cc rH M rH 
 
 M 
 
 rH ■ 
 
 ■ "rHiM 
 
 
 
 cq 
 
 rH 
 
 
 'rHrH 
 
 rH 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >,-joooo 
 |> rfooco 
 
 
 
 d • 
 
 • -OO 
 
 
 
 
 
 c-> 
 
 
 • -OO 
 
 .<-) 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • -OO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • -OO 
 
 
 
 
 ^t^_io^_o 
 
 t>- 
 
 . 
 
 • .\aio 
 
 
 
 i> 
 
 
 
 
 . -CIO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH rH rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 doo' 
 
 eg 
 
 .d * ' 
 
 iM 
 
 r-f 
 
 ■ 'CVJOO 
 
 
 
 -«*< 
 
 <M 
 
 
 ■ 'loeo 
 
 i> 
 
 00 ' • 
 
 
 U5u5 
 
 . -lO • 
 
 • -laia • -lii • • -xa • 
 
 •Ui 
 
 .10 
 
 COCO 
 
 co' 
 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 CO 
 
 ' CO 
 
 
 •OC- • 
 
 • ocg • 
 
 •rHrH • 
 
 • .00OMO(?q«£>^00-* . 
 
 • -cooieoMSot-usow • 
 
 • • rH rH rH rH eg rH eg eg C<1 • 
 
 •CO 
 
 •C<J 
 
 ■ CO 
 
 I" 
 
 D ooegC3mc.iooOou5cooocoiAo>A'SiftOOo'*'oooot^rHOmcooO'^'<*'CO 
 ^ o,^ iJ3t-^t-i>OoiOocgc^iic^u:)icc^c- 00000^0 a; «OicciOirtOOO,-^?co5 
 
 O^ rH rHrHrHrHr-lrHrHrHrHrH<MCg CO C^]egCgc0egC0cOC0-*-«f«*<lOlftlftlftlC 
 
STEAM POWER 581 
 
 Cost of Boilers. From the American Handbook for Electrical 
 Engineers we take the following: The selling price of boilers per 
 rated h.p. (10 sq. ft. of heating surface = 1 h.p.) ranges from about 
 $8 to |25, depending upon the size, the pressure they are to sus- 
 tain, the style and design, etc. The lowest prices named are for 
 large-sized, ordinary, horizontal tubular boilers (fire tube) for low 
 pressure. For power plants of 1000 h.p. and over the price will 
 range usually between $10 and $15 for pressures not over 150 lbs. 
 per sq. in. For higher pressures and for boilers provided with 
 superheaters the prices will be higher. For boilers of less than 
 100 h.p. the price per h.p. increases as the size decreases. The 
 prices named are for the boilers with the usual fittings of grates, 
 steam and water gauges, blowoff and stop valves, on board cars 
 at the boiler works, and do not include the cost of erection nor of 
 brickwork, fiues or chimneys. 
 
 C. H. Benjamin (Eng. News, Nov. 15, 1902) gives the following 
 rules for estimating the cost of boilers ; P = boiler horsepower ; 
 the cost is in dollars. 
 
 (1) Horizontal water-tube boilers, 125 lbs. pressure, 10 sq. ft. of 
 
 heating surface per boiler hp. 
 Cost of boiler = 500 + 9.20 P. 
 " setting = 400 + 0.80 P. 
 
 (2) Vertical water tube boiler as in (1). 
 
 Cost of boiler = 500 + 8.50 P. 
 
 (3) Horizontal return tubular boilers, 12 sq. ft. of heating surface 
 
 per horse-power. 
 
 Cost of boiler = 100 + 6.50 P. 
 " " setting = 300 -f- 0.70 P. 
 
 Boilers. The manager of a reputable boiler works has given us 
 the following general d^ta : Cost of water tube boilers f.o.b. fac- 
 tory varies from $8 per h.p. for larger size units to $12 for small 
 size units. 
 
 The cost of boiler installations varies widely according to specifi- 
 cations. An average installation costs complete $15 to $20 per h.p.,. 
 the smaller sizes costing more per h.p. than the large sizes. How- 
 ever, with exceptionally fine fittings, etc., even large installations 
 may run as high as from $20 to $25 per h.p. 
 
 Boilers. The following information was taken from The Isolated 
 Plant, Dec, 1909. Horizontal return tubular boilers cost from $9 
 to $10, including the setting per h.p. ; the boiler itself costing be- 
 tween $6 and $7 per h.p. This does not include fittings, valves or 
 pipe connections. 
 
 Water tube boilers cost from $14 to $16 per h.p., including setting, 
 or about $10 per h.p. without setting. 
 
 Water-tube Boilers. The following costs of water-tube boilers 
 and settings are the average of prices for boilers and costs of 
 settings obtained in connection 'with our appraisals throughout 
 the United States. The prices are those of 6 standard manufac- 
 turers of boilers and there is a variation of 15% above and below 
 the average given. In the cost of settings there is a variation of 
 20% above and 'below the average. 
 
582 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 WATER TUBE BOILERS 
 
 Size, hp. 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 1,000 
 
 Size, hp. 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 225 
 
 275 
 
 325 
 
 380 
 
 415 
 
 HORIZONTAL RETURN TUBULAR BOILER 
 
 Size, hp. Weight lb. Net price 
 
 16 3.100 $270 
 
 29 4,600 270 
 
 48 6,600 470 
 
 78 8.600 575 
 
 99 12,000 745 
 
 130 14,800 890 
 
 171 19.700 1,130 
 
 205 23,000 1,310 
 
 249 29,000 1.600 
 
 315 37,000 1.960 
 
 355 42,000 2,180 
 
 Average Cost of Horizontal Tubular Boilers, Accessories, Con- 
 nections, Settings. Judson H. Boughton in Engineering Magazine, 
 November, 1907, quotes Isherwood for the following figures reduced 
 to a horse-power basis, in comparing the performances of the two- 
 general types of boilers. 
 
 Water-tube: 11 sq. ft. heating surface, 3.3 lbs. of coal; relative 
 economy 100, relative rate of steaming 100. 
 
 Net price Cost of 
 of boiler, boiler and 
 Weight, lb. f.o.b. works setting complete 
 20,000 $1,125 $1,550 
 40,000 2,000 2,600 
 51,000 2,440 3,100 
 62,000 2,830 3.500 
 82,000 3,600 4,350 
 103,000 4,350 5,150 
 125,000 5,100 5,950 
 168,000 6,450 7,400 
 210.000 7.800 8,800 
 
 r iVIANNING TUBULAR BOILER 
 
 Net price 
 Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory 
 1 500 S17!? 
 
 1,950 
 
 195 
 
 3 500 
 
 300 
 
 4.500 
 
 360 
 
 5,000 
 
 390 
 
 5,300 
 
 400 
 
 6,000 
 
 440 
 
 .... 6 650 
 
 480 
 
 8,500 
 
 560 
 
 11 000 
 
 690 
 
 12 500 
 
 770 
 
 15,000 
 
 900 
 
 . . . . 21 OOO 
 
 1.200 
 1,430 
 2,180 
 2,500 
 
 26 000 
 
 . . 41 OOO 
 
 48,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 2,800 
 
 . . . . 60 000 
 
 3,000 
 
 fi.^.nno 
 
 3.120 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 583 
 
 
 
 
 .-H 
 
 000© 
 
 ooiftoo 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 o.S<» 
 
 t--*lfilTj< 
 
 t-MrflM 
 
 tH 
 
 CQ 
 
 c 
 
 
 ecM-* 
 
 «CQrH 
 
 eo 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 lO rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~;oo 
 
 
 T-T 
 
 
 
 «> 
 
 
 
 €«■ 
 
 '««■ 
 
 
 ' ft 
 
 
 +J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S-l 
 
 OOlOO 
 
 U50W*i 
 
 ini 
 
 r-\ 
 
 C 
 
 
 in C<£> 
 
 T-Hioooeo 
 
 t> W (M IM 
 
 ■<i< 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 
 IM--^ 
 
 O^rHCO 
 
 lOiMr-l 
 
 C<J 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 -H^^ 
 
 i-T 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 Cv 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 «e- 
 
 ««• 
 
 
 ' V 
 
 
 s.sS 
 
 lOOOO 
 
 0000 
 
 lA 
 
 rH 
 
 « 
 
 TO 
 
 t- CO 1-1 CO 
 
 -<t< ■>*< 1-1 C^l 
 
 05 
 
 (M 
 
 ev 
 
 ji 
 
 -^«5"^ 
 
 CSrH CO 
 
 -*t-lrH 
 
 iH 
 
 
 c 
 
 S>. 
 
 ««• 
 
 i-T 
 
 
 
 
 ,0 
 
 
 ee- 
 
 
 ' V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 C"5 
 
 OU5 1J30 
 
 0000 
 
 Ift 
 
 rH 
 
 «: 
 
 
 O--^ 
 
 >*i(MOeo 
 
 O^T-liM 
 
 00 
 
 (M 
 
 !> 
 
 K 
 
 ^S^" 
 
 OlT-ICO 
 
 •n^i-ii-i 
 
 tH 
 
 
 oc 
 
 <i 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 eo- 
 
 
 
 »= 
 
 J 
 
 <t-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O.SS 
 
 0000 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 (T 
 
 1-1 CI CO 
 
 t-(MClrH 
 
 ■^t" 
 
 CSI 
 
 Ifi 
 
 o°r-, ^ 
 
 OOiHCO 
 
 (?giH 
 
 tH 
 
 
 «C 
 
 H 
 
 -^ 
 
 09- 
 
 6^ 
 
 
 
 »= 
 
 h:i 
 
 •d 
 
 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IflOC-O 
 
 (MlftOOO 
 
 
 
 00 cc 
 
 C<I rH Ci S^J 
 
 <£>Olr-iH 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 
 c 
 
 C-rHC<I 
 
 T-4 r-l 
 
 T-i 
 
 
 IC 
 
 o 
 
 
 €«■ 
 
 e«- 
 
 
 
 «/= 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tf 
 
 .d 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 oooom 
 
 COOO-* 
 
 U5 
 
 00 
 
 t~05«0rH 
 
 '^OJt-rH 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 la 
 
 to eg 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 io>> 
 
 so- 
 
 i-T 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 6«- 
 
 
 
 ffl 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ss 
 
 lo lOOlC 
 
 lOOOTt< 
 
 10 
 
 00 (N 
 
 0>C5Tt<TH 
 
 -^Olt-r-t 
 
 
 
 r\ 
 
 ■<* 
 
 w 
 
 10 (M 
 
 «> 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 cq 
 
 O 
 
 ">>> 
 
 e«- 
 
 ««■ 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 "1 
 
 inoiflio 
 
 lOlftlO-** 
 
 U5 
 
 -* 00 
 
 OWOOi-l 
 
 COlfllOi-l 
 
 C- 
 
 i-A ty 
 
 
 «o 
 
 
 00 
 
 a 
 
 -^s. 
 
 €«• 
 
 so- 
 
 
 «« 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 '. c 
 
 * cS 
 
 :^:c . 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 : : : : 
 
 
 
 :8 
 
 
 • ^ • 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 •. h • 
 
 
 
 * <v 
 
 • 3 
 
 ■ w 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 :^S : 
 
 
 
 : c 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CC 
 
 :"s : 
 
 ^11 ^c- 
 
 :i 
 
 • <u • 
 
 
 " , 'S 
 
 ■'O 
 
 _.^S . 
 
 
 ii « 
 
 :^.s:' 
 
 »--! 
 
 :fl 
 
 : .a : 
 
 
 ers, 
 f bo 
 
 oiler 
 
 
 of boi 
 water 
 r-feed 
 tor . 
 gr. incl 
 
 • c 
 
 
 
 so ,Q 
 
 : M t- c 
 
 Vi 
 
 
 
 lar bo 
 
 size 
 
 cost. 
 
 
 liillll 
 
 ions . 
 
 total 
 
 eater, 
 
 ected 
 
 
 t-^^ 
 
 o«wXJ-- a^ a 
 
 
 3 t; u 
 
 '*^Ci:^ 
 
 tJ ^' C s^ u 
 
 ^u 
 
 ^C'^C 
 
 
 .CO) <u 
 
 0) 0) (D 
 
 OJ <D D (U 
 
 0) 
 
 (U 
 
 
 3> > 
 
 >>> 
 
 >>>>> 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 h 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 <:<:<j 
 
 <: 
 
 « 
 
 <^<: 
 
 <5 
 
 <i: 
 
 
584 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Horizontal Tubular: 16 sq. ft. of heating surface, 4.0 lbs. of 
 coal; relative economy 91, relative rate of steaming 50. 
 
 The average cost of different sizes of boilers of the horizontal 
 tubular type, which type has been more generally used especially 
 in smaller plants, including also cost of accessories and connections 
 and of setting is given in Table LXXV ; 5 to 1% is a fair reduction 
 to make from these figures for each boiler set in battery. 
 
 Average Cost of Water-Tube Boilers, Including Setting and Fit- 
 tings, but Without Mechanical Stokers or Economizers. W. H. 
 Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the fol- 
 lowing table. 
 
 H.p. 
 400 
 
 Cost 
 $ 5,500 
 
 600 
 
 , 7,500 
 
 800 
 
 9,500 
 
 1000 
 
 11.500 
 
 1500 15,500 
 
 2000 20,000 
 
 4000 38.000 
 
 He states that the average cost of inside-firebox boilers of 200 
 h.p. and upward is $0.12 to $0.14 per lb. f.o.b. the boiler shop for 
 boilers of standard construction. These figiires and those of the 
 table are on a compound condensing basis. 
 
 Floor Area Occupied by Fire-Tube and Water-Tube Boilers. 
 The following data are from Bulletin No. 2, Boiler Room Economics, 
 by A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering of Kansas State Agricultural 
 College. The space occupied by any given boiler, or the cost of its 
 setting, will not be altei'ed by driving the boiler above its rated 
 capacity. Operating a boiler at an overload results in a decreased 
 cost per sq. ft. of floor area per h.p. Where real estate, foundations, 
 and buildings are expensive, these items sometimes exceed the cost 
 of the bare boilers. 
 
 C. R. D. Meier, in comparing the costs of various plants, in a 
 paper read before the Associated Engineering Societies of St. Paul, 
 gives the following : 
 
 Real estate, cost per sq. ft $0.25 to $10.00 
 
 Foundations," " " " 1.25" 4.00 
 
 Buildings, " " " " ' 2.00 " 8.00 
 
 This gives a minimum cost of $3.50 and a maximum cost of $22 
 per sq. ft. of floor area. 
 
 To determine the floor area occupied by various types of fire- 
 tube boilers, including settings, the rated horsepowers and floor 
 areas were plotted and Table LXXVI deduced from these plots. 
 
 The average dimensions for a number of standard fire-tube boiler 
 settings are : 
 
 45 h.p 7 ft. 7 in. by 16 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 2 in. high 
 
 80 " 8 " 10 " • " 21 " 3" •' 9 •' 2 " 
 
 100 " 9 " 6 " " 21 " 3 " " 10 " 2 " 
 
 150 " 10 " 2 " " 23 " 8 " " 10 " 8 " 
 
 200 " 11 " " " 25 " 10 " " 11 " " 
 
 240 " 11 " 3 " " 25 " 10 " " 11 " 2 " 
 
STEAM POWER 585 
 
 The space occupied by a given area of water-tube surface will 
 be determined by the size and length of tubes, the spacing and ar- 
 rangement of tubes, and the general design of the boiler. With 
 vertical baffles, three- and four-pass boilers, the tubes are usually 
 4 ins. in diam., staggered with centers about 8 ins. apart in the 
 horizontal rows and 10 ins. on the vertical rows. With horizontal 
 baffles, the tubes are usually 3.5 ins. in diam. and arranged on 
 equal centers horizontally and vertically. Comparing a number of 
 water-tube boilers the floor space occupied varied from 1.62 sq. ft. 
 for a 150-h.p. boiler to 0.55 sq. ft. for a 625-h.p. boiler. The total 
 floor space per b.h.p. occupied by any boiler decreases as the rated 
 h.p, of the unit increases. 
 
 Settings For Fire-Tube Boilers. From Bulletin No. 2, Kansas 
 State Ag. College, we have also taken the following. The approxi- 
 mate number of fire brick and common brick required for various 
 sizes of fire-tube boilers will be found in Table LXXVI. 
 
 TABLE LXXVI. FLOOR SPACE OCCUPIED BY FIRE-TUBE 
 BOILER SETTINGS 
 
 Rated h.p. Sq. ft. floor space per rated h.p. 
 
 50 2.73 
 
 75 2.36 
 
 100 2.01 
 
 125 1.77 
 
 ISO 1.60 
 
 175 1.48 
 
 200 1.38 
 
 225 1.30 
 
 250 1.22 
 
 When two or more boilers are set in a battery the number of 
 brick required will depend largely upon the method of constructing 
 the inner walls, also whether the boilers are suspended from over- 
 head steel framework or are supported by the walls. 
 
 Experiments by the U. S. Bureau of Mines (Bulletin No. 8) 
 show that for boiler settings a solid brick wall is preferable to the 
 hollow wall, especially if the air space in the hollow wall is near 
 the furnace side. If the wall must be built in two parts, the space 
 should be fllled with ash, crushed brick or sand, as loose material 
 reduces air leakage. 
 
 The cost of brick boiler settings exclusive of the foundation may 
 be estimated at about $25 per 1000 brick laid (see Gillette's Hand- 
 book of Cost Data for details as to cost of brick masonry). 
 
 TABLE LXXVIL BRICK REQUIRED FOR FIRE-TUBE 
 BOILER SETTINGS 
 
 Approximate no. brick 
 
 Size of boiler Fire brick Common brick 
 
 48 in. by 12 ft. 880 10,640 
 
 54 " •♦ 14 •• 1,540 13,500 
 
 60 " " 16 " 1,700 17,300 
 
 66 " " 16 " 1,880 19,200 
 
 72 " " 18 " 2,270 21,850 
 
:. lbs. per ft. 
 
 Net price per ft. 
 
 1.679 
 
 $0,099 
 
 1.932 
 
 0.09 
 
 2.186 
 
 0.099 
 
 2.783 
 
 0.112 
 
 3.074 
 
 0.1085 
 
 3.365 
 
 0.119 
 
 4.011 
 
 0.14 
 
 1.331 
 
 0.14 
 
 4.652 
 
 0.153 
 
 5.532 
 
 0.179 
 
 6.248 
 
 0.201 
 
 586 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Boiler Tubes. The following prices are for tubes up to 20 ft. in 
 length. 
 
 Diam. ins. W' 
 
 1% 
 2 
 
 2V2 
 
 2% 
 
 3 
 
 3% 
 
 31/2 
 
 3% 
 
 4 
 
 Flue Cleaners. 
 
 THE " INGALLS " SELF ADJUSTING TUBE SCRAPER 
 Diam., ins. Net price per in. 
 
 $0.60 
 
 THE COMBINATION SCRAPER AND BRUSH 
 Diam., ins. Net price per in. 
 
 iy2-4% $0.75 
 
 LiAGONDA THRUST BEARING TUBE CLEANER MACHINES 
 Diam., ins. Net price 
 
 2, 2y2 $50 
 
 334 . 60 
 
 3y2-4 75 
 
 LAGONDA AIR AND STEAM CLEANERS 
 
 Diam., ins. Net price 
 
 2, 2y2, 314 $60 
 
 3y2-4 75 
 
 SPECIAL HOSE FOR OPERATING FLUE CLEANERS 
 Diam., ins. Net price per ft. 
 
 1 $0.30 
 1% 0.40 
 
 iy2 0.50 
 
 
 steel Cooling Towers with Fans Complete. W. H. 
 
 Weston, 
 
 Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the 
 
 following 
 
 table. 
 
 
 H.p. Approximate cost 
 
 
 500 $1,700 
 1,000 3,000 
 2,000 5,000 
 4.000 9,000 
 
 
 Natural-draft towers may cost a little less than these, which 
 represent a fair average for well constructed and efficient towers. 
 The h.p. is figured on compound condensing basis. 
 
STEAM POWER 587 
 
 Condensers. A. A. Potter, Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives the follow- 
 ing formulae of costs. 
 
 Type Capacity 
 
 A Barometric (28-in. vacuum) Up to 30,000 lbs. of steam per hr. 
 B Jet condensers (28-in. vacuum) " " 30,000 " " " '* *' 
 C Jet condensers ( 2 6-in. vacuum) " " 30,000 " " " " " 
 D Surface con- 
 densers (28-in. vacuum) " " 35,000 lbs. per hr. 
 E Surface con- 
 densers (2 6-in. vacuum) " " 30,000 " " " 
 
 Type Equation of cost in dollars 
 
 A 1055 + 0.112 X (lb. cond. steam) 
 
 B 1176 + 0.1138 X ( " " " ) 
 
 C 116 + 0.0591 X ( " " " ) 
 
 D 1630 + 0.2038 X ( " " " ) 
 
 E 413 + 0.1015 X ( " " " ) 
 
 An approximate formula that is sometimes used for determining 
 the cost of jet condensers is. 
 
 Cost in dollars = 500 + 1.0 X h.p. 
 
 Cost of Economizers. A. A. Potter, in Power, Dec. 30, 1913, 
 gives the following as a guide in estimating the cost of apparatus 
 and erection. Number of tubes, 32 to 10,000 ; heating surface per 
 tube, 12 to 13 sq. ft.; capacity in lbs. of water per tube, 60 to 70; 
 cost of economizer, f.o.b. factory, |8 to $10 per tube; cost, erected, 
 $12 to $15 per tube. 
 
 J. F. C. Snell gives for the cost of economizers $1.40 per kw., 
 including brick work, or $70 per 1000 lbs. of normal evaporation 
 of the boilers. 
 
 The Cost of Fuel Economizers. The following data were fur- 
 nished by the Green Fuel Economizer Co. Economizers cost on the 
 average from $4 to $6 installed per h.p. of boilers, $6 being the 
 maximum, but under favorable conditions the cost is considerably 
 less and installations have been made for less than $3. The price 
 of economizers f.o.b. the factory, for plants of 600 h.p. would be 
 about $2,400 and for 1,800 h.p. $6,500. 
 
 The cost of installing the smaller plant, under average condi- 
 tions, is about $500, and the larger, $1,000. 
 
 Economizers. W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912, 
 says that for 500 h.'p. or more, the average cost of economizers, 
 figured on compound condensing basis and including settings and 
 scraping equipment, is about $4 per h.p. 
 
 Cost of Duplicate Induced IVlechanical- Draft Equipment Installed. 
 W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the 
 following table, figured on compound-condensing basis. 
 
 H.p. Cost 
 
 800 $1,600 
 
 1,000 . 1,800 
 
 1,500 2,250 
 
 2,000 2,275 
 
 4,000 5,000 
 
 Cost Formulae for Reciprocating Steam Engines. A. A. Potter 
 gives the formulae in Table LXXVIII (Power, Dec. 30, 1913). 
 
588 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 g XXxXXXXXXX 
 
 ++++++++++ 
 
 tH 00 tH CO iH o t- «o 
 
 ."ti OOoOOOOOoO 
 O t-C-oOCOlOOOoO 
 
 §* oooooooooo 
 
 ^ +J *. ^ *^ W 4^ 4^ 4-^ +^ +J 
 
 ft ft ft a ao ftfto a 
 
 =1 t;;^ 
 
 11= 
 
 
 ^ o 
 
 0^ 
 
 > 
 
 <v o 
 
 oS f> 
 
 "^.S- 
 
 > 
 
 >^ 
 
 2« 
 
 ^ t^ 
 
 _^ 
 
 <v 
 
 §^ 
 
 
 >. . 
 
 
 «M 
 
 o 
 
 f " 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 If. 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 -fl- 
 
 ^ 
 
 O 
 
 
 ^C 
 
 ^4 
 o 
 
 c o- 
 
 C J-. 
 
 a 
 
 u 1 
 
 i-i o 
 
 !-i 
 
 
 Oi+J 
 
 ^g. 
 
 <V 
 
 J^^ 
 
 >^: 
 
 > 
 
 o o- 
 
 O 0)- 
 
 O 
 
 ^o 
 
 
 be 
 
 a <i> 
 
 "3 1^ 
 
 4) 
 
 ^^1 = 
 
 <1^ m 
 
 ® 
 
 -^s. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^o- 
 
 ^•;::- 
 
 ^ 
 
 it 
 
 >?3 
 
 ^S 
 
 >> 
 
 Eh 
 
 fe<l 
 
 feu 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 H 
 H 
 ui 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 "^ aaaa 
 
 o XXXX 
 
 r- odooioj 
 
 o '-' 
 
 'i ++++ 
 
 CT U5 O O lO 
 
 H eolflOrH 
 
 t>l>iHO 
 
 aaaa 
 
 ."t! oooo 
 O coc>oo 
 
 CCl CO !>"] «CHD 
 
 a ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 aaaa 
 
 03 
 
 c^-C 
 
 
 So 
 
 O <D m o) 
 
 ?■ .11 
 
 O) 
 
 sl 
 
 be, ^To 
 
 .£ §U 
 
 ^ bco) 
 
 a > 1* P 
 
 >, o oj bo 
 
 W few 
 
 o 
 
 'O ftftftft 
 g XXXX 
 
 rj o6(m'oi> 
 
 o '■''"' 
 
 3 
 
 D* OiOlflO 
 H Iftr-iOSiH 
 
 ftaaa 
 
 .ti oooo 
 
 J/5 O O-tOO 
 
 g rt ""frieous 
 
 O aaaa 
 H 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 O) > 
 ^ (Do 
 
 to ;z;;ii 
 
 o o o 
 be bcbc 
 
 a a; 9,03 
 
 fe fefe 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 589 
 
 suouoauuoo 
 
 
 ooooooooooooooooooi«iaus»ous 
 
 a suo^oauuoo 
 
 « r 
 
 : miM '9oiJd: 
 
 H a 
 
 ^ V. 
 
 H S 9UOIB 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 4 duincl 'aoiJti 
 
 H 
 
 
 Pi L 
 
 
 H ^ saqn; 
 
 Q g ss^jq'aDiJd 
 
 zx 
 
 1-1 
 
 suiSue JO 
 
 U 
 
 •dq xojddv 
 
 H 
 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 IBiOJ, 
 
 1— ( 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 Suidjd 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 O j 
 
 5 Supoaaa 
 
 h L 
 
 ) 
 
 w 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 X' 
 
 uoH'Bpuno^ 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 H 
 
 9uiSua 
 
 hJ 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 
 <: 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 9510J1S g^- 
 
 
 "qi 08CIH 
 
 ■*e»500«c>«D«De<3COe<5coe»soooo 
 
 60- r-(i-lTHr-lTH(MC^iMC^10-3<MC<l 
 
 l^-'4<f--*-^i-l,-IOOO(M(M(MlM 
 
 ■*t-ocoe<5«ocDOOOcofOcoeo 
 
 €«9- iHrHi-lTHiHS^lCJMCOeOCOeC 
 
 O10OOOOO10OOOOOU5OOO 
 i-lr-li-lrHrHT-liHCg(MCgeOTf< 
 
 lOiamiftusouioooiflmooiooo 
 iHt-«0';o«©T-iooo«o«o«oioir5t-t>-<*< 
 
 lairtooooooooooooooo 
 
 r-lr-lrHr-tlMCOIMCqcvieOCOCOlftOOavOTH 
 
 laOOlrtOOOOUSOlftlflOOlftOO 
 
 c-Oi-iMTru5«>t-t-0'Mt-'*ot-oo 
 
 lOOlrtOlflOlOOlftOOOOOOOO 
 
 t>.OMU5t^O(MOiMU5OOOOl0OO 
 
 ooooooooooooooooo 
 c-»aiOTHM«50occ;coc:«eT-HCccxJO 
 
 OOU3OU5U5OOOOOOO10OOO 
 0>-iC<l-^U3t-Ot-ICOUt00 0100lMOCC;«r> 
 rHlHrHl-liHT-IC^lMCMC'JiMCOCOTl-Tj-Tt'lO 
 
 jepuiiXD 
 
 JO 9ZIS 
 
 >. >. >. >. >. >: >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. 
 
 20% above and below the average. 
 
590 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 rH OOOOOOlO 
 
 o ,^ oooinooco 
 
 US 
 
 !2 OUiOOOlrt^ 
 O 0<MtH05^00IM 
 
 O >> tH<MO t-1 
 
 00 
 
 ""oiousooijrao 
 
 O >5 >,0 ■*! 05 00 rH C- IM 
 lO^^ i-H (M lO iH 
 
 rH OinOOUSOt- 
 O t> ?0 t- 05 t- iH 
 ^ iHC^llM 
 
 T-l OOU500010 
 ti, O Oi 00 us 00 t- »H 
 ? rHCqO 
 
 :^ ^ 
 
 iH 0000U50US 
 K, OOOSlOt-t-rH 
 •J iHfOOO 
 
 '"• OOUSU5USOO 
 OS 
 
 HC0 50 
 
 ^ 7 " 
 
 <D C 3 
 
 .5 <^ 
 
 ■eg 
 
 
 5 J 
 
 G 
 
 ooooo 
 
 •qi '8;aia ooooo 
 
 -uioo ^qgiaM o'us'o'o'o"^ 
 
 ^ 00 iH Tf<C- 
 
 usc^usoc^ 
 
 uon-epuno^ oowTt^to 
 
 ;soo 
 
 aJtoj;s 
 aepuii^o 
 
 eanssaj'd Avoq; 
 japuii^tD 
 
 9anss9jd qSiH 
 
 •qi '8Jnss9J(I 
 uiB9:jS 
 
 ;soo 
 
 J9puiIitO 
 
 usoooo 
 
 <X>OO00O 
 
 ■^ ustHcvj a> 
 ■«j<'us'"i>oo''a5 
 
 IMCQOOOOOO 
 
 USOOOO 
 CCOOOOO 
 us C- CO -rt* 1-1 
 
 -*usi>ooo 
 
 C^ coco Tt" 
 
 aanssaad qSiH ^^xj^^s 
 
 M<00O«<I-* 
 iHtH«OC<1(M 
 
 ui-B9;s 
 
 •UIUI J9d[ •A9J O us us us us 
 ■ 'p99dS «">-t-t-t- 
 
 •dq 
 
 ooooo 
 
 OOOOO 
 <NC0-*U5«C> 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 S' 
 
 : oso 
 
 o 
 
 
 <Meo 
 
 ■<*< 
 
 o«»oo^* 
 
 
 <M« 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 d: 
 
 , OU5 
 
 us 
 
 " <Ji<^ 
 
 CO 
 
 t-oooco' 
 
 
 iHeOr-1619- 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 o fi- 
 
 z ooo 
 
 o 
 
 •i-1 
 
 eoc^j 
 
 p^ CO to 00 00 j^- 
 
 ^7 r^<^^'-l6e■ 
 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 2 
 
 oo 
 
 >>>.>.>.>> 
 
 O -4 . » t-US 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 '^e^icsitoc^ 
 
 «ecgoo-* 
 
 g 
 
 Jlco^e/3- 
 
 C<lCOCO^-*l 
 
 ressure 
 150 
 
 2 in. : 
 " 
 6 " 
 2,145 
 140 
 
 >>>.>.>>>. 
 
 o 
 
 ;QX!,Q,Q^ 
 
 o 
 
 e<s«ooooc<i 
 
 
 i-IiHtH<M<M 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 ft ^^^i^ j 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 . oo 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 ooooo 
 
 ^ 
 
 XJUS g. , Oi-S- 
 =°-^rHOi^rH- 
 
 (MC^MCgM 
 
 w 
 
 iHi-lrHiHTH 
 
 
 
 
 m -^-HrHe/5. 
 
 ffi " . oo 
 oo C' • ow 
 
 [V oo— Tt-T-I 
 
 P^ rH 1-1 o 00 <M ^- 
 O ^ l-HiHrH^ 
 
 w a . oo 
 
 O Woo"- =^^ 
 
 05«0(MrH 
 
 b OC: 
 
 ly4 001 
 
 H : 
 
 J : 
 w 
 
 Eh -OrS 
 
 V 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 591 
 
 Prices and Cost of Setting up Corliss Single-Cylinder Engines, 
 Set-up and Connected. Tables LXXIX-LXXXII are after J. H. 
 Bougrhton, Engineering- Magazine, November, 1907. 
 
 Mr. Boughton considers that the investment represented by the 
 Corliss engine with the necessary shafting, pulleys, and belting may 
 ordinarily be taken as double that of the high-speed engine. 
 
 The Corliss requires 3 lbs. of coal per h.p. as against from 4 to 
 5 lbs. by the high-speed type. 
 
 This includes condensers and the prices given apply to both 
 tandem and cross-compound engines, the price of the former being 
 less than 10% lower in smaller sizes and sometimes greater in large 
 
 SiZBS. 
 
 Average Cost of Engines, Including Surface Condensers, Air and 
 Circulating Pumps. W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, Janu- 
 ary, 1912, has given the following table. 
 
 H.p. 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 1,000 
 
 1.500 
 
 2,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 Cost 
 $9,500 
 11,500 
 13,500 
 18,000 
 22,000 
 32,000 
 42,000 
 80,000 
 
 Prices and Weights of Miscellaneous Accessories. 
 
 prices were in effect prior to the war. 
 
 The following 
 
 SCOTCH GAUGE GLASSES 
 
 Length, in. 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 The above are net prices per dozen. 
 
 External diam., in. 
 
 V2 & % 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 $0.45 
 0.49 
 0.54 
 0.58 
 0.63 
 
 $0.54 
 0.59 
 0.65 
 0.72 
 0.78 
 
 $0.76 
 0.86 
 0.92 
 0.99 
 1.06 
 
 $0.92 
 1.01 
 1.10 
 1.19 
 1.28 
 
 0.68 
 0.72 
 0.75 
 0.81 
 
 0.83 
 0.88 
 0.94 
 0.99 
 
 1.13 
 1.23 
 1.29 
 1.37 
 
 1.37 
 1.46 
 1.55 
 1.64 
 
 THE FISHER REGULAR GOVERNOR 
 
 SCREWED CONNECTIONS 
 
 Size, in. Shipping wt., lb. Net price 
 
 % 15 $15.50 
 
 % 16 19.00 
 
 1 35 21.00 
 1^ • 37 25.00 
 iy2 56 30.00 
 
 2 60 35.00 
 2% 75 40.00 
 
 3 100 49.00 
 
692 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Size, ins. 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 FLANGED CONNECTIONS 
 
 Shipping wt, lbs. Net price 
 
 75 $33 
 
 87 36 
 
 120 44 
 
 130 55 
 
 150 63 
 
 178 74 
 
 200 91 
 
 225 110 
 
 300 160 
 
 CAST IRON EXHAUST HEADS 
 
 Size of exhaust 
 
 pipe, in. Weight, lb. Net price 
 
 1 30 $10.50 
 
 IVa 30 10.50 
 
 2 35 13.20 
 
 21/2 35 13.20 
 
 3 50 13.50 
 
 Zy2 50 13.50 
 
 4 70 18.00 
 
 4^2 70 18.00 
 
 5 80 22.20 
 
 6 135 27.00 
 
 7 140 31.20 
 
 8 160 40.50 
 
 9 175 45.00 
 
 10 250 63.00 
 
 12 300 72.00 
 
 14 400 99.00 
 
 16 500 120.00 
 
 18 600 150.00 
 
 20 700 180.00 
 
 22 950 210.00 
 
 24 1,050 225.00 
 
 26 1,150 240.00 
 
 30 1,700 330.00 
 
 36 2,300 435.00 
 
 Feed -Water Heaters. A. A. Potter, Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives 
 the following formulae for determining costs. 
 
 Type Capacity Equation of cost, dollars 
 
 Open Up to 1500 boiler hp. 114.5 + 0.3787 X hp. 
 
 Open 1500 to 3000 boiler hp. 326 + 0.237 X hp. 
 
 Closed Up to 3000 boiler hp. 40 + 0.72 X hp. 
 
 These formulae were deduced from the manufacturers' selling 
 
 prices. The following tables are from Bulletin No. 2, Kansas State 
 
 Agricultural College, Boiler Room Economics, by A. A. Potter and 
 S. L. Simmering, 
 
 TABLE LXXXI. COST DATA FOR OPEN FEED-WATER 
 
 
 
 HEATERS 
 
 
 
 liler hp. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Per hp. 
 
 Boiler hp. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Per hp. 
 
 50 
 
 $75 
 
 $1.50 
 
 800 
 
 $430 
 
 $0.54 
 
 100 
 
 92 
 
 0.92 
 
 900 
 
 500 
 
 0.56 
 
 200 
 
 158 
 
 0.79 
 
 1,000 
 
 478 
 
 0.47 
 
 300 
 
 229 
 
 0.76 
 
 L200 
 f!500 
 
 510 
 
 0.43 
 
 400 
 
 255 
 
 0.64 
 
 680 
 
 0.45 
 
 500 
 
 313 
 
 0.63 
 
 2.000 
 
 800 
 
 0.40 
 
 600 
 
 339 
 
 0.56 
 
 2.500 
 
 920 
 
 0.37 
 
 700 
 
 410 
 
 0.57 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 0.33 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 593 
 
 TABLE LXXXII. 
 
 COST DATA FOR CLOSED FEED-WATER 
 HEATERS 
 
 iler hp. 
 
 Total 
 
 Per hp. 
 
 Boiler hp. 
 
 Total 
 
 Per hp. 
 
 5 
 
 $10 
 
 $2.00 
 
 300 
 
 250 
 
 0.83 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 1.18 
 
 400 
 
 310 
 
 0.78 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 1.25 
 
 250 
 
 210 
 
 0.84 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 1.08 
 
 500 
 
 360 
 
 0.72 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 1.23 
 
 700 
 
 511 
 
 0.73 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 1.20 
 
 800 
 
 650 
 
 0.81 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 1.02 
 
 1,000 
 
 730 
 
 0.73 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 1.07 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,050 
 
 0.70 
 
 80 
 
 68 
 
 0.85 
 
 2,000 
 
 1.325 
 
 0.66 
 
 100 
 
 87 
 
 0.87 
 
 2,500 
 
 1,825 
 
 0.73 
 
 125 
 
 99 
 
 0.79 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 0.67 
 
 150 
 
 122 
 
 0.81 
 
 4,000 
 
 2,520 
 
 0.63 
 
 200 
 
 $170 
 
 $0.85 
 
 5.000 
 
 3,155 
 
 0.63 
 
 Average Cost of Feed-Water Heaters. W. H. Weston has given 
 the following- data in The Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912, for 
 compound-condensing plants. 
 
 Cost of 
 Hp. feed-water heaters 
 
 of plant completely installed 
 
 400 $800 
 
 500 875 
 
 600 900 
 
 800 1,000 
 
 Cost of 
 Hp. feed-water heaters 
 
 of plant completely installed 
 
 1,000 $1,100 
 
 1,500 1,400 
 
 2,000 1,800 
 
 4,000 3,000 
 
 Hp. 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 900 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 OPEN FEED-WATER HEATERS 
 From data furnished by a manufacturer. 
 
 Net price 
 . . $75 
 80 
 95 
 .. 160 
 .. 220 
 . . 270 
 . . 360 
 .. 400 
 . . 425 
 . . 460 
 . . 490 
 . . 530 
 
 Hp. Net price 
 
 1,200 $550 
 
 1,400 620 
 
 1,500 645 
 
 1,600 675 
 
 1,800 740 
 
 2,000 800 
 
 2,200 
 2,400 
 2,600 
 2,800 
 3,000 
 3,200 
 
 840 
 890 
 940 
 980 
 1,025 
 1,060 
 
 CLOSED FEED-WATER HEATERS 
 
 Hp. Weight, lb. Net price 
 
 5 35 $9 
 
 10 65 12 
 
 15 80 16 
 
 20 180 23 
 
 25 270 27 
 
 30 350 35 
 
 40 390 41 
 
 50 420 50 
 
 60 475 60 
 
 80 515 22 
 
 100 800 82 
 
 125 850 95 
 
 150 1,150 113 
 
594 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Hp. Weight, lb. Net price 
 
 200 1,300 150 
 
 250 1,450 180 
 
 300 1,650 230 
 
 400 1,900 270 
 
 500 2,200 340 
 
 600 2,800 410 
 
 700 3,000 475 
 
 800 3,200 540 
 
 1,000 5,100 675 
 
 1,250 5,600 810 
 
 1,500 5,900 950 
 
 2,000 9,400 1,260 
 
 2,500 10,500 1,575 
 
 3,000 11,500 1,890 
 
 4,000 13,500 2,510 
 
 5,000 15,500 ■ 3,150 
 
 Cost of Injectors. From Bulletin No. 2, Kansas State Agricul- 
 tural College, Boiler Room Economics, by A. A. Potter and S. L. 
 Simmering we have taken the following. Tables LXXXIII- 
 LiXXXVI give the cost of injectors based upon their capacity in 
 gallons per minute, and also the boiler h.p. for which the injector 
 is intended. Injectors are classified as follows: (a) single-tube 
 injectors; (b) double-tube injectors; (c) restarting injectors. 
 Table LXXXVII shows the relative costs of the 4 types of injectors 
 for various capacities. 
 
 The following are equations deduced from Tables LXXXIII- 
 LXXXVI. G represents the capacity in gallons per minute and C 
 the cost in dollars. 
 
 For a single-tube injector C = 2.62 -|- 0.79 X G. 
 
 For a double-tube injector C = 4 -|- 0.8 X G. 
 
 For a restarting tube injector, capacities less 
 
 than 10 gal. per min C =: 3.4 +1.26 X G. 
 
 Capacities from 10 to 75 gal. per min C := 11.5 + 0.65 X G. 
 
 For an ejector, capacities up to 10 gal. per 
 
 min C= 0.72 + 0.338 X G. 
 
 Capacities from 10 to 125 gal. per min C r= 3.56 + 0.1345 X G. 
 
 TABLE LXXXIII. COST DATA FOR SINGLE-TUBE INJECTORS 
 
 Capacity, 
 
 gal. per min. Boiler hp. Cost, dol. 
 
 1 8 2.70 
 
 1 6 4.50 
 
 1.3 11 4.80 
 
 1.3 8 4.00 
 
 2 15 3.25 
 
 2 19 5.40 
 
 3 22 5.00 
 
 3 22 6.00 
 
 3.5 30 4.50 
 
 4 34 7.50 
 
 4.3 32 7.50 
 
 6 45 7.50 
 
 7.5 65 7.20 
 
 8 64 12.00 
 
 8.3 65 13.50 
 
 10 80 11.25 
 
 12.7 120 9.90 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 595 
 
 Capacity, 
 gal. per min. Boiler hp. 
 
 13.3 106 
 
 13.3 100 
 
 23.3 181 
 
 *23.3 180 
 
 23.3 180 
 
 40 320 
 
 40 320 
 
 40 320 
 
 60 480 
 
 70 600 
 
 75 600 
 
 Cost, dol. 
 16.50 
 13.75 
 22.50 
 18.75 
 22.50 
 33.00 
 27.50 
 37.50 
 45.00 
 60.00 
 60.00 
 
 TABLE LXXXIV. COST DATA FOR DOUBLE-TUBE 
 INJECTORS 
 
 Capacity, 
 gal. per min. 
 
 1.3 
 
 2 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 12 
 21 
 37 
 40 
 58 
 60 
 60 
 66.7 
 75 
 
 Boiler hp. 
 
 Steam pressure 
 
 11 
 
 
 15 
 
 80 
 
 19 
 
 
 25 
 
 80 
 
 34 
 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 
 95 
 
 80 
 
 165 
 
 80 
 
 295 
 
 80 
 
 320 
 
 
 460 
 
 80 
 
 4.80 
 
 
 500 
 
 80 
 
 600 
 
 80 
 
 600 
 
 
 Cost, dol. 
 
 4.80 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.40 
 
 7.50 
 
 7.50 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 16.50 
 
 22.50 
 
 33.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 52.50 
 
 60.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 TABLE LXXXV. COST DATA FOR RESTARTING INJECTORS 
 
 Capacity, 
 
 
 
 Steam 
 
 
 'al. per min. 
 
 Boiler hp. 
 
 Lift, ft. 
 
 pressure 
 
 Cost, dol 
 
 0.5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 3.90 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 4.20 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5.40 
 
 1.5 
 
 12 
 
 '3 
 
 75 
 
 4.80 
 
 1.5 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 6.30 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 '3 
 
 75 
 
 5.40 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 7.95 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 *3 
 
 75 
 
 7.50 
 
 6.4 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 11.85 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 '3 
 
 75 
 
 12.00 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 17.70 
 
 13.3 
 
 135 
 
 '3 
 
 75 
 
 16.50 
 
 22.5 
 
 175 
 
 
 . 
 
 28.50 
 
 23.3 
 
 235 
 
 ■3 
 
 75 
 
 22.50 
 
 37 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 42.00 
 
 40 
 
 380 
 
 '3 
 
 75 
 
 33.00 
 
 57.5 
 
 950 
 
 
 
 54.00 
 
 60 
 
 550 
 
 '3 n 
 
 75 
 
 45.00 
 
 75 
 
 750 
 
 3 * 
 
 75 
 
 60.00 
 
596 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE LXXXVI. COST DATA FOR EJECTORS 
 
 Capacity, Cost, 
 
 gal. per min. dol. 
 
 1.3 1.35 
 
 2 , . . 1.80 
 
 3 2.03 
 
 4 2.25 
 
 5 2.40 
 
 10.8 4.50 
 
 12.5 4.50 
 
 13.3 4.50 
 
 23.3 7.88 
 
 29.1 7.85 
 
 33.3 7.50 
 
 Capacity, Cost, 
 
 gal. per min. dol. 
 
 37.5 9.00 
 
 62.5 11.25 
 
 79.1 15.75 
 
 83.3 14.63 
 
 83.3 15.00 
 
 108.3 18.00 
 
 113.3 23.80 
 
 125 20.35 
 
 153.3 32.60 
 
 250 21.00 
 
 750 52.50 
 
 TABLE LXXXVII. EFFECT OF INJECTOR TYPE ON COST 
 
 Gal. per min. 
 
 . 20 
 40 
 60 
 80 
 
 , Cost of injector, dol. ^ 
 
 Single-tube Double-tube Restarting Ejector 
 $18 $20 $24 $6.50 
 
 36 37 9.00 
 
 34 
 50 
 65 
 
 11.75 
 14.50 
 
 INJECTORS 
 
 METROPOLITAN AUTOMATIC INJECTOR 
 
 Size, in. 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 Hp. 
 
 4- 6 
 
 6- 8 
 
 8- 15 
 
 15- 20 
 
 20- 30 
 
 30- 45 
 
 45- 65 
 
 65- 80 
 
 80-100 
 
 100-130 
 
 130-170 
 
 170-230 
 
 230-300 
 
 300-375 
 
 Net price 
 
 $4.50 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.40 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 9.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 13.50 
 
 16.50 
 
 18.00 
 
 22.50 
 
 27.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 37.50 
 
 METROPOLITAN DOUBLE-TUBE INJECTOR 
 
 Size, in. 
 
 Vi 
 
 51/2 
 
 6 1/2 
 
 7y2 
 71/2 
 9y2 
 
 11 y2 
 
 12 y2 
 i3y2 
 i4y2 
 isya 
 leya 
 i7y2 
 
 Hp. 
 
 8- 15 
 
 15- 20 
 
 20- 30 
 
 30- 45 
 
 45- 65 
 
 65- 80 
 
 80-100 
 
 100-130 
 
 130-170 
 
 170-230 
 
 230-300 
 
 300-375 
 
 375--500 
 
 500^650 
 
 650-775 
 
 775-950 
 
 Net price 
 
 $11.70 
 
 13.00 
 
 16.50 
 
 19.50 
 
 26.00 
 
 29.30 
 
 35.70 
 
 39.00 
 
 48.80 
 
 58.50 
 
 71.50 
 
 81.20 
 
 97.50 
 
 130.00 
 
 162.00 
 
 195.00 
 
STEAM POWER 597 
 
 Price of Pipe Covering. The following- table gives the net price 
 of sectional pipe covering, 85% magnesia. 
 
 Inside diam., in. Weight, lb. per ft. Net price per ft. 
 
 01/2 0.75 $0.09 
 
 0% 0.85 0.095 
 
 1 0.94 0.11 
 1^ 1.12 0.12 
 11/2 1.40 0.13 
 
 2 1.50 0.14 
 2% 1.88 0.16 
 
 3 2.25 0.18 
 SVa 2.45 0.20 
 
 4 2.80 0.24 
 4% 3.55 0.26 
 
 5 4.10 0.28 
 
 6 4.50 0.32 
 
 7 5.20 0.40 
 
 8 6.00 0.44 
 
 9 7.00 0.48 
 10 8.00 0.52 
 12 11.20 0.74 
 
 Asbestos Air-cell pipe covering- costs about 35 to 40% less than 
 85% magnesia coverings listed above. 
 
 Labor Cost of Lagging Steam Pipe with standard magnesia pipe 
 covering is given by Mr. R, K. Stockwell in Engineering and Min- 
 ing Journal, Mar. 22, 1913. The work comprised the covering of 
 2,400 ft. of high pressure steam heating line running from the 
 power house to the concentrator, and the steam and feed water 
 lines of two 450-boiler-hp. reverberatory-furnace waste-heat boilers, 
 at McGill, Nevada, in October, 1909. The men who did the work 
 were pipe fitters rated at 50 ct. per hr., each with two helpers at 
 37.5 ct. per hr. The high pressure covering was 1.5 in. thick, held 
 away from the pipe by bands of magnesia 1 in. thick, 18 in. apart. 
 The covering for 10-in. and larger pipe came in keystone-shaped 
 strips, and was placed on the bands, the cracks plastered with 
 magnesia, mud and cement, the whole covered with canvas, clamped 
 with brass bands 30 in. apart, and painted with tar and gasoline. 
 The high pressure pipe covering for pipes 8 in. and less in diam. 
 came in half cylinders 1.5 in. thick, and the low pressure pipe 
 covering for pipes of less than 8 -in. diam. in half cylinders 1 in. 
 thick. The finish was the same as for the large high pressure pipes. 
 The magnesia coverings for fittings, valves, etc., had to be sawed 
 and fitted to the work by hand, which was slow and expensive. In 
 the labor costs which follow all flanges are figured as part of 
 flange unions. 
 
 Labor costs of applying magnesia covering to pipes and fittings 
 were : 
 
 High prei?sure covering Cost per lin. ft. 
 
 4-in. pipe $ .17 
 
 8-in. pipe ■ 38 
 
 10-in pipe 79 
 
 12-in. pipe 1.25 
 
 8-in. pipe bends 1.03 
 
598 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 High pressure covering Cost each 
 
 1.5-in. elbows $1.30 
 
 8-in. elbows 3.30 
 
 10-in. elbows 3.58 
 
 12-in. elbows 4.90 
 
 4-in. expansion joints 2.60 
 
 10-in. expansion joints 5.63 
 
 12-in. expansion joints 6.15 
 
 1.5-in. flange unions 1.03 
 
 4-in. flange unions . , 1.19 
 
 8-in. flange unions 3.19 
 
 10-in. flange unions 3.40 
 
 12-in. flange unions 5.49 
 
 1.5-in. valve bodies 1.60 
 
 8-in valve bodies 3.28 
 
 10-in. valve bodies 3.60 
 
 12-in. valve bodies 4.90 
 
 S-in. valve bonnets 3.25 
 
 10-in. valve bonnets 3.60 
 
 12-in. valve bonnets 3.70 
 
 Low pressure covering Cost per lin. ft. 
 
 2.5-in. pipe $ .10 
 
 4-in. pipe 12 
 
 Cost each 
 
 2.5-in. flange unions $1.15 
 
 2.5-in. tees 1.30 
 
 4-in. tees 1.75 
 
 2.5-in. elbows 1.30 
 
 2.5-in. valve bonnets 1.98 
 
 Average Cost of Steam and Water Piping, Valves and Separators. 
 W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given 
 the following table for compound condensing plants. 
 
 Hp. Costs 
 
 400 - $3,600 
 
 500 4,000 
 
 600 4.500 
 
 800 5,200 
 
 1,000 6,200 
 
 1,500 9,000 
 
 2,000 11.000 
 
 4,000 20,000 
 
 The Cost of Piping. The following is from a paper by E. Hor- 
 ton in the July, 1914, Bulletin of the A. I. M. E. The cost of piping 
 at the Arizona Copper Company's New Smeltery, at Clifton, Arizona, 
 was $122,389. The various items of cost are given herewith and 
 include excavation, cost of material at Clifton and all labor of 
 erection. The cost of engineering and superintendence amounts to 
 5.40% extra and the cost of indirect expense amounts to 7.53% extra. 
 
 Blast Pipe frovx Fans to Roasters in Roasting Plant. This pipe 
 was made of No. 10 and No. 12 plate and varied in diam. from 18 
 ins. to 36 ins. The inlet pipe to each roaster was 18 ins. diam. 
 Installation of this pipe included in the cost given herewith con- 
 sisted of connecting up and riveting the pipe in place in the field 
 only. This piping amounted to 240 ft. and cost of material, fabri- 
 
STEAM POWER 599 
 
 cation and installation was: Labor, $1569.62; material, $656.62; 
 total, $2,226.24. Cost per ft., $9.28. 
 
 Piping in Reverberatory Plant. Miscellaneous piping, boilers and 
 reverberatory building ; the sizes were various and amount of piping 
 installed was not given. Costs were : Labor, $524.15 ; material, 
 $1409.85; total, $1934.00. 
 
 Feed piiiing from heating plant to feed pumps: Excavating 1296 
 cu. yd. of trench from hot-water heating plant to boiler feed pumps 
 through red clay filled with boulders, sand and gravel. The work 
 was performed with picks and shovels and handled 300 ft. with 
 wheel barrows and slips. Much of the dirt had to be handled 3 
 times in removing it from the trench; 200 ft. of the trench was 
 cribbed and lagged 20 ft. high. Cost: Labor, $1039.91; material, 
 $51.51; total, $1091.42. Cost per cu. yd., 84 ets. 
 
 In installing this pipe ordinary vitrified 15-in. sewer pipe cut in 
 half was used for conduit. The first half was laid in the trench 
 and the joints cemented, following by laying an 8-in. standard 
 wrought-iron pipe. About this pipe an asbestos filler was packed, 
 and after each section of conduit top was laid, the filler was stuffed 
 in over the pipe to thoroughly cover it. The cost of labor was 
 $386.25. Cost of supplies follows: 557 ft, of 15-in. J.-M. sectional 
 conduit, $2273.47; 557 ft. of 8-in. wrought-iron pipe, $374.49; asbes- 
 tos filler and miscellaneous, $109.83; total supplies, $2757.79. Total 
 pipe work amounted to 557 ft. Total cost, $3144.04. Cost per ft. 
 of pipe, $5.64. Total cost of feed piping from heating plant to feed 
 pumps, including trenching, $4325.46. Total cost per ft., $7.60. 
 
 Feed piping from putnps to boilers: This represents pipe fittings, 
 pipe covering, paint and labor in erecting, covering some of the 
 pipe with insulation and painting all the pipe. The piping was 
 about 1 steam and 2 electric feed pumps at the boilers. It also 
 covered a hot-water*line the length of the boiler building and a cold- 
 water line of the same length. Each is connected to the boilers. 
 The 2 main lines are 6 in. Connections to the boilers are 3 in. 
 The hot-water lines are covered throughout. Labor cost was 
 $1060.53. Materials cost: Standard pipe, $416.39; extra heavy 
 fittings, $2408.89 ; pipe covering, $137.26 ; hangers and miscellaneous, 
 $78.46; total material cost, $3041. Total amount of piping, 1093 ft. 
 Total cost, $4101.53. Cost per foot of pipe, $3.75. Total cost of 
 piping for reverberatory plant of 1200 ton capacity in 24 hrs., 
 $10,370.99. 
 
 Piping in Converter Plant. Air pipe from power house : Exca- 
 vating 331 cu. yd. of trench through sand, gravel and boulders with 
 pick and shovel, and backfilling same, $224.06 ; Cost per cu. yd., 
 68 cts. The pipe ran from the power house to connect with all the 
 converters, and was built to carry air under 12 lbs. pressure of 
 No. 8 U. S. gage plate riveted, tested for 25-lb. pressure and painted 
 with asphaltum paint. It was made in 30 ft. sections and fastened 
 together with forge-steel flanges. Labor cost was $674.62. Material 
 cost was: 400 ft. 24-in. pipe, 10-in. cast-iron nozzles, tees and ells, 
 $1332.70; 22 ft. 10-in. pipe and two 10-in. flanges, $27.54; two 24-in. 
 cast-iron gate valves, $138.55; miscellaneous, $127.85; total ma- 
 
600 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 terials, $2941.89. Total cost, $2716.51. Total piping, 422 ft. at 
 $6.43. Total cost of air pipe from power house, including excavat- 
 ing, $2940.57. Total cost per ft., $6.97. 
 
 Sewer System. Excavating 2967 ft. of trench and tunnel. 
 Trenches varied from 18 to 60 ins. wide and 2 to 20 ft. deep through 
 various kinds of soil. Costs were: Labor, $2122.84; material, 
 $65.20 ; total, $2188.04. Cost per lin. ft., 74 cts. Concrete work 
 amounting to 53.8 ft. of manholes, etc., was performed. The mix 
 was 7 of sand and gravel to 1 of cement. This work cost : Labor, 
 $168.18; material, $184.08; total, $352.26. Laying and cost of pipe, 
 which consisted of 2967 ft. of vitrified sewer pipe, ranging from 6 
 to 15 ins. in diam. and laid at an average depth of 4 ft. below 
 surface. Cost, $778.83 for labor and $1224.72 for supplies; total, 
 $2003.55. Cost per ft. of pipe, 68 cts. Total cost of sewer pipe, 
 including excavation, $4543.85. Total cost per ft., $1.53. 
 
 Water Pipe Line. Excavating 4253 ft. of trench through various 
 kinds of ground from 8 to 15 ft. in depth. Labor, $868.11. Cost 
 per ft., 20 cts. Concrete work, 2.3 cu. yd., to anchor 6-in. line at 
 foot of hill. Labor, $17.37; material, $17.86; total $35.23. Cost 
 per cu. yd., $15.32. Pipes and laying; all water lines about smelter 
 consist of 2052 ft. of 6-in. pipe, 1058 ft. of 4-in. pipe, 200 ft. of 
 2.5-in. pipe, 268 ft. of 2-in. pipe, 115 ft. of 1.5-in. pipe and 50 ft. 
 of 1-in. pipe; total, 4253 ft. of pipe, and all necessary fittings, 
 valves and Are hydrants. Cost of labor, $2863.32 ; material, 
 $2062.07; total, $4925.39. Cost per ft. of pipe, $1.16. A 6-in. pip'e 
 line from Clifton, distance 8988 ft. ; cost, including excavation, lay- 
 ing, material, painting and back-filling, labor, $1474.71 ; material, 
 $6914.95; total, $8389.66. Cost per ft. of pipe, 93 cts. Total cost 
 of all water pipes, $14,218.39. Total cost per ft., 51-08. 
 
 Air Line. Excavating trenches amounting to 401 cu.yd. through 
 various kinds of soil and ranging from 18 ins. to 6 ft. in depth and 
 1 to 3 ft. in width. Cost, including back-filling: labor, $267.50. 
 Cost per cu. yd., 67 cts. The air lines together were 2316 ft. long 
 and were made up of the following quantities of pipe: 526 ft. of 
 1-in. pipe, 36 ft. of 1.25-in. pipe, 80 ft. of 1.5-in., 656 ft. of 2-in., 
 838 ft. of 3-in. and 180 ft. of 4-in. pipe. Cost was as follows: 
 Labor, $432.37; material, $623.08; total, $1055.45. Cost per ft., 
 46 cts. Total cost of air line, including excavation, $1322.95. Cost 
 per ft., 57 cts. 
 
 Steam-Heating System. Excavating 225 cu. yds. of shallow 
 trench through red clay and backfilling. Labor cost, $166.36. Cost 
 per cu. yd., 73 cts. This pipe was covered with double standard 
 magnesia covering, 260 ft. of 2-in., and 236 ft. of 2.5-in. steam 
 pipe were laid in a 2-in. lumber box. Total pipe, 49 6 ft. Cost: 
 Labor, $240.78; material, $305.37; total, $546.15. Cost per ft. of 
 pipe, $1.10. Total cost of steam-heating pipe system, $712.51. 
 Cost per ft. of pipe, $1.43. 
 
 Power-house piping. Air pipes or ducts for turbines. This pipe 
 was made in the shop of No. 16 steel with 2.5 by 2.5 by .25 angles. 
 Total length, 103 ft. Cost of labor, $547.68 ; materials, $200.75 ; 
 total, $748.43. Cost per ft., $7.27. 
 
STEAM POWER 601 
 
 In erecting this pipe, cloth insertion packing, rivets, hangers, 
 anchors, etc., were used. Cost of labor, $232.57; material, $64.24; 
 total, $296.81. Cost per ft, $2.88. Total cost of air ducts for tur- 
 bines, $1045.24. Cost per ft., $10.15. 
 
 Erecting compressor : All piping, except steam, used in erecting 
 Ingersoll-Rand two-stage compressor. Cost of labor, $298.46; ma- 
 terial, $160.65; total, $459.11. 
 
 Steam pipe for north and south mains: Excavating 279 cu. yd. 
 for numerous piers done with pick and shovel and cast to one side. 
 Labor cost, $240.65. Cost per cu. yd., 89 cts. 
 
 Foundations: These are concrete piers which support the long 
 structural steam-pipe supports. Part of the concrete was mixed 
 by machine and part by hand in proportions of 6 sand and gravel 
 to 1 cement. There were 194.5 cu. yds. and about 50% of the 
 vertical surface was formed. Cost of labor, $578.24; material, 
 $945.97; total, $1524.21. Cost per cu. yd., $7.84. 
 
 Steel support structures for these mains consist of 11.8 tons of 
 corrugated iron and 75.01 tons of structural steel. Cost, including 
 labor, $7894.58. Cost per ton, $88.64. 
 
 Hangers and anchors used for steam piping between boilers and 
 the machines in the power house were made of .75-in. rods and .5 
 by 2.5-in. iron. Cost of labor, $1030.68; materials, $337.26; total, 
 $1367.94. Total, 153 rods at $8.94. 
 
 Cost and erection of pipe: the pipes run from the boilers to the 
 power house in duplicate, making a complete loop about 1120 ft. 
 around. The main lines are 10 ins., branches from boilers 8 ins., 
 and all branches to engines of suitable sizes ranging from 4 to 8 
 ins. The line is required to stand 180 lbs. pressure with 100 deg. F. 
 superheat. All joints are Van Stone, all valves and fittings are of 
 cast steel. Corrugated bronze gaskets were used. The 10-in. lines 
 are fitted with six 10-in. Labor cost was $2286.31. The following 
 gives some details of materials and cost : 
 
 6 10-in. Harter expansion joints $ 1,684.77 
 
 1 6-in. cast-iron separator 126.55 
 
 2 10-in. cast-steel vertical separators 843.47 
 
 1 10-in. cast-steel horizontal separator 372.48 
 
 2 6-in. separators and receivers 591.77 
 
 1 5-in. cast-steel separator and receiver 261.40 
 
 3 4-in. cast-steel separators and receivers 687.43 
 
 2 4-in. cast-steel separators and receivers 476.28 
 
 Corrugated bronze gaskets 251.93 
 
 10 8-in. Lagonda valves 1,315.52 
 
 12 10-in. gate valves 2,079.00 
 
 2 34-in. and 1 33-in. Crane tilt traps 143.69 
 
 Best Mfg. Co. pipe and fittings 8,738.89 
 
 Extra pipe and fittings 526.18 
 
 Miscellaneous 522.89 
 
 Total cost of materials $18,622.25 
 
 Total cost of labor and materials, $20,908.56. Total pipe work, 
 3401 ft. at $6.15 per ft. The steam pipes and all fittings were cov- 
 ered with 85% magnesia blocks of double standard thickness, 
 wrapped, with 6 oz. duck. All the lines were then painted with two 
 
602 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 coats. Cost, $6079.94. Cost per ft., $1.79. Total cost of steam 
 lines, north and south mains, $37,824.88. Cost per ft., $11.10. 
 
 Exhaust pipe: Some of the piping used was cast-iron, designed 
 for a vacuum of 14 lbs. per sq. in. The rest of the pipe used was 
 lap-welded wrought steel and cast-iron fittings. The installation 
 covers the 3 20-in. atmospheric exhausts from the turbines, as well 
 as the exhausts from the blowers, compressors, exciters, engines and 
 circulating pump engines, to the jet condenser. It covers likewise 
 the connections between the exhaust of the dry-vacuum pumps, 
 exciters, engines, surface condenser, circulating pumps and heater 
 house. The pipe ranges from 3-in. to 42-in. There were 1541 ft. 
 of pipe. The labor cost for installation was $1745.71. The supply 
 cost was $8715.66, made up as follows: Wainwright turbine ex- 
 pansion joints, $656.70; 3 20-in. atmospheric relief valves, $804.50; 
 3 42-in. low-pressure flanged base elbows, $1428.61 ; 3 special 8-in. 
 emergency-stop valves, $234.36; 1 14-in. automatic atmospheric- 
 exhaust relief valve, $123.27; pipe and fittings, $4585.74; miscel- 
 laneous, $882.48. Total cost of labor- and material, $10,461.37. 
 Cost per ft., $6.79. 
 
 All exhaust pipe was given one coat of green silica graphite 
 paint. Cost of labor, $85.05; material, $51.19; total, $136.24. Cost 
 per ft., 9 cts. 
 
 The exhaust pipes from the engines in the power house to the 
 heater house were all covered with 85% magnesia single standard 
 thickness, wrapped in 6-oz. duck. Where the magnesia is exposed 
 to the weather, it is wrapped with No. 28 galvanized iron. Total 
 pipe covered, 746 ft. Labor cost, $318.25; material, $830.56; total 
 cost, $1148.81. Cost per ft, $1.54. 
 
 Other costs, including air pipe and erection, painting, exhaust- 
 pipe foundations, supporting structure excavation. Labor cost was 
 $675.93; material, $733.56; total, $1409.49.- 
 
 Water pipe about poxoer house: Excavating a trench about 3 ft. 
 deep through red clay and boulders for a 16-in. wood stave pipe, 
 2406 cu. yd. of earth removed. Cost, including back-filling: Labor, 
 $1485.10; material, $0.24; total, $1485.34. Cost per cu. yd., 62 cts. 
 
 The following covers all the water pipe about the power house, 
 the 30-in. cast-iron suction line from the cooling tower to the 
 pumps; the 20-in. wooden lines from the pumps to the equalizing 
 tank; the 16-in. wooden lines from the jet condenser to the cooling 
 tower, and the 12-in. cast-iron lines from the circulating pumps to 
 the jet condenser ; the 8-in. line from the condenser to the condensed 
 water pump house ; the 6-in. line from the condensed pump house 
 to heater ho\ise, etc. Labor cost for erection was $3747.79. The 
 following gives details of materials and their cost : 
 
 19 98.7 ft. 4-in. machine banded redwood pipe with collars 
 
 (not used at new smelter) , $ 397.74 
 
 354.6 ft. 20-in. machine banded redwood pipe with collars 365.24 
 
 1104.2 ft. 16-in. machine banded redwood pipe with collars 861.28 
 
 22 flange couplings 590.00 
 
 Freight on the above items 632.00 
 
 2 12-in. check valves 97.00 
 
 4 12-in. gate valves 172.00 
 
STEAM POWER 603 
 
 3 20-in. g-ate valves 283.50 
 
 Freight on above items 176.38 
 
 3 20-in. flanged iron body, bronze-mounted double gate 
 
 valves 403.49 
 
 5 No. 20 gage copper plates 36.28 
 
 2 cast-iron bell-and-flange fittings, 6 bell bends 81.11 
 
 Freight and patterns on above 78.00 
 
 220 lbs. cloth insertion packing 91.50 
 
 Best Mfg-. Co. pipe 9,668.92 
 
 Pipe, fittings, miscellaneous material 2,503.44 
 
 Total cost of material $16,437.88 
 
 Total cost of labor and materials, $20,185.67. 
 
 All this pipe above ground was painted at a cost of : Labor, 
 $230.59; material, $25.54; total, $256.13. 
 
 Sewer pipe for feed water heating plant: Excavating and back- 
 filling a trench about 3 ft. deep through red clay and boulders, 266 
 cu. yd. Labor cost, at 59 cts. cu. yd., $157.19. 
 
 Sewer pipe and laying- 100 ft. of 24-in. vitrified pipe. Cost of 
 labor, $71.88; material, $203; total, $274.88. Cost per ft., $2.75. 
 Total cost of sewer, $432.07. Total cost per ft., $4.32. Total cost 
 of power house-piping (except possibly a few small items connected 
 with pumps, etc.), $74,844.35. 
 
 Oil-Supply Sump and Pump House. Inlet piping, oil sump : The 
 following is for installing and cost of this pipe between the unload- 
 ing tracks and oil sump: Labor, $44.77; 6 10-in. wrought pipe 18 
 ft. long, $85.54; 6 10-in. cast-iron cells, $38.64; miscellaneous, 
 $2.37; total, $171.32. 108 ft. of piping at $1.59. 
 
 Oil piping: Excavating trenches from 500,000 gal. oil tank to 
 small 163-bbl. tanks. Trenches were 2 ft. wide and about 3 ft. 
 deep. Total earth removed, 1150 cu. yd. Cost of labor, $990.73 ; 
 material, $1.39 ; total, $992.12. Cost per cu. yd., 86 cts. 
 
 Pipe and laying: there were 1888 ft. of pipe, consisting of 172 
 ft. of 12-in. wrought-iron pipe, 270 ft. of 16-in., 850 ft. of 8-in. 
 and 596 ft, of 2.5-in, wrought-iron pipe. A 16-in. line runs from 
 the oil sump to the pump house, also from pump house to storage 
 tanks. The 8-in. line runs from the pump house to the 163-bbl. 
 tanks. The 2.5-in. line runs from the Wilgus oil pumps to each of 
 the reverberatories. Cost of labor, $3156.14; material, $5654.50; 
 total, $8810.64. Cost per ft. of pipe, $4.67. 
 
 Heating installation for oil piping: a 2.5-in. steam line is tapped 
 off the steam line at power house and runs underground through 
 a conduit and is packed in asbestos fiber. At the other end, the 
 pipe connects with a cast-iron oil heater. Labor cost for installing 
 was, $167.37. Materials cost $1068.04 and consisted of a cast-iron 
 heater, $303.82; No. 33 Crane tilt trap, $35.91; 280 ft. 8-in. conduit, 
 $547.49; asbestos, $29; 2.5-in. pipe and fittings, $151.82. Total cost 
 of labor and material, $1235.41. Total piping, 360 ft. at $3.43 per 
 ft. Total cost of piping at smelter as given in details of cost, 
 $11,389.34. 
 
 Pipe Line Leakage. Trans. A. 1. M. E. Vol. 30. At No. 6 Col- 
 liery, Glen Lyon, Pa., the main pipe line is 4380 ft. long, of 5 ins. 
 jiiam., and has a cubic capacity of 608 cu. ft., with a branch line 
 
604 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 3100 ft. long, of 3 ins, diam., and a capacity of 159 cu. ft. The 
 gauge pretjsure is 600 lbs., which gives an equivalent capacity of 
 32, 500 cu. ft. of free air. The loss per hr. from leaks is 974 cu. ft. 
 of free air or 4.18% of the total air compressed. 
 
 Average Cost of Boiler Feed Pumps. W. H. Weston has given 
 the following data in The Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912, for 
 compound condensing plants. 
 
 Cost of 
 Feed pumps, 
 Hp. of plant completely installed 
 
 400 $160 
 
 500 175 
 
 600 190 
 
 800 220 
 
 1,000 250 
 
 1,500 325 
 
 2.000 380 
 
 4,000 700 
 
 Cost of Pumps. The following equations, taken from Bulletin 
 No. 2, Kansas State Agricultural College, Boiler Room Economics, by 
 A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering, give the cost, C, in dollars for 
 various types of reciprocating pumps in terms of capacity, G, 
 expressed in gallons per hour. 
 
 Boiler feed pumps, piston pattern, single cylinder: 
 
 For capacities of 6000 gals, per hr. or less, C = 17.8 + 0.0259 X G; 
 6000 to 27,000 gals, per hr., C = 107 + 0.011 X G. 
 
 For a duplex pump of the same type, and capacities from 2,500 
 to 30,000 gals, per hr., C = 58.5 + 0.0115 X G. 
 
 Boiler feed pumps, single cylinder, outside-packed plunger type: 
 C — 0.034 X G — 20. For a duplex pump of the same type, C = 
 0.0421 X G — 221. 
 
 Geared power pumps, single cylinder: C = 90 + 0.0316XG. 
 
 Geared poiver piimps, single acting triplex type: C = 56 + 0.0388 
 X G. For a double acting pump of the same type, C = 195'+ 0.0148 
 XG. 
 
 Rotary force pumps: C = 8 + 0.0117 X G. 
 
 Wet vacuum pumps: For capacities up to 10,000 gals, per hr., 
 C = 18 + 0.0143 X G. From 10,000 to 50,000 gals, per hr., C = 14 + 
 0.00863 X G. 
 
 The following equations give the cost, C, in dollars for centrif- 
 ugal pumps when the capacities are expressed in gallons per 
 minute, G. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps, horizontal, low pressure, single stage type: 
 C = 52 + 0.0552 X G. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps, horizontal, high pressure, single stage type: 
 For capacities up to 5,000 gals, per min., C = 61 + 0.0868 X G. 
 From 5,000 to 20,000 gals, per min., C = 210 + 0.0567 X G. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps, horizontal, high pressxire, multi-stage type: 
 C = 117 + 0.233 X G. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps, vertical, low pi'essure, single-stage type: C ~ 
 60 + 0.0657 X G. 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 605 
 
 single-stage tyiie: 
 multi-stage type: 
 
 Centrifugal pumps, vertical, high pressure, 
 C = 50 + 0.0865 X G. 
 
 Centrifugal putnps, vertical, high pressure, 
 C - 125.7 + 0.27 X G. 
 
 The cost of a duplex-geared pump is stated by different manu- 
 facturers as twice that of a single-cylinder pump plus 10%. 
 
 For further data on pumps and costs thereof, see Chapter XVII. 
 
 Cost of Water Purification Plants. We have abstracted the fol- 
 lowing from Bulletin No. 2, Kansas State Agricultural College, 
 Boiler Room Economics, by A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering. 
 Table LXXXVIII gives the capacities of water-purification plants 
 in gallons per hour, the cost of equipment and also the cost of 
 erection. It is evident that the cost of erection rises much more 
 rapidly for increased capacities above 7000 gals, per hr. than from 
 to 7000 gals, per hr., whereas the cost of the equipment rises 
 uniformly for the total range of capacities quoted. From the table 
 the following equations were derived, giving the cost, C, in dollars 
 expressed in terms of the capacity in thousands of gallons, G, 
 per hour. 
 
 TABLE LXXXVIII. 
 
 COST DATA FOR WATER-PURIFICATION 
 PLANTS 
 
 :ity, gal. per 
 
 hr. Cost, dol. Cost of erectior 
 
 1,000 
 
 $900 
 
 $225 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 150 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,150 
 
 235 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 245 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 200 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 250 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,900 
 
 220 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,750 
 
 250 
 
 5.000 
 
 2,000 
 
 260 
 
 5,000 
 
 2.300 
 
 500 
 
 6,000 
 
 2,250 
 
 275 
 
 7,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 300 
 
 8,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 500 
 
 10.000 
 
 3,000 
 
 600 
 
 10,000 
 
 3,300 
 
 700 
 
 12,000 
 
 3,500 
 
 800 
 
 15,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 875 
 
 15,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 900 
 
 20,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 20.000 
 
 4,400 
 OIL SEPARATORS 
 
 1,100 
 
 
 STANDARD HORIZONTAL TYPE 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 2 
 
 80 
 
 $8.00 
 
 3 
 
 150 
 
 15.40 
 
 4 
 
 200 
 
 17.60 
 
 5 
 
 230 
 
 20.00 
 
 6 
 
 260 
 
 24.00 
 
 8 
 
 450 
 
 36.00 
 
 10 
 
 580 
 
 46.00 
 
 12 
 
 725 
 
 60.00 
 
 14 
 
 875 
 
 76.00 
 
 16 
 
 1,200 
 
 102.00 
 
606 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Size, ins. 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 8 
 
 ICAL RECEIVER TYPE 
 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 140 
 
 $13.60 
 
 225 
 
 17.60 
 
 325 
 
 26.00 
 
 500 
 
 37.60 
 
 625 
 
 45.60 
 
 850 
 
 62.00 
 
 RECEIVER TYPE STEAM SEPARATORS 
 
 
 VERTICAL CLASS 
 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 300 
 425 
 650 
 850 
 1,200 
 
 HORIZONTAL CLASS 
 
 $36.00 
 47.20 
 67.50 
 85.50 
 
 112.50 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 475 
 
 650 
 
 825 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 $49.50 
 63.00 
 76.50 
 90.00 
 
 112.50 
 
 The above separators are used for 200 lb. working pressure. 
 
 STANDARD STEAM SEPARATORS 
 
 
 VERTICAL CLASS 
 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 425 
 
 650 
 
 825 
 1,125 
 1,350 
 
 HORIZONTAL CLASS 
 
 $18.40 
 25.60 
 36.80 
 50.00 
 61.50 
 69.50 
 88.00 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 8 
 
 100 
 175 
 250 
 350 
 450 
 775 
 
 $12.00 
 14.40 
 20.00 
 28.00 
 32.00 
 52.00 
 
 The above separators are used for 150 lb. working pressure. 
 
 Cost of equipment, C = 1000 + 0.2 X G. 
 
 Cost of erection, C - 160 + 0.02 X G for capacities from to 7000 
 gals, per hr., and C = 211 + 0.0444 X G for capacities from 8,000 to 
 20,000 gals, per hr. 
 
 Operation of Mechanical Stokers. R. J. S. Pigott gave the fol- 
 lowing data in the Proc. Am. Elec. Ry. Assn., ,1914, abstracted by 
 Lefax. 
 
STEAM POWER 607 
 
 Mechanical stokers are practically limited to the firing of bi- 
 tuminous coal. Anthracite fuel has been handled successfully only 
 with mechanical shovelers, which require almost as much attention 
 as hand firing-. Lignite has been generally unsuccessful on stokers 
 up to the present time. The principal requirements of a stoker are 
 to coke the green coal, mix air with the volatile matter where it 
 can be ignited, burn the fixed carbon, dispose of the ash and 
 clinker, and prevent sifting and clinker adherence to the brickwork 
 and stoker parts. 
 
 In all overhead stokers the coal is fed in at the top and allowed 
 to coke as it is gradually forced downward by gravity and rocking 
 of the bars. As the green coal packs closely, air must be supplied 
 through the lower part of the grate or through the openings in the 
 arch. The length of flame for a semi-bituminous coal contaming 
 17 to 25% volatile matter is over 30 ft. with these stokers The dis- 
 tance from the grates to the tubes varies from 5 ft. to 9 ft. Ac- 
 cumulation of clinker must be prevented by slicing and periodic 
 dumping. Too frequent dumping will prevent the complete combus- 
 tion of carbon in the clinker, while the other extreme will cause 
 the clinker to become large and hard to dislodge ; 5 to 8% of the 
 fuel will sift through overfeed grates, depending on the amount 
 of air space and the condition of the grates. At the present time 
 it is considered good practice to provide a stoker which is capable 
 of operating the boiler at 200% of its rating continuously. 
 
 On chain grates coking occurs at the entrance to the stokers, 
 but as the coking arch is much longer than for slope grates, the 
 air and volatile matter are mixed more effectively and less loss due 
 to incomplete combustion results. Clinker troubles are reduced as 
 the grates are entirely cleared of ash and clinker and cooled by 
 returning on the under side once every revolution. Chain grates 
 weigh more per b.h.p. than other types, sometimes over twice as 
 much as slope or underfeed grates. For instance, a chain grate 
 stoker for a 600 h.p. boiler with a furnace width of 12 ft. 6 ins. 
 weighs from 60,000 to 80,000 lbs., as compared with 30,000 lbs. for 
 an inclined stoker, either over or underfed. Having larger areas 
 than other overfeed grates, however, chain grates can be forced 
 much higher if the proper quality of coal suited to the stoker is 
 used. With low ash coals at high rates of driving, the grates 
 become overheated. Chain grates at all ratings are suitable for 
 high volatile (30-40%) and high ash (10-20%) coals. 
 
 Underfeed stokers have the following principal advantages: The 
 tuyeres are covered with green or only partly coked coal so the 
 grates are not liable to be burned ; practically the entire furnace 
 area is utilized to di.still volatile matter ; all of the air supplied to 
 the furnace is immediately and intimately mixed with the volatile 
 matter while it is still in the coal bed ; the combustible gases pass 
 through the hotte.st zone pf the fire before reaching the furnace, 
 and no arches are required. These stokers necessarily operate with 
 forced draft as the air openings are restricted and the fuel bed is 
 deep, from 1 to 4 ft. As no arches are required, considerable ex- 
 pense is eliminated in repairing brick-work. Underfeed stokers 
 
608 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 '^ ■? 
 
 ^ 
 
 oc ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o " c 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ui o • T-i — : c 
 
 fd o 
 
 0) 
 
 ft 
 
 |l 
 
 ft O 
 <t-l 
 
 
 ^:^ 
 
 ^2 
 
 X2 O >^ 
 
 S-o o o 
 O 0) as c^ 
 
 c^ ho 
 t H "^ i^ 
 
 Sh rt c 
 o) fl q o 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 609 
 
 have great forcing capacity ; 300% of rating- can be maintained con- 
 tinuously at 60 to 65 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate. 
 
 The efficiencies of modern stoker installations are shown by the 
 curves in Fig. 86. These indicate boiler efficiency alone and do not 
 allow for steam consumed by auxiliaries such as blowers, stokers 
 and boiler-feed pumps. In general the best efficiency is shown 
 when the boiler is operated at less than 100% rating. Curves A 
 and B indicate an exception to this statement. As the net output 
 of steam for a given coal input is affected relatively more at low 
 loads than at high loads by the steam consumed by the auxiliaries, 
 it is advisable to operate the boilers at about 25% higher than their 
 most efficient rating as shown by the curves to obtain the best plant 
 efficiency. The principal factor influencing the load to be carried 
 by a boiler is the relation between fixed and operating costs. 
 
 m 
 
 COmiNE[> EFFIQEHCY. BOilZB AtiO FURNACE 
 'A -ZJeSKP Boikr, Taylor Stoker D. f. Sfirliry 
 B-23CSH.P Boiler, Raney Stoker D.L Stirling 
 C' S20H.P. Boiler. Taylor Stoker B.SW. 
 
 
 
 
 D- 75dH.R Boiler. Taylor Stoker B.OW.ffbrt e'Tvbe^ 
 t-fOO MR Boiler. Qreen Chain Crore. B.8M 
 
 
 
 
 so 
 
 
 
 
 'F' S?0 H.P Boiler Weitinghouse-fbney Stt^ter 
 6' 1000 tip Boiler, Tq/hr Stoker BSW 
 
 B.Oi 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^t 
 
 
 •^-,- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5* 
 
 P 
 
 -<< 
 
 
 A 
 
 ~2^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^--^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 :::: 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ . 
 
 
 iw 
 
 
 - 
 
 '^B 
 
 
 
 
 
 <=: 
 
 
 b 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^^ 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 T" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 F 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r* 
 
 
 V' i 
 
 V < 
 
 9 6 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 V n 
 OJTP 
 
 (f M 
 
 J7 P 
 
 16 
 
 iRCBt^ 
 
 to 
 
 IT Cf 
 
 io 
 RAl 
 
 Zi 
 INC 
 
 24 
 
 ^ 
 
 *-<as 
 
 ^—k 
 
 Cost of Maintaining Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six Years. 
 The data in the accompanying table from Electrical World, Dec. 
 16, 1916, show what it has cost a Middle West central station 
 exclusive of labor charges to maintain four 10-ft. by 10-ft. chain- 
 grate stokers and their furnaces during the 6 years they have been 
 in service. It will be noted that the total expense for material has 
 been $2,735.75 or an average of $114.99 per stoker per year. Of 
 this amount $2,354.87 has been spent for tile and fireclay, while 
 $400.88 has been spent for stoker parts, and steel and iron parts of 
 arches and feed gates. The cost per stoker per year for tile and 
 fireclay was $97.29, and the cost per stoker per year for all cast- 
 ings and steel parts was $16.70. In other words, the cost of the 
 tile and fireclay represented 85% of the total material maintenance 
 cost. 
 
610 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XCA. COST OP STOKER AND FURNACE REPAIRS 
 FOR SIX YEARS 
 
 Stoker parts 
 
 and iron parts Tile 
 
 of arch and and 
 
 feed gate fireclay Total 
 
 1910 $60.00 $60.00 
 
 1911 14.00 $142.25 156.25 
 
 1912 61.12 823.17 884.29 
 
 1913 40.50 67.50 10100 
 
 1914 3.00 217.00 220.00 
 
 1915 33.25 190.25 223 50 
 
 1916 189.01 894.70 1.083.71 
 
 $400.88 $2,334.87 $2,735.75 
 
 Total per stoker per year $16.70 $97.29 $114.99 
 
 A more detailed analysis of the cost of maintaining metal parts 
 shows that the cost of replacing operating parts of the four stokers 
 was but $8.77 per stoker per year, which is a very small percent- 
 age of $1800, the present cost of such a unit without firebrick. 
 Further study of data concerning the cost of the tile also shows 
 that in 1912, when the maintenance cost was high, one complete 
 9.5-ft. by 6.5-ft. arch, and 50 large 4-in. by 12-in. by 24-in. bridge 
 wall tile were purchased at a total cost of $498.22, which helped 
 appreciably to increase the total for the year. 
 
 Cost of Stokers. The following data are from Bulletin No. 2, 
 Kansas State Agricultural College, Boiler Room Economics, by 
 A. A. Potter and S. L Simmering. It is difficult to express by a 
 single equation the cost of a stoker equipment, as the numbei of 
 stokers required, the draft necessary, the kind of fufel and other 
 conditions all tend to cause a variation in price. For example, the 
 cost of an underfeed stoker of a certain make is $1055 for 1 125-h p. 
 boiler, $1793 for 2 125-h.p. boilers and $6,300 for 8 boilers of the 
 same capacity. One manufacturer of front-feed stokers quoted 
 $975 for a single boiler equipment and $1680 for a 2-boiler equip- 
 ment. Tables XC-XCII give the costs of various types of 
 stokers. The following equations apply very nearly to equipments 
 for not more than 4 boilers. The cost, C, in dollars is expressed 
 in terms of the boiler horsepower, h.p. served by the stokers. 
 
 Chain-grate .stokers: for boiler capacity of 300 h.p. or less. C - 
 86 + 4.28 X h.p. ; for capacities from 300 h.p. to 500 h.p. C = 434 + 
 3.1 X h.p. 
 
 Mechanical underfeed stokers: C = 379 -f 2.785 X h p. 
 
 Mechanical front feed stokers: C = 312 -|- 3.015 X h.p. 
 
 TABLE XC. COST DATA FOR MECHANICAL CHAIN 
 GRATE STOKERS 
 
 Cost, dollars 
 Boiler h.p. Total Per h.p. 
 
 125 $750 $6.00 
 
 200 1,150 5.75 
 
 300 1,350 4.50 
 
Total 
 
 Per h.p. 
 
 1,380 
 
 4.60 
 
 1,600 
 
 4.00 
 
 1.760 
 
 - 4.40 
 
 1,800 
 
 3.60 
 
 
 4.00 
 
 Cost, 
 
 dollars 
 
 Total 
 
 Per h.p. 
 
 $850 
 
 $6.80 
 
 1,115 
 
 8.92 
 
 1,055 
 
 7.03 
 
 897 
 
 5.97 
 
 765 
 
 3.82 
 
 1,075 
 
 3.58 
 
 1,250 
 
 4.17 
 
 1,669 
 
 4.76 
 
 1,350 
 
 3.37 
 
 1,600 
 
 3.20 
 
 1,800 
 
 3.00 
 
 2,300 
 
 3.83 
 
 STEAM POWER 611 
 
 Boiler h.p. 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 Large sizes 
 
 TABLE XCL COST DATA FOR MECHANICAL UNDERFEED 
 STOKERS 
 
 Boiler h.p. 
 125 
 125 
 
 150 
 150 
 200 
 300 
 300 
 350 
 400 
 500 
 600 
 600 
 
 TABLE XCII. COST DATA FOR MECHANICAL FRONT FEED 
 STOKERS 
 
 Boiler h.p. 
 100 
 125 
 137 
 150 
 175 
 200 
 250 
 275 
 300 
 330 
 375 
 400 
 450 
 500 
 550 
 610 
 660 
 
 Mechanical Stokers, Installed. W. H, Weston, Engineering Maga- 
 zine, January, 1912, has given the following table, the horsepower 
 being figured on compound condensing basis. 
 
 H.p. Cost 
 
 800 $2,600 
 
 1,000 3,000 
 
 1,500 4,300 
 
 2,000 5,500 
 
 4.000 10,000 
 
 Cost of Superheaters. The, following data are from Bulletin No, 
 2, Kansas State Agricultural College. Boiler Room Economics, by 
 
 Co.st. 
 
 dollars 
 
 Total 
 
 Per h.p. 
 
 $550 
 
 $5.50 
 
 825 
 
 6.60 
 
 665 
 
 4.85 
 
 690 
 
 4.60 
 
 750 
 
 4.28 
 
 925 
 
 4.63 
 
 940 
 
 3.61 
 
 965 
 
 3.50 
 
 1,140 
 
 3.80 
 
 1,225 
 
 3.71 
 
 1,375 
 
 3.67 
 
 1,500 
 
 3.75 
 
 1.700 
 
 3.78 
 
 1,880 
 
 3.76 
 
 2,000 
 
 3.63 
 
 2.100 
 
 3.44 
 
 2.300 
 
 3.48 
 
612 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering. The prices in Table XClll apply 
 to attached or built-in super-heaters. These prices vary with the 
 general shape, size and construction, as well as with the degree of 
 superheat to be maintained. This latter variation is shown by the 
 equations for 100, 200 and 300 degs. of superheat. 
 
 C, in dollars, is expressed in terms of the boiler horsepower, h.p. 
 
 For 100 deg. of superheat: C =: 165 + 2.578 X hp. 
 " 200 •• ♦' " C =: 52 -j- 3.4 66 Xhp. 
 
 " 300 " " " C = 40 + 4.28 X hp. 
 
 TABLE XCIII. COST DATA FOR ATTACHED OR BUILT-IN 
 SUPERHEATERS 
 
 Cost, 
 Boiler h.p. Total Per b h.p Erection 
 
 200 
 
 250 700 3.50 $75 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 500 1,380 2.76 145 
 
 750 2,025 2.70 225 
 
 250 915 3 66 85 
 
 500 1,800 3 60 190 
 
 750 2,650 3 53 275 
 
 300 deg. superheat 
 
 250 1.110 4.44 100 
 
 500 2,220 4.40 200 
 
 750 3,250 4.33 300 
 
 Steam Turbines. A. A. Potter, Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives the 
 following formulae of cost in Table XCIV. 
 
 Dimensions, Weights and Costs of Steam Turbines. The follow- 
 ing, taken from Power, June 1, 1915, is by A. A. Potter and S. L, 
 Simmering, Kansas State Agricultural College. Tables XCV and 
 XCVI were compiled from data supplied by manufacturers and 
 should prove of value in connection with preliminary estimates. 
 The dimensions, weights and cost data are for condensing units 
 and include the turbines and alternating-current generators. 
 
 The values in Table XCVII were plotted and the following equa- 
 tions were deduced, giving the cost in dollars (C) of the turbine 
 and generator, in terms of the capacity in kilowatts. 
 
 Impulse types C — 50J,0 4 9.2 kws. (Dollars) 
 Reaction types C = 7^00 -i 8.26 kws. (Dollars) 
 
 Total 
 
 Cost, dollars 
 Per b h.p 
 
 100 deg. 
 
 superheat 
 
 $750 
 700 
 975 
 1,200 
 1,880 
 1,380 
 2,025 
 
 $3.75 
 3.50 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.76 
 2.76 
 2.70 
 
 200 deg. 
 
 superheat 
 
 915 
 1,800 
 2,650 
 
 3 66 
 3 60 
 3 53 
 
STEAM POWER 
 
 613 
 
 ■^^ xxx7x I X 
 
 <H tH r-l rH ^ CO ^ -H 
 
 ° +++X+X+ 
 
 3 00 O t- 1-1 O CO O 
 O" OOlft tH CO tH 
 
 p^ cot-" 00 
 
 .i 
 
 aa^'^ 
 
 oo 
 
 
 oo 
 
 oo^^o»=:i«o 
 
 OOI-'u5*-^<Mo 
 
 S 2 
 
 a <u 
 
 c3 a- 
 3 S 
 
 h- 1 
 
 W 
 
 H 
 w 
 
 Z 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 gs 
 
 §1 
 
 HO 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 Z 
 H 
 
 ■+j OOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 ,G . oooooinooooo 
 
 &C^ OOiOCDOC-IOOOOO 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 * C OOOOOOi-^OUSOO 
 
 ^<w 
 
 cowxnceotoost-iHooo 
 
 -M C oooojo-^eoooioo 
 
 b£— 
 
 (IJ+J O O 00 O Tt< 00 Irt «> Tt* ■* U5 
 
 l_q"W rH eg rH (M M iH M N CO CO •* 
 
 ^ " 
 
 be- 
 
 3 
 
 oo o 
 
 oo o 
 
 oo o 
 
 U5U5 lo" 
 
 «ooi 00 o 
 
 CO oo 
 
 be 
 
 C . 
 
 a>+-| u5 CO coo irt (M 
 
 ,_5^ iH iH iHCvl (M CO 
 
 ^■*^ f^ C^ »»-' »— ' <^ ^^ (^ G; *»' w5 *»-' WJ 
 N !> toCOU5ir50oOOoC:0 
 
 w 
 
 1-' T-i e<J <M US »« o 
 
614 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XCVI. COST OP CONDENSING STEAM TURBINES 
 AND GENERATORS 
 
 Size, 
 
 Impulse 
 
 type 
 
 Reaction type 
 
 kw. 
 
 Rev. per min. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Rev. per min. 
 
 Cost 
 
 300 
 
 3,600 
 
 $8,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 $7,650 
 
 500 
 
 3,600 
 
 9,600 
 
 3,600 
 
 9,550 
 
 1,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 14,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 13,750 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 23,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 22.800 
 
 5,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 55,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 48,700 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 95,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 90,000 
 
 Prices of Steam Valves. 
 
 valves before the war. 
 
 The following wei*e the net prices of 
 
 FISHER REDUCING VALVE 
 
 
 SCREWED CONNECTIONS 
 
 
 
 Net 
 
 prices 
 
 Size, in. 
 
 Angle pattern 
 
 Globe pattern 
 
 1 
 
 $21 
 
 $23 
 
 ly* 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 iy2 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 2V2 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 49 
 FLANGED CONNECTIONS 
 
 51 
 
 
 Net 
 
 prices 
 
 Size, in. 
 
 Angle pattern Globe pattern 
 
 2 
 
 $35 
 
 $38 
 
 2y2 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 3y2 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 ' 77 
 
 5 
 
 88 
 
 95 
 
 AUTOMATIC EXHAUST RELIEF VALVE 
 
 Size, in. 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 10 
 
 Size, in. 
 2 
 
 2y2 
 3 
 
 3y2 
 
 4 
 
 4y2 
 
 5 
 
 sya 
 
 6 
 
 Approx. weight, lb. 
 
 Net price 
 
 50 
 
 $14.00 
 
 75 
 
 16.50 
 
 100 
 
 21.00 
 
 125 
 
 25.00 
 
 175 
 
 27.50 
 
 250 
 
 35.00 
 
 300 
 
 38.00 
 
 350 
 
 50.00 
 
 SAl^'ETY VALVES 
 
 
 Diam. of flange, in. 
 
 Net price 
 
 7 
 
 $15.00 
 
 7 
 
 20.00 
 
 9 
 
 22.00 
 
 10 
 
 32.00 
 
 10 
 
 35.00 
 
 12 
 
 40.00 
 
 12 
 
 42.50 
 
 14 » 
 
 62.50 
 
 14 
 
 62.50 
 
 The above 
 boilers. 
 
 safety valves are for large stationary and portable 
 
STEAM POWER 615 
 
 POP SAFETY VALVES 
 
 
 
 Net price 
 
 
 Size, in. 
 
 "Without cap or 
 
 lever 
 
 With cap 
 
 1% 
 
 $2.25 
 
 
 $2.50 
 
 1 
 
 3.25 
 
 
 3.50 
 
 1% 
 
 4.25 
 
 
 4.50 
 
 IV2 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 5.25 
 
 2 
 
 10.00 
 
 
 10.25 
 
 21/2 
 
 16.00 
 
 
 16.50 
 
 3 
 
 20.00 
 
 
 20.50 
 
 For small stationary and portable boilers 
 SQUIRES IMPROVED STEAM TRAP 
 
 FITTED WITH REGULAR VALVE AND SEAT 
 
 
 
 Capacity 
 
 
 Size pipe 
 
 sq. ft. ^ 
 
 of Lb. of 
 
 
 connections, in. 
 
 radiation water per h 
 
 r. Net price 
 
 1/2 
 
 1,300 
 
 400 
 
 $15 
 
 % 
 
 2,000 
 
 600 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 2,800 
 
 850 
 
 21 
 
 1% 
 
 5,200 
 
 1,600 
 
 26 
 
 11/2 
 
 8,100 
 
 2,500 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 12,900 
 
 4,000 
 
 53 
 
 2y2 
 
 32,700 
 
 10,100 
 
 75 
 
 FITTED WITH 
 
 UNLIMITED PRESSURE VALVE 
 
 MECHANISM 
 
 Size pipe 
 
 
 Capacity 
 
 
 connections, in. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 of water per hr. 
 
 Net price 
 
 1 
 
 
 2,700 
 
 $25 
 
 1% 
 
 
 3,800 
 
 30 
 
 iy2 
 
 
 5,500 
 
 45 • 
 
 2 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 63 
 
 2y2 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 90 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 INTERNAL, COMBUSTION ENGINES AND GAS PRODUCERS 
 
 Principal Economic Factors of Gas Power. These are: 1, the 
 nature of available fuel ; 2, the cost of installation ; 3, the operat- 
 ing labor, water, oil and waste, etc. 
 
 Fuel differs in very great degree according to locality from which 
 it is taken. Natural gas, containing a small percentage of highly 
 inflammable constituents, mostly hydrogen, is generally clean, pos- 
 
 n = COgTFT- Non-Combustibles 
 
 ■=CHHf« il = CH4 E=H 
 
 llluminants Methane- Hydrogen 
 
 Carbon- Monoxide 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Composition and heat value of fuel gases. 
 D. Dreyfus, Power.) 
 
 (After Edwin 
 
 sesses high heat values, and is obtained mostly in Western Penn- 
 sylvania, New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Kansas and 
 Louisiana. 
 
 The gases obtained as distillate from oil refineries and from by- 
 product coke and blast furnaces are available wherever such in- 
 dustrial plants exist, but on account of the impurities ordinarily 
 encountered, such as ore dust, oily papers, lamp black, sulphuric 
 compounds, it must be cleaned before delivery to the engine. 
 
 616 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 617 
 
 Illuminating- gas is available in nearly all large cities and con- 
 tains a high percentag-e of hydrogen, is of high heat value and 
 generally is fairly clean. It is subject to the objections of rather 
 high cost and its liability to pre-ignition. Gas made from coal or 
 crude oil possesses the same limitations as illuminating gas, and 
 water gas is even less satisfactory on account of its still lower 
 heat value. 
 
 Producer gas is available wherever there is a supply of an- 
 thracite or bituminous coal, and presents the proper factor for com- 
 paring the operating costs of this type of equipment with those 
 of tlfe steam engine. 
 
 Thermal Efficiency is high in gas engines of all sizes, whereas it 
 is not high in a steam engine except for the very large sizes. 
 Fig. 2 gives the heat economy of turbines and gas engines ranging 
 from 500 to 10,000 kw. units, together with a typical gas-engine 
 curve applying to all sizes. 
 
 20 
 Fig. 2. Heat economy of turbines and gas engines. 
 
 40 60 80 100 120 
 Per Cent of Foil Load 
 
 Cost of Installation. Edwin D. Dreyfus, from whose excellent 
 paper in Power for January 31, 1911, we have taken three illustra- 
 tions under this caption, places the composite cost of the gas plant 
 about 30% higher than that of a high grade steam plant because 
 of the larger quantity of metal in the gas engine that must with- 
 stand higher combustion pressures and temperatures up to 3,000 
 degs. F., while a steam turbine undergoes pressures of 200 lbs. per 
 sq. in. and under and temperatures not more than 500 degs. F. 
 Another reason for the extra weight of the gas engine is that a 
 turbine, for example, can operate at much higher speeds than 
 could possibly be the case with gas engines. The element of 
 metal, therefore, produces more power per unit of its weight. 
 
 Labor. This will not vary materially in small gas and steam 
 plants and in large plants it may differ in favor of the steam 
 turbine, but it will not differ much between a large reciprocating 
 steam engine and a gas engine of the same power. 
 
618 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Fixed Charges. In Fig. 3 Mr. Dreyfus assumes 117c of the first 
 cost as the proper fixed charges for both the gas and the steam 
 plants. He considers that the real difference in ob.solescence be- 
 tween the two types of plant is more or less intangible, and he 
 has therefore ignored it in order to avoid complication. 
 
 '0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 
 Load Factor Per Cent 
 
 90 100 
 
 Fig. 3. Comparative operating expenses. 
 
 Mechanical and Thermal Efficiency of Internal Combustion En- 
 gines. T. C. Ulbricht and C. E. Torrance in Power give the fol- 
 lowing: Mechanical Efficiency. From a large number of values 
 obtained from American maimfacturers and operators, the follow- 
 ing average table was derived for the mechanical efficiencres of 
 engines operating on various fuels : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Producer gas 82.0 
 
 Natural gas 84.0 
 
 Illuminating gas , , . . 84.2 
 
 Gasoline 87.7 
 
 Oils 84.8 
 
 These averages are on the basis of fuel used, instead of the 
 engine type and in the case of gasoline and oils, are somewhat 
 above the values usually obtained. However, the averages for the 
 three gases are just what might be expected on any commercial test. 
 
 Thermal Efficiency. The thermal efficiency of a gas engine is 
 rather indefinite, unles.r> it is stated whether it is based on the 
 work developed in the cylinder, or on that delivered at the brake. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 619 
 
 In this investigation all thermal efficiencies have been referred to 
 the brake h.p. per cylinder per end, so that a builder or purchaser 
 may know just what per cent of the total heat units put into an 
 engine is obtained at the brake as useful work. 
 
 To obtain data for determining the average thermal efficiencies 
 of American engines, letters were sent to about 90 of the largest 
 manufacturers in the United States, requesting guarantees on the 
 brake horsepower, thermal efficiency on this basis, kind and calorific 
 value of fuel upon which the guarantee was based, and variation 
 of guarantee, if any, with the size of engine. 
 
 The thermal efficiencies were mostly calculated from the guaran- 
 teed fuel consumption at full load, by the formula. 
 
 2545 
 
 Thermal efficiency = 
 
 B.t.u. per brake h.p. 
 
 the numerator being the B.t.u. equivalent of one h.p.-hr. 
 
 The curves, Figs. 4 to 11, show the results as obtained in most 
 cases from actual guarantees given by the manufacturers, and 
 since the tendency seems to be to under-rate the engines, or place 
 the guarantee on the safe side, it would seem that these average 
 curves represent good practice and are too low rather than too 
 high. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the average thermal efficiency curve for engines 
 using kerosene. Where possible, Guldner's values for German 
 practice, have been plotted on the same sheet with those represent- 
 ing American practice. For kerosene, Guldner's curve is found to 
 be below the average for American practice. This discrepancy 
 is probably due to the fact that when Guldner wrote, some 10 
 years ago, very few*oil engines had been developed, and the thermal 
 efficiency was consequently low. 
 
 The thermal efficiency is seen to increase with an increasing 
 brake-h.p., approaching 18.4% above 40 brake h.p. Fig. 5 shows 
 the average thermal efficiencies for gasoline, which is lower than 
 Guldner's curve for German practice. This would indicate either 
 a higher development of the German gasoline engine, or a too con- 
 servative guarantee by the American builder. The efficiency is 
 low for small horsepowers, but increases until above 23 brake h.p. 
 where it reaches a maximum value of 20.4%. Guldner's value at 
 25 brake h.p. is 23%. 
 
 Fig. 6 also shows that for illuminating gas, Guldner's curve lies 
 above that for American engines. At 100 brake h.p., American prac- 
 tice shows 25%, while German practice shows 27%. For producer 
 gas, American practice in general gives results higher than the 
 German, as will be seen from Fig. 7. 
 
 As may be expected, due to the great variation in the anlysis of 
 natural gas, there is a wide range in the thermal efficiencies of 
 engines using this fuel. (Fig. 8.) Therefore the average maxi- 
 mum and minimum curves are given. German practice does not 
 include this gas. The average curve reaches a maximum of 27.3% 
 
620 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 at about 120 brake h.p. Very few values were obtainable for 
 blast-furnace gas, but the curve, Fig. 9, is what might be expected 
 from good practice, showing a maximum of about 26% above 400 
 brake h.p. 
 
 Special efforts were made to obtain values for the Diesel engine, 
 and the result (Pig, 10) shows the German values of thermal effi- 
 
 g iQi r I I I. I I I I I J,, I I D IP 
 
 I 5 10 15 20 25 10 55 40 45 5Q.55feO § 
 ^ b.hp per Cylinder per End ^ 
 
 '0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32' 
 b.hp per C/tinder per End 
 
 1^22 
 
 :q20 
 
 E 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 ^0 lOOl 
 ^ b.hp per (Cylinder per End 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 - 
 
 ■^ 
 
 .. 
 
 L.-. 
 
 "(Vo, 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 ILLU 
 
 jA= 
 
 
 
 
 
 l' 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 — 
 
 ■~ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A- 
 
 n'ei 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 b 
 
 L/IU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AAS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 _ 
 
 L_ 
 
 L_ 
 
 L_ 
 
 10 20 50 40 50 feO 70 80 30 HO 130 
 b.hp. per Cylinder per End 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 lOO 120 
 bhp per Cylinder per End 
 
 ^28 
 
 £24 
 .^22 
 £20 
 
 5 18 
 
 £ 100 200 500 400 
 *~ b.hp per Cylinder per End 
 
 ■ I 
 
 lli 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 -41 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ t 
 
 ^ 
 
 M ,ii 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 LAST .. 
 
 
 fU 
 
 RNACE 
 
 i 
 
 1! 
 
 1 1 
 
 iHII 
 
 ~ 
 
 — 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 
 ,'J^ 
 
 .^ 
 
 — 
 
 ■■■" 
 
 
 ■" 
 
 
 
 lloyj--' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <3. 
 
 r 
 
 
 1 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 1 
 
 ij 
 
 _H 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 tf'^iw, 
 
 ^ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 A 
 
 
 — 
 
 b 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 F=F= 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 H 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 DIESEL J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 100 120 140 
 b hp per Cylinder per End 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOO 110 140 160 
 b hp per Cylinder per End . v;,,!" 
 
 Figs. 4-11. 
 
 ciency to be highest, the English somewhat lower and the Ameri- 
 can still lower. This may be accounted for both by the longer 
 period of development of this engine abroad and the higher quality 
 of workmanship in Germany than in other countries. 
 
 Fig. 11 shows all the preceding average curves, for American 
 practice only, reduced to the same scale for comparison. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 621 
 
 Cost Formula for Internal Combustion Engines. A. A. Potter in 
 Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives the following formulae: 
 
 Type Capacity Equation of cost 
 
 in dollars 
 
 Gas engines Up to 300 h.p. 33.6 X h.p. — 115 
 
 Gasoline engines, hit-and-miss gov- 63.8 X h.p. — 316 
 
 nor Up to 100 h.p. 
 
 Gasoline engines, throttling gov- 141 -{- 24.8 X h.p. 
 
 ernor Up to 75 h.p. 
 
 Oil engines Up to 400 h.p. 309 -|- 36.1 X h.p. 
 
 Producer gas engines, American 
 
 mfg Up to 300 h.p. 400 + 33.5 X h.p. 
 
 Effect of Elevation upon the Power of a Gas Motor. R. E. 
 
 Mathot in Engineering Magazine, Feb., 1907, states that each 
 100 meters (328.1 ft.) of additional elevation causes a loss of 
 I'/c. in the power output of the gas motor. 
 
 Economic Limits Between which Prime IVlovers of the Various 
 Types may be Advantageously Used. We quote Table I after 
 R. E. Mathot in Engineering Magazine, 1907. 
 
 TABLE I. ECONOMIC LIMITS FOR- PRIME MOVERS 
 
 * Power limits Normal consump- 
 withfn which tion per horse- 
 Type of engine or motor. the type may power hour at 
 be practically full load, 
 employed, h.p. Steam, Fuel, 
 lbs. lbs. 
 Stationary steam engines 
 
 Slide-valve non-condensing 15 to 50 37.5 5.5 
 
 Slide-valve, coudc-n.smg 30 to 100 22 3.3 
 
 Corliss or Sulzer, simple con- 
 densing 50 to 200 17.5 2.5 
 
 Idem, compound 80 to 1000 
 
 and upwards 13 1.85 
 
 Sena-portable steam engines 
 
 Simple, non-condensing 20 to 50 16.5 2.4 
 
 Simple, cond ;nsing 40 to 80 13. 1.9 
 
 Compound, condensing 60 to 300 9.5 1.35 
 
 Triple-expansion, condensing with 
 
 superheat 300 to 500 7.6 1.1 
 
 Steatn turbines 
 
 Condeiwing 500 to 1000 
 
 and upwards 
 
 Internal-co)nbustion motors 
 
 Illuminating gas 1 to 30 17.50 cu. ft. of gas 
 
 Oil 1 to 20 0.75 lbs. oil 
 
 Producer gas, suction 15 to 30U 0.88 •• coal 
 
 Producer gas, pressure 100 to 1000 1.00 " coal 
 
 (and over). 
 
 Diesel 50 to 500 0.42 " oil 
 
 The limits indicated above of course are not absolute. Many 
 
 small steam engines with vertical boilers are in use, for example, 
 in units of very few horse-power each. 
 
 Prime Movers for Central Stations. Edwin E. Dreyfus read the 
 following notes in a paper before the annual convention of the 
 
622 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers in New York, 
 Sept. 28, 1911. 
 
 The curves, Figs. 12 and 13, were presented to show the superior 
 efficiency of the internal combustion engine within certain ranges, 
 and also the increased uniformity in efficiency above other types. Oil 
 engines led with an efficiency of 30% to 33%, referred to the shaft 
 h.p., whereas gas engines ordinarily showed about 23% to 2G%, on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,c. _ 
 
 
 
 _o. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,*t 
 
 
 
 .0— 
 
 ,- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 r" 
 
 
 ^?^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 '/ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 'V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 ^..''^'* 
 
 .-^^z 
 
 \^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 ;^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 --._ 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 jf- 
 
 
 / 
 
 .J 
 
 u^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 // 
 
 / 
 
 ■^ 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 500 
 
 c«Si« 
 
 „Tu^ 
 
 ,c 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 /, 
 
 ." 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 ■/ 
 
 
 /' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \A 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 '. 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 20 3 
 
 1 
 
 ) /,u _ so ^0 70 80 90 1 
 Lojd Factor -Percent 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 heat 
 
 Ordinary thermal efficiencies of main units based on total 
 value per brake h.p., with no allowance for auxiliaries. 
 
 the same basis. Steam piston engines and turbines had a wide 
 range of thermal efficiency between less than 5% and 21% on brake 
 h.p. tests. 
 
 Mr. Dreyfus pointed out as a characteristic feature of the gas 
 plant that the cost steadily decreased until two or more 2,000 
 k,w. units are run, whereupon the investment begins to increase 
 directly with the installed capacity. Conversely the k.w. cost on 
 the steam turbine station constantly diminishes with increase in 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 623 
 
 size. Therefore the ratio cost of steam and gas stations must 
 constantly grow in favor of the former. 
 
 Cost of Power for Pumping with Internal Combustion Engines 
 Using Various Fuels. The report of committee on Water Supply 
 of American Railway Bridge and Building Association, abstracted 
 in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 26, 1913, states that a series 
 of tests were made pumping from an 8-in. well, 190 ft. deep, lift- 
 ing water against 15 ins. of vacuum, with a total head of 61ft. 
 An 8 by 10-in. single cylinder double acting pump was used, direct 
 
 — no 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TO 
 
 ^' 
 
 Entin: 
 
 PUoli 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .od«cr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 •^- 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 BUii 
 
 
 •iiS?. 
 
 lePlant 
 
 
 
 
 
 *\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 <^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 6C 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 N 
 
 
 "^^ 
 
 
 
 — -^ 
 
 .^ 
 
 N-hiM] 
 
 G«E„, 
 
 ntPUn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^. 
 
 ^». 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 — — 
 
 
 -— 
 
 h 
 
 S in 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ■--2: 
 
 SLi^fc 
 
 ■«««, 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^~~- 
 
 -^ 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 FWrfF 
 
 Vka\ 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 1 
 
 i; 
 
 % 
 
 
 oe* 
 
 — »■ 
 
 -Kwr 
 
 ?ls!W 
 
 T 
 
 ■-28 
 
 00 
 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Plant instalment costs of normal rated units, including 
 buildings and foundations. 
 
 connected to a 6 h. p. four cylinder horizontal gasoline engine 
 equipped to run on kerosene and distillate as well as gasoline, 
 controlled by a throttling governor. The fuels used and the results 
 of the fuel tests are given in Table lA. 
 
 Comparative Costs with Various Fuels. The following tables 
 were rearranged from data given in Isolated Plant, May and 
 June, 1913: 
 
 Internal combustion engines are naturally divided into two gen- 
 eral groups: (1) those that depend upon instantaneous combustion 
 of the charge, or explosive engines, and (2) those in which the 
 combustion is more gradual and in which the burning of the fuel 
 occurs during a considerable portion of the expansion stroke. It 
 is to the first group that internal combustion engines operating 
 
624 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 
 •^?r> 
 
 a 
 
 •aa 
 
 
 •SS 
 
 <D 
 
 • OJ 0) 
 
 0) (U 
 
 SS 
 
 ^ -J J M CO 
 ;2 Sh i S-i t^ 
 
 feMfePqpq 
 
 •« u5t- la 
 
 W t-Ot>iHt-t-OrH 
 
 (Ooeo«nino 
 
 It-OiOT-l 
 
 
 IOOt>«COO 
 
 d) CO CO 
 
 SS 
 
 33 
 
 MM 
 
 dj D 03 a> 
 
 41 cs 0) a 
 
 -u c "^ W 
 
 •4:; ,G O O O 
 
 tr ifl o CO in c^i T-5 o o «e 10 ws o 
 
 O) ho 5*0 
 
 iS3-5 
 
 ill! 
 
 Ji ii a • 
 aa . S, 
 
 •"^ aa 
 
 W M S S 
 
 X2 O 3 -- 
 
 I !-; I-; t. "tM^W C 
 
 oajcj<u;^ooo 
 aaaap 
 
 (U o "K I' 1^ 
 
 «i_i <(-( «-j Cl S" 'i s^ 
 
 „ cc tc M c S S S 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 625 
 
 on gases and gasoline, or other easily volatized liquids belong and, 
 as little difference in design or equipment exists in engines par- 
 ticularly adapted to such fuels, the economic value of an installa- 
 tion depends almost entirely upon the price of the dynamic agent 
 in any given locality. 
 
 The engine room operating cost of all explosive engines operat- 
 ing on gases and easily volatized liquids is very nearly the same — 
 estimate based on a plant of 250 h. p. — and conservative figures 
 are given in Tables II and III. These fixed charges will vary to 
 
 TABLE II. OPERATING COSTS OF GAS ENGINES BASED ON 
 A PLANT OF 250 H.P. 
 
 Cost of vlant: Per h.p. 
 
 Building $10 
 
 Engine, fipundations, piping, etc 28 
 
 Miscellaneous 2 
 
 Total $40 
 
 Cost of Power: 
 
 Depreciation, 5% of total cost $ 2.00 
 
 Repairs 0.80 
 
 Interest 2.40 
 
 Insurance 0.60 
 
 Taxes 0.60 
 
 Total fixed charges per year $6.40 
 
 Fixed charges per hr. 3000 hrs. per year 0.00213 
 
 Attendance per h.p.-hr 0.00125 
 
 Supplies, oil waste, etc., per h.p.-hr 0.00029 
 
 Fuel, distillate gas, at 10 M. cu. ft 0.0015 
 
 Total cost of power per h.p.-hr $0,00517 
 
 TABLE ill. OPERATING COSTS OF GAS ENGINES BASED 
 ON A PLANT OF 250 H.P., USING PRODUCER GAS 
 
 Cost of Plant: Per h.p. 
 
 Producer building $ 5 
 
 Producer, scrubber, piping, etc 32 
 
 Miscellaneous 3 
 
 Engine room building 8 
 
 Engines, foundations, piping, etc 40 
 
 Miscellaneous 2 
 
 Total 190 
 
 Cost of Power: 
 
 Depreciation at 5% I 4.50 
 
 Repairs at 2% 1.80 
 
 Interest at 6% 5.40 
 
 Insurance at li/4% 1-55 
 
 Taxes at 11/2% • 1-13 
 
 $14.48 
 Fixed charges per h.p.-hr., 3000 hrs. per year. . . $0.004827 
 
 Attendance, producer, per h.p.-hr 00107 
 
 . Supplies, etc., producer, per h.p.-hr 00015 
 
 Attendance engine room aaaoo 
 
 Supplies, etc '. 00028 
 
 Fuel, anthracite coal at $5 per ton 0025 
 
 Total cost of power per h.p.-hr $.010077 
 
626 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 a certain extent, but, as they represent but a part of the " cost 
 of power " that decreases in proportion as the cost of fuel in- 
 creases, may be safely considered as constant for all practical 
 purposes. The consumption of fuel is very nearly inversely pro- 
 portional to the heating values of the various fuels, which will be 
 considered not in order of their caloric value, but in order of their 
 value as economic agents in " cost of power " production. 
 
 Cost of Power Generation in Small Plants. Engineering Maga- 
 zine beginning October, 1911, published a series of articles by 
 Robert L. Streeter on the Internal Combustion Engine in Modern 
 Practice. From the fourth article of the series appearing in the 
 Jan.. 1912, issue we have abstracted the following cost data: 
 
 In the following discussion it is assumed that the question of 
 which power to install hinges entirely on the cost of the power, 
 there being no restrictions as to convenience or space required 
 or any other condition which will make either steam, gas, or oil 
 engines more desirable than either of the other two. The discus- 
 sion that follows, then, will deal simply with the cost of power 
 generated in an isolated plant for a specific purpose. Three types 
 of engines will be taken up, steam, producer-gas, and liquid-fuel. 
 
 The difference in location of plants results in difference in the 
 cost of fuel, and this difference is often large enough to make an 
 appreciable change in the cost of power which must be accounted 
 for. Hence the discussion, to be of value, must be on plants of 
 various powers and for fuels at different prices. 
 
 The form of power that is to be generated is of importance. In 
 this paper, in order to have uniformity, it is assumed that in each 
 case the engine is direct-connected to a direct-current dynamo, the 
 current to be used for lighting and power in a manufacturing 
 plant, during a working day of 10 hrs., 6 days per week, or 300 
 days per year. The sizes of the plants selected will be 20, 100, 
 250 and 500 k.ws. output of the generator. In no case will the 
 cost of the land or building be included, as it is impossible to get 
 even an approximate figure that would be of value for those items. 
 
 In general, the costs of the machines included in the following 
 discussion were secured from manufacturers. The prices in each 
 case represent a mean of those submitted, in some cases 5 or 6, 
 in other cases only 2. The cost of the foundation in each case 
 was based on the floor space required, and of piping on the cost 
 of piping in similar plants. The cost of the machines in each 
 case includes erecting, freight for three or four hundred miles, 
 cartage, etc. 
 
 The fixed charges were apportioned for the steam and producer 
 gas plants as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Interest on investment 5 
 
 Depreciation 5 
 
 Repairs 2 
 
 Taxes 1 
 
 Insurance 1 
 
 Total 14 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 627 
 
 The depreciation will probably not be the same on all parts of 
 the plant, nor will the cost of repairs be uniform over the whole 
 plant, but such figures as were selected represent the average 
 depreciation and repairs on the whole plant. For the high-pres- 
 Hure oil plants the depreciation was assumed to be 5%% and the 
 repairs 2i^%, for it has been the experience that these plants do 
 cost more to keep in repair than plants where working pressures 
 are not so high. 
 
 Since no plant can be expected to run at full power all the time, 
 a load factor must be chosen. Since the assumption has been 
 made that the plants under discussion will be used to run a manu- 
 facturing plants a high load factor may be used, at least 75%. If 
 these plants were to sell power for motors and lighting, we might 
 expect a much lower factor. 
 
 The wage of a first-class engineer for the larger plants was 
 assumed at $4 per day, firemen $2.50 per day, and for second- 
 class engineers for the smaller plants, $2.50 per day. In the 
 smaller plants and in all the oil-engine plants there was no allow- 
 ance made for a night man. 
 
 The coal is based on a heating value of 13,000 B. t, u. per lb., 
 oil on 19,000 per lb. The price of water was assumed to be 10 cts. 
 per 1,000 gals., lubricating oil 22 cts. a gal., and cylinder oil 30 
 cts. per gal. 
 
 The comparative costs appear as follows : 
 
 20-KW. STEAM PLANT 
 
 Brake h.p 32 
 
 Indicated h.p 35 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine and foundation $800 
 
 Generator and switchboard 600 
 
 Vertical boiler, foundation and piping 450 
 
 Total , $1,850 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Coal, 220 tons at $4 $880 
 
 Labor 750 
 
 Fixed charges at 14% 260 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 125 
 
 Water 50 
 
 Total $2,065 
 
 The cost per k.w.-hr. at 75% load would be 4.6 cts. 
 
 For the engine of this plant the assumption is of the high-speed 
 horizontal type to be run non-condensing. The type of boiler se- 
 lected was the vertical fire-tube on account of the low cost, being 
 $125 less than the return-tubular horizontal type. 
 
 The coal consumption was based on, first, efficiency of boiler 
 60%, and second, steam consumption of engine 35 lbs. per 1 h. p. 
 per hr. An additional 15% .was allowed on the coal for banking, 
 and losses. 
 
 The water cost was found by the assumption of 35 lbs. per X 
 h. p. hr. at 75% load, allowing 15%o for leakage, blow-off, etc, 
 
C28 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 20-KW. PRODUCER-GAS ENGINE PLANT 
 
 Brake h.p. of engine 32 
 
 Cost 
 Engine and foundation, and air compressor .... $1,200 
 
 Producer and gas 735 
 
 Generator and switchboard 600 
 
 Total $2,535 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Coal, 75 tons at $4 $300 
 
 Labor 300 
 
 Fixed charg-es. 14% on cost 355 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies . 135 
 
 Water 110 
 
 Total $1,200 
 
 At 15 kw. or 75%, the total cost per kw.-hr. would be 2.68 cts. 
 
 For the producer plant an anthracite suction producer was 
 chosen because they are more applicable to small powers than the 
 bituminous producer, although bituminous producers are made as 
 small as 50 h. p. 
 
 The coal for this installation was based on 2 lbs. per h. p., in- 
 cluding' standby losses. The care of a plant of this size will not 
 take the full time of one man ; in fact, less than half of it ; hence 
 the lAbor cost of $300. The cost of water was based on 2 cu. ft. 
 per kw.-hr. for the entire plant, fresh water to be used continu- 
 ously. 
 
 KW. LOW PRESSURE OlL-ENGlNE PLANT 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine, foundation and oil tank $1,600 
 
 Generator and switchboard 600 
 
 Total $2,200 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Fuel oil, at 3 cts per gal $300 
 
 Labor 200 
 
 Fixed charges, 14% of cost 308 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 125 
 
 Water 40 
 
 Total $973 
 
 At 15 kw. or 75% load, the cost per kw.-hr. will be 2.1 cts. 
 
 For the 20-kw. oil-engine plant a low-pressure oil engine was 
 used because high-pressure oil engines are not made in that size 
 in the United States. In the low-pressure oil engine the charge is 
 compressed to about 60 or 70 lbs., when it is exploded by coming 
 in contact with the heated combustion chamber. In the high- 
 pressure engine, air alone is compressed to from 300 to 600 lbs. 
 per sq. in. and oil is injected into this highly compressed air at 
 about the end of the stroke. At the higher compression, 500 to 600 
 pounds, the temperature due to the work of compression is suffi- 
 cient to ignite the oil as it enters the cylinder. Where the lower 
 limit of compression is used. 300 to 400 lbs,, the heat of com- 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 620 
 
 pression is not relied on to ignite the oil, but a vaporizer remains 
 heated from the previous explosions. The efficiency of the high- 
 pressure engine is approximately twice that of the low-pressure 
 engine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 ■r ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 K^" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f'"^ 
 
 fi^ 
 
 u> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ____^ 
 
 
 :=:= 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 nuci 
 
 ^ P' 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,«£ 
 
 ^—* 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 5ut 
 
 
 PfTf 
 
 Ei 
 
 ■ 0" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 003 
 
 ■J «. 
 
 iJ t> a 
 
 O I Z 3 ff 5- (, f 3 
 
 Con OF Fue L. Coal DoLLAti I'en Tom 
 
 Oil C£f\ITS ptn Gali-oh 
 
 Fig. 14. Cost of power from steam, oil, and producer-gas engines 
 in 20 kilowatt units. 
 
 The fuel for the 20-kw. low-pressure engine is based on 1 lb. 
 per h.p.-hr. at 75% rating. The water was based on 5V^ gals, 
 per h.p.-hr. 
 
 100-KW. STEAM PLANT. 
 
 Output in kw., 100. 
 Indicated h.p. of engine, 160. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine and foundation $3,000 
 
 Boiler and pump (erected) and piping 4,400 
 
 Generator and switchboard 1,600 
 
 Steel stack and foundation 500 
 
 Total $9,500 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Coal, 800 tons at $4 $3,200 
 
 Labor 1,650 
 
 Fixed charges. 14% of cost 1,330 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 175 
 
 Water 150 
 
 Total • $6,505 
 
 At 75 kw. or 75% load, the kw-hr. cost is 2.89 cts. 
 
 For this plant a high-speed non-condensing engine was assumed, 
 
630 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 as it would hardly be practical to put in a condensing engine of 
 that size. The reason is that the condensing plant would cost 
 much more. The fixed charges on this cost, together with the 
 cost of steam for auxiliaries and the cost of condensing water, 
 would outweigh the saving in coal. 
 
 The boiler in this case was assumed to be a standard water- 
 tube. The -coal and water cost were based on boiler efficiency of 
 60%, engine to take 30 lbs. steam per indicated h.p.-hr. at 75% 
 load factor, allowing 15% for standby losses. 
 
 100-KW. SUCTION-PRODUCER PLANT. 
 
 Brake h.p. of engine, 150. 
 
 Cost 
 Engine and foundation and air compressor ....$5,700 
 
 Producer and piping 2,200 
 
 Generator and switchboard 1,600 
 
 Total $9,500 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Coal, 275 tons at $4 $1,100 
 
 Attendance 750 
 
 Fixed charges at 14% 1,330 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 175 
 
 Water 500 
 
 Total $3,855 
 
 At 75 kw. or 75% load, the cost per kw.-hr. is 1.71 cts. For 
 this plant, a suction producer operating on anthracite coal was 
 assumed, as the most convenient and the cheapest. A bituminous 
 producer of this size would cost about $3,000 to install, compared 
 with $2,200 for the anthracite producer. 
 
 The type of engine assumed for this installation is the three- 
 cylinder vertical. The coal for the engine was based on 1 1/> lbs. 
 per brake h.p. hr. at 75% load factor, 10% being added for standby 
 losses. The water was based on 15 gals, per h.p. hr., 5 for engine 
 and 10 for producer and scrubber, using the water only once. 
 
 100-KW. HIGH PRESSURE OIL ENGINE. 
 
 Brake h.p., 150. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine and foundation $11,500 
 
 Generator and switchboard 1,600 
 
 Total $13,100 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Fuel oil, 25,000 gals, at .03 $ 750 
 
 Labor 750 
 
 Fixed charges at 15% 1,965 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 175 
 
 Water 170 
 
 Total $3,810 
 
 Kw.-hrs. per year, 225.000. Cost per kw.-hr.. oil at .03 per gal., 
 1.69 cts. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 631 
 
 The term " high-pressure oil engine," in the discussion, has been 
 applied to the type of engine in which air alone is compressed 
 during the second stroke of the cycle and the liquid fuel is sprayed 
 into the cylinder with the help of highly compressed air during 
 the first part of the expanaion stroke. The item of engine cost 
 includes all auxiliaries, tanks, oil pump, air compressor, etc. The 
 fuel cost is based on .55 lbs. per brake h.p. hr. 
 
 If a low-pressure oil engine had been assumed instead of a 
 high-pressure, the first cost would have been about $4,000 less for 
 the entire plant. In that case the fixed charges per year would 
 have been 14% of $9,1*00, about $1,275. The saving on this item 
 would thus be $685 per year. The oil consumption for the low- 
 pressure engine would be about 46,000 gals, per year, cost $1,380, 
 against $750 for the high-pressure. Hence, the net cost per year 
 for the low-pressure engine would be about $55 less than for the 
 high-pressure engine if the above assumptions of fixed cost and 
 fuel consumption are correct. If the fuel costs 3^ cts. per gal., 
 the difference in yearly cost of the two engines would be $75 in 
 favor of the high-pressure engine. 
 
 250-KW. STEAM PLANT. 
 
 Indicated h.p., 385. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine and foundation % 5,850 
 
 Boilers, pumps and piping 5,600 
 
 Steel stack and flues 600 
 
 Generator, switchboard and wiring 4,000 
 
 Total $15,650 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Coal, 1,500 tons at $4 $ 6,000 
 
 Labor 2,000 
 
 Fixed charges at 14% 2,240 
 
 Oil waste and supplies 225 
 
 Water 335 
 
 Total $10,800 
 
 At 75% load, 187.5 kw., the cost per kw. hr. at the conditions 
 assumed above would be 1.92 cts. 
 
 For this size steam plant a non-condensing tandem-compound 
 Corliss engine was assumed. The steam consumption of the engine 
 would be about 22 lbs. per 6 h.p. hr. This figure was used to get 
 the size of the boilers and the coal consumption. In working out 
 the coal consumption 10% was allowed for auxiliaries and 10% for 
 standby losses. 
 
 250-KW. ANTHRACITE SUCTION-PRODUCER PLANT — ONE UNIT. 
 
 Brake h. p. 365. 
 
 Cost 
 Engine and foundation, and air compressor. .. .$13,000 
 
 Producer and piping .■ 5,125 
 
 Generator, switchboard and wiring 4,000 
 
 Total 5-^2,125 
 
632 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRIC AL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 n »- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^K 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 z:^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • :f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 :>" 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =» 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 == 
 
 
 j^ 
 
 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 ft!. 
 
 , P- 
 
 rrjj_ 
 
 -■'"' 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »> u 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 .cr. 
 
 ~ r 
 
 roc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 "I 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 # ■ 
 
 9 
 
 Fig. 15. Comparative g'enernting costs, steam, oil and gas 
 engines. 100-l\ilo\vatt units. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !!■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i.^1 
 
 ;^. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 fii^f' 
 
 FMi 
 
 
 ■p=a 
 
 
 <»/^. 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ""^ 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 77Z 
 
 ^ j*Vl 
 
 r* > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C"«* r o^ ^ut^ 
 
 t-r^ itm •Ui.t.ew 
 
 Fig. 16. Comparative generating costs, steam, oil, and producer 
 gas engines, 250 kilowatt units. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 633 
 
 Cost pel- year 
 
 Coal. 625 tons at $4 $2,500 
 
 Labor 1,500 
 
 Fixed charges at 14';^; 3,100 
 
 Oil. waste and supplies 225 
 
 Water 600 
 
 Total ?T,925 
 
 Kw. hrs, per year at 75Tt per load factor, 562,000. Cost per 
 k\v. hr., 1.40 cts. 
 
 The engine assumed for^this plant is a 4-cylinder vertical, gas 
 furnished by one anthracite producer. The coal cost was based 
 on 1.5 lbs, per brake h.p. hr.. including standby losses, at 73^0 
 load. The water is based on 7 1^ gals, per brake h.p. hr., using 
 the scrubbing water over and over. 
 
 250-K-W. OIL-ENGINE PLANT 
 
 Brake h.p. 365. 
 
 Cost 
 Engine foundation and piping, oil tanks, pump, 
 
 etc $26,700 
 
 Generator, wiring and switchboard 4,000 
 
 Total $30,700 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Fuel oil 57,000 gals., at ,03 $1,710 
 
 Labor 900 
 
 Fixed charges at 15% 4,600 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 225 
 
 Water , 400 
 
 Total $7,S35 
 
 Kw.-hrs. per year at 75% load factor, 562,000. Cost per kw.-hr., 
 1.4 cts. 
 
 The cost of fuel for this plant is based on one-half lb. of oil per 
 brake-h.p.-hr. at 75% load. 
 
 500-KW. STEAM UNIT, COMPOUND-CONDENSING ENGINE 
 
 Brake h.p., 750. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine and foundation $ 9,300 
 
 Boilers and pumps 10,000 
 
 Stacks and tiues 1,200 
 
 Condenser 2.000 
 
 Generator, switchboard and wiring 9.500 
 
 Total $32,000 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Coal, 2.500 tons at $4 $10,000 
 
 Labor — 3 men : 2 days, 1 night 2,600 
 
 Fixed charges at 14% 4,4S0 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 400 
 
 Water 420 
 
 Total $17,900 
 
 Cost per kw, hr. at 75% rating = 1.59 cts. 
 
634 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 For the 500-kw. steam plant a compound-condensing Corliss 
 engine was assumed. The steam consumption was figured on 18 
 ibs. per 1 h.p.-hr. for the main engine at 75% load, with 20% added 
 for auxiliaries and stand-by losses. It was also assumed that 
 condensing water could be had for no cost except pumping, which 
 is allowed for in the cost of the plant and steam for auxiliaries. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 3 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5r£ 
 
 «'" ' 
 
 1.'"'^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ /=« 
 
 ,1 P, aOOC 
 
 :^^4rr=r: 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 i) 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 == 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 = 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 TTT 
 
 r* '=.A/v' 
 
 
 
 
 K^^ 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 t. 
 
 - »■ 
 
 a 
 
 
 9 
 
 J3oLL»ns fen Tor 
 ra rtft 
 
 Fig. 17. Comparative costs of power generations, steam, oil, and 
 producer-gas engines, in 500-kw. units. Includes all costs 
 except land or buildings. 
 
 PRESSURE-PRODUCER PLANT. 
 
 Brake h.p., 725 
 
 Cost 
 Engine, piping, foundation and air compressor. $25,000 
 
 Producers and auxiliaries 13,000 
 
 Generator, switchboard and wiring 9,500 
 
 Total $47,500 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Coal, 1,020 tons at $4 $4,080 
 
 Labor 2,600 
 
 Fixed charges at 14% 6.640 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 400 
 
 Water \M^ 
 
 Total $14,720 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr. at 75% rating = 1.31 cts. 
 
 For this producer plant a bituminous producer was assumed for 
 several reasons, one of which is that the size is large for one suc- 
 tion producer, and in this discussion we are limited to one unit 
 in each case for sake of uniformity. The bituminous producer is 
 well adapted to this size of unit and it is well to know the pos- 
 sibilities of such an installation. The cost is more than for a plain 
 suction producer, but efficiency is probably higher; certainly this 
 type of producer is more flexible. 
 
 The coal cost is based on 1.25 lbs. per h.p. hr. at 75% load, in- 
 cluding all stand-by losses. The water is based on ly-i gals, for 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 635 
 
 the engine, producer and scrubber. In this case the water for the 
 scrubber will have to be used over and over. If this is not done 
 the water consumption will be doubled. In order to make it pos- 
 sible to use this water continuously it should be cooled by spray 
 nozzles after being run into a settling tank where the dust from 
 the scrubber is deposited. This cost of the tank, nozzles, etc., has 
 been taken care of in the cost of producers and auxiliaries. 
 
 HIGH-PRESSURE OIL ENGINE. ONE UNIT. 
 
 Brake h.p., 725. 
 
 Cost 
 Engine, foundation and piping, oil tanks, pumps, 
 
 etc 150,500 
 
 Generator and switchboard 9,500 
 
 Total $60,000 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Fuel oil, 112,000 gals, at .03 $ 3,360 
 
 Labor 1,200 
 
 Fixed charges at 15% 9,000 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 400 
 
 Water 840 
 
 Total $14,800 
 
 Cost per kw. hr. at above conditions, 1.32 cts. 
 
 The cost of fuel oil for this engine is based on % lb. per brake 
 h. p. hr., the water on 5 gals, per h.p. hr. at 75% load. 
 
 In the foregoing tables the cost of power per kw. hr. given in 
 each case is based on coal at $4 per ton, or oil at 3 cts. per gal. 
 To show the variation in the cost of power for different costs of 
 fuels, the diagrams shown in Figs. 14 to 17 have been worked out 
 for plants of 20-, 100-, 250-, and 500-kw. capacity respectively. 
 The cost of power as shown by the diagrams represents the same 
 conditions as given in the text except for the costs of fuel. Land 
 and building are not included in any case. 
 
 While the foregoing tables and diagrams cover the cost of power 
 generated by engines burning the fuels that are generally found 
 in use, in some cases other fuels may be used for special reasons. 
 Among these fuels are natural gas, illuminating gas and gasoline. 
 It w'Ould make this discussion too long to take up these fuels in 
 the same way that the steam, producer and oil-engine plants were 
 treated, but in order to give some idea of the cost of power as 
 generated from these fuels, a specific plant, 100-kws., will be taken 
 up for each one. 
 
 NATURAL-GAS PLANT 
 
 Brake h.p. of engine, 150 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine, foundation and piping $6,000 
 
 Generator and switchboard 1,600 
 
 Total $7,600 
 
636 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Gas, 3,810,000 cu. ft. at 20 cts $762 
 
 Labor 750 
 
 Fixed (3harges at 14% 1,064 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies , 175 
 
 Water 170 
 
 Total . . $2,921 
 
 At 75% load factor the cost per kw. hr. would be 1.30 cts. 
 
 ILLUMlNATING-GAS PLANT 
 
 Brake h.p. of engine, 150 
 
 Cost 
 
 Engine, foundation and piping $6,000 
 
 Generator and switchboard 1.600 
 
 Total $7,600 
 
 Cost per year 
 
 Ga.s, 5,740,000 cu. ft. at 60 cts $3,444 
 
 Labor 750 
 
 Fixed charges at 14% 1,064 
 
 Oil, waste and supplies 175 
 
 Water 170 
 
 Total $5,603 
 
 At 75% load factor the cost per kw. hr. would be 2.49 cts. 
 
 The cost of gas for the two preceding plants was based on an 
 efficiency of 25% at 75% load. For the natural-gas plant this 
 means a consumption of 11.3 cu. ft. per brake h.p. hr. with gas 
 having a heating value of 900 B. t. u. per cu. ft. For the illuminat- 
 ing gas the figures are 17 cu. ft. per brake h.p. hr. when the gas 
 has a heating value of 600 B. t. u. per cu. ft. The diagrams 
 shown in Figs. 18 and 19 represent the cost of power generated! 
 by the above plants with varying prices of fuel. The conditions 
 assumed here are the same as for the previous diagrams ; that is, 
 the cost includes everything except land and building. 
 
 Comparison of Fuel Cost. The following tables showing (1) the 
 cost per h.p. of oil engines with the fuel consumption for various 
 load factors as guaranteed by the maker of one of the latest and 
 most improved oil engines on the market; and (2), a comparison 
 of fuel cost for different types of power plants based on a size 
 of 80 h.p. and a load factor of three-quarters full load, were ab- 
 stracted from The Isolated Plant, June, 1909. 
 
 Load factor 
 
 Oil per 
 brake, 
 h.p. hr. 
 
 Brake, h.p. 
 hrs. per gal. 
 
 Fuel cost per 
 
 brake, h.p. hr. 
 
 Oil at 2.8 cts. 
 
 per gal., cts. 
 
 Full load 
 
 % ■" , , , , , 
 
 0.6 
 0.6 
 0.65 
 1.05 
 
 12.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 7.1 
 
 0.22 
 0.22 
 0.24 
 0.39 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 637 
 
 4- 
 < 
 
 "~~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1 5"* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20K 
 
 ,LO^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 — — ' 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 ■ — ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -- 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 /OOrt 
 
 ,lO*"* 
 
 ■rfs__ 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ZIZ- 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 H, 
 
 ■ "' 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 -— 
 
 ' 
 
 
 zso^ 
 
 ill!. 
 
 
 
 Too 
 
 ;^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *" ^ i 
 
 zJ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^1^^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 '—~ 
 
 — ; 
 
 Q 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 *o 
 
 so 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 e« 
 
 •a 
 
 Co»T Of 6e» Cen-rtrtH 1000 Cuaic Ftci> 
 
 Fig. 18. Cost of power generation, natural-gas engines in 20-, 100- 
 250- and 500-kw. units. Cost of land and buildings not included. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 of land and building not included 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,.-"' 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7° 
 
 .;^ 
 
 '> 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 > 
 
 
 ^> 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 |0 
 
 ^; 
 
 .'^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 /'"■" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 >- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 /j 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 o 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 II 
 
 Cost of ^c/£. u 
 CtN-rj fcK 1000 C uaic FkcT 
 
 Fig. 19. Cost of power generation from illuminating-gas engines 
 in 20-, 100-, 250- and 500-kw. units. Cost of land and building 
 not included. 
 
638 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 
 Cost per 
 
 Type of engine 
 
 s Fuel. 
 
 Consumption per 
 
 brake, 
 
 
 
 brake h.p. hr. 
 
 h.p. hr. 
 
 * Simple slide 
 
 Bituminous coal, 
 
 6 lbs. 
 
 $8.25 
 
 valve steam 
 
 $2.75 per ton. 
 
 
 
 engine. 
 
 
 
 
 Gasoline en- 
 
 Gasoline, 12 cts. 
 
 Vio gal. 
 
 12.00 
 
 gine. 
 
 per gal. 
 
 
 
 Gas engine. 
 
 Illuminating gas, 
 
 At 12,000 B.t.u.— N. 
 
 
 
 80 cts. per 1,000 
 
 Y. gas about 565 
 
 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 effective B.t.u.=: 21 
 
 
 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 16.80 
 
 Electric mo- 
 
 Current, 5 cts. 
 
 0.85 k.w.-hr. 
 
 42.50 
 
 tor. 
 
 per kw. hr. 
 
 
 
 * Producer 
 
 Pea, antliracite, 
 
 1.4 lbs. 
 
 2.45 
 
 gas engine. 
 
 $3.50 per ton. 
 
 
 
 Most im- 
 
 Fuel oil, 2.8 cts. 
 
 0.6 lb. (71/2 lbs. per 
 
 
 proved oil 
 
 per gal. tank 
 
 gal.) 
 
 2.24 
 
 engine. 
 
 car lots. 
 
 
 
 * standby losses of 108 hrs. per week. There were no standby 
 losses for the other engines. 
 
 An interesting fact is that the consumption is nearly the same 
 whether kei'osene, fuel oil or crude oil be used. 
 
 Fuel Consumption Tests of Small Oil and Gasoline Engines. 
 W. E. Donner obtained the following figures at the tests conducted 
 at Clarks, Nebr., which were published in the Electrical World 
 for April 12, 1913. An effort was made to determine the output 
 for a consumption of 1 gal. of fuel at various loadings of the 
 engine and generator. Tests were made on an Alamo 35-h.p. en- 
 gine using 39 deg. B. distillate for fuel (which cost 10 cts. per gal.), 
 and a Fairbanks-Morse commercial gasoline engine set. The oil 
 engine carried an overload of 220 amperes at 120 volts for an 
 hour, the gasoline unit refused to carry any oveiload. In making 
 the calculations 5% was allowed for belt loss^ and 85% for gen- 
 erator efficiency. 
 
 TABLE IV. TESTS OP SMALL ALAMO AND FAIRBANKS- 
 MORSE ENGINES AT CLARKS, NEB. 
 
 (One gal. of fuel oil used on each te.st. ) 
 
 Kw.-hr. 
 
 Cost per 
 
 Oil consumed H.p. delivered 
 
 delivered 
 
 at 
 
 switchboard 
 
 kw.-hr. 
 
 at 
 
 switchboard 
 
 per kw.-hr. 
 
 of engine, 
 
 pints 
 
 by engine, 
 
 allowing for 
 
 losses 
 
 
 Alamo Sr, 
 
 h.p. Engine 
 
 
 21.6 
 21.6 
 20.87 
 10.37 
 5.12 
 5.25 
 
 $0.0214 
 0.0214 
 0.0192 
 0.0386 
 0.0404 
 0.0347 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.237 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.615 
 
 2.237 
 
 35.84 
 35.84 
 34.62 
 17.20 
 8.49 
 8.71 
 
 
 Fairbanks-Morse 25 h.p. Engine 
 
 
 12.00 
 
 $0.0313 
 
 1.405 
 
 19.91 
 
 Fuel Economy of Small Gasoline Engines. The figures in Table 
 V were derived under the direction of A. A. Potter, from tests of 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 639 
 
 
 ad-; 
 
 Gal. 
 
 0.327 
 
 0.342 
 
 0.242. 
 
 0.264 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 ■y . ajoot>i-i • 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 A 
 
 
 . r (M-*COt- 
 
 p. 1 ^ c<io<xiooTj4 
 
 
 : JL <A ncotHtHim 
 
 
 
 U - - - 
 
 ^^(-1 ^r^d^TH 
 
 3 
 
 LENE 
 
 sumpti 
 
 oad — ^ 
 
 Gal. 
 
 0.i69 
 0.133 
 0.174 
 
 O c-^ 
 
 
 fe ", 
 
 5 
 
 O M 
 
 
 b ^"^ 
 
 5 . O5or>o 
 
 i 
 
 Gal 
 0.16 
 0.15 
 0.13 
 0.14 
 0.13 
 
 o 
 
 F— 1 
 
 u 
 
 :zj 
 
 H 
 
 3 OuSt^iUSt-I 
 
 
 ^ ^1-1 T-idddd 
 
 1^ 
 
 H 
 
 P 
 
 
 fe 
 
 ft 
 
 
 'OA la 
 
 P^ 
 
 ^ oj «^'=;oo 
 
 pjX i-1-ri^ddd 
 
 H 
 
 PhsS ^-i 
 
 J 
 
 -Q 
 
 ^ 
 
 S oowoo 
 
 H 
 
 X oioc^oio 
 
 "-r i« CO CO CO c<i 
 
 
 «. 
 
 
 oJ 
 
 
 ,is! . "5 
 
 
 O a <^|0 0U3 
 
 
 +3"^ ujoddo*-^ 
 
 
 m ^ 
 
 
 (i a 
 
 
 ylinde 
 
 Lam., i 
 
 3.5 
 
 5.0 
 5.5 
 6.5 
 
 7.25 
 
 
 
 QxJ 
 
640 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the Kansas State Agricultural College, on 5 gasoline engines of 
 different makes, and varying in power from 1% to 10 h.p. 
 
 All the engines tested were of the 4-stroke-cycle type, water 
 cooled, governed by the hit-and-miss method and provided with 
 a make-and-break ignition system. They are loaded by Prony 
 brakes and the fuel accurately weighed, and 3 to 6 checks runs 
 were made at each load, each run lasting 30 mins. 
 
 The gasoline used was 62 deg. B. and had a specific gravity of 
 0.731 at 60 deg. F., making the weight 6.09 lbs. per gal. The 
 heat of combustion of the gasoline, as determined by a Junkers 
 constant-pressure calorimeter was 19,411 B.t.u. per lb. (high), or 
 18,415 B.t.u. per lb. net. - 
 
 The average results of the tests are given in the table, from 
 which it is evident that 1.3 to 1.69 gal. of gasoline will be required 
 to run the average small engine 10 hrs. at full load. 
 
 Cost of Producer Gas Power Plants. Prof. R. H. Fernald in 
 Bulletin 55 of the Bureau of Mines gives the cost of gas engines 
 and producers in sizes up to 3000 h.p. inclusive in Tables VI to VIII. 
 
 Prof. Fernald says considerable variation will be noticed in the 
 prices quoted by different manufacturers for plants of the same 
 rated capacity. In some cases this difference is warranted by a 
 difference in the quality. In others it is due to a difference in the 
 number of units installed to make up the total required horse- 
 power or to different requirements for auxiliary equipment. 
 
 The following statements show the views of manufacturers in 
 1912: 
 
 1. The excessive cost will be reduced when increased demand 
 cuts down the overhead expense of manufacture. 
 
 2. The excessive cost of plants, especially in the smaller sizes, 
 seem to be a great drawback. 
 
 TABLE VI. COST OF GAS PRODUCERS (1912) 
 
 H.p. 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 25 ; 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 150 3,300 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cost erected, 
 
 f. o. b. 
 
 including 
 
 factory 
 
 foundation 
 
 $396 
 
 
 450 
 
 $500 
 
 455 
 
 
 560 
 
 625 
 
 560 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 
 730 
 
 820 
 
 900 
 
 1.035 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,800 
 
 910 
 
 
 940 
 
 1,050 
 
 1,050 
 
 
 1.100 
 
 1,230 
 
 1.200 
 
 1,380 
 
 1,450 
 
 1,850 
 
 
 2,400 
 
 1^95 
 
 
 1.530 
 
 1,710 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,840 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 641 
 
 Cost 
 H.p. f.o.b. 
 
 factory 
 
 200 1.725 
 
 200 2,050 
 
 200 2.200 
 
 200 2.800 
 
 200 3,000 
 
 200 
 
 250 2,100 
 
 250 2.600 
 
 250 3,500 
 
 250 
 
 300 2,700 
 
 300 3,200 
 
 300 3,400 
 
 300 
 
 500 6.000 
 
 500 8.500 
 
 500 .... 
 
 1,000 12,000 
 
 ♦1,000 14,500 
 
 1.000 
 
 t 3.000 40,000 
 
 Cost erected, 
 including 
 foundation 
 
 2,300 
 2.750 
 3;220 
 3,700 
 4,000 
 
 '2.966 
 
 4.300 
 
 4.750 
 
 3.500 
 
 3,600 
 
 3.910 
 
 5,700 
 
 7.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 9,400 
 
 13.500 
 
 17.000 
 
 18.700 
 
 44.000 
 
 * 2 times 500. 
 
 t 5 times 600. 
 
 TABLE VII. COST OF PRODUCER-GAS ENGINES (1912) 
 
 Cost of 
 engine 
 erected, 
 including 
 foundation 
 $2,400 
 2,500 
 2,500 
 2,700 
 3,850 
 4,475 
 4,400 
 4,600 
 5,150 
 6,670 
 7,550 
 7,500 
 9,250 
 
 H.p. Cost f.o.b; 
 factory 
 
 45 $1,950 
 
 50 2.000 
 
 50 2.200 
 
 55 2,250 
 
 75 .- . 3.300 
 
 100 3.850 
 
 100 4.000 
 
 100 4,000 
 
 125 4,500 
 
 150 5,800 
 
 165 6,800 
 
 180 6.500 
 
 190 8.500 
 
 200 7,000 
 
 200 7,800 
 
 200 8,500 
 
 200 
 
 250 8,500 
 
 250 9.200 
 
 250 10.600 
 
 300 10,200 
 
 300 11,500 
 
 300 11,800 
 
 300 12,500 
 
 500 16,000 
 
 500 17,000 
 
 500 '. 20.000 
 
 1,000 31,000 
 
 1,000 34.000 
 
 1.000 35,000 
 
 3,000 90,000 
 
 8,970 
 9,500 
 9,700 
 
 10,566 
 11,600 
 
 13.125 
 12,900 
 13,500 
 18,000 
 
 22',566 
 35,000 
 
 39*.666 
 101,500 
 
G42 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE VJIL 
 
 COST OF PRODUCER-GAS INSTALLATIONS 
 
 (1912) 
 
 H.p. 
 
 Cost of gas 
 
 producer 
 
 and engine 
 
 erected. 
 
 including 
 
 foundations 
 
 100 
 
 6,250 
 
 200 
 
 12,400 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 13.200 
 
 14,800 
 
 300 
 
 17.000 
 
 500 
 
 25 000 
 
 500 
 
 1,000 
 
 32,500 
 
 48.500 
 
 1 000 
 
 56 000 
 
 3,000 
 
 145,500 
 
 Cost of 
 complete 
 plant, in- 
 cluding 
 buildings * 
 
 $9,100 
 17,500 
 
 23,800 
 
 Cost of 
 
 complete 
 
 plant, ex- 
 
 clu.'^ive of 
 
 buildings * 
 
 $5,300 
 7.800 
 15,800 
 16.200 
 18.200 
 22.000 
 
 29.500 
 
 47,500 
 
 57,500 
 
 84.000 
 
 202,000 
 
 * Includes producer, engine, electric generator, piping, switch- 
 board, and auxiliaries, all erected with suitable foundations. 
 
 3. We believe that the cost of plants has been coming down in 
 the past two or three years, but it is still rather high and future 
 improvements will probably bring the figures down. 
 
 4. A good producer-gas power plant can be installed for just 
 about the same money that would be required for a first-class 
 condensing steam plant, and would show a material fuel economy 
 over the latter. However, in the majority of small plants where 
 producers would otherwise logically be used, the purchaser objects 
 seriously to spending more money for a gas plant than would be 
 required for an ordinary type of steam equipment. The large dif- 
 ference in fuel consumption does not seein to be important as 
 compared with the additional investment required. We believe, 
 however, that this handicap will soon be overcome. 
 
 Cost of Gas Engines. The costs of 300 and 400 h. p. 4-cylinder, 
 double opposed type of well known heavy-duty gas engines of 
 moderate speed are given in Table IX. Engines of this make are 
 also to be had in 4 sizes in 2-cylinder type 75, 100, 150 and 190 
 h.p. and 2 sizes in single cylinder 35 and 50 h.p. 
 
 These engines are high tension ignition, 4-cycle type and are 
 rated by actual brake h.p. tests. 
 
 The following prices are net, f.o.b. factory and cover engines 
 for belted work only: 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 COST OF 
 
 GAS 
 
 ENGINES 
 
 
 Size 
 
 Type 
 
 
 
 Price 
 
 35 h.p 
 
 . . Single cylinder 
 
 
 $1,100 
 
 50 h.p 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 1,500 
 
 75 h.p 
 
 . . Double 
 
 
 
 2.000 
 
 100 h.p. 
 
 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 150 h.p 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 3,500 
 
 190 h.p 
 
 << 
 
 
 
 4.500 
 
 300 h.p 
 
 , . Four 
 
 
 
 6.500 
 
 400 h.p 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 8.500 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 643 
 
 Another engine works builds gas engines of the 4-stroke cycle 
 type in several designs as follows 
 
 I. Single-cylinder — 1. Single acting. 
 
 — 2. Double acting. 
 11. Two-cylinder (tandem) — 1. Single acting. 
 — 2. Double acting. 
 
 These engines are to be had in sizes of from 50 to 2,000 h.p. 
 
 The costs are f.o.b. factory for engine complete. An average 
 cost of these engines is very close to $35 per h.p. with only slight 
 variation in accordance to size, because of refinements which are 
 necessary in the large units. 
 
 TABLE X. VERTICAL, SELF-CONTAINED TYPE, GAS EN- 
 GINES, FOUR CYCLE 
 
 H.p. R.p.m. No. of cylinders Cost f.o.b. works 
 
 6 350 1 $ 405 
 
 20 300 2 765 
 
 50 275 3 1,800 
 
 100 250 3 2,925 
 
 150 250 3 4,050 
 
 Larger sizes made to order — the average price of which is 
 $29.25 to $31.50 per h.p. for engines run on natural or city gas, 
 and $36 to $41.50 per h.p. for producer gas operation. 
 
 The reason for the above variation, in prices for natural or city 
 gas and producer gas engines, is the fact that when run on pro- 
 ducer gas an engine must be about Vg larger size (gas engine 
 rating) to develop an equivalent amount of power. That is, a 
 150 h.p. gas engine would only develop 100 h.p. if operated on 
 producer gas. 
 
 The cost of gas producers averages about as follows: 
 
 Cost per h.p.. 
 Type f.o.b., factory 
 
 Hard coal suction $14 
 
 " pressure 18 
 
 Soft " Suction 25 
 
 " " pressure 30 
 
 Producer Power Plant Costs. The estimated costs in Table XI 
 were given in a report of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission 
 of the Province of Ontario, Canada. 
 
 Formula for Cost of Gas Producers. A. A. Potter in Power, Dec. 
 30, 1913, gives the following formulae of costs: 
 
 Equation of cost 
 Type Capacity in dollars 
 
 Suction Up to 300 h.p. 252 -|- 14.2 X h.p. 
 
 Pressure Up to 300 h.p. 860 -f 15.15 X h.p. 
 
 Approximate Costs of Gas Power Installations. M. P. Cleghorn 
 in Power, March 31, 1908, estimates the cost of complete gas power 
 
644 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XL PRODUCER-GAS POWER, SHOWING CAPITAL 
 COSTS OF PRODUCER-GAS PLANTS INSTALLED, AND 
 ANNUAL COSTS OF POWER PER BRAKE, H.P. 
 
 
 Capital cost of plant per 
 
 h.p. 
 
 Size of 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 plant, 
 
 Machin- 
 
 
 
 h.p. 
 
 ery, etc. 
 
 Buildings 
 
 Total 
 
 10 
 
 $137 
 
 $40 
 
 $177 
 
 20 
 
 110 
 
 36 
 
 146 
 
 30 
 
 93 
 
 33 
 
 126 
 
 40 
 
 84 
 
 29 
 
 113 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 26 
 
 106 
 
 60 
 
 79 
 
 24 
 
 103 
 
 80 
 
 78 
 
 '><> 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 77 
 
 20 
 
 97 
 
 150 
 
 76 
 
 19 
 
 95 
 
 200 
 
 74 
 
 17 
 
 91 
 
 300 
 
 73 
 
 16 
 
 89 
 
 400 
 
 71 
 
 14 
 
 85 
 
 500 
 
 70 
 
 12 
 
 82 
 
 750 
 
 67 
 
 10 
 
 77 
 
 1,000 
 
 65 
 
 8 
 
 73 
 
 Annual 
 co.st of 10- 
 hr. power 
 per brake 
 h.p. 
 $53.48 
 44.47 
 38.73 
 35.05 
 32.27 
 30:49 
 28.70 
 27.05 
 25.87 
 24.95 
 24.24 
 23.41 
 22.54 
 21.55 
 20.46 
 
 Annual 
 cost of 24- 
 hr. power 
 per brake 
 h.p. 
 $90.02 
 75.22 
 65.99 
 59.85 
 55.22 
 52.03 
 48.95 
 45.40 
 43.17 
 41.78 
 40.40 
 39.03 
 37.54 
 35.99 
 34.66 
 
 
 I 
 
 ='Ga9 Engine 
 
 PrcxU. 
 
 rGas. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 111= Simple High Speed. Nqu - Condensing. 
 IV= Curtis Steam Turbine 500 K W. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 \.\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 __^ 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .- — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 iT 
 
 10 
 
 r 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^__ 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 /v 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tft 
 
 / 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 so 60 70 
 
 Percent o* Rat43d Load B.H.P 
 
 Fig. 
 
 20. Curves showing efficiency at full load and at less than 
 full load. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 645 
 
 plants, suction and pressure of capacities ranging from 50 to 1,500 
 brake h.p. for suction plants and from 100 to 3,000 brake h.p. 
 for pressure plants. An extra unit is provided in each case, which 
 allows for cleaning and repairs without interruption in the service. 
 Each estimate includes gas producers, engines, direct-current en- 
 gine-type generators, all necessary piping, air compressor, build- 
 ings and land, but does not include the station heating system. 
 The waste heat from the engine could be utilized at a small outlay 
 of capital for heating a large part of the building during working 
 hours. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sow 
 
 
 
 
 
 /_ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^14- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s^* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vyi^ 
 
 
 ^^■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 <?y 
 
 ^'< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <-,y- 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 iy A- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 "f 
 
 i ^^ - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^y^ 
 
 Jo^ - 
 
 
 
 
 
 <j 
 
 '' <^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Af 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 MajQ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - ^-i-" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m ^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 zou 
 
 B.H.P. Capacitj 
 
 Fig. 21. Cost of gas producers, including cost of installing. 
 
 Kind and number of units. Vertical engines have been con- 
 sidered exclusively for the suction plants and in pressure plants 
 up to 1,500 h.p., while in pressure plants of from 1,500 to 3,000 
 h.p.. horizontal engines have been assumed. Since suction pro- 
 ducers are not built larger than 350 h.p., the size of plant has 
 been limited to 1,500 h.p., to prevent complexity. Each engine is 
 connected to its own producer, but a system of cross-pipes allows 
 any engine to draw gas from the producer next to it, by the 
 manipulation of the necessary valves. Since there are as many 
 suction producers as engines the suction plant's have been con- 
 sidered as a whole, while in the pressure plants the producers 
 have been considered apart from the engines. At least two com- 
 binations as regard the num^^r of units have been assumed and 
 
646 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the cheaper one taken. The cost of piping in the suction plants 
 has been assumed at $3 per h.p. and in the pressure plants at 
 $5 per h.p. 
 
 Pressure producers of the steam blower type have been chosen, 
 
 _ 
 
 ~r~i"~'~]" 
 
 
 
 
 ^y' 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 fionn "■ 
 
 ^21 
 
 = ' 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 9^ ,4 
 
 
 iOooX • --^^- 
 
 "7 
 
 ■^:J^:::: 
 
 
 
 
 jf' 
 
 
 ,000-4-^^ _^__j_ 
 
 
 
 
 iiti- 
 
 
 ,.. . l7xr 
 
 
 ^„j 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 r 1 [l M- ! 1 'M T" 
 
 
 
 
 -n,^ ' - - -: ^ - - - 
 
 
 
 
 • -^ ■^ 
 
 
 ■?" " " " ~ " /^ T - ' - - - - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 focol 1 ' M 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 \\\ 1 III 1 1 i_i 1 iJ 
 
 Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 22. Cost of gas-regulating tanks, allowing 10 cu. ft. per h.p. 
 
 Fig. 23. Cost of vertical four-cycle single-acting gas engines for 
 
 direct-connecting. 
 
 therefore each pressure plant contains a steam boiler. The size 
 of boiler necessary for a given producer was computed for the 
 amount of steam necessary for the producer. A pressure pro- 
 ducer uses about 0.8 lb. of steam per lb. of coal gasified; conse- 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "~ 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 -- 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 un 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yy 
 
 y-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 = 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 <" 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 ^00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 JO 
 
 
 
 
 r^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 24. Cost of horizontal gas engines for direct-connecting to 
 generator. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 647 
 
 quently if a producer generates one h.p. on 1% lbs, of coal it will 
 require IM; X 0.8 — 1.2 lbs. of steam per h.p. This value was used 
 therefore in computing- the size of the boiler. 
 
 The cost of land for buildings, etc., was assumed at 50 cts. per 
 sq. ft, and cost of buildings at 11 cts. per cu. ft. The size of 
 gas-holders for pressure plants was determined by allowing 10 
 cu. ft. per h.p., which would be sufficient to run the entire plant 
 for 8 or 10 mins. These holder.'' were assumed to be placed out 
 doors. 
 
 
 
 
 j- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~^ 
 
 
 
 
 '"' 
 
 
 -i— 
 
 - — 
 
 — 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 A- 
 
 £00 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 ,J.n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'J^ 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^/ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 t 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -AC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ^ / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 /' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 A= So. Fl. Floor Space First Unit 
 
 B = •• •• •< •• Each Extra Unit 
 
 0= Cu. Ft. First Uult 
 
 D Eacl. Extra Unit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -» 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 Br.iliL' Horse Power 
 
 Fig. 25. Space required for suction gas producers. 
 
 In Tables XII to XV may be found the number of units chosen 
 for each size of plant and the total cost of both suction and 
 pressure plants complete and ready to run. The total cost in- 
 cludes everything found in the plant as well as the cost of the 
 land and buildings. The number of units given in the tables for 
 each size of plant is the number that was found to be most eco- 
 nomical to install. 
 
 Electric Railway Gas Power Plant Costs. R. S. Manning in 
 Power, Dec. 16, 1910, describes a large gas-driven station sup- 
 plying power for an electric-railway on the Wisconsin shore of 
 Lake Michigan. The line supplied is about 112 miles long and 
 the service is chiefly interurban. 
 
648 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XII. 
 
 CHOK 
 
 Size of plant, 
 brake h.p. 
 
 No. of 
 units 
 
 50 
 100 
 200 
 400 
 600 
 750 
 1.000 
 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 
 CHOICE OF UNITS FOR SUCTION-GAS POWER 
 PLANTS 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Size of 
 
 Complete initial 
 
 per rated 
 
 units 
 
 cost of plant 
 
 brake h.p. 
 
 50 
 
 $12,468 
 
 $249 
 
 100 
 
 18,225 
 
 182 
 
 100 
 
 27.082 
 
 135 
 
 200 
 
 44.154 
 
 110 
 
 300 
 
 56.587 
 
 94 
 
 250 
 
 67.270 
 
 89 
 
 350 
 
 82.204 
 
 82 
 
 1 Mil 
 
 U^ 1 
 
 UM) - Wt^'- ' 
 
 ^' 5^^^5 T 
 
 ** y^ 1 
 
 no ?^ i T1 
 
 
 "^ J "■-^=*^'" T ; 
 
 •W - / >^ i 1 
 
 *.«> '" A -^ i 1 ' 
 
 gUlo - '-ry 1 
 
 §^ /M- i= t^ 
 
 esoo ~ji7^ 
 
 ^ i vV'rr\ "" "It 
 
 «»-;// . ± 
 
 
 *») -y - 1 
 
 ' 1 
 
 
 
 ^ Si: ::~ 
 
 ^ . ^ ±_ 
 
 200 300 400 
 
 B.H.P. Capacity 
 
 Fig. 
 Fig. 2\ 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 >6. Space for pressure producers, without tank or boiler. 
 Floor space required for vertical gas engines direct con- 
 nected to generator. 
 
 TABLE XIII. CHOICE OF PRESSURE PRODUCERS COMPLETE 
 
 Size of plant 
 brake h.p. 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 400 
 
 750 
 1,000 
 1.500 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 
 WITH AUXILIARIES 
 
 No. of 
 units 
 2 
 3 
 5 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Size of 
 
 Initial cost 
 
 per rated 
 
 units 
 
 of producers 
 
 brake h.p 
 
 100 
 
 $8,505 
 
 $85.00 
 
 100 
 
 12.179 
 
 60.90 
 
 100 
 
 18.597 
 
 46.50 
 
 250 
 
 28.067 
 
 37.40 
 
 330 
 
 33.325 
 
 33.30 
 
 500 
 
 48.217 
 
 
 500 
 
 59.566 
 
 29.70 
 
 1,500 
 
 89,210 
 
 29.70 
 
 TABLE XIV. 
 
 Size of 
 
 plant. 
 
 brake h.p. 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 400 
 
 750 
 
 1000 
 
 1500 
 
 CHOICE OF ENGINE GENERATOR UNITS FOR 
 PRESSURE-PRODUCER PLANTS 
 
 \t:rtical engines 
 
 No. of 
 units 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Size of 
 units 
 100 
 100 
 200 
 250 
 350 
 300 
 
 Initial 
 . cost 
 $13,690 
 20.370 
 32,211 
 49.061 
 60,427 
 82.265 
 
 Cost per 
 brake h.p. 
 
 rating 
 of plant 
 $136.90 
 101.80 
 
 80.50 
 
 65.40 
 
 60.40 
 
 54.80 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 649 
 
 HORIZONTAL ENGINES 
 
 Size of 
 plant, 
 rake h.p. 
 
 No. of 
 units 
 
 Size of 
 units 
 
 Initial 
 cost 
 
 1000 
 1500 
 2000 
 3000 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 
 500 
 500 
 
 500 
 750 
 
 $96,385 
 129,040 
 146,195 
 242,147 
 
 Cost per 
 
 brake h.p, 
 
 rating- 
 
 of plant 
 
 $96.40 
 
 86.00 
 
 82.10 
 
 80.70 
 
 1 ' 
 
 -U M- 
 
 
 - i 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 .''^ 
 
 moo 1 
 
 -^ =.- = 
 
 m> ^ 
 
 ^^ It -=^ 
 
 
 ^-' .-^" - 
 
 
 '^^ ^'^ 
 
 o »00 -.- 
 
 .^ ^3f 
 
 1*^ _^ ^ 
 
 ^' ^■^ 1 
 
 
 =" v^' IL 
 
 1 T ^^"^ 
 
 ^^^ it X 
 
 iaooo - X^ltl- i2^ > 
 
 ^ it i 
 
 ? 1 ^^M^ r^ 
 
 
 e 1 1 . 1 . ■ M\ \ X^P ' 
 
 i 
 
 f. II ^' li^< 
 
 
 "aoo 1 1 M XI ^>' 
 
 1 1 : 
 
 g 5500 1 1 1 ^^ 1 > 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 l>^l 1 1.^ i 
 
 1 
 
 -,jJ^'^ J^ -L 
 
 ' 1 
 
 r^\ !>■ 1 
 
 
 ^ :>^rW 
 
 1 
 
 >'' ^>^f 1 
 
 
 <^ ^^^ 
 
 
 ,j«, X^ 1 
 
 
 IHB ^ 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ./«, . 1 1 ; 1 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 500 1000 ItCO 
 
 B.H.P. CnpBClt? 
 
 Fig. 28. Floor space required for horizontal double-acting \ 
 engines, twin tandem type, direct-connected to generators. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XV. COSTS 
 
 OF COMPLETE 
 PRODUCERS 
 
 VERTICAL ENGINES 
 
 PLANTS, 
 
 PRESSURE 
 
 Size 
 
 
 
 
 Cost per 
 
 of plant 
 
 Initial cost 
 
 Initial cost 
 
 Total 
 
 rated 
 
 brake, h.p 
 
 engine room 
 
 producer 
 
 cost 
 
 brake h.p. 
 
 100 
 
 $13,690 
 
 $8,505 
 
 $22,195 
 
 $221.90 
 
 200 
 
 20.370 
 
 12,179 
 
 32,549 
 
 162.70 
 
 400 
 
 32.211 
 
 18,597 
 
 50,808 
 
 127.00 
 
 750 
 
 49,061 
 
 28,067 
 
 77,128 
 
 102.80 
 
 1,000 
 
 60,427 
 
 33,325 
 
 93,752 
 
 93,70 
 
 1,500 
 
 82,265 
 
 48,217 
 
 130,482 
 
 87.00 
 
 
 
 HORIZONTAL ENGINES 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 $96,385 
 
 $33,325 
 
 $129,710 
 
 $129.00 
 
 1,500 
 
 129,040 
 
 48,217 
 
 177,257 
 
 118.00 
 
 2,000 
 
 164,195 
 
 59,566 
 
 223,761 
 
 111.80 
 
 3,000 
 
 242,147 
 
 89,210 
 
 331,357 
 
 110.40 
 
 The station equipment consists of two twin-tandem, double- 
 acting, horizontal Allis-Chalmers gas engines supplied from Loomis- 
 Pettibone bituminous producers and direct connected to Allis- 
 Chalmers alternators rated at 1.000 kw. each. 
 
650 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Both the engines and the alternators were designed to carry 
 large overloads and have actually carried in service 1,650 kv/, for 
 a considerable length of time. 
 
 The alternators generate three-phase currents at 25 cycles and 
 405 volts pressure, which is stepped up to 22,000 volts by a bank 
 of seven 500-kw. transformers. Fo^ supplying nearby sections of 
 the line, two 300-kw. rotary converters are used. Exciting cur- 
 rent is furnished by two 50-kw. dynamos direct connected to three- 
 cylinder vertical gas engines with cylinders 11 ins. in diameter 
 and a stroke of 11 ins. The usual switchboard equipment is 
 provided. 
 
 Two double-generator sets of down-draft producers make the gas 
 from bituminous coal. The generators are 11 ft. in diameter and 
 18 ft. high, the economizer boilers are 6 ft. 6 ins. in diameter, the 
 wet scrubbers are 9 ft. in diameter and the dry scrubbers are 
 12 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. high. Each double-generator set is 
 rated at 2,000 h.p., but is capable of considerable overload. 
 
 Outside the building is a gas holder having a maximum capacity 
 of 30,000 cu. ft., and this is provided with a 20-in. bypass pipe, 
 with suitable valves. 
 
 The entire plant was erected by a firm of engineers whose fee 
 was 10% of the aggregate cost of machinery, materials and con- 
 struction, so that the final costs given in the accompanying table 
 are 110% of the net co.sts of the installed plant 
 
 The plant was arranged for the installation of a third engine 
 unit of the same capacity and it was estimated that the cost of 
 this unit, including foundation, piping and electric generator, de- 
 livered and erected, will not exceed $75,000. The whole station 
 will then have cost $396, 673.89 and have a rated capacity of 3,000 
 kws. The cost per kw. on rated capacity will therefore be about 
 $132, but the cost per kw. on the maximum capacity of at least 
 1,650 kws. per unit or 4,950 kws. total will be about $80. 
 
 INSTALLATION COSTS 
 
 Buildings, both producer and engine: 
 
 Material $ 24,415.64 
 
 Labor 12,353.15 
 
 Superintendence 370.00 
 
 $37,138.79 
 
 Engineering fee '. 3.713.88 
 
 Total $40,852.67 
 
 Machinery in engine house : 
 
 Apparatus and material $195,421.01 
 
 Labor 2,133.45 
 
 $197,554.46 
 Engineering fee 19,755.44 
 
 Total $217,309.90 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 651 
 
 Machinery in producer house : 
 
 Apparatus and material $ 65,993.07 
 
 Labor 352.24 
 
 $66,345.31 
 Engineering fee 6,634.53 
 
 Total % 72,979.84 
 
 Machinery foundations : 
 
 Material $ 4,680.43 
 
 Labor 3,890.16 
 
 $8,570.59 
 Engineering fee 857.06 
 
 Total $ 9,427.65 
 
 Piping complete, by contract, including labor... $ 15,654.76 
 Engineering fee 1,565.47 
 
 Total $ 17,220.23 
 
 Contingent costs 5,666.91 
 
 Engineering fee 566.69 
 
 Total $ 6.233.60 
 
 Grand total $364,023.89 
 
 Of the above, the rotary converters, substation 
 switchboard, substation cables, substation step- 
 down transformers mainline step-up transform- 
 ers, material and labor cost $ 38,500.00 
 
 Engineering fee 3,850.00 
 
 Total $ 42.350.00 
 
 Total cost of generating plant $321,673.89 
 
 Manufacturing Plant Gas Engine and Producer Power Costs. 
 P. R. Moses in Engineering Magazine, Dec. 1909, states that to 
 obtain a definite idea as to comparative cost, an establishment is 
 assumed consisting of buildings spread over several acres of 
 ground, located close to water available for condensing purposes 
 or other purposes. It is assumed that the heating requirements 
 and the other uses of low-temperature heat will not amount to 
 more than 15% of the power required for manufacturing purposes. 
 All the machinery is electrically driven, either by group drive or 
 Individual drive. The character of the work is similar to that 
 of a large foundry or machine shop — i. e., a heavy, more or less 
 fluctuating, load. The plant operates 10 hrs. a day steadily 
 throughout the year, with the exception of Sundays and holidays, 
 and it is necessary to provide for night work, but for only a small 
 portion of the plant. 
 
 The number of kw.-hrs, delivered per year is 1,000,000. Motors 
 of 750 h.p. are installed and the lighting, using tungsten and 
 other efficiency lights, amounts to 50 kws. in addition to the power 
 load. The maximum load is .figured at 400 kws. and the average 
 load, for a 10-hr. period, at 300 kws. 
 
652 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The cost of the several types of plants would be, exclusive of 
 the power house : 
 
 Cost per k.w. 
 
 Steam equipment , $100 
 
 Gas engine and producer equipment 115 
 
 Oil engine equipment 132 
 
 The cost is subdivided as follows : 
 
 Steam: Cost per k.w. 
 
 Compound condensing steam engine $25 
 
 Boilers . 20 
 
 Steam piping and condensers 20 
 
 Smoke stack and breeching $4.00 to 5 
 
 Auxiliary apparatus (feed-water heater, grease ex- 
 tractor, steam separator) 3 
 
 If an economizer were to be installed $6.00 per kw. should be 
 added. This would depend, of course, upon the cost of coal and 
 the extent to which economizing might be resorted to. 
 
 Gas: Cost per k.w. 
 
 Gas engine $70 
 
 Producer equipment, including scrubber, etc 15 
 
 Gas piping, exhaust heater, engine conns. . .$10.00 to 15 
 
 Oil: 
 
 Oil engine $100 
 
 Exhaust heater piping, etc $7 to 10 
 
 Electric (to be added to separate items in each type of plant) : 
 
 Dynamos $15 to $20 
 
 Switchboard 5 to 10 
 
 Wiring connections 5 to 10 
 
 Power House: 
 
 The cost of the power house would vary from $10 to $20 
 per k.w. 
 
 The prices are given per kw. of dynamo capacity, because the 
 ratings of gas engines and turbines or steam engines are not on 
 the same basis. The steam engine and steam turbine have over- 
 load capacities of 50% above their rated capacity, while the gas 
 engine is rated at within 10% of full capacity, and the same is 
 true of the oil engine. Hence, a 300-h.p. steam engine will be 
 able to generate the full capacity of a 200-kw. dynamo, but a 
 gas engine of the same maximum output for peak-load period 
 should be rated at at least 400 h.p. The plant under considera- 
 tion, allowing for one spare unit, for maximum load of 400 kws., 
 could be made up of either four 135-kw. sets or three 200-kw. sets. 
 For gas-engine or oil-engine plants, four sets would prove most 
 economical, as the cost per kw. does not decrease as the sizes 
 grow larger. For a steam plant, division into three or even two 
 units would be more advisable. 
 
 The total cost of the plant would be about as follows, the 
 steam plant being figured without superheaters or economizers : 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 653 
 
 Gas engine and producer $70,000 
 
 Oil engine 78,000 
 
 Steam engine 60,000 
 
 The cost of operation of the three different types — 1. e., the cost 
 of fuel, labor, oil and repairs — would be : 
 
 Gas-Engine and Gas-Producer Plant: Annual cost. 
 
 Coal, including stand-by charges, 1,000 tons at $2.50. . . . $2,500 
 Labor, one machinist, one helper and one producer man 2,500 
 
 Oil 400 
 
 Repairs, averaged for a number of years 750 
 
 Total $6,150 
 
 Fixed charges, 10% of installation cost 7,000 
 
 Total annual cost $13,150 
 
 Oil-Engine Equipment: 
 
 Oil at 3 cents per gal. (for fuel), 7 kw.-hr. per gal $4,300 
 
 Labor, one machinist, one helper 1,800 
 
 Oil (for lubrication) 600 
 
 Repairs, averaged through a number of years 900 
 
 Total $7,600 
 
 Fixed charges, 10% of installation cost 7,800 
 
 Total annual co.st $15,400 
 
 Stearn-Enyine Plant: 
 
 Coal, 5 lbs. per kw.-hr. plus 20% for stand-by losses 3,000 
 
 tons at $2.00 $6,000 
 
 Labor, engineer, assistant and fireman 2,670 
 
 Oil 300 
 
 Repairs, averaged through a number of years 1,000 
 
 Total $9,970 
 
 Fixed charges, 10% of installation cost . . . ; 6,000 
 
 Total annual cost . $15,970 
 
 None of these figures includes any coal required for other pur- 
 poses, and in making comparison this need not be considered 
 unless the comparison is between a non-condensing engine and 
 any other type of plant. 
 
 The comparative cost per kw. would be as follows: 
 
 Cost per k.w., cts. 
 
 Gas engine and gas producer 1.31 
 
 Oil engine plant 1.54 
 
 Steam engine plant 1.59 
 
 It is evident from these figures that the gas producer and gas 
 engine plant is about 18% more efficient than the other plants. 
 Given equal reliability and perfection of operating results, this 
 type of plant should have the preference, because, coincident with 
 the reduction in cost of operation go reduction in the quantity of 
 material to be handled, such as fuel and ashes, the absolute doing 
 away with smoke, greater cleanliness around the plant, no steam 
 
654 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 gaskets to blow out or packing to leak, no boiler linings to be re- 
 paired — as the producer lining lasts indefinitely, with proper 
 care — etc. 
 
 Cost of Generating Current with Producer Gas Engines at 
 Charlotte, N. C. Abstracted from a paper read before the Amer- 
 ican Institute of Electrical Engineers by E. D. Latta, Jr., March 
 30, 1910. 
 
 The engine room equipment consists of two 810-brake-h.p. hori- 
 zontal twin-tandem, double-acting four-stroke cycle gas engines and 
 one 60-h.p. single tandem exciter engine, in general similar to the 
 large engines. The 540-kw., three-phase, 60-cycle, 2300-volt al- 
 ternators, are direct and rigidly connected to the crank shafts 
 of the main engines, and a 40-kw, direct-current generator is di- 
 rect connected to the exciter engine. In addition to this appa- 
 ratus there is an induction motor-driven exciter set of the same 
 capacity as the engine exciter, a 300-kw. and a 500-kw. rotary 
 converter, and the usual switchboard equipment. 
 
 The producer apparatus is contained in a building about one 
 hundred feet from the power house, and consists of two 1000-h.p. 
 units of twin generator down-draught producers, having a con- 
 tinuous overload capacity of 50%. Each unit consists of two 9 -ft. 
 generators, 16 ft. high, having a fuel space 7 ft. in diameter by 
 8 ft. high above the grate bars, which are of arched fire-clay 
 tile. The generators are connected at the bottom by openings, 
 lined with fire brick, containing water-cooled gate valves, to an 
 economizer or vertical boiler of 100 h.p. rating. From the top 
 of the boilers a 16-in. pipe leads to the bottom of the wet scrub- 
 ber and from the top of the wet scrubber to the exhauster, or 
 through a by-pass around the exhauster to the dry scrubber. 
 A 60,000-cu. ft. holder receives the gas from the producers and 
 delivers it to the engines. 
 
 OPERATING FIGURES FOR ONE YEAR 
 
 Engine hours • 12.403 
 
 Kw. hours 3,355.907 
 
 Coal, lbs 6,444.281 
 
 Coal per kw.-hr 1.97 
 
 Average engine hours 34.0 
 
 Load factor 0.45 
 
 Output 
 
 Load factor = ■■ 
 
 Engine hours X capacity of one engine 
 
 In addition to the coal, 260,292 lbs. of coke were used in starting 
 producers, of which amount 122,371 lbs. were reclaimed, leaving 
 the total net amount used 137,921 lbs., equal in cost to 192,000 lbs., 
 of coal. 
 
 We have, therefore, for the total coal consumption 6,444,281 lbs. 
 -f- 192,000 = 6,636,281 lbs. 
 
 6,636,281 
 
 = 1.97 = lbs. of coal per. kw.-hr. 
 
 3,355,907 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 655 
 
 Assuming 85% efRciency for alternators at 45% load we have 
 197 
 
 X 85 = 1.275 lbs. of coal per brake h.p.-hr, 
 
 133 
 
 Cost of Current: Cost per kw.-hr., cts. 
 
 Coal per kw.-hr 0.349 
 
 Power house labor per kw.-hr 0.170 
 
 Producer labor per kw.-hr 0.131 
 
 Oil for power house 0.065 
 
 Oil for producer 0.005 
 
 Waste and sundries, power house 0.012 
 
 Waste and sundries, producer house 0.003 
 
 Repair parts for engines 0.046 
 
 Repair parts for producers 0.007 
 
 Machine shop work, engines 0.016 
 
 Machine shop work, producers 0.007 
 
 Excelsior for producers 0.003 
 
 Water, both departments 0.071 
 
 Total cost of current at switch board per 
 
 kw.-hr 0.885 
 
 Power Coyisumed hy Auxiliaries: 
 
 Cooling water pump, kilowatts per kw.-hr 0.0095 
 
 Station lighting " •' " 0.0116 
 
 Motor driven exciter " " " . . . . 0.0688 
 
 Total kilowatts per kw.-hr 0.0909 
 
 The items of interest, depreciation, taxes, etc., are not included, 
 for the reason that they would be quite unfair to the plant, on 
 account of the fact that it was designed for three 810 h.p. units, 
 while only two have been installed. 
 
 Buildings, producers, gas holders, piping, etc., are all installed 
 complete for the full ultimate capacity. Therefore a relatively 
 small additional expenditure for one engine generator and founda- 
 tion would increase the capacity of the plant by 50%, while the 
 foregoing items of interest, depreciation, etc., would be increased 
 but 18% per unit of capacity installed. 
 
 Costs of Power from Four Producer Gas Plants. The following 
 data, published in The Isolated Plant Oct., 1911, were abstracted 
 from the Journal of the American Society of Mechanical Engi- 
 neers : 
 
 The plants on which the Plant Operations Committee is able 
 to make a report are described in some detail in the following 
 pages and following each description is a summation of their 
 operating costs. In some instances, these cost records cover a 
 few months and, in one instance, a considerably longer period of 
 operation. 
 
 For the purpose of identification, but without disclosing the 
 name or location, the plants are designed by letters. 
 
 It should be distinctly understood that the cost figures are pre- 
 sented as they are furnished by the operators. 
 
 Costs for Plant "A." The following are the costs and details 
 of the plant. 
 
656 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Producers. There are two 250-h.p. pressure producers, 7 ft. in. 
 inside diam., with water seal bottoms and 9 in. fire-brick linings, 
 also 2 wet scrubbers, 7 ft. 6 ins. in diam. by 18 ft. in. high, 
 filled with wooden lattice work. There are 2 dry scrubbers, 7 ft. 
 in. square by 3 ft. 6 ins. high filled with coarse .shavings. 
 
 Gas Engines. There is one 500-h.p. horizontal, double-acting, 
 4-stroke-cycle engine with two cylinders, 23*4 ins. by 33 ins,, 
 arranged tandem. The engine has three bearings rigidly in line. 
 It runs at 150 r. p. m. and is direct connected to an electric gen- 
 erator. It is started by compressed air at 100 lbs. pressure and 
 has an electric ignition of the make-and-break type, the source 
 of supply being a 110-volt, direct-current lighting circuit and a 
 motor generator set. 
 
 Auxiliaries. There are two tar extractors and one blower. 
 
 Details of Operation. The data received covered 2 complete 
 months. The plant is run 24 hrs. per day from 6 a. m. Monday 
 until 12 p. m. Saturday night, and current generated is utilized 
 for light and power. During the 2 months, a total of 308,410 
 kw.-hrs. was generated and 35,190 kw.-hrs. was used in the plant, 
 leaving a net output of 273,220 kw.-hrs. 
 
 The fuel used is bituminous coal. The cooling water from the 
 engine is utilized for other purposes and is not, therefore, charged 
 to the plant. The cooling and cleaning water for the scrubbers 
 is not given. 
 
 The following was the cost of operation: 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr. 
 
 Fuel $0.002576 
 
 Water 0.000000 
 
 Supplies: 
 
 Oil 0.000141 
 
 Waste, etc 0.000024 
 
 Total $0.000165 
 
 Superintendence $0.000000 
 
 Lahor: 
 
 Producer room 0.001585 
 
 Engine room 0.000555 
 
 Electrical 0.000000 
 
 Total $0.002140 
 
 Repairs: • 
 
 Producer :. $0.000127 
 
 Engines 0.000040 
 
 Electrical 0.000000 
 
 Total $0.000167 
 
 Total cost $0.005048 
 
 Cost of Plant " B." The following are the costs and details for 
 the plant. 
 
 Producers. There is one set of producers of the Loomis-Petti- 
 bone type. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 657 
 
 Gas Engines. There is one 500 h.p. horizontal, double-acting, 
 4-stroke-cycle engine with two cylinders, 23 1/^ by 33 ins., arranged 
 tandem. The engine has two bearings rigidly in line. It runs 
 at 150 r. p. m. and is direct connected to an electric generator. 
 It is started by compressed air at 240 lbs. pressure, and has an 
 electric ignition of the make-and-break type, the source of supply 
 being a 110 volt lighting circuit. 
 
 Details of Operation. The data received are for 15 complete 
 months. The plant is run 10 hrs. per day. 
 
 The following is the cost of operation : 
 
 COST OF OPERATION PER KW.-HR. 
 
 Fuel $0.004460 
 
 Water 0.000879 
 
 Siipplies: 
 
 Oil ■ 0.000465 
 
 Waste, etc 0.000335 
 
 Total $0.000800 
 
 Superintendence $0.000000 
 
 Labor: 
 
 Producer room 0.001603 
 
 Engine room 0.002050 
 
 Electrical 0.000000 
 
 Total 0.003653 
 
 Repairs: 
 
 Producer $0.000243 
 
 Engines 0.002375 
 
 Electrical 0.000000 
 
 Total $0.002618 
 
 Total cost $0.012410 
 
 Cost of Plant "C." The following are the costs and details for 
 the plant. 
 
 Producers. There are two sets of producers of the Loomis- 
 Pettibone type and of 2000 h.p. capacity each. 
 
 Gas Engines. There are two 1500 h.p. horizontal, double acting, 
 4-stroke-cycle engines each with four cylinders, 32 by 42 ins., 
 arranged two in tandem. Each engine has two bearings rigidly 
 in line. They run at 107 r.p.m. and are direct connected to 
 electric generators. They are started by compressed air and have 
 an electric ignition of the make-and-break type, the source of 
 supply being a motor generator set supplying current at 60 volts. 
 
 The following is the cost of operation : 
 
 COST OF OPERATION PER KW.-HR. FOR 2 TEARS 
 
 1909 1910 
 
 Fuel $0.00439 $0.00422 
 
 Water 0.00000 0.00003 
 
658 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Supplies: 
 
 Oil and waste 0.00029 0.00024 
 
 Miscellaneous 0.00016 0.00015 
 
 Total $0.00045 $0.00039 
 
 Superintendence 0.00023 0.00026 
 
 Labor: 
 
 Producer room 0.00109 0.00102 
 
 Engine room 0.00066 0.00063 
 
 Electrical 0.00000 0.00000 
 
 Total $0.00175 $0.00165 
 
 Repairs: 
 
 Producer $0.00020 $0.00024 
 
 Engine 0.00006 0.00004 
 
 Electrical 0.00002 0.00005 
 
 Total $0.00028 $0.00033 
 
 Total cost $0.00710 $0.00688 
 
 Cost of Plant " D." The following are the costs and details 
 for the plant. 
 
 Producers. There are two 400 h.p. pressure producers, 8 ft. 
 in. inside diameter with water seal bottoms and with 9 in. 
 flre-brick linings, and two wet scrubbers, 8 ft. in. in diameter 
 by 20 ft. in. high, filled with coke. There are two dry scrub- 
 bers, 6 ft. in. square by 3 ft. 6 ins. high. 
 
 Gas Engines. There are three 250 h.p. vertical, single-acting, 
 4-stroke-cycle engines each with three cylinders, 20 by 19 Ins., 
 arranged side by side. Each engine has five bearings rigidly in 
 line. 
 
 They run at 230 r.p.m. and are direct connected to electric 
 generators. They are started by compres.sed air at 200 lbs. pres- 
 sure and have an electric ignition of the make-and-break type, 
 the sources of supply being a primary battery and a direct-driven 
 magneto. 
 
 Details of Operation. The data received are for three complete 
 months. The plant was in operation 1,4 39 hrs. during the 3 
 months and generated a total of 309,300 kw.-hrs. The fuel used 
 was No. 1 anthracite buckwheat. 
 
 The following is the cost of operation : 
 
 Cost of operation 
 per kw. hr. 
 
 Fuel $0 002828 
 
 Water 0.000000 
 
 Supi)lies, oil. waste, etc 0.000572 
 
 Superintendence 0,000000 
 
 Labor: 
 
 Producer room 0.001135 
 
 Engine room 0.002640 
 
 Electrical * 000000 
 
 Total $0.003775 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 659 
 
 Cost of operation 
 per kw. hr. 
 
 Repairs, producer $0.00249 
 
 Repairs, engines, electrical 0.001745 
 
 Total cost $0.008920 
 
 Cost of Coal at the plant given was $2.55 per ton at Plant "A"; 
 $4.53 per ton at Plant "B"; unknown at Plant "C"; and $2.33 
 per ton at Plant " D." Reducing the cost of coal at Plant " B " 
 to $2.50 per ton, the costs of operation compare as follows: 
 
 Cost per kw.-hr. 
 
 Plant "A" $0.00505 
 
 Plant "B" 0.01041 
 
 Plant "C" 0.00745 
 
 Plant "D" , '. .. 0.00892 
 
 Average $0.00796 
 
 Cost of Power Generated by 50 Brake h. p. Suction Producer- 
 Gas Plant. J. C. Miller has given in Power, May 26, 1908, the 
 results of the year's operation in a suction gas-power plant. 
 The engine was of the single-cylinder horizontal hit-and-miss type, 
 belted to a line shaft and a 50 brake h.p., drawing gas from a 
 suction producer in which pea anthracite was used. The plant 
 was of English manufacture, well designed, and built with ample 
 weight to withstand all stresses. The producer was equipped with 
 the usual vaporizing apparatus for supplying steam to the blast 
 and the usual coke scrubber and expansion box. 
 
 Cost of plant installed $3300 
 
 Fixed charges: 
 
 Interest at 6% $ 198 
 
 Depreciation, repairs, taxes, insurance, 12%. . 396 
 
 $594 
 Operating charges: 
 
 Engineer at $2 daily, 300 days $ 600 
 
 67% tons coal at $4,50 304 
 
 Oil and waste 48 
 
 Scrubber water 12 
 
 $964 
 
 Total yearly charge $1558 
 
 Cost per h.p. -year of 3000 hours, assuming an 
 
 average rate of 50 h.p. , $31.16 
 
 The repairs consisted of new grate-bars in the producer, new 
 coke in the scrubber, and small repairs in the connecting-rod and 
 ignition equipment ; the total being less than ten dollars for the 
 year. 
 
 For repairs, depreciation, insurance and taxes 12% was allowed. 
 The cooling water was re-used so no charge was made for this 
 item. The entire salary of the engineer was charged up to at- 
 tendance although he had time for other work, not much of it 
 being needed for the producer and engine after the plant was in 
 
660 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 operation. The coal came from the Scranton district and cost 
 $4.50 per ton in the bin. Brake tests of the engine were made 
 showing over 50 h.p. and it" is believed that the engine was ahvays 
 overloaded while worlcing. The coal consumption averaged 441 
 lbs. per working day, including stand-by losses, which were low, 
 so Mr. Miller puts the coal consumption at one lb. of coal per 
 brake h.p. 
 
 Fuel Consumption of 75 h. p. Gas Engine and Producer. A re- 
 port quoted by Professor Fernald, Bulletin 416 of U. S. Geo- 
 logical Survey, gave 1.05 lbs. of coal per hr. for a 10 days' test of 
 a plant of this kind in 1909, the owner of which states that he 
 found the operation entirely reliable. He believes that an aver- 
 aged practise of the fuel would be slightly higher, but not in 
 excess of 1.15 lbs. per h.p. hr. 
 
 Operating Costs for a Producer Gas Plant. The following costs 
 were given in a letter to Prof. R. H. Fernald and used by him in 
 Bulletin 55 of the Bureau of Mines: 
 
 " In January, 1907. Co. installed for us a pro- 
 ducer-gas-power plant consisting of three 50 h.p. horizontal gas 
 engines, two of which are direct connected, making a unit of 100 
 h.p., and attached direct to a generator. The other engine is a 
 separate unit with its own generator attached. We have two 
 gas producers, one of 100-h.p. capacity and the other of 50-h.p. 
 capacity. 
 
 " We have used this plant continuously since its installation 
 and with satisfaction, furnishing to our plant current which is 
 distributed throughout the works to many motors, besides fur- 
 ni.'Jhing light and power for one large freight and one passenger 
 elevator. 
 
 " We do not use the full capacity of the plant, holding at all 
 times the separate unit of 50 h.p. in reserve. 
 
 "The cost for the calendar year 1908 was as follows: 
 
 Coal $ 538.25 
 
 Oil 49 20 
 
 Waste 11.52 
 
 Removal of ashes 18.00 
 
 Water 168.00 
 
 Gas 50 06 
 
 Attendance 5S1.92 
 
 Maintenance repairs 492.78 
 
 Insurance 148.68 
 
 Lamp renewals 66.70 
 
 $2,125.11 
 
 "Our kw.-hrs. used during the entire period amounted to 134.063, 
 making net cost to us 1.585 cts. per kw -hr. 
 
 " Previous to the installation of the plant we employed a fire- 
 man to take care of the steam-heating plant, and oui- charge for 
 attendance in the foregoing statement is the amount paid in ex- 
 cess of what we had previouslj' paid for attendance on our steam- 
 heating plant. We are obliged to keep steam up the year around, 
 as we use it for several purposes in our factory, and the charge 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 661 
 
 under attendance, therefore, is proper but less than would follow 
 under other conditions." 
 
 Operating Cost of a Small Producer Gas Power Plant. A. W. 
 Honywill, Jr., gave the following data at the meeting of the 
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers for November, 1911. 
 
 This plant drove the machinery for a wood-working shop in 
 New Haven and the first cost of the plant, including producer, 
 engine, blower and motor to drive it, was, in round figures, $3,5U0. 
 The operating expenses per day were as follows : 
 
 Coal. 467 lbs. at $5 per ton $1.05 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 Repairs and depreciation 1.16 
 
 Interest and taxes 0.70 
 
 Oil and waste 0.14 
 
 Total daily expense $5.55 
 
 Oil engine, of the 4-cycle, hit-and-miss type, with poppet valves 
 and jump-spark ignition, was rated at 45 h.p. and the producer 
 was of the ordinary suction type with stationary grates, and the 
 quantity of gas delivered to the engine being varied by a hand- 
 adjusted throttle valve in the delivery pipe. The load was variable 
 and the plant was in operation 9 hrs. per day, the engine being 
 kept running during the noon hr. 
 
 The average coal consumption was approximately 467 lbs. of 
 pea anthracite per day, or 46.7 lbs. per hr., which is equivalent 
 to 21/^ lbs. of coal per h.p.-hr., assuming an average load factor 
 for the shop of about 40%. The cost of coal delivered was $4.50 
 per ton, giving an average cost per brake h.p. per hr. of 0.56 
 cts. No account was taken of the cost of water. The ashes from 
 the producer were screened and the coal secured in this manner 
 was valued at $2 per ton, reducing the actual operating expenses 
 to $5.08 per day instead of the $5.55 in the above table. 
 
 First Cost and Annual Operating Cost of Four Small Producer 
 Gas Power Plants. Extract from a paper by Godfrey M. S. Tait, 
 before the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, April 
 12-13, 1911. 
 
 The following are actual records of operation of small producer 
 gas power plants : 
 
 Plant No. J: . 
 
 35 h.p. anthracite producer, 
 
 28 h.p. two cylinder engine, 
 
 18 kw. electric generator (belted). 
 
 Cost installed $ 3,000 
 
 Interest and depreciation at 10% 300 
 
 Supplies and repairs 150 
 
 Labor per year 500 
 
 Total $ 950 
 
 Fuel charge per kw. with coal at $4 0.30 cts. 
 
 Operating charges per kw 0.61 cts. 
 
 Total cost per kw.-hr 0.91 cts. 
 
062 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Plant No. 2 (24 hours a day service) : 
 
 150 h.p. lignite producer, 
 
 150 li.p. gas engine, 
 
 100 kvv. electric generator (d. c. ), 
 
 Cost installed $ 960 
 
 Interest and depreciation 960 
 
 Supplies and repairs 480 
 
 Labor per year 1,700 
 
 $ 3.140 
 
 Cost of fuel per kw.-hr 0.17 cts. 
 
 Cost of operation per kw.-hr 0.43 cts. 
 
 Total cost per kw.-hr 0.60 cts. 
 
 Plant No. 3 (24 hour a day service) : 
 
 300 h.p. anthracite producer, 
 
 Two 150 h.p. gas engines. 
 
 Two 100 kw. a. c. generators operating in parallel. 
 
 Cost installed $22,000 
 
 Interest and depreciation 2,200 
 
 Supplies and repairs 1,100 
 
 Labor per year 2,400 
 
 $ 5 700 
 
 Cost of fuel per kw.-hr 0.30 cts. 
 
 Cost of operation per kw.-hr 0.40 cts. 
 
 Total cost per kw.-hr 0.70 cts. 
 
 Plant No. 1,: 
 
 400 h.p. bituminous producer (suction type, 24 hour 
 
 day). 
 400 h.p. tandem double-acting engine, 
 200 ton ammonia compressor (direct connected), 
 
 Cost installed (without compressor) $ 4,400 
 
 Interest and depreciation 4,400 
 
 Sui)plies and repairs 2.200 
 
 Labor (three .'shifts) 6,353 
 
 Fuel at Wi lbs. per h.p 2.916 
 
 $15,869 
 Total cost .459 cts. per hp.-hr. 
 
 This last plant was operating on Illinois slack of 10,300 B. t. u. 
 per lb. and containing 4% sulphur and 38% volatile matter. 
 
 Annual Costs of Two 400-k. w. Producer Gas Plant Units. F. J. 
 Rode in Mining and Engineering World, Feb. 21, 1914, states that 
 two 400 kw. units driven by 24 by 36 in. gas engines were in- 
 stalled, one in 1910 and the other in 1911. The gas plant includes 
 two producers made by R. D. Wood & Company, each of 400 h.p. 
 rating and two producers made by the Smith Gas Power Com- 
 pany, rated at 350 h.p. The coal used was Hocking Valley Nut, 
 the heat value of the gas averaging 160 B. t. u. per cu. ft. 
 
 Originally (in 1912) the plant was operated on hard coal of both 
 buckwheat and pea sizes. By changing from anthracite to soft 
 coal a saving in cost of operation of 0.3 ct. per kw.-hr. was ef- 
 fected. To change from hard to soft coal envolved installing 
 Smith static tar extractors. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 663 
 
 ANNUAL. COST OF OPERATION 
 
 Best Poorest Average 
 
 month month month 
 
 Hours of plant running 568 205 333.3 
 
 Tons of coal consumed 267.7 110 187 
 
 Cost of coal consumed $930.00 $396.00 $669.33 
 
 Cost of attendance $767.75 $396.25 $500.54 
 
 Cost of supplies $109.75 $26.10 $53.73 
 
 Output kw.-hr 325,400 98,200 191,480 
 
 Cost of operation per kw.-hr 0.556 0.836 0.634 
 
 Cost of fixed charges per kw.-hr... 0.279 0.916 0.470 
 
 Total costs cents per kw-hr 0.835 1.752 1.104 
 
 Cost of operating including fixed 
 
 charges , $2,707.50 $1,718.35 $2,122.00 
 
 Load factor during time of opera- 
 tion : 0.715 0.60 0.71 
 
 The table gives the annual cost of operation at the plant of 
 A. O. Smith Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 The tar is burned under steam boilers, which are used for drop 
 forging and heating puri»oses, and no credit was allowed to the 
 gas plant, although Mr. Rode explains that 914 lbs. of water were 
 evaporated per pound of tar burned at the boilers. The accumu- 
 lation of tar varies somewhat with the volatile matter in the fuel. 
 The coal now being used runs from 80 to 100 lbs. per ton in the 
 femith producers. Waste water is used for scrubbing and no 
 charge is made in the record for the water. The waste heat of the 
 gas engine exhaust is utilized, the boiler plant being supplied with 
 the jacket water, which is pumped through gas engine exhaust 
 heaters, and all the excess water is sprayed and cooled for re- 
 use. Repair costs are included in the items of the cost of oper- 
 ating attendance and the cost of supplies. Mr. Rode feels that 
 the only drawback to an otherwise eminently satisfactory equip- 
 ment is the load factor, which varied to such an extent that 
 probably better results could have obtained had it remained nearer 
 0.80 instead of 0.71 average. 
 
 Cost of Power by Burning Wood In Gas Producers In Mexico. 
 E. B. Rothwell gives the following figures in Power, Nov. 9, *1909, 
 of his exi)eriences while in charge of gas and power plants at the 
 Montezuma Copper Company, at Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico, in 1908. 
 
 FUEL PER H.P.-HR, AT SWITCHBOARD 
 
 July Aug. Sept. 
 
 Fuel per h.p.-hr., lbs 1.9137 1.893 2 178 
 
 Coke, lbs 0.044 0.0356 0358 
 
 Oil cost per h.p.-hr $0.00087 0.001047 0.00085 
 
 Waste cost per h.p.-hr $0.000019 0.0000143 0.0000103 
 
 HORSEPOWER DEVELOPED AND GAS CONSUMPTION 
 
 July Augu.st Sept. 
 
 Electrical h.p 593.9 590.8 573 
 
 No. of days fires run Mostly 4 One 6-day Five 5-day 
 
 days each and five 5- and one 4- 
 
 day runs day runs 
 Approximate average gas per 
 
 min., cu. ft. 1,300 1,294 1,275 
 
664 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Gas Engine Costs in Electric Railway Service in England. 
 
 J. R. Bibbins in Electrical Journal, Nov., 1905, states that one 
 of the finest gas power central stations now in service in England 
 contains 13 direct connected Westinghouse engines and eight Dow- 
 son anthracite producers, totaling 2,000 kw. capacity. It supplies 
 light and power to the London borough district of Walthamstow 
 and power for the borough tramways. Data from this plant cov- 
 ering 12 days' continuous operation show that with an average 
 load factor of 35% the plant consumed less than 1.8 lbs. of coal 
 per kw. hr., including fuel for all purposes. Throughout the year 
 the coal consumption averages about 2 lbs. per kw. hr. 
 
 Table XVI shows the results of two years' operation of this 
 plant and compares these costs with costs of similarly situated 
 steam plants. 
 
 TABLE XVL OPERATING COSTS — GAS POWER STATION 
 
 1904 1903 
 
 Kw.-hrs. generated 1,019,326 659,796 
 
 Kw.-hrs. sold 814,187 542,423 
 
 Gross efficiency of system, per cent 80 82.25 
 
 Load factor 15.45 15.25 
 
 Operating costs Cents per kw.-hr. generated 
 
 Coal* and other fuel, delivered 0.745 89 
 
 Oil, waste, water** and general supplies 0.306 0.37 
 
 Wages of workmen 0.590 0.67 
 
 Repairs and maintenances^t total 0.065 0.19 
 
 Total operating cost 1,706 1.925 
 
 • Cost of coal averaged $6.50 per ton in 1902-3 ; $6.75 in 1903-4. 
 ** Artesian well not yet in service; water purchased, 
 t Including buildings, mechanical and electrical equipments, 
 storage batteries and distribution system. 
 
 TABLE XVII. ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS, LONDON 
 METROPOLITAN BOROUGHS (1904) 
 
 Average of 1 1 Gas Savings % 
 
 steam plants plants favor gas 
 
 Plant capacity, kw 2.799 810 
 
 Output sold 2,997,500 1,019,326 
 
 Ratio sold to generated, % 83.9 80 
 
 Load factor, % 17.25 15.45 
 
 Fuel cost cts. per kw.-hr 1.19 0.74 +38.4 
 
 Supplies cts. per kw.-hr 0.12 0.30 
 
 Labor, cts. per kw.-h. .r 0.43 0.48 —13.5 
 
 Repairs, cts. per kw.-hr 0.4 1 0.10 +78.0 
 
 Operating costs, total cts. per 
 
 kw.-hr 2.18 1.71 +21.5 
 
 It will be noted that Walthamstow gas plant shows a saving of 
 38% in fuel and 22% in operating costs. Its working costs aver- 
 aged about 40% of the revenue from current. 
 
 Maintenance of Gas Engines. A 500 kw. belted gas engine plant 
 at Bradford, Pa., gives a striking illustration of the efficiency 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 665 
 
 of gas engines when the equipment is properly operated and taken 
 care of. The plant is in its seventh year of service ; yet the 
 repairs and cost of maintenance during the last two years have 
 only been $92.70 per year, or 11.6 cts. per h.p. year. Table XVIII 
 shows the complete operating cost of this plant for the last two 
 years, averaging eight and one-half mills per kw.-hr. on a load 
 factor of less than 2i)%, and this with antiquated electrical appa- 
 ratus. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. OPERATING COSTS 500 H.P. GAS POWER 
 STATION, BRADFORD, PA. 
 
 1904 1903 
 
 Annual output, kw.-hr 804,092 780,300* 
 
 Station load factor, % 19.54 
 
 Gas consumption, cu. ft 20,056,000 18,162.000 
 
 Plant duty (including heating) cu. ft., 
 
 per kw.-hr 24.9 22.4 
 
 Average price of gas, cts. per 1000 cu. ft. 12.32 16.5 
 
 Operating costs Cents per kw.-hr. generated 
 
 Fuel (including heating) 0.307 0.384 
 
 Labor, power station only 0.380 0.392 
 
 Supplies , 0.059 0.072 
 
 Repairs, engine and electrical equipment 0.079 0.050 
 
 Repairs, gas engines only 0.010 0.013 
 
 Total works or operating costs 0.825 0.898 
 
 * Estimated from 9 months' metered output. 
 
 Cost of Power in a Small Plant Using Illuminating Gas for 
 Operating Gas Engine. This plant carries a motor load of about 
 40 h.p., and about 200 incandescent lamps for lighting, the motors 
 driving various lathes, drill presses, buffing wheels, etc., for the 
 manufacturing of band instruments. The outfit consists of a 
 Crocker-Wheeler 220 volt d.-c. dynamo of 25 kw. rated capacity 
 driven by a 40 hp. Nash gas engine. 
 
 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND ELECTRICAL OUTPUT FOR NOVEMBER, 1911 
 
 Gas consumed, cu. ft 121,100 
 
 Output, kw.-hr 4,542 
 
 Fuel cost per kw.-hr., cts 2.13 
 
 The engine is of the 2-cylinder, 4-stroke type, equipped with a 
 throttling governor, and running at 275 r.p.m., ignition current 
 being supplied from a small storage battery charged by a special 
 igniter generator, mounted on the frame of the engine and driven 
 by a belt from the main shaft. Fuel is illuminating gas. The 
 engine starts by compressed air at 180 lbs. pressure, stored in 
 two small steel tanks, by a small motor single-cylinder vertical 
 compressor. Cooling water,' after passing through the cylinder 
 jackets, is run through a transverse-current water heater, which 
 utilizes the heat of the engine exhaust to raise the temperature 
 
666 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of some 200 gals, of water per hour from about 140 to 180 degs. F. 
 
 Besides looking after the generating equipment, the engineer 
 runs the heating plant and takes care of all the motors, shafting, 
 wiring, piping, plumbing, etc.. throughout the building. In esti- 
 mating the cost of power, 25% of his salary of $100 per month 
 is prorated of this item. The cost of water is not charged against 
 the engine as all of it is used throughout the factory. The aver- 
 age consumption of lubricating oil is 0.9 gal. per day at 36 cts. 
 per gal. There were no charges against the power equipment for 
 one year after installation. 
 
 Cost of Plant and Power. The cost of the plant with all ac- 
 cessories and complete was as follows : 
 
 25 kw, unit (installed 1911) $3250, equals $130 per kw. 
 15 kw. unit (installed 1907). $1775, or $118 per kw, 
 
 A. R. Maujer published the above figures in Power, July 2, 1912, 
 and states that the following is a fairly accurate estimate for the 
 cost of power for November, 1911. 
 
 Fuel (121,100 cu. ft. of gas at 80 cts. per 1000 cu ft.) $96.88 
 
 Labor (25% of engineer's time) 25.00 
 
 Oil 8.10 
 
 Interest, depreciation, etc. (12% per annum on $5025). 50.25 
 
 $180.23 
 $180.23 
 Cost per kw.-hr.— ::: 3.97 cts. 
 
 4542 
 
 Amount of Power Available from Furnaces. A rule for esti- 
 mating the amount of power available for external use from 
 gases generated at blast furnaces and by-product coke ovens 
 is gven by L. Greiner in 1907: 
 
 With blast furnaces, the continuous available h.p. is equal to 
 the number of tons of iron made per month. 
 
 With by-product recovery ovens, the continuously available h.p. 
 is equal to the number of tons of colve made per week. 
 
 Operating Costs of Small Gas Engine Plant for Electric Light 
 Service at Minster, Ohio. The following data are from the records 
 of the Municipal Electric Light Plant reported by M. W. Utz in 
 Power, Feb. 18, 1913. 
 
 The plant comprises two 3-cylinder vertical 4-stroke-cycle gas 
 engines of 12 by 12 ins. and 11 by 12 ins. respectivelj% direct con- 
 nected with 62.5 and 50 kw.. 250 volt d. c. generators. Both 
 engines have make-and-break ignition, the first being supplied 
 by a magneto bolted to the engine frame and driven by a friction 
 pulley from the flywheel ; the other is supplied by a % kw. gen- 
 erator belted to the engine shaft. Both are equipped with bat- 
 teries for starting or for use in case of a breakdown of the mag- 
 neto or generator. 
 
 On a typical day the gas consumption was 10,725 cu. ft. per 
 hr. and the output was 723 kw.-hrs. The average gas consump- 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 667 
 
 tion per kw.-hr. was therefore 14.8 cu. ft. The average amount 
 of oil consumed was 4 gals, per kw.-hr. 
 
 In a typical month (April, 1912) the gas consumption was 
 283,250 cu. ft. and the output was 17,608 kw.-hrs. The average 
 fuel cost for the month was 0.048 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 
 In this month the total operating and overhead costs were as 
 follows : 
 
 283,250 cu. ft. of gas at 30 cts. per 1,000 cu. ft $84.97 
 
 2 engineers at $55 each 110.00 
 
 120 gal. at 19 cts. per gal 22.80 
 
 Interest, depreciation, etc., 15% per annum on .$9,000 112.50 
 
 $330.27 
 The total cost per kw.-hr. was therefore 1.87 cts. 
 
 Cost of Diesel Engine Operation in England. Chas. Day in 
 Power, Oct. 3, 1911, gives figures published in the Electrical 
 Times covering practically almost all the supply stations in Great 
 Britain, and from this information combined with information ob- 
 tained direct from station engineers the author determined the aver- 
 age results obtained in such stations. 
 
 TABLE XIX. COST PER KW.-HR. SOLD 
 
 Type of 
 engine 
 Steam 
 
 Oas 
 
 Diesel . . . . 
 
 Repairs 
 
 Lubricating and Total 
 
 oil, waste, mainte- oper- 
 
 Fuel, stores, and Wages, nance, costs. Load 
 
 cts. water, cts. cts. cts. cts. factor 
 
 0.90 0.12 0.50 0.52 2.04 14.7 
 
 .86 .18 .56 .48 2.08 15.3 
 
 .46 .08 .38 .14 1.06 14.3 
 
 The limit of 1000 h.p. was fixed owing to there being as yet no 
 large electricity-supply stations equipped solely with Diesel engine 
 or gas engines. Of course, better results are obtained with 
 driving machinery which gives a better load factor, but the causes 
 which produce loss are, as a rule, the same, though modified in 
 extent The general conclusion formed from a study of electricity 
 stations holds good for the great majority of power users, though 
 perhaps not applicable to some special trades, where engines can 
 be run continuously on almost uniform loads. It Is also neces- 
 sary to point out that the figures include some items which should 
 not strictly be charged against the power plant. For instance, 
 the wages items include figures for men working on cables, street 
 lamps, and in substations, and the repair items include repairs 
 to such parts. Also it is necessary to mention that the figures 
 give the costs per unit of energy sold, not per unit generated. 
 
 From the averages it is clear that a substantial gain is ob- 
 tained by the adoption of Diesel engines as against either gas 
 or steam engines, the figures being beyond doubt substantially 
 accurate. It is also noticeable that the gain is not only on fuel 
 consumption, but is practically in the same proportion on the 
 other items of expenditure. 
 
C6S MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The great saving shown by these average figures is confirmed 
 by repeated experiences of the author. In many cases, although 
 the figures guaranteed with Diesel engines have been no better 
 than figures previously guaranteed and obtained on tests, with 
 existing steam and gas engines, the Diesel engines have shown 
 over extended periods a saving of 50 and 60%, and in some cases 
 an even greater percentage, the result being due to the fact that 
 the Diesel engine's average working results were very much nearer 
 to the guaranteed figures than with gas or steam engines, com- 
 bined with the fact that the relatively high cost of working at 
 light loads with gas or steam had not been sufficiently taken into 
 account when considering the guaranteed figures. 
 
 When going through cost records to prepare the average figures 
 previously given, the author noticed very wide differences of cost 
 per unit, particularly in the case of the steam plant. He there- 
 fore had the average cost calculated for steam stations of differ- 
 ent capacity, and as the results are interesting, they are given 
 separately in Table XX. 
 
 TABLE XX. OPERATING COST PER KW.-HR. SOLD, FOR 
 STEAM STATIONS OF DIFFERENT SIZES 
 
 Station 
 
 
 oil, waste. 
 
 
 and main- 
 
 
 
 capacity, 
 
 Fuel, 
 
 water and 
 
 Wages, 
 
 tenance. 
 
 Total 
 
 Load 
 
 kw. 
 
 cts. 
 
 stores, cts. 
 
 cts. 
 
 cts. 
 
 cts. 
 
 factor 
 
 250 
 
 1.26 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.72 
 
 2.86 
 
 13.2 
 
 500 
 
 1.12 
 
 .12 
 
 .54 
 
 .58 
 
 2.36 
 
 13.3 
 
 750 
 
 .86 
 
 .10 
 
 .46 
 
 .48 
 
 1.90 
 
 15.4 
 
 1.000 
 
 .80 
 
 .10 
 
 .46 
 
 .42 
 
 1.78 
 
 16.8 
 
 1.500 
 
 .84 
 
 .08 
 
 .34 
 
 .36 
 
 1:6 2 
 
 16.9 
 
 2.000 
 
 .74 
 
 .08 
 
 .32 
 
 .42 
 
 1.56 
 
 17.7 
 
 3,000 
 
 .66 
 
 .08 
 
 .30 
 
 .34 
 
 1.38 
 
 17.4 
 
 4.000 
 
 .80 
 
 .06 
 
 .28 
 
 .40 
 
 1.54 
 
 18.8 
 
 5,000 
 
 .68 
 
 .06 
 
 .22 
 
 .32 
 
 1.38 
 
 18.7 
 
 7.000 
 
 79 
 
 .08 
 
 .26 
 
 .40 
 
 1.46 
 
 17.9 
 
 10.000 
 
 .52 
 
 .06 
 
 .18 
 
 .26 
 
 1.12 
 
 22.6 
 
 20,000 
 
 .60 
 
 .06 
 
 99 
 
 .32 
 
 1.20 
 
 19.6 
 
 50,000 
 
 .46 
 
 .04 
 
 iio 
 
 .22 
 
 0.92 
 
 20.56 
 
 It is to be noted that, even with the largest steam stations, 
 the costs per unit generated are no better than for quite small 
 stations using Diesel engines, and this in face of the improved 
 load factor. This is a most important point, and shows that 
 small Diesel stations can profitably supply current at prices 
 hitherto thought to be obtainable only in densely populated centers 
 having large power stations. 
 
 In all cases the figures which have been given are operating 
 costs and do not include anything for interest on capital or de- 
 preciation. It is hardly possible to give a definite statement show- 
 ing the cost of constructing and equipping power* houses of dif- 
 ferent types, as there are so many variable factors. However, 
 the author's experience of a considerable number of estimates 
 indicates that up to a capacity of, say, 1000 kws., there is gen- 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 669 
 
 erally little difference between the gross capital expenditure re- 
 quired, whether steam, gas, or Diesel engines be adopted. 
 
 Oil-Engine Costs and Operating Expenses for Different Types 
 in Small Plants. A. H. Goldingham and W. H. Adams presented 
 the following table and diagrams at the Panama Pacific Expo- 
 sition meeting of the A. S. M. E. and Electrical World, Oct. 9, 
 1915, gives a reprint of their article. 
 
 TABLE XXI. APPROXIMATE COST OF OIL ENGINES PER 
 BRAKE H.P, AND FUEL, DATA 
 
 Type of 
 engine 
 
 Specific Approxi- 
 
 gravity 
 
 of oil 
 
 (deg. 
 
 Baume) 
 
 Distillates 48-51 
 
 Tops-distillates 38-42 
 Semi-Diesel .. . 24-28 
 Hot -surface high 
 
 efficiency ... 16 
 Die.sel 18 
 
 mate Thermal Brake Approximate cost 
 price of efficiency hp.-hr. of engines per 
 oil per at full per gal. brake-h.p. 
 
 gal., load of fuel Horsepower 
 
 cts, 
 
 50 100 150 250 
 
 5 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.14 
 2.14 
 
 20 
 20 
 18 
 
 27 
 28.4 
 
 10 $25 $30 $30 $30 
 10 25 30 30 30 
 
 10 60 55 50 50 
 
 75 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 65 
 
 The curves are based on interest at 6%, taxes and insurance 
 1%, repairs 3%, depreciation 10% and fuels and cost of engines 
 at prices given in Table No. XXI, allowance being made for 
 labor. 
 
 The horizontal lines have been added to each set of curves to 
 facilitate estimating the total operating cost when the average 
 load on a machine is less than the rated full load. To make 
 such an estimate the procedure is as follows : Measure the or- 
 dinate corresponding to the hours the machine is operated between 
 the inclined and horizontal line for the particular engine and by 
 laying off an equal distance on the scale at the left obtain the 
 number of dollars representing the cost fuel which would be re- 
 quired with the engine operating at full load. Then multiply this 
 amount by the average i)ercentage of rated load carried and also 
 by the ratio of the fuel economy at the particular load to the 
 economy at full load. By adding the result so obtained to the 
 ordinate of the fixed-charge line the approximate yearly operat- 
 ing cost at that average load will be obtained. 
 
 This arrangement of curves also permits a comparison of fuel 
 costs for different engines' and periods of operation It is inter- 
 esting to note that 50-h.p. tops distillates engines are cheaper to 
 operate than any of the other types of the same rating up to 
 
670 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 7200 hrs. a year. In 100 h.p, sizes hot-surface, high economy- 
 engines are cheapest to operate when used more than 5000 hrs. a 
 year. Below this tops-distillates engines show an advantage. 
 With higher rated engines tops-distillates and hot surface, high- 
 economy engines remain the least expensive to operate, the point 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 z 
 
 C oeraf/'nat Dafa 
 
 z 
 
 
 .7 
 
 :: ~:: .so-Mpr. : 
 
 
 '>C\f\(\ ■ - 
 
 / 
 
 
 "7 
 
 
 / ■ 
 
 
 
 
 i -.^ " 
 
 171:0 -_ -- 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 ? i 
 
 
 ^,e,.l. _ _!_ 
 
 
 w!. _ _ : 
 
 
 YJ-- I _ 
 
 '^°° . x\\ 
 
 / e.' 
 
 : : ^v&y 
 
 - - - ^i'_ - 
 
 - 'vy 
 
 ^/ -r- 
 
 "y 
 
 - ^p|g5^^ __;-^'. 
 
 
 
 
 5s^'fl ^^"^ 
 
 ■ ■ /' ■ 
 
 
 * 
 
 < '' I-** "" "^ '<"'' 
 
 -••^ 
 
 -^ - ^Vu 
 
 inAA /' -^'' iMlQ. 
 
 ?^/- ;:rr^- 2^ 
 
 
 JU'rW- _ _ '1 
 
 ■"f^^"' II 
 
 ^^\9 ^ 
 
 - ' " ' ^ ■^ ' 1< 
 
 j^iL. - 1 
 
 '^■::^~ ,.'!l1^ 
 
 1- t.)} ,^/ 
 
 
 |- /irUisse/ 
 
 
 ' "j" " '^ , ■■ 
 
 ■^ ^ *' 
 
 
 ..''. ^.-"^ 
 
 " -^Semi-Diese/ 
 
 _ ~^~-.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '' .Tops an 
 
 ; ' D/sfZ/hTiss . 
 
 
 
 ?f;o :--+— -'^--t-H-K- 
 
 iiiiiinv 
 
 1200 2400 3600 4800 CjQOO 
 Hours Operated perYecjr 
 
 7200 
 
 84.«0 
 
 Fig. 29. Annual cost of operating 50-h.p. oil engine at full load. 
 Horizontal lines indicate the fixed charges. 
 
 at which it is best to change from one to another changing with 
 the rating needed. In practically all cases it can be seen that 
 distillates engines are practically out of the question because of 
 their high cost of operation. 
 
 Cost of Diesel Engine Power for a Textile Factory. R. S. 
 Streeter in Engineering Magazine describes a Diesel engine at 
 the MacLaren Knitting Company's mill at West Sand Lake, New 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 671 
 
 in April, 1910, and used to run knitting ma- 
 
 York, installed 
 chinery. 
 
 The air compressor is belted to the main shaft of the engine 
 and is placed so that the same belt can be used to drive the 
 compressor from the line shaft and in this way pump up the air 
 pressure with the water wheel when it is necessary. 
 
 ^ _ 1"::^ : ::: 
 
 ± ._ _ : 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ■4^i;UU _ Oneraf/nc7 Dafcf - - ' ^-~ 
 
 
 ^/00-Np - ' 
 
 ' '^'^ ^ r 7 
 
 /trstiCs I _____Z_ 
 
 4000 _ . ^ 
 
 ^ ~~ " :._ : ^_ : 
 
 y ^ 
 
 c - ^ 7 
 
 
 S. 3500 -- -- --/" 
 
 c / 
 
 <^ - 7 
 
 4- " :: " " ir'2' : : : 
 
 «o 'ijr\r\r\ .. . . r , , . ..^t* . . 
 
 o 3000 .^^2 - ^ I 
 
 %0 - -- - __| U -- _ __,«'' 
 
 ^ :_ ;: :. :'^\'^z : : --<": 
 
 
 4- frnn '^ ni(?^?iy^3^ --■''' 
 
 ^ Z500 ^^ -^-i,! 'jpfX^ Jr'" 
 
 
 §_ '^ «. ^ ' ^ n L -^ T/ S''' 
 
 -^ / ^-""X--^ l'>r^rf(T^e- i^'J 
 
 ^ ,onr>A - 7 .^^^^ ~i^.^''Ho-^'^'^.,t 
 
 jj cOOO nVniV^uX'^xa^T Hr^n^^'V 
 
 t. t).pyi-A^^ ..^ ^^'"PrHW ect 
 
 S .^-> L-.s--" >,pi^^, ■ 
 
 ^2 f^ .1^ "^-OP^ I • -A-'^V 
 
 
 o »i»wr>^ ■■ ^.-' ■ L ; J u'. , 
 
 4: j7 ^ ^ -not-surfac ?}tiejh-a:c not 7 / 
 
 .o ? ""^ TrriT Tfrrr'"" 
 
 *~ - -^ -- ■ , ,, , 1 ' ■ 
 
 
 
 - " ~t- 
 
 
 
 -y. --.^, . -- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■0 --_- .. L. 
 
 iZOa 2400 
 
 3600 4800 ecoo 
 
 Hours Operated per Year 
 
 7200 
 
 mo 
 
 Fig. 30. Annual cost of operating 100 h.p. oil engines at full load 
 Horizontal lines indicate the fixed charges. 
 
 The fuel used in this engine is a heavy fuel oil and is trans- 
 ported by horse and wagoh from Albany, N. Y., a distance of 9 
 miles. The oil costs about 5 cts. a gal. delivered at the engine 
 room, but if it were possible to get it in tank cars it could be 
 had for 3 cts. a gal. 
 
672 MECHAmCAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 This engine on the 8-hr. acceptance test at full load or at an 
 average h.p. of 75.8, showed an oil consumption of .512 lb. per 
 brake h.p.-hr. The 2-hr. acceptance test at three-quarter load 
 showed a consumption of .515 lbs. per brake h.p., the one-half- 
 load consumption was .612 lbs. and the one-quarter-load .890 lbs. 
 per brake h.p.-hr. 
 
 There is a central station at Westerly, R. I., which contains 
 four Diesel three-cylinder 16 by 24-in. engines running at 164 
 r.p.m. This station supplies electricity for lighting and for small 
 motors for Westerly, Richmond, Ashaway, Watch Hill, Stoning- 
 ton, Pawcatuck, Mystic, and Noank, which towns have a popu- 
 lation of about 25,000. The maximum load on the station is 640 
 ^ws. For a period of eight months ending August 31, 1909, the 
 operating expenses of the plant were as shown in- Table XXII. 
 
 TABLE XXII. OPERATING COSTS, DIESEL-ENGINE DRIVEN 
 CENTRAL STATION 
 
 Total kw.-hrs 1,233,590 
 
 Energy for compressors, pumps and exciters 312,880 
 
 Total energy for distribution 920,710 
 
 Gals, fuel oil 115,708 
 
 " per available kw.-hr 0.12 
 
 Cost fuel oil, lubricating oil and water $3,632.22 
 
 Cost fuel oil, per kw.-hr. available $0.0039 
 
 Cost of generating energy per available kw.-hr $.009 
 
 The above figures include fuel oil, lubricating oil, water, labor 
 and maintenance but do not include interest, taxes or deprecia- 
 tion. The analysis of the cost is as follows : 
 
 Fuel oil $3,356.10 
 
 Lubricating oil 236.75 
 
 Water ; . . 39.37 
 
 Labor 3,685.43 
 
 Miscellaneous 68.52 
 
 Maintenance : 
 
 Engines and compressors $ 905.34* 
 
 Electrical equipment 58.96 
 
 Miscellaneous 25.15 
 
 • Includes general yearly overhauling. 
 
 In the Bellefontaine, Ohio, municipal electric plant there are 
 two 225 h.p. Diesel engines, each direct connected to a 150-kw. 
 2,300-volt 60-cycle generator. It has been the experience there 
 that these engines work well in parallel operation. At three- 
 quarters load these engines use 9.75 gals, of crude oil per 100 kw. 
 hr. generated. For the three years from May, 1906, to May, 
 1909, the average load factor on this plant was 46.7%. The cost 
 per kw.-hr. was, for that time, $0.0062. This included fuel, lubri- 
 cating oil, repairs and attendance. 
 
 Cost of Power by Diesel Engine, Using Retort Tar as Fuel, was 
 described by W. Allner, Jour, ftir Gashel, Apr. 8, 1911, and re- 
 printed by Progressive Age, June 1, 1911. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 673 
 
 Tests on a 100 h.p. Diesel engine made by Korting Co., were 
 made using an auxiliary fuel in the shape of paraffin oil. Tar 
 and paraffin oil are conveyed to the nozzle by 2 separate small 
 pumps, which are driven by the engine. The engine is direct 
 coupled with a direct current dynamo and works in parallel with 
 
 """m 
 
 2400 3600 4600 6000 . 7200 moa 
 Hours Operated per Hour 
 
 Fig. 31. Annual cost of operating oil engines of 150 h.p. at full load. 
 Horizontal lines indicate fixed charges. 
 
 a number of suction gas engines on the power and lighting supply 
 of the factory. The tests were made at full, % and % load. 
 The fuel supply was weighed and tested. The engine is arranged 
 so that the supply of ignition oil varies with the load. The rela- 
 tion between paraffin oil and tar can also be varied. The engine 
 
674 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 has also a chang-e gear, which permits changing the tar pump to 
 paraffin oil, so that in starting, the engine can work with paraffin 
 oil till the engine is in a satisfactory, warm condition for the tar 
 fuel. The tests prove that the total consumption of heat of the 
 engine when fed with tar and ignition oil is with all loads as great 
 
 T<fAOD 
 
 WflOO 
 
 10,000 
 
 ^ £^000 
 
 8^000 
 
 § 
 
 xooo 
 
 o> 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 4- 
 
 e^ooo 
 
 u 
 
 
 «) 
 
 
 Ci_ 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 :t^ 
 
 5,000 
 
 «- 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 4.000 
 
 r> 
 
 
 4- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3,000 ^ 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 . 
 
 _^ ' 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Opera f/no udfei / 
 
 
 ± '250-ttp. ^ ^^l 
 
 \ \ ' ^ 
 
 _ _, 
 
 1 .... / 
 
 
 i _i_ -,'■'. _4 
 
 
 / 
 
 1 / 
 
 
 . / 
 
 
 Z' ~ — 
 
 / 
 
 
 i ^/^r ~ I 
 
 _ . \\<Li- - i - - ^ 
 
 j\^/ • '' y 
 
 ^/ - i ^^i 
 
 "^Z 'i.^ JZ 
 
 -/ ^^ it 
 
 / ^^i 1 ■ 
 
 
 / 1 .' ^'n './T^C' % •"'' ^if^ "^ 
 
 / £_gl ,^ < ''ii^*""! ^'* 
 
 • ' W-'<v^^ '^'\\r1 -■,cn<^^ 
 
 r erti':' <kf- ' . . -i-rlff'^'^ ■ 
 
 'f -^vJ^^kTJ-^^/^'^'^ 
 
 / ^«^''-^^ ,rf^'^^ 
 
 ^^^^^'^^^i^^ 
 
 
 _2<=^i2'''^S'^ _ _ _ _ 
 
 -<^ .1,,- >;>|\"' 
 
 "^^^••^ "' yjS^A- ' , 
 
 ^-^r^-'ii^^^of- -q: .>./'/^5^/_ _ _ 
 
 ? ,<'' 1 1 T 
 
 
 ^ "^ " ■ Ho7-.iurfc'ce n/gn-en/c/e/7cy ' ' | " 
 
 ~Semi- uicssf— 
 
 
 
 iTops anc/PisH/fafes ■^— 
 
 ■ ~^ i 1 1 1 • ' 
 
 III 1 
 
 Fig. 3: 
 
 1,000 
 
 1200 2400 3600 4&00 &^Q0 7200 6400i 
 
 Hours- Operci+ed per Year 
 
 Annual cost of operating oil engines of 250 h.p. at full load. 
 
 as when driven with pure paraffin oil. The consumption of igni- 
 tion oil, moreover, is very small. On the average it is : 
 
 With full load, 2%. 
 With % load, 7.5%. 
 With 1/2 load, 13%. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 675 
 
 With full load the ignition oil could have been omitted with 
 safety, although it is advisable to allow this pump to work con- 
 stantly so as to have it always in working order. The following 
 results were obtained in regard to fuel consumption, with a 100 
 h.p. Diesel engine, requiring about 1,850 cal. (4,306 B. t. u.) per 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 0.30 Q40 0.50 0.60 0.70 O80 090 LOO 1.10 L50 1.60 1.70 l£0 L90 
 Cost of Oil per Barrel, Dollars . 
 
 Comparison of operating expenses of 600-kw. steam tur- 
 bine and Diesel-Engine plants. 
 
 h.p.-hr. With full load per h.p.-hr., 63 ozs. tar and 0.1 oz. 
 paraffin oil. With % load per h.p.-hr., 60 ozs. tar and 0.5 oz. 
 paraffin oil. With l^ load per h.p.-hr., 57 ozs. tar and 0.7 oz. paraffin 
 oil. The net calorific power of the paraffin oil is taken as 
 10,000 cals. (39,683 B. t. u.) ; that of tar as 8,500 cals. (33,730 
 B. t. u.) per 2.2 lbs. The engine was fed with vertical re- 
 
67G MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tort tar from more than six gas plants, so that the matter of 
 tar composition in the fuel is out of the question. After the 
 66-hr.-test the engine was stopped, and valves, combustion 
 chamber and all inner parts thoroughly examined. It was 
 found that the engine had no residues, that no deposit had 
 formed, and that the entire operation had been almost smokeless. 
 The engine was also subjected to severe conditions, as, for ex- 
 ample, changing suddenly from full load to half load. Here also 
 
 c I 
 
 ex: 
 
 CO 
 
 a- 
 
 ^» 
 ■S-o 
 
 io. 
 
 .4 
 
 .3 
 
 .2 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 Di< 
 
 ;sel 
 
 En 
 
 gine 
 
 
 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Cyl. l6in.xZ4'\n. Stroke. 
 A^- Mexican Cruc/e,/Zdeg.B.m£OBIU. 
 B-'TexiJS » I5i " -'/mS •> 
 C= - " /S " "18252 " 
 D^ Eastern Refined Disfillah, 
 \ 59deciJ9jl5 BIU.DRrlh / 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 V 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 K/ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 .0 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 
 
 
 y. 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (4'^- 
 
 % 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 ,^1 
 
 ^ 
 
 K 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 N. 
 
 /', 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 ^i 
 
 < 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 s? 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 ■i'n 
 
 V^l 
 
 '^ 
 
 ?^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 r—~ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .3 
 1 
 
 
 h< 
 
 1>^ 
 
 >; 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Cc 
 
 nsL 
 
 rm^ 
 
 7f/i 
 
 7/7> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 \. 
 
 45 
 
 o. 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 'S 
 
 
 <n 
 
 30 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 ?0 
 
 "5 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 ^ 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 
 Percent of Rated BH.P 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Unit and total fuel consumptions for Diesel Engines at 
 different percentages of rated load. 
 
 the results were satisfactory. Further arrangements were made 
 to teat horizontal retort tar. But no definite results have yet 
 been established. An ordinary Dessau vertical retort uses about 
 22,000 lbs. coal per day, and yields about 1.100 lbs. tar, which 
 would be sufficient to run a 200 h.p. engine for 12 hrs. per day 
 with full load. If we estimate the tar at $7.50 per 2,200 lbs., 
 we get operating costs. 
 
 Consumption of tar per h.p.-hr. for medium-size engine. . . . 0.16 cts. 
 Consumption of ignition oil i)er h.p.-hr. at a cost of 22 cts. 
 
 per 2.200 lbs 0.01 cts. 
 
 Total cost of fuel 0.17 cts. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 677 
 
 With use of pure paraffin oil about 5.5 ozs. per h.p.-hr, would 
 be needed. With a 100 h.p. engine and 3,000 working hours per 
 year, this would be : 
 
 Cost of tar $480 
 
 Cost of ignition oil 23 
 
 Cost of ignition oil to start engine 30 
 
 Total cost with tar $533 
 
 Oppose to this paraffin oil drive, which would cost $1,178, and 
 tar oil fuel, with the lowest 
 
 Cost of $9.50 per 2,200 lbs $599 
 
 Cost for ignition oil 23 
 
 Cost for Ignition oil to start engine 30 
 
 $652 
 
 This shows that tar fuel is the least expensive for Diesel engine 
 fuel. The necessary change in the construction of the engine is 
 only about 5% of the original cost, and this is soon balanced by 
 the greater saving in fuel cost. 
 
 Co%ts of Power for Two American 225 h. p. Diesel Engines, with 
 triple 16 by 24 in. cylinders, direct-connected to alternators run- 
 ning 164 r. p. m. were given in Power and The Kngineer, Jan. 26, 
 1909. as follows: 
 
 The total cost of the station was about $105,000, or $234 per 
 h.p. of normal rating. The manufacturing cost in the plant was 
 made up of the following items: Fuel oil, $3400; water, $88; oil 
 and waste, $347; wages, $3613; station repairs, $5; oil-plant 
 repairs, $663; electric-plant repairs, $13; total, $8129. The 
 energy delivered at the switchboard was 817,000 kw.-hrs. The 
 operating cost was thus about 1 cent per kw.-hr. The total 
 cost of the power, however, included the interest on the initial 
 cost of. the plant, assumed as 6% ; depreciation, taken at 17c ', 
 taxes, 1%; insurance 1%; total fixed charges, 15%. The plant 
 cost was made up of: Building, $39,288; real estate, $17,957; 
 oil plant, $38,500 ($85.50 per h.p.) ; electric plant, $9500. The 
 total fixed charges were, therefore, 15% of $105,000, or about 
 $15,700 per year. The manufacturing cost at the station per 
 kw.-hr. figures about half the fixed charges per kw.-hr., the latter 
 -coming to about 1.92 cts. Thus the total cost of producing power 
 In this plant is not far from 2.92 cts. per unit generated. 
 
 Cost of Operating Two Oil Engine Plants. The following data 
 on co.«t of operation of oil engines were abstracted from The Iso- 
 lated Plant, June, 1909 : 
 
 The Baldwin Locomotive Works, Eddyston, Pa., has operated 
 for 4 years ten 125-h.p. Hornsby-Akroyd oil engines (manufac- 
 tured by De La Vergne Machine Co., New York). Six are direct 
 connected to direct current generators and 4 are coui)led to air 
 compressors. These engines operate regularly 24 hrs. per day, 
 6 days and often 7 days per week. 
 
678 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 We are indebted to C. K. Goodell, superintendent of motive 
 power, for the following output figures for the year of 1908: 
 
 Kilowatt hours at switchboard 997,124 
 
 Electrical h.p.-hrs. (equivalent to above) 1,336,622 
 
 Compressor output at receivers (computed) 482,375 
 
 Total output at switchboard and receivers , 1,818,997 
 
 Equivalent brake h.p.-hrs. assuming the efficiency of gen- 
 erators and compressors at 85% 2,139,996 
 
 Load factor, compared with full load 24% 
 
 Cost of above power : 
 
 Fuel oil $7,894.79 
 
 Lubricating oil waste and supplies 1,196.40 
 
 Repairs 1,320.00 
 
 Wages for attendance 3,61 5.82 
 
 Total cost exclusive of fixed charges $14,021.01 
 
 While the guaranteed oil consumption for these engines per 
 brake h.p.-hr. was one lb. at three-quarters to full load, carefully 
 conducted tests showed the consumption at full load to be as low 
 as 0.66 lb. per brake h.p.-hr. 
 
 The above figures apply to the whole power plant. If we as- 
 sume the engines to be chargeable with 80% of the lubricating oil 
 and repairs we can arrive at two important figures : 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Lubricating oil, per 1,000 b. h.p.-hrs 56 
 
 Repairs, per 1,000 b. h.p, hrs 62 
 
 The wages for attendance for the entire power plant were less 
 than 50 cts. per hr. This brings out strongly the low attendance 
 cost of the oil engine. The cost per electrical h.p.-hr., exclusive 
 of fixed charges, was 0.77 .ct. Cost per brake h.p.-hr., 0.66 ct. 
 
 Assuming cost of plant at $120,000 fixed charges for interest 
 and depreciation at 11% = $13,200. 
 
 This brings the total cost of power up to $27,221. Cost per 
 brake h.p.-hr. including fixed charges was 1.27 cts. Cost per 
 kw.-hr. including fixed charges was 2 cts. 
 
 These two figures are not representative, as during 1908 the 
 plant was running greatly below normal. The load factor was 
 24%. Under conditions other than those existing in a panic year, 
 the load factor would be at least 60%, and this would make the 
 cost per brake h.p.-hr. 0.8 ct. and per kw.-hr. 1.26 cts. 
 
 Mr. Goodell informed the writer that in the 4 years the engines 
 had been in operation, they have not yet " ground in " a valve. 
 He considers the oil engines to be fully as reliable as a steam 
 equipment would be. Overloads up to 25% have been carried 
 successfully. 
 
 The Atlantic Hotel & Supply Co., 676 Hudson Street, New York, 
 have one 35 h.p. Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine, belt connected to a 
 15-ton refrigerating machine and circulating pump. We are in- 
 debted to Mr. Colter, the engineer of the plant, for the following 
 figures : 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 679 
 
 Average load (determined from indicator assuming mechanical 
 efficiency from previous tests), 25 h.p., which is practically con- 
 stant. 
 
 Fuel and lubricating oil consumption for one year and the 
 power output is given below : 
 
 Fuel oil, gals 14,988 
 
 Cylinder oil, gals 185 
 
 Engine oil, gals 91 
 
 Hours operated 6,024 
 
 Average hours per day 16.5 
 
 Lbs. fuel oil per brake h.p.-hr 0.75 
 
 COST OF POWER 
 
 Fuel oil, 14.988 gals, at 4i/i cts. (tank wagon lots) $ 637.00 
 
 Cylinder oil, 185 gals, at 50 cts 92.50 
 
 Engine oil, 91 gals, at 35 cts 31.85 
 
 Waste and supplies, about 15.00 
 
 Total for oil and supplies $ 776.35 
 
 Attendance, about $2 per day, should be charged 730.00 
 
 Fixed charges, 121/2% on about $2,500 312.00 
 
 $1,818.35 
 Total output, 6,024 hrs. X 25 h.p. — 150,600 brake h.p.-hrs. 
 
 Cost per brake h.p.-hr 1.2 cts. 
 
 Guaranteed oil consumption, three-quarters to full load per 
 
 brake h.p.-hr 1 lb. 
 
 Actual oil consumption per brake h.p.-hr 0.75 lbs. 
 
 Actual cost of lubricating oil per 1,000 brake h.p.-hrs 83 cts. 
 
 Note. — It is questionable what attendance charge should be 
 made, for the same wages would be paid whether the plant were 
 operated by an oil engine or by a motor, but in the latter case the 
 attendant would have more spare time. The repairs to this plant 
 during the 3 years it has been running are practically negligible. 
 One continuous run of 820 hrs. was made recently. The engine 
 has been absolutely reliable. 
 
 Cost of Power with Diesel Oil Engine. Plant of the Prairie 
 Pebble Phosphate Co., Mulberry, Fla., April, 1911. Rated capacity 
 was 2,400 kws. The costs are for one week. 
 
 Total kilowatt-hours 294.600 
 
 Fuel oil, gallons 24,528 
 
 Fuel oil, gallons per 100 kw.-hrs 8.33 
 
 Engine oil, gallons 447 
 
 Dynamo oil, gallons 1 % 
 
 Cost for 7 days 
 
 Cost of fuel oil $525.60 
 
 Cost of lubricating oils 121.51 
 
 Supplies and repairs 44.32 
 
 Operating labor 335.25 
 
 Total v/eekly expense ' $1,026.68 
 
 Aggregate kilowatt-hours for 4 weeks 1,169,800 
 
 Aggregate expenses for 4 weeks $4,123.25 
 
 Cost of operation per kw.-hr., average 3.525 mills 
 
 Performance of Diesel-Engine Plants in Texas. R. H. Burdick in 
 Electrical World, March 11, 1916, describes eight Diesel-engine 
 
680 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 installations in small electrical generating stations in Texas oper- 
 ated by the Texas Power & Light Company. Tests have been 
 conducted at these plants and operating records kept which show 
 results of performance and operatmg practice in modern plants 
 of this type. In what follows data are presented in considerable 
 detail, giving performance for a recent installation at Paris. Tex. 
 The Paris installation consists of an initial equipment of three 
 Mcintosh & Seymour Diesel engines rated at 500 h.p. each. These 
 units are of the four-cylinder, four-stroke-cycle design operating 
 at 164 r.p.m. and directly connected to three 437-kva., 2300-volt, 
 three-phase, sixty-cycle alternators. Two 35-kw. induction motor- 
 driven sets and one 35-kw. belt-driven exciter set are provided, 
 the latter being driven from the generating unit. Compressors 
 and water-circulating pumps are integral with engines. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. DIESEL-ENGINE STATIONS OPERATED BY 
 TEXAS POWER & LIGHT COMPANY 
 
 Location Number of units Total h.p. 
 
 Paris 3 of 500 h.p. each 1.500 
 
 Palestine 1 of 500 h.p. 500 
 
 Tyler 4 of 225 h.p. each 900 
 
 Taylor 1 of 225 h.p. 225 
 
 Brownw^ood 3 of 225 h p. each 675 
 
 Gainesville 3 of 225 h.p. each 675 
 
 Sweetwater 2 of 225 h.p. each 620 
 
 1 of 170 h.p. 
 
 Big Springs 2 of 225 h.p. each 450 
 
 Total 20 averaging 277 h.p. each 5.545 
 
 Note. — Mclnto.'^h & Seymour engines are used at Paris and Pal- 
 estine, Busch-Sulzer in all other stations. 
 
 The approximate cost of another representative Diesel station 
 erected by the Texas Power & Light Company in the latter part 
 of 1914 at 'Tyler. Tex., is given in Table XXV. This plant in- 
 cludes an initial installation of two second -hand Busch-Sulzer 
 Diesel-engine sets built in 1907-1909, each consisting of two three- 
 cylinder, four-stroke-cycle, 225-h.p. engines directly connected to 
 one 300-kw., 164 r.p.m. three-phase, sixty-cycle, 2300-volt gen- 
 erator. One 17-kw. induction motor-driven exciter set and one 
 20-kw. exciter belt-driven set operated from one of the engines 
 were also provided. The necessary auxiliaries such as air com- 
 pressors, water and oil pump, cooling tower and the like were 
 included. The apparatus at this station is housed in a steel- 
 frame plastered building 74 ft. 5 ins. by 48 ft. by 21 ft. 6 ins. to 
 bottom truss and similar in construction to the Paris plant build- 
 ing. The feeder arrangement at this station provides service at 
 2200-volt. three-phase alternating current for power and lighting; 
 550-volt to 250-volt d.-c. power, and 550-volt d.-c. for railway 
 service. An oil-storage tank of 360 barrels capacity and a cool- 
 ing tower of the atmospheric type containing 4700 sq. ft. of cooling 
 surface are provided. 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 681 
 
 TABLE XXIV. ACTUAL UNIT PRODUCTION COSTS, PARIS 
 
 AND TYLER DIESEL STATIONS, SEPT, 1 TO DEC. 31. 1915 
 
 Paris Tyler 
 
 Station output (m. kw.-hr.) 1.565 499 
 
 Rating of plant (kw.) 1,050 600 
 
 Station factor, % 51 28% 
 
 Total fuel oil (gal. ) 149,072 78,455 
 
 Pounds oil per kw.-hr. output , 0.672 1.100 
 
 B.t.u. per kw.-hr. output 13,100 21,400 
 
 Production costs (mills per kw.-hr.) : 
 
 All labor 1.44 2.24 
 
 Fuel oil 3.07 5.18 
 
 Water 0.09 0.19 
 
 Lubricants and waste 0.04 0.56 
 
 Miscellaneous .supplies and expense 0.10 0.29 
 
 Maintenance of engines 0.04 4.48 
 
 Maintenance of buildings 0.05 0.05 
 
 All other maintenance 0.15 0.61 
 
 Total production cost, mills 4.98 13.60 
 
 TABLE XXV. 
 
 f 
 
 Article 
 
 APPROXIMATE COST 
 STATION 
 
 Quantity 
 Station building, cu. ft.. .100.000 
 Engine and generator 
 
 equipment, e.-h.p 
 
 Electrical equipment, kw. 
 General station equip- 
 ment for entire job . . . 
 Improvements to grounds 
 Construction plant . 
 
 % of cost 
 Overhead expenses* ....$71,439 
 % of cost 
 
 Total cost, kw. . 600 
 
 Total cost, e.-h.p 900 
 
 900 
 600 
 
 .$70,'039 
 
 Unit 
 cost 
 $0,111 
 
 50.00 
 $13.90 
 
 2% 
 
 23.2 
 
 $146.66 
 $97.78 
 
 OF TYLER DIESEL 
 
 Cost Per 
 
 per cent, of 
 kw. total Total ^ 
 $18.50 12.6 $11,146 
 
 74.95 
 13.90 
 
 8.64 
 0.67 
 2.34 
 
 51.1 44,968 
 9.5 8,340 
 
 5.9 
 0.5 
 1.6 
 
 5,185 
 
 400 
 
 1,400 
 
 27.60 18.8 16,561 
 
 100 $88,000 
 
 Overhead expenses consist of the following cumulative percent- 
 (A) General expense, 5%; (B) contingencies, 5%; (C) en- 
 gineering, 10%; (D) interest during construction, 1.5%. 
 
 Labor Item in Diesel-Engine Plants. The question of labor has 
 frequently been considered the " bugbear " of Diesel-engine opera- 
 tion. It has been the writer's experience, however, that any care- 
 ful mechanic well versed in the theory, of internal-combustion- 
 engine operation can handle any Diesel engine satisfactorily with 
 a minimum of difficulty. 
 
 At the Paris plant the force consisted of 1 engineer at $150 
 per month, one assistant engineer at $85, two assistant engineers 
 at $75, one oiler at $60 and one switchboard attendant $75. All 
 were white men. At Tyler there were two white engineers at 
 $85 and $75 and two colored, assistant engineers at $4 5. 
 
 Engine Maintenance. The wide diversity of maintenance costs 
 between the stations is accounted for by the facts that the Paris 
 engines are of more modern design than the Tyler engines, the 
 
682 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 former having been operated but eight months, while the latter 
 have done miscellaneous severe intermittent shop duty over a 
 period of six to seven years prior to the installation at Tyler, 
 and that during the period covered the Tyler equipment was sub- 
 jected to certain extensive repairs and overhauling as a result 
 of neglect prior to and at the time of its first trial in central- 
 station service. 
 
 In this connection it will be of interest to note that upon close 
 investigation of numerous accidents to Diesel engines practically 
 all of them have been traceable to one or two causes — the ne- 
 glect of mechanical features and faulty mechanical design. The 
 chief cause of troubles seems to have been the former, which is the 
 direct outcome of carelessness on the part of operators and which 
 if practiced in the operation of steam or other type of equipment 
 would have been fully as serious. 
 
 The length of life of the Diesel-engine parts has been estimated 
 by those familiar with their operation as follows : Bed and frame, 
 20 years; crank shaft and governor, 10 years; cylinder linings, 6 
 years ; wrist-pin brasses, 5 years ; cylinder heads, 4 years ; pistons, 
 piston pins, valves and gears, 3 years ; piston rings, 1 year. 
 
 Summarized, this information shows a life equivalent to 20 years 
 .with one-third of the original cost expended on maintenance dur- 
 ing that period, which estimate may be considered conservative. 
 
 Operating Expenses of a Hot-Surface Oil Engine Plant in New 
 Mexico. The following is from papers read by A. H. Goldingham 
 
 TABLE XXVI. OPERATING EXPENSES IN A NEW MEXICO 
 HOT-SURFACE OIL ENGINE PLANT 
 
 Estimated output at switchboard, kw-hr 2,469,293 
 
 Estimated output at engine, h.p.-hr 3,996,196 
 
 Oil consumed, gals 278,595 
 
 Oil consumed, lbs 2,061,602 
 
 Oil consumed, gal., per kw.-hr. switchboard 0.113 
 
 Oil con.sumed gal., per h.p.-hr. engine 0.083 
 
 Labor cost operating $7,907.31 
 
 Labor cost operating per kw.-hr 0.0032 
 
 Labor cost operating per h.p.-hr 0.0019 
 
 Labor cost maintenance $2,211.76 
 
 Labor cost maintenance, per kw.-hr 0.0009 
 
 Labor cost maintenance per h.p.-hr 0.0006 
 
 Cost of fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal $46,603.62 
 
 Cost of fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. per kw.-hr 0.0189 
 
 Cost of fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. per h.p.-hr 0.0116 
 
 Cost of lubricating oil at 71 cts. per 1,000 h.p.-hrs. . . $2,838.82 
 
 Cost of lubricating oil per kw.-hr 0.0011 
 
 Cost of lubricating oil per h.p.-hr. . 0.0007 
 
 Cost of repair parts $1,659.50 
 
 Cost of repair parts per kw.-hr 0.0007 
 
 Cost of repair parts per h.p.-hr 0.0004 
 
 Cost of belts $1,792.92 
 
 Co.st of belts per kw.-hr 0.0007 
 
 Cost of belts per h.p.-hr. 0.0005 
 
 Cost of miscellaneous, supplies $1,044.64 
 
 Cost of miscellaneous supplies per kw.-hr 0.0004 
 
 Cost of miscellaneous supplies, per h.p.-hr 0.0003 
 
 Total cost $64,052.57 
 
 Total cost per kw.-hr 0259 
 
 Total- cost per h.p.-hr 0.0160 
 
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 683 
 
 and W. H, Adams, at the Panama-Pacific Exposition meeting of 
 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 
 
 The equipment' described includes four hot-surface, high-economy 
 engines, two of 180 brake h.p., one 250 h.p. and the other at 280 
 h.p., belted or directly connected to the electric generators, operat- 
 ing at an altitude of 7,000 ft. and 90 miles from a railroad station, 
 continuously for 24 hrs. per day. 
 
 The cost of hauling 90 miles is about 1 ct. per lb. The equiva- 
 lent cost with fuel oil at 2y^ cts. per gal. and lubricant at 35 cts. per 
 1000 h.p.-hr. would be $45.70 per h.p. year at the engines and $74.50 
 per kw. year at the switchboard, instead of $136.51 per h.p. year with 
 fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. and lubricant at 71 cts. per 1000 h.p. hr. 
 The figures do not include fixed charges of interest, taxes and insur- 
 ance, and depreciation. 
 
 TABLE XXVII. RELATION OF ITEMS OF EXPENSE TO 
 TOTAL OPERATING COSTS 
 
 Under actual condi- With oil at 2 1-7 cts. 
 
 tions (oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. and lubricant 
 
 Item per gal. and lubricant at 35 cts. per 1000 
 
 at 71 cts. per 1000 brake-h.p.-hr. 
 f brake-h.p.-hr.) Percent. 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Operating labor 12 36 
 
 Maintenance labor 3 10 
 
 Fuel 73 27 
 
 Lubricant 4 6 
 
 Repair parts 3 8 
 
 Belt renewals 3 8 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies. .2 5 
 
 In this comparison interest was assumed at 6%, depreciation at 
 6%, and insurance and taxes at 2%, the first cost being only ap- 
 proximately correct. 
 
 TABLE XXVTTI. ECONOMY TEST OF 300 H.P. ATLAS ENGINE 
 (After C. E. Sargent, consulting engineer). 
 
 R. p. m 174.7 
 
 174.1 
 
 173.1 
 
 173.1 
 
 172.9 
 
 171.9 
 
 171.0 
 
 Brake h.p. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 developed 74.0 
 
 X00.4 
 
 171.4 
 
 229.2 
 
 261.7 
 
 269.4 
 
 331.7 
 
 Fuel, lbs. per • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hr 50.0 
 
 61.3 
 
 81.0 
 
 108.0 
 
 120.4 
 
 128.0 
 
 167.0 
 
 Fuel, lbs. per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. hp.-hr. 0.67 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.472 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.476 
 
 0.503 
 
 Fuel, lbs. per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 kw.-hr. . . 1.04 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.68 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.74 
 
 B.t.u. per b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h.p. per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 minute* .214 
 
 194 
 
 151 
 
 150 
 
 147 
 
 152 
 
 160 
 
 Therm. efC. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of enginef 19.8% 
 
 21.7% 
 
 28.1% 
 
 28.3% 
 
 28.9% 
 
 28.0% 
 
 26.4% 
 
 Cost of fuel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per kw.-hr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at 2 cts. per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gal., cts.. 0.284 
 
 0.254 
 
 0.194 
 
 0.192 
 
 0.185 
 
 0.191 
 
 0.203 
 
 * Calorific value of fuel, 19,150 b.t.u. per lb. 
 t Therm, eff. =2545 H- b.t.u. per b. h.p.-hr. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 Unit Basis for First Cost Estimates of Hydro- Electric Plants. 
 
 Parley Gannett (Engineering Record, Aug. 9, 1911) states that 
 in the case of storage propositions, where a continuous power output 
 is available, and when each unit could, if the demand were uni- 
 form, be worked to its best capacity, uniformly throughout the 
 year, the cost per horse-power installed naturally works out larger 
 than in the case of most uncontrolled river powers, where provision 
 is made for utilizing the average flow of the 7 or 8 months of 
 large discharge, involving the disuse for 4 or 5 months of a con- 
 siderable part of the machinery. Recent examinations of certain 
 large storage propositions have brought this point forcibly to notice, 
 through the large unit first cost as computed on the usual basis. 
 But even in this class of propositions such a basis is misleading 
 on account of the load factor to be considered. 
 
 For example, take a proposed 8.000-h.p. proposition recently re-- 
 ported on, with storage sufficient to maintain this output through- 
 out 24 hours every day of the year. If this plant were to be used 
 to supply power day and night with a load factor approaching 
 100%, the installation would be say 10,000 h.p., and at an assumed 
 cost of $1,500,000 the cost per h.p. installed would be $150, which, 
 according to usual standards, would not indicate an exceptionally 
 good proposition if it involved the use of a variable river. If, how- 
 ever, this plant were to operate the trolley system of a large city, 
 with a load factor of less than 507^, the installation would be, say 
 20,000 h.p. and the corresponding unit cost per horse-power would 
 become about $85, allowing for cost of additional machinery, larger 
 penstocks, etc., which, according to accepted standards, would be 
 quite feasible. As a matter of fact, the proposition is.no better, its 
 output of power no more, and its cost would necessarily be some- 
 what greater on account of the additional machinery, while the 
 interest, maintenance and depreciation charges would be increased. 
 The selling price of the power Avould be greater, however, under the 
 latter conditions, but presumably not in proportion to the reduced 
 unit first cost per h.p. installed. 
 
 What is required of the first-cost unit price is that it shall in- 
 dicate directly the actual cost of something which yields a definite 
 annual income ; something which the whim of the designer cannot 
 greatly alter, something which, in the case of uncontrolled streams, 
 involves the variations of flow and shows conditions at their worst 
 from the income standpoint ; something which will show up a con- 
 
 684 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 685 
 
 stant-power storage proposition in its true worth as against a 
 variable-power, and above all else will require as a prerequisite a 
 fairly definite knowledge of the seasonal variations of flow of the 
 stream to be used. The first cost per installed horse-power has 
 been in some instances misused in connection with large river 
 powers and by reason of large machinery installations this figure 
 has been so reduced as to bring discredit on water power proposi- 
 tions of great -Value. In order to protect good water powers and 
 to prevent poor ones from enticing the money of investors, a more 
 trustworthy unit of first cost would seem advisable, and it is sug- 
 gested that the first cost per kilowatt-hour, as determined from 
 the division of the entire cost by the total number of kilowatt- 
 hours that can be produced in the dryest years, based on actual 
 daily discharge records where available, is to be preferred over the 
 present unit. Thus in the case of a variable river power, this unit 
 cost would represent conditions at their worst and therefore the 
 safest for the intending investor. It would take into account the 
 installation for utilizing secondary power and would also involve 
 the minimum output of constant power. 
 
 For example, consider a proposition examined a few years ago 
 on an uncontrolled river, where a head of 28 ft. is available and 
 4,000 h.p. of turbines was installed at a total cost of something 
 like $700,000. On the present basis this would represent a cost of 
 .$175 per h.p. During the dry season the flow in this river is de- 
 pleted to about 100 sec. -ft. and the available flow for 6 months 
 in the dryest year averages about 200 sec. -ft., giving an available 
 power of about 500 h.p. Assuming the full 4,000 h.p. for 6 months 
 and 500 h.p. for the other 6 months, the total yield of power if, 
 as in this case, the pondage can take care of the load factor varia- 
 tions in a dry season, would be practically 14,500,000 kw.-hrs. 
 Dividing this figure into the $700,000 first cost gives 4.8 cts. per 
 kw.-hr. In other words, it costs 4.8 cts. to install the necessary 
 machinery to produce the average kw.-hr. 
 
 Consider on the other hand the 8,000-h.p. storage proposition 
 above referred to, at a cost of $1,500,000. In this case the power 
 is uniform throughout the year, and the installed machinery is 
 regulated by the probable load factor. The output of this plant is 
 52,500,000 kw.-hr. and the cost per kw.-hr. output in the minimum 
 year is therefore 2.9 cts. 
 
 The above computations indicate that on the horse-power in- 
 stallation basis the variable river power costs $175 per h.p. and 
 the storage proposition costs $150 per h.p. for a 10,000 h.p. in- 
 stallation, or about 90% as much, while on the unit basis herein 
 suggested the former costs 4.8 cts. per kw.-hr. of output and the 
 latter only 2.9 cts. or 607c as much, and evidently represents far 
 more accurately the relative merit of the two propositions. 
 
 Another advantage of this .method of determining the unit first 
 cost is the facility which it affords in determining the relation 
 between revenue and cost. The cost per kv.^-hr. divided into the 
 kw.-hr. price at which power will be or is sold, gives immediately 
 the percentage of gross return on the investment. For example, 
 
686 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in the case of the plant costing 4.8 cts. per kw,-hr. output, at 1 ct. 
 per kw.-hr. selling price, the gross return on the investment would 
 be, in the worst year, with all the power contracted for, 1/4.8, or 
 approximately 20%, and similarly for whatever average price it is 
 anticipated the power can bring. 
 
 Cost of Hydro- Electric Power Plants. W. H. Weston in Engi- 
 neering Magazine, Jan., 1912, says that costs range from $50 to 
 $500 per h.p., many of the larger plants costing more than $150 
 per h.p. The first cost naturally is much more than for steam 
 plants, generally on account of the following items : The water 
 wheels and connections, a small item ; water privileges, which are 
 very expensive, either directly or indirectly ; one or more dams 
 with head- and tail-races, which may in themselves often amount 
 from $25 to $50 per h.p. and more. Foundations for hydro-electric 
 plants generally cost more than for steam plants ; there are also, 
 consequential damages from the flooding of the land above the dam. 
 
 From Mr. Weston's experience, depreciation in water-power plants 
 will range from 1^^ to 2^4% per year, with 2% for a general 
 average and repairs about 1% per year. Considering the hydro- 
 electric power on an economical basis, he calls attention to the 
 following very interesting points where such a plant is to compete 
 against a steam design : 
 
 1. How is the raw material located with reference to the power ; 
 what is the distance to a market, and what are the transportation 
 facilities? 
 
 2. How much power can be obtained? 
 
 3. Will this amount of power be continuous, regular, and re- 
 liable? 
 
 4. What will be the total cost of developing the water power 
 and building the business plant which it is to operate? And what 
 will interest, insurance, taxes, deterioration and repairs amount to? 
 
 5. Is steam necessary for use in the process of manufacture, and 
 to what extent? 
 
 6. Is water power capable of giving sufficient regularity in opera- 
 tion of the machinery? 
 
 7. What will be the cost of transportation of products and of 
 supplies? 
 
 8. What would be the total cost of operating the water power 
 plant at a given place, compared to that of a steam plant erected 
 at a location that would be advantageous? 
 
 9. What are the opportunities for obtaining good employees? 
 Mr. Weston also gives — interest 5%, taxes and insurance 1%, 
 
 depreciation 2%, repairs 1%, making a total of 9% for a water 
 power, as against 13% as a fair figure for the same items in a 
 steam plant. 
 
 Cost of Hydro-Electric Power per Horsepower. In a series of 
 articles in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, October, November, 
 December, 1901, C. D. Gray gives an extended discussion of the 
 cost of power under various conditions, and from these papers the 
 following abstract is made : 
 
 The costs of hydro-electric power plants 9,re widely different, 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 687 
 
 depending upon the location, size, and extent of the hydraulic 
 works needed, length of penstock and flume, and many other things 
 that differ in the various localities. Below are given some figures 
 in regard to the costs of plants. These are low-head plants fitted 
 with turbine wheels, and are used principally for mill or factory 
 purposes. The costs do not include costs of dam unless so specified, 
 but include everything else in the plant. The horse-power basis 
 
 TABLE I. HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANT COSTS PER HORSE- 
 POWER 
 
 Cost per h.-p. Authoritv 
 
 Place delivered Autnority 
 
 Lawrence, Maspsachusetts $ 68.67 1 Manning, A.S.M.C, Vol. 
 
 Manchester, New Hampshire 66.00 1 X, p. 499. 
 
 Lowell, Massachusetts, 13 ft. head. 110.00 ] 
 
 Lov/ell, Massachusetts, 18 ft. head. 57.00 \C. T. Main, A.S.M.E., 
 
 Lawrence, Massachusetts 63.00 [ Vol. XI, p. 108. 
 
 Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1,000 h.p. 67.50 J 
 
 Concord, N. H. (with dam) 57.7.^ ] 
 
 Augusta, Georgia 34.20 I Webber, A.S.M.E., Vol. 
 
 Columbia, South Carolina 37.50 f XVII, p. 41. 
 
 Caratonk Falls, Maine (with dam) 24.(56 J 
 
 Omaha, Nebraska (estimate) 67.33 ^7o9.^^^- ^''^" ^"' ^' 
 
 Zurick (with dam) 100.00 1 Eng. Mag., February, 
 
 Paderna, Italy (with dam) 120.00 I 1900. 
 
 Big Cottonwood, 3,000 h.p 108.25 ^fgge^^'^^' O^^^^jer 1. 
 
 Average without dam (excluding 
 
 Lowell) $100 $53.41 
 
 Average with dam 79.55 
 
 TABLE II. COST OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PER HORSE- 
 POWER-YEAR 
 
 Place h'p^.-y?lr Authority 
 
 T HT 1- 4.4. (P-.or,rt C. T. Main, A.S.M.E., 
 
 Lawrence, Massachusetts $13.70 ^ol XIII p 140 
 
 Canada (lowest) 6.25 ^^ry^^isst"""' ^^^'■''" 
 
 Cottonwood 16.10 ^fi^i^^^^' October 1, 
 
 Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1,000 h.p. 22.62 Manning^^A.S.M.K., Vol. 
 
 Lawrence, Massachusetts, 500 h.p. 19.13 ^xill p^'l'lo''^" ^^^* 
 
 Concord, New Hampshire 8.641 wg^or ' A S M E Vol 
 
 Augusta, Georgia 11.05 \ ^^^VTT tT^i 
 
 Columbia. South Carolina 9.50 J -^v-^-^' i^- '^^■ 
 
 Omaha, Nebraska (estimate) 8.08 ^7o9.^^^" ^°^' ^^^' ^' 
 
 Norway (electrolytic work) 11.25 Ch^em^Jnd., Vol. XXIII, 
 
 Niagara (sold for) 13.00 ^TlTp tss^'^" ^''^" 
 
 Estimate on plant ^5^ ~.^- voT-XV:'p.^92f: 
 
 Average of the above $10.72 
 
688 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 upon which they are figured is the horse-power delivered at the 
 wheel shaft. 
 
 It is probable that the cost of such plants will be from $40 to 
 $60, excluding the cost of dam, but including all other parts; and 
 when the dam is included that it will be from $60 to $100. Webber, 
 in Iron Age, February and March, 1893, says that water-power 
 plants can be put in for $100 per h.p. ; and Stilwell, in American 
 Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. X p. 484, says that the 
 cost may be as low as $65. 
 
 The cost of hydro-electric power per h.p.-yr. is variable, de- 
 pending, as it does, upon the first cost of plant ; and hence no very 
 good average can be foun5. Table II may serve to show the costs 
 in some cases that have been reported. 
 
 Prom Table II it may be seen that the cost per h.p.-yr. is 
 $10.72. Webber gives it as $10 to $12 (Iron Age, February and 
 March, 1893) ; and Conant, in an article in the Street Railway 
 Journal for October, 1898, gives the cost as ranging from $10 to 
 $22.40. A fair average may be taken as varying from $10 to $15. 
 
 Cost of a Subterranean Hydro-Electric Generating Plant in 
 Sweden. The following table given in Electrical World, May 10, 
 1913, covers the generating and transmission equij^ment of the 
 Vesterdalafven Power Company at Mockfjilrd and comprises part 
 of a 65,000-h.p. interconnected system. 
 
 Cost of the entire development was as follows : 
 
 Water rights and real estate $223,640 
 
 Dwellings and enginearing 17,240 
 
 Dam,' flume and tunnels 478,980 
 
 Generating room and switch house 102,320 
 
 Machinery: 
 
 Turbines and governors $ 31,720 
 
 Generators 64,250 
 
 Transformers .' 28,290 
 
 Switch gear 42,360 
 
 166,820 
 
 Distribution system : 
 
 Grangesberg-Mockfjard $112,860 
 
 Nyhammar substation 21.270 
 
 Secondary lines 5,310 
 
 Overhead charges, interest, etc 113,530 
 
 252,970 
 
 $1,241,970 
 
 Cost per horse-power $62.10 
 
 A general idea of the plant development is given by Fig. 1. 
 
 General Conditions. The wheel chambers are cylindrical, 21.3 ft. 
 in diameter, lined to a steel and back filled with concrete and con- 
 tain four double-runner Francis turbines, of 5,100 h.p. at 225 
 r.p.m., rated each, horizontally mounted at the bottom of these 
 chambers, with shaft centers 24 ft. above the lowest tail-race level. 
 
 Two wheels discharge into the same tunnel, about 5,000 ft. long 
 with a 322.8 sq. ft. cross-sectional area. In the roof, at a distance 
 of 164 ft. from the turbines, are large pockets of about 2,000 cu. 
 yds. in volume each. These pockets are interconnected and pro- 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 689 
 
 vided with vertical shafts, to prevent water hammer. The general 
 plant is indicated in Fig-. 2. 
 
 The dam is built on bedrock with steel and concrete piers faced 
 with steel plates on the upstream sides. The spillway crest has an 
 elevation of 76.45 ft. There are 64 wooden gates running in re- 
 
 Fig. 1. Section of dam, generating room and switch house. 
 
 moval steel guides, providing large openings for removal of debris, 
 four steel headgatesi and one large steel sluicegate, which is 19.7 
 ft. wide and 26.3 ft. deep and is divided horizontally into two 
 parts, thus providing for discharge during floods and for draining 
 the pool for repairs of the dam and the screens. This construction 
 avoids a large superstructure and makes available the use of the 
 
 Fig. 2. Location of Mockfjard development. 
 
 lower part of the gate for regulating the water level, this lower 
 part being always free from ice. All gates are operated electrically 
 and also by hand. There is a 6,500-ft. long steel flume for logging, 
 a capacity of 40,000 ft. b.m. of timber per day, and also a salmon 
 way and eel ladders. 
 
690 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Generating equipment comprises four 4,500-kv.a., 6,600-v., three- 
 phase units operating at 225 r.p.m. and 60 cycles. 
 
 The cars are transformed 50,000-volt for the two outgoing lines 
 to Grangesberg and Domnarfvet, 30 miles and 20 miles respectively. 
 On the longer line the conductors are carried on A-frame and 
 square-base towers average distance of 655 ft. On the shorter 
 line the towers are wooden poles 46 ft. long and 9 ins. in diameter, 
 on concrete foundations, with average span of abodt 540 ft. 
 
 Relation of K.W. Cost to Size of Plant in Switzerland and 
 Sweden. H. A. McBride, in a consular report (1912), gives some 
 interesting general data relative to Swiss hydro-electric plants. 
 About 160 hydro-electric plants having a combined capacity of 
 342,000 k.w. have reported their construction costs, showing the 
 following results : 
 
 Size of plant Cost per k.w. 
 
 100-k.w. or less , $467 
 
 100 to 500-k.w 281 
 
 5,000 to 6,000-k.w 177 
 
 20,000 to 30,000-k.w 161 
 
 Average of all 211 
 
 This average of $211 is divided thus: 
 
 Cost per k.w. 
 
 Hj^draulic plant $116 
 
 Electric plant 95 
 
 Total plant $211 
 
 The $95 of electric plant includes the transmission lines and^ 
 probably it includes the distribution lines also. 
 
 In the Swedish hydro-electric plant at Mockfjard water from 
 the river is diverted by a dam and through a discharge tunnel, 
 5,000 ft. long, giving a head of 78 ft. The water wheels and gen- 
 erators are located in subterranean chambers. There are four 
 horizontal turbines of 5,100 h.p. each, at 225 r.p.m., direct con- 
 nected to four generators, each of 4,500 kv.a. (or 3,800 kw. at 
 85% power factor). It is not clear why the water wheels were 
 not given about 25% greater capacity than the rated capacity of 
 the generators instead of being practically the same capacity ; for 
 generators are commonly designed to carry 25% overload for a 
 short time. Assuming the rated capacity of the generators to be 
 15,000 kw., the following was the cost of the plant: 
 
 Cost per k.w. 
 
 Water rights and real estate $14.91 
 
 Dam, flume and tunnels 31.93 
 
 Generating room and switch house 6.82 
 
 Turbines and governors 2.11 
 
 Generators 4.28 
 
 Transformers , 1.89 
 
 Switching apparatus 2.82 
 
 Total $64.76 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 691 
 
 Trahsmission lines % 1.81 
 
 Substation 1.42 
 
 Dwellings and engineering 1.15 
 
 Overhead charges, interest, etc 7.57 
 
 Total cost per k.w $82.77 
 
 This entire plant is very inexpensive, but the low cost, of the 
 tui bines is particularly noteworthy. In America the cost of the 
 waterwheels is commonly about the same as the cost of the gen- 
 erators. 
 
 Cost of Power in Switzerland. The following costs were ab- 
 stracted from the Proceedings of the National Electric Light Asso- 
 ciation. May, 1911 : 
 
 Owing to the development of hydro-electric energy the importa- 
 tion of coal into coalless Switzerland has actually failed to increase 
 over a period of ten years. Among 266 stations there are 173 which 
 had their own power plants and 9 3 which bought energy in bulk 
 from other stations. A large majority of the 173 stations used 
 water power either alone, or together with steam power. The 
 mean first cost invested per kw. is $207 for the water power 
 stations, $265 for combined water power and steam stations and 
 $627 for stations using gas power alone. Out of the 173 stations 
 57 produced direct-current, 85 alternating-current and 31 both 
 direct-current and alternating-current. The total length of the 
 most extended transmission was 410 miles, that of the most ex- 
 tended distributing system 490 miles, both employing overhead 
 wires. The maximum distance over which electrical energy was 
 transmitted was from 60 to 120 miles. The aggregate rating of 
 752 hydraulic turbines and steam engines, and electric-motor gen- 
 erators supplied with energy in bulk from other stations was 
 289,865 h.p., giving a mean of 385 h.p. per generator. 
 
 The possible output of the water power stations of Switzerland 
 had a maximum of 213,000 h.p. and a minimum of 132,870 h.p. at 
 times when the water is low. The rating of the motors and lamps 
 connected to the 173 stations was 206,800 kw. Of these there 
 were 87,300 kws. in motors, 102,800 kws. in incandescent lamps and 
 17,000 kws. in heating apparatus, etc. At the present time figures 
 would be probably about 20% higher than in 1908. The develop- 
 ment of water power in Switzerland began in 1886, and by 1890 
 there were 12 plants with a rating of 40,000 h.p. Of the 152 hydro- 
 electric plants existing in 1907, 65 had steam reserves with an 
 aggregate rating of 50,000 h.p. Other low-pressure water power 
 plants used a water storage system. An excellent method of util- 
 izing all the water is to combine a low-pressure plant with a high- 
 pressure plant with a switch lake. Data given on some of the 
 more important plants, also of the financial returns of fifteen stock 
 companies having a stock capital of more than $200,000 each, show 
 that interest on the capital is paid only after from two to six years. 
 In 1909 the dividend for these fifteen companies varied between 
 3% and 8%, the average being 5.3%. 
 
 The rates in Switzerland for industrial power are thus quoted, 
 
692 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Developing a Water Power at Vallorbe, Switzerland. 
 
 The height of the fall is 229 ft., and 3,000 h.p. is developed. 
 
 The expenditures were divided as follows (see Compressed Air, 
 Jan., 1908). 
 
 Concession and land % 6,000 
 
 Dam 4,000 
 
 Tunnel, etc 10,000 
 
 Pipe line 6,000 
 
 Turbines and sluice-gates 22,000 
 
 Buildings 4,000 
 
 Dynamos 60,000 
 
 Sundries 8,000 
 
 $120,000 
 
 Thus the cost per h.p. was $40. Interest and depreciation at 
 10% make $4 per h.p. per annum. These results are exceptionally- 
 favorable, even for Switzerland ; more usually the cost of installa- 
 tion would average $80 per h.p., and the annual charges $8. 
 
 Cost of Various Hydro- Electric Developments in Ontario. The 
 costs given in Table III are from the 1910 report of the Ontario 
 (Canada) Hydro-Electric Power Commission and are based on 
 engineer's estimates. 
 
 TABLE III. COST PER HORSEPOWER OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC 
 POWER DEVELOPMENT IN ONTARIO 
 
 • ^ 
 
 Z < ^ ^ U 
 
 Location of development 
 
 Healey's Falls, Lower Trent River . . 60 8 000 $675,000 $84.38 
 
 Middle Falls. Lower Trent River . . 30 5.200 475,000 91.37 
 
 Rauney's Fall 35 6.000 425,000 69.67 
 
 Rapids above Glen Miller 18 3,200 350,000 109.38 
 
 Rapids above Trenton 18 3 200 370,000 115.63 
 
 Maitland Riven 80 1.600 325.000 203.12 
 
 Sangeen River 40 1,333 250.000 187.53 
 
 Beaver River (Eugenia Falls) 420 2.267 291,000 128.28 
 
 Severn River (BigChute)2 52 4,000 350,000 87.50 
 
 South River 85 750 150 000 153,33 
 
 St. Lawrence River, Iroquois. Ont. . . 12 1,200 179,000 149.16 
 Mississippi River, High Falls, 
 
 "A" 3 78 2,400 195,000 81.25 
 
 Mississippi River, High Falls, 
 
 "B" 78 1,100 123,000 181.82 
 
 Montreal River, Fountain Falls, 
 
 Ont .. 27 2,400 214.000 89.16 
 
 Dog Lake, Kaministiquia River 4. 347 310 13 676 832,000 61.00 
 
 347 310 6 840 619.700 91,00 
 
 Cameron Rapids 39 ... 16,350 815 000 50.00 
 
 39 ... 8.250 600 000 73.00 
 
 Slate Falls 31 40 3,686 357 600 97.00 
 
 31 40, 1,843 260,000 141.00 
 
 1 Dam rathpr expensive. 2 Head works and canal less expensive 
 than ordinary, .-i With storage development. 4 Including 3,500 ft. 
 of headwater tuni^el. 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 693 
 
 •J3A\OfI ■JU-17 7 co«'5'MM'#t-t-<M«r)COlOWOOOCOtH ia?D C-<3iM< O Ifl CIO 
 
 4SOO iB+Oj;, ^(^^'t^^^yJ^c'oi-HodiM'c^iotoc^ievi ooi ■^•*rH oi oi ^'c-^ 
 
 cq rH c^ N T-i w <M (M cq r-i c<5 ec csi eo e<i w eo9Q (Mwao r-lC<l 
 ««■ 
 
 Suiqo;i.vs.s gggo * '. -iSSS ! ! ! I I i I I ! ! *. ! ! ! .' 
 
 -a9:jui ^^00 • • •<6<6<6 
 
 eocc)«o«oiou3U5iHT-iTH-*<3ioot-coeo 0005 ooo'<*< to Oi eo-^ 
 
 UOllBJlSIunupV' coMcoeot^r^t^ososoieoi-iosoiQOt- ost- lo-^io 10 ■* -^tj* 
 
 00000 oooooeoeo'eccoMM ■*'-*' c<ic^oio 000 
 
 O 
 w 
 
 < 
 
 Eh 
 
 ^< 
 H<1 
 ^3 
 
 2^ 
 
 OH 
 
 H^ 
 
 H^O 
 
 p 
 w 
 o 
 
 m 
 H 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 UOpBlUJOJ (MOTt'O •OOC<JU5QOTj<aiOOOOOU5 OO COWt-I iH o> «o«o 
 
 ■SUBJl UA\.Op-(l81g T-|COC<I«0 -COCOT-ICOC-CCtOCOCOOOt- 00 t>CClW CCI r-\ 0504 
 
 i-*(M-<*e>5ifl ecift thc^ho tH tH (mu» 
 
 UOISSTlUSU-BJJj 
 
 ^f5■r^moo,H•*■^'*|l^)^Hml^3^-«Ol^cl^ 
 
 IU5 O N rHiH 
 
 OC^"5<>l(M03COOU300t^CO< 
 
 uon-Bjauan ««3 <» ^ "^ -; « oo as as i>- ui o. th ^ lo ^i 
 
 • M -M CO fO -n" «0 «D M eg (M (M iH IM <M T-4 tH 
 
 t>- 010 OiMC^I rH iH cr>t^ 
 
 wui 060006 «o irt aiaj 
 
 s9nui 
 
 'UOTSSliUSU^ai. oooino-*iaia5 0ieoir-t-uieoioif5eo laec tocio i« w «ci«? 
 
 ' id aDUBlSin; O*'^'^^ (MOOlOi-HMi-l'Xlt-COW MiM iHi-I'M 'M C- (MtH 
 
 rl'iT r>aTT>riin«a OOlO<M U500 OOOlflOOUSOOrtiO M* O OO O (M <M OO 
 
 U. 4 ^"^4"^'^.'+°^ lOOlMl-HC-lKSlOOXflOt-OC-OOrH O l-H OOO 00 00 O lO 
 
 ptJOJ ^ant^n^£^ i>inoqeo«ci(M(Musc<iTt< oomoowusc^ locq oo<»-* m eo co?h 
 
 (m'tH (m'iH CO Co' CO 
 
 (M-*tH 
 
 UOIlBTT'BaSUl ooooooooo 
 
 rVlIITiaTa 00«5K5000O0. 
 
 ouioinoo oo OOO 
 
 OT-IOrHOUi Olrt OOO 
 
 c-Mt-iMeOr-i eo-i-i ■»*iooc<i 
 
 T-pim 'nsqn ouioooooooooiaousiflo loo ooo 
 
 lt,4U+ IJoaii OCOTfOOKSoOiaiftOOfHOi-Hi-i'* i-i rt< OOO 
 
 JaMOU :HI8S8J<J ^^ocoeo-^ooc^) c-o«ot-<MC-Moo«^] ooe<i ooo<M 
 
 (m'-m'tH rHNCqeo'rH T-TrM 
 
 oooooooooooiftoiaoo oo us 
 
 UOllBindO/T ^^'^'i^ooooooocoocooo oo 
 
 i OS <M__; 
 
 loori OO" 
 
 •^wc^To't-^ 
 
 '0000l>0 t^c> 
 ai CO Oi <n la -^ la^ 
 
 *^ > 
 
 > « (P 
 
 •i-< P.-t-' 
 
 Wd P5^ 
 
 >ai 
 
 
 o oo 
 o «r> u5 
 
 iM OOCO 
 
 
 ^-^ s 
 
 <ueo 
 >o 
 
 1^ 
 
 OJ-^S'^o 
 W -do !-. 
 
 O C<M "l" 
 
 Co '^ 
 
 ^_-00 .«D 
 
 .2o,£3 
 ft 
 
 
 ^2 
 
 ^*<^'ia iS'Wc 
 
 
 faS 
 
 
 -O to rH 
 
 cuP5<h aio 
 
 ra o — o 
 
 
 .&fM0 3<N-ft«'^§c^^0 
 
 >«m5 
 
 O w 
 
694 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Hydro- Electric Power Development for a Large Area in 
 Ontario. As a basis for estimates in demand for power made by 
 a power commission of the Province of Ontario, Canada, in 1910, 
 a full canvass was made by expert assistants in each town and 
 city. Great care was taken to determine whether or not the con- 
 sumer would be likely to adopt electric power if it were available, 
 and a distinction was made in the case of power users who re- 
 quired steam for other puurposes or who had refuse material 
 available as fuel and who consequently would not be apt to make 
 a change in their source of power. 
 
 In estimating the total power to be distributed in each munici- 
 pality it has been arbitrarily assumed that by the time transmis- 
 sion lines could be completed and with power for sale at reasonable 
 figures the total demand which should be provided for would be 
 25% greater than present estimates. On this basis weight of copper 
 was calculated. 
 
 Having determined the cost of 24-hr. power to various munici- 
 palities, its distribution was to be considered separately for cus- 
 tomers in each town or city. Owing to the great amount of labor 
 involved in working out the costs of a system for each small place 
 it was considered sufficient to take typical cases and apply the 
 results more widely. Little variation was found in the cost of 
 distribution in places of moderate size where underground dis- 
 tribution was not necessary. 
 
 In the estimates on which the cost data table has been compiled, 
 depreciation and replacement charges have been figured so as to 
 replace the different classes of equipment in periods ranging from 
 15 to 40 years. The depreciation charges are held as sufficient to 
 serve as a sinking fund. However, in the case of the generating 
 station estimates, the depreciation figures do not include enough 
 to replace the so-called permanent portions of the development 
 such as dams, head works and power-house. If a 40-year sinking 
 fund large enough to cover these items is considered necessary a 
 charge on some $45 to $65 per h.p. of capacity would need to be 
 made. At 3 or 4% a charge of 60 to 80 cts. per annum per h.p. 
 would meet the requirements. The given annual charges include 
 
 TABLE V. CAPITAL COSTS AND ANNUAL CHARGES ON 
 MOTOR INSTALLATIONS, POLYPHASE, 60-CYCLE INDUC- 
 TION MOTORS. 
 
 Capac- 
 ity. 
 H.p. 
 5 
 10 
 15 
 25 
 35 
 50 
 75 
 100 
 150 
 200 
 
 Capital 
 cost 
 
 per h.p. 
 installed 
 $39.00 
 36.00 
 30.00 
 Z5 00 
 22.00 
 20.00 
 19.00 
 17.00 
 15.00 
 14.00 
 
 Inter- 
 est 
 5% 
 $3.95 
 1.80 
 1.50. 
 1.25 
 1.10 
 1.00 
 .95 
 .85 
 .75 
 .70 
 
 Annual charge; 
 
 Deprecia- Oil, care 
 
 tion and 
 
 repairs 6< 
 
 $2 34 
 
 2.16 
 
 1.80 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.02^ 
 
 .90 
 
 .84 
 
 and op- 
 eration 
 $4.00 
 3.00 
 2.50 
 2.00 
 1.75 
 1.50 
 1.25 
 1.00 
 .80 
 .70 
 
 Total per 
 
 hi), per 
 
 annum 
 
 $8.29 
 
 6.96 
 
 5.80 
 
 4.75 
 
 4.17 
 
 3.70 
 
 3.34 
 
 2.87 
 
 2.45 
 
 2.24 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 695 
 
 depreciation, repairs and interest during construction. The trans- 
 formation charges include municipal taxes on building, insurance, 
 depreciation and 20% for engineering contingencies and interest 
 during construction. 
 
 By combining the above costs with those given in Table V the 
 total charge per h.p.-yr. is obtained. 
 
 Cost of Hydro- Electric Plants at Niagara Falls. Table VI is from 
 the 1910 report 6f the Ontario Hydro-electric Commission and is 
 based on engineers' estimates. 
 
 TABLE VI. COST OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS AT 
 NIAGARA FALLS 
 
 2 4 -hour power capacity 
 50,000 h.p. 75,000 h.p. 100,000 h.p. 
 develop- develop- develop- 
 ment ment ment 
 
 Tunnel tail races $1,250,000 $1,250,000 $1,250,000 
 
 Headworks and canal 450,000 450,000 450.000 
 
 Wheel pit 500.000 700.000 700.000 
 
 Power hou.se 300,000 450.000 600.000 
 
 Hydraulic equipment 1,080,000 144,000 1,980,000 
 
 Electrical equipment 760,000 910,000 1,400,000 
 
 Transformer station and equip- 
 ment 350.000 525,000 700,000 
 
 Office building and machine shop 100,000 100,000 100,000 
 
 Miscellaneous 75,000 75,000 75,000 
 
 $4,865,000 $5,900,000 $7,255,000 
 Engineering and contingencies.. 485.000 590,000 725.000 
 
 $5,350,000 $6,490,000 $7,980,000 
 Interest, 2 years at 4% 436,580 529,584 651.168 
 
 Total capital co.st $5,786,560 $7,019,584 $8,631,168 
 
 Per horse power $114 $94 $86 
 
 Yearly Cost of Power, Chicago Sanitary District System. (After 
 Frank Koester in Engineering Magazine.) The following table 
 gives the distribution of yearly cost in 1910. 
 
 Capacity of plant, horsepower 15,500 
 
 Total cost of development and transmission $3,500,000 
 
 FIXED CHARGES 
 
 Interest on investment at 4% $140,000.00 
 
 Taxes on real estate, buildings, etc 7,200.00 
 
 Depreciation of buildings at 1% 3,650.00 
 
 Depreciation on water wheels at 2% 2,027.32 
 
 Depreciation on generators at 2% 1,824.60 
 
 Depreciation on pole lines at 3% 2,020.50 
 
 Depreciation on other electrical appliances at 3%. ... 3,995 52 
 
 Total fixed charge $161,137.94 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSES 
 
 Power and substation labor' $ 63,'240.00 
 
 Repairs to machinery and buildings 3,700.00 
 
 Incidental expenses 1,200.00 
 
 Operating Lawrence Avenue pumping station 43,960.00 
 
696 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Operating 39th Avenue pumping station 120,380.00 
 
 Interest on investment 39th St. pumping station 15,599.76 
 
 Total operating expense $248,079.76 
 
 Total cost to sanitary district $409,217.70 
 
 Cost per h.p. per annum $26.40 
 
 Cost of a 1,400 Kilowatt Hydro- Electric Plant. The data from 
 which the following summary of costs of a small plant at Eugene, 
 Ore., were prepared appeared in Electrical World, May 17, 1913, 
 and Dec. 10, 1912. 
 
 Total Per k.w. 
 
 1. Intake $ 3,971 $ 2.84 
 
 2. Canal 90.171 64.40 
 
 3. Headgates 4,514 3.22 
 
 4. Flume, forebay and wasteway 10.604 7.57 
 
 5. Water wheels and pressure pipe lines 25.656 183 5 
 
 6. Electric apparatus 22,097 15.78 
 
 7. Station buildings and grounds 9,299 6.64 
 
 Total of items 1 to 7 $166,312 $118.80 
 
 8. Transmission line 12.164 8.69 
 
 9. Substation apparatus 5,631 4.02 
 
 10. Substation building and grounds 813 .58 
 
 11. Real estate and right of way 12,164 8.69 
 
 12. Miscellaneous 112 .08 
 
 Total of items 1 to 12 $197,196 $140.86 
 
 13. Di.stribution lines and transformers 22,419 16.01 
 
 14. Meters 9,724 6.94 
 
 15. Series street lighting 17.676 12.63 
 
 16. Ornamental posts 7,324 5.23 
 
 Total of items 1 to 16 ...$254,339 $181.67 
 
 17. Supervision 4,755 3.40 
 
 18. General office 4.417 3.16 
 
 19. Interest during construction, and bond ex- 
 
 pense 20,755 14.82 
 
 Grand total $284,266 $203.05 
 
 Note: Item 2 includes excessive charges of $26,257, due to fail- 
 ure of contractor and court costs. 
 
 Water from the McKenzie River is diverted through a canal 
 19.400 ft. long and wooden flume 650 ft. long, designed to carry 
 500 second-ft. The canal headgates are of concrete, located in the 
 canal 350 ft. below the intake. 
 
 There are two wood stave pressure pipes, 8 ft. diam., each 100 
 ft. long, bedded on timber cradles 12 ft. apart. Just before enter- 
 ing the power station the stave pipe connects to a 96-in. riveted 
 steel Y which carries the water to the turbine of each unit. 
 
 There are two turbines, each 1,200 h.p., Pelton Francis type, 
 direct connected to Fort Wayne generators. Each generator is 
 rated at 705 kw. or 945 h.p. This difference between turbine and 
 generator rating indicates that the generators are designed to 
 carry "a 25% overload for a short time (probably two hours) with- 
 out excessive heating. The generators are 2.300-volt, 60-cycle, 
 3-phase, 300 r.p.m. 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 697 
 
 The hydraulic head on the shaft centers of the wheels is 28 ft. 
 and the draft head is 15 ft., giving a total head of 43 ft. 
 
 The power plant building has a concrete foundation and floor, 
 and corrugated iron walls on a wooden frame. 
 
 The current is stepped up to 23,000 volts, by means of one bank 
 of three kws. "Westinghouse oil-insulated, water-cooled units, delta 
 connected, which have a 50% overload capacity for an hour with- 
 out undue heating. A fourth spare unit is provided. 
 
 The transmission line to Eugene is 15.5 miles long, and its cost 
 was not quite $800 per mile, including a telephone line. Cedar 
 poles are spaced 40 to the mile. Three wires of No. 4 copper are 
 mounted on Pittsburgh single-petticoat porcelain insulators, 8 ins., 
 40,000 volts. There is one river crossing of 670 ft. span. 
 
 The substation transformers are installed in a part of the city 
 water-filtration plant building, which accounts for the low cost of 
 " substation buildings." The current is stepped down to 2,300 
 volts, and carried in three-phase circuits. Line transformers de- 
 liver the current at 230 and 115 volts. 
 
 Thirty miles of streets are lighted with incandescents. On Dec. 
 1, 1911, only two customers were being served; but 1,001 custom- 
 ers were served Dec. 1, 1912. 
 
 Cost of a 36,000 K.W. Low Head Plant in Massachusetts. In 
 the plant of the Turners Falls Power and Electric Co., at Montague 
 City, Mass., described in Electrical World, Apr. 21, 1917, owing to 
 the low head, normally 55 ft., and the size of the units, low-speed 
 machinery was adopted. The wheels are a little out of the ordinary, 
 being of a single-runner type with vertical shafts bearing the usual 
 
 ■" ." 'Wasfeyyau t^---.,) r 
 
 Fig. 3. Canal and pond for Turners Falls hydro-electric plant. 
 
 umbrella type generator adopted for such construction. The gen- 
 erating units, despite their low speed, were of moderate cost, figur- 
 ing only $6.31 per kw, on full rating, while the total development 
 cost only $65 per h.p., an unusually low figure for this part of 
 the country. The hydroelectric development was decided on after 
 a thorough examination of the possibilities of the situation, ending 
 in the present scheme of enlarging and extending an earlier canal 
 from the old site, utilizing the water at one point as far as possible 
 and thereby avoiding a second dam across the river. 
 
 Canal, Fig. 3, is about 2i/4 miles long from the mouth of the 
 canal to the power plant. Through the town of Turners Falls it 
 runs through rock, but beyond this town the canal broadens out 
 
698 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 into a rock-lined earth cut. At the lower end the canal widens 
 still further into a forebay pond about 600 ft. wide on the average 
 and 3,000 ft. long. For the last one-fifth of a mile to the gen- 
 erating station the canal narrows doAvn to 150 ft. wide by 25 ft. 
 deep. A 5-ft. drainage conduit extends from the head of the pond 
 to the river. Because of the size of the pond sudden increases in 
 load can be handled without drawing down the head to a trouble- 
 some degree before the headgates can be opened. 
 
 On the river side of the canal just above the power house is a 
 wasteway, with a concrete spillway and ten 12-ft. by 10-ft. wooden 
 gates mounted between piers. The gates are operated by hoists 
 mounted on a concrete platform extending across the piers, the 
 hoists being gear-driven through a common shaft by a 50-h.p. 
 motor controlled from the generating station switchboard. The 
 wasteway has sufficient capacity to handle the full canal flow. 
 In addition it can be used for the removal of ice from the canal, 
 in unwatering the latter, and in case of a sudden dropping of the 
 load can be used as a spillway. The discharge of the wasteway 
 follows a gentle slope to the river, a part of the incline containing 
 a rocky bed which breaks up the rush of water. 
 
 The Power House is 235 ft. long and 85 ft. wide, the long axis 
 being parallel to the river and making an angle of 20 degs. with 
 the center line of the canal. The head wall of the station contains 
 racks and headgates, the latter being raised by an electric gantry 
 crane running on the head wall. The crane is equipped with a 
 mechanical trash collect :>r by which the racks can be cleared, the 
 trash then being dumped into a special sluice behind the racks and 
 discharged into the river by flushing parallel to the canal and 
 thence into a canal drain at the lower end of the power house. 
 
 Behind the racks are concrete piers separating the intake into 
 three penstock chambers per generating unit. The headgates are 
 made of steel and operate on a chain of rulers which enables them 
 to close by force of gravity. Strictly speaking, there are.no pen- 
 stocks in the plant, there being instead merely passages in the con- 
 crete foundation of the building leading to the various wheels. 
 These passages curve downward from the headgates to the scroll 
 cases of the wheels, the latter being set 18 ft. above low water. 
 At the scroll cases the 3 passages from each group of 3 gates 
 merge into one. Water enters each wheel through 20 openings 
 around the circumference, each opening having a wicket gate con- 
 trolled by the governing mechanism. The head on the wheels is 
 normally 55 ft. The penstocks, scroll cases and draft tubes are 
 faced with smooth concrete 12 ins. thick of a slightly different 
 mixture from that used for the station foundations. Foundations 
 are new completed for all six units. 
 
 The Wheels are of the veitical, single-runner type, rated at 
 9,700 h.p. each, built by the I. P. Morris Company of Philadelphia, 
 which also furnished the governors. Kingsbury thrust bearings 
 are provided for these units. Each wheel drives a 7.500-kv.a. 
 6,600-volt, three-phase, revolving-field alternating at a normal speed 
 of 97.3 r.p.m., the system frequency being 60 cycles. On top of 
 
HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 699 
 
 the main shaft of each unit is mounted a 95-kw. exciter, designed 
 for 250-volt service to save copper. The governors are connected 
 with the shafts by flexible gear drive, which is said to eliminate 
 the troubles sometimes arising from belting. A spare motor- 
 driven exciter rated at 100 kws. is installed in a fireproof com- 
 partment off the operating room for emergency service. Each gen- 
 erating unit has a lignum-vitae guide bearing lubricated by water 
 received from the scroll case through a Terry cloth filter. The 
 
 Fig. 4. Cross section of Turners Falls hydro-electric plant. 
 
 total area of the water passages leading from each set of gates 
 to each unit is about 15 ft. by 27 ft. Single-runner vertical units 
 were selected because they offer no obstruction to the flow of 
 water out of the wheel and because they are reliable and simple. 
 The tailwater is discharged into the river 22 ft. below the sur- 
 face. The ultimate rated capacity of the plant (36,000 kw.) is 
 based on a river flow of 10,000 second-feet. 
 
 A water-cooling coil is installed in each thrust bearing, consisting 
 of 145 ft. of 1%-in. copper tubing per unit. Fifteen gallons of oil 
 per min. is required to carry off the heat developed in each thrust 
 bearing. The water for the auxiliary cooling service can be taken 
 either from the canal or from the municipal supply. In the center 
 of the station over the tail-race is a pump pit containing motor- 
 
700 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 driven oil and water pumps for lubricating and governor-operating 
 service. The governor pumps are horizontal centrifugal units 
 rated at 325 gals, per min. each against a 525-ft. head, and are 
 directly driven by 100-h.p. induction motors, which are auto- 
 matically started and stopped from a.c. motor control panels. 
 Two sump tanks are installed in the pump pit and are cross-con- 
 nected by a suction main from which the pump suctions are taken. 
 The pumps discharge into a pressure main, to which is connected 
 a pair of accumulator tanks mounted on the operating-room floor, 
 the governor-operating cylinders being fed from the pressure mains 
 and discharging into a receiving main leading back to the sump 
 tanks. 
 
 Each accumulator tank is divided into two sections by a dia- 
 phragm, the upper section being open to the air and connected 
 with the discharge main by a relief pipe. Once a week compressed 
 air is forced into the governor-operating system to provide an air 
 system at the top of the lower section of each accumulator tank. 
 The air is furnished by a compressor driven by a 5-h.p. motor, a 
 0.5-in. supply pipe being run to each accumulator tank. A hand- 
 operated pump is installed on the operating-room floor to enable 
 the gates to be closed if the water supply is interrupted. Five 
 sets of wooden block brakes actuated by compressed air are pro- 
 vided on each generator as they may be forced against the rotor- 
 rim flange when it is desired to bring a machine to a standstill 
 promptly. Waterwheels were furnished with a rating of 9,700 h.p. 
 in order to insure the driving of the generators at full load even 
 under back-water conditions. The stream flow past the plant is 
 extremely variable, ranging from about 1,800 second-ft. minimum 
 to 100,000 second-ft. maximum during a year. At times the head 
 is cut down from 5 ft. to 15 ft. below normal. As shown by 
 tests these generators will readily deliver 7.000 kw. e^ch at 80% 
 power factor. According to a statement made by President Philip 
 Cabott of the Turners Falls company before the Massachusetts Gas 
 & Electric Light Commission, the unit cost of the total development 
 figures $65 per h.p. 
 
 Estimated Cost per Kilowatt for two new plants of the Mt. 
 Whitney Power Co. in California are given in Table VII. 
 
 TABLE VII. COST PER KILLOWATT FOR MT. WHITNEY 
 PLANTS 
 
 Plant Plant A Plant B 
 
 Capacity in kilowatts 3,500 6,000 
 
 Construction equipment, etc $10.00 $ 5.00 
 
 Power house and miscellaneous buildings. 7.10 4.00 
 
 Electrical equipment . 11.40 10 80 
 
 Water-wheels, governors, etc 8.55 6.65 
 
 pressure pipe line 9.15 13.35 
 
 Regulating reservoir 12.90 7.50 
 
 Flow lines 45.50 38.90 
 
 Diverting dams 1.85 1.50 
 
 Total cost per kilowatt $105.45 $87.70 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 701 
 
 Plant A 
 Power house : 
 
 Reinforced concrete, fireproof. 
 
 Electrical equipment : 
 2-1,750 k.w. generators 
 4-1,250 k,w. transformers 
 2-55 k.w. exciters. 
 
 3-switchboard equipment, aluminum 
 cell arresters. 
 
 Water-wheel equipment : 
 
 Pelton wheels and governor, impulse 
 type wheels. 
 
 Head: 
 776 ft. 
 
 Pressure pipes : 
 
 2',680 ft. of 36 in. to 42 in. steel pipe. 
 5/8 in. to 3/16 in. thick. 
 
 Regulating reservoir : 
 
 Excavated solid rock 60,000 cu. yds. 
 
 Flow line conduits : 
 
 3,300 ft. concrete flume 6x3 ft., 6,008 
 ft. 
 
 6 X 4 ft. concrete lined ditch ; 1,085 ft. 
 
 48 in. X 14 in. steel pipe siphon prac- 
 tically complete. 
 
 Plant B 
 Same as A. 
 
 2-3,000 k.w. generators. 
 4-2,000 k.w. transformers. 
 
 Same as A. 
 
 Same as A. 
 
 1,325 ft. 
 
 3,300 ft. long about same 
 size as A. 
 
 No plans. 
 
 2 miles to carry 100 sec- 
 f t ; 6y. miles to carry 
 50 sec. -ft. ; 700 ft. of 
 tunnel. 
 
 Plans not complete. 
 
 Cost of Hydraulic Power Plants of from 100 to 1,000 H.P., and 
 for 10 to 40 Ft. Heads. We have prepared the following formulae 
 for determining the approximate cost of hydro-electric power plants 
 based upon a table of estimated costs given by Charles T. Main in 
 a paper on the " Values of Water Powers " (A. S. M. E., Dec, 1904). 
 By using the formulae the approximate cost of hydraulic operated 
 plants, having horizontal turbines, steel penstocks and walled tail- 
 races (the cost of dam and buildings are not included) may be 
 obtained. 
 
 In the formulae, P = horse power of installation ; H =: head in 
 feet ; L — distance from feeder head to end of tail-race. 
 p 
 Where — gives a value of from 10 to 100; cost in dollars = 
 H 
 
 Where 
 
 H 
 
 gives a 
 
 625 (0.9 + 0.001 L) — 
 H 
 
 
 value of from 2 to 
 
 10. 
 
 P 
 
 700 (0.9 + 0.001 L) — 
 H 
 
 
 For example, consider a plant where, P 
 H- 30. 
 
 P 500 
 
 — - = 16.66. 
 
 H 30 
 
 Cost - 625 (0.9 + 0.4) 16.66 = $13,550. 
 
 cost in dollars =: 
 
 500 h.p. L - 400 ft. 
 
702 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Take another case where, P = 200 h.p. ; L. = 200 ft. ; H =: 40 ft. 
 P 200 
 
 H ~ 40 ~ 
 Cost = 700 (0.9 + 0.2) 5 = $3,850. 
 
 Cost of 38,000 Kilowatt Development of Yellow Creek, Cal. See 
 
 the report to the Oro Electric Corporation in Chapter I, under the 
 subject headed " The Calculation of Rates for Electric Current." 
 
 Costs pep Kilowatt of Installed Capacity, with no " overhead 
 charges," for the Nevada-California Power Co., are given in Table 
 VIII, as determined by the authors in 1913. 
 
 Costs per Kilowatt of Four Hydro-Electric Plants. Table 
 IX gives costs per kw. for various plants on the Pacific Coast 
 appraised by the authors in 1911 and 1912. "Physical costs" only 
 are given, the table including no charges for engineering, business 
 management, legal and general expense and interest during con- 
 struction or brokerage fees. 
 
 Comparison of Kilowatt Cost of Steam and Hydro-Electric 
 Power. M. D. Pratt (Engineering News, June 10, 1909) gives the 
 following comparison of operating costs taken from his experience 
 with the plant. 
 
 COST OF STEAM PLANT 
 
 Per kw. 
 
 Permanent : Ground foundations, buildings, wiring, water 
 supply, coal bunkers, incidentals, engineering and super- 
 intendence $ 35 
 
 Boilers, boiler setting, piping, pumps, condensers, heaters, 
 coal and ash handling apparatus, smoke stack and flues, 
 economizers 55 
 
 Engines, cranes 30 
 
 Generators, switchboard and other elec. app. , 30 
 
 Total cost per kw. installed $150 
 
 COST OF OPERATtON FN ELEC. RY. STEAM PLANT 
 
 These are actual figures made by a plant built by the v/riter and 
 are the t-esults from a full year's operation as shown by the books 
 of the owner : 
 
 Cts. per kw.-hr. 
 on switch-board 
 
 Wages 0.1610 
 
 Fuel 0.3080 
 
 Water 0.0197 
 
 Oil and waste 0.0141 
 
 Maintenance of boiler plant 0.0210 
 
 Maintenance of electric plant .\ . 0.0065 
 
 Sundry sui)plies 0.0117 
 
 Total cost 0.5420 
 
 Interest and Depreciation Charges : 
 
 5% interest on total cost of plant 150 X .05 = $7.50 
 
 3% Depreciation on Item (a) 35 X .03 = 1.05 
 
 10% Depreciation on Item (b) 55 X .10 =:: 5.50 
 
 7.5% Depreciation on Items (c) and (d) 60 X .075 - 4.50 
 
 $18.55 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 703 
 
 P4 
 O 
 
 h 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 > 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 < 
 
 «5 
 
 ^^ 
 
 <o 
 
 m 
 2; 
 
 03 
 
 iHOtHOUS 
 
 : o ■<*< eo in 00 as U5 c- M 
 
 *-''^ 1-5 'us '«3ti5 'rH 
 
 
 th 050coeo 
 
 CMiHtH 
 
 
 S. th" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 J 
 
 m 
 
 X 
 
 i^'i^".S 
 
 in 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 02 
 
 §§ 
 
 inOrJH^ 
 
 ^0 
 
 C<) 
 
 Oi 
 
 a 
 
 ■* 
 
 in-'^ 
 
 MH'* 00 
 
 •* 
 
 
 .0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4)^ 
 
 J^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 r-\ 
 
 rH 
 
 . -^o 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 ft ft 
 ^ ,d 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 .0 .0 
 
 J. 
 
 CD 
 
 4J-M d 
 
 twin 
 
 
 in 
 
 s§s- 
 
 Sc.G'l^ 
 
 100 c 
 
 C^H-t^ 
 
 10 r 
 
 iH 
 
 aco ft^.,- 
 
 ft : 
 
 rt,^ 
 
 IC 
 
 rH CO i^l -* ,0 r^ C 
 
 --; 
 
 U U 
 
 ^' 
 
 X! 
 
 •r; s 
 
 
 <1 <1 
 
 Pelton, 
 
 450 
 Pelton. 
 
 400 
 Doble. 
 
 400 
 
 Sturgis, 
 
 bard 
 
 Allis C 
 
 500 
 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 (M 
 
 ■ C<I tH 
 
 C<1 
 
 eo 
 
 woPi 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 ft 
 
 t 
 
 s 
 
 5: 
 
 
 
 5 
 ^^g 
 
 il^-.S 
 
 in 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 CO '^ 
 
 
 
 ooinoo^ticD 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 fo'o 
 
 , /' 
 
 ■!*<=> 
 
 COM"* 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 rHOo 
 
 OiO 
 
 «D 
 
 
 d' 
 
 CO 
 
 
 e<r 
 
 ^^ 
 
 0" 
 
 (m" 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 u 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,Cl<t-l 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^ 5 
 ^ o 
 
 
 
 
 a2 
 
 ^ 0^ ft'O a 
 
 d ;3 ^ 0) L^ 
 
 S-i,—ir'0 
 
 OiO 
 
 o 
 
 5a^ 
 
 o '^ 
 
 a) 1; .ni 
 
 ■^ C c3 rt o" (u 
 
 •Sa-ft-a^ ^ 
 
 "rt fc. t> ►i w m 
 
 ^ I? ^ ^ w m 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 2P 
 
 fl 
 
 ri 
 
 «S C 
 
 ji; 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^•,::j 
 
 O) 
 
 O) 
 
 fi2 
 
 > 
 
 i=! 
 
 03^ 
 
 
 
 a; 
 
 fc. s 
 
 
 
 
 
 EhM 
 
704 
 
 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 C ■» o c^j th 
 
 00 1^ aic<ioo^_^,H 
 
 t£o6 
 050 
 
 -w^'^^'cri 'sit--''* 'od"^ i-ir-i M 
 
 03 i^ 
 
 ^Tt-,HOl^-oooc- 
 
 H L«i-HO? OOW CO t- 
 
 
 &9- 
 
 ^-00 
 
 t-10U5 00 
 
 t-U5 
 
 C] 00 
 
 ^ OoO'-I^OOOo5•«*^,Ol^<^^S^O -lOCiC^ -00 lOC^ rn 
 C^§3^uicO 't-h "c0^5^ "oJtHM ' ' *C5 '(6 1-1 * CO 
 !^00 '««■ ^ '-" '-' 
 
 o "-' 
 
 — ^ M n - ^ -i:! 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 c > 
 o o 
 
 
 O iD 
 
 ■ ■ O) 
 
 ■ • O 
 
 • • c 
 
 ; ^;o 
 
 • p ^ 
 
 • o . 
 
 ■■•^'^ 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 m be 
 
 tuDC 
 
 
 aw 
 
 be 
 
 
 d 3J 
 
 g>,!l5: 
 
 ?„.-:; 0) ? OI 
 
 
 o c 
 •" o 
 
 bflC C <U g >. 
 
 ^•3 ai ^ "" 'j' 
 
 (U OJ 0) <D OJ c ■S, 
 
 c c c c c c 
 rt .2 .£ .£ .£ '- .£ 
 
 O K K K K ^ K 
 K K K K -^ B2 
 
 c c c c j-c 
 
 cj ct K rtii c5 
 U ^ U U 01 u 
 
 K P. 
 St. 
 
 rt o 
 o o 
 
 cc 
 
 .2 P. 
 a 
 
 1 a 
 
 2 £ 
 
HYDRp-ELECTRIC PLANTS 705 
 
 This should be multiplied by total kw. capacity of plant and 
 divided by total annual output in kw.-hrs., which in the case of 
 the plant mentioned would be : 
 
 18.55 X 2,000 
 
 ; = 4640 
 
 8,000,000 X 100 
 
 Total cost of steam power 1.0060 cts. 
 
 COST WITH HYDRO-ELECTPaC POWER 
 
 Static and rotary transformers would have to be in- 
 stalled to convert the high tension alternating 
 current furnished by the hydro-electric plant to 
 600 volt d. c. together with necessary switch- 
 board at a cost of $37.50 per kw. 
 
 (No charge is made for housing or floor space.) 
 
 The cost of operation then becomes : 
 
 Wages, reduced one-half 0.0805 cts. 
 
 Fuel, reduced 90% — the remaining 10% 
 being required to maintain steam plant 
 in operative condition and to operate 
 
 it in short periods 0.0308 
 
 Water reduced 90% 0.0020 
 
 Oil and waste, 75%, 0035 
 
 Maintenance V2 0.0137 
 
 Sundries V2 0.0058 
 
 Int. and Dep'n on steam plant 0.4640 
 
 .6003 cts. 
 
 To this should be added interest and depreciation 
 on new apparatus, at 5 -j- 7.5 - 12.5%, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 37.50 X .125 X 2,000 
 
 = .1172 cts. 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 .7175 cts. 
 Cost for all steam operation 1.0060 cts. 
 
 Difference .2885 
 
 Owing to the 25% loss in transformation as shown in the case 
 of two plants in the writer's knowledge this difference must be 
 decreased in proportion, and we have : 
 
 .2885 
 
 = 0.216 Cts. 
 
 1.33 
 
 as the highest price that could be paid under the given con- 
 ditions, without any profit on the transaction. 
 
 Total Efficiency of Generation and Transmission of Hydro-Elec- 
 tric Plant of the McCall Ferry Power Company according to a 
 letter in Engineering News, June 10, 1909, from the chief engineer, 
 Gary T. Hutchinson, is as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Turbines 80 
 
 Electric generators 93 
 
 Transformers 97 
 
 Transmission 92 
 
 Transformers 97 
 
 Secondary transmission 90 
 
 Total efficiency 56 
 
706 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Fig. 5 shows the h.p. resulting from various heads and dis- 
 charges. The commercial h.p. is that deliverable to customers at 
 a distance and equals the product of the efficiencies given. The 
 rated capacity of this plant is 75,000 kw. at 50% efficiency. The 
 flow required in the Susquehanna River at this point to deliver 
 75,000 kw. at a load factor of 50% c6rresponds to an average 
 flow of 37,500 kw. : at a 53-ft. head and 66.5% efficiency the flow 
 required is 12,500 sec-ft. 
 
 GorTii nercial HP ZCCO | 
 V/Otgr HP -^:C3 
 
 Fig. 5. Diagram showing horsepower resulting from given heads 
 and discharges. 
 
 Analysis of Efficiencies of Component Parts of a Hydro-Electric 
 System. Table X gives an outline of the losses and efficiencies, 
 for 1911, of the Seattle Municipal Light and Power plant by J. D. 
 Ross in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 5, 1912. 
 
 The flgures given are believed to approximate closely the true 
 values, since great care was taken in the measurements made by 
 frequently calibrated instruments. All results have been checked 
 in as many ways as possible. 
 
 The Seattle plant is a hydro-electric system delivering water to 
 two 1,500 k.w. Pelton units and tAvo 5,000 k.w. turbine units under 
 600 ft. head through two pipes approximately 3% miles long, one of 
 which is 67% and the other 49 ins. inside diam. The current is 
 transmitted at 60,000 volts through 2 lines to Seattle, a distance 
 of 38.7 miles, and is there distributed at 15.000 and 2,400 volts for 
 use by approximately 20,000 customers and for the city street 
 lighting. 
 
 Data Necessary in Purcliasing Water Wlieel. The following data 
 should be furnished manufacturers to aid in the economical design 
 of water wheels : 
 
 1. Number of units. 
 
 2. Horse power of water wheels, 
 
 3. Kw. of generator. 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 707 
 
 TABLE X. LOSSES AND EFFICIENCIES SEATTLE 
 
 MUNICIPAL LIGHT AND POWER PLANT USH) 
 
 ^ g 3 
 
 ^i s| -| - of ^ 
 
 l| l| fi I li 1^ 
 
 0^ < «< CL, (1| Oi 
 
 Genefatmg sfSteAi 54.4 6.009 2,739 45.6 45.6 75.3 
 
 PenstockK 97.7 6.009 139 2.3 2.3 3.8 
 
 Generating station 55.7 5.870 2,600 44.3 43.2 71.5 
 
 Water wheels 60.7 5.795 2,277 30.3 37.9 62.6 
 
 Generators 93.5 3.518 227 6.5 3.8 6.2 
 
 Exciters 76 76 ... 1.3 2.1 
 
 Station lights and control 20 20 ... 0.3 0.5 
 
 Transmission system 91.6 3,270 276 8.4 4.6 7.6 
 
 Step up transformers 96.1 3.270 129 3.9 2.1 3.5 
 
 Transmission lines 98.6 3,141 43 1.4 0.7 1.2 
 
 Step-down tra^isformers. . 96,6 3,098 104 3.4 1.7 2.9 
 
 Distributing system 79.2 2,994 622 20.8 10.3 17.1 
 
 City substation 98.7 2,994 40 1.3 0.7 1.1 
 
 S. Lights and control 37 37 1.2 0.6 1.0 
 
 Switchboard meters 3 ... 0.1 0.1 
 
 15.000-volt system 92 5 1,323 90 7.5 1.6 2.7 
 
 15.000-volt lines 99.2 1.323 11 0.8 0.2 0.3 
 
 15.000-volt transformers.. 93.2 1,312 88 68 1.5 2.4 
 
 Series street lights 86.3 305 42 13.7 0.7 1.2 
 
 Transformers 95.0 305 15 5.0 0.3 0,4 
 
 Series circuits 90.8 290 27 9.2 0.4 7 
 
 Cluster street lights 79.1 170 35 20.9 0.6 1.0 
 
 Cluster transformers 87,8 170 21 12.2 0,3 0,6 
 
 Underground cables 90 1 149 15 9.9 0.2 0.4 
 
 2,400-volt commercial system 76.2 1,612 357 23.8 5.9 9.8 
 
 Feeder regulators 98.6 1.612 20 1.4 0.3 0.6 
 
 Primary feeders 96.0 1.592 60 4.0 1.0 1.6 
 
 Transformers 88:8 1.532 159 11.2 2.6 4.4 
 
 Secondaries 92.9 1.373 89 7.1 1.5 2.5 
 
 Customero' meters 97.6 1.284 29 2.4 0,5 0.8 
 
 Direct-current system 35.7 77 49 64.2 0.8 1.4 
 
 Motor-gi^nerator 38.0 77 48 62.0 0.8 1.3 
 
 D-c. circuits 95.0 29 1 5.0 
 
 Customers' meters 98.8 28 ... 1.2 
 
 Kw.-hr. Average 
 
 Summary: Total power loss 31.852,500 3.636 kw. 
 
 Total power delivered to cus- 
 tomers 17,304,900 1,975 kw. 
 
 Total power delivered to street 
 
 lamps 3,481,600 398 kw. 
 
 Total delivered power 20,786,500 2,373 kw. 
 
 Over-all efficiency, 39.5% 
 
 [1 kw.-hr. at the customers' premises requires 1.364 gals. (5.163 
 
 liters) of water from Cedar Lake at average head of 590 ft. (179.8 
 m.)]. 
 
 Total head. 
 
 Open flume or closed flume. 
 
 If closed flume, what is number of pipes? 
 
 What kind of pipe? — wooden stave, steel or concrete? 
 
 Diameter of pipes. 
 
708 MECHAXIC\-iL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 9. Effective head (unless design of all-water passages to and from 
 wheel is left to water wheel manufacturer). 
 
 10. Head water elevation. 
 
 11. Floor elevation. 
 
 12. Tail water elevation. 
 
 13. Head variable, if so, what is normal operating head? 
 
 14. If head is variable, what is the range of variation? 
 
 15. How important is power and economy at lowest head? 
 
 16. Speed of generator, if already decided. 
 
 17. If speed of generator is not decided, name speeds which seem to 
 purchaser most desirable and ask recommendations. 
 
 18. Flywheel effect of generator. 
 
 19. Wliat speed regulation is desired for different load changes? 
 
 20. Will units run in parallel with other plants? If so, give gen- 
 eral characteristics of such plants. 
 
 21. If running in parallel with other plants, can these plants be 
 used to regulate the system? 
 
 22. What is the character of load factor? , 
 
 23. What is the nature of water (silty or clear)? 
 
 24. What date shipment of material is desired. 
 
 25. Advise if it is expected that manufacturer shall furnish gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 26. Give sketches of powder plant site. 
 
 27. Give information as to what is to be expected in the way of 
 guarantees. 
 
 28. Give any other information which you think would influence the 
 design of the wheel. 
 
 The following data should be supplied to the purchaser by the 
 manufacturer : 
 
 1. A check of the calculation on effective head. 
 
 2. Horse power guarantee at normal head. 
 
 3. Guarantee at other lieads, if head is variable. 
 
 4. Speed guarantee, including runaway speed. 
 
 5. Recommendation for best speed if same has not been deter- 
 mined. 
 
 6. Speed regulation guarantees. 
 
 7. Efficiency guarantees at full load. % load and V2 load. 
 
 8. Point of greatest efficiency of wheel and value of same in per 
 cent. 
 
 9. Efficiency guarantees for available head conditions. 
 
 10. If water wheel manufacturer furnishes governor, give informa- 
 tion as to the type, make, power required to operate same, also 
 w^hat variation in speed will not be exceeded before the gov- 
 ernor will begin to readjust gates to meet a change of load, 
 either gradual or sudden. 
 
 In what time will governor completely open or close gates? 
 Within how many seconds will the speed of the unit be re- 
 stored to normal? 
 
 11. Complete drawings showing machinery proposed. 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 709 
 
 12. Complete description of machinery proposed. 
 
 13. Guarantee of durability. 
 
 14. Guarantee of shipment. 
 
 Cost of Water Wheels and Turbines. The data and costs in 
 
 Table XI have been obtained in connection with some of the 
 appraisal work of the authors. 
 
 TABLE XI. HORIZONTAL IMPULSE WHEELS 
 
 Rating in Head in Rev. per Weight in Costf.o.b. 
 
 h.p. ft. min. lbs. factory 
 
 100 365 600 3,500 $ 515 
 
 100 1080 625 3,200 727 
 
 1,500 ■ 1080 450 : 3,100 
 
 2,500 275 300 49,100 11,232 
 
 2,850 a 1080 400 24,000 5,557 
 
 2,850 h 1080 400 26,000 5,361 
 
 2,900 365 400 ..... 9,949 
 
 3,000 & 1,080 400 5,530 
 
 3,200 c 175 200 17,100 
 
 3,530 900 300 29,000 4,955 
 
 3,600 900 300 6,699 
 
 3,600 & 900 300 40,000 6,960 
 
 3,600 h 900 300 47,500 8,605 
 
 3,600 & 900 300 67.000 8,900 
 
 5,000 450 225 126,000 19,250 
 
 (a) Includes governor, probable weight 5,000 lbs., cost $1,400. 
 (&) Includes governor and gate valve. 
 (c) Includes governor and exciter wheel. 
 
 TABLE XIL TURBINE WHEELS 
 
 No. 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 Rating in 
 
 h.p. 
 . . 1,000 
 . . 1,200 
 . . 3.000 
 . . 3,200 
 ..10,000 
 ..10,000 
 
 Head in 
 
 ft. 
 
 40 
 
 85 
 365 
 
 90 
 275 
 275 
 
 Rev. per 
 min. 
 300 
 360 
 400 
 277 
 300 
 360 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 52,250 
 
 380,000 
 
 Cost f.o.b. 
 
 factory 
 
 $10,500 
 
 12.000 
 
 8,230 
 
 22,500 
 
 32,410 
 
 28,000 
 
 1. Parallel flow, double runner, horizontal — price includes 700 
 kw. generator, exciter and governor complete. 
 
 2. Parallel flow, double runner — price includes 2 12-in. 875 r.p.m., 
 exciter wheels, 2 tachometers, 2 48-ft. steel draft tubes and 2 gov- 
 ernors. 
 
 3. Price includes : 
 
 Probable segregation 
 Item of cost 
 
 Turbine, 43 in $4,740 
 
 Governor 1,400 
 
 Relief valve 200 
 
 Tachometer ; 80 
 
 2 gauges 10 
 
 Draft tube 50 
 
 36 in. gate valve . 1,750 
 
 Total cost .,,,, $8,230 
 
710 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 4. This was a very complete installation — price includes turbine 
 with governor, relief valve, bursting plate, etc., tachometer, spare 
 runner, etc. 
 
 5. Radial inflow type, axial discharge. 
 
 6. Francis type horizontal, price includes turbine, governor, etc., 
 complete. The cost of installation of this unit is as follows : 
 
 Turbine, complete $28,000 
 
 Foundations 1,260 
 
 Installation 1,395 
 
 Extras 2,725 
 
 Freight 3,460 
 
 Total cost $36,840 
 
 Cost of Horizontal Water- Wheels. Table XIII is from Bull. No. 
 5 (Feb., 1916), Office of State Engineer, Salem, Oregon. The costs 
 are estimates based on figures obtained from two independent 
 manufacturers of hydraulic machinery, and are for water wheels, 
 in place, not including relief valves or other accessories, but do 
 include freight charges and cost of installation. 
 
 TABLE XIII. 
 
 COST OF WAH 
 
 rER-WHEELS, 
 
 IN PLACE 
 
 Horse poAver 
 
 Head in feet 
 
 R.p.m. 
 
 Cost erected 
 
 1.085 
 
 32 
 
 200 
 
 $10,000 
 
 2.187 
 
 58 
 
 300 
 
 10,500 
 
 2.320 
 
 60 
 
 360 
 
 10,400 
 
 2,650 
 
 65 
 
 360 
 
 11,000 
 
 2,860 
 
 70 
 
 360 
 
 15,000 
 
 3,470 
 
 90 
 
 400 
 
 10.400 
 
 3,500 
 
 87 
 
 400 
 
 10.000 
 
 3.760 
 
 92 
 
 400 
 
 12.000 
 
 4,090 
 
 100 
 
 514 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,091 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 25.000 
 
 4,300 
 
 135 
 
 450 
 
 21,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 132 
 
 450 
 
 22,000 
 
 4,720 
 
 138 
 
 450 
 
 22,000 
 
 4,736 
 
 140 
 
 450 
 
 22.000 
 
 5,400 
 
 132 
 
 400 
 
 22,300 
 
 6.496 
 
 210 
 
 400 
 
 24.000 
 
 7,091 
 
 280 
 
 400- 
 
 27,000 
 
 9,091 
 
 400 
 
 360 
 
 31.000 
 
 Steel Penstocks — Water Pressure and Weight. R. A. Wright 
 (Engineering News, Feb. 10, 1910) gives the following data: 
 
 Determination of Size. The principal factors may be outlined 
 as follows: (1) the quantity of wiater to be delivered to the 
 power plant, (2) the head on different sections of the penstock. 
 (3) the length of the penstock, (4) the nature of the application 
 of the power, (5) accessibility of the site, (6) the design fixed 
 upon for the wheels. 
 
 The first factor is determined, usually, as one of the flr.=;t essen- 
 tials of the installation, being one of the factors upon which de- 
 pends the feasibility of the development. Whether the water to 
 be delivered is conveyed by one or more penstocks depends on the 
 quantity of water and the number of units fixed upori for the 
 
HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 711 
 
 plant, but this is a question belonging to power-house design and 
 will not be discuHsed here. The quantity of water having been 
 settled, the size of penstock is fixed by the speed at which it is 
 allowed to run, and this is a point, as stated above, which it is 
 impossible to determine by rule in all cases. A high speed entails 
 considerable loss of head by friction with a consequent low effi- 
 ciency of the installation as a whole, while a slow speed brings 
 increased cost of construction of the penstock itself. Considering 
 the head, we find that under a low head it is advisable to use a 
 slow speed because the loss of a foot of head by friction is a much 
 larger percentage of the total head than where a high head is 
 available, and because the spouting velocity, and consequently the 
 rim speed of the turbines, being low, the water should enter the 
 wheel case at a comparatively low speed in order to secure the 
 best efficiency. Under a high head a slight friction head is not a 
 serious matter and it is better for the efficiency of the wheels that 
 the water should reach them at rather a high speed. In the na- 
 ture of things, however, it is usually found that longer penstocks 
 are required for high heads than for low. 
 
 Of course, the friction head increases with the length of penstock 
 so that lower speeds are more desirable for long penstocks than 
 for short ones, other things being equal. The question of water- 
 hammer becomes increasingly important with long penstocks and 
 high speeds because of the great mass of water to be accelerated 
 and retarded, and the greater fluctuations of speed. This may be 
 taken care of to a certain extent by the use of stand-pipes or 
 relief-valves, and certainly one or the other of these should be 
 provided on all except the shortest penstocks, but it is well, also, 
 to keep down the speed of water, this being the surest safeguard 
 of all. Consideration should be given to the conditions under 
 which the plant is to operate — pulp grinders, for instance, run 
 continuously at full gate-opening, while turbines supplying power 
 for electric railways may operate normally at half gate, only 
 opening up wide to take care of an occasional, momentary peak 
 load. In the latter case it would be fair to base the calculation 
 of friction losses on the quantity of water consumed by the wheels 
 at half gate. 
 
 The use to which the power is to be applied also has a bearing 
 on this question. For instance an electric power plant, being sub- 
 ject to possible variations from full load to no load instantaneously, 
 would require a larger penstock than a plant using the same quan- 
 tity of water for driving a number of wheels connected to separate 
 machines, as pulp grinders, and not subject to an instantaneous 
 variation of so large a percentage of the whole power. The type 
 of wheels used may also have a certain influence in the determina- 
 tion of the most desirable speed of water since impulse wheels re- 
 quire a high speed at the entrance to the wheel while reaction 
 wheels require a lower speed. With the scroll-case type of turbine 
 the water enters at nearly the speed of the entrance edge of the 
 wheel buckets or at such a fraction thereof as will be determined 
 by the .shape and arrangement of the guide vanes, while such a 
 
712 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 speed in the case of a cylindrical wheel-case, inclosing, say. a pair 
 of wheels with central draft-tube and the inlet at the side of the 
 case, would set up such eddies as might bring down the efficiency 
 of the plant 50%. Of course it is always possible to change the 
 speed of the water gradually by means of a tapered section of 
 penstock just before entering the wheel -case, either increasing or 
 decreasing the speed to suit the requirements of the wheel, but 
 care must be taken to make such changes very gradual or else an 
 appreciable loss of head will result. Though it is impossible to 
 fix general rules for definite speeds, it is worth while to classify 
 the speeds as characterized by common practice. Low speeds are 
 from 2 to 8 ft. per sec. ; medium speeds are from 8 to 12 ft. per 
 sec. ; and high from 12 to 25 ft. per. sec. 
 
 The accessibility of the site may be an important factor in 
 determining the size of the penstock since the erection and trans- 
 portation of a large penstock may amount to a prohibitive figure, 
 while the probable market for power may be only a fraction of 
 the available power, in which case it would be economy to permit 
 a considerable loss of head by friction in order to reduce the size 
 of the penstock. It will be seen that for the intelligent solution 
 of this problem we require complete information as to the flow 
 of the stream, topography of the site, probable market for the 
 power and financial resources of the promoters. These questions, 
 of course, are fundamental to the proper solution of any power 
 proposition and will have been carefully investigated as the very 
 first step in determining the feasibility of the development. 
 
 A little thought leads to the conclusion that, in a given water 
 power development, the most economical size of pipe to install 
 is the one with which the annual costs and charges plus the value 
 of the energy loss in the pipe is a minimum. The size of pipe that 
 most nearly meets this requirement can be found by cut and try 
 methods, though there is a wide latitude of interpretations to the 
 expression " value of energy loss in the pipe." When the head 
 and quantity of water are fixed within narrow limits, as noted 
 before, the solution is greatly simplified. Mr. A. L. Adams, M. 
 Am. Soc. C. E., in a paper before the American Society of Civil 
 Engineers, June 5^ 1907, demonstrated: 
 
 " That pipe fulfills the requirements of greatest economy wherein 
 the value of the energy lost in frictional resistance equals four- 
 tenths (0.4) of the annual cost of the pipe." 
 
 Many have claimed that this rule has no rigid application, but 
 it is logical and in absence of other determining factors should be 
 employed. 
 
 In a hydro-electric plant it may be advisable to compute the size 
 of pipe in this way at the prevailing load, developing the peak load 
 at smaller efficiency. Some designers, on the other hand, may 
 prefer to establish the size of pipe from an estimate of the value 
 of the all-day losses or the average efficiency of operation. In the 
 rare cases when a waterfall is being developed to obtain the great- 
 est possible power and where the cost of installation therefore has 
 only a minor bearing. Mr. Adams' rule cannot have any bearing. 
 
HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS 713 
 
 Table XTV gives the friction heads corresponding to different 
 speeds of water in penstocks from 2 to 10 ft. in diameter and 100 
 ft. long, based on a formula given by Merriman. 
 
 TABLE XIV. FRICTION HEADS OF RIVETED STEEL. PIPES 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 Velocity in 
 
 ft. per sec. 
 
 
 
 in. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 .348 
 
 .488 
 
 .645 
 
 .820 
 
 1.005 
 
 1.200 
 
 1.405 
 
 1.620 
 
 30 
 
 .264 
 
 .369 
 
 .485 
 
 .615 
 
 .755 
 
 .900 
 
 1.050 
 
 1.210 
 
 36 
 
 .2 07 
 
 .288 
 
 .380 
 
 .480 
 
 .585 
 
 .700 
 
 .812 
 
 .930 
 
 42 
 
 .166 
 
 .231 
 
 .304 
 
 .383 
 
 .466 
 
 .575 
 
 .670 
 
 .765 
 
 48 
 
 .136 
 
 .189 
 
 .256 
 
 .322 
 
 .3^2 
 
 .485 
 
 .562 
 
 .640 
 
 54 
 
 .121 
 
 .167 
 
 .228 
 
 .286 
 
 .348 
 
 .430 
 
 .500 
 
 .570 
 
 60 
 
 .104 
 
 .151 
 
 .198 
 
 .258 
 
 .314 
 
 .388 
 
 .450 
 
 .515 
 
 66 
 
 .095 
 
 .132 
 
 .180 
 
 .225 
 
 .274 
 
 .339 
 
 .392 
 
 .467 
 
 72 
 
 .084 
 
 .121 
 
 .164 
 
 .207 
 
 .251 
 
 .297 
 
 .360 
 
 .410 
 
 81 
 
 .069 
 
 .100 
 
 .130 
 
 .170 
 
 .206 
 
 .255 
 
 .295 
 
 • . . 
 
 96 
 
 .058 
 
 .084 
 
 .109 
 
 .142 
 
 .181 
 
 .213 
 
 
 
 108 
 
 .050 
 
 .071 
 
 .098 
 
 .121 
 
 .153 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 120 
 
 .043 
 
 .061 
 
 .084 
 
 .109 
 
 
 
 
 
 L V2 V2 
 
 Formula (Merriman) Hf = f — — = 1.55 / — for I. = 100 
 
 D 2g 1) 
 
 Where Hf = loss of head due to friction, L = length of pipe in 
 feet. D = diameter of pipe in feet. V — velocity of water in ft. per 
 sec, g = acceleration of gravity, / = a factor. 
 
 In calculating the above table / was taken 10% greater than the 
 values recommended by Merriman to allow for the roughness due 
 to rivet heads and for the lap of circumferential seams. 
 
 Weight of Penstock. Having fixed on the size of penstock we 
 next come to the question of fixing the thickness of the shell to 
 suit the pressure of water to be carried. Most penstocks are con- 
 structed of tank-steel plates having a tensile strength of from 
 45,000 to 50,0000 lbs. per sq. in., although for high heads and 
 speeds it is advisable to use the best quality of flange steel. The 
 riveting is done in all styles, single and double-riveted joints being 
 most common, although triple-riveted lap and butt joints are oc- 
 casionally used. A number of considerations affect the choice of 
 a style of riveting, but it would be safe to say that a majority 
 of penstocks are built with all lap seams, the circumferential 
 seams being single-riveted and the longitudinal double-riveted. 
 This gives a sufficient excess of strength in the circumferential 
 seams to provide for the bending between supports. For heads 
 under 30 ft. all seams may be single riveted, making the spacing 
 in the circumferential seams as great as consistent with securing 
 a tight joint. 
 
 Having selected a style of riveting and quality of plate, thus 
 determining the unit strength, w^e are able to fix on the thickness 
 of plate to be used. In this connection Table XV will be of use, 
 giving the maximum heads under which various thicknesses of 
 plates should be used with various diameters of penstock. The 
 table is based on a fiber stress of about 7,500 lbs. per sq. in. under 
 static load, which is an average figure for ordinary conditions, 
 
714 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The table gives values for both shigle and double riveting based 
 on nominal efncienoies of 60 and 70% respectively. Where more 
 efTicient seams or other values of fiber stress are used the head can 
 be obtained by simple propoftion. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XV. 
 
 MAXIMUM 
 
 PERMISSIBLE 
 
 HEADS ON S 
 
 TE 
 
 
 
 
 PENSTOCKS 
 
 IN FEET 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGLE KIVETBD EFP^ICIENCY eO^'c 
 
 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ins. 
 
 3/l6 
 
 % 
 
 ^/IG 
 
 % 
 
 7i6 
 
 % 
 
 9/16 
 
 % 
 
 30 
 
 130 
 
 175 
 
 220 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 110 
 
 145 
 
 180 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 90 
 
 125 
 
 155 
 
 185 
 
 220 
 
 .' ! '. 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 80 
 
 110 
 
 135 
 
 165 
 
 190 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 120 
 
 145 
 
 170 
 
 190 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 85 
 
 110 
 
 130 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 135 
 
 160 
 
 180 
 
 
 72 
 
 55 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 110 
 
 125 
 
 145 
 
 165 
 
 
 78 
 
 . 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 135 
 
 150 ] 
 
 65 
 
 84 
 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 95 
 
 110 
 
 125 
 
 140 ] 
 
 L55 
 
 96 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 110 
 
 120 ] 
 
 135 
 
 108 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 95 
 
 110 ] 
 
 L20 
 
 
 
 DOUBLE RIVETED 
 
 EFFICIENCY 70% 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 130 
 
 170 
 
 210 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 110 
 
 145 
 
 180 
 
 215 
 
 260 
 
 '. \ '. 
 
 '. '. '. 
 
 
 48 
 
 95 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 
 190 
 
 220 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 80 
 
 110 
 
 140 
 
 170 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 . 
 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 130 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 205 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 185 
 
 210 
 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 90 
 
 110 
 
 130 
 
 145 
 
 170 
 
 195 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 180 1 
 
 L95 
 
 84 
 
 . 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 110 
 
 130 
 
 145 
 
 165 1 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 115 
 
 130 
 
 145 1 
 
 60 
 
 108 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 115 
 
 130 1 
 
 40 
 
 Table XVI gives the weight of the penstock per lineal foot for 
 either single or double riveting and for various thicknesses of 
 plates. In figuring this table allowance was made for the cir- 
 cumferential seams, based on the most usual width of plates for 
 the different thicknesses, also for over-weight of plates according 
 
 TABLE XVI. WEIGHTS PER FOOT STEEL PENSTOCKS 
 (EMPTY) 
 
 SINGLE RIVETED 
 
 Diam. 
 
 3/i« in. 
 
 y4in. 
 
 •yiein. 
 
 % in. 
 
 Vic, in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 9/i6 in 
 
 ins. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PL 
 
 30 
 
 72 
 
 97 
 
 116 
 
 137 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 86 
 
 116 
 
 140 
 
 165 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 42 
 
 99 
 
 135 
 
 163 
 
 192 
 
 222 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 113 
 
 154 
 
 187 
 
 220 
 
 254 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 127 
 
 172 
 
 210 
 
 248 
 
 286 
 
 326 
 
 
 60 
 
 141 
 
 191 
 
 234 
 
 276 
 
 318 
 
 361 
 
 . 
 
 66 
 
 155 
 
 210 
 
 257 
 
 304 
 
 350 
 
 396 
 
 448 
 
 72 
 
 170 
 
 228 
 
 280 
 
 332 
 
 382 
 
 432 
 
 488 
 
 78 
 
 
 246 
 
 303 
 
 360 
 
 414 
 
 467 
 
 527 
 
 84 
 
 . 
 
 264 
 
 326 
 
 388 
 
 446 
 
 502 
 
 566 
 
 96 
 
 '. '. '. 
 
 
 373 
 
 444 
 
 510 
 
 573 
 
 646 
 
 108 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 420 
 
 500 
 
 575 
 
 645 
 
 726 
 
HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 715 
 
 DOUBLE RIVETED 
 
 Diiim. 
 
 Vie, in. 
 
 V-L in. 
 
 -'Aq in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 i/ifi in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 9/i6 in 
 
 liis. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 PI. 
 
 36 
 
 8 'J 
 
 120 
 
 145 
 
 171 
 
 
 
 
 4 2 
 
 luii 
 
 i;}y 
 
 168 
 
 198 
 
 229 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 117 
 
 159 
 
 193 
 
 227 
 
 261 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 i;ji 
 
 177 
 
 216 
 
 255 
 
 294 
 
 335 
 
 
 60 
 
 146 
 
 196 
 
 241 
 
 284 
 
 326 
 
 370 
 
 
 66 
 
 160 
 
 216 
 
 263 
 
 312 
 
 359 
 
 406 
 
 458 
 
 72 
 
 175 
 
 234 
 
 287 
 
 340 
 
 391 
 
 442 
 
 499 
 
 78 
 
 . . . 
 
 253 
 
 310 
 
 369 
 
 424 
 
 478 
 
 538 
 
 84 
 
 
 270 
 
 334 
 
 398 
 
 456 
 
 504 
 
 578 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 381 
 
 454 
 
 520 
 
 585 
 
 659 
 
 108 
 
 
 
 428 
 
 511 
 
 586 
 
 658 
 
 740 
 
 to the manufacturers' standard table of allowances. The weights 
 given in the table, of course, are for straight pipe — for bends 
 an additional allowance should be made, up to 10% for bends of 
 short radius, on account of the narrow plates used which makes 
 the allowance for circumferential seams an increasing factor. 
 
 Cost of Steel Penstocks. The following unit costs were taken 
 from Bull. No. 5, Oflice of the State Engineer, Salem, Oregon 
 (1916). 
 
 Steel Work: Price per pound 
 
 Item. , f.o.b. works 
 
 Trash racks (Bessemer steel rails) . . . , .$0 015 
 
 Fabrication and placing . , , 0.02 
 
 Freight and haulage (depending on locality) 
 
 Total (not including freight and haulage) $0,035 
 
 Penstocks : 
 
 Steel plate $0.0175 
 
 Fabrication and placing $0.0325-$0.0375) 0350 
 
 Freight and haulage (depending on locality) 
 
 Total (not including freight and haulage) $0.0525 
 
 Cost of Concrete Penstock. The following is from " Design and 
 Con.struction of Hydro-Electric Plants " by R. C. Beardsley. 
 
 At Charles City, la., Mr. Beardsley built a reinforced concrete 
 penstock, 1,100 ft. long with a cai)acity of 18,000 cu. ft. per min. 
 The section was a compound arch 12 ft. 3 ins. in height and 20 ft. 
 wide at bottom. The concrete was 8 ins. thick at center of top 
 and bottom arches and about 2 ft. thick at the haunches, the 
 whole being heavily reinforced. Forms were constructed in sec- 
 tions 12 ft. long with 5 ribs per section. The 15 sections built 
 made 182 ft. of penstock. The outer forms were made of 2-in. sur- 
 faced plank and 6- to 8-in. posts, on 4-ft. centers. 
 
 The costs for the first 182 ft. with penstock resting on solid 
 rock were as follows : 
 
 Cost per lin. ft. 
 
 Forms, inner, making $ .67 
 
 Forms, erecting ; . -57 
 
 Lumber at $30 per M. ft. b.m 1.08 
 
 Steel, placing and hauling .22 
 
 Cement, 5 1/2 sacks 3.00 
 
 Dowel pins 09 
 
716 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost per lin. ft. 
 
 Sand,, 0.61 cubic yards at $0.50 30 
 
 Labor, mixing, tamping, etc. 83 
 
 Concreting rock bottom, labor 80 
 
 Washing inside 07 
 
 $7.63 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 Concrete, labor, mixing, tamping, etc $ 1.36 
 
 Concrete, cement, 7 sacks 4.40 
 
 (Concrete, sand, 1 cu, yd , 50 
 
 Forms, making and erecting 2.00 
 
 Forms, lumber 1.80 
 
 Steel, 90 Ib.s. at $1.83 1.65 
 
 Steel, placing 28 
 
 Steel, hauling .13 
 
 $12.12 
 Placing steel per lb. (upper and lower) ........ $.003 
 
 The second 182 ft. of penstock co.st $10.75 per cu. yd. As each 
 182 ft. section was built the cost of the inner forms was decreased. 
 Also, the men became accustomed to the work and did it more 
 cheaply. 
 
 Where the penstock rested on piers, the cost was as follows : 
 
 Cost per lin. ft. 
 
 Part above bottom $5.80 
 
 Bottom 2.1 7 
 
 Piers 18 in. thick and average height 30 in 1.00 
 
 $8.97 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 . Forms, lumber $0.36 
 
 Forms, labor at $2 27 
 
 Concrete, labor , 1.14 
 
 Concrete, cement, 6 sacks 3.30 
 
 Sand ,50 
 
 Steel, placing 27 
 
 Steel, 175 lbs. at $1.83 3.2Q 
 
 $9.04 
 
 In the above work the bottom was difficult to get to, hence the 
 high cost of labor on concrete. 
 
 The intake at the inlet of penstock contained 59 cu. yds of con- 
 crete and 5,000 lbs. steel. The form work was quite difficult, con- 
 sisting of floor, beams and 10 -in. walls. 
 The cost of concrete was as follows : 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 Forms, labor $1.00 
 
 Forms, lumber 0.00 
 
 Concrete, labor 78 
 
 Concrete, cement, 7 sacks 3.85 
 
 Concrete, sand 50 
 
 Concrete, washing and trimming 15 
 
 Steel. 85 lbs. at $1.83 1.56 
 
 Steel placing, 26 
 
 $8.10 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 717 
 
 A reinforced concrete abutment 140 ft. long and about 16 ft. 
 high cost per yard, as follows: 
 
 Cost per cu. yd. 
 
 Forms, labor 96 
 
 Forms, removing and trimming 23 
 
 Forms, lumber ( old) 00 
 
 Steel. 45 lbs »2 
 
 Steel, placing 10 
 
 Cement .... - 
 
 . 3.30 
 $5.41 
 
 Cost of Concrete and Brick Penstocks. R. C. Beardsley pre- 
 pared the diagram for the cost per ft. of circular concrete pen- 
 stocks .shown in Fig. 6. He states that the data from which this 
 curve is plotted were derived largely from " Cost Data," by H. P. 
 Gillette, but also from numerous other sources. 
 
 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 
 
 Cost per n. of Penstock 
 Dollars 
 
 Fig. 6. Cost of concrete penstocks. 
 
 Reinforcing costs about three cents per pound for steel, and 0.5 
 cent to install. The concrete costs about $10 per cubic yard, in- 
 cluding every item. Round rods cost about $34 per ton. 
 
 He further states that brick penstocks require 570 bricks per 
 cu. yd and 1.25 bbls. of cement. A mason should lay 1,200 bricks 
 in 8 hrs. at a cost of $6. 
 
 Wood-Stave Pipe for Water-Power Penstocks. Robert E. Horton 
 (Engineering Record. March 20, 1915) states that as a result of ex- 
 perience gained, in some cases through costly failures, the conditions 
 under which durability of wood-stave pipe may be be.'^t attained are 
 now well known. The staves must be completely and continuously 
 saturated; they should be perfectly sound and of the very best 
 material ; and the fibers of the wood must not be injured or broken 
 in erecting the pipe by over-cinching or drawing the bands too 
 tight. 
 
 Experience has shown that in the majority of cases, except where 
 
718 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 pipe is buried in soils containing acids or strongly alkaline ground- 
 waters, the durability of the bands is greater than that of the 
 staves. For durability, the bands should be as large as is com- 
 patible with securing watertightness of the pipe and at the same 
 time avoid crushing of the fiber underneath the bands. The same 
 conditions as to quality of material and coating of the bands apply 
 as in the case of steel pipe if durability is desired. 
 
 Where large steel pipes are used under low pressure a certain 
 minimum thickness of metal must be used to provide stiffness, 
 and as a safeguard against rapid development of leakage at rust 
 spots. For very large thin pipes stiffening rings are also added 
 to prevent excessive deformation of the pipe by its own weight. 
 In the case of continuous wood pipe the economical thickness of 
 staves required for structural rea.sons and to secure watertightness 
 is usually sufficient to provide adequate stiffness. 
 
 In wood-stave pipe, as in steel, the pressure is resisted entirely 
 by metal. In the case of wood-stave pipes with bands having 
 rolled threads or upset ends the full strength of the metal can be 
 developed to resist tension. In the case of riveted steel pipe, espe- 
 cially for low heads, a large amount of metal is required in excess 
 of that needed to resist tension due to water-pressure. From con- 
 siderations of economy in erection the riveted joints used for low 
 pressures have generally relatively low efficiencies, so that only 
 a fraction, varying commonly from 40 to 65% of the strength of 
 the metal in the pipe walls, is available to resist pressure. 
 
 These conditions indicate an' important field of usefulness for 
 wood-stave pipe for waterpower penstocks or portions of penstocks 
 which are of large diam. and under relatively low heads. As the 
 head increases, the joint efficiency which can be commercially re- 
 alized in steel pipes is increased, and the percentage of metal added 
 for other than tension purposes is decreased, so that for heavy 
 pressures the amounts required in wood-stave and steel penstocks 
 would approach equality. 
 
 The conditions determining which of these two types of penstock 
 will be most efficient and economical in a given case are : Rela- 
 tive first cost or investment ; relative durability ; relative cost of 
 repairs and maintenance ; relative carrying capacity or, more 
 properly, relative power output with conduits of a given size. 
 
 The relative cost must, of course, be determined for each spe- 
 cific case. Large steel penstocks in the Eastern States commonly 
 cost from 3.5 to 5 cts. per lb., erected, exclusive of cradles or 
 other supports. No simple general rules for estimating the cost 
 of continuous wood-stave pipe can be given. The materials are 
 mostly obtained from the Pacific Coast and formed staves at the 
 mills cost from about $30 to $35 per M. ft. b. m. for Douglas fir, 
 to $45 for red-wood. 
 
 Freight is a large element in determining both the cost of wood- 
 stave pipe and the relative economy of wood and steel. In gen- 
 eral, the advantage of stave pipe over' steel increa.ses, proceeding 
 westward from the Eastern States owing to reduced freight rates 
 pn wood and increased freight on steel. 
 
HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 719 
 
 steel conduits are commonly supported on concrete cradles, 
 though sometimes buried or partly buried in earth. The cost of 
 woodstave conduits is materially affected by the method of sup- 
 port. Support on timber trestles is usually the cheapest. For 
 large pipe above ground concrete cradles are preferable and the 
 cost and spacing are about the same for wood-stave and steel 
 pipes. 
 
 Experience has shown that the staves of continuous wood-stave 
 pipe are least durable when partially buried or when buried in 
 porous soils, such as sands or gravels. Wood pipe is perhaps the 
 most durable when buried below the line of saturation of the soil 
 or in compact clay soils, where the pipe surface will be kept con- 
 stantly moist by the prevention of evaporation of seepage through 
 the staves. 
 
 Conditions where the pipe can be buried below ground-water 
 level are very rare and in such cases the cost of unwatering the 
 trench during pipe construction is likely to inhibit the use of this 
 method. Again, pipe cannot be buried where there is rock at 
 the surface and if buried in the soil under conditions otherwise 
 favorable for durability, the bands will be destroyed rapidly if 
 the ground-water is either strongly alkaline or contains humic 
 acid from the decay of surface vegetation, as Is commonly the 
 case in woods. The pipe is not accessible to repair when buried 
 and while it is apparently necessary to bury wooden pipe in some 
 instances as a protection against landslides in mountainous regions, 
 yet in the majority of cases wood-stave pipe should not be placed 
 underground unless the conditions are all favorable and even then 
 only when a calculation, based on economical considerations, gives 
 a result in favor of placing the pipe underground. 
 
 TABLE XVrr. COST OF WOOD PIPE 
 
 On cradles Buried 
 
 Cost of pipe per foot . . . . , , .$13.60 $15. 50 
 
 Cost cradles or trench , . , 6.40 1.50 
 
 Total investment $20.00 $1700 
 
 Life, years 40 15 
 
 Repairs, per cent, per year 1 
 
 ANNUAL CHARGES 
 
 Interest, at 6 per cent. . . .$ 1 20 $ 1.02 
 
 Depreciation 
 
 At 21/' per cent ....... c . . „ 0.50 
 
 At 6% per cent 1.134 
 
 Repairs 0.20 0.00 
 
 Total annual charges per feet $ 1.90 $2,154 
 
 As an illustration the calculation in Table XVII Is given, in 
 which it is assumed that the life of the buried conduit without 
 repairs would be 15 yrs., whereas its life above ground, properly 
 maintained and repaired, would be 40 yrs. 
 
 The comparison given is for pipe 9 ft. in diameter under an 
 
720 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 average head of 60 ft. It is assumed that the pipe above ground 
 is supported by concrete cradles. This increases the first cost 
 per foot materially over that for the buried pipe, but even then, 
 owing to the rapid depreciation of buried pipe, the calculations 
 show the total annual charges per foot of pipe to be considerably 
 less for the pipe supported above ground. 
 
 It is generally conceded that the carrying capacity of new wood- 
 stave pipe with a given friction loss is somewhat greater than 
 that for new riveted steel pipe. There is some diversity of opinion 
 as to the amount of difference. The writer believes that the later 
 formulae for the capacity of these two classes of pipe are sub- 
 stantially correct, and that there is a material difference in favor 
 of wood-stave pipe when new as compared with steel when new. 
 Of the two, steel pipe is also subject to much the greater increase 
 in friction head or decrease in carrying capacity with increased 
 age. Probably the Hazen and Williams formula represents the 
 best determination of the carrying capacity or friction head for 
 steel pipes. The Moritz formula is probably the best available 
 for application to large wood-stave conduits. In a somewhat later 
 review of the experiments, Andrew Swickard gives the formula 
 
 n = (D/30,000)+ 0.0105 
 
 where n = coefficient of roughness _ to be applied in the Kutter- 
 Chezy formula, and D is the inside diameter of the pipe, in inches. 
 (Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 6, 1915, p. 70.) This formula 
 is convenient for those who prefer to work from the Kutter formula 
 or diagrams based thereon. 
 
 For pipes 9 ft. in diameter, with velocities of 6 ft. per second, 
 the friction head is as follows : 
 
 Riveted steel pipe, Hazen and Williams formula, with C = 110, 
 friction head 1.06 ft. per thousand. 
 
 Riveted steel pipe 10 yrs. old, Hazen and Williams formula, 
 with C = 100, friction head 1.26 ft. per thousand. 
 
 Wood-stave pipe, Hazen and Williams formula, with C = 120, 
 friction head 0.9 ft. per thousand. With the Moritz formula the 
 friction head equals 0.60 ft. per thousand. 
 
 The friction loss by the Moritz formula is considerably less than 
 by the Hazen and Williams formula. The two results may be 
 reconciled in some degree by considering that Moritz's formula 
 applies to new pipe properly constructed and in the best condition, 
 whereas friction head given by the Hazen and Williams formula 
 would, in the writer's opinion, only apply to aveiage pipes in 
 service as heretofore constructed, many of them being improperly 
 constructed and in some cases subject to deposits of sand and 
 sediment in the pipe inverts. Even when free from sediment and 
 properly constructed the carrying capacity of wood-stave pipe 
 may be reduced somewhat by growth of slime and "spongilla on 
 the interior surface, which slightly decreases the effective diameter 
 and increases friction by throwing off small eddies, although not* 
 decreasing the apparent smoothness of the surface. 
 
 In comparing the merits of steel and wood pipe conduits for 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 721 
 
 specific cases, the relative carrying capacities should be taken into 
 consideration, as illustrated by the example which follows. The 
 relative cost or value of conduits of different materials having 
 different degrees of roughness is sometimes arrived at by esti- 
 mating the difference in cost of conduits of different sizes but which 
 will carry equal quantities of water with the same total loss of 
 head. In the writer's opinion this method is not generally ap- 
 plicable in the case of conduits for power purposes. In such cases 
 there is usually a maximum permissible velocity determined by 
 conditions of speed regulation or governing. Economy dictates 
 that whatever material is used, the fixed maximum velocity should 
 be equalled but not exceeded. Accordingly the conduit should be 
 of the same diameter, in the majority of cases, regardless of the 
 material or friction loss per foot of length. If the velocity is the 
 same in both and the friction loss in wood-stave is less than in 
 steel pipe at the given velocity, the average net head available at 
 the power plant will be greater if the wood-stave pipe is used, and 
 the market value of the average increase in power so obtained Is 
 one of the items to be considered in determining the relative eco- 
 nomic value of the two types of conduits. 
 
 The gain in power should be estimated from the increase in 
 head available with the plant operating at its average load, not 
 at its maximum load. The power gained by reduced friction in 
 the conduit is obtained at very little expense. The power and 
 speed of the turbine are increased by increased head. Generator 
 costs are smaller per unit at the higher speeds and there would 
 be no material difference in attendance or overhead charges in the 
 two cases. Instead of calculating the gain in marketable power 
 due to increased head as clear profit, it is perhaps safer to estimate 
 the value of the increased power pro rata the same as the value 
 of the average power output of the plant. 
 
 Table XVIII shows a comparative estimate of the cost of wood- 
 stave and steel penstocks each 9 ft. in internal diam, and 2,000 
 ft. long. The figures are based on recent bids for a conduit in 
 central New York. In this case the computation shows some ap- 
 parent economy in favor of wood-stave pipe regardless of increase 
 in power. It will be noted that taking into account the increase 
 in power, the result of such a calculation may indicate that it is 
 an economical advantage to use wood-stave pipe even where the 
 first cost is equal to or a little greater than that for steel pipe. 
 
 In the case on which the figures given are based, wood-stave 
 pipe was not used in .spite of the economic showing in its favor, 
 because of the general feeling of uncertainty then prevalent re- 
 garding the durability and conditions tending to produce long life 
 for wood-stave pipe. It is highly desirable that the conditions 
 governing the durability of wood-stave pipe should be more gen- 
 erally understood and accepted : First, to prevent repetition of 
 serious mistakes of the past, where wood-stave pipe has been used 
 under conditions to which it was not well adapted. Second, to 
 prevent its rejection in cases where it clearly shows a decided 
 economical advantage over steel. 
 
722 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XVIII. COST OF WOOD AND STEEL PIPE 
 
 Wood 
 Steel pipe stave pipe 
 
 First cost of pipe $17.40 $13.60 
 
 Concrete cradles 6.00 5.00 
 
 Total investment $23.40 $18.60 
 
 Life assumed 40 yr. 30 yr. 
 
 Depreciation rate 2 1^% 3i/f^% 
 
 Repairs 0.5% 1% 
 
 ANNUAL CHARGES PER FOOT OF PIPE 
 
 Interest and taxes at 7% $1,638 $1,302 
 
 Depreciation 0.585 0.620 
 
 Repairs 0.117 0.186 
 
 Total $2,340 $2,108 
 
 Total for 2,000 ft. conduit $4,680 $4,216 
 
 Value of power gained, 25 h.p. at $10 per 
 
 h.p.-year 00 250 
 
 Annual balance 4,680 3,966 
 
 Net saving with wood pipe $714 
 
 Capitalized saving at 8% $8,925 
 
 Thickness of Staves. Complete and perpetual saturation of the 
 staves being the prime requisite, to secure durability care should 
 be taken that the thickness of the staves is not too great in pro- 
 portion to the pressure. If durability is desired, wood-stave pipe 
 should not be used unless it will be continually filled with water 
 under static pressure head of at least 20 to 30 ft. The staves are 
 made from stock sizes of timber and their exact size and thick- 
 ness for a particular case are governed by the smallest commercial 
 size of board from which the stave can be cut. This is best de- 
 termined by an accurate full-size drawing of the stave section. 
 Thickening the staves increases the stability of the pipe against 
 deformation and generally is conducive to water-tightness at the 
 joints or seams. The staves should not be so thick as to prevent 
 a reasonable amount of percolation through the pores of the wood 
 under pressure. To meet these conditions the following formula 
 was devised by the writer for the use in preliminary determination 
 of stave thickness : 
 
 T =1 + 71/100 + d/100 
 
 where T = thickness of staves in inches ; h, head in feet ; d, diam- 
 eter of pipe in inches. It is believed that staves determined by 
 this formula will have the maximum of durability consistent with 
 reasonable stiffness of the pipe. 
 
 Decay of Wood Pipes. (Bull. 155, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 
 Decay of pipes exposed to the atmosphere and free from contact 
 with the soil almost invariably starts at the ends of staves, as a 
 result of leaky joints. Where water leaks out and runs down 
 over the outside of the pipe favorable conditions are afforded for 
 the growth of algae ; then mosses may begin to grow in the soil 
 that collects on such spots, and decay spreads to adjoining staves. 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 723 
 
 Bruising the staves in handling or injuring them by too tight 
 cinching of bands renders them more susceptible to infection by 
 the spores of wood-destroying fungi, thus hastening decay. The 
 life of exposed pipes may be prolonged by promptly stopping all 
 leaks as they develop and by keeping the exteriors dry. The decay 
 of buried pipes has also in some instances been arrested by re- 
 moving the covering and leaving them exposed. 
 
 The asphaltum or tar coating applied to machine-banded pipe, 
 while intended primarily as a protection against corrosion of the 
 bands, doubtless helps also to some extent in preserving the wood. 
 Until recently the practice has been to leave the ends of wooden 
 sleeve couplings untreated. These couplings almost invariably de- 
 cay long before the main pipe. This may indicate that infection 
 by wood-destroying organisms starts principally where the coating 
 is absent, though less perfect saturation of the wood in the sleeves 
 may be the more largely responsible for the early decay, as it may 
 also be noted that decay occurs at summits of pipe lines, where 
 air accumulates, much sooner than at depressions. 
 
 Cost of Woodstave Penstocks. E. H. Warner in describing the 
 hydraulic plant of the Puget Sound Power Co. in Pierce County, 
 Wash., gives the following data : 
 
 There are 345 lin. ft. of built up wood pipes. Woodstaves were 
 cut from 2-in. X 6-in. clear lumber dressed to radial lines with a 
 circular curve inside and out and have oak tongues in the butt 
 joints. Round iron bands, % in. in diameter, coated with asphalt 
 composition hold the staves in place. The bands are spaced 8-in. 
 centers, except at the butt joints, where the spacing is reduced 
 to 4 ins. Two concrete walls wathin the embankment enclose the 
 pipe and extend 2 ft. above. This work was let by contract at 
 $2.96 per lin. ft. for 48-in. pipe, and $1.47 per lin. ft. for 18-in. pipe. 
 
 The total cost of development approximates $125 per h.p. A 
 portion of this is properly chargeable to preparation for a second 
 installation, which, when made, will reduce the cost of the entire 
 development to approximately $90 per h.p. 
 
 Cost of Timber Flume tor Water Power in British Columbia. 
 C. A. Lee (Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 11, 1915) states that 
 the power development of the Vancouver Island Power Co. re- 
 quired 5.3 miles of timber flume along a steep and broken side 
 hill. Figure 5 shows the plans of this structure built, and gives 
 all essential dimensions and details except as noted in the state- 
 ments following. The T-bent shown was used only for " inter- 
 mediate bents " under 12 ft. high between two standard bents. 
 Generally the trestle was low, averaging not over 7 ft. high, but 
 at a few gulch crossings it had two or more decks. The aline- 
 ments, following this natural contour, was a series of curves, some 
 as sharp as 90 degs. ; no serious retardation of the water resulted. 
 Wier measurements indicate d fo r this flume a value of 122 for c 
 in Chezy's formula V = C V rs. In locating the flume each bent 
 finding was decided and the bent dimensions were computed. 
 From these notes the saw mill at the lower end of this flume cut 
 to lengths all bent members with daps and gains complete. A 
 
724 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 service railway along the flume line delivered the sawed material, 
 ^bout 5,000M ft. b. m. of lumber were required, or a little less 
 than l.OOOM ft. b. m. per mile of flume. Not including hauling 
 or clearing, the cost of lumber in flume w^as $17.41 per M, ft. b. m., 
 and all lumber was cut at the company's mill and logged from 
 the company's land. The total cost of the flume, excluding again 
 hauling and clearing, was $419.27 per 100 lin. ft., or, say, $4.20 
 per lin. ft. 
 
 
 r c-'' 1 
 
 I ,-Culli ' 
 
 
 
 Plankmg 5ur 
 faced on ona -' 
 5/tfe only 
 
 , 
 
 
 =^=Er=EEr= 
 
 
 c^?z^a:^ 
 
 ^^. 
 
 4V6V/c'-0'-' 
 
 ^l5va-x7.o-|^ 
 
 
 Batter li I 
 
 K Frame Bent 5 I5'0' Center toCentv 
 Section A-A 
 
 Fig. 7. Timber flumes for Jordan River power development, British 
 Columbia. 
 
 The Economics of Pipe Line Diameters. A discussion of a 
 method for determining economical pipe line construction is given 
 by Mr. C, W. Harris in a paper which we reprint here from the 
 Proceedings of the Pacific Northwest Society of Engineers. (See 
 Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 27, 1913.) While the discussion 
 is developed with specific relation to pipe lines for water power 
 plants, some of the conditions are general and apply to pipe lines 
 for water supply and irrigation. 
 
 When the engineer is investigating a power proposition and has 
 reached the point where he wishes to decide on the diameter of the 
 penstock, three questions might be logically presented to his mind 
 in the following order : 
 
 (1) What is the smallest size of pipe through which a given 
 amount of power may be transmitted? 
 
 (2) What is the smallest diameter which can be used without 
 exceeding allowable velocities? 
 
 (3) What is the economical diameter of penstock when proper 
 consideration has been given to the value of the water right? 
 
 Any one of these considerations may be the controlling point and 
 fix the size of the penstock. The first question will probably con- 
 trol in long pipes if the value of the water used is small The 
 second will control in short pipes under the same condition of water 
 value. The third will control in either long or short pipes when the 
 value of; the water is considerable. 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 725 
 
 Smallest Pipe. Returning to the first question, it is evident that 
 smallest possible pipe is the one which «iust work at its maxi- 
 mum capacity. The problem may, therefore, be restated as follows 
 Without changing its meaning. What is the condition for maximum 
 amount of power which may be transmitted through a pipe of known 
 
 4.0 6.0 8,0 10.0 12 11.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24,0 26.0 28.0 
 Cost of Pipe Line, in Thousands of Dollars 
 
 Fig. 7 A. 
 
 diameter when the total available head is fixed and the quantity 
 of water is unlimited? This is now in the form of an old familiar 
 problem, the solution of which is as follows : If there were no loss 
 of head by friction, greater quantity of water would, of course, 
 imply greater power since the effective head would remain constant. 
 (£/■. P. = Qwh. -r- 550.) But a greater quantity must be accompanied 
 
'726 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 by a greater velocity with corresponding- loss of head and hence a 
 loss of power. Calling- this lost head h', the horsepower delivered 
 by the pipe =: qw(h — h') -h 550 but the friction head 
 
 fl v2 ' 
 
 ^' = — — (1) 
 
 d 2g 
 
 making the power delivered in foot pounds (which we shall call 
 energy and denote by a large E) 
 
 fl v^ 
 
 E = Qwh — Qw 
 
 d 2g 
 
 Q^wfl 
 
 = Qwh (2) 
 
 a-2gd 
 
 a being the area of the pipe. To determine the conditions for 
 maximum power delivered by the pipe, it is necessary to equate the 
 first derivative of the above expression to zero. The first derivative 
 of E with respect to Q 
 
 dE 
 
 - hw - 
 d 
 
 ZQ^~wfl 
 
 dQ 
 
 -. h- 
 
 a-2gd 
 
 — = 3/1' 
 2g 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 The second derivative is negative which is the condition for a 
 maximum. 
 
 It will here be noticed that placing the first derivative equal to 
 zero makes our total head equal three times the head lost by 
 friction, and means that the pipe is delivering its maximum amount 
 of energy when the friction loss is one-third of the total head. The 
 answer to our first question, therefore, is as follows: the smallest 
 pipe which will deliver a given amount of power with a given 
 total head is the pipe which will cause one-third of that head to be 
 lost in friction. 
 
 Thus in temporary developments such as contractor's plants or 
 plants in isolated districts with large power possibilities and limited 
 demand, a pipe may be chosen of such diameter that when the 
 maximum power is being developed, one-third of the total head is 
 lost in friction. 
 
 One caution which must not be overlooked is that the reduction 
 of effective head should not unduly increase the cost of the 
 turbines to generate the required power. Working close to the 
 limit must also be accompanied by judgment concerning possibility 
 of variation of friction factor for pipe and for possible reduction of 
 efiiciency of turbine at overload. 
 
 A small factor of safety is introduced in the above investigation, 
 however, because of the fact that our investigation assumes the 
 head loss by friction to vary as the square of the velocity, whereas, 
 for a constant friction factor for smooth pipes the head varies at a 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 727 
 
 slightly less rate. Using the exponential formula recommended by 
 Messrs. Saph and Schoder, 
 
 ^1.86 
 
 H - .38 (5) 
 
 ^1.25 
 
 the maximum power is delivered when the head lost is .35 of the 
 total head. 
 
 Penstock Velocities. The answer to the second question does not 
 belong in a paper of this character. The greatest allowable velocity 
 in penstocks has been subject to many discussions and a great 
 many different opinions have been offered. The points which must 
 be consulted in settling this important question generally defy 
 mathematical analysis excepting where full conditions of operation 
 are known. They have to do principally with such problems as 
 dynamic action at sharp curves and with water hammer during 
 regulation of load. We will, therefore, leave this question to a 
 subsequent paper or to the judgment of the engineer. The answer 
 does not affect what is to follow in this paper excepting to fix limits 
 beyond which we cannot apply our results. 
 
 Economical Pipe. We will now turn to the third and most im- 
 portant question (the economical size of the pipe). It is very 
 apparent that when either the smallest possible pipe is used, or 
 when the pipe is limited in size by excessive velocity, the friction 
 head will be large and the power must be obtained at a sacrifice 
 of water. This may be objectionable or may not be objectionable, 
 depending upon whether the water has commercial value or has 
 no commercial value, water being considered valueless only when 
 there is at all seasons of the year a surplus after the demand for 
 power is supplied. 
 
 When the demand for power exceeds the supply, undeveloped 
 water under head has at once a commercial value which should be 
 approximately equal to the difference between selling price of power 
 and cost of production where the cost of production includes inter- 
 est, depreciation, cost of operation, etc. A loss of one-third of the 
 total head (the condition which gives the smallest pipe) or even 
 a loss of sufficient head to produce excessive velocity will require 
 an excess of valuable water to produce the required power. Thus 
 our third question shapes itself as follows : what is the diameter 
 of pipe which results in the most economical production of power, 
 that is, what are the conditions for minimum cost of delivering 
 power to the turbines? 
 
 The quantity to be placed at minimum must include two separate 
 items, (1) the yearly cost of pipe (interest, and depreciation), (2) 
 the yearly cost of the power wasted by friction. The second factor 
 depends upon the quantity of water, head lost by friction and the 
 value of a horsepower year. This phase of the problem was quite 
 thoroughly treated in a discussion aroused by Mr. A. L. Adams in 
 an article entitled, " A Solution of the Problem of Determining the 
 Economic Size of Pipes for High-Pressure Water Power Installa- 
 tion," in the Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers, 
 
728 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Vol. LIX., page 173. This paper and the discussions dealt only 
 with high head pressure pipes in which the thickness of pipe for 
 constant head would have to vary with the diameter, making the 
 cost of pipe for a given head (and, therefore, the yearly cost of 
 pipe line under that head) to vary as the square of the diameter. 
 We will give a simple solution arriving at the same conclusion 
 as did Mr. Adams and then extend the investigation to other con- 
 clusions. 
 
 C = Kd? , (6) 
 
 where C equals yearly cost of pipe, d the diameter, and K is some 
 constant depending upon the cost of steel per pound, interest, de- 
 preciation, etc., but to which no particular value need be given for 
 present purposes. 
 
 The power lost by friction varies as the head lost h' and the 
 quantity of water Q. But 
 
 fl v^ 
 
 ^' = —~ (7) 
 
 d 2g 
 
 fl 172 Q3 fl QnQfi 
 
 .-.Qwh'-Qw = (8) 
 
 d 2g 2ga- d 2gTr^d^ 
 
 Therefore, for a constant quantity Q the 
 
 yearly value of power consumed by friction — k'd-^. 
 
 And since the 
 
 annual cost of pii)e lines = kd", 
 
 the function to be placed a minimum is 
 
 u= kd' + k'd-'' (9) 
 
 = 2kd— Sfc'd-'' = ? (10) 
 
 dd 
 
 . • . 2/cd^ -= 5fc'ci-= (11 ) 
 
 2 
 
 or ~kd-= k'd-^ (12) 
 
 5 
 
 Two-fifths annual cost of pipe line = yearly value of power con- 
 sumed by friction. 
 
 This result is the one suggested by Mr. Adams and the method 
 is somewhat similar to that used in a number of discussions of his 
 paper. The conclusion to be drawn is that the proper diameter 
 of pipe is that which will make two-fifths of the annual cost of the 
 pipe equal the cost of the power lost by friction. 
 
 This is, therefore, the answer to our third question when applied 
 to large riveted steel pipes under high head. 
 
 Although the article of Mr. Adams considered only the question 
 of high pressure pipe lines and, therefore, pipe lines in which the 
 thickness for any given head would necessarily vary directly with 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 729 
 
 the diameter, there seems to be no good reason why a similar in- 
 vestigation should not be made for pipes of constant thickness. 
 In fact, it seems just as important to obtain correct diameter of 
 pipes under small head as to obtain correct diameter of pipes under 
 large head, especially in as much as a large majority of power plants 
 with long penstocks are so constructed that the greatest length of 
 penstocks is subjected to very low pressures, the pipe dropping 
 quickly as it approaches the power house. Under this condition, 
 the greatest total cost is for a portion of the pipe line which, though 
 thin, is much thicker than that computed for static head (with 
 proper factor of safety). These pipes are constructed with a 
 specified minimum thickness and until this is exceeded, the thick- 
 ness of the pipe is constant and the cost of the pipe will vary as 
 the first power of the diameter instead of the second power as in 
 the above example, 
 
 yearly cost of pipe line = Ted 
 
 But as the friction loss is independent of the pressure, the value of 
 the power lost by friction is the same as that in the previous case. 
 This change in the law of the variation of pipe cost has the effect 
 of changing the function for minimum to 
 
 w = fed + fc'd-5 (13) 
 
 cl u 
 
 rz fc— 5fc'(Z-6 = (14) 
 
 dd 
 
 or kd — 5fc'rf-5 (15) 
 
 1 
 
 .-. — kd — k'd-'' (16) 
 
 5 
 
 But kd is now the cost of the pipe and kd'^ is the same as before, 
 (1. e,, the value of power lost in friction). Therefore, the result 
 shows that the proper diameter of the pipe is that which will make 
 one-fifth of the cost equal the value of the power lost by friction. 
 
 Thus it is seen that the ratio of cost of lost power to cost of pipe 
 is only one-half as great in the second case. This, of course, does 
 not mean that twice as much may be spent for pipes of constant 
 thickness. But it does mean that some additional expenditure 
 should be made under this second condition, which expenditure will 
 give somewhat increased diameter and thereby decrease the amount 
 of power lost until the above relationship is established. 
 
 Nor is the above treatment necessarily confined to these two 
 simple cases. If the cost of the pipe does not vary as the second 
 power, nor exactly as the first power, we need not conclude that 
 the law of variation is no longer exponential. As long as the cost 
 of pipe can be expressed as a constant times the diameter raised 
 to any constant power, the above treatment can be applied. Under 
 this condition 
 
 Annual cost of pipe = Zed". 
 The function to be placed a minimum is therefore 
 
730 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 u = kdn + fc'd-5 (17) 
 
 = nkd''-i — k'd-^ = (18) 
 
 dd 
 
 .'. — k'W = k'd-^ (19) 
 
 h 
 or — kdn = k'd-^ (20) 
 
 5 
 
 This means that the correct diameter of pipe is that which makes 
 
 n fifths of anual cost of pipe — cost of lost power, 
 n is found from the relation of cost to diameter (for a constant 
 head) as expressed above, n being the index of the power in kdn. 
 
 The above case, of course, includes the other two cases, since 
 the value of n may be 2, as in the first case, or 1, as in the second 
 case. Or it may include all of the cases where n lies between 
 these two values or exceeds them. The condition will always be 
 that for minimum cost with values of n greater than 1, the case 
 with which we are concerned. The application of the result is not 
 even complicated by this general form of the statement. It is be- 
 lieved that the mixed values of n present cases more of a practical 
 nature than the two apparently more simple cases mentioned pre- 
 viously. For example, the cost of high pressure steel pipe cited 
 in the first investigation must be combined with all the accessory 
 costs (if they do not remain constant with the different diameters 
 of pipe). These costs do not neces.sarily vary with the same power 
 of the diameter as does the cost of the simple pipe. Thus the total 
 cost will no longer vary as the exact second power. Another im- 
 portant case offering this apparent difficulty is that of the wood- 
 stave pipe. The cost of wood-stave pipe (as related to its diameter) 
 follows an exponential law in the ordinary case. But the value of 
 the exponent is generally greater than 1, and yet smaller than 2. 
 
 Fortunately, the exact value of the exponent n can always be 
 determined by logarithmic plotting. The cost of various diameters 
 of pipe being plotted as ordinates with the diameters as abscissae, 
 the tangent of the slope of the line is the value of n. 
 
 The use of the logarithmic sheet brings all cases to a common 
 basis. Even those in which the index of the power is not exactly 
 constant may be treated by this method since in the limits of any 
 one problem, the variation of n is insignificant. Fig. 8 shows the 
 entire variation of n for wood-stave pipes under 300 ft. head to be 
 from 1.00 for 4-in. pipes to 1.58 for 54-in. pipes and practically that 
 entire variation occurs at one point where the type of construction 
 changes. (The lower value of w is for such small pipe and applies 
 to so few commercial sizes that we may safely exclude them when 
 dealing with wood pipe.) Fig. 9 for steel pipes, shows this same 
 characteristic variation in n occurring at the diameter requiring 
 increased thickness for the particular head for which the curve 
 is drawn. The value of n for steel pipes changes abruptly from 1 
 to 2 at this point as the value of n changes from 1 to 1.58 for 
 wood-stave pipes. For our present purposes we are chiefly con- 
 cerned with the fact that (above this critical point) the exponent 
 n is constant for all diameters as long as the head is constant. 
 
r 
 
 FT 
 
 
 
 1— 
 
 T^ 
 
 
 
 
 r— 1 
 
 f—i 
 
 r— 1 
 
 
 
 1 1^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 '>\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 °2 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 X> 
 
 s. 
 
 N 
 
 '">. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ '°\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ r 
 
 ^^v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^. 
 
 .% 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ..^. 
 
 > 
 
 5^ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^-. 
 
 
 iui 
 
 
 ,\ 
 
 J 
 
 \ 
 
 "■"s >^ 
 
 .i..i. U 5 
 
 ^ k L L 
 
 lOOJ U3d XS03 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ^ 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 ;5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 ^s^ 
 
 / , 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 °K 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 °°V 
 
 s^ 
 
 -t 
 
 >\ 
 
 
 
 ogz 
 
 
 
 
 N. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "'^^ 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ss. 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 v. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 \ 
 
 ,\ 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h.ii h ^ = 
 
 , I 
 
 , ? 
 
 i-ss 
 
 R 8 8 
 
 i ' 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 4.00 J USd XS03 
 
 731 
 
732 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The exponent for wood pipe also changes with variation of head 
 on the pipe. For example : Cost of pipes under very low head 
 increases almost directly in proportion to the diameter, which 
 means that the exponent is but slightly above 1. On the other hand, 
 for very high heads, the cost increases almost as the square of 
 the diameter placing the other limit of the exponent at 2. Between 
 these two values, the variation is shown to be as represented by 
 Fig. 10. These results were obtained by plotting actual cost of 
 pipe as in Fig. 8 and are sufficiently accurate for application to 
 practical cases. 
 
 In computing the economical diameter by use of these exponents, 
 the diameter is not sensitive to small variations in exponent. In 
 view of this fact and also anticipating the fact that the diameter 
 
 of any one pipe line should not vary throughout its length except- 
 ing for moderately high heads, we are justified in using a single 
 value of 1.5 for all heads between 50 ft. and the greatest head 
 found practical for stave pipe. 
 
 It is the writer's belief that an investigation involving these 
 exponents is justified in the large majority of cases. This simple 
 check will then eliminate the possibility of a false minimum being 
 found graphically or algebraically by reason of local variation of 
 points not located near the minimum. Much time may also be 
 saved, providing the computor is familiar with his logarithmic 
 sheet. For example, Fig. 11 shows the simple method of deter- 
 mining the proper diameter when the law of variation is known. 
 This plate is constructed for high head steel pipe carrying 100 cu. ft. 
 per second and subjected to the following heads: 125 ft., 250 ft., 500 
 ft., 1,000 ft. and 2,000 ft. One point was computed for actual 
 annual cost at ten per cent, interest and depreciation, with steel at 
 seven cents. The line was drawn with the proper slope (2 because 
 
HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 n'i 
 
 the pipe is steel) and the other four lines drawn with the same 
 slope through points which increased in proportion to the head. 
 Another point was computed for a check and the whole work was 
 complete. This set of lines represents the actual cost of pipe for 
 various diameters for all the foregoing heads. Another line is now 
 drawn which represents two and one-half times the power lost by 
 friction at $25 per h.p. The intersections indicate the correct 
 diameter for their respective heads. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Even this operation is longer than necessary. We might compute 
 the proper diameter for one head and knowing the law of variation 
 of diameter with respect to head, construct the line which will give 
 us the proper economical diameter for any head (same pipe or same 
 quantity). For determining the law of variation of diameter with 
 respect to head for the economical adjustment of steel pipe, we 
 refer back to the expression for cost. 
 
 Annual cost of pipe for constant head — kcP. 
 
 Annual cost of pipe for constant diameter = k'h. 
 
 Annual cost of pipe for varying head = k"hd'\ 
 
 Value of power lost — kd-^. 
 
 Therefore, k"hd^ = ckd-'^. 
 
 Where c is a constant 5/2 for the particular case at hand. 
 
 Therefore, h — kd^ where k is still another constant. 
 
 From which d = kh-1/7. 
 
734 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 This means that the diameter of steel penstock for high heads 
 (of varying thickness) varies inversely as the 7th root of the head. 
 To show that this is correct, we will take the data from Fig 11 
 and construct Fig. 12, with diameters as ordinates and heads as 
 abscissae. The resulting line checks the above conclusion. It 
 slopes downward to the right indicating inversely, and the slope is 
 1 to 7 indicating the 7th root. The line might, therefore, have been 
 just as easily drawn after computing one point. 
 
 fOO 
 90 
 60 
 ^0 
 ©0 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 z 
 I 20 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^'C-; o 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^'Pe r.„.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-^^^^^^-iii^^p^ 
 
 5ec f^.,,,, 
 
 
 *--- 
 
 ^^■^ua s,n.., p 
 
 P (d-i.^.i) 
 
 '"^ ■ 
 
 IB 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^1 P,pf, p 
 
 
 
 
 
 "" ' '_ 
 
 '3_I0 C,. r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ^ — t^^;— 
 
 ;5£j^.M,tj — 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 =»* 
 
 - ■ 
 
 
 VARIATION OF Diameter _ 
 
 
 ■■^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 125 
 
 250 
 
 500 
 HEAD 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 lOOO 
 
 200Q* 
 
 Even this operation need not be confined to the theoretical or the 
 special case. The law of variation of cost when both head and 
 diameter are considered may be expressed 
 
 Cost of pipe = Kh^d^. 
 
 The value of n has already been determined for a wood-stave 
 pipe, m can be determined in a similar manner by plotting on 
 logarithmic sheet. This logarithmic sheet is not shown, but the 
 results of m for various heads (a mean of several diameters varia- 
 tion being small) are .shown on Fig. 13. 
 
 The.se results combined with those on Fig. 3 give all the in- 
 formation necessary to determine the proper relation between diam- 
 eter and head for wood-stave pipe. 
 
 If. 
 
 , Tch^'dr^ = Ck'd-^ ( 21 ) 
 
 fe« = Ted' 
 d = kh- 
 
 .d =z kh- 
 
 (22) 
 (23) 
 
 (24) 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 735 
 
 where fc is an unknown constant and x is the exponent of h repre- 
 senting the law of variation of d. 
 
 Fig. 14 shows values of x for various values of h. It will be 
 seen that large values of x indicate small changes in diameter of 
 pipe and vice versa, and when x is equal to infinity the diameter 
 is constant for all heads (note that this comes from value of 
 n = 1, the case for cost of pipe varying directly as diameter as in 
 the case of steel pipe with constant thickness). 
 
 The diameter not being sensitive to small changes in x, we may 
 safely say that for heads under 100 ft. the pipe should remain 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f .' 
 
 •S 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ,i' 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 Expo 
 
 ■>er,t (r 
 
 r^J 
 
 
 0? 04 06 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 0.8 1.0 
 
 constant diameter its entire length regardless of head. And we 
 can ju.st as safely say that for heads above 100 ft. and within the 
 range of application of wood pipes, a constant value of x may be 
 taken. The mean value 9 from Fig. 14 is correct for all practical 
 purposes. Therefore, for wood pipes 100 ft. head or more, the 
 diameter should vary inversely as the 9th root of the head. 
 
 The operation of Fig. 11 was repeated for wood pipes on the 
 assumption that all wood-stave pipes under pressure increase in 
 cost (and therefore have their yearly cost increased) as expressed 
 by the following 
 
 Annual cost of pipe = fcd' ^ 
 
 The diameters for various heads were then plotted and the slope 
 found to be 1/9, thus verifying the previous conclusion. 
 
 This law of variation for diameters with respect to head is now 
 applicable to any pipe line under varying head regardless of value 
 of water right and regardless of what use is made of the water. 
 
736 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 It means that for a given quantity of water and total loss of head, 
 this particular variation of diameter will give the cheapest pipe. 
 
 To show that this investigation is justifiable and not a mere 
 theoretical hair splitting, take the following illustration. 
 
 Let it be required to conduct 100 cu. ft. per second economically 
 through 10,000 ft. of wood-stave pipe. Suppose the first half of 
 the pipe is subjected to 100 ft. head and the remaining half to 300 ft. 
 
 600 
 ^00 
 ^00 
 300 
 200 
 
 too 
 
 <0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vcf/u&, 
 
 5 Of 
 
 A 
 
 
 O 5 10 \5 20 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 25 
 
 head. If after sufficient study it is found that 60 ft. is a per- 
 missible loss, a too common practice would be to use a 42-in. pipe 
 throughout the entire length. This pipe would cost the following 
 amount : 
 
 5,000 ft. of 42-in. pipe for 100-ft. head at $2.95 $14,750 
 
 5,000 ft. of 42-in. pipe for 300-ft. head at $6.09 30,450 
 
 Total $45,200 
 
 But our rule says that the second half of this pipe should be 
 smaller because it is under greater head an^ that the ratio of the 
 two diameters (for wood pipe) should be 1:31/9. This ratio is 
 1/1.13, which is the ratio of a 40-in. to a 45-in. pipe, and this 
 combination of pipes gives practically the same friction loss. But 
 the cost now is : 
 
 5,000 ft. of 45-in. pipe for 100-ft. head at $3.20 $16,000 
 
 5,000 ft. of 40-in. pipe for 300-ft. head at $5.60 28,000 
 
 Total $44,000 
 
 Thus it is shown that there is a saving of $1,200, which is 2^^ 
 per cent, of the total cost of the pipe. 
 
HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 
 
 737 
 
 To show this is not a mere local variation let us take other com- 
 binations, 66-in. and 37-in., for example, which makes the total cost 
 $52,250, or even 54 and 38, which costs $46,600, or the reversing 
 of the correct combination making 45 and 40, which require a 
 cost of $47,250. 
 
 These results plotted to scale with ratio of diameters abscissae 
 (see Fig. 15) show minimum cost to be plainly for the ratio 1.13 
 which was originally chosen. In conclusion the following points 
 may be summarized : 
 
 (1) It is allowable to use the smallest possible pipe line for 
 power when the water consumed has no value. This smallest pipe 
 is the one which with a friction loss of one-third of the total head 
 will deliver a quantity of water sufficient to produce the required 
 power with the other two-thirds of the total head. 
 
 52P00 
 
 60.000 
 
 •»8P00 -^- 
 ^6.000 -S- 
 rt4,00C -<J- 
 
 ^2.000 
 
 ^aO.OOo 
 
 Patio of Diam titers 
 
 3*5 — 3^ To 
 
 PMg. 15 
 
 (2) If a pipe line is subjected to a varying head throughout its 
 length, but the cost for any particular diameter remains constant 
 for those various heads, the diameter should also remain constant 
 throughout ; but if the cost of the pipe is different for the different 
 heads, the diameter should be smaller for the larger head. The 
 correct diameter under any particular head is that which will make 
 n/5 of the cost of the pipe for a given length equal to the capitalized 
 value of the power . consumed by friction in that same length, n 
 being 2 for steel pipe and 1 V^ for wood-stave pipe, and for any pipe 
 takes the index of d in the expression. 
 
 Cost = Ted". 
 
 With this diameter determined under one head, the diameter of 
 the same pipe under any other head should vary inver.sely as the 
 7th root of the head if the pipe is a high-pressure steel pipe, or as 
 the 9th root of the head if the pipe is wood-stave. 
 
 (3) If the quantity to be delivered is fixed, and the available 
 
738 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 friction loss is also fixed, as is the case with a pipe line connecting 
 two reservoirs of fixed elevations, the diameter of the pipe should 
 vary throughout the length of the same laws expressed above, the 
 head to which the pipe is subjected being the static head for which 
 the pipe is designed. 
 
 Authors' Comment. One of the laws deduced by Mr. Harris may 
 be stated thus : 
 
 The diameter of a steel penstock for high heads (i. e., a " pres- 
 sure j)ipe") should vary inversely as the seventh root of the head. 
 
 Mr, Harris also proves that for a wood stave pressure pipe the 
 diameter should vary inversely as the ninth root. 
 
 Unfortunately the text of the article is considerably marred by a 
 rather careless use of two important words — " value " and " cost." 
 In fact, Mr. Harris uses these words indiscriminately, and he at- 
 taches to the word " value " a meaning that really makes it synony- 
 mous with profit. Unfortunately the conclusion is of a sort that 
 might lead a young engineer entirely astray, as may be readily 
 shown. Mr. Harris proves that the most "economic" (r= profit- 
 able) diameter of penstock is secured when: 
 
 " Two-fifths annual cost of pipe line equals yearly value of power 
 consumed by friction." 
 
 As stated by Mr. Harris, this law was previously deduced by Mr. 
 A. Li. Adams. Search of the text of Mr. Harris' article discloses 
 the fact that the word " value," as used in this law, means the 
 profit derived from the sale of water power, for he says : 
 
 " When the demand for power exceeds the supply, undeveloped 
 water under head has at once a commercial value which should be 
 approximately equal to the difference between the selling price of 
 power and cost of production, where the cost of production in- 
 cludes interest, depreciation, cost of operation, etc." 
 
 Even this statement is not precise, for the " commercial value " 
 of a water power is the capitalized annual profit derivable from it, 
 and not the annual profit. 
 
 A correct statement of the Adams law of pressure pipe diameter 
 would be as follows : 
 
 The most profitable diameter of pressure pipe is secured when 
 two-fifths the annual cost of the pipe {exclusive of excavation and 
 anchorage) equals the annual profit that might be derived from the 
 energy consumed in pipe friction. 
 
 In applying this law care should be taken to use the word profit 
 in a proper sense. Profit is the difference between gross income 
 and cost. Cost includes interest, depreciation, taxes, repairs and 
 operating expenses. 
 
 Care should also be taken to multiply the energy lost in pipe 
 friction by the efficiency of the power generating machinery ; and, 
 if the power is sold after transmission, the efficiency of transmission 
 and transformation should also appear as a factor. 
 
 Finally, if refinements are desired, consideration must be given 
 to the fact that in a pressure pipe designed for peak load condi- 
 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 739 
 
 tions there will be much less loss of energy due to friction under 
 average load than under peak load. 
 
 In solving an illustrative problem, Mr. Harris makes use of 
 logarithmic paper in an interesting manner, but his text does not 
 agree with the chart, for the text speaks of plotting the annual 
 cost of the pipe, whereas the chart shows its first cost. The text 
 omits giving the length of the illustrative pipe line. It also speaks 
 of the "value" of the power lost by friction as being $25 per h.p. 
 Certainly the profit is rarely as much as $25 per h.p. year, whereas 
 the value (i. e., capitalized annual profit) of water power is usually 
 much more than $25 per h.p. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 FIRST COST AND OPERATING EXPENSES OF COMPLETE 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 Cross References. For a general discussion of the operating costs 
 of an electric lighting plant, see the latter part of Chap. I. For 
 data on depreciation, see Chap. II. See also Steam Power, Chap. 
 VII. 
 
 Graphical Analysis of Operating Costs into Fixed and Variable 
 Expenses. Arthur Job'son, Electrical World, April 14, 1917. says: 
 For a given power plant operating under normal conditions the 
 unit cost of generating electric energy varies inversely as the kilo- 
 watt-hour output. When the total monthly or yearly operating 
 expense is assumed to vary directlj^ as the output, and uniformly, 
 therewith, the expression for the unit cost may be represented by 
 
 U = a/F-\-b (1) 
 
 in which U is the cost In cents per kilowatt-hour, F the plant factor 
 in per cent, (i.e., the ratio of the mean load for any period of time 
 to the aggregate generator rating multiplied by 100), and a and b 
 constants. 
 
 If -K = aggregate generator rating in kilowatts, h = number of 
 hours operated, and C — operating expense in dollars during the 
 period of h hours, then, substituting in equation (1), C= [(a/F-\- 
 b) XhX F/lOO X -R] -=- 100, or 
 
 C = hR (a + bF) /lO*^ (2) 
 
 In this expression hRa/lO^ represents the fixed operating expense 
 in dollars for the period considered, and JiRbF /lO* represents that 
 part of the operating expense varying with the station output. 
 
 From these relations it may be seen that if the actual unit 
 production costs are available and the unit costs are made to con- 
 form with equation (1), the total operating expense may be sepa- 
 rated into two components, one component being the fixed operating 
 cost and the other that part of the operating cost varying directly 
 with the kilowatt-hour output. The relative proportions of these 
 costs will be characteristic of the particular type of plant and the 
 conditions under which it may have been operating during the 
 period covered by the analysis. This method of analysis is not 
 only applicable to the total operating expense, but any part of such 
 expense, as, for instance, the determination of the relative propor- 
 tions of the fixed and variable expense required for fuel used in 
 operation. 
 
 740 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 74L 
 
 Applications of this graphical method of analysis to actual data 
 obtained from the operation of a small felectric plant are repre- 
 sented in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. The small circles platted in Figs. 1 and 
 2 indicate average monthly switchboard production costs in cents 
 per kilowatt-hour for the year 1915 and the first ten months of 
 1916 respectively. Fig. 3 applies similarly to the cost of fuel in 
 the operation of the same plant. The unit cost curve xy in Fig-. 1 
 was determined In the following manner: 
 
 V^ - ^ - T 
 
 5-L _ _i_ IL 
 
 ^ i 
 
 <».Ylp 41 
 
 l^-^ Unfsp9r>rw-hr- W.^, /^^ . 
 
 ^ ' ' 1 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 v 
 
 
 njiZ/C^^-ii- rT""^ 
 
 J^mTiX ^ 
 
 ' ' ' 1 1 V 
 
 
 "T ■ ^i ^ 
 
 ..s^ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 _l 
 
 
 
 
 
 i9ie ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^S)^obl3^f^'''l- 
 
 
 15 ^0 25 30 35 
 
 Plont "ac^or 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 
 
 Figs. 1-2. Cost of energy delivered to the switchboard at different 
 plant factors. 
 
 The 12 months of the year were divided into 2 groups, one group 
 consisting of the 6 months having the lowest unit production costs, 
 and the other group including the 6 months of highest similar costs. 
 For each group the number of hours, kilowatt-hours generated and 
 operating expense in dollars were totalized. From these the aver- 
 age unit cost and corresponding plant capacity factor in per cent, 
 were obtained for each group. These values determined the loca- 
 tion of two points on the mean unit cost curve xy, and thus per- 
 mitted calculation of the constants a and h in equation (1), after 
 which the curve was plotted as shown. The corresponding curves 
 
742 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in Figs. 2 and 3 were determined in a similar manner. Equation 
 (2) was then used to determine the average monthly variation in 
 operating expense for corresponding plant factors within the range 
 of the station output in kilowatt-hours. These expenses are repre- 
 sented in the chart by means of straight lines. 
 
 Space does not permit a very thorough discussion of these curves. 
 They indicate a relatively larger component of fixed operating ex- 
 pense than would be expected, even for the cost of fuel. It may 
 be pointed out that the total expense in dollars does not include 
 such fixed charges as interest on the investment, depreciation, in- 
 
 05 
 
 0^ 400 
 
 % 0.^ t 300 
 
 S.. ^ 
 
 0.2 
 
 200 
 
 o 
 0. ^ lOO 
 
 , 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "IT 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \, 
 
 
 / 
 
 Cents per Krt-hr' 
 
 3.^ 
 
 1-0.193 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \<3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <E 
 
 >\ 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 N 
 
 'n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 :? 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i<^i( 
 
 , ^ 
 
 r-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,-■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 r« 
 
 '< 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 L> 
 
 
 /^/« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 U^ 
 
 T9 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 — - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^' 
 
 -.\f 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u^ 
 
 ^^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 ■OC 
 
 ll(Jf .- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 )i 
 
 glto 
 
 •'^ 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \9l^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .' 
 
 ^B) 1916 
 
 --^ 
 
 =^ 
 
 (a) 
 
 Fiveri 
 
 r.hnrr 
 
 
 ~^P^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 ^-- 
 
 .~" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ ~ 
 
 
 J>T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _l :. \^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 ^.- 
 
 "■' 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 FT- 
 
 -' 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 20 25 
 
 Plant Factor 
 Fig. 3. Cost of fuel with different plant factors. 
 
 35 
 
 surance, etc. The excessive fixed operating expense during the first 
 ten months of the year 1916 may be attributed partly to the higher 
 wages paid both for operation and maintenance and in part to a 
 larger expenditure than is necessary under ordinary conditions 
 for replacements. 
 
 Output of Large Generating Systems. Table I from Electrical 
 World, April 7, 1917, shows the peak load, date of same, yearly 
 output in kw.-hrs. and yearly load factors of the largest generating 
 systems of the country. 
 
 Relation of Peak Load to Capacity. The following figures re- 
 late to steam-electric plants and were compiled from the reports of 
 officials of the companies. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 743 
 
 Edison Electric Illuminating Co., of Boston. From 1905 to 1914 
 the rated plant capacity increased from 35,400 kw. to 116,400 kw. 
 with the average 74,255 kw. The peak load increased from 26,311 
 kw. to 65,092 kw., average 45,852 kw. The ratio of peak to capacity 
 ranged from a minimum of 54.8% in 1909 to a maximum of 74.4% 
 in 1905. the average being 63.3%. 
 
 Mobile Electric Co., Mobile, Ala. From 1909 to 1912 the rated 
 plant capacity was 3,595 kw. and the peak load increased from 2900 
 to 3190 kw., the average ratio of peak to capacity being 85%. In 
 
 1913 and 1914 the rated plant capacity was increased to 6,595 kw., 
 the peak load being 3150 and 3081 kw. for the 2 yrs., thus bringing 
 the average ratio down to 47% for that period. 
 
 Muskogee Gas & Electric Co., Muskogee, Okla. The rated plant 
 capacity was 4,600 kw. from 1912 to 1914. The peak load was 
 3,000, 2.300, and 2,200 kw. during that time, thus making the ratio 
 of peak to capacity 65, 50 and 48%. 
 
 Oklahoma Gas & Electric Co., Oklahovia City. In 1912, 1913 
 and 1914 the rated plant capacity was 5,650 kw. ; the peak load 
 3,864, 3,467, and 3,480 kw. ; the ratio 68, 61 and 627^. 
 
 Ottumwa Railway and Light Co., Ottumwa, la. From 1908 to 
 
 1914 the rated plant capacity was 1600 kw. ; the peak load aver- 
 aged 1380 kw. with a minimum of 1175 kw. in 1909 and a maxi- 
 mum of 1720 kw. in 1913; the ratio averaged 86, minimum 73, 
 maximum 107. 
 
 San Diego Consolidated Gas <& Electric Co., San Diego, Cal. The 
 average rated plant capacity was 4,720 kw, from 1906 to 1914, it 
 being 1,220 kw. in 1906 and 12,470 kw. in 1914; the average peak 
 load was 3,195 kw., increasing from 918 kw. in 1906 to 7,075 kw. 
 in 1914. The average ratio, peak to capacity, was 68, the minimum 
 being 57 in 1914 and the maximum 116 in 1D08. 
 
 The Edison Illuminating Company of Detroit. From 1905 to 
 1914 the rated plant capacity increased from! 13,200 kw. to 90,500 
 kw. ; the peak load from 10,300 kw. to .83,300 kw. The ratio aver- 
 aged 81%, being 62% in 1908 and 100% in 190.6. 
 
 Union Gas and Electric Co., Fargo, S. D. The rated plant capa- 
 city was 1,860 kw. from 1911 to 1914. The peak load averaged 
 1551 kw. and the ratio 84%. 
 
 Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago. The rated plant capacity 
 was 65,748 kw. in the winter of 1905-6 and 364.250 kw. in 1914-15, 
 averaging 210,244 kw. ; the peak load was 53,810 kw. in 1905-6 
 and 306,200 kw. in 1914-15; the ratio averaged 79%, being 66% in 
 1907-8 and 86% in 1911-12 and 1913-14. 
 
 Eastern Pennsylvania Lt., Heat, <& Pwr. Co., Pottsville, Pa. From 
 1910 to 1915 the rated plant capacity was 4,130 kw. ; the peak load 
 increased from 3,010 kw. to 4,620 kw., averaging 4. ,000 kv/. ; the 
 ratio was 73% in 1910 and 112% in 1914 and 1915, averaging 97%. 
 Maximum load given for period of about 5 minutes. 
 
 Proportions of Steam and Hydro-Electric Equipment to Load. 
 The following data were compiled from reports from officials of 
 the companies, and are for the year 1915. 
 
 Great Western Power Co., San Francisco. Rated capacity, steam, 
 
744 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 >^ 
 m 
 
 M 
 < 
 
 O 
 ^ 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 %o 
 
 OH 
 
 P 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 
 CM 
 H 
 t» 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 >>S' . . . 
 
 ooo 
 _ oooo 
 
 .'1' 3 ^ rHin eg 
 
 >^ C0004 
 
 (cgo 
 
 )Tt<0 
 
 I05C0 
 
 icot- 
 
 ccot 
 
 lOO' 
 
 >o«oe 
 io«oc 
 
 Oi M 00 Irt ■* o t- 
 t^ r- th iM lo -*■ c 
 
 ooeo« 
 
 t-OOl 
 
 3eo<ocg lo 
 
 >oot-o 
 
 00 «o eo 00 eo f t>- « 
 
 <00t-«©-^r-lr-IOa5 
 
 tocoo 
 
 t3 
 
 <MT-(iHiMe<IrSrHrHrHCgiH 
 
 Mt-iMOOlO T-( 
 -ICgCgiMW r-1 
 
 tj ,i4 d > +J ci o d c5 cj d d cj d d d .' 6 6> 6> 
 
 d (uOo (ua)(i)a»(U(i)(i)a)(uo<i) .<Da»0(UOo <u 
 
 73 
 
 S^ OOO 
 
 TtfOOOUSOOOOOOOO-^OOtOOOS ■* 
 (MTfiot^OOOiaoO«>00500CD030S rt< 
 00t-O(MOO(M«0OOMO00rH'*t-Oai \a 
 
 ;j^ 05C0C0 ■* 
 
 a>' 
 
 ^■2*^ft <A,?> nS ri '^•;:^ S-- i^''3 
 
 .Jl Pplplii^ipllllll 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 746 
 
 t-eooo-^o y-\ irtooooooooooo la ooeco 
 
 eoiH^O'*io iH irj o 50 o « «5 lO th cv] to o cc th«do 
 
 rjJ'o CO o't- CsT iH «D O U5 O lM"t-^lf5 00 oTm W -^ 00 OO 
 
 touiooirsm (M •^ti'M'^ob-ocjiMo-^t^ oo looo-* 
 
 as'^Toous-t* -^ iH<xifOo«ciooooiHOooiM o i-tcjt- 
 
 1/5 05 (35 to 00 CO 00 ^^r^'^'>^■r^eO'>^lAta•^l>^ r-T MOSIO 
 
 iHOlaS'^OSOO iH O5(3500t^t^«OtOWl'«l<eOC0 CO 'Mr-tl3S 
 
 CO e^ iM «^ <M Svl <M i-H rH r-l rH rH tH iH T-l 1-t iH iH iH tH iH 
 
 . O U U O d O > 
 
 D (U CJ (D (Jj <u O 
 
 .QQQQQ Q ^ 
 
 •tH •-*iH-*'*^,«O(M00 00 OOtClO 
 
 •iH • iH CI tH 0<J i-l(M T-l (M iHN 
 
 I . I . .• .c^ . . . :::; . . • 
 
 .O .0>07-1000 P- os+j 
 
 ft 
 
 ooooso o in 
 
 COOOCOO t>- CO 
 
 osinousM th CO 
 
 =«P 
 
 >.§» 
 
 Mcq 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 4-jr) 03 
 
 i'(3S^^'-^ ^f^ 
 
 Ic5|^^c^=« 
 
 oooiooooo o ooo 
 f o -"f t^ irt c^j o o ooo 
 ;oiMTj<usc>T<*<<ji •* tocsto 
 
 
 9-° c afc:5p.gga??«0 
 
 life |l-^g^Pl||«^£^S^| 
 
746 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 31,000 kw. ; hydro, 50,000 kw., total 80,000 k\v. Ratio of steam to 
 hydro, 62%; to steam plus hydro, 38%. It was planned to increase 
 the hydro capacity to 60,000 kw., making the above ratios 52% 
 and 34%, considered more desirable. 
 
 Puget Sound Traction, L. & P. Co., Seattle, Wash. Rated capa- 
 city, steam; 19,950 kw. ; hydro, 57,750 kw. total: 77.700 kw. Ratio 
 of steam to hydro, 35%; to steam plus hydro, 26%. Peak load, 
 60,500 kw. Ratio of peak to capacity, 70%. Ratio of steam capa- 
 city to peak, 33%. Steam plant on overload will carry 40% of peak 
 which was considered satisfactory. 
 
 Utah Power & Light Co., Salt Lake City. Rated capacity, steam, 
 25,400 kw. ; hydro, 85,305 kw., total, 110,705 kw. Ratio of steam 
 to hydro, 30%; to steam plus hydro, 23%. Peak load, 45,064 kw. 
 Ration of peak to capacity, 41%. Ratio of steam capacity to peak, 
 56%. This last was considered high but not unreasonable. Ratio 
 of steam peak to steam capacity. 59%. 
 
 Analysis of Kilowatt- Hour Costs of Combination System. The 
 accompanying data on the generating system and energy costs of 
 the Pacific Gas & Electric Company, San Francisco, Cal., abstracted 
 from Electrical World, August 2, 1913, were brought out during a 
 recent rate investigation by the San Francisco Board of Super- 
 visors' committee on lighting and rates: 
 
 COST DETAILS. PACIFIC GAS & ELECTRIC COMPANY 
 
 Cost of generation, on basis of 72,160,908 
 
 kw.-hr. : Perkw.-hr. 
 
 Maintenance of generating capital $45,813.57 $0.0006349 
 
 Generating expenses 530,770.98 .0073554 
 
 Taxes 110,247.48 .0015278 
 
 Fire insurance 62,018.16 .0008594 
 
 Casualty insurance 43,714.67 .0006058 
 
 Floating debt, interest 2,480.75 .0000344 
 
 General administrative expense 94,811.10 .0013153 
 
 $889,956.71 $0.0123330 
 
 Cost of distribution, on basis of 66,957,215 
 kw.-hr. : 
 
 Maintenance of distribution capital ... .$123,296.29 $0.0018414 
 
 Outside work 186,669.26 .0027879 
 
 Statements and collections 34,551.94 .00051(50 
 
 Office 106,976.93 .0015977 
 
 New business 67,706.94 .0010112 
 
 Sundry expenses ... 31,867.07 .0001759 
 
 Uncollectible accounts 17.601.07 .0002631 
 
 $568,669.50 $0.0084932 
 Interest : 
 
 Joint capital, $3,539,903.91 at 7% $247,793.27 $0.0034339 
 
 S. F. capital, $6,853,872.68, at 7% 479,771.08 .0071653 
 
 $0.0105992 
 Depreciation, 25-year annuity, at 7%: 
 
 .Joint capital, $2,523,459.52 $39,897.16 $0.0005959 
 
 S. F. capital, $4,868,808.43 76.978.30 .0011496 
 
 $0.0017455 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 747 
 
 SUMMARY OF COST OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 Maintenance of capital $0.0024763 
 
 Generation 0073554 
 
 Distribution 00665.1 8 
 
 Overhead expense 0043426 
 
 Interest i' 0105992 
 
 Depreciation 0017455 
 
 Total $0.0331708 
 
 Deduct revenue from minimum charge, $11,972.63 0001788 
 
 Net cost per kw.-hr $0.0329920 
 
 The steam plants of the Pacific Gas & Electric Company produce 
 about 78,000,000 kw.-hrs., in addition to which 19,000.000 kw.-hrs. 
 is received from the hydroelectric stations of the system. Of the 
 97,000,000 kw.-hrs. thus available at the switchboard it is estimated 
 that 31%, or 30,000,000 kw.-hrs., is lost in distribution, in addition 
 to 150,000 kw.-hrs. consumed by the company itself, leaving 66,- 
 957,215 kw.-hrs. as the basis for figuring cost of distribution. To 
 nearby hydroelectric lines the company sells, however, about 5,200,- 
 000 kw.-hrs., making a total generation of 72,160,908 kw.-hrs. (to 
 be exact), which is taken as the basis for calculating unit gener- 
 ating cost. 
 
 Operating and Cost Data for Electric Railway Power Stations. 
 Electrical World, October 28, 1916. The data in table IT are a 
 summary of similar information compiled for seven electric railway 
 power stations by the power generation committee of the American 
 Electric Railway Engineering Association and presented in its re- 
 port at the convention held at Atlantic City, N. J., Oct. 9-13, 1916. 
 The information was secured from typical power stations in vari- 
 ous parts of the country, some of which employ large modern 
 turbines, others combined low-pressure turbines and reciprocating 
 engines, and still others all reciprocating engines. The range in 
 rating is from 6000 kw. to 65,000 kw. The committee pointed out 
 in pi'esenting these data that to obtain a fair comparison of operat- 
 ing efficiencies and costs which may be generally applied, a much 
 greater amount of information should be obtained in each case, such 
 as daily load curves, labor costs for various classes of work, facili- 
 ties for receiving and disposing of coal and water, cooling water 
 limitations, etc. The data, however, give in a general way the 
 tendencies in regard to electric railway station performance under 
 varying conditions of load factor, fuel cost and types of equipment. 
 
 In commenting upon these data, L. P. Crecilius, Cleveland (Ohio) 
 Railway Company, pointed out that there is less than 5% difference 
 in expense between the operation of the best modern turbine plant, 
 according to data furnished by the committee, and that of an old 
 direct-current engine plant. The reason given was that most of 
 the remaining power stations of this character were built fifteen 
 to eighteen years ago and located without suitable regard for water 
 facilities. It was of prime importance to locate these stations 
 more with regard to accommodating the low-tension distribution 
 systems because of the restriction imposed by the 600-volt equip- 
 
'48 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 > 
 < 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 Ph 
 
 H 
 
 y % 
 
 ^ .S 
 
 H ^ 
 
 s % 
 
 LSirao 
 
 OtOT-i 
 
 
 woboQ 
 
 ICBOiM 
 
 ^o t> <^^ ?6 o o M* o | 
 
 in rHt- ® . 
 
 o6 <±i(M 
 
 e»3 '^^ ■* M iM 
 
 o o c<j 00 eo 
 
 iHCO 
 
 * * « 
 
 00<M<M 
 
 aicvs«c>c«3'£>'HOovacoiH 
 
 tHtHO O 
 
 OOO 
 OSOO 
 
 «ooc- 
 
 uaoo 
 
 coiooo 
 
 ^UStHooOOJCOOOOO 
 CO «> CO i-llfl<C>Tj<Ot--*0000 
 
 oo«> 
 
 OOiH 
 
 I cot 
 
 •X^ '^'-Ho> eocoo 
 
 Tt<ooeo 
 
 .ot>c-< 
 
 .oo< 
 
 woo 
 
 a5_oo_ 
 
 CO us us 
 
 CO cot- 
 do r4 
 
 11°. S5?S 
 
 "=^.0 CO MO 
 
 ^USrHrHi-tTHOOOOt— rt<0000 
 iHwOO-^OSOOUSC^iHCOOOOO 
 
 o 
 
 
 OOCO«>-*OOtHOO © 
 r-l 00 0€«- 
 
 O K 
 
 72 S t- . . 
 O ? 0; » 
 
 o.. cctr:© 
 
 3 5^ c '3 t^ 
 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 749 
 
 
 K 
 
 ooo 
 
 
 -^ oco • 
 
 ,£SS 
 
 ooin 
 
 
 o ^ o oi - 
 
 COOt- 
 
 
 CO C-J CO CO • 
 
 fe3SEi 
 
 iHCOt-T 
 
 
 oco'coc^]" * 
 
 3iig 
 
 t^T-llH 
 
 
 r-l^ . 
 
 t- 3^ 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 p.-^ c 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 «s 
 
 
 
 
 
 OiolO 
 
 CO rH U5 t- t- 
 
 
 s 
 
 Oirsoq 
 
 t-<»?£>coai«o 
 
 
 irt^^ 
 
 CO -r U5 -M^CD ^• 
 
 
 03 
 
 5h 
 
 ■^I'lHr-T 
 
 C O M CO ttToO 
 
 
 <D 
 
 OrHrH 
 
 rH-f.00 
 
 
 > 
 
 iM 
 
 «» 
 
 
 < 
 
 co" 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ■^Mt^-iM^COCOO* C005 
 
 M- -^ o- oT' " o o "^' kn <M Tji 
 o i-i o cr. X ov ex: ■=>. rf< t- eo 
 
 ■*_ T-^ 00 00 t> «> CD o 
 O ci OS O CD rH rH O 
 
 OOoO 
 
 CDCDOCOOOO 25 
 
 00 ^^ ooeocioot- '#in)U5C--*t~-irt<co 
 
 OOrHrH r-l-^'D o'cn'rHOCOiM'r-Jc'O 
 
 "1 O C-JCD <=.€«• 
 
 ^ '=*' iH 
 
 OoO 
 Ooo 
 
 ^1 ^-oo-cd" 
 
 CO 
 
 OioiA 
 lOo ir- 
 coaioo 
 
 TTcoCO 
 OrHiH 
 CO 
 
 OOl 
 00(35000 
 Irt ,-1 rH 00_ 
 
 o' -rt* CO -^ 
 
 oj usoca 
 
 OOCOooCOO'lO 
 C-ICOirti-H^'^^Ol 
 
 o o M -^^ 00 
 
 rH COO 
 
 * 00 
 
 iOCCD 
 jCOIMtJI 
 
 OOrH 
 
 irtcoo 
 
 OOrHOOO-^t-OOOO 
 <M OC r- 'O CD r-1 Lft o O O O 
 
 OOOCDCOujrHrHoO O 
 rHCD o€«- 
 
 *" :-2 
 
 S : 
 
 
 
 : osS . > 
 
 3 
 
 2:§ 
 
 2-? 
 
 O O aS i;"iy 
 
 OS c'^'C C 
 ,03-2 o o 
 
 >-5 
 
 "So. 
 
 ' 0) 2 &C 
 
 3 3 
 CD CD 
 
 
 
 0)' '-^ J-c 
 
 > 5r' t, 1^ 
 
 ^77 3 o3-M , a 
 
750 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ment. The range of usefulness of this type of plant was limited 
 to a radius of less than 15,000 ft., making- it impossible to serve 
 the average railway system from a single plant. The rating of 
 such plants was confined to about 1200 kw. The addition of low- 
 pressure turbines coupled to direct-current generators has in a few 
 cases prolonged somewhat the effective life of such plants, but taken 
 as a whole, the continued expansion and growth of electric rail- 
 way systems has outdistanced this type of station because of its 
 inflexibility. 
 
 Labor Costs of Operation in Street Railway Power Plants. The 
 following costs were taken from tables in Data, November, 1913, 
 and February, 1914, by C. C. Moore & Co. 
 
 ALTERNATING CURRENT PLANTS 
 
 No. of men and rate per month 
 
 Size of plant, kw. 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,000 
 
 Chief engineer 1-$125 1-$125 1-$125 1-$125 
 
 Ass't engineer 
 
 Watch engineer 2- 100 2- 100 2- 100 2- 100 
 
 Boiler room engineer 
 
 Oilers 3- 60 4- 60 4- 60 4- 65 
 
 Fireman j ^- |^ | ^3 ^^ 3- 70 3- 75 
 
 Boiler cleaners 1- 65 1- 70 U" JJ U~ \\ 
 
 Wipers 2- 60 2- 60 2- 60 2- 60 
 
 Generator men 2-60 2-70 2-70 2-70 
 
 Total cost of labor per year $12,180 $13,200 $14,940 $15,240 
 
 Cost of labor per kw. per yr. $6.09 $5.28 $4.98 $3.81 
 
 Cost of labor inr?0.25(a) .00278 .00241 .00227 .00174 
 
 l^ii?r« ^^r vi, -SSi/^ .00209 .00181 .00171 .00130 
 
 ^^^t li^^ f^^'i -50 .00139 .00121 .00114 .00087 
 
 fn^Q Tinta^ -75 .00093 .00090 .00076 .00058 
 
 tors noiea . . . . . [^ -^ qq .00070 .00060 .00057 .00043 
 
 Sizeof plant, kw.-hr. 5,000 7,500 10,000 15,000 20,000 
 
 Chief engineer 1-$135 1-$135 1-$150 l-$200 l-$250 
 
 Ass't engineer 1-120 1-125 2-125 
 
 Watch engineer 3-100 3- 110 2- 120 5- 110 5- 110 
 
 Boiler room engineer 1- 90 1- 90 1- 100 1- 100 
 
 Oilers 5- 65 8- 65 10- 65 15- 65 20- 65 
 
 Firemen 3- 75 5- 75 6- 75 10- 75 12- 75 
 
 Boiler cleaners [3- 65 6- 65 7- 65 10- 65 | 2- 70 
 
 U- 70 UO- 65 
 
 Wipers 3- 60 3- 60 4- 60 6- 60 8- 60 
 
 Water tenders 3- 75 3- 75 6- 75 
 
 Electricians 1- 90 1- 90 
 
 Switchboard men 1- 75 2- 80 {i~ H ^~ ^^ ^~ ^^ 
 
 Generator men f 1- 65 3- 65 2- 65 3- 65 5- 65 
 
 12- 70 
 
 ^, , 1 7n il- 65 fl- 65 (2- 65 
 
 ^^^rks 1- 70 {i_ 70 {i_ 70 ^i_ 70 
 
 Total labor cost, year. .. $20,520 $29,340 $37,560 $55,320 $71,280 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 751 
 
 Labor cost, per kw. per yr. $4-10 
 
 0.25(a) .00187 
 
 .331/3 .00141 
 
 .50 .00094 
 
 .75 .00062 
 
 1.00 .00047 
 
 Cost of labor 
 in dollars per 
 kw.-hr. at load 
 factors noted 
 
 $3.91 
 
 $3.76 
 
 $3.69 
 
 $3.56 
 
 .00179 
 
 .00172 
 
 .00168 
 
 .00163 
 
 .00134 
 
 .00129 
 
 .00126 
 
 .00122 
 
 .00089 
 
 .00086 
 
 .00084 
 
 .00081 
 
 .00060 
 
 .00057 
 
 .00056 
 
 .00054 
 
 .00045 
 
 .00043 
 
 .00042 
 
 .00041 
 
 (a) Yearly plant load factor based on 365 days, 24 hours per 
 day, 8760 hours per year. 
 
 All plant under 4000 k.w. capacity are operated continuously for 
 20 hours per day, two 10-hour shifts. 
 
 DIRECT CURRENT PLANTS 
 
 No. of men and rate per month 
 
 Size of plant, kw. 100 
 
 Chief engineer l-$85 
 
 Watch engineers 1-80 
 
 Oilers 
 
 Firemen 1-60 
 
 Boiler cleaners 
 
 Wipers 
 
 Generator men 
 
 Total cost of labor per yr $2,700 
 
 Cost of labor per kw.. per yr. . . $27.00 
 
 r 0.25(a) .01233 
 
 Cost of Ikbor in dol- .33V^ .00925 
 
 lars per kw-hr. at^ .50 .00616 
 
 load factors noted .75 .00410 
 
 [ 1.00 .00308 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 .-$85 
 .- 80 
 
 l-$85 
 1- 80 
 
 l-$90 
 1- 80 
 
 60 
 
 1- 60 
 
 1- 60 
 
 $2,700 $2,700 $2,760 
 
 $13.70 
 .00616 
 .00462 
 .00308 
 .00205 
 .00154 
 
 750 
 l-$90 
 1- 85 
 
 1- 60 
 
 2- 70 
 
 Size of plant, kw. 400 500 
 
 Chief engineer l-$90 l-$90 
 
 Watch engineers 1-80 1-85 
 
 Oilers 1-60 
 
 Firemen 1-60 1-60 
 
 Boiler cleaners 
 
 Wipers 1-60 1-60 
 
 Generator men 
 
 Total cost of labor per 
 
 yr $3,480 
 
 Cost of labor per kw. 
 
 per yr $8.70 $8.52 $6.96 
 
 0.25(a) .00397 .00389 .00318 
 
 .331,^ .00289 .00292 .00238 
 
 .50 .00199 .00195 .00159 
 
 .75 .00132 .00130 .00106 
 
 1.00 .00099 .00097 .00079 
 
 $10.80 
 .00493 
 .00370 
 .00247 
 .00164 
 .00123 
 
 1,000 
 1-$110 
 
 1- 90 
 
 2- 60 
 
 2- 70 
 
 1- 60 2- 60 
 
 $9.20 
 .00420 
 .00315 
 .00210 
 .00140 
 .00105 
 
 1,500 
 1-$120 
 
 1- 90 
 
 2- 60 
 2- 70 
 
 1- 65 
 
 2- 60 
 2- 60 
 
 Cost of labor 
 in dollars per 
 kw-hr. at load 
 factors noted 
 
 $4,260 $5,220 $6,960 
 
 $6.96 
 
 .00318 
 
 .00238 
 
 .00159 
 
 .00106 
 
 .00079 
 
 $9,300 
 
 $6.20 
 
 .00283 
 
 .00212 
 
 .00142 
 
 .00094 
 
 .00071 
 
 (a) — Yearly plant load factor based on 365 days, 24 hours per 
 day = 8,760 hours per year. 
 
 Note: All the above plants are operated continuously for 20 
 houns, two 10 -hour shifts. 
 
 Relation of Unit Labor Costs to Size of Plant for Central Station 
 Work. Howard S. Knowlton published in the Engineering Maga- 
 zine, Sept., 1909, the following table. 
 
 The force at Plant A consisted of 6 engineers, 8 firemen, and 8 
 engineroom and switchboard attendants in the total 24 hours. The 
 generating equipment included 6 125-h.p., 2 350-h.p., and 4 400-h.p. 
 
752 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE OF LABOR COSTS IN SELECTED CENTRAL STATIONS 
 
 Plant 
 
 Appx. 
 
 kw. 
 rating 
 
 A 6,000 
 
 B 5,000 
 
 C 4,000 
 
 D 2,000 
 
 E 2,000 
 
 F 1,250 
 
 G 950 
 
 H 700 
 
 I 630 
 
 Total 
 station 
 wages 
 
 $25,937 
 20,920 
 19,429 
 9,954 
 9,663 
 6,844 
 8,771 
 6,669 
 5,017 
 
 Kw.-hrs. 
 manuf d. 
 
 8,776,165 
 6,043,204 
 5,400,192 
 3,288,623 
 4,305,003 
 1,470,066 
 1,479,898 
 889,760 
 730,458 
 
 Total 
 mfg. 
 
 Labor 
 cost 
 per 
 
 cost 
 per 
 
 0.296 
 
 0.346 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.302 
 
 0.224 
 
 0.465 
 
 0.595 
 
 0.750 
 
 0.685 
 
 cts. 
 1.21 
 1.23 
 1.24- 
 1.42 
 1.27 
 1.56 
 2.05 
 2.34 
 1.80 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 boilers; 1 1,000-h.p. and 3 900-h.p. engines, horizontal compound 
 condensing type; and 2 1500-kw. vertical steam turbines. A con- 
 siderable proportion of the 15 generators in the station were belt- 
 driven. The station design when the figures were taken was un- 
 favorable to labor economy. 
 
 Plant B was a modern station with economical direct-connected 
 machinery, and had 6 400-h.p. boilers, 1 300-h.p., 1 2250-h.p., and 2 
 750 h.p. engines, all of the vertical cross-condensing type. The 
 force consisted of 4 engineers, 3 oilers, 1 wiper, 4 switchboard men, 
 6 firemen and 2 coal passers. Probably this plant was somewhat 
 over-manned. 
 
 Plant C was a process of evolution from the belt-connected to the 
 direct-coupled stage, much of the transformation having been ac- 
 complished. The equipment consisted of 12 250-h.p. boilers, hand- 
 fired. 1 1500-kw. vertical turbo-alternator, 1 30u-h.p., 1 600-h.p., 
 1 1200-h.p. and 1 1800-h.p. cross-compound condensing engines. 
 The electric generators were 11 in number, 4 being used tem- 
 porarily for arc service. The force consisted of 4 engineers, 5 
 firemen, 16 engine-room and electrical operating men, and 3 ma- 
 chinists. The size of the force is undoubtedly due to the design 
 of the station. The plant covered a large floor space and is elec- 
 trically sub-divided so that not all the switchboard apparatus can 
 be covered from any one point. 
 
 Plant D is of almost the same ^iesign as Plant B, but of much 
 smaller capacity. Here the labor requirements have been care- 
 fully worked out with consequent results. The force consisted of 
 4 engineers, 3 oilers, 3 firemen, and 1 helper. The plant had 5 
 boilers of 258 h.p. each, and the following generating units, all direct 
 connected: 1 600-h.p. engine, 1 900-h.p. engine, and 1 1500-h.p, 
 engine, all vertical cross-compound condensing units. The switch- 
 board was a compact hand-operated structure, centrally located on 
 the engine-room floor. The boilers were hand-fired. 
 
 Plant E got its principal load from an adjacent street-railway 
 system. The force consisted of 3 engineens, 3 firemen. 2 coal pass- 
 ers and 5 helpers. The boilers were 1 125-h.p., and 9 150-h.p. units, 
 and engine sizes were 2 400-h.p, simple engines, and 1 100-h.p., 1 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 753 
 
 1250-h.p., and 1 200-h.p., and 1 800-h.p. compound condensing 
 units, with 15 generators. 
 
 Plant F had 4 boilers aggregating 1000 h.p. and 3 horizontal 
 cross-compound condensing direct-connected engines rated respect- 
 ively at 240, 450 and 1000 h.p. The force consisted of 4 engineers 
 
 ■cooo 
 
 5700 
 5400 
 GlOO 
 1800 
 4500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I • 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3900 
 3600 
 3300 
 3000 
 2700 
 2400 
 2100 
 1800 
 1500 
 1200 
 900 
 600 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 CU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 .1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • E 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \. 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Labo 
 
 Cost 
 
 Per K 
 
 ilowa 
 
 iHou 
 
 Gene 
 
 afcd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 *5 60 55 CO £5 TO 1 
 Hun(>edths of a Cent The Engineering ilaaazine \ 
 
 Fig. 3A. Curve of approximate relation between station capacity 
 and cost of wages. 
 
 and 4 firemen, and the conditions generally were favorable to the 
 economy of labor, but the plant was handicapped by a small yearly 
 output, being located in suburban town with little opportunity to 
 develop a substantial motor load. 
 
 Station G was of combined eng^ine and steam turbine equipment. 
 
754 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 well maintained, with moderate sized units of both belted and 
 direct-connected type. 4 boilers of 678 total rated h.p., with 2 
 horizontal cross-compound condensing- engines of 175 and 350 h.p. 
 and a 500-kw. vertical steam-turbo alternator. The operating force 
 consisted of 3 engineers, 2 firemen, and 2 electrical attendants. 
 
 Station H included 3 horizontal cross-compound condensing en- 
 gines, rated at 250 h.p. and a 211-h.p. simple engine, fed by 4 
 boilers aggregating 600 h.p. in capacity. The force consisted of 3 
 engineers, 2 oilers and 3 firemen. 
 
 Plant I was equipped with 3 engines and 6 generators, with a 
 liberal proportion of belted units, 3 boilers aggregating 550 h.p., 
 and all the engines were of the cross-compound condensing type, 2 
 being rated at 250 h.p., and one at 125 h.p. 3 engineers and 3 
 firemen did the work. 
 
 Fig. 3a shows the relation between station capacity and the cost 
 of wages. 
 
 Plants D and E are doing much better than the average and 
 show what can be accomplished with even a medium capacity in- 
 stallation. 
 
 The following table from the above figures gives the plant capa- 
 city and labor cost per kw. unit. 
 
 TABLE OF PLANT CAPACITY AND LABOR COST 
 
 Approx. kw. per Station wages per 
 
 Plant station employee kw. station capacity 
 
 A 272 $4.31 
 
 B 250 4.18 
 
 C 136 5.10 
 
 D 182 4.97 
 
 E 154 4.83 
 
 F 157 5.45 
 
 G 136 9.25 
 
 H 87.5 9.52 
 
 I 105 7.95 
 
 Cost of Generating Electric Power for Operating tine Elevated 
 and Subway Cars in Manhattan, New York City. The Interborough 
 Rapid Transit Co. operates both the subway and the Manhattan 
 elevated, and generates some 400,000,000 kw.-hrs. of electricity 
 annually. The following data as to the cost of producing this power 
 were deduced from their annual report for 1908 and published in En- 
 gineering and Contracting, Apr. 27, 1910. There are 2 power 
 plants, and the following is their total equipment and rated ca- 
 pacity : 
 
 Station equipment: 
 
 Boilers, 130 units 72,880 hp. 
 
 Superheaters, 1 2 units 9,744 hp. 
 
 Economizers, 36 units 261,040 hp. 
 
 Steam engines, 17 units 131,500 hp. 
 
 Turbo-generators. 4 units 10.250 kw. 
 
 Generators (direct A. C), 17 units 85,000 kw. 
 
 Station tran.sformers, 12 units 2,625 kw. 
 
 Storage battery cells, 240 units 2,000 amphr. 
 
 Rotaries, 3 units 2,400 kw. 
 
 Exciters, 9 units 2,250 kw. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 755 
 
 Substation equipment: 
 
 Rotary converters, 84 units 126,000 kw. 
 
 Transformers, 252 units 138,600 kw. 
 
 Miscellaneous, 39 units 2,109 kw. 
 
 There were 402,084,635 kw.-hrs. produced, of which all was used 
 to operate the subway and elevated railways except 10.181,000 
 kw.-hrs. which were sold. The selling price ranged from 1.25 to 3.5 
 cts. per kw.-hr., depending on the amount consumed. 
 
 " Shop Expense," and " Undistributed Expense," are charged to 
 maintenance of rolling stock as well as power plant, so we have 
 roughly prorated these items to the power plant maintenance, 
 although it is by no means certain exactly how they should be 
 charged. 
 
 " Buildings and Fixtures," probably includes a considerable sum 
 spent on buildings other than power plant buildings, and this should 
 be borne in mind when considering the following unit costs : 
 
 Cts. per 
 
 Maintenance : kw-hr. 
 
 Electric line 0.037 
 
 Buildings and fixtures 0.048 
 
 Steam plant 0.050 
 
 Electric plant 0.013 
 
 Shop expense 0.019 
 
 Undistributed expense 0.004 
 
 Total maintenance 0.171 
 
 Operation of power plant : 
 
 Wages 0.105 
 
 Fuel. 2,835 lb. at $2.95 per ton 0.353 
 
 Water 0.032 
 
 Lubricants and waste 0.009 
 
 Miscel. supplies and expenses 0.020 
 
 Undistributed expense 0.021 
 
 Total operation of power plant 0.540 
 
 Total maintenance and operation 0.7 11 
 
 General expense (514%) : 0.039 
 
 Grand total 0.750 
 
 Although the item of " General Expense " amounted to 10.7% of 
 the total operating expenses of the Interborough Rapid Transit Co., 
 nearly half this general expense was due to damages and legal 
 expenses. Eliminating these, the general expense would not amount 
 to more than 5.5%, so we have estimated it on that basis. 
 
 The cost of the power plant (55,000 kw.) and transmission line 
 of the subway is reported to have co.st as follows : 
 
 Electric transmission lines % 83 
 
 Buildings and fixtures 83 
 
 Power plant equipment 112 
 
 Real estate 25 
 
 Total $303 
 
 This is a high unit cost for the transmission lines and the build- 
 ings. Since the 95,000 kw. plant (subway and elevated) produced 
 402,084,000 kw.-hrs., each kw. produced 4,243 kw.-hrs, during the 
 
756 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ■ 
 
 year. Since there are 8,760 hrs. in a year, the plant operated under 
 an average load factor of 4,243 ^ 8,760 = 48.5%. 
 
 Assuming', for illustration, that the first cost of each kw. of 
 plant was $300, and that interest was 6%, we should have $18 in- 
 terest. This divided by 4,243 kw.-hrs. gives 0.42 cts. per kw.-hr. to 
 be charged to interest on investment, which, added to the 0.75 cts. 
 maintenance and plant operation, gives a grand total of 1.17 cts. 
 per kw.-hr. The maintenance of plant and transmission line cost 
 0.17 ct. per kw.-hr., which is equivalent to only 2.5% on a plant 
 whose first cost is $300 per kw. 
 
 If we consider only the power plant equipment ($112 per kw.), 
 the maintenance was 0.086 ct. per kw.-hr. Since each kw. produced 
 4,240 kw.-hrs., this is equivalent to 4,240 X 0.086 ct. = $3.65 per 
 kw. for power ])lant equipment maintenance. Since this is less than 
 3.3% of $112, the first cost, it is evident that these maintenance 
 costs are far below what they will be a few years hence, when 
 the plant is older. The elevated railway power plant was put in 
 operation in 1904, and the subway in 1905. 
 
 There were 2,385 lbs. of bituminous coal used per kw.-hr., and 
 the price was $2.95 per ton of 2,000 lbs. 
 
 The Interborough Rapid Transit Co. had the following number 
 of employes operating both the subway and the elevated during 
 the year ending June 30, 1908: 
 
 General office staff: 
 
 467 employes general office staff $657,024 
 
 Transportation : 
 
 106 Train clerks and dispatchers. 
 
 21 Starters. 
 
 11 Depot masters. 
 
 686 Ticket agents. 
 
 740 Gatemen and platform men. 
 
 2,173 Guards. 
 
 530 Conductors. 
 
 595 Motormen. 
 
 358 vSwitchmen, flagmen and yardmen. 
 
 1,198 Road and track men. 
 
 302 Station porters and watchmen. 
 
 2 Other employes. 
 
 6,722 Total transportation , $4,517,304 
 
 Power : 
 
 32 Engineers. 
 
 104 Oilers. 
 
 19 Wipers. 
 
 122 Firemen (stoker operators). 
 
 22 Coal passers. 
 30 Water tenders. 
 
 23 Ashmen. 
 
 32 Boiler cleaners. 
 89 Dynarno and switchboard men. 
 30 Electricians. 
 23 I.,inemen. 
 246 Other power plant employes. 
 
 722 Total power , 578,493 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 757 
 
 Car houses and shops : 
 189 Car cleaners. 
 
 22 Lamp trimmers. 
 169 Car house men. 
 
 48 Other car house employes. 
 210 Carpenters. 
 
 38 Blacksmiths. 
 
 94 Machinists. 
 114 Machinists' helpers. 
 
 3 Brass moulders. 
 208 Electrical helpers, -- 
 
 155 Painters. 
 310 Other shop employes. 
 
 1,560 Total car house and shops $ 857,900 
 
 9,521 Grand total 6,610,722 
 
 This is equivalent to an average wag-e of $13.40 per employe per 
 week. 
 
 Car miles 
 
 Rapid Transit Subway 44.005.213 
 
 Manhattan Ry. Co. (Elevated) 64,584,609 
 
 Total, Interborough Rapid Tr. Co 108,589,822 
 
 Since 391,900,000 kw.-hrs. were generated for 108.589,822 car 
 miles, it required 3.6 kw.-hrs. per car mile, at an average speed of 
 16.08 miles per hr. (including stops). There were 4.45 passengers 
 per car mile, or 71.57 passengers per car hour. 
 
 Cost of Generating and Distributing Electricity for Lighting and 
 Power. The following data are based upon the report of the New 
 York Edison Co., for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1907, as pub- 
 lished in Engineering and Contracting, May 11, 1910. 
 
 Plant. — There are 8 generating stations having a total rated 
 capacity of 108,300 kws., but 2 of these stations .supply nearly 80% 
 of the current. There are 23 substations of 93,750 kws. capacity. 
 The details of the plant equipment are as follows : 
 
 Station equipment: 
 
 144 boilers, water tube 76,382 hp. 
 
 45 superheaters 29,250 hp. 
 
 30 steam engines, direct connected 82,900 hp. 
 
 5 steam engines, belted 1,725 hp. 
 
 9 turbo-units, a.c 53,500 kw. 
 
 21 generators, direct connected, a.c 93,000 kw. 
 
 34 generators, direct connected, d.c 14,100 kw. 
 
 3 generators, belt connected, a.c 900 kw. 
 
 2 generators, belt connected, d.c 300 kw. 
 
 10 excitens, motor driven 1,400 kw. 
 
 3 exciters, steam driven 225 kw. 
 
 2 X 140 storage battery cells 12,000 ah. 
 
 2 station transformers 2,500 kw. 
 
 1 frequency changer 1,000 kw. 
 
 Substation equipment : 
 
 100 rotary converters, etc 93,750 kw. 
 
 276 transformers for rot'aries 108,735 kw. 
 
 32 by 150 storage battery cells, 3 hr. rate 192,000 ah. 
 
 The company had 70,533 meters and 34,531 arc lamps in service, 
 of which lamps it owned about half, and 2,655,085 incandescent 
 
758 MECHMICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 lamps. In round numbers there were the following amounts of 
 circuits : 
 
 Million 
 
 Ft. of mil. ft. 
 
 circuit of wire 
 
 Direct current (imderground) 10,183,000 4,619,000 
 
 Alternating- current (underground) 1,000,000 179,000 
 
 Alternating current (overhead) 1,096,000 794,000 
 
 Total 12,279,000 5,592,000 
 
 There were 639,735 lin. ft. of streets occupied by pole lines. The 
 underground wires occupied conduits rented from other companies, 
 a rental of $1,000 per mile of single 3-in. duct per year being paid; 
 aggregating a total of $845,000. This is an enormous rental, but it 
 should be remembered that the Edison Co. controls the companies 
 from which it rents the conduits. 
 
 The company owned 74,169 meters, the first cost of which is not 
 reported. The Edison Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn owned 18,088 
 meters whose first cost averaged $18.40 each. 
 
 The company owned the following lamps : 
 
 1,957 arc — a.c. inclosed. 
 13,806 arc — d.c, inclosed. 
 1,813 Nernst. 
 6,522 Glowers. 
 
 The total number of arc lamps on its circuits Dec. 31, 1907, was 
 34,547, and the total number of incandescents was 3,056,777. 
 
 There were 299,172,431 kw.-hrs. produced (at the switchboard) 
 and 209,024,002 kw.-hrs. sold (at the meters), showing a distribution 
 loss of 30%. 
 
 Since the plant capacity was 108,300 kws. and since there are 
 8,760 hrs. in a year, the total capacity was 950,708,000 kw.-hrs. 
 Therefore the plant factor was 299,172,431 -h 950,708,000 = 31.5%. 
 Each kw. produced 2.760 kw.-hrs. at the switchboard during the 
 year, of which 70%., or 1,932 kw.-hrs., was sold. 
 
 The operating expenses per kw.-hr. produced (at the switch- 
 board) were as follows: 
 
 Cents per 
 
 Production expense : kw-hr. 
 
 Salaries 0.012 
 
 Labor 0.171 
 
 Fuel 0.406 
 
 Oil, waste and sundries 0.018 
 
 Water 0.045 
 
 Repairs, buildings and structures 0.012 
 
 Repairs, motive power 0.070 
 
 Repairs, electric apparatus 0.007 
 
 Station expen.se 0.008 
 
 Purchased power 0.025 
 
 Total production expense 0.774 
 
 Distribution expense : ' 
 
 Salaries 0.021 
 
 Substation labor and expense 0.050 
 
 Rental of conduits, etc 0.339 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 759 
 
 Cents per 
 kw-hr. 
 
 Incandescent lamp renewals 0.147 
 
 Wiring and jobbing . 0.047 
 
 Repairing and maintaining str. lamps 0.023 
 
 Repairs, substation buildings and apparatus 0.068 
 
 Repairs, poles and lines 0.007 
 
 Repairs, subways and cables 0.01.9 
 
 Repairs, meters 0.074 
 
 Repairs and expense commercial lamps 0.004 
 
 Total distribution expense . . . . 0.799 
 
 General expense : 
 
 Salaries of officers 0.017 
 
 Office salaries 0.113 
 
 Office expenses 0.098 
 
 Legal expenses 0.039 
 
 Advertising and soliciting 0.073 
 
 Insurance 0.040 
 
 Engineering and testing 0.026 
 
 Leaseholds, rentals, etc 0.016 
 
 Total general expense 0.422 
 
 Taxes 0.235 
 
 Uncollectible bills 0.011 
 
 Depreciation and contingent expense 0.575 
 
 Grand total 2.816 
 
 The cost of operation was as follows per kw.-hr. produced (at 
 the switchboard) and per kw.-hr. sold: 
 
 Cents per kw-hr. 
 
 Produced Sold 
 
 Production expense 0.78 1.11 
 
 Distribution expense 0.80 1.14 
 
 General expense 0.42 0.61 
 
 Taxes , , 0.24 0.34 
 
 Uncollectible bills 0.01 0.02 
 
 Depreciation, contingency and renewal 0.57 0.82 
 
 Total 2.82 4.04 
 
 In considering these costs, it should be remembered that 35% of 
 the " Distribution Expense " is due to the rental paid for conduits 
 at an exceedingly high rate. 
 
 The item of " Depreciation and Contingencies " is worthy of 
 special note, as it aggregates the large sum of $1,721,413. Of this 
 sum $594,735 was actually charged off for depreciation, the balance 
 going to a " contingency and renewal fund," which, so far as can 
 be ascertained from the report, is but another name for a depre- 
 ciation fund. 
 
 The report does not show what the plant actually cost, but it 
 does show that $43,417,883 bonds have been issued, which doubt- 
 less represents approximately the actual cost, or about $400 per 
 kw. capacity. Possibly additions, paid for out of earnings, have 
 increased the cost to $500 per kw. 
 
 As throwing light on what such a plant may actually cost in 
 New York City, the following data relative to the United Electric 
 Total efficiency 56 
 
760 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Light and Power Co. will serve. This company was Incorporated 
 in 1887, and on June 30, 1907, it was operating 4 generating sta- 
 tions of a combined capacity of 10,200 kws. Its cost of construc- 
 tion and equipment was as follows : 
 
 Per kw. 
 
 Land for generating stations $ 22 
 
 Land for substations 3 
 
 Buildings for generating stations 23 
 
 Buildings for substations 5 
 
 Electrical and steam apparatus (generating) 92 
 
 Substation apparatus 31 
 
 Construction cables 165 
 
 Subsidiaries 20 
 
 Tools and implements 2 
 
 Stable equipment 4 
 
 Office furniture and fixtures 1 
 
 Installation: Includes line transformers, meters, arc 
 
 lamps, motors, etc 142 
 
 Maps and instruments 3 
 
 Total $523 
 
 The United Electric Light and Power Co. rented its conduits of 
 which it occupied about 300 miles of ducts, and it had 820,000 
 million mil. ft. of wire. 
 
 In our issue of April 6 we showed that the first cost of the 
 plant of the Edison Electric Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn was $437 
 per kw. 
 
 Let us express the cost of repairs on the New York Edison plant 
 in terms of kws. of rated capacity : 
 
 Repairs : Per kw. 
 
 Station buildings and structures $0.35 
 
 Motive power 1.95 
 
 Electric generating apjjaratus 0.21 
 
 Substation buildings and apparatus 1.87 
 
 Poles and lines 0.20 
 
 Subways and cables . 0.52 
 
 Meters 2.54 
 
 Street arc lamps 0.63 
 
 Commercial arc lamps 0.12 
 
 Total $8.37 
 
 Incandescent lamp renewals 4.46 
 
 Grand total $12.83 
 
 If these repair costs are expressed in percentages of the probable 
 first costs of tlje various items, it will be seen that they are all very 
 low. It would .seem, therefore, that the apparently large amount 
 ($1,721,413) charged off for depreciation and renewals is none too 
 high. 
 
 We have seen that the actual cost, as reported, was 4.04 cts. per 
 kw.-hr. sold. The average income was 6.49 cts. per kw.-hr. sold. 
 The plant represents a first cost of $500 per kw. — the interest 
 charge at 6% would be $30 per kw. We have seen that each kw, 
 produced 1,932 kw.-hrs. sold. Hence $30-^1,932-1.56 cts. This 
 is the interest charge, which added to 4.04 gives a total cost of 5.60 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 761 
 
 cts. per kw.-hr. sold. This would leave a profit of nearly 0.9 ct, 
 per kw.-hr. It should be remembered, however, that we have as- 
 sumed a high finst cost, and that a high price was paid for rental 
 of conduits. However, no exorbitant profit has been made al- 
 though the profit has unquestionably been liberal. 
 
 The payroll was approximately as follows for the year ending 
 June 30, 1907, based upon the payroll for the week ending June 
 29, 1907: 
 
 Employes : Total 
 
 881 General $ 672.678 
 
 519 Technical . 447,283 
 
 857 Generating plants 756,050 
 
 122 Sub.station plants 110,113 
 
 972 Distribution department 727,677 
 
 565 Construction department 450,69 4 
 
 98 Monthly salaries 256,306 
 
 4,014 Total $3,420,801 
 
 This is equivalent to an average of nearly $16.40 per man per 
 
 week. That this payroll is higher than normal is quite evident 
 from the following tabulation of wage earners on the payroll June 
 
 30 and Dec. 31, 1907. The average wage is that paid by the 
 
 Edison Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn, which presumably differed 
 little from the New York Edison Co. 
 
 June 30 Dec. 31 
 
 Foremen at $3.80 103 103 
 
 Assistant foremen at $4.03 43 44 
 
 Inspectors at $3.09 40 48 
 
 Engineers at $3.95 52 51 
 
 Firemen at $2.85 130 148 
 
 Coal passers at $2.22 31 47 
 
 Oilers and water tenders at $2.49 201 202 
 
 Electricians at $2.67 109 39 
 
 Electricians helpers at $1.84 24 
 
 Dynamo attendants at $2.33 47 40 
 
 Switchboard attendants at $3.13 97 100 
 
 Machinists at $2.77 56 ♦ 48 
 
 Machinists helpers at $2.13 56 53 
 
 Blacksmiths at $2.43 9 8 
 
 Linemen at $2.44 14 13 
 
 Lamp trimmers at $1.66 37 30 
 
 Wiremen and helpers at $2.59 186 131 
 
 Meter readers at $2.96 36 37 
 
 Teamsters and stablemen at $2.40 9 6 72 
 
 Electric wage earners not elsewhere specified at 
 
 $1.76 1172 782 
 
 Total wage earners 2,515 2,020 
 
 The number of salaried employes and their weekly wages for 
 the same time were as follows : 
 
 Canvassers at $25.48 71 55 
 
 Cashiers and bookkeepers, men, at $20.69 93 98 
 
 Cashiers and bookkeepers, women 25 26 
 
 Clerks (men) and salesmen at $15.93 395 343 
 
 Clerks and saleswomen at $8.71 36 40 
 
 Collectors at $23.36 29 34 
 
 Demonstrators at $14.46 1 
 
762 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 June 30 Dec. 31 
 
 Messengers, telephone operators, etc.. at $6.87.. 55 47 
 
 Stenographers, men, at $10 58 „ 39 36 
 
 Stenographers, women, at $13.01 65 57 
 
 Superintendents 17 17 
 
 Watchmen, elevator men. etc 132 110 
 
 All other salaried employes , . 533 429 
 
 Total salaried employes 1,49 1 1,282 
 
 Grand total employes 4,006 3,302 
 
 The average weekly salaries are based on those paid by the 
 Edison Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn. 
 
 For the half year, July 1 to Dec. 31, 1907, the total payroll was: 
 
 Officers ( 5 ) $ 25,000 
 
 Salaried employes . 626,955 
 
 Wage earners 988,320 
 
 Total $1,640,275 
 
 During- this same half year, 166,731,594 kw.-hrs. were generated, 
 and it required 4.11 lbs. of coal per kw.-hr. generated. The coal 
 was nearly all anthracite, less than 20% being bituminous, and the 
 average price was $1.96 per ton of 2,000 lbs. The high coal con- 
 sumption and the low price indicate a very poor quality. 
 
 Cost of Producing Electric Power. PJngineering and Contracting, 
 July 31, 1907, gives the co.st of producing electric power at the sta- 
 tion of the Cincinnati, Milford & Loveland Tracton Co., operating 36 
 miles of interurban electric railway. The plant is briefly described 
 as follows: The boilers are 4 400-h p. Sterling, operating under nat- 
 ural draft 8 (small) furnished by 2 54-in. by 100 ft. steel stacks, 4 6 
 by 4 by 6 in. Dean pumps in duplicate handle the feed water, 1 pump 
 running water to an 800-h.p. Cochrane open type heater where the 
 temperature is raised to 210 deg. F. and the other pump running 
 the water from the heater to the boilers. Condensing water is 
 supplied to a 750-h.p. Tomlinson condenser by 2 single stage centri- 
 fugal pumps direct operated by 7 by 7-in. marine engines. The.se 
 pumps o])erate at 300 rev. per min. and deliver 1,200 gals, per min. 
 The circulating pumps are set in a 12 -ft. pit in the boiler room and 
 have a minimum life of 50 ft. The engines are 16 by 34 by 42-in. 
 Allis-Chalmers cross-compound condensing. In order to give a high 
 output for their size the engines are operated at 125 rev. per min. 
 The generators are 500-kw. Bullock revolving field machines. They 
 generate 3 phase 25 cycle current at 4 00 volts pressure and have 
 an output of 721 amperes. Current for distribution of fields and 
 for station lighting is furnished by 22.5-kw. 125 volt generators 
 belted to an extra wheel bolted to the spokes of the flywheel. The 
 following is the statement of the output and operating cost of this 
 station for one month : 
 
 Labor : 
 
 2 engineers $150 
 
 2 oilers 100 
 
 2 firemen 100 
 
 1 general help 45 
 
 Total $395 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 763 
 
 Fuel and supplies : 
 
 342 tons coal at $2.10 $718.20 
 
 . Oil and waste 37.10 
 
 General supplies 33.25 
 
 Total $788.55 
 
 The output in kw.-hrs. was 168,000, so that the cost per kw.-hr. 
 at the switchboard was as follows : 
 
 Item Total Per kw.-hr. 
 
 Labor - $ 395.00 $0.00235 
 
 Fuel and supplies 788.55 0.0047 
 
 ^ Total $1,183.50 $0.00705 
 
 The total amount of coal burned during the month was 684,000 
 lbs., or 4.07 lbs. per kw.-hr. 
 
 Cost of Power. The followin.g is abstracted from a paper by 
 Frederick Darling-ton presented before the A. I. E. E., Pittsfleld, 
 Mass., Jan. 18, 1912. 
 
 The flg-ures given below are for the cost of producing electric 
 power in steam plants carrying railroad loads under conditions 
 that are widely prevailing in the United States, These figures 
 are not exact costs taken from any particular power plant, but 
 are average costs worked out from actual results in several 
 steam plants on heavy railroad and other work, so shown as to 
 permit easy analysis for varying conditions of load and for differ- 
 ent fuel costs, etc. 
 
 Cost 
 
 per yr. 
 
 per kw. 
 
 Total cost of plant Per 
 
 per yr. capacity kw-hr. 
 
 Operating labor $52,500 $2.10 0.100 
 
 Operating materials (exclusive of fuel) 15,000 0.60 0.025 
 
 Labor for maintenance of plant 15,000 0.60 0.025 
 
 Material per maintenance of plant.... 17,500 0.70 0.030 
 
 Total cost of power plant, operation 
 
 and maintenance, exclusive of coal 
 
 per year $100,000 $4.00 0.180 
 
 Add the cost of coal at $1 per ton for 
 
 coal of 13.500 B.t.u. per lb 82,500 3.30 0.15 
 
 Note : — The fuel cost will increase as 
 
 the cost per ton increases or the 
 
 quality falls off 
 
 Other expenses pertaining to power 
 
 plant operation, such as adminis- 
 tration, legal and general expenses 10,500 0.42 0.02 
 
 193,000 7.72 0.35 
 
 Add for fixed charges on the cost of 
 
 power plant 225.00 9.00 0.41 
 
 Total cost of power per yr. with coal 
 at $1 per ton and a load factor 
 25% $418,000 $16.72 0.76 
 
 The figures given are the cost, including fixed charges, of 
 producing power in a 25,000-kw. steam turbine plant, containing 
 
764 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ' 
 
 5 main units of 5000-kw. nominal capacity each, but capable of 
 carrying- 50% overload or more in emergencies. 
 
 The yearly production of power is assumed at 55,000,000 kw.-hrs. 
 or a load factor of 25% on a maximum load of 25,000 kws, which is 
 the total nominal capacity of the 5 g-enerators. It is equivalent 
 to an average operation of all of the generators for 2200 hours per 
 yr. at their rated capacity. 
 
 Such is the cost of electric power g-eneration by steam for heavy 
 railroad operation and general central station service. 
 
 There are 2 factors in the foregoing costs which are liable to 
 maximum variations, viz., the cost of fuel alid the- average load 
 on the plant, or as it is called, the load factor. Tla^e assumed 
 maximum load of 25,000 kws. could easily be carried on 4 ordinar^ 
 5000-kw. nOrminal capacity steam turbine generators, and leave 
 one spare unit in a 5 -unit station. At 25% load factor as assumed 
 above (25,000 kws. maximum load and 55,000,000 kw-hrs. per year), 
 the result in thermal efHciency would be about 8.4%. It is difficult 
 to determine from actual results just what the thermal efficiency 
 would be at other load factors, but as it is sometimes necessary to 
 know this as a basis for arriving at the fuel costs under varying 
 load conditions, the following approximate figures are given for 
 these variations. The coal is assumed to contain 13,500 B.t.u. 
 per lb. 
 
 Yearly load 
 
 
 
 factor (ratio 
 
 Average 
 
 Thermal 
 
 of maximum 
 
 operation 
 
 efficiency 
 
 load to aver- 
 
 peryr., hrs. 
 
 of plant 
 
 age output) 
 
 
 
 10%) 
 
 876 
 
 6.5% 
 
 20 " 
 
 1752 
 
 7.8 " 
 
 25 " 
 
 2190 
 
 8.4" 
 
 30 " 
 
 2628 
 
 9 " 
 
 40 " 
 
 3500 
 
 9.8 " 
 
 45" 
 
 3940 
 
 10.1 " 
 
 Cost of coal 
 
 per kw-hr. at 
 
 $1.00 per short 
 
 ton 
 
 0.20 cent 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.13 
 
 0.125 
 
 It would be difficult to demonstrate in detail the economies that 
 can be derived from combinations of mixed power service from the 
 above plant compared with power for only one industry like rail- 
 roads, but analysis of the schedules of costs and thermal efficiencies 
 for a 25,000-kw. plant, working at 25 per cent, load factor, proves 
 the broad assertion that in power generation large stations carrying 
 mixed loads afford the maximum economies. Take for example, the 
 cost of general expenses and of fixed charges and of power station 
 labor and material, exclusive of coal. These things are little af- 
 fected by the load factor, but even in so large a station as 25,000 
 kws. they amount to $13.42 per kilowatt per year, out of a total 
 cost of power of $16.72 per kilowatt per year, with good coal at 
 $1.00 per ton, or $20.02 with coal at $2.00 per ton, etc. Further- 
 more, even the fuel cost per unit of power generated will ordinarily 
 be less in mixed service plants than on i)lants for railroad work 
 only, since the former generally work at better load factors than 
 the latter. The better load factor comes for serving a diversity 
 of operations. Also with more operations the plant will be larger 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 765 
 
 and for this reason as well it naturally has a better load factor 
 and all unit costs are correspondingly less. 
 
 There are other important advantages from centralization of 
 power in large power plants, which will have important bearing on 
 the future of central station business, for industrial and for rail- 
 road power. One of these has to do with obsolescence and its im- 
 portance in this connection does not always receive the attention 
 that it deserves. Another is the utilization of ofC-pealc or secondary 
 power, which so far has been very little realized but which will 
 increase in importanee. 
 
 Cost of Power in a Plant with a Relatively Large Railway Load. 
 Electric Railway Journal, October 9, 1909. The return of the Hyde 
 Park (Mass.) Electric Light Company to the Board of Gas and 
 Electric Light Commissioners for the year ending June 30, 1909, 
 illustrates the cost of generating electrical energy in a station of 
 moderate size having a large railway load. Although the Hyde 
 Park Company handles an electric lighting and power business in 
 the suburb of Boston where its plant is established, by far the 
 greater portion of its output is utilized in the operation of trolley 
 lines at the south of Boston. The total normal capacity of the 
 station is 1965 kws. and in the year covered by the return the 
 company generated and delivered at its switchboard 3,990,634 
 kw.-hrs. Its total sales were 3,661,372 kw.-hrs., and of this amount 
 of energy 3,314,076 kw.-hrs. were sold to electric railway lines at a 
 price of practically 2 cts. per kw.-hr., the exact figure being 1.98 cts., 
 as deduced from the return. Practically 92% of the total generated 
 energy was thus sold — a much higher proportion than is usually 
 encountered in central station work, and due without question in 
 this case to the purchase of the railway power at the direct-current 
 switchboard of the station, with the avoidance by the central sta- 
 tion of the usual 15 to 30% distribution losses. 
 
 The equipment of the Hyde Park plant, as reported in the return, 
 consists of 9 150-h.p. Cunningham boilers with Hartford setting, 
 each having a 72-in. shell and 92 3.25-in. tubes; also 1 125-h.p. 
 Dobbins boiler with a Jarvis setting, 72-in. shell and 140 3-in. tubes 
 built for 110-Ib. steam pressure. The total rating of the boiler 
 plant is 1475-h.p. The engine equipment consists of the following 
 units : 
 
 1 Corliss compound, 24 by 48 by 48 ins., 80 rev. per min., 1250 hp. 
 1 Green compound, 24 by 38 by 48 ins., 100 rev. per min., 800 hp. 
 
 1 Mclntosh-Seymour compound, 13 by 23 by 17 ins., 200 rev. per 
 
 min., 200 hp. 
 Direct connected, respectively to 850, 525 and 100-kw., General 
 Electric, 500-volt, d.c, generators. 
 
 2 Armington & Sims 181^1, by 18 ins., 200 rev. per min., 200 hp. 
 
 belted and one Armington & Sims compound lOVo by 16 1/^ by 12 
 ins., 285 rev. per min., 100 hp., belted, driving 6-arc light 
 dynamos, four alternators of a total capacity of 330 kw. and 
 two 500-volt, d.c. generators of 100 kw. rating each. 
 
 The station was operated by a total force of 3 engineers, 3 fire- 
 men and 2 coal -passers. The company burned a mixture of soft 
 coal costing about $4.21 per ton and buckwheat at $3.26, the total 
 
706 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 fuel cost for the year being stated as $34,471.24. The station wages 
 cost for the year was $9,621.86. These were the two principal 
 items of cost at the switchboard, the total expense of manufacture 
 being about $50,000. The principal repairs tabulated were those of 
 the steam equipment, which came to $2,741.45. The electrical re- 
 pairs at the station were barely $1,100. The power production cost 
 was as follows in detail : 
 
 Cost of manufacture at switchboard as follows: 
 
 Kw.-hr. delivered at switchboard 3,990,634 
 
 Cost of manufacture at switchboard as follows : 
 
 Fuel $34,471.24 
 
 Oil and waste 778.22 
 
 Water 273.06 
 
 Wages at station . 9,621.86 
 
 Repairs, station building 90.59 
 
 Repairs, steam equipment 2,741.45 
 
 •Repairs, electrical equipment 1,101.33 
 
 Tools and appliances 698.05 
 
 Total $49,775.80 
 
 The cost per kw-hr. manufactured in cents was : 
 
 Fuel 0.86 
 
 Labor 0.24 
 
 Miscellaneous 0.15 
 
 Total 1.25 
 
 Installation and Maintenance of a Small Electric Light Plant. 
 
 The following is abstracted from an article in the May, 1906, issue 
 of Power. In Jordan, Minn., a town of 1200 inhabitants, was organ- 
 ized the Jordan Electric Light and Heating Company. 
 
 Adjoining a side track, and near the central portion of the town 
 a substantial building of brick, with cement tile floors, brick parti- 
 tions and a gravel roof was erected. It is 20 ft. in width and 54 in 
 length inside. 
 
 The source of water supply is a 3-in. tubular well bored just far 
 enough outside the building to allow the working of a well-drilling 
 machine. At a depth of 62 ft. a plentiful supply of water was 
 secured, coming to within 16 ft. of the surface. The well is located 
 opposite the pump section of the boiler-room, the pit extending 
 inside of the building and being open through the floor on the inside, 
 the outside being arched over with brick and covered with dirt, 
 making it frost-proof. An arch in the foundation of the building 
 carries the wall over the pit. Suction is depended on entirely for 
 drawing water. The top of the well casing is fltted with a tee, 
 the run being extended to form a vacuum chamber and the branch 
 leading inside to the pumps. A check is inserted near the well to 
 facilitate priming. 
 
 The pumping outfit consists of a Fairbanks, Morse & Company's 
 brass-fitted duplex steam pump 3 by 2 by 4, and a duplex power 
 pump 2.5 by 6, each set on a cement foundation. The stroke of 
 the plungers of the power pump is adjustable from 4 to 6 ins. The 
 pumps are cross-connected so that either can draw from the well 
 or tank and deliver to the boiler, tank or hose. In practice one 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 767 
 
 cylinder of the power puinp draws from the well and delivers to the 
 tank, and the other cylinder draws hot water from the tank and 
 feeds the boiler, the stroke of the plunger being set so that it 
 loses a little during the peak load, and gains on the light loads. 
 A tight-and-loose pulley allows the pump to be stopped when . de- 
 sired, or the water can be by-passed. During the two years of 
 operation of the plant the steam pump has been required but a few 
 hours. 
 
 An iron tank which is 6 ft. in diam. and 8 ft. high, with a 5 -in. 
 hole in the cover, is placed on the roof, and used as a combined 
 tank and heater. It holds enough water to fill the boiler one and a 
 half times. The 5 -in. exhaust pipe is led into it, besides the water 
 inlet and outlet pipes. The heating of the feed-water is accom- 
 plished by allowing it to drip over a series of shelves. These become 
 coated with a considerable thickness of scale in a short time which 
 is knocked off and shoveled out through a manhole in the side 
 of the tank. Under running conditions about 3 ft. of water is 
 carried in the tank. The delivery to the pump is taken from a 
 point 8 in. from the bottom through a frost-proof connection. The 
 temperature of the feed-water ranges from 160 to 190 deg. F. 
 
 On all feed-piping which is of 1.5-in. extra heavy pipe, tees and 
 crosses are used instead of ells, so that the inside of the pipe can 
 be inspected and cleaned without taking it all down, but this oper- 
 ation has as yet not been necessary. Both cylinders of the power 
 pump are provided with relief valves to guard against breakage In 
 the event of the belt being thrown on when the outlet valves are 
 closed. The feed is carried through the front head of the boiler 
 and discharged about two-thirds of the way back. 
 
 The boiler, which is 54 ins. in diam. and 14 ft. long, is of the 
 standard high-pressure, double-butt-strap triple-riveted, horizontal, 
 tubular type, with 44 3. 5 -in. tubes, and set in a regular air-space 
 brick setting, with stationary grates 4.5 by 5 ft., affording ample 
 grate area for burning low-grade fuel. This grate area has since 
 been reduced to 18 sq. ft. by placing a 12-in. dead-plate across the 
 back ends of the grates, which has improved the firing and economy 
 somewhat, besides affording a good place for banking fires. The 
 2. 5 -in. blow-off is protected by brickwork and provided with a 
 Jenkins special blow-off valve. The 4,5-in. main pipe leads from 
 the top of the boiler to a tee, into which is screwed a 3-in. pop 
 safety-valve set at 125 lbs., thence to an angle valve, thence to a 
 tee with a plugged opening to receive steam from a future boiler, 
 and thence to a tee in the engine room, where a 4-in. pipe leads to 
 the engine, a plugged opening being left for future connections. A 
 2.5-in. auxiliary pipe, also provided with a valve and a plugged 
 opening for future connections, supplies the tube-blower, pump, 
 engine-room gage and city fire whistle. The water column is con- 
 nected up with extra heavy tees and crosses and provided with blow- 
 offs leading to the ash pit. All live steam piping is covered with 
 .5 in. of felt over .625 in. of asbestos. 
 
 The stack, which is supported by the boiler setting in the usual 
 manner, is 30 ins. in diam. and 60 ft. high from the grates. Where 
 
768 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 it passes through the roof the woodwork is amply protected by an 
 iron ventilator, having 8 sq. ft. of opening, which can be opened 
 and closed at pleasure. A water-table above the roof effectively 
 prevents water from flowing down the stack into the boiler 
 room. The plates of the stack are inverted with the seams open- 
 ing upward. After the stack was erected these seams were filled 
 with a good machinery filler and then painted with graphite mixed 
 with linseed oil, which gives the stack a lasting dull black color. 
 No water enters the stack or boiler room, even during the heaviest 
 rains. 
 
 The coal room, located between the boiler room and the track, 
 is 11 by 36 ft. inside, and holds about 120 tons of coal. The coal 
 room has two doors for wheeling in coal, also an unloading device 
 which consists of a hay carrier and track, attached to the trussed 
 framework of the roof, and two automatic dumping boxes, dis- 
 charging through a hatch in the roof. At present this rig is 
 operated with a team of horses, and it requires about 3.5 hrs. 
 to unload a 30-ton car, costing about 8.5 cts. per ton, compared 
 with 10 cts. a ton for unloading with wheelbarrows when the bin 
 is empty and 20 cts. when partly full. The rig has now unloaded 
 upwards of 500 tons and shows no perceptible wear except the 
 rope, which will soon have to be replaced. 
 
 The engine room is 15 by 26 ft. inside and contains a Russell 
 11.5 by 12 single-valve automatic engine running at 300 rev. per 
 min. direct connected to a Westinghouse 45 kw. generator, together 
 with switchboard, desk, show-case, bench, supplies and merchandise 
 stores. The engine is nominally rated at 80 h.p. and is provided 
 with the usual sight-feed oiling devices for continuous running, 
 and a complete set of oil shields, allowing the oil to be fed liberally 
 without waste, insuring against stoppages from insufficient oiling. 
 The oil is then filtered and used over again, about 36 gals, of fresh 
 oil a year being required. 
 
 An independent sight-feed was attached to the oil chamber 
 of the lubricator, delivering oil through two ,125-in. pipes tapped 
 into the top of the steam-chest casting and connected by .0625-in. 
 holes drilled into the face of the valve seat. Since installing this 
 device, less oil is used with better results. An extension of the 
 engine shaft carries a 10-in. pulley for driving the countershaft 
 which drives the pump in the boiler room adjoining. A 5-in. 
 exhaust pipe is laid under the floor to the boiler room where there 
 is a .5-in. drip leading to a drain for keeping the pipe clear of water. 
 It then extends up through the roof to the tank. 
 
 The generator is a Westinghouse three-wire engine-type machine 
 delivering direct current at 115 and 230 volts. The leads and 
 balancing v/ires are carried through a glazed tile conduit, laid 
 under the floor of the switchboard. On the switchboard are 
 mounted one voltmeter, two ammeters, a field rheostat, and gener- 
 ator, arc and commercial switches. The station lights are wired 
 on a single two-wire circuit and a double-throw switch on the 
 back of the board enables the operator to throw them on either 
 side of the neutral, thus assisting to balance up any unevenness 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 769 
 
 in the load that may occur from time to time. The usual fuses 
 and lightning arresters are provided. 
 
 The distribution is mainly from a complete loop two blocks 
 long and 1.5 blocks wide, the power house being in the center of 
 one side of the loop. This loop is composed of 5 wires, one neutral 
 common to both arc and incandescent lighting, a pair of 00 com- 
 mercial feeders and a pair of No. 1 arc feeders. Branches are run 
 from this loop to out-lying districts, extending as far as 6 blocks ; 
 100- and 105-volt lamps are used on the longer extensions. This 
 system has given entire satisfaction. 
 
 There are now connected 18 arc lamps for the city, run on a 
 moonlight, 1 o'clock schedule, at $60.00 each per year, and about 
 700 incandescent lamps, three arcs and three motors aggregating 
 2.5 h.p., on the commercial lines. About 75% of the service is on 
 meters; the base rate of 12.5 cts. per kw.hr. is discounted, in pro- 
 portion to the amount used, to 10 cts. 
 
 The plant is operated from the usual dusk starting time to 
 
 1 A. M. and for 4.5 months of the winter season from 6 a. m. to 
 daylight. 
 
 The plant has now been in operation 2 years, but records of 
 operation were not commenced till 5 months after starting, at 
 which time the plant was considered to be in normal condition, 
 and the load was sufficient to make a showing. The total cost of 
 the plant and incidentals as inventoried at that time was, in round 
 numbers, $7300. During the year ending Nov. 1, 1904, 361.5 tons 
 of central Illinois coal were consumed, costing $1070.24. The total 
 output for the year was, as nearly as can be estimated from the 
 volt and ammeter readings, 50,370 kw.-hrs., which gives approxi- 
 mately 14.5 lbs. of load per kw.-hr., or $0.02175 for fuel. It requires 
 about 180 lbs. of coal an hr. to run one lamp ; this rate of fuel 
 consumption remains about constant until about 175 to 200 lamps 
 are reached, then it increases with the increase of load to about 250 
 lbs. for a 34-kw. load. 
 
 The load is very regular, gradually coming to a peak which holds 
 on for about two hrs.. then gradually falls off to 10 or 15 amperes 
 at shutting down time. 
 
 The mason work of the building was let on a contract which 
 covered brick and stone for both building and foundation, lime, 
 cement, sand, excavating and all labor connected with the mason 
 work 
 
 for $847.50 
 
 (Brick was selling in home market at $5.50 per M.) 
 
 Lumber bill, purchased as needed 184.07 
 
 Hardware bill, purchased on bids 30.73 
 
 Roof, purchased on bids 43.75 
 
 Additional hardware 4.00 
 
 Cement tile floors, laid complete 64.10 
 
 Carpenter work 15.98 
 
 Anchors, bolts and rods . . . '. 3,75 
 
 2 screen doors, 2 windowvS, and transom 5.50 
 
 Paint and painting 16.40 
 
 Supt, time charged to building ....,,....,,,,,,.,., 90.00 
 
 $1,305.78 
 
770 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The well was drilled for $1.00 per foot including 3-in. casing 
 
 to the rock, and the pit, costing complete $ 62.00 
 
 The foundation for the boiler and engine were laid at the 
 same time, by the day, the company furnishing the 
 material, therefore it is not practicable to itemize the 
 cost of each, but it is safe to charge 70% to the 
 engine foundation. 
 
 4 % Cd. stone, 1000 brick $ 25.65 
 
 Cement 18.00 
 
 Sand 2.1 
 
 Labor 22.75 
 
 $ 68.50 
 
 For the boiler setting 12 M. brick were used $ 66.00 
 
 600 fire brick, delivered 23.00 
 
 Bbl, fire clay 2 50 
 
 Lime 14 bbl 10.50 
 
 Cement 3.25 
 
 Sand 2.70 
 
 Labor 31.30 
 
 Superintendence 20.00 
 
 $159.25 
 Cost of boiler with water-column, safety valve, blowoff, 
 
 front and castings, and stack 713.00 
 
 Tank 6 ft. diam. by 8 ft. high, No. 12 steel 66.00 
 
 6 sets of shelves fitted to same 23.00 
 
 $89.00 
 
 Freight on boiler and tank 20.70 
 
 Cost of engine with sub-base complete, freight allow- 
 ance to St. Paul 915.00 
 
 Erecting and setting on foundation 24.12 
 
 Superintendence 12.00 
 
 $951.12 
 
 Freight on engine 22.90 
 
 Cost of dynamo delivered 1031.05 
 
 Setting up and starting 12.00 
 
 Switchboard complete 96.00 
 
 Station lightning arresters 23.00 
 
 Misc. items 18.35 
 
 Superintendence 45.00 
 
 $1225.40 
 The main steam and exhaust pipes were cut to diagrams, 
 and cost, including 4-in. valve on the boiler and all 
 
 fittings 68.84 
 
 Labor of erecting 26.00 
 
 $94.84 
 The auxiliary piping and valves, fittings, 50 ft. hose, flue 
 blower and scraper, iron wheel-barrow, waste, enough 
 packing to start with, in all making a list about 2 ft. 
 
 long, cost on bids 176.50 
 
 Additional 8.30 
 
 $184.80 
 Lump price on the power pump, 15 ft. of shafting, self-oil- 
 ing hangers, and pulley was .* 56.65 
 
 Steam pump 35.35 
 
 Freights 2.60 
 
 Foundations about 6.40 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 771 
 
 Labor and superintendence on setting up pumps and fit- 
 tings, piping in running oi'der 67.50 
 
 $168.50 
 The line, poles and arc lamps were purchased second-hand 
 
 and erected at a cost of 950.00 
 
 The estimate on new equipment was $1450.00. 
 In addition to the above the legal expenses on incorporat- 
 ing 91.50 
 
 Labor not charged to any item in particular 97.00 
 
 Superintendence not charged to anything in particular. . . . 149.64 
 
 Wiring power house 1 3.50 
 
 Coal hoist 61.50 
 
 Show case (without stock) 9.50 
 
 Value of lot occupied 450.00 
 
 Pine covering, put on one year after starting 19.50 
 
 Radiators 15.62 
 
 Office equipment, small additions, tools, service wires, ex- 
 tensions, the wiring equipment in an amusement hall 
 
 and park, etc. ; a long list of small items growing daily 475.00 
 
 Total $7270.55 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSP:S FOR THE YEAR ENDING NOV. IST, 1904 
 
 10 gals, cylinder oil $ 6.00 
 
 Insurance 18.78 
 
 Floor brush and broom 1.80 
 
 Stationery 1.70 
 
 10 gals, cylinder oil • 7.50 
 
 Packing 12.75 
 
 10 gals, cylinder oil 6.65 
 
 Extra labor 1.60 
 
 Repairs .40 
 
 Extra labor 1.60 
 
 Stamps and freight 1.25 
 
 Taxes 51.00 
 
 Expense account 1.53 
 
 31 gals, cylinder oil 19.35 
 
 Expense account 5.62 
 
 Arc globes 1.90 
 
 Stationery 2-25 
 
 Repairs, power pump 3.25 
 
 Repairs .60 
 
 Expense account .55 
 
 531/2 gals, cylinder oil 32.10 
 
 53 gals, engine oil 13.25 
 
 Freight and dray 2.50 
 
 Stationery .60 
 
 Repairs .65 
 
 Expense account 5.26 
 
 Telephone rent for the year 14.05 
 
 Arc globes 1.44 
 
 Cross arms and insulators for repairs 4.68 
 
 Boiler compound ^ 5.30 
 
 Carbons used, about 12.00 
 
 $ 227.91 
 
 361 1/2 tons coal $1070.24 
 
 Superintendent's salary, covering all labor expenses con- 
 nected with operating plant 1100.00 
 
 Secretary's salary : 25.00 
 
 Total without interest or depreciation $2423.15 
 
 Add 10% for interest and depreciation, part of the deprecia- 
 tion was kept up in the shape of repairs 730.00 
 
 Grand total of operating expenses for one year $3153.15 
 
772 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Design and Operation of Cleveland Municipal Electric Ligiit Plant. 
 
 Lefax, May, 1915 ; an abstract of an article by F. W. Ballard in 
 the Journal of the A. S. M. E.. Feb.. 1915, The new niiinicipal 
 lighting station on East Fifty-third street, Cleveland, Ohio, went 
 into operation July 20, 1914. The decision to build this plant 
 was the result of experience with a small station of 1,500-kws. 
 capacity, known as the Brooklyn Station which has been in opera- 
 tion by the city since 1906. 
 
 PLANT VALUE OF BROOKLYN STATION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 
 
 Bond issue 1902 ; $30,000.00 
 
 From taxes and general fund $320,796.24 
 
 Value of street lighting 109,147.02 
 
 Added from taxes and general fund 1906-1909 211,649.22 
 
 Added from earnings 306,533.21 
 
 Investment in plant, Dec. 31, 1913 548,182.43 
 
 Depreciation written oft Dec. 31, ^913 113,244.19 
 
 Depreciated value of station Dec. 31 $434,938.24 
 
 REVENUE AND E.KPBNSES FOR YEAR 1913 
 
 Total revenue from sale of current $185,698.81 
 
 Kw-hr. generated ..7,797,661 Ave. sale price. . $0.0238 
 Kw-hr. sold 5,656,668 Ave. sale price . . 0.0328 
 
 Total operation and maintenance expense 116,719.55 
 
 Kw-hr. generated ..7,797,661 Ave. cost price. .$0.0149 
 Kw-hr. sold 5,656,668 Ave. cost price . . 0.0206 
 
 Net earnings $68,979.26 
 
 Fixed charges — Depreciation and interest 19,079.50 
 
 Kw.-hr. generated ..7,797,661 Ave. cost price. . $0.0024 
 Kw-hr. sold 5,656,668 Ave. cost price . . 0.0033 
 
 Profit for year of 1913 $49,899.76 
 
 POWER STATION REPORT FOR YEAR 1913 
 
 Operation Unit cost 
 
 Labor $23,050.25 $0.0029 
 
 Oil, packing and waste 1,538.52 
 
 Water 3,110.00 
 
 Sunday expense 743.32 0.0007 
 
 Coal 39,275.42 0.005 
 
 Maintenance 
 
 Buildings $105.85 
 
 Boilers . 3,515.98 
 
 Engines and generators 3,449.72 
 
 Condansors and piping 606.91 
 
 Switchboard 153.48 
 
 Tools 223.81 
 
 Arc light equipment ; 661.88 
 
 Sundry repairs 246.21 0.0011 
 
 Total operation and maintenance $76,681.35 0.0097 
 
 Total kw-hr. generated 7,797,661 
 
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ■ — ■ OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE FOR YEARS 
 1912-1913 
 
 Poles and lines $ 7,342.53 $8,203.32 
 
 Arc lamps 2,241.68 4,485.53 
 
ELECTRIC 'LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 773 
 
 Meters 334.12 486.38 
 
 Tools 197.25 213,69 
 
 Wagons, harness, etc. 582.16 730.28 
 
 Stable expense, feed, etc 1,134.86 1,935.57 
 
 Carbons and globes 2,219.08 2,735.80 
 
 Trimming labor .' 2,811.25 2,437.48 
 
 Services, transformers, etc 3,224.87 6,166.62 
 
 Miscellaneous expense 573.40 1,084.94 
 
 Auto truck , ■ 923,61 
 
 Substation maintenance 2,054.98 
 
 $20,661.20 $31,846.50 
 
 Kw-hr. generated 4,611,853 7,797,661 
 
 Cost per kw-hr. generated ■ $0.00448 $0.00408 
 
 The new station equipment Qonsists of 3 turbine units of 5,000- 
 kw. each, 1,800 rev. per min 11,000 volts A. C. supplied with steam 
 at 225 lbs. and 125 deg. F. superheat. The boilers are installed 
 with 10,000 sq. ft. of heating surface. They are equipped with 
 Taylor underfed stokers and are intended to be capable of operat- 
 ing to 300% of rating. 
 
 The operation of the boilers at a high percentage of rating 
 means a higher temperature of flue gases. This, with the low 
 temperature of feed water, gives a temperature head between flue 
 gases and feedwater which will be practically double that ordinarily 
 obtained in economizer practice. This alone would be sufficient 
 to warrant the installation of a larger amount of economizer heat- 
 ing surface. Another factor, however, is the low interest rate of 
 4.5% on the investment to be balanced against the saving produced 
 in the economizers. These were installed by the Green Fuel Econo- 
 mizer Company and have a heating surface of 27,000 sq. ft. 
 
 The use of both forced and induced draught contributes greatly 
 to the flexibility of the installation, and makes it possible to carry 
 practically a balanced pressure in the combustion chamber, thus 
 avoiding one of the greatest sources of loss in boiler practice, 
 namely, the leakage of air through the boiler settings. 
 
 Coal is delivered overhead by railway cars, and discharged by 
 gravity into bunkers which have a capacity of 3,400 tons. From 
 these bunkers it is drawn through gates under pneumatic control 
 into an electric telpher, which moves back and forth from under 
 the bunkers on the track leading out over the stoker hoppers. The 
 coal hopper on this telpher is carried on scale beams, and the 
 weight of the coal and the time of delivery are carefully recorded. 
 The power for the motor driven auxiliaries is taken from a 1,000-kw. 
 turbine formerly in operation at the Brooklyn station, and will 
 be operated in connection with a Le Blanc condenser, the cooling 
 water for which will be drawn from a cistern used for the storage 
 of the boiler feed water and which takes also the condensate from 
 the three main turbines. The water in the cistern passes through 
 the jet condenser several times before it goes as feedwater to the 
 boilers and the connections are so arranged that the coldest water 
 is supplied to the condenser and the hottest to the boiler feed 
 system. The auxiliary motors in the station are connected through 
 a double bus systeni so tha^ each e^n be operated by current either 
 
774 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 from the auxiliary turbine or the main turbine. In this way the 
 load on the auxiliary turbine can be adjusted so that the temper- 
 ature of the feed water will be that best suited for delivery to 
 the economizers. 
 
 Tests showed that the 3 turbines were each capable of 7,500 kws. 
 continuous capacity and the auxiliary machine, of 1,500 kws., 
 making a total of 24,000 kws. maximum continuous capacity. The 
 station, however, is rated at 25,000 kws. All current supplied is 
 alternating-, even in the congested districts. 
 
 The results secured in the way of operation and maintenance 
 costs in the new power station itself for the months of August 
 and September are shown below. 
 
 Operation 
 
 August 
 
 Unit 
 cost 
 
 September 
 
 Unit 
 cost 
 
 Labor 
 
 Switchboard attendance . , 
 Oil, packing and waste . . . 
 Sundry expense 
 
 , . .$1,498.48 
 , .. 352.80 
 
 $0.0018 
 0.0004 
 
 $1,573.00 
 380.00 
 66.89 1 
 10.465 
 
 $0.0017 
 0.00042 
 0.00008 
 
 Coal 2,686.50 0.0033 2,415.69 0.0026 
 
 Maintenance 
 Condensers, piping, etc 5.48 
 
 Total operation and main- 
 tenance $4,543.26 
 
 Total kw-hr. generated 809,120 
 
 $0.0055 
 
 $4,446.04 
 914,850 
 
 $0.0048 
 
 The station during these 2 months has been operating at less 
 than .2 of its total capacity. The figures representing unit costs for 
 the various items of labor, maintenance, fuel, etc., are, of course, 
 considerably higher than can be obtained when the station is run- 
 ning up to its capacity, when it will be operating at a much higher 
 efficiency in regard to coal consumption per kw.hr., and also the 
 labor and other charges will be less per unit cost by reason of the 
 larger output. 
 
 Cost of Operating City Lighting Plant in Detroit. Electrical 
 World, April 29, 1916. The energy for the municipal lighting sys- 
 tem in the city of Detroit is generated at a steam station which 
 contains 1 5000-kw. and 2 2000-kw., 60-cycle, 2300-volt, two-phase 
 Westinghouse turbo-generators with steam-driven auxiliaries, A 
 triple expansion 800-h.p. Williams steam engine also operates a 
 600-kw. two-phase, 2300-volt Stanley alternator. The boiler plant 
 contains 4 300-h.p. double-deck tubular boilers with Hawley down- 
 draft furnaces, 1 300-h.p. Wickes vertical water-tube boiler with 
 Detroit stoker, 3 400-h.p. Wickes vertical water-tube boilers with 
 Taylor stokers and Foster superheaters, and 2 Sterling water-tube 
 boilers with Taylor stokers. The coal used is Meadowbrook lump 
 at $2.50 per ton, and nut, pea and slack at $2.25 per ton. 
 
 The city's lighting system load consists of 8193 4-amp. and 
 6.6-amp. series arc lamps for street lighting, and 1210 kw. of 
 carbon incandescent lamps, 4350 kw. of tungsten incandescent 
 lamps and 1840 h.p. in small motors and fans in public buildings. 
 To the main station 2554 arc lamps are connegted, with the re- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 775 
 
 TABLE III. COST OF OPERATING PLANT FOR YEAR ENDED 
 JUNE 30, 1915 
 
 Cost per 
 
 Maintenance : Total kw-hr. 
 
 Buildings, track, dock, etc $2,397.82 
 
 Steam plant 7,541.22 
 
 Electric plant 3,860.33 
 
 Miscellaneous tools and machinery 4,131.05 
 
 Conduits 1,196.30 
 
 Towers and lamp posts 1,787.06 
 
 Arc lamps and switches 6,868.32 
 
 Lines and cables 29,138.08 
 
 $56,920.18 $0.00329 
 Executive : 
 
 Salary secretary and city electrician $8,000.00 
 
 Printing and stationery 848.88 
 
 Store room 4,395.73 
 
 Office expense 8,695.28 
 
 Superintendence and drafting 6,881.33 
 
 $28,821.22 0.00166 
 Station : 
 
 Oils $481.28 0.00003 
 
 Waste 30.97 0.00000 
 
 Coal 64,375.32 0.00372 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 1,433.08 0.00008 
 
 Wages 38,523.88 0.0022.2 
 
 $104,844.53 0.00605 
 Lighting : 
 
 Trimming and patrolling $19,063.10 
 
 Electrodes 8,618.15 
 
 Rectifier tubes 1,721.00 
 
 Incandescent lamp renewals 4,801.61 
 
 Incandescent lighting expense 1,225.72 
 
 Globes 2,471.47 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 49.75 
 
 Belle I.sle Park 933.85 
 
 Palmer Park 79.20 
 
 $38,963.85 0.00225 
 
 Shop supplies $40.65 
 
 Surgeon and hospital 2,130.10 
 
 Relief fund 4.115.61 
 
 Total operating cost $235,836.14 $0.01361 
 
 Total kw-hr. output at switchboard 17,327,785 
 
 mainder connected to the distributing circuits from 5 substations. 
 The total operating expenses for the system, according to the 
 twentieth annual report of the Public Lighting Commission, just 
 published, are given in table III. The kw.hr. load represented by 
 the arc and the incandescent lamps, the total lamp-hours scheduled, 
 the station operating costs and the coal burned per kw.-hr. for the 
 12 months covered by the report, are shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 Cost of Construction and Operating Expenses of the Municipal 
 Electric Lighting Plant at Burlington, Vt. Engineering News, May 
 30, 1907. The municipal electric lighting plant, of Burlington, Vt., 
 was authorized by the City Council, in 1904, and Prof. W. H. 
 Freedman was retained as Consulting Engineer. The building con- 
 
776 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tract was let to a local builder on a cost-plus-10% basis. The 
 contract for the entire steam and electric equipment was awarded 
 to Bellman & Sanford, of 149 Broadway, New York City. 
 
 At the outset, the important question arose, whether the city 
 could exercise the right of " eminent domain " to secure the use of 
 existing poles in the corporate limits. The clause in franchises 
 providing for free attachments of all municipal signal wires, was 
 claimed as establishing precedent for free attachment of all muni- 
 
 1500 
 
 Pig. 4. 
 
 Jan. Feb. Mar Apr MayJune July Xu^.Sept Oct. Nov. Dec 
 |< .-.,9,5 ^. , 1914.. .^ 
 
 Lighting load and station operating costs for Detroit City 
 light plant. 
 
 cipal wires. However, instead of taking the question into the 
 courts, a compromise was effected whereby the city pays a rental 
 of 20 cts. per attachment per year. 
 
 The first equipment of the plant was in brief: 2 Atlas 150-h.p. 
 water tube boilers ; Sturtevant induced draft and economizer plant ; 
 2 Crocker-Wheeler 125kva., 2 3 00- volt, alternators direct connected 
 to Watertown, 200 h.p., 257 rev. per min., compound, slide-valve 
 engines ; 1 Wheeler jet condenser ; 3 Westinghouse constant current 
 transformers, of 100 arc capacity each; 218 Westinghouse enclosed 
 arc lamps. The cost of this installation is segregated in Table IV. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 777 
 
 TABLE IV. COST OF FIRST INSTALLATION 
 
 Building $8,899.75 
 
 Machinery 20,929.12 
 
 Line and lamps . 21,073.39 
 
 Consulting engineering- 2,972.94 
 
 Total $53,875.20 
 
 The service was entirely satisfactory after the plant assumed 
 normal running condition. The lights are operated from dusk to 
 dawn with no "moonlight schedule." Altogether 16 street and 13 
 commercial arcs have been added since the original ijlant wa.s 
 started, making a present total of 247 lamps on 6 circuits. There 
 was from the first some demand for incandescent lighting service, 
 for city buildings and by persons dissatisfied with the private 
 service in the city; $5,000 was appropriated by the City Council 
 and a few constant potential lines were strung, until the combined 
 load of arc and incandescent service was such that it seemed best 
 to install additional generating equipment to insure continuous 
 service. In April, 1906, the contracts were let to the manufacturers, 
 for the installation of machinery for this, at the prices shown in 
 table V. No intermediate contractors were concerned in the work. 
 A large amount of construction was done by the superintendent 
 of the plant under minor contracts, and by his own force. The 
 entire cost of the plant to Jan. 1, 1907, is given in Tables V and VI. 
 
 TABLE V. ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT AND COSTS 
 
 1 300 hp. Atlas water tube boiler $4,125.00 
 
 Sturtevant induced draft and economizer plant 2,200.00 
 
 1 Westinghouse 300-kw. turbine generating unit 12,369.00 
 
 1 Wheeler jet condenser for turbine 2,119.00 
 
 1 35-kw. Westinghouse rotary converter 1,114.00 
 
 Switchboard 510.00 
 
 Piping, wiring transformers and small machinery by su- 
 perintendent or minor contracts 21,990.14 
 
 Total $44,427.16 
 
 TABLE VL SEGREGATION OF STATION COST TO JAN. 1, 
 
 1907 
 
 Buildings $ 13,482.60 
 
 Steam equipment 29,081.01 
 
 Electrical equipment 17,081.79 
 
 Street lighting system 21,572.27 
 
 Commercial system 16,796.79 
 
 Tools and office fixtures 289.88 
 
 Total $98,302.34 
 
 Appropriation.s, bond issues and premiums $108,592.53 
 
 Unexpended balance $10,290.19 
 
 The liabilities incurred by the city in building the plant were : 
 
 Bonds due 1934 • $58,000.00 
 
 Bonds due 1936 39,000.00 
 
 Council appropriation 5,000.00 
 
 Total $102,000.00 
 
778 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Of this sum $3,697.66 has never been expended and with $6,592.53, 
 premiums on the sale of bond issues, lies at the credit of the 
 electric light department, making- a reserve capital of $10,290.19. 
 
 The operating cost of the plant for the year 1906 is given by- 
 Table VII, and the operating income, in Table VIII. A net gain 
 of $3,931.97 over expenditures is shown, which would be 4% interest 
 on the cost of the plant, $98,302.34. This is claimed by the Elec- 
 tric Light Commissioners as the profit which the plant earned, but 
 it cannot justly be that amount. These figures follow the system 
 of city accounting of Burlington, except that fuel on hand Jan. 1, 
 
 TABLE VIL OPERATING EXPENSES AND INCOME FOR THE 
 YEAR 1906 
 
 Expense generating plant : 
 
 Fuel $7,642.41 
 
 Labor 3,467.23 
 
 Supplies 584.39 
 
 Repairs 310.48 
 
 Total $12,004.51 
 
 Expense distribution system : 
 
 Supplies $116.67 
 
 Repairs 1,797.88 
 
 Labor 1,000.69 
 
 Total $2,915.24 
 
 Administration expense : 
 Office supplies,- | 
 
 Telephone, etc. J $612.20 
 
 Salaries 1,533.33 
 
 Advertising 89.15 
 
 Interest on bonds 3,100.00 
 
 Total $5,334.68 
 
 Grand total $20,254.43 
 
 Operating income : 
 
 Street lights $16,103.33 
 
 Commercial lights 7,612.76 
 
 Accounts receivable 420.09 
 
 Supplies and labor sold 50.22 
 
 Total $24,186.40 
 
 Net gain of income over expense $3,931.97 
 
 TABLE VIII. COMPARISON OF INCOME AND COST FOR THE 
 YEAR 1906 
 
 Operating income I $24,186.40 
 
 4% interest on reserve 411.61 
 
 Total income $24,598.01 
 
 Operating cost $20,254.43 
 
 For depreciation fund 1,981.19 
 
 Total operating expenses .' $22,235.62 
 
 Balance as profit $2,362.39 
 
 Profit in % of liabilities 2.15 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 779 
 
 1907, appearing- on the city accounts as operating income is h«re 
 deducted and does not appear in either expense or income tables. 
 
 The city system does not include any depreciation in value of 
 the machinery. A charge has here been figured as that sum, 
 which annually placed on interest at 4% will amount to $58,000.00 
 in 27 yrs., and to $44,000 00 additional at the end of 29 yrs. Such 
 a sum is $1,981.19 for 27 yns.. and $798.78 for the 2 yrs. addi- 
 tional. At the end of these terms, the bond issues will have been 
 met from receipts, and the plant will be entirely solvent, whatever 
 value the machinery may have at the end of these terms. This 
 method of figuring the profit earned by the plant seems more ac- 
 curate than that of the Board of Commissioners. The earning by 
 this is then 2.15% of the entire liability, $102,000.00. 
 
 The Board of Electric Light Commissioners is conducting an ad- 
 vertising campaign for its commercial service in an endeavor to 
 place the plant on a still better paying basi.s. When this service 
 was first installed the receijits were very small, but the increase has 
 been considerable as Table IX shows. 
 
 TABLE IX. INCREASE IN COMMERCIAL SERVICE 
 
 Receipts, month of January, 1906 $.377.60 
 
 Receipts, month of February, 1906 $474.53 
 
 One month's increase in per cent, of Jan- 
 uary receipts 25.5 
 
 Receipts, month of January, 1907 , $1,225.10 
 
 Per cent, increase over January, 1906 223.5 
 
 Yearly Operating Costs in Four Typical Central Stations in 
 Massachusetts. The following operating costs, from Data, Novem- 
 ber 1910, were for the year ending June 30, 1909 : 
 
 eISSc ^ Ga.^&''^ Haverhill Maiden 
 
 GBNERAi. ^Light" E^STtrlc Electric Electric 
 
 Co. Co. ^^- ^'^• 
 
 2 turbines 1 turbine 
 
 Type of prime mover. ... 6 engines 3 engines 1 engine 3 engines 
 
 Rated station capacity, kw. 2,500 2,000 2,300 
 
 Output, millions of kw-hr. 3.106 4.006 3.721 4,715 
 
 Yearly load factor, % 14.2 . 22.9 18.5 
 
 Total station operating 
 
 force 14 12 13 14 
 
 Co.st of fuel, dol. per ton. 4.51 4.52 3.97 3.78 
 
 Coal per kw-hr., lb 3.3 3.28 3.27 3.02 
 
 OPERATING COSTS. CTS. PER KW-HR, 
 
 Coal 0.740 0.740 0.650 0.565 
 
 Oil and waste 0.025 0.015 0.190 0.020 
 
 Water 0.027 0.025 0.003 0.045 
 
 Wages 0.410 0.308 0.285 0.320 
 
 Station building repairs . . Q.034 0.017 0.063 0.023 
 Steam equipment repairs. 0.158 0.041 0.073 0.072 
 Electrical equipment re- 
 pairs 0.011 0.072 0.019 0.14 
 
 Miscellaneous 0.024 0.040 0.21 
 
 Total 1.412 1.242 1.152 1.08 
 
780 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 steam- Electric Central Stations in the State of Massachusetts. 
 Data, September, 1910, gave the following operating costs for the 
 year ending June 30, 1908: 
 
 OPERATING COSTS. CT. PER KW-HR. 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 bo ■ 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 "o 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 rf 
 § 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 Fuel 
 
 .462 
 .008 
 
 .703 
 .027 
 
 .710 
 .009 
 
 .880 
 .032 
 
 .635 
 .017 
 
 .690 
 .019 
 
 .618 
 
 Oil and waste 
 
 .012 
 
 Water 
 
 .024 
 .192 
 
 .03 4 
 .360 
 
 .008 
 .262 
 
 .012 
 .538 
 
 .032 
 .342 
 
 .055 
 .347 
 
 .040 
 
 Wages 
 
 .296 
 
 Station repairs 
 
 .015 
 
 .012 
 
 .020 
 
 .012 
 
 .035 
 
 .021 
 
 .052 
 
 Steam repairs .... 
 
 .042 
 
 .055 
 
 .020 
 
 .037 
 
 .072 
 
 .059 
 
 .147 
 
 Electrical repairs. . 
 
 .056 
 
 .055 
 
 .009 
 
 .029 
 
 .014 
 
 .046 
 
 .045 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 .023 
 .822 
 
 .000 
 
 .022 
 
 .080 
 
 .033 
 
 .000 
 
 .000 
 
 Total 
 
 1.246 
 
 1.060 
 
 1.620 
 
 1.180 
 
 1.237 
 
 1.210 
 
 Cost of fuel per ton 
 
 $3.99 
 
 4.79 
 
 4.75 
 
 4.68 
 
 4.49 
 
 4.40 
 
 3.60 
 
 Output millions kw.- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hr. per yr 
 
 88.5 
 
 5.4 
 
 9.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.7 
 
 Capacity of stations, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 thousands of hp. . 
 
 73.5 
 
 5.90 
 
 7.39 
 
 4.43 
 
 4.87 
 
 6.75 
 
 8.2 
 
 Central Station, Operating Costs. These data are from the 
 annual report, of the Fitchburg Gas & Electric Light Co. 
 
 Gross receipts : 
 
 Commercial lights $ 60,230 
 
 Motors 55,291 
 
 Street lighting 35.205 
 
 Miscellaneous 2,644 
 
 Total $153,370 
 
 Operating expenses : 
 
 Station operation $ 47,711 
 
 Distribution 15,791 
 
 Office 19,066 
 
 Taxes 10,399 
 
 General 7,623 
 
 Total $100,595 
 
 Net receipt of operation $ 52,775 
 
 General statistics : 
 
 Station capacity in kw 2,000 
 
 Gross income per kw. station cap $76.68 
 
 Connected load per kw. station cap 1.337 
 
 Connected motor load per kw. sta. cap .765 
 
 Population served 37.826 
 
 Number of residences, Oct. 1, 1910 4,528 
 
 Residence consumers, Oct. 1, 1910 890 
 
 Consumers per 100 population 2.56 
 
 Residence consumers per 100 population..... 2.35 
 
 Average income per consumer $158 
 
 Gross income per capita -. 4.05 
 
 Electric plant investment per capita 15.20 
 
 Watts station capacity per capita 53 
 
 Total investment $574,926 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 781 
 
 Yearly operating- expense per $100 invested.. 17.50 
 
 Kw-hr. generated 4,461,580 
 
 Kw-hr. accounted for per 100 kw-hr. generated 89 
 
 Year load factor 30.8% 
 
 Central Station Gross Receipts. These figures for typical small 
 stations are given by the National Electric Light Association, 1909: 
 
 LOCATION Popu- 
 lation 
 New Jersey. .4,000 
 Illinois 1,000 
 
 Kentucky ...1,800 
 
 New York 1,300 
 
 Ohio 1,800 
 
 Illinois 2,000 
 
 Illinois 2.700 
 
 Indiana . 
 Ohio . . . . 
 Kentucky 
 
 860 
 1,900 
 1,900 
 
 Capital 
 
 $30,000* 
 $12,000 
 
 S 5,500t; 
 
 \ 7,500*1 
 12,000* 
 20,000* 
 10,000 
 j 25,000* I 
 ( 12.500t j 
 10.000 
 40.000 
 40,000 
 
 Iowa 4,000 
 
 * Stocks, t Bonds, 
 
 Ice 
 
 $4,945.52 
 
 Water 
 
 Electricity Total 
 and per 
 
 supplies capita 
 $10,909.42 $2.60 
 - 2,900.00 
 
 6,145.72 
 
 5.504.16 
 
 8,300.00 
 
 7,563.98 
 
 $720.00 8.353.8'0 
 
 320.00 
 3,745.00 
 1,270.00 
 
 3,952.00 
 7,235.20 
 7,933.00 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.41 
 
 4.25 
 4.60- 
 3.78 
 
 3.36 
 
 5.00 
 6.10 
 
 7.85 
 
 12,000.00 [I'^^^'J^^^.^g. I 38,300.00 14.00 
 
 Central Station Diversity Factors and Investments. Data, Janu- 
 ary, 1911, gives the following": 
 
 TABLE X. DIVERSITY FACTOR OF THE SYSTEM 
 
 Resi- Com- 
 
 dence mercial Motor Large 
 
 light light service users 
 
 Between consumers 3.35 1.46 1.44 
 
 Between transformers 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.15 
 
 Between feeders 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 
 
 Between substations 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 
 
 Consumer to transformer 3.35 1.46 1.44 
 
 Consumer to feeder 4.36 1.90 1.95 1.15 
 
 Consumer to substation 5.02 2.19 2.24 1.32 
 
 Consumer to g-enerator 5.52 2.41 2.46 1.45 
 
 Consumer to generator corrected for 
 
 losses 4.13 1.81 1.84 1.09 
 
 INVESTMENT IN DOLLARS PER KILOWATT FOR VARIOUS CONSUMERS 
 
 Meters 124 38 15 Neglig-ible 
 
 Transformers 12 12 12 8 
 
 Distributing lines 146 146 145 49 
 
 Substations and transmission 58 58 58 58 
 
 Generating equipment 100 100 100 1 00 
 
 Total investment 440 354 330 215 
 
 Operating Costs and Income. The tabulation from Bulletin 38, 
 Iowa State College Engineering Experiment Station, gives some 
 average figures dealing with 6osts and incomes per kilowatt hour 
 for commercial electric central stations. The group numbers are 
 based on population as follows: Group I, 500-2,000 ; IT, 2,000-3,000 ; 
 HI, 3,000-10,000; IV, 10,200-20,000; V, 20,000-117,000. 
 
782 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XI 
 
 
 O .ft 
 
 1 
 
 
 §2o 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 
 1^2 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 18 
 
 1,290 
 
 86 
 
 78,000 
 
 7.8 
 
 II 
 
 7 
 
 2,640 
 
 154 
 
 230,000 
 
 4.9 
 
 Ill ...... 
 
 11 
 
 5.680 
 
 489 
 
 540,000 
 
 4.8 
 
 IV 
 
 4 
 
 12,690 
 
 1,225 
 
 1,820,000 
 
 2.5 
 
 V 
 
 6 
 
 46,830 
 
 4,130 
 
 7,700,000 
 
 1.8 
 
 All groups. 
 
 46 
 
 9,470 
 
 819 
 
 940,000 
 
 5.2 
 
 P fc, o <v u 
 
 laoj o 
 
 &o^ 
 
 1* (P 1j +-' +-< © 
 
 Oi O jj <X) S « 
 
 >.s£ >S.S 
 
 10.3 75.8 
 
 6.8 72.6 
 7.2 66.1 
 4.6 54.6 
 
 3.9 47.1 
 7.6 67.8 
 
 Operating Expenses of Massachusetts Steam Stations. The data 
 given in Table XII and taken from Electrical World, August 7, 1915, 
 represent an analysis of the officially reported operating expenses 
 of steam-electric stations in the State of Massachusetts that gen- 
 erated or purchased more than 5,000,000 kw-hrs. of electrical energy 
 during 1914. The figures are based upon the returns of companies 
 made to the Board of Gas and Electric Light Commissioners. On 
 account of the fact that a number of the companies purchase and 
 distributed energy in addition to the output of their stations, the 
 operating expenses are divided into those due to station operation 
 and those due to distribution. All expenses are given in cents 
 per kw.-hr. so that the relationship of the various items in any 
 one plant can be easily found. When comparing the same items 
 of different stations, such as wages, ofHce management, taxes and 
 the like, it must be remembered that the relative magnitude of the 
 station outputs must be considered in order to make a fair com- 
 parison. 
 
 Of the 20 stations for which data are given, 12 are in cities of 
 from 40,000 to 100,000 people and have a station output varying 
 for the most part between 5,000,000 kw.-hrs. and 15,000,000 kw.-hrs. 
 per annum. It is interesting to note that the total output for the 
 stations reported excluding Boston in 18 cities of a total population 
 of 1,194,870 is 209,250,000 kw.-hrs., which is only 20,530,000 kw.-hrs., 
 or 10%, more than the reported annual output of the Boston com- 
 pany in a city of 670,585 people. The averages given in next to 
 the last column for the operating costs of the preceding 19 sta- 
 tions are interesting when compared with the costs for the Boston 
 company. The figures in the average column represent in a gen- 
 eral way the average of conditions as regards operating costs for 
 stations similar in size and yearly output when varying conditions 
 as regards plant-factor and load-factor are ignored. The cost data 
 for the Boston company, on the other hand, represent results of a 
 highly specialized system operating under conditions which favor 
 reduced costs per kilowatt-hour. This is particularly noticeable in 
 the cost of fuel, wages and station repairs, these values being lower 
 than the average of the values for the other stations of the State. 
 
< 
 
 fa 
 o 
 
 02 
 
 o 
 
 <J 
 
 Hoi 
 Ho 
 
 Mo 
 
 M§ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 w^ 
 
 §w 
 
 OH 
 ^Ph 
 ^O 
 S§ 
 
 oo 
 
 Hcu 
 
 ig 
 
 ^ SfnO 
 
 o 
 
 .5 OiOlO 
 EH 
 
 
 
 
 3 iHi-t tH 
 
 B -H 
 
 GO 
 
 C (M 05 lO U5 •>• 
 
 •gjj OT OS «0 o 00 
 S O''c0^cy5'«5 
 
 
 
 
 ^ LOOOOU5CO 
 
 g -}< 05 ITS 00 
 •* C^l CO c^J ■*' 
 C-T-( O 
 
 p. 
 Eh 
 
 oj .S o ,:, .2 
 
 5 s o o o 
 mOOOOi 
 
 IrtM •eqMOOOOOO 
 
 irt,-l -OT-llflOTH 
 
 «CO '(MOOOO 
 
 OO 'ooooo 
 
 oooocoM 
 
 t-,Hi-<<MO 
 rHOOOO 
 
 ooddo 
 
 I0e00t>t-OOTH«0 
 
 Or-ICOcOTHTHO'iH 
 t-OC>(MOOOO 
 
 o'ddo'dddd 
 
 iH iX> eo U5 00 '^ U5 Tt( 
 
 't' O iH CO iH T-l -e< rH 
 -^OOtHOOOO> 
 
 do'dododd 
 
 COOOcOC-lliSrHiH 
 4DOO(MO><000> 
 
 C^l«Oir<lt^THiHOrH 
 OOOtMOrHMO 
 ceOOcOOiHOO 
 
 dddodddd 
 
 t-COooUJOCOOrf< 
 
 ^T-^(^q^cococoo 
 
 -*OoiMOOOO 
 
 d d o* d d d d d 
 
 ^^ 
 
 0) 
 CD ^ 
 
 ^§ 
 0) o 
 
 a> >-' a> 
 c "^ 5 
 
 
 eo CO to CO CO t- <D 
 
 (M lftCO-*oqc>«> 
 tH O 1-i <M CO Tf 05 
 
 dddddor-i 
 
 iH 00 -fH CO LO 05 OJ 
 U5 t^ CO iH T-l 00 lO 
 r-j O T-l O CO rH 1-1 
 OOOOOdr-i 
 
 ■<* Oi CD 00 -* CO -^ 
 Ui O iH t^ CO 00 iH 
 O O T-l O O (M T-l 
 
 odddddTH 
 
 Tt<C<10 OlOCO 
 CO tH tH N O U5 CO 
 O O <M C<J ITS CO Ui 
 
 CO O CD -* t>- 00 o 
 
 eocot>iHT}<c,o 
 
 tH O iH 03 Ifl CO -* 
 
 dddddoi-i 
 
 Oi CO CD rH iM Cq Tt< 
 ■*OOOU5t-CD 
 OOOOOOCO 
 
 CO O ■*-* rH 00 C<1 
 CO rH 00 05 U5 CD '^ 
 O O 'l^^ tH C-1 ^ 05 
 
 S <:i S S d <^ i-i 
 
 
 be oj a>' • -d 
 
 OT 
 13 . 
 
 01 
 
 a?? 
 
 be- 
 -P o 
 
 o 
 
 « C ryj 
 
 =^§ 
 
 ?< C ^^ m CD 
 
 S<M 
 
 rt 1* 
 
 <]> 
 
 783 
 
 
 ^§ 
 
 C m o 
 
 ft W 4J 
 
 ^ 03 c^ 
 
_, m 01 fl 
 
 oiH-S ?. O<M00mO 
 
 03 
 
 00 eo Ol ■* tH <M (M 
 
 CO o «£i o eg «o <M 
 
 (TiOOIMOOO 
 
 ooooooo 
 
 krt U3 «o ec U5 O <M 
 fO cq C- «> iM 00 tH 
 
 O o O d O O rH 
 
 
 01 
 
 02 
 
 WW",—, 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 OOOojt-OT-OrH 
 
 ooocoooeoidc-qiH 
 iooo-^oooo 
 
 •^T-Hn>00OU5'r-(-rH 
 COOOtHOOOO 
 
 d d d o d d d d 
 
 '^ T-l xH U5 «D T-l t 
 
 't^ eg fO Cq CO -<*< c 
 
 o d d d d d 1 
 
 '-O t- eg c<3 «D CO !>• 
 
 ■^ CO 00 uj 00 -^ 00 
 'i; o eg -* U5 rj< 00 
 
 m o> 
 
 rH "^ fl ^ 
 
 ■ "^ ^ lOOcO^oCO 
 ' tOOt^nnOO 
 
 J ^ 01 ^e;Icocg"oi 
 
 ^cooooo-^cgcgoo 
 t^ iH CO ai-m '^ iH o 
 
 -^OOr-JOtHOO 
 
 • ajoo«ooi-i 
 
 • eg tH e-i U5 eg 
 
 s 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 ooooot^oj 
 
 
 
 
 '*it>ifl<->e^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 r" tH iO 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 [z. 
 
 tH 
 
 
 1. 
 
 •j^ 
 
 to 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 ■*i<MO OS 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 c3 
 
 'Si Oioooo 00 
 
 
 h1 
 
 H 
 
 T-1 00 
 
 
 FQ 
 
 h^ 
 
 
 
 
 <; 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o> 
 
 !/■ 
 
 
 
 
 ,« 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 Q-^os eo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 t^CO'* c- 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 co^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fit: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .2^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 o fr! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ o> 
 
 
 
 
 he. 
 
 X4 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 ft 
 
 0) 
 
 3 w 
 
 
 
 
 Hi^ai 
 
 «:8 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 w t^c 2 
 
 0) ^ 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 f- fi ::: •- 5 
 0) o o .-^ 
 
 
 
 
 O) 
 
 £ 
 
 uipm 
 milli 
 al, d 
 w-hr 
 in 
 
 
 
 ^^dS-^g 
 
 bjorf 
 
 
 
 <w 
 
 
 ;.. 
 
 •^ 
 
 s 5r. 
 
 ft M+i w rt a 
 h -2 3 o o o 
 H mOOOOh 
 
 Oj05-*10<X>?OtHIO 
 
 egoooirHtoe^irH 
 
 CDOOrHOOOO 
 
 eg o o o o 
 ddddd 
 
 ':3 » 
 
 TO O) 
 ftS-i i 
 
 o> fl;i3 
 
 sag 
 
 G t^^ c3 ai rf 0) 0) 2 
 
 784 
 
 05 urj ^ CO -* o c- 
 oi CO tH tH eg o 00 
 o o cvo eg la U5 CO 
 d d d d d d r-5 
 
 ^ U5 00 eg Tj< o U3 
 
 O -rti -* O} 00 CO c^ 
 
 ^^ 7-1 iH T-J ^ Irt Oi 
 
 tH ooeooo 
 
 Tt< •iHt-Ol 
 
 ,H . rH O O 
 
 d -ddd 
 
 ao) 
 
 Ol'O 
 ^H fi K 
 
 o a 
 
 ^•2 
 
 
 0) 
 
 ^g 
 
 0) 
 w 
 
 C CQ O 
 01 (X) 
 
 ax+j 
 
CC (1) 
 o o c 
 
 o 
 
 <^ d >i c<i 00 
 
 -p 1-1 oo 00 c\i o 
 
 00MT-IO«5Cq->*<00 
 C-C-iHUSOeOCOr-i 
 
 eoooi-ioooo 
 oooooooo 
 
 lO O lO t- tH (M ^^ 
 tH C<I C-3 a; c; O i-l 
 
 CO iH o T-i t- «c eo 
 o o d o o o w 
 
 Values 
 xcludin 
 Boston 
 Edison 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 • •oius • 
 
 . 
 
 • -oo • 
 
 
 • '^00 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 ^ fi 
 
 
 
 ti 3 
 
 • 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 t-oocooo • 
 
 bi^ 
 
 • 
 
 t-«ST)3c4 * 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 o -* 
 
 iM CO 00 lO 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 eO O rH (M <3> 
 
 « 
 
 
 -t'O-f iO 
 
 o 
 
 
 tHCO rj< 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 1-1 
 
 r3 
 
 w 
 
 
 "C a; 
 
 2 
 
 <MiHco e<i 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 OCiCO* Oi 
 
 c c 
 
 3 
 
 CJCO'* 00 
 
 T-i<M 00 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 0^. 
 
 si 
 
 o 
 
 OOO iHrHOi 
 
 
 U5 rH (M t~ !0 
 
 he 
 
 
 ;:i n C ^ m 
 
 oooc-a«Dooi-iiaoo 
 
 t-0«^iHiHU5T-IO 
 
 oooooooo 
 
 ■* M r-l M IM Ci cq <M 
 OOOO^OOOiH 
 COOOOOOOO 
 OOOOOOOO 
 
 •^TtlTH^iOIMt-iH 
 t>OOOC0O7HO 
 -^OOiHOOOO 
 
 ooooo 'o'o 
 
 COtH^COO 
 tHOOOO 
 
 ooooo 
 
 T-it-tr-«c>aiTt<4Doo 
 
 rHOi-l«>OlOOO 
 lOOOi-IOOOO 
 
 o'oo'o'o'ooo 
 
 tocoioc^it- 
 
 T-(iHI>00 
 TfOOOO 
 
 ooooo 
 
 o U5 00 1- M< ■* eg 
 
 t~- lO Ci -^ ■>ti T-l CD 
 r-l O T-l T-t CO 00 -^ 
 OOOOOOiH 
 
 «o o eg th o as 00 
 t^ eg irt (N ff; lo T-i 
 
 05 
 
 o o' o o" o o' o 
 
 00 «o eg ci oi oo c^ 
 
 m th 00 c^ -^ c; OS 
 
 iHOOO COr-IUS 
 O o' O* o' o' o' r-I 
 
 OS ea «D t- T-i eg Tt< 
 t- eg o i>- eg th to 
 
 O O CI O so CO «D 
 o' o o' O o' O 1-1 
 
 eoTHOioiot-ecj 
 
 T-H eo lO iH o 00 rH 
 
 iHOi-ieg Tficg eg 
 o' o o* o' d o 1-1 
 
 00 1> 05 00 OHO oo 
 e<5 cq Tj- c- 00 o "* 
 1-1 eg lo iH CO eo 00 
 
 d d o' d d o* i-i 
 
 ^ '^ ^ ;5 
 ■>-> ss c 3 
 
 « .5 y j_^ o 
 
 o 3 
 
 o a. 
 
 a 
 «^.2 -^ 
 
 " =* o o o 
 mOOODh 
 
 •■§aS2-^ 
 
 c^ O S sS 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 O 
 
 785 
 
 o 
 OO 
 
 a-- o* 
 o ? .2 S -M w 
 
 , =^ =^^^ii o 
 
 II 
 
 
 0) 
 
 a Q 
 
 41! O 
 
 
 Oj ii (D 
 
 3<H 
 
 o o 
 
 ■•r^ (11 rti <ri 
 
 """mil 
 
786 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The cost of repairs to electrical equipment, tools and appliances 
 and repairs to lines is, however, higher for Boston than the average 
 of the values for other stations of the State, as might be expected. 
 In addition, the cost of management and taxes for the Boston sta- 
 tion is more than twice the average value for the State, yet the 
 net operating return per kw.-hr. for Boston is 1.5 times that for 
 the State. In the case of the Boston company taxes per kw.-hr 
 are considerably more than the cost of coal per kw.-hr., while for 
 the entire State the item of taxes is about equal to the cost of coal. 
 The averages for the stations of the State show the cost of fuel 
 to be about 70% of the total station operating expense, wages to be 
 26%, with the remaining percentage accounted for by oil, waste, 
 water, tools and repairs. 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?ir. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n^^ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s"" 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o" 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •O Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 ~^ 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 8 9 10 U 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 Zl 22 23 24 25 2G 27 28 
 Percent Load FactOE 
 
 Fig. 5. Relation of coal consumption and load factors. 
 
 TABLE XIII. 
 
 GENERATING COSTS FOR MIDDLE 
 STEAM STATION 
 
 General expenses Amount 
 
 Superintendence % 2,109.16 
 
 Boiler labor 5,287.06 
 
 Engine labor 4,042.77 
 
 Miscellaneous labor 59.06 
 
 Fuel . 47,224.39 
 
 Water 8.60 
 
 Lubricants 327.63 
 
 Production supplies 309.87 
 
 Station expense 611.97 
 
 Repairs steam equipment 10,008.49 
 
 Repairs electrical equipment 209.96 
 
 Repairs station, buildings, structures and mis- 
 cellaneous 303.92 
 
 Total generating expenses $70,502.88 
 
 WEST 
 
 %of 
 
 total 
 
 operating 
 
 expenses 
 
 1.63 
 
 4.11 
 
 3.13 
 
 0.05 
 
 36.65 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.48 
 
 7.76 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.24 
 
 54.71 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 787 
 
 TABLE XIV. EXPENSES OF THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 
 
 %of 
 total 
 General expenses Amount operating 
 
 expenses 
 0.08 
 0.13 
 0.75 
 0.34 
 1.16 
 5.77 
 0.15 
 0.80 
 0.24 
 2.75 
 
 Superintendence $100.05 
 
 Wages 165.65 
 
 Setting and removing meters 969.45 
 
 Setting and removing transformers 437.70 
 
 Supplies and expenses 1,500.73 
 
 Repairs overhead lines 7,436.87 
 
 Repairs underground system 197.02 
 
 Repairs services 1,035.24 
 
 Repairs distribution transformers 308.97 
 
 Repairs customers' meters 3,549.51 
 
 Total distribution expenses $15,701.19 
 
 12.17 
 
 Generation and Distribution Expenses of a IVIiddle West Company. 
 
 The data in tables XIII and XIV taken from Electrical World, 
 January 13, 1917, show the annual generation and distribution ex- 
 penses of an electric service company operating in a Middle West 
 city of 50,000 inhabitants, and having 5500 consumers. Last year 
 the maximum demand was 4400 kws. and the annual output 11,- 
 920,000 kw.-hrs. 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSES PER KW-HR. GENERATED FOR 
 SMALL WISCONSIN STEAM STATIONS 
 
 Station location J^JJ?"^ 
 
 Algoma 2,300 
 
 Alma 1,100 
 
 Arcadia 1,400 
 
 Athens 1,200 
 
 Cedarburg 2,000 
 
 Chilton 1,800 
 
 Gillett 800 
 
 Mondovi 1,325 
 
 Omro 1,100 
 
 Neillsville 2,000 
 
 Owen 800 
 
 Pardeeville 1,050 
 
 Phillips 2,500 
 
 Rib Lake 1,100 
 
 Rio 700 
 
 Sauk City 900 
 
 Seymour 1,100 
 
 Sheboygan Falls.. 1,630 
 
 Viroqua 2,200 
 
 Bangor 750 
 
 Weighted average .... 
 Arithmetic average .... 
 Median 
 
 Classified expenses, cts. per kw-hr. 
 
 Genera- 
 tion, 
 kw-hr. 
 97,580 
 29,382* 
 87,550 
 
 103,920 
 
 198,231 
 
 175,400 
 24,400 
 
 *30,000t 
 38,100 
 75,000 
 
 141,720 
 43,200t 
 
 250,000? 
 37,880 
 22,0001: 
 34,500 
 45.400 
 65,000 
 
 148,600 
 55,500 
 
 C o 
 3.36 
 
 0.25 
 
 Si 
 
 5'^ 
 
 S 
 
 fl O 
 
 U 
 
 „.«. V..... 0.10 . .. 
 
 8.24 0.35 0.15 0.07 
 
 4.86 0.39 0.29 . . . 
 
 4.17 0.13 0.29 0.03 
 4.41 0.60 0.07 0.12 
 5.86 0.64 0.30 . . . 
 3.01 3.53 0.12 .. . 
 
 7.41 0.11 0.70 0.51 
 5.98 0.94 0.79 0.85 
 5.61 1.02 0.68 . . . 
 1.43 1.16 0.20 0.08 
 5.03 0.83 2.95 0.14 
 3.54 0.20 0.11 
 7.27 0.57 1.36 
 
 9.18 0.18 0.45 
 6.81 0.25 0.27 
 
 0.86 0.23 
 
 1.25 4.11 
 
 0.67 0.13 
 
 0.16 0.04 „.„. 
 
 ..68 0.62 0.48 O.OJ. 
 
 5.42 0.70 0.66 0.13 
 5.32 0.58 0.28 0.10 
 
 4.29 
 3.45 
 
 5.84 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.03 
 0.58 
 
 u cc 3 
 O ^^ 
 
 1.20 0.03 
 0.28 0.45 
 0.40 0.09 
 0.28 0.04 
 0.22 ... 
 0.74 ... 
 0.08 . . . 
 1.27 0.70 
 2.78 0.30 
 0.40 ... 
 0.35 0.04 
 0.60 0.07 
 1.77 0.10 
 
 2.73 
 
 0'.27 
 1.85 
 0.11 
 0.01 
 0.76 
 0.77 
 0.40 
 
 0.23 
 
 o'.os 
 
 0.10 
 0.10 
 
 o 
 
 4.94 
 
 9.54 
 
 6.03 
 
 4.94 
 
 5.42 
 
 7.54 
 
 6.74 
 
 10.70 
 
 11.64 
 
 7.71 
 
 3.26 
 
 9.62 
 
 5.80 
 
 9.20 
 
 12.54 
 
 7.33 
 
 10.14 
 
 11.53 
 
 4.59 
 
 6.63 
 
 6.71 
 
 7.78 
 
 7.44 
 
 * Estimated, t Mostly purchased at 3 cents. % Both steam and 
 hydraulic generation. § Burns mill refuse for fuel. 
 
788 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The utilization, commercial, general and miscellaneous expenses 
 amounted to about 5, 14 and 14% of the total, respectively. Fuel, 
 36.65%; repairs to steam equipment, 7.76%; boiler labor, 4.11% and 
 engine labor, 3.13% constituted the larger items under generation 
 expense, while repairs to overhead lines, 5.77% and repairs to cus- 
 tomers' meter, 2.75%, made up the principal part of distribution 
 cost. 
 
 Unit Operating Expenses of Several Small Wisconsin Utilities. 
 The following data from Electrical World, March 11, 1916, collected 
 by the Wisconsin Railroad Commission on the operating expenses 
 of 20 small electric utilities serving communities of 2500 persons 
 and less, are tabulated herewith according to the classification of 
 accounts prescribed in most States. It may be pointed out that 
 the cost of generating energy in these particular cases is about 
 70% of the total cost of supplying electric service. Next in order 
 are the expenses of general supervision 11%, of distribution 9%, 
 and of utilization 7%. In the plants having annual outputs of 
 50,000 kw.-hrs. or less the unit generating expense lies between 
 5.03 cts. and 9.18 cts per kw.-hr., but in the stations having larger 
 outputs the unit costs are lower, making the arithmetical average 
 cost 5.42 cts. and the weighted average 4.68 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 
 Cost of Power. The following costs were compiled from figures 
 published in Data, 1910, 1911 and 1912. 
 
 TYPICAL 575 KW. STATION IN MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 Output at busbars, kw-hr 656,880 
 
 Tons of coal used 2,417 
 
 Price of coal,, per ton $4.88 
 
 Costs per kw-hr. Cents 
 
 Coal, bituminous '. 1.796 
 
 Oil and waste 0.055 
 
 Water 0.038 
 
 Wages 0.724 
 
 Repairs, station building 0.107 
 
 Repairs, steam equipment 0.102 
 
 Repairs, electrical equipment 0.066 
 
 2.888 
 
 TYPICAL 725 KW. STATION 
 
 Output at busbars, kw-hr 889,760 
 
 Tons of coal used 2,299 
 
 Price of coal, per ton $5.31 
 
 Costs per kw-hr. Cents 
 
 Coal 1.372 
 
 Oil and waste 0.025 
 
 Water .008 
 
 Wages 0.750 
 
 Repairs, station building 0.045 
 
 Repairs, steam equipment 0.130 
 
 Repairs, electrical equipment 0.003 
 
 2.333 
 
 POWER PLANT OF THE HYDE PARK ELEC. LT. CO. 
 
 Total generator capacity, kw 1.775 
 
 Output at busbars, kw-hr , . . ." ,..,.,.,.,.,,. 4,357,648 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 789 
 
 Of the total amount sold 88.5% was for street railway serv- 
 ice. 
 
 Price of coal, per ton, bituminous, $3.94; #3 buckwheat, 
 $3.17. 
 
 Costs per kw-hr. Cents 
 
 Fuel 0.785 
 
 Oil and waste 0.017 
 
 Water 0.016 
 
 Station wages 0.221 
 
 Repairs, station building 0.107 
 
 Repairs, steam equipment 0.068 
 
 Repairs, electric equipment 0.015 
 
 Minor tools 0.018 
 
 1.154 
 
 OPERATING RESULTS FROM A CENTRAL STATION USING COMPOUND 
 CORLISS ENGINES 
 
 Rated capacity, kw 5,000 
 
 Output at busbars, kw-hr 6,052,518 
 
 Costs per kw-hr. Cents 
 
 Fuel 0.633 
 
 Oil and waste 0.015 
 
 Water 0.069 
 
 Wages at station 0.302 
 
 Repairs, station building 0.074 
 
 Repairs, steam equipment 0.266 
 
 Repairs, electric equipment 0.060 
 
 1.419 
 
 TYPICAL 5000 KW. STATION 
 
 Output at busbars, kw-hr 8,216,267 
 
 Costs per kw-hr. Cents 
 
 Fuel 0.544 
 
 Oil and waste 0.014 
 
 Water 0.049 
 
 Wages at station 0.282 
 
 Repairs, station building 0.075 
 
 Repairs, steam equitjment 0.173 
 
 Repairs, electric equipment 0.065 
 
 1.202 
 
 TYPICAL 6000 KW. STATION 
 
 Output at busbars, kw-hr 8,776,165 
 
 Costs- per kw-hr. Cents 
 
 Fuel 0.617 
 
 Oil and waste 0.012 
 
 Water 0.040 
 
 Wages at station 0.296 
 
 Repairs, station building 0.052 
 
 Repairs, steam equipment 0.147 
 
 Repairs, electric equipment 0.046 
 
 Station tools & sundries 0.002 
 
 1.212 
 
 Comparison of Costs of Operation of Gas Engine Station and 
 Steam Generating 'Station. The following is taken from an article 
 by H. S. Knowlton, Engineering Record, March 27, 1909. The 
 
790 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 service requirements at each of these two stations, a gas-engine 
 station at Somerville, Mass., and a steam generating plant at East 
 Boston, are somewhat similar, both being located in outlying parts 
 of the Boston Elevated Railway Company's system, and operated 
 in harmony with other stations of larger size located nearer the 
 center of the surface car, subway, tunnel and elevated railway 
 load. All the stations of the Boston system are directly controlled 
 in their daily operation by a superintendent of power distribution, 
 reporting to the superintendent of power stations. In examining 
 the records of any particular plant it is necessary, therefore, to 
 appreciate that the needs of the system as a whole are considered 
 before those of any particular station, and that in the handling 
 of the company's service it is frequently necessary to impose con- 
 ditions upon individual plants which do not enable the equipment 
 to be operated at its highest local efficiency. This is in some 
 measure the case with the stations at Somerville and East Boston. 
 
 The equipment of the Somerville plant consists of 2 two-cylinder, 
 32 by 36-in. American Crossley four-cycle gas engines of 610 b.h.p. 
 rating each, running at 140 rev. per min., and each direct connected 
 to a 350-kw., 575-volt d. c. Crocker-Wheeler generator. There are 
 2 Loomis-Pettibone bituminous coal down-draft producers, each 9 ft. 
 in diam. and various auxiliary apparatus for scrubbing and clean- 
 ing the gas. circulation of water through jackets, etc. The engines 
 are started by a 6 by 8 -in. Rand air compressor. The producers are 
 supplied with coal by hand firing, the fuel being hoisted to the 
 charging floor by a motor-driven bucket elevator. 
 
 At East Boston the plant consists of 4 180-h.p. Corliss vertical 
 boilers rated at 180 h.p. each, and 3 200-kw. generating sets con- 
 sisting of 12 and 22 by 42-in. cross compound horizontal condensing 
 Greene engines, direct connected to 575-volt direct current gener- 
 ators running 120 rev. per min. This station is hand fired and 
 runs under natural draft. 
 
 The labor requirements at Somerville during the year w^ere as 
 follows : 1 chief engineer, 2 watch engineers, 2 oilers, 2 producer 
 men, 1 coal handler, 1 helper and 1 apprentice; total 10 men. Be- 
 tween June 1 and Oct. 1 the force was reduced by the dropping of 
 the helper and one producer man. 
 
 The East Boston labor requirements were : 1 chief engineer, 1 
 watch engineer, 2 oilers and 3 firemen ; total, 7 men. 
 
 The hours of daily service at Somerville averaged from 7 a. m 
 to 10 p. M. and at East Boston from 6.30 a. m. to 10 p. m._, except 
 in June, July and August, when the service averaged from 6.45 
 A. M. to 9 A. M., and from 2 p. m. to 9 p. M., Sunday operation being 
 from 2 p. M. to 11 p. m. the year through. 
 
 The plant of Somerville operated for the year as a whole at a 
 total manufacturing cost of 1.68 cts. per kw.-hr., exclusive of any 
 fixed charges. (Table XV. ) The coal consumption per kw.-hr. of 
 output was 2.236 lbs., giving 1.66 lbs. per horse-power-hour of sta- 
 tion output, all fuel included. This was the lowest fuel consump- 
 tion per kw.-hr. reached during the year by all stations on the 
 Boston Elevated system, and also the lowest fuel cost per kw.-hr. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 791 
 
 TABLE XV. OPERATING RESULTS FOR YEAR ENDING 
 SEPT. 30, 1908. 
 
 Steam plant Gas engine plant 
 
 Location East Boston Somerville 
 
 Total kiJowatt-hours 2,108,521 1,182,900 
 
 Total kilowatt-hours used in sta- 
 tion 21,529 133,118 
 
 Total kilowatt-hours output. 2,086,992 1,049,782 
 
 Tons of coal 3,609.2 1,048.5 
 
 Price per ton $3,801 $4,179 
 
 Pounds of coal .- 28,086,193 2,348,031 
 
 Pounds of coal per kilowatt- 
 hour . 3.874 2.236 
 
 Cubic feet of water 1,163,300 265,860 
 
 Price per 100 cubic feet $0,123 $0,126 
 
 Pounds water (evaporated) per 
 
 pound coal 8.991 
 
 Pounds water consumed per pound 
 
 coal 7.119 
 
 Gallons of cylinder oil 960 197.52 
 
 Price per gallon $0,262 $0,299 + 
 
 Gallons of engine oil 311.40 5,672.39 
 
 Price per gallon $0,141 $0.15 
 
 Cost of Supplies — 
 
 Coal $13,721.35 $4,381.12 
 
 Cylinder oil $252.21 $59.26 
 
 Engine oil $44.13 $850.87 
 
 Other lubricants 
 
 Total lubricants ($296.34) ($910.13) 
 
 Water $1,432.53 $337.34 
 
 Miscellaneous small supplies $403.26 $1,284.65 
 
 Supplies and expenses for repairs 
 
 (electrical) $860.42 $525.32 
 
 Supplies and expenses for repairs 
 
 (steam power equipment).. $2,107.25 
 
 Supplies and expenses for repairs 
 
 (gas power equipment) $1,731.74 
 
 Expenses for repairs of buildings. $112.60 $367.47 
 
 Total cost of supplies $18,933,75 $9,537.77 
 
 Cost of coal per kilowatt-hour for 
 
 year $0.0065+ $0.0041+ 
 
 Cost of supplies per kilowatt-hour 
 
 for year $0.0090+ $0.0090+ 
 
 Cost of Labor — 
 
 Engineers $1,096.21 $1,294.60 
 
 Oilers $1,364.25 $1,143.78 
 
 Firemen and producer men $2,582.81 $1,119.58 
 
 Coal and ash handlers $571.60 
 
 Miscellaneous, including helpers 
 
 and cleaners $372.16 $1,324.63 
 
 Labor for repairs (electrical equip- 
 ment) $83.07 $101.67 
 
 Labor for repairs (steam equip- 
 ment) $840.97 
 
 Labor for repairs (gas power 
 
 equipment) $2,544.69 
 
 Total cost of labor $6,339.47 $8,100.55 
 
 Cost of labor per kilowatt-hour. . . $0.0030+ $0.0077+ 
 
 Total cost of output $25,273.22 $17,638.32 
 
 Cost of output per kilowatt-hour. $0.01210+ $0.01680+ 
 
 in all plants owned by the company. Considering the fact that the 
 
 capacity of the Somerville station is but 700 kw. at normal load, 
 these figures show that the gas plant in this in.stallation is efficient, 
 although the load factor of the installation is unfavorable to the 
 
792 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 highest economy of operation. The load factor defined by the full 
 load output for 365 days at 18 hours per day divided into the actual 
 output was 22.7% for the year. The relatively small station output 
 for the year in relation to the machinery capacity installed tended 
 to carry the labor cost per kw.-hr. to rather high figures, the aver- 
 age for the year being 0.77 cts. The high cost of labor in June, 
 1908, was due to the fact that at this time the station was shut 
 down for 2 weeks' thorough overhauling, the labor of the latter 
 being performed by the regular operating force, which brought the 
 kw.-hr. charge to 2.23 cts. In the other summer months low output 
 was largely responsible for the relative high labor costs, the fuel 
 consumption running not far from that of other months when the 
 demand on the plant was greater. 
 
 At Somerville the lowest coal consumption per kw.-hr. was ob- 
 tained in August, 1908, 1.967 lbs., a month when the station output 
 was unusually low in quantity. The figures show that this station 
 was not much affected in fuel economy when the output dropped 
 considerably, and a factor in this was the careful operation of the 
 machinery only under conditions when the service of each unit was 
 clearly necessary. In other words, if the load factor of the station 
 were available, figured on the basis of the capacity of the equip- 
 ment in actual operation at all times, it would run much higher 
 than was indicated by the load factor quoted above. During the 
 year the cost of coal per kw.-hr. averaged 0.41 ct., and varied from 
 a maximum of 0.46 ct. to a minimum of 0.33 ct. 
 
 The figures for labor cost of repairs include the work done by 
 tjhe station staff during the annual overhauling of the producers 
 and their auxiliaries in June. The plant has proved thoroughly 
 reliable and has sustained no enforced shut-downs. The machinery 
 can be started up throughout the entire station inside of 15 or 20 
 minutes without trouble. The losses from banking the fires are 
 exceedingly small. The most important items of expense in the . 
 electrical end of the station in the year covered were a new switch- 
 board panel installed for use with a plan for starting the engines 
 by running the generators as motors, 3 new armature coils in one 
 generator, and the re-wiring of the station lighting circuits. In 
 the gas end of the plant the main items of expense for renewals 
 were a cylinder head costing about $400, a new exhaust box and 
 a new exhaust valve ; while in the gas house the changing of the 
 stones in the scrubber equipment from 6 to 2 ins. diam. was the 
 principal alteration. The fires are cleaned and the ashes thor- 
 oughly removed on Sundays by an average force of 6 men. The 
 average life of igniter points is about 3 months. Under ordinary 
 conditions the gas engine exhaust valves are ground once in two 
 months. The cylinders were cleaned formerly about every two 
 weeks, but since changing the stones in the scrubbers this cleaning 
 has to be done but once in 2 months. New excelsior is placed in 
 the dry scrubber once in 2 months. New excelsior is placed in 
 one grid of the wet scrubber each week.. The point of greatest 
 consequence appears to be to secure clean gas. An average analysis 
 of the gas obtained is as follows: CO2, 3 9%; O, 0.2%; CO, 24.3%; 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 793 
 
 CHi, 1.1%; H, 7.5%; N, 63%; total, 100%. The average calorific 
 power of the gas per cubic foot is 114.6 B.t.u. The earlier troubles 
 from back firing and pre-ignition have now been practically over- 
 come. 
 
 The East Boston station had a generating cost of 1.21 cts. per 
 kw.-hr. for the year on a station load factor of 53% obtained by 
 dividing the total year's output by 600 kws. carried 18 hrs. per day 
 and 365 days. The average cost of coal per ton for the year was 
 about $3.80, or 37 cts. per ton less than at the Somerville station. 
 The coal consumption per kw.-hr. was 3.87 lbs,, or about 74% greater 
 than in the gas plant. The cost of coal per kw.-hr. for the year 
 averaged 0.65 ct. Including all supplies the cost per kw.-hr, was 
 the same in each station, or 0.9 ct., but the larger output of the 
 steam plant and the smaller force tended to give it an advantage 
 on the side of the labor cost per unit of output. In comparing these 
 stations in this way the object is rather to show the actual results 
 of different conditions of operation, and to emphasize the influence 
 of operating at a good deal below the capacity of the installation. 
 The labor cost of 0.30 ct. per kw.-hr. at East Boston was the 
 result of a range in monthly costs from 0.21 to 0.5 per unit. In 
 general, as the output fell off the labor cost increased. There were 
 no breakdowns, and the only large repairs were the refitting of the 
 boilers with new tubes. 
 
 Table XV gives the operations of the two stations for the year 
 in full detail. In the operation of the plants of the company 
 monthly records of cost are kept for all the items listed in the table. 
 
 Central-Station Labor Costs. The following data were taken 
 from Electrical World, Nov. 16, 1912. In Plant A, serving a New 
 England manufacturing city, the station output at the switchboard 
 in 1911 was 2,418,000 kw.-hrs. and the labor cost for the entire 
 year $11,265, or 0.46 ct. per unit. The payroll covered 4 engineers, 
 3 oilers, 3 firemen and 2 helpers, or 12 men in all, the generating 
 plant consisting of 3 alternators of 2000-kw. combined rating, each 
 directly driven by a vertical cross-compound engine. The units 
 were rated at 400 kws., 600 kws. and 1000 kws., and steam was 
 supplied by 5 Sterling boilers rated at 1250 h.p. total. The ratio 
 between station rating and labor requirements was 166 kws. per 
 man. The use of vertical engines, comparatively small powered 
 units and hand firing tended to increase the labor expense. In this 
 plant 1,494,000 kw.-hrs. were purchased during the year from an 
 outside hydraulic transmission company at a cost of $8,434. It 
 appears probable that if this plant were to be rebuilt in a similar 
 situation, the labor cost could be cut materially by the installation 
 of either a 2000-kw. turbine or 2 turbo units of possibly 1500-kw, 
 and 500-kw. rating in place of the vertical engines. The plant is 
 not hampered by high real -estate costs. At the time it was erected 
 the possibility of purchasing energy at a later date was not known, 
 and consequently 3 sizes of engines were installed to enable the 
 owners to operate the equipment economically under widely varying 
 loads. 
 
 Station B, rated at 4000 kws. and serving a population of about 
 
794 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 60,000, produced electricity last year at the low labor cost of 0.17 
 ct. per kw.-hr. In this station the payroll covered 4 engineers, 3 
 oilers, 1 electrician, 5 firemen and 2 repair men, their wages total- 
 ing $16,197 for the year. The labor ratio was 210 kw. per man, 
 and mechanical stokers were used in the boiler plant. The latter 
 consisted of 4 525-h.p. water-tube units. The large output of the 
 plant, 9,400,000 kw.-hrs., is chiefly responsible for the low unit 
 labor cost. 
 
 Plant C shows the importance of large outputs in securing low 
 unit costs, and produced electricity during a recent year at a labor 
 cost of 0.16 ct. The installation is a tidewater plant, with mechani- 
 cal fuel-handling and stoking system.s, and the output for the 12 
 months was 14,453,000 kw.-his. The equipment w^as 6 520-h.p. 
 water-tube boilers, 2 500-kw. turbo units, 1 200 kw., 2 1000-kw. 
 and 1 2000-kw. engine-driven set. The station rating was therefore 
 5200 kws,, or 19 2 kws. per employee on the payroll. There were 
 27 station men, including 4 engineers, 4 firemen, 2 helpers, 2 water 
 tenders, 2 switchboard men, 2 repair men, 5 oilers, 1 cleaner, 1 
 conveyor man, 3 coal handlers and 1 clerk. This station supplies 
 energy for lighting, motor and railway service over a large number 
 of towns within a radius of 60 miles of the plant, and the labor 
 requirements are unquestionably increased by the variety of circuits 
 and voltages, including both direct current and alternating current, 
 fed from the central installation. The gradual introduction of turbo 
 units and the use of motor-operated valves are tending to facilitate 
 the handling of the steam end of the plant with fewer men. The 
 station has been in service from 10 to 15 years, and if a new plant 
 of the same size were to be buiit to-day on the same site, there is 
 little question that it could be greatly simplified, with substantial 
 reduction in the force required to man the machinery. 
 
 Plant D, which has recently been turned into a substation follow- 
 ing the supply of energy from a new installation, illustrates to a 
 marked degree the tendency which diversified equipment of moder- 
 ate size has to multiply labor costs. This station contained 12 
 hand-fired horizontal return tubular boilers and no less than 5 
 electric generating units of the steam-driven type, besides several 
 motor-generators and a number of units belt-driven from a base- 
 ment line shaft. The approximate rating was 4500 kws., and the 
 payroll called for 21 men. The boiler-room work was handled by 
 5 firemen in spite of the absence of mechanical stokers, but on the 
 prime-mover and generator side of the station 4 engineers and 12 
 other attendants were required. The cost of labor for the year was 
 $19,571, or 0.34 ct. per kw.-hr. at the bus, the output for the year 
 being 5,754,000 kw.-hrs. An analysis of the operating conditions 
 in the station showed that the boilers and engines were well handled 
 but that the multiplied labor requirements were largely due to the 
 use of line shafting and driving small generators in addition to the 
 main alternators, to the use of small arc-lighting dynamos and to 
 the distribution of an extensive direct -current service for motor 
 operation. The station building was so large that the small ma- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 795 
 
 chines in service were greatly scattered, and the area of the plant 
 militated against economical labor service. The rating per man 
 was 214 kws. 
 
 Station E. Small output handicaps a station even where its 
 general design favors economical work by its operating shifts. A 
 typical case is afforded by Station E, equipped with 3 engine-driven 
 alternators of 150-kw., 300-kw. and 800-kw. rating. The boiler 
 plant consists of 4 water-tube units of 1000-h.p. combined rating, 
 with hand firing. The station is simple in lay-out, with short 
 distances between apparatus units, direct lines of piping and a 
 moderate-cost switchboard. 4 engineers, 4 firemen and 1 helper 
 are required, the rating per employee being 139 kw. In a recent 
 year the plant output was 1,602,000 kw.-hrs., the labor cost being 
 $7,759, or 0.48 ct. per kw.-hr. 
 
 Station F. Another small station with a more complicated equip- 
 ment had a relatively high labor cost. This plant had on its pay- 
 roll 7 men, consisting of 3 engineers, 1 electrical operator, 1 gen- 
 erator attendant and 2 firemen, and was equipped with 4 water- 
 tube boilers of 678-h.p. combined rating, two horizontal cross-com- 
 pound condensing engines, a 500-kw. turbine and 3 arc machines. 
 The station rating was 1082 kws., or 155 kws. per employee. The 
 labor cost for the year was $8,972, or 0.61 ct. per kw.-hr., the total 
 output being 1,466,000 kw.-hrs. In this station the piping and 
 auxiliaries were unusually complicated in arrangement, the floor 
 levels were not well planned, and extreme crowding characterized 
 the equipment in the engine room. The labor cost in this plant was 
 unduly high, and a betterment study would probably result in a 
 reduction of the force by about 28%. In so small a station there 
 are great disadvantages in maintaining attendants for purely elec- 
 trical duties in addition to those required to operate engine and 
 turbine equipment and look after the general condition of the 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 Data of the above character drawn from actual practice show 
 some of the reasons why the large turbine plant with individual 
 units of high power is making such inroads into the field formerly 
 occupied exclusively by stations composed of generating and 
 auxiliary apparatus of diversified character and low individual 
 output. Apart from the questions of fuel economy which bulk so 
 large in plant design and the selection of machinery for production, 
 it is coming to be realized that enormous increases in output can be 
 handled without additions to the number of men required to operate 
 the installation, if the problem is viewed in a broad way. Fre- 
 quently the capacity of a moderate-sized plant can be practically 
 doubled by this means with little or no addition to the force of 
 employees. Repeated analyses of production costs in stations rated 
 at from 3000 kws. to 7000 kws., under favorable conditions of ma- 
 chinery arrangernent, indicate that with the natural development 
 of business a labor cost of 0.1 ct. to 0.15 ct. per kw.-hr. should be 
 attained in regular practice, although 2 or 3 times that unit expense 
 at present is a common figure. 
 
796 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 Table XVI gives a summary of the costs for the various stations. 
 
 
 TABLE XVI. SUMMARY OF LABOR COSTS 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Annual 
 
 Number of 
 
 Kw. rating 
 
 per 
 employee 
 
 Labor 
 
 Plant 
 
 rating of 
 
 output 
 
 central 
 
 cost in 
 
 station 
 
 in 
 
 station 
 
 cents per 
 
 
 in kw. 
 
 kw-hr. 
 
 employees 
 
 kw.-hr. 
 
 A . .. 
 
 . 2000 
 
 2,418,000 
 
 12 
 
 167 
 
 0.46 
 
 B ... 
 
 . 4000 
 
 9.400,000 
 
 15 
 
 210 
 
 0.17 
 
 C . . . 
 
 . 5200 
 
 14,453,000 
 
 27 
 
 192 
 
 0.16 
 
 D ... 
 
 . 4500 
 
 5,754,000 
 
 21 
 
 214 
 
 0.34 
 
 E . . . 
 
 . 1250 
 
 1,602.000 
 
 9 
 
 139 
 
 0.48 
 
 F . .. 
 
 . 1082 
 
 1,466,000 
 
 7 
 
 155 
 
 0.61 
 
 2200 Volts Versus 13,200 Volts for Rural Extensions. In Table 
 XVII are the overhead charges which may be assessed on isolated 
 transformers when they are energized all the time, given in Elec- 
 trical World, Dec. 9, 1916. The first group of figures relates to 
 13,200-volt equipment and the second to 2200-volt apparatus. 
 These data indicate that if rural communities are not far from 
 cities having electric service it may be cheaper to operate and main- 
 tain 2200-volt extensions to the city primary circuits than to oper- 
 ate a 13,200-volt line and corresponding voltage transformers. For 
 instance, the overhead charges on a 5-kw. 2200-volt transformer is 
 over $26 less than for a similar size 13,200-volt transformer with 
 the necessary protective apparatus. Assuming interest at 7% and 
 line depreciation, operation, maintenance and taxes at 6%, the sav- 
 ing on each 5-kw. transformer is sufficient to cover the overhead 
 charges of a 2200-volt line costing $200. 
 
 This seems to indicate that for every 5-kw. transformer to be 
 connected the 2200-volt transmission line can cost $200 more than a 
 13,200-volt line would to serve the same load with the same line 
 loss, without making the overhead charge greater than for the 
 higher voltage line. In other words, if the single-phase 13,200-volt 
 line required to serve a scattered rural load of 5 5-kw. trans- 
 formers cost $7,600, a 2200-volt line having no greater overhead 
 charge would cost $8,600. If the 2200-volt line could not be built 
 for this amount without obtaining a larger line loss than on the 
 13,200-volt line, then the higher voltage transmission would be 
 preferable. 
 
 Distribution -Line Economies. The following is abstracted from 
 an article in Electrical "World, June 9, 1917. Some interesting 
 views on considerations influencing selection of transformers were 
 brought oiit in a recent paper, by S. B. Hood of the Minneapolis 
 (Minn.) General Electric Company. Since the price per kilovolt- 
 ampere of transformer rating decreases as the size increases it 
 naturally follows that the larger sizes should be used wherever 
 practicable. This can be accomplished usually by stringing heavier 
 and longer secondary bus lines and feeding them with a smaller 
 number of units. The most economical balance is obtained as re- 
 gards Initial investment when the cost of secondary bus lines plus 
 transformers is a minimum. There is, however, a very wide dif- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 797 
 
 TABLE XVII. TRANSFORMER OVERHEAD CHARGES WHEN 
 
 RURAL DISTRICTS ARE SERVED FROM ISOLATED 
 
 TRANSFORMERS 
 
 i3,200-VoIt Line 
 Cost of 5-kw. transformer installed, including high-tension 
 
 fuHes and horn-gap arrester • $125.00 
 
 Interest, repairs and depreciation, 20%. 25.00 
 
 Core loss, 91 watts or 800 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts. . . 16.00 
 
 Labor for trouble calls 9.00 
 
 Total extra cost of service per annum $ 50.00 
 
 Total extra cost of service per month 4.16 
 
 Cost of 3-kw. transformer, installed, including high-tension 
 
 fuses and horn-gap arresters . . . $100.00 
 
 Interest, repairs and depreciation, 20% $ 20.00 
 
 Core loss, 53.5 watts or 470 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts. 9.40 
 
 Labor for trouble calls 8.60 
 
 Total extra cost of service per annum $ 38.00 
 
 Total extra cost of service per month 3.16 
 
 2200-Volt Line Extended from City Limits 
 
 Cost of 1-kw. transformer, installed $ 30.00 
 
 Interest, repairs and depreciation 6.00 
 
 Core loss, 20 watts or 175 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts.. . 3.50 
 
 Labor for trouble calls and service 3. 50 
 
 Total extra cost of service per annum % 13.00 
 
 Total extra cost of service per month 1.08 
 
 Cost of 3-kw. transformer % 45.00 
 
 Interest, repairs and depreciation 9.00 
 
 Core loss, 35 watts or 307 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts.. . 6.14 
 
 Labor for trouble and service 3.50 
 
 Total extra cost of service per annum % 18.64 
 
 Total extra cost of service per month 1.55 
 
 Cost of 5-kw. transformer % 60.00 
 
 Interest, repairs and depreciation, 20 per cent 12.00 
 
 Core loss, 45.5 watts or 400 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts. 8.00 
 
 Labor for trouble and service 3.50 
 
 Total extra cost of service per annum $ 23.50 
 
 Total extra cost of service per month 1.96 
 
 ference between the depreciation on copper wire and on trans- 
 formers. Wire depreciates very slowly and has a high fixed sal- 
 vage value. Transformers have an uncertain life and their scrap 
 value is low. Taking these conditions into consideration, it is good 
 practice to spend considerably more on bus copper than is actually 
 required to strike an economical balance. An excess copper in- 
 vestment equal to 50% of the transformer cost is not too much 
 to allow. 
 
 As an example, take two secondary bus sections, each fed by 
 5-kva, transformers, the investment on which, m position, will be 
 about $150. By connecting these bus lines and substituting a 10- 
 kva. transformer, advantage is taken of the diversity on the bus, 
 thereby permitting the connecting of more load. The new trans- 
 former investment will not exceed $95, showing a saving of $55 
 
798 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 that can be spent for connecting and increasing the size of the 
 secondary bus and still maintain a balance as regards investment. 
 Assuming interest at 6% and depreciation at 7.5%, the annual 
 charges will be $20.25 and $12.82 respectively, show^ing an annual 
 saving of $7.43 by using one unit in place of the two. Now. if 
 interest is assumed at 6% and depreciation at 2.5% on copper wire, 
 and this saving is capitalized, it will be possible to spend $87 plus 
 the $55, or $142, on the secondary bus and still maintain an eco- 
 nomical balance. This makes no allowance for the saving due to 
 lower core loss with the single unit as compared with two smaller 
 units. If this were taken into consideration, a still greater 
 secondary investment could be justified. In purchasing trans- 
 formers it is very poor policy to stock the small units. A 5-kva. 
 unit is small enough to use regularly on any system of distribution. 
 
 As regards ratios and taps for distribution transformers, 2300- 
 volt primary and 115-230-volt secondary windings without taps 
 give the best all-around results. These will operate over a primary 
 range of 2200 to 2400 volts. Taps have no real advantage and 
 introduce complication in the end turns where the greatest strength 
 is required. The double primary winding used in earlier days is 
 of no use at present, and its omission together with that of taps 
 makes possible the elimination of the primary terminal board which 
 has been the cause of so many transformer failures. 
 
 Factors that Determine Economical Life of Transformers. In 
 Electrical World, Jan. 13, IS 17, Theodore B. Morgan gives the fol- 
 lowing considerations involved in an investigation to ascertain 
 whether it is economical to continue in service, hold in reserve or 
 condemn and junk long-used transformers. Unless steps are taken 
 occasionally to weed out inefficient or antiquated transformers 
 from distribution systems certain units will be found which have 
 become uneconomical to operate as compared with newer designs. 
 This is especially true of " old timers," since as a rule they age 
 more rapidly than modern types. According to manufacturers' 
 statements and judging from results of tests to force aging, recently 
 designed transformers do not age appreciably. It is doubtful, there- 
 fore, whether future developments in this apparatus will permit 
 sufficient reduction in losses to justify the replacement of modern 
 units for this reason alone. It should be emj^hasized, however, that 
 only future experience can prove this contention. 
 
 To determine whether it is economical to continue in service, 
 hold in reserve, or condemn and junk transformers which have been 
 in service several years the writer has conducted extensive investi- 
 gations, part of the results of which are presented in what follows. 
 In arriving at conclusions it was considered advisable to take the 
 following conditions into account: (1) Unit cost of energy at the 
 switchboard; (2) number of hours per day normal and maximum 
 load is liable to last; (3) relation of transformer rating to con- 
 nected load; (4) iron loss; (5) copper loss.; (6) kva. drawn from 
 feeder by transformer for exciting at no load; (7) cost of new 
 transformer to replace one in service; (8) size of wire and load 
 carried by feeder giving service ; ( 9 ) distance of transformer from 
 
94;oM w" <sio-\ 
 
 11 1 g 1 '1 i i 
 
 |SigS?So_ 
 
 "•sZN 
 
 ~^ r\ 1 " ^ 
 
 ^^"^^ 
 
 Wl ^ 
 
 ^; N 
 
 
 Ni K-'r 
 
 • '^C^V-S?. "^ 
 
 N^^ 
 
 _r I^Ois^ ^ 
 
 "■Sv-S 
 
 • ^' \f\*'\F- 
 
 ^:^^^- 
 
 J^j^^^fe. - 
 
 3^^ 
 
 
 -< i -^^ 
 
 > '^ V ^ ^ ~ 
 
 ^> -^^ 
 
 i^^^ M%i^ 
 
 Sx. 
 
 
 ISn 
 
 'n'^^t*\ ■ NO e 
 
 3te^ ■ 
 
 '-r->%\ i\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 € A\\ %\ 
 
 ^^ : 
 
 
 \ . 
 
 p^ vK n^ \. I^ 
 
 \, 
 
 1^VP v'^ \X 
 
 -:u - 
 
 ^^^ ypJy^ ^ » ^ ^ 
 
 s- -<-J» 
 
 ^ ^ ''^Iv ^"^ ^^ ^ ^ ' 
 
 
 ■^^ "^ %. ^ '"^ ' 
 
 "^^ - - \ 
 
 \ \ ^ >Jv V 
 
 
 ,. ^_ VjyK!is 
 
 IM 
 
 \ "v \; "VaKJ 
 
 i ^^ i 
 
 
 H^i 
 
 ^ ^^^ ^S: 
 
 -:3\lt 
 
 
 >i 
 
 '^ ^\ ^^■'■>:^^y c 
 
 iL^ \ 
 
 •\ %-\ -^^ 
 
 ^S. ^\Z N 
 
 ^ "S %i %:°c 
 
 %\ 
 
 V \\ 54s «0 " 
 
 ^^N --W^ 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 1 ^ 
 
 jS^ ^V^II 
 
 ^^ i^lSS 
 
 "-^. ^^„ 
 
 ^v.^,s^rt: , 
 
 ^ ""'"^riOT 
 
 :^ %5: 
 
 ^irs^^Os 
 
 T- ^s, uir -, 
 
 -^'.,-N 
 
 %^ S^2s^i 
 
 
 \Y^ . "^. "?rv 
 
 r^'^-/ \ 
 
 wr :.v "*^2- 
 
 ^*; v 
 
 ^\\\ c* ^*^ , 
 
 ^>i T " 
 
 ^, ■& "- J' 
 
 ■^s>K-v. \ 
 
 S^\ -5.AI_ 
 
 ^^tK: _fc . 
 
 ^^"' i.tit ^ 
 
 ^ ^ ' i-:2:>7^ ^, 
 
 ts A 
 
 ^±,x, ,:^s; :^ 
 
 "^SL L 
 
 ^ 1 ^^<^ S 
 
 \ 'aS^^ \i_ ^ 
 
 
 °'-&Sr ^i_ ^^ ^ , 
 
 - S -,-^K- '^^..- 
 
 •%\. |''A '^Ji '^ 
 
 -^s, 1 §^. 
 
 
 %s^ 1 - 
 
 ^%. ^ ~ V^ 
 
 4^WI 
 
 ^ ^ ■ 3 
 
 414: IT i^ 
 
 5r^r \" 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ^v N JV_ 
 
 
 ^^^^ 4: 
 
 
 ^^-:>= ^^^ilA 
 
 
 ■^^^^^^^ 
 
 
 S^E^^J^ 
 
 
 3j I ^^^ ■ 
 
 
 en u 
 
 o 9^ \o ^ 
 
 SS - CM fv CVJ 
 
 S « >o 
 
 e+fOM ^\ seoy.' 
 
 799 
 
800 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 station; (10) power factor of feeder load; (11) profit that can be 
 realized by central station by change; (12) service characteristics; 
 (13) better regulation given to secondary distribution system. 
 
 Data included under the first item were readily obtained from the 
 company's operating accounts, while information on items 2 and 3 
 was secured by making tests in typical districts and by comparing 
 the ratings of transformers in service with statistics secured from 
 the commercial department. Tests on thirty-odd transformers rated 
 at 0.6 to 5 kva., and which had been in service for different periods 
 up to 17 years, were made to secure data for items 4 and 5. these 
 being facilitated by the replacement of the units shortly before the 
 tests by transformers of large rating. 
 
 These tests as well as all subsequent ones were conducted to 
 show the losses under operating conditions, voltage being applied 
 to the low-tension coils of the transformer at the rating given by 
 the manufacturer. No attempt was made to insure pure sinusoidal 
 waves. On the other hand, it was most desirable to have the 
 wave formation identical with that supi)lied to the system under 
 operating conditions, otherwise the tests would have been value- 
 less or would have given erroneous results when applied to dis- 
 tribution problems later on. 
 
 Preliminary tests were made to determine what apparent changes 
 might be expected under varying conditions. When generators 
 producing diffei-ent wave forms were paralleled on the system the 
 difference in loss was apparent, but to such a small degree that it 
 was not appreciable. Operation of generators on two other sys- 
 tems caused a greater variance, but at no time greater than 2%. 
 
 Other tests made to determine the variation in loss when the 
 rated voltage was impressed upon the transformers with and with- 
 out additional external variable resistances indicated that when a 
 lamp bank or meter-testing rheostat was used the error introduced 
 by the change of voltage wave was not sufficient to be more than 
 discernible by the tester. 
 
 When the iron and copper loss data had been tabulated, however, 
 the results for transformers of the same rating .varied so greatly 
 that it was hopeless to attempt any conclusions without securing 
 information that would permit classification of the data." Conse- 
 quently, manufacturers were asked for the history of transformer 
 design and for such data as would be used to classify the trans- 
 formers into groups, each group to represent a distinct departure 
 from the preceding group as regards iron and copper losses. Lists 
 of these losses were also secured. From this information all of 
 the 900 transformers tested to date and having ratings from 0.6 
 kva. to 600 kva. were classified as shown in Table XVIII: 
 
 With this classification as a guide, cards were selected from 
 the transformer files for 4 transformers of each size in each class. 
 By routing a regular testing crew according to these cards it was 
 possible to make a large number of tests with the least amount 
 of travel, 118 tests being made in one district. The exciting cur- 
 rents were determined at the same time for item 6. Since some of 
 the transformers of each class were miles apart, or could not be 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 801 
 
 TABLE XVIII. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS • 
 
 Class X — Designed for 133-cycle, 1040/2080-volt primary, 54/108- 
 
 volt secondary, about 19 years old. 
 Class A — Designed for 60-cycle, 1040/2080 volt primary, 54/108 
 
 or 108/21 6-volt secondary, 19 to 11 years old. 
 Class B — Designed for 60-cycle, 1040/2080-volt primary, 54/108 
 
 or 108/216-volt secondary, 11 to 9 years old. 
 Class C — Designed for 60-cycle, 1 100/2200-volt primary, 110/220- 
 
 volt secondary, 9 to 6 years old. 
 Class D — Designed for 60-cycle, 1100/2200-volt primary, 110/220- 
 
 volt secondary. 6 to 5 years old. 
 Class E — Designed for 60-cycle 2200-volt primary, 110/220-volt 
 
 secondary, 5 to 4 years old. 
 Class F — Designed for 60-cycle, 2200-volt primary, 110/220-volt 
 
 secondary, 4 to 1 years old. 
 Class H — Designed for 60-cycle, 220-volt primary, 110/220-volt 
 
 secondary, less than 1 year old. 
 
 ♦ All transformers operating on 60-cycle, 2200-volt, with 110 and 
 220-volt, two and three-wire secondaries. 
 
 disconnected for testing, and as certain sizes of some classes were 
 rare or were not in use at all, it was impracticable to carry out the 
 initial intention of testing four transformers of each size. How- 
 ever, enough tests were made so that data were secured for about 
 23% of the total number of units installed, the smallest percentage 
 of any class being about 18% for Class E. Where data could not 
 be secured for certain sizes of any class, where the data were 
 4nsufRcient for making satisfactory averages, or where the tests 
 were not as accurately conducted as desired the losses were 
 estimated. 
 
 While test data were secured under operating conditions for 
 transformers rated as high as 600 kva., only that for sizes (up to 
 20 kva.) which are most common on all systems have been plotted, 
 since it is by the proper selection of these units that the largest 
 saving can be made. The curves are based on the average losses 
 as found by over 500 tests made during a period of four years, and 
 are shown in Fig. 6, with curves plotted from the data furnished 
 by manufacturers on losses at the time of manufacture. The manu- 
 facturers also gave data on what the losses should be at the time 
 of test, but the values were much below those actually measured, 
 due probably to differences which exist between theoretical and 
 actual conditions. For instance, wave form in commercial may 
 not and is usually not sinusoidal, the transformer may be over- 
 loaded in kilovolt-amperes but not in kilowatts, and the oil used 
 for heat radiating purposes may be lacking or not in the proper 
 operating conditions, thus permitting the iron cores to age. 
 
 While Class X and some of Class A transformers were operated 
 for a time without oil as a heat-radiating medium, this condition 
 was corrected in 1902-1903. The oil in many of the older types 
 had reduced from one-third to two-thirds of its original bulk, 
 thereby becoming thick and sluggish. Several cases were found 
 where the oil and insulating compound had combined into a thick, 
 sticky mass covering part of the laminations and coils. These 
 
802 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 conditions were talien into consideration after making the tests 
 on the transformers, it being decided that the iron loss had not 
 been affected except where excessive load in comparison to the 
 radiating capacity had been carried. The averages of test results 
 can therefore be used only as a guide for transformers of the class 
 tested, as the losses of each individual transformer are liable to 
 change. For estimating purposes, however, the curves will be 
 found fiiirly accurate. It may be pointed out that for the period 
 of transformer development represented, the iron losses of similar 
 size units have been gradually reduced and the ratio of copper 
 
 no 
 
 100 
 ^ 90 
 
 ^ 70 
 
 .41^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 =S 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 
 - 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 ^-s, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 CfaisQan^^ 
 
 ^Tp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 6 & 10 12 14 16 15 
 f^a+ing of TransforTTiers in KVA. 
 Fig. 7 
 
 loss to iron loss gradually increased from 1 :1 to about 2 :1, thus 
 permitting a higher all -day elliciency when the load factor is low. 
 Figs. 7 and 8 compare the iron and copper losses of modern trans- 
 formers with those of older types in percentages. 
 
 From the manufacturers' list prices and discounts for different 
 size units figures (Table XJX) were obtained on which to base 
 the cost of replacing transformers. The cost to set transformers 
 on lines includes freight, cartage, etc., and is an average for" re- 
 moving and setting a number of transformers when arrangements 
 have been made to carry on the work systematically. The junk 
 values are based on prices that have been paid in the past for 
 good transformers with high iron loss. These figures are necessarily 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 803 
 
 TABLE XTX. ULTIMATE COST OP NEW TRANSFORMERS 
 ASSUMED FOR ESTIMATING PURPOSES 
 
 Size of 
 
 Cost at 
 
 transformers f^ptorv 
 in kva. raciory 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7.5 
 10 
 15 
 20 
 
 23.00 
 27.00 
 32.00 
 36.00 
 40 00 
 47.00 
 56.00 
 73.00 
 89.00 
 118.00 
 115.00 
 
 Cost set 
 on lines 
 
 26.00 
 30.00 
 35.00 
 39.00 
 43.00 
 50.XI0 
 59.00 
 76.00 
 92.00 
 121 00 
 148.00 
 
 Junk value 
 
 of old 
 
 transformers 
 
 3.00 
 
 4 00 
 
 5 00 
 6.00 
 7.00 
 9.00 
 
 10.00 
 14.00 
 18.00 
 25. UO 
 30.00 
 
 Ultimate 
 
 cost of new 
 
 transformers 
 
 on lines 
 
 23.00 
 
 26.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 36.00 
 
 41.00 
 
 49.00 
 
 62.00 
 
 74.00 
 
 96.00 
 
 118.00 
 
 I& ZO 
 
 Ro+ing of Transformers, in K.V.A. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Comparisons of the iron and copper losses of 
 transformers 
 
 All of the curves are plotted with the assumption that the losses 
 of class H transformers are 100 per cent. The curves of Fig. 7 
 are based on the average losses at time of manufacture while those 
 of Fig. 8 are based an actual test data. The upper curve of Fig. 
 7 represents copper losses and lower one iron losses. Fig. 8 also 
 represents iron losses. 
 
 arbitrary, as it is impossible to arrive at true costs for a great 
 number of points where freight, cartage and labor conditions differ 
 from those assumed. From these data and the assumption that 
 
804 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 energy at the switchboard cost 1 ct. per kw.-h., curves slant- 
 ingr upward to the right in Pig. 9 were plotted. On account of 
 the different methods used in computing depreciation and the fact 
 that many companies set aside a reserve fund rather than figure 
 
 J 
 
 ^0 
 
 li 
 
 \ 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 ( 
 
 } 
 
 6 
 
 
 1. 
 
 J 
 
 
 c 
 
 inn 
 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 09.ru 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9ftn. 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 s» 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 N 
 
 \. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 246 
 
 ?40 
 
 
 \ 
 
 - 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 • 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 ., 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 f (? 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 \, 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 0? 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ■ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 0/ 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 f'^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 \y 
 
 S 
 
 
 i> 
 
 
 ,<i 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 c , 
 
 M 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 > 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 ,rn. 
 
 .0 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 t '* 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 >< 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 , 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 -J 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 <N 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 :> 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 k 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 A 
 
 
 v^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 «» 
 
 A 
 
 '- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 <v 
 
 r/ 
 
 / 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 \, 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \0 
 
 > 
 
 x 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 , ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 N 
 
 y' 
 
 N 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 i) 
 
 r/ 
 
 
 y 
 
 y^ 
 
 S 
 
 y^ 
 
 iK 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Y^ 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 l^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 N 
 
 V 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 Z' 
 
 y 
 
 rf 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 u^\ 
 
 
 AA 
 
 
 
 r ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 H\^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ r 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 K^\^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Ki^ 
 
 
 
 9ri 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 4 6 8 10 12 K 16 16 20" 
 
 Rating erf Transformers in K.VA 
 
 Fig. 9. Return on investment which can be realized by substituting 
 new transformer for one having certain iron loss 
 The curves sloping upward to the right are based on the values 
 given in the right-hand column of Table II, while those sloping 
 to the left are based on the figures in the second column of the 
 table. An energy cost of 1 cent per kilowatt-hour is assumed. 
 
 depreciation on small items, depreciation is not considered, although 
 it may readily be introduced and results worked up for individual 
 cases with the figures and curves given. A comparison of the curves 
 of Pig. 9 with those of Pig. 6 shows that the substitution of a 
 modern type transformer for a class X transformer will pay 20% 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 805 
 
 on the investment, while the replacement of Classes A, B, C, etc., 
 will permit gradually smaller returns. The curves in Fig. 9 which 
 slope upward to the left show smaller returns from the substitution 
 of modern transformers, since they are based only on the cost of 
 the new transformers and not on the replacement cost. 
 
 Additional advantages are often secured by changing trans- 
 formers, such as increasing the feeder rating, improving power 
 factor and regulation, since two or more transformers can often 
 be replaced by one and the conductor combined to serve as one 
 circuit. 
 
 When the iron loss of transformers is relatively high and the 
 consumer's consumption small the cost of energizing the units 
 will sometimes exceed the actual income received. Such a case 
 was found where a 5-kva. tran.sformer of the X class was serving 
 a single customer whose bill never exceeded the minimum charge 
 of 50 cents per month except one month of the year. The income 
 was $9 a year while the cost of service, including $7 interest and 
 fixed charges and $17.50 for energy consumed by the transformer, 
 made a total yearly cost of $24.50 without charges for consumer's 
 energy, bookkeeping, meter reading, billing and the like. With an 
 ircm loss of 180 watts the power factor was 20% at no load. Since 
 900 kva. was supplied to the transformer the greater part of each 
 
 TABLE XX. COST OF SETTING TRANSFORMERS AND 
 
 VALUE OF THOSE REMOVED FROM CONNECTICUT 
 
 SYSTEM 
 
 <ii 'f. (a 
 
 " ^- 2 
 
 
 4J 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 •MM 
 
 
 u 
 
 ^V" 
 
 
 01 
 
 t:3 
 
 
 •2 
 
 «M C3 
 
 
 m 
 
 OH 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 .6 
 
 1 
 
 $23.00 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 46.00 
 
 1.5 
 
 4 
 
 108.00 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 3 
 
 I'OS.OO 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 120.00 
 
 4 
 
 , 
 
 
 5 
 
 '4 
 
 2¥4'.66 
 
 7.5 
 
 8 
 
 584.00 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 89.00 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 236.00 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 i 
 
 2V9.66 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 270.00 
 
 Total 
 
 30 
 
 $2027.00 
 
 •d 
 
 'S'w 
 
 
 
 
 K 1' Ct 
 
 ti^ ^ r; cc 
 
 U<ii-^ 
 
 3 C 3 (L 
 
 
 Val 
 tra 
 if 1> 
 tim 
 
 ill 
 
 $138.00 
 
 5 
 
 276.00 
 
 10 
 
 243.00 
 
 5 
 
 160.00 
 
 5 
 
 216.00 
 
 3 
 
 280.00 
 
 4 
 
 188.00 
 
 4 
 
 392.00 
 
 3 
 
 730.00 
 
 2 
 
 89.00 
 
 
 590.00 
 
 ■3 
 
 435.00 
 
 3 
 
 576.00 
 
 3 
 
 $115.00 
 
 12 276.00 10 230.00 
 
 9 243.00 5 135.00 
 
 5 160.00 5 160 00 
 
 6 216.00 3 108.00 
 
 7 280.00 4 160.00 
 
 4 188.00 4 188.00 
 7 392.00 3 16800 
 
 10 730.00 2 146.00 
 1 
 
 5 590.00 3 348.00 
 3 435.00 3 435.00 
 3 576.00 3 576.00 
 
 78 $4313 00 50 $2769.00 
 
806 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 day the line loss was way out of proportion to the energy sold and 
 the rating of a 9-mile section feeder was considerably reduced. 
 
 While all central stations endeavor to keep their distribution 
 systems from becoming loaded with networks of wire or over-rated 
 transformers, points can invariably be found where there is too 
 much wire and too little transformer capacity or too much capacity 
 for the size of the installation. Such conditions cause a loss to the 
 
 Fig. 10 
 
 Fig 
 
 Figs. 10 and 11. 
 
 Portion of distribution system before and after 
 rearrangement 
 
 operating company, and unless careful super^nsion is maintained 
 in making extensions or installing transformers, thousands of 
 dollars may be uneconomically strung in the air instead of being 
 used to better advantage elsewhere. 
 
 In working on secondary distribution systems, it has been found 
 that iron losses are often rated far below the actual figures. For 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 807 
 
 instance, an excitation current of 0.5% to 10% of the unaccounted 
 for current, as sometimes claimed, is entirely too low. Tests show 
 that a system furnishing 24-hour service must be in perfect con- 
 dition to show a loss as low as 20%, while for sparsely populated 
 residential districts the loss is seldom as low as 40%. Analyzation 
 of the unaccounted-for current in a number of systems indicates 
 that the distribution transformers take up anywhere from 38 to 
 60%, estimators usually overlooking the fact that iron loss is con- 
 tinuous for the 24 hours in the day and for 365 days in the year. 
 Another item which is usually overlooked is that old transformers 
 have the greater losses and should be considered separate from the 
 more modern types, which have very low losses by comparison. 
 
 As an example of a case where the foregoing considerations were 
 taken into account in rearranging a distribution system the ac- 
 companying maps and data of Table XX are presented. The map 
 in Fig 10 shows distribution conditions in a section of a Connecticut 
 town before changes were made and where the system had grown 
 with the demand for service. 
 
 In rearranging the system 78 of 141 transformers were removed 
 and 30 hung on the lines, making 93 transformers with a total 
 rating of 1487 kva. instead of 141 with a total rating of 1709 kva. 
 About the only transformers purchased for the change were a 30- 
 kva. unit and a 40-kva. unit, since a sufficient number of various 
 sizes were secured by rearranging to fit in places where transform- 
 ers were needed. In general the secondaries were not run more than 
 9 sections from their corresponding transformer. When it was pos- 
 sible to form loops, however, 20 to 25 section secondaries could be 
 employed on fairly heavily loaded circuits. 
 
 TABLE XXI. SAVING DUE TO REMODELING OF 
 CONNECTICUT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 
 
 Transformers removed from lines 78 
 
 Kva. capacity 421.1 
 
 Value if purchased new = 14,313.00 
 
 Transformers set on lines 30 
 
 Kva. capacity 199.1 
 
 Value if purchased new ?2,027.00 
 
 Saving in kw-hr. per year in reduced iron loss 36,667 
 
 Valued at 1 ct. per kw-hr $366.67 
 
 * Added rating of 11,000-volt feeder in kva 20.50 
 
 Pounds of base wire removed, 2313 (junk), valued at. . . . $578.25 
 
 Pounds of weather-proof wire run, 2150, valued at $602.00 
 
 * Due to increasing power factor of exciting current. 
 
 In addition to other wire removed and run as noted elsewhere 
 about 6000 ft. of No. 6 new weatherproof wire, which cost 30 cts. a 
 pound, was removed and substituted by copper-clad wire equivalent 
 to No. 10 copper that cost 15 cts. a pound two years before. This 
 substitution was permitted by making one long run with a 1-kva. 
 transformer at the end, the copper-clad wire being obtained from 
 a suburban line where the increased load had demanded a change 
 to a larger size of conductor. 
 
808 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 For the benefit of companies contemplating changes similar to 
 those outlined, attention is called to a few of the many difficulties 
 encountered. For instance, after the primary and secondary sys- 
 tem have been mapped and comprehensive tests made on the feed- 
 ers, transformers and secondary system, the value of the results 
 may be entirely lost because infrequent loads have not been taken 
 into consideration. If some evasive load of this nature crops up 
 it may be necessary to change conductors and transformers, making 
 the expense about double the initial or estimated expense. Such 
 occurrences can often be avoided, however, by conferences with the 
 line superintendents and foremen, who are usually acquainted with 
 the characters of the loads. Better teamwork will usually be ob- 
 tained, too, if their confidence is secured, since they do not generally 
 take kindly to reconstruction of work which they have spent time 
 and money to perfect. Another point to recognize is that the good 
 will or enmity of the community will be secured depending on 
 whether the rehabilitation is attended with improved or unsatis- 
 factory results. Under no consideration should anyone undertake 
 extensive readjustments unless he has a knowledge of local con- 
 ditions, good engineering training, practical experience, and testing 
 and mapping facilities. 
 
 Costs per Kilowatt of Steam Power Electric Plants. The costs 
 in Table XXII are from appraisals by the authors made in 1911 
 and 1912 on the Pacific Coast. "Base costs" only are given, 
 the table including no charges for engineering, business manage- 
 ment, legal and general expense, interest during construction or 
 brokerage. 
 
 Electric Power Plant Cost. (Condensed by Lefax from an article 
 by M. C. McNeil in Electric Journal, March, 1914.) The cost of 
 construction or installation of steam turbine driven electric power 
 plants, complete from real estate up to and including all auxiliary 
 apparatus, for a given size of plant, is fairly constant throughout 
 the country. Local conditions may, however, cause an appreciable 
 variation from the average case. The size of plant affects the cost 
 very materially, and the unit cost tends to increase rapidly for 
 small plants, and decrease less rapidly for large plants. 
 
 The installation cost of plant affects the cost of power produced 
 in that the fixed charges are a part of the operation cost, say 10.5% 
 for turbine plants, made up of interest 5%, taxes and insurance 2%, 
 and amortization fund 3.5%, the latter being sufficient at 4% com- 
 pound interest to replace the plant in 20 years. The total cost of 
 power, consisting of operating costs and fixed charges, is a fluctuat- 
 ing quantity, depending upon size of plant and load-factor. The 
 principal variation however is due to operating expense, which con- 
 stitutes about 80% of the total power cost, and is made up of the 
 following items : 
 
 Fuel. Coal is rarely less than 50%, and sometimes as high as 
 80% of the total operating expense. The larger the plant and the 
 greater the load-factor, the better the fuel economy. Load-factor 
 equals ratio of average load during any period, as 24 hrs., to the 
 average maximum load for one hour during that period. As the 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLAN'TS 
 
 809 
 
 1^ 
 
 S 5S '^ c J w oq 00 1> r-i !o "WtH c<ie-ia> 
 ,-1 ^ e«- 
 
 Sll' (Mlrtl-rHOt-OOt-inO 
 
 *5 +^ S us (m" rH l> T-i ' «0 «0 eO rH 
 
 - f 1 ^f^ 
 
 rK o, .• OCOOO 00t-O<MC<I •-*<j; ■* • i-i 
 O^^OOJirSIMOOSDiHOO -0510 ->:*< -o 
 
 li^a* Ooococot-oiooo 
 
 Q^ ^ M U5 U5 Oi «0 M T-| O 
 
 OCQJ^ oc<3C<io6<»odt-^o 
 
 a:eo . . 
 
 (MO'J 
 
 IfiWOO 
 
 OlM . • 
 
 (MO-O 
 
 eou5?o 
 
 od«> ■ ■ 
 
 
 •^n 
 
 coin • • 
 
 (M 
 
 .. o' .. 
 
 ;5 t^ 
 
 ^ l> ->*i «C OJ CO I 
 
 Cud 
 
 .2s 
 
 
 bo 
 
 r; M K 2 
 
 be' 
 
 o <u <y o 5 
 
 ggs 
 
 ScaaS^S^o^S 
 
 Isssssaesi fig 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 ^ %%% 
 
 0)— ' 
 
 Is 
 
 CM w 
 
 o w 
 
 ':3 ^ ^- 
 ro 4j p, 
 
 ,C • CbC 
 
 ^-■^ J^ 
 fit- 01 
 
 -rs o ** 
 
 tn 0) 0) 
 
 .« aft 
 w ft 
 
 r w, ''■^ w 
 0; wia ti 
 S c c <u 
 
 ft^^ , 
 
 ?=7: -Mv-e 
 
 oCgo 
 
 Offi^ 
 
 o o o a 
 
 oooW 
 
810 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 load-factor falls off the fuel cost increases, due to increased steam 
 consumption per kw.-hr, produced. The general plant losses and 
 inefficiencies are proportionately greater the smaller the plant, and 
 the lesser the load-factor. 
 
 Labor Costs follow the same general trend as fuel costs, although 
 not so fluctuating. The load-factor does not affect the labor as 
 much as it does the fuel item, as practically the same labor will 
 be required for a plant having a 75% load-factor as for one having 
 a 50% load-factor, if the maximum load for the two plants is the 
 same. 
 
 Supplies. The items oil, waste and supplies, and repairs and 
 maintenance are indeterminate quantities, although experience has 
 shown that they bear an approximate relation to labor and fixed 
 charges; oil, waste and supplies being around 20% of the labor cost, 
 and repairs and maintenance about 15% of the fixed charges. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. COST OP INSTALLATION PER KW. STEAM 
 TURBINE DRIVEN 
 
 Size of plants — kilowatts 
 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 
 Building, real estate and ex- 
 cavating 16.75 14.50 13.25 12.00 11.00 10.00 
 
 Turbines and generators 32.60 25.75 21.15 17.30 15.80 15.00 
 
 Condensers 10.60 6.75 4.50 3.90 3.50 3.00 
 
 Boilers, stokers, superheaters 
 
 and stacks 32.65 28.50 25.50 23.60 21.50 20.00 
 
 Bunkers and conveyors 5.50 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.25 
 
 Boiler feed and service pumps. 1.25 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.50 
 
 Feed water heaters 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.80 
 
 Switchboard and wiring 3.50 3.25 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.75 
 
 Exciters 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.75 
 
 Foundation (machinery) 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 
 
 Piping and conduits 5.75 5.75 6.00 6.00 6.25 6.25 
 
 Crane 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 
 
 Supt. and engineering, etc 6.50 5.00 4.25 3.75 3.25 3.00 
 
 Total 124.10 103.50 89.40 79.30 71.80 66.80 
 
 Each of the plants considered in Table XXIII is normal rated 
 at the size given; that is, the 500 kw. plant has 3 200-kw. normal 
 rated units, making it possible to operate the plant with 2 turbines 
 running, the third unit being used only during the peak load period. 
 However, if 1 unit is shut down for repairs, the peak load can be 
 handled by the remaining 2 machines, although at reduced economy. 
 Ample capacity is provided, such as spare boiler, extra boiler feed 
 and service pumps and other extra apparatus consistent with good 
 design. 
 
 Labor saving apparatus is not warranted for the smaller plants. 
 The 1000 kw. plant is about the dividing line, above which it is 
 economy to install labor saving machinery. 
 
 Table XXIV gives the cost of power generation in cents per kw.-hr. 
 for steam turbine generating units. Cost of fuel was calculated 
 for $3.00 coal. For simplicity, the steam operating conditions of all 
 the plants were considered the same, being 175 lbs. steam pressure. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 811 
 
 100 deg. superheat and 28 in. vacuum. These conditions may be 
 rather high for the smaller units, but there would not be any great 
 difference in total power costs if the steam pressure was lowered 
 and superheat omitted, as saving in fuel due to the more economical 
 operating conditions just about balances the extra fixed charges. 
 
 TABLE XXIV. COST OF POWER GENERATING' 
 
 DRIVEN 
 
 Cost in cents per kilowatt-hour 
 
 TURBINE 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 plant. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 Labor 
 
 Oil, 
 
 waste 
 
 and 
 
 Repairs 
 
 and 
 
 main- 
 
 Oper- 
 ating 
 costs 
 
 Fixed 
 charges 
 
 Total 
 
 kws. 
 
 
 
 supplies 
 
 tenance 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100% Load-Factor 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 0.449 
 
 0.132 
 
 0.026 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.632 
 
 0.148 
 
 0.780 
 
 1000 
 
 0.364 
 
 0.094 
 
 0.019 
 
 0.021 
 
 0.498 
 
 0.124 
 
 0.622 
 
 2000 
 
 0.328 
 
 0.073 
 
 0.015 
 
 0.018 
 
 0.434 
 
 0.107 
 
 0.541 
 
 3000 
 
 0.304 
 
 0.065 
 
 0.013 
 
 0.016 
 
 0.398 
 
 0.095 
 
 0.493 
 
 4000 
 
 0.289 
 
 0.058 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.014 
 
 0.372 
 
 0.086 
 
 0.458 
 
 5000 
 
 0.271 
 
 0.053 
 
 0.010 
 
 0.013 
 
 0.347 
 
 0.080 
 
 0.428 
 
 
 
 
 75% Load-Factor 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 0.548 
 
 0.166 
 
 0.033 
 
 0.031 
 
 0.778 
 
 0.197 
 
 0.973 
 
 1000 
 
 0.428 
 
 0.116 
 
 0.023 
 
 0.026 
 
 0.593 
 
 0.165 
 
 0.758 
 
 2000 
 
 0.389 
 
 0.088 
 
 0.019 
 
 0.021 
 
 0.517 
 
 0.143 
 
 0.660 
 
 3000 
 
 0.352 
 
 0.079 
 
 0.016 
 
 0.019 
 
 0.466 
 
 0.127 
 
 0.593 
 
 4000 
 
 0.327 
 
 0.072 
 
 0.014 
 
 0.017 
 
 0.430 
 
 0.115 
 
 0.545 
 
 5000 
 
 0.308 
 
 0.065 
 
 0.013 
 
 0.016 
 
 0.402 
 
 0.107 
 
 0.509 
 
 
 
 
 50% Load-Factor 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 0.741 
 
 0.236 
 
 0.047 
 
 0.042 
 
 1.066 
 
 0.296 
 
 1.362 
 
 1000 
 
 0.558 
 
 0.166 
 
 0.033 
 
 0.035 
 
 0.792 
 
 0.248 
 
 1.040 
 
 2000 
 
 0.494 
 
 0.118 
 
 0.024 
 
 0.030 
 
 0.666 
 
 0.214 
 
 0.880 
 
 3000 
 
 0.438 
 
 0.106 
 
 0.021 
 
 0.027 
 
 0.592 
 
 0.190 
 
 0.782 
 
 4000 
 
 0.402 
 
 0.097 
 
 0.019 
 
 0.024 
 
 0.542 
 
 0.172 
 
 0.714 
 
 5000 
 
 0.380 
 
 0.088 
 
 0.017 
 
 0.022 
 
 0.507 
 
 0.160 
 
 0.667 
 
 In central station service the ideal condition of 100% load-factor 
 is never reached and seldom approached, the condition of 75% 
 load-factor being considered very good, and only attained in some 
 instances. 
 
 Prime Movers Other Than the Turbine. The comparison is made 
 on the basis of 1,000 kws. normal capacity plant, all conditions 
 being similar, and the gas engine being supplied with fuel from a 
 producer gas plant. 
 
 COST OF INSTALLATION 1,000 KW. PLANT 
 
 Per kilowatt 
 
 Turbine 1103.50 
 
 Reciprocating steam engine 132.50 
 
 Comb, recip. engine and turbine 127.00 
 
 Gas engine 162.50 
 
 Table XXV gives cost of producing power for the different plants. 
 For plants of other sizes than 1,000 kws. the same proportional dif- 
 ferences between plants of various sizes as shown in Table XXIII 
 can be used and will be approximately correct. 
 
812 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXV. COST OP POWER GENERATION PER KW-HR. 
 1,000 KW. PLANT 
 
 « IS 
 
 ^ I ^.| 1- £| II s 
 
 g « =g ^6 a8 .|€ c 
 
 100% Load-Factor 
 
 Turbine 0.364 0.094 0.019 0.021 0.498 0.124 0.622 
 
 Recip. steam engine 0.390 0.105 0.023 0.024 0.542 0.166 0.708 
 
 Comb, recip. and turbine. 0.340 0.110 0.025 0.025 0.500 0.158 0.658 
 
 Gas engine 0.260 0.165 0.033 0.035 0.493 0.213 0.706 
 
 75% Load-Factor 
 
 Turbine 0.428 0.116 0.023 0.026 0.593 0.165 0.758 
 
 Recip. steam engine 0.461 0.128 0.028 0.030 0.647 0.222 0.869 
 
 Comb, recip. and Turbine. 0.404 0.134 0.030 0.032 0.600 0.211 0.811 
 
 Gas engine 0.334 0.195 0.039 0.044 0.612 0.285 0.897 
 
 50% Load-Factor 
 
 Turbine 0.558 0.166 0.033 0.035 0.792 0.248 1.040 
 
 Recip. steam engine 0.602 0.182 0.039 0.040 0.863 0.332 1.195 
 
 Comb, recip. and turbine. 0.527 0.189 0.042 0.043 0.801 0.316 1.117 
 
 Gas engine 0.482 0.252 0.052 0.055 0.841 0.426 1.267 
 
 The turbine economy, however, is proportionately better for larger 
 units than is either the gas engine or reciprocating steam engine, 
 though the reverse is true to some extent with smaller plants. 
 
 Costs of Steam Turbo- Electric Central Stations. O. S, Lyford, 
 Jr., and R, W. Stovel, in Electric Journal, April, 1912, give the 
 following high and low costs of steam turbo-electric generating 
 stations of 2,000 to 20,000 kw. capacity, based on maximum con- 
 tinuous capacity of generators at 50 deg. C. rise. 
 
 Dollars per kw. 
 High Low 
 
 Preparing site : Clearing structures from site, con- 
 structing roads, tracks, etc % 0.25 .... 
 
 Yard work : Flumes for condensing water, siding, 
 
 grading, fencing, sidewalks, etc 2.50 $1.00 
 
 Foundations : Foundations for building, stacks and 
 
 machinery, excavation, piling, waterproofing, etc 6.00 1.00 
 
 Building: Frame, walls, floors, roofs, windows, doois, 
 coal bunker, etc., exclusive of foundations, heat- 
 ing, plumbing and lighting 12.00 4.00 
 
 Boiler room equipment : Boilers, stokers, flues, stacks, 
 feed pumps, feed water heater, economizers, me- 
 chanical draft, piping and covering, except con- 
 denser water piping 24.00 12.00 
 
 Turbine room equipment : Steam turbines and gener- 
 ators, condensers, condenser auxiliaries, condenser 
 water piping, oiling system, etc 22.00 12.00 
 
 Electrical switching equipment : Exciters, masonry 
 switch structure, switchboards, switches, instru- 
 ments, etc., all wiring except for lighting 5.00 2.00 
 
 Service equipment: Cranes, lighting, heating, plumb- 
 ing, fire protection, compressed air, furniture, 
 permanent tools, coal and ash handling ma- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 813 
 
 Dollars per kw. 
 High Low 
 
 chinery, etc $ 5.00 $ 2.50 
 
 Starting Up : Labor, fuel and supplies for getting- 
 
 plant ready to carry useful load 1.00 0.50 
 
 General Chai'ges : Engineering, purchasing, super- 
 vision, clerical work, construction plant and sup- 
 plies, watchmen, cleaning up, etc 6.00 3.00 
 
 Total cost of plant, except land and interest 
 
 during construction $83.75 |38.00 
 
 Construction Costs of Power Houses. A. E. Dixon gives the fol- 
 lowing data in Power, October 3, 1911. 
 
 8000-KW. PLANT OF THE WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE RAILROAD, AT 
 WESTVILLE, N. J. 
 
 (B. F. Wood's paper before the American Institute of Electrical 
 Engineers), 
 
 Building, stacks, coal and ash-handling machinery $354,000 
 
 Equipment 640,000 
 
 Total $994,000 
 
 Total cost per kw $110 
 
 850 0-KW. PLANT OF THE FORT WAYNE & WABASH VALLEY TRACTION 
 COMPANY, AT SPY RUN, FORT WAYNE, IND. 
 
 (Paper before American Street and Interurban Railway Engineers' 
 Association, by J. R. Bibbins). 
 
 Cost per 
 kw. 
 
 Building, including general concrete and steel work, gal- 
 leries, coal bunker, smoke flue, condenser pit, coal- 
 storage pit, etc $10.97 
 
 Generating plant, including turbines, generators, exciters, 
 cables, switchboards, transformers and ventilating 
 ducts 30.55 
 
 Boiler plant, including boilers, superheaters, stokers, piping, 
 
 pumps, heaters, setting, breechings and tanks 13.92 
 
 Condenser plant, including condensers, pumps, piping, free 
 
 exhau.st.s, water tunnels and intake screen 3.98 
 
 Coal-handling plant, including crane, cru.shers, motor and 
 
 track 0.94 
 
 Erection, superintendence, engineering and miscellaneous. . 5.49 
 
 Total, excluding land and railroad siding $66.30 
 
 3000-KW. PLANT OF THE YOUNGSTOWN & OHIO RIVER RAILROAD AT WEST 
 POINT, OHIO 
 
 (C. W. Ricker's addendum to paper by J. R. Bibbins before the 
 American Institute of Electrical Engineers, July, 1908) 
 
 Cost per 
 kw. 
 Building and fixtures: foundation, general excavation, con- 
 crete work, including condetiser wells, overflow, ash tun- 
 nel, steel frame and building superstructure, ash-han- 
 dling apparatus, coal trestle, chimney, smoke flue and 
 
 crane $21.40 
 
 Boiler plant: 6 400-hp. Avater-tube boiler.s, settings, fur- 
 naces, pumps, heater, piping and covering 14.24 
 
814 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost per 
 kw. 
 
 Generating plant: 3 1000-kw. 3-phase, 25-cycle, 400-volt, 
 turbo-generators, 6 375-kw. 22,000-volt, step-up trans- 
 formers, duplicate exciters, switching and protective ap- 
 paratus $37.59 
 
 Condenser plant : 3 barometric condensers with centrifugal 
 pum])s. water intake and dam, including the deepening 
 of the channel 6.41 
 
 General expense : including the expenditures which could 
 not be distributed easily and part of the expense of 
 supervision 2.42 
 
 Complete $82.06 
 
 Substation equipment in power house ; 2 300-kw. synchronous 
 
 converters with 5-panel switchboard 4.20 
 
 Total $86.26 
 
 30.000- 10,000- 
 kw. kw. 
 plant plant 
 Excavation and foundations, including condenser in- 
 take and outflow $ 8.97 $ 4.89 
 
 Superstructure and steelwork 19.04 3.57 
 
 Turbo-generators and condensers 26.13 24.83 
 
 Boilers, stokers, chimneys and flues 11.11 15.75 
 
 Coal- and ash-handling equipment 1.62 1.40 
 
 Boiler-feed pumps, heaters, etc 0.52 2.80 
 
 Piping and valves 3.17 6.58 
 
 Exciters, etc 1.01 .... 
 
 Crane, air compressor, etc 0.33 0.67 
 
 Switching equipment 6.02 1.24 
 
 Water supply 0.83 0.38 
 
 Engineering 3.90 .... 
 
 T©tal cost per kw '. . $82.65 $62.11 
 
 In Koester's " Steam-Electric Power Plants " the following are 
 given : 
 
 Cost per 
 kw. 
 
 Bo.ston Edison, L street plant $125.00 
 
 Interborough. Fifty-ninth street plant. New York City 150.00 
 
 Superstructure of latter plant only 32.00 
 
 The cost of foundations will vary greatly and is one of the ele- 
 ments which local conditions affect to a greater degree than most 
 others. The conditions vary from liquid mud to solid rock. Rock 
 may be desirable owing to its high bearing value, but it is very 
 expensive to excavate and the depth of excavation is frequently 
 fixed by the local water level. The cost of the foundations will vary 
 from 2 to 12% of the total cost per kw. of generating capacity. 
 The lower costs hold where firm sand or some other readily exca- 
 vated material with a high bearing value is found upon the site 
 and the water level does not fluctuate very much. The higher costs 
 will be found with rock excavation where the character of the rock 
 is such that it breaks out very roughly and leaves a large excess 
 of the excavation to be refilled with concrete. Similar high costs 
 will be found where the underlying strata are such as to involve the 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 815 
 
 use of long piles and a heavy concrete mat built within a cofferdam. 
 In some localities it is possible to use a concrete raft, and by keep- 
 ing the bearing pressures down the structure can be floated upon 
 the soil. A raft of this kind must be so designed that it will 
 distribute the pressure, and this calls for the use of reinforced con- 
 crete and careful proportioning to carry the heavy local loads. 
 
 Steel framing must be so proportioned as to carry the loads, and 
 these will vary greatly. In many plants double, and in one case 
 three decks of boilers are used, and if a heavy bunker must be 
 supported, the steel framing will be proportionately heavy. The 
 length of the span between columns in the boiler room will be fixed 
 by the size of the boilers, and it is advisable to keep the column 
 spacing below 20 ft. This spacing, or a little less, will accommodate 
 nearly all types of boiler. Where longer spans are used the heavy 
 girders increase the cost. The minimum amount of steel will be 
 required when the roof trusses are .supported upon the walls and 
 carry the roof alone. This construction is objectionable as the 
 steel work must be held back to suit the masonry and the masonry 
 will then be delayed while the steel is being placed. This pro- 
 cedure will generally cost more than when the steel is so arranged 
 that it can be erected entirely independent of the walls. The inde- 
 pendent steel skeleton also permits the use of thin curtain walls, 
 which results in a saving in masonry as well as in the cost of 
 erection. 
 
 Double-deck power plant, with the boiler room at the bottom and 
 the operating floor above, seems designed to get the maximum 
 amount of power concentrated in a possible minimum floor space. 
 This type of plant is an inversion of the original double-deck plant 
 in which the boiler room was located above the operating floor, as 
 at that time this type of construction was adopted to suit recipro- 
 cating engines owing to the difficulty 25 years ago of handling the 
 heavy engine parts and erecting them on the second floor. 
 
 One of the objections made to the double-deck plant and the 
 plant with a heavy overhead bunker has been the use of columns 
 passing up through the walls of the boiler settings. In one or two 
 cases water cooling has been employer for the columns placed in 
 the division wall between the 2 boilers of a battery, owing to the 
 fear that these columns might expand unduly and irregularly from 
 alternate cooling and heating. The coefficient of linear expansion 
 of steel or iron is about 0.000006 per deg. F. ; hence if such columns 
 became heated to a temperature 300 deg. higher than the atmos- 
 phere they would expand 0.001800 part of their length. With a 
 column 35 ft. high, this would amount to about .75 in. and might 
 be very serious. 
 
 Cost of boilers and stokers ranges from 10 to 15% of the total. 
 Brick settings may or may not be tight at the start, but they are 
 rarely permanently tight, and this leakage is by no means unim- 
 portant. Internally fired boilers or marine settings will entirely 
 prevent leakage into or out from the setting. Why they are not 
 used more extensively it is difficult to say. 
 
 Engine-driven units cost more than turbo-generators, but the type 
 
816 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of unit to be selected will depend upon local conditions. When a 
 liberal supply of cooling water can be secured for the cost of pump- 
 ing it is possible to maintain a high vacuum, and the turbine may- 
 be the most economical prime mover. Where cooling water is 
 scanty and a high vacuum cannot be maintained, the reciprocating 
 engine has many points in its favor. The turbine is inherently a 
 high-speed proposition and is better suited to the driving of alter- 
 nating-current generators than it is to driving a direct-current gen- 
 erator. High speeds with direct-current machinery introduce cer- 
 tain commutating difficulties, particularly when dealing with heavy 
 loads. 
 
 In plants where a large portion of the exhaust steam can be 
 utilized, a reciprocating unit may be a better paying investment 
 than a turbine. The engine can be used as a reducing valve and 
 operated with a low back pressure. The turbine operates better 
 with a vacuum, and this would entail the use' of live steam passed 
 through a reducing valve, which is a rather expensive way to secure 
 low-pressure steam. 
 
 For the ground area occupied, there are a number of charts which 
 have appeared from more or less interested sources, most of them 
 demonstrating the economy of the turbine in this respect. It is true 
 that the actual number of sq. ft. occupied may be less for the turbine 
 than for any other type of prime mover and generator, but in many 
 cases the actual area occupied by the unit itself is not the govern- 
 ing feature. When it comes to a question of crowding the most 
 generating capacity into the least possible ground area the recipro- 
 cating engine is not very far behind the turbine, even in large units. 
 Vertical-inverted and grasshopper-type marine engines have been 
 built in very large sizes and occupy very little floor area. 
 
 Coal-handling equipment is another factor and the local condi- 
 tions in some cases permit the coal to pass by gravity from the car 
 to the bunker and thence to the fire and the ashpit and the dump. 
 There are, however, not many cases where this scheme is feasible. 
 The important factors are to simplify the machinery as much as 
 possible and at the same time arrange it so that it can be operated 
 by the fewest attendants. Each case presents its own peculiarities. 
 This portion of the equipment will range in cost from 2 to 5% 
 of the total. 
 
 The switch gear for controlling the electric power in many ways 
 is the weakest link in the chain. Some of the biggest generating 
 stations, those which would normally be supposed immune from 
 serious interruptions, due to this portion of their equipment, have 
 been completely put out of service for periods of time ranging from 
 a few minutes to several hours or more. This part of the equip- 
 ment will cost from 2 to 10% of the total plant cost. 
 
 Double-husbar system is advisable where continuity of operation 
 is of greatest importance. True, this method duplicates a part of 
 the control apparatus and is more costly than the single-busbar 
 system, and its entire value depends upon the price one is willing 
 to pay to minimize possible shutdowns. The Seventy-fourth street 
 power plant of the Manhattan Railway Company, now the Inter- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 817 
 
 borough Rapid Transit Company, New York, was upon one occa- 
 sion tied up completely for some time by a piece of wet newspaper 
 which landed where it could cause the greatest amount of trouble. 
 
 Barometric or jet type of condenser costs about 60% less than a 
 surface condenser and the cost of maintenance is less. The local 
 water-supply conditions will have to be considered in connection 
 with this question. Where salt cooling water must be used the 
 condenser discharge cannot be utilized for boiler feed and the large 
 amount of water required may under such conditions make the sur- 
 face condenser the cheaper. In many localities it is possible to 
 arrange the circulating system of a surface condenser so as to take 
 advantage of the siphon effect of a balanced water column and in 
 this manner reduce to a minimum the amount of power required for 
 cooling water ; for after the water has been set in motion the 
 circulating pump has only the friction head and the slight difference 
 in head between the intake and outfall chambers to overcome. 
 
 Relative advantages of steam or electrically driven auxiliaries 
 have been threshed out a number of times. The steam from auxili- 
 aries can be used to heat the feed water, and this is one of the 
 most powerful arguments in favor of the steam-driven unit ; in 
 fact, within reasonable limits, the more steam used in the auxiliaries 
 the hotter the feed water, and the relative economy of the steam 
 auxiliaries combined with the heater will far surpass other 
 methods of drive as all of the heat units which are not used in the 
 auxiliary engines are returned to the boiler. Electrically driven 
 auxiliaries, on the other hand, increase the load upon the main 
 units, and should any serious electrical disturbances arise these 
 vital parts of the equipment may fail at the moment when their 
 continuous operation is absolutely necessary to keep the plant going. 
 The only way an electrically driven auxiliary can be rendered abso- 
 lutely safe is to insure for it a supply of current which does not 
 depend upon the operation of the main generators. A special gen- 
 erating unit might be installed for this purpose. 
 
 Cost of Constructing Steam-Driven Electric Power Plants. Frank 
 Koester gives the following data in Engineering News Dec. 19, 1917. 
 The cost of steam power plants is determined by the location and 
 by the character of the building and equipment. The amount of 
 capital available also plays an important part in determining the 
 equipment. Mistakes have been frequent in selecting the type and 
 size of various portions of the equipment, and in such cases it has 
 been evident that the use of other machinery (perhaps lower-priced) 
 would bring better results. 
 
 The figures given herein represent an average arrived at by the 
 comparison of costs of various plants with which the writer has 
 been connected, directly or indirectly in one way or another during 
 a considerable experience in the design and erection of such works. 
 The costs represent recent practice and are quoted per kw. capacity. 
 
 Building. Judgment in the architectural treatment and the selec- 
 tion of stock sizes of doors and windows will very materially keep 
 down the first cost of the building. Comparatively the cost of the 
 superstructure for a plant of small capacity will be greater per kw. 
 
818 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 capacity than the cost of the larger plant. The superstructure for 
 plants up to 5,000 kw. capacity costs from $15 to $25 per kw. The 
 former figure may be secured by a compact arrangement with walls 
 of common brick, wooden doors and window frames, steel roof 
 trusses supported by the walls and a roof of the cheapest fireproof 
 construction, such as corrugated iron, tin, etc. 
 
 The other type of building, costing about $20 to $25 per kw., 
 may be constructed of higher grade masonry with fireproof windows 
 and doors, roof trusses carried by steel columns which at the same 
 time carry the crane runway, and the roof itself consisting of rein- 
 forced concrete covered by tar and gravel. 
 
 The cost of the superstructure for large size plants usually runs 
 from $10 to $20 per kw. These are constructed of a self -supporting 
 steel skeleton and self-supporting walls. The superstructure at $20 
 per kw. may embrace multiple boiler floors while those at $10 
 per kw. cover single boiler floor plants only. In both cases coal 
 bunkers are provided. In the lower cost building steel bunkers of 
 five to eight tons capacity per running foot are installed. In the 
 multiple boiler floor building the bunkers are made up of structural 
 steel, the beams being fllled in with masonry arches, the side walls 
 also being of masonry filling. 
 
 Chimney. The cost of the chimney depends largely on the loca- 
 tion of the plant, the proximity to the source of the particular kind 
 of materials constituting an important factor, as the cost of trans- 
 portation of materials is a large item, steel chim^neys being cheaper 
 in localities where transporation costs favor such construction. 
 
 Furthermore, the competition among builders of chimneys, and 
 especially since the introduction of the reinforced concrete chimney, 
 is so strong that a radial brick chimney may sometimes be had as 
 cheap as a steel chimney or reinforced concrete chimney. 
 
 A radial brick chimney for large size power plants may be built 
 from $1.75 to $2.25 per kw. Reinforced concrete chimneys and plate 
 steel chimneys may cost from $1.50 to $2 per kw. 
 
 Coal and ash' handling systems. The cost of coal and ash handling 
 systems is difficult to determine, depending so largely as it does 
 upon the manner in which the coal is received from the shipper, 
 the way the ashes are disposed of and the distance through which 
 the coal as well as the ashes must be handled. Experience shows 
 that the figures for equipment for handling coal and ashes range 
 from $1.50 to $3 per kw. 
 
 Boilers. The cost of water tube boilers ranges from $8 to $10 
 per kw., depending upon the square feet of heating surface in the 
 boiler. These figures do not include mechanical stokers, for which 
 from $2 to $3 may be assumed. Breeching, of course, is also a 
 separate item and varies considerably as to cost per kw. The boiler 
 setting is included in the cost of boiler given above. 
 
 Blowers. In many of the modern power plants, especially plants 
 for railway purposes, forced or induced draft is adopted. The 
 blowers are usually steam-driven. The cost of such equipment is 
 about $1 per kw. 
 
 Economizers. Where economizers are installed of sufficient capa- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 819 
 
 city to heat the water to 200 deg or 220 deg. F. such apparatus 
 costs about $2 per kw., provided that there are not too many addi- 
 tional smoke flues necessary for by-passing, etc. 
 
 Boiler feed pumps. The cost of such pumps alone is some 50 cts. 
 per kw. When storage tanks are necessary the cost of the com- 
 bined outfit amounts to 75 cts. or $1, depending on the number and 
 size of the tanks. 
 
 Piping. In some stations piping has been installed for $2 per 
 kw., while in others as high as $6 per kw. has been paid. This 
 includes all high and low-pressure piping (steam and water). 
 
 For plants varying from 10,000 to 20,000-kw. capacity, the piping 
 system not being elaborate but sufficient for continuous operation, 
 $2.50 to $2.75 has covered the cost. This includes a high grade of 
 covering for steam piping valued at about 20 cts. per kw. 
 
 Prime Movers. While the price of the prime movers varies with 
 the size of the units, it also varies with the type of machine. The 
 price of turbines is often governed by the price of reciprocating 
 engines, although the former can be produced cheaper than the 
 latter. Although the condensers for a turbine cost more than for 
 a reciprocating engine the complete turbine generating unit ordv- 
 narily should cost considerably less. A 5,000-kw. turbo-generator 
 should cost from $20 to $22 per kw. Reciprocating engines of this 
 capacity are sold roughly at the same price, and about $10 per 
 kw. needs to be added for the generator. The total cost for smaller 
 units, 600 to 3,000 kw. capacity, is from $20 to $25 per kw., whether 
 they consist of turbine or reciprocating-engine apparatus. 
 
 Co7idensers. The cost of condensers depends very much upon the 
 vacuum desired and on the type of condenser. The cost of jet con- 
 denser equipment runs from $3 to $5 per kw., depending upon the 
 type of pump used. The cost of surface condenser apparatus will 
 vary from $5 to $8, depending partly upon the vacuum to be carried 
 and whether the casing necessary forms part of the condenser 
 equipment or is provided as part of the turbine shell, as is the case 
 in the Curtis base-condenser turbine, in which case the above figures 
 may fall as low as $3 per kw. 
 
 Exciters. A steam-driven exciter unit costs from 35 cts. to 40 
 cts. per kw. If a condenser should be installed in connection with it 
 the cost may run as high as 70 cts. per kw., assuming that the 
 exciter capacity is, approximately, 1% the total capacity of the 
 plant. 
 
 Switchboards. In considering the cost of a switchboard equip- 
 ment only such switchboard is herein considered as is necessary for 
 the operation of the plant and the outgoing feeders, not including 
 substation boards. The cost will vary with the voltage adopted for 
 the system. For a high tension voltage the cost will run from $"2 
 to $3.50, while for a low tension voltage (2,300 volts and lower) the 
 .svv'itchboard equipment may be obtained for $1 to $2 per kw., de- 
 pending largely upon the .system of wiring adopted. 
 
 Miscellaneous. There are many other items, which must be fig- 
 ured in, the complete cost of the plants, such as traveling cranes, 
 which will amount to 25 or 50 cts. per kw. Smaller items like house 
 
820 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 pumps, water meters, blow-off tanks, painting, supervision, etc., may 
 total from $1 to $2 per kw. 
 
 Summary. To the summarized costs (see table XXVI) there 
 needs still to be added the enginering fee which in many cases is 
 figured as a pei'centage on the total cost. 
 
 TABLE XXVI. RELATIVE COSTS OF TURBINE AND ENGINE 
 
 PLANTS 
 
 Steam-turbine Steam-engine 
 
 plants plants 
 
 per kw. per kw. 
 
 Excavation and foundation $ 2.00 $ 2.50 $ 3.00 % 5.00 
 
 Building 10.00 15.00 10.00 20.00 
 
 Tunnels 1.75 4.00 1.50 2.75 
 
 Flues and stacks , 2.50 3.50 2.50 3.50 
 
 Boilers and stokers 8.50 12.00 8.50 12.00 
 
 Superheaters 2.00 2.50 1.75 2.25 
 
 Economizers ." 2.00 2.25 2.00 2.25 
 
 Coal- and ash-handling system 1.50 3.00 1.50 3.00 
 
 Blowers and ducts : 1.00 1.50 1.00 1.50 
 
 Pumps and tanks 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.25 
 
 Piping, complete 2.25 4.50 2.50 5.00 
 
 Turbo-generators 22.00 25.00 
 
 Engines - ... 18.00 22.00 
 
 Generators, engine type ... 10.00 12.00 
 
 Condensers, surface 5.00 8.00 ... 
 
 Condensers, jet ... 3.00 5.00 
 
 Exciters 0.75 1.00 0.75 1.00 
 
 Cranes 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 
 
 Switchboard 2.00 3.50 2.00 3.50 
 
 Labor 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 
 
 Total cost per kw $65.50 $92.00 $70.25 $104.50 
 
 It should be noted that the first column of figures in each case 
 represents costs which are exceptionally low and may be attained 
 under favorable conditions with engineering skill. The second 
 column of figures represents fair average figures as ascertained from 
 the costs of a number of plants recently erected. However, plants 
 have been installed which cost as much as $125 per kw., and in an 
 exceptional case the cost approximated $150 per kw. 
 
 All of these figures represent costs of plants of large capacity. 
 Small plants of about 3,000 kw. capacity have been erected in the 
 West at from $120 to $130 per kw.. which costs may be reduced if a 
 simple combination of machines is provided. 
 
 Referring to these tables, it will be observed that the turbine 
 plant varies from $65 to $92 per kw. The main items constituting 
 this difference are: building, turbo-generators and condensers. The 
 difference in cost of these is due to the type of turbine, the size 
 and make of condensers and their auxiliaries, as well as the manner 
 of assembling, all of which may reduce the size of the building 
 required. 
 
 The difference in cost of boilers is due to the make or type and the 
 rating of the boiler h.p. adopted by the plant designer per kw. capa- 
 city. This ratio varies greatly. Plants have been installed with the 
 same type of boiler and the same type of prime mover in which the 
 ratio varies, one valu© being 0.60 boiler horse-power per kw, gen- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 821 
 
 erator capacity, while in other cases it is 0.75, and 0.80. This dif- 
 ference depends upon the experience and judgijuent on the part of 
 the designer as well as the estimated ability of the future available 
 operating force to produce steam effectively. 
 
 The difference observed in the cost of the other items may be 
 explained by the difference in the grade of material used and the 
 ability of one purchaser over another to secure the lowest market 
 price. 
 
 Average Construction Costs of Steam Turbo- Electric Power 
 Plants. (Engineering and Contracting, Mar. 6, 1912). The 
 average range of costs of constructing steam turbo-electric 
 plants is given in a discussion before the Engineers' Society 
 of Western Pennsylvania by O. S. Lyford, Jr., and R. W. Stoval 
 of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Co. The plants are assumed to 
 have no other equipment than that required efficiently to produce 
 alternating currents. Bituminous coal is the fuel assumed to be 
 used. The costs are shown in Table XXVII, and the authors 
 explain the several items as follows: 
 
 Some of the group costs in this table do not have any very specific 
 relation to the kilowatt capacity installed in the plant and the 
 probable range in such costs is a matter of experience with previous 
 cases. This refers to such groups as " Preparing Site," " Yard 
 Work," " Electrical Switching Equipment " and " Service Equip- 
 ment." For instance, the main item of cost coming under the 
 " Yard " group is generally that of condensing water flumes exterior 
 to the building and it will be readily understood that this cost is 
 affected much more by the relative location of the building to the 
 water supply and by the character of work required than by the 
 actual size of the plant. 
 
 Similarly the electrical switching equipment costs depend much 
 more on the extent and the scope of the electrical distributing sys- 
 tem than upon the actual capacity of the plant. Again the largest 
 item of the " Service Equipment " costs, namely, that of coal hand- 
 ling, depends upon the existing physical conditions much more than 
 upon the capacity. 
 
 Some of these cost groups, however, can be reduced to other 
 units than that of the kilowatt, and this permits a clearer under- 
 standing of their range. 
 
 The foundation costs, for instance, will run from $1.25 to $4 per 
 sq. ft. of building plan area, depending on the character of the soil ; 
 the lower cost covering .simple concrete footings on thoroughly good 
 bearing soil, while the necessity for piling, water-proofing, excessive 
 rock excavation, etc., will run this cost toward the higher limit. 
 Then the plan area will vary from 0.8 to 1.5 .sq. ft. for each kw. of 
 capacity installed, depending upon the size of the units and upon 
 their arrangement ; the combined effect of these two cost ranges 
 giving the range in price per kw. shown on the table. 
 
 The building co.st will vary from 8 cts. to 12 cts. per cu. ft. of 
 overall building volume, according to the size of the building, and 
 the character of construction and the local price of building ma- 
 terials and labor. Depending again upon the size of the units and 
 
822 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 upon the efficiency used in arranging them, there will be required 
 from 50 to 100 cu. ft. of volume per kw. of capacity. The com- 
 bined effect is to make the building costs range from $4 to $12 per 
 kw. as shown. 
 
 In boiler room equipment the cost of materials and labor will 
 generally be between $30 and $40 per nominal boiler h.p., and 
 generally there will be installed between 0.4 and 0.6 boiler h.p. 
 per kw. of capacity, resulting in the cost range shown in table 
 XXVII. 
 
 TABLE XXVII. COST OF STEAM TURBO-ELECTRIC 
 GENERATING STATIONS 
 
 2,000 to 20,000 kw. capacity, based on maximum continuous 
 capacity of generators at 50 deg. rise. 
 
 Per kw. 
 High Low 
 
 Preparing site : Dismantling and removing structures 
 
 from site, making construction roads, tracks, etc.$ 0.25 $ 
 
 Yard work: Intake and discharge flumes for con- 
 densing water, railway siding, grading, fencing, 
 sidewalks, etc 2.50 1.00 
 
 Foundations : Including foundations for building, 
 stacks and machinery, together with excavation, 
 piling, waterproofing, etc 6.00 1.00 
 
 Building: Including frame, walls, floors, roofs, win- 
 dows and doors, coal bunker, etc., but exclusive 
 of foundations, heating, plumbing and lighting. . 12.00 4.00 
 
 Boiler room equipment : Including boilers, stokers, 
 flues, stacks, feed-pumps, feed-water heater, 
 economizers, mechanical draft and all piping and 
 pipe covering for entire station except condenser 
 water piping 24.00 12.00 
 
 Turbine room equipment : Including steam turbines 
 and generators, condensers with condenser auxil- 
 iaries and condensing water piping, oiling system, 
 etc 22.00 12.00 
 
 Electrical switching equipment : Including exciters 
 of all kinds, masonry switch structure with all 
 switchboards, switches, instrument.s, etc., and all 
 wiring except for building lighting 5.00 2.00 
 
 Service equipment: Such as cranes, lighting, heating, 
 plumbing, fire protection, compressed air, fur- 
 niture, permanent tools, coal and ash handling 
 machinery, etc., etc 5 00 2.50 
 
 Starting up: Labor, fuel and supplies for getting 
 
 plant ready to carry useful load 1.00 0.50 
 
 General charges: Such as engineering, purchasing, 
 supervision, clerical work, construction, plant and 
 supplies, watchmen, cleaning up, etc., etc 6.00 3.00 
 
 Total cost of plant to owner, except land and in- 
 terest during construction $83.75 $38.00 
 
 From this table it is seen that the cost of such stations under 
 normal conditions may range in price from $40 to $85 per kw. 
 of maximum continuous generator capacity. So far known to the 
 writers, no stations have as yet been built for the lower figure, for 
 this minimum is possible only with an extremely fortunate com- 
 bination of circumstances, such as natural advantages of location 
 combined with most favorable sizes and arrangement of apparatus. 
 
 It is apparent from this table that there may be a very large 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 823 
 
 difference in the first costs of two stations of the same size, and 
 that this may be the case, even though the two stations have been 
 designed and built with equal ability and economy. 
 
 Unit Costs of a Large Steam Station In Ohio. J. C. Lathrop in 
 Electrical World, Aug. 30, 1913, gives the following costs of the 
 steam station of the Northern Ohio Traction & Light Company at 
 Cuyahoga Falls. 
 
 Total Cost per 
 Items of station costs boiler-hp. 
 Foundations, excavation, etc., including condens- 
 ing water tunnels $170,000 $ 17.60 
 
 Portion of dam, construction, tracks, etc 50,000 5.20 
 
 Superstructure 109,000 11.30 
 
 Structural steel 43,000 4.45 
 
 Coal bunkers, including structural steel, con- 
 crete, chutes, etc 112,000 11.60 
 
 Electrical equipment of station, including tur- 
 bines 245,000 25.40 
 
 Crane 6,000 0.62 
 
 Condensers 41,000 4.25 
 
 Pumps 10.000 1.04 
 
 Feed-water heaters 6,000 0.62 
 
 Piping, heating and covering 40,000 4.15 
 
 Stack 13,000 1.35 
 
 Boilers , 140,000 14.50 
 
 Breeching 11,000 1.14 
 
 Stokers 60,000 6.20 
 
 Minor instruments 10,000 1.04 
 
 Engineering and superintendence 50,000 5.20 
 
 Total $1,107,000 $114.00 
 
 General Description of the Plant is as follows : The boiler room 
 is 56 by 330 ft. and separated by a division wall is the turbine room 
 (on the river side) 63 by 227 ft. The water of the Cuyahoga Is 
 dammed and used for condensing purposes. Coal is obtained from 
 a railroad siding which runs along the top of the bank about 90 
 ft. above the boiler-room floor. The coal is handled through a 
 standard trestle with individual bunkers for each boiler. It passes 
 through Richardson automatic scales so that a fairly accurate 
 record of the amount delivered to each boiler is kept. 
 
 Foundations are concrete on solid rock, or on a compact shale 
 with a massive concrete wall 24 ft. high on the river side ; the re- 
 maining foundation walls for the building being 2 ft. 6 ins. deep, 
 except where they stepped up at the ends of the turbine room. 
 
 Intake and discharge tunnels were built in a trench cut in solid 
 rock by a standard channeling machine. 
 
 The exterior walls of the building are of paving block, the 
 trimmings, moldings, window architraves, copings, etc., were fur- 
 nished in gray architectural terra cotta having a tooled surface. 
 The window sashes are of solid steel sections throughout. Those in 
 the turbine room are glazed with polished plate glass, while all 
 others are glazed with AA double-strength glass. The boiler-room 
 monitors are glazed with ribbed wire glass in continuous steel 
 sashes, which swing from the top and are opened or closed in 
 sections by devices operated from the boiler-room floor. In the 
 
824 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 center of the turbine-room basement is a steel rolling door large 
 enough to admit standard railway cars. The entire surface of the 
 turbine-room walls under the crane runway girders is finished with 
 a marble-like material called " Vitrolite," and all interior ironwork 
 is painted a light gray. All floors in the turbine-room have a 
 granulithic finish. Lamp circuits are carried in conduits back of 
 the wall facing, except above the crane runways. 
 
 A switchboard gallery about 40 ft. long is located in the center 
 of the turbine room. 
 
 Structural Steel framing is independent of the walls and was 
 erected complete before the general construction was started. 
 I-shaped plate and angle columns, and roof trusses of the " Fink " 
 type were used over the turbine room, and ordinary flat-top trusses 
 over the boiler room. The crane runway girders were of built-up 
 sections, reinforced laterally by 15-in. channels on the top flange. 
 The turbine-room roof was of Spanish tile laid on a reinforced- 
 concrete slab, the boiler-room monitors were covered with the same 
 tile, while the general surface of the boiler-room roof has a standard 
 tar and gravel surface over concrete. 
 
 The Boiler-Room contains 16 604-h.p. B. & W. boilers and super- 
 heaters, arranged in one row and equipped with Taylor stokers 
 and Sturtevant fans, driven by Sturtevant engines, regulating the 
 speed of the fans directly from the steam pressure. Each boiler 
 has recording instruments for coal consumption (Richardson 200- 
 Ib. automatic scales), CO2 recorders, draft gages and steam-flow 
 meters, recording thermometers and automatic feed-water regu- 
 lators. 
 
 Coal Pockets are provided with dumping gates to handle a car- 
 load at one time. 
 
 The Stack, built by the Custodis Chimney Construction Company, 
 is 275 ft. high and 16 ft. in diam. inside at the top. 
 
 Steam Piping System provides that the boilers may be divided 
 into 4 groups, any of which may be out of service at any time, but 
 no effort was made to design a duplicate system of piping. The 
 main-station header was made in lengths of about 36 ft. All 
 nozzles, including the 12-in. leads to the turbine, were welded on 
 by an electric arc. Van Stone flanges were used throughout on all 
 high-pressure piping 4 in. and above in diam. Cast-steel fittings 
 were used on all high-pressure superheated steam lines, and all 
 high-pressure superheated steam valve bodies were made of cast 
 steel, while the disks, seats and stems were of monel-metal. All 
 high-pressure and low-pressure steam piping has 85% magnesia 
 covering. 
 
 The main turbine exhausts are 36-in. diam. and pass through 
 a division wall and vertically alongside the stack and terminate 
 above the turbine-room roof in a standard exhaust head. 
 
 Water Storage. A 50,000-gal. steel tank is set on a bluff above 
 the station with a head of about 100 ft. and supplies the general 
 service water, the cooling water for transformers, the water lines 
 for cooling ashes and the fire lines. These fire lines are connected 
 to the feed-water lines so that in case of fire one of the feed pumps 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 825 
 
 can be used as a fire pump. Duplicate 6 -in. feed-water mains are 
 filled by the 3 feed-water pumps, which take water from the hot- 
 well or discharge tunnel, one of which contains a 6-in. Venturi 
 meter. A separate system for condensing- water, with standard 
 air and oil piping- with convenient taps, etc., is provided. 
 
 The TurMne-room is equipped with a 50-ton Morgan crane, with 
 a 50-ton hoist and an auxiliary 5-ton hoist, 4 motors on a 500-volt 
 d.c. circuit. 
 
 Electrical Equipment comprises 3 Westinghouse 6300-kw,, 2,300- 
 volt, 60-cycle, 3 -phase turbo-generators, 1,800 rev. per min., con- 
 nected with 3 Westinghouse horizontal double-flow steam turbines. 
 The contractors have guaranteed a steam consumption of 14.8 lbs. 
 per kw.-hr. at 100% rate and 15.4 lbs. at 150% rate. There are 2 
 150-kw. steam-driven exciters placed on the turbine-room floor be- 
 tween main units and directly in front of the main switchboard. 
 The exhaust steam from the turbines discharges into Westinghouse 
 Le Blanc condensers, which are located in the basement. Circu- 
 lating and air pumps for these condensers are on a single shaft 
 and are driven by a 228-h.p. Westinghouse steam turbine. Auxili- 
 ary Alberger single-stage booster pumps were provided in the 
 turbine-room basement, driven by 75-h.p., 2300-volt, 3 -phase West- 
 inghouse motors. 3 boiler-feed pumps are provided in the base- 
 ment, having a total rating of 1,000 gals, per min., all interconnected 
 and suitably valved, which take their water normally from 3 
 Hoppes feed-water heaters, and have an additional suction line in 
 both a hot and cold well. These feed-water heaters are filled by 
 2 300-gals. per min. turbine pumps directly connected to Westing- 
 house motors. 
 
 Main cables from the generators are carried under the turbine- 
 room floor to the 2300-volt busbar, from which bus cables lead to 3 
 3,000-kw. transformers in the turbine-room basement, stepping up 
 to 22,000 volts for the outgoing high-tension lines that feed the 
 substations. No. 3 substation is located in the northwest corner 
 of the turbine-room and consists of 3 500-kw. Westinghouse single- 
 phase, 60-cycle rotaries and 3 step-down transformers which are 
 fed directly from the 2,300-volt main busbar. 
 
 The foundation work and excavation for this structure was done 
 by the company on a force-account basis. The other work was 
 installed by contract. 
 
 Cost of Equipment for Isolated Plants. D. F. Atkins and H. M. 
 Price in Electrical World, Aug. 3, 1912, give the following unit 
 costs which are used in estimating the cost of mechanical equip- 
 ment of federal buildings under the control of the Treasury De- 
 partment. 
 
 Cost in place, 
 per kw. 
 Single-valve, direct-connected' simple engines and gen- 
 erators $35 
 
 Single-valve, direct-connected compound engines and gen- 
 erators 45 
 
 Four-valve, direct-connected simple engines and gen- 
 erators ' 45 
 
826 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost in place, 
 per kw. 
 Four-valve, direct-connected compound engines and gen- 
 erators 55 
 
 Water-tube boilers and setting, with breeching and stack. . 30 
 
 Switchboard and mountings, per panel 300 
 
 Pipings, pumps, feed-water heater, etc., in place, at 20% of the 
 cost of the boilers, engines and generators. 
 
 Cost of Elements of Small Steam Electric Power Plants. The 
 following table, based on the personal experience of P. R. Moses 
 in New York and vicinity, was published in Isolated Plant, Decem- 
 ber, 1908. 
 
 Cost per kw. 
 plant capacity 
 Boilers (erected and set in masonry) : 
 
 Horizontal-tubular $14-$18 
 
 Water-tube 16- 20 
 
 Steam engines : 
 
 High speed, simple direct-connected 20- 25 
 
 Medium speed, compound non-condensing direct- 
 connected^ 28- 35 
 
 Low speed, compound condensing, belted 20- 25 
 
 Low speed, simple, slow speed, belted 25- 30 
 
 Gas engines 50- 60 
 
 Oil engines 75- 85 
 
 Gas producers 15- 20 
 
 Dynamos : 
 
 Direct-connected to high-speed engine 13-16 
 
 Belt-connected to engine 12- 15 
 
 Direct-connected to Corliss engine 16- 20 
 
 Switchboard 5-10 
 
 Foundations 5- 10 
 
 Steamfitting — including auxiliary apparatus — such as 
 feed heater, grease separator, exhaust head, tanks, 
 covering, etc 20- 30 
 
 Checking Power Plant Construction Cost Estimates by Percent- 
 ages. F. W. Gay, mechanical engineer for J. G. White and Co., in 
 the Journal of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, March, 1913, 
 shows a method of checking estimates and confining the greatest 
 chances of error to minor parts of the installation. 
 
 According to his scheme, the first work is in the determination 
 of the relative importance of the various items to be covered by 
 an estimate. From his experience, he has compiled data and pre- 
 pared diagrams covering power plants from 2,000 to 40,000 kws. 
 in capacity. 
 
 The diagrams show that : engines and foundations constitute from 
 33.6% to 61% of the total equipment cost; an average of 50%. 
 Boilers, settings and foimdations, from 17.25% to 31.5%, average 
 about 25%. Piping, coi)ij)lete, from 7% to 17%, averages about 
 11%. Condensers, complete with foundations and auxiliaries, 10% 
 to 15%, average at 11%. Circulating -water system, 4.5% to 8%, 
 averages 6.5%. Thus in these 5 groups is a minimum of 72.35% 
 of all apparatus items, leaving the remainder, 27.65%, to be 
 divided among at least eleven groups, including " miscellaneous." 
 If, therefore, the greater part of the allowable time is spent on these 
 5 groups he believes that the result will justify the expenditure of 
 time and money. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 827 
 
 Boilers, foundations and settings can be estimated closely, as 
 can also the condensing apparatus. Engines, foundations, piping 
 and circulating-water systems present greater difficulties, relatively, 
 about in the order named. He finds it possible to estimate as 
 close as 3% on toilers, installed; on engines, installed, as close as 
 5%; on engine foundations, as close as 10%; on circulating -water 
 systems as close as 15%; on piping systems, as close as 20%; on 
 coyidensers, auxiliaries and foundations, as close as 3%. 
 
 Applying these percentages of error to the minimum percentages 
 of the whole, he has the total probable error on 72.35% of the 
 apparatus as follows : 
 
 Boilers 17.25 x 0.03 = 0.52% (plus or minus) 
 
 Engines 33.60 x 0.06 = 2.01% (including foundations) 
 
 Piping 7.00 x 0.20 = 1.40% 
 
 Condensers 10.00 x 0.03 = 0.30% 
 
 Circ.-water system .... 4.50 x 0.15 = 0.68% 
 
 Total 4.91% 
 
 He assumes, for discussion, that one must estimate on the total 
 cost as close as 15%, which percentage ordinarily includes 5% for 
 contingencies and errors. By concentrating attention on the five 
 principal groups, he thinks he can come as close as 5% on the 
 larger items, and has then a leeway of about 43.5% on the remain- 
 ing items. He believes it possible, in almost every case, to come 
 within 20% on these items, and then the total estimate is within 
 8.5%. as against the 15% assumed. 
 
 Buildings for this apparatus vary from 6% to 16% of equipment 
 costs, an average, say, of 10%. Using unit prices, on a square- and 
 cubic-foot basis, as well as, for h.p. and kw. bases, checking each 
 against the other, he thinks enables him to keep his error within 
 10 to 15%, or 1% or 1.5% on the total. 
 
 In his practice he has used the minimum percentages for the 
 principal items. In some cases this is as high as 85%, and by 
 analyzing this in the same manner as for the 72.35% the total 
 estimate may be within 6.5%. 
 
 Referring to one contract recently finished, he states that the 
 final figures from the cost analysis show that the estimate was in 
 error less than 2.5%. 
 
 Cost of Five Substations. The following cost data are based on 
 the company's construction and purchase records, including allow- 
 ances for fixed charges as indicated in the inventory of Sloan, 
 Huddle, Feustel and Freeman published in Electric Railway Journal, 
 Jan. 22, 1916. The 5 substations, of which detailed costs of land, 
 buildings and equipment are given for 2, receive energy at about 
 13,000 volts, 25 cycles, and deliver direct current at the usual 
 trolley pressures of 550 volts to 600 volts. They were built about 
 10 years ago, and the investment cost new is the total outlay the 
 company had made on NoV. 1, 1914, in the construction of this 
 portion of its system. The fixed charges listed are those incurred 
 during construction, and the figures show, as nearly as may be, 
 the actual investment the company has made in the five substations 
 tabulated. 
 
828 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 COST OF SUBSTATION BUILDINGS 
 
 BRIDGEWATER (900 KW.), 35 FT. 2 IN. BY 60 FT. 6 IN. 
 
 Item and quantity 
 
 Excavation, 476 cu. yd. at $ $ 0:50 $ 238 
 
 Concrete foundation, 170 cu. yd. at $ 14.00 2,380 
 
 Concrete — 3-in floors — plain, 1200 sq. ft. at $ . . . . 0.16 192 
 
 Concrete — 6-in. reinforced floor, 417 sq. ft. at $ . . 0.50 208 
 
 Concrete — 3-in. reinforced floor, 349 sq. ft. at $ . . 0.25 87 
 
 Concrete — 4-in reinforced floor, 119 sq. ft. at $ . . 0.35 42 
 
 Concrete — 10-in. reinforced floor, 984 sq. ft. at $ 0.60 590 
 
 Concrete steps, 12 cu. ft. at $ 035 4 
 
 Brick — walls, 74,000 at $ 24.00 1,776 
 
 Brick — coping and pilasters, 9000 at $ 26.00 234 
 
 Cut stone, 193 cu. ft. at $ 2.50 ' 482 
 
 Steel and iron — structural steel, 13,531. lbs. at $.. 0.04 541 
 
 Steel and iron — wrought-iron railing ... 20 
 
 Steel and iron — miscellaneous ... 260 
 
 Timber — roof sheathing, 7200 ft. b.m., at $ 41.00 295 
 
 Timber — miscellaneous ... 5 
 
 Roofing — slate, 2860 sq. ft. at $ 0.10 286 
 
 Millwork — doors, 214 sq. ft ... 101 
 
 Millwork — windows, 473 sq. ft ... 228 
 
 Screens, 232 sq. ft. at $ 0.15 35 
 
 Sheet metal work, $517 ; lighting, $393 ... 910 
 
 Heating, $18 ; plumbing, $175 ... 193. 
 
 Painting — oil, 583 sq. yds. at $ 0.18 10& 
 
 Painting — cold water, 402 sq. yds. at $ 0.12 48 
 
 Fence ... 57 
 
 $9,31? 
 
 Engineering, interest, insurance and contingencies, 
 
 11%, $1025 ; taxes, organization, 3.5%, $326. . . . 1,351 
 
 Total building cost $10,668. 
 
 Total building cost per kw $11.82 
 
 Buildings, brick and concrete, walls being brick and floors plain 
 and reinforced concrete. Roof supported by steel trusses and 
 covered with slate. Present condition good. 
 
 BROCKTON (3750 KW.), 34 FT. 8 IN. BY 78 FT. 10 IN. 
 
 Item and quantity : 
 
 Excavation 599 cu. yd. at $ $ 0.60 $ 359 
 
 Trenching, 91 cu. yd. at $ 0.75 68 
 
 Concrete — plain footings, 154 cu. yds. at $ 14.00 2,156 
 
 Concrete floor 6 in. 2733 sq. ft. at $ 0.18 492 
 
 Concrete curbing. 72 cu. ft. at $ 0.30 22 
 
 Concrete — 3-in. walk, 90 sq. ft. at $ 0.16 14 
 
 Concrete — 4-in. reinforced floor, 209 sq. ft. at $.. 0.40 84 
 
 Concrete — 6-in. reinforced floor, 301 sq. ft. at $.. 0.50 150 
 
 Brick — walls, 109,000 at $ 24 2,616 
 
 Brick — pilasters, 53,000 at $ 26 1,378 
 
 Cut stone, 510 cu. ft. at $ 3 1,530 
 
 Timber 291 
 
 Millwork ^- doors, 381 sq. ft 173 
 
 Millwork — windows, 1263 sq. ft 622 
 
 Millwork — screens, 360 sq. ft 54 
 
 Cast iron, 5113 lbs. at $ 0.04 205 
 
 Railings, etc .... 144 
 
 Steel, 37,617 lbs. at $ 0.05 1,881 
 
 Slate, 153 sq. ft. at $ 0.90 138 
 
 Roofing — tar and gravel, 2607 cu. ft. at $ 0.07 182 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 829 
 
 Sheet metal .... 308 
 
 Grating. 266 sq. ft. at $ 0.35 93 
 
 Ventilators, $20 ; El Lighting-, $386 406 
 
 Heating, $95 ; Plumbing $175 270 
 
 Painting — oiling, bricic .... 150 
 
 Painting — cold water, 1362 sq. yds. at $ 0.12 163 
 
 Painting — oil, 498 sq. yds. at $ 0.18 90 
 
 $14,039 
 
 Overhead, as above, 14.5% 2,036 
 
 Total building cost $16,075 
 
 Total building cost per kw $4.29 
 
 Building has brick walls, floors plain and reinforced concrete ; 
 
 roof supported by steel trusses, covered with tar and gravel. 
 Plant in good condition. 
 
 Taunton substation, brick and concrete building, 45 ft. by 88 ft., 
 with brick walls and concrete floors, all in good condition. 
 
 Fall River substation, irregular building, converted power house, 
 about 86 ft. by 146 ft., approximately 12,000 sq. ft. 
 
 Rockland substation building, 31 ft. by 60 ft., brick, concrete 
 and steel. 
 
 COST OF EQUIPMENT 
 
 BRIDGEWATER (900 KW.) 
 
 Items 
 
 3 300-kw. GE rotary converters at $ $4,570 $13,710 
 
 3 330-kw. GE three-phase, air-cooled transformers 
 
 at $ 2,512 7,536 
 
 2 40-in. motor-driven Buffalo blowers at $ 165 330 
 
 1 GE motor-driven air compressor and equipment 
 
 at $ 375 375 
 
 4 12,500-volt GE electrolytic lightning arresters at $ 300 1,200 
 
 Switchboards and wiring 7,647 
 
 Miscellaneous equipment and tools 195 
 
 Total $30,993 
 
 Engineering, insurance, contingencies, interest, 
 
 10.5%, $3254; taxes and organization, 3.5%, $1085 4,339 
 
 Grand total $35,332 
 
 Grand total equipment per kw $39.20 
 
 BROCKTON (3750 KW.) 
 
 3 750-kw. GE rotary converters at $ $10,085 $30,255 
 
 1 1500-kw. GE rotary converter at $ 10,578 10,578 
 
 3 825-kw. GE three-phase air-cooled transformers 
 
 at $ 3,872 11,616 
 
 1 1575-kva. GE three-phase air cooled transformers 
 
 at $ , 4,393 4,393 
 
 1 12,500-volt GE electrolytic lighting arresters 
 
 at $ 358 358 
 
 2 70-in. Buffalo motor-driven blowers at $ 375 750 
 
 1 GE motor-driven air compressor and equipment 
 
 at $ 375 375 
 
 Switchboards and wiring 16,292 
 
 Miscellaneous equipment and tools 93 
 
 1 10-ton hand-operated traveling crane at $ 1,350 1,350 
 
 Total $76,060 
 
 Overhead as above, 14%. . 10,648 
 
 Grand total $86,708 
 
 Equipment per kw $23.20 
 
830 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 SUMMARY OF SUBSTATION COSTS 
 
 Kw. ca- Equip- Total, ex. Grand 
 
 Substation pacity Land Building ment Land Total 
 
 Bridgewater .. 900 $ 1,296 $10,668 $35,332 $46,000 $47,296 
 
 Brockton 3,750 2,488 16,075 86,708 102,783 105,271 
 
 Fall River ... 3,000 20,507 28,200 81,307 109.507 130,014 
 
 Rockland 900 1,188 12,783 35,968 48,751 49,939 
 
 Taunton 1,700 4,644 17,088 59,639 76,727 81,371 
 
 Total 10,250 $30,123 $84,814 $298,954 $383,768 $413,891 
 
 Average per 
 
 kilowatt $2.92 $8.25 $29.20 $37.45 $40.37 
 
 Cost of Sub-Stations. (Data, Aug., 1915.) H, W. Young gives 
 the total net cost of steel tower 3 -phase outdoor sub-stations with 
 three single-phase 33,000 to 2,300 volt transformers. 
 
 Station 
 
 capacity, 
 
 kw. 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 No. of 
 trans. 
 3-15 kw. 
 3-20 " 
 3-25 " 
 3-30 " 
 2-40 " 
 3-50 " 
 
 25 cycle 
 
 station 
 
 per kw. 
 
 $35.50 
 
 28.50 
 
 24.50 
 
 21.50 
 
 16.75 
 
 14.25 
 
 
 60 cycle 
 
 
 Total 
 
 station 
 
 Total 
 
 cost 
 
 per kw. 
 
 cost 
 
 $1,597.00 
 
 $29.35 
 
 $1,321.00 
 
 1,710.00 
 
 23.55 
 
 1,415.00 
 
 1,837.00 
 
 20.65 
 
 1,550.00 
 
 1,935.00 
 
 17.65 
 
 1,589.00 
 
 2,010.00 
 
 13.80 
 
 1,656.00 
 
 2,137.00 
 
 11.90 
 
 1,785.00 
 
 Net costs Include all high tension bus bar supports, copper tube 
 bus, high and low tension dead ends and a galvanized steel tower 
 with footings. 
 
 Mr. Young is also authority for the net cost per kilowatt for 
 equipment of electric sub-stations, of the outdoor type, equipment 
 for 3 -phase current and voltage range from 2,300 to 33,000. 
 
 Cost per kw. 
 Cost of high tension 
 per kw. switching and 
 60-cycles protective 
 
 units 
 $20.00 $6.25 
 
 16.50 4.75 
 
 15.00 3.80 
 
 13.00 3.10 
 
 10.50 2.50 
 
 9.00 2.00 
 
 Station No. of 
 
 capacity, trans- 
 
 kw. formers 
 
 45 
 60 
 75 
 90 
 120 
 150 
 
 3-50 kw. 
 3-20 " 
 3-25 " 
 3-20 " 
 3-40 " 
 3-50 " 
 
 Transformer, 
 25-cycles 
 
 $25.00 
 20.50 
 18.00 
 16.00 
 12.50 
 11.00 
 
 Cost of Sub-Stations. The following costs are from construc- 
 tion reports of a power company in California in 1908. In each sub- 
 station oil cooled transfonners were installed for the lighting, ail3 
 water cooled for the power circuits. 
 
 55,000-66,000 TO 2,300 VOLT STATIC TRANSFORMER STATIONS 
 
 Kw. capacity 
 
 Oil Water 
 cooled cooled 
 
 Cost of 
 building 
 
 Cost 
 per 
 kw. 
 
 Cost of 
 equipment 
 
 Cost 
 
 Total 
 cost 
 per 
 kw. 
 
 3650 
 2400 
 1500 
 1500 
 1500 
 
 4325 
 3075 
 1875 
 1875 
 1875 
 
 $12,489.85 
 
 9,152.60 
 
 10,979.90 
 
 7,236.28 
 
 7,344.96 
 
 $2.85 
 2.85 
 5.85 
 3.86 
 3.92 
 
 $29,669.94 
 30,534.48 
 23,774.49 
 19,023.29 
 14,732.10 
 
 $6.87 
 
 9.92 
 
 12.65 
 
 10.15 
 
 7.90 
 
 $9.72 
 12.77 
 18.50 
 14.01 
 11.82 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 831 
 
 Comparative Costs of Indoor and Outdoor Types of Sub-Stations. 
 
 The following c-osts are derived from a paper by K. C. Randall, 
 Trans. A. I. E. E. Vol. XXVIII. year 1911, 
 
 TRANSFOKMER SUB-STATIONS 
 
 2,000 kva. 25,000 volt, 60 cycles. 
 
 Indoor Outdoor 
 
 Building $ 5,400 $1,020 
 
 Trati.sformers . , . 7,200 7,800 
 
 Switchboard 2,500 2,625 
 
 $15,100 $11,445 
 
 Per kilovolt-ampere . 7.55 5.72 
 
 MOTOR-GENERATOR SUB-STATION 
 
 3,000 kva. 22,000-3,000 volt, 25 cycles 
 
 Indoor Outdoor 
 
 Building $ 21,835 $7,480 
 
 Transformers 15,000 16,000 
 
 Motor-generators 48,000 48,000 
 
 Exciters 4,500 4,500 
 
 Switchboard 20,000 20,200 
 
 $109,335 $96,180 
 
 Per kilovolt-ampere 36.45 32.00 
 
 Area per h.p. Occupied by Various Power Groups. Table XXVIII 
 after Mr. R. E. Mathot in Engineering Magazine, January, 1907, 
 gives the area per h.p. occupied by various plant groups. 
 
 TABLE XXVIII. 
 
 Type of engine 
 
 AREA OCCUPIED 
 UNITS 
 
 BY VARIOUS POWER 
 
 Producer-gas motor 
 
 Stationary engine and boiler. 
 
 Producer-gas motor 
 
 Semi-portable .steam engine.. 
 Two producer-gas motors .... 
 Semi-portable steam engine. . 
 
 Hp. 
 
 200 
 100 
 100 
 150 
 50 + 30 
 50 
 
 Total space 
 occupied by 
 all apparatus 
 and passage- 
 ways, sq. ft. 
 1,620 
 1,000 
 680 
 475 
 1,050 
 420 
 
 Area 
 per hp. 
 sq. ft. 
 
 8.1 
 10.0 
 
 6.8 
 
 3.2 
 13.1 
 
 8.4 
 
 Floor Space Required for Different Kinds of Prime Movers for 
 Various Capacities of Plant. The diagram. Fig. 12, was pre- 
 pared by Mr. E. H. Sniffen in 1902. 
 
 Reconstruction Cost of a Storage Battery Plant. Electrical 
 World, May 31, 1913. Charles A. Hobein in the Iowa Engineer 
 gives the following cost of reconstructing a storage battery of the 
 United Railways Company, St. Uouis, in which, after 6.5 years' 
 operation the plates were nearly worn out and the batteries very 
 inefficient. 
 
 Originally there were 2 batteries rated at 2,500 amps, per hr. 
 each. The tanks were of yellow pine and lined with lead .0625 in. 
 thick. The electrolyte was dilute sulphuric acid of 1.210 specific 
 gravity. 
 
832 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 In the new installation each cell is an independent unit. Wooden 
 blocks resting- on bricks form the support for the insulators. There 
 are 10 of these blocks and insulators under each tank. The space 
 under the cells is clear so that a man can crawl under and replace 
 any insulator or block. A new insulator was developed by the 
 company. An annular space in the insulator contains oil. Any 
 leakage would have to come down the center extension of the 
 insulator, across the surface at the oil to ground. After 2 years' 
 service the insulation is almost perfect. The new tanks without 
 paneling have proved much stronger and do not require so many 
 spacing insulators. The paneling of the old-type tanks was so 
 
 I5fi00 
 
 \OfiOO EOfiOO 30,000 40,000 50,000 
 
 Horse Power. 
 
 Fig. 12. Diagram of floor-space required for different kinds of 
 prime-movers, for various capacities of plant. 
 
 constructed as to form a lodging place for acid drips, and the conse- 
 quence was decay in the crevices. 
 
 The old tanks were removed to an upper floor, the lead lining 
 removed, and after the lining had been inspected inside and out 
 and repairs made if needed, the lining was installed in the new 
 tank. All the old linings with a few exceptions were used over 
 again. 
 
 The lead linings where they extend over the edge of the tanks 
 were cut to form drip points. The point of each end was in the 
 center and on the sides there were 4 points which came between 
 the insulator spacing of the tanks. This scheme keeps the insulators 
 free of acid from dripping. 
 
 A positive plate known as the Tudor type was used. They are 
 practically pure lead plates, grid and active material, about .375-in. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 833 
 
 thick. The surface is cut into horizontal rows of finely divided 
 grooves. Between the .375-in.-wide liorizontal rows was left a 
 web of the lead which was not cut. The active material was 
 formed in the finely divided grooves. These plates were very easily 
 buckled and required very rigid separation. The board separators 
 were equipped with 5 dowels each. The outside dowels were 1 in. 
 wide by .5 in. thick. The other 3 were .5 in. wide by .5 in. thick, 
 These separators were suspended from the top of the plates by 
 means of a rubber peg pushed through the top of the center dowel. 
 The hold-downs are semicircular glass pieces about 8 ins. long. 
 Some of the old plates removed in the process of reconstruction 
 did not have any of the active material remaining in them. 
 Enough were found, however, to be sufficiently valuable to give a 
 year's service in 50 cells. 
 
 TABLE XXIX. DATA OBTAINED FROM WATTMETER TESTS 
 (One week's average). 
 
 Before After 
 
 rebuilding rebuilding 
 
 Kw.-hr. efficiency, % 32.1 43.8 
 
 Amp.-hr. efficiency, % 45.3 51.3 
 
 Capacity discharge, amp-hr 960 2,410 
 
 The negative plates are the plates from the original installation. 
 They were found good for several years more of efficient service. 
 
 Some wattmeter tests made on one of the batteries before and 
 after the reconstruction are recorded in Table XXIX. The weekly 
 overcharge was distributed and charged to the amount of energy 
 put into the battery, by adding % of the power required by the 
 overcharge to the charge required by the battery, after a dis- 
 charge, if a discharge occurred on 6 nights of a week following the 
 overcharge. 
 
 COSTS OF ORIGINAL, INSTALLATION AND RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 2 batteries installed complete with boosters, wiring 
 
 switchboards and copper bars $198,000.00 
 
 Cleaning out sediment, including pump, tanks, etc 2,223.13 
 
 Reconstruction 1910 and 1911 107,321.88 
 
 Board separators complete with dowels each 0.15 
 
 Positive plates, each 4.00 
 
 Negative plates, each 3.65 
 
 Oil insulators, complete with alloy cap, each 0.40 
 
 Wooden tanks, railway company's manufacture, each. . . . 12.00 
 
 Lead lining.s, railway company's manufacture, each..... 15.00 
 
 Cost of Constructing a Turbo-Generator Power Plant, Transmis- 
 sion Line and Substructures. In 1910 an arrangement was made 
 by which the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Co. agreed to an 
 enlargement of its power plant at Douglas, Arizona, to supply power 
 for El Tigre mines, 65 miles away, in Mexico. In Western Engi- 
 neering February, 1913. J. W. Malcolmson describes the new plant 
 and gives in detail the construction costs. (Tables XXX-XXXIV.) 
 
834 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXX. COST AND ERECTION OF POWER PLANT 
 
 Engineering 
 
 rs' salaries while ensraered in draftiner. blue 
 
 .$ 477.98 
 
 :ineering: 
 
 Engineers' salaries while engaged in drafting, blue- 
 prints for foundations, piping, condensers, etc 
 
 Foundations : 
 
 Excavation (labor) , $ 96.19 
 
 Anchor bolts (labor and material) . 132.58 
 
 Molds (labor and material) 468.93 
 
 Concrete, 127^ cu. yds. (labor and material) 981.97 
 
 $ 1,679.67 
 Hot well : 
 
 Excavation (labor) $ 72.94 
 
 Molds (labor and material) 46.86 
 
 Concrete, 15 cu. yds. (labor and material) 238.95 
 
 Pipe connections (labor and material) 167.14 
 
 Steel reinforcement (labor and material) 34.81 
 
 $ 560.70 
 Steam turbo-generator: 
 
 2 A.T.B. 4-750-1800 generators with Curtis steam 
 
 turbines and accessories $28,250.00 
 
 4 5-in compression and vacuum gages 11.20 
 
 Insurance on engine 70.62 
 
 Freight, Schenectady, N. Y., to Douglas , 2,143.55 
 
 Labor erecting 906.51 
 
 Material for erecting = 320.17 
 
 $31,702.05 
 Switchboard : 
 
 1 complete switchboard $ 2,455.00 
 
 Insurance 3.89 
 
 1 Hartman & Braun frequency meter 52.20 
 
 2 d.c. voltmeter.s, range 0-150 volts; 2 d.c. ammeters, 
 range 0-300 amp. ; 2 d.c. ammeters, range 0-150 
 
 ■^ amp 1 44.74 
 
 Freight to Douglas on above parts 267.25 
 
 Labor erecting 145.63 
 
 Material erecting 85.54 
 
 $ 3,154\25 
 Wiring: 
 
 75 ft. 552-lb. 3/250,000 C.M.V.C, 3/32 by 1/16 lead, 
 
 7/64 Sec. No. 1, complete; 30 ft. 52-lb. 3/8 wire, V.C. 
 
 5/64 by 1/16 lead, Sec. No. 1. complete 175 ft. 155- 
 
 Ib. 4/0 cable, R.C 5/64 T.B.W., Sec. No. 1, complete. 
 
 S. O. N. 72143; 22 lb. No. 227 compound $ 133.40 
 
 Freight on above 24.12 
 
 Labor erecting 11 7.28 
 
 Material for erecting 18.86 
 
 $ 293.66 
 Condensers : 
 
 2 72-in. type "B" Helander patent barometric con- 
 densers 
 
 2 12 by 24 by 16-in. dry air pumps $ 7.100.00 
 
 Insurance 3.37 
 
 Freight on above 2,208.47 
 
 Labor erecting . 
 
 Machine shop, 45 hr 22.88 
 
 Blacksmith shop, 6 hr 3.64 
 
 Carpenter shop, 114 hr . 55.68 
 
 Rigging gang, 1,2451/2 hr 332.08 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 835 
 
 Electric gang, 384 hr 146.83 
 
 Special gang, 158 hr . 33.23 
 
 Construction, 995 1^ hr 400.52 
 
 $ 994.86 
 
 Material for erection 133.31 
 
 n0,440.01 
 Steam and motor exciters : 
 
 1 standard 30-kw. generator set, consisting of 1 9 by 
 9 VS. 7 automatic engine, complete with cylinders, 
 lubricators, and full set of wrenches, extended sub- 
 base for direct connection to 1 No. 10 C. h.p. 8 gen- 
 erator compound wound for 125 volts field rheo- 
 stat $ 1,125.00 
 
 1 2-brg. motor-generator set, consisting of one 30-kw 
 No. 8 " L" type " S " generator coupled with 125 v. 
 with bed plate and shaft, one No. 11 A.H. 45, 6-hp 
 type " C.C.Li." motor, 2300 volts with auto starter 
 
 and oil 1,000.00 
 
 Insurance 3.87 
 
 Freight 244.27 
 
 Labor erecting 44.40 
 
 Material for erecting 9.29 
 
 $ 2,426.83 
 Water piping : 
 
 Cost, Pittsburgh, Pa % 3,522.87 
 
 Freight to Douglas 1,644.09 
 
 Labor laying and erecting 408.33 
 
 Material for laying and erecting 110.43 
 
 Material and labor for supports 1.23 
 
 ? 5,686.95 
 Exhaust piping : 
 
 Cost. Pittsburgh, Pa $ 807.94 
 
 Freight to Douglas 336.88 
 
 Labor erecting 83.13 
 
 Material for erecting 33.92 
 
 Supports and hangers (labor and material) 29.11 
 
 $ 1,290.98 
 Steam piping and separators: 
 
 Cost, Pittsburgh, Pa. ... $ 7,717.41 
 
 2 16-in. Stratton separators 1,089.00 
 
 Freight on pipe and separators to Douglas, New York 1,478.87 
 
 Labor erecting 833.30 
 
 Material for erection 234.59 
 
 Supports and hangers 33.73 
 
 Pipe covering, erected 2,400.00 
 
 $13,786.90 
 Air piping : 
 
 Cost, Pittsburgh, Pa $ 258.70 
 
 Freight to Douglas 71.16 
 
 Labor erecting 25.25 
 
 Material for erecting 37.05 
 
 Supports and hangers (la,bor and material) 1.61 
 
 $ 393.77 
 
 Total $71,893.75 
 
 Note. Weight of pipe and separators, 340,405 pounds. 
 
83G MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXXL COST OF TRANSMISSION LINE 
 
 Poles : 
 
 First cost $ 8,642.18 
 
 U. S. freight 4,245.74 
 
 Unloading-, hauling and delivery along line 3,730.57 
 
 Assembling and erecting 1,348.05 
 
 Digging holes and setting poles 8,610.97 
 
 Customs charges and duties 121.12 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 1,397.25 
 
 $28,095.88 
 Transmission line — Cross-arms : 
 
 First cost $ 1,422.28 
 
 U. S. freight 446.10 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line. 614.30 
 
 Customs charges and duties 13.78 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 112.12 
 
 $ 2,608.58 
 Transmission line — Hardware (bolts and braces) : 
 
 First cost $ 1,380.55 
 
 U. S. freight 429.21 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 1,017.90 
 
 Customs charges and duties 460.90 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 87.59 
 
 $ 3,376.15 
 Transmission line — Pins : 
 
 First cost $ 1,524.18 
 
 U. S. freight . . ._. 326.49 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 167.03 
 
 Custom charges and duties 184.12 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 25.26 
 
 $ 2,227.08 
 Transmission line — Insulators : 
 
 First cost $ 7,312.99 
 
 Inspecting and testing 308.90 
 
 U. S. freight 4,046.93 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 507.48 
 
 Assembling and erecting 468.25 
 
 Customs charges and duties 1,006.56 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 430.11 
 
 $14,081.22 
 Telephone line — Cross-arms: 
 
 First cost $ 393.00 
 
 U. S. freight 196.08 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 43.97 
 
 Custom charges and duties 167.41 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 63.51 
 
 $ 863.97 
 Telephone line — Cross-arm hardware : 
 
 First cost $ 240.27 
 
 U. S. freight 51.36 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 16.51 
 
 Custom charges and duties 51.60 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 6.07 
 
 $ 365.81 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 837 
 
 Telephone line — Pins : 
 
 First cost $ 130.20 
 
 U. S. freight 70.44 
 
 Customs charges and duties .* 4.40 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Yshabal) 7.02 
 
 $ 212.06 
 Telephone line — Insulators : 
 
 First cost % 525.75 
 
 Inspecting and testing 18.90 
 
 U. S. freight 216.59 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 2.58 
 
 Customs charges and duties 40.44 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 23.57 
 
 $ 827.83 
 
 Pole steps, guying and bracing (eyebolts, guy wires, 
 clamps, anchors, pole braces, etc.) : 
 
 First cost % 895.53 
 
 Labor 503.00 
 
 • U. S. freight 138.15 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 168.00 
 
 Customs charges and duties 176.85 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 35.78 
 
 ? 1,917.31 
 
 Special structures, concrete and cribbing, incident to spe- 
 cial construction : 
 
 First cost % 465.60 
 
 Labor 973.10 
 
 U. S. freight 52.22 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 85.00 
 
 Customs charges and duties 22.10 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 20.63 
 
 $ 1,618.65 
 Painting : 
 
 First cost $ 313.43 
 
 Labor 206.00 
 
 Customs, charges and duties 18.61 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 0.54 
 
 $ 538.58 
 Transmission line — Wire : 
 
 First cost $18,096.29 
 
 U. S. freight 2,695.78 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 353.48 
 
 Assembling and erecting 2,658.75 
 
 Customs charges and duties 1,9 68.61 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 172.90 
 
 $25,945.81 
 Transmission line — Ties or clamps : 
 
 First cost $ 279.03 
 
 U. S. freight 21.38 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 1.00 
 
 Assembling and erecting 7.00 
 
 Customs charges and duties . . , 23.26 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Dougla{5 to Ysabal) 20.40 
 
 % 5,363.05 
 
838 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Telephone line — Wire : 
 
 First cost $ 3,249.41 
 
 U. S. freight 388.54 
 
 Unloading, hauli-ng and delivery along line 9 6.60 
 
 Assembling and erecting 1,231.50 
 
 Customs charges and duties 365.30 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 31.70 
 
 $ 1,795.92 
 Telephones : 
 
 First cost . .$ 1,132.24 
 
 U. S. freight 138.22 
 
 Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 50.00 
 
 Assembling and erecting 401.63 
 
 Customs charges and duties 21.82 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 52.01 
 
 $ 739.50 
 Clearing and trimming: 
 
 Right of way, including easements or real estate and 
 
 collateral costs incident thereto $ 1,048.96 
 
 Pole signs 129,60 
 
 Preliminary work, including payments made by Tigre 
 
 Mining Co. to J. Langston for services and expenses 4,033.75 
 
 Contractors' equipment and tool account 1,040.35 
 
 First cost 892.83 
 
 U. S. freight 70.05 
 
 Customs charges and duties 48.53 
 
 Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 19.9 4 
 
 Labor 9.00 
 
 Stable — operation and feed $ 1,373.62 
 
 Camp — equipment 817.76 
 
 Camp — expenses and repairs 271.00 
 
 Subsistence 4,061.57 
 
 General engineering and administration (New York) .... 76.33 
 General engineering and administration (local office), 
 
 including surveys 5,476.84 
 
 Office $ 2,436.95 
 
 Surveys, including surveys by Tigre company 3,039.89 
 
 Traveling expenses and board of general engineers and 
 
 contractors 597.28 
 
 Transportation and expenses incident to placing any labor 
 
 on job and housing of same 425.89 
 
 Medical services and expenses 24.75 
 
 Expenses duo to insurrection (repairs, etc.) 1,041.57 
 
 Trail along 1 ransmission line 723.75 
 
 Station hous > on line " fronteras " 62.50 
 
 Total, " transmission line " $112,134.99 
 
 'UNABLE XXXII. DOUGLAS SUB-STATION 
 
 Excavation, grading, and disposition of excavated material? 257.38 
 
 Foundations of sub-station building (substructure) 142.77 
 
 Machinery foundations 191.74 
 
 Building (superstructure) 2,398.66 
 
 Brickwork $ 1,400.00 
 
 Labor £.:nd material (miscellaneous) 998.66 
 
 Switchboard and wiring (thereof, thereto, therefrom) .... 1,903.05 
 
 Switchboard $ 1,300.00 
 
 Freight 49.14 
 
 Nyelec panel and switches 47.00 
 
 Insulators, fittings, clamps, wire, etc 365.26 
 
 Labor , , 141,65 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 839 
 
 Underground cable between switchboard and step-up sub- 
 station 1,583,55 
 
 Cable $ 1,270.01 
 
 Cable terminals and jointing compound 28.41 
 
 Miscellaneous material and cartage 132.99 
 
 Labor 152.14 
 
 Sub-station step-up transformers 8,401.64 
 
 Four 400-kva. step-up transformers 6,207.34 
 
 Freight 1,185.30 
 
 Drying transformers 266.00 
 
 Miscellaneous material 21.00 
 
 Labor 722.00 
 
 Painting and finishing of machinery 10.02 
 
 Plumbing, lockers, and other sub-station furnishing 35.99 
 
 Contractors' equipment and tool account 153.84 
 
 Traveling expenses and board of general engineers and 
 
 contractors 20.80 
 
 Transportation and expenses incident to placing any labor 
 
 on job, and housing of same 93.50 
 
 Tests of equipment 948.49 
 
 Steam and electric power 745.00 
 
 Miscellaneous material , 203.49 
 
 Total Douglas sub-station $16,141.'^ 3 
 
 TABLE XXXIIL EL TIGRE SUB-STATION 
 
 Sub-station proper $ 5,294.55 
 
 Switchboard and wiring (thereof, thereto, therefrom) .... 5,362.26 
 
 Switchboard 3,780.00 
 
 Freight, customs charges, and duties 769.47 
 
 Nyelec panel and switches 106.00 
 
 Insulators, fittings, clamps, wire, etc 594.94 
 
 Labor 111.85 
 
 Sub-station step-down transformers 8,899.26 
 
 Four 320-kva step-down transformers 4,989.09 
 
 Freight, customs charges, and duties 1,964.24 
 
 Miscellaneous material 531.98 
 
 Labor 1,413.95 
 
 Traveling expenses and board of general engineers and 
 
 contractors 32.70 
 
 Transportation and expenses incident to placing any labor , 
 
 on job, and housing of same . 70.00 
 
 Tests of equipment 173.58 
 
 Total El Tigre sub-station ?1 9,832.35 
 
 TABLE XXXIV. RECAPITULATION OF COSTS 
 
 Transmission line $112,134.99 
 
 Douglas sub-station 16,141.43 
 
 El Tigre sub-station 19,832.35 
 
 Total $148,108.77 
 
 Fees paid Sanderson & Porter 13,000.00 
 
 $151,108.77 
 
 (The total shown above, amounting to $161,108.77. includes dis- 
 bursements made by Sanderson & Porter amounting to $132,743.48, 
 and as reported by the Tigre Mining Co. amounting to $28,365.29.) 
 
 The plant in Douglas consists of 2 750-kw. exhaust steam turbo- 
 generators which will work with a 50% underload or overload 
 
840 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 without any very serious loss of efficiency. The Tigre Mining 
 company receives power at the bus bars at a tension of 2,200 
 volts. This is stepped up to 44,000 volts by means of 3 General 
 Electric transformers. At the mine the current is stepped down to 
 440 volts and distributed to the various circuits in the plant. 
 
 The transmission is unusual on account of the small quantity of 
 power being transmitted such a long distance. The current is 
 44,000 volt, 60 cycle, 3 phase, transmitted over a single line of 
 wooden poles carrying 3 conductors of No. 4 B. & S. gage, medium, 
 hard drawn copper wire with telephone wires below. The poles 
 are 200 ft. apart; at the crossing of the Bavispe River the span is 
 1,600 ft. The cost of the line from the low tension side of its step- 
 up transformer station at Douglas to the low tension side of its step- 
 down transformer station at El Tigre was $161,121. Not including 
 the transformer stations at each end, their cost was very closely 
 equal to $2,000 per mile. The line, including the transformer sta- 
 tions, was built by Sanderson & Porter of New York. The total 
 cost of the exhaust steam turbo-generator plant including the steam 
 piping, etc., was $71,S94, the machinery being installed by the 
 Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Co. During the past year, 
 6,000 tons of ore have been concentrated monthly and 7,500 tons, 
 cyanided at the Tigre mill; an average of 616 h.p. is distributed at 
 El Tigre switchboard. The delivered cost is $86 per h.p. per year; 
 the cost at Douglas being 0.95 per kw.-hr. 
 
 Distribution Equipment Cost on a Small System. Electrical 
 World, February 21, 1914, makes the following abstract from a 
 report to the lighting committee of the town of South Hadley, 
 Mass., by Mr. William Plattner, manager of the North Attleboro 
 (Mass.) electric lighting department, in which a thorough study 
 was made of the cost of the local distribution system. The value 
 of the equipment in use was based upon the market price of its 
 replacement, as of August, 1913, and transportation charges, freight 
 and express and the labor cost of installation were included. 
 
 ESTIMATED COST OF REPLACING VARIOUS EQUIPMENT 
 
 t Poles in place » 
 
 Expected 
 Number and kind Cost Length, ft. life, yr. 
 
 315 first class, at $3.75 $1,181.25 25 15 
 
 63 first class, at $4.50 283.50 30 15 
 
 132 second class, at $4.00 528.00 25 10 
 
 28 second class, at $4.50 126.00 30 10 
 
 94 third class, at $4.00 376.00 25 5 
 
 18 third class, at $4.50 81.50 ' 30 5 
 
 11 fourth class, at $4.00 44.00 25 Need 
 
 1 fourth class, at $4.50 4.50 30 replacement 
 
 Painting 1 29 poles at $0.50 $64.50 
 
 Setting 71 poles in concrete, at 0.50 35.50 
 
 Setting 4 poles in curb, at 0.50 2.00 
 
 Fourteen guys. — 80 ft. No. 4 copper wire, 299 ft No. 6 copper 
 
 wire, and 444 ft. No. 6 galvanized steel wire, all in place 85.75 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 841 
 
 
 
 ELECTRIC METERS (G. E. 
 
 TWO-WIRE) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trans- 
 
 Labor, 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Size, 
 
 Unit 
 
 Total 
 
 porta- 
 
 erec- 
 
 
 per 
 
 No. 
 
 amp. 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 tion 
 
 tion 
 
 Total 
 
 meter 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 $10.00 
 
 $400.00 
 
 $13.00 
 
 $20.00 
 
 $433.00 
 
 $10.82 
 
 267 
 
 10 
 
 11.20 
 
 2990.48 
 
 81.25 
 
 135.00 
 
 3206.73 
 
 12.00 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 12.80 
 
 217.60 
 
 5.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 232.60 
 
 13.65 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 
 16.00 
 
 496.00 
 
 9.50 
 
 16.00 
 
 521.50 
 
 16.80 
 
 11 
 
 50 
 
 21.40 
 
 235.40 
 
 3.67 
 
 8.00 
 
 247.07 
 
 22.36 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 26.70 
 
 53.40 
 
 1.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 59.40 
 
 29.70 
 
 TRANSFORMERS (G. 
 
 B. AND STANLEY, VOLTAGE 1100-2200; 110-220) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Labor, 
 
 
 per 
 
 
 Size, 
 
 Unit 
 
 Total 
 
 Freight 
 
 erec- 
 
 
 trans- 
 
 No. 
 
 kw. 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 charges 
 
 tion 
 
 Total 
 
 former 
 
 65 
 
 1 
 
 $21.80 
 
 $1417.00 
 
 $23.90 
 
 $96.00 
 
 $1536.90 
 
 $23.60 
 
 16 
 
 1.5 
 
 26.00 
 
 416.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 444.00 
 
 27.80 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 30.40 
 
 638.00 
 
 10.40 
 
 30.00 
 
 678.40 
 
 32.20 
 
 9 
 
 2.5 
 
 34.00 
 
 306.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 329.00 
 
 36.60 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 38.00 
 
 380.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 19.00 
 
 404.00 
 
 40.40 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 45.60 
 
 91.20 
 
 2.90 
 
 5.00 
 
 99.10 
 
 49.55 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 53.20 
 
 478.80 
 
 9.20 
 
 18.00 
 
 506.00 
 
 56.22 
 
 2 
 
 7.5 
 
 70.40 
 
 140.80 
 
 2.68 
 
 10.00 
 
 153.48 
 
 76.74 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 87.20 
 
 261.60 
 
 3.80 
 
 20.00 
 
 285.40 
 
 95.13 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 146.80 
 
 146.80 
 
 2.74 
 
 18.00 
 
 167.54 
 
 167.54 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 172.80 
 
 172.80 
 
 4.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 194.80 
 
 194.80 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 197.20 
 
 197.20 
 
 5.50 
 
 22.00 
 
 224.70 
 
 224.70 
 
 The transformer costs include fuses, cut-outs, hangers and oil. 
 
 TRANSFORMER HOUSE, SOUTH HADLET 
 
 One house, matched boards, 7 ft. 3 in. by 7 ft. 3 in. by 9 ft. 9 
 in. high in front, 8 ft. 6 in. high in rear, tar-paper roof, 
 paneled window, wire screen door, painted $ 75.00 
 
 One G. E. regulator, type I.R.S., 8.75 kva., 2300 volts, 2'5 amp., 
 
 complete with panel and transformers 468.40 
 
 One G. E. constant-current transformer, 10 kw., 5.5 amp., 
 
 form G, complete 304.50 
 
 One G. E. transformer, 1 kw., oil type, 2200 volts to 110-220 
 
 volts 16.73 
 
 One Campbell time switch, series street lighting, 2500 volts, 
 
 two-pole, 25 amp., eight-day clock 25.00 
 
 Two G. E. 2300-3000-volt horn-gap lightning arresters 9.50 
 
 Inside wiring, material, labor, etc 35.50 
 
 Outside wiring including 300 ft. service for lighting 21.75 
 
 Total $956.38 
 
 Cost of Additions and Improvements to Central Stations. The 
 following data were given in Electrical World, Aug. 16, 1913. A 
 2000-kw. Curtis steam turbine costing about $30,000 has been 
 installed in the main steam plant by the Greenfield (Mass.) Electric 
 Light & Power Co.. with two Porcupine boilers, rated at 500 h.p. 
 each, at a cost of $11,500. The condensing-water supply formerly 
 pumped into the station has been rearranged to permit its intro- 
 duction by gravity. 
 
 New equipment of the Gardners Falls station of the New Eng- 
 land Power Co. includes two 1,450-h.p. turbines designed to oper- 
 ate at 150 rev. per min. under 37 ft. working head and an exciter 
 turbine of S. Morgan Smith make, rated at 135-h.p., the cost of 
 
842 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 these erected being $11,500, or $3.85 per h.p. The electrical ap- 
 paratus consists of 2 generators of 1170 kva. rating, a 60-kw. 
 exciter and three 1200-kva., 3-phase transformers for delivering 
 energy at 13,200 volts to the Greenfield company's transmission 
 feeders, the price of this equipment f.o.b. factor being $29,500. The 
 estimated cost of switchboard additions for this installation is about 
 $15,000, including incidentals, and the contract for excavation, 
 extending the station and installing foundations is figured at $4,250. 
 Central Station Equipment Costs. Electrical World, April 28, 
 1917. Improvements on the system ot the Fitchburg (Mass.) Gas 
 & Electric Light Company (1916) included the installation of a 
 2500-kw. high-pressure Westinghouse turbine with LeBlanc con- 
 denser and foundations, centrifugal feed pump, piping, superheat- 
 ers, 2 500-h.p. Bigelow-Hornsby water-tube boilers, 2 Taylor 
 stokers, feed-water meter, air compressor, pipe covering, coal- 
 handling equipment, economizers, mechanical draft apparatus and a 
 1,000-h.p. feed-water heater. To house the additional equipment 
 the plant was extended about 36 ft. From the cost sheets of the 
 company the following items are printed to give engineers a gen- 
 eral idea of the relative unit costs of equipment in a plant of this 
 size: 
 
 2500-kw. Westinghouse double-flow turbine (not including 
 generator), with No. 14 LeBlanc condenser, complete 
 
 with pumps $19,779.40 
 
 Turbine foundations 2,221.76 
 
 300-gal.-per-min. Westinghouse centrifugal boiler-feed 
 
 pump 1,545.00 
 
 Connecting turbine and condenser 472.86 
 
 Galvanized-iron air duct for turbine 236.00 
 
 Type C duplex piston automatic pump and receiver ....... 125.40 
 
 Miscellaneous items, completed December, 1914 973.43 
 
 1 5-in. and 2 6-in. Edwards check valves 318.68 
 
 Installation of above 114.30 
 
 New superheater for 240-hp. Stirling boiler 675.00 
 
 Piping, covering and brickwork for above 228.69 
 
 Freight, teaming, insurance and miscellaneous 111.94 
 
 2 500-hp. Bigelow-Hornsby water-tube boilers 9,000.00 
 
 Masonry in connection with above 1,316.94 
 
 Foundations 4,206.67 
 
 2 Foster superheaters 2,900.00 
 
 2 feed-water controllers 160.00 
 
 Labor Fitchburg company's force 418,19 
 
 Pipe covering 167.95 
 
 Miscellaneous 1,073.59 
 
 Labor and material installing floor grates 57.57 
 
 (Note. — Total additions to boilers, $20,782.34). 
 
 2 Taylor stokers, grates, fans, engine and driving mechan- 
 ism 9,785.00 
 
 Foundations for above (paid contractor) 704.13 
 
 Crushed stone, sand, etc., for foundation 165.00 
 
 Steel for coal hoppers 329.41 
 
 Labor for coal hoppers 157.20 
 
 Shafting, hangers, chains, etc 301.00 
 
 5-in. by 5-in. vertical stoker engine 248.00 
 
 Labor, Fitchburg company's force 592.49 
 
 Other items 711.87 
 
 4 sheet-steel boxes for stokers in ash pit 48.00 
 
 Labor and material installing above boxes 30.33 
 
 (Note. — Total additions on account of stoker cost, $13,072.43) 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 843 
 
 4-in. type M. Venturi registering and indicating feed-water 
 
 meter 465.00 
 
 Freight, teanriing and installation of above. , 46.02 
 
 Piping installation, in connection with station increase. . . 16,028.66 
 
 Coal-handling apparatus , 4,967.10 
 
 1000-hp Whitlock feed-water heater 575.00 
 
 Sturtevant economizer installation for additional capacity 
 
 of plant 12,423.14 
 
 5-hp. motor and wiring for above 73.75 
 
 3125-kva. 60-cycle, 3-phase, 2300 -volt generator 9.879.60 
 
 Other labor and material 571.92 
 
 3 sheet-steel guards for generator flywheels (old units) . 60.00 
 75-kw. motor-generator exciter set, 115-hp. 220-volt mo- 
 tor 1.758.00 
 
 2 2500-volt aluminum lightning arresters 234.00 
 
 6 300-amp. 250-volt single-pole switches 29.70 
 
 The total cost of the complete improvements outlined is not ob- 
 tainable by adding items segregated herewith, since the data pre- 
 sented includes merely items of broad interest. 
 
 Plant Extensions at Amesbury, Mass. The following is taken 
 from Electrical World, Sept. 13, 1913. The Amesbury Electric 
 Light Company in increasing the capacity of its generating plant 
 by the addition of a 1000-kw. steam-turbine unit with the necessary 
 boiler capacity, condensing equipment and auxiliary apparatus, 
 estimated the cost of the new work, based on bids received and 
 previous experience in the enlargement of the plant, as follows : 
 
 ESTIMATED COST OF ENLARGING STATION AT AMESBURY, 
 MASS., 1913, BY 1000 KW. 
 
 Extension of power plant building % 9,122 
 
 Kellogg radial brick stack; height, 150 ft. ; diam. at top, 6 ft. 3,585 
 
 Stack foundation 840 
 
 Piling, excavation, etc 400 
 
 Turbine foundation, 10 ft. by 20 ft. by 14 ft 1.200 
 
 Boiler foundation. 19 ft. by 26 ft. by 11 ft 1,300 
 
 Excavation for .suction piping, 2000 cu. yds. at 50 cts. ...... 1.000 
 
 2 400-hp. water-tube boilers, Babcock & Wilcox 9.781 
 
 Brickwork . 1,500 
 
 2 superheaters 2,214 
 
 2 Taylor stokers 6,150 
 
 Boiler flue , 800 
 
 Coal-handling cars and track 1,200 
 
 1000-kw. horizontal Curtis turbine, 60 cycles, 2300 volts. ... 13,200 
 Westinghouse Le Blanc No. 8 condenser, capacity 20,500 lbs. 
 
 steam per hr. 28 in. vacuum turbo pumps, 70 degs. water 3,225 
 
 Piping 3,000 
 
 Feed pumps, heater, etc. 800 
 
 Pipe covering 1,000 
 
 Turbo-alternator switchboard 500 
 
 Erecting and wiring board and turbine 500 
 
 Incidentals, 10% 6.132 
 
 Total $67,449 
 
 Cost of Control Apparatus for 19,000-voit Power Station. Elec- 
 trical World, July 17, 1915, gives the following cost of switches, 
 lightning arresters and other apparatus in the Vernon power- 
 station end of the "Vernon Station-Massachusetts line as follWs: 
 
844 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 2 150 -amp.. 70,000-volt, triple-pole, single-lhrow, sole-noid- 
 
 operated oil Kwiiches. complete $ 2,093.00 
 
 12 100-amp. disconnecting switches, complete 408.30 
 
 6 300-amp., 70,000-volt disconnecting switches, at $27.90. 167.40 
 
 2 70,000-volt aluminum lightning- arresters, complete with 
 
 supports, tanks, fittings,* etc.. at $765 1.530.00 
 
 1 20,000-volt aluminum cell lightning arrester 360.00 
 
 3 single-pole, time-limit series relays, with switches, op- 
 
 erating rods, bases and insulators, at $60 180.00 
 
 6 single-pole, time-limit 100-amp.. 22.000-volt disconnect- 
 ing switches with 10 -in, base 81.00 
 
 Steel frame for extending monitor, 48 ft and one 24 ft 440.00 
 
 Structural steel for 2 roof frames, 4 stubs and 6 brackets 222.00 
 
 3 300-amp., 70,000-volt disconnecting switches, at $34.20. 102.60 
 
 2 600-volt, dc. aluminum lightning arresters for tele- 
 
 phone system, at $9 . 18.00 
 
 3 type H 60-oycle, 5000 -watt, 2400/240-volt secondary 
 
 transformers, form K , 195.52 
 
 Set cores and coils , 27.00 
 
 3 single-pole, single- throw, 100-amp., 22,000-volt discon- 
 necting switches . 18.00 
 
 15 knife switches, 3% ins. wide 40.30 
 
 Insulators, pins and supports 463.29 
 
 Pipe and pipe fittings 619.50 
 
 Miscellaneous switching apparatus 162.00 
 
 Tools, etc 389.60 
 
 Hardware 188.48 
 
 Miscellaneous materials, oil drums, etc 201.30" 
 
 Transportation of material 370.72 
 
 Labor and expenses 3,229.09 
 
 Total $11,507.10 
 
 Cost per Pound of Electrical Machinery. lieonard A. Doggett in 
 Electrical World, Oct. 2, 1915. gives the figures below based upon 
 data collected from various sources. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that a 1-h.p. motor having a rated speed 
 of 2000 rev. per min. is much cheaper than, and about .5 as heavy 
 as, a 1-h.p. motor having a rated speed of 1000 rev. per min. 
 Therefore, the rational way to tabulate either cost or weight data 
 is in terms, not of dollars or lbs per kw., but of dollars or pounds 
 versus kilowatts divided by speed. The term (kw.-^rev. per min.) 
 is really torque, and of any machine it can be said that the greater 
 the torque the greater the necessary size, weight and cost. There- 
 fore, in this paper the independent variable is taken as (kw. -^ 
 rev. per min. ) . In Figs. 13 and 14 the accumulated data are plotted, 
 
 TABLE XXXV. COSTS AND WEIGHTS OF ELECTRICAL 
 MACHINERY 
 
 Kw. -7- rev. per min. 
 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 
 
 85 280 1,150 5.500 
 
 100 260 850 3,500 
 
 1,200 4,600 16,000 
 
 37,000 136,000 
 
 Compound .... 6,000 17,700 
 
 Compound 1,600 4,900 
 
 Simple 3.200 13,500 
 
 Simple 680 2,530 
 
 Name of machine 
 Direct-current gener- 
 ators and motors.. 
 
 Induction motors 
 
 Alternators 
 
 New or 
 second- 
 hand 
 
 New 
 New 
 New 
 
 Turbo-alternators . . . 
 Low-speed engines... 
 High-speed engines. . . 
 Low;-speed engines... 
 High-speed engines... 
 
 New 
 New 
 New 
 New 
 New 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 845 
 
 Name of machine 
 
 COSTS IN DOLLARS 
 
 New or 
 
 second- Kw. -f 
 
 hand 0.001 0.01 
 
 Direct-current gener- 
 ators and motors. . Second hand 
 
 Induction motors. . . . Second-hand 
 
 Alternators Second-hand 
 
 Engine-driven direct 
 current and alternat- 
 ing-current gener- 
 ators Second-hand 
 
 40 
 45 
 
 120 
 170 
 140 
 
 rev. per min. 
 0.1 1.0 
 
 450 
 550 
 450 
 
 1,600 
 2,500 
 2,200 
 
 10.0 
 
 8,000 
 
 200 700 3,000 13,000 
 
 WEIGHT IN POUNDS 
 
 Direct-current gener- 
 ators and motors 130 810 4,200 22,000 110,000 
 
 Induction motors 80 510 2,800 15,000 81,000 
 
 Alternators 130 810 4,200 20.000 90.000 
 
 Turbo-alternators 170,000 640,000 
 
 Low-.speed engines 2,400 19.000 140,000 
 
 High-speed engines 4,500 31,000 
 
 Engine-driven direct 
 current and alternat- 
 ing-current gener- 
 ators 1,400 8,000 50,000 250,000 
 
 CENTS PER POUND 
 
 Direct-current gener- 
 ators and motors.. New 65 35 27 25 
 
 Induction motors.... New 125 51 30 23 
 
 Alternators New 29 23 18 
 
 Turbo-alternators . . . New 22 21 
 
 Low-speed engines... New Compound ... 28 11 
 
 Ifigh-si)eed engines... New Compound 36 15 
 
 Low-speed engines.... New Simple ... 17 9 
 
 High-peed engines.... New Simple 15 8 
 
 Direct-current gener- 
 ators and motors. . Second-hand 31 15 11 7 
 
 Induction motors Second-hand 56 33 20 17 
 
 Alternators Second-hand . . 17 11 11 9 
 
 Engine -driven direct- 
 current and alter- 
 nating-current gen- 
 erators Second-hand . . 14 9 6 5 
 
 In using Pigs, 13 and 14 it should be remembered in the case of 
 new machinery that these figures represent standard or stock ma- 
 chines, and that machines with unusual specifications will lie 
 above any data there plotted. 
 
 In gathering and plotting the information interesting facts de- 
 veloped, many of which could be explained. For example, cost 
 figures on Edison bipolars, Stanley inductor alternators and 133- 
 cycle alternators, if they had been plotted, would always have 
 fallen below the general trend of the plotted points. That is, obso- 
 lete types of machines lie between the curve for second-hand ma- 
 chines and the scrap value of the machine. In Fig. 13 are plotted 
 some data on new 1-hr. rating series motors, these points being 
 represented by #. As would be expected, these i>oints lie between 
 the points for new and those for second-hand direct-current 
 machines. 
 
846 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 It is interesting' to note that the average cost of all the new 
 machinery tabulated is 32 cts. per lb., and of the second-hand ma- 
 chinery 17 cts. per lb. 
 
 iVliscellaneous Central-Station Construction-Cost Data. Electri- 
 cal World. Sept. 27, 1913. In connection with the completion of 
 
 R.PH R.PI1 R.pri 
 
 qOOl 0.00? Q0Q3 O.005 0007 0.01 0.0^ a03 0.05 QQ7 0.!' 0.2 Q3 0.5 0.7 1.0. 
 
 .10,000 
 7,000 
 5,000 
 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 
 III I,O0Q 
 
 B 700' 
 
 .o 500 
 o 
 
 300 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 'to 
 
 5Cb 
 30 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 \o^ 
 
 ^<U 
 
 t^m 
 
 
 .^^ 
 
 w 
 
 5;^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 w 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^^ 
 
 ^r 
 
 X New 
 
 9- Second pdnt 
 
 •lorn Q003 0.0050007001 002003 005 O.OI 0.1 
 
 
 One TlouKf?gfh 
 
 7000 
 
 3000 
 2000 
 
 1000 
 700 
 500 2 
 
 300 Q 
 
 200 o 
 o 
 
 100 
 70 
 50 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 1.0 
 
 Kyy. 
 
 RP.n 
 
 Kw 
 R.P.M 
 
 Fig. 13. Charts plotting cost data for electrical machinery. 
 
 recent improvements in the plants and systems of several of the 
 Tenney central-station companies in Massachusetts, the following 
 cost data have been obtained. The companies drawn upon are the 
 Haverhill Electric Company, Maiden Electric Company, Fitchburg 
 Gas & Electric Company and Suburban Gas & Electric Company 
 of Revei'e. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 847 
 
 Kw. 
 
 RPM 
 
 aOI 0.02 003 QOFi 
 
 20,000 
 
 tO,0()0 
 7»000 
 5,000 
 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 
 1,000 
 700 
 500 
 
 300 
 200 
 
 QOI 
 
 Kw. 
 
 RP.n 
 
 C? 03 0.5 m 1.0 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'T — 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 =^ 
 
 #f 
 
 
 
 -. .. 
 
 
 
 
 _^^:_r^i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^Jb^L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -K^ 
 
 
 ° :! 
 
 
 
 
 -^^€- 
 
 
 a 
 
 % , 
 
 
 7 * 
 
 --- 
 
 
 
 ■-' — 
 
 
 
 1 \e\ 
 
 
 *■« 
 
 
 
 
 --■- .<>^ 
 
 [^^-.frt 
 
 
 
 .. . [ 
 
 
 
 te^V^ 
 
 •^ 
 
 «v 
 
 
 
 
 
 V'' 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 > < 
 
 ,o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 zz 
 
 n '-' "" L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 !> ^ (I Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 xyl/£ 
 
 lY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ Second fiand 
 
 
 'aOI 0.02 0.03 
 Kw 
 RP.M 
 
 0.01 0.2 03 
 Kw 
 Rf.M 
 
 07 |.( 
 
 10,000 
 7,000 
 5,000 
 
 3,000 jO 
 2,000 % 
 
 1,000 
 
 700 
 
 500 
 
 2 3 5 7 10.0 
 Krf 
 R.P.I1. 
 
 Fig. 14. Charts plotting- cost data for electrical machinery. 
 
 Sea Wall for Haverhill Station, on Merrimac River. 
 
 Granite wall, rough cut stone, backfilled with earth 
 filling; length, 410 ft; width, 14 ft to 18 ft; height, 
 25 ft; area, 6329 sq ft. Cost of material and labor, 
 $17,500; miscellaneous, $1,215; total $18,715.00 
 
 Stock House Vaults Haverhill. 
 
 Built of brick, two stories, 8 ft by 10 ft inside dimen- 
 sions, 8-in outer wall, 2-in air space and 8-in inner 
 wall. Cost, $580 ; doors, wiring, shelves, etc., $350.- 
 08 ; total co.st 930.08 
 
 New Generating Unit, Haverhill. 
 
 One 25-kw steam turbine arranged for direct connec- 
 tion and mounted on common bedplate, including one 
 No. 16 "Westinghouse LeBlanc condenser and elec- 
 tric generator ; erected complete, Westinghouse 
 Machine Company 31,639.00 
 
848 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Miscellaneous Steam and Electric Plant Equipment, Hav- 
 erhill. 
 
 One 9-in. by 12-in. by 10-in. duplex piston-pattern 
 pump, brass-lined pump cylinders, Tobin bronze 
 piston rods, composition pump pistons, brass valve 
 seats, medium-hard rubber valves for cold water and 
 high lift c 
 
 P'oundation, pipe connections, etc = 
 
 One Sarco (X)^ recorder 
 
 One 6'ft. by 2iy2-ft. Scannell return tubular boiler re- 
 moved from service; first cost complete, erected.,.. 
 
 Ont! ;U25-kva., 60-cycle, 3-phase, 2300-volt Westing- 
 house turbo-generator 
 
 Switchboard apparatus 
 
 Cable 
 
 Air duct 
 
 4 60-lamp, 60-cycle, 220-volt, 2.75-amp. air-cooled, 
 constant-current transformers 
 
 4 series arc oil switches, 9E, type F, form 2, 2.10 
 amp., 1 200 volts 
 
 10 25 ft. ornamental arc-lamp poles ($38 each) 
 
 68 30 -ft. chestnut poles, painted and shaved, at 
 
 $5.56 
 
 140 35 ft. chestnut poles, painted and shaved at $7.55 
 19 40-ft. chestnut poles, painted and shaved at $8.75. 
 
 1 50-ft. chestnut pole, painted and shaved 
 
 1 60-ft. chestnut pole, painted and shaved 
 
 15,820 ft. (6252 lb.) No. 0, triple-braided, weather- 
 proof, solid wire, at 14.2 cts. per lb 
 
 1 30-in. Lumsden & Van Stone steam-exhaust head.. 
 1 16-in. Standard twin strainer. No. 684 
 
 Transformers, All 60-Cycle Equipment. 
 
 19 1-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-nO-volt second- 
 ary, single phase, each 
 
 8 IVa-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-llO-volt second- 
 ary, single-phase, each 
 
 27 2y2-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary. 220-110-volt second- 
 ary, single-phase, each 
 
 30 5-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-110-volt second- 
 ary, single-phase, each 
 
 6 7V2-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-volt secondary, 
 single-phase, each 
 
 6 10-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
 single-phase, each 
 
 3 15-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
 single-phase, each 
 
 1 20-kw., 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
 single-phase, each , 
 
 3 25-kw. 2200-kw.-1100-volt primary, 575-volt second- 
 ary, single-phase, each 
 
 6 30-kw., 2200-1100 volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
 single-phase, each , 
 
 3 50-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
 single -ijhase, each 
 
 1 50-kw.. 2200-1100-volt primary. 220-volt secondary, 
 single-phase, subway type, each 
 
 Meters. 
 
 67 5-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 
 546 10-amp,. 110-volt F^ort Wayne type " K3." each.. 
 
 5 15-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 
 33, 25 -amp., 110-volt P^ort Wayne type " K3," each... 
 21 50-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 
 
 1 300 -amp.. 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 
 
 2 400-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each. . . 
 
 405.00 
 401.39 
 326.80 
 
 2,607.30 
 
 9,227.87 
 955.38 
 248.52 
 408.80 
 
 1,040.00 
 
 224.00 
 380.00 
 
 377.86 
 
 1,054.14 
 
 166.80 
 
 10.50 
 
 18.75 
 
 889.22 
 189.00 
 428.63 
 
 17.06 
 
 23.13 
 
 30 68 
 
 49.43 
 
 65.17 
 
 80.95 
 
 110.67 
 
 137.14 
 
 $172.86 
 
 183,82 
 
 252.70 
 
 310.88 
 
 $9.28 
 10.06 
 13.00 
 13.00 
 18 68 
 27.00 
 27.40 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 849 
 
 20 5-amp., 550-volt, Fort Wayne type " K3," each 27.40 
 
 16 10-amp., 550-voIt P'ort Wayne type " K3," each 33.83 
 
 3 15-amp, 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each 34.80 
 
 13 25-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each 35.84 
 
 6 50-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each.... 39.60 
 
 1 150-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each.... 66.26 
 
 1 200-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each 51.60 
 
 9 15-atnp., Wright demand meters, each 5.78 
 
 6 75-amp., Wright demand meters, each 7.80 
 
 Power-Plant Equipment, Fitchhurg. 
 
 5 6-in. G. E. steam-flow meters, type " Ts 2," 200 lbs., 
 
 at $48 each $240.00 
 
 Labor of installing above 24.19 
 
 Pipe, fittings and material 31 77 
 
 Total ($59.19 per meter) $295.96 
 
 3 2-ln. Squires feed water regulators, at $90 each.... $270.00 
 
 Labor of installation 44.38 
 
 Miscellaneous material, gate valves, pipe, etc 38.37 
 
 Total ($117.58 per regulator) $352.75 
 
 2 Murphy automatic smokeless furnaces $2,86800 
 
 Installation of above 212.21 
 
 1 5-hp. 50-volt motor ; 190.25 
 
 Miscellaneous material and labor, oil pan, steel spur, 
 
 etc 52.28 
 
 Total ($1,661.37 per stoker) $3,322.74 
 
 1 13-ft. by 5-ft. straight-blade Sturtevant exhaust fan 
 
 with engine $7,220.00 
 
 Piping for above 664.74 
 
 Labor and material 1.782.83 
 
 Total cost of fan installed $9,667.57 
 
 1 Sturtevant economizer, 360 tubes, 10 ft. long. Total 
 
 heating surface, 4903 sq. ft $5,240.00 
 
 Foundation 4 50.00 
 
 1 5-hp. motor, including labor '262.00 
 
 Miscellaneous material, including pipe, fittings, etc.... 1,418.94 
 
 Total ($1.50 per sq. ft. heating space) $7,370.94 
 
 Ornamental Street-Lighting Fixtures, Fitchhurg. 
 
 93 fixtures, each equipped with 4 60-cp, 6:6-amp 
 series incandescent lamps, connected to under- 
 ground arc system through 1-to-l transformers 
 
 and mounted on local street-railway feeder poles $1,860.00 
 
 Labor of installation 1,088.67 
 
 Cable and wire 1,838.61 
 
 Miscellaneous material, cross-arms, cut-outs, pipes, etc. 1,419.58 
 
 Total ($66.50 per fixture) $6,206.86 
 
 Maiden Plant Equipment. 
 
 1 steel structure, forced -draft cooling tower, 2000-kw. 
 
 capacity, complete with foundations $14,531.47 
 
 1 Parsons ash ejector, installed, with 16-ton ash tank 2,173.22 
 
 4 Kibbs safety feed-water regulators with 2V2-in. valve 340.00 
 
 Cost of installing above regulators 103.95 
 
 1 5-amp., 3-phase. 115-volt , wattmeter 56.60 
 
 1 3-phase G. E. electrostatic ground detector 115.51 
 
 3 500-kw., indoor-type, oil-cooled 13,200-volt trans- 
 
 formers 4,325.00 
 
 1 15,000-volt aluminum lightning arrester 477.75 
 
 400-ft. 400,000-cir. mil. flame-proof cable for 5000 volts 158.70 
 
850 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Maiden Underground Construction Costs, 
 
 27,395 ft. 2y2-in. fiber conduit $923.67 
 
 100,830 ft. 3y2-in. fiber conduit 4,394.21 
 
 Cost of installing- above by contract 48,297.06 
 
 Total cost of conduit $53,614.94 
 
 Line to Revere. 
 
 26,896 ft. No. 00, 3-conductor cable for 17,000 volts $28,040.80 
 
 Installation, contract at 4.5 cts, per ft 1,210.32 
 
 Total cost to Revere line $29,241.12 
 
 Cable Installation in Maiden. 
 
 22,721.5 ft. No. 00 cable $12,240.31 
 
 31,497.5 ft. No. cable 16,294.42 
 
 93,519 ft. No. 6 cable 17,095.27 
 
 Cost of drawing in above 147.768 ft. cable 3,859.44 
 
 25 G. & W. potheads 709.82 
 
 Labor, company's employees 519.20 
 
 Miscellaneous items, freight, tape, asbestos cloth, etc.. 5,283.46 
 
 Total $56,001.92 
 
 Liability insurance, miscellaneous materials, labor of 
 
 employees, etc., on general work 3,865.30 
 
 Total additions to underground system 142,723.28 
 
 Miscellaneous Items, Maiden System. 
 
 Driving- 106 ft. 2.5-in. galvanized-iron pipe for cable 
 
 grounding, at contract rate of $1.75 per ft $189.14 
 
 Company labor and material, including cost of pipe.. 85.12 
 
 Total $274.26 
 
 Revere, Miscellaneous Costs. 
 
 One 6 8 -ft. by 5 8 -ft. one-story cement and brick, steel- 
 trussed garage: building, $5,300; trusses, $566; mis- 
 cellaneous, $1,413.03 (including labor, $348.91) $7,279.03 
 
 (Included in above one 40-gal. chemical extinguisher on 
 
 wheels, $144). 
 
 40,000 ft. duct; 3yo-in-lVi> in. socket joint conduit.... 1,895.25 
 
 Thirty manholes 572.50 
 
 Nineteen 500 watt sign-lighting transformers, at $10.67 
 
 each 202.67 
 
 TABLE XXXVI. ARRESTERS, LIGHTNING 
 
 DIRECT CURRENT STATION TYPE 
 
 Voltage Weight, lb. 
 
 0-350 2% 
 
 350- 750 4y2 
 
 750-1300 11% 
 
 1300-1500 Iiy2 
 
 1500-1800 Iiy2 
 
 0-4000 a 6% 
 
 4000-6000 a 20 
 
 : arc. circuits, 
 
 ALTERNATING CURRENT STATION TYPE 
 
 Voltage Weight, lb. 
 
 0- 350 2% 
 
 350- 1200 4% 
 
 1200- 2500 6% 
 
 Price 
 
 $3.20 
 3.50 
 7.00 
 8.00 
 8.50 
 4.40 
 
 11.00 
 
 Price 
 
 $3.20 
 3.50 
 4.40 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 851 
 
 "Voltage Weight, lb. 
 
 2500- 3500 11 y> 
 
 3500- 5000 26 Vo 
 
 5000- r,600 41 ■ 
 
 6600- 7500 46 
 
 7500- 8500 58 
 
 8500-10000 71 
 
 12500-15000 106 
 
 15000-17500 123 
 
 17500-20000 ^ 140 
 
 FOR THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 
 
 Voltages Weight, lb. 
 
 5700- 7600 353 
 
 7600-11250 465 
 
 11250-13500 , 550 
 
 13500-17000 650 
 
 17000-22000 805 
 
 22000-27000 980 
 
 27000-32000 1245 
 
 32000-37000 1430 
 
 FOR SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS 
 
 Voltages Weight, lb. 
 
 5700- 7600 265 
 
 7600-11250 350 
 
 11250-13500 415 
 
 13500-17000 490 
 
 Price 
 5.00 
 11.00 
 11.50 
 18.20 
 19.55 
 24.30 
 36.95 
 44.50 
 50.00 
 
 Price 
 $85.00 
 137.00 
 172.50 
 210.00 
 250.00 
 330.00 
 420.00 
 500.00 
 
 Price 
 $60.00 
 
 92.50 
 115.00 
 147.50 
 
 TABLE XXXVTI. DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS AND 
 PERFORMANCE OF EDISON CELLS 
 
 RATED 
 
 
 
 Over-all di- 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Rated 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 mensions of 
 
 in lb. 
 
 i-'' 
 
 capacity 
 
 
 ho 
 
 
 
 
 cell, in. 
 
 
 
 b '^ rt 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sh © 
 
 
 
 -m 
 
 B^'a 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 '' 
 
 -^Vn^ 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 % 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 A u 
 
 m 
 
 rt c 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 41s 
 
 l«« 
 
 1- 
 
 r- 
 
 $a& 
 
 < 
 
 B- 
 
 2 
 
 1.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 4.6 
 
 5.5 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 10.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 _ 
 
 4 
 
 2.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 8.7 
 
 16 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 13.0 
 
 19.2 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 3.8 
 
 5.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 11.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 112.5 
 
 135 
 
 13.7 
 
 27 
 
 A- 
 
 4 
 
 2.7 
 
 5.1 
 
 13.4 
 
 13.3 
 
 14.5 
 
 30 
 
 150 
 
 180 
 
 13.3 
 
 36 
 
 _ 
 
 5 
 
 3.2 
 
 5.1 
 
 13.4 
 
 16.8 
 
 18.5 
 
 37.5 
 
 1S7.5 
 
 225 
 
 13.4 
 
 45 
 
 _ 
 
 6 
 
 3.8 
 
 5.1 
 
 13.4 
 
 19.0 
 
 21.0 
 
 45 
 
 225 
 
 270 
 
 14.1 
 
 54 
 
 _ 
 
 8 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 14.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 60 
 
 300 
 
 360 
 
 13.1 
 
 72 
 
 -10 
 
 6.2 
 
 5.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 34.0 
 
 37.5 
 
 75 
 
 375 
 
 450 
 
 13.2 
 
 90 
 
 
 12 
 
 7.4 
 
 5.5 
 
 14.6 
 
 41.0 
 
 45.0 
 
 90 
 
 450 
 
 540 
 
 13.2 
 
 108 
 
 Table XXXVII is from the American Handbook for Electrical 
 Engineers. 
 
 The Edison Storage battery, best-known of the alkaline types, 
 was first used commercially in 1904. The elements consi.st of 
 nickel hydroxide for the active material of the positive plate and 
 iron for the active material of the negative plate. Dilute potas- 
 sium hydrate solution is used as the electrolyte. 
 
852 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Edison cells complete including- trays, etc., is approxi- 
 mately $1.00 per pound. 
 
 Storage Batteries For Isolated Lighting Plants. For 110 volt 
 lamps, 62 cells will usually be found satisfactory if the battery is 
 not too far from the center of distribution of the lights. With this 
 number of cells, the voltage may fall one or two volts below 110 at 
 the end of a complete discharge at the normal (8 hr.) rate, or a 
 little lower at higher rates of discharge ; but on the few occasions 
 when a complete discharge is required, this final drop of pressure 
 will not, ordinarily, be objectionable. If the requirements are still 
 less exacting, 60 cells might prove satisfactory. If no drop in 
 voltage is permissible, 64 cells would be necessary for 110 volt 
 lamps, or even a greater number if the drop in voltage in the 
 wiring is appreciable. 
 
 The amp.-hr. capacity of a battery decreases as the rate of 
 discharge increases. The " normal " rate of discharge is the 8 hr. 
 rate ; the " normal " capacity is the amp. hrs. obtained at the 
 " normal " or 8 hr. rate of discharge. At rates of discharge greater 
 than the normal or 8 hr. rate, the capacity of a battery in amp. -hrs. 
 is, therefore, somewhat less than the normal capacity, this reduc- 
 tion in capacity being practically the same, whether the entire 
 discharge has been effected at the higher rate or the rate is in- 
 creased after a partial discharge at lower rate. Thus, if a battery 
 has a capacity of 5 amps, for 8 hrs., or 40 amp. -hrs., it can dis- 
 charge at the rate of 10 amps, for only 3 hrs., or 30 amp. -hrs. ; and 
 if, after full charge it be discharged at the rate of 5 amps, for 4 
 hrs., or 20 amp. -hrs., and the rate of discharge be then increased to 
 10 amps., it will give this output for 1 hr. longer, thus giving a 
 total of only 30 amp. -hrs., whereas, if the rate had not been in- 
 creased, the discharge could have been continued at 5 amps, for 
 4 hrs. longer. 
 
 The final voltage at the end of discharge at the 8 hr. rate is 
 about 1.75 volts per cell. At the 3 hr. discharge rate, the voltage 
 will fall to about 1.7 per cell, while during charge the voltage 
 rises from about 2.15 per cell at the beginning to about 2.6 at the 
 end. 
 
 TABLE XXXVIII. COST OF STORAGE BATTERIES 
 
 (60 cells, 110 volts, parallel charge, series discharge and resistance 
 regulation for 8-hr. discharge) 
 
 Capacity, amp. Shipping weight, lb. Price complete • 
 
 2.5 2,100 $ 175 
 
 5.8 3,300 265 
 
 7.5 4,300 345 
 
 10 5,300 416 
 
 12.5 6,200 480 
 
 15 6,200 500 
 
 20 7,700 600 
 
 25 9,800 760 
 
 30 ,.., 10,800 900 
 
 35 12,500 1,100 
 
 40 ■ 18,700 1,280 
 
 50 20,200 1,560 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 853 
 
 Capacity, amp. Shipping weight, lb. Price complete * 
 
 60 24,000 1,800 
 
 70 27,300 2,100 
 
 80 34,000 2,400 
 
 90 39,000 2,750 
 
 100 41,000 3,000 
 
 * The above prices include the following material to make up bat- 
 tery complete. 
 
 60 elements. 
 62 glass jars. 
 60 sand trays. 
 70 bolt connectors. 
 245 glass insulators. 
 62 glass covers. 
 
 Necessary electrolyte. 
 
 3 Hydrometers. 
 
 1 set cell numbers. 
 
 1 pair socket wrenches. 
 
 1 low-reading voltmeter. 
 18 terminal lugs. 
 
 1 set stringers. 
 
 Bus Bar Copper can be obtained in a great variety of sections to 
 fulfill the requirements of the station. Varying from a strap, .05 
 by .5 in., which on a basis of 1,000 amps, per sq. in. cross section 
 would have a capacity of about 25 amps., to large bars 1 by 3 ins, 
 or larger. 
 
 In ordering bus bar copper, 6 ft. is considered the standard length 
 for strips thinner than .09375 in. ; 12 ft. for all other. 
 
 The following prices are based on such standards, and the price 
 of 15 cts. per lb. for bar copper base. For orders of less than 
 10 lbs. the price for bus bars is 33 cts. per lb., with a differential 
 for finished bus bars of 2.5 cts. per lb. for each cent increase or 
 decrease, above or below the 15 ct. base price. 
 
 In orders of from 10 to 50. lbs. the price of bus bar is 27.5 cts. 
 per lb. with a 2.25 ct, differential for each cent variation in price 
 of base copper. 
 
 Bus Bar Aluminum. The average price of stranded aluminum 
 wire f. o. b. factory for the three years ending June 30, 1915, 
 was 25.7 cents, to which should be added 5 cents for installing, 
 giving a price in place of 30.8 cents. 
 
 Aluminum Wire. Average price per pound of bare aluminum 
 cable f. o. b. factor for 3 year period immediately preceding the 
 war was 26 cents per pound. The price for weatherproof cable 
 was 20 cents. 
 
 Average Price of Ingot Copper. These prices of Lake copper 
 from 1885 to 1898 inclusive and electrolytic copper from 1899 to 
 1914 inclusive, are quoted from Mineral Industry. 
 
 TABLE XXXIX. AVERAGE PRICE OF INGOT COPPER 
 
 One-year 8-yr. 16-yr. 
 
 Year average average average 
 
 1885 11.12 
 
 1886 11.00 
 
 1887 11.25 
 
 1888 16.66 13.00 
 
8-yr. 
 
 16-yr. 
 
 average 
 
 average 
 
 12.94 
 
 
 12.76 
 
 .... 
 
 12.70 
 
 
 11.87 
 
 12.63 
 
 11.67 
 
 12.84 
 
 11.20 
 
 12.98 
 
 11.58 
 
 13.10 
 
 12.26 
 
 12.86 
 
 12.93 
 
 12.98 
 
 13.19 
 
 13.20 
 
 13.50 
 
 13.65 
 
 13.75 
 
 13.75 
 
 14.28 
 
 13.89 
 
 15.19 
 
 14.09 
 
 15.61 
 
 14.18 
 
 15.23 
 
 14.54 
 
 14.84 
 
 14.78 
 
 14.98 
 
 14.88 
 
 14.87 
 
 
 15.32 
 
 
 15.28 
 
 
 14.57 
 
 .... 
 
 854 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 One-year 
 
 Year average 
 
 1889 13.75 
 
 1890 15.75 
 
 1891 12.87 
 
 1892 11.30 
 
 1893 10.78 
 
 1894 9.56 
 
 1895 10.76 
 
 1896 10.88 
 
 1897 11.29 
 
 1898 12.03 
 
 1899 16.67 
 
 1900 16.18 
 
 1901 16.11 
 
 1902 11.63 
 
 1903 13.24 
 
 1904 12.82 
 
 1905 15.59 
 
 1906 19.28 
 
 1907 » 20.00 
 
 1908 13.21 
 
 1909 12.88 
 
 1910 12.74 
 
 1911 12.38 
 
 1912 15.34 
 
 1913 15.27 
 
 1914 13.60 
 
 TABLE XL. COST OF CHOKE COILS FOR CIRCUITS 
 
 Capacity, amp. "Weight, lb. Price 
 
 10 4 $ 1.80 
 
 20 4 2.40 
 
 30 4 2.88 
 
 40 4 3.35 
 
 50 9.25 4.00 
 
 100 9.25 4.25 
 
 125 9.25 4.50 
 
 175 16.25 5.00 
 
 225 , 16.25 5.25 
 
 260 , 16.25 5.50 
 
 50 8.5 4.95 
 
 125 8.5 5.50 
 
 160 11.0 5.75 
 
 200 11.5 5.95 
 
 250 , 12.25 6.05 
 
 325 15.5 6.60 
 
 400 18,75 9.35 
 
 500 21.25 13.25 
 
 600 33.75 14.85 
 
 800 37.75 17.60 
 
 1000 48.75 24.75 
 
 1200 65.5 27.50 
 
 1500 72. 33.55 
 
 1600 89.75 37.40 
 
 2000 102. 52.80 
 
 TABLE XLI. COST OF MOTOR-DRIVEN EXCITERS 
 
 Price 
 Size, kw. Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory 
 
 1800 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 2.5 630 $ 220 
 
 5 1,130 365 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 855 
 
 Size, kw. 
 
 7 5 
 
 Weight, lb. 
 1,480 
 
 Price 
 f.o.b. factory 
 460 
 
 10 
 
 1,800 
 
 535 
 
 15 
 
 . , 2 350 
 
 675 
 
 20 
 
 2,850 
 
 800 
 
 25 
 
 3,300 
 
 900 
 
 50 
 
 , 6 950 
 
 1,650 
 
 2.5 
 
 1200 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 930 
 
 $ 310 
 460 
 
 5 
 
 1 480 
 
 7 5 
 
 1,940 
 
 575 
 
 10 
 
 2,350 
 
 675 
 
 15 
 
 3 050 
 
 850 
 
 20 
 
 3.700 
 
 990 
 
 25 
 
 4,300 
 
 1,120 
 
 50 
 
 6 850 
 
 1,650 
 
 % 900 
 1,120 
 
 10 
 
 720 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 3,300 
 
 15 
 
 4,300 
 
 20 
 
 5,200 
 
 1,325 
 
 25 
 
 6,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 50 . . 
 
 9,600 
 
 2 100 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 12,300 
 
 15,000 
 
 2,450 
 2,700 
 
 TABLE XLII. COST OF MOTOR-GENERATOR SETS 
 
 1200 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 Price 
 Size, kw. Weig-ht, lb. f.o.b. factory 
 
 100 11,000 $2,000 
 
 125 13,000 2,300 
 
 150 14.500 2.550 
 
 200 17,500 3,050 
 
 720 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 200 25,000 $4,200 
 
 250 29,500 4,900 
 
 300 33,400 5,500 
 
 350 37,000 6,000 
 
 400 40,800 6,500 
 
 450 44,200 7,000 
 
 500 47,500 7,400 
 
 500 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 200 32,500 $5,300 
 
 250 38,000 6,100 
 
 300 43,000 6,800 
 
 350 48,000 7,500 
 
 400 52.500 . 8,200 
 
 450 57,000 8.800 
 
 500 61,500 9,400 
 
 600 69,500 10,500 
 
 700 77,500 11,500 
 
 800 85,000 12.500 
 
 900 92,000 13,500 
 
 1,000 100,000 14,400 
 
 360 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 1,000 125,000 $17,800 
 
 1,250 145,000 20,400 
 
 1,500 163,000 22,800 
 
856 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Weights and Costs of Generators and Turbo-Generators. Tables 
 XLIII and XLIV give weights and prices averaged from a mass of 
 data which we have accumulated in our appraisal work. The 
 prices and weights include the cost and weight of the necessary- 
 exciter. There is a variation of about 25% both greater and less 
 than the average in weights and prices of machines of intermediate 
 sizes and a variation of about 35% both greater and less for ma- 
 chines of the smaller and larger sizes listed. 
 
 In general, belt-driven machines weigh and cost more than the 
 direct-connected engine, or water-wheel-driven type. 
 
 We have given the prices and weights for different sizes of alter- 
 nators for various revolutions per minute without specifying the 
 electrical characteristics, as it appears that the latter are of minor 
 importance in determining the cost as compared with the speed. 
 
 TABLE XLIII. COST OF DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS 
 
 Price 
 Size, kw. Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory 
 
 100 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 300 74,000 $8,900 
 
 350 80,000 9,700 
 
 400 84,000 10,300 
 
 450 89,000 11,000 
 
 500 91,000 11,500 
 
 750 98,000 13,300 
 
 1,000 111,000 14,500 
 
 300 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 5 1,830 $350 
 
 7.5 2,450 445 
 
 10 3,000 520 
 
 15 4,050 660 
 
 20 5,000 785 
 
 25 5,850 900 
 
 50 9,700 1,400 
 
 75 13,000 1,840 
 
 100 . . . 16,000 2,200 
 
 150 21,500 2,875 -- 
 
 200 28,300 3,450 
 
 250 31,000 4,000 
 
 300 35,500 4,500 
 
 350 40,000 5,000 
 
 400 44,000 5,450 
 
 450 48,000 5,850 
 
 500 51,500 6,250 
 
 500 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 1 400 115 
 
 2 650 160 
 
 3 860 195 
 
 4 1,060 230 
 
 5 1,250 260 
 
 7.5 1.700 325 
 
 10 2,100 390 
 
 15 2,800 495 
 
 20 3,450 580 
 
 25 4,050 750 
 
 50 6,600 1,000 
 
 75 9,000 1,310 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 857 
 
 ize, kw. 
 
 Weight, lb. 
 
 Price 
 f.o.b. factory 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 11,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 18,300 
 
 21,500 
 
 1,600 
 
 2,100 
 
 2,500 - 
 
 2,860 
 
 3,250 
 
 3,600 
 
 3,900 
 
 4,200 
 
 4.500 
 
 300 
 
 350 
 
 400 
 
 24,500 - 
 
 , 27,400 
 
 , 30,300 
 
 450 
 
 500 
 
 33,000 
 
 35,500 
 
 
 1200 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 5... 
 
 245 
 
 360 
 
 470 
 
 570 
 
 670 
 
 . . . . 890 
 
 $76 
 105 
 128 
 145 
 162 
 200 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,480 
 
 , 1,820 
 
 235 
 295 
 350 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 2,140 
 
 3,540 
 
 4,750 
 
 5,850 
 
 1800 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 400 
 600 
 760 
 900 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 5 
 
 210 
 
 285 
 
 360 
 
 435 
 
 500 
 
 635 
 
 $65 
 90 
 105 
 120 
 135 
 160 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 820 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,350 
 
 190 
 235 
 275 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 1,580 
 
 2,640 
 
 315 
 
 470 
 
 75 
 
 3,500 
 
 600 
 
 100 
 
 4,400 
 
 710 
 
 TABLE XLIV. COST OF AI^TERNATING CURRENT 
 GENERATORS 
 
 Price 
 Size, kw. Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory- 
 
 ISO REV. PER MIN. 
 
 500 54,500 $8,500 
 
 750 72,000 10,400 
 
 1,000 87,000 14,000 
 
 1,500 124,000 18,600 
 
 2,000 140,000 23,000 
 
 2.500 163,000 26,800 
 
 3,000 182,000 30,500 
 
 3,500 203,000 34,000 
 
 4,000 222,000 37,500 
 
 4.500 240,000 41,000 
 
 5,000 260,000 44,000 
 
 360 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 500 30,000 $4,600 
 
 750 40,000 6,200 
 
 1,000 48,000 7,500 
 
 1,500 63,000 10.000 
 
858 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Size, kw. Weight, lb. 
 
 2,000 77,000 
 
 2,500 89,000 
 
 3,000 102,000 
 
 4,000 122,000 
 
 5,000 143,000 
 
 6,000 162,000 
 
 7,000 180,000 
 
 8,000 198,000 
 
 9,000 212,000 
 
 10,000 230,000 
 
 12,500 265,000 
 
 500 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 100 13,000 
 
 250 18,500 
 
 500 25,000 
 
 750 32,000 
 
 1,000 38,500 
 
 1.500 51.000 
 
 2,000 62,000 
 
 2,500 72.000 
 
 3,000 81.000 
 
 4,000 99.000 
 
 5,000 114.000 
 
 6,000 130,000 
 
 7.000 144,000 
 
 8,000 158,000 
 
 9.000 170.000 
 
 10,000 182,500 
 
 800 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 100 10,800 
 
 150 12,600 
 
 200 14.000 
 
 250 15.300 
 
 300 16,400 
 
 400 18,300 
 
 500 20,500 
 
 750 24,300 
 
 1,000 28,300 
 
 1250 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 100 9,200 
 
 150 10,400 
 
 200 11,900 
 
 250 13,000 
 
 300 13,900 
 
 400 15,400 
 
 500 16,900 
 
 750 20,000 
 
 1,000 22,500 
 
 Price 
 f.o.b. factory 
 12,300 
 14,400 
 16,300 
 20.100 
 23.500 
 26,600 
 30.000 
 33,000 
 36.000 
 38.500 
 45,000 
 
 $2,230 
 
 2,900 
 
 3,800 
 
 4,850 
 
 6,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 9,800 
 
 11,500 
 
 13,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 18,700 
 
 21,200 
 
 23,700 
 
 26.000 
 
 28,300 
 
 30,500 
 
 $2,000 
 2,200 
 2.360 
 2,510 
 2,650 
 2,900 
 3,110 
 3.680 
 4,300 
 
 $1,800 
 1,940 
 2.110 
 2,220 
 2,340 
 2,520 
 2,700 
 3,100 
 3.440 
 
 TABLE XLV. 
 
 COST OF CONDENSING STEAM TURBO- 
 GENERATORS 
 
 OPERATING AT 750 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 Size, kw. lb. (approx. ) 
 
 5,000 355,000 
 
 7.500 450,000 
 
 10.000 530,000 
 
 12,500 600.000 
 
 15,000 675,000 
 
 * Price 
 f.o.b. factory 
 $84,000 
 109,000 
 130,000 
 150,000 
 168,000 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 859 
 
 OPERATING AT 1000' REV. PER MIN. 
 
 Shipping- weight 
 
 Size, kw. lb. ( approx. ) 
 
 17,500 740,000 
 
 20,000 800,000 
 
 1,000 118,000 
 
 1,500 150,000 
 
 2,000 175,000 
 
 2,500 200,000 
 
 3,000 222,000 
 
 3,500 244,000 
 
 4,000 263,000 
 
 4,500 282,000 
 
 5,000 300,000 
 
 7,500 380,000 
 
 10,000 450,000 
 
 12,500 510,000 
 
 15,000 570,000 
 
 OPERATING AT 1500 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 250 49,000 
 
 500 64,000 
 
 750 79,000 
 
 1,000 92,000 
 
 1,500 118,000 
 
 2,000 139,000 
 
 2,500 158,000 
 
 3,000 175,000 
 
 3,500 194,000 
 
 4,000 208,000 
 
 4,500 222,000 
 
 5,000 236,000 
 
 7,500 300,000 
 
 10,000 355,000 
 
 12,500 405,000 
 
 15,000 450,000 
 
 OPERATING AT 2400 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 1,000 72,000 
 
 1,500 89,000 
 
 2,000 105,000 
 
 2,500 120,000 
 
 3,000 134,000 
 
 3,500 145,000 
 
 4,000 157,000 
 
 4,500 168,000 
 
 5,000 179,000 
 
 OPERATING AT 3600 REV. PER MIN. 
 
 250 36,000 
 
 500 48,000 
 
 750 52,500 
 
 1,000 59,000 
 
 1,500 72,000 
 
 2,000 84,000 
 
 2,500 95,000 
 
 3,000 105,000 
 
 Price does not include condenser. 
 
 * Price 
 f.o.b. factory 
 
 185,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 $25,700 
 
 33,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 46.000 
 
 51,000 
 
 56,500 
 
 61,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 91,000 
 
 109,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 $11,400 
 14,000 
 17,100 
 20,100 
 25,700 
 30.800 
 35,000 
 40,000 
 43,500 
 47,500 
 51,000 
 55,000 
 70,000 
 84,000 
 97,000 
 
 109.000 
 
 $15,500 
 19,500 
 23,000 
 26,400 
 29,500 
 32,500 
 35,000 
 38,000 
 40,800 
 
 $8,900 
 10,800 
 12,000 
 13,000 
 15,500 
 18,200 
 20,600 
 23,000 
 
 Cost of Generators. The following unit costs are from Bulletin 
 5, Office of the State Engineer, Salem, Oregon, and are based upon 
 estimates of several manufacturers of electrical machinery. 
 
860 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 COST OF 3-PHASE, 2300 VOLT, 60-CYCLE, HYDRAULlCALLr-DRl VEN 
 GENERATORS 
 
 Cost, per kw. 
 Head, ft. output 
 
 Under 40 $8.00 
 
 40 to 80 7.00 
 
 80 to 120 6.00 
 
 120 . 5.00 
 
 Exciter turbines and exciters will cost about $0.80 per kw. output 
 of whole plant. 
 
 Switchboard and accessories, cables, etc., per kw. output of the 
 whole plant will cost about $2.25, 
 
 Transformers, oil insulated and water cooled, 2,300 to 60,000 
 volts will cost about $4 per kw. output, whole plant. 
 
 Turbo -Generators. The following was abstracted from The Iso- 
 lated Plant, October, 1909. 
 
 APPROXIMATE] COSTS OF TURBINE SETS, INCLUDING 
 DYNAMOS 
 
 NON -CONDENSING 
 
 kw. Speed Price, f.o.b shop 
 
 50 2500-3000 $1900 to $2000 
 
 75 1650-2500 2600— 2800 
 
 100 „ 1650-2500 3300— 3400 
 
 150 1650-2000 4500— 4700 
 
 300 1250-1800 9000 
 
 CONDENSING 
 
 75 $3000 
 
 300 9500 
 
 Generators, Electric. A. A. Potter (Power. December 30, 1913) 
 gives the following formulae of costs in dollars. 
 
 Direct current (voltage 110-250), belted, up to 7 kw. (1400 to 2300 
 rev. per min.) 21.1 + 28.5 x (kw.) 
 
 Direct current (voltage 110-250), belted, 10 kw. to 300 kw. (600 
 to 1400 rev. per min.) 10 X (kw.) — 9. 
 
 Direct-connected up to 300 kw. (100 to 350 rev. per min.). 313.3 
 -f- 10 93 X (kw.) 
 
 Direct-connected 300 to 1000 kw. (moderate speed 12.08 X (kw.) 
 — 383. 
 
 Alternating-current, belted, up to 300 k.v.a. (600 to 1800 rev. per 
 min.) 81 -+- 9.723 x (k.v.a.) 
 
 Direct -connected, up to 300 k.v.a. (200 to 300 rev. per min.) 375 
 + 7.477 X (k.v.a.) 
 
 Direct -connected, 250 to 2500 k.v.a. (100 to 250 rev. per min.) 
 2413 -f 469 X (k.v.a) 
 
 Instruments. The following prices of instruments are net. f.o.b. 
 factory, prior to the war. 
 
 AMMETERS 
 
 Round Pattern Switchboard Type Ammeter, for direct current, 
 especially designed for .switchboards on which an illuminated dial 
 type is not desired. These instruments weigh about 15 Ib.s. apiece, 
 with shipping weight of 22 lbs. and may be obtained in sizes rang- 
 ing from to 1 amperes to 0-2500 amperes, with scale values of 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 861 
 
 0.01 for the smallest size to 20 for the largest. The cost of these 
 Instruments varies from $25.00 for the smallest instrument to 
 $45.00 for the 2500 ampere size, there being an increase of from 
 $.50 to $3.00 for each 100 ampere increase in range of instrument. 
 
 Note. Ammeters are also made in considerably cheaper types 
 to meet a demand for thoroughly serviceable and durable switch- 
 board instruments, but where accuracy is not essential, and a low- 
 price is of great importance. Such instruments cost from $12.00 
 to $18.00 for sizes ranging from 1 to 500 amperes. 
 
 Extra Large Illuminated Dial Instruments for Direct Current, for 
 indicating the total output of large central stations, and for use 
 on switchboards, controlling unusually large currents. 
 
 Model A — Length of scale, 28 in.; length of pointer, 12 in. 
 Model B — Length of scale, 38 in.; length of pointer, 18 in. 
 
 These models are often found very desirable in connection with 
 electro-chemical work, as their indications can be read with ease 
 and accuracy at a considerable distance. 
 
 Range in amperes Price, Model A Price, Model B 
 
 1,000 $135 $165 
 
 1.500 140 170 
 
 2,000 143 174 
 
 2.500 145 176 
 
 3,000 146 178 
 
 3.500 150 181 
 
 4,000 155 190 
 
 4,500 160 192 
 
 5.000 167 200 
 
 6,000 175 205 
 
 7,000 180 212 
 
 8,000 195 225 
 
 10,000 207 238 
 
 Illuminated Dial Station Ammeters, with shunts for direct current. 
 
 
 Value of 
 
 Price of 
 
 
 Range in 
 
 scale division 
 
 instrument 
 
 Price of 
 
 amperes 
 
 in amperes 
 
 with shunt 
 
 shunt alone 
 
 200- 300 
 
 2 
 
 $72 
 
 $3 
 
 400- 750 
 
 5 
 
 73- 75 
 
 3- 6 
 
 1000- 1.500 
 
 10 
 
 76- 82 
 
 7-13 
 
 2000- 3,500 
 
 20 
 
 85- 9 2 
 
 17-23 
 
 4000 
 
 30 
 
 96 
 
 27 
 
 4500 
 
 40 
 
 103 
 
 33 
 
 5000-- 7.000 
 
 50 
 
 110-123 
 
 40-54 
 
 8000-10,000 
 
 100 
 
 136-150 
 
 68-81 
 
 VOLTMETERS 
 
 Round Pattern Switchboard Tyj)e D. C. Voltmeters, designed for 
 switchboards on which an illuminated dial type is not desired, in 
 capacities ranging from 0-3 to 0-750 volts with value of each scale 
 division varying from 0.02 to 5 volts, cost from $25.00 for the 
 smaller sizes to $35 00 for the larger sizes, with a variation in 
 price of about $1.00 to $2.00 for each 100 volt increase in size of 
 voltmeter. 
 
862 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The weight of these instruments is 15 lbs. witli a shipping weight 
 of 22 lbs. 
 
 Note. Voltmeters are also made in considerably cheaper types 
 to meet a demand for serviceable and durable switchboard instru- 
 ments, but where extreme accui^acy is not essential, and a low 
 price is of great importance. Such instruments cost from $12.00 to 
 $18.00 for sizes ranging from 75 to 750 volts. 
 
 Extra Large Illuminated Dial Voltmeters for Direct Current. 
 For description see similar type under ammeters. 
 
 Range in volts Price, Model A Price, Model B 
 
 125 $120 $158 
 
 150 125 158 
 
 250 130 162 
 
 300 130 162 
 
 600 135 167 
 
 750 140 171 
 
 Illuminated Dial Station Voltmeters, for direct current. 
 
 Value of each scale 
 
 Volts division in volts Price 
 
 125- 150 1 $68 
 
 180- 300 2 69- 71 
 
 600- 750 5 72- 73 
 
 1000- 1.500 10 90-100 
 
 2000- 2,500 20 108-117 
 
 3000- 3,500 25 121-135 
 
 4000- 5,000 50 144-162 
 
 6000- 6,500 50 175-185 
 
 7000- 7,500 50 190-198 
 
 8000-10,000 100 210-250 
 
 Recording Milli-voltmeters and Voltmeters for d.c. circuits are 
 regularly made in two styles ; one using a frictionless ink recording 
 device and the other a patented smoked chart upon which a record 
 is made by a needle coming in contact with the surface. 
 
 By the use of these instruments a continuous record is obtained, 
 but due to the delicacy of the instruments and the extremely small 
 potentials at which the millivoltmeters operate it is necessary to 
 eliminate all friction between the tip of the pointer or recording 
 arm and the surface of the chart to obtain an accurate record. In 
 these instruments this is accomplished by bringing the recording 
 arm into contact with the moving surface of the chart only periodi- 
 cally, and between contacts it is left free to take its new position 
 without friction. Standard instruments, except those in which the 
 revolution of the chart is made in one hour's time, are equipped 
 with 10-second vibrators ; special vibrators may be obtained, how- 
 ever, recording every half second if required. 
 
 The price of these instruments varies from $99 to $108 for in- 
 struments using the smoked chart; $99 being the price for standard 
 instruments making 12 and 24 hr. records; $108 is the price for 
 standard instruments making 1 hr. record. These instruments may 
 regularly be obtained for recording from -4-0-4 millivolts in 24 
 hours up to capacities of 495-770 volts, and from -5-0-5 millivolts 
 in 1 hour up to 375-675 volts. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 863 
 
 Instruments using the frictionless recording device cost about 
 $9 more each than those using the smoked charts. 
 
 SYNCHROSCOPES 
 
 Synchroscopes for determining whether a.c. generators are run- 
 ning with the same frequency and are in phase, made for 100 to 
 125 volts and any commercial frequency up to 150 cycles, cost about 
 $60 each. 
 
 WATTMETERS 
 
 Polyphase Wattmeters, with characteristics similar to the single 
 phase type for 100 to 150 volts and from 5 to 50 amperes with a 
 scale reading from 1 kw. to 15 kws. cost $65 ; for 100 amperes, 
 from 20 kws. to 30 kws. the cost is $70. 
 
 For 200 to 300 volts and from 5 to 50 amperes, with a scale 
 reading from 2 kws. to 30 kws., the price Is $75 each ; for 100 
 amperes, with a scale reading from 80 kws. to 120 kws. the price 
 is $75 each. 
 
 For 400 to 600 volts and from 5 to 50 amperes, with a scale read- 
 ing from 4 kws. to 60 kws., the price is $75 each ; for 100 amperes, 
 with a scale reading from 80 kws. to 120 kws. the price is $80 each. 
 
 For 600 to 750 volts and from 5 to 50 ampere.s, with a scale read- 
 ing from 5 kws. to 75 kws., the price is $80 each; and for 100 
 amperes, with a scale reading from 100 kws. to 150 kws. the price 
 is $85 each. 
 
 Wattmeters for Single Phase A.C. or D.C. Circuits are back 
 connected and designed for mounting upon switchboards. Meters 
 for a voltage over 300 have external resistance boxes ; for ranges 
 above 750 volts potential transformers are used ; for current ranges 
 above 100 amperes, current transformers must be used. For use 
 with current transformers the 5 -ampere range instrument is recom- 
 mended. 
 
 This type of wattmeter for voltages of from 100 to 150, and for 
 an amperage of from 1 to 50, with the scale recording from 150 
 watts to 7.5 kws. cost $45 each; for 100 to 150 volts at 100 
 amperes, with scale reading from 10 to 15 kws.^ — $50 each. 
 
 For 200 to 300 volts and from 1 to 50 amperes, with a scale 
 reading from 300 watts to 15 kws. the cost is $50 each. For 200 
 to 300 volts at 100 amperes, with a scale reading from 20 to 30 
 kws. the cost is $55 each. 
 
 For 400 to 600 volts and from 1 to 50 amperes, with a scale read- 
 ing from 600 watts to 30 kws. these wattmeters cost $55 each. 
 
 For 4 00 to 600 volts and 100 amperes, with a scale reading from 
 40 to 60 kws., the cost is $60 each. 
 
 For 600 to 750 volts and from 1 to 50 amperes, with a scale 
 reading from 750 watts to 40 kws., the price is $60 each. 
 
 For 600 to 750 volts and- 100 amperes, with a scale reading from 
 50 to 75 kws., the price is $70 each. 
 
 Recording Wattmeters may be obtained for either d.c. or a.c. 
 circuits: 12, 8 and 6-in. charts for a.c, and 12 and 8-in. charts 
 for d.c. 
 
864 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 These are designed to record electrical energy consumed during 
 periods of from 1 hour to 7 days, and in quantities from a fraction 
 of a kilowatt to many thousand kilowatts. 
 
 D.C. Recording Wattmeters, 12~Inch Charts are made in sizes to 
 record from to 90 kws. in 24 hrs. up to to 2500 kws. in 12 hrs. 
 
 Volts 
 600 to 750 
 500 to 750 
 240 to 750 
 120 to 750 
 250 to 500 
 250 to 750 
 500 
 250 
 
 -Capacity- 
 
 Amperes 
 120 to 150 
 180 to 300 
 400 to 600 
 800 to 1200 
 2.000 to 2400 
 2,000 to 4000 
 5.000 
 10.000 
 
 Price 
 $87 
 96 
 105 
 114 
 123 
 132 
 240 
 330 
 
 Prices of DC. recording wattmeters, 8-inch charts, follow : 
 
 Volts 
 5--750 
 5-500 
 125-750 
 125-750 
 125-750 
 125-750 
 110-250 
 250-500 
 
 -Capacity- 
 
 Amperes 
 8- 80 
 75- 150 
 200- 400 
 600 
 
 800-1200 
 2000-2500 
 3.000-4.000 
 5.000 
 
 125-250 10,000 
 
 Range of chart 
 
 0-2.5 to 0- 50 
 
 0- 15 to 0- 90 
 
 0- 25 to 0- 300 
 
 0- 75 to 0- 450 
 
 0-100 toO- 900 
 
 0-200 to 0-1500 
 
 0- 350 to 0-1000 
 
 0-1250 to 0-2500 
 
 0-1250 to 2500 
 
 Price 
 
 $69 
 
 78 
 
 87 
 
 95 
 
 105 
 
 114 
 
 $123 
 
 230 
 
 320 
 
 Recording Wattmeters with 8-in. charts for 3-wire, d c. system. 
 The following instruments have chart ranges of from 0-200 to 
 0-300 kws. 
 
 , 
 
 
 Capacity- 
 
 
 
 Volts 
 
 
 
 Amperes 
 
 650- 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 120- 
 
 150 
 
 250 
 
 ■500 
 
 
 
 200-- 
 
 400 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 800- 
 
 1200 
 
 Price 
 
 $155 
 
 173 
 
 190 
 
 210 
 
 Recording Wattmeters for Alternating Current are normally 
 wound for 125 volts and 5 amperes. However, by using a proper 
 combination of series and potential transformers, these meters can 
 be used on cunents of practically every amperage and voltage and 
 will record from 0-0 5 to 0-30.000 kw.s. 
 
 For a.c. single phase and 2-phase, meters for 12-in. charts cost 
 $88; for 8-in. charts $79; for 6-in. charts $61. 
 
 Balanced 3-phase meters for 12-in. charts cost $102; for 8-in. 
 charts $92. and for 6-in. charts $74. 
 
 With unbalanced 3-phase circuits a special instrument has been 
 developed which sells for $126. 
 
 WATTHOTTR METERS 
 
 Watthonr Meters for Alternating Current, 2- 
 40 and 60 cycle. 
 
 and 3-phase, 25, 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 8G5 
 
 Size in Net price Net price Net price 
 
 amperes 100 to 100 200 to 220 400 to 440 
 
 volts volts volts 
 
 3 : $19.00 $21.00 $30 00 . 
 
 5 21.00 23.00 31.50 
 
 10 24.00 26.00 34.50 
 
 15 26.00 28.00 36.00 
 
 20 27.00 29.25 37.00 
 
 25 28.00 30.50 38.00 
 
 30 29.00 31.50 39.00 
 
 40 31.00 33.00 40.50 
 
 50 32.00 35.00 41.50 
 
 75 34.00 37.00 44.00 
 
 100 36.00 39 00 45.00 
 
 150 39.00 42.00 48.00 
 
 200 41.00 45.00 50.00 
 
 Watthour Meiers for Alternating Current, Single Pliase 40 to 133 
 Cycle. 
 
 Net price Net price Net price 
 
 Size, 100 to 110 200 to 220 400 to 440 
 
 amperes volts volts volts 
 
 5 $6.50 $7.25 $7.75 
 
 10 7.50 8.25 8.75 
 
 15 8.75 9.50 10.00 
 
 20 10.00 10.50 11.50 
 
 25 ... 11.00 11.50 12.75 
 
 30 11.75 12.50 13,50 
 
 40 13.00 14.00 15.00 
 
 50 . = 14.50 15.00 16.50 
 
 75 16.50 17.50 19.00 
 
 100 18.00 19.00 21.00 
 
 150 20.00 21.50 23.00 
 
 200 21.00 22.50 24.00 
 
 300 21.00 23.00 25 00 
 
 PANELS 
 
 Panels for large size installations are usually made to order. The 
 following costs of standard switchboard material may be found 
 useful in estimating the cost of special panels. 
 
 Angle Iron Frames made of 2 by 1.5 by .1875 in angle iron, given 
 one coat of black paint and provided with angle iron support or 
 cross connecting piece so that switchboard does not have to depend 
 on bolts for support, cost about as follows. 
 
 Size of panels Length of legs, in. 
 
 18 by 48 24 
 
 18 by 54 , 24 
 
 18 by 60 18 
 
 18 by 66 18 
 
 18 by 72 12 
 
 24 by 48 24 
 
 24 by 54 24 
 
 24 by 60 18 
 
 24 by 66 18 
 
 24 by 72 •. . 12 
 
 36 by 48 24 
 
 36 by 5 4 24 
 
 36 by 60 18 
 
 36 by 66 18 
 
 36 by 72 12 
 
 42 by 48 24 
 
 Price 
 $3.50 
 3.80 
 3.80 
 3.95 
 3.95 
 3.70 
 3.90 
 3.90 
 4.05 
 4.10 
 3.90 
 4 05 
 4 10 
 4.1.0 
 4 10 
 4 00 
 
866 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Size of panels Length of legs, in. Price 
 
 42 by 54 24 4.15 
 
 42 by 60 „ 18 4.00 
 
 42 by 66 ... 18 4.15 
 
 42 by 72 12 4.15 
 
 Channel Iron Base for these frames, 4 in., price per ft $0 50 
 
 " *' " " " " 6 in., price per ft 1.10 
 
 Wall Braces for supporting and stiffening panels. These are of 
 two types. One made of .5 in. pipe with flange ; and the other is 
 made of .5 in pipe with adjustable turn buckle. 
 
 Prices are as follows: 
 
 Iron pipe braces Adjustable braces 
 
 (with flange) (with turn buckles) 
 
 12 in $ .40 
 
 18 in 60 $1.60 
 
 24 in 75 1.80 
 
 36 in 1.10 ^ 2.00 
 
 48 in 1.45 2 25 
 
 60 in 2.95 
 
 Switchboard Bolts for holding marble or slate to frame. These 
 bolts are complete with washers, bolts and polished copper capnut. 
 
 Thickness of 
 panel, in. Size, in. Price 
 
 11/4 V2by2 $0.30 
 
 11/2 1/2 by 2 14 0.35 
 
 2 ¥2 by 2% 0.35 
 
 Pilot Brackets including base sockets, 2.25 in. shade holders, 
 wired and ready for mounting on switchboard. (Price does not 
 include the shade.) 
 
 One light $1 25 
 
 Two light 2.20 
 
 % pear porcelain green shade 0.50 
 
 ^2 pear tin shade 0.25 
 
 Slate for Electrical Use. Black slate, oil finish. 
 
 Thickness, 
 in. 
 
 1 to 3 
 sq. ft. 
 
 3 to 8 
 sq. ft. 
 
 8 to 1 2 
 sq. ft. 
 
 12 to 15 
 sq. ft. 
 
 15 to 20 
 sq. ft. 
 
 20 to 25 
 sq. ft. 
 
 1 or less 
 
 1 to 1 V4 incl. . . 
 1 V4 to 1 1/2 incl, 
 IVa to 2 incl.. . 
 
 $.60 
 .62 
 .68 
 .79 
 
 $.64 
 .67 
 .71 
 .84 
 
 $.77 
 .79 
 .85 
 .99 
 
 $ 80 
 85 
 .89 
 
 1.01 
 
 $.88 
 .92 
 .97 
 
 1.06 
 
 $.93 
 
 .98 
 
 1 04 
 
 1.10 
 
 The cost of beveling the edges is : % in beveled, 1 ct. per lin, ft.; 
 
 % in. beveled, 2 ct. per lin. ft. ; V2 in. beveled, 3 ct. per lin. ft. 
 
 Marble for Electrical Use. 
 
 Prices per sq. ft. 
 
 Pink or gray Blue White 
 
 Thickness, in. Tennessee Vermont Italian 
 
 Vs or less $113 $1.35 $1.45 
 
 1 or less 1.24 1.45 1.55 
 
 1^ or less 1.45 1.75 1.85 
 
 11/2 or less 1.75 2.05 2.28 
 
 2 or less 2.38 2.48 3.00 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 Prices for drilling holes and counter-sinking. 
 
 867 
 
 Diam., in. Per hole 
 
 14 $0.10 
 
 1/2 0.14 
 
 % to 1 0.20 
 
 1 14 to 1 1/2 0.25 
 
 2 0.30 
 
 Slate Panels. 
 Size , Net price per sq. ft. v 
 
 in. Black 
 
 width Thickness Bevel Black marine Black enamel oil finish 
 
 16 1 14 $0.95-1.00 $1.70-1.80 $1.20-1.35 
 
 12-32 1% % 1.00-1.10 1.80-1.90 1.55-1.80 
 
 12-32 IV2. % 1.10-1.15 1.85-2.05 1.80-2.05 
 
 16-48 2 ^2 1.25-1.75 2.00-2.60 2.15-3.20 
 
 Marhle Panels 
 
 Black marine Veined marble White Italian 
 
 16 1 % $1.30-1.50 $1.80-2.10 $2.45-2.85 
 
 12-32 1% % 1.35-1.45 1.85-2.20 2.60-3.00 
 
 12-32 1% % 1.65-1.70 2.15-2.40 • 3.20-3.55 
 
 16-48 2 % 1.80-2,15 2.40-2.75 4.30-4.95 
 
 Both slate and marbU panels are made in sizes varying from 1 
 to 5 ft. in length ; in general the larger slabs costing more per sq. ft. 
 The weight of marble panels is 13.7 lbs. per sq. ft. per inch of 
 thickness and the weight of slate panels is 14.6 lbs. per sq. ft. per 
 inch of thickness. 
 
 Alternating-Current Switchboard Costs. Mr. J Wilmore in the 
 Electrical World, August 21, 1915, gives the following data. 
 
 TYPES OP ALTERNATING CURRENT SWITCHBOARD PANELS 
 
 Switchboard Panels with the numbers designating Instruments and 
 
 other equipment. 
 
 1 — Alter, current ammeter. 
 
 2 — Indicating wattmeter. 
 
 3 — Field ammeter. 
 
 4 — Alter, current voltmeter. 
 
 5 — Power-factor meter. 
 
 6 — Synchronizing Lamp. 
 
 7 — Voltmeter receptacle. 
 
 8 — Synchronizing receptacle. 
 
 9 — Rheostat. 
 
 10 — Field discharge switch. 
 
 11 — Ground detector lamp. 
 
 12 — Ground detector receptacle. 
 
 13 — Ground detector push. 
 
 14 — Single-phase relay. 
 
 15 — Recording watt -hour meter 
 
 16 — Non-automatic oil switch. 
 
 17 — Auto, oil circuit breaker. 
 
 18 — Card holder. 
 
 19 — Ammeter receptacle. 
 
 20 — -Graphic record, wattmeter. 
 
 21 — Direct-current ammeter, 
 
 22 — Knife Switch. 
 
 23 — Direct-current voltmeter. 
 
 24 — Carbon bieaker (.shunt trip 
 
 and reverse current relay.) 
 
 The self-contained switchboard, as distinguished from the re- 
 mote-control and electric operated types, has been found in prac- 
 tice to be the most desirable for three phase alternating-current 
 plants of a rating up to and not exceeding 3000 kva. and a poten- 
 
868 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tial of 2500 volts or less. Modern power-station practice has prac- 
 tically standardized the switchboard equipment, and the large 
 nianufacturers now carry a line of various panels which are known 
 as " standard units." By choosing- from these stock units, a com- 
 plete switchboard for any installation may be easily made up. 
 
 Panel C 
 
 P'anel 
 J. — 
 
 ®0 
 ^r 7..O0O* 
 
 8 "^MoGoie 
 
 r- 
 
 k— 3'Phaie J 
 6e/7. Panek 
 
 CD 
 
 B 
 
 14 14 
 
 DD 
 
 ©0(2) 
 
 ®(D 
 
 EO 
 
 = 18 
 Qn 
 
 ' \ 
 • I 
 
 to 
 
 f 8- 
 I 12 
 
 \0 Ot 19 
 
 ^® 
 
 
 5 : 
 
 
 
 o-U 
 
 Q- 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 
 22 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 -•• 3'PhQSC ••—>!< ••• 
 
 Peeder Panels 
 
 ^ O 19 
 
 O 
 
 -'5v 
 
 ®®® 
 
 ®®o. 
 
 10 
 
 3- /%a5c 
 6ey7. Panels 
 
 I J 
 
 o o 
 
 ® ® 
 
 ^4 
 
 Exciter H 
 
 Panels 
 
 Types of alternating-current switchboard panels. 
 
 These panels are usually made of black marine or natural 
 black slate, mounted on angle iron or pipe frames, being 90 in. 
 high with two or three sections of slate covering the entire frame 
 from top to floor, or 76 ins, high for the .smaller and lighter panels, 
 with one section of slate 48 ins. high and the exposed frame extend- 
 ing to the floor. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 869 
 
 The 90-in. panels in 2 sections are made up of .either a 65-in. 
 top section and 25-in. lower section or 62-in. and 28-in. sections 
 respectively. A 90-in. panel in 3 sections has a 20-in. upper sec- 
 tion, 45-in. middle and 25-in. lower section, or 28-in., 31-in. and 
 31-in. sections respectively. These sections are 24 ins., 20 ins, or 
 16 ins. wide. The thickness of slate is usually 1.5 ins. 
 
 The cost data in Table XL.VI, which may be used for estimating 
 or for purposes of power comparison, are based on figures recently 
 published in a series of papers by C. H. Sanderson and H. A. 
 Travers. The values given are for three-phase, 2200-volt panels 
 completely wired, corresponding to the ratings listed in the tabula- 
 tions covering the various switchboard panels shown in the illustra- 
 tions. These panels represent a form of standard units and are 
 typical of self-contained switchboards. 
 
 TABLE XLVI. 
 
 RATINGS AND COST OP SWITCHBOARD 
 PANELS 
 
 Type 
 Panel (Fig. 15) 
 
 Generator A 
 
 Generator B 
 
 Generator C 
 
 Generator D 
 
 Generator E 
 
 Feeder F 
 
 Feeder G 
 
 Exciter H 
 
 Exciter I 
 
 Exciter J 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Rating, kva. 
 
 cost per panel 
 
 100- 200 
 
 $34 
 
 250- 800 
 
 44 
 
 1000-1200 
 
 52 
 
 10- 200 
 
 63 
 
 25- 500 
 
 122 
 
 600-1200 
 
 139 
 
 1400-2250 
 
 213 
 
 25- 500 
 
 175 
 
 600- 800 
 
 180 
 
 1000-1200 
 
 192 
 
 1400-2250 
 
 265 
 
 25- 500 
 
 210 
 
 600- 800 
 
 215 
 
 1000-1200 
 
 228 
 
 1400-2250 
 
 300 
 
 25-1200 
 
 170 
 
 1400-2250 
 
 215 
 
 25-1200 
 
 400 
 
 1400-2000 
 
 445 
 
 4- 25 
 
 75 
 
 35- 45 
 
 81 
 
 55- 75 
 
 90 
 
 150- 200 
 
 129 
 
 4- 25 
 
 116 
 
 35- 45 
 
 125 
 
 55- 75 
 
 139 
 
 150- 200 
 
 195 
 
 4- 25 
 
 110 
 
 35- 45 
 
 121 
 
 55- 75 
 
 135 
 
 150- 200 
 
 210 
 
 FEEDER REGULATORS 
 Automatic, 2300 V. 10% B. of B. 
 
 
 
 
 Net price 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shipping 
 
 f.o.b. 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Total 
 
 Amperes 
 
 Kva. 
 
 weight, lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 installing 
 
 cost 
 
 50 
 
 11.50 
 
 1,600 
 
 $519 
 
 $20 
 
 $539 
 
 75 
 
 17.25 
 
 1,800 
 
 585 
 
 20 
 
 605 
 
 100 
 
 23.00 
 
 2,025 
 
 632 
 
 22 
 
 654 
 
 150 
 
 34.50 
 
 3,0C0 
 
 756 
 
 31 
 
 787. 
 
870 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 
 Net price 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shipping 
 
 f.o.b. 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Total 
 
 Amperes 
 
 Kva. 
 
 weight, lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 installing 
 
 cost 
 
 200 
 
 46.00 
 
 3.600 
 
 940 
 
 36 
 
 976. 
 
 250 
 
 57.50 
 
 4,250 
 
 1,068 
 
 43 
 
 1,111 
 
 300 
 
 69.00 
 
 5.000 
 
 1,282 
 
 50 
 
 1,332 
 
 500 
 
 345.00* 
 
 
 3,400 
 
 200 
 
 3,600 
 
 
 500.00 
 
 18.000 
 
 4,850 
 
 250 
 
 5,100 
 
 25 
 
 5.75 
 
 785 
 
 $216 
 
 $10 
 
 $226 
 
 50 
 
 11.50 
 
 897 
 
 247 
 
 10 
 
 257 
 
 75 
 
 17.25 
 
 910 
 
 270 
 
 10 
 
 280 
 
 100 
 
 23.00 
 
 1,150 
 
 296 
 
 12 
 
 308 
 
 150 
 
 34.25 
 
 1,510 
 
 384 
 
 16 
 
 400 
 
 200 
 
 46.00 
 
 1,760 
 
 476 
 
 18 
 
 494 
 
 Automatic, 
 
 oil cooled, 
 
 single phase 2200 v. 10% B. of B. 
 
 
 100 
 
 22.0 
 
 2,500 
 
 $538 
 
 $25 
 
 $563 
 
 200 
 
 44.0 
 
 3,500 
 
 800 
 
 35 
 
 835 
 
 Automatic, 
 
 water cooled, two phase, 2300 v. 
 
 15% B. of B, 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 16.640 
 
 $6,400 
 
 $160 
 
 $6,560 
 
 Motor operated, 2300 
 
 V. 10% B. 
 
 of B. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 300 
 
 $144 
 
 $10 
 
 $154 
 
 . . . 
 
 3 
 
 52J0 
 
 185 
 
 10 
 
 195 
 
 
 6 
 
 900 
 
 302 
 
 12 
 
 314 
 
 *157o B. of B. hand operated 2300 V., 10% B. of B. 
 
 SHUNTS 
 
 Standard Switch Board Shunts, for all types of switchboard am- 
 meters. 
 
 Capacity, amperes, 
 
 fordo. Weight, lb. Price 
 
 25- 200 0.75- 1 $3 
 
 300- 500 1.25 3- 4 
 
 600- 800 1.5- 2 5-7 
 
 1,000-1,200 . 6.0- 6.75 7- 8 
 
 1,500 8.5 13 
 
 2,000 12 5 17 
 
 2,500 20.0 19 
 
 3,000-3,500 28.0-30 20-23 
 
 4.000 36.0 27 
 
 4.500 44.0 34 
 
 5,000 45.0 41 
 
 6,000 55.0 48 
 
 7,000 , 65.0 44 
 
 8,000 70.0 68 
 
 9,000 80.0 75 
 
 10,000 95.0 81 
 
 12,000 105.0 108 
 
 15,000 . 140.0 150 
 
 18,000 155.0 190 
 
 20,000 175.0 220 
 
 SWITCHES 
 
 Motor Starting Switches, plain finished ; front connection ; 
 mounted on oil slate bases. 
 
 Switches of this type are used with alternating current motors, 
 having excessive starting current and therefore requiring fuses on 
 switch to be temporarily cut out of circuit. The knife blades in 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 871 
 
 starting are held against a spring pressure bar which is powerful 
 enough to prevent the switch being left in the starting position. 
 After the motor has come up to speed the blades are reversed and 
 thrown to the fused end of the switch, in which position the fuses 
 are in circuit to protect the motor. 
 
 DOUBLE POLE 
 
 High Grade 
 Capacity, 
 
 amperes Price, each Shipping weight, lb. 
 
 30 $2.00 6 
 
 60 2.75 11 
 
 100 5.25 21 
 
 Punched Clip 
 
 30 1.85 5 
 
 60 2.40 11 
 
 100 .' 5.00 19 
 
 THREE POLE 
 
 30 2.75 8 
 
 60 3.65 16 
 
 100 7.00 23 
 
 Punched Clip 
 
 30 2.50 7 
 
 60 3.30 15 
 
 100 6.60 21 
 
 FOUR POLE 
 
 30 3.65 10 
 
 60 4.90 20 
 
 100 9.90 28 
 
 Punched Clip 
 
 30 3.35 * 9 
 
 60 4.20 18 
 
 100 8.80 26 
 
 Note. The above prices and weights are for switches for not 
 over 250 volts. Switches for 500 volts, high grade type cost about 
 30% more for the 30 ampere size, 20% more for the 60 ampere 
 and about 10% more for the 100 ampere size; and weigh about 
 2 lbs. per switch more than for 250 volts. 
 
 Switches of the punched clip type for 500 volts cost about 20% 
 more in the 30 and 60 ampere sizes; and about 10% more in the 
 100 ampere sizes. These switches also weigh about 2 lbs. more per 
 switch than those listed. 
 
 Disconnecting switches and thin installation front connected, sin- 
 gle pole, single throw : 
 
 Net price. 
 Type Volts Amperes f.o.b. factory 
 
 M.B 2,500 300 $4.95 
 
 M.B 2,500 600 7.65 
 
 M.B 2,500 800 10.35 
 
 M.B 2,500 1,200 13.50 
 
872 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ^ 
 z 
 
 row 
 rice 
 
 
 fff<M -^MOJ 
 
 
 eoifl 
 
 •owe^i 
 
 
 0>r-l 
 
 •«CO5 00 
 
 
 OS CM CO 
 
 
 
 t-C5 -C-O^o 
 
 
 .-ICO 
 
 •,-.eou5 
 
 
 1— C^ 
 
 •rHCClO 
 
 
 eottoo 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 *^ • T-t 
 
 
 i-<tH 
 
 
 
 T-llH 
 
 •rHT-iiH 
 
 
 iHl-ir-< 
 
 
 £ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 6>» 
 
 
 
 6» 
 
 
 
 6«^ 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 
 
 Oo -ooo 
 
 
 oo 
 
 •OOo 
 
 
 CO 
 
 • ooo 
 
 
 OOO 
 
 
 
 ^ tH • (M o s^ 
 
 
 ■*C5i 
 
 •^«r-C 
 
 
 UiO 
 
 •C-IOtH 
 
 '~- 
 
 t-io«o 
 
 
 O i 
 
 
 "•"fi •M-<»«-^ 
 
 
 TJ<TJ< 
 
 •^^lO 
 
 i 
 
 rfia 
 
 • rfiaio 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 •^icixs 
 
 
 H I 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-H : 
 
 5 '^ 
 
 
 2-*<0 35^-*< 
 
 £ 
 
 t- lo 00 ?o as ifl 
 
 c 
 
 inci»- 
 
 ■iM-h-CM 
 
 7^ 
 
 esCMOj 
 
 
 
 
 "lOO>C0U5«O 
 
 t-oseoc^ooo 
 
 fr- 
 
 oeorf OOOi'-l 
 
 
 O c-1 CO 
 
 
 
 «©• 
 
 «©■ rl iH 
 
 1 
 
 6^rHT- 
 
 H 1-1 
 
 iHrlTH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 4) X jj 
 
 
 Sooooo 
 
 i 
 
 oooooo 
 
 ooocoo 
 
 
 COO 
 
 
 W^M 
 
 
 JTiotcoousw 
 
 -l-> 
 
 O CM CO «C CI CO 
 
 
 .-1 CO •*■ r~ CO Tf 
 
 c 
 
 CM 00 OS 
 
 
 
 «^ N (M tH(M iM 
 
 c 
 <v 
 
 CO CO CO C5 M CO 
 
 ^ 
 fc 
 
 3 
 
 CO CO CO c<j CO CO 
 
 1 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 '^ 8 
 
 
 0»0 .OJlOt- 
 
 
 ooo 
 
 •oowo 
 
 «5-* 
 
 ■*1-I«C> 
 
 
 I>»OiH 
 
 
 
 
 «Ot- -lot-oo 
 
 Q 
 
 o,-i 
 
 • o>.-^co 
 
 O 
 
 CCM 
 
 •OCMCO 
 
 2^ 
 
 CM-<*<«C> 
 
 
 
 €«• 
 
 
 iHrH 
 
 r-i.rl 
 
 
 
 •iHrirW 
 
 t. 
 
 iHrHrH 
 
 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 .««■ 
 
 
 ««• 
 
 
 3 
 
 6«- 
 
 
 J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2L^^ 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 < i 
 
 X! C > 
 
 
 OO -ooo 
 
 ■—1 
 
 oo 
 
 •ooo 
 
 w 
 
 CO 
 
 OCO 
 
 0) 
 
 OOO 
 
 
 
 
 00 ,H • t^ ^ CI 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 00 1-1 
 
 •«Cr-ie-J 
 
 rs 
 
 as CM 
 
 r- 5-1 CO 
 
 u 
 
 e-1 1- 00 
 
 
 
 e<ieo •c^^sec 
 
 co-<*< 
 
 •CO-^'* 
 
 o 
 
 CO-* 
 
 CO ■<*•■* 
 
 ,c 
 
 -«*■■*•* 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 
 
 "O 
 
 
 
 O £ 
 
 
 
 CO C-l CO "N -H iH 
 
 
 rH CO «0 Oi O '5^ 
 
 'E 
 
 oc c CO C-1 1- ai 
 
 C 
 
 CMCOtD 
 
 
 fo "i 
 
 
 CO ■* t- CO Tt< lo 
 
 t^OOr 
 
 H<r>oc<3> 
 
 o 
 
 c- a: c<i c- oc OS 
 
 OQ 
 
 Or^eq 
 
 
 
 
 e^ 
 
 €«■ rl 
 
 ee- T-i 
 
 o 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 
 
 4/ >i^ 
 
 11- 
 
 
 oooooo 
 
 1 
 
 oooooo 
 
 ,c 
 
 cccoco 
 
 
 OOo 
 
 
 u 
 
 £ 
 c 
 
 I>«50«>C^0 
 
 Ift t^ 00 CO t^ 00 
 
 1 
 
 <X! oc a> rf oc as 
 
 'C 
 
 OSCO.^ 
 
 
 E^ 
 
 1-1 -H C^J T-i r-- <M 
 
 
 C] ri C-1 5-1 <M S'J 
 
 c-ic-is- 
 
 c-1 c-1 CM 
 
 ■1^ 
 
 CM CO CO 
 
 
 1— i 
 
 Viyv. 
 
 
 K 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 (D 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 > g 
 
 6^ 
 
 r-00 
 r-00 
 
 a?- 
 
 •t-ooos 
 
 02 
 
 . . 
 
 
 £ 
 
 . • . 
 
 
 d 
 c 
 
 1.^ 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 
 4) 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 i 
 
 ■ . . 
 
 
 e . 
 
 * J^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 oo .ooo 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 • ooo 
 
 c3 
 
 . • 
 
 
 
 • • . 
 
 
 
 5-1 CM . <M CJ CC 
 
 IZ 
 
 eo«D 
 coco 
 
 •CM«Ct- 
 
 • eo«co 
 
 O 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 • • . 
 
 
 
 > 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 t--^ir5t"*o 
 ■M CO lo M eo ■* 
 
 6«- 
 
 o 
 
 ,HC5i- 
 
 ■-T-IO0<» 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 A ; 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 ? 
 
 o t 
 
 d 
 
 lO Irt CXj iij Hi >^ 
 
 T3 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 e ^ 
 
 £ 
 
 €/^ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 c 
 ^ 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 aJ 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 oooooo 
 
 p 
 s 
 
 oooooo 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 s 
 
 <; 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 ' f 
 
 
 <P t- Ci lO 00 Oi 
 
 
 c-1 ""r U5 O -* lO 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 rH T-l r-l T-H ,-( T-l 
 OOOOOO 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 c-1 c-i 5-1 e-1 c-1 c-1 
 
 oooooo 
 
 ooo coo 
 
 i 
 
 OOo 
 
 1 
 
 > . 
 
 ? o 
 3 ^ 
 
 oooooo 
 
 
 OOOOOO 
 
 
 coo 
 
 coo 
 
 CCo 
 
 o 
 
 J : 
 
 
 «o W O U-i u-s Irt 
 
 
 ipt£:(c,iaiaui 
 
 
 ?c « <c irt ut la 
 
 iffuius 
 
 e, 
 
 X, 'I 
 
 
 ^Vt-" 
 
 
 
 M-C-t^ 
 
 
 
 r^C-t- 
 
 
 ^t-t- 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 
 
 oooooo 
 
 
 oooooo 
 
 
 o c c c. c o 
 
 
 CCO 
 
 • 
 
 a 
 
 
 oooooo 
 
 
 OOOOOO 
 
 
 cccccc 
 
 
 ooo 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 cou5oop]eo»o 
 
 
 CO U5 00 5-1 CO »0 
 
 
 CO lO OC CM CO U5 
 
 
 CMCOU5 
 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 873 
 
 Type Volts 
 
 M.B 2,500 
 
 M.B 2,500 
 
 M.B 2,500 
 
 M.B 2,500 
 
 M.B 7,500 
 
 M.B 7,500 
 
 M.B 7,500 
 
 M.B 7,500 
 
 M.B 7,500 
 
 S.B. • 7,500 
 
 S.B 7,500 
 
 S.B 7,500 
 
 S.B 7,500 
 
 S.B 7,500 
 
 M.B 15,000 
 
 M.B 1 5,000 
 
 S.B 15,000 
 
 S.B 15,000 
 
 M.B 22,000 
 
 S.B 22,000 
 
 S.B 35,000 
 
 S.B 45,000 
 
 S.B 70,000 
 
 S.B 70,000 
 
 Safety catches — all sizes 
 
 M.B. — Marble base, 
 S.B.— Steel base. 
 
 Amperes 
 1,500 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 1,200 
 2,000 
 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 1,200 
 2,000 
 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 100 
 
 300 
 
 Net price, 
 
 f.o.b. factory 
 
 25.20 
 
 39.60 
 
 b4.90 
 
 6.75 
 
 9.00 
 11.25 
 15.75 
 23.80 
 67.50 
 
 7.20 
 
 9.45 
 13.95 
 21.10 
 62.10 
 11.25 
 14.40 
 
 9.00 
 11.70 
 16.20 
 13.50 
 18.00 
 26.10 
 34.20 
 67.50 
 
 5.40 
 
 The estimated cost installing- these switches is as follows : 
 
 Cost of Cost of 
 
 Volts installing Volts installing 
 
 2500-15000 %1 45000 4 
 
 22000 2 70000 5 
 
 35000 3 
 
 * Oil switches for panel mounting with switch on panel pipe 5-in. 
 back of panel cost about $2 to $3 more and weigh about 10 lb. more 
 for the non-automatic type and about 80 lb. more for the automatic 
 type. 
 
 t Double pole switches have 1 transformer. Triple and four-pole 
 switches have 2 transformers, these are also furnished with 3 
 transformers /.. at a cf)st of about $15 more and weigh about 30 
 lb. more than tho.se listed. 
 
 Switches for the higher voltages are also made for " remote con- 
 trol," with switch on framework, at a cost of from about $10 to $15 
 more for the single throw and from about $25 to $30 more for the 
 double throw switches. 
 
 Distributing Transformers. The prices and weights given are 
 for transformers for sing-le phase 60 cycle currents. Three phase 
 transformers for same voltages and cycles cost from about 15 to 
 25% more than those listed and 25 cycle about 30-4 0% more. 
 
 There is considerable variation in the weights and prices of the 
 same transformers among different manufacturers, also in the prices 
 quoted by any one of the manufacturers depending upon the quan- 
 tity ord«^red. Tn general we have found variations of 20% both 
 more and less than the prices and weights given. 
 
874: MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XLVIII. 
 
 OIL SWITCHES, AUTOMATIC, ELECTRIC 
 OPERATED 
 
 
 
 Double pole 
 
 Triple pole 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Sing-le throw 
 
 Single throw 
 
 Am- 
 
 Volt- 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cost 
 
 peres 
 
 age 
 
 Switch Complete 
 only installed 
 
 1 — Cell 
 
 Switch 
 only 
 
 mounted 
 
 Comple 
 installe 
 
 300 
 
 2.500 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 7,500 
 
 .... .... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 200 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 15,000 
 
 $190 $245 
 
 .... 
 
 . . . . 
 
 500 
 
 
 .... .... 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 800 
 
 .... 
 
 2 — Cell 
 
 mounted 
 
 I 
 
 300 
 
 15,000 
 
 $204 $270 
 
 
 .... 
 
 500 
 
 15,000 
 
 211 277 
 3 — Cell 
 
 mountec 
 
 
 300 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 $694 
 
 $774 
 
 500 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 714 
 
 794 
 
 800 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 866 
 
 951 
 
 1,200 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 932 
 
 1,027 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 1,428 
 1,853 
 
 1,536 
 1,973 
 
 3,000 
 
 2.500 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 1,920 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,300 
 
 
 860 
 
 970 
 
 300 
 
 4,500 
 
 
 273 
 
 349 
 
 500 
 
 4,500 
 
 
 281 
 
 357 
 
 300 
 
 7,500 
 
 '.'.'.'. '.'.'.'. 
 
 278 
 
 354 
 
 500 
 
 7,500 
 
 
 280 
 
 356 
 
 800 
 
 7.500 
 
 '.'.'.'. '...'. 
 
 340 
 
 421 
 
 1,200 
 
 7,500 
 
 
 370 
 
 456 
 
 2,500 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,610 
 
 
 
 3 — Cell 
 
 mounted 
 
 
 
 Triple pole — 
 
 Single throw 
 
 
 —Capacity s 
 
 
 Switch 
 
 
 Amperes 
 
 Voltage 
 
 
 only 
 
 100 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 $278 
 
 300 
 
 
 15.000 
 
 
 278 
 
 300 
 
 
 15,000 (H3.) 
 
 
 694 
 
 500 
 
 
 15,000 (H3.) 
 
 
 714 
 
 600 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 706 
 
 800 
 
 
 15,000 (H3.) 
 
 
 866 
 
 845 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 15,000 (H3.) 
 
 
 932 
 1,532 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 15,000 (H3.) 
 
 
 1,428 
 
 600 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 1,030 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 1,166 
 
 300 
 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 400 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 4 — Cell 
 
 mounted 
 
 1,100 
 
 
 
 Four pole — 
 
 Single Throw 
 
 300 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 $948 
 
 600 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 973 
 
 800 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 1,178 
 
 Four pole 
 Single throw 
 
 Cost 
 JwitchComplete 
 only installed 
 
 $210 
 
 $271 
 
 250 
 
 315 
 
 210 
 
 271 
 
 240 
 
 300 
 
 250 
 
 315 
 
 250 
 
 311 
 
 250 
 
 310 
 
 260 
 
 326 
 
 260 
 
 325 
 
 Complete 
 
 installed 
 
 $354 
 
 359 
 
 777 
 
 797 
 
 787 
 
 954 
 
 931 
 
 1,030 
 
 1,636 
 
 1;538 
 
 1,129 
 1,270 
 1.091 
 1,230 
 
 $1,049 
 1,074 
 1.284 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 875 
 -Capacity x Switch Complete 
 
 Amperes Voltage only installed 
 
 1,200 2,500 1,260 1,371 
 
 2,000 2,500 1,936 2,061 
 
 300 15,000 (H3.) 948 1,053 
 
 500 15,000 (H3.) 973 1,078 
 
 800 15,000 (H3.) 1,178 1,288 
 
 (K.12) 332 423 
 
 300 15.000 (K.4) 332 428 
 
 FLOOR MOUNTED 
 
 Triple pole — Single throw 
 
 300 22,000 614 644 
 
 300 45,000 678 718 
 
 150 1,703 1,778 
 
 300 55,000 1,166 1,226 
 
 150 70,000 1,166 1,226 
 
 150 70,000 1,703 1,778 
 
 150 70,000 1,001 1,051 
 
 DISTRIBUTING TRANSFORMERS 
 
 Single phase, 60 cycle; high tension side — 1100, 1200, 2200 and 
 2400 volts. Low tension side — 110,120,220 and 240 volts. 
 
 Shipping weight. 
 
 Size, kw. lb. (approx.) Net price 
 
 1 145 $22 
 
 1.5 160 27 
 
 2 175 32 
 
 2.5 210 36 
 
 3 235 40 
 
 4 285 47 
 
 5 340 55 
 
 7.5 475 74 
 
 10 600 91 
 
 15 820 123 
 
 20 1,020 152 
 
 25 1,220 180 
 
 30 1,400 205 
 
 40 1,770 255 
 
 50 2,050 300 
 
 75 2,600 390 
 
 100 2,950 465 
 
 150 3,400 575 
 
 200 3,650 650 
 
 Single phase, 60 cycle; high tension side — 6,600 volts; low ten- 
 sion side — 110-220-440 volts. 
 
 Shipping weight. 
 
 Size, kw. lb. (approx.) Net price 
 
 1 280 $47 
 
 1.5 290 50 
 
 2 300 54 
 
 2.5 310 58 
 
 3 330 62 
 
 4 375 70 
 
 5 425 78 
 
 7.5 550 100 
 
 10 650 122 
 
 15 830 160 
 
 20 1,020 195 
 
 25 1,220 225 
 
 30 1,400 254 
 
876 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Shipping weight, 
 
 Size, kw. lb. (approx.) Net price 
 
 40 1,800 310 
 
 50 2,100 360 
 
 75 2,800 470 
 
 100 3,400 550 
 
 150 , 4,250 660 
 
 200 4,800 730 
 
 Capacity, 200 volt-amperes. Secondary voltage, 100. 
 
 Primary 
 
 voltage 25 cycles 60 cycles 
 
 at 100 V. Shipping, Net Shipping, Net 
 
 secondary weight, lb. price weight, lb. price 
 
 Dry type 
 
 200 53 $17 42 $15 
 
 400 55 18 42 15 
 
 500 55 18 45 16 
 
 600 62 19 53 16 
 
 1,000 62 20 53 18 
 
 2,000 64 24 53 20 
 
 3,000 85 27 58 23 
 
 4,000 93 30 75 25 
 
 5,000 100 32 80 28 
 
 6,000 115 37 85 31 
 
 Oil insulated type, 
 
 200 77 $24 77 $21 
 
 400 80 25 77 22 
 
 500 80 26 77 23 
 
 600 80 26 77 24 
 
 1,000 88 28 77 25 
 
 2,000 110 2» 77 26 
 
 3,000 115 31 85 28 
 
 4,000 130 51 120 41 
 
 5,000 145 53 125 43 
 
 6,000 150 56 130 45 
 
 10,000 210 75 190 64 
 
 12,000 250 88 215 73 
 
 15,000 320 143 270 126 
 
 20,000 350 167 285 156 
 
 25,000 385 226 350 184 
 
 30,000 410 240 380 204 
 
 40,000 900 478 815 378 
 
 50,000 925 - 536 835 402 
 
 60,000 925 616 835 431 
 
 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS 
 
 Current Transformers are used for one or both of two purposes, 
 namely, to reduce the currents to be measured to the relatively 
 small values suitable for measuring instruments, relays and circuit 
 breaker trip coils, or to insulate meter circuits from high line 
 voltage. They are used wherever the current exceeds 5 amperes 
 and should be used wherever the line voltage exceeds 1000. 
 
 The following table shows the range in weights and costs of 
 several types and makes of Current Transformers. As a general 
 rule these transformers are made in the following sizes — 5, 10, 15,, 
 20, 25, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 600, 800,' 
 1,000 amperes primary and a close price and weight may be ob- 
 tained by interpolating. These transformers may be used on cir- 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
 
 877 
 
 cuits of all commercial frequencies. The current in the secondary- 
 winding- is 5 amperes in every case. 
 
 
 
 Dry Type. 
 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Primary 
 
 
 Approx. 
 
 wt. 
 
 
 voltage 
 
 amperes 
 
 
 boxed, 
 
 lb. 
 
 Price 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 5-500 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 $10-$13 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 5-800 
 
 
 24- 28 
 
 13- 19 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 5-800 
 
 
 48- 57 
 
 21- 31 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 5-1,000 
 
 
 44- 50 
 
 21- 34 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 5-800 
 
 
 82- 83 
 
 34- 44 
 
 17,000 
 
 
 5-600 
 
 
 51- 54 
 
 32- 41 
 
 24,000 
 
 
 5-500 
 
 
 142-146 
 
 45- 55 
 
 
 
 Oil Insulated 
 
 
 
 27,000 
 
 
 5/10-400/^00 
 
 
 460 
 
 
 $93 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 5-400 
 
 
 
 
 78-102 
 
 45,000 
 
 
 5/io_400/3oo 
 
 
 "540 
 
 
 125 
 
 47,000 
 
 
 5-400 
 
 
 
 
 192-213 
 
 70,000 
 
 
 %o --'o%oo 
 
 
 Xoeo 
 
 
 250 
 
 70,000 
 
 
 5-400 
 
 
 
 
 
 223-247 
 
 
 STATION AND SUB-STATION TRANSFORMERS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Net price 
 
 
 Weight (approx.) 
 
 High tension side voltages 
 
 Size 
 
 
 Case, coils 
 
 
 6300 
 
 - 20.000- 50.000- 
 
 inkw. 
 
 Oil 
 
 and iron 
 
 Total 
 
 20,000 50,000 100,000 
 
 100 
 
 3,500 
 
 5,300 
 
 8,800 
 
 $580 
 
 $850 
 
 $1,000 
 
 150 
 
 4,000 
 
 6,400 
 
 10,400 
 
 72C 
 
 1,04C 
 
 1,220 
 
 200 
 
 4,300 
 
 7,200 
 
 11,500 
 
 84(] 
 
 1,20C 
 
 1,400 
 
 250 
 
 4,600 
 
 8,000 
 
 12,600 
 
 94C 
 
 1,35C 
 
 1,580 
 
 300 
 
 4,900 
 
 8,700 
 
 13,600 
 
 1,040 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,730 
 
 350 
 
 5,200 
 
 9,300 
 
 14,500 
 
 1,13C 
 
 1,60C 
 
 1,870 
 
 400 
 
 5,400 
 
 10,000 
 
 15,400 
 
 1,20C 
 
 1,70C 
 
 2,000 
 
 500 
 
 5,800 
 
 11,000 
 
 16,800 
 
 1,38C 
 
 1,93C 
 
 2,230 
 
 750 
 
 6.800 
 
 13,000 
 
 19,800 
 
 1,700 
 
 2,370 
 
 2,730 
 
 1,000 
 
 7,300 
 
 15,000 
 
 22,300 
 
 2,00C 
 
 2,73C 
 
 3,150 
 
 1,500 
 
 8,400 
 
 17,800 
 
 26,200 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 3,850 
 
 2,000 
 
 9,200 
 
 20,300 
 
 29,500 
 
 
 . . . . 
 
 4,500 
 
 2,500 
 
 9,800 
 
 22,400 
 
 32,200 
 
 . . . 
 
 . 
 
 5,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 10,400 
 
 24,300 
 
 34,700 
 
 . 
 
 
 5,500 
 
 4,000 
 
 11,400 
 
 27,800 
 
 39,200 
 
 .... 
 
 
 6,300 
 
 5,000 
 
 12,300 
 
 30,700 
 
 43,000 
 
 . . . 
 
 . 
 
 7,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 33,500 
 
 46,500 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 7,700 
 
 7,000 
 
 13,800 
 
 36,000 
 
 49,800 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 8,400 
 
 8,000 
 
 14,300 
 
 38,000 
 
 52,300 
 
 .... 
 
 . . . . 
 
 9,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 
 . 
 
 9,500 
 
 10,000 
 
 15,400 
 
 42,000 
 
 57,400 
 
 
 
 10.000 
 
 Transformers. A. A. Potter (Power, Dec. 30, 1913) gives the fol- 
 lowing formulas of costs of transformers. 
 
 Type Capacitj^ 
 
 Air-cooled Sizes up to 3000 kva. 
 
 Oil-cooled Sizes up to 30 kva. 25 cycles 
 
 Oil -cooled Sizes up to 30 kva. 60 cycles 
 
 Oil-cooled Sizes 30 to 100 kva. 25 cycles 
 
 Oil-cooled Sizes 30 to 100 kva. 60 cycles 
 
 Water-cooled Sizes 100 to 1000 kva. 
 
 Water-cooled 1000 to 3000 kva. 
 
 Equation of cost 
 
 in dollars 
 
 439 + 1.467 X (kva.) 
 
 52.9 + 8.1 X (kva.) 
 
 26.2 + 6.25 X (kva.) 
 
 157 + 4.68 X (kva.) 
 
 119.5 + 3.57 X (kva.) 
 
 181. + 1.725 X (kva.) 
 
 805 -i- 1.099 X (kva.) 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 OVERPIEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND 
 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Chapter XX, Electric Railways, contains additional data on 
 overhead construction. 
 
 Cost of Wooden Poles. The cost of wood poles varies greatly 
 with market conditions and distance from the shipping point. By 
 far the largest number of poles is produced in the Northwest, 
 and unless freight rates are excessive, poles from this section will 
 usually compete in price with " local " poles. 
 
 The prices given in Table I are averages of pole costs from a 
 number of recent appraisals by the authors and indicate the relative 
 prices for different sizes of wood poles. 
 
 TABLE L COST OF WOOD POLES 
 
 ngth, 
 
 Diam., top, 
 
 Average price. 
 
 Average price, 
 
 ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 cedar poles 
 
 chestnut poles 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 $1.48 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2.62 
 
 $1.38 
 
 
 7 
 
 3.44 
 
 2.00 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 3.80 
 
 2.12 
 
 
 7 
 
 5.03 
 
 3.00 
 
 
 8 
 
 6.23 
 
 4.00 
 
 35 
 
 6 
 
 5.57 
 
 3.50 
 
 
 7 
 
 7.80 
 
 4.38 
 
 
 8 
 
 8.93 
 
 4.75 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 9.63 
 
 5.50 
 
 
 8 
 
 10.61 
 
 5.75 
 
 45 
 
 7 
 
 12.10 
 
 6.50 
 
 
 8 
 
 13.92 
 
 7.00 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 14.81 
 
 8.50 
 
 
 8 
 
 16.77 
 
 8.75 
 
 Table lA gives the average price of poles in Seattle, Wash., for 
 the years 1912 to 1915 inclusive, made up from prices quoted from 
 several of the largest dealers. 
 
 TABLE lA. AVERAGE PRICE OP CEDAR POLES IN 
 SEATTLE, WASH., FOR PERIOD 1912-1915 INCLUSIVE 
 
 Height, 
 
 Diam of 
 
 Average 
 
 ft. 
 
 top, ins. 
 
 price 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 $1.86 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 2.23 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 2.70 
 
 35 
 
 8 
 
 2.97 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 3.43 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 3.39 
 
 45 
 
 9 
 
 4.65 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 3.92 
 
 878 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 879 
 
 Height, 
 
 Diam of 
 
 Average 
 
 ft. 
 
 top, ins. 
 
 price 
 
 50 
 
 9 
 
 5.17 
 
 55 
 
 9 
 
 5.83 
 
 60 
 
 9 
 
 6.68 
 
 65 
 
 9 
 
 7.93 
 
 70 
 
 9 
 
 10.20 
 
 75 
 
 9 
 
 11.93 
 
 80 
 
 9 
 
 16.11 
 
 85 
 
 9 
 
 19.3r8 
 
 90 
 
 9 
 
 22.66 
 
 95 
 
 9 
 
 23.91 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 25.18 
 
 Weights of Chestnut and Cedar Poles. Fig. 1 shows the weights 
 of chestnut and cedar poles of various lengths and sections as 
 determined by actual measurement of a large number of poles 
 made in connection with recent appraisal work of the authors. 
 
 ZOff 300 400 500600 dOO IpOO fJSOO 2fiOO 
 
 Weight in Lbs. 
 
 Fig. 1. Weight of wood poles. 
 
 3fiOO 4jm 
 
 Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data, p. 952, has a table of cu. ft. 
 of wood per lin. ft. of poles of different dimensions. 
 
 Cedar Poles, Shipping Data. We have taken the data in Table 
 II from " American Telephone Practice," by Kempster B, Miller. 
 
 TABLE II. SHIPPING WEIGHT OF CEDAR POLES 
 
 
 
 IN SINGLE CARS 
 
 
 
 Diam. top, 
 
 Length, 
 
 
 , Weight 
 
 lbs. , 
 
 ins. 
 
 ft. 
 
 No. in load 
 
 Green 
 
 Seasoned 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 175 to 225 
 
 200 
 
 155 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 150 to 200 
 
 260 
 
 200 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 100 to 125 
 
 325 
 
 250 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 75 to 100 
 
 425 
 
 350 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 75 to 100 
 
 425 
 
 350 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 60 to 80 
 
 500 
 
 450 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 55 to 75 
 
 IN DOUBLE CARS 
 
 750 
 
 650 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 60 to . 75 
 
 1,075 
 
 850 
 
 7 
 
 45 
 
 50 to 65 
 
 1,150 
 
 1,000 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 40 to 50 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,250 
 
 7 
 
 55 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 1,875 
 
 1,650 
 
 - 7 
 
 60 
 
 25 to 35 
 
 2,300 
 
 2,000 
 
 7 
 
 65 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 2,800 
 
 2,500 
 
880 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Weight Saved by Seasoning Wood Poles. The following taken 
 from Circular 136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, is for 
 Arborvitse (White Cedar). Table III shows the weight per cent, 
 saved on poles cut at various times of the year and seasoned for 
 varying periods. Seasoning took place for the most part under 
 very favorable conditions. The ground was rather of a sandy soil 
 which held no moisture and the other conditions were such that 
 the sun's rays and the wind had free access to the poles. 
 
 TABLE III. PER CENT. OP FREIGHT WEIGHT SAVED BY 
 SEASONING POLES 
 
 Time sea- Spring Summer Autumn Winter 
 
 soned, days cut % cut % cut % cut % 
 
 30 13.2 11.0 
 
 60 15.7 16.5 
 
 90 16.3 18.0 ... 1.8 
 
 120 16.3 18.0 ... 19.6 
 
 150 16.3 18.0 0.9 25.1 
 
 180 16.3 18.0 20.2 27.5 
 
 210 16.3 18.0 25.5 29.2 
 
 240 16.3 18.7 28.0 
 
 270 16.3 22.6 28.9 
 
 300 16.3 25.4 
 
 330 18.5 26.9 
 
 360 23.2 28.1 
 
 390 24.5 
 
 420 25.4 
 
 Detail Cost of Preparing and Setting Wooden Poles. The follow- 
 ing data were determined by studies of the operations as conducted 
 in the state of Washington. 
 
 Unloading. A team and driver at $6 and a laborer at $2.50 per 
 8 hour day can unload from a car per day 300 25 ft., 200 30 ft., 
 160 35 ft.. 96 50 ft., or 60 70 ft. poles at a total cost of $8.50, aver- 
 aging 2.8 cts., 4.2 cts., 5.25 cts., 8.75 cts., and 14 cts. per pole 
 respectively. 
 
 Shaving. One man at $2.50 per 8 hr. day can shave 6 25 ft., 
 5 30 ft., 4 35 ft., 3 40 ft., 2 50 ft., or 1 70 ft. pole per day, averaging 
 40 cts., 48 cts., 60 cts., 80 cts., $1.20 and $2.40 per pole respectively. 
 
 Cutting Gains. Two men at $2.40 per 8 hr. day cutting an aver- 
 age of 1 gain can handle and gain 96 35 ft, 65 50 ft, 40 70 ft. 
 poles, averaging 5 cts., 7.39 cts. and 12 cts. respectively. In cutting 
 2 and 4 gains into 25 and 30 ft. poles respectively it was found 
 that one man could handle and gain 64 25 ft. poles and 32 35 ft. 
 poles, making an average cost per gain in poles of these sizes 
 of 1.9 cts. 
 
 Roofing. Two men at $2.40 per 8 hr. day can roof 125 25 ft., 
 100 30 to 35 ft. 64 40 to 50 ft., and 35 70 ft poles, averaging 
 3.84 cts., 4.8 cts.. 7.5 cts. and 13.7 cts. per pole respectively. 
 
 Hauling. It was found that, hauling against fairly steep grades, 
 the following average loads could be handled for a maximum num- 
 ber of trips as given. Three loads of seven 25 ft. poles, three loads 
 of four 35 ft. poles; 3 loads of two 50 ft. poles. The number of 
 poles carried per load and number of loads would, of course, vary 
 somewhat, depending upon the grades and length of haul. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 881 
 
 Digging Holes. One man at $2.50 pei' 8 hr. day can average in 
 gravel 3 6 ft. holes or 5 4.5 ft. holes per day, giving a unit cost of 
 83.3 cts. and 50 cts. respectively. 
 
 Actual costs for a large number of 35 ft. poles set in hard pan, 
 earth and gravel averaged $1.35 per pole. Holes for 50 ft. poles 
 cost about 24% more or $1.68 and holes for 70 ft. poles cost about 
 58% more or $2.14. 
 
 Erecting and Tamping. One lineman, 8 hrs. @ $.50 ($4.00) 
 and 12 helpers, 8 hours @ $.30 ($28.80) can set and tamp 35 35 ft. 
 poles, 24 50 ft. poles, or 10 70 ft. poles, at a cost of $32.80. 
 10% should be added for foreman's wages which are $3.28, the 
 total being $36.08, averaging $1.03, $1.50 and $3.61 respectively. 
 
 On another job there were five men at $2.50. a lineman at $3.75 
 and a foreman at $4.25 which constituted an ordinary pole setting 
 gang, making a daily cost of $20.50 per day. This outfit set twenty 
 30 to 35 ft. poles per day at a cost of about $0.95 and $1.03 re- 
 spectively. This same gang set 30 25 ft. poles at a cost of 70 cts. 
 per pole. 
 
 Painting. One man at $4.00 per 8 hr. day using 8 gals, of paint 
 at $.70 ($5.60) can paint 12 35 ft. poles at a total cost of $9.60 
 averaging $.80 per pole. Add 110% for 50 ft. poles and 213% 
 for 70 ft. poles. 25 ft. and 30 ft. poles cost about 51 to 57 cts. 
 per pole. 
 
 Boring and Placing Steps. One man at $2.40 per day can bore 
 for steps at a cost of 16 to 20 cts. per pole and same man can 
 place them for 12 to 16 cts. per pole. 
 
 Table IV gives a summary of the approximate detail cost of 
 different sizes of poles, the cost being taken from several large 
 jobs on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 TABLE IV. DETAIL. COS^^F WOOD POLES * 
 
 Length of pole, ft 25 30 35 40 50 70 
 
 Cost of pole $1.70 $2.70 $3.05 $4.00 $5.50 $9.80 
 
 Freight 35 .23 .26 50 3.00 
 
 Unloading 03 .05 .05 .06 .09 .14 
 
 Shaving 42 .48 .60 .80 1.20 2.40 
 
 Gaining 04 .05 .05 .08 .07 .12 
 
 Roofing 04 .05 .06 .08 .08 .14 
 
 Hauling to job 40 .84 .85 .93 1.68 3.36 
 
 Digging hole 50 1.33 1.33 .90 1.65 2.10 
 
 Setting and tamping 70 .95 1.03 1.13 1.50 3.61 
 
 Hauling surplus earth 02 .04 .02 .02 
 
 Total, unpainted and un- 
 
 stepped $4.18 $6.68 $7.30 $8.02 $12.29 $24.69 
 
 Painting . $0.51 $0.57 $0.80 $1.88 $2.50 
 
 Boring for steps 16 .... .20 
 
 Placing steps 12 .... .16 
 
 Galvanized steps 24 .... .36 
 
 Wood steps 10 10 
 
 Total painted and 
 
 stepped $5.31 $8.92 
 
 Total, painted only $4.69 $7.25 $8.10 $14.17 $27.19 
 
 * Add $1.50 for each pole set in pavement. 
 
882 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Digging Holes and Setting Poles. The following data 
 were taken from a recent appraisal in South California, Table V 
 gives the number of holes dug in dry earth by a gang of 1 fore- 
 man and 10 groundmen and the number of poles set per day by 
 the same gang with the addition of 1 lineman. The cost given 
 was determined by the following scale of wages : 
 
 1 Foreman at $4.20 |4.20 
 
 10 Groundmen at $2.25 22.50 
 
 Total cost per day for gang digging holes. ... $26.70 
 1 Lineman at $3.75 3.75 
 
 Total cost per day for gang setting poles. .. .$30.45 
 TABLE V. DIGGING HOLES AND SETTING POLES 
 
 DRY EARTH 
 
 Poles 40 ft. and over set with derrick. 
 
 , Digging holes ^ , Setting poles > 
 
 Total 
 Ht. of Number Cost Number Cost labor cost 
 pole, ft. per day per hole per day per pole per pole 
 
 in place 
 20 45 $0.59 38 $0.80 $1.39 
 
 25 45 0.59 31 0.98 1.57 
 
 30 36 0.74 26 1.17 1.91 
 
 35 36 0.74 23 1.32 2.06 
 
 40 32 0.83 29 1.05 1.88 
 
 45 29 0.92 25 1.22 2.14 
 
 50 25 1.07 22 1.38 2.45 
 
 55 21 1.27 19 1.60 2.87 
 
 60 18 1.48 14 2.18 3.66 
 
 65 14 1.91 9 3.38 5.29 
 
 70 11 2.43 8 3.81 6.24 
 
 75 9 2.97 7 4.35 7.32 
 
 80 8 3.34 6 5.08 8.42 
 
 85 7 3.82 5 6.09 9.91 
 
 90 6 4.45 4 7.62 12.07 
 
 OTHER SOILS 
 
 Additional cost digging holes and setting poles over dry earth: 
 
 iM-Qfor-ioi Maximum Minimum Average 
 
 i!a.d.\.*irid.i percent. percent. percent. 
 
 Hardpan 44.3 36. 40.0 
 
 Roc'r^^"^ ^^^^^1 } 116.5 104. 110. 
 
 Wet earth 72.5 68. 70. 
 
 Note. The above costs do not include any allowance for teaming. 
 
 Improved iVlethod of Stenciling Poles. The Telephone Review, 
 Dec, 1914, describes a method and equipment for stenciling poles 
 by which 200 poles may be shaved and stenciled per day. The 
 stenciling outfit consists of a short canvas apron equipped with 5 
 hooks and 2 pockets. Each hook carries 2 numerals and the 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 883 
 
 pockets carry a can of stencil paint, an extra can of paint and a 
 rag- Tlie method of holding the stencil has been simplified by 
 placing a hook on one end and a handle on the other. The old 
 and slower method was to strap or tack the stencil to the 
 pole. 
 
 As the stencil marking is placed at a height of about 5 ft, and 
 and the usual method is to carry the paint, brush, and stencil 
 plates in a basket which is set at the butt of the pole, it requires 
 for every pole stenciled 10 separate movements of 10 ft. each. 
 For an average day's work using a basket, these long moves 
 introduce about one mile of unnecessary motion. 
 
 Labor Costs of Pole- Line Construction. T^ouis W. Moxey, Jr., in 
 Electrical World. Dec. 18. 1915, gives the following data (Table VI) 
 showing the general range of labor costs for ordinary transmission 
 lines. The labor items vary considerably according to the number 
 of poles to be erected and the amount of wire to be strung. 
 
 TABLE VI. LABOR COST OF POLE-LINE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Description Cost 
 
 SHAVING POLES 
 
 25-ft. pole $0.60 — $1.20 
 
 .30-ft. pole 0.80— 1.60 
 
 3 5 -ft. pole 1.00— 2.00 
 
 40-ft. pole 1.20— 2.40 
 
 50-ft. pole .1.40— 2.80 
 
 ERECTING WOOD POLES 
 
 25-ft. pole 0.90— 2.70 
 
 30-ft. pole 1.20— 3.60 
 
 35-ft. pole 1.80— 5.40 
 
 40-ft. pole 2.70— 8.10 
 
 50-ft. pole 3.90 — 11.70 
 
 ERECTING IRON POLES 
 
 25-ft. pole 2.00— 8.00 
 
 30-ft. pole 3.00 — 12.00 
 
 35-ft. pole 5.00 — 20.00 
 
 40-ft. pole 8.00 — 32.00 
 
 50-ft. pole 12.00 — 48.00 
 
 DIGGING HOLES 
 
 25-ft. pole 0.60— 3.00 
 
 30-ft. pole 0.75— 3.75 
 
 35-ft. pole 0.90— 4.50 
 
 40-ft. pole 1.05— 5.25 
 
 50-ft. pole 1.20— 6.00 
 
 STEPPING POLES 
 
 25-ft. pole 0.50— 1.00 
 
 30-ft. pole 0.75— 1.50 
 
 Description 
 35-ft, pole 
 40-ft. pole 
 50-ft. pole 
 
 Cost 
 1.00— 2.00 
 1.25— 2.50 
 1.50— 3.00 
 
 GUYING POLES 
 
 25-ft. pole 3.00— 9.00 
 
 30-ft. pole 4.00 — 12.00 
 
 35-ft. pole 5.00 — 15.00 
 
 40-ft. pole 6.00 — 18.00 
 
 50-ft. pole 7.00 — 21.00 
 
 ERECTING CROSS-ARMS, BRACES, 
 PINS AND INSULATORS 
 
 $0.50 — $1.00 
 
 Z-pm cross-arm 
 3-pin cross-arm 
 4-pin cross-arm 
 6-pin cross-arm 
 8-pin cross-arm 
 
 STRINGING WIRE, 
 WEATHERPROOF, 
 
 No. 8 
 
 0.60— 1.20 
 
 0.70— 1.40 
 
 0.90— 1.80 
 
 1.10— 2.20 
 
 TRIPLE-BRAID, 
 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 00 
 000 
 
 No. 0000 
 
 ■ER 1000 
 $2.50 — 
 2.60 — 
 2.80 — 
 3.10 — 
 3.50 — 
 4.00 — 
 4.60 — 
 5.20 — 
 6.00 — 12.00 
 6 90 — 13.80 
 7.90 — 15.80 
 
 FT. 
 
 $5.00 
 5.20 
 5.60 
 6.20 
 7.00 
 8.00 
 9.20 
 
 10.40 
 
 Cost of Butt Treatment. The following prices from a bulletin 
 prepared by Page and Hill Co. were current in the .spring of 1916. 
 
 The height of treatment is about 1.5 ft. above the ground line of 
 poles set at the average depth. 
 
 The different types of treatment all require a seasoning of the 
 
5 $0.35 
 
 $0.45 
 
 6 0.40 
 
 0.55 
 
 6 0.70 
 
 0.90 
 
 7 0,85 
 
 1.10 
 
 7 1.00 
 
 1.25 
 
 7.5 1.05 
 
 1.35 
 
 7.5 1.20 
 
 1.50 
 
 RED CEDAR POLES 
 
 
 7.5 1.20 
 
 1.50 
 
 7.5 1.35 
 
 1.75 
 
 8 1.60 
 
 2.00 
 
 8 1.85 
 
 2.50 
 
 8 2.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 8.5 2.50 
 
 3.50 
 
 884 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE VII. COST OF BUTT TREATMENT 
 
 Height of 
 Length of Diam. of of treat- Cost of treatment 
 
 pole, ft. top, ins. ment, ft. AA A B 
 
 WHITE CEDAR POLES 
 
 20 5 
 
 25 5 
 
 6 6 0.70 0.90 $1 30 
 
 30 6 7 0,85 1.10 1.85 
 
 1.95 
 35 6 7.5 1.05 1.35 2.05 
 
 2.35 
 
 35 8 7.5 1.20 1.50 2.25 
 
 40 y 7.5 1.35 1.75 2.50 
 
 45 8 8 1.60 2.00 2.75 
 
 50 8 8 1.85 2.50 3.00 
 
 55 8 8 2.00 3.00 3.75 
 
 60 8 8.5 2.50 3.50 4.50 
 
 poles for a period of four months. In arriving at a seasoned month, 
 the calendar months are rated as follows : 
 
 Equivalent in Equivalent in 
 
 seasoning months seasoning months 
 
 January % July 1 
 
 February % August 1 
 
 March i/4 September 1 
 
 April Vz October % 
 
 May % November % 
 
 June 1 December % 
 
 " AA " and " A " treatments are identical except that in the " AA " 
 treatment creosote is used while in the " A " treatment carbolineum 
 is used. Both treatments are made in open tanks and are for a 
 period of 15 mins. if the temperature is below 70 degs. F. or more. 
 If the temperature is below 70 deg. F. the time of treatment is 
 increased proportionally. During the treatment the bath must be 
 maintained at a temperature of not less than 180 deg. F. nor more 
 than 230 deg. F. and must be heated to a temperature of 215 deg. F. 
 at least once in 4 hrs. 
 
 The " B " treatment is done in open tanks using an alternate hot 
 and cold bath of creosote. The hot bath, having a max. temper- 
 ature of 230 deg. F. and a min. temperature of 180 deg. F., must 
 be heated to 212 deg. F. at least once in every 4 hrs., is for a period 
 of 4 hrs. The cold bath, which must be below 112 deg. P., is then 
 used for a period of 2 hrs. 
 
 Cost of Creosoting Poles. R. A. Lundquist in Western Engineer- 
 ing. Jan., 1913, gives following table of costs and quantities of 
 creosote required for butt treatment of various kinds of poles. 
 
 Value of Treating Poles and Equipment. In a paper read before 
 the Minnesota Electrical Association, abstracted in Electrical World, 
 May 26. 1916. S. B. Hood of the Minneapolis General Electric Com- 
 pany said, that the average life of a pole which has had a good 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 885 
 
 
 Size of pole Amt. cresote 
 
 Cost 
 
 of 
 
 
 Top applied. 
 
 treatment c 
 
 
 diani., Length, lbs. per 
 
 Preserva- 
 
 Total 
 
 Species 
 
 ins. ft. pole 
 
 tive 
 
 cost 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 7 30 25 
 
 $0.30 
 
 $0.75 
 
 Northern white cedar 
 
 7 30 50 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.05 
 
 Western yellow pine a 
 
 8 40 37.5 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.35 
 
 Western yellow pine b 
 
 8 40 62.5 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.90 
 
 Western red cedar a . 
 
 8 40 39 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.35 
 
 Lodge pole pine ...... 
 
 7 35 35 
 
 0.80 
 
 1.25 
 
 a — 6 lbs. per cu. ft. 
 
 
 
 
 b — 10 lbs. per cu= ft. 
 
 
 
 c — Cost of operation $0.45 per pole. . 
 
 
 
 open-tank treatment with a high -distillate creosote oil will be 20 
 years, as compared with 8 to 10 years for untreated poles. As an 
 example of the economy of pole treatment, take a 35 ft. pole 
 costing when it is set in position untreated $10 and having a life 
 of 8 years. Compare this with a treated pole costing in position 
 about $11.50 and having at least 20 years of useful life. With 
 interest at 6%, the annual cost for the untreated pole is $1.85 and 
 for the treated pole $1.26, a decrease of nearly one-third in the 
 annual fixed charges. 
 
 If the life of the poles is increased, it is necessary to get an 
 equal life from the various pole fittings. In the case of hardware 
 this has been accomplished by using a zinc coating, the hot 
 galvanizing process having been proved the best. For cross-arms 
 an equal life can be obtained by open-tank impregnation similar 
 to that used for the pole butts. The life of the arm as well as its 
 strength can also be increased considerably by using one of the 
 several forms of metal pin which clamp around the arm. Where 
 the cost of these is not warranted metal pins with a small shank 
 may be used. The old-style wood pin, requiring the removal of a 
 large part of the arm to provide a sufficiently large hole, should 
 have no place in modern overhead construction. 
 
 For low-tension circuits, principally secondary work, where the 
 maximum voltage does not exceed 750 volts between wires, cross- 
 arm construction .should be abandoned entirely for galvanized-steel 
 racks or brackets. These co.st less than good cross-arms with their 
 fittings, and there is practically no limit to the useful life that can 
 be had from them. In addition, they make it possible to support 
 the wires in a vertical plane on short centers. In this position 
 there is no tendency for the wires to swing together, and if the 
 circuit carries alternating current the inductive drop is materially 
 reduced by the close spacing. This method of construction permits 
 taking off service drops without using an unsightly buck-arm. The 
 general appearance of a line constructed with these brackets or 
 racks is all that can be desired and .should reduce the growing 
 demand for underground construction in congested districts. 
 
 Cost of Concrete Bases for Wood Poles. Engineering and Con- 
 tracting, Aug. 28, 1908, give's the following: Fig. 2 shows a con- 
 crete base for transmission line poles invented by M. H. Murray 
 of Bakersfield. Cal., and used by the Power Transit & Light Co, 
 
886 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of that city. These bases are molded and shipped to the work 
 ready for placing. They weigh about 420 lbs. each. One base 
 requires 37.5 lbs. of 2 x 0.25 in. steel bar, 40 lbs. of Portland cement, 
 3 cu. ft. of broken stone or gravel and enough sand to fill the form 
 or mold, which is 10 x 10 ins. by 4.5 ft. Unskilled labor is em- 
 ployed in the molding and two men can mold ten bases per 8 hr. 
 day. The cost of molding is as follows per base : 
 
 2 men at $2 per day $0.40 
 
 Brace irons per set 2.50 
 
 1/9 cu. yd. stone at $4.05 0.45 
 
 40 lbs. cement at 1.5' cts 60 
 
 Sand 0.15 
 
 Total cost $4.10 
 
 In the work for the company named above two men at $2 per 
 day each set 5 bases in 8 hrs., making the cost of setting 80 cts. 
 per base. The bases were sunk to a depth of 3 ft. 3 ins. In many 
 
 k'BolfsJ 
 
 Bo/f3; 
 
 W-/0 -J 
 
 Fig. 2. Concrete base for wooden poles. 
 
 cases they were placed under poles without interrupting service by 
 sawing off the pole, dropping it into the ground, placing the new 
 base and setting the sawed-off pole on it and bolting up the straps. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 887 
 
 Cost of Reinforcing Wood Poles with Concrete. Red-Cedar poles 
 which had been in service for nearly 17 years were recently rein- 
 forced with concrete by the Puget Sound Traction, Light & Power 
 Company. The line is 7 miles long and is a main power line serv- 
 ing the American Smelting & Refining Company's plant at Tacoma, 
 Wash. The following costs are given in Electrical World, May 
 19, 1917. 
 
 First the earth around the ground line was removed. Then iron 
 rods with the ends bent at right angles were driven into the poles 
 around the weakened section and expanded-metal strips wrapped 
 around the rods. After a piece of sheet metal had been placed 
 inside the hole around the pole butt to serve as a form the concrete 
 was poured. About 7 rods were used on each pole. The cost of 
 reinforcing the 259 poles on this line cost was $2,355.14, making 
 the total cost per pole $9.10 and the material cost per pole $3.59. 
 The following table gives the unit amount of each kind of material 
 used, and the cost thereof as well as the labor cost. 
 
 Material : Cost per pole 
 
 6.1 No. 1 iron rods $1.40 
 
 1.7 No. 2 iron rods 0.49 
 
 1.16 expanded metal 0.246 
 
 0.21 cu. yds. sand 0.304 
 
 0.38 cu. yds. pea gravel 0.612 
 
 1.83 sacks cement 0.933 
 
 Tools, etc 0.633 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Hauling (including rent of wagon) 0.71 
 
 Reinforcing 3.59 
 
 Moving poles 0.05 
 
 Guying 0.042 
 
 Cleaning up 0.05 
 
 Miscellaneous 0.043 
 
 Total $9.10 
 
 Concrete Settings for Wooden Poles. We quote the following 
 communication from Page & Hill Co. in regard to concrete settings 
 for wooden poles. 
 
 "A careful examination following the storms (Autumn of 1915) 
 at Houston showed that most of the poles that went down were 
 set in concrete. The same condition was observed a few years ago 
 after a severe storm at Fargo. N. D. 
 
 " This would tend to show that a concrete setting adds nothing 
 to the strength of a wooden pole. 
 
 •' There is no preserving value in a concrete setting. In fact, 
 the concrete may hasten decay by retaining the moisture in the 
 wood, thereby creating the most favorable conditions for the growth 
 of the wood-destroying fungi." 
 
 Joint Pole Construction at Los Angeles, Calif. J. E. MacDonald 
 in the Transactions of the A. I. E. E., April, 1912. gives a series 
 of curves. Fig. 3, showing the market prices of poles at tidewater 
 points, from which points distribution is made loca,lly. Supple- 
 menting this, is the curve showing the valuations according to the 
 
888 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 joint schedule for new poles set, painted and stepped. It will be 
 noted that this gives a valuation of 35 cts. per pole foot for poles 
 30 to 60 ft. in length. Poles which have been set less than 3 years 
 are assumed to be of the same value as new poles. Poles set from 
 3 to 6 years are assumed to be of the same value as new poles, but 
 no value is given to that portion of the pole which is in the ground. 
 
 &} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 ao 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 ./ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .4 
 
 .-J> 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 'r 
 
 
 
 
 «?< 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 y/ 
 
 / 
 
 
 J 1^ 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 ,0^^''^ 
 
 7^ 
 
 M'^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 ..,oX 
 
 E^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 p\ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 <\r^-^-* 
 
 ^V^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 p.. 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;i5' 
 
 30 
 
 3J 
 
 CO' 65' 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 40 45 50 i 
 
 LENGTH. IN FEET 
 Joint pole charges and market prices of round cedar poles. 
 
 Poles set over 6 years are assumed to depreciate at the rate of 3.5 
 cts. per ft. per annum, but no value is given to that portion of 
 pole which is in the ground. During 5 years' operation under this 
 schedule, it has been found that the valuations are approximately 
 coi-rect. The values given for 50 ft., 55 ft. and 60 ft. poles are 
 lower than they should be, but inasmuch as such poles are usually 
 set by the party desiring the top position and the added length is 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 88d 
 
 often solely for this party's benefit, it has not been found that the 
 charges prove inequitable. 
 
 During the 5 years under discussion no individual, save a newsi» 
 paper reporter, has precipitated the query "Does it pay?" It 
 should not be necessary to furnish exact data on this point. The 
 reduction in investment, that is, the difference between the purchase 
 and installation cost of over 50,000 poles independently and oper- 
 ated, as against 21,270 combination poles, is subject to exact deduc- 
 tion. The difference in the maintenance and depreciation charges on 
 them represents a quantity which may also be arrived at very 
 closely. The saving in the maintenance and depreciation charges, 
 at joint expense, of the combination poles for one year exceeds the 
 cost of maintaining the office of the committee for the entire period 
 of 5 years. In addition to this there are the intangible quantities, 
 such as the saving which results from such a project as a matter 
 of public policy ; also the saving due to the entire absence of acci- 
 dents on joint poles, on account of superior construction. Some 
 of us might even figure on the conservation possibilities, taking the 
 entire United States as a basis of action. 
 
 Cost of Setting Wood Poles. Tables VIII and IX give the esti- 
 mated cost of setting poles, taken from " Data." 
 
 TABLE 
 
 : VIII. COST OP s 
 
 !ETTIN( 
 
 ^ WOOL 
 
 ) POLES. AVERAGE 
 
 
 
 CHICAGO CONDITIONS (1900-1910) 
 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 Top, 
 
 Cost in 
 
 Shaving, Haul- 
 
 
 Paint- 
 
 
 Total 
 
 ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 rough 
 
 etc. 
 
 ing 
 
 Setting 
 
 ing 
 
 Paint 
 
 costt 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 $0.75 
 
 $0.40 
 
 $0.30 
 
 $2.50 
 
 $0.20 
 
 $0.08 
 
 $4.23 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 1.00 
 
 .50 
 
 .30 
 
 2.50 
 
 .20 
 
 .08 
 
 4.58 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 1.25 
 
 .60 
 
 .35 
 
 3.00 
 
 .24 
 
 .10 
 
 5.54 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 1.98 
 
 .90 
 
 .395 
 
 3.24 
 
 .31 
 
 .16 
 
 6.99 
 
 25 
 
 
 2.72 
 
 .90 
 
 .395 
 
 3.24 
 
 .31 
 
 .16 
 
 7.73 
 
 25 
 
 
 4.00 
 
 .90 
 
 .395 
 
 3.24 
 
 .31 
 
 .16 
 
 9.01 
 
 30 
 
 
 3.06 
 
 1.10 
 
 .450 
 
 3.50 
 
 .35 
 
 .16 
 
 8.62 
 
 30 
 
 
 5.00 
 
 1.10 
 
 .450 
 
 3.50 
 
 .35 
 
 .20 
 
 10.60 
 
 30 
 
 
 6.25 
 
 1.10 
 
 .450 
 
 3.50 
 
 .35 
 
 .20 
 
 11.85 
 
 35 
 
 
 8.00 
 
 1.30 
 
 .481 
 
 3.75 
 
 .42 
 
 .20 
 
 14.15 
 
 35 
 
 
 8.10 
 
 1.30 
 
 .481 
 
 3.80 
 
 .42 
 
 .24 
 
 14.34 
 
 40 
 
 
 9.10 
 
 1.55 
 
 .600 
 
 4.25 
 
 .50 
 
 .24 
 
 16.24 
 
 40 
 
 
 10.05 
 
 1.55 
 
 .600 
 
 4.38 
 
 .50 
 
 .28 
 
 17.36 
 
 45 
 
 
 11.81 
 
 1.80 
 
 .640 
 
 5.10 
 
 .58 
 
 .28 
 
 20.21 
 
 45 
 
 
 14.00 
 
 1.80 
 
 .640 
 
 5.25 
 
 .58 
 
 .28 
 
 22.55 
 
 50 
 
 
 13.43 
 
 2.10 
 
 .750 
 
 6.50 
 
 .64 
 
 .33 
 
 23.75 
 
 50 
 
 
 15.57 
 
 2.10 
 
 .750 
 
 6.70 
 
 .64 
 
 .33 
 
 26.09 
 
 55 
 
 
 16.00 
 
 2.30 
 
 .869 
 
 8.62 
 
 .72 
 
 .38 
 
 28.89 
 
 55 
 
 
 21.00 
 
 2.30 
 
 .869 
 
 8.90 
 
 .72 
 
 .38 
 
 34.17 
 
 60 
 
 
 22.00 
 
 2.75 
 
 .948 
 
 9.41 
 
 .80 
 
 .44 
 
 36.35 
 
 65 
 
 
 27.07 
 
 3.10 
 
 .980 
 
 10.19 
 
 .88 
 
 .52 
 
 42.74 
 
 70 
 
 
 35.00 
 
 3.40 
 
 1.050 
 
 10.97 
 
 .96 
 
 .60 
 
 51.98 
 
 Foreman's wages included, 
 charges included. 
 
 No supervision or other overhead 
 
 Table IX is from the Valuation Report of the Calumet Electric 
 Street Ry. Co. and South Chicago Ry. Co. as prepared by the 
 Traction Valuation Commission, Chicago. 
 
890 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE IX. COST OF SETTING WOOD POLES, CHICAGO 
 TRACTION VALUATION COMMISSION (1911) 
 
 Diam. Price Cost Total cost in place for different settings 
 
 Length 
 
 top 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 Heeled and Set in 
 
 Set in 
 
 In 1 cu. yd. 
 
 ft. 
 
 ms. 
 
 pole 
 
 labor 
 
 breasted barrels 
 
 rock 
 
 concrete 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 $5.20 
 
 $2:80 
 
 $8.75 $9.50 
 
 $10.00 
 
 $11.50 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 8.10 
 
 2.90 
 
 11.75 12.00 
 
 13.00 
 
 14.50 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 11.45 
 
 3.05 
 
 15.20 15.50 
 
 16.50 
 
 18.00 
 
 45 
 
 8 
 
 15.10 
 
 3.25 
 
 19.10 19.35 
 
 20.35 
 
 21.85 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 15.40 
 
 3.60 
 
 19.75 20.00 
 
 21.00 
 
 22.50 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 17.60 
 
 4.00 
 
 22.35 22.60 
 
 23.60 
 
 25.10 
 
 Cost of Setting Chestnut Poles. As an example of the basis for 
 computing the costs of pole setting, a member of the Ohio Electric 
 Light Association furnished the following data given in Electrical 
 World, Feb. 24. 1917. 
 
 The costs given are for 2 lines built through a hilly country. The 
 poles used are chestnut and vary in length from 45 ft. to 60 ft. 
 The average length of the poles was 48 ft. 
 
 Number of poles 328 485 
 
 Labor per pole (hauling, trimming, setting and cross- 
 arming) $18.78 $15.88 
 
 Extra teaming (hauling men and material) 2.59 2.86 
 
 Miscellaneous 1.10 4.43 
 
 Insurance 95 .78 
 
 " It will be noted that the miscellaneous charges in the second 
 column of the table are rather high. This is due to the many 
 incidentals that happen in the building of any transmission line 
 occasioned by unforeseen difficulties, of damages and other diffi- 
 culties that impede construction work. These figures are mean- 
 ingless to anyone not familiar with the type of construction. 
 Chestnut poles of class ' A ' specifications were used, which are 
 nearer sawlogs than they are poles. Each pole was equipped with 
 an angle-iron bayonet and with 2 wood crossarms 4 in. by 5 in. by 
 8 ft. These in turn were equipped with three strings of suspension 
 insulators 5 units per string." 
 
 Rapid Erection of 50-Ft. ^Cedar Poles. Electrical World, April 7, 
 1917, gives the following data on setting poles by the use of a 
 Matthews pole erector. The San Diego, Cal., Consolidated Gas and 
 Electric Company has been able to raise poles on 3 transmission 
 lines in an average time of 12 mins. per pole. One line consisted 
 of an 18-mile stretch of 66,000 volt circuit, and the other two were 
 11,000 volt circuits. 12 miles and 16 miles long respectively. Most 
 of the poles were 50 ft. Western red cedar, with not less than 9 in. 
 tops and an average weight of 1600 lbs. each. In some places 55 ft. 
 and 60 ft. poles were used. All of the lines stretch across rough, 
 brush-covered country. 
 
 The equipment which was used consisted of a Matthews pole 
 erector with an extension built on the peak of the gin. It was 
 found necessary to increase the effective height of the gin because 
 of the 55 ft. and 60 ft. poles, which had to be raised occasionally, 
 and because, in rough country, it is not always possible to place 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 891 
 
 the bed of the pole-erector wagon on a level site and thus obtain 
 the advantage of the full normal height of the gin. At first the 
 increased height was obtained by putting a channel-iron extension 
 on the peak of the gin. Later, when this extension was bent, it 
 was replaced by another made from two pieces of Douglas fir 
 measuring 3.75 ins. by 5.75 ins. by 10 ft. 
 
 Experience with this outfit has shown that it is advisable to 
 haul the pole-erector wagon with a team and to use an automobile 
 truck for pulling the rope. Where the earth is soft the wagon has 
 to be blocked up so that the feet of the erector will have a solid 
 bearing. In speaking of the use of this apparatus under severe 
 conditions in rough country, L. M. Klauber, superintendent of the 
 electrical department for the San Diego company, pointed out that 
 even on the first day this outfit was used the line crew required an 
 average of only 13 mins. from pole to pole, including the time 
 consumed in setting the erector and in traveling from hole to hole. 
 The pole spacing was 350 ft. 
 
 The pole erector was made by W. N. Matthews & Bro., of St. 
 Louis. 
 
 Cost of Setting Poles by Block and Tackle. E. B. Hook, super- 
 intendent of construction, Georgia Railway & Power Co., gives the 
 following data in Electrical World, Feb. 24, 1917. 
 
 We have set quite a number of poles in north Georgia during 
 the past few years, and by using a block and tackle method of 
 our own design have been able to set a large number of 50 ft. 
 creosoted poles in a day's time with a minimum number of men 
 at a cost of 60 cts. to 75 cts. per pole. This figure, of course, does 
 not include anything but actually setting and tamping in the poles. 
 The cost of compiling the figures is negligible, as it required merely 
 the scanning of a few daily field reports selected at random. We 
 have used the block and tackle method for a couple of years and 
 employed a pair of mules and 9 or 10 men to set poles. Recently 
 a 1.5 ton truck has been substituted for the mules and the services 
 of 6 or 7 men dispensed with. In other words, we are now setting 
 from 25 to forty 50 ft. and 60 ft. creosoted poles, weighing ap- 
 proximately 2 tons each, in a day with 3 men and the truck at a 
 cost which is approximately 33 cts. per pole. 
 
 Cost of Chestnut Poles and Pole Line. The report of the Board 
 of Public Utility Commissioners of New Jersey on the application / 
 of the Jersey Power Company to issue capital stock, abstracted in 
 Electrical World, Aug. 8, 1914, states that, the contract with the 
 Hopatcong Mountain Lake Land Development Company for 516 
 poles showed the following prices: Six 70 ft. long at $18.50 each; 
 ten of 65 ft. at $15 each; fifty of 60 ft. at $11.50; eighty of 55 ft. 
 at $8.75 ; 120 of 50 ft. at $8 : 250 of 45 ft. at $5.50. The average 
 price was $7.50; the average height was 49 ft. 
 
 The cost of poles from Boonton to Millbrook, N. J., is figured by 
 the commission at $2,660. This allows for 406 poles with a total 
 of 19,250 ft., or an average of 47.3 ft. and an average price of 
 $6.55 per pole. This estimate is based on an average number of 
 45 poles per mile. The commission's engineer, H. E. Carver, testi- 
 
892 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 fied that in his judgment $4.10 was an adequate price for setting 
 a pole. Tlie engineer for the company, Mr. Lowe, testified that 
 the cost of stringing wire would average about $25 per mile of wire. 
 The commission allowed $45 per mile for stringing wire from Mill- 
 brook to Dover owing to the conditions under which this wire must 
 be strung. 
 
 In general, on the figures of the company the commission esti- 
 mated the average price of poles delivered on the cars at $7.50 each. 
 It allowed on the basis of the evidence $7.50 as the average cost for 
 unloading, teaming, hauling, digging, locating, framing, setting and 
 tree-trimming, including necessary guys and anchors for poles. 
 The commission allowed for wire 5% more than the estimate of 
 the company inasmuch as the estimate allowed nothing for sag. 
 For braces, insulators and cross-arms on poles the commission 
 allowed only $7 between Boonton and Millbrook. To the total net 
 cost of physical construction, as estimated, the commission added 
 13% for engineering and contingencies. The testimony as to the 
 cost of right-of-way showed an outlay of roughly $8,000 therefor. 
 
 Detail Cost of Cross-Arms. The following is taken from cost 
 data compiled by Mr, Burroughs, engineer of Washington State 
 Commission. 
 
 Placing Arms. One line man at $3.75 per day will tack on from 
 20 to 30 6-pin arms in one day. Considering 25 as an average, 
 the cost would be 11 cts. each. An average of fifteen 10- and 
 16-pin arms can be placed at a cost of 25 cts. each. 
 
 Fitting up Arms. One man at 35 cts. per hr. can fit up 10 10-pin 
 arms per hr.. a cost of 3.5 cts, each. On this basis a 6-pin would 
 
 TABLE X. SINGLE CROSS ARM PRICES 
 
 6 10 16 10 20 Back Extra 
 
 Material pin pin pin knob knob brace brace 
 
 Cross arm $0.30 $0.43 $0.44 $0.30 $0.30 
 
 2 30-in. braces 18 .18 .18 .18 .18 $0.18 
 
 1 machine bolt, % ins. by 
 
 12 ins 05 .05 .05 .05 .05 
 
 2 car bolts % ins. by 4 ins. .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 02 
 
 1 lag screw i^-in. by iVo 
 
 ins 01 .01 .01 .01 .02 
 
 Locust pins 1 % ins. by 8 
 
 ins 09 .14 .23 
 
 No. 4 knobs 05 .10 
 
 3-in. No, 15 screws 03 .06 .... 
 
 1 angle iron back brace $0.09 .... 
 
 4 machine bolts Vi-in. by 
 
 4 V2 ins .' 09 .... 
 
 $0.65 $0.83 $0.93 $0.64 $0.73 $0.99 $0.20 
 
 Labor 
 
 Fitting up arms $0.03 $0.04 $0.05 $0.08 $0.10 .... 
 
 Distributing arms 03 ,03 .03 .03 .03 
 
 Placing arms 11 .25 .25 .25 .25 $0.35 $0.15 
 
 $0.17 $0.32 $0.33 $0.36 $0.38 $0.35 $0.15 
 Total cost $0.82 $1.15 $1.26 $1.00 $1.11 $1.34 $0.35 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 893 
 
 TABLE XI. DOUBLE CROSS ARM PRICES 
 
 6 10 16 10 20 
 
 Material pin pin pin knob knob 
 
 2 cross arms $0.60 $0.86 $0.88 $0.60 $0.60 
 
 4 30-in. braces 36 .36 .36 .36 .36 
 
 1%-in. by 18-in. machine bolt 08 .08 .08 .08 .08 
 
 4%-in. by 4-in. car bolts 04 .04 .04 .04 .04 
 
 4%-in. by 18-in. double arm bolt.. .24 .48 .48 .48 .48 
 
 2 1/2 -in. by 41/2 -in. lag .screws 03 .03 .03 .03 .03 
 
 1 M by 8-in. locust pins 17 .28 .45 
 
 Knobs 10 .20 
 
 Screws 06 .12 
 
 $1.52 $2.13 $2.32 $1.75 $1.91 
 Labor 
 
 Fitting up arms $0.08 $0.12 $0.14 $0.20 $0.25 
 
 Distributing arms 04 .04 .04 .04 .04 
 
 Placing arms 37 .65 .65 .65 .65 
 
 $0.49 $0.81 $0.83 $0.89 $0.94 
 
 Total cost $2.01 $2.94 $3.15 $2.64 $2.85 
 
 cost 2.5 cts. and a 16-pin 4.5 cts. Placing knobs will cost at least 
 7.5 cts. lor a 10-knob and 10 cts. for a 20-knob. 
 
 Distribution. A team at $6 and a ground man at $2.50 (a total 
 charge of $8.50 per day) will distribute all the arms that an 
 ordinary gang can use. Hence the cost of distributing will depend 
 entirely upon the number used. Considering a 10-man gang as 
 placing 200 arms per day, and this team and ground man requiring 
 one-half day to load and distribute them, the cost will be 2.1 cts. 
 
 Creosoted. Creosoting will cost 13 cts. for a 10-pin and 14 cts. 
 for a 16-pin arm. These prices are based on a cost of $15 per 
 M. ft. b. m. for creosoting lumber. 
 
 Brackets. Cost of oak bracket 1.5 cts. ; cost of spikes, 1 ct. ; 
 labor, considering 15 brackets placed per hour, 3 cts. ; making a 
 total 5.5 cts. 
 
 Labor Cost of Stringing Guys. The data given in the following 
 table were obtained in connection with an appraisal on the Pacific 
 Coast. 
 
 LABOR COST OF STRINGING GUTS 
 
 Guys Cost Average Cost 
 
 Class Size per day per guy length, ft. per ft. 
 
 Head or stub #8 galv. iron 9 $1.11 163 $0.0068 
 
 14 -in. g. i. 
 
 Head or stub %-in. g. i. 6 1.66 160 0.0104 
 
 Anchor #8 g. i. 8 1.25 39 0.0321 
 
 1/4 -in. g. i. 
 
 Anchor %-in. g. i. 5 2.00 58 0.0345 
 
 Bridle Guy %-in. g. i. 4 2.50 75 0.0333 
 
 In the above table the cost per guy is based upon the average 
 number of guys placed per day by the following gang: 
 
 2 linemen at $3.75 per day $7.50 
 
 1 groundman at $2.50 per day 2.50 
 
 Total labor co.st per day $10.00 
 
894 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Detail Cost of Single Anchor Guys. The following costs are 
 taken from a recent Pacific Coast appraisal. 
 
 Digging holes at $1.98 each: 
 
 6 laborers. 8 hrs. at 30 cts. dig 8 holes at a cost of. .$14.40 
 Add 107o for foreman's wages = 1.44 
 
 Cost of 8 holes « $15.84 
 
 Placing and refilling at $1.11 each: 
 
 1 man, 8 hrs. at 50 cts $ 4.00 
 
 3 laborers, 8 hrs. at 30 cts 7.20 
 
 Place and refill 11 holes at a cost of $11.20 
 
 Add 10% for foreman's wages 1.12 
 
 Cost for 11 holes $12.32 
 
 Placing strand at $0.93 each: 
 
 4 linemen, 8 hrs. at 50 cts $16.00 
 
 2 helpers, 8 hrs. at 30 cts 4.80 - 
 
 Place 24 guy strands at a cost of $20.80 
 
 Add 10% for foreman's wages 2.08 
 
 Cost for 24 guy strands $22.88 
 
 The average cost for teaming is approximately $0.25 per guy. 
 
 The average cost of tying in an insulator is $0.07. 
 
 Cost of Anchor Logs and Guys. The following data are from a 
 recent Pacific Coast appraisal. 
 
 Anchor logs are frequently made from old poles cut in 6 to 8 ft. 
 lengths. Two men will cut, dig holes for and place one such 
 anchor log in about 5 hrs. Two linemen will place a single guy 
 in 1 hr. and a double guy in 2 hrs. An iron wire guy takes 2 men 
 about .5 hr. to complete. Comparative costs are as follows: 
 
 COST OF ANCHOR LOGS AND GUYS 
 
 Single Double Wire 
 
 guy guy guy 
 
 Cutting anchor log, 6 ft. at 7 cts $0.42 $0.42 
 
 Digging holes and placing log, 10 hrs. at 25 cts. 2.50 2.50 .... 
 
 Teaming 25 .25 $0.10 
 
 Placing strand 1.00 2.00 .50 
 
 Cost complete $4.17 $5.17 $0.60 
 
 Detail Cost of a 50 Ft. Single Anchor Guy. The following is from 
 a recent Pacific Coast ai)praisal. 
 
 Cost 
 
 50 ft. of 5/ir,-in. strand, at $0.14 $0.57 
 
 2 guy hooks, at $0.06 12 
 
 1 bolt % ins. by 12 ins 05 
 
 1 thimble 02 
 
 2-3 bolt clamps at $0,123 25 
 
 2 strain plates. 4 by 8 ins. at $0.042 08 
 
 Nails 01 
 
 Total cost of ^16-in. guy complete $1,10 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 895 
 
 For %-in. strand add $0.55 
 
 Total cost of %-in. guy complete $1.65 
 
 For Vi6-in, strand add $0.60 
 
 Total cost of viG-in. guy complete $2.25 
 
 For a double guy, add another clamp and an extra 
 thimble, a total of $0.14 
 
 And in addition, for strand : 
 
 %6-in. : 45 ft' X $0.0114 = $0.51 
 9i6-in. : 45 ft. x $0.0223 rr $1.00 
 7^6-in. : 45 ft. X $0.0342 -. $1.54 
 
 TABLE XII. COST OF SINGLE HEAD GUYS 145 FT. LONG 
 
 %6-in. %-in. %6-in. 
 
 strand strand strand 
 
 Strand, 145 ft. long 1.65 3.23 4.96 
 
 Guy hooks $0.12 $0.12 $0.12 
 
 Machine bolts 05 .05 .05 
 
 Guy clamps 25 .25 .25 
 
 Strain plates .IT .17 .17 
 
 Nails 01 .01 .01 
 
 $2.25 $3.83 $5.56 
 
 Iron wire 145 ft. long co.sts for No. 6, $0.57 and for No. 9, $0.30. 
 
 Cost of Head Guys. The following is from a recent Pacific Coast 
 appraisal. 
 
 Two men and a helper will place 3 head guys in 2 hrs. The 
 following are costs for insulated and uninsulated head guys. 
 
 Insulated Uninsulated 
 
 guy guy 
 
 72 ft. of %-in. strand at $0.012 $0.86 $0.86 
 
 1 wood insulator 23 .... 
 
 Placing strand 95 .95 
 
 Distributing : 10 .10 
 
 Tying in insulator, each 07 .... 
 
 Cost, complete $2.21 $1.91 
 
 Concrete Poles. The principal advantages of concrete poles are 
 greater strength and length of life. The principal disadvantages 
 are difficulty in setting due to weight, greater first cost, although 
 in many cases the annual cost of concrete poles is less than for 
 wood, and in some cases the fir.st cost is even lower than for wood 
 poles of equal strength. Another disadvantage claimed by ex- 
 ponents of the wooden pole is that a lineman working on the wires 
 on a concrete pole is grounded, which is not the case on a wood 
 pole. 
 
 However, due to the greater durability of the concrete pole, its 
 greater reliability in times of severe stress and the constantly 
 increasing cost of wood pales, the concrete pole is often to be 
 preferred. 
 
 Cost of 30 Ft. Concrete Poles. The following is abstracted from 
 a letter by F. S. Hunt to Engineering & Contracting, Feb. 26, 1908. 
 
896 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The prime factors in the construction of concrete poles are the 
 materials forming the grout. Unless the best quality of crushed 
 stone and sand is used, desired results cannot be obtained. 
 
 The steel reinforcing rods are placed 1 in. from the surface of 
 the pole in 3 sets : 4 rods extend to the top of the pole, 4 rods two- 
 thirds of the length of the pole and 4 rods one-third of the length. 
 In testing the finished pole to destruction this distribution of the 
 steel was found to be practical, giving a uniform stress from top 
 to ground line. A 30 ft. pole with 6 in. top and 9 in. base deflected 
 3 ft. at the top from a plumb line, and straightened when the load 
 was removed without any apparent damage to the pole. A 30 ft. 
 pole must stand a strain of 2,500 ft. lbs. at the groundline. The 
 feature to be reckoned with in the building of a line of concrete poles 
 is the transportation and erection. A 30 ft. pole, with a 6 in. top, 
 will weigh 2,000 lbs. It is a practical proposition to build this 
 length pole in a yard, in forms on the ground. A pole of any 
 greater length should be built in place, fi-om the ground up, although 
 there have been erected 4.5 ft. poles that weighed 5,600 lbs. The 
 .30 ft. reinforced concrete pole can be built in Chicago for $7.50 
 and erected with proper equipment for $1 each. 
 
 The reinforced 30 ft. concrete pole with 6 in. top and 10 in. 
 base, and corners chamfered to 1 in. radii contains .5 cu. yd. of 
 concrete and 200 lbs. of steel, the cost being as follows: 
 
 200 lbs. of steel at $1.85 per 100 lbs $3.70 
 
 Yz cu. yd. concrete at $7.50 per yd 3.75 
 
 Total $7.45 
 
 The estimate of the cost of the finished pole is based on the 
 following prices: Crushed stone $1.25 per cu. yd., sand $1.10 
 per cu. yd., cement $1.75 per bbl., and labor 20 cts. per hr. 
 
 Reinforced-Concrete Poles. J. G. Jackson in Electrical World, 
 Jan. 17, 1914, gives the following. ' Perhaps the largest installation 
 of concrete poles is that of 25,000 poles installed in connection with 
 the municipal street lighting and general light and power distribu- 
 tion system of the Toronto Hydro-Electric System in Toronto, 
 Canada. 
 
 In the design and construction of the poles employed in this in- 
 stallation an effort was made to eliminate unnecessary details and 
 to render the manufacture as simple as possible in order that poles 
 might be turned out rapidly and at low cost. A pole of solid 
 square cross-section with beveled edges was adopted. As the ma- 
 jority of these poles were intended to carry an ornamental lighting 
 bracket and tungsten lamp, they were provided with a .5 in. iron 
 pipe cast in the pole with lower outlet at the lamp and upper 
 outlet under the line wires. 
 
 The earlier poles of the installation were provided with three 
 galvanized -steel cross-arms cast to the pole and having a hole at 
 each end for a steel core pin. This arrangement of cross-arms was 
 not found sufficiently flexible in obtaining clearances of the lines 
 and was later discarded. Holes were provided through the pole 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRIC AE TRANSMISSION 897 
 
 with a slot on either face so that brackets of any desired length 
 could be bolted to the pole. 
 
 The poles ranged from 24 ft. to 35 ft. in length, the majority- 
 being 24 ft. long. Standard poles were made with 8-in. by 8-in. 
 base and 5 -in. by 5 -in. top, for 24 ft. poles, with 9 -in. by 9 -in. base 
 and 6-in. by 6-in. top for 30 ft. poles, and with 10-in. by 10-in. 
 base and 6-in. by 6.5-in. top for 35 ft. poles. The longitudinal rein- 
 forcement consisted of four deformed or square twisted steel bars 
 of high elastic limit set at the corners of the pole and 0.5 in. from 
 the surface. Three-eighth-in. bars were used in the 2 4 -ft. poles 
 and 0.5 in. bars in the longer ones. 
 
 The plant employed in the manufacture of these poles consisted 
 in the main of parallel horizontal forms arranged in rows with a 
 runway at one end of the forms for the delivery of concrete, to- 
 gether with concrete mixer and special wagons for placing the con- 
 crete in the poles. All forms were constructed of finished Southern 
 pine, as more satisfactory results were obtained with this wood 
 than with the less dense and resinous Northern variety. Bases of 
 forms were spaced 2 ft. apart with wooden rails between, one pair 
 of sides being provided for each three bases. A very wet mixture 
 of concrete in the proportions of one part cement to two parts of 
 sharp sand and four parts of crushed limestone of less than 0.5-in. 
 size was used. The quality of sand used was found to have an 
 appreciable effect on the characteristics of the pole, a sharp sand, 
 as would be expected, tending to produce the more elastic concrete. 
 Gravel instead of crushed stone was found to give satisfactory 
 results. 
 
 In casting the poles, sides were set up and forms poured on 
 every third base during the first day. On the following day the 
 side walls were removed from the first poles and advanced to the 
 second base, and the operation was repeated. On the fourth day 
 the first poles cast were removed from the forms and the cycle of 
 operations was started again. The removal of poles from the 
 forms was accomplished by sliding the pole endwise from the form 
 in stages a distance slightly greater than its length every third 
 day, until sufflciently set for handling. 
 
 Vertical reinforcement was placed by laying it in the form on 
 wire hangers suitably spaced and with open hooked portions to 
 carry the reinforcing bars. The lateral reinforcerrient intended to 
 take up the vertical shear and to prevent failure by buckling con- 
 sisted of a series of short bars with hooked ends dropped diagonally 
 across the longitudinal members at intervals and for a distance 
 above and below the ground line proportioned to the strain to be 
 provided for. No effort was made to bind the longitudinal rein- 
 forcement in a cage by means of the suspension wires or together 
 by means of the cross-reinforcing bars except by hooking together 
 as noted and depending on the setting of the concrete to complete 
 the bond, and lock the reinforcement in place. 
 
 Cost of Concrete Electric Railway Trolley Poles. The Fort 
 Wayne & Wabash Valley Traction Co., operating some 150 miles of 
 street and interurban trolley line, proposes to make its renewals 
 
898 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE Xlll. COST OF STREET-LIGHTING POLES DESIGNED 
 TO CARRY SIX WIRES AND ORNAMENTAL TUNGSTEN- 
 LAMP BRACKET WITH CONDUIT CONNECTION 
 
 24-ft. pole, 8-in. by 8-in. base, 5-in. by 5-in. top ; volume of concrete, 
 
 7 cu. ft. 
 
 Cement, at 40 cents per bag $0.70 
 
 Stone, at $1.33 per ton 0.40 
 
 Sand, at $1.15 per cu. yd 0.15 
 
 %-in. steel reinforcing bars, at $1.95 0.89 
 
 Suspensions for reinforcing bars 0.06 
 
 Lateral reinforcing bars 0.10 
 
 V, -inch pipe and fittings 0.27 
 
 Three galvanized-steel cross-arms 0.26 
 
 Miscellaneous material 05 
 
 Depreciation of forms 0.40 
 
 Mixer and other plant 0.12 
 
 Preparing yard 0.08 
 
 Total $3.48 
 
 Labor 1.05 
 
 Total labor and material, etc $4.53 
 
 Adding for engineering supervision, office expenses, 10% 0.45 
 
 Total $4.98* 
 
 30-ft. pole, 9 -in. by 9-in. base, 6-in. by 6-in. top; volume of con- 
 crete 12 cu., ft. 
 
 Cement $1.20 
 
 Stone 0.71 
 
 Sand 0.26 
 
 V-i-in. steel bars, at $1.85 1.89 
 
 Suspensions 0.07 
 
 Lateral reinforcing bars 0.14 
 
 i/^-inch pipe and fittings 0.43 
 
 Galvanized cross-arms 0.26 
 
 Miscellaneous 0.06 
 
 Forms 0.50 
 
 Mixer and other plant 0.12 
 
 Yard 0.08 
 
 Total $5.72 
 
 Labor 1.31 
 
 Plus 1076 0.70 
 
 Total cost $7.73* 
 
 * This includes the iron conduit pipe and galvanized steel cross- 
 arms, so that the cost of a plain 24-ft. pole would be $4.39 and 
 that of a plain 30^ft. pole would be $6.97. 
 
 with concrete poles of the construction shown by Figs. 4 to 7. The 
 weight and dimensions of the pole and the bill of material required 
 are given for each size. Regarding the construction of these poles 
 H. L. Weber, chief engineer of the road, writes : 
 
 " The cost of constructing concrete poles depends so much upon 
 the location of the materials with respect to the points where the 
 poles are to be erected that general figures are difficult to state. 
 Having several good gravel banks at convenient points along our 
 right of way. which is 120 miles in length, and having our road 
 already built and the equipment ayailable for handling materials 
 
■rr "^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 J^ 
 
 <i 
 
 
 
 d' 
 
 
 t- 
 
 1(1 
 
 
 ¥ 
 
 T 
 
 Enq-contr 
 
 Y'^AcP 
 
 a 
 
 o Q a 
 
 ^yn'-zo'o' 
 
 
 a 
 
 uys"-io'o' 
 
 
 D 
 
 qya'^20'0" 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^h"-io'o'- 
 
 
 a 
 
 Q y„"-to'o' 
 
 
 Q 
 
 a a a 
 
 a 
 
 D o a 
 
 L 
 
 ?^4" 
 
 
 
 Enq-Contr 
 
 PQr°«p 
 
 a a D 
 
 Z^\'-I6'0' 
 
 a 
 
 Qj'-e4'iP" 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 D 
 
 *;a □ a 
 
 a D a 
 
 ^. . yc 
 
 1 
 
 Fig-s. 4-5-6. 
 
 Fig. 4. Trolley pole 42 ft. long. 
 
 Fig. 5. Trolley pole 32 ft. long. 
 
 Fig. 6. Trolley pole 30 ft. long. 
 
 899 
 
900 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and poles, we have been able to build concrete poles for about the 
 same cost as a wooden pole all fitted up and painted. We figure 
 that a 33-ft. pole costs $7.50 and a 45-ft. pole costs $15, at pit. 
 It is difficult to figure the cost of molds, as one mold .should be 
 good for a number of poles, depending on the care that is taken 
 of it. I 
 
 Pig. 7. Concrete telephone pole. 
 
 BILL. OF MATERIAL^ 42 FT. POLE 
 
 Item Lbs. 
 
 4 pes. %-in. X 42 ft. twisted'steel bar 321.2 
 
 8 pes. i^-in. x32 ft. twisted steel bar 217.6 
 
 8 pes. %-in. x 16 ft. twisted steel bar 61.2 
 
 20 pes., total weight of steel 600.0 
 
 Concrete, 237 cu. ft., weight 3,030.0 
 
 Approximate weight of pole 3,630.0 
 
 Surface area of steel 14,176 sq. in. 
 
 Base area of steel 5,375 sq. in. 
 
 BILL OF MATERIAL, 32 FT. POLE 
 
 Item Lbs. 
 
 12 pes. %-in. x 30-ft. twisted steel bar 172.0 
 
 8 pes. %-in. X 20 ft. twisted steel bar 76.6 
 
 8 pes. %-in. X 10 ft, twisted steel bar 38.3 
 
 28 pes. total weight of steel 286.9 
 
 Concrete, 13.7 cu. ft 1,758.0 
 
 Approximate weight of pole 2,044.9 
 
 Surface area of steel 10,800.0 sq. in. 
 
 Base area of steel 3.93 sq. in. 
 
Crois5echo/7 af 
 
 Ground 
 
 £^nci-Conrr ' Copper PJa^e 
 
 Fig. 8, Concrete trolley pole. 
 
 901 
 
902 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 BILL OF MATERIAL, 30 FT. POLE 
 
 Item Lbs. 
 
 4 pes, i/^-in. X 30-ft. twisted steel bar 102.0 
 
 12 pes. %-in. X 20 ft. twisted steel bar 114.7 
 
 8 pes, %-in. x 10-ft. twisted steel bar 38.3 
 
 24 pes., total weight of steel 255.0 
 
 Conerete, 13.7 cu. ft., weight 1,758.0 
 
 Approximate weight of pole 2,013.0 
 
 Surfaee area of steel 10,560 .sq. in. 
 
 Base area of steel 3,812 sq. in. 
 
 No records of cost were kept. 
 
 Cost of Reinforced Concrete Telephone Poles. (Engineering-Con- 
 tracting, March 11, 1908.) The possibilities for reinforced con- 
 erete poles in transmission line work were very carefully investi- 
 gated by the Richmond, Tnd.. Home Telephone Co., which has con- 
 structed a line across the Whitewater River, using poles ranging 
 from 45 to 55 ft. in height of the construction shown by Pig. 8, 
 invented by Wm. M. Bailey, vice-president and general manager 
 of the company. The following account of these investigations and 
 of the studies made by the American Concrete Pole Co., Richmond, 
 Ind., which has been organized to market the poles, has been com- 
 piled from information given us by Mr. Bailey. 
 
 For poles 30 ft. long and under, the molding is done horizontally 
 on the ground and the pole erected when hard like a wooden 
 pole ; for poles over 30 ft. long the molding is done in forms set 
 vertical in the pole hole. The following figures. Table XIV, are 
 given as the cost without royalty of concrete poles molded as 
 described. These costs are for poles erected, excluding the material 
 cost of steps but including labor cost of setting steps, and they are 
 based on the following wages and prices : 
 
 Foreman, per day $3.00 
 
 Laborers, per day 1.75 
 
 Cement, per barrel 2.00 
 
 Stone, gravel or sand, per cu. yd 1.00 
 
 For sake of comparison, the cost of cedar poles has been added 
 to the table ; these costs include poles, unloading, dressing, gaining, 
 roofing, boring, hauling and setting. All figures are as furnished 
 by Mr. Bailey. Regarding the methods of constructing concrete 
 poles, Mr. Bailey says : 
 
 "All of the larger concrete poles (that is, poles over 30 ft. in 
 height) are built upright in position ready for use, the forms being 
 set perpendicularly over the hole in which the pole is to be placed, 
 the hole having been dug to conform with the size pole prior to the 
 setting of form ; thus when the concrete is .poured in at the top 
 of form, the hole is entirely filled and tlie conerete knit firmly to 
 the solid earth that has never been disturbed. There is no replacing 
 of earth or tamping required." 
 
 Cost of 35 Ft. Concrete Poles. Electrical World, Nov. 2, 1912, 
 gives the following: The 800-kw. water-power plant of the Rocky 
 Ford Power Company is connected to the Manhattan (Kan.) Ice, 
 Light & Power Company's plant by a 6-mile transmission line 
 using concrete poles. These 35-ft. structures are rectangular in 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 903 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 r "-3 ououoooooio 
 rt iH ^-1 T-; us eg t> CO t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tt< 3o' iH us m' to Co' OS 
 
 
 
 
 fn e«- rHiHiMcgcoeo 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 5- OOOOOOOO 
 
 "Or^ ^ rH S^i im' CO U5 «D 00 O 
 
 ^1 
 
 < 
 
 
 XJW OUSUSOOOOIO 
 
 Q 
 
 >» 
 
 J 
 
 ■■^ «3 r| l>. I^TM 00 !>. 
 
 3 ^ s-i«ooo"<M't-^o-*o> 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 O 2 OOI-OOOOOOOOOO 
 
 <5 
 
 
 . Eh-- 
 
 ^ 
 
 •:3^^ ^ 
 
 y 
 
 CC 03 -^ CO lO U5 00 O M o 
 
 H 
 
 qO t>;«^^ot^irtOi«o 
 
 
 Ch '^ «s od ^ t> -^ us ,-i ?o 
 
 »3- rH tH 5^1 n eo eo 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 fci 000000U50 
 
 
 O r- 'M t-- C3 r- iM 05 1>. 
 
 Q 
 
 
 o 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 
 OP- OOOOOOOO 
 ^_) 7 (M - 1 (M U5 lO 00 00 oo 
 
 g-g ^•^^•^•^•^^•^ 
 
 H 
 
 O.S ^ 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 +j C aJ '^^TfHM<<Mo-*Tt( 
 
 P ^ i^ c^i '^'i CO us «D t-^ t> 00 
 
 F< 
 
 0«HO.^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 3 g 'g a; lo e-i oj CO in Lo CO us 
 
 an CQ rnVicocoooaico'-*' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 fl 3^- fl «5TH«o;OCOO<OrH 
 O^C O TH=<liMCO-*i)tou5<r> 
 
 
 § 
 
 ,— ' 
 
 O 
 
 |l^";^S^;$;;^j^t^ 
 
 
 Mm"^ iHt-i 
 
 1— 1 
 
 *j P M Oi-ic-iuiixir^ooo> 
 
 X 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 ft m 
 
 55 
 
 
 t-i.« 
 
904 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 section, with 45-deg'. corners to prevent cracliing, and measure 
 15 in. at the base and 7 in. at the top. They are set at 260-ft. 
 Intervals, The solid concrete is reinforced by four .75-in. steel rods. 
 Four-by-four-inch galvanized .1875-in. angle-arms are used, carry- 
 ing cast-iron pins through-bolted in place. The braces are formed 
 of single, specially bent angles of smaller section. Built in a cen- 
 tral yard after some experimentation, these 120 poles cost $22 each. 
 They were hauled to their sites and erected with gin poles at a 
 cost of $5 additional per pole, considerable unforeseen difficulty 
 having been experienced in transporting the heavy structures 
 through the soft marsh -» land which the line traverses. After 3 
 years' service the line gives every evidence of complete durability 
 and satisfaction. 
 
 Cost of Manufacturing Reinforced Concrete Trolley Poles. During 
 the season of 1910 the Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway Company 
 manufactured 100 reinforced concrete poles. An analysis of the 
 cost of construction of this class of pole was given in Engineering 
 Record, June 24, 1911, as follows: 
 
 The standard 30-ft. concrete pole is reinforced with four .625-in. 
 twisted steel rods 29 ft. 6 in. long, one placed near each corner; 
 four .5 -in. twisted rods 29 ft. 6 in. long, one placed in each side of 
 the pole and four .5-in. twisted rods 18 ft. long extending from the 
 butt upward, one on each side of the pole between the other rods. 
 The butt of the pole measures 11 in. square and the top 6 in. square, 
 a .625-in. hole being cast in the pole 3 ft. below the top for the 
 span-wire eye-bolt and a cross-arm gain 12 in. below the top for 
 a feeder-cable cross-arm. The corners of the pole are given a 2-in. 
 bevel extending from the top of the pole to within 6 ft. of the 
 butt. The concrete mixture is formed from one part Portland 
 cement and two parts sand and two parts ,375 to .75-in. broken 
 stone. 
 
 The unit cost for one pole, taken from the total cost for a lot of 
 fifty, including all labor and material except cost of forms and 
 installation of plant, was: Labor, $2.81; material, $7.04; total, 
 $9.85. 
 
 The forms built were of hard pine 2 in. thick and cost $19.16 each. 
 
 The cost of installing the plant, including derrick, concrete casting 
 sills and cement shed with pump, etc., was $401.96. 
 
 It is expected that the forms will suffice for the casting of 50 
 poles each, without much repair. Depreciating the plant at 20 
 per cent, per annum and assuming 500 poles built per year, the total 
 cost per pole would be : 
 
 Initial cost of pole $9.85 
 
 Forms $19.16 for 50 poles 0.38 
 
 Depreciation of plant per pole 0.16 
 
 Total cost per pole $10.39 
 
 The quantities used in the construction of one pole are : Cement, 
 4.5 bags; sand, \'z cu. yd.; stone, \'z cu. yd.; steel, .625 in.; 118 ft. 
 or 156.7 lbs., and .5 in.. 190 ft. or 161.5 lbs. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 905 
 
 These poles are intended to be used instead of 7-in., 6-in. and 
 5-in. wrough iron tubular poles computed for a safe load of 985 
 lbs. and costing about $35 each, or instead of wooden poles costing 
 $7.50 each. 
 
 The weight of these poles complete is 2,550 lbs. and their erec- 
 tion is accomplished, as illustrated, with a steel derrick wagon which 
 was constructed by the company, using the frame of an old road 
 scraper and a wooden boom made from a wooden trolley pole. 
 
 Cost of Hollow Concrete Poles. Hexagonal shaped poles, hollow 
 through the center, used by the Oklahoma Gas and Electric Com- 
 pany are described in Engineering Record, Oct. 30, 1909, as follows: 
 A 3 5 -ft. pole measures 7 in. across at the top and 16 in. across 
 at the butt. They are molded in forms made up of 5 -ft. sections 
 so that it is possible to cast a pole of practically any length. Steel 
 rods are placed symmetrically about the central axis and at the 
 top and bottom project through holes in steel plates. The rods are 
 bent over at each end and securely fastened. The core, which is 
 wrapped with one thickness of building paper, is suspended within 
 the form by wires at intervals along its length. The concrete used 
 consists of a mixture of 1 part cement, 2 parts, sand and 3 parts 
 chats or zinc tailings, which can be obtained in large quantities 
 from the zinc mines of southwestern Missouri. With cement costing 
 $1.50 per barrel, sand at $2 per cubic yard, chats at $2 per cubic 
 yard and labor at $2 per day of eight hours, the cost of manu- 
 facturing a 35-ft. pole 7 in, across at the top averages $10. Three 
 men can make three poles per day. according to J. M. Brown, 
 superintendent for the company. A 35-ft. pole molded, hauled to 
 place and set, with steel cross-arms and pins mounted ready for 
 stringing wires, costs $18. It is claimed that concrete poles are 
 more rigid than wooden poles, their maintenance cost is small, and, 
 being hollow, wires can be run inside of them. 
 
 Cost of Concrete Electric- Lamp Poles for St. Mary's Falls Canal. 
 L. C. Sabin gives the following costs in Engineering News, March 2, 
 1911. The poles are 11 ins. square at the base, and 6 ins. at the top, 
 with the corners chamfered by inserting in the corners of the mold 
 triangular strips 1 in. on a side. The reinforcement consists of one 
 .625-in. square, twisted bar, 35 ft. long, in each corner, extending 
 from about a foot above the base to the top, and two similar bars 
 .5-in. square, 25 ft. long, in each side, extending to within 9 ft. of 
 the top, so that the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement for 
 the bottom part of the pole is 3.56 sq. ins., but for the top 9 ft. 
 of the pole it is but 1.56 sq. ins. The bars were tied together at 
 intervals of 4 ft., with two turns of No. 6 soft-steel wire, bent to a 
 square, within which the rods are placed and secured at proper 
 spacing by winding with stove wire. (Fig. 8.) 
 
 In the center of each pole is placed a standard black gas pipe, 
 1.25 ins. diameter, in two lengths of 15 ft., to lead the wires from 
 the cutout box, near the base, to the top crook or goose neck. At 
 the upper end of this pipe is placed a 2xl.25-in. reducer to con- 
 nect with the 2-in. pipe forming the goose neck, and at the bottom 
 it terminates In a 1.25-in. bend leading through the concrete to the 
 
906 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cutout box The top of the pole is finished with a special top 
 casting, inclosing the upper end of the gas pipe, the reducer and 
 the lower end of the goose neck. Fitted above this is a special 
 conical watershed casting so made that an annular space between 
 the latter and the lower part of the goose neck may be calked with 
 lead or asphalt insulating compound. The cast-iron cutout box, 
 of special design, covers the series cutout and the outlets of both 
 ducts. The pole steps are of .625-in. round galvanized iron, 10 ins. 
 long, projecting 5 ins., and are bent near the end in order to clear 
 the central pipe. 
 
 The poles were molded in a horizontal position and the forms 
 for the concrete are shown in Fig. 8. In order to support the pole 
 uniformly without an excessive amount of blocking, the foundation 
 timbers were of 12 by 12 in. fir, 36 ft. long, which were on hand. 
 Six of these were planed on one side, and framed, and the remainder 
 of the mold was made in duplicate. This permitted one pole to 
 be made each day, and provided for removing the sides 24 hrs. 
 after being made and leaving the pole on its firm support for about 
 a week. The forms for the sides, secured by cleats bolted to the 
 12 by 12 in. timber, were so prepared as to be readily removed 
 and placed on another timber. The method of supporting the pole 
 steps shown was a little device that saved much time, and permitted 
 the side pieces of the mold to be removed without disturbing the 
 steps. 
 
 The concrete aggregate was of limestone screenings passing a 
 screen having 1-in. square openings. The proportions used were 
 1.125 bbls. of cement, 7 cu. ft. of river sand and 14 cu. ft. of 
 screenings. This batch made about 15 cu. ft. of concrete, or suffi- 
 cient for one pole. It was mixed by hand, quite wet, and well 
 puddled about the reinforcement. The top surface, forming one 
 side of the pole, was finished as soon as ready. The following day 
 the sides of the mold were removed and the two sides of the pole 
 finished. After about a week, the pole was carefully tipped over 
 on another 12 by 12 in. timber so that the remaining side could 
 be finished, and when this was completed the pole was moved to 
 storage. For finishing the sides the film of neat cement was re- 
 moved by rubbing with a flat piece of sandstone and water, leaving 
 a " sand " finish. Later, carborundum blocks were found well 
 adapted to this purpose. 
 
 When not governed by some special conditions, the poles are set 
 31.5 ft. back from the face of the canal wall, in a block of mass 
 concrete 3 ft. square by about 4 ft. deep. The method of setting 
 was as follows : After digging the hole for the base, a flat stone 
 was placed in the bottom, at the desired elevation, to receive the 
 bottom of the pole. The pole was then laid at right angles to the 
 canal wall, with the butt over the hole and the top extending away 
 from the canal. Along the lower side of the pole was secured an 
 8 by 8 in. timber, in which was cut. transversely, a semi-circular 
 groove to fit over a timber roller about 6 ins. in diameter. This 
 roller rested in two similar grooves, cut in 12 by 12 in. blocks 
 staked to the ground, and formed a hinge about which the pole 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 907 
 
 could revolve in a vertical plane at right angles to the canal wall. 
 This hinge was so set that when the pole touched the stone at the 
 bottom of the excavation it would be at an angle of about 45 deg. 
 A floating derrick, with 45-ft. boom, lying in the canal opposite 
 the pole, was used to hoist it into position, the pole first turning 
 about the hinge and later about the lower corner resting on the 
 stone. Some poles, set nearer the canal wall than the above, were 
 hoisted into position with the derrick without using the hinge. 
 After the pole was in place and secured by guy lines, the concrete 
 was mixed by hand and filled around it. Where the sides of the 
 excavation stood up well no forms were used below the ground 
 surface, but in case much caving had taken place, a rough mold 
 was used for the lower part of the base. A plank form was used 
 
 ■JISps.@.3'S3 —"•'■ 
 
 36' ""- 
 
 ^V" 
 
 —.-4.4 
 
 No6mrv 
 
 i°Rods.34 
 
 ■long - 
 
 9,i"'Rods.Z5'hrg 
 
 .-■ ,V>{«//'.J4 
 
 ^4i^^.>....:^....^>^ 
 
 B|^":::i::rrr.- 
 
 =3 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 y. 
 
 
 t:=*-i 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Forms and reinforcement for reinforced concrete electric- 
 lamp poles, St. Marys Falls Canal, Michigan. 
 
 for the upper part above the ground surface, and this part was 
 finished as usual after the removal of the form. After the concrete 
 in the base had set the guys were removed and the pole wired for 
 service. This consisted in laying, in a shallow trench, 2 in. gal- 
 vanized duct from the manhole of the main conduits opposite the 
 light to the 2 in. bend or crook imbedded in the base, and leading 
 the necessary wires from this manhole to the outlet bell at the 
 extreme end of the goose neck. 
 
 The material and labor required in the construction of one pole, 
 and the cost, are given in Table XV. The wages paid for eight 
 hours' work were as follows: Foreman, $3; carpenters, $2.25 to 
 $2.75 ; cement finisher, $2.25 ; common labor, $2 per day. The en- 
 tire cost of forms is included in the cost of 42 poles, although much 
 of the material is good for further use. 
 
 For comparison with these reinforced-concrete poles, an estimate 
 may be made of the cost of a wooden pole, with a pipe leading up 
 
908 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the outside, with a goose neck at the top, and set in a concrete 
 base, as follows : 
 
 1-12 by 12-in. 36-ft. stick of fir at $30 per M. ft. b.m.. .$12.96 
 
 Pipe, .steps and top casting- . 3.37 
 
 4 man-days labor trimming pole at $2.25 9.00 
 
 Cost of pole in yard $25.33 
 
 Transportation of pole to site 3.00 
 
 Erection, including concrete base 22.00 
 
 Wiring, etc., same as for concrete pole 25.67 
 
 Total cost of wooden pole in place and wired $76.00 
 
 TABLE XV. COST OP RETNFORCED-CONCRETE ELECTRIC- 
 LAMP POLES FOR ST. MARY'S FALLS CANAL 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 (Based on 40 poles.) 
 Materials — Reinforcement. 
 
 350 lbs, cold twisted steel at 2.7 cts $9.45 
 
 4 lbs, wire .10 
 
 $9.55 
 Pipe, etc., built into the pole. 
 
 26 ft. 11/4 -in. steel gas pipe at 4.2 cts $1.09 
 
 1 2 X 1^4 -in. reducer (at top to attach crook) ..... .10 
 
 1 1 V4-in. bend (at bottom of pipe in pole) .32 
 
 22 10-in. galv, pile .steps at 3 cts 66 
 
 1 top casting 1.20 
 
 $3.37 
 Concrete, 
 
 1 Vs bbhs. cement at $1.44 $1.62 
 
 0.26 cu. yd. sand at 55 cts 14 
 
 0.52 ou. yd. screenings at $1.10 .57 
 
 $2.33 
 Forms (for 42 poles). 
 
 Lumber $75.12 
 
 Bolts, pail and iron 10.45 
 
 Labor, building 189.67 
 
 Total $275.24 
 
 Labor and Transporting Materials. 
 
 Superintendence $1.42 
 
 Hauling material, labor and tug service 2.85 
 
 Assembling forms 1.55 
 
 Assembling reinforcement 1.53 
 
 Concreting, stripping and dressing 4.18 
 
 Miscellaneous, blacksmith and contingencies 3.14 
 
 Total labor and tug service $14.67 
 
 Total cost of pole in yard $36.47 
 
 TR AN SPORTATION 
 
 Labor $0.63 
 
 Tug (estimated) 3.00 
 
 Total $3.63 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 909 
 
 ERECTION 
 
 (Based on 15 poles and including concrete base.) 
 Materials. 
 
 1% bbls. cement at $1.44 $1.99 
 
 0.46 cu. yd. sand at 55 cts .25 
 
 0.46 cu. yd. screening at $1.10 .50 
 
 1.15 cu. yds. broken stone at $1.10 1.26 
 
 Transporting, 3 tons, at 50 cts 1.50 
 
 $5.50 
 2-in. bend and coupling $ .92 
 
 Labor. 
 
 Superintendence $2.81 
 
 Excavation and backfill 2.54 
 
 EJrection with derrick ' 5.97 
 
 Mixing and placing concrete, including forms 4.17 
 
 Miscellaneous and contingencies 2.20 
 
 $17.69 
 Total, base and erection $24.11 
 
 WIRING AND FITTING 
 
 (Based on nine poles.) 
 Materials. 
 
 1 watershed $0.12 
 
 1 2-in. crook or goose neck 1.25 
 
 1 outlet bell 0.20 
 
 1 cutout box 1.25 
 
 1 pothead and cutout 4.40 
 
 80 ft. No. 6 rubber covered wire, with weatherproof 
 
 braid at 16 1/4 cts 13.00 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 0.30 
 
 Total, material $20.52 
 
 Labor, etc. 
 
 Labor of wiring and fitting $3.63 
 
 Transportation of materials and contingencies. ... 1.52 
 
 $5.15 
 
 Total, wiring and fitting $25.67 
 
 SUMMARIZED COSTS 
 
 Pole as molded, including materials used $36.47 
 
 Transportation of pole to site 3.63 
 
 Erection, including concrete base 24.11 
 
 Wire, cutout, and other accessories through base and 
 
 pole to lamp 20.52 
 
 Wiring and fitting up pole 5.15 
 
 Total cost in place and wired $89.88 
 
 Tubular Iron Poles. Figs. 10 and 11 give the weight of standard 
 and extra heavy poles for various safe loads, applied as a maximum 
 side strain near the top without causing permanent deflection with 
 the poles set 6 ft. in the ground. The weights are for poles with- 
 out sleeves. With protecting sleeves the weight is increased from 
 6 to 10%. 
 
 In general the poles are made up of 3 sections of standard or 
 extra heavy tubing as indicated in Fig. 11. 
 
 The cost varies from about 2.75 cts. to 3.5 cts per lb. 
 
010 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Unit Costs of Tubular Iron Poles in Place. We have taken the 
 following from the report of the Traction Valuation Commission, 
 
 1.200 
 -^1.000 
 
 '%800 
 %i?00 
 
 % 
 
 400 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 — 
 
 n 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .— 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 ft pole 
 
 '•V 
 
 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "V 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 -" 
 
 
 
 
 
 32ff. pole ••- 
 
 ^r 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -- 
 
 -- 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 < 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 „^ 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 ^• 
 
 30 ft po/e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ./ 
 
 '.<.'- 
 
 >, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 >1 
 
 \<^ 
 
 ^*=- 
 
 ._- 
 
 ■ZSrf pole 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 f5 
 
 ^- 
 
 ^S"^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?§ 
 
 '^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 m m m 1200 m m im 2jm 2:200 zm 
 
 3a fe load in Lbs 
 
 Fig. 10. Standard tubular iron poles (without sleeve). 
 
 2.000 
 iSoo 
 
 l.bOO 
 
 r\lfiOO 
 
 ^1.000 
 
 ^ eoo 
 
 boo 
 400 
 
 
 • 
 
 ~^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 DO 
 
 f . 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 y' 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 — - 
 
 '■ 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ft 
 
 p^ 
 
 o/e 
 
 "■? 
 
 / 
 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 r' 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 n 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 / 
 
 < 
 
 
 yy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 ' 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 A 
 
 '3bf} 
 
 p 
 
 ok 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 -,/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 V 
 
 / 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 dftpoje 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /', 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 [^9 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 / 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 h 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ZOO bOO 1.000 I.400 (600 ZOOO 2,600 4000 ^200 
 
 3ofe load in Lbs. 
 Fig. 11. Extra heavy tubular iron poles (v/ithout sleeve). 
 
 consi.sting of Bion J. Arnold, Mortimer E. Cooley and A. B. du Pont, 
 Chicago, 1906: 
 
 30 ft. poles, average weight 913 lbs. each, at 2% ct.s $25 10 
 
 Labor and concrete, etc., erecting 5.50 
 
 Total per pole in place $30.60 
 
 From report of Traction Valuation Commission, consisting of 
 Bion J. Arnold and Geo. Weston, Chicago, 1908 : 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 911 
 Length, Weight, Cost Labor and Total in 
 
 ft. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 pole 
 
 concrete 
 
 place 
 
 
 35 
 35 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 25 
 
 1479 
 1220 
 1322 
 1100 
 525 
 450 
 
 $51.76 
 42.70 
 46.27 
 38.50 
 18.37 
 15.75 
 
 $9.24 
 8.55 
 8.73 
 8.25 
 6.81 
 6.62 
 
 $61.00 
 51.25 
 55.00 
 46.75 
 25.18 
 22.37 
 
 
 t-Z^-.-ZLuZi. 
 
 -^ 
 
 t5L 
 
 ~ ^^Tee ve 
 
 
 
 — 1 
 
 i 
 
 \ 
 
 j> 
 
 1 1 <- p 
 
 --,... -j^. . , 
 
 — 
 
 L: — __!_ 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 -L-J_ r ^ 
 
 rj—^- 
 
 --^ 
 
 Fig, 12. Construction of a tubular iron pole. 
 
 From report of Traction Valuation Commission, consisting of 
 Bion J. Arnold. Geo. Weston and Glenn E. Plumb, Chicago, 1908 : 
 
 Length, Weight, Cost Labor and Total in 
 
 ft. lbs. pole concrete place 
 
 30 1000 $30.00 $9 $39.00 
 
 28 690 20.20 9 29.20 
 
 From appraisal in Detroit in 1909, by F. T. Barcroft: 
 
 30 ft. poles, average weight 586 lbs. each, at 2% cts $16.12 
 
 Labor erecting 9.78 
 
 Total average in place $26.90 
 
 Cost of Stringing Bare Wire. Table XVT is based upon labor con- 
 ditions on the Pacific Coast, using different sized gangs in wire 
 stringing in flat country. 
 
 The Economic Design of a Distributing System. M. D. Cooper in 
 Electrical World, March 7, 1914, gives the following. The deter- 
 mination of the amount of money which can profitably be invested 
 in a new electrical distribution system or in the reconstruction of 
 an old one is a problem which can often be solved in very definite 
 terms. Its solution is dependent upon the considerations which 
 govern all commercial and engineering problems : " How can the 
 most be got out of a dollar?" or "Will it pay?" These questions 
 can be answered only when it is known how much income can be 
 derived from the investment and how much the charges against 
 the investment and the operating expenses will be. 
 
 It is not proposed to treat quantitatively the fixed charges and 
 expenses of a distribution system, for they depend largely upon 
 local conditions. The point it is desired to emphasize is that often- 
 times a much greater investment in lines can be justified on an 
 economic and commercial basis than could be justified by the method 
 of analysis heretofore largely used. 
 
 Kelvin's Law of Investment and Losses. This analysis is based 
 on Kelvin's laws, which may be stated as follows : " An electric 
 line is built and operated at the least total expense when the fixed 
 expenses on the investment in copper are equal to the cost of the 
 line losses." 
 
912 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XVI. COST OF STRINGING WIRE 
 
 r" GANG A , , GANG B > 
 
 Copper Aluminum Copper Aluminum 
 
 Size Miles Cost Miles Cost Miles Cost Miles Cost 
 
 B. & S 1-wire per 1-wire per 1-wire per 1-wire per 
 
 Gauge line mile line mile line mile line mile 
 
 orcir. per 1-wr. per 1-wr, per 1-wr. per 1-wr. 
 
 mils. day line day line day line day line 
 
 12 2.95 $9.49 2.95 $9.49 5.14 $7.26 5.14 $7.26 
 
 10 2.87 9 76 2.87 9.76 4.98 7.49 4.98 7.49 
 
 9 2.83 9.89 2.83 9.89 4.90 7.61 4.90 7.61 
 
 8 2.77 10.11 2.77 10.11 4.86 7.67 4.86 7.67 
 
 7 2.68 10.45 2.68 10.45 4.74 7.87 4.74 7.87 
 
 6 2.60 10.77 2.60 10.77 4.61 8.09 4.61 8.09 
 
 5 2.50 11.20 2.50 11.20 4.43 8.42 4.43 • 8.42 
 
 4 2.33 12.02 2.33 12.02 4.24 8.80 4.24 8.80 
 
 3 2.23 12.56 2.23 12.56 3.98 9.37 3.98 9.37 
 
 2 2.04 13.72 2.04 13.72 3.71 10.05 3.71 10.05 
 
 1 1.87 14.97 1.87 14.97 3.40 10.97 3.40 10.97 
 
 1/0 1.70 16.47 1.70 16.47 3.06 12.19 3.06 12.19 
 
 2/0 1.49 18.79 1.49 18.79 2.68 13.92 2.68 13.92 
 
 3/0 1.30 21.54 1.33 21.05 2.27 16.43 2.32 16.08 
 
 4/0 1.12 25.00 1.14 24.58 1.91 19.53 1.95 19.13 
 
 250000 0.965 29.02 1.00 28.00 1.63 22.88 1.69 22.07 
 
 275000 0.892 31.39 0.932 30.04 1.49 25.04 1.56 23.91 
 
 300000 0.830 33.73 0.880 31.82 1.37 27.23 1.45 25.73 
 
 325000 0.773 36.22 0.820 34.15 1.27 29.37 1.35 27.63 
 
 350000 0.725 38.62 0.775 36.13 1.18 31.61 1.26 29.61 
 
 400000 0.639 43.82 0.676 41.42 1.05 35.53 1.11 33.61 
 
 450000 0.571 49.04 0.620 45.16 0.93 40.11 1.10 36.94 
 
 500000 0.506 55.33 0.555 50.45 0.84 44.41 0.92 40.55 
 
 Gang- A consisted of: 
 
 1 foreman at $4 per day $ 4 
 
 4 linemen at $3.75 per day 15 
 
 4 groundmen at $2,25 per day 9 
 
 Total, Gang A $28 
 
 Gang B consisted of: 
 
 1 foreman at $5.80 per day $ 5.80 
 
 6 linemen at $3.75 per day 22.50 
 
 4 groundmen at $2.25 per day 9.00 
 
 Total, Gang B $37.30 
 
 The following example illustrates the truth of this law. Suppose 
 that with an investment in copper of $100,000, the cost of energy 
 consumed in the line amounts to $20,000 per year. If the fixed 
 charges — interest, depreciation, taxes, etc. — are 20% of the invest- 
 ment, these fixed charges amount to $20,000 per year, an amount 
 equal to the cost of the line losses. If the copper were increased 
 twofold the line losses would be cut in half, and conditions would 
 be as follows : 
 
 Investment in copper $200,000 
 
 Fixed charges on copper (20%) 40,000 
 
 Cost of line losses 10,000 
 
 Total annual expenses $50,000 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 913 
 
 This amount is seen to be more than in the former case, when 
 the fixed charges were equal to the cost of the line losses. Table 
 XVII shows what conditions would prevail with various changes 
 in the copper investment. It is seen that the most economical 
 operation of the line is secured when the copper investment is such 
 that the fixed costs and the cost of the line losses are equal. 
 
 This analysis is based on the primary assumption that a given 
 amount of energy is to be transmitted from one place to another. 
 
 TABLE XVII. 
 
 LOSSES AND CHARGES WITH VARIOUS 
 COPPER INVESTMENT 
 
 Investment 
 
 in 
 
 copper 
 
 $50,000 
 75,000 
 100,000 
 150.000 
 200.000 
 
 Annual 
 Relative fixed 
 
 investment charges, 20 
 per cent. 
 
 0.50 
 0.75 
 1.00 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 
 $10,000 
 15,000 
 20,000 
 30,000 
 40,000 
 
 Relative 
 
 line 
 
 losses 
 
 2.00 
 1.33 
 1.00 
 0.66 
 0.50 
 
 Cost of 
 
 line 
 losses 
 
 $40.G00 
 26,666 
 20,000 
 13.333 
 10,000 
 
 Total 
 annual 
 expense 
 
 $50,000 
 41,666 
 40,000 
 43.333 
 50,000 
 
 and therefore that any decrease of line losses wnll decrease the 
 coal con.sumption correspondingly. Such a method of analysis can 
 be applied only to problems in transmission. When we come to 
 consider distribution, there enter other factors which modify the 
 application of the analysis. 
 
 As applied to the distribution system as a whole, Kelvin's law 
 can still be applied to give approximate results, for an increase 
 in the copper inve.stment would decrease the line losses and allow 
 the maintenance of the same average delivered pressure with a 
 reduction in the station voltage. The intangible but positive value 
 of good regulation as an asset in favor of greater line investment 
 makes it impossible, even in this case, to make strict application of 
 Kelvin's law. As applied to a single feeder (without a regulator) 
 or to a limited district, an increase in copper investment will de- 
 crease the line losses by some certain amount, but if the same 
 total amount of energy is delivered to the feeder or district, the 
 energy sales must be increased by the amount of the decrease 
 in losses. 
 
 Decrease of Wattage with Terminal Pressure. Direct-current 
 motors, incandescent lamps, flatirons and all energy-consuming 
 devices of the resistor class decrease in wattage consumption as 
 the applied voltage is decreased. For this kind of load, therefore, 
 the effect of line loss between the station or the center of distribu- 
 tion and the load is to cause not only a loss of energy in the line 
 but also a decrease in the energy con.sumed by the load. Moreover, 
 an increase of voltage means a more than proportionately increased 
 energy consumption by the load itself; hence in this case the in- 
 crease in copper investment results not only in a saving of line 
 loss or a transfer of part of the loss to the energy sold, but also 
 in the sale of additional energy over and above the transfer of line 
 loss. 
 
914 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The question of how much the total increase in energy sale will 
 amount to depends upon the characteristics of the load. If the load 
 is a constant resistance, for which the wattage varies- as the square 
 of the voltage, the total increase in energy consumption will be 
 twice as great as the decrease in the line losses. If the wattage 
 varies directly with the voltage, the transfer from line loss will 
 constitute the whole of the increased energy consumption. 
 
 o r 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 :z 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 1 3 5 7 9 11 
 
 Fig. 13. Curve showing most economical copper investment 
 
 17 
 
 TABLE XVIII. RELATION BETWEEN WATTAGE AND 
 VOLTAGE 
 
 Load Exponent n 
 
 Direct-current motor (constant torque load) 0.8 to 1.0 
 
 Direct-current motor (generator load) About 1.0 
 
 Alternating-current motor About 1.0 
 
 Fiatiron 1.9 
 
 Toaster 2.0 
 
 Arc lamp 2.0 to 2.2 
 
 Incandescent lamp, carbon 1.9 
 
 Incandescent lamp, metallized filament 1.8 
 
 Incandescent lamp, tungsten filament 1.6 
 
 Table XVIII gives data showing the relation between wattage 
 and voltage for various classes of load. The second column, giving 
 empirical exponents in the assumed relation wattage, varies as 
 (voltage)'^. This table establishes the fact that about 1.5 is a 
 conservative figure for the average exponent in the assumed rela- 
 tion of wattage to voltage. 
 
 In general it can therefore be said that a line reconstruction 
 which decreases the energy loss in the lines by a certain amount 
 in k.w.-hrs. will increase the energy sales by about one and one- 
 half times that amount. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 915 
 
 The effect of this reconstruction is, therefore, not only to de- 
 crease the losses but to increase the sale of energy. In applying 
 Kelvin's law the decreased loss is taken into account but no con- 
 sideration is given to the increased energy sale. Since the sale 
 price of energy is often many times the direct or increment cost 
 of generation, it is evident that a most important item has thus 
 been neglected, 
 
 TABLE XIX. RELATION BETWEEN COPPER INVESTMENT 
 AND COSTS 
 
 Relative copper investment 
 
 1.00 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 
 
 (1) copper investment. $100,000 $175,000 $200,000 $225,000 $250,000 
 
 (2) Fixed charges 20,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000 
 
 (3) Cost of line losses.* 20,000 11,430 10,000 8,888 8,000 
 
 (4) Total expense ... 40,000 46,430 50,000 53,888 58,000 
 
 (5) Transfer from 
 losses to energy 
 sales, $20,000 minus 
 
 (3) 8,570 10,000 11,111 12,000 
 
 (6) Extra energy gen- 
 erated and sold, 
 
 half of (5) 4,285 5,000 5,555 6,000 
 
 (7) Total increase in 
 energy sales (5) 
 
 plus (6) 12,855 15,000 16,666 18,000 
 
 (8) Gross profit on 
 
 same, two times (7) 25,710 30,000 33,333 36,000 
 
 (9) Net expense, (4) 
 
 minus (8) 40,000 20,720 20,000 20,555 22,000 
 
 * The values given neglect the extra line loss due to the increase 
 in line current. This affects the final result less than 1 per cent. 
 
 Returning to the previous example, Table XIX is given to de- 
 termine the most economical copper investment, assuming that the 
 selling price of energy is three times the direct or increment cost 
 of generation. 
 
 This table shows that when the sale price of energy is three 
 times the direct or increment cost of generation the most economical 
 copper investment is twice as much as the amount that would be 
 indicated by applying Kelvin's law. 
 
 It can be shown that if the ratio of sale price of energy to the 
 direct cost of generation is p, then, considering this fact, the ratio / 
 of the actual economical copper investment to the apparent eco- 
 nomical copper investment as derived by Kelvin's law is given by 
 the relation 
 
 V- 
 
 3p 
 
 The accompanying curve shows this relation in a graphical form. 
 The advisability of investing more money in copper in the I'e- 
 construction of old lines and the determination of the amount of 
 copper to use in new lines are problems which require study from 
 several standpoints, one or more of which may govern the final 
 
916 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 solution. As has been brought out in this article, ordinary con- 
 ditions of operation will almost always commercially justify a 
 much greater investment in copper than could be justified on the 
 basis of Kelvin's law. 
 
 Cost of Constructing Pole Lines. J. M. Drabelle in a paper on 
 factors determining rural line extensions states that the cost of 
 constructing pole lines and stringing wires for 2,300-volt to 6,600- 
 volt systems is from $325 to $425 per mile. 
 
 H. W. Garner states that the style and cost of construction of 
 small lines should to a certain extent depend on the probable amount 
 of revenue obtainable from the localities supplied and advises the 
 use of wooden-pole single phase lines costing from $500 to $1,200 
 per mile complete for lines radiating from one small locality to 
 other small towns. 
 
 Cost of 2,300- Volt Line. Rufus E. Lee gives the cost of con- 
 structing a 2,300-volt line on steel tripartite poles set in concrete 
 as $600 per mile on the first 15 miles and $800 per mile on the 
 last 17 miles of a 32 mile line. Long haulage of poles and con- 
 struction supplies is said to account for the increased cost on the 
 latter part of the work. 
 
 Labor Cost of Building a Transmission Line. A power transmis- 
 sion line described in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 5, 1908, 
 was to be run about 20 miles. ' For all but 9,500 ft. of this distance 
 poles were up and being used for other purposes. For the distance 
 named an entirely new line had to be built along a public road. 
 The poles and cross arms were delivered at one end of the line 
 by railroad, so the average haul on material was about one mile. 
 The poles were from 30 to 33 ft. long, measuring from 5 to 9 ins. 
 at the top and from 12 to 18 ins. at the butt. 
 
 The wages paid for a 10-hr. day on the work were as follows: 
 
 Foreman $3.00 
 
 Laborers 1.50 
 
 Lineman 2.50 
 
 Team 2 horses and driver 4.50 
 
 Hauling. The poles were hauled on a two-horse wagon, one man 
 assisting the driver in loading and unloading them. Naturally a 
 large per cent, of the cost of hauling was in taking the poles from 
 the cars and unloading them from the wagon. The poles were of 
 chestnut, fairly light, and 8 to 10 poles could be hauled at a trip. 
 The cost of hauling the poles was : 
 
 Team $22.50 
 
 Laborers 7.50 
 
 Total $30.00 
 
 Digging Holes. In digging the holes for the poles, one man 
 worked on a hole. He used a digging bar, a shovel with extra long 
 handle and a spoon with same length handle. The holes were dug 
 5 ft. deep and were 30 ins. in diam. at the top and about 18 ins, 
 at the bottom, making an average diameter of 3 ft. From each 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 917 
 
 <0 
 
 '6 
 
 
 
 - 5? "2 
 
 ^ p OJ o 
 o3 =a=a V,^ mc^ 
 
 «3C 
 
 > as 
 
 o d M 
 o . :3 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 c5 d d 
 
 CO "Sec 
 
 O d d d d d o d -jjij §• d d ;2 '"^ '^' d d d 
 
 •qia^sip JO :>soo ^-^^^t^oo'^-ui 
 
 00"^ t-OOc— O-rH 
 lO 00 iM t~ (M M CO 
 
 T^ im' US iri oi <w eo' 
 
 OH 
 
 Q 
 H 
 
 H 
 Q 
 
 ■qWSip ^oiC^^COCD^O 
 
 a^aidlUOO Tj<(^acoix>'*cococ- 
 
 05CO u50t-0<rq 
 
 ■^ CO CD c~ o t- r-l 
 
 t-~I (M ■* to irt <M c^ 
 
 eoo ccosustOcD 
 
 oinococTjcoouj 
 
 010 
 
 Irt U5 01(M t- 
 
 
 SaoiAJaS oooo-^i-HOiT-iM 
 
 't'LO 
 
 CO Ift Oi rH Tt< 
 
 
 pu^-sa9^aKoaic«-2=^j-2^ 
 
 r-Jd 
 
 oi oj i-H Tt*" ci 
 
 T-1 T-l C-5 (M C5 
 
 
 €«■ 
 
 
 
 oc-c 
 
 000 -ooioinio 
 
 COCO 
 
 0000 CO -# 
 
 SJ9uijojsuBai='.^ :^^9'*:'1 
 
 <x>o 
 
 C-00U5COU5 
 
 cnco «7iTt<a5ooo^ 
 
 ■^'s-i 
 
 r-!t>^COt>^o6 
 
 e«- 
 
 T-t 
 
 tH<N1 
 
 
 
 
 •as 
 
 IrtT-lt— COt^-O^MO 
 
 lat^ 
 
 C-1 tH 
 
 a be 
 
 ^ TT . . C^ 00 C- <X> -M O-J U5 
 
 Q-iIAi^-docdoVodo" 
 
 (MCO 
 
 COOCOCOtH 
 
 ;h 
 
 eo'cd 
 
 T-i 1-5 CC' ci rH 
 
 tH t-(t-IiH OS 
 
 T-iCO 
 
 W CO tH tH cq 
 
 e/5- 
 
 
 
 C-OoiOlOOlOO 
 
 THUS 
 
 OlftC^COCO 
 
 
 S8TO(T ^"5 ^. «> L- cr> ci co 
 
 00" «o 00 <y3 CO to «d 
 
 CIO 
 
 t- CO CI 00 
 
 00 co' 
 
 rH CO co' M -*' 
 
 
 oe- iH la 
 
 CO 
 
 
 •Ai->[ .^ . . 
 
 jatunsnoo aad :^ '. Ic^iSS ^ 
 
 coia 
 
 COOiCCl 
 
 .2fH 
 
 iMi-H 
 
 cot- 
 
 CO -* CO t- Oi • 
 C^ C- (M •* CO 
 
 •d'BO -jajsu-BJi •••••••• 
 
 
 '•i-J 
 
 1: 
 
 •jsu-Bj; :^, : :^^2 : 
 
 (MCO 
 
 c- 1 CO t^ 
 
 ■j-".S 
 
 IMOO 
 
 i>ot-t-'*' 
 
 "t:^ Jh 
 
 j^.d'BO l^^OJ, .^ ! .oicoc- . 
 
 c-co 
 
 CO C-, rH C U5^ 
 
 •■-? 
 
 
 
 t-HU5»-HtHt-H 
 
 ^S 
 
 •suoD s^s?s;^§s 
 
 00 
 
 mOTHOlrt 
 
 So 
 
 0-* 
 
 t- ~f IC CI 
 
 JO •O^Nj; -* "» 00 CO rH t- -^_^-t< 
 
 iMlfl 
 
 00 '^^ CI CI 
 
 tH T-i" 
 
 <m' 
 
 rHC0'l«C)Cr 
 
 OOOOOOOO 
 
 00 
 
 o- 
 
 "a. 
 
 Alio ooooc-jooo 
 
 00 
 
 ooooo 
 
 ^H O, 
 
 JO -doa "i^i.'t"i^.°^-^.° 
 
 OU5 
 
 00' c; 
 
 oooc-o_ 
 of cod CO 10 
 
 Jh 
 
 '-J'-; 
 
 tHtH 
 
 ci ci ffo "# -^ 
 
 H :'.;::::: 
 
 
 
 
 Locatio 
 
 No. Dak. 
 So. Dak. 
 So. Dak. . 
 No. Dak. 
 No. Dak. 
 So. Dak. 
 Iowa . . . 
 No. Dak. 
 
 ^1 
 
 hio . . . 
 hio . . . 
 linois . 
 linois . 
 linois . 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CCEmR 
 
 
918 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 hole was excavated 0.58 cu. yd. The material was a red sandy- 
 clay, and the holes were all dry. There were 74 holes dug. The 
 cost was : 
 
 Foreman $17.25 
 
 Laborers 55.50 
 
 Total $72.75 
 
 The cost per hole was as follows : 
 
 Foreman $0.23 
 
 Men 0.75 
 
 Total $0.98 
 
 The cost per cu. yd. was as follows: 
 
 Foreman , $0.40 
 
 Men 1.30 
 
 Total $1.70 
 
 It will be noticed that one man dug 2 holes per day. On another 
 job holes 5 ft. in diameter and 5 ft. deep were dug at the rate of 
 two per man-day, at the same rate as thege holes were dug. On 
 these larger holes about 6 times as much earth was handled at the 
 same cost, thus showing how much cheaper earth can be handled 
 from a hole large enough to admit of a man working in it. The 
 hole poles had to be dug by the man standing over the hole. 
 Another item that affects the cost is that on the larger diameter 
 holes, two men worked together, while on the pole holes only one 
 man worked on a hole, which meant a slow pace. 
 
 Raising Poles. The pole raising was done by hand. A deadman 
 and a jenny were used, these being manipulated by two men. The 
 foreman or a lineman held a metal slide in the hole for the butt 
 of the pole to slide against, keeping it from gouging into the side 
 of the hole. The rest of the crew used pikes to lift the top of the 
 pole, and place it in the hole. The crew consisted of the foreman, 
 one lineman and about 7 men. 
 
 The method of operation was as follows : The pole was rolled 
 to the hole by means of bars and cant hooks. The slide mean- 
 time was placed in the hole. Then the crew lifted the small end 
 onto the jenny which held it until the deadman was put in place. 
 With the pole resting on the deadman, the pikes were brought into 
 play, and as the pole was lifted the deadman was moved up under 
 the pole until the final lift came that sent the pole into the hole. 
 Then it was turned and lined up, the lineman assisting the foreman 
 in this work, after which the refilling of the hole was done. 
 
 A record of this work was kept in detail on a number of poles, 
 from which it was found that the average time consumed in the 
 work was as follows : 
 
 Getting ready to set pole, 3 min. ; raising pole, 6 min. ; lining 
 pole, 2 min. ; filling and tamping earth in hole, 1 man shovelling 
 and 3 tamping, 10 min., several men standing by the pikes to 
 steady the pikes; moving to next hole, 4 min.; total time, 25 min. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 919 
 
 When everything is working well this average can be maintained, 
 but a little time is occasionally lost due to unforeseen obstacles that 
 prevent this speed. The cost of raising the poles was : 
 
 Foreman $10.50 
 
 Laborers 37.50 
 
 Lineman 8.75 
 
 Total $56.75 
 
 This, for the 74 poles, gives a cost per pole of the following: 
 
 Foreman $0.14 
 
 Laborers 0.50 
 
 Lineman 0.12 
 
 Total $0.76 
 
 Cross Arms. Before raising the poles, and while the laborers 
 were digging the holes, the linemen were at work dapping the 
 poles to receive the cross arms. The cross arms used were 8-pin 
 arms, two being placed on each pole. At all times in the line, 
 double cross arms were used, that is, a cross arm was put on each 
 side of the poles. This was the case for nine poles. For future 
 needs the poles were dapped in 3 places. This made 240 days 
 necessary. The poles, as stated, were chestnut. The cost of 
 dapping the poles was $22.62, making a cost per dap of 9.8 cts. 
 
 One lineman placed the cross arms, the team hauling them along 
 as needed, and the driver acting as the lineman's " ground hog." 
 The sketch shows how these arms were placed, and braced with 
 two pieces of galvanized iron. In all, 166 cross arms were used. 
 The cost of this work was : 
 
 Hauling with team $21.37 
 
 Lineman 6.25 
 
 Total $27.62 
 
 The high cost of this was due to the fact that the team was 
 charged to this work for the entire time of placing the cross arms, 
 as it waited at each pole while the arms were being put in place. 
 The cost per cross arm was 17 cts. 
 
 One lineman and a helper placed the insulators. The cost of this 
 was : 
 
 Lineman $3.75 
 
 Helper 2.25 
 
 Total $6.00 
 
 Only six insulators were put on a cross arm, thus making 12 to 
 a pole, except at the turns, as the line was to carry 12 wires. In 
 all 996 insulators were used, hence the cost per unit was 0.6 ct. 
 
 Guy Poles. In building lines with a number of wires on them, 
 it is necessary to guy all poles where there are turns in the line, 
 and on long straight lines some of the poles must also be guyed. 
 
920 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The sketch shows the method used in guying this line, and is one 
 frequently used. The guy pole holes were dug of about the same 
 dimensions as the holes for the line poles. The cost was : 
 
 Foreman $1.50 
 
 Laborers 6.75 
 
 Total $8.25 
 
 The cost per pole was : 
 
 Foreman $0.17 
 
 Laborers 0.75 
 
 Total $0.92 
 
 The raising of the poles cost : 
 
 Foreman $3.00 
 
 Laborers 9.00 
 
 Total $12.00 
 
 This makes a cost per hole of $1.S3. This is large, owing to the 
 fact that the men lost considerable time moving from pole to pole 
 and carrying their tools, also to the fact that each pole had to be 
 cut and trimmed, as these guy poles were made from rejected 
 line poles. 
 
 The method of placing the guy wires to the poles was as follows : 
 The wire was fastened to each of the two poles, and then brought 
 to the tightening block as shown in the sketch. With blocks and 
 tackle fastened to the two poles, the poles were brought to a snug 
 bearing and the wires were made fast around the tightening block, 
 shown in the sketch. The wires go around the block in grooves 
 made for the purpose at right angles to each other. While the 
 linemen and their helpers are doing this work, the laborers are 
 digging the anchor hole and placing the anchor rod. To this is 
 fastened a turn buckle, and a wire is run from the guy pole to the 
 turn buckle. The blocks and tackle are then fastened to a handy 
 tree or stump, or if necessary to the anchor rod and the guy pole 
 is pulled back, tightening the guy wire between the two poles, while 
 the turn buckle is screwed up, thus making all the guy wires taut. 
 At times, instead of making an anchor as shown, the anchor wire 
 can be fastened to a convenient tree. Both kinds of anchors were 
 used in this case. The cost of this work was : 
 
 Foreman $1.50 
 
 Linemen 3.75 
 
 Laborers 3.75 
 
 Total $9.00 
 
 This made a cost of $1.00 per pole, making a total cost per guy 
 pole of $3.25. 
 
 About one-half of this line ran through the edge of woods or 
 by shade trees. A few trees had to be cut down and a number 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 921 
 
 trimmed ; some tall bushes were also cut down. The foreman 
 looked after this work part of one day when all his force was at 
 work upon ^t, but for the most part linemen were in charge of 
 several laborers doing this work. The cost of it was as follows : 
 
 Foreman % 2.25 
 
 Lineman 18.12 
 
 Men 13.13 
 
 Total $33.50 
 
 Stringing the Wires. As previously stated, 12 wires were strung 
 on the poles. The wires were light weight. The team hauled the 
 wire, and one horse was used in helping to string it, the other 
 horse standing idle. In line work, a team is nearly always neces- 
 sary, yet there are times that it may stand idle for hours, thus 
 increasing the cost of that item to which it is charged. When there 
 is nothing else for the wagon to do it is used to carry the tools 
 along the line as the men work. In stringing the wire the horse 
 pulled a rope fastened to two strands of wire at one time, thus 
 running out two wires, and making six trips of the horse to string 
 out the 12 wires. For this work 3 linemen were used, but in 
 fastening the wires to the insulators only 2 linemen were used, and 
 the wires were pulled tight by the helpers with blocks and tackle. 
 The cost was : 
 
 Foreman $ 18.00 
 
 Linemen 37 50 
 
 Laborers 27.00 
 
 Team 36.00 
 
 Total $118.50 
 
 In all 21.6 miles of wire were strung and this made a cost of $5.50 
 per mile of wire. 
 
 Changing Poles. At the ends of the line, where connections were 
 made with the old line of poles, some poles had to be changed to 
 make them suitable for the new service. There were 3 of these at 
 one end and 1 at the other. The work consisted in taking down 
 the old poles and putting in their place poles from 40 to 45 ft. 
 long. Cross arms had to be put on the new poles, and the wires 
 changed over to the new poles. It took a half day for the crew 
 to do each pole, thus spending 2 days on the 4 poles. The cost 
 of this was : 
 
 Foreman ' $ 6.00 
 
 Lineman 2.50 
 
 Laborers 39.00 
 
 Team 9.00 
 
 Total $56.50 
 
 This gave a cost per pole of $14.12. In line work the foreman is 
 always a lineman, and in doing odd jobs this frequently keeps the 
 cost down, as he will often do work that a lineman is called upon 
 to do. As the lineman is the higher priced man he should be 
 allowed to do only such work as the helper is not able to do. 
 
922 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Total Cost. The total cost of the entire work was as follows : 
 
 Hauling $ •30.00 
 
 Dig-g-ingr holes 72.75 
 
 Raising- poles 56.75 
 
 Dapping cross arms 22.62 
 
 Placing cross arms and insulators 33.62 
 
 Guy poles 29.25 
 
 Trimming.trees and bushes 33.50 
 
 Stringing and fastening wires 118.50 
 
 Changing old poles 56.50 
 
 Total $453.49 
 
 There being 1.6 miles of line built, the cost per mile for each 
 item was : 
 
 Hauling $ 18.75 
 
 Digging holes 45.47 
 
 Raising poles 35.47 
 
 Dapping cross arms 14.14 
 
 Placing cross arms and insulators 21.01 
 
 Guy poles 18.28 
 
 Trimming trees and bushes 20.94 
 
 Stringing and fastening wires 74.06 
 
 Changing old poles 35.31 
 
 Total $283.43 
 
 For the 74 new poles erected this makes a cost per pole for the 
 completed line of $6.13. 
 
 Reducing the Cost of Line Construction. Comparative tests con- 
 ducted in St. Louis, Mo., and described in Electrical World, May 30, 
 1914, seem to show that the cost of overhead distribution line con- 
 struction may be reduced to nearly y^ its former value by the use 
 of a combination primary-secondary distribution rack. In addition 
 to the economic record shown, the distribution rack has the further 
 advantage of presenting a neat and finished appearance on th6 
 poles. For this reason the alley between Westmoreland and Port- 
 land Places, exclusive residence districts in St. Louis, was selected 
 as the site for the experimental line. The site of the experimental 
 standard line was in another part of the city. In all fairness it 
 should be said that the standard line was built on a street free from 
 trees and obstructions, under more favorable conditions than was 
 the bracket line, where there were alley fences to be climbed and 
 carefully kept lawns had to be avoided. Equal numbers of secon- 
 dary services were installed on each line, making the necessary 
 labor as nearly identical as possible. 
 
 As will be noted from data* in the accompanying tables, the cost 
 of building the standard primary-secondary distribution system, 
 inclusive of material, labor, painting, extra haulage and overhead 
 charges, was $116.13. For the competing line using distribution- 
 rack construction the cost was $45.24, no charge being included for 
 extra haulage, as the crew were able to carry all material in the 
 gang automobile. These figures show that the standard construc- 
 tion really cost two and one-half times as much as the distribution- 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 923 
 
 rack construction, although the former was built under the more 
 favorable conditions. Data in the accompanying tables show what 
 material was used and give total costs. 
 
 The distribution racks, which will be marketed by W. N. Matthews 
 & Brother, of St. Louis, consist of a line, while the secondary pins 
 are cast integral with the vertical channel. Two through-bolt sus- 
 pension has been used in St. Louis, but a single stud bolt with a 
 lag screw in the lower hole may be utilized satisfactorily. 
 
 Standard primary-arm construction 
 Material : No. of pieces 
 
 Primary arms 15 
 
 24-in. cross-arm braces 30 
 
 0.625-in. by 12-in. machine bolts 15 
 
 0.625-in. by 5-in. lag screws 15 
 
 Pins 30 
 
 Clamps 15 
 
 Square washers 30 
 
 Labor : Hours 
 
 Seven piece, one and one-half hours each 10.5 
 
 Automobile 1.5 
 
 Standard secondary-arm construction 
 Material : No. of pieces 
 
 Secondary arms 15 
 
 24-in. bracer 30 
 
 0.625-in. by 14-in. machine bolts 15 
 
 0.625-in. by 5-in. lag screws 15 
 
 Pins 60 
 
 Through-point spreaders 30 
 
 Malleable pole-back brackets 15 
 
 2-in. by 0.25-in. lag screws 60 
 
 Labor : Hours 
 
 Seven piece, one and three-quarter hours each. . 12.25 
 
 Automobile 1.75 
 
 Extra team to haul arms 21.00 
 
 Driver 21.00 
 
 Material and labor to apply on cost of lead and oil paint 
 
 Material : Amount 
 
 White lead in oil, 1 lb 10.0 
 
 Boiled linseed oil, gal 1.5 
 
 Turpentine, gal 0.5 
 
 Japan drier, pt. . . *. 0.25 
 
 Dry red mineral, lb 4.33 
 
 Labor : Hours 
 
 One man painting 2.5 
 
 Two men fitting up 5.0 
 
 Total cost $116.13 
 
 Combination distribution-rack construction 
 Material : Number of pieces 
 
 Brackets complete 15 
 
 0.625-in. by 12-in. machine bolts 30 
 
 Square washers 30 
 
 0.375-in. by 2-in. machine bolts 15 
 
 Western Union pins 30 
 
924 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Labor : Hours 
 
 Three men, two hours each 6 
 
 Automobile 2 
 
 Total cost $45.24 
 
 Itemized Cost of Two Telephone Lines. Data for telephone con- 
 struction are given in Engineering-Contracting-, July 24, 1907, for 
 two short lines, one 10 miles long and the other 14 miles long. 
 The cost of the 10 mile line was as follows per mile: 
 
 Labor : 
 
 1.7 days foreman at $4.00 $ 6.80 
 
 1.7 days sub-foreman at $3.00 5.10 
 
 4.0 days climbers at $2.50 10.00 
 
 10.5 days groundmen at $2.25 23.63 
 
 17.9 days total at $3.10 $55.53 
 
 Materials : 
 
 28 poles at $1.50 $ 42.00 
 
 28 cross arms at $0.15 4.20 
 
 28 steel pins at 0.04 1.12 
 
 28 glass insulators at 0.04 1.12 
 
 56 lag screws and washers at 0.015 0.84 
 
 305 lbs. No. 9 galv. wire at 0.042 12.81 
 
 Total materials $ 62.09 
 
 Total labor and materials $117.62 
 
 More than 90% of the poles were 25 ft. long. The rest were 30 
 to 40 ft. in length. 
 
 The cost of the 14 mile line was as follows per mile : 
 
 Labor : 
 
 2.2 days foreman at $3.50 $ 7.70 
 
 2.2 days sub-foreman at $3.00 6.60 
 
 5.3 days climber at $2.75 14.58 
 
 11.4 days groundman at $2.25 25.64 
 
 21.5 days total at $2.54 $54.52 
 
 Materials : 
 
 32 poles at $1.50 $48.00 
 
 32 brackets at 0.015 0.48 
 
 380 lbs. No. 8 galv. wire, 0.042 15.96 
 
 10 lbs. No. 9 galv. wire, 0.042 0.42 
 
 IV2 lbs. fence staples, 0.025 0.04 
 
 32 insulators, 0.04 : 1.28 
 
 Total materials $66.18 
 
 Total labor and materials $120.70 
 
 2 telephones at $12.50 25.00 
 
 200 ft. office wire 1.40 
 
 Considering the low cost of telephone lines of this character, it 
 is surprising that they are not more frequently built for use on 
 construction work. For temporary purposes, a much cheaper kind 
 of poles could be used. For example, a very substantial pole could 
 be made by nailing together two 1 x 4-in. boards, so as to form a 
 post having a T-shaped cross-section. Such a pole would contain 
 pnly two-thirds of a foot, board measure (% ft. b. m.) per lineal 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 925 
 
 foot of pole. At $24 per M for the boards, a pole 20 ft. long- would 
 cost 32 cts. 
 
 Hence the poles would cost less than $10 per mile of line. The 
 No. 9 wire would ordinarily cost less than $13 per mile, and $3 
 more would cover the cost of the remaining line materials, making 
 a total cost of $26 per mile for materials. "We have no data as to 
 the labor of erecting such a line, but it would certainly be less 
 than $15 per mile; and in soil where post hole diggers could be 
 used, the cost would be considerably less. In fact, a telephone line 
 built for $35 a mile might easily be obtained under fairly favorable 
 conditions. Moreover it could be taken down and used many times 
 on subsequent construction. 
 
 Itemized Cost of a 28-Mile Telegraph Line. Data given in En- 
 gineering and Contracting, July 10, 1907, relate to a telegraph line 
 28 miles long, built in British Columbia. There were 32 poles to 
 the mile, strung with a single No. 8 B. B. galvanized iron wire. 
 The cost of the poles v*^as very much less than it would be in most 
 localities, but, sinc« quotations on poles are readily secured, proper 
 substitutions can be made in the following tabulated values for 
 any particular case. 
 
 Size and Weight of Telegraph Wire. Until recently the size of 
 wire commonly used for lines of medium length, up to 400 mile.s, 
 was No. 9. weighing 305 lbs. per mile, but No. 8 is now used more 
 frequently. There are two grades commonly used : the E. B. B., 
 or " extra best best " ; and the B. B., or " best best." A third grade 
 S, or " steel," is also used for short circuits. The following are 
 the weights of galvanized wire : 
 
 Size No. Lbs. per mile Lb. per ft. Ft. per lb. 
 
 6 570 0.108 9.2 
 
 7 450 0.085 11.7 
 
 8 380 0.072 14.0 
 
 9 305 0.058 17.4 
 
 10 250 ^ 0.047 21.2 
 
 The itemized cost of this 28 mile line was as follows: 
 
 Labor : 
 
 1.0 day, foreman at $3.50 
 
 1.0 day, sub-foreman at $3.00 ^ 
 
 2.7 dav.s, climber at $2.50 
 
 2.5 days, fraraer at $2.25 
 
 0.7 day, blacksmith at $2.25 
 
 4.6 days, groundman at $2.00 
 
 % 3.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 6 75 
 
 5.62 
 
 1.58 
 
 9.20 
 
 12.5 days total at $2.40 $29.65 
 
 Materials : 
 
 32 poles (25-ft.) at $1.25 $40.00 
 
 32 wooden brackets at 1 ^4 cts. 0.40 
 
 32 glass insulators at 0.4 cts 1.28 
 
 5 lbs. nails at 2 Vo cts 0.12 
 
 % lb. staples at 0.3 cts 0.02 
 
 380 lbs. No. 8 BB galv. wire at 5 cts 19.00 
 
 2 lbs. tie wire at 3 cts 0.06 
 
 Total materials $60.88 
 
 Total labor and materials $90.53 
 
926 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The labor includes the cost of digging holes, erecting poles, 
 stringing the wire, etc. The poles were distributed by train, and 
 the price of $1.25 per pole does not include the train service. 
 
 Cost of Telephone Lines. The costs in Table XXI are estimates 
 based on averaere conditions in the Middle West. 
 
 TABLE XXI. COST OF BARE COPPER AERIAL LINES 
 
 50 wire line 100 wire line 200 wire line 
 40 ft. poles 45 ft. poles 60 ft. poles 
 
 Poles, cedar, 35 per mile $208 $290 $590 
 
 Poles, setting 87 105 165 
 
 / Cross-arms, 10 pins 77 154 306 
 
 Cross-arms, attaching to poles 26 53 105 
 
 Braces and screws 13 26 53 
 
 Pins 14 26 36 
 
 Pins, attaching to arms. ... 2 4 8 
 
 Insulators 17 35 70 
 
 Insulators, attaching to pins 8 18 35 
 No. 14 B. «& S. G. hard 
 
 drawn cop. wire 488 97S 1,950 
 
 Labor, stringing wire 250 500 1,000 
 
 Total $1,190 $2,186 $4,318 
 
 Cost of Telephone Toll Pole Lines. The average costs for New 
 England States given below are from Data, Feb., 1912, and are 
 
 25 FT. POLES, HEAVY CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Average 
 cost per mile 
 
 Poles $125 
 
 Guying 7 
 
 Cross arms 32 
 
 One circuit No. 12 wire 68 
 
 Sundries 20 
 
 Teaming 20 
 
 Labor cross arming 7 
 
 Labor poles -. 105 
 
 Labor wire 7 
 
 Labor trimming trees 15 
 
 Sundry 35 
 
 Right of way 50 
 
 Average for New England States $491 
 
 Cost of Rural-Service Line. The following is taken from Elec- 
 trical World, Jan. 16, 1915, Lines of the Noblesville, Ind., Heat, 
 Light & Power Company constructed along country roads to supply 
 the farmers of Hamilton County with electric service are built of 
 25-ft. poles spaced 200 ft. apart. Following the company's standard 
 practice, using No. 8 bare hard -drawn copper wire and 30-in. tele- 
 phone cross-arms, the average cost of a mile of line is as shown in 
 Table XXII. 
 
 This table of expense includes nothing for supervision, use of 
 tools, insurance or interest, and it is estimated that the actual 
 cost, including everything, is about $300 a mile. The company 
 therefore starts with an initial investment of $100 a mile, since the 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 927 
 
 farmer customers deposit $200 a mile, and the company's in- 
 vestment is later increased to $300 a mile when it acquires the 
 line. 
 
 Assuming that 60% of the gross revenue from this line is used 
 in operating expenses, then 40% is left for interest, depreciation 
 and profit. If interest is assumed at 7% and depreciation at 5%, 
 
 TABLE XXII. COST OF A MILE OP RURAL-SERVICE LINE 
 
 Unit Item 
 
 price cost 
 
 27 poles (25 ft, high with 5-in. top) $1.15 $31.05 
 
 10,560 ft. No. 8 copper wire 0.16 126.40 
 
 27 telephone cross-arms 0.13 3.51 
 
 27 through bolts 0.05 1.35 
 
 54 locust pins 0.013 0.70 
 
 54 insulators (porcelain) 0.03 1.62 
 
 54 .square galvanized washers 0.009 0.50 
 
 Guy anchors (average) 5.00 
 
 Labor and hauling 72.00 
 
 Total field expense for material and labor $242.23 
 
 then 12% of $300. or $36, will need to be charged against each mile 
 of line. Table XXIII, worked out on this basis, shows how much 
 revenue must be received from each customer before his account 
 is profitable. 
 
 TABLE XXIIL FINANCIAL DATA ON RURAL-SERVICE LINE 
 
 Average 
 
 Annual 
 
 Annual 
 
 
 
 monthly 
 
 gross 
 
 net 
 
 Annual 
 
 Annual 
 
 bill per 
 
 revenue 
 per mile 
 
 revenue 
 
 interest 
 
 surplus 
 
 customer 
 
 per mile 
 
 
 
 $1.00 
 
 $48 
 
 $19.20 
 
 $36 
 
 —$16.80 
 
 1.50 
 
 72 
 
 28 80 
 
 36 
 
 — 7.20 
 
 2.00 
 
 96 
 
 38.40 
 
 36 
 
 + 2.40 
 
 2.50 
 
 120 
 
 48.00 
 
 36 
 
 + 12.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 144 
 
 57.00 
 
 36 
 
 21.60 
 
 4.00 
 
 192 
 
 76.00 
 
 36 
 
 40.80 
 
 5.00 
 
 240 
 
 96.00 
 
 36 
 
 60.00 
 
 From these data it w^ill be seen that until the customer's bill 
 averages nearly $3 a month rural lines are not a paying experiment 
 under these conditions as the interest and depreciation charge in- 
 cludes nothing for the generating station. After the customer has 
 passed the $3 a month average bill, however, he becomes a profitable 
 patron. During the development period the deficit shown is some- 
 what offset because of the interest charge being lower as the 
 customer has had only a part of his advance payment refunded. 
 
 Cost of Steel Tower Lines. T. A. Worcester in a paper before 
 the A. I. E. E.. May 17, 1912, says: The size of conductor de- 
 pends on electrical considerations, except where the length of span 
 is the governing feature. 
 
 The length of span, except in river or gorge crossings, is de- 
 pendent upon the designer and must be chosen so as to give the 
 
928 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 line the least cost. As the span increases, the number of towers 
 and insulators per mile decrease, but on the other hand the height 
 of the towers must be increased to care for the greater sag and 
 at the same time they must be made proportionately stronger and 
 heavier to care for the greater loads per span. The effect of these 
 changes on the cost of a line is shown by the curve, Fig. 14. The 
 length of a span affects the loads in the vertical direction and in 
 the horizontal direction across the line and not that parallel to the 
 line, since the latter is governed by the size of the conductor, it 
 being necessary to adjust the sag so as not to exceed the safe 
 stress for the wires. 
 
 3000 
 2900 
 
 a 
 
 
 < 2800 
 ^ 2700 
 9 2600 
 |}^ 2500 
 8 2400 
 
 ^^^500 600 700 800 900 1000" 
 
 SPA^.FEET 
 
 Fig. 14. Cost per mile of towers and insulators erected. 
 
 For every size of conductor there is a practical limit of the length 
 of span beyond which the sags and height of tower becomes ex- 
 cessive and there is danger of the wires swinging together. For 
 the smaller sizes of conductor this limit is ^uite low — 300 ft. for 
 No. 4 cable — and in many cases it will be found more economical 
 to increase the size of conductor so as to permit using a greater 
 span as illustrated in Table XXIV. 
 
 TABLE XXIV. RELATION BETWEEN SPAN AND WIRE 
 
 Case I 
 No. 4 B. & S. 
 
 Case II 
 No. 2 B. & S. 
 
 Span, 
 ft. 
 
 300 
 360 
 
 Sag, 
 ft. 
 
 10.5 
 10.5 
 
 SIZE 
 
 No. of 
 towers 
 per mile 
 
 17.6 
 14.7 
 
 Cost of 
 
 towers and 
 
 Insulators 
 
 per mile 
 
 erected 
 
 $3,080 
 
 $2,570 
 
 Cost of 
 wire and 
 
 freight 
 per mile 
 
 " $322 
 $514 
 
 Total 
 per 
 mile 
 
 $3,402 
 $3,084 
 
 Saving per mile $318 
 
 These figures are based on the assumption that the same towers 
 and sags would be used in both cases, giving the same clearance 
 to ground. The sag in Case I is the minimum sag at which wires 
 may be strung on the basis of deg. Fahr., 8 lb. wind, and .5 in. 
 sleet and with these same conditions and sag the span for No. 2 
 wire is calculated and found to be 360 ft. With this tower spacing 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 929 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.';:: 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 (D "^ 
 
 
 
 ,i3 . 
 
 
 , c 
 
 
 
 t>c» 
 
 ^ &0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iJiD 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 C <U 
 
 
 (^^^ w 
 
 
 
 O fl 
 
 CCI cq Cv] ^1 ^ tH rH tH 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 O't'OO-^lftC^-^it^t^ 
 
 
 
 (M C-J tH IM 05 tH rH T-l 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 iH^H ?^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 w 3) 
 
 
 
 ^< . 
 
 aslrtt-rHCOMioSDt- 
 
 
 tl 
 
 O 
 
 t— t^T}H-*tOU5Tj<c^C-. 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 LO CO t- <M 'M fO iH iH 
 
 Iss 
 
 1 
 
 u5iniTt<oo"*'"*T!^mii5 
 
 ^O-M 
 
 5 
 
 okc^■s. 
 
 «2 
 
 mmmmO-tO^mcnm 
 
 o 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 J "w 
 
 
 tj C 
 
 
 <1 . 
 
 < 
 
 
 _j <B W 
 TO a; q; 
 
 ooooooc^wo 
 
 tr'S c 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^ > i^ 
 
 rHT-HUOlCUS^OCOO 
 
 <1 
 
 
 
 tHiHiHi-H tH r-l 
 
 5^1 
 
 > 
 
 
 S"g . 
 
 
 c-5 
 
 
 S' 
 
 ^ 3 ^^ . 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 StJ bX)>-^ 
 
 
 M E- OJ 
 
 H 
 
 z 
 
 fltH "^ 
 
 
 ^J 
 
 
 nj 
 
 
 fQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 000000000 
 
 
 2 
 
 000000 00 
 
 
 
 000000 00 
 
 ;^^3 
 
 
 m 
 
 upq 
 
 o'o'mm'^^ 
 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 1° 
 
 000000 
 
 
 o 
 1 
 
 roco««3 
 
 
 iz2 
 
 
 ce M . ^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 i-, 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 COCOSCCCCOCOCOCOIXI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 J: " w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^^ 
 
 -M CO -^ 
 
 
 
 BS 
 
 ^ ■— - ^^ 
 
 
 
 ^Jl-lJ^q^^J-^^J^ 
 
 8^5 
 
930 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and No. 2 cable the cost of the line is $318 less than with No. 4 
 cable and 300 ft. span. It is allowable to assume that the same 
 towers can be used in the second case as in the first since the 
 lightest tower which it is practicable to build would be sufficiently- 
 strong- for the second case. However, it would be possible to put 
 $20 more into the cost of each tower and still have the cost of 
 the second line a trifle less than that of the first and the gain 
 would accrue from the electrical advantages of the larger size of 
 conductor. 
 
 A span of 360 ft. is not necessarily the most economical span 
 for the No. 2 conductor. Further calculation indicates that a 500-ft. 
 span could be used with only a very slight increase in the cost of 
 the towers. This limit cannot be extended beyond 500-ft. even 
 though the line with greater spans would have a less cost. Here 
 again the limit depends on mechanical considerations rather than 
 on costs and is governed by the danger of lashing together of the 
 wires in gusty winds. 
 
 Tower Line Cost in Calif. In Chap. I, last part, will be found a 
 detail estimate of the cost of a high voltage tower line, made by 
 H. P. Gillette, based on actual costs. 
 
 Ratio of Labor to Material Costs in Steel-Tower Transmission- 
 Line Construction. A. B. Cudebec in Electrical World, July 17, 
 1915, states that the cost of a heavy tower line may vary from 
 $4,000 to $12,000 per mile of which the materials pt construction 
 alone aggregate between 70 and 80%. 
 
 Towers for Transmission Lines. Data on dimensions and 
 weights for a number of towers are given in Table XXV. Gal- 
 vanized towers cost from 2.5 to 4 cts. per lb., f. o. b. factory. 
 Galvanizing costs from 0.5 to 1 ct. per lb., this cost being included 
 in the figures given. 
 
 TABLE XX VT. DATA ON TYPICAL TOWER FOUNDATIONS 
 (Used in connection with the first four towers listed in Table XXV.) 
 
 Height, ins.. Base, Lb. of Cu. yd. of 
 
 Type (over-all) ins. steel concrete 
 
 Reinf. cone 78 60 by 60 500 4.4 
 
 Reinf. cone 96 96 by 96 1,584 14.4 
 
 Steel 90 44 by 45 1,285 
 
 Steel 88 52 by 52 1,865 
 
 There are 4 foundation blocks per tower designed to project 6 ins. 
 above the ground surface. 
 
 Cost per IVlile of Pole Lines, for 3-Phase 2,300 to 6,000 Volts. 
 The data in Table XXVI I, from six north-central and south-western 
 states. 1909, are from Data. It will be noted that certain items 
 under minimum costs are higher than the average and others under 
 maximum are less than average. These are not errors, but are 
 due to local conditions of each installation. " Installation of Mini- 
 mum Cost " gives itemized costs of that one of the six installations 
 referred to, the total cost of which was the least ; " Maximum " that 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 931 
 
 one, the total cost of which was greatest 
 of equipment for all six installations. 
 
 " Average," average cost 
 
 TABLE XXVII. COST OF POLE LINES PER MILE 
 
 Installation of Installation of 
 
 minimum maximum 
 
 cost cost Average 
 
 50 30-ft. poles $171 $200 $219 
 
 50 sets pole hardware .... 8 16 10 
 
 50 2-pin cross arms 17 11 14 
 
 150 insulators 7 11 9 
 
 Labor setting 55 200 109 
 
 Labor stringing wire 30 40 35 
 
 Incidentals 10 50 30 
 
 $298 $528 $426 
 
 Above figures are exclusive of painting, copper, engineering and 
 general expense. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Transmission Lines. C. D. Gray in En- 
 gineering News, July 20, 1911, gives the cost per mile of several 
 different types of construction for a three phase, 60,000-volt line, 
 60 cycle circuit, with No. 1 copper wire and suspension insulators, 
 using four 10-inch discs, together with a suitable grounded con- 
 ductor carried above the circuit. These figures do not include 
 the cost of right of way, surveys, engineering or contractors' fees. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-phase overhead, 2300 volts at sending end» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOO) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Curves showing distance that power can be transmittpd 
 uith 5% tine loss; 100% power factor is assumed 
 
 Transmission distance for (a) other power fac- 
 tors: Multiply value from curve bv power factor 
 expressed as a percentage- (b) Other percentage 
 drop: Multiply value from curve by percentage 
 factor in table below: 
 
 Per cent. drop. Percentage factor. 
 
 5 100. % 
 
 4 80.3% 
 
 3 6! .4% 
 
 2 41 .8% 
 
 1 21 .3% 
 
 
 900 \ 
 
 ^\ 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 » 
 
 aon \ 
 
 \ \ 
 
 i 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 N 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 \\ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 k 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 500 
 
 
 A 
 
 [\ 
 
 \ 
 
 \;^ 
 
 S 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 1- 
 
 \ 
 
 x^ 
 
 ^ok^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 MO 
 
 '^1 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 *^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ""^'^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 ~1 
 
 i 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 EOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 :: 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 ■- 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■-- 
 
 -. 
 
 
 r:: 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 =] 
 
 
 
 
 =i 
 
 
 1 • 
 
 : — \~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■EET 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 000 
 
 7l — ^ 
 
 ooo| 
 
 
 
 MiLJ 
 
 
 
 
 • "m 
 
 
 
 
 
 2' 
 
 
 
 
 
 vJ 
 
 'Ml. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i'M 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 it.' 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 The estimated costs are based on the use of 40 ft. 8 in. top chest- 
 nut poles, spaced 175 ft. apart, the grounded wire consisting of No. 
 8 copper clad wire with the main wires supported on steel cross 
 arms and the grounded wire on the top of the pole. The single 
 circuit steel towers have bases about 14 ft. square and the lower 
 
932 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 wires 50 ft. from the ground, spaced 500 ft. apart with No. 4 copper 
 clad grounded wire. The double circuit steel towers have the same 
 characterisiios as the single circuit. 
 
 Cost per mile 
 
 One single circuit, wood pole line $2,550 
 
 Two siiittle circruit wood pole lines 5,100 
 
 One single circuit steel tower line 2,950 
 
 Two .-^insle cun-uit steel tower lines 5,900 
 
 One double circuit steel tower line 4,600 
 
 One dtnible circuit (witli one circuit installed) . . 3,700 
 
 3-PHASE OVERHEAD. 13.000 VOLTS AT ■ 
 SENDING END 
 
 Curves showing di.>itanre that power can be 
 Jransimtu-d with 10% liuc loss; 100% power 
 factor 13 .issunied. 
 
 Transmi.-vsion distance for (a) Other power 
 fapto>>: Multiply value fronv curve by power 
 factor expressed as a iirrcentaRe. (h) Other per- 
 ccutaKo drop: Multiply value from curve by 
 porcentape factor in table below: 
 
 % Drop Factor 
 
 10 100 O'";, 
 
 7 74 4>;, 
 
 Cur\-es showing distance that power can b« 
 transmitted with 10% line loas, 100% power 
 factor 13 assumed. 
 
 Transmission distance for: 
 
 (a) Other power factors; multiply value from 
 curve by nower (actor exprcssi-d as a percentage. 
 
 (b) Other percentage drop, multiply value 
 from curve by percentage factor in table below: 
 
 % Drop Factor 
 10 100.0% 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 MJLES. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Cost of 3-Phase, Single Circuit. High Tension Transmission 
 Lines. Table XXVIII is from Burch's Electric Traction for Rail- 
 way Trains. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 933 
 
 TABLE XXVIIL COST PER MILE TRANSMISSION LINE 
 Type of construction 
 Voltage 
 
 Support, 50 poles or 12 towers. . 
 
 Cross arm 
 
 Telephone line material....',*.'.*.* 
 
 Oround wire material 
 
 Insulator pins 
 
 Insulators * ' .' 
 
 Three No. wires, erected .....'. 
 
 Installation of wires, guys and 
 
 insulators 
 
 , — Wooden poles — ^ 
 
 Steel towers 
 
 13,000 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 $350 $650 
 
 $1,800 
 
 100 380 
 
 Included above 
 
 50 50 
 
 75 
 
 35 40 
 
 100 
 
 35 130 
 
 
 
 30 550 
 
 155 
 
 1,000 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 200 200 
 
 270 
 
 Total $2,000 $3,000 $3,400 
 
 Towers for a 6-wire transmission line cost about $2,400. 
 Estimate omits cost of right-of-way. 15% for contractor's profits, 
 
 57o for engineering and 5% for contingencies. Change for actual 
 
 size of wire to be used. 
 
 3-pha;;e ovcrhi'ail, 33,000 volls at <:pn(iine rnd 
 
 — r 
 
 14000 I 
 
 \ \ 
 \ 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 /\ 
 
 Curvc-i ^h.M 
 V with IJ'7, 
 
 ing distance t ha 
 hue loss, 1G0% 
 
 puaer cmhc tratirrrnlttd 
 power factor is assumed. 
 
 lecoo ' 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 K^ 1 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 Iran.'misnon distance for (ai other power fac- 
 tors; ^lllltlplv value from eurvc by power factor 
 . expressed as a prrcentage <\>i other per- 
 
 10000 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 
 " 
 
 ■e 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ^ " 
 
 by per 
 
 - "rop: 
 
 -mtage 
 
 Hiiiupiy value Irom ciirvu 
 actor in table below : 
 
 %Drop Fart..r 
 
 8000 
 
 
 \ 
 
 'ij 
 
 \ 
 
 \" 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 V. 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 L_L 
 
 fS r/4) 
 54. G% 
 35 2% 
 
 6000 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 f^ 
 
 X 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 "^^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 dOOO 
 
 
 >< 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 - 
 
 aooo 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 c; 
 
 
 
 ~---~.^ 
 
 
 — > 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 dO 
 
 000^- 
 
 m) 
 
 000 
 
 leo 
 
 000 >. 
 
 lt,0 
 
 000 
 
 c^OO 
 
 000 
 
 ^J( 
 
 000 
 
 '~5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 &> 
 
 TAIUCe 
 
 IN <(j 
 
 -rp r AI 
 
 WlLCb 
 
 
 
 
 
 "H 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Curves showing distance that power cum bo 
 trarismiited with 10% line loss; 100% 
 power factor is assumed. 
 
 TrausmiKsioii distance for (a) other power 
 factors, multiply value from curve by power 
 factor expressed as a percentage. 
 
 (Ij)Other per ceht drop: multiply valuefrom 
 
 curve by percentage factor III table below; 
 
 % Drop Factor 
 
 10 100.0^ 
 
 Ml t-H 7 73.3^ 
 
 LE5 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
934 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 steel Towers vs. Wooden Poles for Electric Lines. G. Nagele 
 gives the following in Lefax : The time is drawing near, when 
 wooden poles will be very expensive. A curve recently published 
 by the United States Government showing the amount of lumber 
 used in the last ten years has no depression showing a temporary 
 decrease of consumption and every year denotes a marked increase 
 in consumption. 
 
 Semi-flexible steel structures have many advantages over the 
 wooden pole, and will soon become a standard construction for 
 transmission lines. Some of the advantages of semi-flexible steel 
 poles are : 
 
 Long life ; 
 
 Ability to stand heavy strains ; 
 
 Will not snap off, but bend to meet the different strains ; 
 
 Best in swampy grounds ; 
 
 Less poles to the mile, which means a great reduction in the cost 
 of right-of-way ; 
 . Offers protection to the public and property owners. 
 
 Herewith is a comparison of the cost per mile of both types of 
 construction of two lines recently constructed in the Middle West. 
 
 Cost of Transmission Line per Mile, Wooden Poles. 33,000 volts 
 w^orking pressure, No. 2 B. & S. copper wire; 120-ft. pole spacing, 
 one pole line; 44 poles per mile; pin type insulators; "Bo-Arrow" 
 cross-arms; 35-ft. poles, 7-in. top diam. ; .375-in. ground wire (for 
 standard galvanized wire). 
 
 Material, labor, etc. 
 
 44 Poles, 35-ft., 7-in. top diam, at $8 f.o.b. Ohio $ 252.00 
 
 44 Cross-arms " Bo-Arrow" galvanized complete at 
 
 $3.79 166.76 
 
 44 Telephone brackets at 10 cts 4.40 
 
 Bog shoes at 15 cts. per pole, average 6.60 
 
 Guying m.aterial at 50 cts. per pole 22.00 
 
 Pole steps and hardware at 75 cts 33.00 
 
 Framing and trimming of poles at 50 cts 22.00 
 
 Creosoting of poles at 20 cts 8.80 
 
 Cartage at 70 cts. per pole 29-?2 
 
 Hauling (railway) at $1.20 per pole 52.80 
 
 Digging of holes at $1.20 per pole %^„7i 
 
 Setting of poles at $1.80 per pole 79.20 
 
 3 Miles hard drawn copper strand No. 2 B. & S. at 
 
 $181.20 per mile • • • •. ^|?nS 
 
 1 Mile %-in. Siemans-Martin steel strand wire 54.00 
 
 2 Miles Tel. wire No. 10 B. & S. copper clad 307r at 
 
 $25.00 per mile • ^O.UU 
 
 44 Ground ware connections at 35 cts. per pole 15.4U 
 
 132 Porcelain pettycoat insulators at 50 cts ^.cn 
 
 Tie wire '*-^" 
 
 88 Telephone insulators at 2 cts. v • • •;;; .HS 
 
 Stringing 3 miles No. 2 B. & S. strand at $15 ...... 45.00 
 
 Stringing 2 miles No. 10 copper clad wire at $10.. 20.00 
 
 Stringing ground wire t'lm 
 
 Soldering materials »•"" 
 
 Miscellaneous material c'nn 
 
 Damage, expense to property of owners o"" 
 
 Clearing of branches and trees ff^ 
 
 Tools ,|"J 
 
 Camp expenses xo.uu 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 935 
 
 Materials deposited along the lines for repairs $ 19.20 
 
 Wasted materials 18.00 
 
 Contingencies and incidentals, 7% 121.25 
 
 Supervision and inspection, 5% 92.67 
 
 Total construction cost per mile with wooden poles ex- 
 clusive of right of way $1946.04 
 
 Right of way at $8 per pole 352.00 
 
 Total cost including right of way $2298.04 
 
 Cost of transmission line per mile, semi-flexible steel structures ; 
 33000 volts working pressure, No. 2 B. & S. copper wire; 400-ft. 
 pole spacing, one pole line; 13 poles per mile; 3-disc suspension 
 type insulators; Vie-in, ground wire (standard galvanized wire). 
 
 Material, Labor, etc. 
 
 13 Towers (steel frames) 43-ft. high with cross arms, 
 telephone clips and pole steps, complete, f.o.b. cen- 
 tral Ohio at $53.00 per tower $ 689.00 
 
 Cartage at 80 cts. per frame 10.40 
 
 Hauling (railway) at $1.25 per frame 16.25 
 
 Digging of holes at $1.50 per frame 19.50 
 
 Erecting of frames at $2.00 26.00 
 
 Concrete foundations for curve frames and frames in 
 
 swampy ground 40.00 
 
 Guying of pules 30.00 
 
 Crushed stone for regular foundations 6.00 
 
 3 Miles No. 2 B. & S. copper wire at $181.20 543'.60 
 
 2 Miles No. 10 B. & S. copper clad at $25.00 50.00 
 
 1 Mile 7/i6-in. S.-M. steel strand wire 75.00 
 
 39 Suspension insulator.s, porcelain 3-disc unit sets in- 
 cluding suspension hooks and wire clamps at $3.50 136.50 
 
 26 Telephone insulators and pins at 20 cts 5.20 
 
 Stringing 3 miles No. 2 B. & S. at $18 54.00 
 
 Stringing 2 miles No. 10 B. & S. at $12 . . . 24.00 
 
 Stringing ground wire 20.00 
 
 Miscellaneous material 10.00 
 
 Painting of structures at $1.60 each 20.80 
 
 Soldering material 5.00 
 
 Clearing and trimming of trees 4.50 
 
 Damage, expense to property owners 20.00 
 
 Camp expenses 16.00 
 
 Wasted materials 5.00 
 
 Contingencies and incidentals, 6% 109.61 
 
 Supervision and inspection, 5% 96.82 
 
 Total con.struction cost per mile with steel towers exclu- 
 sive of right of way ^^^'^'rAn 
 
 Right of way at $15 per frame 19500 
 
 Total cost including right of way $2228.18 
 
 Cost of Labor and Materials of 6,600 Volt Transmission Line 4.6 
 Miles Long.* 
 
 Item Material Labor 
 Poles, crossarms, pins, etc. 
 
 196 poles $1,673 
 
 202 cross arms 125 .... 
 
 202 sets hardware ' 53 
 
 1,030 pins (locust paraffined) 43 
 
 Labor distributing $140 
 
 Labor digging holes 293 
 
 * These data are for construction done during 1913. 
 
036 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Item Material Labor 
 
 Labor setting and tamping $293 
 
 Labor gaining and roofing 72 
 
 Labor erecting ci-oysai-niK 62 
 
 Guying and bracing 4.6 miles $275 27 
 
 Engineering 4.6 miles 92 
 
 Wire, labor, etc. 
 
 27,075 lbs. #6 ins. two-braid wire 4,642 
 
 1,850 insulators 186 
 
 Solder, tape, etc 14 
 
 4 lightning arresters 22 
 
 Miscellaneous 64 
 
 Labor stringing 
 
 Labor tieing in 55 
 
 Total $7,097 $1,753 
 
 The total cost for labor and material but not including overheads 
 was $8850, or $1924 per mile. 
 
 Cost of Material for 6,600- Volt Line Construction. Electrical 
 World, May 17, 1913, gives the following data bearing upon the 
 cost of line-construction material taken from a tabulation of ex- 
 penses prepared by the Harvard, Mass., Gas & Electric Company in 
 connection with the erection last year of 6 miles of 6,600-volt line 
 and 12 miles of 2,300-volt distributing system, carrying about 75 
 miles of copper wire on 628 chestnut poles of from 30-ft. to 45-ft. 
 length. The total cost of material for the work was $13,128.03, 
 and of labor $5,925.69. Including the use of a motor truck for 
 3713.4 miles at a charge of 20 cents per mile and the time and 
 expenses of engineers making plans and surveys and obtaining 
 public and private rights-of-way, the total cost of the work, with 
 a 15 per cent, commission to the interests in charge of the con- 
 struction, was $23,542.48. 
 
 The detailed items given herewith were selected as of practical 
 value to small companies facing the need of making estimates of 
 line-construction costs elsewhere. The 6,600-volt line was built 
 for the double purpose of enabling the central stations of the 
 Massachusetts lighting companies at Ayer, Leominster and Clinton 
 to interchange energy and to supply local service in Harvard. The 
 above total costs include the construction of a transformer and 
 meter house in Harvard for a small local business. 
 
 Cost and Operating Data on 6,600-Volt Lines. Electrical World, 
 July 3, 1915, gives the following data from a paper on distribu- 
 tion conditions presented at the recent convention of the National 
 Electric Light Association by J. C. Martin and relate to two 6,600- 
 volt rural-service lines now in operation in the State of Washing- 
 ton. The first case is that of a line about 17.5 miles long, on which 
 there are thirty-two telephone and railway crossings, and the second 
 case is that of a line about 14.5 miles long on which there are nine 
 telephone and railway crossings. These lines were built with the 
 expectation of developing new business in the future and with the 
 knowledge that the return in the first few years of their life would 
 perhaps not be sufficient to pay all charges. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 937 
 
 TABLE XXIX. REPRESENTATIVE LINE-CONSTRUCTION 
 COST ITEMS, HARVARD, MASS., CONDITIONS, 1912 
 
 3 13,000-volt disconnecting- switches $17.60 
 
 1 5-amp. 2300-volt single-pole line switch complete with 
 
 eig-ht day clock .... 23.35 
 
 1 double-pole horn-gap arrester 4.56 
 
 2 single-pole, single-throw knife switches IA'2. 
 
 2 eight-point receptacles and four-point plugs ; one am- 
 
 meter plug 11.10 
 
 1 9.95-kva automatic induction regulator 670 85 
 
 3 15-kva. transformers, 13,200 to 2,200 volts, 60 cycles 435.00 
 
 16 %-in. by 5-in. machine bolts 0.83 
 
 16 i/^-in. by 3-in. lag bolts 0.30 
 
 100 IV2 B. & D. single-wire cleats 3.00 
 
 500 ft. No. 14 single-braid, rubber-covered wire 4.13 
 
 90 lb. No. 00 weatherproof wire 12.68 
 
 4 2300-volt primary cut-outs with plugs 2.71 
 
 523 six-pin cross-arms 351.61 
 
 98 eight-pin cross-arms 81.95 
 
 254 four-pin cross-arms 111.84 
 
 72 %-in., 6-ft. guy anchor rods 21.25 
 
 5000 ft. i>ic-in. seven-strand guy wire 32.65 
 
 1200 ft. 1/4 -in. seven-strand guy wire 6.36 
 
 228 guy thimbles 5.92 
 
 36 two-bolt guy clamps 2.31 
 
 196 three-bolt guy clamps 10.34 
 
 12 tree blocks 0.72 
 
 390 %-in. by 12-in. machine bolts 20.16 
 
 102 %-in. by 14-in. machine bolts 6.00 
 
 22 %-in. by 8-in. eye-bolts 2.28 
 
 261 %-in. by 16-in. spacing bolts 22.96 
 
 12 %-inch. by 22-in. spacing bolts 1.74 
 
 8 1-in. by 14-in. galvanized rock eye-bolts - 3.28 
 
 2830 21/4 -in. by 214 -in. by i/4-in. square-cut washers 28.08 
 
 1494 %-in. round-cut washers 2.71 
 
 130 7-ft. alley-arm braces 97.50 
 
 744 pairs cross-arm braces 90.76 
 
 960 13,000-volt No. 2 Crown insulators 131.52 
 
 55 No. 14 Electrose strain insulators 36.03 
 
 6 No. 270 Victor insulators 5.86 
 
 5068 locust cross-arm pins 73.33 
 
 42 No. 14 Pierce steel-clamp pins 4.54 
 
 42 galvanized-iron insulated clamps 29.57 
 
 259 30-ft. poles 906.50 
 
 338 35-ft. poles 1,859.00 
 
 23 40-ft. poles 172.50 
 
 8 45-ft. poles 72 00 
 
 35 street series brackets 187.70 
 
 1 pole-line switch 51.00 
 
 26 compression-type multigap arresters 77.45 
 
 22,840 lbs. No 6 triple-braid weatherproof wire 3,982.28 
 
 463 lbs. No. 8 triple-braid weatherproof wire 87.55 
 
 7380 lbs. No. 8 duplex metal wire 55.65 
 
 6980 lbs. No. 6 medium copper wire 1,169.15 
 
 160 lbs. No. 6 soft-base wire 28.32 
 
 175 ft. two-conductor cable. No. 10 27.81 
 
 248 lbs. No. 4 bare copper wire 50.34 
 
 3 No. 61 Beardsley break arms 1.02 
 
 43 No. 220 Pierce brackets 12.47 
 
 12 copper sleeves for No. 6 to No. 4 v,^ire 4.42 
 
 27 copper sleeves for No. 6 to No. 6 wire 2.97 
 
 Services of construction foreman, 74 days at $4.17 308.58 
 
 Services of superintendent, 10 days at $5.77 57.70 
 
 Labor cost 5,429.58 
 
1)38 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The figures shown do not take into account the cost of energy 
 lost between power house and customer and, therefore, show a loss 
 that is less than the actual. The losses shown in these cases, it 
 is stated, are typical of those that are likely to be sustained in the 
 early life of very many similar lines in the rural territory of 
 Western States. 
 
 TABLE XXX. COST OF 17.5-MILE, 6,600-VOLT LINE — 
 THIRTY-TWO CROSSINGS 
 
 Actual cost of line $26,463.00 
 
 Additional cost for crossing construction, 1911 N.E.L.A. 
 
 specifications , 2,553.28 
 
 Total $29,016.28 
 
 Actual annual revenue $4,350.35 
 
 Operation and fixed charges : 
 
 (a) Line as built : 
 
 Depreciation (average 5.2%) $1,378.15 
 
 Operating 948.86 
 
 Maintenance 194.94 
 
 Taxes 105.63 
 
 Interest, 8% 2,117.04 
 
 Total operating cost for year $4,744.62 
 
 LO.SS per year $394.27 
 
 Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line 1.49 
 
 Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 9.10 
 
 (b) With crossing construction included: 
 
 Depreciation $1,531.35 
 
 Operating 948.86 
 
 Maintenance . . . , 19 4.9 4 
 
 Taxes 105.63 
 
 Interest, 8 per cent 2,321.30 
 
 Total operating cost for year $5,102.08 
 
 Loss per year $751.73 
 
 Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line, plus crossing con- 
 struction costs 2.6 
 
 Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 17.3 
 
 Number of crossings 32 
 
 Total estimated cost of crossing construction $2,533.28 
 
 Average cost i)er crossing $79.79 
 
 TABLE XXXI. COST OF 14.5-MILE, 6,600-VOLT LINE — 
 NINE CROSSINGS 
 
 Actual cost of line $18,829.00 
 
 Additional cost for crossing construction, 1911 N.E.L.A. 
 
 Specifications 886.86 
 
 Total $19,715 86 
 
 Actual annual revenue $3,727.45 
 
 Operation and fixed charges: 
 (a) Line as built : ' 
 
 Depreciiition (average 5.35%) 1,006.31 
 
 Operating 1,006.95 
 
 Maintenance 245.20 
 
 Taxes ^ 90.77 
 
 Interest 1,506.32 
 
 Total operating cost per year $3,855.55 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 939 
 
 Loss per year $128.10 
 
 Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line 0.68 
 
 Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 3.44 
 
 (b) With crossing construction included: 
 
 Depreciation $1,069.48 
 
 Operating- 1,066.95 
 
 Maintenance 245.20 
 
 Taxes 90.77 
 
 Interest 1,577.27 
 
 Total operating cost • $4,049.67 
 
 Loss per year $322.22 
 
 Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line, plus crossing con- 
 struction costs 1.63 
 
 Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 8.65 
 
 Number of crossings 9 
 
 Total estimated cost of crossing construction $886.86 
 
 Average cost per crossing $98.54 
 
 Cost of Construction a Short 11,000-Volt Transmission Line. 
 
 With the extension of central -station service into rural territory 
 the construction expense of moderate voltage transmission lines 
 becomes of interest. The accompanying cost data given in Electri- 
 cal World, May 15, 1915, are from the construction sheets of a 
 Massachusetts central station which recently built an 11,000-volt 
 single-r)hase transmission line across a portion of Cape Cod 8.1 
 miles long, pole location rights being secured from real-estate 
 owners en route : 
 
 539 35-ft. poles, at $6 $3,234.00 
 
 1204 Victor insulators, at 20 cts 240.80 
 
 539 pair brace.s, at 26 cents each 140.14 
 
 11,843 Ib.s. bare copper wire. No. 4, at 16.75 cts 1,983.70 
 
 Carting poles 650.00 
 
 130 guys, at $1.14 148.20 
 
 424 lb. No. 6 bare wire, at 18 cts 76.32 
 
 1095 two-r)in cross-arms, at 40 cts 438.00 
 
 2190 ly^-in. by 12-in. locust pins, at 4 cts 87.60 
 
 2 transformer towers 348.00 
 
 5 11,000-volt lightning arresters, at $43.50 217.50 
 
 2 11,000-volt air-break switches, at $100 200.00 
 
 1 2,300-voU oil switch 89.20 
 
 Right-of-way 345 00 
 
 Freight 183.00 
 
 Labor 4,800.00 
 
 Total $13,181.46 
 
 Per mile of line $1,620 
 
 The company obtained the permits for running the wires and 
 al.so for the pole locations, the erection work being by contract. 
 The contractor trimmed all poles, which averaged 125 ft. in spacing. 
 Poles were head-guyed every half-mile, all guys being provided 
 with porcelain insulators, and every twelfth pole was double-armed. 
 Tree trimming was done by the contractor. 
 
 Cost of 11,000-Volt 3-Phase Transmission Line. H. W. Garner 
 gives the cost of constructing a 11,000-volt 3-phase line, 16 miles 
 long, on steel tripartite poles, as $982 per mile. 
 
 Cost of 19,000 Volt Transmission Lines in New England. The 
 
940 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 following costs cover the recent construction of transmission lines 
 by the Connecticut River Power Company in New Hampshire and 
 Vermont, as given in Electrical World. July 17. 1915. One line 
 was built from Brattleboro to Bellows Falls, Vt. Tlie poles used 
 were standard class B chestnut, with wish-bone arms and 10-in. 
 disc insulators carrying three No. 2 three-strand copper wires for 
 operation at 19,000 volts. A No. 6 copper telephone circuit was 
 installed on steel cross-arms, with a special side bracket on alter- 
 nate poles for transi)ositions. Each pole was provided with a 
 metal cap. from which the ground wire runs to the bottom of the 
 pole. Construction costs for 21 miles of the line are as follows: 
 
 Rights-of-way. surveys, etc. $23,181.32 
 
 Clearing right-of-wav 7,281.72 
 
 Tools ■ 657.72 
 
 Hauling and delivering 2,977.94 
 
 Excavation 2,556.43 
 
 Setting and guying, fiaming and treating 4,796.98 
 
 IMacing iiiyulatoi's and stiinging wires 1,955.31 
 
 Poles " 4.926.90 
 
 Wire 14,881.49 
 
 Insulators. pin.s, arms and hardware 6,872.73 
 
 Engineering, supervision, and general charges 4,890.00 
 
 Tran.sformers and switch equipment 5,415.98 
 
 Interest during construction 2,400 00 
 
 Total $82,794.52 
 
 Another line of the same construction known as the Vernon Sta- 
 tion-Massachusetts line, 8.5 miles long, has also been built recently 
 and the following costs cover its construction details : 
 
 Lands and rights-of-way $17,387.50 
 
 Tower-line construction 28,038.92 
 
 Switches and special construction at power house 11,507.10 
 
 Engineers' and contractors' fees * 5,931.90 
 
 Legal expen.se, office expeiuses, taxes and miscellaneous.. 1,784.58 
 Interest during construction 3.000.00 
 
 $67,650.00 
 
 * Represents the overhead expense of the contractor. The line 
 was built on a flat-fee basis, by the Power Construction Company. 
 
 Method and Cost of Erecting 20,000-Volt Transmission Line Tow- 
 ers in Assembled Condition by Means of Gin Poles. The follow- 
 ing is condensed from an article by W. R. Strickland in Electrical 
 World, June 13, 1908. The towers were built to carry two three- 
 phase 20,000-volt circuits of No. 4 hard-drawn copper wire, the 
 insulators being triple petticoated and tested to 60,000 volts. A 
 ground wire is placed in the center on the upright pipe for light- 
 ning protection, and two telephone wires are carried on insulators 
 mounted within the steel pole structure. They are of structural 
 steel heavily galvanized, and were shipped in bundles, most of which 
 could be handled by four men. There were four similar pieces for 
 one tower, the large cross arm and the pipe for ground wire, being 
 very heavy, were shipped separately. The towers were assembled 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 941 
 
 in the field with bolts and nuts heavily galvanized over the threads. 
 The net weight of each standard tower is 2,200 lbs. 
 
 Several methods of erection were considered, the most popular 
 suggestion being the movable A-frame. This method, as w^ell as 
 others, could not be used for several reasons. The center of gravity 
 of the towers is very high, and the steep slopes upon which they 
 had to be erected would have made it necessary for the A-frame 
 to work at right angles to the line, in which case the tower would 
 have had to be turned after erecting owing to the necessity of 
 assembling it with the cross arm lying flat upon the ground. Some 
 of the hills were so steep that the towers had to be cut away to 
 fit before erection, and separate concrete anchorages were used for 
 laterals and horizontal braces. There were few level spots. The 
 weight of an A-frame would have been too great In one piece, as it 
 had to be carried by hand from tower to tower, because of the 
 broI<en character of the country. Moreover, the bottom legs of the 
 tower were too flexible for the weight thrown on them sideways 
 during election in a manner not contemplated in the design. While 
 the lateral braces were large enough for the tension which will 
 come on them after erection by reason of the pull due to wind pres- 
 sure, they ct)Uld not carry the compret^sion which would have come 
 on them in resisting the stresses developed by the eccentric loading 
 at the end of the leg during erection. 
 
 As a result of these conditions peculiar to the tower and the 
 country, the following method was employed for application by an 
 American general foreman, all of the rest of the labor, with one 
 exception, being Porto Rican. 
 
 One gang in charge of a Porto Rican engineer dug the holes, 
 put in the concrete footings, and cut off or lengthened the lower 
 legs to corre.sjjond to the slope of the hillside. Another gang as- 
 sembled the towers with the exception of the lower leg pieces, 
 while another gang erected the small gin-pole. Then came the 
 main erecting gang carrying large gin-poles, blocks, tackle, dead- 
 men, tools, etc. The small gin-pole being in place, the last gang 
 quickly erected the first large gin-pole, which in turn was used 
 to erect the second. 
 
 The most difficult problem at each tower was the anchoring of 
 the many guy lines needed. For this purpose trees were occa- 
 sionally used, but in most cases steel dead-men had to be driven 
 in the ground ; in some cases the ground was so soft that two 
 dead-men had to be used. The erecting of the main poles was in 
 charge of a mate from a Porto Rican sailing vessel, as sub-foreman, 
 his principal assistants being six .sailors whose carefulness and good 
 judgment were such that only twice did the gin-pole break away. 
 
 At each angle point, the tower was set to bisect the angle in 
 the transmission line, a supporting guy being held by concrete 
 anchorage. Four or five towers were erected per day. After the 
 men had gained a little experience the cost of erection, including 
 all labor and material, sub-delivery of towers and concrete, cement 
 at $3 50 per barrel at the tower, assembling, erecting and concrete 
 footings and casing, was brought down to from $25 to $27 per 
 
942 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tower. Owing to special work, and some towers in exceptionally 
 bad locations, which required more care and more concrete, and 
 owing to delays caused by right of way fights, the average cost was 
 considerably higher. Each common laborer was paid 75 cts. per 
 day, the sub-foreman receiving $2 or $3. 
 
 Method and Cost of Constructing 22,000-Volt Iron-Wire Steel- 
 Poles Transmission Line. M. D. Leslie in Electrical World, Feb. 
 10, 1917, gives the following data on the methods and cost of con- 
 structing a 22,000-volt, 3-phase, 60 cycle transmission line of rela- 
 tively inexpensive type. 
 
 The line as constructed consists of three No. 6 E. B. B. galvan- 
 ized iron wires mounted horizontally 4 ft. apart on steel arms. 
 Bates expanded steel poles, 4 in. diam. and 30 ft. long, set in 
 concrete 300 ft. apart, and head guyed both ways in the direction 
 of the line every ..half mile are employed except at railroad cross- 
 ings, where 35 ft. poles are used. At corners and crossings the 
 poles are double-armed. 
 
 Experiments were carried on to determine the most satisfactory 
 way of setting the poles in concrete. The manufacturers of the 
 poles supply H-shaped forms, which require about 2 ft. of con- 
 crete. The form itself requires a hole about 17 in. in diameter, 
 but the ordinary hole digger cannot be depended upon to center 
 the hole exactly, so it is necessary to dig a much larger hole in 
 order to " line up " the poles properly. It was also found difficult 
 to place concrete in such a small form at the bottom of a hole. 
 Old-fashioned posthole diggers were then tried. Two holes were 
 dug side by side and joined, thus giving a hole about 6 in, by 12 in. 
 in cross-section. This method of construction was satisfactory in 
 some soils, but was abandoned in favor of digging with ordinary 
 tools, which were trimmed down on the sides so that a small rec- 
 tangular hole could be made. These holes were easily dug, and 
 required from 5 to 6 cu. ft. of concrete to the pole. 
 
 Cross-arms were distributed with the poles, and a definite quan- 
 tity of sand left at each pole. The cement was stored along the 
 way, a day's supply being carried by the pole-raising gang. From 
 two to five diggers were employed, according to the nature of the 
 ground. The assemblers were accompanied by a wagon, in which 
 was carried all the necessary material, including insulators. 
 
 At the time the line was built it was very difficult to get labor 
 of any kind. Consequently it was necessary to work part of the 
 time with a " short " crew, and to leave the wire stringing for the 
 return trip. A cook shack was maintained for feeding the men 
 and tents provided for them to sleep in. The camp was moved along 
 as the work progressed. 
 
 A full raising crew consisted of a driver, two concrete mixers, a 
 " jinney " man, four " pikers " and a foreman. The outfit which 
 was used consisted of one team, a water tank and a sled. The 
 cement was carried on the tank and the sled served to carry the 
 tools from pole to pole and as a mixing box for the concrete. The 
 concrete was usually mixed by the time the pole was set. The 
 poles were raised by ordinary methods, plumbed with a level and 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 943 
 
 tamped in. Poles tamped in with the concrete were stable enough 
 to be left at once. An oval form, 4 in. deep, was made to shape 
 the base above the top of the ground. While the majority of the 
 gang moved up along the line to the next pole site, one man stayed 
 behind to trowel off the top of the base and remove the form for 
 use on the next pole. The best day's work by the raising gang 
 was to set 34 poles in 11 hrs. 
 
 The guying and stringing was done on the return trip. Two 
 men dug the slug holes and set the concrete slugs. Two men with 
 a . single-horse wagon installed the guys. Four linemen and a 
 teamster did the stringing and tying in. Three coils of wire were 
 distributed every Ys mile and picked up by the stringing gang. All 
 three wires were strung at one time from reels mounted on a 
 wagon. The wire was pulled at intervals of about 1 mile, using 
 permanently guyed poles. The usual high-tension tie of No. 8 
 iron wire was employed on this line. 
 
 Five-inch neck-soldered Western Union splices were used, solder- 
 ing being done with a pot and ladle. Sample splices made by dif- 
 ferent linemen gave the following results under test : 
 
 Sample Maximum strength (lbs.) Cause of failure 
 
 1 1,850 Splice slipped 
 
 2 1,870 Wire broke, splice held 
 
 3 1,810 Wire broke, splice held 
 
 The line has been in satisfactory operation for about three months 
 with five interruptions, caused by an insulator being shot off 
 in one case, a wire thrown onto the line in two others, and broken 
 wires, due to defects in the wire itself, in the remaining cases. 
 
 The item of engineering given in Table XXXII includes con- 
 siderable of the writer's time and expenses as well as those of the 
 surveyor. The item of total labor includes all labor, of all classes. 
 
 TABLE XXXII. DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE 
 COSTS 
 
 (Distance Dodge City to Bucklin, Kan., approximately 31 miles.) 
 
 Total Per Mile 
 
 Engineering and survey $828.50 $26.73 
 
 Pole rights 238.30 7.69 
 
 Total labor 2,619.59 84.50 
 
 Camp expenses and meals 592.54 19.11 
 
 Teaming 717.49 23.15 
 
 River sand, gravel and cement 356.81 11.51 
 
 Insulators 840.03 27.10 
 
 Pins 469.30 15.13 
 
 Wire (95 miles No. 6 EBB) 3,368.93 108.67 
 
 Steel poles (total, 557, including twenty-three 
 
 guy stubs) 7,856.31 253.43 
 
 Guying material 380.31 12.27 
 
 Wood poles and line material . .' 287.90 9.28 
 
 Transformers, switches and arresters 2,739.63 88.37 
 
 Substation material 193.11 6.23 
 
 General expense 107.25 3.46 
 
 Total $21,596.00 $696.64 
 
944 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Distribution of labor 
 
 Rebuilding- of wood-pole line in town to accommodate high- 
 tension line from city limits to plant $391.30 
 
 All work connected with setting 539 steel poles ready for 
 
 wire 1,133.95 
 
 Stringing- wire setting- anchors and attaching guys to above 
 
 poles (about 29 miles of line) 470.64 
 
 Building towers and finishing up last mile of steel line. . . . 623.30 
 
 Total . $2,619.59 
 
 including the foreman on the job, with the exception of some of the 
 teamsters who were hired at a flat rate per day with their teams 
 and wagons. The item of camp expenses is the net cost after 
 deducting the amount charged the men for meals. Laborers were 
 paid 25 cts. per hr. and linemen 40 cts. per hr. and all were 
 charged 20 cts. per meal, which amount covered less than half the 
 cost. The item of teaming includes all expense of teams for haul- 
 ing various materials and carrying on the work, a charge being 
 made for the use of company teams, as well as those hired. 
 
 Labor expenses are distributed in the lower part of the table, 
 so that the actual cost of pole setting is shown. This line, like 
 most others, had special features which made it expensive. One 
 of these was the rebuilding of about a mile of wood pole line in 
 order to provide a connection with the power house where the 
 transformers are located. The other condition that affected the in- 
 stallation cost was the finishing up of the last mile on the Bucklin 
 end at a later time with a small crew. This was made necessary 
 by a lack of necessary material, and the expense was entirely out 
 of proportion to the work done. Some of the men on this section 
 of the line also built towers, so it is not possible to give an 
 accurate division of this labor. 
 
 The expense given for setting 539 steel line poles and the neces- 
 sary guy stubs includes all labor connected with such work as 
 digging holes, assembling arms, pins and insulators, setting poles 
 and concreting their bases, as well as the foreman's time and 
 other labor that was paid for. 
 
 Cost of Constructing Wooden Towers for a 60,000-Volt Trans- 
 mission Line 25 iVliies Long. The method of constructing the 60,- 
 000 volt wooden tower line of the California-Oregon Power Co., 
 which involved several interesting and novel features, is described 
 by Mr. O. G. Steele in the Journal of Electricity Power and Gas 
 for May 4, 1912. The details of the tower are shown by Fig. 
 20. Spans vary from 450 to 1,000 ft., one span being 1,465 ft. 
 across Jennie Creek canyon. 
 
 Cast iron anchor plates were used in the foundation work while 
 3 in. channel iron was employed for the cross-arms. These arms 
 are 16.6 ft. long and are painted with P. & B. paint to prevent rust- 
 ing. Angle iron 2.5 x 2.5 ins. was used to bind the poles to the 
 concrete bases shown in the illustration. Insulators of the Locke 
 suspension type are employed. Each insulator, composed of three 
 units, clasps the conductor by means of a straight line clamp. At 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 945 
 
 the point where angles are necessary in the transmission line four 
 units are employed in the insulator. 
 
 Every fifth tower is so constructed as to take up the strain; 
 at these strain towers four anchors are employed with guy wires 
 crossed, while for standard towers only two anchor plates are 
 employed. 
 
 Raising the towers proved an interesting problem, due to the 
 roughness of the country. While the hillside, composing a portion 
 of the transmission line, made only one method applicable, it was 
 not at all times practicable to deliver the tools required. A creW 
 of 12 to 15 men was employed. 
 
 ,<- ^-O- 
 
 ' 4-0 — *| 
 
 
 Top Vie// 
 
 1^"... 
 
 Channels 
 -I 
 
 6-0- 
 
 Tel Insulator^ 
 
 /nsu/afors'"' 
 
 tf 
 
 ^ Eye Bolt 
 
 u « • a 
 
 r ' Angle Hn 
 
 Fig. 
 
 '^^S-SI ' Anchor Bolt ^^ 
 
 Anchor Plate 6 undei 
 Oround 
 
 20. Details of wooden tower for high tension transmission 
 line. 
 
 The poles were first placed on supports about 7 ft. above the 
 ground. The guy wires were next passed over the fork and with 
 the aid of a block and tackle the poles were pulled into place, dur- 
 ing which process men with pike poles guided the poles. After the 
 poles were set on their bases the guys were pulled through the eye 
 of the anchor row and tightened by hand and another crew follow- 
 ing put the guy wires in final taut condition. 
 
 Later in the progress of the work it was found that a horse 
 could be used to raise the towers and this method proved satis- 
 factory. As many as 25 of these towers may be thus raised in 
 
046 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 one day. Referring to the guy clamps, the ordinary three-bolt 
 galvanized type was employed, but in the future the combination 
 clamp will replace the three-bolt design. 
 
 An average of 10 towers per mile were necessary in the con- 
 struction of the transmission line, although this varied somewhat 
 wherever rolling country prevailed. Thus in crossing canyons, 
 spans were made of full length in most cases. 
 
 The cost of construction is estimated from the unit costs to be 
 about as given in Table XXXIII, assuming 10 towers per mile. 
 
 TABLE XXXIII. AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF WOOD 
 
 TOWER TRANSMISSION LINE. 10 TOWERS PER MILE, 
 
 24.6 MILES 
 
 Materials : 
 
 Wire 3 No. 2 copper, 3,242 lbs $0,155 $502.51 
 
 Wire 2 No. 9 iron, 1,053 lbs 05 52.65 
 
 Insulators, 100 suspension units 775 77.50 
 
 33 suspension eyes 125 4.13 
 
 7 strain clamps 74 5.I8 
 
 30 straight line clamps 364 10.91 
 
 Channel iron arms, 10 sets of 2,132 lbs 033 43.56 
 
 Angle iron, 338 lbs 0298 10.00 
 
 Cement, 4.35 lbs 3.74 16.30 
 
 Gravel, 6.3 25 1.57 
 
 Telephone insulators, 21 No. 26 05 1.05 
 
 . Pole line hardware — 
 
 24 bolts, % X 8 ins 088 20.00 
 
 20 bolts, %xl% ins 0368 7.72 
 
 50-3 bolt %-in. guy clamps 151 7.55 
 
 50 y2-in. thimbles 0312 1.56 
 
 250 ft. %-in. strain guy cables 016 40.00 
 
 25 guy rods, i^-in. x 6 f t 36 9.00 
 
 450 lbs. anchor plates 03658 16.36 
 
 Poles, 20 40-ft. red fir 1.629 32.58 
 
 Right of way, average cost of securing 16.85 
 
 Camp outfit and tools, proportional cost per 
 
 mile 20.00 
 
 Total materials $896.78 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Surveying right of way $ 64.00 
 
 Clearing right of way 148.20 
 
 Hole digging, 20 foundation holes, 2 ft. deep, and 25 
 
 guy holes, 5 ft. deep 79.00 
 
 Powder 6.95 
 
 Tower framing, 10 towers, at $2.29 22.90 
 
 Haulage, including cost of teams, hay and grain ; 20 
 
 poles, average 2 miles, at $3,037 60.74 
 
 Wire, average cost per mile 20.51 
 
 Channel iron arms, including painting 14.50 
 
 Foundation materials 25.80 
 
 Setting 20 foundations (cone), at $5.51 110.20 
 
 Raising 20 towers, at $5,538 110.76 
 
 Wire stringing 3 copper transmission and 2 iron tele- 
 phone 73.60 
 
 Extras, blacksmithing, coal and labor 10.00 
 
 Warehouse man 4.00 
 
 Time-keeping and books 14.00 
 
 Superintendence 28.50 
 
 Total labor $ 783.66 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 947 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 Camp expense, moving, depreciation in maintenance of 
 
 automobile $ 86 00 
 
 Loss on cook house after serving- 14,930 meals at 35 cts. 7.56 
 Numbering, repairing and distributing material for fu- 
 ture repairs 25.80 
 
 Total miscellaneous $ 119.36 
 
 Total cost per mile, complete $1,799.80 
 
 Cost of 66,000-Volt Transmission Line. An extended discussion 
 of the cost of a 66,000-volt transmission line was a feature of a 
 recent hearing given by the Massachusetts Gas and Electric Light 
 Commission to the Turners Falls Power & Electric Company, of 
 Greenfield, Mass., is abstracted in Electrical World, Apr. 10, 1915. 
 The line was built from Turners Falls to Springfield, Mass., and 
 is 42.88 miles long. Ittis designed for ultimate service at 110,000 
 volts, and the total cost is shown in the following table : 
 
 Clearing right-of-way |13,898 
 
 Contractors' general expense 9,151 
 
 Transportation of materials 6,072 
 
 Excavation for standard anchors 14,913 
 
 Setting standard anchors 10,443 
 
 Steel towers 73,526 
 
 Assembling and erecting towers 22,861 
 
 Insulators installed 20,536 
 
 Wire 127,122 
 
 Hardware 6,557 
 
 Changes in line 6,803 
 
 1311,882 
 
 Special river crossings 35,218 
 
 Special towers at substations 2,627 
 
 Special concrete footings 13,057 
 
 Grand total §362,784 
 
 The first section above totaled covers the so-called standard con- 
 struction used on the line and figures $7,296.68 per mile, or $672.16 
 per tower. The total cost, including special work as listed but 
 not including real estate and right-of-way, was $8,465.11 per mile, 
 or $781.86 per tower. 
 
 The line was built by F. T. Ley & Company, Springfield, Mass. 
 The power company bought the material, furnished the towers, 
 wire and insulators, and purchased the right-of-way. The right- 
 of-way is 150 ft. wide and cost about $250 an acre. Since the line 
 was built, about a year ago, the right of eminent domain has been 
 granted to transmission companies in Massachusetts, which would 
 unquestionably have greatly reduced the cost of the right-of-way 
 had it been operative during the preliminary period. Where the 
 line traverses level and fairly firm soil the towers are secured by 
 anchors 7 ft. long with 1-ft. cross-pieces, set in the earth, one 
 anchor being provided at each corner of the tower. At railroad 
 crossings, marshy and wet places the anchors are in.stalled in con- 
 crete legs about 2 ft. square and 8 ft. deep, except where the towers 
 are lifted considerably above the ground level. One such concrete 
 footing is used at each leg of an angle tower in crossing the West- 
 
948 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 field River, and for 2 miles between the Agawam substation and 
 Springfield. Across this portion of the line the country is flooded 
 from 5 ft. to 15 ft. deep in the spring. 
 
 There are three special river crossings, where the towers cost 
 $1,250 apiece at the factory and are 100 ft. high. It cost from 
 $1,000 to $1,200 to erect these on the ground. The foundations cost 
 from $1,800 to $2,500 each for these crossings, except where the line 
 crosses the Connecticut River and enters Springfield. Here the 
 cost was $4,000. Copper-clad steel wire is used on the long spans. 
 The item " contractor's general expense " includes the cost of main- 
 taining camps, transportation of general superintendents, etc. 
 " Changes in line " covered relocations in the field after a portion 
 of the construction was in. From Turners Falls to Amherst heavy 
 timber was encountered. The total cost of the right-of-way was 
 $200,695. 
 
 Excluding right-of-way and not including special river crossings 
 and concrete footings, the line cost $7,296.68 per mile, or $672.16 
 per tower, compared with $8,280 per mile and $900 per tower on 
 similar lines built in the same general territory. The Turners 
 Falls towers weigh about 4000 lbs. each, compared with 5700 lbs. for 
 the standard towers of an adjacent system. River-crossing towers 
 were built of structural steel and riveted on the job, the standard 
 towers being only bolted together. The neighboring system (Con- 
 necticut River Transmission Company) spaces its towers 9.2 per 
 mile and uses No. 00 wire, compared with a spacing of eleven per 
 mile and No. conductor on the Turners Falls system. The former 
 also uses six suspension insulator disks per wire, while the latter 
 employs four, costing $1 per disk. Each tower carries two three- 
 phase circuits, and the standard towers are approximately 75 ft. 
 high and about 17 ft. square at the base. To change the line for 
 110,000-volt service the only alteration necessary on the line proper 
 will be the addition of insulator disks. 
 
 Cost of Erecting 110,000-Volt Transmission Lines. Electrical 
 World, June 7, 1913, gives the following labor costs on four differ- 
 ent 110,000-volt lines in this country. All are six-wire, two-circuit 
 tower lines on standard suspension insulators arranged on either 
 side of standard Millikan towers spaced ten to the mile. None of 
 the towers possesses concrete footings, but connecting the top of 
 each in all cases is a Siemens-Martin stranded-steel ground wire. 
 The costs included everything except general office expense and 
 supervision, which should not exceed $50 a mile. Of course, the 
 cost of the towers, insulators, wires and right-of-way is not in- 
 cluded ; neither is the cost of clearing the right-of-way. The figures 
 given include wages, commissariat, team hire and transportation 
 of material from the railroad to the right-of-way. 
 
 Line No. 1 passes through a high grade of country, necessitating 
 more stub holes, angles and guying than Line No. 2, which passes 
 through a wooded section most of the way. It will be noticed that 
 the cost of distributing and stringing the wire in Line No. 1 is 
 greater than in Lines 2, 3 and 4, This is due to the fact that only 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 949 
 
 one three-phase line was operated at first, the other three-phase 
 line having been strung- afterward and while the first line was 
 alive. In some of the more recent lines erected in this country, 
 notably that of the Central Georgia Power Company, the insulators 
 were attached to the towers before the latter were hoisted into 
 position so that a saving in the fifth item, " hanging insulators," 
 would be effected. All of the lines traverse fairly rolling country, 
 dotted here and there with heavily wooded sections, and copper is 
 used as a conductor for the most part, although sections of lines 
 No. 3 and 4 are of aluminum. None of the lines parallels any 
 railroad system for any distance, and the distribution cost has been 
 approximately $5 a tower. Where concrete footings are provided 
 for the towers, a practice which obtains in many transmission 
 systems, the labor costs are considerably increased. 
 
 TABLE XXXIV. COST PER MILE OP ERECTING TWO- 
 CIRCUIT, 110,000-VOLT TOWER LINES 
 
 Line ' Line Line Line 
 
 No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, 
 
 Operation 49 miles 34 miles 129 miles 181 miles 
 
 Distributing towers $47.16 $48.48 $49.15 $53.68' 
 
 Assembling towers 92.66 101.23 94.79 98.06 
 
 Erecting towers 77.90 75.15 70.44 77.77 
 
 Digging stub holes 99.93 23.10 27.67 54.36 
 
 Hanging insulators 55.53 32.04 42.00 44.72 
 
 Distributing wire 48.84 17.21 27.20 30.84 
 
 Stringing wire 202.29 107.62 124.35 150.53 
 
 Digging holes for towers 169.59 143.23 156.79 166.00 
 
 Total per mile $793.90 $548.06 $592.39 $675.96 
 
 Cost of Line Materials. From data recently prepared by the 
 Amesbury, Mass., Electric Light Company covering 13,200-volt line 
 material costs since Jan 1, 1917, the following extracts are printed. 
 The figures reflect the present high levels of equipment prices among 
 small companies. Besides being interesting in connection with 
 making estimates they have record value : 
 
 Quantity Items Cost 
 
 158 30-ft. poles, chestnut, B $727 
 
 24 35-ft. poles, chestnut, B 146 
 
 20 40-ft. poles, chestnut, B 165 
 
 8 45-ft. poles, chestnut, B 88 
 
 8 50-ft. poles, che.stnut, B 136 
 
 287 2-pin cross-arms (special) 172 
 
 4 4-pin cross-arms 5 
 
 8 8-pin cross-arms ^ Al 
 
 15,223 lbs. No. 2 bare H. D. copper wire 5,147 
 
 373 lbs. No. 4 bare S. D. copper wire 137 
 
 381 lbs. No. 2 bare stranded copper wire 137 
 
 532 lbs. No. 2 W. P. wire 147 
 
 500 ft. i/>-in. 7-strand guy wire 7 
 
 5,250 ft. 5/^G-in. 7-strand guy v^ire »9 
 
 850 ft. Vio-in. 7-strand guy wire 15 
 
 50 No. 58,160 line wire protectors ^10 
 
 100 No. 2 copper splicing sleeves 32 
 
950 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Quantity Items Cost 
 
 90 6-ft anchor rods $53 
 
 19 Anchor planks 7 
 
 356 ft. 12-in. by 2-in. spruce planking 15 
 
 10 gals. Creosote 6 
 
 4 600-kw., 13, 200/2200-volt transformers 7,550 
 
 6 300-amp., 13, 200-volt choke coils 229 
 
 2 3-phase, 13,200-volt lightning arresters 752 
 
 6 300-amp. 13,200-volt disconnecting switches,... 60 
 
 Setting 200 poles (by contract) 3,770 
 
 TABLE XXXV. ANCHOR OR GUY RODS 
 
 Diam., ins. 
 
 V' 
 
 Length, ft. Weight, lbs. per 100 Price per 100 
 
 8 
 10 
 10 
 12 
 
 295 
 
 340 
 
 395 
 
 415 
 
 500 
 
 590 
 
 680 
 
 770 
 
 595 
 
 730 
 
 840 
 
 950 
 
 1,080 
 
 1,210 
 
 2.350 
 
 2,900 
 
 4,650 
 
 7,950 
 
 $16.50 
 18.35 
 21.00 
 21.00 
 23.00 
 25.50 
 29.25 
 33.00 
 27.35 
 32.25 
 36.75 
 42.00 
 47.25 
 52.50 
 90.75 
 108.00 
 181.50 
 305.25 
 
 Prices do not include washers. 
 
 Galvanized anchors cost 30 to 35% more and on lots of 500 to 
 1,000 is a discount of 10%. 
 
 TABLE XXXVL MATTHEW'S SPECIAL GUY ANCHORS 
 Diam. 
 
 rich or, ins. 
 
 Weight, Ib.s. per 
 
 100 
 
 Price per 100 
 
 5 
 
 250 
 
 
 $42 
 
 6 
 
 450 
 
 
 75 
 
 5 
 
 650 
 
 
 69 
 
 6 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 135 
 
 7 
 
 1.500 
 
 
 270 
 
 8 
 
 3,800 
 
 
 450 
 
 10 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 675 
 
 12 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 900 
 
 Diameter of rods for above anchors are as follows: 5 in. anchor 
 has .5 in. rod, 6 in. a .625 in. rod. 7 in. a .75 in. rod, 8 in. a 1.125 
 in. rod, 10 in. a 1.25 in. rod, and 12 in. a 1.5 in. rod. 
 
 Galvanized anchors cost 20 to 30% more than those given. 
 
 TABLE XXXVIL BOLTS FOR DOUBLE CROSS ARMS 
 
 Diam. ins. 
 
 Length, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. per 100 
 
 Price per 100 
 
 % 
 
 12 
 
 86 
 
 $5.60 
 
 i/„ 
 
 14 
 
 93 
 
 6.15 
 
 V2 
 
 16 
 
 100 
 
 6.65 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 951 
 
 Diam., ins. 
 
 Length, ft. 
 
 Weight, lbs. per 100 
 
 Price per 100 
 
 V2 
 
 18 
 
 107 
 
 $7.10 
 
 % 
 
 20 
 
 115 
 
 7.50 
 
 V2 
 
 22 
 
 123 
 
 7.90 
 
 % 
 
 12 
 
 129 
 
 8.55 
 
 % 
 
 14 
 
 143 
 
 9.15 
 
 16 
 
 157 
 
 9.75 
 
 % 
 
 18 
 
 171 
 
 10.35 
 
 % 
 
 20 
 
 186 
 
 10.95 
 
 % 
 
 22 
 
 201 
 
 11.55 
 
 % 
 
 24 
 
 216 
 
 12.15 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 231 
 
 12.75 
 
 14 
 
 198 
 
 12.00 
 
 16 
 
 219 
 
 12.75 
 
 % 
 
 18 
 
 240 
 
 13.50 
 
 % 
 
 20 
 
 261 
 
 14.25 
 
 % 
 
 22 
 
 282 
 
 15.00 
 
 % 
 
 24 
 
 324 
 
 15.75 
 
 Prices Include 4 nuts, but no washers. 
 
 Galvanized bolts cost 30 to 35% more. Lots of 500 to 1,000 have 
 
 discount of 10%. 
 
 TABLE XXXVIIL BOLTS AND LAG SCREWS 
 
 
 t 
 
 Price per 100 
 
 
 Length, ins. 
 
 y4-in. 
 
 %-in. 
 
 1-in. 
 
 31/2 
 
 $1.17 
 
 $2.40 
 
 $5.00 
 
 4 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.55 
 
 5.25 
 
 4y2 
 
 1.33 
 
 2.70 
 
 5.50 
 
 5 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.85 
 
 5.80 
 
 6 
 
 1.58 
 
 3.20 
 
 6.40 
 
 7 
 
 1.73 
 
 3.50 
 
 7.00 
 
 8 
 
 1.82 
 
 3.85 
 
 7.60 
 
 9 
 
 2.05 
 
 4.10 
 
 8.20 
 
 10 
 
 2.25 
 
 4.45 
 
 8.75 
 
 11 
 
 2.40 
 
 4.70 
 
 9.30 
 
 12 
 
 2.60 
 
 5.00 
 
 9.90 
 
 
 , 
 
 Price per 100 
 
 
 Length, ins. 
 
 %-in. 
 
 1/2 -in. 
 
 %-in. 
 
 4 
 
 $0.74 
 
 $1.22 
 
 $2.86 
 
 5 
 
 83 
 
 1.36 
 
 3.15 
 
 6 
 
 0.92 
 
 1.52 
 
 3.50 
 
 7 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.65 
 
 3.75 
 
 8 
 
 1.34 
 
 1.80 
 
 4.25 
 
 9 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.95 
 
 4.50 
 
 10 
 
 1.55 
 
 2.20 
 
 4.75 
 
 12 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.40 
 
 5.25 
 
 14 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.70 
 
 5.90 
 
 15 
 
 2.05 
 
 2.85 
 
 6.25 
 
 18 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.25 
 
 7.20 
 
 20 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.50 
 
 7.75 
 
 Cost of Lead Covered Telephone Cable. Prices of 19 and 22 
 gauge lead covered cables based upon the 10 year average cost of 
 materials immediately preceding the Great War were as follows : 
 
 Copper 15.4 cents per pound 
 
 Lead 4.6 
 
 Tin 36.5 
 
952 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXXIX. WEIGHTS AND PRICES — SINGLE. FLAT 
 
 DUPLEX AND TRIPLEX LEAD COVERED, INSULATED 
 
 CABLES 
 
 O m 
 
 ^ 
 
 fl Ol C 
 
 0) m 
 
 
 
 Price per ft., cents. 
 (Lead taken at 5 
 
 f '^.^ 
 
 q_, O 
 
 oo^ 
 
 -' S 
 
 
 u 
 
 Ct£ 
 
 !. per lb.) 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 u 3 
 
 m g5 
 
 ii 
 
 
 ft . 
 
 Base price of 
 Copper 
 
 -o^l 
 
 1" 
 
 ^It 
 
 |i 
 
 
 14c. 
 
 16c. 
 
 18c. 
 
 |cq^ 
 
 Is 
 
 2 m O 
 
 l« 
 
 t- 
 > 
 
 '^^ 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 z 
 
 H 
 
 B 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 #4s. 
 
 2 
 
 %2 V. C. 
 
 1 
 
 2,300 
 
 1.87 
 
 16.2 
 
 16.8 
 
 17.3 
 
 #6s. 
 
 1 
 
 %2 V. C. 
 
 2,300 
 
 0.89 
 
 7.68 
 
 7.86 
 
 8.03 
 
 250,000 
 
 2 
 
 %2 V. C. 
 
 
 2,300 
 
 4.78 
 
 30.7 
 
 40.8 
 
 54.2 
 
 500,000 
 
 2 
 
 %2 V. C. 
 
 Vs 
 
 2,300 
 
 7.20 
 
 78.5 
 
 85.1 
 
 91.8 
 
 500,000 
 
 1 
 
 %2 V. C. 
 
 %4 
 
 600 
 
 3.59 
 
 39.0 
 
 42.4 
 
 45.7 
 
 1,000.000 
 
 1 
 
 %4 V. C. 
 
 
 600 
 
 6.26 
 
 71.0 
 
 77.7 
 
 84.4 
 
 1,500.000 
 
 1 
 
 ''/32 V. C. 
 
 Vs 
 
 250 
 
 8.48 
 
 100.8 
 
 110.8 : 
 
 120 9 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1 
 
 %4 V. C. 
 %2 P. 
 
 % 
 
 250 
 
 6.26 
 
 71.0 
 
 77.7 
 
 84.4 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1 
 
 Vs 
 
 250 
 
 6.15 
 
 65.4 
 
 72.1 
 
 78.7 
 
 750,000 
 
 1 
 
 %2 P. 
 
 %4 
 
 250 
 
 4.71 
 
 49.9 
 
 54.9 
 
 59.9 
 
 500,000 
 
 1 
 
 %2 P. 
 
 %4 
 
 250 
 
 3.59 
 
 36.2 
 
 39.5 
 
 42.9 
 
 300,000 
 
 1 
 
 %2P. 
 
 
 250 
 
 2.62 
 
 24.7 
 
 26.7 
 
 28.7 
 
 500,000 
 
 1 
 
 %4 P. 
 
 %4 
 
 600 
 
 3.68 
 
 36.7 
 
 40.0 
 
 43.4 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1 
 
 ',k P. 
 
 
 600 
 
 6.26 
 
 65.9 
 
 72.6 
 
 79.2 
 
 500,000 
 
 2 
 
 %2 P. 
 
 % 
 
 2,300 
 
 7.86 
 
 76.0 
 
 82.6 
 
 89.3 
 
 250,000 
 
 2 
 
 %2 P. 
 
 Vs 
 
 2,300 
 
 5.08 
 
 44.7 
 
 48.0 
 
 51.3 
 
 #4s. 
 
 2 
 
 %2 P- 
 
 %4 
 
 2,300 
 
 2.11 
 
 15.7 
 
 16.2 
 
 16.7 
 
 #6s. 
 
 1 
 
 5/^2 P. 
 
 3/b 
 
 2,300 
 
 1.00 
 
 7.60 
 
 7.78 
 
 7.95 
 
 250,000 
 
 3 
 
 ^%4 P. 
 
 lA 
 
 13,800 
 
 9.92 
 
 83.0 
 
 87.9 
 
 92.8 
 
 500,000 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %4 
 
 250 
 
 3.68 
 
 42.2 
 
 45.6 
 
 49.0 
 
 350,000 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %4 
 
 250 
 
 2.96 
 
 32.5 
 
 34 9 
 
 37.2 
 
 300,000 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %4 
 
 250 
 
 2.71 
 
 29.1 
 
 31.1 
 
 33.2 
 
 250,000 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %4 
 
 250 
 
 2.44 
 
 25.8 
 
 27.4 
 
 29.1 
 
 # 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 
 250 
 
 1.37 
 
 13.8 
 
 14.5 
 
 15.3 
 
 # 1 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 .H^2 
 
 250 
 
 1.24 
 
 12.2 
 
 12.8 
 
 13.3 
 
 # 6 
 
 3 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %4 
 
 250 
 
 1.93 
 
 18.44 
 
 18.96 
 
 19.49 
 
 #12s. 
 
 3 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %2 
 
 250 
 
 0.98 
 
 8.98 
 
 9.12 
 
 9.25 
 
 500,000 
 
 1 
 
 NE.C.R.,T. 
 
 %4 
 
 600 
 
 3.68 
 
 42.2 
 
 45.6 
 
 49.0 
 
 250,000 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %1 
 
 600 
 
 2.44 
 
 25.8 
 
 27.4 
 
 29.1 
 
 #1 
 
 1 
 
 N.E.C.R., T. 
 
 %2 
 
 600 
 
 1.24 
 
 12.2 
 
 12.8 
 
 13.3 
 
 #4/0 
 
 2 
 
 %4 R-, T. 
 
 14 
 
 2,300 
 
 4.35 
 
 45.4 
 
 48.2 
 
 51.0 
 
 #18s. 
 
 3 
 
 %4B.,T. 
 
 %2 
 
 2,300 
 
 1.42 
 
 11.79 
 
 11.84 
 
 11.93 
 
 1 All conductors are stranded 
 
 except ^ 
 
 where 
 
 indicated as 
 
 being 
 
 solid by the letter S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 V.C.- 
 
 -Varnished cloth, 
 
 , P. = paper; R. T.- 
 
 -New 
 
 code rubber, 
 
 taped. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE XL. COST OF LEAD COVERED CABLE 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of pairs 
 
 
 Weig-ht per 
 
 
 
 
 of conductors 
 
 
 ft., lbs 
 
 
 Price per ] 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 B. and 
 
 [ S. Gauge 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.745 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.45 
 
 2.12 
 
 2.48 
 
 3.10 
 
 4.06 
 
 6.21 
 
 8.31 
 
 
 $0,046 
 0.071 
 0.101 
 0.157 
 0.236 
 0.273 
 0.368 
 0.455 
 0.768 
 1.049 
 
 
 15 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 60 * '. 
 
 
 
 
 100 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 . . 
 
 '.,.*,. 
 
 
 
 180 . . 
 
 
 
 
 200 . . 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 600 . . 
 
 .'.!!.! 
 
 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 953 
 
 Number of pairs Weight per 
 of conductors ft. lbs. 
 
 19 B. and S. Gauge 
 
 15 0.970 
 
 30 1.39 
 
 60 2.22 
 
 90 2.81 
 
 120 4.21 
 
 180 5.44 
 
 300 7.59 
 
 ■ice per ft. 
 
 $0,097 
 
 0.146 
 
 0.180 
 
 0.350 
 
 0.475 
 
 0.644 
 
 0.966 
 
 TABLE XLI. CROSS ARMS 
 Weight per lin. ft., lbs. 
 
 Cross-section, ins. 
 
 Fir 
 
 Yellow pine 
 
 2%x3% 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.25 
 
 3x3% 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.60 
 
 3 X 4 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.90 
 
 3 x4^ 
 
 3.20 
 
 4.10 
 
 3y4x4% 
 
 3.40 
 
 4.40 
 
 3^x41/2 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.70 
 
 31/.J XIV2 
 
 4.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 3% X 4% 
 
 4.20 
 
 5.30 
 
 3 1/> X 5 
 
 4.40 
 
 5.57 
 
 3%x4% 
 
 4.-50 
 
 5.67 
 
 3% x5 
 
 4.70 
 
 5.95 
 
 3%x5% 
 
 5.40 
 
 6.80 
 
 4 x5 
 
 500 
 
 6.33 
 
 4%x5i4 
 
 5.-55 
 
 7.00 
 
 4y2 xSVa 
 
 6.15 
 
 7.63 
 
 4 x6 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.52 
 
 4%x53^ 
 
 6.70 
 
 8.50 
 
 5 X 6 
 
 7.30 
 
 9.29 
 
 Cents per lin, ft. 
 10.00 
 10.83 
 11.51 
 12.18 
 13.12 
 13.85 
 14.84 
 15.62 
 16.40 
 16.66 
 17.50 
 20.00 
 18.59 
 20.62 
 22.76 
 22.13 
 25,00 
 27.34 
 
 The following discounts are applicable to the above 
 price to obtain net prices for lots of from 1.000 to 3,000 lin. ft. 
 
 Yellow pine — 
 Location Fir 75% heart 
 
 Pacific coa.st mills 70% .... 
 
 Mi.ssi.ssippi mills 65% 
 
 Chicago warehouse 50% 55% 
 
 New York warehouse 40% 45% 
 
 On large orders these prices may be bettered by from 10 to 20%. 
 
 Prices include boring holes for bolts and pin-s. 
 
 Thus the price of a 6 ft. 6 pin fir cro.ss-arm with a cross-section 
 of 3.25 X 4.25 ins., f. o. b. Chicago Warehou.se would be — 
 
 13.12 X 6 =r 79 cents less 50% =: 39.5 cents, neL 
 And the weight would be 3.4 X 6 -: 20.4 lbs per cross-arm. 
 
 An 8 ft. 8 pin — 3.25 x 4.25 ins. fir cross-arm, f. o. b. New York 
 Warehouse would cost 
 
 13.12 X 8 - $105 less 40% --- 63 cents, net. 
 and the weight would be 3.4 X 8 :~ 27.2 lbs. per cross-arm. 
 
 Rules for Figuring Prices on Special Sized Arms. Add '/4-in. to 
 depth and width of finished size required to get " rough size." If 
 length required runs into ins., take next higher ft. length. This 
 gives the " rough " size and length of the block from which the arm 
 Is made. 
 
954 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Multiply depth by width (rough size) in ins., divide by 12, and 
 multiply by length in ft. This gives number ft. b. m. in block. 
 
 Multiply ft. b. m. by 10 to get base price at mill in cts. 
 
 To get weight, find ft. b. m. as above, except use actual length 
 required and multiply by 2.7 for fir and 3.4 for yellow pine. 
 
 For carbolineating, or immersion for 5 mins. in carbolineum oil, 
 heated to 200 deg. Fahr., add 20% to list prices. 
 
 For painting two coats red paint, add 20% to list prices. 
 
 For creosoting full vacuum treatment, 
 
 12 lbs. per cu. ft., add 50% to list price. 
 
 10 lbs. per cu. ft., add 45% to list price. 
 
 8 lbs, per cu. ft., add 40% to list price. 
 
 For example, to find cost of special size 7x6 ins. 
 
 (7 + % X 6 -I- 1/4 ) -- 45.31 sq. ins. 
 
 10(45.31 -T- 12) X =: base price at mill in cents, 
 where X = number of feet in length. 
 
 Cost of Malleable Iron Feeder Arms. Malleable iron feeder arms 
 have one to six pins complete with bolts and for 3, 4, 4.5, 5,. 6, and 7 
 in. poles cost per lb. of iron from 7 to 10 cts. 
 
 Malleable iron triangle, three pin high tension pole arms for 
 high tension light and power wires and having 30 ins. between pins, 
 cost approximately 10 cts. per lb. and weigh 33 lbs. each without 
 pins. 
 
 TABLE XLir. CROSS ARM PINS 
 
 American Telegraph and Telephone Co., " standard." 
 Steel pin with wood head. 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight per 100 lbs. 
 
 Price 
 Plain 
 
 per 
 
 100 lbs. 
 Galv'd. 
 
 % x54 
 % X 1 ij 
 
 62 
 82 
 57 
 
 77 
 
 $5.00 
 5.80 
 4.80 
 5.60 
 
 
 $7.40 
 8.50 
 7.20 
 8.00 
 
 The above size is the diameter and length of bolt. First two are 
 for wood cross arms. The last are for steel channels or angle 
 iron cross-arms and are without washers. 
 
 High Tension Insulator Pins. Malleable iron head and pin on 
 piece with steel bolt with short stud for use on channel and angle 
 iron cross-arm. 
 
 
 
 
 
 , Price 
 
 per 
 
 100 , 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 100, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Jap'd 
 
 
 Galv'd 
 
 4% 
 
 
 170 
 
 
 $20.80 
 
 
 $26.50 
 
 51/2 
 
 
 190 
 
 
 21.60 
 
 
 28.00 
 
 6 
 
 
 190 
 
 
 22.40 
 
 
 29.00 
 
 71/2 
 
 
 215 
 
 
 24.00 
 
 
 31.25 
 
 9 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 30.00 
 
 
 39.00 
 
 10 
 
 
 340 
 
 
 32.00 
 
 
 45.00 
 
 18 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 48.00 
 
 
 68.00 
 
 The above size is the length of pin plus height of head. 
 Head diameter is 1 in. for the first four sizes and 1.375 ins. for 
 last three. 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 955 
 
 
 WOOD PINS, PAINTED OAK 
 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Price per 1,000 
 
 1^ x8 
 11/^ X 9 
 
 300 
 400 
 
 $12.50 
 15.00 
 
 The above prices are for lots of less than 250. For lots of 250 
 to 1,000 a discount of 30% is given and 40% on lots of 1,000 to 2,500 
 on those given above. 
 
 TABLE XLIII. 
 
 CROSS-ARM BRACES C 
 
 Length, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. per 1,000 
 
 
 Size of steel, 1 x %6 ins. 
 
 20 
 22 
 
 1,000 
 1,100 
 
 
 Size of steel, 17^2 x l'z2 ins. 
 
 20 
 22 
 24 
 26 
 28 
 30 
 
 1,420 
 1,560 
 1.700 
 1.840 
 1,980 
 2,120 
 
 
 Size of steel, 11/4x^4 ins. 
 
 20 
 22 
 24 
 26 
 28 
 30 
 
 1,670 
 1,835 
 2,000 
 2.165 
 2,335 
 2,500 
 
 Price per 1,000 
 
 $33.75 
 37.12 
 
 42.48 
 46.65 
 50.85 
 55.10 
 59.20 
 63.30 
 
 49.95 
 54.93 
 59.85 
 64.69 
 69.90 
 74.80 
 
 Guy Clamp. The following are costs of guy clamps. 
 
 Matthews Boltless Guy Clamp 
 Size of guy strand, ins. Weight, lbs. per 100 
 
 1/4 -yi6 50 
 
 %-7i6 130 
 
 Price, each 
 $0.10 
 .15 
 
 Prices are on lots of less than 500, 15 to 20% off on 1,000 lots 
 and over. 
 
 Galvanized Rolled Steel Guy Clamp 
 
 Size, ins. No. of bolts Weight, lbs. per 100 Price per 100 
 
 3 2 110 $12.00 
 
 150 
 210 
 
 17.00 
 19 50 
 
 * A. T. & T, standard. 
 
 Prices are on lots of 50 to 100 ; discount of 9% on lots from 100 
 to 250 and special prices on lots over 250. 
 
 Universal guy clamp, galvanized malleable iron 
 No. of bolts Weight, lbs. per 100 Price per 100 
 
 2 100 $12.00 
 
 3 100 17.50 
 
 Prices are on lots of 100 to 300; discount of 9% on lots from 
 300 to 500 and special prices on lots Over 500. 
 
956 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XLIV. PIN TYPE INSULATORS (WESSELHOEFT) 
 
 Operating 
 
 Test Voltage 
 
 Diam,Height, ^?- 
 ins. ins. p^;^^ 
 
 Weigh 
 , lbs. 
 
 it ^ 
 
 Material voltage, 
 volts 
 
 Wet 
 volts 
 
 Dry 
 volts 
 
 •8 
 
 Glass 110-2,200 
 Porcelain 13,200 
 Porcelain 22,000 
 Porcelain 33,000 
 Porcelain 44,000 
 Porcelain 50,000 
 Porcelain 60,000 
 
 40,000 
 •45,000 
 60,000 
 80,000 
 95,000 
 115,000 
 
 ■80,000 
 72,000 
 90,000 
 110,000 
 120,000 
 150,000 
 
 314 4 1 
 
 6y2 3% 2 
 
 7 5 2 
 
 9 8 2 or 3 
 
 101/2 10 3 
 
 12 11 3 
 
 14 13 4 
 
 ' Vi 
 
 8 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 $0.03 
 0.18 
 0.50 
 0.75 
 1.20 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 
 TABLE XLV. SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATORS 
 (WESSELHOEFT) 
 
 
 ^"^- parts ins. 
 
 Test Voltage 
 
 Ul timate Working™-^, _v, ^ 
 
 strength, stress, ^flg^^ 
 
 lbs. lbs. ^*^»- 
 
 
 Wet 
 volts 
 
 Dry 
 volts 
 
 • Cost 
 
 10 1 51^2 
 12 1 6i/o 
 14 2 9 
 
 50,000 
 50,000 
 65,000 
 
 75,000 
 75,000 
 90,000 
 
 8,000 4,000 
 
 9,000 4,500 
 
 12,000 6,000 
 
 11 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 $1.00 
 1.40 
 2.00 
 
 TABLE XLVL HIGH VOLTAGE PORCELAIN INSULATORS 
 
 lane voltage 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Price 
 
 6,600 
 
 1.0 
 
 $0.10 
 
 7,500 
 
 1.125 
 
 .12 
 
 8,000 
 
 1.2 
 
 .13 
 
 10,000 
 
 1.6 
 
 .18 
 
 11,000 
 
 1.8 
 
 .20 
 
 13,000 
 
 2.3 
 
 .26 
 
 15,000 
 
 2.6 
 
 .31 
 
 18,000 
 
 3.3 
 
 .40 
 
 20,000 
 
 3.8 
 
 .46 
 
 23,000 
 
 4.5 
 
 .55 
 
 25,000 
 
 5.0 
 
 .64 
 
 27,000 
 
 5.5 
 
 .70 
 
 30,000 
 
 6.1 
 
 .82 
 
 33,000 
 
 7.0 
 
 .95 
 
 36,000 
 
 7.8 
 
 1.10 
 
 40,000 
 
 9.0 
 
 1.20 
 
 45,000 
 
 10.5 
 
 1.45 
 
 50,000 ■ 
 
 20,0 
 
 2.80 
 
 TABLE XLVII. 
 
 WOOD STRAIN INSULATORS WITH 
 GALVANIZED ENDS 
 
 ?th, ins. 
 
 Diameter, ins. 
 
 Price per 100 
 
 5 
 
 
 $21.00 
 
 9 
 
 
 25.00 
 
 12 
 
 
 30.00 
 
 15 
 
 
 32.25 
 
 5 
 
 m 
 
 27.35 
 
 9 
 
 30.00 
 
 12 
 
 1% 
 
 35.00 
 
 15 
 
 lU 
 
 39.35 
 
 24 
 
 114 ^ 
 
 52.50 
 
 36 
 
 1^ 
 
 65.00 
 
 48 
 
 '1% 
 
 77.50 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 957 
 
 The average breaking strain for the 1 in, diam. is 2500 lbs. and 
 for 1.25 in. diam. 10.000 lbs. 
 
 The above length is the length of wood insulaton and the diam. 
 is that of the wood at the ends. The distance between centers of 
 eyes is 4 to 5 ins. greater than that of the wood insulation. 
 
 For insulators having clevis at one end there is an increase of 
 10% and for those having tapped boss at one end ther« is an increase 
 of 157o to 20% on the above prices. 
 
 TABLE XLVIII. GLASS INSULATORS 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Size, ins. per 1,000 Price per 1,000 
 
 Pony 2^x314 700 $28.80 
 
 Pony double petticoat . . 2% x 314 950 33.60 
 
 Pony double groove 2 x 3^^ 760 28.80 
 
 Regular insulator 2%x4 1,100 36.00 
 
 Std. Western Union dou- 
 ble petticoat 314x4% 1,700 52.80 
 
 Long distance pattern . . 27/i6x3% 1,000 43.20 
 Western Union single 
 
 petticoat 2%x4 1,450 60.00 
 
 Deep groove pattern ... 3 x 4 1,275 52.00 
 Large double groove ... 3 x4^ 1,700 60.00 
 Deep groove double pet- 
 ticoat 3% X 4 1,475 52.80 
 
 Extra deep groove double 
 
 petticoat 31/3 x 3% 1,375 52.80 
 
 The sizes given are the maximum diam. and heights. 
 
 TABLE XLIX. PORCELAIN STRAIN INSULATORS 
 
 Size Dimensions, ins. Weight per 100 lbs. Price per 100 
 
 1 314x414 162.5 $12.00 
 
 2 3%x5i^ 275.0 16.00 
 
 3 278x3% 137.5 10.00 
 
 4 2% X 3 87.5 8.00 
 
 5 11/2x2% 25.0 4.50 
 
 No. pieces 
 Size Test voltage Line voltage Tensile strength per package 
 
 1 24,000 8,000 15,000 125 
 
 2 21,000 8,000 20,000 100 
 
 3 24,000 7,000 15,000 250 
 
 4 20,000 5,000 12,000 350 
 
 5 telephone work low voltage 1,000 
 
 GIANT STRAIN INSULATORS 
 
 Diam. of body, ins. Length Breaking strength lbs. Price per 100 
 
 1% 3% 3,500 $24.85 
 
 2 47/16 5,000 27.00 
 
 2% 4i%6 7,000 31.50 
 
 2% 6 10,000 42.75 
 
 For clevis at one end there will be an increase of $5.50 for the 
 1.75 and 2 in. sizes and $8.25 increase on 2.25 and 2.5 in. sizes. 
 
 For insulators with clevis at both ends, the increase will be twice 
 as much as for one clevis. 
 
958 MPXIJANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The length given above is distance between centers of eyes ; there 
 is a slight increase in length in the case of clevis and eye or two 
 clevises. 
 
 Comparison of Aluminum and Copper Wire. We have taken the 
 following information frotn American Handbook for Electrical En- 
 gineers: The following table compares the various Items for wires 
 having the same length and same resistance and is based on the 
 following assumptions : 
 
 Copper Aluminum 
 
 Per cent, conductivity 98 61 
 
 Tensile strength, lbs. per sq. in 55,000 25,000 
 
 Density 8.89 2.70 
 
 Price per pound P P 
 
 COMPAPJS(^N OF COPPER AND AT.ITMINUM WIRES FOR 
 EQUAL RESISTANCES PER UNIT LENGTH 
 
 Item Copper Aluminum 
 
 P 
 
 Cost 1 0.488 X — 
 
 P 
 
 Cross-section 1 1.G.3 
 
 Diameter 1 1.28 
 
 Weight 1 488 
 
 Breaking str-erigth 1 0,7;a 
 
 Carrying capacity 1 1.13 
 
 Disadvantdf/e of Low Tensile Strength. The lower tensile 
 strength of aluminum for ernjal length and conductance as compared 
 with copper affects the cost of an aerial line in two ways; 1st. by 
 making it necessary to erect the s])ans with a greater sag or less 
 length in order to reduce the stresses, thereby either increasing the 
 height or the nujnber of poles, and 2nd. by making it necessary to 
 increase the distance between wires on account of the increased 
 sag. The increase in the height of poles for the same si)acing 
 amounts to about 10%. (C. L. Johnson.) 
 
 Example of Relative Cost. According to the official publications 
 of the Ontario Jlydro-Electric Commission on a line consisting of 
 two three-!)haHe circuits, each comprising three 4/0 American wire 
 gage cables, the six cables cost $1,450 per mile as comijared with 
 .$2,050 p(^r mile for co))per cables (copper being at 16 cts. per lb. and 
 aluminum at 23.5 cts. per lb.) showing a saving of nearly 30% on 
 the cables alone. This saving was reduced to 5.6% only on the 
 total cost of the line, partly because the actual towers weighed 1.72 
 tons against 1.57 tons for towers for an equivalent copi)er line, and 
 partly because the cost of cables was only 30% of the total cost 
 of the line, including erection but excluding rights-of-way. (C. L. 
 Johnson.) Owing to a tariff of 3.5 cts. per lb. the price of aluminum 
 is higher in the U. S. than in Canada and Europe, so that the saving 
 would have been considerably less at U. S. prices. 
 
 Weatherproof Copper Wire. The cost of triple braid wire solid 
 conductor is " Base " * for B. & S. gHge sizes 4/0 to 8/0 inclu- 
 
 * " Base " cost on copper wire is usually about 1 ct. per lb. higher 
 than the market price of ingot copper or " wire-bar." 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 959. 
 
 sive with an increase of 1 ct. for each size smaller than the 
 No. 8. Double braid wire costs .5 ct. more per lb. than triple braid, 
 as does also triple braid fire and weatherproof and Underwriter's 
 slow burning wires. 
 
 Twisted conductors cost about 1 ct. per lb. more than for single 
 conductor. 
 
 Stranded conductors cost .25 ct. more than the above, for sizes 
 1,000,000 circular mils, to No. 2 B. & S. gauge inclusive; .5 ct. more 
 for No. 3 ; 1 ct. more for Nos. 4 to 6 inclusive ; and 1.5 cts. for No. 8 ; 
 2 cts. for No. 10 and 5 cts. for No. 12. 
 
 Thus with a base price of 16.5 cts. per lb., No. 10 wire, solid 
 conductor, triple braid would cost 17.5 cts. ; No. 10 wire, solid con- 
 ductor, double braid would cost 18 cts. per lb. ; if the latter were 
 stranded it would cost 20 cts. per lb. This would make No. 10 wire, 
 solid conductor, triple braid, cost $9.28 per 1000 ft. 
 
 In figuring prices of wire it must be remembered that a charge 
 of from $5 to $10 is made for the reels on which the wire is de- 
 livered. This amount is rebatable, however, upon the return of the 
 reels in good condition. 
 
 Weights of Copper Wire. In Tables L to LV are given the 
 weight per mile of base, double braid weatherproof and triple braid 
 weatherproof wire, both for solid and stranded conductors, and 
 with allowances of 0%, 2.5% and 5% for sag and waste. 
 
 TABLE L. WEIGHT PER MILE OP BARE SOLID CONDUCTOR 
 
 
 
 2%>%forsag 
 
 5% for sag 
 
 
 No sag or waste 
 
 and waste 
 
 and waste 
 
 Size B. & S. gauge Weight, lbs. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 0,000 
 
 3,382 
 
 3,467 
 
 3,551 
 
 000 
 
 2,682 
 
 2,749 
 
 2,816 
 
 00 
 
 2,127 
 
 2,180 
 
 2,233 
 
 
 
 1,687 
 
 1,729 
 
 1,771 
 
 1 
 
 1,337 
 
 1,370 
 
 1,404 
 
 2 
 
 1,061 
 
 1,088 
 
 1,114 
 
 3 
 
 841 
 
 862 
 
 883 
 
 4 
 
 667 
 
 684 
 
 700 
 
 6 
 
 420 
 
 431 
 
 441 
 
 8 
 
 263 
 
 270 
 
 276 
 
 10 
 
 166 
 
 170 
 
 174 
 
 12 
 
 104 
 
 107 
 
 109 
 
 14 
 
 66 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 TABLE LL WEIGHT PER MILE OF BARE CONCEI 
 
 
 STRANDED 
 
 CONDUCTOR 
 
 
 Circ. mils. 
 
 and 
 
 B. &S. 
 
 No sag or 
 
 2%% sag 
 
 5% sag and 
 
 waste 
 
 and waste 
 
 waste 
 
 Weight 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight, 
 lbs. 
 
 Weight, 
 lbs. 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 32,757 
 
 33,576 
 
 34,395 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 28,665 
 
 29,382 
 
 30,098 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 24,568 • 
 
 25,182 
 
 25,796 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 20,475 
 
 20,987 
 
 21,499 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 16,378 
 
 16,787 
 
 17,197 
 
 750,000 
 
 12,276 
 
 12,583 
 
 12,890 
 
 600,000 
 
 9,821 
 
 10,067 
 
 10,312 
 
 500.000 
 
 8,173 
 
 8,377 
 
 8.582 
 
960 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Circ. mils. 
 
 and 
 
 B. &S. 
 
 450,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 0,000 
 
 000 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 No sag or 
 
 2V27c sag 
 
 5% sag and 
 
 waste 
 
 and waste 
 
 waste 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7,355 
 
 7.539 
 
 7,723 
 
 6,536 
 
 6.699 
 
 6,863 
 
 5,718 
 
 5,861 
 
 6,004 
 
 4,905 
 
 5,028 
 
 5,150 
 
 4.087 
 
 4,189 
 
 4,291 
 
 3,448 
 
 3.534 
 
 3,620 
 
 2,729 
 
 2,797 
 
 2,865 
 
 2,164 
 
 2,218 
 
 2,272 
 
 1,721 
 
 1,764 
 
 1,807 
 
 1,361 
 
 1,395 
 
 1,429 
 
 1,072 
 
 1,099 
 
 1,126 
 
 848 
 
 869 
 
 890 
 
 672 
 
 689 
 
 706 
 
 423 
 
 434 
 
 444 
 
 No sag or 
 
 214% sag 
 
 5% sag and 
 
 waste 
 
 and waste 
 
 waste 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3,817 
 
 3.912 
 
 4,008 
 
 3,098 
 
 3,175 
 
 3,253 
 
 2,467 
 
 2.529 
 
 2.590 
 
 1,989 
 
 2,039 
 
 2.088 
 
 1,553 
 
 1,592 
 
 1,631 
 
 1,264 
 
 1,296 
 
 1,327 
 
 977 
 
 1,001 
 
 1,026 
 
 795 
 
 815 
 
 835 
 
 529 
 
 542 
 
 555 
 
 349 
 
 358 
 
 366 
 
 241 
 
 247 
 
 253 
 
 158 
 
 162 
 
 166 
 
 107 
 
 110 
 
 112 
 
 TABLE LIT. WEIGHT PER MILE OP DOUBLE BRAID 
 WEATHERPROOF SOLID CONDUCTOR 
 
 Size 
 B. &S. 
 
 Gauge 
 
 0,000 
 
 000 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 
 TABLE LTIL ^V^ETGHT PER MILE OF DOUBLE BRAID 
 WEATHERPROOF STRANDED CONDUCTOR 
 
 2 % % sag and 5% sag and 
 
 waste waste 
 
 Weight, Weight, 
 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 36.206 37.089 
 
 31.897 32,675 
 
 27.588 28,261 
 
 23.079 23,642 
 
 18.702 19,158 
 
 14,261 14.609 
 
 11,328 .11,605 
 
 9,551 9,784 
 
 8,663 8,875 
 
 7,774 7,963 
 
 6,754 6,918 
 
 5,864 6,007 
 
 4,908 5,027 
 
 4,033 4,132 
 
 3.270 3.350 
 
 2,608 2,671 
 
 2,102 2,154 
 
 1,639 1,679 
 
 Circ. mils. 
 
 and 
 B. & S, Nos. 
 
 No sag or 
 
 waste 
 
 Weight, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2.000.000 
 
 35,323 
 
 1,750.000 
 
 31,119 
 
 1,500.000 
 
 26,9J5 
 
 1,250.000 
 
 22,516 
 
 1,000.000 
 
 18.246 
 
 750.000 
 
 13,913 
 
 600,000 
 
 11,052 
 
 500,000 
 
 9,318 
 
 450,000 
 
 8,452 
 
 400,000 
 
 7,584 
 
 350,000 
 
 6,589 
 
 300,000 
 
 5,721 
 
 250.000 
 
 4,788 
 
 0,000 
 
 3,935 
 
 000 
 
 3.190 
 
 00 
 
 2,544 
 
 
 
 2,051 
 
 1 
 
 1,599 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 961 
 
 Pirp TYin«! No sag or 2%% sag and 5% sag and *» 
 *^irc. mufa. waste waste waste 
 
 J WdJSCC WcXiSUC WO.OLC 
 
 ^ «? Tsjn«5 Weight, Weight, Weight. 
 
 2 1,301 1,333 1,366 
 
 3 1,004 1,029 1,054 
 
 4 820 841 861 
 6 544 558 571 
 
 TABLE LIV. WEIGHT PER MILE OP TRIPLE BRAID 
 WEATHERPROOF SOLID CONDUCTOR 
 
 q:„„ No sag or 21/2% sag 5% sag 
 
 ■D o a waste and waste and waste 
 
 n^^^^ Weight, Weight, Weight, 
 
 Lrauge j^jg j^jg j^g^ 
 
 0,000 4,050 4,151 4,253 
 
 000 3,320 3,403 3,486 
 
 00 2,650 2,716 2,783 
 
 2,150 2,204 2,258 
 
 1 1,670 1,712 1,754 
 
 2 1,370 1,404 1,439 
 
 3 1,050 1,076 1,103 
 
 4 865 887 908 
 6 590 605 620 
 8 395 405 415 
 
 10 280 287 294 
 
 12 185 190 194 
 
 14 130 133 137 
 
 16 105 108 110 
 
 18 ^ 85 87 89 
 
 20 65 67 68 
 
 TABLE LV. WEIGHT PER MILE OF TRIPLE BRAID 
 WEATHERPROOF STRANDED CONDUCTOR 
 
 
 No sag or 
 
 21/2% sag 
 
 5% sag and 
 
 Circ. mils, and 
 
 waste 
 
 and waste 
 
 waste 
 
 B. & S. Nos. 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 37,925 
 
 38,850 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 32,700 
 
 33,518 
 
 34,335 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 28,400 
 
 29,110 
 
 29,820 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 23,800 
 
 24,395 
 
 24,990 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 19,400 
 
 19,885 
 
 20,370 
 
 750,000 
 
 14,900 
 
 15,273 
 
 15,645 
 
 600,000 
 
 11,800 
 
 12,095 
 
 12,390 
 
 500,000 
 
 10.000 
 
 10,250 
 
 10,500 
 
 450.000 
 
 9,100 
 
 9,328 
 
 9,555 • 
 
 400,000 
 
 8,200 
 
 8,405 
 
 8,610 
 
 350,000 
 
 7,100 
 
 7,276 
 
 7,455 
 
 300,000 
 
 6,200 
 
 6,355 
 
 6,510 
 
 250,000 
 
 5,200 
 
 5,330 
 
 5,460 
 
 0,000 
 
 4,220 
 
 4,326 
 
 4,431 
 
 000 
 
 3,450 
 
 3,536 
 
 3,623 
 
 00 
 
 2.760 
 
 2,829 
 
 2,898 
 
 
 
 2,240 ■ 
 
 2,296 
 
 2,352 
 
 1 
 
 1,735 
 
 1,778 
 
 1,822 
 
 2 
 
 1,425 
 
 1,461 
 
 1,496 
 
 3 
 
 1,090 
 
 1,117 
 
 1,145 
 
 4 
 
 900 
 
 923 
 
 945 
 
 6 
 
 610 
 
 625 
 
 641 
 
52 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE LVI. COST PER CABLE FOOT OF ERECTING AB 
 
 
 
 CABLE, CHICAGO 
 
 
 
 
 C«st of 
 
 Cost 
 
 
 
 Size, pairs 
 
 Gauge 
 
 cable 
 
 material 
 
 Labor 
 
 Total 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 $0.0489 
 
 $0.0133 
 
 $0.0400 
 
 $0.1022 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 .0597 
 
 .0133 
 
 .0400 
 
 .1130 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 .0707 
 
 .0134 
 
 .0353 
 
 .1194 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 .0812 
 
 .0155 
 
 .0358 
 
 .1325 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 .0917 
 
 .0166 
 
 .0292 
 
 .1375 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 .1377 
 
 .0179 
 
 .0331 
 
 .1887 
 
 100 
 
 22 
 
 .2374 
 
 .0272 
 
 .0434 
 
 .3080 
 
 150 
 
 22 
 
 .3140 
 
 .0278 
 
 .0510 
 
 .3928 
 
 200 
 
 22 ♦ 
 
 .4401 
 
 .0283 
 
 .0540 
 
 .5224 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 .0900 
 
 .0135 
 
 ,0292 
 
 .1327 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 .1250 
 
 .0181 
 
 .0330 
 
 .1761 
 
 50 
 
 19 
 
 .2125 
 
 .0190 
 
 .0421 
 
 .2736 
 
 100 
 
 19 
 
 .4926 
 
 .0277 
 
 .0510 
 
 .5713 
 
 150 
 
 19 
 
 .6000 
 
 .0281 
 
 .0530 
 
 ,6811 
 
 200 
 
 19 
 
 .7478 
 
 .0292 
 
 .0560 
 
 .8330 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 .0700 
 
 .0135 
 
 .0400 
 
 .1235 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 .0950 
 
 .0135 
 
 .0280 
 
 .1365 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 .1200 
 
 .0167 
 
 .0290 
 
 .1657 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 .1400 
 
 .0175 
 
 .0312 
 
 ,1887 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 .1620 
 
 .0184 
 
 .0405 
 
 .2209 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 .4250 
 
 .0277 
 
 .0501 
 
 .5028 
 
 100 
 
 18 
 
 .6450 
 
 .0297 
 
 .0530 
 
 .7277 
 
 Supervision and other overhead costs not included. Labor costs 
 on small sized cables are high because they involve short lengths. 
 
 TABLE LVII. WEIGHT AND COST OF STANDARD PLAIN 
 GALVANIZED STEEL STRAND CONDUCTORS 
 
 (For guys, signal strand, trolley line span wire and other pur- 
 poses. Composed of 7 wires twisted together) 
 
 Diameter, 
 ins. 
 
 %2 
 
 Wt. per 1,000 
 
 Approx. break 
 
 ft., lbs. 
 
 strain, lbs. 
 
 510 
 
 8,500 
 
 415 
 
 6,500 
 
 295 
 
 5,000 
 
 210 
 
 3,800 
 
 125 
 
 2,300 
 
 95 
 
 1,800 
 
 75 
 
 1,400 
 
 55 
 
 900 
 
 32 
 
 500 
 
 20 
 
 400 
 
 Price 
 per 100 ft. 
 $2.20 
 1.80 
 1.40 
 0.90 
 0.70 
 0.60 
 0.50 
 0.46 
 0.40 
 0.32 
 
 The prices given are for single galvanized and are approximately 
 average for lengths of from 1,000 to 2,500 ft. ; with large orders 
 more favorable prices can be obtained under normal conditions. 
 For double galvanized wire the prices will be about 10% more than 
 those given. 
 
 The weight of Siemens-Martin strand is approximately the same 
 as for the standard galvanized strand. Prices given are for orders 
 of from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. 
 
 The following notes on the uses of " Strand " wires are taken 
 from the 1915 Year Book of the Western Electric Company. 
 
 Guy Strand. Extra galvanized Siemens-Martin strand is fre- 
 
OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 963 
 
 TABLE LVIII. COST AND STRENGTH OF EXTRA GAL- 
 VANIZED SIEMENS-MARTIN STRAND CONDUCTORS 
 
 Diameter, Tensile strength Net price 
 
 ins. lbs. per 100 ft. 
 
 % 19,000 $3.90 
 
 1^ 11,000 2.50 
 
 7/i6 9,000 . 2.05 
 
 % 6,800 1.60 
 
 5/i6 4,860 1.30 
 
 %2 4,380 1.00 
 
 14 3,050 0.90 
 
 %6 2.000 0.75 
 
 % 900 0.50 
 
 quently employed to guy electric railway, telegraph and telephone 
 poles. 
 
 Messenger Strand. For .3125 in. diam. extra galvanized Siemens- 
 Martin strand, .375 in. or .4375 in. diara. extra galvanized high 
 strength strand is stretched from pole to pole, and from this mes- 
 senger strand, so called, the heavy lead-encased telephone cable is 
 suspended by means of clips, wire or cord at short intervals. A 
 messenger strand thus sustains the stress due to weight of cable, 
 wind or ice load. Comm.on galvanized strand should never be used 
 for this purpose, as it does not possess the requisite strength. 
 
 Catenary Method of Supporting Trolley Wires. One or more mes- 
 senger strands are stretched from the center of the tracks. Every 
 few feet along this messenger strand are pendent hangers that 
 clamp on to the trollej' wire, detaining it in a rigid, straight, hori- 
 zontal line. For a single messenger strand carrying 4/0 copper 
 trolley wire, in spans of 125 to 150 ft., .375-in. or Vie-in. diam., extra 
 galvanized Siemens-Martin strand is frequently used. For longer 
 spans, up to 225 ft. the .376-in. or .4375-in. extra galvanized high 
 strength strand is preferable. 
 
 Lightning Arrester for Transmission Lines. To protect high-ten- 
 sion current transmission lines from destructive lightning a .375-in. 
 diam. extra galvanized Siemens-Martin strand, known as an " over- 
 head ground strand," is strung at the highest point on the sup- 
 porting towers, this " overhead ground strand " being connected at 
 frequent intervals with the ground. The extra galvanized Siemens- 
 Martin strand, because of its great conductivity, is employed almost 
 exclusively for the " overhead ground strand." 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 UNDERGROUND ELECTRECAL TRANSMISSION AND 
 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Many of the data which follow have been abstracted from Clar- 
 ence Mayer's Telephone Construction — Methods and Cost, and the 
 reo.der who desires a much more detailed analysis of this subject 
 than can be giv'^en here, is referred to Mr. Mayer's book. 
 
 For very complete detail costs of concrete, of paving and re- 
 moving pavements, and of trench excavating, see Gillette's Hand- 
 book of Cost Data. 
 
 Underground Conduit. The following labor costs of construct- 
 ing conduit are from Maj'er's Telephone Construction. McRoy tile, 
 cement, vault frames and cover, creosoted plank and pump log 
 were shipped in cars and unloaded and distributed by the conduit 
 gang. All other material was bought delivered on the job. 
 
 The method of installing McRoy tile, Class " A " construction, 
 shall" be as follows : The trench shall first be prepared with a foun- 
 dation of 3 ins. of concrete, leveled and tamped. Upon this the tile 
 shall be laid. Insert the necessary dowel pins and place the next 
 tile in line, centering the tile by means of the dowel pins. Cover 
 the top and sides of each joint with a strip of burlap 6 ins. wide 
 to prevent the entrance of concrete into the duct. 
 
 The successive length of tile shall then be laid in similar man- 
 ner. When two or more sections are laid side by side all joints 
 shall be staggered. In joining 2, 3 or 6-duct sections at least one 
 dowel pin shall be used, or if the duct is designed for more than 
 one. two shall be used. When the tile is laid it is enclosed at the 
 sides and top with a wall of concrete 3 ins. thick and well tamped. 
 
 If the conduit has a lai'ge cross section it will be built up in 
 tiers. When the first tier is laid and lined up the sides of the 
 trench shall be filled in with well tamped concrete to a thickness of 
 3 ins. and to a height flush with the top of the tile. The upper 
 tiers shall then be laid successively, one upon the other, in a man- 
 ner similar to the first tier. The complete section shall be covered 
 with 3 ins. of well-tamped concrete, after which the trench shall 
 be refilled. In dumping concrete into the trench and in laying tile 
 care should be taken not to knock off earth into the trench. Any 
 dirt falling onto the work shall be carefully removed before pro- 
 ceeding with the construction. 
 
 In refilling the trench the better part of the material excavated 
 shall be used. It must be well tamped into place and the trench 
 covered with a crown of 3 or 4 ins. If the street is paved, all 
 
 9G4 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 965 
 
 surplus must be gathered up and carried away, and the displaced 
 paving material shall be replaced temporarily. After conduit runs 
 are completed all ducts shall be closed with wooden plugs. 
 
 Concrete may be mixed by hand or by machine. If mixed by 
 hand it shall be done on a timber platform to prevent waste of 
 water and material, except where the following pavements are en- 
 countered : (1) asphalt; (2) brick; (3) macadam; (4) creosoted 
 wood block. When mixing concrete on any of these pavements the 
 street shall be swept clean for a place sufficient to allow for mixing 
 the concrete. The stone or gravel shall first be placed in a layer 
 about 4 ins. thick ; sand or screenings added and .spread out evenly, 
 and the cement added and evenly distributed. The dry mixture 
 shall be turned over by shovels at least three times so that it is 
 thoroughly mixed. Sufficient water shall be used so that when 
 placed in a wheel-barrow the concrete shall be very moist and in 
 a semi-fluid condition. All concrete shall be free from dirt or 
 any foreign material. Concrete shall be used within 2 hours of the 
 time it is mixed. 
 
 Fig. 
 Fig. 
 
 1. McRoy tile, 4-duct conduit, class 
 
 2. McRoy tile, 4-duct conduit, class 
 
 " A " construction. 
 " B " construction. 
 
 The proportions of materials to be used in mixing, concrete for 
 conduit construction shall be as follows : If crushed stone con- 
 crete is used. 1 part of American Portland cement, 4 parts V4-in. 
 screenings and 8 parts No. 3 (%-in. ) stone. If gravel concrete is 
 used, 1 part American Portland cement, 4 parts sand and 8 parts 
 gravel ; 1 bag of cement shall be considered 1 cu. ft. 
 
 The method of installing class " B " construction shall be the 
 same as described for class " A," except in the following particulars ; 
 
 The tile shall be laid on a 3-in. bed of concrete. Upon the top 
 of the tile there .shall be placed 2 in.s. of earth, which shall be 
 free from large stone. Upon this layer of earth a 1.5-in. creosoted 
 plank shall be laid of the same width as the conduit formation. 
 The tile joints shall be closed by means of strips of burlap which 
 shall be placed around the tile, so as to cover the top and sides. 
 The burlap shall be saturated with a thin, neat cement mortar, 
 and shall be plastered on the sides and top with %-in. of cement 
 mortar mixed in the proportion of 1-2. The burlap shall be 6 ins. 
 wide and of sufllcj^nt length to overlap the width of the tile. 
 
9G6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 t— t^t-in-^oo^iHoo 
 
 COrHt-r-IOininOCCT) 
 
 ocoT-^r^oct-t-in«3 
 
 tHtHtHOOOOOO 
 
 Tf<l-«SCI 
 
 05 Cl a> Cl t - 00 «D I- Cl 
 
 <3V0Oint~- OOt^CDC-t- 
 
 oooO ooooo 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 lis 
 
 u 
 
 '^^'^ 
 
 ■S>.ftos 
 o 05 a. " ^, 
 
 -P C ft 
 
 o rt (Dt! 
 +j > ft^ 
 
 O.S.S 
 
 o 
 
 &9- 
 
 •^ -f ^ lo Cl Cl <:o M"+' 
 t-coin-*<iHt— t>--*'Oi 
 
 OCOCOrH-rClClt-O 
 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl tH Cl 
 
 2237 
 2025 
 2654 
 3315 
 
 3969 
 3313 
 2386 
 .2890 
 
 3491 
 2922 
 3330 
 3890 
 3610 
 
 o 
 <«■ 
 
 ocii-iint^-^oooiX" 
 
 l-HCOt— t-IWt-IO-jOOO 
 
 co-t<coincocococo-t< 
 ooooooooo 
 
 0372 
 0386 
 0426 
 0447 
 
 T-<mci<D 
 
 I>t-I00tH 
 
 CO in CO t' 
 oooo 
 
 0574 
 0457 
 0417 
 0481 
 0449 
 
 U 
 
 8 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 ooot-coinin':t<ci 
 ->*<-Tt<oi-t<OT-iinmcrj 
 ■^in-Hr-iinfcociTr' 
 
 OOOOOOOOO 
 
 0521 
 0422 
 0201 
 0384 
 
 0602 
 0396 
 0350 
 0521 
 
 Cl iH rH -"f Cl 
 
 t^ 00 o o in 
 in -^ in CO in 
 ooooo 
 
 o 
 
 tH CO Cl ^ Oi in fJ5 00 Cl 
 
 eococoascociOii^ai 
 
 tH— (l-HClT-HrHTHiHT-H 
 
 ooooooooo 
 
 0199 
 0190 
 0296 
 0322 
 
 0330 
 0316 
 0190 
 0201 
 
 0242 
 0211 
 0342 
 0387 
 0364 
 
 o 
 
 €«• 
 
 c>-tocii-i«Dmt>ciCT> 
 
 OJ CO -* '^^ CO C 1 o t - oo 
 
 cicoco-rin-r-fr-j,-j 
 ooooooooo 
 
 
 
 
 cocooio 
 cot^cio-.- 
 
 T-HT-Hinrt< 
 
 oooo 
 
 0560 
 0526 
 0294 
 0282 
 
 rHOSOsOin 
 
 o in -f Cl CO 
 
 CICICDCOCO 
 
 ooooo 
 
 O 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 e^ 
 
 Oiint—oocoo'i'ooci 
 cio<x)oo«Dt-c-aiin 
 CD r- CO in CD t- cc in co 
 ooooooooo 
 
 T-iin->*,H 
 
 00 t- 05 
 t-CDOJCJ 
 OOOtH 
 
 ■^■^iHOl 
 in Cl O. r-l 
 tHtHOtH 
 
 1601 
 1237 
 1121 
 1507 
 1314 
 
 
 o 
 
 r-oocio-^cocDt-co 
 cDcoincoocnoococD 
 
 Cl-rCO,-J^Cl,-',-MTH 
 
 ooooooooo 
 
 00 CD 00 tH 
 O-Jt— 05 00 
 r-H^ClCO 
 OOOO 
 
 .0259 
 .0313 
 .0253 
 .0276 
 
 iHt-OrHCD 
 
 01-005 01 
 
 CO Cl CO Cl Cl 
 
 ooooo 
 
 U^ft 
 
 M 
 
 
 t*' 5 '^ rt t» 5 ^ w i» ^ - n. i.- ^ •- 
 
 
 
 s;onp ojsi Cl 
 
 pq 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 967 
 
 05» (Mcsricc T^">^'x><z>•^ e^ic-ioiO t- ic <m t~ cue ri w«o 
 
 OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO oooocoo o© 
 
 coco -^coeoec ««■*'«•* •»*i ■*! -^t" -ii* •^•^•^\Dia-^\a usio 
 
 ITS t- «C » W ^ t- ?C t- <r: t- t- t- C- CC «C t- »:- Oi OC t- OS OO CO 
 OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo OO 
 
 iHC^J eOClt-O -fOOi-ff C1C-5CCCO r-T-irHCCt-oo-^ l-HT-t 
 lO 00 00 t~ Irt CO I- t- t- t~ ^ CO C- t> C» CO 00 CO Oi OC t^ Oi O CJ 
 OO OOOO OOOOO OOoO OOOOOOO rHO 
 
 •»• 00(M OeOeCO eo Oi i-l Cl «C t>Mt-'M CO t-I ec r-l t- w oo t^N 
 
 13 s^ii-i coM-^te iHcc^-oto ciPScoo Mt^-oiooie^iov tHjH 
 ^ OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo o© 
 
 p^ T-io Mcoc-jLO ocooiooo oiic-tc-i aic-icoi-coocc-i tcoi 
 
 J 5*«> lOlrtCJC-l C1CI«C<CC- <C«Ct-C- «C t^ 00 l^ OO t- 00 t-t- 
 
 2 OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo OO 
 
 ^-^ OCCCIOO COCvC-IOi-l' OOOUSO OO'l-CO'l-lCiar-l c^ie<5 
 CiCO OC)tH-*< lOrO-r-r-iU^ l-'l'ClCC t- »A -*- CO tC -f OJ ,-100 
 OtH l-lTHrH,H ,-) 1-1 r-l tH 1-1 ,-( ,-1 T-i rH tH r-l tH rH ,-1 rH rH e<l T-( 
 
 -f-r-l t--i-IU5«S OOt-Wf r-l-<*'T-!a- i-IOCli-IMNt^ «DN 
 
 COO Oir-MOV OOCCO-^OO O'fT-iCV t^tCOOlftMr-l t-t- 
 
 cico co^^MC■l cocccocicc -i-cccoci -*• tc -i- 1» -i- -r- lo ■«i<-*' 
 
 OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo o© 
 
 • >. ■ 
 
 '. ^ '. 
 
 Si: "^ ^ > Si: - rt >• « 5i2 - « >• SiS '^ rt > ^iS > ii2 ^ ^ > 
 
 t-00 oj 1-1 w 
 
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 Q 
 
 H 
 
 S 
 
 B 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 W^ 
 
 ^5 
 
 ^' 
 
 gS 
 
 ^3 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 Q 
 Z 
 < 
 
 m 
 
 m CO in M 00 «o M Oioa • • 
 
 m Tf 00 <o o s^ <£> -^ OJ • • 
 
 <^^OOOOOiH 0(nOO • • 
 
 ^ ^. ^ ' 
 
 CD 00 CD T-( t- in lO c~-00xN^ 
 
 mto^O'^^^oo c<i moo-^cD 
 
 Cv5P3TtiOTH!MT-imC<ICOCr>OTHa500 
 
 OOOOOO OOdOrHrHO 
 
 64- ® e«- * 
 
 t- 1-1 eo u5 o CO m t-oo • 
 
 ■^t-^u3C~«D M moo • 
 
 M <C rH i-H CO U5 eo ■* (M CO 05 O iH • 
 
 tHOOOOtH 0!MOt-I • 
 
 coinot-THCD o> Tt<oO'-^a5 
 
 'PQcOOTHiHrH-^rHiHCOOUSCOm 
 -OOOOOO OCOOrHi-IO 
 
 Tt<ooo 
 woo 
 
 (MOO 
 
 iMt-C<I(MOT-l'<*<t>-0»'<*< 
 
 L3CO->S<00O5t-U5t-IM«D 
 COCOCO-rHTfOOeOi-HUSC^I 
 OOOOOOC<li-|Tt<c<l 
 
 cDintooc^jcoinusoeo 
 t^t^t-oicqooocit-oco 
 
 tHCDi-HtH-5J<COOCC><?5;0 
 OOOOOOlMO'>*<rH 
 
 J>C<1CD 
 00 t>rH 
 COCOtH 
 (MOO 
 
 e£)->*it~-omooeO(3jeo(M 
 oot-eoo5mo5t-u5eoTH 
 r-(«o-*rHcoeoe<it^T-(f 
 
 OOOOOOC^OUSr-l 
 
 t-.comiHoom(Mcou5eo 
 (M(^q(M(^q■«J<■^tl<^5t>t~■^ 
 
 07-|0000(M0Uir-l 
 
 t^7-ieou3oco o> CO-* • • 
 
 ■* c- ■* in t>- CO o -^loo • • 
 
 ■* <3 iH iH CO in 00 -^ tH tH CO o m • • 
 
 iHOOOOrH OCOOrH • • 
 
 CO 00 CD tH c~- m c- (ioco^o- 
 
 intoeO(M'^oo iH -:t<t>-T-NcJ5 
 
 «opqTt<OT-i'MrHiniM(Mir~ococoin 
 
 OOOOOO OC0O(MiHO 
 
 THin^n 
 
 OC-iM 
 iHC-iH 
 
 ooino 
 
 cqOCO 
 coco rH 
 COOO 
 
 eot>«o«ocoineooooot^ 
 T-iTti«<iiHa5THi-((MTt<eo 
 co<^]lncocotQCooomco 
 
 OtHOOOOCOOCOtH 
 
 Oi35O>0ic0 00(M(MrHC<l 
 eOOjCOcOOCOt^lHrHin 
 
 eocoiMfot^cococoiniM 
 
 OiHOOOOeOOC-r-( 
 
 t^OOC-iMt--^ t^ ooco 
 
 . C^ 35 OJ TjH -M O iH ■* C- 
 
 «o<;coT-icocoTt<c»(Mc^i>oco 
 
 rHOOOOi-t OC0O(M 
 
 €4- 'R ae- 
 
 00 «0 rH Tl< 05 CO m COOO 
 
 • t^cot-coocQ c<> ooco 
 oo<3in'M'*'t>>inocococoo7H 
 iHOooo?q ocooco 
 ^ o ^ ■ 
 
 •OO tH t^ CO CO eo t> ■* Ol Tf< rH 
 
 'OOOO r-l(X300(Mcv]COa>-*(Mr-l 
 
 •iH<0 CO (M m CO C^ CO 00 CO CQ CO 
 
 •OO OrHi^OOOCOOOOrH 
 
 oCQfcH 
 
 
 l-Co 
 
 . 1-H C 
 
 doc 
 
 
 • coco 
 
 •<MO 
 
 •OO 
 
 rH(rci'*Mt-in'*(Mino 
 
 M<oo'C>co(MO>ncococo 
 co-*«c>cot-t^c-iinoo(M 
 
 OrHOOOO-*005r-l 
 
 B^ 
 ^a 
 
 o > o 
 
 o o o 
 
 — v^ '^ 
 
 -C OJ O W fl 
 
 M X M -^ dl 
 
 o ° o o ^ 
 
 3 c^3 
 
 o 
 
 ii 
 
 ^ 
 
 t3 
 
 l-l 
 
 
 f) 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 <1) !^ 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 Ph« 
 
 o 
 
 f^2 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 
 bD . pj (U 
 
 ^ o rf f^ >>— ' a s- i-( ^ ^ 
 
 O X q;J3 oS:;: :3 C> 2 cij d 
 J JJEhH 
 
 "'fc. tH ;- "^ 
 
 PH OJ 0) (D t< 
 
 §afta« 
 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 969 
 
 The rates of wages on which the data given in Tables I-V are 
 based are as follows : 
 
 Per day of 9 hrs. 
 
 Foreman $3.50 to $4.00 
 
 Assistant foreman 2.50 to 3.00 
 
 Timekeeper 2.00 to 2.50 
 
 Watchman 2.00 
 
 Waterboy 1.00 
 
 Laborers 2.00 
 
 Teams 5.00 
 
 Per hr. 
 Bricklayers $0.65 to $0.75 
 
 The regular hourly rate was paid for overtime. These tables 
 comprise data on the labor cost of constructing over 250,000 ft. of 
 conduit and lateral. 
 
 McRoy tile, used in building main conduits, is made of vitrified 
 clay in 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6-duct sizes. The 1, 2 and 3-duct are 2 ft. 
 long and the 4 and 6-duct 6 ft. long. The approximate weight is 
 8% lbs. per duct foot. 
 
 Methods of Laying. Mayer says that two 4-ducts are laid 
 with greater facility, form a more stable construction and cost less 
 for material and labor than a 6-duct and a 2-duct formation, and 
 in deciding whether to lay two 4-ducts side by side or one on top 
 of the other, the preference should be given to the former, because 
 work is easier in a wide trench; and, as a rule, it is cheaper to dig 
 wide than deep even if the street is paved — repairing contractors 
 charge for a yard although the trench may be 15 ins. wide. 
 
 Underground Toll Conduit. The following data .from Mayer's 
 Telephone Construction give the costs of one of the largest multi- 
 ple duct conduits ever installed. It comprises 824,862 duct feet of 
 conduit and 318 vaults. In securing these data special attention 
 was paid to accuracy and uniformity. A competent cost man was 
 assigned to each gang, and in some cases, where gangs were large, 
 two men were engaged in keeping costs. Reports were made daily 
 to the cost statistician who had an office on the ground and who 
 personally supervised the taking of the costs. The work was di- 
 vided into three divisions, each division being subdivided into two 
 or three sections with a separate gang for each section. The work 
 commenced in June, and with the exception of a small part, delayed 
 on account of right of way trouble, was completed by November 
 1st. 
 
 Table III is a summary of the entire work, showing in detail 
 average costs of each of the three divisions of the job. The un- 
 loading and distributing cost on Divisions 1 and 3 were higher than 
 Division 2 on account of having been further away from the freight 
 depat. The freight on material for Division 1 was high on account 
 of being further away from* the shipping point than either Divisions 
 2 or 3, and also on account of t]cie quantity of creosote plank used, 
 on which freight rates are high. The supervision, traveling and 
 livery under the heading of expense were incurred by right of way 
 men, superintendent of construction and assistant superinten- 
 dents. 
 
970 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE III. COST OF TOLL CONDUIT (MCROY TILE) 
 (Divisions 1, 2 and 3.) 
 
 Cost of Constructing Conduit and Vaults 
 
 Cost of 
 handling, 
 mixing and 
 Cost of dumping 
 
 Average No. of 
 Division cross lin. 
 number section trench 
 ft. 
 1 3.31 76,262 
 
 excavating concrete 
 per per per per 
 
 Cost of 
 teaming 
 No. of per per 
 
 duct ft. lin. duct lin. duct lin. duct 
 laid ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 
 
 $ $ <P $ V ? 
 
 252,759 .0200 .0061 .0747 .0226 .0190 .0057 
 
 2 6.77 53,3721/2 361,271 .0449 0066 .1543 .0228 .0448 .0066 
 
 3 4.78 44,104 210,832 .0233 .0049 .1478 .0309 .0332 .0069 
 
 Total .. 4.75 173,738y2 824,862 .0285 .0060 .1177 .0248 .0305 .0064 
 
 
 Cost of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 laying tile 
 
 
 
 
 Cost of 
 
 
 conci 
 
 ■ete and 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Total cost Co! 
 
 St of 
 
 vaults 
 
 
 plank 
 
 filling in 
 
 of duct vaults and trench 
 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 per per 
 
 per per per 
 
 per 
 
 per per 
 
 Division 
 
 lin. 
 
 duct 
 
 lin. duct 
 
 lin. duct lin. 
 
 duct 
 
 lin. duct 
 
 number 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. ft. 
 
 ft. ft. ft. 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. ft. 
 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 $ $ 
 
 $ $ $ 
 
 $ 
 
 $ $ 
 
 1 
 
 .0175 0053 
 
 .0340 0102 
 
 .1652 0499 .0490 
 
 .0147 
 
 .2142 .0646 
 
 2 
 
 .0411 .0061 
 
 .0774 .0114 
 
 .3625 .0535 0685 
 
 .0102 
 
 .4310 .0637 
 
 3 
 
 .0309 .0065 
 
 .0435 .0091 
 
 .2787 .0583 .0574 
 
 .0120 
 
 .3361 .0703 
 
 Total .. 
 
 .0282 .0059 
 
 .0497 .0105 
 
 .2546 .0536 .0571 
 
 .0120 
 
 .3117 .0656 
 
 
 
 
 "DIo/^i^fY- T\To+Qr-;r.l i-vn T/-.VV 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Unloading 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 Total cost of 
 
 
 
 distributing 
 
 
 placing 
 
 
 
 material 
 
 Freight 
 
 on job 
 
 Division 
 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 per per 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 number 
 
 
 lin. ft. 
 
 duct ft. 
 
 lin. ft. duct ft. 
 
 lin. ft. 
 
 duct ft. 
 
 1 
 
 . . . . 
 
 $.0277 
 
 $0084 
 
 $.0152 $0046 
 
 $.0429 
 
 $ 0130 
 
 2 .... 
 
 
 .0271 
 .0499 
 
 .0010 
 .0105 
 
 .0139 .0021 
 .0073 .0015 
 
 .0410 
 .0572 
 
 .0061 
 
 3 
 
 
 .0120 
 
 Total . . 
 
 
 .0332 
 
 .0070 
 
 .0128 .0027 
 
 .0460 
 
 .0097 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Right of way 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 supervision, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 traveling. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 livery, 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Repaving 
 
 incidental 
 
 expense 
 
 Division 
 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 per per 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 number 
 
 
 lin. ft. 
 
 duct ft. 
 
 lin. ft. duct ft. 
 
 lin. ft. 
 
 duct ft. 
 
 1 
 
 . . . . 
 
 $.0013 
 
 $.0004 
 
 $.0378 $.0114 
 
 $.0391 
 
 $.0118 
 
 2 
 
 . . . . 
 
 .0005 
 
 .0001 
 
 .0600 .0088 
 
 .0605 
 
 .0089 
 
 3 . . . . 
 
 
 .6667 
 
 .6662 
 
 .0396 .0083 
 .0451 .0095 
 
 .0396 
 .0458 
 
 .0083 
 
 Total .. 
 
 .'..'. 
 
 .0097 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 labor 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 expense 
 
 Material 
 
 Total cost 
 
 Division 
 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 per per 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 number 
 
 
 lin. ft. 
 
 duct ft. 
 
 lin. ft. duct ft. 
 
 lin. ft. 
 
 duct ft. 
 
 1 
 
 . . . . 
 
 $.2962 
 
 $.0893 : 
 
 $.4735 $.1429 
 
 $.7697 
 
 $.2322 
 
 2 
 
 
 .5325 
 
 .0787 
 
 .5082 .0750 
 
 1.0407 
 
 .1537 
 
 3 
 
 
 .4329 
 
 .0906 
 
 .4878 .1020 
 
 .9207 
 
 .1926 
 
 Total .. 
 
 
 .4035 
 
 .0850 
 
 .4878 .1027 
 
 .8913 
 
 .1877 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 971 
 
 Pump Log Conduit. Mayer in Telephone Construction says 
 creosoted pump log is used in building conduit where the soil is 
 very wet and frequent excavations liable. It is made of yellow or 
 Norway pine, creosoted. The section is 4.5 ins. square, with a 3-in, 
 bore. Each log is provided with mortise and tenon. Its length is 
 2 ft. to 8 ft. 
 
 The trench for pump log shall be excavated in the same manner 
 as described for McRoy tile conduit construction. Pump log shall 
 be laid directly upon the bottom of the trench. Where two or more 
 ducts are used they shall be laid so as to break joints. When the 
 pump log is laid and well settled in position, a creosoted plank ly^ 
 ins. thick and of the width of the conduit shall be laid on top of the 
 ducts. There shall then be driven one on -either side. 3 in. x 1.5 in. 
 X 3 ft. creosoted stakes. The stakes shall be sharpened to a point 
 and driven at intervals of 6 ft. with a 3-in. face parallel to the line 
 of the conduit. The tops of the stakes shall be fastened together 
 
 
 
 Fig. 3. Method of laying pump log. 
 
 by a cleat, of the same size as the stakes, cut to length and drilled 
 for two 31/^ -in. wire nails. The trench shall then be refilled. The 
 method of laying pump log is shown by Fig. 3. 
 
 Lateral Conduit. Mayer's Telephone Construction says lateral 
 conduit, sometimes called subsidiary conduit, is so named from 
 the direction in which it runs to the main conduit. Laterals are 
 built to carry subsidiary cable under ground to a building or pole. 
 
 Sewer tile is used in lateral construction because it serves the 
 purpose better than either McRoy tile or pump log and because it is 
 cheapest to install. Whereas the McRoy tile requires a foundation 
 in order to keep its alignment — dowel pins not entirely serving 
 this purpose — and both pump log and McRoy tile require a trench 
 that has a level bottom and is wide enough to permit foot room ; 
 sewer tile requires no concrete foundation, as the bell joints when 
 cemented hold the alignment sufficiently well for lateral construc- 
 tion, it may be laid in a trench that is excavated in a V-shape, 
 thereby saving time in excavating. The bottom of the trench may 
 
972 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 be very uneven as the bell ends of sewer tile bridge the parts be- 
 tween joints, and the only requirements in laying are that the end 
 of one tile shall flt into the bell end of another. This may readily 
 be done by scraping away any excess earth with a stick of wood. 
 On account of the usual small diameter of lateral cable the lateral 
 conduit may be installed without special regard to alignment, 
 except w^hen the lateral is very long; whereas if McRoy tile is laid 
 
 TABLE IV. AVERAGE COST OF PUMP LOG CONDUIT 
 CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 g 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 be 
 
 c 
 bo 
 
 C 
 o 
 
 Id 
 
 
 "d 
 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 
 "rt C 
 
 «S 
 
 o 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 o — 
 
 o-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 J 
 
 fa 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 Sand and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 water. $0.0304 
 
 $0.0612 
 
 $0.0177 
 
 $0.0314 
 
 $0.0240 
 
 $0.1647 
 
 $0 1647 
 
 
 Clay . . . 
 
 0.0281 
 
 0.0574 
 
 0.0189 
 
 0.0247 
 
 0.0262 
 
 0.1553 
 
 0.1553 
 
 
 Clay and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 water . 
 
 .0331 
 
 .0818 
 
 .0213 
 
 .0386 
 
 .0341 
 
 .2089 
 
 .2089 
 
 
 Av 
 
 .0305 
 
 .0668 
 
 .0193 
 
 .0316 
 
 .0281 
 
 .1763 
 
 .1763 
 
 2 
 
 Sand and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 water. 
 
 .0334 
 
 .0843 
 
 .0278 
 
 .0397 
 
 .0299 
 
 .2151 
 
 .1076 
 
 
 Clay and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 water. 
 
 .0317 
 
 .1054 
 
 .0262 
 
 .0411 
 
 .0352 
 
 .2396 
 
 .1198 
 
 
 Av 
 
 .0325 
 
 .0949 
 
 .0270 
 
 .0404 
 
 .0326 
 
 .2274 
 
 .1137 
 
 4 
 
 Sand and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 water. 
 
 .0412 
 
 .1401 
 
 .0411 
 
 .0519 
 
 .0496 
 
 .3239 
 
 .0810 
 
 
 Clay . . . 
 
 .0487 
 
 .1482 
 
 .0490 
 
 .0537 
 
 .0512 
 
 .3508 
 
 .0877 
 
 
 Av 
 
 .0449 
 
 .1442 
 
 .0451 
 
 .0528 
 
 .0504 
 
 .3374 
 
 .0844 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 AVERAGE COST OF SEWER TILE LATERAL 
 CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 
 
 
 
 
 tuD 
 
 cS'O 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 .^J 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 sc» 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^^%^ 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 2 
 
 
 bfl 
 
 ^-> 
 
 "^ ^ oJ 
 
 c 
 
 w 
 
 §c 
 
 1" 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 a 
 
 ><1 
 
 Hi 
 
 1 
 
 
 || 
 
 !5 
 
 55 
 
 M 
 
 h 
 
 a 
 
 H^ 
 
 § 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 h^ 
 
 1 
 
 Sand . . . 
 
 $0.0099 
 
 $0.0364 
 
 $0.0201 
 
 $0.0219 
 
 $0.0291 
 
 $0.1174 
 
 $0.1174 
 
 1 
 
 Clay . . . 
 
 .0167 
 
 .0467 
 
 .0156 
 
 .0260 
 
 .0327 
 
 .1377 
 
 .1377 
 
 1 
 
 Hard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 clay. . . 
 
 .0234 
 
 .0581 
 
 .0198 
 
 .0293 
 
 .0302 
 
 .1608 
 
 .1608 
 
 1 
 
 Very hard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 clay. . . 
 
 .0408 
 
 .0720 
 
 .0178 
 
 .0311 
 
 .0414 
 
 .2031 
 
 .2031 
 
 1 
 
 Av 
 
 , .0227 
 
 .0533 
 
 .0183 
 
 .0271 
 
 .0333 
 
 .1547 
 
 .1547 
 
 2 
 
 Clay . . . 
 
 .0201 
 
 .0709 
 
 .0223 
 
 .0502 
 
 .0390 
 
 .2025 
 
 .1013 
 
 without care being u.sed in alignment the armor of the cable would 
 probably be cut or caught on the ends of the ducts when pulling 
 in the cable. 
 
 Underground Construction. The following is abstracted from an 
 article by L. W. Moxey, Jr., in Electrical World. Dec. 18, 1915. 
 
 The first item to be considered in underground construction is 
 the cost of excavating, which should be figured per cubic yard. 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 973 
 
 Every contractor should know what these costs are under various 
 conditions, such as a sand or clay soil, rotten or solid rock, etc. 
 The average laborer is capable of excavating about 180 cu. ft. of 
 clay soil per ten-hour day. 
 
 Brief specifications follow : Laterals when laid in the main 
 trench, or in a separate trench, shall be single duct, 3-in. sewer 
 tile. Connections between lateral laid in the main trench and 
 lateral laid in a separate trench shall be made with standard 
 bends of sewer tile. Where lateral is laid in the main conduit 
 trench it shall be located at the top of the conduit formation and 
 shall be included in the enclosing concrete. 
 
 Where lateral is laid in separate trench the trench shall be wide 
 enough to permit convenient laying and of sufficient depth to make 
 the completed lateral with its protecting plank at least 18 ins. below 
 the grade of the street. Joints of lateral shall be well protected 
 with cement mortar or concrete. Over the lateral, when laid in 
 separate trench, shall be placed about 3 ins. of earth, which shall 
 be free from large stones. This earth shall be well tamped, and 
 on top of this shall be placed a creosoted plank, 1.5 ins. x 9 ins., to 
 prevent injury in subsequent excavations. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 The dimensions are usually as follows : inside diam. 3 ins. ; shell 
 0.5 in. : length 2 ft. 
 
 Manholes must also be taken into consideration. If the man- 
 holes are to be brick-lined, the cost will vary from 40 cents to $1 
 per cubic foot of brickwork. Such miscellaneous items as the cost 
 of labor for manhole drains, etc., must be figured for each job, 
 since it seems impossible to obtain any fair average of costs on 
 these items. 
 
 Only average figures for labor cost are given, and the range of 
 variation in many cases will be found to be greater than that 
 presented in the table. 
 
 TABLE VI. OUTSIDE DIMENSIONS OF VITRIFIED DUCTS 
 
 Bore, round Outside 
 
 Type or square dimensions, ins. 
 
 Single-way 3 % -ins. 5 by 5 by 1 8 
 
 Two-way ..." 3 1/2 -ins. 4 by 9 by 24 
 
 Three-way 3 ^ -ins. 5 by 13 by 24 
 
 Four-way 3i^-ins. 9 by 9 by 24 
 
 Six-way 3y2-ins. 9 by 13 by 36 
 
 Nine-way 3%-ins. 13 by 13 by 36 
 
 Nine-way 2 -ins. 9 by 9 by 36 
 
974 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE VII. LABOR COSTS PER FOOT FOR LAYING DUCTS 
 
 Item Cost 
 Laying duct and cementing joint : 
 
 Single-way $0.03 -$0.06 
 
 Two-way 0.05 - 0.10 
 
 Three-way 0.08 - 0.16 
 
 Four-way 0.10 - 0.20 
 
 Six-way 0.14 - 0.28 
 
 Nine-way 0.20 - Q.40 
 
 Laying conduit or pipe : 
 
 1/2 -in. conduit : $0.03 -$0.05 
 
 %-in. conduit 0.04 - 0.06 
 
 1 -in. conduit 0.05 - 0.07 
 
 IVt-in. conduit 0.06 - 0.08 
 
 1%-in. conduit 0.065- 0.09 
 
 2 -in. conduit 0.07 - 0.10 
 
 2i/>-in. conduit 0.075- 0.11 
 
 21/3-in. conduit 0.08 - 0.12 
 
 3 -in. conduit 0.09 - 0.14 
 
 4 -in. conduit 0.12 - 0.18 
 
 Cost of Transmission Conduit Installed. The following data, 
 presented in the Boston Edison street-lighting case by the company 
 for the consideration of the Massachusetts Gas and Electric Light 
 Commission, were published in Electrical World March 31, 1917. 
 
 In the compilation. Table VIII, the significant data are the 
 types of construction and the unit costs, which are given in the 
 first and last columns. In presenting the data to the commission 
 the unit costs given, which are the result of the company's extended 
 experience, were applied to the quantities in the second and third 
 columns, and later the prorated cost of conduit for street-lighting 
 service only was deduced. The quantities are printed in connec- 
 tion with the unit costs in the third column to show the relative 
 importance of the various types of duct construction for under- 
 ground transmission work in Boston proper. The prices include 
 engineering, incidentals and contractor's profit. 
 
 Fiber Duct, Advantages and Materials Required for Installing. 
 The following has been abstracted from an article in Electrical 
 World, March 10, 1917. Fiber duct consists of wet wood pulp or 
 fiber which is wrapped about a mandrel in a thin film while under 
 pressure. When built up to the proper thickness it is dried and 
 then saturated with a bituminous compound. The conduit is manu- 
 factured with four general types of joints, the use and nature of 
 which is implied in the name. These are the socket, the drive, 
 the screw and the sleeve. The socket type is generally used with 
 the concrete envelope, while the other types have no form of pro- 
 tection, being laid directly in the earth. 
 
 The advantage of light weight stands out primarily for fiber duct, 
 and due to this the freight and cartage rates per foot are much 
 lower than for other types of materials. Approximately three times 
 as many duct feet of fiber duct may be carried in the same car as 
 of tile duct. Likewise in handling the duct, one man can carry 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 975 
 
 TABLE VIII. 
 
 COST OF INSTALLING DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
 DUCT 
 
 Under the heading " Material," F. stands for fiber, V.C. for vitri- 
 fied clay, C-L.I.P. for cement-lined iron pipe, and I. for iron. 
 
 ] 
 
 Ducts Diam- 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 per 
 
 eter of 
 
 Material 
 
 Conduit 
 
 Duct 
 
 cost per 
 
 
 con- 
 
 ducts 
 
 feet 
 
 feet 
 
 duct ft. 
 
 
 duit 
 
 (ins.) 
 
 
 
 
 (cts.) 
 
 Under dirt side- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 walk 
 
 6 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 9312.0 
 
 55,872.0 
 
 45 
 
 Under dirt 
 
 8 
 
 3^2 
 
 F. 
 
 4502.1 
 
 36,016.8 
 
 30 
 
 
 10 
 
 3y2 
 
 F. 
 
 16.3 
 
 163.0 
 
 30 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 F. 
 
 402.2 
 
 4,826.4 
 
 30 
 
 
 16 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 58.5 
 
 936.0 
 
 25 
 
 Under granite 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 blocks with ce- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ment grout and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 concrete base. 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 1705.8 
 
 13,646.4 
 
 60 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 25.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 45 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 245.0 
 
 4,900.0 
 
 35 
 
 
 30 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 584.0 
 
 17,520.0 
 
 30 
 
 Under wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 blocks with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 concrete base. 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 1319.6 
 
 5,278.4 
 
 80 
 
 
 6 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 141.7 
 
 850.2 
 
 75 
 
 
 8 
 
 SVa 
 
 F. 
 
 7702.3 
 
 61,618.4 
 
 60 
 
 
 12 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 953.5 
 
 11,342.0 
 
 45 
 
 
 14 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 929.1 
 
 13,004.6 
 
 40 
 
 
 24 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 802.9 
 
 19,269.6 
 
 30 
 
 Under bitulithic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cement 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 1365.3 
 
 5,461.2 
 
 80 
 
 
 6 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 1467.3 
 
 8,803.8 
 
 75 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 % 
 
 V.C. 
 
 1467.3 
 
 8,803.8 
 
 75 
 
 
 8 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 90.6 
 
 724.8 
 
 60 
 
 
 9 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 3899.0 
 
 35,091.0 
 
 45 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 400.1 
 
 4,001.0 
 
 45 
 
 
 12 
 
 3y2 
 
 F. 
 
 171.8 
 
 2.061.6 
 
 45 
 
 
 12 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 153.1 
 
 1,837.2 
 
 45 
 
 
 15 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 280.7 
 
 4,210.5 
 
 40 
 
 
 18 
 
 3 % 
 
 V.C. 
 
 77.3 
 
 1,391.4 
 
 35 
 
 Under macadam 
 
 2 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 319.9 
 
 639.8 
 
 60 
 
 
 4 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 394.5 
 
 1,578.0 
 
 50 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 829.1 
 
 3,316.4 
 
 50 
 
 
 4 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 160.0 
 
 640.0 
 
 50 
 
 
 6 
 
 zv, 
 
 F. 
 
 8812.2 
 
 52.909.2 
 
 45 
 
 
 8 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 3579.1 
 
 30,632.8 
 
 30 
 
 
 8 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 9634.0 
 
 77,072.0 
 
 30 
 
 
 10 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 3306.6 
 
 33,066.0 
 
 30 
 
 
 12 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 8171.9 
 
 98,062.2 
 
 30 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 846.8 
 
 10,161.6 
 
 30 
 
 
 12 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 56.7 
 
 680.4 
 
 30 
 
 
 14 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 2096.9 
 
 29,356.6 
 
 25 
 
 
 14 
 
 3 % 
 
 F. 
 
 182.1 
 
 2.549.4 
 
 25 
 
 . 
 
 16 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 727.4 
 
 11,638.4 
 
 25 
 
 
 20 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 9.1 
 
 182.0 
 
 25 
 
 
 24 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 239.8 
 
 5.755.2 
 
 25 
 
 
 .30 
 
 31/2 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 196.4 
 
 5,892.0 
 
 25 
 
 
 67 
 
 V.C. 
 
 6.0 
 
 402.0 
 
 25 
 
 Under asphalt . . 
 
 6 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 28.0 
 
 168.0 
 
 75 
 
 
 6 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. • 
 
 330.2 
 
 1,981.2 
 
 75 
 
 
 7 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 87.5 
 
 612.5 
 
 60 
 
 
 8 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 230.5 
 
 1.844.0 
 
 60 
 
 
 10 
 
 31/2 
 
 F. 
 
 1534.2 
 
 15,342.0 
 
 45 
 
 
 12 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 591.7 
 
 7,100.4 
 
 45 
 
 
 15 
 
 3% 
 
 V.C. 
 
 11.2 
 
 168.0 
 
 40 
 
 
 18 
 
 3y2 
 
 F. 
 
 14.4 
 
 259.2 
 
 35 
 
976 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Ducts Diam- 
 per eter of 
 con- ducts 
 duit (ins.) 
 
 Under granite 
 blocks 
 
 Under granite 
 blocks with 
 p i t c h-joints 
 and concrete 
 
 30 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 18 
 24 
 30 
 
 3% 
 3% 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 3% 
 3 
 
 3y2 
 
 3% 
 
 3 
 
 3% 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 
 3% 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 
 V2 
 
 3% 
 
 3% 
 
 31/2 
 
 3% 
 
 31/2 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 
 3% 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 3% 
 
 3% 
 
 3 
 
 3% 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 
 3 
 
 3y2 
 
 3% 
 
 Material 
 
 V.C. 
 V.C. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 F. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 F. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 F. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 V.C. 
 V.C. 
 F. 
 
 V.C. 
 F. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 F. 
 V.C, 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 I. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 I. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 F. 
 
 C.-L.LP. 
 
 F. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 C.-L.I.P. 
 
 V.C. 
 
 Conduit 
 feet 
 
 126.0 
 16.0 
 
 68.4 
 
 10.3 
 
 1509.7 
 
 715.3 
 
 270.3 
 7212.2 
 7059.4 
 2417.2 
 71.5 
 1396.4 
 2189.5 
 7882.7 
 4904.8 
 4904.8 
 20.3 
 6753.7 
 
 154.1 
 
 193.5 
 
 344.5 
 
 249.3 
 
 223.5 
 
 586.4 
 
 4960.3 
 
 19.6 
 
 216.6 
 
 216.6 
 
 147.6 
 
 1092.8 
 
 9673.9 
 
 8089.8 
 
 120.7 
 
 346.6 
 
 5165.8 
 
 208.1 
 
 205.0 
 
 101.4 
 
 237.0 
 
 Average 
 Duct cost per 
 feet duct ft. 
 (cts.) 
 3,780.0 30 
 
 512.0 30 
 
 205.2 
 
 41.2 
 
 6,038.8 
 
 4,291.8 
 
 1,621.8 
 
 57,697.6 
 
 56,475.2 
 
 21,754.8 
 
 715.0 
 
 13,964.0 
 
 26,274.0 
 
 94,592.4 
 
 58,857.6 
 
 58,857.6 
 
 284.2 
 
 101,305.5 
 
 2,311.5 
 
 3,483.0 
 
 6,201.0 
 
 5,983.2 
 
 5,364.0 
 
 17,592.0 
 
 19,841.2 
 117.6 
 1,299.6 
 1,299.6 
 1,180.8 
 8,742.4 
 
 77,391.2 
 
 80,898.0 
 1,327.7 
 4,159.2 
 
 61,989.6 
 3,745.8 
 4,920.0 
 3,042.0 
 7,110.0 
 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 
 45 
 45 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 
 80 
 75 
 75 
 75 
 65 
 65 
 65 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 35 
 30 
 .30 
 30 
 
 several lengths of fiber duct aggregating manj'- lineal feet as opposed 
 to one section of multiple tile duct. In installing the duct one man 
 can remain in the trench and another hands him the duct, while 
 with other materials it usually takes more than one man to handle 
 the material at the top of the trench. 
 
 The breakage and waste is almost negligible with fiber duct, a 
 distinct advantage being that broken pieces may be sawed off as 
 if of wood and the good section trimmed up and used in piecing 
 out the line. If a multiple tile is broken it means a loss of several 
 duct feet and little use can be made of the remainder. As the 
 sections are long a very good alignment can be secured with fiber 
 duct without the use of mandrels. The length also means fewer 
 joints and eliminates greatly the danger of particles of concrete 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 977 
 
 sifting through and damag-ing- the cable sheaths at some future 
 time. Obstructions can be easily by-passed when in the path of 
 the conduit line and when fiber duct is used. 
 
 In constructing conduit lines with fiber duct the construction 
 is similar to that shown in the cross-section of Fig. 5. The ducts 
 are separated by an inch of concrete and surrounded on the out- 
 side by an envelope 3 ins. thick. The trench is dug with sufficient 
 width to allow the proper spacing and a 3-in. base of concrete is 
 poured. The first tier of ducts is laid and held in place by a 
 wooden rake designed to maintain the spacing. More concrete is 
 
 Fig. 5. Section of concrete conduit line using fiber duct. 
 
 poured and tamped into place and the second tier laid, and so 
 forth, until the line is constructed. Between the tiers the joints 
 are staggered, which tends to increase the strength of the finished 
 line. The trench is dug according to the width of the line, so 
 that no wooden forms are used and the concrete is poured and 
 confined by the sides of the trench. The arrangement of the ducts 
 in the line and the outside dimensions for 3.5 in. ducts are shown 
 in the accompanying table. 
 
 TABLE IX. DIMENSIONS OF DUCT LINES USING 3.5 IN. 
 FIBER DUCTS ARRANGED AS SHOWN IN FIG. 5. 
 
 'umber of 
 
 Number of ducts 
 
 Outside dimension, ins 
 
 ducts 
 
 wide 
 
 high 
 
 width 
 
 height 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 The set of curves. Fig. 6. based on a 1 :3 :6 mixture for both 
 3-in. and 3.5-in. fiber ducts constructed as illustrated in Fig. 5 has 
 been worked up by an Eastern central station company, and is used 
 
978 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 r1 tiS • Ifl 00 U5 00 lO (M t- (M -* t> ■* 
 
 ^ m/tiajodvoodcot-^ooco-ttlco 
 
 ^ _^r^ >:! <M <3i t- «D «0 Irt iLffl U5 ■* ->* •* 
 
 W 
 
 -2^^ ^ 
 
 o ^^ 
 
 (^ rhtiO U5lrtrhic<J000ia>C<lOt-' 
 
 iTHC<]C^C<l<MCOCOCO'*- 
 
 1^ rhtiO KiUiTficac 
 
 fi ^^ 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 ^ he'" ^ 
 
 CO) • • • -^Tt^^OOOO g^+j 
 Qj .rtO/-N-'-'000000(MMU5ia •^'" 
 CL .H'S'S • • • -MCOM^^^TJ^ .^ 
 
 r-jfiw • • • "odooooo -t-'«o 
 
 p ^^ - ^- 
 
 <: ^% 
 
 r; S CO oooooooo Q,m 
 
 M .i-((lJ,— vCOCDCCUD r-<f-i 
 
 QJ !> f^ O K3U5lrtU5 P^ OJ 
 
 1 1^^^^^-- || 
 
 'm a; "^ o'35=^oo"^i^t^t~-oc<icT3 
 
 rs\> J2:;<i;.— (cv]'*'^c-cocootoeot-u5 _,, 
 
 Ph •-•-'" m_ 
 
 j^T^'cJ ^ t>oooo«co«ooo!^oioin m T 
 
 Cri r°i'= ^ oodrH"r-ir4r4r-ir^r-irH' V^ 
 
 O .2 
 
 a;S 
 
 ^ '^d>.^0 >>>->^>>>^^-!>.>->^>.>■■ 
 
 ;z o o c 3 
 
 ii-iTHMMc<jc<ie<iMcooo 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <; 
 
 <n 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 rt 
 
 CD 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 t^ 
 
 •^ 
 
 f- 
 
 
 O 
 
 " 
 
 :^ 
 
 .. 
 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 079 
 
 ^ ?,'^i:! OS CO «5 fo o o t-^ r>^ «j in '*' CO c^i c^Vi r-I i-J o o 
 
 o ^ ft 
 
 ft -o 
 
 ^ Jk -^ cicncoCOU5C10«OOOOOCi-l«Or-lr-(Ci-*eO 
 
 H *^ ^ 
 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 H 
 
 H ^ M 
 
 O ^'-' 
 
 S C ^ '^^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 m ■rJ^'^OOOO'MlOOOC-lMIMIMOllrtlfliaOOOOOOOOO 
 
 fL| .Xr!'^C«5CO'*"tilOU3U3lOlflU5U3U5lOIOlOlf5iaiO«0 
 
 Q'ocS'^ ooooooooooooooo'oooo 
 
 K, 02-^ «^ 
 
 H .HS^ 
 
 « >i:^o ::::::::::::::::::: 
 
 ^^ QJ^ 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 •-Iq > M XJ 
 
 QO '■'io^^LftomocousOi-ieococcooooo^aieocooj 
 
 t-H[i. 3^|t,':2 --H-^fCi OO'iOi-I'MlrtOOCOOCO-^J-CCCSTHTHfOi 
 
 ^^ X ^/2 jt O O O r-J T-J rH rH r-i r-i ffi C^' M C-i Cq C-i M CO CO eO 
 
 3 :S^->^ 
 
 12; 
 
 ^ y'-'''5XC^00C0r0't<OT-l(XlrHTt"*00OC~<S-U5C005^ 
 ^<4_( ••''-j rO-f<«SOOa3C^lCOl«000500S-l«-T}-U5t— t-00 
 
 o 
 
 Si's?? 
 
 C- 0<0 CO CO 'f 
 
 CO -r 00 03 
 iMC'Joa'MMCoeocococococococo 
 
 " e/a- 
 
 o 
 
 J d <v a «Dc^c^jo<r>cOT-ti-iooeoT-icc,-io«ffcc5r>«c«o 
 
 , . >,>^ >.>.>,>.>.>. >,>.>. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >J 
 
 KC.~^> oiftooooc-iooooococoLacoLSiac; eves 
 H; ii-- CO'MCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO'*i-^-^rt<Tj<T}<-^'^->*< 
 
 rj O 1-1 &!(-( o '-< ^ *^ M «<*■*'*"* »0 •* lO •* lO Ui la U5 lO lO 
 
 CO S.'^A'-' ^«iooocg-*«oooow ■*«ooooc<i-*oooo 
 
 ^ Z"3 j-l i-i tH iH r-t (M C<I C<I(M (M CO CO CO CO e«3 i»< 
 
980 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 wr: 
 
 3s 
 
 o oj 
 
 oorHrHiof-i-iixi-^j^ir-inr^LO-^aicooocci'r! 
 
 rH ^ 1-1 rH C^ iM M C^J 1-1 ,-( iM Cv] M (M Cv) 0^) iM 'M C^) (M OO 
 
 MiHCOOIr- t- CO «5 
 
 oou5»ait>.oc-a3t^c^LO«ct^ioooi>ocaii35 
 r-rHt-,HOt~-'Mirtt-0'M«oooioa^c;T-iocio?£>cj 
 
 U 
 
 Z 
 
 ^t 
 
 ^< 
 ^Z 
 
 « 
 
 OQ 
 
 i 
 
 goo 
 
 222 
 
 i_j '-s ~^ 
 
 < 
 
 B CC >-< i-l ivj (M (M <; 
 
 ^ ,H "5 t~- (TQ C<1 ffO O 00 C- O CO «C to CD «C> ix> ?D «0 «C ■* «0 
 a> lO «£> t-H CO ■* 00 O Oi W C<1 CS «> CD (Dec CO «D CD CO rH CO 
 
 ^^ CO ^ "M* ■m' as CO* fM* o" r-^ t^ t^ co' co' CO CO eo" CO eo CO rH CO 
 
 (McOi-lrH!MOlTHr-l<M'*'^-<*'rfiT}<-<*i'«*<'*"<*'-;t< 
 
 ^ €«• 
 
 o 
 
 « co"5'fa5i-iiAc:ico-*-*i(Moo(MT-ior-ior~or-ic 
 
 I y2 Tti CO rr OJ O ->! ^ Irt 1-J t- tH -^ t- O 00 t- CO 00 CTj CTj o 
 5 ti C<l' 00 iH U5 M OJ >j CO us 35 CD C^ -^ r-j T-I OC Lti 00 T-l t-^ CO 
 
 -^ -3 lOt^o^sfooor^aioc^cTsooi-iaiaiasocoTf 
 
 rwS^l COcOr-lT-liHrH THiHiHC^)C^]<Mr-lrHrH(MiHr-l 
 
 j^ OOlCCMincOaS-^OCOi-lr-IOCOCVICDt^-OOOt^CDOi 
 
 , cvjai'*'s^iu:iU5mco(Miooi-ic>ocD'MLOU5c-i-icoai 
 
 I 
 
 C<_| CO'M'^t-ai'MlMCOtiCOCDT-lt-COlOt-COCOOJ'^W 
 
 O ID cvicooa5THCOcocoasT-iiat~-^(MirtT-Hco-^f-coco 
 
 r J J-1 'jq CO iH C^ iH C^J iM iH ,-1 M C^ (M <M <M (M C-5 C<1(M C^I 
 
 ^ O 6^ ,-1 
 
 C^lCOt^COOt^C^lOOCOOOT-HOCD'MOOOOU^Tfa; 
 
 00 iooo-^-^-*a5i-iooo'ti'!t<cot^O'^-fi-iirtt^aii-i 
 
 O." OOLftC-OSOMCOTH 
 
 PQc 
 
 o 
 
 Tl o'^3LOoocDoot^oolOLOoococoa50t— iMcooioe^i 
 
 ■Jj OOOlCDlOe-l'+CDt— C^l'MOOOl'^a: COOOCOUSrtCD'M 
 
 > -^<'odoirtodod«vit-!r-!i--lcDCOOC.]'oOCOU5U500t--^0 
 
 rt lO iHf-lftiH'MTH iH-MlftCOTfiTtiTtiCOCMi-ICl 
 
 O CO 
 
 3 Cy coooc^MOiaiaiaiosajcocDCDCDCDcococDCD-^'*' 
 
 <i> OJ u3 0CDioooTHoomM<o-*cD'*<'t<co-*-^-*(M-* 
 
 CD '*> o> ■* CO Oi U5 •<* CO CO lo iri as <M C5 05 05 C5 c: 05 00 oi 
 
 "■:;'•-' C<li-)COCOT-liHCs)Cvr7-llHOaCOeOCOCOCOC>-5COCOCOCO 
 1-1 (M 
 
 ooOO,Hin)cooa5'*'eot-ooooooooc<io 
 
 CDOeOCDlOOOaj'MT-ir^CDrHr-lrHrHr-lT-lT-lr-lt^^ 
 
 CO 
 
 OJ Irt t- rh CO '+' o o -r ^ I>- rj C>1 iM d Ol CI CI Ol r-l c-1 
 iH iHrH iHrH rH i-l rH iH ,-( rH iH r-l ,-i rH 
 
 CO 
 CI 
 
 CO 
 
 fte- 
 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 -d 
 
 
 o 
 
 <A 
 
 ai 
 
 
 a 
 
 €«^ 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 U5 
 
 
 3 
 
 02 
 
 CO 
 
 HD 
 
 0) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 T) 
 
 
 <D 
 
 -( 
 
 
 G 
 
 O 
 
 
 J' 
 
 c 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ,,. 
 
 rt 
 
 di 
 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 981 
 
 00 
 
 OS 
 
 WfO 1-1 t- ^ •rj' -rJH _„ -^ ■* ■* ■* _^ OS 
 
 O^.S o = oooooooooooo^ooooog g. 
 
 ^-^s"" ^ • • 
 
 ^S s 
 
 tn ^ oooooooooooooo^ooooog 5 
 
 ft j €«■ • 'O 
 
 C3 M-<*<cvjcopooooooojrooooo^ oo 
 
 g C+J o'=>ooooooooooooii^oooooS «D 
 
 loa^^ - • • s 
 
 ' iftt-oot^ooc-iocov-t<cr-Cf-irjirtu5,„ioK5iflU5«> 
 
 "l^ TOr^ ••••.•..••••• CV a . • • . CM »-H 
 
 • §^ "" ■ ■ :: 
 
 ■M.-5 OOOt-iM«>-CO U5L5„r3 
 
 ,rt2:i'A!!iOCO«>'M'MC-]'-l'-" • • •0rHC<lrHZ,000M0g 
 
 c '-^ o ^ '=^ '^ "^ '^ "^ '^ '^ ■ ■ •*-' "^^ ® o 2 "=>*="=> *="^ O «^ 
 
 OS-, ^ 
 
 '*»2I'<=c^«<»'*r-l<Mu5T-iT-ic-. t»cvO^CiO:Oo;ociJ • 
 
 «?,5 C^'M'HrHiH,-lTH,-l,Hr-(OOOrH^OOT-IOO^ g^ 
 
 ft -* CI O Tj< Tj< rf 
 
 it^c-o-. ^- 
 
 I C-. t» cv O ^ Ci o: O o; oc 
 
 O 
 
 2i- rv, LOOST-liH,-(l>05iH(MCO«C«D<r>«5<X!«50tD(M"^ -h 
 
 .2j ^ • • « 
 
 nrt tj CO '*' ^ ^ "* "* "* «* M «» «D CO O tc. <C «0 «» 5^ 00 oo 
 
 " S . 00 o o o 00 oo U5 C5 c; Oi cs c, C-, cr. <y, C-. cr. Ci 0-. Cj — 
 
 ■^ g 3 rQ o '-J >-; 1-^ ^ <^. ^'t ^ ■=; <=J ■=: '^ ■=; "R o o o o o o ^ 
 
 H O ^ eo '^' ^' *^' *^ ^" *"' ^ ^' ^ '^' f^' ^' ** CO *o CO CO CO CO j^ 
 
 •l~ C+J oo'~~^'^'*''^'^o^ooi-ii-OT-iLnOt^ccc-i'^ccoc, 
 
 „^ "^tH jyjCO'^J'^'^COCOrJHCMCO'MCOege^CgT-liMiCaCOC-) 
 
 a5o ^ ' 
 
 H*^ e^cieoooeo-^osko-^ioiHint-ineDr-irHr-it-eo, 
 
 sJ" - .u5ifflt~05-*eoO'<j<(MO'^ovoo-<J'u5kfto;t-i«C!^, 
 
 'C M-ft-COt-lfi!«OOrHe<5rH«o,-lt-p,U50CT-IOCt-, 
 
 O '*■' csj ^ e^i W T-i T-J 1-1 ec Cvi Cvj W N C^i iH cvj rH rH N C^ M J 
 
 ., .Jiososaimoiirtccwc-. ^ocooi-it^irt'^'Ciicic,-. 
 
 bo?;- jrt»ou5iair5iH'M-*<oooc?oeC'<J'Tt.ait~-coc'JO(- 
 
 ,i:i . CO CO 0-1 OO TIM 00 ?C 
 
 3-0 r-'Mcoi-io-T't'Tj. 
 
 m ^ 
 
 o; MOiC-itot-c^ji-icsa-. oot-ooco'^co'-i'^'^'-'^rH ** 
 
 Oj*W c^OiHClfOi-lOOOOOOi-iO^iHi-lOOO,^ ^ 
 
 > tH 
 
 rt .COOS iM 1-1 CI OS - . •Tt<iHoo^, oooor-«o • 2^ 
 
 Ji ^ T^ ^ CO OV O t- «5 rf 00 • • -WCOOO^OVOCOOiH • «£ ^ 
 
082 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 for estimating? the inattM-ial to bo oi-aoroil for the job. For instance, 
 for 100 trench feet of 12 3.B-in. ducts there wouUi be required 8.75 
 cu. yds. of concrete made up from 9 barrels of cement, 4.25 cu. yds. 
 of sand ajui 8.1 cu. yds. of stone. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 14 
 \Z 
 10 
 
 a'" 
 
 () 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~1 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 <^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 ">i 
 
 §i 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 1 
 
 „ 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 S^ 
 
 — 
 
 — . 
 
 • >— 
 
 -- 
 
 — >- 
 
 _- 
 
 — 
 
 ■/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R, 
 
 "^ 
 
 X, 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Num 
 
 >er of 1 Ducts 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 M IZ lO iR \b 14 l|? 10 ft 6 4 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 yZ 4 6 & , 10 1? 14 16 i& 20 J 
 
 
 
 
 Cul 
 
 MC 
 
 Yar 
 
 ds o-f 
 
 Stone 
 
 / 
 
 X 
 z 
 
 3 
 
 1. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 eflireisi of Cement 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /. 
 
 -=<-■ 
 
 ■a 
 .5 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 '\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 S, 
 
 tiahnal ffequirsd 
 Ihsed on 1:3-6- 
 ffirfure 
 
 ___ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ..... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 Figr. 6. 
 
 Diagi-am for dotermininp: material required lor installation 
 of conduit using- 1 :3 :t> mixture. 
 
 Cost of Underground Conduit Construction. 'I'lie following data, 
 from Klectrical World, Dec. 14, 1912, bearing- upon the cost of 
 underground conduit construction in a New Kngland city of 40.000 
 inhabitants are of interest, as the work was done with careful 
 engineering and completed within the past three years. The total 
 cost Avas $141,800. consisting of conduits, manholes and service 
 duct."^. $85,000; cables, $48,000. and miscellaneous expen.se.s, $8,854. 
 The items in detail were as follows: 
 
 CONOITITS. IMANHOLES AND SRRVIOK DUCTS 
 
 2.S.393 ft. of conduits, containing 257,300 duct-ft. . . $63,940 
 
 141 manholes • • • • 16,600 
 
 8927 ft. of service duct in 270 connections to build- 
 
 ing.s. poles, etc ' '''"^^^ jsH.OOO 
 
 CABLES 
 
 Street lighting : 
 
 104.900 ft. of No. 6 cable $14,400 
 
 Secondary light and motor service: ^ 
 
 18.000 ft. of No. 4-0 cable, 30.000 ft. of No. 1-0 
 cable. 8000 ft. of No. 2 cable. 12,000 ft. of No. 
 6 cable 13,o00 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 983 
 
 7000 ft. of No. 1 bare wire, 15,000 ft. of No. 2 
 bare wire, 4000 ft. of No. 5 bare wire, 6000 ft. 
 
 of No. 8 bare wire $1,100 
 
 Installation of above cables and wires, including 
 
 materials, apparatus and supervision 0,200 
 
 Primary lighting circuits: 
 
 18,530 ft. of No. 2-0 cable, 12,450 ft. of No. 1-0 
 
 cable. 97S0 ft. f»f No. 4 cable |8,100 
 
 Installati«m of the.'^e materials and supervision in- 
 cluded 1 .f>00 
 
 $38,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 Miscellaneous expense on service connections to 
 
 73 poles and lamps and rewiring 197 buildings 8,854 
 
 Total $141,854 
 
 The average cost i>f cf)nduit was about 25 cents per duct -foot, 
 including excavation, back-filling and conduit complete ready for 
 cables, with maintenance of the street above the conduit for one 
 year. The manhole walls were of brick, laid In cement, 8 in, to 12 
 in. in thickness, varying in dei)th from 3 ft. to 12 ft. Primary 
 cables are installed in the same conduits as other service mains 
 but in different ducts. Services averaged about 50 ft. in length, 
 the individual costs running from 20 to 30 cents per foot. 
 
 Cost of Underground Conduits and Conduit Lines. Tables X 
 and XI from I>ata, July, 1915, were contributed by G, D. Wessel- 
 hoeft. Tabulations give costs per trench foot of conduit lines under 
 city streets, based on costs in New York City. 
 
 Vitrified Clay Conduits. Tables XTT and XITI are from Data, 
 September, 1911, contributed by The Clay Products Co. 
 
 TABLE Xin. CONSTRFTCTION COSTS 
 
 PAFtTIAL CONCUKTE ENVELOPK 
 
 Specifications: Top of construction 2 ft. below under surface of 
 paving. Trench dug 5 ins. wider than conduit lied of concrete 
 2 ins. thick in bottom of trench. .Joints made by linking with two 
 dowel pins, .Joint completely wrar»ped with perforated metal wrajj- 
 per, cinched over tf)p, sides and top of joint covered 2 ins. thick with 
 cement mortar band 8 ins. wide. Lines built up as follows, with 
 C. P. C. conduit : 
 
 2 ducts — 1 piece 2-way conduit. 4 ducts — 1 piece 4-way conduit. 
 
 3 ducts — 1 |)iece triangle 3-way C ducts — 1 piece 6-way conduit. 
 
 conduit. 8 ducts — 2 pieces 4-way conduit 
 
 COSTS i'KR TUENCH AND DUCT KOOT 
 
 2 ducts 3 ducts 4 ducts 6 ducts 8 ducts 
 
 Excavating and refilling... .07540 .08801 .08944 .10036 .11362 
 
 Disposal of extra soil 00551 .00475 .01064 .01539 .02147 
 
 Cost of joint and laying con- 
 duit 06990 .04490 .05310 .02867 .03329 
 
 Cost of concrete bed 2 ins. 
 
 thick 02682 .02682 .02682 .02682 .02682 
 
 Cost per trench foot 17763 .16448 .20000 ,17124 .18943 
 
 Cost per duct foot 08881 .05482 .05000 .02854 .02368 
 
984 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 COMPLETE CONCRETE ENVELOPE 
 
 Specifications : Top of construction 2 ft. below under surface of 
 paving. Trench dug 6 ins. wider tlian conduit. Concrete envelope, 
 3 ins., entirely surrounding conduit. Two dowel pins to each of 
 multiple. Joints of multiple wrapped with burlap saturated in 
 creosote. Where line is built up % in. of concrete between pieces. 
 Concrete mixture 1, 3, 5. Lines built up as follows, with C. P. C. 
 conduit: 
 
 1 duct — 1 square or round-duct 5 ducts — 1 piece 2-way conduit 
 
 single conduit. below and one piece triangle 
 
 2 ducts — 1 piece 2-way conduit. 3-way conduit above. 
 
 3 ducts — 1 piece triangle 3-way 6 ducts — 1 piece 6-way conduit. 
 
 conduit. 8 ducts — 2 pieces 4-way con- 
 
 4 ducts — 1 piece 4-way conduit. duit. 
 
 COSTS PER TRENCH AND DUCT FOOT 
 
 1 2 3 4 6 8 
 
 duct ducts ducts ducts ducts ducts 
 
 Excavating and refilling. . .05330 .07540 .08801 .08944 .10036 .11362 
 
 Disposal of extra soil 00266 .00551 .00475 .01064 .01539 .02147 
 
 Laying of conduit in con- 
 crete 14125 .18188 .16500 .22100 .25535 .31382 
 
 Total cost per trench foot .19721 .26279 .25776 .32108 .37110 .44891 
 Total cost per duct foot. .19721 .13139 .08592 .10703 .06185 .05611 
 
 Vitrified Clay Conduit. Mr. C. H. Judson gives comparative cost, 
 maintenance and depreciation on one mile of 400 pair telephone 
 cable, underground construction vs. aerial construction. 
 
 Construction Cost : 
 
 Four-duct conduit with manholes and distribut- 
 ing poles, with total capacity of 2,000 pairs. .$5,300.00 
 
 Forty-five-foot pole line with V^-in. messengers 
 and distributing poles, with capacity 800 
 pairs 2,200.00 
 
 Extra cost of underground over aerial $3,100.00 
 
 One four-hundred-pair cable installed in duct . $6,000.00 
 
 Two two-hundred-pair cable installed on mes- 
 senger 6,000.00 
 
 Maintenance, Depreciation and Interest (Annual). 
 
 2% depreciation, l^ of 1% maintenance on con- 
 duit line 120.00 
 
 10% depreciation, 1% maintenance on poles and 
 
 messengers 242.00 
 
 Extra cost of maintenance of aerial over con- 
 duit line 122.00 
 
 Depreciation of aerial cable at 5% more than 
 
 underground 300.00 
 
 Annual extra maintenance cost of aerial over 
 
 underground $422.00 
 
 If the added construction cost for underground 
 
 was borrowed at 6%, or 186.00 
 
 The conduit line would show an annual net sav- 
 ing of $236.00 
 
 The conduit line will be ready to receive 1,600 pairs more at a 
 slight cost any time in the next hundred years, and the aerial line 
 will need rebuilding at least twice, 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 985 
 
 Vitrified Clay Conduit. Data gives the following compara- 
 tive costs of 3 -duct line showing economy of triangle 3 -way. 
 
 Flat Flat 3- Tri- 
 
 Single 3-way way laid angle 
 
 duct laid flat on edge 3-way 
 
 Excavating and refilling $0.16822 $0.18698 $0.18720 $0.15080 
 
 Disposal of extra soil 02223 .03097 .02907 .01558 
 
 Cartage of conduit to trench.. .01800 .01500 .01500 .01200 
 
 Cost of laying in concrete 15607 .26454 .25319 .10959 
 
 Cost joint material per trench 
 
 foot 00000 .00750 .00750 .00500 
 
 Cost per trench foot $0.36452 $0.50499 $0.49196 $0.29297 
 
 Cost per duct foot 12151 .16833 .16399 .09766 
 
 Underground Conduit. Mr. Edward N. Lake gives the following 
 comparative costs of using single duct vitrified clay tile, in the 
 Journal of Western Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1910. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^nnr 
 
 
 
 fcliCj^^iili-l 
 
 
 Fig. 7 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Comparative estimates of cost per duct foot in cents, 
 conditions. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Conduit Section 4 
 
 Std. single duct (Fig. 7).. 27.6 
 Single duct in multii^le 
 
 (Fig. 8) 27.6 
 
 Single duct in tiers (Fig. 9) 28.1 
 
 6 8 9 iO 
 
 22.0 19.3 18.3 18.0 
 
 22.1 
 23.0 
 
 19.7 
 20.4 
 
 19.3 
 
 19.6 
 19.2 
 
 12 
 16.4 
 
 17.7 
 17.5 
 
 15 
 15.0 
 
 16.3 
 
 Conduit Section 
 
 Std. Single duct (Fig. 7) 
 
 Single duct in multiple (Fig. 
 
 8) 
 
 Single duct in tiers (Fig. 9). 
 
 16 
 14.9 
 
 15.6 
 16.0 
 
 18 
 14.6 
 
 15. 
 
 20 
 14.2 
 
 15.1 
 15.3 
 
 24 
 13.3 Average 17.60 
 
 14.3 
 14.5 
 
 18.96 
 18.68 
 
 Cost of Electric Conduits for Various Conditions. Mr. L. A. 
 Ferguson in Proceedings National Electric Light Association, 1911, 
 has given the following costs. Table XIV, for several types of 
 conduit laid under different kinds of pavement and in various 
 groups. 
 
 Underground Conduit: Electric Costs — 1913 — Panama Pacific 
 Exposition. The following unit costs are the actual contract prices 
 quoted and accepted, and were compiled from Electrical Record 
 by Krehbiel Co., Chicago, 
 
986 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XIV. COST PER DUCT FOOT IN DIFFERENT GROUPS 
 
 NATIONAL. CONDUIT 
 
 Groups 
 
 Groups of Groups of of 12, 
 
 Kind of pavement 2 or 4, 6 or 9, 16 or 20, 
 
 cents cents cents 
 
 No pavement 16.74 16.74 16.74 
 
 Cedar 22.81 19.27 18.07 
 
 Cedar, cone, base 26.86 20.95 18.94 
 
 Granite 26,86 20.95 18.94 
 
 Granite, cone. base... 36.99 25.17 21.14 
 
 Macadam 21.46 18.70 17.77 
 
 Asphalt 57.24 33.61 25.55 
 
 FRANCIS CONDUIT 
 
 No pavement 14.66 14.66 14.66 
 
 Cedar 20.73 17.19 15.99 
 
 Cedar, cone, base 24.78 18.87 16.86 
 
 Granite 24.78 18.87 16.86 
 
 Granite, cone, base 34.91 23.09 19.06 
 
 Macadam 19.38 16.62 15.69 
 
 Asphalt 56.16 31.53 23.47 
 
 CAMP TILE 
 
 No pavement 14.14 14.14 14.14 
 
 Cedar 20.21 16.67 16.47 
 
 Cedar, cone, base 24.26 18.35 16.34 
 
 Granite 24.26 18.35 -16.34 
 
 Granite, cone. base. .. . 34.39 22.57 16.54 
 
 Macadam 18.66 16.10 16.17 
 
 Asphalt 54.64 31.01 22.95 
 
 LITHOCITE CONDUIT 
 
 No pavement 15.18 16.16 15.18 
 
 Cedar 21.25 17.71 16.51 
 
 Cedar, cone, base .... 25.30 19.39 17.38 
 
 Granite 25.30 19.39 17.38 
 
 Granite, cone. base.. 35.43 23.61 19.58 
 
 Macadam 19.90 17.14 16.21 
 
 Asphalt 55.68 32.05 23.99 
 
 THREE-INCH IRON PIPE 
 
 No pavement 25.5 25.5 25.5 
 
 Cedar 31.57 28.03 26.83 
 
 Cedar, cone. base.... 35.62 29.71 27.70 
 
 Granite 35.62 29.71 27.70 
 
 Granite, cone. base... 45.75 33.93 29.90 
 
 Macadam 30.22 27.46 26 53 
 
 Asphalt 66.00 42.37 34.31 
 
 
 Groups 
 
 Groups of 
 
 of 40, 
 
 25 or 30, 
 
 50 or 60, 
 
 cents 
 
 cents 
 
 16.74 
 
 16.74 
 
 17.56 
 
 17.31 
 
 18.11 
 
 17.69 
 
 18.11 
 
 17 69 
 
 19.49 
 
 18.64 
 
 17.28 
 
 17.18 
 
 22.24 
 
 20.66 
 
 14.66 
 
 14.66 
 
 15.48 
 
 15.23 
 
 16.03 
 
 15.61 
 
 16.03 
 
 15.61 
 
 17.41 
 
 16.56 
 
 15.30 
 
 15.10 
 
 20.16 
 
 16.48 
 
 14.14 
 
 14.14 
 
 14.96 
 
 14.71 
 
 15.51 
 
 15.09 
 
 15.51 
 
 15.09 
 
 16.89 
 
 16.04 
 
 14.78 
 
 14.68 
 
 19.64 
 
 17.96 
 
 16.18 
 
 15.18 
 
 16.00 
 
 15.75 
 
 16.55 
 
 16.13 
 
 16.55 
 
 16.13 
 
 17.93 
 
 17.08 
 
 16.82 
 
 16.62 
 
 20.68 
 
 19.00 
 
 25.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 26.32 
 
 26.07 
 
 26.87 
 
 26.45 
 
 26.87 
 
 26.45 
 
 28.25 
 
 27.40 
 
 26.14 
 
 25.94 
 
 31.00 
 
 29.32 
 
 EXHIBITS BUILDING SECTION 
 
 Installing 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre direct in standard 
 concrete construction, conduit section 12 to 24 ducts, at 11 cts. per 
 duct foot. 
 
 Installing 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre duct in adopted wood 
 box construction: conduit section 18 to 21 ducts, at 8.65 cts. per 
 duct foot. 
 
 Installing 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre duct in adopted wood 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 087 
 
 box construction; conduit section 10 to 15 ducts, at 9.91 cts. per 
 duct foot. 
 
 Installing- 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre duct in adopted wood 
 box construction; conduit section 4 to 8 ducts, at 12.33 cts. per 
 duct foot. 
 
 The average cost of installing 3-in. wood fibre duct in wood box 
 construction is 10.3 cts. per duct foot. 
 
 The above prices are based on approximately 25,000 trench feet 
 of conduit consisting of 281,000 duct feet of 3-in. wood fibre duct 
 and 1,700 ft. of 3-in. black iron pipe. Of this amount of conduit, 
 2,700 conduit feet, or 59,300 duct feet, will be laid in standaid 
 concrete construction, the remainder excepting the iron pipe will 
 be installed in the adopted box construction. 
 
 Average depth of concrete construction will be 4 ft. 3 ins. to 
 center of lowest duct ; cross section will run from 4 wide and 3 
 high to 4 wide and 6 high in concrete; and from 2 wide and 2 high 
 to 7 wide and 3 high in wood construction. 
 
 In the wood box construction adopted, the duct will be aligned 
 by filling the box with sand, except for a distance of 4 ft. at man- 
 holes where concrete will be used. Box will be covered with plank- 
 ing-, well nailed and running across the short dimension of the 
 box. The bottom boards will be reinforced by means of splice 
 plates and tied together with corner straps of sheet metal. 
 
 STATES AND FOREIGN SITES SECTION 
 
 Installing twelve 2-in. and six 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre 
 duct in wood box construction at $1.47 per conduit foot. 
 
 Installing six 2-in. and three 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre 
 duct in wood box construction at 76.5 cents per conduit foot. 
 
 Installing three 4-in. and three 2-in. inside diameter wood fibre 
 duct in wood box construction at 76.5 cents per conduit foot. 
 
 The average cost, in place, for installing 3-in. wood fibre duct 
 ranging in sections as given above, is 13 cents per duct foot. 
 
 The above costs are based on 10,000 trench feet of conduit com- 
 posed of 2-in. and 3-in. wood fibre duct with .125-in. walls and slip 
 sleeves. It will require approximately 41,000 duct feet of 2-in. 
 and 31,000 duct feet of 3-in. duct. The average section will be 
 three ducts wide and two ducts high. 
 
 EXHIBITS BUILDING SECTION 
 
 Manholes of timber construction ranging in size from 5 by 6 ft. 
 and 5 ft. deep at $36.00 each to 7 by 8 ft. and 6 ft. deep at $65.00 
 each. Average $49.30 each in place. 
 
 Manholes of concrete construction ranging- in size from 7 by 7 ft. 
 and 7 ft. deep to 8 by 8 ft, and 7 ft. deep, average $129.30 each in 
 place, exclusive of cast iron cover which is furnished by the Expo- 
 sition Company. 
 
 STATES AND FOREIGN SITES SECTION 
 
 The actual prices of the shallow type of wooden manholes used 
 
D88 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in this section range from $20.00 to $27.00 each, and average $25.00 
 each in place. 
 
 In the general system for the exposition there will be approxi- 
 mately 150 manholes. Thirteen of this number will be of standard 
 concrete construction with cast iron covers. The remainder will 
 be of wood construction. Maximum duct in any conduit run to 
 manholes — 24. 
 
 Cost of Repairing Openings in Pavements, 
 are from a report on Pavements of Akron, 
 Municipal University of Akron and were published in Engineering 
 and Contracting, Oct. 7, 1914. 
 
 The following data 
 Ohio, made by the 
 
 TABLE XV. COST OP REPAIRING OPENINGS MADE IN 
 
 CINCINNATI PAVEMENTS, ACCORDING TO SIZE 
 
 OF OPENING AND TYPE OF PAVEMENT 
 
 o o 
 o o 
 
 go c3 
 P -ij rj 
 
 h a ^ 
 
 S Oh 
 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 304.8 
 502.4 
 805.9 
 354.5 
 732.1 
 3,784.1 
 
 6,483.8 
 
 33.5 
 80.6 
 
 123.1 
 77.1 
 
 219.1 
 1,419.0 
 
 1,952.4 
 
 54.0 
 106.7 
 209.0 
 
 73.5 
 207.1 
 140.2 
 
 790.5 
 
 683.0 
 1,071.1 
 1,832.8 
 1,189.7 
 3,193.3 
 29,202.4 
 
 37,172.3 
 
 t>^ ^ 
 
 O H 
 
 63.95 $928.51 
 
 116.69 1,396.22 
 
 176.74 1,530.07 
 
 67,83 623.90 
 
 65.50 885.72 
 
 131.15 3,385.88 
 
 621.86 $8,750.30 
 
 8.21 $92.57 
 13.18 223.18 
 24.93 317.20 
 16.79 137.34 
 22.09 377.24 
 1,632.88 
 
 85.20 $2,780.42 
 
 $88.96 
 
 133.22 
 
 237.39 
 
 77.23 
 
 ...... 214.28 
 
 111.72 
 
 $893.80 
 
 55.67 $1,236.13 
 
 146.03 2,120.21 
 
 238.13 3,352.84 
 
 135.82 1,947.15 
 
 208.56 3,839.75 
 
 727.53 20,547.63 
 
 1,511.74 $32,953.71 
 
 
 (A >» 
 
 ^ CD 
 
 <y 
 
 $3.67 $1.83 
 
 1.68 
 
 .67 
 
 69 
 
 74 
 
 89 
 
 $3.67 $~85 
 
 $1.39 
 
 1.85 
 
 $8.75 1.06 
 
 56 
 
 15.05 1.12 
 44.00 1.12 
 
 $67.80 $1.18 
 
 $18.76 $1.30 
 
 29.51 .97 
 
 52.00 .89 
 
 15.25 .84 
 
 46.75 .95 
 
 38.00 .53 
 
 $200.27 $ .88 
 
 $18.82 $1.38 
 
 33.99 1.20 
 
 51.77 1.07 
 
 43.08 .96 
 
 90.16 .84 
 
 569.95 56 
 
 $802.27 $ .65 
 
 73 S- T3 
 
 ^-d-2 
 
 c? cu 
 
 $2.29 
 
 2.10 
 
 .84 
 
 .86 
 
 .93 
 
 1.11 
 
 $1.16 
 
 $1.74 
 2.31 
 1.33 
 .70 
 1.40 
 1.40 
 
 $1.48 
 
 $1.63 
 1.21 
 1.11 
 1.05 
 1.19 
 .66 
 
 $1.10 
 
 $1.66 
 1.50 
 1.34 
 1.10 
 1.05 
 .70 
 
 $ .81 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 989 
 
 0) O* 
 
 w 
 
 i^ 
 •M 
 
 344.5 
 . 2,080.6 
 . 2,926.9 
 
 619.9 
 . 1,127.1 
 .14,237.6 
 
 21,336.6 
 
 . 133.1 
 531.4 
 
 . 279.2 
 392.3 
 
 . 621.6 
 
 . 2,297.3 
 
 o« 
 
 $331.65 
 1,412.61 
 1,450.38 
 341.66 
 515.33 
 3.809.83 
 
 -a 
 
 $108.02 
 
 472.43 
 
 474.21 
 
 76.55 
 
 190.63 
 
 1,110.65 
 
 
 .65 
 .45 
 .33 
 .43 
 .29 
 .19 
 
 a. CJZ 
 O o 
 
 
 ; 167.71 
 528.67 
 809.17 
 193.95 
 533.95 
 
 1,506.69 
 
 $3.85 
 14.81 
 20.78 
 7.52 
 27.20 
 52.51 
 
 $1.23 
 .95 
 .81 
 .67 
 .82 
 .63 
 
 
 $7,861.46 $2,432.49 $ .25 $ .31 
 
 $1.54 
 1.21 
 1.01 
 
 .84 
 1.03 
 
 .79 
 
 4,834.2 
 
 304.9 
 816.5 
 
 1,066.8 
 39 3.2 
 700.3 
 
 5,720.3 
 
 $3,740.14 $126.67 $ .75 $ .94 
 
 41.78 
 117.29 
 149.17 
 55.66 
 97.38 
 96.59 
 
 $786.81 
 1,691.26 
 1.360.54 
 612.79 
 1,078.14 
 5,224.20 
 
 $15.43 
 17.63 
 45.51 
 15.13 
 
 25.26 
 228.43 
 
 $1.76 
 1.24 
 .92 
 .73 
 .78 
 .82 
 
 $2.20 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.15 
 
 .91 
 
 .98 
 
 1.03 
 
 9,001.1 
 
 557.87 $11,253.74 $347.39 $ 
 
 $1.11 
 
 Notes. — (1) Material chargeable to party permit, is Issued to 
 through material being destroyed or misplaced when cut is made 
 in pavement. (2) Includes only direct cost of labor and material 
 actually ai)]>lied on the job, as .shown by the foremen's reports, 
 which are made daily to office. During 1913 all new material was 
 used in mixing concrete, no old material being used. The price of 
 concrete varied from $7 in the small cuts to $6 per cu. yd. in the 
 larger size. The prices given arrived at by deducting cost of con- 
 crete at above mentioned prices from total cost, which remainder 
 represented actual direct cost of restoring pavement surface. (3) 
 The same as preceding column, with addition of 25 per cent, over- 
 head, which represents difference between the total expenditures of 
 depa.rtment and amount expended directly for labor and material, 
 as shown by reports of foremen doing work. 
 
 Cost of Trench Work Through Brick Pavement for Wire Conduit. 
 
 An article in Engineering and C:;ontracting, June 2, 1915. by Mr. 
 F. L. Shidler, says : The trench was as near as possible to the 
 curb and crossed under two sets of street car tracks and two street 
 intersections. The costs given are for tearing up brick pavement 
 down to grout base, trenching sand cu.shion and replacing same, 
 relaying brick pavement and slushing with cement filler for laying 
 a wire conduit for ornamental street lights. They also include the 
 co.it of sixteen 1 ft. 4 in. square holes about 16 ins. deep, cut 
 through cement and stone sidewalks, filling these holes with con- 
 
900 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Crete and setting four base bolts in each hole. The cost for the 
 post holes, etc., was as follows : 
 
 Item Total 
 
 Labor cutting:, 25 hrs. at 50 cts $12.50 
 
 Labor concreting 5.00 
 
 Per hole 
 
 $0.78 
 0.31 
 
 Total labor $17.50 $1.09 
 
 12 wood templets for base bolts 3.00 0.19 
 
 2 cu. yds. concrete at $3.60 7.20 0.45 
 
 Miscellaneous 1.12 0.07 
 
 Total materials, etc $11.32 $0.71 
 
 Grand total $28.82 $1.80 
 
 ft. wide and 1,130 ft. long was as 
 
 The cost of the trench li^ 
 follows : 
 
 Item Total 
 
 Tearing up and cleaning brick $21.37 
 
 Relaying brick 27.95 
 
 Teaming 4.00 
 
 Total labor $53.32 
 
 2 cu. yds. cushion sand 3.00 
 
 4 bbls. cement 6.00 
 
 300 new brick 4.00 
 
 Miscellaneous 5.00 
 
 Lin. ft. 
 
 $0,019 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.004 
 
 $0,048 
 
 Total materials $18.00 
 
 Grand total $71.3: 
 
 $0,016 
 $0,064 
 
 Armored Cable Versus Conduit Systems. Electrical World, 
 Jan. 11, 1913, saj^s : Conduit systems have long occupied an almost 
 exclusive field whenever overhead lines were to be placed under- 
 ground, no other underground method being available. Armored 
 cable, however, is beginning to get a foothold, not as a dix'ect sub- 
 stitute for the conduit system but rather in a field of its own which 
 covers one particular phase of underground systems. This field 
 includes the smaller cities, suburban districts, parks, private resi- 
 dences and manufacturing plants where the buildings are spread 
 over a considerable area. The tungsten lamps in the New York 
 City parks, for instance, are fed with energy through armored 
 cable laid in the ground. Installations of this sort where the 
 service rendered is comparatively small do not warrant a large 
 expenditure to increase the fixed charges. The following figures 
 recently submitted by the Simplex Electrical Company of Boston 
 show the cost of the lead-covered cable in ducts and also of the 
 armored cable laid directly in the ground : 
 
 COST OF LEAD-COVERED CABLE LAID IN DUCTS 
 
 1000 ft. No. 6 three-conductor, rubber insulated, lead-covered 
 
 c:>.ble (600-volt service) $175 
 
 1000 ft. conduit 55 
 
 Cost of laying, including cost of two ^anholes and drawing 
 
 in and splicing cable 450 
 
 $680 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 991 
 
 COST OB" STEEL-TAPED CABLE LAID IN GROUND 
 
 1000 ft. No. 6 three-conductor, rubber-insulated, lead-covered 
 
 steel-taped cable (600-volt service) $240 
 
 Cost of laying 50 
 
 $290 
 
 The figures do not include the cost of relaying the pavement. 
 This, while approximately the same in either case, will be somewhat 
 more for the conduit installation than for the armor cable, because 
 the trench for the ducts would need to be wider and deeper in order 
 to have the ducts far enough underground. 
 
 As noted in the table, the difference in cost is mainly due to 
 the much larger expenditure needed for the installation of the duct 
 system. The armored cable itself costs only a nominal sum more 
 than the regular lead-covered cable and its installation is very 
 simple, consisting merely of laying this ready-made conduit system 
 directly in a shallow trench and replacing the earth over the cable. 
 The construction of conduit system with its necessary manholes 
 requires plans from which to work and expert superintendence 
 during its construction. In addition to this the cost which is in- 
 volved by drawing the lead cable into the ducts must be taken 
 into consideration. 
 
 Comparative Costs of Tile and Fiber Conduit. From Electric 
 Railway Journal, Dec. 16, 1911, we take the following: William 
 D. Ligon has prepared the comparison of costs of tile and fiber con- 
 duits presented in Tables XVI to XVIII. These figures are 
 based upon actual conditions in St. LouivS, Chicago and other cities 
 of the Central West. As shown in the Tables the cost of con- 
 structing multiple duct tile is less than that of constructing single 
 duct tile, owing principally to the less amount of excavating, re- 
 filling, paving, dirt disposal and concreting. This saving ranges 
 from $0,031 to $0,285 and even more per trench foot, according to 
 the number of ducts. Table XVIII, however, shows that much 
 greater economy is possible by using fiber conduit, the cost per 
 trench foot of one pipe to sixteen-pipe installations ranging from 
 $0.44 to $2,422, as compared with $0,483 to $2,723 for the multiple 
 duct tile. This saving is due to the lower cost of the fiber conduit 
 as delivered, to its greater ease in installation, to the elimination 
 of breakage losses and to the simpler connections. 
 
 Cost of Manholes. The following is taken from cost data com- 
 piled by Mr. Borroughs, Engineer of the Washington Commis- 
 sion. 
 
 Cubical contents 
 
 Cu. 
 
 yards, concrete 
 
 Ratio, concrete to contents 
 
 47 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 .021 
 
 84 
 
 
 2.0 
 
 .024 
 
 104 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 .024 
 
 144 
 
 
 .4.6 
 
 .032 
 
 182 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 .027 
 
 Say, 0.025 cu. yd. of concrete or brick masonry per cubic foot of 
 inside measurement. For this purpose all masonry will be con- 
 
992 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Q 
 H 
 
 h3 
 
 Ho 
 Km 
 
 M 
 
 SO 
 
 qH 
 
 OID 
 
 Ho 
 
 eH 
 'pa 
 
 H^ 
 
 H^ 
 ^^ 
 ^d 
 ^^ 
 
 B3 
 
 So; 
 ^o 
 o . 
 
 OH 
 
 ^^ 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 OJ^MOOOOtO 
 COOOt-OOMCOCOCC 
 a5CC(Mrt<r-iOOO 
 
 > 
 ft 
 be 
 
 -Co. 
 
 
 ^ ci_i • T! -^ &D 
 
 S -I? ^ S ci g o : 
 
 §- O 
 
 t^ ^ L3 lO cvj IX> CD CO 0>0> 
 OlOCCt>,HOOO CQN 
 
 T-H 
 
 &9- 
 
 eo 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 «>9- 
 
 "^ 
 
 o-oooooooo 
 
 COC05000U5WCO 
 OOCCO^tHOOO 
 
 OliH 
 
 p 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 CO-=hOOOOOO 
 Ol t~- 00 O O lO U5 CO 
 05 TJH o CO r-( O O O 
 
 coco 
 useo 
 wco 
 
 6^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 tHMOOOOOO-* 
 t^COOOCOOOOO 
 
 t-co 
 
 
 CO 
 
 oooq^oooo-^ 
 
 miHCOOOOO^-^tM 
 
 oo-*oo-*oooo 
 
 ooo 
 
 rHO 
 C-JO 
 
 €«■ 
 
 (M 
 
 HO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Ig 
 
 i 
 
 H^ 
 
 
 &^ 
 
 CO 
 
 t-ai«ooooooo 
 
 COCOfO^COCOfCTH 
 
 CO M ?c c<i o o o o 
 so- 
 
 05T-I 
 
 
 oooooooooooo 
 
 OO-^-^COCOCOCOiH 
 
 oeococooooo 
 
 €(9- 
 
 rHeO 
 
 a> ^ c<i CO ^ M c<i ^ 
 
 Tt<«D 
 iHCO 
 rHCO 
 
 05 
 
 00 
 •<* 
 
 (?.H>(MOOIOU5U3 
 C-7 00 CO Tf ^ M M rH 
 
 t-(rq^(MOOoo 
 
 coc^ 
 
 rH05 
 
 Oi CO iH 00 !M ,H iH rH 
 
 ooiHoqooooo 
 
 69- 
 
 o«^coooc^<MO 
 
 CO as rH ir<I C<l rH rH rH 
 Tt<rHC<IrHOOOO 
 
 rH 
 
 cooo 
 
 t>00 
 
 OO 
 
 €«• 
 
 60- 
 
 rH 
 
 corqosousooo 
 
 Tt^USmCOi-liHTHiH 
 UiiHiHOOOOO 
 
 t-eo 
 
 OO 
 
 CO 
 
 ^lOc^lOUSOOO 
 as 00 CO Oi rH rH rH rH 
 ■^rHrHOOOOO 
 
 eooi 
 
 t-Tt< 
 
 OO 
 
 €«■ 
 
 tH 
 
 
 6^ 
 
 rH 
 
 r-lT-ICOOOt-OO 
 CO CO O ■* tH O rH tH 
 COtHtHOOOOO 
 
 (Mt- 
 OI>- 
 
 c^ 
 
 fOWiOOOOt-OO 
 lO '^ O CO r-< O r-l rH 
 COrHrHOOOOO 
 
 coco 
 
 €«■ 
 
 
 m- 
 
 
 O^fOOlOUiOO 
 ro O ic CO o o 1-1 iH 
 (MtHOOOOOO 
 
 coco 
 cooo 
 o^ 
 
 
 iH 
 
 oiio^tiousinoo 
 
 lO O lO CO O O r-i rH 
 C<Ii-IOOOOOO 
 
 COrH 
 OUi 
 
 g5 
 
 Pry 
 
 oO 
 
 O . 
 
 H 
 
 g| 
 
 c 
 C 
 
 
 •,— TO 
 
 
 a; 
 
 '413 > m a> 
 
 H 0UH:i0t^^ 
 
 c > be ft 
 wM E-i 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 993 
 
 
 
 (W> M U5 O IM C<I M t- 
 
 OS(M 
 
 
 rHr-t-ini«0?D«OCO 
 
 Tt<00 
 
 S 
 
 US 
 
 Oi us (M_ M o o o o 
 
 M'* 
 
 CO 
 
 ' r-I 
 
 'eo 
 
 < 
 
 
 &9- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 CU 
 
 
 ooooooooo 
 
 us OS 
 
 
 
 '*05<MOUSlftUSeO 
 
 0-* 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 00-*OiMOOOO 
 
 (Mas 
 
 Q 
 
 wO 
 ^W 
 H^ 
 
 S^ 
 
 P§ 
 H 
 
 ^a 
 OH 
 
 oo 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 U 
 
 «Or^«DOOOO-<i< Oi(M 
 
 iH tH iH CO -^ •^ T)H (M «ci(rq 
 
 t-"*00iHOOOO T-l-«** 
 
 us-^s^oooooo oot- 
 
 US-^THiMfOCOCOrH COt^- 
 «>05«3iHOOOO iHOi 
 
 rHCOOOOOUSUSUS 
 
 <X)iM'*iOOOOO 
 
 rHUS'^OOiMiMO CO t- 
 00 t- O ■* iH iH tH rS CDO 
 COtHMOOOOO OOl 
 
 7-IOOCOOt— OOO i-IUS 
 00 «0 US CO O iH iH iH COC- 
 ■^tHtHOOOOO ooo 
 
 eococqoust-oo i>o 
 
 -*«OOCvJOOl-lrH TfC- 
 COiHiHOOOOO OCO 
 
 OOtHOCOUSOO tHO 
 CO Oi us iH O O iH T-l CO-* 
 C-3 0000000 0-* 
 
 fl ■ 
 o 
 
 3 oi o 
 
 ?^. s 
 
 M 
 
 . ft . 
 
 .Sg :- 
 
 oS : 
 
 -rg a ."2 • o 
 
 • <u 
 
 • S-, 
 
 . <v 
 
 • > 
 
 • '3 
 
 .rr) m 
 
 . a 
 
 1 s cj 
 
 
994 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 sidered as concrete. Considering concrete proportions as 1-2.5-5 
 one yard of concrete will call for, — 
 
 1.13 barrels of cement @ $2.85 $ 3.22 
 
 0.40 yards of .sand " 1.25 50 
 
 0.80 yards of gravel " 1.50 1.20 
 
 Incidentals, such as lumber, etc 3 00 
 
 Labor 2.08 
 
 $10.00 
 
 0.025 yards at $10.00 gives $.25 per cubic foot of contents as the 
 cost of concrete. 
 
 Excavation in gravel will be taken out one foot larger all around 
 than the outside measurements, and two feet more in depth than the 
 minimum inside depth. For the manhole whose contents = 104 
 cu. ft. the excavation will be : — 
 
 9 ft. 2 ins, X 6 ft. 8 ins. equals 13.5 cubic yards. 
 
 It will be necessary to shore the excavation with 3 in. x 12 in. 
 planks, 8 ft. long. Thirty-six planks will be needed and the sal- 
 vage will be 50%. Hence the expense will be, — 
 
 18 ft. 3 ins. X 12 ins. x 8 ft. equals 432 F. B. M. 
 The total expense will be, — 
 
 Excavating and removing 13.5 cu. yds. of gravel @ $1.50 $20.25 
 Shoring in place, 432 ft. B. M. . ., @ 25.00 10.80 
 
 $31.05 
 Plus 10% for teaming, etc 3.10 
 
 $34.15 
 
 $34.15 divided by 104 equals .328 per cu. ft., say 35 cents. This, 
 added to the cost of masonry, gives a total of 60 cents. The rule 
 used will be: 
 
 The cost of manholes in gravel will be 60 cents per cubic foot 
 of the contents, using minimuin inside dimensions. To this must 
 be added $15.10 for cover and casting. 
 
 In rock excavation it will be impossible to take out the material 
 to neat lines, hence, two feet over the outside measurements will be 
 used, with 2.5 feet more depth than the minimum inside depth. 
 The excavation will be, in this case, 
 
 11 ft. 2 ins. X 8 ft. 8 ins. equals 23.1 cu. yds. 
 No shoring will be necessary, so the cost will be : 
 
 Excavating and removing 23.1 yds. of rock (a) $3.00 $69.30 
 Plus 10% for teaming, etc 6.93 
 
 $76.23 
 
 $76.23 divided by 104 equals $.733 per cu. ft. of contents. Calling 
 this 75 cents and adding 25 cents for masonry, gives a cost of $1.00. 
 The rule used will be : — ■ 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 995 
 
 The cost of manholes in rock will be $1.00 per cubic foot of 
 contents, using minimum inside dimensions. To this must be added 
 $15.10 for cover and casting-. 
 
 Vault or Manhole Construction. Telephone Construction, by G. 
 Mayer, has the following: The location of a vault shall be barri- 
 caded and excavation then made to such a depth as to bring the 
 bottom of the concrete top 17.5 ins. below street grade. If the 
 vault is built in advance of street improvements, the necessary 
 information as to grade shall be obtained from the city engineer. 
 The excavation for brick vaults shall be sufficiently wide and long 
 
 '^^^.^,','1 J 
 
 
 10 11 
 
 Fig. 10. Vault size 1 to be used on runs of 1 to 3. Ducts of 
 
 conduit when not intersected. 
 
 Fig. 11. Vault size 2 to be used on run.s of 1 to 3 ducts of conduit 
 
 when intersected. 
 
 enough to leave a space of 6 ins. around the outside of the wall 
 of the manhole when finished. 
 
 In stiff clay, the excavation may be made of the outside dimen- 
 sions of the vault. The standard manhole or vault shall be of 
 either brick with a concrete bottom, concrete top and cast iron 
 frame and cover, or of concrete throughout, with cast iron frame 
 and cover. In size it shall be approximately of the inner dimen- 
 sions specified on the plan of the work. For straight runs the 
 long dimensions of the vault shall be in the line of conduit. For 
 intersections the long dimension of the vault shall be in the line 
 of the heavier run. Fw different cross sections of conduit the 
 desirable forms and dimensions for vaults are shown by Figs. 
 10 to 20 inclusive. 
 
990 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 In constructing- n vault the bottom of the excavation shall fii'st 
 be tamped and a layer of concrete of the depth shown on vault 
 drawing, and of sufficient width and lengtli to project 2 ins. beyond 
 the foundation courses of brick, or the bottom of the concrete wall 
 shall be placed, tamped and graded for drainage. A sewer con- 
 nection or other means of drainage shall be provided wherever 
 possible. If the vault is located on high, well-drained, sandy soil, 
 drainage may be secured by placing one or two lengths of 6-in. 
 sewer tile perpendicularly into the ground from the bottom of the 
 vault. Where possible the vault shall be drained by a 6-in. sewer 
 
 Fig. 12. Vault size 3 to be used on runs of 4 to 8. Ducts of con- 
 duit when not intersected. 
 Fig. 13. Vault size 4 to be used on runs of 4 to 8 duets of conduit 
 when intersected. 
 
 " P " trap in the bottom of the vault with 6-in. sewer tile connection 
 to the sewer. If the water level of the sewer is higher than the 
 bottom of the vault, sewer connections may be made through the 
 wall of the vault using a running sewer trap. A back water trap 
 shall be installed in all cases where the bottom of the vault is 
 less than 3 ft. above the top of the sewer, by which the vault is to 
 be drained. All drainage oiienings shall be provided "with cast 
 iron strainers set flush with the floor or wall of the vault. Where 
 the vault is drained through the floor, the floor shall be laid so as 
 to drain to the trap with a fall of nAt less than 1 in. in 10 ft. 
 
 Tn the case of brick vaults, the wall of the vault shall be built 
 up of hard burned sewer brick laid in cement mortar. In dry 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 997 
 
 weather brick shall be well moistened before using-. Walls shall be 
 9 ins. thick. The wall shall be built up, every sixth course being 
 laid as headers, to the height required. The top course shall be 
 laid as stretchers. The horizontal mortar joints shall not exceed 
 .5 in. and the vertical joints .375 in. in thickness. 
 
 The brick work shall be racked away around the entrance of the 
 ducts to afford room for turning: cables when installed. As the 
 walls are built up cable support nipples of approved type shall be 
 installed in all vaults. No less than two supports shall be set in 
 the walls parallel to the conduit run on a level with each layer of 
 
 ^o|| ' / I — i— 
 
 Fig. 14. Vault size 5 to be used on runs of 9 
 conduit when not intersected. 
 Fig. 15. Vault size 6 to be used on runs of 9 to 12 
 duit when intersected. 
 
 to 12. Ducts of 
 Ducts of con- 
 
 ducts in non-intersected vaults. The supports shall not be nearer 
 than 1 ft. from the end of the conduit and shall be placed sym- 
 metrically. All pipes entering the vaults shall be well cemented 
 into the brick work and the inside of the vault walls well pointed up. 
 
 When vaults are intersected at least one support nipple shall 
 be set in each wall between conduit runs on a level with each 
 layer of ducts and set as nearly as practicable at the central point. 
 
 The walls of all concrete vaults .shall be 6 ins. thick. The con- 
 crete in the roof and floor .shall be thoroughly tamped. The con- 
 crete in the walls .shall be uniformly and equally distributed within 
 the forms, in layers not exceeding 6 ins. in thickness, each layer 
 being thoroughly tamped in place. After this the succeeding layer 
 
998 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ^JT 
 
 Fig. 16. Vault size 8 to be used on runs of 13 to 24 ducts of 
 conduit when intersected. 
 
 I6"l'l0v", ^ '" |1'iOm'i6i-' 
 
 
 Fig. 17. Vault size 9, to be used on conduit runs — ? 
 Fig. 18. Vault size 10, used for installing 6 loading pots on con- 
 duit runs when not intersected. 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 990 
 
 shall be at once applied, and the operation continued until the walls 
 have reached the required height 
 
 When the walls of the vault are finished and filled in and around 
 the outside, the wood form for the concrete top shall be placed. 
 The form shall be placed so as to make the center of the manhole 
 opening as nearly as possible over the center line of the ducts, 
 going both ways, and midway between the ends of the vault ; the 
 long edge of the opening being parallel to the main line of conduit. 
 
 In case a vault top is 7 ft. or more in length it shall be 
 
 ,. ...-..,.- ,.! I* 
 
 J I 3z3x% T.SSlb.T'B" 1 r~T S.\, 
 
 
 'VX ' ' "' ' 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 Fig. 19. Vault size 11, used for installing 8 loading pots on conduit 
 runs when not intersected. 
 
 Fig. 20. Vault size 12, used for installing 6 to 8 loading pots on 
 conduit runs when intersected. 
 
 strengthened by .375-in. x 3 x 3-in. T-iron or other equivalent rein- 
 forcing irons, placed approximately 2 ft. apart and parallel to the 
 short side of the vault top. Where T-irons are used they shall be 
 imbedded in the concrete with the stem of the T up and the bottom 
 of the bar within 1 in. of the lower side of the concrete. An alterna- 
 tive method for reinforcing concrete roofs of vaults shall be as 
 follows: .5-messenger strand shall be cut to the outside width 
 and length of the vault roof and shall be set in the concrete on 4-in. 
 centers about 1 in. from the bottom of the concrete roof, both 
 across the length and width of the roof. Immediately under the 
 center of the bearing surface of the vault frame shall be placed 
 
1000 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 two pieces of .5-in. strand side by side both lengthwise and across 
 the width of the vault roof. 
 
 The forms used for building vault tops are shown by Fig. 21. 
 In the case of concrete vaults openings for the entrance of the 
 ducts shall be made with the forms shown by Fig. 22. These forms 
 are made in two styles, collar and block. The collar form shall be 
 used where the ducts are already installed, and the block form, 
 where it is desired to leave an opening for the entrance of future 
 ducts. The collar form shall be placed just over the ducts and 
 against the vault form as shown on Fig. 21, and shall be removed 
 after the vault form has been removed. 
 
 The forms shown by Fig. 23 shall be used to form openings for 
 the entrance of sewer tile where it is desirable to have a beveled 
 
 r — ^] 
 
 n/ttefwifJtemerefe 
 
 .^ , 
 
 Fig. 21. Forms for building vault tops. 
 
 opening as in some cases where large cable is to be installed in the 
 sewer tile. These forms are also used to form openings for the 
 entrance of circular ducts. 
 
 The method of mixing concrete shall be the same as described 
 for conduit. The proportions of concrete mixtures for vaults shall 
 be as follows : If crushed stone concrete is used : For floors of 
 vaults, 1 part American Portland cement, 4 parts .25-in. screenings 
 and 8 parts No. 3 (.75-in) stone; for roofs and sides of vaults, 
 1 part American Portland cement, 3 parts .25-in. screenings, and 
 5 parts No. 3 (.75-in.) stone. If gravel concrete is used: For 
 floors of vaults, 1 part American Portland cement, 4 parts sand 
 and 8 parts of gravel ; for roofs and sides of vaults, 1 part American 
 Portland cement, 3 parts sand and 5 parts gravel. 
 
 Cement mortar shall be mixed on a closely laid timber platform 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1001 
 
 or in a wood box. The sand shall be spread on the mixing plat- 
 form to a thickness of 2 ins., the cement added and evenly dis- 
 tributed and the materials turned over 3 times with hoes. Sufficient 
 water to make the mortar into a stiff paste shall then be carefully 
 
 Al 
 
 'K 
 
 \ 
 
 < 
 
 / 
 
 o'. 
 
 I 
 
 V 
 
 . — 9*4-. 
 
 y. 
 
 / 
 
 5^ 
 
 • 
 
 \ 
 
 .^s^V 
 
 Section C'C 
 
 Section 1>D 
 
 Fig. 22. Forms for constructing openings for the entrance of ducts 
 into concrete vaults. 
 
 added and the mixture turned over 3 times with hoes to thoroughly 
 mix the material and dampen every particle of cement. Mortar 
 shall be used within 30 mins. of the time of adding the water. 
 Cement mortar shall be mixed in the proportion of 1 part American 
 Portland cement to 3 parts sand. 
 
 5ecf(on F-F. 
 
 Fig. 23. Forms for constructing openings for the entrance of cir- 
 cular ducts into concrete vaults. 
 
 The wages per hour were: Bricklayers, 70 cts.; common labor- 
 ers, 22 cts. ; team and driver. 56 cts. Cost of foreman and time- 
 keeper is included. 
 
 TABLE XIX. AVERAGE COST OF BRICK VAULT 
 CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 
 
 Kind of soil q^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 xn 
 
 Sand 1 
 
 Clay 1 
 
 Hard clay. . 1 
 Average . . 1 
 
 
 bo 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 
 bo 
 
 fi 
 
 <n 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 'w 
 
 
 ^.s 
 
 <M^ 
 
 bo 
 
 <w bo 
 
 bo 
 
 ^1 
 P 
 
 
 o p 
 
 
 % 
 
 o fl 
 
 5^ 
 
 1° 
 
 2.80 
 
 $3.69 
 
 $0.94 
 
 $11.23 
 
 $3.18 
 
 $2.87 
 
 $24.71 
 
 3 28 
 
 4 56 
 
 0.73 
 
 11 39 
 
 3 69 
 
 3.04 
 
 26.69 
 
 3.27 
 
 5.64 
 
 1.04 
 
 10 86 
 
 3.82 
 
 3.16 
 
 27.79 
 
 3.12 
 
 4.63 
 
 0.90 
 
 11.16 
 
 3.56 
 
 3.02 
 
 26.39 
 
1002 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Kind of soil 
 
 Sand . 
 Clay . 
 Hard clay 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay . . 
 Hard clay 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay . . 
 Hard clay 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay .. 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay . . 
 Hard clay 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay . . 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay . . 
 Hard clay 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay .. 
 Average 
 Sand . . 
 Clay . . 
 Hard clay 
 Average 
 Clay . . 
 Clay . . 
 Hard clay 
 Average . 
 
 ^■I 
 
 00 
 
 -1 
 
 fafl 
 
 .a 
 
 ^> 
 
 °s 
 
 = « 
 
 <=o 
 
 O C 
 
 
 1.^ 
 
 6« 
 
 It 
 
 
 2 
 
 2.97 
 
 3.81 
 
 1.15 
 
 10.71 
 
 2 
 
 3.47 
 
 4.48 
 
 0.92 
 
 11.22 
 
 2 
 
 3.49 
 
 5.52 
 
 1.14 
 
 11.46 
 
 2 
 
 3.31 
 
 4,60 
 
 1.07 
 
 11.13 
 
 3 
 
 2.62 
 
 3.85 
 
 1.12 
 
 12.63 
 
 3 
 
 3.64 
 
 4.52 
 
 1.26 
 
 11.47 
 
 3 
 
 3.01 
 
 5,71 
 
 1.34 
 
 13.89 
 
 3 
 
 3.09 
 
 4,69 
 
 1.24 
 
 12.66 
 
 4 
 
 3.62 
 
 4,54 
 
 1.82 
 
 14.41 
 
 4 
 
 4.06 
 
 5.78 
 
 1.76 
 
 14.28 
 
 4 
 
 4.85 
 
 7.51 
 
 2.23 
 
 14.12 
 
 4 
 
 4.17 
 
 5.94 
 
 1.94 
 
 14.27 
 
 5 
 
 3.48 
 
 4.69 
 
 2.04 
 
 14.47 
 
 5 
 
 4.17 
 
 5.54 
 
 1.93 
 
 14.32 
 
 5 
 
 3.83 
 
 5.12 
 
 1.98 
 
 14.39 
 
 6 
 
 4.01 
 
 4.76 
 
 2.33 
 
 14.35 
 
 6 
 
 3.90 
 
 5.71 
 
 2.04 
 
 14.57 
 
 6 
 
 4.46 
 
 7.42 
 
 2.11 
 
 13.86 
 
 6 
 
 4.12 
 
 5.96 
 
 2.16 
 
 14.26 
 
 8 
 
 6.27 
 
 6,27 
 
 3.06 
 
 18.27 
 
 8 
 
 6.90 
 
 8.04 
 
 2.87 
 
 18.94 
 
 8 
 
 6.59 
 
 7.15 
 
 2.97 
 
 18.60 
 
 9* 
 
 2,49 
 
 4.01 
 
 1.19 
 
 11,63 
 
 9* 
 
 3.57 
 
 4.72 
 
 1.21 
 
 11,22 
 
 9* 
 
 3.68 
 
 5.43 
 
 1.07 
 
 11,56 
 
 9* 
 
 3.40 
 
 4.72 
 
 1.16 
 
 11.47 
 
 9t 
 
 3.19 
 
 4.27 
 
 1.26 
 
 12,04 
 
 9- 
 
 3.39 
 
 4,63 
 
 1.19 
 
 12.83 
 
 9t 
 
 3.29 
 
 4.45 
 
 1.23 
 
 12.43 
 
 10 
 
 7.94 
 
 16.43 
 
 3.96 
 
 26.14 
 
 10 
 
 9.12 
 
 18.74 
 
 4.67 
 
 24.82 
 
 10 
 
 9.53 
 
 22.04 
 
 4.09 
 
 25.32 
 
 10 
 
 8.86 
 
 19.07 
 
 4.24 
 
 25.4 3 
 
 11 
 
 10.52 
 
 26.02 
 
 5 34 
 
 30.9 6 
 
 12 
 
 9.93 
 
 25.64 
 
 5.83 
 
 32.11 
 
 12 
 
 10.14 
 
 28.89 
 
 5.15 
 
 31.07 
 
 12 
 
 10,03 
 
 27.27 
 
 5.49 
 
 31.59 
 
 Op. 
 
 o 
 
 3,34 
 3.48 
 3.67 
 3.50 
 2.55 
 3.76 
 3.58 
 3.30 
 4.07 
 5.83 
 
 32 
 
 74 
 
 16 
 
 94 
 
 05 
 
 34 
 
 66 
 
 5.81 
 
 5.27 
 
 5.98 
 
 6.40 
 
 6.19 
 
 3.43 
 
 3.59 
 
 3.86 
 
 3,62 
 
 4.01 
 
 4.32 
 
 4.17 
 
 7,27 
 
 8,02 
 
 7,73 
 
 7,67 
 
 8 62 
 
 8.36 
 
 8.84 
 
 8.60 
 
 6" 
 
 3,01 
 
 3.41 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.23 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.56 
 
 2.93 
 
 3.20 
 
 4.12 
 
 4.57 
 
 4.98 
 
 4.56 
 
 4.21 
 
 4.86 
 
 4.54 
 
 4.51 
 
 4.22 
 
 4.91 
 
 4.55 
 
 5.64 
 
 6.87 
 
 6.25 
 
 3.12 
 
 3,44 
 
 3.52 
 
 3.36 
 
 3.61 
 
 3.97 
 
 3.79 
 
 10.74 
 
 12.02 
 
 13.81 
 
 12.19 
 
 15,11 
 
 14.04 
 
 14.41 
 
 14.23 
 
 1° 
 
 24.99 
 26.98 
 28.56 
 26.84 
 25.87 
 28.31. 
 30.46 
 28.18 
 32.58 
 36.28 
 38.01 
 35,62 
 33,05 
 36 76 
 34.91 
 34.30 
 36.10 
 38.57 
 36.32 
 45,49 
 50.02 
 47.75 
 26.32 
 27.75 
 29.12 
 27. 73 
 28,38 
 30.33 
 29.36 
 72.48 
 77.39 
 82,52 
 77,46 
 96,47 
 95 91 
 98,50 
 97.21 
 
 * For 8 ducts or less, t For 9 ducts to 12 ducts. 
 
 TABLE XIXA. AVERAGE COST OF CONCRETE VAULT 
 CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 
 
 
 
 
 bD 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 C 
 
 (C 
 
 "w 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 
 Kind of soil 
 
 ll 
 
 Is 
 
 > 
 
 he 
 
 o '^ 
 
 
 t 
 
 <D 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 So 
 
 
 M 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 Sand 
 
 . 1 
 
 $2.44 
 
 $3.79 
 
 $1.02 
 
 $4.41 
 
 $2.44 
 
 $2.11 
 
 ^Hl 
 
 Clay 
 
 . 1 
 
 3.16 
 
 4.38 
 
 0.87 
 0.95 
 
 4.58 
 
 2.83 
 
 2,46 
 
 18.28 
 
 Average . . .. 
 
 . 1 
 
 2.80 
 
 4.08 
 
 4.50 
 
 2.63 
 
 2.29 
 
 17.25 
 
 Sand 
 
 . 3 
 
 2.78 
 
 3.91 
 
 1.22 
 
 5.79 
 
 2.22 
 
 2.51 
 
 18.43 
 
 Clav 
 
 . 3 
 
 3.23 
 
 4.60 
 
 1.14 
 
 5.48 
 
 3.51 
 
 2.87 
 
 20.83 
 
 Hard clay. . 
 
 . 3 
 
 3.54 
 
 5.83 
 
 1.18 
 
 5.64 
 
 3.42 
 
 2.82 
 
 22.43 
 
 Average . . . 
 
 . 3 
 
 3.18 
 
 4.78 
 
 1.18 
 
 5.64 
 
 3.05 
 
 2.73 
 
 20.56 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1003 
 
 (M -^ OO Oi OS Ifl U3 C<0 05 ■<*' «>■ M M t- 00 U5 t- •* -^ Oi Oi 
 
 c^ , -^o-rq CO irt T-i c» 00 «Ot-i lOLfl ^^ oj lo*^ rH 00-* t-fc> «D 
 
 e«-TH ="1 tH ^' r-( 1-1 U5 »3- 
 
 t-Tj<Mlo^'- OOCClOt-' 
 
 <<Mi 
 
 <Mt 
 
 €«- 
 
 
 <X>'MaSOrHlj3COTHOi050000'i<00«USt-COT^<Tt< 
 ,cqml0^iHCqc--rHa5M'MC£>«0r-l^*-*C0-^t^O 
 
 0500^00 •-•aseooo;©. 
 
 1- ^'i'^i^.S^iH iHo^^rt^^ ««. 
 
 OiC-C-OMTj-THfOOOOO^Cq^MO'MO^eO 
 
 CO fO IfS rH 00 CO 00 Tf Oi -^ 00 CO Tti OJ ^*i Oi C»5 ro o ■*■ t~ t^ 
 
 rt< C35 -* -X) • • 00 T-l «0 -M • ^T _J _; "* f 
 
 i,H<M 
 
 > „cq Tt<'Hoo^u5oait-ooooro«ooo=£>oiCT-(Tft- 
 
 y, ._ ;:^0 OMOOrHMCOt-OirHiHOOC^CO'^'fOCTlC-t-O 
 
 t-^a5rOt-OC»50e<OU5C»5C^rH,-l«»C~-a5U5'*«» 
 
 c£>coi>'LOirtt^,-iirt'^rotocDisicoooaii^i-ii>.o 
 M la oi CO ^i'^ cq Tf 00 CO V? 2 ^ ;S.'-< J I^ rS 
 
 U5i-lt^KOCOlrtli5t-THU3rHOCOlOCOOCOr-'+<U5 
 lrtiHOOCOt-OOi'MT-lt>--*T-!'+irOt'-t--COC^rti 
 
 M CO OS CO :i • ^ CO -*- OS CO -12 '^ _: _; ^'H I^ l"^ ^ 
 
 ,fM'<*lT-l-+iO]0?MCO'MOCOCJ5CO-*iOOm-^'M-*a5 
 
 <iMr-l!5i00-rcO'tiJit^CO00i-lT^Cr5T-^COr>O5 
 
 : oi -^.^ 00 o • ^^ • ^ «i -r*: =■ ocj ^' oo 
 'i . .Tee- e^-^s/^rHoi 
 
 ooa5-*lr5t-(^^^^t- 
 
 cot>e<]oocococ-iH 
 
 CO co'MOOoild-^tho 
 
 C- 00 tH 05 CO O U5 a> t- 
 eO lij 1-i ^ U5 ■*' 'rt* iH 
 
 ■M cot- 
 
 _.'^3 -t< C<I oo 
 
 '"' cq •* t- -f ' 
 
 U30C-lOC'5 0cOOi35t-COT-IOOTj<iMi-l'+iU5-*00 
 
 (O^ cocO'Mcnaicocoo-+'oooi--ocoLn'Moot-oo 
 :jTocou5c;_j_;o-*'Mco_;^ ■^oo_^-05f^^ [^ 
 
 ,-■ •<>Jcoco^ — 
 
 . ri -* -M 00 
 
 " Csl '^^ t- •* 
 
 ■no CO 
 Oi L--C0 
 ^ ^00 
 
 ©>« 
 
 p vi>' p a; ^ 
 o-i:i c be. 
 
 <^ O _j -^ 
 
 rr-COCOCOt-r-IOO'*C 
 lO "M CO CO S^ 00 O "-0 ^ 
 
 oiooo -^ ■ -oo. 
 
 • (M CO O 
 
 
 04J a 
 ^ o 
 
 . o 
 
 <M !« 
 
 
 rt :!j c3 (U rf 
 
 o -^^ 
 
 ofq^H 
 
 > dj o 
 
 'fl 
 
 ^^ 4) 
 
 o P o '^ 
 
 ^5v,-|2:a-35 
 
 do .. 
 
 90 
 
 o 
 
 o d rt o d 
 
 rt • he • &fl 
 
 "3 facS ^ -y. 
 
 
 00 -Q 
 
 u-c 2S c •' 
 
 !!!= = 
 
 °^z=^ 
 
 "So 
 
 it *-> 5 K ofJ ~ w J^ X • '/; r. *-i O -2 73 .•- -tv ? -- r, M k 
 
 ^25 
 
 o 
 
 ;DU 
 
 S :^ : : 
 
 ii . cS . . 
 
 o -^ • • 
 ■t) ■ ■ 
 
 ^ :c : ■ 
 
 .S • «^ • ^ 
 
 o • ^ oi";: 
 
 1^ • S* '-^ 2 
 
 —' . O C '^ 
 
 a .-^ S > 
 
 0000 ^r;;i^^ 
 
 7; M K V. ^ a-u-u 
 0000 't:^ 300 
 
1004 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXI. QUANTITIES AND COST OF MATERIALS AND 
 LABOR REQUIRED IN CONCRETE VAULT CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Size No. of vault 1 3 
 
 Bags cement for bottom (g) .4325 1% li^ 
 
 Yds. sand for bottom @ 1.90 2222 .2222 
 
 Yds. gravel for bottom® 1.90 4444 .4444 
 
 Total cement, sand, gravel for bottom 7221 .7221 
 
 Yds. concrete for bottom 4814 .4814 
 
 Cost concrete for bottom © $3.98 $1.92 $1.92 
 
 Bags cement for sides and top @ .4325 7.60 8.02 
 
 Yds. sand for sides and top @ 1.90 8368 .8820 
 
 Yds. gravel for sides and top @ 1.90 1.3908 1.4670 
 
 Total cement, sand, gravel for sides and top 2.5091 2.6460 
 
 Yds. concrete for sides and top 1.7556 1.8518 
 
 Cost concrete for sides and top $7.55 $7.94 
 
 Cost frame and cover 11.74 11.74 
 
 Total cost material per vault 21.21 21.60 
 
 Cost unloading and distributing cement 0.21 0.22 
 
 Cost unloading and distributing frame and cover. . . 38 0.38 
 
 Total cost unloading and distributing material.... 0.59 0.60 
 
 Cost of teaming 2.80 3.18 
 
 Cost of excavating 4.08 4.78 
 
 Cost of mixing and placing bottom 0.95 1.18 
 
 Cost of mixing and placing sides 4.50 5.64 
 
 Cost of mixing and placing top and frame 2.63 3.05 
 
 Supervision and exnense 2.29 2.73 
 
 Total labor cost per vault 17.25 20.56 
 
 Total cost per vault 39.05 42.76 
 
 Construction Costs of Telephone Cable Manholes. 
 1911, gives the following: 
 
 Data, July, 
 
 BRICK MANHOLE 
 Concrete Top and Bottom 
 
 Size 
 
 te ft. ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 
 t4 ft. ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft. ins. 
 $4 ft. ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 
 t3 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 t3 ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 $3 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. 
 $2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 m, Barrel Shape 
 
 
 
 Ducts 
 
 Not 
 
 Brick 
 
 inter- 
 
 inter- 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 sected 
 
 sected 
 
 No. 
 
 Cost 
 
 over 18 
 
 over 30 
 
 1807 
 
 $16.26 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 1674 
 
 1507 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 1261 
 
 11.35 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 1171 
 
 10.54 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 805 
 
 7.25 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 700 
 
 6.30 
 
 Handhole 
 
 530 
 
 4.77 
 
 t6 ft. 
 
 fi ft. 
 t4 ft. 
 
 BRICK MANHOLE 
 Concrete Top and Bottom, Barrel Shape 
 
 Size 
 
 Cement 
 
 Am't Cost 
 bbls. 
 
 Sand 
 Am't 
 
 ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 7.1 $16.69 
 
 ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft. ins. 5.4 12.60 
 
 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 3.9 9.16 
 
 13 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 3.0 7.05 
 
 is ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 2.2 5.17 
 
 t3 ft ins. by 4 ft. ins. bv 4 ft. ins. 2.0 4.70 
 
 $2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 1.6 3.76 
 
 cu. 
 yds. 
 2.5 
 1.8 
 1.3 
 1.0 
 0.8 
 0.7 
 0.5 
 
 Cost 
 
 $2.25 
 1.62 
 1.17 
 .90 
 .72 
 .63 
 .45 
 
 Gravel 
 Am't 
 
 cu. Cost 
 yds. 
 
 2.3 $2.05 
 
 1.7 1.53 
 
 1.0 
 0.8 
 0.7 
 0.6 
 0.5 
 
 .90 
 
 .72 
 
 .54 
 
 .45 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1005 
 
 BRICK MANHOLE 
 Concrete Top and Bottom, Barrel Shape 
 
 Size 
 
 Miscel. Labor 
 
 t6 ft. ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. $28.60 $61.50 
 
 t4 ft. ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft in.s. 27.75 46.00 
 
 J4 ft. ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 26 75 35.00 
 
 :|:3 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 26.75 34.00 
 
 $3 ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 26.75 24.50 
 
 $3 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. 26.50 20.00 
 
 $2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 2 ft, 6 ins. 25.75. 18.00 
 
 * Inter-Mountain Data 
 
 t Bottom 6 ins. thick, top 8 ins. thick. 
 
 % Bottom 4 ins. thick, top 6 ins. thick 
 
 Gen'l 
 
 exp's Total 
 
 10%. cost 
 
 $12.74 $140.09 
 
 10.47 115.13 
 
 8.43 92.76 
 
 8.00 
 6.50 
 5.87 
 5.32 
 
 87.96 
 71.52 
 64.54 
 58.50 
 
 CONCRETE MANHOLE 
 
 Size 
 
 Barrel Shape 
 
 ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. ins. 
 ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft. ins. 
 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 
 6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. 
 
 Ducts 
 inter- 
 sected 
 over 18 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 Not 
 inter- 
 sected 
 over 30 
 30 
 20 
 12 
 
 4 
 2 
 Handole 
 
 Cement 
 Amt Cost 
 bbls. 
 
 9.6 
 
 7.2 
 4.7 
 3.3 
 2.4 
 2.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 $22.80 
 16.90 
 9.05 
 7.75 
 5.65 
 6.60 
 3.76 
 
 CONCRETE MANHOLE 
 
 
 Barrel Shape 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 Gravel 
 
 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 Size 
 
 
 cu. 
 yds. 
 
 Cost 
 
 cu. 
 yds. 
 
 Cost 
 
 t6 ft. ins. by 8 ft. 
 
 ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 .. 4.0 
 
 $3.60 
 
 6.7 
 
 $6.03 
 
 ••4 ft. Oins. by 7 ft. 
 
 ins. by 5 ft. ins. 
 
 .. 3.1 
 
 2.80 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.50 
 
 |4 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 
 
 ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 
 
 .. 2.0 
 
 1.80 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.05 
 
 13 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. 
 
 ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 .. 1.5 
 
 1.35 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.05 
 
 §3 ft. 6ins. by 5 ft. 
 
 ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 . . 1.0 
 
 .90 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.55 
 
 §3 ft. Oins. by 4 ft. 
 
 ins. by 4 ft. ins. 
 
 .. 1.2 
 
 1.08 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.80 
 
 §2 ft. 6ins. by 4 ft. 
 
 ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 CONCRETE MA 
 Barrel Sha 
 
 . . 0.7 
 
 NHOLE 
 
 pe 
 
 .63 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.00 
 
 Size 
 
 
 
 
 Gen'l 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Miscel. 
 
 Labor 
 
 expen's 
 
 cost 
 
 t6 ft. ins. by 8 ft. 
 
 ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 $29.70 
 
 $63.00 
 
 $12,35 
 
 $135.85 
 
 •4 ft. Oins. by 7 ft 
 
 ins. by 5 ft. ins. 
 
 28.30 
 
 41.00 
 
 9.35 
 
 102.85 
 
 ::4ft. in.s. by 6 ft. 
 
 ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 
 
 27.19 
 
 31.00 
 
 7.21 
 
 79.30 
 
 tZ ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. 
 
 ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 27.15 
 
 24.00 
 
 6,23 
 
 68.53 
 
 §3 ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. 
 
 ins. by 3 ft 6, ins. 
 
 27.05 
 
 19.00 
 
 5,42 
 
 59,57 
 
 §3 ft. Oins. by 4 ft. 
 
 ins. by 4 ft. ins. 
 
 26.95 
 
 20,00 
 
 5.64 
 
 62,07 
 
 §2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. 
 
 ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 26.20 
 
 14.00 
 
 4.56 
 
 50.15 
 
 Miscellaneous, includes all the reinforcing wire and steel, the 
 frame and cover, lumber, and other small items. 
 
1006 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Labor, based on $2.25 per day for laborers and $3.00 per day for 
 foremen. ^ 
 
 Concrete, mixture : 1:3:5: 
 
 Brick, $9.00 per thousand. 
 
 Cement, $2.25 per barrel. 
 
 Sand and Gravel, $.9 per cubic yard. 
 
 Labor for laying brick, $12.00 per thousand. 
 
 * Inter-Mountain Data, 
 
 t 6 in. Bottom, 8 in. ' Top. 8 in. Walls. 
 
 % 4 in. Bottorti,. 6 in. Top, 6 in. Walls. 
 
 § 4 in. Bo^ttom, 6 in. Top, 5 in. Walls. 
 
 Cost of Brick Manholes for Electric Conduit. The following, 
 taken from Data, April, 1913, was compiled from data collected 
 by a large central station located in the Middle West. 
 
 Ced. on Gran. 
 
 
 Street 
 
 Cedar 
 
 6-in. 
 
 Granite 
 
 on 
 
 Maca- 
 
 As- 
 
 Size. ft. 
 
 ^mmp. 
 
 pavmg 
 
 cone. 
 
 pavmg 
 
 paving 
 
 dam 
 
 phalt 
 
 2 by 3 by 3 
 
 '$31.04 
 
 $32.18 
 
 $32.94 
 
 $32.94 
 
 $34.83 
 
 $31.92 
 
 $38.63 
 
 3 by 3 by 4 
 
 41.12 
 
 42.52 
 
 43.46 
 
 43.46 
 
 45.80 
 
 42.21 
 
 50.48 
 
 3 by 4 by 4 
 
 47.54 
 
 49.21 
 
 50 32 
 
 50.32 
 
 53.10 
 
 48.84 
 
 58.67 
 
 4 by 4 by 4 
 
 53.47 
 
 55.45 
 
 56.78 
 
 56.78 
 
 60.08 
 
 55.01 
 
 66.70 
 
 4 by 5 by 5 
 
 64.75 
 
 67.05 
 
 68.58 
 
 68.58 
 
 72.44 
 
 66.54 
 
 80.08 
 
 5 by 5 by 5 
 
 109.06 
 
 111.67 
 
 113.50 
 
 113.50 
 
 117.94 
 
 111.13 
 
 126.82 
 
 6 bv 6 by 6 
 
 133.13 
 
 136.57 
 
 138.87 
 
 138.87 
 
 144.60 
 
 135.81 
 
 156.08 
 
 6 by 7 by 6 
 
 142.76 
 
 146.62 
 
 149.19 
 
 149.16 
 
 155 63 
 
 145 76 
 
 168.50 
 
 7 by 7 by 7 
 
 160.06 
 
 ,164.38 
 
 167.27 
 
 167.27 
 
 174.47 
 
 163.42 
 
 188.89 
 
 8 by 8 by 8 
 
 189.16 
 
 194.65 
 
 198.19 
 
 198.19 
 
 207.03 
 
 193.48 
 
 224.72 
 
 Cost of Brick Manhole for Telephone Cables, Chicago. The costs 
 given below, published in Data, June, 1911, do not include super- 
 vision or other overhead expenses. 
 
 Dimensions: 3 ft. by 5 ft. by 4 ft. 6 ins. high. Brick walls, concrete 
 top and floor 
 
 Materials : 
 
 1100 brick at $8.00 per M $ 8.80 
 
 14 bags of cement at 41c. per bag 5.75 
 
 1% cu. yds. sand at $1.75 per cu. yd 2.19 
 
 11^4 cu. yds. gravel at $1.65 per cu. yd 2.06 
 
 110 ft. hemlock lumber at $22.50 per M. ft 2.48 
 
 1 frame and cover 12.00 
 
 2 lbs. nails at 2 Vz cts. per lb 05 
 
 6 nipples at 4^2 cts. each 27 
 
 Wooden form for concrete top 1.50 
 
 Total material $35.10 
 
 Labor and Teaming : 
 
 Excavating 4.00 
 
 Backfilling 75 
 
 Bricklaying — 1100 brick at $10.00 per M 11.00 
 
 Labor mixing and placing concrete 2.50 
 
 Hauling away earth 3.50 
 
 Total labor and teaming 21.75 
 
 Total cost of manhole $56 85 
 
 Cost of sewer connection where required 20.00 
 
 Cost of Constructing 15 Brick Vaults for Underground Conduit. 
 
 Mr. Clarence Mayer in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 28, 1908, 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1007 
 
 gives in somewhat more detail the labor costs on brick vaults. 
 (Fig. 12.) The costs show separately the costs of placing floors 
 and tops and also the cost of board and car fare. They also show 
 work done in paved streets. The paving was cedar blocks in clay 
 and the costs given include the cost of replacing same. 
 
 TABLE XXII. LABOR COST OP (CONSTRUCTING 15 BRICK 
 
 VAULTS 3 FT. 6 INS. x 4 FT. 6 INS. x 4 FT. ,6 INS. FOR 
 
 UNDERGROUND CONDUIT 
 
 
 ..1 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 bo 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 bD 
 
 o 
 'm 
 
 
 
 
 
 o g 
 
 P 
 
 5' 
 
 ^1 
 
 5^ 
 
 
 f'3 
 
 6" 
 
 1 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 Min. 
 
 $2.85 
 
 $4.05 
 
 $0.65 
 
 $11.50 
 
 $4.60 
 
 $2.65 
 
 $0.15-, 
 
 $0.03 
 
 $27.80 
 
 Av. 
 
 3.04 
 
 4.33 
 
 0.79 
 
 12.35 
 
 5.16 
 
 2.89 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.05 
 
 28.85 
 
 Max. 3.30 5.00 0.90 15.00 5.80 3.10 0.35 0.08 30.41 
 
 Main Underground CabJe. Mayer's Telephone Construction says: 
 Underground cable is of the following kinds : 50 pr., 22 ga. and 
 19 ga. ; 100 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 200 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 300 pr., 
 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 400 pr., 22 ga. ; 600 pr., 22 ga. ; 150 pr., 16 ga. ; 
 toll cable, and 120 pr., .5-14 ga. and .5-16 ga. toll cable. The 
 specifications for underground cable work are as follows : 
 
 Fig. 24. Diagrams showing method of passing cable through vaults. 
 
 The cable may be pulled by capstan, by winch, by horse power 
 or by hand, at a speed not to exceed 50 ft. per minute. In setting 
 up, the reel should be as nearly in line with the diict as possible 
 and ahead of the vault rather than back of it, so that the cable 
 will feed from the top of the reel. To the end of the No. 12 steel 
 wire which is pulled in when rodding the duct, shall be fastened a 
 steel rope which in turn shall be fastened to the cable by means of 
 a cable clamp, wire hitch or other approved method. Skids and 
 
1008 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 sheaves shall be set up as nearly as possible in a straight line from 
 the mouth of the duct. The cable should be fed in at a uniform 
 speed and the armof carefully inspected. Where the cable is 2 ins. 
 or more in diameter, the ducts should be swabbed with soapstone, 
 mica or graphite, except in the case of short straight runs. Cable 
 in passing through vaults shall be divided so that cable entering 
 the vault on either side of the center of the vault shall be carried 
 around that side .of the ' vault to the duct where it leaves vaults 
 again, as shown in Fig. 24. 
 
 The rates of wages on which the following costs of underground 
 cable work are based are as follows : 
 
 Station gangs : 
 
 Foremen, per month $90.00 to $100.00 
 
 Timekeeper, per 8-hour day 2.25 to 2.50 
 
 Linemen, per 8-hour day 2.95 to 3.25 
 
 Combination men, per 8-hour day 2.25 to 2.50 
 
 Groundmen, per 8-hour day 2.00 to 2.15 
 
 Teams, per 8-hour day 4.00 to 4.50 
 
 Floating gangs : 
 
 Foremen, per month and board 65.00 to 75.00 
 
 Timekeeper, per 8-hour day and board 1.25 to 1.40 
 
 Linemen, per 8-hour day and board 1.80 to 2.00 
 
 Combination men, per 8-hour day and board 1.25 to 1.40 
 
 Groundmen, per 8-hour day and board 1.00 
 
 Teams, per 8-hour day and board 3.00 to 4.00 
 
 From 50 to 75 cts. per day are allowed for board of team and $1 
 per day, including Sundays, is allowed for board of each man. In 
 the cost data given, the rate for men in floating gangs is found by 
 dividing the board per month, $30 or $31, by the number of working 
 days, 26 or 27, and adding the aiuount to their rate per day. Mis- 
 takes in construction such as digging a hole in the wrong location 
 are not included in these averages. 
 
 TABLE XXIIL COST OF UNDERGROUND CABLE (MAIN) 
 
 Average 
 cost per 
 foot 
 $0.0161 
 0.0162 
 0.0172 
 0.0175 
 0.0184 
 0.0217 
 0.0220 
 
 0.0349 
 
 0.0396 
 
 Note: The weight of a reel of 120 Pr. — 1/1.-14 Ga. and %-16 Ga. 
 averages between 3 % and 5 tons. The cable grip shown in Fig. 
 26 was used on some jobs in pulling in the cable. It reduces the 
 cost, as it may be connected and removed instantly, whereas a 
 wire hitch takes some time to attach and remove. It also is su- 
 perior to a wire hitch because it does not injure the cable and will 
 not pull off. 
 
 
 Teaming 
 
 
 
 Supervi- 
 
 
 and labor 
 
 Rodding 
 
 Pulling 
 
 sion and 
 
 
 in haulmg 
 
 
 
 expense 
 
 50 
 
 Pr.—19 Ga... $0.0048 
 
 $0.0034 
 
 $0.0061 
 
 $0.0017 
 
 100 
 
 Pr.— 22 Ga... 0.0042 
 
 0.0037 
 
 0.0065 
 
 0.0018 
 
 100 
 
 Pr.— 19 Ga... 0.0051 
 
 0.0039 
 
 0.0062 
 
 0.0019 
 
 200 
 
 Pr.— 22 Ga... 0.0057 
 
 0.0036 
 
 0.0067 
 
 0.0015 
 
 200 
 
 Pr.— 19 Ga... 0.0061 
 
 0.0031 
 
 0.0071 
 
 0.0021 
 
 300 
 
 Pr.— 22 Ga... 0.0066 
 
 0.0036 
 
 0.0097 
 
 0.0018 
 
 300 
 
 Pr.— 19 Ga... 0.0073 
 
 0.0030 
 
 0.0093 
 
 0.0024 
 
 150 
 
 Pr.— 16 Ga. Toll 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cable 0.0101 
 
 0.0058 
 
 0.0147 
 
 0.0043 
 
 120 
 
 Pr.— 1/2-14 Ga. 
 and i/,-16 Ga. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toll Cable . . 0.0122 
 
 0.0068 
 
 0.0158 
 
 0.0048 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1009 
 
 TABLE XXIV. 
 
 COST OF UNDERGROUND CABLE 
 (LATERAL) 
 
 25 Pr.- 
 50 Pr.- 
 
 22 Ga. 
 
 22 Ga. 
 
 50 Pr.— 19 Ga. 
 
 100 Pr. — 22 Ga. 
 
 100 Pr.— 19 Ga. 
 
 200 Pr.— 22 Ga. 
 
 200 Pr. — 19 Ga. 
 
 fi rt o 
 
 Eh-""" 
 ,$0.0044 
 , 0.0063 
 0.0071 
 0.0068 
 0.0111 
 0.0109 
 0.01.38 
 
 ^ u 
 
 $0.0112 
 0.0198 
 0.0226 
 0.0220 
 0.0316 
 0.0310 
 0.0354 
 
 
 as <v 
 3 oj a 
 w 
 
 $0.0029 
 0.0042 
 0.0062 
 0.0059 
 0.0064 
 0.0061 
 0.0076 
 
 Note: 25 Pr. — 22 Ga. costs much less to install than other cable, 
 as it is always pulled in by hand, and its small diameter and light 
 weight make it easily handled. 
 
 Lateral Underground Cable. Lateral underground cable is of the 
 following kinds: 25 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 50 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 
 100 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga., and 200 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. The 
 specifications for this work are as follows : 
 
 Lateral cable shall be set up and pulled in the same manner 
 as main cable. Where the cable is 1 in. or over in diameter, the 
 duct should be swabbed with soapstone, mica or graphite, except 
 in the case of short, straight laterals, 100 ft. or less. 
 
 Podding Underground Cable. The duct in which cable is to be 
 placed shall first be rodded. To the end rod shall be attached a 
 length of No. 12 steel wire, which shall be used to pull into the 
 duct the steel rope, used in pulling the cable. 
 
 City . . 
 County 
 
 TABLE XXV. COST OF RODDING 
 
 Teaming and 
 
 labor in 
 
 hauling 
 
 . . $0.0010 
 
 . . 0.0018 
 
 Rodding 
 
 $0.0036 
 
 0.0061 
 
 Supervision 
 
 and 
 
 expense 
 
 $0.0016 
 
 0.0019 
 
 Average 
 
 cost 
 
 per foot 
 
 $0.0062 
 
 0.0098 
 
 Table XXVI shows the labor co.st in detail of pulling in 120 pr. 
 one-half 14-gage and one-half 16-gage toll cable. The expense of 
 hauling reels was large, as the distance from the freight depot 
 averaged 3 miles, the roads were deep in clay mud, and on account 
 of their great weight a special team and wagon at $7 per day was 
 used to haul the reels. The expense of pumping water was high 
 on account of the vaults being full of water. In one section of 
 conduit, cable was pulled in twice, as the first cable had flaws in 
 the armor. The cable was pulled in by horsepower. 
 
 Removing Underground Cable. All underground cable to be re- 
 moved must be cut at each splice and have the ends of the .sections 
 sealed, before they are removed from the duct, unless the cable is to 
 
1010 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXVI. COST OF PULiLING UNDERGROUND CABLE 
 
 (MAIN). 
 
 120 Pr., Yz 
 
 N«. men 
 No. ft. Cost of used in < 
 pulled pulling pulling 
 18,992 $333.40 93 , 
 
 Average 
 
 No. 
 
 reels 
 
 hauled 
 
 39 
 
 Average 
 
 Per ft. 
 
 $.0175 
 
 6 1-5 
 
 .-14 Ga. 
 
 Cost of 
 rodding 
 
 and %-16 
 
 Cost of 
 
 pumping 
 
 water 
 
 Ga. 
 
 No. 
 sections 
 pulled 
 
 Cost 
 
 of pulling, 
 
 rodding and 
 
 pumping 
 
 $90.90 
 
 $79.60 
 
 38 
 
 $503.90 
 
 Per ft. 
 
 Per ft 
 
 Per day 
 
 Per ft. 
 
 $.0048 
 
 $.0042 
 
 2 8-15 
 
 $.0265 
 
 Hauling Reels Returning Reels 
 
 No. men No. men Total cost 
 
 Cost of used in No. reels Cost of used in of 
 
 hauling hauling returned returning returning all work 
 $211.60 67 39 $65.10 23 $780.60 
 
 No. men 
 Per reel, per reel, 
 
 S5.40 2 
 
 No. men 
 Per reel, per reel. 
 $1.67 23-39 
 
 $.0411 
 
 TABLE XXVII. 
 
 50 Pr.— 22 Ga. 
 
 50 Pr. — 19 Ga. 
 100 Pr.— 22 Ga.. 
 100 Pr. — 19 Ga. 
 200 Pr. — 22 Ga. 
 200 Pr.— 19 Ga. 
 300 Pr. — 22 Ga. 
 
 COST OF REMOVING UNDERGROUND 
 CABLE (JUNKED) 
 
 Teaming and 
 
 
 Supervision 
 
 Average 
 
 labor in 
 
 
 and 
 
 cost 
 
 hauling 
 
 Removing 
 
 expense 
 
 per foot 
 
 . . .$0.0038 
 
 $0.0072 
 
 $0.0019 
 
 $0.0129 
 
 . .. 0.0043 
 
 0.0079 
 
 0.0021 
 
 0.0143 
 
 . .. 0.0041 
 
 0.0075 
 
 0.0017 
 
 0.0133 
 
 . . . 0.0054 
 
 0.0083 
 
 0.0024 
 
 0.0161 
 
 . .. 0.0056 
 
 0.0086 
 
 0.0019 
 
 0.0161 
 
 . .. 0.0061 
 
 0.0094 
 
 0.0026 
 
 0.0181 
 
 . .. 0.0073 
 
 0.0108 
 
 0.0029 
 
 0.0210 
 
 TABLE XXVIII. COST OF REMOVING UNDERGROUND 
 CABLE (RECOVERED) 
 
 Teaming and Supervision Average 
 
 labor in and cost 
 
 hauling Removing expense per foot 
 
 25 Pr.— 22 Ga $0.0034 $0.0073 $0.0018 $0.0125 
 
 50 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0041 0.0079 0.0017 0.0137 
 
 50 Pr — 19 Ga 0.0044 0.0084 0.0022 0.0150 
 
 100 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0050 0.0086 0.0023 0.0159 
 
 100 Pr. — 19 Ga 0.0053 0.0093 0.0026 0.0172 
 
 200 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0058 0.0089 0.0022 0.0169 
 
 200 Pr. — 19 Ga 0.0064 0.0099 0.0028 0.0191 
 
 300 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0077 0.0115 0.0033 0.0225 
 
 be junked. The apparatus is placed at the vault from which the 
 cable is to be pulled. In place of the steel rope used in pulling 
 in, a manila rope is used on account of its greater flexibility. The 
 vault skids and sheaves are placed in the same manner as for 
 pulling in cable, and the manila rope passed over them in the 
 usual manner. To the end of the rope is attached a servage strap 
 made of manila strand about 1 in. in diameter. This strap is 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1011 
 
 placed on the cable in the form of a noose which grips the cable 
 when pulled one way, but may be pushed along the cable in the 
 reverse direction. The strap is then slipped around the end of 
 the cable as close to the duct as possible, and power applied to the 
 pulling line. After the cable has beeQ moved a foot or two the 
 rope is slackened off and the noose is again pushed forward against 
 the duct. This process is known as "lufRng." The " lufRng " is 
 continued until the cable is removed from the duct. As the cable 
 is pulled out, if it is to be recovered, it is reeled upon a reel placed 
 back of the manhole, so as to avoid unnecessary sharp turns. If 
 it is to be junked the cable is usually cut with an axe into 5 or 6 ft. 
 lengths as it is being pulled out. 
 
 Method and Cost of Cable Splicing. Of all outside construction 
 the most delicate work is cable splicing, and it requires the most 
 skilled and careful labor. The careless removal of the insulation 
 from conductors has been known to cause crosses which cost hun- 
 dreds of dollars to locate and clear. A splice when not properly 
 made is always a source of " trouble cases " which are difficult to 
 locate and expensive to clear ; but even the cost of locating and 
 clearing is small in comparison with the loss of revenue and the 
 annoyance to subscribers caused by the interruption of service, 
 especially when a main cable is in trouble. Above all things, good 
 splicing requires conscientious work, and on the personnel of the 
 men depends the quality of the splice. Cheap splicing is not gen- 
 erally good splicing ; therefore in estimating the cost of splicing, 
 no attempt should be made to force quick work, which is nearly 
 always expensive in the end. 
 
 The organization of splicer gangs is somewhat different from 
 line gangs ; the gangs being composed of a head splicer, one or two 
 splicers, and an equal number of helpers. Each gang is assigned 
 to a district and is stationed in the principal town in the district. 
 When necessary a gang is increased by drawing from other gangs, 
 and all men receive board when working outside of the town in 
 which they are stationed. The head splicer usually splices or tests 
 out when the gang is small, little supervision being necessary. 
 
 A great deal of overtime is worked because of most splices which 
 cause interruption of the service being made at night and also on 
 account of splices being often worked on until finished. This some- 
 times makes a splicer's wages per one-half month between $60 and 
 $100 dollars. 
 
 Systematizing the costs of cable splicing is more difficult than 
 in any other branch of telephone construction ; first, because of 
 the general confusion in the names of the different splices, and 
 second, because of the endless combinations in splicing. In order 
 to avoid confusion, a leg of a cable box will be referred to as a 
 cable and two sections of a cable not already spliced will be called 
 two cables; thus if two sections of a 100-pr. cable are to be spliced 
 they will be referred to as two 100-pr. cables. For our purposes 
 the splicing of conductors will be used to indicate the kind of 
 splice, and splices will be referred to as follows. 
 
 Straight Splices. (1) "When all the conductors of two cables are 
 
1012 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 spliced together, each 'joint of conductors being composed of two 
 wires, (2) when the conductors of one cable are spliced into a 
 cable containing a larger number of conductors, part of which 
 are left " dead," each joint of conductors being composed of two 
 wires; and (3) where either part or all of the conductors of two 
 or more cables are spliced into part or all of the conductors of 
 another cable, each joint, of conductors being composed of two 
 wires and the conductors not spliced being left " dead." 
 
 Bridge Splices. .(1) When all the conductors of three or more 
 cables are spliced 'together, each joint of conductors being composed 
 of the same number of wires; (2) when all the conductors of a 
 cable are spliied into a cable composed of one-half, one-quarter, 
 etc., the number of conductors, each joint of conductors being com- 
 posed of like number of wires. 
 
 Pig. 25. Sequence of operations in making straight splices. 
 
 Straighl-Brid(jc Splices. "When some of the conductors of a cable 
 are spliced, as described under " Straight Splice " and some as 
 described under " Bridge Splice." 
 
 There are endless combinations in splicing, as for example, into a 
 100-pr. cable may be spliced a 10, 15, 25, 50 or 100 pr. cable, etc., 
 or a 10, 15, 25 and 50-pr. cable, etc. Also the splice may be straight, 
 bridge, straight-bridge or change of count ; it nray be tagged or 
 not tagged. In estimating it is not necessary to have data on 
 every possible splice. If data showing the average cost of common 
 and usual splices is accessible a veiT close estimate of any splice 
 may be made. 
 
 For construction details and instructions for making the various 
 kinds of splices mentioned above the reader is referred to Mayer's 
 Telephone Construction from which these data and costs ai'e taken : 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1013 
 
 Cable splicing- costs are based on the following- rate of wages : 
 
 Per 8-hour day- 
 Head splicers $3.40 to |3. 70 
 
 Splicers 3.00 to 3.20 
 
 Helpers ^ 1.75 to 2.00 
 
 Rigs (usually single) 2.50 to 3.00 
 
 Time and one-half is paid for overtime. There being practically 
 no difference between the cost of splicing- 19 gage and 22 gage 
 cables they are not separated in the following cost data. The costs 
 of making- several splices of the same kind and size have been 
 found to vary very little. Except when the splicing is done by 
 splicers who have worked all night, usually splices of the same 
 kind and size will not vary more than 10 per cent. 
 
 Fig. 26. Completed cable splices. 
 
 The cost of splicing into working cable is kept separate on 
 account of being more expensive than splicing into other cable. 
 The difference is caused by it being necessary to test and tag all 
 cables spliced, the care used to prevent unnecessary interruption of 
 service and also because the splice is often worked on after regular 
 hours for which splicers are paid time and one-half. 
 
 The cost of blowing the joint of a working- cable and the cost 
 of cutting the sheath off of cables in preparing for a splice, are 
 about equal. 
 
 TABLE XXIX. 
 
 COST OF STRAIGHT SPLICES, 
 GROUND 
 
 UNDER- 
 
 (Cost of splicing 60 prs. from each of two 120 pr. %-14 gage and 
 %-16 gage toll cables into a 120 pr. 18 gage cable terminating in a 
 loading pot, and splicing the balance straight through.) 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d) cj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 ^ 
 
 3i3 
 
 c3 w ^ 
 
 ^1! 
 
 he 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 bfl 
 
 tyo 
 
 cS 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 p. 
 
 S 
 
 '■♦J 
 
 o 
 
 "^ c 
 
 O/'O 
 
 ^•u 
 
 I&5 
 
 
 3 
 Oh 
 
 J^ 
 fe 
 
 
 m 
 
 %■- 
 
 p 
 
 5=- 
 
 14 Gage . 
 
 . .$1.04 
 
 $0.62 
 
 $1.68 
 
 $1.80 
 
 $8.69 
 
 $1.82 
 
 $6.47 
 
 $22.12 
 
 16 Gage . 
 
 .. 1.01 
 
 0.64 
 
 1.64 ' 
 
 1.86 
 
 8.88 
 
 1.79 
 
 6.52 
 
 22.34 
 
 Note : This class of work is generally done in the country. 
 The supervision of a head splicer and board for the gang make the 
 cost of " Supervision and Expense " high. 
 
1014 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXX. 
 
 COST OP STRAIGHT SPLICES, UNDER- 
 GROUND. NOT TAGGED 
 
 Number and size of ^ 
 
 cables spliced -3 
 
 1 
 
 0) 
 
 2- 50 Pr $0.46 
 
 2-100 Pr 0.59 
 
 2-200 Pr 0.59 
 
 2-300 Pr 0.61 
 
 1-25 Pr. into 1-50 Pr., ' 
 
 25 Prs. Left Dead. 0.40 
 1-50 Pr. into 1-100 Pr., 
 
 50 Prs. Left De^d. 0.52 
 1-100 Pr. into 1-200 
 
 Prs., 100 Prs. Left 
 
 Dead 0.58 
 
 be 
 
 bo 
 
 CI 
 
 id 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 c3 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 h 
 
 $0.53 
 
 $0.49 
 
 0.56 
 6.58 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.87 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.91 
 
 
 
 0% 
 
 8?^ 
 
 be 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 g5 CO 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 < 
 
 $0.80 
 
 $0.45 
 
 $0.60 
 
 $3.33 
 
 1.42 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.86 
 
 4 52 
 
 2.86 
 
 0.57 
 
 1.38 
 
 6.85 
 
 3.67 
 
 0.61 
 
 1.59 
 
 8.04 
 
 .065 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.54 
 
 2.87 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.72 
 
 3.60 
 
 0.42 0.44 
 0.51 0.52 
 
 0.57 0.76 1.51 0.54 0.94 4.90 
 
 TABLE XXXL COST OP STRAIGHT SPLICES, UNDER- 
 GROUND, TAGGED 
 
 Number and size of ^ ^ c tr.^ ^ w. -I ?^^ 
 
 cables spliced | I | ^-S .g ^^ > ^ ^g 
 
 I I I "^1 ;^ US S-g ^^ 
 
 2- 50 Pr $0.42 $0.49 $0.51 $0.98 $0.78 $0.42 $0.64 $4.24 
 
 2-100 Pr 0.56 0.54 0.62 1.58 1.37 0.51 1.11 6.29 
 
 2-200 Pr 0.59 0.58 0.85 2.80^.78 0.60 1.72 9.92 
 
 2-300 Pr 0.60 0.57 0.89 4.06-^.69 0.62 2.06 12.49 
 
 2-150 Pr. 16 Gauge 
 
 Toll Cable 0.96 0.61 0.92 1.56 2.37 0.63 3.17 10.22 
 
 2-120 Pr. 1/2-14 and 
 
 y2-16Ga. Toll Cable 0.94 0.60 0.91 1.39 1.96 0.66 2.89 9.35 
 1-50 Pr. into 1-100 
 
 Pr., 50 Prs. Left 
 
 Dead 0.49 0.50 0.54 1.07 0.84 0.59 0.71 4.74 
 
 2-50 Pr. into 1-100 
 
 Pr 0.57 0.54 0.83 1.62 1.44 0.67 1.16 6.83 
 
 Note : Toll cable is always tested for crosses, grounds and in- 
 sulation, but not tagged. Teaming and supervision and expense are 
 higher for toll cable than for other cable on account of the work 
 being done in the country. 
 
 TABLE XXXII. 
 
 COST OP BRIDGE SPLICES, UNDERGROUND, 
 NOT TAGGED 
 
 c-^ 
 
 '^ ow B -S .S 
 
 S^iS S & S 
 
 5.2a c3 s rt 
 
 ^^^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Ai H PL| fe 
 
 3- 50 Pr $0.44 $0.50 $0.61 
 
 3-100 Pr 0.53 0.47 0.76 
 
 3-200 Pr 0.58 0.53 0.91 
 
 a 
 m 
 
 $1.56 
 2.78 
 5.37 
 
 $0.65 
 0.72 
 0.89 
 
 $0.78 
 1.18 
 1.74 
 
 > o a 
 
 $4.54 
 
 6.44 
 
 10.02 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1015 
 
 TABLE XXXIII. 
 
 COST OF BRIDGE SPLICES, UNDERGROUND, 
 TAGGED 
 
 g-O 
 
 -'I 
 
 C 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 (UD 
 
 C 
 ft 
 
 bo 
 c 
 
 S 
 t 
 fa 
 
 ^&0 
 biDfl 
 
 S'Si 
 
 bo 
 
 ^1 
 
 ■il 
 
 bflft 
 c3 m 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 |! 
 
 a 
 
 P 
 
 
 P 
 
 3- 50 Pr. . 
 
 ..$0.46 
 
 $0.48 
 
 $0.62 
 
 $1.52 
 
 $1.53 
 
 $0.66 
 
 $1.27 
 
 $6.54 
 
 3-100 Pr. . 
 
 .. 0.42 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.74 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.52 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.58 
 
 8.87 
 
 3-200 Pr. . 
 
 .. 0.63 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.87 
 
 3.72 
 
 4.89 
 
 0.82 
 
 2.02 
 
 13.47 
 
 TABLE XXXIV. 
 
 COST OF BRIDGE SPLICES, UNDERGROUND, 
 ONTO WORKING CABLE 
 
 fi o 
 
 Number and size ^ c ^ S,^ bo ,„ 'S 
 
 of cables spliced | "I % ^S c ^i2 t 
 
 Eh Pk fa H M l> w 
 
 1-50 Pr. Bridged onto 
 
 a Splice of 2-50 
 
 Pr $0.69 $0.53 $0.68 $2.26 $0.97 $0.76 $1. 
 
 1-100 Pr. Bridged 
 
 onto a Splice of 
 
 2-100 Pr 0.75 0.49 0.73 3.79 1.82 0.82 1. 
 
 1-200 Pr. Bridged 
 
 onto a Splice of 
 
 2-200 Pr 0.69 0.61 0.86 5.82 3.68 0.81 2. 
 
 ® 
 
 _^ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 8?^ 
 
 <u 
 
 ft 
 
 
 >4 
 
 0) 
 
 •d 
 
 P 
 
 rt 
 
 ,27 
 
 $7.16 
 
 83 
 
 10.23 
 
 26 
 
 14.73 
 
 TABLE XXXV. COST OF STRAIGHT -BRIDGE SPLICES, 
 UNDERGROUND, NOT TAGGED 
 
 c z "^ a> 
 
 d !::; ft^ 
 
 ;! '^ 
 
 -^ 25 Pr. 
 - 25 Pr. 
 
 1 
 
 1- 25 
 
 Pr. 
 50 Pr. 
 
 1- 
 
 1- 
 
 1- 
 
 1-100 
 
 1-100 Pr. 
 
 1-200 Pr. 
 
 50 Pr. 
 50 Pr. 
 Pr. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 B 
 
 bo 
 
 1 
 
 bp„ 
 
 m a 
 
 8S 
 
 boa 
 
 •^ p, o 
 
 i 
 
 Eh 
 
 
 t 
 fa 
 
 
 C+J 
 
 U ^ 
 
 ri M 
 
 |"sl 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 m 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 2-50 Pr. 
 
 $0.38 
 
 $0.46 
 
 $0.56 
 
 $1.24 
 
 $0.62 
 
 $0.74 
 
 $4.00 
 
 2-100 Pr. 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.83 
 
 0.71 
 
 1.06 
 
 5.33 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.46 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.78 
 
 3.32 
 
 0.78 
 
 1.48 
 
 7.29 
 
 2-100 Pr. 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.54. 
 
 0.71 
 
 2.10 
 
 0.72 
 
 1.14 
 
 5.75 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.82 
 
 3.58 
 
 0.84 
 
 1.60 
 
 7.90 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.91 
 
 5.95 
 
 0.88 
 
 1.68 
 
 10.54 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.84 
 
 4.03 
 
 0.82 
 
 1.61 
 
 8.51 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.98 
 
 6.21 
 
 0.91 
 
 1.74 
 
 10.96 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.61 
 
 1.06 
 
 6.86 
 
 0.84 
 
 2.05 
 
 12.01 
 
1016 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XXXVI. COST OP STRAIGHT-BRIDGE SPLICES, 
 UNDERGROUND, TAGGED 
 
 No. and size of 
 branch cables 
 spliced into mail 
 cables 
 
 ll 
 
 2 S I' 
 
 
 bts 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 <rf fan 
 face 
 .S"S) 
 
 a 
 
 11 
 
 eg 
 
 4-> 
 
 m 
 
 §8 
 P 
 
 1- 25 Pr. 
 
 2-50 Pr. 
 
 $0.41 
 
 $0.49 
 
 $0.59 
 
 $1.13 
 
 $1.03 
 
 $0.56 
 
 $1.02 
 
 $5.23 
 
 1- 25 Pr. 
 
 2-100 Pr. 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.68 
 
 2.01 
 
 1.69 
 
 0.64 
 
 1.30 
 
 7.32 
 
 1-25 Pr. 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.79 
 
 3.16 
 
 2.89 
 
 0.67 
 
 1.71 
 
 10.24 
 
 1- 50 Pr. 
 
 2-100 Pr. 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.73 
 
 2.18 
 
 1.82 
 
 0.62 
 
 1.36 
 
 7.68 
 
 1- 50 Pr. 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.84 
 
 3.37 
 
 3.16 
 
 0.69 
 
 1.79 
 
 10 99 
 
 1-50 Pr. 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 ' 0.5,7 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.94 
 
 4.18 
 
 4.99 
 
 0.78 
 
 2.28 
 
 14.36 
 
 1-100 Pr. 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.83 
 
 3.67 
 
 3.61 
 
 72 
 
 1.84 
 
 11 77 
 
 1-100 Pr. 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.61 
 
 1.01 
 
 4.49 
 
 5.48 
 
 0.66 
 
 2,41 
 
 15.28 
 
 1-200 Pr. 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.99 
 
 4.87 
 
 6.49 
 
 0.71 
 
 2.63 
 
 16.92 
 
 1- 25 Pr. 1 
 1- 50 Pr. f 
 
 2-100 Pr. 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.82 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.16 
 
 0.83 
 
 1.50 
 
 8.82 
 
 1- 25 Pr.) 
 1- 50 Pr. 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.59 
 
 1.03 
 
 3.48 
 
 3.47 
 
 0.91 
 
 1.87 
 
 11.91 
 
 2-25 Pr. 
 
 2-100 Pr. 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.75 
 
 2.26 
 
 1.96 
 
 0.87 
 
 1.41 
 
 8.30 
 
 2- 50 Pr. 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.53 
 
 0,61 
 
 0.97 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.76 
 
 0.91 
 
 1.92 
 
 12.32 
 
 1- 50 Pr. 1 
 1-100 Pr. 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.66 
 
 1.14 
 
 4.04 
 
 4.54 
 
 0.89 
 
 2.20 
 
 14.08 
 
 1- 50 Pr. ] 
 1-100 Pr. ( 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.64 
 
 1.16 
 
 4.68 
 
 5.88 
 
 0.94 
 
 2.68 
 
 16.62 
 
 1- 50 Pr. ) 
 2-100 Pr. : 
 
 2-300 Pr. 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.68 
 
 1.37 
 
 5.15 
 
 6.86 
 
 1.17 
 
 2.91 
 
 18.83 
 
 1- 25 Pr. 
 1- 50 Pr. y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-200 Pr. 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.73 
 
 1.26 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.07 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.18 
 
 13.86 
 
 1-100 Pr. J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE XXXVII. COST OF STRAIGHT-BRIDGE SPLICES, 
 UNDERGROUND, ONTO WORKING CABLES 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 &D 
 
 bfi 
 
 
 
 
 (D 
 
 o g 
 
 •Sft 
 
 .2 
 
 No. and 
 branch 
 spliced 
 cable 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 •1 
 s 
 
 
 -M fan 
 
 bo 
 o 
 
 ft 
 m 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 So, 
 
 1-25 Pr. 
 
 50 Pr. 
 
 $0.46 
 
 $0.52 
 
 $0.53 
 
 $1.36 
 
 $0.72 
 
 $0.64 
 
 $1.08 
 
 $5.31 
 
 1- 25 Pr. 
 
 100 Pr. 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.57 
 
 2.74 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.63 
 
 1.29 
 
 7.01 
 
 1- 25 Pr. 
 
 200 Pr. 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.64 
 
 3.74 
 
 0.87 
 
 0.71 
 
 1.44 
 
 8.37 
 
 1-50 Pr. 
 
 100 Pr. 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.55 
 
 3.06 
 
 1.18 
 
 0.61 
 
 1.39 
 
 7.76 
 
 1-50 Pr. 
 
 200 Pr. 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.67 
 
 4.19 
 
 1.23 
 
 0.68 
 
 1.57 
 
 9.35 
 
 1- 50 Pr. 
 
 300 Pr. 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.69 
 
 5.30 
 
 1.31 
 
 0.79 
 
 1.80 
 
 11.04 
 
 1-100 Pr. 
 
 200 Pr. 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.74 
 
 4.70 
 
 2.06 
 
 0.80 
 
 1.76 
 
 11.15 
 
 1-100 Pr. 
 
 300 Pr. 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.72 
 
 5.82 
 
 2.14 
 
 0.74 
 
 1.99 
 
 12.54 
 
 1-200 Pr. 
 
 300 Pr. 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.68 
 
 7.06 
 
 3.70 
 
 0.82 
 
 2.52 
 
 16.02 
 
 1- 25 Pr.l 
 1- 50 Pr.I 
 
 200 Pr. 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.89 
 
 4.33 
 
 1.84 
 
 0.96 
 
 1.63 
 
 10.81 
 
 2-50 Pr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1- 25 Pr. 1 
 1- 50 Pr. 
 
 200 Pr. 
 
 0.63 
 
 0.53 
 
 1.01 
 
 4.17 
 
 2.16 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.91 
 
 11.42 
 
 300 Pr. 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.96 
 
 5.51 
 
 1.97 
 
 0.97 
 
 2.02 
 
 12.60 
 
 Note : All the data on 
 
 straig 
 
 rht-bri 
 
 dge s] 
 
 plices, 
 
 both 
 
 aerial and 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1017 
 
 r4 S g ac, oc © t-i M t^ od 
 
 3; > W **^ t-< tH iH f-l 
 
 m 5-^1 Si---'-- 
 
 t>rj< 
 
 ■ 'TT T-i ^ CC O 
 
 '0000 
 
 .2 bo 
 
 •>* ec Oi 00 iH e<3 
 '^ <x> as tH ci us 
 
 tH rH <m" M ui 10 
 
 bo bn 
 
 — "O -JH t- t- iH 
 
 Eh $ 
 I 
 Stio 
 
 lb. 
 3.2 _ 
 
 
 «ooo-*eo«oo 
 OT-ieo-*iot- 
 
 T-5 rH r-! 1-5 im' C<i 
 
 t- C^l tH 00 tH C^ 
 10 «5 C~ «0 «3 U3 
 
 d d d d d d 
 
 C be 
 
 ■d> d -S <£ <S <S 
 
 ..^^ usiaoooo 
 
 
 olg-g) 
 
 o'5='5 :::::: 
 
 CO 
 
 ci-i2 »' Sm' ;.' sJ :»' t^ 
 
 O 03 ^ PL< t, Ph an Ph 
 
 g" ooeooo 
 
 ^ C 000000 
 
 W ^ OT 
 
 u u u u u, u 
 Ch Oh Hi CL) Cli Oh 
 
 lOtsOOOO 
 
 ^^l•^^lrtlOOo 
 
 i C ^ 4> 
 £ O a> w 
 
 oc^"i«cooiaot-ooo 
 
 OlCO-^it^T-llOOiTHt- 
 
 oi T-i c-i CO 00 o; <m' id oo 
 
 tOOOOlOCOt-MIMlO 
 iH r-J tH c<i tf<i 5<i CC S<J S<l 
 
 6«- 
 
 .g+J ■H-«*iootDfr5iHOOP3ei 
 
 p_ C O CiOOlOOoeOrJf 
 
 jr 'o T-I d r^ d iH T-i r4 »-H >-5 
 
 Cud oj 
 
 C rH-*'<*<iMCO«DCC<Cec 3 
 
 •5 Ol O «C t> 10 C- 1-^ C-. C- 5^ 
 
 '^ rH M ec e<3 10 la oc cc us O 
 
 bE he 'S 
 
 ^ ^ (MOMCOO-^ClO)-* .?? 
 
 .rl-C.S OOOirHOOCOOOCOt- g 
 
 •g C be (m" CO ers ^ ^' us us '*' -<r > 
 
 c3 be €«. ^ 
 
 I 
 
 SClt-OlTHC^eOiH-^OO t^ 
 
 be CO CO us t- to O; CO tH c- JZ} 
 
 2.S i-ir-ii-iiHWCQCo'lM'w "3 
 
 •^ a; 
 c: 
 
 ' Ol 
 
 a^ T-H-rt-t-C-lOOtCOi-^eO M 
 
 p be us us TT- ts CO us u: us eo 
 
 5 .S d d <6 d. d"-) d. <6 <6 m 
 
 f^ ■* : 
 
 SbO «oo(Me-Joci-i.eo^co ^ 
 
 eij g «o t- «D t- c- «> t> ce 00 ^ 
 
 ^•-^ ddddddddd t^ 
 
 ^ ^ be 0) 
 
 ^";;;'0 ususooooooo Xt 
 
 y^)i-r cicgususooouso o 
 
 d rt ;i: S I ! ; I I I I ; : Jg 
 
 ^=^1 s 
 
 +-'0: y 
 
 "J^ E £ 2i 1-, 'S t-" C C u fc.' u fc-" fcl fcl ri 
 
 f^xto^o fc^M^C,(X(LPkPU f 
 
 ga.-c?i= oooooocco ^^ 
 
 •rTS ^ ? ^ 9- '=^ •=■"='="== <='<=<=<= «H 
 
 ^v^ J: » THC-jt-ic-icoeoe^acgw q 
 
 o-.i^g puc- II, dp. 0,0- cue ° 
 
 goi'^c'i' 000000000 ^ 
 
 .Ss^rtT' 000000000 3 
 
 lf2^^^ , ?^ rH <M T-H c^J « CO cj e^ c] "Jj 
 
 _. t<' t,' C C u '^ c c c 
 
 %%^l Ph(^P-P-P.PhP-P-P^ h 
 
 '=^ Oj C-r U5USOOOOOU50 g 
 
 . 5^ -jXJ C-TM us us O O O C-l us ^X 
 
 .2 j^ :i r-c ,- ci A 
 
 'Z.'^-^'-^ I I I I I I I I I 
 
 "^ rH ri r-1 ^ 1-H i-H r-i M Csl 
 
1018 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 underground, is based on splicing branch cables on separate counts. 
 It makes little difference in the cost, however, whether the branches 
 are spliced on the same or separate counts. In all the data on 
 straight-bridge splices the two sections of the continuous cable, 
 when not already spliced, are entered in the column, " Number and 
 Size of Main Cables Spliced." as 2-25 Pr., 2-50 Pr., etc. When the 
 cable is already spliced, as in the data under " Working Cables," 
 it is referred to as 25 Pr., 50 Pr., etc. 
 
 TABLE XXXVIII. COST OP CHANGING COUNTS, UNDER- 
 GROUND, NOT TAGGED 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 9r. 
 
 4-> 
 
 0)^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 5 
 S 
 
 No. of pairs 
 spliced stra 
 
 No. of pairs 
 bridged 
 
 ■ bD 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 Oh 
 
 bo 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 ft 
 m 
 
 faD 
 
 a 
 
 
 m 
 
 1-25 Pr.* 
 
 100 Pr. 
 
 25 .. 
 
 $0.59 
 
 $0.43 
 
 $1.11 
 
 $1.03 
 
 $0.58 
 
 $0.96 
 
 $4.70 
 
 1-25 Pr. 
 
 200 Pr. 
 
 .. 25 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.52 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.28 
 
 0.67 
 
 1.07 
 
 5.29 
 
 1-50 Pr. 
 
 200 Pr. 
 
 . . 50 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.49 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.91 
 
 0.69 
 
 1.30 
 
 6.68 
 
 t These splices were made onto pairs left dead. 
 * The main cable ended at the splice. 
 
 In making a change of count or a cut it is often necessary to 
 lengthen the conductors by splicing on a piece of wire of the same 
 gage. This adds considerably to the cost of splicing conductors 
 together. 
 
 Pulling and Splicing Cables. The following data are from an 
 article by L. W. Moxey, Jr., in Electrical World, Dec. 18, 1915. 
 
 TABLE XLL LABOR COSTS FOR PULLING IN AND SPLICING 
 
 CABLES 
 
 Pulling cable. Splicing cables, 
 Size, B. & S. or Circ. Mil. cost per ft. cost per splice 
 
 Single-conduit : 
 
 No. 14 $0.02 $1.10 
 
 12 0.025 1.20 
 
 10 0.03 1.38 
 
 8 0.035 1.40 
 
 6 0.04 1.55 
 
 5 0.045 1.70 
 
 4 0.05 1.85 
 
 3 0.055 2.00 
 
 2 0.06 2.20 
 
 1 0.0625 2.40 
 
 0.065 2.60 
 
 00 0.0675 2.80 
 
 000 . 0.07 3.05 
 
 0000 0.0725 3.30 
 
 250,000 0.075 3.55 
 
 300,000 0.0775 3.80 
 
 350,000 0.08 4.10 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1019 
 
 Size, 
 
 B. & S. or Circ. Mil. 
 
 Pulling cable, 
 cost per ft. 
 
 Splicing cables, 
 cost per splice 
 
 Single-conduit : 
 
 
 
 
 400,000 , 
 
 . . . . 0.085 
 
 4.40 
 
 
 450 000 , 
 
 09 
 
 4 70 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 0.095 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 550,000 
 
 . . . . 10 
 
 5.30 
 
 
 600,000 
 
 . . . . 0.105 
 
 5.60 
 
 
 650,000 
 
 , . . . 11 
 
 5.90 
 
 
 700,000 
 
 ... 0.115 
 
 6.20 
 
 
 750,000 
 
 , ... 0.12 
 
 ^.50 
 
 
 800,000 
 
 . . . . 125 
 
 6.80 
 
 
 850,000 
 
 , ... 0.13 
 
 7.10 
 
 
 900,000 
 
 0.14 
 
 7.40 
 
 
 950,000 •. . 
 
 ... 15 
 
 7.70 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 ... 0.16 
 
 8.00 
 
 Duplex : 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 . . . $0.03 
 ... 0.04 
 ... 0.045 
 . . . 0.05 
 
 $1.55 
 1.80 
 1.95 
 2.10 
 
 
 6 
 
 ... 0.06 
 
 2.30 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 ... 0.07 
 ... 0.08 
 . . . 0.09 
 ... 0.09 
 ... 0.095 
 
 2.55 
 
 2.80 
 3.00 
 3.30 
 3.60 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 000 
 
 0000 
 
 250,000 
 
 ... 0.10 
 . . . 0.105 
 ... 0.11 
 ... 0.115 
 . . . 0.12 
 
 3.90 
 4.20 
 4.65 
 5.00 
 5.40 
 
 
 300,000 
 
 ... 125 
 
 5 80 
 
 
 350,000 
 
 . . . 0.13 
 
 6 20 
 
 
 400 000 
 
 ... 135 
 
 6 60 
 
 
 450,000 
 
 . . . 0.14 
 
 7 10 
 
 
 500 000 
 
 ... 15 
 
 8 00 
 
 Triplex : 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 ... $0.04 
 ... 0.045 
 ... 0.05 
 . . . 0.055 
 
 $2.20 
 2.40 
 2.60 
 2.80 
 
 
 6 
 
 065 
 
 3 10 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 . . . 0.075 
 ... 0.09 
 . . . 0.10 
 ... 0.11 
 . . . 0.12 
 
 3.40 
 3.70 
 4.00 
 4.40 
 4.80 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 000 
 
 0000 
 
 ... 0.13 
 . . .. 0.14 
 ... 0.15 
 . . . 0.16 
 
 5.20 
 5.60 
 6.10 
 6.60 
 
 The figures given for pulling cable do not include rodding or fish- 
 ing of ducts, which varies from $0,005 to $0.03 per duct foot. 
 
1020 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Installing Street Lighting Cables in Boston. Electrical 
 World, May 20, 1916, has the following: The Edison Electric 
 Illuminating Company of Boston, Mass., has installed 2,644,518 ft. 
 of No. 6, lead-covered underground cable in a recent five-year 
 period at a total cost of $0.2524 per foot. The cable was insulated 
 with %2-in. 30 per cent. Para rubber compound, covered with a 
 %2-in. lead sheath without tin, and guaranteed at a working pres- 
 sure of 10,000 volts. 
 
 The cost of installation was made up as follows : 
 
 Cost per ft. 
 Average cost of cable — 2.442,628 ft. 'purchased. $0.1817 
 
 Installation cost, drawing in (by contract) .... 0.0110 
 
 Miscellaneous construction costs : Total cost 
 
 11.526 bonding connections at $0.63 $7,261 
 
 12,794 cable splices at $2.60 33,264 
 
 102,044 cable protectors at * $0.49 50,001 
 
 350 Rtandpipe collars at $1.61 563 
 
 250 cable .splices at potheads, at $2.60.. 650 
 
 $91,749 0;0347 
 
 Freight, teaming, stockroom expense, inspection 
 at factory and after installation, testing, 
 duct protectors, racking (with extra hang- 
 ers), waste cable, installation under frost 
 conditions 0.0250 
 
 Total cost per foot $0.2524 
 
 Telephone Cable. Data, April, 1911, gives the following for 
 average Chicago conditions during the 10 years previous. 
 
 TABLE XLTI. ESTIMATED COST PER FOOT OF UNDER- 
 GROUND TELEPHONE CABLE IN PLACE 
 
 100 Pr. 150 Pr. 200 Pr. 300 Pr. 400 Pr. 600 Pr. 
 19 Ga. 16 Ga. 19 Ga. 19 Ga. 22 Ga. 22 Ga. 
 Cost of cable only. $0.4926 $0.9685 $0.7478 $1.0389 $0.7524 $1.1190 
 Miscellaneous mate- 
 rial 0046 .0118 .0115 .0138 .0142 .0156 
 
 Rodding 0086 .0086 .0086 .0086 .0086 .0086 
 
 Pull in 0130 .0150 .0150 .0150 .0150 .0150 
 
 Splicing labor 0131 .0144 .0184 .0211 .0214 .0229 
 
 Total $0.5319 $1.0183 $0.8013 $1.0974 $0.8116 $1.1811 
 
 Market price of copper 18 cents. Average distance between 
 vaults, 300 feet. 
 
 No allowance made for freight, cartage, supervision or other 
 overhead charges. 
 
 Cost of Underground Telephone Cable, installed. The following 
 diagram Pig. 27. reproduced from Data, May, 1911, is based on a 
 copper price of 18 cts. 
 
 Cost of Jointing Underground Electric Cables. H. Almert is au- 
 thority for the following data collected by a large central station 
 in the Middle West, 
 
UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1021 
 
 Size Material 
 
 No. 6 — 1/c Straight $0.70 
 
 No. 5 — 1 /c Y 1.20 
 
 No. 2 — 1/c Straight 90 
 
 No. 2 — lie Y 1.30 
 
 1/0 — 1 c Straight 1.15 
 
 1/0 — 1/c Y 1.50 
 
 1/0 — 4 /c Straight 4.15 
 
 2/0 — 3/c (20,000 V.) 5.30 
 
 4/0 — 3/c Straight 4.05 
 
 250 — 3/c Straight 4.25 
 
 4/0 or 250 — 3/c Y 14.20 
 
 Labor 
 
 Total 
 
 $0.90 
 
 $1.60 
 
 1.35 
 
 2.55 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.95 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.80 
 
 1.35 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.80 
 
 3.30 
 
 2.75 
 
 6.90 
 
 5.30 
 
 10.60 
 
 2.75 
 
 6.80 
 
 2.75 • 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 22.20 
 
 WkfUrl+fifl] 
 
 30 to 00 120 150 i&O ZlO 2*0 2?D XA 1:3 360 330 420 450 -WO 510 S40 570 
 NO. OF PAIRS. 
 
 Fig. 27. Cost of underground telephone cable, installed. 
 
 Pulling Underground Cables in St. Louis. The following article 
 was taken from Electrical World, August 22, 1914. 
 
 Supplying St. Louis with energy from the hydro-electric generat- 
 ing station at Keokuk necessitated tying the existing feeders of the 
 Union Electric Light & Power Company to the 60,000-kw. sub- 
 station which distributes the energy at St. Louis. The point at 
 which the two systems are tied together is on the opposite side of 
 the city from the main distributing substations, and the most 
 modern methods were used to pull the underground cable through 
 the conduits between these points. 
 
 The Union Electric Light & Power Company arranged the motors 
 on its electric trucks so that they could be utilized in pulling the 
 cables through the conduits. The adaptation of truck motors to 
 this work, while not entirely new, is interesting in this case because 
 of the ease with which the drive can be transposed from the truck 
 wheels to the cable-pulling drum. The drum is supported above 
 the motor on two rocker arms the common axis of which is 
 not concentric with the axis of the drum. The drum is connected 
 to the motor by a chain drive.' When it is desired to convert the 
 truck into a cable-pulling machine pins in the driving chains con- 
 necting the motor with the truck wheels are taken out and the 
 chains taken off. The chain which is used to drive the cable drum 
 
1022 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 hangs on the drum sprocket, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 28, 
 when the car is in motion, and by turning the ecceptric which sup- 
 ports the drum the chain is made to engage with the motor 
 pinion. Bloclis are placed under the rear wheels of the truck to 
 assist the brakes in preventing motion of the truck when the cable 
 is being pulled. 
 
 After the drag line is threaded through the conduits in which 
 the cable is to be placed, the men prepare the cable for pulling. 
 This operation consists of slipping a special lubricating funnel over 
 
 Mii ofCaUe-puiling Drum 
 
 PMg. 28. Diagram of truck arrangement. 
 
 the end of the cable and fastening the drawing-in wire grip to the 
 cable end. As the cable is being pulled through the conduits, oil 
 is poured into the funnel. This lubrication serves to reduce the 
 tension on the drawing-in wire and reduces the chances of the cable 
 being bruised while it is being pulled through the conduit. The 
 cables are all treated with a special flre-proofing material after 
 they are installed and are tested for grounds to cable sheath for 
 crosses and for continuity. From 4000 ft. to 7000 ft. of cable a 
 day can be pulled in by this method, depending on the frequency 
 of the manholes. This amount of cable represents a maximum of 
 about fifteen reels a day. It is asserted that none of the cable 
 which has been put in has been found faulty on account of the 
 method of installing. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 LIGHTING AND WIRING 
 
 Illumination in the past has been looked upon largely as an 
 accessory. Modern illuminating engineering, according to C. E. 
 Clewell on Industrial Illumination, June, 1912, is concerned with 
 the adaptation of the available types of lamps to certain supply 
 circuits, to various classes of service, and to given conditions of 
 building construction. 
 
 A few years ago the older type of arc lamp and the carbon 
 filament lamp, typifying a large and a small unit, covered the 
 range of types of lamps available for illumination work in the 
 
 OlDTYfti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EL- 
 
 "~" 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 f NClOSrO CABBON 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^' 
 
 mi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OPEW C»BBOM ABC 
 
 F 
 
 Wa'^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NEW TYPES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TUNGSrCN 
 
 
 f^.i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^EBCUB» VABOa 
 
 w 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MEBCUBv VAPOB 
 
 m, 
 
 m^ 
 
 M^ 
 
 ^r=«f 
 
 ^? 
 
 ■m? 
 
 w? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S£M 
 
 m 
 
 3848? 
 
 
 HAMeJABBON 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vm 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 m 
 
 ^^a 
 
 mil 
 
 am 
 
 
 
 ihi,«, 
 
 
 
 
 ^u^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 4 
 
 00 
 
 61 
 MEA 
 
 no 
 
 N3F 
 
 8 
 -HEP 
 
 no 
 
 ICAL 
 RAN 
 
 K 
 
 CAS 
 GES 
 
 m 
 
 OLE 
 
 12 
 
 •POV 
 
 no 
 
 VER 
 
 d 
 
 00 
 
 {f 
 
 m 
 
 
 Fig. 1. Average candle-power ranges of old and new lamps. 
 
 industries. This limitation in candle-power has gone through an 
 evolution by the introduction in more recent years of the enclosed 
 arc, the open flame-carbon arc, the metallic flame arc and the 
 long burning flame carbon arc lamp, as improvements on the 
 original arc lamp ; and the metallized filament, the tantalum and 
 the tungsten lamps, as improvements on the original filament lamp. 
 The Moore tube, the Nernst and the mercury vapor lamp are also 
 available as new types. 
 
 The candle-power values of these various lamps are shown in 
 Fig. 1 where, in an approximate manner, the average mean spherical 
 
 1023 
 
t/1 
 
 'I 1 
 
 J 
 
 Tl'T 
 
 
 7~\ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 '~~ 
 
 
 
 ■""" 
 
 ^^ 
 
 8 - 
 
 9 uj 
 
 ENERGY AT I CEN 
 
 PER klUOWATT-HO 
 
 J 1 1 t 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 //', 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 x^ 
 
 
 ^^„ 
 
 UR 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 #„.>i^ 
 
 *• 
 
 y 
 
 
 .y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^s^m:: 
 
 r^^l 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 MEN 
 
 
 9{?,n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MM^ 
 
 C^.ki 
 
 £>* 
 
 TunOSTEn'uGhTinG 1 1 
 . WATTS PER so n ASSUMtol 
 
 ■8" 
 
 
 
 
 
 mf 
 
 b^ 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H" 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ALLLAMPS|BO«N.N&^ 
 
 MOORS PER OAV 
 
 
 5" 
 
 -J «I A 
 
 ' ' 
 
 
 —^, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 HOURS PER DAV 
 
 
 
 
 //y 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ALL LAMPS BURNING 
 
 
 
 &2 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 _J 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 "°T'T°^' 
 
 
 °*^ 
 
 —a 
 
 
 '- — 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 HOUR PER. DAY 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 III II 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 1 2 3 4 ^ 6 7 8 9 
 
 WORKING'PERIODS IN MINUTES ^ 
 
 
 I 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 -/ ./ 
 
 ^ .-^«^ 
 
 
 ■' 
 
 ^ 
 
 a z 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 ENERGY AT 2 CEN 
 "'PER'klLOWATT-HO 
 
 I 1 1 1 
 
 TS 
 
 
 
 ra^^ 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 J^ 
 
 
 
 JH 
 
 
 '(S\ '^ \'V^ 
 
 .4^ 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -X 
 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 1 ^s^ 1 1 1 
 
 ALLLAMP^^BORN.NG6H0V«SPE, 
 
 ^£Ar 
 
 O ^ 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'M 
 
 [^ 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 >^'l 1 1 1 1 
 
 DAY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 z 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 MM r'l 
 
 ALL laImPS burning < HOURS PER 
 
 DAY^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 y 
 
 7- 
 
 
 :?^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 
 OAY-- 
 
 13 I '- 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 /I 
 
 LL LJiMPS BURNING 3 HOURS PEP 
 
 o^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ''-^ 
 
 
 7^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 5" 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 .«^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ALL LAMPS BURNING 2 HOURS PER 
 
 OAY 1 
 
 5 H 
 
 
 
 '// 
 
 y ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 III 
 
 ALL LJVMPS BURNING 1 HOUR PER DAY J | 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 
 
 WORKING PERIODS IN MINUTES 
 
 <0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 1/ w\ -y \ \s^y 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 §. r> 
 
 
 
 AMP^ 
 
 ByR 
 
 MING 
 
 H90 
 
 .,„.JA^K 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 P'^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m4-\^ 
 
 r' 
 
 
 I.^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 RNING 4 HOURS 
 
 PER DAY 
 
 Vtf 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^,-Z '.a/ 
 
 .'^^ 
 
 L^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c W 
 
 ENERGY AT 3 CENT 
 P^R KILOWATT-HOL 
 
 E? 
 
 \f 
 
 V 
 
 *^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^'^LL LAVIPS 
 
 
 
 HOUR 
 
 5PE1 
 
 
 i§'" 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 f'^ 
 
 '/ 
 
 / 
 
 x' 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 }H^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^Pp 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 7^ 
 
 7^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 >^ 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 kIPS E 
 
 
 NC 2 HOURS PER 
 
 
 k^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -z^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (/^^ 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS? 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 \f\ 
 
 /ORK 
 
 ING 
 
 PER 
 
 CDS 
 
 IN r 
 
 I 
 
 ^INU 
 
 TE& 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2. Curves showing relation of average wages to lighting costs. 
 
 1024 
 
LIGHTmC AND WIRING 
 
 1025 
 
 c.p. values of all types, both old and new are indicated. Fig. 2 
 shows the over-all dimensions of the various lamps from which 
 it is apparent that the dimensions for given c.p. values have been 
 modified by changes in design. 
 
 Re-directing the light where most useful should be included in 
 development of high efficiency lamps as additional to the matter 
 of total light flux per watt. The growing tendency to rate electric 
 lamps according to the effective illumination produced on the 
 work rather than in terms of the watts per mean spherical c.p. 
 is evidence that this item will probably be included in the con- 
 siderations of lamp efficiency more in the future than in the past. 
 
 Quantity of light is not the sole criterion of excellence ; uni- 
 formity over the work, diffusion, adequate intensities on the sides 
 of the work, absence of glare, color values and similar items are 
 given an importance almost if not quite equal to vertically down- 
 ward intensities. 
 
 ? 
 
 ",r, 
 
 i„ 
 
 ! 
 1 
 
 it 
 
 ii 
 
 Fig. 
 
 3. Chart showing relative average overall dimensions of 
 various lamps. 
 
 One Candle Power. The recognized unit of lighting measure- 
 ment is a candle-power per hour. This is an arbitrary unit, orig- 
 inally the light emitted by a spermaceti candle burning 120 grains 
 per hour, known as the British standard candle, but later modi- 
 fied to the " International Candle," which emits slightly less light 
 than the British candle. 
 
 Factory Illumination Costs. Factory work generally speaking 
 may be grouped into, (1) work on a horizontal plane, as bench 
 work of some kinds which, in the main, requires only downward 
 illumination; and (2) other work such as that included under ma- 
 chine tool operations, foundry moulds, rolling mills, assembly, and 
 the like, where, in addition to vertically downward light, side com- 
 ponents effective on vertical pl-anes, as well as shadow elimination, 
 play an important part in the excellence of results. 
 
 The height of ceiling, roof or trusses limits in a very large meas- 
 ure the size and type of lamp to be employed. Experiment and 
 usage demonstrate the disadvantage of using very large lamps 
 
1026 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 for low ceilings, while lack of economy prohibits the use of small 
 lamps for high areas. In former years arc lamps were used for 
 low factory bays, while in some extremes no appreciable general 
 illumination was possible, due to the absence of sufficient clearance 
 between cranes and ceiling for an arc lamp. In like manner very 
 high bays have been inadequately lighted, due to the lack of 
 lamps possessing sufficient c.p. and suitable distribution char- 
 acteristics. To-day, however, lamps of enormously greater c.p. 
 and more suitable distribution are available for the higher area, 
 while lamps with corresponding advantages are available for low 
 areas. 
 
 Open spaces simplify the problem by permitting the use of lamps 
 spaced comparatively far apart, while the interference of belting 
 
 5.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2S 3.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 f 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AVERflGt COST or CI 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1/ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 &/i 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 / 
 
 t~ 
 
 <* 
 
 W 
 
 ' 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v-> 
 
 i'" 
 
 rS 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Si . 
 
 «o 1.6 
 
 
 
 
 >i 
 
 
 \^f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 V 
 
 .f 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o.R 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ut^ 
 
 y' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 "l 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 / 
 
 J 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 -i 
 
 9 
 
 ■J 
 
 ) 
 
 ■--J 
 
 7 
 
 
 ELAPSED TIME IN DAYS 
 
 Fig 4. Summary of curves of deterioration costs from Figs. 10, 
 11. 12, 13 and 14. 
 
 calls for a type and arrangement of lamps which will provide 
 diffusion so as to reduce the shadows ordinarily produced by belts. 
 In an atmosphere filled with dust and dirt a penetrating light 
 should be employed, and in spaces of the latter class the main- 
 tenance is apt to be greatly increased with the rapid accumulation 
 of dirt on the lamps and reflectors. 
 
 The arrangement of lamps should not be influenced primarily 
 by the ceiling construction. Plans made up without regard to the 
 ease of installation may sometimes be modified so as to yield 
 equally satisfactory results, however, with a considerable reduc- 
 tion in first cost for installing, by taking into account certain 
 features of the beams or girders. 
 
 The Spacing Distance of lamps is a first consideration. Ex- 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1027 
 
 periments have shown, for example, that in certain office locations 
 with moderate ceiling heights, a spacing distance not exceeding 
 7 ft. 6 ins. is most advantageous. This results in a uniform illum- 
 ination on the desks if the proper reflectors are used, and the 
 light from a sufficient number of sources thus secured insures a 
 diffusion of the resulting illumination. The direcrtional features 
 of the light are furthermore far superior to those cases where 
 larger spacing distances are employed. 
 
 The spacing also governs the size of lamp to be used. As an 
 illustration, whether one 250-watt or four 60-watt tungsten lamps 
 are to be installed for a given area will be determined largely by 
 the desired directional features of the light. 
 
 The Mounting Height should be determined on a basis of the 
 avoidance of glare and of the ease in getting at the lamps for 
 maintenance. The lamps should be mounted high enough to be 
 out of the line of vision, and where the ceilings are too low to 
 admit this, lamps of small size should be selected to reduce the 
 quantity of light flux which enters the eye or is effective thereon 
 when looking into any lamp. 
 
 Current Requirements for Lighting. A. L. Cook in Power, May 
 4, 1915, states that the usual votages employed for lighting are 
 about 120 or 240 with a two-wire system and 120 for each side 
 with a three-wire system. Either direct or alternating current 
 may be used. Occasionally, three-phase or two-phase alternating 
 current is employed for lighting, because of peculiarities in the 
 conditions of supply. For alternating-current lighting 60 cycles 
 is generally used, since 25 cycles is not as satisfactory owing to a 
 flickering of the lights in some cases. It has been found, how- 
 ever, that tungsten lamps having a rating of 60 watts or more 
 can be employed satisfactorily on 25 cycles. With ordinary in- 
 closed arc lamps, 25 cycles is not satisfactory, although flame- 
 carbon arc lamps can be used on this frequency. For direct- 
 current motors, the standard voltages are 115, 230 or 550, and for 
 alternating-current motors, 110, 220, 440 and 550 volts are com- 
 monly employed, although in some cases, for very large motors, 
 2,200 volts is used. The frequency may be either 60 or 25 cycles, 
 and occasionally 40. 
 
 The voltages given for lighting and power service are the values 
 at the lamps or motors. The standard generator voltages for 
 direct current are 125, 250 and 600, and for alternating 
 current, 120, 240, 480 and 600, which allows a reasonable drop 
 between the generator and the load. In some cases a multivolt- 
 age system is used for motors, in order to give a ready means 
 of varying the speed. This is not generally necessary, however, 
 since modern direct-current motors permit wide speed variation 
 by a change in the field strength. 
 
 The choice of a particular .sy.stem for lighting or power service is 
 affected by a number of factors, such as the character of the 
 existing system or the central-station source of supply, and the 
 relative sizes of the power and lighting loads. When an extension 
 is to be made to an existing installation, the same system must 
 
1028 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 be used for the extension, unless the addition is so large or the 
 requirements differ so widely that a change in the system or the 
 addition of a different kind of supply can be seriously considered. 
 For a new plant more freedom of choice exists, and the relative 
 merits of the various systems will therefore be considered. 
 
 Direct vs. Alternating Current. For lighting, either alternating 
 or direct current would, in general, be satisfactory, and the ad- 
 vantage of easy change of voltage in the case of the former makes 
 it preferable in supplying buildings covering large areas. How- 
 ever, the lighting load is usually small, 'compared with the power 
 load ; hence the choice is fixed by the power requirements. The 
 important advantages and disadvantages of alternating and direct 
 current for power supply may be summarized as follows: 
 
 DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT 
 
 It is not generally feasible The voltage can be easily 
 
 to use more than 2 40 volts for transformed. using voltages 
 lighting. Therefore this limits • suitable for lights and motors, 
 the voltage of the system if 
 supplied from the same gen- 
 erator as the motors. 
 
 2. Maintenance is higher, ow- 2. There is no commutator ; 
 ing to commutators. hence the motor is more rug- 
 ged. Tt will stand larger mo- 
 mentary overloads, there is no 
 danger of fire from sparks at 
 the commutator and it is more 
 reliable. 
 
 3. Wide speed variation of 3. Speed variation is difficult 
 motor by simple means, with and the motor is less efficient 
 high efficiency. at reduced speeds. 
 
 4. Motors have better start- 4. Operation is not satisfac- 
 ing characteristics for cranes tory on high-speed elevators 
 and elevators. and large cranes. Starting cur- 
 rent is greater. 
 
 5. Starting current is lower 5. Starting current for or- 
 for usual types of constant- dinary type is large. Special 
 speed motors. arrangements are necessary to 
 
 reduce it. 
 
 6. A .somewhat larger gener- 
 ator is required for a given mo- 
 tor load. 
 
 The relative sizes of the power and lighting loads will have an 
 important bearing upon the selection of the system. In some cases 
 of light manufacturing, particularly if all the work is in one 
 building, where the feeders would be short, direct current might 
 well be used, employing 120 volts two-wire for small .systems, and 
 240 volts three-wire, or possibly two-wire, for larger systems. 
 If a two-wire system be used, the feeders would be about one- 
 fourth as large for the 240 volts as for 120 volts: but. on the 
 other hand, the lighting would have to be supplied at 240, which 
 would entail somewhat greater cost for lamps and maintenance. 
 It is better to operate the motors at 240 volts and supply the 
 lights on a 120-240-volt three-wire fjj'stem. By this means, the 
 saving in size of feeders is nearly as great as if the entire load 
 were supplied at 240 volts and the advantage of the lower-voltage 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1029 
 
 lamps is secured. The additional power-house equipment is of 
 small cost. 
 
 For most industrial uses, the alternating-current motor is satis- 
 factory, and in some cases almost necessary, either .because of 
 the great distances from the power house or the severe operating 
 conditions due to dust, moisture, etc. Its principal disadvantage 
 is the difficulty in adjusting the speed. With a direct-current 
 system it is possible to obtain motors which will allow a speed 
 change of three to one. When the speed is adju.sted to a given 
 value between these limits, it will reinain practically constant 
 regardless of the load. Such motors are extensively used for 
 driving lathes and similar machine tools. It is possible to pro- 
 vide means by which the speed of an alternating-current motor 
 can be adjusted to as wide a range as the direct-current motor, 
 but usually at a sacrifice in efficiency ; whereas, the direct-current 
 motor has nearly the same efficiency at all speeds. Moreover, the 
 variable-speed alternating-current motor, having been adjusted to 
 a particular speed, will not maintain this as the load changes ; 
 instead, the speed will increase as the load decreases. This wide 
 speed variation is objectionable where constant speed with varying 
 load is necessary, as in machine-tool driving ; but for some pur- 
 poses, such as ventilating fans, centrifugal pumps, paper machines, 
 and the like, where the load does not vary suddenly, the use 
 of an alternating-current adjustable-speed motor is satisfactory. 
 Alternating-current motors are not as satisfactory for cranes and 
 elevators, owing principally to the difficulty of control, particularly 
 when making stops. For this reason direct-current motors are to 
 be preferred for high-speed elevators and large cranes. There- 
 fore, in an office building where the elevator load is usually greater 
 than the other motor load and the length of the feeders is not 
 great, the direct-current system is preferable. For large buildings 
 the three-wire, 2 40-volt system should be used, the motors operating 
 at 240 volts and the lights at 120. Only in small buildings should 
 the 120-volt 2-wire system be used. 
 
 If the building is not supplied from a power plant on the prem- 
 ises, but obtains its supply from a central station, the type of 
 service will depend upon the system of the supply company. If 
 only alternating current is available it will be best to use alter- 
 nating-current elevators unless the speed is high (above 300 ft. 
 per min.) rather than provide the necessary transforming ap- 
 paratus. For industrial establishments in general, the alternating 
 current is to be preferred unless the cranes and variable-speed 
 tools form a large proportion of the total load. If it is absolutely 
 necessary to use direct current for some of the motors, it is better 
 to provide alternating-current service for general uses, with a 
 direct-current supply for cranes and special work. 
 
 When installing any wiring it is desirable to conform in all re- 
 spects to the local rules governing such installations. The rules 
 of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, called the " National 
 Electric Code," form the basis of most of the regulations which 
 have been issued by various cities and other parties interested, 
 
1030 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and must be followed in order to obtain fire insurance on prop- 
 erty. These rules may be obtained gratis from the National Board 
 of Fire Underwriters by applying to its New York, Boston or Chi- 
 cago offices. The Inspection Department of the Associated Fac- 
 tory Mutua'l Fire Insurance Companies, with an office in Boston, 
 has issued the " National Electric Code " with explanatory notes, 
 thus giving in many cases more specific directions for the proper 
 installation of electrical apparatus than isi contained in the " Code." 
 In many cases there are rules issued by the city inspection de- 
 partments, which are substantially the same as the " National 
 Electric Code," but care should be taken to see that the work not 
 only meets the code requirements but also conforms to the local 
 rules. In the following discussion the rules of the '^National 
 Electric Code " are followed. 
 
 Choice and Distrihution of Lamps. The subject of the proper 
 illumination of industrial establishments has in the past few years 
 been given considerable attention on the part of factory super- 
 intendents and managers, who have begun to realize that it pays 
 to provide sufficient illumination. Investigations have shown that 
 an efficient lighting system increases the output from 2 to 10%, 
 and it has also been found that the number of accidents is ma- 
 terially reduced when adequate lighting is provided. 
 
 For interior illumination of buildings, there are available the 
 following types of lamps : 
 
 Lamp Service 
 
 1. Carbon-filament a.c. or d.c. 
 
 2. Gem- or metalized-filament a.c. or d.c. 
 
 3. Tantalum a.c. or d.c. 
 
 4. Tungsten, including "nitrogen" filled lamps a.c. or d.c. 
 
 5. Inclosed-carbon arc a.c. or d.c. 
 
 6. Metallic-flame or magnetite arc d.c. 
 
 7. Flame-carbon arc a.c. or d.c. 
 
 8. Nernst a.c. or d.c. 
 
 9. Cooper-Hewitt mercury arc a.c. or d.c. 
 
 While all of the foregoing types have been used for interior 
 illumination, the practice has now become so standardized as to 
 make the tungsten lamp by far the most common for ordinary 
 heights of ceilings. The metallic-flame arc and flame-carbon arc 
 are used for lighting large floor areas with high ceilings, particu- 
 larly where there is more or less smoke and gas. The so-called 
 nitrogen-filled lamp, which is a special form of tungsten lamp 
 with the bulb filled with nitrogen or a similar gas, is very useful 
 where large lighting units can be employed, and the tendency is 
 to use this in place of the metallic-flame or flame-carbon arc, owing 
 to the reduced cost of maintenance. The mercury arc has also 
 been used extensively, principally because of its small power con- 
 sumption, but it produces such an objectionable color that it is 
 unsuitable for many uses and can better be replaced by the nitro- 
 gen-filled lamp. This gives a light even whiter than the ordinary 
 tungsten lamp with a power consumption not much greater than 
 that of the mercury arc. Present practice, therefore, for rooms 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1031 
 
 of ordinary height, has narrowed down to the use of tungsten 
 lamps with glass or steel reflectors, mounted near the ceiling and 
 arranged to give sufficient illumination to the entire room. In 
 general, drop cords with individual lights have been eliminated as 
 far as possible and are used only for special work which cannot be 
 lighted from the overhead lamps. Where it is necessary to use 
 individual lights, a 16-c.p. carbon-filament or a 40-watt gem lamp 
 is used. The latter is preferable as it gives the same candlepower 
 as the carbon and requires about 20% less power. The following 
 gives data on the various sizes of tungsten lamps : 
 
 DATA ON TUNGSTEN LAMPS * 
 
 Size 
 
 
 Watts per 
 
 
 Approximate current, 
 
 rated 
 
 Candle- 
 
 candle- 
 
 Life, 
 
 amperes 
 
 watts 
 
 power 
 
 power 
 
 hours 
 
 120 volts 
 
 240 volts 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 1.05 
 
 1000 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.11 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 1.03 
 
 1000 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.17 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 1.00 
 
 1000 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.25 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 0.95 
 
 1000 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.42 
 
 150 
 
 167 
 
 0.90 
 
 1000 
 
 1.25 
 
 0.62 
 
 250 
 
 278 
 
 0.90 
 
 1000 
 
 2.08 
 
 1.04 
 
 400 
 
 445 
 
 0.90 
 
 1000 
 
 3.33 
 
 1.67 
 
 500 
 
 555 
 
 0.90 
 
 1000 
 
 4.16 
 
 2.08 
 
 t200 
 
 222 
 
 0.90 
 
 1000 
 
 1.67 
 
 
 fSOO 
 
 353 
 
 0.85 
 
 1000 
 
 2.50 
 
 • . • 
 
 t400 
 
 534 
 
 0.75 
 
 1000 
 
 3.33 
 
 ! ! ! 
 
 t500 
 
 714 
 
 0.70 
 
 1000 
 
 4.16 
 
 '. '. . 
 
 t750 
 
 1150 
 
 0.65 
 
 1000 
 
 6.25 
 
 '. '. '. 
 
 tiooo 
 
 1665 
 
 0.60 
 
 1000 
 
 8.33 
 
 
 ♦From figures supplied by the National Lamp Works of the Gen- 
 eral Electric Co. The above applies to 120-volt lamps; for 240- 
 volt lamps the watts per c.p. are about \()% higher. 
 
 fNitrogen-filled lamps of 120 volts only. 
 
 Power Required for Illumination with Tungsten Lamps. The 
 
 power required to light a given floor area as given by A. L. Cook 
 in Power, May 4, 1915, varies with the amount of light necessary, 
 which in turn will vary with the character of the work carried 
 on. Table I gives the number of watts required per sq. ft. of 
 floor area for different cla,sses of work, with various arrangements 
 of tungsten lamps. These values are based on good practice and 
 will give first-class illumination under average conditions. The 
 principal item which would affect these values is the color of the 
 ceilings and walls. For offices, stores, corridors and drafting 
 rooms it is assumed that both the ceilings and the walls are fairly 
 light in color, while for factories, warehouses and power houses 
 they would be darker and less light would be reflected. The 
 figures given for general office illumination are sufficient for usyal 
 office work, while those for special illumination should be used 
 where bookkeeping or work of a similar nature is carried on. The 
 amount of power allowed for a drafting room is sufficient to pro- 
 vide suitable illumination without the use of individual lamps. 
 For rooms where rough manufacturing is carried on and where 
 close application to the work is not required, the figures for gen- 
 eral factory illumination should be sufficient ; for fine machine 
 
1032 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 work, toolmaking and bench work, those for special factory illum- 
 ination should be used. The lamps should be provided with suit- 
 able reflectors, in order to direct as much of the light as possible 
 on the work. There is a great variety of these reflectors, but they 
 can all be grouped in a few general classes, each of which is best 
 adapted for particular conditions. There are on the market several 
 types of glass reflectors which direct most of the light in a down- 
 ward direction, but allow a certain amount, to pass through to the 
 
 ceiling. The best example of this type is the prismatic " Holo- 
 phane." In order to have a good distribution of light, it is neces- 
 sary to employ the proper style of reflector ; hence a different size 
 is manufactured for each size of tungsten lamp. It is necessary 
 also to use the right type of shade holder in order that the lamp 
 may be correctly located in the reflector. 
 
 Since modern systems of illumination are usually laid out to 
 give practically uniform lighting over the entire floor area, it is 
 necessary to use different types of reflectors for different heights 
 of ceilings and spacings between lamps. The Holophane prismatic 
 glass reflectors are made in three styles : " Extensive," for low 
 ceilings ; " intensive," for medium ceilings ; and " focusing," for 
 high ceilings. Glass reflectors are best adapted for oflflces, stores, 
 drafting rooms and similar places, where it is desirable to light 
 the walls and ceilings, as well as the work. They have also been 
 used quite extensively for factory lighting, but are not suitable for 
 use where there is danger of breakage. 
 
 Steel reflectors are made in a number of styles, with white porce- 
 lain-enamel surfaces, white painted surfaces, or aluminum painted 
 surfaces. In general, the porcelain-enameled reflector is better 
 than the others, owing to a great reflecting power, and the ease 
 with which it can be kept clean. There are two general types 
 of steel reflectors — the bowl, shown in Fig. 5-a, and the dome, 
 in Fig. 5-&. These reflectors are made in various sizes to suit 
 particular tungsten lamps, and in various shapes for different 
 heights of ceiling. The dome type (&) should be used generally; 
 the bowl type (a), which incloses the lamp more than the dome, 
 being used only when the lamps are mounted so low that they 
 would be in the line of sight of the workmen. When steel re- 
 flectors are used, the ceilings are not illuminated, except by a 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1033 
 
 small amount due to reflection from the benches or tables ; but for 
 many industrial applications this is not objectionable. In offices 
 the steel reflectors do not give a pleasing effect. Values for 
 either glass or steel reflectors are given in column A of Table I, 
 since they are both classed as direct illuminants. For the same 
 character of walls and ceilings there would be only a slight dif- 
 ference in the amount of illumination produced by the two types. 
 
 TABLE I. POWER REQUIRED FOR ILLUMINATION. 
 TUNGSTEN LAMPS* 
 
 Watts per square foot 
 Direct Indirect 
 CJass of work A B 
 
 Office — general 1.00 1.60 
 
 Office — special 1.25 2.00 
 
 Drafting room 2.00 3.20 
 
 Corridors and halls 0.50 0.80 
 
 Factories — general 0.80 
 
 Factories — special 1.50 
 
 Warehouses 0.50 
 
 Stores 1.25 2.00 
 
 Power house 0.80 
 
 Storage 0.30 
 
 *If nitrogen-filled lamps are used, multiply the watts per square 
 foot as given above by 0.75. 
 
 Height and Approximate Spacing of Lighting Units. Sizes of 
 lighting units for various mounting heights are as follows : 
 
 Height of Unit above Floor Size of Unit, Watts 
 
 Up to 9 ft 40 or 60 
 
 9 to 11 ft 60 or 100 
 
 11 to 16 ft 100 or 150 
 
 16 to 20 ft 150 or 250 
 
 20 ft. and above 250, 400, 500 and nitrogen-filled 
 
 lamps or flame arcs 
 
 Table II gives the approximate spacing distances for lighting 
 units. 
 
 Comparison of the Cost of Lighting by Various Systems. R. 
 
 Trautschold in the Scientific American Supplement, March 27, 
 1915, states that 5 gals, of kerosene oil is capable of giving out 
 4,500 c.p. if all waste is eliminated. With care the waste for 
 5 gals, of oil burned should not exceed 5 qts. 
 
 The cost of lighting a small cottage or flat for a year forms a 
 very understandable comparison. Taking the average year in and 
 year out, such an establishment — if the hall light is turned down 
 low, the kitchen light extinguished when the last dish of the day 
 has been washed and put away and all the other little economies 
 that are insisted upon by the careful housekeeper — would burn 
 an equivalent of about 100 c.i). 3 hrs. each day, or 110,000 c.p. 
 during the year, illumination that would not be very excessive 
 for one fairly large room. 
 
 In the days of the kerosene lamp, the 5-gal. oil can would have 
 
1034 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE II. . 
 
 A.PPJ 
 
 Elo: 
 
 Kl. 
 
 MATE i 
 
 gPACING 
 
 } DISTA 
 
 NCE 
 
 S FOR 
 
 
 
 
 
 LIGHTING UNITS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Watts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Watts 
 
 
 
 
 Size of 
 
 per 
 
 
 
 
 
 Size of 
 
 per 
 
 
 
 
 units, 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 Spacing 
 
 units. 
 
 sq. ft, 
 
 
 Spacing 
 
 watts 
 
 direct * 
 
 distance 
 
 watts 
 
 direct * 
 
 distance 
 
 40 
 
 0.3 
 
 11 
 
 ft. 
 
 6 
 
 in. 
 
 150 
 
 , 1.5 
 
 10 
 
 ft. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 40 
 
 0.5 
 
 9 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 2.0 
 
 8 
 
 ft. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 40 
 
 0.8 
 
 7 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.3 
 
 29 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 60 
 
 0.3 
 
 14 
 
 ft. 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 250 
 
 0.5 
 
 22 
 
 ft. 
 
 5 in. 
 
 60 
 
 0.5 
 
 11 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 0.8 
 
 17 
 
 ft. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 60 
 
 0.8 
 
 8 
 
 ft. 
 
 8 
 
 in. 
 
 250 
 
 1.0 
 
 15 
 
 ft. 
 
 10 in. 
 
 60 
 
 1.0 
 
 7 
 
 ft. 
 
 9 
 
 in. 
 
 250 
 
 1.25 
 
 14 
 
 ft. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 60 
 
 1.25 
 
 7 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 1.5 
 
 12 
 
 ft. 
 
 11 in. 
 
 60 
 
 1.5 
 
 6 
 
 ft. 
 
 4 
 
 in. 
 
 250 
 
 2.0 
 
 11 
 
 ft. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 100 
 
 0.5 
 
 14 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 0.8 
 
 22 
 
 ft. 
 
 5 in. 
 
 100 
 
 0.8 
 
 11 
 
 ft. 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 400 
 
 1.0 
 
 20 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 100 
 
 1.0 
 
 10 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 1.25 
 
 17 
 
 ft. 
 
 11 in. 
 
 100 
 
 1.25 
 
 9 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 1.50 
 
 16 
 
 ft. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 100 
 
 1.5 
 
 8 
 
 ft. 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 ' 400 
 
 2.0 
 
 14 
 
 ft. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 100 
 
 2.0 
 
 7 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 0.8 
 
 25 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 150 
 
 0.5 
 
 17 
 
 ft. 
 
 4 
 
 in. 
 
 500 
 
 1.0 
 
 22 
 
 ft. 
 
 5 in. 
 
 150 
 
 0.8 
 
 13 
 
 ft. 
 
 8 
 
 in. 
 
 500 
 
 1.25 
 
 20 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 150 
 
 1.0 
 
 12 
 
 ft. 
 
 3 
 
 in. 
 
 500 
 
 1.50 
 
 18 
 
 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 150 
 
 1.25 
 
 11 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 2.0 
 
 15 
 
 ft. 
 
 10 in. 
 
 * The figures given apply to ordinary tungst lamps. In general 
 the spacing of lamps should be about 50% greater than their 
 height above the work illuminated. 
 
 to be replenished every 2 weeks or so, in such an establishment, 
 for about 125 gals, of kerosene would be consumed during the 
 year. 
 
 Ever since " city gas " first came into general use for lighting, 
 the type of burner most commonly employed has been the or- 
 dinary open tip ("fish tail") burner, emitting a fan-like flame. 
 Such a burner has a lighting capacity of about 20 c.p., and to 
 obtain 110,000 c.p. about 27,000 cu. ft. of gas would have to be 
 burned, or at least paid for, as there is bound to be a certain 
 unavoidable leakage. This quantity would demand the use of un- 
 shaded lights only, for shades would, as in the case of oil lamps, 
 lead to extra expense. 
 
 The upright Welsbach burner is very much more economical in 
 the consumption of gas than the open tip burner for the same 
 illumination, consuming only about one-third as much gas. The 
 inverted Welsbach mantle is even more economical, due to the 
 more efficient mixing of gas and air before it is ignited. This 
 type of burner consumes but about one-fifth as much gas as does 
 the open tip burner. For domestic purposes the incandescent 
 electric bulb is almost universally used, and, until recent years, 
 this meant the common carbon filament lamp — the Edison lamp. 
 These lamps are made in various sizes, capable of emitting a 
 definite amount of light — the usual rated candle-power being 16 
 and multiples of 16. The average consumption of electrical en- 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 
 
 1035 
 
 ergy by such lamps, with clear glass bulbs, is very close to four 
 and one-third watts for each actual candle-power, so that for 
 110,000 c.p. about 475 k.w. (1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts) would be 
 required. As some shades or frosted bulbs would very probably 
 be used in any private apartment or house, a more conservative 
 figure would be 500 k.w. 
 
 Cost of 110.000 canSTf-pourer- Obiiari. 
 
 4 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 Kerosene Oil Lamp 
 
 ■Cify Gc 
 
 i'. Open Tip 
 
 ■Cit^G. 
 
 (Fiah Tail) Burn 
 
 a: \ Upnokt Welsbalch. Burnt 
 
 "Ct/'yffQs", IiurerCed WeLkach Burner. 
 
 Incandescent EleotncLiiht, Carbon Filament 
 
 'Edi36n) Butb. 
 
 iQanacscem Electric Light "Tuaostaa', 'Malda' tte. Bid6. 
 
 Coit of 110,000 candle -pourtr-doUai^a. 
 
 Costs based on: — ^Kerosene at 12 cts. per gallon; "City Gas" at 
 $1.00 per thousand cubic feet; and electricity at 10 cts. per kilowatt. 
 
 Fig. 6. Comparison of cost of lighting by various systems. 
 
 Bulbs in which the carbon filament is replaced by fine wires 
 of a metal that becomes incandescent more easily than the carbon 
 filament, known under various trade names, such as " Tungsten " 
 and " Mazda," consume but about IVz watts for each actual c.p., 
 instead of nearly ^'z watts as do the carbon filament bulbs. 
 
1036 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Operation of Practical Lighting Systems.- Ward Har- 
 rison (Electrical World, November 15, 1913) states that in de- 
 termining the total operating cost of any system of lighting, three 
 items must be considered : 
 
 1. Fixed charges, which include interest on the investment, 
 depreciation of permanent parts and other ^ expenses which are 
 independent of the number of hours of use. Frequently this item 
 forms the greater part of the total operating expense, yet it is 
 only too often omitted from cost tables. 
 
 2. Maintenance charges, which include renewal of parts, repairs, 
 labor and all costs, except the cost of energy, which depends upon 
 the hours of burning, 
 
 3. The cost of energy, which depends upon the hours of burning 
 and the rate per k.w.-hr. 
 
 The life of a lighting system depends not only upon the wearing 
 out of parts, but also upon obsolescence. There are no installa- 
 tions in this country which have been in use for a period of seven 
 or eight years which are not already obsolete. Although the lamps 
 may be in good operating condition, economy demands that they 
 be replaced by more efficient illuminants. There is every indica- 
 tion that the next few years will see even greater progress in the 
 development of lamps and the use of light. The rate of deprecia- 
 tion on all permanent parts is equal to at least 12.5%. The in- 
 vestment required in the tungsten system of lighting is relatively 
 very low. 
 
 A table which would show the total operating expense of tung- 
 sten lamps for all sizes, with every discount from the list prices, 
 for all possible periods of burning per year, and under all cost of 
 energy, would be so large as to be entirely impracticable. From 
 Table III, however, the operating expense of units under any set 
 of conditions may be found with little calculation. 
 
 The total investment includes the cost of lamps, reflectors, hold- 
 ers and sockets. The investment in permanent parts is the total 
 investment minus the price of lamps. No depreciation is charged 
 against the lamps inasmuch as they are regularly renewed. The 
 labor item under fixed charges provides for the cleaning of all 
 units once each month. For the smaller units with steel reflectors 
 the cost of cleaning is taken as $0.02 per unit for each cleaning. 
 Data obtained from installations where accurate cost records are 
 kept show that this figure is conservative for labor at $0.20 per hr. 
 The cost of cleaning other reflectors is taken in prbportion to the 
 amount of labor required. Some illuminants require attendance 
 at regular intervals. The cleaning is done at the same time and 
 is, therefore, included under the maintenance charge. For units 
 which require no regular attendance the cleaning expense be- 
 comes a separate charge. It will be noted that the fixed charges 
 form only a small part of the total operating cost for a lighting 
 system. 
 
 The maintenance charge is given for a 1,000-hour period of 
 burning. To find the annual charge in any case it is necessary to 
 multiply by the ratio of the total hours of burning to 1,000 hours. 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 
 
 1037 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 TOTAL, ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS — 100-VOLT 
 TO 130-VOLT TUNGSTEN UNITS 
 
 1,000 hours' operation 
 
 per year. 
 
 Lamp.s bought on 
 
 $150 contract 
 
 Energy- 
 cost, 
 cents 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 Size of lamp, 
 40 
 $1.16 
 
 1.56 
 1.96 
 2.36 
 2.76 
 3.16 
 3.96 
 4.76 
 
 100 
 
 $2.24 
 3.24 
 4.24 
 5.24 
 6.24 
 7.24 
 9.24 
 
 11.24 
 
 rated watts 
 
 250 
 $4.93 
 7.43 
 9.93 
 12.43 
 14.93 
 17.43 
 22.43 
 27.43 
 
 500 
 
 $9.50 
 14.50 
 19.50 
 24.50 
 29.50 
 34.50 
 44.50 
 54.50 
 
 1,000 hours' operation 
 
 per year. 
 
 Lamps bought on 
 
 $1,200 contract 
 
 1.13 
 1.53 
 1.93 
 2.33 
 2.7J 
 3.13 
 3.93 
 4.73 
 
 2.16 
 3.16 
 4.16 
 5.16 
 6.16 
 7.16 
 9.16 
 11.16 
 
 4.73 
 7.23 
 9.73 
 12.23 
 14.73 
 17.23 
 22.23 
 27.23 
 
 9.10 
 14.10 
 19.10 
 24.10 
 29.10 
 34.10 
 44.10 
 54.10 
 
 4,000 hours' operation 
 per year. 
 Lamps bought on 
 $150 contract 
 
 1 
 
 iy2 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 3.24 
 4.04 
 4.84 
 6.44 
 8.04 
 
 7.23 
 
 9.23 
 
 11.23 
 
 15.23 
 
 19.23 
 
 17.41 
 22.41 
 
 27.41 
 37.41 
 47.41 
 
 34.46 
 44.46 
 54.46 
 74.46 
 94.46 
 
 4,000 hours' operation 
 
 per year. 
 
 Lamps bought on 
 
 $1,200 contract 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3.10 
 3.90 
 4.70 
 6.30 
 7.90 
 
 6.91 
 
 8.91 
 
 10.91 
 
 14.91 
 
 18.91 
 
 16.61 
 21.61 
 26.61 
 36.61 
 46.61 
 
 32.86 
 42.86 
 52.86 
 72.86 
 92.86 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF OPERATING COSTS — 100-VOLT TO 
 130-VOLT TUNGSTEN UNITS 
 
 Size of lamp, rated watts 
 40 100 250 500 
 
 Cost of lamp, list $0,350 $0,800 $2,000 $4,000 
 
 Cost of lamp, standard-package 
 
 discount 0.315 0.720 1.800 3.600 
 
 Cost of reflector, standard-pack- 
 age discount 1.155 1.566 1.653 2.617 
 
 Cost of unit, standard-package 
 
 discount 1.470 2.286 3.453 6.217 
 
 Annual fixed charges : 
 
 Interest on total investment, 
 
 67c $0,088 $0,137 $0,207 
 
 Depreciation on reflector, 12i/>% 0.144 0.196 0.207 
 
 Labor, monthly cleaning 0.240 0.240 0.360 
 
 Total $0,472 $0,573 $0,774 $1,180 
 
 Maintenance cost per 1,000 hours : 
 Lamp renewals at standard- 
 package discount $0,315 $0,720 $1,800 $3,600 
 
 Lamp renewals at $150-con- 
 
 trac-t discount 0.291 0.664 1.660 3.320 
 
 Lamp renewals at $l,200-con- 
 
 tract discount 0.256 0.584 1.460 2.920 
 
 Energy cost per 3,000 hours at 1 
 
 cent per kw.-hr $0,400 $1,000 $2,500 $5,000 
 
 $0,373 
 0.327 
 0.480 
 
1038 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Where lamps are sold at other than the prices given, the proper 
 correction should be applied. The renewal of lamps is the only 
 maintenance expense. ■ , 
 
 The energy cost is given for a 1,000-hr. period with energy at 
 $0.01 per k.w.-hr. 
 
 An example will illustrate the use of Table IV. It is required to 
 find the total operating expense per unit per year for lighting a 
 mill with 250-watt tungsten-filament lamps. The lamps are burned 
 a total of 4,000 hrs. and are purchased at the discount obtained 
 on a $150 contract. The cost of energy is $0.20 per k.w.-hr. 
 
 From the table we obtain the following: 
 
 (1) Fixed charges $0.77 
 
 (2) Maintenance. 4.000 X $1,800 7.20 
 
 (3) Energy, 4.000 X 2 X $2.50 20.00 
 
 Total $27.97 
 
 In Table III are included annual operating costs which have been 
 calculated for a number of cases frequently met in industrial plants. 
 
 Cost of Street Lighting in Cliicago. Ray Palmer (Electrical 
 World, Aug. 9, 1913) states that to light one mile of street, using 
 23 flame-arc lamps, with underground wires, costs about $9,000, 
 while if the wires are placed overhead the cost is only about $4,000. 
 These figures include substation and feeder distribution costs. On 
 some of the older residence streets, where the trees are well-grown 
 and act as an obstruction to the light from arc lamps, a system of 
 underground cables and tungsten lamps mounted in opalescent 
 globes on the old gas posts has been installed. This type of con- 
 struction costs about $8,000 per mile of street lighted, using 75 
 of the tungsten lamps staggered on both sides of the street and 
 about 150 ft. apart, measuring on one side of the street. 
 
 Flame-arc lamps on underground circuits cost in 1912 $39.91 a 
 year to maintain. To this should be added an interest charge on 
 investment of $19.16 and a depreciation charge of $13.67, making 
 the total yearly cost, according to Mr. Palmer's figures, $72.74 per 
 lamp. While the lamps on overhead circuits cost as much to main- 
 tain the interest and depreciation costs are lower, bringing the 
 total yearly cost down to $54.57. 
 
 The underground-cable tungsten-lamp street lighting is the most 
 expensive form of public street lighting used in Chicago except 
 gasoline lighting. The cost per unit is only $13.36 for cash main- 
 tenance of this type of lamp, but the interest and depreciation bring 
 the total amount to $24.27 per lamp per year. As there are 75 
 lamps to a street mile, this means $1,820 a year to light one mile 
 of street with series tungsten lamps as against $1,673 for flame-arc 
 lamps on underground circuits and $1,255 for flames arcs on over- 
 head circuits. The corresponding flgure for gasoline lighting is 
 $2,343.75. 
 
 Mr. Palmer made an interesting comparison between street- 
 lighting conditions in Philadelphia and Chicago. Philadelphia has 
 a population of 1,549,000 (1910), an area of 129 square miles with 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING ' 1039 
 
 1,752 miles of streets and alleys. Chicago has a population of 
 2,185,000, an area of 194 square miles with 4,400 miles of streets 
 and alleys. The annual cost of street lighting in Philadelphia is 
 put at $2,472,000, or $1,412 per mile of streets and alleys. The 
 corresponding figure for Chicago is $1,038,700, or $234 per mile of 
 streets and alleys for public lighting. According to these figures, 
 Chicago spends less than 20% (per year i^er mile of street and alley 
 lighting) of the similar expenditure in Philadelphia. 
 
 Attention has been given recently to the lighting of street cross- 
 ings under the elevated-railroad tracks, or subway crossings, as 
 they are called. There are about 625 of these subways in Chicago. 
 The railroad companies will be forced to install and maintain 
 lamps in 275 of these subways, the city being required to light 
 the remaining 350. After an investigation a standard of one 
 16-c.p. lamp for each 400 sq. ft. of inclosed subway area was 
 decided upon as sufficient. 
 
 Chicago was operating on Dec. 31, 1912, 13,830 arc lamps and 
 862 series tungsten lamps. The city also rented 920 arc lamps 
 and 63 tungsten lamps from the Commonwealth Edison Company. 
 The average number of arc lamps owned and operated wholly by 
 the city during the year was 12,735. The average cash cost of 
 the operation and #iaintenance of these 12,735 lamps is given as 
 $34.26 per lamp per year. This sum does not include interest, 
 depreciation, lost taxes, rent of offices in the City Hall, rental of 
 poles belonging to other companies, nor the cost of work done for 
 the Department of Electricity by other branches of the city gov- 
 ernment. Adding these to the " cash cost," the total cost per lamp 
 per year is placed at $60.32. Of this $13.52 is credited to depre- 
 ciation and $7.65 to interest. The contract price of rented arc 
 lamps is $75 a year. 
 
 Analyzing the $34.26 given as the cash cost for operation and 
 maintenance, the largest item is $10.60 paid for electrical energy 
 to the Sanitary District. The next largest item of cost is $9.39. 
 for lamp trimming, while repairs to circuits, conduits and posts 
 cost $6.59, and carbons $2.84. The total cost of maintaining the 
 municipal electric street-lighting system of the city in 1912 was 
 $432,335. 
 
 Depreciation is figured at the following rates applied to original 
 cost: Buildings, 1.08%; steam equipment, 4.1%; electrical equip- 
 ment, 4.7%; repair-shop equipment, 10%; lamps, 6.66%; circuits, 
 4%; conduits, 3%; posts, 3.5%. The general interest charge is 
 figured at 4% on the value of the electric-light system less the 
 amount payable to the Sanitary District. 
 
 The number of gas lamps in use for street lighting on Dec. 
 31, 1912, was 15.740 and the number of gasoline lamps 8,678. The 
 total number of municipal street lamps of all kinds in service in 
 Chicago on Dec. 31. 1912, was 40.259. 
 
 Cost of Street Lighting in New York City. In his annual report 
 for 1914 William Williams, commissioner of the Department of 
 Water Supply, Gas and Electricity of the city of New York, shows 
 the saving effected in the lighting of streets, parks and public 
 
1040 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 buildings by the substitution of incandescent for arc lamps. At 
 the beginning of 1914 there were 2,643 miles of street and 19 
 square miles of parks to be lighted. There were over 40,000 electric 
 lamps and 45,000 gas lamps. In round numbers, the cost of light- 
 ing the streets and parks of Greater New York was $3,382,000 in 
 1913. The city has contracts for street and park lighting with 
 the various companies. The term of the contract is limited by 
 statute to one year. The rates for nitrogen-filled tungsten lamps 
 in Manhattan during 1915 are $70 a year for the 300-watt lamps 
 and $77 a year for the 400-watt lamps. The cost of arc lamps was 
 reduced from $90 to $85. Rates equally favorable were obtained 
 in the other boroughs. At the time of the report over 13,000 gas- 
 filled incandescent lamps were burning on the streets of the city, 
 including all its boroughs. 
 
 Cost of Installing and Operation of Gas Filled Street Lights at 
 Titusville, Pa. Electrical World, November 23, 1916, states that 
 very favorable impressions have been received from the installation 
 of series gas-filled lamps for street lighting service at Titusville, 
 Pa. The old system consisted of Wood double-carbon open-arc 
 lamps and some series incandescent and gas-filled lamps supplied 
 with energy from a Brush arc machine. The present system, 
 which includes the equipment given in Table III, was adopted 
 after a study of the results obtained with series and multiple units. 
 In this investigation 9.6-amp. nitrogen-filled units were connected 
 in series with some of the old open-arc lamps. With this ar- 
 rangement, the incandescent lamps were subjected to very un- 
 favorable conditions due to the arc lamps sticking and producing 
 current surges. Despite this severe test, some of the gas-filled 
 lamps operated for eight months without attention or renewal. Al- 
 though very satisfactory results were also obtained with multiple 
 gas-filled units, the series system was adopted because it did not 
 require radical changes in the existing distribution system and 
 for other reasons. 
 
 In the new system, which includes 150 400-cp. lamps and 28 
 600-cp. units, the larger lamps are placed at points where the 
 traflfilc is dense and the shade deep, 112 units being supported on 
 mast arms and the remainder on center suspensions. Formerly, 
 cables were used to support each lamp, but this has gradually been 
 replaced by No. 3 Oneida chain, until now all are so equipped. 
 Some of the chain has been in service 7 years without showing 
 break or deterioration. 
 
 The use of reels for raising lamps has also been discontinued. 
 As a substitute, galvanized iron half cleats have been attached to 
 each pole, with the points downward, so galvanized-iron rings linked 
 to the lamp chains can be hooked thereto. The weight of the 
 fixture is sufficient to secure the ring in place against any or- 
 dinary effort to unhook it. To minimize the unauthorized handling 
 of the hoisting equipment, the cleats are placed as high on the 
 pole as can be conveniently reached, and a window cord with a 
 snap hook is used to lower the fixture. With this arrangement 
 only about one-half of the amount of chain formerly used is re- 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1041 
 
 quired, resulting in a much safer support and a neater appearance. 
 Since the new fixtures are somewhat lighter than the old ones, 
 and do not have to be lowered usually more than five or six times 
 annually, the strain on the supporting equipment is considerably 
 decreased. To make the entire overhead equipment more substantial 
 and sightly, . and at the same time facilitate raising and lowering 
 of the lamps, the old wooden and pipe mast-arm sets have been 
 replaced by " Pierce " galvanized-iron arms 8 ft. in length. 
 
 All lamps burnt out are replaced at once if reported prior to 
 9 p. M. The reporting of lamp outrages has been greatly facilitated 
 by instructing policemen and firemen and all city employees to 
 give the exact location of burned-out lamps as soon as discovered. 
 Citizens are requested to do the same. Data regarding the lamps 
 are kept in card index files. From a study of past records kept on 
 these cards, made after the system had been in operation 252 
 nights or 2,520 burning hours, it was found that 21% of the 
 lamps originally installed were still in service, and showed no 
 marked depreciation in efficiency, despite their having been guar- 
 anteed for only 1,350 burning hours. The majority of these lamps 
 were 600-c.p. units, indicating that the larger units have the long- 
 est life. Ninety-one lamps exceeded the guaranteed life by a tq^al 
 of 64,890 hrs., or an average of 713 hrs. each. Eighty-seven lamps 
 fell short of the guaranteed life by a total of 20,680 hrs., an average 
 of 237 hrs. each. This analysis covers all short-hour lamps, de- 
 fective or otherwise. 
 
 Since the new fixtures are somewhat shorter than the old arc- 
 lamp fixtures, they hang closer to the pulley, thereby raising the 
 source of light somewhat. The average elevation is 25 ft., although 
 this figure has been exceeded or decreased at a few points. At 
 this height the refractor shades project the light practically to the 
 center of the blocks, which are slightly more than 400 ft. long. In 
 the alleys the lamps are hung midway between the blocks. Owing 
 to the double loop suspension afforded by the use of the absolute 
 cutouts in connection with the fixtures, they always hang plumb. 
 In addition to installing the regular street lamps an attempt was 
 made to encourage the use of ornamental post fixtures in the busi- 
 ness district by installing three single-lamp posts with diffusion 
 globes in front of the city hall and one in front of the public 
 library. The use of natural gas for illuminating the waterworks 
 plant has been discontinued and electric service substituted. An- 
 other improvement made about the same time was the provision 
 of a chemical rectifier for charging storage batteries on the fire 
 alarm system. This apparatus, which has been in operation sev- 
 eral months, eliminates the necessity of a motor-generator set, re- 
 quires very little attention and has been furnishing excellent service. 
 The saving in energy expen.se alone has been said to be $8 a month. 
 
 While the fixed expenses of the new system, such as salaries, 
 maintenance and operation, average about the same with the old 
 system, the wear on lamp suspensions has been considerably re- 
 duced and there is a perceptible reduction in the quantity of coal 
 consumed during the operation of the lamps. With the old system. 
 
1042 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 two men at $2 a day each were required^ to trim the arc lamps. 
 Including occasional extra help, the labor therefor amounted to 
 about $1,500 a year. The supply of carbons, globes, repair parts, 
 brush copper, and the constant overhauling and adjustment of the 
 fixtures cost $1,500, as near as can be estimated. These items have 
 been eliminated, however, with the new system, since the annual 
 supply of lamps has been cared for by the contract which calls for 
 
 TABLE V. COST OF EQUIPMENT AT TITUSVILLE, PA. 
 
 Generators and exciters $2,050.00 
 
 Two 900-r.p.m., 3-phase, 60-cycle, 2400-volt revolving 
 field, belted type Westinghouse alternators ; and two 
 1000-r.p.m., 125-volt, compound wound, multipolar 
 belted-type exciters having 25% higher rating than re- 
 quired by the alternators. 
 
 Constant current regulators and transformers 1,200.85 
 
 Three 30-35-kva., single-phase, 60-cycle, constant-cur- 
 rent regulating transformers, with 2400-volt primaries 
 and 6.6-amp., air-cooled secondaries. 
 
 Switchboards and equipment 1,100.00 
 
 Complete station and substation switchboards equipped 
 with all necessary instruments, switches, etc. (West- 
 inghouse.) 
 
 Street fixtures and cutouts 1,870.00 
 
 180 series incandescent street fixtures (Adams Bagnall 
 Abolites) equipped with General Electric absolute cut- 
 outs. 20-in. concentric-ring reflectors, and 8.5 in. 
 double-prismatic refractors. Fixtures and cutouts both 
 wired with 18 ins. of No. 8 high-tension stranded wire, 
 and furnished with four brass-wire connectors having 
 brass screws. 
 
 Lightning arresters and posts 447.28 
 
 Lightning arresters for station and substation com- 
 plete, and four cast-iron ornamental single-lamp posts. 
 (Westinghouse and Cutter posts.) 
 
 Lamps 1,107.98 
 
 Two complete installations of 6.6-amp., 400 and 600-cp. 
 nitrogen-filled lamps, and 200-watt multiple lamps for 
 post fixtures. (Colonial.) 
 
 Installation, including inspection, supplies, readjustment of 
 these circuits to balance the phases, labor, building out 
 for new lights and the removal of old system 1,214.27 
 
 Total $8,990.38 
 
 their replacement. So far the records indicate that the replace- 
 ment of lamps will not exceed $1,600 a year. The city electrician 
 now attends to the entire system, excepting the station, additional 
 help being employed only for heavy repairs and building lines for 
 new lamps. These arrangements have permitted an annual saving 
 of $1,4 00 a year aside from that represented by the improved fuel 
 economy, the more efficient method of charging storage batteries, 
 and lighting of the waterworks, which can be estimated at a total 
 of $2,000 annually. 
 
 Between the award of the contract and the arrival of the new 
 equipment a new brick and concrete substation was erected in the 
 center of the city large enough to accommodate the street lighting 
 switching and voltage control equipment, and also an office for the 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 
 
 1043 
 
 city electrician. The building of the substation was more than 
 paid for by the sale of old equipment removed from the street 
 lighting system and sold for scrap. The generating equipment was 
 installed in the city waterworks building, where a 175-hp. Russell 
 steam engine was used to drive the generators. 
 
 Cost of Gas and Electric Lighting Compared. In a large Ameri- 
 can city where the price of gas is 80 cts. net and the price of 
 electricity 10, 5 and 3 cts. net employees of the electric-service 
 company have made up interesting tables to show the comparative 
 costs of gas and electric lighting on the basis of equivalent illumina- 
 tion. These data, given in Electrical World, Aug. 8, 1914, are 
 shown in Tables V and VI. 
 
 TABLE VI. COST OF GAS LIGHTING 
 (Gas at 80 cts. per 1000 cu. ft. Does not include mantles) 
 
 Hours' use 
 
 Single reflex 
 
 Four mantle 
 inverted arc 
 
 Standard 
 welsbach 
 
 Four mantle 
 upright arc 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 $0.0059 
 .0089 
 .0119 
 .0149 
 
 $0.0178 
 .0298 
 .0418 
 .0538 
 
 $0.0073 
 .0117 
 .0161 
 .0205 
 
 $0.0234 
 .0410 
 .0586 
 .0762 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 .0179 
 .0209 
 .0239 
 .0269 
 
 .0658 
 .0778 
 .0898 
 .1018 
 
 .0249 
 .0293 
 .0337 
 .0381 
 
 • .0938 
 .1114 
 .1290 
 .1466 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 .0299 
 .0329 
 .0359 
 .0389 • 
 
 .1138 
 .1258 
 .1378 
 .1498 
 
 .0425 
 .0469 
 .0513 
 .0557 
 
 .1642 
 .1818 
 .1994 
 .2170 
 
 TABLE VII. COST OF ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR EQUIVALENT 
 ILLUMINATION GIVEN IN TABLE VI 
 
 (At rate of 10 
 
 5 and 3 cts. 
 
 per kw-hr. 
 
 net, including lamp renewals) 
 
 
 One 
 
 One 
 
 One 
 
 One 
 
 Hours' use 
 
 40-watt 
 
 100-watt 
 
 150-watt 
 
 250-watt 
 
 1 
 
 $0.0040 
 
 $0.0100 
 
 $0.0150 
 
 $0.0250 
 
 2 
 
 .0060 
 
 .0150 
 
 .0225 
 
 .0375 
 
 3 
 
 .0072 
 
 .0180 
 
 .0270 
 
 .0450 
 
 4 
 
 .0084 
 
 .0210 
 
 .0315 
 
 .0525 
 
 5 
 
 .0096 
 
 .0240 
 
 .0360 
 
 .0600 
 
 6 
 
 .0108 
 
 .0270 
 
 .0405 
 
 .0657 
 
 7 
 
 .0120 
 
 .0300 
 
 .0450 
 
 .0750 
 
 8 
 
 .0132 
 
 .0330 
 
 .0495 
 
 .0825 
 
 9 
 
 .0144 
 
 .0360 
 
 .0540 
 
 .0900 
 
 10 
 
 .0156 
 
 .0390 
 
 .0585 
 
 .0975 
 
 11 
 
 .0168 
 
 .0420 
 
 .0630 
 
 .1050 
 
 12 
 
 .0180 
 
 .0450 
 
 .0675 
 
 .1125 
 
 Comparative Costs of Gas and Electricity for Illuminating Pur- 
 poses. B. K. Cash before the Indiana Gas Association in 1915 
 states that among the vast number of conditions that have a bear- 
 ing on artificial illumination are : The different classes and scales 
 
1044 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of rates, the innumerable types and sizes of units using either gas 
 or electricity, and above all the local and specific conditions under 
 which artificial light is obtained and operatM, as, the space to be 
 lighted, height and color of the walls and ceilings, the nature and 
 requirements of the business using the light, quality of light de- 
 sired, and the taste and fancies of the consumer ; these all have 
 to be determined locally. The usual information needed on costs 
 are only those of installation, maintenance and operation. 
 
 The rates here used are those in force in Indiana. The average 
 electric rate for commercial and domestic lighting in all cities of 
 over 10,000 population — including municipal owned plants — is 
 7.9 cts. per kw.-hr. The average maximum rate charged for 
 artificial gas in 18 cities of over 10,000 population, or all those 
 using straight artificial gas, is $0.97 per 1,000 ft. Taking these 
 figures as a basis it would be fair to use $0.08 per k.w.-hr. as the 
 average electric rate, and $1 per 1,000 cu. ft. as the average gas 
 rate. 
 
 TABLE VIII. AVERAGE COST PER C.P. OF ELECTRICITY 
 AND GAS 
 
 ELECTRIC RATE $0.08 PER K.W.-HR. 
 
 Hourly 
 
 Estimate con- ' Cost Cost per 
 
 Lamp candle sumption, per candle power 
 
 power watts hour hour 
 
 46 Watt Tungsten . 34 40 .0032 .000094 
 
 150 Watt Tungsten 134 150 .012 .000089 
 
 200 Watt Nitrogen 240 200 .016 .000066 
 
 740 Watt Nitrogen 1150 750 .06 .000052 
 
 Average cost per c. p. $0.000075. 
 
 GAS RATE $1 PER M. CU. FT. 
 
 Hourly 
 
 Estimate con- Cost Cost per 
 
 Lamp candle sumption, per candle power 
 
 power cu. ft. hour hour 
 
 No. 3 Reflex 85 3.6 .0036 .000042 
 
 No. 10 Indoor Lamp 228 9.0 .009 .000039 
 
 3 Mantle Invert. Arc... 439 15.0 .015 .000036 
 
 5 Mantle Invert. Arc. . 632 25.0 .025 .000039 
 Average cost per c.p. $0.000039. 
 
 Table VIII has been compiled to show the average cost per 
 candle power of electricity and gas. The figures shown are gen- 
 eral, such as are used and accepted as applying to ordinary work- 
 ing conditions. Data are given on four of the most efficient lamps, 
 from smaller units to the larger; their estimated c.p. and approxi- 
 mate hourly consumption, and from this the average cost per c.p. 
 per hr. is determined. 
 
 Thus it is shown that it is possible at present day rates and with 
 modern equipment to produce an equal amount of light with gas 
 at about one-half the cost of electricity. 
 
 The field of out-door lighting is no.t entered on a large scale by 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1045 
 
 gas companies owing to the low electric rate made for this class 
 of business. Quite an amount of outside store lighting is obtainable 
 by means of the gas arc, and some companies are considering the 
 advisability of installing such lamps in commercial districts on a 
 revised flat rate basis as a profitable means of increasing their 
 output. The plan is to figure the monthly consumption of the 
 lamp, using the number of hours it would be lighted, and from 
 this find the cost of gas consumed. To this add a reasonable 
 amount for cleaning, lighting, extinguishing, repairing and de- 
 preciation, and overhead expense. Then from this total determine 
 the net amount to be charged the consumer each month. The cost 
 of installation is handled the same as any other construction ac- 
 count, mains, service or meter work, for the piping and lamps 
 remain the property of the company and furnish service whenever 
 required. An idea of the revenue to be gained along these lines 
 is shown by the fact that a 3-mantle inverted out-door arc operated 
 from dusk until 10 p. m. will consume in a year 22,380 cu. ft., and 
 if burned until midnight, 33,330 cu. ft. 
 
 In residence lighting one of the strongest points in favor of gas 
 is the increased amount of light obtainable for the money expended. 
 Charges for installing gas and electricity in residences depend en- 
 tirely on the grade of work desired and the scheduled prices in 
 force. The average prices for piping and wiring are about equal. 
 While a stated length of wiring can be run somewhat cheaper than 
 same amount of pipe, the difference in this cost about equals 
 the charge for accessories and extra runs for switches. In other 
 words, the cost per outlet for either gas or electricity is practically 
 the same. The fact that it is important to have all new buildings 
 piped throughout for gas needs great emphasis. This really forms 
 the keynote in securing additional home lighting. No matter 
 whether the system used in a residence is gas or electricity, it is 
 hard to induce the owner to undergo the tearing up required to 
 change that system. So it is imperative that the established sys- 
 tem be gas. "While some lighting is secured by placing outlets in 
 kitchens from fuel lines, and on first floors for portable lamps and 
 bracket lights, yet to get the bulk of this business each room 
 t'hould be fitted with properly placed outlets to meet all require- 
 ments. 
 
 The cost of maintaining gas lighting in residences is a nominal 
 one, and controlled largely by the installation. In a properly in- 
 stalled system of modern equipment, the cost of upkeep is greatly 
 reduced over the old style burners. Breakage of mantles and 
 glassware has been lessened in the newer lamps, which with the 
 late reduction in the purchase price of mantles assists in mini- 
 mizing the cost of maintenance. Where glassware is used with 
 electric lamps the maintenance cost runs about the same as that 
 of gas. The difference in favor of electricity in maintaining the 
 lamps, about takes care of the repair charges on switches and the 
 mechanical parts. To aid the lighting service, some companies 
 have established a free house maintenance and_ inspection at stated 
 intervals. They find it gives better satisfaction to both the com- 
 
1046 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 pany and consumer. Such a service can be made self-sustaining 
 by the profit made in the sale of material ; and at the same time 
 helping to introduce modern equipment and stimulating the con- 
 sumption of the lamps by keeping them in condition. 
 
 Electricity versus Gas for Street Lighting. T. Osborne in Elec- 
 trical World, Dec. 14, 1912, gives the results of English tests by 
 H. T. Harrison and J. A. Body as follows : 
 
 Two important streets were selected in the heart of the city, one 
 lighted by electricity and the other by gas, and four lamps on each 
 were subjected to close examination. The arc lamps are suspended 
 along the center of the street, at a clear height of 27 ft. 6 ins. 
 and at the following distances apart, 114 ft. 7 ins., 116 ft. and 
 132 ft. Tests were made from three sets of positions at a height 
 of 15 ins. from the ground, (1) directly below each lamp, (2) at 
 the center of the street half way between each lamp, (3) on the 
 curbstones of the footpath half way between each of the lamps. 
 These tests were for horizontal illumination. Direct-illumination, 
 or candle-power, tests were made 4 ft. from the ground at the 
 positions mentioned above and, in addition; at positions 6 ft. 6 ins. 
 from a perpendicular from each lamp. The gas lamps were placed 
 closer together, the distances ranging from 98 ft. 6 ins. to 118 ft. 
 6 ins. The lamps tested are of the " Metroplane " magazine flame- 
 arc pattern, with clear inner globes and opalescent outer globes. 
 
 The electric lamps are connected eight in series on a. 400-volt 
 circuit, obtained from the ordinary distributing network supplied 
 by the municipal plant. Each lamp takes an average of 583 watts, 
 and the circuits are so arranged that every alternate lamp can be 
 switched off when desired. The cost of the electric lamps is con- 
 siderably less than that of gas lamps. The cost for electrical 
 energy, depending as it does on the load factor, varies for the 
 half-night lamps, which burn only 2,000 hrs. per annum, and the 
 all-night lamps, which burn 4,000 hrs., being 2.14 cts. per k.w.-hr. 
 for the former and 1.31 cts. per k.w.-hr. for the latter. Thus for 
 one hour the cost for electrical energy would be (a) Half-night 
 lamps, 583 watts, at 2.14 cts. per k.w.-hr.. 1.248 cts. ; (b) all-night 
 lamps, 583 watts, at 0.655 ct. per kw.-hr., 0.764 ct. 
 
 To this must be added the cost of carbon electrodes and labor. 
 Each lamp contains fourteen pairs of carbon electrodes, which 
 during the tests exceeded five burning hours per pair. These elec- 
 trodes as used at present cost $18.24 per 1,000 pairs; it follows 
 that one hour costs 0.36 ct. It takes two men 15 mins. to trim 
 and clean each lamp. A trimmer and an assistant are employed, 
 earning respectively 14 cts. and 12 cts. per hr. Thus the trimming 
 and cleaning, should the lamps be cleaned once in 50 hrs., would 
 be 12 cts. per hr. Together with an allowance for repairs and 
 for maintenance, this makes the total cost per hr. for the electric 
 flame-arc lamp as shown in Table IX. 
 
 As lighting and extinguishing are automatically carried out by 
 time switches, no charge has been allotted for this service. The 
 relative capital cost of the plant and apparatus is as follows : 
 The four arc lamps tested are a portion of sixteen along the same 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1047 
 
 TABLE IX. TOTAL COST PER HOUR FOR FLAME-ARC LAMP 
 
 Half-night 
 
 lamps, cts. 
 per hr. 
 
 Electrical energy 1.250 
 
 Electrodes 0.360 
 
 Labor 0.120 
 
 Sundries 0.070 
 
 Total 1.800 1.400 
 
 street, which, including all accessories, are stated to have cost 
 erected $2,707, equal to $170 per lamp. 
 
 The high-pressure gas lamps compare very unfavorably, as the 
 total cost of the lamps, lanterns, poles, suspension and all ac- 
 cessories erected amounted to $933, equal to $233 per lamp. These 
 figures do not include any amount for series street-lighting mains 
 in the case of the arc lamps, or any for high-pressure gas mains 
 or compressor plant. This obvious flaw is due to the peculiar 
 system of accounts kept by the public authorities. The experts 
 who tested the lamps commented on the absence of these items. 
 The capital cost per mile of street would be as follows : For the 
 arc lamps, 43.6 to the mile, $7,532.08 ; for the high-pressure gas 
 lamps, 49.34 to the mile, $11,841.60. The relative constancy and 
 reliability of the light sources were the next points to be con- 
 sidered. During the two months in which the four electric and 
 four gas lamps were under inspection the maximum variations, 
 exclusive of extinctions, were as follows: (a) Any one of the 
 electric lamps, from 4,400 cp. to 2,420 cp. ; all the arc lamps, from 
 4,400 cp. to 2,400 cp. ; (b) any one of the gas lamps, from 2,058 
 cp. to 686 cp. ; all the gas lamps, from 2,475 cp. to 686 cp. It is 
 essential to point out that these variations frequently continued 
 over only a short period and that they are not often noticeable, 
 thus showing that the variation in illuminating power of the gas 
 lamps is more than that of the electric lamps. The total number 
 of complete extinctions noted by the experts during the two months' 
 period was as follows : Arc lamps, June 14, one lamp out for 8 
 mins. ; July 19, one lamp out for 20 mins. Gas lamps, June 16, 
 one lamp out for 20 mins. ; June 18, one lamp out for 60 mins. ; 
 June 23, one lamp out all night; July 21, one lamp out all night. 
 The electric lamps thus worked in a more reliable manner. In 
 comparing these results and failures it is essential to add that 
 half the arc lamps burn all through the night ; that is, twice the 
 number of hours of the gas lamps. It follows, therefore, that the 
 electric lamps are considerably more than twice as serviceable for 
 street lighting, from this point of view, as the gas lamps. The 
 difference in the degree of illumination throughout the streets, irre- 
 spective of the variations in the candle-power of the light source, 
 was 4.5% for the arc lamps and 4.8% for the gas lamps. It will 
 be noted, therefore, that there is little to choose between the gas 
 lamps and the electric arc lamps in this respect. 
 
 It may be interesting to work out the reduction of costs to a 
 
1048 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 common basis of candle-power and illumination. The comparison 
 on an equal basis of cost may be made as follows : From the 
 details given it will be noted that for a cost of 1.4 cts. per hr. 
 the arc lamps give an illuminating value averaging 2,970 cp. — 
 that is, at the important angles, namely, 20 degs. to 25 degs. from 
 the horizontal ; while the gas lamps give under similar conditions 
 only 1,750 cp., at the cost of 3 cts. per hr. Thus the candle-power 
 at a cost of 3 cts. would work out as follows : Electricity at a 
 cost of 3 cts. per hr. gives 6,364 cp. ; gas at a cost of 3 cts. per 
 hr. gives 1,750 cp., or electric lainps giving 2,970 cp. cost 1.4 cts. 
 per hr. and gas lamps giving 2,970 cp. cost 5.08 cts. per hr. 
 
 From a comparison on an equal basis of illumination the arc 
 lamps also have an advantage. Dealt with from this point of 
 view the distances at which the lamps are spaced comes into the 
 calculation, and as this varies owing to local conditions it will be 
 desirable to take a unit length of street, say 1 mile, and to ascer- 
 tain the number of lamps of either type which would be necessary 
 to give the same illumination. As the arc lamps when spaced at 
 an average distance of 121 ft., or 43.6 to the' mile, produce a mini- 
 mum illumination of 0.5 foot-candle when giving an average of 
 2,970 cp. at a cost of $1,220 per annum while burning for 2,000 
 hrs., it will be found by a simple calculation that 54 gas lamps 
 giving an average of 1,750 cp. will be required to produce the 
 same result, placing them in an inferior position as compared with 
 the electric lamps. Further, as the gas lamps cost 3 cts. per hr. — 
 equal to $60 per lamp per annum — when burning 2,000 hrs., the 
 comparison works out as follows : Cost per mile minimum illumina- 
 tion, 0.5 foot-candle; for four arc lamps, $1,220; for four gas 
 lamps, $3,240. 
 
 TABLE X. COMPARATIVE COST OF ARC LAMPS AND GAS 
 
 LAMPS 
 
 Arc lamps Gas lamps 
 
 Candle-power of lamps . 2970 1750 
 
 Number of lamps to the mile 43.6 49.34 
 
 Running costs per lamp per hour up to 
 
 11 :30 p. m 1.4 cents 3 cents 
 
 Capital cost per mile of streets $7,531 $12,177 
 
 Running cost 1,000 cp.-hours 0.475 cents 1.714 cents 
 
 Cost per annum per mile equal illumi- 
 nation $1,220 $3,240 
 
 Minimum illumination basis of com- 
 parison 0.5 ft.-candle 0.39 ft.-candle 
 
 Cost per mile of street per annum up to 
 
 11 :30 p. m. at above illumination. . $1,220 $2,960 
 
 In the figures given above the cost of energy in the electric 
 lamps is taken at the all-night rate. "When they are taken at 
 the half -night rate the cost would amount to $1,508. A general 
 comparison of the two systems of lighting after 11 :30 p. m. is 
 interesting. The figures given above apply only up to the time 
 when the gas lamps are turned out and every alternate arc lamp 
 is shut off. When the gas lamps are put out the ordinary gas 
 lamps of the old system, which is being gradually superseded, are 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1049 
 
 relied upon. After 11 .-30 p. M. the comparisons of cost for equal 
 illumination are still more diverse, as in the case of the gas-lighted 
 street in which the tests were made the low-pressure gas lamps, 
 of which there would be eighty to the mile, and the cost of which 
 cannot be taken at less than $9.60 per lamp per annum, give a 
 minimum illumination of only 0.004 foot-candle for a cost of $768 
 per annum ; whereas the alternate arc lamps give a minimum of 
 0.08 foot-candle, 20 times as much, at about the same cost. 
 
 Maintenance Costs of Arc Lamps for Street Lighting. L. L. 
 Elden of the Boston Edison company before the Massachusetts 
 Gas and Electric Light Commission in 1916 stated that for an 
 average of 4,489 6.6-amp. magnetite arc lamps in service the yearly 
 cost of trimming per Imp was $9.94. The number of lower elec- 
 trodes required was 277,726 and the average number of trims per 
 year per lamp was 61.2. There were 3,828 hrs. of burning. The 
 average service life per low electrode was 62.5 hrs., 70 hrs. being: 
 the maximum observed. No salvage is realized on the electrode 
 stubs. The longest trim period, occurring in July, was about nine 
 days. The route schedules for the various trimmers from week 
 to week are made out by the head of the trimming department, 
 who delivers the schedules to the stockroom at the headquarters of 
 the work for the entire system of about 700 sq. miles. Requisi- 
 tions for electrodes are signed by a representative of the installa- 
 tion or trimming department, who is in charge of the trimmers, 
 after which the electrodes are taken from the stockroom to the 
 loading platform, sorted and delivered by stock boys according to 
 cabinets assigned to each trimmer. The stock boys apportion the 
 electrodes according to routes, number of lamps per route and 
 trimming period, and when the trimmers arrive at the plant before 
 beginning a day's work no time is lost in waiting for electrodes. 
 
 An average yearly consumption of globes for the above number 
 of lamps is 11,752, or 2.6 globes per lamp-year. Frequent changes 
 are required by heavy slagging and pitting of globes, due to the 
 mineralized material of the electrodes being thrown against the 
 side of the globe. This is a cumulative process, and finally results 
 in a bad appearance from the street. One standard size and shape 
 of globes is used for magnetite lamps of the standard type through- 
 out the system. Eighty-five per cent, of the globes are destroyed 
 after being removed from the lamps, the remainder being cleaned 
 of slag and soot and discoloration and used again. The yearly 
 maintenance cost of the above lamps also includes an outlay of $445 
 for lamp parts, such as burned electrode holders, screws, globe- 
 holder rings, etc. 
 
 The transportation cost incurred in trimming lamps in Boston 
 was $7,298. The total pro-rated labor cost in trimming in Bos- 
 ton proper was $11,108 for 15 trimmers and $2,250 for part time 
 of clerks, stockmen and trouble, men, or a total of $13,358. Eleven 
 trimmers are engaged in regular service on regular routes ; 1 trim- 
 mer does nothing but change upper electrodes, and 2 spare men 
 are carried on the payroll. The copper electrodes are changed 
 about once a year, the estimated life being 4,000 hrs. Trimmers 
 
1050 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 average 95 pole-type lamps per day each on regular routes. 
 Twenty-four bracket-type lamps represents a day's work for a 
 trimmer on account of their scattered location and the necessity 
 for using an extension ladder in most cases. 
 
 A 6-day trim period exists during most, of December and Janu- 
 ary. An automobile is of little use on trimming in congested 
 districts compared with a horse and wagon. Trimmers report at 
 7 A. M. and report back at headquarters at 4 p. M^ no circuit being 
 operated until the afternoon repart comes in. The total trimming 
 labor was 4,490 days, for which the men were paid on an average 
 $2.22 a day. Additional labor charges at a different rate were as 
 follows : New trimmers were employed, requiring breaking in, 
 aggregating 126 days at $2 each. There were also three men em- 
 ployed during the year to make a general overhaul of the mag- 
 netite lamps on the system, the charge for their time in Boston 
 proper being $1,071. The grand total trimming charge for labor 
 was $12,401. The number of upper electrodes changed was 3,893. 
 During the year the company repaired 5,516 magnetite lamps. 
 The average price paid for lower electrodes was 5 cts. 
 
 Experience with Thoran Arcs. Referring to the 1.60 0-cp. direct- 
 current Thoran arc lamps of 500-watt rating used in the illumina- 
 tion of various public squares, Mr. Elden said that the cost of 
 trimming, patrolling and labor per lamp is about $242 per year, 
 the trimming costing $142. The income per lamp is only $148. 
 The company did not anticipate a loss on these lamps when they 
 were first placed in service. They were installed on account of 
 the desire of the city to light large areas more economically than 
 was feasible by the standard magnetite lamp. The performance 
 was erratic, two trims a night being necessary at times. One 
 such lamp usually replaced three or four magnetites. Owing to 
 the high cost of operation the company has lately discouraged 
 their extension, and at present but 24 are in service out of a 
 maximum of about 40. The chief element of cost is the labor 
 required to maintain continuous service. The lamps are widely 
 scattered, and this increases the cost of patrolling and trimming. 
 The lamps have to be changed frequently, brought into the shop 
 for overhauling and repairs, and trimmed nightly. Mr. Elden esti- 
 mated a fair price for these lamps under present conditions at 
 about $325 per year each. This figure is based upon an investment 
 average of $625 (the unit cost which the Boston Edison company 
 figures for its entire street lighting system per arc lamp), with a 
 fixed cost of $82.55. 
 
 Cost of Arc Lighting in Lynn, iViass. In Lynn, Mass., according 
 to Electrical World, Sept. 6. 1913, the arc is carried 14.5 ft. above 
 the sidewalk, the post being of the Lundin combination wooden 
 and iron type as required by the Massachusetts laws, with fluted 
 wooden column. There are in the complete installation 150 6.6-amp. 
 ornamental luminous-arc lamps, two ornamental bracket lamps, 
 one combination trolley and twin bracket pole with two lamps of 
 the same type carried at a height of 27.5 ft., ten 4-amp. orna- 
 mental luminous-arc lamps of the parkway type carried at a height 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1051 
 
 of 18 ft., and one 4-amp. ornamental luminous-arc lamp of the 
 residential type with the arc 12 ft. above the sidewalk. Of these, 
 thirty-five 6.6-amp. lamps and all of the 4-amp. lamps burn all 
 nig-ht. The cost to the city is $8,260 for the 6.6-amp. lamps burned 
 until midnight and $2,884 for those burning all night, the parkway 
 lamp service costing $906.40 a year, making a total cost for the 
 entire service of $12,050.40 for the year. The standard pole is 
 mounted on a concrete foundation 2 ft. square at the top, 3 ft. 
 square at the bottom and 3 ft. deep, and each pole is provided with 
 
 TABLE XL DATA ON LYNN (MASS.) ORNAMENTAL 
 LUMINOUS-ARC LAMPS 
 
 "^ C . -^ Trt - 
 
 % % ° ^ d +- .s"" o-^ cii 
 
 ^ ^ S 5^ ^ m ^ "AS, oo ^o 
 
 ;h oj oj > ft ft 3.5^ c.5a; aj.5 
 
 -2 ti s^ g ^ S ^ 111 .sis g5S 
 
 ss-s gS-s ^S-d 
 
 Andrew Street 9 576 34 60.7 4,788 0.24 4.16 1.110 0.260 0.73 
 
 Munroe Street 14 828 32 60.1 7,448 0.28 4.50 1.000 0.275 0.68 
 
 Oxford Street. 11 665 36 55.1 5,852 0.24 4.40 0.990 0.290 0.62 
 
 Market Street 
 before mid- 
 night 38 1686 60 45.2 20,216 0.20 5.60 0.751 0.113 0.42 
 
 Market Street 
 after mid- 
 night 7 1686 60 278.7 3,724 0.037 1.10 0.459 0.0125 0.13 
 
 Market Street 
 from City 
 Hall Square 
 to railroad 
 viaduct ... 33 1260 57 38.9 17,556 0.24 6.97 0.751 0.115 0.47 
 
 Market Street 
 from rail- 
 road via- 
 d u c t to 
 Broad St... 5 426 72 67.0 2,660 0.087 3.12 0.196 0.113 0.15 
 
 an absolute cut-out for lamp disconnection. At present there are 
 165 lamps in actual service, all being operated from mercury-arc 
 rectifiers. The city of Lynn pays for the maintenance of the lamps, 
 the prices being $70 per lamp a year for service until midnight 
 and $82.40 for all-night service. 
 
 The cost of installation per pole was as follows : 
 
 Pole, including- wiring and cut-out $36.00 
 
 Twin cable wiring and absolute cut-out 6.40 
 
 Casing to cover lamp mechanism 4.00 
 
 Excavation and forms for concrete 2.00 
 
 Concrete foundation 7.00 
 
 Replacing broken sidewalks of concrete 2.00 
 
 Painting 1.14 
 
1052 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Teaming 0.50 
 
 Foundation bolts 0.40 
 
 Protective casings on pole 1.64 
 
 Total cost of pole $61.08 
 
 In the previous installation the district was lighted by 45 4-amp. 
 pendent-type luminous-arc lamps burning all night at a yearly cost 
 of $82.40 per lamp, and these were removed in making the "'white 
 way" installation, the city being credited with $3,708. making .the 
 actual increased cost to the city for each year $8,342.40. 
 
 In general the lamps are staggered both on main and cross 
 streets. The quantity and quality of light on the streets is at 
 present probably unequaled, and notwithstanding the great amount 
 of light coming from sources only 14.5 ft. from the ground, there 
 is no glare and persons and objects can readily be distinguished 
 
 Fig. 
 
 300 400 500 
 
 D>stc>»nce, Feet 
 
 600 
 
 7. Horizontal illumination curves for Andrew and Munroe 
 Streets, Lynn. 
 
 from one end of the street to the other. On Market Street, the prin- 
 cipal business thoroughfare of the city, 38 lamps are spaced an 
 average of 38.9 ft. apart. After midnight there are 7 lamps burn- 
 ing the rest of the night. Illumination tests have been made on 
 the principal streets with a Sharp-Millar photometer, readings be- 
 ing made opposite and half way between each lamp down the center 
 line of the street. Readings made on Munroe and Andrew Streets, 
 and the results are shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 Cost of Installing Luminous-Arc Ornamental System. A "white 
 way " lighting !<ystem at (Jreen Bay. Wis., described in Electrical 
 World, Jan. 3. 1914. consists of 24 General Electric 4-amp. luminous- 
 arc lamps extending over a distance of two 750-ft. city blocks. 
 Posts placed opposite each other are installed on both curbs at 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1053 
 
 intervals of 60 ft. At the cross streets lamps are placed on each 
 corner. 
 
 The 24 lamps are supplied with energy from a 75-lamp rectifier, 
 connected into the same circuit with the 48 lamps of the local 
 series magnetite street-lighting system. For the installation of 
 this ornamental lighting system complete, ready to turn on, the 
 cost was as follows : 
 
 1500 ft. No. 6 steel-taped cable $333 
 
 Ornamental posts 492 
 
 High-tension cut-out switch for post 96 
 
 24 4-amp. luminous-arc lamps 840 
 
 Cementing posts and bolting to curb 158 
 
 Chiseling trench, laying cable in curb, and all necessary labor, 
 
 including tunneling streets 540 
 
 $2,459 
 
 For the 24 posts installed the cost complete has averaged ap- 
 proximately $103 per post. The items above entered were taken 
 from the bills and are accurate. While the item of labor is a 
 little high, this heavy construction cost is accounted for by the 
 necessity of tunneling from curb to curb beneath an asphalt-paved 
 street at two different points. In order to lay the cable it was 
 also necessary to chisel between the concrete curb and the side- 
 walk throughout the entire 1,500-ft. distance. This cable is laid 
 at a depth of 4 ins., and is covered with concrete. The method of 
 installing the posts consisted simply in chiseling out, for a depth 
 of 1 in., some of the concrete in the sidewalk to the size of the 
 base of the post. The bolts were then anchored in place, and 
 concrete was poured in the space, the posts being erected while 
 the concrete was fresh. The resulting construction gives the post 
 a solid foundation, besides making a workmanlike job in mounting 
 the base flush with the sidewalk. The cable runs were made be- 
 fore the posts were installed, enough cable being left at each 
 position to make the required connection to the cut-out switch in 
 the base of the post. Access is gained to this switch by means 
 of a hinged door placed in the base. 
 
 The operating charge runs $80 per month, based on a net rate 
 of 5.9 cts. per kw.-hr. The lamps are burned daily from dusk to 
 midnight, which is equivalent to 2,000 hrs. per year. As each lamp 
 consumes about 300 watts, the company figures its own income 
 at $40 per year per lamp, including maintenance, breakage, glass- 
 ware, etc. Following are the figures for the cost of operating and 
 maintaining the system, which agree closely with the preliminary 
 estimates furnished by the manufacturers : 
 
 Energy for 300-watt lamp, 2000 hrs. per year, at 5.9 cts. 
 
 per kw.-hr $35.40 
 
 Trimming and labor per lamp per annum 2.00 
 
 Electrodes per lamp per annum 1-40 
 
 Repairs per lamp per annum, covering 5 years' test 0.20 
 
 Rectifier tubes per lamp per annum 0.33 
 
 Average glassware .renewals per lamp per annum 0.69 
 
 Total cost of energy consumed and maintained per lamp 
 
 per annum i . • • . $40.02 
 
1054 MECHANICAL AND ELECT EPICAL COST DATA 
 
 As an alternative to the luminous-arc system an installation of 
 tungsten ornamental lighting was first proposed for Green Bay, 
 using five-lamp posts, each carrying five 100-watt lamps. At an 
 operating cost of $6 per post the expense for 24 posts would have 
 been $144 per month, or $1,728 per year. For a five-year period 
 the cost would total $8,9 48. In such a tungsten lighting system, 
 however, approximately 40 posts would have been required to take 
 the place of the present 24-post luminous-arc system. With the 
 latter posts, costing $3.34 per month to operate, the yearly expense 
 is but $960, making the expense for five years $4,800. 
 
 Efficiency of Arc Lamps. C. E. Stevens (American Institute of 
 Electrical Engineers, Aug., 1912) divides arc lamps into four types: 
 (1) open carbon arcs; (2) enclosed carbon arcs; (3) metallic flame 
 or luminous arcs; and (4) the enclosed flame-carbon arcs. The 
 first two types have become practically obsolete as street illum- 
 inants. The metallic flame arc has largely replaced the older 
 forms of lamps. The color of the light is white and the distribu- 
 tion shows a maximum candle-power from 15 to 25 degs. below the 
 horizontal. The electrode life averages from 200 to 250 hrs., and 
 the maintenance cost is comparatively low. The efficiency of light 
 production varies from one-half to one watt per candle, depending 
 upon electrode life and glassware equipment. The lamp is oper- 
 ated at from 4 to 7 amps., with an arc voltage of about 70. It 
 operates only on direct current and is ordinarily used on series 
 circuits from constant-current rectifiers. 
 
 The flame-carbon arc lamp has superimposed carbons, which give 
 a life of from 100 to 125 hrs. The carbons are impregnated with 
 a light-giving salt which furnishes a white or yellow light. The 
 light distribution shows a maximum at from 20 to 30 degs. below 
 the horizontal, similar to the metallic flame, which adapts it ad- 
 mirably for lighting streets or large areas. The volume of light 
 is considerably in excess of the metallic flame lamp, and the effi- 
 ciency of light production averages from 0.2 to 0.3 watts per candle. 
 This lamp is the most efficient light source available for street 
 illumination. It has been recently marketed in this country for 
 operation on all commercial circuits, both alternating and direct 
 current. For street illumination a series design is ordinarily used. 
 
 Maintenance of Arc Lamps in Street Lighting. In a paper read 
 before the Armour Institute of Technology Branch of the A. I. E. E., 
 A. B. Cornwell gave the following data on maintenance where a 
 single arc lamp replaces two enclosed arcs for street lighting, costs 
 being for one year : 
 
 Two enclosed One flaming 
 
 arcs arc 
 
 Carbons $2.86 $36.50 
 
 Trimming 2.34 8.21 
 
 Repairs 1.50 0.75 
 
 Inspection 0.90 0.90 
 
 Inner Globe 0.60 
 
 Outer Globe 0.30 0.15 
 
 Total $8.50 $46.51 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1055 
 
 A flaming arc has to be trimmed once a day, while an enclosed 
 arc needs to be trimmed but once a week. 
 
 Comparison of Arc and Incandescent Lighting in a Shop Build- 
 ing. Ward Harrison, of the General Electric Company, Cleve- 
 land, Ohio, submi^tted the following figures in a paper on the light- 
 ing of mill structures before the Association of Iron and Steel 
 Electrical Engineers in 1913. In addition to the arc lamps, the 
 original installation was supplemented by about 50 carbon drop- 
 lamps over the individual machines. These were found unnecessary 
 when the Mazda units were employed. It should also be noted, as 
 pointed out by Mr. Harrison, that in addition to producing a much 
 higher average intensity of light, the distribution from the tung- 
 sten units is far more uniform. The intensity from the arc in- 
 stallation, on the other hand, varied between 0.17 and 4.45 ft.- 
 candles at points which required equally good lighting. In Table 
 XII of data the carbon drop lamps are omitted. 
 
 TABLE XII. DATA ON LIGHTING OF A SHOP BUILDING 
 
 110-volt 
 
 220-volt tungsten 
 
 arc lamps lamps 
 
 Total number of lamps required 16 80 
 
 Height of lamps above floor, ft 10 12.5 
 
 Height of test plane, ft 3,5 3.5 
 
 Lamps per bay 1.25 4 
 
 Watts per lamp 750 150 
 
 Rated specific consumption, watts per candle 1.12 
 
 Area of bay n 2.5 ft. by 49.5 ft.), sq. ft 618 618 
 
 Watts per sq. ft 0.97 0.97 
 
 Average intensity, ft.-candles 1.15 5.25 
 
 Effective lumens, per watt 1.18 5.40 
 
 Annual operating cost per lamp (4000 hours) . . $53.30 $13.85 
 
 Annual operating cost of in.stallation 852.80 1108.00 
 
 Annual cost for equal illumination 3890.00 1108.00 
 
 Economics of Factory Lighting. M. H. Flexner and A. O. Dicker 
 in Engineering Record, Oct. 18, 1913, state that it may be taken 
 for granted that the volume of production in a well-lighted factory 
 will exceed that of the same plant under poor conditions by from 
 8 to 15%, to say nothing of the benefit to the workman and the 
 decreased liability to accident. The authors assume in a typical 
 case that a 100-watt tungsten lamp is required for each man, and 
 that it burns zy^ hrs. per day for 300 days per year under the 
 conditions of electric service prevailing in Chicago, which enable 
 the factory owner to purchase electricity for, say, an average 
 yearly rate of 5 cts, per kw.-hr., with free lamp renewals. Taking 
 the cost of the reflector at $1 and the cost of wiring per outlet at 
 $4, the yearly fixed charges on this investment, with interest at 
 6% and depreciation at 121/4%, amount to only $1. The cost of 
 electricity for the yeajr is then $5, and allowing 3 cts. per lamp per 
 month for cleaning, the total yearly expense reaches $6.36, or 
 0.63%. of a yearly wage of $1,000, which is a very small outlay in 
 proportion to the factory labor cost. Looking at this question 
 
1056 
 
 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 from another angle, and assuming that adequate lighting in a 
 specific case increases the output only 5%, the installation of 90 
 250-watt outlets, fixtures and reflectors at a cost of $517.50 in a 
 factory of 30,000 sq. ft. of working floors will be paid for in much 
 less than a year by the increased profit on the ^.ugmented output, 
 taking the yearly business under the old regime at $83,333, se- 
 cured under artificial light and allowing a 20% profit on the in- 
 creased revenue of $4,166 resulting from the modern installation. 
 In still another instance the cost of light per day, taking all charges 
 
 n 
 
 "i ! 
 
 M 
 
 + + + +■*■*■ 
 12 11 10 9 8 ; 
 
 •*■ + 4- -i- 4- •*■ 
 6 4 3 2 1 
 
 ^— 
 
 ____^.___. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -• 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 u 
 
 - 
 
 ■^ 
 
 — 
 
 J, 
 
 ■;i 
 
 ;^^ 
 
 
 ,•' 
 
 
 
 --J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ♦« +"1 J.I +! +2 +1 
 
 Test Stations r.r. XV> X\\ il! tf> Xu fo 
 
 •3 5 
 
 1 4 
 ■I 
 
 K 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 A 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 tN 
 
 ^ 
 
 .^- 
 
 -- 
 
 -^^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 z\ 
 
 _] 
 
 V- 
 
 "V 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TestSUtions " Ti's ;n ti'o t'^ +s :l 
 
 Fig. 8. Comparison of arc and tungsten lighting. 
 
 into account, came to barely 2 cts. per workman, the wage being 
 $3.50. Under such conditions it is nothing less than absui'd for a 
 factory owner to spend, as was done in a particular case, $18,000 
 for a machine to be run by a high-priced operator of long ex- 
 perience, and then to refuse to spend $19 for lighting equipment 
 in order that the work in process need not b^ taken to a window 
 20 ft. distant for calipering. 
 
 The Cooper Hewitt Light. This lamp differs from other com- 
 mercial lights in that it produces its effect from a bar of luminous 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1057 
 
 vapor instead of from an incandescent solid. Because this method 
 converts less of the energy into heat and more into visible radia- 
 tions or light waves, it has decided elements of economy that are 
 superior to the other types. 
 
 The light is blueish green in color, giving surrounding objects 
 rather a strange and ghastly light at first. It is easy on the eyes 
 and enables close work to be done with sometimes less fatigue 
 than daylight. 
 
 The diffusion of the light is from a large tube instead of from 
 a small point. It does not produce sharply defined shadows and 
 makes less glare than most other illuminants and the cost of 
 maintenance is supposed to be about half that of other commer- 
 cial lamps. 
 
 For those to whom the blueish green color is objectionable the 
 lights may be transformed by a parabolic rhodomain reflector 
 which takes the place of the standard white glazed reflector and 
 is based on the phenomenon of fluorescence. It transforms the 
 light to an agreeable white color with a slight rosy tint. 
 
 The complete lamp outfit consists of tube, refiector-holder and 
 auxiliary. The tube is made of clear glass with electrodes at each 
 end and contains a small quantity of metallic mercury and causing 
 the mercury vapor to glow. 
 
 The reflector holder supports the tube in two clamps and is 
 attached to the auxiliary by pivot screws. The reflecting surface 
 is finished in smooth white glazed enamel. 
 
 The auxiliary is enclosed in a sheet metal casing which is re- 
 movable and which contains two inductance coils and an adjustor 
 resistance by means of which the current must be regulated to the 
 supply voltage. The auxiliaries for series lamps have a shunt 
 resistance and a cut-out. 
 
 The direct current lamps cannot be used on alternating current 
 without the intervening of rectifiers. 
 
 These lamps are made in a variety of sizes and styles, the price 
 here net f. o. b., Hoboken, New York. For 100 to 124 volts at 
 3.5 amps., delivering 700 c.p. (mean hemispherical basis), with 
 refiector ; commercial efficiency, 0.55 watts per candle. (100-124 
 volts, one lamp is installed singly, on 200-248 volts two lamps are 
 installed in series) on one lamp, tube reflector-holder and auxiliary 
 for 100 to 124 volts cost $33. One lamp to be installed in series 
 on 200 to 248 volts costs |34. 
 
 The approximate shipping weight of a single lamp outfit is 110 
 lbs., 6 lamps 400 lbs., and 12 lamps 650 lbs. 
 
 A tilting type is made and listed at $40 for the 124 volt double 
 type. These lamps shipped weigh 725 lbs. The standard length 
 over all is 51.75 ins., length of tube 43.75 ins. The tilting lamp has 
 an over all dimension of 27.75 ins., length of tube 19.75 ins. 
 
 The quartz lamp for outdoor use has the following specifications: 
 Voltage 100 to 125; average current 4 amp.; total watts 440; 
 candle power 1,000; weight complete 27 lbs., packed for domestic 
 shipment 110 lbs. 
 
 The 220 volts type carries an average amount of 3.3 amps. ; 
 
1058 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 delivers 2,400 c.p. at a commercial efficiency of 0.31; weighs com- 
 plete 33 lbs. net, and 115 lbs. packed for domestic shipment; prices 
 $65 and $70 each respectively, covering complete outfit including 
 burner, reflector-holder, auxiliary and globe. 
 
 Lighting of Railroad Stations witii Gas. The following abstract 
 of a paper by G. Hammel was taken from Progressive Age, Jan. 
 1, 1911. Gas is used quite extensively for lighting railroad termin- 
 als, stations and yards. One of the important points to be con- 
 sidered is the height of hanging the lamps on the poles in order 
 to give the best light. Originally, before compressed gas was 
 used, a height of 23 to 26 ft. had to be used for the gas light. At 
 this height an area of 155 to 170 ft. was sufficiently lighted to 
 read faint chalk marks on baggage. Four burners, each of 125 
 c.p., making a total of 500 c.p. light, were sufficient. This power 
 is equal to electric lights of 700 to 800 c.p., and has, moreover, 
 greater radiation and better penetration of air in case of a fog. 
 
 Since compressed air has been placed on the market, conditions 
 are even more in favor of gas lights. The lights can be raised to 
 poles 39 to 46 ft. high with 232 to 265 ft. distance between poles, 
 giving greater horizontal light radiation and better illumination 
 than electric lights. Usually 500 c.p. lights are placed at a height 
 of 25 ft., with the distance between poles 160 to- 180 ft., giving 
 efficient light for any railroad station. 
 
 Connection of gas supply to lamps is best made by automatic 
 connections, as they are easier to attend to and maintain, even 
 though more expensive at first. Now we come to the principal 
 points in this discussion — namely, the first installation costs, the 
 operating costs and the question of service. We are speaking of 
 lights on high poles only. 
 
 Electric Light. On 30 poles for a terminal, each lamp using 
 8 amperes, 600 c.p., at $175 per pole -= $5,250. 
 
 Gas Light. For 30 poles with four burners, inverted gas mantles, 
 using 13 cu. ft. of gas and 500 c.p. (equal to light of electric lights), 
 each $200 — $6,000. In case poles of cheaper construction are 
 used, each costing $150, the cost is only $4,500. This comparative 
 statement shows that the initial expenses for both systems of light 
 are about the same. 
 
 Operating Costs. Electric Light for railroad station with 30 pole 
 lights and 200 electric lamps burning four hours a day. 
 
 30 poles for electric arc lights at 8 amps, and 60u 
 
 c.p. using 500 watts an hr., 6 cts. per kw.-hr. . ,$0.03 
 Carbons per hour 0.003 
 
 $0,033 
 Daily burning four hours equal to 4 X $0,033 = 
 
 $0,132, or per year equal to 30 X 365 X 0.132 = $1,445.40 
 
 200 wire lamps using an hr. 50 watts at 50 c.p. 
 
 each, 6 cts. per kw.-hr $0,003 
 
 Lamp renewal per hour 0.002 
 
 $0,005 
 Daily four hours equal to 4 X 0.005 — $0.02, or 
 
 per year 200 X 365 X .02 = $1,460.00 
 
 A total of $2,905.40 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1059 
 
 Gas Light. The cost of gas is 0.112 cts. per cu. ft., or $1.12 per 
 1,000 cu. ft. of gas. 
 
 30 pole gas lights with normal pressure gas, four 
 
 inverted burners, each using 3.6 cu. ft. gas, or 
 
 a total of 14.4 cu. ft. gas, at 0.112 cents per cu. 
 
 foot, equal to $0,017 
 
 Mantles and chimneys 0.001 
 
 $0,018 
 
 Burning 4 hrs. a day $0,072" 
 
 Per year 30 X 365 X 0.07 $766.50 
 
 200 inverted gas lights, inverted mantles, 80 c.p. 
 
 using 2.4 cu. ft. gas $0,003 
 
 Mantles and chimneys 0.0004 
 
 $0.0034 
 
 Daily 4 hrs. 4 X 0.0034 $0.0136 
 
 Per year 200 X 365 X 0.0136 992.80 
 
 Total of $1,759.30 
 
 Pole lights for 30 pole electric lights $1,445.40 
 
 Pole lights for 30 pole gas lights 766.50 
 
 Gain of 45% $678.90 
 
 Metallic electric lamps $1,460.00 
 
 Gas light, mantles 992.80 
 
 Gain of 30% $467.20 
 
 As regards tending to the lamps, the electric lights up to a short 
 time ago had the advantage, as they could be turned on and off 
 from the central station. But the long-distance lighters now used 
 even up matters in this direction. The drawback to electric lights 
 is that they are wired in series, and when the circuit is broken, 
 all lights are extinguished, whereas in the case of the gas light, 
 half of the lights can be extinguished, leaving the rest burning, 
 giving sufficient light. Carbons of electric lights must be exchanged 
 daily, while gas lamps need only be cleaned once every two or 
 three weeks. 
 
 The Kaufman Lighting System. A system of lighting by means 
 of lamps which vaporize kerosene oil was described in Iron Age, 
 Jan. 23, 1913. 
 
 The method of operation is by pumping the oil into a steel tank 
 made to withstand 10 times the pressure required. The air pres- 
 sure forces the oil from the tank through a small bronze tube, 
 which is very flexible and can be fastened on the ceiling or walls, 
 run underground or strung on poles, and if necessary carried for 
 long distances. A number of lamps located at various points can 
 be supplied from one tank. The tank is provided with an auto- 
 matic check and safety valve which in case of fire in the building 
 releases the pressure and all the oil in the tubing is then drawn 
 back into the tank. Should the tank be directly exposed to the 
 fire the oil will burn out in a vertical flame, and it is claimed that 
 explosion is absolutely impossible. 
 
 The air pressure from the tank forces the oil through the tubing 
 into the vaporizer at the bottom of the lamp. A little time is 
 
1060 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 required, possibly two minutes, to start tlie lamp. This is done 
 by pouring a small quantity of denaturized alcohol in the vaporizer 
 and lighting it, so as to secure the necessary heat to gasify the 
 kerosene. Considerable less time is required in this operation if a 
 plumber's torch is used for heating the vaporizer. The gas thus 
 formed is burned under a strong mantle, creating a light of in- 
 tense purity and brilliancy. 
 
 The light does not flicker, but ■ burns with a steady flame, and 
 is unaffected by wind or a draft which would be liable to extin- 
 guish gas or ordinary vapor lamps. Its great brilliancy enables 
 it to penetrate dust and fumes, such as are encountered in foundries, 
 especially while pouring metal into molds. It is thus especially 
 well adapted for general factory use. It has also been found 
 very effective in outdoor lighting. Based on the current price of 
 kerosene oil, a Kaufman lamp producing 1,200 c.p. is stated to 
 cost about 1/^ ct. per hour, which is below the cost of maintenance 
 of usual lighting systems. 
 
 The vaporizer used in this lamp is made of tungsten steel, nickel, 
 silver and bronze, and while guaranteed for 10 years is almost 
 indestructible. It can be removed from the lamp and cleaned in 
 less than 2 mins. A gallon of kerosene will burn 14 hrs., giving 
 1,200 c.p. and 18 hrs. giving 1,000 c.p. The light can be regulated 
 like city gas. It is made in a -variety of styles for indoor and 
 outdoor use. A contractor's lamp for outdoor use is an independent 
 lighting plant in itself, having a stand made of tubing with a 
 pressure tank at the foot and the light suspended from a hook 
 at the top of the tubing. One form of lamp designed for portable 
 purposes has a small annular tank above the reflector, the whole 
 outfit in this form weighing about 22 lbs., and being easily de- 
 tached from one location and carried to another as required. 
 
 Cost of Lamps. The following lamp costs are based discounts 
 dated Sept., 1915, offered by the National Lamp Works of the Gen- 
 eral Electric Co. 
 
 Discount standard 
 
 package quantities, 
 
 10% without 
 
 contract. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 Net value 
 of contract 
 
 Less than $150 
 
 $ 150 
 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 1,200 
 
 2,500 
 
 5,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 225.000 
 
 300,000 
 
 40 
 
 Discount broken 
 
 package quantities. 
 
 Nothing without 
 
 contract. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 Note : Standard package discounts on all large style Mazda 
 lamps can be given only on orders for exact standard package 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 
 
 1061 
 
 quantities or multiples thereof. It is allowable, however, to com- 
 bine in one standard package, all sizes of large style Mazda lamps 
 having the same standard package quantity. Such lamps may be 
 of different voltages and finish of bulb. 
 
 Mazda Class — Large style — Straight side — Ampere shape type, 
 for 105 to 125 volts, Table XIII. 
 
 TABLE XIII. 
 
 COST OF 
 
 105 TO 125 VOLT LIGHTS. {MI 
 
 
 Efficiency 
 
 Standard 
 
 
 
 Size of lamp 
 
 watts 
 
 package 
 
 List 
 
 price 
 
 in watts 
 
 per candle 
 
 quantity 
 Straight Side 
 
 Clear 
 
 Frosty 
 
 10 
 
 1.25 
 
 100 
 
 $0.27 
 
 $0.30 
 
 15 
 
 1.10 
 
 100 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.30 
 
 20 
 
 1.07 
 
 100 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.30 
 
 25 
 
 1.05 
 
 100 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.30 
 
 40 
 
 1.03 
 
 100 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.30 
 
 60 
 
 1.00 
 
 100 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.40 
 
 100 
 
 0.95 
 
 24 
 Pear-Shape 
 
 0.65 
 
 0.72 
 
 100 
 
 1.00 
 
 24 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.05 
 
 200 
 
 0.90 
 
 24 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.02 
 
 300 
 
 0.82 
 
 24 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.10 
 
 400 
 
 0.82 
 
 12 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.15 
 
 500 
 
 0.78 
 
 12 
 
 4.50 
 
 4.65 
 
 750 
 
 0.74 
 
 8 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.25 
 
 1,000 
 
 0.70 
 
 8 
 
 7.00 
 
 7.25 
 
 TABLE XIV. 
 
 COST OF 
 
 220 TO 250 VOLT LIGHTS (Mi 
 
 
 Efficiency 
 
 Stan.lard 
 
 
 
 Size of lamp 
 
 watts 
 
 package 
 
 List 
 
 price 
 
 in watts 
 
 per candle 
 
 quantity 
 Straight Side 
 
 Clear 
 
 Frosty 
 
 25 
 
 1.20 
 
 100 
 
 $0.33 
 
 $0.36 
 
 40 
 
 1.12 
 
 100 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.36 
 
 60 
 
 1.10 
 
 100 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.49 
 
 100 
 
 1.00 
 
 24 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.87 
 
 150 
 
 1.00 
 
 24 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.30 
 
 250 
 
 0.95 
 
 12 
 Pear-Shape 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.15 
 
 200 
 
 1.00 
 
 24 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.27 
 
 300 
 
 0.92 
 
 24 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.70 
 
 400 
 
 0.90 
 
 12 
 
 4.80 
 
 4.95 
 
 500 
 
 0.85 
 
 12 
 
 5.40 
 
 5.55 
 
 750 
 
 0.82 
 
 8 
 
 7.20 
 
 7.45 
 
 1.000 
 
 0.78 
 
 8 
 
 8.40 
 
 8.65 
 
 Mazda Class — Large style — Straight side — Empere shape type, 
 for 220 to 250 volts. Table XIV. 
 
 The efficiency watt per candle for the pear shape type is given in 
 watts per spherical c.p. Pear shape lamps are not recommended 
 " all frosted." If frosting is necessary, bowl frosting is preferred 
 
1062 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and is particularly recommended for lamps of 300 watts or less 
 which are to be used in interior lighting where the glare would 
 otherwise be objectionable. Orders should specially state if lamps 
 are to be burned in other than pendant positions, 
 
 Mazda Class — Large style — Straight side type for electric street 
 railway service. The lamps listed are selected for amperes and are 
 labeled for use, five in series, on 525, 550, 575, 600. 625 and 650 
 volts. They are rated in voltage groups, Table XV. 
 
 TABLE XV. 
 
 COST OF ELECTRIC. RAILWAY LIGHTS (MAZl 
 
 Number in series Lamp voltage 
 
 
 Line voltage 
 
 5 
 , 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 
 
 105 
 110 
 115 
 120 
 125 
 130 
 
 
 525 
 550 
 575 
 600 
 625 
 650 
 
 Nominal 
 watts 
 
 Efficiency 
 watts per c.p. 
 
 Standard 
 package 
 quantity 
 
 List 
 Clear 
 
 price 
 
 Frosted 
 
 23 
 36 
 56 
 94 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.09 
 1.02 
 0.97 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 $0.27 
 0.27 
 0.36 
 0.65 
 
 $0.30 
 0.30 
 0.40 
 
 0.72 
 
 Gem or Carbon Class — Large style — Straight side and round 
 types. Lamps of this type come in standard package quantities 
 of from 200 to 250 with a straight side and in packages of 100 
 with a round type, Table XVI. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XVI. 
 
 COST OF 
 
 CARBON LIGHTS (GEM 
 
 Size of lamp 
 in watts 
 
 Efficiency 
 watts per c.p. 
 
 
 List price 
 Clear Frosted 
 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 60 
 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 $0.20 $0,225 
 0.20 0.225 
 0.20 0.225 
 0.20 0.225 
 
 50 
 
 
 2.50 
 
 Round Type 
 
 0.25 0.280 
 
 Cost of Electric Conduit. The following costs are given by 
 the General Electric Co., 1914: 
 
 ENAMELED CONDUIT 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. per 
 
 100 ft. 
 
 Net 
 
 price per 100 ft, 
 
 ¥2 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 $54 
 
 % 
 
 IUV2 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 1 
 
 1681/3 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 ly* 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 144 
 
 iy2 
 
 273 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 2 
 
 369 
 
 
 
 231 
 
 2% 
 
 582 
 
 
 
 367 
 
 3 
 
 762 
 
 
 
 480 
 
 3% 
 
 920 
 
 
 
 580 
 
 4 
 
 1,089 
 
 
 
 685 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1063 
 
 Galvanized and sherardized conduits will cost above 5% more 
 than enameled. 
 
 The above prices are net for amounts up to $50. An additional 
 discount of 5% is given on orders of from $50 to $250 and above 
 $250 a 10% discount is given. 
 
 Cost of Wiring. We have taken the following data from Elec- 
 trical World, March 9, 1912: 
 
 Job 1. Sixteen outlets and twenty-two sockets. 22 X 50 watts = 
 1,100 watts total. 1,100 watts -^ 16 (number of outlets) gives 
 average of 69 watts per outlet. Under Class B the price for a 
 job averaging 69 watts per outlet is $0,068 per watt. 1,100 X 
 $0,068 = $62.70. socket wiring cost of job. (Switch wiring and 
 switches to be added.) 
 
 Job 2. Seventeen outlets and twenty-two lamps. 1,100 watts -r- 
 17 = 65 watts per outlet. Under Class B the price is $0,061 per 
 watt. 1,100 X $0,061 = $67.10, socket-wiring cost of job. 
 
 TABLE XVII. BALTIMORE UNIT PRICE BASED ON WATTS 
 
 WIRED 
 
 Class of building 
 Average watts per outlet ABC 
 
 50 to 55 $0.06 $0.07 $0.08 
 
 56 or more Less 0.6 cent per watt for each watt over 55 
 
 Over 75 0.04 
 
 Over 80 0.046 0.055 
 
 For convenience, use the 
 
 following figures : 
 
 
 
 
 50 to 56 
 
 0.060 
 
 0.070 
 
 0.008 
 
 57 
 
 0.059 
 
 0.069 
 
 0.079 
 
 58 
 
 0.058 
 
 0.068 
 
 0.078 
 
 59 
 
 0.057 
 
 0.067 
 
 0.077 
 
 60 
 
 0.056 
 
 0.066 
 
 0.076 
 
 61 
 
 0.055 
 
 0.065 
 
 0.075 
 
 62 
 
 0.054 
 
 0.064 
 
 0,074 
 
 63 
 
 0.053 
 
 0.063 
 
 0.073 
 
 64 
 
 0.052 
 
 0.062 
 
 0.072 
 
 65 
 
 0.051 
 
 0.061 
 
 0.071 
 
 66 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.060 
 
 0.070 
 
 67 
 
 0.049 
 
 0.059 
 
 0.069 
 
 68 
 
 0.048 
 
 0.058 
 
 0.068 
 
 69 
 
 0.047 
 
 0.057 
 
 0.067 
 
 70 
 
 0.046 
 
 0.056 
 
 0.066 
 
 71 
 
 0.045 
 
 0.055 
 
 0.065 
 
 72 
 
 0.044 
 
 0.054 
 
 0.064 
 
 73 
 
 0.043 
 
 0.053 
 
 0.063 
 
 74 
 
 0.042 
 
 0.052 
 
 0.062 
 
 75 
 
 0.041 
 
 0.051 
 
 0.061 
 
 76 
 
 0.041 
 
 0.051 
 
 0.061 
 
 77 
 
 0.040 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.060 
 
 78 
 
 0.040 
 
 0.048 
 
 0.058 
 
 79 
 
 0.040 
 
 0.047 
 
 0.057 
 
 80 
 
 0.040 
 
 0.046 
 
 0.056 
 
 81 and over 
 
 0.040 
 
 0.045 
 
 0.056 
 
 Wiring for Lamps, Outlets Only. — Obtain price as follows : Multi- 
 ply number of lamps or sockets by 50 watts to get total watts wired 
 for. Divide total watts by the number of outlets to obtain average 
 
1064 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 watts per outlet. On corresponding line in table find price (cents 
 per watt) under class of building being estimated. Multiply the 
 total watts wired for by this price per watt found in table. These 
 prices are for wiring only — hardware extra, 
 
 TABLE XVIII. MULTIPLIERS FOR CONCEALED EXTRA 
 WORK 
 
 For porcelain concealed work in Class A house multiply by 0.00 
 
 For porcelain concealed work in Class B house multiply by 1.05 
 
 For porcelain concealed work in Class C house multiply by. . . .1.16 
 For flexible-conduit concealed work in Class A house multiply by. 1.60 
 For flexible-conduit concealed work in Class B house multiply by. 1.68 
 For flexible-conduit concealed work in Class C house multiply by. 1.80 
 For wood molding, exposed work in Class A house multiply by. .0.77 
 
 Table XVIII gives multipliers for concealed work for the different 
 classes of buildings in Table XVII. 
 
 Wiring for Switches Only. For each kind of switch to be wired 
 for, find price per switch outlet under class of building being esti- 
 mated. 
 
 Per single pole $2.00 $2.00 $2.50 
 
 Per set of two three-ways (one set used) 6.00 6.00 7.00 
 
 Per set of two three- ways (two sets used at 
 
 same outlets) 5.00 5.00 6.00 
 
 Per set of two three- ways with one four-way. . 2.50 3.50 3.25 
 
 Two-point electrolier 2.50 3.50 3.25 
 
 Three-point electrolier -3.00 3.00 4.00 
 
 Job S. Seventeen outlets and twenty-four lamps. 24 X 50 watts 
 = 1.200 watts. 1,200 watts -r- 17 = 70 watts per outlet. Under 
 Class B the price is $0,065 per watt. 1,200 X $0,056 = $67.20, 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 $60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 IJ 
 
 "" 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 4) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _P 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1=^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (i 8 
 
 lU 13 U 16. 18 aj- 22 24 26 28 
 Outlets CExcluii;ve of Switches > 
 
 34 36 
 
 Fig. 11. Curves showing relation between numbers of outlets and 
 
 rockets. 
 
 Note that the difference between Jobs 1 and 2 is one outlet, the 
 addition of which adds $4.40, which is about right for the work 
 done. Again the difference between Jobs 2 and 3 requires no addi- 
 tional work, two circuits being required in both cases, and the 
 resulting price is only 10 cents higher for adding two lamps. Using 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1065 
 
 this scheme several men with only sales experience and no previous 
 electrical knowledge were employed by the Baltimore company, and 
 in less than a week were able to estimate wiring in completed resi- 
 dences and to close orders for it — which is the end desired. 
 
 Several points in the preceding schedule are, however, incon- 
 sistent. In some places, with certain combinations of outlets and 
 lamps, the addition of an outlet does not increase the price to the 
 customer, and in others the addition of a few lamps not requiring 
 an additional circuit raises the cost. If the reader will not lose 
 sight of the practical relation of outlets and lamps, as illustrated 
 in Fig. 10, these circumstances will not be found serious, as they 
 are negligible within the bounds of practical installations, and be- 
 come harmful only where two or more customers compare the prices 
 paid for work. 
 
 TABLE XIX. PRICE PER OUTLET WITH BASE CHARGE 
 
 Number Price for total Number Price for total 
 of lamps lamp outlets of lamps lamp outlets 
 
 1 $3.50 16 $47.85 
 
 2 6.90 17 50.50 
 
 3 10.20 18 53.10 
 
 4 13.80 19 55.65 * 
 
 5 16.90 20 58.15 
 
 6 19.90 21 61.60 
 • 7 21.90 22 64.00 
 
 8 24.90 23 66.35 
 
 9 27.90 24 68.65 
 
 10 30.90 25 71.90 
 
 11 33.85 26 74.15 
 
 12 36.75 27 76.40 
 
 13 39.60 28 78.65 
 
 14 42.40 29 80.90 
 
 15 45^15 30 83.15 
 
 To the above add base price for service entrances as follows : 
 
 Under- 
 Overhead meter ground meter 
 location location 
 
 Basement First floor Basement 
 
 For 1 to 12 lamps (one circuit) $4.00 $3.00 $2.25 
 
 For 13 to 24 lamps (two circuits) .. . 4.75 3.75 3.00 
 
 For 25 to 36 lamps (three circuits) . . 6.00 5.00 4.25 
 
 For 37 to 48 lamps (four circuits) . . 7.25 6.00 5.25 
 
 For 49 to 60 lamps (five circuits) . . . 8.75 7.00 6.50 
 
 For wiring to each switch outlet, add as follows : 
 
 One single-pole switch outlet controlling one-lamp outlet $1.85 
 
 One set of two three-way switch outlets controlling one-lamp 
 
 outlet 4.00 
 
 One set of two three-way switch outlets controlling two or 
 
 three-lamp outlets 5.00 
 
 One set of two three-way and one four-way switch outlet con- 
 trolling two or three-lamp outlets 6.50 
 
 One two-point electrolier switch controlling one-lamp outlet. . . . 2.25 
 One three-point electrolier switch controlling one-lamp outlet. 3.00 
 
 Schedule of Contractors' Wiring Prices at Emporia, Kan. The 
 schedule of wiring prices used by the representatives of the central 
 
lOGG MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 station in Emporia, Kan., described in Electrical World, Jan. 23, 
 1915, and the contractors is given in Table XX. Lamps are not 
 included in the prices given. 
 
 TABLE XX. WIRING PRICES FOR FRAME HOUSES IN 
 KANSAS 
 
 5 rooms with drop-cords $1 3. 00 
 
 5 rooms with drop-cords and porch lamp and switch 17.00 
 
 5 rooms with 3 drop-cords, two 2-lamp fixtures with shades, 
 
 and porch lamp and switch 21.80 
 
 6 rooms with drop-cords .• 15.85 
 
 6 rooms with drop-cords, porch lamp and switch 19.85 
 
 6 rooms with 4 drop-cords and two 2-lamp fixtures and 
 
 shades . 20.65 
 
 6 rooms as above with porch lamp and switch 24.65 
 
 8 rooms (2-story) with drop-cords 20.55 
 
 8 rooms (2-story) with drop-cords and two 2-lamp fixtures 
 
 and shades 25.35 
 
 8 rooms (2-story) as above with 3-way switch 32.35 
 
 8 rooms (2-story) as above with porch lamp and switch.... 36.35 
 
 Cost of Wiring Two-Story House. The following has been taken 
 from the Electrical Age, July, 1917: 
 
 As an illustration of how the wiring of an . average two-story 
 house is figured, we give herewith, the wiring specifications and 
 figures for such a house — the figures complete wiring for light 
 and appliances. These data appeared in the pamphlet entitled 
 " Wiring Your Share of Fifteen Million Homes." These specifica- 
 tions may be used as a model, for they represent standard practice 
 in the wiring of already-built houses : 
 
 Cost of Cost of 
 wiring fixtures 
 
 Cellar — One ceiling outlet and one snap switch.. $4.74 No fixture 
 
 necessary. 
 
 Laundry — One ceiling outlet 2.00 No fixture 
 
 necessary. 
 Baseboard outlet for electric iron, electric 
 
 washing machine, etc 3.70 .... 
 
 Porch — Ceiling outlet and single control push 
 
 button switch 5.24 $2.90 
 
 Kitchen — Ceiling outlet 2.00 3.50 
 
 Dining room — (^eiling outlet and single control 
 
 push button switch 5.24 .... 
 
 Baseboard outlet for toaster, percolator, chafing- 
 dish, fan, etc : . 3.70 13.50 
 
 Living room — Ceiling outlet and single control 
 
 push button switch 5.24 10.20 
 
 Upper hall — Coiling outlet and single control 
 
 push button switch 5.24 2.50 
 
 Bathroom — Ceiling outlet 2.00 2.50 
 
 Upstairs sitting room — Ceiling outlet and single 
 
 control push button switch 5.24 10.50 
 
 Two b.Mlrooms — Two ceiling outlets 4.00 13.70 
 
 Switch and mains 15.00 .... 
 
 $63.34 $59.30 
 Total cost of wiring and fixtures $122.64 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1067 
 
 The Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 gives the prices for 1914, Table XXI. 
 
 TABLE XXI. PLAT-RATE WIRING PRICES AND 
 DEDUCTIONS IN BROOKLYN 
 
 KITCHEN 
 
 No. 1 — Outlet consisting of a baseboard or wall flush re- 
 ceptacle, installed in kitchen on first floor, and one 
 ceiling outlet with one-lamp fixture And pull- 
 chain socket $19.45 
 
 CELLAR 
 
 No. 2 — Ceiling receptacle in cellar at heating apparatus with 
 
 flush switch at head of cellar stairs 7.75 
 
 HALL 
 
 No. 3 — Ceiling outlet in hall with one-lamp chain fixture 
 and pull-chain socket Cif wall bracket fixture is de- 
 sired instead deduct 85 cents) 8.10 
 
 DINING-ROOM 
 
 No. 4 — Dining-room outlet with three-lamp shower fixture, 
 pull-chain sockets (if amber glass dome is desired 
 instead add $1.50) 11.75 
 
 PIAZZA 
 
 No. 5 — Outlet on piazza with ceiling fixture and globe with 
 
 switch in hall 10.00 
 
 BEDROOM 
 
 No. 6 — Bedroom outlet with two-lamp shower fixture, pull- 
 chain sockets 8.00 
 
 PARLOR 
 
 No. 7 — Parlor outlet with four-lamp shower fixture, pull- 
 chain sockets 10.50 
 
 CHINA CLOSET 
 
 No. 8 — China-closet outlet and bracket fixture with pull- 
 chain socket 6.20 
 
 BACK PORCH 
 
 No. 9 — Back-porch outlet and bracket fixture with switch.. 10.35 
 
 PANTRY 
 
 Nx>. 10 — Pantry outlet and one-lamp bracket fixture with pull- 
 chain socket 6.20 
 
 BATHROOM 
 
 No. 11 — Bathroom outlet and one-lamp nickel-plated fixture, 
 
 pull-chain socket 6.20 
 
 ALL OTHER OUTLETS 
 
 No. 12 — All other lighting outlets with one-lamp bracket 
 
 fixture pull-chain socket 6.20 
 
 No. 13 — Two three-way switches for controlling hall lamp 
 
 from upper or lower floor 9.90 
 
 No. 14 — Floor, baseboard, wall, or ceiling receptacles 4.95 
 
 No. 15 — Bell-ringing transformers for alternating current 
 
 only 4.95 
 
 No. 15 — Bell-ringing transformers for alternating current 
 
 only 4.95 
 
 No. 16 — Flush wall switches 3.85 
 
1068 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 INSTALLING RISERS / 
 
 No. 17 — For each additional floor above first floor add 5.50 
 
 DEDUCTIONS FOR FIXTURES IV I'ERSONAL SELECTION IS DESIRED 
 
 No. 1 $1.30 No. 6 $3.05 
 
 No. 3 2.10 No. 7 5.50 
 
 No. 4 4.65 Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, each. . 1.25 
 
 No. 5 70 
 
 Boston Edison House-Wiring Campaign gives the schedule of 
 wiring prices during 1913, shown in Table XXII. 
 
 TABLE XXII. SCHEDULE OF WIRING PRICES IN BOSTON 
 
 No. 1 — Outlet consisting of a flush plug receptacle located in 
 anv room on the first floor anywhere excepting 
 
 ceiling $14.35 
 
 No. 2 — No. 1 and outlet in cellar at heating apparatus with 
 
 switch 19.00 
 
 No. 3 — No. 1 and 1 outlet on piazza with switch in hall and 
 
 fixture 22.00 
 
 No. 4 — No. 1 and 1 outlet in hall with switch and fixture 
 
 (three-way switches $6 additional) 23.00 
 
 No. 5 — No. 1 and 1 outlet in parlor with switch and fixture 25.50 
 
 No. 6 ~ No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 3 27.00 
 
 No. 7 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 4 28.00 
 
 No. 8 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 5 ." 30.50 
 
 No. 9 — No. 1 ; No. 3; No. 4 31.00 
 
 No. 10 — No. 1 ; No. 3 ; No. 5 33.50 
 
 No. 11 — No. 1; No. 4; No. 5 34.50 
 
 No. 12 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 3 ; No. 4 36.00 
 
 No. 13 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 3 ; No. 5 38.50 
 
 No. 14 — No. 1; No. 2; No. 4 ; No. 5 39.50 
 
 No. 15 — No. 1; No. 3; No. 4 ; No. 5 42.00 
 
 No. 16 — No. 1; No. 2; No. 3; No. 4; No. 5 47.50 
 
 Addition (to apply only after No. 3) : 
 
 No. 17 — Dining-room outlet with switch and fixture 12 00 
 
 No. 18 — Kitchen outlet with switch and fixture 8.25 
 
 No. 19 — Pantry outlet and fixture 4.25 
 
 No. 20 — China-closet outlet and fixture 4.25 
 
 No. 21 — Back porch outlet with switch and fixture 8.00 
 
 No. 22 — Second-story hall outlet with two three-way switches 
 
 and fixture 11.25 
 
 No. 23 — Bathroom outlet with switch and fixture 8.25 
 
 No. 24 — All other lighting outlets with fixtures, each 4.25 
 
 No. 25 — All other switches, each 4.00 
 
 No. 26 — Floor or baseboard receptacles, each 4.00 
 
 No. 27 — Bell-ringing transformer 4.00 
 
 For each additional floor above the first floor : 
 No. 28 — Add $5 for Item No. 1 (extra charge is to provide for 
 
 running risers through additional floors). 
 No. 29 — Add $10 for Items No. 1 and No. 2 (extra charge is 
 
 to provide for controlling cellar lighting from the 
 
 floor occupied by the user.) 
 
 Deduction if not wanted : 
 
 Switches (exclusive of cellar switch), each 3.00 
 
 For fixtures if personal selection is desired : 
 
 Nos. 3 and 6. each 100 
 
 Nos. 18, 19. 20, 21. 22, 23, 24. each 1.25 
 
 Nos. 4 and 6. each 2.00 
 
 Nos. 5 and 8, each 4.50 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1069 
 
 Nos. 9 and 12, each $3.00 
 
 Nos. 10 and 13, each 5.50 
 
 Nos. 11 and 14, each 6.50 
 
 Nos. 15 and 16, each 7.50 
 
 No. 17 5.00 
 
 Cost of Wiring and Conduit Work for a Power Plant. The fol- 
 lowing power-plant cost figures from Electrical World, Mar. 27, 
 1915, were made up after many cases were tried out in various, 
 parts of the country. In using Table XXIII all expensive fixtures, 
 apparatus, etc., are not included. The per cent, is based on the 
 actual wiring materials, including switches, fuses and cutout boxes. 
 The same figures apply to lead-incased wire, No. 6 and smaller. 
 
 TABLE XX 111. ELECTRICAL LABOR COSTS FOR STATION 
 WIRING WITH RUBBER-COVERED COPPER WIRE 
 
 Cost of labor ; per 
 cent, of cost of 
 Size of wire material 
 
 No. 14 100 
 
 No. 12 100 
 
 No. 10 80 
 
 No. 8 60 
 
 No. 6 , 40 
 
 No. 4 30 
 
 No. 2 25 
 
 No. 1, 1/0. 2/0. .3/0 20 
 
 No. 4/0 and cables 18 
 
 Table XXIV gives the cost to install wire and cable in conduit. 
 This price, one that would be used for such purpose as appraisal, 
 includes : material, labor, a contractor's profit and overhead ex- 
 pense. It will cover feeders, and branches in the usual building 
 work. This should not be used for short lines having numerous 
 outlets. 
 
 TABLE XXIV. COST FOR PULLING WIRE IN CONDUIT 
 
 Description Dollars per foot 
 
 500,000-C.M. cable in 3-inch conduit 1.820 
 
 Two 300,000-C.M. cables in 2.5-inch conduit 1.210 
 
 Two No. 2/0 wires in 2-inch conduit 0.820 
 
 Two No. 1/0 wires in 2-inch conduit 0.620 
 
 Two No. 1 wire.s in 1.5-inch conduit 0.510 
 
 Two No. 5 wires in 1-inch conduit 0.250 
 
 Two No. 6 wires in 1-inch conduit 0.210 
 
 The average cost of all conduit bends in general wiring practice 
 shows that from 20 to 50-deg. bends covst very closely the same and 
 that above 50 up to 90-deg. bends cost a larger amount. It has 
 been found that the cost of bending is a function of the diameter 
 and in the usual lengths independent of the length of conduit being 
 bent. The following table gives the labor charges to be added to 
 the cost of the conduit. These costs are for field bending and are 
 quite high when the diameter exceeds about two inches. In figuring 
 
90-degTee 
 
 Bends from 
 
 bends 
 
 22.5to45deg. 
 
 1.000 
 
 0.900 
 
 0.750 
 
 0.600 
 
 0.350 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.100 
 
 0.100 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.100 
 
 0.050 
 
 1070 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 conduit bending to be done on the job, list all bends to be made 
 under two heads, 90 degs. and 22.5-45 degs. Neglect all bends of 
 less than 22.5 degs. and use about twice the 90-deg. price for bends 
 greater than 90 degs. 
 
 TABLE XXV. COST OF BENDING CONDUIT 
 
 Size of conduit 
 in inches 
 
 3 
 
 2.5 
 
 2 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.25 
 
 1 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.5 
 
 Where a conduit is to be bent in a large radius, involving long 
 lengths of pipe and several fittings, the cost of bending, exclusive 
 of cost of assembling parts, is about two cts. per lin. ft. of bend as 
 a maximum and an average of 1.2 cts. per lin; ft. for 1.2 5 -in. 
 conduit or smaller. 
 
 It is sometimes desirable to run a conduit between buildings 
 underground. If the conduit is given a good wrapping with tarred 
 canvas this will more than double its life. The cost for wrapping, 
 including material and labor but no pipe or conduit, averages as 
 shown in Table XXVI. 
 
 TABLE XXVL COST OF WRAPPED CONDUIT 
 
 Size of conduit 
 
 in inches Dollars per foot 
 
 0.5 to 1.0 0.015 
 
 1.25 0.019 
 
 1.5 0.022 
 
 2.0 0.027 
 
 2.5 0.032 
 
 3.0 0.040 
 
 Labor Costs in Interior Construction. Louis W. Moxey in Elec- 
 trical World, Oct. 23, 1915, gives Tables XXVII to XLV of labor 
 costs for installing various kinds of apparatus. The data given, 
 however, cannot be considered general in their applications, for 
 conditions vary widely in the electrical contracting field. Every 
 contractor should make his own tables and curves, utilizing his 
 records for the purpose. In all the tables it is assumed that the 
 rates for labor are 55 cts. per hr. for foremen, 45 cts. per hr. for 
 wiremen, and 25 cts. per hr. for helpers. All figures given include 
 an allowance for what has been found to be necessary supervision 
 by the foreman in the class of work under consideration. 
 
 If the items entering into architects' and engineers' specifications 
 were always given in succession from point of supply to the outlets, 
 the chances of the electrical contractor omitting items in his esti- 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 
 
 1071 
 
 mate would be considerably reduced. Whether or not the archi- 
 tects or engineers write their specification in that form, the con- 
 tractor should prepare his estimate so. 
 
 If an engine is to be installed in the plant, the contractor's first 
 items should be for engines, foundations, painting, etc. Next should 
 come the item for generators. If these be belted machines, the 
 belts could be included under this item. Then should come the 
 dynamo cables installed and connected to the lugs of the dynamos 
 and switchboard. This should be followed by the item of switch- 
 Page 2 Estimate isTo. 10,176 
 
 Item Labor and materials Unit price 
 
 Light mains, 
 three-wire 200 ft. 2-in. conduit, loricated. .$0.20 $40.00 
 
 3 2-in. L's, loricated 0.30 0.90 
 
 3 2-in. coupling, loricated.... 0.10 0.30 
 
 1 2-in. condulet (three-wire) . . . 2.00 
 
 600 ft. No, D. B., N. E. C. S. . 0.15 91.50 
 
 Labor, conduit 0.25 50.00 
 
 Labor, wire 0.05 30.50 
 
 Supports, junction box, etc 7.00 $222.20 
 
 Example 1. Applying the detailed method to mains. 
 
 Page 3 Estimate No. 10,576 
 
 Item Labor and materials Unit price 
 
 Light 
 
 branches 400 ft. %-in. conduit, loricated. . $0.06 $24.00 
 200 ft. %-in. conduit, loricated.. 0.07 14.00 
 600 ft. No. 12 duplex. N.E.C.S... 0.03 18.00 
 200 ft. No. 12 single. N.E.C.S... 0.15 3.00 
 
 Labor. Va-in. conduit 0.08 32.00 
 
 Labor, %-in. conduit 0.09 18.00 
 
 Labor, No. 12 duplex 0.01 6.00 
 
 Labor. No. 12 single 0.08 1.60 
 
 ■Supports, etc 3.40 $120.00 
 
 Outlets 20 light outlet boxes, T. & B. . . 0.20 4.00 
 
 Labor 0.30 6.00 
 
 20 studs on supports, T. & B 0.15 3.00 
 
 Labor 0.20 4.00 
 
 5 switch boxes 0.25 1.25 
 
 Labor 0.30 1.50 
 
 5 switches, D. P., Cutter 0.80 4.00 
 
 Labor 0.20 1.50 
 
 Bushings, etc 5.00 30.25 
 
 Example 2. Applying the detail method to branch circuits. 
 
 boards installed complete with instruments, circuit-breakers, etc. 
 This would practically complete the plant unless a storage battery 
 was to be installed. A miscellaneous item could be inserted either 
 at this point or under the general expense item at the end of the 
 estimate covering the tests and if necessary the water rheostat. 
 
 The estimate should then include the following items in the 
 succession here given, the costs of both material and labor being 
 entered : 
 
 Connection of power and light feeders to switchboard. 
 
 Flexible tubing, junction boxes, conduits, etc. 
 
 Power feeders, mains and sub-mains. 
 
 Power panels, boxes, doors, trim and fuses. 
 
1072 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Power branches. 
 
 Power outlets, such as switches, starters and the like, erected and 
 connected, wiring between switches, starters, etc., and motors. 
 
 Motors and foundations, delivered, erected and connected. 
 
 This would complete the power portion of the estimate, and the 
 lighting portion should follow, the items being taken in the order 
 given below : 
 
 Light feeders, mains and sub-mains. 
 
 Panel boards, panel boxes, doors, trim and fuses. 
 
 Branches. 
 
 Outlets. 
 
 Expenses, cartage, freight, car fare, railroad fare, loss of time, 
 inspection fees, shanty, telephone, bond, insurance and miscel- 
 laneous. 
 
 The same method should be followed in making an estimate for 
 telephone, telegraph, fire-alarm, watchman's-clock, time-clock, an- 
 nunciation and similar systems. 
 
 An estimate for light branches according to this detail method 
 would appear as shown in Example 2. 
 
 TABLE XXVIII. COST PER KILOWATT FOR ERECTING 
 BELTED GENERATORS 
 
 Size in Normal Cost of 
 
 kw. condition Easy Difficult painting 
 
 1-5 $1.00 $0.75 $1.50 $0.60 
 
 5 -12i/> 1.00 0.75 1.50 0.60 
 
 12V,-25 1.00 0.75 1.50 0.50 
 
 25 "-50 1.00 0.75 1.50 0.40 
 
 75 0.80 0.60 1.25 0.30 
 
 100 0.75 0.60 1.20 0.25 
 
 150 0.60 0.50 0.90 0.20 
 
 200 0.50 0.40 0.80 0.18 
 
 300 0.40 0.30 0.60 0.15 
 
 500 0.30 0.20 0.50 0.12 
 
 TABLE XXIX. COST PER KILOWATT OF FOUNDATIONS FOR 
 BELTED GENERATORS * 
 
 Size in k^^. 
 
 condition 
 
 Easy 
 
 Difficult 
 
 1 - 5 
 
 $2.00 
 
 $1.50 
 
 $3.00 to $4.00 
 
 5 -121/2 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.75 to 5.00 
 
 12y.-25 
 
 200 
 
 1.50 
 
 3.00 to 4.00 
 
 25 -50 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.00 
 
 2.25 to 3.25 
 
 75 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.85 
 
 1.80 to 2.80 
 
 100 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.50 to 2.50 
 
 150 
 
 0.85 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.25 to 2.25 
 
 200 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.00 to 2.00 
 
 300 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.90 to 1.80 
 
 500 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.75 to 1.50 
 
 * The items under this heading include the cost of labor and mate- 
 rials, which is the usual method of estimating this class of work. 
 The figures are based on the average cubical contents of founda- 
 tions specified by generator makers. If the electrical contractor is 
 to furnish the belt or belts, the labor for putting them in place 
 should be included. 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1073 
 
 TABLE XXX. LABOR FOR ERECTING SWITCHBOARD 
 PANELS 
 
 Dynamo Dynamo Feeder Feeder 
 
 panel panel panel panel 
 
 without with without with 
 
 sub-base sub-base sub-base sub-base 
 
 Cost per panel $10.00 $12.00 $12.00 $15.00 
 
 TABLE XXXI. LABOR PER LEAD FOR CONNECTING 
 SWITCHBOARD AND DYNAMO LEADS * 
 
 
 
 
 Rubber or 
 
 
 Paper 
 
 Rubber 
 
 slow-burning 
 
 Size, B. & S. 
 
 and lead 
 
 and lead 
 
 Insulation 
 
 14-8 
 
 $0.33 
 
 $0.30 
 
 $0.21 
 
 6 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.41 
 
 0.28 
 
 5 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.33 
 
 4 
 
 0.66 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.40 
 
 3 
 
 0.80 
 
 9.72 
 
 0.49 
 
 2 
 
 0.87 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.53 
 
 1 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.56 
 
 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.90 
 
 0.60 
 
 00 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.94 
 
 0.63 
 
 000 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.98 
 
 0.65 
 
 0000 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.03 
 
 0.69 
 
 Circ. mils 
 
 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 1.18' 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.72 
 
 300,000-350,000 
 
 1.34 
 
 1.22 
 
 0.78 
 
 400,000-450,000 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.30 
 
 0.84 
 
 500,000-550,000 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.44 
 
 0.90 
 
 600.000-650,000 
 
 2.10 
 
 1.90 
 
 1.00 
 
 700,000-750,000 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.25 
 
 1.25 
 
 800,000-850,000 
 
 2.95 
 
 2.65 
 
 1.50 
 
 900,000-950,000 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.75 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 3.75 
 
 3.40 
 
 2.00 
 
 * These figures are the labor costs for soldering cables into lugs at 
 the switchboard and generators, also for soldering light and power 
 cables into lugs of switches on the switchboard. They include the 
 cost of arranging the cables in a neat and workmanlike manner at 
 these locations. 
 
 What might be called the semi-detail method can generally be 
 used for quick estimating with fairly accurate results. It con- 
 sists of a combination of the labor and material costs. Take, for 
 example, the item of mains in an estimate. If made in detail, it 
 would be as shown in Example 1. 
 
 It will be noted that the total cost for running 200 ft. of main 
 consisting of three No. wires is $222.20, or $1.10 per foot. The 
 contractor could prepare tables of unit prices for all items in an 
 estimate, such as for two-wire ,to nine-wire service connections, 
 two-wire to five-wire mains, two-wire and three-wire branches, 
 etc., showing their cost for buildings of various types of construc- 
 tion. The disadvantage of this method, however, is that a change 
 in price of materials diminishes the accuracy of the tables. 
 
1074 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXXII. LABOR COSTS (IN CENTS) PER FOOT OF 
 CONDUIT WORK * 
 
 Steel-terra-cotta Concrete Slow-burning 
 
 construction construction construction 
 
 Exposed Concealed Exposed Concealed Exposed Concealed 
 
 3 
 
 . 
 
 ^ 
 
 -w 
 
 4J 
 
 -M 
 
 „+J 
 
 •M 
 
 . 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■M 
 
 m-^ 
 
 S8 
 
 11 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 J 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 w 
 
 H^ 
 
 w 
 
 h^ 
 
 M 
 
 h^l 
 
 1/2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 % 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 IVt 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 1% 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 21/2 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 3y2 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 * The figures given in the table of costs for conduit work are for 
 work in new buildings and include the labor cost of preparing for 
 and running rigid conduit per foot, as well as the labor on junction 
 boxes. If conduits are to be installed in old buildings, the cost 
 figures would be considerably greater than those given in the table, 
 the percentage of increase depending on the conditions. However, 
 for concealed work in existing buildings flexible conduit (see Table 
 XVII) is generally used in order to do as little tearing out as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 TABLE XXXIII. FLEXIBLE-CONDUIT LABOR COSTS PER 
 FOOT FOR CONCEALED WORK IN EXISTING BUILDINGS* 
 
 Size, inches Slow-burning construction Fireproof construction 
 
 Va $0.08 $0.10 
 
 % 0.09 0.11 
 
 1 0.10 0.12 
 1% 0.12 0.15 
 1% 0.15 20 
 
 2 0.20 0.30 
 2% 0.30 0.40 
 
 3 0.40 0.50 
 
 • The figures include cost of preparing for and running. There is 
 little difference in cost whether the amount is large or small. 
 
 TABLE XXXIV. COST PER FOOT OF FISHING CONDUITS 
 
 AND PULLING WIRES * 
 
 Size, One wire Two or more 
 
 B. & S. per conduit wires per conduit 
 
 14 $0,005 $0,004 
 
 12 0.006 0.004 
 
 10 0.0065 0.005 
 
 8 0.0075 0.006 
 
 6 ^0.0085 0.0065 
 
 5 0.01 0.007 
 
 4 0.013 0.0075 
 
 3 0.016 0.008 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 
 
 1075 
 
 One wire 
 per conduit 
 
 Two or more 
 wires per conduit 
 
 0.023 
 0.025 
 
 0.013 
 0.016 
 
 0.03 
 U.04 
 0.045 
 0.05 
 
 0.02 
 0.023 
 0.025 
 0.03 
 
 0.055 
 
 0.065 
 
 0.075 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.045 
 
 0.055 
 
 0.065 
 
 0.075 
 
 0.09 
 0.10 
 0.11 
 0.12 
 0.12 
 
 0.085 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.12 
 0.12 
 
 0.10 
 0.10 
 0.10 
 
 Size 
 2 
 1 
 
 
 
 00 
 000 
 
 oooo 
 
 Circ. mil. 
 
 250,000 
 300,000-3.50.000 
 400,000-450,000 
 500,000-550.000 
 600,000-650,000 
 
 700,000-750,000 
 800,000-850,000 
 900,000-950,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 1,750,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 * These figures are for large amounts of rigid or flexible conduit 
 in either new or existing buildings. For small amounts the figures 
 should be increased from 10 to 30%. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XL. LABOR COST OF INSTALLING 
 AND BOXES 
 
 PANELBOARDS 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 circuits 
 
 Boxes 
 
 , New buildings , , Old buildings , 
 
 Exposed Concealed Exposed Concealed 
 
 Panels 
 installed 
 and con- 
 nected 
 
 Doors 
 and 
 trim 
 
 1- 6 
 
 8-10 
 
 10-14 
 
 16-20 
 
 24-30 
 
 $1.00 
 1.25 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 2.50 
 
 $1.00 
 1.25 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 2.50 
 
 
 $1.00 
 1.25 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 2.50 
 
 $2.00 
 2.25 
 2.50 
 3.00 
 4.00 
 
 $1.00 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 3.00 
 4.00 
 
 $0.4# 
 0.50 
 0.60 
 0.75 
 1.00 
 
 TABLE XLI. LABOR COST OF INSTALLING AND 
 CONNECTING MOTORS * 
 
 H.p. of motor 
 
 Floor 
 
 Mounting 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 Wall 
 
 1-2 
 
 2 - 5 
 
 7y2-10 
 
 15 
 
 $1.00 
 3.00 
 6.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 $1.50 
 
 4.50 
 
 . 9.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 $1.50 
 3.50 
 7.50 
 
 12.00 
 
 20 
 25 
 35 
 50 
 
 15.00 
 20.00 
 25.00 
 35.00 
 
 22.00 
 30.00 
 37.00 
 51.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 24.00 
 30.00 
 42.00 
 
 75 
 100 
 150 
 200 
 
 50.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 150.00 
 
 75.00 
 110.00 
 150.00 
 225.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 90.00 
 
 120.00 
 
 180.00 
 
 * Includes labor on supports. 
 
1076 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XLII. COST OF LABOR FOR INSTALLING AND 
 CONNECTING SWITCHES AND RECEPTACLES 
 
 Single-pole switches $0.20 Door switches $0.20 
 
 Double-pole switches 0.25 Wall receptacles 0.20 
 
 Three-way switches 0.30 Floor receptacles 0.30 
 
 Four-way switches 0.25 
 
 QUICK ESTIMATING 
 
 It is impossible to give an accurate method for quick estimating, 
 as the accuracy of the results obtained is entirely dependent upon 
 the experience of the estimator and his knowledge of the building 
 to be wired. Some contractors base quick estimates upon the 
 cubical contents of buildings, while others estimate the material 
 required and assume the labor item to be a certain percentage of 
 this. The writer has found that the only quick method that is 
 satisfactory is one basing the estimate on the number of outlets 
 and utilizing data obtained. from previous installations of a similar 
 nature. 
 
 Take the following example, which is the cost for wiring a new 
 residence of brick and joist construction by the concealed-conduit 
 method. The service cables were run down the outside wall, the 
 meter being installed in the basement. The system was three-wire, 
 
 TABLE XLIII. LABOR COST OF INSTALLING OUTLET BOXES 
 AND SUPPORTS 
 
 , Old buildings ^ , New buildings » 
 
 Steel and Slow- Steel and Slow- 
 Type of outlet terra-cotta burning Concrete terra-cotta burning 
 
 Light outlets $0.35 $0.30 $0.30 $0.25 $0.20 
 
 Fixture supports.. 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 10 
 
 Switch boxes 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.20 
 
 Wall-receptacle 
 
 boxes 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.20 
 
 Floor-receptacle 
 
 boxes 0.50 0.45 0.60 0.40 0.30 
 
 TABLE XLIV. LABOR COSTS FOR INSTALLING MOTOR- 
 CONTROL APPARATUS 
 
 Hp. of Motor S^\ 
 
 1-2 
 3-5 
 
 71/a-lO 
 15 
 
 20 
 25 
 35 
 50 
 
 75 
 100 
 150 
 200 
 
 and rheostat 
 
 Controlling panel com- 
 plete, switch, rheostat, 
 etc. 
 
 $0.75 
 1.00 
 2.00 
 2.50 
 
 
 $2.00 
 3.00 
 4.00 
 5.00 
 
 3.00 
 3.50 
 4.50 
 6.00 
 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 11.00 
 
 8.00 
 10.00 
 12.00 
 15.00 
 
 
 13.00 
 15.00 
 17.00 
 20.00 
 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 1077 
 
 TABLE XLV. LABOR PER FOOT OF WIRE FOR INSTALLING 
 CONCEALED KNOB-AND-TUBE WORK 
 
 Size of wire, B. & S. 
 
 New buildings 
 
 Old buildings 
 
 14 
 
 $0.01 
 
 $0.03 
 
 12 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.03 
 
 10 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.03 
 
 8 
 
 0.012 
 
 0.035 
 
 6 
 
 0.015 
 
 0.045 
 
 5 
 
 0.018 
 
 0.055 
 
 4 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.06 
 
 3 
 
 0.023 
 
 0.07 
 
 2 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.075 
 
 1 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.09 
 
 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.09 
 
 00 
 
 0.035 
 
 0.11 
 
 000 
 
 0.035 
 
 0.11 
 
 0000 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.12 
 
 110-220-volt, single-phase. The panelboards were of slate with 
 30-amp. type B switches, mounted in iron boxes, with wooden doors 
 and trim. The switches were of Cutter manufacture and the 
 receptacle of the flush wall type and of Pringle manufacture. The 
 wire was rubber-covered and of the National Electrical Code 
 standard. 
 
 The shop cost as shown by the contract ledger was $400.75, the 
 cost items being as follows : 
 
 Materials $254.36 
 
 Labor 136.74 
 
 Car fare, etc 9.65 
 
 Shop cost $400.75 
 
 TABLE XLIII. LABOR PER FOOT OF WIRE FOR INSTALLING 
 EXPOSED KNOB-AND-TUBE WORK * 
 
 Running wire after 
 Size of wires, B. & S. backboard or buttons Erecting backboard 
 
 are erected or buttons 
 
 14 $0,015 $0.02 
 
 12 0.015 0.02 
 
 10 0.015 0.02 
 
 8 0.017 0.025 
 
 6 0.02 0.03 
 
 5 0.02 0.035 
 
 4 0.023 0.04 
 
 3 0.025 0.045 
 
 2 0.03 0.05 
 
 1 0.035 0.06 
 
 0.035 0.07 
 
 00 0.04 0.08 
 
 000 0.045 0.09 
 
 0000 0.045 0.10 
 
 * When good knob-and-tube work is installed in new and old 
 buildings the labor at outlets will be practically the same as given 
 in Table XXII under the several headings, and the labor for switches 
 and receptacles should be exactly the same as in Table XXL 
 
1078 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The residence had thirty-two light outlets, twenty-eight switch 
 outlets and twenty receptacle outlets. The cost of a switch plus 
 the labor of installing it was $1 and the cost of a receptacle plus 
 the labor of installing it was $1.10. 
 
 If all outlets were light outlets, the shop cost would have been 
 approximately $400.75 — [(28 X $1) + (20 X $1.10)] or $350.75. 
 Dividing $350.75 by the total number of outlets, which is 80, $4.38 
 is obtained. Hence $4,38 is the cost of wiring per light outlet. 
 The cost of wiring a switch outlet is $4.38 + $1, or $5.38, and the 
 cost of wiring a receptacle outlet is $4,38 + $1.10, or $5.48. 
 
 This method is fairly accurate for small-residence work, and any 
 number of costs per outlet may be compiled to cover the various 
 types of wiring construction, wiring systems, etc. 
 
 TABLE XLIV. LABOR COST PER FOOT FOR INSTALLING 
 MOLDING 
 
 t Wires , 
 
 Number Size, B. & S. "Wood molding Metal molding 
 2 14 $0,04 $0.08 
 
 2 12 0.05 0.08 
 
 2 10 0.06 0.08 
 
 2 8 0.07 
 
 2 6 0.08 
 
 * Metal molding is not made in sizes larger than for No. 10 wires, 
 and wood molding is seldom used for wires larger than No, 6. The 
 labor at outlets with molding is practically the same in the case 
 of both wood and metal-molding construction. Tables similar to 
 Tables XLII and XLIII can hence be made. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 
 
 Cost of Split Pulleys. The costs of standard pulleys that can be 
 used upon shafts of different sizes by the aid of interchangeable 
 bushings are given in Table I. One pair of bushings is furnished 
 with each pulley. 
 
 TABLE I. STANDARD IRON SPLIT PULLEYS 
 
 Diam., 
 ins. 
 
 f 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Face 
 
 8 
 
 in ins. 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 $1.95 
 
 $2.15 
 
 $2.60 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.35 
 2.60 
 
 2.80 
 3.10 
 
 $3.45 
 
 ... 
 
 
 10 
 
 2.25 
 
 
 12 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.70 
 
 4.10 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.30 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.50 
 
 $5.60 
 
 
 16 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.55 
 
 4.35 
 
 4.85 
 
 6.00 
 
 $6.90 
 
 18 
 
 3.35 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.70 
 
 5.30 
 
 6.55 
 
 7.60 
 
 20 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.80 
 
 6.45 
 
 8.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 22 
 
 4.10 
 
 5.15 
 
 6.20 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.65 
 
 9.80 
 
 24 
 
 4.85 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.35 
 
 8.25 
 
 10.20 
 
 11.45 
 
 28 
 
 5.65 
 
 6.95 
 
 8.55 
 
 9.75 
 
 12.05 
 
 13.40 
 
 32 
 
 6.95 
 
 8.60 
 
 10.60 
 
 12.10 
 
 15.15 
 
 16.75 
 
 36 
 
 7.95 
 
 9.85 
 
 12.05 
 
 13.80 
 
 17.15 
 
 13.95 
 
 Cost of Belting for Power Purposes. The following are costs 
 of various types of belting : 
 
 Leather. Price per 1-in. width per running foot in cts. : Single, 
 91/^ cts.; Double, 19 cts.; Triple, 28 cts. Weight, 16 ozs. to 1 sq. ft. 
 in single ply. 
 
 Round Leather. Price per %-in. width per running foot in cts.: 
 Solid,- 114 cts.; Twist. 2 cts. 
 
 Cut Lacings, bundles. Price per %-in. width per 100 ft., 60 cts. 
 
 Rubber. Price per 1-in. width per running ft. in cts. 
 
 2-ply 31/2 to 4l^ cts. 6-ply 71410 gVa cts. 
 
 3-ply 4 V, to 5 cts. 7-ply 9 to 11 Va cts. 
 
 4-ply 51/2 to 6 cts. 8-ply 10% to 13 cts. 
 
 5-ply 61^, to 8 cts. 
 
 The price increases as the width. 
 
 Stitched Canvas. Price per l-i_n. width per running ft. 
 
 4-ply 3 cts. 8-ply 6 cts. 
 
 5-ply 4 cts. 10-ply 7^^ cts. 
 
 6-ply 4 1^ cts. 
 
 Detachable Link Belts. We give below a table of various sizes 
 of detachable link belt with prices, etc. Figure the working strain 
 
 1079 
 
1080 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 at one-tenth the ultimate strength for speeds of from 200 to 400 
 ft. per min. For lower speeds increase this by two-thirds. When 
 a number of attachment links for fastening on buckets, etc., are 
 used, add about 15% to cost of chain. 
 
 TABLE II. CO! 
 
 3T AND STRE: 
 
 NGTH OP : 
 
 
 BELTS 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Ultimate 
 
 Width, ins. 
 
 links in 10 ft. 
 
 strength 
 
 % 
 
 133 
 
 • 700 
 
 \WtQ 
 
 104 
 
 1,100 
 
 15/16 
 
 86 
 
 1,190 
 
 IVlf. 
 
 86 
 
 1,300 
 
 
 74 
 
 1,200 
 
 1%6 
 
 88 
 
 1,500 
 
 1% 
 
 74 
 
 1,600 
 
 1% 
 
 104 
 
 1,900 
 
 17/16 
 
 80 
 
 2.300 
 
 l?1?e 
 
 74 
 
 2,200 
 
 52 
 
 2.800 
 
 1»/16 
 
 73 
 
 3,100 
 
 
 60 
 
 2,600 
 
 52 
 
 3,300 
 
 2 
 
 46 
 
 4.000 
 
 2% 
 
 52 
 
 3,600 
 
 21/2 
 21^,6 
 
 46 
 
 4,900 
 
 30 
 
 4,950 
 
 31^16 
 
 30 
 
 7,600 
 
 2V2 
 
 46 
 
 5,750 
 
 2% 
 
 30 
 
 7,500 
 
 30 
 
 8,700 
 
 3 Vie 
 
 39 
 
 9,600 
 
 4Vi6 
 
 20 
 
 6,900 
 
 
 251/2 
 
 9,900 
 
 5'/l6 
 
 251/2 
 
 12,700 
 
 3-yi6 
 
 37 
 
 11.000 
 
 5»/2 
 
 20 
 
 15,000 
 
 3% 
 
 30 
 
 12,700 
 
 5^4 
 
 20 
 
 14,000 
 
 Price 
 per ft. 
 
 $0.04 
 .04 
 .04 
 .04 
 .04 
 .05 
 .04 
 .07 
 .07 
 .06 
 .07 
 .09 
 .09 
 .09 
 .10 
 .10 
 .14 
 .14 
 .18 
 .17 
 .20 
 .21 
 .27 
 .20 
 .26 
 .30 
 .34 
 .45 
 .42 
 .41 
 
 TABLE III. COST OP STEEL SHAFTING 
 
 Diam., ins. Weight per ft, lbs. Price per ft. 
 
 1 2.66 $.073 
 
 11^ 3.36 .0925 
 
 11/4 4,16 .114 
 
 1% 5.05 .139 
 
 li/a 6.00 .15 
 
 1% 7.04 .176 
 
 1% • 8.16 .204 
 
 lyg 9.39 .235 
 
 2 10.65 .265 
 
 2% 12.07 .302 
 
 214 13.49 .337 
 
 2% 15.07 .377 
 
 21/5 16.68 .417 
 
 2% 18.32 .457 
 
 2% 20.18 .505 
 
 2% 22.09 .55 
 
 3 24.06 .625 
 
 31^ 26.09 .668 
 
 314 28.24 .742 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1081 
 
 Biam., ins. Weight per ft., lbs. Price per ft. 
 
 3% 30.43 .797 
 
 31/i 32.64 .897 
 
 3% 35.20 .967 
 
 3% 37.45 1.03 
 
 4 42.50 .• 1.28 
 
 4% 48.26 1.44 
 
 4V2 54.11 1.76 
 
 4% 60.88 1.98 
 
 5 67.50 2.36 
 
 5M 73.58 2.58 
 
 5% 80.72 3.02 
 
 5% 88.24 3.68 
 
 6 96.25 3.85 
 
 Cost of Adjustable Shaft Hangers. Adjustable shaft hangers 
 come in several standard sizes or drags: 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 
 24. 30 and 36 ins., each having about 2 ins. adjusting distance. 
 
 The drag is the distance between base and the center of bearing. 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 IV. 
 
 STANDARD BEARINGS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Approx. additional 
 
 iam. shaft, 
 
 Standard ! 
 
 sizes, 
 
 Cost of 8- 
 
 cost for each in- 
 
 ins. 
 
 
 
 ins. 
 
 
 in. hangers 
 
 crease in size 
 
 1^16 
 
 
 
 8-14 
 
 
 $1.90 
 
 $0.10 
 
 i-yi6 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1.95 
 
 .10 
 
 lVl6 
 
 
 
 8-20 
 
 
 2.45 
 
 .12 
 
 iiyi6 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,50 
 
 .15 
 
 11%6 
 
 
 
 8-24 
 
 
 3.40 
 
 .15 
 
 2^16 
 
 
 
 8-36 
 
 
 4.35 
 
 .20 
 
 27/16 
 
 
 
 8-36 
 
 
 4.65 
 
 .20 
 
 2"/l6 
 
 
 
 8-36 
 
 
 5.40 
 
 .35 
 
 Selection of Economical Belts and Pulleys. (W. R. Schaphorst 
 in Power, April 28, 1914.) 
 
 In a prominent factory in the city of New York there is an 
 engine that runs 75 r.p.m., transmitting 100 h.p. from a 5-ft. pulley 
 to a 4-ft. pulley. The distance between centers is 25 ft. Because 
 of the slow engine speed and the relatively small driving pulley 
 the belt has caused considerable trouble by slipping. Its velocity 
 is less than 1,200 ft. per min., but a velocity of 3,000 ft. per min. 
 would not be too high. 
 
 A 10-ft. driving pulley and an 8-ft. driven pulley would give the 
 same final speed, and there would be less tendency of the belt 
 slipping, because of the greater belt contact. The cost of the larger 
 pulleys plus the cost of the correspondingly smaller belt required 
 would be about $270. 
 
 Large pulleys should always be used, wherever possible, and espe- 
 cially if they can be i)roved most economical by the method cited. 
 
 In the factory mentioned a 40-in. belt is used. By doubling the 
 diameters of the pulleys the belt speed is doubled and its trans- 
 mission capacity is increased two-fold. A belt only one-half as 
 wide, or 20 ins., would, therefore, suffice and its cost would be but 
 one-half as great. The cost of the pulleys would be greater than 
 in the present plant, but that increased cost would be more than 
 
1082 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 counterbalanced by the decreased cost of the belt; $270 could be 
 saved, and the transmission defects would be eliminated. 
 
 TABLE V. ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY SIZES 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 small 
 
 large 
 
 Width 
 
 Length 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Cost of 
 
 
 pulley, 
 
 pulley, 
 
 of belt, 
 
 of belt. 
 
 of 
 
 small 
 
 large 
 
 Total 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ft. 
 
 belt 
 
 pulley 
 
 pulley 
 
 cost 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 64 
 
 $1023 
 
 $179 
 
 $253 
 
 $1455 
 
 60 
 
 76 
 
 32 
 
 67.7 
 
 867 
 
 187 
 
 . 288 
 
 1342 
 
 72 
 
 iiO 
 
 27 
 
 71.2 
 
 769 
 
 239 
 
 346 
 
 1354 
 
 84 
 
 106 
 
 23 
 
 74.7 
 
 687 
 
 211 
 
 299 
 
 1197 
 
 96 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 Y8.25 
 
 627 
 
 234 
 
 324 
 
 1185 
 
 HU 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 fe. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 'j,- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fc 
 
 -r> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 f<v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 >r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 'e-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 I— 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^of/yJ.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 rr^ 
 
 '^rs,p 
 
 .^/■.■^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 P^ 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 V, 
 
 
 20. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 S 
 
 V 
 
 *• 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 0.1 5 S 
 0.14-5 
 
 0.1 2 o 
 
 O.JO o 
 Diame+er of Small Pulley, Fee+ »owt.j 
 
 Fig. 1. Developing 100 h.p., speed of driving pulley 75 r.p.m. 
 
 In belt computations the rules that are most widely used are as 
 follows : 
 
 Rule 1. A sing-le-ply belt 1 in. wide, running 800 ft. per min. 
 will transmit 1 h.p. 
 
 Rule 2. A double-ply belt 1 in. wide, running 500 ft. per min. 
 will transmit 1 h.p. 
 
 To convert rule No. 1 into a formula applicable to most ordinary 
 conditions, let 
 
 Wi — Width of single-ply belt in ins. 
 W2 — Width of double-thickness belt in ins. 
 H =: Horsepower to be transmitted ; 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1083 
 
 D — Diam. of driving pulley in ft. ; 
 A'' = Revolutions per min. of driving pulley; 
 trDN — Speed of belt in ft. per min. ; 
 TvDN 
 
 — Horfc-epower a single thickness belt 1 in. wide will trans- 
 
 800 
 
 mit. 
 Therefore, 
 
 7r2>iV 800 if 254 fT 
 
 Wi = if ^ - — - = = (I) 
 
 800 7r/)iV DN 
 
 By the same process rule No. 2 becomes 
 
 159 H 
 
 W-2 = (II) 
 
 BN 
 
 Adhering to the speed conditions laid down by the factory men- 
 tioned, a small pulley 5 ft. in diam. and a 6.25-ft. driving pulley 
 would effect practically the same final speed. Applying formula 
 (II) it is found that a 32-in. belt would be needed. Next, 6-ft, 
 and 7.5-ft. pulleys with a 27-in. belt could be used. 
 
 It is most convenient to tabulate these figures in Table V with 
 the length of the belt, the cost of the belt, and the costs of the 
 pulleys. The total costs are then readily determined and com- 
 pared. Plotting the total costs and belt widths, as in Fig. 1, the 
 decreases in both are plainly shown. 
 
 The costs of pulleys and belting used in all of these tables are 
 taken from the catalog of a manufacturer of transmission ma- 
 chinery and may be considered reliable for the problems solved 
 here. Although, in this factory problem, the constant decrease in 
 cost with increase in pulley diameters indicates that even larger 
 pulleys might be still more economical, the curve could not 
 be continued in this case because the limiting diameter of standard 
 iron pulleys made by the manufacturers is 10 ft. Special pulleys 
 would undoubtedly cost too much to be considered. 
 
 TABLE VI. ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
 SIZES. (Fig. 2) 
 
 Diam. Width of Length of Cost of Cost of Total 
 
 pulley, ins. belt, ins. belt. ft. belt pulleys cost 
 
 8 10 42 $109 $10 $119 
 
 12 
 
 61/2 
 
 '1 3 
 
 67 
 
 12 
 
 79 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 441/6 
 
 53 
 
 12 
 
 65 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 451/6 
 
 43 
 
 13 
 
 56 
 
 24 
 
 31A 
 
 461/4 
 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 51 
 
 28 
 
 2% 
 
 471,^ 
 
 31 
 
 18 
 
 49 
 
 32 
 
 21/2 
 
 48V^ 
 
 29 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 36 
 
 2Vi 
 
 491/2 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 501/2 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 
 61 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 511/2 
 
 25 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 Table VI and curves in Fig. 2 show that where 10 h.p. is to be 
 transmitted from a shaft making 400 r.p.m. to a second shaft 20 
 ft. away, making 400 r.p.m. also, 28-in. pulleys and a 2% -in. single 
 belt would be most economical. The cost curve in this case is 
 almost flat from the 20-in. pulley size to the 36th-in. pulley size 
 
1084 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and the designer is allowed a wide range of choice, but it should 
 be remembered that large pulleys generally give least trouble from 
 slipping. The belt speed of 3,000 ft. per min. with 28-in. pulleys 
 
 8 10 12 !4 1& i6 20 22 24 26 26 30 52 34 56 3d 40 42 44 
 rewKf^ Diameter of Pulley, Inches 
 
 Fig. 2. Ten h.p., speed of driving and driven pulleys 400 r.p.m. 
 
 is not excessive and may be allowed without question. Formula I 
 was used in computing the belt width in this and the other curves 
 and tables. 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
 SIZES. (Fig. 3) 
 
 Cost of Cost of Total 
 
 cost 
 
 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2& 
 Diameter of Small Po\ley, Inches is>.fti\ 
 
 Fig. 3. Ten h.p., large pulley 300 r.p.m;, small pulley 1200 r.p.m. 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 
 
 1085 
 
 Fig. 3 shows the least expensive combination where 10 h.p. is 
 to be delivered from a pulley making 300 r.p.m. to a smaller pulley 
 making 1,200 r.p.m. Distance center to center is 30 ft. A small 
 pulley 9 ins. in diameter, a 36-in. driving pulley, and a 2% -in. 
 belt will do very well. The computed results from which these 
 curves were plotted are given in Table VII. 
 
 Table VIII and Fig. 4 (upper curve) and Table IX and Fig. 4 
 (lower curve) ^ow that the best sizes are not always dependent 
 
 TABLE VIII. ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
 SIZES. (Fig. 4, Upper curve) 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Width of 
 
 Length of Cost of 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Total 
 
 pulley, ins. 
 
 belt, ins. 
 
 belt. ft. belt 
 
 pulleys 
 
 cost 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 641/6 $293 
 
 $31 
 
 $324 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 65iij 250 
 
 33 
 
 283 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 661/4 204 
 
 37 
 
 243 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 671/4 177 
 
 41 
 
 218 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 681/^ 164 
 
 41 
 
 205 
 
 36 
 
 9 
 
 691/^ 150 
 
 48 
 
 198 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 701,^ 135 
 
 46 
 
 181 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 71% 120 
 
 53 
 
 173 
 
 48 
 
 eVi 
 
 721/, 113 
 
 60 
 
 173 
 
 52 
 
 6 
 
 731/2 106 
 
 54 
 
 160 
 
 56 
 
 5% 
 
 741/2 99 
 
 62 
 
 161 
 
 60 
 
 5'/. 
 
 752/. 100 
 
 70 
 
 170 
 
 72 
 
 4 IX. 
 
 781/0 85 
 
 100 
 
 185 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ~i 
 
 '~ 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2$ 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 v^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?s 
 
 v^-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H ■>r\ 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 N. 
 
 '0 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 J 
 
 1^ 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 %' ^ 
 
 >>7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , J J 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v^ 
 
 L^"*^- 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ r 
 
 ^^^"^^ 
 
 c 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 L^ 
 
 Z_P^^Ors, 50 T7;^^j 
 
 
 " 
 
 . 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ' 
 
 —. 
 
 — 
 
 -7 
 
 
 — -^ 
 
 •*■ in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vl5j 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \AJi 
 
 in 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ '.,.+eP-M>-r 1 
 
 **- 
 
 --S 
 
 
 c< 
 
 ^Sf 0^'^ 
 
 _.-. ' n. I, " 1 
 
 7^ 
 
 ■|o- 
 
 
 
 JZ 
 
 
 '^'^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 k-i 
 
 4--Lj__i A 1 f 1 -LJ-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^'0 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 S^^ 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 --C 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n " 
 
 
 "~" 
 
 H 
 
 >-., 
 
 , 
 ^.c/ 
 
 es • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *■ 
 
 r5-^^a4_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~- — — 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 _ 
 
 _^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 200 
 
 )50o 
 
 I 
 
 100^. 
 
 50 
 
 le 20 24 28 52 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 
 Diameier of Pulley, Inches '^"» 
 
 Fig. 4. Twenty h.p., speed of driving and driven pulleys 200 r.p.m. 
 
1086 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 upon the distance between shaft centers. The upper cost curve 
 shows that where driving and driven pulleys are the same size, 
 where the speed is 200 r.p.m., where 20 h.p. is to be transmitted and 
 where the distance between centers is 30 ft. 52-in. pulleys and a 6-in. 
 belt would be most economical. The lower cost curve is based 
 upon the same conditions with the exception that the distance 
 between centers is shortened to 10 ft. Although this shortens the 
 belt considerably the plotted point on the curve nevertheless indi- 
 cates that 52-in. pulleys and a 6-in. belt are again most desirable 
 as regards first cost. 
 
 TABLE IX. "ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
 SIZES. (Fig. 4 — Lower curve) 
 
 Diam. Width of Length of Cost of Co.st of Total 
 
 pulley, ins. belt, ins. belt. ft. belt pulleys cost 
 
 16 19 241/6 $110 
 
 20 16 25Vb 97 
 
 24 13 261/4 82 
 
 28 11 2714 72 
 
 32 10 281/j 68 
 
 36 9 29'/^ 63 
 
 40 8 301/-5 58 
 
 44 7 311/2 53 
 
 48 61/, 321/2 51 
 
 52 6 " 331,^ 48 
 
 56 51/. 341/, 46 
 
 60 51/, 35% 47 
 
 72 4 1/2 381/6 42 
 
 It is therefore evident that the determination of pulley sizes 
 need not be guesswork. After plotting curves similar to these the 
 designer can exercise his judgment to the best advantage. This 
 method is simple, requires little time, and is sure. 
 
 Friction Load of Shaft Bearings. From tests by Prof. C. C. 
 Thomas made at the University of Wisconsin and given in Elec- 
 trical World. Oct. 9, 1915, sonie data on performances of different 
 kinds of bearings were formulated, as .shown in Figs. 5 and 6. 
 
 The data in the accompanying table show the friction load due 
 to shaft bearings and belt drives in the punch-press, screw-machine, 
 drilling and tapping, milling and profiling, rough-store, tool-room, 
 polishing and buffing, and initial-assembly departments of a new 
 manufacturing plant in Indiana. The machines driven handle a 
 ))roduct which weighs less than 10 lbs., so that the friction losses 
 are an important consideration in the total energy demand. The 
 shafting is supported in ball-and-socket, two-point, double-arm, 
 ring-oiled, 24-in. drop hangers. 
 
 The data given in Table X were obtained from readings of a 
 recording watt-hour meter, with all of the belts up to idle pulleys 
 left running during the test. The results indicate that belting 
 back from a main-line shaft to a sub-shaft increases friction losses 
 and that it is better to install separate motors to drive such sub- 
 shafts. It is also apparent that the number of bearings and the 
 speed of the shaft have but little effect on the friction losses. 
 
 $31 
 
 $141 
 
 33 
 
 130 
 
 37 
 
 119 
 
 41 
 
 113 
 
 41 
 
 109 
 
 48 
 
 111 
 
 46 
 
 104 
 
 53 
 
 106 
 
 60 
 
 111 
 
 54 
 
 102 
 
 62 
 
 108 
 
 70 
 
 117 
 
 100 
 
 142 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 
 
 1087 
 
 Liquid grease costing 10 cts. per lb. or $40 per bbl. was found 
 satisfactory for all line-shaft and counter-shaft bearings and loose 
 pulleys except those running at very high speeds. 
 
 Determination of Possible Saving. The curves of Fig. 6 have 
 
 157 R.P. M. 314 
 
 100 Speed.Ft.perMln, 200 
 
 470 
 300 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Power consumed by friction of bearings with different 
 loads and speeds. Temperature 77 degs. F. 
 
 been plotted to show the reduction of power consumed by ball 
 bearings over ordinary bearings of the sleeve type. The data 
 from which the curves were plotted were secured by using a motor 
 under the same conditions to drive a long shaft equipped first with 
 ring oiled babbitt bearings and second with ball bearings. Read- 
 
157 R.P.M. 314 
 
 100 Speed, Ft. per Min. 200 
 
 470 
 300 
 
 Fig. 6. Power consumed by friction of bearingrs at different loads 
 and speed. Temperature 100 degs. F, 
 
 1088 
 
BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 
 
 1089 
 
 H 
 m 
 H 
 H 
 
 l>^ 
 
 m 
 
 t» 
 <l 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 U 
 
 t 
 
 M 
 ft 
 
 O M 
 
 ^ % 
 
 w 
 
 m 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 
 ^•(It[ uiSui 
 -jB8q jacl 
 
 •dii 
 UI p^oi 
 
 U8AIJP 
 
 sauinoBui 
 JO aaquitiN 
 
 sSuuBaq 
 JO aequinu 
 
 sSuij'Bsq 
 :ij^qsaaiunoD 
 JO jaqiunM 
 
 SJeSu'Bq JO 
 aaqixiriN 
 
 •uicl J 
 'paadg 
 
 saqoui 
 'J^:^^UI■B1Q 
 
 mSuai 
 
 ■ON 
 
 OOr-lOO lO 
 (M i-J 05 ■* (M 
 e<l CO CO tH r-i 
 
 «Dt--*Oeo 
 t^oco -^to 
 
 O iH (M Ift O 
 
 O 'O OOOOO 
 
 r-4 (MCOt-IOt 
 
 S III 
 
 t- i; ^ w o 
 'S o 'o X s 
 
 coc^jiflt- 00 1- oieooi oocot-oo 
 
 oooo 
 
 lO IftOO 
 
 00 00 00 00 
 to ^ to CO 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 Cv|<M 
 
 ooo 
 ooo 
 
 eg CM<M 
 
 eoooco 
 
 OOOOO 
 O O Ift Oo 
 
 (Mcgr-ieoco 
 
 i> t- 1- t~ t- 
 
 ec CO 00 CO 00 
 
 (M M <^^ c^ !M c<i csi iM eg e<i c^j c^i *^i eg 
 
 i-H eg CO T^f^w 
 
 a> 
 
 c^ 
 
 u 
 
 rt 
 
 P. 
 
 "^ 
 
 1 
 
 ;3 
 
 
 Oh 
 
 ra 
 
 be 
 
 IS 
 <D S (D 
 ^^ TO W 
 O Ki 
 
 '^be-' 
 "i m C fc. c 
 
 Gbc <w 
 £-• G ;3 ^ ce 
 .S oS o O 45 
 
 IJ 'C ,w ^- 3 
 
 -r w t^ C dj -23 
 
 3 S '^ ^, o > 
 - n; '^ 
 
 L> . 
 
 3 1^ ^ 01 i^ 
 
 ^ ?5 ^ 
 
 m !j cQ • o ■'■^ 
 
 5S2^.2o 
 
 ftS tc 2 f3 
 
 ?? <u^ o ^ ^ 
 
 03 o -t-" ra 
 
 
 be 
 
 
 O 4-" tg 
 
 oi" m C p5 
 
 0) TO r; 
 
1090 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ings were taken of the energy consumed by the motor under vary- 
 ing loads and speeds. 
 
 TABLE XI. SAVING EFFECTED IN ONE PLANT BY BALL- 
 BEARING HANGERS 
 
 Plain- 
 bearing Ball-bearing 
 hangers hangers 
 Total kw. to operate machines and shafting. 93 74.6 
 H.p. to operate shafting with belts on loose 
 
 pulleys 32 13.5 
 
 Number of bearings 110 110 
 
 Cost of energy at 1.5 cts. per kw.-hr., for 
 
 3,150 hrs. per year $4,394.25 $3,524.85 
 
 Cost of ball bearings, including erection 1,208.00 
 
 Interest on investment at 69o 72.48 
 
 Depreciation at 4% 48.32 
 
 Total cost first year 1.328.80 
 
 Saving in energy required 869.40 
 
 Saving in maintenance and lubrication 125.75 
 
 Total annual saving due to hangers 9 95.15 
 
 Return on investment after sixteen months, 
 
 in per cent 75.0 
 
 Steel Belts for Power Transmission. The eflSciency of flat steel 
 bands for the transmission of power has been investigated re- 
 cently at the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg. The re- 
 sults show a remarkably high slip efficiency 99.5% and a striking 
 economy in both first and operating costs over rope and leather- 
 belt transmission. An abstract of a rei^ort of the results of the 
 tests is contributed by J. P. Schroeter to Engineering News. 
 
 ■' According to the official tests made at the Technische Hoch- 
 schule with steel-bands 23 mm. wide and 0.3 mm. thick, the useful 
 tension per centimetre of width was 15 kg. with pulleys 1.250 mm. 
 in diameter having a peripheral velocity of 15 m. to 30 rh. per 
 sec. ; the useful tension was 10 kg. for pulleys 600 mm. in diameter 
 running at a peripheral velocity of 15 m. per sec. The pulleys had 
 a thin cork cover and the tension was very carefully adjusted to 
 the most favorable conditions. Expressed in English units, these 
 results may be summarized as follows : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Belt width, ins 0.906 0.906 
 
 Belt thickness, ins .0118 .0118 
 
 Pulley diameter, ins 49.21 23.62 
 
 Peripheral speed, ft. per sec 50 to 100 50 
 
 Effective pull per in. of width, lbs 84 56 
 
 Effective pull per sq. in. of cross section, lbs. 7,112 4,742 
 
 " In practice there has been transmitted, with a steel-band of 
 the above size, 145 h.p.; and, with one 100 mm. wide, 250 h.p. 
 
 " There is practically no noise either at high or low velocity, 
 and in the tests it was impossible to find any elongation of the 
 band. Its lightness and high tensile strength permit its use at 
 higher velocities than are permissible with belts, and its use with 
 generators and motors has proved very successful. 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1091 
 
 " An item not generally given enough consideration in calcula- 
 tions is the power lost in transmission. The accompanying table 
 gives the first cost, efficiency and operating expenses with steel- 
 bands and belt transmission." 
 
 TABLE XI. FIRST COST, FRICTION LOSSES AND OPERATING 
 EXPENSES FOR STEEL-BAND TRANSMISSION OF 
 100 HORSE-POWER 
 
 First cost Rope Leather Steel 
 
 Pulleys $177 $96 $60 
 
 Belting 148 310 180 
 
 Total $325 $406 $240 
 
 Losses. 
 
 Loss % 13 6 0.5 
 
 Loss in h.p 13 6 0.5 
 
 Loss per annum in h.p.-hrs 39,000 18,000 1,500 
 
 Money loss $663 $306 $25 
 
 Yearly expenses. 
 
 5% interest on fir.st cost 16.25 20.30 12.00 
 
 10% depreciation on pulleys 17.70 9.60 6.00 
 
 20% depreciation on belting 29.60 62.00 36.00 
 
 Friction loss as above 663.00 306.00 25.50 
 
 Total yearly $726.55 $397.90 $79.50 
 
 Note. — Diameter of pulleys, 3.28 ft. ; distance between axles, 
 32.8 ft. ; cost per h.p.-hr., 1.7 cts. ; 200 r.p.m. 
 
 Use of Steel Belts for Power Transmission, According to En- 
 gineering and Contracting, Jan. 1, 1913, steel belts have been used 
 during the past year in some of the large manufacturing plants 
 at Huddersfield, England, and have proved satisfactory. It is 
 found that a 7% -in. steel belt, weighing 119 lbs., does the work 
 formerly done by a leather belt 22 ins. wide, weighing 814 lbs., 
 driving 300 h.p. In another mill a 3i^-in. steel belt, weighing 12 
 lbs. does the work of a leather belt 12 ins. wide, weighing 64 lbs., 
 driving 40 h.p. The steel belt saves space, does not slip or stretch 
 and gives greater efficiency of power delivery. Tests have shown 
 a saving of 61 h.p. on a drive of 640 h.p. 
 
 Steel Driving-Beits Compared with Rope Driving. In Lanca- 
 shire (England) mills driven by ropes, shafting and belting, it is 
 stated in Engineering Magazine, May, 1914, that the power losses 
 between prime mover and machines vary from 25 to 35% of the 
 total power generated. From 5 to 12% of the engine-power is 
 wasted in hauling several tons of ropes round the rope-race. 
 Hitherto it was thought that steel belts could only be used for 
 light powers, but at the present time steel-belt drives of from 
 10 to 3,650 h.p. are in use, textile drives lying well within these 
 limits. 
 
 The Eloesser steel belts are made from a specially hardened char- 
 coal steel, prepared by a secret process, the finished material, it is 
 stated, having a tensile strength of 9 5 tons to the .sq. in., so that 
 the length of each belt is constant, and no subsequent readjust- 
 
1092 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ment is required. The thicknesses vary, but do not exceed 1 mm., 
 and the widths are from 1% ins, to about 8 ins., according to the 
 working conditions and the maximum horse-power to be trans- 
 mitted. The rims of the pulleys are covered with a layer of canvas, 
 to which is glued thin sheets of cork. 
 
 TABLE XII. INDICATED HORSE-POWER OF THE STEAM- 
 ENGINE 
 
 With With 
 
 ropes steel Saving 
 
 h.p. belts h.p. in h.p. 
 Running with friction load (5 drives 
 
 with ropes changed for steel belts) . . 342.2 318.1 24.1 
 The main shaft only of the above drives 
 
 with full load 642.9 581.3 61.6 
 
 In connection with the investigations being undertaken by the 
 mill-driving committee of the Textile Institute, a paper was read 
 in Manchester on " Steel-Belt Power Transmission." The lecturer, 
 Mr. Kruger, gave some details of comparative tests that had been 
 carried out. The table shows a comparative test between ropes 
 and steel belts, as a method of transmission. 
 
 The lecturer explained that at a spinning-mill, ropes transmitting 
 900 h.p. from a first to a second-motion shaft had been displaced 
 by steel belts. The indicated power on the rope-drives for the 
 two weeks previous to the conversion was 1,015 to 1,024, or a varia- 
 tion of 9 h.p. After steel belts were installed it was 898 h.p., or a 
 clear gain over the ropes of 126 h.p. 
 
 Turning to smaller installations, the lecturer gave particulars of 
 an interesting test of efficiency of steel-belt driving made on a 35 
 h.p. motor-drive. The current was supplied at 410 volts. The 
 motor was tested without the belt, and absorbed 7 amps. Next 
 the motor was belted up on to a short counter-shaft carried on 
 ball-bearings, the motor-pulley, 13 ins. in diameter, running at 710 
 r.p.m. on to the counter-shaft pulley, 35 ins. in diameter. The belt 
 was 7 ins. wide. The difference made in running the belt and the 
 light coimter-shaft caused the ammeter to register 7.75 to 8 amps. 
 A further leather belt, 3 ins. wide, was then put on to drive the 
 line-shaft from the counter-shaft from a 2 5 -in. pulley on to a 
 73-in. pulley. This belt was only capable of transmitting 8 h.p. 
 The increased power consumed measured on the ammeter raised 
 the figure to 9 to 9.5. On taking the leather belt off and putting 
 the steel belt on the same identical pulleys, the ammeter in circuit 
 only registered 8 to 8.5 amps., showing a reduction in current re- 
 quired of 1 amp. as against the leather belt, which is equivalent 
 to a gain of 12%% in efficiency over the leather belt. 
 
 As regards width occupied, this, of course, varies with the power 
 to be transmitted, but one 8-in. belt in one instance replaces ten 
 2-in. ropes, in another case four 6-in. steel belts replace twenty-two 
 2-in, ropes, the horse-power transmitted being in the latter case 
 900. As the result of a series of experiments made for the most 
 desirable tension in steel-belt driving, the frictional coefficient 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 
 
 1093 
 
 between these belts and covered pulleys was found to equal 0.27. 
 This value is practically equal to that of leather belts and iron 
 pulleys. In Germany a number of rolling-mills have adopted the 
 steel-belt drive. 
 
 Formula for Cost of Electric Motors. A. A. Potter in Power, 
 Dec. 30, 1913, gives the formulae of costs given in Table XIII. 
 
 TABLE XIII. COST OF ELECTRIC MOTORS 
 
 Type Capacity Equation of cost in 
 
 dollars 
 
 Direct-current, Up to 1.5 h.p. (1400 to 2500 18.53 + 42.37 X h.p. 
 
 belted r.p.m.) 
 
 Direct-current, 1.5 to 30 h.p. (1000 to 1800 53.3 -f 12.4 X h.p. 
 
 belted r.p.m.) 
 
 Direct-current. 30 to 100 h.p. (500 to 800 191.7 -f 10.94 X h.p. 
 
 belted, upper r.p.m.) 
 
 limit 
 
 Direct-current, 30 to 100 h.p. (800 to 1000 213 -f 8.264 X h.p. 
 
 belted, lower r.p.m.) 
 
 limit 
 
 Variable speed ITp to 10 h.p.-upper limit. 64.1 + 36.786 X h.p. 
 
 Variable speed Up to 10 h.p. lower limit. 69.2 +10.56 X h.p. 
 
 Alt. cur., single- Up to 25 h.p. (1200 to 1800 25 +11.75 X h.p. 
 
 phase (110- r.p.m.) 
 
 220 volts) 
 
 A.c. belted Up to 130 h.p. (1200 to 1800 116 + 4.72 X h.p. 
 
 polyphase in- r.p.m.) 
 
 duction 
 
 Variable .^peed Up to 25 h.p. 60.7 + 7.15 X h.p. 
 
 Variable speed 30 to 60 h.p. • 157.6 + 3.573 X h.p. 
 
 Direct Current Motors. The weights and prices in Tables XIV 
 to XVII have been derived from catalogue and appraisal data in 
 our possession. The weights and prices for machines up to 75 
 h.p. and 75 kw. are largely taken from the catalogues and price 
 lists of several well known manufacturers of this equipment. 
 There is a variation of some 15% above and below the average 
 price given and variation of about twice this amount is found in 
 the weights. 
 
 TABLE XIV. DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS 
 Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 
 
 300 R.P.M. 
 
 5 1,480 % 295 
 
 7.5 1,980 370 
 
 10 2,450 440 
 
 15 3.280 560 
 
 20 4,000 660 
 
 25 4,750 760 
 
 50 7.800 I.IGO 
 
 75 10,050 1,510 
 
 100 13,000 1.840 
 
 150 17,500 2,380 
 
 200 21,500 2,650 
 
 250 25,200 3,320 
 
 300 28,700 3,750 
 
 350 32,000 4,100 
 
 400 ..., 35.500 4,500 
 
 450 38,500 4,850 
 
 500 .., , ,, 41,500 5,200 
 
1094 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 
 
 500 R.P.M. 
 
 J 335 $ 100 
 
 2 530 138 
 
 3 700 169 
 
 I 860 195 
 
 5 1,000 220 
 
 7.5 1,350 275 
 
 10 1,680 325 
 
 15 2,250 415 
 
 20 2,750 490 
 
 25 3,250 560 
 
 50 5,450 840 
 
 75 7,250 1,090 
 
 100 8,900 1,300 
 
 150 12,000 1,710 
 
 200 14.800 2,050 
 
 250 17.500 2!400 
 
 300 20,000 2.660 
 
 350 22,200 2,980 
 
 400 24,300 3.200 
 
 450 26,500 3,500 
 
 500 28,800 3,750 
 
 1,200 R.P.M. 
 
 1 218 $ 67 
 
 2 300 92 
 
 3 385 110 
 
 4 465 127 
 
 5 545 140 
 
 7.5 720 171 
 
 10 890 200 
 
 15 1,200 250 
 
 20 1,480 295 
 
 25 1,730 335 
 
 50 2,850 500 
 
 75 3,830 630 
 
 100 4,750 760 
 
 1,800 R.P.M. 
 
 1 185 $ 55 
 
 2 245 76 
 
 3 300 92 
 
 4 360 105 
 
 5 410 116 
 
 7.5 545 142 
 
 10 670 152 
 
 15 890 200 
 
 20 1,100 235 
 
 25 1,320 270 
 
 50 2,130 400 
 
 75 2,850 505 
 
 100 3,520 600 
 
 TABLE XV. ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS 
 
 (Two and 3 phase, 25 cycle for 110. 220, 440 and 550 volts.) 
 Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 
 750 R.P.M, 
 
 1 140 $ 275 
 
 2 150. 290 
 
 3 155 325 
 
 4 165 360 
 
 5 170 390 
 
 7% 190 470 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1095 
 
 ize in h.p. 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 Weight in lbs. 
 
 215 
 
 270 
 
 330 
 
 Price f.o.b. factory 
 530 
 660 
 760 
 
 25 
 
 390 
 
 860 
 
 50 
 
 680 
 
 1,275 
 
 1. 
 
 1,200 R.P.M. 
 180 
 
 $ 43 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 240 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7% 
 
 360 
 
 380 
 
 460 
 
 650 
 
 74 
 
 88 
 
 98 
 
 125 
 
 10^' 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 830 
 
 1,150 
 
 1,500 
 
 1 750 
 
 145 
 190 
 230 
 270 
 
 50 
 
 2,600 
 
 425 
 
 TABLE XVI. ALTERiXATING CURRENT INDUCTION MOTORS 
 
 (Two and 3 phase, 60 cycle, for 110 to 220 volts.) 
 Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 
 
 500 R.P.M. 
 
 1 130 $ 30 
 
 50 160 48 
 
 75 190 57 
 
 100 220 65 
 
 125 250 70 
 
 150 280 82 
 
 200 350 100 
 
 250 420 115 
 
 300 480 130 
 
 350 550 145 
 
 400 600 160 
 
 450 680 175 
 
 500 750 185 
 
 900 R.P.M. 
 
 1 130 $ 28 
 
 2 135 32 
 
 3 140 35 
 
 4 142 38 
 
 5 145 40 
 
 71/2 155 46 
 
 10 165 50 
 
 15 195 60 
 
 20 230 68 
 
 25 270 78 
 
 50 450 120 
 
 75 640 160 
 
 100 800 200 
 
 1,200 R.P.M. 
 
 1 155 $ 46 
 
 2 195 60 
 
 3 250 74 
 
 4 310 88 
 
 5 .360 100 
 
 IVi 500 135 
 
 10 620 165 
 
 15 875 215 
 
 20 1,150 270 
 
 25 1,400 310 
 
 50 2,500 515 
 
1096 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. 
 
 1,800 R.P.M. 
 
 1 145 
 
 2 165 
 
 3 200 
 
 4 230 
 
 5 270 
 
 7% 360 
 
 10 450 
 
 15 610 
 
 20 • 800 
 
 25 1,000 
 
 50 1,800 
 
 Price f.o.b. factory 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 68 
 
 78 
 
 100 
 
 125 
 
 165 
 
 200 
 
 235 
 
 380 
 
 TABLE XVII. TURBO-DRIVEN EXCITERS 
 
 Size in k.ws. Weight, in lbs. Price f.o b. factory 
 
 3,600 R.P.M. 
 
 25 3,850 $1,320 
 
 35 4,100 1,425 
 
 50 4,700 1,650 
 
 75 5,850 2,080 
 
 100 7,400 2,550 
 
 2,500 R.P.M. 
 
 25 4,200 $1,430 
 
 35 4,700 1,650 
 
 50 5,700 2,040 
 
 75 7,900 2,700 
 
 100 10,500 3,350 
 
 Cost of Changing 2-Phase Induction Motors to 3-Pinase. A 
 
 small central station in the West described in Electrical World, 
 May 11, 1912, changed its entire distribution system from 2 -phase 
 to 3 -phase, retaining the original frequency of 60 cycles. This 
 made it necessary to rewind all 2-phase motors connected to the 
 system. There were 10 of these motors, ranging from 2 h.p. to 
 25 h.p., all operating at 220 volts. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. 
 
 COST OF REWINDING POLYPHASE 
 INDUCTION MOTORS 
 
 
 
 
 New 
 
 Miscel- 
 
 
 Mo 
 
 tor 
 
 Labor 
 
 coils 
 
 laneous 
 
 Total 
 
 25 h.p.. 
 
 1200 r.p.m 
 
 . .. $11.92 
 
 $45.00 
 
 $2.64 
 
 $59,56 
 
 15 h.p., 
 
 1200 r.p.m 
 
 . .. 19.08 
 
 21.32 
 
 3.52 
 
 43.92 
 
 10 h.p.. 
 
 1200 r.p.m.* 
 
 . .. 24.07 
 
 16.82 
 
 4.44 
 
 45.33 
 
 5 h.p.. 
 
 1800 r.p.m 
 
 3.56 
 
 
 0.82 
 
 4.38 
 
 5 h.p.. 
 
 1800 r.p.m 
 
 2.40 
 
 
 0.63 
 
 3.03 
 
 5 h. p. 
 
 , 1800 r.p.m 
 
 2.40 
 
 
 0.62 
 
 3.02 
 
 5 h.p., 
 
 1800 r.p.m 
 
 2.40 
 
 .... 
 
 0.51 
 
 2.91 
 
 3 h.p., 
 
 1800 r.p.m.* 
 
 7.47 
 
 .... 
 
 1.68 
 
 9.15 
 
 3 h.p., 
 
 1800 r.p.m 
 
 1.60 
 
 .... 
 
 0.40 
 
 2.00 
 
 2 h.p., 
 
 1800 r.p.m 
 
 3.78 
 
 
 
 0.68 
 
 4.46 
 
 * Extra time was required owing to errors in blueprints. 
 
 The winders received 40 cts. per hr. and their helpers from 34 
 cts. to 42 cts. per hr. The motors were of two standard and well- 
 known makes. In two instances the labor costs were excessive, 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1097 
 
 as noted in the table, because the connections as shown on the 
 manufacturer's blueprints were in error. The motors of 10 h.p- 
 and larger were rewound with new coils, while those of 5 h.p. and 
 less were reconnected. The grand total cost was 1177.76 for 10 
 motors with a combined rating of 78 h.p. or $2.28 per h.p. 
 
 Cost of Individual Electric Drive. In a paper and discussion 
 before the National Association of Box Manufacturers at a recent 
 convention, F. M. Kimball and L. R. Pomeroy emphasized a num- 
 ber of points which have a direct bearing upon the general problem 
 of electric driving. One point especially was the ease with which 
 a check can be kept upon the condition of the tools or machines 
 when driven by d.-c. motors. Wood-working tools, in particular, 
 when out of alignment or carrying dull cutters, may easily absorb 
 200% more power than they normally require, and this excess power 
 is not only wasted, but is absorbed in friction and strains which 
 are damaging to the machine. Under such conditions the niceties 
 of adjustment are disarranged and the machine is liable to per- 
 manent injury. By placing an indicating wattmeter in circuit with 
 the motor and observing its reading when the driven tool is 
 known to be in perfect adjustment and alignment, with the cutter 
 in good order, and comparing that reading with subsequent read- 
 ings from time to time, an abnormal use of power is at once made 
 known, and corrective measures may be applied in time to prevent 
 serious injury. 
 
 Mr. Pomeroy presented the following results from 8 cases of 
 electric driving: 
 
 The difficulty of having at hand figures showing the direct ad- 
 vantage of the motor drive in dollars and cents, as applying to 
 wood-working shops, is explained by the fact that so far, everyone 
 adopting the electric operation of tools has taken opportunity at 
 the same time to enlarge and improve the plants so that no direct 
 comparison with previous conditions can be made. The following 
 figures may have a relative bearing: 
 
 1. Operation — boring a cylinder. 
 
 Total time, 730 mins. 
 Less helper's time, 215 mins. 
 
 Net time, 515 mins. 
 
 Actual time cutting, 225 mins., or 43.5% — over 50% non-pro- 
 ductive time. If only 10% of this time could be saved, it would 
 result, for a $4 per-day man. in $120 per annum, which capitalized 
 at 10% is $1,200. The logic of this is that we could afford to 
 spend $1,000 if only 10% saving could be effected. A motor would 
 save more than this in increased efficiency alone. The particular 
 tool in the case would require a motor costing about $120. Add 
 to this the proportion chargeable to the motor for power plant, i. e., 
 $140, and we have $260. 
 
 2. A certain shop located at Richmond. Va., installed an aggre- 
 gate of 1,510 h.p. motors. The average load is 30%, or 450 
 h.p. An engine-and-belt system could easily use up this amount 
 
1098 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in friction alone. The friction load is constant and is as much 
 when one h.p. of work is being done as when the plant is carrying 
 full load. Per contra, with motor drive, the friction load is that 
 of one motor — if only one is in operation — and the others in 
 proportion. The friction load in machine shops runs from 40 to 
 80% of the original power developed by the engine. 
 
 3. The annual cost for belting, for maintenance and repairs, 
 amounts to 37% of the initial cost each year. F. W. Taylor says 
 that the average annual cost equals $6.90 per double belt per 
 annum; say on an ordinary 40-ft. double belt 8 ins. wide, costing 
 $30, the average charge amounts to $11 or Zl% of $30. 
 
 4. Mr, Harding, speaking of the Carnegie works at Duquesne, 
 says that the intermittent operation of motor? is carried from a 
 central station by means of one-sixth the h.p. required when indi- 
 vidual engines were used. 
 
 5. Another large plant formerly driven by 30 separate engines, 
 because of widely scattered buildings, saved 40,000 lbs. of coal in 
 24 hrs. by adopting an electric drive from a central plant. A test 
 from one department of this plant under the old conditions showed 
 that the line shafts and loose pulleys consumed 61.75 h.p., or 30%; 
 machines and counter shafts, 141 h.p., or 61%; machines cutting 
 at normal rate, 210 h.p. 
 
 6. Mr. Vauclain, in discussing the electric drive in the Baldwin 
 Locomotive Works, made the following statement : 
 
 The application of electricity in the frame .shop resulted in a 
 reduction of the force of 60%; while in the wheel shop the dis- 
 carding of the shafting enabled the placing of one-third more 
 wheel lathes on the same floor space. The electric traveling crane 
 superseding the hand jib cranes reduced the common labor from 
 40 to 6 men, with 50% saving in power. Electricity was first in- 
 troduced to drive two 100-ton cranes, resulting in an immediate 
 saving of 80 men of the laboring force, a saving of 20% in pay roll, 
 and 40% in shop area for a given product. Crane installation cost 
 about $65,000. Sixty -five to 75 men would equal this amount in 
 each year. 
 
 7. Belt drive as applied to most machines does not permit of 
 running the tool to its limit, on an average job, while direct motor- 
 drive does. 
 
 8. The C, M. and St. P. Ry. installed a motor on a turntable cost- 
 ing $550, which resulted in a wage saving of $1,600 per year. 
 
 The statement having been made that the expense for fuel in a 
 box factory was nil, owing to the waste and shavings being utilized, 
 figures were presented for the cost of power, entirely eliminating 
 the fuel question on the basis of a 100 h.p. plant: 
 
 Per h.p. per year 
 
 Labor, 2 men, engineer and fireman $21 
 
 Water at 10 cts. per 1.000 gal 4 
 
 Repairs 5 
 
 Removing ashes 5 
 
 Interest and depreciation 6 
 
 Total per horse-power year $41 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1099 
 
 Two cents per k.w.-hr. at same rate (10-hr. day) amounts to 
 $45 per h.p.-year. 
 Steam Engine vs. Motor Drive for Small Machine Shops. A. G. 
 
 Popcke in Electrical Journal, Aug., 1910, discusses the advantage 
 of electric drive over steam drive and gives examples showing the 
 saving actually effected in two instances. 
 
 A Shop Driven hy a Single 25 h.p. Motor with an average recorded 
 load of 10 k.w. : The various machines in the shop were subse- 
 quently divided into separate motor-driven groups without attempt- 
 ing to improve the arrangement of counter-shafts. The grouping 
 and results obtained are shown in Table XIX. 
 
 TABLE XIX. GROUP DRIVE 
 
 , Motor ^ , Operation ^ 
 
 Groups of H.p. Kw. Hours per Kw.-hrs. 
 
 Machine tools rating load day per day 
 
 Lathes 3 2 14 28 
 
 Lathes 3 2 6 12 
 
 Drills and lathes 3 2 14 28 
 
 Milling machine 3 2 9 18 
 
 Planer and milling machine. 5 2 10 20 
 
 Total 17 10 .. 106 
 
 The two groups of lathes are operated 14 hrs. per day; hence, 
 when the shop was driven by a single motor the total energy re- 
 quired was 10 X 14 = 140 k.w. -hrs. When group drive was in- 
 stalled only 106 k.w.-hs. were required, that is, the saving is 34 
 k.w. -hrs. per day. Assuming the power rate at three cts. per 
 k.w.-hr., and 25 working days per month, the saving effected by the 
 small group drive is 0.03 X 34 X 25 = $25.50, or $306 per year, a 
 large percentage of the total operating expenses of a small shop. 
 
 Engine-Driven Belt Transmission Replaced in a Small Machine 
 Shop by Motor Drive and Electric Power purchased from a local 
 central station : The shop manufactured brass fittings and the 
 character of the manufactured product was not changed, conse- 
 quently the operating expenses before and after the substitution 
 of electric drive afford a fair basis of comparison of the relative 
 merits of the two systems. The original equipment consisted of 
 a 12 h.p. steam boiler and a small engine driving the line shafting. 
 A man, who tended the boiler and engine and did some other work, 
 was employed for $2.50 per day; $1.50 of this amount was fairly 
 charged against the operation of engine and boiler. The coal bill 
 amounted to $25 per month. The boiler was discarded and the 
 engine replaced by a 7.5 h.p. electric motor, with the result that 
 the total power bills now range from $37 to $42, averaging ap- 
 proximately $40 per month. The yearly expenses for power with 
 engine and with motor drive were as follows : 
 
 Engine Drive: 
 
 Coal per year (12 X $25) $300 
 
 Attendant (312 days at $1.50 per day) 468 
 
 Total $768 
 
1100 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Difference favoring motor drive $288 
 
 A 7.5 h.p. motor costs approximately $200 ; that is, the motor 
 saves more than its first cost every year, thereby paying dividends 
 of over 100%. Excepting the few repairs necessary, this saving 
 goes on during the life of the motor, which is ordinarily many 
 years. 
 
 Cost of Motor Drive in a Six-Story Factory. The power plant 
 serving the building described - in Electrical World Aug. 23, 
 1913, contained two 200-h.p. Stirling boilers and two Har- 
 rison boilers housed in a boiler room measuring 60 ft. by 
 75 ft. Hand-firing was employed and the two Stirling boilers, 
 operated at 150 lbs. steam pressure and 100 degs. superheat, were 
 equipped with an automatic fan arranged to reinforce the draft 
 when it fell below a fixed value. The Harrison boilers were much 
 older, and were used only for heating purposes and for operating 
 an elevator pump. In the engine room, measuring 24 ft. by 56 ft., 
 there was installed about ten years bfefore the test a 20-in. by 42-in. 
 Rice & Sargent simple non-condensing engine, delivering about 
 200 h.p. at 90 r.p.m. Its exhaust was led to a feed-water heater 
 which raided the feed temperature to 176 degs. F., none of the 
 exhaust being returned again to the boiler. Power was transmitted 
 to the six floors of the building by means of belting and jack shafts. 
 On each floor friction clutches were placed between the line and 
 jack shafts, to permit disconnecting a part of the equipment on the 
 floor when desirable. 
 
 Plans for Electrical Operation. In taking up the electrical opera- 
 tion of the installation three different plans were considered. The 
 first was to install one motor of about 300 h.p. rating to drive the 
 entire mill ; the second was to employ individual drive, and the 
 last, to use a group plan of drive. The first was deemed imprac- 
 ticable since the space occupied by the jack shafts and belting 
 wouM not be available for manufacturing purposes, and since the 
 loss in the jack shafts, which was found to be about 25% of the 
 total load, would not be eliminated. The second plan would have 
 necessitated costly changes in the arrangement of line shafting 
 and called for the abandonment of most of it, besides tending to 
 cause serious interruptions in the operation of the machines. The 
 group-drive plan was considered best for the building, since it 
 would result in no interruption in the service and would eliminate 
 jack shafts and jack-shaft belting. 
 
 In order to determine what sizes of motors would be needed on 
 the different floors a 30-h.p. motor was set up to drive the separate 
 line .shafts and the input noted by a Westinghouse curve-drawing 
 wattmeter. As a result of these tests it was decided to install 
 fifteen three-phase, 230-volt induction motors to drive the depart- 
 ments concerned, the total rating being 4,380 h.p. 
 
 Before the steam plant was removed, opportunity was offered 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES HOI 
 
 to secure data on the operation of the shop by steam. The load 
 on the engine was found by taking indicator cards at frequent 
 intervals throughout three days. Two tests on the steam plant 
 were made, one with the Stirling boilers supplying the engine alone 
 and one with the boilers supplying the auxiliaries and engine. The 
 object of the first test was to obtain the efficiency of the engine 
 and boilers, and of the second to secure data as to the amount of 
 coal and water usd in the boilers to supply steam to the auxiliaries 
 and engine. 
 
 Methods of Potver Measurement. In order to obtain roughly 
 the power delivered to each of the six floors the following method 
 was used : With all the floors in operation indicator cards were 
 taken at the engine ; then the sixth floor was thrown off by means 
 of the clutch connecting the line to the jack shaft and cards were 
 again taken. The difference between the two engine h.p. readings 
 was then assumed to be the power delivered to the sixth floor, plus 
 the friction losses due to the transmission to that floor. Then the 
 clutch was again thrown In and the operation repeated for the 
 other floors in turn. The engine efficiency was found to be 10.12% 
 and the boiler efficiency 54.3% in the tests above referred to. The 
 buckwheat coal used cost $3.60 per net ton and was found to 
 contain 12,100 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 "With all the machines idle, and with only the shafting load on 
 the engine, the output of the latter was 163.4 i.h.p. The power 
 required to drive the jack shaft, or in other words the shafting 
 and belting from the engine to the clutches on the various floors, 
 was 78.4 h.p. The total power delivered to the floors, according 
 to data obtained by throwing out each floor in succession, was 
 223.4 h.p. This, added to the power required to drive the jack 
 shafts, aggregated 301.8 h.p. 
 
 DETERMINATION OF COST OF STEAM POWER 
 
 Hours of running: 
 
 (Plant Is shut down two weeks for repairs.) 
 
 50 weeks at 5 days of 10 hours and 1 day of 5 hours, 
 
 less 6 holidays, gives per year, in working hours. . 2,690 
 Coal used per year in tons, including 119 tons for 
 
 banking ( 5 lb. per brake-h.p. per day) 1.664 
 
 Water per year, in thousands of gals 2,338 
 
 Operating Costs: 
 
 Water per year at 20 cts. per 1,000 gals $467.60 
 
 Oil and wa.ste at 0.033 cts. per h.p.-hr 259 40 
 
 A.sh removal, 399 tons at 25 cts. per ton. . 99.80 
 
 Coal per year at $3.60 per ton 5.980.00 
 
 Repairs at 29r of investment (.see below) 339.00 
 
 1 engineman, 50 weeks at $18 900 00 
 
 1 assistant engineman at $15 750.00 
 
 1 fireman at $12 600 00 
 
 Total operating cost with steam $9,395.80 
 
 Investment Cost and Fixed Charges: 
 
 Two 200-h.p. Stirling boilers (at $13 per h.p.) $5,200.00 
 
 Feed pump and heater 850.00 
 
 Piping 2,000.00 
 
1102 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 20-in. X 42-in. simple non-condensing engine 8,000.00 
 
 Stack, at $2.25 per boiler h.p 900.00 
 
 Total investment $16,950.00 
 
 Fixed Charges: 
 
 Interest at 5% on $16,950 $847.50 
 
 Profit, 10% on $16,950 1,695.00 
 
 Insurance and taxes, 2% 339.00 
 
 Amortization of boiler, 1.5%, 30-year life 108.00 
 
 Amortization of auxiliaries, 3%, 20 years 25.50 
 
 Amortization of engine, 1.5%, 30 years 120.00 
 
 Amortization of stack, 0.5%, 50 years 4.50 
 
 Total $3,139.50 
 
 Grand total steam cost per year, operating ex- 
 penses and fixed charges $12,545.30 
 
 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL, COST 
 
 Cost of Motors: 
 
 3 50-h.p. motors 90C r.p.m., at $450.00 $1,350.00 
 
 2 35-hp. motors, 1,200 r.p.m., at $360.00 720.00 
 
 2 25-h.p. motors, 1.200 r.p.m., at $301.50 603.00 
 
 3 20-h.p. motors, 1,200 r.p.m., at $277.20 831.60 
 
 2 15-h.p. motors, 1.200 r.p.m.. at $233.10 466.20 
 
 1 10-h.p. motors, 1200 r.p.m. at $201.60 201.60 
 
 2 5-h.p. motors, 1,800 r.p.m., at $71.10 142.20 
 
 Total, less 10% discount $3,883.10 
 
 (Cost of motors included starting compensators, with motors in 
 service, excluding wiring.) 
 
 Cost of wiring $200.00 
 
 Total cost of electrical installation = 4,083.10 
 
 Fixed Charges, Electrical Installation: 
 
 Interest, 5% on $4.083.10 $204.20 
 
 Profit, 10% on $4,083.10 408.30 
 
 Insurance and taxes, '1% 81.70 
 
 Depreciation, including repairs and obsolescence, fig- 
 ured at 10% 408.30 
 
 Total $1,102.50 
 
 Energy consumption of installation per year, on basis of 
 energy supply to mill directly from central-station 
 
 mains, requiring 538,650 kw.-hr. at 2 cts $10,733.00 
 
 Fixed charges 1,102.50 
 
 Total cost of electrical service $11,875.50 
 
 Net saving by use of electric drive, $669.80. 
 
 In this installation the survey indicated that the usual labor 
 economies of the electric drive could not be assumed for the reason 
 that without the complete electrification of the factory group as 
 a whole the existing force would probably be retained. Electricity 
 has been installed in the six-story building, however, and has 
 introduced substantial improvements in the operating conditions, 
 notably in connection with the release of highly valuable real 
 estate for manufacturing purposes and the facilitation of over- 
 time work through subdivision. 
 
 Electrification of Shops of Wabash Railroad. At Moberly, Mo., 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES li03 
 
 several small boilers and engines at the shops and the pump house 
 were replaced at comparatively small expense by one station with 
 a 150-k.w. generator for shop tools, light and pumping, as de- 
 scribed in Railway Age Gazette, Feb. 3, 1911. A similar installa- 
 tion has been made at the Wabash shops at Fort Wayne, Ind., 
 and Springfield, 111. 
 
 At Springfield the power is furnished by outside parties and is 
 delivered at 2,300 volts. It is transformed by Westinghouse oil 
 type transformers to 440 volts for power purposes and 110 volts 
 for lighting. Westinghouse oil type circuit breakers are used at 
 the switchboard on both the power and lighting circuit, and in 
 addition there are three-pole, single throw, no arc, fused knife 
 switches protecting each circuit. All wiring is in conduits. The 
 main machine shop and the erecting shop have six motors as fol- 
 lows: Two 35-h.p., one 25-h.p.. one 20-h.p., and one 15-h.p. driving 
 the machine tools and one 25-h.p. motor on the drop table. The 
 tools in the machine shop annex are driven by a single 20-h.p. motor. 
 A 7%-h.p. motor is used for driving the carpenter shop and a 
 20-h.p. motor in the boiler and blacksmith shop. For furnishing 
 blast for the boiler and smith shops a 35-h.p. motor is used direct 
 connected to a 12-in. fan. All motors, with the exception of the 
 one operating the drop table are of the three-phase 440 volt, 60 
 cycle, a.c, induction or squirrel cage type. The drop table motor 
 is a slip ring type with a reversible controller which furnishes 
 variable speed from 850 to 1,140 r.p.m. 
 
 Power is furnished by the Springfield Heat, Light & Power Com- 
 pany, which brought the power wires to a convenient point in the 
 shop yard and installed a transformer at its own expense. The 
 aggregate power of the 10 motors is 177i/^-h.p., and the cost of the 
 installation was as follows: Ten motors, $2,838; pulleys and belts, 
 $264.54; switches, $70.55; conduit and wire, $332.64; switchboard, 
 $82.59; sundries, $163.49; labor, $350; total, $4,101.81. The esti- 
 mated cost of the transformer furnished by the power company was 
 $350. 
 
 Power Required to Drive Shafting, B. R. & P. Ry. We have 
 taken the following from an article published in The Ry. and 
 Eng. Review, Feb., 1908 : 
 
 These tests, in addition to furni.shing accurate data relating to 
 the power required for various tools when starting, running light, 
 and cutting, also make possible some examination of the merits of 
 roller bearings for shaft hangers. The line shafts are cold-rolled 
 steel carried on Hyatt roller bearings, and a shaft 200 ft. long 
 without belts can be turned by hand. But in spite of the unusual 
 efficiency of the bearings, it will be noted that the power consumed 
 by the tool is often less than that lost in transmission. Never- 
 theless, the capacity in motors req.uired for the group is two to two 
 and a half times smaller than it would have been had each tool 
 been provided with an individual motor. 
 
 It is a question as to how far the low average power taken by 
 large groups of tools in operation may be due to the flywheel action 
 of the shafts and pulleys. 
 
1104 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The locomotive-erecting, boiler, and machine shop consists of a 
 middle aisle for erecting and two shed bays equipped with shafting 
 for driving the machine tools. Two 50 -ton, electric traveling 
 cranes have a runway in the middle aisle. There are five lines 
 of shafting driven by the five shunt motors in the shed bays, and 
 the sections are designated as wheel section and boiler section in 
 one bay, and the lathe, tool, and flue sections in the opposite bays. 
 
 Wheel Section. Shafting driven by a 40-h.p. shunt-wound motor 
 and operating : 
 
 42-in. car-wheel boring mill 
 
 4 8 -in. car -wheel lathe 
 
 Two 7 9 -in. wheel lathes 
 
 Quartering machine 
 
 60-in. by 60-in. by 18-ft. planer 
 
 84-in. boring mill 
 
 Single axle lathe 
 
 6-ft. radial drill 
 
 18-in. Blotter 
 
 Band saw 
 
 No. 7 grinder 
 
 Water tool grinder. 
 
 The line shaft is 200 ft. long, 2% ins. in diameter, and has 26 
 hangers. It was inconvenient in this instance to obtain a test of 
 the line shaft alone. A test of the line shaft and counters only 
 gave 1.5 horsepower. 
 
 The speed of the line shaft was 160 r.p.m. 
 
 Boiler Section. Shafting driven by a 30-h.p,, shunt-wound motor 
 and operating: 
 
 12-ft. bending rolls 
 Bolt-cutter 
 Staybolt cutter 
 Drill press 
 Tool grinder 
 Brooks plate planer 
 Horizontal punch 
 Shear and punch 
 6-ft. bending rolls 
 6-ft. straightening rolls 
 6-ft. radial drill. 
 
 All the counter belts were thrown off and the line shaft tested 
 alone, with a result of .3 h.p. This line shaft is 170 ft. long. 2% 
 ins. in diameter, and has 19 hangers. The speed of the line shaft 
 was 158 r.p.m. 
 
 A test of the line shaft and countershafts, only, gave an average 
 of 2 h.p. 
 
 Lathe Sectio7i. Shafting driven by a 30-h.p., shunt-wound motor 
 and operating : 
 
BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 
 
 1105 
 
 24-in. crank planer 
 
 36-in. by 36-in. by 20-ft. planer 
 
 51-in. boring mill 
 
 16-in. shaping machine 
 
 24-in. drill press 
 
 37-in. boring mill 
 
 Two 22-in. lathes 
 
 Three 16-in. lathes 
 
 Two 18-in. lathes 
 
 28-in. lathe 
 
 43-in. lathe 
 
 2 -in, by 24-in. flat turret lathe 
 
 Milling machine 
 
 Grinding machine 
 
 Three 18-in. turret lathes 
 
 24-in. drill press 
 
 28-in. lathe 
 
 No. 10 vertical milling machine 
 
 Two spindle rod drills 
 
 14-in. pillar shaper 
 
 16-in. lathe 
 
 26-in. by 26-in. by 6-ft. planer 
 
 32-in. drill press 
 
 Surface grinding machine 
 
 Water tool grinder. 
 
 The line shaft and counters required 2.8 h.p. The line shaft is 
 140 ft. long, 2% ins. in diameter, and has 20 hangers. It was not 
 convenient to obtain a test of the line shaft alone. The speed on 
 the shaft was 155 r.p.m. 
 
 TABLE XX. DATA ON TOOLS AND MOTORS 
 
 Five polishing jacks 
 One 50 -lb. trip-hammer 
 One shear 
 One blower 
 
 Two 7-in. stones 
 
 125 r.p.m. 
 
 30-in. pulley 
 
 Two 7 5 -lb. trip 
 
 hammers 
 
 325 r.p.m. 
 
 13-in. pulley 
 
 Three 16-in. lathes 
 
 One 18-in. lathe 
 
 One 24-in. lathe 
 
 One 12-in. lathe 
 
 Two .speed lathes 
 
 One 20-in. upright drill 
 
 One sensitive drill 
 
 Two shapers 
 
 One planer 
 
 One milling machine 
 
 Shaft speed 300 
 r.p.m. 
 
 One 23-in. pulley 
 
 Shaft : 
 One 30-in. pulley 
 One 12-in. pulley 
 
 Shaft : 
 One 12-in. pulley 
 One 7% -in. pulley 
 
 Shaft : 
 
 125 r.p.m. 
 One 22-in. pulley 
 
 Countershaft : 
 One 30-in. pulley 
 One 8-in. pulley 
 
 5-h.p. motor 
 
 1,700 r.p.m. 
 
 4-in. by 4-ln pulley 
 
 10-h.p. motor 
 
 1710 r.p.m. 
 
 6-in, by 5-in. pulley 
 
 5-h.p. motor 
 
 1,700 r.p.m. 
 
 4-in. by 4-in. pulley 
 
 7% -h.p. motor 
 
 1,710 r.p.m. 
 
 6-in. by 5-in. pulley 
 
1106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The line shaft of the lathe and tool sections can be connected 
 by a clutch coupling and the whole operated from either motor. 
 
 Blacksmith Shop. The blacksmith shop machinery is driven by 
 a 40-h.p. shunt-wound motor, which is belted to 75 ft. of 2i/^-in. line 
 shafting with 12 hangers. The apparatus driven comprises a volt 
 header, a 25-in. punch and a shear, a cutting-off saw, a tool grinder, 
 a 40-in. planer, a drill press, a 50-lb. hammer, a blower and an 
 exhaust fan. 
 
 A test of the line shaft and counters with grindstone and two 
 blowers constantly in operation gave 14.5 h.p. 
 
 The Cost of Electric Drive in a Foundry is given by Electrical 
 World, Sept. 13, 1913. The table gives the list of tools and motors 
 required to operate them. 
 
 The total installation aggregates 27.5 h.p. of connected load, 
 and the estimated monthly energy consumption is 1,328 k.w.-hr., 
 giving a net bill of $49.17 per month for electricity. The average 
 load is estimated at about 7 h.p. The present cost of operating 
 the foundry by steam power is: 
 
 150 tons coal, at $4.75 $713 
 
 Engineer, 2 hrs. per day, at 25 cts. per hr 150 
 
 288,000 gals, water, at 10 cts. per 1,000 gals 28 
 
 Oil, waste, etc 50 
 
 Ash removal 24 
 
 Taxes, insurance, depreciation, interest and repairs 135 
 
 Total ($91.50 per month) $1,100 
 
 The first cost of motors is as follows: 
 
 One 5-h.p. motor $72 
 
 One 10-h.p. motor 158 
 
 One 5-h.p. motor 72 
 
 One 7.5 h.p. motor 135 
 
 Total $437 
 
 With the most liberal allowance for fixed charges and such 
 steam-heating service as may be necessary after electric drive has 
 been installed, there is indicated a decided saving by the use of 
 central-station service. 
 
 Power to Drive Wood-Working Tools. Data on electric driving 
 in wood-working shops were obtained in two installations in Lon- 
 don. Both were the establishments of builders and contractors. 
 The first plant was supplied with compound-wound motors at 460 
 volts, with Sturtevant starting rheostats, and the second with 
 shunt-wound motors at 214 volts with Ward-Leonard motor start- 
 ers. The records of the tests were reported in The Electrician, of 
 London. 
 
 A circular saw, in the first plant, driven at about 1.000 r.p.m. 
 by a 12-h.p. motor, took a 10-in. cut at the rate of 6 ft. per min. 
 on 10 by v7-in. damp pitch pine, requiring 13.8 h.p. A tenoning 
 machine driven at 2,700 r.p.m. by a link belt from a 5-h.p. motor, 
 took 5.5 amps, running light and 9.5 amps, when tenoning pitch pine, 
 removing 3i/^ cu. ins. of wood in 10 sees. A planer designed for 
 8 by 24-in. planks and driven from a 5-h.p. motor took 5.5 amps. 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1107 
 
 in making a %-in. under cut in pitch pine 9 ins. wide, finishing a 
 plank 8.5 ft. long in 25 sees. A 14-in. over cut from a' plank of 
 pitch pine 5 ins. wide took 5.2 amps, in finishing a 6-ft. length in 
 20 sees. A band saw traveling at a speed of 4,800 ft. per min, 
 required 2.4 amps, when the motor was driving the belts only, and 
 3.5 amps, when driving the belt and band saw running light. An 
 emery wheel used for grinding tools and belt-driven at 1,640 r.p.m. 
 by a i/^-h.p. motor required 0.7 amp. when the outfit was running 
 light ; when grinding a straight moulding cutter the current ranged 
 from 1 to 2 amps. 
 
 In the second plant a band saw driven by a 3.5-h.p. motor at a 
 speed of 3,600 ft. per min. took 4.5 amps, when running light. 
 When making a 6-in. cut in deal wood 9 amps, were taken and 2 
 ft. were sawed in 25 sees. ; with a 2 -in. cut in mahogany, 7.5 amps, 
 were taken and 1 ft. was sawed in 4 sees. ; with a 4% -in. cut in oak, 
 10.5 amps, were taken and 1.5 ft. were sawed in 15 sees. ; with a 
 2% -in. cut in beech, 10 amps, were taken when 1 ft. was sawed in 
 15 sees. A 19-in. circular saw driven by a 7-h.p. motor at 1,050 
 r.p.m., required 7.5 amps, when running light. With deal wood the 
 following figures were obtained: Two-in. cut, 6-ft. 2-in. length, 
 17.5 amps., 10 sees.; 114-in. cut, 4-ft. 2-in. length, 14 amps., 5 sees.; 
 1^4 -in. cut, 7-ft. 3-in. length, 15 amps., 8 sees.; 6-in. cut, 2-ft. length, 
 18 amps., 20 sees. A planer, designed for 20 by 8-in. planks and 
 driven by a 5-h.p. motor, took 15 amps, when making a %6-in. cut 
 from a 9 -in. wide deal plank, requiring 45 sees, for a length of 7 ft. 
 2 ins. ; it took 16 amps, when making a %2-in. cut from an 18-in. 
 deal plan, cutting 3 ft. 8 in, in 17 sees. A 6-in. emery wheel grinder 
 driven at 1,860 r.p.m. from a 2%-h.p. motor took 2.5 amps, with 
 motor and belts only, 4.5 amps, with the emery wheel light, and 
 5.5 amps, with the emery wheel grinding a moulding cutter. 
 
 Application of Electric Drive to Paper Calenders is described 
 at length by E. C. Morse in the Transactions of the American In- 
 stitute of Electrical Engineers, July, 1912. The pecularity of this 
 service is that considerable power is required to drive the ma- 
 chines at a high rate of speed and it is necessary that the ma- 
 chines be operated at a much reduced speed when threading the 
 paper through or when a tear or weak spot in the paper is en- 
 countered. 
 
 Comparisons of cost are given and the advantages and disad- 
 vantages of electric drive are discussed as follows : 
 
 Mechanical and Electrical Advantages and Disadvantages of 
 Each Drive. In the following comparisons it should be remem- 
 bered that the paper maker is primarily interested in cost of pro- 
 duction. He is, therefore, interested in mechanical and electrical 
 simplicity, ease of control and operation, small maintenance, mini- 
 mum labor, minimum power cost per unit output. 
 
 It has been found from many tests and observations that calen- 
 ders are run on slow speed from 25 to 33% of the time; 10 to 22% 
 of the time is consumed in " threading in," varying with weight 
 of paper or length of roll. 
 
 The following comparisons are bare statements of facts and 
 
1108 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 it is not the intention to recommend one drive over another. A 
 large advantage for one drive, in some mills, may be insignificant 
 in another. 
 
 Group Drive by Motor — for A-C. and D-C. Advantages. "With 
 this drive the manufacturer has a constant slow speed, only one 
 motor and starter for entire group, minimum chance of trouble 
 with electrical apparatus. Lower first cost, therefore lower fixed 
 charge per calender. 
 
 A 70 in. calender arranged for drive from line shaft costs. . . . $4,600 
 
 Shaft per calender approx 100 
 
 Share of capacity in large motor for 70 in. calender. ....... 400 
 
 Total $5,100 
 
 Disadvantages. Belts to maintain, two clutches to keep in re- 
 pair : main shaft takes space on floor below calenders ; friction 
 clutch to throw in high speed and as usually operated there is 
 a sudden strain on paper with consequent possibility of breaking 
 and lost production. Only one high speed and no way to vary it. 
 Large motor operating on a widely fluctuating load from 15% to 
 150% load which means poor efficiency, poor power factor, and a 
 variation in the speed of shaft of 5% or more. It has also been 
 found that the shafting and belting loss alone, per calender, is 
 approximately four kws. This means for a 24-hour day, 96 kw.-hrs. 
 at $0.01 per kw.-hr.. $0.96 per day, $288 per year. This cap- 
 italized at 5% means $5,770. 
 
 Two-Motor Drive for D-G. and A-G. Advantages. Constant 
 " threading in " speed, smooth acceleration from slow to high speed, 
 reducing strains on paper and lost production. Ability to slow 
 down to any desired point easily and quickly. Calender can be 
 geared to run at maximum speed that any of paper will stand as 
 slower speeds are available for weaker paper. This speed can 
 easily be 10 to 15% higher than in the group drive. Only one 
 clutch necessary and that a pin clutch. Sometimes a friction 
 clutch is also u.sed on large gear on slow speed so the pin clutch 
 may be thrown in without starting the rolls and the rolls started 
 by friction clutch. Both these clutches are operated from one 
 lever. Large motor operated at good efficiency and power factor. 
 Losses minimum on slow speed. The slow speed motor running 
 light has an average input of 0.6 kw. This corresponds to the 
 friction of the shafting in the group drive, as the large motor does 
 not consume energy except when driving the calender at its oper- 
 ating speeds. Moreover, the efficiency of the motor in the group 
 drive will be nearly the same as this large motor. It may be as- 
 sumed that this 0.6 kw. is a 24-hr. loss, as the small motor is 
 usually left running continuously and is used for " threading in " 
 only 10 to 15%' of the time. Thus 0.6 kw. for 24 hrs. per day at 
 $0.01 per kw.-hr.:- $0,144, or $43.20 per year of .300 days — a gain 
 of $234 per stack over group drive or 5% on $4,700. 
 
 Good power factor is maintained on the line since the idle cur- 
 rent of the small motor is small. 
 
 Disadvantages. High first cost: A 70-in, calender, 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1109 
 
 For two-motor drive ., $4750.00 
 
 For small motor 170.00 
 
 For large motor 900.00 
 
 For control 300.00 
 
 Total $6120.00 
 
 Maximum chance of trouble exists with electrical equipment. 
 Large floor space is required. It requires three times as long to 
 stop after power is shut off as group driven calender. Large motor 
 requires the same kw. input regardless of speed, assuming con- 
 stant torque. This disadvantage is more than overcome by in- 
 creased production possible, due to variable speed feature. 
 
 Two Motors Replaced by Owe. Same for D-C. and A-C. Ad- 
 vantages. One less motor to care for than in two-motor drive. 
 Less floor space required, constant " threading in " speed obtained, 
 smooth acceleration from slow to high speed, ability to easily slow 
 down if desired. Calender can be run at maximum speed any 
 paper will stand, as slower speeds are available for weaker papers. 
 As motor and gear may be disconnected from stack on stopping, 
 the flywheel effect same as in group drive. If stack is stopped 
 by cutting power off the motor the flywheel effect same as in 
 two-motor drive. 
 
 Calender, 70 in., and mechanism $4925.00 
 
 Large motor 900.00 
 
 Control 275,00 
 
 $6100.00 
 Disadvantages. Two clutches, one being friction ; large gear on 
 quill which may wear and cause excessive gear wear. Requires 
 same kw. input regardless of speed, assuming same torque. This 
 is turned to an advantage by increased production possible. Light 
 load losses larger. Based on a 70-in. stack, a three-phase 550-volt 
 75-h.p. motor running light will operate with a current approxi- 
 mately 2.5 amp., power factor 15 to 20% kw., input 4.0 to 6.0. As- 
 suming 5 kws. to be average and the motor running light 20% of 
 time or 4.8 hours per day, we have 5 X 0.01 X 4.8 = $0.24 per day 
 or $72. OT) per year, or $28.80 per year more than two-motor drive. 
 This is 5% on $575 and small motor costs $170. The worst 
 effect is in the power factor of the system if many of these motors 
 are installed. As far as power consumed goes, there is ordinarily 
 not much choice. 
 
 Single Motor, Direct Geared. Advantages, a-c. Only one motor 
 is used, no clutches, minimum possible amount of gearing and 
 smallest floor space of all drives. The calender can be geared for 
 maximum speed that any of the paper will stand and can be 
 easily retarded at will, and operated at slower speeds for weaker 
 paper. Smooth acceleration from " threading in " to running speed 
 is obtained. The first cost is lower : 
 
 Calender $4185 
 
 Motor 900 
 
 Control 450 
 
 Total $5535 
 
1110 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Additional Advantages on d-c. Dynamic braking can be used 
 to stop calender quickly. More stable " threading in " speed due 
 to the fact that full field speed is about \^ maximum and the 
 speed has to be further reduced by armature resistance to Ys or 
 Vi instead of % or 142 as with a-c. Losses are less on reduced 
 speeds than with a-c. 
 
 Disadvantages, Very unstable " threading in " speed is ob- 
 tained ; controller setting usually has to be changed during " thread- 
 ing in." Extra large controller and resistance is required to ob- 
 tain the slow speed. The large flywheel effect causes the calender 
 to run three times as long as if group driven. It has been found 
 on this type of drive that the " threading in " requires from 9 to 14% 
 of total time and on a 72-in. calender the power consumed varied 
 from 16 to 29.8 kws. during this period, as against about 2.2 to 
 4 kws. with two-motor drive. As this time required to " thread in " 
 is also somewhat longer, the cost of power used for the " threading 
 in " process is from 6 to 10 times that of the other two types of 
 drive. This motor is practically never running except when paper 
 is in the calender, and therefore has no " running light " loss to 
 correspond to the other drives. The power factor is low while 
 motor is running light and during " threading in." The control 
 for this drive is subjected to the hardest service of all, as 60% 
 to 100% full load current is broken every time the current is shut 
 off. Motor tests show that the current is broken 13 to 15 times 
 per hr. as an average. This means for a 24-hr. day, six-day week, 
 1,870 to 2,160 breaks per week. The ordinary circuit breaker con- 
 tact is said to be good for about 3,000 breaks, so a very substantial 
 switch must be used in order to get any reasonable length of 
 service. This drive may require more labor, or in other words a 
 third man may be needed at controller during " threading in." 
 This same man can, however, take care of several stacks. 
 
 Prom the preceding pages certain advantages of motor driven 
 supercalenders have been pointed out which tend to lower co.st per 
 unit product and to increase the production per machine. These 
 may be .summarized as follows : 
 
 a. Long mechanical transmissions eliminated with maintenance 
 of their shafts, belts, hangers, etc. 
 
 b. Reduced chance of all calenders being shut down at once. 
 With mechanical drive this often happens, due to belt breaking or 
 shaft trouble, and the loss of production is large. 
 
 c. Smooth acceleration from slow to high speed, reducing strains 
 on paper, therefore reducing breakage and loss of production. 
 
 d. Ability to operate calender at maximum speed which the par- 
 ticular paper will stand. With group drive only one speed is 
 available, 
 
 e. Ability to easily slow down for a weak place in paper saves 
 much time and increases production. At one point paper ran 25 
 minutes without a break but the controller was used 26 times to 
 reduce the speed and it is further seen that it requires on the 
 average three to five minutes to paste together the paper and feed 
 it in again. If the paper had broken 13 times only it would mean 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1111 
 
 13 X 4 X 500 
 
 3 
 
 8700 yds. of production lost. 
 
 f. The speed of calender is much more likely to be uniform, as in 
 group drive the number of calenders operating varies the belt slip 
 and speed of line shaft. 
 
 g. The kw.-hrs. per unit output required are less than in group 
 drive. 
 
 h. The power factor of system is better than when large motor 
 drives group, if a two-motor drive is used. 
 
 i. That the above facts are true is proved by figures of one of 
 the largest and best managed mills in the United States which 
 give the average efficiency of all motor-driven calenders as 35% 
 better than group driven and of two of the most recent drives, 
 50% better. 
 
 Electric Motors on a Farm. Electrical World, Aug. 3, 1912, 
 states that six miles from Dayton, Ohio, on a large estate use 
 has been made of electricity supplied over a 3 -phase, 6,600-volt 
 transmission line from the Dayton company. A 15-h.p. motor 
 mounted, with its starter, on a portable truck can be moved about 
 the place to drive a corn husker, shredder, wood saw and thresher. 
 Another 3-h.p. motor drives a deep-well pump, delivering the water 
 supply for the estate to a reservoir on the hilltop. A i/^-h.p. motor 
 pumps cistern water, and the laundry is equipped with a motor- 
 driven mangle. This year it is planned to install electric irrigation 
 on a large scale to intensify the output of the soil, and later ex- 
 periments will be carried out with electrification to stimulate plant 
 growth. 
 
 Tests were recently made at the farm to determine the power 
 required and energy input for various farm operations. For ex- 
 ample, it was shown that 1,750 bushels of barley could be threshed 
 at an expenditure of 220 kw.-hrs., the maximum demand being 
 20.5 kws. In this Montgomery County section steam-thresher hire 
 costs $20 a day. 
 
 In a series of 10-min. tests to learn the power required by a 
 corn grinder running idle, it was found that the motor alone con- 
 sumed 0.106 kw.-hr., and the motor and grinder 0.341 kw-hr., 
 leaving 0.235 kw.-hr. chargeable to the idle grinder, or an average 
 demand of 1.41 kws. Three tests were then made of the energy 
 consumed in the operation of grinding com, with the results 
 tabulated. Table XXI. 
 
 In the third test the corn was husked directly from the shocks 
 and was still damp, so that excessive power was required, as 
 shown. 
 
 TABLE XXI. ENERGY USED IN GRINDING CORN 
 
 Dry corn Damp corn 
 
 Bushels ground 46.17 12.00 
 
 Time, min 68. 21. 
 
 Bushels per hr 40.8 34.2 
 
 Kw.-hrs. per bushel 0.411 0.607 
 
1112 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The same motor was also tested driving the shredder and husk- 
 ing machine, which running idle consumed 1.425 kw.-hrs. in ten 
 minutes, or 1.319 kw.-hrs. for the machine alone, indicating an 
 average input of about 8 kws. Fifteen hundred pounds of fodder 
 was shredded in twenty-three minutes, consuming 4.03 kw.-hrs. 
 This shows an energy consumption at the rate of 5.37 kw.-hrs. 
 per ton. or 0.186 tons shredded per kw.-hr. The maximum kw. 
 taken was 14.5 and the minimum 8.2, indicating an average of 
 10.5 kws. Nearly 40 tons of fodder are shredded yearly at the 
 farm, the average cost of shredding which would be $3 a ton were 
 the present electric appliances not used. The Dayton company 
 built the pole line and furnished the transformers and meter for 
 the installation, all other equipment being the property of the 
 customer. 
 
 A Comparison of Gas and Electric Power for Drawbridge Swing- 
 ing. We have taken the following from an article published in 
 Engineering News, June 18, 1912 : 
 
 The new steel swing span of the International Bridge over the 
 ship canal at Black Rock, N. Y., erected in July, 1911, is one of 
 the heaviest single-span bridges in the country, being 431 ft. 5 ins. 
 long, and weighing 4,500,000 lbs. It carries a double track for 
 steam trains besides a roadway for electric cars and pedestrian 
 traffic. 
 
 The bridge is operated by electricity and can be swung in 70 
 sees. Two Westinghouse street-car motors are used for turning 
 the span, each rated at 53 h.p. with ability to stand short overloads 
 of 100%, There are two 15-h.p. end-lift motors and two of 5 h.p. 
 for operating rail wedges. All are controlled from the operator's 
 house above the bridge deck. 
 
 To supply current to these motors a small power station has 
 been erected containing (1) a 100-h.p. Otto gas engine direct- 
 connected to a 60-kw. d.c. Garwood generator, (2) a 60-kw. Gar- 
 wood motor-generator driven by a 2,200-volt induction motor re- 
 ceiving current from a Niagara Falls power station, and (3) a 
 255-cell storage battery having a capacity of 60 amps, at the 8-hr. 
 discharge rate. 
 
 One of the yard men visits the station at certain periods and 
 ascertains from the switchboard instruments whether or not it is 
 necessary to recharge the storage batteries. Any desired com- 
 bination of generators and storage battery may be made; all may 
 feed the bridge motors, giving 400 h.p. for a short time ; one gen- 
 erator' may be used for* the bridge movements while the other is 
 charging the battery. One man can easily start the gas engine. 
 
 Tests to find the power required for a day's operation were made 
 on Sept. 3, 1911, with wind at a velocity of 4 miles per hour. The 
 following data were secured, assuming ten 10-min. swings per day: 
 
 Kw.-hrs. 
 Navigation, house and deck lights, 17 lamps, 16 c.p., 12 hours 
 
 per day 52.0 
 
 Signal lights, 16 lamps, 8 c.p , 1.7 
 
 Rail wedges , , 2.2 
 
BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1113 
 
 Kw.-hrs. 
 End lifts 0.7 
 
 Air compressor (operating latch, whistle and band brakes) . 3.8 
 Turning motors 13.3 
 
 Total kw.-hrs 73.7 
 
 Tests were made on Aug. 25, 1911, to find the cost of gas-engine 
 power with a battery-charging load. The following data resulted : 
 
 Energy generated 108.4 kw.-hr. 
 
 Gas used 2608 cu.-ft. 
 
 Length of run ; 3 hr. 
 
 Costs : 
 
 Labor, 30 cts. per hr $0.90 
 
 Oil, 40c. per gal 0.20 
 
 Water, 2 cts. per M. cu.-ft 0.12 
 
 Gas, 30 cts. per M 0.78 
 
 Total $2.00 
 
 per kw.-hr 0.0184 
 
 With a charge-discharge efficiency of 65% for the storage battery 
 and 10 swings per day, the cost of gas power to the bridge motors 
 would be 
 
 73.7 
 
 $0.0184 = $2.09 
 
 0.65 
 
 For a year of 365 days the total cost would be 
 
 Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., on gas-engine generating 
 
 set (20%) $1,300 
 
 Power 764 
 
 $2064 
 
 The cost of operation by Niagara Falls power was determined 
 from tests made Aug. 31, 1911, with the motor-generator set 
 charging the battery. The following data resulted :, 
 
 Length of run 2 hr. 
 
 Output to battery 72 kw.-hr. 
 
 Input to motor 88 kw.-hr. 
 
 Efficiency of set 81.9% 
 
 The rate for Niagara power was given thus — at monthly rate : 
 
 Service charge $50.00 
 
 Up to 1000 kw.-hr 0.020 
 
 1000 to 2000 kw.-hr 0.015 
 
 Over 2000 to 3000 kw.-hr 0.012 
 
 Over 3000 to 4000 kw.-hr 0.010 
 
 With," as before, a demand on the motor of 113.5 kw.-hrs. per 
 day and a motor-generator efficiency of 81.9%, the monthly bill 
 would be for * 
 
 113.5 X 30 
 
 = 4160 kw.-hr. 
 
 0.819 
 
1114 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 To find the resultant unit rate we take : 
 
 Service charge $50.00 
 
 1000 at 2 cts 20.00 
 
 1000 at 1.5 cts 15.00 
 
 1000 at 1.2 cts 12.00 
 
 1160 at 1 ct 11.60 
 
 $108.60 
 
 Per kw.-hr. input 2.6 cts. 
 
 Per kw.-hr. to battery 3.2 cts. 
 
 With a charge-discharge efficiency of 65% for the battery and 
 10 swings per day, the cost of Niagara power alone would be 
 
 73.7 
 
 $0.032 = $3.63 
 
 0.65 
 
 For a year of 365 days the total cost would, then, be summarized 
 thus: 
 
 Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., on motor-generator set 
 
 (15%) $ 590 
 
 Power 1,325 
 
 $1,915 
 
 According to this there is practically no difference in the total 
 cost of operating the bridge by one service or the other. It should 
 be understood that both services have been provided for con- 
 tinuity of operation and the expected annual costs are then com- 
 binations of the foregoing figures. 
 
 Expected Annual Cost with Gas Power 
 Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., gas-engine set (20%) . . $1,300 
 Interest and depreciation on motor-generator set (7%%) .... 295 
 Power 764 
 
 Total $2,359 
 
 Expected Annual Cost with Niagara Power 
 Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., on motor-generator set 
 
 (15%) $ 590 
 
 Interest and depreciation, gas-engine set (10%) 650 
 
 Power 1,325 
 
 Total $2,565 
 
 Cost Record of an Electric Power Shovel. (Electric Railway 
 Journal, Jan. 23, 1909.) 
 
 Some accurate records of the cost of operating an electric power 
 shovel used in digging ballast have been furnished this paper by 
 the Chautauqua Traction Company. Jamestown, N. Y. The shovel, 
 which was built by the Vulcan Steam Shovel Company, Toledo, 
 Ohio, weighs complete about 40 tons and the car body on which 
 It is mounted is 27 ft. long. The dipper has a capacity of 1% 
 cu. yds. The various movements of the shovel are made with three 
 d.c. 600-volt motors, one of 75 h.p. for hoisting, one of 30 h.p. for 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1115 
 
 swinging the boom and one of 30 h.p. for crowding the shovel. 
 These motors are protected from overloading by series overload 
 relays, automatic controllers and circuit-breakers. In addition the 
 swinging motor is fitted with a solenoid brake for overcoming the 
 momentum of the boom and the crowding motor is equipped with 
 a foot brake operated by the craneman. 
 The cost of power and help was as follows : 
 
 1 man , $0.33 
 
 1 man 0.25 
 
 2 men. at 15 cts 0.30 
 
 20.346 kw. -hours at $0.0088 0.18 
 
 Oil and waste, estimated 0.04 
 
 Total cost per hour $1.10 
 
 8 hours at $1.10 $8.80 
 
 8 hours at 66"7fj cu. yd 534 cu. yd. 
 
 $8.80 divided by 534 cu. yd . 0.0164 cent 
 
 The material in which the shovel was worked was a mixture 
 of gravel, sticky clay and sand, which made it hard to dig, but 
 as will be seen from the above figures, the cost was very low. 
 There are, of course, several causes for this, the principal ones 
 being, first, that as the shovel required no boiler, the cost of a 
 fireman and of hauling coal and water was eliminated ; second, 
 that the work of the shovel was intermittent and when the shovel 
 was idle no power was being consumed, as would be the case with 
 a steam shovel where steam must be kept up constantly. The 
 shovel could have been operated to its maximum capacity, which 
 would have given twice the yardage at nearly the same cost, as 
 the men had to be paid whether they were working or idle, and 
 the additional cost for power would not have been more than 
 twice what it was, which on the same basis would mean 1,068 yds. 
 at a cost of $10.24, or $0.01 per cu. yd. 
 
 Cost of Operating Motors in Lime Plants and Quarries. In a 
 recent paper presented before the National Lime Manufacturers' 
 Association printed in Electrical World, Aug. 12, 1916, R. D. Don- 
 aldson gave operating data and costs for motor drives in several 
 lime plants and quarries. He called attention to the fact that 
 although it is generally believed the application of an electric 
 motor to a steam hoist requires either a d.c, motor or some type 
 of variable speed a.c. motor, experience has shown that this is 
 unnecessary, for the constant speed a.c. motor can be applied to 
 practically all steam hoists. A complete new crankshaft for an 
 existing steam-driven hoist and the necessary gears to reduce the 
 speed as low as possible is all that is required.- In regard to 
 hoisting with an electric motor, one case was cited where ap- 
 proximately 3,000 tons of stone per month was hoisted up an in- 
 cline with a total lift of approximately 115 ft. at a cost of $11.50 
 with current at 2 cts, per k.w.-hr. 
 
 The energy con.sumption of a stone crushing plant running fairly 
 steadily and turning out 3,000 tons of crushed and screened stone 
 per month was given as 1 to 1.1 kw.-hr. per ton. A plant run- 
 ning fairly steadily and turning out 12,000 tons of crushed stone 
 
1116 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 per month consumes between 0.8 and 1 kw.-hr. per ton of product. 
 The idle load of a crusher plant is very large. The power re- 
 quired to keep the crusher plant running up to speed approximates 
 50% of the total power required to crush the maximum quantity 
 of stone. By good routing of cars, however, or by any other means 
 which will keep the operation of the crusher plant up to its maxi- 
 mum output, the power consumption per ton of stone crushed can 
 be reduced from 30% to 40% from the consumption figures given. 
 The following data show the investment cost for electrifying 
 and operating different lime plants. 
 
 TABLE XXII. COST OF EQUIPPING AND OPERATING LIME 
 
 PLANTS 
 
 Plant I Plant II Plant III 
 
 No. of kilns 5 4 16 
 
 Tons output for 24 hrs 65 4 8 200 
 
 Cost of equipment $5,000 $2,500 $ 1.500 
 
 Cost of energy at 2 cts. per kw.-hr 4.000 2,400 12.500 
 
 Cost of steam operation 6,500 4.800 19.500 
 
 Annual saving 2,500 2,400 7,000 
 
 These plants operate the following equipment : 
 
 Plant No. 1. Two 200 g.p.m. centrifugal pumps, blower fan, 
 2 hoists, 50-h.p. crusher, fan, hammer mill, bagger, rotary mixer, 
 Broughton mixer, hair picker and water supply pump. 
 
 Plant No. 2. Kiln blower, 2 hoists, 1 300-gal. centrifugal pump. 
 
 Plant No. 3. A 150-h.p. crusher plant, dust mill, hammer mill, 
 two complete hydrating plants, Broughton mixer, bag cleaner, 
 5-h.p. quarry pump, small machine shop, hair picker, elevator, 
 two kiln blowers, 30-h.p. air compressor for quarry drills. The 
 total installed h.p. for this plant was 650. 
 
 Farm-Implement Manufacturing Power Requirements. (W. J. 
 Kyle in Electrical Review and Western Electrician.) 
 
 The term load-factor is used in these data in such a sense that 
 a load-factor of 100% represents the use for 24 hrs. every day of 
 power corresponding to the rated capacity of the motors connected. 
 An operating-time load-factor of 100% represents the use of the 
 rated capacity of the motors for the running hours per day spe- 
 cified for each installation. 
 
 Company manufacturing power knives, reaper sickles, guard 
 plates, lawn mowers, etc. There are 150 men employed working 
 10 hrs. per day. 
 
 Total connected h.p., 619. Total number of motors installed, 
 54. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 22,888. 
 
 Load-factor 6.8%; operating-time load-factor 15%. 
 •The following is a list of the motors installed with their re- 
 spective drives. The supply source is three-phase, 60 cycles, 4 10 
 volts. All motors, unless otherwise specified, are of the squirrel - 
 cage induction type. 
 
 Eight 15 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors, each belted direct to 
 a grindstone. Stones average about 36 ins. diameter and 12-ins. 
 
BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1117 
 
 face. They are used to grind bevel on the cutting implements. 
 Driving pulley 10 by 9. Driven pulleys 28 by 8 ins. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Vertical motor coupled to an American 
 Well Works vertical bilge pump. No. 2i/^, capacity 200 gals, per 
 min., 3-in. suction and 2.5-inch discharge pipe vertically mounted 
 with float chains and a Cutler-Hammer switch automatically start- 
 ing and stopping motor. This pumps out the water and dirt from 
 the well and the grindstones. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 690 r.p.m. Slip-ring motor, belted to a large grind- 
 stone used for beveling cutters. Stone is 72 by 12 ins. Pulley 9 by 
 
 9 ins. Driven pulley 42 by 8 ins. 
 
 Ten 15 h.p., 870 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors belted to 10 grindstones 
 for beveling cutting tools. Stones vary in size between 48 by 14 
 and 72 by 14 ins. Pulleys 10 by 9 ins. Driven pulleys 20 by 8 
 ins. 
 
 Five 7.5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to five surface girders. Stones 
 have grinding face (side) average about 30 ins. Pulleys 8 by 9 
 ins. Driven pulleys 24 by 8 ins. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted to a surface grinder. Stone»has 
 a grinding face (side) of 36 ins. Pulley 8 by 9 ins. Driven pulley 
 24 by 8 ins. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted direct to Williams White & Com- 
 pany No. 3 hammer. 
 
 One 7.5 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted to a Garden City blower No. 1. 
 Pulley 6 by 10 ins. Driven pulley 24 by 8 ins. 
 
 One 10 h.p.. 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 78-foot 10-hanger shaft 
 driving four automatic-feed 76-link hardening machines and four 
 hand-feed 7 6 -link hardening machines. These machines are about 
 
 10 ft. long and the links each carry one piece to be hardened. It 
 is driven by a chain and sprocket from the line shaft. Two 2-ft. by 
 3-ft. tumbling barrels. One 100 lb. drop hammer. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 50-ft. 7-bearing shaft driv- 
 ing one No. 3 Parker punch press, flywheel, 48 by 5 ins. ; one scrap 
 cutter ; one small emery wheel ; three machines for serrating sec- 
 tions ; three guai^d-plate cutting machines ; one A. Leggoe & Com- 
 pany machine for serrating special knives ; one American Gas Fur- 
 nace Company high-pressure blower ; one Webster & Perks Tool 
 Company section serrating machine ; one section serrating machine ; 
 one emery wheel 14 by 2 ins.; one Pittsburgh counter-sinker; two 
 Parker small punches, flywheels 24 by 3 ins. ; one 30-ft. four-hang- 
 ers shaft driving one small punch for guard plates ; one E. W. Bliss 
 Company automatic punch. No. 3 flywheel 38 by 5.5 ins. ; one Pitts- 
 burgh Machine Works countersinker ; one roller for straightening 
 small bars; one Bliss punch, flywheel 36 by 5 ins., and one double 
 emery wheel. 
 
 Two 3 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Backgeared and belted to two Bliss No. 
 4 blanking presses, flywheels 42 by 6 ins. One of these machines 
 is located in the machine shop. 
 
 One 10 h.p.. 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a 36 ft. 5-hanger shaft driv- 
 ing one Bliss No. 5 punch, flywheel 46 by 6 ins. ; one Bliss shear for 
 cutting sections, flywheel 42 by 6 ins. ; one Pratt & Whiting 12-in. 
 
1118 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 drill; two Stiles & Parkin presses No. 1, flywheels 26 by 3 ins. ; one 
 Pratt & Whitney 12 in. drill ; one guard milling machine ; one special 
 punch, flywheel 48 by 5.5 ins. 
 
 One 3 h.p., 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a riveting machine that will 
 rivet three at a time, flywheel 36 by 5.5 ins. 
 
 One 1 h.p., 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a small gasoline pump. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 45 ft. 7-hanger shaft driv- 
 ing one 16-in. Steptoe shaper ; one Fox Machine Company No. 23 
 milling machine; one Danson & Goodwin 16-in. lathe; two E. W. 
 Bliss No. 2 presses, flywheel 30 by 4 ins.; one special press, fly- 
 wheel 27 by 3 ins., and one small screw machine. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 42-ft., 7-hanger shaft driv- 
 ing a Dietz, Gang & Company 24-in. lathe; one double emery wheel 
 4 by 0.5 ins. ; one automatic tool sharpener; one Smith & Mills 16-in, 
 shaper; one Knecht Brothers Company 12-in. drill; one Barnes 24- 
 in. drill ; two Q & C hack saws for 12-in. blades ; one H. C. Pease 
 & Company plane; one double buffing arbor, wheels 16 by 4 ins.; 
 one small surface grinder, 7-in. wheel ; one two-spindle drill ; one 
 Bliss No. 2 punch, fls^vheel 30 by 4 ins. ; one two-spindle drill, 16 
 ins. ; one special drill ; one special surface-grinding machine ; one 
 grindstone 18 by 3 ins., grinds surfaces of cutters; one Rudolph's 
 Krummel No. 4 punch, flywheel 26 by 6 ins. ; and one machine 
 carrying two sets of rolls for treating sections. 
 
 One 15 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 72-ft. 10-hanger shaft driv- 
 ing one Pratt & Whitney 24-in. drill; one Barnes 18-in. drill; four 
 Barnes 20-in. drills ; one double emery wheel ; one small fan about 
 12 ins. in diameter for a forge fire. There is also another centrif- 
 ugal fan for exhausting the 6 or 8 emery wheels. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 50-ft. 7-hanger shaft driving 
 one four-spindle Barnes drill press; one Barnes 28-in. drill; one 
 Barnes 22.5-in. drill ; one Kempsmith Manufacturing Company No. 
 32 plain miller; one Garvin Machine Company No. 2 plain miller; 
 one Fox Machine Company No. 3 miller ; and one milling machine. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 1,080 r.p.m. Belted to a 53-ft. 8-hanger shaft driving 
 two double emery wheels, Northampton, 9 by 2 and 10 by 2 ins. ; 
 one double 16-in. buffer; one No. 1 Styles & Parker punch, flj^wheel 
 6 by 3 ins. ; two double Northampton surface grinding wheels, 8-in. 
 face, and one double emery wheel. 
 
 One 7.5 h.p., 1,150 r.p.m. Direct-coupled to shaft of drum of a 
 3,000-pound freight elevator at 50 ft. 
 
 Two 30 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors belted to two auto- 
 matic surface-grinding machines. Grinds the surfaces of the 
 cutting tools Pulleys 15.5 by 9 ins. Driven pulleys 22 by 8.5 ins. 
 
 Five 7.5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to five hand-feed surface grind- 
 ers. Grinders average about 28 ins. in diameter. Pulleys 8 by 9 
 ins. Driven pulleys 30 by 8 ins. 
 
 Two 2 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to two finishing machines. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a finishing girder for heavier 
 work. Grindstone is 14 ins. by 3 ins. Driven pulley is 28 by 6 
 ins. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted to a sickle grinder. This consists 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1119 
 
 of a stone about 42 ins. face or diameter across which the whole 
 sickle is pulled and thus sharpened. Pulley 10 by 11 ins. Driven 
 pulley 36 by 8 ins. 
 
 Two 15 h. p., 690 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors belted to two stones 
 used both as a grinder to bevel the cutter and also to grind sur- 
 faces. Two men on each grindstone at a time, one nearly on top 
 and one in front. Stones are 40 by 14 ins. Pulley 9 by 9 ins. 
 Driven pulleys 30 by 8 ins. 
 
 The following is a comparison of the previous steam-plant costs 
 with present costs of central-station service. An outline of the 
 motor installation is given in the accompanying table. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. MONTHLY OPERATING COSTS STEAM PLANT 
 (Figures from books) 
 
 Engineman $ 80.00 
 
 Fireman 50.00 
 
 Coal passer 50.00 
 
 325 tons of fuel at $1.50 per ton 487.50 
 
 Repairs to engine, boiler, valves, piping, boiler tube cleaning, 
 
 etc 110.00 
 
 Cylinder and engine oil 5.67 
 
 Boiler compound 17.00 
 
 Waste and packing 4.20 
 
 Total $804.37 
 
 TABLE XXIV. RECORD OF ELECTRICAL OPERATIONS 260 
 HOURS PER MONTH 
 
 Kilo- 
 Kilo- watt- 
 watts hours 
 
 Tower shop, including all friction 12.3 3,198 
 
 Grinding room, eliminating friction 52.4 13,645 
 
 Machine shop, including friction 16.2 4,212 
 
 Ventilating fan 2.0 520 
 
 Small service pump 2.4 624 
 
 Factory lighting 20.0 700 
 
 Total 22,897 
 
 The cost of change to produce the above results was $5,895. 
 
 At the rate earned by the company the approximate saving in 
 operating costs per month is 30%. 
 
 Power Used in a Small Implement Manufacturing Plant making 
 a small line of farm and garden implements, such as hoes, rakes, 
 garden plows, etc. There are 12 men employed, working 8 hrs. 
 per day. 
 
 Total connected h.p., 89. Total number of motors installed, 12. 
 Average kw.-hrs. per month, 2,730. 
 
 Kw.-hrs. consumption for 9 months: July 2,270, August 3,050, 
 September 2,060, October* 2,730, November 2,240, December 4,180, 
 January 2,560, February 2,600, March 2,750. 
 
 Load-factor, 5.6%; operating-time load-factor, 14%. 
 
 The following is a list of the motors installed with their re- 
 spective drives. The supply source is two-phase, 60 cycles, 220 
 volts. 
 
1120 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 One 50 h.p., 690 r.p.m. Belted direct to air compressor. 
 
 One 7.5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to Prentice engine lathe. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one S. & M. two-spindle 
 shaper. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one Prentice 30-in. drill 
 press. 
 
 One 2 h.p., 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a Buffalo No. 3 forge blower; 
 and one 12-in. emery wheel. 
 
 One 25 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to a No. 3 mortising ma- 
 chine. 
 
 One 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one cut-off saw. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 900 r.p.m. Belted direct to one 18-in. rip saw. 
 
 One 7.5 h.p., 900 r.p.m. Belted direct to one grindstone. 
 
 One 5 hp., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one grindstone. 
 
 One 2 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one 36-in. band saw. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Geared direct to one milling machine. 
 
 Electric Motors in Harvesting Machine Works. Two articles in 
 Electrical Review and Western Electrician, Oct. 23 and Nov. 13, 
 1915, describe the application of electric drive to machinery in 
 plants No. 1 and No. 2 of the International Harvester Co. at Au- 
 burn, N. y. ; a description of the works is given together with the 
 following account of motors used : 
 
 Motor Data — International Harvester Company (Oshorne 
 Works), Total connected horsepower, 901.5. Total number of mo- 
 tors installed, 27. Average kw.-hrs. per month per h.p. connected, 
 125.9. 
 
 The following is a list of motors and machinery driven by 
 them. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 220 volt, squirrel-cage motor with 1,200 r.p.m. speed 
 and 8 in. pulley, driving two drill presses, one grindstone, one 
 wood lathe, one small wood planer, one small drill. 
 
 One 3 h.p., 220 volt, slip-ring motor, 1,200 r.p.m., 6-in. pulley. 
 Blower for brass furnace. 
 
 One 50 h.p., 2.080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 
 geared to positive blower 18-oz. higher pressure type supplying three 
 gray-iron cupolas. 
 
 One 35 h.p.. 2,080 volt, squirrel-cage motor with 900 r.p.m. speed, 
 and 13 -in. pulley, driving two tumblers for slag, two freight ele- 
 vators, one 36-in. fan, one magnetic separator for separating iron 
 from refuse in crushed slag. 
 
 One 15 h.p., 220 volt, squirrel-cage motor, 1,200 r.p.m., and 8-in. 
 pulley. One 2-spindle nut-tapping machine, one 12-spindle nut-tap- 
 ping machine, seven automatic nut-tapping machines, one 8-spindle 
 hand-tapping machine, three Pratt & Whitney automatic screw ma- 
 chines, two National-Acme automatic screw machines, one hand 
 screw machine. 
 
 One 50 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., and 
 13-in pulley. One annealing furnace, four cold-heading bolt ma- 
 chines, five cold-pressed nut machines, two cold rivet, machines, 
 one automatic trip bending machine, one automatic thread roller. 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1121 
 
 One 50 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., and 
 13-in. pulley. One cut-off machine, one small cut-off machine, one 
 shears, three punch presses, two power hack saws, one freight ele- 
 vator, six roll-thread threading machines, six old-style, threading 
 machines, two heavy threading machines, one 6-in lathe, one drill 
 press, one milling machine, one small milling machine, two bolt 
 pointers, six small drill presses, eight 2-wheel emery grinders. 
 
 One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 13-in, 
 pulley. Eleven large tumblers, four small tumblers, one drill press. 
 
 One 25 h.p. direct coupled, 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 
 720 r.p.m., driving sixtj^-inch exhaust fan for removing dust from 
 tumbling room. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 720 r.p.m,, 18-in. 
 pulley. Three bulldozers, one small bulldozer, one baby bulldozer, 
 one bolt header, one Welderham No. 8 positive blower, one bolt ma- 
 chine, one tire welder, two eye benders, one power hammer. 
 
 Two 30 h.p., 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 12-in. 
 pulley. One 60-in. fan for oil burners ; three drop hammers ; one 
 power shears. 
 
 One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 900 r.p.m.. 13-in, 
 pulley. One 14-in. slotter ; one 24-in. planer; two vertical milling 
 machines ; five grinders ; six small twist drills ; two 3 spindle drills ; 
 one 2 spindle drill ; one small 2 spindle drill ; six small engine lathes ; 
 one freight elevator 
 
 One 10 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor, 1,200 r.p.m. Two 8-in. 
 engine lathes; one 12-in. engine lathe; one 14-in. engine lathe; three 
 medium size drill presses; one 22-in. surface planer; one band saw; 
 one grind stone ; one rip saw ; two wood lathes. 
 
 One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 9 00 r.p.m., 8-in. 
 pulley. Three 8-in. swing engine lathes; seven 10-in. swing engine 
 lathes; one 12-in. swing engine lathe; one 18-in. swing engine 
 lathe; one small horizontal boring mill; one 5i/i-in. slotter; four 
 24-in. shapers ; one B. & S. 4A milling machine ; one small milling 
 machine; three turret lathes; one 5-ft. planer; one 4-ft. planer; 
 two punch presses ; one latch rod bender ; one cotter machine ; two 
 wire straighteners. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor, 1,200 r.p.m., 8-in. pulley. 
 One power hack saw; one 10-in. engine lathe; three small drill 
 presses; one 8-in. engine lathe; one 12-in. shaper ; one small forge 
 blower ; one tool grinder ; three drills. 
 
 One 30 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 9,000 r.p.m., 13- 
 in. pulley. Three freight elevators ; one punch press ; miscellaneous 
 drills and special rivet machines. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 2,080 volt squirrel-cage motor, driving motor-gen- 
 erator set. 
 
 One 30 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m.. 13-in. 
 pulley. Miscellaneous drills. 
 
 One 50 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m.. 13-in, 
 pulley. Miscellaneous machines including gang drills, turret lathes, 
 key slotters, lathes, emery wheels, punches. 
 
 One 30 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m. No. 
 
1122 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 50 Sturtevant slow-speed exhaust fan for removing shavings and 
 saw dust from box-maliing department. 
 
 One 30 h.p. 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m. 
 Twenty-four in. wood planer in box-making department. 
 
 One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 13-in. 
 pulley. Six cut-off saws ; two rip saws ; one small wood planer. 
 
 One 75 h.p. 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 720 r.p.m., 16-in. 
 pulley. Six facing wheels ; twelve section grinders. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,080 volt squirrel-cage motor, 900 r.p.m., 13-in. pul- 
 ley. Two tempering machines ; seven punch presses ; one draw- 
 temper fire ; one freight elevator ; three serrating machines ; one 
 multiple drill. 
 
 One 0.5 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor, driving ventilating fan, 
 tempering room. 
 
 One 3 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor on hoist. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 220' volt slip-ring motor on elevator. 
 
 Motor Data. Manufacture tillage implements. Plant No. 2. 
 
 Total connected h.p., 1,079.5. Total number of motors installed, 
 44. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 143,952. Average kw.-hrs. per 
 month per h.p. connected, 133.3. 
 
 The following is a list of the motors installed with their re- 
 spective drives. The supply source is three-phase, 25 cycles, 2,300 
 volts and 220 volts, d.-c. The d.-c. motors which are used for 
 cranes, elevators and telphers, are not enumerated herewith. Mo- 
 tors are of the squirrel-cage induction type unless otherwise men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Two 35 h.p.. 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motors. Each driving a No. 
 13 Sirocco blower for furnaces. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 2,300 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in. pulley. Mold- 
 ing room. — Two wet slag tumblers ; one magnetic separator. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor with 13-in pulley. Six- 
 teen large tumblers ; 6 small tumblers. 
 
 One 10 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in. pulley. Four 
 emery wheel stands, 2 wheels each. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor in hard room. — Exhaust 
 fan for dust collecting. 
 
 One 1 h.p,, 220 volt motor, in hard room. — Dust collector knocker 
 for agitating screens in dust collector. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt. 750 r.p.m. motor with 13-in. pulley. An- 
 nealing room. — One broaching press ; 1 small bulldozer ; 1 punch 
 press; 1 two-wheel emery grinder; 12 36-in. tumblers; 2 tumblers. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor with 10-in. pulley. Four 
 drop hammers ; two punches. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt. 750 r.p.m. motor in annealing room. — 
 Exhaust fan for dust collecting. 
 
 One 1 h.p., 220 volt motor in annealing room. — Dust collector 
 knocker for agitating screens in dust collector. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor in core room. — Fan for 
 ventilating core ovens. 
 
 One 5 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in pulley. Core 
 room. — Sand sifter. 
 
BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1123 
 
 One 5 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in. pulley. Pat- 
 tern room. — One drill press ; 1 small shaper ; 1 emery wheel ; 1 wood 
 saw. 
 
 One 1 h.p., 220 volt motor in laboratory. — One small engine lathe; 
 1 paint grinder; 1 small drill press. 
 
 One 2 h.p. 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor in laboratory. — Olson 
 100,000-lb. testing machine. 
 
 One 0.5 h.p., 220 volt motor in laboratory. — Ventilating fan for 
 chemical cabinet. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Two 12- 
 ft. punches; one 10-ft. double punch; 8 small punches. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor 10-in pulley. One 6-ft. 
 punch; 2 10-ft. punches; 1 12-ft. punch; 5 small punches; 2 straight- 
 ening machines ; 1 scrap shears ; 1 drill press ; 2 small shears ; 2 
 medium punches ; 1 header. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Five 
 drop hammers ; 1 welding machine ; 3 spoke setting machines ; 1 
 testing machine ; 2 annealing furnaces ; 1 drill press ; 1 upright bull- 
 dozer ; 3 bulldozers ; 1 punch ; 1 small drop hammer. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Three 
 trip hammers ; 2 eye benders ; 3 punch presses ; 1 drop hammer ; 1 
 tire welder ; 1 upsetting machine. 
 
 One 50 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. Slip-ring motor driving Sirocco 
 blower for furnaces. 
 
 One 50 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. Three 
 punches ; 8 small drill presses ; 1 riveter ; 2 emery wheels ; 1 thread- 
 ing machine. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. Slip-ring motor driving 11 
 stands of 2-wheel emery grinders. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor. Driving 48-in. exhaust 
 fan for removing dust from emery grinders. 
 
 One 50 h.p. 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m., 16 in. pulley. Slip-rig motor 
 driving 2 stickers ; 1 wood riveting machine ; 1 boring machine ; 1 
 drop hammer ; 1 band saw ; 1 spoke machine ; 1 sandpaper machine ; 
 1 saw. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13 in. pulley. Two 
 planers ; 1 automatic feed rip saw. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Six cross- 
 cut saws. 
 
 One 35 h.p. 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Two cross- 
 cut saws. 
 
 Three 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motors. Three combinations 
 of two 48-in. fans for removing shavings and sawdust. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. Miscel- 
 laneous small woodworking machines. 
 
 One 15 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. One 
 multiple-spindle boring machine", 2 single-spindle boring machines; 
 one boring machine. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, special. Pole machine. 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Three 
 wood shapers ; 1 special rip saw. 
 
1124 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in pulley. Two roll 
 turners ; 2 wood lathes ; three cross-cut saws ; 2 drill presses ; 3 wood 
 lathes. 
 
 One 15 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. One wood 
 boring miichine ; 1 wood riveter ; one tumbler barrel for small cast- 
 ings. 
 
 One 15 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Four large 
 paint grinders ; 2 small paint grinders. 
 
 One three h.p., 220 volt motor, driving pipe-threading machine. 
 
 One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. One wood 
 planer ; 2 drill pre.sses ; 1 rip saw ; one cut-off saw ; miscellaneous 
 small tools. 
 
 One 23 h.p.. 2.300 volt, 720 r.p.m. motor, driving thirty-five 
 ^kilowatt direct-current generator 250 volts for cranes, telphers and 
 elevators. 
 
 One 23 h.p.. 2,300 volt, 720 r.p.m. motor, driving thirty-five k.w. 
 generator for 22-naming arcs. 
 
 One 30 h.p. 220 volt. Slip-ring motor driving elevator in ware- 
 house. 
 
 Rates for energy are based on 3 factors : Flat rate for the con- 
 nected motor load in h.p., daily peak load, and sunset peak load. 
 The day peak load obtains for the entire year and the daily peaks 
 are averaged monthly for the basis of charges on this account. 
 The working day is from 7 a. m to 6 p. m, with a 50-min. recess 
 at noon. There is also a Saturday half holiday. The daily peak- 
 load charges are added to the flat-rate charges. From September 
 15 until March 15, inclusive, the sunset peak is figured, and is also 
 added to the flat-rate charges. The sunset peak is the maximum 
 demand during the time between sunset and closing time, which 
 is 6 p. M., as previously stated. 
 
 Electric Drive in Cotton Gins (J. H. Moseley in Electrical Re- 
 view and Western Electrician July 24, 1915). 
 
 Motor Requisites. It is rarely the custom to install more than 
 five 80 -saw gin stands in one battery. When more capacity is 
 required two or rhore identical batteries are used. On this account 
 the largest size motor usually used is not over 75 horsepower. 
 Since the characteristics of gin operation require a simple source 
 of power and a source capable of overloads, due to the varying 
 grades of cotton ginned, the squirrel-cage induction motor is 
 readily adapted to this class of service. Due to the loose lint, 
 which collects around the gin plant, a brushless-type motor is 
 essential. Simplicity of construction and operation makes the 
 constant-speed squirrel-cage type motor an ideal unit for a cotton 
 gin, and universal satisfaction has resulted where this type has 
 been used. 
 
 In order to avoid transformer losses a primary voltage of 2,200 
 is used on all motors above 25 h.p. in the Texas territory. For 
 unloading fans, motor-driven hydraulic pumps, and electrical tramp- 
 ers, 220-volt motors are commonly used. 
 
 The only difl^iculty experienced in using induction motors is that 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1125 
 
 of line regulation. During the first and last of the season the 
 cotton gin runs only intermittently, and consequently it is neces- 
 sary to start and stop the motor many times during the day. On 
 a small isolated plant a 75-h.p. induction motor will practically 
 destroy all attempts toward good regulation and on plants of 
 small capacity it is advisable to use a wound rotor with a time- 
 limit controlling switch for starting. It is also advisable to use 
 wound-rotor motors on individual installations of 100 h.p. or more, 
 in order to decrease the starting current. 
 
 The One-Motor Gin. Undoubtedly the cheapest way of changing 
 from a steam-driven to an electrically-driven gin is to replace the 
 steam prime mover with one motor, a small air compressor being 
 belted to the main line shaft, to furnish air for the tramper and 
 hydraulic pump. No trouble whatever should be exi)erienced with 
 an installation of this character. However, when the bales are 
 coming in slowly it is necessary with this type of installation to 
 operate the entire gin plant, in order to furnish air for pressing 
 out the bale. The large friction loss prevalent in the gin proper 
 during this part of the operation causes a large power consump- 
 tion and a correspondingly high cost per bale of cotton ginned. 
 
 Two-Motor Gin. This installation can be greatly improve^ from 
 the economical operation standpoint by using a hydraulic pump 
 belt driven by a 7.5-h.p. motor. With this arrangement not only 
 can a lower pressure be used on the air drum with consequently 
 less power consumption, but the main gin motor may be cut off 
 as soon as the bale has been put through the gin stands. The 
 7.5-h.p. motor can then be started and the bale pressed out with 
 no loss in power. On one gin, where a record was kept, 287 bales 
 were pres.sed with a motor driven hydraulic pump for $1.08, or 
 an average of less than two-fifths of a cent per bale. 
 
 The Logical Arrangement. Still further economy can be effected 
 by eliminating the air compressor entirely and replacing it with 
 an individually motor-driven electrical tramper. In the ordinary 
 four-stand, 80-saw gin the electrical equipment would consist of 
 one 75-h.p., 2,200-volt, 60-cycle, three-phase, constant-speed, squir- 
 rel-cage motor driving main gin stands and unloading and conveying 
 fan (motor would operate at 900 or 1,200 r.p.m.) ; one 7.5 h.p., 
 220-volt, 60-cycle, three-phase, constant-speed, squirrel-cage motor, 
 belted to hydraulic pump ; one three-h.p., 220-volt, 60-cycle, three- 
 phase, constant-speed, squirrel-cage motor, driving by means of 
 silent chain the electrical tramper. 
 
 If desired a 50-h.p. motor can be used instead of the 75-h.p. 
 machine, and a separate 25-h.p. motor direct-connected to the fan 
 equipment, thus eliminating some belt and friction loss. However, 
 this is a matter of comparatively small economy and is hardly 
 justified, due to the increased first cost of the motor equipment. 
 
 The 3-motor installation i.^ the rnost economical installation, 
 since it divides the gin plant into the three units, which really 
 operate independently of each other. Maximum operating efli- 
 ciency and economy are obtained by this method. 
 
 The electrical tramper is operated by a 3-h.p. motor. This 
 
1126 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 motor is connected by silent chain to a cog wheel operating the 
 vertical member of the tramper, and is operated by means of the 
 regular tramper-operating lever shown. Moving the lever in one 
 direction starts the ^lotor, and causes the tramper to move down- 
 ward. When the tramper has reached a predetermined point, or 
 has passed the press dogs the motor rotation is automatically 
 reversed, and the tramper is caused to rise. This invention, be- 
 sides doing away with the air compressor, and consequently lower- 
 ing the power consumption and ginning cost, eliminates the pos- 
 sibility of " wet packed " bales, which frequently occur in steam- 
 driven trampers, due to leaky cylinders. 
 
 Cost of Operation. The data given in the accompanying table 
 for a complete year's operation on 32 different gins, some of them 
 having identical equipment, will give an idea of the variation of 
 power consumption due to the personal equation. 
 
 TABLE XXV. COST OF GINNING COTTON OP 32 GINS 
 
 Maximum Minimum Average 
 
 Stands 8 2 6 
 
 Saws per stand 80 70 70 
 
 Horsepower installed 200 50 100 
 
 Months used 5 'I 4 
 
 Bales ginned 3,343 87 1,540 
 
 Average weight 566 500 525 
 
 Kw.-hrs. used 83,950 1,850 29,450 
 
 Kw.-hrs. per bale 26.3 14 19 
 
 Net cost per bale $1.12 $0.45 $0.65 
 
 Cotton Gin Power Requirements. The term load-factor is used 
 in these data in such a sense that a load-factor of 100% represents 
 the use for 24 hrs. every day of power corresponding to the rated 
 capacity of the motors connected. An operating-time load-factor 
 of 100% represents the use of the rated capacity of the motors 
 for the running hrs. per day specified for each installation. 
 
 Gin Plant with 6 Stands of 70 Saws Each. Capacity approxi- 
 mately 5 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 2 
 to 18 hrs. Number of months operated, 8. Total connected h.p., 
 127.5. Total number of motors installed, 4. Average kw.-hrs. per 
 month, 4,612. 
 
 Kilowatt-hour consumption for 8 months : 
 
 Month Kilowatt-hours 
 
 January 2,700 
 
 February 1,800 
 
 March 300 
 
 April 2.000 
 
 September 1,900 
 
 October 16,200 
 
 November 9,500 
 
 December 2,500 
 
 Load-factor, 6.6%. 
 
 Approximate energy consumption per bale of cotton ginned is 
 19.2 kw.-hrs. 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 112^ 
 
 Following is a list of motors installed with their respective drives. 
 Source of supply is 220 volts, three-phase, 60 cycles with the ex- 
 ception of 75-h.p. motor which is 2,200 volts. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m. motor, belted to main line shaft driving 
 six 70 -saw gin stands and one Gardner-Rix 6 by 6 vertical, two- 
 cylinder air compressor. One 25 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m. motor, direct- 
 connected to 40-in. multi-blade fan for unloading and conveying 
 cotton to gin stands. One 7.5 h.p., 900 r.p.m. motor, belted to 
 hydraulic pump. One 20 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m. motor, direct-connected 
 to 35-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 
 
 Gin Plant with 4 70-Saw Stands. Capacity approximately 4 bales 
 of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 1 to 18 hrs. Four 
 men are employed. Plant operates 7 months per year. Total con- 
 nected h.p., 100. Total number of motors installed, 2. Average- 
 kw.-hrs. per month, 2,963. 
 
 Consumption for 12 months : 
 
 Month Kilowatt-hours 
 
 January 311 
 
 February . 2,610 
 
 March 400 
 
 April to August 
 
 September 4,400 
 
 October 6,980 
 
 November 4.350 
 
 December 1,690 
 
 Load-factor, 5.4%. 
 
 Average kw.-hrs. per bale, 14.5. 
 
 Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
 drives; 220-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle current is used with the excep- 
 tion of the 75-hp. motor which is 2,200 volts. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m. motor, belted to main line shaft driving 
 4 70-saw gin stands and one Gardner-Rix 6 by 6 vertical, 2-cylin- 
 der air compressor. One 25 h.p., 1.800 r.p.m. motor, direct-con- 
 nected to 40-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 
 
 Gin Plant with Six 70-Saw and Five SO-Saw Stands, having a 
 capacity of approximately 10 bales per hr. Daily operation varies 
 from 1 to 18 hrs. Plant operates 6 months per year. Total con- 
 nected h.p., 192.5. Total number of motors installed, 5. Average 
 kw.-hrs. per month, 4,937. 
 
 Kilowatt -hour consumption for 6 months : 
 
 ^onth Kilowatt-hours 
 
 January 580 
 
 February 121 
 
 September 11,400 
 
 October 12,050 
 
 November 5,010 
 
 December 460 
 
 Load-factor, 4.7%. 
 
 The approximate energy consumption per bale ginned is 17 
 kw.-hrs. 
 
1128 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
 drives. Current is supplied at 220 volts, 3-phase, 60 cycles. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m., belted to main line shaft driving six 
 70-sa,w gin stands and suction fan. One 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., belted 
 to 8 by 6 Gardner vertical air compressor furnishing air for 
 tramper. One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m., belted to main line shaft driving 
 five 80-saAV gin stands and 6 by 6 Gardner vertical air compressor. 
 One 7.5 h.p.. 900 r.p.m., belted to hydraulic pump which operates 
 the hydraulic ram on two presses. One 20 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m., direct- 
 connected to 35-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 
 
 Gin Plant with Four 70-Saw Starids having a capacity of approxi- 
 mately 4 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 1 to 
 18 hrs. There are 4 men employed. Plant operates 5 months 
 per year. Total connected h.p.. 95. Total number of motors in- 
 stalled, 2. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 7,815. 
 
 Kilowatt-hour consumption for five months : 
 
 Month Killowatt-hours 
 
 January 3,960 
 
 February to August 
 
 September 11,580 
 
 October 16,280 
 
 November 6,630 
 
 December 620 
 
 Load-factor, 15%. 
 
 Approximate energy consumption per bale of cotton ginned, 18 
 kw.-hrs. 
 
 Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
 drives. Three-phase, 60-cycle, 2,200-volt current is used on 75-h.p. 
 motor and 220 volts on 20 -h.p. motor. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m.. belted to main line shaft driving four 
 70-saw gin stands; suction fan and 6 by 8 Gardner vertical two- 
 cylinder air compressor. One 20 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m., direct-con- 
 nected to 35-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 
 
 Gin Plant Having Eight 80-Saw Stands. Capacity approximately 
 10 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 1 to 18 
 hrs. Plant operates 6 months per year. Total connected h.p., 235. 
 Total number of motors installed, 7. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 
 11,820. 
 
 Kilowatt-hour consumption for 6 months : 
 
 Month Kilowatt-hours 
 
 January 
 
 February 10,1(10 
 
 March 7O0 
 
 April to August 
 
 September 12,411 
 
 October 26,300 
 
 November 18,100 
 
 December 3,311 
 
 Load-factor, 9.2%. 
 
 The approximate electrical energy consumption per b^vle of cotton 
 ginned is 18 kw.-hrs. 
 
BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1129 
 
 Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
 drives. The source of supply is 2,200-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle 
 current for the two 75-h.p. motors and 220-volt for the balance. 
 
 Two 75-h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., each belted to a line shaft driving four 
 80-saw gin stands and suction fan. Two 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., each 
 belted to an 8 by 6 Gardner vertical two-cylinder compressor fur- 
 nishing air for trampers and hydraulic pumps. Two 20 h.p., 1,800 
 r.p.m., each direct-connected to a 3 5 -in. unloading fan in cotton 
 storehouse. One 15 h.p., 900 r.p.m., auxiliary motor for seed 
 conveyor. 
 
 Gin Plant Having Four 70-Saw Stands. Capacity of plant is ap- 
 proximately 4 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 
 1 to 18 hrs. Plant operates 6 months per year. Total connected 
 h.p., 107.5. Total number of motors installed, 4. Average kw.- 
 hrs. per month, 3,671. 
 
 Kilowatt -hour consumption for 6 months : 
 
 Month Kilowatt-hours 
 
 .January 2,290 
 
 February 600 
 
 March to August 
 
 September 10.320 
 
 October '. 10,300 
 
 November 2,150 
 
 December 1,340 
 
 Load-factor 6.2%. 
 
 The approximate electrical energy consumption per bale of cot- 
 ton ginned is 17.2 kw.-hrs. 
 
 Motors are installed as follows, 220-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle 
 current being used except in the case of the 75-h.p. motor, which 
 is 2,200 volts. 
 
 One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m., belted to main line shaft driving four 
 70-saw gin stands and suction fan. One 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., belted 
 to Chicago Pneumatic 6 by 6 air compressor. One 7.5 h.p., 900 
 r.p.m., belted to hydraulic press pump. One 10 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m., 
 belted to unloading fan in storehou.se. 
 
 Electric Drive in Sand and Gravel Plants. Capacity 1,000 
 cu. yds. daily. A plant of the Hugh Nawn Contracting Company, 
 Sharon Heights, Mass., capacity, 1,000 cu. yds. a day, 6 to 8 men 
 employed, operating the year around, was described in Electrical 
 Review and We.stern Electrician. 
 
 The total h.p. connected, was 248, total number of motors con- 
 nected, 15 ; average monthly cost of power, $280. 
 
 Motor Installation. Following is a list of the motors installed 
 and their respective drives. Current is supplied at 230/460 volts, 
 3-phase, 60 cycles: 
 
 Horse- 
 power Application 
 of motor 
 
 82 Excavator with 1.25-yd. bucket. 
 
 1 Revolves hopper. 
 
 5 18-in. belt. 310 ft. long. 
 
 15 20-in. belt, 600 ft, long. 
 
1130 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Horse- 
 power Application 
 of motor 
 
 15 20-in. belt up incline trestle. 
 
 5 Two motors operate two pulsating screens. 
 
 5 Belt 150 ft. long to crusher. 
 
 55 Crusher. 
 
 10 Belt conveying pebbles and crushed stone to rotary- 
 screen. 
 
 10 Rotary screen. 
 
 10 18-in. belt 600 ft. long under storage bins, 
 
 5 Belt conveyor from tailings bin to crusher 
 
 20 16-in. belt conveyor 300 ft. long, under sand piles. 
 
 5 Rotary sand screen. 
 
 Capacity 6,000 cu. yds. Daily. Plant of the Boston Sand and 
 Gravel Company, Scituate, Mass., has a capacity of 6,000 cu. yds. 
 a day ; 10 men regularly employed ; plant operates 12 months of 
 the year. 
 
 Total connected h.p., 530 ; total number of motors connected, 15 ; 
 average kw.-hrs. consumed per month, 40,000. 
 
 Motor Installation. Following is a list of the motors installed 
 and their respective drives. Current is supplied at 550 volts, 
 3-phase, 60 cycles: 
 
 Horse- 
 power Application 
 of motor 
 
 165 An S. Flory Manufacturing company engine, hauling 
 three-yd. bucket. 
 35 Flory engine handling suspension cables and bucket- 
 dumping cable. 
 3 Air compressor for setting friction clutches. 
 75 Double-drum Mead-Morrison engine hauling cunveyor 
 
 cars to screening and crushing plant. 
 75 Symons Brothers' rotary crushers, screens, bucket ele- 
 vator, sand conveyor and paddles for removing sand 
 deposit in tank. 
 75 2,200-gallon-per-minute Goulds rotary pump, forcing sea 
 
 water on screens. 
 5 Two motors operate. Two 14-inch belt conveyors carry- 
 
 ing materials to storage piles. 
 3 A 24-inch belt conveyor to storage. 
 
 35 Two motors operate two 30-inch belt conveyors for load- 
 
 ing lighters. 
 5 Fresh water pump. 
 
 — In blacksmith shop. Two motors. 
 
 Motor-Service and Heating Costs in a Jewelry Factory. The 
 
 jewelry factory of the Codding-Heilborn Company, North Attle- 
 boro, Mass., operated by central-station energy from the local 
 electric plant, was described in Electrical World, June 21, 1913. 
 
 The factory was formerly operated by a 50-h.p. slide-valve en- 
 gine supplied with steam from a 90-h.p. horizontal return-tubular 
 boiler. No traps were used in the steam piping which supplied 
 various parts of the factory v/ith heat. Considerable annoyance 
 was experienced from time to time at the slowing down of the 
 rolling mill, polishing apparatus and steam-driven blower equipment, 
 production being sensibly diminished under mechanical driving. 
 The introduction of electric motors, however, speeded up the polish- 
 
BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1131 
 
 ing tools enough to give about 13% greater production, besides 
 resulting in a better quality of work. All motors are of the 220- 
 volt, three-phase, 60 -cycle induction type, 
 
 MOTOR EQUIPMENT FOR JEWELRY FACTORY 
 
 First floor, 1,200 r.p.m. motors: 
 
 Scratch-brushing and coloring, including two direct-current 
 
 plating dynamos, three scratch-brushing heads and one 13-in. 
 
 exhaust fan, 3 h.p. 
 Polishing bench, No. 4 blower, six heads, 7.5 h.p. 
 Duplex power pump in engine room, 2 h.p. 
 Three rolling mills, 7.5 h.p. 
 Two high-speed drills, three lathes, 0.5 h.p. 
 Tub-cleaning machine. 0.25 h.p. 
 Emery wheel, double 10-in. diameter, 1 h.p. 
 Two drop hammers, 450-lb. and 300-lb. ; two 200-lb. and two 
 
 75-lb. drop hammers, one power press and one rotary shear, 
 
 5 h.p. 
 
 Second floor, 1,800 r.p.m. motors: 
 
 Machine shop, including .two engine lathes, one shaper, one 
 
 emery wheel, one cut-off saw, one grindstone, one milling 
 
 machine, 2 h.p. 
 Four power presses, six high-speed lathes, 2 h.p. 
 
 Third floor, 1,800 r.p.m. motor: 
 
 No. 3 American gas-furnace blower, 2 h.p. 
 
 The total connected load of motors is 32.75 h.p., representing an 
 investment of $668. 
 
 In this, as in many other cases where isolated plants are to be 
 converted, the question of heating was an important factor. 
 
 Cost of Electricity. The estimated cost of electric energy for 
 this factory was $66 per month, based upon a 10-hr. day and 
 service used 300 days per year. The average monthly consumption 
 of energy determined was 2,200 kw.-hrs., the average rate being 
 3 cents per kw.-hr. The point was made that central-station service 
 would be available at all times, and that a licensed engineer or 
 fireman would not be needed so long as the steam pressure was 
 kept below 15 lbs. per sq. in., since steam was not to be used for 
 developing mechanical power. It was necessary, however, to equip 
 the boiler with a sealed safety valve set at 15 lbs, per sq. in. and 
 approved by the State inspector of boilers. 
 
 The total cost of equipping the factory for electric driving was 
 estimated as follows : Motors, complete, with bases, pulleys, labor, 
 freight, $668 ; wiring, fittings, switches and erection, $160 ; pulleys, 
 belting, shafting hangers, erected, $80 ; drying boxes connected to 
 vats, piping and labor, $12; total, $920. 
 
 The estimated yearly cost of operation, excluding fixed charges, 
 was $1,444.50, the items being as follows: Electrical energy, $792; 
 coal for heating, 59 tons at $4.50, $265.50 ; coal for commercial 
 uses, sinks, etc., $207; attendance, one-quarter of the time of one 
 man at $60 per month, inspecting motors, firing boiler, etc., $180; 
 total $1,444.50. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 Compressors are sold on a basis of displacement in cu. ft. of 
 free air per minute. This in the case of double-acting compressors 
 is the voluine of the air cylinder in cu. ft. multiplied by twice the 
 number of revolutions per minute, or the volume of the air cylinder 
 in cu. ft. multiplied by the piston speed in ft. per min. In the case 
 of 2- or 3-stage compressors the displacement is naturally figured 
 on the basis of the volume of the low pressure cylinder. 
 
 Thus, a 6 by 6 in. single stage machine at 150 r.p.m. would have 
 a displacement of 
 
 1 ttX 32 
 
 — X X 2 X 150 = 29.4 cu. ft. per min. 
 
 2 144 
 
 An 8 by 10 in. single stage machine at 200 r.p.m. would have a 
 displacement of: 
 
 10 7rX42 
 
 — X X 2 X 200 = 116.4 cu. ft. per min. 
 
 12 144 
 
 A 30 by 18 in. by 24 in. 2-stage machine at 150 r.p.m. would 
 have a displacement of: 
 
 24 7rXl52 
 
 — X X 2 X 150 = 2945.2 cu. ft. per min. 
 
 12 144 
 
 In the latter case the piston speed was 600 ft. per min., which, 
 multiplied by the volume of the cylinder, 4.9087 cu. ft., gives the 
 displacement 2945.2 as shown. 
 
 TABLE I. STEAM DRIVEN TANDEM STRAIGHT LINE 
 
 COMPRESSORS — SIMPLE STEAM, 2-STAGE AIR — 
 
 100 LB. PRESSURE 
 
 Rated capacity Approx. 
 
 cu. ft. per min. weight, lbs. Price 
 
 400 9,900 $1,235 
 
 600 16,000 1,810 
 
 800 22,200 2,580 
 
 1,000 28,000 2,800 
 
 1,250 34,500 3,310 
 
 1.500 40,000 3,680 
 
 1.750 45,000 3,960 
 
 2,000 48,500 4,170 
 
 2,250 52,000 4,370 
 
 2,500 54,000 4,480 
 
 -1132 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1133 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 STEAM DRIVEN SIMPLE STRAIGHT LINE 
 COMPRESSORS 
 
 Rated capacity 
 cu. ft. free air per min. 
 60 
 100 
 150 
 200 
 250 
 300 . 
 400 
 500 
 600 
 
 100 
 150 
 200 
 250 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 600 
 
 100-125 LBS. AIR PRESSURE 
 
 Approximate 
 shipping weight in lbs. 
 
 2,600 
 
 3,800 
 
 5,150 
 
 6,500 
 
 7,700 
 
 9,000 
 11,200 
 13,100 
 15,500 
 
 80-100 LBS. AIR PRESSURE 
 
 2,950 
 
 4.100 
 
 5,200 
 
 6,200 
 
 7,200 
 
 9,000 
 10,800 
 12,500 
 
 Price 
 
 f.o.b. factory 
 
 % 400 
 
 560 
 
 720 
 
 865 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,125 
 
 1,225 
 
 1,580 
 
 1,770 
 
 ; 450 
 
 595 
 
 730 
 
 830 
 
 945 
 
 1,135 
 
 1,320 
 
 1,490 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 CROSS-COMPOUND STEAM-DRIVEN TWO-STAGE 
 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 (For 125-150 lbs. air pressure) 
 
 Rated capacity in 
 cu. ft. per min. 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 1,000 
 1,200 
 1,4.00 
 1,600 
 
 Approximate 
 shipping weight in lbs. 
 13,000 
 14,500 
 16,500 
 24,500 
 34,000 
 41,000 
 46,000 
 50,000 
 52.000 
 
 Price 
 f.o.b. factory 
 $1,760 
 1,960 
 2,150 
 3,130 
 4,250 
 5,000 
 5,500 
 6,000 
 6,250 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 CROSS-COMPOUND STEAM DRIVEN 2-STAGE 
 COMPRESSORS 
 
 (For 80-100 lbs. air pressure) 
 
 Rated capacity in Approximate Price 
 
 cu. ft. per min. shipping weight in lbs. f.o.b. factory 
 
 200 8.600 $1,160 
 
 300 9.250 1,250 
 
 400 11,000 1.500 
 
 600 17.500 2,300 
 
 800 24.000 3.060 
 
 1,000 29.000 3,600 
 
 1.200 34.000 4.250 
 
 1.400 37,500 4,700 
 
 1.600 40,000 5,000 
 
1134 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN TWO-STAGE 
 AIR COMPRESSOR 
 
 (For 125-150 lbs. air pressure) 
 
 Rated capacity in Approximate Price 
 
 cu. ft. per min. shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 
 
 200 12.000 $1,620 
 
 300 13.000 1,760 
 
 400 14.500 1,920 
 
 600 26.000 3.320 
 
 800 33,000 4,130 
 
 1,000 36.000 4.150 
 
 1,200 37.000 4,250 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN SINGLE- 
 STAGE AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 (For 45-60 lbs. air pressure) 
 
 Rated capacity in Approximate Price 
 
 cu. ft. per min. shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 
 
 200 6.000 $ 760 
 
 300 6.600 840 
 
 400 7.600 970 
 
 600 11.000 1.380 
 
 800 15,000 1.800 
 
 1.000 19.500 2.340 
 
 1.200 23,500 2,760 
 
 1.400 27.500 3.160 
 
 1,600 31,000 3,560 
 
 TABLE VIL 
 
 DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN SINGLE- 
 STAGE AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 Rated capacity in 
 cu. ft. per min. 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 1,000 
 1,200 
 1,400 
 1,600 
 
 (For 100 lbs. air pressure) 
 
 Approximate Price 
 shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 
 
 7.500 $ 950 
 
 10.000 1.250 
 
 12.500 1.560 
 
 18.500 2,220 
 
 23.500 2.760 
 
 28.000 3.-220 
 
 31.000 3;560 
 
 34.000 3.900 
 
 36,000 4,050 
 
 TABLE VIIT. DUPLEX CORLISS COMPOUND STEAM DRIVEN 
 
 TWO-STAGE AIR COMPRESSOR WITH TANDEM 
 
 CYLINDERS 
 
 (For 90-100 lbs. air pressure) 
 
 Rated capacity in 
 cu. ft. per min. 
 2.000 
 2,500 
 3,000 
 3,500 
 4,000 
 4,500 
 5.000 
 5,500 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Price 
 
 shipping weight, lbs. 
 
 f.o.b. factory 
 
 9.600 
 
 $1,200 
 
 10,500 
 
 1,310 
 
 11,500 
 
 1,440 
 
 13,000 
 
 1,630 
 
 14,500 ' 
 
 1,780 
 
 16.000 
 
 1,920 
 
 17,000 
 
 2,040 
 
 18,500 
 
 2.220 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1135 
 
 TABLE IX. DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN TWO-STAGE 
 AIR COMPRESSOR 
 
 (For 80-110 lbs. air pressure) 
 
 Rated capacity in Approximate Price 
 
 cu. ft. per min. shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 
 
 200 8,000 $1,000 
 
 300 8,600 1,075 
 
 400 10,000 1,250 
 
 600 16,000 1,920 
 
 800 21,000 2,520 
 
 1,000 26,000 3,060 
 
 1,200 30,000 3,450 
 
 1,400 33,000 3,800 
 
 1,600 36,000 4,050 
 
 Formulae of Costs of Air Compressors. A, A. Potter in Power, 
 Dec. 30, 1913, derived the formulae in Table X for the costs of air 
 compressors, by tabulating and plotting the net prices received 
 from several different manufacturers. The prices are the net selling 
 price f.o.b. factory and do not include cost of erection. 
 
 TABLE X. COST FORMULA FOR AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 Capacity up to Equation of 
 
 Type cu. ft. per min. cost in dollars 
 
 Single cylinder, belt driven 4,000 52 +1.95 X cu. ft. 
 
 Duplex, belt-driven 850 316 + 1.675 X cu. ft. 
 
 Compound, belt-driven 550 3.1 X cu. ft. 
 
 Single cylinder, steam driven.. 350 231 +2.32 X cu. ft. 
 
 Duplex, steam-driven 600 460 + 2.55 X cu. ft. 
 
 Compound, steam-driven 500 71.25 + 4.025 X cu. ft. 
 
 TABLE XA. COST OP MOTOR DRIVEN COMPRESSORS 
 WITH AUXILIARIES AND THEIR INSTALLATION 
 
 220 V 220 V 220 V 600 V 600 V 600 V 
 Piston displacement, cu. ft. 
 
 per min 15 25 50 50 15 25 
 
 Shipping weight 630 830 2050 1460 620 880 
 
 Net price compressor, f.o.b. 
 
 factory $220. 260. 450. 400. 175. 225. 
 
 Net price governors and 
 
 switch, f.o.b. factory. 40. 40. 40. 20. 20. 20. 
 
 Freight and drayage at 
 
 $1.50 9. 12. 31. 22. 9. 13. 
 
 Est. cost of receiver, piping, 
 
 etc 40. 40. 40. 40. 40. 40. 
 
 Installing 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 
 
 $324. 367. 576. 497. 259. 313. 
 
 Cost of Installing a Compressor Plant. The following, taken from 
 Gillette's Handbook of Rock Excavation, is an itemized account 
 of the cost of installing a small compressor plant. The compressor 
 was a Rand. Class C, 24 by 30-in., that cost $1,000. The boiler was 
 a second-hand 150 hp. locomotive boiler that cost $1,000. This 
 plant was capable of furnishing 1,300 cu. ft. of free air per min. at 
 
1136 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 80 lbs. pressure, or enough to run 10 or 12 drills. Cost of in- 
 stalling boiler: 
 
 22 days laborers, at $1.50 % 33 
 
 23 days engineers, at $3 69 
 
 13 days mechanics, at $4 52 
 
 13 days mechanics' help, at $2 26 
 
 1 day bricklayer, at $4 4 
 
 Total $184 
 
 Cost of installing compressor : • 
 
 120 days laborers, at $1.50 $180 
 
 4 days engineers, at $3 12 
 
 22 days mechanics, at $4 88 
 
 80 days mechanics' help, at $2 160 
 
 50 days carpenters, at $3 150 
 
 3 days bricklayers, at $4 12 
 
 6 days teams, at $4 24 
 
 8 days foremen, at $3 24 
 
 Total $650 
 
 Cost of materials: 
 
 15M lumber for housing compressor, at $25 $375 
 
 1,400 sq. ft. tar paper (1 layer) 21 
 
 32 cu. yd. concrete, at $4 128 
 
 5M brick, at $7 35 
 
 6 bbl. cement, at $2 12 
 
 Sand 1 
 
 Total $572 
 
 Cost, Air Capacity, etc., of Different Types of Portable Com- 
 pressors. From a table in Dana's Handbook of Construction Plant 
 we have compiled the following. A compressor delivering 78 cu. ft. 
 free air per min. at a pressure of 100 lbs., having single stage water 
 jacket, Ingersoll-Rand type 8x8, NE-I, and 4 water cooling tanks 
 with rotary circulating pump, driven by a 15 hp., 1 cyl., gasoline 
 engine, weighs, complete, 7,700 lbs. and costs $1,425. A compressor 
 delivering 64 cu. ft. free air with a Franklin single stage water 
 jacket, but like the above in all other respects, weighs, complete, 
 7,800 lbs. and costs $1,325. A compressor delivering 70 ft. air 
 at 90 lbs., having the gas and air cylinder cast in one piece, worked 
 tandem with single piston rod, weighs over 7,000 lbs. and costs 
 $1,250. A compressor delivering 70 cu. ft. air at 80 lbs., with a 
 12 hp. single cyl. engine, weighs, complete, 8,900 lbs. and costs 
 $1,120. One delivering 94 ft. of air at 90 lbs., with 20 hp. engine, 
 weighs 9,000 lbs. and costs $1,825. One delivering 100 ft. air at 
 90 lbs., driven by a 4-cyl. marine type gasoline engine of 27 hp., 
 water circulating with radiator, weighs 8,000 lbs. and costs $1,900. 
 
 Air Receivers. The information in Table XI in regard to air re- 
 ceivers, sizes, weights, etc., has been obtained from several of the 
 large manufacturers of compressed air machinery. 
 
 Turbo-Compressors. The modern turbo-compressor is suitable 
 for pressures up to 120 lbs. per sq. in. They may be driven by 
 direct connected steam turbines or by electric motor.s. 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1137 
 
 TABLE XL COST OF AIR RECEIVERS 
 
 Compressor capacity 
 
 Contents of 
 
 
 
 for which best adapted, 
 
 receiver, 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Price 
 
 cu. ft. free air per min. 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 receiver, lbs. 
 
 
 100- 250 
 
 30 
 
 700- 825 
 
 $ 45 
 
 150- 325 
 
 43 
 
 1,000-1,050 
 
 55 
 
 200- 450 
 
 57 
 
 1,200-1,300 
 
 70 
 
 300- 650 
 
 77 
 
 1,550-1,600 
 
 85 
 
 500- 900 
 
 96 
 
 1,750-1,900 
 
 100 
 
 800-1,500 
 
 150 
 
 2,400-2,900 
 
 145 
 
 1,200-2,000 
 
 192 
 
 3,200-3,400 
 
 180 
 
 2,000-3,500 
 
 280 
 
 3,900-5,200 
 
 250 
 
 3,500-4,000 
 
 380 
 
 6,300 
 
 315 
 
 The following are some of the advantages of turbo-compressors : 
 
 1. The turbo-blowers and compressors deliver a steady (non-pul- 
 sating) current of air or gas. 
 
 2. Run practically without noise at all loads. 
 
 3. Simple in construction, have all parts easily accessible, and 
 are reliable in action. 
 
 4. Not only require very little attendance and lubrication when 
 at work, but relatively speaking, a minimum of space for their 
 accommodation. 
 
 5. Require a minimum of power to drive ; they are also easily 
 governed through a wide range of variation of speed, without ma- 
 terially affecting their economy. 
 
 6. Perfectly balanced both dynamically and in respect of axial 
 thrust. 
 
 Turbo-Auxiliary to Piston Compressor in an English Mine. 
 A case arose at an English colliery, where, in order to meet the 
 increased demand for air, either the existing piston-compressor 
 plant — a cross-compound engine with cylinders 28-in. and 50-in. 
 diameter, by 60-in. stroke, driving duplex air cylinders of 33-in. 
 diameter, running up to from 30 to 35 r.p.m, as a maximum — 
 could be augmented by a similar set, or, with a view of increased 
 efficiency on the air cylinders, by the installation of a compound 
 two-stage compressor, or finally by the adoption of a turbo-com- 
 pressor set receiving its driving energy from the exhaust (at about 
 atmospheric pressure) of the low pressure steam cylinder. Here 
 the plan contemplated was that the turbo-compressor should pass 
 its discharge through an inter-cooler into the existing air cylinders. 
 
 It was found that the costs of the second complete piston com- 
 pressor would very much exceed the first cost of the turbo-com- 
 pressor installation, and it would also require much more floor 
 .space ; moreover, a gain of efficiency could be obtained only with 
 the new piston compressor plant, whereas the turbo-compressor 
 would improve the working efficiency over the whole combined 
 capacity. For these reasons, therefore, it was decided to install 
 the turbo-compressor. The results have fully justified this de- 
 cision, a gain of about 17% over what would have been secured 
 from a second piston compressor having been obtained. 
 
 The turbo-compressor is of the Rateau type, and was subjected 
 to tests which proved that the guarantees were fully realized, 
 
1138 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 easily delivering from 6.000 to 7,000 cu. ft. of free air per min. 
 at 12.8 lbs. gage. The steam consumption claimed for the turbine 
 also was established. The flexibility of the plant was particularly 
 noteworthy, as outputs up to 12,000 cu. ft. per min. and pressures 
 up to 16 lbs. were easily realized. 
 
 When running the existing piston compressor at the normal speed 
 of 30 r.p.m. taking in air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, 
 the maximum volume discharged at 60 lbs. was 3,000 cu. ft. of 
 free air per min., while with the addition of the turbo-compressor 
 set, with the piston compressor at the same speed as before, an 
 increase in the free air capacity of over 100% was obtained, and 
 the total eflSciency both of the air and of the steam was greatly 
 improved. 
 
 The low pressure steam cylinder of the existing duplex piston 
 compressor now discharges into a large steam receiver — an old 
 boiler shell with automatic relief valve arranged to prevent undue 
 accumulation of pressure. From this the steam passes through the 
 exhaust steam turbine to the condenser arranged underneath the 
 turbine exhaust branch. The turbine is absolutely under the con- 
 trol of the reciprocating compressor, as a demand for more work 
 from the plant requires more steam from the duplex compressor, 
 and provides the turbine with the necessary steam for the required 
 air capacity or pressure. 
 
 Economy in Compressed Air iVlining Plants. No subject con- 
 nected with the operation of a mine has more interest to the miner 
 than that of cheap power. 
 
 E. A. Rix in the Proceedings of the California Miners' Associa- 
 tion (1903) states that another and more important feature which 
 is too frequently overlooked, is the amount of power which is used 
 in mining operations. It is just as economical and important to 
 effect a reduction of 25% in the amount of power used as to effect 
 the same reduction in the rate. The power required to operate 
 the compressed air plant about a mine is a considerable item, being 
 from 25 to 50% of the total power used, and it is safe to say that 
 of this, from 25 to 50% could be saved in very many plants with 
 but comparatively small expenditure. 
 
 With any given compressor, there is a saving to be made of 
 from 5 to 10% in favor of driving direct by a water wheel or 
 steam engine, rather than by means of gear or belt. But this is 
 not always practical or feasible. A great saving may be made in 
 the ordinary steam-driven compressor as far as the motor end is 
 concerned. The engines of steam-driven compressors are ordinarily 
 equipped with either plain slide valves, Meyers cut-off gearing, or 
 compound cylinders. 
 
 The plain slide valve engine consumes from 45 to 50 lbs. of steam 
 per h.p.-hr. The steam consumption is large because the mean 
 effective pressure required to do the work being low, the steam 
 is throttled at the governor, or shut-off valve, and introduced into 
 the steam cylinder at low pressure, thus giving no benefit from the 
 high steam pressure or expansion. 
 
 The Meyers cut-off, however, does away with much of this loss 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1139 
 
 and gives the steam a chance to work expansively, and the steam 
 consumption will probably be from 35 to 40 lbs. per h.p.-hr. 
 
 With the compound engine, the steam consumption will be from 
 30 to 35 lbs. per h.p.-hr. Condensing engines would give larger 
 economy, but for the average mining plants would not be desirable. 
 
 Taking these figures, it will be noted that the Meyers cut-of£ is 
 at least 20% more economical than the plain slide valve, and the 
 compound cylinders are 30% more economical. For example, a 
 three-drill compressor — 12 by 12 by 12 ins. cost 
 
 Cost 
 
 Plain slide valve $1,300 
 
 Meyers cut-off 1,350 
 
 Compound cylinder compressor 1,650 
 
 This is a 50 h.p. compressor, and if a h.p. should cost but $5 
 monthly, the Meyers cut-off would pay for its extra cost in a month 
 and the compound in five months, after which there would be a 
 clean saving of $50 to $75 monthly, an item not to be overlooked. 
 
 It has been quite well demonstrated that a two-stage compressor 
 for pressures above 60 or 70 lbs. is very much more desirable and 
 economical than a single stage machine. 
 
 (1) It requires from 10 to 15% less power to compress 90 or 
 100 lbs. by a two-stage machine. 
 
 (2) The temperature created by compression is only about one- 
 half, that is to say, from 200 to 250 degs. F. in the cylinder, in- 
 stead of from 350 to 450 degs. The lower temperature permits 
 better lubrication and wear in the cylinder and does away with 
 the danger of cylinder or receiver explosions due to the ignition 
 of the gases given off by the lubricants. 
 
 In the third place : It gives a proper capacity of air delivered 
 for the size of the air cylinder. Right here is a point which should 
 appeal to every one. 
 
 All compressor catalogs give the rated capacity of a compressor 
 in cu. ft. of piston displacement, at a certain speed, and too fre- 
 quently purchasers believe that these figures indicate the free air 
 capacity. If they buy a machine having one hundred cu. ft. dis- 
 placement at 150 r.p.m., the supposition is that the compressor will 
 deliver about that quantity. This may be nearly true of a two- 
 stage compressor, but not of a single-stage machine. The single- 
 stage machine is generally equipped with poppet valves, and the 
 considerations of speed, valve clearance, piston clearance, piston 
 leakage, valve leakage, temperatures, valve inertia, springs, tensions 
 and atmospheric temperature, all tend to reduce this displacement 
 figure, until the average poppet valve single-stage machine does not 
 give over 75% of its theoretical volume at normal speed, and may 
 drop to from 50 to 60%. This means that while the machine is 
 built for and is amply strong ienough to give 100% it is not per- 
 mitted to deliver its full volume by reason of the facts set forth. 
 The purchaser finds he cannot get air enough for his work. 
 
 The two-stage machine will give from 85 to 90% of its theoretical 
 displacement, and with this machine the purchaser is therefor 3 
 
1140 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 getting more for his money, buying the same cylindei- dimensions, 
 than in the single-stage machine. 
 
 A single-stage straight line machine, 12 and 12 by 12 Ins., will 
 cost $800. A two-stage, 12 and 7 and 12 by 12 ins., will cost 
 $980. Inasmuch as the two-stage machine will give 15% more air, 
 the comparative price of the single-stage machine would be figured 
 at $920. Consequently, the difference in price is $60, and because 
 the 2-stage machine is more economical to operate by 15%, this 
 small difference in price will be saved in two or three months. 
 
 To conclude, then, as far as the compressor end is concerned, 
 there are the following gains to be made, counting that the com- 
 pressor is running at capacity ratings as to speed and pressure : 
 
 In power required, for a 2-stage compound steam-driven machine 
 over a single-stage plain slide valve, a gain of at least 50%. 
 
 In volume, a gain of 15 to 25%. 
 
 In cost, an insignificant increase compared to the saving. 
 
 In power actuated compressors, the corresponding gain would be 
 a saving of about 15% in power and a gain in volume of from 15 
 to 25%. A 12 by 12 ins., belt-driven, single-stage compressor will 
 cost $660, and a two-stage 12 and 7 by 12 ins. will cost $860. Al- 
 lowing for the difference in volume delivered, the comparison will 
 be as $760 is to $860, a difference of $100, which will be saved 
 in power in 3 months. 
 
 For altitudes, the gain in using a 2-stage compressor is still 
 more marked. 
 
 The next loss is in the pipe lines, where insufficient sizes cause 
 a frictional loss of pressure and leaks cause a loss of volume. The 
 latter is generally the greater. Tests of a great many pipe lines 
 in mines develop the fact that probably none are tight and the 
 majority leak from 10 to 30%. Small leaks at each joint, which 
 can only be discovered by using soap and water, make a consider- 
 able total loss. 
 
 For example, upon installing a large compressor under guaran- 
 tee, at a well-known mine, a test was made for leakage. The pipe 
 lines were long and numerous, having accumulated during 10 years' 
 working, and the mine manager was willing to allow but 5% loss 
 for leakage. The pipes were sealed at all terminals and valves. 
 and the compressor speed regulated so that it would hold the jiipe 
 line at exactly 90 lbs. It required 40% of the maximum revolutions 
 of the compressor to hold the pressure. It was a surprise to every 
 one. After a week's work on the lines the loss was reduced to 
 about 12% and there remained. It is doubtful if the average pipe 
 lines lose less than 15%,. 
 
 It is a simi)le matter to determine and easy to remedy while in- 
 stalling the pipe. The loss should not be allowed to exceed 5% if 
 economy is desired, and a line may with care be made practically 
 tight. It seems a simple job to screw pii)e together so it will not 
 leak, yet it is not so, for it recjuires patience and experience. 
 Plumbers encounter great difficulties' in i)iping large l)uildings, yet 
 their vvork must not leak, and the same degree of attention will 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1141 
 
 give the same result for a mine and it will pay well to have it done 
 properly from the very start. 
 
 The next source of loss is in using pipes that are too small. 
 The temi)tation to use small pipes in levels and stopes is great 
 because they can be put in place so readily. But they occasion 
 great loss ; in many instances, pressure gauges placed on the drill 
 hose have given readings of from 45 to 60 lbs., with from 80 to 
 90 lbs. at the compressor. 
 
 It must be remembered that a drop of pressure of 10 lbs., from 
 90 to 80. for example, does not mean a 10% power loss — the loss 
 is but Y/c, but the loss in the work performed by the drill more 
 than makes up for it. It would probably not be amiss to state 
 here that the average pipe lines could be bettered at least 10% by 
 stopping and using proper size of pipes. 
 
 It seems to be quite well understood at present that hoisting 
 engines operated by compressed air should have the air reheated 
 before use, and many have introduced either dry air heaters or 
 steam heaters for their hoists. 
 
 In a hoisting engine, it takes about 25 cu. ft. of free air com- 
 pressed to 90 lbs. to give a h.p. used cold, and about 16 cu. ft., 
 or a saving of 35%, when properly heated. 
 
 If compound engines be used on the hoist, and the air be heated 
 to about 400 degs. F. before using in each cylinder, a h.p. can be 
 produced readily with' 8 cu. ft. of free air per h.p. or two-thirds 
 less than in an ordinary hoisting engine. 
 
 Where a good-sized hoist is used, the loss In using primitive 
 methods runs into money very fast. As an example of how in- 
 significant things cause losses in compressed air machines, my at- 
 tention was called recently to a mill engine, driven by compressed 
 air, that failed to give the stamps the requisite drops because the 
 air supply was insufficient, although the air was reheated. Upon 
 examining the engine, it was found to have an unusual clearance, 
 and a three-eighths plate fastened on each face of the piston re- 
 duced the loss so that it performed the work in a most satisfactory 
 manner. . There are many engines running with similar losses 
 in the mines to-day. 
 
 Compressed air hoists on the surface, and particularly under 
 ground, should have sufficient receiver capacity attached, so that 
 when the hoists are working they do not reduce the pipe line 
 pressure too much, otherwise the work of the rock drills will fall 
 off materially, but the machine men's wages are going on just the 
 same. 
 
 The greatest loss in connection with the use of compressed air 
 in mines is in using the ordinary direct acting pump for station 
 work, and but little progress has been made toward bettering this 
 condition in any but two or three larger mines. The facts are 
 the.'se : 
 
 At 90 lbs. air pressure, if it' takes 100 cu. ft. of free air to do 
 a certain amount of pumping, using an ordinary direct acting pump, 
 then 75 cu. ft. will do the same work if the air be heated to 300 
 
1142 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 degs. Sixty cu. ft. will be required in a compound direct acting 
 pump where the heating is only enough to keep the pump from 
 freezing. Fifty cu. ft. will be required if heating be done to 300 
 degs. before using in the high-pressure cylinder. Forty cu. ft. 
 only will be required if heating be done to 300 degs. before using 
 in the low-pressure cylinder also. Thirty -five cu. ft. will be re- 
 quired for the work in a triple-cylinder pump. 
 
 In other words, it is possible to save two-thirds of the air. It 
 is not much trouble to do this heating underground, and the saving 
 is enormous. Distillate at 5 cts. per gal. can be used for heating. 
 It is not dangerous, the odor amounting to nothing in a well-ven- 
 tilated mine. Where any quantity of water is to be pumped, a 
 small flue pipe can be run in one corner of a shaft compartment. 
 This economical style of pumping is in constant and satisfactory 
 use at the North Star Mines on their lowest levels. 
 
 Compressed air may be used in pumping in such a manner that 
 its commercial economy may more than offset its mechanical econ- 
 omy. Commercial economy has for its basis the total cost to ac- 
 complish an end rather than the cost at any unit of time. For 
 example, the Brunswick Mine at Grass Valley struck a flow of 
 water on the 1.250-ft. level that the Cornish pump could not handle, 
 and the mine filled to the 700-ft. level, at which point the Cornish 
 pump held the water. The problem was to recover the 1,250-ft. 
 level and establish a station pump there. It is evident that if 
 there was no water flowing into the mine, the most economical way 
 to remove it would be to apply pumps that were mechanically 
 economical and the situation would be very simple. The shaft is 
 so small that large pumps and their pipes and appurtenances were 
 difficult to handle, and at every 25 ft. they would have to be 
 stopped, disconnected, lowered and connected up again, which would 
 have caused a great deal of delay, during which time large volumes 
 of water are coming into the mine. Consequently, the situation 
 came to be one where the system that would get the water out 
 quickest and thus gain on the incoming water would probably cost 
 least by the time the water was out, although perhaps costijng more 
 per foot-gallon pumped. 
 
 With this idea in view; an air lift was installed at the 700-ft. 
 level of the Brunswick, to deliver water to the Cornish and also to 
 an electric pump established on that station. An 8-in. water main 
 was lowered on trucks down the shaft, as far as possible, to give 
 submergence, and then a 2% -in. air pipe was lowered into this, 
 and followed down at proper distances relative to the lowering 
 water in the shaft. The quantity delivered was about 800 gals, 
 per min. at the beginning and sixteen days from starting, the 1,000- 
 ft. level was uncovered, and 250 gals, per min. were being de- 
 livered with a vertical lift of 300 ft. and a submergence of only 
 230 ft. On account of the rapidity with which the water was 
 lowered, this method was commercially very economical, and this 
 simple and inexpensive arrangement is commended to others. 
 
 To secure the actual h.p. required to compress a given volume of 
 air to any desired pressure, 10 to 15% should be added to the figures 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1143 
 
 TABLE XIT. HORSEPOWER (THEORETICAL) REQUIRED TO 
 COMPRESS 100 CU. FT. FREE AIR TO VARIOUS PRESSURES 
 
 Saving of two-stage over 
 single-stage compression 
 Horsepower Per cent. 
 
 Gauge pressure Single-stage Two-stage 
 
 5 
 
 1.97 
 
 10 
 
 3.61 
 
 
 15 
 
 5.02 
 
 
 20 
 
 6.28 
 
 
 25 
 
 7.44 
 
 
 30 
 
 8.45 
 
 
 35 
 
 9.41 
 
 
 40 
 
 10.30 
 
 
 45 
 
 11.13 
 
 
 50 
 
 11.9 
 
 2 10.65 
 
 55 
 
 12.67 11.25 
 
 60 
 
 13.37 11.81 
 
 65 
 
 14.05 12.34 
 
 70 
 
 14.70 12.84 
 
 75 
 
 15.32 13.32 
 
 80 
 
 15.91 13.77 
 
 85 
 
 16.48 14.21 
 
 90 
 
 17.04 14.63 
 
 95 
 
 17.57 15.03 
 
 100 
 
 18.09 15.42 
 
 110 
 
 19.08 16.15 
 
 120 
 
 20.01 16.83 
 
 130 
 
 20.90 17.46 
 
 140 
 
 21.74 18.07 
 
 150 
 
 22.55 18.64 
 
 160 
 
 23.3 
 
 2 19.26 
 
 170 
 
 24.06 19.78 
 
 180 
 
 24.77 20.27 
 
 190 
 
 25.46 20.74 
 
 200 
 
 26.12 21.19 
 
 210 
 
 . 
 
 21.54 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 21.96 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 22.37 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 22.76 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 23.03 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 23.28 
 
 270 
 
 
 
 23.84 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 24.19 
 
 290 
 
 
 
 24.53 , 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 24.85 
 
 350 
 
 
 
 26.35 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 27.65 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 28.85 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 29.97 
 
 1.28 
 1.42 
 1.57 
 1.71 
 1.85 
 2.00 
 2.13 
 2.27 
 2.41 
 2.54 
 2.67 
 2.93 
 3.18 
 3.43 
 3.67 
 3.91 
 4.06 
 4.29 
 4.51 
 4.70 
 4.93 
 
 10.70 
 11.22 
 11.72 
 12.18 
 12.61 
 13.04 
 13.40 
 13.77 
 14.12 
 14.45 
 14.77 
 15.36 
 15.90 
 16.42 
 16.89 
 17.33 
 17.40 
 17.80 
 18.18 
 18.46 
 18.88 
 
 shown above, depending upon the size and type of the compressor, 
 to allow for mechanical losses. 
 
 Conversion of Free Air to Compressed Air. Table XIII from 
 Mine and Quarry, April, 1913, gives the equivalents of free air to 
 compressed air. 
 
 Example: Given 348 cu. ft. of air compressed to 95 lbs. pres- 
 sure at 4,000 ft. altitude. Opposite 4,000 and below 95 appears 
 the figure 8.53. 8.53 X 348 — 2,968.44 = volume in "free air." 
 
 Air Compressor Economy in New York City. Tests were made 
 by Smith, Hauser, Locher and Co. on two compressors of different 
 makes, used to supply air for rock tunnel work on the Catskill 
 Aqueduct from 99th St. to 14th St. in New Tork City. From a de- 
 
1144 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XIII. CONVERSION COMPRESSED AIR TO FREE AIR 
 
 
 Ba- 
 
 Atmos- 
 
 
 ( 
 
 Grauge 
 
 pressure, lbs. 
 
 
 Utitude, 
 
 rome- 
 
 pheric 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 ter 
 
 pressure 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 30.00 
 
 14.7 
 
 4.40 
 
 5.08 
 
 5.76 
 
 6.44 
 
 7.12 
 
 7.80 
 
 8.48 
 
 500 
 
 29.45 
 
 14.45 
 
 4.46 
 
 5.15 
 
 5.83 
 
 6.53 
 
 7.23 
 
 7.92 
 
 8,61 
 
 1,000 
 
 28.90 
 
 14.12 
 
 4.54 
 
 5.24 
 
 5.95 
 
 6.66 
 
 7.37 
 
 8.08 
 
 8.79 
 
 1,500 
 
 28.35 
 
 13.92 
 
 4.59 
 
 5.31 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.75 
 
 7.46 
 
 8.18 
 
 8.90 
 
 2,000 
 
 27.78 
 
 13.61 
 
 4.67 
 
 5.41 
 
 6.14 
 
 6.88 
 
 7.61 
 
 8.34 
 
 9.08 
 
 3.000 
 
 26.75 
 
 13.10 
 
 4.81 
 
 5.58 
 
 6.34 
 
 7.10 
 
 7.87 
 
 8.63 
 
 9.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 25.75 
 
 12.61 
 
 4.96 
 
 5.76 
 
 6.55 
 
 7.34 
 
 8.14 
 
 8.93 
 
 9.72 
 
 5,000 
 
 24.78 
 
 12.15 
 
 5-11 
 
 5.94 
 
 6-76 
 
 7.58 
 
 8.40 
 
 9 ''2 
 
 10.05 
 
 6,000 
 
 23.86 
 
 11.75 
 
 5.24 
 
 6.16 
 
 6.96 
 
 7.81 
 
 8.66 
 
 9^51 
 
 10.36 
 
 7,000 
 
 22.97 
 
 11.27 
 
 5-43 
 
 6.32 
 
 7.21 
 
 8.10 
 
 8.98 
 
 9.87 
 
 10.76 
 
 8,000 
 
 22.10 
 
 10.85 
 
 5.61 
 
 6.53 
 
 7.45 
 
 8.37 
 
 9.29 
 
 10.21 
 
 11.14 
 
 9,000 
 
 21.30 
 
 10.45 
 
 5.78 
 
 6.74 
 
 7.70 
 
 8.67 
 
 9.61 
 
 10.57 
 
 11.52 
 
 10,000 
 
 20.60 
 
 10.10 
 
 5.95 
 
 6.94 
 
 7.93 
 
 8.92 
 
 9.91 
 
 10.90 
 
 11.88 
 
 tailed account of these tests, given by F. A. Halleck in Mine and 
 Quarry, March, 1912, we have abstracted the following: 
 
 Motor-Driven Air Compressor's. Compressed air for the 3 up- 
 town shafts is supplied by a central plant in Central Park, con- 
 sisting of three Sullivan " Class WN-2 " direct connected, two 
 stage air compressors, each driven by a self-starting synchronous 
 motor, mounted on the crank shaft and rated at 400 h.p. at 188 
 r.p.m. The voltage is 6,600 in the stationary armature and the 
 revolving field is excited by a direct current generator running at 
 675 r.p.m.. and delivering current at 125 volts. This generator is 
 driven by a belt from the crank shaft of the compressor. The com- 
 pressors have high pressure cylinders 15 V^ ins. in diameter, low 
 pressure cylinders 26 ins. in diameter, and a common stroke of 
 18 ins. This gives a piston displacement per unit, at 188 r.p.m., 
 of 2,070 cu. ft. per min. 
 
 There are two Corliss inlet valves on each cylinder, moved by 
 eccentrics on the crank shaft. The air is discharged through 
 cushioned poppet valves of a special pattern. The port area of 
 the discharge valves is 16% of the cylinder area in the low pres- 
 sure cylinder, and 17% in the high pressure cylinder. 
 
 The intercooler in these machines is vertical and placed between 
 the air cylinders. The intercooler provides 10.75 sq. ft. of cooling 
 area per 100 cu. ft. of free air. Copper water tubes are used. 
 
 The volume of air delivered is proportioned to the demand by 
 means of a double beat unloading valve on the air inlet of the 
 intake cylinder. This valve is either fully open or tightly closed, 
 so that no choking effect is exerted on the entering air ; and is 
 operated by a variation of five lbs. in the receiver pressure. 
 
 A fly-wheel weighing 7,000 lbs. renders the action of the machine 
 smooth and even in picking up its load, as well as at all other 
 times, and eliminates peaks in the power consumption. The ma- 
 chine and fly-wheel without the motor weigh 22 tons. 
 
 At each of the three downtown shafts air is supplied by a single 
 compressor of the two-stage, duplex pattern, of another make, 
 direct-driven by a self-starting synchronous motor, using 6,600-volt 
 purrent. The dimensions of these machines are : cylinder diam- 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1145 
 
 eters, low pressure, 25^ ins.; high pressure, 15 14 ins.; stroke, 
 21 ins. The piston displacement of each unit is 2,119 cu. ft. per 
 min, at 188 r.p.m. Air enters the cylinder through piston inlet 
 valves, and is discharged through poppet valves. 
 
 The amount of air delivered is proportioned to the demand by 
 a clearance controller, designed to operate for no load, %, Y2 and 
 % loads. In this system of unloading, reservoirs are provided, 
 into which a portion of the air compressed at each stroke is diverted, 
 depending on the quantity of air required for use. This air flows 
 back into the cylinder on the return stroke of the piston, de- 
 creasing, by the amount of its volume, the intake capacity of the 
 compressor. 
 
 Test of Compressors. The contractors decided to test one ma- 
 chine of each type, in order to learn as closely as possible the ac- 
 tual air delivery and power consumption, or in other words, 
 the relative electrical input per cu. ft. of air actually delivered. 
 On January 18, 1912, unit No. 3 of the plant in Central Park was 
 tested, and on January 22, the piston inlet machine at 50th St. 
 was tested, under identical conditions. 
 
 At the time these tests were made, both compressors had been 
 at work under actual service conditions for a number of weeks. 
 No special preparations or adjustments for the test were made 
 on either machine. The makers of each compressor were given 
 abundant notice of the time and purposes of the test, and both had 
 engineers on the ground, who checked the readings and inspected 
 the machines and apparatus. 
 
 The results sought were : Delivery efficiency, power consumption 
 and amount of cooling water used. 
 
 Orifice Test. The quantity of air delivered was measured by. a 
 battery of orifices connected to the main air line. These orifices 
 were eight in number, ranging in diameter from %2 up to %-in,, 
 and were made in plates V^ in. thick, connected to a manifold by 
 ordinary globe valves. The orifices were countersunk with a %6-in. 
 radius next the globe valves, so that the escaping air completely 
 filled the orifices. The manifold was equipped with a thermometer 
 well and tapped for a pressure gauge. In running the test, orifices 
 were opened until the pressure was exactly maintained at a pre- 
 determined point. The maximum flow of air at the full pressure 
 showed the delivery efficiency of the compressor. 
 
 The type of orifice used had been tested carefully, by the dis- 
 placement tank method, and the quantity of air discharged agreed 
 accurately with Fliegner's formula. 
 
 At 188 r.p.m., the Sullivan compressor filled two %-in. orifices, 
 two V2-in., and one %6-in. The piston inlet machine, at the same 
 speed, filled two %-in. orifices and two orifices % in. in diameter. 
 
 This gives an actual delivery capacity of 1,814 cu. ft. of free air 
 for the Sullivan machine, or a delivery efficiency of 87.7%; and a 
 delivery capacity of 1,676 cu. ft.; or 79.1% delivery efficiency for the 
 piston inlet compressor. 
 
 Readings on the latter machine were also taken at %, and % 
 and % load. The orifice test showed deliveries, respectively, of 
 
1146 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1,153, 607 and 248 cu. ft. of free air per min., or ratios of delivery 
 to piston displacement as follows: % load, 54%; ^2 load, 29%; 
 34 load, 12%. 
 
 Deriviation of Delivery Ratios for Compressor. As the unload- 
 ing device on the compressor was of the total closure pattern, the 
 following figures are derived from full load and no load readings : 
 
 Ft. air 
 
 Compressor running at full load % time, % 
 
 time no load 1362 
 
 Compressor running at full load 14 time, i/^ 
 
 time no load 907 
 
 Compressor running at full load i/4 time, % 
 
 time no load 453 
 
 Ratio of 
 delivery to 
 pis. disp. 
 
 67% 
 
 44% 
 
 22% 
 
 Cooling Water. The temperature of the cooling water passing 
 through the intercooler and cylinder jackets was taken at various 
 points, and it was carefully weighed. On the Sullivan machine 
 the intercooler circulation was 54 lbs. per min., and that through 
 the cylinder jackets, 22 lbs., or a total of 76 lbs. The Sullivan 
 machine therefore used % gal. per 100 cu. ft. of free air, as com- 
 pared with 1 gal. for the piston inlet compressor. 
 
 f,0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ftO 
 
 
 
 DoMo 
 0.06 
 
 rs 
 
 per 
 0.07 
 
 000 Cubic Feet 
 0.08 0.03 
 
 
 ).I0 
 
 
 M 1 M M 1 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 s, 
 
 — 
 
 Annual Cosi of Fuel based , 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 ,/ 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 ■^' 
 
 
 Cu. Ft of Gas evaporating 1 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 of Free A ir Compressed to 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 ,^ 
 
 110 
 
 Fo 
 
 UP 
 
 ds 
 
 :>ac 
 
 le 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 } 
 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 /' 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 . 
 
 / 
 
 } 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■Sr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 /' 
 
 /- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _j_ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 z 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 150 200 
 
 Dollars 
 
 £50 
 
 300 
 
 Fig. 1. Cost of fuel when using gas. 
 
 Steam Driven Air Compressor Economies. B. C, Sickles in 
 Power, Nov. 28, 1911, states that during the past it has been the 
 practice to give but little attention to the cost of operation in the 
 medium-sized compressed-air plants, and in some cases this holds 
 true for the larger plants. First cost has been the main con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Single-stage machines compressing to 90 or 100 lbs. have been 
 purchased with simple steam cylinders, operating at 125 lbs. steam 
 pressure at the throttle. These have operated for* years in lo- 
 calities where the fuel cost is high, and where difficulties were en- 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1147 
 
 countered, due to dust and carbonizing- effects, with consequent 
 losses in economy and explosions due to extremely high tempera- 
 ture conditions and troubles in lubrication. 
 
 Improvements have taken place more readily in the air end by 
 the adoption of the 2-stag-e compressors, with consequent economy, 
 due to intercooling, and ease of lubrication because of lower tem- 
 perature. In the steam end, however, the most economical ar- 
 rangement of cylinders and valves has not been followed generally, 
 and there has been considerable loss in fuel economy and through 
 investment for increased boiler plant. 
 
 Among steam-driven compressors which have been used to a 
 large extent may be mentioned those employing the Meyer valve 
 on the steam end. This type of valve is customarily used in con» 
 junction with a throttling governor, controlled by air pressure. 
 As the valves are hand set. under varying conditions of load with- 
 
 06llar$ 
 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 
 
 per Ton 
 
 1.10 i.?o m 
 
 1 1 1 1 \/\y\HAV\y\/\A\A\\\ 
 
 
 , \^v\Yy/v[ru^\^y\^ j j 
 
 i;;?»ife,i ,11/1/ /y/y / / / / 
 
 8 Pounds of %feam,WO Cubic /\ A/'///// / 
 
 Feet ot Free Air Compres-1 \/\ / / /\/ ^ / y / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ui/i^z/y/z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lUFV//// 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 'jjj'y//}.// 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 t/A/AZ/y 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 / 
 
 ^VV-.vy 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 W77// 
 
 
 
 JZ 
 
 n 
 
 
 z7/7 _ _ 
 
 50 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 500 
 
 Fig. 2. Cost of fuel when using coal. 
 
 out constant attendance it becomes necessary to arrange the valves 
 to cut off at a fixed point, necessarily so late as practically to 
 eliminate all the economies which might be expected if the com- 
 pressor were driven under fixed conditions and constant output. 
 If the Meyer valves are set at an economical cutoff, and a heavy 
 load comes upon the machine, it will stop, and the air supply may 
 be cut off at considerable inconvenience. This type of valve, there- 
 fore, involves, under varying compressed-air demands, either a loss 
 in economy or constant attendance. The well known throttling 
 type of governor, which is the usual adjunct to this type of com- 
 pressor, does not permit the highest steam economy. 
 
 It therefore becomes necessary, even where the fuel-supply cost 
 per unit is low, if the most economical commercial results are to be 
 obtained, to consider carefully not only the design of the com- 
 pressor in detail, but also all the factors entering into the cost 
 of the compressed air plant. In the cost of a new plant this would 
 involve comparison of the cost of the necessary boiler capacity 
 
1148 MECHANICAL AND ELECT^RICAL COST DATA 
 
 installed, the cost of the compressor foundations, building anJ all 
 other factors involved in the complete installation. The annual 
 charges based upon the total cost of the compressor installed for 
 the same capacity of output, added to the cost of fuel operation 
 and maintenance cost, will give the proper basis for comparison 
 and decision in the purchase of the most economical compressor. 
 
 Since an air compressor is to deliver a certain amount of free 
 air, compressed to a certain pressure, it is desirable in securing 
 bids that the steam consumption be obtained, based upon 100 cu. 
 ft. of air compressed to the desired gage pressure. 
 
 In Figs. 1 and 2 are represented the annual fuel costs of com- 
 pressed air based on 10 hrs. for 365 days when delivering 100 cu. 
 ft. of free air compressed to 110 lbs. gage. Fig. 7 repi'esents the 
 cost when gas is used for fuel under the steam boilers, and Fig. 8 
 when using coal. The price of gas is taken as varying from 5 cts. 
 to 12 cts. a thousand cu. ft., and the price of coal from 70 cts. 
 a ton to $1.50 per ton. As a sample of what may be expected 
 from a compressor of approximately 1,200 cu. ft. capacity, of com- 
 pound noncondensing steam end with an economical valve gear 
 and two-stage air end, it might be stated that the steam consump- 
 tion per 100 cu. ft., compressed to 110 lbs. gage, is approximately 
 6.1 lbs of steam. 
 
 Comparative Costs of Compressing Air by Steam and Electricity. 
 The following data were given by "William Thompson before the 
 Canadian Mining Institute. The steam and electrically operated 
 compressed air plants, from which the information was gathered, 
 were located at Rossland, B. C, the power being used to operate 
 mines. 
 
 Steam Plant. The steam plant consisted of two 250 h.p. Heine 
 safety water tube boilers supplying steam at 150 lbs. pressure to 2 
 compound condensing Corliss 2-stage air compressors of the follow- 
 ing dimensions : 
 
 Diameter Inches 
 
 High press, steam cylinder 22 
 
 Low press, steam cylinder 36 
 
 High press, air cylinder 22 
 
 Low press, air cylinder, one compressor 36 
 
 Low press, air cylinder, other compressor 38 
 
 Length of stroke 48 
 
 In addition there were nine 125-h.p. steel shell tubular boilers, 
 designed to operate the hoisting and surface plants, which could be 
 connected if desirable. 
 
 EleotricaJli/ Driven Air Compressmg Plant was erected by the 
 Rossland Great Western Mines, Limited, and was originally in- 
 tended to be operated in connection with the steam plant previously 
 described, the intention being to supply power from a central sta- 
 tion to four mmes, owned by different companies. The arrange- 
 ment would have given each mine power at the lowest possible cost, 
 and have ensured continuous operations by reason of the com- 
 pressing plant being arranged in separate units. Each company 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1149 
 
 would pay its share of operation maintenance of plant, pro rata 
 to its consumption of air. 
 
 When it was found necessary to erect the third unit to the com- 
 pressing plant, unforeseen difficulties presented themselves in the 
 shape of shortage of water for condensing and cooling purposes. 
 On examination it was found that a satisfactory supply could not 
 be secured without heavy capital expenditures for erection of 
 flumes, etc., to convey the water to where it was required for use. 
 
 It was, however, found that a supply of water, barely sufficient 
 for the intercoolers and waterjackets, was available about % mile 
 from the steam plant. By conserving this water supply, cooling 
 and re-using, it was decided a sufficient supply of water for the 
 air cylinder jackets arid intercoolers could be secured. 
 
 Electrical Equipment. Three-phase, S.K.C., synchronous motor, 
 designed for 2,200 volts, with rated capacity of 660 kws., equiva- 
 lent to about 825 h.p. The motor is provided with a separate 
 starting motor, mounted on the main frame, exciter and Italian 
 marble switch-board, on which all operating switches and instru- 
 ments are mounted. 
 
 There is a 50-in. Frisbee clutch set intermediate between the 
 driving pulley and the motor. The motor is of a four bearing 
 type, fitted with self-aligning and self-oiling sleeves. The entire 
 machine is mounted upon a solid cast iron base set upon massive 
 concrete foundations. The driving pulley is 60 ins. in diameter, 
 grooved for 22V^-in. ropes, and runs at 270 r.p.m. 
 
 All tests were conducted under the personal supervision of the 
 writer, and extreme care was taken to arrive at actual facts. 
 Indicator diagrams were taken off both the steam and air cylinders 
 every half-hour, and the results tabulated. Coal consumed was 
 weighed, and all other supplies, such as waste, oil, etc., charged 
 as used. 
 
 Readings were also taken and recorded by means of a delicately 
 adjusted kw. meter, connected to the primary mains, of the amount 
 of electric power used. The test extended over a period of 30 
 days, without interruption, both plants being run under exactly 
 similar conditions as to air pressure. 
 
 Each of the plants tested being modern and representative of 
 their respective types, gave an opportunity for a comparative test 
 that rarely falls to the lot of an individual engineer under such 
 favorable conditions, as to work being performed, and for this rea- 
 son is the more valuable as data for basing calculations as to 
 problems of power. 
 
 The average results of the 30 days' test are recorded in Tables 
 XIV and XV. 
 
 The saving shown in Table XV would be affected adversely if 
 the electric plant was operated singly and the entire air com- 
 pressed was not used, for the reason that electrically driven 
 compres.sors must be operated at constant speed, and loss of air 
 at safety valve would be considerably increased over the same loss 
 at steam plant, which could be run at the speed required to com- 
 press the amount of air actually required. This loss would, how- 
 
1150 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XIV. OPERATING COSTS OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC 
 
 PLANTS 
 
 Work performed by steam plant : 
 
 Average indicated h.p. at steam cylinders of the 
 
 combined machines 730 
 
 Free air compressed per minute from atmospheric 
 
 pressure to 95 lbs. per sq. in., cu. ft 5,432 
 
 Free air compressed per hr 325,920 
 
 Average h.p. required at steam cylinders to com- 
 press 100 cu. ft. of air per min. to gauge pressure 13.4 
 
 Pounds of coal consumed during test, lbs 1,038,000 
 
 Pounds of coal consumed per day of 24 hours, lbs. . . 36,400 
 Average pounds of coal consumed per h.p. per hr. 
 
 during test 1.9 
 
 Work performed by electric plant : 
 
 Average h.p. registered at switchboard 540 
 
 Free air compressed per min. from atmospheric 
 
 pressure to 95 lbs. gauge pressure, cu. ft 3,319 
 
 Free air compressed per hour 199,140 
 
 Average h.p. required at motor to compress 100 cu. 
 
 ft. of free air per min. to 95 lbs. gauge pressure. . 16.3 
 
 Cost of operating steam plant: 
 
 Total cost of fuel consumed during test $2,880.45 
 
 Total cost of wages for employees 710.00 
 
 Total cost of oils, waste, etc 147.30 
 
 Total cost for 30 days, exclusive of maintenance 
 
 and depreciation $3,737.75 
 
 Cost per h.p. per month for fuel 3.96 
 
 Cost per h.p. per month for oil, etc 0.20 
 
 Cost per h.p. per month for wages 0.97 
 
 $5.13 
 
 Cost per h.p. per annum ) $61.56 
 
 Cost for each 100,000 cu. ft. of free air compressed 1-59 
 
 Cost per drill shift 1.27 
 
 Note: 80,000 cu. ft. taken as the average consumption per shift 
 of one 3% in. drill. 
 
 Cost of operating electric plant : 
 
 Cost of current for thirty days $1,744.26 
 
 Cost of employees' wages 270.00 
 
 Cost of oils, waste, etc 73.00 
 
 Total cost for 30 days, exclusive of maintenance 
 
 and depreciation $2,087.86 
 
 Average cost per h.p. per month 3.87 
 
 Average cost per h.p.. per annum 46.44 
 
 Cost for each 100 000 cu. ft. of air compressed. . . . 1.46 
 
 Cost per drill shift 1.17 
 
 Note — 80,000 cu. ft. taken as the average consumption per shift 
 of one 3% -in. drill. 
 
 TABLE XV. COMPARATIVE RESULTS BETWEEN THE TWO 
 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS 
 
 (Each 100,000 cu. ft. of air compressed from atmospheric pressure 
 to 95 lbs. receiver pressure.) 
 Cost for each 100,000 cubic ft. of free air compressed by steam 
 
 plant (Table XTV) » $1.56 
 
 Cost for each 100.000 cubic ft. of free air compressed by elec- 
 tric plant (Table XIV) 1.46 
 
 Result, saving by electricity over steam 6.4 per cent. 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1151 
 
 ever, be slightly offset by the Increased cost per h.p. by working 
 the steam compressors on underload. 
 
 Results obtained from the system of intercooling used on the 
 compressors tested are noteworthy. 
 
 In Table XIV it is shown that the steam plant required 13.4 
 h.p. to compress 100 cu. ft. of air to 95 lbs. gauge pressure per 
 min. The best power factor recorded that has come under the 
 writer's notice, for doing the same amount of work by a two-stage 
 compressor, is 14.5 h.p., which shows a saving of 8% resulting from 
 the use of specially designated intercoolers, for which the manu- 
 facturers are entitled to receive the credit. 
 
 How this result is obtained can be best understood by repro- 
 ducing the average of a number of tests made on the efficiency of 
 the intercooler during the progress of the power test. The results 
 of the tests are as follows : 
 
 Degs. P. 
 
 Temperature of cooling water at inlet of intercooler 42 
 
 Temperature of cooling water at outlet of intercooler 50 
 
 Rise in temperature of cooling water while passing through 
 
 intercooler 8 
 
 Temperature of air at outlet of low pressure cylinder and 
 
 before passing through intercooler 196 
 
 Temperature of air at inlet of high pressure cylinder after 
 
 passing through intercooler . 54 
 
 Reduction in temperature of air after passing through inter- 
 cooler 142 
 
 Cost of Compressing Air at a Large Plant in Utah. The fol- 
 lowing data on the cost of operating a large cross compound, 2-stage 
 compressor plant in Utah is given in a letter to the authors by 
 F. Charles Merry. Approximately one hundred million cu. ft. of 
 free air were compressed per month. 
 
 Power house labor: Per 1000 cu. ft. 
 
 At average Utah rates for 1914 $0.0052 
 
 Repair and maintenance labor 0.0012 
 
 Fuel (slack coal at average Utah prices) 0.0192 
 
 Other supplies 0.0019 
 
 Total operating cost $0.0275 
 
 Lbs. coal per 1000 cu. ft 9.33 
 
 The above is the average of 6 months' operation and represents 
 the be.st work done with the plant up to that time. 
 
 Panama Air Compressor Lubrication. The following report of 
 the use of lubricating oils in the three air-compressor plants of the 
 I.sthmian Canal Commission for the month of February, 1911, is 
 from a letter by D. E. Irwin published in Power. It shows the 
 number of revolutions, sq. ft. covered per pint of oil, output in 
 cu. ft. of air and the cost per million sq. ft. covered. 
 
 In the air-compressor plants at Empire, Las Cascadas and Rio 
 Grande were 14 compressors, each of 425 h.p. and all operating 
 at a steam pressure of 125 lbs. The engines were simple twin 
 cylinder ; the compressors were of the double-cylinder cross-com- 
 pound type. The area of the two steam cylinders was 9.42 sq. ft.; 
 
1152 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XIV. COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION AT PANAMA 
 
 Las Cay- Rio 
 
 Empire air cadas air Grande air 
 Oils used : compressor compressor compressor 
 
 Valve oil. gal 87 % 22 38 
 
 StatioiKiiy engine oil, gal.. 157% 35 60 
 
 Air oompiessor cylinder oil. 
 
 gal '. . . 8<% 23 45 
 
 Revolutions per gal. of valve 
 
 oil: 236,458 295,655 217,650 
 
 Revolution per gal. of sta- 
 tionary-engine oil 131,532 185,840 137,845 
 
 Revolutions per gal. of air- 
 compressor cylinder oil. 236,458 282.800 183,682 
 Sq. ft. covered per pint of 
 
 valve oil 1,041,107 1,392,597 1,025.122 
 
 Sq. ft. lovtred per pint of 
 air-compressor cylinder 
 
 oil 1.354,971 1.837.513 1.028,152 
 
 Cost per million sq.-ft. cov- 
 ered (surface) . 
 
 Valve oil $0.0234 $0 0175 $0,023? 
 
 Air-comi.ressor cylinder. . $0 0134 $0.0098 $0 0176 
 
 Output of free air, cu.-ft.. . 378,879,661 118,770,526 151,205,582 
 
 the area of the low-pressure air cylinders, 15.17 ; the area of 
 the high-pressure cylinders, ,9 42 sq. ft. The speed of these 
 compressors was from 127 to 137 r.p.m. 
 
 Efficiency of Compressed Air Transmission. Snowden B. Red- 
 field in American Machinist states that in nearly all cases com- 
 pressed air is used in some form of reciprocating cylinder without 
 expansion ; indeed if expansion were allowed (unless reheating is 
 resorted to) while the air could then give up more work, the mois- 
 ture always present in the air would quickly freeze, choking the 
 exhaust ports and passages of the machine with ice. 
 
 Efficiency Per Cent. 
 
 s^ 
 
 ssr^^isssss^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 g»o 
 
 
 
 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 »< 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ) 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 /. 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 i. 
 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 ^f 
 
 
 
 
 /i- 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 3. Probable efficiency referred to air end of compressor. 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1153 
 
 As examples of machines using air with little or no expansion, 
 rock drills and pneumatic tools may be cited, and some interesting 
 figures as to the efficiency of the power transformation are given 
 by the accompanying diagrams. 
 
 Indicator diagrams of such machines would theoretically be rec- 
 tangles, but wire drawing and cushioning effects of the valve 
 mechanism would considerably modify this. It may be assumed 
 then, reasoning from such a thing as a steam pump cylinder, with- 
 out cutoff, that the diagram factor will be about 80%. In other 
 words the actual mean effective pressure will be about 80% of 
 what the theoretic rectangular diagram would give. 
 
 On this basis it is determined that a standard rock drill having 
 a 3-in. diameter cylinder will develop about 6.2 indicated h.p. with 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 1 26 
 
 .|24 
 
 1 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ^o. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hi 
 
 f 
 
 S r 
 
 
 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 <; 
 
 N, 
 
 ^S 
 
 
 V 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~^ 
 
 ^\ 
 
 
 ^s^ 
 
 \^- 
 
 ■?n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^i^ 
 
 -?o^ 
 
 'ib>. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 :: 
 
 60 70 80 90 100 
 
 Gage Pressure at Drill 
 
 Fig. 4. Probable efficiency referred to steam end of compressor. 
 
 100 lbs. at the throttle, this decreasing with the pressure supplied, 
 down to about 3.7 i.h.p. with only 60 lbs. pressure. 
 
 A 3-in. rock drill will require about 138 cu. ft. of free air per 
 min., with 100 lbs. pressure at the throttle; this decreasing to 90 
 cu. ft., with only 60 lbs. pressure. 
 
 Knowing the quantity of air and the pressure, the compressor 
 h.p. is easily calculated. 
 
 Thus, allowing 10 lbs. pressure drop in the pipe, a 3-in. rock 
 drill will require 29.8 i.h.p. in the steam cylinders of the com- 
 pressor with 100 lbs. pressure and single-stage compression, or 
 25.2 i.h.p. with compound compression. These figures reduce as 
 the pressure used is reduced, but this, of course, reduces the work 
 done by the tool. 
 
 Comparing the probable i.h.p. developed inside the drill cylinder 
 with the actual compressor power required to furnish the air, gives 
 
1154 MECHANICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XV. SHOWING LOSS IN PRESSURE. IN POUNDS. DUE 
 
 TO FRICTION IN PIPES 100 FEET IN LENGTH — GAUGE 
 
 PRESSURE AT ENTRANCE TO PIPE, 75 LBS. 
 
 CUBIC FEET TREE AIR DELIVERED PER MINUTE 
 
 Diam. 
 
 pipe 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 
 
 1 .38 1.51 3.4 6.05 
 
 114 .11 .42 .95 1.69 
 
 IV2 ••• 16 .37 .65 1.02 1.46 2.6 
 
 2 ... .04 .08 .14 .22 .32 .56 .88 1.26 1.72 2.25 
 21/2 04 .07 .1 .17 .27 .39 .53 .69 
 
 3 04 .06 .1 .15 .2 .26 
 
 31/2 07 .09 .12 
 
 4 06 
 
 1^ ::: ::; ::: ;:: ::: ::: ::; ::: ;:: ::: ;:: 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 Diam. 
 pipe 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1500 1800 2000 2500 
 
 1 
 
 IV4. 
 
 1^ ;:: ::: ::: ::; ;:: ::; ;:; ::; ::: :;: ::: 
 
 2V2 1.08 1.55 2.11 2.76 
 
 3 .4 .58 .79 1.03 1.3 1.61 2.32 
 
 3V2 -18 .26 .36 .47 .59 .73 1.05 1.65 
 
 4 .09 .13 .18 .23 .29 .36 .52 .81 1.17 1.44 2.26 
 4V2 .05 .07 .1 .13 .16 .2 .29 .45 .65 .8 1.25 
 
 5 ... .04 .05 .07 .09 .11 .16 .25 .36 .44 .69 
 
 6 03 .04 .05 .06 .1 .15 .18 .28 
 
 7 02 .03 .05 .07 .08 .13 
 
 8 02 .03 .04 .06 
 
 10 01 .02 
 
 12 
 
 Diam. 
 pipe 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 
 
 1 ... 
 
 IV4 ... 
 
 IV2 
 
 2 
 
 2 ¥2 
 
 3 
 
 3 V, 
 
 4 
 
 41/. 1.81 
 
 5 1 
 
 6 .4 .55 .72 
 
 7 .18 .25 .32 .5 .73 
 
 8 ,09 .13 .16 .26 .37 .5 66 
 
 10 .03 .04 .05 .08 .12 .16 .21 .27 .33 
 
 12 .01 .02 .02 .03 .05 .07 .09 .11 .14 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1155 
 
 TABLE XVI. SHOWING LOSS IN PRESSURE, IN POUNDS, 
 
 DUE TO FRICTION IN PIPES 100 FEET IN LENGTH. 
 
 GAUGE I'RESSURE AT ENTRANCE TO PIPE, 
 
 90 LBS. 
 
 CUBIC FEET FREE AIR DELIVERED PER MINUTE 
 
 pipe 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 
 
 1 .33 1.3 2.93 5.19 ... 
 
 IVi .09 .36 .81 1.44 
 
 IVa ... .14 .31 .56 .87 125 2 23 ... 
 
 2 ... .03 .07 .12 .19 .27 .48 .76 1.09 1.48 1.94 
 21^ 04 .06 .08 .15 .23 .33 .45 ,59 
 
 3 03 .06 .09 .13 .17 .22 
 
 ZVi 06 .08 .1 
 
 4 05 
 
 4 1^ 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 L2 
 
 Diam. 
 pipe 500 600 700 800 900 fOOO 1200 1500 1800 2000 2500 
 
 1 
 
 ly* • 
 
 IV2 
 
 2 
 
 21/0 .92 1.33 1.81 2.36 
 
 3 " .35 .5 .68 89 1.12 1.39 2 
 
 3V, .16 .23 .3 .4 51 .63 .9 1.41 
 
 4 ■ .08 11 .15 2 .25 .31 .45 .7 1. 1.24 1.93 
 41/, 04 .06 08 .11 .14 .17 .25 .39 .56 .69 107 
 5' ... .04 .05 .06 ,08 .1 .14 .22 .32 .39 .61 
 
 6 02 .03 .04 .06 .09 .12 .15 .24 
 
 7 02 .03 04 .06 .07 .11 
 
 8 02 .03 .04 .06 
 
 10 =01 .02 
 
 L2 
 
 Diam. 
 
 pipe 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 
 
 1 
 
 IV4 •• 
 
 1 M. 
 
 2 
 
 2V2 
 
 3 
 
 314 
 
 4 
 
 414 1.54 
 
 5 " 88 • 
 
 6 .35 .47 .61 
 
 7 .16 .21 .28 .44 .63 
 
 8 .08 .11 .14 .22 .32 .43 .57 
 
 10 03 .03 .05 .07 .1 .14 .18 .23 .28 
 
 12 .01 .01 .02 .03 ,04 .05 .07 .09 .11 
 
1156 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XVII. SHOWING LOSS IN PRESSURE, IN POUNDS. 
 
 DUE TO FRICTION IN PIPES 100 FEET IN LENGTH. 
 
 GAUGE PRESSURE AT ENTRANCE TO PIPE, 
 
 100 LBS. 
 
 CUBIC FEET FREE AIR DELIVERED PER MINUTE 
 
 Diam. 
 
 pipe 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 
 
 1 .3 1.18 2.66 4.75 
 
 114 .08 .33 .73 1.3 
 
 11/2 ... .13 .29 .6 .8 1.15 2.04 
 
 2 ... .03 .07 .12 .18 .26 .47 .73 1.05 1.43 1.87 
 21/2 03 .05 .08 .14 .21 .31 .42 .54 
 
 3 03 .05 .08 .11 .15 .2 
 
 3% 05 .07 .09 
 
 4 05 
 
 4V2 -. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 . 
 
 Diam. ^ 
 
 pipe 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1500 1800 2000 2500 
 1 
 
 11/4 : 
 
 V^ :;: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ;:: ::: ::• 
 
 21/2 .85 1.22 1.66 2.17 
 
 3 .31 .45 .61 .8 1.01 1.25 1.8 
 
 31/2 -14 .21 .28 .37 .46 .57 .82 1.28 
 
 4 .07 .1 .14 .18 .23 .28 .41 .64 .92 1.13 1.77 
 41/2 .04 .06 .08 .1 .13 .16 .23 .35 .51 .63 .98 
 
 5 ... .03 .04 .06 .07 .09 .13 .2 .29 .36 .56 
 
 6 02 .03 .04 .05 .08 .11 .14 .22 
 
 7 02 .02 .04 .05 .06 .1 
 
 8 02 .33 .03 .05 
 
 10 01 .02 
 
 12 
 
 Diam. 
 
 pipe 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 
 
 1 
 
 1 Vt 
 
 1 V2 ... 
 
 2 
 
 2V2 
 
 3 
 
 3V2 
 
 4 
 
 4v> 1.41 : 
 
 5 .81 
 
 6 .32 .43 .56 
 
 7 .14 .2 .25 .4 .57 
 
 8 .07 .1 .13 .2 .29 .39 .51 
 
 10 .02 .03 .04 .06 .09 .13 .16 .21 .26 
 
 12 .01 .01 .02 .02 .04 .05 .06 .08 .1 
 
COMPRESSED AlR 1157 
 
 the probable efRciencies shown by the chart. These efficiencies are 
 referred to both the air and steam cylinders of the compressor, so 
 as to give a basis for calculations for various methods of driving 
 the compressor. They include 10 lbs. pressure drop in the pipe line. 
 
 Referred to the air end of the compressor, it is thus seen that 
 with single stage compression and 100 lbs. pressure, about 23.57o 
 efficiency is obtained, increasing to about 29% with the low pres- 
 sure of 60 lbs. Compound air connpression brings these figures up 
 to 27.8% with 100 lbs. and 31% with 70 lbs. 
 
 Referred to the steam end, allowing 88% mechanical efficiency 
 between the steam and air ends of the compressor, single-stage 
 compression gives a little less than 21% efficiency with 100 lbs. 
 and about 25.5% with 60 lbs. air pressure. Compounding the air 
 cylinders of the compressor increases these figures to about 24.5% 
 with 100 lbs. and almost 21%% with 70 lbs. air pressure. 
 
 While these figures for efficiency have been determined for rock 
 drills in particular, they apply equally well to almost any machine 
 using compressed air without expansion. It must, however, be 
 remembered that the figures are based upon i.h.p. only, both in the 
 drill and the compressor. This is because of the impracticability 
 of measuring the brake h.p. of the drill. If, however, brake h.p. 
 efficiency is required, these figures for efficiencies of i.h.p. can be 
 multiplied by the mechanical efficiency of the device using the air, 
 say 90% or 809c, as the case may be. This, of course, gives a still 
 smaller result. 
 
 It is to be noted that the higher efficiencies are obtained with 
 the lower pressures. This is because there is less loss by heating 
 the air during compression, and therefore it is advisable to use 
 pressures as low as is consistent with the size and weight of the 
 machine required to do a given amount of work. 
 
 Methods and Cost of Laying 6-in. and 8-in. Wrought-lron, Screw- 
 Joint Pipe for a Compressed Air iVIain. E. E. Harper in Engineer- 
 ing News, Feb. 27, 1908, states that the work consisted of laying 
 7.000 ft. of 8-in. and 4,000 ft. of 6-in. wrought-iron, screw-joint 
 pipe for a compressed air line carrying 80 to 90 lbs. pressure. 
 The w^ork was all performed by common labor, none of the men 
 being experienced in pipe laying. 
 
 The greatest cause of delay in laying screwed pipe is the diffi- 
 culty in getting each successive length of pipe into line and keep- 
 ing it there until the first threads take hold and the pipe begins to 
 screw together. To overcome this difficulty a cradle for supporting 
 the pipe at the joint, a jack for adjusting and supporting the 
 outer end of the pipe and a straight-edge for lining the pipe were 
 devised. The cradle holds the threaded end of the pipe in position 
 to enter the sleeve coupling on the last joint laid ; the jack allows 
 both v€«rtical and horizontal adjustment of the joint of pipe; and 
 the straight-edge shows when the pipe is in line ready to screw 
 together. The cradle was simJDly a wood block, 8 by 8 ins. by 
 24 ins. in length, with a groove having a 4-in. radius cut in its 
 top. The jack is shown by Fig. 5 and the straight-edge by Fig. 
 6. The movable block on the straight-edge is necessary because 
 
1158 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 it is almost impossible to make a 12-ft. straight-edge that will 
 remain true for more than a day. 
 
 These devices saved fully 50% over the crude and unsatisfactory 
 method of using blocks to hold the pipe in line. There was no 
 straining and lifting to hold the pipe in place, and as the pipes 
 were started together straight there were no stripped threads and 
 bad joints, and the pipe made up so easily that one man with a 
 pair of 3-ft. tongs often screwed an 8-in. pipe half way up;^it 
 was then completed by four men using two pairs of tongs with 
 8-ft. handles. 
 
 The threads, both male and female, were cleaned with wire 
 brushes. Dixon's pipe joint compound was used on all screwed 
 joints. Ring gaskets of Vie-in. Rainbow packing were used on 
 flange joints, the gasket being pasted to one flange with coal-tar 
 roofing paint, which held it in position while the joint was being 
 made. 
 
 /fad lined 
 
 ^Ki'O" z'^'^f'Pi'^ 
 
 Ha/rcf/e 
 
 Fig. 5. Jack for holding end of pipe. 
 
 Six-Inch Pipe Line. The total length of 6-in. pipe was 4,118 
 ft. The pipe was 6-in. lap welded casing weighing 15 lbs. per 
 lin. ft. It was laid with sleeve couplings, 11 1/^ threads per in., 
 with a flange union every 150 ft. and U-bends for expansion every 
 500 ft. The average length of joints was 20.1 ft. : an average 
 of 588.2 ft. of pipe or of 29.3 joints, was laid per 10-hr. day. The 
 best day's work was 1,065 ft., or 53 joints, with 6 men working 
 9 hrs., making 177.5 ft. per man; the poorest day's work was 120 
 ft., or 6 joints, by 6 men working ^V-^ hrs. The work was done 
 from Aug. 15 to 24, 1907, in fair weather except for one day when 
 the men worked 4 hrs. in rain and laid 22 joints. The men walked 
 21/^ to 3 miles to and from work. The average gang was: 4.85 
 men at 20 cts. per hr., 1 foreman at 30 cts. per hr., and 1 waterboy 
 at 10 cts. per hr. The cost of pipelaying was as follows per 100 ft. : 
 
 Items. Per 100 ft. 
 
 Clearing right of way $0,327 
 
 Hauling and distributing 1 578 
 
 Bloclcing to grade 0.116 
 
 Constructing bents 0.450 
 
 Anchors for U-bends 2.290 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1159 
 
 Items. Per 100 ft. 
 
 Painting- 0.900 
 
 Tools 0.100 
 
 Testing 0.300 
 
 Laying 3.137 
 
 Surveying and superintendence 0.700 
 
 Total $9,898 
 
 The total cost per ft. exclusive of cost of pipe was 9.89 8 cts., or, 
 say, 10 cts. The following notes explain the work included in the 
 various items : 
 
 £:nqf.-Confr 
 Fig. 6. Straight edge used in cementing the pipe. 
 
 Clearing. Removing small brush for a width of 10 ft. 
 
 Hauling. The average hauls was 3,000 ft. over bad roads, steep 
 and rough. This item includes loading pipe on cars and unloading, 
 hauling and distributing, including seven U-bends. Teams and 
 drivers got $3 per day. 
 
 Blocking. Includes temporary blocking and bending pipe in five 
 places by building fires on it. 
 
 Anchors for U-Bends. Includes 8 piers at $12 each, including 
 bolts and clamps. 
 
 Bent Construction. Includes carpenter work only on about 20 
 bents, averaging 3 ft. in height and made of 4 by 6-in. stuff. 
 
 Painting. Includes cost of painting and cleaning pipe with wire 
 brushes with paint costing $1 per gal. and labor at 20 cts. per hr. 
 The pipe was painted one coat 
 
 Tools. Includes shopwork and depreciation. 
 
 Eight-Inch Pipe Line. The total length of 8-in. pipe was 7,101 
 ft. The pipe was 8-in. O. D., lap-welded casing weighing 20 lbs. 
 per ft., laid with sleeve couplings, 11 1^ threads per in. The average 
 length of joints was 19.15 ft. There was a flange union every 
 150 ft. and U-bends for expansion every 600 ft. An aver- 
 age of 503.6 ft. was laid per day, of 10 hrs., or 26.3 joints. 
 The best day's work was 613 ft., or 32 joints, by 6 men, 
 including foreman; the poorest day's work was 380 ft., or 
 
1100 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 20 joints, by 7 men, including foreman. The work was done from 
 July 2 to Aug-. 5, 1907, the weather being hot and sultry, the 
 thermometer ranging from 85 degs. to 100 degs. and averaging 90 
 degs. in the shade. The average gang was: 5.9 men at 20 cts. per 
 hr., 1 foreman at 30 cts. per hr, and 1 waterboy at 10 cts. per hr. 
 The cost was as follows per 100 f t. : 
 
 Items. Per 100 ft 
 
 Surveying and superintendence $1,000 
 
 Laying 3.580 
 
 Clearing 0.187 
 
 Hauling and distributing 1.032 
 
 Blocking to grade 1.110 
 
 Constructing bents 1.069 
 
 Anchors for U-bends 2.535 
 
 Painting 1.200 
 
 Tools 0.102 
 
 Testing 0.388 
 
 Total cost of laying $12,203 
 
 Cost of pipe 76.400 
 
 Grand total cost $88,603 
 
 The total cost per ft., exclusive cost of pipe, was thus 12.2 cts., 
 and including cost of pipe 88.6 cts. The following notes explain 
 the work included in the various items : 
 
 Clearing. Removing small brush for a width of 10 ft. 
 
 Hauling. Includes 12 U-bends, which cost $1 each to haul; 
 teams and drivers 30 cts. per hr., laborers 20 cts. per hr., and 
 foreman 30 cts. per hr. 
 
 Bent Construction. Includes carpenter work only on about 80 
 bents of 4 by 6-in. stuff, spaced 30 ft. apart and ranging In height 
 from 1 ft. to 16 ft., averaging 6 ft. high. 
 
 Anchors for U-Bends. Includes 12 piers at $15 each, including 
 bolts and clamps. 
 
 Painting. Same as for 6-in. pipe. 
 
 Testing. Includes laying and connecting 200 ft. of 4-in. pipe to 
 pump line. Tested to 110 lbs. hydraulic pressure. Leaks developed. 
 in two tees in line and these were repaired, line tested again and 
 found tight. 
 
 Cost of Pipe. Cost f. o. b. McKeesport, Pa., $76 per 100 ft. 
 (ton) ; freight from McKeesport to Flat River 40 cts. per ton 
 (100 ft). 
 
 Profit in Reheating. The following data from Compressed Air 
 give the results of a test made in the shops of the Hansell Elcock 
 Co., Chicago, in driving 1.608 %-in. rivets. Half of these rivets 
 were driven using an ordinary air line, and half were driven using 
 heated air from a Sterling Heater. 
 
 A plain toggle portable yoke riveter was used. The compressor 
 cylinder was 10 ins. in diameter and 9% in. stroke. 
 
 An Excelsior Airometer was put in the line, at which point line 
 pressures and line temperatures were read. Twenty ft. of 1-in. 
 rubber hose was used between the airometer and the Sterling 
 heater. On the discharge side of the heater a gage and ther- 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1161 
 
 mometer were inserted for reading the temprature and pressure 
 of the heated air. Between the heater and the riveter 2714 ft. of 
 1-in. insulated flexible hose was used. The following shows the 
 results : 
 
 Without With 
 
 heater heater 
 
 Number of rivets 804 804 
 
 Ave. temp, of line air 57.5 deg. 60.0 deg. 
 
 Average pressui'e, lbs .*. . 85 85 
 
 Total cu. ft. air used 14,874 8,513 
 
 Ave. temi). of heated air 39 6 deg. 
 
 Cu. ft. air used per rivet 18.5 10.58 
 
 This difference in air used per rivet equals 7.92 cu. ft. or an 
 increase in volume of 74.7%. This increase equals an actual saving 
 in air used of 42.7%, 
 
 Assuming 1,500 rivets per day, the actual air saving equals 
 11,880 cu. ft. At 8 cts. per 1,000 cu. ft. this saving equals 95 cts., 
 the cost of operating the heater equals 1 gal. oil at 10 cts. plus 8 
 cts. for ignition current equals 18 cts., total, a net saving of 77 
 cts. per day. This saving 6 days per week would pay for the 
 heater in one year and leave a profit of $156. 
 
 The cu. ft. of air given were actual airometer readings. On ac- 
 count of the intermittent service the heated air temperatures are 
 not quite high enough. The actual temperature of the air supplied 
 to the riveter was about 15% in excess to the heated air tempera- 
 tures shown in the table. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. AIR USED IN CUBIC FEET FREE AIR PER 
 
 MINUTE PER INDICATED HORSE-POWER IN 
 
 MOTORS WITHOUT REHEATING 
 
 (From Hiscox's Compressed Air) 
 Point 
 
 of Gauge pressures in pounds 
 
 cut-off 40 
 
 1 21.3 
 
 % 171 
 
 % 16.2 
 
 V2 14 5 
 
 Vs 15.2 
 
 V4. 15.6 
 
 Air Used pep Motor Horsepower. As will be seen from Table 
 XVIII, the only data required are the gauge pressure and point of 
 cut-off ; given those two items, we find from the table the free air 
 required per i.h.p., and it will only be necessary to multiply this 
 amount by the total i.h.p. of the motor to determine the total quan- 
 tity of free air required, and consequently the necessary size of an 
 air compressor to furnish the required amount of air. 
 
 These figures do not take account of clearance, but it will be an 
 easy matter to add the per cent, of clearance after having deter- 
 mined the total amount of free air required. 
 
 It will also be notice that the free air consumption is based upon 
 the use of cold air, i. e., initial temperature of air at 60 degs. F. 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 125 
 
 150 
 
 19.4 
 
 18.42 
 
 17.8 
 
 17.40 
 
 17 05 
 
 15.47 
 
 14.6 
 
 14.15 
 
 13.78 
 
 13.50 
 
 14.50 
 
 13.75 
 
 13.28 
 
 12.90 
 
 12.60 
 
 128 
 
 11.93 
 
 11.48 
 
 11.10 
 
 10.85 
 
 11.85 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.21 
 
 9.78 
 
 9.50 
 
 13.3 
 
 10.72 
 
 10.0 
 
 9.42 
 
 9.10 
 
1162 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 In case reheating is resorted to there will be a corresponding de- 
 crease in the amount used, dependent upon the temperature of 
 air on admission to motor, and will be proportional to the ratio 
 
 ^ To 
 
 where T2= 460 + 60 = 520 degs. F. absolute temperature and 
 
 Ts 
 
 Ts = 460 plus temperature of air at admission to motor. 
 
 Thus, if the air is reheated to 300 degs. F., the quantity in the 
 table will have to be multiplied by 
 
 460 + 60 520 
 460 + 300 ~ 760 
 
 .684 
 
 A further use of this table is to find the most economical point 
 of cut-off for gauge pressures from 30 lbs. to 150 lbs. per sq. in. 
 This fact is apparent from a study of each vertical column ; thus, 
 at 60 lbs. pressure the lowest consumption of free air per i.h.p. is 
 at Vs cut-off, while at 40 lbs. pressure the most economical cut-off 
 will be 1/^. 
 
 To find the quantity of free air required per min., in a direct 
 acting steam pump, to raise a given number of gals, of water 
 through a given head, divide the diameter of the air cylinder by 
 the diameter of the water cylinder, and under the heading of this 
 ratio in above table, and to the right of the given head or lift, find 
 
 TABLE XIX. VOLUME OF AIR AND PRESSURE REQUIRED 
 TO DRIVE DIRECT ACTING STEAM PUMPS. (From His- 
 cox's Compressed Air) 
 
 Gauge pressure in pounds 
 per square inch 
 
 Ratio of cylinder diameters 
 Head of 1 IVa 2 21/2 3 
 water to to to to to 
 in feet 11111 
 
 Cubic feet of free air per 
 
 minute to lift one gallon 
 
 of water 
 
 Ratio of cylinder diameters 
 
 1 iy2 2 21/2 3 
 
 to to to to ■ to 
 
 11111 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 .22 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 .28 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 .33 
 
 .53 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 .38 
 
 .58 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 .44 
 
 .65 
 
 .94 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 31 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 .49 
 
 .70 
 
 .99 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 .54 
 
 .75 
 
 1.03 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 .61 
 
 .79 
 
 1.11 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 47 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 .66 
 
 .87 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 52 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 .72 
 
 .91 
 
 1.20 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 65 
 
 29 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 
 .86 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.67 
 
 
 150 
 
 78 
 
 35 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.88 
 
 2.31 
 
 175 
 
 90 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.63 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.40 
 
 200 
 
 105 
 
 46 
 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.60 
 
 250 
 
 
 58 
 
 33 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.06 
 
 2.41 
 
 2.89 
 
 300 
 
 
 68 
 
 39 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.68 
 
 3.08 
 
 350 
 
 
 80 
 
 45 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 
 2.28 
 
 2.57 
 
 2.95 
 
 3.37 
 
 400 
 
 
 92 
 
 52 
 
 33 
 
 23 
 
 
 2.57 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.22 
 
 3.66 
 
 450 
 
 '.'.'. 105 
 
 58 
 
 37 
 
 26 
 
 
 2.88 
 
 3.13 
 
 3.48 
 
 3.95 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 42 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 3.42 
 
 3.82 
 
 4.24 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 50 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.35 
 
 4.80 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 60 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 4.58 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.50 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 67 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 5.15 
 
 5.50 
 
 5.96 
 
 900 
 LOCO 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 85 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 
 6.00 
 6.70 
 
 6.45 
 7.00 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1163 
 
 the cu, ft. of free air per gal. required per min. ; this constant, 
 multiplied by the total number of gals, to be lifted, will give the 
 quantity of free air required. The gauge pressure for the corre- 
 sponding conditions may be found in a similar manner under the 
 heading of gauge pressures. 
 
 In the foregoing table of pressures an allowance of 15% has 
 been made for pump friction, and in the table of volumes 15% has 
 also been allowed for clearance losses and leakage. If the air is 
 reheated before admission to air cylinder, the quantity may be 
 reduced in proportion to the ratio of absolute temperatures. For 
 
 TABLE XX. 
 
 AIR CONSUMPTION OP VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL 
 TOOLS AND MACHINES 
 
 Tools 
 
 Size 
 
 Pressure in lbs. 
 
 Air cont^umeu, 
 free air per 
 
 
 
 per sq. in. 
 
 min. (cu. ft.) 
 
 Aerons 
 
 Small hand. 
 
 
 
 (paint sprays) 
 
 lbs. 
 
 90 
 
 2-3 
 
 
 5 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 
 7 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 90 
 
 12 
 
 Chipping 
 
 9 
 
 90 
 
 13 
 
 hammers 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 15 
 
 classed 
 
 11 
 
 90 
 
 17 
 
 by weight 
 
 12 
 
 90 
 
 18 
 
 
 13 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 
 18 
 
 90 
 
 22 
 
 Foundry 
 
 
 
 Air per ton 
 
 jolting 
 
 Platform 
 
 
 lifting capacity 
 
 machines 
 
 type 
 
 80 
 
 30-40 
 
 Grinders 
 
 
 
 
 (hand) 
 
 20 lbs. 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 
 (Cylinder 
 
 
 (Air in cu. ft. 
 
 Hoists 
 
 diam. inch) 
 
 
 per ft. lift) 
 
 direct lift 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 .79 
 
 (2 to 1 lift) 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 1.45 
 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 2.15 
 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 
 3.31 
 
 
 14 
 
 80 
 
 4.65 
 
 
 17 
 
 80 
 
 6.6 
 
 « 
 
 19 
 
 80 
 
 8.1 
 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 .39 
 
 Hoists 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 .72 
 
 (4 to 1 lift) 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 1.52 
 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 
 1.65 
 
 
 14 
 
 80 
 
 2.37 
 
 
 17 
 
 80 
 
 3.30 
 
 
 19 
 
 80 
 
 4.05 
 
 Geared 
 
 (Tons) 
 
 
 
 hoists 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 capacity 
 
 iy2 
 
 80 
 
 5 
 
 in tons 
 
 2 
 
 80 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 8 
 
 
 4 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 15 
 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 
 121/2 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 Air consumption is shown in terms of " Free Air,' 
 
1164 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 compound pumps the consumption may be assumed at 75% of the 
 best results of the above table. 
 
 Air and Power Requirements of Pneumatic Hammers. In Ta- 
 bles XXI and XXII are given the actual cu. ft. of free air required 
 per min. and the power to operate from one to fifty pneumatic 
 hammers of the cylinder diameters and strokes shown. The quan- 
 tities of free air for one tool have been obtained by careful ex- 
 perimenters with special water-displacement apparatus, and being 
 the averages of a great many readings, may be taken as accurate 
 and fairly representative for most tools of similar dimensions. The 
 figures for more than one tool were obtained by deducting 2% for 
 every five tools ; that is, five chipping hammers are assumed to 
 require 4.8 times as much air as one chipping hammer of equal 
 size. Ten hammers are assumed to require 9.6 times as much 
 as one hammer, and so on. This is to allow for the intermittent 
 action of different tools in a shop, and this basis of calculation 
 agrees very nicely with observed shop practice. 
 
 Figures for air are for 80 lbs. pressure at sea level, and are 
 based on ordinary intermittent service as is usual in any shop. 
 Ratings for one hammer are actual readings from water displace- 
 ment tests, being averages of many trials. 
 
 Horsepower figures assume compound air compression to 85 
 lbs. pressure and include friction. For single stage compression 
 to 85 lbs. add 15'7c to power figures. Compressor displacement re- 
 quired should include volumetric loss as figures are for actual 
 air delivered. 
 
 The quantities of air, as shown by the larger figures in the 
 table, are actual cu. ft. of free air required at atmospherice pres- 
 sure at sea level, this air being delivered to the tool at 80 lbs. 
 pressure. The figures for h.p., which are the smaller figures in 
 the table, assume compound -compression to 85 lbs. pressure; that 
 is, allowing 5 lbs. drop in the pipe line. The figures for power 
 also include reasonable friction of the compressor and the usual 
 losses of power in the air cylinder of an air compressor of rea- 
 sonably good design. They would represent just about the brake 
 h.p. required from an electric motor to drive a compressor ac- 
 tually delivering the quantity of air given by the large figures 
 above them. 
 
 This brings up the point of the volumetric efficiency of the com- 
 pressor. As the quantities shown were obtained by actual meas- 
 urement of air used, it is imperative that the output of the com- 
 pressor shall be equal to this. To allow for volumetric efficiency 
 loss, this necessitates that the piston displacement of the com- 
 pressor shall be greater than these figures by from 8 to 12%, de- 
 pending upon its design. The figures for power required include 
 this loss, as they represent the power necessary to actually deliver 
 the quantities of air shown as the actual output of the compressor. 
 
 In cases where single-stage compression is used the power re- 
 quired may be obtained by adding about 15% to the power figures 
 given. This, of course, has no effect upon the air quantity. 
 
 It has been stated that these figures are for sea-level operation. 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1165 
 
 
 
 ooooo 
 
 000 
 
 a; bfl 
 
 
 
 
 
 U5 
 
 
 rt<t-05^ce 
 
 
 CO 00 CO 
 
 1 <a 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 00 O 00 o 
 
 W 'T'C^a 
 
 .H c 
 
 
 
 
 OCO-'i^COOO 
 
 
 rJfcOOO 
 
 c-o 
 
 US 
 
 
 USCOOOXJO 
 
 CO'i^iO 
 
 
 
 
 
 tH T-l l-t I-l t-l 
 
 
 (Mi^M 
 
 K^ 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 T-tiHiH 
 
 C 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S <l> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 C^ t- OO 'M CO 
 
 OOOO-M 
 
 
 
 U3 
 
 
 COt^t-T-l(M 
 
 
 t>C-lH 
 
 U5 
 
 
 l-H r-l CO T-l 'M 
 
 1-4 MO 
 
 
 
 •* 
 
 
 (35l-(COU5C- 
 
 
 Mr*- CO 
 
 
 •* 
 
 
 lOCOC-OOOS 
 
 eq srt< 
 
 
 
 
 
 T-lrHiHrH 
 
 
 (MCCKM 
 
 . 3 
 
 
 
 
 1-liHrH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 2 
 
 O-C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■pi m 
 
 
 
 Oi-H 5^050 
 
 OiOt- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oo«r>irtooco 
 
 
 CO 10 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 C-t-t-CO^ 
 
 Oi-IC- 
 
 
 
 T}< 
 
 
 00 -M CO in 
 
 
 ooico 
 
 rt» 
 
 
 "^lococ-t- 
 
 i-CMCq 
 
 s ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 .HiHiHt-1 
 
 
 (MCslIM 
 
 
 
 
 ,-1 c^i eg M CO 
 
 iHt-|i-H 
 CO-^'** 
 
 S !h 
 
 
 
 
 U3 
 
 
 OsWfMCOO 
 
 
 \aoi<n 
 
 \a 
 
 
 (M r-l O CO U5 
 
 a>oo-t< 
 
 — ■ m 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 t^ 05 1-1 M -*i 
 
 
 (X)Ot-I 
 
 CO 
 
 
 Tt<io«ocot- 
 
 OiOrH 
 
 rs^i! 
 
 
 
 
 j-llHiH 
 
 
 tHiM«-5 
 
 
 
 
 T-lrH 
 
 s- d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c S 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^^ 
 
 
 
 O Ci C30 r-lO 
 
 lOOCO 
 
 S?3 
 
 OS 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 O5-*00 00 00 
 
 
 c-it-t- 
 
 s 2 
 
 o 
 
 
 t- -rt- 'M 00 CO 
 
 t-lrtO 
 
 i: 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 coooa5oc<j 
 
 
 cot-00 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 n-^\a\a^ 
 
 OOOiO 
 
 -^z 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 iHrH 
 
 
 tHi-ItH 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 p:; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ..; 02 
 
 U5 
 
 
 IrtJOOlflO 
 
 cooirt 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 U5 
 
 
 OJtH-^CvIIO 
 
 
 OOtHOJ 
 
 la 
 
 
 1-1 00 Ift Oi CO 
 
 '4'l-llft 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 10C-00 05O 
 
 
 COU5U5 
 
 
 
 COCOTt<^US 
 
 OOOOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 tHiHtH 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 
 
 S Zj 
 03 
 
 
 tf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00C0 00K5O 
 
 t-MCi 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 OOOOCTilrtCO 
 
 
 00 COO 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 IftiHCOOCO 
 
 OCOOi 
 
 
 tH 
 
 IM 
 
 
 -tJHUSCOC-OO 
 
 
 iHiMCO 
 
 s ^ 
 
 l?<l 
 
 
 C^lcvOCO^-* 
 
 CO CO CD 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 tHtHt-I 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^- ,D 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 s^- 
 
 
 
 t- O 'M O CO 
 
 000 CO 
 
 IS 
 
 
 w 
 
 kfl 
 
 
 t- Irt iM 00 CO 
 
 
 t-LOO 
 
 2^^^ 
 
 U5 
 
 
 Oi-f OO^IO 
 
 cooco 
 
 ■u S 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 co-*mLOco 
 
 
 oooio 
 
 2"^ S 
 
 tH 
 
 
 iH C<1 M CO CO 
 
 •*»au5 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 §>•- 
 
 
 
 
 
 «3g 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > — ' 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <3i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■*eo<M.HO 
 
 OCOU5 
 
 
 § 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 mococjiin 
 
 
 05^00 
 
 o 
 
 
 00 CO 35 iH-* 
 
 r-l-^CO 
 
 <D «, 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 Cs) CO CO CO ■* 
 
 
 K5COCO 
 
 I— I 
 
 
 T-li-lrH(MC<I 
 
 soooeo 
 
 S 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *^ c^S 
 
 
 
 OiOOOOOOCO 
 
 CI CO CO 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 CO CO 00 CO 
 
 
 OcOlrt 
 
 i-l 
 
 s._ 
 
 lO 
 
 
 CO 1-1 a> o <?■! 
 
 cot- 00 
 
 Si''"' 
 
 
 
 
 THiHiHc^iea 
 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 £^^ 
 
 
 
 rHi-l 
 
 iHiHiH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 ■<*<t-0'MU5 
 
 eocooo 
 
 II 
 
 2"^ 
 
 
 >5 
 'A 
 
 
 
 CO (M t- iH t- 
 
 
 iHC-r-j 
 
 rt t, 
 
 
 rH rH ?>] CO 5<l 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 0-i 00 CO Tt< -^ 
 
 
 CDCOC-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7. „ 
 73 °c M 
 
 
 
 : : : : : 
 
 : : : 
 
 Oi 
 
 M 
 ^ 
 
 <3i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73 •^ 3 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 : M M W !» 
 
 S .£ .£ .S .2 
 
 W 73* 72 
 
 CSS 
 
 C« 7i 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 S 03 73 73" 73" 
 
 .£ .£ .£ .S 
 
 
 73 m 72" 
 S S S 
 
 1%^ 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 1 
 72 
 
 _^ ^ 1^1 CO ■* U3 
 ■„ >> -►, ^ -'< >J 
 
 CO 00 OS 
 
 .^>> 
 I'i 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 <t-i 
 
 
 u 
 
 % 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 ^ '^ C-I 00 -+< IfS 
 
 m 
 a! 
 
 s 
 
 CO 00 05 
 
 <g|s 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 t< 73 73 73 73' 73 
 
 m 73' 'A 
 
 -2.S 
 
 s 
 
 4-1 
 
 
 £ 
 
 03 
 
 73 . 
 
 ;h ^ 73 73 '/. 73 
 
 s 
 S 
 
 X3X!.S 
 03 03 72" 
 
 P: 
 
 
 5.S.S.S.S.S 
 
 s s s 
 
 ?^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ;S 
 
 a> c c S C S 
 
 ,S 
 
 s s s 
 
 3 
 
 k5 
 
 
 
 
 .Is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2^;:^;^;^;^ 
 
 
 73- 
 
 0) 
 
 cuo 
 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 
 S 
 
 2 C£ 2 
 CO-?:'- CO" 
 
 0, (D t< 
 
 iio 
 
 
 1 
 
 e 
 
 ^^iHi-li-liH 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 0) 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 's, 
 
 2 iH iH T-l r-4 r-l 
 
 > 
 
 7-1 T-l iH 
 
1166 MECHANICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 This will be satisfactory for most localities, but at 5,000 ft. eleva- 
 tion 17% more free air capacity will be required and about 7% more 
 h.p. for the same size and number of tools. These increases are 
 practically proportional to the altitude. (S. B. R., in American 
 Machinist. ) 
 
 Compressed Air and Pneumatic Tools in the Foundry. W. H. 
 Armstrong in Compressed Air iNIagazine, June, 1913, says that 
 of the various pneumatic apparatus in the foundry it may perhaps 
 be proper to speak first of the air hoist, as that is used in so many 
 places and for such a variety of service throughout the works. 
 
 The most common types of air hoists are simple cylinders lifting 
 direct or horizontal cylinders with or without multiplying shieves 
 to reduce the length. The motor geared type of hoist is being 
 largely adopted for much of the service where the single cylinders 
 have been used, and especially for heavy traveling on jib cranes. 
 Hoists of either type may often be applied to hand power cranes 
 already in use without in the least interfering with the existing 
 gearing, and at small expense. In the air hoist the power is ap- 
 plied to the load in the most direct and simplest manner. With 
 this aid a boy can lift a given load a dozen times while a gang 
 of men would be operating a chain block or a windlass. There is 
 no noise, no jar and the load is always sustained. In foundries 
 where an overhead traveler cannot be installed, air hoists suspended 
 from trolleys running on a track are very satisfactory. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. COST OF PNEUMATIC HOISTING 
 
 
 Effective 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Cu. ft. of 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Diam. of 
 
 area of 
 
 weight 
 
 free air per 
 
 air per 
 
 of cyl. 
 
 piston 
 
 lifted 
 
 4 -ft. lift 
 
 100 lifts 
 
 2 
 
 3.05 
 
 274 ■ 
 
 0.74 
 
 $0.0037 
 
 3 
 
 6.87 
 
 618 
 
 1.67 
 
 .0084 
 
 4 
 
 19 '>2 
 
 1099 
 
 2.97 
 
 .0149 
 
 5 
 
 19109 
 
 1718 
 
 4.64 
 
 .0232 
 
 6 
 
 27.49 
 
 2444 
 
 6.68 
 
 .0334 
 
 7 
 
 37.42 
 
 3367 
 
 9.09 
 
 .0455 
 
 8 
 
 48.87 
 
 4398 
 
 11.88 
 
 .0594 
 
 9 
 
 61.85 
 
 5566 
 
 15.03 
 
 .0752 
 
 10 
 
 76.36 
 
 6872 
 
 18.56 
 
 .0928 
 
 11 
 
 92.39 
 
 8315 
 
 22.46 
 
 .1123 
 
 12 
 
 109.96 
 
 9896 
 
 26.73 
 
 .1337 
 
 Cost of Air Hoisting. Few realize how cheaply an air hoist is 
 operated, besides its convenience and speed in handling loads. 
 Table XXIII. compiled by Frank Richards, managing editor of 
 Compressed Air Magazine, requires no explanation. He estimates 
 as the basis of the table that compressed air can be furnished for 
 industrial purposes at 100 lbs. pressure at a cost of 5 cts. per 
 1,000 cu. ft. of free air. It appears from this table that a hoist 
 with a cylinder 6 in. diameter, with a piston rod 1 in. diameter 
 and a lift of 4 ft., using air at 90 lb. pressure and allowing 30% 
 additional to cover all contingencies, including the taking up of 
 the slack of the hoisting chain, will lift more than a ton to a 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1167 
 
 height of 4 ft. at a cost of $0.00035. A hundred of such lifts will 
 thus be made, of course, for $0,035. 
 
 Molding Machines. The molding machine now holds a promi- 
 nent and most important position among labor saving devices in 
 the foundry, increasing the output and improving the grade of the 
 products. 
 
 The degree of efficiency and the speed of operation depend upon 
 the selection of the proper machine, and then upon the personality 
 of the operator. Molding machines are so designed as to be oper- 
 ated with air at a pressure of 60 to 80 lbs. 
 
 The Sand Rammer. The sand rammer seems to come next in the 
 order of consideration among the pneumatic tools of the foundry. 
 Due to the marked improvements that have been made in the con- 
 struction of this device, which tend to lessen the shock on the 
 operator, and the education of the operators in the proper way to 
 handle them, it has made a permanent place for itself, even a'gainst 
 strong opposition, on the grounds of economy, lower production cost, 
 larger output and improved quality of product which follow its use, 
 and the adoption has become more general. 
 
 The pneumatic rammer does much more than merely to supply 
 the power for the work. It also changes the character of the 
 ramming and gives the operator a variety of execution in the 
 ramming which his muscles, at the best, could not command. The 
 force, the direction, and especially the rapidity of the blows are 
 so completely under the control of the operator that we might 
 compare the manipulation of the rammer to the playing of a musical 
 instrument. It relieves the molder of the most fatiguing detail of 
 his work. 
 
 The pneumatic bench rammer is a very handy tool as an auxiliary 
 to the larger rammer. This rammer is very satisfactory for ram- 
 ming a shelving pattern where the construction is such that it is 
 difficult to ram under it with the larger tool. The bench rammer 
 has been found practically indispensable for work of this nature. 
 
 TIME IN PEINING AND RAMMING 
 
 Size of cope Hand 
 
 12 ft. by 18 ins. by 4 ins. 
 
 12 ft. by 18 ins. by 10 ins. 
 
 6 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 ins. 
 
 6 ft. by 6 ft. by 8 ins. 
 8 ft. by 6 ins. by 6 ins. 
 
 7 ft. by 3 ft. by 12 ins. 1 " 30 min. 
 15 ft. by 30 ins. bv 16 ins. 
 12 ft. by 7 ft. by 16 ins. 2 " 12 min. 
 87 ins. by 159 ins. by 10 ins. 
 19 ft. by 90 ins. by 15 ins. 
 
 Pneumatic Hammers, Drills, Etc. The value of the pneumatic 
 chipping hammer in a foundr-y, as a saver of time and labor, is 
 so universally conceded that the time has passed when it is deemed 
 necessary to submit comparative figures, e.specially as much de- 
 pends upon the conditions of operation and efficiency of the air 
 
 5 
 
 min. 
 
 10 
 
 " 
 
 20 
 
 " 
 
 35 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 hr. 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 hrs. 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 
 Time 
 
 Sand 
 
 saved, 
 
 rammer 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1 min. 
 
 80 
 
 IV2 " 
 
 85 
 
 3 
 
 85 
 
 8 " 
 
 77 
 
 10 " 
 
 83 
 
 16 " 
 
 82 
 
 27 
 
 77 
 
 34 " 
 
 74 
 
 40 
 
 83 
 
 1 hr. 30 
 
 min. 81 
 
1168 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 plant. Suffice it to say that for all classes of chipping in foundry 
 work, such as chipping fins off castings, cutting gates, risers, but- 
 tons oft anchors, and general trimming, one man with one hammer 
 of the proper size will do as much work as three or four men 
 chipping by hand. These tools are made in different sizes, with 
 piston strokes of 1 to 5 ins., to meet different conditions. It is 
 important that the proper size tool should be selected for the 
 work, to insure the best results, the short stroke tools begin in- 
 tended for the lighter work, requiring a light and very rapid blow, 
 the longer stroke tools for the heavier work, requiring a heavy and 
 slower blow. The medium sizes, with 2 and 3-in, piston stroke, 
 are the sizes most generally used for foundry work. 
 
 The rotating air drill is another very familiar labor-saving 
 device, though its field of usefulness in a foundry is somewhat 
 limited. It is more particularly a general shop tool, possessing 
 a very wide range for drilling, reaming, tapping, flue rolling, run- 
 ning in stay bolts, studs, and other applications seemingly limit- 
 less. It has established itself next to the pneumatic hammer as 
 a most generally used air tool. 
 
 Like the other pneumatic devices for foundry use the sand sifter 
 also proves to be a time and labor and cost saver. The saving ef- 
 fected has been figured out as follows : 
 
 Including the cost of air, based on an efficient compressor in- 
 stallation, and figuring generally at 3 cts. per hr. for maintenance of 
 sifter, compressor, pipe line, hose couplings, etc., and also including 
 labor at 15 cts. per hr., the cost would be 27 cts. per hr. "When 
 you consider that one man with one machine will screen in one 
 hour as much sand as a man would riddle by hand in one day, 
 and basing his time at $1.50 per day, you will see Lhat you effect 
 by the use of the machine a saving of $1.23 in one hr. 
 
 The air torch has been found a great time and labor saver, 
 being used for skin-drying copes, molds, etc., for heating ladles, 
 lighting cupolas and in casting repairing processes. 
 
 The air nozzle for blowing blacking on molds, cores, etc., is also 
 a universal favorite. This device is in the shape of a T, made of 
 about 14 in. pipe with the discharge end bushed to about % in. 
 The air is connected so as to cross the top of the T. A short sec- 
 tion of hose which goes to the receptacle holding the blacking is 
 connected to the stem of the T, and as the air is blown through 
 the top of the T it siphons the blacking and blows it in a spray 
 over the work, reaching and covering every corner and crevice. 
 
 Cleaning Castings — The Sand Blast. There is hardly any opera- 
 tion of the foundry of greater importance, and which contributes 
 more to a satisfactory factory product, than the proper and thor- 
 ough cleaning of castings. It has been an operation requiring time 
 and patience, and involving heavy expense. The cleaning of cast- 
 ings is a subject that has been given unusual attention, being fol- 
 lo\Ved by experiments with various and sundry methods and devices 
 for the successful and economical accomplishment of the desired 
 results, including brushing, tumbling, pickling, blowing, etc. These 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1169 
 
 methods have each shown marked advantages as applied to par- 
 ticular classes of work, but as a commercial proposition for all 
 classes of castings, large, medium and small, steel, iron, aluminum 
 and brass, the solution has been found in the sand blast, and here 
 again, compressed air plays a most important part and shows its 
 superiority over other actuating powers for general foundry work. 
 
 There are many makes, styles and kinds of sand blast apparatus 
 on the market, and superior points are claimed by the manufac- 
 turers for each, some advocating the use of air under high pres- 
 sure, and others under low pressure. The proper air pressure for 
 sand blasting as applied to particular classes of work, has been 
 the subject of much discussion among foundrymen and also sand 
 blast manufacturers, and numerous theories have been expressed 
 through the trade journals. There have also been a number of 
 tests conducted on different classes of work, with varying air 
 pressures, and the consensus of opinion as expressed in the reports 
 of these various tests, at least so many of them as it has been the 
 writer's privilege to read, seems to favor the high pressure blast 
 for all classes of work. It is conceded that the volume of air 
 required is governed by the size of the opening in the sand blast 
 nozzle, and the pressure maintained, based on the standard flow 
 of air at a given pressure through a given size orifice. Therefore, 
 the higher the pressure, the greater the volume of air used, but 
 the amount and quality of work done increases correspondingly 
 without added labor costs. It has been proven in these tests that 
 twice as much work can be done at 50 lbs. pressure as at 20 lbs., 
 at 64 lbs. as at 30 lbs., and at 72 lbs. as at 40 lbs. It has also 
 been shown that for gray iron and malleable castings they can be 
 cleaned best and quickest with an air pressure of 80 lbs. — brass 
 and aluminum castings at not lower than 60 lbs., while for steel 
 castings, the hardest to clean, not less than 90 lbs. The character 
 of the material and its ability to withstand the impact of the 
 sand will determine the pressure adaptable. 
 
 As a result of a very thorough test of the economy of sand blast 
 cleaning, conducted by one of our leading technical schools, in 
 collaboration with one of our largest steel foundries, I am able to 
 give in tabulated form data showing that the total cost per ton 
 for cleaning castings, with a modern high pressure sand blast, is 
 less than $0.80. This is figured on a basis of an equipment valued 
 at $4,000 and including interest at 6%, and depreciation 10%; 
 also power for exhaust system. 
 
 Air pressure generated 97.5 
 
 Air pressure at blast, lbs 80 
 
 H.p. for air 53 
 
 Interest and depreciation $.0307 
 
 Maintenance, air $.105 
 
 Maintenance, sand $.279 
 
 Power for exhaust fan .0577 
 
 Nozzle 0104 
 
 Total 4828 
 
 Labor 316 
 
 Total 7988 
 
1170 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Compressed Air in General Machinery Work. The reader is 
 referred to Compressed Air for the Metal Worker, by C. A. 
 Hirschberg, published by the McGraw-Hill Book Co. of New York, 
 N. Y.. for a very detailed discussion of this subject. 
 
 Pneumatic Tool Costs in Sliipbuiiding. (Chas. Schofleld in Com- 
 pressed Air, Nov., 1906.) It was some time before the men 
 using pneumatic tools could be prevailed up to admit that there 
 was sufficient benefit derived from their use to warrant a reduction 
 from the hand piece-work rate, and it was only by diplomacy that 
 a reduction of 40% on all chipping and cutting was achieved. At 
 this time, the men experienced great difficulty in chipping a plate 
 edge to a bevel, or when dressing a shell butt, on account of the 
 hammers having round bushings to take the shank of the chisel, 
 whereby the man operating the tool had to twist the chisel as 
 best he could without any resistance from the hammer. But all 
 the up-to-date hammers of to-day have hexagon bushings, and the 
 chisels have hexagon sha"nks to suit, so that the operator can twist 
 the chisel to any desired angle by twisting the hammer, while a 
 calking iron with a round shank can be used in the same manner 
 without the bushing being changed. The current piece-work rate 
 for pneumatic chipping solid cutting and calking in the United 
 States is about 50% less than the piece-work hand rates of Great 
 Britain ; that is, taking the day-work rates of both countries as a 
 basis. Another feature of the pneumatic calking hammer is that 
 it calks the toe of the gunwale, waterway, tank margin and bulk- 
 head bounding bars without their having been either planed or 
 chipped. This allows the builder to order the said angles the same 
 size as he would if they were not to be calked. 
 
 Pneumatic hammers are used extensively by engineers for dress- 
 ing propeller blades, the palms of structs for vessels with twin 
 screws, bed plates, cutting key ways, cleaning castings, etc., in 
 fact, there is very little hand chipping done in the fitting shops 
 of the American engine builders. 
 
 Pneumatic Drills. When pneumatic drills were first introduced 
 to .shipbuilders they had to compete with electric drills of all sizes 
 and weights ; and during a four weeks' test at the works of William 
 Cramp & Sons, of Philadelphia, the pneumatic drills proved their 
 superiority. At the time of the test we were building three cruisers 
 and two battleships, which had protective decks made up of two 
 plates, each li/^ ins. thick, connected by l^/j-in. rivets. It was 
 on these plates we made the test, the average for the twenty-four 
 days being as follows : 
 
 Holes drilled 
 Air pressure Pneumatic Electric 
 
 On 12 days, being 90 lbs 248 100 
 
 On 9 days, being 84 lbs 232 100 
 
 On 3 days, being 76 lbs 208 100 
 
 The result was that we dispensed with twenty-six electric drills, 
 and took 60% off the piece-work rate of drilling on this class of 
 work; we also made a reduction of 60% on the price of holes drilled 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1171 
 
 in the deck plating for deck planking, and took 50% off all other 
 drilling on the ship, except odd work. 
 
 Pneumatic drills are now used for every conceivable purpose by 
 American shipbuilders, among others, cutting out side-light holes, 
 ventilator and coal port-holes in the deck, boring stern-post gud- 
 geons, wood backing for armor-plate bolts, tube cutting, tube ex- 
 panding, tapping for stay bolts, screwing in stay bolts, and by 
 using a speed reducing gear attached to the drill it is possible to 
 tap up to 4 ins. diameter, and to operate this combined machine 
 only one man and a boy are required. In fact, the pneumatic 
 drill is an indispensable factor in connection with speedy and 
 economical ship construction in its various branches. 
 
 There was in use at that time, a stationary riveter of the or- 
 dinary type, driving rivets in such portions of the ship as could be 
 assembled and handled as a whole, namely, frames, water-tight 
 doors, etc., such as are usual in ordinary merchant vessels. A very 
 short experience with compression riveters .showed that their great 
 weight — reaching over 2,500 lbs. for a 6-ft. gap — interfered too 
 much with the facility of handling to make them either useful or 
 economical. 
 
 We then turned our attention to the pneumatic hammer, which 
 delivers an almost continuous series of blows against the end of 
 the chisel, calking tool, or rivet die. The hammer is light, powerful, 
 short enough to go in between frame spacings, and small enoiigh 
 in diameter to get at rivets in corner angles. For rivets up to 
 % in. diameter it can be held in the hand, but for rivets of a larger 
 diameter the hammer should be held in a device suitable to the 
 location of the work on the vessel, for instance, shell device and 
 deck device. It is, however, almost impossible to hold on to the 
 rivet by hand unless a spring dolly bar is used instead of the 
 heavy holding-on hammer used in hand riveting, the heavy hold- 
 ing-on hammer being fairly jarred off the head of the rivet by the 
 rapidity of the blows from the pneumatic hammer, giving the 
 holder-on no opportunity to bring his tool back into position be- 
 tween blows as in hand riveting. 
 
 Portable Pneumatic Yoke Riveter Corm)lete. In connection with 
 the above-mentioned pneumatic hammer there is used a simple 
 pneumatic hold-on consisting only of a cylinder carrying a piston, 
 behind which air is admitted, the rod extending through the front 
 head and being cupped out to go over the head of the rivet. 
 
 Combining these two machines with a yoke, the hammer being 
 mounted on one arm and the holder-on on the other, makes a self- 
 contained machine in which the yoke can be made very light, as 
 it has to resist only the pressure of the air against the end of 
 the holder-on cylinder, and the reaction of the hammer blows. 
 Various sizes of these yoke riveters are used for riveting the 
 center keelsons, longitudinals, side keelsons, etc. They are also 
 extensively used for riveting certain parts of turrets, gun-carriages, 
 etc., where first-class riveting is absolutely necessary. 
 
 For driving rivets in frames and brackets, intercostals and beam 
 knees, etc., we use a jam riveter and pneumatic holder-on. 
 
1172 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The above descriptions give the methods for driving all rivets 
 that can be reached on both sides by a yoke or jam riveter. There 
 remain three classes of rivets in a ship, as follows: (1) Those 
 through decks and tank tops, mostly countersunk, and all driven 
 downward from above ; ( 2 ) bulkhead rivets, nearly all with full 
 heads; (3) those in the outside of the vessel and all countersunk. 
 These three classes must be reached by riveters on one side and 
 holders-on on the other, without any connection whatever between 
 them. The first class are most easily driven, and for them the 
 hammer is attached to a universal swivel head, mounted on a pipe 
 or T-bar. The operator raises the hammer to bring the flat die 
 on to the rivet, and the pipe or T-bar being secured at the center, 
 holds the hammer in position while the rivet is being driven. A 
 second man, with a pneumatic chipping hammer cuts off the sur- 
 plus metal, and the riveting hammer being brought back on the 
 rivet, a few seconds complete the operation. In this case the pneu- 
 matic holder-on is operated from below by a third man, be- 
 ing braced against the bottom of the ship or the next deck 
 below. 
 
 For the second class, the hammer is simply held in the hands 
 of the operator, said hammer having about a 4Vj-in. piston stroke, 
 and as the die is cui)ped out to form the snap point, there is no 
 tendency to slip off the point. The holding-on is done by a spring 
 dolly bar, which' I will explain later. 
 
 We now come to the third class, or shell rivets, which, in many 
 respects, are the most important rivets in the ship, requiring the 
 most careful workmanship and the best finish. Therefore it is a 
 serious mistake for shipbuilders to attempt to drive shell rivets 
 by pneumatic power until they have established pneumatic rivet- 
 ing on all inside work, because the men operating the tools should 
 be accustomed to handling the hammers before being put on this 
 important part of the work. It is evident at the start that the 
 varying thickness of plates, frame flanges and liners, and espe- 
 cially the depths of countersink render it impracticable to so gauge 
 the length of rivet used that there will always be just enough 
 metal to properly fill the countersink and finish the point, and 
 that, therefore, as in hand riveting, a longer rivet must be used. 
 After the point is beaten down and the surplus metal crowded 
 off to one side, this surplus must be chipped off, and the point be 
 finished up, rounded slightly, and any seams between the rivet and 
 the plate driven together and closed. To do this a certain amount 
 of freedom of motion must be allowed in the hammer, so that its 
 axis may be inclined at a slight angle in any direction with the 
 axis of the rivet itself. 
 
 This result is attained by mounting a pneumatic hammer in a 
 device having a universal movement attached to the end of a 
 T-bar, instead of its being immovably fastened to it. For bottom 
 riveting there is a flat bar adapted so as to be mounted on the 
 shell of a ship in any desired position. This bar carries an ad- 
 justable support, connected by means of a swivel joint, with a 
 holder in which is mounted a« adjustable frame bar, pivotally sup- 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 
 
 1173 
 
 porting at one end a pneumatic hammer, and at the other an 
 adjustable distance piece. 
 
 At one setting a space of 14 ft. to 16 ft. sq. can be reached 
 with the above device, and when it is necessary to move the device 
 to another position the change can be effected in about ten min- 
 utes. A spring dolly bar is used for holding-on, thus dispensing 
 with the costly method of a wood backing, necessary when a pneu- 
 matic holder-on was u.sed, as was the case a few years ago, and 
 an ordinary pneumatic chipping hammer is used to cut off the 
 surplus metal before finally finishing. It is evident that the free- 
 dom of movement of the hammer can be secured in other ways, 
 such as a ball and socket joint of large radius, but we have found 
 the above device more satisfactory and all that can be desired. 
 
 TABLE XXIV. COST OF PNEUMATIC RIVETING FOR SHIP 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 No. of 
 Distribution rivets 
 
 Keel (flat) 6.217 
 
 Shell 21,628 
 
 Shell margin (bilge single line) 1,122 
 
 Longitudinals, open 24.632 
 
 C. V. K. brackets 3,197 
 
 Longitudinals under tank .... 664 
 
 Longitudinals, bars 2,989 
 
 Tank top stiffeners 1.129 
 
 Tank top margin 4,033 
 
 Tank top rider 3.209 
 
 Tank top lugs 1,520 
 
 Tank top 4.467 
 
 C. V. K. cross vertical keelson . 12,723 
 
 Hold stringer 1,184 
 
 Floors 123 
 
 Floors (odd ) 5 
 
 C. V. K. (odd) 38 
 
 Bulkheads 1.318 
 
 3,051 
 
 231 
 
 Total 93,480 
 
 Holes drilled 
 Pneumatic Electric 
 
 Air pressure on 12 days, being 90 lbs 248 100 
 
 Air pressure on 9 days, being 84 lbs 232 100 
 
 Air pressure on 3 days, being 76 lbs 208 100 
 
 
 Ma- 
 
 
 Diam- 
 
 chine 
 
 Hand 
 
 eter of 
 
 rate 
 
 rate 
 
 rivets, 
 
 each, 
 
 each. 
 
 in. 
 
 cts. 
 
 cts. 
 
 1 
 
 2% 
 
 . 41/2 
 
 % 
 
 1% 
 
 31/2 
 
 % 
 
 3 
 
 4% 
 
 % 
 
 iy4 
 
 2% 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 31/2 
 
 
 1V4 
 
 31/2 
 
 
 1V2 
 
 31/2 
 
 % 
 
 1% 
 
 2 3/4 
 
 1 
 
 1V4 
 
 2% 
 
 2V2 
 
 31/2 
 
 % 
 
 1V2 
 
 2% 
 
 % 
 
 
 2% 
 
 % 
 
 1 % 
 
 31/2 
 
 94 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 2% 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 % 
 
 1V2 
 
 3 
 
 % 
 
 iy4 
 
 3 
 
 % 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 1V4 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 
 iy4 
 
 31/4 
 
 % 
 
 11/2 
 
 21/2 
 
 For riveting the side shell plating the same device is used, with 
 one exception, and this is as follows : there is a holder provided 
 with a T-shaped slot, the sides of which form a bearing for the 
 T-shaped frame bar, while allowing said bar to be moved from 
 one position to another in said slot ; and a friction spring and set 
 screw, respectively adapted to bear against the bottom of said 
 frame bar when the latter is in position in said slot and to lock 
 the frame bar in any desired position in said holder. 
 
1174 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The spring- dolly bar now used is made of a piece of 3-in. pipe 
 about 12 ins. long, having at one end an ordinary cast-steel handle, 
 while at the other there is a bushing, through which a set screw 
 holds the cup or snap. Inside the pipe is a piece of round iron, 
 about 6 ins. long, backed up by a spiral spring. 
 
 The quality of the work done by all these machines, both 
 inside and outside the shell, is first-class In every respect, and far 
 superior to hand work, seeing that a rivet driven by a pneumatic 
 hammer has to be about 12% longer than a rivet driven by hand, 
 which goes to prove that the hole is better filled when the work 
 is done by pneumatic tools, and such is the unanimous opinion of 
 the inspectors who have been and are on duty in the American 
 shipyards. 
 
 That this is natural appears from several considerations. The 
 rivets are closed down more rapidly and at a much higher tem- 
 perature, and. as it is always easy to bring the axis of the hammer 
 in line with the axis of the rivet, and, in fact, natural for the men 
 to do so, the rivet is plugged at once by the first blows of the ham- 
 mer, thoroughly filling the hole throughout before the point begins 
 to form. The tendency of hand riveters to save labor, to form the 
 point without thorough plugging, leaving a rivet which, though 
 looking all right and passing the tester, is liable to loosen after- 
 wards in service from the constant jar and vibration of the hull, 
 is, therefore, avoided. In many confined places, also, where only 
 one man can strike, and the space for the swing of the hammer is 
 confined to the frame spacing or less, hand rivets are very apt 
 to be poorly driven, but it is evident that such considerations do 
 not affect the machine, and that, if the pneumatic hammer can 
 get to the rivet at all, it is as well put in as in the most open parts 
 of the work. 
 
 As to the cost of pneumatic riveting, I submit the figures of 
 Table XXIV, which are piece work rates current in the States, also 
 figures comparing them with the British piece-work hand rates. 
 In making this comparison. I must call your attention to the fact 
 that both day-work and piece-work rates in America are about 
 35% higher than in Great Britain. This is due chiefly to the cost 
 of living being- higher. So that the piece-work prices for pneu- 
 matic riveting in Great Britain should be one-third less than the 
 prices paid in America. 
 
 Table XXIV was compiled from a'n actual test covering a period 
 of 3 weeks at the Chicago plant of the American Shipbuilding 
 Company. 
 
 Total cost of job by hand would have been $2,986.87 
 
 Total cost of job by. machine was 1,403.31 
 
 Saving of machine over hand work $1,583.56 
 
 Average cost per rivet of hand work 3.19 cts. 
 
 Average cost per rivet of machine work 1.50 " 
 
 Average saving per rivet of machine hand work 1.69 
 
 Average cost of machine riveting was 47% of hand cost. 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1175 
 
 The amount that should be added to machine cost to cover in- 
 terest, maintenance of plant, and operation of compressor, is about 
 15% of the gross earnings of the tools. 
 
 It is only fair to mention that, at the time the above test took 
 place, about 7 years ago, pneumatic tools were not so perfect as 
 they are to-day, and their application to ship construction has been 
 very much simplified. For instance, when driving bulkheads and 
 .vhell it was customary to use a pneumatic holder-on, which ne- 
 cessitated something to act as a backing for the tool, said backing 
 having to be built up, which added considerably to the total cost 
 of riveting, whereas now a spring dolly bar is used, which the 
 holder on holds in his hands ; again, the shell device for holding the 
 riveting hammer while driving the rivet has been very considerably 
 improved, and can be removed from one position to another on 
 the ship in less than one-flfth the time required to remove the old 
 device. 
 
 TABLE XXV. BRITISH COSTS OF PNEUMATIC RIVETING 
 
 Briti.sh pneumatic British hand 
 
 No. of Price Total Piece- Total 
 
 Distribution rivets per 100 cost work cost 
 
 s. d. £ s. d. s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Keel (flat) 6.217 7 21 15 2 1110 36 15 8 
 
 Shell 21,628 5 54 1 5 8 8 93 14 5 
 
 Tank margin 1,122 8 4 4 13 6 10 5 12 2 
 
 Longitudinals, open 24,632 3 6 43 2 1 8 6 104 13 9 
 
 C. V. K. brackets 3,197 3 6 5 11 10 8 6 13 11 9 
 
 Longitudinals under tank. 644 50 113 2 96 331 
 
 Longitudinals, bars .... 2,989 36 547 96 14 3 11 
 
 Tank top stiffeners 1,129 7 3 19 10 5 12 11 
 
 Tank top margin 4,033 42 880 10 6 21 36 
 
 Tank top lugs 1,520 5 3 16 10 7 12 
 
 Tank top rider 3.209 3 6 5 12 4 10 6 16 16 11 
 
 Tank top 4,467 3 6 7 16 4 10 6 23 8 
 
 C.V.K. vertical keelson . 12,723 2 10 18 6 8 6 54 1 5 
 
 Hold stringer 1,184 42 294 86 508 
 
 Floors 123 3 6 4 4 8 6 10 5 
 
 Floors Codd) 5 59 004 11 6 007 
 
 C. V. K. (odd) 38 59 022 11 6 044 
 
 Bulkheads 3,051 42 671 70 10 13 7 
 
 £192 17 2 £416 19 1 
 
 192 17 2 
 
 Amount saved by machine over hand (British rates) . . £224 1 11 
 
 Pneumatic Log Sawing Machine. A pneumatic log sawing ma- 
 chine consists of a saw and frame weighing 85 lbs. and an engine 
 of brass tubing weighing 65 lbs. The frame is manufactured in 
 2 sizes to cut in 16 and 24-in. lengths. 
 
 The capacity of the saw in logs is given as 500 per 10-hr. day 
 or 20 cords of 4-ft. wood. 
 
 The ordinary working pressure required is 75 lbs., the free air 
 consumption at 65 strokes, per min., being 33 cu. ft. 
 
 Air Consumption of Pumps. Andre Formis, June 14, 1913, in 
 
1176 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Engineering and Mining Journal, describes the use of a recording 
 air meter for taking time studies of rocl< drills on air lines. 
 
 The air meter was also used to investigate the air consumption 
 of a small, single-stroke 7 by ZV^ by 7-in. plunger pump. The 
 water was pumped a height of 250 ft. on an angle of 33 degs., 
 the size of the suction and discharge lines being according to the 
 manufacturers' specifications. The strokes per min. were counted 
 and noted on the chart at the corresponding air-flow line. It was 
 found that at 130 strokes. 85 cu. ft. were used. The h.p. drawn 
 from the boilers to compress this amount of air was 13.1 h.p., ac- 
 cording to the manufacturer's catalog. The theoretical power re- 
 quired to pump the amount of water is 2.56 h.p.. without friction 
 or leakage losses. The electrical power required to pump this 
 amount would be conservatively four boiler h.p. 
 
 Fig. 7, 
 
 280 
 
 51260 
 
 §240 
 
 J! 220 
 
 "200 
 
 § 180 
 
 <£ 160 
 
 ^ 140 
 
 ^ 120 
 
 <f 100 
 
 ;| 80 
 
 % 60 
 
 o 40 
 
 •§ 20 
 
 ^ 
 
 25 SO 75 .100 
 
 6(alIons of W(j!+er pe r M I n 
 Pump performance as given by air meter. 
 
 X 
 
 Fig. 7 has been plotted from a set of observations. It shows 
 that the most economical speed is about 75 gals, per min., corre- 
 sponding to the point marked X. This happens to be about three 
 times the water to be handled per day ; thus it determines the size 
 of the sump, and the number of attendants required to run a given 
 number of pumps. Of course, the economical point is determined 
 by such considerations as leakage in air valve, slippage in water 
 end and water valves, moisture in compressed air inducing freezing, 
 and size of suction and discharge pipes. This confirms the well 
 known fact that pumping by air is uneconomical. At times elec- 
 tric pumping would entail considerable expense, but for permanent 
 installations any reasonable additional cost will be repaid in a 
 short time. 
 
 Engfish Costs on Scaling Boilers. With regard to scaling boil- 
 ers by pneumatic hammers, Messrs. John Allen and Sons, of Kil- 
 burn (England) give the following comparative figures in the En- 
 gineer for 1907, one boiler — Cornish, 30 ft. by 6 ft. — only being 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1177 
 
 referred to, the average thickness of scale being % in. The two 
 pneumatic hammers weighed 9% lbs. each, with pistons 1 Vie-in. 
 diameter, and 1%-in. stroke. When the work was done by hand 
 8 men at 18 cts. per hour were employed for 9 hrs. per day, each 
 man receiving $2.25 per day extra as *' dirt " money. The job took 
 6 days. 
 
 £ s. d. Cost per day 
 
 8 men at $2.25 3 14 $18 
 
 Total cost for the 6 days 22 4 108 
 
 With 2 pneumatic hammers, 4 men employed, 2 using the pneu- 
 matic hammers ar.d 2 their hand tools, the same job took but 3 
 days. 
 
 f s. d. Cost per day 
 
 4 men at $2.25 1 17 $8.99 
 
 Cost for the 3 days 5 11 26.97 
 
 The saving in labor thus being. 16130 80.81 
 
 Taking the above figures to be correct, it is seen that the two 
 pneumatic hammers did no less than seven-eighths of the work, 
 and that they could have done the whole of it in a trifle less than 
 ZVi days, for which time the cost of labor would have been $15.73 
 only, and the saving $9 2.16. 
 
 The riveting hammers are now capable of closing rivets up to 
 11/^ -in. diameter, and are employed in all kinds of constructional 
 ironwork, both in the yards and in the field ; on boiler work, on 
 furnaces, combustion chamber, and shell plating, and in shipbuild- 
 ing for both shell, bulkhead, and deck riveting. 
 
 Hydro -Compressor Installation Costs. The following from De- 
 sign and Construction of Hydraulic Plants, by R. C. Beardsley, 
 quotes Professor Unwin as stating that it is practical to transmit 
 power by compressed air to a distance of 20 miles with a loss 
 of 12%. 
 
 The cost of a hydro-compressor installation is less than a turbine 
 plant, as there are no journals, shafting, gearing, etc., the only 
 cost being for the boiler iron and excavation. The cost of excava- 
 tion will of course vary with the condition. Rock excavation will 
 cost $5 to $8 per cu. yd. and earth from 50 cts. to $3. 
 
 Mr. Weber places the cost of a 5,000 h.p. compressor at $42,000. 
 The boiler iron ought not to cost more than 4 cts. per lb. erected. 
 Of course the same dam, head gates, canals and racks are required 
 as for a turbine plant, but no power house. 
 
 For distances less than 5 or 6 miles (and no doubt the future 
 will see this increased), the transmission of the power by means 
 of compres.sed air is as efficient as by any other means, a 2% loss 
 being usually allowed. A velocity of 60 ft. per sec. may be al- 
 lowed in the pipes, and as each h.p. at 85 lbs. pressure takes 
 about 14.4 cu. ft. of air per min., the area of the pipe may be 
 determined. Weber gives the cost of a 20-in. steel pipe 4 miles 
 long carrying 5,000 h.p. at 85 lbs. pressure as $3.05 per ft. laid, 
 making the cost per mile $18,500, and for 4 miles $74,000. An 
 -electric transmission would cost as follows : 
 
1178 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 2 governors (for 2 units) $2,000 
 
 Generator house 5,000 
 
 Switch board 2.000 
 
 4 miles transmission line 4,500 
 
 Step up and step down transformers 30,000 
 
 Generators and exciters 50,000 
 
 $93,500 
 
 The cost is more in favor of the hydro-compressor plant, as the 
 distance grows less, and vice versa. 
 
 Victoria IVlines Hydro-Compressor Plant. The following article 
 describing an application of Mr. Frizell's method for the com- 
 pression of air by the direct action of falling water is taken 
 from Engineering News. 
 
 The hydraulic compressed air plant of the Victoria Mines is lo- 
 cated in Ontonagon County, near Rockland, Mich. Water is taken 
 from the Ontonagon River and after passing through the com- 
 pressor is returned to the river a mile further down stream. A 
 concrete dam 300 ft. long and 10 ft. high was built across the 
 river 4,000 ft. up-stream from the compressor house, and a canal 
 with a sectional area of 350 sa. ft. conducts the water from the 
 dam to the compressors. At the foot of the canal three vertical 
 circular and smoothly cemented shafts, each 5 ft. in diameter, 
 were sunk to the depth of 330 ft. These shafts terminate in a 
 chamber 57 ft. wide, 22 ft. high and 50 ft. long. The chamber 
 then narrows to a width of 18 ft. and a height to the center of the 
 arched roof, of 25 ft. This part of the chamber is 232 ft, long, 
 making a total length of 282 ft. Here the chamber is reduced to 
 a tunnel 10 ft. high, and after a run of 40 ft., it ascends on an in- 
 cline to the surface. 
 
 At the bottom of the shafts are fitted steel tubes, which extend 
 into the chamber 16 ft. These tubes flare from a diameter of 
 5 ft. at their connection with the shafts, to 7 ft. 4 ins. at their 
 base, while immediately below each of them is placed a concrete 
 spreading pier. Steel, tubes are also fitted to the upper ends of 
 the shafts and extend 6 ft. above the base of the forebay. Into 
 these are telescoped other pipes, to which are attached the head 
 pieces of the compressors. 
 
 By this arrangement the flow of water through the compressors 
 is controlled, the head piece being lowered below the water level 
 of the forebay, when the compressor is working, or raised above 
 the water line, so that no water can pass through it, when the 
 compressor is shut down. 
 
 The air capacity of the underground chamber, between the water 
 line and the roof, is 80,264 cu. ft. Out of the top of this chamber 
 extends a 24-in. air main, while alongside of it runs a 12-in. blow- 
 ofe pipe. This latter pipe has its lower end on a level with the 
 water line of the chamber, which is at such a height as to keep 
 the down-take tubes of the compressors always sealed with water. 
 The office of this blow-off pipe is to prevent the air pressure be- 
 coming so great as to force the water away from the down-take 
 tubes, thereby breaking the water seal and allowing the air to 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1179 
 
 escape through them. When the air pressure becomes sufficient to 
 force the water to the level of this blow-off line, air and water 
 escape from the blow-off pipe until the pressure is relieved and the 
 end of the blow-off pipe becomes again sealed by the water. The 
 air and the blow-off pipes are both cemented air-tight into a 30- 
 deg. tunnel, which carries them to the surface, where the blow-off 
 terminates and the air main is continued to the mines. It may 
 be remarked that when the blow-off is in operation it throws a 
 mixed stream of air and water some 500 ft. into the air. 
 
 The headpiece referred to above consists of an annular pipe or 
 header attached to the adjustable telescoping pipe. This header, 
 which is about 10 ins, in diameter, is connected with eight 7-in. 
 vertical intake air pipes, the upper ends of which always project 
 above the water level of the forebay. The headpiece is supported 
 by I-beams of the compressor house. The headpiece and concave 
 adjusting cone can be raised and lowered by lifting screw and 
 capstan nuts. The convex casting of the adjustable head is riveted 
 to a larger diameter tube, thereby making each headpiece an in- 
 verted tank, or float. 
 
 The compressor is set in operation by lowering the headpiece by 
 turning the capstan nut until the lower rim of the convex casting 
 settles a few inches below the surface of the water in the forebay. 
 In this position the water rushes over the %-in. air tubes and 
 passes down between the conoid castings into the vertical shaft. 
 On passing the ends of the small air tubes the water drops away 
 at an increased velocity, thereby creating a partial vacuum, which 
 causes air from above to rush in. This air is taken up by the 
 water, in the form of small bubbles, and carried down the shaft, 
 being gradually compressed thereby. On reaching the bottom of 
 the shaft the mixed volume of water and air is spread out in all 
 directions by the conical cement pier. The water then slowly flows 
 along the air chamber, while the air rises through it and accumu- 
 lates in the dome of the chamber. On reaching the end of the 
 chamber the water is free of air and flows up the inclined shaft 
 and discharges into the tail race. 
 
 Automatic regulation of the flow of water over the small air 
 tubes is obtained by means of a small air pipe, which runs from the 
 air chamber' up to and connects with the adjustable headpiece. 
 The end of this pipe in the chamber is placed at such a height 
 that, when the air pressure reaches the desired point, the pressure 
 will raise the adjustable head and stop the flow of water over the 
 air tubes. As soon as the air pressure in the chamber is relieved, 
 the headpiece is lowered and the compressor placed in operation 
 again. 
 
 As noted above, three vertical shafts are used instead of one 
 larger one. This arrangement was decided on for the reason that 
 a higher efficiency could be obtained during a dry season, with 
 less water, and also that thereby a very high efficiency could be 
 secured through a range of 1,000 to 5,000 h.p. According to tests 
 which were made by Messrs. Sperr and Hood, of the Michigan 
 School of Mines, the efficiency of the plant, when running at about 
 
1180 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 maximum capacity, is 82%. The total distance between water 
 level of the forebay and the water level of the air chamber is 
 342 ft while the distance between forebay water level and tail race 
 level is 71 ft. This gives an air pressure head of 271 ft., which 
 produces a pressure of 117 lbs. per sq. in. in the air chamber. The 
 plant was designed and built by Mr. C. H. Taylor, of Montreal 
 and cost less than $22 per h.p.. while the dam and canal cost about 
 the same. The cost of operating the plant averages about $2.25 
 ner h p per year, allowing 5% interest on first cost. 
 
 Cost of Compressing by Water and Electric Driven Conripressors 
 and the Direct Action of Water. (Compressed Air Magazine Nov. 
 1908 ) An hydraulic air compressor installed at Clausthal in 
 
 Salvage 
 
 /5 20 25 
 Life inYeors 
 
 Fig. 8. Depreciation of marine equipment. 
 A — Steel steam vessels on great lakes. 
 B — Steel steam vessels on tidewater. 
 C — Steel barges, floats, etc., on tidewater, 
 D — Wood tugs, barges, etc., on tidewater. 
 
 1907. Water is led to the air suction pipe of cast iron 218 mm. in 
 diameter and 150 m. long, which is laid down an inclined shaft 
 discharging into the bottom of a receiver 1.1 m. in diameter and 
 4.5 m. high, which rests on an I-beam support in the shaft 52 m. 
 below the overflow tunnel. On the receiver is a pressure gauge 
 and a pipe that passes up parallel to the discharge, entering it at 
 the discharge level. 
 
 The compressed air escapes through a valve passing into the 
 reservoir and then through an 80 mm. pipe to the mine. The 
 overflow water passes up through a 218 mm. pipe 50 m. long. 
 
 The average flow of water through the sy.stem was 3 cu. m. 
 per min., falling 99-yio m. between the intake and discharge levels 
 
COMPRESSED AIR 1181 
 
 yielded 10 cu. m. of air per min, at 90 lbs. per sq. in. The work 
 performed was 54 h.p.. and the theoretical power of the water was 
 70.5 h.p., with an efficiency of 77%. 
 
 The turbine wheel installed had an efficiency of about 75% and 
 the compressor an efficiency of 85%, the combined efficiency being 
 64%. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 GAS PLANTS- 
 
 Cost of Trenching and Pipe Laying. The reader is referred to 
 Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data for detailed costs of trenching, 
 paving and pipe laying. 
 
 Percentage of Gas Manufactured on Wliich There is No Return. 
 
 We have derived the following figures from the 1914 Report of the 
 Gas and Electric Light Commission of the Commonwealth of Massa- 
 chusetts, There were 59 companies reporting which manufactured 
 a total of 13.234,929,044 cu. ft. of gas, Of this amount 758,097,294 
 cu. ft. or 5.73% was unaccounted for and 81,633,744 cu. ft. or 0.62% 
 was used by the companies. This makes a total of 839,731,038 cu. 
 ft. or 6.35% of the total gas inanufactured, on which there was no 
 return. That this amount can be materially lessened is shown by 
 the fact that some of the companies report losses as low as 1% 
 or less and further the same company seldom holds the unenviable 
 record of showing a maximum for " gas unaccounted for " for tw^o 
 years in succession. The maximum of gas unaccounted for was 
 18.75% for the year ended June 30, 1914, and 21.47% for the year 
 ended June 30, 1913. 
 
 Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 90,000. The following 
 is an abstract of an ajjpraisal report by Henry L. Gray. 
 
 The gas manufactured by this company is distributed and sold 
 in a western city of 85,000 population and in suburban towns of 
 5,000. 
 
 The average number of cu. ft. of gas manufactured daily during 
 a year was 815,900, of which amount 666,600 cu. ft. were sold, and 
 149,300 cu, ft. remained unaccounted for, or a loss of 18.3 per cent. 
 
 The following table shows the number of consumers and services 
 as well as the number of meters and other appliances in use. 
 
 December 31, 1911 Total 
 
 Number of services 11,762 
 
 . Number of consumers 11,810 
 
 Number of meters . 11,910 
 
 Number of arcs 3,575 
 
 Number of ranges 11.411 
 
 Number of gas plates 1,835 
 
 Number of water heaters 5,564 
 
 Number of room heaters 4,019 
 
 Number of gas engines 3 
 
 Number of miscellaneous appliances 2,199 
 
 Total mileage of mains 236 
 
 Manufacture of Coal Gas. Coal gas is primarily a mixture of a 
 number of simple gases, the principal ones being hydrogen, marsh 
 gas, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Hydrocarbons are pres- 
 
 1182 
 
GAS PLANTS 1183 
 
 ent in certain forms, together with certain inert gases and im- 
 purities, which are later removed. It is produced by the destructive 
 distillation of coal in air tight retorts or ovens, which are heated 
 externally. The design of the generating apparatus differs con- 
 siderably in various plants, but the principle remains the same in 
 all. Approximately three hundred pounds of coal are charged into 
 a retort, which is then sealed and heated by the combustion of 
 coke for about four hours, in order to expel all of the gas from 
 the coal. The retort is then opened, the coke withdrawn, to be 
 later used for fuel, or in the manufacture of water gas ; the retort 
 is recharged and the process continued. Air is carefully excluded 
 from the retorts, the gas being discharged under water ; and this 
 fact is responsible for the incomplete combustion. A ton of good 
 gas coal will produce about 10,000 cu. ft. of gas, 1,400 lbs. of coke, 
 12 gals, of tar and a varying quantity of ammonia. 
 
 Mmiufacture of Water Gas. Water gas is largely a mechanical 
 mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is produced by 
 the decomposition of steam brought in contact with incandescent 
 coal or coke. It contains practically no impurities, with the excep- 
 tion of sulphureted hydrogen, which is later removed. As it comes 
 from the generator this gas burns with a pale blue or colorless 
 flame, on account of the absence of illuminants, or hydrocarbons, 
 and the gas has no value as an illuminating gas except when used 
 in burners of the Welsbach type, which contain a mantle that 
 becomes incandescent through heat, and thus affords light. Conse- 
 quently, in order to burn water gas in the ordinary burner, it must 
 first be carburetted, or enriched, with hydrocarbons. This is ac- 
 complished by means of introduction of crude oil into the generator, 
 which diffuses and becomes permanently fixed in the gas. 
 
 The production of water gas requires about thirty-five to forty- 
 five pounds of coke, and about four or five gallons of oil for 1,000 
 cu. ft. of gas generated. The chief objection to water gas is the 
 high percentage of carbon monoxide which it contains, carbon 
 monoxide being a very deadly gas if inhaled. In ordinary use, 
 however, there is little likelihood of an accident resulting from this 
 source. 
 
 Manufacture of Oil Gas. Oil gas is produced in almost the same 
 manner as is coal gas, crude oil being destructively distilled in re- 
 torts, instead of coal. The production of oil gas, however, is largely 
 confined to western cities, where a suitable supply of coal is either 
 not available, or is too expensive for use. Oil gas is similar in 
 composition to coal gas, but in many cases contains impurities which 
 are difficult to remove. Many California cities are supplied with oil 
 gas, owing to the presence of large quantities of low grade fuel oil. 
 
 Capacity of Plant. The plant under consideration produces both 
 coal and water gas. The apparatus for the production of the 
 former consists of eleven benches of six retorts each. These 
 benches are of the semi-regenerative type, and have a total capa- 
 city of 550,000 cu. ft. per day. The water gas generating apparatus 
 consists of three sets of producers of the Lowe type, having a 
 total rated daily capacity of 1,750,000 cu. ft. which is probably 
 
1184 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 considerably in excess of the actual capacity. Owing to the fact 
 that it is impossible to run a gas plant to its full capacity for any 
 great length of time, on account of the necessity of shutting down 
 different parts for cleaning and repairs, it is probable that the 
 maximum continuous output of this :,jlant under existing conditions 
 will not exceed 1,100,000 cu. ft. per day. 
 
 It Is probable that the purifying apparatus in use by this plant 
 is entirely too small to take care of the output ; and by the 
 installation of an additional condenser and scrubber to the 7 ft. 
 water gas set, and by the reconstruction of the 9 ft., 6 in. water 
 gas set, and with the completion of the additional storage holder 
 now in course of construction, it may be possible to increase the 
 total output to 1,400,000 cu. ft. per day. 
 
 Operation of Plants. The water gas is manufactured by passing 
 steam over incandescent coke and is carburetted or enriched by 
 gas oil having a density of 26 degs. Baume at 60 degs. F. The 
 purification of the gas is accomplished by means of various tar ex- 
 tractors, condensers, scrubbers, washers and purifying boxes filled 
 with iron oxide. The circulation of the gas through this purifying 
 apparatus is produced by means of steam driven blowers and ex- 
 hausters. After purification the coal gas is discharged directly into 
 the present storage holder, having a capacity of 502,000 cu. ft. 
 The water gas, however, is first discharged into a relief holder, 
 having a capacity of 115,000 cu. ft., where it is allowed to cool 
 somewhat before being pumped into the storage holder. Eventu- 
 ally, however, both gases reach the storage holder, amd are mixed 
 together before distribution, in the approximate ratio of 48 per 
 cent, coal gas and 52 per cent, water gas. 
 
 Distribution. The gas is distributed throughout the city by 
 means of two separate distribution systems, known as the high 
 pressure and the low pressure systems. The gas distributed through 
 the high pressure system is forced through the mains by Ingersoll- 
 Rand compressors, and is used to supply the outlying districts. 
 The high pressure system also acts as a booster for a large part 
 of the low pressure system, in which the gas is presumed to circu- 
 late under the pressure produced by the weight of the holder. 
 About 65% of the total production of gas is sent out from the plant 
 through the high pressure mains, a large portion, however, eventu- 
 ally finding its way into the low pressure system in order to boost 
 those sections of the latter system on which there is an unusually 
 heavy demand. 
 
 By-products. Very little attention is given by the present com- 
 pany to the manufacture of by-products, the greater portion of the 
 coke produced being used for fuel in the recuperators of the coal 
 gas plant, and in the water gas apparatus, only about twenty-five 
 per cent, of the total quantity of coke produced being sold. The coal 
 tar is sold to a refiner just as it is produced, no attempt being made 
 to reduce it at the plant. The ammonia still was dismantled some 
 time ago on account of its inefficiency, and a new one is. at the 
 present time in process of construction. The company is completing 
 a new holder, having a capacity of ^,000,000 cu. ft. 
 
GAS PLANTS 1185 
 
 TABLE I. CONDENSED ESTIMATE OF REPRODUCTION COST 
 
 1. General office buildings $ 18,900 
 
 2. Gas plant buildings 26,853 
 
 3. Shops and miscellaneous buildings 17.225 
 
 4. Benches 33,000 
 
 5. Water gas apparatus 35,450 
 
 6. Purifying apparatus 33,775 
 
 7. Station meters 8,700 
 
 8. Boilers 4,300 
 
 9. Other plant machinery 23,130 
 
 10. Miscellaneous plant apparatus 7,440 
 
 11. Plant piping and fittings 13,228 
 
 12. Holders 91,875 
 
 13. Paving 413,983 
 
 14. Distributing mains * *681,184 
 
 15. Services 180.239 
 
 16. Governors and regulators 10,807 
 
 17. House meters 166.024 
 
 18. Arc lights 48.360 
 
 19. Teams and vehicles 22,630 
 
 20. Tools and implements 8,750 
 
 21. Testing apparatus 4.254 
 
 22. Furniture and fixtures 12.943 
 
 23. Engineering, supervision and organization expense.. 186,305 
 
 24. Interest during construction 102,468 
 
 25. Contingencies , 107,591 
 
 26. Stores and working capital 80,000 
 
 27. Brokers' fees 87,728 
 
 28. Real estate 153,147 
 
 Total cost as of Jan. 1st, 1912 $2,580,289 
 
 * This includes an item of $70,000 for a transmission main con- 
 necting two widely separated parts of the system. 
 
 The costs used in this appraisal are based on prices prevailing 
 previous to the World War. 
 
 TABLE II. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUCTION 
 
 1. GENERAL OFFICE BUILDINGS. 
 
 Office buildings, one story, brick and terra cotta 
 
 with composition roof, 92,000 cu. ft. at $0.20 $18,400 
 
 Brick vault, at office 500 
 
 $18,900 
 
 GAS PLANT BUILDINGS. 
 
 Boiler house, brick and corrugated iron, 25,168 cu. 
 
 ft. at $0.05 $ 1,258 
 
 Water gas building for 6 ft. 6 ins. and 7 ft. water 
 
 gas sets, brick with corrugated iron roof, 44,800 
 
 cu. ft. at $0.09 ■ 4,032 
 
 Purifier house, brick with corrugated iron roof, 
 
 65,158 cu. ft. at $0.1 6,516 
 
 Exhauster house, brick with corrugated iron roof, 
 
 20,832 cu. ft. at $0.08 1.667 
 
 Compressor house, frame with corrugated iron 
 
 walls and roof, 35.400 cu. ft, at $0.06 2,124 
 
 Coal bunker, frame and corrugated iron, 75,200 cu. 
 
 ft. at $0.04 '. 3,008 
 
 Water gas building for 9 ft. 6 ins. water gas set, 
 
 frame with corrugated iron walls and roof, 58,384 
 
 cu. ft. at $0.07 ■ 4,087 
 
 Retort house, frame with corrugated iron walls and 
 
 roof, 82,110 cu. ft. at $0.03 2,463 
 
1186 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Coke shed, frame with composition roof, 3,000 sq. 
 
 ft. at $0.35 % 1,050 
 
 Blower house, corrugated iron, 240 sq. ft. at $0.50. 1:^0 
 
 Oil pump house, corrugated iron, 170 sq. ft. at $0.50 85 
 
 Shed over ammonia storage tank and tar well, 
 
 frame and corrugated iron, 626 sq. ft. at $0.50.. 313 
 
 Plant tool shed, corrugated iron, 260 sq. ft. at 
 
 $0.50 130 
 
 $26,853 
 
 SHOPS AND MISCELLANEOUS BUILDINGS. 
 
 Stable, frame, 52,605 cu. ft. at $0.05 $ 2,630 
 
 Meter shops, frame, 53,482 cu. ft. at $0.05 2,674 
 
 Fitting shop, two story frame, 25,685 cu. ft. at $0.05 1,284 
 
 Storeroom and blacksmith shop, two story and 
 
 basement, frame with corrugated iron, 79,747 cu. 
 
 ft. at $0.05 3,987 
 
 Warehouse, two story, frame and corrugated iron, 
 
 35.910 cu. ft. at $0.04 1,436 
 
 Works office, frame, 21,250 cu. ft. at $0.07 1,487 
 
 Retort tool house, frame and corrugated iron, 
 
 100 sq. ft. at $0.50 50 
 
 Garage, frame and corrugated iron, 1,464 sq. ft. at 
 
 $0.35 512 
 
 Brick and tile shed, frame and corrugated iron, 
 
 1,200 sq. ft. at $0.20 240 
 
 Pipe rack, frame and corrugated iron, 640 sq. ft. 
 
 at $0.50 320 
 
 Wagon shed, frame and corrugated iron, 1,060 sq. 
 
 ft. at $0.50 530 
 
 Paint and oil house, frame and corrugated iron, 200 
 
 sq. ft. at $0.50 ,. 100 
 
 Pipe shed, corrugated iron roof, no sides, 800 sq. 
 
 ft. at $0.25 200 
 
 Cement sidewalk, 6,770 sq, ft. at $0.11 745 
 
 Brick vault, works office 350 
 
 Tile vault, storeroom office 400 
 
 Fence, board, 6 ft. high, painted, 800 lin. ft. at $0.35 280 
 
 $17,225 
 
 4. BENCHES. 
 
 11 coal gas benches, Parker-Russell " Sixes," half 
 depth, complete in place, with foundations, stacks 
 and hydraulic main, at $3,000 , $33,000 
 
 5. WATER GAS APPARATUS. 
 
 Water gas set. West. Gas Cons. Co., 9 ft. 6 ins. by 9 
 ft. 6 ins. by 9 ft., consisting of: 
 1 generator 9 ft. 6 ins. by 15 ft. 
 1 carburettor 9 ft. 6 ins. by 21 ft. 
 1 superheater 9 ft. ins. by 26 ft. 6 ins. 
 1 seal, cast iron, 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 24 ft., complete 
 in place, with foundations, charging floor and 
 
 connections $16,135 
 
 Water gas set, Gas Machinery Co., type, 7 ft. by 
 7 ft. by 7 ft., consisting of: 
 1 generator, 7 ft. by 14 ft. 
 1 carburettor 7 ft. by 14 ft. 
 1 superheater, 7 ft. by 24 ft. 
 1 seal, steel, 6 ft. by 4 ft., complete, in place, 
 
 with foundations, charging floor and connections $9,275 
 
 Water gas set. West. Gas Const. Co., 6 ft. 6 ins. by 
 6 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft., consisting of: 
 1 generator, 6 ft. 6 ins. by 16 ft. 
 1 carburettor, 6 ft. 6 ins. by 18 ft. 6 ins. 
 
GAS PLANTS 1187 
 
 1 superheater, 6 ft. by 24 ft. 
 
 1 seal, steel, 5 ft. by 3 ft. complete, in place, 
 
 with foundations, charging floor and connections $ 9,275 
 
 PURIFYING APPARATUS. $35,450 
 
 Purifier set, consisting of: 
 
 4 purifier boxes, Floyd 16 ft. by 12 ft. by 8 ft., 
 
 cast iron, 
 1 center seal, 
 1 traveling cover hoist, complete, in place, with 
 
 fundations and connections $11,475 
 
 2 purifier tanks, steel, 11 ft. 6 ins. by 21 ft., com- 
 plete, in place, with foundations and connec- 
 tions, at $4,075 8,150 
 
 Scrubber, 5 ft. by 16 ft., complete, in place, with 
 
 foundations and connections 375 
 
 Scrubber, 5 ft. by 20 ft., complete, in place, with 
 
 foundations and connections 465 
 
 Scrubber, 6 ft. by 24 ft. complete in place, with 
 
 foundations and connections 660 
 
 Scrubber, cast iron, 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 24 ft., complete, 
 
 in place, with foundations and connections .... 2,640 
 
 Condenser-scrubber, 6 ft. 6 ins. by 29 ft. 6 ins. com- 
 plete, in place, with foundations 800 
 
 Tubular condenser, 6 ft. by 16 ft., complete in place, 
 
 with foundations and connections 850 
 
 Tubular condenser, 5 ft. by 21 ft. complete, in 
 • place, with foundations and connections 900 
 
 Tubular, condenser, 6 ft. by 22 ft. complete, in place, 
 
 with foundations and connections 1,145 
 
 Condenser, cast iron, 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 24 ft. com- 
 plete, in place, with foundations and connections 2,465 
 
 Tar extractor, "P & A" #5, with 6 ft. 4 ins. by 5 
 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. wash box. complete, in place, 
 with foundations and connections 1,900 
 
 Tar extractor, " P «& A " #10, complete, in place, 
 
 with foundations and connections 2,130 
 
 7. STATION METERS. $33,775 
 
 Station meter, " H & M," 9 ft. with Hinman drum, 
 
 capacity 56,000 cu. ft. per hour, camplete, in place $2,900 
 
 Station meter, " H & M," 8 ft., with Hinman drum, 
 
 capacity 45.000 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place 2,500 
 
 3 high pressure meters, Westinghouse, #300, capac- 
 ity 40,000 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place, at 
 $850 2,550 
 
 High pressure meter, "Westinghouse," #100, ca- 
 pacity 1,000 cu. ft. per hour, not installed 450 
 
 High pressure meter, "Westinghouse," #50, ca- 
 pacity 8,500 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place, . 300 
 
 $8,700 
 
 High pres.sure meter, "Westinghouse," #100, ca- 
 pacity 16,000 cu. ft. per hour, not installed.... 450 
 
 High pressure meter. "Westinghouse," #50, ca- 
 pacity 8,500 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place 300 
 
 BOILERS. ^8,700 
 
 2 boilers, "Erie," 72 ins. by 18 ft., 125 # pressure, 
 complete, in ])lace, with foundations, brick work, 
 full front, all fittings' and 48 ins. by 55 ft. steel 
 stack $4,000 
 
 Feed water heater, 150 h.p., complete in place.... 300 
 
 $4,300 
 
1188 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 9. OTHER PLANT MACHINERY. 
 
 2 compressors, Ingersoll-Rand (Imperial) class 
 10-1 12 ins. by 16 ins. by 16 ins., complete, in 
 place, with foundations and connections, at $3,900 $7,800 
 
 Blower " Sturtevant " # 7, extra heavy, not installed 260 
 
 Blower, "Sturtevant" tcl extra heavy, belt con- 
 nected to 10 ins. by 12 ins. 45 h. p. Atlas engine, 
 complete, in place, with foundations and connec- 
 tions 1,095 
 
 2 blowers, ''Sturtevant," #6 extra heavy, direct 
 connected to Kerr 24 ins. — 120 h.p. horizontal 
 turbines, complete, in place, with foundations and 
 connections, at $2,060 4,120 
 
 Exhauster, "Roots" #7 direct connected to 9 ins. 
 by 9 ins. " Wachs " engine, complete, in place, 
 with foundations and connections 1,430 
 
 Exhauster, "Roots" #5 direct connected to eV^ 
 ins. by 7 ft. " Oil City " engine, complete, in place, 
 with foundations and connections 1,231 
 
 Exhauster, "Roots," #5 direct connected to 5}^ 
 ins. by 7 ins., " Safety " engine, complete, in 
 place, with foundations and connections 1,235 
 
 Governor, " Connelly," automatic and balance, com- 
 plete, in place, with foundations and connections 1,115 
 
 Outside packed plunger pump, " Worth ington," 
 10 ins. by 6 ins. by 10 ins., complete, in place, 
 with foot valve and intake pipe 320 
 
 Outside packed pump, " Worthington " 5^4 ins. by 
 
 3% ins. by 5 ins., complete, in place ' 157 
 
 2 Duplex pumps, "Worthington," AY2 ins. by 2% 
 
 ins. by 4 ins., complete, in place, at $65 130 
 
 Duplex pump, "Worthington," 7 V^ ins. by 5 ins. by 
 
 8 ins., complete, in place 140 
 
 Duplex, pump, "Buffalo" TV2 ins. by 5 ins. by 8 
 
 ins., complete, in place 162 
 
 3 Duplex pumps, " Gardner," 6 ins. by 4 ins. by 6 
 
 ins., complete, in place, at $105 315 
 
 Duplex pump, "Canton #5," 5 ins. by 2% ins. by 
 
 4 1^ ins., complete, in place 70 
 
 Deep well pump, "Marsh," 8 ins. by 24 ins. by 
 
 41/^ ins., complete, in place, with 4l^ ins. by 40 
 
 ins. artesian deep well brass cylinder 300 
 
 Centrifugal pump, " United Iron Works 4 ins," 
 
 direct connected to G. R. 20 h.p., 220 volt, d.c. 
 
 motor, complete, in place 375 
 
 2 oil heaters. Western Gas Construction Company, 
 
 at $30 60 
 
 Oil heater, own make 25 
 
 Oil Alter, American it 1 30 
 
 2 oil meters. National #1, at 40 80 
 
 Hydraulic elevator, " Craig-Ridgway," capacity one 
 
 ton, complete, in place 1,060 
 
 Coal elevator and conveyor, " Jeffrey," with G. E. 
 
 20 h.p. 220 volt, d.c. motor, complete, in place. . . 1,440 
 
 Ammonia plant, 10% complete . 180 
 
 $23,130 
 
 10. MISCELLANEOUS PLANT APPARATUS. 
 
 Patterns of miscellaneous fittings and apparatus . . $2,000 
 
 Seal, concrete, 4 ft. by 4 ft. by 7 ft 25 
 
 Seal, concrete, 3 ft. 9 ins. by 6 ft. by 6 ft. 6 ins 43 
 
 Separator, concrete, 6 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 ft. 6 ins. . . 50 
 
 Separator, concrete, 7 ft. by 5 ft. by 6 ft 95 
 
 Tar and ammonia separator, concrete, capacity 10,- 
 
 875 gals 480 
 
 Tar well, concrete, capacity 5,475 gals 165 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1189 
 
 Tar well, concrete, capacity 37,000 gals 
 
 Water reservoir, concrete, capacity 37,250 gals... 
 
 Ammonia storage tanlv, steel, capacity 13,535 gals., 
 complete, in place, with foundations and connec- 
 tions 
 
 Tar tank, double deck, timber and galvanized iron, 
 capacity 40,875 gals 
 
 Water tank, on top of coal bunkers, 1,430 gals, 
 
 , capacity 
 
 Artesian well 6 ins., 154 lin. ft., at $3 
 
 7 coal and coke cars, steel, one cu. yd. capacity, 24 
 in. gauge at $100 
 
 Tram track, 12 # rail, 24 in. gauge, complete, in 
 place, 465 lin. ft., at $1 
 
 11. PliAN*r PIPING AND FITTINGS. 
 
 Cast iron pipe, 16 ins., 560 lin. ft. at $3.60 
 
 Cast iron pipe, 12 ins., 880 lin. ft. at $2.50 
 
 Flanged pipe, 12 ins., 84 lin. ft. at $2.75 
 
 Cast iron pipe, 8 ins., 302 lin. ft., at $1.40 
 
 Wrought iron pipe, 8 ins., 580 lin. ft., at $1.10 
 
 Blast pipe, 15 ins. 216 lin. ft., at $1.50 
 
 Miscellaneous small pipe, 6 ins. and under with 
 
 fittings 
 
 Fittings, 16 ins 
 
 Fittings, 12 ins 
 
 Fittings, 8 ins 
 
 $880 
 615 
 
 750 
 600 
 
 100 
 462 
 
 700 
 465 
 
 $7,440 
 
 $2,016 
 2,200 
 231 
 423 
 638 
 324 
 
 2.000 
 2,068 
 3,250 
 
 78 
 
 $13,228 
 
 12. HOLDERS. 
 
 Gas holder, 3 lift, in steel tank, capacity 502,000 cu. 
 ft., complete, in jolace, with foundations and 
 connections $45,000 
 
 Gas holder, single lift in concrete tank, capacity 
 115,000 cu. ft., complete, in place, with founda- 
 tions and connections 24,000 
 
 Gas holder, single lift in brick and concrete tank, 
 capacity 56,000 cu. ft., complete, in place, with 
 foundations and connections (Used as oil stor- 
 age tank) , 11,200 
 
 Gas holder, 4 lift in steel tank, capacity 1,000,- 
 000 cu. ft. at Plant B. in course of construction, 
 expenditure to date 11.675 
 
 $91,875 
 
 13. PAVING. 
 
 Asphalt paving, torn up and relaid, 69,588 sq yds. 
 
 at $4 $278,352 
 
 Brick paving, torn up and relaid, 18,088 sq. yds., at 
 
 $3.50 63,308 
 
 Stone block paving, torn up and relaid, 14,030 sq. 
 
 yds. at $3.50 63,308 
 
 Stone block paving, torn up and relaid, 14,030 
 
 sq. yd.s., at $4 56,120 
 
 Bitulithic paving, torn up and relaid, 2,301 sq. yds. 
 
 at $4 9,204 
 
 Granitoid paving, torn up and relaid, 871 sq. yds. 
 
 at $4 3,484 
 
 Wood block paving, torn up and relaid, 414 sq. yds. 
 
 at $3.50 •• 1,449 
 
 Plank paving, torn up and relaid, 3,444 sq. yds. 
 
 at $0.60 2,066 
 
 $413,983 
 
1190 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 14. DISTRIBUTING MAINS. 
 
 WROUGHT IRON SCREW PIPE 
 
 % in. 250 lin. ft. at $0.14 $35 
 
 1 in., 1,605 lin. ft., at $0.16 257 
 
 114 in., 17,550 lin. ft. at $0.18 3,159 
 
 IVa in., 45.324 lin. ft, at $0.20 9,065 
 
 2 in., 231,632 lin. ft., at $0.24 55,592 
 
 2 V2 in., 4,045 lin. ft., at $0.30 1,214 
 
 3 in., 48,955 lin. ft, at $0.41 20,071 
 
 4 in., 583,209 lin. ft., at $0.51 297,437 
 
 6 in., 106,802 lin. ft, at $0.78 83,306 
 
 CAST IRON PIPE 
 
 3 in., 18,965 lin. ft, at $0.44 8,345 
 
 4 in., 89,850 lin. ft, at $0.62 55,707 
 
 6 in., 57.870 lin. ft, at $0.90 52.083 
 
 8 in. 22,270 lin. ft, at $1.30 ' 28.951 
 
 10 in.. 1 60 lin. ft at 1.78 285 
 
 12 in., 10,975 lin. ft, at $2.20 24,145 
 
 16 in., 8,540 lin. ft., at $3.07 26,218 
 
 Miscellaneous fittings for above pipe 15,314 
 
 $681,184 
 
 15. SERVICES, 
 
 SERVICE CONNECTIONS 
 
 % in., 53 at $11.60 $615 
 
 % in., 557 at $12.70 7,074 
 
 % in., 998 at $14.00 13.972 
 
 % in., 98 at $23.00 , 2,274 
 
 1 in., 2,432, at $14.20 34,534 
 
 114 in., 5.073 at $15.80 80,153 
 
 11/2 in., 326 at $17.35 5,656 
 
 2 in., 222 at $28.90 6,416 
 
 21/2 in., 6 at $35.70 214 
 
 3 in., 21 at $50.00 1,050 
 
 4 in., 3 at $100 300 
 
 SERVICE EXTENSIONS 
 
 % in., 222 at $10.90 2,420 
 
 1 in.. 480 at $10.50 5,040 
 
 114 in., 101 at $11.80 1,192 
 
 1 V2 in., 18 at $12.95 233 
 
 2 in., 5 at $15.90 80 
 
 STUB SERVICES 
 
 % in., 60 at $9.35 3,450 
 
 1 in., 171 at $10.85 1,855 
 
 1% in., 445 at $11.70 5,207 
 
 1% in., 594 at $12.70 7,544 
 
 2 in., 64 at $15.00 960 
 
 $180,239 
 
 16. GOVERNORS AND REGULATORS. 
 
 Double district station, governors, #02, complete $426 
 
 High pressure line governors, 4 in 324 
 
 High pressure line governors, 2 in. 2 at $88.00.... 176 
 
 Regulators, it 4 Reynolds, 66 at $37.30 2,462 
 
 Service regulators, 5 light, 1,616 at $4.00 6,464 
 
 Regulator chambers, concrete, 20 at $30.00. 600 
 
 Regulator chambers, wood, 42 at $7.50 315 
 
 Governor chambers, wood, 4 at $10.00 40 
 
 $10,807 
 
 17. HOUSE METERS. • 
 
 3 light 3,388, at $5.25 $17,787 
 
 5 light, 7,297 at $5.90 43.052 
 
GAS-PLANTS 
 
 1191 
 
 10 light, 270 at $7.95 $2,147 
 
 20 light, 38 at $11.45 435 
 
 30 light, 38 at $18.10 . 688 
 
 45 light, 8 at $26.35 211 
 
 60 light, 10 at $34.50 345 
 
 100 light, 6 at $57.00 342 
 
 #5 A, 1,974, at $7.20 14,213 
 
 #2 Equitable, 31, at $9.55 296 
 
 #4 Equitable, 10 at $10.05 ' 101 
 
 #4V2 Equitable, 22 at $10.05 221 
 
 # 6 Equitable, 24 at $17.35 416 
 
 3 light prepay, 711 at $9.80 6,968 
 
 5 light prepay, 560 at $10.35 5,796 
 
 10 light prepay, 37 at $1 2.15 450 
 
 20 light prepay, 4 at $15.30 61 
 
 #5 A prepay 293, at $10.00 2,930 
 
 Meter connections and .service extension inside of 
 
 house, $13,913 at $5.00 69,565 
 
 $166,024 
 
 18. ARC LIGHTS. 
 
 Inside arcs, inverted 3 light, 2,393 at $14.10 - $33,741 
 
 Inside arcs, inverted 5 light, 159 at $16.25 2,584 
 
 Outside arcs, inverted 3 light, 200 at $20.80 4,160 
 
 Outside arcs, inverted 5 light, 32 at $25.00 800 
 
 Inside arcs, standard 4 light. 476 at $12 65 6,021 
 
 Outside arcs, standard 4 light, 49 at $21.50 1,054 
 
 $48,360 
 
 19. TEAMS AND VEHICLES. 
 
 14 assorted horses at $250 $3,500 
 
 2 roadster, " Hudson," 4 cylinder, 20 h.p., com- 
 plete, at $1,350 2,700 
 
 1 touring car, " Winton," 6 cylinder, 48.6 h.p., 
 
 complete . . .' 4,100 
 
 1 delivery car, " Carter," 2 cylinder, 18 h.p.. com- 
 plete 1,500 
 
 1 auto truck, " White," 4 cylinder, 22 h.p., com- 
 
 plete 3.250 
 
 2 auto truck, " Reo " 1500#, single cylinder, 10 
 
 h.p., complete, $725 1,450 
 
 8 motorcycles, " Excelsior," single cylinder. 4 h.p., 
 with one tandem seat and shock absorber, 
 
 at $250 2,000 
 
 1 fitter's wagon, double, wooden top ' 200 
 
 1 fitter's wagon, single, wooden top 175 
 
 2 dump wagons, double, at $125 250 
 
 1 meter wagon, single 240 
 
 3 running gear wagons, double at $75 225 
 
 1 double running gear wagon with coke box 90 
 
 5 open fitter's wagons, single, at $140 700 
 
 1 drip wagon, complete, single 325 
 
 1 truck, double 225 
 
 1 running gear, single, with dump boards 175 
 
 1 delivery wagon, single 75 
 
 2 service wagons, single, at $125 250 
 
 1 light driving buggy 175 
 
 6 push carts, at $12.50 75 
 
 Harness 700 
 
 Tarpaulins, storm covers, blankets, etc 250 
 
 $22,630 
 
 20. TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 Tools in tool room $4,530 
 
 Tools in use in various depts 2,700 
 
 Works tools (mechanical) 750 
 
1192 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Retort house tools . $100 
 
 Water gas tools 200 
 
 Engineering- instruments 470 
 
 $8,750 
 
 21. TESTING APPARATUS. 
 
 Laboratory equipment $1,814 
 
 Recording instruments 1,250 
 
 Testing meters, provers, etc 1,190 
 
 • $4,254 
 
 22. FURNITURE AND FIXTURES. 
 
 Office furniture and fixtures $12,943 
 
 $12 943 
 Unloaded total $1,863*050 
 
 23. ENGINEERING, SUPERVISION AND ORGANIZATION EXPENSES. 
 
 10% of all preceding items $186,305 
 
 24. INTEREST DURING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 5% of all preceding items $102,468 
 
 25. CONTINGENCIES. 
 
 5% of all preceding Items $107,591 
 
 26. STORES AND WORKING CAPITAL. 
 
 Amount necessary for proper maintenance and 
 
 operation of property $80,000 
 
 27. BROKERS' FEES. 
 
 3.75% of all preceding items $87,728 
 
 Total, exclusive of real estate . . $2,427,142 
 
 28. REAL ESTATE. 
 
 Real estate, including loading charges 153,147 
 
 Total, including real estate $2,580,289 
 
 Operating Record. The following operating statistics are aver- 
 ages taken for 13 months from Nov. 1910 to Dec. 1911. 
 
 Total consumption 19,998,000 cu. ft. 
 
 Cost in holder per M cu. ft $0.3722 
 
 Distribution cost per M cu. ft 0.0884 
 
 General expense, including taxes per M cu. ft 0.2798 
 
 Total operating expense per M cu. ft $0.7404 
 
 Comparison of Calorific Values, Coal and Water Gases. The only 
 logical way to present the comparative cost so that it appears in 
 its true light is to show the cost per unit of calorific power derived. 
 Under present conditions about 48% of the total gas manufactured 
 is coal gas, having a calorific energy of approximately 550 B.t.u. ; 
 while the remaining 52 per cent, is water gas, having a calorific 
 energy of approximately 660 B.t.u., or 20% greater than that 
 possessed by coal gas. By using these figures in connection with 
 average costs of generating coal and water gas it is seen that the 
 cost of coal gas per 100 B.t.u. is 4.95 cts., while the cost of water 
 gas of similar calorific power is 5.05 cts.' 
 
GAS PLANTS 1193 
 
 TABLE III. COMPARATIVE COST OF COAL. GAS AND WATER 
 
 GAS 
 
 COAL GAS 
 
 Monthly average 
 Item cost per M cu ft. 
 
 manufactured 
 
 Operating- labor $0.1041 
 
 Coal carbonized = . . . . 0.3444 
 
 Bench fuel 0.1386 
 
 Steam 0.0166 
 
 Purifying material 0.0010 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 0.0064 
 
 Maintenance land and buildings 0.0017 
 
 Maintenance of apparatus 0.0108 
 
 Oil, waste and power 0.0020 
 
 Gross total $0.6331 
 
 Residuals, sold (credit) 0.3606 
 
 Net total $0.2725 
 
 WATER GAS 
 
 Operating labor $0.0397 
 
 Oil 0.1413 
 
 Coke 0.0957 
 
 Steam 0.0497 
 
 Purifying material O.OOll 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies 0.0064 
 
 Maintenance land and buildings 0.0016 
 
 Maintenance of apparatus 0.0115 
 
 Oil, waste and power 0.0019 
 
 Gross total $0.3491 
 
 Residuals sold (credit) 0.0165 
 
 Net total $0.3326 
 
 The result is slightly in favor of coal gas ; but the calorific power 
 of coal gas is too low for commercial purposes, and is dependent 
 upon the water gas to enrich it to a commercial basis. As the 
 calorific power of the water gas can be easily regulated by changing 
 the amount of oil used in carburetting it, while that of the coal gas 
 is determined by the quality of the coal used, it can readily be 
 seen why the former is manufactured. 
 
 Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 25,000. The following 
 data are abstracted from our appraisal report of a public utility 
 
 TABLE IV. GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE ESTIMATED COST 
 OP REPRODUCTION OF PROPERTY 
 
 1. Gas making machinery $ 85,612 
 
 2. Distributing mains (45 miles) 94,637 
 
 3. Services 37,388 
 
 4. Meters 25,1 62 
 
 5. Buildings 5,677 
 
 6. Electric wiring at plant 103 
 
 7. Tools and in.struments . . ., , 1,862 
 
 8. Horses and vehicles 250 
 
 9. Furniture and fixtures 714 
 
 10. Miscellaneous equipment and apparatus 200 
 
 Total $251,605 
 
1194 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 11. Engineering 5% of items 1 to 10 inc $ 12,580 
 
 12. Business management 5% of items 1 to 10 inc 12,580 
 
 $276,765 
 
 13. Legal expense, 11/0% of items 1 to 12 inc $ 4,151 
 
 $280,916 
 
 14. Interest during construction, 5% of items 1 to 13, inc.. .$ 14,046 
 
 $294,962 
 
 15. Contingencies, 5% of items 1 to 14 inc $ 14,748 
 
 $309,710 
 
 16. Broker fees, 5% of items 1 to 15 inc $ 15,486 
 
 $325,196 
 
 17. Stores and supplies $ 17,622 
 
 18. Working cash capital 10,182 
 
 $353,000 
 
 19. Operative real estate $ 8,700 
 
 20. Legal expense, interest during construction and broker- 
 
 age fees, 12% of item 20 1,044 
 
 $362,744 
 
 21. Non-operating real estate $ 2,225 
 
 Total cost as of June 30, 1911 $364,969 
 
 Note : The costs used in this appraisal are based on prices pre- 
 vailing previous to the World War. 
 
 property which included this gas plant, which supplied 2139 cus- 
 tomers, in a western city of 25,000 population, with 37,544,000 cu. 
 ft. annually. 
 
 The following table gives weights and prices of certain of the gas 
 plant equipment included in the appraisal. 
 
 Weight, lbs. Price 
 
 1 4 ft. Lowe water gas set 31,000 $ 3,800 
 
 1 150 M cu. ft. gas holder 300,000 19,750 
 
 1 #3 exhaui^ter, engine and by-pass, consisting 
 of inlet and outlet valves, automatic by- 
 pass valve and connections for same 3,200 638 
 
 1 #3 P. & A. tar extractor, with by-pass, con.sist- 
 
 ing of three valves and necessary connec- 
 tions 2,800 440 
 
 2 10 ft. by 12 ft. by 11 ft. 6 in. purifiers with 
 
 12 in. duplex valve 74,000 5,700 
 
 1 66 in. station meter and by-pass consisting of 
 
 three valves and necessary fittings 9,170 1,300 
 
 1 3 ft bv 11 ft. condenser ; 3,660 250 
 
 1 3 ft. -4 in. bv 14 in. condenser 5,700 415 
 
 1 wa.sher 30 ins. by 42 ins. by 28 ins 4,800 325 
 
 1 scrubber 3 ft. -4 ins. by 21 ft 4,300 270 
 
 1 scrubber 4 ft by IS ft. by 8~ ins 4,800 297 
 
 1 purifier 8 ft. by 10 ft. by 3 V. ft 12,500 790 
 
 1 oil heater 600 90 
 
 1 % in. oil meter •. . . 310 90 
 
 1 12 in. Connelly governor 850 480 
 
 1 42.000 cu. ft. gas holder 130,000 8,200 
 
 1 #5 blower for water gas set 550 98 
 
GAS PLANTS 1195 
 
 TABLE V. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUCTION 
 OF PROPERTY 
 
 1. GAS MAKING MACHINERY 
 
 Benches. 
 
 1 Coal gas bench, half depth, Parker-Russell type con- 
 
 sisting of six retorts whose safe daily capacity is 
 
 40,000 cu. ft., estimated $3,500.00 
 
 2 Coal gas benches of the Parker-Russell type consist- 
 
 ing of six retorts each. Contract price 5,826,00 
 
 Extra work on benches 838.25 
 
 Total cost of benches $6,664.25 
 
 Water Gas Set. 
 
 1 4 ft. Lowe double superheater apparatus. This con- 
 sists of 1 generator, 1 carburettor and 1 scrubber, 
 and has a safe daily capacity of 100,000 cu. ft $8,904.40 
 
 Additional improvements on water gas set 986.23 
 
 $9,890.63 
 Primary Condenser. 
 
 This is a 5 ft. diameter by 19 ft. high combination air 
 and water primary condenser. This contract also 
 called for a few other changes to be made to the 
 plant including a 9 ft. 6-in. addition to be made to 
 one scrubber and the installation of some 10 in. pip- 
 ing, also six 3-in. sight " U " overflows and a 24 in. 
 by 36 in. drain tank. Contract price $2,716.00 
 
 Additional cost to company 193.44 
 
 $2,909.44 
 Coal Gas Condensers. 
 
 1 Coal gas condenser. 3 ft. diameter by 11 ft. high. 
 
 Cost of condenser $250.00 
 
 Installation 25.00 
 
 $275.00 
 1 Coal gas wrought iron condenser 3 ft. 4 ins. diameter 
 
 by 14 ft. high. Co.st of condenser $415.00 
 
 Installation 41.50 
 
 $456.50 
 Coal Gas Scrubbers. 
 
 1 Coal gas wrought iron scrubber 4 ft. diameter by 18 
 
 ft. 8 ins. Cost of scrubber $297.00 
 
 Installation 53.00 
 
 $350.00 
 1 Coal gas wrought iron scrubber 3 ft. 4 ins. diameter 
 
 by 21 ft. high $300.00 
 
 Chollar Washer. 
 
 1 Chollar washer 2 ft. 6 ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. by 2 ft. 4 ins. $350.00 
 
 Exhauster. 
 
 1 P. H. & F. M. Root's exhauster size 3. The cost of 
 the exhauster is included with 150,000 cu. ft. gas 
 holder. 
 
 1 P. H. & F. M. Root's exhauster Size 4. Cost of ex- 
 hauster • $ 723.00 
 
 Materials 288.52 
 
 Labor 92.89 
 
 $1,104.41 
 
1106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Tar Extractor. 
 
 1 P. & A. tar extractor — 250,000 cu. ft. capacity, No. 3. 
 The cost of the extractor is included with 150,000 
 cu. ft. gas holder. 
 
 Purifier. 
 
 1 Small wet seal purifier, 8 ft. by 10 ft. by 3% ft. with 
 
 a capacity of 60,000 cu. ft., (estimated) installed. . |1,000.00 
 
 2 Duplex purifiers 10 ft. by 12 ft. by 11 ft. 6 ins., with 
 
 dry seal covers, beams, columns, oxide elevators, 
 
 duplex operating valve, 12 in. connections, overhead 
 
 • twift and two layers of trays and dumping spouts. 
 
 Contract price , $5,758.00 
 
 Extra charges * , 3,493.49 
 
 $9,251.49 
 
 Station Meters. 
 
 1 American Meter Co.'s 4 ft. by 4 ft. Standard Meter, ca- 
 pacity 90,000 cu. ft., f.o.b. Philadelphia $575.00 
 
 Freight and installation 100.00 
 
 $675.00 
 
 1 Meter 66 in. with a commercial capacity of 311,000 cu. 
 ft. The price of this is included under the cost of 
 the purifiers. 
 
 Gas Holders. 
 
 1 Gas holder, 42,000 cu. ft. The holder and tank are 
 used for a stoarge unit for water gas, (estimated) 
 installed $12,000 
 
 1 Gas holder. 150,000 cu. ft., together with other appa- 
 ratus. Contract price $21,954.00 
 
 Miscellaneous charges 5,600.69 
 
 $27,554.69 
 1 Boiler, 30 h.p. horizontal tubular, used for generating 
 
 steam for the water gas plant $350.00 
 
 1 Boiler, 6 h.p. upright 150.00 
 
 1 Duplex steam pump, 3 in, by 2 in. by 4 in. Cost. . , . 33.50 
 
 Installation 6.50 
 
 $40.00 
 1 Duplex steam pump, 4^/^ ins. by 2% ins. by 4 ins. 
 
 Cost $51.00 
 
 Installation 9.00 
 
 $60.00 
 
 1 Duplex steam pump 3V> ins. by 2^^ ins. by 3 ins. Cost $47.50 
 
 Installation 7.50 
 
 $55.00 
 1 Ammoniacal liquor concentrator, capacity for concen- 
 trating liquor, resultant from ammoniacal carbon- 
 ization of 20,000 tons of coal. Total charge $2,245.22 
 
 1 Oil heater (estimated) installed $110.00 
 
 1 No. 5 Buffalo blower driven by 8-h.p. Erie engine. 
 
 Price $266.00 
 
 Installation, etc 1 8.00 
 
 $284.00 
 
 * These extra charges include cost of improvements to Chollar 
 washer and old purifier, also installation of station meter. The 
 price of the station meter itself f.o.b. plant was $1,400. 
 
GAS PLANTS 1197 
 
 1 Tar well 10 ft. by 12 ft. by 9 ft., built of 2-in. 
 
 plank. 
 
 Excavation 40 cu. yds. at $0.50 $20.00 
 
 Material 25.00 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $47.00 
 
 2 Bri.stol recording- gauges $ 80.00 
 
 1 Fairbank.s-Morse 6 h.p. gas engines 340.00 
 
 1 10 h.p.-G. E. motor. Price motor 170.00 
 
 Miscellaneou.s 37.39 
 
 $207.39 
 
 1 No. 6 Sturtevant gas booster $550.00 
 
 Installation 88.92 
 
 $638.92 
 1 Oil tank. 10,000 gals $350.00 
 
 3 Bristol pressure gauge, not installed $105.00 
 
 Piping and Covering. 
 
 Pipe line, water gas machine to holder, 71 ft. 6 Ins., 
 8 in. riveted pipe at 7 lbs. per foot, 500.5 lbs., 501 
 
 lbs. at $0.06 ; $30.06 
 
 7, 8 in. ca.st iron elbows at $5.53 38.71 
 
 Labor erection 21.00 
 
 $89.77 
 Pipe line, water gas holder to exhauster. 75 ft. 6 in. 
 
 wrought iron pipe at $0,611 $45.83 
 
 4, 6 in. fittings at $0.85 . , ." .S.40 
 
 Labor erection . , 25.00 
 
 $74.23 
 Steam pipe. 
 
 165 ft. 1V> in. pipe at $0.765 $12.62 
 
 125 ft. 1 in. pipe at $0.0639 7.99 
 
 140 ft. 1^/2 in. covering, $0.15 21.00 
 
 Fittings r estimated) , , . , 10.00 
 
 Labor 35 00 
 
 $86.61 
 Water pipe. 
 
 175 ft. 2 in. pipe at $0,118 $20 65 
 
 Fittings ("estimated) 1.50 
 
 Labor 5 00 
 
 $27.15 
 Railing about condensers. 
 
 87 ft. 114 in. pipe at $0.0639 $5 56 
 
 20, 1^4 in. railing fittings at $0.14 2.80 
 
 Labor 3.00 
 
 $11.36 
 Railing about purifiers. 
 
 60 ft. 1 in. pipe at $0.06 $3.60 
 
 15, 1 in. fittings at $0.10 1.50 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $7.10 
 Pipe from coal shed to oil tank. 
 
 145 ft.. 3 in. pipe at $0,245 $.35.53 
 
 Miscellaneous material 18.79 
 
 Labor 10 86 
 
 $65.18 
 
1198 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Ammonia pipe from tank to side track. 
 
 150 ft. 2 in. pipe at $0,147 $21.75 
 
 Fittings 0.99 
 
 Labor 8.30 
 
 Steam and water-line to ash pans of benches, total .... 
 
 Water line. 
 
 2 in. pipe from storage tank to works, 170 ft. 2 in. 
 
 pipe at $0,145 
 
 Miscellaneous material 
 
 Labor 
 
 Circulating pump to ammonia still. 
 
 62 ft. 1 V4. in. pipe 
 
 Miscellaneous material 
 
 Labor 
 
 Water Tank. 
 
 The old purifiers erected near the Sub-Station and 
 connected to the works by a 1-in. pipe. Tanks 
 measure 7 ft by 7 ft. by 1 ft. 5 ins., built of 14 -in. 
 
 metal. Total weight 2,730 lbs., at $0.03 
 
 Erection and pipe line installation 
 
 $31,04 
 11.49 
 
 $24.65 
 
 4.11 
 
 11.55 
 
 $40.31 
 
 $4.50 
 0.71 
 5.94 
 
 $11.15 
 
 $81.90 
 35.55 
 
 $117.45 
 
 Miscellaneous small piping not detailed (estimated) . . ,$100.00 
 
 Main from station meter to large holder. 
 
 230 ft. 10-in. pipe at $1.22 $270.60 
 
 1 10-in. by 6 in. reducer 5.40 
 
 1 10-in. Ell double hub 9.00 
 
 1 10-in. drip 5.00 
 
 2 10-in. 45 degree bends 12.06 
 
 Labor 90.00 
 
 $392.06 
 Main from Governor to Elk Street. 
 
 105 ft. 12-in. pipe at $1.56 $163.80 
 
 1 12-in. tee at $8.88 8.88 
 
 2 12-in. to 8-in. reducers, at $8.00 16.00 
 
 2 8-in. valves at $20,69 41.38 
 
 Labor 30.00 
 
 $260.06 
 Main from Booster to Elk Street. 
 
 50 ft., 8-in. pipe at $0.87 $43.50 
 
 217 ft, 6-in. pipe at $0,60 130.20 
 
 1 8-in. by 6-in. by 6-in. tee 3.45 
 
 2 6-in. valves at $11.29 22.58 
 
 Labor 35.00 
 
 $234.73 
 
 12-in. Connolly governor, price f.o.b. plant $480.00 
 
 Installation (estimated) 50.00 
 
 $530.00 
 
 %-in. oil meter, price f.o.b. plant $90.00 
 
 Installation (estimated) . 10.00 
 
 $100.00 
 #5 blower for water gas set, price f.o.b. plant, not in- 
 stalled $98.00 
 
 Pumps : 1 Wagner 3 in. by 2 in. by 3 in. ; 1 Snow 3 
 
 in. by 2 in. by 3 in., estimated $50.00 
 
GAS PLANTS 1199 
 
 Ammonia liquor well, 4 ft. by 12 ft. by 9 ins., built of 
 3 in. lumber 
 
 Excavation 16 cu. yds. at $1.00 $16.00 
 
 Lumber 1,158 ft. b.m. at $25.00 per M 30.00 
 
 $46.00 
 
 Pressure gauge board (estimated) $12.00 
 
 Oxide in purifiers, estimated 4,160 bushels at $0.45 $1,872.00 
 
 Total gas making machinery $85,611.63 
 
 2. DISTRIBUTING MAINS 
 
 1-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 
 
 Material. 3998 lin. ft. pipe at $0.0639 $255.47 
 
 Fittings, 3998 lin. ft., at $0,003 11.99 
 
 Total material $267.46 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 3998 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. by 
 
 2.5 ft.), 370 cu. yds. at $0.75 $277.50 
 
 Drayage, 4 tons at 1.5 miles, 6 ton-miles, 6 ton miles at 
 
 $0.40 2.40 
 
 Laying pipe, 3998 lin. ft. at $0.03 119.94 
 
 Painting pipe, 3998 lin. ft. at $0.00112 4.48 
 
 Total labor $404.32 
 
 Total 1 in. pipe $671.78 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Material, cost per ft .' $0,067 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.101 
 
 Total $0,168 
 
 2-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 
 
 Material, 106.861 lin. ft. pipe at $0.118 $12,609.60 
 
 Fittings, 106,861 lin. ft. at $0.0048 512.93 
 
 Total material $13,122.53 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 106,861 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. 
 
 by 2.5 ft.). 9895 cu. yds. at $0.75 $7,421.25 
 
 Drayage, 214 tons at 1.5 miles — 321 ton miles. 321 ton 
 
 miles at $0.40 128.40 
 
 Laying pipe, 106,861 lin. ft. at $0.03 3,205.83 
 
 Painting pipe, 106,861 lin. ft. at $0.00142 151.74 
 
 Total labor . , $10,907.22 
 
 Total 2-in. pipe $24,029.75 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Material, cost per ft $0,123 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.102 
 
 Total $0,225 
 
 3-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 
 
 Material, 54,999 lin. ft. pipe at $0.2673 $14,701.23 
 
 Fittings, 54,999 lin. ft. at $0.0047 258.50 
 
 Total material $14,959.73 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 54,999 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. by 
 
 2.5 ft.), 5093 cu. yds. at $0.75 $3,819.75 
 
 Drayage, 220 tons at 1.5 miles — 330 ton mile.s, 330 ton 
 
 miles at $0.40 132.00 
 
1200 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Laying pipe, 54.999 lin. ft. at $0,065 3,574.94 
 
 Painting pipe, 54,999 lin. ft, at $0.00172 94.20 
 
 Total labor $7,620. 
 
 Total 3-in. pipe $22,580.62 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Material, cost per ft $0,272 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.139 
 
 Total $0,411 
 
 4-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 
 
 Material, 45,445 lin. ft. pipe at $0.3355 $15,246.80 
 
 Fittings 45,445 lin. ft. at $0.0067 304.49 
 
 Total material $15,551.29 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 45,445 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. 
 
 by 2.5 ft.), 4208 cu. yds. at $0.75 $3,156.00 
 
 Drayage, 250 tons at 1.5 miles, 375 ton miles, 375 ton miles 
 
 at $0.40 150.00 
 
 Laying pipe, 45.445 lin. ff at $0.08 3,635.60 
 
 Painting pipe, 45,445 lin. ft. at $0.00191 86.80 
 
 Total labor $7,028.40 
 
 Total 4-in. pipe $22,579.69 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Material, cost per ft $0,342 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.154 
 
 Total $0,496 
 
 6-in. Cast Iron Pipe. 
 Material, 6305 lin. ft. pipe at 30 lbs. per ft., 189,150 lbs. at 
 
 $40.00 per ton . $3,783.00 
 
 Lead, 526 joint at 8 lbs. per joint, 4208 lbs., at $0.0525 
 
 per lb 220.92 
 
 Oakum. 526 joints at 9/16 lbs. per joint, 300 lbs. at 
 
 $0.09 27.00 
 
 Total material $4,030.92 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 6,305 lin. ft. trench (2 ft. by 
 
 2.5 ft.), 1,168 cu. yds. at $0.75 $876.00 
 
 Bell holes, 526 at $0.08 42.08 
 
 Drayage, 189,150 lbs. pipe 
 4,208 " lead 
 300 " oakum 
 
 193,658 " 97 tons at 1.5 miles — 146 ton 
 
 miles, 146 ton miles at $0.40.. 58.40 
 
 Laying pipe, 6305 lin ft. at $0.03 189.15 
 
 Painting pipe, 6305 lin. ft. at $0.00231 14.56 
 
 Total labor $1,180.19 
 
 Total 6-in. C. L pipe $5,211.11 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Material, cost per ft $0.64 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.186 
 
 Total $0,826 
 
GAS PLANTS 1201 
 
 6-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 
 
 Material, 6000 lin. ft. pipe at $0,611 $3,666.00 
 
 Fittings for 6000 lin. ft. at $0.0712 427.20 
 
 Total material $4,093.20 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 6000 lin. ft. trench (1.5 ft., 
 
 by 2.5 ft.), 944 cu. yds. at $0.75 $708.00 
 
 Dray age, 57 tons at 1.5 miles — 86 ton miles, 86 ton 
 
 miles at $0.40 34.40 
 
 Laying pipe, 6000 lin. ft. at $0.06 360.00 
 
 Painting pipe, 6000 lin. ft. at $0.00231 1'3.86 
 
 Total labor $1,116.26 
 
 Total 6-in. W. L pipe $5,209.46 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Material, cost per ft $0,682 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.186 
 
 Total $0,868 
 
 8-in. Cast Iron Pipe. 
 Material, 5353 lin. ft. pipe at $0.40 lbs. per ft., 214,120 lbs. 
 
 at $40.00 per ton $4,282.40 
 
 Lead, 447 joints at 11 lbs. per joint, 4917 lbs. at 
 
 $0.0525 per lb 258.14 
 
 Oakum, 447 joints at 11/16 lbs. per joint 307 lbs. at 
 
 $0.09 per lb 27.63 
 
 Total material $4,568.17 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 5353 lin. ft. trench (2 ft. by 
 
 3 ft.), 1227 cu. yds. at $0.75 $920.25 
 
 Drayage, 214,120 lbs. pipe 
 4,917 " lead 
 307 " oakum 
 
 219,344 " 110 tons at 1.5 miles — 165 ton 
 
 miles, 165 ton miles at $0.40. . 66.00 
 
 Bell holes, 447 at $0.08 35.76 
 
 Laying pipe. 5353 lin. ft. at $0.03 160.59 
 
 Painting pipe, 5353 lin. ft. at $0.00269 14.40 
 
 Total labor $1,197.00 
 
 Total 8-in. C. L pipe $5,765.17 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Materia], cost per ft $0,853 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.224 
 
 Total $1,077 
 
 Note : Fittings are listed separately. 
 
 8-in. Converse Lock Joint Pipe. 
 
 Material, 8784 lin. ft. pipe at $0,675 $5,929.20 
 
 Lead, 550 joints at 8 lbs. per joint, 4400 lbs. at $0.0525 
 
 per lb 231.00 
 
 Oakum, 550 joints at % lbs. per joint, 357 lbs., at 
 
 $0.09 32.13 
 
 Total material $6,192.33 
 
 Labor, excavation and refill, 8784 lin. ft. trench (2 ft. 
 
 by 3 ft), 1952 cu. yds. at $0.75 $1,464.00 
 
1202 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Dray age, 125,699 lbs. pipe 
 4,400 " lead 
 357 " oakum 
 
 130,456 " — 65 tons at 1.5 mile — 98 ton 
 
 miles, 98 ton miles at $0.40. $39.20 
 
 Bell holes, 550 9,t $0.08 45.00 
 
 Laying pipe, 8784 lin. ft. at $0.03 263.52 
 
 Painting pipe, 8784 lin. ft. at $0.00269 23.63 
 
 Total labor $1,835.00 
 
 Total C. L. J. pipe $8,027.68 
 
 Unit Costs. 
 
 Material, cost per ft $0,716 
 
 Labor, cost per ft 0.198 
 
 Total $0,914 
 
 Note : Fittings are listed separately. 
 
 "Valves. 
 
 3 6-in. valves at $16.29 $48.87 
 
 3 4-in. valves at 10.53 31.59 
 
 4 3-in. valves at $6.00 24.00 
 
 3 2-in. valves at 3.00 9.00 
 
 Total $113.46 
 
 Fittings. 
 
 32 8-in. crosses at $5.80 $185.60 
 
 20 6-in. crosses at 4.00 80.00 
 
 8 8-in. plugs at 1.50 12.00 
 
 5 6-in. plugs at 1.00 5.0a 
 
 2048 lbs. lead at $0,525 107.62 
 
 133 lbs. oakum at $0.09 . ." 11.97 
 
 Drayage 10.00 
 
 Labor 35.00 
 
 Total $447.19 
 
 Total valves and fittings $560.65 
 
 3. SERVICE CONNECTIONS. 
 
 8,584 lin. ft. %-in. 
 
 198,209 lin. ft. 1-in. 
 
 17,280 lin. ft. 1%-in. 
 
 3,628 lin. ft. iy2-in. 
 
 3029 Connections, 227,761 lin. ft. 
 
 227,761 lin. ft. at $0.16 $36,441.76 
 
 Painting 227,761 lin. .ft. at $0.00112 225.09 
 
 $36,696.85 
 42 Connections. 2688 lin. ft., 2-in. 
 
 2688 lin. ft. at $0.23 $618.24 
 
 Painting 2688 lin. ft. at $0.00142 3.82 
 
 $622.06 
 1 Connections, 135 lin. ft. 4 ins. 
 
 135 lin. ft. at $0.51 $68.85 
 
 Painting 135 lin. ft. at $0,00191 0.26 
 
 $69.11 
 Total service connections $37,388.02 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1203 
 
 880 
 
 42 
 
 426 
 
 140 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 433 
 
 123 
 
 461 
 
 42 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4. METERS. 
 
 3 Lt. Prepayment at $10.45 $9,196.00 
 
 3 " " " 8.70 365.40 
 
 5 " " " 12.22 5,265.72 
 
 5 " " " 10.4? 1,088.80 
 
 10 " " " 14.05 56.20 
 
 10 " '• " 12.05 84.35 
 
 3 Lt. Plain at $6.87 $2,974.71 
 
 3 " " " 5.12 629.76 
 
 5 " " " 8.25 3,803.25 
 
 f " " " 6.50 273.00 
 
 10 " " " 10 53 326.43 
 
 10 " " " 8.53 51.18 
 
 20 " " " 15.00 180.00 
 
 20 " " " 12.00 ■ 24.00 
 
 60 '• " 55.00 
 
 60 " " 50.00 
 
 100 " " 63.95 
 
 150 " " . 95.00 
 
 200 " " 117.00 
 
 200 " ". 112 00 
 
 300 " " "205.00 410.00 
 
 Total meters $25,161.75 
 
 5. BUILDINGS. 
 
 Coal Shed. 
 
 This is a one-story frame building measuring about 70 
 ft. by 25 ft. by 25 ft high. There is also an ad- 
 dition about 70 ft. by 17 ft. These buildings are 
 frame, covered with corrugated iron. 
 
 Clearing site, grading, etc $300.00 
 
 8,000 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per square . . 536.00 
 
 14,000 ft. b. m. lumber at $25.00 per M 350.00 
 
 Incidentals 100.00 
 
 Total $1,286.00 
 
 Old Retort House. 
 
 This is a brick building with iron truss roof which is 
 covered with corrugated iron. The general dimen- 
 sions are 40 ft. by 40 ft. by 25 ft. The walls are 
 12 ins. thick. 
 
 Grading, clearing, etc $50.00 
 
 60,000 brick at $12.00 per M 720.00 
 
 1400 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq 94.00 
 
 Pipe trusses 60.00 
 
 Incidentals 50.00 
 
 Total $974.00 
 
 New Retort House. 
 
 This is a frame building covered with cori-ugated iron. 
 The East wall is of rubble masonry, while the South 
 wall is formed by the old retort house. The gen- 
 eral dimensions are 50 ft. by 30 ft. by 26 ft. 
 
 Grading, etc $200.00 
 
 Rubble wall, 56 cu. yds. at $5.00 280.00 
 
 4,000 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 268.00 
 
 10,000 ft. b. m. lumber at $25.00 250.00 
 
 Floor, etc 75.00 
 
 Incidentals 75.00 
 
 Total $1,148.00 
 
1204 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Purifying House. 
 
 This is a one-story frame building covered with corru- 
 gated iron and measures 65 ft. by 30 ft. 
 
 Clearing site, grading, etc $250.00 
 
 5,000 ft b. m. lumber at $25.00 . . . , 125.00 
 
 5,5U0 .sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 369.00 
 
 3.800 brick at $12.00 456.00 
 
 Meter room 25.00 
 
 Incidentals 75.00 
 
 Floor 30.00 
 
 Total $1,330.00 
 
 Oxide Platforms. 
 
 There are 2 oxide platforms placed one over the 
 other. The uppei one is frame covered with corru- 
 gated iron. The floor of this one partially forming 
 the roof of the lower one, which is about 40 ft. 
 longer than the upper one. General dimensions 
 of upper platform are 45 ft. by 14 ft. 
 
 630 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 $42.00 
 
 1,500 ft. B. M. lumber at $25.00 38.00 
 
 Incidentals 10.00 
 
 Lower platform 60.00 
 
 Total $150.00 
 
 Boiler Room. 
 
 This measures 12 ft. by 10 ft. by 8 ft. Three sides and 
 the roof are covered with corrugated iron. The 
 other side being formed by the new retort house. 
 
 400 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq $27.00 
 
 Lumber 5.00 
 
 Total $32.00 
 
 Coke Shed. 
 
 This is a frame building open at the sides, the loof 
 being covered with corrugated iron.. The general 
 dimensions being 50 ft. by 33 ft. 
 
 2,000 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq $134.00 
 
 6,000 ft. b. m. lumber at $25.00 ■. 150.00 
 
 Total $284.00 
 
 Oil House. 
 
 This is a frame biulding measuring 6 ft. by 6 ft. 
 
 Estimated $12.00 
 
 Bunk House. 
 
 This is a frame building measuring 24 ft. by 15 ft. and 
 contains 360 sq. ft. of floor area. 
 Cost at $0.50 sq. ft $180.00 
 
 Coal Shed. 
 
 This measures about 12 ft. by 10 ft. and is open at the 
 front. 
 Cost $10.00 
 
 Governor House. 
 
 This is a frame building covered with corrugated iron 
 and measured 16 6 ft. by 14.6 ft. 
 
 700 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq $47.00 
 
 .Lumber 10.00 
 
 Total " ;. $57.00 
 
GAS PLANTS 1205 
 
 Booster House. 
 
 This is a frame building covered with corrugated iron, 
 it measures 13 ft. by 20 ft. One side of this is 
 formed by the 150,000 cu. ft. gas holder, the other 
 partially by the governor house. 
 Estimated cost $25.00 
 
 Fence. 
 
 378 lineal feet of board fence, 6 ft. high at $0.50 
 
 per lin. ft $189.00 
 
 Total buildings $5,677.00 
 
 Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 15,000. The following 
 is abstracted from one of our appraisal reports of a western Power, 
 Light and Water Co. and is for the "Gas Department." This de- 
 partment furnishes gas for domestic and lighting use to about 1,300 
 customers in two adjoining cities, having a combined population of 
 15,000. The system consists of an oil gas generating plant of 
 100,000 cu. ft. daily capacity, and 25.6 miles of mains. 
 
 During 1911 the company distributed 21,898,000 cu. ft. of gas. 
 
 Process of Manufacturing Oil Gas. The process of making fuel 
 and illuminating gas from crude oil consists in spraying the oil 
 over the highly heated checkerbrick interior of brick-lined steel 
 generators, much resembling those used in the manufacture of 
 water gas. 
 
 The gas is manufactured from absolutely crude oil from the 
 Baker.sfield, California, district. The oil now used has a specific 
 gravity of 16° to 17° Baume. A distillation test of a 15° oil used 
 in 1908 gave the following results. 
 
 Below 150° F 6.133% 
 
 150' to 300° F 70.111% 
 
 Re.sidue 23,756% 
 
 No distillation above 270°. 
 
 An analysis of a 15.8° Baume oil (similar to that used) at one of 
 the San Francisco plants in 1908 gave the following results. 
 
 Carbon 85.0% 
 
 Nitrogen 1.0% 
 
 Sulphur 0.8% 
 
 Oxvgen 1.0% 
 
 Hydrogen 12.2% 
 
 If the oil contains less than 1% of sulphur, it is very easily purified 
 in oxide purifiers. If above 1%, a large purifying capacity must 
 be provided. Nearly all of the California oils contain a low per- 
 centage of sulphur. The iron oxide used as purifier by the Com- 
 pany is made from copperas and lime. Some iron borings are used, 
 but only when they can be obtained cheaply. 
 
 In making a run the interior of the generator is heated by an 
 oil flame under a blast to a temperature of 2300° to 2800° F. 
 This takes from 8 to 12 minutes if the generators have not been 
 allowed to cool. The stack valve is then closed, the air cut off 
 and the oil turned onto the hot brick. This part of the operation 
 
1206 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 lasts from 10 to 20 minutes or until the generator becomes too 
 cool for making further gas. Enough steam is admitted to carry- 
 in the oil and to atomize it. Near the end of the run the oil is 
 cut off and steam at boiler pressure admitted for from 1 to 2 
 minutes to purge the generator. 
 
 The generators usually consist of cylindrical steel shells 6 ft, to 
 16 ft. in diameter and 20 ft. to 40 ft. high. In some cases the 
 generators are in two parts, connected at the bottom in the form 
 of a U. One called the primary to which the blast and oil burners 
 are connected at the top is about .5 as high as the other. This 
 does away with the necessity of arches over the combustion cham- 
 bers and thus lengthens the life of the fire brick interior. 
 
 From the generators the gas is passed through washers, scrubbers 
 and purifiers, much as coal or water gas is handled, except that no 
 condensers are used as the only impurities to be removed are sul- 
 phureted hydrogen and lampblack. 
 
 The sulphureted hydrogen is taken out by oxide purifiers and 
 the lampblack is washed out in the washers and scrubbers, 
 separated from the water in settling tanks, known as lampblack 
 boxes, and used generally as boiler fuel. In some cases the lamp- 
 black is used as fuel in water-gas generators. 
 
 The gas produced has the same properties and constituents as 
 good coal-gas. 
 
 Description of Plant. The gas system consists of an oil generat- 
 ing plant of 100,000 cu. ft. daily capacity, 25.55 miles of high pres- 
 sure mains, and 1,686 service connections, 1,277 of which were 
 in use. 
 
 The generating plant occupies 26,250 sq. ft. of ground. There 
 are two generators with a combined daily capacity of 500,000 cu, ft. 
 No. 1 is a 300,000 cu, ft. machine, 5 ft. by 8 ft. by 21 Zt., originally 
 of the well known " Lowe " type, but remodeled. No, 2 is a 200,000 
 cu. ft. cylindrical machine, an old scrubber purchased from the 
 San Francisco Gas and Electric Co. being used as the shell. There 
 is a small wash box for each generator. One scrubber of 200,000 
 cu. ft. daily capacity serves both generators. A single lift, steel 
 holder, set in a wooden tank, receives the gas from the scrubber. 
 Its capacity is 20,000 cu. ft. There are two purifiers consisting of 
 wooden tanks with steel covers and water seals. Gas is stored 
 under a pressure of about 60 lbs. per sq. in. in four steel tanks, hav- 
 ing a total capacity of 1,831 cu ft. 
 
 The plant is equipped with two boilers, aggregating 120 h.p,, a 
 110,000 gal. wooden oil tank, and a lampblack separator. 
 
 A 12 in. by 12 in. motor driven compressor is used for forcing 
 the gas into the high pressure storage tanks. There is a separate 
 blower for each generator, both of which may be driven from the 
 same engine. A motor is also arranged to be belted to either 
 blower. A spare engine-driven compressor has been installed. 
 Provision is thus made for complete operation, by either electricity 
 or steam. Piping, pumps, meters, etc., are provided for the proper 
 handling of the oil and steam. 
 
 There is no station gas-meter. 
 
GAS PLANTS 1207 
 
 The gas mains are laid with an average cover of 2 ft. 9 ins. A 
 3 ft. by 1 ft.-6 in. trench is excavated for laying mains. The largest 
 main is 3 ins. in diameter, the small size being made possible by 
 the high pressure (5 to 10 lbs. per sq. in.) maintained for distribu- 
 tion. This pressure is controlled by governors at the storage tanks 
 Before being laid, the pipe is carefully cleaned, tested, painted with 
 two coats of red lead, and fitted with recessed couplings. 
 
 At all times there are a considerable number of services not in 
 use. To reduce the pressure to a proper working value a regulator 
 is installed at each customer's premises. The pressure is varied 
 according to conditions and the appliances used, the range being 
 from 3 to 8 ins. of water — generally about 4 in-is. While most of 
 the meters are of the ordinary plain recording type, there are a 
 large number of prepay meters, these being preferred by many 
 customers on account of the fact that they are conducive to economy 
 in the use of, gas. 
 
 Plant Capacity. The following tables give in condensed form 
 data as to the extent and capacity of the Gas System. 
 
 Capacity of Gas Plant Equipment June SO, 1912: 
 
 Item Total capacity 
 
 2 Generators 500,000 cu, ft. daily. 
 
 1 Scrubber 200,000 " " 
 
 2 Purifiers 100,000 " " 
 
 2 Compressers 500,000 " " 
 
 1 Holder 20,000 " " 
 
 2 Boilers 120 h.p. 
 
 2 Engines 55 h.p. 
 
 2 Motors 60 h.p. 
 
 Gas Plant Distribution System Data June SO^ 1912: 
 
 Item Number 
 
 Gas mains 25.6 miles 
 
 Plain gas meters , 1,277 
 
 Prepay gas meters 384 
 
 Pressure regulators 1,277 
 
 Gas services 1,686 
 
 Gas customers 1,277 
 
 Gas ranges connected 760 
 
 Water heaters connected 174 
 
 Gas arcs connected 22 
 
 Operating Data. The gas companies are required by the State 
 Public Service Commission to provide gas of a calorific power of 
 550 B.t.u. per cu. ft. 
 
 Following are the results of tAvo analyses of the gas. 
 
 CO2 O C:,H, CO CHi H N 
 Analysis #1, Nov. 1911... 3% 2% 7.8% 7.6% 22%. 52.1% 2.9% 
 Analysis #2, Dec. 1911... 3.2% 1.1% 9.7% 7.7% 20.3% 52.4% 4.9% 
 
 The company attempts to maintain an illuminating quality of 19 
 candlepower. No tests of this are made as it is of little importance 
 in the use of gas in modern appliances. 
 
 To show as nearly as possible from data obtainable, details of 
 the operating conditions, use of gas, cost of operating, revenue, 
 and earnings of the gas system as now operated, the following 
 
1208 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 tables have been prepared. The data were taken from the com- 
 pany's monthly operating and financial reports. 
 
 TABLE VI. OPERATING DATA 
 
 One year 
 
 Jan. 1, 1911, 
 
 to Dec. 31, 1911 
 
 Total eas manufactured (not metered) cu. ft , .29,784,900 
 
 Total gas consumed, cu. ft 21,898,000 
 
 Losses, per cent, of amount manufactured 26.4% 
 
 Pounds of oil carbonized 2,418,193 
 
 Gas manufactured per lb. of oil, cu. ft. . . . ; 12.23 
 
 Candle feet per pound of oil 234 
 
 B.t.u. per cu. ft. fif gas 562* 
 
 B.t.u. per lb. of oil 6,873 
 
 Pounds of oil per gallon 7.88 
 
 Total hours retort operation 3,373 
 
 Total hours labor making gas 13,441 
 
 Gas made per man per day, cu. ft 26.853 
 
 Pounds of lampblack u.sed as fuel 734,625 
 
 Pounds of oil used as fuel 104,359 
 
 ♦.November, 1911. to May, 1912. 
 
 TABLE VII. FINANCIAL DATA 
 
 EXPENSES 
 
 Cost for one year 
 
 Jan. 1, 1911, to 
 
 Dec. 31, 1911 
 
 COST OF MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Operating : 
 
 Generator fuel $ 2,586 
 
 Boiler fuel 412 
 
 Oil at $1.33 per bbl. of 42 gals 7,158 
 
 Purification supplies 317 
 
 Water 420 
 
 Expense works , 625 
 
 Manufacturing labor 3,547 
 
 Purification labor 64 
 
 Electric current at %c. per kw.-h 80 
 
 $15,210 
 Maintenance : 
 
 Gas apparatus $ 1,220 
 
 Steam plant 244 
 
 Buildings 221 
 
 $1,685 
 
 COST OF DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 Operating: 
 
 Office expense , $ 43 
 
 Complaint expense 585 
 
 Setting and removing meters 2,177 
 
 Electric current 361 
 
 $3,166 
 Maintenance : 
 
 Mains $ 772 
 
 Services 1,607 
 
 Meters 766 
 
 $3,145 
 
GAS PLANTS 1209 
 
 Cost for one year 
 Jan. 1, 1911, to 
 
 COMMERCIAL EXPENSES. Dec. 31, 1911 
 
 Collection $ 506 
 
 Office 936 
 
 Office salaries 1,502 
 
 $2,944 
 
 GfiNBRAL EXPENSES. 
 
 Accidents and damages $ 3 
 
 General expense 1,118 
 
 Insurance 132 
 
 General salaries 1,361 
 
 $2,554 
 NEW BUSINESS. 
 
 Advertising $ 1,084 
 
 Soliciting 880 
 
 Gas appliances 900 
 
 House fitting 161 
 
 $3,025 
 Total all expenses $31,729 
 
 Maintenance. The gas plant has not been in operation long 
 enough to require a very great outlay for maintenance, except the 
 replacing of the burned out fire brick in the generators. 
 
 It is necessary to do this about once a year and the cost runs 
 from $150 to $250 per generator. 
 
 The total outlay for maintenance was in 1910 $3,082 and in 1911 
 $4,830. The entire system is being maintained in good operating 
 condition. 
 
 Efficiency and Adequacy of Plant. The gas generating plant is 
 quite efficient and is economically handled. During the year 1911 
 the average production of gas was 12.23 cu. ft. per lb. of oil. The 
 results of several runs made on a San Franci.sco plant with the 
 most modern equipment and under the best conditions give an 
 average of only 15.1 cu. ft. per lb. of oil. 
 
 Previous to June of 1911 the losses on the gas system were very 
 large as it is difficult to prevent leakage on a high pressure system. 
 At that time a determined effort was made to reduce the losses 
 by making a careful inspection of services, meters,, tank.s, etc., and 
 stopping all leaks di.scovered. The losses at once decreased. Dur- 
 ing the winter of 1911 and 1912 they jumped again. However, 
 when a hot water furnace which was found on the .system without 
 a meter was cut off they dropped back and have averaged 12% 
 since December, 1911. 
 
 The manufacturing plant is fully adequate to supply the demand 
 for some time, except that it will be necessary to increase the 
 purifier capacity. A much needed improvement is an increa.se in 
 the holder capacity. A 50.000 cu. ft. holder has already been pro- 
 posed. This would do away with the necessity of running the 
 generators more than a few hours a day and is expected to reduce 
 the cost of operation of the plant. 
 
 The company now runs free services to the customer's meter, 
 in cases where large gas ranges are installed. In other cases the 
 
1210 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cost of making the connection is charged. This policy has been 
 varied from time to time. In the beginning services were installed 
 free of charge and as the company now maintains all services, 
 they have been considered as the property of the company in the 
 estimated cost to reproduce the plant. 
 
 TABLE VIII. GENERAL SUMMARY OF REPRODUCTION 
 COST 
 
 1. Gas mains ' $ 50,535 
 
 2. Gas services . 24,936 
 
 3. Gas meters 19,007 
 
 4. Gas plant buildings 9,380 
 
 5. Miscellaneous buildings 293 
 
 6. Gas making and storage equipment 30,746 
 
 7. Shop equipment 783 
 
 8. Tools and instruments , , 533 
 
 9. Furniture and fixtures 317 
 
 $136,530 
 
 10. Engineering, 5% items 1 to 9 inclusive 6,827 
 
 11. Business management, 5% items 1 to 9 inclusive 6,826 
 
 $150,183 
 
 12. Legal and general expense and taxes, li/^% items 1 
 
 to 11 inclusive 2,253 
 
 $152,436 
 
 13. Interest during construction, 5% items 1 to 12 inclusive 7,622 
 
 $160,058 
 
 14. Contingencies, 5% items 1 to 13 inclusive 8,003 
 
 $168,061 
 
 15. Brokerage fees, 5% items 1 to 14 inclusive 8,4 03 
 
 $176,464 
 
 16. Stores and supplies 6,536 
 
 17. Working cash capital 1,892 
 
 18. Real estate 1.650 
 
 19. Legal expense, interest and brokerage fees, 12% item 
 
 18 198 
 
 Grand total as of June 30th, 1912 $186,740 
 
 TABLE IX. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUC- 
 TION OP PROPERTY 
 
 1. GAS MAINS 
 
 Material : 
 
 Wrought iron pipe, painted, 1 in., 14,625 ft. at $0,069. . .$ 1,009 
 Wrought iron pipe, painted, l^A in., 36,135 ft. at $0,097 3,505 
 Wrought iron pipe, painted, 2 in., 79,855 ft. at $0.157.. 12,537 
 Casing, painted, 3 in., 4,310 ft. at $0.34 1,465 
 
 $18,516 
 Elbows, ties, reducing ties, crosses, reducing crosses, 
 
 expansion joints, drips, caps, and valves 270 
 
 $18,786 
 Add 2%, omission, waste, etc. 375 
 
 Total material $19,161 
 
GAS PLANTS 1211 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Excavation and backfill, 134,925 ft. of trench, 22,555 cu. 
 
 yds. at $1.25 '. $28,191 
 
 Laying 1-in. iron pipe, 14,625 ft. at $0.02 292 
 
 Laying 1^4 -in. iron pipe, 36,135 ft. at $0.02 723 
 
 Laying 2-in. iron pipe, 79,855 ft. at $0,025 1,996 
 
 Laying 3-in. iron pipe, 4,310 cu. yds. at $0.04 172 
 
 Total labor $31,374 
 
 Total gas mains $50,535 
 
 2. GAS SERVICE. 
 
 Taken as all %-in, services, of itn average length of 80 ft. 
 Total number of services, 1,686. 
 
 Material : 
 
 Iron pipe, %-in. painted recessed couplings, 134,800 ft. 
 
 at $0.05 $6,744 
 
 "Phillips" patent connections, 1,686 at $1.70 2,866 
 
 Total material $ 9,610 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Excavation and backfill, 117,860 lin. ft. at $0.10 $11,786 
 
 Laying and connecting pipe, 134,880 lin. ft. at $0,02 2,697 
 
 Making service taps, 1,686 lin. ft. at $0.50 843 
 
 Total labor $15,326 
 
 Total gas services $24,936 
 
 3. GAS METERS. 
 
 Gas Meters : 
 
 3 light plain Standarrd 974 at $ 5.10 $ 4,967 
 
 3 " " Maryland 58 " 5.05 293 
 
 5 " " Standard 182 " 7.10 1,292 
 
 5 " " Maryland 23 " 5.50 127 
 
 10 " " Standard 14 " 6.95 97 
 
 20 " " " 7 " 12.90 '.. 90 
 
 30 " " " 8 " 17.30 138 
 
 45 " " '• 2 " 27.00 54 
 
 #3 " " Sprague 9 " 10.05 90 
 
 3 " prepay Standard 252 " 9.10 2,293 
 
 3 " " Maryland 101 " 8.70 879 
 
 5 " " Standard 31 " 11.10 344 
 
 1661 $11,664 
 
 Pressure Regulators : 
 
 One regulator assumed for each meter in service. 
 All makes and sizes at an average price. 
 
 Pressure regulators, 1,277 at $4.75 = $ 6,066 
 
 Installation meters with regulators, 1,277 at $1.00 .... 1,277 
 
 $ 7,343 
 
 Total gas meters $19,007 
 
 4. GAS PLANT BUILDING. 
 
 Main Gas Plant Building: 
 
 Brick, concrete floors, corrugated iron roof, i/^ pitch. 32 
 ft. 6 ins. by 87 ft. by 18 ft. high. 
 
 Foundation — concrete, 56' cu. yds. at $8.50 $ 476 
 
 Brick rin place), 196,126 (est.) at $24.00/M . . .. 4,708 
 
 Concrete floors, 2,752 sq. ft. at $0.15 413 
 
 Roof timbers (in place), 1.760 f.b.m., at $30.00/M 53 
 
 Roof iron, 650 lbs. at $0.04 26 
 
1212 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Corrugated iron roofing, 3,670 sq. ft. at $0.05 $184 
 
 Floor and stair to meter room, 2nd floor, 1,280 f.b.m., 
 
 at $30.00/M •. 38 
 
 Windows, 11 100 
 
 Doors, 4 80 
 
 Stone window ledges and door sills 65 
 
 Addition 12 ft. by 14 ft. by 9 ft. high brick, cor. iron 
 
 i-oof 231 
 
 Purifier House: $6,374. 
 
 Brick, cor. iron, pitched roof: 
 Plank floor, 32 ft. by 32 ft. by 16 ft. to .eaves. 
 
 Foundations, 20 cu. yds. at $)f.50 $ 170 
 
 Brickwork, 65,184 brick at $24.00/M 1,564 
 
 Plank floor, 3,000 PTB.M., at $30.00/M 90 
 
 Roof rafters, etc., 680 F.B.M., at $30.00/M 20 
 
 Roof corrugated iron, 1,308 sq. ft. at $0.05 65 
 
 Door, stairs, etc 30 
 
 Lampblack Shed: $1,939 
 
 Frame; corrugated iron roof, 24 ft. by 28 ft. 
 
 Area, 672 sq. ft., at $0.10 $ 67 
 
 Lampblack boxes; 1 9^^ ft, by 64 ft. by 30 ins. — 9 com- 
 partments, 1 6 ft. by 11 ft. by 4 ft. 
 
 Planking, 3010 f.b.m., at $30.00/M 90 
 
 Iron, 300 lbs. at $0.04 12 
 
 Excavation, 8 ft. by 14 ft. by 5 ft.. 20 cu. yds. at 
 
 $1.00 20 
 
 Purifier Storage Shed: ^^^^ 
 
 Rough shed, tar paper roof, 18 ft. by 100 ft. by 7 ft $ 441 
 
 Concrete floor, 48 ft. by 18 ft., 864 sq. ft. at $0.15 130 
 
 Concrete wall, 2 ft. 6 ins. by 62 ft. 32 
 
 $603 
 
 Hose house ; frame. 8 ft. by 10 ft $ 35 
 
 Regulator house ; frame, 8 ft. by 10 ft 35 
 
 Small oil tank house ; frame, 20 ft. by 4 ft 30 
 
 Gas Shop: ^^^^ 
 Rough frame building, shingle roof, 30 ft. by 20 ft. by 8 
 
 ft. high, plank floor, 600 sq. ft., at $0.20 $ 120 
 
 Lighting, Wiring, etc., at Plant : 
 
 22 lights — (wiring, sockets and lamps in place) $ 40 
 
 Lockers 15 
 
 $55 
 
 Total gas plant buildings $ 9,380 
 
 5. MISCELLANEOUS BUILDINGS. 
 
 Storeroom Building: 
 
 Single story frame, plank floor, % pitch. 
 
 Tar paper roof. Decks and shelving inside, 75 ft. by 40 
 
 ft. by 12 ft. to eaves. 3,000 sq. ft. at $0.40 $ 1,200 
 
 Shed on end of building 40 
 
 Lighting, 15 drop lights (open wiring) 23 
 
 Water piping, etc 12 
 
 Platform 3-in. floor. 12 ft. by 45 ft, 2,700 ft. b.m., at 
 
 $30.00 81 
 
 5 ft. board fence, 550 ft. at $0.20 110 
 
 $1,466 
 
GAS PLANTS ^ 1213 
 
 Divided on basis of space occupied. 
 2/5 to water, 
 2/5 to electrical, 
 1/5 to gas, 
 
 1/5 interest in storeroom buildings $293 
 
 Total miscellaneous buildings - $293 
 
 6, GAS MAKING AND STORAGE EQUIPMENT. 
 
 1 Lowe #5 crude oil gas generator (known as #1 generator), 
 
 1 Washer, 4 ft. by 5 ft. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 1 Scrubber, 5 ft. by 8 ft. by 18 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 1 Gas holder, 40 ft. by 18 ft., 20,000 cu. ft. capacity. 
 
 4 Cylindrical boiler iron gas tanks, 29 ft. by 4 ft. 6 ins. diam. 
 
 2 Wooden purifier tanks, 10 ft. by 10 ft. by 5 ft. 6 ins., riveted 
 
 steel covers and seals. 
 1 Rix compressor, 12 ins. by 12 ins. (belt driven), 
 1 Boiler in brick setting, 40 h.p., 
 
 1 Stack for boiler and generator, 
 
 2 (Chaplin Fulton pressure governors, 2 in., 
 1 Sturtevant #5 blower, 
 
 1 Jewell engine, 10 h.p. 
 1 Boiler feed pump, 
 1 Oil pump, 
 
 8-in. pipe from scrubber to gas holder, 
 8-in. pipe holder to purifiers, 
 6-in. main purifiers to compressors, 
 
 3-in. piping, compressors to pressure tanks, then to gov- 
 ernors and to line. 
 Oil piping to # 1 generator, meters, etc.. 
 Blast connections blower to gas generator. 
 All of the above apparatus was erected in place ready for 
 
 operation (in 1905), under contract for the sum of.. $20,400 
 30 h.p., 220 V. 3 phase, 850 r.p.m. motor * with starter in 
 
 place and wired $ 440 
 
 Additions to and remodeling Lowe gas generator : 
 
 In 1910, the Lowe generator purchased under the contract 
 in 1905, was completely remodeled. The height of the 
 shell was increased from 13 ft. to 18 ft. A 3-ft. water 
 heating tank was added on top making the final dimen- 
 sions 5 ft. by 8 ft. by 21 ft. All interior brickwork 
 was replaced. All burners, blast connections and gas 
 connections to washer were replaced. The above work 
 was done at a cost of $2,337.55. Estimated addition to 
 cost of generator by above improvements $ 1,800 
 
 Foundations for above machinery : 
 
 Concrete foundations for generator, scrubber, etc., 963 
 
 cu. ft $ 259 
 
 No. 2 Generator: 
 
 Old scrubber purchased from the San Francisco Gas and 
 
 Electric Co. and converted into a generator and 
 
 wa.'^her. (Generator 24 ft. by 6 ft. diam. Washer 4 ft. 
 
 by 6 ft. diam $ 400 
 
 Labor cutting off scrubber and placing on cars San 
 
 Francisco 197 
 
 Work on gas generator 382 
 
 Foundation for generator 218 
 
 Brickwork for gas generator, labor and material 902 
 
 Freight on generator, San Francisco to plant 80 
 
 Labor setting, connecting, etc., by local company 
 
 (estimated) •.... 400 
 
 $2,579 
 ♦ Motor drives Rix compressor. 
 
1214 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Boiler (80 h.p.) with stack ; f.o.b. San Francisco $ 875 
 
 Freight, brickwork and erection, estimated 485 
 
 $1,360 
 
 Engine: (45 h.p. Atlas high speed) f.o.b. San Francisco. . . .% 440 
 
 Freight , 50 
 
 Installation 50 
 
 $540 
 Ingersoll Rand compressor: (12^4 in. by 12 ins.) (estimated) 
 
 — installed $ 950 
 
 Belt 60 
 
 Belt tightener 25 
 
 $1,035 
 Blower for No. 2 Generator : 
 
 30 h.p. 3 place motor with speed control connection. 
 Motor mounted on wooden platform. Pipe to gas gen- 
 erator, estimated cost $545 
 
 Piping, Pumps, Oil Equipment, etc., Added to Plant since 
 Original installation: (All estimated). 
 
 Iron pipe, 8 ins.. 215 ft. at $0.22 $ 47 
 
 Ells, 3 ins., 10 ft. at $0.50 5 
 
 Gate valves, 3 ins., 4 ft. at $4 50 18 
 
 Angle valve, 3 ins., 1 ft. at $8.00 8 
 
 Pipe, 4 ins., 134 ft., at $0.35 47 
 
 Ells, 4 ins., 3 ft. at $0.60 2 
 
 Gate valve, 4 ins., 1 ft. at- $7.80 8 
 
 Pipe, 1 1/2 ins., 75 ft. at $0 08 6 
 
 Ells, IVa ins., 4 ft., at $0.12 1 
 
 Valves, 1 V2 ins., 3 ft. at $1.50 4 
 
 Pipe, 1 in., 170 ft. at $0.05 8 
 
 Ells, 1 in. 5 ft. at $0.10 1 
 
 Labor on above pipe 30% of material 431 
 
 Wooden oil storage tank, 30 ft. diam. by 22 ft. high, tar 
 
 paper roof, cost estimated, com])lete 950 
 
 Steel oil tank ^-in., 15 ft. by 4 ft. diam. (complete)., 214 
 
 Concrete well, 5 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 ft 35 
 
 1 Duplex oil pump 60 
 
 1 Lowe oil trap 50 
 
 4 Oil meters, at $25.00 100 
 
 Covered pipe, 3 ins. in place, 90 ft. at $0 50 45 
 
 Pipe, ^ in., in place. 100 ft. at $0.02 2 
 
 Pipe. 1/2 in., in place, 50 ft. at $0.04 2 
 
 Pipe, % in., in place, 150 ft. at $0.05 7 
 
 3 Bristol recording pressure gauges 125 
 
 $1,788 
 Total gas making and .storage equipment $30,746 
 
 Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of of 2,600. The following 
 data is abstracted from our appraisal report of a company which 
 supplies gas for lighting and cooking purposes in a western city of 
 2,600 population. 
 
 The plant consists of a 72,000 cu. ft. oil gas generator of the 
 Lowe Type — of the necessary scrubbers, purifiers, piping, oil stor- 
 age tanks, boilers, etc., and of 1 single lift 21,000 cu, ft. gas 
 holder in a brick tank. The company now has in service 7.9 miles 
 of .75 in. to 4 in. wrought iron and cast iron mains, and 212 meters. 
 
 The processes of manufacture are almost identical with those in 
 use at the plant in the city of 15,000 population, previously de- 
 
GAS PLANTS 1215 
 
 scribed in this chapter. The oil used for generating- being the 
 same as that used in that plant and costs $1.62 per bbl. in the 
 storage tanks. 
 
 The company serves from 200 to 225 customers. The principal 
 use of the gas service is for cooking. Practically all lighting is 
 done with electricity. 
 
 Capacity of Plant. The following table gives in condensed form 
 the extent and capacity of the plant as of June 30, 1912. 
 
 Oil gas generators 1 72.000 cu. ft. 
 
 Washers 1 72,000 cu. ft. 
 
 Scrubbers 3 72,000 cu. ft. 
 
 Purifiers 2 172,000 cu. ft. 
 
 Holders 1 18,600 cu. ft. 
 
 Boilers 1 30 h.p. 
 
 Mains 7.9 miles 
 
 Meters in service 212 
 
 Following is a table of operating data for the month of June, 
 1912, which may be taken as a fair average of operating conditions 
 for the year. 
 
 Gas made 248,900 cu. ft. 
 
 Gas used at w-orks and office . . . .' 1,300 " " 
 
 Gas consumed, customers' meters 224,300 " " 
 
 Gas lost 23,300 " " 
 
 Gas lost, per cent, of gas made 9.2% 
 
 Oil, carbonized 14.398 lbs. 
 
 Oil burned, heating retorts 6,131 " 
 
 Oil used, total . . : 20,429 " 
 
 Gas made per lb. of oil 12.1 cu. ft. 
 
 Oil used as boiler fuel 1,794 lbs. 
 
 Cost of oil $0.0386 per gallon 
 
 The follow^ing table is an analysis of Operating Expenses from 
 the Company's financial statement for June, 1912. 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSES 
 
 Manufacture. 
 
 Fuel generating $30.05 
 
 " boiler 8.78 
 
 " gas making 70.87 
 
 Purifying material 12.10 
 
 Labor 93 45 
 
 Miscellaneous 5.75 
 
 $220.70 
 
 Maintenance $ 2.03 
 
 Distribution 1.67 
 
 Commercial expense 53.62 
 
 General expense 35.87 
 
 New business, expenses . 13.14 
 
 Total expense $327.03 
 
 TABLE X. GENERAL SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED COST OP 
 REPRODUCTION OF PROPERTY- 
 
 1. Gas mains $11,945 
 
 2. Gas services o'oSn 
 
 3. Gas meters „'e 9 
 
 4. Gas plant buildings 2,545 
 
1216 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 5. Gas making- and storage equipment $14,485 
 
 6. Tools and instruments -. 33 
 
 7. Furniture and fixtures 41 
 
 137,184 
 
 8. Engineering-, 5% of items 1 to 7 inclusive 1,859 
 
 9. Business management, 5% items 1 to 7 inclusive 1,859 
 
 $40,902 
 
 10. Legal and general expense and taxes, 1%% of items 1 
 
 9 inclusive 613 
 
 $41,515 
 
 11. Interest during const I'uction, 5% of items 1 to 10 in- 
 
 clusive 2,076 
 
 $43,591 
 
 12. Contingencies, 5% items 1 to 11 inclusive 2.179 
 
 $45,770 
 
 13. Brokerage fees, 5% items 1 to 12 inclusive 2,288 
 
 $48,058 
 
 14. Stores and supplies 1,571 
 
 15. Working cash capital 767 
 
 16. Real estate . 750 
 
 17. Legal and general expense and taxes 12% of item 16. . . 90 
 
 Grand total as of June 30, 1912 . $51,236 
 
 TABLE XI. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUC- 
 TION OF PROPERTY 
 
 1, GAS MAINS 
 
 Material : 
 Pipe: 
 
 %-in. wrought iron pipe, 3,265 ft. at $0.052 $ 170 
 
 1-in. wrought iron pipe, 13,755 ft. at $0,069 949 
 
 114 -in. wrought iron pipe, 16,400 ft. at $0,097 1,591 
 
 2-in. wrought iron pipe. 3,010 ft. at $0,157 473 
 
 3-in. wrought iron pipe. 600 ft. at $0.27 162 
 
 4-in. cast iron pipe, 4,230 ft. at $0.41 1,734 
 
 $5,079 
 
 Fitting:s 39 
 
 Lead joints, c. i. pipe, 5*4 lbs. per joint, 1,750 lbs. at 
 
 $0.06 105 
 
 2% commission, waste, etc 104 
 
 $5,327 
 Labor : 
 
 Excavation and backfill, 41,260 ft. trench, 7,640 cu. 
 
 yds. at $0.75 : $ 5,730 
 
 Laying pipe, w.i., %-in.. 3,265 ft. at $0.02 65 
 
 Laying pipe, w.i., 1-in., 13,755 ft. at $0.02 275 
 
 Laying pipe, w.i.. 114-in., 16.400 ft. at $0.02 328 
 
 Laying pipe, w.i., 2-ins., 3.010 ft. at $0,025 75 
 
 Laying pipe, w.i., 3-ins., 600 ft., at $0.03 18 
 
 Laying pipe, c.i., 4-ins., 4,230 ft. at $0.03 127 
 
 $ 6.618 
 Total gas mains $11,945 
 
GAS PLANTS 1217 
 
 2. GAS SERVICE. 
 
 Material : 
 
 Iron pipe, 1-in., 25.440 ft. at $0,069 $1,757 
 
 "Phillips" patent service connections, 318 ft. at $1.80.. 572 
 
 $2,329 
 Labor. 
 
 Excavating and backfilling trench, 19,080 ft. at $0.10.. 1.908 
 
 Laying pipe, 25,440 ft. at $0.02 509 
 
 Making ser-vice taps, 318 ft. at $0.50 159 
 
 $2,576 
 
 Total .service connections $4,905 
 
 3. GAS METERS. 
 
 Material : 
 
 Gas meters, 268 at $8.10 $2,171 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Installing gas meters, 212 at $0.75 159 
 
 Total gas meters $3,230 
 
 4. GAS PLANT BUILDING. 
 
 Main Building: 28 ft. by 95 ft., 16 ft. to eaves. 
 1 to 2 pitch roof. 
 
 Frame, corrugated iron roof, 25 ft. 6 ins. by 28 ft. 
 Brick, corrugated iron roof. 30 ft. by 28 ft. 
 Frame, shingle roof, 40 ft. by 28 ft. 
 
 Foundations, concrete, 30 cu. yds. at $9.00 $ 270 
 
 Lumber in frame portion and timber under corrugated 
 
 iron roofs, 12,649 ft. b.m. at $35.00/M 443 
 
 Brick, in walls and partitions. 52,248 at $25.00/M 1,306 
 
 Corrugated iron roof. 2,217 sq. ft. at $0,055 122 
 
 Shingle roof, 9,000 shingles at $5.00/M 45 
 
 Doors, 4 at $16.00 64 
 
 Windows. 5 at $10.00 50 
 
 Lean-to frame, 12 ft. by 12 ins., 144 sq. ft. at $0.50 ... . 72 
 
 Lean-to frame, 12 ft. by 14 ins., 168 sq. ft. at $0.40 68 
 
 Lighting , 35 
 
 $2,475 
 Gas Meter House: 5 ft. 7 ft. by 6 ft. high. 
 
 Frame, walls and roof filled with saw-dust, tar paper 
 
 roof, 35 sq. ft. at $2.00 70 
 
 Total gas plant buildings $2,545 
 
 5. GAS MAKING AND STORAGE EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Oil Gas Generator: 72,000 cu. ft. capacity, arranged to be fired 
 from either end of a " U " shaped generating chamber. 
 Lowe type, rebricked to a special design, 6 ft. by 6 ft. 
 by 10 ft. high. 5/16-in. shell, complete in place with quick 
 changing stack valves, double set of oil burners and 
 steam inlets, washer connections and two stacks $1,850 
 
 Washer and Scrubbers : 
 
 1 Cylindrical wa.sher, 32- ins. by 40 ins. in place.... $ 100 
 
 1 Cylindrical scrubber, 4 ft. by 16 ft. high, in place 350 
 
 2 Cylindrical scrubbers, 3 ft. by 8 ft. high, in place, at 
 $175.00 350 
 
 $ 800 
 
1218 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Gas Piping- : 
 
 8-in. cast iron pipe, 10 ft. at $1.40 $ 14 
 
 8-in. cast iron crosses, flanged, 6 at $12.00 72 
 
 8-in. cast iron tees, 2 at $9,00 18 
 
 8-in. Wrought iron pipe, screw, 34 ft. at $0.90 . , 31 
 
 6-in. Wrought iron pipe, screw, 170 ft. at $0.65 110 
 
 6-Jn. Wrought iron tees, screw, 2 at $2.25 5 
 
 6-in. Wrought iron ells, screw, 5 at $2.00 10 
 
 6-in. Gate valves, screw, 2 at $24.00 48 
 
 4-in. Wrought ii^on pipe. 44 ft. at $0.38 17 
 
 4-in. Wrought iron crosses. 8 at $1.60 13 
 
 Labor on piping, 25% of material 84 
 
 $422 
 Purifiers : 
 
 1 10-ft. by 10 ft. by 2% ft., steel shell, In place $ 800 
 
 1 11 ft. by 11 ft. by 6 ft., steel shell, in place. 1,500 
 
 $2,300 
 
 Station Meter : 
 
 On 4-in. main, 3 ft. drum $275 
 
 Blast Equipment: 
 
 1 Sturtevant # 3 blower $ 35 
 
 1 Motor 71/2 h.p. with starter 160 
 
 1 Engine, 10 h.p 150 
 
 3-in belt, 25 ft. at $0.30 8 
 
 Connections, blower to generator 20 
 
 Platforms, foundations, pulleys, wiring, etc 35 
 
 Labor installing blower, motor and engine 40 
 
 $448 
 Boiler : 
 
 30 h.p. tubular, set in brick, with 24-inch stack, complete 
 
 place $450 
 
 Water, Steam and Oil Piping ; Oil and Water Pumps, etc. : 
 
 1 Compressor, 3 ins. by 5 ins $70 
 
 1 Oil pump, single acting, 3 ins. by 6 ins. by 6 ins 60 
 
 1 Centrifugal pump, 2 ins 90 
 
 2 Motors, G. E., 2 h.p., 3 phase 100 
 
 1 Oil tank. 300 gals 90 
 
 1 Pressure gauge 10 
 
 2 National oil meters, at $35 70 
 
 1 Oil filter : 20 
 
 Iron pipe, y2-in., 150 ft. at $0.04 6 
 
 Iron pipe, %--in., 100 ft, at $0.05 5 
 
 Iron pipe, 1-in., 165 ft. at $0.06 10 
 
 Iron pipe, 1 i/^-in.. 100 ft. at $0.09 9 
 
 Iron pipe, 2-in., 320 ft., at $0.12 38 
 
 Valves, %-in., 4 at $0.90 4 
 
 Valves, 1-in., 3 at $1.10 3 
 
 Valves, IV'-in.. 3 at $1.40 4 
 
 Valves, 2-in., 3 at $2.00 6 
 
 Labor on piping, pumps, etc 94 
 
 $689 
 Generator and Scrubber Foundations : 
 
 Concrete. 24 cu. yds. at $10.00 $240 
 
 Lampblack Box : 
 
 Lumber, 1,840 ft. b.m. at $35.00/M $64 
 
 Iron, 495 lbs. at $0.05 25 
 
 $89 
 
GAS PLANTS 1219 
 
 Water Storage Tank and Well : 
 Water tank. 
 
 Wood stave tank, 20 ft. diam. 10 ft. high, redwood staves 
 
 and bottom, 3,108 ft. b.m. at $'52.00/M $162 
 
 Iron band.s, 1.872 lbs. at $0.05 93 
 
 Labor assembling- and placing tank 75 
 
 Tower. 
 
 Timber, 2,675 ft. b.m. at $30.00/M 80 
 
 Iron, 190 lbs. at $0.05 9 
 
 Well. 
 
 Excavation, 5 ft. by 5 ft. by 20 ft., 18 cu. yds. at $1.00. . 18 
 
 Timbering, 1,200 ft. b.m. at $32.00/M 38 
 
 Drilled well, 200 ft. deep at $2.00 400 
 
 Oil Tanks. ?875 
 Wood tank, same as water tank above, except set on sills 
 and lowered into the ground about 2 ft., excavation, 23 
 
 cu. yds. at $0.50 $12 
 
 Sills, 648 ft. b.m. at $25.00/M 16 
 
 Tank in place 290 
 
 Shingle roof over tank 33 
 
 3 steel tanks, 16 ft. long. 4 ft. 6 ins. diam. at $200.00. . . 600 
 
 Excavation and installation 40 
 
 Gas Holder: ^^^^ 
 Steel holder in cement lined brick tank, set in ground 
 
 about 12 ft., 21,500 cu. ft. capacity. 
 
 Excavation. 873 cu. yds., at $0.75 $ 655 
 
 Brick in tank. 47,080 at $25.00/M 1,171 
 
 Concrete bottom of tank, 6 ins. thick, 31 cu. yds. at 
 
 $10.00 310 
 
 Cement plaster, lining tank 120 
 
 Framework and guides, cast iron, 9,000 lbs. at $0.04.. 360 
 
 Steel, 8.688 lbs. at $0.08 695 
 
 Steel tank, #12 reinforced, steel, 22,024 Ibs.at $0.08... 1,762 
 
 Painting, 8,300 sq. ft. at $0.01 83 
 
 $ 5,156 
 Total gas making and storage equipment $14,485 
 
 Cost of Reproduction of the Properties of the Kings County 
 Lighting Company. Table XII, derived from " Exhibit No. 17," 
 Case No. 1273 of the Public Service Commission, 1st District New 
 York, gives the estimated cost of reproduction of the properties of 
 the Kings County Lighting Company, N. Y. Details of certain of 
 the accounts included in this table are given in Table XIII which 
 has been prepared from further material in the above mentioned 
 exhibit. 
 
 TABLE XII. ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUCTION OF THE 
 PROPERTIES OF THE KINGS COUNTY LIGHTING 
 
 COMPANY 
 Account Contract cost 
 
 General structures $ 20.482 
 
 F'urnaces, boilers and accessories 25,221 
 
 Water gas sets and accessories 82,353 
 
 Misc. power plant equipment 2,041 
 
 Works and station structures 201,462 
 
 Holders 255,675 
 
1220 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Purification apparatus $27,663 
 
 Accessory equipniem at worlis 7U,605 
 
 Trunk lines and mains 712,351 
 
 Gas services 166,151 
 
 Gas meters 127,429 
 
 Gas meter Installation 24,539 
 
 Municipal gas lighting fixtures 31,892 
 
 Gas engines and appliances 1,181 
 
 Gas tools and implements 
 
 Gas laboratory equipment 1,454 
 
 Sub-total, construction accts $1,750,660 
 
 Land devoted to gas operations 251,281 
 
 General equipment 12,036 
 
 Total, fixed capital accounts $2,013,977 
 
 Floating capital and operating assets 53,885 
 
 Engineering administration and incidentals, 15%. 209,855 
 
 Total, reproduction cost of the operating property... $2,277,717 
 
 TABLE XIII. DETAILS OP ESTIMATED COSTS OF REPRO- 
 DUCTION OF THE KINGS COUNTY LIGHTING COMPANY 
 
 BOILERS, FURNACES AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 1 B. & W. 215 h.p. boiler $ 3,041.80 
 
 2 B. & W, 106 h.p. boiler 3,050.73 
 
 2 B. & W. 106 h.p. boiler 3,426.73 
 
 2 Worthington feed water pumps 250.26 
 
 1 Oil tank 3.50 
 
 1 Water barrel 1.00 
 
 1 Steel .stack 831.88 
 
 1 Steel stack 812.00 
 
 1 Steel stack 840.00 
 
 1 Berryman feed water heater . 392.50 
 
 Coal handling machinery-misc 475.68 
 
 3 Coal cars 450.00 
 
 Coal conveying machinery 320.72 
 
 Wooden split pulley 15.00 
 
 Solid iron pulley 6.00 
 
 Rubber comp. belting 20.00 
 
 Coal handling machinery, track, etc 1,757.50 
 
 1-3 Ton Hower Ry. platform scale 242.00 
 
 Coal hopper 101.59 
 
 1 Single vertical engine 240.00 
 
 Coal hopper with screen 125.00 
 
 1 Mast and gaff 865.81 
 
 1 Clam-shell bucket 400.00 
 
 1 Rawson & Morrison Mfg. Co. hoist 750.00 
 
 Levers, etc., hoisting engine 16.98 
 
 1 75 h.p. vertical boiler 824.50 
 
 1 50 h.p. vertical boiler 597.90 
 
 1 100 h.p. Mason horizontal boiler 1,905.54 
 
 1 Cameron feed water pump 230.00 
 
 1 Turbo blower std. damper regulator 69.00 
 
 25 ft. 11/2-1". steam rubber hose 21.88 
 
 10-ft. 1-in. steel jointed wire covered steam hose 11.20 
 
 20-ft. 1 % -in. wire bound steam hose 23.20 
 
 1 Wooden ladder, 12 ft 2.76 
 
 2 Iron wheelbarrows 10.00 
 
 2 Water pails , .60 
 
 Rack for irons 4.30 
 
 4 12-ft. hose 10.00 
 
 4 12-ft. slice bars 7.00 
 
GAS PLANTS 1221 
 
 4 Schoop shovels $3.44 
 
 1 Stack 5 ft. dis., 125 ft. high 750.00 
 
 Net cost $22,928.00 
 
 Contractors' profit, 107o 2,293.00 
 
 Contract cost $25,221.00 
 
 WATER GAS SETS AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 1 12-ft. William.son vertical single unit generator $24,012.97 
 
 1 8-ft. Lowe generating set 8,959.21 
 
 2 8-ft. Lower generating sets 19,077.91 
 
 2 Condensers 4,752.08 
 
 2 Condensers 5,411.08 
 
 2 Berryman oil heaters 500.00 
 
 2 90-h.p. high speed center crank automatic engines 4,579.63 
 
 2 No. 11 blowers 956.12 
 
 180 ft. leather belting 234.00 
 
 Miscellaneous gauges, etc 58.53 
 
 1 2-ton hydraulic elevator 840.00 
 
 Blast piping 1,072.41 
 
 4 Charging cars 588.00 
 
 1 90-h.p. Terry turbine blower 2,790.25 
 
 1 Coal spout 2.25 
 
 1 2-ton elevator 925.00 
 
 2 Coal buggies 120.00 
 
 1 Coal car 50.00 
 
 1 Coal yoke 10.24 
 
 1 Wheelbarrow : 5.00 
 
 Miscellaneous gen. tools 121.58 
 
 Net cost $74,866.26 
 
 Taken as $74,866.00 
 
 Contractors' profit, 10% 7,487.00 
 
 Contract cost $82,353.00 
 
 HOLDERS 
 
 1 2,000.000 cu. ft. holder $148,570.85 
 
 1 500.000 cu. ft. holder 51,244.60 
 
 1 107.000 cu. ft. holder 17,045.46' 
 
 1 100,000 cu. ft. holder 15,571.05 
 
 Net cost $232,432.06 
 
 Taken as $232,432.00 
 
 Contractors' profit, 10% 23,243.00 
 
 Contract cost $255,675.00 
 
 TRUNK LINES AND MAINS 
 
 Mains : Unit price 
 
 li/i-in., 264 ft. at $0.1839 $ 48.55 
 
 1 i/a-in., 3,706 ft., at $0.2024 750.09 
 
 2-in., 2.937 ft., at $0.2246 549.65 
 
 3-in., 13,011 ft., at $0.3150 4,098.47 
 
 4-in., 359,146 ft., at $0.4150 149,045.59 
 
 6-in., 365,208 ft., at $0,600 219,124.80 
 
 6-in., 42 ft., W. I., at $0,748 31.42 
 
 8-in., 19,108 ft., at $0,876 16,738.61 
 
 8-in., Ill ft.. W. T., at $1,176 130.43 
 
 12-in., 48,668 ft., at $1,352 65,799.14 
 
 10-in., 70 ft., W. I., at $1.666 116.62 
 
 16-in., 6,966 ft., at $2,040 14,210.64 
 
 20-in.. 9,377 ft., at $2,796 26.21 8.09 
 
 24-in., 61 ft., at ?3.694 . , 225.33 
 
 $497,197.43 
 
1222 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Fittings : 
 
 Crosses, at $0,027 per lb $ 4,855.92 
 
 Tees, at $0,027 per lb. 1,347.36 
 
 Klbows, at $0,027 per lb 438.09 
 
 Reducers and increasers at $0,027 per lb. , 903.57 
 
 Caps and plugs at $0,027 per lb 718.92 
 
 Sleeves, at $0,027 per lb 24.44 
 
 $8,288.30 
 Pavement : 
 
 Ashphalt, 30,325.51 sq. yds. at $3.00 $ 90,976.53 
 
 Asphalt block, 2,727.05 sq. yds., at $3.50 . 9,544.67 
 
 Belgian block, 5,524.56 sq. yds. at $.50 2,762.28 
 
 Brick, 1,441.58 sq. yds. at $2.50 3,603.95 
 
 Granite, 1,444.98 sq. yds., at $.50 722.49 
 
 Macadam, 39,308.02 sq. yds., at $.75 29,481.01 
 
 $137,090.93 
 Valves, pits and drips : 
 
 Drips, at $0,027 per lb $ 3,936.20 
 
 Valves (at manufacturers' quoted prices) 889.90 
 
 Pits (at estimated prices) 186.93 
 
 $5,015.03 
 
 Net cost, Acct. No. 231 $647,591.69 
 
 Taken as $647,592.00 
 
 Contractors' profit, 10% 64,759.00 
 
 Contract cost ,.$712,351.00 
 
 GAS METERS 
 
 Goodwin : 
 
 3 light, 431 at $5.25 $ 2,262.75 
 
 5 light, 156 at $6.30 962.80 
 
 10 light, 22 at $8.75 192.50 
 
 20 light, 17 at $12.60 214.20 
 
 30 light, 2 at $19.25 38.50 
 
 45 light, 5 at $29.40 147.00 
 
 60 light, 7 at $38.50 296.50 
 
 100 light, 3 at $61.25 183.75 
 
 A. M. Co.: 
 
 3 light, 3,010 at $125.25 15,802.50 
 
 5 light, 16,294 at $6.30 102,652.20 
 
 10 light, 76 at $8.75 682.50 
 
 20 light, 78 at $12.60 982.80 
 
 30 light, 39 at $19.25 750.75 
 
 45 light, 21 at $29.40 617.40 
 
 60 light, 15 at $38.50 577.50 
 
 100 light, 13 at $61.25 796.25 
 
 200 light, 2 at $125.50 251.00 
 
 Reeves, 5 light, 1 at $6.30 6.30 
 
 U. S. M. Co., 5 light, 1 at $6.30 6.30 
 
 N. Y. Imp. M. Co., 5 light, 2 at $6.30 12.60 
 
 Total No., 20,197. 
 
 Net cost also contract cost. $127,429.10 
 
 Taken as $127,429.00 
 
 GAS METER INSTALLATION 
 
 Net cost also contract cost : 
 
 Installation of 19.631 gas meters at $1.25 $24,538.75 
 
 Taken as .,.•..•, $24,539.00 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1223 
 
 «DOC^100 (MOCOO 
 eoco'oo OOrHO 
 
 G iHOirtoo 
 '" useco'o 
 
 U501 t- M 
 00 O OC O IM Oi 
 
 cou:i-*co 
 THeo-i-ii-i 
 
 (MOOSO 
 
 ooo'o 
 
 tC Ifl (MOO U5 T-l 
 
 C o^ia cocMinooot- 
 
 "J* tOUiTt-OO eCr-lr-lOCO 
 
 O -*CJOO oooocgo 
 
 win r-ICOOOi-l 
 
 00 M o o o o o o 
 
 «om cooooo 
 
 OOUii-lOO iHOOO 
 
 oooo 
 
 m «£> M CO i-H 
 
 ^ (Din cootoo 
 
 .iJoomrHOO rHOOO 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 ;^* 
 
 >. . 1— !•_■ >— 
 
 09- 
 
 <i 
 
 O 
 
 rf, 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 fr< 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 <3i 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 ooca'MiH 
 
 
 
 
 in in 
 
 Momo 
 
 £ 
 
 ^1 
 
 v 
 
 t-inr-ioo 
 
 1-IOOO 
 
 
 
 (MtHOO 
 
 oooo 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 OOIMOOT-I 
 
 
 
 
 mm 
 
 cgocoo 
 
 H 
 
 
 1 
 
 t-mi-HOo 
 
 T-HOOO 
 
 lOO OOOO 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 C3 05m cot-T-ioccm 
 
 •T WmcCOO COOrHOTfO 
 <0 -^Cvjoo o'oOOrHO 
 
 <" !>• "* N 00 Tt< CCI 
 
 c oim •*mo50(Moo 
 
 I osocgoo (Mooocio 
 
 f2 eoNoo oooo'oo 
 
 w oo-*coeomm 
 
 fl- oom oo^oooiMM 
 
 'Y t-OC-:00 (MOOOt-O 
 
 o oocqoo" oo'oo'oo 
 
 ^ . mme<i«coo 
 
 M 22 '^''^ e<3 CO <x> o w 1-1 
 
 <i _C«DOc<ioo Mooomo 
 
 § "i'coiMoo odo'odo 
 
 00 «3. 
 
 ^ £0 m oooo N ca 
 
 OC oom miMmomr-i 
 
 Qj — < COmr-lOO T-lOOOCOO 
 
 " «D oor-Jdo" ddddo'd 
 
 w moscoi-t t- 
 
 S t-m ^i-ieoOT-iO 
 
 •« omi-ioo ^ooowo 
 
 •^ CO iH o' d ■ o' d d o' o' d 
 
 w CO Tt< irt T-i ■* *n 
 
 C torn eor-iC'ToecO 
 
 "7 OimrHOO thOOOt-iO 
 
 
 
 Ski £^3 
 
 la uj J t>^ CL, til 
 
 ^1 
 
 o ^ 
 
 o2 
 
 
1224 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XV. COST OF CAST IRON MAINS 
 
 EXCAVATION FOR MAINS 
 
 
 f — 
 
 Trench — 
 
 
 -\ 
 
 Cu. yds. per 
 
 
 Width 
 
 Depth Cross-sectional lin. ft. 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 ft. 
 
 -ins. 
 
 ft. 
 
 -ins. area in sq. 
 
 ft. Of trench 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5.83 
 
 .216 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5.83 
 
 .216 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6:74 
 
 .250 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 7.67 
 
 .284 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 9.33 
 
 .346 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 10.40 
 
 .385 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 12.75 
 
 .472 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 15.30 
 
 .566 
 
 24 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 18.10 
 
 .670 
 
 
 
 WEIGHT OF CAST 
 
 IRON MAINS 
 
 
 Size, 
 
 Weight per 
 
 
 
 Additional 
 weight per 
 
 Weight per 
 
 ft. used, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ] 
 
 length, lbs. 
 
 
 
 length add 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2%. lbs. 
 
 3 
 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 183.6 ■ 
 
 15.3 
 
 4 
 
 
 228 
 
 
 
 232.6 
 
 19.4 
 
 6 
 
 
 360 
 
 
 
 367.2 
 
 30.6 
 
 8 
 
 
 504 
 
 
 
 514.1 
 
 42.8 
 
 10 
 
 
 670 
 
 
 
 683.4 
 
 56.9 
 
 12 
 
 
 870 
 
 
 
 887.4 
 
 74.0 
 
 16 
 
 
 1,300 
 
 
 
 1,326.0 
 
 110.5 
 
 20 
 
 
 1.800 
 
 
 
 1,836.0 
 
 153.0 
 
 24 
 
 
 2.450 
 
 
 
 2,499.0 
 
 208.3 
 
 Weight includes bells ; 2 per cent, is added for overweight. 
 
 Average cover is figured at 3 ft. 
 
 Excavation, back-filling and hauling excess dirt at $0.75 per 
 cubic yard. 
 
 Cartage at $2.00 per ton average all kinds of material on as much 
 of material as would be handled twice. 
 
 For specials add 4 per cent, of cost of pipe, 
 
 COST OF CAST IRON MAINS 
 
 o 
 
 $0.45 
 0.52 
 0.75 
 0.99 
 1.29 
 1.62 
 2.38 
 3.25 
 4.43 
 
 CAST IRON PIPE PRICES 
 
 Price f.o.b. cars per ton $27.00 
 
 6 per cent, store-room expense 1.62 
 
 Total per ton $28.62 
 
 
 
 ^5s 
 
 bX) 
 
 
 W 0) 
 
 M 
 1 • 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 5-^ 
 
 
 ns^ 
 
 
 Art 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 $0,219 
 
 $0,015 
 
 $0,020 
 
 $0,162 
 
 $0,020 
 
 $0,009 
 0.011 
 
 4 
 
 0.278 
 
 0.019 
 
 0.020 
 
 0.162 
 
 0.026 
 
 6 
 
 0.438 
 
 0.031 
 
 0.040 
 
 0.188 
 
 0.035 
 
 0.018 
 
 8 
 
 0.612 
 
 0.043 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.213 
 
 0.044 
 
 0.024 
 
 10 
 
 0.814 
 
 0.057 
 
 0.060 
 
 0.260 
 
 0.061 
 
 0.033 
 
 12 
 
 1.060 
 
 0.074 
 
 0.080 
 
 0.288 
 
 0.074 
 
 0.042 
 
 16 
 
 1.581 
 
 0.111 
 
 0.160 
 
 0.354 
 
 0.109 
 
 0.063 
 
 20 
 
 2.189 
 
 0.153 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.425 
 
 0.152 
 0.215 
 
 0.083 
 
 24 
 
 2.981 
 
 0.208 
 
 0.400 - 
 
 0.502 
 
 0.119 
 
GAS PLANTS 1225 
 
 <M<MC<lCO 
 
 o'doo 
 
 r, o 
 
 >■ hn O o O O 
 
 " - oooo 
 
 H ^ a' 
 
 t-H £ -3 W (M IM «D 
 
 <3^ rt >> OoOO 
 
 02 
 
 <J 
 
 ^ ?J, OIOOO 
 
 O f^ '^. '^ "R '^ 
 
 (V» cS odoo 
 
 O a» o "i" 5 bio M-^Tfto 
 
 ►3 o ;^ w Gj d 0000 
 
 fa 
 
 /-N P - 0000 
 
 ^ n'^f^"S 0000 
 Ah 
 
 0<3>00 
 
 ]p ^^ 0000 
 
 ^ >>rfn^ . 0501050 
 
 m 
 
 £Jt3+j eoooosw 
 
 
 
1226 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Service Connections. The following data were taken from 
 Exhibit No. 17, Case No. 1273, Appraisal of Kings County Lighting 
 Company, N. Y. 
 
 Based on observation of costs of labor and materials, shown 
 in company's records, the average cost of fittings per 
 service, was found to be $0.35 
 
 On the same basis, the average cost of labor, per foot of 
 
 service, was found to be 0.07640 
 
 The cost of hauling was estimated at 0.00178 
 
 Making total labor cost, per foot of service $0.07818 
 
 Unit Costs of Gas iVIains. In Table XIV is given the derivation 
 of the net unit prices used in Table XIII, Trunk Lines and Mains, 
 as abstracted from Exhibit No. 17, Case No. 1273, Appraisal of 
 Kings County Lighting Co., N. Y. 
 
 Tables XV and XVI show the development of unit prices of 
 gas mains as introduced by Wm. A. Baehr in Exhibit No. 29 in the 
 above mentioned case. 
 
 Table XVII gives the development of the cost of Lead Joints as 
 used in Table XV. 
 
 TABLE XVIL COST OF LEAD JOINTS FOR CAST IRON 
 MAINS 
 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cost per 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 lead, lbs. 
 
 yarn 
 
 per joint 
 
 foot of joint 
 
 3 
 
 4.5 
 
 0.25 
 
 $0,238 
 
 $0,020 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.313 
 
 0.026 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.421 
 
 0.035 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.526 
 
 0.044 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.732 
 
 0.061 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.892 
 
 0.742 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.203 
 
 0.109 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.819 
 
 0.152 
 
 24 
 
 50 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.593 
 
 0.215 
 
 COST OF MATERIAL 
 
 Lead 5c at the work 
 
 Yarn 5.3c, at the work 
 
 Detailed Cost of Gas Services. Table XVIII gives the detailed 
 cost of services as submitted in evidence by Wm. A. Baehr at the 
 hearing of the Kings County Lighting Co., N. Y, 
 
 Effect of Length on Cost of Laying 2 in. Gas iVIain. Table XIX 
 prepared from actual costs on some 147 different pipe laying jobs 
 extending over a period from 1903 to 1911, shows a decided tend- 
 ency for lower costs as the length of pipe increases. The apparent 
 in average costs for the 401-500 and 601-700 distances is mainly 
 due to a larger percentage of the more recent jobs with the higher 
 rates of pay. 
 
 Cost of Relaying Pavement. The following data were abstracted 
 from evidence submitted by Wm. A. Baehr at the hearing of the 
 Kings County Lighting Co., N. Y. The prices are based on a 
 paving contractor furnishing all tools, machinery, labor, and ma- 
 terial necessary for relaying pavement in trenches to be excavated 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1227 
 
 and back-filled by the gas company to the sub-grade of the pave- 
 ment in place. 
 
 The prices are based on the assumption that men taking up the 
 pavement will not cover concrete, brick, and cushion sand which 
 has been removed from the pavement, with the excavated earth, 
 
 TABLE XVIII. DETAILED COST OP GAS SERVICES 
 
 % 
 1 
 
 iy4 
 11/2 
 2 
 3 
 
 $1.30 
 1.90 
 2.60 
 3.10 
 4.15 
 8.70 
 
 MM. 
 
 0.16 
 0.23 
 0.31 
 0.37 
 0.50 
 1.40 
 
 (h ' ^ be 
 
 m 
 $0.09 
 0.13 
 0.17* 
 0.21 
 0.28 
 0.58 
 
 O 
 $0.10 
 0.10 
 0.10 
 0.10 
 0.10 
 0.15 
 
 
 $1.90 
 2.00 
 2.10 
 2.15 
 2.30 
 2.60 
 
 
 '"d rt^ 
 
 
 $6.94 
 6.94 
 6.94 
 6.94 
 6.94 
 6.94 
 
 $2.44 
 3.16 
 
 
 $2.44 
 3.40 
 
 12.40 1.49 0.83 0.35 3.00 6.94 6.45 
 
 o 
 
 $10.49 
 11.30 
 12.22 
 12.87 
 20.11 
 26.57 
 .40 34.86 
 
 The average length of service is taken at 50 ft. and is based on 
 the average length of service, laid from 1906 to 1910. 
 
 Cartage is taken at $1.00 per ton and excavation and back-filling 
 at $0.75 per cubic yard. 
 
 The cost of fittings was taken as 12 per cent, of the cost of the 
 pipe. 
 
 Gas stops, 2 in., iron cock, brass plug. Gas stops, 3 and 4 in., 
 iron cock, brass washers. 
 
 Average width of trench, 2 ft. Average depth of trench, 2 ft., 6 
 ins. 
 
 TABLE XIX. 
 
 EFFECT 
 
 OF LENGTH ON COST OF LA 
 
 
 2- 
 
 ■IN. GAS 
 
 MAIN 
 
 
 Length of 
 
 Number 
 
 
 
 
 pipe laid, 
 
 of jobs. 
 
 
 -Labor cost per 
 
 foot s 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 included 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Average 
 
 1- 50 
 
 18 
 
 $0.3525 
 
 $0.0710 
 
 $0.1423 
 
 51-100 
 
 23 
 
 0.1836 
 
 0.0420 
 
 0.0942 
 
 101-200 
 
 45 
 
 0.1897 
 
 0.0462 
 
 0.0923 
 
 201-300 
 
 27 
 
 0.2750 
 
 0.0480 
 
 0.0859 
 
 301-400 
 
 13 
 
 0.0953 
 
 0.0602 
 
 0.0756 
 
 401-500 
 
 15 
 
 0.1750 
 
 0.0643 
 
 0.1086 
 
 501-600 
 
 4 
 
 1105 
 
 0.0341 
 
 0.0696 
 
 601-700 
 
 2 
 
 0.1179 
 
 0.0943 
 
 0.1017 
 
 and will leave them convenient for replacing in the pavement. 
 Also that in removing pavement with sand, pitch or asphalt filler, 
 the men will not destroy rpore than 10 per cent, of the brick. To 
 these figures the cost of cutting through the pavement should 
 be added. 
 
 In using the above costs the following overcuts in trenches are 
 to be allowed : 
 
1228 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1. Granite block on sand and portion concrete base — 
 
 warite and laboi , eic. ouiy - $1.00 pel' sq. yd 
 
 2. Asphalt on concrete base , 3.00 per sq. yd 
 
 3. Vitrified brick on edge 2.60 per sq. yd 
 
 4. Ctunmon brick on edge 1.50 per sq. yd 
 
 5. Macadam 75 per sq yd 
 
 6. Granite bloclc on sand-base, laid 2.50 per sq. yd 
 
 In using the above costs the following overcuts in trenches are 
 
 to be allowed. 
 
 Asphalt o 6 ins. Granite 10 ins. 
 
 Belgian block 8 ins. Macadam ins. 
 
 Brick 16 ins. 
 
 Cost of Buildings and Equipment of a Large Gas Plant. Tables 
 XX and XXT were introduced by Wm. W. Randolph as Kxhibits 
 "A" and "B" in the hearing of the Kings County Lighting Co., 
 N. Y. ' 
 
 EXHIBIT "A" 
 
 Cost new 
 Generator House No. 1 $ 16.100 
 
 52 ft. 8 ins. by 50 ft. 2 ins. by 33 ft. ins., ground 
 floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
 gable roof monitor type corrugated iron on steel on 
 steel trusses. Including machinery foundations. Also 
 included with this building is the runway between No. 1 
 and No. 2 houses. 
 Generator House No. 2 41,000 
 
 95 ft. 6 ins. by 53 ft. ins. by 48 ft. 11 Ins., ground 
 floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
 gable roof monitor type slate on steel on steel trusses. 
 Including machinery foundations. Also included with 
 this building is pit partly under Generator House No. 
 2, and partly under Wash Room. 
 Boiler House, Engine House, Exhauster House. Tar Tank 
 
 House and Condenser House 45,900 
 
 Boiler House, 53 ft. 1 in. by 42 ft. ins. by 16 ft. 8 ins. 
 ground floor to truss chord, one story building, brick 
 walls, gable roof corrugated iron on steel on steel 
 trusses. Including machinery foundations. 
 
 Engine and Exhauster House, 50 ft. 4 ins. by 41 ft. 
 ins. by 25 ft. 6 ins. ground floor to truss chord, two 
 story building, brick walls, gable roof slate on wood on 
 wood trusses. Including machinery foundations. 
 
 Tar Tower Hou.se, 43 ft. ins. by 26 ft. 4 ins. by 89 
 ft. in. bottom of settling wall to eaves, three story 4 
 
 building, brick walls, peaked roof slate on wood. Iii- 
 cluding machinery foundations. Also included with 
 this building are the tar wells under it. 
 
 Condenser House, 44 ft. 4 ins. by 41 ft. ins. by 24 
 ft. 2 ins. ground floor to truss chord, two story building, 
 brick walls, gable roof, slate on wood on wood trusses. 
 Including machinery foundations. 
 Purifier House 14,400 
 
 67 ft. 4 in.s. by 49 ft. 4 ins. by 27 ft. ins. ground 
 floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
 gable roof monitor type slate on wood on steel trusses. 
 Repair Shop and Stable 12,300 
 
 67 ft. ins. by 41 ft. ins. by 22 ft. 6 ins. high 
 ground floor to truss chord, two story building, brick 
 walls, gable I'oof, slate on wood on wood trusses. 
 Office and Meter Hou.se 17,900 
 
 40 ft. ins. by 44 ft. ins. by 37 ft. 10 ins. ground 
 floor to truss chord, three story building, brick walls, 
 gable roof slate on wood on wood trusses. Including 
 machinery foundations. 
 
GAS PLANTS 1229 
 
 Coal Shed $62,500 
 
 108 ft. 2 ins. by 52 ft. ins. by 52 ft. 7 ins. brick 
 floor to eaves, steel and wood construction, roof moni- 
 tor ty])e tar and gravel on wood. This building in- 
 cludes runways from coal shed to Houses No. 1 and No. 
 2. 
 
 Coal Tower House on Dock : 
 
 Included with coal handling machinery. 
 
 Artesian Well House : 2,100 
 
 14 ft. ins. by 14 ft. ins. by 22 ft. ins. basement 
 floor to eaves, brick walls, roof slate on wood, gable 
 type. 
 
 Men's Room House (Wash Room) 4,800 
 
 30 ft. 8 ins. by 31 ft. 2 ins. by 24 ft. 3 ins. ground 
 floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
 roof tar and gravel on wood. 
 
 Valve and Boiler Hou.se at Holder Station 7,200 
 
 65 ft. 2 ins. by 27 ft. ins. by 14 ft. ins. boiler 
 house floor to truss chord ; 23 ft. 4 in. valve house from 
 ba.sement floor to truss chord. Brick walls, roof (large 
 ventilator) part slate on wood, part tin on wood. In- 
 cluding machinery foundations. 
 
 Dock (Pier) : 
 
 Frame construction, 582 ft. 6 ins. long 24,800 
 
 Fences and paving^ 10,000 
 
 $259,000 
 20 per cent. Overhead Charges 51,800 
 
 Total Buildings $310,800 
 
 TABLE XXI. COST OF GAS PLANT EQUIPMENT 
 EXHIBIT "B" 
 
 Cost new 
 Generating Apparatus : 
 
 3 8 ft. 6 ins. Lowe water gas sets to the outlet of 
 washer, with 8 ft. 6 ins. diam. Generators and 8 ft. 
 ins. diam., carburetters and superheaters ; 2 located 
 in generator house No. 1, and 1 in generator house 
 
 No. 2 $ 29,700 
 
 1 Williamson set of water gas apparatus. Diam. of 
 generator 12 ft., diam. of superimposed twin car- 
 buretter and superheater 14 ft, total height 46 ft. 
 4 ins 22,000 
 
 Boilers : 
 
 4 106 h.p. Babcock & Wilcox boiler.s, water tube, in-1 
 eluding boiler room piping and 2 steel stacks 39 ins. 
 diam. by 120 ft. high. Located in boiler room. . . , )■ 18,680 
 
 1 215 h.p. Bab(;ock & Wilcox water tube boiler, in- 
 cluding boiler room piping and 1 steel stack 39 ins. 
 diam. by 122 ft. 6 ins. high. Located in boiler room 
 
 1 90 h.p. vertical tubular boiler including steel stack 
 2 ft. diam. by 40 ft. high. Located in hopper house 
 on dock. Included with coal handling machinery. . . . 
 
 1 50 h.p. vertical tubular boiler including steel "stack 
 20 ins. diam. by 25 ft. high. Located in valve house 
 at the fi5th Street Holder Station 700 
 
 1 100 h.p. horizontal tubular boiler including steel stack 
 30 ins. diam. by 65 ft. high. Located in valve house 
 at the 65th Street Holder Station 2,090 
 
1230 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Scrubbers : 
 
 1 primary scrubber 4 ft. by 7 ft. by 20 ft. high. Located 
 
 in generator house No. 2 $ 770 
 
 1 shaving .scrubber 10 ft. diam. by 27 ft. 9 ins. high, 
 
 including foundation. Located in yard 3,000 
 
 1 shaving scrubber 10 ft. diam. by 25 ft. high, including 
 foundation. Located in yard 2,500 
 
 2 scrubbers 7 ft. diam, by 22 ft. 1 in. high, including 
 foundation. Located in yard 4,620 
 
 Condensers : 
 
 2 condensers 7 ft. diam. by 22 ft, 1 in. high, including 
 
 foundations. Located in yard 6,820 
 
 2 condensers 7 ft. diam. by 22 ft, 1 in. high. Located 
 
 in condenser room 5.280 
 
 Tar and Ammonia Extractors : 
 
 1 P. & A. tar extractor with 16 -in. connections. Lo- 
 cated in tar house 2,200 
 
 1 standard rotary washer scrubber 7 ft. diam. by 12 ft. 
 
 Z¥i ins. long. Located in condenser house 4,180 
 
 Purifiers : 
 
 4 purifiers 16 ft. by 24 ft. by 7 ft. 6 ins. deep. Located 
 
 in purifier house 20,350 
 
 Holders : 
 
 1 relief holder in steel tank, capacity 100,000 cu. ft., 
 
 including foundation. Located in yard 18,600 
 
 1 storage holder in steel tank, capacity 100,000 cu. ft., 
 
 including foundation. Located in yard 19,000 
 
 1 storage holder in steel tank, capacity 500,000 cu. ft,, 
 including foundation. Located at 65th Street Holder 
 Station , 53,700 
 
 1 storage holder in steel tank, capacity 2,000,000 cu. 
 ft., including foundation. Located at 65th Street 
 Holder Station 175,500 
 
 Exhausters and Blowers : 
 
 1 No. 10 Roots exhauster and 1 13 in. by 12 in. di- 
 rect connected N. Y. safety vertical engine. Located 
 in condenser room 3,300 
 
 1 No. 8 Roots exhauster and 110 in. by 12 in. direct 
 connected N. Y. safety vertical engine. Located in 
 engine room 1,850 
 
 2 No. 6 Roots exhausters and 2 7 in. by 9 in. direct con- 
 nected Oil City Boiler Works, vertical engines. Lo- 
 cated in engine room 2,680 
 
 2 No. 11 Buffalo Forge blowers and 2 13 in, by 12 in. 
 Sturtevaht engines, double belted. Located in en- 
 gine room 4,840 
 
 1 N. Y. blower and 1 90 h,p. Terry turbine direct con- 
 nected, including 6 1/^ in. by 12 in. by 12 in. Smith- 
 Vaile condenser pump. Located in Generator House 
 No. 2 3,020 
 
 1 shaving blower and 1 6 in. by 6 in, Sturtevant ver- 
 tical engine (belted). Located in loft over stable. 
 Including piping, etc., to shaving blower 820 
 
 1 turbo blower 15 in. diam,. connected to Spencer 
 damper regulator. Installed on boilers Nos. 1 and 2. 
 Included with boilers. 
 
 Pumps 
 
 2 6 in. by 4 in. Worthington duplex pumps. Located in 
 
 boiler rooni • . ^ 250 
 
GAS PLANTS 1231 
 
 1 7 in. by 7 in. by 13 in. Cameron simplex pump. Lo- 
 cated in basement of engine room $350 
 
 . 1 6 in. by 5% in. by 6 in. Worthington duplex pump. 
 
 Located in basement of engine room 160 
 
 1 10 in. by lOi/^ in. by 18 in. Cameron simplex pump. 
 
 Located in Hopper house in dock 690 
 
 17'/^ in. by 6 in. by 10 in. Worthington duplex pump. 
 
 Located in Artesian well house 270 
 
 1 5 in. by 4 in. by 8 in. Davidson simplex pump. Lo- 
 cated in basement of the engine room 130 
 
 1 6 in. by 3 in. by 7 in. Cameron simplex pump. Lo- 
 cated in basement of the engine room 140 
 
 2 41/^ in. by 2% in. by 4 in. Worthington duplex 
 pumps. Located in basement of engine room 165 
 
 2 6 in. by 5% in. by 6 in. Worthii^gton duplex pumps. 
 
 Located in tar house 320 
 
 1 6 in. by 3 in. by <? in. Cameron simplex pump. Lo- 
 cated in valve room 65th Street Holder Station 140 
 
 Station Meters : 
 
 1 11 ft. 3 ins. by 11 ft. 3 ins. station meter located in 
 
 office building 5,170 
 
 1 equitable proportional meter with 16 in. connections. 
 
 Located in office building. Capacity 150,000 cu. ft. 
 
 per hour 1,200 
 
 1 Westinghouse air meter No. 12, located in the engine 
 
 room 80 
 
 Elevators : 
 
 1 steam hydraulic elevator, located in generator"! 
 
 house No. 2 I 
 
 1 steam hydraulic elevator, located in purifying house }■ 3,330 
 1 elevator with crane engine hoist located in genera- j 
 
 tor house No. 1 J 
 
 Scales : 
 
 1 6 -ton wagon scale. Located outside office building. 
 
 Including pit, etc 500 
 
 1 4-ton platform scale. Located in coal shed 160 
 
 1 4-ton track scale. Located in hopper house on 
 
 dock. Included with coal handling machinery. 
 
 Coal Handling Apparatus : 
 
 1 grab bucket hoist and cableway complete, consisting 
 of steel mast and gaff, clamshell bucket, drum hoist 
 with 617 ft. of steel trestle and double cable tracks 
 including 4 3-ton cars, located on dock. Also in- 
 cluded with this is hopper house on Dock R. R., track 
 scales, engines and 90 h.p. boiler 33,000 
 
 Coal Buggies : 
 
 4 side drop cars, 2000 lbs. capacity. Located in gen- 
 erator house No. 2 770 
 
 2 side drop cars, 1000 lbs. capacity. Located in gen- 
 erator house No. 2 100 
 
 2 2-\vheel coal buggies. Located in generator house 
 
 No. 1 100 
 
 Shops : 
 
 Machine shop equipment ] 
 
 Blacksmith shop equipment L o 200 
 
 Carpenter shop equipment f ' 
 
 Meter shop equipment J 
 
 Laboratory equipment 1,100 
 
1232 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Tanks, Wells, Etc. 
 
 1 steel oil tank 15 ft. diam. by 15 ft. high, capacity 
 20,386 gals. Including foundation. Located in the 
 yard $750 
 
 1 steel oil tank 35 ft. diani. by 35 ft. high. Including 
 foundation. Capacity 251,881 gals. Located in the 
 yard 8,250 
 
 1 steel well water tank 13 ft. diam. by 20 ins. high. 
 Capacity 19,858 gals. Located in tar tower 550 
 
 2 steel tar tanks 10 ft. diam. by 6 ft. high. Capacity 
 
 each 3,500 gals. Located in tar tower 440 
 
 1 settling well 40 ft. diam. by 12 ft. deep, brick with 
 two brick partitions. Capacity 112,755 gals. Lo- 
 cated in yard 4,400 
 
 1 brick tar well under far house 32 ft. 6 ins. by 13 
 ft. by 14 ft. Included with buildings. Capacity 35,- 
 000 gals. 
 1 brick tar well under tar house 32 ft. 6 ins. by 14 ft. 
 Included with building. Capacity 18,000 gals. 
 
 1 brick tar well under tar house 23 ft. by 6 ft. 2 ins. 
 by 14 ft. Included with building. Capacity 14,850 
 gals. 
 
 2 driven pipe wells at works 1 
 
 1 driven pipe well at Holder Station ) 1,100 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 1 feed w^ater heater 1 ft. 6 ins. diam. by 6 ft. 8 ins. 1 
 high. Berryman type. Located in the boiler room | 
 
 1 feed water heater 1 ft. 6 ins. diam. by 4 ft. high. . }- 550 
 Berryman type. Located in the tar tower | 
 
 2 oil heaters 2 ft. diam. by 6 ft. high, Berryman type. | 
 Located in generator house No. 1 J 
 
 1 Bristol indicating and recording pyrometer, located 
 in the office and connected to the Williamson water 
 
 gas apparatus 440 
 
 1 3 in. type " G " Worthington water meter. Located 
 
 in office basement 120 
 
 1 1 % in. Worthington oil meter. Located in tar house 80 
 1 incinerator for burning refuse. Located in office base- 
 ment 110 
 
 1 20 in. Smith & Sayre governor. Located in valve 
 
 room 65th Street Holder Station 530 
 
 Gauges — Miscellaneous 550 
 
 Yard connections — piping, valves, valve boxes, man- 
 holes, etc 55,000 
 
 Street department tools and tool wagon 600 
 
 Rented arc lamps — 136 inside, 41 outside 1,450 
 
 48th Street office equipment 1 „ nrn 
 
 48th Street shop equipment j "^'"^^ 
 
 General stable equipment 6,000 
 
 $541,165 
 20 per cent, overhead charges 108,233 
 
 Total machinery $649,398 
 
 Miscellaneous Data Pertaining to Various Complete Plants. 
 
 Massachusetts. Tables XXII-XXV are made up from the An- 
 nual Report of the Gas and Electric Light Commissioners of Massa- 
 chusetts for the year ending June 30, 1916. From Table XXIII it 
 is possible to tell whether the companies make coal gas, water gas, 
 or both. Tables XXIV and XXV give in detail the expenses of 
 manufacture and distribution. 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1233 
 
 *J 
 
 o 
 
 000*00000 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 St; 
 
 o 
 
 COOOOOOOOOO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 jT.iOctfOO-rO'S'O 
 
 eo 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 C5t-co<rvcci'roiftirs 
 
 Tf 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Si 3 
 0° 
 
 00 
 
 eOS5^TO5C-00COC» 
 
 •* 
 
 00 
 
 CSS 
 
 
 th^ mm 
 
 ■<*< 
 
 eo 
 
 us 
 
 
 o 
 
 OOOOOOOOO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 OOOOOOOOO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 OOOOOOOOO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 = o o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 OOOOU500U20 
 
 o 
 
 us 
 
 o 
 
 us 
 
 lOlrtlOOOOUSi— i!Mio 
 
 o 
 
 t- 
 
 o 
 
 
 r-lrHCOC<l THC-Tf 
 
 03 
 
 c- 
 
 Tf 
 
 go 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 tH 
 
 
 o 
 
 OOOOOt-OOO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 t^OOOOClOOO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 <D 
 
 Cl 
 
 iM M OO Ollrt CO O C^J o 
 
 *l 
 
 
 o 
 
 ts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «l 
 
 «o 
 
 (Sl-^0«>C^)m«5t^«0 
 
 Oi' 
 
 OS 
 
 t-' 
 
 t^ 
 
 OCOS-. -T'-'SlOCOlC 
 
 Ci 
 
 C-. 
 
 us 
 
 
 CO -r o_o -t^!» U5 00 Tf 
 
 c- 
 
 eo 
 
 eo 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO eo t-^ -.^^ -«J^ «© M c-i eg 
 
 »o 
 
 00 
 
 t>^ 
 
 
 <Mcgi>cqi-(cqoooo 
 
 iH 
 
 05 
 
 us 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 o o o 
 us eg o 
 
 i-H 00 «D O 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 us 
 
 o 
 
 eo 
 
 eo 
 
 00 
 
 us 
 
 us 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 •>*< M eo o 
 
 1-H t>^ rH T-T 
 00 IM C~ us 
 
 «5 Oi eg ■* 
 
 
 1 1-H iH tH »H iH rH iH T-l tH O 
 
 ieo«ot--*o<M«eooO'*oiT-iusot-ecot-iMt^oooususc<it~T-it~«ioct-«ot~ 
 
 ia5«»r^OiOOC5t-7-iC~U5300COU2t~U5US t~ O 0U5OC^TiMeg-*aiC~U5t~OU;<35 
 
 i-^rHOiCs-*i-ieO'^^cc>»ooorH«;-^eoe^i«ooiM«C!ai00ooi>-eocgoiOo>«c 
 
 
 
 
 'O C n r* r? "^ C I' 'I' c 5° 
 
 s|l s^ll ^ i.^1 E|.?;§| S2 i § c5 fill o o 
 
 5;6 
 
 O 4J 
 
 'S t'Sri csc5 2 ce a o 
 
 0) (u > o-Q o c 3 y£ 
 ' N p ciit^T'XJ 31-" 
 
 O be ^ 
 
 II 
 
 
 . o 
 
 £5 
 
 ^ CI ^ 
 
1234 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 SJ8^9IVr C-USr-OOiMM'MT-ICDIO WOC-Ir-l CO 00 00 -<i^ O5T-IC0 
 
 1-t rHrHCQ WNCO 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 i>-tH 
 
 r-<«5 
 
 lMK5 05r-l 
 
 i-MeOia** 
 
 2Sio2! 
 
 
 C^J [ 
 
 •t-I 
 
 •oo<x> 
 
 •-*«© 
 
 ^OSOlO 
 
 oo^S 
 
 2«>2 
 
 
 
 • i-t 
 
 :no 
 
 •-^in 
 
 (D "*,'».0 
 
 t-.^,S"l 
 
 "^.^'St* 
 
 
 •S113S 5 : 
 
 !t^ 
 
 .05 00 
 
 • Ol"-^ 
 
 M-'os'oJ'tjJ' 
 
 e<s irsco '* 
 
 ^o^ 
 
 
 •p9sn X^ijuBnO «a ; 
 
 .<5> 
 
 .C-t- 
 
 .-<tiOO 
 • iMrH 
 
 00t-|I?JO5 
 
 
 eooo'-i 
 
 
 a : 
 
 '.o 
 
 •OO 
 
 • OO 
 
 O O OO 
 
 ooo® 
 
 O^O 
 
 
 pasn J • 
 
 • M 
 
 ■ w m 
 
 ■ m 02 
 
 w w w to 
 
 s^^l 
 
 K to M 
 
 
 J9qaiaua oS : 
 
 • Cj 
 
 ■^=s 
 
 : d ci 
 
 rtnSdd 
 
 SgS 
 
 
 • 
 
 :o 
 
 .00 
 
 •00 
 
 0000 
 
 oooO 
 
 
 suoi 'past! S " 
 
 
 •Oi05 
 
 ■■*o 
 
 •■*rH 
 
 Bit. 525 
 From El. Dep't. 
 From El. Dep't. 
 Bit. 131 
 Coke & 
 
 1-1 eo^ 
 
 1-1 
 
 jojpasnsiTF?u9:jBj\[.ti : 
 
 
 •iHrH 
 
 fpQM 
 
 Bit. 5 
 Coke 5 
 Coke& 
 
 Bit. 3,3 
 Coke 1.7 
 Bit, 8; 
 
 Gas Dep't. 
 
 Bit. & 
 
 suo:^ CD . 
 
 o^ 
 
 .■M05 
 
 ,oiw'>^ 
 
 «5ec<MO 
 
 c->t-J5°° 
 
 05t- 
 
 
 CO 
 
 .-MO 
 .«DC0 
 
 
 OOOTHia 
 
 
 OJt- 
 
 ooo 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 •t-T rH 
 
 iH »«" 
 
 M «^'*< 
 
 c<f«r 
 
 d . 
 
 . rt 
 
 . rt.oj 
 
 • cj 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 aoiB-iauaS ui ^ : 
 
 t-, 
 
 
 
 © OJO g 
 
 <U^ <Dg 
 
 ® <B 
 
 pasn siBua^BM ^ • 
 
 ifl 
 
 : c fl 
 
 .floo 
 
 "Sooo 
 
 o c o o 
 
 O O 
 
 ^ 
 
 <1 • 
 
 .< 
 
 •<5^ 
 
 .<{uo 
 
 oooo 
 
 o<Juo 
 
 OO 
 
 
 © 
 
 O 
 
 0) <D 
 
 ® O (D 
 
 aj <u 0) <P 
 
 (D O 0) ® 
 
 CI O 
 
 § 
 
 pasn ^ : 
 
 •^ 
 
 :Es^ 
 
 :&&£= 
 
 ssss 
 
 ssss 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o 
 
 ssaoojj o . 
 
 ■:3 
 
 :5a 
 
 :333 
 
 3333 
 
 3333 
 
 33 
 
 •tH 
 
 ^ .U3 . .eo -OS • 
 
 r-l'* -in 
 
 I> 50 05 03 
 
 Tt<0 
 
 <^ 
 
 IBOD JO UOl "2^ ■ 
 
 
 OOM -Ci 
 «>U3 -r-l 
 
 oinojw 
 
 00 T-I 
 
 «oco 
 
 H 
 
 jadSBajojaa^ :^ 
 
 tH 
 
 -<* ! !« ^o I 
 
 oiH ;o 
 
 Oi-HrHi-H 
 
 iHlH 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 H 
 
 tH 
 
 rHiH iH 
 
 i-trHiHrH 
 
 iHiH 
 
 peziuoqjBD :go •« . .^ •« 
 ITfJODjosuox • c^- •^- • -cq •„- 
 
 Tfioj'^i'aiusiO'^oooooco 
 cocoJioor-oiaooooot* 
 
 aad pios av-o ^^-^-u^^^t^^^^ 
 
 ,i9uinsuo.-) 
 
 UfBlU JO ^)|UU to CO •* t> Cq «3 05 r-l CO lO 05 
 
 .19(1 sM lu nH uoo >« ;:; "^ -** 2 ■=« "=> «"=^ 0° '^ 
 
 SUIT?llI iMO'*'Ot-C0«CiC<l05t-C- 
 lO S9IITAT O CO -f 00 ixi -*"' '-^ oi 00 ^' O 
 
 C O 
 
 ot- -o 
 ooo •«© 
 cot-_ -i^i 
 
 ■<*<0500 
 
 ooint— U5 
 
 C5lrt«DU5 
 
 laoo 
 ino) 
 
 CO 00 ■[> 
 
 T-l"t^Tl^05 
 
 1-I1H50N 
 
 ??'s 
 
 14,749 
 17,528 
 25.519 
 23,332 
 
 16,536 
 18.256 
 25,298 
 23,918 
 
 1-1 «o 
 
 IHIO 
 tHOJ 
 
 t-T-I^O 
 
 T-I rH T-I 
 
 OOOt-OO 
 -*05^t- 
 r-l <Mt-I 
 
 1-1 iH 
 COIA 
 iHiH 
 
 'ffOTHO 
 
 Cr,Ui«DU5 
 
 eoo 
 
 to'oitor-^ 
 t-ysooo 
 
 cooi^i-i 
 
 00 CJ t- 1« 
 
 00 iH 
 
 05 ?J u o -5; q £ 3 o .fl 51? 
 I 
 
 
 
 c.z; o ;:i 4-. :z roc -::;,>-' ih a).-::^.-;^ cS s- rt ro rttC 
 
 c3 s- rt «« 
 
 Si +2 
 C m 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1235 
 
 ssai 'japioq Zi, 
 
 
 r-c^iifli-io^Oi-icoooo 
 
 Cl C5 O T-i O lO i-i C» ci 00 
 
 ■l,(irnl)8 pUB ajo!Mooirocr>ai'*ooia 
 
 '^ ■■ ^ocoocoeoTH«oc<ii-i^ 
 
 •019 'STOOl aJ«5cou5coi>coTjHO -o 
 
 , + ■■ ^ ^ (to fO CO r« O Ci 1— I t>- • t~-. 
 
 mOMOO-*0010U50«>0 
 
 sag's /NA +j c- -^ o «> 1- c-i oi Oi o M 
 
 '-' «d c-^ -^ oo oj oc -*' «5 o -^ 
 
 'oooooooooo 
 
 mcgOOrHiHi-lT-ICOT-IOlM 
 
 sjauian^ tJoooo-dddood 
 
 .n-rH'A'fOC-C^.-li-HfOiH 
 
 s jaqDUua ^ ^- ^ ^ ^ ^^^^ ^ ^ 
 
 I'BOQ i3c5COMirtoc<oir5THooc- 
 ^ uj" 00 Si d ai Ln -^ oc ci c<i 
 
 M tH 1-1 C<1 KI r-l CQ I^ 
 
 c» 
 Z 
 H 
 Ph 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 g 
 
 <J 
 P^ 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 W 
 
 <y 
 H 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 S9SU8CIX9 
 
 S9XT3J, 
 
 S9SUacIX3 
 
 0<Ml«COtCio;00«DC£>0 
 
 i-iooca-. ccocLOfoooTti 
 
 M C^ 1-i t-hV tH m' r-i r-i rH 
 
 t-ot-ec^ooioot- 
 
 I^^OJL 
 
 ' C: C «C t- oc CO 
 
 «Ciu5eoicu:oco;c;o«D 
 
 (35CCOi-rj t~t-(XlCt-00 
 
 c- ift t> oi 00 OC d c; OC t- 
 
 S9SU9ClX9 
 
 
 ' ' ' ' ^ ' 
 
 
 
 
 aeHJO 
 
 
 ■ "d ■ 
 
 scIiu-Bi 
 oiiqnd 
 
 * 'r-i ■ 
 
 • -T-l -O • 
 
 • -Ifi -T-l • 
 
 ' '<6 'd> ' 
 
 SJ9:^9UJ 
 JO SIBAV9U9a 
 
 puB sjiBCIayr 
 
 S90TAJ9S 
 PU'B sill'BUI 
 
 JO sjiBCIey; 
 
 S9AO:iS 
 
 seouBiidd-B 
 Pub'siooj, 
 
 S93BM 
 
 „;oovftirt(MooocoooiT}<rH 
 ^ T-i T-( iH (m" CO iH w M ec' oi 
 
 „• t- ic CM « «D 00 o 00 Id 00 
 
 ^CC00C0i-(r-:t>-(MTH«C«O 
 "^ 1-! T-" 1-4 C>3 im' 7-i CO* (m' tH 1-J 
 
 'OLOOOO OOCMtH 
 
 • t- «ci oi t- o t- T-i o -CI 
 ^ o CO u3 Tj< CO -* c- 00 -co 
 t!c^iwTHT-!dddrH *d 
 
 •T-li-i'S-OOOOOOr-iC;'^ 
 
 ^^c-'^ coocotiU:«ciMT-i 
 
 CJ CM TJ-' r-! CO CM -^ Tt-' CM r-i C<1 
 
 ;-if5i: rt - ce r atT 
 <;fc|lp,a:c;cfc>^^ 
 
1236 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 UIBIU JO ailUI ^- „• ^; ^ ^; .^; ^ ^- ,^ ^^^^^^^^^ • 
 aaCl la'OI 41 no W r-( r-i -^ C-- O -:r U5 r-- cr. ;C T-! T-i «C '+ UJ OC r-i S5 ' 
 
 UOI^nqiJtJSip «o o "5 •* OS f rH 05 OS CO »« N ev? t^ a; «c '*' us • 
 UI SBS to SSOI % c<j ec CO c^i t> 00 •*' 1-h u3 u3 iH t-^ i-i o 00 06 rj^ 00 * 
 
 * •• •"'rHrHiHiH <M t-I rH tH ,-((M ,-( rS 
 
 UIBUI CO 0010 50 tHtH coast- CD OMC-i^ci t^OTt<r>> 
 10 sail W o o lo CO t^ o cj 00 CO U5 iw o iri i> ci cc CO. ,-i 06 
 *■ '■■•*• tH c^i i-H CO CO 't' CO iM T-i ci ^ <x> -* <n CO m -* 00 eo 
 
 uor^TJincTocI OOI 'M_oinTMt^^a5THUs^«5«5ioixiU5^ir-MOO 
 aecl uol:^cIuInsuo^ «o t> 00 oi «d t- o r-^ -*' rn ^' i-i o> ■* tj-' -^ co' ■* od 
 
 UOi:iBfnUOa QOI TiH00C0U5 00OC0 00iMrH00e0<MO«DI>00C0eC 
 
 .I9fl UOI^flUinS CO co' CO -^ ci «d co' c-i t^ 00" -^* o c:i r- CO 10 iL« T-i 06 
 
 ) r+( -^ O -"^i 00 t— O in CO CD C>1 1-1 C-l !M 1-1 
 '(MCOIOCO r-|S^<MCDC-C<ieoC>:>t-IM 
 
 COOi'timot— -^t^OOOOCOr-lT-IQOt— iM(MTf< 
 TT/-wTT«TTir-T/-w T CTl M OS "M xH OS OS ^M iH CO 00 CO t- CO OS T-I CC O 00 
 
 uoi:j^[liaO(j ooooiC'-Hcot-ooocoiniO'Mcoioco-^woco 
 
 ^2 
 
 
 G r,^ > o 0^ ri, ° -5 o >s g w- a).2 
 
 o >, 
 
 U ■ -p o 
 
 1-5 
 
 D4' 
 
 %'^o 
 
 . o 
 ■CO 
 
 I— J CD ofj +J O jj 
 
 
 ^0 2i^0<a.J^ »CS3"r 
 
 13 s^ P cC C 6J3§^ rt 
 
 ObS^Ha.Oo>.o..o.S 
 
 0-; . . .=^o^ .a 
 
 
 ►r yj cu oj 03 0) rt a; 
 
 ;" ►-^ •'■' ^ ™ ^ -^ lii JL t-^ s> ^^ >^ ii; £ "^ ^^ s» P 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1237 
 
 •\v3 jad 
 
 •sib3 'pasn 
 no si^S x^ 
 J8Cl paonpoacl jbj, 
 
 paonpojcl rt 
 
 aecl paonpojcl jbj, ^ 
 
 paonpojcl sb3 ^ 
 •:>j no K Jdd k 
 lanj jot^B-jauaf) 
 
 paonpojd 
 srt3 ij. no H 
 aad lanj Jtaiiog 
 
 ■^j no i\r JB(1 p9sn 
 
 J8HDiaU9 JO SIBf) 
 ■BIUOtUUIB JO 
 
 Su'inas aSBjaAV 
 
 paziuoqj^D [BOD 
 uo:^ iad ■btuoluuiy 
 
 SJfJOM i-B uoi[-bS 
 J8d JBJ aoiJd 
 Suinss aS-eaaAV 
 
 •sibS 'paziuoq 
 -.iBO iBOD uo:> 
 jad s;onpojd jbj, 
 
 uo:^ J8d a>i0D aoijd 
 
 Suiips eSBjaAV rf 
 o 
 paziuoq o 
 -JBO i^oo JO uo; 
 aad 'i^nj qouaq 
 joj pasn a>ioo 
 
 'sqi 'paziuoqjBO 
 I'BOD jo'uo) .lad 
 paonpoad a>io3 
 
 ■U no 'IT30D 
 
 JO qi aad ppiA 
 
 •CO \a 
 
 o coi-l 
 
 ■d oo 
 
 *» oo 
 
 00 
 
 ■ • O . ■ iM O lO 
 
 ■ -co . -iH OM 
 
 ' 'S ' 'd: eo© 
 
 Ot-i .irtus • • •Tj< -oo 
 
 ■ oc 00 ' THoi ■ ■ ■ oi ■ CO t- 
 ■*eo ■-*!« ■ ■ " eo "ooeo 
 
 •o 
 
 •oo 
 ;o'eo' 
 
 •oio .'^T-i . • -co -ooo -00 • 
 •oi-T* .cji-! • . -us -t-ia -i-t • ' 
 ■ Tti eo" * Tt< ■<*< ' * ■ eo ■ eo co" ' ■<*< 
 
 t^ U310 
 
 . . . 5 t-s 
 
 5 oo 
 
 d oo 
 
 rt< OOO 
 
 cNi <^^■« 
 
 U5U5 M rH eOOOia 
 
 i • •■^■^ -oocoeoeoeo • -r-icoc-ico 
 I . -oo -OOOOO • -oooo 
 ' ' 'do ' <S'~i<S>S<Z) ' ' did'ci'd 
 
 OOOOO • 'OiOOO 
 
 [ • -aiW ■'X>oOt-io • -eooust- 
 icicg ■d'^il^^oo^-^ ' "cjeocqc^ 
 
 suoi 'pazT 
 -uoqjBD iBo'o 
 
 
 • cooiooot- • 
 
 • ooeoe<iou5 • 
 
 • oot^oo 
 
 • C-. o as ■* 
 
 . .^^ 
 
 |Tj<iadd-* 1 
 
 ; U5 U5 U5 •* 
 
 • -C-O 
 
 • -oiO 
 
 • •CO'4* 
 
 •■*lOOO(SiO • 
 
 •1-I005lrt0 • 
 
 . weoeoeo__ • 
 
 • eo-^oot- 
 
 •Ot^(M»0 
 
 ■ T».r-ieoeo 
 
 • -coeo 
 
 • -c-co 
 
 •TJ.OO00 • • 
 •irtOiOus . • 
 
 . -t- ^ oi CO • • 
 
 •OOO"* 
 
 •ooot- 
 • cieoeoeo 
 
 iH 
 
 'iHi-T'-HT-r * 
 
 ■iHiHr-Ti-r 
 
 • (MO 
 
 • -iHeo 
 
 • ooiooio • 
 
 • rH C-1 00 ,H 05 • 
 
 •IOt-I(MU3 
 • 00 (M IM t- 
 
 ■ 'laia 
 
 '\d^"*>io^ ■ 
 
 -TttuilO-* 
 
 ■t-irt -oeo^et^oo • -t^iaoo^a 
 
 ' ai<Si •«O00COTtHrt • .00<MOW5 
 
 'inOO •OCl-3<X>?D • -inoociH 
 
 ''^lo 'lOrHeo't^TiC ■ "eoddd 
 
 Eu_-- =<2 
 
 at; 3 5 
 
 
 2ic-£:3'^« 
 
 
 
1238 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 00 t- ■* CO CO O 05 «0 00 ff* r-< lO «D ■* OS OS «C •^ C<l 
 
 l^-J-O Jj t> o eo ■* M ■* u3 «D CO <o CO ec eo lo i> oi as t>- tH 
 
 0000TH«>US«£>t-<D00t-<Ot-rt<«D«DeDU5e0«O 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 00-*-1<T-(THini<MU5oO<^'_<MIM_t-aveCWU5-<*(M 
 
 02 SXBnpiSaJ ^-^L^w"«£jo«ooo«£5l^-o6-^colnlnaiLOC:1-^ 
 
 SSar'I'BlOJ. oooi-HSOoot-r-icgT-J.anH^scooasaiw 
 
 _• I I, u- ^^ ^^ r-l,-(iH 1-1 ,-,,-1 
 
 ►1 9SU9ClX9 c^qorH-fTHOOeot^-^oo-^ooTt* -toiftoMiH 
 
 Q p9^nC[{J^SipuXl citJffOrHrH'it'T-i'-^ioeoioocci ." cq co\t< ec o 
 I 
 
 p^ 8SUadX9 u5^>r^-*^^c«o^o-^^HeoolTt^t^t-(^^^oooalOl 
 
 PM tH tH (M iH tH tH C<i j-i. r^ iH rH 
 
 w 
 H 
 
 ^ 9SUadX9 OOooOOOM(MOO!MT-!^COIr-0-,U5U5Tj<rt<osOO 
 
 O * 1-1 iH 
 
 M 9SU9dX9 •*t~-.U5l>-*iHOO-rt<C<|i-l(M«DOOOOt~a5«00<0 
 
 02 UOi:^nqu:^i!JlQ «Ocoi>iHi>t>i>^uit>irso'co«OT-it--i>TjH'inoo" 
 
 ^ • • • ^ rH^ rH 
 
 ^ Sl'BnpiS9J C5u50eocq«o-^aiOoeckftoo-*aiui05cooo 
 
 H »<^»T va'Doi T M T(< OS 00 ■* •* lo ci ■* u5 CO iri ui o 00 «c c^i i>^ c<i 
 
 1-1 E>&K*i A^ fc"-'''<J (Di^t-eowcO'^eous^eoeoMticO'^coT-t-'f 
 
 g 
 
 H 9SU9ClX9 '5^<MOi«>OiHt>-ooOaiM<iM0^05eooooocooo 
 
 <i HOT 1 ">n nn r j m ^J oi oi ^mV^ in «d t- u:3 od «b lo o «d uj ai a; c^ 
 
 ^ uui+juyuad cDt^t_cot-t-'*n>Oioo«Dt-<M^i>oo«or--<*' 
 
 H 
 
 O fOot~-i^'^oo'*iO'3iaioOi-itDa-oooc(M-*o 
 DIOS «>coooco'*oqi-it-fOcieooo-*<iMT-^eoCr--* 
 fl >«-M(M0Ot— Oa5CDt^^i-lT-H.-<00C:Ct-C:r-l 
 
 •;j no- IV 
 
 l0i"*Ci'^"5'5^"*'^05'>''^'^^^'^'~-" 
 
 2 (MiH«C-*'COCO'<t"-tc^joo«>COaiU5 0iC:t-00 
 t"* 1-1 iH tH M 
 
 ^ ::::::::::::::::::: 
 
 X ::::::::::::::::::: 
 
 H ::::::::::::::::::: 
 
 J • • • 
 
 M :■:::::::::::::::•: 
 
 ^ :.:........ : . 
 
 H m : 
 
 V 
 
 OS i:J -.S 0/ o « rt b m 
 
 ft ^ c5.ti^^ ^.^ C S ^ C ji;.2i oo S c'C 
 x!>~Za'a;dot3<^'=^>~;ftfc.<u"r'a5K^3^ 
 
GAS PLANTS 
 
 1239 
 
 C-05 •C<|-^ 
 
 > 00 O O iM O 
 
 ITS CO CO IM O (^q CT) 
 
 •C0«DOi • -t-O-* 
 
 q:^ 
 
 ■o«c"* ; |0 _'000<X) 
 
 • t~- -* O OS lO C5 «C CT> •■Ht-(O00 
 
 • IC O-j C^l rH 00 -* ■* T-l • (M CO IM O 
 CDt^Ot 
 
 ■(MCO 
 
 Hev500«C> ^OOiHr-l 
 
 • tH 00 •* Ifl ?o kO 
 •THO-rHt-tOO 
 ■ •*" tH O N t-^ «C> 
 
 t-00<M -00^ 
 
 .COt^lHCOW .CDl-ICg 
 
 .eo ooos 
 
 CO-H 
 
 t-00-*' - • •(rqOOi-l-^UiOS • • • • CD «0 us 1-1 rH CO «© U5 05 «0 • -Oi • -co • -OOoirH, 
 
 -qIootH • • -ofoirtco-^coco • • • •ot-cooT-<coinaiooix>eo • -to • -co • -THi-Hto 
 
 " w o d * ' 'T-it~^<d><:i<^<z><:i ' ' ' " co d d r-i co d ui ui d •^ d ' ' •*' ' ' c^" ' ' w d us 
 
 ' ■ 'i-tr-t ■ "CO tH .... ^^ 
 
 • t-U5cq0Ot-«DO0iH •oust- • •■* -OOUS 
 
 • CDcoo-^co^cucw -r-iasco • .th -woo 
 '■^ci<~:d>c^<^-iAxC) ;ust-*d ■ id .'dd 
 
 •t-cooi 
 ■®xftus' 
 
 ■n 
 
 c.':;^ 
 
 
 •a; m P 
 oj o :3 
 
 
 i 5- rt 
 
 3 O 0) 
 
 S 
 
 w !3 r ™ t:^ ti _ • 
 
 -§■-5.^^ 
 
 ojO 
 
 13 -« 
 
 5iO 
 
 
 3 "^ tC 5-. 
 
 3 S-< ^ «i " ^ .J- 
 
 '+^5 . . - . t- S 
 
 oS rt CO m m Oi o o 
 
 
 c 0; ao 
 
 a.S t'' t3 OS ^ 
 X 'a - fi K o 
 
 0) r; ^: rtg O 
 
 m 
 
 S?1S 
 
 iiS- 
 
 rt !^ C 
 
 M a a a a m - .. 
 
 — <U (U O) Oj rt 4) 
 
 >? TO rt M M ^ <D 
 
 §5 --g 
 
 "C -g .- vj 
 
 O) o 
 
 aoj ce^i 
 
 O 01 
 CO w 
 
 rt a 
 
 c rz^ '^ a 
 
 ^ '^ ^"B die 13 
 o--;S<^rtti3r;rt«M»aaawcoco^i^^gy<P,+j^_,^i:;rr.:-rtC.p-C^co'coto^j+j 
 
 _ rQ .J- .^ M , 
 
 J2 rC ci O) 
 g «w o ;- -J- 
 
1240 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Wisconsin. Tables XXVI-XXVIII are compiled from data in 
 the Report of Railroad Commission of Wisconsin, June 30, 1914. 
 
 New York. Table XXIX is abstracted from the annual report, 
 the Public Service Commission of New York, 2nd District, for the 
 year ending Dec. 31, 1915. 
 
 Table XXIX gives the itemized operating expenses of five gas 
 companies in New York State. A and B manufacture water gas 
 only; C, D and E coal gas only. 
 
 A is the Binghamton Gas "Works, which had 82.3 miles of mains, 
 11,591 consumers meters in service, and sold 244,179 M ft. of gas 
 out of 255,247 manufactured. 
 
 B is the Nassau and Suffolk Ltg. Co. which had 225.9 miles of 
 mains, 5,525 meters in service, and sold 181,573 M out of 266,145 
 manufactured. 
 
 C is the Ogdensburg Gas Co., which had 12.3 miles of mains, 1,- 
 528 meters, and sold 24,005 M out of 27,923 manufactured. 
 
 D is the Canandaigua Gas-Light Co. which had 13.8 miles of 
 mains, 2,358 meters, and sold 27,869 M out of 29,044 manufactured. 
 
 E is the Homer and Cortland Gas Light Co. which had 26.4 
 miles of mains, 2,299 meters, and sold 29,571 M out of 35,121 manu- 
 factured. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 The process of pumping is logically divisible into suction pump- 
 ing and force pumping. In the former the pressure on the column 
 of liquid is exerted by the atmosphere behind a vacuum generated 
 by the pump, whereas in the latter the pump is doing all the push- 
 ing and no pulling. 
 
 Since the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to only about a 34 
 ft. column of water this is the theoretical limit of the suction or 
 lift capacity of a pump. The practical limit is about 25 ft, with a 
 first class plunger pump and considerably less than this with equip- 
 ment of the centrifugal type. 
 
 It follows, therefore, since centrifugal pumps are extremely sim- 
 ple and inexpensive, that where it is convenient to place the pump 
 below or near the level of the source of supply the economic ad- 
 vantages are likely to be in favor of the rotary type. In other cases 
 the plunger type is generally more desirable. 
 
 Of late years, the air lift has come into quite general use and 
 possesses some very striking advantages for special work, particu- 
 larly in view erf its cheapness in first cost and simplicity of opera- 
 tion, two practical advantages which are apt to offset a consider- 
 able deficit in theoretical efficiency. In comparing two different 
 methods of pumping and then deciding on the type of equipment 
 to be installed, it should be borne in mind that these costs are of 
 various classes, some of which are very prominent in certain equip- 
 ment in which others are inconsiderable, while with a radically 
 different type these items may be reversed with sometimes star- 
 tling effect upon the cost equation. 
 
 These items of cost may be figured on the basis of the following 
 list by way of memorandum : 
 
 Annual cost: 
 
 1. Initial expense -|- installation X annual interest rate. 
 
 2. Initial expense + installation X annual depreciation rate. 
 
 3. Initial expense + installation X annual rate for repairs. 
 
 4. Labor cost of attention and operation. 
 
 5. Superintendence. 
 
 6. Overhead. 
 
 7. Annual cost for fuel oil and other supplies. 
 
 8. Or annual cost of purchased power. 
 
 1241 
 
1242 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The above annual costs, divided by the total amount of water 
 pumped, will give the unit cost for the particular conditions in- 
 volved. This should be worked out for each type of equipment, 
 having regard to its particular efficiency, fuel cost, etc., before de- 
 ciding upon the particular type for the work in hand. 
 
 Classification. Pumps may be classified in various ways, but for 
 the consideration of their mechanical action Turneaure and Russell 
 in Public Water Supplies state they may be best considered under 
 the following heads : 
 
 1. Displacement-pumps. 
 
 2. Impeller-pumps. 
 
 3. Impulse-pumps. 
 
 4. Bucket-pumps. 
 
 The various subdivisions of the classification are shown in the 
 diagram : 
 
 
 5ce 
 
 Recipro- - 
 eating 
 
 Rotary 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS 
 
 I Double 
 Action i Single 
 
 f Pi <?tnTi r Inside-packed 
 Class ] piunilr 1 Outside-packed 
 I Plunger [center-packed 
 
 (Single 
 Power ■{ Duplex 
 LTriplex 
 
 Type 
 
 Steam 
 
 lApplication 
 
 f High-pressure 
 I Compound 
 
 TDirect-acting 
 i Arrangement ■< Crank and flywheel 
 ^ L Compensator 
 
 Hydraulic 
 
 Direct-acting. 
 Crank and fly wheel 
 
 Arrangement J Horizontal 
 
 y-r [Surface .suction) 
 
 -•-^ 1 Submerged or deep well 
 
 Air-displacement f^J^^^.^ 
 Steam-vacuum ^ V't niirv^r. 
 continuous-flow [ g, P^^-^^eting 
 
 Impeller 
 
 Continuous applica- 
 tion through some 
 mechanical agency- 
 or medium 
 
 rimpeller {^Zf 
 
 ^ ^ -J, ,J r>..c^ J Side suction 
 CentrifugaH Case (Double suction 
 
 [Arrangement {^^SSSi^ 
 
 r Water 
 Jet ■{ Steam 
 I Air 
 
 Impulse (as name implies) — Water-ram, Humphrey gas pump. 
 
 ( Wheel 
 Bucket (receptacle alternately filled and emptied) |Band 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1243 
 
 Pump Prices hereinafter given are all net f.o.b. factory. 
 
 Centrifugal Pumps. The centrifugal pump has been developed 
 and perfected during the past seven years, so that it is now recog- 
 nized as a simple, reliable pump of great range. 
 
 TABLE I. IRON VERTICAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 
 
 
 
 OJ^ 
 
 
 0) 
 
 Shipping wt, 
 
 
 
 
 •d • 
 
 ^i 
 
 ^^ 
 
 h 
 
 (lbs.) Price complete 
 
 
 ?^ 
 
 «H_fl 
 
 4) W 
 
 O) t|_( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TJ "^ 
 
 °--5 
 
 i| 
 
 -o 
 
 
 'd 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 <3 
 
 0*0 
 
 §& 
 
 i?" 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 g^ 
 
 m 
 
 g3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 1! 
 
 1« 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 l| 
 
 1V2 
 
 .058 
 
 5x 6 
 
 70 
 
 2:75 
 
 120 
 
 135 
 
 $20 
 
 $30 
 
 2 
 
 .10 
 
 7x 8 
 
 120 
 
 3:33 
 
 198 
 
 250 
 
 32 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 .22 
 
 7x 8 
 
 260 
 
 3:5 
 
 235 
 
 340 
 
 47 
 
 73 
 
 4 
 
 .30 
 
 8x10 
 
 470 
 
 4:0 
 
 380 
 
 495 
 
 55 
 
 85 
 
 5 
 
 .45 
 
 10x10 
 
 735 
 
 4:6 
 
 605 
 
 785 
 
 70 
 
 105 
 
 6 
 
 .59 
 
 12x12 
 
 1,050 
 
 4:6 
 
 740 
 
 1,050 
 
 85 
 
 140 
 
 10 
 
 1.52 
 
 20x12 
 
 3,000 
 
 5:4 
 
 1,430 
 
 1,925 
 
 165 
 
 275 
 
 12 
 
 2.00 
 
 24 X 14 
 
 4,200 
 
 6:0 
 
 2,640 
 
 3,000 
 
 210 
 
 350 
 
 '12 
 
 2.00 
 
 20 X 12 
 
 4.200 
 
 3:75 
 
 2,000 
 
 2.500 
 
 185 
 
 325 
 
 18 
 
 4.50 
 
 36x18 
 
 10,000 
 
 7:0 
 
 6,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 470 
 
 790 
 
 18 
 
 4.50 
 
 30x16 
 
 10,000 
 
 6:5 
 
 2,900 
 
 3,300 
 
 420 
 
 710 
 
 • Refers to low-lift pumps for elevations up to 25 ft. 
 TABLE II. IRON HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 
 
 5fi 
 
 « 
 
 
 H 
 
 1-S 
 
 «»-i;^ 
 
 ■?>. 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 Id 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 R';^ 
 
 a© 
 
 c3«M 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 *c 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 W 
 
 5 = 
 
 W 
 
 5° 
 
 fc 
 
 ^ 
 
 0. 
 
 iy2 
 
 2 
 
 70 
 
 .058 
 
 6x 6 
 
 17x31 
 
 175 
 
 $22 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 120 
 
 .10 
 
 8x 8 
 
 23 X 37 
 
 350 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 260 
 
 .22 
 
 8x 8 
 
 25x39 
 
 415 
 
 55 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 470 
 
 .30 
 
 10x10 
 
 29x41 
 
 615 
 
 65 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 735 
 
 .45 
 
 12 X 12 
 
 34 X 54 
 
 940 
 
 82 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1,050 
 
 .59 
 
 15x12 
 
 37x55 
 
 1,180 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 3,000 
 
 1.52 
 
 24 X 22 
 
 51 X 69 
 
 2,610 
 
 197 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 4,200 
 
 2.00 
 
 30x14 
 
 63x71 
 
 3,615 
 
 250 
 
 *12 
 
 12 
 
 4,200 
 
 2.00 
 
 20x12 
 
 51x59 
 
 2.800 
 
 250 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 10,000 
 
 4.50 
 
 40x16 
 
 93x103 
 
 9,000 
 
 650 
 
 *18 
 
 20 
 
 10,000 
 
 4.50 
 
 30x16 
 
 66x72 
 
 5,800 
 
 575 
 
 *24 
 
 24 
 
 15.000 
 
 6.50 
 
 48x20 
 
 90x98 
 
 10,800 
 
 1,075 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 15,000 
 
 6.50 
 
 48x36 
 
 94x137 
 
 13,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 * Low-lift pumps for elevations up to 25 ft. 
 
 The principal trouble with a centrifugal pump, especially when 
 the pump is at a substantial height above the water, is in starting 
 it. When the pump sucks it must be reprimed and started again. 
 Therefore, if the amount of water to be handled is not as great as 
 
1244 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the minimum capacity there will be many stops and knock-offs to 
 prime. Before starting up a steam pump, especially in cold weather, 
 it should be well warmed up by live steam from the end of a hose 
 in order to thaw out any ice that may have formed in the cylinders 
 and to give the iron parts a chance to expand gradually. 
 
 Iron Vertical Centrifugal Pumps, submerged or suction type, 
 furnished complete with short shaft and coupling, one bearing, 
 pulley for connecting shaft and dischai'ge elbow, are used exten- 
 sively for irrigation purposes, sewage pumping, and for any place 
 where a pump may be placed in a pit. Suitable for elevating water 
 50 to 60 ft. 
 
 Iron Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps for belt drive. A pump used 
 extensively for all purposes. 
 
 The above pump, fitted with a direct connected vertical steam 
 engine costs: 4 in. side suction, 4x4 in. engine, $210; weight, 1,290 
 lbs. 5 in. side suction, 5x5 in. engine, $224 ; weight 1,440 lbs. 6 in. 
 side suction, 6x6 in. engine, $238 ; weight 1,570 lbs. 
 
 Double Suction Iron Pumps, built extra heavy for elevating water 
 to great heights. 
 
 TABLE III. DOUBLE SUCTION CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 
 
 
 
 • w^ 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (B M 
 
 <a CO 
 
 
 <B 
 
 
 t* 
 
 
 
 c* 
 
 ^73 
 
 
 §1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 .2 
 
 1^ 
 
 % 
 
 S ft 
 
 IS 
 
 
 IS 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 m 
 
 w 
 
 s° 
 
 S 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 iVi 
 
 2 
 
 70 
 
 .058 
 
 7x 8 
 
 20 X 
 
 30 
 
 290 
 
 $30 
 
 2 
 
 31/2 
 
 120 
 
 .10 
 
 8x 8 
 
 26 X 
 
 35 
 
 510 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 
 260 
 
 .22 
 
 8x 8 
 
 27 X 
 
 38 
 
 615 
 
 67 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 470 
 
 .30 
 
 10x10 
 
 33 X 
 
 40 
 
 900 
 
 87 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 735 
 
 .45 
 
 12x12 
 
 37 X 
 
 49 
 
 1,530 
 
 125 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1,050 
 
 .59 
 
 15x12 
 
 43 X 
 
 51 
 
 1,730 
 
 175 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 3,000 
 
 1.52 
 
 24x12 
 
 57 X 
 
 73 
 
 3,325 
 
 387 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 4.200 
 
 2.00 
 
 30x14 
 
 69 X 
 
 82 
 
 5,500 
 
 560 
 
 19 20 10,000 4.50 40x16 90x80 . 9,300 1,025 
 
 Direct Connected Dredging Pumps, complete with suction and 
 discharge elbow, flap valve and steam primers, lubricator and oil 
 cups. Cast iron impellor. The shipping weight and the price may 
 vary 20% from the averages given in Table IV. 
 
 Belt Driven Sand and Dredging Pumps, complete except for pipe 
 or hose, in Table V. - 
 
 Pulsometer. A very well known steam operated vacuum pump 
 consists of two bottle shaped cylinders with the necessary valve 
 inlet and outlet pipes. The operation of this pump is sustained 
 by alternate pressure and vacuum. Steam, cushioned by a- layer 
 of air automatically admitted, is brought to bear directly upon the 
 liquid in the pump chambers and forces it out through the dis- 
 charge pipe ; the subsequent rapid condensation of the steam, ef-. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1245 
 
 TABLE 
 
 IV. DIRECT CONNECTED DREDGING PUMPS 
 
 
 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 ^\ 
 
 
 aq-lTj 
 
 "S 
 
 1 
 
 (U _ 
 
 cylinders 
 
 
 .S^ c 
 
 a 
 
 
 No. pum 
 diam. o 
 tion an 
 charge 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 aa 
 
 1" 
 
 E 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 §S8 
 
 m m 
 
 Si 
 
 4-> 
 
 .2 
 
 u 
 0^ 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 Single 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 1,600 
 
 $224 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 Single 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 1,800 
 
 240 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 Double 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 2,000 
 
 328 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 Single 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 2,500 
 
 285 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 Single 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 2.700 
 
 316 
 
 •6 
 
 25 
 
 Double 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 3,000 
 
 415 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 Single 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 125 
 
 6 
 
 4,750 
 
 501 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 Double 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 125 
 
 6 
 
 5,800 
 
 567 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 Double 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 125 
 
 6 
 
 6,500 
 
 723 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 Single 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 7,500 
 
 645 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Double 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 9,500 
 
 822 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 Double 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 10,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 Single 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 300 
 
 10 
 
 10.000 
 
 892 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 Double 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 300 
 
 10 
 
 12,800 
 
 1,069 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 Double 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 300 
 
 10 
 
 16,000 - 
 
 1,485 
 
 TABLE V. BELT DRIVEN PUMPS 
 
 is -§f ^1 ^B ^ d- 
 
 I^iOQffiO mJCU 
 
 4 4 30 4 12x12 1,200 2 $108 
 
 6 6 60 8 18x12 1,850 41/0 155 
 
 8 8 125 15 24x12 3,600 6 245 
 
 10 10 200 25 30x14 4,550 8 31Q 
 
 12 12 300 30 40x16 8,000 10 435 
 
 fected by the peculiar construction of the pump, forms a vacuum in 
 the working chambers, into which atmo.spheric pressure forces a 
 fresh supply of liquid through the suction pipe. This action is 
 maintained quite automatically, and is governed by a self-acting 
 valve ball in the neck of the pump, which obeys the combined in- 
 fluences of steam pressure on one side and vacuum on the other. 
 The valve ball oscillates from its seat in the entrance to one 
 chamber to its seat in the entrance to the other chamber, thereby 
 distributing the .steam. 
 
 This pump will do all classes of rough service water raising 
 up to 75 ft. elevation. It has no piston, no packing, no oil, and 
 seldom breaks down, but is very uneconomical of steam. 
 
 Each pump is furnished complete with either basket or mush- 
 room strained steam and release valve connection, and pump hook 
 for suspending when necessary, but no piping. 
 
1246 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Another pump working- on similar principles, but which may be 
 slightly more economical in steam consumption and works ag^ainst 
 greater heads, the main differences are in the steam distribution, 
 which, in this type, is governed by a simple engine, and in the 
 necessity of oil for lubrication. These pumps will work, admit- 
 ting 30% of air or 25% of grit, and a continuous run of four months 
 has been recorded. They are especially valuable in quicksand and 
 wherever the quantity of water is variable. The cost of repairs is 
 nominal. 
 
 TABLE VI. PULSOMETER PUMPS 
 
 Size of pipe (ins.) 
 
 Capacity in gals, per 
 min. at different eleva- 
 tions and boiler h.p. 
 
 Price, 
 
 f.o.b. 
 
 New York 
 
 % 
 
 y2 
 % 
 
 % 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 xn 
 
 11/2 
 
 2 
 
 21/2 
 
 3 
 
 31/2 
 4 
 5 
 11 
 
 11/2 
 2 
 
 21/2 
 3 
 
 3y2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 «H 
 
 \a 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 180 
 
 300 
 
 425 
 
 700 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 17 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 160 
 
 265 
 
 375 
 
 625 
 
 900 
 
 1,800 
 
 13 
 
 38 
 
 65 
 
 115 
 
 200 
 275 
 450 
 650 
 1,400 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 > 'A 
 
 $68 
 90 
 135 
 158 
 203 
 248 
 360 
 450 
 900 
 
 >l 
 ^ a 
 
 PQ 
 
 $71 
 95 
 142 
 168 
 217 
 270 
 396 
 495 
 
 A ■ 
 .^^ 
 
 01 — 
 
 ^^ 
 
 95 
 
 140 
 
 295 
 
 430 
 
 570 
 
 745 
 
 1,375 
 
 2.100 
 
 3.800 
 
 These pumps are made in two types ; the standard consists of 
 two vertical cylinders, each with a discharge and suction valve, 
 topped by one simple, 3 -cylinder horizontal engine, with the neces- 
 sary air cocks, lubricator and condenser piping, but no steam, suc- 
 tion or discharge pipe is supplied. 
 
 The Junior consists of a single cylinder, a steam piston valve, 
 suction valve, discharge valve, condenser pipe, check valve and 
 stop cock, and is furnished with patented foot valve and quick 
 cleaning strainer. 
 
 Capacity 
 
 in gals. ^Greatest->, 
 , — Size of pipes (ins. ) — ^ per dimensions. Weight, 
 Steam. Suction. Dis'ge. minute. Br'dth. H'g'ht. 
 % 3 21/2 100 
 
 % 4 3 150 
 
 % 5 4 200 
 
 Cat. 
 No 
 
 141/2 
 
 171/2 
 21 
 
 Lbs. 
 219 
 290 
 410 
 
 Price. 
 
 $100 
 
 125 
 
 175 
 
 Capacities stated in table in gallons per minute and per hour are 
 calculated on a head or lift of 20 ft. These capacities diminish at 
 the rate of about 6% for each 10 ft. of additional head up to 100 ft., 
 the highest lift, 
 
 A Double Acting Force Hand Pump for filling tank wagons 
 from brooks or other water sources has a capacity, with one man 
 pumping, of one to two barrels per minute. Maximum total lift 
 and force, 50 ft. ; maximum lift 25 ft., cylinder diameter 5 ins., 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1247 
 
 stroke, 5 ins. capacity per stroke 0.85 gal. Suction hose 2 ins., 
 discharge hose 1 in. ; price of pump, with strainer, hose-couplings 
 and clamps, but no hose, $8. 
 
 Lift and Force Diaphragm Pump, No. 3, one man pumping, ca- 
 pacity, 4,000 gals, per hour; price, with 15 ft. of hose, $42; with 
 20 ft. of hose, $48. No 4, two men pumping, capacity 6,000 gals, 
 per hour; price, with 15 ft. of hose, $61.50, with 20 ft. of hose, $70. 
 Diaphragm pumps are suited for general construction work, where 
 the pumping is intermittent and the amount of water to be raised 
 is small. The life of the pump depends on the care it is given 
 and the amount of grit the water contains. In very gritty water a 
 diaphragm wears out in two or three weeks. These cost $1.30 
 each ; extra strainers, which are sometimes broken by careless 
 handling, cost $1.35 each. A set of brass hose-couplings costs $3. 
 
 Lift and Force Diaphragm Pump, No. 6, capacity 1,000 gals, per 
 hour with one man working; weight 50 lbs.; price, with 10 feet of 
 suction and 25 ft. of connection hose, $54. No. 8, 4,000 gals, per 
 hour with two men pumping; weight 270 lbs.; price $104.50. No. 
 10, 6,000 gals, per hour with two mem pumping; weight, 395 lbs.; 
 price $139.75. Pumps alone. No. 6, $25; No. 8, $70; No. 10, $90. 
 Pumps, with 20 ft. of suction hose and 200 ft. of connection hose. 
 No. 6, $123.50; No. 8, $200; No. 10, $276. 
 
 The above pumps are especially suitable in mining prospecting 
 or for any work where the water contains as much as 50 per cent, 
 of solids. These pumps will handle grout and quicksand. 
 
 A Diaphragm Pump, known as No. 3 Contractors' Mud Pump, 
 with double diaphragms, and a gasoline engine rated at 3 h.p., and 
 having a speed of 500, all mounted on a truck, equipped with 15 ft. 
 of 3 in. spiral wire suction hose and 25 feet of discharge hose, 
 with brass couplings and strainer, tools, etc., costs $300. The ca- 
 pacity of this pump is from 6,000 to 8,000 gals, per hr. of water 
 containing a considerable amount of sand, sewage and gravel. It 
 is guaranteed for one year; weight, 1,000 lbs.; space occupied 
 2 ft. by 5 ft. 
 
 Suction or Bilge Pump, consisting of a tin pipe with a plunger 
 worked by hand. 
 
 Diam. ins. Price per lin. ft. 
 
 2 $0.45 
 
 21/2 50 
 
 3 55 
 
 31^ 60 
 
 4 65 
 
 Pumps less than 5 ft. long charged as 5 ft. 
 
 Special Pump. In the Marsh steam pump, the steam valve is 
 made of brass, and though nicely fitted, moves freely in the central 
 bore of the steam chest. It has no mechanical connections with 
 other moving parts of the pump, but is actuated to admit, cut off 
 and release the steam by live steam currents, which alternate with 
 the reciprocations of the piston. Each end of the valve is made to 
 fit the enlarged bore of the steam chest, and it is due to those 
 enlarged valve heads, which present differential areas to the action 
 
1248 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of steam, and the perfect freedom of the valve to move without 
 hindrance from other mechanical arrangements or parts, that the 
 flow of steam into the pump is automatically regulated. Because 
 the pump is so regulated it can never run too fast to take suction ; 
 or, should the water supply give out when the throttle valve is wide 
 open, no injury can occur to the moving parts. The steam valve 
 does not require setting. The steam piston is double, and each head 
 is provided with a metal packing ring, the interior space constitut-' 
 ing a reservoir for live steam pressure, supplied by the live steam 
 pipe through a drilled hole. At each end of the steam cylinder 
 are similar holes leading to each end of the steam chest, which, 
 together with the centrally drilled hole and the space between the 
 piston heads, constitute positive means for tripping or reversing the 
 valve with live steam. 
 
 TABLE VII. COST AND WEIGHT OF MARSH STEAM PUMPS 
 
 Size 
 B 
 
 BB 
 C 
 
 Gallons 
 per hour. 
 
 200 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 Horse- 
 power. 
 
 36 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 Floor 
 
 space, ins. 
 
 7x12 
 
 8x16 
 
 10 X 22 
 
 Weight, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 40 
 
 75 
 
 145 
 
 Price 
 
 $11.50 
 
 14.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 TABLE VIII. 
 
 SIMPLEX PISTON PUMPS FOR TANK AND 
 LIGHT SERVICE 
 
 Diam. Diam. 
 
 steam water 
 
 nders. 
 
 cylinders. 
 
 stroke. 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Price, f.o.b. 
 
 ns. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 125 
 
 $33 
 
 3% 
 
 3% 
 
 6 
 
 260 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 300 
 
 56 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 370 
 
 62 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 420 
 
 68 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 . 6 
 
 420 
 
 68 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 490 
 
 74 
 
 5% 
 
 eys 
 
 8 
 
 780 
 
 100 
 
 6y2 
 
 6y2 
 
 8 
 
 890 
 
 115 . 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1,400 
 
 168 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1,500 
 
 180 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 1.600 
 
 190 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 1,750 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 2,000 
 
 230 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 2,650 
 
 300 
 
 These pumps are furnished with bed-plate, outboard bearing and 
 gears ready to receive motor, all in accordance with the require- 
 ments for the construction of fire pumps of the Underwriters Asso- 
 ciation. Thirty h.p. for each fire-stream will drive these pumps 
 against 100 lbs. pressure. 
 
 For elevations of 250 to 2,000 feet — 110 to 865 lbs. pressure long 
 stroke, — single-acting Triplex Plunger Pump for heavy duty. The 
 prices given are for regular construction which provides — iron 
 plungers, cylinders and glands and rubber disc valves reinforced 
 with bronze plates working on bronze guides and seats. Air cham- 
 bers are furnished on sizes 10x14 in. and larger. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1249 
 
 TABLE 
 
 IX. SIMPLEX PISTON 
 
 PUMPS, BOILER FEED 
 
 
 PUMPS OR HEAVY 
 
 SERVICE 
 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 steam 
 
 water 
 
 
 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 cylinders. 
 
 Stroke, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Price, f.o.b. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 360 
 
 $61 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 930 
 
 118 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 1,650 
 
 194 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 2,150 
 
 247 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 2,650 
 
 290 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 2,650 
 
 290 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 3,000 
 
 325 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 3,500 
 
 370 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 4,000 
 
 410 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 5,100 
 
 500 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 6,000 , 
 
 590 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 7,400 
 
 710 
 
 TABLE X. 
 
 DUPLEX 
 
 PISTON PUMPS FOR TANK OR LIGl 
 
 
 
 SERVICE 
 
 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 steam 
 
 water 
 
 
 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Price, f.o.b. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 3 
 
 2% 
 
 3 
 
 125 
 
 $34 
 
 41/2 
 
 3% 
 
 4 
 
 310 
 
 56 
 
 5% 
 
 4% 
 
 5 
 
 650 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 5% 
 
 6 
 
 700 
 
 95 
 
 6 
 
 TY2 
 
 6 
 
 860 
 
 112 
 
 6 
 
 8% 
 
 6 
 
 980 
 
 125 
 
 TV2 
 
 7% 
 
 6 
 
 1,000 
 
 125 
 
 7% 
 
 SVa 
 
 6 
 
 1,100 
 
 137 
 
 7% 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 1,250 
 
 155 
 
 7% 
 
 81/2 
 
 10 
 
 1,600 
 
 195 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1,600 
 
 195 
 
 9 
 
 81/2 
 
 10 
 
 2,200 
 
 250 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 4,400 
 
 450 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 4,700 
 
 470 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 5.000 
 
 500 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XI. DJJPLBX PISTON PUMPS, BOILER FEED 
 
 
 PUMPS OR HEAVY 
 
 SERVICE 
 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 steam 
 
 water 
 
 
 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 cylinders. 
 
 Stroke, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Price, f.o.b., 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 2 
 
 11/4 
 
 2% 
 
 90 
 
 $29 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 3y2 
 
 2^4 
 
 4 
 
 165 
 
 40 
 
 4V» 
 
 2% 
 
 4 
 
 265 
 
 50 
 
 5y; 
 
 3 ¥2 
 
 5 
 
 410 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 560 
 
 78 
 
 TV2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 780 
 
 100 
 
 7V2 
 
 4y2 
 
 10 
 
 1,100 
 
 140 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1,220 
 
 155 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 . 
 
 1,350 
 
 162 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1,400 
 
 168 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 1,650 
 
 195 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 2,700 
 
 300 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 4,100 
 
 420 
 
 14 
 
 SV2 
 
 12 
 
 4,600 
 
 460 
 
1250 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XII. DUPLEX PLUNGER PUMPS, CENTER PACKED 
 TYPE FOR BOILER FEED AND HEAVY SERVICE 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 steam 
 
 water 
 
 
 
 
 binders, 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 Stroke, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Price, f.o.b. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 41/2 
 
 2% 
 
 4 
 
 530 
 
 $79 
 
 5% 
 
 31/2 
 
 5 
 
 680 
 
 95 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 840 
 
 110 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1,100 
 
 132 
 
 7% 
 
 41/2 
 
 10 
 
 1,600 
 
 176 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1,750 
 
 189 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 1,950 
 
 205 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2,100 
 
 215 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 2,600 
 
 255 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 3,800 
 
 340 
 
 12 
 
 SVa 
 
 10 
 
 4,200 
 
 370 
 
 14 
 
 81/2 
 
 10 
 
 5,100 
 
 440 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 3,200 
 
 300 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 4,500 
 
 390 
 
 14 
 
 81/2 
 
 12 
 
 6,200 
 
 510 
 
 ♦ 14 
 
 7% 
 
 12 
 
 5,700 
 
 480 
 
 *16 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 7,600 
 
 610 
 
 *18 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 9,200 
 
 720 
 
 *20 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 16,000 
 
 1,150 
 
 Underwriters' fire pumps. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XIII. AUTOMATIC 
 
 DUPLEX PISTON 
 
 FEED PUMI 
 
 
 
 AND RECEIVERS 
 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 steam 
 
 water 
 
 
 
 
 cylinders. 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 Stroke 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Price, f.o.b. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 factory 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 400 
 
 $84 
 
 41/2 
 
 2% 
 
 4 
 
 550 
 
 94 
 
 5y4 
 
 31/2 
 
 5 
 
 950 
 
 118 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1,150 
 
 138 
 
 71/2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1,250 
 
 147 
 
 71/2 
 
 41/2 
 
 10 
 
 1,650 
 
 194 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1,750 
 
 210 
 
 For 150 lbs. water pressure. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XIV. AUTOMATIC DUPLEX PLUNGER FEED 
 PUMPS AND RECEIVERS* 
 
 Diam. 
 
 steam 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 ins. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 water 
 
 cylinders, 
 
 ins. 
 
 Stroke, 
 ins. . 
 
 Weight, 
 lbs. 
 
 Price, f.o.b. 
 factory 
 
 
 2% 
 
 31/2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 10 
 
 700 
 1,200 
 1,450 
 1,550 
 2,150 
 
 $125 
 138 
 164 
 178 
 430 
 
 • For 200 lbs. water pressure. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1251 
 
 TABLE XV. UNDERWRITERS' ROTARY FIRE PUMP 
 
 Capacity 
 
 per min., 
 
 gals. 
 
 500 
 1,000 
 
 Stand. 
 250 gal. 
 
 fire 
 
 str'ms. 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 R.p.m, 
 
 275 
 245 
 
 Suet, 
 disc, 
 pipe, 
 ins, 
 6 
 
 Disc, 
 hose 
 
 2 ¥2 
 2Y2 
 
 Price f.o.b. 
 
 factory, (30 
 
 days; 20% 
 
 10 days) 
 
 $750 
 $1,450 
 
 TABLE XVI. DOUBLE-GEARED TRIPLEX PUMPS 
 
 Gals, per 
 Diam., ins. revolution 
 stroke 14 ins. of crank 
 shaft 
 
 5 3.57 
 
 6 5.14 
 
 7 7.00 
 
 8 9.13 
 
 10 14.28 
 
 11 17.28 
 
 12 20.56 
 
 13 24.12 
 
 14 27.98 
 
 Working 
 
 pressure, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 865 
 605 
 435 
 345 
 215 
 175 
 150 
 130 
 110 
 
 Suet, 
 pipe, 
 ins. 
 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 
 Disc, 
 pipe, 
 ins. 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 Gear ratio 5 to 1. Double belt, — pulley 60 by 14 ins. 
 speed 40 r.p.m. of crank shaft. 
 
 Price 
 f. o. b. 
 factory 
 
 $2,100 
 2,025 
 1,985 
 1,970 
 1,910 
 1,875 
 1,875 
 1,910 
 1,950 
 
 Customary 
 
 Formulae for the Cost of Pumps. In Tables XVII to XIX are 
 
 given formulae for the cost boiler feed pumps, centrifugal pumps 
 and geared power pumps. These formulae were developed by A. A. 
 Potter in Power, Dec. 30, 1913. 
 
 TABLE XVII. BOILER FEED PUMPS 
 
 (After Potter). 
 
 Cost in $ equals 
 
 Capacity gals, per hr. 
 
 Type gals, per hr. multiplied by 
 
 Single-cylinder, piston pattern. Up to 6.000 (17.8 + 0.2586) 
 
 Single-cylinder, piston pattern. 6,000 to 27,000 (106.8 -f 0.011045) 
 
 Duplex, piston pattern Up to 29,000 (585 + 0.0115) 
 
 Single-cylinder, outside-packed, 
 
 plunger Up to 24,000 0.034 
 
 Duplex outside-packed plunger 
 
 pattern Up to 49,000 0.042125 
 
 TABLE XVIII. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 
 
 (After Potter). 
 
 Cost in $ equals 
 
 Capacity gals, per min. 
 Type gals, per min. multiplied by 
 
 Horizontal, low pressure, single- 
 stage Up to 5,000 (52 +0.05525) 
 
 Horizontal, high pressure, single- 
 stage Up to 5,000 (61 +0.0868) 
 
 Horizontal, high pressure, single- ^,.„„. 
 
 stage 5, 000 to 20,000 (210. +0.0567) 
 
 Horizontal, high pressure, multi- 
 stage .... Up to 2,200 (117. +0.233) 
 
 Vertical, low pressure, single-stage Up to 20,000 (60. +0.05575) 
 
 Vertical, high pressure, single-stage Up to 20,000 (50. +0.0865) 
 
 Vertical, high pressure, multi-stage Up to 1,100 (125.7 + 0.27) 
 
1252 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XIX. GEARED POWER PUMPS, (After Potter.) 
 
 Cost in $ equals 
 
 Capacity gals, per hr. 
 
 Type gals, per hr. multiplied by 
 
 Single cylinder Up to 20,000 (90 + 0.0316) 
 
 Single-acting, triplex Up to 83,000 (56 + 0.03867) 
 
 Double-acting, triplex Up to 89,000 (195 + 0.0148) 
 
 Rotary force pumps 1,200 to 20,000 (8 + 0.0117) • 
 
 Wet vacuum pumps Up to 13,000 (18 + 0.01435) 
 
 Wet vacuum pumps 13,000 to 50,000 (14 + 0.00863) 
 
 TABLE XX. PUMPS FOR MINING AND HEAVY DUTY 
 
 (Duplex, com.pound, with semi-rotary steam valves and outside 
 end packed plunger water end). 
 
 Size of pumps : 
 
 Diam. high pressure steam cylinder, ins. ... 30 
 
 Diam. low pressure steam cylinder, ins. ... 50 
 
 Diam. of plungers, ins 14 
 
 Length of stroke, ins 48 
 
 Theoretical discharge : 
 
 Gallons per stroke 31 
 
 Gallons per minute 2,325 to 3.100 
 
 Corresponding to strokes per minute 75 to 100 
 
 Floor space required, ft 45 X 16 
 
 Shipping weight, lbs 170,000 
 
 Cost f. o. b. cars, factory $10,500 
 
 Cost of erection on foundation, but not in- 
 cluding foundation $450 to $500 
 
 Cost of attendance. — Three men working in 8 hr. shifts at from 
 $1.65 to $2.40 per day each. (Wages would vary with loca- 
 tion.) 
 
 Average fuel consumption with pump running condensiiig is 35 
 lbs. of steam per h.p.-hr. 
 
 Miscellaneous cost, oil, waste, etc., approximately $350 per annum. 
 
 TABLE XXI. COMPOUND HEAVY DUTY PISTON PUMPS 
 
 Size of pump : 
 Diam. high press, steam cyl., ins. 14 18 24 
 
 Diam. low press, steam cyl., ins. 20 26 36 
 
 Diam. water cylinder, ins 10 14 18 
 
 Length of stroke, ins 16 20 20 
 
 Diam. of pump openings : 
 
 Steam, ins. 2 2 % 3 
 
 Exhaust, ins 31/2^ 5 6 
 
 Suction, ins 8 10 12 
 
 Discharge, ins 6 8 10 
 
 Theoretical discharge in gals. : 
 
 Displacement per stroke ....... . 5.44 13.324 22.024 
 
 Per minute 100 ft. piston speed.. 408 800 1,322 
 
 Per hour 100 ft. piston speed 24,480 48,000 79,314 
 
 Water pressure against which 
 
 pump will deliver water ai 
 
 full speed with 100 lbs. steam 
 
 pressure at the throttle 150 130 140 
 
 Approximate dimensions: x 
 
 Length, ins 130 155 165 
 
 Width, ins 25 32 42 
 
 Heie^ht, ins 72 95 105 
 
 Cost, net f. o. b. factory $700 $1,100 $1,900 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1253 
 
 These pumps are designed for a maximum pressure of 150 lbs. 
 per sq. in. in the water end. 
 
 TABLE XXII. DOUBLE-ACTING OUTSIDE CENTER PACKED 
 PLUNGER PUMPS 
 Size of pump : 
 Diam. of steam cylinder, ins... 16 20 26 
 
 Diam. of water cylinder, ins.... 10 14 18 
 
 Length of stroke, ins 16 20 24 
 
 Diam. of pump openings: 
 
 Steam, ins 2 21/2 3 
 
 Exhau.st, ins 21/2 3 1/2 5 
 
 Suction, ins 8 10 12 
 
 Discharge, ins 6 8 10 
 
 Theoretical discharge in galls. 
 
 Displacement per stroke 5.44 13.22 22.42 
 
 Per minute at 75 ft. piston speed 306 600 991.5 
 
 Per hour at 75 ft. piston speed. . 18,360 36,000 59,490 
 
 * Horse power of boiler pump 
 
 will feed at 30 strokes per 
 
 min 2,200 5,375 10,575 
 
 Approximate dimensions : 
 
 Length, ins 130 160 185 
 
 Width, ins 22 30 45 
 
 Height, ins 65 80 100 
 
 Cost, net f. o. b. factory $575 $1,100 $1,800 
 
 ♦ In this computation a slippage of 10% has been allowed. 
 
 These pumps are designed primarily for boiler feed service but 
 are equally well adapted for general service. The water end is 
 designed for a pressure of 180 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. HYDRAULIC RAMS 
 
 Gallons per min. 
 
 Size of drive required to Weight, 
 
 pipe, ins. operate ram lbs. Price* 
 
 lU 2- 6 150 $35.00 
 
 lt/2 6- 12 175 38.50 
 
 2 8- 18 , 225 42.00 
 21/^ 12- 28 250 46.00 
 
 3 20- 40 275 52.50 
 
 4 30- 75 ■ 600 105.00 
 6 75-150 1,200 192.50 
 8 150-300 2,200 350.00 
 
 12 375-700 3,000 525.00 
 
 * Prices given above are for single-acting rams ; double-acting 
 rams cost from 10-20% more than those listed, the smaller sizes 
 costing proportionally more. 
 
 The prices given are net prices f. o. b. factory. For a success- 
 ful installation the ram should be supplied with a liberal quantity 
 of water under at least a 3 ft. head. The size of delivery pipe 
 depends upon the installation but in general its diameter would be 
 about one-half as large as the drive pipe. 
 
 Cost of Pumping in Water Works Steam Pumping Stations. A 
 valuable discussion, with data, ©» the cost of pumping water in 
 steam plants was presented in a paper by Kenneth F. Lees before 
 
1254 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the 1913 annual convention of the Connecticut Society of Civil En- 
 gineers. 
 
 The cost of pumping water is best considered under the following 
 headings, which will be discussed in the order given: 1, Losses 
 in pumping. 2. Duty of pumping plants, 3. Cost of pumping equip- 
 ment. 4. Cost of pumping, as shown by calculation, for plants 
 of varying capacity and type. 5. Cost of pumping, as shown by 
 results of actual practice. 
 
 The losses in pumping may be divided into four general head- 
 ings: 1. Losses of generation. 2. Losses of conversion. 3. Losses 
 in transmission. 4. Losses in application. 
 
 Torai Lnerqij o1 fuel 
 
 Available in Furnace; 
 
 uti/izeam Boiler 
 
 Delivered by Steam Pipe 
 
 Available in Engine 
 
 I HP Energy Appliea 
 
 ^ A H PDeiiverea by Engine 
 >, Energy Deiiverea buRope9i%ofiHl* 
 V, 5Zl05t in pump rnction 
 \K- d% Lost in i^oier Friction 
 T^ Energy Delivered by Pump 
 ^\ 74dloflHP 
 
 Diagram OF Steam Plant DiACftAMOf Rope Driven Centritugal Pump 
 
 Pig. 1. Diagram of steam plant. Diagram of rope driven centrif- 
 ugal pump. 
 
 Each of these general headings may be subdivided as shown. As 
 an illustration of the value these losses assume in practice, Fig. 
 1 gives the efficiency diagrams as reported by Mr. Meade for the 
 Rockford pumping plant, using a rope-driven centrifugal pump. 
 In the diagram for the steam plant the length of the ordinate rep- 
 resents the total energy of the fuel. Of this 48% was found to 
 be available in the furnace, while of this latter energy only 75% 
 was utilized by the boiler, which is equivalent to about 63% of the 
 total energy of the fuel. There was a drop of 4% in the steam 
 pipe, a further drop of 15% as energy available in the engine, 
 while of the total energy in the fuel only 5% was found to have 
 been utilized as indicated horsepower. 
 
 In the diagram for the pump this indicated horsepower is laid 
 off on a 100% scale, and the various losses from the engine to 
 the pump are shown, the energy delivered by the pump having 
 been found to be but 74.8% of the i.h.p. of the engine. This is 
 equivalent to about 3.75% of the total energy of the fuel, and illus- 
 trates well the necessity for the reduction of losgeg %q a minimum 
 tliat pumping may be done economically. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1255 
 
 Duty represents the ratio of work done to the energy expended 
 in doing it. The terms usually used to express duty of pumping 
 engines are foot pounds duty per 100 lbs. of coal, per 1,000 lbs. 
 of steam, or per 1,000,000 heat units. 
 
 Generation. 
 
 rFuel. 
 
 Generation 
 
 PUMPING LOSSES (Mead). 
 
 Losses in Pumping. 
 
 [ Internal combustion 7 
 
 J engine gas, oil j Engine losses 
 
 ] r Furnace 
 
 [steam < Boiler 
 
 LPiping 
 Ram losses 
 Water j Direct [ram] j Velocity losses 
 
 power. 1 Indirect [wheels] | Wheel losses 
 
 Conversion 
 
 fElectric [primary bat-"| 
 
 teries] | Various mechanical 
 
 J Wind [mills] L and other losses 
 
 Minor j Waves [motors] | due to method 
 
 sources Sun heat [solar en- used 
 ^ gines] ^ 
 
 Conversion. Losses in Pumping. 
 
 r Internal combustion 
 
 engine Included in engine losses 
 
 J Steam Engine and connection losses 
 
 I Electrical Dynamo losses 
 
 Hydraulic Pump losses 
 
 ^Pneumatic Compressor 
 
 Transmission. Losses in Pumping. 
 
 Transmission- 
 
 Mechanical . 
 
 Direct connected L^ . 
 
 shaft belt, rope, J Various losses due 
 
 chain, gear, com- to method used 
 
 binations I 
 
 J Pipe friction 
 
 Hydraulic ] Motor losses 
 
 .^- Connections 
 Transformer losses 
 
 Electrical .-< Wire losses 
 
 * * * Motor losses 
 ^ Connections 
 I Pipe friction 
 
 Pneumatic J Air cooling 
 
 * I Motor losses 
 I Connections 
 
 Application. Losses in Pumping. 
 
 Application 
 
 Pumping 
 
 ^ , flnflux 
 
 Inlet pipe ^ Velocity 
 
 LFriction 
 
 Pump 
 
 C Friction in valves 
 J and water 
 
 I ages 
 
 I Mechanical friction 
 
 LDischarge pipe Pipe friction 
 
 ^a-m Pipe losses 
 
 fRadiation 
 
 Steam ^ Condensation 
 
 iPipe losses 
 ^Air Air pipe losses 
 
1256 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Duty based on coal is very indefinite, since the heat value of 
 coal varies greatly, and should be used only where the entire plant 
 is considered and when the class of coal is also specified. 
 
 Duty based on steam is more definite, but still not exact. Steam 
 has a greater value at high than at low pressures. Entrained 
 water from the boiler and condensation in the pipes also cause a 
 
 TABLE XXIV. DUTY, CORRESPONDING COAL PER HORSE 
 
 POWER HOUR AND COAL REQUIRED TO RAISE 
 
 1,000,000 GALS. 100 FT. HIGH 
 
 Pounds of 
 
 Duty in coal per 
 million ft. -lbs. h.p. per hr. 
 
 1 19.8 
 
 10 19.8 
 
 20 9.9 
 
 30 6.6 
 
 40 4.95 
 
 50 3.96 
 
 60 3.3 
 
 70 2.83 
 
 80 2.47 
 
 90 2.2 
 
 100 1.98 
 
 110 1.8 
 
 120 1.65 
 
 130 1.52 
 
 140 1.41 
 
 150 1.32 
 
 160 1.24 
 
 Pounds of 
 
 coal per million 
 
 gals. 1000 ft. high 
 
 83,398 
 
 8,340 
 
 4,170 
 
 2,780 
 
 2,085 
 
 1,668 
 
 1,389 
 
 1,191 
 
 1,042 
 
 926 
 
 834 
 
 758 
 
 695 
 
 641 
 
 595 
 
 556 
 
 511 
 
 TABLE XXV. 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 gals, per 
 
 24hrs. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 COMPOUND CONDENSING LOW DUTY PUMP- 
 ING ENGINES 
 
 Pumping 
 
 machinery, 
 
 foundations 
 
 and piping 
 
 $ 6,900 
 
 9,200 
 
 11,500 
 
 13,800 
 
 16,100 
 
 18,400 
 
 23,000 
 
 27,600 
 
 34,500 
 
 Boilers, 
 
 setting, piping 
 
 and appurtenances. 
 
 $ 3,000 
 3,500 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 5,500 
 6,000 
 7,500 
 8,000 
 10,000 
 
 Total 
 cost 
 
 $ 9,900 
 12,700 
 15,500 
 18.800 
 21,600 
 24,400 
 30,500 
 35,600 
 44,500 
 
 Triple condensing low duty pumping engines. 
 
 3 $ 8,400 $2,000 $10,400 
 
 4 11,200 2,400 13,700 
 
 5 14,000 3,000 17,000 
 
 6 16,800 3,500 20,300 
 
 Compound condensing high duty pumping engines. 
 
 5 $16,500 $2,000 $18,500 
 
 6 19,800 2,500 22,300 
 
 7 23,100 3,000 26.100 
 
 8 26,400 3,500 29,900 
 10 33.000 4,000 37,000 
 12 . 39,600 5,000 44,600 
 15 49,500 6,000 55,500 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1257 
 
 Triple condensing high duty pumping engines. 
 
 6 J 28,800 $2,000 $ 30,800 
 
 7 33,600 2,500 36,100 
 
 8 38,400 2,500 40,900 
 10 48,000 3,000 51,000 
 12 57,600 3,500 61,100 
 15 72,000 4,000 76,000 
 20 96,000 5,500 101,500 
 25 120,000 7,000 127,000 
 30 144,000 8,000 152,000 
 
 TABLE XXVI. OPERATING COST OF COMPOUND CON- 
 DENSING LOW DUTY PUMPING ENGINE 
 
 .s 
 
 
 O &D 
 
 
 ^t 
 
 be bo 
 
 
 ij 
 
 ill 
 
 i 
 
 C M O 
 
 § 
 
 ao 
 
 .ti-S^M 
 
 tM dJUS 
 
 <v & <£ 
 
 Ul ^ 
 
 <D (0 \. 
 
 •"t-T 
 
 <^ S's^h-; 
 
 O >><X> 
 
 ti'S-^ 
 
 s >> 
 
 M ^'O 
 
 o'^ 
 
 ^^u^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 C^ m 
 
 
 BSic 
 
 +j ^ 
 
 Itta 
 
 °ao 
 
 •;3 C c^ 
 
 |s 
 
 iss 
 
 Q, 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 % 4,687 
 
 $ 897 
 
 $3,600 
 
 $ 420 
 
 $13.15 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 5,672 
 
 1,196 
 
 3,600 
 
 490 
 
 11.26 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 6,504 
 
 1,495 
 
 3,600 
 
 560 
 
 9.99 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 7,807 
 
 1,794 
 
 3,600 
 
 700 
 
 9.52 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 8,410 
 
 2,093 
 
 3,600 
 
 770 
 
 8.93 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 9,600 
 
 2,392 
 
 3,600 
 
 840 
 
 8.44 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 11,913 
 
 2,990 
 
 3,600 
 
 1,050 
 
 8.07 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 13,320 
 
 3,588 
 
 4,800 
 
 1,120 
 
 7.81 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 16,784 
 
 4,485 
 
 4,800 
 
 1,450 
 
 7.75 
 
 Operating cost of triple condensing low duty 
 
 pumping engine. 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 $3,118 
 
 $1,092 
 
 $3,600 
 
 $280 
 
 $11.08 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 3,907 
 
 1,456 
 
 3,600 
 
 350 
 
 9.57 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 4,590 
 
 1,820 
 
 3,600 
 
 420 
 
 8.57 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 5,203 
 
 2,184 
 
 3,600 
 
 490 
 
 7.85 
 
 Operating ( 
 
 3ost of compound condensing high duty pumping 
 
 engine. 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 $3,556 
 
 $2,145 
 
 $3,600 
 
 $280 
 
 $7.85 
 
 6.000,000 
 
 4,161 
 
 2,574 
 
 3,600 
 
 350 
 
 7.31 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 4,800 
 
 3,003 
 
 3,600 
 
 420 
 
 6.94 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 5,379 
 
 3.432 
 
 3,600 
 
 490 
 
 6.62 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 6,550 
 
 4,290 
 
 3,600 
 
 &60 
 
 6.19 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 7,665 
 
 5,148 
 
 3,600 
 
 700 
 
 5.86 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 9,355 
 
 6,435 
 
 3,600 
 
 840 
 
 5.75 
 
 Operating 
 
 cost of triple 
 
 condensing high duty 
 
 ' piumping 
 
 engine. 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 $3,285 
 
 $3,168 
 
 $3,600 
 
 $280 
 
 $7.07 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 3,766 
 
 3,696 
 
 3,600 
 
 350 
 
 6.70 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 4,161 
 
 4,224 
 
 3,600 
 
 350 
 
 6.33 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 5,028 
 
 5,280 
 
 3,600 
 
 420 
 
 5.91 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 6,025 
 
 6,336- 
 
 3,600 
 
 490 
 
 5.64 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 7,096 
 
 7,920 
 
 3,600 
 
 560 
 
 5.45 
 
 20,000.000 
 
 9,180 
 
 10,560 
 
 4,800 
 
 770 
 
 5.22 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 11,1^2 
 
 13,200 
 
 4,800 
 
 980 
 
 4.95 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 12,999 
 
 15,840 
 
 e,ooo 
 
 1,120 
 
 4.92 
 
1258 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 variation in results. Hence in considering duty with respect to 
 steam the terms dry steam and a specified pressure should be 
 included. 
 
 Duty in terms of B. t. u. is absolutely definite. 
 
 Low duty in a pumping plant means high coal and steam con- 
 sumption for a given output, and thus increased cost for boilers. 
 High duty means lower cost for boilers and fuel and increased cost 
 of machinery. The next table gives the relation between duty, 
 the corresponding coal per horsepower per hour, and the weight of 
 coal required to raise 1,000,000 gals. 100 ft. high. 
 
 To summarize, then, we have in favor of high duty : 1. Main- 
 tenance account for boilers. 2. Interest on boilers. 3. Sinking 
 fund for boilers. 4. The coal account. 
 
 Against high duty we have : 1. Maintenance account for ma- 
 chinery. 2. Interest on machinery. 3. Sinking fund for machin- 
 ery. 4. Oil, waste, packing, etc. It is evident, therefore, that in 
 every plant the layout question of duty must be considered in 
 determining probable cost of pumping. 
 
 The above relations are shown in the following tables by Charles 
 A. Hague, relating to initial and operating costs of plants with 
 various types and classes of pumping engines, adequate boilers 
 and fittings, the data are such as will show the prevailing condi- 
 tions in the average run of plants in waterworks service. While 
 it is, of course, safer to consider each particular case by itself, 
 the tables will indicate closely approximate results. The data 
 for the tables follow : 
 
 Number of days for year's work 365 
 
 Number of hours of pumping per day 16 
 
 Number of shifts per day 2 
 
 Length of shifts, hours 8 
 
 Pay of operating engineers per year $1,200 
 
 Pay of firemen per year 600 
 
 Pay of extra men per year 600 
 
 Maintenance account of engines 3% 
 
 Sinking fund for vertical triple expansion engines. . . 3% 
 
 Sinking fund for all other types of engines 5% 
 
 Maintenance account for boilers 4% 
 
 Oil, waste, packing and small repairs 1% 
 
 Coal, per ton of 2.000 lbs $3.00 
 
 The calculations for cost are based on a fair average price for 
 machinery, foundations and appurtenances, together with boilers and 
 their appliances. Also upon an actual evaporation in the boilers 
 of 8 lb. of steam produced at working pressure per pound of coal. 
 
 Price of coal $3 per net ton of 2,000 lb. in the fire room ready 
 for firing, and upon a water load on the plungers "bf 90 lb. per sq, 
 in., which is equivalent to a head of 207 ft., including suction and 
 friction of water. The tables are self-explanatory. 
 
 In considering the cost of pumping, as shown by results of actual 
 practice, tables compiled by Mr. Sando some years ago (1902) give 
 a fair idea of the expenses involved in large plants throughout the 
 country, and the division of these expenses. The results of tests 
 on more modern plants that have been recently reported, and of 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1259 
 
 which many have been consulted not only for steam, but also for 
 oil, gas and electric plants, conform fairly well with them. See 
 Tables XXVII and XXVIII. 
 
 TABLE XXVII. 
 
 ACTUAL COST OF PUMPING IN VARIOUS 
 CITIES 
 
 Division of 
 
 
 
 
 lotai pump- 
 ing expenses. 
 
 Cost of a 24 hr. 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cS <s 
 
 
 l-s§ 
 
 if. 
 
 1.11 
 
 ^8 
 
 
 oa» 
 
 o o 
 
 of coal for 
 ir. pump hors 
 er at $1 per 
 of 2,240 lbs. 
 
 
 i3^ 
 
 
 >82 
 
 5^ 
 
 
 c3 q c 
 
 ill 
 
 PQ 
 
 Cost 
 24h 
 pow 
 ton 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 .320.0 
 
 205.0 
 
 $3.38 
 
 34 
 
 66 
 
 $100.36 
 
 $53.27 
 
 $15.77 
 
 Baltimore . . . 
 
 . 24.26 
 
 177.3 
 
 3.46 
 
 
 
 64.97 
 
 46.75 
 
 13.51 
 
 Boston 
 
 .115.07 
 . 60.4 
 
 71.23 
 256.0 
 
 5.07 
 0.986 
 
 44 
 44 
 
 56 
 56 
 
 73.34 
 49.06 
 
 32.26 
 17.29 
 
 6.36 
 
 Pittsburgh . . 
 
 17.52 
 
 Cincinnati . . . 
 
 . 55.58 
 
 248.6 
 
 1.39 
 
 43 
 
 57 
 
 139.74 
 
 36.10 
 
 25.97 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 .114.0 
 .135.8 
 
 147.73 
 154.2 
 
 1.86 
 1.50 
 
 39 
 40 
 
 61 
 60 
 
 76.76 
 65.71 
 
 25.64 
 25.99 
 
 13.82 
 
 St. Louis . . , 
 
 17.32 
 
 Milwaukee . . 
 
 . 29.76 
 
 145.47 
 
 3.30 
 
 59 
 
 41 
 
 77.73 
 
 25.17 
 
 7.62 
 
 Cleveland . . . 
 
 . 73.72 
 
 205.1 
 
 1.48 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 51.40 
 
 19.19 
 
 12.59 
 
 Providence . . 
 
 . 13.26 
 
 171.6 
 
 5.18 
 
 35 
 
 65 
 
 86.51 
 
 36.84 
 
 7.11 
 
 Brooklyn Bor 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ough 
 
 ".173.4 
 
 107.4 
 
 3.15 
 
 42 
 
 58 
 
 161.60 
 
 52.44 
 
 16.65 
 
 Manhattan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Borough . . 
 
 . 52.77 
 
 111.55 
 
 5.25 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 128.46 
 
 66.63 
 
 12.69 
 
 Chicago 
 
 .358.1 
 
 102.4 
 
 2.85 
 
 35 
 
 65 
 
 101.43 
 
 40.17 
 
 14.24 
 
 Consideration of the foregoing tables, both those with theoretical 
 and actual results, show a great variation in the cost of pumping 
 with location of plant, equipment of plant and with management. 
 It is therefore difRcult to come to any definite conclusion as to the 
 cost of 1,000,000 ft. -gals. However, we may take as an average 
 value, representing general practice, a cost of 414 cts. to pump that 
 quantity of water. 
 
 Cost of Complete Pumping Engines. Charles A. Hague, in the 
 Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Dec. 1911, gives 
 the following data :• 
 
 Cost of pumping engines complete, with foundations, piping and 
 appurtenances, per million gallons per 24 hrs. capacity. 
 
 1. Compound-condensing, low-duty engines, horizontal $2,300 
 
 2. Low-duty triple, condensing, horizontal 2,800 
 
 3. Cross-compound, condensing, , horizontal 3,300 
 
 4. High-duty triple, condensing, vertical 4,800 
 
 The first and second are non-rotative or " direct acting " ma- 
 chinery, and the third and fourth are of the crank -and-fly-wheel 
 
1260 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 asuadxa 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 <D 
 
 '0 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 1 
 
 -u 
 
 
 "2 
 
 'c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 ta 
 
 t 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 <l5 
 N 
 
 .2 
 
 i 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 r^i 
 
 m ■ 
 -5 
 
 6X1 
 
 
 -M 
 
 <0 
 
 
 c . 
 
 c 
 
 .si^ 
 
 •^<< 
 
 M 
 
 .S^ 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 <J 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 
 11 
 
 S 
 
 13 
 
 Sag 
 
 •^^ 
 
 g 
 
 aa 
 
 eg 
 
 b 
 
 £ 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 +-> 
 
 
 .ti 03 
 
 o 
 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 
 W 
 
 m 
 
 w 
 
 mm 
 
 '-^ 
 
 mfe 
 
 >^ 
 
 m 
 
 <i 
 
 < 
 
 m 
 
 00 t- 
 
 lo 
 
 U5fO 
 
 fO^ 
 
 (O^tO 
 
 o 
 
 in 
 
 OS 
 
 WOJiH 
 
 Tj<eot- 
 
 i-l«0 
 
 0O<M 
 
 
 t-iH(35 
 
 (£.00 
 
 CO OOO 
 
 IrtOO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 OOO 
 
 as-*«o 
 
 ■^irs 
 
 ^Oi-^ 
 
 00 
 
 w«o?o 
 
 CO OJ 
 
 cocgiH 
 
 05W 
 
 «o 
 
 t> 
 
 r-l<35 00 
 
 OiOUS 
 
 <MO 
 
 OrH 
 
 o 
 
 OOO 
 
 ,HT-I 
 
 (MiHCO 
 
 ON 
 
 rH 
 
 © 
 
 <Mi-ItH 
 
 OWrH 
 
 rHrH 
 
 05 <M Oi ooin 
 CO t^ (M iH as 00 
 
 00 00 
 
 1T300 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 o oo 
 
 KS coco TJH iH 
 OrH tHtHiH COCO -A lO 
 
 <M-*C<I CilflO O^t- 
 oust- OCOCO OOrH 
 
 CO c<i eo iri irs icj c<i eo 
 
 •II jad 
 'jitu J9d ^eoTjH c<i eoeoco 
 
 esuadxg 
 
 eoe£> toco 
 oa5«> tHU5 
 
 ■* r-I -*' CO l> 
 
 C<| CO «DTt<CC> U5CO00 
 
 'PB8H 
 
 OirH 
 
 
 00 
 0-:H0 
 
 eo 
 ot~ 
 
 t-'OO 
 
 
 tH 
 
 «o 
 
 COrHO 
 
 eou5 
 
 ■rfOOt- 
 
 CO 00 
 
 ^«5 
 t-U5 
 
 o 
 
 00C<IfO 
 C<I^CO 
 
 00 t~- 
 
 C5tH 
 
 c-oo 
 
 U-5 
 
 eocd 
 
 
 U5 
 O 
 CO 
 
 
 COOiCO 
 t-«OU5 
 iHiH 
 
 CO 1-1 00 
 
 tHiH 
 
 OOO 
 
 C3T-I 
 iH 
 
 -si^S 
 
 cgco 
 
 'i** 
 
 oousos 
 
 COO 
 
 MM 00 
 
 o«o 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO CO CO 
 IrtCOrH 
 
 COCO 
 
 eooi 
 t-o 
 
 iQlinH 
 
 tHO 
 
 T-l 
 
 
 CO^ 
 
 OOlCl-l 
 
 eocooo 
 
 
 03 
 
 1-1 
 
 OOOi 
 ■^'^CO 
 
 OrHO 
 CO CO 
 
 OOO 
 
 cot- 
 
 fill' 
 
 W^ 
 
 c* 13 o 
 
 
 <ffi(^ 
 
 
 ?-; != o o 
 
 ^H cc -3 
 
 S mM ^ u Ph m ^^ 
 
 m; 
 
 
 02 
 
 t-hHoo 
 
 l-lffioi 
 
 ..'pa! 
 •SW'-i 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1261 
 
 type. The figures do not include anything for buildings, land, 
 chimneys, wells, boilers, etc. 
 
 The cost of boilers with mechanical stokers, feed-pumps and 
 appurtenances, steam piping, and minor details — everything ready 
 for service under average conditions — would be covered by $20 
 per boiler h.p. 
 
 It is impossible to include all plants, therefore these averages 
 are based on : 
 
 Total water load against the plungers, 90 lbs. per sq. in., or a 
 head of 207 ft. including suction and friction. 
 
 Actual evaporation in the boilers under working conditions, 8 
 lbs. of water per pound of coal, with feed at 150 degs. and with coal 
 at $3 per net ton of 2,000 lbs. 
 
 Steam pressure at throttle valve of engine, 75 lb. gauge, for 
 low-duty compound; 125 lb. gauge, for low-duty triple and cross- 
 compound; 150 lb. gauge, for high-duty triple; an allowance of 5 
 lb. above the pressures given for boiler pressures. 
 
 The desire is often expressed for a schedule, rate of cost, or 
 price of pumping engines, but it is a very difficult matter to make 
 a price list at any certain time, which will be reliable beyond an 
 approximate guide for estimate. Although the water-works pump- 
 ing engine has been brought largely to a commercial basis in man- 
 ufacture and sale, the conditions under which it must operate 
 are special for the location where wanted, and all prices pertain- 
 ing to specially defined contracts are more or less changeable. 
 
 The following table gives an example of how methodically the 
 cost of plants built on the unit basis may be determined. In some 
 cases these figures may be too high and in others too low ; they 
 are closely approximate, and enough of the data are based on 
 records fairly to insure the figures in the table as safe for prac- 
 tical use in making estimates. However, the table is so close that 
 it would be taking chances for an engineer or a contractor to 
 guarantee the production of results for the figures named, without 
 inevstigating each case by itself. The work contemplated is for 
 the best type of modern, triple-expansion pumping engines, and 
 high-pressure boilers. The buildings are assumed to be of good 
 design and quality ; of brick, or of stone where stone is cheap ; 
 the roofs steel -trussed and slate-covered; the chimneys adequate; 
 and the intakes properly proportioned and thoroughly screened. 
 The cost given includes everything except the land. 
 
 COST OF COMPLETE PUMPING STATIONS. 
 
 Pressure of Cost of plant, Pressure of water ^^^. ^^ „i^^+ ^^^ 
 
 watAr Inarl nftr mill sral Inarl mi.-m>Prl * -"^? ^^ plant, per 
 
 water load per mill. gal. load pumped 
 
 mped against, capac. incl. against, in 11 
 
 in lbs. per sq. in. reserve per sq. in. 
 
 y-vdLci iyja.Kx iJci iiiiLi. ^a.L. 1.JCIU ijuiiii/cu. r>Ti11 era! nor\-An 
 
 pumped against, capac. incl. against, in lbs. incl reserve 
 
 30 $6,750 90 $8,250 
 
 40 7.000 100 8.500 
 
 50 7.250 110 8.750 
 
 60 7.500 120 9.000 
 
 70 7.750 130 9,250 
 
 80 8,000 ... 
 
1262 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 There are cheaper classes of pumping engines, but they are 
 necessarily of lower economic efficiency, and therefore require more 
 boiler capacity, more coal storage, and other incidentals which, 
 when balanced up, will tend to keep the figures about the same. A 
 cheaper and less durable building may be used, but in the long 
 run this will need more repairs, which when capitalized will bring 
 the account fully up to the figures given and most likely exceed 
 them. 
 
 It is scarcely possible that the cost of equipping pumping sta- 
 tions for water-works will be increased much on account of a 
 higher type of steam machinery, because it is evident that the top 
 limit has just about been reached, with the record of a little more 
 than 181.000.000 ft. lbs. per 1.000 lbs. of steam. Ten years ago it 
 nearly touched the 180,000,000 mark; and a gain of 0.8 of 1% in 
 ten years, with every nerve strained, is eloquent evidence of the 
 top limit. The Mariotte curve is about the nearest approach to 
 perfection possible for the steam engine to accomplish, in ex- 
 pressing the relation between the work done and the amount of 
 steam used. If the terminal pressure is taken as expressing the 
 steam used, and all the steam is accounted for by the diagram, 
 then 9 6% mechanical efficiency of the machine, will be • the re- 
 sulting figures, with a reasonable amount of steam used in the 
 jackets and reheaters charged against the account. 
 
 If there were no necessity for the use of steam jackets, or 
 jacket steam, the figures would approach 200,000,000 rather closely, 
 and if superheating can save jacket steam, and vitalize the work- 
 ing steam in the cylinders, the latter figure may be reached in 
 the near future, as far as the official test is concerned. This 
 pleasing result may have te be obtained, however, by the use of 
 a surface condenser with a comparatively small air-pump, and 
 this type of condenser may require more maintenance account 
 than the jet form ; and the superheat may have to be obtained 
 at the cost of coal. 
 
 Pumping Engine Economy. A critical discussion of the results 
 obtained by the Nordberg and other high-duty engines is printed in 
 Engineering News, Sept. 27, 1900. It is shown that the practical 
 question in most cases is not how great fuel economy can be 
 reached, but how economical an engine it will pay to install, tak- 
 ing into consideration interest, depreciation, repairs, cost of labor 
 and of fuel, etc. The following table is given showing that with 
 low cost of fuel and labor it does not pay to put in a very high 
 duty engine. Accuracy is not claimed for the figures ; they are 
 given only to show the method of computation that should be 
 used, and to show the influence of different factors on the final 
 result. 
 
 Cost of Electric Current for Punnping 1,000 Gallons per IVIinute 
 100 ft. High. (Theoretical h. p. with 100% efficiency = 100,000 -f- 
 3958.9 = 25.259 h.p.) 
 
 Assume cost of current = 1 ct. per kw. hour delivered to the 
 motor: efficiency of motor— 90%; mechanical efficiency of triplex 
 pumps = 80%; of centrifugal pumps =7 2% j combined efficiency, 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1263 
 
 TABLE XXIX. ANNUAL COST OF PUMPING WITH AN 800- 
 H.P. ENGINE, AS INFLUENCED BY VARYING DUTY OF 
 ENGINE, VARYING PRICE OP FUEL, AND VARYING 
 TIME OF OPERATION. 
 
 Duty per million B. t. u. 
 First cost: 50 100 120 150 180 
 
 Engine $24,000 $48,000 $68,000 $118,000 $148,000 
 
 Engine, per h.p 30.00 60.00 85.00 147.00 185.00 
 
 Boilers, economizers 27,000 13,500 11,250 9,000 7,500 
 
 Engine and boilers 51,000 61,500 79,250 127,000 155,500 
 
 Interest and depreciation: 
 
 On engine, at 6%.. 1,440 2,880 4,080 7,080 8,880 
 
 Boilers, 8% 2,160 1,080 900 720 €00 
 
 Total depreciation 3,600 3,960 4,980 7,800 9,480 
 
 Labor per annum 6,022 6,022 7,655 9,307 10,220 
 
 Fuel cost: 
 
 4,000 hrs. per yr. : 
 
 $3 per ton 17,280 8,640 7,200 5,760 4,800 
 
 $4 per ton 23,040 11,520 9,600 7,680 6,400 
 
 $5 per ton 28,800 14,400 12,400 9,600 8,000 
 
 6,000 hrs. per yr. : 
 
 $3 per ton 25,920 12,960 10,800 8,640 7,200 
 
 $4 per ton 34,560 17,280 14,400 11,520 9,600 
 
 $5 per ton 43,200 21,600 18,600 14,400 12,000 
 
 Total annual cost: 
 4,000 hrs. per yr. : 
 
 Coal, $3 per ton... 26,902 18,622 19,835 22,867 24,500 
 
 4 per ton... 32,662 12,502 22.235 24,787 25,100 
 
 5 per ton... 38,422 24,382 25,035 26,707 27,700 
 
 6,000 hrs. per yd. : 
 
 Coal, $3 per ton... 35,522 22,942 23,435 25,747 26,900 
 
 4 per ton... 44,182 27,262 27,035 28,627 29,300 
 
 5 per ton... 52,822 31,582 31,235 31,507 31,700 
 
 triplex pumps, 72%; centrifugal, 64.8%. 1 kw.= 1.34 electrical 
 h.p. on wire. 
 
 Triplex, 1.34 X 0.72 = 0.9648 pump h.p. ; X 33,000 = 31,838 ft. lbs. 
 per min. 
 
 Centrifugal, 1.34 X 0.648 -= 0.86382 pump h.p. ; X 33,000 — 28,654 
 ft. -lbs. per min. 
 
 1,000 gals. 100 ft. high = 833,400 ft. -lbs. per min. 
 
 Triplex, 833,400 -i- 31,838 = 26.1763 k.w. X 8,760 hrs. per year X 
 $0.01 = $2,293.04. 
 
 Centrifugal, 833,400 -=- 28,655 = 29.0840 k.w. X 8,760 hrs. per year 
 X $0.01 = $2,547.76. 
 
 For 100% efficiency, $2,293.04 X 0.72 = $1,650. For any other 
 efficiency, divide $1,650 by the efficiency. For any other cost per 
 kw.-hr. in cts., multiply by that cost. 
 
 Cost of Pumping 1,000 Gal. per Min. 100 ft. High by Gas Engines. 
 Assume a gas engine supplied by an anthracite gas producer using 
 1.5 lbs. of coal per brake h.p.-hr., coal costing $3 per ton of 2,000 
 lbs. 
 
 Efficiency of triplex pump 80%, of centrifugal pump, 72%. 
 
1264 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXX. COST OF FUEL. PER YEAR FOR PUMPING 1,000 
 GAL. PER MIN. 100 FT. HIGH BY STEAM PUMPS 
 
 (1) 
 
 (2) Efficiency 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 (5) 
 
 (6) 
 
 (7) 
 
 
 100% 
 
 90% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10. 
 
 198. 
 
 178.2 
 
 142.56 
 
 0.5846 
 
 0.42090 
 
 153.63 
 
 460.89 
 
 11.88 
 
 166.667 
 
 150. 
 
 120. 
 
 0.6945 
 
 0.50004 
 
 182.51 
 
 547.53 
 
 14. 
 
 141.433 
 
 127.87 
 
 101.83 
 
 0.8184 
 
 0.58926 
 
 215.08 
 
 645.24 
 
 14.256 
 
 138.889 
 
 125. 
 
 100. 
 
 0.8334 
 
 0.60005 
 
 219.02 
 
 657.06 
 
 15. 
 
 132. 
 
 118.8 
 
 95.04 
 
 0.8769 
 
 0.63125 
 
 230.44 
 
 691.32 
 
 16. 
 
 123.75 
 
 111.375 
 
 89.10 
 
 0.9354 
 
 0.67344 
 
 245.80 
 
 737.40 
 
 17.82 
 
 111.111 
 
 100. 
 
 80. 
 
 1.0417 
 
 0.75006 
 
 273.77 
 
 821.31 
 
 20. 
 
 99. 
 
 89.1 
 
 71.28 
 
 1.1692 
 
 0.84180 
 
 307.26 
 
 921.78 
 
 23.76 
 
 83.333 
 
 75. 
 
 60. 
 
 1.3890 
 
 1.00008 
 
 365.03 
 
 1095.09 
 
 30. 
 
 66. 
 
 59.4 
 
 47.52 
 
 1.7538 
 
 1.26270 
 
 460.&9 
 
 1382.67 
 
 35.64 
 
 55.556 
 
 50. 
 
 40. 
 
 2.0835 
 
 1.50012 
 
 547.54 
 
 1642.62 
 
 40. 
 
 49.5 
 
 44.5 
 
 35.64 
 
 2.3384 
 
 1.68360 
 
 614.52 
 
 1843.56 
 
 47.52 
 
 41.667 
 
 37.5 
 
 30. 
 
 2.7780 
 
 2.00016 
 
 730.06 
 
 2190.18 
 
 50. 
 
 39.6 
 
 35.64 
 
 28.51 
 
 2.9230 
 
 2.10450 
 
 768.15 
 
 2304.45 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 
 g 
 
 h 
 
 (1) 
 
 Lbs. steam per i.h, 
 
 .p. per hour. 
 
 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 Duty mill 
 
 ion ft.-lbs 
 
 i. per 1.000 lbs. steam, b, : 
 
 100% effy. 
 
 . c. 90%. 
 
 (3) 
 
 Duty per 
 
 100 lbs. ( 
 
 coal. 90% effy., 1 
 
 S lbs. stei 
 
 im per lb, 
 
 . coal. 
 
 (4) 
 
 Lbs. coal 
 
 p(-r min. 
 
 for 1.000 gals.. 
 
 100 ft. high. 
 
 
 (5) 
 
 Tons, 2.000 lbs., in 
 
 24 hrs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (6) 
 
 Tons per 
 
 year. 365 
 
 days. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (7) 
 
 Cost of fuel ner year at $3.00 per 
 
 ton. 
 
 
 
 Factors for calculation: b=:1980-^a; c = b X 0.9 ; d = c X 0.8 ; 
 e = 8334 ^ 1000 d ; f = e X 0.72 ; g = f X 365 ; h = g X 3. 
 
 For any other cost of coal per ton, multiply the figures in the 
 last column by the ratio of that cost to $3.00. 
 
 1,000 gals, per min. 100 ft. high = 833,400 ft.-lbs. per min.H- 33,- 
 
 000 = 25.2545 h.p. 
 
 Fuel cost per brake h.p.-hr. 1.5 lbs. X 300 cts. -^ 2.000 — 0.225 ct. 
 X 8,760 hrs. per year =$19.71 per h.p. X 25.2545 = $497,766 for 
 100% efficiency. 
 
 For 80% efficiency, $622.21; for 72%, efficiency, $691.34; or the 
 same as the cost with a steam pumping engine of 95,000,000 ft.- 
 lbs. duty per 100 lbs. of coal. 
 
 Cost of Fuel for Electric Current. Based on 10 lbs. steam per 
 
 1 h.p.-hour, 8 lbs. steam per lb. coal, or 1.25 lbs. coal per 1. h.p. 
 per hour. (Electric line loss not included.) 
 
 Efficiency of engine 0.90, of generator 0.90, combined efficiency 
 0.81. 
 
 1 h.p. = 0.746 kw., 0.746 X 0.81 = 0.6426 kw. on wire for 10 lbs. 
 steam. Reciprocal = 16.5492 lbs. steam per kw. hour. 8 lbs. 
 steam per lb. coal = 2.06865 lbs. coal, at $3.00 per ton of 2,000 lbs. 
 = 0.3103 cent per kw-hour. 
 
 Lbs. steam per 1. h.p.-hr — 
 
 12 14 16 18 20 30 40 
 
 Fuel cost, cents per k.w.-hr. — 
 
 0.3724 0.4344 0.4965 0.5585 0.6206 0.9309 1.2412 
 
 Cost of Pumping Machinery for Water Works. W. H. Weston 
 (Engineering Magazine. Jan., 1912) has published the following 
 notes on the average cost of water works machinery: 
 
 Average Cost of Pumping Machinery. Vertical triple-expan- 
 sion crank and fly-wheel pumping engines per 1.000 gal. per 24 hrs. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1265 
 
 Head pumped against, ft. 
 
 250 to 300 16 
 
 150 to 200 5 
 
 50 to 75 4 
 
 Horizontal-compound fly-wheel pumping engines per 1,000 gals. 
 per 24 hrs. 
 
 Head pumped against ft. 
 
 250 to 300 $5.00 
 
 150 to 200 4.00 
 
 50 to 75 3.50 
 
 Duplex compound direct-acting pumps per 1,000 gals, per 24 hrs. 
 Head pumped against, ft. 
 
 250 to 300 $3.50 
 
 150 to 200 3.00 
 
 50 to 75 2.50 
 
 Average Cost of Water-Tube Boilers for Pumping Engines. 
 Allowance made for reserve boilers. 
 
 Allowance for reserve 
 Horsepower per cent, of capacity 
 
 of plant 
 
 400 33 
 
 600 33 
 
 800 : 25 
 
 1,000 20 
 
 1,500 15 
 
 Vertical triple-ex- Compound condensing 
 
 Horsepower pansion crank and fly- crank and fly wheel 
 
 wheel pumping engines pumping engines 
 
 400 $4,000 $4,800 
 
 600 6,800 6,800 
 
 800 7,500 8,500 
 
 1,000 9,000 10,500 
 
 1,500 12,500 14,500 
 
 Cost of Steam and Water Piping, Valves and Separators. 
 (Pump piping not included). 
 
 Vertical triple-ex- Compound condensing 
 
 Horsepower pansion crank and fly- crank and fly wheel 
 
 wheel pumping engines pumping engines 
 
 400 $2,000 $2,300 
 
 600 2.600 3,100 
 
 800 3,200 3,800 
 
 1,000 4,000 4,800 
 
 1,500 6,200 7,300 
 
 Feed Pumps 
 
 400 $90 $105 
 
 600 110 130 
 
 800 135 160 
 
 1,000 160 190 • 
 
 1,500 220 265 
 
 Heaters 
 
 400 450 525 
 
 600 525 620 
 
 800 600 720 
 
 1,000 700 850 
 
 1.500 950 1,150 
 
1266 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Vertical triple-expansion crank and fly-wheel pumping- engines 
 will use from 10% to 11 1/^ lbs. of steam per indicated h.p. per hr., 
 for capacities between 10 and 35 million gallons per day, pump- 
 ing against heads from 50 to 300 ft. 
 
 Compound engines of this type will take from 12i^ to 13i^ lbs. 
 of steam per indicated h.p.-hr. To get the total h.p. that the en- 
 gine must develop, Mr. Weston takes the h.p. represented by the 
 amount of water to be pumped to the given height plus 10% for 
 pump engine friction, and 4% for pipe-line friction and slippage of 
 the pump. We have found in many cases that this is a very 
 small percentage for slippage. 
 
 Cost of a Pumping Plant per Million Gallons Capacity. W. L. 
 Du Moulin, in a paper presented before the American Society of 
 Civil Engineers, June 2, 1915, describes the pumping plant of 
 the Morenci Water Company, and gives the following costs: 
 
 The cost of pumping engines complete, with foundations, aux- 
 iliaries, condenser, piping, etc., per million gallons capacity per 
 24 hrs. was : 
 
 Triple-expansion pumping engines $38,500 
 
 Cross-compound " " 29,400 
 
 Average of all " " 35,500 
 
 The cost of the boiler plant, including piping, foundations, etc., 
 was : 
 
 Without economizers — per rated boiler h.p $30.50 
 
 With economizers " " " ^' . . . . 42.50 
 
 The total rated capacity of the boiler plant is 640 b.hp. 
 
 The cost of the pumping plant, including engines, boilers, econo- 
 mizers, piping, etc., per million gallons capacity per 24 hrs. was 
 $41,500. These figures do not include anything for land, buildings, 
 chimneys, wells, settling system, 10-in. pipe lines, etc., but prac- 
 tically only the items mentioned. 
 
 Comparison of the Costs of Pumping by Suction-Gas-Producer 
 and Steam Engines was made in a paper by I. E. Gibson and 
 S. H. Wright from an abstract of which in Engineering Digest we 
 have taken the following : 
 
 The Gas Plant belongs to the Delaware Water Co. and is situ- 
 ated at the head of tide water on Christiana Creek. 
 
 FIXED CHARGES 
 
 Gas plant Steam plant 
 
 Management $ 200 $ 200 
 
 Superintendence 920 920 
 
 Depreciation 1,694 1,987 
 
 Sinking fund 1,043 1,297 
 
 Interest 4,095 6,491 
 
 Insurance 76 250 
 
 Taxes 263 327 
 
 Total $8,291 $11,472 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1267 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 03 
 
 «D r-(io 00 o eo oo 
 
 t- "* us OS t- t- rH 
 CO t- t^ -*< Cvl -*i ?£> 
 
 T-i 
 
 CO 
 
 uticooioco 
 
 C O CS] r-^ o 
 CO T-H in CO »-( 
 
 
 O tH CO i?q C^ O O 
 
 tH 
 ©9- 
 
 c<id^dd 
 
 Ifl 
 
 < 
 
 
 cousocqoiHO 
 
 0> -* 00 (M 00 tH o 
 (M CO rt- Irt O tH ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 ooooiHirt 
 
 coot- CO 00 
 OOCvICDm-IM 
 
 Lo 
 
 O 7-5 Csi r-i »^ O O 
 
 
 i-idcodd 
 
 < 
 
 
 'g 
 
 t- irt o irt o Oi CO 
 
 O t- KS 'S^ CO O CO 
 
 ■^ oo o CD eg irt «o 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 ocoot-00 
 
 tH IM lO c^J 00 
 
 ITS tH'^ coo 
 
 
 0) 
 
 T-l 
 
 OrHTj^C^COOO 
 
 tH tH M « O -n* <X> 
 O 00 Ui CO IC tH CI 
 CO CO LO Ui iH iH CO 
 
 CO 
 
 €«■ 
 
 CO 
 CD 
 
 c<i d ^ d d 
 
 lOS^t-COOO 
 OCOOOlflOO 
 Ifl C<J C- CM 1-1 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 O iH C<J T-5 CO o o 
 
 tH 
 
 rndcodd 
 
 1— 1 
 
 K 
 
 as 
 
 ini 00 o irt o OS CO 
 
 T-H O C-3 00 -* T-l OS 
 '^i Oi iH CO ^ lO CO 
 
 o 
 oo 
 
 Ifl COOtDOO 
 ^OC-T-lO 
 
 i 
 
 as 
 w 
 
 d iH -^ cvj CO* d d 
 
 CO 
 
 (^<6-^S<:i 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 00 ITS U? 00 O iH 00 . 
 iH CO O US O <M T-l 
 CO ^ CO CO lO iH -* 
 
 Ifl 
 
 ,HCOU5T-(t- 
 OSCO^tOlfl 
 <MCOCO-*T-I 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 .0 
 
 d i-i N th CO d d 
 
 »5- 
 
 co' 
 
 ^dc^dd 
 
 OS 
 
 iMUiOOOiMOO 
 00 tH Oi C^J C^ O 00 
 
 '^ c<j c- th CO CO c- 
 
 CD 
 
 Ifl Ifl 
 
 00 Ifl Ifl Oi CO 
 
 as tH cj o t^ 
 
 COt-HOOoO 
 
 
 
 
 d ffQ Tj< OS »:0 d d 
 
 tH 
 
 t^ 
 
 M d Ifl d d 
 
 OSlflOOO-^t- 
 oo iH O 00 00 Cvl 00 
 Ifl C- O O O C^l t- 
 
 d c<i kfl CO «<]' d d 
 
 tH U5 Ifl O O Ifl CO 
 OJCDOO 00 t-i-IO 
 
 irj I Tt^iMOii-iaiCOoo 
 ^. I dc^'-^coifldd 
 
 rf Oil 
 
 O Ld^ 
 
 leoco 
 < 00 Ifl d d T-i 
 
 StioS ^ ^u 
 
 OS « m C a> n w 
 c q; ^H ■>> *- J3 a> 
 
 fcH 3 <u .!:: r- ^ c^ 
 
 ,HaiO,-(0 
 -^eot-coo 
 
 •* ""^ ■* to CO 
 rHOlfldd 
 
 ocDOeqeo 
 
 r-liMTHt-CO 
 
 -* T-l M O 1-| 
 
 <m' d CD d d 
 
 lfllflOfi<l (M 
 T-l C- OS CO CO 
 «D t-Tti TtiCO 
 
 e-i d t-^ d d 
 
 
 P. u ^ 
 OS rt ^, S 
 
 4) CO ^^jli 
 
 I ^11 
 
 
 COlO 
 
 COOJ 
 00 M 
 
 i 
 
 .5s 
 
 
 oo Ifl iz:— ! 
 
 
 
 o o) 
 "a 
 _ o , 
 
 ss 
 
 •S.S 
 
 a'a 
 
 IS 
 
 aa 
 
 o o 
 
 > > 
 
 « 
 
1268 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The plant consists of two complete producer units rated at 110 
 h.p. each and two 13x12 in., single-acting, three-cylinder vertical 
 gas engines of 89 b.h.p., each direct connected to a 13x15 in., 
 single-acting triplex pump. The engines run at 265 r.p.m., and 
 the pumps, through a 5 to 1 reduction gear, at 44 r.p.m., at which 
 speed each has a capacity of 1,640,000 gals, per 24 hrs. 
 
 The cost of the plant was as follows: 
 
 Building and property $38,750 
 
 Producers and engines complete, including auxiliaries 13,000 
 
 Pumps complete 7,250 
 
 Piping, air chambers, etc 4,500 
 
 Total $63,500 
 
 Cost of plant per brake horse-power $392 
 
 Cost of plant per million gallons capacity per 24 hr 19,250 
 
 A high grade of anthracite pea coal is used, costing $5.10 per 
 long ton delivered into the storage bins. 
 
 The Steam Pumping Plant belongs to the Octoraro Water Co., 
 and is located on the Octoraro Creek, near Quarryville, Penn, 
 It consists of three 100 h.p. return-tubular boilers supplying steam 
 to two horizontal, cross-compound condensing Corliss pumping 
 engines, having 18 and 32 by 30 in. steam ends and 10x30 in. 
 water ends delivering at a pressure of 150 lbs. These engines ran 
 at 55 to 60 r.p.m. and are rated at three million gallons capacity. 
 The cost of this plant was as follows : 
 
 COST OF STEAM PLANT 
 
 Building and land $37,875 
 
 Boilers, engines, piping and auxiliaries 39,850 
 
 Total ; $77,725 
 
 Cost of plant per brake h.p. allowing 109^ for engine friction $190 
 Cost of plant per million gallons capacity per 24 hrs 12,100 
 
 The fuel u.sed is high-grade bituminous, costing $4.40 per long 
 ton delivered at the plant. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Plant and Operating Expenses for Pumps 
 Driven by Reciprocating Steam Engines, Steam Turbines, and 
 Diesel Oil Engines. The following figures from a paper by Francis 
 Head before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, compare bids ob- 
 tained by the City of Philadelphia in 1906 on low-lift pumping ma- 
 chinery for the Torresdale filters : 
 
 Coal Required for the Different Types and the Cost were as 
 shown in Table XXXI. 
 
 The specifications called for six units of 40,000,000 gals. each. 
 These were to lift the water from a conduit leading from the 
 river and deliver it to pipes 5 ft. in diam., by which it was to be 
 led to the preliminary filters. The maximum lift measured from 
 the .surface of the water to the discharge side of the i)ump was 45 
 ft., no allowance being made for the velocity head in the water 
 of discharge. Each bidder was required to furnish a complete 
 plant as far as the machinery went, including engines, ping, boil- 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1269 
 
 ers, etc., and to operate it for six months, and to make tests of 
 24 hrs. and 30 days, respectively, to determine the duty and 
 capacity. 
 
 TABLE) XXXII. COMPARATIVE BID PRICES ON STEAM EN- 
 GINES, TURBINES AND DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Steam 
 engines 
 245 
 
 Time required in days to 
 
 furnish plant 
 
 Duty in million foot-lbs. 
 
 per 100 lbs. steam 
 
 Price bid $205,400 
 
 Extra for house 52,528 
 
 Electric plant and stack.. 20,000 
 
 85 and 70 
 millions. 
 
 Comparative price based on 
 duty and labor saved . . . 
 
 Turbines Diesel oil engines 
 300 250 for half plant. 
 315 for whole plant. 
 88 and 83 95 and 90 millions 
 millions. per 5 gals. oil. 
 
 $178,000 $298,000 
 
 60,207 
 
 20,000 
 
 Cost of plant 
 
 $277,928 
 
 $258,207 
 
 Extra for time at $250 per 
 
 
 
 
 
 $13,750 
 
 Extra cost of coal over oil 
 
 
 
 
 $12,180 
 
 3,068 
 
 Extra cost of coal over oil 
 
 per year. Capitalized at 
 
 
 
 3.5% 
 
 345,100 
 
 87,650 
 
 
 
 Comparative price based 
 
 
 on duty 
 
 $623,028 
 
 $359,607 
 
 Boiler room, labor and re- 
 
 
 
 pairs 
 
 $10,150 
 
 $10,150 
 
 Extra cost of operatmg 
 
 
 
 steam plants per year. . 
 
 22,230 
 
 13,218 
 
 Extra cost of operating 
 
 
 
 steam plants per year. 
 
 
 
 Capitalized at 3.5% 
 
 635,100 
 
 377,650 
 
 $298,000 
 $17,500 
 
 $315,500 
 
 $913,028 
 
 $649,607 
 
 $315,500 
 
 TABLE XXXIII. 
 
 COST OP COAL FOR VARYING PUMPING 
 ENGINE DUTY. 
 
 
 Lbs. coal 315.6 hp. 
 per hp. lbs. per coal 
 hour per hour 
 
 24 
 hours 
 
 Cost per 
 pump per 
 24 hours 
 
 70 million duty . . 
 83 '• " .. 
 90 " " . . 
 
 2.83 893 
 2.33 753 
 
 21.435 
 18,072 
 
 $31.57 
 26.63 
 24.95 
 
 The specifications stated that bids were to be made on the fol- 
 lowing basis: The value of money will be taken at 3i^% per an- 
 num. After the bids are scheduled drawings will be prepared giv- 
 ing the necessary dimensions for the engine and boiler rooms to 
 house the different classes of machinery. The cost of the build- 
 ings will be computed at 15 cts. per cu. ft., measuring from the 
 engine and boiler room floors' to midway between the top of the 
 walls and the ridge purlin ; and the amount thus obtained will 
 be used in ascertaining the cost of installation. In comparing the 
 cost of operation coal will be figured at $3.30 per ton of 2,240 lbs. 
 
1270 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 and fuel oil will be figured at 3 cts. per gal. In comparing the 
 bids with reference to the time for starting the machinery in 
 operation, allowance will be made at the rate of $250 per calen- 
 dar day for the bids specifying earlier dates of completion as 
 compared with the bid specifying the longest time. In addition to 
 this, there was a clause providing in case of failure to meet duty 
 guaranteed, that for each million foot-pounds duty the pumping 
 engines fall below the duty specified in the bid there will be de- 
 ducted $1,000 from the contract price for each engine. 
 
 The duty guaranteed for the 24-hr. run by the steam engines 
 w^as 85,000,000 ft. -lbs. per 100 lbs. of steam; by the turbines 
 88,000,000, and by the oil engines 95,000,000. For the 30-day test 
 the duty guaranteed by the steam engines was 70,000,000 ; by the 
 turbines 83,000,000, and by the oil engines 90,000,000. 
 
 Forty million gallons per day against 45-ft. head requires 315.6 
 h.p. in the water column. The I. P. Morris Co., whose design for 
 the pumps was used by the Diesel Co., guaranteed 70% efficiency 
 under the conditions of the contract, the pump shaft required 
 450 h.p. 
 
 With the Diesel engine 5 gals, of oil, fuel oil of commerce being 
 used, per 90,000,000 ft.-lbs. means 34.65 gals, per pump per hr., 
 costing $1.0395, or $24.95 per 24 hrs. per unit. 
 
 The fuel saving per pump by the oil engine over the steam 
 units, is as follows: 
 
 Per hour Per j^ear 
 
 Steam engines $6.62 $12,080 
 
 Turbines 1.68 3,080 
 
 It should be further noted that each of the steam propo- 
 sitions emphasized the fact that the coal furnished must have 
 14,500 B.t.u., or if it were less, due allowance must be made, which 
 means that these guarantees were made on a good grade of 
 bituminous coal. 
 
 For the purpose of comparison, the duty on the 30 -day test alone 
 was used. 
 
 In comparing the actual cost of the plants to the city, accord- 
 ing to the table, the turbine is the lowest, being $258,000 ; the 
 steam engine comes next, $278,000, the oil engine being the high- 
 est at $298,000. In making this comparison the foundations of the 
 boilers and ash tunnels have not been included. When the extra 
 cost of operating the steam plants over the oil engine is cap- 
 italized at 31/^% in accordance with the specifications, and due 
 allowance has been made for penalizing the oil engine and steam 
 turbine, it will be seen that the cost of the oil engine was ap- 
 proximately $315,500, the turbine engines was $649,600, and the 
 steam engines was $913,000. The bid for steam engines was ac- 
 cepted. 
 
 Cost of Pumping Oil Long Distances. According to a memo- 
 randum in the Engineering and Mining Journal in 1907, the cost 
 of pumping oil as reported by the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
 sion amounted to about 2 cts. per barrel for a distance of about 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1271 
 
 100 miles. Therefore the cost to the Standard Oil Company of 
 transporting a barrel from the Kansas oil field to the Atlantic 
 seaboard would not be much, if any, in excess of 30 cts. 
 
 Cost of Pumping for Municipalities. The data in Table XXXIV 
 from Engineering- News, Aug. 12, 1909, give the cost of pumping 
 in Philadelphia taken from annual reports of the Bureau of 
 Water : 
 
 TABLE XXXIV. COST OP PUMPING IN PHILADELPHIA BY 
 
 YEARS 
 
 Pay of em- 
 Billions Fuel cost per ployees per Total cost per 
 of gals. mil. gals. mil. gals. mil. gals. 
 
 Year 100 ft. 100 ft. 100 ft. 100 ft. 
 
 1894 121.2 $1.87 $0.98 $3.48 
 
 1895 132.0 2.08 1.00 3.69 
 
 1896 161.8 2.00 0.92 3.43 
 
 1897 187.4 1.86 0.84 3.16 
 
 1898 210.8 1.77 0.84 2.97 
 
 1899 231.8 , 1.77 0.80 2.90 
 
 1900 218.1 2.11 1.06 3.71 
 
 1901 227.7 2.04 1.31 4.14 
 
 1902 239.7 2.55 1.63 4.80 
 
 1903 248.8 2.99 1.54 5.20 
 
 1904 251.2 2.93 1.49 5.11 
 
 1905 261.3 2.55 1.47 4.61 
 
 1906 257.3 2.52 1.57 5.06 
 
 1907 242.3 2.57 1.82 5.68 
 
 Operating Costs of Various Pumping Stations. Dabney H. Mur- 
 ray (Engineering and Contracting, Mar. 6, 1912) gives the oper- 
 ating costs of various reciprocating engine pumping plants in 
 Chicago as follows : 
 
 Private Plant No. 1. The boiler equipment at this plant is as 
 follows: Four 350 h.p. Babcock and Wilcox boilers, extension 
 front, Hawley down draught, gravity fed, and two 350 h.p. B. & 
 W. boilers, flush front, Hawley, hand fired. The total rated 
 boiler h.p. is 2,100, the average h.p. on day watch is 1,400, and 
 the load factor is 67%. 
 
 The engine equipment is as follows: Two 65 h.p., two 250 h.p., 
 and one 140 h.p. simple horizontal engines. Two 110 h.p. simple 
 vertical engines, one 220 h.p. simple 2-cylinder vertical engines, 
 one 33 h.p. 25 k.w. electric light engine, and one 30 h.p. 10 in. 
 and 6 in. and 10 in. x 16 in. elevator pump. The total rated en- 
 gine h.p. is 1,283, the average h.p. on day watch 400, and the load 
 factor 28%. 
 
 The daily payroll for this plant, for 12-hr. shift, is as follows: 
 
 2 firemen at $3.10 $ 6.20 
 
 4 firemen helpers at $2.68 10.72 
 
 1/6 a.shman at $2.50 42 
 
 Total for boiler room $17.34 
 
 2 chief engineers at $3.48 6.96 
 
 2 asst. engineers at $2.68 5.36 
 
 2 oilers at $2.41 4.82 
 
 1/30 windov/ washer at $2.25 . , > 08 
 
1272 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1/30 machinist, at $3 10 
 
 1/30 steamtitter at $3 , 10 
 
 $17.42 
 
 % janitor (added) at $2.40 1.20 
 
 % machinist (added) at $3 1.50 
 
 $20.12 
 1 asst. engr. (deducted) 2.68 
 
 Total $17.44 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1%, 
 and the maximum hp. per fireman per watch is 467. By hand 
 firing 2,000 lbs. of Pocahontas coal is fired per hour per fireman 
 on the avera.ge on the day watch, and 1,800 lbs. of Illinois slack 
 coal. 
 
 The number of city pumping engines equivalent to average num- 
 ber of units in service is 2, the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per engineer per watch, as corrected is li/^, and 
 per oiler per watch is 2. The ratio of cost of coal to cost of 
 labor, as corrected, $1.48. The actual daily payroll is $57.72, and 
 as corrected $23.64. The average pay per man per day is $2.62 
 and per hr. is $0.33. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily 
 payroll, as corrected, is 16.9. 
 
 As engine room and machinery are not well kept, half time 
 for one janitor and half time for one machinist are added. But 
 as the average engine horse power is only 28% of average boiler 
 h.p., the balance being used for other purposes, and as the engi- 
 neers and others have other duties besides the care of the ma- 
 chinery, the total pay roll, for the purpose of figuring the corrected 
 items, is taken at $17.44 plus $6.20 = $23.64. 
 
 Private Plant No. 2. The boiler equipment at this plant is as 
 follows: Five 375 h.p. Stirling water tube boilers with Greene 
 chain grates, hand fired. The rated boiler horse power is 1,875, 
 the average h. p. on the day watch is 960, and the load factor 
 Is 51%. 
 
 The engine equipment is as follows: Five 250 h.p. vertical 
 compound, non-condensing engine generators, one 400 h.p. 3-cylin- 
 der, horizontal compound, non-condensing elevator pump, two 200 
 h.p. 3-cylinder, horizontal compound, non-condensing elevator 
 pump, two 30 h.p. 10 in. and 18 in. x 24 in. horizontal vacuum 
 pumps, one 30 h.p. horizontal compound, duplex house pump, one 
 25 h.p. horizontal simple, duplex house pump, and three 5 h.p. 
 motor-driven elevator return pumps. The rated hp. of the total 
 engine and motor units is 2,180, the average h.p. on day watch 
 1,210 and the load factor 55%. 
 
 The daily payroll for this plant, for an 8-hr. shift, is as follows : 
 
 3 firemen at $2.40 $ 7.20 
 
 6 coal passers at $2.32 o 13.92 
 
 Total for boiler room $21.12 
 
 1 chief engineer at $5 5.00 
 
 3 asst. engineers at $^.60 10.80 
 
 4 oilers at $2 , 8-00 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1273 
 
 2 repairmen at $2.20 $ 4.40 
 
 1 machinist at $3.60 3.60 
 
 1 janitor at $2 2.00 
 
 1 steamfltter at $2.80 2.80 
 
 $36.60 
 
 2 oilers (added) at $2.00 4.00 
 
 Total $40.60 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1, 
 and the maximum h.p. of boilers per fireman per watch is 465. 
 On an average 2,000 lbs. of coal is fired by hand per hour per 
 fireman on the day watch. 
 
 The number of city pumping engines equivalent to averag'e 
 number of units in service is 3, the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per engineer per watch ^s 2^4, the average equiv- 
 alent number of pumping engines per oiler per watch is ly^, as 
 corrected. The ratio of cost of coal to cost of labor is 2.96, as 
 corrected. The actual daily payroll is $57.72, and, as corrected, 
 is $61.72. The average pay per man per day is $2.62, and per 
 hr. is 22 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll 
 is 19.6 as corrected. 
 
 Part of this plant does not run at night. In order to figure the 
 corrected items above, two oilers were added, who would be the 
 only extra men needed for full 24-hr. service. 
 
 Private Plant No. 3. The boiler engine, and motor equipment 
 of this plant is as follows : Pour 400 h.p. Heine water-tube boil- 
 ers with Murphy stokers, gravity fed. The rated boiler h.p. is 
 1,600, the average horse power on day watch is 880, and the load 
 factor 55 per cent. 
 
 There are two 470 h.p. simple horizontal, non-condensing en- 
 gine generators, one 335 h.p. simple horizontal, non-condensing 
 engine generators, and two 10 h.p. motor-driven air compressors. 
 The rated h.p.. of the total engine and motor units is 1,295, the 
 average h.p. on day watch 1,050, and the load factor 81%. 
 
 The daily payroll for this plant, for an 8-hr. shift, is as follows: 
 
 3 firemen at $2.17 $ 6.50 
 
 3 coal passers at $1.67 5.00 
 
 3 ash wheelers at $1.67 5.00 
 
 Vo boiler washer at $2.50 1.25 
 
 1 helper at $1.83 1.83 
 
 Total for boiler room $19.58 
 
 % chief engineer at $4.67 2.33 
 
 1 1/> asst. engineer at $2.92 4.38 
 
 3 oilers at $1.93 5.80 
 
 1 janitor at $1.67 1.67 
 
 1 laborer at $1.67 1.67 
 
 1 machinist at $3 3.00 
 
 $18.85 
 
 1/2 chief engineer (added) at $4.67 2.33 
 
 1/2 asst. engineer (added) at $2.92 1.46 
 
 1 laborer (added) at $1.67 1.67 
 
 Total $24.31 
 
1274 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1%, 
 and the maximum h.p. per fireman per watch is 440. There are 
 5,000 lbs. of coal, gravity fed, per hour per fireman on the aver- 
 age during the day watch. 
 
 The number of city pumping engines equivalent to the average 
 number of units in service is 1.4; the average equivalent number 
 of pumping engines per engineer per watch is 2.1, as corrected; 
 the average equivalent number of pumping engines per oiler per 
 watch is 1.4 as corrected. The ratio of cost of coal to cost of 
 labor is 3.33, as corrected. The actual daily payroll is $38.43, and 
 as corrected is $43.89. The average pay per man per day is $2.08, 
 and per hr. is 26 cts. The actual engine horse power per dollar 
 of daily payroll is 17.1 as corrected. 
 
 Private Plants Nos. 3 and 4 are near each other and are oper- 
 ated by the same mana,gement, some of the men dividing their 
 time between the two plants. Neither runs full 24 hrs. For the 
 purpose of figuring the corrected items given under plants 3 and 
 4, enough men were added to the payroll of each plant to run the 
 plants independently of each other, and also to provide for full 
 24-hr. service. 
 
 Private Plant No. 4. There are four 450 h.p. Stirling water tube 
 boilers, with chain grates, gravity fed. Their rated h.p. is 1,800, 
 the average h.p. on day watch is 990, and the load factor Is 55%. 
 There is one 140 h.p. horizontal compound pump, handling 2,000,- 
 000 gals, against 150 lbs., used occasionally for elevator service. 
 
 The engine and pump equivalent is as follows: Two 140 h.p. 
 vertical compound pumps, each handling 2,000,000 gals, against 
 150 lbs. ; one 670 h.p. 500 k.w. vertical compound engine generator, 
 two 430 h.p. 320 k.w. vertical compound engine generators; two 
 268 h.p., 200 k.w., vertical compound engine generators; two 134 
 h.p., 100 k.w. vertical compound engine generators; one 40 h.p. 
 house pump; one 50 h. p. house pump, and three 10 h.p. elevator 
 return pumps. 
 
 The total rated h.p. of the engine and pump units is 2,874, the 
 average h.p. on day watch is 1,186, and load factor is 41%. 
 
 The daily payroll, for 8-hr. shift, is as follows : 
 
 3 "firemen at $2.17 $ 6.50 
 
 3 coal passers at $1.67 5.00 
 
 3 ash wheelers at $1.67 5.00 
 
 1/0 boiler washer at $2.50 1.25 
 
 l"helper at $1.83 1.83 
 
 Total for boiler room $19.58 
 
 1/2 chief engineer at $4.67 2.33 
 
 li/> asst. engineer at $2.92 4.38 
 
 3 oilers at $1.93 5.80 
 
 1 janitor at $1.67 1.67 
 
 1 laborer at $1.67 1.67 
 
 1 machinist at $3 3.00 
 
 $18.85 
 
 V2 chief engineer (added) at $4.67 2.33 
 
 1/2 asst. engineer (added) at $2.92 1.46 
 
 1 laborer (added) at $1.67 1.67 
 
 Total $24.31 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1275 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1%, 
 and the maximum h.p. per fireman per watch is 495. During the 
 day watch 5,610 lbs. of coal are gravity fed per hour per fireman. 
 
 The number of city pumping engines equivalent to the average 
 number of units in service is 2.5; the average equivalent num- 
 ber of pumping engines per engineer per watch, as corrected, is 
 3.8 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per oiler 
 per watch, as corrected, is 2.5. The ratio of cost of coal to cost 
 of labor, as corrected, is 3.84. The actual daily payroll is $38.43, 
 and, as corrected, is $43.89. The average pay per man per day is 
 $2.08 and per hr. is 26 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of 
 daily payroll, as corrected, is 26.9. 
 
 Private Plant No. 5. The boiler equipment is as follows : Eight 
 500 h.p. Aultman-Taylor water tube boilers, with chain grates, 
 gravity fed. The total rated boiler horse power is 4,000, the aver- 
 age h.p. on the day watch is 3.000, and the load factor is 75%. 
 
 The generating units are as follows: Three 1,200 h.p. horizon- 
 tal compound condensing engines ; one 800 h.p, horizontal com- 
 pound condensing engine ; one 100 h.p. horizontal simple engine ; 
 one 50 h.p. horizontal simple engine ; one 60 h.p. 2-stage compound 
 air compressor; one 80 h.p. 2-stage compound air compressor; 
 two 90 h.p. horizontal compound duplex steam pumps; one 300 
 h.p. horizontal triple Corliss steam pump; one 300 h.p. compound 
 elevator pump ; one 75 h.p. horizontal compound elevator pump ; 
 three 90 h.p. horizontal duplex fire pumps; one 40 h.p. 30-ton ice 
 machine; two 30 h.p. 10 in. and 18 in. x 20 in. vacuum pumps; 
 and one 50 h.p. motor-driven duplex pump (not counted). The 
 rated h.p. of the total generating units is 5,915, the average h.p. 
 on the day watch is 2,900, and the load factor is 48%. 
 
 The daily payroll follows, firemen and assistant engineers work- 
 ing 8 hrs, all others 10 hrs. : 
 
 3 firemen at $2.14 $ 6.42 
 
 1 coal unloader at $2.20 2.20 
 
 3 asst. unloaders at $2 6.00 
 
 1 boiler wa.sher at $2.70 2.70 
 
 2 asst. boiler washers at $2 4.00 
 
 Total in boiler room $21.32 
 
 1 chief engineer at $5 5.00 
 
 3 as.st. engineers at $3 9.00 
 
 5 oilers at $2 10.00 
 
 2 janitors at $2 4.00 
 
 1 machinist at $3 3.00 
 
 1 machinist helper at $2 2.00 
 
 Total $33.00 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per firemen per watch is 6, 
 and the maximum h.p. of boilers per fireman per watch is 3,000. 
 On the day watch 15,833 lbs. of coal are gravity fed per hr, per 
 fireman. 
 
 The number of City pumping engines equivalent to the average 
 number of units in service is 5, the average equivalent number of 
 
1276 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 pumping engines per engineer per watch is 3.7, the average equiv- 
 alent number of pumping engines per oiler per Avatch is 3. The 
 ratio of cost of coal to cost of labor is 3. The actual daily payroll is 
 $37.32, the corrected $54.32. The average pay per man per day 
 is $2.49, per hr. 27 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily 
 payroll is 53.4. 
 
 Plant No. 5 does not run 24 hrs. The repair force is not suf- 
 ficient to keep all the machinery in order. Three oilers, two assist- 
 ant coal unloaders and one assistant boiler washer, amounting to $12 
 per day, were added to give 24 hr. service; and one machinist and 
 one helper, amounting to $5 per day, were added to keep up re- 
 pairs to machinery. 
 
 Private Plant No. 6. The boiler equipment is as follows : Ten 
 500 h.p. Aultman-Taylor. water tube boilers with chain grates, 
 gravity fed and equipped with fuel economizers. Total rated boiler 
 horse power 5,000, average horse power on day watch, 4,000, and 
 load factor of 80%. 
 
 The engine, motor, pump and compressor units are as follows : 
 One 400 h.p. 300 k.w. horizontal, compound, condensing engine; one 
 670 h.p. 500 k.w. horizontal, compound, condensing engine; one 1,- 
 340. h.p. 1,000 k.w, vertical compound condensing engine ; one 1,610 
 h.p. 1,200 k.w. vertical compound condensing engine; one 670 h.p. 
 500 k.w. turbine generator (not counter) ; one 165 h.p. compound 
 condensing air compi'essor ; two 30 h.p. horizontal vacuum pumps; 
 one 40 h.p. horizontal elevator pump ; one 40 h.p. horizontal circulat- 
 ing pump; one 20 h.p., 16-ton ice machine; five motor-driven com- 
 pressors or pumps (not counted) ; four 50 condensing sets. Total 
 rated h.p. of engine, motor pump and compressor units is 4,545, 
 average h.p. on daily watch 5,400, and load factor 119%. 
 
 The daily payroll follows: 
 
 3 firemen at $2 $ 6.00 
 
 3 asst. firemen, 8 hrs., at $1.92 5.76 
 
 2 water. tenders, 10 hrs. at $2.80 5.60 
 
 2 ash shovelers, 10. hrs.,. at $2.40 4.80 
 
 For boiler room $22.16 
 
 1 chief engineer, 10 hrs., at $6 6.00 
 
 3 asst. engineers, 8 hrs., at $3.29 9.87 
 
 6 oilers, 8 hrs., at $2 12.00 
 
 2 janitors, 10 hrs., at $2 4.00 
 
 1 machinist, 9 hrs., at $3 3.00 
 
 1 helper, 9 hrs., at $2 2.00 
 
 Total ....... ... . :...... $36.87 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 5, 
 the maximum h.p. of boiler per fireman per watch is 2,000. On 
 the day watch 8,600 lbs. of coal are gravity fed per fireman, on 
 the average. 
 
 The number of City pumping engines equivalent to the average 
 number of units in service is 8 ; the average equivalent number 
 of pumping engines per engineer per watch is 6 ; and the average 
 equivalent number of pumping engines per Qiler per watch- is 4. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1277 
 
 The actual daily payroll is $45.43, the corrected $59.03. The 
 average pay per man per day $2.52, per hr. 23 cts. The actual 
 engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll is 91.5. 
 
 Plant No. 6 does not run 24 hrs. One extra assistant shoveler, 
 two janitors and two oilers are added to give 24 hr. service. 
 
 Kirtland Street Station, Cleveland, Ohio, Municipal Plant. There 
 are eight 272.5 h.p, B. & W. water tube boilers, with superheaters 
 and chain grates, gravity fed. The total rated boiler horsepower 
 is 2,180, the average h.p. on the day watch is 1,140, and the load 
 factor is 52%. 
 
 There are two 875 h.p. 25,000,000 gal. vertical triplex pumps, 
 and three 585 h.p. 15,000,000 gal. horizontal compound pumps. 
 The total rated h.p. of the engine units is 3,505, the average h.p. 
 on the day watch is 1,820 and the load factor is 52%. One of 
 the 585 h.p. units is located in a separate building, on opposite 
 side of the boiler room from engine room in which the other four 
 units are located. 
 
 The work is done in 8-hr. shifts, the watchmen working 12 hrs. 
 The daily payroll follows : 
 
 4 firemen at $2.32 $ 9.28 
 
 6 firemen at $2 12.00 
 
 1 boiler cleaner at $2.56 2.56 
 
 1 boiler cleaner at $2 2.00 
 
 3 feed pump tenders at $2 6,00 
 
 Total for boiler room $31.84 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.03 6.03 
 
 1 asst. engineer at $4.11 4.11 
 
 2 operating engineers at $3.24 6.48 
 
 6 operating engineers at $3 18.00 
 
 2 clerks at $2.63 5.26 
 
 3 oilers at $2.16 6.48 
 
 3 oilers at $1.84 5.52 
 
 1 repair man at $2 2.00 
 
 1 janitor at $2.24 2.24 
 
 5 janitors at $1.76 8.80 
 
 1 pipe fitter at $3.52 3.52 
 
 1 pipe fitter helper at $2.24 2.24 
 
 1 machinist at $3.52 3.52 
 
 . 1 second machinist at $3.04 3.04 
 
 1 blacksmith at $3.04 3.04 
 
 2 blacksmith helpers at $2 2.00 
 
 2 watchmen at $2.64 5.28 
 
 $87.56 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per firemen per watch is 2, 
 and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 500. On the day watch 
 there are 1,400 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 5. The number of City 
 pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
 service is 7 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
 per engineer per watch is 2.1 ; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per oiler per watch is 3.-5. The ratio of the co.st 
 of coal to cost of labor is 0.90. The daily payroll is $119.42. 
 
127S MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The average pay per man per day is $2.49, per hr. is 31 cts. The 
 actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll is 15.2._ 
 
 North Point Station, Milwaukee, Wis., Municipal Plant. There 
 are six 125 h.p. horizontal tubular boilers with Hawley down 
 draught furnaces, flush front, hand fired, and three 150 h.p. hori- 
 zontal tubular boilers, with Hawley down draft furnaces, extension 
 front, hand fired. The total rated boiler h.p. is 1,200, the average 
 boiler h.p. on the day watch is 470, and the load factor is 39.1%. 
 
 The engine units are as follows: two 218 h.p, 8,000,000 gal., 
 vertical compound, condensing beam engines; one 327 h.p. 12,000,- 
 000 gal. Vertical Steeple compound, condensing engine, one 490 h.p., 
 18,000,000 gal. vertical triplex condensing engines; two 545 h.p. 
 20,000,000 ga,l. vertical triplex condensing engines, and one 561 h.p. 
 12,000,000 gal. vertical triplex condensing engine. The rated h.p. 
 of the total of the engine units is 2,904, the average h.p. on the 
 day watch is 994, and the load factor is 34.2%. There are two 
 separate boiler rooms, one on each side of the engine room. 
 
 The work is done in 8-hour shifts. The daily payroll follows : 
 
 6 firemen at $2.33 $14.00 
 
 3 coal passers at $2 : 6,00 
 
 1/2 coal weigher at $1.83 9 2 
 
 % coal trimmer at $1.67 83 
 
 $21.75 
 
 1 engineer in charge at $4.17 4.17 
 
 3 asst. engineers at $3.50 10.50 
 
 6 oilers at $2.33 14.00 
 
 1/2 machinist at $2.78 1.39 
 
 1/2 blacksmith at $2.50 1.25 
 
 1^ blacksmith helper at $2 1.00 
 
 1/2 carpenter at $2.33 1.67 
 
 2 janitors at $2 4.00 
 
 5 helpers, etc., at $2 10.00 
 
 $47.98 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 3, and 
 the maximum h.p. corresponding is 300. On the day watch there 
 are 855 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 7. The number of city 
 pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
 service is 4 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
 per engineer per month is 3 ; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per oiler per watch is 2. The ratio of the cost of 
 coal to cost of labor is 0.96. The daily payroll is $69.73. The 
 average pay per man per day is $2.40, per hr. is 30 cts. The actual 
 engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll is 14.3. 
 
 Peoria, Illinois, Pumping Station. Private Plant. There are six 
 150 h.p. Heine water tube boilers, with plain grates, hand fired, 
 and three 400 h.p., 7,000,000 gal., vertical compound condensing 
 pumping engines. The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 900 and of 
 the engines 1,200. The average h.p. on the day watch is 300 for 
 the boilers and 400 for the engines, the load factor being 33% 
 for both. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1279 
 
 The firemen work 9 hrs. and the assistant firemen 8 % hrs. ; all 
 others work 10 hrs. 
 
 3 firemen at $2 $ 6.00 
 
 1 asst. fireman (who washes boilers, cleans 
 
 filters, wheels ashes, etc.) at $1.83 1.83 
 
 1 coal passer at $1.75 1.75 
 
 $9.58 
 
 1 chief engineer at $3.89 3.89 
 
 2 asst. engineers at $2.50 , 5.00 
 
 1 machinist at $2.50 2.50 
 
 • 1 oiler and wiper at $1.83 1.83 
 
 I laborer at $1.75 1.75 
 
 $14.97 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 2 and 
 the maximum h.p. corresponding is 300. On the day watch there 
 are 1,833 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The number of city pumping engines equivalent to the average 
 number of units in service is ly^ ; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per engineer per watch is l\'z ; the average equiv- 
 alent number of pumping engines per oiler per watch is 4. The 
 ratio of the cost of coal to cost of labor is 1.08. The daily pay roll 
 is $24.55. The average pay per man per day is $2.23, per hour is 
 25 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 16.3. 
 
 Chicago City Pumping Station. Statistics of the eight major 
 pumping stations of Chicago are given below. In all cases the men 
 at the stations work 8 hrs. a day. 
 
 Chicago Avenue Pumping Station. There are six 250 h.p. Scotch 
 marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, gravity fed, 
 erected 1900 to 1904. There are two 235 h.p., 12,000,000 gals., 
 horizontal compound, Gaskill engines, piston speed 116 ft., 17.3 
 r.p.m., erected 1887; and three 4498 h.p., 25,000,000 gals., vertical 
 triple, Allis engines, speed of piston 488 ft., 61 r.p.m., erected 1904 
 to 1906. The total rated boiler h.p. is 1,500, and the engine h.p. 
 1,964. The average boiler h.p. under service is 1,000 and the engine 
 h.p, 1,380. The boiler load factor is 67%, and the engine load 
 factor 70%. 
 
 The daily pay roll follows : 
 
 II firemen at $2.96 $ 32.56 
 
 5 coal passers at $2.74 13.70 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 1 conveyor engineer at. $3. 29 3.29 
 
 $ 52.97 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 
 
 6 asst. engineers at $5.48 32.88 
 
 12 oilers at $2.96 35.52 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 1 well tender at $2.74 2.74 
 
 5 laborers at $2.50 12.50 
 
 6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 ' 4.70 
 
 6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 
 
 12/7 machinist at $5 * 8.55 
 
 $109.21 
 
1280 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.1 
 and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 273. On the day watch 
 there are 1,130 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hr. per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 5. The number of city 
 pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
 service is 3.6 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
 per engineer per watch is 1.5 ; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per oiler per watch is 0.9. The ratio of the cost 
 of coal to cost of labor is 0.83, The daily pay roll is $162.18. The 
 average pay per man per day is $3.40, per hr. is 42.5 cts. The 
 actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 8.5. 
 
 Fourteenth Street Pumping Station. There are six 250 h.p. 
 Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, gravity 
 fed, erected in 1904, and three 200 h.p. B. & W. water tube boilers, 
 with Roney stokers, erected in 1898, but not now in use. 
 
 There are three 296 h.p., 15,000,000 gal. vertical, triple, Allis 
 engines, 159 ft. piston speed, 15.9 r.p.m., erected in 1891-92, and 
 one 592 h.p., 30,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, Lake Erie engine, 123 
 ft. piston speed, 19.3 r.p.m., erected in 1898. The total rated h.p. 
 of the boilers is 1,500 and of the engines is 1,480. The average 
 h.p. developed by the boilers is 1,000 and by the engines is 1,406, 
 the load factors being 67% for the boilers and 95% for the engines. 
 
 The daily pay roll is as follows : 
 
 4 coal passers at $2.96 $29.60 
 
 10 firemen at $2.74 10.96 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 1 conveyor engineer at $3.29 3.29 
 
 $47.27 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 
 
 3 asst, engineers at $5.48 16.44 
 
 13 oilers at $2.96 38.48 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 2 laborers at $2.50 5.00 
 
 6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 
 
 6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 
 
 6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 
 
 $81.22 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.2, 
 and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 300. On the day watch 
 there are 1,370 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city 
 pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
 service is 4.4; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
 per engineer per watch is 3.3 ; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per oiler per watch is 1.0. The ratio of the cost 
 of coal to cost of labor is 1.15. The daily pay roll is $128.49. The 
 average pay per man per day is $3.36. per hr. is 42 cts. The actual 
 engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 10.9. 
 
 Sixty -eighth Street Pumping Station. There are four 100 h.p, 
 and four 129 h.p. horizontal, tubular boilers with common grates, 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1281 
 
 hand flred, the former erected in 1898 and the latter in 1890 ; and 
 four 3 40 h.p. B. & W. water tube boilers with chain grates, gravity 
 fed. erected in 1906. 
 
 There are four 263 h.p., 12,000,000 gal. horizontal, compound, 
 Gaskill engines, 108 ft. piston speed, 16.2 r.p.m., erected 1886 to 
 1898, and one 263 h.p. 12.000,000 gal. horizontal compound, Wor- 
 thington engine, 96 ft. piston speed, 12 r.p.m., erected in 1890, and 
 one 308 h.p., 14,000,000 gal., horizontal, compound, Holly engine, 
 120 ft. piston speed, 18 r.p.m., erected 1898, and one 438 h.p., 20,- 
 000,000 gal., horizontal, compound. Snow engine, 305 ft. piston 
 speed, 43.5 r.p.m., erected 1906. The total rated h.p. of the bolters 
 is 2,276 and of the engines is 2,061. The average h.p. developed 
 by the boilers is 1,196 and by the engines is 1,700, the load factor 
 being 53% and 82% respectively. 
 
 The daily pay roll is as follows : 
 
 10 firemen at $2.96 $ 29.60 
 
 8 coal passers at .$2.74 21.92 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 6/7 crane engineer at $5.60 4.80 
 
 $ 59.74 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 
 
 3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 
 
 21 oilers at $2.96 62.16 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 1 well tender at $2.74 2.74 
 
 5 laborers at $2.50 12.50 
 
 1 rigger at $2.63 2.63 
 
 6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 
 
 6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 
 
 12/7 machinists at $5 8.55 
 
 6/7 machinist helper at $3.20 2.74 
 
 $124.78 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.8 
 and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 362. On the day watch 
 there are 590 lbs. of coal hand fired and 6,650 lbs. gravity fed per 
 hr. per fireman. 
 
 The total number of units is 7. The number of city pumping 
 engines equivalent to the average number of units in service is 
 5.6 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per engineer 
 per watch is 4.2 ; the average equivalent number of pumping en- 
 gines per oiler per watch is 0.6. The ratio of the cost of coal to 
 cost of labor is 0.82. The daily pay roll is $184.52. The average 
 pay per man per day is $3.23. per hour is 40.4 cts. The actual 
 engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 9.2. 
 
 Twenty-second Street Pumping Station. There are six 161 h.p., 
 horizontal, tubular boilers with Hawley down draught furnaces, 
 hand fired, erected 1884, and six 137 h.p., horizontal, tubular boilers 
 with Hawley down draft furnaces, hand fired, erected 189 4. 
 
 There are two 267 h.p., 15,000,000 gal., vertical, compound. Beam 
 Quintard, Corliss engines. 196 ft. piston speed, 9.8 r.p.m., erected 
 1876, and two 267 h.p., 15,000,000 gal., vertical, compound. Beam 
 
1282 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Quintard, Corliss engines, 187 ft. piston speed, 9.4 r.p.m., erected 
 1884. The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1,788 and of the. engines 
 is 1,068. The average h.p. developed by the boilers is 1,100 and by 
 the engines is 965, the load factor being 62% for the boilers and 
 90% for the engines. 
 
 The daily pay roll is as follows: 
 
 15 firemen at $2.96 $44.40 
 
 8 coal passers at $2.74 21.92 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 $69.74 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 
 
 3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 
 
 9 oilers at 2.96 26.64 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 1 laborer at $2.50 2.50 
 
 6/7 steamfltter at $5.50 4.70 
 
 6/7 steamfltter helper at $3.50 3.00 
 
 6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 
 
 $66.88 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.2 
 and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 220. On the day watch 
 there are 870 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city 
 pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
 service is 3.5 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
 per engineer per watch is 2.6; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per oiler per watch is 0.9. The ratio of the cost 
 of coal to cost of labor is 1.04. The daily pay roll is $136.62. The 
 average pay per man per day is $3.28, per hour is 41 cts. The 
 actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 7.1. 
 
 Lake View Pumping Station. There are two 210 h.p. Scotch 
 marine boilers erected in 1897, but not now in use. and four 250 h.p. 
 Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, hand 
 fired, erected in 1906. 
 
 There is one 90 h.p., 5,000,000 gal., horizontal, compound, Wor- 
 thington engine, 89.4 ft. piston speed, 14.9 r.p.m., erected in 1885, 
 and one 215 h.p., 12,000,000 gal., horizontal, compound, Gaskill en- 
 gine, 105 ft. piston speed, 17.3 r.p.m., erected in 1888, and one 234 
 h.p., 13,000,000 gal. horizontal compound Gaskill engine, 105 ft. pis- 
 ton speed, 17.3 r.p.m., erected 1891, and one 251 h.p., 14,000,000 gal. 
 horizontal, compound, Holly engine, 119 ft. piston speed, 17.8 r.p.m., 
 erected 1898, and one 450 h.p., 25,000.000 gal., vertical, triple, Allis 
 engine, 170 ft. piston speed, 25 r.p.m., erected 1909. 
 
 The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1.000 and of the engines is 
 1,240. The average h.p. developed by the boilers is 750 and by the 
 engines is 790, the load factors being 75% and 64% respectively. 
 
 The daily pay roll is as follows : 
 
 9 firemen at $2.96 $26.64 
 
 3 coal passers at $2.74 8.22 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 $38.28 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1283 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 
 
 3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 
 
 12 oilers at $2.96 35.52 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 I well tender at $2.74 2.74 
 
 1 laborer at $2.50 2.50 
 
 6/7 steamfitter at $5 4.70 
 
 6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 
 
 6/7 machinist helper at $3.20 2.74 
 
 $78.24 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1 and 
 the maximum h.p. corresponding is 250. On the day watch there 
 are 1,140 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 5. The number of city 
 pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
 service is 2.8 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
 per engineer per watch is 2.1 ; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per oiler per watch is 0.7. The ratio of the cost 
 of coal to cost of labor is 0.77. The daily pay roll is $116.52. The 
 average pay per man per day is $3.37, per hr. is 42 cts. The 
 actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 6.8. 
 
 Sprint) field Avenue Pumping Station. There are six 200 h.p. 
 Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, hand 
 fired, erected in 1900, and two 250 h.p. Scotch marine boilers, with 
 Hawley down draught furnaces, hand fired, erected in 1907. 
 
 There are three 420 h.p., 20,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, direct 
 acting, Worthington engines, 144 ft. piston speed, 17.6 r.p.m., erected 
 in 1900, and one 840 h.p., 40,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, direct 
 acting, Worthington engine, 170 ft. piston speed, 16.7 r.p.m., erected 
 in 1906. 
 
 The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1,700 and of the engines is 
 2,100. The average h.p. developed by the boilers is 900 and by 
 the engines is 1,442, the load factors being 53% and 69% re- 
 spectively. 
 
 The daily pay roll is as follows : 
 
 12 firemen at $2.96 $35.52 
 
 7 coal passers at $2.74 19.18 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 6/7 hoist engineer at $5.60 4.80 
 
 $62.92 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 
 
 3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 
 
 13 oilers at $2.96 38.48 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 3 laborers at $2.50 7.50 
 
 6/7 .steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 
 
 6/7 steamfitter heli)er at $3.50 3.00 
 
 6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 
 
 $83.72 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1 and 
 the maximum h.p. corresponding is 225. On the day watch there 
 are 1,190 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 
 
1284 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city 
 pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
 service is 5.2 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines _ 
 per engineer per watch is 3.9 ; the average equivalent number of 
 pumping engines per oiler per watch is 1.2 The ratio of the cost 
 of coal to cost of labor is 0.9. The daily pay roll is $146.64 The 
 average pay per man per day is $3.30, per hour is 41 cts. The 
 actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 9.8. 
 
 Central Park Avenue Pumping Station. There are six- 200 h.p. 
 and two 250 h.p. Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught 
 furnaces, hand fired, the former erected in 1899 and the latter 
 in 1907. 
 
 There are three 405 h.p., 20,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, direct 
 acting, Worthington engines, 144 ft. piston speed, 17.6 r.p.m., 
 erected in 1900-01, and one 810 h.p., 40,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, 
 direct acting, Worthington engine, 170 ft. piston speed, 16.7 r.p.m., 
 erected in 1906. 
 
 The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1,700 and of the engines is 
 2,025. The average h.p. develot)ed by the boilers is 1,100 and by 
 the engines 1,380, the load factors being 65% and 68% respectively. 
 
 The daily pay roll is as follows : 
 
 13 firemen at $2.96 $38.48 
 
 4 coal passers at $2.74 10.96 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 1 conveyor engineer at $3.29 3.29 
 
 $56.15 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 $ 6.85 
 
 3 assistant engineers at $5.48 16.44 
 
 12 oilers at $2.96 35.52 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 3 laborers at $2.50 7.50 
 
 6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 
 
 6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 
 
 6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 
 
 $80.76 
 
 The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.2, 
 and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 254. On the day watch 
 there are 1,062 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city pump- 
 ing engines equivalent to the average number of units in service 
 is 5.2 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per en- 
 gineer per watch is 3.9 ; the average equivalent number of pump- 
 ing engines per oiler per watch is 1.3 The ratio of the cost of 
 coal to cost of labor is 0.92. The daily pay roll is $136.91. The 
 average pay per man per day is $3.29, per hour is 41 cts. The 
 actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 10.1. 
 
 Harrison Street Puynpiny Station. There are two 340 h.p. B. & 
 W. water tube boilers, with chain grates, hand fed to hopper, 
 erected in 1906. There are tv/o 282 h.p., 15,000,000 gal., vertical, 
 triple, Allis engines, 159 ft. piston speed, 15.9 r.p.m., erected in 1889. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1285 
 
 The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 680 and of the engines is 
 564, The average h.p. developed by the boilers Is 340 and by the 
 engines is 628, the load factors being 50% and 111% respectively. 
 
 The daily pay roll is as follows : 
 
 / 
 
 3 firemen at $2.96 $ 8.88 
 
 3 coal passers at $2,74 8.22 
 
 1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 
 
 $20.52 
 
 1 chief engineer at $6.85 $ 6.85 
 
 3 assistant engineers at $5.48 16.44 
 
 6 oilers at $2.96 17.76 
 
 1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 
 
 1 well tender at $2.74 2.74 
 
 6/7 steainfitter at $5.50 4.70 
 
 6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 
 
 6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 
 
 $58.24 
 
 . The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1 and 
 the maximum h.p. corresponding is 340. On the day watch there 
 are 2,160 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hour per fireman. 
 
 The total number of engine units is 2. The number of city pump- 
 ing engines equivalent to the average number of units in service 
 is 2.3 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per 
 engineer per watch is 1.7; the average equivalent number of pump- 
 ing engines per oiler per watch is 1.15. The ratio of the cost of 
 coal to cost of labor is 0.73. The daily pay roll is $78.76. The 
 average pay per man per day is $3.65, per hr. is 4 6 cts. The actual 
 engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 8. 
 
 Tests and Operating Costs of Two Oil-Fuel Pumping Plants. 
 These notes were published in Engineering News, Aug. 20, 1908, 
 and are from plants at Wrentham and Wareham, Mass. 
 
 The Wrentham plant includes 5.64 miles of 6, 8 and 10-in. cast- 
 iron mains and 0.32 miles of 2-ln. with steel standpipe, 30 ft. in 
 diam. by 50 ft. high with adjacent oil-fuel pumping plant. The 
 entire works cost about $50,000. The supply is from 2.5-in. tubular 
 wells tapping a sandy, waterbearing, gravel stratum. The flow 
 is such that the whole group of wells flows naturally when un- 
 capped 1 ft. above the ground. The pumping station contains one 
 room 25 by 36 ft. Inside. The elevation of the floor being 5 ft. 
 below ground level, the well water nearly floods the suction chamber 
 of the pump. The equipment consisted of a 25 h.p., 12 by 12 in., 
 two stroke cycle, horizontal, crude-oil engine (Mietz & Weiss), 
 with a fuel oil tank and air compressor for starting. To this was 
 geared an 8 by 10 in. Smith-Vaile pump, with actual ordinary use 
 capacity of 250 U. S. gals, per min. at 90 r.p.m., against 130 lb. 
 per sq. in. pressure. The test,- of which the summary was given 
 above, was made on Wednesday, March 4, 1908, under normal daily 
 conditions of pumr)ing, using ordinary fuel weighing 7.5 lbs. per 
 gal. and costing about 5.75 cts. per gal. delivered at the pumping 
 station, 1,5 miles from the freight station. 
 
1286 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The works at Wareham include 5.4 miles of 6, 8 and 10-in. cast- 
 iron mains, 34 fire hydrants, a steel stand-pipe 20 ft, by 100 ft. 
 high and a double unit oil-fuel-engine pumping plant in the village 
 of Tihonet. The supply is from 2.5 in. tubular wells, the combined 
 yield of six of which during a steam-pumping test covering 85.5 
 continuous hrs, was at the rate of 315,000 gals, per day. The 
 pumping station building is almost exactly like that at Wrentham. 
 
 TABLE3 XXXV. SUMMARY OF TEST ON OIL FUEL PUMPING 
 PLANTS. WRENTHAM AND WAREHAM, MASS. 
 
 *Wrentham , fWareham ^ 
 
 Single unit North unit South unit 
 
 Length test hours 6 3.5 3.5 
 
 Total No. revolutions.. 14,616 8,460 8,063 
 
 Average r.p.m 40.6 40.3 38.4 
 
 Average capacity pump 
 
 gals, per min 262.28 260.34 248.06 
 
 Total gals, pumped 94,419.36 54,651.6 52,087.0 
 
 Lbs. per cu. ft. at 48 
 
 and 49 deg. F 62.41 62.40 62.40 
 
 Average pressure, lbs. 
 
 per sq. in., pumped 
 
 against 77.625 102.0 102.0 
 
 Average vacuum, ins... 13.2 10.9 10.5 
 
 Total equivalent height, 
 
 corrected 197.88 249.86 249.33 
 
 Equivalent pressure for 
 
 total height, lbs. per 
 
 sq. in 85.88 108.44 108.21 
 
 Total work ; pump ; ft.- 
 
 Ibs 155,888,912 133,915,544 108,339,314 
 
 Average pump, h.p 13.122 16.44 15.63 
 
 Hp.-hrs. developed at 
 
 pump 78.732 57.54 54.71 
 
 Total lbs. fuel oil 153.25 98.0 92.0 
 
 Lbs. fuel oil per h.p.-hr., 
 
 based on h.p. at pump 
 
 end 1.95 1.70 1.70 
 
 Cost pumping 1,000 
 
 gals., cents 2.06 1.67 1.65 
 
 Cost raising 1,000,000 
 
 gals. 1 ft., cents 10.4 6.7 6.6 
 
 * Wrentham test made under normal conditions. 
 t Wareljam test made with force-main stop gate throttled to in- 
 crease work done by engine. 
 
 TABLE XXXVI. RECORD OF PERFORMANCE. WAREHAM 
 AND WRENTHAM, OIL-FUEL, PUMPING PLANTS. (May, 
 1908.) 
 
 * Wrentham * Wareham 
 plant plant 
 
 Days operated 20 27 
 
 Days idle 11 4 
 
 Average pumping period 3 hrs., 34 mins. 2 hrs., 38 mins. 
 
 Total gals, pumped; basis of 1% slip. 1,132,968 1,106,268 
 
 Population supplied , 900 1,000 
 
 Average daily consumption, gals, per 
 
 capita 41 36 
 
 ♦ Both plants operating under normal daily conditions, 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING , 1287 
 
 Average per cent, of superintendent's 
 and engineer's time at pumping sta., 
 on basis of 9 hr. day, including Sun- 
 days 30.9 43.1 
 
 Gals, fuel for pumping 258 269 
 
 Gals, fuel for warming up 26 33 
 
 Gals, fuel chargeable to month 284 302 
 
 Cost of fuel oil $17.04 $21.14 
 
 Gals, lubricating oil 3.0 4.3 
 
 Gals, cylinder oil 2.5 0.5 
 
 Average pressure, lbs. per sq. in., 
 
 pumped against 88.7 64.5 
 
 Average ins. vacuum, suction main.. ;■ 12.6 10.2 
 Total equivalent height of lift, includ- 
 ing correction for gage heights 221.76 162.52 
 
 Average gals, pumped per gal. fuel 
 
 used in pumping alone 4,400 4,110 
 
 Average gals, pumped per gal. fuel, 
 
 all uses 4,000 3,660 
 
 Average duty per 100 lbs. fuel for 
 
 pumping alone 72,000,000 66,000,000 
 
 Average duty per 100 lbs. fuel, all uses 65,000,000 59,000,000 
 
 Average pump, h.p 9.55 9.2 
 
 The pumping outfit consists of duplicate 25 h.p., 12 by 12 in. 
 two-stroke cycle, horizontal crude-oil (Mietz & Weiss) engines, 
 connected to two 8 by 10 in. vertical, triplex pumps (Sraith-Vaile), 
 A test on both units was made on April 21, 1908, using ordinary 
 fuel oil weighing 7.5 lbs. per gal. and costing about 7 cts. per gal. 
 delivered at the station. 
 
 Cost of a 64-h. p. Gasoline Pumping Plant and Pumping. P. E. 
 Harroun in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil En- 
 gineers, March, 1905, gives the following on the cost of a gasoline 
 pumping plant for the water-works of Porterville, Cal., a city of 
 2,000 population: 
 
 Two gasoline engines : 
 
 Two gasoline engines, each 32 h.p $2,860 
 
 Hauling and placing on foundations 90 
 
 Two belt tighteners 76 
 
 Framing and placing same 22 
 
 Fittings, foundation bolts, tubes, etc 48 
 
 Labor, lining up, adjusting, etc., 30 cts. per hr. . . 38 
 
 Belting 141 
 
 Miscellaneous 11 
 
 Cost of two engines in place $3,286 
 
 Two pumps : 
 
 Two 9 X 12-in. single acting triijlex pumps. ... $2,816 
 
 Hauling and placing on foundations 170 
 
 Foundation bolts, tubes and setting same 42 
 
 Special castings 372 
 
 Pipe, flanges and bolts 248 
 
 Valves 160 
 
 Fittings, gaskets, miscellaneous and blacksmithing 134 
 
 Labor connecting up 100- 
 
 Ejector, pipe fittings and connecting up 38 
 
 Cost of two pumps $4,080 
 
1288 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 This makes the combined cost of engines and pumi3S, exclusive 
 of concrete foundations, $7,366. 
 
 The cost of pumping with this plant into a stand-pipe was as 
 follows, in the month of May, 1904: 
 
 1,700 gals, crude Coalinga oil, at 4 cts $68.00 
 
 22 gals, engine oil, at 50 cts 11.00 
 
 5 gals, engine gasoline, at 30 cts 1.50 
 
 25 gals, pump oil, at 50 cts 12.50 
 
 8 lbs. pump gear compounds, at 25 cts 2.00 
 
 20 lbs. waste, at 10 cts 2.00 
 
 % time of superintendent 50.00 
 
 Full time of assistant superintendent 65.00 
 
 Total per month $212.00 
 
 During this month the pumps raised 12,678,000 gals, a height of 
 164 ft. ; the pumps actually pumped 458 hrs. This makes the cost 
 a trifle more than 10 cts. per million gallons raised 1 ft. high. 
 There were 1,200 consumers who used 340 gals, per capita. The 
 crude oil weighs 7.25 lbs. per gal., and develops 19,600 B.t.u. per 
 gal. The best performance of the plant, extending over several 
 days, has been 1.43 pints of crude oil per horse-power-hour. The 
 combined efficiency of the pump and belting was 70%, so that 1 
 pint of crude oil developed about 1 b.h.p. per hr. Half of the 
 superintendent's time is charged to the plant and half to the office 
 expense of the water-works system. 
 
 Cost of Pumping with Gasoline and Cheaper Fuels Compared. 
 C. R. Knowles (Engineering and Contracting, Mai'ch 1, 1916), 
 states that on the Illinois Central railroad in order to utilize the 
 existing equipment many of the gasoline engines now in service 
 have been converted to kerosene and distillate engines by the 
 addition of attachments for pre-heating the oil to or near the 
 flashing point before the oil enters the cylinder. These attachments 
 consist of generators or mixing chambers wherein the oil is heated 
 by the exhaust of the engine. They are made in various sizes and 
 types, both for throttling and for hit and miss governors. With 
 these attachments the engine is generally started on gasoline and 
 is allowed to run on this fuel until the cylinder and generator are 
 heated, when the oil is cut in. On other types a retort is pro- 
 vided where the oil is converted into a vapor or gas by heating the 
 retort with a blow torch. Either method requires from flve to 
 ten minutes to start an engine running on oil. Electric ignition is 
 used, as with gasoline engines. Very little carbon trouble is ex- 
 perienced with the use of these attachments and the lubrication 
 required is about the same as with a gasoline engine. 
 
 A series of tests as recorded in the table of various fuels was 
 made, pumping a total head of 61 ft., with an 8xl0-in. single 
 cylinder double acting pump direct connected to a 6-h.p. four-cycle 
 horizontal gasoline engine equipped to run on kerosene and distil- 
 lates as well as gasoline, controlled by a throttling governor. This 
 engine was one of the first gasoline engines ever equipped to 
 operate on low grade oils and has been continually operated on 
 distillates from 36 degs. to 42 degs. Baume for the past six years. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1289 
 
 t> t- 1— ,H T-i o o o hCtoioo 
 
 
 ri oj rt 
 
 
 !-i Sh ;^ 
 
 
 0) <i> a; 
 
 
 ft aa 
 
 
 a as 
 
 Ul 
 
 (D Q> dJ 
 
 a 
 
 
 H 
 
 KiSdSa 
 
 Id 
 
 t? O^ o 
 
 fe 
 
 -^£^S2 
 
 g 
 
 S^g^^ 
 
 ^ ■- ^ ri C! 
 
 3 S3 
 
 ^ 
 
 XJ ^X2 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 ^XJJIJ'X^ 
 
 13 
 
 03 72 M W K 
 
 sJ :^ 03 03 rt 
 
 [iH^^P^^ 
 
 «ll ^a) 'UJ ^0 ^<U 
 
 asass 
 
 S;3 13 3 3 
 
 cd o3 c^ rt ri 
 
 WMPQMW 
 
 3 _g ra oj ., a 
 3 -rj^S o o o 
 
 O) CO T-HOOiM 
 
 •^ fOOStr-oOrHrHOO qj-cCOO 
 
 0) CO OJUS 
 
 C3 rt<TH^ OO^SiMO . • in ITS O 
 
 d) aioiusoooooo W)„^5s, 
 
 22 tCi^iHCOtdo ' ' °^i-ItHi-I 
 
 0) iH 
 
 <M 00 (M vf, 
 
 oiMcooo-^coiHO^oi-^cq 
 
 Jii Tt-^ia '^i CO rH O O) 12 ZL Ij 
 
 :;3 i-iojco ooooQ 
 
 OT 5D lO r-5 Co' lO O 
 
 Q 
 
 ©a, «^t, t. t.S 
 
 <U (ij a; !- - Ih 
 
 ^<H -0) o o o a 
 M _ aa 
 
 .Sja^33oooo 
 
 t^ tn 2 
 
 ri o3 rt 
 u b ;h 
 
 (D O) (U 
 
 aaa 
 
 aaa 
 
 <U OJ 4) 
 
1290 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The distillate is the most economical of the fuels used. The cost 
 per water horse-power being 53% of the cost of pumping with kero- 
 sene, and only 27% of the cost of pumping with gasoline. The high 
 cost of alcohol eliminates it as a fuel for pumping water and the 
 result of the test is merely submitted as a comparative feature. 
 No doubt better results could have been obtained by reducing the 
 area of the combustion chamber as more compression is required 
 to secure economical results from the use of alcohol in internal 
 combustion engines. The power obtained from the use of kero- 
 sene was practically the same as from the distillate, the only dif- 
 ference being in the price of the two fuels. The gasoline test shows 
 such results as might be obtained from the average gasoline engine 
 under the same conditions. The fuel known as motor spirits, which 
 has been widely advertised as a substitute for gasoline, operates 
 under practically the same conditions as gasoline. An objection- 
 able feature of this oil is a disagreeable odor and it would perhaps 
 be undesirable to use in certain localities. 
 
 Cost of Diesel Engine Pumping in a Municipal Water Works. 
 H. H. Gochnauer (Engineering Record, June 3, 1916), states that 
 Diesel oil engines, operated for the year ended April 1, 1916, fur- 
 nished power for the municipal water supply of Appleton, Wis., a 
 city of 18,000 inhabitants, at an average fuel cost of $2.82 per mil- 
 lion gallons of water pumped against a head of 185 ft. The instal- 
 lation consists of two 225-brake horsepower, three-cylinder, four- 
 stroke cycle (Busch-Sulzer Bros.) Diesel oil engines, located op- 
 posite and parallel to each other in such a manner that their air 
 compressors can be belted to either unit. Each engine is directly 
 
 TABLE XXXVIII. YEARLY COST OP DIESEL ENGINE 
 OPERATION (1915-6) 
 
 Cost per 
 
 million 
 
 Fuel oil : Total cost gallons 
 
 44,610 gal. at 3.6 cts. per gal $1,605*96 $2.82 
 
 Lubricating oil : 
 
 Cylinder, 559.50 gal. at 30 ct $167.85 
 
 Air compress, 33.23 gal. at 30 ct 9.97 
 
 Engine, 109.46 gal. at 20 ct 21.89 
 
 Kerosene, 80.53 gal. at 8ct 6.44 .36 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Chief engineer $1,350.00 
 
 Three assistant engineers 2,340.00 6.48 
 
 Materials : 
 
 Miscellaneous supplies and expenses (heat- 
 ing, telephone, stationery, printing, 
 
 packing, etc.) $887.95 
 
 Maintenance of engines (repair exhaust 
 
 pipe) 22.64 
 
 Maintenance of pumps 215.95 1.98 
 
 Total operating cost $6,628.65 $11.64 
 
 Note. — A break in the strainer system of the filter plant caused 
 sand to be admitted into the cylinders of the pumps. One cylinder 
 was so badly cut that it was necessary to reline it. The cost of 
 this repair and the expressage on same constitute the pump main- 
 tenance. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1291 
 
 connected to two Deane double-acting triplex pumps of 2,000,000 gal. 
 capacity each, located one on each end of the engine shaft. The 
 total capacity of one unit, 4,000,000 gals., is sufficient for the city's 
 fire protection. By running the two units alternately, one each 
 week, one unit is always in reserve. 
 
 Table XXXVIII gives the cost of operation of the Appleton pump- 
 ing station from April 1, 1915, to April 1, 1916. 
 
 Concrete Muffler and Operating Cost of a Small Diesel Engine 
 Pumping Plant. Deep-well pumps, a lighting system and com- 
 mercial motors are supplied in the village of Downer's Grove, 111., 
 by a municipal electric plant consisting of two horizontal two- 
 cycle 120-h.p. Snow Diesel engines. To cut down the noise of the 
 exhaust the original mufflers were replaced by large reinforced- 
 concrete mufflers designed by H. A. Gardiner, superintendent. They 
 have conical roofs and a steel stack projecting 3 ft. above the top. 
 The outside diameter is 8 ft. and the height 10 ft. The structure 
 rests on six concrete piles, because if set on a solid foundation the 
 ground in the vicinity starts vibrating in harmony with the exhaust. 
 The size of the mufflers was determined by the piston displacement 
 and scavenger air volume per stroke. The exhaust enters at the 
 bottom and on the side, where a circular brickwork makes the gases 
 whirl about the center of the muffler. This circular motion has a 
 tendency to pull a vacuum behind the gases. On top of the brick- 
 work forming the first stage is a system of grate bars, and on top 
 of these are ordinary brick in loose layers which act as a baffle to 
 break up the noise of the exhaust. On top of this is a fine wire 
 screen with a layer of crushed stone to further break up the report. 
 The conical-shaped top is merely to keep out the rain. A connec- 
 tion to the sewer is made to drain the interior condensation. 
 
 In order to keep the concrete from getting too hot when running 
 continuously under heavy load, a .5-in. pipe is tapped into the 
 exhaust pipe just outside of the muffler. Water is thus carried into 
 the muffler as steam and keeps the temperature down. Frequently 
 an accumulation of carbon in the muffler will catch fire, but it is 
 allowed to burn out until the concrete begins to get too hot, when 
 water is turned on full in the small pipe to put out the fire. This 
 process makes the muffler self-cleaning. The mufflers are so ef- 
 fective that the exhaust cannot be heard or any vibration of the 
 air or ground felt when standing immediately beside them. 
 
 When both engines are running their intakes exhaust about 4000 
 cu. ft. of air per minute from the room. After the installation was 
 made it was found to be practically impossible to keep the engine 
 room warm enough in winter. This was ingeniously overcome by 
 making an air intake to the room and at the same time utilizing 
 a portion of the waste heat of the exhaust. The iron exhaust pipe 
 on one side of the station was bricked in, leaving about a 6-in. 
 space around the pipe and with the outer end of the brickwork 
 open. The inner end of this brickwork opens into the floor of 
 the engine room near the intake ports of the engine. The air is 
 thus drawn in over the hot exhaust pipe. The advantage is two- 
 
1292 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 fold — the warmed air produces a better mixture for the cylinders 
 and gives the needed warmth for the engine room. 
 
 The exhaust pipe from the other engine is carried through the 
 oil-tank room and the whole room is used as an intake flue for the 
 engine. Incidentally this heat in the oil-tank room keeps the oil 
 in good shape in the coldest weather. 
 
 Water Supply Provided by Deep Wells 
 
 The village water requirements are supplied from two deep wells, 
 and in order that the pumping could be done entirely by electrical 
 means a spcial type of deep-well pump, manufactured by the 
 Deming Company, was used. These two deep-well pumps are belt 
 driven by 15-h.p. variable-speed motors. These were the first 
 pumps of the kind to be installed and their operation is considered 
 very satisfactory. During peak load on the electric system the 
 deep-well pumps are slowed down to the bare requirements of the 
 system. They discharge into a 60',000-gal. cistern from which ^the 
 water is supplied under 60-lb. pressure to the mains and stand- 
 pipe by two centrifugal, two-stage, 350-gal.-per-minute pumps, 
 driven by 20-h.p. variable-speed motors, which are also slowed down 
 during peak-load periods. 
 
 Scalped oil is purchased in 10,000-gal. lots from the Texas Com- 
 pany and stored in the 12,000-gal. tank in the station. The average 
 fuel cost for the year 1915, placed in the tank at Downer's Grove, 
 was 2.94 cents per gallon. The average cost of oil at the switch- 
 board for the same period, including that used in trial runs, testing 
 out, tuning up, etc., was 0.331 cent per kilowatt-hour. The oil 
 consumption was found on test to be 0.50 lb. of oil per brake horse- 
 power-hour full load ; 0.52 lb. of oil per brake horsepower-hour 
 three-quarters load, and 0.60 lb. of oil per brake horsepower-hour 
 one-half load, for oil having a heat value of 19,000 B.t.u. per pound. 
 The over-all efficiency of the station is above 30 per cent. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Pumping Water by Steam and Producer 
 Gas in a IVlunicipa! Pumping Plant. Thomas E. Butterfield 
 (Power, May 2, 1911), has given the following figures for the 
 municipal plant of Haddonfield, N. J. The water is taken from 
 four artesian wells about 220 ft. deep. From each well a 6-in. 
 branch leads to a 12 -in. main extending from the well field to a 
 water-tight concrete cistern 20 ft. in diameter and 42 ft. deep, the 
 12-in. main extending about 30 ft. down into this cistern, water 
 being siphoned out of the wells as soon as the pumps lower the 
 water level in the cistern. 
 
 Table XXXIX gives the daily expense with a rate of pumping of 
 1,000,000 gals, per day. 
 
 In making the comparison, data from steam pumping plants of 
 similar size have been utilized to determine the cost of operation. 
 The actual prices bid for a steam plant were used in determining 
 the charges for interest, depreciation, sinking fund, etc. It should 
 be understood, however, that the figures given do not represent the 
 cost of operating the whole system because, with the exception of 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1293 
 
 TABLE XXXIX. COST OF PUMPING BY STEAM AND GAS 
 
 Producer 
 
 Steam gas 
 
 plant plant 
 Interest on cost of building and contents for one day, 
 
 rate 41/2% $ 2.20 % 2.85 
 
 Daily average charge for repairs and maintenance. . . 0.35 0.41 
 
 Daily debit to sinking fund, interest at 4%, based 
 
 on complete renewal in forty years 0.48 0.68 
 
 Daily cost of operation : 
 
 (a) Labor: two men, 12 hours each, at $80 and 
 
 $75 per month 5.10 5.10 
 
 (&) Fuel at $3.50 per ton 9.45 2.13 
 
 (c) Oil 0.20 0.25 
 
 (fZ) Waste 0.02 0.02 
 
 (e) Light (oil) 0.10 0.10 
 
 .(/) Miscellaneous 0.20 0.20 
 
 Total daily expense $18.10 $11.74 
 
 Estimated cost of pumping 1000 gallons water by steam 1.81 cts. 
 Estimated cost of pumping 1000 gallons water by gas. . 1.17 cts. 
 Estimated saving per 1,000,000 gallons water pumped. . . . $6.36 
 
 the building and contents, no charges are made for interest, main- 
 tenance, depreciation and sinking fund for the general system. 
 Office expenses, improvements, etc., are likewise not included, as 
 these charges would remain the same with either gas or steam as 
 the source of power. The cost of constructing the gas-power plant 
 as compared with a steam plant of similar size, however, has been 
 taken into consideration. 
 
 Cost of Installing and Operating Pumps in a Small Waterworks. 
 W. E. Housman (Engineering News, May 7. 1914), gives the fol- 
 lowing comparative costs of installing and operating 3 pumping 
 units. 
 
 TWO 10-IN. SIMPLE DUPLEX STEAM PUMPS 
 
 Two pumps, delivered and erected $ 3,200 
 
 Foundationes 350 
 
 Two 80-hp. return-tubular boilers bricked-in and erected on 
 
 foundations with steel stacks 2,220 
 
 One 150-hp. feed heater and two feed pumps 450 
 
 Steam and exhaust piping, covered and erected 850 
 
 Brick building (27 x 58 ft.) 3,700 
 
 Total $10,770 
 
 TWO TANDEM-COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM PUMPS 
 
 In this estimate the increased cost of the pump is about offset 
 by the decreased boiler caiiacity required and the build- 
 ing would be the same, hence the estimate of $10,770 
 
 TWO 600-GAL. TRIPLEX PUMPS 
 
 Two pumps with motor and starting apparatus $4,300 
 
 Foundations 550 
 
 Wiring and erection 500 
 
 Building (30 x 26 ft.) 1,400 
 
 Total $6,750 
 
1294 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TWO 600-GAL. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 
 
 Two pumps with motor and starting apparatus $2,100 
 
 Founda-tions 250 
 
 Wiring and erection 400 
 
 Building (24 x 28 ft.) 1,200 
 
 Total $4,250 
 
 To obtain the coal required, the assumed steam consumption 
 multiplied by the hydraulic h.p. and divided by 34.5 gives the boiler- 
 h.p.-load. With a 4.5-lb. (per boiler h.p.-hr.) rate and a liberal 
 amount for banking the estimated figures result. This coal rate 
 is excessive for a large and very good plant using good coal ; it 
 should be increased for a poor plant and poor coal but may be 
 decreased for very good coal. Moreover, the steam consumption 
 given would be materially increased for old pumps in bad repair 
 or units with poorly adjusted valves. 
 
 ESTIMATED OPERATING CHARGES FOR SMALL. WATER WORKS PUMP 
 INSTALLATIONS. 
 
 Duplex Centrif- 
 
 steam pump Triplex ugal 
 Efficiency of pump, per cent, (not includ- 
 ing 10% slip loss, etc.) : 
 
 Pumping into mains 60 47 
 
 Pumping into standpipe 47 62 
 
 Steam, lbs. per water h.p. (includ. 10% 
 slip loss, etc.) : 
 
 Pumping into mains 80 
 
 Pumping into standpipe 60 ..... 
 
 Cost of installation : 
 
 Pumping into mains $10,770 $6,750 $4,250 
 
 Pumping into standpipe 10,770 6,750 4,250 
 
 Cost per year of electric current at 3% 
 cts. per kw-hr. : 
 
 Pumping into mains 8,380 5,351 
 
 Pumping into standpipe 4,190 4,843 
 
 Cost per year of coal at $2.50 per ton: 
 
 Pumping into mains 1,506 
 
 Pumping into standpipe 1,369 ..... 
 
 Interest and depreciation at 12%%: 
 
 Pumping into mains 1,346 844 531 
 
 Pumping into standpipe 1,243 844 531 
 
 Oil, waste and repairs 215 135 65 
 
 Total yearly charge : 
 
 Pumping into mains 3,067 9,359 5,947 
 
 Pumping into standpipe 2,827 5,169 5,439 
 
 A Water Pumping Diagram. Frank Richards (Compressed Air, 
 May, 1913), gives the diagram here presented, which may be found 
 convenient for ready reference in water pumping comparisons or 
 in preliminary estimates of pumping requirements. It represents 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1295 
 
 throughout the theoretical h.p., or 100% efficiency, in pumping dif- 
 ferent numbers of gals per min. to different heights, up to 1,000 ft. 
 The weight of the gallon being taken as 8.34 lbs. the statement 
 would be: Number of gallons per minute, multiplied by 8.34 
 
 
 L Jl_ / / \ ^\ / -^ / ^'' y ^' -^^ 
 
 
 ■ 7 ^ / /^\^ ^ /^ ^^ y - ^" 
 
 
 ' ' t 1 i V X ^ ^ ^^ ^^ 
 
 
 t T~ / / / / / /y' .^ .^ 
 
 
 1 1 / / A / / y ,y --" . .-. _^^ 
 
 
 ■| 1 ^ /jL3^_^ -^^^ ^ ^-^ ^^ 
 
 ko 
 
 " 1 7 / / ^ / / ^ J^ ^^ ^^ lE" 
 
 
 i r7 / / 7 j^ ^_^-^ z. ^/'^ ^-^ ^^^ 
 
 M.- 
 
 "I W ^/^^z.i/ ^^ ^-^ 
 
 
 \ 1 )iYV AAX\ y /T UH ^fT 
 
 «o- 
 
 ■--^t-^7 7/zi-^y^^ ^-^ ^^-' 
 
 
 " 22l~Sl/^^^^^ ^^ ii-^" 
 
 
 az^!/z/^:z^ ^-" ^-s[s:!;_ 
 
 5«0- 
 
 fby^vz/^y^ -^ -^^^^ 
 
 JM- 
 
 
 
 HJf//y/y ''^ ^j^. H^ -rll 
 
 
 \}//////^y ^ ' ^ ' ■ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1^^^ 1 1 i • _J_ --; 
 
 • MORSE POWER 
 
 Fig. 2. Theoretical diagram of power required for lifting water. 
 
 pounds, multiplied by height of lift in feet, divided by 33,000 ft. -lbs., 
 equals h.p. 
 
 Thus 500 gals, x 8.34 x 800 ft. of lift ^ 33,000 = 101 h.p., as shown 
 on the diagram. 
 
 Efficiency Test of an Air Lift Pump. In testing a Talbot air 
 lift pump in Camden, N. J., L. T. Edwards (Engineering and Con- 
 tracting, Aug. 9, 1916), states that the air was measured with a 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 1 
 
 '-100-^ 
 -90 u 
 -60^ 
 
 -.60^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7/1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^■ 
 
 O^ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 ^60- 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 
 <> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^0^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 -- 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 fi^^ 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^45- 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 LlH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■«-3 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 n 
 
 ^-> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 "•^ 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 -30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 no 290 310 330 350 370 390 
 Gallons Per Minute 
 
 Fig. 3. Diagram of air lift pump efficiency. 
 
o 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 5 I" 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 >J 
 
 .s 
 
 0) 
 
 p. 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 tJ 
 
 
 ^ "^ 
 
 
 
 as 
 
 < 
 
 
 63 
 
 42.8 
 
 3.22 
 
 5.40 
 
 59.6 
 
 62 
 
 43.9 
 
 3.56 
 
 6.54 
 
 54.-2 
 
 1296 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 General Electric air flow meter, and the water was measured by 
 pumping- into a 1,000-gal, tank for an interval of time measured 
 with stop wa'tches. The accompanying curves were plotted from 
 the table. The normal output of the well was about 300 gals, per 
 minute and the efficiency at this point was very nearly 60%. This 
 efRciency is over all from the steam end of the compressor. Fif- 
 teen per cent, was added to the theoretical air horsepower to allow 
 for friction. The curves show that when the well is forced beyond 
 the normal output, the efficiency falls off rapidly. This is due to 
 the increase of water friction with the higher velocity and to the 
 decreased submergence. 
 
 The following data relate to the well and the test : Depth of 
 well, 120 ft. ; diameter, 8 ins. ; surface to foot-piece, 106 ft. ; foot- 
 piece to point of discharge, 115.5 ft. ; eductilon pipe, 5 ins. ; air 
 pipe, 1.25 ins. 
 
 oj fl « ^ ^ .5- 
 
 ^B ^ ^ ^ . ^. 
 
 O O M Ph O 
 
 50 300 31.5 35.3 .166 
 
 60 322 31.0 35.5 .186 
 
 100 392 27.5 37.5 .255 55 52.0 4.55 11.30 40.2 
 
 Cost of Pumping Machinery and Reservoirs for Small Water 
 Works. W. S. Johnson (Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 30, 
 1914), gives the cost of several small pumping plants of municipally 
 owned water works in Massachusetts. 
 
 The cost of buildings for this machinery is given in the chapter 
 on Buildings. 
 
 The costs of distributing reservoirs for these plants are given in 
 Table XLI. 
 
 Cost of Pumping at Scranton, Pa. The total pumpage of the 
 Maiden Creek pumping station of Scranton, Pa., for one year was 
 2,259,191,840 gals., without allowance for slip. The station is 
 equipped with Worthington and Allis-Chalmers pumping machinery. 
 Bituminous coal costing $2.65 per gross ton delivered was used and 
 6,022,100 lbs. were consumed during the year. The wood used cost 
 ?3.50 per cord, and an amount equivalent to 1,800 lbs. of coal was 
 used. The average static head against which the pumps worked 
 was 212.6 ft., and the average dynamic head was 291.8 ft. The 
 number of gals, pumped per pound of equivalent coal was 375. The 
 total cost of maintaining the pumping station was $13,301.91, or 
 $5.89 per million gals, pumped, or 2 cts. per million gals, raised 
 1 ft. (dynamic). The principal items in the station expenses were 
 Coal, $7,129.83; oiling and packing, $1,010.73; firing boilers, $967 
 running engines, $907.54 ; unloading and stacking coal, $601.76 
 superintendence and general work, $528.43 ; oil and grease, $603.86 
 tools and supplies, $354.70; watching, $300.74. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1297 
 
 m ^ OOOW50U50 OOOO0U5OOOO 
 
 Q^Q C'OCOt-IOOiH U5lJaOOOC3 0CCOOO<M 
 
 ^j a r-i o CO oi o CO as c<i cc c<i o TT oc c-i c^ M (j> 
 
 mO^ (MOOtDOOioos'^ti wusot-cvioji-iT-ii-ioo 
 
 0?^i-l tH r-lT-lrHTHrHr-lT-l 
 
 _, ooOincooO'LO •"^ot^ooiapicor-i-* 
 "^ ifloc-ooooin r-i eo irt o o r~ ■* «o <M 00 
 
 
 BuBt 
 
 (OOCOWtDlOrHCCIi-l 
 
 o 2 
 
 ^ o g,S g,S o g S o o o S o o o g,o a 
 .S addadaaa&c.ji!^ciiic2.d Gd 
 
 oow)t-oinioou5U50o»rio»«mu5inio»oo 
 
 iH CI IM «■! eo tH T-l C^ -tf (M C-1 CO C^ ,-i IM rH 
 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 
 
 IM (M tH tH iM N r-l rH Cvl iH (M (M CJ (M IM tH t-I (M 
 
 00O<X)OO00ooOO00OOOO00O00 
 
 g. H X X M X X M X X kl X X X X M M M H 
 
 n. t- 00 -5t< oo 00 ifl o t^ oo t- 1- c~ 00 00 oo «D 00 «o 
 
 C<l M ^ iH IM <M tH iH "^l r-i C^ IM II<1 (M (M 
 
 I I I I 
 
 ((M 
 
 (MtH .r-H> . <M 
 
 
 
 
1298 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 . -r a l«mOOOU5li5OOOOOU5OOlflOl0 
 
 OOO'T "19^ ^SOQ en oo o «o oj r-i in «5 xfi t-^ c<5 -* o ■* oi 00 c<i 00 
 
 02 
 
 M 
 
 p^ 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 m 
 
 cc; 
 
 O 
 fa 
 mW 
 
 OH 
 
 S^ 
 S^ 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 I— I 
 
 Eh 
 
 * ♦ * 
 
 <MOxntC10Tt<<X>OOCOC<IOt-aiK5lrtrHO«0 
 
 •oTTOTi ■pniTnnT T-H-^iooeousc^t-cooor-sDOt^-ccirocooos 
 
 auiji+ t; t^uiivjj. oo^OfOOJU5lf50i<X'00 l>- O t-^'^,^'-! 00 O O in 
 
 SUipntOUl :jSOO io«oMO(M-;j<Ti5^ina5incoTjH"«ocD'*«o"N 
 
 <M 
 
 -unojjo;soo -o • -co . -c- • .^oot- . .«Doo«i 
 
 oooooooooooooooooo 
 oooooooooooooooooo 
 
 "SX'BS O^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^OO 
 'AllOVCl'BCi o"^olno"'*'-<^t^^oolftln^«^«^(^aln c<r-<*<"ca" 
 
 OMC<It-00TH050000m-i-IC--<*^C0C0T-ICC>-<*l 
 
 •UIBip '9ZIg 
 
 o 
 
 "MO 
 
 COt-I 
 
 oo 
 
 oin o 
 
 .tooooT-HOOoaooir-ooooo 
 
 "XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 
 
 
 5i5-So-55 
 
 o o 
 > > 
 
 
 ^ a ft a a ft a a a a a a 
 d a a a a'a a a a aa a 
 
 +j O C)^_>^_)4J+J^_l+J^_)^_J^_>+J^_) 
 
 mUijxnmmuimmmuimmm 
 
 O ? ,. 
 
 o! O 3 
 
 
 c U 
 
 o 
 o 
 ;c 
 o 
 
 % -^ 
 
 oSS 
 
 'r d d 
 
 rv o 
 
 
 7j <X) « 3 Gi d (D .ti ra o (<i cJ^ o ►l^ ^r k" hT 
 
 ^.:: " t. K (p ii '^ 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1299 
 
 Cost of Pumping at Two River Flusliing Stations, Milwaukee, 
 Wis. At Milwaukee, Wis., three rivers join and enter Lake Mich- 
 igan. Two of the rivers, the Milwaukee, which flows south parallel 
 to the lake shore, and the Kinnickinnic, which flows north and also 
 parallel to the lake shore, are constantly being flushed out by means 
 of pumping lake water into them some distance above their mouth. 
 The tunnels supplying the water from the lake are each 12 ft. in 
 diametei'. The Milwaukee tunnel is 2,5-34 ft. long and the Kinnic- 
 kinnic tunnel is 7.185 ft. long. The pumping plants are each of 
 the same capacity, rated at 500 cu. ft. per sec. 
 
 The Milwaukee river flushing station is located at the lake end 
 of the tunnel and is equipped with an E. P. Allis vertical tandem 
 screw pumping engine and four return tubular boilers, 54 ins. x 16 
 ft., with down draft furnace. 
 
 The Kinnickinnic pumping station is located at the river end 
 of the flushing tunnel. It is equipped with an Allis-Chalmers verti- 
 cal tandem screw pumping engine and two horizontal tubular 
 boilers, 72 ins. x 18 ft., with down draft furnaces. 
 
 The data on the operation of these plants for the year 1909 are 
 as follows : 
 
 Milwaukee Kinnick- 
 
 River innic River 
 
 Total million gals, displaced 114,306 90,519 
 
 Av. dynamic head pumped against, ft. 2.78 3.02 
 
 Av. steam pressure, lbs 95 140 
 
 Coal consumed when pumping, tons. . 2,207 1.694 
 
 Grade of coal, .screenings Youghiogheny Youghiogheny 
 
 Coal consumed per million foot, gals... 13.89 12.15 
 
 Ft.-lb.s. of work per 100 lbs. of coal 58.523.230 68,887.288 
 
 Coal used for starting fires, lbs 176.550 97.150 
 
 Coal used for all purposes, tons 2.295.7 1,742.8 
 
 Per cent, of ash 11.92 13.94 
 
 Cost of coal per ton $2,405 $2,265 
 
 Cost of operation : 
 
 Salaries $11,940.00 $13,732.17 
 
 Coal 6,653.76 4,877.53 
 
 Total cost $21,627.80 $19,542.52 
 
 Cost per million ft.-gals $0,068 $0,089 
 
 Cost of Pumping Water by Gasoline, Kerosene and Steam Pumps 
 for Railway Water Supply. 
 
 (Abstract of committee report at the annual convention of the 
 Association of Railway Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings.) 
 
 Chicago d Eastern Illinois R. R. A. S. Markley gives the follow- 
 ing results of tests made to determine the cost of pumping at 
 several of the water stations on this road. The results from the 
 steam plant are given merely for comparison. 
 
 Chicago & Northwestern Ry. The data in the table are given by 
 A. W. Merrick as showing the cost of pumping by gasoline power. 
 
 at. Louis & Southwestern Ry. J. S. Berry gives the co.st of pump- 
 ing as follows, using an 8-h.p., gear burr (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 
 combination outfit : 
 
1300 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Suction, size, ins 4 
 
 Suction, lift, ft 8 
 
 Discharg-e, horizontal, size, ins '. 4 
 
 Discharge, horizontal, distance, ft 100 
 
 Discharg'e, vertical, size, ins 4 
 
 Discharg-e, vertical, distance, ft 30 
 
 Cost — 
 
 Per 1,000 g-als., g-asoline $0.1700 
 
 Per 1.000 g-als., coal 0.0335 
 
 Per 1,000 g-als., labor 0.0420 
 
 Gasoline, per g-allon 0.1700 
 
 Coal, per ton 2.90 
 
 Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburg. The following data are 
 given by A. F. Miller : 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., gasoline. . $0.00625 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., coal 0.0125 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor, gaso- 
 line 0.02 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals, labor, coal. . 0.05 
 
 Cost of gasoline per gallon 0.10 
 
 Cost of cosil per ton 2.50 
 
 TABLE XLII. COST OF PUMPING WATER AT WATER 
 STATIONS CHICAGO & EASTERN ILLINOIS R. R. 
 
 Water station. Oxford. Winthrop. Tramms. 
 
 Date Oct., 1900 Oct., 1900 1901 
 
 Make of engine Stewart Stewart Stickney 
 
 Size of engine, ins 6x10 6x10 
 
 Make of pump Stewart Stewart Stickney 
 
 Size of pump, ins 6 x 10 5x10 
 
 Vertical section, ft 15 15 20 
 
 Horizontal suction, ft 30 30 15 
 
 Size of suction pipe, ins 4 4 6 
 
 Vertical discharge, ft 45 45 45 
 
 Horizontal discharge, ft 250 75 125 
 
 Size of discharge pipe, ins 4 4 6 
 
 Period of test 3 days 5 days 426 days 
 
 Fuel Pick-up coal Mine-run coal Gasoline 
 
 Amount of fuel (gals, or lbs.).. 760 1470 615 
 
 Water pumped, gals 47,620 125,093 4,836,000 
 
 Fuel per 1,000 gals, water (gal. 
 
 or lb.) 15.9 11.75 0.13 
 
 Cost of fuel (gal. or ton) $0.08 $1.80 $0.10 
 
 Wages of pumper, per month. . . . 17.50 17.50 10.00 
 Cost ignitor battery per 1,000 
 
 gals, water $0.0011 
 
 Cost of fuel per 1,000 gals, water $0.00638 $0.0106 $0,013 
 Cost of labor per 1,000 gals. 
 
 water $.0.0362 $0.0229 $0,028 
 
 Total cost per 1,000 gals, water. $0.04258 $0.0335 $0.0421 
 
 Kind of pump, size and h.p. : Combined gasoline, 8 -in. piston, 
 8-in. stroke, 5-h.p. Steam, 10x7x10 in. (Blake). 
 
 Suction, size and lift: Gasoline, 6-ft. suction, size 6 ins., 10 ft. 
 lift. Steam, suction 5 ins., increased to 6 ins. at pump, lift 12 ft., 
 distance horizontally 70 ft. 
 
 Discharge, horizontal distance and size: Gasoline, discharge 5 
 ins. increased to 6 ins. at pump, distance 35 ft. Steam, discharge 
 4 ins. increivsed to 6 ins. at pump, distance 50 ft, 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1301 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 U5 
 
 
 
 xiooooo 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 =^5 
 
 hs 
 
 
 
 ■*:i-rt*oo(M 
 
 
 Oi^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 lis 
 
 
 i«cco Ccoo 
 
 
 ■^'^ 
 
 
 fcS 
 
 o" 
 
 
 
 pi 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 o • • 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 
 d,„ • • • 
 
 
 
 J3iHOo 
 
 2 
 
 ti 
 
 M 
 
 so 
 
 2| 
 
 
 
 
 O Ct-<35t- 
 00K5O OOOiH 
 iH C^ O g O O O 
 
 H 
 
 H^ 
 
 
 >iO 
 
 
 
 r-T '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 e>- 
 
 "^ /15 CO C/3 C/D 
 
 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^a 
 
 O 
 
 ^S 
 
 
 
 00 •'-' 
 
 
 iS 
 
 
 
 5l««OrH 
 
 t 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 4S 
 
 
 
 oo o 5: 
 
 lO 
 
 j-t-Olt- 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 
 O'S'+JrC 
 
 cr 
 
 c 
 
 kH 
 
 
 '"' 
 
 h5 
 
 
 
 
 05 050 Cooo 
 «5 iri d t- d d d 
 
 M 
 
 L^ 
 
 
 
 U5 ... 
 
 (M 
 
 iH a)6e-e«-€«- 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'cS 
 
 
 is, 
 
 ,i4 
 
 J2 a-^'*<-*o.^<M T 
 
 d'-i • 
 
 '#0560 
 05NN 
 
 
 
 ■« 
 
 ^ 
 
 ."eo •«© OiHCQ 
 
 c 
 
 5 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T-l 
 
 JC t<^ US'* "^ 
 
 5- 
 
 
 "^cot- 
 
 1—1 ,_ 
 
 >>fl 
 
 
 0*^ 
 
 
 T-leo-* 
 
 S3 
 
 1^53 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^Ss 
 
 £J^ 
 
 •U5 THr-IIM 
 •1-1 OOO 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^-6 
 
 
 OQ^ 
 
 . 3 rHO^ 
 
 "d ddd 
 
 
 rH^ 
 
 .so 
 
 Nr- 
 
 '€«- €«-eo^e«- 
 
 «3 
 
 Ho 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 
 lO«DrH 
 
 Eh 
 
 r" != 
 
 
 o. 
 
 
 d-i 
 
 
 tHSDOO 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 C 
 
 g 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 • CO T-i-Moq 
 
 •CO OOO 
 
 "d ddd 
 
 ■6*3- €«-««-6e- 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 eo 
 
 -0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ . • 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (U . . 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d (X) <D 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^tete 
 
 Ah 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m'*" 
 
 
 
 J^ 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O bjoba 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 
 01 y 
 
 
 a 
 
 -d 
 
 o 
 
 OOO 
 thOO 
 
 o 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 - g t- a+j rt 
 
 
 o^'-ii-t 
 
 • sis 
 
 O O tW 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 o ^ 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 . fC 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 c 1 
 
 rc 
 
 ■3^ 
 
 tt3 
 
 Ol 
 
 
 
 
 r c 
 
 s2 ;: 
 
 o c o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 W 
 
 W 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 Q 
 
 ffiffih 
 
 ^ 
 
 OP. 
 
 OOH 
 
1302 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Discharge, vertical distance and size : Gasoline, discharge 6 Ins., 
 distance 35 ft. Steam, discharge 6 ins., distance 36 ft. 
 
 The difference in cost of labor per thousand gallons of water 
 between coal and gasoline is explained as lying in salary of pumper, 
 the man using coal receiving $33 per month and the man using 
 gasoline receiving $5 per month. 
 
 Lake Superior & Ishpeming Ry. The following data are given 
 by A. Anderson: 
 
 Total cost of pumping for 1907 : 
 
 Whiteflsh Blapneck 
 tank tank 
 
 Labor, pumping $117.08 $187.91 
 
 Keeping fire under tank 49.26 57.00 
 
 Coal for fire under tank 19.37 19.37 
 
 Gasoline 53.61 45.93 
 
 Oil and waste 4.62 6.26 
 
 Repairs to engine 48.59 72.59 
 
 Repairs, buildings or tanks . 36.67 169.39 
 
 Cost of all labor and material $329.20 $558.45 
 
 No. gals, water pumped during year 2,176,000 3,208,500 
 
 In explanation of these figures Mr. Anderson says the above 
 statement is a record kept of pumping and repair costs at two of 
 our principal water stations for the year 1907, and represents a 
 year's maintenance and operation.- The gasoline cost per 1,000 
 gals, of water is about $0.0187. A 3.5 h.p. gasoline engine was used 
 at Whiteflsh and a 2.5 h.p. at Slapneck. The pumps and engines 
 are located beneath tank. Fire is kept from about Nov. 1 to April 
 to keep engines, pumps and water from freezing, using ordinary 
 soft coal with station stoves, for this purpose. 
 
 Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. J. F. Parker gives the following 
 statement : 
 
 We do not use on this division either gasoline, kerosene or coal. 
 We have three plants where distillate is used and at the balance 
 of. our pumping plants we use oil for fuel. I have given you the 
 cost for one gas engine plant, also for one plant where crude oil 
 is used for fuel. The deep well pump and power head used at the 
 distillate plants is, I believe, machinery that is used only on the 
 Paciflc coast. 
 
 The cost at the station using distillate is given by Mr. Parker 
 as follows : 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., distillate. ... $.039 
 
 Cost of pumping water, per 1,000 gals., labor 015 
 
 Cost of distillate per gal 08 
 
 Kind of pump, size and horse power : Pomona deep well double- 
 plunger pump, with No. 18 power head, operated by 10 -h.p. West 
 Coast gasoline engine. 
 
 Suction, size and lift : 6-in. suction, 80-ft. lift. 
 
 Discharge, horizontal distance and size : 4-in. discharge, distance 
 600 ft. 
 
 Discharge, vertical distance and size : 4-in. discharge, distance 
 27 ft. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1303 
 
 TABLE XLIV. AVERAGE COST OF PUMPING WATER PER 
 100 GALLONS BY GASOLINE ENGINE POWER FOR SIX 
 MONTHS. AUG., 1902. TO JAN., 1903, INCLUSIVE (NOT 
 INCLUDING REPAIRS) 
 
 Consumption Consumption 
 
 C & N W under 500,000 gals. over 500,000 gals. 
 
 Ry. per month per month 
 
 Gals, per Cost per Gals per Cost per 
 
 Divisions month 1,000 gals. month 1,000 gals. 
 
 Galena 334.000 $.0760 1,532.000 $.0413 
 
 s;^r"^'" »«■»»» ■»=»» i5ji» s 
 
 Average $0.0824 $0.0323 
 
 Regarding the use of crude oil, Mr. Parker states: 
 Our pumping is done principally by steam pumps, using crude 
 oil for fuel at 25 cts. per barrel of 42 gals. With this oil we are 
 enabled to raise water 80 ft., including suction and discharge, at a 
 cost of $.0015 for the oil per 1,000 gals, of water pumped and $.015 
 for labor, or a total of $.0165. At this crude oil plant, Victorville, 
 we produced for the month 3,507,000 gals, of water at a cost of 
 $77.50 for fuel, labor and maintenance, or an average of $.022 per 
 1,000 gals, of water. 
 
 Northern Pacific Ry. F. Ingalls furnishes the following data, 
 where the cost of pumping with gasoline and coal are very nearly 
 equal : 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., gasoline ..$0.0333 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., coal 0.02 
 
 .Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor, gas 0.0225 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor, coal 0.039 
 
 COvSt of ga.soline per gal 0.15 
 
 Cost of coal per ton (lignite coal used) 1.25 
 
 Kind of pump, size and horse power: 5 x 12-in. pump in steam 
 plant. 20 h.p. gasoline engine, with Smith- Vaile deep well pump, 
 in gasoline plant. 
 
 Suction, size and lift: 6-in. suction, 800 ft. long, with 12-ft. 
 lift, in steam plant; 8-in. suction, 18-ft. lift, in gasoline plant. 
 
 Discharge, horizontal distance and size: 6-in. discharge, 100 ft. 
 long, in steam plant; 6-in. discharge, 125 ft. long, in gasoline plant. 
 
 Discharge, vertical distance and size: 6-in. discharge, 32 ft. to 
 bottom of tank in both plants. 
 
 Lake Erie & Western R. R. Penwell gives the following data : 
 
 " We have but few gasoline pumping stations. We have two 
 small plants that are not considered in this report that are very 
 expensive. My experience has -been that if a small supply is re- 
 quired there is but little economy in gasoline outfits, but where a 
 large supply is required we have found the gasoline economical. 
 We have but four gasoline pumping stations and no kerosene 
 plants." 
 
1304 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 The following table gives results of Mr. Penwell's tests : 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., gasoline ..,.$0,032 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., coal 0.057 
 
 Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor 0.012 
 
 Cost of gasoline per gal 0.11 
 
 Cost of coal per ton 2.50 
 
 Kind of pump, size and horse power : Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 
 Duplex, 10x7x12 in., steam plant. Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 8 x 12 
 in., in gasoline plant. 
 
 Suction, size and lift: 6-in. suction, 15-ft. lift. 
 
 Discharge, horizontal distance and size: 6-in. discharge, 3,600 
 ft. long. 
 
 Discharge, vertical distance and size : 6-in. discharge, 50 ft. long. 
 
 Total Fixed Charges and Operating Costs of Rotatory Pumps 
 Compared with Those of High-Duty, Vertical, Triple-Expansion 
 Type. The following figures based on estimates were prepared by 
 "Walter O. Beyer, and published in Engineering Record, June 15, 
 1912. 
 
 CAPACITY 8,000,000 GAL. DALLY 
 
 'c Vf-w ^t?ipfe-'- 491 w.h.p. steam- 
 
 . Item. exp^lsI-o'oToOO ^"5^Xy%hrle'??f ' 
 
 duty, three 125- ^^jj^' ^fi^jl^Jj^- 
 
 h.p. boilers. ^-P- toilers. 
 
 Cost pump, unit $72,000 $16,000 
 
 Int. and depr., 10% 7,200 1,600 
 
 Cost boilers 11,250 15,750 
 
 Int. and depr., 17% 1,915 2.680 
 
 Labor, 3 shifts, engines 2,700 2,700 
 
 Labor, 3 shifts, boilers 1,800 1,800 
 
 Total int., depr. and labor 13,615 8,780 
 
 Fuel cost, $2 per ton 7,467 10,700 
 
 Fuel cost, $3 per ton 11,129 16,100 
 
 Fuel cost, $4 per ton 14,934 21,400 
 
 Total annual cost, coal, at $2. . 21,082 19,480 
 
 Total annual cost, coal, at $3.. 24,744 24,880 
 
 Total annual cost, coal, at $4. . 28,549 30,180 
 
 CAPACITY 20,000,000 GAL, DAILY 
 
 280 ft. head vert. 981 w.h.p. steam- 
 c. & f-w., trip.- turbine centrifugal 
 
 Item. exp. 165,000.000 120,000.000 duty, 
 
 duty, three 225- three 300-h.p. 
 
 h.p. boilers. boilers. 
 
 Cost pump, unit $120,000 $26,000 
 
 Int. and depr., 10% 12,000 2 600 
 
 Cost boilers 20,250 27!000 
 
 Int. and depr., 17% 3,440 4,590 
 
 Labor, 3 shifts, engines 2,700 2,700 
 
 Labor, 3 shifts, boilers 1,800 1,800 
 
 Total int., depr. and labor .... 19,940 11,690 
 
 Fuel cost, $2 per ton 13,570 18,630 
 
 Fuel cost, $3 per ton 20.335 27,945 
 
 Fuel cost, $4 per ton 27,140 37.260 
 
 Total annual cost, coal, at $2. . 33,510 30,320 
 
 Total annual cost, coal, at $3. . 40,275 39,635 
 
 Total annual cost, coal at $4. . 47,080 48,950 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1305 
 
 CAPACITY 40,000,000 GAL. DAILY 
 
 300 ft. head 275 deg. 2120 w.h.p., 28.5- 
 
 superheat vert. in. vac. steam 
 
 200-Ib. steam pressure. c. & f-w., trip.- turbine, centrifu- 
 
 Item. exp. 223,000,000 gal, 193,000,000 
 
 duty, three 350- duty, three 400- 
 
 h.p. boilers. h.p. boilers. 
 
 Cost pump $210,000 $55,000 
 
 Int. and depr., 10% 21,000 5,500 
 
 Cost, boilers 31,500 36,000 
 
 Int. and depr., 17% 5,360 6,100 
 
 Labor, 3 shifts, engines 7,200 7,200 
 
 Labor, 3 shifts, boilers 5,320 5,320 
 
 Total int., depr. and labor 39,480 24,120 
 
 Fuel cost, coal, at $2 23,265 26,800 
 
 Fuel cost, coal, at $3 34,897 40.200 
 
 Fuel cost, coal, at $4 46,330 53,600 
 
 Total annual costs, coal, at $2. 62,475 50,920 
 
 Total annual costs, coal, at $3. 74,377 64.320 
 
 Total annual costs, coal, at $4. 85,810 77,720 
 
 The prices for pumping units are believed to be accurate and 
 include condensers, piping and foundations complete. 
 
 No account has been taken of the greater volume required in 
 the buildings for reciprocating units. However, the difference in 
 cost of foundations has been taken into account, because this is 
 an addition in existing buildings and can be computed easily. In a 
 comparison of this kind certain assumptions must necessarily be 
 made. All figures of first cost of apparatus have been taken from 
 or estimated from recent (1912) bids on the two types of machinery 
 under consideration. The first cost per boiler h.p. we have taken 
 to be $30 complete with piping, chimney, stokers, etc. The use of a 
 lower figure would favor the turbine-driven pump as compared 
 with the high-duty engine, but we believe with everything taken 
 into consideration this will prove to be an average figure. We have 
 assumed the following annual charges against pumping machinery: 
 Interest 5%; depreciation, 3%; repairs and supplies, 2%; total, 10%. 
 
 We have also assumed the following annual charges against the 
 boiler equipment : Interest, 5% ; depreciation, 5% ; repairs and sup- 
 plies, 5%; labor on maintenance, 2%; total, 17%. 
 
 It will be noted in the above that an annual depreciation of 3% 
 has been taken on the first cost of both the crank-and-flywheel and 
 turbine-driven unit, equivalent to a life of ZZ\'z years. We have 
 chosen this method rather than one in which the capital charges 
 are figured on a constantly decreasing book value for the pumping 
 machinery and boilers, in order to avoid a complicated method of 
 accounting. For the reason that less data are available on the life 
 of turbine-driven units than on crank-and-flywheel units, it is pos- 
 sible that some objection may be made to this assumption of a life 
 of 331/^ years for each machine. However, as in neither case the 
 question of obsolescence has been taken into account, we believe 
 the assumption a fair one. 
 
 It appears that the steam turbine has reached a stage of de- 
 velopment such that improvements will appear only as refinements 
 of type, and possibly steam economies can be reduced only suffl- 
 
1306 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ciently to render obsolete the present good designs by better theo- 
 retical design and by better steam conditions. The use of high 
 steam pressures and superheat may be expected to gradually obtain 
 further favor in this country as in European practice, where 250 
 degs. Fahr. superheat and 200 lbs. steam pressure are not unusual. 
 This, however, entails practically no change in turbines as con- 
 structed for present steam conditions. 
 
 Fuel costs are based on a boiler efficiency of 65% heat content 
 of 13,000 B.t.u. per pound of coal and 24 hrs. per day operation. 
 The duties given are on a basis of 150 lbs. steam pressure with no 
 superheat. Three examples are taken based on coal at $2, $3 and 
 $4 per ton. Where coal can be obtained cheaper than $2 per ton 
 the advantages of the turbine-driven pump are more clearly marked. 
 
 It will be noted that the point at which the total annual costs are 
 equal for the 8,000,00 0-gal. crank-and-fly wheel vertical unit, and the 
 8,000,000 gals, turbine, centrifugal unit is when coal costs $2.91 
 per ton. Also for the 20,000,000 gal. vertical crank-and-flywheel 
 unit, and the 20,000,000 gal. turbine centrifugal unit, the total 
 annual costs will be equal when coal costs $3.25 per ton. Above 
 these points the reciprocating unit has the advantage and below 
 these points the rotatory unit has the advantage on the basis of 
 these calculations. 
 
 We believe that it can be assumed safely that the development of 
 pumping machinery in the future will be along somewhat the same 
 lines as the development of power producing machinery. At the 
 present time one of the most noticeable features in the development 
 of power machinery is the increasing favor with which larger units 
 are being adopted. In large central station work five years ago 
 the ordinary size of unit was from 1,000 to 15,000 kws. Now, not 
 only in European practice, but also in American practice, 25,000 kw. 
 units are being installed in the large stations. There are two rea- 
 sons for this development, the first being the continual endeavor 
 to obtain better economy, not only in actual steam consumption, 
 but in capital charges, including first cost, buildings, real estate, 
 etc. The second reason for the development along this line comes 
 from the fact that engineers of to-day seem to have more initiative 
 than formerly and where before the development of a 15,000-kw. 
 turbine would have seemed an impossible task, now the installation 
 of 25,000-kw. turbines is becoming a matter of course. 
 
 We have assumed that there will be progress along this line in 
 water-works pumping machinery and that installations of very 
 large units will be made in the future. We have evolved a com- 
 parison between two units of the types under consideration, each 
 having a capacity of 40,000,000 gals, per 24 hrs., against a total 
 head of 300 ft. This comparison is based on utilizing the greatest 
 range of steam temperature which the best modern practice has 
 established as commercially practicable, and which at the same time 
 is not too intensely theoretical. We refer here to European prac- 
 tice in which steam pressures of 200 lbs., 275 degs. Fahr. super- 
 heat, and 28.5-in. vacuum are successfully and commercially util- 
 ized. Especially important in this connection is the item of high 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1307 
 
 vacuum, since in the case of waterworks large quantities of water 
 are always available for condensing purposes. 
 
 There is practically no development necessary on the turbine to 
 take advantage of these conditior>6, as the turbine of almost exactly 
 the same characteristics that would be necessary for this installa- 
 tion is now in successful operation in hundreds of power-producing 
 plants to-day. We have had to assume no steam consumption, as 
 this is a matter of test, and practically have had to assume no 
 pump efficiencies, as we have taken the minimum, which we know 
 can be obtained on this size pump. 
 
 It is apparent from these tables that the point at which the two 
 curves of overall economy of the two units cross is at a cost of 
 approximately $8.80 per ton for coal. 
 
 Cost of Operating a Small Municipal Pumping Plant. S. Scarth 
 (Power, May 2, 1911), states that Newark, N. Y., a small town of 
 about 6,000 inhabitants, has a direct-pressure system with a stand- 
 pipe located at the highest point in the village. Water is pumped 
 from a receiving basin fed by gravity from springs. The average 
 suction lift is 20 ft. and the discharge head averages 160 ft. 
 
 The pumping station contains two horizontal return tubular boil- 
 ers, 60 ins. by 16 ft. These are used alternately and are in fairly 
 good condition considering their age, 24 years, and are allowed 
 85 lbs. pressure by one of the leading boiler insurance companies. 
 
 The pumps are Worthington direct acting, one a compound 12 
 and 18% by 10^4 by 10 ins. in size and the other a simple 16 and 
 10^4 by 10 ins. (the latter is held in reserve for emergencies). 
 There is one boiler-feed pump 5% and 3i^ by 5 ins., delivering 
 water through a Baragwanath heater to the boilers at a tempera- 
 ture of 210 degs. 
 
 Operating an average of 10 hrs. out of the 24 and, being subject 
 to a fire call at any time, the plant has steam up with banked fires 
 during the other 14 hrs. The night engineer reads the service 
 meters monthly. Run-of-mine coal is used, which costs $2.95 per 
 ton delivered in the coal bin. 
 
 The cost of operating the station for the year ending Feb. 28, 
 1911, was as follows (not including interest and depreciation) : 
 
 310 tons coal at $2.95 $ 914.50 
 
 Oil and waste 11.50 
 
 Packing 13.25 
 
 Repairs 43.50 
 
 Engineer and assistant 1,083.50 
 
 $2,066.25 
 
 In the year 86,836,900 gals, of water against an average total 
 head of 180 ft. were delivered to the mains using 310 tons of coal. 
 This shows the duty of the plant to be slightly over 21,000,000 
 ft. -lbs. of work per 100 lbs. of coal. The cost of pumping was, 
 then, 2.379 cents per 1000 gals, delivered. 
 
 The water end of the pump showed an efficiency of 90%. 
 
 Cost of Oil Pumping in California. The following figures are 
 taken from Technical Paper No, 70, Bureau of Mines, entitled 
 
1308 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 " Methods of Oil Recovery in California," to which the reader is re- 
 ferred for more complete information on the methods pursued. 
 
 VOLUMES OF NATURAL GAS REQUIRED TO OPERATE A GAS ENGINE OR TO 
 SUPPLY A STEAM ENGINE PLANT USING GAS AS FUEL 
 
 UNDER BOILERS. (After H. F. Oliphant.) 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 per indicated 
 
 h.p.-hr. 
 
 Large gas engine, highest type 9 
 
 Ordinary gas engine 13 
 
 Triple-expansion condensing steam engine 16 
 
 Double-expansion condensing steam engine 20 
 
 Single-cylinder steam engine with cut-ff 40 
 
 Ordinary high -pressure steam engine without cut-off. ... 80 
 
 SteaiH engine ordinarily used for pumping oil wells 130 
 
 Methods of Generating and Distrihvting Power for Pumping Oil 
 in the California Oil Fields in 1913. The following data are given : 
 
 No. of wells 6,223 
 
 Flowing 217 
 
 Compressed air 247 
 
 Gas engines : 
 
 Beams 1,217 
 
 Jacks 1,042 
 
 Electricity : 
 
 Beams 559 
 
 Jacks 310 
 
 Steam : 
 
 Beams 2,095 
 
 Jacks 536 
 
 Data Relative to Cost of Well-Pumping Equipment. The follow- 
 ing data are given : 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS 800 -FT. GRAVITY OF OIL -|- 0.875 ( -j- 15 DEGS. B). 
 
 Santa Clara Valley District. (Data by W. R. Hamilton.) 
 Initial Cost of Installation. 
 Pumping power — 
 
 Station driving 17 wells, including cost of building, 20-h.p. 
 gas engine, simplex power, belt, piping, jerker lines, 
 labor — everything up to the derricks at the wells, but 
 not including pumping jacks at wells, tubing or rods. .$3,068.36 
 Cost per well 180.49 
 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
 
 Pumping. Cost, including wages of pumpers, all repairs and 
 replacements for power plants and jack lines, lubricating oils, etc., 
 but not including repairs to wells, depreciation of plants, or interest 
 on investment, varied from 30 to 55 cts. a day per well, depending 
 on the extent of the replacements necessary. An average for a 
 long period would be about 43 cts. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1309 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS 1,000 ± FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.965 (± 15° B. ) . 
 
 Kern River Field. 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
 Steam engines. 50.8 cts. per barrel. 
 Air compressor. 2.4 cts. per barrel. 
 
 Remarks. The difference in cost is due to the increased produc- 
 tion when compressed air is used. 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS 1,000 ± FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.9 65 (± 15° B. ) . 
 
 Kern River Field. 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
 Steam engines. 20.24 cts. per barrel. 
 
 Pumping power. (Driven by electric motor) 18.28 cts. per barrel. 
 Remarks. The daily production per well was about 20 bbls. 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS 1,000 ± FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.965 (±15° B. ) . 
 
 (Kern River Field. Data by C. T. Hutchinson.) 
 Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
 
 Air compressors. Three plants, one with a capacity of 4,000 
 cu. ft. of free air and two with a capacity of 2,000 cu. ft. of air, 
 $200,000. 
 
 Remarks. The first plant comprised two compressors each with 
 a capacity of 2,000 cu. ft. of free air. Each compressor had a 
 Corliss steam cylinder and twin-tandem air cylinders, and each 
 machine required 650 h.p. when developing a pressure of about 
 150 lbs. per sq. in. There were five .207-h.p. water-tube boilers, 
 one 75-kwt. electric-light plant, and two condensers. 
 
 Depth of Wells 1,000 ± Ft. Gravity of Oil 0.9722 (U° B.) 
 (Kern River Field, Data by Kern River Oil Fields.) 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance for 48 Wells. 
 Steam engines : 
 
 Labor 
 
 $0.36 
 
 Repairs '..'.'.'' 07 
 
 General expense '.......'...'....... 03 
 
 Fuel oil (assuming price of 30 cts. per baVrei) .* .' ." .* .' '. '. '. '. '. ,90 
 Water 50 
 
 Electric motors : 
 
 Labor $0.29 
 
 Repairs 07 
 
 General expense '........'..'.'........'... .03 
 
 Electric current !56 
 
 Daily cost per well $0.95 
 
 Depth of Wells 600 to 1,200 Ft. Gravity of Oil 0.9790 (13° B.). 
 (Midway Field. Data by R. S. Hazeltine for 12 wells in group.) 
 
 Initial Cost ayid Cost of Installation. 
 Electric motors : 
 
 New roof on engine houses $240.00 
 
 Eleven 15 to 5 horsepower motors,! 
 
 One 20 to 6 horsepower motor, V 6 670 00 
 
 Three 25-kilowatt transformers. 
 
1310 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ■ 
 
 Installation $3,500.00 
 
 Counterbalance for beams 300.00 
 
 Discarded steam engines 1,000.00 
 
 Total $11,710.00 
 
 Cost per well $975.83 
 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
 Steam engines : 
 
 Labor $409.50 
 
 Fuel oil 523.20 
 
 Water 697.00 
 
 Repairs to boilers and engines 88.44 
 
 Oil waste and packing 97.42 
 
 Total $1,815.56 
 
 Average daily cost per well $5.09 
 
 Electric motors : 
 
 Labor $432.70 
 
 Electric equipment 390.27 
 
 Fuel oil 156.20 
 
 Water 349.89 
 
 Repairs to boilers and engines 22.30 
 
 Oil waste and packing 62.54 
 
 Total $1,413.90 
 
 Average daily cost per well $3.85 
 
 Remarks. Boiler water was purchased at 5 cts. per barrel and 
 oil produced was contracted at 50 cts. per barrel. 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS 900 TO 1,200 FT. GRAVITY OF OIL 0.9655 (15° B. ) . 
 
 (Kern River Field. Data by A. G. Crites.) 
 Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
 Steam engines : 
 
 Corliss condensing engines, 320 and 420 h.p $69,050.93 
 
 Myers noncondensing cut-off engines 41,430.59 
 
 Electric motors : 
 
 Electric driven plant, 420-h.p 27,620.37 
 
 Gas engines : 
 
 Included under air compressors. 
 Air compressors : 
 
 One 320-h.p., driven by Buckeye gas engine pipe 
 
 lines, etc., complete 39,344.19 
 
 One 420-h.p., driven by Buckeye gas engine, complete 22,781.79 
 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
 Steam engines : 
 Corliss — 
 
 Interest for 1 year at 6% $ 4,143.05 
 
 Depreciation for 1 year at 10% 6,905.09 
 
 Labor, 4 men at $100 per month 4,800.00 
 
 Repairs and incidentals (estimated) 1,800.00 
 
 Fuel oil. 23,005 bbls. at 35 cts. per barrel 8,051.75 
 
 Total for 1 year $25,699.89 
 
 Myers — 
 
 Interest for 1 year at 6% " $ 2,485.83 
 
 Depreciation for 1 year at 10% 4,143.05 
 
 Labor, 4 men at $90 per month 4,320.00 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1311 
 
 Repairs and incidentals (estimated) $1,000.00 
 
 Fuel oil, 51,500 bbls. at 35 cts. per barrel 18,025.00 
 
 Total for 1 year $29,973.88 
 
 Gas engines : 
 
 Included under air compressors. 
 
 Electric motors : 
 
 Interest at 6% $ 1,657.22 
 
 Depreciation at 10% 2,762.03 
 
 Labor, 2 engines at $135 per month 3,240.00 
 
 Repairs and incidentals (estimated) 500.00 
 
 Power. 4,326,406 kw. at 1 ct. per kw , 43,264.06 
 
 Total for 1 year $51,423.31 
 
 Air compressors : 
 One 320 h.p. — 
 
 Interest for 10 months at 6% $1,967.21 
 
 Depreciation for 10 months at 10% 3,278.68 
 
 Labor — 
 
 One engineer, $150 per month 1,500.00 
 
 One engineer, $4.50 a day 1,363.50 
 
 Extra labor, repairs 82.00 
 
 Extra material for repairs 249.44 
 
 Oil, water, and incidentals 710.20 
 
 Total for 10 months 9,151.03 
 
 Remarks. Natural gas is recovered by the vacuum made by the 
 
 gas engines, its value not being considered therefore. 
 
 Cost of power per h.p.-hr. was 0.00478 in 1910, 0.00488 in 1911, 
 
 and 0.00260 in 1912. 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS 1.850 TO 2,000 FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.952 (±17° B. ) . 
 
 (Coalinga Field. Data by Thomas Cox.) 
 
 Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
 Gas engines : 
 
 Installation, ^as mains, traps, tail pumps, foundations, 
 
 engines proper, belting, and engine houses $1,260 
 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
 Steam engines : 
 
 Average total cost per well per month $270 
 
 Average total cost per well per day 9 
 
 Gas engines : 
 
 Three men per tour (12 hours) to 19 wells 33 
 
 Two repair men 21 
 
 Lubricating oil per well per month 6 
 
 Repairs, power, and attendance per well per month 60 
 
 Repairs, power, and attendance per well per day 2 
 
 Remarks. Thirty and 45 h.p. engines. Five-inch water pressure. 
 
 Magneto ignition. 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS 1,600 TO 2,500 FT. GRAVITY OF OIL 0.9589 (16° B. ) . 
 
 (Coalinga Field. Data by Thomas Crumpton.) 
 Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
 Steam engines : 
 
 One 23-h.p. engine complete $ 296.69 
 
 One 40-h.p. boiler 473.00 
 
1312 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Boiler connections $ 116.15 
 
 Engine house, 12 by 14 ft., bloclis, lumber, labor, etc.. . 66.80 
 
 Total % 952.64 
 
 Gas engines : 
 
 One 30-h.p. engine and connections $1,027.04 
 
 Engine house, 16 by 14 ft., cement foundation, including 
 
 labor 250.13 
 
 Total $1,277.17 
 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance, 
 Steam engines : 
 Operation — 
 
 2 pumpers, at $105 a month, for five engines $ 42.00 
 
 10 gals, of steam-engine oil, at 19 cts 1.90 
 
 14 gals, of cylinder oil, at 30 cts 4.20 
 
 180 bbls. of fuel oil for boiler for well 90.00 
 
 Haulage of lubricating oil (labor and horse) 1.00 
 
 Maintenance — 
 
 Labor and horse per month per well 3.10 
 
 Repairs of boilers per month per well 19.30 
 
 Average per well per month $161.50 
 
 Average per well per day $53.83 
 
 Gas engines : 
 Operation — 
 
 2 pumpers, at $105 per month, for 11 engines $19.09 
 
 13 gals, of engine oil, at 44 cents 5.72 
 
 4 gals, of engine oil, at 23 cents .92 
 
 Haulage of oil (labor and horse) 1.50 
 
 Maintenance : 
 
 Labor and horses, at $275 per month, for 50 engines 5.50 
 
 Repairs and renewals, at $88.95, for 50 engines, per 
 
 month 1.78 
 
 Average per well per month $34.51 
 
 Average per well per day $1.15 
 
 DEPTH OF WELLS, 2.745 FEET. GRAVITY OF OIL ±0.952 (±17°B.). 
 
 (Coalinga Field. Data by Thomas Cox.) 
 
 Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
 
 Steam engines : Per cent. 
 
 A. Individual steam plant for each two wells, using oil for 
 
 fuel 100 
 
 Gas engines : 
 
 B. Individual 30-h.p. gas engines 4-cycle type, magneto igni- 
 
 tion ; including gas mains and accessories 195 
 
 Electric motors : 
 
 C. Motor at each well, necessary transmission lines, trans- 
 
 formers, and receiving station; power purchased.... 100 
 
 D. Central plant with steam turbines, fired with fuel oil, 
 
 motor at each well 196 
 
 E. Central plant with steam turbines, fired with natural 
 
 gas, motor at each well 227 
 
 F. Central plant. Engine-type generators, driven directly 
 
 by gas engine. Electric motor at each well 264 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1313 
 
 Air compressors : 
 
 G. Central plant. Air compressors directly connected to gas 
 engines, using natural gas. Air distributed to each 
 well for operating steam engines 388 
 
 H. Central plant. Steam-driven air compressors, boilers 
 fired by natural gas. Air distributed to each well for 
 operating steam engines 393 
 
 I. Central plant. Steam-driven air compressors, boilers 
 fired with fuel oil. No gas lines. Air distributed to 
 each well for operating steam engines 337 
 
 Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
 Steam engines : Per cent 
 
 Comparative working cost of operation equipment A. . . . 100 
 Cost of operating steam plants, based on 100-month 
 wells, per well per month, one pumper per well : 
 
 Labor attendance $104.88 
 
 Fuel oil '. 105.47 
 
 Labor, scaling boilers 15.62 
 
 Repairs, material 9.57 
 
 Engine repairs 5.56 
 
 Lubricating oils 7.73 
 
 Boiler flues 4.00 
 
 Water 17.17 
 
 Per well per month $270.00 
 
 Per well per day , . . $9.00 
 
 Gas engines : 
 
 Comparative working cost of operating equipment B. . . 34 
 Pumping cost for 8 wells with two men in attendance 
 per month : 
 
 Labor, 2 men, at $3.50 per day $210 
 
 Lubricating oils, $7.50 per well 60 
 
 One-quarter of 2 repairmen, at $8.50 a day 66 
 
 Repairs and renewals 120 
 
 8 wells, per month $456 
 
 Per well per month 57 
 
 Per well per day 1.90 
 
 Electric motors : 
 
 Comparative working cost of operation : 
 
 Equipment C 80 
 
 Equipment D 61 
 
 Equipment E 50 
 
 Equipment P 44 
 
 Air compressors : ' 
 
 Comparative working cost of operation : 
 
 Equipment G 46 
 
 Equipment H 56 
 
 Equipment I 73 
 
 Remarks, Percentage costs are based on investment for equip- 
 ment necessary to operate 50 wells, pumping 100 bbls. a day per 
 well. Steam plants using fuel oil, and placed between each of two 
 wells, with 2-pump attendants to each two wells, are considered as 
 unity for basis of comparison. 
 
 The Thermal Efficiency of G.as Enc/ines of the Size and Charac- 
 ter Available for Use of the Oil Field averages between 20 to 30%, 
 such engines require from 8.5 to 13 cu. ft. of natural gas per 
 h.p.-hr. At certain wells 2,700 ft. deep with 30 h.p. four-cycle 
 
1314 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 type engines the hourly consumption of natural gas is about 4,000 
 cu. ft. when pumping at about 160 r.p.m. With oil producer gas 
 from 40 to 60 cu. ft. per h.p.-hr. are necessary and the yeld of gas 
 per lb. of oil will usually range from 50 to 70 cu. ft. 
 
 Cost of Pumping by Electric Power. The actual expenditure 
 of electric energy for pumping varies widely. The average used 
 in 71 wells, each about 1,600 ft. deep, over a period of time for 
 which records were kept, was 70.6 kw.-hrs. a day, which, at 1.5 
 ct. a kw.-hr.. made the daily cost for pumping per well a trifle over 
 $1.05. The deepest well, 2,692 ft, used about 90 kw.-hrs. daily. 
 
 In another instance the average for 2 months for 8 wells vary- 
 ing in depth from 1,000 to 2,800 ft. was 93 kw.-hrs. a day. In 
 another instance the average for 12 wells averaging 1,100 ft. in 
 depth, with oil of a specific gravity of 0.9622 (15.5 degs. B), was 
 71.5 kw.-hrs a day. The average for another group of 107 wells, 
 averaging 800 ft. in depth, with oil of 'a specific gravity of 0.9756 
 (13.5 degs. B.), was 57 kw.-hrs. a day. In another instance, with 
 58 wells pumped by three motor-driven jacks, the average per 
 well a day was 26.2 kw.-hrs. For another group of some 220 wells 
 operated by jacks, the cost of electric energy per well per month 
 varied from $6 to $14.40. 
 
 Electric power in the field is sold at varying prices, the common 
 figure being about 1.5 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 
 Cost of Pumping Water tor Irrigation Purposes. The following 
 data on pumping water have been taken fi'om Water Supply Paper 
 222, U. S. Geological Survey. In the district about Bakersfield, 
 Cal., 50 pumping plants are in use to develop irrigation water. 
 Half of these are electrically operated and belong to the Kern 
 County Land Co. E3ach of these plants is equipped with 30 or 40 
 h.p. motors direct connected with No. 8, 10 or 12 centrifugal pumps. 
 Each pump is connected with from three to five 13 -in. wells, the 
 number being determined by the yield of each well. Prom the 
 data collected on these wells, the following cost averages were 
 computed, on the basis of the quoted charge of 15 cts. per h.p. 
 per 24 hrs., for the electric power used: 
 
 Average depth to the water from the surface, ft. . . . 10 
 
 Average suction 20 ft. Average total lift, ft 30 
 
 Total yield of 25 plants, in se<i.-ft 100.34 
 
 Total h.p. consumed 860 
 
 Total cost per day to develop 100.34 sec. -ft, 860 h.p. 
 
 at 15 cts $129.00 
 
 Cost per sec.-ft. for 24 hrs $1.29 
 
 Cost per acre-ft. of water developed $0.65 
 
 The following data are for the cost of operation on a privately 
 owned steam plant, which has a particularly advantageous location : 
 
 Equipment: 30 h.p. steam engine. No. 12 centrifugal pump, 
 five 15-in. wells 40 ft. deep: 6 ft. to water, 15-ft. suction, 
 21 ft total lift: • » 
 
 Cost of crude oil (fuel) and lubricant for 24 hrs $2.25 
 
 Cost of labor 24 hrs 4.00 
 
 Total cost $6.25 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1315 
 
 Yield of plant in sec.-ft , 7 
 
 Cost per sec.-ft. for 24 hrs $0.89 
 
 Cost per acre-ft. of water developed $0.45 
 
 Neither of these estimates makes any allowance for interest on 
 investment in well and plant nor for deterioration, hence the costs 
 as given are somewhat too low. 
 
 Cost and Efficiency of Various Units In Irrigation Pumping In 
 California. Pumping for irrigation is of two principal classes: (1) 
 pumping from wells to utilize underground waters; (2), pumping 
 from streams or low level canals to canal systems at higher level. 
 Government investigations into the possibilities of pumping for 
 irrigation have been made largely with the first class of projects in 
 mind. These studies, though somewhat scattered, are the best 
 sources of information available to the general irrigator and are 
 summarized in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 30, and Nov. 22, 
 1911. 
 
 California Tests of 1905. These tests were made by the Office of 
 Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture, in the summer of 
 1905, and comprised 38 complete tests. 
 
 For the gasoline engine and steam engine driven plants the plant 
 efficiency is the ratio of the useful water h.p, to the indicated h.p. 
 For the electrically driven plants the plant eflniciency is the ratio 
 of the useful h.p. to the electrical h.p. 
 
 The final relation of fuel consumption to water lifted is expressed 
 as the number of gals, of oil or the number of k.w.-hrs. required 
 per useful water hp.-hr. In reducing this to actual cost the price 
 paid by the pump owner per gal. of gasoline per bbl. of crude oil 
 or per kw.-hr. has been used. The number of hrs. which each 
 plant runs per year, the cost of the plant and the cost of attendance 
 and repairs have each been obtained as accurately as possible. 
 From the nature of the case these items are somewhat uncertain. 
 The rate of depreciation of pumping plants varies through an 
 enormous range, being determined largely by the skill and care 
 of the attendant. Many plants are not insured at all. Averaging 
 all conditions found, the fallowing appears to be a fair estimate 
 of the rates suitable for use in computing the fixed charges of the 
 various types of plants : 
 
 Gasoline Engine Plants : Per cent 
 
 Depreciation 12 to 15 
 
 Interest 6 
 
 Taxes and insurance 1 
 
 Average total 20 
 
 Motor-Driven Plants : 
 
 Depreciation , 7 to 9 
 
 Interest •........ = 6 
 
 Taxes and insurance 1 
 
 Average total 15 
 
 Steam Plants of Ordinary Type : 
 
 Depreciation 9 to H 
 
1316 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Interest 6 
 
 Taxes and insurance 1 / 
 
 Average total 17 
 
 Highest quality steam plants — average 12 
 
 In the case of the larger steam plants that percentage has been 
 chosen for each individual case which seemed suitable to the special 
 conditions of the plant. These percentages are applied to the first 
 cost of the entire pumping station, including the cost of wells. 
 The latter of course varies greatly with the depth of the 
 wells. 
 
 The item of labor is also a ditflcult one to estimate. Some plants 
 employ an engineer during the whole year, and others only during 
 the pumping season Others have one man to look after several 
 plants and many plants have no attention whatever. 
 
 Gasoline Plants. Nine tests were made of gasoline engines run- 
 ning centrifugal pumps. The discharge varies between 0.328 cu. 
 ft. per sec, or 147 gals, per min , and 5.94 cu. ft. per sec, or 
 2,666 gals, per min. The lift varies from 11.3 ft. to 9 6.5 ft. The 
 pumps for lifts exceeding 90 ft. are compound centrifugals, all 
 others are single runner pumps. The useful water h.p. varies 
 from 1.65 to 30.9. The indicated h.p. varies from 5.64 to 63.1. 
 This covers a wide range and includes within its limits the ma- 
 jority of pumping plants in use for irrigation in California. 
 
 The plant efficiency varies irregularly. It depends somewhat 
 upon the condition of the gasoline engine, but probably chiefly 
 upon the arrangement and condition of the pump and piping. All 
 turns and obstructions in the piping, any variation in speed of the 
 pump from the speed most suitable to the discharge and lift, any 
 great length of discharge pipe, all tend to reduce seriously the 
 plant efficiency. To secure the best results the size and speed of 
 both pump and engine and all the connections and piping should 
 be carefully planned for the special conditions under which the 
 plant is to operate. In general the results indicate that the plant 
 efficiency should vary from about 30% for the smaller plants to 
 about 50% for the largest plants. Any unusual low value means 
 a continual loss to the owner of the plant during its operation, 
 due either to its careless handling or to its faulty design and 
 construction. 
 
 The amount of gasoline used per indicated h.p.-hr. varies rather 
 regularly from 0.154 gal. for the smallest plant to 0.100 gal. for 
 the largest. The amount of gasoline used per useful water h.p.-hr. 
 depends upon both the plant efficiency and the amount consumed 
 per indicated h.p.-hr. and hence is quite variable. The amount 
 of gasoline required per useful h.p.-hr. varies from about 0.5 gal. 
 for the smallest plant to 0.2 gal. for the largest plants. 
 
 The plant efficiency in deep well pumps in general may probably 
 be expected to surpass the efficiency of centrifugal "pumps. 
 
 The price of gasoline has been remarkably low (7% cts. per gal.) 
 in southern California, because of the fierce competition of oil 
 producers and refiners in that region. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1317 
 
 In other pumping localities 10 to 12 cts. a gal. is considered a 
 low price for gasoline. 
 
 On account of the great cost of wells, the total cost of plant 
 bears no direct relation to the capacity of the pumping plant. 
 
 In many cases the charge for attendance and repairs on gasoline 
 engines is merely nominal, but when there is a charge for at- 
 tendance it is of considerable importance in comparison with the 
 cost of gasoline. In nearly all the tests reported above the annual 
 fixed charges for interest, depreciation, and taxes, computed at 
 20% on the total first cost of the plant, far exceed the cost of 
 gasoline, attendance, and repairs per year. This relation evidently 
 depends upon the number of hours the pump runs per year. Since 
 in many cases the pumps are used to supplement natural stream 
 flow, the amount of use of the pumps fluctuates from year to year. 
 Hence the interest on the pumping plant is in the nature of insur- 
 ance on the crop, and it is scarcely fair to charge this item in its 
 entirety as cost of pumping. 
 
 Tables XLIVA, XLIVB and XLIVC give the results of the B 
 tests. The costs per ft-acre-ft. are obtained from the corresponding 
 items under the cost per useful water hp.-hr. by multiplymg by 
 1%. The costs per acre-ft. are obtained from the preceding col- 
 umns by multiplying in each case by the lift. These results are 
 interesting as showing what it is actually costing irrigators in 
 southern California to pump water. 
 
 Electrically Driven Pumps. The electrically operated pumps 
 tested had approximately the same range in size as the pumps 
 run by gasoline engines. 
 
 As a rule, the plant efficiency for the electrical pump is definitely 
 higher than for a corresponding plant operated by gasoline. This 
 is probably largely due to the fact that less energy is absorbed in 
 the motor than in a gasoline engine. There is less variation in 
 efficiency due to size of plant for an electrically operated plant 
 than for a gasoline plant. The plant efficiency of electrically 
 operated pumps should at least be as good as 40% for a pump of 
 5 useful water h.p. capacity, increasing to 55% for a pump with 
 capacity of 40 useful water h.p. 
 
 As compared with centrifugal pumps, tests show the screw 
 pump to be less efficient ; the deep well pumps to have about an 
 equal efficiency ; the triplex and rotary pumps to have somewhat 
 higher efficiencies, but no very conclusive statements can be based 
 on so few tests. 
 
 Under the best conditions the smallest plants require about 1.6 
 k.ws. per useful water h.p. and the largest 1.4 k.ws. All these 
 plants burn crude oil as fuel. The largest ones are very much larger 
 than any of the gasoline or electric plants tested, and hence not 
 strictly comparable with them. 
 
 For the plants using centrifugal pumps the plant efficiency does 
 not seem to differ definitely from the efficiency for gasoline or 
 electric plants. The plant efficiency of the plunger pumps is much 
 higher than for any other type, while for the air lift plants it is 
 very much lower. 
 
1318 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 m 
 
 
 CSi 
 
 02 ^ 
 
 I • 
 
 n, ■<*<ooooa5(MTHc5 0ioiom+Jhf) 
 
 3 JBe^ J9C[ 8UITOSBS lO ISOO T-ifo^cx>05Tt^«D^«D«Cfo o O 
 
 ^-l r ux • •'O 
 
 i - P= 
 
 H :^UBI{I JO iHoooooooooo^ m,-f^ 
 
 ^ COOOOCOOOoOOlO o C '-' 
 
 Z J lOOOO't'OOoOOUSfi-j. 
 
 g :^U'BI(J JO :jSOO IB^^OJ^ OT)^_TiH<MMinc^oio"=,"^ iJ 
 
 
 H ^1 Kl u 
 
 tj r,»^c3 < ^ /. T-fOOOOOOoOOO <\ <V (U 
 
 r< SIBS JBaA cooocooot-usot-Oi +j p, 
 
 M aad pasn auiiosBS Ib:^oj;, =^'=^<«.'*.°°.'-l<=^^=^''-i^.^ .c3+j 
 
 rj ' «> TjT,-! iH IM -"^i tjTn iH ra M 
 
 Q t^uTsid sanoq jo aaquinjsi: co «o co -*. ^ti oo oo o oi t- m ;: c • 
 
 c5 
 
 t>j STBS '1S91 Suuno t-a5 0oooe<it-^coin«DO 
 
 £ IBW 'peuinsuoD 9UIIOSBO S!!-°°-^-^— '^°^°^'^'^ ^..u 
 
 n ■• ^ ^ ^ .1 i-' o t- CO OS T-i e^ th Tt< i> -* r> twt-j^ 
 
 < ^ ^ ^^„ ^^_-g 
 
 S "^^-^ 
 
 S • • •a9AYOd9SJOq pg^BOipUT '^-^^'^^^'^'^^'^^ £S§ 
 
 T-ieOMCOiMM'^CCirHTH «(-if-(0 
 
 O dm- 
 
 J j9Aiod9saoq j9:^bav jnjgsfl '^ "^^ "^ ^ '^ '^ "^ '^ '^ '^ "^ id's 
 
 1-1 . ^-^ '■ 
 
 fq ^ '#ajffou5a50U5coou3M jl'-ii 
 
 <tJ -^J '^Jn "*"iHrH«Ot-^MCOOU3COO <U S" 1 
 
 rj •* «C tH OS O «D OS 05 U5 O OO ^■^0) 
 
 •SIBS 'UIUI agd 9SJ'BU0STQ ^ocDt-rHt-oooic^qous 
 
 •H CO « CO (X> W -<*< lO CC! T-1 tH 
 
 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1319 
 
 I- aB.JA UriU +SOJ IB+OJj oOlflOO . <3i tH M o -*< c- •«o ti P-tJ 
 
 ■j • rHrneO «0 rHT-l > +J +J 
 
 tf 
 
 fe 
 
 fq 
 
 «w 
 
 PL, *^ rH §5 --b 
 
 di TtJaX- t-'^'oo -oot-OO^ — •' •■' 
 
 
 P - -^ ' ^^: 
 
 ft 
 
 Q t^UBld co»aoo .ooirtooo -o Sth § 
 
 ' JO Ys-\o^ uo •:ju8o j8cI qt t-t--^u5 •r:^^?:v-t;?;if2 "~i orng^ 
 
 < u -'^ 
 
 ■O oooo'"^ooooo'O.Gt<^ 
 
 Ph :juBi(J JO :}soD i-b^oj, '-!'-''. «^.o •'^j=='y^yi,'^j=', "R, ^ 0,0 
 
 1-5 . ftc S 
 
 OOOo -OOOOOO 
 
 <u 
 
 jaci sanoq nBAVon^ ib^oj, n'^'^^. :V;%'^'Z:1^' '-Ta -^ c 
 
 M ;:; • ,-1 co-M 
 
 H 0) c » 
 iTppi/C larT cjTin T o'=>oo .ooooooo -o ° > 
 
 W -CO 
 
 (1| -< • 
 
 g s:):j'BAVOIIX oo '*. '^ im oo «o r-i eo s^i t> c-i s^i us iJ^^ 
 
 r ■> O <'^ «£> rH CO CO eO UJ «d ai 00 o tH g"o •> 
 
 o o 
 
 ►h • ■ • • j8A\.ocIasaoi[ lB^Ta:^o^I[g; ia^<=>.<^.«'^.'^.'-;^'^.'-;'>:'^ t: 
 
 (V* ' Tt< 5^ C~j US rH 1-1 r-i l> 00 CO ,-H Co' US ^ 
 
 rH rH 1-1 2^ Ifl CO 00 1- rHiHrHiH 
 
 4i;o' 
 
 ^ TH^ic^iJti eooo«ot^<x>u5K««-^ 
 
 «2 irjU5ooa5':*<^ci<Mcoi«iflc-t-.a;.rt 
 
 s-gS 
 
 K* . . . . ; laai 'ijirr O'^«>iHC0'*ai<MOOO00r-l +-'^0) 
 
 HH 4 J- +J-. 1 c^cio'od-Tt^ciodoococoKiocod £ "g 
 
 t-l 5O=^»^Oi<^J0CC0lX>«>C-00Oipj^" 
 
 > 
 
 CO = . T „ o^«ocoo'*t'T-H'*t-oeou5 ^^ iic<i 
 
 n ■ 'SI-BS ''UTUI J9(i aSjBHOSia cmC^cocociOIt-kmoicoi-icoo '.'?'-' 
 
 '^ ' ' co<^-'iococr>"*oo(MiHCOcocoeo Q. • a^ 
 
1320 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 XB^S. aad :jsoo xe^o;^ 
 
 • ooioin 
 
 . M lO O (M 
 
 •U5CO 05Cq 
 
 ,• a; 
 b '-' 
 '. rt 
 
 ft '. 
 
 jBa^ jad no pnj jo ;soo 
 
 J J'B8^ J8d SJIBCI8J 
 
 pLj pUB 80U'BpU8;:^B Jo' ^SOO 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 H 
 
 C 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 H 
 
 :^ 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 • .o • -o o 
 
 • .in • -co o 
 
 • .«D • -(30 rH 
 
 •oooin 
 
 ■iNOOC- 
 
 •ecusooin 
 
 oi 
 
 C,««- 
 
 ;U13l(J JO ;SOO IB^OJ, 
 
 siqq 'JBa^ aad 
 
 paiunsuoo no pnj i^^oj, 
 
 jBa^C aad sunj 
 
 :>UBid sjnoq jo jaquinjsE 
 
 ' "rH ■ 
 
 'tH 
 
 c<r ■ 
 
 VfrHrHTH 
 
 sll 
 
 69- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fn.-^ 
 
 • -O • 
 
 o 
 
 o • 
 
 •OOOO 
 
 2 > •- 
 
 . .(£, . 
 
 as 
 
 o • 
 
 •OOCOO 
 
 . .t> • 
 
 \a 
 
 <» • 
 
 • <» O W rt^^ 
 
 u o 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 ' "CO • 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 ' TjTcg rn'ircr 
 
 ^^•^ 
 
 6I9- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +->!«_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 So:;: 
 
 
 
 
 
 S^- o 
 
 . .o • 
 
 "* 
 
 O 
 
 •00U50 
 
 oo 
 
 . .o • 
 
 o 
 
 Tj< 
 
 .0»rtC^W5 
 
 . .W . 
 
 eo 
 
 o 
 
 . CD 00 IM C<I 
 
 
 
 
 
 'tH 
 
 '^ 
 
 l> 
 
 ■ «D rH U5 
 
 03- 
 
 
 
 
 S2"2^" 
 
 
 
 
 
 . .O • 
 
 tH 
 
 o • 
 
 •OOOO 
 
 d --ft 
 
 0) 
 
 . .o • 
 
 
 o • 
 
 •OOOO 
 
 . .o • 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 •OOIOO 
 
 ;inu5t>iA 
 
 "r-l 
 
 CO 
 
 \a 
 
 Iffl CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ „-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 a; g oj 
 
 . .o . 
 
 U3 
 
 o 
 
 •OOOO 
 
 .—1 c^ 
 
 . .CO . 
 
 <M 
 
 o 
 
 •oo^o 
 
 . .r^ . 
 
 CCI^ 
 
 o 
 
 . <x> t> '^^ c-a 
 
 . .o • 
 
 o 
 
 Ttn" * 
 
 •OOOO 
 
 
 •CO • 
 
 mu5l^5l^l 
 
 „ „ OOOT -* Ift C<J K5 U3 
 
 •sibS ';sai Suijnp ^ „• ic « a^ wV c^i 
 
 oot-oo ow?oaiC-t- 
 
 jaM.od8saoq pa^-eoipui ^-^^j^^ .«cDt^dt^eo«ci 
 
 eOfOOcOCO . CO -i-H tH O 1-1 .^ ^ CO 
 
 o-rfiT-icoooai«o«oojT-ioi>oc^ 
 
 iHTH-*OOt-»«Oa500iO MC<1 
 
 00 <55 05 10 ■<:*< 
 O 00 '*' -^ CO UO 00 t- •»*i 
 
 *^J Wn '^ Th 00' co' CO co'ai as j> t- -ot-^M 
 
 to a> iH tH rH T-t -<iJ<-^ .IrtOO-ti 
 
 aiusoooooiooooo 
 *■ • •■ •^-^ocicot-iooomooiMi:^'*' 
 
 •(MTj<'i< 
 
 •o^t- 
 .cooso 
 
 m C t4 
 O rt 0) 
 
 . c 
 
 /K, o 
 
 05 
 
 O) O 
 
 Oooo 
 
 (Ti 
 
 m "^ 
 
 
 '^ - 
 
 ;3 
 
 bxi'-i 
 
 -d 
 
 S° 
 
 
 ,C^ 
 
 
 <i> 
 
 <^ 
 
 3 
 -ri«H 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1321 
 
 The amount of crude oil consumed varies from over 0.8 gal. 
 per indicated h.p.-hr. for the smallest plant to a little over 0.2 
 gal. for the largest plants. For those using centrifugal pumps 
 the amount of crude oil used per useful water h.p.-hr. varies from 
 2.5 gals, for the smallest plant to "about 0.5 gal. for the most 
 economical plants. A comparison with gasoline engines of corre- 
 sponding size shows that at least four times as much crude oil 
 is required when burned under a steam boiler as is needed of 
 gasoline when used in an internal combustion engine. When steam 
 plants run intermittently, considerable fuel is required in getting 
 up steam preparatory to starting the plant, so it is probable that 
 in such cases the actual performance of the plants required more 
 fuel in proportion to the work done than is shown in the tests. 
 
 Conclusions. A comparison of the results obtained with centri- 
 fugal pumps using gasoline, electricity, and steam as motive power 
 shows that, at the prevailing prices, to raise 1 acre-foot of water 
 1 ft. the cost of gasoline varies from 1% to 5 cts., the cost of elec- 
 tricity varies from 4i/^ to 10 cts., and the cost of crude oil for 
 generating steam varies from IV^ cts. upward. The total cost, 
 according to the rates used for fixed charges and the figures ob- 
 tained for attendance and maintenance, of raising 1 acre-foot of 
 water 1 ft. for gasoline plants varies from 4 cts. upward, for 
 electric plants it varies from 7 to 16 cts., and for steam plants it 
 varies from 4 cts. upward. 
 
 In a direct comparison of the use of gasoline and electricity 
 figures show the cost of gasoline to raise 1 acre-foot of water 1 
 ft. high to be 3.7 cts. and the cost of electricity to be 6.9 cts., 
 while the total cost for the gasoline plant is 6.9 cts. and for the 
 electric plant 8.8 cts. per foot-acre-foot. 
 
 In a direct comparison of the use of electricity and steam two 
 tests were made in succession on the same plant under identical 
 conditions. The results show the cost of electricity per foot-acre- 
 foot of water pumped to be 5.2 cts. and the cost of crude oil for 
 producing steam to be 3.6 cts. 
 
 In another test the pump was sucking air on account of a 
 deficient supply of water. The results show that in this case 
 having the pump too large for the water supply increases by 
 about 10% the charge for electricity per acre-foot of water 
 lifted. 
 
 Cost of Repairs on Well Pumping Plants. Few figures are avail- 
 able of the cost of maintaining well pumping plants for irrigation, 
 and the following, though for the most part quite old, are therefore 
 of interest. These costs were secured by the Government engi- 
 neers in their studies of irrigation pumping in California: 
 
 Plant 1. This plant comprised a 30-h.p. induction motor oper- 
 ating an 8 X 24-in. deep well pump ; pumping was done from a 
 12-in. well 300 ft. deep supplying 240 gals, per min. under 175-ft. 
 head. The repair costs for this outfit for one year, 19 05, were 
 $257.70. 
 
 Plant 2. This plant comprised a 23-h.p. gasoline engine oper- 
 ating a 7 X 24-in. deep well pump; pumping was done from a 
 
1322 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 lO-in. well 320 ft. deep supplying 143 gals, per min. under a 193-ft. 
 lift. The repair costs for four years, 1902-5, were as follows: 
 
 Year Cost of rei3airs 
 
 1902 $56.48 
 
 1903 82.75 
 
 1904 83.55 
 
 1905 34.19 
 
 Average cost for four years $64.24 
 
 Plant S. This plant comprised a 23-h.p. -gasoline engine oper- 
 ating a No. 5 single centrifugal pump ; pumping was done from a 
 10-in. well 385 ft. deep, supplying 458 gals, per min. under 5 8 -ft. 
 head. The cost of repairs for five years, 1900-4, were as follows: 
 
 Year Cost of repairs 
 
 1900 $36.15 
 
 1901 13.50 
 
 1902 23.30 
 
 1903 54.78 
 
 1904 , 24.65 
 
 Cost of a Small Irrigation Pumping Plant. R. Sibley (Journal 
 of Electricity, Power and Gas) gives the following cost of a small 
 pumping plant supplying 1,600 gals, per Tnin, near Acampo, Calif. 
 The pumps were installed 12 ft. below the surface of the ground 
 and connected to twin wells sunk 22 ft. between centers, the suc- 
 tion pipes from each well being joined at the center by a tee con- 
 nection with the pump. When pumping the water stood at 7 ft, 
 below the pumps in the morning, 14 ft. below the pump at noon 
 and 16 ft. below the pump at night. 
 
 The contract accepted provided for 1 8-in. (Byron Jackson or 
 Dow) centrifugal pump; 1 20-h.p. (Westinghouse or General Elec- 
 tric) motor complete with automatic starter, low voltage release 
 switch, wiring, etc., complete, 1-Type H overload relay circuit 
 breaker to be installed complete and ready for operation, includ- 
 ing belting, check valve, suction 8-in., with 12-in. discharge, for 
 the sum of $699.28 ; the owner to dig pit, bore well and lay founda- 
 tion for motor. 
 
 The subdivided costs were as follows: 
 
 Equipntent: 
 
 Pump and 25 h.p. motor as per bid $ 699.28 
 
 1-35 ft. piece, 8 in. O. D. casing 26.95 
 
 2-9 ft. 5 in. pieces O. D. casing , . 16.94 
 
 2-8 in. flanged elbows „ 12.80 
 
 2-8 in. casing flanges 23.93 
 
 5-sets bolts and gaskets 3.55 
 
 1-8 in. tee 20.63 
 
 Extra labor 10.00 
 
 ? 814.08 
 
 Concrete Work: This consisted of concreting the entire in- 
 terior 4 in. thick, reinforced, with 5 pieces tapering 
 from 12 in. to in. No cost is made for the sand, as 
 this was taken from the well-boring sand, being found 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1323 
 
 of excellent quality. The gravel was hauled 15 miles 
 and no actual cost was made for the gravel itself. 
 
 Gravel. 
 
 4 horses, 4 days at $1 per day $ 16.00 
 
 Labor : 1 man. 4 days at $2.25 per day 9.00 
 
 Cement : 61 sacks at 65c per sack 39.65 
 
 Cartage on cement — 2 horses and 1 man % day.... 3.25 
 
 Labor on setting concrete 21.00 
 
 Concrete forms 2 men 2i/2 days at $2.25 per day.... 13.00 
 Lumber for concrete forms and for pump house, 1,000 
 
 ft. at $25 25.00 
 
 $ 126.90 
 Pump House (lumber used fiom concrete forms) : 
 
 3,500 .shingles at $2.50 per M % 8.75 
 
 Sheeting 5.00 
 
 Labor on building 13.25 
 
 Nails 1.00 
 
 $ 28J}0 
 Main Excavation: 
 
 Pit 10 ft. deep. 10 ft. wide. 6 ft. to runaway $ 24.75 
 
 Cost of second pit and leveling off first pit 25.25 
 
 i 50.00 
 Well Sinking: 
 
 Boring two wells 12 in. diameter — 150 ft. and the 
 
 other 350 ft. deep over .surface of the ground $ 63.25 
 
 (Usual charge is for Vq, pit depth, but in this case, 
 charges were made for 40 and 43 ft., respectively). 
 Cost of pumping quicksand encountered, 6^/^ days at 
 
 $14 per day 91.00 
 
 Express charges 9.00 
 
 $ 163.25 
 Priming Pump: 
 
 Priming pump : . . $ 5.00 
 
 Iron ladder consisting of 9 pieces 2 ft. 6 in. x % in 1.50 
 
 $ 6.50 
 
 Total cost of plant $1,888.73 
 
 Cost of Drainage Pumping in Louisiana. C. W. Okey (Engi- 
 neering News, Oct. 14, 1915) gives the results of investigations 
 of drainage pumping costs in Louisiana made by the U. S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. The results are given in Table XLIIIA. 
 
 Cost of Pumping Plant and of Pumping Water for Irrigation, 
 Minidoka Project, U. S. Reclamation Service. The following costs 
 from Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 24, 1912, were abstracted 
 from a paper by Barry Dibble : 
 
 The Poiver House is a reinforced-concrete structure with steel 
 roof trusses and purlins, covered by matched lumber and galvan- 
 ized corrugated iron. It measures 149 ft. long by 50 ft. wide and 
 90 ft. high from the bottom of the tail-race to the peak of the 
 roof. It contains five main generator units of the vertical type, 
 each of 2,000-h.p. rated capacity, and operating under heads of 
 46 ft. from forebay to tail-race. There are also two 180-h.p. tur- 
 bine-driven exciters. Each main unit consists of a single Francis 
 
1324 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 O 
 ui 
 
 w ' 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 X 
 H 
 
 < 
 H 
 
 Hh 
 
 O 
 HIT 
 
 ^^ 
 
 fig 
 
 ^g 
 
 3^ 
 
 h^ 
 W<1 
 Q^ 
 
 H^ 
 
 go 
 Pkj 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 J - s 
 
 I f I 
 
 li J I 
 
 ji 
 
 "e-S 
 
 Jill ^ 1 
 
 lit " 
 
 s f 
 
 
 II .p 1 
 
 I; i| I 
 
 :i= I- I 
 ■It -il i 
 -if It! 
 PI ill 
 
 
 
 \ 't '^l |i fl 1^1 I |tli|ill i 
 1 III-, lilfl I I I I |si I ^ 
 
 I lllf " 
 
 4 4. 
 
 Til =11 1^ 2i II 
 
 ill II 
 
 IliSi 
 
 
 ^mi 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 3 2 
 1 
 
 ;3 5 3 is 5 S a 
 
 3 A 
 
 u 
 
 00-'0«<«90000 
 
 
 
 '3 SMifr*t>OOOOMIdU 
 
 mill 4 p ^i^ii 4 II || 11 ii nil 
 
 T !i . li l^li p Is ^i ol |i£i 
 
 lilll =i|ifJ,. f, I, L I, if, 
 
 "■"l li m^ ^ P P |i H|i 
 
 •iy : - ; > : S g 3 , ?3 8 3 
 
 jj. . s . .:s : g S g § ill 
 
 j} iltitltiiHniinni iiWi 
 
 |il# illriilii^ llllNlil IIP III 
 
 «r.oo8 8SSggSS8« 
 22?gg .^SSSSSSSS 
 
 • 11? SRS g;s33g!;«i;g§gi:SSSSSSSSgSg2S 
 
 ^HeS" ^--H- 
 
 ^ III SsS 5S§2§5=Sf:sggg| ||S55g||gsss 
 
 O z 
 
 y ^ 000 00000C300CC0000 oocooo -oSS 
 
 ^«3^» •■■■■ ■ -S-- 
 
 ih ^§i §S|iSSi§ll|!iiiSiiisiiS?S3 
 
 iS ^ 3 ■ ■ - 
 
 II lip" g 
 
 e "-3 
 
 
 I is= §issi§ipg5i§ss,iii>:si,-^i§ 
 
 ""I ""!« • 
 
 
 ^ M. 
 
 
 mil 111 
 
 
 |?i iss 2=SSR£SS£sSgSS§S"§'-2e52gSg 
 ^^. .333 SS^f!S!SS-^gSS5g^=2g?S§gSSSg2- 
 
 ^ 2- , 3 •? e -a <= 
 
 .. iiisiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 
 :*4 ^ " I 
 
 . I|z O J, I'". 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1325 
 
 runner, 54 ins. in diameter, operating at 200 r.p.m., direct-con- 
 nected to a 3-phase, 2,200-volt generator. The costs of the power 
 house are given in Table XLVIII. 
 
 Transmission Line. — There are 38.4 miles of transmission line 
 of 33,000-volt capacity. Copper transmission cable is strung on 
 wood poles spaced 250 ft. apart, except at certain river crossings 
 with spans from 700 ft. to 1,100 ft, where steel towers are em- 
 ployed. The costs of this transmission line is given in Table XLV. 
 
 Puminng Stations are three, the first located at the end of the 
 gravity canal and lifting the water to the first level, the second 
 about 1.75 miles distant, lifting a portion to the second level, 
 and the third, another 0.75 mile distant, raising a final portion to 
 the third level. The first station has a maximum capacity of 600 
 cu. ft. i)er second at normal speed. The lift at this station and 
 at each of the others varies from 30 ft. to 31 ft. 
 
 TABLE XLV. COST OF TRANSMISSION LINE, MINIDOKA 
 IRRIGATION PROJECT 
 
 Power line cost Pole line cost 
 
 Per mile Per mile 
 
 Total of line Total of line 
 
 Surveys and location $ 18 $ 36 $ 175 $ 17 
 
 Clearing 100-ft. right-of-way 356 34 
 
 Pole and tower line complete, except 
 conductors: 
 
 Material 1,035 2,070 2,129 203 
 
 Freight and hauling 255 510 1,333 127 
 
 Labor 803 1,606 1,685 161 
 
 Conductors (transmission and tele- 
 phone) : 
 
 Material 610 1,220 2,655 253 
 
 Freight and hauling 83 167 557 53 
 
 Labor 75 150 670 64 
 
 Superintendence and clerical 18 36 200 19 
 
 Miscellaneous 40 80 397 38 
 
 Engineering 23 46 220 21 
 
 Total $2,960 $5,920 $10,377 $990 
 
 The buildings are reinforced concrete, 140 ft. long, 18 and. 30 
 ft. wide and 45 ft. high. The first station contains four 125 cu. ft., 
 and one 75 cu. ft. pumps; the second contains four 125 cu. ft. 
 pumps, and the second contains two 125 cu. ft. and one 75 cu. ft, 
 pumps. The pumps are installed in separate compartments and 
 are direct connected and operated by 600-h.p. synchronous motors 
 located directly above them. The costs of the pumping stations 
 are given in Table XLVT. 
 
 Costs of Operating. The costs of operating the pumping system 
 are given in Table XLVII. Referring to this table a rate of depre- 
 ciation of 5% per annum has been applied to the stations and 10% 
 to the transmission lines. No interest is included, as the money 
 for the work comes from the reclamation fund, which is prac- 
 
1326 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XLVI. COST OF PUMPING STATIONS AND EQUIP- 
 MENT, MINIDOKA IRRIGATION PROJECT 
 
 Number 1 Number 2 Number 3 
 
 Excavation % 2,100 $ 5,300 $ 2,000 
 
 Buildmg 35,000 40,000 19,500 
 
 Hydraulic machinery 27,200 23,000 16,200 
 
 Electrical machinery 44,700 42,800 17 300 
 
 Freight and hauling 10,300 9,600 5'500 
 
 Erection , 15,800 14,600 9,300 
 
 Camp and permanent quarters 4,000 11,000 500 
 
 Engineering and incidentals 5,000 3,000 2 000 
 
 Administration charges, etc 8,500 7,000 5,500 
 
 Total $152,600 $156,300 $77,800 
 
 Capacity — cubic feet per second... 575 500 325 
 
 Cost per second-foot capacity $265.40 $312.60 $239.40 
 
 Pressure pipes, including adminis- 
 tration charges $21,400 $16,500 $20,200 
 
 Total length of pressure pipes — feet 849 540 825 
 
 Cost per foot $23.90 $30.30 $24.50 
 
 Cost per second-foot of capacity, in- 
 cluding pressure pipes * $303.00 $346.00 $301.00 
 
 * Average $318.00. 
 
 TABLE XLVII. COST OF OPERATING AND MAINTAINING 
 PUMPING SYSTEM, MINIDOKA IRRIGATION PROJECT 
 
 Trans- 
 Power mission ^-Pumping Stations— ^ 
 house line No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Total 
 Operation 
 
 Labor $ 5.700 $ 700 $ 2,100 $ 2,100 $2,100 
 
 Supplies 950 100 200 200 150 
 
 Repairs : 
 
 Labor 
 
 Supplies and mate- 
 rial 
 
 Superintendence, cler- 
 ical, camp, etc. . . . 
 General expense and 
 administration 
 
 900 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 400 
 
 300 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 1,700 
 
 200 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 500 
 
 450 
 
 50 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 Total operating 
 
 expense $10,000 $1,750 $3,850 $3,850 $3,280 $22,730 
 
 Depreciation 21,700 3,400 7,600 7,800 3,900 44,400 
 
 Total $31,700 $5,150 $11,450 $11,650 $7,180 $67,130 
 
 Annual cost per acre, 
 
 including depreciation $0,660 $0,108 $0,239 $0,243 $0,150 $1.40 
 Operating expense per 
 
 acre (48,000 acres). $0,208 $0,037 $0,081 $0,081 $0,068 $0,475 
 
 tically loaned to the settlers without interest. In the table al- 
 lowances for repairs, etc., has been increased over that so far 
 needed, as this item will undoubtedly increase with time. It is 
 not intended to include the item of depreciation in the annual 
 charge made against the settlers. However, this item will have 
 to be met as time goes on and the machinery wears out. This can 
 be done by paying for replacements as they are needed, and in 
 the meantime the settlers will have the use of their money, which 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1327 
 
 ia worth 10 to 12% interest, whereas if the government collected 
 a depreciation fund it would have to hold it without interest. 
 
 During- the season of 1911, 114,000 acre-feet of water were 
 pumped to the average height of 66 ft., equivalent to 7,560.000 
 acre-feet lifted through 1 ft. The operating cost for this pumping 
 was about $0,003 per acre-foot lifted through 1 ft., and the depre- 
 ciation amounted to $0,006. Next year more water will be pumped 
 at practically the same total cost, and therefore the unit cost will 
 be reduced. 
 
 Summary of Installation Costs : 
 
 Power house and accessories $433,300 
 
 Transmission line 34.000 
 
 Pumping stations with pressure pipes 444.800 
 
 Total investment on power system $912,100 
 
 Investment per acre (48.000 acres) $19.00 
 
 Summary of Annual Charges : 
 
 Operation $ 22.730 
 
 Depreciation . . . . , 44.400 
 
 Total $ 67.130 
 
 Per acre (48,000 acres) , $1.40 
 
 A total of 14,000,000 kw.-hrs. was delivered to the pumping 
 stations during the year at a cost of $37,000, including deprecia- 
 tion, or $0.0026 per kw.-hr. If, as would be necessary in the case 
 of a commercial company, interest, taxes, etc., amounting to, say, 
 10% on the investment in the power house and transmission line, 
 were added, the cost would have been $0,006 per kw.-hr. 
 
 TABLE XLVIIl. COST OP 7.100-K.W. POWER HOUSE FOR 
 PUMPING PLANTS, MINIDOKA IRRIGATION PROJECT 
 
 Total Per 
 
 cost kilowatt 
 
 Building $ 82,000 $11.70 
 
 Hydraulic machinery 73,000 10.40 
 
 Electric machinery 83.000 11.80 
 
 Freight and hauling 26.200 3.75 
 
 Erection 55,500 7.90 
 
 Tailrace 60.000 8.50 
 
 Roads and telephone lines 7,300 1.40 
 
 Camp and permanent quarters 23,200 3.30 
 
 Engineering and incidentals 11,100 1.55 
 
 Administration charges, etc 15.000 2.10 
 
 Total $433,300 $62.40 
 
 Rule for Converting Volumes of Water. In pumping costs, rela- 
 tive to irrigation, it .should be remembered that an acre-foot 
 amounts to 43.560 cu. ft. or very nearly 326.000 gals. (325,830); 
 to change acre-foot to millions' of gallons multiply by 3.07, 
 
 Thus when the cost per acre-foot lifted 1 ft. is $0,003, the cost 
 per million gals, lifted 1 ft. is $0.00921. 
 
 Cost of Mine Pumping. R. V. Norris in the Transactions of the 
 
1328 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1904, gives the following 
 information on the cost of pumping at the Short Mountain Mine 
 of the Lykens Valley Coal Co. : 
 
 A strike, which confined the work at these mines almost exclu- 
 sively to pumping, gave an opportunity to determine with con- 
 siderable accuracy the cost. The mines are deep, the present 
 workings are 711 ft. below the sea-level, and about 1,600 ft. 
 below the lowest surface-opening. 
 
 The pumping plant is divided into four lifts, shown in Table 
 XLIX, which gives also all the other pump data. The greater part 
 of the water is caught at No. 3 level and pumped from there to 
 the surface. The pumps on No. 4 level handle only about one- 
 third of the total pumped to the surface. Except the bottom lift, 
 the pumps are all simple and direct acting, and many of them 
 are old. 
 
 The records of the actual water pumped (plunger displacement) 
 were accurately kept by counters on each pump ; the labor costs, 
 and repair and supply costs were known. At the boiler plants 
 the labor, repair and supply accounts and the total coal used for 
 steam at the colliery are accurate. During June, July and August, 
 1902, practically all the steam generated at the colliery was used 
 in pumping. During the time 7,692 tons of coal were used for 
 firing, of which it is estimated that 232 tons were used in supplying 
 steam for accommodation hoisting, ventilation and in condensation 
 in unused steam lines, leaving 7,360 tons for generating steam for 
 pumping. During these months 207,034,324 gals, were pumped from 
 an average depth of 1,152 ft., making an average of 0.035 tons of 
 coal per 1,000 gals. (0.277 tons per 1,000 cu. ft.). On this basis, 
 correcting for average depth and for use of different proportions 
 of cylinder and Babcock & Wilcox boilers, we find for the years 
 1901 and 1902 as follows: 
 
 1901 1902 
 Total water pumped (plunger dis- 
 placement), gals 567,113,616 1,116,320,253 
 
 Average depth pumped, ft 1,141 1,093 
 
 Total estimated coal used, tons 21,200 37,963 
 
 Coal per M. ft. lb. in water, lbs 8.87 8.51 
 
 Coal per h.p.-hr. in water, lbs 17.56 16.85 
 
 As the average evaporation of the plant, with the proportion of 
 cylinder and water-tube boilers in use June, July and August, 
 1902, was 6.64 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel, the total steam made 
 during these months was about 109,470,000 lbs. 
 
 The ft.-lbs. of work used in pumping were 1,987,529,500,000; the 
 duty of the pumps was about 18,156,000 ft.-lbs. per 1.000 lbs. of 
 steam made by the boilers, which should be increased by 15% for 
 steam used in Argand blowers and condensation, giving as the 
 approximate duty of the pumping plant 20,880,000 ft.-lbs. per 1,000 
 lbs. of dry steam. 
 
 Dividing the total cost of making steam between the colliery 
 and the pump-plant in proportion to the coal used, namely, 51% in 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 
 
 1329 
 
 
 bo 
 
 in us S5l<tOCUS^5U5e»5Ci<OcolfiO 
 
 bx) 
 
 .2 3C C0O'Hi-l«0«D'-<i-l0000i3i00P51>. 
 
 
 >O00OiMO«^(»01Ci0O COOTji 
 
 GCCCCCCCCCCCCC 
 
 
 oooct-t^oootoinooo-^'M'X'oo 
 CO M c-1 (M CO CO ec 5^1 CO e<3 ■* c-J <M w 
 
 ;?J 
 
 I '. ID 
 
 
 
 
 (D Oi O 
 
 
 
 
 5:1 5:^ "Si 
 
 
 
 
 'Si'&c'fajb 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c c c 
 
 
 
 
 §§5 
 
 
 
 
 rfixnrji 
 
 
 
 
 PPfi 
 
 
 
 
 fl c c 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 
 c3 ?J 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c c c 
 
 
 
 O OfQ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 c c c 
 
 ci rt K! 
 CQfQfQ 
 
 X * I 
 
 iic • 
 
 
 Sr5=^'5= 
 
 cr 
 
 V 
 
 '/ 
 
 rt rt rt 3 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 B3 M C C 
 Oi U O O 
 C C '-^^ V2 
 
 oooooo 50)0- 
 .^ .- /:S .'^ /£ .2 ;::: w t; "^ 
 
 ^^^^^^M06^ 
 
 ^■<*eOCOCCCO<MC<IC<JMTHrHiHTH 
 
1330 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1901 and 77% in 1902, the total cost of pumping was as shown in 
 Table L. 
 
 The last results are based on the assumption that the steam 
 used will vary directly as the lift, and the labor cost of pumping 
 will not be affected by the slight change in average lift. 
 
 The author says that in his 17 years of practice he had not 
 until this occasion been able to arrive at even an approximate cost 
 for pumping of this character and extent. 
 
 TABLE L. COST OF MINE PUMPING (1901-2) 
 
 1901 1902 
 Total cost of labor, supplies and repairs 
 
 for generating steam $22,059.72 $19,728.28 
 
 Per cent, used for pumping 51 77 
 
 Cost of labor, supplies and repairs in 
 
 generating steam for pumping only .. $11,250.46 $15,190.78 
 
 Coal used, 21.200 tons at 50 cts. per ton. 10,600.00 
 
 Coal used, 37,963 tons at 50 cts. per ton 18,981.50 
 
 Total cost of steam for pumping $21,850.46 $34,172.28 
 
 Cost of labor, supplies and repairs for 
 
 pumping-plant 8,915.06 12,236.09 
 
 Total cost of pumping $30,765.52 $46,408.37 
 
 Total cost per 1.000 gals $0.0543 $0.0416 
 
 Average vertical lift, ft 1141 1093 
 
 Cost per 1,000 gals., 1,000 ft. vertical 
 
 height $0.0495 $0,039 
 
 Cost per 1,000 cu. ft. 1,000 ft. vert 0.3712 0.292 
 
 Cost per 1,000,000 ft.-lbs. in water 0.0060 0.0047 
 
 Cost per h.p.-hr. in water 0.0112 0.0093 
 
 Cost per h.p.-year, 24 hrs. per day, in 
 
 water pumped $98.11 $81.47 
 
 Cost steam only per year per boiler h.p. 
 
 24 hrs. per day $17.77 $16.30 
 
 Costs of Irrigation Pumping. A. Potter (Engineering and Con- 
 tracting, Jan. 27, 1915) gives the following comparative state- 
 ment of fuel consumption of the various economical types of 
 pumping engines investigated for an irrigation project near Eagle 
 Pass, Texas. 
 
 The capacity of the plant was 67 cu. ft. per sec. ; the lift, 37 ft. 
 
 Type of installation. Fuel 
 
 Humphrey gas pump Wood. 
 
 Humphrey gas pump Bitum. coal, 
 
 Centrifugal pump and Diesel 
 
 engine Fuel oil 
 
 Centrifugal pump and gas en- 
 gine operated on producer 
 gas Wood. 
 
 Centrifugal pump and gas en- 
 gine operated on producer 
 gas Bitum. coal 
 
 Fuel consump- 
 tion, 24 hours 
 8.83 cords 
 4.80 tons 
 
 14.00 bbls. 
 
 11.35 cords 
 
 6.13 tons 
 
 Fuel cost 
 
 per acre 
 
 ft, (lift 
 
 37 ft.) 
 
 $0,100 
 
 0.145 
 
 0.211 
 
 0.128 
 
 0.185 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1331 
 
 The table is based on the following assumptions: 
 
 Thermal efficiency of Humphrey pump (over-all pumping- h.p.), 
 20%. 
 
 Thermal efficiency of gas engine (brake h.p.). 24% + pump — 16%. 
 
 Thermal efficiency of Diesel engine (brake h.p.), 32% -f pump -— 
 21%-. 
 
 Thermal efficiency of producer, lignite fuel, 75%. 
 
 Thermal efficiency of producer, wood fuel, 65%. 
 
 Mechanical efficiency of centrifugal pump, 65%. 
 
 Eagle Pass bitum. coal, $4.00 per ton, 12,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 Mesquite wood, $1.50 per cord of 2,500 lbs.. 6.000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 Fuel oil, $2.00 per bbl. of 335 lbs., 18,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 
 The estimated cost of constructing the pumping station, including 
 head works, forebay, diversion dam and surge tank, is $60,000, 
 of which amount the machinery, including the producer, represents 
 approximately 50%. The annual cost of maintaining and operat- 
 ing this pumping station, including fixed charges and depreciation, 
 is $13,606. This amount is based upon irrigating the entire tract 
 of 6,700 acres to a depth of 3 ft., corresponding to a fuel cost of 
 30 cts. per acre irrigated and a gross charge of $2.06 for all fixed 
 charges and maintenance, including fuel. 
 
 The gravity project, on the other hand, involves an immediate 
 expenditure of $300,000 and a yearly expenditure for fixed charges, 
 maintenance and operation of $40,000. As the gravity canal would 
 irrigate some 12,000 acres, this would place the gross charge per 
 acre at $3.33. 
 
 The pumping project will show up still better than the gravity 
 project during the development period. For instance, assuming 
 one-quarter of the land in each project to be under irrigation, the 
 gross charge under the pumping project would be $6.79 per acre, 
 and under the gravity project, $13.35 per acre. This would be 
 decreased to $4.62 and $6.68, respectively, when one-half of the 
 land in each project is under irrigation. 
 
 Table L.1 gives a summary of results of 30 pump tests made. on 
 five Humphrey pumps at Chingford. 
 
 TABLE LI. RESULTS OF HUMPHREY PUMP TESTS 
 
 Pump No 1 2 3 4 5 
 
 No. of tests 6 6 6 6 6 
 
 Average duration of 
 
 tests, mins 9.27 8.95 8.37 9.67 10.0 
 
 Lift, in feet 30.01 30.24 30.06 32.6 30.24 
 
 Water pumped, gals, per 
 
 min 40,088 39,327 39,656 39,196 21,739 
 
 Water horsepower de- 
 veloped 303.9 300.4 301.1 322.7 166.0 
 
 Gas used per min. at 60 
 degs. Y. and 30 ins. 
 mercury, cu. ft 395.4 393.3 391.5 400.1 191.6 
 
 Calorific (lower) value 
 
 of gas, B.t.u. cu. ft.. 145. 7 , 146.4 146.2 142.2 138.1 
 
 Average thermal ef- 
 ficiency, per cent .. . 22.39 22.19 22.33 24.07 26.63 
 
 Anthracite used per 
 
 water hp.-hr., lbs... .946 .957 .949 .881 .796 
 
1332 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Formula for the Most Economic Size of Pipe to Carry Pumped 
 Water. The following formula was deduced by Halbert P. Gillette 
 in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 25, 1911. 
 
 We propose showing that the most economic diameter for a cast 
 iron pipe to carry pumped water is secured when the diameter 
 in inches is equal to 15.7 times the square root of the number of 
 millions of gallons of water pumped per day at eight hours. This 
 simple rule, or formula, will be shown to be closely applicable even 
 under wide variations of pipe, fuel and pump costs, etc. That 
 such can be the case may seem incredible. 
 
 However, we shall show that in the general formula for most 
 economic size of pipe (eq. 23), all the elements of cost occur under 
 a radical sign and that their sixth root must be taken. When 
 the sixth root of a factor is extracted, it is clear that the factor 
 may have a wide range of variation without altering its sixth 
 root very materially. 
 
 We think it will be difficult to find a better illustration of sim- 
 plicity of a final formula in a problem of engineering economics 
 where many factors enter than is seen in the one above announced, 
 to the deduction of which we now pass. 
 
 While the numerical examples that we shall give will relate to 
 cast iron pipe, the general formula (eq. 23) applies to any sort of 
 pipe — wood, steel, etc. 
 
 It will be seen that, in solving for the most economic diameter 
 of pipe, we use the method of the diffei-ential calculus. In other 
 words, we solve for a minimum unit cost by tirst deriving a formula 
 for the cost curve and then placing the differential coefficient equal 
 to zero, which is tantamount to finding the point of the lowest 
 point of the cost curve — the point where the tangent to the curve 
 is horizontal. Engineers who do not understand the calculus can 
 arrive at precisely the same results by substituting the values of 
 the various factors in equation (18), and then substituting various 
 vaTOes for the diameter of the pipe, x, until, by successive approxi- 
 mations, a minimum value for the total cost, /, is derived. How- 
 ever, that is a crude — though very common — method of solving 
 problems in engineering economics. The differential calculus used 
 in solving for minimum values is exceedingly simple, and it has 
 the immense advantage of enabling us to derive general formulas, 
 or rules, for quickly ascertaining the most economic combination 
 in any given case. In brief, it enables us to deduce the general 
 formulas of engineering economics, such as the one above expressed, 
 and more particularly such as that given by equation (23). 
 
 The symbols that will be used in this discussion are as follows, 
 arranged alphabetically : 
 
 A — area of waterway of pipe in square feet 
 
 B — number of British thermal units (B. t. u.) per pound of 
 
 fuel. 
 C =r tons (2.240 lbs.) of fuel used per year pumping 
 E — thermal efficiency of pump, engine and boiler (being the 
 
 product of their several efficiencies). 
 G = millions of gallons pumped in day of 8 hours. 
 g — acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft. per sec. 
 h = actual head in feet. 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1333 
 
 H = friction head in feet. 
 
 J =. capitalized cost of labor for operating pumping plant. 
 K = total capitalized cost of pipe line in dollars. 
 L — total length of pipe line in feet. 
 M = capitalized cost of fuel. 
 N = number of seconds of pumping per year. 
 n = number of hours of pumping. 
 p = price of fuel in dollars per ton. 
 P =. capitalized cost of pumping plant. 
 Q — cubic feet of water pumped per second, 
 r = per cent, of interest on capital. 
 R = work of overcoming the resistance of friction of water In 
 
 pipe, expressed in foot-pounds for each second. 
 s — capitalized cost per lineal foot of pipe line in place. 
 T = total capitalized cost of pipe line plus capitalized cost of 
 
 pumping plant plus capitalized cost of fuel and labor. 
 t — the fraction of a dollar by which the diameter of the pipe 
 
 (in inches) must be multiplied to give the capitalized cost 
 
 per lineal foot of pipe line. 
 V rr capitalized cost per horsepower of pump. 
 W = weight in pounds of water pumped per second. 
 X = inside diameter of pipe in feet. 
 X = Inside diameter of pipe in inches. 
 
 The total capitalized cost of any plant is the sum of its first 
 cost and its capitalized annual expenses of operation, maintenance 
 and depreciation. To capitalize any annual expense, divide the 
 annual expense by the rate per cent, paid for the use of capital. 
 Where the total output of the plant is a fixed number of units 
 of work or product per year, we may, therefore, regard the total 
 capitalized cost of the plant as being the " unit cost." 
 
 To illustrate what we mean by capitalized cost of a structure 
 or machine, let us assume that the first cost of a pumping plant 
 is $70, and that the annual cost of maintenance (including depre- 
 ciation) is $7. If the rate of interest on capital is 5 per cent., 
 then the capitalized value of the $7 is $7 -^ 0.05 = $140. Adding 
 this capitalized cost of maintenance, $140, to the first cost, $70, 
 we have a total capitalized cost of $210. 
 
 For a given annual output of product, that plant is most eco- 
 nomic whose total capitalized cost is a minimum. 
 
 In the case under consideration — a pumping plant and pipe 
 line — we may ignore the labor item of annual cost of operating 
 the pumping plant, for it is practically a constant (within the 
 limits of choice of sizes of pipe and of pumps needed to effect the 
 greatest economy). A constant added to a variable disappears 
 upon differentiating for a minimum value. To make this clear, 
 however, we shall include the capitalized cost of labor of operating 
 the pumping plant. 
 
 The grand total capitalized cost is 
 
 T = K -\- P + M -\- J (1) 
 
 K-L8 ( 2 ) 
 
 s=tx ( 3 ) 
 
 K - Ltx : (4) 
 
 We shall discuss the numerical value of t below. 
 The total horsepower of the pump is 
 
1334 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 W {h -\- H) ~ 550. Hence 
 
 VW (/i-f H) 
 
 P = (5) 
 
 550 
 W - 62.4 Q (6) 
 
 62.4 Q V {h-^ H) 
 P (7) 
 
 550 
 
 xf^ 
 
 ,032 pn+ 3,551 rVBE) 
 
 X :-., ^ J _. = 3. J 
 
 rBEt 
 
 pC 
 
 M = (8) 
 
 r 
 
 Substituting eqs. (4), (7) and (8) in eq. (1) 
 
 62.4 Q V (h-\- H) p C 
 
 T = Ltx-\ 1 \-J (9) 
 
 550 r 
 
 Any theoretical mechanics, wherein the subject of hydraulics is 
 discussed, will give the same general formula foi- the friction head 
 of water as is given in Weisbach. page 864, as follows: 
 
 E= I — I ~ (10) 
 
 
 X 
 
 X = — (11) 
 
 12 
 
 Since g — 32.3, and tt = 3 1-17, eq. (10) becomes 
 6259 /ZvQ^ 
 
 H := (12) 
 
 X" 
 
 The work done in moving the water against the friction head, 
 H, is 
 
 R-WH (13) 
 
 Substituting eqs. (6) and (12) in (13) we have 
 
 6259 /Z.Q-'^ 390,562 /LQ^ 
 R=zG2AQ (14) 
 
 X^ X'' 
 
 The energy of the fuel used in overcoming this frictional resist- 
 ance may be expressed in terms of the number of heat units 
 (B.t.u.) in a pound of fuel, multiplied by 778 (the mechanical equiv- 
 alent in foot pounds, of 1 B.t.u.), multiplied by the number of pounds 
 of coal used per second. This product must be multiplied by the 
 thermal efficiency of the pumping plant. Hence : 
 
 2,240 C 1,742,720 -B ^ C 
 R- X119,BE:- (15) 
 
 N N 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1335 
 
 Hence : 
 
 N B 
 
 G = (16) 
 
 1,742,720 ££ 
 
 Substituting in eq. (16) the value of R given in eq. (14), we 
 have : 
 
 390,562 /i^IyQ' 0.224/iVZ/Q' 
 
 C = = (17) 
 
 1,742.720 S^ips B E x^ 
 
 Substituting eqs, (12) and (17) in eq. (9) we have: 
 62.4 gyff 62.4 QT (6259 /-LQ2) 
 
 T = Ltx -\ h 
 
 550 550a;5 
 
 0.224 p/iVigs 
 
 + + / (18) 
 
 rBEx"^ 
 
 Equation (18) gives the grand total capitalized cost in terms 
 of known constants and the pipe diameter, x. To solve for a 
 minimum value of T, differentiate eq. (18) remembering that T 
 and X are the only variables, and place the first differential coeffi- 
 cient equal to zero. This will give us the lowest point on the 
 curve of capitalized cost. Note that the second and fifth terms on 
 the right side of the equation are constants and disappear when 
 we differentiate. 
 
 = (390,562 /FLQOfia; 
 dT = Ltdx (19) 
 
 ^ (0.2i4p fN LQndx 
 
 rBEx'^ 
 dT 3551 /VLQ' 112 v f N L Q^ 
 
 -Lt =0 (20) 
 
 dx X^ rBEx^ 
 
 Solving for x we have 
 8 //g« (1.12 
 
 /g« (1.12 i)N + 3,351 rVBE) 
 x = \\ (21) 
 
 rBEt 
 
 But 
 
 N .- 3600n (22) 
 
 Hence : 
 
 i/y» (1.13 pw + rVBE) 
 
 (23) 
 
 rBEt 
 
 \1- 
 
 Equation (23) gives, in the- most general form, the most eco- 
 nomic diameter of pipe {x), for it is this value of x that satisfies 
 the condition of minimum capitalized cost in eq. (18). 
 
 Let us now consider the numerical values that should be assigned 
 to the various constants in eq. (23), under any given conditions. 
 
1336 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Values of Constants. — The coefficient of friction, f, is strictly- 
 speaking a variable ; but it varies only in a slight degree within 
 quite wide limits of pipe diameter (if we use Darcy's formula for 
 the coefficient) or of velocity of water (if we use Weisbach's 
 formula). On page 867 of Weisbach's Mechanics, we find: 
 
 0.017 
 / = 0.014 H ^r- (24) 
 
 On the following page, Weisbach gives Darcy's formula for 
 cast iron pipe, which is 
 
 0.02 
 / = 0.02 H (25) 
 
 X 
 
 X being the diameter of the pipe in inches. 
 
 In either case we can select a value for / that is practically 
 constant within the limits of size of pipe or of velocity of water, 
 under consideration. Nor shall we err materially in the value of x 
 in eq. (23) if we call / = 0.2 for all sizes of pipe and velocities of 
 water. 
 
 The price of coal per ton, p, may range from $2 to $5 without 
 producing a great effect on the value of a; in eq. (23), for the sixth 
 root of $2 is 1.12, and the sixth root of $5 is 1.30. Assuming coal 
 to cost $3 a ton, the sixth root of p is 1.20. 
 
 The number of hours actually pumped yearly may have a wide 
 range, but generally a pump is worked only 8 or 10 hours daily for 
 about 300 days in the year, so that n — 2,400 to 3,000 hrs. Even if 
 it is worked 24 hrs. daily for 300 days or three times as long as 
 the 8 hrs. that we shall assume, it will increase the value of x 
 only 20 per cent, for the sixth root of 3 is 1.20. 
 
 The rate of interest on capital, r^ is usually 4 to 6 per cent, and 
 we shall assume r— 0.05. 
 
 ■The first cost per horse power of pumping plant will usually not 
 vary far from $70. But to this must be added the capitalized cost 
 of annual maintenance. If annual maintenance cost is 8 per cent, 
 of the first cost, we have $5.60 per year per hp. for maintenance, 
 which capitalized at 5 per cent, gives $112. Hence the total capi- 
 talized cost per horse power is $70 + $112 = $182. which is the 
 value of V in eq. (23). 
 
 The thermal efficiency of the pumping plant, E, is the product 
 of the following efficiencies: (1) Thermal efficiency of the boiler, 
 (2) thermal efficiency of the engine, (3) mechanical efficiency of 
 the engine, and (4) mechanical efficiency of the pump. This prod- 
 uct is usually about 0.05, or 5 per cent., for fairly large pumping 
 plants, and rarely exceeds 7 per cent. We shall assume E = 0.05. 
 Its value may be derived from known coal consumption per horse 
 power of work done by the pumping plant in lifting water against 
 the combined head and friction head. If, for example, the work 
 thus done requires 4 lbs. of coal per hour per hp., and if the coal 
 will yield 12,000 B.tu. (British thermal units per pound), we have 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1337 
 
 48,000 B.t.U. required to do 1 hp. of work; but 1 B.t.u. = 778 ft. 
 lbs., hence 48,000 X 778 ^ 60 mins. := 622,400 ft. lbs. of coal energy 
 to perform 33.000 ft. lbs. of pump work per minute. Dividing the 
 33.000 by the 622,400, we get about 0.05, or 5 per cent, thermal 
 efficiency of the pumping plant. 
 
 The first cost of cast iron pipe, including trenching, laying, etc., 
 is given quite closely by the following rule, applicable to all 
 diameters from 4 ins. up to and including 30 ins., for heads of 
 water up to 100 ft. To ascertain the cost in cents per lineal foot 
 of cast iron pipe in place, tnultijyly the diameter in inches hy 14. 
 
 This rule is derived from actual detailed costs given in the Water 
 "Works section of the second edition of Gillette's Handbook of 
 Cost Data. It applies very closely when cast iron pipe costs 
 $30 a ton delivered on cars, and for ordinary rates of wages. 
 
 If there were no maintenance cost of the cast iron pipe, then the t 
 in eq. (23) would be 0.14, according to the above rule. As a matter 
 of fact, it is usually necessary to scrape cast iron pipe at intervals 
 to remove rust, etc., from its interior, and it is certainly economy 
 to do so wherever water is pumped through a pipe that has become 
 even slightly tuberculated. We have no very reliable data as to 
 the desired frequency of such scrapings, but we have accurate 
 costs of each scraping (see Gillette's Cost Data, second edition, 
 page 698 et seq. ). Pipes that had accumulated scale for 14 to 20 
 years were scraped clean for 2 to 5 cts. per lin. ft. If we assume 
 that a cast iron pipe is scraped once at 2 per cent, of its first cost, 
 and if the scraping is done once in 4 years, we have 0.5 per cent, 
 per year for cleaning. Capitalizing this at 5 per cent., we have 
 0.5 per cent. 4- 5 per cent. = 10 per cent. Hence the capitalized 
 annual cost of scraping is 10 per cent, of the first cost. 
 
 If cast iron pipe has a life of 40 years and if interest is 5 per 
 cent., a sinking fund table shows that 0.8 per cent, of the first 
 cost deposited annually in the sinking fund will amount to the 
 full first cost at the end of the 40 years. Hence the capitalized 
 cost of this depreciation is 0.8 per cent, -r- 5 per cent. = 16 per 
 cent. Therefore we have to add 10 per cent, for scraping and 16 
 per cent, for depreciation, or a total of 26 per cent., to the first 
 cost of the pipe, to get its total capitalized cost. Hence if t = 0.14 
 for first cost, t = 0.14 + (26 per cent. X 0.14) = 0.176 (nearly) 
 for the total capitalized cost. In other words, the total capitalized 
 cost of the cast iron pipe in dollars per lineal foot is 0.176 times 
 the diameter in inches. 
 
 The number of Briti-sh thermal units per pound of coal, B, 
 does not vary greatly from 12,000 ; hence we shall assume B — 
 12.000. 
 
 Summarizing our various values for the constants in eq. (23) 
 we have : 
 
 /=0.02 (coef. of friction). 
 
 p = Z (price of coal in dollars per ton). 
 
 n= 2,400 (hours pumped per year). 
 
 r = 0.05 (rate of interest). 
 
 V = 112 (capitalized cost of pumping plant, dollars per h.p.). 
 
1338 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 B = 12,000 (B.t.u. per lb. of coal). 
 E = 0.05 (thermal efficiency of pumping plant), 
 t = 0.176 (constant by which to multiply diameter of cast iron 
 pipe in inches to get its capitalized cost in dollars per lin. ft.). 
 
 Substituting these valties in eq. (23) we have: 
 
 6 K 
 
 6 /0.02 g=^ (1.13 X 3 X 2,400 + 0.05 X 112 X 12,000 X 0.05) 
 
 Z.qJ- • . (24) 
 
 0.05 X 12,000 X 0.05 X 0.176 
 
 This reduces to 
 X =z 7.3VO ' (25) 
 
 Thus, if 4 cu. ft. are pumped per second, 
 X = l.ZVi = 14.6 ins. 
 
 If 4 cu. ft. are pumped per second for 8 hours, we have a 
 delivery of 862,000 gals. 
 
 In order to convert eq. (25) into millions of gallons (G) pumped 
 per day of 8 hours, we have : 
 
 X = 15.7V^ (26) 
 
 Hence if one million gallons are to be pumped in 8 hours, G = 1, 
 and eq. (26) becomes x = 15.7 ins. 
 
 Expressing equation (26) in words we have this rule : 
 
 The most economic diameter (in inches) of cast iron pipe for 
 carrying pumped water is found by multiplying 15.7 by the square 
 root of the number of million gallons pumped per day of eight 
 hours. 
 
 In using this rule, it should be remembered that we have assumed 
 that the pump is working only 8 hours out of the 24, or that n = 
 2,400 in eq. (23). If n is three times as great, or «,= 7,200, or 
 pumping is done for 24 hrs. daily for 300 days in the year, then 
 we must multiply the constant (15.7) in the above rule by 1.2. 
 for the sixth root of 3 is 1.2. For a 24 hour day of pumping, the 
 rule then becomes : 
 
 Multiply 18.8 by the square root of the number of millions of 
 gallons pumped per day o/ 24 hours, and the iiroduct is the m,ost 
 ,econom,ic diameter of cast iron pipe in inches. 
 
 Comparing Relative Economy of Pipes Made of Different Ma- 
 terials. — Equation (23) gives us a ready means of comparing the 
 -economic merits of different kinds of pipe through which water is 
 to be pumped. Thus, if wood stave pipe is contemplated, plat the 
 .first cost per lineal foot of wood stave pipe of different diameters. 
 On the curve of unit cost thus platted select a straight line that 
 most closely fits the curve between the limits of size of pipe likely 
 to be used. From this straight line derive the first cost value of tj 
 as above indicated in the cast iron pipe example. Then estimate 
 the life of the pipe, and derive the annual cost of depreciation, 
 which must be capitalized and added to the first cost, as above 
 explained. This will give the total capitalized cost value of t for 
 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 1339 
 
 the wood pipe. Insert the proper coefficient of friction for wood 
 pipe, bearing- in mind that in eq. (10) the friction coefficient, f, 
 is exactly four times the friction coefficient given by Kutter for 
 use in the Chezy formula {v— c^RS). In other words, if Kutter's 
 friction coefficients are available, multiply them by 4 to get the 
 proper value of / to be used in eq. (23). Having selected the 
 proper values of / and t for wood pipe, either substitute in eq. 
 (23) and solve for x, or, more quickly, determine the ratio of 
 / / 
 
 — for wood pipe to — for cast iron pipe, and extract the sixth 
 t t 
 
 root of that ratio. This sixth root multiplied into the value of x 
 in eqs. (25) or (26) will give the proper value of x for wood pipe. 
 / 0.02 
 
 Thus the value of — for cast iron is =0.11 nearly. 
 
 t 0.176 
 
 / 
 If the corresponding value of — for wood pipe should prove to 
 
 t 
 be 0.22, then the ratio would be 0.22^0.11 = 2. The sixth root of 
 2 is 1.12, hence eq. (25), for cast iron pipe, would become x =■ 
 
 _ / 
 
 1.12X 7.3VQ for wood pipe. We assume this value of — =0.22 
 
 t 
 for wood pipe merely for illustration. 
 
 Having determined the most economic diameter for both wood 
 and cast iron pipe, the pipe to select is the one giving the lowest 
 total capitalized cost (T) when the respective values of x are 
 substituted in eq. (18). remembering that the second and fifth 
 terms of the right hand member need not be considered, as they 
 are constant, and that the length, L, need not be considered, as it 
 is common to all terms containing the variable x. 
 
 However, if a numerical problem is worked out in this manner 
 and the respective economic values of x for any two kinds of pipe 
 be substituted in eq. (18), it will be seen that all terms except the 
 first term in the right hand member of eq. (18) can be ignored 
 in making the comparisons. In other words the element of added 
 capitalized cost of pump or fuel is so slightly affected by differences 
 in the pipe diameters of the two kinds of pipe under consideration 
 that it may be ignored, the question then resolving itself merely 
 into which kind of pipe shows the least capitalized cost per lineal 
 foot. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES AND ELEVATORS 
 
 Belt, Flight, and Screw Conveyors. For handling loose material 
 a troughed belt is required, and though the load that can be sup- 
 ported by a foot of belt is not great, the capacity of even a 
 narrow belt is surprisingly high, owing to the speed at which a 
 belt may be run. 
 
 The capacity of a belt conveyor, according to Reginald Traiit- 
 schold in Engineering Magazine, August, 1916, that is properly 
 suited to its load, is entirely a question of speed at which the belt 
 is run, and obviously this should be the highest speed at which 
 the particular material can be efficiently conveyed. Table I gives 
 speeds for belt conveyors when handling various materials. 
 
 Fig. 1, shows the capacity of standard widths of belt conveyors 
 when continuously and uniformly loaded and run at the economic 
 speed for the material handled. This graphic presentation em- 
 phasizes the comparatively large capacity of belt conveyors. For 
 Instance, a belt conveyor only 12 ins. wide can handle nearly 90 
 tons of sand per hr., while one 36 ins. wide has a capacity of about 
 800 tons per hr. when run at a speed of 375 ft. per min. In prac- 
 tice it is customary to discount these capacities, as they are 
 only attainable under perfect loading conditions. Ninety per cent, 
 of the records should be attainable in a well designed and care- 
 fully operated system, however, and the subsequent discussion 
 will be based on such attainment. 
 
 TABLE L ECONOMIC SPEEDS OF BELT CONVEYORS FOR 
 VARIOUS MATERIALS 
 
 Average Speed 
 
 weight in in ffiet 
 
 Material lbs. per cu. ft. per min. 
 
 Coke 33.5 250 
 
 Broken stone (coarse) 165 275 
 
 Lump coal 55 275 
 
 Ashes 45 300 
 
 Lime and cement 65 300 
 
 Ore (average) 125 350 
 
 Crushed stone 160 375 
 
 Sand and gravel 110 375 
 
 Fine coal 50 400 
 
 On Fig. 2 are plotted the power requirements of conveyors 
 handling various materials at their economic speeds, the belts 
 being continuously and efficiently loaded to capacity. The data 
 
 1340 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1341 
 
 thus depicted apply to conveyors equipped with high grade 
 lubricated idlers and should be slightly discounted for con- 
 veyors equipped with the corresponding grade of ball-bearing idlers. 
 These more efficient idlers reduce the power requirements for 
 horizontal travel of conveyor about 33i^%. Though the data de- 
 picted by the curves and the results obtained from the formula are 
 for fully loaded belts, i. e. belts carrying their maximum load as 
 given on Fig. 1, they should also be used for belts handling 90% 
 of their capacity, as the slight unavoidable variation in load leads 
 to slightly increased power consumption. 
 
 %0 
 
 800 
 
 700 
 
 I 
 
 »l 
 
 600 
 
 ;;j$ 500 
 
 CO ^ 
 
 i 
 
 ■,^m 
 
 3^ 
 
 ^^200 
 
 ^. 
 
 WHERe, W- Capaa/c/ in/on5(^000lb)f>erhr 
 V, K= Constant- !^l tolbb (AveraqelS) 
 
 % n = W/dtti ofconveyor(betf)in mctm 
 
 v5 "i ^ y = Speed of conveyonn ft per 
 
 ■(3 ■% W'= Weight of material convei^ed 
 
 "%. in pounds per cu ft 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Capacities of standard belt conveyors, economically loaded 
 and operated. 
 
 The economy of belt conveyors in the consideration of power 
 consumption is quite evident from a glance at Figs. 1 and 2, From 
 the former it is seen that a 30-in. belt conveyor can handle about 
 270 tons of fine coal per hr. when operated at its economic speed 
 for that material. Such a conveyor, elevating the coal 20 ft. and 
 distributing it by means of an automatic traveling tripper over a 
 storage bunker 50 ft. long, would require a supply of 13.5 h.p. — 
 5.5 h.p. for the horizontal travel. 5.5 for elevating the load, and 
 about 2.5 for the tripper — if equipped with grease lubricated 
 
'1342 'MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 idlers (see Fig. 2). Similar service by a conveyor with ball- 
 bearing idlers would consume about 11.75 h.p. 
 
 In taking up the cost of belt conveyors, the questions of deteriora- 
 tion and amortization must be duly considered. In the handling 
 of certain materials, lighter and cheaper belts — and the belt is the 
 
 WIDTH Of BELT IN INCHES 
 12 14 16 18 ZO 22 24 26. Z8 50 32 
 
 Horsepower required for Horizontal 
 Conveyors 
 
 WIDTH Of BEIT ININCHES 
 12 M 16 18 70 2? ?4 26 28 30 32 
 
 Sandi^raYtl 
 ^Crushed5tont 
 "^SrokenSone 
 (Coarse) te. 
 Ore(Av.) § 
 FtneCoal z 
 
 s 
 
 LimetCement g 
 Ashes Q 
 
 Lump Coal RJH y 
 
 til ^ 
 
 W^ 5 
 11 ^ 
 
 11^ 
 
 BrvkertSlone § 
 5and&0raKl § 
 Cnished Stone >-> 
 
 Additional Horsepower required for inclined 
 
 conveyors to be added to horsepower required 
 
 for tiori70ntol Conveyors 
 
 WIDTH OF BEIT ININCHES 
 12 14 16 18 20 2? ?4 26 28 JO. 32 , M 
 
 Horsepower required for each pipper or fixed dump 
 in length of conveyor to be added to horsepower 
 
 required for conveyor 
 GeHEifAL Formula m0003iv'Vf0i)IWLiWH 
 HP' WOO 
 
 w lYidth of Conveyor(belt)ininchei 
 
 'V' Speed of " infipermin 
 VlHE/tc. Yt^ Load handled in tons per houi 
 
 L = L ength of conveyor in feet. 
 
 H= ITise in length of convey onn ft 
 
 Fig. 2. Horsepower requirements of belt conveyors. 
 
 most expensive item entering into the equipment of a belt con- 
 veyor — may sometimes be recommended than that required for 
 more severe service ; but ordinarily the best grade of belt is none 
 too good, no matter what service it may be subjected to. The 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1343 
 
 large capacity of the equipment makes the question of initial cost 
 of secondary importance. The general formula given in Fig. 3 
 and the costs graphically depicted thereon are those for the average 
 high grade belt conveyor with suitable rubber belting and well 
 designed grease lubricated idlers. Cheaper conveyors may be pur- 
 chased by sacrificing the quality of the belt, and more expensive 
 ones by substituting idlers equipped with ball bearing. The cost 
 of the belt is included in the first term of the second member of 
 the formula, so that the cost of a conveyor with a cheaper belt is 
 readily obtainable from the same formula simply by reducing the 
 coefficient of the length by the difference in the cost of two ft. of 
 high grade rubber belting and that of two ft. of the cheaper belt. 
 Conveyors equipped with ball-bearing idlers, etc., cost about 5% 
 more than the figures indicated by Fig. 3, but this difference in cost 
 is frequently offset on shipments to distant points by the decrease 
 in freight rates, ball-bearing idlers weighing less than grease or 
 oil lubricated idlers. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 75 lis 175 22S Z75 3Z5 J75 4?S 475 5Z5 57S 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEEIT 
 
 Average cost of standard troughed rubber belt conveyors 
 with grease lubrication. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the average cost of the various discharging devices 
 required for the belt conveyor. The prices indicated by the vari- 
 ous curves and also those derived from the general formula are 
 those commanded by high grade equipment. The values given on 
 both Figs. 3 and 4 are conservative and may be taken as ac- 
 curate during normal market conditions. More expensive equip- 
 ment may prove economical, but cheaper equipment is not to be 
 recommended. 
 
 The attention required, once a belt conveyor has been started up, 
 is very slight, so that the labor charge for operating is extremely 
 light, and in many plants could be overlooked entirely in an 
 economic consideration. Belt conveyors do require periodic in- 
 spection and some attention if they are to be maintained in good 
 operating condition, so they should rightfully be charged with 
 some labor expense. An arbitrary charge which covers most simple 
 installations of belt conveyors of ordinary length is about 1.5 cts. 
 per hr. per in. width of conveyor for installations with greasy 
 
1344 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 lubricated idlers, or a charge of 1 ct. per in. width for conveyors 
 equipped with ball-bearing idlers. 
 
 The expense entailed for grease or oil and the other incidental 
 supplies required to keep the equipment in good operating condi- 
 tions is, in a conveyor in frequent use, very nearly directly pro- 
 portional to the h.p. consumed in operating the conveyor, and 
 
 ZO JO 40 50 60 70 80 30 
 TRAVEL OrTRIPPrR(LEMGTHOFTRACK) IN FEET 
 Average Cost ofAutomatfcTraveJmq Tripper's 
 
 100 
 
 20 30 40 iO GO 70 60 90 
 TRAVEL OF TRIPPERaEMGTH OF TRACK) IN FEET 
 Average Cost of Hand propelled Trippfers 
 Average Cost of Fixed Dumps 
 
 100 
 
 ^|70 
 
 #.40 
 
 < IZ 14 16 16 ?0 21 24 Z6 ?8 50 32 34 36 
 WIDTH OF BELT IN INCHES 
 
 C' Average cos) in dollars 
 w ■ tVidflj of bell m inches 
 Lt-L enqth of tripper irack m feet 
 
 Fig. 4. Average cost of discharging devices for belt conveyors. 
 
 averages about 0.625 et. per hr. per h.p. Of this charge about 
 0.5 ct. per hr. is the cost of the grease required, so that the aver- 
 age supplies charge for roller-bearing conveyors is but about 0.125 
 ct. per hr. per h.p. consumed. 
 
 Deterioration and amortization of belt conveyors constitute an 
 exceedingly complicated subject and one that here must, perforce. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1345 
 
 be treated in a very general manner. Depreciation is due not only 
 to wear but to constant and quite apparent continuous deteriora- 
 tion of the belts, whether they are in use or not, so that the de- 
 preciation charge is little affected by careful use, provided, of 
 course, that the equipment is operated a reasonable amount of the 
 time. This deterioration is largely due to the hardening of the 
 rubber cover and the loss of resiliency, and is more apt to be ac- 
 centuated by idleness than by sane and careful use. The rest 
 of the mechanism is not more greatly affected than other mechan- 
 ical equipment, if well cared for and not abused. Ordinarily a 
 depreciation charge of about 25% on the belt and about 10% on 
 the balance of the equipment covers all reasonable wear and tear ; 
 the general formula on Fig. 5 is based on such apportionment. 
 The curves shown are plotted from data compiled in a more in- 
 tricate and exacting manner, but the discrepancy between the 
 
 •5000 
 
 o 8000 
 3 7000 
 o -6000 
 ^ 5000 
 8 4000 
 o 3000 
 § 2000 
 "* 1000 
 
 OcNCfiAL Formula 
 
 Wnt/IE. 
 C- Averoge cost in dollars 
 
 Width of Comeyor<btlt)m i nches 
 Length of Con\fey<. 
 
 ^m 
 
 25 75 126 175 225 ?7S 3Z5 375 425 475 5Z5 i/i 
 
 345 
 52 2 
 50 2 
 28 e 
 
 in 
 
 nt\ 
 
 20 S5 
 
 '^E 
 14 S 
 1?^ 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEET 
 
 Annual depreciation of standard belt conveyors. 
 
 results obtained from the general formula and the readings de- 
 rived from the chart is so slight that dependence may be placed 
 on either the figure readings or the formula. For conveyors with 
 roller-bearing idlers the depreciation charge is reduced about 10%. 
 
 Belt conveyor installations are, of course, subject to the usual 
 burden of fixed charges, consisting of interest on investment, 
 insurance, and taxes. These ordinarily amount to about 8.5% of 
 the initial cost per year (6% interest, 1% insurance and 2% of 
 three quarters of the value of the property for taxes). 
 
 Flat belt conveyors for handling packages and other material 
 which can be efficiently loaded on flat belts also prove highly 
 economical in operation. The capacity of such belt conveyors 
 depends upon the width of the belt and the speed at which they 
 are run, as well as the proximity of the various pieces contributing 
 the load. Their cost is usually somewhat less than that of troughed 
 belt conveyors, and the power requirements are, of cour.se, de- 
 pendent upon the load handled. The general formula for troughed 
 belts on the various figures, with the exception of the one on 
 depreciation, are, as a rule, applicable to flat ISelt conveyors for 
 handling packages, etc., if, in the formula for cost of equipment, 
 correction is made for the cheaper belt which may be safely em- 
 
1346 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ployed. The rate of depreciation is usually only about 25% of 
 that for troughed belts, so, with this further correction, the eco- 
 nomic value of flat belt conveyors can be readily obtained by 
 calculation from the data for standard troughed belt conveyors. 
 
 Flight Conveyors. When great quantities of material which is 
 not liable to damage by direct contact with the propelling flights 
 have to be handled at a rapid rate in a limited space, when the 
 cost of power is not a governing condition and the initial invest- 
 ment is a serious consideration, flight conveyors are frequently 
 resorted to. Their capacity is great, owing to the compact load 
 
 CeneralFohmulasx 
 
 hk 
 
 0.0026AVW' 
 
 g.^i^m 
 
 Where. 
 Wf, - Capacity of homontoKomegorsjntQn% 
 
 per hour. \ * 
 
 Wi = Capaatij of'tnclined Conveyorsinfoni 
 
 per hour ' 
 
 A=Area of Flights in sq. irt. 
 
 V = Speed oF Conveyor irr ft per mm 
 
 M' = Weight of material handledin Ib.pee 
 
 ^^« . J 
 
 5=^ Spacing of Fliqhts(lntervals>ininches 
 L ^ inclination of conveyorin inches- 
 inclined conveyor. 
 
 Note: Inclining the conveyor reduces its- 
 capacity by /-§.to 2 percent per degree 
 angularity with the horizontal. 
 
 ^^ ^ '^ ' > -5 
 
 
 5"! 
 
 Fig. 6. Capacities of standard flight conveyors economically loaded 
 and operated. 
 
 per foot, notwithstanding the comparatively low speeds at which 
 they have to be run. 
 
 As in the case of belt conveyors, the economic speeds for various 
 materials vary considerably, and the economic value of a flight 
 conveyor depends upon its operation at the highest speed suitable 
 for the load. Good practice is listed in Table II. These speeds 
 are employed in figuring the capacities of various standard sizes 
 of flight conveyors* depicted on Fig. 6, and are to be recommended, 
 although considerable variation is allowable in specific installations. 
 
 Fig. 6 is of particular interest in showing the great variety of 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1347 
 
 TABLE 11. ECONOMIC SPEEDS FOR PLIGHT CONVEYORS 
 FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS 
 
 Advisable speed in 
 Material ft. per min. 
 
 Coke 100 
 
 Broken stone (coarse) 125 
 
 Lump coal — run of mine 125 
 
 Ashes 150 
 
 Lime and cement 150 
 
 Ore (averag-e) 175 
 
 Crushed stone 175 
 
 Sand and gravel 175 
 
 Fine coal 200 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 II _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 1.3 
 1.2 
 
 
 General I 
 
 "ORMULA : 
 
 WH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 — 
 
 Where, 
 C-Cor 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 $ in 
 
 sfai 
 
 if= 0780 fcr roller fli 
 _ O.Sii " shoe 
 ■jndled'm tons per h 
 'or? in lenath of com 
 
 jhfs: 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 § 
 
 - 
 
 W=Loadh 
 H=Elevat 
 
 our. \/ 
 'eijor / J 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 in feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 i 0-^ 
 
 UJ 
 
 ^ 0.6 
 s ^ 0.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^y 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tX 
 
 »>^ 
 
 'f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 >^^ 
 
 0' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 /^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i °-^ 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 ^\ 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 200 300 3.00. 700 900 1100 1100 1500 
 
 CAPACITY m TOMS (2000LB.)PER HOUR 
 Horsepower required for horizontal 
 conveyors. 
 
 |.W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 ,*.■* 
 
 1.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . , 
 
 -'-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■— ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.4 
 0,2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 ---■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . — ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 zlj 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JOO 300 .500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 
 CAPACITY IN TONS (2000 LB) PER HOUR 
 / ddi tonal horsepower Required forincliried 
 conveyors. 
 
 Fig. 7. Horsepower requirements of flight conveyors. 
 
 standard sizes of conveyors that are readily procurable. In many 
 instances, there are several conveyors of different sizes and spacing 
 of flights which have the same, or about the same, capacity at the 
 same speed. These cannot be equally economical, so that even 
 greater care should be exercised in the choice of equipment. 
 
 The selection is further complicated by the fact that the flights 
 may be mounted on sliding wearing shoes or on rollers. The latter 
 
1348 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 construction adds to the cost of the conveyor, but reduces its power 
 consumption. A general formula for calculating the power re- 
 quirements of flight conveyors with double strands of chain, the 
 usual type found in the manufacturing plant, and a graphic 
 presentation of calculated results are given in Fig. 7. The reduc- 
 tion in power consumption carried by equipping the flights with 
 rollers or wheels is not as great as is generally claimed, for the 
 
 a '900 
 
 1 1700 
 
 'C 1500 
 
 § I SOD 
 
 31 900 
 §8 700 
 
 -^ertERAL Foffmu 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^A 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 '^^ J 
 
 C' Average cosf in dollars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 y ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 A . Area of flightsin sq.'in -widthtlenath 
 
 
 yy 
 
 
 
 L • t fnalh of ConveijorJn 
 
 ff 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 -^1.-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 
 "^ _^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 J-^!J 
 
 
 '''^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 .,<^ 
 
 y 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 t*^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -<> 
 
 i**^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^-^ 
 
 '^^ 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^r??3 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 S^^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jg^^j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -'' 
 
 VT^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' '^ 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 125 175 225 
 
 LENGTH OFCONVLYOR IN FEET 
 
 175 
 
 W K 
 
 Fig. 8. Average cost of conveyors with sliding shoe flights. 
 
 main consumption of power in any flight conveyor is in dragging 
 along the load, the power consumed in dragging forward the 
 chains and flights being appreciably secondary. Sliding-shoe flight 
 conveyors, when fully loaded, consume but about 10% more power 
 than similar flight conveyors in which the flights are mounted 
 on rollers. Equipping the flights with rollers adds to their cost 
 
 10 30 SO 75 125 (75 225 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEET 
 
 Fig. 9. Average cost of conveyors with roller flights. 
 
 to some extent, but reduces the rate of depreciation, and is in 
 reality an economic gain. 
 
 The multiplicity of standards for flight conveyors and the dif- 
 fering spacing of flights make the derivation of an accurate formula 
 for ascertaining the cost of the equipment an intricate and involved 
 matter. Simple formulae which closely approximate average costs 
 may be evolved, however, which serve for all practical purposes. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1349 
 
 and such are given as the general formulae in Figs. 8 and 9. 
 The data from Avhich the graphic depiction of average costs on 
 these figures are plotted are from averages of the estimated costs 
 of a number of installations, which will be found to agree closely 
 with results obtained from the respective formulae. It will be 
 noted that in both the formulae and on the two figures no ap- 
 parent consideration is given to the question of flight spacing, and 
 that apparently the costs of conveyors of certain width and length 
 of flights are the same, irrespective of the spacing of the flights. 
 This is not quite true, but the variation in spacing of flights in 
 standard flight conveyors of deflnite width is not sufficiently great 
 to make any very appreciable difference in their cost — the expense 
 entailed by a few additional flights constituting but a small pro- 
 portion of the total cost of equipment, that is, in the average con- 
 veyor of reasonable length. 
 
 The depreciation of flight conveyors is naturally rapid, for the 
 load exerts a very destructive scouring or abrasion on both the 
 
 6-.I6- y 
 
 5x15; X 
 
 4;ir 15^ 
 fxio- §2 
 
 Y/HtPt. 
 
 F' DeffjsciafiQn Factor. 
 'A •Ammfnig/ibinsq.in.WidthtLength. 
 L • Length ofCvmeyerin ft. I 
 
 75 100 125 150 Ub 200 225 250 275 500 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEFT 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 ZOiOWiO 
 Depreciation factors for standard flight conveyors. 
 
 flights and the trough. This deterioration is naturally much more 
 pronounced when handling certain materials than it is when less 
 destructive materials are dragged through the trough. The de- 
 terioration due to the handling of certain materials is so very 
 much more marked, in fact, that the character of the load must 
 be taken into consideration in any reliable investigation of the 
 average depreciation charge. Arbitrarily assuming a convenient 
 basis of comparison, an average depreciation factor is arrived at 
 in the general formula on Fig. 10, which, when multiplied by the 
 " depreciation factor coefficient " given on the same chart, gives the 
 average annual depreciation in dollars. The depreciation amounts 
 to about the same in similar conveyors whether they are equipped 
 with sliding-shoe flights or with roller flights, although the rate of 
 depreciation is slightly lesri for the more eflicient type. 
 
 Flight conveyors are usually shorter than belt conveyors, and in 
 addition they require more attention in the way of opening gates, 
 etc., so that the labor charge per ft. of conveyor is higher than in 
 the case of belt conveyors, and averages between 2 and 3 cts. per 
 in. width of conveyor. It is not correspondingly higher per ton- 
 
1350 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 nage handled, however, because of the large capacity of a flight 
 conveyor of the same width and length of flight. 
 
 The charge for incidental supplies, as in the case of belt con- 
 veyors, is almost directly proportional to the power requirements ; 
 and as a number of incidental repairs can logically be charged to 
 the same expense, safe figures for this item are 2 cts. per hr. per 
 h.p. for conveyors with sliding-shoe flights and about 10% less, 
 or 1.8 cts. per hr. per h.p. consumed, for conveyors in which the 
 flights are furnished with rollers. The incidental repairs on the 
 latter type of conveyor, chargeable to the item of " supplies," are 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 G£fi£RAL Formula '■ 
 
 ^, O.lUid^W'R 
 
 Where, W ^Capacity in tons {2000 Lb.) per hour. 
 cl= Di'amefer of screw in inches 
 Y/'= Weight of mafericil handled in Ib.percuSt 
 R= Revolution of screws per minute. 
 
 Capacities of standard screv/ conveyors, economically 
 loaded and operated. 
 
 less costly than those on flights with sliding shoes, but the lubri- 
 cation charge is higher, so that the saving of the more efllcient 
 construction is only about 10%. 
 
 The burden of interest on investment, insurance, and taxes is 
 proportionally no higher than in the case of other conveying equip- 
 ment, and on the average amounts to about 8%% per year of the 
 initial cost of the installation, in addition to which there is usually 
 an annual renewal charge of about 20%, which is in excess of the 
 depreciation usual to other conveyors, 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1351 
 
 Screw Conveyors. Notwithstanding its comparatively limited 
 capacity and relatively hig-h consumption of power, the screw con- 
 veyor possesses considerable economic value and finds many uses 
 about certain manufacturing plants — particularly in cement mills. 
 
 Unlike the types of conveyors already analyzed, the economic 
 speed of the screw conveyor is governed by its size (diameter of 
 screw) rather than by the character of the material handled. 
 Fig. 11 shows not only the capacity of the common sizes of screw 
 conveyors handling the materials usually entrusted to them, but 
 
 MATERIALS HANDLED AT STANDARD SPEEDS 
 
 V C5 "SI 
 
 fiote:5crewC(mveijorsrrKi(jbemhlledafasliahhndmatiol^ 
 
 of<^nv7or: ^"^ led per hour for each foot rise, n length 
 
 6CHERAL Formula: ftp. • ^^ 
 
 WH£R£. W^ Load handled in tons per hour 
 L- Length of conyeyor /ff feet. 
 H~ Eleration in length of convey onn feet 
 
 Fig. 12. Horsepower requirements of screw conveyors. 
 
 also gives the advisable speeds at which to run the various sizes. 
 These speeds may be varied to a considei^able extent when condi- 
 tions make such departure advisable, but a lov/er speed is apt to 
 sacrifice efficiency, and higher speed is apt to lead to trouble. 
 
 In the consumption of power, screw conveyors are even less 
 sparing than are flight conveyors, but as they are usually of com- 
 paratively short length — a series of screw conveyors discharging 
 into one another being employed if they have to carry the load 
 any appreciable distance — and have a quite limited capacity, their 
 
1352 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 relative extravagance in the use of power is no serious handi- 
 cap. 
 
 Fig. 12 gives the horsepower required for standard sizes of screw 
 conveyors per ft. when handling certain materials at their eco- 
 nomic speeds. The general formula given for calculating horse- 
 power requirements takes into consideration the elevation of load 
 in inclined conveyors, but ordinarily screw conveyors are installed 
 as nearly horizontal as possible ; any inclination not only increases 
 their consumption of power, but tends to reduce their capacity, 
 unless some positive mechanical feeding device is installed. 
 
 Though there are many special types of screw conveyors on the 
 market of differing design, the cost of the ordinary standard type 
 folio w^s a fairly well defined relationship, which is expressed by 
 the general formula given on Fig. 13. The curves of the chart 
 plotted from this formula for-cibly indicate the low initial cost of 
 this type of equipment — a few hundred dollars for any reasonable 
 length and average capacity. 
 
 350 
 
 .300 
 
 ;Z50 
 
 z20O 
 8150 
 
 GcnERALFoRHUU: 
 
 C'Q/%dLf2.3ldt0.07d^ 
 ~ Where. 
 
 C= Average cost in dollars! 
 d-Size oT conveyor in inches^ DIamefer 
 
 of screw. 
 L = Length of Conveyor. 
 
 in ft 
 
 100 
 
 5 10 15 20 25 30 55 40 
 LENGTH OFCONVEYORIM FEET 
 
 Fig. 13. Average cost of screw conveyors. 
 
 Though cheap in first cost, the depreciation of screw conveyors 
 is more rapid than that of almost any other type of conveyor — 
 the propelling screw revolving in the midst of the load is sub- 
 jected to a very destructive abrasive action. As in the case of 
 flight conveyors, different materials affect differently the life of 
 the propelling mechanism and the trough carrying the load. For 
 instance, cement and lime have a much more destructive action 
 on screw conveyors than has coke. Based on a convenient unit of 
 depreciation, coefficients are tabulated on Fig. 14, which, when 
 multiplied by the depreciation factor obtained from the plotted 
 curves, or calculated from the general formula given on the chart, 
 give the average yearly depreciation of standard screw conveyors 
 in dollars. This depreciation factor is based on the continual 
 operation of the conveyor, so that in charging depreciation against 
 a conveyor not in continual use only that proportion of deteriora- 
 tion which would be contracted in the actual working time should 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1353 
 
 be charged against the installation, provided, of course, the con- 
 veyor is in operation a reasonable number of hours per year. 
 
 Once the ordinary screw conveyor is started, it requires little 
 attention, unless something goes wrong. The legitimate labor 
 charge, therefore, is low. In order that there may be no inter- 
 ruption of service due to neglect, however, the conveyor should be 
 frequently inspected, and if such inspection is charged to labor it 
 will raise it to about 0.5 ct. per in. diameter of screw per hr., 
 chargeable only during actual operating hrs. 
 
 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEET 
 
 Fig. 14. Depreciation factors for standard screw conveyors. 
 
 The charge for individual supplies though averaging nearly di- 
 rectly proportionally to the power consumption of the conveyor, is 
 much more serious than in almost any other type of conveyor ; 
 for unless the various bearings are kept well lubricated the ma- 
 terial being conveyed works between the shaft and bearing and 
 is very destructive. A charge of 1 ct. per hr. per h.p. is not an 
 excessive amount for the supplies, and may be taken as a con- 
 servative average. 
 
 Cost of Belt Renewals and Power for Driving Belts. Edwin H. 
 Messiter, in Engineering and Mining Journal, has stated that in 
 good practice the life of belts will be such that the cost of belt 
 renewals should amount to 0.1 ct. per ton of ore delivered to the 
 belt, and the h.p. required for driving it will average 0.00015 h.p.-hr. 
 per ton for each ft. of horizontal distance through which the 
 material is carried, plus 0.001 h.p.-hr. per ft. of height elevated. 
 
 The Cost of Loading Bricks Into a Box Car Using a Portable 
 Belt Conveyor. The following observations were made by A. C. 
 Haskell (given in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 15, 1915) at a 
 large brick manufactory in New Jersey where common bricks were 
 being loaded into a box car by means of a portable belt conveyor. 
 The car was on a siding and the bricks were (a) in piles about 
 30 ft. away; and (b) brought in on small flat cars on an industrial 
 track parallel to and 40 ft. from the siding. 
 
 The conveyor was mounted on two wheels of about 4 ft. diameter 
 and was driven by a small motor supported on the frame work, 
 
1354 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The belt was 20 ins. wide, 20 ft. long and had a speed of 240 ft. 
 per min. The lower end was 1.5 ft. above the ground and the 
 upper end 2 ft. above the car floor and extending about a ft. within 
 the car. 
 
 One man (1) (Fig. 15) stood at the foot of the conveyor and 
 received bricks, four at a time, passed to him by two others (2) 
 and (3) alternately, from the piles. (1) placed them on the 
 conveyor and (4) and (5), standing in the car at the door, one 
 on either side of the belt, took them off and passed them to (6) 
 and (7) and to (8) and (9) who piled them in the car. 
 
 Brick Pile 
 
 Conveyor 
 
 Fig. 15. Diagram showing positions of laborers loading bricks into 
 a car with a belt conveyor. 
 
 From the flat Koppel cars which were run in as mentioned above, 
 the bricks were loaded onto wheelbarrows, wheeled to the foot 
 of the conveyor and stacked on four at a time. 
 
 The work was very fa.st and every unit was busy all the time. 
 The only improvement that might have been suggested was that 
 the bricks be placed with more uniformity on the conveyor. Some- 
 times they were put on in batches of four so close to one another 
 that (4) and (5) could not get them ofC and they would pile up 
 on the car floor. The foreman should have seen that the bricks 
 were placed on the belt at equal intervals and with such fre- 
 quency that the men in the car could just handle them. 
 
 The following time study was made when loading from the piles : 
 
 100 bricks were loaded in 1.07 mins. 
 
 102 bricks were loaded in 1.13 mins. 
 
 103 bricks were loaded in 1.17 mins. 
 100 bricks were loaded in 1.30 mins. 
 
 405 bricks were loaded in 4.67 mins. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1355 
 
 405 X 480 
 
 On this basis in an 8-hr. day, — 41,600 bricks would 
 
 4.67 
 be loaded, which is between three and four car loads. Allowing 
 45 mins. for shifting the conveyor, etc., the total would be reduced 
 to 37,700. 
 
 9 men at $1.75 $15.75 
 
 1 foreman at $3.50 3.50 
 
 Conveyor at $0.50 0.50 
 
 $19.75 
 or $19.75 + 37.7 = 52.4 cts. per thousand. 
 
 Therefore to load a car with 12,000 bricks, which is about the 
 average, would cost $6.30. A time study was made when they 
 were unloading bricks from the flat Koppel cars with wheelbarrows 
 and transporting them to the conveyor. 
 
 The average number of men loading was two, and the average 
 number of bricks loaded was 73 per min. The distance of travel 
 to the foot of the conveyor was 30 ft. 
 
 Average speed loaded = 30/0.22 — 136 ft. per min. 
 Average speed empty = 30/0.13 = 230 ft. per min. 
 
 On the above basis the total number of bricks handled per day 
 by the three wheelbarrows would be : 
 
 480 
 
 X 3 X 73 = 40,900 
 
 2.57 
 
 Allowing, as before, for time to shift, the number would be 
 37,000: 
 
 2 men loading at $1.75 $ 3.50 
 
 3 men transporting at $1.75 5.25 
 
 9 men at conveyor at $1.75 15.75 
 
 1- foreman at $3.50 3.50 
 
 Conveyor at $0.50 0.50 
 
 $28.50 
 
 Or at a cost of $28.50/37.00 = 72.2 cts. per thousand, or at the 
 rate of $9.25 per carload. 
 
 Buckets "Weight, 
 Size Gauge lbs. Price 
 13 X 10 No. 14 4,650 $490 
 16 X 11 No. 14 5,835 585 
 
 " Back Gear Driving Connection " is an arrangement for driving 
 the elevator and screen, particularly used with the smaller sizes, 
 and takes power from the breaker. 
 
 The cost of the iron work for a countershaft is about $50. 
 
 Bucket Elevators and Conveyors. Reginald Trautschold in In- 
 dustrial Management, Nov., 1916, states that for handling the 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 III 
 
 . COST OF 
 
 ith geared 
 ith geared 
 
 head, 
 head. 
 
 50 
 50 
 
 ft. 
 ft. 
 
 centers. . . . 
 centers. . . . 
 
1356 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 coal supply, etc., in a manufacturing plant, the bucket elevator 
 is the most usually encountered equipment for elevating purposes. 
 Such apparatus requires but limited space and delivers its load in 
 a comparatively uniform stream, which develops good capacity 
 and, at the same time, allows the discharge- of the elevator to be 
 handled easily and rapidly from the point of discharge, the buckets 
 being of relatively small proportions and carrying small individual 
 loads. Formerly the buckets were attached to the chains or belt 
 contiguously in order to secure a continuous load, but this neces- 
 sitated extremely low elevator speeds that the succeeding buckets 
 might pick up suitable loads. Present practice is to space the 
 buckets further apart and run the elevator somewhat faster, the 
 buckets so arranged picking up more uniform loads and filling more 
 satisfactorily. Bucket elevators with their buckets spaced some 
 distance apart will therefore be the type analyzed in this discussion. 
 Table IV gives speeds at which various materials have been 
 found to be most economically handled by standard bucket ele- 
 vators, and these may safely be taken as representing the economic 
 speeds of bucket elevators for the various materials. 
 
 TABLE IV. ECONOMIC SPEEDS FOR BUCKET ELEVATORS 
 FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS 
 
 Average Advisable 
 
 weight in lbs. speed in ft. 
 
 Material per cu. ft. per min. 
 
 Coke .' 33.5 100 
 
 Broken stone (coarse) 165 125 
 
 Lump coal 55 125 
 
 Ashes 40-45 150 
 
 Lime and cement 65 150 
 
 Ore (average) 125 175 
 
 Crushed stone 160 175 
 
 Sand and gravel 110 175 
 
 Fine coal 50-60 ^ 200 
 
 The tabulated speeds suppose a certain interval between the 
 buckets in order that each individual bucket may pick up a suit- 
 able load. Usually this means the spacing of the buckets from 
 12 to 18 ins. apart. Obviously the closer the buckets are arranged 
 the greater the capacity of the elevator, provided that the indi- 
 vidual buckets can pick up equal loads, so that the capacity of a 
 bucket elevator is very nearly directly proportional to the spacing 
 of its buckets, the speed being constant. 
 
 Fig. 16 depicts the capacity of standard sizes of bucket elevators 
 when continuously and uniformly loaded and operated at the eco- 
 nomic speed for the material handled. This chart illustrates the 
 wide range of capacities of a comparatively few sizes of standard 
 bucket elevators, and emphasizes the necessity of careful selection 
 of equipment if the capacity required is accurately known. An 
 elevator of excessive capacity usually means uneconomic opera- 
 tion — an idle piece of equipment being a costly investment — 
 while an elevator of insufficient capacity is always an inexcusable 
 economic blunder. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1357 
 
 Bucket elevators being perfectly balanced when unloaded, the 
 power required is simply that necessary for elevating the load, and 
 for dragging the buckets through the charged elevator boot and 
 overcoming the frictional resistance of the equipment ; so that a 
 simple formula can be derived for ascertaining the horsepower 
 
 I '"' 90005 
 
 S iVhcre, W'Catucitii oFe/evafor tn tons perhr. 
 1' L enqfh oF buckets in inches. 
 w- Width oF buckets in inches. 
 V - Velocity (Speed) oF buckets in feet 
 
 _ per minute 
 w'= Weight of material handled in 
 pounds per cu. Ft. 
 ; V, _ 5 ' Spacing oF buckets m inches. 
 
 The capacities as given are 
 _, ttiose obtained when operat- 
 the elevators at speeds 
 st suited For the 
 respective materials. 
 
 X^'^ 
 
 SIZE OF E.LLVATOR- LENGTH ny(lDTH a SPACING Of BUCKETS 
 
 Fig. 16. Capacities of standard bucket elevators economically 
 loaded and operated. 
 
 required for any particular installation. This formula might be 
 expressed as : 
 
 15WH 
 
 Hp. 
 
 10,000 
 where 
 
 W = Load handled in tons per hr., as obtained from Fig. 16, and 
 
 H = Height to which load is elevated, in ft. 
 
 In the consumption of power, bucket elevators are not particu- 
 larly economical, on account of the heavy frictional losses, the 
 general inefficiency of the construction, and the resistance to the 
 passage of the buckets through the charged elevator boot ; but 
 this drawback is compensated for in large part by the quite de- 
 cided advantages of compactness of equipment, simplicity of con- 
 struction, and uniformity of discharge. Furthermore, a bucket 
 
1358 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 elevator is a comparatively cheap piece of equipment and does its 
 work well while in good condition, notwithstanding its rapid de- 
 terioration under severe usage. 
 
 Standardization of the cost of bucket elevator equipment is made 
 difficult by the great variety of buckets which can be employed 
 and the multiplicity of chains or belts which can be used for sup- 
 porting the buckets. In general practice, however, the variations 
 in design of elevator and in the type of equipment employed may 
 be grouped into a few classes which permit conservatively ac- 
 curate analysis of costs. 
 
 Three general designs of bucket elevators are in common use : 
 First, elevators in which the buckets are attached to a single end- 
 less chain ; second, elevators in which the buckets are attached to 
 
 HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR (ELEVATION OFLOAD) IN FEET 
 20 50 40 50 60 . 70 80 90 
 
 Fig. 17. Average cost of standard, double strand (steel bucket) 
 
 bucket elevators. Standard detachable chain — 
 
 buckets spaced 12 ins. 
 
 two matched strands of endless chain ; and third, elevators in 
 which the buckets are attached to an endless belt. Elevators 
 employing but a single strand of chain are usually of small size 
 and have to be installed at an inclination, in order that the buckets 
 may satisfactorily discharge their load. These limitations natu- 
 rally detract from the value and popularity of this type of design, 
 and as the single chain has to be as strong as the combined 
 strength of the two chains in double-strand elevators they are in 
 reality little less costly than the more rugged and efficient double- 
 strand elevator. Single-strand bucket elevators are also subject to 
 more rapid depreciation, etc., so that they are no longer com- 
 monly found in the efficient manufacturing plant. 
 
 Double-strand bucket elevators can be run vertically by in- 
 stalling choke sprockets to divert the direction of the descending 
 buckets, so that they may discharge their load without undue spill, 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1359 
 
 etc. This is the type of bucket elevator usually found in the 
 manufacturing- plant and the type to be recommended. Bucket 
 elevators with buckets attached to an endless belt possess the 
 same drawbucks as single-strand elevators, but also they possess 
 the advantage of slightly lower initial cost, even when a high- 
 grade rubber belt is employed. 
 
 Though the buckets which could be employed are numerous, the 
 standard type of elevator bucket usually meets all requirements 
 and may be of steel or of malleable iron. The more costly buckets 
 are usually employed only for handling materials which are de- 
 structive to steel. The chains customarily employed for bucket 
 elevators are either the ordinary detachable link chain, com- 
 
 HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR CELEVATION OF LOAD) IN I 
 30 40 50 60 70 
 
 Fig. 18. Average cost of standard, double strand (steel bucket) 
 
 Bucket elevators. Standard detachable chain — 
 
 buckets spaced 15 ins. 
 
 monly known as the engineering chain and the combination chain, 
 a chain with malleable iron links and steel pins. 
 
 Figs. 17, 18 and 19 give the average cost of standard bucket 
 elevators with steel buckets and two strands of detachable link 
 chain, buckets spaced 12 ins., 15 ins. and 18 ins. apart respectively. 
 Table V gives factors for multiplying the average cost of standard, 
 double-strand bucket elevators with steel buckets when the aver- 
 
 TABLE V. STANDARD BUCKET ELEVATOR EQUIPMENT 
 FACTORS 
 
 Equipment Factor 
 
 Malleable iron buckets and combination chain 1.78 
 
 Malleable iron buckets and standard chain 1.57 
 
 Malleable iron buckets and high grade rubber belt. ... 1.50 
 
 Steel buckets and combination chain 1.20 
 
 Steel buckets and standard detachable chain 1.00 
 
 Steel buckets and high grade rubber belt 92 
 
1360 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 age cost of some other combination of standard equipment is de- 
 sired. For instance, a 75-ft. bucket elevator with 20-in. by 6-in. 
 steel buckets attached to two strands of detachable link chain at 
 intervals of 18 ins. would cost about $950 (see Fig. 19). A simi- 
 lar bucket elevator equipped with malleable iron buckets and com- 
 bination chain would cost about $1,691 (950X1.78). 
 
 A bucket elevator which is kept in good condition requires very 
 little attention after it is started up, but care must be taken that 
 the elevator boot does not become clogged, that unwieldy lumps 
 of material do not find their way to the buckets, etc., so that a 
 labor charge of about four cts. per in. width of bucket is not in- 
 
 HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR CELEVATION OFLOAD) IN 
 30 40 50 - 60-, 70 
 
 Fig. 19. Average cost of standard, double strand (steel bucket) 
 bucket elevators. 
 
 frequent. Such a charge should cover the periodical inspections 
 and may be taken as a fair amount for the labor expense. The 
 expense for incidental supplies, such as grease or oil for lubrica- 
 tion, is naturally quite high in the case of bucket elevators, owing 
 to the unavoidable dust which is raised and which tends to clog 
 up the oil holes of grease cups unless they are well supplied with 
 lubricant; it will average close to 1.5 cts. per h.p. per hr. 
 
 Depreciation of bucket elevators is not only comparatively rapid, 
 but varies considerably with the service demanded of the equip- 
 ment and the class of equipment comprising the installation. 
 Standard elevators' with steel buckets and detachable link chains, 
 subject to the service common in a manufacturing plant where the 
 elevator is in fairly constant use, contract an annual depreciation 
 expense approximating 331.^% on the cost of the buckets, 20% on 
 the balance of the equipment. Malleable iron buckets, unless sub- 
 ject to unusually severe service, contract a yearly depreciating ex- 
 pen.se of about 20%, while the depreciation chargeable to a well 
 cared for combination chain should not exceed 10% per year. The 
 depreciation on the belt of an elevator employing such equipment 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1361 
 
 for holding the buckets, if of high-grade rubber and duck con- 
 struction, should average about 207o in elevators in frequent use. 
 Notwithstanding the quite dissimilar rates of depreciation of 
 different types of bucket elevators, the average net depreciation 
 expense contracted is very nearly the same, quite irrespective of 
 the class of equipment entering into the construction of the ele- 
 vator, high-grade materials of their respective classes being em- 
 ployed in the various types. That is, the yearly depreciation 
 charge contracted by a well cared for bucket elevator with mal- 
 leable iron buckets and combination chain is just about the same 
 as that contracted by a similar elevator with steel buckets and 
 detachable link chain, or by a similar elevator with high-grade 
 
 HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR (ELEVATION OF LOAD) IN FEET 
 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 
 
 Fig. 
 
 20. Average depreciation of standard bucket elevators 
 buckets spaced 12 inches. 
 
 rubber belting for supporting the buckets, although the respective 
 rates of depreciation of various component parts is quite different. 
 Figs. 20, 21 and 22 graphically depict the annual depreciation 
 charge contracted in the average manufacturing plant in which 
 the bucket elevators are properly selected and economically used. 
 The general formulas given on the respective figures enable the 
 depreciation charge to be rapidly calculated in installations in 
 which the elevators are equipped for handling material other than 
 fine coal or ashes. 
 
 Bucket elevator installations are subject, naturally, to the usual 
 burden of interest on investment, insurance, taxes, etc., consti- 
 tuting the fixed charges contracted by any investment in mechan- 
 ical equipment. This burden usually amounts to about 814% per 
 year of the initial cost of the equipment (6% for interest, 1% for 
 insurance and u.sually about 2% on the three-quarters of the ini- 
 tial cost for taxes). 
 
 In charging up the various expenses contracted in operating a 
 
1362 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 bucket elevator it is customary to charge up depreciation in pro- 
 portion to the number of hrs. per year in which the elevator is in 
 actual operation. A year being taken as 2,500 working hrs. This 
 
 6 50 
 
 ^600 
 
 ^550 
 o 
 
 z 500 
 
 Z450 
 o 
 
 §400 
 U350 
 
 CE 
 
 ^500 
 
 Q 
 
 _.250 
 
 i200 
 
 z 
 
 < 150 
 
 w 50 
 < 
 
 HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR rtLEVATION OF LOAO> IN FEET 
 20 _.. 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 
 
 iOer/s/f^L Formula 
 
 ■i-O.I5Dwl 
 
 10000 
 '^Where: D'= Avetoge Annual Depreciation indo/lars 
 wl - Size of bucket - width x fengffi in inc/ies. 
 H = Heigtil of eleyatpr in Feer. 
 »v'= Weight of material handled in pounds per - 
 
 cu. ft 
 0- Facfofvaruing in verse lu *vifh sne ^ 
 or bucket; varies from 7.1 to U For;^'^ 
 standard buc/rets from 5'k4^ 
 to 24"xS"in size inc/usiv 
 
 Fig 21. Average depreciation of standard bucket 
 buckets spaced 15 inches. 
 
 is permissible, as the rate of depreciation during operating hrs. is 
 comparatively high, and though there is a certain degree of de- 
 preciation contracted during hours of idleness, such deterioration 
 
 HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR (ELEVATION OF LOAD.) IN FEET 
 30 40 . 50 60. 70 
 
 Fig. 
 
 55 
 EEET 
 
 22. Average depreciation of standard bucket elevators 
 buckets spaced 18 inches. 
 
 is negligible compared to that taking place while the elevator is 
 in actual operation — providing the equipment is not to remain 
 idle most of the time. 
 
CONVEYORS. HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1363 
 
 Bucket Conveyors. The bucket conveyor consisting of a succes- 
 sion of buckets attached to two matched strands of endless chain, 
 which can be run in a horizontal path as well as in a vertical 
 plane, represents a combination of bucket elevator and conveyor 
 which possesses all the advantages of the elevator and performs 
 the functions of a conveyor over horizontal stretches. 
 
 The buckets for this type of apparatus may be of almost any 
 proportions ; they may be rigidly attached to the chains, or may 
 be of the pivoted construction so that they remain in an upright 
 
 GENERAL Formula 
 
 100000 s 
 
 Where ; w^ Width of bucket 'in 'inches * <?fc 
 buc/ret. * 
 
 1= Length ofbuc/fet in inches: 
 y^Speedof Conveyor in ft.permin. 
 S = Spacing ofhucl^ets(intervals) in 'inches. 
 
 W = Weight of Material i 
 percu.ft 
 
 J pounds 
 
 I 
 1^ 
 
 II- 
 
 III 
 
 lit 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 SIZE OF BUCKETS - LENGTH x. WIDTH x SPAC) N& 
 
 Capacities of standard bucket conveyors economically 
 loaded and operated. 
 
 position throughout their travel, excepting at the points where 
 they are tripped to discharge their load. The proportions of the 
 buckets are now fairly well standardized in practice, however, and 
 the economic speeds at which the conveyors should be run are well 
 established. 
 
 Table VI gives the economic speeds for various materials for 
 which this type of conveyor is well adapted. 
 
 At the economic speeds recommended, the capacities of the usual 
 standard sizes of conveyors with buckets spaced as commonly 
 found in practice are given in Fig. 23. 
 
1364 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE VI. ECONOMIC SPEEDS FOR BUCKET CONVEYORS 
 FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS 
 
 Advisable speed, 
 Material ft. per min. 
 
 Coke 40 
 
 Broken stone (coarse) 50 
 
 Lump coal, run of mine 50 
 
 Ashes 60 
 
 Lime and cement 60 
 
 Ore (average) 70 
 
 Crushed stone 70 
 
 Sand and gravel 70 
 
 Fine coal 80 
 
 This chart shows the excellent choice of equipment readily pro- 
 curable on the market for capacities up to 35 tons of fine coal 
 per hour, or corresponding capacities for other materials. This 
 diversity of standard conveyors in the smaller sizes makes the 
 economic selection of proper size for a specific task of particular 
 Importance as well as one involving careful judgment. 
 
 o 0.35 
 
 ;'So.25 
 
 Oh 
 
 OuJ 
 
 0.15 
 
 General Formula „. (AUBH)W /9Wl 
 
 "P= 100000 nioo/ 
 
 Where, For Conveyors with Pivoted Buckets only. 
 A = Constant = 28 forConveijors nith Pivoted Bua 
 
 =105 " , •' " /Flg/ct 
 B= Constant=I0S " " " " Pivoted " 
 -I5S " • '• " Rigid " 
 L = Totat horizontal span oF Conveyor in feci 
 
 kets 
 
 ^ 
 
 OA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W= Load handled in tons CZOOOLb.i pe, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h\^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 "h^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 =z 
 
 ^W^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K^^y^^o^- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^:h- 
 
 ^^■^^^ ■ >< iV\ ' 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 »v\t^/.j\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -. 
 
 
 \^54_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ji°l- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •, 
 
 W -'.-W- Xr 
 
 0* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^y ^0//-,^'- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 \)?^ »<w:'_>/rv^ 
 
 ;' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^Z^Z^^'i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~t'/'\'^yXi\^^' c^"-L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3^y\e^/V^o<*(nr' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oV ^yy^- 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jyy ,'y:.Qy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hes)j: 
 
 
 
 V^.'%9«V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 c^ef 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 lal ^•■--r 
 
 s.- 
 
 _ 
 
 
 rtV/.:^^,-!,- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II- 
 
 oOT-^'l^-^-r^ke.X 
 
 
 ,(,'4V^„.\\>" ' 
 
 
 
 
 lOn ^'--r-^tafi D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 irT. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 "fe^^ /-onv«y"'-2'"-'tr.;,r-.9 f 
 
 ' 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T^^^r? 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ^ V-hrT 1 
 
 J . J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■— --iT 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 ZJ 0.05 
 
 50 100 150 200 250 300 
 
 CAPACITY IN TONS CZOOOLB.) PER HOUR. 
 
 Fig. 24. Horsepower requirements of bucket conveyors. 
 
 As in the case of bucket elevators, bucket conveyors are per- 
 fectly balanced so that the power requirements comprise simply 
 that required for the elevating operation, for the conveying opera- 
 tion, and to overcome the frictional resistance of the equipment, 
 etc. In bucket conveyors of the type in which the buckets are 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1365 
 
 rigidly attached to the chains, considerable power is consumed in 
 dragging the buckets through the supply of material in the feeding 
 trough, etc. ; and in the type in which the buckets are attached to 
 the chains so as to maintain an upright position while in any 
 plane, power is required for operating the " reciprocating feeder " 
 for loading the buckets. 
 
 Fig. 24 shows the power requirements for both types of bucket 
 conveyors, those with rigid buckets and those with pivoted buckets. 
 The power required for the elevating operation does not differ so 
 greatly in amount for the two types, but the difference is quite 
 marked in the conveying operations, conveyors with the buckets 
 rigidly attached to the chains being virtually flight conveyors of 
 an inefficient type and therefore extremely lavish in the use of 
 power. Bucket conveyors with pivoted buckets are economical in 
 
 2W00 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVIVOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL (H-u iH ONE 
 DIRECTION-INFEET 
 50 100 150 200 250 300 550 A^x) 450 500 550 600. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 25. Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
 fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 18 inches. 
 
 the use of power and are rapidly displacing the less efficient though 
 very much cheaper conveyor with rigid buckets. 
 
 The spacing of the buckets not only materially affects the ca- 
 pacity of bucket conveyors but also has a considerable effect upon 
 their cost — the buckets constituting an important item in the cost 
 of the equipment. Figs. 25 to |32 inclusive depict the average cost 
 of standard bucket conveyors ; the first four charts refer to con- 
 veyors with rigid buckets, and the latter four to similar conveyors 
 with pivoted buckets, the bucket spacing being 18 ins., 24 ins., 30 
 ins. chnd 36 ins. respectively. These charts are derived from cost 
 data from average installations' — as usually encountered. 
 
 The general formulas given on the various figures permit ready 
 calculations to be made of the average costs in cases where the 
 vertical lift or the horizontal travel are abnormal — that is, where 
 the ratio between the length of the two operations differs con- 
 
1366 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 siderably from the usual run of installations. The formulas also 
 enable the cost of equipment for handling unusually heavy or ex- 
 tremely light materials to be ascertained. In such special cases, 
 
 LEKGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTALTRAVEL(H+L) IN ONE 
 DIRECT10M IN FEET 
 50 too -150 200 250 500 350 400 450 500 550 600 , » 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
 fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 24 inches. 
 
 LEHCTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEUHtL) IN ONE 
 DIRECTION IN FEET 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 g :; 
 
 20000 
 
 > lOOOO 
 
 ?00 ?50 300 550 400' 450 500 550 600 ■. . 
 
 Oener/kl Formula: 
 
 €=0.00167 wl<H^L)w'tO005wlLt 15.25 /ftT 
 
 Where : C=4 vera a e Cost in dollars. 
 
 wl= Widfhx length ofbucket in inches 
 
 H = Heii^ht to which load is elevated in feet. 
 
 L ' Horizontal travel ofconveijor inone direcfiop 
 
 in feet 
 ty'= Weight of material handled in pounq 
 percuft. ^ ^ 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
 fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 30 inches. • 
 
 heavier or lighter equipment is frequently advisable. For ordinary 
 service, the results obtained from the figures are accurate enough 
 for practical purposes. The initial cost of this type of conveyor 
 is high compared to almost any other type of conveyor or elevator, 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1367 
 
 so that a considerable variation in initial cost has. comparatively- 
 little effect upon the net cost of operation per ton. 
 
 Bucket conveyors require somewhat more attention during opera- 
 
 40000 
 
 55000 
 
 2iOOOO 
 
 §25000 
 
 20000 
 
 J 15000 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 i 10000 
 
 f 
 
 5000 
 
 LENGTH OFCONVEYOR-SUM OFVERTICALAMD HORIZONTAL TRAVEL<H+L) IN ONE 
 DIRECTION IN FEET 
 
 50 100 150 200 250 500 350 400 450 500 550 600 ^ . 
 
 136x24 
 
 6eM£ffAL Formula ■ 
 C- 0.00159 wl(HtL)y 
 Where: 
 
 ^ O.OOSivlLf 15.25 rWT 
 
 C= Average Cost in dollars. 
 nl-Widfnxlengfh or bucket in incfws. 
 H = Height to r/hich load is elevated in Feet 
 L = Horizon ta/ Travel of conveuor in one direcHon^ 
 in feet , -^ 
 
 vt' - Weight of material handled in pounds . 
 percu. ft. '^ ^ 
 
 ^ = 
 
 50x24 " 
 361^20 o 
 
 24x20 f 
 
 20*x20" ^ 
 24x15* i 
 
 16x12' 
 12x12* 
 
 Fig. 
 
 28. Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
 fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 36 inches. 
 
 iSOOO 
 50000 
 
 4^25000 
 
 §20000 
 
 z 
 
 § 15000 
 u 
 
 2 I 0000 
 
 > 
 < 
 
 5000 
 
 'XGenEftAL Formula ■ ' 
 
 C=O.Q0i8dMHHtUw.tO.0SV^Lt075fm 
 I Where. C= Average cost in dollars. 
 
 wl ^ Width X length of budget in inches 
 
 H = Height to which load is elevated in feet 
 
 L =Mori7ontal travel oFconveuor inone 
 
 airechon in feet 
 w '^ Weight of mate rial handled in pounds 
 per cuft ^ 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HtL) IN ONE 
 
 ^ DIRECTION IN FEET 
 
 - ^° '00 150 700 ?50 500 350 4 00 450 500 55C 600 
 
 zieiis"^ 
 
 I&XI5 
 
 12x12 ^ 
 o 
 
 Fig. 
 
 29. Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
 fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 18 inches. 
 
 tion than do some of the other systems of conveying machinery. 
 In addition to the necessary periodic inspection, bucket conveyors 
 with rigid buckets mu.st have the gates in the horizontal troughs 
 opened and closed as required, and conveyors with pivoted buckets 
 
1368 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 necessitate some attention to the reciprocating feeder and for set- 
 ting and shifting the tripping devices. The average expense for 
 the less efficient type of construction will average about 5 cts. per 
 
 43000 
 4000O 
 
 35000 
 
 : 30000 
 
 12 5000 
 
 ; 20000 
 
 t 15000 
 
 ' 10000 
 
 5000 
 
 LENGTH OFCONVEYOR-SUM OF VERTICALANO HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(H+L) IN ONE 
 DIRECTION IN FEET. 
 50 100 150 «200 250 300 ^50 400 450 500 550 6 
 
 I I I- 
 
 "1 — r 
 
 denERAL Fqrhula: 
 
 C=0.02'32fYl(HtL)w't003/;ru tOlS /Pil 
 Where C- Average cost in dollars 
 
 v/l' Width* length of^ucl^et in inches 
 H = Height to y/htch load is elevated in feet. 
 'L = Horizontal travel oFconyeyor in one 
 . ^ direction in feet 
 Vv= neight oFmaterial handled in pounds^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 24.15^ 
 1. 
 20x15'^ 
 18x15 -i 
 
 le'xis'^ 
 
 9 
 16x12' 5: 
 
 I2V12| 
 
 225 275 325 
 FEET 
 
 Fig. 30. Average cost of standard bucket conveyor for handling 
 fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 24 inches. 
 
 UNSTH Of CONVEVOR • SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL <HtL) IN ONE 
 DIRECTION IN FEET 
 50 100 150 . 200 250 300 550 400 450 500 550 600 
 
 40000 
 35000 
 
 ^_^_OcNEf>AL Formula- 
 £ C=O.O02iiwl(HiL)wtO0S/inLfQ.7S/^ 
 Where- C = Average cost in dollars. 
 
 wl = Widtf! x length of bucket in inches. 
 H = Height to nhich load is elevated m feet 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 i^.verage cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling' 
 fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 24 inches. 
 
 hr. per in. -width of bucket, and for the conveyors with pivoted 
 buckets in the neighborhood of 4 cts. per hr. per in. -width. 
 
 Incidental supplies vary closely in cost with the power con- 
 sumption of the apparatus ; in the case of bucket conveyors with 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1369 
 
 rigid buckets it averages about 1% cts. per h.p. per hr., and for 
 conveyors with pivoted buckets in the neighborhood of 1 ct. per 
 h.p. Such charges cover not only the expense of the necessary 
 grease or oil, waste, etc., but also the application of the lubricant. 
 The question of lubrication is important in this type of conveyor 
 and should be attended to regularly. 
 
 The complexity due to the variation in bucket spacing of the 
 two types of conveyors, so apparent in the consideration of average 
 initial costs, is still further accentuated in the matter of depre- 
 ciation, as the component parts of the two types of conveyors de- 
 teriorate at quite different rates. The ordinary yearly deprecia- 
 tion of the buckets for^the conveyors with rigid construction aver- 
 
 t-ENGTH OF CONVEYOR -SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HtL>INONE 
 DIRECTION IN FEET 
 SO 100 150 ?0O 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600_ • . 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
 fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 36 inches. 
 
 ages close to 33i^%, while that of the pivoted types of buckets 
 should not exceed 20%, unless the service to which the conveyor is 
 subjected is unusually severe. The depreciation on the chains does 
 not vary to any great extent, averaging about 15% per year. 
 Chains for rigid buckets must be heavier because of the greater 
 amount of power they have to transmit, and though subject to 
 more of a scouring action than the chains for the pivoted type of 
 conveyor they withstand the abrasive wear better on account of 
 their greater weight. 
 
 The horizontal troughs of the conveyors with rigid buckets wear 
 out about as rapidly as do the rigid buckets themselves, while the 
 rails, etc., of the more efficient ■ construction do not contract a 
 depreciation of more than 10 or 15% per year — sometimes even 
 less. The balance of equipment for either type of conveyor should 
 not show depreciation at a greater rate than about 10% per year. 
 
 Figs. 33 to 40 inclusive graphically depict the average annual 
 
1370 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 depreciation contracted by bucket conveyors when handling such 
 material as fine coal in the manufacturing plant; the first four 
 figures showing the average deterioration of conveyors with rigid 
 
 5500 
 <n 
 
 § SOOOg 
 
 g4500 
 
 z 
 
 z 4000 
 o 
 
 *g 3500 
 
 y 3000 
 
 o2500 
 
 < 2000 
 
 i 1500 
 < 
 
 o 1000 
 
 I.EN6TH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HfL) IN ONE 
 
 DIRECTION IN FEET 
 50 100 150 700 250 500 J50 400 450 500 550 600, 
 
 
 '- — ' 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ' ' 
 
 ' 
 
 
 t:=3 
 
 "—z. 
 
 Z=L 
 
 
 zir 
 
 ^ 
 
 rr: 
 
 Er 
 
 ;^- 
 
 : : Q= Q00066wl (HtDw 1 0002 wlL t I.S2S /ST 
 
 :: Where; D= Average Annual Depreciation m dollars 
 
 ^ 
 
 = 
 
 
 = 
 
 P 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 : : ¥iU Width x /engtfi of buckets in irn 
 z: H' Heigt'ttowhichloadiselevatei 
 ■--. L' Hori2ontal travel oFconvetjori 
 - - direction in feet. 
 : : »v V Weeqht of material tiandled in 
 '-'- pounds per cu. Ft 
 
 
 feet 
 e 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 s5 
 
 :=zr== 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 ^ 
 
 = 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 == 
 
 ^ 
 
 :- , 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 Wi 
 
 a 
 ^ 
 
 = 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 = 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 = 
 
 ^ 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 75 
 
 ' — d 
 
 T" 
 
 n 
 
 5 
 
 r 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 425 
 
 475 
 
 525 
 
 575 
 
 12x12 K 
 o 
 
 Fig. 33, Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 18 inches. 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEVOR ■ SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL th.i_) IN 
 ONE DIRECTION IN FEET 
 250 500 550 400 45 500 550 600,/„, 
 
 Fig. 34. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 24 inches. 
 
 buckets spaced 18 ins., 24 ins., 30 ins. and 36 ins. apart respectively. 
 The other four figures give similar data for conveyors with pivoted 
 buckets. 
 
 The general formulas given on the various figures permit the 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1371 
 
 rapid calculations of average depreciation contracted by convey- 
 ors of unusual proportions, conveyors handling other material than 
 fine coal. etc. Usually the data obtained from the figures direct 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HtL)l 
 
 ONE DIRECTION IN F^ET 
 50 100 ISO 200 2 50 ^00 SSO 400 450 500 550 
 
 ,9000 
 8500 
 I 8000 
 17500 
 :7000 
 :-6500 
 16000 
 i 5500 
 ! 5000 
 4S0O 
 14000 
 '3 500 
 !5000 
 ^2500 
 ,2000 
 ; 1500 
 i 1000 
 : 500 
 
 *O0OZnlL*IS25 /Wl 
 
 GENERAL Formula 
 
 D^0.00040nl(HfL)y 
 Where. D- Average Annual Depreciation in dollars 
 'A ^l^ Width K length of buctceto m inches. 
 
 3 W = Height to nhich load /.s elevated m feet 
 
 I L- Horiiontal trave/of Convei^onnone 
 
 5 direction in feet 
 
 r IV '= Yfeighf of material handled in 
 
 oundspercu ft 
 
 Fig. 35. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 30 inches. 
 
 lEMGTH OF CONVEYOR -SUM OF VERTICALAND HORIZONTAL TRAVELfHtL) INONE 
 DIRECTION IN FEET 
 250 30O 550 400 450 500_ 550 
 
 Fig 36. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 36 inches. 
 
 are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, however, for in 
 the case of bucket elevators it is customary to charge up only 
 such proportion of the annual depreciation that is represented by 
 the actual number of hours in which the system is in productive 
 
1372 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 operation. In the case of bucket conveyors with rigid buckets, 
 this practice of apportioning the depreciation is justified by the 
 comparatively high depreciation, providing that the conveyor is 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND H0R170NTAL TRAVEL (H+L) IN ONE 
 
 DIRECTION IN FEET 
 50 100 150 200 250 3.00 550 40O 450 SOO 550 600 
 
 Fig. 37. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in pivoted buckets ; spaced 18 inches. 
 
 LENGTH OF COMVEVOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRA\ EL fH.L> IN ONE DIRECTION 
 
 IN FEET 
 50 100 ISO 200 250 100 550 400 450 500 S50 600 
 
 Fig. 38. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in pivoted buckets, spaced 24 inches. 
 
 in use a reasonable number of hours each year ; but in the case 
 of conveyors with pivoted buckets, such practice is only legitimate 
 when the plant is in active operation, at least 60% of the work- 
 ing hours of the year — i. e., from 4 to 5 hrs. each working day. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1373 
 
 In installations in which the conveyor is not used more than about 
 1,500 hrs. per year the depreciation charge of bucket conveyors 
 with pivoted buckets should be figured on such usage. 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR -SUM OF VERTICALAND HORIZONTAL TRAVEKH+ DIN ONE 
 
 DIRECTION J N FEET 
 .50 fOO ISO, 200 250 300 350 400 460 SOO 550 
 
 Fig. 39. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in pivoted buckets, spaced 30 inches. 
 
 LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(H* DTNONE 
 
 DIRECTIOIi INFEET 
 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 60q,'.„ » , 
 
 Fig. 40. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
 handling fine coal in pivoted buckets, spaced 36 inches. 
 
 Test of Motor- Driven Coai-Conveyor System. L. A. Quaj'le in 
 Power, March 7. 1916, gives the following test on the coal and 
 ash conveyor installed at the Fairmount pumping station, Cleve- 
 land, Ohio, as made to determine whether the motors and con- 
 veyor conformed with the specifications upon which they were pur- 
 chased. 
 
1374 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The main conveyor was of the traveling-bucket type. The 
 buckets were of compressed steel, counterbalanced to hold them 
 in a horizontal position, and they overlap when traveling longi- 
 tudinally. The cross conveyor is of the endless-belt type and con- 
 veys the coal from the hopper into which the cars dump (in the 
 space to the right) to the main conveyor, a distance of 10 ft. The 
 ashes were dumped from the boiler ash hoppers into small cars, 
 which were elevated to the floor above by a hydraulic elevator and 
 dumped into the ash hopper. From here the ashes were conveyed 
 upward into a large hopper, from which they slide into railroad 
 cars. 
 
 Conveyor data and the results of the tests on the conveyor run- 
 ning loaded and also running light are given in the following table : 
 
 Total number of buckets in conveyor 173 
 
 Pitch of buckets 2 ft. 
 
 Total length of conveyor 346 ft. 
 
 Total height cog,l is elevated 55 ft. 
 
 Rated capacity of conveyor, tons per hr 40 
 
 Speed of conveyor running light- 40 ft. per min. 
 
 Speed of conveyor running loaded 38.2 ft. per min. 
 
 Time required for bucket to return to starting 
 
 point 9 min. 5 sec. 
 
 Type of main- and cross-belt conveyor motors, 
 d.c, 115 volt compound wound, inclosed. 
 
 Full-load rating of main-conveyor motor (57% 
 
 amps.) 7.25 h.p. 
 
 Full-load speed of main-conveyor motor 775 r.p.m 
 
 Full-load rating of cross-conveyor motor (19% 
 
 amps. ) 2.5 h.p. 
 
 Full-load speed of cross-conveyor motor 1,200 r.p.m. 
 
 Length of run, running light 27 min. 
 
 Length of run, unloading coal 2 hr. 28 min. 
 
 Net weight of coal in car No. 216,435 97,900 lbs. 
 
 Net weight of coal in car No. 216,082 98,300 lbs. 
 
 Total coal unloaded 98 tons 
 
 Rate of unloading, tons per hour 39.78 
 
 Input to both motors, conveyor running light. . . 115 v. 19 amp. 
 
 Input to both motors, conveyor running light... 2.18 kw. 
 
 Current input to both motors, conveyor run- 
 
 • ning loaded 113 v., 41 amp. 
 
 Average input to both motors, conveyor running 
 
 loa'ded 4.63 kw. 
 
 Rated continuous input to both motors 8.85 kw. 
 
 Actual input in per cent, of rated input 52.3 
 
 Max. temp, of bearings on main motor 120 deg. F. 
 
 Max. temp, of bearings on cross-belt motor.... 116 deg. F. 
 
 Max. temp, rise of main motor windings 25 deg. C. 
 
 Max. temp, rise of cross-belt motor windings... 20 deg. C. 
 
 Max. allowable temp, rise of main- and cross- 
 conveyor motor windings 55 deg. C. 
 
 Theoretical b.hp. required to elevate the coal 
 
 and give it a velocity of 38.2 ft. per min.. . 2.22 b.hp. 
 
 Efficiency of the conveyor, assuming an efficiency 
 of 80% for main-conveyor motor and 78% for 
 
 cross-conveyor motor 45% 
 
 The conveyor handled slightly less than its rated capacity during 
 the test, owing to the buckets not being completely filled. 
 
 The ratio of current input running light (2.18 kw.) to current 
 input running loaded (4.63 kw.) is 41%, which represents ap- 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1375 
 
 proximately the efficiency of the conveyor and checks within 2% 
 the b.h.p. method, which was used in obtaining the efficiency of 
 45% shown by the test. 
 
 A Bucket Conveyor Machine for loading wagons from open piles, 
 consisting of a gasoline engine driven inclined conveyor mounted 
 on a wagon truck, is built by the Link Belt Company of Phila- 
 delphia, and is sold at $850 Engineering News, Feb. 22, 1912, 
 gives the following data on its use : 
 
 Comparative observations of the machine in use in a coal yard 
 and of hand loading show the following costs per ton: 
 
 MACHINE LOADING 
 
 Cost, cts. 
 
 Interest 2.55 
 
 Maintenance 1.25 
 
 Depreciation 2.12 
 
 Power 0.37 
 
 Team and driver 5.00 
 
 Yard helper 1.25 
 
 Total , . . . 12.54 
 
 HAND LOADING 
 
 Cost, Cts. 
 
 Team and driver 15 
 
 Yard helper 5 
 
 Total 20 
 
 This is based on loading only 10 tons of coal per day for a year 
 of 200 days; interest is taken at 6%, maintenance and repairs at 
 $25, depreciation at 5%, power at 10 cts. per kw.-hr., team and 
 driver at 45 cts. per hr., yard helper at 15 cts. 
 
 When desired, the head chute is made, without extra cost, with 
 a screen plate. The extra cost of screening is then nothing com- 
 pared with about 6.6 cts. by hand, making the total saving on a 
 ton of screened coal 14 cts. 
 
 These figures are for a very small use of the loader — about 10 
 minutes of actual operation. The ton costs for power, team and 
 men are fixed, but the other costs decrease with increasing use. 
 If 50 minutes' average actual operation for a day can be secured, 
 then the costs per ton for loading and screening drops to 7.8 cts. 
 and the saving per ton amounts to 18.8 cts. The annual saving 
 for the smaller use (unscreened) amounts to $149 ($281 for 
 screened coal) : for the larger use it rises to $1,240 for unscreened 
 and $1,880 for screened coal. It is evident that the machine would 
 pay for itself in a year in a medium-sized yard. The figures 
 quoted are for handling coal, but they should be about the same 
 for handling broken stone, etc. 
 
 Suction Conveyors. Reginald Trautschold in Industrial Man- 
 agement, Nov., 1916, gives a system of conveying ashes in large 
 power plants, and to a somewhat lesser extent of handling fine coal, 
 which has been developed to a high .state of perfection during the 
 past ten years, using the rush of air to a storage tank in which a 
 partial vacuum is maintained by a high speed exhaust fan. The 
 
1376 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 conveyor proper consists siinply of a section of heavy cast-iron 
 pipe in which small intakes are located before each boiler (in ash 
 conveyors) to which the ashes are simply fed and are sucked in 
 by the inrushing- air through the open intake, the conveyor duct 
 being connected directly to the exhaust storag-e tank. A some- 
 what similar arrangement is also satisfactorily in use for handling 
 fine coal to temporary storage tanks. From these tanks the coal 
 is subsequently distributed to other storage by other systems of 
 conveying machinery. 
 
 This pneumatic system of handling materials possesses many 
 desirable features. It has also several peculiarities which are 
 of interest from an engineering standpoint. The system is an 
 expensive one to install and requires a considerable supply of 
 power for a relatively small capacity ; but on the other hand, it 
 calls for practically no individual labor expense and is extremely 
 convenient and cleanly, solving the ash problem, which is so 
 often an annoyance in the manufacturing plant. 
 
 As the material handled by a suction conveyor is carried in a 
 state of suspension, the capacity of the systein is not high. A 
 4-in. conveyor (diam. of pipe, or conveyor duct) carries only 
 about 2% tons of ashes per hr., while the largest size employed, 
 the 12-in. conveyor, only about 23% tons per hr. 
 
 The capacities of standard suction conveyors of the different 
 sizes when handling fine coal or ashes are given in Table VII. 
 When handling other material the capacity of the installation can 
 be readily ascertained by the general formula 
 
 W — 0.0385 k d2. where 
 
 W = Capacity of the conveyor in tons per hr. 
 
 d -— Diam. of conveyor duct in ins. 
 
 k = Weight of material handled in lbs. per cu. ft. 
 
 In the consumption of power, suction conveyors present one 
 of their distinct peculiarities ; practically, the length of the con- 
 veyor (the conveyor duct) has no appreciable effect upon the con- 
 sumption, other than a slight increase due to greater leakage 
 through the intakes, leakage which can be controlled to a great 
 extent. This peculiarity is due to the fact that after a certain 
 degree of vacuum has been created throughout the system, no 
 more power is required to maintain such a vacuum in a long 
 conveyor than in a considerably shorter one. The leakage through 
 intakes which are not tightly closed tends to destroy the vacuum, 
 but such leakage, even in a long conveyor with a number of in- 
 takes, is slight compared to the inrush of air through the open 
 intakes through which the conveyor is fed. The long conveyor 
 requires a somewhat longer time in which to create the required 
 degree of vacuum than is required by a shorter conveyor, but the 
 volumetric contents of the conveyor duct per unit length is small 
 compared to the contents of the exhausted storage tank. Quite 
 an appreciable increase in the length of the conveyor, therefore, 
 has very little effect upon the time required to secure the state 
 of vacuum necessary for the successful operation of the system. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1377 
 
 Another peculiarity of the suction conveyor is that the char- 
 acter of the load has no appreciable effect upon the consumption 
 of power. The degree of vacuum maintained is the important 
 thing : the weight of material handled in no way affects the power 
 consumption. 
 
 In a 10-in. conveyor it takes just as much power to handle about 
 17 tons of ashes as it does to .handle about 23 tons of fine coal 
 per hour. 
 
 TABLE VII. CAPACITIES, POWER REQUIREMENTS, AND 
 COSTS OF STANDARD SUCTION CONVEYORS 
 
 
 Capacities 
 
 Average h.p. 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate aver- 
 
 Diameters 
 
 c — in tons 
 
 1 per hr. — ^ 
 
 required for 
 
 age cost in 
 
 in ins. 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Fine coal 
 
 exhaust fan 
 
 dollars 
 
 4 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.7 
 
 9 
 
 2,300 
 
 6 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.3 
 
 20 
 
 5,200 
 
 8 
 
 10.3 
 
 14.8 
 
 35 
 
 9,300 
 
 10 
 
 17.0 
 
 23.1 
 
 55 
 
 14,500 
 
 12 
 
 23.5 
 
 32.3 
 
 80 
 
 21,000 
 
 Table VII gives the average power requirements of standard 
 suction conveyors when handling any kind of material such as 
 may be successfully conveyed by such apparatus. A 12 -in. suc- 
 tion conveyor requires a supply of about 80 h.p. to maintain the 
 required degree of vacuum and such a conveyor would have a 
 capacity when handling ashes of only about 23.5 tons per hr., or 
 require nearly 3.5 h.p. for each tone of ashes carried. 
 
 By far the most expensive item of equipment for a suction con- 
 veyor is that represented by the powerful exhaust fan required. 
 The storage tank, with its system of water spray for quenching 
 hot ashes, etc., is also an expensive item and just as costly for 
 a short conveyor as it is for a long one. The conveyor duct is 
 comparatively inexpensive, so that the average cost of a complete 
 installation is little affected by the length of the system. Further- 
 more, the system is still relatively new, so that the average costs 
 may be considered as practically independent of the length of the 
 system and as governed almost entirely by the size of the con- 
 veyor (the diam. of the conveyor duct). 
 
 Table VI t gives the average cost of complete suction conveyor 
 installations of ordinary sizes. The systems are expensive, but 
 their convenience and cleanliness do much to compensate for their 
 high initial cost. 
 
 Practically no additional labor charge is contracted In the opera- 
 tion of a suction conveyor. In fact, the duties of the boiler men 
 are reduced rather than increased by such a system for handling 
 ashes. No labor charge need therefore be made against the system 
 when employed for handling ashes ; nor, for that matter, when fine 
 coal is handled by the conveyor. In the matter of incidental sup- 
 plies also, little expense is contracted. The bearings of the ex- 
 haust fan, etc., have to be lubricated; there is some expense en- 
 tailed in the supply of quenching water for the hot ashes, and 
 
1378 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 there are the usual incidental supplies required in keeping the 
 fan and other mechanically operated parts in proper condition, 
 but that is about the extent of the legitimate expense for supplies 
 — amounting in all to about 1 ct. per h.p.-hr. 
 
 Suction conveyors promise to be long lived if properly cared for. 
 The chief item of depreciation is represented by the expense con- 
 tracted for new elbows at points . where the direction of the con- 
 veyor duct changes. Such elbows, or their back wearing blocks, 
 wear out rapidly on account of the destructive abrasive action of 
 the rapidly moving load carried in suspension and forcibly pro- 
 jected against any surface deflecting a direct course. The ex- 
 haust tanks in suction conveyors handling ashes deteriorate through 
 the corrosive action of wet ashes, but except for these localized 
 points of heavy deterioration a suction conveyor well withstands 
 wear and tear. A conservative depreciation charge, one that is 
 perforce arbitrarily chosen on account of the meagreness of re- 
 liable data available, is 10% of the initial cost of the system per 
 year. 
 
 The system is subject to the usual fixed charges, consisting of 
 interest on investment, insurance, taxes, etc., say 8.5% of the 
 initial cost. 
 
 Steam Jet Ash Conveyors. A system for handling ashes from 
 the boiler grates that is even of more recent origin than the suc- 
 tion conveyor consists of a conveyor duct, similar to that employed 
 in the suction system of ash handling, leading to an elevated stor- 
 age tank, but utilizing a steam jet taken from the boiler to create 
 the rush of air through the conveyor duct for carrying the ashes, 
 in place of the partial vacuum used in the suction system. The 
 economy of this system is dependent upon the value of the steam 
 utilized by the conveyor — the conveyor duct and the storage tank 
 being comparatively inexpensive and adding no great burden of 
 fixed charges to the installation. 
 
 Steam Consumption and Capacity. Careful tests conducted in a 
 plant equipped with this system of ash handling showed an aver- 
 age steam consumption of about 265 lbs. per ton of ashes removed. 
 At 20 cts. per 1,000 lbs. of steam, this would place the steam ex- 
 pense of the system at about BVs cts. per ton of ashes handled. 
 Adding a fixed burden of 25%, a conservative rate, would bring 
 the net cost of handling ashes by the steam jet ash conveyor to 
 about 6% cts. per ton — a figure which compares quite favorably 
 with that contracted by the more complicated system. 
 
 Operation of the Automatic or Gravity Railway consists in re- 
 leasing a car with its load on a down grade on a trestle and stop- 
 ping it by means of a counterweight of the counterbalance, which 
 is so adjusted that it will allow the car to reach its destination 
 over the bin or dump, where it is dumped by means of a tripping 
 block. Then the momentum of the car having been spent, and its 
 weight reduced, the counterweight falls back to its former position. 
 In doing so the car is given suflficient momentum to carry it back to 
 the point for receiving another load. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES. ELEVATORS 1379 
 
 The ytandard types of car are built of one and two tons' capacity 
 "With the ridge in the center so that all the material will discharge 
 simultaneously and equally and without danger of overturning. 
 The sides are fastened to each other so that one side cannot open 
 unless the other' side opens equally at the same time. 
 
 A plant in which an automatic railway effects important econo- 
 mies is that of T. F. Quinlan, New York, described by A. E. 
 Michel in Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1912. Twenty- 
 five thousand tons of coal are handled annually. The coal is 
 hoisted by means of an electric hoist from the canal boats in i.^-ton 
 tubs, on a mast and gaff, to an automatic railway car by which 
 It is distributed in the yard. 
 
 With the previous equipment, the coal was hoisted by horse 
 power and trimmed into the stock pile. The old equipment cost 
 $1,750, the new one $2,800. The unloading capacity with the old 
 plant was 120 tons per day ; with the new machinery the capacity 
 is 200 tons per day, an increase of 80 tons. 
 
 The power is purchased by meter at 5 cts. per h.p.-hr., and costs 
 less than 7 mills for each ton of coal hoisted and delivered to the 
 car. 
 
 The labor required to operate the new plant in taking the coal 
 from the vessel to the stock pile, is as follows : Three shovelers 
 are employed in the hold of the vessel, one man operates the elec- 
 tric hoist, another dumps the coal into the car, weighs it, and at- 
 tends to the automatic railway. 
 
 The cost of handling to the stock pile, interest and depreciation 
 included, was, with the old plant, 17% cts. per ton; with the new 
 plant the cost is 7 % cts., the comparative operating costs being 
 analyzed below. 
 
 NEW PLANT 
 
 Per 
 
 Capacity 200 tons. day. 
 
 3 shovelers. at $1.50 $ 4.50 
 
 1 bolster, at $2 2.00 
 
 1 man to dump, weigh and tend automatic car, at $1.50. . . . 1.50 
 
 Electric power, oil, waste, etc 2.00 
 
 Interest and taxes yearly, 10 per cent 2.24 
 
 Depreciation, yearly, 1 per cent 2.24 
 
 (Two last items based on a year of 125 days' work.) 
 
 $14.48 
 Daily cost per ton in stock pile 7 1^ cts. 
 
 OLD PLANT 
 
 Per 
 Capacity 120 tons. day. 
 
 2 shovelers, at $1.50 $ 3.00 
 
 3 carts, horses and driver, at $3 9 00 
 
 1 hoisting horse and driver, at $3 ■ 3.00 
 
 2 trimmers, at $1.75 3.50 
 
 Interest and taxes yearly, 10% 1-40 
 
 Depreciation, yearly, 10% 1.40 
 
 (Two last items based on a year of 125 days' work.) 
 
 $21.30 
 Daily cost per ton in stock pile 17% cts. 
 
1380 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 This difference of 10 1/^ cts. per ton on 25,000 tons maizes an ac- 
 tual saving of $2,625 each year; thus every 13 months the cost of 
 the new plant is saved in reduced pay roll. 
 
 Comparative Cost and Value of First Quality and Second Quality 
 Hemp Rope. To determine the relative value of first and second 
 quality of Manila rope the following data were compiled by the 
 Plymouth Cordage Company : 
 
 1st quality 2d quality 
 
 Length of rope in -coil 1,250 ft. 1,070 ft. 
 
 Wt. of coil with lashings 97 lbs. 97 lbs. 
 
 Wt. of lashings 1 lb. 3 lb. 
 
 Assumed price i)er lb 12 cts. 9 cts. 
 
 Comparative price per 100 ft 9 3 cts. 82 cts. 
 
 Breaking strength 2,907 lbs. 1,450 lbs. 
 
 Comparative value (estimated) 12 cts. 5% cts. 
 
 The coils were accurately weighed and measured and a number 
 of pieces of each were tested for strength upon a reliable testing 
 machine, the above results being obtained from the various weights 
 and measurements. 
 
 The Life of a Wire Rope and the Effect of Oiling Thereon. Mr. 
 W. D. Hardie in Engineering and Mining Journal, May 31, 1902, 
 says that in some tests of greased and ungreased wire rope by 
 Mr. Biffart two lengths of the same size and manufacture of rope 
 were run over pulleys, the oiled lengths making 38,700 bends, as 
 against 16,000 for the unoiled, before breaking. In other tests 
 unoiled rope passed 74,000 times over a 24-in. pulley as against 
 386.000 times for the oiled rope. This illustrates the value of 
 lubricants in keeping down costs of rope service. 
 
 Cost of Locomotive Cranes. 
 
 15-ton, 8-wheel type, standard gauge revolving locomotive crane, 
 with 46-ft. steel boom and cables for hoist. 
 
 Crane shipped on own trucks. 
 Cost of works $6,000 
 
 15-ton, 4-wheel type, standard gauge revolving locomotive crane, 
 with 38-ft. steel boom and cables for hoist. 
 Cost_f. o. b. cars at work $4,850 
 
 Equipment for above cranes. 
 
 One 15-ton capacity swivel hook-block >. . . $ 50 
 
 One 1 ^2 yd. clam-shell bucked 450 
 
 Capacity, Cost, and Operation of Locomotive Cranes. Cranes 
 are built in sizes ranging from 3 to 60 tons capacity ; the lightest 
 ones being used chiefly around industrial plants and the larger 
 bnes for special purposes, such as bridge erection, etc. The best 
 all-around crane for maintenance of way work is the 8-Avheel crane 
 of 20 to 30 tons capacity. Such a crane will cost from $7,000 to 
 $8,000, The cost of operation depends on the number of days 
 worked, the kind of work, etc., it being evident that a crane loading 
 ballast will require more repairs than one doing light work in a 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1381 
 
 storage yard. However, the average cost of operation will be 
 about as follows: 
 
 Interest $ 2.00 
 
 Depreciation 2.00 
 
 Repairs 2,00 
 
 Fuel 2.50 
 
 Supplies 0.50 
 
 Labor 6.00 
 
 Total $15.00 
 
 This is somewhat higher than is usually claimed, but it is prob- 
 ably a fair estimate. Where fuel is cheap and wages low, it may 
 be reduced somewhat but it is usual to underestimate such items 
 as depreciation and repairs. Depreciation and repairs have been 
 figured on the basis of a crane being kept in service 20 years, but 
 that in the meantime it will have been completely rebuilt once. 
 The daily rate is based on using the crane 200 full days during the 
 year. 
 
 What a crane will earn depends upon the class of work it is 
 doing, and the amount saved depends upon the method superseded. 
 For instance, a crane will not switch cheaper than a switch engine, 
 it will not excavate or handle material cheaper than a good stiff- 
 leg derrick, it will not drive piles cheaper than a good piledriyer, 
 or compete with any other good machine designed for special 
 purposes. However, when its adaptability is taken into considera- 
 tion, the fact that it may displace several machines (on account 
 of being able to command a large territory) makes its value 
 evident. 
 
 It is when the ' use of a crane is compared with manual labor 
 that its great saving is shown. Figures have been obtained from 
 a large number of sources and while they show considerable varia- 
 tion in general it may be claimed that a crane will save, as against 
 hand work, as follows : 
 
 Saving, 
 per day 
 
 Handling scrap and other material with a magnet $40 
 
 Handling coal and other material with a clam shell bucket.. 40 
 
 Handling lumber and timber 30 
 
 On general construction wori< including switching 40 
 
 From these figures it will appear that a crane may pay for itself 
 in a year's time. 
 
 A few comparative costs, selected at random, follow: 
 
 Material handled By hand. With crane, 
 
 cts. cts. 
 
 »crap, ton 0.20 to 0.25 0.02 to 0.06 
 
 Coal, ton See note 0.05 to 0.10 
 
 Timber, M. ft 0.40 to 0.50 0.12 to 0.20 
 
 Lumber, M. ft 0.40 to 50 0.25 to 0.35 
 
 Piling, lin. ft 0.004 0.002 
 
 Cast ir5n pipe (loading), cwt 0.032 0.016 
 
 Cast iron pipe (unloading), cwt 0.021 0.012 
 
 Note: The cost of handling coal is not given, as coal handled in 
 any great quantity by hand generally has some labor-saving device, 
 such as elevated tracks, etc. 
 
1382 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The saving in money is not the only saving that can be credited 
 to the crane, as the liability of personal injuries is much less where 
 heavy material is handled by mechanical means. 
 
 A few typical examples of crane work follow : 
 
 A large locomotive boiler weighing 25 tons has been picked out 
 of a river bed, hoisted 60 ft. and loaded on a car in 25 minutes. 
 By hand it would have taken two or three days and in this case 
 a work train would have been necessary to handle the car. 
 
 A stilf-leg derrick has been set up alongside a bridge and put 
 into use in three hours. Without a crane it would take all day 
 to unload and place the engine and derrick ready for setting up. 
 
 A tower 100 ft. high has been set up with a temporary boom 
 extension in less time than would have been required to rig a 
 gin-pole to do the erection. 
 
 At the Panama-Pacific Exposition there are a large number 
 of statues ornamenting the buildings. These were placed very 
 cheaply with a locomotive crane, the boom of which had been 
 extended to over 100 ft. This enabled the crane to reach prac- 
 tically all locations, and the statues were set up quickly and with- 
 out damage. To have rigged poles to handle each one would 
 have taken a great deal more time and would have cost much 
 more. 
 
 These examples might be continued indefinitely, but others will 
 readily suggest themselves to the practical man. In general, how- 
 ever, it may be claimed that a crane will do hoisting where tracks 
 are available in less time than it will take to rig up any other 
 device. 
 
 The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. has a number of self- 
 propelled locomotive cranes ranging from 5 to 15 tons capacity, 
 the latter size being mo.st generally employed. The first cost of 
 such a crane is from $6,500 to $7,500. The following data give 
 the range of the cost per day : 
 
 Interest $1.08 to $ 1.37 
 
 Depreciation 1.08 to 1.80 
 
 Repairs 0.26 to 1.00 
 
 Fuel 0.65 to 0.83 
 
 Supplies 0.12 to 0.15 
 
 Labor 4.40 to 5.85 
 
 Total $7.59 to $11.00 
 
 These figures are gathered from different localities with varying 
 labor scales and costs of fuel and for cranes employed on different 
 classes of work. The labor item only covers the men actually 
 operating the crane and not the crew needed incidentally in hand- 
 ling material or the cost of a night watchman, which would be 
 necessary in a majority of cases. 
 
 The general storekeeper in the Milwaukee shops of this com- 
 pany uses a locomotive crane with a magnet almost exclusively 
 for handling scrap, and gives the total cost per day of operating 
 it as $9.10. He states that he is able to accomplish an amount 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1383 
 
 of work with the crane equivalent to what would require from 
 $50 to $60 by hand labor. 
 
 Locomotive cranes are used at the company's two principal 
 bridge yards, which serve as distributing points for bridge ma- 
 terial on the eastern lines and also in handling bridge material on 
 track elevation work in Chicago and Milwaukee. At Tomah, Wis., 
 the cost of operating a locomotive crane unloading and handling 
 piles and bridge timber, including four laborers, which are all that' 
 are required in addition to the men on the crane, is $13.45 per 
 10-hour day. The cost of an ordinary yard crew is $14.25 per 
 day. and a locomotive crane is able to accomplish the work of 
 two yard crews. 
 
 The following are some comparisons of the cost of handling by 
 hand and by crane : 
 
 By locomotive 
 By hand crane 
 
 Timber $0.42 per M. $0.12 per M. 
 
 Reinforcing steel 0.24 per ton 0.11 per ton 
 
 Piling 0.004 per ft. 0.002 per ft. 
 
 The cost of operating a 10-ton crane, estimated on a basis of 
 300 working days per year, is itemized as follows: 
 
 Coal, 875 lbs. at $7 $3.17 
 
 Valve oil 0.08 
 
 Black oil 0.01 
 
 Hard oil 0.01 
 
 Crude oil 0.01 
 
 Cotton waste 0.01 
 
 Boiler washing 0.22 
 
 General repairs 0.33 
 
 Heating crane shed 0.23 
 
 Interest on investment, 5 per cent." 1.01 
 
 Depreciation, 7 per cent 1.41 
 
 Total $6.49 
 
 The above data do not include labor, concerning which the fol- 
 lowing statement was made : 
 
 A saving of 50% in the cost of labor is made by using a crane for 
 handling heavy timber, piling and other heavy materials. A sav- 
 ing of 50% of switching service is made by using a locomotive crane. 
 
 By the use of such a crane a saving of approximately $15 per 
 day is made over and above the expenses of upkeep, interest on in- 
 vestment, depreciation, etc. 
 
 Mr. Eggleston of the Erie R. R. states that one of their ordinary 
 cranes complete cost $13,300. Interest, depreciation, repairs, fuel 
 and supplies cost per year approximately $3,650 (with an average 
 of 300 working days). He also states that a crane with a magnet 
 will handle as much scrap in a day as 50 laborers ; as much timber, 
 piling, etc., as 15 laborers, and as much miscellaneous bridge and 
 building material as 10 laborers. It is invaluable in the placing of 
 structures and structural material. 
 
 The above machine weighs 170,000 lbs. It has a piledriver at- 
 tachment and can operate a drag scraper or a clam shell. Each 
 
1384 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 movement is independent of all others. In turning the maximum 
 speed is three revolutions per minute, while in propelling on 
 straight and level track the speed is 300 ft. per minute. It is 
 capable of handling, under same conditions, 20 loaded cars. 
 
 Equipped with a No. 2 " Arnott " steam hammer the crane can 
 drive piles 34 ft. from center of track at the rate of 130 blows per 
 min. Two tons of coal and 2,000 gals, water will operate it con- 
 tinuously for 10 hours. It requires 2 men to operate, and 6 men 
 will change from boom to piledriver in 3 hours, and the reverse 
 in about 4 hours. 
 
 Cost of Handling Lumber in a Railway Shop by a Locomotive 
 Crane Compared with Hand Work (Engineering and Contract- 
 ing. July 27, 1910) as given by J. F. Slaughter in a paper before 
 the Railway Storekeepers' Association. The following comparisons 
 were presented : 
 
 First, in unloading and piling lumber from open cars, Mr. 
 Slaughter finds it costs $6 per car to handle back and forth and 
 properly to assort them on ways of their respective lengths. This 
 same work can be done with a crane for $1.40 per car, or a saving 
 of $4.60. 
 
 Car and engine bolsters cost to handle by hand $5 per carload 
 of seventy-five ; these can be handled by locomotive crane for 75 
 cts., or a saving of $4.25. 
 
 One hundred 414 by 8 axles — by hand $5.50, by crane $1.50, 
 saving of $4. Mounted wheels to axles — by hand 75 cts. per car, 
 by crane 17 cts., saving 58 cts. 
 
 He also found in handling scrap that the cost by hand for an 
 average of 100 cars is $7 per car; with the crane it is $2.83, or a 
 difference of $4.37 in favor of the latter. 
 
 Mechanical Handling in Storage Yards. There is a general 
 tendency to equip yards with labor-saving devices, chief among 
 which are the various types of cranes in use for piling, hauling and 
 storing bulky materials. There are 4 types of cranes used for 
 this purpose, described by R. C. Cram in Electric Railway Journal, 
 Dec. 23, 1916, viz., stiff-leg derricks, guy derricks, jib cranes and 
 gantry cranes. The stiff-leg type is the one in most general use, 
 and one or more of these will be found almost indispensable in 
 yards of all but the smallest roads, as the operation is simple, 
 the range of use greater and the cost nominal in proportion to its 
 serviceability. 
 
 A derrick with a capacity of 10 tons can be made and erected 
 complete without motors for about $500. This includes labor and 
 all fittings. This is a stiff-leg derrick located in a moderate- 
 sized yard, the Summerfield yard of the Connecticut Company at 
 Bridgeport, Conn. It is operated by means of a motor car, hence 
 no other hoisting machinery is required with the derrick itself. 
 The use of the motor car obviates the necessity for the purchase 
 and maintenance of hoisting apparatus. 
 
 A 15-ton. wooden stiff-leg derrick with iron fittings is said to 
 have cost as follows in 1913: Lumber, $256.23; iron, $213.52; 
 paint, $3, and labor $35.25, a total of $508. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1385 
 
 For yard use only it is probable that a derrick car of the boom- 
 crane type has the greatest range of use, while for combined yard 
 and road use the jib-crane type will be found best. The one 
 particular advantage of the latter in road work is the non-inter- 
 ference with overhead work. Both types are, of course, designed 
 for electrical operation. These equipments cost from $6,000 to 
 $7,000 complete, ready to run. 
 
 From Table VIII it is evident that the crane has saved more 
 than $2,200 per year, and therefore paid for itself in a little more 
 than 3 years. A crane of the boom type has been found to save 
 its cost in 1 year as compared with manual labor. 
 
 TABLE VIII. SAVING EFFECTED IN FOUR YEARS BY USE 
 
 OF 3-TON PILLAR CRANE CAR ON ELECTRIC 
 
 RAILWAY SYSTEM 
 
 Cost of handling 
 
 Without With Total 
 
 Number of tons handled crane crane saving 
 
 4000 tons miscellaneous $1.00 $0.25 $3,000 
 
 3324 tons load on cars 75 .20 1.828 
 
 3324 tons to yard 1.00 .25 2.493 
 
 6340 tons unloaded . . .- 50 .20 1.902 
 
 6340 tons to job 75 .25 3.170 
 
 $12,393 
 Cost of crane car, ready to run. . . .$7,000 
 
 Depreciation, 5%, 4 years 1,*400 
 
 Interest, 5%. 4 years 1,400 
 
 Upkeep, 2y2%, 4 years 700 
 
 $3,500 
 
 Net saving 4 years, 1 car $8,893 
 
 In conjunction with the use of cranes in yards there is a device 
 In use for handling ties with the crane at the Sixty-third Street 
 dock of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit system which reduced the cost 
 of handling from 1 ct. to 3 mills per tie, incidentally reducing the 
 handling force from a crew of 9 men and 1 foreman to 2 men 
 and a crane operator. There has al.so been a great reduction in 
 accidents and the ties may be piled much higher, thus saving 
 ground space. The cost of these tie-bales is between $50 and 
 $60 each. 
 
 Another saving effected through the use of machinery has been 
 made in the handling of granite paving blocks. It was found 
 that handling the blocks entirely by hand cost 22 cts. per ton, 
 which has been reduced to 7 cts. per ton with the aid of machinery. 
 
 Installation and Operating Costs of Cranes. Coal received in 
 barges is unloaded most economically by a mast-and-gaff rig, or 
 some form of hoisting tower, the former when the capacity re- 
 quired is small and the latter when a heavy tonnage has to be 
 handled. 
 
 Fig. 41 depicts a typical layout of a mast-and-gaff rig for un- 
 loading coal barges at a plant of moderate size described by 
 
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Reginald Trautschold in Engineering Magazine, July, 1916. The 
 coal is raised from the barge by an ordinary steam-operated mast- 
 and-gaff rig equipped with a clamshell bucket, and is discharged 
 into an elevated hopper which feeds the automatic dump cars of 
 a gravity railway about 500 ft. long. The coal is stored in piles 
 along the path of the railway from which it is reclaimed as re- 
 quired for the power house. Such an installation has a handling 
 capacity of about 50 tons per hr. and if operated a reasonable num- 
 ber of days per year will unload barges and store the coal for 
 a total cost of less than 4 cts. per ton. This cost is calculated as 
 follows: At 50 tons per hr., in an average yearly operating period 
 
 Aufomafic Railwau 
 SOOFt.Long 
 
 Mastand'Oaff 
 Riq 
 
 Elevation ,'j 
 deceiving Hoppei'. 
 
 /Aufomafic 
 Railway 
 
 MasfandOaff-'-y 
 Rig n 
 
 Plan 
 
 A 
 
 \ 
 
 Coat 
 Barge 
 
 Fig. 41. Mast-and-gaff rig and automatic railway. 
 
 of six months, equivalent to 160 ten-hour shifts, there will be 
 handled 80,000 tons. The unloading equipment cost $6,000. Fixed 
 charges on this at 10% are $600, equivalent to 0.75 cts. per ton. 
 The operating charges amount to 2.5 cts. per ton. The storing 
 equipment cost $2,000 ; calculated similarly, the fixed charges on 
 this are 0.25 cts. per ton, while the operating charges are 0.42 
 cts. The total of these four items is 3.92 cts., the total cost per 
 ton of handling. 
 
 Fig. 42 illustrates an installation of considerably greater capacity, 
 which will unload barges more cheaply and convey the coal nearly 
 three times as far to storage. Three traveling hoisting towers, 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1387 
 
 steam operated, are mounted upon an elevated trestle for unloading 
 the barges and transferring the coal to a system of industrial cars, 
 which convey it to the vicinity of the power house. The cars dis- 
 charge to other conveying equipment serving the plant, or the 
 coal may be stored in piles along the elevated trestle upon which 
 the cars run. The average cost of operating this system, based on 
 handling 1,200.000 tons of coal per year, that is 750 tons per hr. 
 for 160 ten-hr. days, is less than 3 cts. per ton. The figures used 
 to derive this result are a first cost for the unloading equipment 
 
 2 Traveling Towers. Ca pacify. 
 2 SO Tons per Hr per Tower 
 
 /O Tor? Automatic 
 Electric Car • . 
 
 Traveling RecJaiminq 
 
 Tower- Capacity. 
 
 SCO Tons per Hr 
 
 jffoisting Towers 
 [2S0 Tons per Hr 
 
 Plan 
 
 Figs. 42 and 43. 
 
 Fig. 42. Traveling hoisting towers, steam operated, with car trestle. 
 
 Fig. 43. Traveling hoisting towers with traveling bridge and 
 
 reclaiming tower. 
 
 of $160,000, and an unloading operating charge of 0,7 cts. per ton; 
 a first cost for the conveying .equipment of $85,000 and a con- 
 veying operating charge of 0.25 cts. per ton, the total handling 
 cost per ton being 2.91 cts. 
 
 A more elaborate arrangement of equipment of somewhat less 
 capacity is shown in Fig. 43. Two hoisting towers mounted on an 
 elevated trestle unload the barges and load 10-ton automatic 
 
HIOH 
 
 MEDIUM 
 COMPARATIVE HOISTING SPEEDS 
 
 LOW 
 
 Fig". 44. Lifting capacity of standard overhead electric cranes, 
 at high, medium, and low speeds. 
 
 1388 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1389 
 
 electric cars ; the cars discharge their load along a traveling 
 stocking bridge or directly to other cars at the further end of the 
 bridge. These cars convey the coal to the power house. The 
 coal distributed to storage by the traveling bridge is reclaimed by 
 a hoisting tower mounted on the bridge and traveling over it. 
 The capacity of this latter tower is sufficient to handle all the 
 coal that can be unloaded by the two towers on the water front, 
 the capacity of the system, both for storing and reclaiming the 
 coal, being 500 tons per hr. The average net cost of handling 
 coal to and from storage is about 6^^ cts. per ton, a part of which 
 can be saved by purchasing coal during depressed markets, since 
 the storage capacity of the plant is large. The first cost of this 
 installation is $100,000 for the unloading equipment. $105,000 for 
 the conveying equipment and $160,000 for the reclaiming equip- 
 ment. The operating charges for unloading, conveying, and re- 
 claiming are respectively, 0.7 ct., 0.25 ct. and 1.10 cts. The sub- 
 aqueous storage virtually doubles the storage capacity without 
 detriment to the coal ; in fact, under-water storage is frequently 
 to be recommended for soft coals. 
 
 Overhead cranes are customarily rated according to their lifting 
 capacity, their chief task, but this is sometimes misleading, since 
 the question of speed of hoist bears as much relation to the ca- 
 pacity of a crane as does the weight it is capable of lifting. The 
 lifting capacity is at the maximum, at the minimum hoisting speed 
 and decreases directly as the hoisting speed increases. This fre- 
 quently governs the selection of a crane, for it is seldom that a 
 crane is called upon to handle its capacity each trip. Most trips 
 are made without a full load, permitting, or rather necessitating, a 
 corresponding increase in speed in order to realize the true economic 
 value of the crane. Customarily an electric crane is equipped with 
 three fixed .speeds, low, medium, and high. At low speed, the crane 
 is capable of handling its rated load, while at higher speeds the 
 normal load of the crane is reduced. Fig, 4 shows the relationship 
 between the lifting capacity of usual standard sizes of overhead 
 cranes and their three respective .speeds. An ordinary 30-ton 
 crane at low .si)eed. for instance, can handle within 5 tons of the 
 capacity of an ordinary 60-ton crane when o])erated on middle 
 speed. 
 
 The price of a particular crane built by a certain manufacturer 
 may be taken as unity and the price of his other cranes expres.sed 
 in proportional amounts. The prices of all manufacturers do not, 
 of course, agree, nor are all cranes of the same capacity and span 
 built by any one manufacturer equally costly, but the comparative 
 costs for similar cranes for similar .service should not differ to 
 any great extent. Presented in graphic form such a comparative 
 cost price list is given in Fig. 45. the basis of comparison being 
 the cost of a medium-speed, 5'-ton crane of 25-ft. span, arbitrarily 
 taken as unity. 
 
 At the present time, owing to the high price of materials and of 
 labor, a 5-ton, medium-speed, overhead electric crane of 25-ft. 
 span would cost in the neighborhood of $4,250, so that (from 
 
1390 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Fig-. 45) a 30-ton crane of the type considered in the example in 
 the selection of motors would cost 2.56 X $4,250 = $11,000. Should 
 the cost of the 5 -ton crane be but $3,500, a fair figure during normal 
 
 5 10 15 20 25 
 
 75 
 
 40 50 60 
 SPAN- FEET 
 
 Fig 45 Comparative prices of standard overhead electric cranes 
 based on the cost of a 5-ton medium speed crane as the unit. 
 
 times, the average cost of the 30-ton crane would be about $9,350. 
 
 Depreciation of overhead electric cranes is usually figured at 
 
 5%, a safe figure, since there are many, installations of well cared 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1391 
 
 for cranes which have been in more or less constant operation for 
 15 or 20 years, and which are apparently in as good shape as 
 the day they were installed. Repairs should not average more 
 than 2% per year at the outside ; interest on investment, insurance 
 and taxes at the customary rates would bring the total charge 
 to 15.5% and the fixed charges per day on a 30 -ton crane costing 
 $11,000 would be $5.68, figuring 300 working days per year. 
 
 Almost any overhead electric crane found in a manufacturing 
 plant can be operated by one man with some occasional slight 
 service from the regular working force of the plant. The crane- 
 man would command a wage of about 35 cts. per hr., and in the 
 efficiently managed plant his time would be chargeable against 
 the crane while it was in actual operation only. The assistance 
 rendered by other workmen would not entail an expense of more 
 than 15 cts. per hr, on the average, so that a very generous labor 
 charge for the crane would be 50 cts. per hr., this charge applying 
 with equal fairness to almost any overhead electric crane found 
 in a manufacturing plant. The expense for oil, waste and other 
 incidental supplies, together with the expense of occasional careful 
 overhauling and cleaning, may be taken as varying directly with 
 the total power requirements of the crane. A conservative rate 
 would be 0.1 ct. per motor h.p.-hr. The average consumption of 
 electricity including that required for running the crane without 
 load as well as when productively operated is, in kw. per hr., 
 usually about one-half the total power requirements of the crane 
 expressed in horsepower. 
 
 The average net cost per day for operating a 30 -ton, 60 -ft, span, 
 medium-speed, overhead electric crane, assuming an average daily 
 operation of 5 hrs. on 300 days per year, would be about $13.92, 
 current being valued at 2.5 cts. per kw. This is arrived at as 
 follows : 
 
 Cost of crane. $11,000. (Fig. 46, $4,250 base.) Motor horsepowers: 
 
 Hoisting 35] 
 
 Trolley 10 [^ (previously derived) 
 
 Bridge 40 J 
 
 Total 85 h.p. 
 
 I 
 
 Fixed charges per day : 
 Operating charges per day : 
 
 11,000 X 0.155 
 
 = $ 5.68 
 
 300 
 Labor, 0.50 X 5 = 2.50 
 
 Supplies, 0.001 X 85 X 5 = .43 
 
 Current, 0.5 X 85 X 0.025 X 5 = 5.31 
 
 Net cost per day $13.92 
 
 An average of ten trips per hour with a mean load of 20 tons, 
 1,000 tons handled per day, would place the net cost of employing 
 the crane for the work at less than 1.5 cts. per ton handled. 
 
 Overhead electric cranes are frequently employed for outdoor 
 service, such as unloading coal cars and carrying the coal to ele- 
 
1392 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 vated hoppers feeding boilers or coal bunkers. A typical installa- 
 tion of this character would be one employing a 5 -ton crane of 
 50-ft. span mounted on trestles which would necessitate a 50 -ft. 
 lift of loaded bucket and a mean bridge travel of 200 ft. between 
 the coal car and the receiving hopper. The bucket employed would 
 probably be of the clamshell type, of 1^ cu. yds. capacity, capable 
 of picking up an average load of about a ton. The bucket and its 
 contents would place a load on the crane of somewhat more than 
 three tons, so that the hoisting speed of the crane could be higher 
 than if it were called upon to handle its full load of five tons. For 
 a medium-speed standard crane, the economic speed would be 
 about 58 feet per minute. 
 
 Elevating the bucket with its load of coal to a position in which 
 it could discharge to the receiving hopper would consume nearly 
 a minute, during which time the bridge travel and any necessary 
 trolley travel could take place, and although the empty bucket 
 could be dropped more rapidly, the coal handling capacity of the 
 installation would not average more than 40 tons per hr. Em- 
 ploying the crane to handle coal 200 eight-hour days per year, 
 equivalent to 64,000 tons of coal per year, would result in a net 
 cost of operation per ton handled of less than 4 cts., the supply 
 of electricity being valued at 2.5 cts. per kw. This is worked 
 out as follows : 
 
 Cost of crane $5,100 (Fig. 46, $4,250 base.) 
 
 Cost of bucket 500 
 
 Total equipment. . .$5,600 
 Hoisting speed, 58 ft. per min. 
 Hoisting speed at full load, 45 ft. per min. 
 Trolley .speed, 150 ft. per min. (arbitrary) 
 Bridge speed, 400 ft. per min. (arbitrary) 
 Coal handled per year; 40 X 8 X 200 = 64,000 tons. 
 
 Motor horsepowers : 
 5X 45 
 
 Hoisting = 14.0 ; say 15 h.p. 
 
 16 
 5X 150 
 
 Trolley = 1.88 ; say 2 h.p. 
 
 400 
 (5 + 0.03 X 50) 400 
 
 Bridge = 11.06 h.p. ; say 15 h.p. 
 
 235 
 
 Total , 32 h.p. 
 
 Fixed charges per year: 
 
 $5,600X0.155= $ 868.00 
 
 Operating charges per year : 
 Labor : 
 
 0.50 X 8 X 200 = $800.00 
 
 Supplies : 
 
 0.001X32X8X200= 51.20 
 
 Current : 
 
 0.5X32X0.025X8X200= 640.00 
 
 Total $1,491.20 
 
 Total net operating cost per year $2,359.20 
 
 (Net operating cost per ton) $ 0.0369 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1393 
 
 Similar analyses of the net operating costs of overhead electric 
 cranes can easily be made for any installation in which the average 
 amount of work to be performed by the crane and the cost of 
 power are known. Failure to know the exact cost of the crane 
 itself does not prevent a conservatively accurate estimate of the 
 net cost of its operation on known work, for quite an appreciable 
 difference in price has really little effect upon the net cost of 
 operation provided that the crane is in fairly frequent use, that it 
 has been economically selected for the work required, and that the 
 expense for power is not unusually low. 
 
 Operating Speed, Cost and Capacity of Electric Traveling Cranes. 
 In sleeting the equipment for crane service, the user should con- 
 sider other things besides the mechanical construction, cost, speed, 
 etc. One important consideration which should not be neglected 
 is the amount of material which will have to be handled, the 
 weight of which is considerably below the capacity of the crane. 
 Thurston Kent in Industrial Engineering, April, 1914, states that 
 time studies of machinery operations In a large shop have indi- 
 cated that on a majority of the work done, approximately 15 mins. 
 was lost on each large machine operation while waiting for the 
 crane. 
 
 The prospective user of a crane has a wide range of selection 
 before him, both as regards size and construction of his equipment. 
 The standards of the various makers are such as to permit him to 
 choose a crane of almost any capacity he desires, from 1 ton up to 
 150 tons. For instance one crane builder writes the author as 
 follows : " The standard capacities of cranes built by us range 
 from 1 ton to 100 tons in single trolley designs, and up to 150 
 tons in double trolley designs. Their ratings are stepped up about 
 as follows: 1, 2, 3, 5, TVs, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 tons. Above 30 tons 
 the steps are about 10 tons apart." Another maker offers cranes 
 varying by 5 tons up to 25 tons, and then by 10 ton steps up to 
 100 tons. Almost any maker will build a special crane, to fit the 
 conditions peculiar to a given installation if desired. 
 
 Table IX, prepared by the Alliance Machine Co., Alliance, Ohio, 
 is presented as a general guide to the dimensions of standard 
 cranes. It must be borne in mind, however, that the figures in 
 the table are not to be regarded as final, as local conditions will 
 modify them considerably. For instance, a long-span crane of 
 a given capacity will of necessity weigh more than a crane of 
 the same capacity but of shorter span. This would make a dif- 
 ference in the wheel loads, which in extreme cases, might neces- 
 sitate a revision of the design of the trucks. The electrical equip- 
 ment provided for the crane also will have more or less influence 
 on its con.struction. 
 
 Speed of Cranes. The speed of the crane is another point which 
 deserves consideration. It has already been pointed out that the 
 time lost by productive machines while waiting for the crane 
 may be the cause of serious losses to the mill. In a letter to the 
 author, the Northern Engineering Works, Detroit, gives the fol- 
 lowing notes on crane speeds : A good average speed for moderate 
 
1394 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE IX. GENERAL DATA FOR STANDARD ELECTRIC 
 
 TRAVELING CRANES. BASED ON 60 FT. SPAN, 25 FT. 
 
 LIFT, WIRE ROPE HOIST 
 
 Be, 
 
 <x> 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 'K 
 it 
 
 
 cn'3 o 
 
 
 ©•^ 
 
 
 
 
 1° 
 
 ceo 
 
 Q^^ 
 
 g.o 
 
 ^ '^ 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 ft. 8 ins. 
 
 7 
 
 9 ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 20,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 $3,600 
 
 10 
 
 6 ft. 6 ins. 
 
 8 
 
 10 ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 28,000 
 
 53,000 
 
 4,400 
 
 15 
 
 6 ft. 7 ins. 
 
 8 
 
 10 ft. 6 
 
 ins. 
 
 34,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 4,800 
 
 20 
 
 6 ft. 8 ins. 
 
 8 
 
 11 ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 41,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 5,400 
 
 25 
 
 7 ft. 5 ins. 
 
 10 
 
 11 ft. 6 
 
 ins. 
 
 51,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 6,500 
 
 40 
 
 8 ft. 1 ins. 
 
 11 
 
 12 ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 82.000 
 
 95,000 
 
 8,200 
 
 50 
 
 9 ft. 4 ins. 
 
 12 
 
 12 ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 47,500* 
 
 107,500 
 
 10,500 
 
 * Has eight track wheels, 
 
 standard work for the main hoist is 10 ft, per min. full load. For 
 some very rapid work, this is doubled. When direct current is 
 used, this speed on light loads can be automatically speeded up 
 2 to 2^^ times greater, but this is not done with alternating cur- 
 rent. The average bridge speed for cab controlled cranes is 250 
 to 300 ft. per min. full load, to 300 to 400 ft. light. The usual 
 trolley speed is about 100 ft. per min. with full load on cab con- 
 trolled cranes. If a crane is floor controlled, it is advisable to 
 reduce the travel speeds to about half the above figures. 
 
 The writer, in' 1909, compiled a series of notes on cranes. These 
 notes included the following data on speeds, and also Table X 
 herewith. The figures there given appear at this date to still 
 hold true. The usual range of motor sizes is as follows : Hoist. 
 15-50 h.p. ; trolley, 3-15 h.p. ; bridge, 15-50 h.p. The speeds at 
 which the various motions are made range as follows, the figures 
 
 TABLE X. STANDARD HOISTING AND TRAVELING 
 SPEEDS OF ELECTRIC CRANES 
 
 (Pawling & Harnischf eger. ) 
 
 Capacity, tons 
 
 Hoisting 
 
 Bridge travel 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Speed aux. 
 
 (2000 1b.) 
 
 speed, ft. 
 
 speed, ft. 
 
 aux. hoist 
 
 hoist, ft. 
 
 
 per min. 
 
 per min. 
 
 tons 
 
 per min. 
 
 5 
 
 25-100 
 
 300-450 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 20-75 
 
 300-450 
 
 3 
 
 30-75 
 
 
 10-40 
 
 250-350 
 
 3 
 
 50-125 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 25-60 
 40-100 
 
 40 
 
 9-30 
 
 250-350 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 26-60 
 40-100 
 
 50 
 
 8-30 
 
 200-300 
 
 10 
 
 25-60 
 
 75 
 
 6-25 
 
 200-250 
 
 15 
 
 20-50 
 
 125 
 
 5-15 
 
 200-250 
 
 25 
 
 20-50 
 
 150 
 
 5-15 
 
 200-250 
 
 25 
 
 20-50 
 
 Trolley travel speed from 100-150 ft. per min. in all cases. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1395 
 
 being ft. per min. : Hoist, 8-60 ; trolley traverse, 75-200 ; bridge 
 travel, 200-600. These speeds are varied in the same capacity of 
 crane to suit each particular installation. In general, the speed 
 of the bridge in ft. per min. should not exceed (length of runway 
 + 100). If the runway is long and covered by more than one 
 crane, the speed may be made equal to the average distance be- 
 tween cranes + 100. Usually 300 ft. per min. is a good speed. 
 For small cranes in special cases, the speeds may be increased, but 
 for cranes of over 50 tons capacity the speed should be below 300 
 ft. per min. unless the building is made especially strong to stand 
 the strains incident to starting and stopping heavy cranes geared 
 for high speeds. 
 
 For purposes of comparison. Table XI. compiled by the Al- 
 liance Machine Co., is also given. 
 
 TABLE XI. STANDARD FULL LOAD SPEEDS OF 
 STANDARD TRAVELING CRANES. 
 
 (Alliance Machine Co.) 
 
 Capacity tons 
 2000 1b. 
 5 
 10 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 40 
 50 
 
 Hoist speed 
 ft. per min. 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 17 * 
 
 12 Va 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Bridge speed 
 ft. per min. 
 400 
 350 
 350 
 350 
 300 
 250 
 250 
 
 Trolley speed 
 ft. per min. 
 150 
 125 
 125 
 125 
 125 
 100 
 100 
 
 TABLE XII 
 
 , 1^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Relay : 
 D.c... 
 A.c. . . 
 
 Lifting 
 D.c. . 
 D.c. . 
 A.c. . 
 A.c. . 
 
 Brake : 
 D.c. . 
 D.c. . 
 
 Clutch : 
 D.c . . 
 D.c . . 
 
 
 3Vt 
 31/1 
 
 5 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 51/4 
 
 61/2 
 
 7 
 
 
 21/8 
 21/8 
 
 81/2 
 
 15 
 
 «t-l 5X5 
 
 rt-w ft 
 
 2.9 
 2.9 
 
 72 
 320 
 
 82 
 210 
 
 o 
 1-1 
 
 8 1 
 
 80 3 
 10 Vs 
 
 90 2V2 
 
 be 
 .S 
 
 0.15 
 0.10 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 160 
 1260 
 
 60 
 400 
 
 110-500 
 " -550 
 
 -220 
 
 <^?^ 
 
 1^1 
 
 1^ 
 
 15 0.39 
 
 50 
 210 
 
 52 
 115 
 
 u 
 
 $5.10 
 6.95 
 
 50 ... 6.40 
 
 -500 210 ... 33.00 
 
 -550 30 0.30 8.15 
 
 - " 400 0.31 32.00 
 
 21.00 
 39.00 
 
 19.00 
 35.00 
 
1396 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Costs of Electromagnets. Due to the great variety in the de- 
 signs, it is not possible to give unit costs of electromagnets. 
 The subject of the most economical magnet design has been dis- 
 cussed by Wikander (Trans. A. I. E. E., 1911, Vol. 30, p. 2019), 
 but unfortunately the most economical design will usually be found 
 not to be suitable for practical purposes, because it results in 
 a magnet which is too long compared to its diameter, and which 
 usually cannot be incorporated in the machine with which it is 
 to be used. Therefore, magnets as they are found in practical 
 application deviate greatly from the most economical design. Also 
 for the same energy output (usually expressed as inch -pounds or 
 foot-pounds) there is as much as a 1 to 3 variation, depending 
 upon the service conditions as to speed of operation, stroke, etc., 
 which they have to meet. Table XII, of costs, weights and 
 dimensions of some typical electromagnets, is given merely as a 
 range guide. 
 
 Cost of Handling Locomotive Tires and Heavy Castings by a 
 IVlagnet and Crane in a Locomotive Shop according to Mr. Mears 
 in a paper before the Railway Storekeepers' Association printed 
 in Engineering and Contracting, June 27, 1910, is represented by 
 the following figures : 
 
 Loading locomotive tires : . Per ton 
 
 By hand $0.17 
 
 By crane 08 
 
 By crane and magnet 04 
 
 Loading heavy castings : Per ton 
 
 By hand Almost impossible 
 
 By crane 20 
 
 By crane and magnet . . .03 
 
 The principal reason for the efficient work of the magnet in 
 handling heavy materials is on account of the difficulty of ob- 
 taining a good hold upon the heavy castings when they are handled 
 by chains or hooks. 
 
 A Specially Designed Traveling Crane for laying a 48-in. gas 
 main on a trestle is described and illustrated in Engineering News, 
 Jan. 22. 1914. Two 4 5 -lb. raijroad rails were laid across the caps 
 of the trestle throughout its length on a 5-ft. 4-in. gauge. The 
 pipe was hauled to one end of the trestle with teams and rolled 
 by hand to the other end. where it was lifted and set in place 
 with a traveling crane astride of the last set pipe. 
 
 On the average, 29 pipe-lengths a day were laid with this 
 device, using a force of 6 men and a foreman. The calking was 
 done by the gas company with a calking machine, recently come 
 into use. The joints are calked with lead wool, and no special 
 expansion joints in the pipe line are provided. None of the lengths 
 of pipe are set absolutely home in the bells, there being at least 
 i/s-in. space 'left for expansion, which the nature of the lead-wool 
 calking permits. 
 
 An Electric Motor Truck Crane made by the General Electric 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1397 
 
 Co. for use in shops and warehouses is described in Engineering 
 News, Dec. 7, 1911, and the following data given: 
 
 Five hundred castings aggregating 65,000 lbs. were unloaded 
 from a gondola car in 5 hrs., giving an average of 1.2 lifts per 
 min. A box car was loaded with 64 800-lb. bbls. of plumbago in 
 25 mins., and 4 cars were loaded in 2i/^ hrs., the latter work in- 
 cluding spotting the cars. This, averages 2 bbls. per min. hoisted 
 nearly 5 ft. and swung well inside the car. 
 
 Sixty 800-lb. bbls. of plumbago were moved 300 ft. in 1 hr., 1 
 helper only being required. One hundred and fifty 300-lb. boxes 
 of rubber were conveyed 75 ft. and loaded into a box car in 50 
 mins., 3 boxes being slung together and a round trip made every 
 min. In a store room, boxes of angle and flat iron weighing about 
 1,000 lbs. each were carried 30 ft. and stacked in sorted and 
 orderly piles at the rate of 40 boxes an hr. One-ton rocks were 
 
 Fig. 46. Details of a specially designed travelling crane for 
 placing 4 8 -in. gas main on a narrow pile trestle over a swamp. 
 
 loaded onto trailers from a scattering pile at the rate of 24 an 
 hr., being hoisted 2 ft. and carried about 20 ft. in the operation. 
 Two 1,200-lb. water meters were lifted from a hole 6 ft. deep and 
 carried to the shop bench 1,000 ft. away in 30 mins. 
 
 The truck is not arranged to carry heavy loads itself, but is 
 intended for use in towing trailers whenever the distance to be trav- 
 eled is such that this method is preferable to that of transferring 
 the material in small lots suspended from the crane hook. The 
 limiting distance for economical work without trailers is put at 
 about 400 ft., that is, where large quantities of freight are in- 
 volved. The truck is designed for a high drawbar pull (2,000 
 lbs. maximum), to suit it for trailer towing. This pull is about 
 equal to that of a five-ton locomotive on rails, and is sufficient, it 
 is claimed, to handle loads of from five to eight tons on trailers. 
 On account of this high tractive force, the truck can be used for 
 
1398 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 spotting cars and may prove useful for giving assistance to over- 
 loaded wagons or automobiles, 
 
 A special form of trailer has been designed for use with this 
 truck, having a capacity of 3 tons. The deck, 12 ft. by 4 ft.,* is 
 at a height of 29 ins. above the ground. The wheels are 24 ins. 
 in diam., with a 5-in. face and are mounted on roller bearings. 
 A heavy towing tongue is provided with arrangements for easy 
 coupling to the motor truck or to another trailer. It is claimed 
 that the trailers follow truly in the track of the truck, so that no 
 difRculy is found in towing a number of them even around ob- 
 structions. 
 
 Four trailers is the usual number in a train for long hauls, but 
 this can be varied to suit the conditions. When there is a suffi- 
 cient amount of work to be done to make it pay, time can be 
 saved by using 3 trains of 1 to 4 cars each. One train is then 
 being loaded and another unloaded, while the third, either empty 
 or loaded, as the case may be, is on the way between. In this 
 way, a maximum of 600 sq. ft. of loading deck can be kept working 
 to its full capacity. 
 
 Data of the truck's work with trailers are given as follows : 
 
 Six hundred thousand pounds of cotton have been moved one-~ 
 half mile in a day (10 hrs. ), taking 24 bales per load and making 
 a round trip every twelve mins. This gives an average of two 
 bales (600 lbs. each) per min. moved a distance of one-half mile. 
 On a hurry order for cotton, 48 bales (12 tons) were delivered 
 alongside the lighter within 25 mins. after the order was given. 
 One truck using 3 trailer trains of 2 cars each has moved 1,000,000 
 lbs. of small package freight (canned salmon) 600 ft. in 9 hrs. 
 
 The following represents an average week's work at towing 
 trailers in the Bush Terminal, New York, deduced from the logs 
 of a number of these machines operating over a long period : 
 
 Number of packages handled 7,570 
 
 Average weight per package 230 lbs. 
 
 Total weight handled (900 tons) . 1,720,000 lbs. 
 
 Average distance packages were moved 900 ft. 
 
 Per cent, of total time machine was working 80% 
 
 Pacliages delivered per working minute 3 
 
 Number of different jobs worked on 30 
 
 Heaviest single load drawn 12 1/^ tons 
 
 Cost of operator, interest, depreciation, power $24.00 
 
 Cost of moving one package 900 ft % cts. 
 
 Cost of moving one ton (9 packages) 900 ft 3 cts. 
 
 Cost of Hoisting Water in Unwatering IViines. The removal of 
 water from mines by hoisting in tanks is in the nature of a reversion 
 to the methods of the ancients, but with the plants as now oper- 
 ated, with the improvements and changes which experience has 
 shown necessary, the method may be efficient and less costly than 
 pumping. 
 
 R. V. Norris in a paper before the Institute of Mining Engineers 
 In 1904 describes fully all details of apparatus and their arrange- 
 ment, including the following costs : 
 
 The costs of the construction of two plants are given in Table 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1399 
 
 XIII. The plants are at the William Penn Mine of the Susquehanna 
 Coal Co. and Lytle Coal Co's shaft. The costs of the water hoist- 
 ing plants are charged with their proper proportion of the total 
 cost of the shaft-sinking, head frames, steam lines and boiler plant. 
 The cost of the steam plant is omitted from the lower set of figures 
 because it was available in one case only, and in that was based 
 upon a division of cost among three other hoists. 
 
 TABLE XIII. COST OF UNWATERING BY HOISTING 
 
 William Penn Lytle 
 
 water-hoist water-hoist 
 
 Depth of shaft, ft 953 1,500 
 
 Capacity of tanks, gals 1,400 2,600 
 
 Size of engines, ins 32 by 48 30 by 60 
 
 Diam. of drums, ft Straight 12 Cone 10 to 16 
 
 Capacity of hoist, gal. per 24 hrs.. 2.100,000 3.750.000 
 
 (280.000 cu. ft.) (500,000 cu. ft.) 
 
 Best record, gals, per 24 hrs 2.291.040 3,772,600 
 
 (307,000 cu. ft.) (505,500 cu. ft.) 
 Cost : 
 
 Sinking and timbering $20,673.81 $22,641.63 
 
 Head frame 4,224.13 3,540.58 
 
 Water-hoist engines, foundations 
 
 and house 15,583.64 29,653.17 
 
 Tanks and ropes 2,393.23 3,899.65 
 
 Steam line 3,726.12 4,951.17 
 
 Boiler plant 16,091.76 
 
 $46,600.93 $80,777.96 
 
 Cost, excluding shaft sinking and 
 
 steam plant $22,201.00 $37,093.40 
 
 Cost per J, 000 gal. daily capacity, 
 
 excluding shaft and steam plant 10.57 9.87 
 
 Cost per 1.000 cu. ft. daily capacity. 
 
 excluding shaft and steam plant 88.08 82.25 
 
 The rate at which the plants work is shown in Table XIV. The 
 Lytle shaft during a strike was filled to a depth of 860 ft., the 
 water, amounting to 274,083,500 gals., was hoisted out in 37 days 
 and 4 hrs. Besides the regular water hoist, tanks were used in 
 all of four coal compartments ; the plant then consisting of two 
 pairs of 2,600-gal. tanks and one pair of 1,500-gal. tanks; the water 
 hoisted by each was : 
 
 TABLE XIV. RATE OF UNWATERING 
 
 Average per 
 day. gals. 
 
 Water-hoist 2,977,753 
 
 Large coal-hoist 2.803.142 
 
 Small coal-hoist 1,431.819 
 
 7,212,724 
 
 During one month, 236,906,000 gals, were hoisted an average of 
 740.6 ft., the boiler plant (12-150 h.p. return tubular boilers and 
 one 500 h.p. Babcock and Wilcox boiler) w^as devoted exclusively 
 to this work, it burned 4,122 tons of coal and used 6,206,100 gals. 
 
1400 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of water, which indicates an average evaporation of 5.55 lbs. per 
 lb. of coal, and about 44,004,000 lbs. of steam at the engines. This 
 gives a duty of 33,260,000 ft. -lbs. per 1,000 lbs. of dry steam; or, 
 59.5 lbs. of steam for actual h.p.-hr. in water lifted, and 251 lbs. 
 of steam for 1,000 gals, lifted 1,000 ft. 
 
 The cost of steam during this month was : 
 
 Labor % 934.62 
 
 Water 496.49 
 
 4,122 tons coal at $0.50 per ton 2,061.00 
 
 $3,492.11 
 
 Thus 44,004,000 lbs. of dry steam delivered at the engines cost 
 $0.0794 per 1,000 lbs.; equivalent to $0.0198 per 1,000 gals, hoisted 
 1,000 ft. vertically; or $0.00238 per 1,000,000 ft.-lbs. in water; 
 $0.00472 per h.p.-hr. in water; cost steam only, per year, per boiler 
 h.p. 24 hrs. per day for labor, supplies and repairs $8.57 ; fuel, 
 $12.30; total, $20.87. 
 
 From Oct. 30 to Dec. 5, 1902, the plant of the William Penn No. 
 2 shaft, which was flooded to a depth of 250 ft., hoisted 112,468,080 
 gals., using a pair of regular water hoist 32 by 48 in. engines, and 
 a pair of 28 by 48 in. coal engines with 1,440 gal. and 1,320 gal. 
 tanks, the record being given in Table XV. 
 
 Total cost, exclusive of steam, was $987.83, or $0.0088 per 1,000 
 gals, hoisted. 
 
 The record for 3 years at the Luke Fiddler shaft is given in 
 Table XV — engines 32 by 48 ins. with 1,450-gal. tanks. 
 
 The plant was operated at only i/^ of its capacity ; at full capacity 
 the cost is estimated to average about 2.5 cts. per 1,000 gals, for 
 9 60 ft. vertical. 
 
 TABLE XV. COST OF HOISTING AT THREE SHAFTS 
 
 Fiddler Wm. Penn Lytle 
 
 Plant 3 years 37 days 1 month 
 
 Depth of shaft 960 ft. 953 ft. 1,500 ft. 
 
 Quantity hoisted, gals. . .918,501.200 112.468,080 236.906,000 
 
 Quantity hoisted, cu. ft. . 123,079.160 15,070,730 31,745,300 
 
 Average height hoisted. . 960 ft. 727.8 ft. 740.6 ft. 
 Cost of labor repairs and ' 
 
 supplies per 1.000 gals. $0.0114 $0.0088 $0.0071 
 Cost of steam per 1,000 
 
 gals 0.0192 0.0146 0.0148 
 
 Total cost per 1.000 gals. $0.0306 $0.0234 $0.0219 
 
 Total cost per 1,000 cu. ft. 0.2295 0.1755 0.1643 
 Estimated cost per 1,000 
 gals, and 1,000 cu. ft., 
 
 1,000 ft. vertical 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 
 
 gals. cu. ft. gals. cu. ft. gals. cu. ft. 
 Labor supplies and re- 
 pairs for hoisting $0,012 $0,090 $0,009 $0,068 $0,008 $0.06 
 
 Steam 0.020 0.150 0.020 0.150 0.020 0.15 
 
 Total $0,032 $0,240 $0,029 $0,218 $0,028 $0.21 
 
 Total cost per 1,000.000 
 
 ft.-lbs. in water. .... . $0.0038 $0.0035 $0.0034 
 
 Total cost per h.p. -year, 
 
 24 hrs. per day in 
 
 water $65.91 $60.71 $58.97 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS UOl 
 
 Table XV also shows a summary of the operating costs of the 
 three plants. 
 
 This is about 69% of the average cost of pumping at the collieries 
 of the Lykens Valley Coal Co., where it was $0.37 and $0.29 pei* 
 1,000 cu. ft. 1,000 ft. vertical, and $98.11 and $81.47 per h.p.-year 
 in water for 1901 and 1902. 
 
 The Cost of Hoisting in Small Zinc Mines. George S^ Brooks in 
 the Engineering and Mining Journal gives the following cost of 
 plant and operation of 2 zinc mines in Wisconsin. Mine A waS 
 equipped with cars and a cage, and Mine B had the 1,000'lb. tubs 
 customary in that district. 
 
 Equipment: ^^^^^ ^> 
 
 Derrick and foundations, including cable and sheave. $ 400 
 
 Engine housing 50 
 
 7 X 10 Duplex geared hoisting engine 700 
 
 5 mine cars 125 
 
 1 cage 60 
 
 Total $1,335 
 
 Interest and depreciation : 
 
 Interest on $1,335, 6% $ 80 
 
 Depreciation on $1,335, 18% 240 
 
 Total for 300 working days $ 320 
 
 Equipment: (Mine B) 
 
 Derrick inclosed, including cable and sheave $ 480 
 
 7x7 Duplex geared hoisting engine 470 
 
 5 tubs and trucks 110 
 
 Total $1,060 
 
 Interest and depreciation : 
 
 Interest on $1,-060, 6% . $ 63 
 
 Depreciation on $1,060, 18% 190 
 
 Total for 300 working days $ 254 
 
 At A the h£)ist is set up on the ground about 40 ft. back from 
 the shaft, and the engine is of the horizontal type. At B the up- 
 right 7 X 7-in. engine is stationed near the derrick top about 10 ft. 
 below the sheave, and located so that the engineer may handle the 
 throttle with one hand, while with the other he can attend to the 
 dumping of the tubs. 
 
 Operating Costs : 
 
 The following operating co.sts are the result of monthly averages. 
 In both cases, for the sake of comparison, the same charge is made 
 per h.p. per hr., although in reality there was some 20% difference 
 owing to the excessive line condensation at the B shaft. Neither 
 schedule includes cost of administration. The approximate h.p. is 
 computed from the following formula, to which an additional 0.25 
 h.p. is added for friction and inertia : 
 
 gross weight in lb. 
 
 H.p. = X speed in feet per min. 
 
 33,000 
 
1402 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 It is given as follows: A — Mine run, 1,870 lbs.; cage, 400 lbs.; 
 cable, 108 lbs. ; car, 300 lbs. ; total, 2,678 lbs. 
 The hoisting speed per min. is 360 ft. Then 
 
 2,678 
 
 H.p. rr X 360 + 0.25 h.p. = 36 h.p. 
 
 33,000 
 
 The same calculation applied to the case at mine B gives mine 
 run, 980 lbs.; tubs, 175 lbs.; cable, 102 lbs.; total, 1,257 lbs.; hoist- 
 ing speed per min., 295 ft. 
 
 1,257 
 
 H.p. = X 295 + 0.25 h.p. = 14 h.p. 
 
 33,000 
 
 The actual hoisting performance per day of 9 hrs. at A is 120 
 tons and at B 100 tons. With forcing, A has handled 600 cu. ft. 
 per hr.. while at B 450 cu. ft. is about the best that can be done. 
 
 Hoisting Expense, 9-hr. Shift: 
 
 Mine A. 
 
 One hoisting engineer $2.50 
 
 One lander 2.25 
 
 36 h.p. for 5 hr. at 1 ct. per h.p. per hr 1.80 
 
 Interest and depreciation 1.06 
 
 Repairs 0.70 
 
 Total $8.31 
 
 Ore hoisted 2590 cu. ft. 
 
 Cost per cu. ft : $0.0032 
 
 Cost per ton approximately = 0.06 
 
 Mine B. 
 
 One hoisting engineer $2.50 
 
 14 h.p. for 5 hr. at 1 ct. per h.p. per hr 0.70 
 
 Interest and depreciation 0.85 
 
 Repairs 0.70 
 
 Total $4.75 
 
 Ore hoisted 2140 cu. ft. 
 
 Cost per cu. ft $0.0022 
 
 Cost per ton approximately 0.044 
 
 Both of these cost accounts show what is possible when a steady 
 output is made for a month. The average hoisting expense, month 
 in and month out, has been a few cents above this. 
 
 It appears from the comparative figures that the tub is con- 
 siderably the better on hoisting alone, and until the workings be- 
 come extended to such a distance from the shaft as to materially 
 increase the tramming costs, it will show a smaller operating ex- 
 pense in working flats. The initial investments in reality show only 
 a difference of $275, which amount deserves little consideration in 
 the matter of a suitable hoisting and tramming equipment. 
 
 Cost of Operating a Mine Hoisting Plant. A hoisting plant in 
 operation at the shaft of the Hecla mine had reached its capacity 
 hoisting ore from the 300-ft. and the 600-ft. level. When, there- 
 
CONVE YORS, . HOISTS, . CRANES, . ELEVA TORS 1403 
 
 fore, the 900-ft. level was opened it was necessary to install a 
 new hoist or to remodel the old one. Electricity from a new plant 
 at Spokane, Wash., made power available at $50 per h.p.-year as 
 against $109 per h.p.-year for steam. It was decided to substitute 
 for the engines a motor drive of sufficient capacity to operate from 
 the 900-ft. level and ultimately to install an entirely new hoist. 
 The description of this plant and the permanent plant which fol- 
 lowed it 4 years later and the results of power consumption and 
 cost are given by E. M. Murphy in a paper before the Transactions 
 of the American Institute of Mining Engineers and abstracted in 
 Engineering and Contracting, Oct., 1910. 
 
 The motor-generator set of the permanent plant is self-contained, 
 having a cast iron sub-base, four bearings and shaft ; the driving 
 element consists of a 450-h.p., three-phase, 60-cycle wound secondary 
 motor to operate between 2,000 and 2,300 volts. The generator is 
 a 450-kw., 525-volt machine with commutation poles to permit its 
 handling full load current at any voltage below maximum. A fly- 
 wheel is mounted on the shaft. It is 7 ft. 9 ins. in diameter and 
 weighs 29,000 lbs. The hoist motor is rated at 375 h.p. at 500 volts, 
 60 revolutions per min., and weighs 51 tons. It is directly con- 
 nected by a flange coupling to the reel-shaft which carries 1,600 ft. 
 of % in. X 4^^ in. flat rope. The skips are 50 cu. ft capacity, 
 weigh 3.500 lbs. The double-decked cages hang beneath the skips 
 at all times and each cage weighs 2.400 lbs. 
 
 Before entering into the cost of operation of the hoist, an ex- 
 planation of the contract will show on what basis a settlement is 
 made for power consumed by it. The contract runs for a period 
 of five years and is based on a maximum demand as well as a 
 kw.-hr. consumption. It will be noted that it penalizes a better 
 combined power and load-factor than 61%. A power-factor of 10©% 
 and a constant voltage of 2,300 volts is assumed in all the calcula- 
 tions of maximum demand. In a contract calling for a maximum 
 demand of 100 kws., a minimum sum of $335 ($3.35 per kw.) is 
 paid each month ; this sum entitles the consumer to 43,550 kw.-hrs. 
 (130 for each dollar). At the same time, the maximum of 100 
 kws. must not be exceeded a.t any time during the month. In case 
 more than 100 kws. is the maximum, the minimum bill is increased 
 by $3.35 for each kw. in excess. For each dollar of this increase, 
 the consumer is entitled to use 130 kw.-hrs. If the kw.-hrs. used 
 exceed 43.550, the excess is paid for at the rate of $0.0112 per 
 kw.-hr. On the basis of 43,550 kw.-hrs. per month at $335 each 
 kw.-hr. costs $0.00769. This amounts to $50 per h.p. per year. 
 The peak on the hoist never lasts 5 mins., so the power never costs 
 more than $50 per h.p. 
 
 As the Hecla mine has but one hoist, the handling of all timbers, 
 waste, etc., as well as the shifts, mu.st be performed by it, in addition 
 to the ore-hoisting. To give an idea of the work the hoist does. 
 Table XVI was compiled for the period of time from Aug. 1, 1911, 
 to Jan. 1, 1912: 
 
 In order to determine the cost per ton for power used during 
 actual hoisting, a series of tests was taken, with the following 
 
1404 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XVI. HOISTING PERFORMANCE 
 
 ORB HOISTED 
 
 600-ft. level 900-ft. level 1,200-ft. level 
 
 Skips 2,241.0 9,968.0 9,961.0 
 
 Tons 5.840.0 25,824.0 26,028,0 
 
 Monthly average — 
 
 Skips 448.2 1,993.6 1,992.2 
 
 Tons 1,168.0 5,164.8 5,202.6 
 
 CARS OF WASTE HANDLED 
 
 1,200 to 600 Top to 600 Top to 300 
 
 Cars 3,946.0 7,416.0 826.0 
 
 Average 789.2 1,483.2 165.2 
 
 Timbers, lagging 
 Stulls Wedges and chute 
 
 321,677 ft. b.m. 79 cars 475,140 ft. b.m. 
 
 Average 64,335.4 15.8 95,028.0 
 
 Power Consumed: 234,760 kw.-hra, average equals 46,952 kw.- 
 hrs., equals $361 per month. Total cost for power for each ton of 
 output equals $0.0313. 
 
 results: From the 1,200-ft. level 32 skips (83 tons) were hoisted 
 in 33 mins., with a kw.-hr. consumption of 142, On the basis of 
 $0.00769 per kw.-hr., the cost of hoisting the 83 tons was $1,092, 
 or $0.0131 per ton. From the 900-ft. level 14 skips (36.4 tons) 
 were hoisted in 11 mins., with a kw.-hr. consumption of 50, and a 
 cost of $0.3854, or $0.0l1fe per ton. From the 600-ft. level 14 skips 
 (36.4 tons) were hoisted in 10 mins., with a kw.-hr. consumption 
 of 40, and a cost of $0.3076, or $0.00845 per ton. 
 
 To run the set light for 1 hr. requires 48 kw.-hrs. at a cost of 
 $0.'S68. In service the set runs continuously during the 24 hrs., 
 with the exception of a period of about 4 hrs. after midnight. After 
 the power is cut off, the set will run for 1.25 hrs., unless it is 
 slowed down by hoisting, or the band-brake on the flywheel is ap- 
 plied. The hoist was guaranteed to maintain one-quarter output 
 of the mine working unbalanced from the 2,400-ft. level (its ulti- 
 mate depth). In order to test this feature, a load of 1,773 lbs. 
 was added to compensate for the extra weight of cable to 2,400 
 ft. This weight was obtained by placing a car with the required 
 amount of ore in it on a cage deck. The car was allowed to remain 
 on the cage during the entire time of hoisting. Unbalanced hoisting 
 was maintained at the rate of 11 trips an hr. fi'om 900 ft. for 3 
 hrs. All temperatures at the end of this time were well within the 
 guarantees. In May, 1911, one of the clutch-arms broke, and the 
 hoist operated unbalanced with entire satisfaction for a period of 
 20 hrs., part of the hoisting being from the i,200-ft. level. 
 
 The upkeep of the equipment for the 3 years and 8 months it 
 has been in service has been extremely low. The hoist-motor has 
 needed no repairs, while the exciter has had but one new set of 
 brushes. The generator requires about one new set of brushes 
 a year. The motor has been the only source of expense, 
 and like trouble could occur to any motor. Three times it has 
 
CONVEYORS. HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1405 
 
 suffered a grounded coil during a lightning storm. The winding 
 is a 3-bank concentric winding, and replacement of coils is a tedi- 
 ous affair. A new set of collector-rings was also put on this ma- 
 chine. 
 
 The hoist requires but 1 man per shift to operate it. Another 
 advantage of the. hoist is its ability to operate for a short time, 
 even though the power be accidentally interrupted. The running- 
 lights in the hoist-room are all lighted from the exciter, which 
 enables the oijerator to see avS long as hoisting can be continued. 
 Without ore, as in handling men, the hoist is capable of making 
 several trips after the jiower is shut off. This installation has 
 the disadvantage of consuming power, even though the hoist motor 
 is not in actual oiieration. This is more apparent than it would 
 be if the hoist were' operating from greater depths, or handling 
 greater tonnage. The effect greater depth has on the efficiency is 
 shown from the tests. From the 600-ft, level, the cost per 1,000 
 ft.-tons is $0,014, from 900 ft. it is $0.0116, and from 1,200 ft. it is 
 $0.0109. The effect greater tonnage would have on the cost per 
 ton of output is shown by the following : Assuming that the mine 
 double its output, the kw.-hr. consumption per month would be in- 
 creased by 17,231, at a cost of $132.59. The total cost for power 
 for each ton of output would be lowered from $0.0313 to $0.0213. 
 
 Comparison Between Electr'c and Steam Hoisting Systems and 
 Between Dir6ct-Current and 3-Phase Systems for Hoisting in 
 South African Mines. H. W. Clayden and S. E. T. Ewing in the 
 Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers, 
 Dec, 1916, also printed in Electrical World, April, 1917, compare 
 the Ward-Leonard system and the 3-phase hoisting system with 
 respect to the different requirements of mine hoisting, and reach 
 the following conclusions : 
 
 For shaft sinking both systems are equally effective on all points 
 at approximately equal capital cost. 
 
 For rock hoisting from one level with tail ropes the relative 
 economy of the two systems depends on the frequency of hoisting ; 
 the lower the frequency of hoisting the greater the gain to the 
 alternating-current system, and conversely the higher the frequency 
 the greater the gain to the Ward-Leonard system. The alternating- 
 current system has the lower capital cost. The systems are of 
 equal safety and ea.se of handling. 
 
 For rock hoisting from one level without tail ropes the alter- 
 nating-current system has lower capital cost, while the Ward- 
 Leonard system has superior over-all economy and is easier to 
 handle. 
 
 For rock hoisting from several levels, for raising and lowering 
 men, for lowering supplies, and for dead-slow hoisting the alter- 
 nating-current system has lower capital cost, while the Ward- 
 Leonard system has the superior over-all economy and is easier to 
 handle. 
 
 Comparative efficiency and cost figures are given from practice 
 for three hoisting plants — a 5-ton Ward-Leonard hoist, a 5-ton 
 3-phase hoi.st, and a 4-ton steam hoist at 3 different mines. The 
 
1406 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 h.p. is 500 for the Ward-Leonard hoist, 550 for the 3 -phase hoist 
 and 800 for the steam hoist; the size of drums is 10 ft. by 3 ft. 
 6 in., 10 ft. by 3 ft. 6 in., 9 ft. by 3 ft. 3 in. ; the maximum rope 
 speed 2,000 ft., 1,500 ft, 1.500 ft. ; the capacity of the skip, 5, 5, 4 
 tons; the maximum vertical depth of shaft 2,060 ft., 1,583 ft., 
 1.323 ft.; the maximum length of shaft 3,902 ft.,. 2,420 ft, 2,072 ft 
 These figures are near enough to give a fair comparison. 
 
 It appears that the Ward-Leonard hoist has a 6.7% higher over-all 
 efficiency than the 3 -phase winder ; but in the case of the former 
 only 2 shifts are worked and the converter set is shut down for 7 
 hrs. each day. This set requires 20 kw.-hr. per hour running light, 
 so that comparing the two winders on a 24-hr. service the Ward- 
 Leonard efficiency will be only 3.5% better than the 3 -phase hoist. 
 
 For the steam hoist only 3 months' accurate figures as to steam 
 consumption are available. For 3 months this hoist required 99 
 lbs. of steam per shaft h.p.-hr., but this must not be taken as a 
 representative figure for steam hoisting, as owing to the small 
 amount of work done by this hoist the standby losses are exception- 
 ally high. Only a very rough efficiency comparison can be made, 
 and therefore the comparative figures of cost are more important. 
 
 The average monthly cost of each of the three hoists over the 
 3 months April, May and June. 1916. is given in the table, and it 
 is stated that the figures for the next 3 months are practically the 
 same, there being only a difference in the third-place decimal. 
 
 TABLE XVIL AVERAGE MONTHLY COST OF HOISTS (1916) 
 
 Ward- Three- 
 Leonard phase Steam 
 
 Average shaft, h.p.-hrs 25.436 26.124 20,425 
 
 Attendance, oil and engine-room 
 
 stores, per useful shaft h.p.. cts. . . 0.316 0.322 0.352 
 
 Repairs, wages and stores per h.p., cts. 0.194 0.584 0.070 
 Power, electric and air or steam per 
 
 h.p., cts 1,786 2,076 3,492 
 
 Total cost per h.p., cts 2.296 2.982 3.914 
 
 The first item, attendance and engine-room stores, includes all 
 engine-room wages and stores except hoist-engine drivers' wages, 
 which are charged direct to hauling and do not come into the 
 power account 
 
 The second item, " repairs," includes all electrical and mechan- 
 ical supervision, inspection and repairs. 
 
 The third item " power," for the electric hoists, includes the cost 
 of electricity and air power. The power required for the brake 
 engines is taken from the general mine air supply, the small com- 
 pressor in the winding-engine room coming into operation only 
 when the mine pressure drops below 60 lbs. per sq. in. " Power " 
 for the steam hoist includes coal, oil, water, wages and main- 
 tenance of the boiler-house plant and is the cost of steam power 
 delivered to the engine house. 
 
 Electric Passenger Elevator Systems. William Ehrlich in Elec- 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1407 
 
 trical Engineering, April, May and June, 1914, gives the following: 
 To indicate fully -the extensive use to which the elevator has 
 been adopted for passenger traffic in large cities, the instance of 
 the Borough of Manhattan in Greater New York is given. There 
 are about 10,000 machines in service, being twice the number that 
 were in operation- ten years ago, and these are divided among the 
 different classes of buildings approximately as follows : 
 
 5000 elevators in office buildings over 10 stories high. 
 
 1500 " " office buildings under 10 stories high. 
 
 500 " " loft buildings. 
 
 700 " " residences. 
 
 800 " " apartment houses. 
 
 500 " " department and other stores. 
 
 1000 " " hotels, clubs, institutions, etc. 
 
 Besides these passenger cars, the building systems requiring 
 freight service involve an additional 10,000 machines. 
 
 In modern elevator practice William Ehrlich in Electrical Engi- 
 neering, April to June, 1^14, states there are but 2 common 
 types of successful machines in use — namely, the hydraulic and 
 electric elevators. These may both be classified as to the mode 
 of drive or operation and the transmission of power, thereby show- 
 ing an apparent variety of elevators. The hydraulic type machine 
 may be of the vertical cylinder pattern and also of the plunger 
 type, while the electrical apparatus is either of the drum, worm- 
 gear or gearless traction type, as illustrated in Fig. 47. 
 
 In summarizing, it might be well to mention that the commercial 
 or useful life of an elevator and its combined mechanisms seldom 
 exceeds 15 years, and that where remodeling has been resorted to, 
 the electric drum and worm-gear traction has usually been sub- 
 stituted for the hydraulic type in buildings not exceeding 12 to 16 
 stories, and in higher structures the gearless traction or its modifi- 
 cation in the form of an electric " two-to-one " traction elevator 
 has been resorted to. 
 
 In narrowing down the que.stion as to the merits of the electric 
 traction elevator and the hydraulic plunger elevator for passenger 
 service in tall office buildings of today, it might be well to note 
 that the new elevator installations, almost without exception, have 
 favored the electric. Not only is the cost of installing the trac- 
 tion 25% to 35% less than the plunger type, but the room occupied 
 by the driving machinery is reduced to a minimum, and, as a mat- 
 ter of fact, may be placed at the head and directly over the ele- 
 vator shaft. If no local supply of electricity is available on the 
 premises, the public source may be resorted to. 
 
 The difficulty with the plunger elevator for high-rise high-speed 
 work lies in the requirement for moving the mass of water and the 
 massive plunger proper, and as this immense weight cannot be 
 readily and smoothly stopped, the result is a sluggishness in start- 
 ing and stopping. At any rate, it remains an open question as to 
 whether the economic values attached to modern buildings would 
 
1408 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 favor the installation of the plunger elevator, with its accompany- 
 ing pumping plant, which necessarily occupies considerable floor 
 space. The only open choice, therefore, would tend to favor the 
 high-rise high-speed electric traction elevator for passenger service. 
 The figures given in Table XVIII may prove of interest in point- 
 ing out the relatively higher operating costs of the different elec- 
 
 CeuntXf 
 
 •ftear^css Etectrte Traction' 
 
 -Worm-Gear Elcctrte- 
 
 -Vortlca) Cy)»*iae»-Hy<Jw»u»lc-> 
 
 Fig, 
 
 •Direct- Acting F*)un9e>^ 
 
 Types of elevators. 
 
 trie types over the Vertical cylinder hydraulic and plunger elevators. 
 The values given represent only the cost of labor, power, repairs 
 and supplies. By a close perusal of the amounts listed, it will 
 be confirmed that the economies of the plunger cannot be utilized 
 beneficially in tall office buildings on account of the mechanical 
 difficulties, and in other types of smaller buildings allowing for a 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1409 
 
 low rise the installation cost becomes exorbitant. If the rela- 
 tively high first cost of this type of machine were taken into con- 
 sideration, with an addition for ,the extra cost in building con- 
 struction necessary for the space occupied by the pump and tank 
 equipment, the total expenditure on the whole would show no 
 great favor either way. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. RELATIVE OPERATING COST OF ELEVATORS 
 
 Costs 
 
 2-2 
 
 ■-2 u 
 
 Per cent, of rentals 8.5 
 
 Cents per car mile 25 
 
 Dollars per car per annum 2,100 
 
 Per cent, of all operating costs.... 14.1 
 
 Costs 
 
 Per cent, of rentals 8.0 
 
 Cents per car mile 23.8 
 
 Dollars per car per annum 1075 
 
 Per cent, of all operating costs. ... 18.0 
 
 Office building 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 o^o 
 
 ,^3 
 
 u 
 
 o'q; 
 
 
 
 7.2 
 
 6.8 
 
 6.5 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 1,850 
 
 1,680 
 
 1,600 
 
 12.0 
 
 11.3 
 
 11.0 
 
 Loft building 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 bn 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 £ 
 
 t 
 
 & 
 
 u 
 
 "O 
 
 
 o 
 
 >> 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 K 
 
 Ph 
 
 6.8 
 
 6.5 
 
 6.2 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 900 
 
 860 
 
 810 
 
 15.4 
 
 14.8 
 
 14.0 
 
 Apartment house 
 
 Costs -^ 
 
 o 
 
 Per cent, of rentals 6.8 
 
 Cents per car mile 20 
 
 Dollars per car per annum 560 
 
 Per cent, of all operating costs.... 13.6 
 
 a 
 
 C3 
 
 bx) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 5.3 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 510 
 
 480 
 
 450 
 
 12.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 10. 
 
 In explaining the values given in Table XVIIT, it should be 
 under.stood that the figures are computed on a basis of actual rec- 
 ords of several buildings that have come to the writer's notice. 
 The general method of comparing records in business buildings is 
 to relate the costs to the total annual income or rental. The total 
 operating costs include the expense in the mechanical, electrical 
 and building departments, covering all costs of labor and material 
 for the maintenance of the different divisions of service. There- 
 fore the annual cost of operating an elevator system is given as a 
 percentage of the gross rentals received, and is further stated as 
 a percentage of the total operating expenditure of the buildings 
 
1410 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ^OST DATA 
 
 under consideration. The average cost in cents per car-mile 
 traversed is also given, together with the average annual cost in 
 dollars to pay for the labor in operating and repairing, the neces- 
 sary power, and the material and supplies required per single 
 elevator. 
 
 The efficient operation of an elevator system does not rest alto- 
 gether on the ,econoinic division and disposition of the cars, as the 
 human element becomes one of the main factors. It is self-evident, 
 therefore, that the service of an elevator is limited not only by 
 the different clas.'^es of passengers entering, riding and leaving the 
 conveyance, but by the experience of the hall man or " starter " 
 and his ability to understand the demands of the traffic and the 
 personal peculiarities of the elevator operators. 
 
 It is now common practice to dispatch the various machines of 
 an elevator system on a predetermined time schedule, thus avoid- 
 ing to a great extent any confusion or overcrowding that would 
 otherwise arise. It has been well established that the consecu- 
 tive travel of elevators under schedule operation allows for a 
 highly efficient service, not only in the handling of the traffic, but 
 in the demand for power, which is thereby reduced to a minimum. 
 
 i 
 
 ^m 
 
 3<tcoftJs- ^P Tr-tp 
 
 X 1 
 
 T ± 
 
 _.:. : :::± "":"■: — : 
 
 + - 
 
 ..: — d '" J. ^ 
 
 
 J , i J.., \ 
 
 -^ .:t:::::i::: :i:::::i±::: 
 
 .z.,...EJ::::s±:±:=±:f:=:: 
 
 Jecont^j OoMn '^ip 
 
 W^ 
 
 m 
 
 V<t 
 
 Jcale o/" Tim a 
 
 td^ par KoijncI Trip 
 
 Fig. 48. Recorded current consumption of gearless traction 
 elevators. 
 
 The power diagrams. Fig. 48, point to the effect of poor and 
 proper service under different conditions. The upper curve (a) 
 was taken under test conditions and represents the operation of 
 one elevator. The load in the single car is approximately equal 
 to the designed machine balance, both on the up and down trips, 
 and the number of stops corresponds to the average per car mile 
 under actual service in office buildings. This diagram is given 
 mainly to allow for a proper understanding of the combined curve 
 (b) showing the actual round trip operation of a bank of ele- 
 vators in one of the New York sky-scraper buildings at the early 
 morning hour. The full or solid line curve shows an excessive 
 power demand due to an inconsistent " schedule," the cars having 
 been dispatched by a starter who may be identified by (X), while 
 the dotted or broken line curve shows the more expert handling 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1411 
 
 under the consecutive dispatching by starter (Y), the same oper- 
 ators running the cars in each case. 
 
 Another important consideration is the division so common in 
 high class office buildings, namely, the proper service of " local " 
 and " express " elevators. The formulas given below are well 
 substantiated, giving economical service conditions as based on 
 existing systems in the larger cities of the U. S., and by which 
 the number of elevators required, the division of service, and 
 their operation may be determined. 
 
 (1) E = A^24000 
 
 (2) f = - + 2 
 
 (3) Te 
 
 / 25 5 \ / 25 1\ 
 
 / _ + , n, and Tl = ( h — ) n 
 
 V s 100/ V s 10/ 
 
 (4) Mer= 2n^7Te, and Ml= 2n-^7Tl 
 
 (5) Ce = li5n -^ 100 Te, and CI = 115n -^ 100 Tl. 
 
 The notations in the formulas are : 
 
 E = number of elevators required. 
 A = sq. ft. of gross building area served. 
 f =: floor at which express run terminates 
 n — total number of floors served, 
 s — .speed of elevator, in ft. per minute. 
 Tl = local round trip time in minutes. 
 Te =: express round trip time in minutes. 
 Ml = miles traveled per hour by local. 
 Me — miles traveled per hour by express. 
 CI = current consumed per hour by local in kw.-hrs, 
 Ce = current consumed per hour by express, in kw.-hrs. 
 
 TABLE XIX. UN IT- AREA, L( 
 
 DAD AND SPEED COMBIN 
 
 Bldg. ht. 
 floors 
 
 Car area 
 sq. ft. 
 
 Load 
 lbs. 
 
 Speed 
 ft. per min. 
 
 8-13 
 14-22 
 23-30 
 
 25 
 30 
 40 
 
 1700 
 2000 
 3000 
 
 250-350 
 350-600 
 400-600 
 
 The figures in Table XIX represent the average load and speed 
 combinations for various heights of buildings, together with the 
 usual area of the elevator car as is consistent with the standard 
 sizes manufactured, and should be used as a basis for selecting 
 the proper unit areas in connection with formula No. 1. The 
 many factors entering into the operation of an elevator would 
 affect the current consumption to a considerable extent, as may 
 be seen by Fig. 48 hereinbefore explained. But formula No. 5 
 agrees with modern service under average operating conditions. 
 
 In order to facilitate the ready understanding of the various 
 formulas given. Table XX, embodying the computations, is pre- 
 sented. The various headings included are numbered in respective 
 order from 1 to 12, so that an explanation of the items considered 
 will not be confusing. Under column 1 is listed the heights of 
 buildings, with the assumed floor areas extending the full height 
 of the structure given in column 2. In column 3 is listed the 
 
1412 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 actual sq. ft. of car area now provided in many buildings of 
 similar floor space having an adequate service. This is intended 
 as a guide where the considerations. in planning the building have 
 included a means of accommodating the standard size elevators 
 most suitable for that building and wherein serious attention has 
 been given to the disposition of the cars. But on the other hand, 
 the values li.sted may also be used to advantage in proportioning 
 the number of elevators required under any conditions, and where 
 the physical aspect of the building does not allow for an economic 
 disposition of the elevators. Any conservative unit-area best suited 
 to the conditions may then be allotted for each car, and thereby 
 solve for the number of elevators necessary. 
 
 TABLE XX. ELEVATOR INSTALLATION DATA 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 7 
 
 Build 
 
 ing 
 
 Number of elevators 
 
 required , 
 
 Number 
 
 Gross 
 
 Total 
 
 Cars 
 
 Cars 
 
 Cars By 
 
 of 
 
 area in 
 
 sq. ft. of 
 
 at 25 
 
 at 30 
 
 at 40 formula 
 
 floors 
 
 sq.ft. 
 80,000 
 
 car area 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 sq. ft. No. 1 
 
 8 
 
 89 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 100,000 
 
 111 
 
 4 
 
 * ' 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 120.000 
 
 133 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 210,000 
 
 262 
 
 11 
 
 *9 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 240,000 
 
 300 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 270,000 
 
 337 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 300,000 
 
 375 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 10 13 
 
 25 
 
 375.000 
 
 577 
 
 
 19 
 
 15 16 
 
 30 
 
 800,000 
 
 1221 
 
 
 40 
 
 30 33 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 
 Round trip time in minutes 
 
 (f) or 
 
 Number 
 
 Tl at 
 
 Tl at 
 
 Te at 
 
 Teat 
 
 Express 
 
 of 
 
 350 ft. 
 
 500 ft. 
 
 500 ft. 
 
 600 ft. 
 
 run. in 
 
 floors 
 
 per min. 
 
 per min. 
 
 per min. 
 
 per min. 
 
 floors 
 
 8 
 
 1.3 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 10 
 
 1.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 14 
 
 2.4 
 
 'i.i ' 
 
 
 . . . . 
 
 
 16 
 
 2.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 v. 6' 
 
 .... 
 .... 
 
 'io" 
 
 18 
 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 .... 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 v. 8* 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 .... 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 17 
 
 It will be noticed that in columns 8 and 9 the time occupied 
 in traversing the height of buildings exceeded eighteen stories is 
 slightly more than would actually prove economical. It might be 
 well therefore to point out that the speeds of local elevators for 
 high buildings might be increased to advantage ; but whether the 
 service be local or express, it is not advisable to exceed a speed 
 rate of 600 ft. per min. 
 
 In order to rectify this condition, under the speeds considered, 
 the number of express elevators must then be more than half the 
 total .system, and a sub-division of express service proper is also 
 necessary. 
 
 It is often helpful to be informed as to the size of motor required 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1413 
 
 for an installation, and the diagram, Fig. 49, may be used for this 
 purpose. For sake of illustration in the use of the diagram, a 
 speed of 400 ft. per min. is assumed, with a combined load of 
 2,500 lbs. Following the line marked with an arrow from the 
 
 /CO /so zoo ^S^o ^oo Joo ^oo 
 
 OpzQd of Machine - feet per M/>? 
 
 Fig. 49. Motor sizes for electric elevators. 
 
 speed of 400 ft. the point of intersection is then at 2,500 lbs. 
 From this point follow the line as indicated to the scale of motor 
 sizes, and the result is above 40 h.p. 
 
 Table XXI gives the current consumption of motor sizes 
 
1414 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXI. CURRENT CONSUMPTION 
 
 Motor size Starting current Running current 
 20 h.p. 102 Amp. 74 Amp. 
 
 4 h.p. 202 Amp. 148 Amp. 
 
 60 h.p. 292 Amp. 213 Amp. 
 
 common in elevator practice. The figures are for d.c. motors 
 operating at 230 volts, and are based on the results of tests. 
 
 To aid in the selection of well proportioned electric feeders for 
 elevator motors. Table XXII is given. The figures are for 230 
 volt, d.c. machines. 
 
 TABLE XXIL WIRE AND CONDUIT SIZES FOR ELECTRIC 
 ELEVATORS, 2 WIRE, 230 VOLT, D. C. SYSTEMS 
 
 Wire Max- Conduit 
 
 Under- imum Out- 
 
 -lyr^ _ • writers run or Trade Inside side 
 
 Y^\. Size of amp. distance size for diam- diam- 
 
 *^' each wire -carrying in ft. 2 wires, eter, eter, 
 
 capacity for 2% ins. ins. ins. 
 
 drop 
 
 15 No. 3 80 154 li^ 1.38 1.66 
 
 20 No. 1 100 174 11/. 1.61 1.90 
 
 25 No. 125 186 li^ 1.61 1.90 
 
 30 No. 00 150 198 2 2.06 2.37 
 
 35 No. 000 175 212 2 2.06 2.37 
 
 40 No. 0000 225 226 2 2.06 2.37 
 
 45 No. 0000 225 226 2 2.06 2.37 
 
 50 300,000 cir. mils. 275 248 2i^ 2.46 2.87 
 
 50 300,000 cir. mils. 275 248 21/2 2.46 2.87 
 
 60 400,000 cir. mils. 325 272 3 3.06 3.50 
 
 Power Consumption of Electric Elevators. C. D. Wesselhoeff is 
 authority for the data in Table XXIII, giving the power con- 
 sumption of electric elevators at various loads and stops. Type 
 of machine, one to one electric traction. Total weight of car, 
 3,956 lbs. Overbalance, 1,060 lbs. Capacity, 2,500 lbs. at a speed 
 of 500 ft. per niin. 
 
 Operating Costs of Electric Elevators. Table XXIV was pre- 
 pared from a circular of the Cincinnati (Ohio) Gas and Elec- 
 tric Co. 
 
 Operating Costs of Electric Elevators. The following is from an 
 article by C. W. Naylor, Power, Feb. 5, 1918. The electric passen- 
 ger elevator has now been in service for a period long enough to 
 enable the engineer to report intelligently on its co.st of operation, 
 maintenance and repair. Hitherto, reports on electric-elevator 
 costs have been in a great measure based on tests made at the 
 time of. or very soon after, installation, and the real cost, such as 
 could be shown only by records of years of operation, has in the 
 main been a matter of conjecture. The repair or maintenance side 
 of the ledger, in which cost records are tabulated, shows a marked 
 increase as the machine becomes older, after making due allow- 
 ance for the advance in the cost price of repairs, which is now so 
 noticeable. 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1415 
 
 
 05tH 
 
 03 03 
 
 
 0)0 
 
 
 
 C^ 
 
 iftioio 
 
 
 
 "5 . . 
 
 
 00^«D 
 
 
 (>i - - 
 
 
 
 cot- 
 
 
 ;h 
 
 . . 
 
 
 <U 
 
 MOO 
 
 
 rips p 
 Oper- 
 ator 
 3.09 
 1, 
 9, 
 
 IIm- 
 
 CO 
 
 .2-0 
 
 U5 
 
 ^<X) 
 
 OS 
 
 -uco 
 
 ^ 
 
 t-'^' 
 
 <M"oi^- 
 
 ^o 
 
 w'd'd 
 
 
 ,-1 c s 
 
 • • hO 
 
 esq" 1^ 1^ 
 
 ^^O^j 
 
 
 ^-cJ^ 
 
 c-^co 
 
 C G '^■z> 
 
 t— . _' J" 
 
 oj oi f5«5 
 
 ^lOU5 
 
 ^^.^'^ 
 
 THCOt-" 
 
 ^^7-1 
 
 
 
 iHoT 
 
 lO 
 
 Oco 
 
 Tt< 
 
 Lj CD • 
 
 o 
 .2'ft'^ 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 >> I 
 
 o3 c 
 ^ ' 
 
 Ccc 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 cr 
 
 c 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 at or 
 2.345 2 
 
 Up. 
 Down. 
 101 f 
 Operat 
 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 
 . 
 
 Pk 
 
 t^5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hH 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 * 
 
 •rJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 u 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 per 
 top: 
 ors 
 
 per 
 
 
 .MO a)X2 
 
 
 ftM U- 
 
 sj tc o - . 
 
 
 "Hi 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 >_: 
 
 ti 
 
 C 
 
 J 
 
 [^ 
 
1416 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XXIV. COST OF ELECTRIC ELEVATOR OPERATION 
 
 
 (Six months' 
 
 average) 
 
 
 
 Freight elevato 
 
 rs * 
 
 Passenger elevators f 
 
 
 Averag-e 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 sTo. H.p. 
 
 monthly 
 cost 
 
 No. 
 
 H.p. 
 
 monthly- 
 cost 
 
 1 10 
 
 $11.92 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 $39.54 
 
 1 10 
 
 10.00 
 
 2 
 
 201/2 
 
 19.05 
 
 5 20 
 
 33.01 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 65.83 
 
 1 5 
 
 5.00 
 
 2 
 
 171/2 
 
 17.30 
 
 1 5 
 
 4.00 
 
 1 
 
 221/2 
 
 23.57 
 
 1 5 
 
 5.00 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 14.22 
 
 1 5 
 
 4.00 
 
 5 
 
 73 
 
 59.40 
 
 1 5 
 
 7.37 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 38.16 
 
 1 5 
 
 4.00 
 
 3 
 
 381/2 
 
 34.55 
 
 1 5 
 
 11.86 
 
 2 
 
 101/2 
 
 19.80 
 
 1 10 
 
 9.50 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 9.73 
 
 1 10 
 
 9.50 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 14.87 
 
 1 81/2 
 
 9-49 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 18.42 
 
 2 25 
 
 23.75 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 9.15 
 
 1 5 
 
 3.50 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 22.01 
 
 1 10 
 
 9.50 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 4.75 
 
 1 5 
 
 4.75 
 
 2 
 
 16 1/2 
 
 17.62 
 
 1 10 
 
 11.30 
 
 1 
 
 121/2 
 
 14.66 
 
 1 8 
 
 7.60 
 
 2 
 
 121/2 
 
 12.33 
 
 1 20 
 
 28.06 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 17.74 
 
 1 7% 
 
 7.12 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 37.95 
 
 1 5 
 
 4.75 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 23.49 
 
 1 5 
 
 4.60 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 18.24 
 
 1 5 
 
 5.25 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 19.05 
 
 1 71/2 
 
 7.12 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 19.50 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 13.30 
 
 . . 
 
 . . . • 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 18.98 
 
 • 
 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 35.31 
 
 2211/2 
 
 --.,, $241.95 45 523 $658.58 
 
 * Average cost per elevator per month, $8. Average cost per 
 month per h.p., $1.09. 
 
 t Average cost per elevator per month, $14.64. Average cost per 
 month per h.p., $1,26. 
 
 This article is based on the records for 10 years, ended Dec. 
 31, 1916, for 50 worm-gear, drum-type elevators having a 150- to 
 230-ft. lift and running in passenger service at a maximum speed, 
 loaded, of 350 ft. per min. The elevators cited are all in one 
 building, operated in a similar manner, doing exactly the same 
 kind of work for equal numbers of hours per day, and cared for 
 by the same set of mechanics, using the same oils, grease, cables, 
 ropes, brushes, etc. 
 
 They are all of the overhead drum type, as shown in Fig. 50, 
 overbalanced as to counterweight and equipped with all the 
 standard accessories that go with this make of elevator. They are 
 operated on direct current at about 226 to 230 volts, with magnet 
 control of the usual construction and steel guide rails for cars 
 and counterweights. There are two sets of counterweights, one for 
 the drum and one for the car. All cables are standard, % in. 
 diam., running over idler sheaves and drums of approximately 46 
 ins. diam. The car-counterweight cables, two in number, pass 
 directly over the vibrating or idler sheave A, while the car-hoisting 
 
-^1 
 
 CAR 
 COUNTER II 
 WEIGHTS 
 
 Fig. 50. Overhead type elevator machine. 
 1417 
 
1418 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cables wind on the drum B as the drum-counterweight cables un- 
 wind, and vice versa. 
 
 There are no equalizing or compensating cables or chains. The 
 cars, or cages, of a rather heavy pattern, weigh approximately 
 4,000 lbs. each, and the double counterweights about 5,000 lbs. 
 The drums are driven by double, or fore-and-aft, bronze worm 
 gears meshing with steel worms on an extension of the armature 
 shaft, with the magnet brake installed on this shaft between the 
 armature and the worm. The armature revolves at 850 r.p.m. 
 when on high speed, and the drums make about 30 revolutions 
 during the same period. Of the cars listed, 5 have a travel, or 
 rise, of 150 ft. 40 have 200 ft. and 5 220 to 230 ft. 
 
 In addition to the overhead type of passenger cars, there are 
 5 machines of the '^asement type, the driving mechanism being 
 at the lower landing, with traveling idler sheaves over the drum. 
 The lift is about 40 ft. For the various items shown in the table 
 the operating costs are about the same. The extra cable wear is in 
 a measure compensated for by the shorter length, the cables wear- 
 ing out in 2 or 3 yrs. as against 6 to 10 yrs. for the longer lifts. 
 There are also 11 freight elevators of overhead type, 220 
 ft. travel, with a somewhat slower speed and smaller motors. 
 These machines cost 10% less for all items shown in the table, 
 except for cables, and 50% less for these. Their speed is 250 ft. 
 per min., and they. travel about 6 to 8 miles per day as against 12 
 to 15 miles each per day for the passenger cars. 
 
 The labor shown is for the wages of the maintenance and repair 
 mechanics. Each man cares for 12 cars, oiling, cleaning, adjust- 
 ing and ordinary repairs. 2 extra men care for the heavy and 
 extraordinary repairs such as installing armatures, greasing guides 
 and putting on cables. The increase from year to year is occa- 
 sioned by some additional help and wages advanced for the old 
 employees. 
 
 The item miscellaneous includes leather for brakes, copper rivets, 
 babbitt, bolts, screws, etc. The armature expense is mostly for 
 rewinding and includes a few field-coil renewals. The repair item 
 includes brushes, controller disks, contact lugs, carbons and such 
 material as would naturally be purchased from the manufacturer 
 of the machine, used mostly in keeping up the controller boards. 
 Oil includes engine oil for bearings and guides and castor or castor- 
 machine oil for the worm cases. Cables include the %-in. main 
 cables and the l^-in. wire and %-in. manila rope for the governors. 
 
 Each passenger car travels about 13 miles per day, and for the 
 year of 310 days, totals 4,030 miles. Dividing the average annual 
 cost per car by this mileage gives a maintenance cost of $0.0387 
 per car mile, of which about 75% is for labor and 25% for ma- 
 terials and supplies. 
 
 In the same plant are 11 worm-gear one-to-one traction ma- 
 chines having 230 ft. rise in the hatchway, with compensating 
 chains. The cars travel 375 ft. per min., or 1 4 to 16 miles per day. 
 Maintenance costs at present are about the same as for the old 
 drum types, except for cables, which wear out about twice as 
 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1419 
 
 TABLE XXV. MAINTENANCE COSTS OVER 10 TEARS FOR 
 50 ELECTRIC ELEVATORS * 
 
 Oil 
 
 1907 
 93 
 
 1908 
 
 93 
 
 16 
 
 1,105 
 
 1,160 
 
 467 
 
 5,000 
 
 59 
 
 7,900 
 158 
 
 1914 
 
 78 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 580 
 
 316 
 
 6,450 
 
 84 
 
 7,577 
 151 
 
 1909 
 
 93 
 
 16 
 
 618 
 
 461 
 
 188 
 
 5,525 
 
 307 
 
 7,208 
 145 
 
 1915 
 92 
 31 
 39 
 
 660 
 
 360 
 6,450 
 
 270 
 
 7,902 
 158 
 
 1910 
 
 68 
 
 25 
 
 465 
 
 1,148 
 
 323 
 
 5,525 
 
 238 
 
 7,792 
 156 
 
 1916 
 
 52 
 
 9 
 
 96 
 
 362 
 
 1,012 
 
 7,650 
 
 92 
 
 9,273 
 185 
 
 1911 
 
 68 
 
 26 
 
 467 
 
 935 
 
 140 
 
 5,525 
 
 344 
 
 7,505 
 150 
 
 Total 
 
 857 
 222 
 3,977 
 7,824 
 3,193 
 59,875 
 1,943 
 
 1912 
 110 
 
 
 8 
 
 34 
 
 Repairs 
 
 425 
 
 603 
 
 Armatures . . . . 
 Cables 
 
 . ... 1,060 
 
 540 
 
 174 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 6,375 
 
 ]y[isc 
 
 110 
 
 170 
 
 Total 
 
 6,696 
 
 8,006 
 
 Per car . . . 
 Oil 
 
 134 
 
 1913 
 110 
 
 28 
 
 160 
 
 Aver- 
 age 
 86 
 
 22 
 
 Repairs 
 
 119 
 
 398 
 
 Armatures 
 
 Cables 
 
 918 
 
 213 
 
 782 
 319 
 
 Labor 
 
 IMisc 
 
 6,375 
 
 269 
 
 5,988 
 194 
 
 
 8,032 
 
 161 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Per car . . . 
 
 77,891 
 1,558 
 
 7,789 
 156 
 
 * For simplicity all amounts given to the nearest dollar. 
 
 fast as they do on the drum machines. These elevators are now 
 only 3 yrs. old, and it is too early to pass upon their real cost 
 of operation. 
 
 There are also 5 basement worm-gear one-to-one traction ma- 
 chines with compensating cables, having 140 ft. lift and a speed 
 of 300 ft. per min. The ropes on these machines wear out very 
 rapidly. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing there are 8 one-to-one overhead 
 traction machines having 280 ft. lift, 450 ft. speed and equipped 
 with compensating cables and weights. The cars travel about 
 20 miles per day each, and the cables are wearing out three times 
 as rapidly as those on the old drum machines. These cars having 
 been in use only 3 years, it is wisdom to defer decision on their 
 operating cost to a later date. 
 
 In the plant there are 77 passenger and 14 freight elevators 
 traveling about 1,500 miles and carrying from 150,000 to 325,000 
 passengers per day. The cost per car-mile for current is practically 
 the same for all types. 
 
 Economy of the Electric Motor Drive for Contractor's Hoists. 
 W. H. Easton in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 21, 1914, 
 compares the costs of hoist operation with coal and electricity 
 as follows : 
 
 With a coal hoist in Pittsburg, where a motor was directly 
 substituted for a steam engine, all other factors remaining the 
 same, the following results were obtained : 
 
 Cost of coal per month $ 60 
 
 Cost of water 15 
 
 "Wages of engineer 125 
 
 Total $200 
 
1420 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of electric power per month $ 77 
 
 Wages of motor operator 75 
 
 Total . $152 
 
 Thus the electric hoist showed a saving of $48 per month. 
 But it also proved itself able to handle more coal. With the 
 steam hoist, a bucket containing 42 bushels was lifted every 60 
 seconds, whereas the electric hoist required only 50 seconds for 
 the trip, because it could be accelerated more rapidly. Hence in 
 a 10-hour day the electric hoist can perform 120 more trips, or 
 handle over 5,000 bushels more than the steam hoist. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 HEATING, COOKING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATING AND 
 ICE MAKING 
 
 Cost of Heating Buildings as given by George W. Martin in a 
 paper before the American Society of Heating and Ventilating En- 
 gineers is printed in Power, Feb. 15, 1916. In the Tweedy formula, 
 
 W 
 tons of coal per year = rrr-i' 2G, where W is the net wall surface 
 
 4.0 
 
 and G is the glass surface in units of 100 sq. ft. 
 
 Mr. Boyden's formula is somewhat complicated, but in the writer's 
 opinion it has the advantage that it takes into consideration a 
 difference in the operating conditions in the different buildings. Ex- 
 perience is necessary in the use of this formula, however, as serious 
 errors are likely to affect the variable to such an extent that the 
 calculated result will be far from correct. The formula follows : 
 
 Tons of coal per year = 
 VXa 
 
 1- (Ci X G) + (Co X W) 
 
 60 34 
 
 X LX d Xh X 
 
 CsX (130 — T) ex 2,000 
 
 in which 
 
 V = Gross volume of the building, including basement, if heated ; 
 G = Sq. ft. of glass surface, 10% being added for north and west 
 
 exposures ; 
 W = Sq. ft. of wall surface, 10% being added for north and west 
 
 exposures ; 
 a = Average air changes per hour during heating period ; 
 Ci = Constant for glass — 1 for single glass. 
 
 C2 = Constant for wall — usually 0.2 for brick and 0.3 for stone; 
 C3 = Constant for local conditions — 5.4 for Boston, 5.7 for New 
 
 York ; 
 T = Factor dependent upon the relation the heating plant bears 
 
 to the premises heated ; 
 L rr Factor for portion of building not heated or for building 
 
 heated to 70 deg. F. ; 
 e = Average evaporation in lb. of steam per lb. of coal ; 
 d = Number of heating days during season ; 
 h = Average number of hrs. of heating per day. 
 
 Under normal operating conditions, when steam is on the heating 
 system for from 3,200 to 3,500 hrs. during the heating season. of 
 
 1421 
 
1422 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 seven months, the two formulas agree fairly well with the actual 
 results, as shown in the case of three buildings, as follows : 
 
 I Building ^ 
 
 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 
 
 Actual coal, net tons 655 486 1,572 
 
 Tweedy formula 625 380 1,500 
 
 Boyden formula 650 469 1,545 
 
 While the three amounts agree closely in the case of buildings 
 Nos. 1 and 3, for building No. 2 the result by the Tweedy formula 
 is much below the actual, probably owing to the fact that much heat 
 was wasted through leaky windows, increasing the amount of air 
 change per hr. 
 
 Among those in charge of building operation for the United States 
 Government, the practice is followed of assuming the condensation 
 of 500 lbs. of steam per sq. ft. of radiating surface per season. The 
 writer believes this to be a safe figure, as in the case of the three 
 buildings cited, the condensation approximated 400 lbs., 430 lbs., and 
 420 lbs., per sq. ft. per season respectively, assuming an evaporation 
 of 7 lb. in each case. 
 
 ^2- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1''-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '-— , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 — 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 y 1 
 
 9 / 
 
 
 
 ; / 
 
 <t 1 
 
 r J6 
 
 VOLUME IN MILLION CU^IC FEET 
 
 Fig. 1. Cost of operation of heating system per thousand cu. ft. 
 of gross volume. 
 
 The writer's method of estimating the coal requirements for heat- 
 ing a building is to employ the Tweedy formula and check with the 
 Boyden formula and the Government method. A comparison of 
 the results with the known requirements of a similar building com- 
 pletes the process. 
 
 While the amount of coal required depends largely on the amount 
 of exposed wall and glass surface, yet it has been found that the 
 total cost of operation bears a fairly well-defined relation to the 
 volume of the building. 
 
 From the results obtained over the last 5 years a curve shown 
 in Fig. 1 has been plotted showing the cost of operation in dollars 
 per thousand cubic feet of gross volume. The costs include fuel, 
 labor, ash removal, make-up water, supplies and repairs. The coal 
 used was No. 3 Buckwheat at $2.50 per ton. This curve is not to 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1423 
 
 be used as an absolute method of determining heating costs, but 
 is rather intended as an approximation to give the consulting en- 
 gineer some idea of the operating cost of a system which he designs. 
 The buildings from which the results were obtained are all largely 
 on direct systems, the buildings of 6,500,000 and 15,000,000 cubic 
 feet having vacuum returns. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the cost of steam generation for various amounts of 
 steam generated, in a certain case where the boiler plant is located 
 750 ft. distant from the building heated. The customer is billed on 
 
 ^ €000000 
 
 ^ a 000 000 
 
 ^ ^ OOO 000 
 
 zz 
 
 «^^ 
 
 *-S" *<> as 3o 
 
 COST IN CENTS PCff WOO LBS. 
 
 Pig. 2. Cost of steam generation for various amounts of steam 
 generated. 
 
 the basis of the readings of a meter in the building. The full line 
 in Fig. 2 shows the cost based on meter readings in the power plant. 
 The difference represents the loss due to condensation in the line. 
 The plant is operated only when heating is required and is equipped 
 with three boilers each operating at 100 lbs. pressure. The boiler- 
 feed water comes from a heater at a temperature well above 200 
 deg. F. Other operating data follow : 
 
 Coal: No. 3 Buckwheat ($2.50 per ton delivered) burned with 
 balanced draft. 
 
 Number of days 227 
 
 Aver, outside temp. ... 40.9 deg. 
 Steam generated, lbs. . ^7,401,000 
 
 Cost per 1,000 lb. of steam : 
 Coal $0,193 
 
 Tons of coal, gross 3337 
 
 Rate of evaporation.... 6.34 
 
 Labor . 
 
 063 
 
 
 008 
 
 Make-up water 
 
 001 
 
 Elec. current, blower $0,006 
 
 Supplies 006 
 
 Repairs and misc 002 
 
 Fixed charges on invt 033 
 
 Total cost per 1,000 lb. of steam $0,312 
 
 Coal Required per Season for Steam and Hot Water Heating. 
 
 Fig. 3, taken from the Heating and Ventilation Magazine, Sept., 
 1916, readily shows the approximate amount of coal required per 
 season for steam and hot water heating. 
 
 To use chart, select point on left-hand vertical line indicating 
 square feet of radiation and piping. Connect this point with point 
 on right-hand vertical line indicating duration of heating season. 
 The point where the line crosses the middle vertical line indicates 
 
, C MONTHS 
 
 v»^S«lHaTOI*. 
 
 D ETC.) 
 
 Fig. 3. Chart for figuring amount of coal required per season for 
 steam and hot water heating. 
 
 1424 
 
HEATING. COOKING AND VENTILATING 1425 
 
 the approximate amount in tons of anthracite coal required per 
 season. 
 
 Figuring the Coal Consumption for Apartment and Office Build- 
 ings. H. M. Hart, in Metal Worker, Plumber and Steam Fitter, 
 April 14, 1916. 
 
 Apartment House Heating. To find the theoretical coal consump- 
 tion, assume a Chicago apartment building which is heated by steam 
 to 70 deg. The average outside temperature for the heating season 
 of seven months, from Oct. 1 to April 31, is approximately 35 deg., 
 and the minimum is 10 deg. below zero. 
 
 The average difference in temperature between the outside and 
 inside is 35 to 70 rr 35 deg. and the maximum difference is —10 to 
 70 = 80 deg. Therefore, to maintain an average temperature in the 
 building of 70 deg. the radiators would have to be hot 35/80ths of 
 the time, and this represents the average steam demand. 
 
 Then during the heating season of seven months, or 5040 hrs., the 
 radiators would be hot 35/80ths of 5040 = 2205 hrs. The amount of 
 heat given off by the average standard height steam radiator in 
 a room temperature of 70 deg. is approximately 225 B.t.u. per 
 square foot of surface per hour. On a basis of 100 sq. ft. of radia- 
 tion, the heat given off per heating season would be as follows : 
 100 X 225 X 2205 = 49,612,500 B.t.u. 
 
 It has been found by numerous tests that a good grade of semi- 
 bituminous or Pocahontas coal in the average heating boiler will 
 give off about 8000 available B.t.u. per pound of coal. Therefore, 
 the theoretical coal consumption per 100 sq. ft. of radiation surface 
 
 49,612,500 
 
 per heating season would be ~ 6201, or 3.1 tons. 
 
 8000 
 
 To check this with operating conditions, figures of actual fuel 
 consumption in seven modern apartment buildings were obtained. 
 These are heated by single-pipe steam systems using Pocahontas 
 coal in firebox of return tubular boilers, with the following results ; 
 
 Tons of coal per season 
 Sq. ft. _ Per 100 sq. 
 
 Bldg. No. radiation 
 
 1 3,435 
 
 2 6,000 
 
 3 900 
 
 4 7,076 
 
 5 3,900 
 
 6 7,341 
 
 7 2,559 
 
 Buildings Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 5 were erected by speculative builders 
 and consequently not much attention was given to the efficiency of 
 the heating systems. The result is that the present owners are 
 burning about twice the amount of fuel that they should. 
 
 Buildings 3, 6 and 7 were erected as permanent investments and 
 the heating system in each building was installed by a reputable 
 heating contractor. The systems were properly designed and are 
 ample in capacity. The owners might be well satisfied with their 
 investment, although they undoubtedly paid more per square foot 
 
 Total used 
 
 ft. radiation 
 
 219 
 
 6.40 
 
 334 
 
 5.56 
 
 36 
 
 4.00 
 
 465 
 
 6.60 
 
 190 
 
 4.88 
 
 215 
 
 2.93 
 
 170 
 
 3.23 
 
1426 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of radiation for their heating systems than did the owners of build- 
 ings 1. 2, 4 and 5. 
 
 The yearly loss to the owners of these four buildings is as follows : 
 
 3435 
 Bldg. No. 1 (6.4 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $510.10 
 
 100 
 
 6000 
 Bldg. No. 2 (5.56 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $664.20 
 
 100 
 
 7076 
 Bldg. No. 4 (6.6 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $1,114,47 
 
 100 
 
 7341 
 Bldg. No. 5 (4.88 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $588.00 
 
 100 
 
 A first-class single-pipe steam heating system can be installed 
 for about $1 per square foot of surface, but the builders probably 
 paid no more than 75 cents per square foot for these four jobs. 
 Therefore, the saving on cost of installation was about as follows : 
 
 Building No. 1 3435 X $0.25 = $ 858.75 
 
 Building No. 2 6000 X 0.25 = 1,500.00 
 
 Building No. 4 7076 X 0.25= 1,769.00 
 
 Building No. 5 7341 X 0.25= 1,835.00 
 
 This appears to be a very extravagant saving. The investment 
 of this additional amount in the heating systems would have netted 
 the owner from 32 per cent, to 63 per cent, profit. 
 
 The above simply illustrates how true that old saying is, that 
 one gets about what one pays for no matter how rigid the specifi- 
 cations or the contract may be. 
 
 The Office Building Problem. A slightly different problem is pre- 
 sented in considering the cost of operation of the heating and me- 
 chanical plants in office buildings. The following interesting com- 
 parison is drawn between two modern office buildings — one equipped 
 with a heating apparatus only and the other equipped with its own 
 power plant. 
 
 In the first building, which has a simple heating apparatus of the 
 vacuum type, temperature control, low pressure boilers and smoke- 
 less furnaces, the theoretical fuel consumption is as follows : 
 
 Direct radiation, 60,850 sq. ft. 
 
 The average outside temperature for the seven heating months of 
 1911 and 1912 was 33.6 deg. ; therefore, the theoretical number of 
 
 36.4 
 hours that radiators would be turned on would be 70 — 33.6 = -^77- 
 
 oO 
 
 or 45.5 per cent, of 310 days X 24 hrs., which would be 2293 hrs. 
 Therefore, the steam required for heating would be 
 
 60,850X225X2293 
 
 • =32,668,091 
 
 961 
 
 pounds. To this should be added the loss through the covered 
 piping, estimated at 3 per cent, of the total, which would make the 
 total loss by radiation, 33,648,133 lbs. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1.427 
 
 For ventilation there are the following- units: 1 unit delivering 
 32,420 c.f.m. at an average rise of 26.4 deg. for 20 hrs. per day; 
 1 unit delivering 18,400 c.f.m. at an average rise of 28.4 deg. for 
 20 hrs. per day; 1 unit delivering 33,860 c.f.m. at an average rise of 
 51.4 deg. for 10 hrs. per day; 1 unit delivering 19,500 c.f.m. at an 
 average rise of 76.4 deg. for 10 hrs. per day. 
 
 Cost of Generating Steam. The steam required for above service 
 would be as follows : 
 
 R. M. Hrs. Da. 
 32,420 X 26.4 X 60 X 20 X 180 
 
 ■ — = 3,497,717 
 
 . 55 X 9 61 lb. of steam 
 18,400 X 26.4 X 60 X 20 X 180 
 
 ■ . ^ 2 135 521 
 
 55X9 61 lb. of steam 
 
 33.860 X 51.4 X 60 X 10 X 180 
 
 • = 3.556,212 
 
 55X9 61 lb. of steam 
 19,500 X 76.4 X 60 X 10 X 180 
 = 3,044,147 
 
 55 X 9 61 lb. of steam 
 
 making a total of 12,233,597 lbs. of steam for ventilation, which, 
 added to that required for heating, makes a total of 45,881,730 lbs. 
 of steam, which, when burning screenings and evaporating 6 lbs. 
 of water per pound of coal, would take 45,881,730 -H (6 X 2000) = 
 3823 tons. 
 
 The actual fuel consumption per month was as shown in the ac- 
 companying table. 
 
 Outside Average 
 
 Theoretical Actual temperature wind 
 
 tons tons degrees velocity, miles 
 
 October 248 301 53.3 12.8 
 
 November 542 573 35.4 16.9 
 
 December 547 468 35.0 14.4 
 
 January . 783 913 11.9 14.2 
 
 February 759 656 21.8 14.4 
 
 March 640 661 28.8 13.5 
 
 April 338 286 48.8 16.5 
 
 It will be noticed from this table that during the months of 
 November and December the temperature was about the same, 
 but the wind velocity decreased about 15 per cent, and the fuel 
 consumption about 18 per cent. The difference between the months 
 of April and October, of course, is not consistent, but as the engineer 
 had no means of weighing the coal as it was put into the boilers 
 the figures given per month might not be absolutely correct. 
 
 The actual cost of operation of this heating plant is as follows : 
 
 Coal, 3,858 tons at $2.37 $ 9,143.46 
 
 Removing ashes 554.00 
 
 Oil, waste and packing 160.00 
 
 Repairs 100.00 
 
 Labor 4,500.00 
 
 Electric current for vacuum and boiler feed pumps 429.00 
 
 Water, approximately 200.00 
 
 Interest and depreciation, 10 per cent 2,892.00 
 
 117,978.46 
 
1428 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1000 X $17,978.46 
 
 Then the actual cost of producing steam is = 38.8 
 
 3858 X 6 X 2000 
 cts. per 1000 lbs., and if the fuel for water heating- were added 
 in, there would be an additional expense of $2,883 for coal and $174 
 for removing ashes, making the total expense per year $21,035.46. 
 This would bring the cost of steam per 1000 lbs. down to 
 
 1000 X 21,035.46 
 
 = 34.6 cts. 
 
 5074 X 6 X 2000 
 
 In another building, almost a duplicate, having its own electric 
 generating plant and hydraulic elevators, the heating load would be 
 about as follows : 68,000 sq. ft. direct radiation, at 
 
 68,000 X 225 X 2293 
 
 =r 36,506,660 lb. of steam 
 
 961 
 
 The pipes were covered with molded asbestos, so loss through same 
 may be estimated at 4 per cent., which would bring this load up to 
 37,946,926 lbs. 
 
 For heating water the load is about the same as in the previous 
 building, which required 14,600,000 lbs. of steam, making a total of 
 52,546,926 lbs. 
 
 The cost of operation is as follows : 
 
 6,275 tons No. 4 washed nut at $3.00 $18,825.00 
 
 Removing ashes 890.00 
 
 Oil, waste, and packing 470.00 
 
 Water 2,407.00 
 
 Lamp renewals 486.00 
 
 Labor 9,320.00 
 
 Interest and depreciation, 10 per cent 7,000.00 
 
 $39,398.00 
 
 To obtain cost of steam for heating, the following deductions must 
 be made : 
 
 For 644,742 kw. generated : 
 
 Fuel (at 49 lb. steam per kw.) $6,551 
 
 Water 249 
 
 Lamps 486 
 
 Ashes 310 
 
 Oil, waste and packing 100 
 
 Labor 1,884 
 
 Interest and depreciation 3,000 
 
 $12,580 $12,580 
 For elevators : 
 
 Coal $7,712 
 
 Water . 257 
 
 Ashes 364 
 
 Oil, waste, etc 300 
 
 Labor 2,700 
 
 Interest, etc 1,000 $12,333 $24,913 
 
 Then $14,485 is the additional cost for heating. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1429 
 
 If this were taken at the same cost rate as the previous building, 
 the cost of heating would be 52,566,926 lbs. of steam at 34.4 cts. per 
 1000 lbs., or $18,083. Therefore, the saving on cost for heating is 
 $18,083 — $14,485 = $3,598. 
 
 However, this does not represent the actual saving showing the 
 operation of this plant. The saving would be as follows : 
 
 Cost of heating without plant $18,083 
 
 Revenue for kw. sold 25,855 
 
 Revenue for kw. for public lighting 9,928 
 
 Cost of elevator service 12,333 
 
 $66,199 
 Less cost of operation 39,398 
 
 Annual saving $26,801 
 
 Figuring Ventilation. The cost of operation of a ventilating ap- 
 paratus varies greatly with the installation ; but under normal 
 conditions where the system is designed to deliver air at a temper- 
 ature of 75 deg., taking outside air at an average of 35 deg., the 
 steam required will be 
 
 1000 X 40 
 
 = 0.75 lb. 
 
 55 X 961 
 
 per 1000 cu. ft. The power will be 
 
 C.F.M. X 9 X pressure in oz, 
 
 33,000 X 50 
 which for 1 oz. pres. — 0.5454 hp. per 1000 cu. ft. 
 
 The horsepower required varies directly with the pressure. 
 For estimating the volume of air required the following formula 
 is found to be quite accurate : 
 
 H = total B.t.u to be supplied per hour. 
 
 D = difference in temperature between room and incoming air. 
 
 F = cubic feet of air per pound at the temperature leaving coils. 
 
 V = cubic feet per minute required. 
 
 FH FH 
 
 V = or 
 
 0.2375 DX 60 14.25 D 
 
 Cost of Heating and Power Plant Apparatus. The following 
 figures are given by W. J. Downing in Power, Nov. 18, 1913. Prices 
 are based on actual installations, most of them in the New England 
 States, and allowance should be made for other localities, based on 
 the difference in cost of labor and material. 
 
 Radiation. Radiation will be classified under five headings : 
 
 1. Cast-iron direct radiators cost 19 to 27 cts. per sq. ft. of sur- 
 face, depending on the height of the radiator. The labor cost will 
 be nearly the same for casting and finishing a section containing 1 
 sq. ft. of surface as for a section containing 5 sq. ft. 
 
 2. Cast-iron indirect radiators of the pin type for gravity work 
 cost 16 to 18 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 3. Cast-iron radiators for fan systems cost 25 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
1430 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 4. Pipe coils for direct radiation cost 30 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 5. Pipe heaters consisting of 1 in, pipes with cast-iron bases for 
 fan systems cost 45 to 50 cts. per sq. ft. of surface. For cast-iron 
 bases with a damper for direct indirect radiators add $1.25 for each 
 10 in. length of base. 
 
 The labor cost for installing direct radiators on a one-pipe system 
 can be obtained by allowing one day's time for a steam fitter and 
 his helper for each radiator. This covers the time required to run 
 the vertical risers and connect and set the radiators. It does not 
 include the time required to place the horizontal mains in the base- 
 ment and connect up the boilers. This item will be covered unde*r 
 another heading. For a two-pipe system allow 1.5 days' time for a 
 fitter and helper per radiator. 
 
 Indirect radiators for gravity and fan-blast systems cost about 
 0.5 ct. per lb. for the former and 1 ct. per lb. for the latter for 
 erection together with the labor cost of a fitter and helper for one 
 day for each four connections made to the heater sections. 
 
 Allow 2.5 to 3 cts. per sq. ft. of surface of pipes and radiators for 
 bronzing. 
 
 Automatic air valves cost 75 cts. to $1 each in place. 
 
 For temporary setting of direct radiators used to furnish heat 
 in the building while under construction, allow $2.25 for each 
 radiator. 
 
 Figures based on a large number of installations show that an 
 allowance of $50 per thermostat should be made for automatic con- 
 trol. This includes the air piping, compressor dampers and ther- 
 mostats, set in place and connected. 
 
 Boilers and Auxiliaries. Small cast-iron fire-pot boilers for house 
 heating cost $30 to $35 per sq. ft. of grate area. 
 
 Cast-iron sectional boilers for house and public-building heating 
 cost $21 to $25 per sq. ft. of grate area. 
 
 Horizontal fire-tube boilers set in place complete with trimmings 
 ready for steam and water connections cost $12 per h.p. 
 
 The Manning type of vertical boiler for power-plant work will 
 cost $10 per h.p. erected. 
 
 Water-tube boilers set in place with trimmings cost $14 to $16 
 per h.p. 
 
 Internally fired boilers of the Morrison type cost $16 to $18 per 
 h.p., including trimmings. 
 
 Dutch or extended ovens are often used in power plants for burn- 
 ing a low grade of fuel, or utilizing the waste material from manu- 
 factured products. These ovens will cost $250 for a 300 h.p. unit. 
 
 Superheaters cost $2.25 to $3 per h.p., depending on the size and 
 type. 
 
 Special boiler settings designed to economize heat, similar to the 
 Smith setting cost about $150 per boiler. 
 
 All of the above prices are based on boilers with plain grates. 
 Shaking grates should be figured at from $5 to $6 per sq. ft. of 
 surface. 
 
 Feed-water heaters of the closed type cost from 75 cts. to $1 per 
 h.p., depending on the size of the unit. Feed-water heaters and 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1431 
 
 purifiers of the open type cost |2.20 per h.p. for a 100 h.p. unit and 
 $1 per h.p. for a 1000 h.p. unit. Intermediate sizes cost a propor- 
 tional amount. 
 
 A good damper regulator for controlling the draft in boilers can 
 be obtained for $50. 
 
 Boiler-feed pumps cost 50 cts. per h.p. capacity of units of 150 
 to 200 h.p. 
 
 Blowoff and return tanks suitable for 100 lbs. pressure cost about 
 8 cts. per lb. in weight. 
 
 Copper hot-water tanks good for 100 lbs. pressure complete with 
 steam coil cost about $1 per gal. capacity. Add $50 if the tank has 
 automatic control. 
 
 Steam traps take a discount of 40% from list prices. 
 
 Pipe Fittings and Valves. While there are several large manu- 
 facturers of these products it is usually safe to figure the following 
 discounts: Steam pipe, 75%; valves, 50 to 60%; cast-iron fittings, 
 70%; spiral-riveted pipe, 70%. 
 
 An accurate list should be made of the actual material required 
 for any particular installation, as there are too many variables to 
 use a unit price per h.p. capacity of the plant. The labor cost will 
 average $1.50 per h.p. for connecting the boilers and installing the 
 basement mains in plants of 200 to 400 h.p. 
 
 The special valves necessary for a first-class vacuum system cost 
 $6 to $8 per radiator. Another method of figuring vacuum systems 
 is to allow 10 cts. per sq. ft. of radiation for the special apparatus 
 required. 
 
 Covering. An asbestos covering 4 ins. thick for boilers and heat- 
 ers will cost in place 50 to 60 cts. per sq. ft. of surface. Air-cell 
 covering 1 in. thick will cost 22 cts. per sq. ft. Eighty-five per cent, 
 magnesia 1 in. thick will cost 30 cts. per sq. ft. These prices in- 
 clude the labor required to apply and are useful in calculating the 
 cost of covering heating ducts and smoke flues. 
 
 Steam-pipe covering made of 85% magnesia will cost one-half of 
 the list price, including the labor of applying. If desired the dis- 
 counts applying to the various types of covering can be obtained 
 and the labor cost based on the fact that one man will cover 100 
 ft. of straight pipe per day up to 4 in. diameter or wall cover 40 
 fittings per day up to 4 in. size. The above amounts will be more 
 for larger sizes due to the increased labor of handling. 
 
 Ventilating A2)parat\is. Centrifugal steel-plate fans for ordinary 
 systems in which the total pressure does not exceed .75 oz. will cost 
 $10 to $13 per 1000 cu. ft. of air per min. capacity, depending on 
 the size. 
 
 Direct-current motors for driving fans will cost $18 to $25 per 
 h.p. Regulating rheostats cost 60% of the list prices. 
 
 High-pressure engines for fan driving cost $10 to $16 per h.p. 
 Low-pressure engines for fan driving cost $18 to $22 per h.p. 
 
 Air washers are usually based on a velocity of 500 ft. per min, 
 and on that basis cost $18 to $26 per 1000 cu. ft. of air per min. 
 capacity. Erection of fans, motors and air washers will cost about 
 1 ct. per lb. in weight. 
 
1432 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Galvanized-Iron and Steel-Plate Work. Piping- arrangements em- 
 ploying galvanized-iron distributing ducts cost about 15 cts. per lb. 
 in place. The ratio of weight of iron to the cubic contents of the 
 building varies widely with different types of building. In factory 
 work where heating is the primary object the galvanized-iron ducts 
 for an overhead system will average 1 lb. of iron to 100 to 125 
 cu. ft. of contents. In buildings where ventilation is the main 
 object no standard values can be given as the amount of metal will 
 depend on the standard of ventilation maintained. In each case 
 the actual weight of metal must be calculated from the plans. 
 
 Steel-plate work for smoke flues costs from 6 to 8 cts. per lb. 
 
 Registers and Screens. Cast-iron registers for floors and side 
 walls cost one-fourth the list price. Bronze registers cost one-half 
 the list price. Plain wire screens with angle- or channel-iron bor- 
 ders cost 15 to 25 cts. per sq. ft. Allow 3 cts. per sq. ft. for 
 bronzing. 
 
 Filter screens of cheese cloth for removing dust from the air are 
 based on a velocity of 30 to 50 ft. per min. through the net area. 
 Their cost will be from 50 to 70 cts. per sq. ft., depending on the 
 quality of material. Mushroom ventilators cost 65 to 75 cts. each. 
 
 Foundations. Allow 75 cts. per cu. yd. for excavation in ordinary 
 soil and $4 per cu. yd. for rock. Brick foundation walls cost 40 
 to 50 cts. per cu. ft. in place. Concrete foundations cost $6 to $7 
 per cu. yd. for the concrete and 15 cts. per sq. ft. of surface for the 
 forms. Water-prooflng will cost 40 cts. per sq. ft. 
 
 Sprinkler Systems. Sprinkler systems cost from $3 to $3.25 per 
 head, including pipe, sprinkler heads and erection. Hose racks for 
 fire protection in public buildings cost $50 each, including piping and 
 erection. 
 
 Gas Piping. In fireproof buildings gas-pipe systems cost $5 to $6 
 per outlet for labor and material. For residences of the usual 
 frame construction allow $2.50 to $3 per outlet. 
 
 Unit Costs. While the conditions of various installations make 
 it impossible to give a unit price for a system that will apply in all 
 cases the average of a large number of jobs shows some interesting 
 results. The average cost of a heating system for dwelling houses, 
 using direct-steam radiation is 80 cts. per sq. ft. of radiation. For 
 office and factory work allow $1 per sq. ft. of radiation. For hot- 
 water direct radiation allow $1.25 per sq. ft. for radiation. To 
 these prices should be added that of the boilers to obtain the cost 
 of the entire system. 
 
 Although the size of direct-steam radiators varies over a wide 
 range the cost of complete systems, exclusive of boilers, averages 
 $37 per radiator. 
 
 All prices stated in this article are the costs to the contractor. 
 An allowance for contractors' profit should be added to the total 
 cost of the system. Profit is usually figured as a percentage of the 
 total cost and will vary from 10 to 15%. It will be noticed that the 
 prices stated above give a considerable range and the question 
 may arise as to the exact value to be used. It may be helpful to 
 not^ that in any case a price should be selected depending on tlj^ 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1433 
 
 size of the apparatus. For instance, a boiler with 5 sq. ft. of grate 
 area will cost more per sq. ft. than one with 20 sq. ft. By paying 
 attention to the relative size of the unit in question a fair estimate 
 can be made of the cost from the values given. 
 
 Mr. Downing's Costs are criticized by A. Robertson, writing from 
 Syracuse, N. Y., to Power, Dec. 16, 1913, as follows. "Under the 
 heading ' Radiation,' pipe-coil heaters for fan systems are estimated 
 at 45 to 50 cts. per .sq. ft. of surface. In my experience this should 
 be from 24 to 45 cts. per sq. ft. of surface. This price includes the 
 complete casing and fan connections, the low price being for coils 
 about 7 by 10 ft. and the higher prices of coils down to 3 by 6 ft. 
 Now the designer using Mr. Downing's figures would be justified 
 in using cast-iron heaters exclusively at 25 cts per ft., although as 
 a matter of fact under certain conditions pipe coils are a better 
 proposition. 
 
 " Shaking grates instead of costing $5 to $6 per sq. ft. of surface, 
 can be installed for from $3.75 to $4.75 per sq. ft. Open feed-water 
 heaters, good for 10-lb. pressure, complete with oil separator and 
 grease trap, can be bought for about $1 per h.p. as low as the 400 
 h.p. size, and for 75 cts. per h.p. in the 1000 h.p. size. 
 
 " Under the heading ' Ventilating Apparatus,' steel-plate fans are 
 estimated at $10 to $13 per 100 cu. ft. at .75 oz. pressure. This 
 again is far too liberal, $7 to $10 being quite safe. 
 
 " Galvanized-iron work is estimated at 15 cts. per lb., which is 
 excessive for average factory work, as 10 cts. per lb. in place will 
 cover a first-class job where local help can be used. Only recently 
 we let a 5-ton job at about 6 cts. per lb., but we realize that this 
 is an exceptionally low figure." 
 
 Comparative Cost of Heat When Generated by Coal, Gas and 
 Electricity. H. O. Swoboda in Electric Journal, July, 1913, says: 
 
 Coal. Develops at an average a heat of 12,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
 The efficiency of coal burning heating apparatus averages about 10%. 
 Effective heat obtained from 1 lb. of coal = 1,200 B.t.u., from 1 short 
 ton of coal — 2,400,000 B.t.u, 
 
 TABLE I. PRICES AT WHICH ELECTRICITY WOULD HAVE 
 
 TO BE SOLD, TO COMPETE WITH COAL AND GAS, IF 
 
 THERE WERE NO OTHER ADVANTAGE IN USING 
 
 ELECTRICALLY GENERATED HEAT 
 
 Coal — Electricity Gas — Electricity 
 
 Cts. per Gas per Cts. per 
 
 Coal per ton kw.-hr. 1000 cu. ft. kw.-hr, 
 
 $1.50 0.17 $0.10 0.2 
 
 2.00 0.23 0.20 0.4 
 
 2.50 0.28 0.30 0.6 
 
 3.00 0.34 0.40 0.8 
 
 3.50 0.39 0.50 1.0 
 
 4.00 0.45 . 0.60 1.2 
 
 4.50 0.51 0.70 1.4 
 
 5.00 0.57 0.80 1.6 
 
 5.50 0.62 0.90 1.8 
 
 6.00 0.68 1.00 2.0 
 
 1.25 2.5 
 
 1.50 3.1 
 
 1.75 3.6 
 
1434 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Gas. Develops at an average a heat of 660 B.t.u. per cu. ft. 
 The efficiency of gas burning heating apparatus averages about 20%. 
 Effective heat obtained from 1 cu. ft. of gas = 132 B.t.u. ; from 1,000 
 cu. ft. gas = 132,000 B.t.u. 
 
 Electricity. Develops a heat of 3,413 B.t.u. per kw.-hr. The effi- 
 ciency of electrically heated apparatus averages about 80%. Effec- 
 tive heat obtained from 1 kw.-hr. = 2,730 B.t.u. 
 
 Based on these figures, the same amount of useful or effective heat 
 is generated by 1 kw.-hr. or 20 cu. ft. of gas or 2.25 lbs. of coal. 
 
 Operating Costs of Steam and Furnace Heating Plants. Figures 
 by R. O. Stoops (Joliet, 111.), in the Heating and Ventilating Maga- 
 zine, Jan., 1916, show that taking three modern steam plants and a 
 like number of furnace blast systems, the comparison favors the 
 furnace blast plants. In both cases the humidity control is taken 
 care of. The essential difference is that in the case of the furnace 
 system, the moisture is introduced into the hot air and the mixed 
 product is conducted throughout the building. In the case of the 
 steam plant, the air to be heated, is drawn through coils, entailing 
 more power and incidentally more coal, at $2.67 per ton. 
 
 The report shows that the board installed the new type of plant, 
 more than a year ago, with heat regulation and humidity control, 
 and that the plant has now been in operation for a year, making 
 comparisons possible. 
 
 Furnace Blast Heating Cost. Moran Street, power and fuel per 
 1,000 cu. ft., $1,563; Broadway, $1,836; Woodland, $1,868. Average 
 cost, $1,755. 
 
 Steam Blasts Heating Cost. - Sheridan school, per 1,000 cu. ft., 
 $2,343; Eliza Kelly, $1,733; Henderson, $3,266. Average cost per 
 1,000 cu. ft, $2,447. 
 
 The report continues : " This shows that the best steam plant 
 costs only $0,135 less to operate than the poorest furnace plant. 
 Local conditions show that this furnace plant (Woodland school) 
 is not doing its best. The above shows that steam costs 39.5% more 
 to operate than furnace." 
 
 Interest centers in the report in that Plainfleld and Aurora have 
 adopted the Joliet system, which, when first installed in Joliet, was 
 untried in this section. 
 
 Cost of Steam Heating Plants. Sheridan, $5,700 ; Henderson, $5,- 
 560 ; Eliza Kelly, $6,565. Average per school, $5,941. This does not 
 include all the items of installation. 
 
 Cost of Furnace Blast Heating Plants. Woodland, Moran and 
 Broadway, $14,725, including heat regulation and humidity con- 
 trol. Average per school, $4,925. When this contract was let the 
 job was lumped to one concern. 
 
 Cost of Installing Underground Steam Mains. The following in 
 Engineering Record, Sept. 14, 1912, by Donald M.. Belcher, gives the 
 construction and installing costs of heat-insulated underground 
 mains of the Wilkes-Barre (Pa) district heating system. 
 
 The new underground installation comprised the construction of 
 10,791 ft. of mains, varying in size from 6 to 24 ins. ; 9982 ft. of 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1435 
 
 this replaced old .mains and 809 ft. consisted of mains into new 
 territory. 
 
 Prevention of Heat Loss. The installation, employed to protect 
 the steam mains and prevent loss of heat, was the type which has 
 given the best results, and is now in general use all over the coun- 
 try in district steam heating systems. Tests have shown that the 
 loss from condensation in such lines amounts to less than 5% of 
 the season's steam output. 
 
 In this construction only the best quality of strictly wrought-iron 
 line pipe was used and all joints, not adjacent to special fittings, 
 
 Fig. 4, Cross section of steam mains. 
 
 were made with heavy long pattern couplings. The iron pipe was 
 wrapped with a double spiral winding of asbestos paper, secured in 
 position with copper wire. The pipe thus covered was encased in 
 wood stave casing, the inside diameter of which was from 2 to 3 
 ins. greater than the outside diameter of the covered iron pipe, thus 
 leaving an annular air space of about 1 in. between the pipe and 
 the casing. Guides and rollers, spaced about 8 ft. apart, center the 
 pipe in the casing and provide for the movement of the pipe in 
 expansion and contraction. The wood casing was made from thor- 
 oughly kiln-dried white pine' lumber, cut into radial staves, each 
 stave having a tongue and groove running lengthwise. The staves 
 were firmly banded with .1875-in. galvanized steel wire, spirally 
 wound under heavy tension and embedded into the wood. The 
 casing was qoate^ With asphaltum-pitch. 
 
1436 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE 11. 
 
 COST OF MAINS TO WILKES-BARRE, PA., 
 COMPANY 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Pavement 
 
 10. 
 10. 
 12. 
 14, 
 16. 
 20. 
 24. 
 18 
 
 Brick 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 . .• Asphalt 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Brick 
 
 , Asphalt 
 
 , Asphalt 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Brick 
 
 Brick 
 
 24 brick in station 
 
 Length, ft. 
 294 
 
 1,585 
 489 
 361 
 
 1,053 
 851 
 585 
 
 2,109 
 
 2,607 
 552 
 275 
 
 Per lin. ft. 
 $6.03 
 
 6.35 
 
 8.01 
 
 9.28 
 
 9.19 
 
 9.36 
 11.75 
 12.33 
 16.35 
 22.89 
 28.39 
 
 4 6 8 10 12 14 
 
 Hundredths of a Pound of Steam 
 
 J)}fference in Line Loss per Square Foof of 
 Underground Main Surface per Hour 
 Fig. 5. Value of efficient insulation. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1437 
 
 The costs g-iven in Table II were subdivided as follows : 
 
 Length of main, ft 10,761 
 
 Repaving $16,789.51 
 
 Trenching- 8,406.74 
 
 Laying pipe 108,061.92 
 
 Incidentals . 402.87 
 
 Total $133,661.04 
 
 Reconnecting house services 3,067.27 
 
 Engineering 1.17% 1,600.64 
 
 Total cost of work $138,328.95 
 
 Cost of Underground Steam Heat Mains. Table III gives the 
 cost of steam heat mains exclusive of paving, per 100 ft. of main. 
 These are estimated costs based upon the experience of a large 
 central station on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 Efficiency of Underground Steam IVlains. (Power, June 17, 1913.) 
 In a paper read before the annual meeting of the Engineering Society 
 of the American District Steam Co., Byron T. Gifford defined the 
 efficiency of a pipe covering as the percentage of heat saved by using 
 the covering. For example, 90% efficiency would mean that the 
 covering saved 90% of the heat lost by the bare pipe. The line loss 
 in underground steam mains varies from .04 lb. or less of steam 
 per sq. ft. of pipe surface per hr. in the most efficient construction to 
 0.14 lb. or more per sq. ft. of surface with insulation of inferior 
 quality. 
 
 Saving in Coal Due to Pipe Covering. In Domestic Engineering, 
 
 $ 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 ;z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 90 
 
 Jso 
 
 1 
 
 
 = 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 1 
 
 = 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 = 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 t5 
 
 1 
 
 
 '* 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ;2 
 
 z 
 
 E 
 
 z: 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 iz 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 2f 
 
 
 5 
 
 ^ 70 
 
 1 60 
 
 Lo 
 
 H 
 
 = 
 
 E 
 
 = 
 = 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 ~h 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 ,6< 
 
 2^ 
 
 z: 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 z: 
 
 E 
 
 z 
 
 2^ 
 
 Z 
 
 z 
 z 
 
 z 
 z 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 — 
 
 E 
 
 z 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 i 
 
 
 z 
 
 - 
 
 z 
 
 :2 
 
 z 
 
 1 30 
 
 •S 
 
 
 = 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 -^ 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 2^ 
 
 ^ 
 5 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 E 
 
 i 
 
 ~ 
 
 § 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 = 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 20 
 
 
 
 •z^ 
 
 g 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 :f 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ? 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 = 
 
 E 
 
 ~ 
 
 d 
 
 i 
 
 — 
 
 = 
 
 n 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 10 
 
 Zl 
 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 - 
 
 = 
 
 g 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 . 60. 80. 100. 150. 200. 250. 300. 350. 
 
 Annual Expenditure for Coal 
 (Pipes Covered) 
 
 Fig". 6. Annual expenditure for covered pipes. 
 
1438 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 u^ 
 
 1— 1 
 
 H 
 
 % 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 x+" 
 
 > 
 
 W 
 
 
 ■^MOOOOl^OOOJCOOOOO 
 
 OOOOoOOOO< 
 
 r-i ^ 'T _( m i-J i—"—"— ' c> i—; i—^ '_' 1— ' 
 
 • • 'm g;" 5 '3 to t>^ o lo o s^i lo irj u5 ■ 
 
 r-.'^iAcL^ t> t> -^ lO CO O C^' 00 CO 
 
 ^efie^- 3 oooooiicoo 
 
 01 
 
 O e/=H 
 
 
 m 
 
 3 hn a S o; bc-S d>^oou5ooooooo 
 
 HH .rt ft isS O —I ^ "^ T^ TiJ Ici «5 t-." I>: 00 d r-1 CO «0 
 
 ^- ^ 
 
 
 C-ii a 
 
 r* O 
 
 4< ^-2 
 
 dc« 
 
 ^-O 
 
 ft 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 (U 
 
 
 Sc 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 g^S. 
 
 OOOOoOOOOOO 
 OOOOoOOOOOO 
 
 cofofocoeococococoooc 
 
 li5C]00-+iOO-*OCOiHOO 
 ■*L0t>-OOC0CDiHl«05krt 
 
 d d d i-i 5<l cq (^i co' fo fo* «o 
 
 iotot~-irtcor>-c<it'"r-ico'M 
 
 05 Oi Oi O iH rH ?-:i M lO «3 O 
 
 O-^UtlOOI-lOCOOC^fiHO 
 (M5>J0OTti«Ci00O0CJ<£it-iH 
 ee- tH iH (M ■^ 
 
 C050to^*<t-';oi--oot-oo<?i 
 
 U5U5COC-JOOOt-COO«00 
 lMMCO-^lOU5CCoOOi-llO 
 
 c4 M oci <m' ir<i c<i csi c^ eo CO oo 
 
 (MCO-*lO?et-OOOC<irtiOO 
 
 .C<w oi . 
 •*-' o >> 
 
 "»§-° 
 
 C ^ s-i m 
 
 It-. 
 
 o rt ^< 
 
 1-1 ^c tnrrj 
 
 . ^ 3 
 Crtftoi! 
 
 ^fC Orrt 2 
 
 'cs J go 
 
 C" O) O w 
 CQ ffi oj >■ m 
 
 «t-l<H "^ d u 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1439 
 
 Feb. 1, 1913, Otto E. Trautmann gives a detailed calculation of the 
 saving in coal effected by covering steam pipes in a residence heat- 
 ing plant. He assumes a useful radiation surface of 400 sq. ft., 
 a coal consumption of 15 tons per annum with the basement pipes 
 and boiler covered. Assuming coal to cost $6 per ton he figures that 
 $11 more must be spent for coal if the pipes are left uncovered. 
 This $11 per year can be saved by $45 worth of covering on boiler 
 and basement pipes. 
 
 The additional expenditure required for coal with the basement 
 radiating surface uncovered is well shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 Labor Costs of Applying Magnesia Covering to Pipes and Fittings. 
 
 HIGH-PRESSURE COVERING 
 
 Cost per Cost 
 
 lin. ft. each 
 
 4-in. pipe $0.17 1%-in. flange unions $1.03 
 
 8-in. pipe 0.38 4-in. flange unions 1.25 
 
 10-in. pipe 0.79 8-in. flange unions 3.19 
 
 12-in. pipe 1.25 10-in. flange unions 3.40 
 
 8-in. pipe bends 1.03 12-in. flange unions 5.49 
 
 Cost 
 each 
 
 li^-in. elbows $1.30 1%-in. valve bodies 1.60 
 
 8-in. elbows 3.30 8-in. valve bodies 3.28 
 
 8-in. elbows 3.58 10-in. valve bodies 3.60 
 
 12-in. elbows 4.90 12-in. valve bodies 4.90 
 
 4-in. expansion joints.... 2.60 8-in. valve bonnets 3.25 
 
 10-in. expansion joints.... 5.63 10-in. valve bonnets 3.60 
 
 12-in. expansion joints .... 6.15 12-in. valve bonnets 3.70- 
 
 LOW-PRESSURE COVERING 
 
 Cost per Cost 
 
 lin. ft. each* 
 
 2%-in. pipe $0.10 2i/^-in. flange unions $1.15 
 
 4-in. pipe 0.12 21/2 -in. tees 1.30 
 
 4-in. tees 1.75 
 
 2%-in. elbows 1.3G 
 
 2 3/^ -in. valve bonnets.... 1.98 
 
 The above table by Rupert K. Stockwell appeared in Engineering 
 & Mining Journal, March 22, 1913. It was computed from daily 
 records made while covering the high pressure steam heating line 
 2,400 ft. long running from the power house to the concentrator, and 
 the steam and feed-water lines around two 450-boiler h.p. reverbera- 
 tory-furnace waste-heat boilers, at McGill, Nev., in October, 1909. 
 The men who did the work were pipe fitters, rated at $.50 per hr., 
 and helpers rated at $.375 per hr., each fitter having two helpers. 
 
 The covering was standard magnesia pipe-covering, purchased 
 from the H. W. Johns-Manville Co., and put on in strict accordance 
 with their specifications, the • high-pressure covering being 1.5 ins. 
 thick, held away from the pipe by bands of magnesia 1 in. thick, 
 spaced 18 ins. apart. The covering for 10 in. pipe and larger came 
 in keystone-.shaped strips ; this was placed on the magnesia bands, 
 bound together with wire netting, all cracks plastered with magnesia 
 mud and cement, and the whole covered with canvas ; brass bands 
 
1440 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 were then clamped over the canvas at intervals of 30 ins. and then 
 the whole was painted with a mixture of tar and gasoline. The 
 high-pressure covering for pipe smaller than 10 ins. came in half- 
 cylinders, instead of keystone-shaped strips. 
 
 The low-pressure covering, which in this case was all for pipe 
 less than 8 ins. in diameter, came in half-cylinders, 1 in. thick and 
 was placed directly on the pipe, without space rings. The finish was 
 the same as for the high-pressure covering. 
 
 The magnesia covering for fittings, valves, expansion joints, and 
 pipe bends, did not come shaped to fit, but had to be sawed and 
 fitted to the work by hand, from magnesia strips and slabs. This 
 was slow and expensive work. It is to be understood, that in the 
 table, where a fitting covering is listed, the fianges are not included ; 
 all flanges are figured separately as part of fiange unions. 
 
 Unit Cost of Steam Heating in Detroit, Michigan. Mr. A. D. 
 Spencer in Power and The Engineer, July 5, 1910, gives the follow- 
 ing figures for the live steam central station heating system of the 
 Central Heating Company : — 
 
 TABLE IV. OPERATING DATA ON STEAM HEATING 
 
 System "A." System " B." Combined 
 
 Lbs. steam sold — heating 167,700.000 141,700,000 309,400,000 
 
 Lbs. steam sold — power, etc 41,300,000 5,250,000 46,550,000 
 
 Lbs. total steam sales 209,000,000 146,950,000 355,950,000 
 
 Electricity sold kw.-hr 4,523,200 4,523,200 
 
 Earnings per M. lb. steam 47.5 48.2 47.8 
 
 Earnings per M. cu. ft., space.. 2.10 3.90 3.0 
 
 Earnings per sq. ft. radiation.. 21.4 23.7 22.6 
 
 Number of customers 274 39 6 670 
 
 Cu. ft. space 37,200,000 17,300,000 54,500,000 
 
 * Sq. ft. radiation 372,400 287,800 660,200 
 
 Ratio radiation to space 1-100 1-60 1-83 
 
 Cost of coal per ton 2.50 2.55 2.53 
 
 Lb. coal per M. lb. steam sold... 220 220 220 
 
 Lb. steam sold per lb. coal 4.6 4.6 4.6 
 
 Lb. steam sold per M. cu. ft. space 4,500 8,200 6,350 
 Lb. steam sold per sq. ft. radia- 
 tion 450 490 470 
 
 Heating efficiency, per cent 37 37 37 
 
 Steam sold in per cent, of gen- 
 erated 55.2 
 
 Steam used in auxiliaries in % of 
 
 generated 19.2 
 
 Line losses in % of generated 9.8 
 
 Total sold or accounted for in % 
 
 of generated 84.2 
 
 Unaccounted for in % of gener- 
 ated 15.8 
 
 100.0 
 
 • In these figures no allowance is made for hot water heaters, of 
 which there are about 200 on System " B " and 100 on System " A." 
 
 Service Rates. These rates were figured on making the cost to 
 the customer about the same as his own cost had been on the 
 theory that with equal cost the advantages of the service would 
 attract the business. Data on 40 Tesidences indicated the average 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1441 
 
 TABLE V. COST IN CTS. PER 1000 LBS. OF STEAM SOLD 
 
 Plant A Plant B 
 
 Production 32.7 38.0 
 
 Distribution 2.9 3.1 
 
 Sales and collections 0.4 0.4 
 
 General 2.5 3.6 
 
 Injuries and damages 0.1 0.1 
 
 Insurance and taxes 4.2 4.7 
 
 Electricity sold (credit) (15.4) 
 
 Total of above items 42.7 34.5 
 
 Depreciation 6.7 8.9 
 
 Interest 11.6 16.1 
 
 Total cost 61.0 59.5 
 
 Profit to make total returns on in- 
 vestment 8% 6.2 8.2 
 
 Total 67.2 67.7 
 
 Earnings (47.5) (48.2) 
 
 Average 
 34.9 
 3.0 
 0.4 
 3.0 * 
 0.1 
 4.4 
 (6.4 ) 
 
 39.5 
 
 7.6 
 
 13.1 
 
 eTi 
 
 7.0 
 
 6^2 
 (47.8) 
 
 TABLE VL COST IN CTS. PER SQ. FT. IN RADIATION 
 
 A. 
 
 Production 14.7 
 
 Distribution 1.3 
 
 Sales and collections 1.2 
 
 General 1.1 
 
 Injuries and damages 0.0 
 
 Insurance and taxes 1.9 
 
 Electricity sold (credit) 
 
 Total of above items 19.2 
 
 Depreciation 3.0 
 
 Interest 5.2 
 
 Total cost 27.4 
 
 Profit 2.8 
 
 Total 30.2 
 
 Earnings (21.4) 
 
 B. 
 
 Average 
 
 18.7 
 
 16.7 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.1 
 
 (7.6) 
 
 (3.0) 
 
 17.0 
 
 18.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 3.6 
 
 7.9 
 
 6.3 
 
 29.4 
 
 28.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 33.4 
 
 31.7 
 
 (23.7) 
 
 (22.4) 
 
 TABLE VII. SERVICE RATES 
 
 Monthly bills for steam 
 
 consumption aggregating — Gross Net 
 
 1b. to 12,500 1b 58 52.2 
 
 12,500 1b. to 25,000 1b 57 51.3 
 
 25,000 1b. to 37,500 1b 56 50.4 
 
 37,500 1b. to 50,000 1b 55 49.5 
 
 50,000 1b. to 75,000 1b 54 48.6 
 
 75,000 1b. to 100,000 1b 53 , 47.7 
 
 100,000 lb. to 200,000 lb • 52 46.8 
 
 200,000 1b. to 300,000 1b 51 45.9 
 
 300,000 1b. to 400,000 1b 50 45.0 
 
 400,000 lb. to 500,000 lb 49 44.1 
 
 500,000 1b. to 600,000 1b 48 43.2 
 
 600,000 1b. to 800,000 1b 47 42.3 
 
 800.000 1b. to 1,000,000 lb 46 41.4 
 
 Above 1,000,000 lb 45 40.5 
 
 Minimum monthly charge, 5,000 lb. 
 
1442 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cost of coal heating- in Detroit to be about $4.60 per thousand cu. ft. 
 of space heated with anthracite coal at $6.75 per ton. It appears 
 that the actual earnings for System B are about 15% under this 
 figure. With hard coal at $7.50 per ton, the customer's cost would 
 be $5.10 per thousand cu. ft. 
 
 System A. During- the winter of 1909 and 1910 the system served 
 400,000 sq. ft. of radiating surface, and furnished steam for power 
 and other purposes equal in amount to that required for about 
 100,000 sq. ft. of radiation. This system was located in the busi- 
 ness section and operated with live steam. 
 
 System B is in the residential section, and uses the exhaust from 
 three Mcintosh & Seymour single-cylinder engines direct connected 
 to generators capable of developing 1300 kw. against the back 
 pressure of the heating- system. Service is furnished for about 
 300,000 sq. ft. of radiation, from Babcock & Wilcox boilers equipped 
 with Jones stokers. The boiler capacity is 2,465 h.p., and the equip- 
 ment includes multi-generator sets of 1,000 kw. capacity. The 
 generating equipment is operated whenever there is a demand for 
 exhaust steam, some of the direct current generated bein^ used in 
 the district and the remainder being converted and delivered to the 
 4600-volt transmission system of the Edison Illuminating Company. 
 When the district demand for electricity is greater than the equiva- 
 lent demand for exhaust steam, the excess current is taken from 
 the transmission lines and converted ; and when the demand for 
 steam exceeds the capacity of the engines, live steam is used. 
 
 Ordinarily during the winter months it is necessary to furnish 
 some live steam and during the lighting peaks, it is generally 
 necessary to use some electricity from the transmission lines. 
 
 The plant includes eight 500 h.p. Stirling boilers, Jones stokers, 
 forced draft, feed-water heaters and ash-handling apparatus, with 
 coal-storage bins of 1500 tons capacity equipped with cranes for 
 handling coal from the alley in five-ton hopper wagons. 
 
 Distribution Lines. 15 lbs. per sq. in. was the average pressure 
 in the heating mains to handle some old 15 lb. installations and 
 to do cooking and miscellaneous service. The customers having 
 lower-pressure systems were required to install regulating valves 
 to reduce the pressure. To furnish power to operate steam pumps, 
 etc., a system of 110-Ibs. per sq. in. pressure was installed in the 
 heart of the business district, and this system was designed also 
 to use as a feeder for the low-pressure system. The 110-lb. service 
 has proved unsatisfactory, principally for lack of a steam meter. 
 
 Steam Loss. The condensation per hr. per sq. ft. of radiation 
 was found to be 0.086 lbs. on 20 lb. lines and 0.051 lbs. on 5 lb. lines, 
 some of these factors being for log construction, no data having 
 been obtained on concrete construction. 
 
 Metered Service vs. Flat- Rates for Steam Heating. The habit 
 of establishing flat-rates in the early days of an industry is pretty 
 thoroughly ingrained in the American public and dies hard. The 
 advantage to the customer is that he knows the amount of his 
 monthly bill and consequently feels at liberty to give himself and 
 his family carte-blanche to use all of the service that the company 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1443 
 
 will furnish without any worry as to the result to him personally. 
 The inevitable consequence is that a great deal of valuable service 
 is wasted and, theoretically at least, the unit cost to the company 
 of the service actually used is higher and rates are higher. It 
 does not always work out exactly in this manner in practice, for 
 the reason that it is enormously difficult to establish the right 
 combination of flat-rates and meter rates in such a way as to do 
 justice to those parties, the consumer and the Company. An illus- 
 tration of this is furnished by some interesting figures presented 
 in the Electrical World in 1913 for a steam-heating central station 
 in a western town of 8000 population having a considerable number 
 of customers taking a total of 4,577 sq. ft. of radiation on the 
 meter plan and a number of other customers taking 9,843 sq. ft. 
 of radiation on the flat-rate. The ratio of the area of radiation 
 per cubic contents of buildings heated was almost the same for the 
 two classes of customers, being 1 to 86 in one case and 1 to 88 in 
 the other. Revenue per sq. ft. of radiation for the metered cus- 
 tomers was about % of that for the flat-rate customers. 
 
 But th'e metered customers realizing that they were paying for 
 what they actually used consumed rather less than half as much 
 steam per sq. ft. of radiation, the respective figures being given in 
 Table VIII. The data were taken from a considerable variety of 
 industries that received the service. 
 
 TABLE VIII. STEAM USED BY METERED AND UNMETERED 
 CUSTOMERS 
 
 Metered Flat rate 
 
 customers customers 
 
 Condensation per 1,000 cu. ft., lbs 4262 8795 
 
 Condensation per sq. ft. of radiation. 368 775 
 
 Ratio of radiation area to cubic contents of 
 
 bldgs 1:86 1:88 
 
 Revenue per 1,000 cu. ft. content of bldgs $2.80 $3.95 
 
 Revenue per sq. ft. of radiation 0.24 0.35 
 
 Prices of Heat from Central Heating Plants. Tables IX to XI 
 give prices of heat from central h6ating plants as given by various 
 authorities. 
 
 TABLE IX. PRICES OP HEAT FROM CENTRAL HEATING 
 PLANTS 
 
 (After tables given in Proceedings of American Society of Heating 
 and Ventilating Engineers for 1909.) 
 
 State 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 Illinois 
 
 , Steam , 
 
 Hot water 
 
 Per sq. 
 
 Per 1,000 
 
 Per sq. 
 
 ft., cts. 
 
 lbs., cts. 
 
 ft., cts. 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 '45' 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 15 
 
 22.5 
 
 .... 
 
 17.5 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
1444 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 state 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Per sq. 
 ft., cts. 
 
 -Steam- 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Minnesota 
 Missouri . 
 
 Montana . , 
 New York 
 
 60 
 
 North Dakota 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 Wisconsin . . 
 
 25 
 
 34 
 33.3 
 
 Hot water 
 Per 1,000 Per sq. 
 
 lbs 
 
 , cts. 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 42.5 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 ft., cts. 
 20 
 18 
 15.5 
 12.5 
 15 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 17.5 
 
 50 
 
 
 ■46" 
 
 
 '66" 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 . . . . 
 
 25 
 
 TABLE X. 
 
 PRICES OF HEATING SERVICE FROM CENTRAL 
 STEAM PLANTS 
 
 (After table in Bui. 373, U. S. Geological Survey) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b.2 
 
 1" 
 
 
 
 bom 
 — 1 re 
 
 
 G 
 
 •ad 
 1-^ 
 
 
 G 
 
 s 
 Is 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 58,080 
 
 11,000 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 $2.23 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 P 
 
 200,000 
 
 10,560 
 
 4,200 
 
 4,000 
 
 15 
 
 1.00 
 
 24* 
 
 3 
 
 L 
 
 138,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 2,150 
 
 2,800 
 
 17 
 
 1.70 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 L 
 
 124,000 
 
 31,680 
 
 1,600 
 
 705 
 
 4.5 
 
 2.50 
 
 42.5 
 
 5 
 
 P 
 
 88,611 
 
 8,777 
 
 950 
 
 1,050 
 
 4 
 
 2.63 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 83,032 
 
 7,920 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1.75 
 
 56 
 
 7 
 
 L 
 
 70,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 250 
 
 10 
 
 4.60 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 P 
 
 56,000 
 
 13,200 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,200 
 
 2-6 
 
 1.00 
 
 25* 
 
 9 
 
 P 
 
 50.000 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 7.5 
 
 4.00 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 P 
 
 45,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 55 
 
 1.90 
 
 25* 
 
 11 
 
 P 
 
 38,267 
 
 700 
 
 400 
 
 200 
 
 5.5 
 
 2.10 
 
 25* 
 
 12 
 
 P 
 
 35.000 
 
 2,640 
 
 600 
 
 400 
 
 6-15 
 
 1.30 
 
 25* 
 
 13 
 
 P 
 
 30,000 
 
 3,960 
 
 725 
 
 700 
 
 5 
 
 3.75 
 
 60 
 
 H — Heating only. P — Heat, light and power, 
 light. * Per sq. ft. radiating surface. 
 
 L — Heat and 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1445 
 
 TABLE XI. 
 
 PRICES OP HEATING FROM CENTRAL HOT 
 WATER PLANTS. 
 
 (After table in Bui. 373, U. S. Geological Survey) 
 
 
 
 J< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tl 
 
 
 
 cd- 
 
 43 iJ 
 
 
 
 c ,^ 
 
 
 ^■"g 
 
 1 
 
 li 
 
 M 
 P 
 
 
 s ft 
 
 SJiia 
 
 0^ 
 
 il 
 
 m (o 
 n, 
 
 £«2 
 
 1 
 
 p 
 
 1180,000* 
 1270,000t 
 
 15,840*1 
 31,680t| 
 
 2,770 
 
 4,100 
 
 8*-50t 
 
 $0.90 
 
 25* 15t 
 
 2 
 
 p 
 
 400,000 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 
 30 
 
 2.50 
 
 20.0 
 
 3 
 
 p 
 
 160,000 
 
 4Y,526 
 
 2,800 
 
 3'666 
 
 45 
 
 2.20 
 
 15.0 
 
 4 
 
 p 
 
 150,000 
 
 
 2,800 
 
 3,200 
 
 6 
 
 . . . 1 
 
 22.5* 75. 5t 
 
 5 
 
 p 
 
 130,000 
 
 34,006 
 
 1,000 
 
 570 
 
 70 
 
 1.75 
 
 15.5 
 
 6 
 
 L 
 
 120,000 
 
 10,560 
 
 1,720 
 
 2,500 
 
 48 
 
 1.35 
 
 18.0 
 
 7 
 
 P 
 
 115,000 
 
 18,480 
 
 800 
 
 800 
 
 60 
 
 2.20 
 
 17.0 
 
 8 
 
 P 
 
 
 17,500 
 
 400 
 
 375 
 
 88 
 
 1.47 
 
 20.0 
 
 9 
 
 P 
 
 iVo',666 
 
 21,120 
 
 1,400 
 
 550 
 
 70 
 
 1.30 
 
 15.0 
 
 10 
 
 P 
 
 100,00 
 
 58,080 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,250 
 
 60 
 
 1.20 
 
 15.0 
 
 11 
 
 L 
 
 85,000 
 
 
 800 
 
 425 
 
 45-60 
 
 1.70 
 
 18.0 
 
 12 
 
 P 
 
 80,000 
 
 I'o'seo 
 
 1,100 
 
 750 
 
 30 
 
 2.25 
 
 20.0 
 
 13 
 
 L 
 
 70,658 
 
 31,680 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 60 
 
 2.50 
 
 20.0 
 
 14 
 
 L 
 
 70,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 800 
 
 515 
 
 50 
 
 2.61 
 
 15.0 
 
 15 
 
 L 
 
 61,000 
 
 8,800 
 
 400 
 
 150 
 
 54 3 
 
 1-2.12 
 
 20.0 
 
 16 
 
 P 
 
 60,000 
 
 15,840 
 
 400 
 
 
 40 
 
 1.12 
 
 12.5 
 
 17 
 
 P 
 
 30,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 950 
 
 1,666 
 
 40 
 
 1.75 
 
 17.5 
 
 18 
 
 P 
 
 20,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 300 
 
 250 
 
 30 
 
 1.95 
 
 15.0 
 
 19 
 
 P 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 55 
 
 1.90 
 
 25.0 
 
 P — Power, light and heat. 
 * Steam, f Hot water. 
 
 L — Light and heat. 
 
 Comparison of Metered and Unmetered Service. J. H. Pepper in 
 Electrical World states that from Table XII it will be seen that 
 customers operating atmospheric systems on a meter basis are by 
 far the most profitable to the central station. In comparing the 
 steam quantities used Mr. Pepper pointed out the fact that the 
 
 TABLE XII. STEAM-HEATING SERVICE FOR 26 CUSTOMERS 
 (SEASON 1914-15) 
 
 k 
 
 m 
 
 * Atmospheric system 
 
 meter 2,940,975 
 
 Other sy .stem meter ..1,557,786 
 Flat-rate, one-pipe 
 
 system 9 45,061 
 
 4^ c 
 
 d-2 
 
 ©a 
 
 rt C aj 
 
 
 X! S 
 
 oft 
 
 =^5 
 
 40,265 12,436,000 1 to 73 
 20,517 11,156,000 1 to 75 
 
 <i> ctO 
 
 rt C C cS C u 
 +^ O • -^ O tij 
 
 4.228 308 
 7,161 543 
 
 13,332 13.210,000 1 to 70 13,977 990 
 
 * Mean temperature during heating season 39.30 deg. F, 
 
1446 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA . 
 
 flat-rate, one pipe customers regulate their room temperatures by 
 opening or closing windows, while those with atmospheric systems 
 use the radiator valves to regulate the flow of steam to their 
 radiators. 
 
 The one-pipe customers and those designated as having " other 
 systems " are not receiving the best of service in spite of the fact 
 that 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. pressure is being maintained at the services. 
 The customers with atmospheric systems require but from 3 oz. to 
 6 oz. pressure to ^receive good service. The atmospheric system 
 employs no cooling coil, yet the condensate going to the sewer 
 varies in temperature between 90 deg. F. and 110 deg. F. Other sys- 
 tems with cooling coils deliver the condensate to the services at tem- 
 peratures ranging between 160 deg. and 200 deg. F. 
 
 TABLE XIII. COST OF STEAM IN HEATING PLANTS 
 
 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 
 
 Number of days 15 4 5 4 46 151 
 
 Steam gen., 1,000 lbs 1611 362 485 124 10,310 36,890 
 
 Tons of coal, gross 117 27.6 30.3 11.3 783 2540 
 
 Rate of evaporation 6.15 5.84 7.13 4.94 5.89 6.31 
 
 Av. outside temp 30.7 34.2 39.6 37.0 34.8 40.9 
 
 Boiler capacity h.p 384 600 600 800 1200 900 
 
 Max. boiler h.p. delivered. 280 300 330 150 600 850 
 
 Av. boiler h.p. delivered.. 100 80 150 50 235 350 
 
 COST PER 1,000 LBS. OF STEAM 
 
 Coal $0,191 $0,201 $0,165 $0,238 $0,203 $0,187 
 
 Labor 049 .085 .079 .251 .052 .056 
 
 Ash removal 010 .011 .009 .021 .008 .007 
 
 Water (makeup) 007 .001 
 
 El. cur. (forced dr.) 014 .005 .007 .021 .008 .006 
 
 El. cur. (b.f. pump) 007 
 
 Supplies 004 .011 .006 .002 .004 .006 
 
 Repairs and misc. 004 .004 .002 .001 .003 .002 
 
 Total $0,272 $0,317 $0,275 $0,535 $0,285 $0,265 
 
 Fixed charge on investment .029 .051 .054 .084 .044 .033 
 
 Total cost per 1,000 lb.$0. 301 $0,368 $0,329 $0,619 $0,329 $0,298 
 
 New York City Heating Costs. A report of the Station Operating 
 Committee, National District Heating Association (1915) shows 
 operating costs for heating 6 New York City buildings given in 
 Table XIII, As all are largely heating plants, the load is subject 
 to all the vagaries of the weather. The extremely variable loads 
 of the early spring and fall, with the excessive standby losses and 
 transient labor force, are in part responsible for the low evapora- 
 tion. The high cost of steam per 1000 lbs. does not mean a high 
 total cost for the season. Out of the 5040 hrs. (Oct. 1 to Apr. 30) 
 making up the nominal New York heating season, steam is actually 
 needed from 3,000 to 3,500 hrs., in buildings occupied from 12 to 
 18 hrs. daily. This small total consumption results in a low total 
 cost for the season in spite of the unit cost. 
 
 In several instances where the results cover a short period, 
 the apparatus for weighing coal and water had but recently been 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1447 
 
 installed. Such tests do not, of course, represent the performance 
 throughout the year, but do convey an idea of the possible economy. 
 In all the plants No. 3 buckwheat coal delivered at $2.50 a ton is 
 burned with a balance draft. 
 
 No. 1 is a 25-story office building, covering a plot about 9000 
 sq. ft. The boiler plant, consisting of two Heine water-tube boilers 
 operated at 70 lbs. pressure, supplies steam for cooking, heating 
 and hot-water service. The plant is shut down during the summer 
 and the steam for cooking purchased. 
 
 No. 2 is a large, 12-story loft building containing about 4,000,000 
 cu. ft. Steam is used for manufacturing in large amounts through- 
 out the year, 24 hrs. a day. The boiler plant is made up of three 
 fire-tube units. 
 
 No. S is a new office building 25 stories high, with a volume of 
 about 6,500,000 cu. ft. The equipment for heating and hot-water 
 service consists of two Erie City water-tube boilers, operated at 
 30 lbs. pressure. The boiler-feed, vacuum and sump pumps are 
 operated by electric motors. The boilers are shut down during 
 the nonheating season and hot water is supplied by a small heater. 
 
 No. 4 is a loft building in the old commercial section of New 
 York. This building has only recently had supervisory service. 
 The figures show extravagance in the labor costs and the use of 
 forced draft in burning the coal. This case illustrates the too. 
 frequent condition where continuity of service is the only consid- 
 eration given the power plant. 
 
 No. 5 is a large department store of about 15,000,000 cu. ft. con- 
 tents. Four B. & W. water-tube boilers supply steam for cooking, 
 refrigeration, operation of a cash-tube system, hot water and 
 heating. 
 
 No. 6 receives steam from a boiler plant 750 ft. distant. The 
 load is fairly constant day and night during the heating season. 
 The plant is operated (only when heating is required) by three 
 B. & W. units at 100 lbs. pressure. The boiler-feed water comes 
 from a heater at a temperature well over 200 deg. F. The load 
 conditions and the general design for this plant permit fairly 
 satisfactory operation, as may be seen from the costs. 
 
 Cost of Making Steam for Building Heat. Some comparative 
 data on the cost of operating heating plants taken from the oper- 
 ating records of a number of installations in New York City were 
 presented by George W. Martin in a paper before the American 
 Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers and printed in Elec- 
 trical "World, Feb. 26, 1916. A summary of the results of tests 
 made during the past summer on a 150 h.p. return-tubular boiler 
 using different grades of anthracite coal available in New York 
 City is given in Table XIV. These results show the lowest cost 
 for generating 1000 lbs. of steam when using No. 3 buckwheat coal. 
 
 All the plants are largely for heating, hence the load is subject 
 to the vagaries of the weather. 
 
 In most of the cases discussed the boiler grate?? were originally 
 installed for burning No. 1 buckwheat with natural draft. The 
 change in the setting for burning No. 3 buckwheat involved the 
 
1448 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XIV, RESULTS OF COMPARATIVE COAL TESTS 
 
 Soft 
 and 
 
 No. 3 No. 2 No. 1 No. 3 
 buck- buck- buck- Pea buck- 
 wheat wheat wheat coal wheat 
 Moisture in coal as received. . 6.9 8.0 4.8 3.4 8.3 
 
 Volatile per lb. dry coal 7.9 9.3 7.2 7.1 12.6 
 
 Fixed carbon 76.9 75.3 75.9 74.2 75.4 
 
 Ash 15.4 15.4 16.9 18.7 12.0 
 
 B.t.u 12,423 12,080 12,140 11,961 12,944 
 
 Length of tests, hours 24 24 24 24 24 
 
 Total dry coal consumed, lbs. 4,800 5,514 5,171 5,531 4,400 
 
 Per cent, ash and refuse 18.6 17.1 17.0 16.8 14.3 
 
 Total water fed to boilers, lbs.42,988 46,275 46,335 51,395 45,045 
 
 Factor of evaporation 1.08 1.074 1.077 1.083 1.076 
 
 Equivalent water from and 
 
 at 212 deg 46.427 49,699 49,903 55,712 48,468 
 
 H.p. developed 56.1 60.0 60.3 67 58.5 
 
 Builders' rating 150 150 150 150 150 
 
 Per cent, of builders' rating 
 
 developed 37.4 40 40 44.8 39 
 
 Efficiency of boiler and grate 75.6 72.3 77.1 84.8 82.5 
 
 Cost of coal per net ton $2.22 $3.15 $3.65 $4.40 $3.15 
 
 Fuel cost of 1000 lbs. steam, 
 
 cts 13.25 20.4 21.4 23.5 16.8 
 
 Fuel cost from and at 212 deg. 12.26 19.0 19.8 21.7 15.6 
 
 building of a hollow bridge wall with a cast-iron air box and 
 damper set in the front of the wall at the back of the ash pit. 
 A motor-driven blower was set outside the boiler at one end of 
 the bridge wall, a hand-controlled rheostat being used to vary 
 the speed of the blower-motor. The grates installed were of the 
 dumping type and contain about 10 per cent, of air space. The 
 cost of the installation of grates, motor-driven blower, rheostat 
 and rebuilding the bridge wall averaged $3 per boiler h.p. No. 3 
 buckwheat coal, bought in wholesale quantities, costs, delivered in 
 the bunker, between $2.35 and $2.50 a net ton. The coal is from 
 the Scranton district of the Pennsylvania anthracite region and 
 runs from 12,300 to 12,900 B.t.u. and from 16 to 13% ash. A poor 
 grade of No. 3 buckwheat, it is stated, has no advantage over a 
 better grade of No. 1 or No. 2 buckwheat, so that unless a good 
 quality of coal can be assured it is useless to attempt economies 
 by burning the smallest size of anthracite, even when it is mixed 
 with soft coal. 
 
 Rates for Central-Station Hot-Water Heating Allowed by the 
 Public Service Commission of Ohio. The following rates were 
 ordered into effect as of Sept. 15, 1913. 
 
 For indirect radiation 40% of these rates are to be added. 
 
 Amount of radiation Cost of radiation per 
 
 Installed season, per sq. ft. 
 
 to 500 $0.20 
 
 500 to 2000 0.1888 
 
 2000 to 5000 0.1777 
 
 5000 or over 0.1666 
 
 Rule of the Commission for Determining the Sq. Ft. Radiation 
 Required to Heat a Building: Determine the area of the exposed 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1449 
 
 walls of the building and from this subtract the area of windows 
 and door openings (frame measurements). Divide this remainder 
 by the wall constant given in Table XV and to the quotient add the 
 area of window and door openings (frame measurements). Multi- 
 ply this sum by 75 and to the product add the cubic contents of 
 the room. Multiply the sum last obtained by the temperature 
 constant In Table XV. The result will be the sq. ft. of cast-iron 
 radiation required to heat a building of good construction. Any 
 room or space having an opening which may communicate with 
 the rooms to be heated must be included in the measurement for 
 space heated, whether radiation be installed or not. 
 
 TABLE XV. WALL AND TEMPERATURE CONSTANTS 
 
 For % -in. wall 1 
 
 For 2-in. wall 2 
 
 For 4-in. wall 3 
 
 For 6- to 9-in. wall 5 
 
 For 9- to 10-in. wall 7 
 
 For 13- to 27-in. wall 8 
 
 For 65 deg. F 0.0075 
 
 For 70 deg. F 0.0082 
 
 For 75 deg. F 0.009 
 
 The rule is for ideal conditions and to the radiation requirement 
 determined by its use, there must be added a percentage to provide 
 for exposed locations, bad construction, insufficient or improper 
 repairs and other conditions which would make the minimum 
 radiation requirement inadequate to keep the building comfortably 
 warm. For these conditions which cannot be ascertained by gen- 
 eral rule add from 5 to 25% to the minimum for ideal conditions. 
 
 It is specified that the heating company must furnish hot water 
 in sufficient quantity to heat the building to a temperature of 70 
 deg. F. in the coldest weather, provided that sufficient radiation 
 be installed by the consumer to maintain the desired temperature. 
 Evidence of the sufficiency of the quantity of water shall be that 
 the temperature of the hot water has not dropped more than 
 30 deg. F. while passing through the consumer's heating system, 
 as shown by not less than four tests taken 15 mins. apart in suc- 
 cession, the tests to be made at the point of entrance of service to 
 the building. 
 
 Surface area of all hot-water pipes installed in the basement 
 or elsewhere not included in the measurement for radiation will 
 be charged for as radiation, unless covered with at least 1-in. 
 covering. 
 
 This decision prescribing the rules given above was handed down 
 in the case with the Toledo Railway and Light Co., and quoted in 
 Power, June 17, 1913. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Heating a 25-ft. Car, 45 Ft. Over Ail, by 
 Hot Water and by Electricity, Based on Operating Conditions on 
 a 32- Mile Interurban Railway. The following figures were con- 
 tained in a letter of Daniel W. Smith, president of The Peter Smith 
 Heater Co., addressed to the Electric Railway Journal, May 15. 
 1909. 
 
1450 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XVI. COMPARATIVE COST OF HEATING CAR 
 
 Hot Elec- 
 
 Conditions water tricity 
 
 Weight of car with load, tons 28 28 
 
 Schedule speed, miles per hr 20 20 
 
 Car-miles per day per car 240 240 
 
 Cost of heating equipment installed $175 $75 
 
 Weights of heating equipment, installed, lbs 1400 225 
 
 Cost of electric power (at power station) per kw. $.0135 $.0135 
 
 Watt-hours at power station, per ton-mile 125 125 
 
 Heating season, days 180 180 
 
 Hours per day heating 18 18 
 
 Moving car equipment per ton-mile (at power 
 
 station) $0.0017 $0.0017 
 
 Moving heating equipment during heating sea- 
 son, per day $0,306 $0.0459 
 
 Weight of heating equipment during summer, lbs. 840 225 
 Moving heating equipment during summer day, 
 
 per day $0.18 $0.0459 
 
 Heater coal consumed per day, lbs 55 
 
 Cost heater coal per day at $7.50 per ton $0,206 
 
 Attendance for the season $9 $2.70 
 
 Interest and depreciation at 10% heating equip- 
 ment $17.50 $7.50 
 
 Repairs figured at, per cent 3 2 
 
 Cost of repairs $5.25 $1.50 
 
 Increased feeders required 2.70 20 
 
 Yearly cost feeders, interest and depreciation, at 
 
 71/2% $6.06 $37.50 
 
 Maximum current capacity of electric heater, 
 
 amp 18 
 
 Average k.w. at station, electric heater 5 
 
 Cost electricity per day, electric heater $1.21 
 
 Summary : 
 
 Interest and depreciation on heater equipment $17. 5u $7.50 
 
 Repairs of heater equipment 5.25 1.50 
 
 Attendance 9.00 2.70 
 
 Interest and depreciation on extra feeders. . . . 6.06 37.50 
 
 Elec. hauling heating equipment for one year 88.70 16.75 
 
 Cost of coal consumed in one year 37.08 .... 
 
 Cost of electricity used in heater for one year 217.80 
 
 Yearly cost $163.59 $283.75 
 
 Difference in favor of hot-water heaters $120.16 
 
 These tests were made by the Green Bay Traction Company, 
 Green Bay, Wis., and are based on a small interurban car running 
 at a schedule speed of 20 miles per hr. 
 
 Comparative Costs of Car Heating. The following by Messrs. 
 Thorn, Benedict, and Clark was published in Electric Railway 
 Journal, Oct. 14, 1911. To bring out clearly the comparison In 
 costs of heating a car by the 3 modern systems, the accompanying 
 estimate may be of Interest. The figures in each case are based, 
 in general, on results obtained in practice and are considered fair 
 and reliable. 
 
 Assumptions. 32-ft. ear body; heating season, 145 days; lowest 
 temperature, about zero ; municipal requirements, 50 deg. F. ; cost 
 of power, 1.4 cts. per kw.-hr. at the trolley; cost of coal, $7.75 
 per ton. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1451 
 
 Under the conditions assumed, the relative total economy of 
 the 3 principal heating systems is as follows : Hot air system, 
 first ; hot water, second ; and electric, third. 
 
 In figuring the power consumption of electric heaters the fol- 
 lowing method will probably give the most accurate results. Ob- 
 tain from the weather bureau temperature readings for each winter 
 for several years. Plot a curve showing variation of temperature 
 for each day of heating season. Find what point of heat is carried 
 for the different temperatures and then a power curve can be 
 plotted from which the average k.w. per day can be readily obtained. 
 
 In the use of hot-water or hot-air heaters there is a tendency 
 on the part of the car crew to use less coal than would have to be 
 used if the cars were kept at a uniform temperature during the 
 time they are in service, where with electric heaters the tendency 
 is to put on 3 points Vv^hen 2 points would suffice. This gives rise 
 to false ideas of the relative costs of the various heating systems. 
 
 In the installation of electric heaters it is preferable to have a 
 comparatively large number of heaters rather than a few, even 
 though the power consumption is on the same basis, on account 
 of the better distribution of the heat. For localities where the 
 temperature reaches zero or lower it is well to have about 4.5 
 watts per cu. ft. of car body, otherwise it may be difficult to keep 
 the cars comfortable when low temperatures prevail. 
 
 When a practical, low-cost heater regulator is brought out and 
 comes into general use the cost of electric heating will be very 
 largely reduced. Tests have been made which indicate that the 
 saving in power by the use of thermostat regulators will be in 
 excess of 50%. 
 
 The cost of car heating would be somewhat reduced and the 
 comfort of passengers considerably increased if storm sashes were 
 more generally used. The difference in temperature on some cars 
 in the Middle West with the same heating equipment — one with 
 storm sashes, one without, and running together on the street — 
 w^as about 9 deg. F. 
 
 The maintenance of heating systems would be greatly reduced 
 if more care were given to the installation of new equipment. This 
 is particularly true of electric heaters. 
 
 TABL»E XVII. TOTAL COST FOR ONE YEAR CHARGEABLE 
 TO CAR HEATING 
 
 Electric Hot water Hot air 
 
 heater heater heater 
 
 Cost of power $137.03 $8.22 
 
 Repairs and maintenance 1.09 $4.35 2.90 
 
 Interest and depreciation 8.80 18.75 18.60 
 
 Coal 47.76 47.76 
 
 Labor of attendance , . . 8.70 8.70 
 
 Hauling (4 cts. per lb. per year).. 20.00 60.00 20.00 
 
 Insurance charge 12.00 12.00 
 
 Total cost per car $166.92 $151.56 $118.18 
 
 The above figures are based on the following data and assump- 
 tions : 
 
Hot water 
 heater 
 
 Hot air 
 heater 
 
 $125 
 
 $155 
 
 5% and 10% 
 1500 lbs. 
 
 5% and 7% 
 500 lbs. 
 
 85 lbs. 
 
 85 lbs. 
 0.3 kw. 
 
 3c. per day 
 
 $6,000 
 
 2c. per day 
 $6,000 
 
 $1,500 
 
 $1,500 
 
 13 Va 
 
 13 Va 
 
 6c, per day 
 145 days 
 
 6c. per day 
 145 days 
 
 10c. per $100 
 
 10c. per $100 
 
 1452 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Electric 
 heater 
 
 First cost, installed $80 
 
 Interest and depre- 
 ciation 5% and 6% 
 
 Weight installed... 500 lbs. 
 
 Coal consumption 
 
 per day 
 
 Power consumption 5.0 kw. aver- 
 age for heat- 
 ing- season 
 
 ♦Repairs and main- 
 tenance %c. per day 
 
 Cost of car $6,000 
 
 Investment in barns 
 
 per car $1,500 
 
 Hours per day per 
 
 car 13% 
 
 * Labor of attend- 
 ance 
 
 Heating season. ... 145 days 
 
 Extra insurance 
 over electric heat- 
 ers on barns 
 
 Extra insurance 
 over electric heat- 
 ers on cars 17%c. per$100 17%c. per$100 
 
 * Per day of heating season. 
 
 Cost of Heating Cars by Electric Heaters Compared with Coa!, 
 
 as determined by tests made by the Cleveland JRailway and the 
 City Street Railroad Commission printed in Electric Railway Jour- 
 nal, June 8, 1912. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. ESTIMATED COST OF POWER FOR ELECTRIC 
 
 HEATER FOR TRAIL CARS ON BASIS OF ONE CAR 
 
 PER YEAR 
 
 Maximum demand at car from test (500 volts) 11.00 kw. 
 
 Maximum demand at d. c. bus substation (90% efficiency 
 
 of distribution) 12.23 kw. 
 
 Maximum demand at generator bus (89% efficiency of 
 
 transmission and conversion) 13.76 kw. " 
 
 12.23 kw. for 2^^ hrs. requires 8.16 kw. of substation capacity, 50% 
 overload allowed. 
 
 Investment in substation, 8.16 X $25 — $204.00. 
 ($25 per kw. of capacity installed.) 
 
 Fixed charges on substation equipment, $204 X 10% = $20.40". 
 
 (Includes 5% interest, 2.52% amortization, 1.36% taxes — 9.88% or 
 10%) used.) 
 
 Investment in distributing system is $41.70 per kw. of maximum 
 demand. 
 
 Investment in distributing system per car, $41.70 X 12.23. . . .$510 
 
 Fixed charges per car year, $510 X 10% 51 
 
 Maintenance of distributing system per kw. of maximum de- 
 mand per year 2 
 
 Maintenance of distributing system per car 24.46 
 
 Consolidated car heaters require 4661 kw.-hr. at car or at 
 
 generator bus. 4661 ^ .80 =: 5830 at $0.0038 22.15 
 
 Substation operation and maintenance, 5190 X $0.0003 1.56 
 
 Peter Smith forced draft heater required 4172 kw.-hr. at car. 
 or 4172 — .80 — 5220 kw.-hr. at generator bus, 5220 X 
 $0.0038 19.80 
 
 Substation operations and maintenance, 4640 X $0.0003 1.39 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1453 
 
 Consoli- Peter 
 
 dated Smith 
 
 electric electric 
 
 heater heater 
 
 Summary of power cost. 
 
 Demand charge for power, 13.76 kw. for 6 months $82.50 $82.50 
 
 Energy charge 22.15 19.80 
 
 Substation operation and maintenance 1.56 1.39 
 
 Fixed charge on substation 20.40 20.40 
 
 Fixed charge on distributing system 51.00 51.00 
 
 Maintenance of distributing system 24.46 24.46 
 
 $202.07 $199.55 
 
 Peter Smith coal heater : 
 
 Fixed charge, 182 kw. at $16.22 $2.95 
 
 Substation operation and maintenance, 148-kw.-hr. at $0.0003. .04 
 Energy charge, 166 kw.-hr. at $0.0038 63 
 
 Total $3.62 
 
 " Three types of heaters were tested, namely, straight electric 
 heaters, the forced ventilation electric heater and the forced ven- 
 tilation coal heater. 
 
 " The tests were made upon 3 of the railway company's 900-type 
 cars, having an over-all length of 52 ft., the front vestibule being 
 inclosed and the rear vestibule open. Each type of heater was 
 installed in a separate car. The tests were made with the cars 
 end to end on a track in the shops of the railway company. Two 
 side ventilator sashes in the front of the car and two in the rear 
 were open during the entire test. The straight electric heater sys- 
 tem manufactured by the Consolidated Car Heating Company was 
 installed on car No. 909 and consisted of 26 heaters, installed 
 underneath car seats, 1 main switch cabinet, 1 magnetic .switch, 
 1 thermostat and 1 snap switch. The forced ventilation electric 
 heater, manufactured by the Peter Smith Heater Company, in- 
 stalled on one car, consisted of a compact electric heating unit in a 
 sheet steel housing, equipped with a Sturtevant multivane blower, 
 size C, direct-connected to a 220 volt, 8 amp. series-wound, ball- 
 bearing motor. The cold air taken from underneath the car is 
 blown over the heating coils and distributed from a hot-air duct 
 extending the length of the car body. This heater in service would 
 be installed with an interrupter and thermostat to regulate the 
 temperature of the car automatically. The forced ventilation coal 
 heater installed on another car was also manufactured by the Peter 
 Smith Heater Company and is similar to the heater described above, 
 except that the heat is generated by the direct combustion of coal, 
 the cold air being blown over the combustion chamber. 
 
 " The tests run on the 2 electric heaters .show that in order to 
 maintain a temperature within the car 41.9 deg. F. above the sur- 
 rounding air it is necessary to. expend about 10,900 watts, or 267 
 watts for each degree rise of temperature. 
 
 "The mean temperature of Cleveland for 40 years for each of 
 the winter months was obtained from the L^nited States Weather 
 Bureau, and the number of degrees of heating required to main- 
 tain a temperature of 55 deg. F. inside the car was determined. 
 
1454 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 It was also assumed that the current must be turned on the 
 heaters a sufficient length of time to raise the temperature to 45 
 deg, F. before the car goes into service, also that the car remains 
 in service 2 hrs. in the morning and 2 hrs. in the evening." 
 
 In the comparison of costs of electric and coal heaters, the con- 
 tract under which the Cleveland Railway purchases energy was 
 used for determining the cost of the electric heaters. 
 
 In building the fire in the coal heater, the following material 
 was used: Kindling, 1.76 lbs.; ash wood, 4.25 lbs.; kerosene oil, 
 0.312 lbs. ; shavings, 0.004 lbs. ; coal, 35.29 lbs. 
 
 In the general summary, each heater was charged with interest 
 at 5%, taxes at 1.36%, and repairs and maintenance at 1 ct. a day. 
 Depreciation was charged at 7% in the case of electric heaters and 
 10% in the case of coal heater. The latter was also charged with 
 the following special costs per year : 
 
 Coal $21.00 
 
 Fuel and labor of kindling fire thirty times 4.09 
 
 Labor of attendance 8.76 
 
 Removing and reinstalling heater each season 1.00 
 
 Transportation and stoi'age in summer 50 
 
 Value of space occupied by heater 11.16 
 
 The final figures showed the Peter Smith coal heater to be far 
 more economical than either electric heater. 
 
 In regard to weight and space occupied and a general summary 
 the report says : 
 
 " The weights of the various heaters installed complete are as 
 follows: Consolidated, 457 lbs.; Peter Smith electric, 350 lbs.; 
 Peter Smith coal heater, 544 lbs. 
 
 " The cost of power for handling the equipment for this trailer 
 service amounts to 2.18 cts. per lb. per year. The Consolidated 
 electric heating equipment is carried throughout the year, while 
 with the Peter Smith forced ventilation heating equipments the 
 heating duct alone is carried throughout the year, the heater being 
 removed and stored during the summer season. 
 
 " Either of the electric heaters installed in a car would be placed 
 under the seats, while the coal heater during 6 months of the 
 year occupies the space of one seat in the car ; the value of this 
 space is chargeable against this heater. In order to obtain this 
 value it was assumed that the standing capacity of the car is 
 one-half as valuable as the seating capacity. Thus in this car, 
 seating 60 passengers and providing standing room for 60 more, 
 the value of one seat space is one-ninetieth of the value of the 
 car space. On a basis of 38 miles per day for a trailer 156 days 
 per year, the mileage per heating season is 5920, which at 17 cts. 
 per car mile operating cost amounts to $1006.40. Therefore $11.16 
 is the value of the space occupied by the coal heater during the 
 winter season. 
 
 Summary. " Each of the 3 types of heaters has its individual 
 advantages. The electric heaters afford the advantage of cleanli- 
 ness, convenience and ready means of obtaining automatic regula- 
 tion of the car temperature, The Peter Smith electrjc heater hag 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1455 
 
 the important additional advantage of providing a forced ventila- 
 tion of about 12,000 cu. ft. of fresh warm air per hour. On the 
 Peter Smith electric heater, however, no means were provided for 
 automatically cutting of£ the current of the heating unit in case 
 of failure of the blower motor, which would probably mean a 
 burn-out of the heating unit. Both of the electric heaters have the 
 disadvantage of being unable to heat the car properly in extreme 
 weather. The curves show that in zero weather it would be im- 
 possible to maintain a temperature of more than 40 deg. F. inside 
 the car. With the coal heater a rise of over 48 deg. was obtained 
 easily without any attempt at crowding the heater. The excep- 
 tionally high cost of power for heating the tripper cars electrically 
 at rush-hour periods of the day for the climatic conditions existing 
 in Cleveland renders the operation of electrical heaters extremely 
 uneconomical if not prohibitive." 
 
 Cost of Car Heating by Electricity and by Hot Water in the 
 Standard Cars of the Chicago City Railway Company. In a book- 
 let issued by the Chicago City Railway Company descriptive of its 
 new standard car, the following data concerning the cost of hot- 
 water and electric heating of cars are given. These figures were 
 used in deciding upon the method of heating to be employed in the 
 new cars. The results show 7 cts. per day per car in favor of 
 electric heating, and this method was adopted : 
 
 Average hours per car per day, 9. 
 
 Average current per car, 12 amps. 
 
 Weight of electric heaters, 360 lbs. 
 
 Weight of hot-water heaters, 1454 lbs. 
 
 Coal consumed by hot-water heaters, 80 lbs. 
 
 Price of coal, $8 per ton. 
 
 Price of electric heaters, $80 per car. 
 
 Price of hot-water heaters, $140 per car. 
 
 Repairs on electric heaters, 5 cts. per car per day. 
 
 Repairs on hot-water heaters, 10 cts. per car per day. 
 
 Attendance on hot-water heaters, 10 cts. per car per day. 
 
 Average miles per car per day, 100 miles. 
 
 Average heating season, 150 days. 
 
 Upon this assumption, without going .through the calculations in 
 detail, the result may be summarized as follows : 
 
 Electric Heaters. Cost per day of heating season using electric 
 heaters : 
 
 Cents 
 
 12 amps., 9 hours = 54 kw.-hrs. per day, at .992 cts 53.6 
 
 Interest at 57., plus depreciation at 7%. on $80, cost price of 
 
 heaters 365 days, divided by 150 days heating season.... 6.4 
 Hauling dead weight, 360 lbs., 100 miles per day, 365 days per 
 
 year, at 0.95 cts. per day of heating season 4.2 
 
 Repairs at 5 cts. per car per day 5.0 
 
 Interest 57^, plus depreciation Z% on additional copper re- 
 quired for electric heaters per day of heating season 3.8 
 
 Total cost per car per day 73.0 
 
 Hot-Water Heaters. Cost per day of heating season using hot- 
 water heaters : 
 
1456 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cents 
 
 80 lbs. coal at $8 per ton 32.0 
 
 Interest at 5%, plus depreciation at 7%, $140 11.2 
 
 Hauling dead weight, 1454 lbs., 100 miles per day, 365 days in 
 
 year, per day of heating season 16.8 
 
 Repairs 10.0 
 
 Attendance , 10.0 
 
 Total cost per car day 80.0 
 
 Cost of Car Heating. Foster's Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book, 
 Table XIX, compiled by Mr. McElroy from data of the Albany 
 Railway Company. 
 
 Average fuel cost on Albany Railway, per amp. hr. = .241 cts. 
 
 Average total cost for fuel, labor, oils, waste, and packings per 
 amp.-hr. = .423 cts. 
 
 TABLE -XIX. COST OF FUEL PER HOUR FOR HEATING A 
 
 CAR WITH ELECTRIC HEATERS WITH COAL AT $2 
 
 PER 2,000 LBS. 
 
 Position of switch 
 
 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5 th 
 
 Amperes equal 
 
 2.14 2.88 6.88 8.09 12.0 
 
 cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. 
 
 Simple, high speed condensing 0.43 0.58 1.40 1.62 2.41 
 
 Simple, low speed condensing 40 .54 1.30 1.51 2.24 
 
 Compound, high speed condensing. .39 .52 1.27 1.47 2.20 
 
 Compound, low speed condensing. .36 .48 1.17 1.36 2.03 
 
 AVERAGE COST PER DAY FOR STOVES Cents 
 
 33 lbs. coal at $4.55 per ton $0,075 
 
 Repairs 005 
 
 Dumping and removing coal and ashes, coaling up and kin- 
 dling fire, including cost of kindling and part of clean- 
 ing car 100 
 
 Removing stoves for summer, installing for winter, repairing 
 
 head linings, repainting, etc., av. per day 0125 
 
 Total $0.1925 
 
 Cost of House Heating by Electricity. Frederick A. Osborn in 
 Electrical World, Dec. 23, 1916, states: The house was ordinarily 
 heated by an 024 Standard hot-air furnace. For the past 3 years 
 a high grade of lump coal had been used, costing for the present 
 year $7.75 per ton in the basement bin. The average cost of 
 heating the house, including the wood used in the fireplace, had 
 been about $75 a year for the last three years. 
 
 All the rooms heated were equipped with the wire-resistance 
 convector type of electric heater. There were five American heat- 
 ers and two Hot Point heaters. In the dining room a hot-water 
 radiator to which was attached an induction-type electric heater, 
 was used during a part of the time. 
 
 The living room, with a volume of 2.400 cu. ft., 'had two 3,000- 
 watt heaters, with three heat controls. The maximum wattage 
 was 2.5 watts per cu. ft. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1457 
 
 The study, a room of 1,300 cu. ft., had one 600-watt heater. 
 The power taken per cu. ft. was 0.46 watt. The temperature of the 
 study seldom was above 64 deg., and this was by choice. 
 
 The dining- room has a volume of 1410 cu. ft. It was supplied 
 with one 2000-watt heater, and for a part of the time a 2500-watt 
 water radiator was used. The maximuni demand was 1.4 watts 
 per cu. ft. 
 
 The kitchen and pantry, with a volume of 500 cu. ft., had a 
 1000-watt heater. This heater was for most of the time on the 
 low heat, taking about 300 watts, the gas range when the oven 
 was in use furnishing the necessary heat. 
 
 The south bedroom, volume 1320 cu. ft, had one 2000-watt 
 heater. This room is used also as a sewing room, and is warmed 
 nearly every afternoon. 
 
 The bathroom on the north, with a volume of 350 cu. ft., was 
 supplied with one 1000-watt heater, kept on the low heat most of 
 the time. 
 
 As the entire test was carried out with one type of heater, the 
 question will naturally rise, may not some other type of electric 
 heater be more efficient than the type used?. Electric heating 
 differs from all other systems of heating in that all electric heaters 
 of the same wattage are equally efficient. They will all deliver the 
 same number of heat units to the room. In furnace heating the 
 amount of heat escaping up the chimney depends upon the furnace, 
 the method of firing it and other factors not constant. The heat 
 given to the room is that which is not lost in the furnace, the 
 flues and the transmitting pipes from furnace to the room. Coal 
 furnaces deliver from 40% to 60% of the heat in the coal to the 
 rooms. 
 
 Electric heaters, on the other hand, deliver practically 100% of 
 the heat to the rooms. For each kw.-hr. of electrical energy put 
 into any type of electric heater, the same amount of heat is fur- 
 nished. There may be some minor advantages in using one type 
 of electric heater in preference to another type, but this advantage 
 never consists in getting more or less heat units from a kw.-hr. of 
 electrical energy. This fact needs to be kept constantly in mind 
 when discussing the advantages of electric heaters. 
 
 Throughout the entire test a recording thermometer giving con- 
 tinuous readings of the temperature was kept in the same position 
 in the living room. 
 
 The outside temperature was taken from the recording ther- 
 mometers at the university after a recording thermometer at the 
 house gave evidence that the outside temperature at the house and 
 the university did not differ by more than a degree. 
 
 The dining room thermometer as well as the one in the study 
 were used in each part of the test to determine the similar heating 
 conditions under the two systems, and when this was established 
 they were read only occasionally. « 
 
 This test was begun Dec. 1 and continued until Jan. 19. During 
 this period Seattle had the coldest weather of the season. The 
 coal used was carefully weighed, part of the time daily, and later 
 
1458 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XX. TEST WITH HOT-AIR FURNACE 
 
 Average 
 outside 
 "Week of tempera- 
 
 ture, deg. 
 F. 
 
 December 1-8 49.2 
 
 December 8-15 43.5 
 
 December 15-22 44.0 
 
 December 22-29 39.5 
 
 December 29-January 5 29.4 
 
 January 5-12 33.0 
 
 January 12-19 29.0 
 
 Average living room Coal 
 temperature con- 
 
 8 a.m to 10 10 p.m. to 8 sump- 
 p.m., deg. a.m., deg. tion, lbs. 
 
 67.7 
 
 62.8 
 
 631 
 
 65.7 
 
 60.0 
 
 667 
 
 65.8 
 
 61.1 
 
 560 
 
 65.8 
 
 61.0 
 
 660 
 
 66.0 
 
 59.0 
 
 780 
 
 65.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 755 
 
 67.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 837 
 
 the coal for two or three days' burning was weighed at one time. 
 In Table XX is found the record of the test. 
 
 The average outside temperature for the seven weeks was 38.2 
 deg. F., the day room temperature was 66.1 deg. F. and the night 
 room temperature was 59.9 deg. F. During the day the room 
 was maintained at an average temperature of 27.9 deg. i-. above 
 the average outside temperature. The total coal consumption was 
 4890 lbs., or an average of 698 lbs. per week. The total cost of 
 the coal at $7.75 a ton was $18.95, or an average of $2.42 per week. 
 
 This part of the test began on P^'eb. 1 and continued until March 
 14. The detailed record appears in Table XXI. 
 
 TABLE XXI. TEST WITH ELECTRIC HEATING 
 
 "Jinfl^^^ Average living room Kilo- 
 Week of temnerl- temperature watt- 
 ^^^^ ^^ }fi^ H^% 8 a.m. to 10 10 p.m. to 8 hours 
 
 lur^aeg. ^^^ ^^^ p, ^^^ ^^^ p ^^^^ 
 
 February 1-8 36.3 67.0 57.5 1039 
 
 February 8-15 46.7 67.3 60.0 741 
 
 February 15-22 41.9 66.0 58.4 575 
 
 February 22-29 40.5 66.5 56.4 573 
 
 February 29-March 7.. 36.0 64.0 - 56.0 794 
 
 March 7-14 47.6 66.5 57.6 522 
 
 The average outside temperature for the six weeks was 41.5 
 deg. F., the day room temperature 66.2 deg. F, the night room tem- 
 perature 57.6 deg. F. The living room was maintained at an 
 average temperature of 24.7 deg. F. above the outside temperature. 
 The total number of kw.-hrs. used was 4274, or an average of 712.3 
 per week. The cost for the six weeks at 1 ct. a kw.-hr. was $42.74, 
 or an average cost of $7.12 per week. To this cost should be added 
 $2.50 for heating by gas the water used for domestic purposes. 
 The furnace having a water coil in it furnished the hot water in the 
 first test. 
 
 If we assume that the loss of heat from a room is proportional 
 to the difference in temperature between the outside and the 
 inside, then the fuEinace furnished to the rooms 27^47 = 1.12 or 12% 
 more heat, and the consumption of electric energy for the same 
 amount of heat would have been 4787 kw.-hr. Taking into con- 
 sideration then the cost for water heating and for furnishing the 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1459 
 
 same amount of heat, the cost for electric heating under the same 
 conditions as obtained during the furnace heating would have been 
 $50.37, or $8.39 per weeli. This makes electric heating cost 3.46 
 times that for coal under like conditions. 
 
 From this test, electricity selling at 0.29 cts. per kw.-hr. would 
 furnish heat for the same cost as coal at $7.75 a ton. To many 
 the advantages of electric heating are worth a 50^7^ increase in the 
 cost of heating, and electricity at about one-half a cent per 
 kw.-hr. would make this possible. 
 
 A lower rate is usually given by electric companies for " off- 
 peak " loads. In the winter the peak load comes on about 4 o'clock 
 in the afternoon and lasts for four or five holers. If the cus- 
 tomer using electricity for heating is to receive this low off-peak 
 rate, some means must be provided for storing up a surplus 
 amount of heat to be drawn on during the time the current is 
 cut off from the heating system. Storage tanks using water are 
 in use, but as far as the writer is informed no entirely satisfactory 
 storage system has as yet appeared. The off-peak service 
 compels the use of liquid-filled radiators, and makes electric heat- 
 ing no more flexible than the hot-water or steam systems. 
 
 Comparative Operating Costs of Gas and Electric Cooking. (Re- 
 port of Heating Committee, Association of Edison Illuminating 
 Companies, September, 1905, from Foster's Electrical Engineer's 
 Pocket Book) 
 
 The comjjarative operating cost of electric and gas cooking de- 
 pends upon two (luestions — the relative rates for gas and electric 
 heat units, and the relative heat efficiencies of gas and electric 
 apparatus. A third quantity — the effect produced by the different 
 rates and modes of heat applications in the two classes of utensils 
 — may affect the efficiency slightly, but the existence of this effect 
 is not yet verified. 
 
 Starting with the heat of coal, which may be fairly estimated 
 as 12,000 B.t.u. per pound, we compute the relative efficiency of 
 the heat conversion as follows : 
 
 Gas Electricity 
 
 1 lb. coal produces 5 cu. ft. gas 1 lb. coal produces 0.25 k.w. 
 5 cu. ft. gas contain 3000 B.t.u. 0.25 k.w. contains 853 B.t.u. 
 Efficiency heat conversion is Efficiency heat conversion Is 
 ^0^12000 = 257o 85.yi.ooo =7.1% 
 
 Efficiency electrical heat conversion 
 
 = 28.4% 
 
 Efficiency gas heat conversion 
 
 With manufacturing processes of equal co.st per pound of coal 
 converted, it is appaient, then, that an electric heat unit must 
 cost nearly four times as much as a gas heat unit, but with pres- 
 ent processes the relative rates are : 
 
 Gas Electricity 
 
 $1.00 per 1000 cu. ft. $0.10 per k.w.-h. 
 
 1 B.t.u. .000167 cents 1 B.t.u. 0.00293 cents 
 
 Electric B.t.u. 0.00293 
 
 Gas B.t.u. 0.000167 
 
 = 17.5 
 
1460 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 It is known that the efficiency of electrical apparatus is about 
 four times that of gas, and, consequently, as the gas utensil 
 requires four times as many B.t.u. the above figure of 17.5 is 
 reduced to 4.4. If, then, the rate for electricity is reduced to one 
 quarter of that assumed, or 2.5 cts. per kw.-hr., this figure of 4.4 
 is changed to 1.1, and we have practically identical operating costs. 
 
 Comparison Between Gas and Electric Rates. According to 
 James I, Ayes (report for National Electric Light Association, 
 May, 1904) electric heat at an average efficiency of 70% equals 
 0.4197 kw.-hrs. per 1000 effective heat units, and for 105,000 ef- 
 fective heat units there would be required 44.065 kw.-hrs. to give 
 the same results. To compete with gas at equal rates, electricity 
 will have to be sold 
 
 at 5.67 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at $2.50 per 1,000 cu. ft. 
 at 4.54 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 2.00 per 1,000 cu. ft. 
 at 3.40 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 1.50 per 1,000 cu. ft.* 
 at 2.83 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 1.25 per 1,000 cu. ft. 
 at 2.27 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 1.00 per 1,000 cu. ft. 
 
 The above is as fair a comparison as can be made where exact 
 figures cannot be secured. The results above quoted have been 
 checked by records made in the same family alternately using gas 
 and electricity each week for considerable periods in a number of 
 cases, and from a variety of records obtained otherwise. It is 
 assumed that suitable equipments both of electric and gas appli- 
 ances are used. 
 
 Cost of Electrical Cooking for an Average Family. (From Fos- 
 ter's Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book.) 
 
 Cost of Electric Cooking. The American Handbook for Electrical 
 Engineers gives the following: The average consumption per per- 
 son per meal ranges from about 0.2 to 0.8 kw.-hr., which at 3 cts. 
 per kw.-hr., corresponds to a cost per person per meal of from 
 0.6 to 2.4 cts. The actual cost in any particular case of course 
 depends upon the number of persons served, the food cooked and 
 the kw.-hr. cost. 
 
 The Cost of Cooking by Electricity. The National Electric Light 
 Association, June, 1912, gives the following: In connection with 
 the installation of the electric range in the residence of Mr. Charles 
 H. Williams, General Manager Northern Colorado Power Company, 
 Denver, the owner recently made a thorough study of the cost of 
 electric cooking for a family of six persons for a period of ten 
 days. Energy was supplied from the commercial circuits of the 
 Denver Gas & Electric Light Company. The range is wound for 
 220 volt service and has two 10 amp. and three 20 amp. switches 
 controlling corresponding baking and stove circuits. In the table 
 are given the character of meal, materials cooked, maximum de- 
 manded in kilowatts, consumption of energy in kw.-hrs. and cost 
 per meal, the data commencing with the installation of the electric 
 range. The cost of electrical energy is figured at 5 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 No previous exi)erience has been had with electric cooking. Rec- 
 ords were taken by a pen-recording wattmeter which was care- 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1461 
 
 Suiuoji 
 
 
 
 
 
 J8UUIQ 
 
 paAaas 
 suosjaj 
 
 qouni 
 
 
 
 TIj o 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 paAjos' 
 
 
 
 
 suoyj9(j 
 
 L^ 
 
 
 
 4SBJ 
 
 A 
 
 Oi 
 
 00 
 
 ->liB8aa 
 
 r«' 
 
 r-i 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 il! 
 
 o1 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 H 
 
 (U 
 
 ft,-? 
 
 72 O 
 
 o 1^ 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 O C; O ^ ' 
 
 CC ^^ .0; 
 +J C - K O 
 
 c3 P-3 o g3 
 O "^ O -^ -^ 
 W CO 
 
 OS ft 
 
 
 TT PI 
 
 be -u 
 
 OJ 
 
 ma • 
 
 ■•-' 
 
 <u 5* • 
 
 
 o o • 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 TO 
 
 o 
 
 o . . 
 
 
 ftw . 
 
 u 
 
 > 
 o 
 
 
 5 Co 
 
 • O 0) 
 
 o o 
 
 
 4) be 
 
 0^ be 
 
 
 c3 
 
 0) 
 
 ^ 2 ^ C K g 
 
 •2gft^§-2 
 
 Ho o j^ a;fc 
 
 
 O o t. 
 
 o at-, <i> t>0" 
 
 lOOOO 
 
 .§ o be bTJ c 
 3bf)C Go 
 
 ^ 2^ <L' c w iJ ^„ 
 
 C&K/TI '=^ ftp 
 
 3 
 
 C C 
 
 T T > o 
 
1462 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 fully calibrated with an instrument of precision. Much care was 
 taken to keep the rangre absolutely free from dirt during the prog- 
 ress of the cooking tests. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. COST OF ELECTRIC COOKING, FAMILY OF 
 SIX. AT 5 CENTS PER K.W.-HOUR 
 
 Meal and materials cooked by electric range S (ss ^ 
 
 Dinner : 
 
 4.5 lbs. roast lamb, baked white and sweet po- 
 tatoes, baked rice pudding 2.4 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Oatmeal, baked apples, 8 ; coffee. , ■. . . 2.24 
 
 Lunch : 
 
 Stewed prunes, tea and potatoes 0.6 
 
 Dinner 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Oatmeal, coffee . 2.46 
 
 Lunch : 
 
 Warming potatoes, flnnin haddie warmed, tea 2.2 
 Dinner : 
 
 3.5 lbs. veal roast, baked sweet potatoes, 10 
 
 baked apples, baked Irish potatoes 2.8 
 
 Evening : 
 
 Cooking oatmeal , . 1.0 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Warming oatmeal, coffee 0.68 
 
 Testing oven, raising temperature from cold 
 
 to hot 1.4 
 
 Dinner : 
 
 Stewing 4.5 lbs. chicken, boiled potatoes, 
 
 toast 2.08 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Baked apples, 8 ; oatmeal, coffee, baking 
 
 bread, stewing prunes 2.6 
 
 Lunch : 
 
 Boiled potatoes, coffee, 3 lbs. pot roast 
 
 Warming coffee, laundress 2 p. m 0.05 
 
 Dinner : 
 
 Boiled sweet potatoes, baked potatoes, baked 
 
 cornbi'ead 2.4 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Baked apples, oatmeal 1.0 
 
 Dinner : 
 
 Beef stew, carrots, potatoes, prune stew. 2.0 
 
 Breakfa.st : 
 
 Baked apples, oatmeal 2.48 
 
 Lunch : 
 
 Warming meat and coffee 1.4 
 
 Baking 3 loaves graham bread 1.28 
 
 Dinner : 
 
 Chicken stew, 4.5 lbs. ; cranberries, 1 qt. ; 
 potatoes boiled (6 large) 1.00 
 
 O !h 
 
 6- 
 
 2.7 
 
 13.50 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.50 
 
 0.87 
 
 4.35 
 
 1.4 
 
 7.00 
 
 0.65 
 
 3.25 
 
 4.35 
 
 21.75 
 
 0.47 
 
 2.35 
 
 0.55 
 
 2.75 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.50 
 
 2.0 
 
 10.00 
 
 3.20 
 
 16.00 
 
 3.15 
 0.1 
 
 15.75 
 
 0.50 
 
 2.75 
 
 13.75 
 
 0.55 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.50 
 
 2.55 
 
 12.75 
 
 0.7 
 1.35 
 
 3.50 
 6.75 
 
 2.15 
 
 10.75 
 
3.25 
 
 16.25 
 
 0.35 
 
 1.75 
 
 3.5 
 
 17.50 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.00 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.50 
 
 3.25 
 
 16.25 
 
 49.24 
 
 $2.46 
 
 HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1463 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Baked apples, oatmeal, coffee 2.5 
 
 Lunch : 
 
 Warming meat and coffee 1.6 
 
 Dinner : 
 
 Baked finnin haddie, boiled potatoes, baked 
 
 apple sauce 2.60 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Oatmeal, coffee 0.6 
 
 Lunch : 
 
 Warming meat, potatoes for yeast 0.90 
 
 Dinner : 
 
 Meat pie, potatoes boiled 2.2 
 
 Breakfast : 
 
 Baked apple, oatmeal, coffee 2.5 
 
 Total 
 
 Experience showed that some energy was lost by changing from 
 one heat to another in order to regulate the temperature properly. 
 It was found that after the oven was once heated baking could be 
 done at small cost. Roughly the cost of electric cooking varied 
 from 3 to 10 cts. per day per person upon the basis of the above 
 rate per kw.-hr. 
 
 Heater Capacities of Simple Devices. (H. O. Swoboda in Electric 
 Journal, July, 1913.) 
 
 The heater capacities, given below, are used by the leading 
 American and European manufacturers and represent a fair aver- 
 age of standard practice. The figures indicate the maximum 
 amount of energy required to raise the temperature to the desired 
 point, less energy, of course, being required to maintain this tem- 
 perature. When two figures are given, both are used, one for slow 
 and one for quick action. 
 
 Air Heaters : 
 
 Convectors, smallest size, three heats 600 Watts 
 
 Convectors, largest standard size, three heats .... 18,000 
 Luminous radiators, smallest size, one bulb, single 
 
 heat 250 
 
 Luminous radiators, largest standard size, four 
 
 bulbs, two heats 2,000 
 
 Quartzalite radiators, smallest size, two heats. . . . 600 " 
 
 Quartzalite radiators, largest standard size, two 
 
 heats 1,600 
 
 Show window convectors, capacity per running 
 
 yard, single heat 300 " 
 
 Street car heaters, smallest unit, three heats 250 " 
 
 Street car heaters, largest standard unit, three 
 
 heats 450 
 
 Air humidifiers (bronchitis kettles) 600 " 
 
 Back rounders, for books, three heats 300 " 
 
 Beer vat driers, three heats 3,000 " 
 
 Boilers, double (cereal cookers), small size 3 pints, 
 
 three heats ' 440 " 
 
 Boilers, double, largest standard size 6 quarts, three 
 
 heats ■ 1,300 
 
 Boilers, hot water, heaters inside, smallest size 3 gal- 
 lons, three heats 500 " 
 
 Boilers, hot water, heaters inside, largest standard 
 
 size 100 gals., three heats 14,000 
 
14G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Branding- irons, single heat 150 to 660 Watts 
 
 Broilers, in open stiape, smallest size 16 in, by 14 in., 
 
 two heats 2,500 
 
 Broilers, largest standard size. 32 in. by 30 in., two 
 
 heats 10,000 
 
 Broilers, open plates, smallest size 8 in. by 7% ins., 
 
 single heat 660 
 
 Broilers, open plates, largest standard size 30 ins. by 
 
 19 ins. two heats 6,400 
 
 Cauterizing instruments, without loss in controller 
 
 30 to 75 
 
 Celluloid heaters, three heats 900 " 
 
 Chafing dishes, smallest size 2 pints, three heats.... 250 " 
 
 Chafing dishes, largest standard size 3 pints, three 
 
 heats 500 
 
 Chocolate warmers, for maintaining chocolate in a 
 
 fluid state for dipping, smallest size 12 ins. by 
 
 6 1/2 ins. by 5 ins., three heats 220 
 
 Chocolate warmers, largest standard size, 14^4 ins. by 
 
 7% ins. by 6 ins., three heats 264 " 
 
 Cigar lighters, continuous service, single heat 25 " 
 
 Cigar lighters, intermittent service, single heat.. 75 to 200 " 
 
 Circulation water heaters, used in connection with 
 
 boilers, smallest size, two heats 1,800 " 
 
 Circulation water heaters, largest standard size, two 
 
 heats 3,600 
 
 Coffee percolators, smallest size 1 pint, single 
 
 heat 250 to 400 
 
 Coffee percolators, largest standard size 4 pints, three 
 
 heats 350 to 500 " 
 
 Coffee percolators, restaurant size, 12 quarts, single 
 
 heat 750 " 
 
 Coffee roasters, smallest size 2 to 3 lbs., three heats. . 800 " 
 
 Coffee roasters, largest standard size 8 to 10 lbs., 
 
 three heats 3,600 
 
 Coffee urns, smallest size 2 gals., three heats 1,400 " 
 
 Coffee urns, largest standard size 5 gals., three heats 2,500 
 
 Combs, heated, single heat 50 " 
 
 Corn poppers, 1 quart, single heat 300 " 
 
 Cooking vessels with covers, smallest size 2 pints, 
 
 three heats 600 
 
 "Cooking vessels, largest standard size, 26 gals., three 
 
 heats 7,500 
 
 Corset irons, 8^^ lbs., two heats 500 " 
 
 Cosmetic heaters, single heat 25 " 
 
 Curling irons, self-containing, single heat 20 " 
 
 Curling irons, heater in separate tubing, single heat 
 
 60 to 400 
 
 Dentist's tools, such as root canal driers, guttapercha 
 
 instruments, bleacher i)oints, wax spatulas, hot 
 
 air syringes, without loss in controller 6 to 30 " 
 
 Disc Stoves, smallest diameter 3 ins., single heat 
 
 100 to 400 
 
 Disc stoves, largest standard diameter 20 Ins., three 
 
 heats 2,700 " 
 
 Distilling apparatus for ether, three heats 300 " 
 
 Distilling apparatus for water, smallest size 1 quart 
 
 per hr., single heat 1,000 " 
 
 Distilling apparatus, largest standard size 8 quarts 
 
 per hr., single heat 6,000 " 
 
 Domestic flat irons, smallest size 3 lbs., single 
 
 heat 200 to 250 
 
 Domestic flat irons, largest standard size 9 lbs., sin- 
 gle heat 400 to 675 " 
 
 Drag irons, smallest size 30 lbs., single heat 1,400 " 
 
 Drag irons, largest standard size 50 lbs., single heat 1,600 " 
 Egg boilers, smallest size 1 QS^, single beat , 200 " 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1465 
 
 Eg-g boilers, largest standard size 6, eggs, three 
 
 heats 360 to 600 Watts 
 
 Finishing (polishing) irons, smallest size 4 lbs., two 
 
 heats 250 to 380 
 
 Finishing (polishing) irons, largest standard size 5V^ 
 
 lbs., two heats 450 " 
 
 ^Fireless cookers 150 to 660 " 
 
 Flask heaters, 8i/^ ins. diameter, three heats 500 " 
 
 Flat plates, rectangular or oval, used as food warm- 
 ers, griddle plates, laboratory plates, glue plates, 
 smallest size 4 by 4 ins., three heats 60 '' 
 
 Flat plates, largest standard size 80 by 40 ins., three 
 
 heats , 4,500 " 
 
 Foot warmers, smallest size 9 ins. by 10 Ins., single 
 
 heat 50 " 
 
 Foot warmers, largest standard size 10 by 12 ins., 
 
 three heats 400 " 
 
 Frying pans, round, smallest diameter 4 ins., single 
 
 heat 300 
 
 Frying pans, largest standard diameter, 12. ins., 
 
 three heats 1,800 to 2,000 
 
 Frying pans, rectangular, with cover, smallest size 
 
 10 by 61/2 by 5 ins., three heats 1,000 
 
 Frying pans, rectangular, with cover, largest stand- 
 ard size 24 by 12 by 5 ins., three heats 3,300 " 
 
 Furnaces for dentists, with controller 500 '" 
 
 Furnaces for heat treatment of tool steels and other 
 metallurgical work : 
 
 1 ^0° F. maximum, smallest size 450 " 
 
 largest standard size 4,150 " 
 
 2 000° F. maximujn, smallest size 650 " 
 
 largest standard size 15,000 " 
 
 3 6-00° F. maximum, smallest size 10,000 
 
 largest standani size 75,000 " 
 
 Furnace, Heroult 15-ton steel, with controller. . . . 1,500 Kw. 
 Furnaces, vacuum type, for laboratory," research 
 
 work — 
 
 5 cu. in. capacity, 5 600° F. maximum 15 Kw. 
 
 125 cu. in. capacity, 3 100° F. maximum 60 Kw. 
 
 Glove form heaters, single heat 50 Watts 
 
 Glue cookers with circulation water heaters, smallest 
 
 size 3 gals., three heats 1,800 " 
 
 Glue cookers, largest standard size 25 gals., three 
 
 heats 7,200 
 
 Glue pots with immersed heaters — 
 
 smallest size % pint, three heats.. 150 to 330 '.' 
 
 largest standard size 5 gals., three heats 2,500 '* 
 
 Gold annealers for dentists with controller 400 " 
 
 Goose irons for tailors, smallest size 12 lbs. ...600 to 770 " 
 
 Goose irons, largest -standard size 25 lbs 825 " 
 
 Hat brim irons, single heat ,^ 50 " 
 
 Hat form heaters, three heats i 500 " 
 
 Hatters' irons, 9 to 15 lbs., two heats 450 " 
 
 Heating pads, smallest size 11 by 15 ins., three heats 50 " 
 Heating pads, largest standard size 24 by 60 ins., 
 
 three heats 400 
 
 Hot air blowers, smallei^t size, two heats 500 " 
 
 Hot air blowers, largest standard size, two heats. . 1,400 " 
 
 Hot water cups, smallest svze i/i. pint, single heat. . 150 " 
 Hot water cups, largest standard size 2 pints, single 
 
 heat 500 
 
 Hot water (tea kettles), smallest size 1 pint, sin- 
 gle heat 250 to 300 
 
 Hot water (tea kettles), largest standard size 2 
 
 quarts, three heats 750 " 
 
 Hot water pitchers, smallest size 1 quart, single heat 600 " 
 Hot water jntchers, largest standard size 3 quarts, 
 
 single heat 660 to 10,000 
 
146G MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Hot water tanks for manufacturing purposes, small- 
 est size 26 gals., two heats 4,500 Watts 
 
 Hot water tanks, largest standard size 52 gals., two 
 
 heats 10,000 
 
 Immersion coils, small size Qy^ ins. diameter, three 
 
 heats 440 " 
 
 Immersion coils, largest standard size 11 ins. dia- 
 meter, three heats 2,500 " 
 
 Immersion heaters, cylindrical type, smallest size 2% 
 
 ins. diameter, three heats 300 " 
 
 Immersion heaters, cylindrical type, largest standard 
 
 size 20 ins. diameter, three heats 10,000 " 
 
 Immersion disc heaters, smallest size 3 ins. diameter, 
 
 two heats 150 " 
 
 Immersion disc heaters, largest standard size 8 ins. 
 
 diameter, two heats 660 " 
 
 Immersion tube heaters, smallest size, single heat... 170 " 
 
 Immersion tube heaters, largest standard size, single 
 
 heat 660 
 
 Inhaling apparatus, smallest size V2 pint, single heat 100 " 
 
 Inhaling apparatus, largest standard size 2Y2 pints, 
 
 three heats 800 
 
 Instantaneous hot water heaters, smallest size % 
 
 pint per min., temperature increase 68'^ F 600 " . 
 
 Instantaneous hot water heaters, largest standard 
 size 10 quarts per minute, temperature increase 
 136° F 24,000 
 
 Ironing machine (mangles), smallest size 40 ins. 
 
 long, three heats . 2,400 " 
 
 Ironing machine, largest standard size 80 ins. long, 
 
 three heats 6,400 
 
 Lace iron, single heat 70 " 
 
 Machine irons for tailors, with controllers, smallest 
 
 size 12 lbs 770 
 
 Machine irons for tailors, with controllers, largest 
 
 standard size 18 lbs 770 " 
 
 Melting pots for pitch, smallest size 12 ins. diameter, 
 
 2% ins. deep, three heats 1,300 " 
 
 Melting pots for pitch, largest standard size 15. ins. 
 
 diameter, 21/- ins. dee]), three heats 1,600 " 
 
 Melting pots for sealing wax, paraffine, smallest size 
 
 14 pint, single heat 80 " 
 
 Melting pots for sealing wax, parafflne, largest 
 
 standard size 5 quarts, three heats 550 " 
 
 Melting pots for soft metal (lead alloys)., smallest 
 
 size 4 lbs., three heats ." 200 " 
 
 Melting pots for soft metal (lead alloys), largest 
 
 standard size 50 lbs., three heats 1,500 " 
 
 Milk sterilizers for 8 bottles, three heats 700 " 
 
 Milk testing sets, single heat •. 600 " 
 
 Milk warmers for 8 ounce bottles 400 to 500 " 
 
 Oil tempering baths, smallest size 9 gals., with con- 
 troller 600° F. max. temp 6,000 
 
 Oil tempering baths, largest standard size 37 gals. 
 
 with controller 600° F. max. temp 20,000 " 
 
 Ovens for baking, roasting, drying, warming, enamel- 
 ing, smallest size 14 by 14 by 18 ins., three heats 200 " 
 
 Ovens for baking, roasting, drying, warming, enamel- 
 ing, largest standard size, 42 by 30 by 67 ins., 
 three heats 10,000 
 
 Potato cookers, smallest size 5 quarts, three heats.. 750 " 
 
 Potato cookers, largest standard size 10 quarts, three 
 
 heats 1,000 
 
 Potato steamers for hotels, smallest aize 20 quarts, 
 
 six heats 3,000 
 
 Potato steamers for hotels, largest standard size 50 
 
 quarts, six heats 4,500 " 
 
 Puff irons, smallest size 3 by Yi ins., three heats. .. . 155 " 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1467 
 
 Puff irons, largest standard size 6 by 3i/^ ins., three 
 
 heats 400 Watts 
 
 Ranges for domestic and restaurant use, 2 to 6 per- 
 sons 4,000 
 
 Ranges for domestic and restaurant use, 6 to 12 per- 
 sons 5,500 
 
 Ranges for domestic and restaurant use, 12 to 20 
 
 persons 7,500 
 
 Sand box lieaters for trolley cars, single heat 100 
 
 Sealing wax heaters, hand tool style, single heat.... 75 
 
 Shoe irons, portable, single handle, six heats 100 " 
 
 Shoe irons, portable, double handle, six heats 210 "^ 
 
 Shoe relasting irons, portable, single heat 50 
 
 Shoe warmers, smallest size 4 ins. by 1% ins. by 
 
 % ins. swingle heat 20 " 
 
 Shoe warmers, largest standard size 8 ins. by 3 ins. 
 
 by 1 in., single heat .30 
 
 Sleeve irons, 3i/^ lbs., two heats 300 " 
 
 Soldering irons, smallest size 10 ounces, single heat 75 " 
 Soldering irons, largest standard size 414 lbs., single 
 
 heat 450 
 
 Steam sterilizers, small size 5 quarts, three heats... 3,500 " 
 Steam sterilizers, large size 6 quarts, three heats. . . . 4,000 " 
 Sterilizers for surgical and dental instruments, small- 
 est size 8 ins. by ZV2 ins. by 2 ins., three heats. . 350 " 
 Sterilizers for surgical and dental instruments, larg- 
 est standard size, 24 ins. by 6 ins. by 4 ins., three 
 
 heats 1 400 to 1,800 
 
 Sweating blankets, 60 ins. by 18 ins., with controller 800 " 
 Toaster stoves domestic, portable type, single 
 
 heat 400 to 600 
 
 Toaster stoves, restaurant type, single heat.l 500 to 3,000 " 
 
 Towel dryers, three heats 600 " 
 
 Waffle irons, each section, single heat 385 " 
 
 Welding machines, smallest sizes 1,000 " 
 
 Welding machines, largest sizes 150,000 " 
 
 Electric Current Required for Heating Water: (Engineering 
 Magazine, August, 1914.) 
 
 Radiation losses are based on 2 ins. of asbestos or magnesia lag- 
 ging. 
 
 No radiation losses from the pipes of the connecting system have 
 been included in these calculation.s. 
 
 Computations are made at 100 per cent, efficiency, so that due al- 
 lowance should be made to suit the conditions present in each ap- 
 plication. 
 
 Electrically Heated Devices in the Printing Shop of P. F. Col- 
 lier & Son, New York. From Foster's Electrical Engineer's Pocket 
 Book.) 
 
 ' Max. Min. 
 
 Apparatus Type and size amp. amp. Volts Watts 
 
 2 glue pots Simplex, 20 gals 100 22 110 22,000 
 
 23 " '• Hadaway, 1 qt 2 .5 " 5.060 
 
 1 " " Simplex, 1 qt 2.5 " 275 
 
 8 " " Hadaway, 2 qts 10 2.5 " 8,800 
 
 2 " " Hadaway. 2 gals 22.8 220 12,672 
 
 2 wax heaters 100 40 110 22.000 
 
 5 press heads 22 ins. by 24 ins. by 3 78 ins. 35 2.8 ^^-^^X 
 
 -I ^ .< " " '< " '« " " " " 36 4 " 3,960 
 
 t « '< " " " " " " " " 36 3.6 " 3,960 
 
 -I .« <. " " ". " " , " " " 36 3.5 " 3,960 
 
 1 .. «. '< " " " M .< " " 36 4.5 " 3,960 
 
1468 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Apparatus 
 1 " 
 1 
 
 Type and size 
 
 19 " " 12 " " 
 12 " " " " " 
 
 Max. Min. 
 
 amp. amp. Volts Watts 
 30 2.5 " 3,300 
 25 2.5 " 2,750 
 
 111,947 
 
 49 
 
 Laboratory Use of Electric Heating Devices. The milk supply of 
 New York City is governed by tests made in the Laboratory of the 
 Board of Health, by means of electric stoves. Twenty-five 4 -in. 
 disc stoves, of 60 watts capacity, are used to boil the ether used 
 in the tests. Fourteen times per hour these little stoves cause. the 
 ether to vaporize. The germ producer, measuring 22 by 22 by 22 
 ins., is heated to 130° C, by means of electricity, a maximum cur- 
 rent of 16 amp. being employed for 15 rhins. every hour, while 3 
 
 TABLE XXV. ELECTRIC CURRENT REQUIRED FOR HEAT- 
 ING WATER 
 
 be 
 
 01 
 
 B 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 Jo 
 
 ^ 
 
 <0 
 
 ^ to 
 
 xB 
 
 P 
 
 c fl 
 
 Pi^ 
 
 
 •g^ 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 2.8 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 3.5 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 3.5 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 4.5 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 42 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 4'8 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 53 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 63 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 66 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 79 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 82 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 85 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 120 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 140 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 150 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 168 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 180 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 192 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 220 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 250 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 295 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 315 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 
 §-2 
 
 O fn 
 
 QT-i;3 to supply radiation 
 
 losses 
 
 m 
 
 11- 
 
 *"X^ 
 
 '^-' .2 and raise temperatures of 
 
 jQ 
 
 m 
 
 ^^ tank and water from 60 
 
 5 
 
 I^S 
 
 • ng^ deg. to : 
 
 160 deg. in 
 
 
 
 u (bt3 
 
 "2 rt"^ 
 
 •Ih ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 w ft 
 
 ^^"^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^a 
 
 ij m c 
 
 ■*^ m &0 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 ni S OJ 
 
 hour J 
 
 hours 
 
 hours 
 
 hours 
 
 100 
 
 125. 
 
 158. 
 
 2,920. 
 
 3.14 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.08 
 
 .678 
 
 142 
 
 154. 
 
 193. 
 
 4--, 140. 
 
 4.41 
 
 2.24 
 
 1.52 
 
 .944 
 
 150 
 
 161. 
 
 201. 
 
 4,380. 
 
 4.66 
 
 2.37 
 
 1.61 
 
 .996 
 
 175 
 
 183. 
 
 229. 
 
 5,120. 
 
 5.44 
 
 2.77 
 
 1.87 
 
 1.162 
 
 200 
 
 205. 
 
 253. 
 
 5,840. 
 
 6.20 
 
 3.15 
 
 2.13 
 
 1.321 
 
 233 
 
 220. 
 
 285. 
 
 6,820. 
 
 7.22 
 
 3.66 
 
 2.48 
 
 1.531 
 
 250 
 
 227. 
 
 317. 
 
 7,310. 
 
 7.74 
 
 3.93 
 
 2.66 
 
 1.638 
 
 267 
 
 249. 
 
 324. 
 
 7,790. 
 
 8.24 
 
 4.18 
 
 2.83 
 
 1.748 
 
 292 
 
 278. 
 
 348. 
 
 8.520. 
 
 9.00 
 
 4.57 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.913 
 
 300 
 
 271. 
 
 359. 
 
 8,770. 
 
 9.26 
 
 4.70 
 
 3.18 
 
 1.961 
 
 333 
 
 300. 
 
 377. 
 
 9,730. 
 
 10.26 
 
 5.21 
 
 3.52 
 
 2.17 
 
 350 
 
 286. 
 
 412. 
 
 10,220. 
 
 10.77 
 
 5.46 
 
 3.69 
 
 2.27 
 
 400 
 
 352. 
 
 465. 
 
 11,680. 
 
 12.32 
 
 6.25 
 
 4.23 
 
 2.61 
 
 442 
 
 330. 
 
 522. 
 
 12,900. 
 
 13.59 
 
 6.88 
 
 4.64 
 
 2.85 
 
 525 
 
 411. 
 
 705. 
 
 15.330. 
 
 16.24 
 
 8.22 
 
 5.55 
 
 3.41 
 
 550 
 
 39 6. 
 
 • 880. 
 
 16,050. 
 
 17.13 
 
 8.66 
 
 5.84 
 
 3.58 
 
 658 
 
 468. 
 
 915. 
 
 19,210. 
 
 20.36 
 
 10.36 
 
 6.94 
 
 4.26 
 
 684 
 
 447. 
 
 968. 
 
 19.940. 
 
 21.13 
 
 10.65 
 
 7.19 
 
 4.41 
 
 708 
 
 447. 
 
 1,020. 
 
 20,680. 
 
 21.92 
 
 11.07 
 
 7.46 
 
 4.56 
 
 834 
 
 498. 
 
 1,056. 
 
 24,330. 
 
 25.64 
 
 12.94 
 
 8.71 
 
 5.33 
 
 1,000 
 
 557. 
 
 1,232. 
 
 29,200. 
 
 30.71 
 
 15.49 
 
 10.42 
 
 6.36 
 
 1,168 
 
 645. 
 
 1,408. 
 
 34,300. 
 
 36.03 
 
 18.18 
 
 12.22 
 
 7.46 
 
 1,250 
 
 608. 
 
 1,480. 
 
 36,510. 
 
 38.39 
 
 19.30 
 
 12.97 
 
 7.90 
 
 1,100 
 
 740. 
 
 1,654. 
 
 40,880. 
 
 42.90 
 
 21.64 
 
 14.55 
 
 8.88 
 
 1,500 
 
 712. 
 
 1,690. 
 
 43,800. 
 
 45.85 
 
 23.10 
 
 15.52 
 
 9.45 
 
 1,600 
 
 828. 
 
 1,900. 
 
 46,720. 
 
 49.16 
 
 24.79 
 
 16.66 
 
 10.26 
 
 1,835 
 
 835. 
 
 2,025. 
 
 53,290. 
 
 55.61 
 
 28.01 
 
 18.81 
 
 11.46 
 
 2,082 
 
 953. 
 
 2,110. 
 
 60,830. 
 
 63.42 
 
 31.95 
 
 21.46 
 
 13.06 
 
 2,460 
 
 1,062. 
 
 2,325. 
 
 71,780. 
 
 74.64 
 
 37.58 
 
 25.23 
 
 15.35 
 
 2,626 
 
 1,033. 
 
 3,415. 
 
 76,650. 
 
 80.58 
 
 40.55 
 
 27.20 
 
 16.43 
 
 a65 7 36 3,044 1,172. 3,800. 88,8?0. 93.21 46.90 31.46 19.11 
 
 420 8 36 3,500 1,312. 3,170. 102,200. 106.00 52.85 35.12 20.93 
 
 430 6 42 3,588 1,246. 3,134. 105,200. 108.96 54.79 36.74 22.30 
 
 500 7 42 4,172 1,415. 3.520. 122,300. 126.53 62.62 42.65 25.87 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1469 
 
 amps, keep up the desired temperature. The cocoa and coffee 
 trade has applied electric heat to its small desiccating or drying 
 cabinets. A dryer 3.5 by 5 ft., requiring a temperature of 150 
 degrees, requires about 74 watts per cu. ft. when properly jacketed. 
 The beans are particularly susceptible to the odors arising from 
 combustion, hence the advantage of electric heat. For drying kilns 
 40 watts per cu. ft. are recommended. 
 
 Candy Manufacture. "Warming tables and chocolate dipping- 
 pots have proved successful. 50 watts produce sufficient heat to 
 keep the chocolate in working condition. A 30-gal. tank holding 
 caramel paste is supplied with 10 kw.-hrs. to keep the paste at 
 285° G., and each melting costs about 65 cts. The service is inter- 
 mittent, hence the adaptability of electric heat. 
 
 Soldering and Branding Ir6ns. The canning industry, as well 
 as the makers of switchboards, and others, find the electric solder- 
 ing iron a useful and economical tool. It has been found more 
 economical to operate electric- soldering irons heated by current 
 costing 5 cts. per kw.-hr. thdn irons heated in gas furnaces, with 
 gas at $1.00 per 1000 cu. ft. Heaters of 110-watt capacity are 
 madB, into which a soldering iron is thrust, thereby doing away 
 with the connecting handle cord. One thousand hogs per hour are 
 stamped " Inspected " by the government meat inspectors in Chi- 
 cago, by means of a 400-watt branding tool, which is an electric 
 soldering iron with a die inserted instead of the copper tip. 
 
 Thawing Water Pipes. The following figures show the details 
 of operation of a 44-cell storage battery outfit, mounted on an 
 automobile truck, in comparison with those obtained by the use of 
 a rheostat in series with a d.c. 3 wire Edison system with the 
 neutral wire grounded. The figures represent the average amounts 
 in each case. 
 
 Cost 
 Am- K.w, Time, Pipe. Volt- per Revenue 
 peres hours mins. inch, age case per case 
 Storage battery .. 513 1.39 5.44 %. 31.5 $10.85 $16.40 
 Street supply 275 10.4 19.0 % 120.0 14.43 16.93 
 
 The street supply is used until the season has so far advanced 
 that the number of cases will warrant the exclusive service of an 
 automobile truck. 
 
 Power Required for Electric Thawing of Frozen Mains: 
 
 TABLE XXVI. DATA ON THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT AND 
 
 THE LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED TO THAW FROZEN 
 
 WATER PIPES BY ELECTRICITY 
 
 Size pipe 
 
 
 
 Ti 
 
 ime required 
 
 
 (iron) * 
 
 Length 
 
 
 
 to thaw, 
 
 
 inches 
 
 feet 
 
 Volts 
 
 Amperes 
 
 min. 
 
 Kw.-hr. 
 
 % 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 % 
 
 100 
 
 5.5 
 
 135 
 
 10 
 
 1.24 
 
 % 
 
 250 
 
 50 
 
 400 
 
 20 
 
 6.67 
 
 1 
 
 250 
 
 50 
 
 500 
 
 20 
 Hours 
 
 8.33 
 
 1 
 
 700 
 
 55 
 
 175 
 
 5 
 
 48.1 
 
 4 
 
 1,300 
 
 55 
 
 260 
 
 3 
 
 42.9 
 
 10 
 
 800 
 
 62 
 
 400 
 
 2 
 
 49.6 
 
 Add 50% to amperage for thawing lead pipe 
 
1470 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost of Operating Electrically Heated Utensiis. (Prom Foster's 
 Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book.) 
 
 Average Period ^ost to- 
 watt of ..^".?..^5^l 
 
 Article hour opera- .^^f J^^^ a^. 
 
 eonsump- tion, "^ll^^?®^ 
 
 tion .'min, cts 
 
 Chafing dish 400 20 1.33 
 
 Pint baby milk warmer and food heater 250 ' 6 1.25 
 
 Quart food heater 500 6 0.50 
 
 Coffee percolator 300 20 1.00 
 
 Stove, 6 ins 500 15 1.25 
 
 Stove, 8 ins 800 15 2.00 
 
 Boiler 9 by 12 ins 1200 15 3.00 
 
 Curling ii'on heater 60 15 0.15 
 
 Iron, 3 1/2 lbs 250 30 1.25 
 
 Iron, 6 lbs 500 30 2.50 
 
 Frying pan (7 ins. diameter) 500 30 2.50 
 
 Waffle iron 500 12 1.00 
 
 Teakettle 300 20 1.00 
 
 Glue pot, 1 qt 300 20 1.00 
 
 Soldering iron, 2 lb. . 200 30 1.00 
 
 Doctor's sterilizer 1000 30 5.00 
 
 Bate's room radiator 1000 30 5.00 
 
 Heating pad 50 per hr. 0.50 
 
 The Power Consumption of Domestic Heating Devices Electrically 
 Operated and their Cost of Operation per Hour on a Basis of 10c. 
 per kw.-hr. for Electricity: 
 
 Watts Cents 
 
 Broilers, 3 ht 300 to 1200 3 to 12 
 
 Chafing dishes, 3 ht 200 to 500 2 to 5 
 
 Cigar lighters 75 0.75 
 
 Coffee percolators for 6 in. stove 100 to 440 1 to 4.4 
 
 Coil heaters 110 to 440 1.1 to 4.4 
 
 Corn popper 300 3 
 
 Curling-iron heaters 60 0.6 
 
 Double boilers, 6 in., 3 ht. stove 100 to 440 1 to 4.4 
 
 Flatiron (domestic size) 3 lbs 275 2.75 
 
 Flatiron (domestic size) 4 lbs 350 3.5 
 
 Flatiron (domestic size) 5 lbs 400 4 
 
 Flatiron (domestic size) 6 lbs 475 4.75 
 
 Flatiron (domestic size) 7.5 lbs 540 5.4 
 
 Flatiron (domestic size) 9 lbs 610 6.1 
 
 Foot warmers 50 to 400 0.5 to 4 
 
 Frying kettles, 8 in. diameter 825 8.25 
 
 Griddle cake cookers, 9 by 12 ins., 3 ht. . 330 to 880 3.3 to 8.8 
 
 Griddle-cake cookers, 12 by 18 ins., 3 ht. . 500 to 1500 5 to 15 
 
 Heating pads 50 0.5 
 
 Instantaneous flow water heaters 2000 20 
 
 Kitchenettes (complete), average 1500 15 
 
 Nursery milk warmers 450 4.5 
 
 Ornamental stoves 250 to 500 2.5 to 5 
 
 Ovens 1200 to 1500 12 to 15 
 
 Plate warmers 300 3 
 
 Radiators 700 to 6000 7 to 60 
 
 Ranges : 3 heats, 4 to 6 people 1000 to 4515 10 to 44 
 
 Ranges: 3 heats, 6 to 1 2 people 1100 to 5250 11 to 52 
 
 Ranges : 3 heats, 12 to 20 people 2000 to 7200 20 to 72 
 
 Shaving mugs 150 to 1.5 
 
 Stoves (plain), 4.5 in., 3 ht 50 to 220 0.5 to 2.2 
 
 Stoves (plain), 6 in., 3 ht 100 to 440 4.4 
 
 Stoves (plain), 7 in., 3 ht 120 to 600 1.2 to 6 
 
HEATING. COOKING AND VENTILATING 1471 
 
 Watts ' Cents 
 
 Stove (plain), 8 in., 3 ht 165 to 825 1.5 to 8.25 
 
 Stoves (plain), 10 in., 3 ht 275 to 1100 2.6 to 11 
 
 Stoves (plain), 12 in., 3 ht 325 to 1300 3.2 to 13 
 
 Stove, traveler's 200 2 
 
 Toasters, 9 in. by 12 in., 3 ht 330 to 880 3.2 to 8.8 
 
 Toasters, 12 in. by 18 in, 3 ht 500 to 1500 5 to 15 
 
 Urns, 1-gal., 3 ht 110 to 440 1 to 4.4 
 
 Urns, 2-gal., 3 ht 220 to 660 2.2 to 6.6 
 
 Urns, 3-gal., 3 ht. . . . k 330 to 1320 2.6 to 13.2 
 
 Urns, 5-gal., 3 ht ^ 400 to 1700 4 to 17 
 
 Waffle irons, 2 waffles 770 7.5 
 
 Waffle" irons, 3 waffles 1150 11.5 
 
 An Electrie Heater for Thawing Eplosives was used at the Roose- 
 velt drainage ftinnel in Cripple Creek, Colo., says the Engineering 
 Record, May 15, 1909, It consists "of two 12 in. by 24 in. rec- 
 tangular frames made of 1.5 in. by .25 in. iron, held apart 3 ins. 
 vertically and sui)ported on legs above the floor. Telephone insu- 
 lators spaced on 1.5 in. centers are placed around the sides of each 
 frame, and between each corresponding pair of insulators ordinary 
 coils of galvanized telephone wire are strung, all the sets of wires 
 being connected in series. The coils are heated by the electric 
 lighting current, and in about 30 minutes warm the small powder 
 house, 4 ft. by 5 ft. in ground plan and 6 ft. high, to a temperature 
 of 80 deg. F. The cost of this method of heating is about 10 cts. 
 per 24 hrs. and is said to be far more economical than if coal were 
 used for fuel. 
 
 Cost of Electric Heating in Shoe Factory. (Electrical World, 
 March 31, 1917.) In this establishment thirteen machines are 
 provided with electric heat, and in the eight months ended Feb. 28, 
 1917, the total energy consumption for this service was 19,600 
 kw.-hrs., the number of pairs of shoes manufactured being 118,359. 
 The average energy required per 100 pairs of shoes was about 16.55 
 kw.-hrs. The energy consumption of the several machines for heat- 
 ing service was as follows in the months of maximum and mini- 
 mum shoe production : 
 
 August, 1916 November, 1916 
 
 16,998 iiw.-hr. 12,490 kw.-hr. 
 
 Number pairs manufactured Per 100 Per 100 
 
 Total pairs Total pairs 
 
 Two Goodyear stitchers 369 2.2 348 2.8 
 
 Two Goodyear welters 232 1.4 192 1.5 
 
 Two pulling-over machines ... 616 3.6 83 0./ 
 
 Four box toe machines 724 4.3 700 5.b 
 
 One bottom drior 741 4.4 638 &.i 
 
 One bottom filler 211 1.2 178 1.4 
 
 One Gem insole machine .... 72 0.4 43 0-^ 
 
 2965 iTs 2182 17.5 
 
 It will be noticed that while the energy per 100 pairs of shoes 
 is apparently a constant, except for the pulling-over machines, the 
 energy consumed is much less for quantity production. For manu- 
 facturing or other reasons the energy consumption of the pulling- 
 over machines was much greater in August than in the following 
 November. 
 
1472 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Proving the Economy of Electric Cootcing. (Electrical World, 
 Aug. 19, 1916.) Figures recently secured on the cost of operating 
 twenty-nine electric ranges in the Boulevard Court Apartments, 
 Detroit, Mich., give 2 kw.-hrs. per day as the average consumption 
 for cooking for families of two and three persons. In the same 
 apartments the use of electrical energy for purposes other than 
 cooking averaged a trifle above 5 kw.-hr. per day during the period 
 of observation. In only one instance was it apparent that the 
 electric range was not being used regularly, the consumption in 
 the other tvcenty-eight cases varying from a minimum daily con- 
 sumption of 0.44 kw.-hr. to a maximum of 4.4 kw.-hrs. per day. 
 
 TABLE XXVII. FIGUREIS ON CONSUMPTION AND COST OF 
 
 ELECTRIC COOKING BY TWENTY-NINE ELECTRIC 
 
 RANGE USERS, BOULEVARD APARTMENTS, 
 
 DETROIT 
 
 ■K-«r ViT- Monthly 
 
 Apartment No. of n^ZW^^^ cost for 
 
 First floor: 
 
 1 63 167 ^ ii3.18 
 
 2 5^2 23 A .54 
 
 3 59 55 ig^v 1.12 
 
 4 48 107 m 2.86 
 
 5 63 160 '^- 3.05 
 
 8 35 137 4.71 
 
 Second floor : 
 
 1 62 77 1.50 
 
 2 50 108 2.59 
 
 3 62 98 1.90 
 
 4 60 117 2.34 
 
 5 63 119 2.27 
 
 6 30 90 3.60 
 
 7 37 26 .76 
 
 8 62 159 3.08 
 
 Third floor: 
 
 1 59 63 1.28 
 
 3 fiO 265 5.30 
 
 4 
 
 5 45 80 2.27 
 
 6 60 57 1.19 
 
 7 48 44 1.11 
 
 8 ". 45 112 2.99 
 
 Fourth floor: 
 
 1 59 98 2.14 
 
 4 63 ITl 3.26 
 
 5 62 201 3.90 
 
 6 62 168 3.25 
 
 7 63 99 1.89 
 
 8 62 196 3.79 
 
 Bksement : 
 
 5 35 53 1.80 
 
 7 35 2 .06 
 
 Front 50 . 69 1,96 
 
 29 1554 days 3121 $2.40 
 
 Average 53.6 days 2 per day 
 
 60 per month 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND I'ENTILATING 1473 
 
 The ranges installed are a recent model, the feature of which is 
 the compartment (or fireless) cooker. This cooker is set into the 
 body of the stove so that its cover when closed is flush with the 
 cooking surface and is flanked on either side by a hot plate. The 
 oven is of the elevated type with a glass door. An automatic clock 
 mechanism operates a master switch and pilot lamp, this feature 
 being designed to prevent the circuit being left "on" through for- 
 getful ness upon the part of the o])erator. 
 
 A study of the subjoined data will reveal several interesting 
 facts. It is not apparent, for example, that more than one of the 
 active users of the cooking service was extravagant in that service 
 alone. In all cases but one where the total monthly bills were 
 above $5, the energy used otherwise than in the range amounts to 
 approximately 30% of the total, whereas the average of the entire 
 twenty-nine apartments shows that about 25%, in round figures, 
 was used for light and purposes other than cooking. 
 
 Another interesting fact is that in 1554 range-days, the consump- 
 tion averaged only 2 kw.-hrs. per day, although this record, was 
 for the experimental period when it is commonly exT)ected that the 
 consumption will be high owing to the housewives' unfamiliarity 
 with the electric stoves. 
 
 Power Cost of Ironing in a Domestic Laundry. We have taken 
 the following from Foster's Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book. 
 
 An average family of five persons, where the collars and cuffs 
 are sent out to be ironed, consumes about 13.2 kw.-hrs per month 
 for ironing, which at 10 cts. per kw.-hr. amounts to $1.32 per month, 
 which is about the same as if gas were used, costing $1.00 per 1000 
 cu. ft. The cost of operation varies with size of iron. For ordinary 
 domestic requirements, without a current regulator, the iron most 
 commonly used weighs about 6 lbs. and consumes about 500 watts 
 per hr. The regulators, whether of the switch in the handle or 
 resistance in the stand type, effect a saving of from 15 to 20%. 
 The power consumption of the various types of irons follows : 
 
 Watts 
 
 4 ibs. Troy polishing, diamond face 330 
 
 SVa " small seaming (can be connected to lamp socket)..., 20i» 
 
 4 " gentleman's small hat iron 'ZOO 
 
 5 Yq " light domestic 500 
 
 5y2 " light domestic, round wire 500 
 
 7 " domestic 600 
 
 5 1/^ " Morocco bottom 500 
 
 Morocco bottom, round wire 500 
 
 Flatirons. The American Handbook for Electrical Engineers 
 gives the following: An internally heated gas flatiron of house- 
 hold size burns about 5 cu. ft. of gas per hr. For continuous 
 sei'vice with an externally-heated iron three irons are required, 
 two heating while one is being used; for such service about 16 
 cu. ft. of gas are used per hr. by the burner. An electric flatiron 
 of household size takes about 550 watts. Hence, assuming gas to 
 cost $1.00 per 1000 cu. ft. and electricity to cost 10 cts. per kw.-hr. 
 the energy cost per hr. for each of the three types would be ; 
 
1474 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Internally-heated gas flatiron 0.5 
 
 Externally-heated gas flatiron 1.6 
 
 Electric flatiron 5.5 
 
 However, the evident advantages of cleanliness, convenience, 
 safety and comfort bring about a very extensive use of the electric 
 flatiron, even though the actual cost is greater than for coal or 
 gas heating. 
 
 In figuring the cost of operation of the electric iron, in the above 
 abstract, no allowance has been made for the fact that the better 
 grades of irons will hold their heat a remarkably long time. It 
 is not necessary to have the current turned on continuously but 
 once the iron is hot the current may be turned off and on and a 
 considerable saving be effected. 
 
 Cost of Disc and Propeller Fans. Disc Fans are extensively used 
 wherever large volumes of air are to be moved at low velocity, 
 and where the resistance to be overcome is slight. This type Is 
 not suitable for forcing air against pressure, a condition which 
 requires a cased fan. The efficiency of the disc type decreases 
 rapidly as the resistance increases, but when the removal of air 
 from rooms does not require conducting pipes, the low first cost, the 
 smooth-running qualities, and the durability of this type of fan 
 are readily appreciated. Disc fans are especially adapted to the 
 ventilation of kitchens, restaurants, engine rooms, work shops, and 
 offices, and the removal of vapors in industrial establishments, and 
 in laundries, dye houses, drying rooms, etc. 
 
 In case of wear or accident any part may be immediately re- 
 placed, for they are made on the interchangeable plan. The Disc 
 Fan consists of a substantial hub, into which are cast radial steel 
 arms having steel-plate blades attached thereto. These blades, 
 placed at an angle to the direction of flow, force the air in lines 
 parallel to the shaft. To obtain movement of air in the opposite 
 direction it is only necessary to reverse the angle of the blades 
 
 TABLE XXVIII. DISC AND PROPELLOR FANS 
 
 Diam. of fan 
 
 Minimum 
 
 , Weight in 
 
 lbs., , 
 
 Net price 
 
 in ins. 
 
 r.r.m. 
 
 propeller fan 
 
 disc fan 
 
 * propeller fan 
 
 18 
 
 550 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 $24.00 
 
 24 
 
 400 
 
 125 
 
 130 
 
 30.00 
 
 30 
 
 325 
 
 160 
 
 165 
 
 39.00 
 
 36 
 
 275 
 
 225 
 
 190 
 
 48.00 
 
 42 
 
 235 
 
 400 
 
 290 
 
 60.00 
 
 48 
 
 200 
 
 465 
 
 350 
 
 72.00 
 
 54 
 
 175 
 
 600 
 
 425 
 
 90.00 
 
 60 
 
 165 
 
 675 
 
 535 
 
 110.00 
 
 66 
 
 150 
 
 720 
 
 685 
 
 132.00 
 
 72 
 
 135 
 
 950 
 
 875 
 
 150.00 
 
 78 
 
 127 
 
 1050 
 
 1000 
 
 165.00 
 
 84 
 
 120 
 
 1125 
 
 1025 
 
 180.00 
 
 96 
 
 100 
 
 1375 
 
 1175 
 
 210.00 
 
 108 
 
 90 
 
 1700 
 
 1470 
 
 240.00 
 
 120 
 
 80 
 
 2000 
 
 1800 
 
 300.00 
 
 * The above net prices are for propeller fans ; for the disc fans 
 subtract 20% from same. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1475 
 
 or change the direction of rotation. The wheel revolves within a 
 substantial circular frame, carrying two self-oiling bearings, and 
 having a pulley on the shaft. 
 
 TABLE XXIX. STEEL PRESSURE BLOWERS 
 
 FOR FOUNDRY WORK 
 
 
 Diam. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 outlet 
 
 R.p.m. for 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 blower 
 
 in ins. 
 
 1/^ lb. pressure 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 4/0 
 
 2% 
 
 7,782 
 
 
 17 
 
 $13.50 
 
 2/0 
 
 31/2 
 
 6,023 
 
 
 35 
 
 18.00 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5,112 
 
 
 55 
 
 23.40 
 
 1 
 
 4 78 
 
 4,486 
 
 
 85 
 
 32.40 
 
 2 
 
 5% 
 
 3,774 
 
 
 110 
 
 39.60 
 
 3 
 
 6% 
 
 3,233 
 
 
 155 
 
 49.50 
 
 4 
 
 7% 
 
 2,818 
 
 
 315 
 
 63.00 
 
 5 
 
 sys 
 
 2,416 
 
 
 375 
 
 81.00 
 
 6 
 
 10 V4 
 
 2,198 
 
 
 475 
 
 103.50 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 1,773 
 
 
 840 
 
 162.00 
 
 8 
 
 13% 
 
 1,548 
 
 
 1125 
 
 202.50 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 1,332 
 
 
 1650 
 
 292.50 
 
 10 
 
 181/2 
 
 1,169 
 
 
 2650 
 
 405.00 
 
 TABLE XXX. 
 
 BLOWERS 
 
 AND 
 
 EXHACTSTERS 
 
 Outside 
 Number of diam. of 
 
 Outside 
 
 diam. of 
 
 outlet 
 
 in ins. 
 
 Weight in lbs. 
 
 
 blower or 
 
 inlet of 
 
 
 
 Net price 
 
 exh'ter 
 
 exh'ter 
 
 Blower Exh'ter 
 
 
 
 in ins. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4/0 
 
 3% 
 
 2% 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 $10.80 
 
 2/0 
 
 ^% 
 
 41/s 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 13.50 
 
 
 
 5% 
 
 4% 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 18.00 
 
 1 
 
 61/2 
 
 5% 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 23.40 
 
 2 
 
 71/2 
 
 71/2 
 
 120 
 
 123 
 
 29.70 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 190 
 
 200 
 
 39.60 
 
 4 
 
 101/2 
 
 10% 
 
 265 
 
 300 
 
 49.50 
 
 5 
 
 12% 
 
 1214 
 
 380 
 
 400 
 
 63.00 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 14% 
 
 525 
 
 590 
 
 81.00 
 
 7 
 
 16% 
 
 16% 
 
 925 
 
 1030 
 
 135.00 
 
 8 
 
 18% 
 
 18 3/^ 
 
 1340 
 
 1555 
 
 180.00 
 
 9 
 
 211/^ 
 
 21% 
 
 1975 
 
 2100 
 
 225.00 
 
 10 
 
 241/2 
 
 24% 
 
 2550 
 
 2700 
 
 292.00 
 
 The above blowers and exhausters are regularly built with bottom 
 horizontal discharge in all sizes, and with up blast discharge in 
 sizes 3 to 10, inclusive. Either blowers or exhausters can be made 
 down blast or top horizontal discharge when so ordered. The 
 weights given do not include packing and are for bottom horizontal 
 discharge. 
 
 TABLE XXXI. FOUNDRY TABLE FOR STEEL PRESSURE 
 BLOWERS 
 
 Pressure 
 Number of Cu. ft. of in wind box 
 
 blower air per min. ozs. per sq. in. 
 
 2 500 7 
 
 4 1,000 7 
 
 5 1,500 8 
 
 6 2,000 9 
 
1476 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Number of Cu. ft. of in wind box 
 
 blower air per min. ozs. per sq. in. 
 
 7 2,500 9 
 
 7 3,000 10 
 
 7 3,500 10 
 
 8 4,000 11 
 
 8 4,500 11 
 
 8 5,000 12 
 
 9 5,500 12 
 
 9 6,000 13 
 
 9 6,500 12 
 
 9 7,000 13 
 
 9 7,500 14 
 
 10 8,000 12 
 
 10 8,500 13 
 
 10 9,000 14 
 
 10 9,500 12 
 
 10 10.000 13 
 
 10 . 10,500 14 
 
 10 11,000 13 
 
 10 11,500 14 
 
 10 12,000 15 
 
 10 12,500 16 
 
 To find number or size of blower to supply air for the required 
 capacity of a cupola, take 500 cu. ft. of air per minute at the given 
 pressure to melt one ton of iron per hour. 
 
 Table XXXII gives the number of revolutions necessary to 
 produce the given pressure at the fan outlet when its area is within 
 the capacity of the blower. Owing to losses due to transmission, 
 this pressure cannot be maintained at any more or less distant 
 point, such as the wind box of a cupola or the tuyere pipe of a 
 forge, unless the speed of the fan is increased sufficiently to pro- 
 duce an excess of pressure equal to the transmission loss. 
 
 Cost of Heating and Ventilating Systems. (D. D. Kimball in the 
 School Board Journal, abstracted in the Heating and Ventilating 
 Magazine, March, 1915.) A study of the cost of installation of 
 heating and ventilating plants, made in a number of schools, 
 showed that the prevailing custom of apportioning a certain per- 
 centage of the total cost of the building for the installation of the 
 heating and ventilating plant is of no value, as these percentage 
 ratios vary more than 100%, even with similar classes of installa- 
 tions. For a given size of building, the cost of the heating and 
 ventilating systems will be approximately the same whether the 
 building is a monumental stone structure or a plain wooden struc- 
 ture, but the percentage of cost of the system will be very different. 
 
 Classification of Systems. As a result of this study, the follow- 
 ing scheme of classification has been arrived at : 
 
 Class A. Plants providing for fire-tube boilers, double fan sys- 
 tems, air washers and humidifiers, individual or double duct sys- 
 tems and modulating control of direct radiators and mixing 
 dampers. * 
 
 Class B. Same as Class A, but using automatic stokers and 
 water-tube boilers instead of fire-tube boilers. 
 
 Class C. Same as Class A, but eliminating the modulation con- 
 trol of radiators and dampers and using the single trunk ducts. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1477 
 
 <5< rH -<r^oo«c> 
 
 
 <: 
 
 " cc a; Oj oi 
 
 rgr-l "^ Ol OC OV C- 
 
 M C^lC]l-ll-l 
 
 OH 
 
 ^ti t- «£> <» CO 1-1 00 
 
 >^ ■* lOiXii— C-I^iM 
 
 t>j*-^ iH l-HOCCOOt^lO 
 
 ^^ «C,^acarH^ 
 
 <!H 
 
 M^ ••.•(MOiCOOO^t-COrHlO 
 
 CC^ oo • • • •«Dt~io-^t^ecic<xt- 
 
 M<J tH • • • •c-oioot^cio--'^'*' 
 
 qQ, ••••^■^'COCOiMC^lr-ii-lT-l 
 
 ^< 
 
 PlK 
 
 H - 
 
 •oouit-TfLco-foooo 
 
 • th m C2 0-1 (M ec r~ u; oc 1-^ oj 
 
 • 1^5 '^ lO C-. '^ cr. «:3 1-^ OC' <» '^ 
 
 • CO Irt ^ CO CO (M 0^] (M rH tH tH 
 
 5S 
 
 S'rH 
 
 •OiOOaiOOOClOlC'MCOM'COOO 
 
 • ■rHU5iMOi«;oo^cscr;ou;cD 
 
 -I 
 
 '^ tH 
 
 • o c^ c-1 CO r- CI ocirt o oc in CO 
 
 d* 
 
 •C~lOlO-;t<COCOC^]C^C^5i-li-nH 
 
 
 
 
 H^ 
 
 <D 
 
 m«>MK5!Mc-. ooooo^or-M 
 
 §2 
 
 »o 
 
 lOOCiOlOCnCOOi'^t-C-lOOO 
 
 coi>-cosi!MiOT-'«>^a: c-^co 
 
 M '"' 
 
 00i;OUirf<T^CO00C-JcgT-i,-lT-ir-l 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 
 WW 
 
 o 
 
 
 fl 
 
 t-U5C<IC;lOlMCOt-t>-t~OiOOO 
 
 •^05 
 
 eoi>T-i^Oi'M00iflC>Jt-eo,-Heo 
 
 Km 
 
 
 <Meo'*<c-Oi'S"05mcooc«c^c<i 
 
 en 
 
 00«CiU3'*eoeoc^iMWT-iT-iT-nH 
 
 
 xn 
 
 (MCO<MtO-rt"COOO«500COOO(M05 
 
 !h<» 
 
 00M^00lr-C0r-tT-4C-. C--:fCO«5 
 
 Ah 
 
 t^-Oi-HrfC-ClOC-ri-^t-KICOTH 
 
 |>«»K5Tj.cOCOC<IC^3C^3T-IT-lrHr-( 
 
 <l 
 
 
 ' 
 
 pc. 
 
 
 
 Off; 
 
 
 ■*lCl(MU5t-0<>a-^T-<(M,-(<3i«C> 
 
 c- 
 
 Oi-*OioWcO"*«0«5cCl«Tf01 
 
 
 cgcor-cv]ioo<«iMC:co^c^jo 
 
 
 t~iOT*<Tj<eococ<ie-jiMT-ii-ii-Hi-i 
 
 
 _ 
 
 o^ 
 
 
 t,Q0CCT-lC<lr-liH,^(M(MCOa-,C- 
 
 co 
 
 COCO'^OOO,— iLOCi— '-Tf'T-mT-l 
 
 
 t^ Cvl ^ 0-- CI OC f T-H <=■- lO CO ,-1 O 
 
 
 WlO'^f-COCOlMlMCvll-tr-IT-ilHlH 
 
 
 
 H§ 
 
 
 o M t- ci e<i iM <M c-1 oi o iM o o 
 
 1^ 
 
 oiai«OcoOt^'*(M'ri-ico<£)00 
 
 .W 
 
 
 i-ll>-Oir50lfllMCir--t<'M005 
 
 
 «OTt<Tf<eoCO<Me<l,HrH,-|r-lrH 
 
 
 
 H4rq 
 
 
 
 
 
 oo^riac-.'-imaiiMt-'rf^O'^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 Tj. ci -TT" J, a-- o o oi CO ?c c in CO 
 
 
 irt c 1 CO ,-1 CO CO o t- "5 CI T-H a; 00 
 
 y. 
 
 
 lO -** CO CO <M CT^l T-H 1-1 tH i-t 
 
 '^z 
 
 
 •::•:'::::::: 
 
 hh 
 
 
 
 J> 
 
 v,'^ 
 
 
 r 
 
 o ^ 
 d o 
 
 OOOrH'MCO-*lO<Xil>00<3lO 
 
1478 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Class D. Same as Class C. except that it eliminates the use of 
 air washers and humidification systems. 
 
 Class E3. All other systems. 
 
 Manifestly there are many combinations of equipment which 
 render an exact determination of classification difficult, but in 
 general this classification has proven satisfactory. 
 
 After a careful study of this method of classification and the 
 figures on costs as thus obtained, it was found that the only 
 satisfactory basis of determining the cost of the installation of the 
 heating and ventilating plant was on the basis of the cubic feet 
 of space in the building. The variation in costs within the differ- 
 ent classes of systems is rarely over 10% from the average, the 
 greatest variation occurring in Class A. The resulting costs are 
 as follows : 
 
 Class A, cost of plant per cu. ft., 2.7 cts. to 3.3 cts. — average 
 3.1 cts. 
 
 Class B, cost of plant per cu. ft. 3.3 cts. to 3.8 cts. — average 
 3.4 cts. 
 
 Class C, cost of plant per cu. ft. 2.2 cts. to 2.5 cts. — average 
 2.4 cts. 
 
 Class D, cost of plant per cu. ft. 2.2 cts. to 2.3 cts. — average 
 2.25 cts. 
 
 Class E, cost of plant per cu. ft. 1.9 cts. to 2.3 cts. — average 
 2.1 cts. 
 
 If classes D and E were but abandoned and a proper amount of 
 skill were used in the design, installation and operation of the 
 remaining classes, a sufficient appropriation being provided for the 
 installation and operation of the ventilating plant, it is believed 
 that little basis would be left for complaint as to the success of the 
 artificial ventilating system. 
 
 As a matter of information it is interesting to note that the cost 
 of plumbing equipment for school buildings ranges from three- 
 quarters of a cent to one and one-half cents per cubic foot, the 
 average being one and one-tenths cents. The cost of electrical 
 equipment, exclusive of electric power plants, ranges from one-half 
 to one ct. per cu. ft., the average being seven-tenths per cu. ft. 
 
 In the case of the heating and ventilating, plumbing and elec- 
 trical work, the costs seem to be approximately the same in grade 
 schools and high schools. 
 
 Operating Cost Heating and Ventilating Plants. (H. M. Hart in 
 Domestic Engineering, Nov. 1, 1913.) 
 
 Residence Heating. Method of computing cost of operation. 
 For this example we will take a room requiring 100 sq. ft. of 
 direct steam radiation to maintain a temperature of 70 deg. when 
 the outside temperature is 10 deg, below zero. 
 
 The maximum difference in temperature is — 10 deg. to 70 deg. 
 = 80 deg. The average difference in temperature is 35 deg. to 
 70 deg = 35 deg., which, theoretically, would mean that the 
 radiator would be in use 35/80 or 43,75 per cent, of the time. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1479 
 
 Taking the heating- season as seven months, or 5,040 hours. 43.75 
 per cent, of this time would be 2,205 hours, the theoretical number 
 of hours that radiation would be in use. The average radiator 
 gives off approximately 225 B.t.u. per sq. ft. per hr. Therefore, 
 the total B.t.u. per season would be estimated as follows: 
 
 225 X 100 X 2,205 = 49,612,500. 
 
 The average B.t.u. available per pound of anthracite coal is 
 estimated at 8,000; therefore, 49,612,500-^-8,000 = 6,201 lbs. of 
 coal, or 3.1 tons per sq. ft. of radiation. 
 
 The average indirect steam radiator gives off approximately 450 
 B.t.u. per square foot per hour. As it requires approximately 50% 
 more radiation for indirect heating than direct heating, this would 
 450 X 150 
 
 mean that it would take X 2,205 = 9.3 tons, to heat 
 
 8,000 X 2,000 
 the same room with indirect radiation. 
 
 In order to see how this checked up in actual practice, the actual 
 fuel consumption in 10 residences was obtained from the owners, 
 and the results given in table XXXIII. 
 
 TABLE XXXIII. FUEL, CONSUMPTION IN TEN RESIDENCES 
 
 10 
 
 ;g 1^ Auto- 
 
 ^^"i" matic 
 
 ^l^^ control 
 
 "i^^t boners 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 No 
 
 No 
 No 
 
 Yes 
 No 
 Yes 
 No 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 System 
 
 Steam 
 Water 
 Water 
 Water 
 Water 
 Water 
 Water 
 Steam 
 Steam 
 Water 
 
 Sq. ft. 
 direct 
 steam 
 equiv- 
 alent 
 
 666 
 1,350 
 1,720 
 1,535 
 1,340 
 1,050 
 1,215 
 1,296 
 
 878 
 1,335 
 
 Sq. ft. 
 indirect 
 steam 
 equiv- 
 alent 
 
 1,080 
 1,800 
 
 730 
 384 
 312 
 384 
 2,100 
 240 
 
 Esti- 
 mated 
 con- 
 sump- 
 tion 
 in tons 
 
 88 
 148 
 
 531/2 
 
 53 
 
 86 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 64 
 157 
 
 5.6 
 
 Actual 
 con- 
 sump- 
 tion 
 in tons 
 
 55 
 60 
 40 
 35 
 45 
 30 
 40 
 45 
 70 
 
 . School Buildings. The difRculty of securing any exact figures is 
 apparent when we take into consideration the hours which these 
 plants operate. Again, there are vacations cutting into the period 
 of operation. If we assume 172 days of 8 hours each with an 
 average temperature of 38 deg. and a temperature of heated air 
 in the chambers at 120 deg. the figures agree fairly with actual 
 coal burned. The figures given are for an entirely different class 
 of buildings, yet it will be seen that the quantity of coal per 
 cu. ft. of air heated per season was close. What it would do in 
 a large number of buildings we are not prepared to say. 
 
 Spalding School : Air per hr., 1,147,440 cu. ft. ; blower, 72 by 
 42 in. ; boiler, firebox, 720 sq. ft. ; amount small egg average 106 
 tons, at $7 per ton, per season, 0.18 lb. coal per season per ft. 
 of air warmed. 
 
1480 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Twenty-eight room buildings, 4,162,729 cu. ft. per hr. ; bituminous 
 coal, 400 tons at $2.95 per ton; 0.19 lb. coal per season per ft. of 
 air warmed. 
 
 Rosehill School — Air per hour, 800,000 cu. ft.; horse-power 
 motor, 5; amount small egs, 73 tons at $7 per ton; 0.18 lb. coal 
 per season per ft. of air warmed. 
 
 Cost of Manufacture in Distilled-Water Ice Plants. (Peter 
 NefC in Power, Nov. 25, 1913.) 
 
 In general the manufacturing cost of ice per ton in any plant 
 is the total amount expended during the year in its production 
 divided by the number of tons of ice sold. Ideas as to what items 
 are a legitimate charge will vary somewhat, but to my mind they 
 are : Depreciation, repairs, insurance and taxes, labor, fuel and 
 sundries (oil, waste, ammonia, salt, etc.). 
 
 The first three of these items may be termed the fixed charge. 
 They are not dependent on the output, run over the entire year, 
 and may even be greater when the plant is not producing. They 
 are a large factor in the cost of production, and are often par- 
 tially or totally omitted when thinking of the cost. The last three 
 have a direct relationship to the output, and are the ones usually 
 taken into account. 
 
 For the sake of convenience the output for 330 days was taken 
 as a year's production, as all plants should have a period of shut- 
 down for overhauling. Then three periods, varying by 50 days, 
 viz., 280, 230 and 180, were taken as representing productive 
 periods. This division is purely arbitrary, and has been used 
 simply for convenience, but serves to cover the various productive 
 periods as found in ice plants. While the computations herewith 
 are based on ammonia-compression plants, in view of the fact 
 that all the distilled water comes from the boilers they will apply 
 equally well to absorption and to plants where other than ammonia 
 is used for the refrigerant. 
 
 The value of the land on which the plant is located is not taken 
 into account, but must be considered and added to the figures here 
 given to arrive at the total investment. It is further assumed that 
 there is no charge for water, but that it is pumped by steam power, 
 and this steam is part of that taken from the boilers for distilled 
 water. 
 
 Fixed Charges. To obtain the cost of the buildings, dimensions 
 as given by two of the manufacturing companies were taken, and 
 the cost based on 8 cts. per cu. ft. of space inclosed. Nothing has 
 been provided but the necessary equipment, and there will be 
 variations in this item, but not sufficient to seriously affect the 
 results. These two items give what is termed the investment. 
 
 Depreciation is that ordinarily adopted, viz., 6 per cent., which 
 will return the cost of the investment in practically 17 years. 
 This has been used both for the buildings and the equipment. 
 
 For repairs the 5% employed has been arrived at from the ex- 
 perience of others in various lines of manufacturing, and form a 
 study of widely scattered ice plants. The 4% for taxes and in- 
 surance seemed to be a fair average. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1481 
 
 OOQO 
 
 ooouj 
 
 o oooco 
 
 O O O O 
 
 oeooosooo-* 
 
 O O «> O -^ O -<*; O CO 
 
 5 00 o CO o ooo co'o 
 
 OOOkO 
 OOOiM 
 
 OOOio 
 OOOt- 
 
 OOOUS 
 
 OOOifS 
 
 O O O c> 1 
 
 o in" irt la 
 
 OOOifl 
 OOOc^l 
 
 OOOO 
 OOOO 
 
 CO OOOO coco 
 
 OOOirt 
 OOOO 
 t-Ot-Tf 
 
 OOOO 
 OOOifl 
 
 ooooo 
 
 tOfOOiiM* 
 
 OOOO 
 OOOO 
 
 iH USrHCOcvf 
 
 o 
 
 li 
 
 = 25" 
 
 OOOo +-> 
 
 OOOo C 
 
 o *~i^."R.'^ '^ 
 
 tH -^'oo'c^rrH '-' 
 
 MHmPh 
 
 OOO t-OOiOC 
 
 OOcoO«OOSiO 
 
 OOOOIOOCOOl- 
 O O'^UilOOTflrtCO 
 
 "^ C5 o" i-To -* o «oo 
 
 c-oosOiHoeoo 
 
 COOOOOOSOt 
 
 M U50«>0000050 
 
 OOOO 
 
 OCOWOlOaSlArH 
 
 lO irt t> t- ifl o -* c<i Tfi 
 ■^ TfJ'oiflot-^o'oo'o 
 
 OOOO 
 
 o oi o c^j o 1-1 o CO 
 o «>t~«o?ooirt?e'^ 
 
 ■^ co'o 'S^o irt o' too 
 
 OSsUJOOt— 1003 
 
 jQ t-oo'^'t^iMinai'+i 
 tH c-j'o' CO o' ■^'"o TtTo 
 
 oooooo-*ous 
 
 00 O W t- OO «0 CO Irt 
 
 1-5" T-i c^o «<ro CO o 
 
 .-2 ogoooOoo 
 
 ^C bo 4) &C (D &0 Q 6j0 0) 
 O^ O^ O^ o^ 
 
 •TfiocoosO 
 
 -*t~«0(MTt<iMU5(ig00O 
 
 < W -f C^3 CO c-j irt O 
 
 -<t< t- ■* W IM Oi , 
 
 _, OOOO -ooinifloo 
 ;;joooo •u5iot>(M'!»< 
 
 ■«< CO •<*" C-i ■ rH l> r-! OJ O 
 
 ■OUSlOO 
 
 •iOCOOOlO 
 
 ■ co" 1-i -^ O 
 
 ooo 
 
 OlftO 
 
 o 
 
 <M OOO 
 OU5U5 
 
 ^ oo . 
 coia ' 
 
 
 (1) Oj C C C+j ^-O 
 
 C Qj ll ? C L 
 
 ^-oa 
 
 ■5^ 
 
1482 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 OOOOtHOO 
 
 o 
 
 Cfii OC^O Oi o 
 
 00 (~><Sd>d>T-t^ 
 
 o 
 
 CTSOiOOO 
 
 iHOtHOO 
 
 0000-rH< 
 
 rHO^t 
 
 HO^«5 
 
 o o o o 
 
 ?00000-rJ<iX)O iM00OC> IMOOOO (MOc^-jO 
 
 0;C,0-*C~a50q iMLDOOiM .C-T^t-lM Mrf^o'M 
 
 oooOr-ii> i-ioi-Jar thotHt-T iHO^eo 
 
 1-1 lH 
 
 o o o o 
 
 <x>ooa5ioooo coojiMio coooiHo eor-^^in 
 
 "5(;00'*t~a>CO (MIOOOO> CI-rft-00 IM-*5Ci'^ 
 
 OOOOrHCcT iHOi-iOO t-IO^HOj" tHO^t-T 
 
 o o o 
 
 ooooMeoo _, -*i>-T-io Tt<i>-T-io ^ -^ascco 
 
 o«>ou5C-oi-* gMioooos GiM'TOO Ccgoocoos 
 
 '^ OOOOr-ilO — . rHO,-i?0 .2 i-i o" iH "^ •— iH O i-J oT 
 
 00 
 
 CD OOO CO O O 
 US CD O CO [>• T-l ITS 
 
 (M oooocqs 
 
 o 
 
 CDOOCOOJOiO 
 CO O CD 00 !M t- 
 
 5 =* 
 
 ^o 
 
 CO'NIOOO ^ COiHI 
 •<ti COOCD ^ -^lOC 
 tH O eg rr 00 iH O 1 
 
 T-1 OOOONC^ iHOOdCO tHOt 
 
 o 
 
 CDOOOOOOJO 
 
 cooooocooo 
 
 (^OOCO 
 iOl-HCO 
 
 T-IOrHTti 
 
 iHOC^C^ T-IO(M' 
 
 
 0.2 
 
 !- O 
 
 
 O • rj3 
 
 o 
 
 ^ -co 
 
 3 o o a> 
 =s.2o o 
 
 Co 
 p-r 
 
 ; 0) rt g 
 i.a o o 
 
■ HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1483 
 
 The three foregoing- items constitute what is termed the fixed 
 charge. Table XXXV shows how this affects the cost of the ice 
 under the different periods of production, and is obtained by divid- 
 ing 15 per cent, of the investment by the tonnage for the period 
 indicated, the result being the charge per ton for that period. . 
 
 Operating Cost. 10 per cent, is added to cover nonproductive 
 time due to stopping and starting and incidental shutdowns. 
 
 
 To-lal Tonnage Jn }\\jnind» 
 
 3 S 
 
 • 180 Days 
 
 Operation K - 280 Days Operation 
 
 Operaiion • ~ 330 Days Ooera+ion 
 
 Fig. 7. Manufacturing cost per ton in standard distilled-water ice 
 
 plants. 
 
 The fuel was difficult to decide upon, but here as elsewhere, 
 average conditions are taken. The boiler evaporation was taken 
 at 6 to 1 and the losses between the boilers and the ice cans as 
 207c. For nonproductive periods 10% was also added. The price 
 of coal is taken at $3 per ton of 2000 lbs. A change of 50 cts. 
 per ton in the cost of fuel makes 11 cts. difference in the cost of 
 the ice per ton. 
 
 Sundries is also an uncertain item, but the 8 cts. per ton has 
 been found to check with practical results. 
 
1484 MECHANICAL 'AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Total Cost per Ton of Ice. In Fig. 7 some interesting things 
 are to be noticed. In the matter of fixed charges there is a group 
 from the 20 to the 50 tons that shows a wide variation. This 
 condition is also shown in the grouping of the plant productions 
 as brought out at the top of the chart, and clearly indicates that 
 there are too many different sizes of plants to cover the range of 
 production. If, now the' 25-, 35- and 40-ton plants are eliminated, 
 it is seen that the diagram would be more regular, and that the 
 20-. 30- and 50 -ton plants cover the range even better than the 
 intermediate sizes named. In the labor curve there is a pro- 
 nounced rise at the 20-ton plant, but this is due more than any- 
 thing else to the drop from the 10- to the 15-ton plant. If the 
 15-, 25- and 40-ton plants are omitted, the labor curve from the 
 20-ton on is decreasing, until the 80-ton is reached, where it is at 
 a minimum, rising again toward the 100-ton plant. The total cost 
 
 122.60 
 |Z.B0 
 2.40 
 J2.50 
 \^2.20 
 
 S.2,!0 
 
 l;;2.oo 
 
 '% 1.70 
 1 1.60 
 3 1. BO 
 
 
 V ._.. 
 
 - "3 Ss' :: 4 
 
 V L 
 
 " N^\ 
 
 ^§^S 
 
 ^^u^ __. 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 \ ^s"" s 
 
 - . . . ' s, "■ ; , ' 
 
 ^r 
 
 1'". ::::--:•■ 
 
 no Dciys Operirtlon 
 ■530 [fays Operation 
 .100 Days Output Stored 
 
 Ice Pntidoction in Tons per Year, Hundreds. 
 
 Fig. 8. Total cost of ice per ton. 
 
 curves show that when all is considered the 80-ton plant is the 
 most economical. 
 
 In the standard distilled-water plants under consideration, it is 
 fair to assume that there is sufficient refrigerating capacity to care 
 for an ice-storage house, and that the steam used for this purpose 
 will not increase the boiler load. In the event that the house is 
 located away from the plant, or has an individual refrigerating 
 equipment, it will practically double the cost of storage as here 
 given. 
 
 A properly built ice storage will be a substantial affair, and 
 the depreciation will not be as heavy as on a manufacturing 
 plant ; 5% will cover this as well as the repairs. The initial cost 
 may be taken at $5 per ton of storage capacity, and the size will 
 be determined by allowing 50 cu. ft. per ton of ice stored. Where 
 possible the dimensions sh@uld be such as to give a maximum con- 
 tent with a minimum of wall surface. For handling the ice an 
 allowance of 15 cts. per ton is made and to cover incidentals an- 
 other 10 cts. per ton is added. Table XXXVIII has been derived 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1485 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 O 
 <^ 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 HQ 
 
 s 
 
 h9 
 
 Qo 
 
 ^« 
 
 Ho 
 OH 
 
 ^8 
 
 O 
 Eh 
 
 H 
 Ah 
 
 Eh 
 
 P 
 O 
 
 »0(M 
 
 rHrH 
 
 do 
 
 OOOO 
 
 OOoOO 
 
 OOOoOO 
 
 ya\a 
 
 lO CO T-H Ol t^ lO -+' 
 r-j 1-1 tH O o '^ O 
 
 o d d d o d d 
 
 U5 I Iftlrt 
 
 o o d d d d d d 
 
 t-Ht-ItHOO'OOOO 
 
 d d o o" d d d d d 
 
 '^■' tH oi r^ CO lo Tp -f eo M 
 
 '"Ji-HOOoOOOOO 
 
 ® d d o o d d d d d 
 
 ^ lOr-, it I tK I Irt 
 
 <— , rHrH ^oOOOOOCO 
 
 '"' "^ '^ d d d d d o d d d 
 
 OlflouSOlrtoOOOO 
 
 suoj, ur ;uBtd: 
 JO Ji\ioTS(Xvi^ ^I!^a 
 
1486 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 from the foregoing data in this way : The number of tons stored 
 is taken at 50 cts. per ton, and this amount divided by the total 
 tonnage for a 330-day period, as shown in Table XXXVII, gives 
 the amount that is to be added. 
 
 It will be noticed that -this has been carried only to the point 
 where the amount to be added in all cases is substantially 15 cts., 
 which represents a storage period of 100 days' output. 
 
 From the cost of production, shown in Table XXXVII, it is 
 evident that anyone operating a plant full capacity for 230 days 
 can, if they have sale for the ice, increase the capacity 43.5% with 
 practically no change in the cost per ton, by using storage for 
 100 days' output and operating 330 days. 
 
 This statement, however, may be misleading, for this increased 
 tonnage could be got with a larger plant in the 230-day period for 
 less per ton. This is brought out in Figs. 8 and 9. This exempli- 
 
 g2.60 
 §2.50 
 *|2.40 
 |2 2.30 
 »2.20 
 ^2.10 
 J 2.00 
 
 •gl.80 
 ^1.70 
 .gl.60 
 gl.50 
 
 ^^V 
 
 
 
 - ^^ 
 
 
 
 s> 
 
 S 
 
 
 N 
 
 S ~ 
 
 
 
 ^^^ " " 
 
 
 
 -X^s :: " 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 ^!^^r " 
 
 
 
 ^^N 
 
 
 
 ■ ,^5s 
 
 5*1 
 
 
 
 " - 
 
 
 
 " *--. I"" 
 
 250 Dc^s Operation 
 -550 Days Opera+ion 
 100 Days Output StoreJ 
 
 Ice Produciion in Tons per Year, Hundreds 
 
 3J0 Days Operation 
 
 Fig. 9. Approximate cost of ice per ton deduced from Fig. 8. 
 
 fies what has already been stated that conditions must be studied 
 and given due consideration in determining what is best in a 
 particular case. 
 
 Often there are considerations such as varying demands at 
 particular times of the year that will more than compensate for 
 the extra charge of storing. These figures show, however, that the 
 storage can be used to advantage in increasing the output where 
 the plant is ordinarily shut down part of the time, and that there 
 is not a great deal of difference in cost whether storage is used 
 with the plant operating longer or a larger plant for a shorter 
 period of time. On the other hand, the having of a supply of 
 ice on hand may be the means of largely increasing the revenue 
 and is therefore desirable. 
 
 Initial and Operating Costs of Refrigeration Plants. (Robert P. 
 Kehoe in Power, May 25 and Oct. 19, 1915.) 
 
 The following tables will be found useful by operators and 
 owners interested in refrigerating and ice-making plants of com- 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1487 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 Pu 
 
 Si 
 IS 
 
 So 
 
 1^ 
 
 HH 
 
 zi 
 
 §^ 
 
 So 
 
 ^^ 
 oW 
 
 ><? 
 
 H 
 
 
 -2 ■=> 
 
 •r-r" o 
 
 O ^ 
 
 
 Co ^ 
 m ^ o 
 
 COO) 
 
 25 2 
 
 
 &o 
 
 
 M 
 
 C G oj 
 
 o; 3 M 
 
 OJ 72 
 
 2, s_ (U <1> 
 
 00 = =^ 
 
 -•^•sia 
 
 oo 
 
 MO 
 t-'rH 
 
 U5C- 
 
 eo'o 
 
 « £ 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^ 02 
 
 t< M a> 
 
 0,0 'Xt 
 
 ^ S 
 
 o^ 00 
 
 iHO 00 
 
 oeo 
 00s 
 cg'o 
 
 o3=£> 
 -a 
 
 ^0) 
 
 
 . a 
 
 "I 
 
 rt > 
 
 |8 
 
 
 •- rt >> <u > -3 
 
 Ol o 
 
 
 100 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 U5 
 
 00€/S- 
 60- 
 
 K50 
 
 >io 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 
 o o 
 Eh Eh 
 
1488 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 (m'i-J 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 OO 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 
 tHSO 
 
 o 
 
 tA 
 
 (SO 
 &9- 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 OOO 
 
 «D 
 
 COCO 
 
 o 
 
 «50 
 
 eoGO- 
 
 O OO O 
 
 la OO o 
 
 (M* o' «0 O 
 
 tH Otr- (M 
 
 <M 
 
 OOO 
 
 ot- 
 to o 
 
 0) 
 
 
 Bag 
 
 h-S-^q S^, 
 
 G 
 
 frtO 
 
 •SMg. 
 
 
 0) a; m 
 
 ft t, 0) (U 
 
 Q 
 
 
 o'^^ ^ 
 
 U5 OO O 
 
 Cft OO o 
 
 iii CO o o' 
 
 €>?• OOtO -<*< 
 
 (MCO 00 
 
 \a OO 
 
 CO OO 
 
 co' Tj^d 
 
 T-l oo«o 
 
 €«- ooco 
 
 (M 
 
 Ui OO o 
 
 I>- OO o 
 
 d (m' T}< d 
 
 iH WO O 
 
 €«• com 00 
 
 (M 
 
 • 3 
 
 
 . o 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 ■ o-^ 
 
 . 03 S rt 
 fl-tf t>>^, ^s 
 
 a; rt ^^ 
 
 CO o 
 a; ^ 
 
 o o 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1489 
 
 paratively small capacity. No particular application has been 
 considered and the data may be used for any of the branches 
 of refrigeration, such as general cold storage, markets, hotels, 
 apartment houses, water-cooling plants, fur storage, drygoods 
 stores, and hospitals. 
 
 The estimated first costs are necessarily approximate. A re- 
 frigerating equipment for a hotel will cost more than a refrigerat- 
 ing plant used solely for cooling water. Again, the same size 
 plant in one hotel may cost more than in another. The figures 
 are a good average and the comparison between the costs of plants 
 with different drive is quite correct. 
 
 Those who now operate plants and know what their equipment 
 cost can use the table to advantage in adding or deducting to the 
 same extent as indicated in the table to determine the difference 
 in cost of other methods of drive. Then by applying the actual 
 costs of labor and fuel, which are known, in the same manner, 
 it may be ascertained how economically each plant is performing 
 and if improvement is possible. 
 
 Refrigerating plants of from ten to twenty-five tons' daily 
 capacity are seldom operated by men engaged to do nothing else, 
 but usually by men required for operating other machinery. This 
 has been considered in the table. The figures may be easily cor- 
 rected to suit local conditions, and the price of fuel also regulated 
 to correspond. The table represents a fair average. 
 
 The 60% yearly load factor assumed should be close to actual 
 conditions in the majority of plants. It will be noted that the 
 labor charge has been carried through the whole year. The 10% 
 added for depreciation and repairs can be divided about half and 
 half. A 5% yearly depreciation means complete renewal in fifteen 
 years if the 5% is calculated as a sinking fund ; 5% yearly for 
 repairs and incidentals should be ample. No building has been 
 taken into consideration because small refrigerating plants are 
 usually located in some part of an existing building. 
 
 The advantage of making calculations of operating costs on a 
 yearly basis cannot be doubted. In fact, the daily operating ex- 
 pense alone is misleading, particularly when the yearly load factor 
 is low and a comparatively short period of operation must bear 
 the depreciation and upkeep expense for the year. 
 
 The total cost per ton of refrigeration per day is interesting 
 when compared to the cost of using ice for the same purpose. Ice 
 is seldom delivered for less than $2.50 to $3 per ton, even- in large 
 quantities, and often the price is $3 to $4. The table proves that 
 much saving can be accomplished by the refrigerating plant, with- 
 out considering greater convenience, elimination of slop from 
 melting ice and better preservation of perishable goods under lower 
 temperatures. 
 
 The economy of oil engines as compared with ordinary steam 
 plants and electric motors using central-station current at average 
 rates is quite evident. In the smaller sizes of refrigerating and 
 ice-making plants considered in the tables, the cheaper cost of 
 operation is even more pronounced because small steam plants are 
 
1490 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1 
 
 '-S|3 
 
 1-1 
 H 
 
 s-g| 
 
 « 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 O 
 
 .2^- ^ 
 
 o - 
 
 r» 
 
 wpq 
 
 
 8^ 
 
 .'« 
 
 ^2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 («o 
 
 ^r s^ 
 
 
 ■3 = 1- 
 
 ^M 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 32; 
 
 2 - .L. 
 
 J^J^ 
 
 C^ C3 
 
 
 l§ 
 
 sis 
 
 
 
 "K Z 
 
 3 
 
 ■1 
 
 JR : 
 
 3 
 
 ^M 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 M . ^ 
 
 
 ^W ^ 
 
 ] 
 
 Sh «^- 
 
 ^ 
 
 6,5 ; 
 
 5 
 
 : 1 1 
 
 P^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 i ^ ^ 
 
 1°^ 
 
 ■ 1 h 
 
 7 
 
 I M ^ 
 
 u c 
 
 
 c 
 
 ! 
 
 . t 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ c 
 
 
 ><j •;■ 
 
 
 
 •) 
 
 H 1 
 
 
 h^ ^ 
 
 1 
 
 <; a 
 
 i 
 
 H C 
 
 ) * 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 ecs^icgcq 
 
 oooo 
 
 00 C^ S^' iM 
 
 00 
 00 
 IftO 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 IfflO 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 C 7 
 
 SI'S 
 
 
 0000 
 
 
 O500 lOrH 
 
 00 00 
 
 00 Oo 
 
 ■*' id id o 
 
 OS (~- OlOi 
 
 05D ■* 
 
 iM 
 
 OU3 
 
 00 c- 
 
 00 Oo 
 
 00 00 
 
 o 10 in ui 
 
 00 I— 1^1 o 
 
 00«5 -^tH 
 
 ^2 
 
 n, "H 
 
 I .2 
 
 0) 
 
 3 
 w 
 
 =1 . 
 
 a 
 
 
 fi 
 
 c 
 
 c3 
 
 ^0 
 
 0) 
 
 >H 
 
 &-§ 
 
 OOOOHfe <J -g 
 
 
 ^ be 
 
 CO OJ ►-' 
 
 t^ Xmooini 
 
 
 OOOJ 
 
 coo 
 Irtt^ 
 
 oocq 
 000 
 
 05 0'^q 
 
 mo 
 
 0000 
 
 moio 
 ■*o 
 
 ^^a 
 
 a; o 03 
 o.So 
 
 
 
 '^2 
 
 « t, O <D3J 
 ra <i; O i)C> 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1491 
 
 'C 5; fe <» 
 
 m t-. 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 oooo 
 
 lOOOO 
 
 
 Oil 
 
 engin( 
 
 Raw 
 
 Wate 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 iH 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 r-T 
 <M 
 
 eo CO 'm' oq 
 
 «oco 
 
 « . t. 
 
 §s 
 
 o 
 
 oooo 
 
 lOOOO 
 
 OU3 
 Ot^ 
 
 Electri 
 
 motor 
 
 Raw 
 
 Wate 
 
 60- 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 co' CO 'm' ci 
 
 6«- 
 
 dco 
 
 CO 
 
 -"^ ^ 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ooooo 
 
 IftOOOO 
 
 OlO 
 
 
 oo 
 ow> 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 CO CO (m' c<i c^ 
 
 60- 
 
 icjco 
 t-l 
 
 oo 
 
 _ fl ?^ oo 
 ■;?'j^" c^ oo 
 
 5 1^ '^qla 
 
 o oooo 
 
 o U5 m o o 
 
 o' CO cq w c4 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 do 
 
 oo 
 oo_^ 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 J--; -(_> OO 
 
 a5+j 53 oo 
 
 •^ .2 fk '^ ^''- 
 
 ^5 c^us" 
 
 .. 03 
 
 oooo 
 lomoo 
 co' o-i c^i e<j 
 
 
 
 ti fi ici 
 
 
 Zi 
 
 03-^ m 
 
 .. a 
 rt w S 
 
 
 
 
 ? bn j^ be, 
 
 0) 0) <i; 45 -u "a; ^5 
 
 •J3 OOOOHfe < 
 Q 
 
 oo 
 
 lOOO 
 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 
 lOlrt 
 
 wd 
 
 
 «£>-* 
 
 CD 00 
 
 
 Oi^Ol 
 
 «OtH 
 
 c 
 
 t>^ 
 
 
 _o 
 
 ««■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 OO 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 a 
 
 U510 
 
 dus 
 
 O 
 
 1-1 M 
 
 lOOJ 
 
 t-TH 
 
 t-iH 
 
 OOKJ ffq 
 
 C^lO 
 
 0.1A 
 
 OOt>- lO 
 OOOi -* 
 
 o'dr-i c<J 
 
 coO 
 
 00 "S 
 
 00" 
 
 .. 
 
 oo 
 
 . "="=" 
 
 o 
 
 00!M 
 
 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 oo 
 
 • oo 
 
 o 
 
 00«5 
 
 o 
 
 iftd 
 
 usd 
 
 us 
 
 ifioT-i 
 
 cq 
 
 d 
 
 OOO 
 
 cjin 
 
 c- 
 
 WO 
 
 
 o 
 
 M05 
 
 <PtH 
 
 00 
 
 00=0 
 
 
 % 
 
 eo" 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OO 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 ooijq 
 
 t' 
 
 3 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 OOU5 
 
 OS 
 
 dd' 
 
 dd 
 
 d 
 
 odoi 
 
 (M* 
 
 o 
 
 too 
 
 U5U5 
 
 o 
 
 CC.O 
 
 
 d 
 
 ?eov 
 
 lOrH 
 
 00 
 
 o<» 
 
 
 fc 
 
 c© 
 
 
 
 oTm 
 
 
 -d 
 
 €«• 
 
 
 
 so- 
 
 
 <n3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 OO 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 ooc^ 
 
 <M 
 
 h:^ 
 
 oo 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 ooo 
 
 lA 
 
 
 dd 
 
 usw 
 
 d 
 
 odco' 
 
 N 
 
 U e/^ 
 
 4, :3 
 
 g3 '^ 
 
 O) rt rt 
 
 .i7 • a 
 
 (U OO 
 «M.S '-' 
 
 fi? 
 
 a5.t: 
 
 ?S aa-g (u 
 
 X IrtCOlO 
 
 >rco" 
 
 • "^ C ^, 
 
 (i> o ^ f- 
 
 a-- c a 
 r;i3 1^;=: <i> 
 
 W (D o tUD >*• 
 
1492 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 not usually economical, while small oil engines pei'form almost as 
 well as large units. 
 
 It may not always be advisable to install an oil engine, on 
 account of local conditions which may favor a steam engine or 
 electric motor. Steam may be required for other purposes. Some- 
 times the power iJlant may have to be located in such close quar- 
 ters that only an electric motor can be used to preserve sanital-y 
 conditions. Sometimes it would be inadvisable to place an oil 
 engine or a steam unit in the crowded basement of a hotel, restau- 
 rant or hospital where other work is going on and perhaps where 
 foodstuffs are handled. But if the location and requirements do 
 not favor other power, the oil engine will afford a marked saving 
 in the yearly expense. 
 
 The table which refers to ice plants is arranged on a basis 
 similar to the table for refrigerating plants. The cost of a special 
 building is included, and the labor is calculated to be used for the 
 ice plant alone. Only half the labor is included during the balance 
 of each year when the plant is shut down or not operated at full 
 capacity. Moreover, special tabulations are given for different 
 yearly load factors. The importance of this factor is indicated 
 by the wide difference in cost of production. For example the 
 25-ton oil-engine-driven plant shows a total producing cost of 
 $3.27 per ton when the yearly output is equivalent to three months' 
 full operation while the same plants producing the equivalent of 
 seven months' full operation reduce the cost per ton to $1.82. 
 
 Large Ice Plants. Table XLI offers an opportunity to study the 
 relations between the three principal types of plants in five sizes, 
 ranging from 100 to 500 tons' capacity per day of 24 hrs. The 
 steam engines are compound condensing. 
 
 No consideration is given to cost of property, which of course 
 will vary with the location. If desirable, an amount to cover this 
 item may be added to the investment in each case in order to 
 figure the percentage of possible profit. This will have no effect 
 on the operating cost unless interest is added in the estimate of 
 yearly expense. In this event the interest on the total amount of 
 borrowed money may be figured in. At any rate the comparisons 
 are true, and if the cost of labor and that of fuel are adjusted 
 to suit a particular locality, the table will be a correct guide in 
 the determination of the advantageous kind of plant to install. 
 
 The usual refinements advisable for large distilled-water plants 
 have been covered in the first costs of the steam-driven plants. 
 These refinements include evaporators and automatic stokers. An 
 average economy of nine tons of ice per ton of coal has been 
 assumed. This may be increased to ten or more tons per ton of 
 coal under ideal conditions, but the usual working basis will prob- 
 ably not average more than nine to one. 
 
 In the raw-water plants the standard drop-tube system is the 
 basis. This may be either the multiple or double drop-tube type 
 according to the latest practice in uptodate successful installations. 
 If a fine quality of ice is required, the Beals system may be added, 
 in which case the first cost and the depreciation will increase, but 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1493 
 
 (D OO 
 
 ;St £ OO 
 Oi ^ -e oi'o' 
 
 ls|ii 
 
 m oo 
 
 CJ OO 
 
 ~_C OO 
 . Om o'lrt 
 ^j Of «^ 
 
 q _< Sh OO 
 
 11 O cftn 
 
 cu ?H o) OO 
 
 — ::: fi o o 
 
 • -^ C 
 
 h-( 
 
 ^ 
 
 C CU -w ■!> 
 
 J 
 
 c 
 
 rt > - 
 
 y. 
 
 
 -? ^ ?? 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 pe o 
 live 
 
 Chan 
 
 ^ 
 
 tS 
 
 >>0 ~"i) 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 e§ § 
 
 ::: i^ri-o 
 
 ooo -Soo 
 Soo .Ooo 
 
 . -+1 ^ -f «0 -* -Ti 
 
 iH (M -M OO CI IM 
 
 ooo 
 
 OlCO 
 
 .OO . 
 .Oo . 
 
 OO 
 OO 
 
 >OM-* 
 
 •C.l,:t( • 
 
 OO 
 
 i ^ 
 
 C ho 
 
 .£ o "^^ 
 
 bo ^ .^ S G 
 
 ■ 0/ 
 
 o . 
 
 a- 
 
 o rt 
 
 
 S '- cs 3 O 
 
 ^ So 
 
 ^ o 
 
 
 
 a o 
 
 00 m+-i 
 
 00 C5 
 00 Oi 
 
 0__T--_ 
 
 oco 
 
 iHco xa 
 
 |-3 ci '-■•' 
 
 0000 o 
 
 Tf Tj< O 
 
 00<M -i-l 
 
 X2 t« -C 
 
 K 
 
 O o 
 
 si 
 
 
 Co 
 
 03 o 
 
 K (1) 
 
 
 rt< 
 
 rt 
 
 0) 
 
 +3 (U 
 
 O "" 
 
 
 ooco 
 oooo 
 
 lft(M • 
 
 oooo 
 
 CO CI • 
 
 ^Or-1 
 
 e<50M 
 OC<l ,• 
 
 (MOO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 t--*- 
 
 o 
 
 lO 
 
 la 
 
 (MO 
 
 t-(M 
 
 lO 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 0C«D 
 
 1— 1 "^ 
 
 M 
 
 1-1 
 
 lO 
 
 U5i-I 
 
 €«• 
 
 
 
 
 (M(M 
 
 OOU5 
 
 OCOIO 
 
 co'r-T&g- 
 e«5c<i 
 
 cooo 
 (T; 0-* 
 
 (M(Xi • 
 
 -I 
 
 ■ ct (» 
 0^ (U 
 
 0; O O 
 
 cu c o 
 
 '^ ^2 
 
 — . o 
 3 a 3^ 
 C o+j 
 
 d|" 
 P £ «^ 
 
1494 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 m 
 
 OO 
 
 
 0) 
 
 OO 
 
 1 
 
 O'S) 
 CI 
 
 OO 
 OtH 
 
 00 00 00 (M 00 IM 
 
 Raw w 
 Electric 
 motors 
 
 $178,000 
 111,000 
 
 o 
 
 ooo 
 
 •ooo 
 
 o 
 
 ooo 
 
 •ooo 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 i>o6oo 
 
 60- 
 
 ■ cd 00 5^' 
 
 
 
 1-1 l-i 
 
 "O ra oo 
 0^ c aj oo 
 
 w oo 
 
 (D oo 
 
 ^ fl oo 
 
 U4 a =?°° 
 
 Ph O+J i-HOO 
 
 0) O -*oo 
 
 
 •3 
 
 II g- 
 
 00 00 00 «o 00 00 «o 
 
 (TCI ■* (M ■<*< -^ CO 
 
 OOO -ooo oo 
 lo o o -ooo o o 
 r-^ i> 00 ■ o -*■ irj lo U5 
 
 •ooo oo 
 
 •Ooo oo 
 
 ■ O ^' (m" O U5 
 
 CO ooc<i 
 
 ooooooo oo 
 
 irtOOOOoO lOO 
 
 i>-t-'odinO'^?o irjio 
 
 (M -t< M O (M CO 
 
 S "5 
 
 ^.5 
 
 
 .o G- 
 .us ai 
 
 
 -:;? ^ ^S 
 
 S M (u r -i^c 
 
 
 •ti o 
 rt . 
 
 I 
 (DO 
 
 ooi u5 eo 
 «oo c<r eo 
 
 «co 
 coo 
 t-oo 
 
 C^IOO 
 IrtCO 
 
 
 6«- 5- 4o- 
 
 ui o 
 
 0) 
 
 so 
 
 hri'S 
 
 oo J^ 
 
 oo 
 ooo 
 
 ooo o 
 «ooo la 
 
 ojoo' 00 
 
 
 s -s 
 
 ^ nS 
 
 O 
 
 as 
 
 0) 
 
 
 a ^ ^ 
 
 O <i[i Eh 
 
 
 O (U 
 • ■»-> •(-> 
 
 . o 
 
 .^J 0) 
 
 
 ~. VO 
 
 oose- 
 
 00 00 
 
 «DOO 
 
 iHOCO 
 
 " .~~.o 
 
 oot- 
 
 ^OtH 
 
 t>oo_; 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ;3 w 0) 
 
 ^ t-i o 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1495 
 
 O &B 
 
 c 
 
 las 
 
 2 
 
 TO . 
 
 c 
 
 • 
 
 o 
 
 jj 
 
 ■'-' 
 
 S35 
 
 .s 
 
 Hi 
 
 >> 
 
 ^a 
 
 ■l-> 
 ft 
 
 
 e? 
 
 >>o 
 
 o 
 
 H§ 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 
 oo 
 oo 
 oo 
 
 « €^ 
 
 
 )O00 .0000-*! 
 
 OOOOOOO 
 O O O O O O O 
 Oi O 00 t^ M 00 00 
 €«-,H CO 
 
 ,-( I"l s^ ■* «<1 
 
 bo 
 
 0) 
 
 a .5 <D 
 O &fi 
 
 o '. < 
 
 o a 
 
 la ! 
 
 •cc-g 
 
 sp«£i sir 
 
 a 
 
 ^ . 
 
 0000 oo 
 
 ■rxM oo 
 
 
 
 xj a 
 
 
 ni O 
 
 ax3 
 
 ^ a 
 30 
 
 WtH 00 
 
 irtoo 00 
 1-ico intM 
 
 0000 00 o 
 
 too 00 o 
 
 O 00 O to U5 
 
 t>^iH COtjT O 
 
 
 5§ 
 
 O 0) 
 
 a 
 .5 o 
 
 ac^ 
 03 
 
 o 0) 
 
 si 
 H 
 
 a! O 
 o o 
 
 l§ 
 
 . 03":; 
 
 <D . 
 
 •^ O 
 
 a s.S: 
 
 O W 
 
 2-5 
 
 C ^ iX) +J 
 
 PS 
 
 ocoo 
 
 OOsOl 
 
 o-t- • 
 
 OCDCO 
 
 000 (M 
 
 oc-: 
 
 ocooo 
 
 Of-O 
 
 000^ 
 oo'to's**, 
 o.-( 
 
 6^ 
 
 gee 
 
 .'O a 
 
 CO 
 
 3 K (U 
 
 c c a 
 C13+-' w 
 
 - in O 
 
 £S5 
 
 ^H 
 
1496 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the labor cost will be reduced. The Beals process requires no 
 more labor than the regular distilled-water system, while in drop- 
 tube plants the tubes have to be watched and the core water re^ 
 placed at the proper time. 
 
 The product of drop-tube systems with properly filtered water 
 is always good, unless water of unusual characteristics is used. 
 The refilled core water, which is frozen without agitation, pro- 
 duces a core similar to distilled-water ice. The slight odor which 
 can often be detected in the latter when broken up is rarely found 
 in raw-water ice. The Beals system considerably reduces the core, 
 which makes almost the entire block transparent. 
 
 Raw-water ice is surely gaining in favor, and operators are also 
 perfecting the method for handling these plants to such a degree 
 that no trouble is now experienced in turning out a first-class 
 marketable product. The installation of plants of 400 and 200 
 tons' daily capacity in New York City marks the final stage in the 
 universal approval of this process. As both plants are driven by 
 oil engines, the success of this type of motive power for ice manu- 
 facture is also indicated. There are now many oil-engine-driven 
 plants of all sizes. 
 
 The price of oil has been taken as 3.5 cts per gal. In many 
 sections a lower price is obtainable. It is advisable to adopt a 
 type and make of engine that will burn the heaviest and cheapest 
 grades of fuel oil. 
 
 A 1 ct. rate per kw.-hr. for electric current is used because any 
 higher price could not be considered. Even this figure does not 
 compare favorably with either the oil-engine or steam plant. The 
 claim is often made that the power consumption in such plants is 
 less than 50 kw.-hr. per ton of ice; but the average electric-driven 
 plant will be found to use nearly 60. As all the other figures in 
 the table are made conservatively to represent everyday conditions, 
 60 kw.-hr. per ton of ice is quite appropriate. 
 
 The yearly load factor of 60% is equivalent to 216 days of full 
 operation. This would mean about four months of full operation, 
 four months at half capacity and four months at one-quarter capa- 
 city. In large plants in cities of considerable size these conditions 
 usually exist. 
 
 Reproduction Cost of a 65-Ton Ice Plant. The data in Table XLII 
 are taken from one of our appraisals of a public utility property 
 (in the South) of which the ice plant was operated as an auxil- 
 iary. The compressors for this plant were housed in the buildings 
 of the main plant and were run on steam from the main boilers. 
 
 IVIechanical Refrigeration Gives a Timely Load. The cost of 
 electric energy for operating a 5-ton plant for a butcher shop at 
 special refrigeration rates is given in Electrical World, April 28, 
 1917. 
 
 Mechanical refrigeration offers opportunities as a central sta- 
 tion load in many different ways, from the small plant of the house- 
 holder to the large plants of hotels, and including coldstorage 
 plants for provisions and furs and for butcher shops and other 
 Stores. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1497 
 
 TABLE XLn. GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE ESTIMATED 
 COST OF REPRODUCTION 
 
 Reproduction 
 cost new 
 
 1. Buildings $13,600 
 
 2. Ice making- machinery 49,483 
 
 3. Miscellaneous equipment 109 
 
 4. Supplies and material on hand 519 
 
 $63,711 
 
 5. Engineering and management, 10% items 1 to 4 inc. 6,371 
 
 $70,082 
 
 6. Legal 11^76 items 1 to 5 inc 1,061 
 
 $71,143 
 
 7. Intei'est during construction 5% items 1 to 6 3,557 
 
 Total $74,700 
 
 TABLE XLIII. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUC- 
 TION OF PROPERTY 
 
 1. BUILiDINGS 
 
 Description Total cost 
 
 Refrigeration plant buildings, freezing room, ice stor- 
 age roorn and beer vaults, including foundations of 
 
 tanks and machinery and all insulation $13,200 
 
 Ice chute to dock 400 
 
 $13,600 
 
 2. ICE MAKING MACHINERY 
 
 Ammonia Compressors 
 
 Ammonia compressor 15 by 30 in. driven by 17 by 42 
 in. heavy duty Corliss engine, complete including 
 high pressure side connections together with steam 
 condenser, coolers, coke filter, charcoal filter, cold 
 water tank, pump and connections $11,500 
 
 Ammonia compressor 15 by 30 in. driven by 14 by 26 
 by 56 in. tandem compound Corliss engine, complete 
 
 including high pressure side connections 8,970 
 
 Freezing Tanks 
 
 40 ton ice tank, flooded system. 26 by 76 by 4 ft., con- 
 taining 665-300 lb. cans (11 V2 by 22V2 ins. at top by 
 44 ins. deep), freezing coils, liquid gas headers, 
 brine propeller driven by 75 h.p. motor; traveling 
 ice crane, automatic sprinkler and hose, together 
 with all suction and liquid piping and fittings, com- 
 pletely installed 11,350 
 
 25 ton ice tank, flooded system, 13 ft. 9 ins. by 76 ft. 
 4 ins., containing 350-300 lb. cans (11 M; by 22 V2 ins. 
 at top by 44 ins. deep) freezing coils, liquid and gas 
 headers, brine propeller driven by 5 h.p. motor, 
 traveling ice crane with pneumatic hoist, automatic 
 sprinkler and hose ; together with all suction and 
 liquid piping and fittings, completely installed; also 
 two automatic recording ice chutes, each for two- 
 
 300 lb. cakes 6.235 
 
 Ammonia Condensers 
 
 2 12 coil atmospheric ainmonia condensers with all 
 
 connections at $2,530 5,060 
 
 Miscellaneoiis 
 
 Westinghouse air comprc-^.-^or 8 by 8 by 10 ms., reser- 
 voir and connections, together with 1 pneumatic 
 hoist 
 
 160 
 
 Ammonia regenerator with connections 300 
 
1498 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Description Total cost 
 
 Ice Making Machinery 
 
 50 ton vacuum reboiling apparatus with exhaust steam 
 
 separator, pump and connection $ 1,150 
 
 36 by 36 ins. vacuum reboiling apparatus complete 
 
 with float, and 4 by 5 by 5 ins., single high vacuum 
 
 pump 575 
 
 2 in. centrifugal brine circulating pump, driven by 5 
 
 h.p. motor 145 
 
 Motor driven ice saw 375 
 
 Motor driven endless chain ice hoist 400 
 
 Piping installed and lagged 2,963 
 
 $49,483 
 
 TABLE XLIV. COST OF OPERATING 10 H.P. MOTOR FOR 
 BUTCHER SHOP REFRIGERATION 
 
 Month Kw.-hr, Cost Month Kw.-hr. Cost 
 
 January 266 $10.64 August . . .■ 984 $29.52 
 
 February 278 11.12 September 922 27.66 
 
 March 294 11.76 October 656 26.04 
 
 April 354 14.16 November 490 19.60 
 
 May 388 11.64 December 338 13.52 
 
 June 514 15.42 
 
 July 616 18.48 Totals 6100 $209.56 
 
 Average rate 3.43 cents 
 
 In this connection an interesting rate is offered to butchers by 
 the Public Service Electric Company, which charges them 4 cts. 
 per kw.-hr, for the consumption in each month from October to 
 April inclusive, and 3 cts. per kw.-hr. for the consumption in each 
 of the five remaining months. 
 
 The Economy of Storing Artificial Ice in a Large Plant. Mr, 
 R. P. Kehoe has presented some carefully worked-out estimates 
 in Power, June 18, 1912, showing the total investment (estimated) 
 for a 100-ton ice-making plant under the simple can-system and a 
 60-ton ice-making plant of the same system and a 60-ton ice-making 
 plant under the plate system, the two latter with provision for 
 storing 5000 tons of ice, one refrigerated and the second not re- 
 frigerated. The following is a summary of these figures : 
 
 100-TON PLANT 
 
 Complete mechanical equipment $54,000.00 
 
 Building and foundations , 30,000.00 
 
 Total investment $84,000.00 
 
 Daily operating expense 
 
 16 tons of coal at $3.50 $56.00 
 
 One chief engineer , . . 5.00 
 
 One night engineer 3.50 
 
 Two firemen at $2 4.00- 
 
 Four tankmen at $2 8.00 
 
 Two laborers or storehousemen at $2 4.00 
 
 Two oilers at $2 ■ 4.00 
 
 Ammonia, oil. waste and supplies, etc 10.00 
 
 OflEice man 4.00 
 
 $98.50 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1499 
 
 <U fc< M t- 
 
 n. o C 
 
 
 H 
 
 iS t- 5^ o o 
 
 H ^^ CO CO 
 
 J« 
 
 03 ?3 2^ 00 
 
 ao) 
 o 
 
 o fl o d o 
 ->j o -^ o -^ 
 
 A'-A ^'=> 
 
 >5 
 
 
 
 oooooo<oooo» 
 
 oooooooooo • 
 
 rQ O ^«H "^ C 
 
 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 • 
 
 <D "V +-' O "r 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ^°-s 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 
 1 O M 
 
 
 
 Proposed 
 
 time of pro 
 
 uction for st 
 
 age purpose 
 
 
 
 -cjooooo 
 
 tiinoooo 
 
 Ct-1 
 
 lOUSlflOO 
 
 o 
 
 THrHiH 
 
 § 
 
 
 -o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 C!3 
 
 
 
 c^^2 
 
 
 
 60 -to 
 exce! 
 must 
 rom s 
 
 t: 
 
 • • • -oooo • • • 
 
 •• • • -OOOlft • . . 
 
 cl • 
 
 • • • -iMcac^"* • • • 
 
 With 
 
 plant 
 
 which 
 
 plied fi 
 
 5 * 
 
 • • • THiHr-l • • • 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 rQ rjOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 r- +jir50lOU50000L001rtm 
 
 '^'^ o rf C^cot-t-ii5000Mint-t> 
 
 bflO^^H O -iH CO CO 00 C^ tH 
 
 •eqo^a .'-jLooirtinooooiooious 
 
 J3 (u c^ a 
 
 ^ 0) ^ 
 
 S oj c^ a=^ S-g 3 57 '^►S <l^ 
 
 o > 
 H o 
 
1500 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Depreciation, etc. 
 
 5% depreciation on machinery ($54,000) $2,700.00 
 
 2% depreciation on building-, etc. ($30.000) 600.00 
 
 Repairs, taxes, water and incidentals (57o) 4.200.00 
 
 Summary 
 
 $7,500.00 
 
 180 days' full operation at $98.50 $17,730.00 
 
 Labor for balance of year, leaving out only two laborers 
 
 - 180 days at $28.50 4,845.00 
 
 Depreciation, etc 7,500.00 
 
 $30,075.00 
 
 Income from sale of 18,000 tons of ice at $2.50 45,000.00 
 
 Profit $45,000 — $30,075 = $14,925 - 17.8% 
 
 60-TON PLANT WITH 5,000 TONS STORAGE, REFRIGERATED 
 
 Complete mechanical equipment $40,000 
 
 Building and foundations , 35.000 
 
 Total investment $75,000 
 
 Daily Operating Expense 
 
 (For 60 tons ice production) 
 
 10 tons of coal at $3.50 $35.00 
 
 One chief engineer 5.00 
 
 One night engineer 3.50 
 
 Two firemen at $2 4.00 
 
 Two tankmen at $2 4.00 
 
 Two laborers or storehousemen at $2 4.00 
 
 Ammonia, oil, waste and supplies, etc 7.50 
 
 Office man 4.00 
 
 Ice Storage 
 
 $67.00 
 
 Entire rsfrigerating Work = 40 tons, requiring 3 tons of 
 
 coal at $3.50 $10 50 
 
 Depreciation, etc. 
 
 6% depreciation on machinery ($40,000) $2,400.00 
 
 2% depreciation on building, etc. ($35,000) 700.00 
 
 Repairs, taxes, water and incidentals (6%) 4.500.00 
 
 $7,600.00 
 Summary 
 
 10 months' full operation, 300 days at $67.00 $20,100.00 
 
 Carrying full ice storage for about 6 months, 180 days at 
 
 $10.50 1,890.00 
 
 All labor during two months' shutdown. 60 days at $24.50 1.470 00 
 
 Depreciation, etc 7.600 00 
 
 $31,060 00 
 Income from sale of 18,000 tons of ice at $2.50 45,000.00 
 
 Profit $45,000 — $31,060 = $13,940 - 18.6?;, 
 
 60-TON ICE-MAKING PLANT — PLATE SYSTEM 
 
 (Compound condensing steam engine, 5000 tons ice storage) 
 
 Co7nplete mechanical equipment $60,0 00.00 
 
 Building and foundations 40.000.00 
 
 $100,000.00 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1501 
 
 Daily operating expense 
 (For 60 tons ice production) 
 
 5 tons of coal at $3.50 $17.50 
 
 One chief engineer 5.00 
 
 One night engineer 3.50 
 
 Two firemen at $2 4.00 
 
 Two harvesters at $2 4.00 
 
 Ammonia, oil, waste, supplies, etc 7.50 
 
 $41.50 
 Depreciation, etc. 
 
 6% depreciation on machinery ($60,000) $3,600.00 
 
 2% depreciation on building ($40,000) 800.00 
 
 Repairs, taxes, water and incidentals (6%) 6,000.00 
 
 $10,400.00 
 
 Summary 
 
 10 months' full operation, 300 days at $41.50 $12,450.00 
 
 All labor during two months' shutdown, 60 days at $16.50 990.00 
 
 Depreciation 10,400.00 
 
 $23,840.00 
 Income froin sale of 17,000 tons of ice (assuming loss of 
 
 1000 tons through meltage) at $2.50 42,500.00 
 
 Profit $42,500 — $23,840 = $18,660 = 18.66% 
 
 The calculations are based on a wooden structure for storage 
 with the inexpensive insulation and a 50% yearly load-factor, 
 allowing space enough for 5000 tons of ice and room for handling 
 which he estimates is taken care of by a building 200 ft. long, 
 100 ft. wide and 12.5 ft. high; the total wall, floor and ceiling sur- 
 faces aggregating 47.500 sq. ft. He allows a heat leakage of 5 
 B.t.u. per sq. ft. per degree difference in temperature every 24 hrs. 
 The average temperature difference between the outside and the 
 interior of the storage has been estimated as 50° P. Calculating 
 that each sq. ft. of pipe surface will absorb 50 B.t.u. per degree 
 difference in temperature every 24 hours, and assuming a back 
 pres.sure of 15 lbs. equivalent to an ammonia temperature of 0° 
 F. equals a temperature difference of about 30° P. The refriger- 
 47,000 X 5 X 50 
 
 ating work would be = 40 tons, and the amount of 
 
 288,000 
 2 in. piping required for the storage would be 47,500 times 5 times 
 50 times 1.6 over 30 times 50 equals 12,667 ft. The approximate 
 cost of this piping would be $5000 erected in place. Mr. Kehoe has 
 figured 6% for depreciation, repairs, etc., in the 60-ton plant and 
 5% in the 100-ton plant, considering that the smaller plant will 
 have to run 67% more of the time each year. 
 
 He considers that he has favored the 60-ton plant as much as 
 possible in his figures. The yearly profit is $1000 less and the per- 
 centage of earnings is very little more. 
 
 The original investment of the 60 ton can plant is less than that 
 of the 100 ton can plant, and that of the 60-ton plate plant is 
 3,3 more than that of the 60 ton can plate. Hence he concludes that 
 in the three propositions, as an investment, there is little to choose. 
 
1502 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the whole question depending upon the local facts and figures 
 given in the detailed cost of construction, that must be estimated 
 with great care independently of any particular set of cases. 
 
 Cost of Ice Houses. For detail costs of ice houses see Gillette's 
 Handbook of Cost Data. 
 
 Cost of Equipment for 10-Ton Refrigerating Plant Using iVIa- 
 chines of Different Sizes. (Power, Sept. 19, 1910.) 
 
 Capacity of compressor, gas at 0°F 10 tons 15 tons 20 tons 
 
 Operating temp., gas at 0°F. 12°F. CF. 
 
 Brake h.p. with 185 lb. condenser pressure, 
 
 incl. 25% increase over the compressor 
 
 h.p 21.3 32.4 42.5 
 
 Brake h.p. gas engine bought 25 35 45 
 
 Cost installed, with countershaft and belting, 
 
 dollars 1100 1500 1850 
 
 Cost of horiz. bait-driven ammonia compres- 
 sor, with high pressure side, erected, 
 
 dollars 2300 2900 3500 
 
 2-in. wrought iron expansion piping required, 
 
 lineal ft 2332 7212 4663 
 
 Cost of piping, including liquid and suction 
 
 connections, cts. per ft 57 54 55 
 
 Total cost of piping, dollars 1329 3890 2565 
 
 Prime charge of anhydrous ammonia, lb 750 2000 1400 
 
 Cost at 26 cts. per lb 195 520 364 
 
 Total first cost of each plant, dollars $4924 $8810 $8279 
 
 Comparative Data on Three Machines and Cost Figures. 
 
 Sum- Au- Win- Total for 
 
 mer tumn ter Spring year 
 Tons refrigeration required per 
 
 season 905.45 656.11 241.15 453.18 2,255.89 
 
 10 ton machine : 
 
 Hours running daily 45 17.3 6.36 11.95 
 
 Hours running per season. . . 2,184 1,574 579 1,088 5,425 
 Per cent, of possible running 
 
 time, 364 days x 24 equals 
 
 8,736 hours 62.1 
 
 Brake h.p. hours, 5425x21.3 
 
 equals .... 115,553 
 
 "Water, M. gal. (same for 
 
 all machines) 3,255 
 
 Tons refrigeration required per 
 
 season 905.45 656.11 241.15 453.18 2,255.89 
 
 15 ton machine : 
 
 Hours running, daily 12.4 9 3.3 6.2 
 
 Hours running per season. 1,128 819 300 564 2,811 
 Per cent, of possible running 
 
 time 32.2 
 
 Brake h.p. hrs 91,076 
 
 20 ton machine : 
 
 Hours running, daily 12 8.65 3.18 5.! 
 
 Hours running per season.. 1,092 787 290 544 2,713 
 Per cent, of possible running 
 
 time 31 
 
 Brake h.p. hrs 115,301 
 
 Costs per Year. 
 
 Size of machine used 10 tons 15 tons 20 tons 
 
 Gas bill $2,888.83 $2,276.90 $2,882.53 
 
 Lubricating oil 69.33 54.65 69.18 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1503 
 
 Water bill $162.75' $162.75 $162.75 
 
 Ammonia loss, 10, 6 and 7%, respec- 
 tively 19.50 31.20 25.48 
 
 Wages 1,627.50 843.30 813.60 
 
 Total net operating expenses $4,767.91 $3,368.80 $3,953.54 
 
 Fixed charges 738.60 1,321.50 1,241.85 
 
 31.20 
 843.30 
 
 $3,368.80 
 1,321.50 
 
 Total yearly cost $5,506.51 $4,690.30 $5,195.39 
 
 Total net operating expenses per ton 
 
 refrigeration 2.12 1.50 1.75 
 
 Total yearly cost per ton refrigeration ' 2.44 2.08 2.30 
 
 Total yearly cost per cu. ft. storage 
 
 space * 9.18c 7.82c 8.66c 
 
 Total yearly cost saved over 10 ton 
 
 machine 816.21 311.12 
 
 Years required to recover excess first 
 
 cost over 10 ton machine 4.76 10.8 
 
 * These costs are about one-third of the rental charged per cu. 
 ft. per yr. 
 
 Power Consumption for One Year in Electrically Operated 100 
 Ton Ice Plant. (Journal Western Society of Engineers, September, 
 1911.) 
 
 , Tons of ice v Max. H.p. 
 
 Average Max. h.p. Total h.p. hrs. 
 
 1910 Per month daily required h.p. -hrs. per ton per ton 
 
 Jan 1768 57.0 123 87,070 2.16 49.24 
 
 Feb 1549 55.3 137 79,450 2.48 51.29 
 
 March 1903 61.4 221 93.760 3.60 49.27 
 
 April 2732 91.1 232 164,558 2.55 60.23 
 
 May 2651 85.5 257 165,488 3.01 62.42 
 
 June 3024 100.8 300 188,666 2.98 62.39 
 
 July 3442 111.0 314 219,265 2.83 63.70 
 
 Aug 3503 113.0 300 208.123 2.65 59.40 
 
 Sept 3514 117.1 291 209,027 2.49 59.48 
 
 Oct 3379 109.0 283 185,177 2.60 54.80 
 
 Nov 982 32.7 137 88,070 4.19 89.68 
 
 Dec 1853 59.8 129 93,914 2.16 50.68 
 
 Total 30300 1,772,568 58.50 
 
 Coal nt $2.50 per ton, consumption was 85.47 lbs. per ton ice for 
 evaporation and distillation. 
 
 Cost electric power 23.36 cts. 
 
 Cost fuel 10.68 cts. 
 
 Cost engine and boiler labor 15.51 cts. 
 
 Cost tank and ice labor 12.55 cts. 
 
 Total 62.10 cts. 
 
 NON-DISTILLED WATER. PLATE SYSTEM 
 
 , Tons of ice ^ 
 
 Average Max. h.p. Total 
 
 1910 Per month daily required h.p.-hrs. 
 
 Jan 10,314 
 
 Feb 1420 50.7 145 ^8,214 
 
 March 1400 45.2 153 105,845 
 
 April 1168 38.9 139 78,933 
 
 May 1786 57.6 138 101,798 
 
 June 1037 34.6 278 120.720 
 
 Max. 
 
 H.p. 
 
 h.p. 
 
 hrs. 
 
 per ton 
 
 per ton 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.86 
 
 69.2 
 
 3.38 
 
 75.6 
 
 3.58 
 
 67.6 
 
 2.40 
 
 57.0 
 
 8.00 
 
 116.4 
 
1504 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 , Tons of ice , Max. H.p. 
 
 Average Max. h.p. Total h.p. hrs. 
 
 1910 Per month daily required h.p. -hrs. per ton per ton 
 
 July 2294 74.0 280 201,791 3.78 88.0 
 
 Aug 1800 58.1 290 209,200 4.98 116.2 
 
 Sept 2244 74.8 283 198,157 3.78 88.3 
 
 Oct 1115 36.0 149 117.363 4.13 105.3 
 
 Nov 1019 34.0 141 98.320 4.14 96.5 
 
 Dec 1356 43.7 139 104,398 3.19 77.0 
 
 Total 16639 1,145,053 86.8 
 
 Total cost electric power per ton ice 35.56 cts. 
 Total cost of labor per ton ice. .. 36.00 cts. 
 
 71.56cts. including- Ltg. and Aux. 
 
 Electric power rate $36.00 h.p. year when month demand was 
 100 h.p. 
 
 Electric power rate $32.50 h.p. year when month demand was 
 200 h.p. 
 
 Electric power rate $30.00 h.p. year when month demand was 
 300 h.p. 
 
 At similar steam plant cost per ton ice was 58.06 cts. ; power was 
 a by-product. 
 
 Data from Several Small Ice-Making Plants. (From data in 
 Isolated Plant and Electrical World in 1913.) 
 
 A 4-Ton Plant in Conihination with an Electric Light Plant, 
 in a Texas town of 1200 population, manufactured 700 tons of 
 ice for the local population pei- year while the ice equipment repre- 
 sents an investment of about $5,000. There is also a small vault 
 about 6 ton capacity for storage. The monthly operating ex- 
 penses for 
 
 Fuel $300.00 
 
 Labor (including office help) 100.00 
 
 Supplies and miscellaneous 2.5.00 
 
 Delivery 30.00 
 
 Nothing seems to be allowed for depreciation and repairs in this 
 statement. The total plant cost to produce one ton of ice on the 
 station platform is estimated at $3.50 and the product is sold 
 wholesale for $8.00 per ton. The local domestic price for deliv- 
 ered ice being $.50 per 100 lbs. The annual gross income from 
 the ice business was $5400.00, annual expenses, including depre- 
 ciation, interest, etc., $2520.00, leaving net income on the invest- 
 ment of $5,000.00, $2,880.00. 
 
 A Q-Ton By-Product Ice Plant in Combination with a Small 
 Electric Central Station in Georgia Marketing 1500 Tons of Ice 
 per Year in a Town of 1000 Inhabitants. Steam compression ap- 
 paratus was used for handling the ammonia. The total invest- 
 ment, including the buildings and refrigeration plant, was about 
 $10,000.00. The year's operating expense being as follows: — 
 
 Fuel $750.00 
 
 Labor, including office 400.00 
 
 Miscellaneous 50.00 
 
 Delivery 280.00 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1505 
 
 Total $1,480.00, not including interest, depreciation and repairs. 
 The estimated cost of producing 1 ton of ice at the platform was 
 $3.60, and the receipts wholesale on the platform were $4.30 per 
 ton. Deliveries at retail were made to small customers at $8.00 
 per ton, one wagon being found adequate to supply the retail 
 trade. The annual receipts and disbursements from the ice busi- 
 ness were as follows : — 
 
 The annual gross income from ice business $2250.00 
 
 Annual expenses (including depreciation, int., etc.) 1730.00 
 
 Balance $ 520.00 
 
 A 10-Ton Plant Operated in Conjunction with the Electrical 
 Equipment of an Electric Company in Omaha with a population of 
 3500 representing an investment of about $10,000.00 and producing 
 1200 tons annually at a net cost of $1.28 per ton under full-load 
 operating conditions, where the ice-making season lasted four 
 months. The plant account was as follows : — 
 
 Compressor plant, freezing tank, etc $9,000.00 
 
 Teams and wagons 500.00 
 
 Miscellaneous equipment 500.00 
 
 The domestic price for ice delivered was $.45 per 100 lbs., while, 
 at wholesale, on the platform, the price was $4.00 per ton. The 
 plant includes a cold storage room for holding 75 tons of ice under 
 artificial refrigeration. The plant expenses chargeable to ice mak- 
 ing in 1912 were $1550.00, including depreciation, interest, etc., and 
 the gross income from the ice business was $7500.00. 
 
 A lO-Tou Ice Plant Operated hy an Electric-light Company in a 
 town in Northern Texas with 2000 population manufactured 2000 
 tons of ice per season and the plant costs as a going concern $16,- 
 000.00 including a well furnishing cooling water. Distilled water 
 was used for making the ice, and the daily operating costs 
 amounted to $30.42, including $12.50 for fuel, $13.42 for labor, 
 including office help; $3.50 for delivery and $1.00 for miscellaneous 
 expenses. The cost per ton of ice to the company was figured 
 at $2.74 on the station platform. The wholesale receipts were 
 $4.00 per ton and on a retail basis, delivered, the price was $9.50 
 per ton. The total gross revenue was $12,000.00 per year, the total 
 operating expenses were $9800, leaving a balance of $2200.00 or 
 13.75 per cent, on the investment. It does not appear whether 
 or not the depreciation and repairs were included in the above state- 
 ment, but even if they were not, the figures indicated the cost of 
 the business when the ice plant is used in connection with an 
 electric light business. 
 
 A Id-Ton Combination Ice Electric Plant in Florida sells 1700 
 tons of ice per year in the community of 1700 population. This 
 station utilizes the exhaust-steam from its electric-plant engines 
 to operate a 10 ton absorption-type " generator," and the distilled 
 water from the steam engine is reclaimed for freezing into ice. 
 The ice plant, including building, equipment, can tank, two de- 
 
1506 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 livery wagons, etc., represents an investment of $12,000. The 
 wholesale price of ice is from $5.00 to $7.00 per ton and the retail 
 domestic i)rice is $.50 per 100 lbs. delivered. The 1912 gross busi- 
 ness was $12,000, and the expenses including depreciation, interest 
 and all other charges were $7000.00, leaving net profits of $5000.00 
 or 42% on the original investment, which is suspiciously high. 
 
 A 15-ron Ice Plant Operated 'by an Electric Compariy in Ken- 
 tucky, serving a population of 3000, representing an investment 
 of $9500.00 for the local ice business, the equipment comprising 
 steam-driven ammonia-compression apparatus, with 36 tons' stor- 
 age capacity. The actual plant cost of freezing a ton of ice in- 
 cluding fuel, labor, etc., averages about $2.00 and the product is 
 sold at wholesale on the platform for $5.00 per ton. The retail 
 rate was $8.00 per ton delivered. The gross income from the ice 
 business during 1912 was $6100.00. The expenses including fuel, 
 labor, depreciation, etc., amounted to '$2500.00, leaving $3600.00 net 
 or about 40% on the ice plant investment. 
 
 A 12.5-Ton Ice Plant in Combination With an Electric Plant 
 in Central Nebraska involved an investment of about $13,200.00 
 and produced for a local population of 3200, 1250 tons of ice in 
 1911 and 775 tons in 1912. The ammonia compressor is motor- 
 driven, and distilled water is obtained from the electric generating 
 department by condensation. To freeze 1 ton of ice at this plant 
 58.5 kw.-hr. of energy is required, the ice department being charged 
 for this at the rate of 3.5 cts. per kw.-hr., this making the actuaJ 
 cost of producing a ton of ice at the station platform about $2.50. 
 The cost to deliver locally to retail customers was about $1.20 per 
 ton in addition. The retail rate for ice was from $.25 to $.50 
 per 100 lbs. and the wholesale price for ice sold locally was $3.00 
 to $4.00 per ton. The company's statement of its earnings was for 
 annual income from the ice business $7825.00 and the expenses, 
 depreciation, interest, etc., $6262.00, net returns $1563.00. The 
 plant here included a 30-ton cold-storage house, which, according 
 to the statement of company was not sufficient for the best results. 
 
 A 15-Ton Steam-Driven Ice Plant. In a Kansas town of 2300 
 inhabitants manufactured 2800 tons of ice per year from dis- 
 tilled water obtained by the condensation of the various plant en- 
 gines, including the ammonia compressor. The investment in the 
 ice business is represented by the following figures : 
 
 Ice-plant addition to building $ 2,000.00 
 
 15-ton steam-driven compressor 13,000.00 
 
 Freezing-tank equipment 1,200.00 
 
 Wagons 500.00 
 
 Total ice-making investment $16,700.00 
 
 In addition to the refrigerating equipment proper, cold-storage 
 capacity for 1000 tons of ice was installed, an additional amount 
 of $6000.00 making the total outlay for the ice department $22.- 
 700.00. The factory cost of making a ton of ice at the station 
 platform was $1.35 estimated as follows: — 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1507 
 
 Fuel $0.75 
 
 Labor, including office salaries 0.30 
 
 Water 0.10 
 
 Supplies and miscellaneous 0.15 
 
 Total $1.35 
 
 The wholesale price was $2.75 per ton. The local retail price 
 delivered is $.35 per 100 lbs. The cost of delivery averages about 
 $1.30 per ton. 
 
 Yearly gross income from ice bu.«iness $12,000.00 
 
 Expenses for year, including depreciation, etc... 9,420.00 
 
 Net earnings from ice business $ 2,580.00 
 
 An IS-Ton Ice Plant in Iowa in a town of 4500 inhabitants 
 manufactured 3500 tons of ice during seven months of 1912 with 
 the following operating expenses : 
 
 Fuel $1,690.77 
 
 Labor and office help 2.000.00 
 
 Water 200.00 
 
 Supplies, miscellaneous 150.00 
 
 Cost of delivery 1,803.87 
 
 Total (not" including depreciation, int., etc.) . $5,844.64 
 
 The actual plant cost of producing a ton of ice at the platform 
 was estimated at $1.32 and the retail rates are on a sliding scale. 
 Deliveries are made to groceries, hotels, restaurants and^ similar 
 customers who u.se from 1 to 5 tons of ice during the season at 
 the rate of $8.00 per ton; between 5 and 20 tons, the rate is $5.00 
 per ton and between 20 and 50 tons, the rate is $4.00 per ton, 
 all deliverci. Larger customers and those using 50 tons per year 
 have special contracts. There is a flat rate of $8.00 per ton for 
 ice d'elivered to all residences. The annual receipts were $13,039.74 
 and the annual expense, including interest, depreciation, etc., was 
 $6,826.68, leaving net income from ice business of $6,213.06, which 
 on a total plant investment, inclusive of delivery wagons and stor- 
 age facilities is $12,200.00, just over 50%. 
 
 A 20-Ton By-Product Ice Plant in Kansas. Cost as follows for 
 the ice department : 
 
 Plant addition to building $10,000.00 
 
 Steam compressor outfit, tank, etc 17,000.00 
 
 Wagons and teams 2,000.00 
 
 Total investment $29,000.00 
 
 Operating expenses were as follows, omitting interest, taxes, de- 
 preciation, etc. : 
 
 Fuel $2,500.00 
 
 Labor, including office help 1,200.00 
 
 Water 300.00 
 
 Supplies 500.00 
 
 Delivery 1,300.00 
 
 Total $5,800.00 
 
1508 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The cost of manufacture Avas figured at $1.50 per ton and the 
 average wholesale price was $3.65 per ton, the retail price being 
 $.35 per 100 lbs. The yearly income from the ice department was 
 $12,860.00, and expenses, including interest and depreciation, were 
 $9,400.00, leaving net return of $3460.00, 12% on the investment 
 
 A 20-TO71 By-Product Ice Plant in Tennessee with 5000 popula- 
 tion made 3000 tons of ice in 1912. The investment being as fol- 
 lows for the ice plant : 
 
 Ice machine; freezing tank, etc $15,000.00 
 
 Addition to building 3,000.00 
 
 Delivery wagons 2,000.00 
 
 200-ton ice storage room 1,000.00 
 
 Total $21,000.00 
 
 191^ was a poor year for the ice business from that location owing 
 to a cool summer, but the annual gross income from ice making 
 was $15,000.00 and the annual expense, including interest, depre- 
 ciation, etc., $13,000.00, giving net returns of $2000.00, or nearly 
 10% on the investment. 
 
 A 21-Ton By-Product Ice Plant near Omaha produces 2700 tons 
 of ice per year for a community of 8000, The profitable part of 
 the business was seven months in the year, but it is operated for 
 the remaining five months for the convenience of some of the 
 customers. The total ice-plant investment was about $25,000.00 
 and the gross income in 1912 from the ice business was $8200.00, 
 and the expenses, including interest, etc., were $5200.00, leaving 
 net return of $3000.00 or about 12% on the investment. The aver- 
 age cost of producing a ton of ice was $2.00 and the wholesale rate 
 to a local dealer was $3.00 per ton. The local dealer retailed and 
 delivered it at $.40 per 100 lbs. 
 
 A 10-Ton By-Product Plant in a Small Western Town with 'Less 
 Than 3000 Inhabitants had an ice-making investment of $11,000.00 
 and earned $1,238.00 net, or a little over 11% in 1912. The follow- 
 ing tables give the percentage of sales for the different classes of 
 customers in quantity of ice and the percentage of gross income 
 obtained from these customers : 
 
 % of total % of gross 
 
 Class of customer deliveries income 
 
 Railroad company 62 36 
 
 Wagon and ice book sales 28 48 
 
 Butcher shops 5 7 
 
 Lobby sales 3 6 
 
 Out-of-town customers 2 3 
 
 Total 100 100 
 
 The total output for a season of eight and a half months was 1967 
 tons of ice sold in wholesale lots at a figure of between $3.00 and 
 $4.00 per ton, the retailed price being from $8.00 to $10.00 a ton 
 delivered. The cost of producing and delivering one ton of ice was 
 as follows : — 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1509 
 
 Fuel 9-^ 270 
 
 Labor, including clerical work 860 
 
 Water ". ; o'.OSO 
 
 Oil 
 
 0.050 
 
 Ammonia 0.060 
 
 Light 0.150 
 
 Supplies 0.190 
 
 Insurance on plant 0.025 
 
 Interest on investment , ' 320 
 
 Depreciation " ' o 400 
 
 Delivery , 0.525 
 
 Total $3,930 
 
 A ZO-Ton Plant in Missouri Connected with an Electric Light- 
 ing Plant. In a commmunity of 5000 manufactured 8000 tons of 
 ice per year costing about $1.15 per ton for manufacturing about 
 the same amount for delivery. 
 
 A 100-Ton Ice-Making Plant, described by Mr. C. E. Rose in 
 Electrical World, was operated by the Arkansas Cold Storage Com- 
 pany at Little Rock. It produced a refrigeration for a cold-storage 
 warehouse of 100,000 cu. ft. capacity, a street pipe-line of 42,000 
 cu. ft. capacity and two freezing tanks, an output of 40 tons of 
 raw-water ice per day each. The refrigerating machinery included 
 two vertical duplex Frick gas pumps rated at 50 tons per day each 
 when running at 77 r.p.m. with standard refrigerator and condenser 
 pressures. In addition to this, 100 h.p. was installed in various 
 motor units of from 2 to 25 h.p., used to drive the circulating-water, 
 brine pumps, air compressors, agitators, etc. For the year ended 
 October 1, 1912, there were the following operating figures: 
 
 Tons of refrigeration manufactured . 13,123 
 
 Kilowatt-hours produced 497,608 
 
 Kilowatt-hours per ton of refrigeration 37.9 
 
 Fuel oil for power, per ton of refrigeration $0,124 
 
 Wages for power per ton of refrigeration 0.170 
 
 Lubricating oil and waste per ton of refrigeration 0.074 
 
 Water per ton of refrigeration 0.030 
 
 Electricity purchased per ton of refrigeration 0.012 
 
 Maintenance of oil engines per ton of refrigeration 0.013 
 
 Maintenance of refrigeration plant per ton of refrigeration 0.008 
 Maintenance of electric equipment per ton of refrigeration. . 0.013 
 Maintenance of auxiliary equipment (pumps, air compres- 
 sors, etc.) per ton of refrigeration 0.007 
 
 Total engine-room expense per ton of refrigeration. $0,451 
 
 The above figures were obtained by the use of oil engine drives 
 implying two 120 h.p. vertical, three-cylinder Diesel oil engines. 
 The following "year, ending Oct. 1, 1913, electric current was pur- 
 chased from an electric light company on the basis of the regular 
 primary rate of $1.00 per kw. maximum demand plus an energy 
 charge of 1 cent net per kw.-hr. for the electricity consumed by the 
 motors, with the understanding that the refrigerating plant would 
 not run during the electric light company's peakload period. The 
 conditions of the following costs were obtained : — 
 
1510 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Tons of refrigeration manufactured 19.899 
 
 Kilowatt hours 750,401 
 
 Kilowatt-hours per ton of refrigeration 38 
 
 Wages for power per ton of refrigeration $0,106 
 
 Lubricating oil and waste per ton of refrigeration 0.030 
 
 Electricity purchased ijer ton of refrigeration 0.235 
 
 Water per ton of refrigeration 0.005 
 
 Maintenance of electric plant per ton of refrigeration 0.010 
 
 Maintenance of refrigerating plant per ton of refrigeration. . 0.035 
 Maintenance of auxiliary equipment per ton of refrigera- 
 tion 0.024 
 
 Total engine-room expense per ton of refrigeration $0,445 
 
 On this second year of operation on account of the larger amount 
 of ice sold the total costs were figured at $.96 per ton, whereas 
 for the previous year with oil-engine drive, the costs were figured 
 at $1.22 per ton of refrigeration. The increase in refrigeration 
 capacity was obtained by speeding up the ice machines from 77 
 r.p.m. to 116 r.p.m. The indicator cards showing that while at 
 the high speed the area of the card was slightly reduced, the re- 
 duction was trivial in comparison with the larger injcrease in the 
 volumetric displacement of the machine per unit of time ; the net 
 gain in refrigerating capacity being 24 tons per day, rating the 
 plant at 148 tons instead of 100 tons as was the case with the oil- 
 lengine equipment. 
 
 Cost of Refrigeration for a Skating and Curling Rink. There 
 were two public ice surfaces, one of 22,000 sq. ft. for skat- 
 ing, and the other of 5700 sq. ft. for curling. The rink floors being 
 covered with 1.25 in. iron pipe laid 4.75 ins. apart, center to center, 
 and embedded in gravel to the tops of the pipes, connected to 
 headers running along each side of the rink. These pipes are 
 divided into sections of eight each for easy connection and repairs. 
 They include 55,860 linear ft. of pipe in the larger rink and 13,707 
 ft. in the curling rink. The ice surface is built up by spraying the 
 pipes with water, the ice being kept at a thickness of from 1.5 in. 
 to 2 ins. above the pipe. The refrigerating plant, of the compres- 
 sion type, consists of one 400 h.p. boiler with feed pump and 
 auxiliaries, two 16 in. by 30 in. by 24 in. single-acting York com- 
 pressors driven by Corliss cross-compound steam engines, an am- 
 monia condenser, a brine cooler, pumps and tanks. The feed water 
 passes through an exhaust-steam heater of 500 h.p. capacity. The 
 compressor engines operate at 125 lbs. boiler pressure, exhausting 
 into a 22 in. vacuum. The ammonia condenser consists of eighteen 
 coils of 1.25 in. and 2 in. pipe, twelve pipes high and 19 ft. long, 
 and is supplied from the city mains in* conjunction with the water 
 from the surface wells on the premises. This water after leaving 
 the condenser passes through the steam condenser and thence to 
 the sewer, as no cooling tower is provided. The brine cooler is 
 equipped with ten coils of 2 in. and 3 in. pipe 18 ft. long and 
 fourteen pipes high, arranged in two banks, the brine being stored 
 in a 24 ft. by 10 ft. by 8 ft. tank. It is forced through the cooler 
 and floor piping by two Gould triplex double-acting 8.5 in. by 10 
 in. pumps driven through gearing from a line shaft run by an 8 in. 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1511 
 
 by 10 in. horizontal engine. The brine for the curling rink is 
 supplied by a duplex double-acting pump having a capacity of 
 150 gal. per min. The steam for heating the building is taken 
 from the boiler through a reducing valve, the indirect system being 
 used, in which air is drawn in over steam coils by a fan run by a 
 
 15 h.p. motor. A similar motor and fan are used to exhaust the 
 vitiated air from the building. The brine in this plant is com- 
 posed of a solution of calcium chloride and water, having a specific 
 gravity of 1.185. It passes through the floor piping of the rink at 
 a temperature of about 14 deg. F., returning to the tank at about 
 
 16 deg. F., after which it is forced by the pumps into the cooler. 
 The cost per day of operating the plant by steam power was as 
 
 follows: Electricity for light and ventilation service, $11.55; 
 water, $23.85; coal, $24.54; oil and waste, $.15; attendance, $16.00; 
 insurance, $.75; depreciation, $9.05; taxes, $2.47; interest, $6.03; 
 total $94.39. The lighting service required 135 kw.-hr. per day 
 with 27.3 kw.-hr. motors driving fans, the cost of electricity for 
 lighting and ventilation averaging 6.8 cents per kw.-hr. The coal 
 consumption was 12,270 lbs. of coal per day, costing $4.00 per ton. 
 The water consumption was 18,377 cu. ft. i)er day, 608 cu. ft. per 
 hour being used for condensing purposes and wasted into the sewer. 
 The investment cost of the plant w^as $55,000.00, the load-factor on a 
 twenty-four hour run being 50%, the average peak for one hour 
 being 110.8 kw. maximum. Considerable savings could be made 
 by converting this plant to electric. 
 
 Electrical Refrigeration at 11.7 Cents a Day. ("Electrical World, 
 May 8, 1915.) In the month of July last year R. W. Brown con- 
 ducted tests on an electrical refrigerator to obtain authoritative 
 data on the average daily energy consumption of the device. The 
 refrigerator used for the tests was of the type made by the Me- 
 chanical Refrigerator Company of Chicago. It was 16 ins. by 
 36 ins. by 50 ins. inside. During the tests the automatic thermostat 
 was disconnected and the control was effected by hand so that 
 accurate observations of time and temperatures could be made. 
 The temperature of the kitchen in which the machine was operat- 
 ing was read five times a day, and the coil temperature was read 
 each time the room temperature was taken and again each time 
 the motor was started or stopped. The temperature maintained 
 throughout the test in the warmest part of the refrigerator ranged 
 between 40 deg. and 45 deg. F., and in the compartment containing 
 the cooling coils the temperature was considerably lower. One 
 day during the test ice for table use was made in the refrigerator. 
 
 At a 10 cent rate for electrical energy, such as is in force at 
 Spring Valley, its average daily cost amounted to 11.7 cents. The 
 data observed by Mr. Brown are given in Table XLVI. 
 
 Comparative Installation and Operating Co^ts of a Combined Ice- 
 Manufacturing and Cold-storage Plant. (R. H. Tait and L. C 
 Nordmeyer in Power, Oct. 28, 1913.) 
 
 The basis of this comparison is a plant having a capacity of 60 
 tons of ice per day of 24 hrs., and a cold-storage capacity of 100,- 
 000 cu. ft. The cost of building and machinery equipment is 
 
1512 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XLVI. OPERATING DATA ON A MOTOR DRIVEN 
 REFRIGERATOR 
 
 Average temperature of room 83 deg. 
 
 Average temperature of coils 92 deg. 
 
 Average pressure in Its. per sq. in 57 deg. 
 
 Average time of operation daily 5 hrs., 16 min. 
 
 Average daily consumption, kw.-hrs 1,17 
 
 figured thr^ ways : First, with a simple steam plant ; second, 
 with a compound condensing plant ; and, third, with the Diesel 
 engine. The cold-storage space will require a refrigerating capa- 
 city of 20 tons, which is equivalent to 12 toils of ice-making capa- 
 city. The' refrigerating machines and equipment must, therefore, 
 be capable of developing the equivalent of 72 tons of ice-making 
 capacity for 24 hrs. daily. 
 
 In the latitude of St. Louis it has been found that if the output 
 of the month of July is figured at full capacity, then the output in 
 July is approximately 15 per cent, of the annual output. In the 
 case under consideration, the yearly work is, therefore, Equivalent to 
 
 72 X 31 X 100 
 
 = 14,880 tons of ice 
 
 15 
 
 It is assumed that the plant would be erected in the Southwest, 
 and fuel oil is figured at 95 cts. per bbl. of 42 gals. Artesian water 
 is available at 87 deg. F, and city water at 90 deg. F. 
 
 Buildings. The cost of the buildings, including boiler and en- 
 gine room, freezing-tank room, cold-storage house and all insula- 
 tion will be approximately $60,000. The necessary building space 
 will be practically the same for all three types of plant. The fixed 
 charges against the building are for interest, 6 per cent. ; insur- 
 ance and taxes, 1.5 per cent. ; depreciation, 5 per cent., making a 
 total of 12.5 per cent, of $60,000, or $7500 per year. Inasmuch as 
 14,880 tons of ice represent the year's work, the building charge 
 will be 50.4 cts. per ton of ice. 
 
 Simple Steam Plant. In this plant it is contemplated to use air 
 lifts to pump the water from the artesian wells to furnish the 
 necessary water for the plant in connection with a water-cooling 
 tower. The mechanical equipment will include water-tube boilers, 
 boiler-feed pumps, feed-water heater, smoke-stack, two 60-ton re- 
 frigerating capacity machines, ammonia-compression system, dis- 
 tilling system, freezing system, steam and exhaust connections, 
 air lifts and air compressor, circulating-water pumps, cooling 
 tower, piping for cold-storage rooms, brine pumps, brine cooler, 
 all steam, brine and ammonia pipe covering, 60-kw. generator and 
 engine, ammonia, calcium and foundations for machinery. It is 
 estimated that the complete equipment, delivered and erected, in- 
 cluding engineer.?' fees, will be $65,000. The total cost of the 
 plant, including building and machinery, will, therefore, be $125,000. 
 The auxiliary pumps about the plant will consist of duplicate units, 
 one steam-driven and one electrically driven. 
 
 It is estimated that there will be burnt 3.08 bbls. of oil per hour 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1513 
 
 under the boilers when operating at full capacity. With oil cost- 
 ing 95 cts. per bbl. and the capacity being 72 tons ice making, the 
 fuel cost per ton of ice will be 
 
 3.08 X 95 X 24 
 — 97.6 cts. 
 
 72 
 
 The operating cost is estimated as follows : 
 
 Two firemen at $720 per year $1440 
 
 Two engineers at $1230 per year 2460 
 
 Two oilers at $720 per year 1440 
 
 One handy man 900 
 
 Oil waste, etc 300 
 
 Total $6540 
 
 $6540 
 
 = $0,439 per ton of Ice 
 
 14,880 
 Ice handling 0.14 per ton of ice 
 
 Total operating expenses $0,579 per ton of ice 
 
 Fixed charges on the mechanical equipment are for interest on 
 machinery investment, 6 per cent. ; insurance and taxes, 1.5 per 
 cent. ; depreciation and obsolescence, 5 per cent., making a total 
 of 12.5 per cent, on $65,000 or $8125. Fixed charges per ton of 
 ice are then $8125-M4,880 = $0.546. The total cost per ton of 
 ice is given in the following : 
 
 Fixed charges . . .\ $0,546 
 
 Fuel 0.976 
 
 Operating expenses 0.579 
 
 Total $2,101 
 
 Fixed charges on building 0.504 
 
 Total cost $2,605 
 
 Attention is called to the fact that the total cost of ice, as 
 given above and in the later deductions, is higher than the actual 
 cost of ice at the platform, owing to the fact that the fixed charges 
 on the machinery and building include the fixed charges on the 
 brine cooler, brine pumps, cold-storage hou.se piping, cold-storage 
 house building and insulation which should be properly charged 
 against the cold-storage house only. As these are the same in 
 each case considered, the costs given in each case will not affect 
 the comparison. As the ammonia cost will depend on the care 
 given the plant, and .should be the same for each, it has not been 
 used in the estimated cost per ton in making the comparison. 
 
 Compound Condensing Steam Plant. In this plant the water will 
 be pumped from the artesian wells in the same manner as in the 
 simple steam plant. The engines on both of the refrigerating ma- 
 chines and on the generator will be compound condensing. The 
 boilers will be equipped with economizers, so that the best efficiency 
 may be obtained in the complete plant. The complete cost of the 
 mechanical equipment including engineers' commission, is esti- 
 mated at $76,400. 
 
1514 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 When operating under full load there will be consumed 2.38 bbls. 
 of oil per hour, making the fuel cost $2.26 per hour, or $0,753 per 
 ton of ice. The operating expenses for labor, oil, waste, etc., will 
 be $0,579 per ton of ice, the same as for the simple steam plant. 
 The fixed charges against the investment will be 0.125 X $76,400 — 
 $9550 = $0,642 per ton of ice. The total cost per ton of ice is, 
 therefore, given in the following: 
 
 Fixed charges $0,642 
 
 Fuel 0.753 
 
 Operating cost 0.579 
 
 Total without building charge $1,974 
 
 Building charge 0.504 
 
 Total cost $2,478 
 
 The complete cost of plant is as follows: 
 
 Cost of machinery $76,400 
 
 Cost of building 60,000 
 
 Total cost $136,400 
 
 Diesel Engine Plant. In this plant city water will be used for 
 the making of raw-water ice and for the cooling-tower make-up. 
 All auxiliaries around the plant will be driven by electric current. 
 Power will consist of two 225-b.h.p. Diesel engines, to each of 
 which will be belted one 60-ton refrigerating capacity machine and 
 one 40-kw. generator. The complete mechanical equipment will 
 consist of two 225-h.p. Diesel engines, two 40-kw. belted gener- 
 ators, switchboard, two 60 -ton refrigerating capacity belt-driven 
 refrigerating machines, compression system, raw-water ice-freezing 
 system, cooling tower, two centrifugal water-circulating pumps, 
 cold-storage piping, two triplex brine pumps, brine cooler, brine and 
 ammonia pipe covering, ammonia, calcium chloride, two oil tanks, 
 foundations for refrigerating machines, Diesel engines, etc. It is 
 estimated the complete equipment will cost $83,923, including en- 
 gineer's commission. 
 
 The fixed charges against the mechanical equipment will be as 
 follows : 
 
 Interest on investment 6 per cent. 
 
 Insurance and taxes 1 1/^ per cent. 
 
 1^2 percent, of $83,923 — $6294 
 Depreciation and obsolescence on 
 
 oil engines 10 per cent, of $34,440 =r $3444 
 
 Depreciation and obsolescence on 
 
 remainder of machinery 5 percent, of $49,483 = $2474 
 
 Total $12,212 
 
 The fixed charges per ton of ice equal $12,212 4- 14,880 = $0,821. 
 
 When operating at full capacity the poM^er required by the re- 
 frigerating machine is estimated to be 282 b.h.p, at the Diesel 
 engine and for the electric units 97 b.h.p., making a total of 379 
 b.h.p. at the engine. Assuming an oil consumptioi^ '^f 8 gal. per 
 
HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1515 
 
 100 b.h.p.-hr. there would be consumed 30 gals, of oil per hour, 
 making the fuel cost $16.30 per day, or 22.6 cts. per ton ice-making 
 capacity. The operating expenses will be as follows : 
 
 Two engineers at $1230 per year $2460 
 
 Two oiJers at $720 per year 1440 
 
 One handy man 900 
 
 Oil, waste, etc 800 
 
 Total $5600 
 
 $5600 
 
 = $0,376 per ton ice 
 
 14,880 
 
 Ice handling 0.14 per ton ice 
 
 Total operating cost $0,516 per ton ice 
 
 City water must be supplied for making 60 tons of ice and for 
 supplying the losses of the cooling tower. For this purpose there 
 will be used 263,500 cu. ft. of water per month. 
 
 70,000 cu. ft. of water costs $64.15 
 
 193,500 cu. ft. of water at 7c. per 100 135.45 
 
 Total water cost per month $199.60 
 
 Water costs per ton of ice $0.09 
 
 From the above the total cost per ton of ice is as follows : 
 
 Fixed charges $0,821 
 
 Fuel 0.226 
 
 Operating expense 0.516 
 
 Water 0.090 
 
 Total without building charge $1,653 
 
 Building charge 0.504 
 
 Total cost per ton of ice $2,157 
 
 The total cost of the plant will be as follows : 
 
 Cost of machinery $83,923 
 
 Co.st of buildings 60,000 
 
 Total cost $143,923 
 
 Resume. The comparative cost of installation and operation 
 of the three types of plant is given in the accompanying table. 
 
 From the table the following comparisons can be deduced : 
 
 Simple vs. Compound Steam, Plant: The compound condensing 
 steam plant costs $11,400 more than the simple steam plant, but a 
 saving of 12.7 cts. per ton of ice is accomplished, which for 14,880 
 tons of ice-making capacity per year amounts to $1889.76 per year. 
 On this basis the compound condensing steam plant will pay for 
 the difference in cost between it and the simple plant in approxi- 
 mately six years. 
 
 Simple Steam Plant vs. Diesel Engine Plant: The Diesel engine 
 plant will cost $18,923 more than the simple steam plant, but a 
 saving is accomplished of 44.8 cts. per ton of ice, or $6666.24 per 
 year. On this basis the Diesel engine plant will pay for the dif- 
 ference in cost between it and the simple steam plant in less than 
 three years. 
 
1516 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 COMPARATIVE INSTALLATION AND OPERATING COSTS 
 
 Simple Compound Diesel 
 
 steam condensing engine 
 
 plant steam plant plant 
 
 Cost building $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 
 
 Cost machinery 65,000 76,400 83,923 
 
 Total cost $125,000 $136,400 $143,923 
 
 Cost water per ton ice $0.09 
 
 Cost fuel per ton ice $0,976 $0,753 0.226 
 
 Fixed charges machinery . . . 0.546 0.642 0.821 
 
 Operating cost 0.579 0.579 0.516 
 
 Cost per ton ice without build- 
 ing charge $2,101 $1,974 $1,653 
 
 Building charge per ton ice.. $0,504 $0,504 $0,504 
 
 Compound Condensing Plant vs. Diesel Plant: The Diesel engine 
 plant costs $7523 more than the compound condensing steam plant, 
 but a saving of 32.1 cts. per ton of ice is accomplished, which 
 amounts to $4776.50 per year. From this the Diesel engine plant 
 will pay for the difference in cost between it and the compound 
 condensing steam plant in less than two years' time. 
 
 From the comparison given above, it seems apparent that the 
 oil-engine plant would be an exceedingly good investment. This 
 should especially be apparent on account of the manner in which 
 the deductions were made. The steam-driven plants were given 
 the benefit of the best efficiency that could be obtained ; namely, a 
 boiler efficiency in the case of the simple plant of 65 per cent. ; 
 and in the case of the compound condensing steam plant, with the 
 use of an economizer, of 71.5 per cent. 
 
 The steam consumption of the simple engine of the refrigerating 
 machine was assumed to be 27 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr., while that of the 
 electrical generators was assumed to be 30 lbs. of steam per i.h.p.-hr. 
 
 In the case of the compound condensing steam plant, a steam 
 consumption of 18 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr. was assumed for the steam 
 engines of the refrigerating machine, and 20 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr. for 
 the generator engines, including steam for vacuum pumps and other 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 In the oil-engine plant,, the engines were credited with a low 
 efficiency of 8 gals, per 100 b.h.p.-hr., while it has been found that 
 the fuel consumption of engines installed in the Southwest by the 
 Busch-Sulzer Bros. -Diesel Engine Co. was approximately 6.5 gals, 
 per 100 b.h.p.-hr. under normal working conditions. In addition 
 to this, the oil-engine plant is charged with water brought from the 
 city, as against artesian-well water used in the steam plant. 
 
 A further advantage is given the steam installations by charging 
 them with a depreciation and obsolescence of only 5 per cent, as 
 against 10 per cent, charged to the Diesel oil-engine installation. 
 
 The present prices of fuel oil will somewhat change the figures, 
 as shown, but cannot help but prove the oil engine a good in- 
 vestment. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 Electric railway construction has much in common with steam 
 railway construction. The detail cost of steam railroads, including 
 grading, ballast, bridges, etc., is very fully covered in the Gillette's 
 Handbook of Cost Data ; hence, in order to avoid repetition, this 
 chapter on electric railway costs is confined to such data as are 
 not given in the book just named. 
 
 The engineer who is going very deeply into the subject of electric 
 railway costs, both of construction and operation, will find a mass 
 of valuable data in the reports and files of state railway and public 
 service commissions. A study of such data discloses the somewhat 
 astonishing fact that few interurban electric lines yield even a 
 6 per cent, return on their cost. If an adequate depreciation annuity 
 were provided, it is probable that not one electric interurban in 
 ten would yield more than 5 per cent, on the actual cost of the 
 physical plant. Perhaps this note of warning is not so greatly 
 needed to-day as it was needed 10 or 15 years ago ; but under- 
 estimates of first cost, as well as operating expenses and depre- 
 ciation, are still so common that it seems advisable to caution 
 engineers in the employ of promoters of electric traction lines. 
 
 Appraisal of the Spokane and inland Empire Electric Railroad. 
 The following is condensed from an article by H. L. Gray, Engi- 
 neering and Contracting, Dec. 27, 1911. The appraisal was made 
 in connection with a rate case. The railway is interstate, but as 
 the mileage in the State of Idaho is comparatively small, it was 
 decided to establish a precedent and appraise the property lying 
 in Idaho, as well as that within the State of Washington, and to 
 show a separate estimate for each state. 
 
 Mileage. — This system has a total main track mileage of 234.86 
 miles, of which 204.52 miles are within the State of Washington, 
 while 30.25 miles are within the state of Idaho. The trackage 
 within the State of Washington includes 47.34 miles of street rail- 
 way in the City of Spokane. In addition to the above mileage, 
 there is a total of 44.83 miles of other tracks, of which 34.25 miles 
 are in the State of Washington and 10.58 miles within the State of 
 Idaho, making a total track mileage of 279.60. 
 
 Construction Features. — The only particularly noteworthy fea- 
 tures of construction found on this system exist on the Inland 
 Division. The location of that portion of the line presented unusual 
 
 1517 
 
1518 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 difficulties, owing to the fact that it runs squarely across the drain- 
 age systems of the country, necessitating very expensive grading, 
 excessive curvature and heavy grades. The maximum curvature 
 is 12 degs., the average amount of curvature per mile being 105 
 degs., or almost four times that usually encountered on steam 
 roads. The maximum grade of 2% is frequently encountered. 
 
 The single phase, alternating current system of distribution 
 is used on this division, which, although much more expensive as 
 regards first cost, was adopted with the idea that the economy of 
 operation would offset the increased cost of construction. At the 
 time this line was built the .single phase system of distribution was 
 largely an experiment, only a few such systems existing in the 
 world. Even after the line was constructed, continual experiment- 
 ing was necessary in order to perfect the operation. The train 
 records of the company would indicate that so far as concerns the 
 efficiency of operation, this system has been a decided success. On 
 account of the high voltage of the power used, the ordinary motor 
 cars will force their way through the heavy snows of the Palouse 
 country without the aid of a snow plow. The winter of 1910 was 
 undoubtedly one of the most severe ever experienced in this locality, 
 and the first train running over the line in the morning would 
 frequently encounter at least twelve inches of snow on the level, 
 and sometimes as much as seven feet of snow in the cuts. No pro- 
 vision was made to protect the cars, with the exception of an iron 
 sheathing over the pilot, and in spite of such adverse conditions, 
 the longest delay due to snow during the entire winter was twenty 
 minutes. 
 
 The trolley construction on this division is of the catenary type, 
 the messenger wire and trolley being supported by mast arms, the 
 messenger wire acting as a conductor. A large portion of the 
 power used is supplied by what is known as the Nine Mile Power 
 Plant, built at a cost of one and one-quarter millions of dollars, 
 being strictly modern and up-to-date in every way. The plant is 
 capable of generating 12.000 k.v.a. working under a 58-ft. head. 
 Power is generated by four 3.000 k.v.a. Westinghouse alternating 
 current generators coupled to four 5,500 hp. Holyoke turbines, under 
 control of Lombard governors, with the additional protection of 
 emergency controllers. In addition to the power generated by this 
 plant, a large amount of power is purchased from the Washington 
 Water Power Company. 
 
 Actual Cost. — An investigation of the records showed the present 
 company to be an amalgamation of a number of companies built 
 during previous years, namely : the Spokane and Coeur d'Alene 
 Railway Company, Ltd. ; the Spokane Traction Company ; the 
 Spokane and Inland Railway Company ; and the Spokane Terminal 
 Company ; all of which were merged into the present company on 
 January 1, 1907. The aggregate cost of the entire property owned 
 and operated was $15,314,357, although the book cost was some- 
 what in excess of this amount, due to the inclusion of discount in 
 the plant account. The amount of actual ca.sh invested in the 
 property, exclusive of right of way and real estate, was $13,704,960. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1519 
 
 The greater portion of the money invested was obtained from the 
 sale of stock, which is rather an unusual condition in the case of 
 railroad construction. 
 
 Paving Considered as Part of the Property. — As usual in the 
 case of street railways, the franchises granted to the company 
 provided that in case any streets occu])ied by tracks should be 
 subsequently paved, the company would be required to pay for and 
 maintain the paving upon its tracks and for a distance of two feet 
 from the extreme outside of the rail. It has been contended in 
 various appraisals made of street railway properties that such 
 paving should not be considered as an asset of the street railway 
 company, but should rather be regarded in the light of a tax 
 imposed upon the company by the city. In this instance, however, 
 the paving is included as railway property. 
 
 Unit Prices. — The estimated costs of reproducing this system, 
 which was made as of January 1, 1911, was based upon the actual 
 material known to have been used in its construction, while the 
 prices used for such material, and for labor, were the prices that 
 would prevail during the assumed construction period. It is ex- 
 tremely probable that there would have been but little difference in 
 the estimated cost of reproduction, as shown, had the average price 
 for the five preceding years been used. 
 
 Quantities. — As no estimate of the cost of reproducing the prop- 
 erty had been prepared by the company officials, it was necessary 
 for the engineers of the Commission to compile a statement of 
 quantities, and to investigate and obtain the prevailing prices. 
 The statement of grading quantities was, in the main, obtained 
 from the final estimates as allowed the different contractors, and 
 such estimates were again checked with vouchers in existence in the 
 Accounting Department. The statement of track material was care- 
 fully checked in the field, certain portions of the track being 
 selected at random and checked by engineers on foot, until it was 
 considered that the correctness of the tabulations was established. 
 All bridges were examined and measured, poles and guys were 
 counted, while structures of all kinds were examined and their 
 dimensions ascertained. All electrical machinery and apparatus 
 was inspected and listed. The only item which was difficult to 
 ascertain was the amount of ballast. Owing to the fact that the 
 line was never completely ballasted, the work having been done 
 piecemeal, it was an extremely hard matter to ascertain the amount 
 of ballast under the ties. 
 
 Labor Costs. — As is usually the case, obtaining representative 
 labor costs presented the greatest difficulty. Obtaining prices of 
 material involves quite an amount of work, but arriving at proper 
 labor charges calls for a great deal more. Owing to the fact that 
 this road was but recently constructed, it was felt that the cost of 
 reproduction should certainly not depart in any marked degree 
 from the actual cost. It was, therefore, decided to obtain the labor 
 costs altogether from the records of the company, if possible. To 
 this end, hundreds of work records compiled by the Engineering 
 Department, and bearing on work recently done, were examined, in 
 
1520 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 order to ascertain what different classes of work were costing the 
 company , so that in the end practically all of the labor costs used 
 in connection with the overhead construction were obtained from 
 these reports. It should not be inferred that the actual construc- 
 tion costs were taken in all cases. For example, the grading on 
 the Opportunity Line, which was done by company forces, actually 
 cost 50 cts. per cu. yd. for gravel excavation, while for the pur- 
 poses of the estimate, 30 cts. per cu. yd. was deemed a fair price. 
 The average daily wage of laborers engaged in setting poles on 
 the different di\f|^sions during the construction period was $1.75 
 per day. In the estimate of reproduction the Union scale of $2.50 
 per day was used. 
 
 Comparison of Actual Cost With Appraised Value. — The esti- 
 mated cost of reproducing the property (exclusive of real estate 
 and right of way), has almost invariably been less than the actual 
 cost. In this case, an extensive investigation was conducted con- 
 cerning the comparative present and past costs of labor and ma- 
 terial, in order to be properly prepared for cross examination. 
 
 Among other things it was found that the price of copper at the 
 date of appraisal was much lower than when the road was built. 
 In all probability, the copper used by the company was purchased 
 on an average base price of at least 20 cts. for ingot copper, while 
 the base price used in the estimate of reproduction was only 13 cts. 
 The price of car bodies and trucks was found to have advanced 
 approximately 10% in the last five years. The price of poles had 
 decreased slightly, while there had been no appreciable changes in 
 the cost of electrical machinery or in the price of labor. 
 
 Overhead or Loading Charges. — The estimated cost of reproduc- 
 tion included an allowance of 10% for Engineering, Supervision and 
 Organization Expense ; 5% interest during the construction period ; 
 5% for contingencies ; and 3.75% for brokers' fees. In addition to 
 this, there was included the sum of $500,000 to cover the item of 
 Stores and Working Capital. 
 
 Cars. — It should be noted that the percentage items of En- 
 gineering, Supervision and Organization Expense, Interest During 
 Construction and Contingencies, do not cover expenditures for equip- 
 ment. This was due to the fact that the allowance for Engineering, 
 Supervision and Organization Expense was in a manner based upon 
 percentages obtained by arriving at the actual ratio borne to the 
 cost of construction, exclusive of equipment, by these three items. 
 Further, the equipment would probably not be delivered and paid 
 for until near the close of the construction period ; hence, no in- 
 vestment would be required until that time and the expenditures 
 for interest would not be necessary. The cost of reproducing the 
 equipment was based upon actual contract prices, which are so 
 clean cut and so complete in every detail, that it was considered 
 unnecessary to allow contingencies for this item. Brokers' Fees, 
 however, cover expenditures for every other item included in the 
 estimated cost of reproduction. 
 
 Summary. — The table shows the cost of reproduction by accounts 
 and by states. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1521 
 
 TABLE I. COST BY STATES 
 (Equipment included.) 
 
 Washington Idaho Total 
 
 Inland division $ 6,550,350 % 466,572 $ 7,016 922 
 
 Coeur d'Alene division 1,278,708 1,094,260 2 372 968 
 
 Traction division 2,027,405 2 027,405 
 
 Joint tracks and terminals 763,930 '763 930 
 
 Nine Mile power plant 1,498,490 1,498*490 
 
 Nine Mile tran. lines 65,404 65404 
 
 Commercial power lines 116,343 60.498 176*841 
 
 $12,300,630 $1,621,330 $13,921,960 
 
 COST OF REPRODUCTION, ENTIRE SYSTEM, BY ACCOUNTS 
 
 Total 
 
 Grading $ 1,768,578 
 
 Ballast 280,475 
 
 Ties 291.925 
 
 Rails, fast, and joints 1,508,413 
 
 Frogs and switches 151,675 
 
 Paving 254,475 
 
 Track laying and surf 326.241 
 
 Roadway tools 6,600 
 
 Tunnels 51.626 
 
 Bridges, trestles and culverts 670,065 
 
 Crossings, etc 117,126 
 
 Interlocking, etc 22,111 
 
 Tel. and tel. lines 30,344 
 
 Poles and fixtures 341,616 
 
 Transmission system 179,727 
 
 Distribution system 465,557 
 
 Dams and power houses 869,500 
 
 Substation buildings 161,249 
 
 General office buildings 125,400 
 
 Shops and car houses 151,472 
 
 Stations, etc 149,691 
 
 Water stations 4,800 
 
 Docks and wharves 32,210 
 
 Power plant equipment 270,000 
 
 Substation equipment 774,309 
 
 Shop equipment 41,000 
 
 Park and resort property 83,167 
 
 Teams and vehicles 4,215 
 
 Eng., supt. and org. exp 913,356 
 
 Interest during construction 502,346 
 
 Contingencies ^^I'lr a 
 
 Stores and working capital 500,000 
 
 Steam locomotives ^^'nn^ 
 
 Electric locomotives ^'''^'caa 
 
 Passenger trnin cars 631,500 
 
 Freight train cars Ir^ocA 
 
 Traction cars ^oJ aaa 
 
 Work equipment i?'Ann 
 
 Floating equipment i occn 
 
 Misc. equipment kao'oaq 
 
 Brokers' fees bii6,zyi6 
 
 Totals $13,921,960 
 
 • 
 Valuation of the Puget Sound Electric Railway. The following 
 is abstracted from an article by Henry L. Gray in Engineering 
 and Contracting, May 25, 1910. 
 
 The Puget Sound Electric owns and operates a line between the 
 
1522 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 cities of Seattle and Tacoma, and in addition, branch lines extend- 
 ing to Renton, a smaller city having extensive coal mining and 
 ceramic industries ; the Orting branch extending to Puyallup, the 
 center of a large berry and fruit district, and a short feeder serving 
 the packing house district of Tacoma, known as the Tide Flats 
 line. The company also owns the East P. Street line in the city 
 of Tacoma, and what is known as the old Puyallup line, but as 
 both of the latter are leased and operated by the Tacoma Railway 
 & Power Co., they are not considered part of the system. The com- 
 pany also owns several lighting franchises in cities along the line, 
 as well as a large tract of timber land, and a saw mill which is 
 operated for commercial purposes. This road, as well as the street, 
 railway systems of Seattle and Tacoma, is owned by Stone, and 
 Webster, with their associates, being managed by the former. 
 
 The main line extends from the city limits of Seattle to the city 
 limits of Tacoma, a distance of 32.01 miles, entrance to the busi- 
 ness centers of the cities being obtained over the tracks of the 
 Tacoma Railway & Power Co. and the Seattle Electric Co. The 
 track mileage owned and operated was as follows on June 30, 1909 : 
 
 Main track : Miles 
 
 First track, main line 32.01 
 
 Second track, main line 10.91 
 
 Orting branch 6.94 
 
 Renton branch 2.96 
 
 Tide Flats line 0.58 
 
 Total main track 53 40 
 
 Sidings, etc. : 
 
 On main line 8.24 
 
 On Orting branch 0.60 
 
 On Renton branch 1.38 
 
 On Tide Plats line 0.13 
 
 Total sidings, etc 10.35 
 
 Grand total 63.75 
 
 On the main line, between Seattle and Tacoma, consisting of 42.92 
 miles of first and second track, there are 7.30 miles of curved 
 track. The total ascent is 356 ft., and the total descent is 409 ft. 
 About 7 miles of the line was built on trestles. 
 
 The main line and Renton branch were built in 1902, the Tide 
 Flats line in 1904, the Orting branch in 1908, and the second track 
 over a period from 1904 to 1909. The population of Seattle is about 
 250,000, Tacoma, 150,000, while the country tributary to the line 
 contains approximately 15,000 people, many of whom own small 
 tracts adjacent to towns, working in Seattle and Tacoma, going to 
 and from their work each day. All of the larger towns on this 
 road are also served by two steam roads charging 3 cts. per mile, 
 while Seattle and Tacoma have boat service at intervals ©of two 
 hours, the boat fare being 35 cts. one way or 50 cts. for the round 
 trip. 
 
 The land became quite valuable for small fruit raising, truck 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1523 
 
 gardening and dairying, the values ranging from $100 to $1,000 
 per acre. Real estate firms acquired large tracts and disposed of 
 them in smaller tracts of from one to five acres, selling them on 
 monthly payments to clerks and artisans employed in the terminal 
 cities, whose intention it was to use their spare time building up 
 small vegetable or berry gardens and ultimately devoting their 
 entire time to such work. 
 
 As in the case of the valuation of the steam roads, finding the 
 actual cost consumed the major portion of the time. It is an aston- 
 ishing fact that, with one exception, there has never been a railroad 
 under investigation by the Railroad Commission of Washington 
 which could readily give the cost of construction, and, in many 
 cases, little or no record of such cost existed. Fortunately, how- 
 ever, there are other records besides books or company records, 
 and this important item has invariably been determined to the 
 satisfaction of all concerned. In the present case the property 
 account represented only the face value of stocks and bonds which 
 had been issued in payment for the construction of the road, the 
 records of the original construction being missing from the general 
 ofiices in Tacoma and there being some doubt as to their exist- 
 ence. Every vault and out of the way place in the Tacoma 
 office was carefully explored. Several old letter files, found in a 
 dark corner of an unused vault, proved to be mines of information, 
 one of them containing a complete itemized statement of the cost 
 of the road at the time it was turned over to the operating de- 
 partment. The rest was easy, and was made even more so by the 
 arrival of a similar statement from the Boston office, checking the 
 statement found in Tacoma. 
 
 Similar conditions existed in the engineering departnient. Owing 
 to the general scheme of construction, which contemplated payment 
 for work with stocks and bonds, no quantities or final estimates 
 were available. A thorough examination was made of the entire 
 line, cross sections were taken where the profile could not be relied 
 upon to indicate the grading quantities ; material in cuts was 
 classified, buildings and bridges measured up and examined, and 
 in short, all data possble were compiled in the field. The existing 
 office records were compared with the field notes and a fairly 
 close check resulted. The grading quantities were obtained partly 
 from a profile estimate and partly from the cross sections taken 
 in the field. The material in 'the cuts was classified according to 
 the field inspection and the over-haul computed from the profile. 
 The statement of track material was taken from the office records, 
 which checked the field notes closely. The bridge and building lists 
 were compiled from the field notes, as the office records were not 
 comi)lete. Ballast was the subject of much discussion and was a 
 source of disagreement. An itemized statement of the transmission 
 and distribution systems prepared by the Superintendent of Power 
 was of great assistance, checking the field notes closely. The 
 Master Mechanic provided a list of equipment which was of great 
 aid. Except in the case of grading and ballast, no difference existed 
 
1524 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 between the statements of quantities compiled by the engineers 
 of the railway and those of the Commission, while every disposi- 
 tion was shown to aid the latter. 
 
 Pi'oceeding- upon the theory that what a thing cost is at least 
 good evidence of what it might cost again, the records of the au- 
 ditor's office were closely examined and all improvement requisi- 
 tions scrutinized. The purchasing agent was in great demand, for 
 while the engineers engaged in this work were, from much experi- 
 ence, familiar with the cost of material, yet prices fluctuate and 
 it is frequently the case that a small road is compelled to pay more 
 for its supplies than a larger one, and these things should be taken 
 into consideration, A great deal of information was obtained from 
 the old letter files previously referred to ; for instance, they con- 
 tained an itemized statement of the cost of track laying. Officers 
 of the company were freely consulted, as it' was the desire to com- 
 pile a fair statement of quantities involved, and to show the actual 
 prices which would prevail should the road be reconstructed. 
 
 The cost of reproducing the right of way and real estate was 
 arrived at in exactly the same manner as in a condemnation suit. 
 Lists were prepared, with the necessary maps, and furnished to 
 real estate experts, who walked over the line valuing each piece 
 of right of way on the basis of the value of the contiguous property, 
 regardless of the fact that the presence of the railroad lent value 
 to such property. These lists, with the allotted value shown 
 thereon, were introduced as evidence. Testimony was then taken 
 as to the value of such property for railroad purposes, which 
 showed clearly that it was necessary to multiply the land value by 
 a factor, in order to arrive at the cost of repurchasing the prop- 
 erty for railroad purposes. This factor ranged from 1 to 5, de- 
 pending altogether upon the location and value, city property re- 
 quiring a factor of about 1%, first-class farm property, about. 21/^, 
 while land which was practically worthless, required a factor nearer 
 5. The smaller the value of the land, the higher the factor. After 
 considering the testimony of the experts on both sides, and review- 
 ing possible consequential damages, the cost of reproducing the 
 right of way and real estate was fixed. As the road owns very 
 little city property, practically all of the sum shown as the cost 
 of reproduction of right of way and real estate, represents the 
 former, so that the average cost of reproduction per acre v/as about 
 $1,250. As the average value of the contiguous property was about 
 $500, the average factor was approximately 2^2- It is a com- 
 mendable fact that the estimate made by the railroad officials was 
 smaller than that made by the real estate experts employed by the 
 Commission. 
 
 During the appraisal of the steam roads, of the state, it was 
 established that 3%% of the total cost of construction was an 
 ample allowance for engineering, and that 1 per cent, of such cost 
 was sufficient to cover expenditures for legal and general expense. 
 But as the construction of this road presented no difficult engineer- 
 ing problems, it was considered that, in this case, 3% would be a 
 liberal allowance for engineering, but it developed that in addition 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1525 
 
 to the sum expended for local engineering, Stone and Webster had 
 received an additional 10 per cent, as an engineering commission. 
 The matter of an engineering commission had not presented itself 
 before, the steam roads, who were not supposed to over-look any- 
 thing, contending for a total allowance of only 5% for engineering. 
 It was a well known fact, however, that such a charge was by no 
 means unusual, but it was apparent that such a commission was not 
 a strictly " engineering commission," but really covered the cost 
 incident to purchasing supplies and expenses of management dur- 
 ing construction, and was in a way a fee for procuring the funds 
 for the construction, so that the only doubt was under which head 
 to include such commission, which was finally shown under the 
 account "Fiscal and Physical Supervision and Management." In 
 accordance with the usual custom, 1% was allowed for " Legal and 
 General Expense " and 5 per cent, for " Contingencies." The latter 
 item was a source of much contention, the railway claiming that 
 10% should be allowed. It was held, however, that, as the quan- 
 tities were known, and as prices were very liberal and had been 
 fixed after due consideration of the cost, and that as allowance had 
 been made for extra work, and for other items of expense which 
 could not be estimated, many of the contingencies which 
 might be met with had been taken care of in the estimate, so that 
 5% was a fair allowance in such a case. 
 
 The amount of cash and the approximate value of the stores on 
 hand at the time of the inquiry were allowed under the account 
 " Stores and Working Capital," the same being approximately 10% 
 of the estimated cost of reproduction, w^hich was the percentage 
 recommended by the writer. Interest at 5% per annum was allowed, 
 it being considered that 1^/^ yrs. would be required in which to 
 construct the road. This item amounted to 7V1>% on the cost of 
 reproducing the right of way and one-half of this, or 3%% on the 
 remaining construction items, as the sum invested in the> latter 
 would only be required for an average of one-half the time. The 
 lighting system, both physically and financially, was so closely 
 interwoven with the railway, that it was deemed inexpedient to 
 attempt to separate them, so it was allowed as representing part 
 of the cost of reproducing the system. The locomotives and motor 
 car had been purchased second hand, hence the cost of reproducing 
 them second hand was allowed, rather than the co.st of reproducing 
 them new. 
 
 Probably the most thoroughly contested point was " Discount," 
 the railroad engineers contending that 10%, of the total e.stimated 
 expenditure should be allowed to cover this item, and should be 
 included in the cost of reproduction. It was shown that the bonds 
 had sold at 85 while stock was given with the bonds as a bonu.s, 
 but the Commission held that when a railroad was built entire 
 from the .sale of bonds, it ceased to be an investment, and became a 
 speculation; that in such a case it was doubtful if the stock was 
 entitled to any retturn. Testimony was introduced showing that if 
 25% of the stock of a legitimate enterprise was paid up; that the 
 bonds would without question .sell at par, while the entire expense 
 
1526 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in connection with the sale of such bonds would not exceed 5% ; 
 hence 5% of 75% of the total estimated expenditures was allowed 
 as " Broker's Fees." 
 
 The depreciated value was arrived at by the combined use of 
 mortality tables and by field inspection, and represents the cost of 
 reproduction less depreciation. The cost of reproducing the dif- 
 ferent items, for example, pile bridges, was determined, and the 
 average life and age being known, the depreciation in dollars was 
 easily obtained. The possible scrap value of material was taken 
 into account, as in the case of rails, which were assigned a life of 
 20 yrs., with a scrap value of 40%, or an annual depreciation of 
 3%. Trolley wire was assigned a life of 10 yrs., during which time 
 it was considered that it would wear 25%, having a scrap value of 
 60%, hence the actual scrap value would be only 45%, and the an- 
 nual depreciation 5i^%. Substation equipment was carefully in- 
 spected, and found to be practically new after seven years' use, but 
 as obsolescence and inadequacy are forms of depreciation and may 
 be expected to play a part, an annual depreciation of 5% was al- 
 lowed for this item. 
 
 The actual original cost of the road was found to be $3,647,018, 
 which included $407,234, advanced for working capital and $305,929 
 of discount, leaving a net cost of $2,933,855. 
 
 In fixing the cost of reproduction the Railroad Commission re- 
 gards its engineer simply in the light of a witness, and is not 
 bound by his testimohy, hence it is not uncommon for quantities 
 or prices to be increased or decreased after hearing to the tes- 
 timony of the defendant's witnesses. Many questions are simply 
 matter of opinion and depend upon the point of view. The follow- 
 ing table includes all items and shows the total estimated cost of 
 reproduction and depreciated value as made by the engineers and 
 the sum fixed by the Commission in their findings : 
 
 Engineer Engineer Allowed by 
 
 of the railroad railroad 
 
 commission company commission 
 
 Cost of reproduction $3,943,550 $5,123,173 $4,157,558 
 
 Depreciated value 3,352,463 4,424,395 3,598,232 
 
 COST OF REPRODUCING NEW THE PUGET SOUND 
 ELECTRIC RY. 
 
 (June 30, 1909.) 
 
 1. Right of way and real estate $917,733 
 
 2. Engineering and superintendence : 
 
 3% of items 4 to 25 ' 53,336 
 
 3. Fiscal and physical supervision : 
 
 Amount expended ■ 186,955 
 
 4. Grading: 
 
 610,000 cu. yds. common excava., at $t).25 152,500 
 
 47,500 cu. yds. common long haul, at $0.095 4,512 
 
 150,000 cu. yds. hard pan, at $0.45 67,500 
 
 1,150 cu. yds. solid rock, at $1.10 1,265 
 
 700,000 cu. yds. overhaul 100 ft. at $0.01 7,000 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1527 
 
 133 acres clearing- at $60.00 $ 7 ggo 
 
 580 stations grubbing- at $15.00 *.*.'.'.*.'' 8*700 
 
 580 stations g-rubbing at $15.00 ' . ." * 8*700 
 
 200 dangerous trees cut at $2.00 . .\ '400 
 
 Ditching and miscel . . . 2,000 
 
 Total grading .$251,857 
 
 5. Ballast: 
 
 46.35 miles gravel at $1,100.00 $ 50,985 
 
 6. Ties: 
 
 157,877 ties (6 by 8 by 8) at $0.35 $ 55 207 
 
 16,646 ties (6 by 8 by 9) at $0.40 6,'658 
 
 Total ties , $ 61,865 
 
 7. Rails, fastenings and joints : 
 
 5.292.8 tons 30-ft. steel rails at $39.50 $209,066 
 
 1,409.1 tons 60-ft. steel rails at $41.50 58,478 
 
 14.584 Weber joints (60 and 70-ib.) at $2.50 36,460 
 
 1,327 American continuous joints at $2.15 » 2,853 
 
 106,596 lb. angle bars (56 and 60-lb.) at $0.03 3,198 
 
 25,240 lb. fish plates (30, 40 and 42-lb.) at $0.025 631 
 
 10,304 lb. track bolts (% by 3% ) at $0.0325 85 
 
 2,574 lb. track bolts (% by 2 1^ ) at $0.325 85 
 
 369,986 lb. spikes (9/16 by 5 1/^ ) at $0.0225 8,325 
 
 2,000 braces at $0.10 200 
 
 3,010 lin. ft. guard rail at $0.50 1,505 
 
 Total rails, fastenings and joints $321,136 
 
 8. Frogs and switches : 
 
 66 spring frog-s (70-lb.) at $50.00 $ 3,300 
 
 22 rigid frogs (70-lb.) at $30.00 660 
 
 22 rigid frogs (60-lb.) at $30.00 660 
 
 16 rigid frogs (50-lb.) at $25.00 400 
 
 13 rigid frogs (40-lb.) at $20.00 260 
 
 72 split switches complete (70-lb.) at $40.00 2,880 
 
 12 split switches complete (60-lb.) at $35.00 420 
 
 1 split switch complete (50-lb.) at $25.00 25 
 
 6 split switches complete (40-lb.) at $15.00 ,... 90 
 
 8 sets head chairs at $4.00 32 
 
 8 sets tie bars at $10.00 80 
 
 59 high stands at $25.00 1,475 
 
 2 low stands at $18.00 36 
 
 30 ground throws at $10.00 300 
 
 139 pairs guard rails at $10.00 1,390 
 
 47 loose tongue switches at $50.00 2,350 
 
 3 derails at $6.00 ". 18 
 
 59 switch lamps at $5.00 .' . 295 
 
 61 switch locks at $0.50 31 
 
 5 crossing frogs at $300.00 1,500 
 
 Total frogs and switches $ 16,201 
 
 9. Paving : 
 
 1,096,630 ft. B. M. fir planking- at $16.00 $ 17,546 
 
 140 kegs wire spokes at $3.00 420 
 
 40,000 ft. B. M, wood filler at $24.00 960 
 
 600 cu. yd. broken stone at $1.50 900 
 
 Total paving- $ 19,826 
 
 10. Track laying and .surfacing: 
 
 63.75 miles track at $700.00 $ 44.625 
 
 139 frogs and switches placed at $25.00 3,475 
 
 5 crossing frogs placed at $25.00 125 
 
 Total track laying and surfacing- % 48,225 
 
1528 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 11. Tunnels: 
 
 180 lin. ft. timber lined at $65.00 $ 11,700 
 
 12. Bridges, trestles and culverts : 
 
 210 lin. ft. span bow steel truss (on cylinder piers) 
 
 at $100.00 $ 21.000 
 
 72 lin. ft. span deck girder (pile abuts.) at $50.00. . . 3,600 
 
 60 lin. ft. span I-beam (pile abuts.) at $30.00 1,800 
 
 220 lin. ft. span combination (2 spans of 110 ft. cylin- 
 der piers) at $55.00 12,100 
 
 150 lin. ft. span combination (pile abuts.) at $45.00. . 6,750 
 
 150 lin. ft. span combination (cylinder piers) at $47.00 7,050 
 200 lin. ft. span Howe truss draw (on pile crib) at 
 
 $65.00 13,000 
 
 190 lin. ft. span Howe truss draw (on pile crib) at 
 
 $65.00 12,350 
 
 100 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 
 
 $30.00 3,000 
 
 80 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 
 
 $25.00 2,000 
 
 87 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 
 
 $27.00 2,349 
 
 60 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 
 
 $20.00 1,200 
 
 361,612 lin. ft. piles in place at $0.25 90,403 
 
 39,256 lin. ft. piles cut off at $0.10 3,925 
 
 4,889,386 ft. B. M. timber in trestles at $28.00 136,903 
 
 166,451 lb. wrt. Iron in trestles at $0.035 5,826 
 
 121,515 lb. cast iron in trestles at $0.035 3,645 
 
 150 lin. ft. of 12-in. vitrified pipe at $1.00 150 
 
 272 lin. ft. of 14-in. vitrified pipe at $1.25 340 
 
 659 lin. ft. of 15-in. vitrified pipe at $1.35 889 
 
 802 lin. ft. of 16-in. vitrified pipe at $1.50 1,203 
 
 1,364 lin. ft. of 18-in. vitrified pipe at $1.75 2,387 
 
 42 lin. ft. of 24-in. vitrified pipe at $2.90 122 
 
 8.382 ft. B. M. timber in wooden boxes at $25.00 210 
 
 8,283 lin. ft. logs in culverts at $0.12 994 
 
 River bank protection. Black River, cost 4,857 
 
 Fill and dam, Puyallup River, cost 4.000 
 
 2,000 cu. yd. riprap at $1.25 2,500 
 
 Total bridges, trestles and culverts $344,553 
 
 13. Crossings, fences, cattle guards and signs: 
 
 82,615 ft. B. M. timber in crossings at $20.00 $ 1,652 
 
 146,233 ft, B. M. timber in inclines to grade crossings at 
 
 $27.00 . . . .* 3 948 
 
 1,074 lb. wrt. iron,' in inclines, at $0,035 ......[......[. '38 
 
 210 lb. cast iron, in inclines, at $0.035 6 
 
 30 kegs wire spikes, in inclines, at $3.00 90 
 
 9,650 ft. B. M. timber in farm crossing inclines, at $25.00 241 
 
 3 kegs wire spikes in ditto at $3.00 9 
 
 54 single miles board fence at $450.00 24,300 
 
 8 single miles comb, woven and wire fence at $300.00 2,400 
 
 1.960 lin. ft. tight board fence at $0.56 1,097 
 
 150 board gates at $3.00 450 
 
 82 cattle guards, trackman, at $25.00 2,050 
 
 207 cattle guards, Bartlett, at $20.00 4,140 
 
 13 danger signs at $2.00 26 
 
 196 warning signs at $2.00 392 
 
 28 railroad crossing signs at $5.00 140 
 
 3 station signs, single, at $10.00 30 
 
 35 electric rail signs at $3.00 105 
 
 38 " stop, look, listen " signs at $1.00 28 
 
 4 yard limit signs at $4.00 16 
 
 3 city limit signs at $1.00 3 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1529 
 
 31 whistle posts at $1.00 $ 31 
 
 19 S. posts at $1.00 . 19 
 
 Total crossings, fences, etc $ 41,508 
 
 14. Interlocking and signal apparatus: 
 
 38 platform stop signals at $8.00 $ 304 
 
 3 train order signals at $20.00 60 
 
 2 block light sets at $275.00 550 
 
 Total interlocking and signal $ 914 
 
 15. Telegraph and telephone lines: 
 
 53 cedar poles, 45-ft., at $4.50 $ 238 
 
 66 cedar poles, 40-ft., at $3.80 251 
 
 1,675 cross arms (4 pin) v/ith hardware at $0.80 1,340 
 
 316 cross arms (6 pin) with hardware at $1.00 316 
 
 15,312 lb. telephone wire No. 10 copper at $0.18 2,756 
 
 13,300 lb. telegraph wire No. 9 bare iron at $0.06 798 
 
 1,750 lb. telegraph wire No. 10 W. P. at $0.07 122 
 
 5,886 double petticoat insulators with pins at $0.07 412 
 
 11 telegraph keys at $1.05 12 
 
 10 telegraph sounders at $5.25 52 
 
 14 telegraph relays at $4.20 59 
 
 6 telegraph box relays at $4.25 25 
 
 12 telegraph cut outs at $1.25 15 
 
 Telephone switchboard, cost 275 
 
 Telephone storage battery, cost 25 
 
 Labor 2,500 
 
 Total telegraph and telephone lines $ 9,196 
 
 16. Poles and fixtures: 
 
 1,544 transmission poles, 50-ft, cedar at $5.50 $ 8,492 
 
 28 transmission poles, 70-ft. cedar, at $11.25 315 
 
 603 trolley poles, 30-ft., at $2.55 1,538 
 
 324 trolley poles, 40-ft., at $3.80 1,231 
 
 1,635 transmission cross arms, 2 pin, with hardware, at 
 
 $0.70 1,144 
 
 1,572 feeder cross arms, 4 pin, with hardware, at $0.80.. 1,258 
 
 316 feeder cross arms, 6 pin, with hardware, at $1.00.. 316 
 
 57 guy wire clamps, galv., 3-bolt, at $0.12 7 
 
 14 line anchor clamps, mal. galv., at $0.50 7 
 
 82 anchor rods at $0.50 41 
 
 Labor 14,979 
 
 Total poles and fixtures $ 29,328 
 
 17. Transmission System : 
 
 25 050 lb. transmission line wire, bore 1-0, at $0.18 $ 4,509 
 
 6 516 lb. transmission line wire, bore No. 1, at $0.18.... '^'\1% 
 
 54,534 lb. transmission line wire, bore No. 4, at $0.18 ^'„i„ 
 
 3,425 insulator pine at $0.40 1,370 
 
 1,607 pole brackets at $0.40 „ 643 
 
 5.025 insulators at $1.50 ">538 
 
 Miscel. material , xIIa 
 
 Labor 
 
 4.000 
 
 Total transmission system % 29,548 
 
 18. Distribution System- 
 72 cut out switches, 50 ampere Q. B., at $9.00. .......$ 648 
 
 66,598 lb. 3d rail cro.ssing cables W. P. 500 M. C. M. at 
 
 PA -I Q 11,000 
 
 2.353 lb. '3d rail " crossing cables ' W.'P.' 300 M. C. M. at 
 
 $0.18 424 
 
1530 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 765 lb. 3d rail feed taps W. P. 500 M. C. M. at $0.18. . .$ 138 
 
 371 lb. 3d rail feed taps, W. P. 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 67 
 
 300 lb. 3d rail feed taps W. P. 100 M. C. M. at $0.18. . . 54 
 
 74,470 lb. overhead feeders, bare, 500 M. C. M. at $0.18.. 13,405 
 
 137,529 lb. overhead feeders, bare, 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 24,755 
 
 9,119 lb. overhead feeders, W. P., 500 M. C. M. at $0.18. . 1,641 
 
 4,787 lb. overhead grounds, W. P., 500 M. C. M. at $0.18. . 862 
 
 900 lb. overhead grounds, W. P., 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 162 
 613 lb. cross bars, frogs and switch jumpers, W. P. 
 
 500 M. C. M. at $0.18 110 
 
 1,142 lb. ditto, W. P., 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 206 
 
 335 lb. ditto, W. P.. 4-0 M. C. M. at $0.18 60 
 
 16,900 running rail bonds main line at $0.50 8,450 
 
 1,200 running rail bonds 212 B. B. at $0.44 528 
 
 304 running rail bonds " A " 4-0 at $0.37 112 
 
 6,745 third rail bonds at $1.28 8,634 
 
 16,863 third rail insulators at $0.88 14,839 
 
 2,935 tons third rail (30-ft., 100-lb.) at $39.50 115,933 
 
 252 third rail noses at $2.00 504 
 
 504 nose fish plates at $0.70 352 
 
 12,800 third rail fish plates at $0.24 3,072 
 
 32,000 lb. third rail bolts at $0.03 960 
 
 55,432 lb. trolley wire 4-0 at $0.18 9,978 
 
 11,290 lb. trolley wire 2-0 at $0.18 2,032 
 
 4,880 lb. trolley wire 1-0 at 0.18 878 
 
 38,000 ft. Siemens-Martens steel cable, yir.-in., at 0.0315 . . 1,197 
 
 2,000 ft. Siemens-Martens steel cable, %-in., at 0.027 54 
 
 3,000 ft. Siemens-Martens steel cable, 14-in., at 0.025 75 
 
 16,000 ft. signal strand, i^-in., at 0.0083 133 
 
 32,650 ft. signal strand, s/jo-in., at 0.011 359 
 
 1,000 ft. signal strand, %in-., at 0.013 13 
 
 1,639 eye bolts at 0.12 197 
 
 1,542 wood strain insulators, G. E., at 0.23 355 
 
 80 wood strain insulators, home made, at 0.25 20 
 
 240 single curve hangers at 0.51 122 
 
 180 double curve hangers at 0.57 85 
 
 588 straight line hangers at 0.51 300 
 
 1,888 cable insulators with pine at 0.23 434 
 
 659 ears, 2-0, at 0.30 198 
 
 165 ears, single 0, at 0.25 41 
 
 171 ears, 4-0, at 0.35 60 
 
 35 trolley frogs at 3.50 123 
 
 339 T bar pole brackets, at 2.50 848 
 
 16 Richmond flexible pole brackets, at 2.50 40 
 
 53 steady bar bracket attachments at 3.40 180 
 
 3,997 messenger clips, %-in.. mal. galv., at 0.06 240 
 
 8,956 Detroit "Form 2 "clamps, %-in., mal. galv., at $0.10 360 
 
 46 Detroit "Form 5" clamps, %-in. mal. galv., at 0.20 9 
 
 46 strain collars, %-in., at 0.038 2 
 
 645 steel hanger rods, galv., % by 131/2 at 0.03 19 
 
 18 steel hanger rods, galv., % by 13 1^ at 0.075 .. 1 
 
 645 hangers, galv., % byp 4, 120 ft. span, 0.032 21 
 
 616 hangers, galv., % by 51/2, 120 ft. span, at 0.038 23 
 
 645 hangers, galv., % by 71/2. 120 ft. span, at 0.045 29 
 
 645 hangers, galv., % by 9%, 120 ft. span, at 0.053 34 
 
 645 hangers, galv., % by 12%, 120 ft. span, at 0.066 ... 43 
 
 29 hangers, galv., % by 51/2. 120 ft. span, at 0.047 ... 1 
 
 31 hangers, galv., % by 71/', 100 ft. span, at 0.053 2 
 
 16 hangers, galv., % by 8%, 100 ft. span, at 0.059 1 
 
 16 hangers, galv., % by 10 1/2, 100 ft. span, at 0.065 ... 1 
 
 16 hangers, galv., % by IS'A, 100 ft. span, at 0.075 ... 1 
 
 18 hangers, galv., % by 11%, 60 ft. span, at 0.07 1 
 
 18 hangers, galv., % by 12%, 60 ft. span, at 0.073 1 
 
 92 wood brake strain insulators, 1^4 by 14,. at 0.18 17 
 
 18 Crosby clips. % in., at 0.08 1 
 
 57 Crosby clips, Vie in., at 0.09 5 
 
 15 trolley wire connections, brass, 2 by %, 4-0 grvd., 
 
 at 1.10 17 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1531 
 
 339 porcelain messenger insulators, 10,000 v., 1% pin 
 
 hole, at 0.15 .:.;..$ 54 
 
 4 overhead switches at 12.50 50 
 
 100,165 ft. B. M. timber, cable boxes, at 10.00 1,002 
 
 Miscellaneous materia.! 500 
 
 Labor 25,000 
 
 Total distribution system $253,065 
 
 19. Substation Buildings: 
 
 122,708 cu. ft. brick bldg., at Kent, at 0.125 $ 15 338 
 
 28,940 cu. ft. frame bldg., at Kent., at 0.10 " 2*894 
 
 87,030 cu. ft. brick bldg., at Milton, at 0.125 10*879 
 
 28,940 cu. ft. frame bldg., at Milton, at 0.10 ' ' 2*894 
 
 84,820 cu. ft. brick bldg., at Puyallop, at 0.125 '. 10^602 
 
 Total substation buildings $ 42,607 
 
 20. Shops and Car Houses : 
 
 '8,568 sq. ft. corrugated iron car sheds, at 0.45 % 3,855 
 
 19,248 sq. ft. frame car sheds, at 0.50 9,624 
 
 2 sets track scales, at 1,300.00 2,600 
 
 Total shops and car houses % 16,080 
 
 21. Stations and Miscellaneous Buildings : 
 
 Brick and frame station, Tacoma $ 4,000 
 
 2,850 sq. ft. frame station, 2 story, at 2.00 5,700 
 
 5,728 sq. ft. frame stations, bungalow type, at 1.25- 7,160 
 
 8,318 sq. ft. frame stations, old standard, at 1.00 8,318 
 
 108 sq. ft. open sheds, at 0.50 54 
 
 2,396 sq. ft. frame freight sheds, at 0.90 2,156 
 
 1,060 sq. ft. corrugated iron freight sheds, at 0.50 530 
 
 478 sq. ft. miscellaneous frame sheds, at 0.50 239 
 
 216 sq. ft. telephone shacks, at 0.50 108 
 
 306 sq. ft. tool sheds, at 0.50 153 
 
 372 sq. ft. section house, at 0.50 186 
 
 64,111 sq. ft. low passenger platforms, at 0.10 6,411 
 
 5,875 sq. ft. high passenger platforms, at 0.15 881 
 
 4,562 sq. ft. freight platforms, at 0.15 684 
 
 3,909 sq. ft. milk platforms, at 0.20 782 
 
 8 water closets, at 50.00 400 
 
 Total stations and miscel. bldgs % 44,211 
 
 22. Substation Equipment : 
 
 3 lightning arresters, 50,000 volt, 3 pole, at 621.00 ...$ 1,863 
 
 5 oil switches, 50,000 volt, type H, at 1,600.00 8,000 
 
 212 Thomas insulators, 50,000 volt, at 1.85 392 
 
 36 disconnecting switches, 50,000 volt, at 41.50 1,494 
 
 494 lb. bare copper wire, at 0.18 89 
 
 7 oil cooled transformers, 200 kw., at 2,300.00 16,100 
 
 4 oil cooled transformers, 180 kw., at 1,000.00 4,000 
 
 4 current transformers, 50.000 volt, at 150.00 600 
 
 3 inducting motor generator sets, 300 kw., with non- 
 automatic, double pole oil switches, 2,300 volts 
 
 and 600 volt, generator panels (1 slate and 2 
 
 marble), at 8,500.00 25,500 
 
 2 automatic oil switches, 4 pole st. 300 ampere with 
 
 slate slabs and 2 current transformers, at 140.00 280 
 
 3 H. E. Ind. volt meters, with potential transformers, 
 
 at 85.00 255 
 
 6 railway feeder panels, marble, at 200.00 1,200 
 
 1 lightning panel, marble 16 in 100 
 
 1 lightning panel, marble 24 in 300 
 
 2 C. R. regulators at 315.00 630 
 
 2 boo.ster transformers, 3 kw., at 47.50 95 
 
 2 booster transformers, 5 kw., at 66.50 133 
 
1532 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1 polyphase recording watt meter, 300 amp,, and two 
 200 watt potential transformers, and 2 current 
 
 transformers 300-5 amp $ 200 
 
 1 T. R. watt meter, 800 amp., 600 volt 175 
 
 1 induction motor panel, 2,300 volts 290 
 
 40 ft. lead covered insulated cable, 500 M. C. M., at 0.91 36 
 
 400 ft. lead covered insulated cable, No. 2, at 0.90 360 
 
 80 ft. lead covered insulated cable. No. 4, at 0.30 24 
 
 147 ft. weather proof cable, 800 M. C. M., at 0.60 86 
 
 509 ft. weather proof cable, 500 M. C. M., at 0.45 229 
 
 540 ft. rubber covered cable, No. 2, at 0.08 40 
 
 26 ft. rubber covered cable, 500 M. C. M., at 0.65 17 
 
 2 50.000 volt, 150 to 50 current transformers, at 300 . . 600 
 1 motor panel, 24 in. marble, 2,300 volt, with auto- 
 matic oil switch, 300 amp., 4 pole st 290 
 
 1 T. R. watt meter, polyphase, 300 amp., with 2,300 to 
 
 5 current transformers 200 
 
 1 T. R. watt meter, 800 amp., 600 volt 175 
 
 5 oil switches, 3 pole, 30,000 volts, at 400 2,000 
 
 9 disconnecting switches, 30,000 volts, at 20 180 
 
 30 Westinghouse air brake jacks and slabs, at 8 240 
 
 30 marble barriers for same, at 30 900 
 
 3 lightning arresters, 3 pole, 30,000 volts, at 100 300 
 
 3 generator panels, slate 16 in., at 200.00 600 
 
 3 slate slabs and switch handles, at 20.00 60 
 
 6 feeder panels, 16 in. plate, at 50 300 
 
 1 slate slab with synchronizer 55 
 
 2 front connected feeder switches, at 20.00 40 
 
 10 current transformers, 30,000 volt, at 125 1,250 
 
 8 potential transformers, at 150 1,200 
 
 1 compensator for 180 kw. transformers, 17.5 kw 275 
 
 318 lb. bare copper wire, at 0.18 57 
 
 Miscellaneous equipment 500 
 
 3 air compressors and receiving tanks with 4 h.p. 
 
 motors, at 300 900 
 
 Labor of installing transformers and generators in 3 
 
 substations 3,400 
 
 3 storage battery sets consisting of chloride accumu- 
 lators (288 cells of 15 plates per cell; 288 cells of 
 17 plates per cell; 288 cells of 17 negative plates 
 per cell) ; 428 ft. lead covered rubber insulated 
 cable, 3 booster sets, 35 kw. ; 6 marble battery 
 panels; including freight and installation 106,149 
 
 Total substation equipment $182,159 
 
 23. Shop Equipment: 
 
 1 sharper, 20 in $ 250 
 
 1 radial drill, 24 in 150 
 
 1 metal lathe, 20 in. by 12 ft 570 
 
 Miscellaneous hand tools 30 
 
 Total shop equipment $ 1,000 
 
 24. Water Stations : 
 
 2 box tanks, 6 by 7 by 16 ft., at 100.00 $ 200 
 
 Pumping plant and pipe 200 
 
 Total water stations $ 400 
 
 25. Engineering Instruments and roadway tools $ 1,500 
 
 26. Legal and General Expense: 
 
 1% of items 4 to 25 . $ 17,779 
 
 27. Interest During Construction : 
 
 7.5% of item 1, and 3.75% of items 2 to 26 |145,181 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1533 
 
 28. Contingencies: 
 
 5% of all above items, exclusive of items 1, 3 and part 
 
 of 27 (interest on right of way) % 96,266 
 
 29. Stores and Working Capital : 
 
 Cash and stores on hand June 30, 1909 $300,000 
 
 Total construction $3,495,154 
 
 30. Cars (exclusive of electric equip.) : 
 
 9 combination baggage and coach, at 6,206.00 % 55,860 
 
 5 passenger cars, at 4,160 20,530 
 
 4 motor trailers, at 5,500 21^000 
 
 11 trailers, at 5,025.50 55,280 
 
 4 observation cars, at 10.290 41,160 
 
 4 race track cars, at 2,625 10 500 
 
 22 box cars, freight, at 729.50 16,050 
 
 25 hopper cars, freight, at 675 16,875 
 
 14 gondola cars, freight, at 668 9,350 
 
 97 flat cars, freight, at 558 54,126 
 
 2 freight motor cars, box type, at 3,000 6,000 
 
 3 freight motor cars, cab type, at 2,500 7,500 
 
 1 derrick car 1,200 
 
 1 pile driver 1,500 
 
 1 steam shovel 10,000 
 
 Total cars, etc $326,931 
 
 31. Locomotives: 
 
 1 Baldwin, No. 1 steam, second hand $ 2,500 
 
 1 Manchester, No. 2 steam, second hand 2,500 
 
 1 Hinkley, No. 3 steam, second hand 2,500 
 
 Total locomotives $ 7,500 
 
 32. Electric Equipment of Cars: 
 
 8 General Electric No. 66, 4 motor equipments, at 
 
 7,575 $ 60,600 
 
 4 General Electric No. 66, 2 motor equipments, at 
 
 4,000 16,000 
 
 2 General Electric No. 205, 4 motor equipments, at 
 
 7,000 14,000 
 
 4 General Electric No. 90, 4 motor equipments, at 
 
 3,200 : 12,800 
 
 4 Westinghouse Electric No. 49, 2 motor equipments, 
 
 at 1,200 4,800 
 
 5 General Electric No. 66, freight motor equipment, 
 
 at 7,500 • 37,500 
 
 Total electric equipment of cars $145,700 
 
 33. Miscellaneous Equipment : 
 
 1 Packard touring car, second hand $ 2,000 
 
 Total equipment (items 30 to 33) $ 482,131 
 
 Total construction and equipment $3,977,285 
 
 34. Lighting system $ 30,000 
 
 35. Brokerage Fees: 
 
 5% to 75% of above .• % 150,273 
 
 Grand total $4,157,558 
 
 Item 35 was allowed on the assumption that if bankers had to 
 provide only 75% of the cash used in construction and equipment 
 
1534 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 (the balance being- furnished by the promoters), a reasonable 
 brokerage fee would be 5% of the cash thus secured. 
 
 Item 31, "Locomotives," relates to locomotives worth $8,000 new, 
 but purchased second hand. 
 
 DEPRECIATED VALUE OF THE PUGET SOUND ELECTRIC RY. 
 (June 30, 1909.) 
 
 1. Rig-ht of way and real estate % 917,775 
 
 2. PJngineering and superintendence 53,336 
 
 3. Fiscal and physical supervision and management 186,955 
 
 4. Grading (incl. 10% appreciation of roadbed) 275,135 
 
 5. Ballast (15% depreciation) 43,337 
 
 6. Ties (70% depreciation) 18,559 
 
 7. Rails, fastenings and joints (15% deprec.) 272,966 
 
 8. Frogs and switches ( 20% deprec.) 12.961 
 
 9. Paving- (50% deprec.) 9,913 
 
 10. Track laying and surfacing (30% deprec.) 33,758 
 
 11. Tunnels (5% deprec.) 11,115 
 
 12. Bridges, trestles and culverts (48%. deprec.) 179,168 
 
 13. Crossings, fences, cattle guards and signs (46% de- 
 
 prec. ) ; 22,414 
 
 14. Interlocking and signal apparatus (35% deprec.) ..... 594 
 
 15. Telegraph and telephone lines (30%. dejjrec.) 6,437 
 
 16. Poles and fixtures (43% deprec.) 16,717 
 
 17. Transinission system (no deprec.) 29,548 
 
 18. Distribution system (7% deprec.) 235,350 
 
 19. Substation buildings (10% deprec.) 38,346 
 
 20. Shops and car houses (20% deprec.) 12,864 
 
 21. Stations, waiting room.s, etc. (19%; deprec.) 35,811 
 
 22. Substation equipment ( 27% deprec. ) 132,976 
 
 23. Shop equipment ( 50% deprec. ) 500 
 
 24. Water stations ( 60% deprec. ) 160 
 
 25. Eng. insts. and tools (50% deprec.) , 750 
 
 26. Legal and general expense 17,779 
 
 27. Interest during constr 145,181 
 
 28. Contingencies 96,266 
 
 29. Stores and working capital 300.000 
 
 Total construction $3,106,669 
 
 30. Cars (35% deprec.) $ 212,505 
 
 31. Locomotives (4% deprec.) 7,200 
 
 32. Elec. equip, of cars (35% deprec.) 94.705 
 
 33. Miscel. equip. (16% deprec.) 1.680 
 
 Total equip, (items 30 to 33) $ 316,090 
 
 Total construction and equip $3,422,759 
 
 34. Lighting system (16% deprec.) 25,200 
 
 35. Brokerage fees . 150,273 
 
 Grand total $3,598,232 
 
 COST OP PRODUCTION NEW PER MILE OP TRACKWAY 
 (53.4 miles of trackway.) 
 
 1. Right of way and real e.state $17,182 
 
 2. Engineering and superintendence 999 
 
 3. Fiscal and physical supervision 3,502 
 
 4. Grading 4,717 
 
 5. Balla.st '. 955 
 
 6. Ties 1,159 
 
 7. Rails, fastenings and joints 6,015 
 
 8. Frogs and switches 304 
 
 9. Paving 370 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1535 
 
 10. Track laying and surfacing $ 903 
 
 11. Tunnels 219 
 
 12. Bridges, trestles and culverts 6,454 
 
 13. Crossings, fences, cattle guards and signs 777 
 
 14. Interlocking and signal appar 17 
 
 15. Telegraph and telephone lines 171 
 
 16. Poles and fixtures 549 
 
 17. Ti'ansmission system 554 
 
 18. Distribution system 4,741 
 
 19. Substation buildings 797 
 
 20. Shop and car houses 302 
 
 21. Stations and miscel. buildings 828 
 
 22. Substation equipment 3,411 
 
 23. Shop equipment 19 
 
 24. Water stations * 7 
 
 25. Eng. msts. and roadway tools 28 
 
 26. Legal and general expense 331 
 
 27. Interest during construction 2,718 
 
 28. Contingencies 1,805 
 
 29. Stores and working capital 5,618 
 
 Total construction, etc $65,452 
 
 30. Cars 6,123 
 
 31. Locomotives 140 
 
 32. Electric equip, of cars 2,729 
 
 33. Miscel. equipment 37 
 
 Total equipment % 9,029 
 
 Total construction and equipment $74,481 
 
 34. Lighting system 562 
 
 35. Brokerage fees 2,815 
 
 Grand total $77,858 
 
 The above costs are per mile of trackway (53.40 miles), but since 
 there are 63.75 miles of all tracks, or 1.194 miles of track per 
 mile of trackway, each of the above items must be divided by 
 1.194 (nearly 1.2) to ascertain the cost mile of track. 
 
 An analysis of the findings of Railroad Commission indicates the 
 following actual cost of this railway property, as taken from 
 the accounting records of the company up to June 30, 1909 : 
 
 1. Single track interurban line, up to April 1, 1903 $1,942,658 
 
 2. Subsequent expenditures on the original contract 11,064 
 
 3. Interest during construction 92,289 
 
 Total $2,046,011 
 
 4. Additions and betterments 1,279,562 
 
 5. Working capital 407,489 
 
 Total $3,733,062 
 
 Total $3,713,374 
 
 Deduct construction of " P " street line 19,688 
 
 Total $3,713,374 
 
 Item 1 includes $186,955 paid Stone and Webster for "the en- 
 gineering and supervising and acting as purchasing agents and 
 managers during construction." , Item 1 embraces the original 32.01 
 miles of single track line between Seattle and Tacoma, and the 
 2.96 miles of the Renton branch, a total of 34.97 miles of trackway. 
 
 The Commission inferred from the evidence presented, that the 
 actual net cost of constructing and equipping the line, up to June 
 
1536 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 30, 1909, had been $2,933,864, for the Commission refused to in- 
 clude Items 2, 3 and 4 of the following- schedule : 
 
 1. Construction and equipment $2,933,864 
 
 2. Discounts on bonds, etc 305,924 
 
 3. Damage due to floods after construction 44,099 
 
 4. Working capital 407,234 
 
 Total , $3,691,126 
 
 The total of this record schedule does not check exactly with the 
 total of the first schedule just given, doubtless due to the elimina- 
 tion of some other items* than those embraced in the " P Street 
 line." It would appear that in the first schedule. Item 4, *• Addi- 
 tions and Betterments," includes Item 2 of the second schedule, 
 namely " Discounts on Bonds." 
 
 It will be noted that in the first schedule Item 3, " Interest Dur- 
 ing Construction," was not quite 5% of the construction cost. 
 
 The Commission appraised the right of way and real estate at 
 $917,733, as of June 30, 1909. The Commission states, however, 
 that this is $770,000 in excess of what it actually cost the railway 
 company. 
 
 It will be observed that no power plant is included in the ap- 
 praisal. The railway company purchases its power, for which It 
 " pays $2.23 per kws. i;er month for the full amount of 4,750 kws. de- 
 livered on the right of way." This, we take it, is based on a 24-hr. 
 service, and is therefore equivalent to 3.05 cts. per kw.-hr. ; for 
 $2.23 X 12 = $26.76 per yr. and $26.76 ^ 8,760 hrs. = 3.05 cts. If the 
 railway operates on a "load factor" of 50% (12 hr.s. out of the 
 24), it follows that a power plant of 2 X 4,750 — 8.500 kws, would 
 be required. 
 
 The Commission states that on June 30, 1909, the railway re- 
 ported $103,367 cash on hand, and $171,257 worth of materials and 
 supplies and bond; hence its allowance of $300,000 as a reasonable 
 sum. 
 
 Cost of Chautauqua Interurban Railway. This interurban line. 
 Lakewood to Mayville. N. Y., was chartered in 1903 and com- 
 pleted in 1904. The tra-ck mileage in 1905 was: 
 
 Miles 
 
 Main line, first track 16.940 
 
 Branch line, " " 0.428 
 
 Total trackway *.'. . . . 17.368 
 
 Sidings and turnouts 1.082 
 
 Total track "." 18.450 
 
 The cost was $494,541, distributed as follows per mile of track- 
 way (17.368 mi.) : 
 
 Per mile 
 
 Engineering and superintendence $ 247 
 
 Right of way 230 
 
 Real estate 3 
 
 Track and roadway construction 13,028 
 
 Electric line construction 3,428 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1537 
 
 Per mile 
 
 Buildings $1,825 
 
 Power plant equipment (?80,000) 4,492 
 
 Total construction $23,253 
 
 Cars ($38,548) 2,218 
 
 Electric equipment of cars ($41,644) 2,395 
 
 Miscellaneous equipment 305 
 
 Total construction and equipment $28,171 
 
 Organization 115 
 
 Interest and discount 192 
 
 Grand total $28,478 
 
 The equipment was : 
 
 7 closed motor cars, 27 ton, 48 ft. at $7,500 
 
 1 combination passenger and express, 24 ton, at 7,200 
 
 2 mail, express and freight motor cars, 20 ton, at 5,800 
 
 1 rotary snow plow, 20 ton, at 6,000 
 
 1 sweeper, 15 ton, at 1,150 
 
 The total annual car mileage was 305,874. Hence the first cost 
 of the equipped cars was 26 cts. per annual car mile, and the first 
 cost of the power plant equipment was 22 cts. per annual car mile. 
 The average speed of cars was 10 miles per hr. 
 
 Comparative Cost of Various Electrical Railway Constructions 
 and Operation. Table II, abstracted from Electrical Review, Jan. 
 28, 1911, was compiled by L. H. Parker, and shows the cc):Tii)arative 
 cost of equipment and operation of an interurban road having a 
 practically level track with a few easy curves, with the 6600-volt 
 a.c, system, the 1200-volt d.c. system and the 600-volt d.c. system. 
 
 TABLE II. COSTS OP CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 
 
 Cost per mile of road, typical single-track interurban railway. 
 Single 50-ft. cars, hourly headway, normal service, half-hourly head- 
 way, maximum. Catenary trolley, 80-lb. rail ; schedule speed, 30 
 m.p.h. ; maximum speed, 45 m.p.h. ; stops, one in 2 miles ; seating 
 capacity of car.«, 54 ; no baggage compartment, separate baggage 
 and express cars. 
 
 6600-volt 1200-volt 600-volt 
 a.c. d.c. d.c. 
 
 Temporary construction $250 $250 $250 
 
 Power station 2,900 2,700 2,700 
 
 Transmission line 1,000 1,000 1,000 
 
 Telephone line 100 100 100 
 
 Substations 270 1,300 1,800 
 
 Catenary trolley 2,800 2,800 2,800 
 
 Track and roadbed 17,500 17,500 17,500 
 
 Copper feeder 575 l."l 00 
 
 Rolling stock 4,300 2,800 2.400 
 
 Car house and office 1,000 1.000 1,000 
 
 Organization, eng'g., etc 7,530 7,506 7,662 
 
 Total .$37,650 $37,531 $38,312 
 
 Cost of operation, maintenance, general expense per mile per 
 year; total mileage of all rolling stock, 16,800 ; power cost, 1.5 cents 
 per kw.-hour, including maintenance of power station : 
 
 6600-volt 1200-volt 600-volt 
 
 a.c. d.c. d.c. 
 
 Wages, trainmen $400 $400 $400 
 
 Car house expense 50 50 5U 
 
 Co.st of power 700 620 620 
 
 Attendance substations 1^0 ^^^ 
 
1538 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 6600-volt 1200-volt 600-volt 
 
 a.c. d.c. d.c. 
 
 Maintenance of cars 335 250 245 
 
 Maintenance, substations 5 20 40 
 
 Maintenance, track and roadway . . 320 300 300 
 
 Maintenance, electric lines . 60 60 60 
 
 General expense 1,000 1,000 1,000 
 
 Total $2,870 $2,820 $2,955 
 
 Per car mile 17c 16.8c 17.6c 
 
 With 2-car train operation the initial costs were $47,219 for the 
 6600-volt a.c. system per mile, $46,962 for the 1200-volt d.c. system, 
 and $48,200 for the 600-volt d.c. system. The costs of operation, 
 maintenance and general expense were respectively figured at $3,990, 
 $3,800 and $3,950, or 23.7 cents, 22.6 cents and 23.5 cents per 
 train mile. 
 
 Valuation of the Chicago Consolidated Traction Co. Condensed 
 from an article by P, J. Kealy, Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 
 28, 1910. The Traction Valuation Commission of Chicago, B. J. 
 Arnold and G. W. Weston, commissioners, has recently completed 
 an appraisal of the physical property of the above named com- 
 pany. 
 
 The Consolidated Traction Co. comprises seven underlying com- 
 panies and operates on the north and west sides of the city ; about 
 one-third of its track mileage is outside the city limits, extending- 
 to Evanston on the north and to the various suburbs on the west. 
 This valuation, however, covers only that portion of the system 
 within the city limits. Of the various routes operated, but two 
 enter the loop district, the others serving in most cases as feeder 
 lines to the Chicago Railways Co. 
 
 The first table, which covers the physical property on 123,302 
 miles of track, gives the cost new. Prices are f.o.b. Chicago market 
 prices as of Feb. 1. 1910. 
 
 For the purpose of making inventory " Track " was sub-divided 
 into tangent track, track special work, track on bridges, tangent 
 track in car houses and yards, track special work in car houses 
 and yards ; and similar sub-divisions were made for the other 
 general divisions, or exhibits. 
 
 APPRAISED COST NEW — GENERAL SUMMARY 
 
 Track, 124 miles $2,091,214.13 
 
 Electric power distribution 855,966.20 
 
 Rolling stock 707.170.80 
 
 Power plant equipment 703,084.92 
 
 Tools, supplies, furniture, etc 88,177.91 
 
 Buildings 338,626.20 
 
 Real estate 84,228.00 
 
 Paving . 1,014.519.24 
 
 $5,882,987.40 
 Legal expenses, carrying charges and contingencies, 
 
 5% $ 294,149.37 
 
 $6,177,136.77 
 Conducting work, furnishing equipment and broker- 
 age, 15% $ 926.570.52 
 
 Total > . , . $7,103,707.29 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1539 
 
 Tangent track. The track in this section was divided into 
 classes, these classes being determined by the varying weights and 
 types of rails, and by the styles of construction. Under each class 
 an estimate was made of the cost of material and labor required to 
 reproduce the track new at the time of this valuation Nov. 1, 1909, 
 under the original specifications ; and to this amount has been added 
 15% for organization, engineering incidentals, etc., giving the total 
 cost. Data were obtained from detailed examination of the track 
 in the field, in which the length of rail, kind of joint, type of 
 rail and substructure was determined. Additional information was 
 obtained from the track map in the office of the Chicago Consol- 
 idated Co. and from representatives of the Consolidated Company. 
 All distances shown are actual field measurements. The lengths 
 of the various pieces of special work were excluded in determining 
 tangent track distances. 
 
 Track ISpecial Work. Each piece of special work was meas- 
 ured, listed and sketched. In order to determine the cost new of 
 the special work complete there was added to the cost of the 
 layout the cost of ties, ballast, excavation, labor and miscellaneous 
 items necessary to install same. 
 
 Tracjp on Bridges. The cost of track on bridges includes the cost 
 of rail laid together with that of miscellaneoiis track material used 
 in bridge construction. 
 
 Track in Car House and Yards. The track was measured in de- 
 tail, and unit estimates were made of the cost to construct new. 
 
 Track Special Work in Car Houses and Yards. Each house lay- 
 out was measured and listed and a sketch of the layout was made. 
 
 Valuation. The total mileage of track appraised was 123,302 
 miles. The several classes of trade construction found are de- 
 scribed in the following schedule and the valuation of each class 
 is given below : 
 
 SCHEDULE I.— CLASSES OF TRACK CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Class De.scripfion 
 
 A 9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 58-ft. lengths, concrete foundation, 
 
 welded joints, 10 ft. 2 in. centers, type 2-A. Board of Super- 
 vising Kngineers. 
 A-1 9-in. 129-ib. Lorain rail. 58-ft. lengths, crushed stone balla.st, 
 
 welded jf)ints. 10 ft. 2 in. center.s, type 3. Board of Super- 
 vising Engineers. 
 B 7.1875-in. 85-lb. girder rail, 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 3 ft. tie 
 
 spacing, tie i)lates on every other tie, bonded joints, 9 ft. 6 in. 
 
 centers, 7.5 ft. tie rod spacing. 
 B-1 7 3-16-in. 85-lb. girder rail, 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 3-ft. 
 
 tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, 11 ft. 6-in. centers, 
 
 bond joints, 1 1/2 ft. tie rod spacing. 
 B-2 7 3-16-in. 85-lb. girder rail. 60-ft. lengths, no ballast. 2 1/2 -ft. 
 
 tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints, 7V^-ft. 
 
 tie rod spacing. 
 B-3 7 3-16-in., 85-lb. girder rail. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 2-ft. tie 
 
 spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints, 7Vi-ft. tie 
 
 rod .s])acing. 
 B-4 7 3-16-in., 85-lb. girder rail, 60-ft. lengths, cinder ballast, 2-ft. 
 
 tie spacing, no tie plates, welded joints, 7^/4 -ft. tie rod spacing. 
 C 7-in., 96-lb. Trilby (L357). 30-ft'. length.s, no ballast. 2-ft. tie 
 
 sparing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints, 7i^-ft. tie 
 
 rod spacing. 
 
1540 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Class Description 
 
 D 6-in., 78-lb. girder (L-225), 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 2-ft. tie 
 spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded fish-plate joints, 
 7 1/2 -ft- tie rod spacing. 
 
 D-1 6-in.. 78-lb. girder (L-225). 60-ft. lengths, no ballast, 2-ft. tie 
 spacing, tie plates on every other tie, welded joints, 7^^ ft. tie 
 rod spacing. 
 
 E 4 ¥2 -in., approx. 70 -lb. girder rail. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
 rail on chairs, 2-ft. tie spacing, 71/2 -ft. tie rod spacing. 
 
 P 8% -in., 96-lb. girder rail, 30-ft. lengths, cinder ballast, 2i^-ft. 
 tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, bonded fish-plate 
 joints, 7V>-ft. tie rod spacing. 
 Total cost per mile $12,153.62 
 
 F-1 8 25-32-in. girder rail, 96 lb., 30-ft. lengths, stone ballast, 2-ft. 
 tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, 7% ft. tie rod spac- 
 ing, bonded fish-plate joints. 
 
 F-2 8 25-32 in., 96-lb. girder (L-206), 60-ft. lengths, cinder bal- 
 last. 2-ft. tie spacing, braced tie plate on every tie, 7% -ft. tie 
 rod spacing, welded points. 
 
 Class A. — 9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 58-ft. lengths, concrete foun- 
 dation, welded joints. Type 2A, Board of Supervising Engineers ; 
 6.209 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 10-ft. 2-in. 
 centers. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 202.71 ton at $39.00 $ 7,905.69 
 
 Tie rods, 910 ton at $0.25 227.50 
 
 Joints, 195 ton at $5!00 975.00 
 
 Ties, 6-in. by 8-in. by 8 ft., 1.820 ton at $0.70 1,274.00 
 
 Tie plates, 3,640 ton at $0.09 327.60 
 
 Screw spilies, 7,280 ton at $0,022 156.52 
 
 Lag screws (Fetter drive). 7.280 ton at $0.004 29.12 
 
 Cement. 2.034 bbl. at $1.60 3.254.40 
 
 Sand, torpedo, 969 cu. yds. at $1.00 969.00 
 
 Stone, 1.831 cu. yds. at $1.50 2,746.50 
 
 Track labor (.see details attached), 5,280 ft. at $0.79. . . . 4,171.20 
 
 Teaming (see details attached), 5,280 ft. at $0.99 5.227.20 
 
 $27,263.73 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals. 15% 4,089.56 
 
 Total cost per mile $31,353.29 
 
 Class A-1. — 9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 58-ft. lengths, cru.shed stone 
 ballast, welded joint§. Type No. 3, Board of Supervising Engineers ; 
 9.065 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 10-ft. 2-in. 
 centers. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 202.71 ton at $39.00 $7,905.69 
 
 Tie rods, 910 ton at $0.25 227.50 
 
 Joints. 195 at $5.00 975.00 
 
 Ties. 2.640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie plates. 5,280 at $0.09 il^X^. 
 
 Screw spikes, 10,560 at $0,022 227.04 
 
 Lag screws (fetter drive). 10,560 at $0.004 Sl^i 
 
 Cement, 1.203 bbl. at $1.60 2.020.80 
 
 Sand, torpedo. 600 cu. yds. at $1.00 „ ^*^2 x2 
 
 Stone, cru.shed. 2.162 cu. yds. at $1.50 ^-^i^O^ 
 
 Track labor (see details attached). 5,280 ft. at $0.79 4.171.20 
 
 Track teaming (see details attached), 5,280 ft. at $0.99. . 5,227.20 
 
 $26,962.87 
 Organizing, engineering and incidentals, 15% 4.044.43 
 
 Total cost per mile $31,007.30 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1541 
 
 Class B. — 7 3-16-in. girder rail, 85-Ib. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
 3-ft. tie spacing-, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints; 1.006 
 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 9 -ft. 6-in. 
 centers. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 85 lb. per yd. (delivered), 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 
 
 Hauling to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 
 
 Excavation (9 ft. 6-in. centers), 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50. . 1,205.00 
 
 Ties delivered, 1,760 at $0.70 1,232.00 
 
 Tie rods, 700, at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Tie plates (braced), 1.760, at $0.18 316.80 
 
 Rail chair joints, complete, 352 at $1.10 387.20 
 
 Spikes, 30 kegs at $4.00 120.00 
 
 Labor — Track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $10,468.37 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,570.25 
 
 Total cost per mile $12,038.62 
 
 Class B-1. — 7 3-16 in. girder rail, 85-lb. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
 3-ft. tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints; 6.893 
 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track, 11-ft. 6-in. 
 centers. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 85 lb. per yd. (delivered), 133.57 ton at $40.00.... $5,342.80 
 
 Hauling to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 
 
 Excavation (11-ft. 6-in. centers), 2,610 cu. yds. at $0.50. 1,305.00 
 
 Ties delivered, 1,760 at $0.70 1,232.00 
 
 Tie rods, 700, at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Tie plates (braced), 1,760 at $0.18 316.80 
 
 Rail chair joints, complete, 352 at $1.10 387.20 
 
 Spikes, 30 kegs at $4.00 120.00 
 
 Labor — Track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $10,568.37 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,585.25 
 
 Total cost per mile $12,153.62 
 
 Class B-2.— 7-3/16 in. girder rail, 85 lb. 60 ft. lengths, no ballast, 
 2.5 ft. tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded fish joints; 
 16.196 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 85 lb. per yd. (delivered), 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 
 
 Hauling rail to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 
 
 Excavation, 2.410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 
 
 Ties delivered, 2,112 at $0.70 1,478.40 
 
 Tie rod.s, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Tie plates, 2,112 at $0.18 380.16 
 
 Spikes, 35 kegs at $4.00 140.00 
 
 Fi.sh plates (complete) 176 at 60 lb. each, 4.72 ton at $42 198.24 
 
 Labor, track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1.584.00 
 
 $10,609.17 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,591.38 
 
 Total cost per mile $12,200.55 
 
 Class B-3. — 7 3/16 in., girder rail, 85 lb.. 30 ft. lengths, no ballast, 
 2 ft. tie spacing, tie-plates on every other tie, bonded fish-plate 
 joints, 7 1/2 -ft, tie-rod spacing: 60,667 miles. Estimate of cost to 
 produce one mile of single track, 
 
1542 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 85 lb. per yd. 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 
 
 Hauling rail to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 
 
 Excavation, 2.500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 
 
 Ties delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Spikes, 40 keg $4.00 160.00 
 
 Fish plates (complete) : 352 at 60 lb. each, 9.44 ton at $42 396.48 
 
 Labor — track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $11,292.05 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,693.81 
 
 Total cost per mile $12,985.86 
 
 Class B-4. — 7 3/16 in. girder rail, 85 lb. 60 ft. lengths, cinder bal- 
 last, 2 ft. tie spacing, no tie-plates, welded joints, 7^^ ft. tie-rod 
 spacing; 1.909 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 85 lb. per yd., 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 
 
 Hauling rail to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 
 
 Excavation, 2,500 cu. yd.s. at $0.50 1,250.00 
 
 Ties delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 
 
 Ballast, cinder, 1,400 cu. yds. at $0.90 1,260.00 
 
 Welded joints (cast), 176 at $4.25 748.00 
 
 Labor, track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 Labor, handling ballast, 5,280 ft. at $0.05 . . . : 264.00 
 
 $12,737.37 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,910.61 
 
 Total cost per mile $14,647.98 
 
 Class C. — 7-in. 96 lb. Trilby (L-357) 30 ft. lengths. No ballast; 
 2 ft. tie spacing ; tie-plates every other tie ; bonded fish-plate joints ; 
 tie-rod spacing 7^ ft.; 1.488 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail. 96 lb. trilby, 150.86 ton at $40.00 $6,034.40 
 
 Hauling rail to street. 150.86 ton at $1.00 150.86 
 
 Excavation, 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 
 
 Ties, delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Tie plates, 2,640 at $0.18 475.20 
 
 Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 
 
 Fish plates, complete, 352 at 60 lb. each, 9.44 tons 
 
 at $42.00 396.48 
 
 Labor at 30 ct. per ft., 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $12,000.94 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,800.14 
 
 Total cost per mile $13,801.08 
 
 Class D. — 6 in. 78-lb. girder (L-225) 30 ft. length. No ballast; 
 2 ft. tie spacing ; tie-plates every other tie ; bonded fish-plate joints ; 
 tie-rod spacing 7.5 ft. ; 0.529 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1543 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 78-lb. girder, 122.57 tons at $40.00 $4,902.80 
 
 Hauling to street, 122.57 tons at $1.00 122.57 
 
 Excavation, 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 
 
 Ties, delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Tie plates, 2,640 at $0.18 475.20 
 
 Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 
 
 Fish plates, complete, 352 at 60 lbs., 9.44 tons at $42.00 . 396.48 
 
 Labor, at 30 ct. per ft, 5.280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $10,841.05 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,626.16 
 
 Total cost per mile $12,467.21 
 
 Class D-1. — 6-in., 78-lb. girder (L-225). 60-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
 2-ft. tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, welded joints, 7.5 ft. 
 tie rod spacing; 3.448 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail — 78-lb. girder, 122.57 tons at $40.00 $4,902.80 
 
 Hauling to street, 122.57 tons at $1.00 . 122.57 
 
 Excavation, 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 
 
 Ties delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Tie plates, 2,640 at $0.18 475.20 
 
 Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 
 
 Welded joints — cast, 176 at $4.25 748.00 
 
 Labor — track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $11,192.57 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,678.89 
 
 Total cost per mile $12,871.46 
 
 Class F. — 8.75-in. girder rail, 96-lb., 30-ft. lengths, cinder ballast, 
 2-ft. 6-in. tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, 7.5 ft. tie rod 
 spacing, bonded fish-plate joints; 7.712 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Raii, 8.75-in. 96-lb. girder (L-206), 150.86 tons at $40.00 $6,034.40 
 
 Hauling to street, 150.86 tons at $1.00 150.86 
 
 Excavation, 2,500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 
 
 Ties, 2.112 at $0.70 1.478.40 
 
 Tie-plates, 4,224 at $0.18 760.32 
 
 Tie-rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Cinder ballast, 1,400 cu. yds. at $0.90 1,260.00 
 
 Fish-plates complete, 352 at 126 lb., 19.8 tons at $42.00 831.60 
 
 Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 
 
 Labor, track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $13,656.58 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 2,048.49 
 
 Total cost per mile $15,705.07 
 
 Class F-1. — 8.78125-in. girder rail, 96-lb. 30-ft. lengths, stone 
 ballast, 2 ft. tie spacing, braced tie-plates on every tie ; 7.5 ft. tie- 
 rod .'jpacing, bonded fish-plate joints; 0.995 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
1544 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail, 8.78125-in. 96-lb. girder (L-206), 150.86 tons at 
 
 $40.00 $6,034.40 
 
 Hauling to street, 150.86 tons at $1.00 150.86 
 
 Excavation, 2,500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 
 
 Ties, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie plates, 5,280 at $0.18 950.44 
 
 Tie rods. 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Fish plates, complete, 356 at 126 lbs. 19.8 tons at $42.00 831.60 
 
 Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 
 
 Ballast — stone, 1,400 cu. yds. at $1.50 2,100.00 
 
 Labor, track laying and ballasting, 5,280 ft. at $.35 1,848.00 
 
 $15,320.30 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals 15% 2,298.05 
 
 Total cost per mile $17,618.35 
 
 Class F-2. — 8.78125-in. 96-lb. girder (L-206) 60 -ft. lengths, cinder 
 ballast, 2-ft. tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, 7.5 ft. tie 
 rod spacing, welded joints; 0.936 miles. 
 
 Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 
 
 UNIT COST ESTIMATE 
 
 Rail — 8.78125-in. 96-lb. CL-206), 150.86 tons at $40.00 $6,034.40 
 
 Hauling to street, 150.86 tons at $1.00 150.86 
 
 Excavation, 2,500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 
 
 Ties delivered. 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 
 
 Tie plates, 5,280 at $0.18 950.40 
 
 Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 
 
 Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 
 
 Ballast, cinder, 1.400 cu. yds. at $0.90 1,260.00 
 
 Welded joints, cast, 176 at $4.25 748.00 
 
 Labor, track laying, 5.280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 Labor, handling ballast, 5,280 ft. at $0.05 264.00 
 
 $14,396.66 
 Organization, engineering, incidentals, etc., 15% 2,159.50 
 
 Total $16,556.16 
 
 CROSS-OVERS (BUILT UP) 
 
 Cross-over delivered. 1 at $600 $600.00 
 
 Excavation (70 ft. by 9 ft. by 1.25 ft.) 30 cu. yds. at $0.50 15.00 
 
 Ballast, 25 cu. yds. at $1.65 41.25 
 
 Ties, 1,700 b. m. at $30 51.00 
 
 Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 
 
 Labor, 400 hrs. at $0.18 72.00 
 
 Total $783.25 
 
 CROSS-OVERS: 9 IN. MANGANESE — 10 PT. 2 IN. CENTERS. 
 BOARD OP SUPERVISING ENGINEERS' TYPE 
 
 Cross-over complete, 1 at $1,100 $1,100.00 
 
 Ballast, 17 cu. yds. at $1.50 25.50 
 
 Ties (7 in. by 9 in. oak switch ties), 1,700 b. m. at $30 51.00 
 
 Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 
 
 Tie plates, 70 at $0.09 6.30 
 
 Stone for concrete, 14 cu. yds. at $1.50 21.00 
 
 Sand, Torpedo, 7 cu. yds. at $1 7.00 
 
 Cement, 15 bbls. at $1.65 24.75 
 
 Total material $1,239.55 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1545 
 
 Labor, 600 hrs. at $0.18 , $ 108.00 
 
 Teaming, liO hrs. at $0.55 11.00 
 
 Total cost $1,358.55 
 
 Excavation Included in labor and teaming. 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING: ELECTRIC OVER STEAM 
 
 Layout, delivered, $200 a crossing, 4 at $200 , $800.00 
 
 Excavation. 20 cu. yds. at $0.50 10.00 
 
 Ballast, 17 cu. yds. at $1.50 25.50 
 
 Ties, delivered. 30 at $0.70 21.00 
 
 Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 
 
 Wire nails, 40 lbs. at $0.03 1.20 
 
 Hemlock plank, 960 b. m. at $25 24.00 
 
 Labor, 100.00 
 
 Total $985.70 
 
 SINGLE TRACK BRANCH OFF; 45 TO 90 DEGREES 
 
 Layout : 
 
 1 switch and mate $125 00 
 
 1 frog 45.00 
 
 Tangent rail included, 50 ft, at $0.75 37 50 
 
 Curved track included, 75 ft. at $3.00 225.00 
 
 Joints, 16 pair complete at $1.10 17 60 
 
 Tie plates, 150 at $0.09 13.50 
 
 $463.60 
 
 Excavation, 43 cu. yds. at $0.50 21.50 
 
 Ballast, 40 cu. yds. at $1.50 60.00 
 
 Ties, 1,200 b. m. at $30.00 = 36.00 
 
 Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 
 
 Labor 100.00 
 
 Total material and labor $685.10 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK BRANCH OFF; 4 5 to 90 DEGREES 
 
 Layout complete (tie plates and joints Included), 1 at 
 
 $1,000 $1,000,00 
 
 Excavation, 80 cu. yds. at $0.50 40.00 
 
 Ballast 72 cu. yds. at $1.50 108.00 
 
 Tie.«. 2,500 b. m. at $30 75.00 
 
 Spikes, 2 kegs at $4 8.00 
 
 Labor 200,00 
 
 Total material and labor $1,431.00 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK OVER SINGLE TRACK CROSSING. 
 SINGLE CONNECTING CURVE 
 
 Layout complete (tie plates and joints included) 1 at 
 
 $1,044.16 $1,044.16 
 
 Excavation, 78 cu. yds. at $0,50 39,00 
 
 Ballast, 64 cu. yds. at $1.50 96.00 
 
 Ties, 2,200 b. m. at $30 66 00 
 
 Spikes, 2 kegs at $4 • 8.00 
 
 Labor 200,00 
 
 Total material and labor $1,453.16 
 
1546 MEtHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. ONE CONNECTING CURVE. 
 45 DEGREES 
 
 Layout complete (tie-plates and joints included) 1 at 
 
 $1,397.00 $1,397.00 
 
 Excavation, 90 cu. ydrs at $0.50 45.00 
 
 Ballast, 74 cu. yds. at $1.50 111.00 
 
 Ties, 2,660 b. m. at $30 ;..... . 79.80 
 
 Spikes, 2 kegs at $4 8.00 
 
 Labor 250.00 
 
 Total material and labor $1,890.80 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. SINGLE TRACK CURVES IN 
 TWO QUADRANTS 
 
 Layout complete delivered (tie plates and joints included), 
 
 1 at $2,088.32 , $2,088.32 
 
 Excavation. 156 cu. yds. at $0.50 78.00 
 
 Ballast, 129 cu. yds. at $1.50 193.50 
 
 Ties, 4,460 b. m. at $30 133.80 
 
 Spikes, 4 kegs at $4 16.00 
 
 Labor 350.00 
 
 Total material and labor $2,859.62 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING WITH DOUBLE TRACK 
 CONNECTING CURVES 
 
 Price of double track crossing with single connecting curve. $1,890.80 
 
 Additional : 
 
 Switch and mate, 2 at $125 250.00 
 
 Jump frogs, 1 at 
 
 50 ft. curved track at $4.45 222.50 
 
 Total cost of crossing $2,363.30 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK — THREE PART WYE 
 
 Curved track 376.4 
 
 Straight track included 206.6 
 
 Total length 583.0 ft. 
 
 Rail layout delivered $2,500.00 
 
 Excavation. 210 cu. yd.s. at $0.50 105.00 
 
 Ballast, 200 cu. yds. at $1.50 300.00 
 
 Ties, 2,500 b. m. at $30 75.00 
 
 Spikes, 5 kegs at $4 20.00 
 
 Labor 583 ft. at $0.75 437.25 
 
 Total cost $3,437.25 
 
 SINGLE TRACK RAILWAY CROSSING. DOUBLE TRACK 
 
 ELECTRIC OVER SINGLE TRACK STEAM. 45 TO 90 
 
 DEGREES 
 
 Layout delivered (tie plates and joints included), 2 at $200 $400.00 
 
 Excavation, 11.5 cu. yds. at $0.50 5.75 
 
 Ballast, 10 cu. yds. at $1.50 15.00 
 
 Ties, delivered, 16 at $0.70 11.20 
 
 Spikes, 5 keg at $4 2.00 
 
 Hemlock planking — 12 pieces, 3 ins. by 10 ins. by 16 ft., 
 
 480 b. m. at $25 12.00 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1547 
 
 Nails ; $ .60 
 
 Labor 65.00 
 
 Total cost $511.55 
 
 For cost of jump crossing, deduct $261.00 
 
 Net cost of jump crossing $250.55 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. ELECTRIC OVER STEAM 
 
 Layout, delivered, $200 a crossing, 4 at $200 $800.00 
 
 Excavation, 20 cu. yds. at $0.50 10 00" 
 
 Ballast, 17 cu. yds at. $1.50 25 50 
 
 Ties, delivered. 30 at $0.70 31 00 
 
 Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4 00 
 
 Wire nails, 40 lbs. at $0.03 1.20 
 
 Hemlock plank, 960 b. m. at $25 24.00 
 
 Labor 100.00 
 
 Total , $985.70 
 
 PLAIN CURVES. PER FT. OF SINGLE TRACK. 7-IN. RAIL 
 
 Rail — delivery and shop bending included $3.00 
 
 Excavation 0.25 
 
 Ballast 0.41 
 
 Ties delivered 0.30 
 
 Tie plates 0.06 
 
 Tie rods 0.03 
 
 Fish-plates and bolts 0.08 
 
 Spikes 0.02 
 
 Labor laying track 0.30 
 
 $4.45 
 
 Estimated Cost of One Mile of Single Track. The following data 
 are abstracted from " Detailed Exhibits of the Physical Property 
 and Intangible Values of the Calumet Electric Street Railway Com- 
 pany and the South Chicago City Railway Company as of Febru- 
 ary 1, 1908, accompanying the valuation report submitted to the 
 committee on local transportation of the Chicago City Council, by 
 B. J. Arnold and George We.ston." An estimate was made of the 
 cost of materials and labor required to reproduce -the property 
 new, to which was added 15% for organization, engineering and 
 incidentals. 
 
 ESTIMATE OF COST OF 1 MILE OF SINGLE TRACK 
 
 6-IN. GIRDER RAIL, 75-LB., 30-FT. LENGTHS, BONDED, ON STONE BALLAST 
 
 117.86 tons rail, delivered, at $41.00 $4,832.26 
 
 117.86 tons rail, hauling to street, at $1.00 117.86 
 
 2,640 cu. yds. excavation, at $0.50 1.320.00 
 
 1,500 cu. yds. slag ballast, at $1.65 2,475.00 
 
 2,640 ties, delivered, at $0.75 . . . ; 1,980 00 
 
 1,056 tie rods, at $0.30 316.80 
 
 2,640 tie i)lates, at $0.22 580.80 
 
 9.44 tons fish plates and bolts, 60 lbs. each, at $42.25 398.84 
 
 30 kegs spikes for rail.s at $4.10 123.00 
 
 10 kegs spikes for tie plates, at $4.10 41.00 
 
 18 cross bonds, at $2.00 36.00 
 
1548 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 352 bonds at $1.25 ($0.80, material; $0.45, labor) % 440.00 
 
 5,280 ft. track laying, at $0.35 1,848.00 
 
 , $14,509.56 
 15%, organization, engineering, incidentals 2,176.43 
 
 $16,685.99 
 
 If Atlas joints are used the estimate of cost is $17,461.97 per 
 mile of single track, the difference being due to the increased cost 
 of Atlas joints over fish plates, $113.72 per ton as against $42.25 
 per ton. 
 
 If the track is on cinder ballast with no excavation the estimated 
 cost per mile is $13,874.23 where fish plates are used and $14,650.21 
 for track with Atlas joints. Cinder ballast is taken as 1,500 cu. 
 yd. at $0.90. 
 
 For welded joints on stone ballast the estimated cost is $17,441.72- 
 per mile of single track. There would be 352 welded joints at 
 $4.25 each, but fish plates and bonds are not required. 
 
 6-IN. GIRDER RAIL, 78-LB,, 30-FT. LENGTHS, SPLICE PLATES, BONDED ON 
 •SLAG OR STONE BALLAST 
 
 122.57 tons rail, delivered, at $41.00 $5,025.37 
 
 122.57 tons rail, hauling to street, at $1.00 122.57 
 
 All other items same as 75-lb. rail, total 9,559.44 
 
 $14,707.38 
 15%, organization, engineering, incidentals , 2,206.12 
 
 $16,913.50 
 
 In similar manner the following costs per mile of single track 
 are figured: $17,149.06 for 7-in. girder, 80 lb., 30 ft. lengths, bonded, 
 on stone ballast; $17,046.40 for 7yif5-in. girder, 85 lb., 60-ft. lengths, 
 bonded, on stone ballast ; $23,687.66 for this last if it has a rein- 
 forced concrete base instead of a stone base ; the price of concrete 
 being taken. 1500 cu. yd. at $5.50. 
 
 45-LB. T RAIL, SLAG BALLAST, BONDED JOINTS 
 
 70.71 tons rail, delivered, at $31.00 $2,192.00 
 
 70.71 tons rail, hauling to street, at $1.00 70.71 
 
 1760 cu. yds.- slag balla.st, at $1.65 2,904.00 
 
 2,640 ties, delivered, at $0.75 1,980.00 
 
 4 tons splice bars, bolts, nut locks, at $46.50 186.00 
 
 30 kegs .'^pikes for rails, at $4.10 123 00 
 
 18 cross bonds, at $2.00 36 00 
 
 352 bonds, at $1.25 440.00 
 
 5,280 ft. track laying, at $0.30 1,584.00 
 
 $9,515.71 
 15% organization, engineering, incidentals 1,4 27.35 
 
 $10,943.06 
 
 In like manner the estimate of cost to produce one mile of single 
 track is $11,846.54 for 60-lb. trail, slag ballast, bonded joints and 
 $13,117.93 for 80-lb. trail, slag ballast, bonded joints. 
 
 Straight Track in Car Houses and Yards. The following are the 
 estimated costs of one foot of track of various kinds and weights. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1549 
 
 used by B. J. Arnold and George "Weston in their valuation of the 
 South Chicago City Railway. 
 
 Strap Rail. Steel, $0.02 per lb. delivered; screws, $0.41 per 
 gross; labor. $0.08 per ft. 
 
 T-Rail, 2% -in., $0.02 per lb., delivered; 56, 60 and 75 lb., $31.00 
 per long ton; splice bars, $41.00 per long ton; spikes, for 2%-in. 
 rail, $4.10 per keg of 600; for other rail, $4.10 per keg of 375; 
 bolts and nuts, $0.05 per lb.; ties, hemlock, $0.50 each, 2 ft. centers; 
 bonding, $0.75 per joint; excavation, $0.10 per ft. of track; labor, 
 $0.10 per ft. of track. 
 
 Girder Rail. Steel and fittings, $41.00 per long ton; bonding, 
 $0.75 per joint; ties, hemlock, $0.50 each; spikes, $4.10 per keg. 
 
 TABLE III. ESTIMATED COST OP ONE FOOT OF TRACK 
 
 Strap T T T T Girder 
 
 rail rail rail rail rail rail 
 
 Height of rail, ins 3.875 5 4.25 4.625 2.75 7 
 
 Wt. per yd., lbs 27 75 60 56 25 85 
 
 Wt. of 2 splice plates per 
 
 ft. of track, lbs 2.26 2.13 2.00 0.48 0.60 
 
 Wt. of nuts and bolts per 
 
 ft. of track, lbs 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.524 
 
 Cost, per ft. of track : 
 
 Rails $0.37 $0.69 $0.59 $0.52 $0.34 $1.04 
 
 2 splice plates .04 0.03 0.03 0.01) r. c\'7 
 
 Nuts and bolts 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 I "•"' 
 
 Bonding 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 
 
 Spikes 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 
 
 Ties 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 
 
 Excavation 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 
 
 Labor 0.08 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 
 
 Incidentals 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 
 
 Total $0.45 $1.42 $1.30 $1.23 $1.02 $1.78 
 
 Track Special Work. These costs are from the Detailed Exhibits 
 of the Physical Property and Intangible Values of the Calumet 
 Electric Street Railway Co., and the South Chicago City Railway 
 Co., as of February 1, 1908, accompanying the Valuation Report 
 submitted to the Committee on Local Transportation of the Chicago 
 City Council by B. J. Arnold and George Weston. Each piece of 
 special work was measured and the determination of its cost new 
 was made by adding to the estimated cost of the material required 
 for the special work, the cost of the ties, joints, ballast, excavation 
 and labor required to install the various types of special work. 
 
 ESTIMATE OF COST TO PRODUCE TRACK SPECIAL WORK 
 
 SINGLE TRACK CROSSING. ELECTRIC OVER ELECTRIC. 90 DEGREES 
 
 1 single crossing complete, with joints $170.00 
 
 10 ties, 6 ins. by 8 in.s. by 8 ft., delivered, at $0.75 7.50 
 
 10 tie plates, at $0.22 2.20 
 
 .25 keg spikes, at $4.10 1.03 
 
 5.9 cu. yds. excavation (10 by 10 by 1.6 ft.) at $0.50 2.95 
 
 2.7 cu. yd. cru.'=hed rock (10 by 10 by 1.0 ft., minus tie 
 
 space) at $1.65 4.45 
 
1550 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 8 joints, bonded, at $1.25 $ 10 00 
 
 Labor, 20 ft. at $1.25 25'.00 
 
 $223.13 
 15% organization, engineering-, incidentals 33,47 
 
 $256.60 
 
 For hard center work or for a crossing at 45 degs. add $50.00 to 
 the $223.13. 
 
 Estimated weight, 3,000 lbs. 
 
 SINGLE TRACK CROSSING SINGLE TRACK. ELECTRIC OVER STEAM. 
 90 DEGREES 
 
 Crossing complete with joints $300.00 
 
 11 ties, at $0.75 f 8.25 
 
 0.15 keg spikes, at $4.10 0.61 
 
 6 joints, bonding, at $1.25 7.50 
 
 2 cross bonds, at $2.00 4.00 
 
 6.8 cu. yds. crush rock (12 by 12 by 1.5 ft. minus space 
 
 occupied by 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. ties), at $1.65 11.27 
 
 12 pieces oak plank, 2 ins. by 12 ins. by 16 ft. = 384 ft. 
 12 pieces oak plant, 3 ins. by 12 ins. by 16 ft. = 576 ft. 
 
 960 f. b. m. at $30.00 per M 28.80 
 
 Wire nails 1.25 
 
 Labor 50.00 
 
 $411.68 
 Add for crossing at 45 degs 50.00 
 
 $461.68 
 
 Estimated weight 5,500 lbs. 
 
 Adding 15% to the above costs for organization, engineering and 
 incidentals gives $473.43 for the 90 deg. crossing and $530.93 for 
 the 45 degs. 
 
 SINGLE TRACK CROSSING SINGLE TRACK. ELECTRIC OVER STiilAM. BOTH 
 80-LB. T-RAIL SECTIONS. 90 DEGREES 
 
 One track guarded and reinforced ; one track guarded only. 
 
 Layout complete (Ajax Forge Co.'s quotation) $210.00 
 
 12 ties, at $0.75 9.00 
 
 All other material, and labor, same as above 103.68 
 
 $322.68 
 Add for crossing, 45 degs 50.00 
 
 $372.68 
 Estimated weight, 6,500 lbs. 
 
 Adding 15% as above the costs would be $371.08 and $428.58 for 
 the 90 deg. and 45 deg. crossings respectively. 
 
 SINGLE TRACK BRANCH-OFF CURVES 
 
 1 curve, 90 ft. long 90 ft. 
 
 Straight track included 24 ft. 
 
 Total 114 ft. 
 
 Special work, including fish plates $530.00 
 
 57 ties, at $0.75 42.75 
 
 57 tie plates, at $0.22 12.54 
 
 1 keg spikes, at $4.10 4.10 
 
 38.5 cu. yd. crushed rock (114 by 10 by 1 ft. minus space 
 occupied by ties, 6 ins. by 8 ins. by 8 ft.) at $.165 63.52 
 
 67.6 cu. yds. excavation (114 by 10 by 1.6 ft.), at $0.50 . . . 33.78 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1561 
 
 12 joints, bonded, at $1.25 $ 15 00 
 
 Labor, 114 ft., at $1.25 142!50 
 
 $844.19 
 Add for hard center work 130.00 
 
 $974.19 
 Adding 15% the above costs are $970.82 and $1,120.32 respectively. 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. 90 DEGREES 
 
 Special layout, including fish plates $700.00 
 
 40 ties, at $0.75 30.00 
 
 40 tie plates, at $0.22 8 80 
 
 1 keg spikes, at $4.10 .■ 4.10 
 
 24 joints, bonded, at $1.25 30.00 
 
 23.7 cu. yds. excavation 20 by 20 by 1.6 ft.), at $0.50 11.85 
 
 10.9 cu. yds. crushed rock (20 by 20 by 1 ft., minus space 
 
 occupied by 40 ties, 2.6 cu. ft. per tie), at $1.65 17.98 
 
 Labor, 80 ft. at $1.25 100.00 
 
 $902.73 
 
 Add to this cost $180.00 for hard center work, and $100.00 for a 
 45 deg. crossing. 
 
 Estimated weight, 12,000 lbs. 
 
 With 15% added for organization, engineering and incidentals 
 the costs are $1,038.14 for a 90 deg. crossing; $1,245.14 for same 
 with hard center work; $1,153.14 for a 45 deg. crossing. 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. CURVES IN ONE QUADRANT. 90 DEGREES 
 
 Single track, 260 ft. : curves. 2 each at 90 ft, 180 ft. ; total 440 ft. 
 
 Special layout, including fish plates $2,740.00 
 
 220 ties, at $0.75 165.00 
 
 220 tie plates, at $0.22 48.40 
 
 4 kegs spikes, at $4.10 16.40 
 
 43 joints, bonded, at $1.25 53.75 
 
 234.5 cu. yds. excavation (440 ft. X 0.533 cu. yd. per run- 
 ning ft.), at $0.50 117.25 
 
 125.4 cu. yds. crushed rock (440 X 0.285), at $1.65 206.91 
 
 Labor, 440 ft., at $1.25 550.00 
 
 $3,897.71 
 Add for 45 deg. angle 100.00 
 
 .$3,997.71 
 
 Estimated weight, 50,000 lb. 
 
 Adding 15% as before the cost is $4,482.37 for a 90 deg. and 
 $4,597.37 for a 45 deg. crossing. 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. CONNECTING CURVES IN TWO QUADRANTS 
 
 Such a crossing requires 350 ft. of straight track and 360 ft. 
 of curved track. The special work is estimated at $4,700.00 and 
 figuring the other materials and labor as before the total is 
 $6,667.27, and with 15% added, $7,667.36. Add to the former 
 $1,670.00 for hard center work. 
 
 Estimated weight, 85,000 lbs. 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK THREE PART " T " 
 
 Curved track, 360 ft.; straight track included, 170 ft.; total, 530 ft. 
 
 Special layout complete, including joints ^^•7^2*29 
 
 265 ties, at $0.75 '. 198.75 
 
 265 tie plates, at $0.22 58.30 
 
 5 kegs spikes, at $4.10 ^ 20.50 
 
 282.5 cu. yds. excavation (530 X 0.533), at $0.50 141.25 
 
1552 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 151 cu. yds. crushed rock (530X0.285), at $1.65 $ 249.15 
 
 100 joints, bonded, at $1.25 125.00 
 
 Labor, 530 ft., at $1.25 662.00 
 
 $4,235.45 
 Add for hard center work 1,020.00 
 
 $5,255.45 
 
 Estimated weight, 50,000 lbs. 
 
 Adding 15% these costs are $4,870.77 and $6,043.77. 
 
 DOUBLE TRACK BRANCH-OFF 
 
 2 curves at 90 ft.. 180 f t. ; straight track included, 65 ft. ; total, 
 245 ft. 
 
 Layout, complete, with fish plates $1,220.00 
 
 123 ties, at $0.75 92.25 
 
 123 tie plates, at $0.22 27.06 
 
 2 kegs spikes, at $4.10 8.20 
 
 36 joints, bonded, at $1.25 45.00 
 
 130.6 cu. yds. excavation (245 X 0.533) at $0.50 65.30 
 
 69.8 cu. yds. crui5hed rock (245 X 0.285), at $1.65 115.17 
 
 Labor, 245 ft. at $1.25 306.25 
 
 $1,879.23 
 Add for hard center work 405.00 
 
 $2,284.23 
 Estimated weight, 23,000 lbs. 
 Adding 15% these costs are $2,161.11 and $2,626.86. 
 
 CROSS-OVER 
 
 Cross-over, over all, 57 ft., straight track included, 50 ft. ; total, 
 107 ft. 
 
 Cross-over, complete $600.00 
 
 54 ties, at $0.75 40.50 
 
 1 keg spikes, at $4.10 4.10 
 
 20 joints, bonded, at $1.25 25.00 
 
 6 cross bonds, at 1.00 6.00 
 
 57 cu. yds. excavation (107 X 0.533), at $0.50 28.50 
 
 30.5 cu. yds. crushed rock (107 X 0.285), at $1.65 50.32 
 
 Labor, 107 ft. at $1.25 133.75 
 
 $888.17 
 
 Add for hard center work 375.00 
 
 $1,263.17 
 Estimated weight, 11,000 lbs. 
 Adding 15% these costs are $1,021.40 and $1,452.65. 
 
 SINGLE TRACK TURN-OUT 
 
 Turn-out, over all, 82 ft.; straight track, 25 ft.; total, 107 ft. 
 
 Point and mate '. $113.00 
 
 Curve cross 45.00 
 
 60 ft. curved track, at $4.90 294.00 
 
 33 ft. straight track 82.00 
 
 Turn-out, complete, special work (estimated wt. 8,500 lbs.) 536.00 
 
 54 ties, ,at $0.75 ' 40.50 
 
 1 keg spikes, at $4.10 -. .* 4.10 
 
 15 joints, bonded, at $1.25 18.75 
 
 3 cross bonds, at $1.00 3.00 
 
 57 cu. yds. excavation (107 X 0.533), at $0.50 28.50 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1553 
 
 30.5 cu. yd. crushed rock (107 X 0.285). at $1.65 $ 50 32 
 
 Labor, 107 ft., at $1.25 133.75 
 
 $814.92 
 Add for hard center work 250.00 
 
 $1,064.92 
 Adding 15% these costs are $937.16 and $1,224.66. 
 
 PLAIN CURVE TRACK 
 
 Cost of curve per ft. of track $3.00 
 
 Cost per ft. of substructure and labor 1.90 
 
 $4.90 
 Estimated w^eight, 72 lbs. per ft. of track. 
 
 CURVED T-RAIL TRACK 
 
 4.25 in. T-rail, 60-lb., per ft $2.25 
 
 Extra for curving, per ft 0.25 
 
 $2.50 
 
 2 strap guards, 0.625 by 4 ins., at 8.5 lbs. per ft 17 lbs. 
 
 0.5 of separator per ft., at 4 lb. each 2 lbs. 
 
 19 lbs. at 5 cts. per ft, extra 0.95 
 
 $3.45 
 Estimated weight, 65 lbs. per ft. 
 
 5 in. T-rail, 80-lb., per ft $2.50 
 
 Extra for curving 0.25 
 
 Extra for strap guards 0.95 
 
 $3.70 
 Estimated weight, 79 lbs. per ft. of track. 
 
 Value of 665 Miles of Chicago Street Railways. The value of the 
 properties of the street railways of Chicago, which are under the 
 supervision of Boards of Supervising Engineers, is summarized in 
 the statistical report of the Board for the year ending Jan. 31, 1910. 
 
 Original valuation $55,775,000 
 
 Additions to Jan. 31, 1910 42,754,978 
 
 Total $98,529,978 
 
 The items making up this summary are given in the following 
 table showing the value per mile of track. 
 
 Organization $5,760 
 
 Engineering and superintendence 6,272 
 
 Track (exclusive of paving) 35,317 
 
 Paving 7,440 
 
 Electric line constructing 11,656 
 
 Real estate (u.sed in operation) 6,332 
 
 Buildings and fixtures 12,898 
 
 Investment real estate 1,629 
 
 Power plant equipment 7,360 
 
 Shop tools and machinery ' 1,177 
 
 Car.s, revenue 17,323 
 
 Electric equipment of cars 9,165 
 
 Miscellaneous equipment 876 
 
 Interest and discount 2,553 
 
 Miscellaneous 16,993 
 
 Tunnels 2,013 
 
1554 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Horses % 87 
 
 Materials and supplies 3,246 
 
 Fill 152 
 
 Subways 7 
 
 Renewals 80 
 
 Total per mile of track $148,336 
 
 Appraised Values of the Street Railways of Detroit, Mich. Engi- 
 neering and Contracting, July 6-13, 1910. 
 
 The Detroit United Railway controls all the street railways in 
 the city of Detroit. The franchises on many miles of its track 
 will soon expire. This fact led the mayor, Mr. Philip Breitmeyer, 
 to appoint a committee of 50 citizens to make an investigation and 
 report on the street railway question, one of the duties of the com- 
 mittee being to appraise the value of the physical property of the 
 railways. Frederick T. Barcroft was appointed director of ap- 
 praisal. His report of the results of the appraisal was dated Oct. 
 1, 1909. 
 
 The first street railway franchise was granted to the Detroit City 
 Ry. Co. in 1862. Since that time 50 corporations have received 
 franchises, but their stock was eventually absorbed by the Detroit 
 United Rys. Co. 
 
 The appraisal, which includes 170.4 mi. of main track and 1,000 
 revenue cars, gives not only the cost of reproduction new, but the 
 depreciated, or second-hand value of the property. We shall first 
 give a summary, followed by costs in great detail. The cost of re- 
 production new was as follows : 
 
 Cost of Reproduction, New. 
 
 Real estate % 513,548 
 
 Buildings, except power houses and battery stations .... 654,884 
 
 Power plants, including buildings 1,481,328 
 
 Battery stations, including buildings 228,252 
 
 Power distribution, including overhead feed wires and 
 
 telephone system 1,211,897 
 
 Track 3,601,336 
 
 Rolling stock, including equipments 3,676,098 
 
 Shops 390,968 
 
 Tools, materials, supplies, furniture, etc 751,016 
 
 Overhead charges 1,268,000 
 
 Total $13,777,327 
 
 The last item was not given in the report, and we have estimated 
 it as explained below. 
 
 The depreciated or present value was as follows : 
 
 Depreciated Value 
 
 Real estate $ 513.548 
 
 Buildings 578.763 
 
 Power plants 1,219,051 
 
 Battery stations 200,488 
 
 Power distribution 1,088,063 
 
 Track 2,599,222 
 
 Rolling stock 2,861,403 
 
 Shops 308,719 
 
 Tools, supplies, etc 728,158 
 
 Overhead charges 1,024,310 
 
 Total $11,121,725 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1555 
 
 Attention should be called to the fact that the item, Track, in- 
 cludes grading-, as well as rails, ties, etc., and it includes broken 
 stone, gravel and concrete foundations, but does not include wearing 
 coat of the pavement. 
 
 The report says : 
 
 " Paving has not been considered an asset of the company in the 
 preparation of this appraisal. * * * Distributing and replacing the 
 pavement adds no value to it. Neither can the company obtain 
 credits, as it requested, for theoretical items. If there is any value 
 to the pavement to which the company is entitled, it must be upon 
 some different theory than that it is an asset, for so far as the 
 company is concerned it is an obligation foreign to its needs as a 
 transportation proposition, and is in lieu of other taxes. When 
 certain taxes and municipal charges are remitted by the authorities, 
 and the company assumes the obligation of paving, there can.be no 
 question that the paving thereby becomes a tax. 
 
 " The paving can have a value to the company when it was all 
 new and laid at one time, and then only in the sense that they 
 have prepaid their taxes up to the point of the first renewal. 
 Thereafter the repairs and renewal become an annual maintenance 
 charge or tax. 
 
 " If the company has charged the maintenance of this paving to 
 capital account, it is not justified in so doing, and has done so be- 
 cause it has not provided for the renewal of any physical property 
 by a depreciation reserve, and if it has charged this to operation 
 or maintenance under those circumstances, the result is a tax, by 
 whatever name it has labeled it. 
 
 " The company should have been compelled to charge the cost 
 of original paving to ' cost of initial paving account,' which 
 would be automatically wiped out in eight years, assuming, for 
 example, that this is the life of the paving, by being credited with 
 one-eighth of the cost of the paving annually. The maintenance and 
 repairs after the above date should be charged to operating ac- 
 count ' paving.' " 
 
 While there can be no doubt that pavement maintenance should 
 never be charged to capital account, we can not subscribe to the 
 proposition that a street railway company should not charge the 
 entire first cost of a pavement to capital account, unless it is 
 clearly established that city taxes have been remitted to the full 
 extent of the money expended for pavement construction. Nor can 
 we subscribe to the statement that " Disturbing and replacing the 
 pavement adds no value to it," when this viewpoint is used as a rea- 
 son for not charging paving work to the construction account. The 
 same line of reasoning would lead to rejecting also the item of 
 grading, for " disturbing and replacing " the earth can add no 
 value to the earth, yet it is a necessary part of the labor of con- 
 struction. However just may have been the reason for excluding 
 an allowance for paving work from the appraised values, it could 
 be proven just only on the ground that the city of Detroit had it- 
 self paid for the pavement by remitting taxes equal to its first cost. 
 We should explain that Mr. Barcroft's omission to include the cost 
 
1556 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 of paving- rested upon the opinion of the City Corporation Counsel 
 and a majority of the legal committee to the effect that " the legal 
 title to the pavement is in the city of Detroit and not in the com- 
 pany." This reason is fallacious, for " legal title " does not deter- 
 mine costs nor values in the case of a public service corporation. 
 " Legal title " to the earth beneath the pavement also rests in the 
 city of Detroit. Shall the cost of grading be excluded from the 
 appraisal for that reason? Clearly not, and it is equally clear, 
 therefore, that the cost of paving should be viewed in the same 
 light. 
 
 Aside from this one point, the appraised values appear to have 
 been very liberal, taken as a whole, as will be better appreciated 
 from a study of the cost of reproduction new per mile of trackway, 
 given below. 
 
 Regarding overhead charges, the report says : 
 
 " Overhead charges should be depreciated in the same proportion 
 as the present condition of the physical property bears to its cost, 
 and this charge, when added to the physical elements depreciated, 
 represents the net depreciated physical and overhead value of the 
 property. * * * The sum total of this analysis, therefore, leads 
 to the conclusion that $1,024,310 is ample to cover such overhead 
 charges as are necessary to reproduce this property." 
 
 Deducting this $1,024,310 from the total present value leaves 
 $10,097,415, which is 80.74% of the cost of reproduction new of the 
 total physical property. Hence we have divided the $1,024,310 by" 
 80.74% to obtain the undepreciated overhead charges, which are 
 $1,268,000 as thus found. If the real estate is not included, the 
 ratio is 79.89%, instead of 80.74%, and we get $1,282,000 as the 
 undepreciated overhead charges. 
 
 Apparently the undepreciated overhead charges were estimated 
 at a little more than 10% of the cost of the property. The over- 
 head charges include : Organization, finance, interest and taxes 
 during construction, legal expense, insurance, contingencies, tech- 
 nical assistance employed in the various engineering branches, and 
 other miscellaneous expenses. 
 
 The track mileage was as follows : 
 
 Miles 
 
 Single track 170.41 
 
 Car stations, yards, etc 12.93 
 
 Total 183.34 
 
 Dividing each of the ten items of cost of reproduction new by the 
 170.41 miles of trackway, we have the following cost per mile of 
 trackway : 
 
 Cost of Reproduction, New. 
 
 Per mile 
 
 1. ' Real estate $ 3,013 
 
 2. Buildings (other than power) 3,843 
 
 3. Power plants (including buildings) 8,694 
 
 4. Battery stations (including buildings) 1,339 
 
 5. Power distribution 7,112 
 
 6. Track (including grading, but excluding paving) 21,135 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1557 
 
 Per mile 
 
 7. Rolling stock ( 6 cars per mile) $21,572 
 
 8. Shops 2,294 
 
 9. Tools, supplies, etc 4,407 
 
 10. Overhead charges 7,441 
 
 Total $80,850 
 
 Since there are 1.076 miles of all track to each mile of trackway, 
 each of these 10 items must be divided by 1.076 to get the cost per 
 mile of track. 
 
 The annual number of car miles per mile of track is evidently 
 large, for there are 6 revenue cars per mile of trackway. This ac- 
 counts for the high cost of power plants per mile of trackway. 
 Items 8 and 9 are inordinately high, but the shops and tools are 
 used not only for the street railways within the city but for inter- 
 urban lines. 
 
 We pass now to the detailed estimates of cost of reproduction 
 new and present value. 
 
 1. Real Estate. — There are 50.021 acres used for railway pur- 
 poses, valued at $513,548, or an average of $10,265 per acre. In 
 addition there are 18.374 acres valued at $121,772, but not used for 
 railway purposes. The following is a summary of the real estate, 
 not including buildings : 
 
 Land for : 
 
 1. General offices $ 27,750 
 
 2. Power houses 185,169 
 
 3. Emergency station 9,375 
 
 4. Mechanical shops 50,000 
 
 5. Track shops 24,832 
 
 6. Battery stations (two) 18,514 
 
 7. Car stations (ten) 186,664 
 
 8. Air changing stations (two) 2,600 
 
 8a. Car clearances (two) 1,944 
 
 8b. Switching yards (two) 6,200 
 
 8c. Loop property 500 
 
 9. Freight depot (interurban traffic) 50,000 
 
 Total $563,548 
 
 2. Buildings. — The following is the estimated cost of reproduction 
 new : 
 
 1. General office, 5-story brick, trimmed with cut stone, 
 
 pile foundation, 37 by 100 ft $ 42,000 
 
 2. Power houses (see Power Plants) : 
 
 Pipe house, 1-story brick, 44 by 142 7,500 
 
 Stable, 1-story brick, 52 by 111 3.500 
 
 Two frame buildings 600 
 
 Miscellaneous : Sheds, paving, walks, etc 10,000 
 
 3. Emergencj- station, 2 and 3 stories, 75 by 200 42,459 
 
 4. Car repair shops: 
 
 2-story brick, 72 by 463 ft 44,000 
 
 1 to 3-story brick, 85 by 538 ft 89,000 
 
 Sprinkler system in buildings 21,000 
 
 Scrap yard buildings 2,600 
 
 6. Machine .shops, 1-story frame, 79 by 145 ft 8,500 
 
 Stock room ^'aa^ 
 
 Carpenter shop §'"21! 
 
 Cement shed 3,000 
 
1558 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 stone crusher building $ 3,300 
 
 Miscellaneous 500 
 
 6. Battery stations (see Battery Stations). 
 
 7. Car stations : 
 
 1 and 2-story brick, 41 by 166 ft 10,900 
 
 1-story brick, 94 by 215 ft 14,000 
 
 1-story frame office, 30 by 39 ft 2,000 
 
 1-story brick, 158 by 353 ft 38,000 
 
 11/^ -story brick (65 by 254) and 1-story office and barn 
 
 (69 by 254) 30,000 
 
 2-story brick, 43 by 151 and 43 by 35 ft 13,500 
 
 Brick storage shed, 80 by 750 40,500 
 
 Coal and tool sheds 800 
 
 1-story brick, 94 by 228 ft. 15,500 
 
 Office and air charging station 2,800 
 
 1-story brick, 100 by 243 ft 17,000 
 
 1 and 2-story brick, 80 by 389 ft 36,000 
 
 1-story brick, 64 by 470 ft 20,000 
 
 Frame office, 41 by 52 ft 2,600 
 
 1-story brick, 73 by 366 ft 30,500 
 
 2-story frame office, 28 by 46 2,500 
 
 Shed, 16 by 68 ft 725 
 
 Brick, steel trussed roof, 82 by 141 ft 23,500 
 
 2-story brick, wood trussed roof, 58 by 150 ft 12,300 
 
 1-story frame office 1,650 
 
 1-story brick, steel trussed roof, 73 by 158 13,600 
 
 8. Air charging stations : 
 
 Frame, 10 by 40 ft 200 
 
 Frame, 32 by 70 ft 2,600 
 
 Total $617,884 
 
 9. Freight depot : 
 
 Masonry building, 43 by 200 ft 13,500 
 
 Masonry building, 38 by 250 ft 12,600 
 
 Milk depot 3,200 
 
 Platform, ret wall, paving and grading 7,70tf 
 
 Grand total .$654,881 
 
 Item 9, freight depot, is owned by the Electric Depot Co., and is 
 used in handling interurban freight. These buildings having a cost 
 of reproduction new of $654,884, are given a present value of $578,- 
 763. 
 
 In addition there were buildings not used for railway purposes to 
 which were assigned a cost of reproduction of $64,084 and a present 
 value of $20,045. 
 
 Item 4, car repair shops, is not pro rated to city use only, but in- 
 cludes all the shops. Since these shops are also used for cars on 
 suburban and interurban lines, it is probable that their cost is 
 somewhat greater than necessary for the urban traffic only. 
 
 Buildings for housing power plants are not given under this 
 heading but under Power Plants. 
 
 3. Power Plants. — There are two power plant stations built in 
 1894-5. The power buildings are of brick and stone with con- 
 crete bases. The combined capacity of the two stations is 13,500 
 kw., but the railway company secures 3,500 kw. additional by pur- 
 chase from the Edison Co. 
 
 The cost of reproduction new of Station A, which has 5,500 kw. 
 capacity, is as follows : 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1559 
 
 1. Machinery, foundations, stone, brick and concrete $ 26 250 
 
 2. Boilers and settings: ' 
 
 12 Babcock & Wilcox, 250 hp. each, 4 Sterling boilers, 
 
 354 h.p. each. Total 44,384 
 
 3. Coal and handling ai)paratus 6!917 
 
 4. Coal storage bins and chutes ,', 6!588 
 
 5. Grates and stokers : 
 
 16 Murphy furnaces and stokers 13,176 
 
 6. Breeching connections 2 965 
 
 7. Stack: 
 
 Self-supporting steel, fire brick lined to top. 11 ^^ 
 ft. diam. of flue, 183 ft. high above brick founda- 
 tion, 205 ft. above ground level, rests on 168 piles. . 11,550 
 
 8. Feed water heaters : 
 
 1 Cochran open heater (2,000 h.p.) 
 1 Worthington duplex. 
 
 Total 1,500 
 
 9. Purifiers : 6 Hoppe, 750 h.p. each 3,150 
 
 10. Intake tunnels 19,050 
 
 11. Condensing equipment : 
 
 4 Worthington duplex air pumps and condensers. 
 
 1 Tomlinson barometric condenser. 
 
 1 Lawrence centrifugal (10-in. ) pump and engine. 
 
 Total 16,500 
 
 12. Circulating and boiler feed pumps : 
 
 3 Worthington feed pumps. 
 
 Total 3.294 
 
 13. Piping, valves and covering 44,000 
 
 14. Engines : 
 
 4 Allis-Chalmers, 1,500 h.p. each, tandem compound, 
 condensing. 
 
 1 Allis-Chalmers, 2,500 h.p. cross-compound, con- 
 densing. 
 
 Total 129,977 
 
 15. Generators: 
 
 2 Genera] Electric, 1,000 kw. each. 
 2 Westinghouse, 1,000 kw. each. 
 
 1 Westinghouse, 1,500 kw. each. 
 
 Total 87,000 
 
 16. Boosters: 
 
 1 Westinghou.se generator, 250 kw. 
 
 1 Westinghouse generator, 350 kw. 
 
 1 Westinghouse motor, 272 kw. 
 
 1 Cutler-Hammer, 272 kw. 
 
 1 Westinghouse motor, 388 kw. 
 
 1 Westinghouse starting box, 388 kw. 
 
 Total 10,617 
 
 17. Crane, Brown Hoisting Co., hand operated, 60-ft. span, 
 
 25-ton cap 4,400 
 
 18. Generator and switchboard cables 9,900 
 
 19. Switchboard and accessories 42,380 
 
 20. Miscellaneous 13.900 
 
 21. Contingencies, incidentals and engineering 20,600 
 
 22. Buildings: 
 
 One brick and stone, 59 by 233 ft. (about). 
 
 One brick and stone. 75 by 194 ft. (about). 
 
 Total, about 29,295 sq. ft 108,150 
 
 Grand total $626,248 
 
 The land on which this power station stands is 200 by 300 ft. = 
 60,000 sq. ft., or about twice the area actually occupied by the 
 buildings. This land was appraised at $37,500, or about 62 ct. per 
 sq. ft., which is included under Real Estate. 
 
 Since the capacity of this plant is 5,500 kw., we obtain the cost 
 per kw. by dividing each of the foregoing 26 items by 5,500. 
 
1560 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1. Machinery foundations $ 4.77 
 
 2. Boilers and settings 8.07 
 
 3. Coal and ash building appar 1.26 
 
 4. Coal storage bins and chutes 1.20 
 
 5. Grates and stokers 2.40 
 
 6. Breeching connections 0.54 
 
 7. Stack 2.10 
 
 8. Feed water heaters 0.27 
 
 9. Purifiers 0.57 
 
 10. Intake tunnels 3.46 
 
 11. Condensing equipment 3.00 
 
 12. Circulating and boiler feed pumps 0.60 
 
 13. Piping, valves and covering 8.00 
 
 14. Engines 23.64 
 
 15. Generators 15.82 
 
 16. Boosters 1.93 
 
 17. Crane 0.80 
 
 18. Generator and switchboard cables 1.82 
 
 19. Switchboard and accessories 7.71 
 
 20. Miscellaneous 2.53 
 
 21. Contingencies and engineering 3.75 
 
 22. Building 19.66 
 
 Total $113.90 
 
 Land 6.82 
 
 Total $120.72 
 
 If we take % of the foregoing, we have the approximate cost per 
 horsepower. 
 
 The depreciated or present value assigned to this power plant, 
 Station A, was as follows : 
 
 1. Machinery foundation $ 26,250 
 
 2. Boilers and settings 30,907 
 
 3. Coal and ash appar 3,890 
 
 4. Coal storage bins 4,650 
 
 5. Grates and stokers 9,345 
 
 6. Breeching connections 1,656 
 
 7. Stack 8,464 
 
 8. Feed water heaters , 941 
 
 9. Purifiers 1,170 
 
 10. Intake tunnels 19,050 
 
 11. Condensing equipment 9,116 
 
 12. Circulating and feed pumps 1,971 
 
 13; Piping, valves and covering 35,144 
 
 14. Engines 94,452 
 
 15. Generators 73,871 
 
 16. Boosters 7,963 
 
 17. Crane 2,370 
 
 18. Generator and switchboard cables 8,290 
 
 19. Switchboard and accessories 35,634 
 
 20. Miscellaneous 6,917 
 
 21. Contingencies and engineering 12,480 
 
 22. Building 108,150 
 
 Total $502,681 
 
 The plant was about 14 yr. old, with the exception of the 4 Sterl- 
 ing boilers (total 1,416 hp.), the 2,500 hp. engine, and the 2,000 hp. 
 Cochran heater, which were about 4 yr. old ; also the 3 generators, 
 which were about 6 yr. old. A comparison of the above de- 
 preciated values with the cost of reproduction new will indicate 
 the rates of depreciation allowed. Including buildings and ma- 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1561 
 
 chinery foundations (Items 1 and 22), it will be seen that the aver- 
 age depreciated value is 80.3% of the cost of reproduction; but, de- 
 ducting items 1 and 2, the percentage is 74.8%. This last would 
 indicate an average depreciation of nearly 2% per annum. 
 
 We pass now to the power plant equipment of Station B, having 
 a rated capacity of 8,400 kw. and an estimated cost per kw. slightly 
 less than for Station A. The cost of reproduction new was as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1. Machinery foundations $ 32,619 
 
 2. Boilers and settings : 
 
 8 Stirling boilers, 250 h.p. each 
 8 Stirling boilers, 300 h.p. each. 
 8 Stirling boilers, 350 h.p. each. 
 
 Total 65,652 
 
 3. Coal and ash building apparatus 11,489 
 
 4. Coal storage bins and chutes 10,942 
 
 5. Grates and stokers : 
 
 20 Murphy furnaces and stokers. 
 4 Detroit furnaces and stokers. 
 
 Total 21,884 
 
 6. Breeching and connections 4,924 
 
 7 Stacks : 
 
 Two brick stacks, 195 ft. above ground, 10 -ft. flue. ... 24,884 
 
 8. Feed water heaters : 
 
 2 Cochran, each 2,500 h.p 4,500 
 
 9. Economizers : 
 
 Green fuel economizers, connection with 16 Stirling 
 
 boilers (4,400 h.p.) 22,377 
 
 10. Intake tunnels 18,900 
 
 11. Condensing equipment : 
 
 1 G. F. Blake condenser. 
 
 1 Baragwanath condenser. 
 
 4 M. T. Davis condensers (style 6). 
 
 Total 16,200 
 
 12. Circulating and boiler feed pumps: 
 
 4 Davidson feed pumps, No.7%. 
 
 1 Worthington duplex. 
 
 Total 5,471 
 
 13. Piping, valves and covering 43,150 
 
 14. Engines : 
 
 2 Filer & Stowell, cross compound, condensing, 2,250 
 h.p. each. 
 
 2 E. P. Allis Co., ditto. 1.200 h.p. ea. 
 2 E. P. Allis Co., ditto, 600 h.p. ea. 
 
 Total 129,150 
 
 15. Generators : 
 
 2 Westinghouse, 1,500 kw. each. 
 2 Walker Mfg. Co., 800 kw. each. 
 2 Walker Mfg. Co., 400 kw. each. 
 
 Total 86,050 
 
 16. Turbo-generator plant : 
 
 1 We.stinghouse. 3,000 kw. generator. 
 1 Parson's steam turbine, 4,500 h.]). 
 1 Baragwanath jet condenser (42-in.) 
 
 1 Baragwanath centrifugal pump (18-in.) 
 Exciter, induction motor, engine, etc. 
 
 Total ' 146,500 
 
 17. Boosters : 
 
 2 General Electric generators. 
 
 1 Westinghouse motor, 250 kw. 
 
 4 Westinghouse generators, 500 each. 
 
 4 Westinghouse motors, 540 each. 
 
 1 Westinghouse exciter generator, 12 14 kw. 
 
 Total 5,784 
 
1562 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 18. Orane: 
 
 Hand operated, 51-ft. span, 15-ton capacity $ 4,320 
 
 19. Generator and switchboard cables 13,542 
 
 20. Switchboard and accessories 9,898 
 
 21. Miscel. apparatus and tools 17,315 
 
 22. Contingencies, incidentals and engineering 21,450 
 
 23. Building: 
 
 About 54,800 sq. ft , 138.080 
 
 Grand total $855,080 
 
 The land assigned to this power plant covers about 168,000,000 
 sq. ft. (or about three times the area occupied by the buildings), 
 and its appraised value is $147,669, 
 
 Dividing each of the above 23 items by 8,400 we have the follow- 
 ing cost of the plant per kw. : 
 
 Per kw. 
 
 1. Machinery foundations $ 3.88 
 
 2. Boilers and settings 7.81 
 
 3. Coal and ash handling appar 1.37 
 
 4. Coal storage bins and chutes 1.30 
 
 5. Grates and stokers 2.60 
 
 6. Breeching and connections 0!59 
 
 7. Stacks (brick) 2.96 
 
 8. Feed water heaters 0.54 
 
 9. Economizers (for 2-3 of the boilers) 2.66 
 
 10. Intake tunnels 2.25 
 
 11. Condensing equipment 1.93 
 
 12. Circulating and feed pumps 0.60 
 
 13. Piping, valves and covering 5.14 
 
 14. Engines 15.38 
 
 15. Generators 10.25 
 
 16. Turbo-generator plant 17.44 
 
 17. Boosters 0.69 
 
 18. Crane 0.51 
 
 19. Generator and switchboard cables 1.61 
 
 20. Switchboard and accessories 1.18 
 
 21. Miscel. apparatus 2.06 
 
 22. Contingencies and engineering 2.55 
 
 23. Buildings , 16.44 
 
 Total $101 79 
 
 Land 1 7.58 
 
 Grand total $119.37 
 
 The depreciated or present value of this Station B is as follows: 
 
 1. Machinery and foundations $ 32,619 
 
 2. Boiler.^! and settings , 43.743 
 
 3. Coal and a.sh handling ai)par 7.003 
 
 4. Coal .storage bins and chutes 8,754 
 
 5. Grates and stokers 15.098 
 
 6. Breeching and connections 3,774 
 
 7. Stacks 19.547 
 
 8. Feed water heater 3,575 
 
 9. Economizers 1 1.750 
 
 10. Intake tunnels 18.900 
 
 11. Condensing equipment 10.5.'?0 
 
 12. Circulating and feed pumps 3,421 
 
 13. Piping, valves and covering 32.832 
 
 14. Engines 95.720 
 
 15. Generators 71 292 
 
 16. Turbo -generator plant 146,500 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1563 
 
 17. Boosters $ 3,1 45 
 
 1 8. Crane 2,350 
 
 19. Generator and switchboard cables 11.340 
 
 20. Switchboard and accessories 7.563 
 
 21. Mi.«ceIlaneous appar 1 4.5S9 
 
 22. Conting^encies, incidentals and engrg- 11,2 40 
 
 23. Buildings 1 38.080 
 
 Total $716,370 
 
 This is 83.5% of the cost of reproduction new. But if we deduct 
 items 1, 10 and 23. the corresponding percentage is 79 1%. 
 
 The equipment of Station B was about 14 yr. old, with the fol- 
 lowing exceptions: 8 Sterling, 350 hp. boilers, about 2 yr. old; 2 
 Cochran heaters, about Wi yr. old; 2 Filer & Stowell engines, 2,250 
 hp. ea., about 10 yr. old; 3 condensers, about 3 yr. old; 2 Westing- 
 house generator;?, 1,500 kw. ea., about 10 yr. old; brick stack, about 
 2 yr. old; turbo-generator plant, about 1^2 yr. old. If we deduct 
 'the turbo-generator plant (item 16), as well as items 1, 10 and 23, 
 the present value is 73.2% of the cost of reproduction new% which 
 corresponds closely with the per cent, of depreciation assigned to 
 Station A. 
 
 4. Battery Stations. — There are 2 battery stations, designated as 
 K and L. Part of the machinery in Station K is owned by the 
 Edison Illuminating Co. and is not included in the following ap- 
 praisal of the cost of reproduction new : 
 
 Station K. 
 1 Electric Storage Battery Co.'s storage battery, 2,500 am- 
 pere-hour capacity, 260 cells of 67 plates ("G" type) 
 
 per cell $ 89,300 
 
 1 Western Electric booster, type " P-6," connected to a 300 
 
 h.p. motor 11.000 
 
 Switchboard and accessories 2,959 
 
 Battery and equalization station accessories 3,542 
 
 Tools 187 
 
 Furniture and fixtures 315 
 
 Heating 200 
 
 Stock 3.517 
 
 Buildings (53 by 113 ft.), lighting, etc • 15,000 
 
 Total •n26,021 
 
 The depreciated or present value is appraised at $110,575. 
 The cost of reproduction new of Station L is as follows : 
 
 Station L. 
 1 Electric Storage Co.'s storage battery, 2,000 ampere-hour, 
 
 250 cells of 53 plates ("G" type), per cell $ ^^.250 
 
 1 Western Electric booster, type " T-6," and a 200 h.p. motor fi.400 
 
 Switchboard connections o'oqi 
 
 Battery and equalizing sta. accessories 'i.l 
 
 Tools -^^^ 
 
 Furniture and fixtures ^^i' 
 
 Heating . , ^^ ' 
 
 Stock 'til 
 
 Stationary testing in.sts _ r^^ 
 
 Buildings (39 by 158 ft.) and lighting ^'^"" 
 
 Total $102,231 
 
1564 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The depreciated value is $89,912. 
 
 5. Power Distribution. — The cost of reproduction new of the 
 power distribution system is as follows : 
 
 1. Iron Poles : 
 
 7,498 iron poles, various sizes, 4,395,946 lbs. at $2.75 per 
 
 C. lbs $120,888.52 
 
 Labor erecting at $9.78 73,330.44 
 
 Total, iron poles $194,218.96 
 
 2. Cedar Poles: 
 
 2,198 cedar poles, 30-ft., at $5.50 $12,089.00 
 
 201 cedar poles, 35-ft., at $7.25 1,457.25 
 
 9 cedar poles, 40-ft., at $10.25 92.25 
 
 I cedar pole, 45-ft., at $12.50 12.50 
 
 2,409 cedar poles, labor at $4.00 9,636.00 
 
 Total, cedar poles $23,287.00 
 
 3. Idaho Poles: 
 
 92 Idaho poles, 50-ft., at $14.25 $1,311.00 
 
 1 Idaho pole, 55-ft., at $16.00 16.00 
 
 20 Idaho poles, 60-ft., at $21.00 420.00 
 
 113 Idaho poles, labor at $5.35 604.55 
 
 Total, Idaho poles $2,351.55 
 
 4. Northern Pine Poles : 
 
 73 Octagon Northern Pine poles, 28-ft., at $7.50 $ 547.50 
 
 112 Octagon Northern Pine poles, 30-ft., at $10.25 1,148.00 
 
 16 Octagon Northern Pine poles, 35-ft., at $12.50 200.00 
 
 201 poles, labor at $4.00 804.00 
 
 Total, Northern Pine poles $2,699.50 
 
 5. Pole Tops and Guy Stubs : 
 
 2,540 Eye bolts, washers and fittings, various prices . . $ 303.44 
 
 76 Eye bolts, various prices 7.59 
 
 12,053 Iron and wood pins 373.64 
 
 580 (3-pin) iron pole tops, at $3.65 2,117.00 
 
 2,804 Wood pole tops, at 50 cts 1,402.00 
 
 68 Wood pole tops, with iron caps, at 75 cts 51.00 
 
 II Wood pole tops, with iron caps, at 85 cts 9.35 
 
 2,437 Wood pole tops, with 1.5-in. iron pins, at 90 cts. . 2,193.30 
 
 224 Iron pole tops, at 90 cts 201.60 
 
 12 Iron pole tops, at 50 cts 6.00 
 
 878 Iron pole tops, at 95 cts 834.10 
 
 15 Iron pole tops, at $1.10 16.50 
 
 10 pole top extensions, at $2.80 28.00 
 
 14 Special insulated lamp pole tops, at $1.50 21.00 
 
 21 Cedar guy stubs, at $2.00 42.00 
 
 15.605 lbs. iron cut stubs, at $2.75 429.14 
 
 1,102 Locust pins, at 2 cts 22.04 
 
 75 Maple pins, at 3 cts 2.25 
 
 80 Iron pins, at 17 cts 13.60 
 
 Total pole tops and stubs $8,073.55 
 
 6. Iron Pole Strap Bands : 
 
 Various sizes and values $6,067.77 
 
 7. Iron Crossarms : 
 
 342 No. 10 iron crossarms, at $3.50 $1,197.00 
 
 234 No. 20 iron crossarms, at $2.75 643.50 
 
 549 No. 20 iron crossarms, at $2.75 1,509.75 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1565 
 
 119 Ft. Wayne iron crossarms, at $2.20 $ 261.80 
 
 Labor erecting 1,244 iron crossarms, at $1.00 1,244.00 
 
 Total, iron crossarms $4,856.05 
 
 8. Wood Crossarms : 
 
 378 2-pin maple crossarms, at 30 cts $ 113.40 
 
 1,806 4-pin maple crossarms, at 35 cts 632.10 
 
 28 6-pin maple crossarms, at 60 cts 16.80 
 
 Labor erecting 2,212 wood crossarms, at 50 cts 1,106.00 
 
 Total, wood crossarms $1,868.30 
 
 9. Insulators : 
 
 2,387 (500,000 cir. mils) shell top feeder insulators, at 
 
 70 cts $1,670.90 
 
 1.825 (1,000,000) shell top feeder insulators, at 50 cts. . 1,460.00 
 
 474 (500,000) shell top corner insulators, at 90 cts. .. 426.60 
 
 210 (1,000,000) shell top corner insulators, at $1.00 .. 210.00 
 
 1,932 Ohio brass clinch corner insulators, at 40 cts 772.80 
 
 5,177 Feeder glass insulators, at 66 cts 341.68 
 
 3,734 Wood strain insulators, at 20 cts 746.80 
 
 875 Small Brooklyn strain insulators, at 60 cts 525.00 
 
 5 Small double Brooklyn strain insulators, at 60 cts. 3.00 
 
 507 Large Brooklyn strain insulators, at 90 cts 456.30 
 
 10 Large double Brooklyn strain insulators, at $2.00 20.00 
 
 214 (2/0) sectional insulators, at $3.75 802.50 
 
 97 Clinch top insulator.s, at 40 cts 38.80 
 
 190 Ohio brass clinch top insulators, at 40 cts 76.00 
 
 242 Top groove glass insulators, at 66 cts 15.97 
 
 9 Mica Medbury insulators, at 50 cts 4.50 
 
 802 No. 1 Giant strain insulators, at 35 cts 280.70 
 
 6,972 No. 2 Giant strain insulators, at 25 cts 1,743.00 
 
 2,470 Medbury spool insulators, at 20 cts 494.00 
 
 676 Medbury feeder insulators, at 63 cts 425.88 
 
 20 Special tower clamp insulators, at $2.20 44.00 
 
 Total, insulators $9,758.43 
 
 10. Ears: 
 
 155 Double ears, 2/0, at 60 cts $ 93.00 
 
 4 Feed-in ears, at 60 cts 2.40 
 
 297 Strain ears, at 61 cts 181.17 
 
 Total, ears $ 276.57 
 
 11. Anchor Rods, Turnbuckles : 
 
 253 Turnbuckles and rods, various sizes and prices $ 154.90 
 
 167 Anchor rods, various sizes and prices 53.70 
 
 Total, anchor rods, etc $ 208.60 
 
 12. Arresters: 
 
 357 Lightning arresters, various prices $2,295.51 
 
 48 Lightning arresters, various prices 208.15 
 
 Labor ... 680.40 
 
 Total, arresters $3,184.06 
 
 13. Circuit Breakers: 
 
 lO* (450-ampere) Westinghouse automatic circuit break- ,' „ ^^ 
 
 ers. 600-volt, slate base, special box, at $40 .... $ 400.00 
 
 1 (800-ampere) Westinghouse automatic circuit or aa 
 
 breaker, 600-volt, slate ba.se, special boxes 85.00 
 
 1 (1,200-ampere) hard automatic oil circuit "breaker, -^^aa 
 
 600-volt, special box, lamps, etc 115.00 
 
1566 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1 (450-ampere) Westinghouse automatic circuit 
 
 breaker, slate base, special boxes $ 40.00 
 
 Labor on circuit breakers 115.50 
 
 Total, circuit breakers $ 755.50 
 
 14. Bolts, Screws, Washers, Chairs: 
 
 26,196 Machine bolts, various sizes and prices $ 261.96 
 
 2,503 Carriage bolts, various sizes and prices 21.28 
 
 6,9 75 Lag screws, various sizes and prices 121.37 
 
 166 Pounds of washers, various sizes and prices .... 10.00 
 
 1,358 Chairs, various sizes and prices 1,874.30 
 
 Total, bolts, etc $2,288.91 
 
 15. Switches: 
 
 14 (400-ampere) 600-volt, G. B. switches, slate base, 
 
 at $4 $ 56.00 
 
 2 (400-ampere) 600-volt switches, G. E., S. P. D. T., 
 
 at $10 20.00 
 
 7 (1,200-ampere) 600-volt switches, G. E., S. P. D. T., 
 
 at $16.88 118.16 
 
 11 (1,200-ampere) 600-volt switches, Anderson, at $16 176.00 
 
 21 (600-ampere) 600-volt switches, G. E., at $10 210.00 
 
 22 (600-ampere) 600-volt switches, Anderson, at $9.50 . 209.00 
 1 (600-ampere) 600-volt switch, G. E., S. P. D. T., 
 
 at $14 14.00 
 
 1 Perkins 600-volt switch .90 
 
 2 Westinghouse cut-out switches, at $7.50 15.00 
 
 16 No. 2 steel motor cut-out switches, at $6.25 100.00 
 
 21 cut-out switches, at $7.50 157.50 
 
 1 (600-ampere) G. E. switch, at $10.00 10.00 
 
 Labor 623.56 
 
 Total, switches $1,710.12 
 
 16. Switch Boxes and Puses: 
 
 14 Pine record boxes, at $1.85 $ 25.90 
 
 2 Feeder dividing blocks, at 50 cts 1.00 
 
 2 (30-ampere) 600-volt fuse boxes, leather cover, at 
 
 $2.25 4.50 
 
 20 Switch boxes, average $5.50 110.00 
 
 16 15-ampere Noark fuses, at 57 cts 9.12 
 
 15 Switch boxes, 6 by 6 by 18-ins., at $4.25 63.75 
 
 3 Switch boxes, 6 by 6 by 18-ins., at $3.50 10.50 
 
 1 Switch box, 8 by 12 by 30-ins 6.65 
 
 49 Switch boxes, 9 by 10 by 30-ins., at $5.50 269.50 
 
 2 Switch boxes, 40 by 24 by 10-ins., at $5.50 11.00 
 
 1 Brass switch lock, at 75 cts .75 
 
 Labor 22.10 
 
 Total, switch boxes $ 534.77 
 
 17. Miscellaneous Iron Fittings: 
 
 40 0.5-in. by 7-ft. lightning arrester rods $ 26.00 
 
 25 Trolley rods. 0.625-in. by 9-ft. 9 ins 25.00 
 
 1 Truss rod, 0.75-in. by 24 ft 6.00 
 
 2 Truss rods, 0.5-in. by 1-ft 1.00 
 
 188 ft. iron truss rods, 0.75-in 5.65 
 
 26 ft. iron truss rods, 0.5-in .35 
 
 1 0.5-in. by 5-ft. iron rod 1.07 
 
 iS Iron rods and braces, various sizes 13.45 
 
 1 0.75-in. by 10-ft. special truss rod 1-80 
 
 3 Trolley sign rods, 0.625-in. by 9.75-ins 3.00 
 
 Miscellaneous labor /.a"?o 
 
 1,002 Crossarm braces ?o H 
 
 805 1.25-in. by 24-in. galvanized crossarm braces .... 48.30 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1567 
 
 78 Corner iron " U " clamps $ 113.10 
 
 6 0.5 by 3 by 8-in. claiaps 6. GO 
 
 6 0.5 by 3 by 6-in. clamps li.OO 
 
 162 0.5 by 4 by 5-in. '• U " bands 81. lu 
 
 52 ft. 0.375 by S-in. band iron 10.61 
 
 4 8 by 30-in. " U " bands 14.00 
 
 6 0.5 by 3 by S-in. double bands 4.50 
 
 6 0.5 by 3 by 6-in. double bands 3.90 
 
 45 5-in. iron pole bands 42.75 
 
 4 0.375 by 1.75-in. by 3 ft. strap bands 6.00 
 
 2 0.5 by 8-in. by 3-ft. strap bands 3.50 
 
 2 0.5 by 3 by 24-in. iron plates 4.80 
 
 22 0.5 by 4 by 4-in. iron plates 4.40 
 
 52 0.375 by 8 by 10-in. iron plates 18.20 
 
 214 5625 by f^-in. iron pole steps 6.42 
 
 5 0.25 by 4-in. by 3-ft. y-in. iron straps 3.75 
 
 2 Wrought iron straps, 0.5 by 0.5-in.s., 15 ins. square 2.50 
 
 Total, miscellaneous fittings % 527.87 
 
 18. Wood Braces : 
 
 154 Pieces wood brace.s, various sizes and prices $ 219 20 
 
 101 ft. b. ra. Norway pine, various sizes, at $36 per M. 3 64 
 
 Total, wood braces $ 222.84 
 
 19. Trolley Signs: 
 
 138 Trolley signs. 9 by ]8-in. sheet iron $ 138.00 
 
 16 •' F " signs, 0.625 by 8-in. sheet iron 8.00 
 
 1 lUuminatmg sign 26.00 
 
 Labor 234.05 
 
 Total, trolley signs $ 406.05 
 
 20. Trolley Brackets : 
 
 34 Flexible pole trolley brackets $ 66.30 
 
 195 Straight line trolley brackets 487.50 
 
 7 Single pin side brackets 1.05 
 
 Total, trolley brackets % 554.85 
 
 21. Brackets : 
 
 7 Single arm trolley brackets I 13.65 
 
 5 Tower feeder brackets 25.00 
 
 13 Special iron exti'a feeder brackets 45.50 
 
 96 Single pin side brackets, at 15 cts 14.40 
 
 26 Double pin side brackets, at 75 cts.. 19.50 
 
 72 Wooden side brackets 101 
 
 449 Lag brackets, at 21 cts 94.29 
 
 Total, brackets $ 213.35 
 
 22. Hangers : 
 
 6,720 Straight line hangers, at 45 cts $3,024.00 
 
 1,105 Feed in hangers, at 67 cts l\^.ib 
 
 Total, hangers $3,764.35 
 
 23. Wooden Trolley Troughs: 
 
 Materials I "^^11^ 
 
 Labor 1.486.75 
 
 Total, wooden trolley troughs $2,240.10 
 
 24. Special Feeder and Trestle Constr. : 
 
 Total at 35 places $6,012.00 
 
Miles 
 
 Pounds 
 
 50.42 
 
 978,164 
 
 6.09 
 
 96,163 
 
 10.47 
 
 156,000 
 
 2.95 
 
 34,766 
 
 88.35 
 
 883,549 
 
 7.60 
 
 62,342 
 
 1.34 
 
 9,496 
 
 42.98 
 
 266,441 
 
 0.11 
 
 303 
 
 3.24 
 
 16,875 
 
 44.16 
 
 178,839 
 
 1.68 
 
 5.679 
 
 4.30 
 
 14,292 
 
 .99 
 
 2,617 
 
 1.61 
 
 3,427 
 
 0.70 
 
 1,506 
 
 15G8 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 25. Overhead Positive Feeder System: 
 T. B. Cable 
 1,000,000 
 
 800.000 .• 
 
 750,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 500,000 88.35 
 
 400.000 
 
 350,000 
 
 300.000 
 
 300,000 — Aluminum 
 
 250,000 
 
 4/0 T. B. cable 
 
 4/0 Bare cable 
 
 3/0 T. B. cable 
 
 2/0 T, B. cable 
 
 2/0 Bare cable 
 
 1/0 T. B. cable 
 
 Total 266.99 ■ 2,710,459 
 
 2,710,459 lbs. copper $486,313.62 
 
 26. Miscellaneous Articles: 
 
 1,101 hexagon head cup screws at $0.51 $ 56.15 
 
 5 wood rollers at $0.75 3.75 
 
 42 pounds lock washers 5.51 
 
 20 span wire take-ups at $0.25 7.50 
 
 4 3-in. porcelain knobs at $0.02 .08 
 
 136 No. 4 porcelain knobs at $0.01 1.36 
 
 154 No. 1 porcelain knobs at $0.015 2.31 
 
 15 ft. 1 in. gas pipe at $0.05 .75 
 
 30 feet 0.5-in. circular loom at $0.05 1.50 
 
 1 16-in. b.v 3-in. C. I. pole guard 7.00 
 
 1 25-in. by 2-in. by 3 ft. angle iron, per lb., $0,035 .25 
 
 12 Pieces 0. 25-in. by 1.125-in. by 7-in. copper, per lb., 
 
 $0.35 4.20 
 
 27 Pieces C. I. lining blocks, per lb., $0.04 50.63 
 
 2,690 ft. 4-ply 10-in. rubber belting at $0.48 1,291.20 
 
 154 1-in. by 18-in. wood screws, per gr., $0.31 .33 
 
 2 0.5-in. by 6-in. iron devices, at $0.45 .90 
 
 109 wooden feed rollers at $0.75 81.75 
 
 1 0.5-in. by 4-ft. eye bolt, per C. $9.80 .10 
 
 115 assorted eye bolts, 12-ins. to 16-ins. long, per 100 
 
 lbs., at $4.41 5.07 
 
 1 14-in. insulated eye bolt .37 
 
 13 14-in. insulated eye bolts at $0.37 4.81 
 
 1,201 assorted eye bolts, 0.625-in. by 16-in., per 100 lbs., 
 
 at $6.45 79.15 
 
 1 special made wall plate, 0.5-in. by 4-in. by 30-in. . 3.50 
 
 1 special made wall plate, 1-in. by 6-in. by 36-in. . , . 4.25 
 
 63 ft. 4-ply 10-in. rubber belting at $0.59 37.17 
 
 
 Total, miscellaneous $1,649.59 
 
 27 Span Wire : 
 290 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0. 25-in.. at $0.75 
 
 per 100 ft % 2.18 
 
 240,530 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0.3125-in., at 
 
 $1.00 per 100 ft. . 2,405.30 
 
 915 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0.375-in., at 
 
 $1.20 per lOO ft 10.98 
 
 300 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0.5-in., at $1.80 
 
 per 100 ft 5.40 
 
 37,287 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0. 25-in., at $0.75 
 
 per 100 ft 279.65 
 
 70,790 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.3125-in., at 
 
 $1.00 per 100 ft 707.90 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1569 
 
 50,172 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.375-in. at $1 20 
 
 per 100 ft I 602 06 
 
 34,627 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.5-in., at $1.80 
 
 per 100 ft 623 29 
 
 92 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.75-in., at $5.66 
 
 per 100 ft 4 60 
 
 267 ft. wire cable, 1-in., at $0.19 per ft 50'73 
 
 625 ft. iron wire. No. 6, at $0.04 per lb 2 39 
 
 75 ft. iron wire. No. 10, at $0.04 per lb [' 13 
 
 5,068 ft. barbed wire, per roll of 80 rods, at $1.25 . . ' 4*89 
 
 Labor erecting 9,010 spans at $1.00 each 9,01 o!oo 
 
 Total, Span Wire $13,709.41 
 
 28. Miscellaneous Copper : 
 
 63,620 lbs. (about), at 17 cts. per lb $10,815.40 
 
 29. Track and Pipe Negatives : 
 
 78,050 lbs. (about) copper for track, at 17 cts $13,266.68 
 
 l^abor on same 769.40 
 
 66,800 lbs. (about) copper for pipe neg., at 17 cts 11,353.91 
 
 Labor on same 823.63 
 
 Total, Track and Pipe Negatives $26,173.62 
 
 30. Overhead Special Work : 
 
 88,990 lin. ft. 0.25-in. galvanized iron span wire at $0.75 
 
 per 100 ft - $ 667.43 
 
 69,400 lin. ft. 0.3125-in galvanized iron span wire at 
 
 $1.00 per 100 ft 694.00 
 
 1,695 lin. ft. 0.375-in. galvanized iron span wire at $1.20 
 
 per 100 ft 20.34 
 
 4,151 lin. ft. 2/0 copper wire, 1,673 lbs., at $0.18 per lb. 301.14 
 
 467 overhead trolley switches, at $7.50 3,502.50 
 
 37 inisulated overhead trolley cross-overs, at $4.38.. 162.06 
 
 222 metallic overhead trolley cross-overs, at $4.00 . . . 888.00 
 
 1.851 single wire pull-overs, at $0.40 740.40 
 
 9 4 single, double wire pull-overs, at $0.58 54.52 
 
 1.493 double, .single wire pull-overs, at $0.60 895.80 
 
 66 double, double wire pull-overs, at $0.93 61.38 
 
 377 hangers at $0.45 169.65 
 
 114 No. 1 strain insulators at $0.35 39.90 
 
 1,894 No. 2 strain in.'^ulators at $0.25 473.50 
 
 34 large Brooklyn strain insulators at $0.90 30.60 
 
 317 small Brooklyn strain in.sulators at $0.60 190.20 
 
 107 strain ears at $0.61 65.27 
 
 697 wood breaks at $0.20 139.40 
 
 480 collars at $0.15 72.00 
 
 104 Meadbury composition at $0.20 20.80 
 
 158 eye bolts at $0.08 12.64 
 
 117 iron rings at $0,025 2.92 
 
 31 turnbuckles at $0.50 15.50 
 
 120 " V " guards at $0.50 60.00 
 
 2 double and single trolley metallic crossings at 
 
 $5.50 ll'^^J 
 
 9 double and single trolley in.sulator crossings at 
 
 $7.27 65.43 
 
 Labor erecting 293 layouts 22,277.09 
 
 Total, Overhead Special Work $31,633.47 
 
 31. Underground Return System: 
 
 Various negative connections $47,009.11 
 
 Positive feeder lines 6,388.30 
 
 Total, Underground System $53,397.41 
 
1570 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 32. Underground Pipe Connections: 
 
 85 connections $ 7,122.86 
 
 33. Trolley Wire (2/0) : 
 
 201.91 miles plus 1% for sag- := 1,075,640 lin. ft, at 0.403 
 
 lbs. = 433,481 lbs. copper $78,026.58 
 
 Labor 7,023.42 
 
 Total, Trolley Wire $85,050.00 
 
 34. Overhead Line Material in Car Stations, Shops 
 
 and Yards : 
 
 Material $ 6,826.78 
 
 Labor . . 9,948.00 
 
 Total $16,776.78 
 
 35. Telephone System : 
 
 Materials, No. 10 iron wire, 546,023 ft $ 4,231.85 
 
 Labor, 51.706 miles circuit (or 103.412 miles single 
 
 wire) at $15 775.59 
 
 Total, Telephone System $ 5,007.44 
 
 36. Potential Lines: 
 
 Potential wires and material from power station " A " 
 to Adams avenue. 
 
 Total for material and labor . $ 110.06 
 
 Total for material and labor from battery 270.48 
 
 Total, Potential Lines $ 380.54 
 
 37. Cross Bonding-: 
 
 347 Sing-le track cross bonds at $4.19 $ 1,453.93 
 
 343 Double track cross bonds at $9.06 3,107.58 
 
 Total, Cross Bonding $ 4,561.51 
 
 38. Straight Track Bonding: 
 
 490 lin. ft. 500,000 c. m. T. B. W. P. copper cable ... $ 157.76 
 
 31,520 lin. ft. 2/0 copper wire, 12,932 lbs 2,286.15 
 
 27,098 42-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds 21,678.40 
 
 1,995 36-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds 1,396.50 
 
 2,136 31-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds 1,324.32 
 
 27,035 10-in. form 8 flexible copper bonds 20,276.25 
 
 10,769 " U " copper bonds 7,538.30 
 
 110 21-in. 4/0 copper stubs 55.00 
 
 75 lbs. No. 14 copper wrapping wire 18.75 
 
 62 lbs. solder 11.47 
 
 4,302 4/0 solid copper bonds 3,441.60 
 
 40 36-in. 4/0 solid copper bonds 28.00 
 
 80 36-in. riveted copper bonds 37.60 
 
 5,256 42-in. riveted copper bonds 2,890.80 
 
 1,028 36-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds 246.72 
 
 170 miles track, 352 joints per mile (2 rails), 59,840 
 
 rail joints 22,405.78 
 
 Total, Straight Track Bonding $83,793.40 
 
 39. Special Work Bonding: 
 
 166,052 lin. ft. 2/0 copper wire, 68,321.4 lbs., at $0.18 . . $12,043.75 
 
 13,472 42-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds at $0.80 10,777.60 
 
 3,840 36-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds at $0.70 2,688.00 
 
 347 32-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds at $0 62 215.14 
 
 352 36-in. 3/0 flexible copper bonds at $0.65 228.80 
 
 554 10-in. 4/0 flq-ure " S " copper bonds at $0.37 205.08 
 
 3,327 21-in. 4/0 cooper stubs at $0.50 1,663.50 
 
 1,047 18-in. 4/0 copper stubs at $0.45 471.15 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1571 
 
 70 16-in. 4/0 flexible copper .stubs at $0.40 $ 28.00 
 
 1,807 lin. ft. No, 14 copper wrapping- wire, 22.5 lbs., 
 
 at $0.25 5.63 
 
 2,434 lbs. .solder at $0,185 450 29 
 
 105 42-in. 4/0 solid copper bonds at $0.80 84.00 
 
 220 4 2-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 
 
 at $0.87 , 191.40 
 
 761 36-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 
 
 at $078 , 593.58 
 
 89 30-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 
 
 at $0.67 59.63 
 
 55 24-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 
 
 at $0 61 , 33.55 
 
 63 2/0 channel pin copper plug-.s at $0.10 6.30 
 
 58 2/0 copper " U " bonds at $0.70 40.60 
 
 30 4/0 flexible copper soldered bonds at $0.52 15.60 
 
 258 lin. ft. 1,000,000 c. m. T. B. W. P. copper cable, 
 
 948 lbs., at $0.17 161.16 
 
 158 lin. ft. 4/0 insulated cable, 126.4 lbs, at $0 17 . . 21.49 
 
 Total, special Bonding $29,984.25 
 
 40. l<]qua]iz!ng Stations: 
 
 11 .stations $ 21,737.0^ 
 
 Total of Items 1 to 40 $1,154,187.43 
 
 41. Contingencies 57,709.37 
 
 Grand total '. $1,211,896.80 
 
 Dividing each of the above 41 items by 183.34, we have the fol- 
 lowing costs per mile of all track. 
 
 Per mile 
 of track 
 
 1. Tron poles (40 9 poles) $1,059.30 
 
 2. Cedar poles (13.1 poles) 127.00 
 
 3. Idaho poles (0.6 poles) 12.80 
 
 4. Northern jjine poles ( 12 poles) 14,50 
 
 5. Pole tops and guy stubs 44.00 
 
 6. Tron pole strap bands 33.10 
 
 7. Iron cross arms 26.50 
 
 8. Wood cross arms 10.20 
 
 9. In.sulators 53.20 
 
 10. Ears 1.50 
 
 11. Anchor rods, turnbuckles 1.10 
 
 12. Lightning arresters 17.40 
 
 13. Circuit breakers 4.10 
 
 14. Bolts, screw.s, washers, chairs 12.50 
 
 15. Switches 9-30 
 
 16. Switch boxes and fuses 2.90 
 
 17. Miscellaneous iron fittings 2.90 
 
 18. Wood braces 1-20 
 
 19. Trolley .signs 2.20 
 
 20. Trolley brackets f 00 
 
 21. Brackets , „l-20 
 
 22. Hangers , . . • 20.50 
 
 23. Wooden trolley troughs , ,oa 
 
 24. Special feeder and trestle construction cronn 
 
 25. Overhead ixjsitive feeder system . . , , ' a nn 
 
 26. Mi.scellaneous n/n^ 
 
 27. Span wire • 74.70 
 
 28. Miscellaneous copper Tonn 
 
 29. Negative tracks and pipe feeders ivocA 
 
 30. Overhead si)ecial work oQi'on 
 
 31. Underground return system oosn 
 
 32. Underground pipe connections .18. »u 
 
1572 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 33. Trolley wire $463.80 
 
 34. Overhead material in car station.s, etc. 91.50 
 
 35. Telephone lines 27.30 
 
 36. Potential lines 2.10 
 
 37. Cross bondings 24.90 
 
 38. Straight track bonding 457.00 
 
 39. Special work bonding 163.50 
 
 40. Equalizing stations 118.60 
 
 Total $6,295.00 
 
 41. Contingencies 314.70 
 
 Grand total $6,609.70 
 
 The depreciated or present value of the power distribution sys- 
 tem is as follows : 
 
 1. Iron poles $ 174,797.06 
 
 2. Cedar poles 11,643.50 
 
 3. Idaho poles 1,175.78 
 
 4. Northern pine poles . 674.88 
 
 5. Pole tops and guy stubs 7,260.96 
 
 6. Iron pole strap bands 5,764.32 
 
 7. Iron cross arms 4,370.45 
 
 8. Wood cross arms 1,494.64 
 
 9. In.sulators 8,309.01 
 
 10. Ears 248.91 
 
 11. Anchor rods, turnbuckles 198.17 
 
 12. Lightning arresters 2,865.66 
 
 13. Circuit breakers 679.95 
 
 14. Bolt.s, screws, washers, chairs 2,174.47 
 
 15. Switches 1.539.11 
 
 16. Switch boxes and fuses . 481.29 
 
 17. Miscellaneous iron fittings 482.20 
 
 18. Wood braces 189.44 
 
 19. Trolley signs 365.45 
 
 20. Trolley brackets 499.36 
 
 21. Brackets 192.02 
 
 22. Hangers 3,387.92 
 
 23. Wooden trolley troughs 1,904.08 
 
 24. Special feeder and trestle construction 6,012.00 
 
 25. Overhead positive feeder system 461,997.93 
 
 26. Miscellaneous articles . 1,495.31 
 
 27. Span wire 10,973.34 
 
 28. Miscellaneous copper 10,274.63 
 
 29. Negative tracks and pipe feeders 24,864.94 
 
 30. Overhead .special work 26,989.23 
 
 31. Underground return .system 53,397.41 
 
 32. Underground pipe connections 6,410.57 
 
 33. Overhead line material, 2/0 trolley wire 68,040.00 
 
 34. Overhead line material in car-.stations, etc 14,260.24 
 
 35. Private telephone lines 4.256.32 
 
 36. Potential lines 323.46 
 
 37. Cross bondings 3,877.28 
 
 38. Straight track bonding 71,224.39 
 
 39. Special work bonding 25,486,61 
 
 40. Equalizing stations 16,696.42 
 
 Total of items $1,037,278.71 
 
 41. Contingencies . , 50,784.25 
 
 Total $1,088,062.96 
 
 This is 89.7% of the cost of reproduction new. 
 
 In determining the depreciation, from 10 to 15 poles per mile were 
 uncovered at the ground line. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1573 
 
 Calibrations (horizontal and vertical) were made of the trolley 
 wire, and the feed wire was inspected in different locations. 
 The trolley wire system is as follows : 
 
 Miles 
 
 Single trolley span wire constr., double track 117.28 
 
 Single trolley span wire constr., single track 43.22 
 
 Double trolley span wire constr 26.21 
 
 Single trolley span wire constr., three tracks 0.41 
 
 Smgle trolley center pole bracket constr., double track 1.29 
 
 Single trolley span wire constr. in car yards 13.54 
 
 Total 201.95 
 
 6. Track. — There are 21 different types of rail and 95 different 
 forms of track construction. The following is a summary of the 
 21 types of rail used, not including special track work : 
 
 Miles 
 
 278 ins. 25 -lb., T ^-^l^A 
 
 4i2ins. 56 -lb.,T 13986 
 
 iVi ins. 60 -lb., T 1-5320 
 
 41/2 ins. 66i/i,-lb., TG 3831 
 
 41/2 ins. 67 -lb., T 0.0437 
 
 4% ins. 70 -lb., T 1-36 
 
 6 ins. 72 -lb, T ^ ^A^.ll 
 
 6 ins. 77 -lb., GG ^i'^AV 
 
 6 ins. 78 -lb., TG 0.446 
 
 6 ins. 82 -lb.,TG 032 
 
 7 ins. 70 -lb.,T 2.893 
 
 7 ins. 72 -lb..GG 967 
 
 7 ins. 85 -lb., GG V^\^'>K 
 
 7 ins. 86 -lb, GG H'll^ 
 
 7 ins, 91 -lb.,T 8.63 
 
 7 ins. 91 -lb,GG 4.554 
 
 7 ins. 95 -lb., GG 1-J,f22 
 
 8 ins. 95 -lb., GG 3.048 
 
 9 ins. 90 -lb., GG 4.^74 
 
 9 ins. 94 -lb.. GG ^^Al^ 
 
 ins. 98 -lb., GG 
 
 58.49 
 
 Total 160.8814 
 
 T = " T " rail. 
 
 TG = Tram girder rail. 
 
 GG - Girder grooved rail. 
 
 The total mileage of single track is as follows : 
 
 Miles 
 
 Single track • • • '^^lill 
 
 Special Y's, turnouts, etc ^■^■'- 
 
 Total trackway ■^?S Un 
 
 Car stations, yards, etc i^.y^y} 
 
 Total track 183.341 
 
 Most of the rails were laid in 1895-1896. 
 
 Including the dilTerences in paving, there are 204 different types 
 of track construction. A detailed estimate was made for each 
 type, based on the following unit prices : 
 
1574 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Excavation : p^j, ^.^ y^j 
 
 Earth and sand trench work $0.50 
 
 Earth and sand 0.35 
 
 Drain tile 0.35 
 
 Haul : 
 
 Earth and sand , $0.80 
 
 Grading : 
 
 Earth and sand on street $0 25 
 
 Track Foundation : 
 
 Earth filling $0.22 
 
 Gravel 1.80 
 
 Crushed stone 1.95 
 
 Concrete 4 50 
 
 Cushion : 
 
 Sand $1.50 
 
 Ties : Each 
 
 White oak 6 ins. by 7 ft $0.75 
 
 White oak 5 ins. by 11 ins. by 9 ft. 10 ins 1.44 
 
 White oak 6 ins. by 10 ins. by 6 ft. 8 ins 1.18 
 
 Cedar and pine 6 ins. by 8 ins. by 8 ft. ins 0.65 
 
 Cedar and pine 6 ins. by 8 ins. by 6 ft. 10 ins 0.60 
 
 Angle iron %-ins. by 'IV2 ins. by 6 ft. ins 1.09 
 
 Channel iron 7 ins. by 7 ft. ins , 2.52 
 
 Bar iron Y2 in, by W2 in. by 6 ft. in 0.42 
 
 Tie clips . 0.22 
 
 Drain : Per lin. ft. 
 
 Soft tile •. . $0.04y2 
 
 Rail : Per ton 
 
 "T" .. $31.75 
 
 " T " 33.75 
 
 Girder groove 40.00 
 
 Plain girder . 40.00 
 
 Tram 40.00 
 
 Spikes : Per keg 
 
 Standard spikes $4.00 
 
 Bolts : Per keg 
 
 Bolts and nuts $4.75 
 
 Tie Rods : Each 
 
 % in. by 5 ft. 2 ins. round $0.25 
 
 % in. by 11/2 in. flat 67 
 
 Joints : Per pair 
 
 4 hole strap plates $0.07^/^ 
 
 4 splice plates 20 ins IfiVz 
 
 4 hole splice plates 20 ins. , 341,^ 
 
 4 hole splice plates 20 ins, 57 
 
 4 hole splice plates 20 ins 22% 
 
 4 hole splice plates 24 ins .551/^ 
 
 4 hole splice plates 27 ins. 68% 
 
 4 hole splice plates 44 ins. 1.34 
 
 6 hole splice plates 28 ins ■ 1. 07 
 
 6 hole splice plates 26 ins 65 
 
 10 hole splice plates 36 ins 94 
 
 10 hole splice T)lates 86 ins. , ' 907 
 
 6 hole .splice plates 36 ins 835 
 
 12 hole splice plates 32 ins 1.31 
 
 4 hole continuous plates 1-6214 
 
 4 hole continuous plates = 1.36% 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1575 
 
 4 hole continuous plates 24 ins. $1.71%o 
 
 4 hole continuous plates 20 ins 1.42 1/^ 
 
 4 hole continuous plates 20 ins, 1.38 
 
 4 hole continuous plates 20 ins 1.54 Va 
 
 4 hole continuous plates 26 ins 2.53% 
 
 6 hole continuous plates 26 ins 2.53% 
 
 8 hole continuous plates 30 ins 4.65 
 
 8 hole continuous plates 22 ins 4.08 
 
 American rail joint 2.50 
 
 Cast weld joint, each 3.00 
 
 Rail straps 0.51 % 
 
 Retaining wall : Per cu. yd. 
 
 Concrete $6.50 
 
 The unit prices used for the special track work are as follows : 
 Nine-inch : Cost in place 
 
 Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $390.90 
 
 Hard center layout (switch, mate and frog) 467.70 
 
 Hard center diamond switch ends 807.05 
 
 Plain street crossing 243.70 
 
 Hard center street crossing 333.30 
 
 Plain frog 96.25 
 
 Hard center frog 126.33 
 
 2-point hard center frog 246.06 
 
 3-point hard center frog 307.70 
 
 Hard center mate 166.65 
 
 Plain tongue switch 160 50 
 
 Hard center tongue switch 185.85 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 2.18 
 
 Switch lock boxes 32.00 
 
 Switch spring boxes 8.96 
 
 Seven-inch : 
 
 Plain layout (switch, mate anod frog) $358.90 
 
 Hard center layout (switch, mate and frog) 435.70 
 
 Plain diamond switch ends 410.25 
 
 Hard center diamond switch ends 551.05 
 
 Plain street crossings 224.50 
 
 Hard center street crossings 314.10 
 
 Plain frog 86.01 
 
 Hard center frog 11.55 
 
 2-point hard center frog 224.30 
 
 3-point hard center frog 281.90 
 
 Plam mate 130.81 
 
 Hard center mate 156.41 
 
 Plain tongue switch 147.45 
 
 Hard center tongue switch 173.05 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 2.02 
 
 Six-inch : 
 
 Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $320 50 
 
 Hard center layout (switch, mate and frog) ■^n^-^J! 
 
 Hard center street crossing ^ lie 
 
 Plain frog 77.05 
 
 Hard center frogs • • • |^f ^| 
 
 2-point plain frog . . . oco 7^ 
 
 3-point hard center frog one in 
 
 2-point hard center frog ^ Vr le 
 
 Plain mate WlW 
 
 Hard center mate i oook 
 
 Plain tongue switch Ha or 
 
 Hard curved switch ^^o\ 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) ^-^^ 
 
 100-lb. "T" Rail: 
 
 Combined steam and electric railway crossing $499.00 
 
1576 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 80-lb. "T" Rail: 
 
 Combined steam and electric railway crossing 
 
 straight $410.60 
 
 Combined steam and electric railway crossing 
 
 curved 442.60 
 
 70-lb. "T" Rail: 
 
 Plain frog $ 57.85 
 
 Plain split switch 61.69 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.61 
 
 60-lb. " T " Rail : 
 
 Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $237.30 
 
 Plain street crossing 173.30 
 
 Plain frog 46.33 
 
 2-point frog 102.65 
 
 Plain switch 47.61 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.45 
 
 4% -in. 56-lb. "T" Rail: 
 
 Combined steam and electric railway crossing, 
 
 curved $278.50 
 
 Plain frog 43.77 
 
 Split switch '. 47.61 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.45 
 
 4-in., 50-lb. " T " Rail : 
 
 Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $182.26 
 
 2-point plain frog 102.65 
 
 Plain mate 64.25 
 
 Plain switch 77.05 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.42 
 
 3% -in., 45-lb. "T" Rail: 
 
 Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $182.26 
 
 Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.42 
 
 The following are estimates of a few typical sections of track, 
 per mile of single track : 
 4 14 -in., 60-lb. "T" Rail on Cedar Ties, Dirt Construction: 
 
 1.776 cu. yds. earth excavation $ 621.60 
 
 822 cu. yds. earth spread over street 205.50 
 
 954 cu. yds. earth replaced for track foundation and filling 
 
 between ties 209.88 
 
 729 (6 ins. by 8 ins. by 7 ft.) white oak ties laid 15 to rail. . 546.75 
 
 1,911 (6 ins. by 8 ins. by 8 ins.) cedar ties, 15 to rail 1.242.15 
 
 94,286 tons 414 ins. 60-lb. "T" rail in 30-ft. lengths 3,182.15 
 
 31Vi kegs 9/16 ins. by 5l^ ins. standard railroad spikes. . . . 125.00 
 255 pairs 20 ins. 4-hole spliced joint plates, 18 lbs. per pair 87.55 
 
 97 pairs 20 ins. 4-hole continuous joint plates 138.23 
 
 5% kegs % ins. by 3% ins. joint bolts with nuts 27.91 
 
 1 mile track laying 1,375.00 
 
 Total $7,761.72 
 
 Contingencies 776.17 
 
 Cost per mile $8,537.89 
 
 6-in., 72-lb. plain girder rail on white oak ties, 6-in. Con- 
 crete Constuction : 
 
 977 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation , $ 341.95 
 
 977 cu. yds. earth and sand removed from street 781.60 
 
 818 cu. yds. broken concrete removed from street 818.08 
 
 818 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 3,681.00 
 
 38 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and surfacing 
 
 ties 57.00 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1577 
 
 2,640 (6 ins. by 8 ins, by 7 ins.) white oal< ties, 15 to rail.S 1,980 00 
 113,143 tons 6 ins. 72-lb. " T " rails in 30-ft. lengtlis, joints 
 
 laid even and suspended between ties 4 525 72 
 
 ZlVi kegs 9/16 ins. by 5Vi ins. standard railroad spikes. . . '12500 
 352 pairs 28 ins. 6-hoIe splice joint plates, 56 lbs, per 
 
 pair 37g 54 
 
 1114 kegs % ins. by 31^ ins. joint bolts with nuts 54 63 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 Total $14,141.62 
 
 Contingencies 1,414.16 
 
 Cost per mile $15,555.78 
 
 6-in., 77-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on White Oak Ties, 6-in. 
 Concrete Construction : 
 
 1.304 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 456.40 
 
 1,304 cu. yds. earth removed from street 1,043.20 
 
 1,104 cu. yds. 6 ins. concrete for track foundation 4,968.00 
 
 28 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and surfacing. 42.00 
 
 528 (6 in. by 10 in. by 6 ft. 8 in.) white oak ties, 3 to rail 623.04 
 
 1,408 (6 ins. by 8 ins. by 7 ft.) white oak ties, 8 to rail, . . . 1,056.00 
 121 tons 6 ins. 77-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. lengths, 
 
 joints laid even and suspended between ties 4,840.00 
 
 23 kegs 9/16 ins. by 514 ins. standard railroad spikes. . . . 92.00 
 1,232 % ins. by 5 ft. 2 ins. round tie rods, 6 to rail, four 
 
 % -in. nuts per rod 308.00 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 352 cast welded joints 1.056.00 
 
 Total $15,884.64 
 
 Contingencies 1.588.46 
 
 Cost per mile $17,473.10 
 
 7-in. 85-lb. Girder Grooved Rails on White Oak Ties, 6-in. 
 Concrete Construction : 
 
 1,200 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 427.70 
 
 1,222 cu. yds. earth removed from street 977,60 
 
 978 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 4,401.00 
 
 41 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and sur- 
 facing ties 61.50 
 
 2,816 (6-in by 8-in. by 7-ft.) white oak ties, 16 to rail .... 2,112.00 
 133,571 tons 7-in 85-lb. girder grooved rails in 30-ft. 
 
 lengths, joints laid broken and supported on ties . . . 5,342.84 
 
 ZZVz kegs 0.5625-in by 5.5-in. .standard railroad spikes .... 133.33 
 
 352 cast welded joints 1,056.00 
 
 704 0.75-in. by 5-ft 2-in. tie rods, four 0.75-in nuts per rod 176.00 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 Total $16,087.97 
 
 Contingencies 1,608. 79 
 
 Cost per mile $17,696.76 
 
 7-in.. 85-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on White Oak and Cedar 
 Ties, 6-in. Crushed Stone Construction : 
 
 1,338 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation % 468.30 
 
 1,338 cu. yds. earth removed frpm street 1,070.40 
 
 1,070 cu. yd.s. 6-in. cru.shed stone for track foundation. ., . 2,086.50 
 
 880 ( 6-in. by 8-in. by 8-ft) cedar ties laid 5 to rail 572.00 
 
 880 (6-in. by 8-in. by 7-ft.) white oak ties, 5 to rail 660.00 
 
 133,571 tons 7-in. 85-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. 
 lengths, joints laid broken and suspended between 
 
 ties 5,342.84 
 
 20.875 kegs ().'5625-in.' by 5.'5-"in.' standard railroad spikes , . 83.50 
 
1578 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 352 pairs 36-in 10-hole splice joint plates 54.5 lbs. per pair $ 330.88 
 
 25.125 kegs 1-in by 3.5-in. joint bolts with nuts 118.75 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1.400.00 
 
 Total $12,133,17 
 
 Contingencies 1,213.31 
 
 Cost per mile , $13,346.48 
 
 7-ln. 85-lb. girder grooved rail on angle. 
 
 Iron Ties, 6-in. Concrete Construction : 
 
 318 cu, yd.s. earth and sand excavation $ 111.30 
 
 318 cu. yds. earth removed from street 254.40 
 
 212 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 954.00 
 
 1.232 (0.375-in. by 2.5-in. by 6-in.) angle iron ties, 7 to rail 1,349.04 
 133,571 tons 7-in. 85-lb. girder grooved" rail in 30-ft. 
 
 length.s, joints laid broken and suspended between 
 
 ties 5,342.84 
 
 2,464 pairs cast iron tile clips, 2 pair per tie with two 
 
 0.75-in. by 2.25-in. bolts, per pair 550.09 
 
 352 pairs 36-in 10-hole .splice joint plates, 54 5 lbs. per pair 330.88 
 
 25 125 kegs 1-in. by 3.5-in. joint bolts with nuts 129.34 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 Total $10,164.35 
 
 Contingencies 1,01 6.44 
 
 Cost per mile $11,180.79 
 
 8-in. 95-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on Pressed Steel Channel 
 
 Ties, Concrete Construction : 
 
 301 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation % 105.35 
 
 301 cu. yds. earth removed from street 240.80 
 
 160 cu. yds, 6-in. concrete for track foundation 720.00 
 
 1,232 (7-in. by 7-in.) pressed steel channel ties, bracket 
 
 fastening, 7 to rail 3,113.88 
 
 149,286 tons 8-in. 95-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. 
 
 lengths, joints laid even and suspended between ties 5,971.44 
 
 352 pairs 22-in. 8-hole continuous plates 971.52 
 
 23 kegs 1-in. by 4%-in. joint bolts with nuts 109.25 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 Total $12 632.24 
 
 Contingencies 1,263.22 
 
 Cost per mile $13,895.46 
 
 9-in., 98-lb Girder Grooved Rail on Oak Ties, 8-in. Crushed 
 
 Stone Construction : 
 
 1,761 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 616.35 
 
 82 cu. yds. earth excavation for 4-in. drain tile 28.70 
 
 1,8 43 cu. yds. earth removed from street 1,474.40 
 
 5.280 lin. ft. 4-in. drain tile 237.60 
 
 68 cu. yds. crushed stone for covering 4-in. tile 132.60 
 
 1,092 cu. yds. 8-in. crushed stone for track foundation ... 2,129.40 
 
 301 cu. yds. concrete for track foundation 1,354.50 
 
 1,760 fO-in. by 10-in. by 6-ft. 8-in.) white oak ties, 20 to 
 
 rail 2,076.80 
 
 154 tons 9-in. 98-lb. girder grooved rail in 60-ft. lengths, 
 
 joints laid broken and suspended between ties 6,160.00 
 
 20.875 kegs 5625-in. by 5.5-in. standard railroad spikes . . 83.50 
 352 0.75-in. by 5-ft. 2-in. tie rods, 4 to rail, four 0.75-in. 
 
 nuts per rod 88.00 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 176 cast welded joints 528.00 
 
 Total $16,309.85 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1579 
 
 Contingencies $ 1,630.98 
 
 Cost per mile $17,940.83 
 
 9-in., 98-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on Pressed Steel Channel 
 
 Ties, Concrete Construction : 
 
 345 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation % 120.75 
 
 345 cu. yds. earth removed from street 276.00 
 
 223 cu. yds. concrete for track foundation 1,003.50 
 
 1,232 (7-in. by 7-ft.) pressed steel channel ties. 7 to rail . . 3,113.88 
 154 tons 9-in. 98-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. lengths, 
 
 joints laid even and suspended between ties 6,160.00 
 
 352 pairs 32-in. 12-hole splice joint plates, 68.5 lbs. per pair 461.12 
 
 30.25 kegs 1-in by 3.5-in. joint bolts with nuts 143.69 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 Total $12,678 94 
 
 Contingencies 1,267.89 
 
 Cost per mile $13,946.83 
 
 9-in., 98-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on Oak Ties, 6-in. Con- 
 crete Construction : 
 
 1,401 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 490.35 
 
 1,401 cu. yds. earth removed from street 1,120.80 
 
 1,119 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 5,035.50 
 
 30 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and surfacing 
 
 ties 45.00 
 
 1,936 (6-in. by 10-in. by 6-ft. 8-in.) white oak ties, 11 to 
 
 rail 2,284.48 
 
 154 tons 9-in. 98-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. lengths, 
 
 joints laid even and suspended between ties 6,160.00 
 
 22.875 kegs 0.5625-in. by 5.5-in. standard railroad spikes . . 91.50 
 
 352 pairs 22-in. 8-hole continuous joint plates 1,436.16 
 
 23 kegs 1-in. by 4.375-in. joint bolts with nuts 109.25 
 
 1,056 0.75-in. by 5-ft. 2-in. round tie rods, 6 to rail, four 
 
 0.75-in. nuts per rod 264.00 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 Total $18,437.04 
 
 Contingencies 1,843.70 
 
 Cost per mile $20,280.74 
 
 The following is a summary of reproduction new of the track : 
 
 1. Straight track ( 156 72 miles) $2,534,505 
 
 2. Track in car stations and yards (12.93 miles) 11G,68G 
 
 3. Special and curved track (13.7 miles) "^8, 894 
 
 Total track ^^'^fiMI^, 
 
 4. Interlocking i}Aii 
 
 5. Catc-hbasins (1,395) 22,725 
 
 6. Manholes (568) ^^'Jnn 
 
 7. Water hydrants (8) -.on Pec 
 
 8. Machinery, tools, track, stock, etc oo occ 
 
 9. Division foremen's outfit 6j,6hXi 
 
 Total track, etc $3,601,336 
 
 Item 3 includes curved track and guard rails (for which there 
 were 9 4,000 lin. ft. or 17.8 miles of rail), frogs, switches, crossings, 
 and the necessary excavation, concrete and broken stone founda- 
 tion.s. The unit prices used for curved track (previously given) ap- 
 pear to cover the cost of ties, track fastenings, etc. While, as pre- 
 
1580 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 viously stated, the " Special Y's, turnouts, etc.," occupied 2.922 
 miles of track, there is no definite statement as to the total mileage 
 of curved and special track; but, if we subtract the 156.72 miles 
 of straight track and the 12.93 miles of track in car stations and 
 yards from the 183.34 miles of all track, we have 13.7 miles, which 
 is probably the entire mileage of curved and special track. 
 
 Dividing each of the above 9 items by 183.34, we have the follow- 
 ing cost per mile of track: 
 
 Per mile 
 
 1. Straight track, 0.855 mile $13,823 
 
 2. Track in car stations and yards, 0.070 mile 636 
 
 3. Special and curved, 075 mile 3,866 
 
 Total track $18,325 
 
 4. Interlocking 171 
 
 5. Catchbasins 124 
 
 6. Manholes = 90 
 
 7. Water hydrants 3 
 
 8. Tools, stock, etc 712 
 
 9. 'Division foremen's outfits 215 
 
 Total $19,640 
 
 It will be noticed that the straight track cost $16,170 per mile of 
 straight track, and that the special track cost $51,750 per mile of 
 special track. The amount of track stock, etc. (Item 8), is ob- 
 viously more than normal. 
 
 The present value of track, etc., is $2,599,222, or 72.2% of the cost 
 of reproduction new $3,601,336). It is stated by Mr. Barcroft that 
 no very accurate determination of the condition of the ties was pos- 
 sible, and that no rail renewal records had been kept by the rail- 
 way company. By consultation with the companies' trackmen an 
 approximation to the condition of invisible parts of the track was 
 arrived at. 
 
 "The company requested that $12,000 be added for rail inspec- 
 tion at the mills. No inspection of rails has ever been made, al- 
 though contemplated in the future, and consequently the item has 
 not been included." 
 
 Most of the rails had been laid 14 years prior to the appraisal, 
 " and are generally in a run down condition." 
 
 7. Rolling Stock. There are 1,000 passenger cars, of which 250 
 are open cars and the rest closed. The average cost of reproduction 
 new is : 
 
 Car body and truck $2,278 
 
 Electrical equipment 1,187 
 
 Total $3,465 
 
 We shall give the cost of several typical cars in detail, which are 
 based upon the following unit prices. Closed double end car bodies 
 for single trucks : 
 
 f.o.b. 
 factory 
 
 16 ft. length of body $1,100 
 
 18 ft. length of body 1,200 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1581 
 
 f.o.b. 
 
 factory 
 
 20 ft. length of body $1,300 
 
 21 ft. length of body " ' 1*350 
 
 22 ft. length of body ' ' i'400 
 
 23 ft. length of body \ 1*450 
 
 24 ft. length of body 1^500 
 
 25 ft. length of body l|550 
 
 To these prices of car bodies |30 to $32 is added for freight to 
 Detroit. The above prices include the following and all other 
 minor items installed : 
 
 Monitor Roof Switch Iron 
 
 Hood Curtains 
 
 Platform Ceiling 
 
 Steps Trimming 
 
 Hangers Headlight 
 
 Glass Hand Bells 
 
 Gongs Finishing 
 
 Bells Cords and hangers 
 
 Straps Lighting equipment 
 
 Sanders Register fixtures 
 
 Signs 
 
 Closed cars (body only) double truck — 
 
 f.o.b. 
 factory 
 
 28 ft. closed single end $1,910 
 
 29 ft. closed single end 2,085 
 
 Open cars (body only) single truck, double end, reversible. 
 
 f.o.b. 
 factory 
 10 bench, 4 stationary against bulkheads $1,000 
 
 9 bench, 2 stationary against bulkheads, all inside 1,000 
 
 10 bench, 2 stationary against bulkheads, all inside 1,100 
 
 11 bench, 3 stationary against bulkheads, 8 inside 1,150 
 
 Open car (body only), double truck, single end. 
 
 14 bench, 4 stationary against bulkheads, 10 reversible, f.o.b. 
 
 factory $1,450 
 
 14 bench, 4 stationary against bulkheads, 10 reversible, f.o.b. 
 
 Detroit 1,490 
 
 The above prices include the following and all other minor items 
 installed : 
 
 Switch iron 
 
 Bells 
 
 Veneer ceiling 
 
 Chipped glass, D. S. A. 
 
 Push buttons 
 
 Drop guard on grab handles each side 
 
 Bulkhead with sashes at each end 
 
 Folding running board on each side 
 
 Incandescent headlights 
 
 Open platforms with dashers 
 
 Chain guard on each side 
 
 Lighting equipment 
 
 Printed duck curtains to floor 
 
 Cherry and ash seats with slat or spindle backs 
 
 Gongs 
 
 Ash finish 
 
 Bronze trimmings 
 
 Vestibule signs 
 
 Bulkhead seats 
 
1582 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Additional equipment — 
 
 Stove $25.00 
 
 Hot air heater 40.00 
 
 Electric heater 30.00 
 
 Truck, Brill IJl-E 275.00 
 
 Truck, JDupont, 7,000 lbs 350.00 
 
 Storage air brake trucks, complete $180 to 205.00 
 
 Fenders, Detroit 30.00 
 
 Fenders, Eclipse 25.00 
 
 Track scrapers, per pair 15.00 
 
 Platform gates $4 to 5.00 
 
 Installation of electrical equipment 40.00 
 
 Trolley retrievers 12.00 
 
 Push buttons and bells 10.00 
 
 Sterling registers, Nos. 1 and 15 23.50 
 
 Sterling registers, No. 8 30.00 
 
 Motors : 
 
 Westinghouse 12-A $418 
 
 Westinghouse 38 and 38-B . 562 
 
 Westinghouse 49 444 
 
 Westinghouse 68 and 68-C 483 
 
 Westinghouse 56 710 
 
 Westinghouse 93, 93-A and 93-A-2 735 
 
 Steel D 485 
 
 Steel type 29 485 
 
 Steel type 34 637 
 
 Controllers — 
 
 Westinghouse K- 6 $155 
 
 Westinghouse K-10 95 
 
 Westinghouse K-11 . 105 
 
 Westinghouse K-12 110 
 
 Westinghouse K-14 120 
 
 Westinghouse K-28 155 
 
 Westinghouse. K-34-B 275 
 
 Steel D to replace with K-12 drums 32 
 
 Steel 34 to replace with K-12 drums 34 
 
 Steel D and steel 34, in first-class condition without replacement 75 
 
 Steel D and steel 34 replaced with K-12 drums 85 
 
 Automotoneers : 
 
 Style J and a $ 12 
 
 Overhead Switches : 
 
 Westinghouse $ 6.75 
 
 Steel 6.75 
 
 Circuit Breakers : 
 
 Westinghouse 44,884-B, 44,885-B, 44,886-B and 44,887-B $ 25 
 
 Westinghouse 11,303-B, 11,304-B 45 
 
 General Electric form M. Q. with box 20 
 
 Grid Resistances : 
 
 Two grids, per set $21.00 
 
 Three grids, per set 24.50 
 
 Four grids, per set 32.50 
 
 Five grids, per set 38.00 
 
 Two grids, per set strap 21.25 
 
 Car Fuses : 
 
 D. U. R r $ 4.00 
 
 D. U. R. group 14 4.50 
 
 Lightning Arresters : 
 
 Average .......$ 2.75 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1583 
 
 Choke Coils : 
 
 300 ampere , g qq 
 
 Car Wiring : 
 1 set cables — 
 
 50 ft. No. 1 cable 
 175 ft. No. 6 cable 
 200 ft. No. 4 cable 
 90 ft. of 2-in. cotton hose 
 Total 5 81.00 
 
 1 set cables — 
 
 50 ft. No. 1 cable 
 245 ft. No. 6 cable 
 385 ft. No. 4 cable 
 100 ft. of 2.5-in. cotton hose 
 
 Total $ 94 00 
 
 1 set cables — 
 
 50 ft. No. 1 
 
 300 ft. No. 6 
 
 185 ft. No. 4 
 
 100 ft. of 2-in. cotton hose 
 
 Total $105.00 
 
 1 set cables — 
 50 ft. No. 1 
 900 ft. No. 6 
 120 ft. of 2.5-in. cotton hose 
 
 Total $128.00 
 
 1 set cables — 
 
 50 ft. No. 2 
 
 450 ft. No. 4 
 
 325 ft. No. 6 
 
 150 ft. of 3 -in. cotton hose 
 
 Total $151.00 
 
 Trolleys : 
 
 Harp, wheel, stand and pole $22.50 
 
 The following are costs of reproduction new of typical cars : 
 Group A: Jones 16 ft. closed car body, 26 ft. over all (seating 
 
 capacity 21), single truck, double end, single door, cherry finish, 
 
 veneer ceiling, carpet seats, Dupont truck. 
 
 Car body ($1,130 less $35 for carpet seats) $1,095 
 
 Fittings and assembling: 
 
 Double end storage air brake 205 
 
 Drop fenders, 2 at $30 60 
 
 Track scrapers, 2 at $15 30 
 
 Fare registers 20 
 
 Stove in box 25 
 
 Signs, hangers, racks, etc 37 
 
 Handling, assembling, installing, including electrical work ... 152 
 
 Total car body $1,624 
 
 Trucks, single, Dupont 350 
 
 Total car body and truck $1,974 
 
 Motors, 2 steel D at $485 970 
 
 Controllers, 2 at $85 170 
 
 Automotoneers, 2 at $12 24 
 
 Overhead switches, 2 at $7 14 
 
 Grid resistances, 2 ^1 
 
 Car fuse, 1 • * 
 
1584 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Lightning- arrester, 1 $ 3 
 
 Choke coil, 1 9 
 
 Car wiring and hose 105 
 
 Trolley 23 
 
 Total $3,277 
 
 Group B: Lewis & Fowler 21 ft. closed car body (seating capacity 
 25), 32 ft. over all, single truck, single end, single door, cherry 
 finish, carpet seats. 
 
 Car body $1,332 
 
 Fittings and assembling 442 
 
 Trucks, storage air brake 191 
 
 Total body and trucks _. . $1,965 
 
 Electrical equip, (as in Group 1, deducting 1 controller, 1 
 
 auto and 1 overhead switch) 1,216 
 
 Total $3,181 
 
 Group C: Cincinnati 23 ft. closed car body (seating capacity 
 30), 34% ft. over all, single truck, single end, single door, oak finish, 
 hot air heaters, veneer ceiling, one register rod, cross-seats with 
 stationary backs and spring rattan cushions, side aisle, Dupont 
 trucks. 
 
 Car body $1,442 
 
 Air heater 15 
 
 Fittings and assembling 442 
 
 Truck, single 350 
 
 Total body and trucks $2,249 
 
 Motors, two 93-A at $735 . 1,470 
 
 Controller, 1 steel 85 
 
 Auto, 1 12 
 
 Westinghouse circuit breaker, 1 25 
 
 Grid resistances, 3 25 
 
 Car fuse. 1 4 
 
 Lightning arrester, 1 3 
 
 Choke coil, 1 9 
 
 Wiring and hose 105 
 
 Trolley 23 
 
 Grand total $4,010 
 
 Group D: Cincinnati 29 ft. closed car body (seating capacity 
 40), 41 ft. over all, double truck, single end, double door, oak 
 finish, veneer ceiling, spring rattan seats. 
 
 Car body $2,125 
 
 Fittings and assembling: 
 
 Single end storage air brake 183 
 
 Drop fender 30 
 
 Hot air heater 40 
 
 Signs 10 
 
 Hangers, racks, etc 37 
 
 Fare register 29 
 
 Rear end snow scraper 18 
 
 One track scraper 15 
 
 Incandescent headlight 4 
 
 Lamps, resistance, switch bars, crushing bars, trolley 
 
 rope, folder boxes, coal box, etc "IS 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1685 
 
 Handling, assembling, installing, incl. electrical work 
 
 ($40) and material % 173 
 
 Total fittings and assembling $ 555 
 
 Double trucks, standard 0-50 550 
 
 Total body and trucks $3,230 
 
 Electrical equipment: 
 
 Motors, 2 Westinghouse (93-A-2), at $735 $1,470 
 
 Controller, one K-12 110 
 
 Auto, 1 12 
 
 Circuit breaker, 1 Westinghouse 25 
 
 Grids, 2 21 
 
 Lightning arrester, 1 3 
 
 Choke coil. 1 9 
 
 Wiring and hose 94 
 
 Trolley 23 
 
 Total $4,997 
 
 Group E: Stephenson 10 bench open car (seating capacity 50), 
 25 ft. body, 32 1/^ ft. over all, single truck, single end, painted in- 
 terior, painted slat seats with spindle backs, bronze trimmings, 
 duck curtains, Dupont trucks. 
 
 Car body $1,132 
 
 Fittings and assembling: 
 
 Fender 30 
 
 Fare register backs , 7 
 
 Signs, hanger and racks 5 
 
 Handling, assembling, installing, incl. electrical work.... 109 
 
 Total fittings and assembling $ 153 
 
 Trucks 350 
 
 Total body, fittings and truck $1,635 
 
 Electric Equipment : 
 
 Motors. 2 steel D at $485 970 
 
 Controller, 1 steel 75 
 
 Auto. 1 12 
 
 Overhead switch, 1 . 7 
 
 Resistances, 2 strap , 21 
 
 Car fuse, 1 4 
 
 Lightning arrester, 1 3 
 
 Choke coil. 1 9 
 
 Wiring and hose , 94 
 
 Trolley 23 
 
 Grand total $2,853 
 
 Group F: Stephenson 14 bench open car (seating capacity 70), 
 34 ft. body, 42 ft. over all, double truck, single end, St. Louis 
 No. 47 and Brill 27-F truck, 4 Westinghouse 12-A motors. 
 
 Car body '. $1,490 
 
 Fittings and assembling 373 
 
 Trucks 558 
 
 Total body, fittings and trucks ^o'nc''^ 
 
 Electrical equipment 2,052 
 
 Grand total $4,473 
 
1586 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Summarizing the cost of reproduction new of the revenue cars, we 
 have: 
 
 Car bodies, fltting-s and trucks : 
 
 518 closed single truck cars $1,095,603 
 
 230 closed double truck cars 745,705 
 
 230 open single truck cars 374,569 
 
 20 open double truck cars 48,420 
 
 3 miscel, revenue cars 14.046 
 
 1,001 car bodies, etc $2,278,343 
 
 Electrical equipment for same 1,186,427 
 
 Grand total, 1,001 cars complete $3,464,770 
 
 The average cost of reproductiong new of each car was: 
 
 Car body, fittings and truck $2,278 
 
 Electrical Equipment : 
 
 Motors , 977 
 
 Controllers 39 
 
 Automatoneer 8 
 
 Overhead switches 4 
 
 Resistance grids 22 
 
 Circuit breakers 11 
 
 Car fuse boxes 3 
 
 Lightning arrester 3 
 
 Choke coil 9 
 
 Car wiring 90 
 
 Trolley stand 21 
 
 Total electrical equipment $1,187 
 
 Grand total . . $3,465 
 
 The depreciated or present value of these revenue cars is : 
 
 Car bodies, fittings and trucks : 
 
 518 closed single truck cars $ 765,768 
 
 230 closed double truck cars 662,071 
 
 230 open single truck cars 188,800 
 
 20 open double truck cars 43,234 
 
 3 miscel. revenue cars 13,456 
 
 1,001 car bodies, etc $1,673,329 
 
 Electric equipment 998,747 
 
 Grand total $2,672,076 
 
 It will be noted that this depreciated value is 77.1% of the cost of 
 reproduction new. An idea of the age of the cars may be gained 
 from the following tabulation : 
 
 Closed single truck cars (518) : 
 
 Year purchased 
 
 99 in 1895 
 
 339 prior to 1900 
 
 12 in 1905 
 
 68 in 4 1906 
 
 518 
 
 Closed double truck cars (230) : 
 
 60 in 1903 
 
 46 in 1904 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1587 
 
 49 in 1905 
 
 50 in 1907 
 
 25 in 1908 
 
 230 
 Open single truck cars (230) : 
 
 230 prior to 1900 
 
 There are 104 non-revenue work or service cars and 2 non- 
 revenue special cars whose cost of reproduction new is as follows : 
 Gar bodies, fittings and trucks : 
 
 104 work cars $ 97,692 
 
 2 special cars 3,703 
 
 Total car bodies, etc $101,395 
 
 Electrical equipment 95,808 
 
 Total $197,203 
 
 The depreciated value is : 
 
 Car bodies, fittings and trucks $100,670 
 
 Electrical equipment 74,532 
 
 Total $175,202 
 
 This is 88.8% of the cost of reproduction new. 
 The work car equipment comprised the following : 
 
 Cost 
 of each 
 22 snow plows $2,300 to $5,550 
 
 1 sprinkler (3,700 gals.) 2,733 
 
 2 wreckers 2,9 25 
 
 3 derrick cars 3,028 
 
 3 air compressor cars . , 2,000 to 3,224 
 
 8 locomotives, electric 2,000 to 2,300 
 
 1 concrete breaker (pile driver) 2,091 
 
 2 concrete mixer cars 3,755 to 7,596 
 
 12 ballast dump cars 900 
 
 26 fiat cars, elec. ry 450 to 700 
 
 16 flat cars, steam ry 700 to 800 
 
 2 dry sand cars 800 to 2,770 
 
 1 rail grinder car 3,470 
 
 5 miscel. cars. 
 
 104 total. 
 
 The grand total cost of reproduction of the 1,001 revenue cars 
 and the 104 work cars and 2 specials is $3,676,098; and the depre- 
 ciated value is $2,861,403. 
 
 8. Shojis — The valuation of the shop buildings has already been 
 given under Buildings. There are two car shops whose cost 
 of reproduction is as follows : 
 
 Monroe Shops : 
 
 Machinery and tools $ 93,464 
 
 Patterns 4,737 
 
 Furniture and fixtures 11,586 
 
 Total $109,787 
 
 Stock 121,688 
 
 Total Monroe Shops $231,475 
 
1588 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Harper Shops: 
 
 Machinery and tools $ 24,591 
 
 Furniture and fixtures 405 
 
 Total $ 24,996 
 
 Stock 4,189 
 
 Total Harper Shops $ 29,185 
 
 Grand total both shops $260,660 
 
 It should be noted that nearly half this amount is not shop ma- 
 chinery, but stock, and the amount of stock on hand appears to be 
 excessive, A considerable part of the stock is scrap and second- 
 hand material. 
 
 About $34,000 worth of patterns were not included in the ap- 
 praisal. The report says : " Patterns are not an asset, as their 
 cost is lost in the articles to which they are necessary as a matter 
 of manufacturing. To have given the company the so-called cost 
 of making patterns would have made it necessary to have eliminated 
 the cost from the manufactured articles." 
 
 In the shops and at the various stations there are 14 air com- 
 pressors having a total cost of reproduction of $18,552. There 
 are 5 air charging plants having a total cost of reproduction of 
 $2,931. The following is a fairly typical cost of reproduction of 
 the air compressor outfits : 
 
 1 (9 ins. by 4% ins. by 14 ins.) Hall Steam Pump Com- 
 pany's 2-stage water jacketed air compressor, ca- 
 pacity 125 cu. ft. free air at 125 r.p.m., operated 
 with silent chain, not including Rochester auto- 
 matic oil pump. This includes 50 h.p. Westinghouse 
 motor and starter, automatic .$2,000.00 
 
 1 (9 ins. by 4% ins. by 14 ins.) Hall Steam Pump Com- 
 pany's 2-stage water jacketed air compressor, ca- 
 pacity 125 cu. ft. free air at 125 r.p.m. operated with 
 belt 1,050.00 
 
 1 75 h.p., type 75, series wound, Walker motor 500.00 
 
 2 Steel D controllers for hand starting, at $75 150.00 
 
 3 (3-ft. diam. by 15 ft. by 7-16 ins.) steel air storage tanks, 
 
 lap jointed and double riveted, at $190 570.00 
 
 2 air gages, at $3.90 7.80 
 
 1 Rochester automatic oil pump, lubricators, tubing, etc.. . . 141. S i 
 
 Pipe, valves and fittings 118.31 
 
 Hose, shafting and charging boxes 152.39 
 
 Belting and pulleys 140.06 
 
 Lumber 33.79 
 
 Foundations 84.00 
 
 Chain falls and track 45.46 
 
 Electric switch board and wiring 250.79 
 
 Tools 50.00 
 
 Furniture and fixtures 67.85 
 
 Labor 773.60 
 
 Total $6,135.87 
 
 The cost of a typical air charging plant is as follows : 
 
 2 air tanks at $190 $380.00 
 
 1 air gage 5.40 
 
 Valves, pipe and fittings 46.90 
 
 Hose and fittings 30.65 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1589 
 
 Charging boxes $ 12.50 
 
 Labor 136.70 
 
 Total $612.15 
 
 The cost of reproduction of car inspectors' stock and outfits at 
 the 11 car stations is: 
 
 Tools $ 6,168.88 
 
 Furniture 2,829.65 
 
 Stock 39,826.24 
 
 Total $48,824.77 
 
 Summarizing, the following is the cost of reproduction and pres- 
 ent value : 
 
 Cost Present 
 
 Reprod. Value 
 
 Monroe Shops $231,475 $174,074 
 
 Harper Shops 29,185 24,578 
 
 Air compressors, etc 81,483 71,298 
 
 Inspectors' outfits 48,425 38,769 
 
 Totals $390,968 $308,719 
 
 9. Tools, Materials, Sxipplies, Furniture, Etc. — The cost of re- 
 production new is appraised as follows : 
 
 Emergency station outfit $ 76,144 
 
 Car station furniture 30,736 
 
 Office furniture, etc 14,137 
 
 Total $121,017 
 
 Stock for shop 237,541 
 
 Stock for track dept 357,9 80 
 
 Stationary 34,478 
 
 Grand total $751,016 
 
 The present value is estimated at $728,158. 
 
 The items of stock and stationary were inserted as given by the 
 railway company, and the report states that the items were not 
 checked by the appraisers as it was impossible a,t the time to dis- 
 tinguish what part of the stock was needed for the city lines and 
 what for the interurban lines. The sub-committee on appraisal rec- 
 ommends a reduction of about $600,000 in this item. 
 
 In the fore part of this article it has been shown that this item 
 9, "Tools, materials, supplies, etc.," amounts to $4,407 per mile of 
 trackway, which clearly shows that it includes a great amount of 
 stock not needed for ordinary operation. 
 
 Another Appraisal of Detroit Street Railways. The following is 
 abstracted from the Electric Railway Journal, May 17, 1913. In 
 connection with a suit against a 3 ct. fare ordinance, the follow- 
 ing appraisal data were submitted by Robert B. Rifenberick, con- 
 sulting engineer of the Detroit United Railway Co. The costs 
 relate only to the city lines of the company. The cost of repro- 
 duction was estimated to be : 
 
1590 Mechanical and electrical cost data 
 
 (i) Power department, labor and materials $ 3,257,558 
 
 (2) Track department, labor and materials 8.447,980 
 
 (3) Mechanical department, labor and materials 5,051,781 
 
 (4) General department, labor and materials 1,906,216 
 
 (5) Total labor and materials '. $18,663,536 
 
 (6) Contingencies, 10% 1,050,294 
 
 (7) Contractor's profit, 10% 1,148,777 
 
 (8) Liability insurance, 2i/2% of wages 114,264 
 
 (9) Builder's risk, ly, to 2% of wages 17,243 
 
 (10) Architects' fees, 5% 62,551 
 
 (11) Cost of acquiring land, 10% 79,463 
 
 (12) Engineering, 4% 720,955 
 
 (13) Organization and administration, 5% 1,092,122 
 
 (14) Carrying charges (interest), 9% 2.064,111 
 
 (15) Financing, 8% 1,999,894 
 
 Total $27,013,210 
 
 The prices were those of Mar. 1, 1909, excepting for copper and 
 cement which were averages of the preceding five years. 
 
 The following was a typical estimate of the cost of labor and 
 materials in a mile of straight track. 
 
 DETAIL. OF TRACK VALUATION, STRAIGHT TRACK 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Specification for 1 Mile of 7-in. 91-lb. Plain Girder Rail on 
 Oak Ties in Ashphalt-Paved Street ; 8-in. Concrete Construction 
 
 47,520 sq. ft. of 3y.-in. asphalt top course and binder re- 
 moved and hauled to dump, at 3 1-6 cts % 1,504.80 
 
 829 cu. yd. of paving concrete removed and hauled to 
 
 dump, at $5.21 4,319.09 
 
 1,515 cu. yd. of earth and sand excavation, at 35 ct 530.05 
 
 1,515 cu. yd. of excavation removed to dump, at $1.43.. 2,166.45 
 1,222 cu. yd. of 8-in. concrete for track foundation, at 
 
 $7.13 8,712.86 
 
 29 cu. yd. of sand cushion for tamping, lining and sur- 
 facing ties, at $2.01 14 58.43 
 
 1,672 6-in. bv 10-in. by 6-ft. 8-in. white oak ties laid 19 
 
 to 60 ft. rail length, at $1.18 1,972.96 
 
 143 tons of 7-in. 91-lb. plain girder open-hearth rail, 
 in 60 -ft. lengths, joints laid even and suspended 
 
 between ties, at $43.44 6,211.92 
 
 19% kegs 9/1 6-in. by 5i^-in. standard railroad spikes, at 
 
 $5,051/0 99.84 
 
 880 %-in. by 5-ft. 2-in. round tie rods, ten to rail, with 
 
 4% -in. nuts per rod, at 3914 cts 347.60 
 
 1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 
 
 176 7-in. cast welded joints, at $4.25 748.00 
 
 10,560 lin. ft. of rail plastering, at 4 VL> ct 475.20 
 
 715 cu. yd. of paving concrete laid, at $7.13 5,097.95 
 
 138 cu. yd. of sand cushion for paving, at $2.01% 278.07 
 
 4,974 sq. yd. brick paving, at $1.381/2 6,888.99 
 
 306 sq. yd. of 31/. -in. asphalt top and binder laid at 
 
 $1.50 459.00 
 
 Total cost per mile $41,271.41 
 
 Of this total the labor cost per mile is 20,063.29 
 
 Location of this construction, Jefferson Avenue from Bates Street 
 to Mount Elliott Avenue. 20.740 lin. ft.. 3,928 miles. 
 
 Note. — These are reproduction values as of March 1, 1909, and 
 are based on hand labor and team haul, the average haul being 3 
 miles, and the assumption being that a team will average 2 tons 
 per load and travel 18 miles per day. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1591 
 
 Cost of Overhead -Trolley Systems. A. D. Williams, Jr., Engi- 
 neering News, Dec. 23, 1909, gives the following cost data, ob- 
 tained in the construction of a short interurban line in the north- 
 western portion of Ohio, running along country highways. The 
 work was done in the summer time, and there were very few inter- 
 ruptions from the weather. The data are arranged, in all cases, 
 to show costs per mile of a double-track road. 
 
 COST PER MILE (DOUBLE TRACK) OF OVERHEAD 
 MATERIALS 
 
 4,254 lb. (2 miles) No. 00 trolley wire at $0,175 $754.45 
 
 104 trolley ears, No. 00, 15 in. long at 0.23 23.92 
 
 104 caj) and cone hanger.s, nut lock at 0.30 31.20 
 
 500 ft. 5/16 in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 6.00 
 
 500 ft. 14 in. galv. strand wire at 0.009 4.50 
 
 10 feeder clips at 0.09 0.90 
 
 8 anchor ears at 0.38 3.04 
 
 8 Lieb strain insulators, anchor at 0.11 0.88 
 
 4 bridle clamps at 0.19 0.76 
 
 2 Garton lightning arresters at 3.10 6.20 
 
 8 wood screws at 0.005 0.04 
 
 1 lb. friction tape at 32 0.32 
 
 2 pins, bond of arresters to track at 0.02 0.04 
 
 20 lb. ground wire at 0.06 1.20 
 
 20 lb. No. copper strand insul. wire at 0.18 3.60 
 
 25 galv. iron .staples 0.05 
 
 2 trolley wire splicing sleeves at 0.65 1.30 
 
 6 lb. solder 1/2 and 1/2 at 0.24 1.44 
 
 1 Brooklyn strain insulator at 0.96 0.96 
 
 Total cost of overhead material $840.80 
 
 BRACKET-ARM CONSTRUCTION 
 
 With 37-ft. Poles Placed in Center. 
 Material : 
 
 Total cost overhead line material $840.80 
 
 52 pine octagon poles, 12 in. by 8 in. by 37 ft. at $8.75 . 455.00 
 
 35 gal. graphite paint at 1.15 40.25 
 
 4 cu. yd. concrete (1-3-5) at 7.50 30.00 
 
 104 bracket arms complete at 3.60 374.40 
 
 52 mach. bolts, 13 by %-in. nut, wa.sher . . . .at 0.06 3.12 
 
 104 lag screws, '/s-in. by 4-in at 0.025 2.60 
 
 104 lag .screws, %-in. by 3i/>-in at 0.025 2.60 
 
 400 ft. 5/16-in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 4.80 
 
 10 feeder clamps at 0.18 1.80 
 
 5 porcelain feeder insulators at 0.04 0.20 
 
 5 galv. lag screws, i/a-in. by 4-in. at 0.02 0.10 
 
 12 drop forged eye-bolts, %-in by 16-in at 0.09 1.08 
 
 7 gal. black paint at 0.75 5.25 
 
 5 guy anchors at 1.30 6.50 
 
 Total materials $1,768.50 
 
 Labor : 
 
 52 poles, hauled and erected at $2.65 $137.80 
 
 52 poles, painting ' at 0.30 15.60 
 
 Erecting 2 miles of trolley wire at 35.00 70.00 
 
 Erecting bracket arms 30.00 
 
 Hauling material 18.00 
 
 Clearing foreign wires and poles 93.40 
 
 Trimming trees 2.75 
 
 Total labor $367.55 
 
1592 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Total materials per mile $1,768.50 
 
 Total labor per mile 367.55 
 
 Total cost per mile of bracket-arm construction 
 
 (with 37-ft. poles) $2,136.05 
 
 WITH 30-FT. POLES PLACED IN CENTER 
 
 Cost of 37-ft. pole construction $2,136.05 
 
 Cost of 37-ft. poles, each $8.75 
 
 Cost of 30-ft. poles, each . 5.75 
 
 Difference on 52 poles at $3.00 156.00 
 
 Total cost per mile of bracket-arm construction 
 
 (with 30-ft. poles) $1,980.05 
 
 CROSS-SPAN CONSTRUCTION 
 
 With 37 and 30-ft. Poles. 
 Material : 
 
 Total cost overhead line material $840.80 
 
 52 pine octagon poles, 12 in. by 8 in. by 37 ft. at $8.75 455.00 
 
 52 pine octagon poles, 10 in. by 8 in. by 30 ft.at 5.75 299.00 
 
 8 cu. yd. concrete (1-3-5) at 7.50 60.00 
 
 2,300 ft. 5/16 in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 27.60 
 
 116 eye-bolts, %-in. by 16-in at 0.09 10.44 
 
 70 gal. graphite paint at 1.15 80.50 
 
 14 gal. black paint at 0.75 10.50 
 
 5 guy anchors at 1.30 6.50 
 
 400 ft. 5/16-in. galv. strand wire 0.012 4.80 
 
 Total materials $1,795.14 
 
 Labor : 
 
 104 poles, hauled and erected at $2.65 $275.60 
 
 104 poles, painting 0.30 31.20 
 
 52 span wires, erected at 1.50 78.00 
 
 Erecting 2 miles of trolley wire at 35.00 70.00 
 
 Hauling materials 18.00 
 
 Clearing foreign wires and poles 138.40 
 
 Trimming trees 14.65 
 
 Total labor $625.85 
 
 Total materials per mile $1,795.14 
 
 Total labor per mile 625.85 
 
 Total cost per mile of cross-span construction 
 
 (with 37 and 30-ft. poles) $2,420.99 
 
 WITH ALL 30-FT. POLES 
 
 Cost of 37 and 30-ft. pole construction $2,420.99 
 
 Cost of 37-ft. poles, each $8.75 
 
 Cost of 30-ft. poles, each 5.75 
 
 Difference on 52 poles at $3.00 156.00 
 
 Total cost per mile of cross-span construction 
 
 (with 30-ft. poles), dbl, track, . , , $2,264.99 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1593 
 
 TRANSMISSION LINE 
 
 Provision was made for two lines of wires, but only one line was 
 fully equipped. 
 
 Material, per mile : 
 
 52 cross arms. 4-in. by 5-in. by 6-ft., for two 
 
 2-in. pins at $0.39 $20.28 
 
 52 cross arms, 4-in. by 5-in. by 8-ft., for four 2- 
 
 in. pins at 0.53 27.56 
 
 312 2-in. locust pins at 0.025 7.80 
 
 52 pairs gal. iron braces, 30-in. \ at 0.038 22.73 
 52 pairs gal. iron braces, 24-in. J598 lb. 
 
 208 carriage bolts, %-in. by 4%-in at 0.014 2.91 
 
 104 gal. iron lag screws, 1/2-in. by 4-ft at 0.018 1.87 
 
 208 gal. iron lag screws, i^-in. by 7-in at 0.025 5.20 
 
 156 6-in. porcelain in.sulators at 0.46 71.76 
 
 2,100 lb. No. 4 bare copper wire at 0.175 367.50 
 
 52 cable-top glass insulators at 0.06 3.12 
 
 52 special locust pins at 0.03 1.56 
 
 65 lb. No. 4 copper ground wire at 0.175 11.38 
 
 3 No. 4 Mclntire splices at 0.15 0.45 
 
 7 gal. carbolized paint at 0.65 4.55 
 
 900 lb. barbed wire, galv at 0.038 34.20 
 
 220 ft. %-in. galv. strand wire ties at 0.015 3.30 
 
 Total material for one mile $586.17 
 
 Labor, per mile : 
 
 3 miles transmission line erected $103.50 
 
 1 mile of ground wire erected 21.45 
 
 1 mile of barbed wire erected 21.45 
 
 Total materials per mile $586.17 
 
 Total labor per mile 146.40 
 
 Total cost 1 mile of transmission line $732.57 
 
 FEEDJER LINE 
 Material, per mile : 
 
 3,500 lb. 0000 feed wire at $0,075 $612.50 
 
 52 feeder pins at 0.20 • 10.52 
 
 52 cable-top insulators at 0.06 3.12 
 
 550 ft. 5/lG-in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 6.60 
 
 5 eye-bolts, %-in by 16-in at 0.09 0.45 
 
 20 lb. No. 4 copper tie wire at 0.175 3.50 
 
 2 lb. 1/2 and 1/2 solder at 0.28 0.56 
 
 2 splices, 0000 at 0.22 0.44 
 
 Total for material $637.69 
 
 Labor, erection of feeder wire $45.00 
 
 Total material per mile $637.69 
 
 Total labor per mile 45.00 
 
 Total feeder line i^er mile $682.69 
 
 COMPARISON OF COSTS. PER MILE, DOUBLE TRACK 
 
 Cross span Cross span 
 Bracket 37 and 30-ft. 30 and 30-ft. 
 
 arm poles poles 
 
 Trolley wire and poles $2,136.05 $2,420.99 $2,264.99 
 
 Transmission line 732.57 732.57 732.57 
 
 Feeder line 682.69 682.69 682.69 
 
 Total $3,551.31 $3,836.25 $3,680.25 
 
1594 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Overhead Line Construction. The following data, by E. P. 
 Roberts and J. C. Gillette are from Engineering and Contracting, 
 Dec. 11, 1907, taken from Electric Traction Weekly: 
 
 The following data on overhead line construction for interurban 
 electric railways are based on actual practice and on the average 
 costs of a large number of lines in different sections of the United 
 States. The elements of interurban electric railway overhead line 
 construction are: (1) A conductor from which the cars take elec- 
 trical energy, and (2) the supporting of this conductor, which may 
 be directly by brackets or by cross pans, which in turn are sup- 
 ported by poles. These two methods of construction are termed 
 respectively bracket suspension and cross-suspension. The trolley 
 wire may be supported either directly from insulators carried by the 
 brackets or spans, or by steel cable, which in turn is supported by 
 the brackets or spans. The former is the old and standard method 
 of trolley construction so long used on direct current lines, while the 
 latter is the new " catenary " type of construction. The work for 
 a 600-volt direct current line will be considered first and then the 
 work for a line for higher voltage alternating or direct current 
 motors. 
 
 600-volt Direct Ctirrent Line. The general character of construc- 
 tion will be wooden poles with either bracket or cross suspension, 
 probably the former, the poles being spaced 90 to 100 ft. For most 
 interurban electric railways, even for light traffic, it is advisable 
 to install two trolley wires, each of which is not less than No. 3/0 
 for heavy service, and in many cases No. 4/0 is preferable. 
 In cases of very light traffic No. 2/0 may be advisable, as the 
 necessity for reliability of service is lessened. In most cases 
 there must be such amount of copper, either as trolley or as 
 trolley and feeder wire, as will equal the cross section and 
 weight of two No. 3/0 wires. It costs about as much to place 
 such copper as feeder and trolley wire as it does if all is in 
 the form of trolley wire, if the saving on siding construction 
 is considered, and it is preferable to place two trolley wires, as 
 this does away with overhead frogs, and in case of the breaking 
 of a, trolley wire avoids a tieup of the road. Trolley wire is hard 
 drawn copper and is generally either figure 8 or grooved. Round 
 wire is somewhat preferable for carshop yards and for sharp 
 curves, such as turning corners on city streets, but the forms above 
 stated are preferable for high speed runs because they give a 
 smoother running surface. 
 
 The trolley wire is suspended from the bracket, or cross sus- 
 pension, by. means of a hanger, and such hangers are of several 
 types. The hanger ear, or clip, which holds the trolley wire, should 
 be of ample length, and. for figure 8 or grooved wire, usually con- 
 sists of two jaws clamped together by screws. The stud which sup- 
 ports such jaws passes into, and is supported by, the insulating 
 material of the hanger, which insulating material is in turn sup- 
 ported by a cast iron or brass hanger body, which latter is se- 
 cured to the bracket or to the cross suspension cable. In the 
 past, troubles have been caused both by the mechanical weakness 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1595 
 
 of the structure, and also by the electrical weakness of the insulat- 
 ing material, especially after exposure to varying temperatures and 
 climatic conditions, but hangers and clips of satisfactory design are 
 now obtainable. 
 
 The trolley hanger may be supported by a bracket, or by a cross 
 suspension cable. Steel cable should be not only of sufficient initial 
 strength for the purpose, but also the galvanizing should be care- 
 fully inspected in order to assure long life. The bracket consists 
 of steel tubing, angle iron or T-iron, generally painted in order to 
 increase life, as well as to improve the appearance. An over sup- 
 port gives the maximum strength at least cost. In some cases an 
 under support may be preferable, because of allowing less height of 
 pole. 
 
 A telephone line is usually provided, and a metallic circuit is nec- 
 essary. The wires are placed on cross arms or brackets, and 
 with frequent transpositions. The wire for the telephone line is 
 usually No. 10 B. & S. gage copper, if telephone line is more than 
 50 to 60 miles in length, but on shorter lines it may be high grade 
 iron wire. 
 
 The costs submitted are probable costs between limits, but even 
 though a maximum limit is given, the actual cost may sometimes 
 exceed these figures, depending on local conditions. 
 
 Starting from the standpoint of the cheapest practicable construc- 
 tion, we have 30 ft. poles, 90 to 100 ft. spacing, and bracket sup- 
 ports, and with double overhead No. 000 trolley. The cost of such 
 construction will approximate the figures given by Table IV. 
 
 TABLE IV. COST PER MILE OF BRACKET CONSTRUCTION 
 
 SINGLE TRACK 600 VOLT TWO NO. 000 TROLLEY 
 
 WIRES. POLES SPACED 100 FT. 
 
 From To 
 53 30-ft. poles in place and framed, poles de- 
 livered on cars $4.00-$6.00 $ 325 $ 475 
 
 53 brackets in place with fittings 180 210 
 
 Ears, hangers, etc., in place 50 75 
 
 2 miles No. 3/0 trolley with splicers, at 20 
 
 ct.-26 ct 1,100 1,400 
 
 Erecting same 100 150 
 
 Siding construction pro rated 75 100 
 
 Curve construction 1,500 ft. additional cost 50 75 
 
 5 anchors 8.50 15 
 
 200 ft. strand for guys 2.25 2.50 
 
 2 half anchorages 5 10 
 
 Lags, clamps, etc 5 8 
 
 Per cent, on material for handling 75 100 
 
 $1,975.75 $2,620.50 
 
 Add for lightning arrester 10 20 
 
 Add for telephone system pro rated 75 100 
 
 $2,060.75 $2,740.50 
 
 If all poles are anchored add 160 265 
 
 If 35-ft. poles are used add (poles $6.00 to 
 
 $8.50) 130 160 
 
 Total $2,350.75 $3,165.50 
 
1596 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 If for any reason it is decided to use suspension instead of 
 bracket construction with the same pole spacing and size of trolley, 
 then the approximate cost will be as given by Table V. 
 
 TABLE V. COST PER MILE OF SPAN CONSTRUCTION SINGLE 
 
 TRACK 600 VOLT TWO NO. 000 TROLLEY WIRES, 
 
 POLES SPACED 100 FT. 
 
 From To 
 106 30-ft. poles in place and framed, poles de- 
 livered on cars $4-$6 $ 650 $ 950 
 
 Ears, hangers, etc., in place 50 75 
 
 Span wire erected 60 85 
 
 2 miles No. 3/0 trolley at 20 ct.-26 ct 1,100 1,400 
 
 Erecting same 100 150 
 
 Siding construction, pro rated 75 100 
 
 Curve construction, additional cost 35 60 
 
 5 anchors 8.50 15 
 
 200 ft. strand for anchor guys 2.25 2.50 
 
 2 half anchorages 5 10 
 
 Lags, champs, etc 5 8 
 
 Per cent, on material for handling 100 150 
 
 $2,190.75 $3,005.50 
 
 Lightning arresters 10 20 
 
 Telephone system pro rated 75 100 
 
 If all 35-ft. poles are used (poles at $6.00 to 
 
 $8.50) 260 320 
 
 If poles are anchored add 320 530 
 
 Total ..$2,856.75 $3,975.50 
 
 In case transmission wires are required for transmission of elec- 
 tric energy from the power house to substations, such transmission 
 wires may be placed entirely on cross arms, or in the case of three 
 phase transmission, t\vo of such wires may be on one two-pin arm 
 and the third wire on a pin on the top of the pole or on a bracket 
 on the side of the pole. Of course the pole top cannot be used if a 
 ground wire is located at such point. The cost of construction on 
 a three-phase transmission line will approximate the figures given 
 by Table VI. 
 
 TABLE VI. COST PER MILE OF BRACKET CONSTRUCTION 
 SINGLE TRACK 600 VOLT TWO NO. 000 TROLLEY WIRES, 
 POLES SPACED 100 FT. WITH THREE PHASE 33,000 VOLT 
 TRANSMISSION LINE ON TROLLEY LINE POLES, 2-PIN 
 CROSS-ARM AND POLE TOP PIN CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 From To 
 53 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles de- 
 livered on cars at $6.00-$8.50 $ 455 $ 635 
 
 Ears, hangers, etc., in place 50 75 \ 
 
 53 brackets in place with fittings . 180 210 
 
 2 miles No. 3/0 trolley with splicer at 20 ct.- 
 
 26 ct 1,100 1,400 
 
 Erecting same 100 150 
 
 Siding construction pro rated 75 100 
 
 Curve construction 1,500 ft. additional cost 65 100 
 
 5 anchors 8.50 15 
 
 200 ft. strand for guys 2.25 2.50 
 
 2 half anchorages 5 10 
 
 Lags, clamps, etc 5 8 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1597 
 
 From To 
 
 53 4 by 5 in. by 4 ft. 6 in. cross-arms $ 16 $22 
 
 159 2 by 13 in. oak pins paraffined 9 11 
 
 159 33,000 volt porcelain insulators 90 120 
 
 106 20 by 1^4 by ^4 in. cross-arm braces galv. 5 6.50 
 
 106 % by 5 cge. bolts 1 1.25 
 
 53 1^ by 4 lag bolts 0.60 0.75 
 
 53 % by 13 mch. bolts 3 3.75 
 
 Erecting arms, pins and insulators 25 35 
 
 3 miles No. 2 copper wire with splicers at 20 
 
 ct.-26ct 638.40 829.92 
 
 Erecting same 125 170 
 
 Per cent, on material for handling 140 190 
 
 Total $3,098.75 $4,095.67 
 
 Add for trolley lightning protection 10 20 
 
 Add for transmission lightning protection..,. 50 250 
 
 Add for telephone system pro rated 75 100 
 
 Total $3,233.75 $4,465.67 
 
 If all poles are anchored add 160 265 
 
 Total $3,393.75 $4,730.67 
 
 From the above the principal unit costs of the cheapest practicable 
 character of line work can be ascertained, and such additions must 
 be made as are necessary for special overhead work around car 
 shops, and in connection with bridges, city work or other special 
 conditions ; also the cost of copper for feeders or for transmission 
 must be added in accordance with the plan decided upon. 
 
 The next consideration is as to whether or not there should be 
 additional expenditures in order to increase reliability, or possibly 
 to decrease maintenance or depreciation, or both. Some of the mat- 
 ters considered may be as follows: (1) Reduction of pole spacing; 
 (2) increasing size of poles; (3) anchoring all poles. 
 
 Instead of using wooden poles the substitution for same of iron 
 poles or possibly reinforced concrete poles, or, in extreme cases, 
 which at present are not likely to be considered in connection with 
 interurban electric railways, the use of steel bridges may be con- 
 sidered. 
 
 The matter of making stronger the supporting structure must 
 necessarily be considered in connection with what it is to support, 
 and frequently, also, in connection with the character of the 
 ground. 
 
 Relative to the first, it is evident that the heavier the trolley wire 
 the greater will be its strength, and therefore the greater the pos- 
 sible spacing of the supports, and also the greater the strength re- 
 quired at such supports. If catenary construction is used, usually 
 the advisable spacing distance will be materially increased. 
 
 As to the second proposition, the less the first and maintenance 
 cost per pole, then the nearer together the poles should be placed, 
 but if the ground is rock, marsh, etc., it may be preferable to use 
 structures allowing greater spacing and having increased unit 
 cost, and possibly less cost per mile. 
 
 For standard trolley construction, the limit is usually 90 to 100 
 ft. spacing. These distances are determined, first, by the strains 
 
1598 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 in the trolley wire when it is pulled tight enough to give a steady- 
 running trolley wheel, not having too great a kink at the point 
 where the trolley wire is supported from the bracket ; and second, 
 by the mechanical strength of the ear and the trolley wire where 
 it is attached to the ear ; consequently, if it is desired to increase 
 the spacing of the supporting structures in order to reduce first cost 
 and also maintenance charges, some form of support for the trolley 
 wire other than the ordinary ears and hangers must be used. 
 
 Wooden pole construction for single or double track can be made 
 amply strong up to a spacing of 150 ft. by using poles of com- 
 mercial size, if same are properly set and proper consideration is 
 given to the nature of the ground, the necessity of guying, etc. 
 This refers to pole strength and not to the supporting of the wire. 
 
 The catenary supported trolley has been developed during the last 
 two or three years. This method of suspension provides a safe 
 means of supporting the trolley wire with spans up to 300 ft. in 
 length. In this class of construction the trolley wire is suspended 
 from a steel messenger wire supported by insulators carried on 
 brackets, cross suspension cables or bridges. The trolley is sup- 
 ported from the messenger wire by hangers spaced from 10 to 50 ft. 
 apart, depending upon the design. The physical limit of span in this 
 class of construction is determined by the strength of the mes- 
 senger cable, and also to a slight extent by the lateral movement 
 of the trolley caused by wind pressure. It is evident that the 
 tighter the messenger wire, the less will be the lateral movement in 
 the trolley, but as the stresses in the messenger on spans of the 
 same length and loading increase approximately inversely as the 
 sag, care must be taken not to run above the safe loading of the 
 messenger, especially under conditions of sleet and high wind. 
 
 There are two general classes of catenary construction, the sin- 
 gle catenary, and the double catenary. In the single catenary con- 
 struction the trolley wire is supported from a single steel cable car- 
 ried by insulators upon the brackets or spans, while in the double 
 catenary the trolley wire is carried by two steel cables. 
 
 In either type of construction the messenger cables may be car- 
 ried either by brackets, span wires, or bridges. In ordinary inter- 
 urban trolley construction, we usually find the messenger carried 
 by a bracket, while in city streets we frequently find span wire 
 construction. The bridge construction consisting of towers on 
 each side of the track and a bridge spanning the tracks is seldom 
 used for anything but the heaviest class of work, such as electrified 
 steam railroads. 
 
 The bracket construction is the cheapest in nearly all cases, and 
 is usually satisfactory for the purposes of the ordinary interurban 
 road. The span wire construction is only used where conditions are 
 such as to require it, as the span construction is rather expensive 
 and not particularly satisfactory. It requires longer poles and pro- 
 duces a more severe loading of the poles than is the case with the 
 bracket construction. 
 
 The double catenary construction produces a structure which is 
 very rigid as regards wind pressure and yet is flexible as regards 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1599 
 
 vertical pressures. This type is the highest development of the art 
 at this time, but because of its great cost is only used in the elec- 
 trification of trunk lines of the heaviest class. It is not proposed 
 in this article to discuss this phase of electric railroading, but to 
 confine it to simpler and less expensive forms that are applicable 
 to ordinary interurban roads. 
 
 As ordinarily constructed the single catenary trolley has a pole 
 spacing of from 100 to 150 ft. and the trolley is attached to the 
 messenger cable either by means of three hangers placed at inter- 
 vals of 40 to 50 ft., or by means of nine or more hangers placed at 
 intervals of 10 to 17 ft. The spacing referred to is, of course, the 
 normal spacing and a larger or smaller number of hangers with 
 longer or shorter spacing is used where local conditions require. 
 
 For convenience, we will hereinafter refer to the three hanger 
 type of construction as the long spaced type, and that using nine 
 or more suspension hangers as the short spaced type. 
 
 Messenger Cable. — In the single catenary construction the mes- 
 senger or cable which supports the trolley consists of a steel cable 
 ranging from perhaps 5-16 in., as a minimum, to ^-in. as a maxi- 
 mum, diameter, and usually made up of a seven wire strand, either 
 of the grade known as " Siemens-Martin " steel or that designated 
 " high strength steel." The cable is supported by porcelain in- 
 sulators, such insulators being usually mounted on iron brackets. 
 The following table gives the ultimate strength of the ordinary sizes 
 of steel strand of the various grades : 
 
 
 
 Siemens- 
 
 High 
 
 Extra 
 
 Diam. in. 
 
 Reg. 
 
 Martin 
 
 Strength 
 
 H.S. 
 
 y4 
 
 
 3,050 
 
 5,100 
 
 7,600 
 
 9-32 
 
 .... 
 
 4.380 
 
 7,300 
 
 10,900 
 
 5-16 
 
 
 4.860 
 
 8,100 
 
 12,100 
 
 % 
 
 s'.ioo 
 
 6,800 
 
 11,000 
 
 17,250 
 
 7-16 
 
 7,500 
 
 9,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 22,500 
 
 Vz 
 
 9,800 
 
 11,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 % 
 
 
 19,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 The prices of cable bear such relation to the strength that the 
 cost of cable necessary to carry the given load is approximately 
 independent of the grade of cable used. However, the lower grades 
 of cable suffer most from corrosion, while the better grades are 
 hardest to manipulate. It is practically impossible to " splice " the 
 high strength or extra high strength steel cable, and all joints in 
 such cables are made by means of clamps. 
 
 Brackets. — As there is considerable difficulty in keeping insula- 
 tors in an upright position on pipe brackets, brackets are now gen- 
 erally made of 2^4 by 214 by % or 5-16 in. T bar, or 2 by 2% by 
 14 -in. angle bars supported by a rod or strut. The insulators are 
 attached to a suitable pin casting by means of Portland cement, 
 such pin casting being held tp the brackets by set screws. 
 
 Insulators. — The insulator is the vital point in high voltage trol- 
 ley line construction, and as this insulator is subject to severe ser- 
 vice, care should be taken in its selection. Insulators for 600 volt- 
 age work are generally 3 by 3i/4 ins., one piece, double petticoat por- 
 
1600 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 celain insulators, and tested for 5,000 volts. Of course with higher 
 voltages, larger insulators are used; for example, with 6,600 volt 
 current, insulators as large as 8 ins. in diam. by 5 ins. high are in 
 use. 
 
 Hangers. — The hangers used to support the trolley from the mes- 
 senger, in general consists of a mechanical clamp for the trolley, 
 usually consisting of two sections drawn together by screws and re- 
 sembling the so-called " Detroit " type of ear used in direct current 
 practice. The attachment to the messenger is made by means of a 
 clamp or metal loop, bolted around the messenger, or by means of 
 a pair of sister hooks which are slipped over the messenger and 
 driven down so as to tightly grip the wire. The connection be- 
 tween these two clamping ends is made by means of a round or a 
 flat bar, or a pipe, attached to the above-mentioned parts by means 
 of rivets, screws, or pipe threads. 
 
 All bolts and screws used in hanger construction should be thor- 
 oughly locked, as otherwise the vibration is certain to result in 
 their working loose. The hanger should preferably expose as small 
 an area as possible to wind at right angles to the trolley. 
 
 Catenary Construction on Curves. — On straight line construction 
 and curve construction up to 5 deg., it is possible to maintain the 
 150 ft. pole spacing, but at 4 deg. and 5 deg. it is advisable to in- 
 stall a brail guy with two pull-offs per span. In installing pull-offs 
 for catenary work, especially if pantograph trolley is to be used, 
 great care must be taken to see that proper clearances are given 
 for the end of the pantograph trolley, which on curve work will 
 rise higher than the trolley wire itself, owing to the super-eleva- 
 tion of the rail at this point. The pull-ofC hangers, as they are 
 .called, for curve work are similar to the regular hangers except 
 that they have an eye placed about 2 ins. above the trolley wire and 
 another one about 2 ins. below the messenger. A short bridle is 
 attached to these eyes and a strain insulator is cut in on the pull- 
 off wire. 
 
 On curves up to 3 deg. the curves are held to position by means 
 of steady braces, the brace being an insulated stiff rod attached 
 to each bracket or pole and to the trolley wire in such manner as 
 will resist any movement in a horizontal direction. There are sev- 
 eral types in use at present. The earlier type consisted of a treated 
 hickory rod attached to the pole by means of suitable clamps, and to 
 the trolley wire by means of an ear similar to the regular hanger 
 ear ; this ear in turn being fastened to the rod by a gooseneck by 
 means of a long threaded section for adjusting the position of the 
 trolley wire. The more recent types are attached to the bracket 
 arm, and do not depend upon the wooden rod for insulation but on 
 porcelain insulators of the skirt type, similar in general construc- 
 tion to those supporting the messenger wire. There are two types 
 in use, one having a long arm, which is attached to the bracket 
 close to the pole, and the other having a short arm, which is at- 
 tached to the outer extremity of the bracket ; the arms in both 
 cases being so hinged as to allow vertical but not horizontal mo- 
 tion. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1601 
 
 It is advisable to install half anchorages at each end of curves 
 of over 2 deg. in order to take care of the strains resulting from 
 contraction in the line each side of the curve. 
 
 There is practically no tendency for the trolley to move sidewise, 
 due to the passage of the trolley wheel or pantograph, as the 
 messenger acts in effect like a large spring, and as soon as the 
 trolley wheel or pantograph relieves it of some of the tension due 
 to the weight of the trolley, the messenger will rise and thus keep 
 directly over the trolley wire. 
 
 Sidings. — On siding construction, if the wheel trolley is used, 
 the construction is similar to that used on high speed d. c. inter- 
 urban roads ; that is, the siding trolley is brought out to the main 
 line at the switch, and then carried down the main line, parallel 
 to and about 12 ins. distant from the main line trolley for a dis- 
 tance of 150 or 200 ft. 
 
 If the pantograph trolley is used, the deflector set, as it is 
 called, consists of a number of trolley wires or steel rods of similar 
 cross section. These are held to place by ordinary trolley ears, 
 which in turn are bolted to cross bars spaced about 3 ft. apart, 
 these cross bars being supported by the main line and siding trolley 
 wires. The ends of these rods are raised 4 or 5 ins. above the siding 
 and main line trolley so that there is no possible chance for the 
 end of the pantographs to catch them. The siding trolley wire is 
 passed over the top of the main line trolley wire and carried to an 
 anchorage on the farther side. A deflector set should be installed 
 on both sides of the main line trolley to avoid any danger of the 
 pantograph catching trolley or guy wires. Care must be taken in 
 this construction to see that the siding trolley is pulled up so that 
 the raising of the main line trolley, owing to the passage of trolley 
 wheel or pantograph, raises the siding trolley as well. It must 
 also be designed so that the effects of lateral travel in the main 
 line trolley, due to expansion and contraction, will not affect the 
 height of the siding trolley. 
 
 A number of different types of section insulators are in use for 
 this class of work. It is now recognized that the early forms, 
 which depended on long breaks for insulation, are not practical. 
 While at first they give fairly satisfactory results, climatic condi- 
 tions soon produce leakage and make it unsafe to work on a section 
 protected by such insulators. There are two or three different types 
 of section insulators which have either a long air break or a 
 series of short air breaks in their construction, and these give 
 promise of proving satisfactory. 
 
 Overhead Crossings. — Probably the points which have given the 
 most trouble to designers of catenary supported trolley work are 
 those points on the line where the line is crossed by overhead 
 bridges, used to eliminate grade crossings, as every foot these 
 bridges are raised means an increased cost for the approaches and 
 the structure, and the same is true if the clearance height between 
 the bridge and track is increased by lowering the track grade. 
 Consequently at these points the trolley is usually depressed to the 
 lowest possible working limits. 
 
1602 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Both the tension of the trolley and messenger and the upward 
 pressure of the collecting device tend to lift these wires into contact 
 with the bridge structure and they must be so secured as to resist 
 these forces. In the case of ordinary d. c. construction, the trolley 
 is rigidly supported by hangers closely spaced under the bridge, 
 and the d. c. type of hanger is well adapted to resist such upward 
 pressure. But with catenary construction the trolley and messen- 
 ger must be flexibly supported and held securely against lateral 
 and vertical motion, and this must be done in extremely limited 
 space, and at the same time maintain clearances suitable for the 
 voltages used. Catenary trolley construction requires approxi- 
 mately 18 ins. more clearance, or head room under bridge crossings 
 than the ordinary d. c. trolley ; this, of course, is based on trolley 
 voltages of from 3,300 to 6,600 volts, where an air space of at least 
 5 ins. must be maintained between the messenger and trolley and 
 the adjoining frame work of the bridge. 
 
 Two general types of bridge construction are in use, one known 
 as the sleeve type and the other as the skirt type. The sleeve type 
 consists essentially of a corrugated porcelain tube of proper length 
 and thickness for the voltage used, which is supported on a bracket 
 attached to the bridge ; the messenger is tied to this, and the con- 
 struction in other ways is similar to the ordinary bracket construc- 
 tion excepting that at this point a steady brace is installed which 
 is anchored in such a manner as to prevent the trolley rising. 
 
 In the skirt type, the construction is similar to the ordinary 
 bracket construction except that the insulator pin, instead of being 
 supported by a bracket arm, is supported by either a wooden or 
 steel bracket bolted to the bridge, and the messenger is suspended 
 from a lien insulator as usual in bracket construction. In addition 
 to this, extra hangers are placed between the two bridge supports 
 in order to prevent the trolley wire rising at the center, because of 
 the upward pressure of the pantograph or trolley wheel. On each 
 side of the bridge at a distance of 20 to 25 ft., is placed what is 
 called a " hold down span " consisting of two heavy poles securely 
 anchored, with a cross span drawn tightly between them, the design 
 of the span being such as to limit any rise of the trolley and 
 messenger either because of contraction in the main line, or from 
 lifting action of the trolley wheel. 
 
 With either construction the trolley and messenger wires must 
 be protected from bridge drippings by means of a suitable metal 
 shield attached to the bridge structure and thoroughly grounded. 
 At points each side of the bridge where the trolley wire reaches its 
 normal height half anchorages are installed in such manner as to 
 pull slack towards the bridge. 
 
 Messenger Tension. — In erecting catenary trolley work care must 
 be taken to see that the messenger wire is so pulled up that there 
 will be exactly the same amount of deflection in spans of the same 
 length. If this deflection is secured for the standard length spans, 
 the shortened spans will take care of themselves, and the strains in 
 all spans, due to loading, etc., will be the same. Unless the deflec- 
 tion is the same in spans of the same length the strains arising 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS i60S 
 
 from the loading of the trolley and also the vibration which is met 
 in service will cause the messenger wire to " travel." This travel 
 manifests itself by unequal strains on the messenger insulators and 
 unless the tie is made very securely, the messenger wire will slip 
 through and in this manner tend to equalize the tension, but the 
 hangers will no longer stand vertically but will lay at an angle 
 producing an uneven trolley surface, as well as an unsightly appear- 
 ance of the whole construction. If the messenger wire does not slip 
 through the tie, it will sooner or later twist the bracket around until 
 the tension is equalized. 
 
 The strains in the messenger for any length of span and loading 
 can be calculated by means of the following formula, which is 
 expressed in simple arithmetic: 
 
 S W = horizontal strain on wire at center of span. 
 S = strain coefficient. 
 W = weight per foot of span, 
 Y2 X 
 
 S = + — 
 
 2X 6 
 In which Y =: i^ the span in feet. 
 
 X = deflection at center of span in feet. 
 
 For example, with 150-ft. span of % in. messenger, weighing 45 
 lbs. and a deflection of 1.5 ft. we will have by substituting the 
 values for the symbols : 
 
 (75)2 1.5 5625 1.5 
 
 S = 1 =: 1 = 1875.25. 
 
 2 X 1.5 6 6 6 
 
 W= 0.3. 
 S W = 0.3 X 1875.25 = 562.575 lb. strain at center of wire. 
 
 If this wire be used to support a trolley wire and hangers weigh- 
 ing 105 lbs. making the total weight supported by the messenger 
 150 lbs. or 1 lb. per ft. of span, we will have S W =: 1875.25 lbs. 
 
 If the strains, due to sleet on the wire, are to be considered, the 
 weight of the sleet is added to the weight per ft. of wire, and 
 such sleet loading is usually taken as a layer of ice % in. thick, 
 on all parts of the structure, the weight of ice being figured at 0.033 
 lb. per cu. in. 
 
 In determining the necessary strength of messenger, it is also 
 usual to allow for the loading due to wind pressure, and this is 
 commonly taken on wires or other cylindrical surface as 15 lbs. per 
 sq. ft. of projected area, such area being taken at the increased 
 figure due to % in. thickness of ice, and on flat surfaces at 27 lbs. 
 per sq. ft. In order to obtain the strain on the messenger wire, due 
 to wind pressure, we must calculate the area of the messenger wire, 
 trolley, hangers, etc., which, mliltiplied by the pressure per square 
 foot gives the strain due to wind. 
 
 The strain due to wind pressure does not add directly to that 
 due to weight, but the total strain in the wire is proportional to 
 the diagonal of a right triangle, of which the load due to weight 
 forms one side, and the load due to wind forms the other side. 
 
 In deciding on the size of the messenger wire, it is necessary to 
 
1604 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 allow an ample factor of safety under the most severe conditions. 
 The wire selected should be such as to give a factor of safety of 
 not less than three under such conditions. 
 
 Care must be taken in the erection of the wire to allow for con- 
 traction of the wire in cold weather and the consequent flattening 
 of the catenary which produces additional strains. 
 
 As a matter of fact the strains actually produced are usually 
 materially less than those calculated because the entire structure 
 is elastic and gives more or less, especially at the curves. 
 
 Costs. — Tables VII to IX show the average between limits of 
 different types of catenary construction. Table VII shows the cost 
 of single-track catenary 9 point suspension, 150 ft. pole spacing, 
 bracket construction, and designed for 6,600 volt work. Table VIII 
 shows cost of double-track catenary 9 point suspension, center pole 
 construction, 150-ft. pole spacing for 6,600 volts. Table IX shows 
 cost of double-track catenary 9 point double-pole bracket construc- 
 tion, 150-ft. spacing for 6,600 volts. 
 
 TABLE VII. COST PER MILE SINGLE-TRACK 9 POINT 
 CATENARY 150-FT. POLE SPACING, 6,600 VOLT 
 
 From To 
 36 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles 
 
 taken at $6 to $8 delivered $ 310 $ 430 
 
 36 brackets with fittings, in place 120 150 
 
 5,280 ft. No. 4/0 trolley. 3,382 lb. at 20 ct. to 
 
 26 ct. per lb 676 879 
 
 5,300 ft. %-in. high strength steel messen- 
 ger cable 110 130 
 
 36 messenger insulators 15 30 
 
 36 spans catenary hangers 40 72 
 
 5 anchors 8.50 15 
 
 200 ft. %-in. high strength strand for guys. . 2.25 2.50 
 
 10 steady braces for curves 30 40 
 
 10 strain insulators 11 15 
 
 Per cent, on material for handling, etc 100 130 
 
 Labor erecting catenary trolley 160 200 
 
 Labor erecting curve trolley 1,500 ft. additional 50 75 
 
 2 half anchorages 20 30 
 
 Siding construction — pro rated 100 150 
 
 Lags, clamps, etc 10 15 
 
 $1,762.75 $2,363.50 
 
 Add for lightning arresters 10 60 
 
 Add for gd. wire Itg. protection 150 200 
 
 Add for telephone system — pro rated 100 150 
 
 $2,022.75 $2,773.50 
 
 If all poles are anchored add 108 180 
 
 If brackets are insulated 40 60 
 
 Total $2,170.75 $3,013.50 
 
 TABLE VIII. COST PER MILE OF DOUBLE-TRACK 9 POINT 
 
 CATENARY, CENTER POLE, 150-FT. POLE SPACING, 
 
 6,600 VOLT 
 
 From To 
 
 36 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles 
 
 delivered on cars $6 to $8 each $ 310 $ 430 
 
 72 brackets with fittings in place 240 300 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1605 
 
 From To 
 10,560 ft. trolley, 6,764 lb. at 20 ct. to 26 ct. 
 
 per lb $1,352 $1,758 
 
 10,800 ft. %-in. high strength steel messenger 
 
 cable 220 260 
 
 72 messenger insulators 30 60 
 
 72 spans catenary hangers 80 144 
 
 10 anchors 17 30 
 
 300 ft. %-in. strand for guy 3.50 4 
 
 20 steady braces for curves 60 80 
 
 20 strain insulators 22 30 
 
 10 30 -ft. pull-oft poles in place and framed 100 130 
 
 Per cent, for handling material, etc 110 140 
 
 Labor erecting catenary trolley 320 400 
 
 Labor erecting curve trolley, 3,000 ft. add.... 100 150 
 
 2 half anchorages 40 60 
 
 Siding construction — pro rated 200 300 
 
 Lags, clamps, etc 10 15 
 
 $3,214.50 $4,291 
 
 Add for lightning arresters 10 120 
 
 Add for gd. wire Igt. protection 150 400 
 
 Add for telephone line 100 150 
 
 Total $3,374.50 $4,961 
 
 TABLE IX. COST PER MILE OF DOUBLE TRACK 9 POINT 
 
 CATENARY, DOUBLE POLE LINE, 150-FT. SPACING, 
 
 6,600 VOLT 
 
 From To 
 72 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles 
 
 at $6 to $8.50 each delivered on cars. . $ 620 $ 860 
 
 72 brackets with fittings in place 240- 300 
 
 10,560 ft. No. 4/0 trolley, 6,764 lb. at 20 ct. to 
 
 26 ct. per lb 1,352 1,758 
 
 10,600 ft. %-in. high strength steel messenger 
 
 cable 220 260 
 
 72 messenger insulators 30 60 
 
 72 spans cat. hangers 80 144 
 
 10 anchors 17 30 
 
 300 ft. %-in. strand for guy 3.50 4 
 
 20 steady braces for curves 60 80 
 
 20 strain insulators 22 33 
 
 Per cent, for handling material 130 160 
 
 Labor erecting 2 mi. catenary construction. . . 320 400 
 
 Labor erecting 3,000 ft. curve construction add 100 150 
 
 2 double track half anchorages 40 60 
 
 Siding construction pro rated 200 300 
 
 Lags, clamps, etc 10 20 
 
 $3,444.50 $4,616 
 
 Add for lightning protection 20 240 
 
 Add for gd. wire Igt. protection 150 400 
 
 Add for telephone line 100 150 
 
 $3,714.50 $5,406 
 
 If all poles are anchored 216 360 
 
 If all brackets are insulated 80 120 
 
 Total $4,010.50 $5,886 
 
 In deciding whether the pole line for double-track shall be a 
 double-pole line or a center-pole line, the character of the grading 
 on the right-of-way will have to be taken into consideration. If, 
 
1606 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 as in the middle west, the country is practically level and no ex- 
 pensive cuts or fills are required, possibly the single-pole construc- 
 tion will show a saving- over the double-pole ; however, where there 
 are expensive fills and cuts, the double-pole construction will show 
 a saving over the single-pole, not in itself, but in the fact that the 
 roadbed will not have to be as wide as for the single-pole con- 
 struction. 
 
 Cost of Overhead Construction. The following costs, from Data, 
 April, 1911, are averages on a road built in Illinois in 1909. 
 
 Cost per mile 
 
 Poles, 35 ft., 55 at $6.45 each $354.75 
 
 Poles, 30 ft., 55 at $4.20 each 231.00 
 
 Galv. strand, 5-16-in., 3,000 ft. at $0.87 per 100 ft 26.10 
 
 Galv. strand, %-in., 2,000 ft. at $0.68 per 100 ft 13.60 
 
 St. line hangers, 55 at $31.50 per 100 ft 17.33 
 
 D curve hangers, 10 at $67.00 per 100 ft 6.70 
 
 S curve hangers, 12 at $40.00 per 100 ft 4.80 
 
 Wood strains, 9-in., 150 at $14.50 per 100 ft 21.75 
 
 Strain plates, 2 at $32.00 per 100 ft 0.64 
 
 Connectors, 20-in., 2 at $1.25 each 2.50 
 
 Ears (clip), 8-in., 55 at $14.00 per 100 7.70 
 
 Solder ears, 15-in., 25 at $32.00 per 100 8.00 
 
 Insulated crossings, 2 at $9.00 each 18.00 
 
 Solder, 25 lb. at $0.23 per lb 5.75 
 
 Lightning arresters, 5 at $4.00 each 20.00 
 
 Feed-in yokes, 5 at $28.00 per 100 .' 1.40 
 
 Section insulators, 1 at $5.60 each 5.60 
 
 Pony insulators, 190 at $1.51 per 100 2,87 
 
 Transposition insulators. 30 at $6.90 per 100 2.07 
 
 Wire, 3-0 trolley, 2700 lb. at $0.16 per lb 432.00 
 
 Wire, 4-0 feeder, 3400 lb. at $0.16 per lb 544.00 
 
 Wire, No. 10 tel., 2 mi. at $12.00 per mile 24.00 
 
 Wire, signal, 2 mi. at $15.30 per mile 30.60 
 
 Feeder insulators, 55 at $5.00 per 100 2.75 
 
 Pins, malleable iron, 5 at $16.20 per 100 0.81 
 
 Cross arms, 4 pin, 110 at $15.14 per 100 16.66 
 
 Locust pins, 440 at $13.80 per 1000 6.08 
 
 Eye bolts, %- by 12-in., galv., 110 at $8.30 per 100 9.13 
 
 Eye bolts, %- by 12-in. galv., 110 at $5.70 per 100 6.27 
 
 Lag screws, %-by 4 in., 110 at $1.15 per 100 1.27 
 
 Braces, 24-in., galv., 220 at $53.00 per 1000 11.66 
 
 Bolts, carriage, %- by 4-in., 220 at $6.50 per 1000 1.43 
 
 O washers, 2-in., 220 at $6.00 per 1000 1.32 
 
 Cut washers, %-in., 220 at $0.85 per 1000 0.19 
 
 Switch pins, 3 at $4.00 each 12.00 
 
 Block signal, 1 at $250.00 each 250.00 
 
 Tools and incidentals 300.00 
 
 Labor, digging holes, 110 at $5.50 each 605.00 
 
 Labor, hauling, dressing and framing poles, 110 at $0.50 each 55.00 
 
 Labor, setting poles 110.00 
 
 Labor, line 300.00 
 
 Total $3,470.73 
 
 Cost of Overhead Construction. We have taken the following 
 from Pender's American Handbook for Electrical Engineers. The 
 costs given in Tables X to XIII will serve as a guide in making 
 preliminary estimates. 
 
 Extras for Curves. — Under ordinary conditions curves add about 
 10% to the cost of direct-suspension construction and about 159^ 
 to the cost of catenary construction. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 1607 
 
 Extras for 120(i-volt construction. — The following amounts should 
 be added to the total in the following table to give proper values 
 for 1200-volt construction: 
 
 Direct suspension : Per mile 
 
 Bracket construction $40 
 
 Span construction 40 
 
 Catenary suspension: 
 
 Bracket construction $10 
 
 Span construction 10 
 
 TABLE X. COST PER MILE OF SPAN-WIRE TROLLEY 
 
 CONSTRUCTION (600 VOLTS) (EXCLUSIVE OF 
 
 TRACK WORK AND BONDING) 
 
 Item U^^^ 
 
 ^^^^ price 
 
 Material (incl. 2 double 
 
 curves) 
 Yellow pine poles, oc- 
 tagon $6.00 
 
 Iron poles, No. 2 19.00 
 
 Iron poles, No. 4 36.00 
 
 Cement 2.35 & 2.15 
 
 Broken stone 0.95 
 
 Black paint 0.90 
 
 Span wire 0.012 
 
 Pull-off wire 0.006 
 
 No. 000 cu. wire, per 
 
 lb 0.18 
 
 Straight line susp. . . . 0.285 
 
 Side feed susp 0.57 
 
 Deep groove ears .... 0.235 
 
 Frogs 3.25 
 
 Diagonals 3.60 
 
 Brooklyn strains 0.71 
 
 Frog pull-ofCs 0.36 
 
 Pole clamps 0.12 
 
 Globe strains 0.31 
 
 Side-feed wire, No. 0, 
 
 ins 0.102 
 
 Double bodies 0.93 
 
 Single " 0.53 
 
 Miscellaneous ... 
 
 Total mat'l 
 
 Labor (incl. 2 double curves) 
 
 Setting poles 
 
 Trucking 
 
 Painting (1 coat) .... 
 Running trolley wire . 
 Building 2 double 
 
 curves 
 
 Putting up span wire . 
 
 Total labor 
 
 Grand total per mile 
 
 Single 
 
 track 
 
 Double track 
 
 Quan- 
 
 Total 
 
 Quan- 
 
 Total 
 
 tity 
 
 cost 
 
 tity 
 
 cost 
 
 88 
 
 $528 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 $1672 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 144 
 
 22 bbl. 
 
 52 
 
 33 bbl. 
 
 71 
 
 14 cu. yd. 
 
 13 
 
 14 cu. yd. 
 
 13 
 
 20 gal. 
 
 18 
 
 11 gal. 
 
 10 
 
 1250 ft. 
 
 15 
 
 2500 ft. 
 
 30 
 
 1250 ft. 
 
 8 
 
 2500 ft. 
 
 15 
 
 Imi. 
 
 483 
 
 2 mi. 
 
 966 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 72 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 56 
 
 13 
 
 112 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 78 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 120 ft. 
 
 12 
 
 240 ft. 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 $1182 
 
 $3138 
 
 
 $156 
 
 
 $138 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 $294 
 
 $320 
 
 $1476 
 
 $3458 
 
 Cost of llM^-volt catenary construction. — Under favorable con- 
 ditions, an 11,000-volt catenary construction, such as that of the 
 Denver & Interurban Ry., with sufficient conductors for a half- 
 
1608 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 hourly operation of two-car trains, including track bonding, costs 
 from $3,500 to $5,000 per mile of single track. (O. S. Lyford, Proc. 
 A. S. C. E., Aug., 1908, p. 540.) 
 
 For heavy catenary construction, such as used on trunk line 
 railways, the cost depends entirely upon the standards selected, 
 which are inclusive of the consideration of importance of track, in 
 turn bringing into consideration the advisability of wood and steel 
 post constructon, cross-catenary and bridge-span construction, single 
 or compound catenaries, etc. The cost of overhead yard construc- 
 tion can vary from $1,500 to $3,000 a mile of single track, depending 
 upon number of tracks spanned and type of construction selected. 
 
 TABLE XI. COST PER MILE OP SINGLE TRACK DIRECT 
 SUSPENSION AND CATENARY CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Adapted from (G. E. Review, 1910, Vol. 13, p. 516) 
 
 600-VOLT LINE, TANGENT TRACK 
 
 Direct Catenary, 
 
 suspension three-point 
 
 Item Bracket Span Bracket Span 
 Material : 
 
 Poles, 8 in. by 30 ft $265 $530 $180 $360 
 
 Anchor, guy and span cables ... 45 150 21 100 
 
 Messenger cable . . . . 92 92 
 
 No. 0000 trolley wire 540 540 540 540 
 
 Other line mat'l 145 99 144 101 
 
 Total 995 1,319 977 1,193 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Erecting poles 185 371 126 252 
 
 Mounting brackets 13 .. 9 
 
 Installing span wire and guys , . . , 212 . . 144 
 
 Stringing and clamping wire .... 75 75 200 200 
 
 Installing anchors 75 100 50 60 
 
 Total 373 758 385 656 
 
 Miscellaneous extras 150 150 150 150 
 
 Grand total $1,518 $2,227 $1,512 $1,999 
 
 The following figures are representative of modern 11,000-volt 
 trunk-line catenary construction, using steel bents similar to the 
 recent construction on the N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R. 
 
 Cost of construction per mile 
 Number of tracks Of right of way Of single track 
 
 1 $ 4,000- 7,000 $4,000- 7.000 
 
 2 8,000-15,000 4,000- 7.500 
 4 25,000-40,000 6,250-10,000 
 
 Sidings, with wooden pole construction, cost from $2,500 to $3,500 
 per mile, and yard construction from $1,500 to $3,000 per mile of 
 track. 
 
 Double Track Overhead Trolley Construction. The following is 
 from a Chicago appraisal made in 1902, by. B. J. Arnold. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 1609 
 
 TABLE XII. ESTIMATED COST OF TRIANGULAR CATENARY 
 
 CONSTRUCTION FOR 11,000-VOLTS, ORIGINAL 
 
 N. Y. N. H. & H. TYPE 
 
 (Elec. Age, Apr., 1908, p. 96) 
 
 CONTACT LINE & SUPPORTS 
 
 Ouantitv ^^^ milePer mile 
 
 Item ^ ,f;^t ^ Price single four 
 
 """ track tracks 
 
 Steel bridges, intermediate, 
 
 every 300 ft., wt. 13,000 lbs. 115 tons $100.00 $11,500 
 
 Steel bridges, anchor ; every 2 
 
 mi., wt. 23,000 lbs 5% " 100.00 575 
 
 Foundations for intermediate 
 
 bridge, 9 cu. yds. each 
 
 side, 34 per mile 306 yds. 10.00 3,060 
 
 Foundations for anchor bridge, 
 
 12 cu. yds., 1 per mile .... 12 " 10.00 120 
 
 Foundations, special .... 775 
 
 Trolley wire, No. 0000 B. & S., 
 
 5280 ft 3,380 lbs. 0.18 $608 
 
 Messenger wires, 2-% in. steel, 
 
 10,900 ft 9,150 " 0.08 732 
 
 Hangers, 10 ft. apart 528 0.75 395 
 
 Insulators, two every 300 ft. ... 34 0.50 17 
 
 Pins and yokes for above 34 0.75 26 
 
 Strain insulator and acces- 
 sories, 16 every two miles . 8 6.00 48 
 Trolley strain insul. & section 
 
 breaks, 4 every two miles . 2 16.00 32 
 
 Circuit breakers, 8 per section . . 4 500.00 2,000 
 
 Linemen's materials 20 
 
 Labor on trolley, messenger and 
 
 supports 1,200 20,308 
 
 Total for contact system $5,078 $36,338 
 
 TABLE XIIL FEEDER SYSTEM 
 
 Item C'S 
 
 a 
 
 Feeder wires, No. B. & S. (two) 10,900 
 
 ft 3,380 lbs. 
 
 Insulators 35 
 
 Pins 35 
 
 Circuit breakers 1 
 
 Control wire and pipe 500 ft. 
 
 " transformers, 5 kw., 2 per section 1 
 
 Lightning arresters 
 
 Miscellaneous material 
 
 Labor on feeders 10,900 ft. 
 
 Total for feeder system 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 ■fig 
 
 T, 
 
 r^-t-> 
 
 ^ 
 
 %u 
 
 
 f^Fi 
 
 
 
 ; 0.18 
 
 $ 608 
 
 0.50 
 
 18 
 
 0.50 
 
 17 
 
 500.00 
 
 500 
 
 0.50 
 
 250 
 
 100.00 
 
 100 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 20 
 
 0.03 
 
 327 
 
 $1,890 
 
 ESTIMATE OF COST TO PRODUCE ONE MILE OF DOUBLE 
 
 TRACK OVERHEAD TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 
 
 FOR CITY STREETS 
 
 100 Iron poles, set in concrete, at $28 $2,800.00 
 
 50 4-pin iron cross arms, with pins and ins., at $3.95 . 197.50 
 
 100 Small Brooklyn insulators for spans at 50 cts 50.00 
 
 100 Globe strain " 22 cts 22.00 
 
1610 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 90 Straight line hangers at 32% ets $ 29.25 
 
 10 Feed-in " " 50 cts 5.00 
 
 140 Soldered 9-in. ears at 16 cts 22,40 
 
 12 Live cross-overs (estimated) at $3 36.00 
 
 8 Insulated cross-overs (estimated) at $6 48.00 
 
 8 2-way frogs (estimated) at $3 24.00 
 
 3,000 ft. 5/i6-in. galv. strand wire for spans at $10 per M 30.00 
 
 6 Strain plates (strain layout) at 32 cts 1.92 
 
 12 Small Brooklyn ( " " ) " 50 cts 6.00 
 
 12 Globe insulators ( " " ) " 22 cts 2.64 
 
 1,500 ft. %-in. galv. strand wire (strain layout) at $7.25 
 
 per M 10.88 
 
 20 Double hangers (2 double curve layouts) at 44 cts. 8.80 
 
 20 Single " (" " " " ) " 35 cts. 7.00 
 1,000 ft. i^-in. strand (" " " " ) " $7.25 
 
 per M 7.25 
 
 4 Heavy Brooklyn (2 double curve layouts) at 70 cts. 2.80 
 
 10,560ft. 2-0 trolley wire, 4,246 lbs. at 13% cts 562.59 
 
 2 00 splicing ears at 50 cts 1.00 
 
 Labor, placing spans, trolleys, etc 225.00 
 
 Total, exclusive of feeder wire $4,100.03 
 
 Feeder wire, average per mile 4,000.00 
 
 $8,100.03 
 
 Cost of Trolley Pole Line in Washington. The following 
 actual costs are from a report by H. P. Gillette on his appraisal 
 of an interurban traction company in Washington in 1912. Poles 
 (cedar) were spaced 120 ft. apart on tangents and closer on curves. 
 They were placed on one side of the track and 10 ft. from center 
 line. They were of such length that the top of the pole was 37.5 
 ft, above the rail. They were framed for two cross arms, but the 
 lower arm only was put on ; it was a 6-pin arm 4 ins. by 5 ins. by 
 7 ft. The two pins at end of arm nearest track carry the #10 
 copper telephone wires. The feeder is carried on the first pin 
 beyond pole from track. There were 637 poles (28,017 lin. ft.). 
 
 Labor: Total Per mile 
 
 Pay roll, construction (detail below) $ 5,200.11 $437.02 
 
 Pay roll, other than construction crew 920.00 77.32 
 
 Total labor $ 6,120.11 $514.34 
 
 Material: 
 
 Poles (637) $ 2,689.66 $226.04 
 
 Cross arms (750) 202.50 17.02 
 
 Pins (1,150) 65.09 5.47 
 
 Eye bolts 43.86 3.69 
 
 Cross arm braces 71.06 5.97 
 
 Machine bolts 250.60 21.06 
 
 Lag screws 38.70 3.25 
 
 Cut washers 69.47 5.84 
 
 Guy wire 52.39 4.40 
 
 Tools 0.85 0.07 
 
 Manilla rope 10.04 0.84 
 
 Freight and cartage 73.31 6.16 
 
 Personal expense 18.07 1.52 
 
 Blue prints 1.18 0.10 
 
 Temporary construction prorated 338.00 28.40 
 
 Total, material '. $ 3,924.78 $329.83 
 
 Total, labor and material $10,044.89 $844.17 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1611 
 
 Lahor details follow: Total Per pole 
 
 670 hrs. foreman at $0.362 $ 240.24 $ 0.377 
 
 335 " time-keeper at $0.272 91.16 0.143 
 
 904 " framing poles at $0.260 234.75 0.369 
 
 5,811 " digging holes at $0,258 1,500.86 2.356 
 
 1,802 " putting on X-arms at $0,306 55L.70 0.866 
 
 3,328 " setting poles at $0,284 946.51 1.489 
 
 2,272 " guying and anchoring at $0.289 655.90 1.030 
 
 475 " putting on brackets at $0.305 144.85 0.228 
 
 53 " blacksmithing at $0,301 . 15.95 0.025 
 
 1,038 " making and hauling some of the 
 
 poles at $0.292 303.55 0.477 
 
 136 " miscellaneous hauling at $0.473 64.35 0.101 
 
 1,327 " distributing poles at $0.287 380.34 0.597 
 
 254 " " other material at $0,275 69.95 0.110 
 
 18,405 " total at $0,232 $5,200.11 $8,168 
 
 Pay roll other than construction 920.00 1.444 
 
 $ 9.612 
 637 poles purchased or cut, as below 4.220 
 
 $13,832 
 Pole and fittings details: 
 
 545 main line poles 25,111 lin. ft. 
 
 24 brace-poles 690 " " 
 
 68 bridle poles 2,216 " " 
 
 637 poles, average 44 ft 28,017 " " 
 
 Poles cut on right of way: 
 
 4,018 lin. ft. at 1^^ cts $ 50.20 
 
 9,070 " " at 14 ct 73.28 
 
 11,488 " " credit to r. of way at 7 cts •. 804.16 
 
 1,657 " " at 2 % cts 41.42 
 
 3,150 " " at Sets.... 94.50 
 
 Total right of way poles $1,063.56 
 
 Poles purchased: 
 
 2,028 lin. ft. at 8 cts $ 162.24 
 
 146,386 " " at 10 cts 1,463.86 
 
 Grand total poles (637 poles) at $4.22 $2,689.66 
 
 Cross Arms: 
 
 750 6-pin at $0.27 $202.50 
 
 Pins : 
 
 300 1 1/2 by 9 in. locust $ 5.39 
 
 100 steel 14.70 
 
 750 No. 3 pins 45.00 
 
 Total pins $ 65.09 
 
 Epe Bolts: 
 
 42 % in. by 7 ins. with 6 in. thread and nuts $ 43.86 
 
 Cross Arm Braces: 
 
 560 Vi by IVi by 28 ins. galv $ 51.03 
 
 330 ^ by 114 by 20 ins. " 20.03 
 
 Total cross arms $ 71.06 
 
 Machine Bolts: 
 
 3,260 % by 5 ins. galv $ 57.37 
 
 400 % by 5 ins. black 5.63 
 
 444 % by 16 ins. galv 36.01 
 
1612 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1,250 % by 18 ins. galv $110.88 
 
 220 % by 18 ins. black 24.09 
 
 100 % by 22 ins. galv 16.62 
 
 5,674 Total machine bolts $250^60 
 
 Lag Screws: 
 
 1,730 1/2 by 4 ins. galv $ 36.11 
 
 60 % by 5 ins. " 2.59 
 
 Total lag screws $ 38.70 
 
 Cut Washers: 
 
 3,260 % in., 68 lbs $ 6.12 
 
 3,790 % in., 1,050 lbs 63.35 
 
 Total cut washers, 1,118 lbs $ 69.47 
 
 Guy Wire: 
 
 4,000 ft. % in. single galv. strand, 1,195 lbs $ 52.39 
 
 Labor Costs on Trolley Line in Washington. The following data 
 were prepared by Henry L. Gray for an appraisal on the Pacific 
 Coast in 1912. An economical method of constructing a trolley 
 system involves the use of one or more gangs made up as follows, 
 per day of 8 hrs. 
 
 1 foreman at $5.00 $ 5.00 
 
 2 linemen at $4.40 8.80 
 
 1 helper at $2.75 2.75 
 
 1 auto truck with helper-driver at $1.25 per hr. for 8 hrs. ... 10.00 
 
 Total for 8-hr. day $26.55 
 
 Average cost of crew per hr $ 3.32 
 
 On straight span construction this crew could average 2 spans 
 per hour, at a labor cost of $1.66 per span. This figure covers the 
 placing of pole collars on metal poles and the boring for eye bolts 
 in wooden poles, but does not include the drilling, etc., for building 
 contacts. 
 
 The locating of the frog and pullovers at the point where two 
 tracks merge into one (end of double track) can be done by the 
 above crew in approximately an hour, a labor cost of $3.35. 
 
 The adjustment of the 2 frogs, the 2 pullovers and the stringing 
 of the wire at a standard crossover has been found by experience 
 to be about 4 hrs., which gives a labor cost of $13.30. 
 
 The stringing of the guys and adjusting the alignment of a 
 single track curve of 90 degs., would require approximately 8 hrs., 
 a labor cost of $26.60. 
 
 The stringing of the guys and adjusting the alignment of a 
 double track curve of 90 degs. would require approximately 12 hrs., 
 a labor cost of $40. 
 
 The stringing of the guys and adjusting the alignment of a double 
 track of 45 degs. would require approximately 10 hrs., a labor cost 
 of $33.20. 
 
 The stringing of the guys, location of 3 frogs and alignment of 
 the 2 curves of a single track wye would require approximately 
 12 hrs., a labor cost of $40. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1613 
 
 The stringing- of the guys, location and 3 frogs and 1 crossover, 
 together with the alignment of the 2 curves of a wye located on a 
 double track would require approximately 12 hrs., a labor cost of 
 $40. 
 
 The stringing of the guys, location of 4 frogs, and a crossover 
 with the adjusting of the alignment of the 3 curves of a double 
 track branchoff from double track with a single track curve forming 
 a wye, would require approximately 12 hrs., a labor cost of $40. 
 
 The stringing of the guys, location of 2 frogs and adjustment of 
 the alignment of the 2 curves of a simple double track branchoff 
 from the double track would require approximately 8 hrs., a labor 
 cost of $26.60. 
 
 The stringing of the guys, the location of 12 frogs and 12 cross- 
 overs, and the extensive adjustments to maintain the alignments of 
 all the curves in a layout comprising a double track crossing at 90 
 degs. with 3 pairs of connecting curves would require approximately 
 32 hrs.. a labor cost of $106.25. 
 
 The stringing of the guys, the location of 8 frogs and 8 cross- 
 overs, and the adjustment of the alignment of the curves of a double 
 track crossing at 90 degs. with 2 pairs of connecting curves located 
 diagonally to each other, would require approximately 16 hrs., a 
 labor cost of $53.20. 
 
 The stringing of the guys, the location of 6 frogs and 3 cross- 
 overs, and the adjustment of the alignment of the curves of a double 
 track with 2 double track curves leading into a double track at 
 90 degs. would require approximately 16 hrs., a labor cost of $53.10. 
 
 In stringing trolley wire it would be economical to add an auto 
 truck with driver, a lineman and 2 helpers to the standard crew, 
 at an additional cost of $19.90 per day, based on the same rates. 
 This would make the total crew cost $46.45 per day. It is estimated 
 that this crew can hang up 1^^ miles of trolley per day, the adjust- 
 ment of alignment on curves and special layouts being covered in 
 the cost of the layouts. This would make the average cost of 
 stringing $31 per mile. 
 
 Overhead Trolley Construction in Chicago. The following data 
 are abstracted from Detailed Exhibits of the Physical Property and 
 Intangible Values of the South Chicago City Railway Co., and the 
 Calumet-Electric Street Railway Co., as of February 1, 1908, ac- 
 companying the Valuation Report by B. J, Arnold and George Wes- 
 ton. 
 
 TABLE XIV. UNIT POLE COSTS 
 
 WOOD POLES, CEDAR 
 
 Length, ft., and diam. top, ^^ ^ 
 
 ins 30-7 35-7 40-8 45-8 50-8 50-8 
 
 Pole ' $5.20 $8.10 $11.45 $15.10 $15.40 $17.60 
 
 Labor 2.80 2.90 3.05 3.25 3.60 4.00 
 
 Tots.! cost 
 
 Heeled 'and breasted 8.75 11.75 15.20 19.10 19.75 22.35 
 
 Set in barrels 9.50 12.00 15.50 19.35 20.00 22.60 
 
 Set in rock 10.00 13.00 16.50 20.35 21.00 23.60 
 
 Set in 1 yd. concrete 11.50 14.50 18.00 21.85 22.50 25.10 
 
 With S. P. brace 9.00 12.50 16.00 19.85 20.50 22.10 
 
1614 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 The scrap value of each of the above was estimated to be $1.00. 
 
 IRON POLES 
 
 Length, ft 25 30 30 30 35 35 
 
 Size, in 4-5-6 4-5-6 5-6-7 6-7-8 5-6-7 6-7-8 
 
 Weight, lb 450 525 1100 1322 1220 1479 
 
 Cost, pole only,* dol 15.75 18.37 38.50 46.27 42.70 51.76 
 
 Cost, set in 1 yd. concrete. 
 
 dol. 22.37 25.18 46.75 55.00 51.25 61.00 
 
 Scrap value, dol 1.69 1.97 4.15 4.95 4.55 5.55 
 
 * Based upon a price of $0,035 per lb. 
 
 WOOD POLE CROSS SPAN CONSTRUCTION 
 
 1 TROLLEY, 1 TRACK 
 
 2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts $0.24 
 
 48 ft. span wire 0.55 
 
 2 wood strain insulators 0.40 
 
 1 Ohio brass, or equal, hanger 0.45 
 
 1 trolley ear, 12-in.* 0.35 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $3.99 
 
 * For 15-in. ears add $0.20 for each ear to prices given. 
 
 1 TROLLEY, 1 TRACK, FEED SPAN 
 
 2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts $0.24 
 
 36 ft. No. 1/0 solid copper wire 1.47 
 
 19 ft. span wire 0.21 
 
 2 wood strain insulators 0.40 
 
 2 trolley ears, feeder 0.70 
 
 1 stud bolt 0.15 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $5.17 
 Scrap value $1.25 
 
 2 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 
 
 The cost of this will be the same as that of 1 trolley, 1 track, 
 plus 1 hanger, $0.45, and 1 ear, $0.35, a total of $4.79. If no wood 
 strains or only one wood strain is used the costs will be $4.39 and 
 $4.59 respectively. If 2 Anderson solid hangers, $0.76, are used 
 instead of O. B. hangers the cost is $4.65, instead of $4.79. 
 
 2 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS, FEED SPAN 
 
 The cost of this is $5.87, being that of 1 trolley, 1 track, feed 
 span, $5.17, plus 2 trolley ears, $0.70. The scrap value is $1.45. 
 Another type is as follows : 
 
 2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts $0.24 
 
 48 ft. span wire 0.55 
 
 51 ft. No. 1/0 solid copper wire 2.65 
 
 2 O. B.. or equal, hangers 0.90 
 
 2 trolley feed ears 0.70 
 
 2 wood strains 0.40 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $7.44 
 Scrap value $1.75 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1615 
 
 4 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 
 
 2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts SO 24 
 
 82 ft. span wire '. ] ' q 92 
 
 3 wood strains ■ 60 
 
 4 O. B., or equal, hangers . . 180 
 
 4 ears, 12-in " 1*40 
 
 Labor '...'.'. 2^00 
 
 $6.96 
 IRON POLE CROSS SPAN CONSTRUCTION 
 
 2 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 
 
 2 pole collars $0.18 
 
 2 globe strain insulators '.\ o!60 
 
 48 ft. span wire 0.55 
 
 2 wood strain insulators \ . 0^40 
 
 2 O. B., or equal, hangers 90 
 
 2 trolley ears, 12-in 0.70 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $5.83 
 
 3 TROLLEYS, 3 TRACKS 
 
 2 pole collars $0.18 
 
 6 globe strains 1^80 
 
 48 ft. span wire ' 0.55 
 
 3 O. B., or equal, hangers 1.35 
 
 3 trolley ears, 12-in 1.05 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $7.43 
 IRON CENTER POLE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 4 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 
 
 1 O. B. bracket for iron poles, type " D " $ 7.92 
 
 4 Anderson solid hangers 1.52 
 
 4 trolley ears, 12-in 1.40 
 
 Labor 4.00 
 
 $14.84 
 
 4 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS, FEED TAP 
 
 In addition to the above the feeder tap has 18 ft. No. 1/0 copper 
 wire R. C, $1.41, and 5 ft. 1 in. loons, $0.50, making a total of 
 $16.75. The scrap value is $1.00. 
 
 Labor Cost of Overhead Trolley Work. The unit costs of re- 
 building a trolley line 7.68 miles long in Washington follows: 
 
 Distributing 401 poles, each $0.70 
 
 Digging 401 holes, each 4.00 
 
 Shaving 25 poles, each 116 
 
 Setting and tamping 401 poles, each 2.70 
 
 Framing 401 poles, each ' 0.70 
 
 Double arming and bracing, 7.68 miles, per mile 55.04 
 
 Guying, 7.68 miles, per mile 21.75 
 
 Distributing material, 7.68 miles, per mile 8.35 
 
 Putting up 95 spans, each 1-25 
 
 Trolley work, 9,5 miles, per mile 91.90 
 
 Putting up 115.000 ft. feeders, per ft 0.0057 
 
 Taking down old trolleys, 9.5 miles, per mile 8.88 
 
1616 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The wag-es of linemen were 30 cts, per hour ; and of helpers, 
 25 cts. per hour. 
 
 The following- actual labor costs are for 4.12 miles of new trolley 
 line work, totaling $3,188 or $775 per mile, including $212 per mi. 
 for trainmen : 
 
 Dig-ging 215 holes, each $ 1.04 
 
 Raising 215 poles, each 1.39 
 
 Framing 215 poles, each 0.93 
 
 Hauling 215 poles, incl. loading and distributing, each 0.60 
 
 Guying and bracing 75 poles, each 3.98 
 
 Stringing 4.12 miles of trolley, incl. building curves, per mile 108.00 
 
 Putting up 180 brackets, each 0.54 
 
 Miscellaneous, 4.12 miles 33.61 
 
 Telephone and telegraph, 12.36 miles of wire, per mile 14.20 
 
 Stringing feeder, 4.12 miles, per mile 63.50 
 
 The cost of setting 57 3 5 -ft. trolley poles, same place, was as 
 follows, per pole : 
 
 Digging holes $1.49 
 
 Raising poles 1.25 
 
 Framing poles '. 0.97 
 
 Hauling poles 0.49 
 
 Miscellaneous labor 0.30 
 
 Total per pole $4.50 
 
 The cost of putting up 48 trolley wire spans was $1.45 each. 
 
 Valuation of Distribution System of the Chicago Consolidated 
 Traction Co. From an article by P. J. Kealy, Engineering and Con- 
 tracting, Oct. 5, 1910. 
 
 The electric power distribution system has been divided into : 
 Overhead Trolley Construction ; Feeder System ; Electrical Track 
 Bonding ; Conduit System. 
 
 The report on the valuation by B. J. Arnold includes a de- 
 tailed estimate of all poles, cross span construction, fittings, 
 trolley wire, feeder wire (positive and negative), feeder attach- 
 ments and supports, track bonding cable, wire, etc., together with 
 special work construction at the curves and in car houses. 
 
 In arriving at the cost new of the poles, wire attachments, and 
 all equipment whatsoever, the actual cost of the material and labor 
 was estimated at the present time (Nov. 1, 1909), and to this was 
 added 15% for organization, engineering, and incidentals. The de- 
 tailed inventory of the entire system was made by inspection, and 
 all quantities, kinds, conditions, and character whatsoever were 
 fully noted in detail, from which the cost has been estimated. 
 
 Overhead Trolleys. — There are 129.623 miles of overhead trolley 
 construction, the valuation of which is summarized as follows : 
 
 Cost new 
 
 Owned by companies $207,339 
 
 Outside interests '. 8,460 
 
 Net total $198,879 
 
 Org., eng. and inc., 15% 29,832 
 
 Grand total $228,711 
 
 Per mile 1,759 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 1617 
 
 The unit costs used in figuring transmission line values are shown 
 by Tables XV. XVI. XVII and XVIII. 
 
 TABLE XV. TROLLEY AND FEEDER COST DATA 
 
 ■^-M 
 
 Kind 
 
 Trolley 
 
 Trolley 
 
 Trolley 
 
 Trolley , 
 
 W. P 
 
 Scrap , 
 
 W. P 
 
 Scrap , 
 
 W. P 
 
 Scrap 
 
 W. P 
 
 Scrap 
 
 W. P 
 
 Bare 
 
 Scrap 
 
 Lead 
 
 Covered .... 
 5/32 Rubber. 
 1/8 Lead . . . 
 
 1/0 
 1/0 
 2/0 
 2/0 
 2/0 
 2/0 
 4/0 
 4/0 
 350 
 350 
 500 
 500 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 
 350 
 
 500 
 
 Size. 
 
 New 
 
 (18/64 scrap) 
 
 New 
 
 (20/64 scrap) 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 M. cir. mils, 
 
 M. cir. mils. 
 
 'O —i 
 
 -MO 
 
 ^t 
 01 CD 
 
 ^a 
 
 319.5 
 239.0 
 402.8 
 296.0 
 522 
 410 
 800 
 653 
 1,345 
 1,076 
 1,894 
 1,540 
 3,674 
 3,100 
 3,100 
 
 3,495 
 
 4,254 
 
 -M u 
 
 ga 
 
 $0,047 
 0.027 
 0.059 
 0.033 
 0.077 
 0.045 
 0.118 
 0.073 
 0.202 
 0.119 
 0.284 
 0.171 
 0.551 
 0.468 
 0.344 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^a 
 
 $0.01 
 
 o'.oi 
 o'.oi 
 o'.oi 
 
 6.015 
 
 o'.6i5 
 o'.64 
 
 0.04 
 
 $0,057 
 
 0.069 
 
 0.087 
 
 0".i28 
 
 6.217 
 
 0.299 
 
 0'.59i 
 0.508 
 
 0.506 0.04 0.546 
 0.63 0.04 0.67 
 
 In arriving at the above prices, quotations of November 1, 1909, 
 were used, namely : 
 
 Bar Copper at mill 0.1325 per lb. 
 
 Solid Wire (either bare or weather 
 
 proof) 0.1460 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 
 
 Stranded Bare Cable 0.1510 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 
 
 Stranded W. P. Cable 0.1485 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 
 
 Scrap Value (Copper Wire and bronze 
 
 parts) 0.11 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 
 
 1% was added for sag. 
 
 TABLE XVI. POLE COSTS : IRON POLES 
 
 Size, 
 
 Length, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Cost 
 pole 
 only 
 
 Set in 
 street 
 
 Set 
 inside 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 lb. 
 
 in con- 
 
 curb in 
 
 
 
 
 crete 
 
 concrete 
 
 4-5-6 
 
 28 
 
 503 
 
 $14.83 
 
 $20.83 
 
 $25.45 
 
 4-5-6 
 
 30 
 
 532 
 
 15.63 
 
 21.63 
 
 26.25 
 
 5-6 
 
 30 
 
 546 
 
 16.02 
 
 22.02 
 
 26.64 
 
 5-6-7 
 
 30 
 
 675 
 
 19.55 
 
 25.55 
 
 30.17 
 
 5-6-7 
 
 311/2 
 
 955 
 
 • 27.25 
 
 33.25 
 
 37.87 
 
 5-6-7 
 
 31 
 
 689 
 
 19.95 
 
 25.95 
 
 30.57 
 
 5-6-7 
 
 33 
 
 731 
 
 21.11 
 
 27.11 
 
 31.73 
 
 4-5-6-7 
 
 33 
 
 722 
 
 20.86 
 
 26.86 
 
 31.48 
 
 5-6-7 
 
 35 
 
 778 
 
 22.27 
 
 28.27 
 
 32.89 
 
 4-5-6-7 
 
 40 
 
 852 
 
 24.40 
 
 30.40 
 
 35.02 
 
 5-6-7-8 
 
 40 
 
 1,052 
 
 29.95 
 
 35.95 
 
 40.57 
 
 5-6-7 
 
 45 
 
 950 
 
 27.15 
 
 33.15 
 
 37.77 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 30 
 
 829 
 
 23.80 
 
 29.80 
 
 34.42 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 31 
 
 876 
 
 25.10 
 
 31.10 
 
 35.72 
 
1618 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Size. 
 
 Length, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Cost 
 pole 
 only 
 
 Set in 
 street 
 
 Set 
 inside 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 lb. 
 
 m con- 
 
 curb in 
 
 
 
 
 crete 
 
 concrete 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 33 
 
 916 
 
 26.30 
 
 32.30 
 
 36.92 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 35 
 
 966 
 
 27.55 
 
 33.55 
 
 38.17 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 40 
 
 1,087 
 
 30.90 
 
 36.90 
 
 41.52 
 
 6-7-8-9 
 
 40 
 
 1,273 
 
 36.00 
 
 42.00 
 
 46.62 
 
 6-7-8 
 
 45 
 
 1,273 
 
 36.00 
 
 42.00 
 
 46.62 
 
 6-7-8-9 
 
 45 
 
 1,428 
 
 40.30 
 
 46.30 
 
 50.92 
 
 6-7-8-9 
 
 50 
 
 1,602 
 
 45.04 
 
 51.04 
 
 55.66 
 
 (Bracket Type complete.) 
 3-4-5-6 30 913 
 
 31.00 
 
 41.62 
 
 TABLrE XVII. POLE COSTS ; WOOD POLES 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Length, 
 ft. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cost of setting 
 
 of top, 
 
 of 
 
 (labor, material, 
 
 in. 
 
 pole 
 
 cartage) 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 $1.00 
 
 $2.80 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.50 
 
 6 Special 
 
 30 
 
 1.95 
 
 3.95 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.05 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 6.10 
 
 4.05 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.05 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 6.10 
 
 4.05 
 
 8 
 
 35 
 
 7.30 
 
 4.20 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 6.13 
 
 4.20 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 7.30 
 
 4.20 
 
 8 Special 
 
 40 
 
 7.30 
 
 4.20 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 7.30 
 
 4.60 
 
 7 
 
 45 
 
 9.00 
 
 4.60 
 
 8 
 
 45 
 
 9.00 
 
 4.60 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 9.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 12.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 12.50 
 
 5.00 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 16.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 Stub 
 
 30 
 
 6.10 
 
 4.05 
 
 Stub 
 
 35 
 
 7.30 
 
 4.20 
 
 Total 
 cost 
 
 $3.80 
 5.50 
 5.90 
 8.50 
 10.15 
 8.50 
 10.15 
 11.50 
 10.33 
 11.50 
 11.50 
 11.90 
 13.60 
 13.60 
 14.00 
 17.00 
 17.50 
 21.00 
 10.15 
 11.50 
 
 TABLE XVIII. UNIT COSTS OP SPAN CONSTRUCTION OP 
 VARIOUS TYPES 
 
 A. Two Trolleys — Span Construction — Two Iron Poles. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.50 
 
 2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 
 
 2 Straight line hangers. W. E. Type A or equal, at $0.40.. 0.80 
 
 2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 
 
 45 Pt. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.36 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $5.86 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.29 
 
 Total $6.15 
 
 B. Two Trolleys — Section Insulators — Span Construction — 
 Two Iron Poles. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $ 0.50 
 
 2 Brooklyns (mediums, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 
 
 2 Section insulators (Phila. type), at $4.50 9.00 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1619 
 
 45 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 , . . 0.36 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $13.56 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.68 
 
 Total $14.24 
 
 C. Two Trolleys — Feeder Span Construction — Two Iron Poles. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt) , at $0.25 $0.50 
 
 2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 
 
 2 Wood strains, 1^4 -in. by 9 1/2 -in., at $0.15 0.30 
 
 2 Solid feed hanger ears, at $0.45 0.90 
 
 30 Ft. 4/0 W. P. wire, at $0,118 3.54 
 
 15 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.12 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $9.06 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% .45 
 
 Total $9.51 
 
 D. Two Trolleys — Span Construction — One Wood and One Iron 
 
 Pole. 
 
 Total 
 
 1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.25 
 
 1 Brooklyn (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 0.60 
 
 1 Steel eyebolt, 12-in., at $0.05 0.05 
 
 2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40. . . . 0.80 
 2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 
 
 40 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.32 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $5.02 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% .25 
 
 Total $5.27 
 
 E. Two Trolleys — Section Insulators — Span Construction — One 
 
 Wood and One Iron Pole. 
 
 Total 
 
 1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $ 0.25 
 
 1 Brooklyn (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 0.60 
 
 1 Insulated eyebolt, at $0.16 0.16 
 
 1 Wood strain, 1^4 -in. by 91/,-in., at $0.15 0.15 
 
 2 Section insulators (Phila. Type), at $4.50 9.00 
 
 35 Ft. 4/0 W. P. wire, at $0,118 4.13 
 
 12 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.10 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $16.89 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% .84 
 
 Total $17.73 
 
 F. Two Trolleys — Feeder Span Construction — One Wood and 
 
 One Iron Pole. 
 
 Total 
 
 1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.25 
 
 2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 
 
 2 Wood strains, 1 14 -in., 9 Vz -in., at $0.15 0.30 
 
 1 Insulated eyebolt, at $0.16 0.16 
 
 2 Solid feed hanger ears, at $0.45 0.90 
 
 30 Ft. 4/0 W. P. wire, at $0,118 3.54 
 
1620 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 12 Ft. 5/16-m. span wire, at $0.008 0.10 
 
 Labor 2,50 
 
 $8.95 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.45 
 
 Total $9.40 
 
 G. Two Trolleys — Span Construction — Two Wood Poles. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Insulated eyebolts, at $0.16 $0.32 
 
 2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 0.80 
 
 2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 
 
 30 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.24 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $4.36 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.22 
 
 Total ' $4.58 
 
 H. Two Trolleys Feeder Span Construction — Two Wood Poles. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Insulated eyebolts at $0.16 $0.32 
 
 1 Globe strain, 2i^-in. at $0.25 0.25 
 
 1 Wood strain, li/4-in. by 91/2-in., at $0.15 0.15 
 
 2 Solid feed hanger ears, at $0.45 0.90 
 
 30 Ft. 2/0 W. P. wire, at $0.77 2.31 
 
 20 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.16 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $6.59 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.33 
 
 Total $6.92 
 
 I. Two Trolley — Section Insulators — Span Construction — Two 
 
 Poles. 
 
 Total 
 2 Insulated eyebolts at $0.16 $ 0.32 
 
 1 Wood strain, li^ by 9i^-in., at $0.15 0.15 
 
 2 Section insulators (Phila. type), at $4.50 9.00 
 
 45 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.36 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $12.33 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.62 
 
 Total $12.95 
 
 K. One Trolley — Span Construction — Two Iron Poles. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.50 
 
 2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 
 
 1 Straight line hanger, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40. . . . 0.40 
 
 1 Ear, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.25 
 
 40 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.32 
 
 Labor , 2.00 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $4.67 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.23 
 
 Total $4.90 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1621 
 
 N. One Trolley — Span Construction — One Iron and One Wood 
 
 Pole. 
 
 1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $ 0.25 
 
 1 Brooklyn (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 o!60 
 
 1 Insulated eyebolt at $0.16 16 
 
 1 Wood strain, 1 % in. by 9 Va in., at $0.15 ! o!l5 
 
 1 Straight line hanger, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 . . . 0.40 
 
 1 Ear, 12 in. clinch, at $0.25 25 
 
 40 Ft. ^Vie in. span wire, at $0,008 0.32 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $4.13 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.21 
 
 Total $4.34 
 
 O. One Trolley — Span Construction — Two Wood Poles. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Insulated eyebolts, at $0.16 $0.32 
 
 1 Straight line hanger, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 0.40 
 
 1 Ear, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.25 
 
 1 Wood strain, 1^4 -in. by 9i^-in., at $0.15 0.15 
 
 40 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.32 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 $3.44 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% \ 0.17 
 
 Total $3.61 
 
 P. Two Trolleys — Center Pole Construction — One Iron Bracket 
 
 Pole. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 $0.80 
 
 2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $3.80 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.19 
 
 Total $3.99 
 
 Q. Two Trolleys — Section Insulation — Center Pole Construction 
 — One Iron Bracket Pole. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Section insulators (Phila. type), at $4.50 $ 9.00 
 
 2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 $12.70 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.64 
 
 Total $13.34 
 
 R. Two Trolleys — Feeder Tap — Center Pole Construction — One 
 Iron Bracket Pole. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal at $0.40 $ 0.80 
 
 2 Ears, 12 in. feed tap (cast lug), at $0.30 0.60 
 
 20 Ft. 4/0 w. p. wire, at $0.18 2.36 
 
 Labor 2.50 
 
 % 6.26 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.31 
 
 Total $ 6.57 
 
1622 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 S. Two Trolleys — Under Elevated Structure, 
 
 Total 
 2 Guide troughs, 30 in. by 12 in. by 3 in. wood, at $1.50 ... $ 3.00 
 
 2 Barn hangers, at $0.40 0.80 
 
 2 Ears, 12 in. clinch, at $0.25 0,50 
 
 Labor 1.50 
 
 % 5.80 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.29 
 
 Total $ 6.09 
 
 T. Two Trolleys — Under Elevated Structure. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Guide troughs, 30 In. by 12 in. by 3 in. wood, at $1.50 ... $ 3.00 
 
 2 Barn hangers, at $0.40 0.80 
 
 2 Ears, 12 in. feed tap (cast lug), at $0.30 0.60 
 
 12 ft. 2/0 w. p. wire, at $0.077 0.93 
 
 Labor 1.50 
 
 % 6.83 
 Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.34 
 
 Total $ 7.17 
 
 In appraising the transmission line the construction was separated 
 into the following types of spans : 
 
 A, Two trolleys — span construction — two iron poles, 
 
 B, Two trolleys — section insulators — span construction — two 
 
 iron poles. 
 
 C, Two trolleys — feeder span construction — two iron poles. 
 
 D, Two trolleys — span construction — one iron and one wood 
 
 pole. 
 
 E, Two trolleyg — section insulators — span construction — 'One 
 
 iron and one wood pole. 
 P. Two trolleys — feeder span construction — one iron and one 
 
 wood pole. 
 G. Two trolleys — span construction — two wood poles. 
 H. Two trolleys — feeder span construction — two wood poles. 
 1. Two trolleys — section insulators — span construction — two 
 
 wood poles. 
 K. One trolley — span construction — two iron poles. 
 N. One trolley — span construction — one iron and one wood pole. 
 O. One trolley — span construction — two wood poles. 
 P. One trolley — center pole construction — one iron bracket pole. 
 Q. One trolley — section insulators — center pole construction — 
 
 one iron bracket pole. 
 R. One trolley — feeder tap — center pole construction — one iron 
 
 bracket pole. 
 S. Two trolleys — under elevator structure. 
 T. Two trolleys — feeder tap — under elevated structure. 
 
 In inventorying the line these general types of span were esti- 
 mated and also every variation of type. For example, an estimate 
 was made of general type A and of 24 variations of this type. 
 Usually these variations are in minor details and change the cost 
 per span only a fraction, so that we give here only the itemized costs 
 of the general types as in Table XVIII, 
 
 In estimating the wearing life of trolley wire, 1/0 was assumed 
 to have a wearing value of SOi/o lbs. per 1,000 ft. and 2/0 of 106.8 
 lbs. In a few instances the trolley wire was found to have reached 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1623 
 
 the estimated wearing value,' and to be in need of removal, but 
 still in service. The report, therefore, indicates it as having " ex- 
 cessive wearing value." 
 
 Feeder System. — On account of the absence of data on the year 
 of installation or renewals of feeders, and on the interchange of 
 wire from and to the various sections, each section was inspected 
 to determine the present worth. A summary of the valuation of 
 the feeder system is given in Table XX. 
 
 Bonding. — In estimating the cost of electrical track bonding, the 
 various types of track and special work were inspected, and the 
 quantity, size, and kind of wire, etc., used were noted in detail, and 
 in depreciating the life of 20 years was taken. Table XXI gives 
 the amounts and values for electrical track bonding. 
 
 Conduit Line. — The small amount of conduit line was estimated 
 as follows : 
 
 Material Cost new 
 
 7,912 ft. of 6-duct conduit and 18 manholes $ 9,494.40 
 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,424.16 
 
 $10,918.56 
 
 TABLE — FEEDER SYSTEM 
 
 Material Cost new 
 
 Feeder, copper, 1,745,559 feet (330.586 miles) $367,942.83 
 
 Feeder, labor, 330.586 miles ($72.01 average per mile) . . 23,807.04 
 
 Feeder, equipment, part 1 50,599.92 
 
 Feeder, equipment, part 2 6,506.27 
 
 Feeder, equipment, part 3 4,881.44 
 
 Feeder, equipment, part 4 18,715.10 
 
 Feeder, equipment, part 5 75.31 
 
 Feeder, equipment, part 6 395.22 
 
 Feeder, equipment, part 7 614.78 
 
 Feeder, equipment (C. & P.) 1,863.73 
 
 $475,401.64 
 Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 71,310.25 
 
 $546,711.89 
 Storeroom stock. Center and Racine Aves 2,149.69 
 
 Total $548,861.58 
 
 Weight of Materials for Span Wires. Data, January, 1914. The 
 following materials usually make up the span on double track 
 construction. 
 
 4 — strain insulators. 
 2 — straight line hangers. 
 2 — trolley ears. 
 — seven-trand galvanized iron wire. 
 
 Straight-line hangers ■ 3.25 lb. each 
 
 Ears 0.8 lb. each 
 
 ^4 -in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.125 lb. per ft. 
 
 yi6-in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.21 lb. per ft. 
 
 %-in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.295 lb. per ft. 
 
 7/i6-in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.415 lb. per ft. 
 
 4/0 trolley wire per ft 0.6393 lb. 
 
1624 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 3/0 trolley wire per ft 0.5073 lb. 
 
 2/0 trolley wire per ft - 0.4024 lb. 
 
 1/0 trolley wire per ft 0.3194 lb. 
 
 Strain insulators 2.25 lb. each 
 
 Unit Costs of Overhead Construction. The following are esti- 
 mated costs of trolley line work on the Pacific Coast prior to the 
 war. 
 
 Plain Insulated Span Wires. 
 
 Hauling and distributing: Two helpers at $0.30 per hr., with a 
 team and teamster at $0.75 per hr. can cut and distribute 24 span 
 wires per hr., at a cost of $0,044 per span wire. Use $0.05. 
 
 Making Up: One lineman at $0.50 per hr., using a helper at 
 $0.30 per hr. one-half of the time, can make up one span, with one 
 eyebolt and two strain insulators, four spans in one hr., at a cost 
 of $0.16 per span. 
 
 Placing: One lineman at $0.50 per hr., using a helper at $0.30 
 per hr. half the time can bore the holes and place wire in 30 mins., 
 at a cost of $0.32 per span. 
 
 Foreman's time: Allow 10% of the above labor cost for foreman's 
 time, amounting to $0.03 per span. 
 
 Material : 
 
 45 ft. of -yie in. galvanized strand at $0.99 per C $0.45 
 
 2 % in. by 14 in. eye bolts, at $0.08 . 0.16 
 
 2 wood strain insulators, at $0.23 0.46 
 
 Total material $1.07 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Hauling and distributing 0.05 
 
 Making up 0.16 
 
 Placing 0.32 
 
 Foreman 0.03 
 
 Total labor $0.56 
 
 Total material and labor $1.63 
 
 Straight Line Hangers: 
 
 Labor Placing: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., and a team and 
 
 teamster at $0.75 per hr., can place 6 straight line hangers, with 
 
 ears, and line up the trolley in one hour. 
 
 Labor per hanger $0.29 
 
 Foreman's time 10% of above 0.03 
 
 Total labor $ 0.32 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 straight line hanger 0.45 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 Total material $0.70 
 
 Total material and labor $1.02 
 
 Single Pull Hangers on Standard Curves: 
 
 Labor placing: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., one helper at $0.30 
 per hr., and a team with teamster at $0.75 per hr. can make strand 
 into ring, place hanger and ear and line up trolley at rate of 2 per hr. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1625 
 
 Cost per hang-er $1.02 
 
 Foreman's time 10% of above 0.10 
 
 Total labor $1.12 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 single pull hanger 0.45 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 30 ft. Vi in. galvanized strand at $0.66 per C. ft 0.20 
 
 0.6 wood strainer insulator, at $0.23 0.14 
 
 1 2 in. galvanized ring 0.08 
 
 Total material $1.12 
 
 Total material and labor . $2.24 
 
 Single Pull Hangers on Old Curves: 
 
 Labor placing : Same crew as above will place hanger and ear 
 and line up trolley at rate of 3 per hr. 
 
 Labor per hanger $0.70 
 
 Foreman's time. 10% of above 0.07 
 
 Total labor $0.77 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 single pull hanger 0.45 
 
 0.6 wood strain insulator at $0.23 0.18 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 20 ft. 14 in. galvanized strand at $0.66 per C. ft 0.13 
 
 Total material $1.01 
 
 Total material and labor $1,78 
 
 Double Pull Hangers on New Curves: 
 
 Labor placing : Same crew as above will place hanger and ear, 
 
 make strand into ring and line up the trolley at the rate of 1 14 
 
 per hour. 
 
 Labor per hanger $1.37 
 
 Foreman's time, 10% of above 0.13 
 
 Total labor $1.50 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 double pull hanger 0.51 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 1 wood strain insulator 0.23 
 
 35 ft. 14 in. galvanized strand, at $0.66 per C 0.23 
 
 1 2 in. galvanized iron ring 0.08 
 
 Total material $1.30 
 
 Total material and labor $2.80 
 
 Double Pull Hangers on Old Curves: 
 
 Labor placing : Same crew as above will place hanger and ear 
 
 and line up the trolley at the rate of 2 per hr. 
 
 Labor per hanger $1.02 
 
 Foreman's time, 10% of above 0.10 
 
 Total labor $1.12 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 double pull hanger 0.51 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
1626 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1 wood strain insulator $0.23 
 
 25 ft. of % in, galvanized strand, at $0.66 per C 0.17 
 
 Total material $1.16 
 
 Total material and labor $2.28 
 
 Bridge Hangers: 
 
 Labor placing: One lineman at $0.50 per hour and one helper at 
 
 $0.30 per hour can place hanger and ear and hang up trolley at rate 
 
 of 5 per hr. 
 
 Labor per hanger $0.16 
 
 Foreman's time, 10% 0.02 
 
 Total labor 0.18 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 bridge hanger 0,42 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 Total material $0.67 
 
 Total material and labor $0.85 
 
 Double Pull Hangers in Spans: 
 
 Labor placing: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., with a tower wagon 
 
 and driver at $0.75 per hr.. can set a double pull hanger and ear in a 
 
 straight span and line trolley in 20 mins. 
 
 Labor per hanger $0,58 
 
 Foreman's time, 10% of above 0,06 
 
 Total labor $0.64 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 double pull hanger 0.51 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 Total material . . $0.76 
 
 Total material and labor $1.40 
 
 Trolley Circuit Breakers: 
 
 Labor placing: The same gang under same conditions will place 
 circuit breaker in 30 mins,, at a cost of $1.13 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 trolley circuit breaker $3.50 
 
 Total material and labor $4.63 
 
 Trolley Strain Guys: 
 
 All guys for holding switch-pans, curves, and trolley, etc, in 
 place are designated as " Strain Guys," 
 
 Labor placing : The same gang as above under same conditions 
 will make up and place a strain guy in 20 mins. 
 
 Labor per guy $0.71 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 wood strain insulator 0.23 
 
 60 ft. 5/i6 in. galvanized strand, at $0.99 per C 0.59 
 
 Total material $0.82 
 
 Total material and labor $1.53 
 
 Trolley Strain Plates: 
 
 Labor Placing: % 
 
 1 lineman at $0.50 per hr $0.50. 
 
 1 helper at $0.30 per hr 0.30 
 
 can place 2 strain plates per hr. for $0.80 
 
 averaging, each 0.40 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1627 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 strain plate . .". 0.45 
 
 Total material and labor $0.85 
 
 Crossings, Live: 
 
 Labor placing-: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., a helper at 
 $0.30 per hr. with a team and teamster at $0.75 per 
 hr. will place crossing- while lining trolley in 30 mins., 
 at a cost of $1.03 
 
 Foreman's time. 10% of above 0.10 
 
 Total labor $1.13 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 live trolley crossing 3.25 
 
 Total material and labor $4.38 
 
 Crossings, Insulated, Adjustable: 
 
 Labor placing: The same gang- working under same condi- 
 tions will place crossing in 1 hr., at a cost of $2.26 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 adjustable insulated crossing 4.05 
 
 Total material and labor $6.31 
 
 Switch Pans: 
 
 Labor placing: : The same gang working under same condi- 
 tions will place switch pan in 30 mins., at a cost of .... $1.13 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 trolley switch pan 2.10 
 
 Total material and labor $3.23 
 
 Trolley Section Switches: 
 
 Labor : 
 
 1 lineman II/2 hrs., at $0.50 $0.75 
 
 1 helper li/^ hrs., at $0.30 0.45 
 
 $1.20 
 Foreman's time, 10% 0.12 
 
 Total labor $1.32 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 200-amp. 600-volt switch and box $6.50 
 
 25 ft. 2/0 w. p. wire at $0.0779 1.95 
 
 6 insulators at $0.17 1.02 
 
 6 standard pins at $0.02 0.12 
 
 1/2 lb. solder at $0.20 0.10 
 
 Miscellaneous material 0.10 
 
 Total material o.^^'^^ 
 
 Total material and labor $11.11 
 
 Cost of Signal Apparatus. 
 
 Stringing Block Wire: The cost of labor and material per loop 
 mile of #10 w. p. iron wire is $83.75. Placing Block Lights and 
 connecting : 
 
 1 lineman, 2 hrs., at $0.50 $1-00 
 
 2 helpers, 2 hrs., at $0.30 1-20 
 
 Total, 2 hrs $2.20 
 
1628 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 In 2 hrs. this gang place and connect two block lights, an average 
 of $1.10 each. This allows for time used in moving from one end 
 of block to the other. 
 
 Hauling: Block lights are placed after the system is in operation. 
 On the basis of $0.30 per car mile a lineman and helper can dis- 
 tribute 30 block lights per day. The car travels 40 miles in a day. 
 
 40 miles at $0.30 $12.00 
 
 1 lineman 4.00 
 
 1 helper 2.40 
 
 Total for 30 block lights $18.40 
 
 The aiverage per block is $0,61. 
 Summary: 
 
 1 set block lights $230.00 i 
 
 120 ft. w. p. iron wire, at $0.006 0.72 
 
 2 %-in. machine bolts at $0.05 0.10 
 
 4 %-in. round washers 0.01 
 
 12 porcelain knobs at $0.01 0.12 
 
 4 locust pins at $0.02 0.08 
 
 2 2-pin cross arms at $0.35 0.70 
 
 10 ft. wood moulding at $0.02 0.20 
 
 4 standard glass insulators at $0.04 0.16 
 
 Total material $232.09 
 
 Labor placing and connecting $ 1.10 
 
 Hauling 0.61 
 
 Labor on switch 2.00 
 
 Total materials and labor $235.15 
 
 Hand Operated Semaphores: 
 
 The approximate cost of labor and material is $10. 
 Placing overhead switches: 
 
 1 lineman, 8 hrs., at $0.50 $ 4.00 
 
 1 helper, 8 hrs., at $0.30 2.40 
 
 12 car miles at $0.30 3.60 
 
 Total per day $10.00 
 
 This gang can place 5 overhead switches, an average of $2.00 
 each. This includes time of moving from one end of block to the 
 other. 
 
 Srimmary: 
 
 1 switch $12.50 
 
 80 ft. #10 w. p. iron wire at $0.006 0.48 
 
 4 std. glass insulators at $0.04 0.16 
 
 4 locust pins at $0.02 0.08 
 
 Labor 2.00 
 
 Total material and labor . $15.22 
 
 Overhead Signal Switches: 
 
 Labor Placing: Signal switches are placed after the switches are 
 in operation and a line car is used in distributing material. Car 
 mileage is figured at $0.30 per mile and the crew will cover about 
 5 miles per day. 
 
 1 This price is for light only. A light and disc semaphore cbst^ 
 3,bout $25 more. 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1629 
 
 1 foreman, 8 hrs., at $0.56 . , .<.»...< $ 4 48 
 
 2 linemen, 8 hrs., at $0.50 8 00 
 
 2 helpers, 8 hrs., at $0.30 4.80 
 
 5 car miles, $0.30 1.50 
 
 Total labor for 10 switches $18.78 
 
 Labor per switch $ 1.88 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 switch ' $ 2.50 
 
 60 ft. 5/i6-in. gal. strand, at $0.99 per C 0.59 
 
 2 %-in. by 14-in. eye bolts, at $0.08 0.16 
 
 2 insulators, at $0.23 0.46 
 
 1 feeder type tap ear 0.25 
 
 40 ft. 2 pr. #6 standard r. c. copper, at $0.07 2.80 
 
 Solder, tap and misc. material 0.25 
 
 Total material $ 7.01 
 
 Total material and labor $ 8.89 
 
 Cost Knife Switch: 
 
 1 600 volt, 600 ampere knife switch $10.50 
 
 25 ft. 300 M. cir. mils, cable, at $0.176 4.40 
 
 6 insulators, at $0.17 1.02 
 
 6 pins, at $0.02 0.12 
 
 1/2 lb. solder at $0.20 0.10 
 
 Switch box 1.50 
 
 Misc. material 0.10 
 
 Total material $17.74 
 
 1 lineman, 1 1/2 hrs., at $0.50 0.75 
 
 1 helper, " " " 0.30 0.45 
 
 Foreman's time, 10% 0.12 
 
 Total material and labor $19.06 
 
 Overhead signs. These will be placed after the system is in 
 operation. On the basis of $0.30 per car-mile one motorman and 
 one lineman can place 65 signs in two days, covering about 75 mis. 
 It will take about 10 hrs. of this time running the car, but this is 
 included in the $0.30 for car mileage. The remaining 6 hrs. are 
 used in placing the 65 signs, 
 
 75 mi. at $0.30 $22.50 
 
 1 lineman 6 hrs. at $0.50 3.00 
 
 1 motorman, " " 0.30 1.80 
 
 Total for 65 signs, at $0.42 $27.30 
 
 The signs cost about $0.50, hence the total cost is $0.92 in place. 
 
 Cluster Lights: 
 1 lineman at $4.00 and one helper at $2.40 can install 4 
 
 clusters per 8 hr. day, averaging $1.60 
 
 1 bracket and reflector 3.00 
 
 5 16-cp. 120-volt lamps, at $0.15 0.75 
 
 1 3-ampere 600-volt switch and fuse block 0.4^ 
 
 10 ft. wood moulding, at $0.02 0.20 
 
 2 lag screws, at $0.017 0.03 
 
 10 ft. #10 w. p. iron wire, at $0,006 0.06 
 
 1 glass insulator 0.04 
 
 Total material and labor $6.11 
 
1630 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Feeder Taps on Single Track: 
 
 Labor placing: The same gang- as for overhead signal 
 switches will make up, place on poles and tap to trolley 
 and feeder in 1 hr., at a cost of $2.26 
 
 Material : 
 
 15 ft. of %6-in. galvanized strand, at $0.99 per C 0.15 
 
 35 ft. 2/0 double braid w. p. copper, at $16.40 per C 4.11 
 
 2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts, at $0.08 0.16 
 
 2 wood strain insulators, at $0.23 0.46 
 
 1 feeder tap hanger and bolt 0.30 
 
 1 suspension bar 0.25 
 
 Tape, solder, paste, etc 0.05 
 
 Total material $5.48 
 
 Total material and labor $7.74 
 
 Feeder Taps on Double Track: 
 
 Labor placing: Allow 15 mins. additional time over 
 single track for placing extra hanger and ear, 
 making 1% hours, at a cost of $2.75 $2.75 
 
 Material : 
 
 Same as single track $5.48 plus 
 
 1 feeder tap hanger and bolt 0.30 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 Total material $6.03 
 
 Total material and labor $8.78 
 
 Feeder Taps on Mast Arm. Construction: 
 
 Labor Placing : This gang can make up and place and tap to 
 feeder and trolley in 1 hr. 
 
 1 lineman, 1 hr., at $0.50 $0.50 
 
 1 helper, 1 hr., at $0.30 0.30 
 
 $0.80 
 Add 10% for foreman's wages 0.08 
 
 Total labor $0.88 
 
 Material : 
 
 15 ft. 2/0 w. b. w. p. copper $1.14 
 
 1 feeder tap hanger and bolt 0.30 
 
 1 suspension ear 0.25 
 
 Tape, solder, paste, etc 0.05 
 
 Total material $1.74 
 
 Total material and labor . $2.62 
 
 Mast Ar^ns: 
 
 Labor Placing: Allow for distributing $0.10 per mast arm. One 
 lineman at $0.50 and a helper at $0.30 per hr. will place mast arm 
 ready for hanger in 30 mins. at a cost of $0.40. 
 
 Total labor $0.50 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 mast arm ^«-19 
 
 2 i/a-in. by 3y2-in. lag screws, at $0,013 0.03 
 
 8 ft. of % in. galvanized strand, at $0.66 per C 0.05 
 
 1 %-in. by 14-in. eye bolt 0.08 
 
 Total material f o"a^ 
 
 Total material and labor $3.06 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1631 
 
 Mast Arms — Angle Iron : 
 Labor placing : 
 
 Same as above $050 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 Mast arm 2 50 
 
 Total material and labor "$3^00 
 
 Steady Strain Arms: 
 
 Labor, placing and distributing $0.13 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 strain arm 090 
 
 1 strain ear !!!!!!....!. 0^22 
 
 $1.12 
 
 Total material and labor $1,25 
 
 Messenger Insulators: 
 
 Labor placing $0.03 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 insulator and pin ' 0.57 
 
 Total material and labor $0.60 
 
 Catenary Construction: 
 
 Lgibor : 
 
 Labor per mile $113.20 
 
 Train rental and power 12.00 
 
 Total labor $125.20 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 mile yi6-in. gal. strand, at $0.01 per ft $ 52.80 
 
 1 mile (3,392 lbs.) 4/0 grooved trolley, at $15.90 per lb. 537.74 
 
 352 gal. catenary hangers, at $23 per C 88.00 
 
 Total material $678.54 
 
 Total material and labor $803.74 
 
 Trolley wire 1/0 Round: 
 Labor placing : 
 
 Unloading, per mile $ 0.25 
 
 Hauling to job, per mile 2.00 
 
 Two linemen at $0.50 per hr, and one helper at $0.30 per 
 hr. and two teams and teamsters at $0.75 per hr. can 
 string, pull up and tie to spans, with iron wire, one 
 
 mile of trolley Avire in 8 hrs., at a cost of 22.40 
 
 Foreman's time, 10% of above 2.50 
 
 Total labor $27.15 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 mile of 1/0 round copper trolley 264.49 
 
 Total materials and labor $291.64 
 
 Trolley wire 2/0 Round: 
 Labor placing : 
 
 Same as 1/0, except add $0.50 per mile for hauling. 
 
 Total labor $27.65 
 
1632 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA . 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 mile 2/0 round copper trolley (2,128 lbs.) 330.03 
 
 Total material and labor $357.68 
 
 Feeder, 250 M. dr. mil.j Triple Braid, W. P.: 
 1 team and teamster and 1 helper can haul 1 load for $3.60 
 as there are two reels of 1,600 ft. each per load, the 
 
 cost per mile is $ 5.94 
 
 Stringing-, tying and splicing 59.14 
 
 Total labor per mi $ 65.08 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 mile cu. mil. stranded copper wire (5,343 lbs.), at 
 
 $16.15 per C. lbs $852.72 
 
 47 tie wires, at $0.05 2.35 
 
 47 insulators, at $0.08 3.76 
 
 47 locust pins, at $0.02 0.94 
 
 Miscellaneous material 0.50 
 
 Total material $860.27 
 
 Total material and labor $925.35 
 
 Feeder, 250 M. air. mil. Bare Stranded: 
 
 Crew : 1 team and teamster and 1 helper can haul one load 
 for $3.60. As there are two reels of 1,800 ft. each 
 
 per load, the cost per mile is $ 5.28 
 
 Stringing, tying and splicing 59.14 
 
 Total labor $ 64.42 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 mile cir. mil. stranded copper wire, (4,026 lbs.), at 
 
 $16.15 per C. lbs $650.20 
 
 47 tie wires, at $0.05 2.35 
 
 47 insulators, at $0.08 3.76 
 
 47 locust pins, at $0.02 0.94 
 
 Miscellaneous material 0.50 
 
 Total material $657.75 
 
 Total material and labor $722.17 
 
 Feeder, 350 M. cir. mil. — Bare Stranded: 
 
 Hauling : 
 
 1 team and teamster, 1 day $ 6.00 
 
 1 helper, 1 day 2.40 
 
 21/2 loads per day, at $3.35 $ 8.40 
 
 Add $0.25 for unloading equals $3.60 per load. 
 
 As there are 2 reels of 1.700 ft. each per load, the cost 
 
 per mile is $ 5.60 
 
 Stringing, tying and splicing 55.47 
 
 Total labor $ 61.07 
 
 Material : 
 
 1 mile stranded copper wire (5.636 lbs.), at $16.15 per 
 
 C. lbs $921.45 
 
 47 tie wires, at $0.05 v. 2.35 
 
 47 insulators, at $0.08 3.75 
 
 47 locust pins, at $0.02 0.94 
 
 Miscellaneous material 0.50 
 
 Total material $928.99 
 
 Total material and labor $990.06 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1633 
 
 Grounds^ 500 ilf. Cir. Mils.: 
 
 Material : 
 
 75 ft. of wire, at $0.28 $21 00 
 
 35 ft. of 2-in. iron pipe, at $0,108 '.\\ a'go 
 
 Miscellaneous material 2.OQ 
 
 Total material $26.80 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Dig-ging- and refilling trench $ 2.50 
 
 Placing iron pipe 0.20 
 
 Splicing (1 splice) \ 0.25 
 
 Bending (6 contacts) 0.50 
 
 $ 4.20 
 Foreman, 10% 0.40 
 
 Total labor $ 4. 60 
 
 2.75 sq. yds. asphalt pavement, at $3.80 10.45 
 
 Total material and labor $41.85 
 
 Unit cost per ft 0.56 
 
 Grounds, 4/0 and 1/0 : 
 
 Material: 4/0 1/0 
 
 55 ft. of wire $6.45 $3.55 
 
 Miscellaneous material 0.35 0.25 
 
 Total material $6.80 $3.80 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Digging and refilling $1.75 $1.75 
 
 Placing wire 0.25 0.25 
 
 Splicing (1 splice) 0.20 0.20 
 
 Bending (1 contact) 0.15 0.15 
 
 $2.35 $2.35 
 
 Foreman, 10% 0.25 0.25 
 
 Total labor $2.60 $2.60 
 
 Total material and labor $9.40 $6.40 
 
 Track Bonding on an Interurban. The following was the cost 
 of bonding an interurban road. The work consisted of removing 
 the continuous rail joints on 60 and 70 lb. rails and Weber joints 
 on other main line rails and angle bars on sidings, chipping rails 
 with cold chisels where bonds were soldered, and putting on one 
 250,000 cir. mils, or one 4/0 Chase Shawmut soldered bond at each 
 joint, and replacing rail joint. 
 
 New track bonded 12.792 miles with 2,058 (250,000 cir. mils.) bonds 
 Old " " 10.513 " " 3,430 (mostly 4/0) 
 
 Total " " 23.305 " " 5,488 
 
 Cost of 5.488 Bonds: 
 
 Labor : 
 
 287 hr., foreman, blacksmith, time-keeper, etc., at 
 
 $0.41 $ 118.34 
 
 Miscellaneous labor other than construction crew 84.00 
 
 4,696 hr. labor on new line at $0,268 1,231.99 
 
 7,105 hr. labor on old line at $0.305 2,169.70 
 
 Total labor $3,604.03 
 
1634 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Material : 
 
 2,940 bonds 250.000 cir. mils, at $0.50 $1,470.00 
 
 2,548 bonds 4/0 cir. mils, at $0,495 1,258.72 
 
 $2,728.72 
 
 Cable for cross bonds 85.18 
 
 Tools 137.00 
 
 Solder, 858 lb. at 23 ct 197.52 
 
 Zinc, 150 lb. at 12 ct 17.82 
 
 Gasolene, 840 gal. at 23 1^ ct 197.50 
 
 Muriatic acid (42 g-al. at 69 ct. and 234 lb. at 3.4) .... 39.30 
 
 Cotton rope and sash for wipers 3.90 
 
 Freight and cartage 39.09 
 
 Personal expense account 29.55 
 
 Temporary construction prorated 147.00 
 
 Superintendence not on pay roll 120.00 
 
 Total material $3,742.58 
 
 Total material and labor .. $7,346.61 
 
 This is equivalent to $0.66 for labor and $0.67 for material, or a 
 total of $1.33 per bond. 
 
 Cost of Track Bonds, Street Ry. The following were the costs 
 in a Pacific Coast city in 1906 to 1909. 
 
 Chase Shawmut Bond. 4/0 : 
 
 Cost of bond $0,294 
 
 Material (mis.) 0.030 
 
 Labor ... 0.080 
 
 Total material and labor $0,404 
 
 Stranded Copper Bond, 3/0 : 
 
 Cost of bond, 36 in. long at 18.03 ct. per lb $0,346 
 
 Labor 0.150 
 
 Material (misc.) 0.040 
 
 Total material and labor $0,536 
 
 American Steel and Wire Co. Bond : 
 
 Cost of bond $0,384 
 
 Material (misc.) 0.020 
 
 Labor 0.100 
 
 Total material and labor $0,504 
 
 The detail cost of 120 B. B. bonds was as follows: 
 Material : 
 
 120 B. B. bonds at $0.50 $60.00 
 
 26 lb. solder at $0.19 4.94 
 
 15 gal. gasoline at $0.15 2.25 
 
 11^ gal. acid at $0.80 1.20 
 
 4 10-in. files at $0.12 0.48 
 
 1 White's blast 5.10 
 
 40 lb. 4/0 solid copper at $0.04 1/4 1.70 
 
 Total 120 bonds at $0.63 $75.67 
 
 The labor averaged $0.30 per bond, making a total of $0.93 per 
 bond for material and labor. 
 
 Cost of Bonding, Chicago. The following costs are taken from 
 tables in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 5, 1910, and were used 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 1635 
 
 in making the valuation of the properties of the Chicago Consoli- 
 dated Traction Co., by B. J. Arnold and G. W. Weston. 
 
 2-joint bonds made of 2/0 stranded copper, 3 ft. long, cost $0.25 
 for labor, $1.10 for material, a total of $1.35 each. A scrap value 
 of $0.14 was assigned to these. 
 
 Cross bonds, of 2/0 stranded copper, 23 ft. long, cost $0.80 each 
 for labor and $1.40 for material, total of $2.20. To these was 
 given a scrap value of $1.04. 
 
 Ground returns, 500 M cir. mils, stranded copper, length 2,640 ft., 
 were given a labor cost of $17.50; material, $613.80; total, $631.30; 
 and a scrap value of $447.15. 
 
 Ground returns, 1000 M cir. mils, stranded copper, length, 135 
 ft., cost $8.00 for labor; $63.20 for materials, a total of $71.20. 
 Scrap value, $46.00. 
 
 Cost of Bonding. The following were the costs of jobs done on a 
 railway in Washington in 1910. Wages were 30 cts. per hr. 
 
 TABLE XIX. COST OF BONDING 
 
 No. of 
 bonds 
 
 Kind of bonds 
 
 ' 
 
 —Unit 
 Misc. 
 
 cost 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Bond 
 
 mat'l. 
 
 Labor 
 
 Total 
 
 190 
 
 Old 500 M.C.M. 
 cable, 62 lb. at $0.20 
 
 $0,065 
 
 $0.$38 
 
 $0,145 
 
 $0,248 
 
 120 
 
 8-in. 
 
 0.230 
 
 0.032 
 
 0.086 
 
 0.348 
 
 5 
 
 B.B. 
 
 0.490 
 
 0.052 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.692 
 
 10 
 
 Home made 
 
 0.097 
 
 0.053 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.300 
 
 61 
 160 
 
 Home made 
 
 0.290 
 
 
 
 
 B.B. 
 
 0.490 
 
 0.031 
 
 0.175 
 
 0.688 
 
 4 
 
 Home made (3.5 lb. at $0.15) 
 
 0.525 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 B. B. 
 
 0.490 
 
 0.134 
 
 0.204 
 
 0.831 
 
 300 
 
 Sin. 
 Home made 
 
 0.220 
 
 0.023 
 
 0.184 
 
 0.427 
 
 30 
 
 2/0 cable (1.8 lb. at $0.16i/4) 
 
 0.292 
 
 0.059 
 
 0.210 
 
 0.561 
 
 142 
 
 B.B. 
 
 0.490 
 
 0.072 
 
 0.164 
 
 0.726 
 
 26 
 
 Sin. 
 
 0.220 
 
 0.047 
 
 0.096 
 
 0.363 
 
 70 
 
 B. B. 4/0 
 
 0.400 
 
 0.029 
 
 0.136 
 
 0.565 
 
 32 
 
 Home made small cable 
 
 0.162 
 
 0.045 
 
 0.0S2 
 
 0.289 
 
 272 
 
 Sin. 
 
 0.220 
 
 0.032 
 
 0.106 
 
 0.358 
 
 150 
 
 Channel pin 
 
 0.275 
 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.325 
 
 Cross Bojids. The following costs are the averages from job 
 records : 
 
 Single track : length 5 ft. 
 
 51/4 lb. M.C.M. cable at $0.18 $1.00 
 
 Material, solder, gasoline, solder, etc 0.50 
 
 Labor 0.50 
 
 Double track, 12-ft. centers; length 21 ft. 
 
 4/0 
 
 35 lb. cable at $0.18 
 
 22 " " " " 
 
 15 " " " " '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. $2'.76 
 
 Misc. material 0.75 
 
 Labor 1.00 
 
 $4.45 
 
 $2.00 
 
 300 M.C.M. 500 M.C.M. 
 $6.30 
 $3.95 
 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 
 $5.95 
 
 1.50 
 1.25 
 
 $9.05 
 
1636 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XX. COST OF BONDING SWITCHES AND FROGS 
 
 Am't. and kind of Bonding Misc. 
 
 Bonding mat'l. used mat'l. mat'l. Labor Total 
 29 lb. 300 M.C.M. W. P. cable at 
 
 $0.16% per lb $4.71 $2.33 $1.25 $8.29 
 
 42 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable 6.83 2.44 3.30 12.57 
 
 72 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 20.88 4.35 3.00 28.23 
 
 145 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 21.02 4.26 3.00 28.28 
 
 65 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 1 
 
 71/2 lb. 4/0 bare cable at $0.15 | 19.97 4.48 4.00 28.45 
 
 13 lb. 4/0 bare cable at $0.15 1 
 
 21 lb. 300 M.C.M. bare cable at $0.15. ] 2.80 1.27 3.01 7.08 
 
 172 lb. 300 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 12.47 3.70 4.75 20.92 
 36 lb. 4/0 bare cable at $0.15. 
 
 14 1b. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at }- 3.83 2.53 3.75 10.11 
 0.16% 
 
 ] 
 
 Cost of Bonding. C, D, Wesselhoeft, in Data, June, 1915, gave the 
 following, 
 
 ,. Cost per joint > 
 
 Labor Material Total 
 
 2 — 500,000 cir. mil. bonds soldered to head of 
 
 third rail $0.66 $1.23 $1.89 
 
 2 — 500,000 cir. mil. pin-expanded concealed 
 
 bonds applied to track rail 0.69 2.05 2.74 
 
 2 — 400,000 cir. mil. compressed terminal con- 
 cealed bonds applied to track rail ... 1.90 
 
 2 — 0000 bonds compressed terminal con- 
 cealed bonds applied to track rail 0.50 1.00 1.50 
 
 Railway Cars. The following costs are from the accounting 
 records of a railway company on the Pacific Coast, which was 
 appraised by H. P. Gillette in 1911. The trucks were standard 
 gage, 4 ft. 8% ins. 
 
 PASSENGER CARS 
 
 Exclusive of Electrical Equipment. 
 
 Bodies: Closed single truck type, length 16 ft., over all 24 
 
 ft., width over sills 6 ft., over all 7 ft. by 4% ins. 
 
 Length of each platform 3 ft. 6 ins. Height to trolley 
 
 board 11 ft. 
 Trucks: Single, 7 ft., 6 ins. wheel base, Lobdell C-61 wheels, 
 
 3 3 -in. diam.. 3-in. tread, 1 in. by 1 in. flange, 4 in, axles. 
 Brakes: Brill lever. 
 
 Cost, each car $1,850 
 
 Bodies: Closed single truck type, length 22 ft., over all 31 
 
 ft., each platform 4 ft., width over sills 6 ft. 6 ins., over 
 
 all 7 ft. 8 ins. Height of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 
 
 10 ins. 
 Trucks: Single, 8 ft. 6 ins., wheel base with spoke wheels of 
 
 3 3-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in, by %-in, flange, 4-in. axle. 
 Brakes: Vertical wheel and gear. 
 
 Cost,' each car $2,800 
 
 Bodies: Open, single truck type, length 25 ft., over all 27 
 
 ft. 6 ins., width over sills 6 ft. 2 ins., over all 7 ft. 10 ins. 
 
 Height to trolley board, 11 ft. 
 Trucks: Single, 7 ft. wheel base, spoked wheels, 30-in. diam. 
 
 3-in. tread, flange 1-in. thick, 3%-in, axles. 
 Brakes: Lever. 
 
 Cost, each car $1,600 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1637 
 
 Bodies: Open, single truck, type, length over all 27 ft., 
 
 width over sills 6 ft. 2 ins. over all 7 ft. 10 ins., height to 
 
 trolley board 11 ft. 
 Trucks: Single 6 ft. 10 1/^ Ins., wheel base, spoked wheels, 
 
 33-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 3%-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Old fashioned hand wheel. 
 
 Cost, each car $1,600 
 
 Bodies: Trailer made by railway co. Closed vestibule, single 
 
 truck type, length 21 ft., over all 31 ft. 10 ins. Length of 
 
 each platform 4 ft. 3 ins. Width over sills 6 ft. 1 in., 
 
 over all 7 ft. 7 ins., height to trolley board 10 ft. 10 ins. 
 Trucks: Single. 8 ft. 6-in. wheel base with spoke wheels, 
 
 3 ft. 3-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. 
 
 axles. 
 Brakes: Lever type. 
 
 Cost, each car $1,850 
 
 Bodies: Combination open and closed single truck type, 
 
 length 29 ft., over all 30 ft., each platform 10 ft. width 
 
 over sills, 6 ft. 2 ins., over all 8 ft. 1 1/^ ins. Height 
 
 of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 3 ins. 
 Trucks: Single 8 ft. wheel base with spoke wheels of 33-in. 
 
 diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Vertical hand wheel. 
 
 Cost, each car $2,200 
 
 Bodies: Closed, single truck type, length 21 ft., over all 31 
 
 ft. Length of each platform 4 ft., width over sills, 
 
 6 ft. 5 ins., over all 7 ft. 8 ins. Height to trolley board 
 
 11 ft. 8 ins. 
 Trucks: Single 8 ft. wheel base, with spoke wheels of 33-in. 
 
 diam., 3-in. tread. 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Vertical wheel and gear. 
 
 Cost, each car $2,200 
 
 Bodies: Open double truck type, length over all 44 ft., width 
 
 over sills, 7 ft. 4% ins., over all 9 ft., 6 ins. Height of 
 
 trolley board above rail. 10 ft. 9 ins. 
 Trucks: Double. 4 ft. wheel base, with wheels 33-in. diam., 
 
 3-in. tread, flange 1-in. by 1-in and 4-in. axles. 
 
 Cost, each car $2,350 
 
 Bodies: Closed, double truck type. Length 32 ft., over all 
 
 41 ft. 6 ins., length of each platform 4 ft. 8 ins., width 
 
 over sills. 7 ft. 2 ins., over all 7 ft. 4 ins. Height of trol- 
 ley board above rail 11 ft. 10 ins. 
 Trucks: Double, 4 ft. wheel base with wheels 33-in. diam., 3- 
 
 in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Straight air brakes and hand brakes. 
 
 Cost, each car $3,150 
 
 Bodies: Closed, monitor roof, double truck type. Length 35 
 
 ft., over all 47 ft., length of each platform 5 ft. 6 ins., 
 
 width over sills 8 ft. 3 ins., over all 8 ft. 4% ins. Height 
 
 of trolley board above rail. 12 ft. 
 Trucks: 2 double, 4-ft. wheel base with wheels 33-in. diam., 
 
 %-in. by 1-in. flange, 4% -in. axles. 
 Brakes: Straight air brakes. 
 
 Cost, each car $3,350 
 
 Bodies: Closed double truck type, length 35 ft., over all 47 ft., 
 
 width over sills 8 ft. 2 ins., over all 8 ft. 41/2 ins. Height 
 
 of trolley board 11 ft. 6 ins. 
 Trucks: Double, wheel base 4 ,ft. 6-in. with cast iron spoke 
 
 wheels of 33-in. diam., 3-in. tread, % by %-in. flange, 
 
 4 14 -in. axles. 
 Brakes: AUis-Chalmers. 
 
 Cost, each car $4,020 
 
 EXPRESS CARS 
 
 Bodies: Double truck express, length 41 ft., over all 43 ft. 
 6 ins., width over sills 8 ft. 2 ins., over all 8 ft. 6 ins., 
 height of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 
 
1638 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Trucks: Double 4-ft. wheel base with spoke wheels 33-in. 
 
 diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
 Brakes: National air brakes and hand wheel. 
 
 Cost, each car $1,350 
 
 FLAT CARS 
 
 Bodies: Local make, single truck flat, length over all 16 ft. 
 
 width over all 7 ft. 
 Trucks: Local single pedestal type with 7-ft. wheel base, 
 
 spoke wheels, 30-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by %-in. 
 
 flange, 3 %-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Horizontal hand wheels. 
 
 Cost, each car $ 550 
 
 Bodies: Double truck flat, length 40 ft, over all 43% ft., 
 
 width 7 ft. 10 ins. over all. fitted with pocket couplers. 
 Trucks: Jewett double with Standard (solid) wheels 33-in. 
 
 diam., 414-in. tread, 1 %-in. flange and 4%-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Air brakes, inside wheels, metal brake beams. 
 
 Cost, each car $1,050 
 
 Bodies: N. P. make, flat, length 30 ft., over all 33 ft., 
 
 width over sills 7 ft. 7 ins., over all 8 ft., fitted with 
 
 American pocket couplers. 
 Trucks: Double with staif^ard (solid) wheels 33-in. diam., 
 
 4 %-in. tread, 1%-in. by 1%-in. flange, standard axles. 
 Brakes: Air — outside wheels, wood brake beams. 
 
 Cost, each car $ 700 
 
 Bodies: Local make flat, 33 ft. long, over all 35% ft., width 
 
 over sills 7 % ft., over all 7 ft. 1 in. 
 Trucks: Local make, double, with cast wheels, 2 4-in. diam., 
 
 4-in. tread. 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 3 %-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Hand wheel. 
 
 Cost, each car $ 600 
 
 Bodies: Local make flat. 41 ft. long, over all 43 ft. 5 ins., 
 
 width over sills, 8 ft., over all 9 ft., pocket couplers. 
 Trucks: Double, with cast wheels 33-in. diam., 4%-in. tread, 
 
 1%-in. by 1%-in. flange, 5-in. axles. 
 Brakes: Air and wheel hand brakes. 
 
 Cost, each car $ 700 
 
 LINE CARS 
 
 Bodies : Local made, single truck box car with rising platform, 
 length over all 22 ft., width over all 8 ft. 4 ins., height 
 of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 5 ins. Inside filled with 
 shelves and lockers. 
 
 Trucks: Single 7-ft. 6-in. wheel base, with spoked wheels 
 30-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange and 3 %-in. 
 axles. 
 
 Brakes: Hand wheel. 
 
 Equipment: 2-25 hp. motors, with inside suspension, pinion 
 14-T, gear 67-T, furnished with 2 K-10 controllers. 
 
 Cost, each car $2,300 
 
 Dump Cars: 6 yd., two-way dump gravel cars. 
 
 Cost, each car $ 420 
 
 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF CARS. 
 
 Two-motor equipments 35- or 38-hp. inside suspension, pinion 
 17-T, gear 67-T, furnished with 2 K-10 controllers, or 2 
 K-6 controllers. 
 
 Cost, each equipment $1,500 
 
 Four-motor equipments, 38 hp. outside suspension, pinion 
 17-T, gear 67-T, each equipment provided with 2 K-6 con- 
 trollers. 
 
 Cost, each equipment $2,800 
 
 One-motor equipment, 15 hp., inside suspension, pinion 14-T, 
 gear 67-T. furnished with K-10 controller. 
 
 Cost, each equipment , $1,100 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1639 
 
 One-motor equipment, 25 hp., inside suspension, pinion 14-T, 
 gear 67-T. furnished with 2 K-10 controllers. 
 
 Cost, each equipment $1,250 
 
 Four-motor equipments, 40 hp., outside suspension, pinion 
 17-T, gear 69-T, each equipment furnished with 2 K-28 
 controllers. 
 
 Cost, each equipment $2,375 
 
 Cost of Rolling Stock in Cliicago. The following data are from 
 the Chicago valuation report previously referred to, by B. J. 
 Arnold and George Weston, year 1910. 
 
 CAR BODIES 
 
 CLOSED CARS 
 
 Semi-convertible with smoking compartment, Pay-as-you-enter 
 type, price new, for body only, $3,441. These are Kuhlman double 
 truck cars ; length, over bumpers 47 ft. 6 ins. and over body 31 ft. 
 9 ins. ; width, over all, 8 ft. 9 ins. ; vestibuled platforms ; monitor 
 type roof. Seating capacity, 40 ; seats, 16 fixed cross, 4 longi- 
 tudinal ; 21 electric lights ; 1 Calumet fender ; passengers push 
 buttons ; 1 sand box ; iron rod window guards ; 2 Hunter adjustable 
 illuminated signs in vestibule, 1 in side window ; double end hand 
 brakes, bevel geared hand wheel ; double fare registers ; 1 pair track 
 scrapers. 
 
 The price new of a car very similar to the above except that it 
 was not a Pay-as-you-enter, was $3,088 for body only. 
 
 Closed, passenger body, price new for body, $1,504. These are 
 Pullman single truck cars, length, over bumpers, 30 ft. 6 ins., over 
 body, 20 ft. ; width, over all, 7 ft. 6 ins.; vestibuled platforms 50 ins. 
 long; monitor type roof; seating capacity, 26; seats, longitudinal 
 type ; 10 electric lights ; 2 Berg improved fenders ; 2 Ham sand 
 boxes ; signs, end, 2 illuminated, Calumet pattern, side, brackets 
 for 2 wood signs ; hand brakes, double end, hand wheel ; double 
 fare register ; 2 pair track scrapers. 
 
 The price of a similar car, length 18 ft. 8 ins. over body, and 
 with a seating capacity of 24, was $1,418 for body. 
 
 OPEN CAR BODIES 
 
 The price new of an open, 16 bench body car, with 18 in. aisle 
 between the rows of seats, was $1,317. These are St. Louis cars, 
 single truck ; length, over bumpers 27 ft. 2 ins. over corner posts, 
 17 ft. 9 ins. ; width, over posts, 7 ft. 11 ins. ; open platforms, 51 ins. 
 long, monitor type roof; 4 entrances at platforms, 40 ins. wide; 
 seating capacity, 32; seats, 16 reversible; 20 electric lights; wire 
 screen side guards ; brackets for sheet iron end signs and wood 
 side signs; double end, rachet hand brakes; double fare register. 
 
 Open, 10 bench body cars, no aisle, were priced at $1,231. 
 
 The cars were made by the Pullman Co. ; single truck ; length, 
 over bumpers, 30 ft., over comer posts, 20 ft. ; width, over posts, 
 7 ft.; open platforms, 37 ins. long; monitor type roof; entrances 
 on each side ; seating capacity, 50 ; seats, 4 fixed at bulk-heads, 6 
 reversible with spindle backs; 10 electric lights; wire screen side 
 
1640 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 guards ; brackets for 2 sheet iron signs on each end, for 2 wood 
 signs on each side ; double end, rachet hand brakes ; fare registers. 
 The price of an open trailer of the same length and general 
 type was $1,193. An open trailer, length, over bumpers, 27 ft. 4 ins., 
 over body, 18 ft. 2 ins., and with a seating capacity of 45, was priced 
 $1,058 ; one with a length of 23 ft. 8 ins. over bumpers and 17 ft. 
 3 ins. over the body and seating capacity of 40, $908. 
 
 MOTOR EQUIPMENTS 
 
 The following prices are for complete motor equipments, f.o.b. 
 factory, for trolley cars. 
 
 Maker 
 G. E. 
 G. E. 
 G. E. 
 Ray 
 West. 
 G. E. 
 West. 
 West. 
 G. E. 
 Ray 
 
 Motors per 
 equipment 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Type 
 52 or 54 
 
 800 
 W. P. 30 
 
 Lorain 
 W. P. 50 
 Lorain 
 
 70 or 80 
 
 Hp. per 
 motor 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 Price per 
 
 equipment 
 
 $1,874 
 
 1,040 
 
 1,040 
 
 900 
 
 770 
 
 1,040 
 
 1,158 
 
 2,168 
 
 2,489 
 
 900 
 
 TRUCKS 
 
 The following prices are for trolley cpr trucks complete, f.o.b. 
 factory : 
 
 Price 
 
 McMcGuire pressed steel sgl. $250 
 
 McGuire Al and A2 suspension sgl. 275 
 
 Curtis sgl. 275 
 
 Peckham, 7BX sgl. 253 
 
 Lovejoy sgl. 200 
 
 Brill 21E sgl. 280 
 
 Taylor sgl. 240 
 
 McGuire pedestal sgl. 150 
 
 Du Pont sgl. 250 
 
 Brill 27G dbl. 625 
 
 Calumet MCB dbl. 650 
 
 Pressed steel MCB dbl. 700 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS CAR EQUIPMENT 
 
 Price 
 
 Peter Smith heater No. 2 (installed) $135 
 
 Germer heater No. 2 (installed) 125 
 
 Calumet stoves 22.50 
 
 Consolidated electric heaters 25 
 
 National air brakes, AAl compressor 275 
 
 D4 " 450 
 
 upright " 300 
 
 Resistances for Mosher headlights 4.50 
 
 Mosher arc headlights 20 
 
 New Haven double fare registers 30 
 
 Hunter adjustable illuminated signs 20 
 
 Calumet pattern " " 5 
 
 AVooden deck signs 3 
 
 Automotoneers 12.50 
 
 25-lb. wrecking frogs 2.50 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 1641 
 
 Motorman's stools $125 
 
 Oil headlights '.'."' 12.50 
 
 Summary of Rolling Stock: 
 
 119 box motor car bodies $156,000 
 
 127 open '" " " 131,600 
 
 43 open trailer bodies 39,300 
 
 5 box " " 5,500 
 
 294 passenger car bodies $332,400 
 
 294 single trucks 72,920 
 
 199 motor equipments (2 motors each) 107,464 
 
 Total passenger cars $512,784 
 
 50 miscel. service cars 42,082 
 
 Total $554,866 
 
 Further details are given in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 
 28, 1910. 
 
 Weight and Price of Trucks. Table XXI was compiled from 
 data gathered by Henry L. Gray in the course of making appraisals 
 in the state of Washington. 
 
 
 TABLE XXI. 
 
 COST OF STANDARD GAUGE 
 
 TRUCKS 
 
 
 
 
 FOR 
 
 CARS 
 
 
 
 
 tVh 
 
 leel base 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 Cost, 
 
 f.o.b. 
 
 yt. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 wheels, ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 Factory 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 
 5900 
 
 
 $270 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 5500 
 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 6850 
 
 
 260 
 
 
 6 
 
 34&21 
 
 
 5260 
 
 
 246 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 5900 
 
 
 270 
 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 
 5500 
 
 
 260 
 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 
 7220 
 
 
 267 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 6790 
 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 6820 
 
 
 263 
 
 
 6 
 
 34&21 
 
 
 5200 
 
 
 281 
 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 
 7000 
 
 
 260 
 
 6 
 
 41/2 
 
 34 
 
 
 7950 
 
 
 294 
 
 6 
 
 41/2 
 
 34 
 
 
 8200 
 
 
 344 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 34&21 
 
 
 5500 
 
 
 280 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 
 7100 
 
 
 260 
 
 The above were prices prior to the world war. 
 
 Appraisal of tlie Elevated Railways of Chicago. Condensed from 
 Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1912. 
 
 These railways are the South Side Elevated, the Metropolitan 
 West Side Railway, the Northwestern Elevated and the Chicago & 
 Oak Park Elevated. A physical valuation of these properties was 
 necessary to further progress of plans to arrive at a satisfactory 
 scheme for the operation and rnaintenance of all the transportation 
 facilities within the city. The City Council, through its committee 
 on local transportation, Mr. Peter Reinberg, chairman, appointed 
 the three tnembers of the present Harbor and Subway Commission 
 to undertake the valuation of the elevated railroad properties. This 
 committee consisted of Messrs. John Erickson, E. C. Shankland 
 and J. J. Reynolds. Mr, George Weston of the Board of Super- 
 
1642 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 vising Engineers was later added to the committee, which was 
 known as the Valuation Committee. The representative of the 
 Chicago elevated railways, who was also appointed as a member 
 of this committee, was Prof. George F. Swain. 
 
 After several meetings of the Valuation Committee it was found 
 that the members representing the city and the representative of 
 the railways could not agree on all the methods of valuating the 
 various items of physical property. Prof. George F. Swain there- 
 fore withdrew from the committee and presented an independent 
 minority report. We give herewith tabular abstracts of the re- 
 port of the Valuation Committee submitted to the Council com- 
 mittee on May 8, 1912, and the report of Prof. George F. Swain, 
 submitted at the same time. The elevated lines, not including 
 surface tracks, contain the following mileage : 
 
 282,000 ft. double track 
 78,500 ft. third 
 38,000 ft. fourth " 
 4,300 ft. single 
 
 COST OF REPRODUCTION NEW, ESTIMATED BY 
 COMMITTEE 
 Items 
 
 1. Real estate and right of way' $16,490,728 
 
 2. Foundations and public utilities 2,230,841 
 
 3. Structural steel 11,127,025 
 
 4. Track work 2,323,946 
 
 4A. Pavement 262,200 
 
 5. Third rail 318,483 
 
 6. Special work 185,957 
 
 7. Storage yards, including track, special work and 
 
 Interlocking C43,831 
 
 8. Interlocking plants and block signal 388,399 
 
 9. Power stations 3,962,672 
 
 10. Sub-stations and batteries 1,652,025 
 
 11. Transmission lines, overhead and bonding 1,192,366 
 
 12. Rolling stock 9,700,887 
 
 13. Stations, buildings and platforms 1,784,887 
 
 14. Office fixtures, tools and supplies 359,000 
 
 Taxes during construction 150,000 
 
 $52,673,247 
 Add 18% overhead charges 9,481,185 
 
 Total $62,154,433 
 
 The Committee estimated the depreciated 'value at $53,451,181. 
 
 COST OF REPRODUCTION NEW, ESTIMATED BY 
 PROF. GEO. F. SWAIN 
 Items 
 
 2. Foundations $ 2,600,000 
 
 3. Structural steel 12,884,132 
 
 4. Track work 2,347,431 
 
 4A. Pavement 251,400 
 
 5. Third rail 329,700 
 
 6 Special work 189,775 
 
 7. Storage yards, including track, special work and 
 
 interlocking 550,270 
 
 8. Interlocking plants and block signals 412,000 
 
 9. Power stations 4,166,325 
 
 10. Sub-stations and batteries 1,753,458 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1643 
 
 Items 
 
 11. Transmission lines, overhead trolley and bonding ... % 1,360,104 
 
 12. Rolling- stock 10,098,652 
 
 13. Stations, buildings and platforms 2,250,000 
 
 14. Office fixtures, tools and supplies 359,000 
 
 Total without real estate and rights of way, or 
 
 overhead charge $39,552,247 
 
 Overhead on physical i 11,865,674 
 
 Total without real estate and rights of way $51,417,921 
 
 Real estate and rights of way (J. Milton Trainer's 
 
 figures) 44,551,498 
 
 Brokerage on real estate and rights of way 5% .... 2,227,575 
 
 Total $98,196,994 
 
 Prof. Swain estimated the depreciated value at $93,279,143. 
 
 1 Percentages for cost of construction, organization, etc., included 
 in item overhead on physical. 
 
 Cost of Contact- Rail Construction. The following data are 
 quoted from the American Handbook for Electrical Engineers by 
 Harold Pender. The estimates in Table XXII include the cost of 
 (1) handling and distributing the material from the storehouse to 
 the place where it is used; (2) the solder, gasoline, etc., used in 
 bonding contact rail; (3) putting 3 coats of paint on the protec- 
 tion; (4) bending rails on curves; (5) 5% for breakage; (6) 
 foremen's and engineers' salaries. They do not include the cost of 
 tools or of jumpers. 
 
 These estimates are approximately correct where existing traffic 
 does not materially impede the work. Under less favorable condi- 
 tions the cost may rise 50% or more over the figures given. 
 
 The estimate on the top-contact type is based upon the Inter- 
 borough Rapid Transit Co.'s construction. New York (Stillwell- 
 Slater patent), the wt. of rail, however, being slightly less than 
 on that railway. The estimate of the under-contact type is based 
 upon construction similar to that used by the New York Central 
 R. R. (Wilgus-Sprague patent). 
 
 TABLE XXII. COST PER MILE OF CONTACT-RAIL 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Top contact Under contact 
 
 Material : « Amount Cost Amount Cost 
 
 Rail, 70 lb 55 tons $1,815 55 tons $1,815 
 
 special ... 1.2 40 
 
 Inclines 11 47 11 47 
 
 Insulators, std 511 92 1,000 165 
 
 special ... 25 13 
 
 Brackets or pedestals 515 62 500 250 
 
 Brackets, special . . ... 15 7 
 
 Bolts 515 10 515 90 
 
 Lag screws 1,030 20 1,515 30 
 
 Clips 1,030 41 
 
 Drive .screws ... 80 gross 24 
 
 Soldered bonds 350 168 350 168 
 
 Splice plates and bolts ... 350 53 180 31 
 
 Protection 793 ... 642 
 
1644 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Top contact Under contact 
 
 Material : Amount Cost Amount Cost 
 
 Paint $49 ... $82 
 
 Felt separator . ... ... • • • ^ 
 
 Long ties, excess only i . . 505 ' 177 505 177 
 
 Total $3,327 $3,583 
 
 Labor : 
 
 Installing-, bonding and 
 
 protection of third rail 800 1,000 
 
 Installing long ties 101 101 
 
 Total $901 . $1,101 
 
 Total $4,228 $4,684 
 
 1 This item includes only the difference in cost between the long 
 ties which carry the insulators and the cost of the same number 
 of standard ties. 
 
 Cost of Grinding Rail Corrugations and Joints. The following 
 data are quoted from the Electric Railway Handbook by Albert S. 
 Richey. Mr. C. L. Crabbs gives the following cost data covering 
 1 year's work on track of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co. The 
 average cost per ft. of grinding 21,725 lin. ft. of corrugation of an 
 average depth of 0.01 in. was: labor, $0,112; material, $0.0227; 
 total, $0.1347. During the same period, 1,418 joints and dishes of a 
 depth approximately 0.05 in. were ground, the average cost per 
 joint being: labor, $0.8322; material, $0,193; total, $1.0252. This 
 work was done with a reciprocating grinder, but Mr. Crabbs states 
 that his experience with considerable grinding of joints with wheel 
 machines shows very nearly the same costs. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 Asbestos. The following are costs of various asbestos materials. 
 
 Asbestos building felt and sheathing in less than ton lots costs 
 3% cts. per lb. for the light material weighing from 6 to 30 lbs. 
 per 100 sq. ft.; 4 cts. per lb. is charged for the heavy asbestos 
 weighing from 45 to 56 lbs. per 100 sq. ft. 
 
 Mill board is made in standard sheets, 40 X 40 ins., and 41 X 40 
 ins. It varies in thickness from ys2 to % in. and in weight from 
 2 to 27 lbs. per sheet. The net price in 100-lb. lots is 5 cts. per lb. 
 
 Transite, asbestos wood, used for flreproofing, ventilators and 
 smoke jackets, comes in standard sheets, 36 X 48 ins. and 42 X 96 
 ins. The prices f.o.b. factory are as follows : 
 
 Thickness, Weight, Price per 
 
 ins. lbs. sq. ft. 
 
 Vs 1 $0.08 
 
 % 2 .16 
 
 % 3 .28 
 
 Va 4 .32 
 
 % 5 - .40 
 
 Vs 7 .48 
 
 1 8 .52 
 
 11/2 12 .64 
 
 2 16 .80 
 
 Asbestos cements are used for covering boilers, domes, fittings, 
 etc., and all irregular surfaces, and may be used over asbestos 
 air cell boiler blocks, when it makes an excellent covering. When 
 mixed with water to a consistency of mortar and applied with a 
 trowel, it forms a light porous coating which is the most efficient 
 non-conductor. The cost of this cement is $33 per ton. 
 
 Chain. Prices per 100 lbs., f. o. b. Pittsburg, are as follows: 
 
 MACHINE MADE CHAIN 
 
 Size, ins. Proof 
 
 3-16 $8.25 
 
 % 5.70 
 
 5-16 4.70 
 
 % 4.15 
 
 7-16 3.85 
 
 % and 9-16 3.65 
 
 % 3.55 
 
 % 3.45 
 
 Ys 3.35 
 
 1 3.25 
 
 ly^ and IVs 3.35 
 
 1645 
 
 BB 
 
 BBB 
 
 $9.50 
 
 $10.00 
 
 6.95 
 
 7.45 
 
 5.95 
 
 6,45 
 
 5.40 
 
 5.90 
 
 5.10 
 
 5.60 
 
 4.90 
 
 5.40 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.30 
 
 4.70 
 
 5.20 
 
 4.60 
 
 5.10 
 
 4 50 
 
 5.00 
 
 4.60 
 
 5.10 
 
1646 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 % 
 % 
 % 
 1 
 
 1^ 
 1% 
 
 HAND-MADE CHAIN 
 
 rrt ci3.a 
 
 •J ojO^ 
 
 S --OS 
 
 to lyg 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 PQ 
 $7.95 
 7.15 
 6.70 
 6.15 
 5.75 
 5.65 
 5.55 
 
 m 
 
 $8.20 
 7.45 
 6.90 
 6.40 
 5.95 
 5.90 
 5.75 
 
 5 bfi^^ 
 
 .2.^0 
 ^^■^•^ 
 
 ^ c 5 " 
 
 P. 
 
 $9.15 
 8.45 
 7.95 
 7.45 
 6.90 
 6.85 
 6.80 
 
 Cj C W M 
 
 o t o o 
 
 $9.15 
 8.45 
 
 Chain Blocks. Chain blocks kept well oiled and kept under 
 cover where grit and dirt cannot enter the gears should have a 
 life of from 5 to 20 years. On outside work where sand and grit 
 is allowed to enter the gears the life of a block is reduced very 
 much, and repairs may cost as much as 50% of the first cost 
 annually. 
 
 TRIPLEX BLOCKS 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Hoist 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 
 Extra hoist 
 
 in tons 
 
 in^eet 
 
 (net) 
 
 Price 
 
 per It. 
 
 V2 
 
 8 
 
 53 
 
 $ 28 
 
 $0.72 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 36 
 
 .76 
 
 IVa 
 
 8 
 
 124 
 
 48 
 
 .80 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 188 
 
 56 
 
 .84 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 72 
 
 1.20 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 290 
 
 88 
 
 1.28 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 380 
 
 112 
 
 1.72 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 390 
 
 132 
 
 1.72 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 470 
 
 160 
 
 2.16 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 570 
 
 192 
 
 2.60 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 800 
 
 240 
 
 3.44 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 1,000 
 
 288 
 
 4.32 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 1,375 
 
 315 
 
 5.20 
 
 Sizes 3 to 20 tons have a lower as well as an upper block. 
 
 DUPLEX BLOCKS 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Hoist 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 
 
 Extra hoist 
 
 in tons 
 
 in feet 
 
 (net) 
 
 Price 
 
 per ft. 
 
 Vz 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 $ 21.25 
 
 $1.00 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 57 
 
 25.50 
 
 1.27 
 
 IV2 
 
 8 
 
 76 
 
 34.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 104 
 
 42.50 
 
 1.70 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 63.75 
 
 1.85 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 225 
 
 80.75 
 
 2.05 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 340 
 
 119.00 
 
 2.55 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 360 
 
 153.00 
 
 3.20 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 390 
 
 178.50 
 
 3.40 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 570 
 
 232.75 
 
 3.60 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1647 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL BLOCKS 
 
 Capacity Hoist Weight, lbs. Extra hoist 
 
 in tons in feet (net) Price per ft, 
 
 % 5 11 $ 9.00 $1.40 
 
 % 6 22 9.00 1.40 
 
 % 7 30 10.50 1.40 
 
 1 8 51 14.00 1.50 
 11/2 81^ 81 18.00 1.60 
 
 2 9 122 22.50 1.70 
 
 3 91/2 180 30.00 2.00 
 
 Gages and Cocks. The following tables give prices of typical 
 gages and cocks, 
 
 AIR COCKS 
 
 Size, ins. Hexagon Double ends Bibb, nose 
 
 Vs $0.15 $0.19 $0.25 
 
 % .19 .23 .29 
 
 % .23 .27 .34 
 
 % .30 .38 .42 
 
 COMPRESSION GAUGE COCKS 
 
 Size, ins. Price 
 
 1/4 $0.36 
 
 % 41 
 
 % 45 
 
 % 50 
 
 The above cocks are soft seat and plain, for cocks with stuffing 
 boxes 10 cts. is added to the above prices, 
 
 ASHTON IMPROVED HYDRAULIC GAUGE 
 
 Size of dial, ins. Iron case and brass ring Brass case 
 
 12 $44 $50 
 
 10 36 40 
 
 8% 28 32 
 
 6% 20 24 
 
 6 14 16 
 
 5 12 14 
 
 The above hydraulic gauges are for high pressures above 1,000 lbs. 
 
 COMBINED PRESSURE AND RECORDING GAUGE 
 
 Size of dial, ins. Brass case N, p, case 
 
 G% $28.00 * $29.40 
 
 8V2 35.00 36.40 
 
 10 45.50 ^ 47.50 
 
 12 59.50 62.50 
 
 ASHTON IMPROVED PRESSURE GAUGE 
 
 Size of dial, ins. Iron case, brass ring Brass case 
 
 12 $17.50 $26.30 
 
 10 11.20 14.00 
 
 81/2 7.70 10.50 
 
 6% 5.60 7.00 
 
 6 . 4.50 5.60 
 514 3.50 4.20 
 5 2.80 3.85 
 
 Prices include cocks. 
 
 Prices of vacuum gages in the above sizes are approximately 
 the same as these for pressure gages. 
 
1648 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 ALTITUDE GAUGES 
 
 Size of dial, ins. Iron case, brass ring Brass case 
 
 12 $21.00 $28.00 
 
 10 14.00 17.50 
 
 81^ 10.50 14.00 
 
 6% 7.00 8.75 
 
 6 5.60 7.00 
 
 5% 4.90 5.60 
 
 4y2or5 4.20 4.90 
 
 Prices include cocks. 
 
 WATER GAUGES 
 
 Finished parts with rough body All finished 
 
 Glass, Pipe, Two Three Four Two Three Four 
 ins. ins. rod rod rod rod rod rod 
 
 Va % $1.38 $1.75 
 
 % % 1.50 2.00 $2.50 $1.88 $2.50 $3.25 
 
 % % 3.00 4.00 4.25 4.00 4.75 5.00 
 
 Hose. The following are approximate prices for hose. 
 
 LINEN FIRE HOSE 
 
 Size, ins. Net price per foot 
 % $0.11 
 
 1 12 
 
 1% 14 
 
 iy2 15 
 
 1% 16 
 
 2 17 
 
 2% 18 
 
 2-V2 20 
 
 3 28 
 
 The above sizes are for 500 lbs. pressure. For 550 lbs. pressure 
 an increase Of 1 ct. per foot is added on the first five sizes and 5 cts. 
 per foot on the last four. 
 
 COTTON RUBBER LINED FIRE HOSE 
 
 Size, ins. Net price per foot 
 
 1% $0.32 
 
 1% 35 
 
 21/8 40 
 
 2% 45 
 
 Indicators. The following prices are for indicators. 
 
 Thompson Iviproved Indicator, for obtaining indicator diagrams 
 or cards from steam engines cost with two springs about $50 each 
 f.o.b. shipping point. 
 
 Thompson Improved Ammonia Indicator, made entirely of steel 
 so that the action of ammonia will not affect the indicator, cost with 
 two cocks, one spring, scales, wrenches, etc., $67.50 each f.o.b, 
 shipping point. 
 
 Jacks. The following prices are for liydraulic jacks. 
 
 HYDRAULIC JACKS 
 
 Plain Jacks: 
 
 Tons lift 4 7 10 20 
 
 Run out, inches 12 18 24 18 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1649 
 
 Height, inches 24 
 
 Weight, pounds 50 
 
 Price, dollars 48 
 
 Broad Base Jacks : 
 
 Tons lift 4 
 
 Run out, inches 12 
 
 Height, inches 25 
 
 Diam. of base, inches 9% 
 
 Weight, pounds 65 
 
 Price, dollars 50 
 
 Screw Jacks: 
 
 Number 1 
 
 Diam. of screw, inches 1% 
 
 Height when down, in 8 
 
 Net rise, inches 4 
 
 Whole height, in 12 
 
 Est. lift cap., in 5 
 
 Weight, pounds 9 ^/^ 
 
 Price $2 
 
 32 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 110 
 
 155 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 88 
 
 116 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 321/2 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 13^ 
 
 15 
 
 97 
 
 130 
 
 206 
 
 260 
 
 320 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 110 
 
 150 
 
 190 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 
 IV?. 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 2y2 
 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 42 
 
 . . 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 45 
 
 82 
 
 
 $3 
 
 $4 
 
 $6.40 $10.40 
 
 
 Lubricators. The following are approximate prices of lubrica- 
 
 tors. 
 
 GREASE CUPS, COMPRESSED AIR TYPE 
 
 Capacity, ounces 
 
 Polished 
 
 
 Plain 
 
 1/2 
 
 
 $0.60 
 
 
 $0.50 
 
 1 
 
 
 .80 
 
 
 .65 
 
 3 
 
 
 1.00 
 
 
 .75 
 
 6 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 .90 
 
 
 AUTOMATIC COMPRESSION TYPE GREASE CUP 
 
 
 
 Shank pipe 
 
 Finished 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Capacity, ounces 
 
 thread, ins. 
 
 brass 
 
 plated 
 
 ^M 
 
 
 Vs 
 
 $0.45 
 
 $0.55 
 
 1 
 
 
 % 
 
 .60 
 
 .70 
 
 11/2 
 
 
 Vi 
 
 .75 
 
 .85 
 
 3 
 
 
 % 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.10 
 
 6 
 
 
 % 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.50 
 
 10 
 
 
 y2 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 
 SCREW FEED GREASE CUPS 
 
 
 
 
 Shank pipe 
 
 Finished 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Capacity, ounces 
 
 thread, ins. 
 
 brass 
 
 plated 
 
 1/^ 
 
 
 % 
 
 $0.45 
 
 $0.55 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 .55 
 
 .60 
 
 IV2 
 
 
 y. 
 
 .70 
 
 .80 
 
 3 
 
 
 % 
 
 .85 
 
 1.00 
 
 6 
 
 
 V2 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.45 
 
 10 
 
 
 V2 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 SNAP LEVER OIL CUP 
 
 WITH SIGHT FEED 
 
 
 
 
 Shank pipe 
 
 Finished 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Capacity, ounces 
 
 thread, ins. ' 
 
 brass 
 
 plated 
 
 % 
 
 
 % 
 
 $0.60 
 
 $0.70 
 
 1 
 
 
 14 
 
 .65 
 
 .75 
 
 IV2 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 .70 
 
 .80 
 
 21/2 
 
 
 % 
 
 .75 
 
 .85 
 
 4 
 
 
 34 
 
 .85 
 
 .95 
 
 5 
 
 
 % 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.15 
 
 10 
 
 
 % 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.60 
 
 18 
 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.00 
 
1650 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 AUTOMATIC LUBRICATORS, ROCHESTER TYPE, SINGLE FEED 
 
 , Size in pints Net price 
 
 1/2 $17.70 
 
 1 16.30 
 
 3 22.70 
 
 8 29.25 
 
 LUBRICATORS WITH TWO COMPARTMENTS 
 
 Size in pints Net price 
 
 3 Double feed $36. 
 
 8 Double feed 43 
 
 8 Triple feed 55 
 
 8 Quadruple feed 68 
 
 The above lubricators are for air compressors and ice machines, 
 etc., where different kinds of oils are used in different cylinders of 
 the same machines. 
 
 DUPLEX PISTON METERS FOR OIL 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 % 
 
 Weight, lbs. 
 90 
 
 Net price 
 $38 
 
 1^*:::;:: 
 
 1 lA 
 
 149 
 
 218 
 
 230 
 
 45 
 60 
 66 
 
 3 
 
 4a 
 
 6a 
 
 280 
 
 590 
 
 2,150 
 
 5,400 
 
 77 
 165 
 340 
 830 
 
 The above prices are for meters with standard horizontal counter ; 
 for meters with special vertical counter $10 will be added to the 
 given prices. 
 
 Lubricating Oils. Quotations continue without change, the fol- 
 lowing figures being named for 5-bbl. lots: 
 
 Neutral oils, filtered : 
 
 Cents per gal. 
 
 * Cylinder, dark 20 @ 27 
 
 * Cylinder steam, refined 14@22 
 
 Neutral oils, filtered : 
 
 Stainless white, 32 to 34 gravity 28@29 
 
 Lemons, 33 to 34 gravity 17@19 
 
 Dark, 32 gravity 15@18 
 
 Crank case oil 15 @ 17 
 
 * Prices are according to test. 
 
 Packing. Prices vary within wide limit, according to the brands 
 of various dealers, but in general, packing can be purchased at the 
 following quotations: Asbestos, wick and rope, 13 cts. per lb.; 
 sheet rubber, 11 to 13 cts.; pure gum rubber, 40 to 45 cts.; red 
 sheet packing, 40 to 50 cts. ; cotton packing, 16 to 25 cts. ; jute, 5 to 
 6 cts. ; Russian packing, 9 to 10 cts. 
 
 IVIachine Tools. The following prices are for miscellaneous ma- 
 chine tools. 
 
 Lathes. Engine lathe, 24-in. swing, 12-ft. bed, compound rest, 
 power cross feed, steady rest, two-face plates, friction countershaft, 
 2-in. hole through spindle and cabinet legs. This machine weighs 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1651 
 
 5,500 lbs. A second-hand machine of this kind can be bought 
 for $375. 
 
 Engine Lathe: 25-in. swing, 12-ft. bed, compound rest, power 
 cross feed, complete with countershaft and full equipment. Price, 
 $375. 
 
 Engine lathe: 26-in. swing, 10-ft. bed, complete, $500. 
 
 Patented 2-in-l double spindle lathe : 24-in.-40-in. Bed 12 
 ft. long, that turns 5 ft. between centers, triple geared, com- 
 plete with countershaft and full regular equipment. This ma- 
 chine has back gears, hand and power feed, automatic stop, quick 
 return, wheel and lever feed. Spindle is counterbalanced. The 
 table has vertical adjustment on column by means of handle oper- 
 ating gear in rack. Shafts are made of steel. Gears are cut two 
 to one and cone has four steps, Si^le ins. to S^ie ins. diameter. 
 Price $970. 
 
 Quick change gear lathe: 14-in. swing. 6-ft. bed, takes between 
 centers on bed 2 ft. 10 ins. ; diameter of hole in spindle 1 in. and 
 speed of countershaft, 130 r.p.m. ; standard threads from 2 to 128, 
 Including 11 1/^, and feeds from 7 to 450 per inch are obtained with- 
 out the removal of a single gear. Provision is made, however, so 
 that odd threads or feeds can be had with little trouble or expense. 
 This lathe weighs packed for domestic shipment 1,600 lbs. and can 
 be bought for $375. 
 
 Engine lathe: 18-in, swing, 10-ft. bed, with compound, steady 
 and follow rests. One %6-in. lathe through spindle, counter-shaft, 
 etc. Also independent chuck 4-jaw ; 16-in. reversible jaws to fit 
 spindles of their lathe. Weight, 3,500 lbs. Cost, $643. 
 
 Hand feed tilted turret lathe : Plain head, oil pump and pan 
 and automatic chuck and with lever or screw feed cut-off. 
 
 Automatic chuck capacity % ins. 1 in. 
 
 Swing over bed 11 ins. 13 ins. 
 
 Maximum distance, end of .spindle to face of 
 
 turret 12 ins. 14 ins. 
 
 Counter shaft speed, r.p.m 250 225 
 
 Shipping weight, lbs 900 1,200 
 
 Net price $300 $400 
 
 Drills. A new 20-in. upright drill, with back gears, power feed, 
 quick return and automatic stop. This weighs 700 lbs. and the 
 price net is $90. 
 
 Improved radial drill: Maximum height of drill when arm is 
 up, 9 ft. ; maximum radial distance. 60 ins. ; vertical adjustment 
 of arm on column, 26 ins. ; receivers under spindle over base, 
 31/2 ins.; smallest diameter of spindle, IWia ins.; traverse of spindle, 
 lOins. ; floor space for base, 6I/I ft. X 28 ins. ; speed of countershaft, 
 350 r.p.m.; net weight of machine, 2,850 lbs.; net price, $500. 
 
 Stationary head vertical drilling machine with geared power 
 feed, automatic stop and back gears. 
 
 Size, ins Weight, lbs. ' Net price 
 
 21 1,300 $135 
 
 24 1.550 200 
 
1652 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Sliding head drill press: 18 ins., with countershaft adjustable 
 head and table. Height over all 7 ft. 5 ins., base plate 1 ft. 9 ins. 
 by 4 ft. 6 ins. together with one table vice for this drill press,, 
 jaws open 7 ins., width 8% ins., depth 2% ins. Weight of press 
 1,600 lbs. ; vice 180 lbs., cost $238. 
 
 Milling Machines. The following are costs of milling machines: 
 
 Universal 
 20 ins. 
 71/2 ins. 
 17 ins. 
 37x 81/^ ins. 
 16 
 8 
 16 1/2 to 404 
 
 .006 to .100 ins. 
 
 123 to 293 
 
 2,500 
 
 $750 
 
 Heavy plain 
 24 ins. 
 10 ins. 
 19 ins. 
 48x1114 ins. 
 16 
 16 
 12 to 384 
 
 .005 to 268 ins. 
 107 to 270 
 3,700 
 $650 
 
 Type 
 
 Table feed — automatic 
 
 Cross adjustment 
 
 Vertical adjustment 
 
 Working surface of table 
 
 Number of feed changes 
 
 Number of spindle speeds 
 
 Spindle speeds, r.p.m 
 
 Feed per rev. of spindle. 
 
 Speed of counter shaft pulleys, 
 
 r.p.m 
 
 Domestic shipping weight, lbs 
 
 Net price 
 
 Hand milling machine. 
 
 Adjustment of table outward from column 3% ins. 
 
 Total length of table feed 11 ins. 
 
 "Vertical feed of knee 6 ins. 
 
 Greatest distance from center of spindle to top of table 6 ins. 
 
 Working surface of table 4x15 ins. 
 
 Number of grades on cone 3 
 
 Speed of countershaft, r.p.m 200 
 
 Weight including arm, vise, vertical attachment and 
 
 countershaft, lbs 600 
 
 Net price without vertical attachment $225 
 
 Net price with vertical attachment $255 
 
 Miscellaneous Tools. A No. 2 standard bolt cutter, to thread 
 bolts or tap nuts %-in. to 1%-in. right or left hand, weighs 1,200 
 lbs. and can be bought second-hand for $175 net. 
 
 A single end-punch or shear weighs about 4,500 lbs. and will 
 punch 1-in. hole through %-in. plate or will shear 4-in. X %-in. bars. 
 A second-hand one will cost $300 net, while a new one would cost 
 about $500. 
 
 A new 4-in. pipe machine for hand or power takes from 1-in. 
 to I'-in. right or left, weighs 525 lbs. net or 650 lbs. gross, and 
 can be bought for $170 net. 
 
 A new three-geared ball bearing Upright, self-feed blacksmith 
 post drill weighs 240 lbs. and costs $18.50 net. 
 
 A new circular saw, with wood table, weighs about 300 lbs. and 
 costs $50 net. 
 
 A new 30 -in. band saw with iron table weighs about 850 lbs. 
 and costs $100 net. 
 
 Grindstone, machinist's : 30-in., heavy, mounted on an iron frame, 
 with shield and water bucket, weighs about 1,500 lbs. and costs 
 new about $50. 
 
 Twenty-inch, back geared crank shaper: Automatic cross travel, 
 24 ins.; vertical adjustment of table, 15 ins.; size of tool, l^^ by 
 % in. ; nuTOber of speeds to ram, 8 ; minimum number of strokes 
 
MISCELLANEO US 1653 
 
 per minute, 7 ; maximum number of strolces per minute, 105 ; num- 
 ber of feeds, 16 ; r.p.m. of crank shaft, 280 ; net price, $500. 
 
 Back geared crank shaper : Size 16 ins.; with vise for drill 
 press, table support, telescope screw arranged for key seating, 
 counter-shaft, etc., complete. Floor space, 2 ft. 1 in, by 3 ft. 10 
 ins. Cost, $300. 
 
 Pipe machine. Size, 2 ins. by 8 ins. with counter-shaft. Floor 
 space, 2 ft. by 3 ft. Weight, 1,400 lbs. Either hand or power. 
 Cost, $550. 
 
 Tool grinder with column, complete with counter-shaft and 
 hand rest. Arranged for 2 wheels 12 ins. diam. by 2 ins. wide. 
 Floor space 1 ft. 3 ins. by 1 ft. 10 ins. Cost, $28. 
 
 Metal power hack saw, with counter-shaft. Cost $126. 
 Power bolt cutter and nut tapper: Size, % in. to li/4 ins., with 
 counter-shaft, dies, etc. ; floor space 2 ft. 5 ins. by 4 ft. 11 ins. ; 
 weight, 915 lbs.; cost, $132. 
 
 Wood boring machines : Capacity, 2-in. hole, reversible ; size, 
 B. W. ; cost $70. 
 
 Band saw: Diameter of wheel, 36 ins.; table, 30 ins. by 32 ins.; 
 1-in. saw; floor space, 3 ft. 2 ins. by 4 ft. 8 ins.; cost, $150. 
 
 Wood frame, rip saw bench with counter-shaft and pulleys: 
 Table. 3 ft. by 5 ft. ; pulleys 5 ins. by 6 ins. ; for saws 16-in. to 
 20-in. diameter, 1%-in. bore.; speed, 2.000 r.p.m.; IY2 to 15 h.p. ; 
 weight, 350 lbs. ; equipped with wire hood, saw guard with im- 
 proved knuckle joint to take 23-in. saw — together with 1 — 20-in., 
 1 — 17-in., 1 — 141/^-in., 1 — 15-in. and 1 — 12-in. saw; cost, $121.50. 
 Steel screw punch: Capacity, i-%6-in. hole in %-in. plate; cen- 
 ter of punch to back of gap, 2i,^ ins. ; cost, $35. 
 
 Cost of Tool Operation in Engine iVlanufacturing. The following 
 costs of machine-tool operations in steam-engine manufacturing, by 
 Wm. O. Webber, appeared in the Engineering Magazine, Aug., 1910 : 
 " Mr. Webber's cost data are gathered within recent years from 
 his own experience in the management of machinery-building works 
 in the eastern United States. Careful reconsideration of the figures, 
 and comparison with like costs in other .shops, shows that any im- 
 provement in tools since Mr. Webber's tables were compiled is 
 about offset by rise in wages, so the data correctly represent aver- 
 age present performances." 
 
 Some results obtained experimentally in various classes of metal- 
 cutting work are noted in the accompanying tables. The first of 
 these tables shows machining costs on connecting rods for small, 
 simple horizontal engines, where the work was done in lots of 20 
 parts each. Some interesting data were obtained as to the rela- 
 tive cost of forging and machining. For instance, these connecting 
 rods were made largely from round iron with ends upset to form 
 the rectangular parts to which the brasses and straps were at- 
 tached, the rods being then turned a double taper from the center, 
 reducing toward each end. Forging at the price given (which in- 
 cluded the straps and keys for each size rod) left a surplus of 
 stock to be turned off in the lathe between the square ends, or 
 
1654 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -§" 
 
 
 
 1.. 
 
 O w > 0000U500 
 
 
 0) a) 
 
 CO inic Tf< ffs t- o o 
 
 
 
 S (U 
 
 
 
 
 
 OO CO ?q (TQ t> CO CO lO 
 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 
 
 
 dd^^-^duico 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^fl 
 
 c<icocococoTt<TjHio 
 
 
 Oi t-T-l CO 
 
 
 
 
 m aO €«• iHi-lrHi-l 
 
 
 £■" 
 
 
 oot-oot- 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 OOO U5000 
 
 
 
 S'.2 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 •^ ?2 
 
 OOOU-5COIOOO 
 
 
 Till 
 
 
 
 5S 
 
 idcodLO-^t-Idd 
 
 
 OlNOt- 
 
 C r^ 
 
 
 ^mh 
 
 
 O ,H Oi «> l> O CO lO 
 
 
 tH'^ICOcO 
 
 
 
 fl '!> cij usLfflt-c-oeoo 
 
 
 ^^oo_^o_co_^ai_c-inco_ 
 
 
 dtn-^'ui 
 
 
 •ggac^iMcicqfococD 
 
 
 irq oq co" co" co" Th"-*' ui" 
 
 
 e/s^ 
 
 
 tj c^ ^, <6<6<6<6<6<6S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 3 fi 0) €«- 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 H^a 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 — < g'cS r-l tH CO CO t- -* O 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 USOOIOU3 U50 
 
 
 OOOOOlO 
 
 
 3 
 
 -ii!'^ 
 
 NUSUSC-t- NU5 
 
 K 
 
 OCt>t-C- 
 
 -t-" O m 
 
 
 o.t; 
 
 diHr-icococDood 
 
 
 dddd 
 
 
 
 
 (McococoeococoTfH 
 
 60- 
 
 €/^ 
 
 O 
 m 
 
 O 
 
 
 w 
 ^ 
 
 C<JC^U5C<J(?qUiUS00 
 
 
 OOCOO-* 
 
 aioai«o_ 
 C<5i?q"lOoo 
 
 
 
 ijc3 a<M_s^=<i<>aoq^ift 
 
 O 
 
 0+3 
 
 '^^■^\a\d\a\a\a 
 
 ^ 
 
 €(9- 
 
 !=! ^, G 
 
 i 
 
 OS^^H ddddddd 
 .S ouiuioooiffl 
 
 i 
 
 09- 
 
 ocoooooi-Hint^co 
 
 K 
 
 OOr-lrHCO 
 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 2i 
 
 NC0<XO«0,-Hcg^ 
 
 1 
 
 -^ITQC--^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 -^ d i-H tr-" oo" d cq" d 
 
 cq w c<i eg 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 ^ CO 00 00 (rq cq lo f. 
 
 o- 
 
 iHlHiHTHiH'^ssqTj* 
 
 6e- 
 
 .2 rH tH iH Cq M 5<i Csi 
 
 |S 
 
 ^ ^ OIOIOOOOU5 
 PL|.rt OiHT-jCOCOlOt- 
 
 
 60- 
 
 t-Ot-Ot>lCiAO 
 
 OOlftOOOOOC^cOO 
 
 L3t>t>(T^ 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 T-I-*c<i-*(?qT-4co^ 
 
 02 
 
 dod^'t-^ 
 
 '^Wra 
 
 £ 
 
 C5 
 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 rH-lHTHTH,HCqc<|S<J 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 
 K d <D 
 
 ill 
 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 n 
 
 a> 
 
 t-T-IK5aiCO'*t-00 
 10000lOlO<X>C^lH 
 
 
 U30010 
 
 P5 
 
 Ul 
 
 1 
 
 j-^ eoc-t-iMiocoN 
 
 
 > 
 
 d d CO CO i-h' d u5 d 
 ■*c-oooocoLaoi^ 
 
 oc) d d d 
 
 P 
 
 W odddddd 
 
 h^ 
 
 (M (?Q OJ <?q CO CO Tt< ^ 
 
 o 
 
 60- iH 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 
 o 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 eo- 
 
 •*a5COT-HT-l?D0O-* 
 
 OOOCO 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 tHOOOCOCO CO OiO 
 
 
 CO Oi 00 -i*! 
 
 Oo^ 
 
 
 d-S OOOOWOlflO 
 tn 1r CO ^ -^ Tf< us Ifl M> 
 
 s 
 
 d M- th d ui co' c^ '^ 
 
 d cod 00 
 
 o'^^ 
 
 % 
 
 
 M< lO O U5 «M:- OO 05 
 
 €«- 
 
 TO Oi uj 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 E 
 
 6«- 
 
 t 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 iH 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 _ 
 
 ■*ooo]cqoooo'* 
 '^ iH -^ T-i o CO CO cq 
 
 1 
 
 oooo 
 a50<^a|^- 
 
 pa 
 
 
 p 
 
 ■i-I d th oo T-! d xj<' 00 
 
 ^■^'cq^ 
 
 0) GO) 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 cocous-^ujc-usoo 
 
 &9- 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; • : ; 
 
 a ^5 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 coooocooooo«£> 
 
 
 • • • • 
 
 W^^-l 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 IO00M^U5C<]0C00tH 
 
 Tt< d cq' 00 d ^ 00 d 
 
 
 : : : 
 
 k5 C 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 O 1-1 M CO lA t- CO r-i 
 
 
 ' ■ ' 01 
 WMCO M 
 
 T— 1 1— 1 T-t CQ 
 
 X X X 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 T-( tH iH rH iH ,-1 ^ (?q 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ OJ Csl oq M m U5 «o «£> 
 
 n'S) X >< X X X !-« M 
 
 
 
 £©• 
 
 
 0) g'bc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ooooq^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 * I I I I ! * I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NNC^iiowtococo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 E^5 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 xxxxxxxx 
 
 
 
 >(D 
 
 
 
 
 
 OOOiOOrHC^CO'* 
 
 
 
 Xi 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1655 
 
 (in shop parlance) the " stub ends." It was therefore determined 
 to forge the rods more closely to the finished size ; but the saving in 
 turning was more than made up in the extra cost of blacksmithing, 
 lathe work costing only about 19 cts. an hour as against the cost 
 of 45 cts. per hour for blacksmith, helper, and fire. 
 
 TABLE II. COSTS OF OPERATIONS ON CENTER-CRANK 
 SHAFTS 
 
 Turning (each) Turning Slotting Key 
 
 Size 1 Lathe 2 Lathes 3 Lathes discs. discs. seating 
 
 8x12 $1.80 $1.15 $1.00 $0.35 $0.31 $0 20 
 
 9x12 1.80 1.15 1.00 0.35 0.31 023 
 
 10x12 2.00 1.40 1.23 0.40 0.33 24 
 
 10x15 2.50 1.65 1.44 0.45 0.40 27 
 
 11x15 2.60 1.70 1.49 0.50 0.40 0.30 
 
 12x16 3.00 2.20 1.75 0.60 0.45 0.34 
 
 14x16 3.15 2.40 2.00 0.70 0.50 0.38 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 TIMES OF OPERATIONS ON SHAFTS OF VARIOUS 
 SIZES 
 
 S'S 
 
 2% 
 2% 
 
 3% 
 3% 
 3% 
 
 3 78 
 
 4 
 
 4% 
 
 4% 
 
 4% 
 
 4% 
 
 4% 
 
 478 
 
 51/8 
 
 5% 
 
 572 
 
 o ^ o 
 
 +-> be 
 
 "=>... <M 
 
 t-l 
 
 ^^.^ 
 
 1.23 
 1.33 
 1.42 
 1.62 
 1.66 
 1.71 
 1.80 
 1.85 
 2.02 
 2.07 
 2.12 
 2.17 
 2.23 
 2.29 
 2.37 
 2.49 
 2.54 
 2.80 
 
 61/2 
 
 7 
 
 772 
 
 8 
 
 81/2 
 
 9 
 
 9 72 
 
 10 
 
 101/2 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 
 
 a£bc 
 
 2.98 
 3.22 
 3.42 
 3.51 
 3.84 
 4.03 
 4.22 
 4.41 
 4.59 
 4.78 
 5.16 
 5.54 
 5.90 
 6.29 
 6.67 
 7.04 
 7.42 
 
 31/2 
 
 3% 
 3% 
 
 3 78 
 
 4 
 
 474 
 
 4% 
 
 41/2 
 
 4% 
 
 4% 
 
 4 78 
 
 51/8 
 5% 
 
 5 72 
 
 "ai'^ 
 
 (§-- 
 
 18.17 
 21.80 
 25.73 
 27.87 
 34.67 
 37.10 
 39.61 
 42.19 
 47.60 
 50.40 
 56.44 
 59.53 
 62.69 
 65.94 
 69.28 
 72.68 
 79.80 
 87.08 
 91.05 
 
 672 
 
 7 
 
 V^ 
 
 8 1/2 
 
 9 
 
 91/2 
 10 
 
 10% 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 
 o '^ 
 
 ft 
 
 Sit; . 
 .^^^ 
 
 ^<^B 
 
 bc'rj, " 
 
 107.21 
 124.71 
 143.50 
 163.65 
 185.05 
 207.76 
 231.89 
 257.29 
 283.92 
 311.92 
 341.43 
 404.04 
 472.08 
 545.16 
 631.68 
 715.68 
 806.40 
 900.48 
 
 Some more interesting figures were obtained in different methods 
 of doing the work, that is machining straps on the shaper as against 
 doing the same work on a planer, and milling brasses on a milling 
 machine, as against doing the same work on a shaper. 
 
1656 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 It will be noted also that there are two prices given for lathe 
 work, the price for two lathes being cheaper than that for one 
 lathe. In this latter case the workmen would rough out on the 
 one lathe and finish on the second. This difference of price in con- 
 nection with the use of more than one tool is emphasized in the 
 turning of crank shafts for these same center-crank engines for 
 instance. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 COSTS OF VARIOUS MACHINE OPERATIONS ON 
 STEAM ENGINES 
 
 BEDS 
 
 Drilling Babbetting 
 
 Size of Pillow Other and putting 
 
 engine blocks holes Planing in studs 
 
 8x12 $0.12 $0.27 $0.50 $0.90 
 
 9x12 0.12 0.29 0.50 0.90 
 
 10x12 0.14 0.29 0.60 1.05 
 
 10x15 0.16 0.35 0.70 1.15 
 
 11x15 0.18 0.40 0.80 1.25 
 
 12x16 0.20 0.45 0.90 1.60 
 
 CYLINDERS 
 
 Size of Boring Vise Turning 
 
 engine 1 mch. 2 mch. Planing work heads Drilling 
 
 8x12 $0.76 $0.60 $0.50 $1.15 $0.22 $0.25 
 
 9x12 0.80 0.64 0.65 1.20 0.25 0.29 
 
 10x12 0.88 0.70 0.70 1.20 0.30 0.32 
 
 10x15 0.96 0.77 0.85 1.30 0.30 0.34 
 
 11x15 1.02 0.82 0.85 1.60 0.35 0.37 
 
 12x16 1.12 0.90 0.95 1.60 0.10 0.40 
 
 14x16 1.44 1.15 1.20 2.25 0.60 0.45 
 
 PISTONS 
 
 Size of Bolt cutter Rings, 
 
 engine Turning Drilling on rods turning 
 
 8x12 $0.80 $0.12 $0.12 $0.13 
 
 9x12 0.88 0.15 0.15 0.14 
 
 10x12 1.00 0.20 0.20 0.15 
 
 10x15 1.00 0.20 0.20 0.15 
 
 11x15 1.20 0.20 0.20 0.16 
 
 12x16 1.25 0.25 0.25 0.17 
 
 14x16 1.50 0.30 0.30 0.19 
 
 SLIDES STEAM CHEST COVERS 
 
 Size Planing top Drilling Size -Planing Milling 
 
 8x12 $0.00 $0.07 8x12 $0.27 $0.15 
 
 9x12 0.40 0.07 9x12 0.30 0.17 
 
 10x12 0.40 0.07 10x12 0.30 0.20 
 
 10x15 0.45 0.07 10x15 0.32 0.22 
 
 11x15 0.55 0.07 11x15 0.35 0.25 
 
 12x16 0.70 0,08 12x16 0.40 0.25 
 
 14x16 1.00 0.10 14x16 0.50 0.30 
 
 In roughing out the workman could easily run two lathes or in 
 finishing it paid him to hire an apprentice at a fixed rate to assist 
 him in running the three lathes. 
 
 A large saving in cost was made by tapping the holes which had 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1657 
 
 TABLE V. TIME REQUIRED TO TURN. KEY-SEAT AND 
 BALANCE, PULLEYS, PER INCH WIDTH OF FACE 
 
 Allowance is made for pulleys in rough, hours and decimal parts of 
 
 an hour 
 
 c 
 
 -^t^ -Sj^ ^^^ 
 
 t^^ 2JS^ l^s 
 
 6 .283 54 1.789 100 3 23 
 
 8 .346 56 1.852 102 3',29 
 
 10 .408 58 1.915 104 3.35 
 
 12 .471 60 1.977 106 3.41 
 
 14 .534 62 2.040 108 3.47 
 
 16 .585 64 2.100 110 3.54 
 
 18 .648 66 2.160 112 3.60 
 
 20 .711 68 2.220 114 3.66 
 
 22 .774 70 2.280 116 3.72 
 
 24 .836 72 2.350 118 3.80 
 
 26 .899 74 2.41 120 3.84 
 
 28 .962 76 2.47 122 3 90 
 
 30 1.026 78 2.54 124 3.96 
 
 32 1.083 80 2.60 126 4.00 
 
 34 1.151 82 2.68 128 4.06 
 
 36 1.213 84 2.72 130 4.12 
 
 38 1.276 86 2.79 132 4.18 
 
 40 1.339 88 2.85 134 4.25 
 
 42 1.402 90 2.91 136 4.31 
 
 44 1.465 92 2.98 138 4.37 
 
 46 1.528 94 3.00 140 4.43 
 
 48 1.590 96 3.00 142 4.49 
 
 50 1.663 98 3.16 144 4.54 
 
 TABLE VI. COSTS OF VARIOUS OPERATIONS ON STANDARD 
 BOILERS; HAND WORK 
 
 Setting Flues 
 
 1 14 -inch and 2-inch flues 5 cents 
 
 3-inch flues 6 cents 
 
 3 y^ -inch and 4-inch flues 8 cents 
 
 6-inch flues 12 cents 
 
 Punching and reaming flue holes 30 cts. per hundred 
 
 Chipping edges of sheets of boilers 4 Mj cts. per lineal foot 
 
 Caulking 2 cts. per lineal foot 
 
 Punching rivet holes 15 cts. per hundred 
 
 Riveting boilers with either steam or hydraulic rivets, 40 cts. per 
 
 hundred rivets, an average day's work being about one thousand 
 
 %-inch rivets. 
 Stay bolts, 3% cts. each for tapping, putting in, and driving, 
 
 to be threaded in the cylinders by machinery at the same time that 
 the holes in the cylinders were being drilled; for instance, in a 10 
 by 12 cylinder there are sixteen holes which average % in, and 
 sixteen small holes for attaching the sections of the jacket to the 
 cylinder. The price for drilling all of these holes was 32 cts., 
 
 oH 
 
1658 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 or 1 ct. per hole ; which is very much cheaper than they could be 
 tapped by hand afterwards. 
 
 It may seem a difficult thing to make piece work prices on 
 painting, including- the striping, of such things as engines, but for 
 
 Engines 18 x 12 to 10 x 12 the price was $0.80, 
 10x15 to 12x16 " " " 0.90, 
 
 13 X 16 to 14 X 18 " " " 1.00, including varnishing. 
 
 These prices included varnishing also. 
 
 Machine Tools. Cutting Speed, Diameter of Cut, R.P.M., Length 
 Finished per Minute. J. H. VanDeventer in Lefax gives the fol- 
 lowing data applicable to lathe and boring mill work, when the 
 diameter of the cut and the desired cutting speed are known : 
 
 1 — The necessary r.p.m. to secure the cutting speed. 
 
 2 — The length of cut finished per min. with a given feed. The 
 latter is of great value in estimating time required to finish a 
 given job, or to check up time records to see if a reasonable dura- 
 tion has been exceeded. 
 
 By means of the double scales, A and B, diam. from 0.7 in. to 
 60 ins. are included in Fig. 1. The capacity of curves of 
 reference may often be widely increased by shifting the decimal 
 points in this manner, in the same way that the universal slide 
 rule decimal point is shifted. 
 
 By doubling values on the scale of cutting speeds, this chart of 
 curves may be used up to a cutting speed of 200 ft. per min., which 
 is as high as will be used in ordinary shopwork. In this case, the 
 values of the A and B scales, both horizontal and vertical, should 
 be doubled. 
 
 Example 1 — What is the necessary r.p.m. for an 18-in. diam. to 
 secure a cutting speed of 60 ft. per min.? 
 
 Find the 18-in. curve as denoted on scale A at the top of the chart, 
 and run down this curve to the horizontal representing 60 ft. cut- 
 ting speed. Then drop vertically to bottom of chart and read 
 12.7 r.p.m. on lower horizontal scale A, 
 
 Example 2 — In this case, with 12.7 r.p.m. and a feed of % in. 
 per revolution, what distance will be finished per min.? 
 
 From 12.7 r.p.m. on horizontal scale A, run vertically to angular 
 line representing %-in. feed. From this intersection, run horizon- 
 tally to right vertical scale A, and read 1.58 ins. 
 
 Example 3 — Given 40 ft. cutting speed, 2 ins. diameter of cut, 
 %2 in. feed per revolution, what length will be finished per minute? 
 
 From 2 ins. diameter on scale B at top of chart, run down the 
 angular curve representing this diameter until it intersects the 
 horizontal representing 40 ft. per min. cutting speed. Then ver- 
 tically until the angular line represent %2-in. feed is intersected 
 and from this point horizontally to right vertical scale B, and 
 read 2.4 ins. 
 
 The results obtained with these curves will be fully as accurate 
 as slide rule results and obtained in one quarter the time. 
 
 Practical Cutting Speeds. For detailed experiments on roughing 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1659 
 
 cuts, see Taylor's Art of Cutting Metals. The following will 
 serve as a guide to good modern practice using high speed steels. 
 
 Cast iron Steel Brass 
 
 per min. per min. per min. 
 
 Soft 60 to 100 ft. 80 to 150 ft. 150 to 200 ft. 
 
 Medium 40 to 60 ft. 60 to 80 ft. 80 to 150 ft. 
 
 Hard 20 to 40 ft. 35 to 60 ft. 40 to 80 ft. 
 
 Limits depend on the feed and depth of cut. Properly treated and 
 ground tools should stand up at these speeds at least one hour 
 between grindings. All tools should have the cutting edges rubbed 
 with an oilstone after grinding, before putting in use. 
 
 Standard shapes, angles and hardening methods must be adopted 
 if standard cutting speeds are to be insisted upon and obtained. 
 Tools should be ground only by an expert, and dry wheels should 
 be abolished. 
 
 Cutting SPEED - RPM - DiAMEITER OF CUT-LEN5TH FIMiSHEO P£R WINUTE 
 
 Fig. 1. Cutting speeds of machine tools. 
 
 Cutting Speed of High Speed Steel on Turret Lathes. H. I. 
 
 Brackenbury (Engineering News, Aug. 18, 1910), states that on 
 turret lathes the highest class of high-speed steel is now largely 
 used, and tools with a very sharp cutting-angle are employed. A 
 test, carried out at the works of Messrs. Alfred Herbert, gave the 
 following result in reducing a mild-steel bar from l^/^ ins. to %-in. 
 diam. at one cut, with tool clearance angle 7 degs. ; side slope 
 35 degs ; cutting angle, 48 degs. 
 
 Cutting 
 speed, 
 
 Tool R.p.m 
 
 Carbon steel 149 * 
 
 Class C, special high-speed 
 
 steel 470 
 
 ft. per 
 min. 
 58.5 
 
 185 
 
 Feed 
 
 per 
 
 rev. 
 
 0.0134 
 
 0.05 
 
 Lbs. 
 Feed removed 
 per 
 min. 
 0.753 
 
 per 
 min. 
 
 2.01 
 23.5 
 
 8.8125 
 
 Cost of Tempering of Tools. The following from the Railway 
 Electrical Engineer, Oct., 1915, gives some costs on tempering 
 tools : 
 
1660 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Dies. Reports from four different sources show it is the gen- 
 era-1 practice on this road to purchase dies for a small diameter 
 bolt, as a rule %-in. size, and as they become worn they are 
 softened, bored, rethreaded and retempered for use on %-in. 
 size bolts. They are again used until worn down so not fit for 
 further use and again pass through the same process as before 
 increasing them to the next larger size. These several processes 
 are carried on until the stock of the dies is so much used up it is 
 impossible to go through with another, which usually ends when 
 the dies have been worked up to 1 in. or 1% ins., thus the one 
 die serves during its life for the several sizes if it is properly 
 worked and handled. 
 
 Costs. The costs herein used are an average obtained from 
 several different shops taken independently of each other and then 
 compiled and although an average is . used in no cases were the 
 limits of high and low costs greater or less than 10% from each 
 other ; therefore, should be quite correct. It will also be under- 
 stood that costs of air are based on an electric driven blower cur- 
 rent costing two cents per kilowatt-hour and on such tools that 
 will require more than one heat to work them this is taken' into 
 account per unit price each. 
 
 DIES 
 
 Labor to Retem- 
 
 Size Softening increase size pering Total 
 
 Va in. to % in $0.0383 $0.10 $0,041 $.1793 
 
 % in. to % in 0378 .112 .04 .1898 
 
 % in. to Vs in 0371 .121 .04 .1981 
 
 % in. to 1 in 0365 .142 .038 .2165 
 
 1 in. to 1% ins 031 .161 .038 .23 
 
 1% in. to 1% ins 031 .164 .038 .233 
 
 In making these figures, machinists' labor costs at 40 cts. per 
 hr. were used and the blacksmiths' labor at 39 cts. per hr. 
 
 TAPS 
 
 Labor of 
 
 Size Softening dressing Retempering 
 
 1% in. to 1 in $0.0423 $0,123 $0.0542 
 
 1 into % in 041 .119 .0540 
 
 Total 
 $0.2195 
 .214 
 
 REAMERS 
 
 Nothing obtainable on this. 
 
 MACHINE TOOLS 
 
 Size Labor of dressing Tempering 
 
 Small $0.0633 $0,043 
 
 Large 0825 .052 
 
 Very littls information was obtainable on these. 
 
 Total 
 $0.1073 
 .1345 
 
 CHISELS 
 
 Size Labor of dressing 
 
 Small $0,041 
 
 Large 063 
 
 Tempering 
 
 Total 
 
 $0,032 
 
 $0,073 
 
 .052 
 
 .104 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1661 
 
 The last two items are usually of the best steel and it is neces- 
 sary often to make more than one heat to work them. Some of 
 the costs collected under the head of " Chisels " are considerably 
 higher than here given. 
 
 Cost of Tools and Equipment in tlie Shops of an Electric Railroad. 
 The following costs of tools and equipment were taken from an 
 appraisal by the authors in 1912: 
 
 MACHINE SHOP TOOLS 
 
 1 Pease planter 24 in. by 6 ft. stroke complete with counter- 
 shaft $ 250 
 
 1 Forsyth lathe with countershaft, 24 in 750 
 
 1 20 in. Forsyth lathe with countershaft 450 
 
 1 26 in. American lathe with countershaft 1,200 
 
 1 24 in. American lathe 1,200 
 
 2 air compressors 12 in. by 14 in., G. S. D. (made by Chicago 
 
 Pneumatic Co.) complete with 2 36 in. by 8 ft. air tanks 
 piping and 2 air gauges 1,800 
 
 1 National brake and elec. air compressor, type V. S. 90, 225 
 cu. ft. No. 118 A complete with induction motor, 40 h.p., 
 2 phase 95-4/10 amps., 200 volt with air tank 5 ins. 
 diam.. 11 ft. 10 in. long piping 2,150 
 
 1 two-ton Sprague electric hoist 433 
 
 4 10-screw car hoists (Hefferman Machine Works, Seattle, 
 
 Wash.), equipped with G. E. 1,200 motor and A 2 con- 
 troller 7,000 
 
 8 wooden horses with iron roller used for handling rail on 
 
 bulldozer 64 
 
 1 250 lb. steam hammer 405 
 
 1 1.100 lb. steam hammer (made by Bement Niles Co.) 1.500 
 
 1 National bolt cutting machine complete with counter shaft 
 
 and dies 500 
 
 1 Q. and C. rail cut off machine with counter shaft and two 
 saws, also 66 Faber cut off saw teeth. Complete 40 
 Faber saw teeth. Wedges Faber saw teeth, yokes with 
 
 set screws 1,500 
 
 1 G. E. 714 h.p. induction motor, 10 amps., 220 volt 130 
 
 1 G. E. 20 h.p. induction motor, 44 amps., 220 volt 292 
 
 1 G. E. 25 h.p. induction motor, 56 amps., 220 volt 290 
 
 1 G. E. 25 h.p. induction motor. 61 amps., 220 volt 290 
 
 1 Beauford 48 in. boring mill with No. 27 Midvale self harden- 
 ing steel tools 1,200 
 
 1 22-in. Barns drill press 75 
 
 2 20-in. Barns drill press 150 
 
 1 24-in. Aurora drill press 75 
 
 1 48-in. American radial drill press with countershaft 1,400 
 
 1 26-in. back gear drill press 75 
 
 1 Baudry automatic belt hammer 150 
 
 1 American twist drill grinder with one emery wheel and 1 
 
 carborundum wheel 65 
 
 1 derrick with 12 in. by 12 in. wooden mast and 12 in. by 12 in, 
 
 wooden boom 60 ft. long equipped with hoist manufac- 
 tured by Am. Hoist and Derrick Co., St. Paul 1,800 
 
 5 steel jib swing cranes 150 
 
 4 steel jib wall cranes 120 
 
 2 wooden jib swing cranes 20 
 
 1 steel jib swing crane ' 75 
 
 1 car wheel hoist crane ^5 
 
 1 32-in. stroke complete with countershaft fiber pulley 8 in. 
 
 diam., 4 in. face Cincinnati shaper machine 800 
 
 Midvale self-hardening steel tools No. 38 30 
 
 1 Septol shaper 24 in. stroke complete with countershaft ^50 
 
 1 Niles Bement car wheel lathe complete with G. E. motor 
 class C. 20 form B. 25 h.p., 500 volt, 43 amps., constant 
 current 6,000 
 
16C2 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Mid vale self -hardening- steel tool No. 120 $ 96 
 
 1 18 in. American lathe with countershaft 750 
 
 1 stamping machine with 60 assorted punches and dies for 
 
 bloclving, breaking and drilling controller parts 700 
 
 1 Highey rail cutoff saw machine complete with G. E. induc- 
 tion motor, 10 h.p. 23 amps., 220 volt, and 2-30-in. Diss- 
 
 ton saws 1.500 
 
 1 Ajax bulldozer machine with 16 steel dies for bending rails. 1,400 
 
 1 track grinder machine with 1 2-m. by 12-in. carborundum 
 
 wheel and 1 3-in. by 12-in. wheel 250 
 
 1 machine for grinding switch tongue with 1 2-in. by 20-in. 
 
 carborundum wheel 150 
 
 2 hand power shearing machines 20 
 
 1 Doty jjower punch and shear combined No. 17 G 1,000 
 
 1 Radial drill press with countershaft, No. 2 Bickford 700 
 
 1 150-ton capacity Shaffer hydraulic wheel press 750 
 
 1 snuiil hydraulic press with 7-in. i)lunger 200 
 
 1 Putnam 30--in. planer 8 ft. stroke complete \Vith counter 
 
 shaft 2.700 
 
 1 Cincinnati 42-in. planer 14 ft. stroke complete with coun- 
 
 tershaft 4.000 
 
 Wheel grinder machine complete with countershaft 2 car- 
 borundum wheels 21/2 by 18 in 350 
 
 Westinghouse d.c. motor 2~iA h.p. 5 3/10 in. amps 60 
 
 G. E. induction motor 7^2 a.j.p. 19 amps. 220 volt 130 
 
 G. E. continuous current motor, open 15 h.p. closed 7 h.p., open 
 
 25 1/2 amps,, closed 13 amps 240 
 
 G. E. continuous current motor, 3 h.p., 5 43/100 amps., 500 
 
 volt 60 
 
 G. E. shunt wound 5 h.p. motor 9 amps., 500 volt 65 
 
 2 G. E. induction motors 60 h.p.. 14 amps., 2,080 volt 1.362 
 
 G. E. induction motor m h.p., 15 1/91 amps., 220 volt 130 
 
 G. E. induction motor 7V2 h.p., 18 amps. 220 volt 130 
 
 WOODWORKING MACHINERY IN CARPENTER SHOP 
 
 1 J. A. Day tennoning machine, estimated value $ 150 
 
 1 54-in. Royal invincible sanding machine (2nd hand cost 
 
 $700) 700 
 
 1 Foley band saw filing machine, value 45 
 
 1 Eagon mortising machine 250 
 
 1 double emery stand Northampton 45 
 
 1 pattern lathe Eagon, 10-in. swing 65 
 
 1 Oliver bench saw and trimming machine, cost about 35 j 
 
 1 24-in. pony planer Eagon 450 
 
 1 band saw 36-in. Crescent Mfg. Co 75 
 
 1 wood 36-in. band saw 200 
 
 1 Cordsman savv' bench 75 
 
 1 Eagon 8-in. jointer 150 
 
 1 Williamsport 4 sided 6-in. sticker 105 
 
 1 Greenle rip saw, value 300 
 
 1 American swing cut off saw 75 
 
 80 ft. 2 1/2 in. shafting, 12 pulleys 300 
 
 1 American 4 sided 7-in. sticker 150 
 
 50 ft. 2-in. shafting, 10 pulleys 200 
 
 1 25 h.p., 2 phase 200 volt, shop meter 275 
 
 2 500 volt, 3 h.p., fan motor , 120 
 
 1 Standaid sewing machine 35 
 
 3 Wilcox bench vises 15 
 
 1 steam glue pot 15 
 
 ELECTRIC REPAIR SHOP TOOLS 
 
 1 12-in. W. P. Davis speed lathe $ 50 
 
 1 24-in. Armature banding lathe 175 
 
 1 24-in. Commutator grooving lathe 200 
 
 1 32-in. Peck. Stow & Wilcox cutting machine 40 
 
 1 double head emery stand 15 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1663 
 
 1 3-in. bench vise % \q 
 
 1 5-in. bench vise ....*...'.'..*.'.". 10 
 
 2 6-in. bench vises ..'..'.','.. 10 
 
 2 Field winding machines ..'.'.'.".',*.'.'..'* 150 
 
 2 armature coil taping machines '..*..'.'.'. 150 
 
 1 one ton electric hoist and carriage, Sprague Co .*.*.'.." 475 
 
 Cost of Equipment for a Boiler and Blacksmith Shop. E. H. 
 Jones (Bulletin of American Institute of Mining Engineers, July 
 1914) in describing the equipment of the boiler and machine shops 
 of the Arizona Copper Co. of Clifton. Ariz., gives the purchase price 
 of tools and the labor required to install them as follows : 
 
 Factory Freight Total 
 
 1 No. 2 punch and shear (Hilles & Jones) $1,530 $435 $1,965.00 
 
 1 No. bending rolls 580 75 '655.00 
 
 One 1,100-lb. steam hammer (Niles-Be- 
 
 ment-Pond Co.) 1 blower, size 5, type 
 
 D (American Blower Co.) 1,015 408 1,423.00 
 
 One 5-h.p. 440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle 1,720 
 
 r.p.m. motor 160 19 179.90 
 
 1 No. 5 swage block ... 35.08 
 
 1 Peter Wright anvil, weight 497 lb ... 70.57 
 
 10 in. galv. iron pipe and connections ... 106.63 
 
 3 sheets steel, % in. by 48 ins. by 120 
 
 ins = 16.02 
 
 One 2-in. heading, upsetting and forging 
 
 machine, (Acme Machinery Co.).... 2,790 440 3,230.70 
 
 1 sisco anvil, 407 lb ... 46.60 
 
 1 (Hay Budden) anvil, 420 lb 48.10 
 
 40 ft. of 6-in. I-beam 12.62 
 
 Castings ... 41.00 
 
 Miscellaneous ... 29.14 
 
 $7,859.31 
 
 Cost of Equipment for a Smelter Plant Machine and Blacksmith 
 Shop. In describing the equipment of the machine shops of the 
 Arizona Copper Co. of Clifton, Ariz., Mr. Jones gives the purchase 
 price of material and the labor cost of installing as follows : 
 
 Cost 
 installed 
 
 1 (Prentiss) machine bench vise. No. 2 $20.15 
 
 1 machine bench vise. No. 21 20.16 
 
 1 machine bench vise, No. 22 28.85 
 
 1 machine pipe vise, No. 2A. , 2.38 
 
 1 machine pipe vise, No. 4A , 7.77 
 
 1 stationary bench vise. No. 56 20.72 
 
 40 ft. of IVo-in. pipe 2.97 
 
 1 No. 48 power grindstone 56.62 
 
 2 emery wheels 8.90 
 
 1 emery wheel grinder 17.00 
 
 1 No. 40 special turning machine 36.22 
 
 1 set faces for wiring machine 5.56 
 
 1 gauge 2.35 
 
 1 burr machine and stand }. 
 
 1 No. 17 S. P. crimper and stand 10.77 
 
 1 No. 3 beading machine oaI^ 
 
 1 No. 0236 squaring shears 180.86 
 
 1 stake-holder and stakes ^oif 
 
 1 rivet set 2.65 
 
 1 No. 101 tinner's rule o I 
 
 1 power hack saw No. 3 , . . 29.63 
 
1664 MECHANIC4L AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Cost 
 installed 
 1 radial drill press, 42 ins $752.20 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 1 50-in. cornice brake 
 
 1 16-in. rip saw 
 
 Castings 
 
 1 No. 1 drill chuck . . . 
 
 1 No. 21/2 drill chuck . 
 72 hack saw blades . . . 
 
 21.92 
 
 155.96 
 
 4.30 
 
 10.10 
 5.61 
 7,02 
 5.55 
 
 1 surfacer, 20 in. by 6 in 
 
 1 No. 50 hand saw 
 
 1 lathe, 14 in. by 8 ft 
 
 1 lathe (McCabe) patented double 
 spindle , 
 
 1 Crescent saw table 
 
 One 20-in. (Rockford) shaper 
 
 One ^-in. bolt cutter 
 
 1 (Crane) pipe machine 2 in 
 
 1 (Crane) pipe machine 4 in , 
 
 1 (Crane) pipe machine 12 in 
 
 Small tools, miscellaneous equipment. . 
 Total cost of all equipment 
 
 Factory 
 
 $180.00 
 
 175.00 
 
 563.75 
 
 2,111.00 
 168.75 
 425.00 
 355.00 
 192.00 
 480.00 
 
 1,500.00 
 
 Cost 
 
 Freight installed 
 
 $26.70 $206.70 
 
 27.45 202.45 
 
 81.40 645.15 
 
 277.15 
 51.34 
 
 175.07 
 47.10 
 16.56 
 44.10 
 
 163.59 
 
 2,388.15 
 220.09 
 600.07 
 402.10 
 208.56 
 524.10 
 
 1,663.59 
 
 394.36 
 
 $8,953.13 
 
 Cost of Brass, Iron and Lead Pipe, 
 various kinds of pipe. 
 
 The following costs are for 
 
 SEAMLESS BRASS PIPE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Size in ins. 
 
 per ft, lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 per ft. lbs. 
 
 Net price 
 
 % 
 
 .25 
 
 $0,080 
 
 .370 
 
 $0.12 
 
 14 
 
 .43 
 
 .136 
 
 .625 
 
 .20 
 
 % 
 
 .63 
 
 .168 
 
 .830 
 
 .22 
 
 % 
 
 .90 
 
 .228 
 
 1.200 
 
 .30 
 
 % 
 
 1.25 
 
 .300 
 
 1.66 
 
 .40 
 
 1 
 
 1.70 
 
 .408 
 
 2.36 
 
 .56 
 
 1^ 
 
 2.50 
 
 .600 
 
 3.30 
 
 .80 
 
 IV2 
 
 3.00 
 
 .720 
 
 4.25 
 
 1.02 
 
 2 
 
 4.00 
 
 .960 
 
 5.46 
 
 1.30 
 
 21/2 
 
 5.75 
 
 1.380 
 
 8.30 
 
 2.00 
 
 3 
 
 8.30 
 
 1.990 
 
 11.20 
 
 2.68 
 
 3V2 
 
 10.90 
 
 2.730 
 
 13.70 
 
 3.42 
 
 4 
 
 12.70 
 
 3.300 
 
 16.50 
 
 4.30 
 
 4y2 
 
 13.90 
 
 3.890 
 
 19.47 
 
 5.45 
 
 5 
 
 15.75 
 
 4.750 
 
 22.80 
 
 6.85 
 
 6 
 
 18.31 
 
 5.65 
 
 32.00 
 
 9.90 
 
 
 WROUGHT IRON BLACK 
 
 PIPE 
 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Weight 
 per ft., lbs. 
 
 Price 
 per ft. 
 
 Price 
 
 for 
 
 cutting 
 
 Price 
 
 for cutting 
 
 and threading 
 
 % 
 
 .244 
 
 $0.0165 
 
 $0.02 
 
 $0.03 
 
 
 .424 
 
 .0180 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 % 
 
 .567 
 
 .018 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 V2 
 
 .850 
 
 .0255 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 3/ 
 
 1.130 
 
 .0287 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 1 
 
 1.678 
 
 .0425 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 1% 
 
 2.272 
 
 .0575 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 iy2 
 
 2.717 
 
 .0670 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 2 
 
 3.652 
 
 .085 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 2V2 
 
 5.792 
 
 .135 
 
 .07 
 
 .10 
 
MISCELLANEO US 1665 
 
 Weight 
 
 Price 
 
 lerft.lbs. 
 
 per ft. 
 
 7.575 
 
 .176 
 
 9.109 
 
 .211 
 
 10.790 
 
 .262 
 
 12.538 
 
 .305 
 
 14.617 
 
 .355 
 
 18.974 
 
 .418 
 
 23.544 
 
 .642 
 
 28.554 
 
 .778 
 
 33.904 
 
 .930 
 
 40.483 
 
 1.110 
 
 45.557 
 
 1.250 
 
 49.562 
 
 1.370 
 
 54.568 
 
 1.510 
 
 58.573 
 
 1.650 
 
 62.579 
 
 1.750 
 
 Price 
 
 Price 
 
 for 
 
 for cutting 
 
 cutting 
 
 and threading 
 
 .10 
 
 $.15 
 
 .13 
 
 .20 
 
 .13 
 
 .20 
 
 .17 
 
 .25 
 
 .20 
 
 .30 
 
 .27 
 
 .40 
 
 .33 
 
 .50 
 
 .40 
 
 .60 
 
 .67 
 
 1.00 
 
 .83 
 
 1.25 
 
 Size, ins. 
 3 
 
 3y2 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 
 12 49.562 1.370 1.17 1.75 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 Prices per ft. for galvanized wrought iron pipe are 10% more than 
 those given above. 
 
 EXTRA STRONG WROUGHT IRON PIPE 
 
 Size, ins. Weight per ft., lbs. Net price per ft. 
 
 Vs 314 $0.0565 
 
 % 535 .0353 
 
 % 738 .0353 
 
 % 1.087 .0517 
 
 % 1.473 .0480 
 
 1 2.171 .0705 
 
 1% 2.996 .096 
 
 11/2 3.631 .117 
 
 2 5.022 .142 
 
 21/2 7.661 .216 
 
 3 10.252 .288 
 
 31/2 12.505 .350 
 
 4 14.983 .555 
 
 4% 17.611 .665 
 
 5 20.778 .770 
 
 6 28.573 1.070 
 
 7 38.048 1.410 
 
 8 43.388 1.610 
 
 SPIRAL, rtlVETED PIPE 
 
 Net price per 100 ft. 
 
 Thickness * 
 
 With bolted joints complete 
 
 
 Birmingham 
 wire gage 
 
 
 
 
 ins. 
 
 Plain 
 
 Ashphalted 
 
 Galvanized 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 $19.76 
 
 $21.48 
 
 $30.74 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 23.40 
 
 23.70 
 
 37.14 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 33.05 
 
 35.76 
 
 49.73 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 37.58 
 
 40.76 
 
 56.82 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 43.17 
 
 46.80 
 
 65.00 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 50.06 
 
 50.10 
 
 74.22 
 
 10 
 
 
 66.42 
 
 71.08 
 
 96.15 
 
 11 
 
 
 71.20 
 
 76.57 
 
 102.24 
 
 12 
 
 
 83.75 
 
 89.15 
 
 118.30 
 
 13 
 
 
 89.67 
 
 96.55 
 
 127.98 
 
 14 
 
 
 99.14 
 
 105.51 
 
 138.85 
 
 15 
 
 
 108.05 
 
 114.89 
 
 151.92 
 
 16 
 
 
 117.53 
 
 124.82 
 
 166.58 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 167.43 
 
 175.95 
 
 226.44 
 
 * Made in both lighter and heavier gages at corresponding differ- 
 ences in price. 
 
1666 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Net price per 100 ft. 
 
 Tt 
 
 lickness 
 
 Birmingham 
 wire gage 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 With 
 
 bolted joints 
 
 complete 
 
 ins. 
 20 
 22 
 24 
 26 
 28 
 30 
 
 Plain 
 $183.79 
 200.48 
 219.92 
 280.20 
 301.32 
 324.81 
 
 Ashphalted 
 $193.30 
 210.64 
 231.07 
 292.41 
 314.89 
 399.15 
 
 Galvanized 
 
 $248.39 
 269.21 
 293.99 
 370.78 
 395.37 
 430.64 
 
 The quotations are f.o.b. factory, freight equalized with New 
 York, being figured at a discount of 50, 10 and 10% from list. 
 These are for orders amounting to approximately $250. For large 
 orders, prices are cheaper by 121^4 to 20%. 
 
 , Size, ins. — 
 
 Destination 4 and 6 4 and larger 4 
 
 New York $20 to $21 
 
 Chicago $26 
 
 Birmingham $19.50 
 
 The above are net prices per ton. 
 Gas pipe is $1 per ton higher in all. 
 
 6 to 12 Over 12 
 $24 $23 
 
 LEAD PIPE 
 
 Size Weight per Size 
 
 ins. foot, lbs. ins. 
 
 %A ly^ 11/4 A 
 
 %B 1 11/46 
 
 % c % 1 Vi c 
 
 y2A 1% 11/2 A 
 
 y2B 11/4 ly^B 
 
 y2C 1 ly^c 
 
 % A 2 Va 2 A 
 
 % B 2 2 B 
 
 % C lya 2 C 
 
 % A 3 3 A 
 
 % B 214 3 B 
 
 % C 1% 3% A 
 
 1 A 4 3 ya B 
 
 1 B 31^ 4 B 
 
 1 C 21/2 4 C 
 
 A = Strong. B = Medium. C = Light. 
 
 Weight per 
 
 foot, lbs. 
 .... 4.% 
 .... 3% 
 
 3 
 
 . ... 6i1j 
 5 
 
 .... 4y4 
 
 8 
 
 .... 7 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 Net price for lead pipe under normal conditions to jobbers and 
 large consumers is 5.75 cts. per lb. and to small consumers 6.4 
 cts. per lb. 
 
 . 
 
 " STANDARD " CAST IRON FLANGED FITTINGS 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Tee 
 
 Cross 
 
 Elbow 
 
 2 
 
 $1.60 
 
 $2.20 
 
 $1.10 
 
 2y2 
 
 1.70 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.15 
 
 3 
 
 1.90 
 
 2.60 
 
 1.30 
 
 3y2 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.90 
 
 1.50 
 
 4 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.30 
 
 1.70 
 
 4y2 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.80 
 
 2.00 
 
 5 
 
 3.20 
 
 4.40 
 
 2.25 
 
 6 
 
 4.10 
 
 5.70 
 
 2.90 
 
 7 
 
 5.30 
 
 7.30 
 
 3,80 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 loc; 
 
 Size. ins. 
 
 Tee 
 
 Cross 
 
 Elbow 
 
 8 
 
 $6.80 
 
 $9.20 
 
 $4.80 
 
 9 
 
 8.40 
 
 11.50 
 
 6.00 
 
 10 
 
 10.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 7.20 
 
 12 
 
 10.50 
 
 21.00 
 
 10.50 
 
 14 
 
 20.00 
 
 29.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 15 
 
 23.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 16 
 
 27.00 
 
 38.00 
 
 19.00 
 
 18 
 
 35.00 
 
 49.00 
 
 23.00 
 
 20 
 
 43.00 
 
 62.00 
 
 29.00 
 
 24 
 
 64.00 
 
 92.00 
 
 42.00 
 
 Forty-five degree bends cost about the same as elbows and Y' 
 about the same as crosses. 
 
 The above fittings are for pressures up to 125 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 COST OF DRILLING PER " STANDARD " CAST IRON FITTING 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Tee 
 
 Elbow 
 
 Cross 
 
 2 
 
 $0.39 
 
 $0.26 
 
 $0.52 
 
 2% 
 
 .46 
 
 .33 
 
 .65 
 
 3 
 
 .46 
 
 .33 
 
 .65 
 
 SVa 
 
 .46 
 
 .33 
 
 .65 
 
 4 
 
 .75 
 
 .52 
 
 1,04 
 
 4^2 
 
 .75 
 
 .52 
 
 1.04 
 
 5 
 
 .75 
 
 .52 
 
 1.04 
 
 6 
 
 .75 
 
 .52 
 
 1.04 
 
 7 
 
 1.50 
 
 .98 
 
 1.95 
 
 8 
 
 1.50 
 
 .98 
 
 1.95 
 
 9 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.04 
 
 2.10 
 
 10 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.04 
 
 2.10 
 
 12 
 
 2.35 
 
 1.56 
 
 3.10 
 
 14 
 
 2.85 
 
 1.80 
 
 3.65 
 
 15 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.10 
 
 4.15 
 
 16 
 
 3.40 
 
 2.35 
 
 4.75 
 
 Net cost for drilling 45 deg. bends, is the same as for elbows and 
 Y's about the same as crosses. 
 
 " STANDARD " CAST IRON COMPANION FLANGES 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 1 
 
 X 4 
 
 ly* 
 
 X 4y2 
 
 iy2 
 
 X 5 
 
 2 
 
 X 6 
 
 2y2 
 
 X 7 
 
 3 
 
 X IV2 
 
 3y2 
 
 X 8 Ms 
 
 4 
 
 X 9 
 
 4y2 
 
 X 9% 
 
 5 
 
 X 10 
 
 6 
 
 xll 
 
 7 
 
 xi2y2 
 
 8 
 
 xl3i/a 
 
 9 
 
 xl5 
 
 10 
 
 xl6 
 
 12 
 
 xl9 
 
 14 
 
 x21 
 
 15 
 
 x21 
 
 15 
 
 x22^ 
 
 16 
 
 x23y8 
 
 18 
 
 x25 
 
 20 
 
 x27ya 
 
 22 
 
 x29M! 
 
 24 
 
 x32 
 
 Faced 
 
 $0.26 
 
 .27 
 
 .29 
 
 .32 
 
 .37 
 
 .42 
 
 .47 
 
 .56 
 
 .65 
 
 .73 
 
 .83 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.70 
 
 4.70 
 
 4.70 
 
 5.80 
 
 7.15 
 
 7.80 
 
 8.80 
 
 10.60 
 
 Faced and drilled 
 $0.32 
 
 .35 
 
 .37 
 
 .39 
 
 .52 
 
 .59 
 
 .65 
 
 .78 
 
 .87 
 
 .95 
 1.04 
 1.50 
 1.70 
 2.15 
 2.40 
 3.25 
 4.15 
 5.45 
 5.45 
 6.80 
 8.15 
 8.85 
 10.00 
 12.00 
 
1668 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 " EXTRA HEAVY " CAST IRON FLANGED FITTINGS 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Tee 
 
 Cross 
 
 Elbow 
 
 2 
 
 $2.45 
 
 $3.25 
 
 $1.65 
 
 21/2 
 
 2.65 
 
 3.50 
 
 1.80 
 
 3 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 31/2 
 
 3.30 
 
 4.50 
 
 2.25 
 
 4 
 
 3.80 
 
 5.20 
 
 2.55 
 
 41/2 
 
 4.40 
 
 6.00 
 
 2.90 
 
 5 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.80 
 
 3.30 
 
 6 
 
 6.40 
 
 8.80 
 
 4.30 
 
 7 
 
 8.25 
 
 11.50 
 
 5.60 
 
 8 
 
 10.50 
 
 14.50 
 
 7.00 
 
 9 
 
 13.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 10 
 
 16.00 
 
 22.00 
 
 11.00 
 
 12 
 
 23.00 
 
 31.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 14 
 
 32.00 
 
 43.00 
 
 22.00 
 
 15 
 
 37.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 26.00 
 
 16 
 
 42.50 
 
 57.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 18 
 
 55.00 
 
 72.00 
 
 38.00 
 
 20 
 
 68.00 
 
 90.00 
 
 47.00 
 
 24 
 
 100.00 
 
 
 70.00 
 
 Forty-five deg. bends cost about the same as elbows for all 
 sizes over 5 ins. ; the smaller sizes, howeA'-er, cost about 8% more 
 than prices given above. Y fittings are about the same as those 
 for crosses. 
 
 The above fittings are for pressures up to 250 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 COST OF DRILLING PER " EXTRA HEAVY " CAST IRON FITTING 
 
 Size in ins. 
 
 Tee 
 
 Cross 
 
 Elbow 
 
 2 
 
 $.61 
 
 $.81 
 
 $.40 
 
 21/2 
 
 .71 
 
 1.00 
 
 .50 
 
 3 
 
 .71 
 
 1.00 
 
 .50 
 
 31/2 
 
 .71 
 
 1.00 
 
 .50 
 
 4 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.62 
 
 .81 
 
 4y2 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.62 
 
 .81 
 
 5 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.62 
 
 .81 
 
 6 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.62 
 
 .81 
 
 7 
 
 2.30 
 
 3.05 
 
 1.52 
 
 8 
 
 2.30 
 
 3.05 
 
 1.52 
 
 9 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.25 
 
 1.62 
 
 10 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.25 
 
 1.62 
 
 12 
 
 3.65 
 
 4.85 
 
 1.45 
 
 14 
 
 4.45 
 
 5.70 
 
 1.85 
 
 15 
 
 4.85 
 
 6.50 
 
 3.25 
 
 16 
 
 5.25 
 
 7.30 
 
 3.65 
 
 18 
 
 6.10 
 
 8.10 
 
 4.00 
 
 20 8.10 10.50 5.25 
 
 24 12.25 16.20 8.10 
 
 Net cost for drilling 45 deg. bends are the same as for elbows 
 and Y's about the same as for crosses. 
 
 " EXTRA HEAVY " 
 
 ' CAST IRON COMPANION 
 
 FLANGES 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 Faced 
 
 Faced and drilled 
 
 1 X 41/2 
 
 $0.40 
 
 $0.50 
 
 114 X 5 
 
 .42 
 
 .54 
 
 li/ox 6 
 
 .44 
 
 .56 
 
 2 X 61^ 
 
 .48 
 
 .60 
 
 2y2x 7y2 
 
 3 X 8% 
 
 .56 
 
 .80 
 
 .64 
 
 .90 
 
 sygx 9 
 
 .72 
 
 1.00 
 
BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1669 
 
 Size, ins. 
 
 4 
 
 xlO 
 
 4% X 101/2 
 
 5 
 
 xll 
 
 6 
 
 X 121/2 
 
 7 
 
 X 14 
 
 8 
 
 X 15 
 
 9 
 
 xl6^ 
 
 10 
 
 X 171/2 
 
 12 
 
 x20 
 
 14 
 
 x 221/2 
 
 15 
 
 X 23 1/2 
 
 16 
 
 x25 
 
 18 
 
 X 27 
 
 20 
 
 X 291/2 
 
 22 
 
 x3iy2 
 
 24 
 
 x34i^ 
 
 Faced 
 
 Faced and drilled 
 
 1.86 
 
 $1.20 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.30 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.70 
 
 4.20 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.50 
 
 6.40 
 
 7.20 
 
 8.40 
 
 9.00 
 
 10.40 
 
 11.00 
 
 12.40 
 
 12.00 
 
 13.60 
 
 13.60 
 
 15.60 
 
 16.40 
 
 18.40 
 
 Wood Stave Pipe. Key to table of dimensions and prices given 
 in Table V. 
 
 A — Machine banded fir stave pipe, f.o.b. ships tac^jile, Port- 
 land or Seattle. Pipe packed and crated for export. 
 
 B — Pipe made of Oregons or Douglas fir, with li/> in. shell. 
 Lengths of pipe from 8 to 16 ft., with not more than 10% less than 
 10 ft. Inserted joint couplings made of the pipe (slip joint), one 
 end of pipe being trimmed off for 3 ins., forming a tenon, the 
 other end to be reamed to receive tenon. The wire gauge used to 
 be W.-M. Standard, No. 4 being 0.225 and No. 2 being 0.263 ins. 
 in diameter. (B 1) — "Wood sleeve coupling to be of same class 
 of material as the pipe sections, and not less than 6 ins. in length. 
 No sap wood allowed in couplings. Couplings to be spirally wound 
 with wire having a spacing not greater than one-half of spacing 
 of wire on pipe. (B 2) — Individual band coupling to be made 
 of staves and in same manner as wood sleep coupling, except that 
 individual bands of round mild steel of size designated shall be 
 used for the banding. Each band to be headed and threaded and 
 supplied with nut and washer, and a malleable cast iron or drop 
 forged shoe to be used in clinching the bands. The wire used 
 shall be galvanized and have a strength of not less than 60,000 
 lbs. per sq. in. The prices given are f. o. b. cars, Portland, Ore. 
 
 C — Fir pipe of li/^ in. staves, with 8 in. sleeve couplings, each 
 with three individual Y2 in. round mild steel bands. 
 
 D — Similar pipe to C, but with steel adjustable clamp couplings. 
 Weight per foot approximately the same as C. 
 
 E — Similar to C but with i/^ in. bands (spaced as shown in 
 table) instead of spirally wound wire and shipped "knocked 
 down." The weight of the lumber used would be about 2,200 lbs. 
 per thousand board feet of lumber, and the weight of the bands 
 per thousand lineal feet of pipe as shown in the table. 
 
 F — Pipe similar to E but with steel couplings similar to those 
 used in D. The prices of pipe under C, D, E and F are given 
 f.o.b. cars, dock, Tacoma. 
 
 G — Redwood pipe, machine banded, built in sections of random 
 lengths of from 8 to 20 ft. Wire having tensile strength of 60,000 
 to 65,000 lbs. per sq. in, shall be spaced with a safety factor of 4, 
 
1670 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 O O OS O r-l 
 
 P -^J Jad 8DUd us «o to oo OS 
 
 SuiO-BdS ^ ^^ g^ §^ 
 
 § 
 
 PU^ aSllBS 9JTM 
 
 o 
 
 SI 
 
 (sqi) W 
 
 
 :^J aad eouj 
 
 eg 
 
 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 ;?J 
 
 
 t- 
 
 
 OS 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 P3 
 
 M 
 
 U3 
 
 
 
 
 T-i 
 
 
 eg 
 
 
 eg 
 
 eg 
 
 (M 
 
 s 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 S^ ^^ -^^ ';^ 
 
 (Mi^ iH(^ tHi<^ tH 
 
 Ill 
 I— I 
 
 Oh 
 M 
 
 Q ( suT ) SuTxdnoo pu^ 
 
 O 9dTd JO -ui^ip ^pIs:^no 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 H O So 
 
 y SuTOBdS ^ aj -^r,* „• 
 
 '*'< ("SQT) '11 00rHt-O'*«0«^00CT>U3 
 
 w a9dmsx8M ^ 3 S ?5-^' 1^ ^ ^ S ^' 
 
 o 
 
 g ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 ci 
 
 Bj 
 
 l«r^ 
 
 wO 
 
 tnO 
 
 •^^r/5 
 
 .s-« 
 
 .S<^J 
 
 ^o S 
 
 t^o.S 
 
 ;^,=>' 
 
 ;:^'A^ 
 
 ^^M 
 
 rH^( 
 
 0>^0 O^'O O'wO O^'O 
 
 '^ "SUI 'SU^'BaO SUI t> OS rH M lO 
 
 H' -pnpui 'Lu-Bip ^pls:^ho '"' ih (m eq m 
 
 1-1 
 
 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 lO O U5 O U5 O lO O U5 O »i5 O in O in O krt o vo o 
 
 *JJ P'B8JJ cgioc-OMusc-ocgmt-oiMint-o«gmt-o 
 
 •SUI '9ZIS r-l 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1671 
 
 (ij -no) s9ATs:>s 
 s:jU9:juoo oiqno 
 
 (•sqi) j-iaed 
 
 (•sqi) -j-ijed 
 
 •^j jad 90ij<j 
 
 s:^u8:juoo qno 
 
 (•sqi) •:^J 
 aod :mSia^ 
 
 U aad ooiJ<j 
 
 ^ fe •:^Ja^d^OLI^^ ;* 
 
 < Csqi) iJH-iQd g 
 
 Eh spuBq jo ^mSia^i S 
 
 (■sui) 9ot?ds ^ ;|J s^;|; ;:?J;^ ;f?;^ ^ 
 
 pUB 'aziS pu^a o a> 00 t> «> 
 
 •:>j J9d aoud 
 
 lftOU5o'^®"'<=>lftOlfiiOU50lrtOlrtOlOO 
 
 •SUI '9ZIS rH 
 
1672 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 The staves shall be beveled and further provided with a small 
 tongue and groove. Price f.o.b., dock, San Francisco. 
 
 H — Continuous redwood stave pipe, shipped " knocked down." 
 Lengths of staves to be from 10 to 20 ft. with about 30% of 12 
 ft. stock. Ends of staves to have metallic tongues made from 
 1% X % in. band iron. Bands spaced with a factor of safety of 
 4, to be round mild steel with malleable iron shoes. The rods to 
 have a tensile strength of 58,000 to 65,000 lbs. per sq. in. Prices 
 f.o.b. dock, San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Cost of Wood Pipe on Pacific Coast. Table VI gives the cost 
 of wood pipe on the Pacific Coast in 1912. 
 
 TABLE VI. COST OF WOOD PIPE 
 
 Size, 
 
 Head 
 
 Spacing, 
 
 Wire, 
 
 Shell, 
 
 Price 
 
 ins. 
 
 in ft. 
 
 ins. 
 
 No. 
 
 ins. 
 
 per ft. 
 
 18 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 l^^i 
 
 $0,831^ 
 
 
 100 
 
 11%6 
 
 1 
 
 
 .97 
 
 
 150 
 
 1% 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 1.121/2 
 
 
 200 
 
 11%6 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1.32 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1.45 Vo 
 
 
 300 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 1.59 V2 
 
 
 350 
 
 9A6 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1.71 
 
 
 400 
 
 Ya 
 
 1 
 
 
 1.81% 
 
 16 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1% 
 
 0.73% 
 
 
 100 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 
 .83 
 
 
 150 
 
 1%6 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 .92 
 
 
 200 
 
 11/46 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1.13 
 
 
 250 
 
 Vs 
 
 1 
 
 
 1.23 
 
 
 300 
 
 mie 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 1.371^ 
 
 
 350 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 1% 
 
 1.48 
 
 
 400 
 
 %6 
 
 1 
 
 
 1.57% 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1% 
 
 0.59% 
 
 
 100 
 
 1%6 
 
 4 
 
 
 .69% 
 
 
 150 
 
 1%6 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 .76% 
 
 
 200 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 .89% 
 
 
 250 
 
 % 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 .97 
 
 
 300 
 
 % 
 
 2 
 
 ll 
 
 1.09% 
 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0.46% 
 
 
 100 
 
 11%6 
 
 4 
 
 1% 
 
 .52 
 
 
 150 
 
 1%6 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 .58% 
 
 
 200 
 
 1% 
 
 2 
 
 iy4 
 
 .64% 
 
 
 250 
 
 • 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 .70 Vo 
 
 
 300 
 
 1%6 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 .76% 
 
 10 
 
 150 
 
 17/i6 
 
 4 
 
 1^^ 
 
 .046 V2 
 
 
 175 
 
 1% 
 
 4 
 
 
 .48% 
 
 
 200 
 
 liAe 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 .52% 
 
 8 
 
 150 
 
 11%6 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 0.35 
 
 
 175 
 
 1%6 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 .36% 
 
 
 200 
 
 WXQ 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 .38% 
 
 6 
 
 150 
 
 2%6 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 0.25 Vo 
 
 
 175 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 .26% 
 
 
 200 
 
 11%6 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 .27% 
 
 4 
 
 175 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1% 
 
 .191/^ 
 
 
 150 
 
 2% 
 
 4 
 
 
 .161/^ 
 
 
 200 
 
 1% 
 
 4 
 
 • 
 
 .191/2 
 
 Approx. 
 wt., per 
 ft. -lbs. 
 27.2 
 30.5 
 35.2 
 41.6 
 45.1 
 49.2 
 54.2 
 57.2 
 24.3 
 26.5 
 29.4 
 35.3 
 37.8 
 42 
 46 
 50 
 20.6 
 22.8 
 25 
 28.5 
 30.1 
 33.8 
 16.2 
 17.5 
 19.4 
 22.8 
 24.5 
 26.4 
 15.7 
 16.25 
 17.1 
 12.4 
 12.8 
 13.3 
 9.2 
 9.5 
 9.7 
 6.4 
 6.0 
 6.6 
 
 The 14-18 in. sizes are banded, the 16-12 in. sizes coupled and 
 the 4 in. size has an inserted jointed wood sleeve. 
 Rope. The following are costs of rope. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1673 
 
 T~>- 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Length in 
 
 inch6s 
 
 wt. in lbs. 
 
 breaking 
 
 ft. required 
 
 
 per 100 ft. 
 
 strength 
 
 for splice 
 
 % 
 
 20 
 
 4,500 
 
 8 
 
 7s 
 
 26 
 
 6,125 
 
 8 
 
 
 34 
 
 8,000 
 
 10 
 
 1 % 
 
 43 
 
 10,125 
 
 10 
 
 1^/4 
 
 53 
 
 12,500 
 
 10 
 
 1% 
 
 65 
 
 15,125 
 
 12 
 
 1% 
 
 77 
 
 18,000 
 
 12 
 
 1 % 
 
 90 
 
 21,125 
 
 12 
 
 1% 
 
 104 
 
 24,500 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 136 
 
 32,000 
 
 14 
 
 MANILA TRANSMISSION ROPE 
 
 Smallest 
 
 diam. 
 
 of 
 
 sheave 
 28 
 32 
 36 
 40 
 46 
 50 
 54 
 60 
 64 
 72 
 Price 11 to 15% cts. per pound. 
 
 Scales. The following are the costs of various types of scales. 
 Portable Platform Scales adapted to the weighing of all kinds of 
 general merchandise. 
 
 Capacity, lbs 440 x % 800 x % 1500 x V2 2500 x % 
 
 Size of platform, ins 16x22 17x26 21x28 26x34 
 
 Weight, approx., lbs 125 200 300 400 
 
 Price without wheels $13.00 $20.00 $30.00 $48 
 
 Price with wheels 15.00 22.00 33.00 51 
 
 Wheelbarrow scales, with runs on both sides for wheelbarrows 
 and hand trucks. 
 
 Capacity, lbs 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 
 
 Platform, ins 42x30 42x30 44x35 45x36 
 
 Price without wheels $42.00 $48.00 $49.00 $69.00 
 
 Price with quick weigher. . . . 66.00 .... .... .... 
 
 Price with wheels 45.00 51.00 60.00 75 
 
 Price with quick weigher.... 69.00 .... .... .... 
 
 A Steel Pitless Wagon Scale which can be easily moved at a 
 cost of $20 to $30, complete with frame and scale costs as follows: 
 
 4 ton, weight 1,400 lbs. Price $100.00 
 
 5 ton, weight 1,500 lbs. Price 110.00 
 
 Standard wagon and stock scales without timber or foundation 
 cost as follows : 
 
 Capacity, tons 3 
 
 Size of platform, ft 14x8 
 
 Price $80.00 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 14x8 
 
 18x8 
 
 22x7 
 
 22x7 
 
 $100.00 
 
 $120.00 
 
 $210.00 
 
 $250 
 
 A Gar Scale of 10 tons capacity, with a platform 4 ft. 6 ins. X 8 
 ft., costs, without platform, framing, or material for pit, $150. 
 The frames take about 1,000 ft. b. m. of lumber and cost erected 
 about $45. The foundation, including the boxing of the pit, will 
 cost from $75 to $100. 
 
 A Steelyard or Weighmaster's Beam with a capacity of 2,000 
 lbs., beam 7 ft. 10 ins. long, weighing 127 lbs., costs $28. 
 
 A Track Scale for weighing of material in small cars costs as 
 follows ; 
 
1674 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Capacity- 
 tons 2 3 5 6 
 
 Size of 
 
 platform ... 5 ft. x 30 ins. 5 ft. x 30 ins. 5 ft. x 30 ins. 12 ft. x 30 ins. 
 
 Weight, lbs 750 780 900 1,500 
 
 Price $72 $80 $88 $130 
 
 Wooden parts for 2 and 3 ton scales $28 extra. For double 
 beam add $5. 
 
 Cost of Track Scales. On the New York Central a 100-ton track 
 scale, 42 ft. long, cost as follows, in 1902 : 
 
 Scales and materials $1,760 
 
 Labor 640 
 
 Total $2,400 
 
 8.7 tons rails (relayers), at $20 174 
 
 15 ties at $0.60 9 
 
 Miscellaneous material 150 
 
 Labor laying track, etc 70 
 
 Grand total $2,803 
 
 No piles were used in foundation. 
 
 The cost of 50-ton track scales, 42 ft. long, on the Northern 
 Pacific, in 1899, averaged as follows: 
 
 Scales, delivered $ 580 
 
 Other materials 170 
 
 Labor ($175 to $300) 250 
 
 Total $1,000 
 
 The cost of 80-ton track scales, 50 ft. long, in 1905, was as 
 follows : 
 
 Scales and materials $1,250 
 
 Labor ($500 to $700) 650 
 
 Total $1,900 
 
 Steel. The following costs of steel are subject to considerable 
 variation with the market. 
 
 Structural ShaiJes. The following prices were abstracted from 
 Engineering and Contracting : 
 
 Structural shapes f.o.b. Pittsburgh : 1912 1917 
 
 Cts. per Cts. per 
 
 lb. net lb. net 
 
 I-beams and channels, 3 to 15 ins 1.50 4.50 
 
 I-beams over 15 ins 1.65 4.60 
 
 Angles, 3 to 6 ins 1.60 4.50 
 
 Angles over 6 ins 1.65 4.60 
 
 Tees. 3 ins. and up 1.65 4.50 
 
 Checkered and corrugated plates 2.80 9.00 
 
 Prices at Chicago for shipment from stock are as follows : 
 
 Angles, 3 to 6 ins 2.0 5.0 
 
 Angles over 6 ins. . 2.1 5.1 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1675 
 
 Beams and channels 2.0 5.0 
 
 Beams over 15 ins 2.1 5.1 
 
 The New York quotations for structural shapes are as follows: 
 
 Beams and channels, 3 to 15 ins 1.66 @ 1.71 5 25 
 
 Aqgles, 3x3 up to 6x6 1. 66 @ 1.71 5.25 
 
 Tees 1.81 @ .. . 5.25 
 
 Steel bars, full extras 1.71 @ 1.76 5.1 to 5.6 
 
 Plates. The corresponding prices for plates f.o.b. Pittsburgh 
 on the basis of net cash in 30 days are as follows: 
 
 Tank plates, %-in. thick, QV^ ins. up to 100 ins. wide, 1.55 cts. to 
 1.60 cts. base. 
 
 1912 1917 
 
 Gages under ^ in. to and including %6 in $0.10 9.0 and over 
 
 Gages under %« in. to and including No. 8 15 
 
 Gages under No. 8 to and including No. 9 25 
 
 Gages under No. 9 to and including No. 10 30 
 
 Gages under No. 10 to and including No. 18 40 - 
 
 Sketches, 3 ft. and over in length 10 
 
 Complete circles, 3 ft. diameter and over 20 
 
 Boiler and flange steel 10 
 
 A. B. M. A. and ordinary fire box steel 20 
 
 Still bottom steel 30 
 
 Marine steel '. 40 
 
 Locomotive fire box steel 50 
 
 Plates in widths over 100 ins. to 110 ins 05 
 
 Plates in widths over 110 ins. to 115 ins 10 
 
 Plates in width over 115 ins. to 120 ins 15 
 
 Plates in widths over 120 ins. to 125 ins 25 
 
 Plates in widths over 125 ins. to 130 ins 50 
 
 In widths over 130 ins 1.00 
 
 Prices at Chicago for shipment from stock are as follows: 
 
 1912 1917 
 
 34-in. and heavier, up to 72 ins $2.00 9.0 and over 
 
 Over 72 ins 2.10 ' 
 
 %6-in. thick 2.10 
 
 No. 8 2.15 " " 
 
 The following were the New York quotations on plates, the 
 prices being based on carload lots, with 5 cts. extra for less than 
 carload lots. Terms, net cash in 30 days: 
 
 1912 1917 
 
 Tank plates %-in. thick, 61/, to 100 ins. wide. 1.71 @ 1.76 9.0 and over 
 
 Flange and boiler steel 1.81 @ 1.86 " " 
 
 Marine 2.11@2.16 " " 
 
 Locomotive and fire box 2.21^9)2.26 " " 
 
 Still bottom 2.01@2.06 " " 
 
 Plates more than 100 ins. in width, 5 cts. extra per 100 lbs. ; 
 plates 3/,g in. in thickness, 10 cts. extra; gage Nos. 7 and 8, 15 cts. 
 extra; No. 9, 25 cts. extra. 
 
 Sheets. The corresponding minimum prices for mill shipments 
 from Pittsburgh on sheets in carload and larger lots are as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 1912 
 Galvanized roofing sheets No. 28, 2 1/2 -ins. corrugations, per 
 
 square $3.00 
 
 Painted roofing sheets, No. 28, per square 1.70 
 
1676 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 1912 
 Galvanized sheets $2.50 to 3.85 
 
 Black annealed sheets 
 Blue annealed sheets 
 
 1.70 to 1.90 
 2.20 to 2.55 
 
 1917 
 
 $9.0 to 10.25 
 
 9.0 to 10.25 
 
 7.85 to 8.35 
 
 Freight Bates (1917). On finished steel products in the Pitts- 
 burgh district, including plates, structural shapes, merchant steel, 
 bars, pipe fittings, plain and galvanized wire nails, rivets, spikes, 
 bolts, flat sheets (except planished), chains, etc., the following 
 freight rates are effective in cents per 100 lbs. : 
 
 Baltimore 15.4 
 
 Boston 18.9 
 
 Buffalo 11.6 
 
 Chicago 18.9 
 
 Cincinnati 15.8 
 
 Cleveland 10.5 
 
 Denver 68.6 
 
 Kansas City 43.6 
 
 Cost of Drafting Equipment. 
 
 cal drafting equipment : 
 
 1 beam compass 
 
 1 dotting pen 
 
 railroad pen 
 
 set drawing instruments 
 
 Minneapolis 32.9 
 
 New Orleans 30.7 
 
 New York 16.9 
 
 Pacific Coast (all rail) 75.0 
 
 Philadelphia 15.9 
 
 St. Louis 23.6 
 
 St. Paul 32.9 
 
 The following are costs of typi- 
 
 German silver protractors 
 
 i 4 in. . 
 
 I 6in.. . 
 
 engineers' triangular scales, 12 in. 
 architects' triangular scales, 12 in. 
 
 45 deg. triangles j ^g in 
 
 30-60 {iglS:::::::::::'::::::::; 
 
 1 set railroad curves 
 
 1 set French curves 
 
 f36 in 
 
 2 T squares -{ 36 in 
 
 [30 in. X 42 in 
 
 1 blue print frame 
 
 1 plan case 
 
 Thumb tacks 
 
 Water colors, 20 colors at $0.18 
 
 a pan 
 
 Higgins Inks, 16 colors at $0.25 
 a bottle 
 
 1 current meter 
 
 2 leveling rods, Philadelphia 
 
 2 Florida rods, 12-ft 
 
 3 range poles, 10-ft 
 
 3 plumb bobs 
 
 Stake tacks 
 
 2 tape mending tools 
 
 2 steel tapes, 100-ft 
 
 2 steel tapes, 50-ft 
 
 1 cloth tape, 100-ft 
 
 1 planimeter 
 
 1 pantograph 
 
 oz. 
 oz. 
 oz. 
 oz. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 oz. 
 lb. 
 
 5 lb. 
 5 lb. 
 3 lb. 
 3 lb. 
 
 %lb. 
 
 lb. 
 lb. 
 lb. 
 lb. 
 lb. 
 lb. 
 lb. 
 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 
 oz. each 
 
 oz. each 
 
 oz. each 
 
 oz. each 
 
 each I 
 
 each I 
 
 each 
 each r 
 each A 
 
 50 lb. each 
 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 each 
 
 3.00 
 
 $6.00 to $12.20 
 0.80 to 6.80 
 2.00 to 
 6.16 up 
 1.35 
 3.15 
 
 1.20 each 
 2.00 " 
 
 .36 " 
 
 .76 " 
 
 .24 " 
 
 .52 " 
 6.9? 
 11.9 
 9.26 
 
 .44 
 
 .84 
 13.05 
 
 18.00 
 1.28 
 
 3.60 
 
 4,00 
 45.50 
 13.50 each 
 
 9.00 " 
 
 2.25 " 
 
 1.80 " 
 
 1.35 
 
 3.60 
 10.32 
 
 6.00 
 
 3.28 
 25.20 
 
 4.50 
 
 Cost of Transits. A low priced and yet reliable transit, known 
 as a builder's transit, weighs 6 lbs. and costs $85 ; with compass, 
 3-in. needle, $100. The tripod weighs 6 lbs. 
 
MISCELLANEO US 1677 
 
 A light mountain transit with a 7i/2-in. telescope, a 4-in. needle, 
 complete, costs $200. Weight, instrument 51/2 lbs., extension tripod, 
 7 lbs. 
 
 Mountain and mining transits with 9i^-in. telescope and 4-in. 
 needle, cost complete $235. Weight, instrument 10 lbs., tripod 9 lbs. 
 
 Surveyors' transits with a 5-in. needle weigh 16 14 lbs. and 
 cost $160. 
 
 Engineers' transits complete cost from $175 to $250 and weigh 
 from 9 to 15 lbs. 
 
 Valves. The following are costs of typical valves. 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 
 10 • $45 22 $210 
 
 12 64 24 240 
 
 14 88 25 260 
 
 15 100 26 280 
 
 16 110 28 320 
 
 18 140 30 360 
 
 20 170 
 
 Straight-way w^edge gate valves with bolted cap and flanged ends, 
 for working steam pressures up to 125 lbs. 
 
 STANDARD BRASS 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 
 14 $0.55 1 $1.25 
 
 % 58 1^ 1.70 
 
 y2 68 11/2 2.25 
 
 % 95 2 3.50 
 
 Straight-way wedge gate valves with screwed cap and ends, for 
 working steam pressures up to 125 lbs. 
 
 STANDARD IRON BODY AND BRASS TRIMMINGS 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 
 2 $4.50 5 $14.50 
 
 21/2 5.75 6 18.50 
 
 3 7.40 7 22.50 
 
 3% 9.00 8 27.00 
 
 4 11.00 9 31.00 
 
 41^ 12.00 10 35.00 
 
 Straight-way wedge gate valves with bolted cap and screwed 
 ends, for working steam pressures up to 125 lbs. 
 
 STANDARD BRASS GLOBE VALVES 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 
 i/s $0.40 11/2 $2.10 
 
 % 42 2 3.40 
 
 % 48 . 2% 5.00 
 
 2 55 3 7.25 
 
 % 80 31/2 10.00 
 
 1 1.10 4 13.50 
 
 11,4 1-60 
 
 These valves have screwed cap and ends, for working steam 
 pressures up to 125 lbs. 
 
1678 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 STANDARD IRON BODY GLOBE VALVES V^^ITH BRASS TRIMMINGS 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. . Net price 
 
 4 $8.00 7 $23.00 
 
 41/^ 10.00 8 30.00 
 
 5 12.00 9 38.00 
 
 6 17.00 10 45.00 
 
 Bolted cap and screwed ends, for working steam pressures up 
 to 125 lbs. 
 
 For flanged end connections there is about 10% increase on the 
 above prices. 
 
 EXTRA HEAVY IRON BODY • 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. - Net price 
 
 4 $22 9 $60 
 
 4% 25 10 72 
 
 5 28 12 105 
 
 35 14 150 
 
 43 15 200 
 
 54 16 250 
 
 Straight-way gate valves with bolted cap and flanged ends, for 
 working steam pressures up to 250 lbs. 
 
 EXTRA HEAVY BRASS GLOBE VALVES 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 Vi $0.80 114 $3.30 
 
 .92 11/2 4.70 
 
 1.10 2 8.00 
 
 1.60 21^ 11.00 
 
 2.30 3 16.00 
 
 These valves have screwed cap and ends, for working steam 
 pressures up to 250 lbs. 
 
 EXTRA HEAVY BRASS GLOBE VALVES 
 
 Size, ins. * Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 
 14 $0.80 1% $3.30 
 
 % 92 11/2 4.70 
 
 % 1.10 2 8.00 
 
 Ji 
 
 1.60 2V2 11.00 
 
 2.30 3 16.00 
 
 These valves have screwed cap and ends, for working steam 
 pressures up to 250 lbs. 
 
 EXTRA HEAVY BRASS VALVES 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 
 % $2.20 11/4 $5.00 
 
 1/2 2.30 11/2 6.60 
 
 % 2.85 2 10.50 
 
 1 3.80 2% 15.00 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1679 
 
 These valves are straight-way wedge gate valves with screwed 
 cap and ends for working steam pressures up to 250 lbs. 
 
 EXTRA HEAVT IROX BODY AND BRASS TRIMMINGS 
 
 Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
 
 2 110 5 126 
 
 21^ 13 6 32 
 
 3 15 7 40 
 
 3% 18 8 50 
 
 4 20 9 60 
 
 4y2 23 10 71 
 
 Straight-way wedge gate valves with bolted cap and screwed 
 ends, for working steam pressures up to 250 lbs. 
 
 Etching Tools for Identification Purposes. J. J. O'Brien (Power 
 and the Engineer, Jan., 1909) states that the best way to mark 
 names or initials on metal tools is to etch them. The mark is 
 ineffaceable and easily done, with a little experience. 
 
 The first step in the process is to spread a thin layer of soap 
 over the surface intended to be used. Next, with a sharp stick, 
 or scratch awl, cut the name in the layer of soap, exposing the 
 metal. Then drop into the letters enough of the following solution 
 to commence an oxidizing action on the metal exposed : One ounce 
 salt, 2 ounces copper sulphate (bluestone), and 1 quart of vinegar. 
 A few drops will sufRce, and a few trials will teach how long to 
 let the solution work before wiping it off with a cloth. 
 
 Painting iVlaterials Required and Surface Covered per Gallon. 
 G. B. Barham in the Surveyor, Apr. 25. 1913, gives in Table VII 
 the amount of materials of ordinary kind required to make one 
 gallon of paint mixed in linseed oil and the area covered therewith. 
 
 TABLE VII. PAINTING MATERIALS REQUIRED AND 
 SURFACE COVERED 
 
 Pounds Weight and Sq. ft. Sq. ft. 
 
 Paint of volume of covered covered 
 
 pigment paint first coat second coat 
 
 Red lead 22.4 30.4 =1.4 630 375 
 
 White lead 25.0 33.0 =: 1.7 CO'O 300 
 
 Iron oxide 24.75 32.75 = 2.6 600 350 
 
 Graphite 12.5 20.50 = 2.0 630 375 
 
 Asphalt 17.5 30.0 =4.0 500 300 
 
 Light structural steel work averages about 250 sq. ft. per ton 
 of metal; heavy work about 150 sq. ft. per ton; corrugated steel 
 (No. 20) about 2,400 sq. ft. of surface per ton. Roughly, V2 gal. 
 of paint per ton of structural steel is required for a first coat, and 
 % gal. for second coat, under average conditions. Detail costs of 
 labor and materials for painting are given in Gillette's Handbook 
 of Co.st Data. 
 
 Cost per Sq. Yd. of Cleaning and Painting Draft Tubes. Barry- 
 Dibble (Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 8, 1915) gives the 
 
1680 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 following costs for the Minidoka plant, U. S. Reclamation Serv- 
 ice. 
 
 In scraping we found an excellent adherence between the metal 
 and the tar paint, which had been on 1^^ years at that time. 
 Where it was scraped down to the metal it left a bright surface. 
 On one patch, of about 1 sq. yd., apparently the iron had not been 
 well cleaned before applying the paint, as it was in a place difficult 
 to reach, and here scale had formed on the iron, but this was the 
 only place the iron had not been protected from the water. There 
 was a marked difference in the ease with which this tar was 
 cleaned off preparatory to repainting as compared with the work 
 involved on surfaces which had been covered with red lead paint, 
 and which had become pitted. 
 
 There was quite a variation in the consistency of the water-gas 
 tar purchased at different times. As ordinarily obtained, it was 
 necessary, in the cool weather during which we painted, to mix a 
 little gasoline with it. Usually the mixture was about 1 quart of 
 
 TABLE VII. COST OF CLEANING AND PAINTING FIVE 
 DRAFT TUBES 
 
 Total 
 
 Total surface, sq. yds 850 
 
 Area cleaned and painted, sq. yds 750 
 
 Cost of scaffolding: 
 
 Labor $52.32 
 
 Material 22.74 
 
 Cost of cleaning: 
 
 Sharpening scrapers 52.76 
 
 Labor 321.78 
 
 Cost of painting, labor : 
 
 First coat (water-gas tar) 41.62 
 
 Second coat (coal-gas tar) 59.96 
 
 Third coat (coal-gas tar) 8.50 
 
 Total labor, painting only 110.08 
 
 Material (all coats) 10.39 
 
 Total cost $570.07 
 
 Cost per sq. yd. cleaned and painted : 
 
 Scaffolding, labor and material . . ; $0,100 
 
 Cleaning, sharpening scrapers, and labor .499 
 
 Painting — 
 
 Labor „ .147 
 
 Material .014 
 
 Total per sq. yd $0,760 
 
 gasoline to from 3 to 5 gals, of tar. This tar was then spread 
 on carefully with a brush in the same manner as ordinary oil 
 paint, working it carefuly into all pits and around rivets. One 
 gallon of tar covered about 30 sq. yds. with one coat. The cost 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1681 
 
 was about 15 cts. per gallon, about one-half of which was freight 
 charge from Chicago to Minidoka. 
 
 The tar is rather slow in setting even if the weather is warm. 
 It hardens when the thermometer drops, but when the weather 
 warms up will become sticky even after a considerable period. 
 As most of our work was done in cool weather, it was possible to 
 apply the second coat within 10 to 14 days. In only one case 
 were we able to get a third coat on prior to the time when the 
 weather turned so bad that it was impossible to do outside work. 
 It does not appear to affect the tar to put it into the water before 
 it is thoroughly hardened. 
 
 Cost of Sand Blast Cleaning of Structural Steel. G. W. Lilly 
 (Proceedings of American Society of Civil Engineers, February, 
 1903) states that in cleaning several steel viaducts in Columbus, 
 Ohio, in 1902 two Newhouse sand-blast machines, mounted on 
 light trucks, so that they could be moved about and placed where 
 convenient for the work, were used. A wire-bound, l^/^-in., rubber 
 air-hose, 50 ft. in length, connected each machine Avith the 2-in. 
 air pipe. Old rubber hose, which was much cheaper than new, 
 was used for the sand hose, part of it being 2^4 and part 2i/^ ins. 
 in diameter. The nozzles used were %-in., extra heavy, gas pipe, 
 of various lengths, from 12 to 24 ins. A length of at least 12 ins. 
 seems to direct the blast with more effect than a shorter one. 
 This was used instead of tool steel or other hard pipe because 
 it was believed that it would last nearly as long and cost much 
 less. The average length of time one nozzle lasted was about 
 5 hours, as shown by the length of pipe used and the total hours 
 run. The nozzle was connected to the sand hose by a heavy, 
 special cast reducer, about % in. thick. This reducer was made 
 thick, to sustain the wear caused by the deflection of the sand 
 into the small nozzle pipe. The most severe wear of the nozzles 
 is at a point 3 ins. from the connection with the reducer. 
 
 It will be noted that the sand, in passing from the large sand 
 hose to the small nozzle, is deflected so as to produce a cross-fire, 
 striking with greatest force against the sides of the small pipe 
 near the reducer end. A like wear upon the rubber sand hose 
 occurs near its connection with the pipe from the machine, which 
 is a 1^4 -ill- pipe, and the spreading out of the sand to form the 
 larger stream causes it to strike against the sides and then deflect 
 to follow the direction of the hose. One foot in length, or some- 
 times a little more, cut from this end of the hose occasionally, 
 fitted it for further use. The length of sand hose used varied 
 from 25 to 65 ft., being regulated by the di.stance of the work 
 from the place where the machine had to be placed. As the ma- 
 chines could not be placed upon scaffolding, in this work, at least 
 35 ft. of hose were required on nearly all the work, so as to 
 reach from the ground to the floor system, from 16 to 20 ft. above 
 the tracks, and in some places out over the tracks as far as 30 
 to 40 ft. 
 
 The nozzlemen should be men of some judgment and intelligence, 
 
1682 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 so that they will understand how to manage the nozzle to make 
 the blast most effective. When ready for work the nozzleman 
 wore a helmet of tin, with cloth curtains hanging to the shoulders 
 to keep out the dust, as far as possible. Instead of using wire 
 gauze in the helmet, two pieces of glass were used for the nozzle- 
 man to see through, because it excluded the dust more effectually. 
 When frosted over by rebounding sand, the glasses were removed 
 and new ones inserted. After a little experience, a good nozzleman 
 will learn how to hold the nozzle in any given case, varying its 
 distance from the working point according to the manner in which 
 he finds it is operating. Heavy scale requires him to hold the 
 nozzle close, and light cleaning can be done more rapidly by 
 holding it farther away and permitting the blast to spread some- 
 what and thus cut a wider swath. On moderately hard places 
 about 5 to 6 ins. is the proper distance. To make it clean most 
 rapidly he must also direct the blast so as to cut a swath clean 
 as he goes, passing first in one direction and then in the other, 
 across the member being cleaned, so as to leave no spots to which 
 he must go back and thus waste the force of the blast on clean 
 metal around them. The nozzle should generally be directed so 
 as to strike the surface at a slight inclination from the normal, 
 say 20 to 30 degs. away from the nozzleman, thus blowing the 
 dust and sand away. The cleaning should be carried forward 
 from the nozzleman, so that the blast will always act upon the 
 exposed edge of scales, rust, or old paint, and, by getting under 
 any loose portions, throw them off without first having to break 
 them up. 
 
 The compressed air was supplied from a compressor with an 
 air cylinder of 14 ins. diameter and a stroke of 12 ins., compressing 
 the air to a gauge pressure of 50 to 60 lbs. The number of strokes 
 was regulated automatically so as to keep the pressure nearly 
 constant. The air was led from the compressor to a large re- 
 ceiver, and then, by a line of 2-in. steel pipe, to a small receiver 
 at the viaduct where the work was to be done. From this re- 
 ceiver (having a capacity of about 9% cu. ft.) the air was con- 
 ducted to the sand-blast machines. The pressure at the machines 
 was usually from 30 to 40 lbs. The requisite length of 2-in. pipe 
 varied from about 1,250 to 2,200 ft. The small receiver had a 
 pet-cock in the bottom to let out accumulated water, and it re- 
 moved much of the moistui^e from the air used. 
 
 The compressed air was paid for by the city, at the rate of 40 
 and 45 cts. per hour for one machine, and 60 cts. per hour for 
 two machines in operation. For 18% of the time only one machine 
 was in operation. This made the work cost more, because two 
 machines could have been operated for about one and one-half 
 times what one would cost. A foreman, 2 nozzlemen and 3 la- 
 borers could operate 2 machines and dry the sand for them. The 
 foreman was paid 35 cts., nozzlemen 25 cts., and laborers 15 cts. 
 during one-half of the time, and after that 17% cts. per hr. 
 
 The sand used was from Lake Erie. An attempt was made to 
 secure rather coarse, clean and sharp sand ; but it was at times 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1683 
 
 impossible to do this without some delay, and some of the sand 
 used was too fine and made much dust on account of the silt it 
 contained. The sand was at first dried in two old locomotive 
 ash pans, with old ties for fuel. This required almost constant 
 attendance by one man, to stir it up and keep it from becoming 
 so hot as to make the grains brittle and ineffective. 
 
 The dryer was made by fitting a sheet-steel hopper on an old 
 cast-iron stove. The wet sand would not fall through the %-in. 
 holes in the lower part of the hopper, but would as soon as dry. 
 The sand was permitted to cool for a few hours before being 
 used, as hot sand caused steam and was likely to choke the small 
 opening in the bottom of the hopper, around the end of the siphon 
 nozzle. The objection to this kind of a dryer is that the fire-pot, 
 being surrounded by sand in contact with it, burns out in a short 
 time. Two fire pots were required in six months' service. 
 
 All the viaducts named have buckle-plate floor systems, ex- 
 posing a large amount of steel surface to the action of rust and 
 corrosion. It may be well to state the conditions under which the 
 work of cleaning had to be done, in order to give a better under- 
 standing of the items making up the cost. The data here given 
 may then be better analyzed and applied to any other proposed 
 sand-blast cleaning. The first four viaducts named were erected 
 during 1893 and 1894 and all were repainted during August and 
 September, 1896, and none of them had been repainted since that 
 time. No. 5 was erected in the latter part of 1893, repainted in 
 August, 1896, and again in October, 1899. The cleaning done 
 before repainting, in each of these cases, was only hand-cleaning. 
 All appearances indicate that the steel of No. 4 must have been 
 in better condition than that of any of the other viaducts, and a 
 better quality of paint must have been applied at the time of its 
 erection. This is judged largely from the condition of the portions 
 of the viaducts above the level of the street pavement and pro- 
 tected by it from the direct action of the blast and gases from 
 the locomotives. The portions belovv^ the pavement, on all the 
 others, are subjected to greater wear by the locomotive blast on 
 account of their small clearance above the stacks, their clearness 
 above the level of the railroad tracks being only 16.33 to 16.75 
 ft., while this viaduct has a clearance of 20.33 ft. Tn cleaning 
 them, therefore, it was impossible to swing any staging below 
 the clearance elevation, in the case of four of them. No. 5 and 
 No. 2 do not afford sufficient space above the lower surface of the 
 plate girders in which a man can work, and it was necessary to 
 work from movable trestles, about 12 ft. high, made as light as 
 possible, so that they could be moved off the tracks whenever a 
 train or an engine was about to pass, and be replaced and the 
 work continued when the track was clear. 
 
 Under the first three viaducts mentioned there are two main 
 tracks and one side track, with a .spur track from the middle of 
 the first, making four tracks under the east half of it. 
 
 Movable trestles were also used, part of the time, in cleaning 
 the cover plates on the bottom of the girders and the portion of 
 
1684 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the work along the abutments of No. 3 ; but a large portion of 
 the cleaning was done from staging resting upon the lower cover 
 plates and angles of the plate girders. 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 COST OF SAND-BLAST CLEANING OP VIADUCTS 
 AT COLUMBUS, OHIO 
 
 Average 
 pressure 
 at sand- 
 blast, in 
 pounds 
 per square 
 inch 
 35 
 37 
 35 
 30 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 Square 
 
 Square 
 
 No. 
 
 Number of 
 
 square feet 
 
 cleaned 
 
 Cost per 
 
 square 
 
 foot 
 
 feet 
 
 cleaned 
 with 1 
 cu. ft. 
 
 of sand 
 
 feet 
 
 cleaned 
 
 per hour 
 
 by one 
 
 sand-blast 
 
 1 
 
 24.900 
 
 $0.0283 
 
 17.1 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 8.000 
 
 0.0362 
 
 10.4 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 17,000 
 
 0.0263 
 
 18.2 
 
 66 
 
 4 
 
 63.000 
 
 0.0174 
 
 25.2 
 
 89 
 
 5 
 
 22.600 
 
 0.0688 
 
 6.1 
 
 23. 
 
 Totals and 
 
 
 
 average;- 
 
 1^5.500 
 
 $0.0302 
 
 14.8 
 
 54 
 
 Excluding 
 
 
 
 
 No. 5 
 
 112.900 
 
 0.0225 
 
 20.0 
 
 74 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Newhouse sand blast machine. 
 
 Electric Arc Welding Apparatus. Standard 300 amp., single 
 unit belted type, with two metallic circuits or one graphite and 
 one metallic, cost $1,325. 
 
 Standard 300 amp., motor generator set, consisting of a welding 
 generator, and either d.c. or a.c. motor, with two metallic circuits 
 or one graphite and one metallic circuit, cost $1,650, 
 
MISCELLANEO US 1685 
 
 Cost of Electric Welding in a Pittsburgh Shop. An electric 
 welding outfit used by the Pittsburgh Railway Co. is described in 
 Electric Railway Journal, Nov. 18, 1911, as follows: 
 
 Current for welding is furnished by an old GE booster set 
 consisting of a 30-h.p. shunt-wound motor and a 60-volt, 300-amp. 
 generator. Nevertheless, the actual output of the generator can 
 be varied from 300 amps, to 700 amps, at 80 volts to 110 volts, ac- 
 cording to the conditions desired. There is enough reactance in 
 the generator to take care of sudden surges when the welding arc 
 is broken. The shunt field of the booster is directly excited from 
 the trolley circuit through a resistance connected in series with it 
 across the line instead of being shunted around the series winding 
 of the generator. The switch controlling this separately excited 
 shunt-field circuit is locked to prevent anyone from breaking this 
 circuit when the set is running free. The grid resistances, which 
 are inserted in the series field in series with the armature, can 
 be varied from 0.02 ohm. to 0.045 ohm., depending upon the am- 
 perage desired. 
 
 The welding flux consists of . 17 parts borax, 1% parts brown 
 oxide of iron and 1 1^ parts red oxide of iron. The electrodes are 
 usually of carbon, but cold rolled steel is used for such w^ork as 
 welding sheet steel on a gear case, the melting of the electrode 
 itself furnishing the required new metal. 
 
 The economies of this method of welding may be appreciated 
 from the following typical cases, which give the price of certain 
 parts new, their value as scrap and the cost of rehabilitating them 
 for service. In each case 15% is added to the shop cost to allow 
 for overhead shop charges. Welding labor is figured at 30 cts. 
 an hr. and electrical energy at %ct. per kw.-hr. 
 
 TABLE X. COST OF ELECTRIC WELDING 
 
 Article 
 
 Bemis side frame $26.25 
 
 Lord Baltimore side frame.. 28.00 
 McGuire Columbian side frame 35.00 
 Westinghouse No. 56 motor ^^^ ^ ^^ 
 
 frame 0.99 0.17 2.16 0.50 
 
 Westinghouse No. 62 motor ^ ^ ^ , ^ 
 
 gear case lugs 0.22 0.21 0.48 0.14 
 
 Cost of Electric Welding in a Railroad Shop, G. W, Cravens 
 (Railway Electrical Engineer, June, 1913) states that electric 
 welding outfits supplied by the best makers consist of the motor- 
 generator, controlling panel, electrode holders, head and hand 
 shields for the operators and a supply of electrodes. The head 
 shields have a window of red and blue glasses to protect the eyes 
 of the operator from the blinding glare of the arc. The combina- 
 tion system outfit includes a patented combination electrode holder 
 
 
 
 
 
 uS 
 
 
 S-i 
 
 (J) 
 
 
 o <u 
 
 
 o 
 
 N 
 
 J 
 
 O 
 
 0* 
 
 o 
 
 $0.88 
 
 $0.37 
 
 $1.92 
 
 $0.48 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.17 
 
1686 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 for taking both a graphite and a metallic electrode, so it is pos- 
 sible to change from one to the other method by simply throwing 
 a switch on the holder. 
 
 With the Bernardos system, using a carbon or graphite electrode, 
 the current required will range from 110 to 800 amps, per circuit, 
 and with the Slavinoff system, using metallic electrodes, the current 
 will vary from 25 to 200 amps., depending upon the nature of the 
 work, the size of the piece being manipulated and the material. 
 The usual operations with the metallic electrode, however, require 
 but from 50 to 100 amps., and with the graphite electrode from 
 300 to 500 amps., the latter being used for cutting purposes fre- 
 quently. 
 
 The following figures show the cost of several actual jobs done 
 with the electric welding arc outfits, the labor being paid at 30 
 cts. per hr. and the current at 2 cts. per kw.-hr. All of these 
 were done by men of ordinary ability after being instructed by 
 the manufacturer's demonstrators : 
 
 Steel castings, shrinkage crack 6 ins. long by 1 in. 
 
 deep • 8 min. $0.04 
 
 Steel casting, riser 4 ins. by 4 ihs. cut off 4 min. .05 
 
 Forged .steel locomotive frame, broken in 2 places 20 hrs. 18.28 
 
 Crack in back sheet of locomotive boiler, 12 in. 
 
 long 9 hrs. 5.47 
 
 Building up worn driving wheel instead of turn- 
 ing down 2 hrs. .72 
 
 Welding 67 cracks in old fire box (saving over 
 
 $1,000) 2 weeks 52.60 
 
 Cast steel tender frame, broken in 3 places 27 hrs. 19.00 
 
 Steel shaft. 2 in. diameter, welded ready for re- 
 turning 1 hr. .60 
 
 Broken railway type motor case, cast steel 3 hrs. 1.95 
 
 Enlarged holes in brake levers, steel bars 4 min. .05 
 
 Building up 2-in. armature shafts, worn in jour- 
 nals 3 hrs. 1.80 
 
 Air brake piston rods, broken 30 min. .35 
 
 Leaking axle boxes, cracks, welded in place 15 min. .15 
 
 The foregoing covers but a few of the many kinds of jobs which 
 continually arise in locomotive and car shops, but will give a fair 
 general idea of what can be done. The following list shows what 
 was done in one of the largest street railway shops in the far 
 West with a graphite arc outfit: 
 
 Cost New 
 
 Armature .shaft repaired in place $1.70 $ 4.72 
 
 Armature shaft repaired in place, large '. 1.97 15.13 
 
 Railway motor axle cap, large 22 3.51 
 
 Railway motor armature bearing cap 27 6.07 
 
 Railway motor gear case, top half 48 7.30 
 
 Truck side frame. Brill 27-G 72 44.40 
 
 Brake-heads, building up worn sockets 06 1.15 
 
 Grip crotches 72 10.00 
 
 Truck side frame, Peckham 14-B 90 46.98 
 
 Motor frame, GE-90 railway type ,. 2.88 16.80 
 
 The following figures have been compiled in various steam rail- 
 road shops and show the comparative savings which can be ef- 
 fected by using the electric arc system for making repairs. The 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1G87 
 
 comparisons here are made between the electric system and the 
 old methods, whatever they may be :. 
 
 Cost Old 
 
 Engine main frames, both broken $11.80 % 56.20 
 
 Driving- wheel built up 3/16 ins. on tread 72 8.00 
 
 General repairs on fire box side sheets 66.51 342.62 
 
 Filling in worn knuckle joint buSh hole 75 7.50 
 
 Locomotive cylinder casting, 7 cracks 22.35 367.15 
 
 Broken mud ring on locomotive boiler 32.07 118.06 
 
 Cost of Electric Welded Rail Joints in Camden, N. J. In weld- 
 ing rails in Camden. N. J., in 1906 it is stated in Street Railway 
 Journal. Jarn. 6, 1906, that all of the joints' welded were in a more 
 or less battered condition, so that the joints had to be raised be- 
 fore being welded. This was done by raising the receiving rail 
 so that the lowest point in this rail was level with the head of the 
 abutting rail, after which the elevations were ground off with a 
 corundum wheel. It has been found that the electric weld holds 
 the rail absolutely firm and that the rolling of wheels across the 
 joint since the work was finished has tended to make the joint 
 smoother than it was immediately after the welding. It is true 
 that by grinding off a portion of the head of the rail some of its 
 wearing qualities are sacrificed. The experience at Camden, how- 
 ever, has been that this is necessary and that the battered end of 
 the rail must be ground level before a good joint can be obtained. 
 
 The following table summarizes the cost of electrically welding 
 joints, including contract price of $5.25 per joint. As will be seen 
 
 TABLE XI. COST OP ELECTRICALLY WELDING 3087 JOINTS 
 IN CAMDEN. N. J. 
 
 Cost of labor $7,031.24 
 
 Cost of material . 581.09 
 
 $7,612.33 
 Credit from sale of old fi.sh-plates and bonds 2,816.59 
 
 $4,795.74 
 
 Cost of welding 3087 joints, at $5.25 each $16,206.75 
 
 Cost of replacing asphalt, 899.6 yds., at $2.53; 117 yds., 
 
 at $2.51 2.569.65 
 
 Total cost of operation $23,572.14 
 
 First cost per joint, labor 2.277 
 
 First cost per joint, material .188 
 
 First cost per joint, labor and material 2.465 
 
 Cost per joint, labor and material, after credit is de- 
 ducted 1.553 
 
 Final cost per joint, all labor, material, welding and as- 
 phalt charges 7.635 
 
 Cost per mile, under similar conditions, 30-ft. lengths. . 2,687.52 
 
 Cost per mile, under similar conditions, 60-ft. lengths. . 1,343.76 
 
 from these tables, the cost per joint varies from $6,632 to $10,438. 
 with an average of $7,635. This price, however, should be con- 
 sidered in connection with the maintenance charge of the joint 
 with which this price is comnared. It is estimated that the life 
 of the welded rail on the Haddonfield Pike will be 8 years, whereas 
 
1688 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 during the last 2 years with angle plate joints this track has cost 
 the company about $1 per joint each year for tightening bolts and 
 shimming. This maintenance work has only temporarily relieved 
 the situation, for each year the joint has been worse, and it was 
 estimated that at the end of 4 years the rail would have been so 
 bad at the joints that the track would have to be relaid. In 
 other words, it is expected that in this particular case, by elec- 
 trical welding, the life of the rail will be practically doubled at a 
 less cost than would have been required simply for maintaining 
 angle plate joints during the life of the rail. 
 
 Costs of Electric-Arc Welding for typical jobs in railway loco- 
 motive shops were given by G. W. Cravens, Manager of Welding 
 Department, C & C Electric Manufacturing Co., Garwood, N. J., 
 in a paper before the Southern & Southwestern Railway Club, at 
 Atlanta, Ga., in 1915. There was quoted $32 for repairing a broken 
 locomotive-boiler mud ring (cutting out corner of plate, welding 
 ring in place, welding back pieces of plate and driving a few new 
 rivets) compared with $118 for the old method (stripping, re- 
 moving ring for welding in blacksmith shop, resetting, replacing 
 locomotive parts, etc.). Applying new fireboxes cost $56 (welding 
 three short sheets) compared with $777 by the old scheme (strip- 
 ping, transferring boiler, removing old firebox and building up 
 new one, adding stay and crown bolts and mud ring, overhauling 
 and refitting, etc.). With an outfit costing $2,000, the following 
 was done with current at 2 cts. per kw.-hr. and labor at 30 cts. 
 per hr. : 
 
 Welding Old methods 
 
 Mending both main frames $11.80 $56.20 
 
 Driving wheel built up 3-16 in. on tread. , . . 2.72 8.00 
 
 General repairs on firebox side sheets.... 66.51 342.62 
 
 Filling in worn knuckle-joint hole .75 7.50 
 
 Repairing seven cracks in cylinder casting. 22.35 367.15 
 
 The following costs had no old figures for comparison : 
 
 Cost 
 
 Steel casting, shrinkage crack 1 x 6 in. in 8 min $0.04 
 
 Forged-steel locomotive side-frame, two breaks in 20 hrs 18.28 
 
 Welding 67 places in old firebox in 12 days 52.60 
 
 Cast-steel tender frame, broken in three places, in 27 hr. ... 19.00 
 
 Cast-steel motor case, welded in 3 hrs 1.95 
 
 Welding broken air-brake piston rod, in 30 min 35 
 
 Leaky axle box, crack welded without removing box, in 15 
 
 min. 15 
 
 Cost of Electric Welding in Railroad Shop Repair Work. The 
 
 accompanying data on repair costs due to electric arc welding 
 have been compiled by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufactur- 
 ing Company from the shop records of railroad companies. One 
 railroad company which has kept continuous records of the savings 
 made by arc welding reported that the total cost of welding by 
 this process during one week was $106.62, while the total cost 
 of the same work if done by other means would have been 
 $1,779.04, representing a net saving of $1,672.42 in favor of arc 
 welding. In addition a great saving in time was made. In an- 
 
MISCELLANEO US 1689 
 
 other case, where an entire firebox had to be taken out, the work, 
 including 35 ft. 7 ins. of linear cutting, was done in 38 mins. 
 with approximately 500 amps. 
 
 TABLE XII. COST OP ELECTRIC WELDING IN REPAIR 
 WORK 
 
 Energy Labor Material Total 
 
 Cracked door sheet on fire box $0.09 $0.30 $0.12 $0.51 
 
 Cracked .side sheets and door sheets in 
 
 fire boxes , ... ... ... 4.23 
 
 Cracked crown sheet 1 hr, ... 0.36 
 
 Broken frame , 7 hr. . . . 3.29 
 
 Worn wrist pin 0.10 0.75 0.15 1.00 
 
 Cracked .steel bolsters 0.54 5.42 0.75 6.71 
 
 Cracked guide yoke 0.07 0.45 0.10 0.62 
 
 Cracked mud ring 0.27 1.95 0.37 2.59 
 
 5 draw-head stops 1.30 1.15 0.18 2.63 
 
 Broken cylinder 0.80 0.65 0.11 1.56 
 
 Cost of Electric Welding in Railroad Shops. Some interesting 
 figures on the cost of electric welding and the time required for 
 various jobs are shown in the accompanying table of data based 
 on the experience of several leading railroads as reported to the 
 shop-practice committee of the Association of Railway Electrical 
 Engineers in 1913, 
 
 Steel casting, crack 6 ft. long by 1 in. deep, 8 min $0.04 
 
 Steel casting, ri.ser 4 in. by 4-in. cut-off, 4 min 0.05 
 
 Forged-steel locomotive frame, two breaks, 20 hrs 18.28 
 
 Crack 12 in. long in boiler back-sheet, 9 hrs 5.47 
 
 Cast-steel tender frame, three breaks, 27 hrs 19.00 
 
 Broken railway-type motor case, cast steel, 3 hrs 1.95 
 
 Enlarged holes in brake levers, steel bars, 4 min 0.05 
 
 7\ir-brake piston rods, broken, 30 min 0.35 
 
 Cracked axle boxes, welded in place, 15 min 0.15 
 
 Speed of Electric Welding. O. A. Kenyon (Boiler Maker, Apr. 
 1914) gives the curve. Fig. 3, showing the time in minuies re- 
 quired to weld steel plates of different thicknesses and by different 
 methods of cutting the joints. In these curves no allowance has 
 been made for time required to change welding pencils or prepare 
 the work. They cover simply the actual time of welding. Ten 
 seconds is sufficient time to allow for changing a welding pencil 
 by properly trained men. 
 
 Thermit Process Welding. Thermit is a mixture of finely divided 
 aluminum and iron oxide. When ignited in one spot, the com- 
 bustion so started continues throughout the entire mass without 
 supply of heat or power from outside and produces superheated 
 liquid steel and superheated liquid slag (aluminum oxide). The 
 thermit reaction produces an ' exceedingly high temperature, the 
 liquid mass attaining 5,400 degs. in less than 30 sees. The liquid 
 steel produced by the reaction represents one-half of the original 
 thermit by weight and one-third by volume. 
 
 Welding by the thermit process is accomplished by pouring 
 superheated thermit steel around the parts to be united. Thermit 
 
1690 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 steel, being approximately twice as hot as ordinary molten steel, 
 dissolves the metal with which it comes in contact and amal- 
 gamates with it to form a single homogeneous mass when cooled. 
 The essential steps are to clean the sections and remove enough 
 metal to allow for a free flow of thermit steel, surround them with 
 a mold, preheat by means of a gasoline torch and then pour the 
 steel. 
 
 2S 
 125 
 
 t,.n 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 OJ.25 
 « 
 
 «> 
 
 ll.O 
 ■^ 
 0.75 
 
 0.5 
 
 025 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 •a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 y^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 2 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 // 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 y. 
 
 "/ 
 
 i^ 
 
 •/ 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 1^ 
 
 3"- 
 
 — 
 
 / 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 WM 
 
 k^l 
 
 /dtngfOO 
 
 g\i 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Urn 
 
 mwai 
 •fical 
 rhea 
 
 'dm 
 
 Weld 
 dwe 
 
 \^ 
 
 ted 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 W 70 80 90 100 IK) 120 150 wo 
 Time in Mi notes to We Id One Foot 
 
 Fig. 3. Speed of electric welding. 
 
 The following detailed outfit is suitable for repair work on a 
 small railroad or the equipment of a contractor, where the sec- 
 tions of wrought iron or steel do not exceed 4X6 ins. in size. : 
 
 Item Price 
 
 1 automatic crucible No. 6 $ 16.50 
 
 1 double burner thermit preheating torch complete 75.00 
 
 1 tapping spade .50 
 
 300-lb. thermit mixed with 1% manganese and 1% nickel 
 
 thermit 78.90 
 
 10 lbs. yellow wax at $0.35 : '. 3.50 
 
 1 bbl. special moulding material for facing 4.00 
 
 45 lbs. mild steel punchings at $0.02 y.^ 1.13 
 
 1 lb. ignition powder .90 
 
 Total cost, f. o. b. Jersey City $180.43 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1G91 
 
 The preheater is a permanent appliance and will last indefinitely, 
 while the crucible will last from 16 to 20 reactions, after which 
 it may be relined with magnesia tar in the feld or at the factory 
 for $11.50. Each crucible requires 135 lbs. tar at 3 cts. per lb., 
 and one magnesia stone. No construction equipment is required 
 except that it will be necessary to make a mold box out of sheet 
 iron. Five extra packages of plugging material and four extra 
 thimbles are supplied with each crucible. Extra packages and 
 thimbles cost 10 cts. each. 
 
 The prices of other sizes of appliances are as follows : 
 
 Weight 
 
 Item (lbs.) Price 
 
 Preheater torch, single burner 175 $50.00 
 
 Preheater torch, double burner 200 75 00 
 
 Automatic crucible. No. 1, for 4 lbs. thermit 40 3 50 
 
 Automatic crucible, No. 2, for 7 lbs. thermit 60 5.50 
 
 Automatic crucible, No. 3, for 16 lbs. thermit 110 6 50 
 
 Automatic crucible. No. 4, for 24 lbs. thermit 125 8.00 
 
 Automatic crucible, No. 5, for 45 lbs. thermit 150 11.00 
 
 Automatic crucible. No. 6, for 75 lbs. thermit 225 16 50 
 
 Automatic crucible. No. 7, for 135 lbs. thermit 385 30.00 
 
 Automatic crucible, No. 8, for 200 lbs. thermit 480 35.00 
 
 Automatic crucible. No. 9. for 260 lbs. thermit 5X0 43.50 
 
 Automatic crucible. No. 10, for 400 lbs. thermit. ... 720 55 00 
 
 * Tripods, No. 1 11 2.10 
 
 * Tripods, Nos. 2-3 19 2.50 
 
 * Tripods, Nos. 4-5 24 3.00 
 
 * Tripods, Nos. 6-7 65 5 50 
 
 Flat bottom crucible, No. 2, for 4 lbs. thermit. ... 18 1.75 
 
 Flat bottom crucible. No. 3, for 8 lbs. thermit.... 27 3 00 
 
 Flat bottom crucibles. No. 4, for 16 lbs. thermit. ... 65 4.75 
 
 Flat bottom crucibles, No. 5, for 40 lbs. thermit. ... 95 7.00 
 
 Tongs for flat bottom crucible, No. 2 6i^ 2 00 
 
 Tongs for flat bottom crucible. No. 3 171/2 2.50 
 
 Tongs for flat bottom crucible, No. 4 25 3.25 
 
 Tongs for flat bottom crucible. No. 5 30 14 4.50 
 
 Cost of relining flat bottom crucible. No. 2 .75 
 
 Cost of relining flat bottom crucible. No. 3 1-25 
 
 Cost of relining flat bottom crucible. No. 4 2.50 
 
 Cost of relining flat bottom crucible, No. 5 4.00 
 
 Thermit (sold only in 50 and 100-lb. drums). 
 
 50-lb. drum 55i/. 12.50 
 
 100-lb. drum 110 25.00 
 
 Thermit with 1% manganese and 1% nickel thermit. , „ . ^ 
 
 50-lb. drum 56V2 13.15 
 
 100-lb. drum 112 26.30 
 
 Ignition powder, i/l>-lb. cans l^ 
 
 Ignition powder, 2-Ib. cans 1»0 
 
 Metallic manganese, per lb -^o 
 
 Nickel thermit, per ib -^ 
 
 Yellow wax, per lb • • - j^ 
 
 Special moulding material, per bbl 375 4.00 
 
 * (For welding connecting rods and driving wheel spokes, etc.) 
 
 The proper quantity of thermit required for the weld may be 
 calculated by multiplying by 32 the weight of the wax necessary 
 to fill all parts of the fracture and reinforcement, or else by 
 calculating the number of cu. in. in the fracture and reinforce- 
 ment, multiplying by 2. To produce 41/2 ozs. or one cu. in of 
 steel requires ? o?s. of thermit, Jf more than 10 lbs. of thermit 
 
1692 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 are to be used it is necessary to mix steel punchings, not exceed- 
 ing % in. in diameter, or particles of steel into the powder. For 
 10 lbs, or more of thermit 10% of punchings should be added ; for 
 50 lbs. or more, 15% of small mild steel rivets should be mixed 
 in 1% each of manganese and nickel thermit should be added also. 
 
 Method and Cost of Welding Rails by the Thermit Process. 
 The following account of the methods and cost of welding a large 
 number of rail joints by the thermit process has been obtained 
 from Mr. M. J. French, engineer maintenance of way of the Utica 
 & Mohawk Valley Electric Railway. 
 
 Thermit Process. The process of welding consists in pouring 
 molten mild steel from a melting crucible into sand and flour 
 molds placed around the rails at the joint. It is in detail as 
 follows : 
 
 The rails having first been lined and surfaced, the joint is thor- 
 oughly cleaned with a sand blast or wire brush. Then the rails 
 are heated by a gasoline or oil blow-torch to expel all moisture, 
 and by heating the rails to a dull red better results are secured 
 as the temperature of the molten steel is not reduced as much when 
 coming into contact with the rails. After the joint is cleaned 
 and heated a pair of molds made of an equal mixture of common 
 clay and sand, or, preferably, of sand and 10% of cheap rye flour. 
 is clamped firmly to the rails. The molds are held by a wrought 
 iron framework provided with handles to facilitate carrying. The 
 molds being in place, the rail head is painted with a watery solu- 
 tion of red clay which the heated metal immediately dries up to 
 a thin coating, the purpose of which is to prevent the molten slag 
 or steel from uniting with or burning the rail head. After thor- 
 oughly luting all joints of the molds with clay of the consistency 
 of putty, earth is packed around the outside of the molds. The 
 molds and the rails are then given a final warming with the blow- 
 torch, the flame being directed inside the molds to expel any 
 remaining moisture. The crucible on its tripod is then set over 
 the mold with its pouring hole directly over and about 2 ins. 
 above the gate in the mold. After placing the tapping pin. iron 
 disc, asbestos disc and refractory sand in the bottom of the cru- 
 cible to act as a plug for the opening the thermit compound is 
 poured in and in the center of the top is placed about one-third 
 teaspoonful of ignition powder. A storm match starts the chem- 
 ical process. 
 
 The thermit compound is composed of aluminum and iron oxide, 
 both in granular or flake form ; the ignition powder is composed 
 of aluminum and barium peroxide in much finer foim. When the 
 match is applied the barium peroxide ignites and relea.ses its 
 oxygen to the aluminum very quickly. The heat produced is so 
 intense that it causes the iron oxide to release its oxygen, which 
 in tijrn is seized by the aluminum and almost instantly the entire 
 contents of the crucible are a boiling and seething mass. By this 
 reaction the piire steel is liberated and settles immediately to the 
 bottom of the mold. The crucible is then tapped by striking the 
 tapping pin with a special iron spade and the molten steel runs 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1693 
 
 into the mold followed by the aluminum oxide and corundum slag. 
 The chemical reaction described is completed in about 30 sees., 
 and in five minutes the molds can be removed. 
 
 Molds. The molds are made by baking a mixture of sand and 
 rye flour shaped on models. At first a mixture of one part clay 
 and one part sand was used, but it resulted unsatisfactorily. The 
 molds shrunk and checked badly in baking and required a great 
 amount of careful luting to close the joints. Also the clay was 
 baked like a brick by the great heat of the welded joint and was 
 quite difficult to remove, adding somewhat to the expense. At the 
 suggestion of an old foundryman trial was made of a mixture of 
 clean, sharp sand, with 10% of coarse rye flour; the mixture was 
 moistened just enough to retain its form when pressed in the 
 hand. This mixture proved satisfactory. It came away from the 
 model without adhering, baked without shrinking and was hard 
 enough to stand ordinary ha.ndling. By adding a teaspoonful of 
 linseed oil to the mixture for a pair of molds it baked as hard as 
 concrete — unnecessarily hard for ordinary purposes, but most de- 
 sirable for special molds for broken or combination joints. 
 
 The molds are baked in a brick oven having a flat iron plate 
 above the firebox to baffle the heat and above this two racks 
 capable of holding twelve sets of molds. For baking a moderate 
 heat, about the temperature required for baking bread, has proved 
 the most satisfactory ; a higher temperature burned the rye ffour 
 and destroyed its cementing properties. One man receiving 15 
 cts. per hour makes and bakes the molds and he can turn out 
 12 sets every five hours, or 24 sets per day. This gives a cost 
 for labor of about 6 14 cts. per set. The molds actually cost about 
 10 cts. a set, counting in materials and lost time due to the full 
 output of the oven not being required each day. 
 
 Criccihles. The crucibles furnished by the Goldschmidt Thermit 
 Co. cost $7.25 each, but since using up the first six bought the 
 railway company has made its own, buying magnesia tar from 
 the Goldschmidt Thermit Co. at 21/2 cts. per lb. The tar is mixed 
 with 25% of old crucible material finely powdered. These crucibles 
 last on an average for about 30 joints. They are baked in the 
 oven previously described with a higher temperature than that 
 required for the molds. The cost of the crucibles is $2.40 each, 
 made up of the following items : 
 
 48 lbs. magnesia tin at 2^2 cts $1.20 
 
 12 lbs. old crucible powder, labor 0.15 
 
 6 hrs.' labor at 15 cts. molding and baking. . . . 0.90 
 
 Fuel 0.15 
 
 Total ?2.40 
 
 Cost of Welding. The welding was done by a gang of 1 fore- 
 man and 3 laborers. This gang has never exceeded 20 welds per 
 10-hour day. The wages paid were: Foreman, $2.50 per day. 
 and laborers, $1.50 per day. The welding portion consists of 16 
 lbs. thermit and 2 lbs. iron punchings, or 15 lb.s. thermit and 3 
 lbs. iron punchings, if a lower temperature seems desirable. The 
 
1694 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 total cost of the welding portion, including igniting powder, tap- 
 ping pin, and plugging materials for crucible, consisting of asbestos 
 washer, iron disc and refractory sand, is $4.25. The cost of weld- 
 ing 100 joints on T-rail 7 ins. high, 6 ins. base and 3 ins. head 
 during 1906 was per joint as follows: 
 
 Cost of mold $0.10 
 
 Cost of crucible 0.10 
 
 Cost of casting materials 0.20 
 
 Foreman 0.25 
 
 Laborers 0.91 
 
 Thermit portion 4.25 
 
 Total $5.81 
 
 To this is to be added $1.63, which is about the average cost of 
 removing and replacing brick pavement at each joint for labor 
 and materials, using old broken stone for concrete and cleaning 
 old paving blocks. This addition brings the total up to $7.44 per 
 joint welded. The cost of welding 600 joints in 1905 on 9-in. 
 tram head rail, including all labor, materials, tools and patterns 
 incident to the work, experimenting with mold materials and cost 
 of oven, was $5.86. The cost of the original outfit for welding was: 
 
 1 Automatic crucible $ 7.25 
 
 1 Set mold models 12.00 
 
 1 Set mold clamps , 6.00 
 
 1 Tapping spade 1.00 
 
 1 Tripod for crucible 4.00 
 
 1 Set mold boxes 2.50 
 
 Total $32.75 
 
 Precautioyis. Certain precautions are necessary to get the best 
 results by the thermit process, and some of these we quote from 
 Mr. French as follows : 
 
 " When we began welding this 7-in. rail we found that we could 
 sledge off the welds and that the iron from the thermit compound 
 had not united with the rail ; also that the iron came up to the 
 top of the rail head. We subsequently found that the mold 
 models had become mixed, and we had used one of too small 
 horizontal cross-section, and consequently the rail chilled the small 
 volume of molten iron coming in contact with it. Upon enlarging 
 the mold model so that the thermit portion furnished only enough 
 iron to come up under the rail head, we obtained welds that 
 resisted the most vigorous sledging that could be given with a 
 10-pound hammer. We were able to batter the weld out of shape, 
 but could not separate it from the rail. This sledging test is 
 now applied to all welds. 
 
 " We found when welding in the morning with rising tempera- 
 ture that tightly-closed joints often humped up when welded. This 
 proved to be due to the latent compression in the rails that did 
 not manifest itself unil the rail ends became soft. These humped 
 joints were ground down with an emery wheel grinder. We had 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1695 
 
 only a few of these joints when we realized the cause, and readily 
 prevented such action by welding on cooler days or when the tem- 
 perature was falling. We obtained the best results with joints 
 open about Vie to y^-i in., the expansion in welding closing tightly 
 such an opening. "We have made excellent combination welds be- 
 tween 80-lb. T-rail, 7-in. 70-lb. and 95-lb. T-rails and 9-in. girder 
 rails. In making combination welds we found that it was essential 
 to a get a good body of metal between the upper side of the base 
 of the deepei rail and the under side of the shallower section in 
 order to secure the strongest type of weld. 
 
 " Thus far there has been no appreciable excess wear in the 
 head of the rails at the welds and the heated portion seems to 
 take the original temper, as it cools down slowly in about the 
 same way as when coming from the rolls. 
 
 " A few portions of thermit, not over six, have been lost through 
 failure of the workman to tap the crucible properly, or lack of 
 luting around the joints of the molds. We have had but one 
 explosion during our entire experience. That occurred after using 
 the process 18 months, and was caused through carelessness in 
 welding on a rainy day and in not thoroughly luting the molds 
 near the top. The slag came in contact with the wet earth around 
 the mold, but aside from the scare occasioned by the report and 
 a slight burn on the foreman's arm from flying slag no harm 
 was done, and the weld turned out to be a good one." 
 
 Cost of Cutting Off Steel Sheet Piles with the Electric Arc. 
 F. C. Perkins (Engineering and Contracting, 1907) describes the 
 use of the electric arc in cutting off steel piles at the New Hoff- 
 man House foundation work in New York city. 
 
 The steel piles being cut are % in. thick, in the web and 3 ins. at 
 the interlocking points. It is stated that the time required in 
 burning the %-in. steel is four minutes per foot and the time taken 
 at the interlocking points is said to be 8 minutes. 
 
 The arc light carbon is held in a metal clamp fastened to a 
 metallic rod and socket, which is in turn bolted to a long wooden 
 pole, the cable conducting the current being flexible and con- 
 nected to the metal clamp of the carbon terminal. The steel to 
 be cut is connected to the other conductor from the alternating 
 current circuit. The men are protected from the extreme heat 
 and terrific glare by goggles and asbestos masks as well as gloves, 
 as it has been found that the carbon fumes produced by the high 
 power electric arc. affected the lips and other parts of the face 
 and hands. 
 
 About 1,200 amperes are utilized at 50 volts pressure, alter- 
 nating current being employed stepped down to the above volt- 
 age from the high pressure service of 2,500 volts. Single phase 
 alternating current is employed, taken from the street service 
 mains, the frequency being 60 cycles per second. 
 
 The cost of cutting steel piling with current at 10 cts. kw. 
 and the attendant at 50 cts. per hour, is stated to be as follows 
 per foot of piling cut; 
 
1696 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA. 
 
 Cost of current $2.56 
 
 Labor 0.40 
 
 Total $2.96 
 
 This is rather high, and the hack-saw would probably be cheaper. 
 However, with current at say 3 cts. per kw.-hr. the cost per foot 
 would be but $1.17. Even at this rate, with labor competent to 
 use a hack-saw at 25 cts. per hour, the saw would be the cheaper. 
 
 Miscellaneous Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting Co^ts. The 
 costs in Tables XITI to XV have /been accurately obtained. Davis- 
 Bournonville apparatus was used. 
 
 TABLE XIII. COSTS OF BUTT WELDING PIPE 
 
 Labor at 42 cts. per hour. Oxygen and acetylene at 2 cts. per 
 cu. ft. Welding wire at 10 cts. per pound. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gas pressures 
 
 
 
 
 s . 
 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 a 
 
 
 cety. 
 
 otal 
 cost 
 
 M 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 < ^ 
 
 4-in. 
 
 6 min. 
 
 2.84 
 
 2.49 
 
 5 oz. 
 
 i%4 in. 
 
 6 
 
 12 1b. 
 
 6 1b. $0.18 
 
 6-in. 
 
 12 min. 
 
 5.68 
 
 4.98 
 
 8 oz. . 
 
 %2 in. 
 
 6 
 
 12 1b. 
 
 6 1b. .34 
 
 8-in. 
 
 16 min. 
 
 7.58 
 
 6.65 
 
 12 oz. 
 
 %6 in. 
 
 6 
 
 12 1b. 
 
 6 1b. .47 
 
 10-in. 
 
 18 min. 
 
 8.53 
 
 7.48 
 
 16 oz. 
 
 5/i6 in. 
 
 6 
 
 12 1b. 
 
 6 1b. .54 
 
 12-in. 
 
 26 min. 
 
 12.32 ' 
 
 10.81 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 21/64 in. 
 
 6 
 
 12 1b. 
 
 6 1b. .77 
 
 16-in. 
 
 42 min. 
 
 33.18 
 
 29.40 
 
 32 oz. 
 
 % in. 
 
 8 
 
 16 1b. 
 
 6 lb. 1.75 
 
 Average Cost of Cutting Pipe (4 cuts made ( 
 
 of each size) 
 
 4-in. 
 
 625 
 
 0.781 
 
 0.125 
 
 
 i%4 in. 
 
 2 
 
 20 1b. 
 
 31b. $0.02 
 
 6-in. 
 
 0.87 
 
 1.087 
 
 .174 
 
 
 %2 in. 
 
 2 
 
 20 1b. 
 
 3 1b. .03 
 
 8-in. 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.775 
 
 .3 
 
 
 5/i6 in. 
 
 2 
 
 20 1b. 
 
 3 1b. .05 
 
 10-in. 
 
 1.77 
 
 2.118 
 
 .355 
 
 
 •yi6 in. 
 
 2 
 
 20 1b. 
 
 3 1b. .06 
 
 12-in. 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.625 
 
 .42 
 
 
 21/64 in. 
 
 2 
 
 20 1b. 
 
 3 1b. .07 
 
 16-in. 
 
 3.62 
 
 4.531 
 
 .725 
 
 
 % in. 
 
 2 
 
 20 1b. 
 
 3 lb. .13 
 
 
 TABLE XIV. 
 
 COST 
 
 OP BUTT WELDING PIPE 
 
 C5ir» 
 
 « «-e 
 
 Welding Cost of labor Total cost 
 
 Cost for 
 
 felZc UJL 
 
 time 
 
 placing and of welded 
 
 dresser 
 
 pipe 
 
 min. 
 
 turning pipe joints 
 
 
 couplings 
 
 2-in, 
 
 , I. D. 
 
 3 
 
 
 $0.09 
 
 $0.18 
 
 
 t$0.53 
 
 4-in, 
 
 . O. D. 
 
 6 
 
 
 .165 
 
 
 .34 
 
 
 .69 
 
 6-in, 
 
 , O. D. 
 
 10 
 
 
 .245 
 
 
 .52 
 
 
 1.29 
 
 8-in. 
 
 , O. D. 
 
 15 
 
 
 .33 
 
 
 .70 
 
 
 1.49 
 
 10-in, 
 
 O. D. 
 
 16 
 
 
 .365 
 
 
 .80 
 
 
 2.09 
 
 16-in. 
 
 O. D. 
 
 40 
 
 
 .46 
 
 * 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 3.89 
 
 * Two welders employed. 
 
 t The cost of couplings is shown without the necessary labor to 
 install. 
 
 The Pacific Gas and Electric Co., with welder at 47 cts. per 
 hr, and gases at 2 cts. per cu. ft., has obtained very low cost in 
 butt welding gas mains of various sizes of pipe, including the 
 labor cost of placing and turning pipe, and makes interesting 
 comparison of the cost of welded joints with the cost of recessed 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1697 
 
 coupling-s as formerly employed. The welding was done with 
 portable outfits. See Table XIV. 
 
 Cost of Various Cxy-Acetylene Cutting Operation. The costs 
 of miscellaneous work in Table XV were obtained under ordinary 
 working conditions in the field, where continuous operation is fre- 
 quently impossible owing to other labor involved, or the necessity 
 for moving from place to place. 
 
 TABLE XV. < 
 
 COST OF VARIOUS CUTTING OPERATIONS 
 
 U, 
 
 
 
 C*^' 
 
 5; 
 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 
 |5 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 K 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 6-in. I-beams 
 
 20 
 
 75 min. 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 $1.33 
 
 ?.0665 
 
 8-in. I-beams 
 
 4 
 
 6 min. 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 .25 
 
 .0625 
 
 12-in. I-beams 
 
 4 
 
 8 min. 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 .47 
 
 .1175 
 
 15-in. I-beams 
 
 10 
 
 45 min. 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 1.35 
 
 .1350 
 
 15-in. I-beams 
 
 1 
 
 1 ft. 23 in. 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 .092 
 
 .092 
 
 5-in. T-rails 
 
 20 
 
 75 min. 
 
 37 
 
 12 
 
 1.55 
 
 .0775 
 
 8-in. T-rails 
 
 4 
 
 10 min. 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 .60 
 
 .15 
 
 9 -in. street car rails 10 
 
 45 min. 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 1.35 
 
 .135 
 
 12-in. Lackawanna 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 piling 
 
 88 
 
 9 % hrs. 
 
 350 
 
 60 
 
 12.57 
 
 .143 
 
 ?/i6-in. boiler plate 
 
 40 ft. 
 
 60 min. 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 .90 
 
 .0225 per ft. 
 
 ^-in. boiler plate 
 
 55 ft. 
 
 180 min. 
 
 130 
 
 40 
 
 4.72 
 
 .086 per ft 
 
 1-in. boiler plate 
 
 80 ft. 
 
 150 min. 
 
 250 
 
 56 
 
 7.27 
 
 .091 per ft. 
 
 % -in. web of rail 
 
 .33 ft. 
 
 50 min. 
 
 90 
 
 13 
 
 2.45 
 
 .074 per ft. 
 
 Cost of Oxy-Acetylene Welding of Pipe. Under ordinary con- 
 ditions, it is stated in Engineering News, Feb. 4, 1915, a skillful 
 operator can weld in an hour about one joint on 12-in. pipe and 
 from three to five joints on 4-in. pipe. The cost is^ said to be 
 from 25 to 40% less than that of a recessed screw* joint, including 
 the cost of the coupling and its application. 
 
 With the welded pipe, the branches, laterals, drips and various 
 other fittings are made integral parts of the continuous ^.lain, 
 while with screw-joint pipe they are separate and special parts 
 whose numerous joints are often a source of trouble. Laterals 
 are inserted at any point by cutting a hole in the main (with the 
 cutting blowpipe) and welding in the end of the lateral. The 
 only material required to make up these specials are odd lengths 
 of pipe of the required sizes, which can be cut and connected at 
 any point and in any way. The cost of making the Y, with two 
 8-in. pipes connecting to an 8-in. main, is about 76 cts., as given 
 in Table XVL 
 
 A great advantage of such continuou.sly welded mains is that 
 leaks from the joints, always a large source of loss in every 
 gas distribution system, are wholly prevented. Thus these mains 
 are especially advantageous for natural gas and oil pipe lines as 
 well as for city gas distribution. For ammonia, and other re- 
 frigeration system-s, elimination of leakage is important for safety 
 as well as economy. 
 
 Certain cost figures compiled by the makers of the Oxweld ap- 
 
1698 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 TABLE XVI. COST OF WELDING PIPE JOINTS AND YS 
 
 6 -in. pipe 16-in. pipe 
 
 Labor, 30 cts. per hr 20 min. 10 cts. 90 min. $0.45 
 
 Oxygen, 2 cts. per cu. ft 10 ft. 20 cts, 40 ft. 0.80 
 
 Acetylene. 2 cts. per cu. ft 9 ft. 18 cts. 36 ft. 0.72 
 
 Filling wire, 12 cts. per lb % lb. 9 cts. 2 1b. 0.24 
 
 Total 57 cts. $2.21 
 
 ,. 8 X 6 -in. Y ^ 
 
 Cutting Welding 
 
 Labor, 30 cts. per hr 3 min. 1.5 cts. 22 min. 11 cts. 
 
 Oxygen, 2 cts. per cu. ft 3 ft. 6.0 cts. 12 ft. 24 cts. 
 
 Acetylene, 2 cts. per cu. ft 1ft. 2.0 cts. 10 ft. 20 cts. 
 
 Filling wire, 12 cts. per lb 1 lb. 12 cts. 
 
 Total 9.5 cts. 67 cts. 
 
 paratus used in Chicago are as follows : For 4 -in. butt-welded 
 pipe, 43.5 cts. per joint. The segregation was 15 mins. labor, 7.5 
 cts. ; 8 cu. ft. oxygen, 16 cts. ; 7 cu. ft. acetylene, 14 cts. ; % lb. 
 filling wire, 6 cts. Six-in. pipe welds cost 57 cts. each ; 8-in., 
 $1,055; 12-in.. $1.57, and joints for 16-in. pipe, $2.21. For the 
 last named pipe IV2 hrs. of labor cost 45 cts.; 40 cu. ft. oxygen, 
 80 cts. ; 36 cu. ft. acetylene, 72 cts., and 2 lbs. filling wire, 24 cts. 
 An 8-in. pipe was welded into an 8-in. main to form a tee at a 
 cost of $3.04. A 6-in. 60-deg. Y required 10 mins. to cut and 
 45 mins. to weld. The total cost was $2.14. 
 
 Cost of Oxy-Acetylene Welding in an Electric Railway Shop. 
 L. M. Clark (Electric Railway Journal, Jan. 4, 1913) gives in 
 Table XVII the cost of welding in an electric railway shop in 
 Indianapolis : 
 
 TABLE XVIL COST OF OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING IN AN 
 ELEC-TRIC RY. SHOP 
 
 Amount of Material Time, Cost of 
 
 Name of part Oxy. Acet. Filler hours welding 
 
 Motor axle cap 5 3 1 1 $0.48 
 
 Armature housing 5 3 1 1 0.48 
 
 End bearing for mixer 190 104 5 10 9.44 
 
 Cutting anti-climber 30 18 . . 2 1.43 
 
 1 bumper iron 70 42 IY2 3 3.02 
 
 1 journal box, 5x90 90 54 2 5 4.40 
 
 1 brake valve body '10 6 i^ 1 0.67 
 
 1 scissors 5 3 % 1 0.52 
 
 6 motor axle caps 30 18 1 3 1.75 
 
 1 motor frame 340 204 5% 20 15.92 
 
 1 magnet frame 20 12 1/2 2 1.23 
 
 l%x7 journal box 50 30 1 3 2.58 
 
 Peck, truck side frame 170 102 2 12 8.40 
 
 Peck, truck frame 150 90 1 1/2 10 7.25 
 
 6 motor axle caps 30 18 1 3 1.75 
 
 5 Lorain compressor shells 100 60 2 7 5.26 
 
 15x9 journal box 40 24 1 2 1.95 
 
 1 door sheave 20 12 Brass 1 1.04 
 
 5 motor caps 35 21 1 3 1.91 
 
 1 Peck, truck side frame 190 114 2% 10 8.56 
 
 Cam for stoker engine 45 27 5 2 2.43 
 
 1 armature shaft 280 178 3 H 11.73 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1699 
 
 Amount of Material 
 
 Name of part Oxy. Acet. Filler 
 
 1 truss rod anchor 15 9 1 
 
 Heating 2 tires 15 9 
 
 Standard truck frame 220 132 . 3% 
 
 1 pipe vise 5 3 ^2 
 
 Annealing wheels 30 18 
 
 Steam trap 20 12 1 
 
 Coal elevator cam 40 24 1 1^ 
 
 Side frame on truck 215 129 21/2 
 
 Cut hole in boiler 30 18 
 
 3 coal elevator cams 140 84 ZY2 
 
 Cut 6-in. I beam 15 9 
 
 Peck, truck side frame 175 105 2 
 
 Westinghouse top motor frame.. 400 240 4 
 
 I beams cut-off 50 30 
 
 Westinghouse pinion axle cap... 100 60 4^4 
 
 Peckham truck frame 250 150 4 
 
 Peckham truck frame 50 30 % 
 
 Anti-climber castings cut 50 30 
 
 "Westinghouse pinion axle cap.. 100 60 2 
 
 Westinghouse top motor frame. 400 240 7 
 
 Westinghouse pinion axle cap.. 150 90 3 
 
 Peckham truck frame 150 90 3 
 
 Loraine bottom inotor frame. . . . 100 60 2 
 
 Westinghouse top motor frame. . 400 240 4 
 
 Westinghouse top motor frame.. 140 84 3 
 
 Westinghouse motor frame 450 270 5% 
 
 Westinghouse top motor frame. .300 180 4 
 
 Anti-climber castings 50 30 
 
 4% X 7 Symington fire boxes 350 2.10 5% 
 
 Westinghouse compressor gear 
 
 case corer cap 25 15 1 
 
 Time, 
 
 Cost of 
 
 hours 
 
 welding 
 
 1 
 
 0.79 
 
 1 
 
 0.72 
 
 11 
 
 9.82 
 
 1 
 
 0.52 
 
 2 
 
 2.42 
 
 1 
 
 1.02 
 
 3 
 
 2.25 
 
 12 
 
 9.84 
 
 4 
 
 2.20 
 
 5 
 
 6.37 
 
 
 0.72 
 
 4 
 
 6.56 
 
 20 
 
 17.16 
 
 2 
 
 2.00 
 
 7 
 
 5.25 
 
 15 
 
 11.39 
 
 5 
 
 2.72 
 
 2 
 
 2.00 
 
 10 
 
 5.74 
 
 20 
 
 17.36 
 
 10 
 
 7.10 
 
 15 
 
 8.23 
 
 3 
 
 3.91 
 
 20 
 
 17.16 
 
 12 
 
 7.24 
 
 15 
 
 18.48 
 
 18 
 
 13.61 
 
 2 
 
 2.00 
 
 15 
 
 15.38 
 
 0.( 
 
 Speed of Cutting with Oxy-Acetylene Torch. J. M. Morehead 
 in a paper before the New York Railroad Club gives the Table 
 XVIII of cutting speeds attained in ordinary practice. 
 
 TABLE XVIII. CUTTING SPEEDS 
 
 Up to 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 c-2 
 
 S i 
 
 .£§ 
 
 cS 
 
 
 •^0 
 
 io 
 
 1" 
 
 
 
 Fh 
 
 a 
 
 ffi 
 
 u. 
 
 Qj 
 
 1/2 in. . . 
 
 . 12 
 
 151/2 
 
 60 
 
 14-18 
 
 to 11/2 in. 12 
 
 151/2 
 
 75 
 
 14-18 
 
 p ■•-> 
 
 O) o 
 
 fi 
 
 125 
 125-150 
 
 ■A u 
 
 CiP. 
 
 50 
 30 
 
 While very desirable in welding, in cutting it is quite essential 
 that the oxygen be pure. I;f any appreciable amount of nitrogen 
 is present, this nitrogen expands with the heat and prevents ftie 
 acetylene from entering the slot. This results in a wide kerf and 
 unsatisfactory work, while at the same time the amount of oxy- 
 gen necessary for any given work increases enormously. Table 
 XIX sho^^'s how the qu-^ntity of oxygen necessarily varies with 
 its purity. It will be observed that with oxygen containing 
 
1700 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 J^OSM ^ ^ 
 
 00 co?o^ lH<^^ "*^ 
 
 CO ^C35 
 
 o a; be 
 o bjos 
 bJ3o 
 
 
 
 o -^o »: 1^ 
 
 # 
 
 CO « 
 
 kH 
 
 t- 
 
 (M* T-l r.-- U5 "M' 00 oo 
 
 
 _w> 
 
 Eh 
 
 
 oiioto^ oio 
 
 o 
 
 -ij 
 
 
 
 lO tH 
 
 tH 
 
 ^3 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 "siiJ 
 
 
 
 o ;:|?^^ ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Sl1 
 
 CO 
 
 Irt t~ t- rH '^1 t- '-I 
 
 Ci 
 
 C5 
 1— 1 
 
 
 OiC^^OrH ^» 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 lO 
 
 Co'cOf-^'^M-^rS 
 
 CO 
 
 a; nJ 
 
 
 05 '-0 -X> ^ «5 CO 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 §g 
 
 rt< 
 
 00 ■:^00 r-\ ^ 
 
 cd' o CO ^ M -t^ r^ 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 1% 
 
 ^^' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 OH 
 Eh 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 I— I 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 ^001- ^ ^ 
 
 o ;::^'t-ico ^ 
 
 (M 00 CO t- cri r-I tH !5 
 
 CO ^lofo <p"S 
 
 tH oi'Mt-t-^iHOO-^^ 
 OS t- CO ^JPrn 
 
 . 0) 
 
 IJ^ 
 
 
 .2 ■:^ <^ ? 4j ^ 
 ^ -J -^ o <M q 
 
 ^ O ^-: ^O 
 
 ("CtW 
 
 .^a 
 
 0) i2 .^ B 5; '"^ oS 
 
 3 .3 O O !^'-S D 
 
 P4^HHOEh(1i 
 
 
 tn 
 
 ^ c^ on 
 
 a> f-^ 5 "5 
 ^.^'^■^ 
 
 ft 
 
 ft I ^ 
 
 erf 
 
 o oS '-I 
 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1701 
 
 18% or more of impurities it is practically impossible to do satis- 
 factory cutting- work. 
 
 Costs of Various Acetylene Operations. E. F. Eg^gert (Auto- 
 genous Welding, July, 1914) gives the cost of cutting out numer- 
 ous small parts used in ship construction. Pieces Nos. 1 and 3, 
 Fig. 4. are examples of the anglesmiths art, only they were 
 made by an acetylene operator; No. 1 is the boxed end of a staple 
 angle, used in making a deck or bulkhead water tight, where a 
 Z-bar passes through it ; and No. 3 is an angle corner with the 
 flange of the angle turned outward, used in bounding decks and 
 bullvheads to form connections and make them water-tight. An 
 
 1 — pnti^Mi ' 1 
 
 VL^in 
 
 7i mm m ^ ^ 
 
 ^ f -1 
 
 MpMEpI 
 
 
 ^J^ 
 
 Fig. 4. Miscellaneous parts made with an oxy-acetylene torch. 
 
 anglesmith, in making No. 1, has to take a long heat, cut V-shaped 
 sections out of the flange, bend the web twice, as near to the 
 proper point as he can, dress the job to get the dimensions right, 
 and then make two welds in the flanges. The acetylene operator 
 makes one V-shaped cut in the flange, and removes the end of 
 the flange; this with the cutting torch and to exact dimensions. 
 Then he draws his torch along the line on the web Avhere the 
 angle should be bent, gets it hot, and it bends as easily as copper 
 wire • the dimension is correct and the corner square without dress- 
 ing After making the second bend, he makes two straight-line 
 welds in the flange, and the job is done. In a 2 by 3-in angle^ 
 this job costs about 50 cts. ; the welds are sound and will stand 
 
1702 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 any amount of hammering to prove it ; the under surface is smooth, 
 so the flange can be calked water-tight. Piece No. 3 is made in 
 the same way, save that a square insert is welded in the flange, 
 needing two straight-line welds. Cost about 30 cts., including cost 
 of cutting the square insert. 
 
 Pieces Nos. 2, 5 and 10 go to make hose and nozzle racks for 
 ship-board installation. The hose is hung over No. 2, being held 
 to the bulkhead by No. 5, consisting of two clips, riveted or tap- 
 bolted to the bulkhead ; the strap is hinged to the one on the 
 left, and pinned to the one on the right. By taking out the pin, 
 the strap swings clear and the hose can be removed. The orifice 
 of the brass nozzle slips over the downward projection of No. 10, 
 and its base rests on a simple angle clip. 
 
 In making No. 2, circular rings are cut on the pantograph ma- 
 chine ; a piece of pipe is cut to length ; the rings are cut in two, 
 the pipe split lengthwise, and a half ring welded to the end of 
 each half pipe. This costs about 80 cts. much less than a cast- 
 ing. 
 
 The clips of No. 5 are cut from bar steel, and bent as described 
 above ; the strap is cut from the same bar. The hinges are made 
 of %-in. extra-heavy iron pipe, each hinge of three pieces; the 
 strap and clips being laid together lengthwise ; the three pieces 
 of pipe for each hinge, held together by a bolt running through 
 them, are laid in place and tacked there by the welding torch. 
 Then the two bolts are removed, disassembling the clips from the 
 strap, and the welding of the pipe completed. This saves ex- 
 pensive forgings and the machining thereof, and costs only 90 cts. 
 
 The nozzle keeper, piece No. 10, consists of a short piece of 
 % -in. extra heavy iron pipe, welded to a little angle clip ; it avoids 
 a casting, and costs only 30 cts. 
 
 Pieces Nos. 4 and 6 are pad eyes ; eyes made parts of pads 
 which are riveted to a deck or a bulkhead for a tackle, or brace, 
 to hook into or secure to. The eyes are not completed in these 
 samples ; they would be formed by punching or drilling. These 
 pad eyes were made by cutting them from scraps of T- or I-bars, 
 finishing by knocking off the rough on a grinder. Thus, forgings 
 are avoided, and pad eyes produced at 10 cts. each. If a thicker 
 eye is wanted, it can be formed by welding two pieces of angle 
 bar back to back. 
 
 Piece No. 7 is a scupper lip, secured under a pipe discharging 
 over the side to throw the water clear of the side, so as not to 
 streak it. It is formed of two pieces of plate, cut to proper shape; 
 the Ijp is then bent to shape and welded to the flange. This 
 method obviates a casting, and the scupper lip costs 80 cts. 
 
 Piece No. 8 is a hinge, made of two pieces of plate and a piece 
 of %-in. extra -heavy iron pipe. The pipe is cut in three pieces, 
 the pieces being held together by a bolt slipped through them ; 
 the two pieces of plate are laid edge to edge, the pipe laid length- 
 wise on the crack, and then welded. This saves two forgings, or 
 castings, and the necessary machining, the hinge costing 45 cts. 
 This is, of course, a special, heavy hinge, and is not a commercial 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1703 
 
 article ; and usually these special fittings are wanted in a big 
 hurry. 
 
 No. 9 is a stanchion foot, cut from the end -of a stanchion. It 
 is made of 2-in. pipe, to the end of which is welded a %-in. 
 washer; and on the washer is welded a piece of %-in. extra- 
 heavy pipe. In quantities, this is a forging-machine job, requiring 
 dies, and is by no means cheap ; in small lots it is a hand- 
 forging job. With the torch, it costs 15 cts. 
 
 Piece No. 12 is another hinge, a very heavy one, made by cut- 
 ting two pieces from the web of a bulb angle or T-bar. Then the 
 pieces are cut to mesh together, and a hole drilled through the 
 bosses thus formed. All the cutting is done with the torch. It 
 makes a very strong hinge, saving forging and machining, and 
 costs but 40 cts. 
 
 Piece No. 13 is a stanchion or batten clip; riveted to the deck, 
 it receives and holds in position the bottom of a stanchion or 
 batten used in a storeroom, or magazine, to hold stacked packages 
 in place. It is made of a piece of U-bar with a piece of plate 
 welded across the end ; it avoids expensive anglesmithing, or a 
 casting, and costs but 10 cts. 
 
 Pieces Nos. 14, 15 and 17 are quite similar, being made of i/^-in. 
 round bar, bent in the vise, and welded to li/^-in. punchings. 
 No. 14 is a wing nut, costing 20 cts. ; No. 15 is a dog handle, 
 costing 10 cts., and No. 17 is a grab rod, costing 15 cts. In 
 large lots these are jobs for the drop hammer, or the forging 
 machine ; but in small lots of special sizes the torch price is 
 pretty low. 
 
 The mast band, piece No. 16, would ordinarily be made by a 
 smith ; he would roll up the ring and " jump on " the three eyes. 
 In this case the acetylene operator rolled up the bar cold, and 
 welded it together; then welded on the eyes. The eyes to the 
 left and right are the heads of two shouldered eyebolts ; but to 
 show that he is independent of the stock of eyebolts, the top eye 
 was formed of a piece of i/^-in. round. This job co.st only 60 cts. 
 
 Piece No. 18 is a butterfly nut made by welding two thin 1-in. 
 punchings, to an ordinary %-in. nut, smoothing up the job by 
 adding metal. It met a hurry-up requirement, and cost only 15 
 cts. for the one. 
 
 The handwheel, piece No. 19, shows how an emergency job 
 can be quickly done; a piece of scrap plate was cut to form the 
 spokes and hub, a 1 1/2 -in. wa.sher welded to the hub to form a 
 boss, and a piece of %-in. round was bent, welded together and 
 welded to the spokes to form the rim. It saved a casting, and 
 cost $1.50, less than the pattern would cost. 
 
 The 3-in. elbow. Piece No. 20, was a sort of exhibition job; it 
 is made of plate, every section being cut, rolled and welded ; the 
 flanges were also cut with the torch. It cost $2.24, and so is not 
 very economical ; but it is a good-looking job and a strong one, 
 and may be a good thing to know in an emergency. 
 
 No. 21 is a steel bucket handle, made of 1/2 -in. round and two 
 pieces of plate; and at 15 cts. is pretty cheap. 
 
1704 MECHANICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Piece No. 22 is a claw wrench, fitted over the spokes of the 
 handwheel of a valve ; the rod is extended to a remote and usually 
 higher place, universal joints taking- it around corners, and its 
 purpose is to make it possible to operate certain valves from a 
 distance. The claw is made from 3-in. iron pipe; a piece of ^-in. 
 plate cut out round, is welded to the end of the claw, and the 
 whole then welded to a 1-in. rod. It cost |1.35. and is much 
 cheaper than the forging previously used. 
 
 Cost of a Davit Collar and Pump Repairs. When cutting open- 
 ings in steel plate P. G. Coburn (American Machinist, July 23, 
 
 r^^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 ,:-«<| 
 
 i 
 
 1 '^^^M ^ 
 
 ■^^iS;^'' M 
 
 1 '-. 
 
 
 . ^flBi... 
 
 Fig. 5. A Davit 
 
 i.iade with an bxy-acetylene torch. 
 
 1914) states that some operators first drill around, then the torch 
 operator's job is to cut tiie edges straight. The proper way to do 
 the job is to cut it with the torch in the first place, using a 
 motor-driven torch. The cut will look as if it had been planed. 
 The cut can be made in less than one-tenth the time necessary 
 to drill it. 
 
 There are some cutting jobs that are so complete that the smith 
 is eliminated altogether. In Fig. 5 is shown the rough forging 
 of a davit collar. It is hardly right to call it a forging, for it 
 was not forged, but the term will answer, as it is in about the 
 same condition as the smith would put it for the machine shop 
 — except that there is slightly less finish to remove — a scant 
 % in. This collar was cut directly from the billet in 15 minutes. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1705 
 
 The excess material is in three large pieces, which can be utilized 
 in the forge shop ; hence, there is no material waste. A smith 
 could not make a good start on this job for what it cost complete 
 by the torch. 
 
 Cost of Making Ascetylene. The ordinary charge for car- 
 bide in ton lots is $70, or 3 1^ cts. per lb., and 25 cts. per hun- 
 dred would deliver it at most points, but we will add 50 cts., 
 which would make the total cost 4 cts. per lb. 
 
 A pound of good lump carbide will yield 4 1/(> cu. ft. or more of 
 acetylene. This would make the acetylene cost a little less than 
 0.9 ct. per ft. Suppose we add the 0.1 ct. for the work of gen- 
 eration and call the cost 1 ct. per ft. 
 
 Handling Scrap by Magnets and Locomotive Cranes. The fol- 
 lowing from Railway Electrical Engineer, October, 1915, gives' 
 costs with crane magnets : 
 
 In railroad work, the field of application of crane magnets is 
 rather limited. They are at the present time used principally in 
 scrap yards, around store-room platforms, etc., where it is neces- 
 sary to handle iron and steel rapidly and economically. For this 
 class of work, magnets are generally used in connection with 
 locomotive cranes, making a self-contained, self-propelled unit 
 which may be operated over shop and yard tracks as required. 
 The use of this combination has reduced very greatly the cost 
 of handling both new and scrap material, both by reducing the 
 actual expense of handling and by enabling the material to be 
 handled much more rapidly. In this connection a few examples 
 may be cited. One road has handled with a locomotive crane 
 and magnet 41 tons of old locomotive grates in 40 mins., 56 tons 
 of old track spikes in 33 mins. and 44 tons of miscellaneous scrap 
 in 35 mins. Another road is handling this class of material at a 
 cost of less than $0.02 per ton as compared with $0.25 to $0.35 
 by hand. A road using four cranes, three equipped with magnets 
 and one with a clam shell bucket, is handling scrap at $0.05 per 
 ton. Specific figures given by one road are as follows : 
 
 Kind of .scrap. Crane cost Hand cost 
 
 No. 1 wrought iron $0.04 $0.22 
 
 Bushel ing. No. 2 wrought iron, and malleable 
 
 iron 02 .10 
 
 Cast iron and mixed steel .* .02 .09 
 
 Sheet steel 20 .30 
 
 On some roads where traffic is very dense, a locomotive crane 
 with magnets is used to pick up and load scrap along the line. 
 The scrap, consisting of old rails and other track supplies, is 
 collected and put into small piles along the track by the section 
 gangs ; a locomotive crane with a magnet is then sent over the 
 line in a work train, thus handling the scrap cheaply and rapidly. 
 
 In shop work, cranes are ' also used to a limited extent, for 
 handling parts such as car-wheels, castings, etc. 
 
 As can be seen from the foregoing, crane magnets will be used 
 on outdoor work practically altogether. This requires that the 
 construction of the magnet be such as to be unaffected by weather 
 
1706 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 conditions, as reliability is a prime factor in economical operation. 
 The failure of a magnet will, in most cases, seriously cripple the 
 section of the yard where it is in use. All of the manufacturers of 
 magnets now on the market have apparently taken this point into 
 consideration and are using very rugged construction, so that the 
 magnets are practically indestructible. 
 
 Another very important point in magnet construction is that of 
 insulation ; due to self induction the voltage impressed on the 
 magnet may, at the time the circuit is opened, rise to four or 
 five times normal, thus setting up stresses which may break 
 down the insulation in case it is in any way defective. In some 
 makes of magnets this inductive discharge is shunted through a 
 resistance, by means of suitable contacts in the controller. This 
 is a desirable feature as it eliminates the high voltage and reduces 
 the strain on the coil insulation. 
 
 Direct current is, of course, essential to the operation of crane 
 magnets. They are usually wound for 220 volts, although 110 
 volt magnets may be obtained. The operation of magnets from 
 550 volt circuits is not recommended, due to the high voltage 
 induced at the time the circuit is opened, even when discharge 
 resistance is connected in circuit. 
 
 The controllers used in connection with crane magnets are of 
 simple construction. They may be either of the magnetic or of 
 the drum type. Three operating points are usually provided, these 
 points being — "lift," "drop" and "off." When the control handle 
 is placed in the lifting position, the magnet is connected across the 
 line, thus energizing it and enabling it to pick up the desired 
 material. When the handle is thrown to the drop position, the 
 current through the magnet is reversed, thus giving an instantane- 
 ous re-release and effecting a slight saving in time by eliminating 
 the sluggishness of release w^hich is sometimes found when hand- 
 ling pieces which completely span the magnetic poles, or parts con- 
 sisting of hard steel which retains a considerable amount of 
 residual magnetism. In the off position, the magnet is dead. 
 
 The controllers are usually arranged so that the handle will not 
 remain on the " drop " point, a spring being provided which throws 
 the handle to the off position as soon as it is released by the 
 operator. 
 
 Where magnets are used in connection with traveling or loco- 
 motive cranes operated by direct current, power can, of course, 
 be taken from the crane supply circuit. On steam operated loco- 
 motive cranes, a small engine or turbine driven generator sup- 
 plies the necessary direct current for the magnet, although power 
 may in many cases be taken from a shop circuit through re- 
 ceptacles located at convenient points. Where the area to be 
 covered by the crane is small, the connection to the supply circuit 
 ca'n often be made permanent, a flexible cable of suitable length 
 being used. 
 
 The life of this cable, as well as of that connecting the magnet 
 to the controller, may be materially increased by the use of some 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1707 
 
 automatic device for taking- up slack. One manufacturing com- 
 pany builds a simple motor driven take-up which has proved 
 very satisfactory in operation. 
 
 In general, the information obtained indicates that the cost of 
 maintenance on crane magnets is practically negligible and con- 
 sists, in most cases, simply in the renewal of cable. Wliere power 
 for operating the magnet is supplied by generating equipment 
 mounted on the crane, there will be also some slight maintenance 
 expense for this apparatus. The simpler construction of the small 
 steam turbines driven set as compared with engine driven equip- 
 ment would seem to make the former somewhat preferable, as 
 requiring less attention. This is especially the case in view of the 
 fluctuating nature of the load on the generator. 
 
 In addition to the circular type, which is in most general use 
 in railroad work, other forms of magnets are obtainable, arranged 
 for handling special material. Among these types are the flat 
 magnet for handling plates, the bi-polar type for handling rails, 
 rods, pipes, etc., also magnets with specially shaped pole pieces 
 for handling material such as car-wheels. However, the circular 
 magnet will be found the most generally useful and it will take 
 care of practically any class of work. 
 
 The use of magnets undoubtedly constitutes the simplest and 
 cheapest method of handling iron and steel, and your committee 
 suggests that the members of our association familiarize them- 
 selves with this class of apparatus, with a view to applying it to 
 a greater extent than has been the case up to the present time. 
 
 Ratio of Average Load to Connected Load. A. M. Dudley 
 (Transactions of American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Mar. 
 10, 1911) states that users are apt, in flguring their power con- 
 sumption, to take the capacity from the name plate of the driving 
 motor or motors and consider that as the average consumption. 
 If. as is more often the case than not, this unit has been liberally 
 allowed for, the ultimate calculated consumption of power is in 
 error by even more than the ratio of the maximum to the average 
 consumed. When these facts are considered, it is not so hard to 
 understand why the cost of power is sometimes figured in error 
 by 400'%. As an illustration of how serious this error may be, 
 figures are submitted showing the ratio of the average load to the 
 connected load, which are the result of a number of observations 
 and fairly represent the average condition. These figures are as 
 follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Cement mills nrV' qc\ 
 
 Textile mills, cotton and woolen 75 to 80 
 
 Tanneries 
 
 55 
 
 Ice machines and refrigerating plants 53 
 
 Marble works , W 
 
 Flour mills %^ 
 
 Carriage and v.'agon works ^» 
 
 Machine shops ^^ 
 
 Breweries 
 
 33 
 
 Boiler shops 28 
 
 Sheet metal manufacturing 'i ' 
 
1708 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Soap manufacturing 28 
 
 Rubber manufacturing 25 
 
 Wood working 10 to 35 
 
 General average of all industries (approx.) 33^^ 
 
 See the latter part of Chap. I where load factors are discussed. 
 
 First Cost and Maintenance of Portable Batteries for Automatic 
 Signals. A detailed account of the operation of these storage 
 batteries is given in a paper read before the Railway Signal 
 Association March 20, 1911, by A. H. McKeen, signal engineer 
 of the Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Co., and of the 
 Southern Pacific Co. lines in Oregon. 
 
 The methods of transportation to and from the charging plants 
 vary with local conditions. On portions of the line where local 
 passenger service is available, the batteries are loaded into the 
 baggage car and distributed at each station by the batteryman, 
 who accompanies the batteries. From the stations they are taken 
 to the various battery locations by the maintainer on a velocipede 
 or motor car, the discharge batteries being returned in the same 
 manner to the station, where they are picked up by the batterman 
 and brought back to the charging plant on the return train in 
 the evening. On other sections of the line the batteries are loaded 
 into a specially arranged battery car and handled on local freight 
 trains, stops being made at each battery location, where the bat- 
 teries are changed by the batteryman and the maintainer on that 
 district. The car containing the discharged batteries is sent back 
 to the charging plant on the first freight train. Another arrange- 
 ment consists of a charging plant built in a box car, which car is 
 moved on tUe daily way freight and is set out at each alternate 
 station ; in one end of the l^ar is located the gasoline engine, gen- 
 erator, switchboard, and cooling tank. A large gasoline tank 
 holding sufficient gasoline for one month's supply is suspended 
 under the body of the car. The center part of the car is used as 
 a battery room and is suitably fitted up with a battery bench, 
 lead-lined sink and a large water tank for battery washing pur- 
 poses. The other end of the car is arranged as living quarters 
 for the batteryman. The car is equipped with heavy draught 
 gear in order to avoid any damage due to rough handling while 
 in transit. During the three years that this portable arrange- 
 ment has been in service, it has given the best of results, handling 
 on one district, 832 colls monthly on a territory of 150 miles of 
 single track signals. An important advantage in this method is 
 that on the 150-mile district referred to, only 80 extra cells are 
 required for changing out purposes ; this being only 10% of the 
 total number of cells in service on the district. 
 
 On the Harriman Lines there are 52 charging plants; each of 
 which (except the portable plants) is located at the headquarters 
 of the assistant supervisor, where a shop building is provided. 
 Since part of this shop building is used to house the charg- 
 ing machinery no special building is necessary. The average 
 territory covered by each plant is 104 miles. Wherever current 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1709 
 
 can be obtained from local power companies, a mercury 
 arc rectifier or motor generator set is installed, and at other loca- 
 tions where electric power is not available a gasoline engine and 
 generator charging outfit is used. Each charging plant is in charge 
 of a special batteryman, whose duties consist of charging, inspect- 
 ing and cleaning the batteries and assisting the maintainers in 
 changing out the cells on their districts. All cells are returned 
 to the plant monthly and are thoroughly inspected and cleaned 
 before being put on the charging circuit. A record is kept in a 
 book, provided for the purpose, of the voltage, specific gravity 
 and condition of each cell on arrival at the plant and each cell 
 is examined for short circuits and other faults ; the hard rubber 
 covers and connectors being cleaned and sediment removed if 
 necessary. Once a year the old electrolyte is replaced with new 
 in order to discard all impurities held in solution. 
 
 In the case of stationary batteries it is the usual practice to 
 give an overcharge several times a month, the overcharge having 
 the effect of driving the sulphate out of the plates and keeping 
 them in a healthy condition. Portable cells which are charged 
 once a month only, are subject to considerable sulphating and 
 therefore require a long charge to bring them up to capacity. It 
 is the practice to continue the charge for two or three hours after 
 the voltage and specific gravity has ceased to rise. The uniform 
 gassing of all cells on charge is a good indication of their con- 
 dition and the failure of any cell to gas is investigated before the 
 charge is continued. During the charge, voltage and specific 
 gravity readings are taken and recorded in the book and any 
 cells not coming up to the proper voltage and gravity are closely 
 watched and given special treatment if necessary. Maintainers 
 are required to make weekly inspection of all cells in service, 
 examining them for loose connections, taking voltage readings and 
 replacing any evaporation of electrolyte that may occur during 
 the time the cells are in service. In replacing the evaporation, 
 only water whose purity has been previously passed on is used. 
 In localities where pure water is not obtainable, distilled water 
 is provided. 
 
 In charges subsequent to the initial charge the general rule is 
 that the amount of current put into the cell should be twice the 
 amount delivered by the cell during the 30 or less days elapsing 
 since the previous charge. Under normal conditions and service 
 the amount of current required of a cell will vary from 46 to 75 
 ampere hours per month. 
 
 The batteries are housed in the lower case of the signal, which 
 makes them easily accessible for inspection. The lower signal 
 case also serves to accommodate the track and line relays. At 
 the end of sidings on single track or other locations where two 
 signals are opposite each other, one set of batteries is used to 
 operate both signals. After the batteries have been in service 
 fifteen days, the maintainer interchanges them with the butteries 
 of the distant signal, this having the effect of equalizing the dis- 
 charge to a considerable extent on all cells in service. It also 
 
1710 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 avoids the necessity of charging cells for different lengths of time 
 on their return to the charging plant and eliminates the pos- 
 sibility of cells being discharged to a point that might result in 
 a signal failure. 
 
 COST OF STORAGE CELLS 
 
 1 cell SS-7 storage battery complete $4.85 
 
 2 battery connectors, at 8 cts. each .10 
 
 Electrolyte .03 
 
 Freight charges .30 
 
 Total cost $5.34 
 
 Cost of charging machinery and apparatus in 52 plants, 
 
 at $450.00 each $ 23,400.00 
 
 Cost of 48,516 storage cells, complete, including freight 
 
 charges 259.075.44 
 
 Cost of 12,129 carry cases, at $2.60 each 31,535.40 
 
 Total cost $314,010.84 
 
 COST OF PRIMARY CELLS 
 
 1 350-ampere-hour primary cell, complete $2.00 
 
 Freight charges .20 
 
 Total cost $2.20 
 
 Cost of 178,480 primary cells, complete, including freight 
 
 charges $392,656.00 
 
 Cost of 9.026 concrete battery wells, at $25.00 each 225,650.00 
 
 Freight charges on 9,026 concrete battery weils, each 
 
 weighing 1.600 lbs., at $20.00 each. 180,520.00 
 
 Charges for work train and locomotive crane or derrick 
 with crew for unloading and placing 9,026 battery 
 wells, 90 days at $50.00 per day (estimated) 4,500.00 
 
 Cost of labor for* digging holes and setting 9,026 battery 
 
 wells at $10.00 per well (estimated) . 90,260.00 
 
 Total cost $893,586.00 
 
 COST OF MAINTENANCE OP STORAGE CELLS PER FEAR 
 
 Interest on investment of $314,010.84 at 5 per cent $ 15,700.54 
 
 Depreciation on 52 charging plants costing $23,400, at 10 
 
 per cent 2,340.00 
 
 Depreciation on 48,516 positive groups costing $1.57 each, 
 
 at 22 per cent 16,757.43 
 
 Depreciation on 48,516 negative groups costing $1,835 
 
 each, at 25 per cent 22,256.71 
 
 Depreciation on 12,129 carrying cases costing $2.60 each, 
 
 at 10 per cent 3,153.54 
 
 Cost of renewals of broken jars, covers and separators 
 
 on 48,516 cells at 9 cts. per cell per year 4,366.44 
 
 Cost of electrolyte renewals on 48,516 cells at 3 cts. per 
 
 cell, per year 1,455.48 
 
 Cost of current, gasoline, oil, etc., at charging plants per 
 
 year at 18 cts. per cell 8,732.88 
 
 Total cost $74,763.02 
 
 COST OF MAINTENANCE OF PRIMARY BATTERIES PER YEAR 
 
 Interest on investment of $893,586, at 5 per cent $ 44,679.30 
 
 Cost of renewals for 178,480 cells, per year at $1.00 each 178,480.00 
 Cost of renewals of broken jars and covers on 178,480 
 
 cells per year, at 7 cts. per cell per year 12,493.60 
 
 Total cost $235,652.90 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1711 
 
 With reasonable care, the average life of SS-7 portable cells 
 and their component parts are found to be as follows : 
 
 Positive elements 4% years 
 
 Negative elements 4 years 
 
 Rubber jar's 10 years 
 
 Rubber covers 10 years 
 
 Rubber separators 10 years 
 
 Wood separators 2 years 
 
 Carrying cases 10 years 
 
 No cSiarges are made for transporting storage batteries either 
 when handled on passenger or freight trains; and even though a 
 nominal charge should be assessed, the amount would not exceed 
 the freight charges over foreign lines for renewals for primaiT 
 batteries. This item is therefore not included in the foregoing 
 cost of maintenance of storage or primary batteries ; neither is the 
 expense for labor for charging, inspecting and changing out stor- 
 age cells or making renewals to primary cells taken into con- 
 sideration, for the reason that so far as it can be ascertained 
 from Western roads using primary battery, the cost for labor for 
 maintaining primary batteries is practically the same as with 
 portable storage battery.. The battery man looks after the charg- 
 ing of the storage batteries on a district averaging 104 miles, 
 the maintainers assisting in distributing the batteries, w^hich re- 
 quires on an average two days time of each maintainer monthly. 
 Maintainers' districts range from 14 to 20 miles according to the 
 number of signals, local conditions, etc. The average district is 
 approximately 16 ' miles with 32 signals. Maintainers have no 
 helpers and are required to look after all work in connection with 
 the maintenance of signals on their Histrict, including the care 
 of signal lamps. 
 
 The prices as shown for both portable storage batteries and 
 primary batteries are the regular list prices less the usual trade 
 discount. The freight charges are figured on an average basis 
 for the entire system and are reasonably accurate. 
 
 The cost for current for operating motor-generator or arc-rec- 
 tifier plants varies from % ct. to 5 ct.s. per kvv. and the cost for 
 generating current with gasoline engine-generator sets is about 
 10 cts. per kw. Taking an average for the entire system the 
 annual cost for charging current is 18 cts. per cell. 
 
 Cost of Electric Riveting. The cost of riveting with Eveland 
 electric riveters in which alternating-current energy is used only 
 to heat the rivets, the heads being formed by a single manual 
 operation, is given in Electrical World, Mar. 14, 1914. The figures 
 are based on actual tests with rivets of ordinary length and repre- 
 sent only the cost of energy at 10 cts. per k.w.-hr. 
 
 Rivet diameter, ins. Energy cost per 1,000 
 
 0.25 $0.04 to .$0.05 
 
 0..31 25 0.08 to 0.10 
 
 0..375 0.12 to 0.14 
 
 0.5 to 0.625 0.20 to 0.25 
 
1712 MECHANICAL AND EI.ECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 Larger sizes can be riveted at a cost practically proportional to 
 their volume. The labor cost is low with the electric riveter, as 
 one man with a helper can do more work than two men and a 
 forge attendant using pneumatic or other power apparatus. 
 
 Cost of Thawing Water Pipes by Electricity. On the basis of 
 125 house services thawed by electricity in Rutland, Vt., in Feb- 
 ruary, 1904, the cost of the thawing per service was as follows: 
 
 Electricity $1.68 
 
 Labor 1.85 
 
 Teams and drivers 58 
 
 Total $4.11 
 
 On the average 17 amps, of alternating current at 2,200 volts 
 were required, and at 10 cts. per k.w.-hr. the current cost was 
 $1.68, as shown above. The average time consumed was 27 mins. 
 
 Cost of an Electric Sign. An electric sign installed over the 
 entrance to the Grays Harbor Railway & Light Company's branch 
 office at Hoquiam, Wash., is described in Electrical World, Oct. 
 21, 1916, as strictly a home product, the designing, construction, 
 painting, wiring, etc., having been done by local workmen. The 
 sign measures 8 ft. high and 10 ft. long with white letters 16 ins. 
 high on a blue-black background and is very legible during the 
 day as well. The letters are not of rough construction, the sheet 
 metal was cut out according to design, suitable holes were punched 
 to allow the insertion of the sign receptacles, the wiring was then 
 done, and the two sides were Anally bolted onto a wooden frame 
 made of 2- by 4-in. timber and the sign was ready for the painter. 
 
 It reads as follows : " Electric Power. Light — Electric Power 
 — Electric Light," and then all out and then all on again and 
 starts the cycle over. 
 
 The cost of this home-made 284-lamp sign was as follows: 
 
 Sheet-metal work — construction $ 19.05 
 
 Wiring receptacles, etc 63.32 
 
 Painting 15.00 
 
 Hanging, etc 15.14 
 
 Lamps 54.18 
 
 Flasher 39.99 
 
 Transforiner 17.00 
 
 $223.68 
 
 Power Required for iVIotor- Driven Farm IVIachinery. Since most 
 farm operations are essentially seasonable in character special 
 motors are not usually required to drive each particular machine. 
 Advantage has been taken of this diversity by a number of farm 
 owners who have electrical installations by mounting one or more 
 motors on skids or trucks so that these portable units can be 
 moved about to operate machines in the various barns, stables and 
 fields. The motors are provided with runs of cables ending in 
 plugs which can be attached to fused connection blocks mounted 
 at convenient points about the farm. 
 
 The University of Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana, 111., made 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 1713 
 
 tests in 1912 with the assistance of the General Electric Company's 
 staff, to determine the energy consumption required to thresh 
 various grains. The threshing machine used had a 28-in. cylinder 
 and a 42-in. separator and was driven by a 15-h.p. motor. While 
 the energy required to thresh a bushel or volume-measure of grain 
 was found to vary greatly, the consumption in terms of tons 
 handled was fairly constant. The results obtained are reproduced 
 herewith in Table XX. 
 
 TABLE XX. ENERGY CONSUMPTION TO THRESH GRAINS 
 
 / Yield per acre ^ Kw. hr. 
 
 Tons of grain Bushels Kw.-hr. to to thresh 
 
 Kind of grain and straw of grain thresh 1 ton 1 bushel 
 
 Oats 1.99 73.6 2.62 070 
 
 Barley 2.27 49.9 2.36 0.108 
 
 Wheat 1.97 27.9 2.27 0.160 
 
 Table XXI lists the sizes of motors recommended for operating 
 standard farm machines. A single-hole sheller with a sacker 
 attachment, driven by a 1-h.p. motor, requires about 0.025 k.w.-hr. 
 to shell a bushel of corn, shelling at the rate of 26 bushels per hr. 
 Test of a 25-bushel grain elevator capable of unloading 25 bushels 
 of corn in 3 mins. has shown that 45 bushels can be elevated 19 
 ft. at an energy consumption of 0.1 k.w.-hr. 
 
 TABLE XXI. SIZES OF MOTORS TO DRIVE FARM 
 MACHINES 
 
 Machines H.p. Machines H.p, 
 
 Feed grinders (small).... 5 Grain graders 0.25 
 
 Feed grinders (large) .... 15 Grain elevators 3 
 
 Ensilage cutters 15-20 . Concrete mixers 5 
 
 Shredders and buskers. ... 15 Hay hoists 5 
 
 Threshers, 19-in. cylinder .15 Root cutters 2 
 
 Threshers, 32-in. cylinder. .40 Cord-wood saws 5 
 
 Corn shellers, single-hole . 1 Wood splitters 2 
 
 Power shellers 15 Hay bailers 7.5 
 
 Fanning mills 0.25 Oat crushers 5 
 
 Comparative Costs of Gas and Fuel Oil in Heating Japanning 
 Ovens. E. F. Lake in Machinery, Aug., 1916, describes the meth- 
 ods in use for handling and japanning springs in the factory of 
 the Jackson Cushion Spring Co. A method of heating the japan- 
 ning oven with fuel oil is described and its cost is compared to the 
 cost of heating with gas, which had previously been used. 
 
 Method of Using Fuel Oil. In the construction of the oven, the 
 heat is not applied directly to the work, as in heat-treating fur- 
 naces, but pipe coils are laid in the bottom of the oven and the 
 oil flames are sent through these. In this way the ovens are 
 heated by radiation, much as steam radiators are used for heating. 
 The purpose of this arrangement is to prevent any of the products 
 of combustion from entering the baking compartment to discolor. 
 
1714 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 dull or otherwise ruin the smooth, glossy surface of the japan. 
 Furthermore, the currents qf air are prevented from starting up 
 in the oven and stirring up dust particles that settle on the fresh 
 japan. It is important to prevent this as far as possible, as these 
 dust particles raise small lumps on the smooth japan surface, 
 which are pyramidal in form so that they radiate light from all 
 sides, which makes them appear much larger to the eye than they 
 really are. When the pipe coils are arranged in this way, a dry 
 heat is secured which bakes the japan quicker and harder than 
 when moisture is present, as in the case of an open flame or when 
 using steam heat. The atmosphere in the oven is also kept neutral, 
 because there is no open flame to burn up the oxygen and leave 
 an excess of nitrogen. Owing to these facts, less than 2% of the 
 work requires to be done over, while in the case of gas fires or 
 steam-heated japanning ovens, from 10 to 20% of the work has 
 to be re-japanned and re-baked. 
 
 Details of Oil Burning Apparatus. Five burners are arranged 
 along each side of the 50 -ft. length of oven and each burner shoots 
 the oil flame into a separate coil of 10-in. wrought iron pipe. A 
 sheet metal pipe is used to convey the spent gases to a central 
 stack that goes to the roof at the point where the coil leaves the 
 oven. The fuel oil is vaporized inside the megaphone and com- 
 bustion first takes place at this point, so that only the clean flame 
 shoots into the pipe coil, as shown. This arrangement allows the 
 operator to see the flame that enters the pipe coil and adjust the 
 burner in such a way that there will be complete combustion of 
 the fuel oil. If there should be an excess of oil, it would drop 
 to the floor at the end of the megaphone. The importance of the 
 megaphone burner should be emphasized in connection with con- 
 struction of this kind, as without its use, the pipe coils will be 
 destroyed in a few weeks, while with the construction advocated 
 they will last several months. Another point of importance is 
 that the pipe coils should be supported on rollers so that the ex- 
 pansion and contraction will not crack the piping. If any of 
 the small details of this system are neglected, the result will be 
 failure, but when all details are perfect the process works success- 
 fully and is b5^ far the cheapest of any in fuel consumption and 
 upkeep of which the writer has knowledge. 
 
 A special casting is placed in the outlet end of the pipe coil to 
 reduce the 10-in. diam. to 4 ins., which leaves a large enough 
 opening to carry away all the spent gases and holds the heat 
 inside the pipe coil where it will radiate to the japan baking oven. 
 If this were not done, 40% of the heat generated by the oil flame 
 would pass through the pipe coil and out of the stack. In one 
 case known to the writer, a heavy sheet metal stack 3 ft. in diam. 
 was burned through by these gases some 2 ft. above the roof of 
 the building and 50 ft. away from the heating coils, as meas- 
 ured by the piping through which the burning oil gases travel. 
 
 With a 10-in. pipe left open to the draft from a stack, the 
 burning gases travel fairly quickly through vent pipes like that 
 at C, and their heat will not be effective until they accumulate in 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1715 
 
 TABLE XXII. COMPARATIVE COSTS OF GAS AND FUEL 
 OIL IN HEATING JAPANNING OVENS 
 
 General Information 
 
 Truck and carrier capacity, cu. ft. . 
 Oven or compartment capacities, cu. 
 
 ft 630 
 
 Cubic-feet of springs baked per 21-hr. 
 
 day (24 heats day and night). 15,120 
 Cubic feet of springs baked per day 
 
 (30 heats in 10 hrs.) 
 
 Cubic feet of springs baked per 
 
 month (25 working days) 378,000 
 
 GalJons of fuel oil burned per (25 
 
 working days) 
 
 Cost of fuel per month * $225.00 
 
 Cost of fuel per cubic foot of springs 
 
 baked * $0.0006 
 
 Cost of fuel per month t 
 
 Cost of tuel per cubic foot of springs 
 
 baked t 
 
 Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
 ity 378,000 cu. ft. per month) 
 
 Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
 ity 390,000 cu. ft. per month) * 
 
 Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
 ity 585,000 cu. ft. per month)* 
 
 Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
 ity 378,000 cu. ft. per month) f 
 
 Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
 ity 390,000 cu. ft. per month) t 
 
 Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
 ity 585,000 cu. ft. per month) f 
 
 Gas fuel — f^^?!— F}^±«ii " 
 3 ovens 
 
 105 
 
 I compart- 
 ments 
 
 2 compart- 
 ments 
 
 260 
 
 
 780 
 
 520 
 
 23,400 
 
 15,600 
 
 585,000 
 
 390,000 
 
 3,325 
 
 
 $182.88 
 
 
 
 $0.0003 
 $116.38 
 
 $0.00028 
 
 $0,002 
 
 $0.00017 
 
 $112.50 
 
 
 
 $124.80 
 
 $175.50 
 
 
 $149.40 
 
 
 
 $167.70 
 
 $234.00 
 
 
 • Gas, 70 cts. per thousand feet 
 t Gas, 70 cts. per thousand feet: 
 
 fuel oil, 514 cts. per gal. 
 fuel oil. 3% cts. per gal. 
 
 /rT^gT-T-Ton 
 
 Fig. 6. Sectional view of ovens, showing method of installing 
 pipe coils for fuel oil heating. 
 
1716 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 the larger stacks outside the building. In an oven arranged like 
 this, with ten burners and pipe coils venting into one central 
 stack, it can be readily seen that there would be an intense heat 
 at the point of concentration unless the flames were held back 
 in the pipe coils until they had burned out. The simplest method 
 of doing this is by means of a casting which reduces the outlet 
 end of the pipe coil, thus obviating the necessity for dampers 
 which burn out too easily. 
 
 Fig. 6 shows a floor plan and elevation which indicates the 
 location of these pipe coils and oil burners. It will be seen that 
 a heat insulated partition F extends clear to the floor and sepa- 
 rates compartments 1 and 2 from compartment 3. This arrange- 
 ment permits compartment 3 to be fired alone. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Accounting, 31, 88 
 Accrued depreciation, 92 
 Acre-foot, 1327 
 Active load, 62 
 Additional cost rate, 62 
 Aerial cable, see Cable 
 Aerous, 1163 
 
 Age, average weighted, 84 
 Air compressor, see Compressor 
 Air drill (see also Drill), 1168, 
 1170 
 
 duct, 848 
 
 hammer, 1164 to 1167, 1171 
 
 lift, efficiency, 1295 
 
 motor, 1161 
 
 pipe (see also Pipe), 210, 600 
 
 pump, 209 
 
 receiver, 1136, 1137 
 
 reheating, 1160 
 
 tools, 1166 
 
 washer, 1431 
 Alternative plant, 36, 46 
 Alternator, 276, 845 
 Altitude gage, 1648 
 Aluminum wire, see Wire 
 
 aluminum 
 Alvord method, 46, 48' 
 Ammeter, 860, 880 
 Amortization (see also De- 
 preciation), 89 
 Ampere. 488 
 Anchor, 9 43, 9 47 
 
 guy, see Guy 
 
 log, 893 
 
 rod. 950 
 Annual depreciation (see De- 
 preciation) 
 Anthracite (see Coal) 
 Anvil, 1663 
 
 Apparent diversity factor, 62 
 Arc lighting, see Lamp, see 
 
 Light 
 Arm, see Cross-arm 
 Arrester. see Lightning Ar- 
 rester 
 Asbestos. 1645 
 
 Ash (see also Coal ash, see 
 Conveyor) 
 
 ejector, 849 
 
 handling, 354, 360, 363, 370, 
 372, 375, 376, 464, 474, 
 546, 574, 792, 818, 1101. 
 
 pan, 568 
 Attached business, value of, 40 
 Automatic stoker, see Stoker 
 Auxiliary power (see also 
 
 Spare units), 492 
 Average age, weighted, 84 
 
 1717 
 
 Average cost fallacies, 54 
 life, misleading, 112 
 price, 14 
 
 Balance bucket, 367 
 
 Baler, hay, 1713 
 
 Ballast, see Track ballast. 
 
 Ball-bearing, 1090 
 
 Barge life, 126 
 
 Basin, see Pond 
 
 Battery, see Storage battery 
 
 Bearing, friction, 1087 
 
 Belt, 105, 571, 682, 683, 1079, 
 1081, 1083, 1090, 1091, 
 1108, 1218, 1353 
 
 Belt conveyor (see also Con- 
 veyor), 356, 368, 369, 
 371, 467, 1130, 1340 to 
 1345, 1353. 
 
 Belt drive. 1085 
 
 Benches, see Gas benches 
 
 Bending roll. 1663 
 
 Benzol, 330 
 
 Bin, 188, 338, 362 
 
 Bituminous coal, see Coal 
 
 Blacksmith shop, 1663 
 
 Blast furnace, 199 ' 
 
 Bla.-^^t furnace, gas, see Gas. 
 
 Bleeding of steam, 446, 454 
 
 Blocks, chain, 16 46 
 
 Blower (see also Fan) 106, 208, 
 220, 265, 267. 419, 818, 
 829, 1188, 1194, 1196, 
 1198, 1214, 1218, 1221, 
 1230. 1475, 1477 
 turbo, 1220 
 
 Blow-off tank, 568 
 
 Boat (see also Ship), 125, 126 
 
 Boiler, 201, 219, 261, 282, 317, 
 390. 419, 420, 421, 493, 
 532. 538, 564. 565. 567, 
 568, 574, 575, 577, 578, 
 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 
 584. 627, 629. 631, 633, 
 652, 702, 770, 777, 809, 
 810, 813, 815, 818, 822, 
 823. 826, 841. 842, 843, 
 1101, 1187, 1196,, 1214, 
 1218, 1220, 1229, 1256,' 
 1265. 1304, 1305, 1311, 
 1430, 1559. 1561 
 brick required, 283 
 compound, 421 
 depreciation, 105,. 113, 421, 
 
 438, 511 
 efficiencv, 379. 388, 440. 461, 
 
 501. 1101. 1306, 1448 
 feed pump, see Pump feed 
 
1718 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Boiler, floor space, 278, 281, 282,' 
 283. 584 
 foundation. 58 4, 568 
 house, 360, 361, 575, 823 
 installing-. 577 
 
 life, see Boiler depreciation 
 making-, 1657 
 operating (see also Power), 
 
 1272 
 plant building- 279 
 power, ratio to frontag-e, 386 
 pump, see Pump feed 
 ratio to station capacity, 385 
 repairs, 421 
 scaling, 1176 
 
 setting", 261, 273. 274, 277, 
 285, 567, 568, 582, 583, 
 585, 770 
 shop. 1663 
 tubes, 426, 586 
 weight. 578, 579, 580, 582 
 Bolt cutter, 1652, 1664 
 Bond discount, 12 
 Bond, see Rail bond 
 Booster. 1559, 1561, 1563 
 Boring Mill, 1661 
 Boring- wood, 1653 
 Box, installing-, 1075 
 Brace, see Cross-arm brace 
 Bracket, 893, 924, 937, 1567 
 Brake, horsepower, 387, 486 
 Brake, air, life, 105 
 Branch-ofC, see Track, Special 
 
 work 
 Brass, 1664 
 
 Breeching, 106. 237. 823, 1561 
 Brick work, 131, 175, 194. 195, 
 
 196, "204, 283, 828, 1353 
 Brick building, see Building 
 Bridge, 105, 134, 1528 
 Briquetting, 308. 310 
 Brokerage, 12, 1192, 1194, 1210 
 Bucket Conveyor, 365, 367, 371 
 Bucket elevator (see also Ele- 
 vator bucket), 356, 374, 
 Buggy, 1191 
 
 Building. 145, 317, 387, 420, 
 574, 575, 584, 644, 760, 
 769, 777, 809, 810, 812, 
 813, 817, 821, 827, 828, 
 831. 838, 841, 847, 850, 
 1186, 1203, 1204, 1211. 
 1212. 1217, 1228, 1309, 
 1312, 1323, 1421, 1512 
 1531, 1557, 1559, 1562, 
 1563, 1654 
 Buildings, annual variation in 
 cost, 173 
 barns, 201 
 brick, 176, 1293 
 camp, 186 
 concrete, 157, 163 to 171, 176, 
 
 179. 181, 201 
 costs, 128 
 depreciation. 106, 150, 171, 
 
 511, 1039 
 fireproof, 153 
 heating, see Heating 
 illumination, 1030 
 
 Buildings, life, see Buildings, de- 
 preciation 
 
 lighting, see Lighting. 
 
 mill, 154, 157, 162, 170, 174, 
 177, 186, 188, 263 
 
 office, 153 to 155 
 
 operating cost, 475 
 
 power plant, 281, 283 
 
 pumping station. 186 
 
 repairs, 128, 150,*" 444, 476 
 
 shed, 177 
 
 shop, 169 188 
 
 steel 170, 205 
 
 storehouse. 154, 157, 160, 165, 
 169, 177, 183, 
 
 wiring, see Wiring 
 Bulkhead, life, 106 
 Bunker, see Coal bunker 
 Bus-bar aluminum, 853 
 
 copper, 853 
 
 system, 816 
 Business, attached, 40 
 Butt treatment, see Pole 
 By-product Theory, 53, 57 
 
 Cable (see also Wire), 80, 849, 
 850, 982, 990, 1053, 1530, 
 1532, 1568 
 
 aerial, 962 
 
 installing, 9 62, 1020 
 
 lead, 1532 
 
 lead covered telephone, 951 
 
 lead covered, weight, 952 
 
 life, 106 
 
 messenger, 1599 
 
 pulling, 1010, 1018, 1021 
 
 removing, 1009 
 
 rodding, 1009 
 
 splicing, 1011, 1018, 1020 
 
 steel-taped, 991 
 
 telephone, 1007. 1021 
 
 underground, 1007, 1009 
 Cake ovens, 314 
 Calender, 1107, 1108, 1109 
 Calorific value, see Fuol heat 
 
 value 
 Canal, 696 
 Candle-power, 1025 
 Canvas, 1079 
 Capacity factor, 487, 497, 741 
 
 cost, 62 
 
 load-factor, 62 
 
 nominal, 487 
 
 normal, 490 
 
 rated, 408 
 Capitalized cost, 34, 484, 1333 
 
 value, 34, 35, 737 
 Carbon lamp, see Lamp 
 Can^ienter v.^ork, 187, 192 
 Carrving charge, see Interest 
 Car, 1191, 1537, 1636 to 1641 
 
 electric, 1533, 1580 to 1587 
 
 freight, 1533 
 
 heating. 1449 to 1456 
 
 life, 106 
 
 life and maintenance, 132 
 
 reiDairs, 131, 136 
 
 scales, 1673 
 
 shops, 201 
 
INDEX 
 
 1719 
 
 Casting machine, installing, 
 
 266, 270 
 Catenary, 1598, 1604, 1608, 1609 
 construction, 1600 
 system, 9 63 
 Cedar pole, see Pole 
 Ceiling, 19 3 
 
 Cell, see Storage Battery 
 Cement work, 131 
 Central stations, see Power 
 plant, see Power, Elec- 
 tric 
 Central heating plant, see 
 
 Heating 
 Centrifugal pump, see Purnp, 
 
 centrifugal 
 Chain, 1645 
 block, 1646 
 drive, 468 
 
 grate (see Stoker), 607 
 Charcoal, 304, 316 
 Charges, see Cost, see Expense, 
 see Fixed charges 
 independent, 441 
 proportional, 441 
 Check valve, see Valve 
 Chestnut pole, see Pole 
 Chimney, 131, 216, 219, 317, 
 319, 532, 538, 568, 574, 
 575, 583, 629, 631, 633, 
 652, 767, 809, 818, 823, 
 843, 1102, 1559, 1563 
 acid gases, 232, 233 
 brick, 231, 1561 
 concrete, 216, 221, 222, 225 
 demolishing, 226, 233 
 foundation, 237 
 life, 106, 110, 216 
 radial brick, 226, 229, 230 
 removing, 238 
 smelter, 232 
 
 steel, 236, 240, 241, 1220 
 weight, 236 
 Chipping, 1163 
 air. 1170 
 
 hammer (see Air Hammer), 
 1167 
 Chisel, 1660 
 Choke coil. 854, 950 
 Cinders, see Ashes 
 Circuit breakers, 269, 1565 
 Circulating pump, see Pump 
 
 water, 826 
 Clamps, 9 46 
 
 Classifier, installing, 263 
 Clearing, 838, 934, 940-941. 946, 
 
 1527 
 Clinkering machine, 266, 269 
 Coal (see also Power), 291, 292, 
 304, 438, 524, 526, 563, 
 791, 1433 
 analysis. 300. 500 
 briquetting, 308 
 buggies. 1231 
 bunker, 810, 823, 1185 
 chutes, 568 
 consumption, 499 
 
 Coal gas (see Gas) 
 Coal handling, 354, 364, 371, 
 373, 773, 818, 1385, 1391, 
 1559 
 handling plant, 108, 305, 420, 
 
 574, 813, 816, 843, 1231 
 heat value, 299, 303 
 hoppers, 842 
 lignite, 292, 304, 500 
 moisture, 381 
 pocket repairs, 357, 575 
 powdered, 222, 307 
 samples, 301 
 selection, 29 6 
 size, 300 
 
 specifications, 293, 297 
 storage plant, 337, 1559 
 weathering, 301 
 Coaling station, locomotive, 365 
 Cocks, 1647 
 Coke, manufacturing, 312 
 
 oven gas, 531 
 Columns, 190, 191 
 Composite life, 115 
 Compressor, 209, 268, 829, 1132 
 to 1136, 1139, 1140, 1144, 
 1177, 1188, 1214,, 1218, 
 1309, 1497, 1588, 1661, 
 1681 
 ammonia, 1497, 1502 
 efficiency, 1157, 1164 
 hydro, 1177, 1178 
 installing, 266, 601, 1135 
 life, 107 
 
 lubrication, 1151 
 operation, 1146, 1150 
 power needed, 1143 
 weight, 1132, 1133, 1134, 1135 
 Concentrator, life, 107 
 Concentrating machinery, in- 
 stalling, 263 
 Concrete, 203, 828, 1575 
 bases, pole, 885 
 buildings, see Buildings 
 chimney, see Chimney 
 mixers. 1713 
 penstock, 715 
 pole, see Pole, concrete 
 Concrete work, 187 
 Condenser (see Pond, cooling), 
 209, 261, 268, 271, 428, 
 513, 523, 532, 587, 633, 
 777, 809, 810, 813, 817, 
 819, 823, 826, 834, 843, 
 1187, 1194, 119&, 1221, 
 1230, 1559 
 ammonia, 1497 
 depreciation, 107, 511 
 installing, 266, 834 
 jet, 209 
 tubes, 261 
 Condensing water, 387, 391, 454 
 Condition, per cent., 93 
 Conduit, 80, 850, 964, 966, 970, 
 974, 975, 979, 980. 982, 
 983, 985, 986, 992, 1069, 
 1071, 1074 
 
1720 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Conduit, concrete, 977 
 
 bends, 1070 
 
 depreciation, 107, 984, 1039 
 
 enameled, 1062 
 
 fibre, 991, 993, 975, 977, 987 
 
 fibre duct, 974 
 
 fiexible, 1074 
 
 iron pipe, 975, 978, 986 
 
 McRoy, 966 
 
 pump log, 971 
 
 wrapped, 1070 
 Conductor, see Wire 
 Connected load, see Load 
 
 load-factor, see Load factor 
 Connections flanged, 592 
 Consumer cost, 63 
 Contingencies, 13, 39, 827, 935, 
 
 1192, 1194, 1210 
 Control apparatus, see Switches, 
 
 Lightning arresters, etc. 
 Controller, 259 
 Conveyor, 345, 1188, 1340 
 
 belt, see Belt conveyor 
 
 bucket, 1363 to 1375 
 
 flight, 1346 to 1350 
 
 life, 107 
 
 pneumatic, 375 
 
 repairs, 378 
 
 rubber, 365 
 
 screw, 1350 to 1353 
 
 steam jet, 1378 
 
 suction. 1375 to 1377 
 
 system, 361, 363 
 Cooking, 1421 
 
 electric, 1459 to 1469 
 
 gas, 1459 
 Cooler, see Pond cooling 
 Cooling tower, 532, 586, 849 
 
 systems, 428 
 Copper, 75, 853, 912, 951, 1568 
 
 ingot, 958 
 
 investment, economic, 915 
 
 wire depreciation, 114, 798 
 Corn grinder, 1111 
 
 sheller, 1713 
 Cost (see also Charges, see Ex- 
 pense, see Price), 6, 46, 
 63 
 Cost, capacity, 62 
 
 capitalized, 34 
 
 data, how to use, 2 
 
 data, imperfect, 1 
 
 demand, 63 
 
 development, 40, 45, 46 
 
 direct, 7, 56 
 
 distribution, 63, 66, 69, 80, 
 258 
 
 equated, 34, 37 
 
 estimating, 826 
 
 going, 40, 45 
 
 intangible, 45 
 
 of establishing a business, 45 
 
 of production, 7 
 
 output, 65, 66 
 
 overhead, see Overhead cost 
 
 production, 65 
 
 sacrifice, 7 
 
 variable, 67, 740 
 
 Cotton gin, 1124 
 Crane, 75, 208, 269, 270, 271, 
 809, 810, 812, 820, 821, 
 1340, 1385, 1559 1562, 
 1661 
 car, 1385 
 electric, 1388, 1390, 1394, 
 
 1395 
 installing, 266, 289 
 life, 107 
 
 locomotive, 1370 
 magnet, see Electro magnet 
 operating costs, 357 
 overhead, 1389 
 repairs 357 
 traveling, 1393, 1396 
 Crank shaper, 1652 
 Creosoting (see also Pole, creo- 
 
 soting-), 893, 950 
 Cribbing, life, 107 
 Crossarms (see also Pole), 836, 
 883, 892, 919, 923, 924, 
 926, 933, 937, 939, 946, 
 949. 953, 1529, 1564, 1597 
 braces. 939, 955, 1566 
 life, 107 
 painting, 923 
 pin, see Pin 
 Cross bonding, see Track bond- 
 ing 
 Crossing, see Track special 
 work 
 construction, 938 
 river, 948 
 Cross-over (see Track, special 
 
 work), 1544 
 Crusher, 270, 1115, 1130 
 
 installing, 262, 266 
 Culvert, life, 107, 1528 
 Customers diversity, 64 
 Cut-outs, 9 37 
 Cut stone, 828 
 Cutter, 1661, 1662 
 oxy-acetylene, 1697 
 speeds, 1658 
 steel, 1695 
 
 Dam, 74, 107, 690, 692, 700, 703, 
 
 823 
 Damper regulator, 568 
 Deferred maintenance, 86 
 Deficit methods, 46 
 Demand cost, 63 
 
 factor, 63 
 Depot, see Building 
 Depreciation (see also Life), 
 82, 87, 118, 171, 311, 317, 
 328, 358, 377, 378, 420, 
 443, 459, 465 510, 625, 
 626, 669, 686, 694, 695, 
 702, 720, 746, 759, 771, 
 778, 779, 797, 808, 1039, 
 1102 
 annual, 85 
 annuity, 63, 77 
 amortized, 89 
 
 formula, declining balance, 
 92, 94 
 
INDEX 
 
 1721 
 
 Depreciation, formula, economic, 
 100 
 sinking- fund, 94 
 straight line, 94 
 unit cost, 9 8 
 function of profits, 103 
 functional, 33, 59, 61, 64 
 fund, 92 
 
 inspections and tests, 102 
 natural, 59, 65, 82, 100 
 table, 105 
 Depreciated value. 91 
 Derrick, 1384, 1661 
 Development cost, 40, 45, 46 
 
 expense, 45 
 Diaphragm pump, see Pump, 
 
 diaphragm 
 Dies, 1660 
 
 Diesel, see Gas engine 
 Direct cost, 7, 56 
 Distillate. 624. 1289 
 Distribution charges, 489 
 Distribution cost, 63, 66, 69, 80, 
 258 
 lines, 696 
 
 system. 707, 806, 878, 911, 
 922. 936, 1529 
 life, 107 
 
 per capita cost, 917 
 underground, 964 
 Ditch, 74 
 Diversity factor. 62, 63, 64, 68, 
 
 77, 781 
 Dividends, 31. 44 
 Docks, life, 107 
 Dodge storage system, 345 
 Doors, 192 
 
 Draft (.'•ee Chimney, see Fan, 
 see Blower), 415, 419, 777 
 mechanical, 218, 220, 413, 568, 
 587 
 Drafting equipment, 1676 
 Drains, life, 107 
 Drav.bridge, power, 1112 
 Drawings, structural steel, 188 
 Drill. 1532, 1651. 1652 
 press. 1661, 1664 
 rock, 1139, 1150, 1153 
 Drying, 447 
 Duct,. see Conduit 
 Dutch oven, 420 
 Duty, see Pump duty 
 Dyeing, 447 
 Dynamo, see Generator 
 
 Earnings. 31 
 Ears, 1565 
 
 Economic efficiency, 4, 5 
 Economizer, 218, 568, 573. 577, 
 587, 773. 777, 818, 843, 
 849, 1561 
 
 installing. 843 
 
 life, 107 
 Efficiency, 64, 406. 707, 1336 
 
 compara,tive, 483 
 
 economic, 4. 5 
 
 investment, 483 
 
 thermal, 479 
 
 Ejector, 595 
 
 Electric apparatus, installing, 
 248 
 arc, cutting, 169 5 
 conduit, see Conduit 
 drill, 1170 
 
 drive, 443, 459, 490i {lO-g?, 
 1099, 1106, 1107, 1111, 
 1120, 1124, 1129 
 generator, see Generator 
 heating, see Heating 
 lighting, see Lighting 
 machinery, installing, 254, 
 
 256 
 motor, see Motor 
 plant depreciation, 118 
 labor, 507 
 maintenance, 118 
 repairs, 118, 125 
 power, see Power, electric, 
 
 and Power, steam 
 railway, see Railway 
 rates, 1124 
 shovel, see Shovel 
 weight, 271, 276 
 wiring, see Wiring 
 Electrical machinery, 844 
 Electricity (see Power, elec- 
 tric), 1434 
 Electro-magnet, 1396, 1705 
 Electrostatic ground detector, 
 
 849 
 Elevator, 155, 473, 476, 1188, 
 1221, 1231, 1340 
 bucket. 1355 to 1362 
 freight, 1416 
 passenger. 1406 to 1419 
 Emery stand, 1662 
 Employees, see Labor 
 Energy (see Power), 741 
 Engine (see also Gas engine, 
 see Oil engine), 201, 317, 
 390, 453, 494, 516, 520, 
 538, 539, 564, 565, 568, 
 569, 574, 575, 577, 587, 
 588, 589, 591, 622, 627, 
 629, 631, 633, 638, 644, 
 652, 770, 777, 809, 811, 
 815, 819, 825, 826, 831, 
 842, 845, 1102, 1214, 
 1218, 1221, 1269. 1310, 
 1311, 1431, 1559, 1561 
 building, see Buildings 
 Diesel,- see Gas engine 
 depreciation, 107, 117. 438, 511 
 efficiency, 292. 388, 1101 
 floor space, 278, 440 
 foundation, 252, 264, 286, 568, 
 
 575, 590 
 gas, see Gas engine 
 hoisting, 1401 
 house, see Building 
 installing, 252, 262, 286, 590 
 life, see Engine depreciation 
 manufacturing, 1653 
 moving, 287 
 oil, see Oil engine 
 weight, 845 
 
1722 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Engine, turbine (see also Turbo- 
 generator), 208, 268, 444. 
 452, 453, 494, 532, 534, 
 538, 544, 548, 551 565, 
 612, 613 614, 617. 622, 
 623, 644, 675, 747, 748, 
 795, 811, 812, 841, 842, 
 843, 847, 1269, 1305 
 depreciation. 111, 117, 511 
 floor space, 440 
 installing, 265 
 weights, 612 
 Engineering (see also Overhead 
 
 cost), 1, 5, 17, 326 
 Equated, annual cost, 34, 37 
 
 repairs, 61 
 Equipment, see Car, see Power 
 plant 
 electrical, life, 107 
 installation, 212 
 shop, life, 107 
 Erecting, see Installing 
 Etching tools, 1679 
 Evaluation, see Valuation, see 
 
 Appraisal 
 Evaporation tests, 300 
 Excavation, 74, 156, 187, 200, 
 202, 208, 212, 599, 828, 
 843 972, 994, 1129, 1177, 
 1323, 1526, 1541, 1547, 
 1573, 1590 
 Exciter, 209, 261, 703, 809, 810, 
 819, 821, 835, 843, 854, 
 860, 1096 
 installing, 262, 266, 289, 835 
 weight, 854, 1096 
 Exhaust heads, 59 2 
 
 heat, see Heat, exhaust 
 pipe, 210 
 Exhauster, 107, 1188, 1194, 
 
 1195, 1230, 1475 
 Expense, 64 .» 
 
 Extractors, life, 107 • 
 
 Factory, 153, 154, 155, 165, 169 
 
 illumination, see Lighting 
 Fair return rate, 34, 41, 64 
 Fan (see also Ventilation, see 
 Blower), 266. 270, 415, 
 1431, 1474, 1662 
 Farm machinery, 1111, 1712 
 Feed grinder, 1713 
 
 heater, see Feed water heater 
 piping, see Piping 
 pump, see Pump, feed 
 Feeder arm, iron, 954 
 system, see Railway 
 Feed water heater, 107, 108, 
 568, 574, 575, 583, 589, 
 592, 593, 810. 823, ll87, 
 1220, 1232, 1559 
 meter, see Meter, water 
 pump, see Pump, feed 
 regulator, 849, 869 
 Fence, 107, 1186, 1204, 1528 
 Fibre duct, see Conduit 
 Filter, installing, 263 
 Fire alarm, 254 
 
 Firebrick, 198 
 
 Fish plate, see Track 
 
 Fixed charges, 3, 31, 64, 150, 
 221, 317, 328, 368, 370, 
 387, 390, 391, 406, 420, 
 430, 435, 438, 442, 443, 
 449, 452, 455, 458, 465, 
 470, 475, 488, 517. 520, 
 523, 532, 534, 536, 541, 
 
 544, 547, 552, 561, 563, 
 618, 625, 626. 628, 631, 
 634, 659, 663, 675, 677, 
 678, 679, 686, 695,. 746, 
 763, 772, 797, 808, 810, 
 811, 822, 912, 915, 938, 
 984, 1102, 1305, 1315, 
 1361, 1480, 1512, 1513. 
 
 Fixed cost, 67, 740 
 
 Flight conveyor, see Conveyor 
 flight 
 
 Floor, 193, 206, 279, 831 
 
 Floor lines, 700 
 pipes, 703 
 
 Flue, 199, 567, 575, 586 
 
 Flume 723 
 
 Forced draft, see Draft 
 
 Forging machine, 1654, 1663 
 
 Foundation, 199, 212, 260, 264, 
 281, 283, 317, 511, 574, 
 577, 584, 601, 651, 770, 
 810, 812, 814, 821, 823, 
 826, 828, 834, 838, 842, 
 843, 848, 849 
 machinery, life, 107, 809 
 removed, 289 
 
 Foundry, 1106, 1166 
 
 Franchise value, 40, 45, 46 
 
 Free air (see also Compressor), 
 1144 
 
 Freight car, see Car 
 rates, 1676 
 
 Friction, coefficient, 1336 
 
 Frog, see Track 
 
 Fuel (see also Coal, see Heat- 
 ing, see Gas, see Oil), 
 291, 498, 524, 539, 543, 
 
 545, 624, 636, 742, 786, 
 788, 808, 1330, 1433 
 
 analysis, 500 
 
 economizer, see Economizer 
 gasoline, see Gasoline 
 handling (see also Coal 
 
 handling), 359 
 heat value, 292, 298, 388, 501. 
 
 1192 
 oil, machinery (see Oil), 108 
 Full cost rate, 64 
 Functional depreciation, see De- 
 preciation functional 
 life, 113 
 Furnace (see also Boiler, see 
 Stoker), 144, 264, 379, 
 610. 1434 
 
 Furniture, life, 107 ^ 
 
 Fuse, 1566 
 
 Gage, 1647 
 altitude, 1648 
 
INDEX 
 
 1723 
 
 Gag-e g-1 asses, 591 
 
 i-ecording-, 1647 
 Gains, see Pole 
 Gallons, 1327 
 
 Gas, 292, 304, 315, 316, 325, 
 329, 495, 504, 518 to 537, 
 652, 1182, 1193, 1222, 
 1434, 1713 
 
 apparatus, 792, 1186 
 
 benches, life, 105, 1185, 1186, 
 1195 
 
 blast furnace, 531 
 
 cake oven, 531 
 
 filled lamp, see Lamp, nitrog^en 
 
 fuel, 324 
 
 generator - (see also Gas pro- 
 ducer), 1186, 1213, 1217, 
 1221 
 
 heat value, 616 
 valve, 79 3 
 
 holder. 1185, 1189, 1194, 1196, 
 1219, 1221. 1230 
 
 holder, life, 108 
 
 lighting-, 617, 1034, 1035, 
 1043, 1045, 1058 
 
 mains, see Pipe 
 
 machinery, 327 
 
 machine's life, 107 
 
 oil, 1183, 1204 
 
 pipe, see Pipe 
 
 plant, 504, 527, 1182, 1193, 
 1208, 1214^, 1215, 1219, 
 1232, 1233, 1234 to 1240 
 
 producer, 471, 529, 538, 616, 
 
 617, 625, 630, 634, 638, 
 640, 643, 645, 648 to 655, 
 826, 1331 
 
 depreciation, 511 
 floor space, 647, 648 
 
 power plant (see also Gas en- 
 gine), 481, 535, 542, 616, 
 617 
 
 purifiers, 109, 1187, 1194, 
 1196, 1218, 1230. 1559, 
 
 scrubber, 110, 1187, 1194, 
 1195, 1217, 1230 
 
 service, life, 107 
 
 sets, 1194. 1195. 1221, 1229 
 
 wa.«her, 111, 1194, 1195, 1217 
 
 water, 1183 
 Gas engine (see- also Gasoline 
 engine, see Oil engine), 
 49t, 518, 519, 521, 530, 
 566, 617, 620 to 6''5 628, 
 630, 634 to 636, 641 to 
 
 618, 651 to 656, 660, 6.65, 
 666, 790, 811, 826, 1197, 
 1263, 1266, J310, 1312, 
 1502, 
 
 depreciation, 107, 511 
 Diesel, 331, 333. 496. 518, 
 532, 534, 538, 558. .620, 
 621, 667, 670 to 682 1269, 
 1290, 1291. 1514 
 efficiency. 1313. 1331 
 floor space, 648, 649. 831 
 operation, 1266, 1308, 1313 
 plant, 550 
 
 Gas eng-ine, repairs, 664 
 
 semi-Diesel, 670 
 Gasoline. 292, 316, 620, 624, 
 1280 
 engine, 621, 638, 1287, 1289, 
 1299, 1318 
 efficiency, 1316 
 fuel, 1316 
 
 operating, 1287, 1300, 1301, 
 1316 
 power, 541 
 Gate valve, see Valve, gate 
 General expense (see also Over- 
 head cost), 64, 513 
 Generator, 75, 272, 532, 627 to 
 636, 652, 696, 702, 703, 
 770, 809, 813, 819, 825, 
 826, 842, 845, 847, 856, 
 859, 860, 1042, 1178, 1559, 
 1561 
 depreciation, 117, 511 
 efficiency, 505, 705, 707 
 gas, see Gas generator 
 installing, 252, 257, 262, 266, 
 
 286, 289, 1072 
 weight, 276, 845, 856 
 Gin, cotton, 1124, 1126 
 Girder, 191 
 Going cost, 40, 45 
 
 concern value, 40, 45 
 value. 45 
 Good will, 40, 45 
 Governor, 591, 1188, 1190, 1194, 
 1232 
 gas, life, 108 
 Grading, see Excavation 
 Grate (see also Boiler, see 
 Stoker), 1433 
 area, 419 
 Gravel plant, power, 1129 
 Grease cups. 1649 
 Grinder, 1661 
 Grinding- corn. 1111 
 Grindstone, 1652, 1663 
 Grops operating earnings, 31 
 Ground, see Land 
 Grubbing-, 1527 
 
 Guy (see also Pole), 894, 895, 
 920, 926. 934, 943 
 anchors, 950 
 clamp, 937, 955 
 pole, see Pole 
 rod.s, 950 
 stringing, 893 
 thimbles, 9 37 
 wire, see Wire 
 
 Hack saw, 1653, 1663 
 Hammer, see Air hammer 
 
 belt. 1661 
 
 steam, 1661 
 Hangers (see also Trolley), 
 
 1530. 1567 
 Hardware (see also Pole), J52, 
 
 947 
 Hauling, 245, 880 
 Hay baler, 1713 
 
1724 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Hazard (see also Insurance), 
 
 42 
 Head g-uys, see Guys 
 Head works, 74 
 Heat exhaust, 439 
 radiation, 1449 
 value, see Fuel 
 Heater, see Feedwater heater 
 Heater, electric, 1455 
 
 hot- water, 1455 
 
 Heating-, 151, 155, 174, 206, 446, 
 
 454, 469, 472, 478, 517, 
 
 519, 603, 828, 1421 to 
 
 1458, 1476, 1478, 1713 
 
 electric, 1450 to 1459, 1463 to 
 
 1473 
 steam, 131, 600 
 Hoist, 1141, 1163, 1340 
 
 electric, 1403, 1405, 1419, 
 1661, 1663 
 Hoisting-, 1166 
 engine, 1141 
 mine, 1401, 1402 
 water, 1398 
 Holder, see Gas holder 
 Hole, see Poles 
 Horses, 1191 
 
 life, 108 
 Horsepower hours, 487 
 
 indicated, 386 
 Hose, 1648 
 Hot air, see Heating- 
 Hotwater heating, see Heating 
 Hotwater heat, 131 
 Hot- well, 834 
 House, see Building- 
 Hydrant, life, 108 
 Hydraulic jack, 1648 
 plant, see Water power 
 ram, 1253 
 Hydro-compressor, 1177, 1178 
 Hydro-electric (see also Water 
 power), 448, 489, 701, 
 plant, 62, 73, 77, 684 to 688, 
 692, 695 to 697, 700, 702, 
 703, 705, 706 
 power, 455 
 operating cost, 76 
 overhead cost, 20 
 
 Ice, 1480 to 1516 
 
 making-, 1421 
 
 storag-e, 1498, 1502 
 Identical plant theory, 104 
 Illumination, see Lighting 
 Impulse wheel, see Waterwheel 
 Inadequacy, 82 
 
 Indicated horespower, 386, 486 
 Indicator, 1648 
 Indirect expense, 66 
 Induced draft, see Draft 
 Induction regulator, 937 
 Industrial economics, 5 
 Ingot copper, 853 
 Injector, 583, 589, 594, 595, 
 
 tank; 568 
 Insulation, see Pipe covering 
 
 Insulators, 75, 836, 924, 926, 
 933, 934, 937, 939, 940, 
 943, 946, 947, 956, 957, 
 1529, 1530, 1565, 1597, 
 1599 
 suspension type, 956 
 weight, 956, 957 
 
 Insurance, 36, 59, 171, 221, 310, 
 317, 384, 465, 475, 512, 
 520, 541, 626, 677, 746, 
 o50 
 liability, 229, 1590 
 
 Intangible, 40 
 cost, 45 
 value, 45 
 
 Interest (see also Overhead 
 cost), 11, 32, 36, 39, 41, 
 46, 65, 512 
 
 Internal combustion engine (see 
 Gas engine, see Gasoline 
 eng-ine, see Oil engine), 
 616 
 
 Interurban railway, see Railway 
 
 Installing- machinery, 245 
 
 Investment, 488 
 efficiency, 483 
 
 Iron pole, see Pole 
 
 Iron work, 1473 
 
 Ironing, 1473 
 
 Irrig-ation pumping (see also 
 Pumping-), 1314, 1315 
 
 Jack, 1648 
 
 Japanning- oven, 1713 
 
 Jet condenser, see Condenser 
 
 Joints, see Track 
 
 Jolting, 1163 
 
 Kauffman, lighting, 1059 
 Kelvin's law, 911, 915 
 Kerosene, 620, 624, 1035 
 Kilo volt ampere, 488 
 Kilowatt, 65, 387 
 hour, 65, 487 
 
 Labor, see the item in question 
 Lagging, see Pipe covering 
 Lag screws, 950 
 Lamp (see also Lighting), 1060 
 
 arc, 105, 776, 1046 to 1049, 
 1053, 1054, 1056, 1058 .. 
 
 candle-power, 1023 
 
 carbon, 1062 
 
 choice of, 1030 
 
 Cooper Hewitt, 1056 
 
 depreciation, 1026. 1039, 1041, 
 1042 
 
 dimensions, 1025 
 
 flame-arc,' 1047 
 
 gas (see also Gas), 1048 
 
 incandescent, 776 
 
 kerosene, 1035, 1059 
 
 luminous-arc, 1050, 1051, 1053 
 
 Mazda, 1061 
 
 nitrogen, 1031, 1040, 1042 
 
 outlet, 1063, 1065 
 
 pole, see Poles, lamp 
 
 Thoran, 1050 
 
INDEX 
 
 1725 
 
 Lamp,- tung-sten, 1031, 1033, 
 
 1038, 1056 
 Land (see alao Right of way), 
 387, 548, 568, 647, 760, 
 771, 816 
 Lathe, 1532, 1650, 1661, 1662, 
 
 1664 
 Lead, 951, 1666 
 
 Life (see also Depreciation), 
 112 
 composite, 115 
 table of plant units, 104 
 Light, see Lamp, see Lighting 
 Lighting (see also Gas lighting, 
 see Lamp), 206, 520, 776, 
 1023, 1025, 1036, 1043, 
 1055, 1629 
 arc, see Lamp, Arc 
 current requirements, 1027 
 fixtures, street, 849 
 gas, see Gas 
 incandescent, see Lamp 
 load, 555, 556 
 pole, see Pole 
 street (see also Lamp), 774, 
 
 1038 to 1040, 1046 
 various systems, 1033 
 Lightning arresters, 829, 843, 
 844, 849, 850, 937, 950, 
 963, 1042, 1531, 1532, 
 1565 
 weight, 850 
 Lignite, see Coal 
 Lime, 425, 1115 
 Line losses, 65. 912, 915 
 shaft (see Shaft), 1089 
 transformer, see Transformer 
 Link belts, 1080 
 Load, 62, 73, 553, 1707 
 Load factor, 4, 55. 62, 65, 67, 
 76, 77, 80, 382, 388, 389, 
 408, 442, 444, 487, 497, 
 524, 525, 527, 555, 556, 
 562, 636, 663, 672, 678, 
 742, 744, 748, 758, 779, 
 781, 786, 792, 793, 808, 
 811, 1109, 1116, 1119, 
 1126, 1128, 1129, 1271 to 
 1273, 1489, 1707 
 Load, peak, 408 
 Loading, 245 
 Loading charges, see Overhead 
 
 cost 
 Locomotive, 1533 
 
 crane. 365, 368, 370, 373, 1370, 
 
 1384 
 coaling station, 354, 356, 358, 
 
 359 
 fuel, 319 
 
 l.ife, 108. 115, 134 
 repairs, 140 
 Lubricator, 1649 
 Lubricating oil, 1650 
 Lumber, handling, 1384 
 
 Machine 1163 
 oT^erations, 1656 
 shop, 177, 1099 
 
 Machine shop tools, 1650, 1658, 
 1661 
 works, 1120 
 Machinery, see the item in ques- 
 tion 
 foundations, see Foundations 
 hauling, 245 
 installing, 212 
 shop, life, 108 
 Magnesia, 1438 
 
 Magnet, see Electro-magnet / 
 
 Mains, see Pipe 
 Maintenance (see also Repairs), 
 
 65, 84 to 88 
 Manhole, 80, 853, 973, 987, 991, 
 995 
 brick, 1004, 1006 
 concrete, 1005 
 wooden, 987 
 Manufacturing implements, 
 
 1116, 1119 
 Marble, 866, 867 
 Marine equipment, life, 126 
 Masonry, 131, 187, 847 
 Mazda, see Lamp 
 Mechanical draft, see Draft 
 Messenger strand (see also 
 
 Wire), 963 
 Meter, electric. 78, 79, 81, 696, 
 787, 841, 848, 1065, 1194, 
 1196. 1532 
 electric, depreciation, 78, 108 
 diversity, 64 
 efficiency. 707 
 
 installing, 256, 262, 841, 849 
 repairs, 258 
 gas, 1187, 1190, 1203, 1211, 
 
 1217, 1218, 1222, 1231, 
 life, 108 
 
 oil, 1232, 1650 
 
 steam, 460, 849 
 
 volt, 861, 862 
 
 watt,. 849, 863, 864 
 
 water, 108, 568, 843, 1232 
 Methyl alcohol, 624 
 Mill, see Building 
 
 board, 1645 
 Milling equipment installing, 262 
 
 machines, 1652 
 Minimum rate, 72 
 Mining plant, 1138 
 
 pumps, see Pump 
 Molding machines, 1078, 1167 
 Motor, 267, 269, 270, 468, 694, 
 845, 1079. 1093, 1102, 
 1103, 1106,. 1131, 1197, 
 
 1218, 1309, 1310, 1413, 
 1414, 1588, 1661 to 1663 
 
 alternator, 845 
 
 drive, see Electric drive 
 
 installing, 257 
 
 life, 108 
 
 repairs, 141 
 
 rewinding, 624 
 
 spirits, 624 
 
 weight, 276, 845, 1093, to 
 
 1095 
 wiring, 253 
 
1726 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Motor generator, 209, 259, 261, 
 271, 821, 855, 1531 
 
 efficiency, 707 
 
 installing, 214, 252, 257, to 
 262, 289, 1075, 1103 
 
 weight, 855 
 Motor cycles, 1191 
 Motor truck, 1396 
 Mortar, 193, 194 
 Mortising machine, 1662 
 Mule-back transportation, 247 
 
 Natural depreciation, see De 
 preciation, natural. 
 
 draft, see Draft. 
 
 gas, 292, 500, 531, 619 
 
 life, 113 
 
 net earnings, 31 
 Nitrogen lamp, see Lamp 
 Non-physical, 40 
 Normal return, 33 
 Nut tapper, 1653 
 
 Oat Crusher, 1713 
 Obsolescence (see also Depre- 
 ciation), 82 
 Office building, see Building 
 Oil, 329, 482, 500, 506, 563, 638, 
 671, 675, 676 
 burning system 317 
 cylinder, 627, 791 
 engine, 332, 496, 516, 518, 
 532, 621, 622, 628, 630, 
 633, 635, 652, 669, 670, 
 671, 673, 674, 677, 682, 
 791, 826, 1270, 1285, 
 1307 
 fuel, 292, 319, 326, 500, 506, 
 
 559, 1713 
 gas, see Gas 
 heater, 1221 
 lubricating, 627, 679 
 production, 336 
 pump, 1218, 1270 
 separator, 568, 605 
 switch, see Switch 
 system, 265, 267 
 tank, 326, 532 
 Operating charge, 488 
 
 expense, 31, 65, 86 
 Ordinary maintenance, 86 
 Oro Electric Co. Power Plant, 
 
 73 
 Outlet (see Lamp outlet), 1071 
 
 boxes. 1076 
 Output cost, 65, 66 
 Overhead cost (see Fixed 
 charge). 7, 22, 31, 75, 
 250, 489, 681, 813, 828, 
 838, 839, 1185, 1192, 1194, 
 1210, 1216, 1220, 1520, 
 1538. 1548, 1554, 1556, 
 1559, 1590, 1616 
 equipment, life (see Trolley), 
 108, 109 
 Overhead line, see Distribution, 
 Pole, Transmission, Wire, 
 etc. 
 
 Oxy -acetylene, 1696 to 1705 
 
 Packing, 1650 
 Paint, 152, 923 
 sprays, 1163 
 Painting, 137, 155. 208, 209, 210, 
 213, 214, 602, 828, 837, 
 839, 1160, 1198, 1679 
 pipe, 1200 to 1202 
 pole, see Pole 
 Panel, see Switchboard panel 
 Paper Calender, see Calender 
 Pavement. 975, 986, 1006, 1189, 
 1222, 1228, 1519, 1527, 
 1555, 1590 
 excavation (see also Excava- 
 tion), 1590 
 life, 109 
 relaying, 1226 
 repairing openings, 988 
 Peak load, 65, 408, 490. 744 
 or demand theory, 70 
 ratio to capacity (see Load 
 factor), 742 
 Peat (see Coal), 304, 495 
 Pelton, see Waterwheel 
 Penstock, 74, 696, 700, 703, 710, 
 715, 718, 738 
 economical diameter, 724 
 efficiency, 707 
 steel, weight, 713, 714 
 woodstove, 723 
 Petroleum, see Oil, see Gasoline 
 Physical, 40 
 
 efficiencv, 479 
 Piles, 179, 1528 
 
 steel, cutting, 1695 
 Pins, 836, 924, 926, 939, 943, 
 
 954, 1564 
 Pipe (see also Piping), 210, 600, 
 844. 850, 978, 1177, 1185, 
 1189, 1190, 1198, 1200, 
 1201, 1202, 1210, 1216, 
 1218, 1221 to 1227 1431 
 brass, 1664 
 
 cast iron (see also Pipe), 1666 
 covering. 287, 568, 569, 577, 
 579, 842, 843, 1431, 1436, 
 1437. 1438 
 economics, 724, 1332, 1338 
 friction heads, 713 
 gas, 108, 130 
 laying. 1157 
 lead, 1666 
 leakage, 603 
 life, 109, 722 
 
 machine, 1652, 1653, 1664 
 riveted. 1665 
 sewer, 603 
 
 steam (see also Piping), 1438 
 steel (see also Penstock), 74, 
 
 720, 731 
 water. 111, 210, 600, 602 
 welding. 1696, 1697 
 wood, 74. 718, 719. 731, 736, 
 
 1669, 1672 
 wood, decay, 722 
 wood, life, 143 
 
INDEX 
 
 1727 
 
 Pipe, wrought iron (see Pipe), 
 
 1664 
 Piping. 152, 209, 287, 420, 532, 
 538, 568, 569, 574, 575, 
 577, 583, 598, 599, 601, 
 602, 603, 651, 652, 777, 
 809, 810, 819, 823, 826, 
 835, 842, 843, 1101, 1185, 
 1189, 1197, 1214, 1217, 
 1221, 1265, 1432, 1502, 
 1559, 1561 
 labor, 215, 263, 770 
 life, 109 
 Piston pump, see Pump 
 Placing, see Installing 
 Planer, 1106, 1662 
 Plant, alternative. 36, 46 
 Plant capacity, see Capacity 
 charge (see Fixed charge), 
 
 523 
 factor (see Capacity factor), 
 
 742 
 location, 38 
 retiring, old, 102 
 unit. 65, 82, 83, 118 
 Plastering, 130 
 Plate. 1675 
 
 girder, 191 
 Plumbing, 134, 152, 155, 164, 
 
 174, 1478 
 Plunger pump,, see Pump 
 Pneumatic tools, see Air tools 
 hammer, see Air hammer 
 conveyor, see Conveyor 
 Pond, 429 
 
 cooling, 427, 433, 434 
 Pondage. 491 
 
 Pole, 78. 836, 840, 848, 878, 881, 
 888, 903, 933, 934, 935, 
 937. 940, 946, 949. 1529, 
 1564. 1591, 1595. 1596, 
 1604, 1606. 1607, 1610, 
 1613, 1615, 1618 
 concrete, 887, 895. 896, 898, 
 
 902 to 905, 908 
 concrete, bases, 885 
 concrete reinforcement, 887 
 creosoting, 884, 891, 934 
 dapping, 9 22 
 
 depreciation, 109. 885, 888 
 erecting, see Pole setting 
 erector, 890 
 gaining, 880, 936 
 guying (see also Guy). 883, 
 
 919, 935. 936 
 hardware, 9 46 
 hauling, 247. 889. 916, 922 
 holes. 881, 882, 883, 916, 922, 
 
 9 t6 
 iron, 883. 909, 910, 942, 943, 
 
 1561, 1615. 1617 
 joint construction. 887 
 lamp. 848, 905, 907, 1051, 
 
 1053. 1058 
 line, 916, 922, 926, 930, 937 
 line, telegraph, 9 25 
 telephone, 924. 926 
 transmission, 75 
 
 Pole, painting, 840, 841, 881, 889 
 
 raising, see Pole setting 
 
 rights, 943 
 
 roofing, 880 
 
 setting. 881, 882, 883, 889, 
 890, 891, 918. 922, 924, 
 926, 934, 942, 950 
 
 shaving, 880, 883, 889 
 
 stenciling, 882 
 
 stepping, 881, 883 
 
 steel, see Pole, iron 
 
 telephone, 900 
 
 tops, 1564 
 
 treating (see Pole creosot- 
 ing), 884 
 
 trolley, 897, 904 
 
 weight 879, 880, 891 
 Political economy, 5 
 Post lamp, see Pole, Lamp 
 Powdered coal, see Coal 
 
 powdered 
 Powder, 379, 382, 385, 390, 395, 
 405, 430, 435, 436, 441, 
 443, 451, 452, 457, 477, 
 478, 528, 539, 542, 543, 
 544. 564, 572, 577, 1101 
 
 apartment house, 474 
 
 coal mines, 472 
 
 efficiencies, 479. 481, 482 
 
 electric, 439, 452, 470, 487, 
 497. 523, 525, 542, 544, 
 547, 553 632, 637, 651, 
 653, 654 661, 666, 667, 
 672, 677, 681, 682, 687, 
 695, 696, 705, 707, 740, 
 746, 748, 754, 757, 762, 
 . 763, 765, 771. 772, 774. 
 775, 779, 780, 781, 782, 
 786, 787, 788, 808, 811, 
 1327 
 
 factor, 468, 487, 800 
 
 gas, see Gas 
 
 gasoline (see Gasoline), 544 
 
 house (see Building), 75, 
 197, 207, 264, 317, 695 
 
 load factor, 383 
 
 mill, 465 
 
 piping, see Piping 
 Power plant (see also Pump- 
 ing), 200, 207, 383. 405, 
 408, 444, 514, 527. 547. 
 560, 563, 564, 573, 574, 
 627, 702. 740, 766. 772, 
 812, 813, 814, 815, 817, 
 820, 821. 823. 825, 826, 
 834, 1119, 1512. 1558, 
 1561 
 
 depreciation, 459. 511 
 
 labor, 507. 750. 751, 756. 761, 
 76?, 763, 765, 786, 788, 
 790, 793, 810. 811 
 
 life. 109 
 
 load, 553 
 
 repairs, 438. 511 
 
 scraper, see Scraper 
 
 transformers, see Transform- 
 ers 
 
 water, see Water power 
 
1728 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pump, 208, 209, 267, 269, 604, 
 770, 809, 810, 820, 823, 
 842, 848, 1130, 1142, 1162, 
 1175, 1188, 1196, 1198, 
 1218, 1230, 1231, 1241, 
 1248, 1249, 1251, 1252, 
 1253, 1256, 1259, 1264, 
 
 1266, 1268, 1293, 1297, 
 1304, 1305, 1322, 1329, 
 1559 
 
 boiler, see Pump, feed 
 
 brine, 1498 
 
 centrifugal, 604, 1243, 1244, 
 1251 
 
 circulating, 209, 268 
 
 depreciation, 109, 113, 114, 511 
 
 diaphragm, 1247 
 
 dredging, 1244, 1245 
 
 duty, 1256. 1258, 1269 
 
 efficiency 1254, 1262, 1294, 
 1331 
 
 electric, 1317 
 
 feed 261, 267, 604, 568, 574, 
 575, 577, 583, 589, 819, 
 842. 1101, 1220, 1249, 
 1250, 1251 
 
 feed, installing, 265 
 
 feed, weight, 1249, 1250 
 
 foundation, 264 
 
 hand, 1246 
 
 house (see Building), 214 
 
 installing, 214, 262, 265, 266 
 
 losses, see Pump efficiency 
 
 oil, 1218, 1270 
 
 operating, see Pumping 
 
 pit, 200 
 
 pulsometer, 1244, 1246 
 
 ram, 1253 
 
 repairs, 1258 
 
 rotary, fire, 1251 
 
 sand, 1244 
 
 suction, 1247 
 
 vacuum, 209, 265, 268 
 
 waterworks, 1293, 1296 
 
 weight, 1248 
 
 Pumping (see also Pump, see 
 
 Power), 624, 695, 766, 
 
 1241, 1253, 1257, 1258, 
 
 1260, 1262, 1263, 1264. 
 
 1267, 1269, 1271 to 1294 
 ■ 1296 to 1299, 1300 to 1314, 
 
 1316 to 1321, 1324, 1325 
 to 1327, 1328 to 1331 
 
 draining. 1323 
 
 electric 1262, 1264, 1314, 1319 
 
 engine, see Pump 
 
 gas-engine, 1263, 1266 
 
 gasoline, 1287, 1299, 1318 
 
 irrigation, 1322, 1330 ■ 
 
 mine, 1327 
 
 oil, 1270, 1307 
 
 oil engine, 1285 
 
 plant (see also Pump), 207, 
 248, 1266, 1268 
 
 power required, 1294 
 
 stations. 1261. 1271 
 Press, hydraulic wheel, 1662 
 Pressure blower, see Blower 
 
 Pressure gage, see Gage 
 
 pipe, see Penstock 
 Price, defined, 6 
 Prime mover (see Engine, see 
 
 Water wheel, etc.), 819 
 Prime mover, weight, 273 
 Producer, see Gas producer 
 Production cost, 65, 66, 67, 77 
 Profit, 326 
 
 defined, 6, 33, 41, 65 
 
 normal, 43 
 Proprietary supervision, 41 
 Prorating, 55, 57, 66 
 Pulley, 1079, 1082 
 Pulsometer, see Pump, pulso- 
 meter 
 Pulverizing Machinery, 327 
 
 mill, 310 
 Punch, 1663 
 Purifier, see Gas purifier 
 
 Radiation, 1429 
 
 Rail (see also Track), 1527, 
 1574 
 
 bender, 1662 
 
 bonds, Track bonding 
 
 cutter, 1661, 1662 
 
 grinding 1644 
 
 guard, see Track special 
 
 joints, see Track 
 
 welding. 1687, 1692 
 Railing, 1197 
 
 Railway (see also Track), 1517 
 to 1644 
 
 Chicago, 1553 
 
 contact-rail, 1643 
 
 Detroit, 1554, 1589 
 
 elevated, 1641 
 
 gravity, 1378 
 
 labor, 756 
 
 load, 558 
 Ram, hydraulic, 1253 
 Rammer, sand, 1167 
 Ransom e storage system, 349 
 Rate, 66 
 
 electric current, 62 
 
 fair return, 34, 41, 64 
 
 fuel cost, 64 
 Rated minimum capacity, 408, 
 
 487 
 Rational depreciation formula, 
 
 98 
 Real diversity, 66 
 Real estate, see Land 
 Reamers, 1660 
 Receiver, see Air receiver 
 Reciprocating engine, see Engine 
 Recorder, 848 
 Recording gage. 1647 
 Recovery valve, 92 
 Rectifiers, 255 
 Reel, 1008, 1010 
 Reflector, 1032 
 
 Refrigeration (see also Ice), 
 1421, 1486 to 1489, 1496, 
 1498, 1502 
 
 skating rink, 1510 to 1516 
 Register, 1432 
 
INDEX 
 
 1729 
 
 Regulator, 257, 849, 1190 
 pressure, 1211 
 
 Regulating apparatus, 75 
 
 Reinforced concrete, see Con- 
 crete ; see Building ; see 
 Pole 
 
 Reliability factor, 442 
 
 Renewal (see Repair, see De- 
 preciation), 87, 118 
 expense, 85 
 
 Rent, 148, 513 
 
 Repair (see also Depreciation), 
 35, 66, 82, 85, 87, 118, 
 311, 317, 358. 363, 364. 
 368, 369, 370, 373, 378, 
 438, 444, 466. 475, 511, 
 519, 520, 534, 541, 625, 
 626, 655, 664, 668, 669, 
 678, 682, 683, 686, 694, 
 695, 720, 746, 748, 755, 
 758, 760, 763, 771, 772, 
 775, 778, 779. 780, 783. 
 786, 787. 788, 789, 791, 
 792, 797, 810. 811, 1054, 
 1101, 1119, 1208, 1258, 
 1290, 1293, 1305, 1322, 
 1419, 1450, 1451, 1489 
 
 Reserve capacity, see Spare 
 units 
 
 Reservoir (see Pond), 213, 1189 
 life, 109 
 
 Retiring old plant, 58 
 
 Return on investment, 33, 34, 41, 
 44, 64 
 
 Right of way, 38. 696, 838, 9397 
 940. 946, 947, 1536 
 
 Riprap, 1528 
 
 Risk insurance, 41, 42 
 
 Rivet, 191 
 
 Riveting, 205. 1171, 1173, 1175, 
 1657, 1711 
 
 Roof, 130. 164, 192, 201, 206, 
 208, 215, 1675 
 
 Roof trusses, 188, 205 
 
 Roofing (see Poles), 828 
 
 Roll bending, 1663 
 
 Rolling stock, see Car 
 
 Rone. 1380. 1672 
 drive, 467, 1091 
 
 Rotary converter, 777, 829 
 life, 110 
 pump, see Pump, rotary 
 
 Rubber, 1079 
 
 Rubble masonry, 187 
 
 Sacrifice cost, 7 
 Sag, see Wire sag 
 Salvage value. 59, 93 
 Sand blast, 1168, 1169, 1681 
 
 sifter, 1168 
 Sanding machine, 1662 
 Saw, 1106, 1175, 1652, 1653, 
 
 1662. 1663. 1664, 1713 
 Scnl-s. 1231, 1673 
 
 platform. 1673 
 
 track. 1673 
 Scow, life. 126 
 
 repairs, 127 
 
 Scrap value, 60, 93 
 
 Scraper, power, 1130 
 
 Scrapping a plant, 58 
 
 Screen, 1130, 1168 
 
 Screw jack, 1649 
 
 Scrubber, see Gas scrubber 
 
 Secondary power, 455 
 
 Second-hand value, 60, 92 
 
 Semaphore. 1628 
 
 Semi-Diesel, see Gas engine, 
 
 semi-Diesel 
 Separate plant, theory of pro- 
 rating, 51 
 Separators (see Oil separator, 
 see Steam separator), 601 
 Service, 81, 1226 
 
 boxes, 978, 979 
 
 connection, 78, 983 
 life. 110 
 
 cost, 66. 70 
 
 depreciation, 78 
 
 entrance, 1065 
 
 expense, 79 " , 
 
 gas, 1190, 1202, 1217, 1227 
 
 value, 9 3 
 Setting up, see Installing 
 Sewer, 130, 972 
 
 system, 600 
 Shaft. 571, 1079, 1080, 1103 
 
 friction, 1086, 1089 
 
 hangers, 1081 
 Shaving, see Poles 
 Shears, 1652, 1662, 1663 
 Sheets, 1675 
 Ships, life, 125, 126 
 
 fuel for, 320. 333 
 Shipbuilding, 1170 
 Shoe factory, 4 69 
 Shop, see Building 
 Shovel, electric, 1114, 1129 
 Shredding. 1112 
 Shunt. 870 
 Sidewalk, 1186 
 Sign, electric, 1712 
 Signals, 110, 254, 1627 
 Sinking fund. 69 4 
 
 formula, 92. 101 
 Slate, 866, 867 
 Slashing, 447 
 
 Sliding scale, dividends, 44 
 Slugs, see Anchors 
 Smelter chimney, 207, 226 
 Soda ash, 425 
 
 Span wire, see Trolley, overhead 
 Spare units, 406, 522, 540, 565, 
 
 697, 810 
 Special work, see Trolley, over- 
 head 
 Spikes, see Track 
 Splicing, see Cable, splicing 
 
 chambers, 978, 979 
 Sprinkler .system, 174, 206, 1432 
 Stack, see Chimney 
 Stairs, 164, 193 
 Stamn mill, 262 
 Stamping machine, 1662 
 Standby units, see Spare units 
 Standpipe, 110, 1298 
 
1730 
 
 INDEX 
 
 station, see Building 
 diversity, 64 
 load, 66 
 
 load, factor, 66, 67 
 Steam, see Power, steam 
 Steam boiler, see Boiler 
 blower, 221 
 cleaners, 586 
 
 condenser, see Condenser 
 consumption, 411 
 eng-ine, see Engine 
 exhaust, 445, 457, 848 
 fitting", see Piping 
 hammer (see also Hammer), 
 
 1663 
 heating, see Heating 
 injector, see Injector 
 meter, 460, 849 
 metered, 1443 
 pipe, see Pipe, see Piping 
 plant, see Power, see Boiler, 
 
 see Engine 
 power, see Power 
 pump, see Pump 
 separator, 568, 569, 606, 835 
 superheater, see Superheater 
 trap, 615 
 
 turbine, see Engine, turbine 
 underground, 1434 
 valve, see Valve 
 Steamship, see Ship 
 Steel, see Belt, Building, Chim- 
 ney, Cutting, Piling, Pipe, 
 Pole, Tower 
 structural, 1674 
 work, 156 
 Stoker, 410, 420, 538. 567, 606, 
 607, 608, 610, 611, 773, 
 815, 823, 842, 843, 849, 
 1559, 1561 
 installing, 248, 849 
 life, 110 
 
 repairs, 144, 609 , 
 
 Stone crushing, see Crusher 
 
 work, 131 
 Storage, see Coal, storage 
 
 battery, 128, 831, 851, 852, 
 1532, 1563, 1708 
 life, 105 
 
 maintenance, 128 
 weight, 851, 852 
 Storage water (see Reservoir), 
 
 491 
 Store house, see Building 
 Straight line formula, 92 
 Strain clamp, see Clamp 
 Strain insulator, see Insulator 
 Strainer, 848 
 Strand, see Wire 
 Stream flow curve, 493 
 Street lighting, see Lighting, 
 street 
 railway, see Railway 
 
 power, see Power ' 
 
 Stringing, see Wire 
 Structural estimating, 188 
 Swage block, 1663 
 Switch, see also Track 
 
 Switch, 812, 816, 843, 844, 848, 
 870, 873, 937, 950, 1527, 
 1531, 1532, 1566 
 air-break, 939 
 boxes, 1566 
 installing, 844, 1076 
 knife, 1629 
 oil, 260, 872, 874, 939 
 weight, 872 
 wiring, 1064 
 Switchboard, 75, 209, 213, 259, 
 261, 652, 703, 777, 809, 
 810, 819, 826, 829, 831, 
 834, 838. 842, 848, 860, 
 865, 867, 1042, 1559, 1562, 
 1563 
 depreciation, 110, 115, 511 
 installing, 252, 834, 838, 1073, 
 
 1075 
 panels, 868, 869, 1531, 1532 
 shunts, 870 
 Substation, 75, 827, 830, 831, 
 838 
 diversity, 64 
 Suction conveyor, see Conveyor, 
 suction 
 pump, see Pump, suction 
 Superheat, 411, 412 
 Superheater, 412. 538, 567, 611, 
 612, 820. 842 
 installing, 413 
 Supervision, 10 
 Supplies, 810 
 Surfacer, 1664 
 -Surge pipe, 74 
 Surplus, 31 
 Suspension eyes, 946 
 Swingbridge, power, 1112 
 Synchroscope, 863 
 
 ■Tank, 263, 1189, 1198, 1218, 
 1219, 1232 
 
 blow-off, 568 
 
 gas (see Gas holder), 1187 
 
 gas regulating, 646 
 
 ice, 1497 
 
 life, 110 
 
 oil, 262, 326 
 
 steel, installing, 262 
 Taps, 1660 
 
 Taping machine, 1663 
 Tar, 314", 676 
 
 extractor, 1187, 1194, 1196, 
 1230 
 Taxes, 79, 221, 317, 328, 384, 
 444, 512, 541. 626, 677, 
 746, 780, 783, 808, 1361 
 Teams, 110, 119 
 Telegraph line, 925, 1529 
 
 life, 110 
 Telephone, 75, 254, 1529 
 
 conduit, see Conduit 
 
 life, 110 
 
 line, 838, 933, 1537 
 
 pole, see Pole 
 
 repair and depreciation, 125 
 
 system, 1570 
 Telpher, 361, 363 
 
INDEX 
 
 1731 
 
 Tempering, 1659 
 Tenoning- machine, 1106, 1662 
 Textile mills, power, 443 
 Thawing explosives, 1471 
 
 water pipes, 1469, 1712 
 Therm-^l efficiency. 440, 1336 
 Thermit process, 1689 to 1695 
 Thresher, 1111, 1713 
 Ties (see Track), 1527, 1574 
 
 life, 111 
 
 plates, see Track 
 
 rods, see Track 
 Tile, see Conduit 
 Timber, 82g 
 Time clock, 254 
 
 stamp, 254 
 Tin, 951 
 Tipple, 188 
 Tools, 1661 
 Tool grinder, 1653 
 
 life, 110 
 Towboat, see Boat 
 Tower, 75, 9 30, 940 
 
 erecting, 941 
 
 foundation, 930 
 
 line, 927, 930 
 
 steel, 932 to 935, 947, 949 
 weight, 9 29, 941 
 
 wooden, 9 44 
 Track (see also Raihvay, Rail, 
 Ties, etc.), 1539 to 1549, 
 1573, 1576, 1590, 1604, 
 1614 
 
 ballast, 110, 1527 
 
 bonds, 110, 1530, 1570, 1623, 
 1633 to 1636 
 
 crossings, life, 107 
 
 fastening, life, 110 
 
 frogs, 1527 
 
 grinder, 1662 
 
 joint, 7 
 
 laying. 111, 1527, 1576 
 
 special work. 111, 1549 to 
 1552, 1575 
 Trailer, 1398 
 Tramway, 343 
 
 Transformer. 75, 78. 80, 703, 797, 
 803, 805, 829, 830, 831, 
 839, 841, 844, 848, 849. 
 850, 860, 873, 875, 876, 
 877, 937. 940, 943, 1178, 
 1531. 1532 
 
 diversity, 64 
 
 efficiency, 705, 707 
 
 anstalling, 255 to 257. 289, 
 802, 805, 839, 841, 875 
 
 life. 111, 798, 799 
 
 losses, 799 
 
 rating, 802 
 
 tower, 9 39 
 
 truck, 208 
 
 weight, 276, 877 
 Transit, 1645, 1676 
 Transmission charge, 489 
 
 economics, 911 
 
 efficiency, -i55. 705, 707 
 
 line, 76, 697, 836, 878, 916, 
 931, 934, 935, 939, 940, 
 
 Transmission 
 
 942. 944, 947, 948, 1178, 
 1325, 1529, 1537, 1593 
 life, 111 
 underground, 964 
 Treatment, see Creosoting, see 
 Water purification, see Pole 
 Trench (see Conduit), 980 
 Trestle, 1528 
 
 with pockets, 368 
 Trimming conveyor, 345 
 
 trees, 922 
 Trolley (see Railway), 1594, 
 1604, 1617, 1618 to 1628 
 hanger, 1600 
 overhead, 1564 to 1572, 1569, 
 1591, 1594, 1606, 1608, 
 1612, 1613, 1615 
 life, 108 
 Trolley pole, see Pole 
 Truck, see Car 
 
 motor, 1397 
 Trucking, see Hauling 
 True diversity factor, 67 
 Trusses, 191 
 Tube scraper, 586 
 Tubular pole, see Pole, iron 
 Tugs, fuel for, 321 
 Tungsten, see Lamp 
 Tunnel, 74, 208, 1528 
 Turbine, see Engine, turbine ; see 
 
 Waterwheel, turbine 
 Turbo-alternators, 845 
 Turbo-compressor, 1136 
 Turbo-generator (see also En- 
 gine, turbine), 260, 261, 
 523, 613, 777, 809, 810, 
 815. 819, 825, 833, 848, 
 858, 860, 1561 
 installing, 259, 834 
 life. 111, 117 
 weight, 85, 613, 
 Turning machine, 1663 
 
 Underground, see also Conduit 
 
 cable, 839 
 
 system, 964 
 Underestimates, 16 
 Unit co.st, 6, 52 
 
 depreciation formula, 98 
 
 price, 6 
 
 wage, 6 
 Unwatering, see Pumping, see 
 
 Water hoisting 
 Upkeep co.st, 82, 85, 118 
 
 analysis, 88 
 Useful life, 116 
 
 Vacuum conveyor, 376 
 
 Dump, see Pump 
 Value, 6, 13, 37, 46, 59. 60, 92. 93 
 Valve, 601, 603, 614, 709, 1677 
 
 check, 842 
 
 life. Ill 
 Variable cost, 67. 740 
 Vault (see Manhole), 970 
 
 brick, 1003. 1006 
 
 concrete, 1001, 1004 
 
1732 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ventilation, 1421, 1429, 1431 
 
 "Vessel, see Boat 
 
 Vise, 1663 
 
 Vitrified ducts, see Conduit 
 
 Volt. 488 
 
 Voltmeter, see Meter volt 
 
 Wagon, 1191 
 Warehouse, see Building 
 Washer, see Gas washer 
 Watchman station, 254 
 Water, 627, 634, 655. 791 
 boiler feed, 513, 52l 
 condensing (see Steam Con- 
 denser), 387 
 gage, 1648 
 gas, see Gas 
 heating, see Heating 
 hoisting, 1398 
 meter, see Meter 
 pipe, see Pipe 
 
 power (see also Hydro-elec- 
 tric), 447, 449, 453, 454, 
 455, 482, 485, 490, 516. 
 546, 552, 569, 685, 701, 
 706, 1177 
 value, 38, 75, 450, 491, 690 
 proofing, 179 
 purification, 605 
 softening, 421, 422, 426 
 storage, 823 * 
 
 treating (see Water soften- 
 ing), 423 
 Waterwheel, 75, 695, 696, 700, 
 703, 706. 709, 710 
 efficiency, 707 
 impulse, 271, 289, 709 
 installing. 271, 289 
 turbine. 111, 696, 705, 709 
 weight, 709 
 Waterwork, see Pump, see 
 
 Pumping 
 Wattmeter, see Meter 
 Weatherproof wire, see Wire 
 Wearing value. 93 
 Weighted average, 14 
 life, 115 
 prices, 14 
 Welding, electric. 1684 to 1689 
 oxy-acetvlene, 1696 
 thermit, 1689 
 
 Well, 770, 1189, 1219, 1292, 1308, 
 1323 
 gas, life. 111 
 pumping, 1308 
 Welsbach burner, 1034 
 Wende storage plant, 353 
 Wharf, life. 111 
 
 Wire (see also Cable), 78, 837, 
 937. 939, 943, 946, 947, 
 949, 983, 1529, 1530, 1532, 
 1568 
 aluminum, 853, 912, 958 
 changing, 922 
 copper, 937, 958, 959, 1569 
 guy, 949 
 life, 111 
 
 pulling, 1069, 1074 
 rope, life, 1370 
 goo* 959 
 
 strand, 934, 962, 963 
 stranded, weight, 959 
 stringing, 75, 883, 911, 912, 
 921. 926, 934, 936, 943, 
 946, 949, 1069 
 telegraph, 925 
 trolley, 9 63 
 life. 111 
 waste, 959 
 
 weatherproof, 9 37, 958 
 stranded weight, 960, 961 
 weight, 937, 961 
 Wiring, 130, 155, 174, 259, 261, 
 262, 652, 771, 834, 841, 
 1023, 1063, 1065, 1066, 
 1068, 1069, 1071, 1073, 
 1077. 1102 
 lamps, 253 
 life, 111 
 Winding machine, 1663 
 Windows, 19 3 
 Wisconsin method, 46, 49 
 Working capital, 1192 
 
 cash capital, 119 4 
 Wood pipe, see Pipe, wood 
 Wood, fuel, 292, 1331 
 poles, see Poles 
 splitters. 1713 
 working machinery, 1662 
 tools. 1106 
 Worth, 13 
 Wrecking a plant, 288 
 
CODEX PAPERS 
 
 Diagrammatic Methods of Computation and Graphic Methods of 
 Presenting Facts have had probably as much influence on the ad- 
 vancement of modern engineering practice as any of the modem de- 
 velopments in the art. A curve is not half so terrifying as a formula 
 to the " practical man," and it is ever so much more convenient to 
 handle for anyone. 
 
 In the practice of so called " efficiency engineering," it is essential 
 to make so many computations that the cost thereof would be pro- 
 hibitive, and the time necessary for the calculations would be so 
 great as to destroy much of their value were it not for such spe- 
 cial aids to this process as the slide rule, the adding machine and 
 specially ruled plates of paper, of which cross section and profile 
 sheets were the prototype. 
 
 The Construction Service Company, of New York, conducted ex- 
 tensive investigations with a view to developing standards that 
 v/ould be most useful in the office and field for general engineering 
 work, mechanical and civil, and also for "efficiency" engineering. 
 Most of the plates on the market were found to possess defects that 
 were not very apparent on preliminary inspection but which made 
 them often inconvenient and sometimes impossible to use satisfac- 
 torily in practice. For instance, the logarithmic paper to be had of 
 dealers in drawing instruments lacked the digit numerals, so that 
 before commencing to plot anything the sheets had to be numbered 
 up. Now, a person thoroughly accustomed to use logarithmic paper 
 can number it very readily, but at the best it takes time, while 
 to anyone not familiar with it, or just beginning to use it, the num- 
 bsring requires quite a little thought and time. A great deal of 
 decimal cross section paper is used, principally in the 1/10" and 
 millimeter rulings. The fact developed that for plotting cross sec- 
 tions the 1/20" ruling was sufficiently accurate and much more con- 
 venient, to say nothing of the first cost of the materials, than the 
 ordinary 1/10" paper. The latter as ordinarily obtainable was on 
 large, unwieldy sheets, too large for a correspondence file, and too 
 small to file properly with standard tracings. The pink ink gen^ 
 erally used was found much less satisfactory than an olive green, 
 and it was thought advisable to use a paper that could easily be 
 blue printed, pencil marks on the paper, as well as the rulings, be- 
 ing clearly visible on the blue print. 
 
 Two standard sizes of sheets, 8i^"xll" for the office, and 
 4''/4"x7%" for field use were adopted. These may be Inserted in 
 the ordinary loose leaf books, the larger size being that of the usual 
 office letterhead, the otherd the size of an engineer's field book. 
 
 This paper is made up into pads of 100 sheets each and the de- 
 
 1733 
 
17.34 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
 
 mand for it was so great that it has been placed upon the general 
 market and several hundred industrial companies are now using 
 these pads. 
 
 Besides affording great savings in time and labor, this paper costs 
 less than other papers on the market and much less than tracing 
 cloth. 
 
 The Construction Service Company, at 15 William Street, New 
 "York, is prepared to fill orders by mail for these pads and will fur- 
 nish samples and a descriptive booklet upon request. 
 
 Address Supply Department, Construction Service Company, 15 
 William Street, New York. 
 
 REGULATION AND POWER LOSS CALCULATOR FOR 
 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 
 
 A Device for This Purpose on the general plan of a circular slide 
 rule but a good deal more complicated in its design has been worked 
 out by Mr. Ralph U. Fitting, and has been employed in a consid- 
 erable number of engineering offices with very satisfactory results. 
 Almost any engineer, when confronted with an electric transmis- 
 sion problem, must go to his text books for the theory and after 
 spending an hour or two in calculation is apt to feel not quite sure 
 of the results. This device enables the computations to be made in a 
 very few moments in the same manner as a circular slide rule and is 
 accurate within 1% for power delivered, to any amount ; voltages, 
 between 90 and 250.000; frequencies, between 16 and 60 cycles; 
 transmitting distances, from a few feet to 250 miles; wire sizes, 
 up to 10,000,000 circular mils ; wire spacing, from 1 to 25 ft. ; 
 conductors, of copper, aluminum or steel center wires ; phases, any 
 number ; all power factors, leading or lagging. 
 
 The calculator is 6" x 8" in leather covers with complete instruc- 
 tions for use. It will determine the wire size for a given power 
 loss in per cent of delivered power with corrections for electrostatic 
 capacity effect and also easily solves the charging current, the volts 
 drop and regulation. 
 
 The device is being placed on the market by the Construction 
 Service Company, 15 William Street, New York, and costs $10.00. 
 It will be sent to any member of the leading engineering societies 
 for inspection upon request. 
 
 Address Supply Department, Construction Service Company, 15 
 William Street, New York. 
 
HANDBOOK OF COST DATA 
 By Halbert P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, 
 Member A. S. C. E., A. S. M. E., A. I. M E. 
 
 Flexible binding, 4| x 7 in $5 . 00 
 
 1878 pages of costs, not prices. Almost every con- 
 ceivable civil engineering operation, from cement side- 
 walks to railroad systems. 
 
 Contents. — Principles of Engineering. Economics. 
 Earth Excavation. Rock Excavation. Quarrying 
 and Crushing. Roads, Pavements and Walks. Stone 
 Masonry. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Con- 
 struction. Water Works. Sewers. Timber Work. 
 Buildings. Railways. Bridges and Culverts. Steel 
 and Iron Construction. Engineering and Surveys. 
 Miscellaneous Cost Data. ♦, 
 
 The value of the book lies in the fact that the condi- 
 tions surrounding each operation on 'which costs are 
 reported are so completely described that the costs may 
 be accurately translated into terms of the same opera- 
 tion under other conditions. 
 
 Cement Age: "Systems of cost keeping are described 
 in the first part of the book, which contractors will find 
 valuable." 
 
 The National Builder: "Mr. GUlette does not seem 
 to have overlooked a single item in the contracting 
 world, where costs and time are factors in making up an 
 estimate." 
 
 Railway Age Gazette: "The author was a practicing 
 engineer and contractor for nearly twenty years before 
 he prepared the first edition, so the reader inay feel that 
 the book is not the work of an office man." 
 
 Canadian Engineer: "It is safe to say that on any 
 question on which the engineer requires costs, they may 
 be found in this book." 
 
 HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION PLANT 
 
 By Richard T. Dana, Consulting Engineer, Member A. S. C E., 
 A. I. M. E. 
 
 Flexible binding, 4f x 7 in $5.00 
 
 700 pages of the net prices, shipping weights and 
 operating costs of all kinds of construction equipment, 
 with an appendix giving the names and addresses of the 
 principal manufacturers. 
 
 Engineering Record: "Much valuable data are given 
 as to the cost of operation of certain types of machinery 
 — they furnish practically the first published basis for 
 selecting machinery." 
 
 The American City: "Mr. Dana's volume gives the 
 
 1735 
 
HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION PLANT (Continued) 
 information most necessary to engineers in making esti- 
 mates of construction costs and in executing plans," 
 
 The Excavating Engineer: "Undoubtedly the most 
 complete handbook of construction plant ever published. 
 Every conceivable type of machinery and equipment." 
 
 Concrete-Cement Age: "The descriptions include prac- 
 tically every type of equipment, as well as cost data." 
 
 Railway Review: " , . , presenting between two 
 covers that which the engineer often searches through 
 masses of trade catalogue and stacks of card index files 
 to find." 
 
 The National Builder: "Many machines, appliances, 
 methods and contrivances the ordinary contractor knows 
 but little about are here fully described and illustrated." 
 
 HANDBOOK Of ROCK EXCAVATION; METHODS AND 
 
 COST 
 
 By Halbert P. Gillette 
 
 840 pages; 184 illustrations; flexible binding, 4|x7 in.. .$5.00 
 Best modern practice in drilling and handling rock of 
 all kinds, under all conditions, illustrating latest ma- 
 chines and methods, with costs of actual work done. 
 
 Contents. — Rocks and Their Properties. Methods 
 and Cost of Hand Drilling. Drill Bits, Shape, Sharpen- 
 ing and Tempering. Machine Drills and Their Use. 
 Cost of Machine Drilling. Steam, Compressed Air and 
 Other Power Plants. Cable Drills, Well Drills, Augers 
 and Cost Data. Core Drills. Explosives. Charging 
 and Firing. Methods of Blasting. Loading and Trans- 
 porting Rock. Quarrying Dimension Stone. Open 
 Cut Excavation in Quarries, Pits and Mines. Railroad 
 Rock Excavation and Boulder Blasting. Canal Excava- 
 tion. Trench Work. Sub-Aqueous Rock Excavation. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF EARTH EXCAVATION; METHODS AND 
 
 COST 
 
 By Halbert P. Gillette 
 
 Over 800 pages; illustrated; flexible binding, 4| x 7 in. . . .$5.00 
 
 A complete history and encyclopedia in modern earth 
 
 moving methods, with detailed costs for the different 
 
 methods and equipment used. 
 
 Chapters. — Properties of Earth, Measurement and 
 Classification, Boring and Sounding, Clearing and Grub- 
 bing, Loosening and Shoveling, Wheelbarrows, Carts, 
 Wagons, etc.. Scrapers and Graders, Cars, Steam Shovel 
 Work, Bucket Excavation, Cableways and Conveyors, 
 Trenching by Hand, by Machinery, Ditches and Canals, 
 Embankments, Earth Dams and Levees, Dredging, Hy- 
 draulic Excavation, Miscellaneous. 
 
 1736 
 
HANDBOOK OF CLEARING AND GRUBBING; METHODS 
 
 AND COST 
 
 By Halbert P. Gillette 
 
 240 pages; 67 illustrations; cloth binding, 4f x 7 in $2.50 
 
 The only book at present in print dealing with this 
 important subject. It takes up Cost Estimating and 
 Appraising; Clearing and Grubbing Specifications; 
 Clearing; Grubbing by Hand; Burning; Blasting; Stump 
 Pullers; Heavy Plows. 
 
 COST KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING 
 By Halbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana 
 
 350 pages; illustrated; cloth binding, 6 x 9 in $3.50 
 
 This work is to the construction engineer what Tay- 
 lor's "Shop Management" and "Principles of Scientific 
 Management" are to the shop foreman and superintend- 
 ent. The science of engineering management is just be- 
 ginning to be recognized, and Gillette and Dana have 
 done much, in this book, to forward and develop it. 
 Mr. Gillette is the author of the now famous "Handbook 
 of Cost Data," and Mr. Dana is the author of the com- 
 panion work, "Handbook of Construction Plant." To 
 those familiar with these two books this insures the 
 practical nature of "Cost Keeping and Management 
 Engineering." 
 
 Chapters. — The Ten Laws of Management. Rules 
 for Securing Minimum Cost. Piece Rate, Bonus and 
 Other-Systems of Payment. Measuring the Output of 
 Workmen. Cost Keeping. Office Appliances and 
 Methods. Bookkeeping for Small Contractors. Mis- 
 cellaneous Cost Report Blanks and Systems of Cost 
 Keeping. 
 
 CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION; METHODS AND COST 
 By Halbert P. Gillette and Charles S. Hill 
 
 690 pages; illustrated; cloth binding, 6 x 9 in $5.00 
 
 Devoted to the economics of concrete for the builder 
 of concrete structures. The authors are constantly in 
 touch with the best and cheapest methods of concrete 
 construction; Mr. Gillette, through his field work, and 
 Mr. Hill, through his editing. 
 
 Contents. — Methods and Cost of Selecting and Pre- 
 paring Materials for Concrete. Theory and Practice of 
 Proportioning Concrete. Methods and Cost of Making 
 and Placing Concrete by Hand. Methods and Cost of 
 Making and Placing Concrete by Machine. Methods 
 and Cost of Depositing Concrete Under Water and of 
 Subaqueous Grouting. Methods and Cost of Making 
 and Using Rubble and Asphaltic Concrete. Methods 
 
 1737 
 
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION; METHODS AND COST 
 (Continued) 
 and Cost of Laying Concrete in Freezing Weather. 
 Methods and Cost of Finishing Concrete Surfaces. 
 Methods and Cost of Form Construction. Methods 
 and Cost of Concrete Pile and Pier Construction. 
 Methods and Cost of Heavy Concrete Work in Forti- 
 fications, Locks, Dams, Breakwaters and Piers. Meth- 
 ods and Cost of Constructing Bridge Piers and Abut- 
 ments. Methods and Cost of Constructing Retaining 
 Walls. Methods and Cost of Constructing Concrete 
 Foundations for Pavement. Methods and Cost of Con- 
 structing Sidewalks, Pavements, and Curb and Gutter. 
 Methods and Cost of Lining Tunnels and Subways. 
 Methods and Cost of Constructing Arch and Girder 
 Bridges. Methods and Cost of Culvert Construction. 
 Methods and Cost of Reinforced Concrete Building Con- 
 struction. Methods and Cost of Building Construction 
 of Separately Molded Members. Methods and Cost 
 of Aqueduct and Sewer Construction. Methods and 
 Cost of Constructing Reservoirs and Tanks. Methods 
 and Cost of Constructing Ornamental Work. Miscel- 
 laneous Methods and Costs. Methods and Cost of 
 Waterproofing Concrete Structures. 
 
 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 
 
 Revised, enlarged and brought up to date by Richard T. Dana 
 
 and A. F Trimble, from the original of F. Kindelan 
 
 400 pages; 85 illustrations; cloth binding, 4^ x 6j in $2.00 
 
 Written to help the man on the track, by giving him 
 the results of observation and study of track work on the 
 railroads of the United States for the last twenty years. 
 Contents. — Construction. Spiking and Gaging. 
 General Spring Work. Drainage. Summer Track 
 Work. Cutting Weeds. Ballasting. Renewal of 
 Rails. Effects of the Wave Motion of Rail on Track 
 Rail Moivements. General Fall Track Work. Fences. 
 General Winter Work. Bucking Snow. Laying Out 
 Curves. Elevation of Curves. Lining Curves. Moun- 
 tain Roads. Frogs and Switches. Use and Care of . 
 Track Tools. Tie Plates. Wrecking. Miscellaneous. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST 
 
 DATA 
 
 By Halbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana 
 
 Over 1500 pages; illustrated; 4%x'an. ; ilexible keratol. .$6.00 
 
 Ever since Mr. Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data for 
 Civil Engineers was first published there have been fre- 
 quent requests for a similar book for Mechanical and Elec- 
 trical Engineers, but heretofore there has never been one. 
 
 1738 
 
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST 
 DATA (Continued) 
 
 This new book by Messrs. Gillette and Dana is a 
 masterpiece as a technical achievement and amply fills 
 the longfelt want noted above. The compilation of the 
 great mass of data in this book has been a stupendous 
 task but the result has warranted the labor. 
 
 Whether you desire to make an estimate for a new 
 plant or for a single machine, you have the data, which 
 have been carefully arranged, classified and indexed, 
 immediately available in this handbook. 
 
 The net prices, shipping weights, etc., of machines and 
 appliances of many types, classes and sizes are given, 
 together with costs of installation and operation. 
 
 The costs are in such detail, with a resume of govern- 
 ing conditions, that they are invaluable aids in making 
 estimates and indispensable as a guide for the econom- 
 ical operation of existing plants. 
 
 Rates of wages and prices of materials are stated so 
 that a proper substitution may be made for times and 
 communities where different conditions prevail. 
 
 Chapters. — General Economic Principles; Deprecia- 
 tion, Repairs and Renewals; Buildings; Chimneys; Mov- 
 ing and Installing; Fuel and Coal Handling; Steam 
 Power; Internal Combustion Engines and Gas Pro- 
 ducers; Hydro-Electric Plants; Complete Electric Light 
 and Power Plants; Overhead Electric Transmission; 
 Underground Electric Transmission; Lighting and Wir- 
 ing; Belts, Shafts, Pulleys, Pipe and Miscellaneous 
 Power Transmission; Compressed Air; Gas Plants; 
 Pumps and Pumping; Conveyors and Hoists; Heating, 
 Ventilating and Refrigeration; Electric Railways; Mis- 
 cellaneous. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION; METHODS 
 
 AND COST 
 
 By Halbert P. Gillette and Charles R. Thomas 
 
 Over 800 pages; illustrated; flexible binding, 4| x 7 in $5.00 
 
 After the style of all the other works of which Mr. 
 Gillette is author and co-author this book presents in 
 great detail the unit amounts and costs of both labor and 
 materials employed in the construction of every kind of 
 road in common use. The methods are carefully de- 
 tailed, thus furnishing invaluable hints for work about 
 to be undertaken and money-saving suggestions for 
 work already under way. 
 
 Mr. Thomas has made a life-study of road construction 
 and the benefits derived from combining the results of 
 his work with the well-known practical experience and 
 engineering ability of Mr. Gillette, are quite apparent 
 in this new complete handbook. 
 
 1739